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FOR ADVANCED CLASSES IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, AND FOR HI(}H SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, ETC. By WILLIAM SWINTON. TORONTO AND WINNIPEG: W. J. GAGE AND COMPANY. Sara. I J 4- An CONTENTS. INTKODUCTION OUAPTi:!. I. The Simple Sentence I. Natuke of the Simple Sentence II. 1 UNCTUATION OF THE SlMPLE SENTENCE ill. SVNTUESia OF THE SlMPLE SENTENCE n. The Complex Sentence . I. Nature of the Complex Sentence *. II. Punctuation of the Complex Sentence lU. Synthesis of the Complex Sentence III. The Compound Sentence . I. Natuke of the Compound Sentence' 11. CONTBACTED COMPOUNI) SENTENCES . III. Punctuation of Comi'ound Sentences IV. Synthesis of Compound Sentences IV. Conversion and Combination of Sentences i. Expansion of Sentences II. Contraction of Sentences IIJ. Combination of Sfj(t, number of rhetorics and other works on the theory and mpteries of style. It is strictly a njanual for school-work, and has been made with special reference to the rational remodelling recently accomplished, or now in the way of being accomplished, in the Courses of Study in our public schools— a remodelling in which language-training for the first time receives the attention that is its due. The writer trusts that inquiring teachers will find it in bar- mony with their views and aims. In the plan here adopted, composition is begun with the very commencement of the study, and is carried on pan passu with the development of rules and principles. It is a matter of common experience that children's power of producing in an empirical way, is much in advance of their knowledge of the rationale of writing; hence, in the present work, pupils are not kept back from the im- proving exercise of actual composition until they have mastered the complicated details of rhetorical theory. It should be added, however, that the demands made on the scholar will not be found beyond his powers. He is pro- vided with the material to work on, and his attention is limited to the process of building this material into shape —the author's conviction being that training in the art of expression is as much as can wisely be aimed at in school composition. Pupils must first bo taught how to write at all, before they can be shown how to yvrite well— a maxim that has never been out of mind in the making of this book. In Chapters T.-IV. the sciiclar is initiated into the construction and combination of sentences— under which head a great variety of practical exercises will be found. 11 PR K FACE. In Chapter V, it is sought to extend his resources of expression by accustoming him to vary both the struc- ture and the phraseology of sentences. In Chapter VI. what can advantageously be taught to boys and girls respecting style is presented in a form which the author hopes will be found both fresh and fruitful. Chapter VII. deals with the composition of Themes and Essays, on models adapted to a fair estimate of the pupil's capacity. Chapter Vin. presents a summary of Prosody and Versification. It has seemed to the writer that there is room for a school manual of prose composition of medium size, arranged on a8imj)le and natural plan, and designed, not to teach the theory of style and criticism, but to give school-children between the ages of twelve and sixteen a fair mastery of the ai-t of writing good English, for the ordinary uses of life. Such he haa endeavored to make the present liook. The acknowledgments of the author are due to the following works : English Prose Composition, by James Cukkie; Cornwall's Young Composer ; Dalgle'ish's En- glUh Composition ; Armstrong's English Composition. William Swinton. NOTE TO REVISED EDITION. The need for a new set of electrotype plates arising, the author has availed himself of the opportunity to make a thorough revision of this work, and to add the chapter (Vin.) on Prosody and Versification. September, 1877, W. 3. ENGLISH COMPOSITION. INTRODtrCTION. 1. Composition (that is, literary composition) 18 the art of expressing thought by means of language. ^ I. The art of composition is regulated by the princi- ples of rhetoric, or the science of the expression of thought. « Rhetoric," says Bain, - discusses the means whereby language, spoken or written, may be rendered effective. " n. Rhetoric cannot supply us with thoughts. These must originate in the mind itself, by the operation, conscious or unconscious, of the intollectual facul- ties. But when we have thoughts which we wish mefh^ln ?' "^"^"'?^^ ^'^ ^"«*^"«*« ^« i" the best method of expressing and arranging them-in other words, of giving them literary form. 2. Sentence, Paragraph, Discourse.-The ex- pression of a single complete thought is a sevr tence. The expression of a connected series of thoughts (or " train of thought ») is effected bv '"raT ^ '^'''' of sentences, forming '^ pari 2 INTRODUCTION. I The development of a whole subject consti- tutes disoourse, written or spoken, in one or other of its manifold forms. The most general division of discourse in its largest sense gives two forms of composition: I. Com- position IN PROSE. II. Composition in versk. Prose composition assumes a gi-eat variety of forms —from the fugitive newspaper article to the elab- orate scientific or historical treatise ; so, also, verse ranges from the song to the epic. 3. The forms of discourse which will be con- sidered in thip book are those of, (1) the eofn- position; (2) the theme; and (3) the essa^. In beginning the work of composition-writinff the tollowmg points are to be noted : Terminal Marks.— l. Use a period (.) at the end of a declarative or an imperative sentence; a point of interrogation (?) at the end of an interrogative sentence ; and a point of exclamation (1) at the end of an ezclamative sentence. 2. A period is used after every abbreviation : as, « G. Washington;" " C. O. D." 3. A period is used after a title or heading, and after an address or a si'-nature : as, '« Milton's Paradise Lost.'» " Chapter in.» « A. T. Stewart, Broad- way, New York." GapitalSi — a capital letter should begin 1. The first word of every sentence. iS* J ne iirst wor^ of every lino of poetry. 3. The first word of every direct quotation. 4. All proper nouns and proper adjectives. 5%Name8 of things personified. INTRODUCTION. B nsti- e or rgest I!0M- IRSK. orras 5lab- also^ 6. Names of the days of the week, and of the months of the year ; but not of the seasons. 7. All words used as titles, or particular names. 8. Names of the Supreme Being. 9. The pronoun /, the interjection 0, and single letters forming abbreviations should be capitals. , 5on- ;ing dof It of tive end fter iise •ad- ml CHAPTER I. the simple sbntbncb. --' 1. Nature op the Simple Sentence. 4. A simple sentence consists of one independ- ent proposition. It is limited to a single predi- cation, but may contain an indefinite number of words and phrases. A simply sentence can consist only of words and phrases; because, if another clause or member is introduced, the sentence becomes either complex or compound. Each of the following sentences is simple 1. Birds 2. Some birds 3. Some birds of prey 4. Some birds of prey, having secured their victim, fly. fly swiftly. fly very swiftly. fly with it very swiftly to their nests. I. The first example illustrates the simplest form of the simple sentence. It consists of the subject and predicate, without adjuncts. In the three sentences following, the subject and the predicate are en- larged, or modified, by the gradual addition of certain particulars. The first sentence is a sort of skeleton; in the succeeding sentences this becomes clothed with flesh. 6 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. n. Sentence 4 may be expressed thus: .tv?ar/t^S:i*'^^ have .cure, their victi™, «,.ui. Since a simple sentence can contain but one subject and one predicate, it is plain thafthis cannot be a simple sentence, for the reason that it contains two subjects and two predicates. The first subject is '; birds; " its predicate is « fly." The second sub- ject 18 "they;" its predicate is "have secured." it 18 a complex sentence. 'Some birds of prey fly Principal Statement ... I ^^^^ ^^ (t^^eir victim) I very swiftly to their ' [ nests. Subordinate Statement. 5 " ^®" *'^®y ^''^^e secured -, , ( their victim. Connective ^;i,„, m. Sentence 4 may also be transformed into the lollowing — Ju!Sl''Z:':::i "^"^ ^^^^^ ^^«"'"' -^ «^- «y -^th U very In this form the sentence cannot be simple, because It contains more than one subject and one predi- , cate. And it cannot be complex, because each of the members is independent. It is therefore a compound sentence. EXERCISE 1. A. Supply appropriate subjects, so as to make complete simple sentences : thus— •...is the organ of sight. The eye is the organ of sight. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 1. . 2. . 3. . 4. . 5. . 6. . 7. . 8. . is the organ of sight, embalmed the bodies of tlieir dea.d. supplies us with tea. is the most useful metal, indicates the approach of winter, is called a limited monarchy, preached a fine sermon, were patriots. Supply appropriate predicates, so as to make complete simple sentences : thus — General Wolfe General Wolfe fell, gallantly fight- ing, on the Plains of Abraham. 1. General Wolfe .... 2. Harnessed to a sledge, the reindeer .... - 3. The British Parliament 4. The great circle dividing the earth into the Northern and Southern hemispheres 5. Covered with wounds, the gallant soldier 6. On Christmas-eve of the year 1775, Washington, having resolved to attack the British ... 7. The art of printing .... 8. The vapor-laden clouds, striking high mountain- p6iiJ£S • • • II. Punctuation of the Simple Sentence. 5. Punctuation is the art of indicating, by means of points, which elements of a sentence are to be conjoined, and which separated, in meaning. 6, The points made use of for this purpose are : ^ KtifiLmi COMPOSITION. The period ; The comma * * The semiooIoD •....*! The colon . . * ' * » The dash . . . .*'.*; 1. «iiL,— i""'.'^.'?'""^ P"ints-tho use of which is • sufficiently indicated by their numes-^arol The mark of interrogation .? The mark of exclamation . . f yuotation-marks ... « w The parenthesis •....() 8. General Rule.— In simDlesontcMP..^ fi poinU used are the ternilStZ^t. comma. ^«'"te ma,. p,-ose„ted, eto '■ V:Zt~^'^T', r^*" «»»">=". Pe^hap. Q tt"' ?,™\«=»-'^al of antiquity. 2. ^*°»»bal, perhaps thegreatestgeneralofanH -f was defeated by the Lmans^at w' ''" ^' THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 9 4. A participial phraie is let offby a oomma ; or, if parentbeti- oal by two : as— 1 . Having completed their arrangements for the work of the morrow, they retired to snatch a few hours' repose. 2. The Indiai monarch, stunned and bewildered, saw his faithful subjects falling around him. But if the phrase is restrictive, no comma is required : as— A city set on a hill cannot be hid. 6. Adverbial phrases on which stress is laid, either by tran»> position or otherwise, and adverbs having the force of phrases (however, indeed, etc.), are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas : as— 1. In spite of all difficulties, they resolved to make the attempt. 2. They resolved, in spite of all difficulties, to make the attempt. 3. In truth, I am wearied by his ImporHnities. I am, in truth, wearjp'^ by his importu» ities. 4. The signal being given, the fleet weighed anchor. 6. Adverbs and adverbial phrases occnrring in their natural place in a sentence, and without stress being laid on them, are not set offby commas : as— 1. The judge therefore ordered his release. 2. They proceeded with all due caution to examine the premises. 7. A succession of co-ordinate phrases is separated by oonunat : as— At daybreak, the combined fleets were distinctly seen from the Victory's deck, formed in a close line of battle ahead, about twelve miles to leeward, and standing to the south. 8- The nominative independent (noun of address) Is set offby a comma or by commas : as— 1. My son, forget not my law. 2. Tell me, my friend, all the circumstances. 10 ElfOLlSH COMP08ITIOW. BZSRCZ8B 2. Pu«ctuate the following ^mple .entence. : an intrepid .pint a benevolent heart. ' 8. GoMMnith the anthor of the «De,erted Village" 4 I T T "; P'"^'"" ^'^Sance and beanty. * but my heart content. aiiguea « \ZZl, "^"''""e*<"> "a. gathered to his father. 7 oZT r^ "™"«' "«"« 8»' «>>road. «» /rfr-end the general in hi.la.t letter mo.^ tafled me not a little. don the mercury fall, about half an inch m«k- 11 o„'"r°*?T""*'"""«^»''nndredfeet. 11. Ourhouw le beautifully eituated about three miles from town cIom by the road. i(fi!:i ni SiMTHESM OF Simple Sentences. .eifrjnj^i *? P'''<=«'«.°f combining li^fJi "t"««nients into a glngle sentence. The following exeniplifleg the method : THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 11 Separate Btatementa. ' (1.) '1. Shakspeare was born at Stratford-oii- Avon. 2. Shakspeare was a dramatist. 3. He was an English dramatist. 4. He was a great dramatist. 5. He was born in tb 3 year 15G1. 6. He was born during the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Combined — In the year 1564, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Shakspeare, a great English dramatist, was born at Stratford-on-Avon. Explanation.— It will be noticed that in the com- bined sentence all the elements contained in each of the separate statements are woven together. Statement 1 is the principal proposition, or skeleton sentence—" Shakspeare was born at Stratford-on- Avon." Statement 2 contributes a single word— the term " dramatist." It is placed in juxtaposition with ' the subject, " Shakspeare," and in apposition with it. Statements furnishes also a single word, <' English," joined as a modifier to *« dramatist." Statement 4 adds the adjunct " great." Statement 5^ appears in the form of an adverbial phrase, "in th** voa»- i^«4. » «.t,j-i, ^ ^^ tnodiiier of the predicate " was born." Statement 6 is condensed into another adverbial phrase—" during the reign of Queen Elizabeth." 12 KNOLISn COMPOSITION. ■' '' Separate Statements. (2.) Th«re lay floating on the c^^an an ini- ilw*^n(i im?gular mass. Tliis mass waa several miles off. Its top and points were covered with snow. I Its centre was of a deep indigo color. CombIned.-Several miles off, there lay floating on the ocean an immense irregular mass, its top and points covered with snow, and its centre of a deou indigo color. * 10. Analysis (that is, rhetorical analysis) is the separation of a simple sentence into the diiferont star. Tients implied in it. It is the opposite of synt iiesis. The following exemplifies the meth Od: Logwood, one of the most common dyestuffs, is the substance of a tree found at Campeachy Bay and in the West Indies. ri. Logwood is the substance of a tree. 2. Logwood is one of the most common dyestuffs. 3. The tree is found at Campeachy Bay. .4. The tree is found in the West Indies. Analysis. EXERCISE 3. A. Combine the ioh ^-ir-T sta+^^ements into simple fentencea : 1. The electric 11688. tek i '• Las greatr xacilitated busi- TIIK SIMl'Li: SKNTENCE. la It has done so by bringing difttant parts of tlie world into instant coniniunicution. Tho cloclric tolegrapli was invented by Professor Moijf. Piolstwor Moise was an American. 2. Tlie iM xt morning the battle began in terrible earnest. The next morning was the 24tli of June. TJio battle began at daybreak. 3. Columbus returned to Spain in 1493. He had spent some months in exploring the deliglit- ful regions. 'J'hese regions had long been dreamed of by many. These regions were now first thrown open to Eu' ropean eyes. 4. I received a letter. It was a cheerful letter. It was a hopeful letter. It was full of lively descriptions of camp life. It was full of lively descriptions of marches. ' It was full of lively descriptions of battles. 5. Alexander saw himself lord of all Western Asia. He saw himself such at the age of twenty-five. He had defeated the Persians. They -, ere defeated in the great battles of Issus, Granicus, and Arbela. 6. The lloraans heard of the fertile island called Britain. The llomans were then the most powerful people in the world. The Romans were then the most civilized people in the world. They had conquered Gaul, or France. Britain lay on tne other side of the sea to tJie northwest. 14 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. i 7. We diverged towards the prairie. We left the line of march. We traversed a small valley. 8. Peter III. reij^ned but a few months. Peter was deposed by a conspiracy of Russian nobles. This conspiracy was headed by his own wife Cath- erine. Catherine was a German by birth. Catherine was a woman of bold and unscrupulous character. NOTE. Pupils in beginning the work of synthesis are liable to go beyond the limits of the simple sentence, and construct complex or compound sentences. Thus a pupil, in combining the statements of group 1, in the exercise above, constructed the following sentence : The electric telegraph, which was invented by Pro- fessor Morse, an American, has greatly faciliated business, by bringing distant parts of the world into instant communication. This is not a simple sentence, because it has two finite verbs — " was invented " and " has fa- cilitated." The words " which was invented by Professor Morse, an American " form a clause^ the connective being the relative pronoun *' which," and the whole is a complex Fentence. The manner of converting it into a simple sen* THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 15 tence is to reduce the clause to a phrase. This is done by omitting the connective and chang- ing the finite verb into a participle, tlius : Clause : Which was invented by Professor Morse. Phkase : Invented by Professor Morse. Making this change, we have the following simple sentence : The electric telegraph, invented by Professor Morse;' an American, has greatly facilitated business, by bringing distant parts of the world into instant communication. B. Analyze the following simple sentences : 1. The animal kingdom is divided into four great classes, called sub-kingdoms. 2. The silkworm's web is an oval ball, called a cocoon, consisting of a single thread wound round and round. 3. Gesler, to try the temper of the Swiss, set up the ducal hat of Austria on a pole in the market- place of Altdorf. 11. Position of Phrases.-^When a simple sen- tence contains modifying phrases, a variety of changes in the arrangement of its parts may be made. Thus the sentence — The blooming maiden went out early in the morning* with iigut step, into the garuon — may be arranged in several ways : as — 1. Early in the morning the blooming maiden went .out, with light step, into the garden. 16 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 2. With light step the blooming maiden went out into the garden early in the morning. 3. The blooming maiden went out, with light step, into the garden early in the morning. 4. The blooming maiden, with light step, went out into the garden early in the morning. 5. The blooming maiden went out into the garden early in the morning with light step. 6. Out into the garden, with light step, went the blooming maiden early in the morning. This by no means exhausts the number of changes that may be made in the arrangement. 12, The particular place that a phrase should occupy will generally depend on the sense in- tended ; hence phrases should usuallj^ be placed beside the parts of the sentence they are de- signed to modify. But adverbial phrases may be placed in almost any part of the sentence, and taste is to be exercised in the selection of the best place. 13, Direction.— When a sentence contains a number of phrases, they should not be grouped to- gether in any one part— as at the beginning or end, or in the middle— but distributed in such a way that the sentence shall be agreeable to the ear. Illustrations. — 1. We were becalmed for two weeks in the Pacific in a ship almost destitute of pro- visions. The three phrases in this sentence are placed together after the verb, and the effect is infelicitous. By using the adverbial phrase " for two weeks " to introduce the sentence, the statetnent is much more neatly expressed. Thus : THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 17 For two weeks, we were becalmed in the Pacific, iu a ship ahnost destitute of provisions; or, We were, for two weeks, becalmed, etc. 2. Columbus returned to Spain in 1493, having spent some months in exploring the delightful regions long dreamed of by many, and now first thrown open to European eyes. We might vary the structure thus : In 1493, Columbus returned to Spain, having spent,' etc.; or, Columbus, in 1493, returned to Spain, having spent, etc. ; or, Columbus, having spent some months in exploring the delightful regions long dreamed of by many, but now first thrown open to European eyes, returned to Spain in 1493. 14. Tests.— When the several varieties of structure have been made, the following tests may be applied : Which construction is clearest f Which is neatest f Which is most harmonious f EXERCISE 4 Combine the following groups of statements each into simple sentences. Try the sentence in various orders^ and tell which construction you prefer', and why. 18 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. i; i 1. The president called a meeting. It was a meeting of his cabinet. The meeting was called suddenly. It was called late at night. It was at the suggestion of Adams it was called. The purpose of its calling was to deliberate on tha relations with France. 2. The Romans defeated Hannibal. He was perhaps the greatest general of antiquity. It was at Zama they defeated him. 3. I went on a vacation trip to the country. It was at the close of last term I went. I was tired out with hard study. 4. We camie to a spacious mansion of freestone. The mansion was built 'n the Grecian style. We did so after riding a short distance. 5. A fine lawn sloped away from the mansion. This lawn was studded with clumps of trees. These clumps were so disposed as to break a soft, fertile country into a variety of landscapes. 6. Glue is made of the refuse of horses' hoofs, par- ings of hides, and other similar materials. These are boiled down to a thick jelly. The thick jelly is repeatedly strained. This is done so as to free it from all impurities. -7. In China there are a great many tea-farms. These are generally of small extent. They are situated in the upper valleys. 'J'hey are situated on the sloping sides of the hills. 8. Heavy articles were generally conveyed from place to place 1)V Kf,n.crfi-wn.ornrip They were thus conveyed on the best highways. This was the case in the time of Charles tho Second. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 19 par- 9. Bruce sent two commanders. The war between the English and Scotch still lasted. He sent the good Lord James Douglas. He also sent Thomas Randolph, Earl of Moray. These men were great commanders. They were to lay waste the counties of North- umberland and Durham. They were to distress the English. 10. Sugar is a sweet crystallized substance. -^ It is obtained from the juice of the sugar-cane. The sugar-cane is a reed-like plant, growing in most hot climates. It is supposed to be originally a native of the East. 11. Alexander became a man. He became a strong man. He became an effectual man. He became a man able to take care of himself and of his kingdom too. He became all this in due time. 12. Coral is a secretion from the body of an animal. This animal is very low in the scale of creation. It is called a polyp. 13. Goldsmith was vain. He was sensual. He was frivolous. He was profuse. lie was improvident. All this he was according to Macaulay. 14. The clustered spires of Frederick stand. They stand up fj-om the meadows rich with corn. They stand clear in the cool September morn. Frederick is green-walled by the hills of Mary- land. 20 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Transpose the phrases in the following sen^ tences without altering the signification : 1. That morning he had laid his books as usual on his desk in the school-room. 2. At the dawn of day, she ascended the hill with a merry heart, in company witlj her brother. 3. Swallows in the autumn migrate into warmer climates. 4. He reads every morning after breakfast regularly ten pages of Cicero. 6. What sculpture is to a block of marble, education IS to t^e human soul. Practical Exercisies in Composing. ^ritiZ;T™ ihf'^"^''' that pupils Bhall begin the actual work of A. Write a short composition from the following outlme. Subject,—" The Camel." Under- line the simple aentencei. ' Where found. . . .Dry countries of Asia and , Africa. Description Size, hump, color, coat, hoof. ff **'^ • • • • Its food, drink, docility, etc. ^*^* -For travelling— cal-avans— milk. How adapted to desert countries. B. Write a composition of not less than ten sentences on the subject of " Trees." Outline., THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 21 ' 1. State tMTdiyision of trees into forest and fruit trees, and tell the difference be- tween these two kinds. 2. Name the various kinds of forest-trees growing in your part of the country. 3. Name the various kinds of fruit-trees Outline, -j cultivated in your part of the country. 4. What is a forest? an orchard? 5. What is lumber? timber? 6. Tell the various uses of wood. 7. Mention important trees in different part*" of the world, and state what people ob- tain from them. C. Write a composition from the following out- line : MT NATIV^ TOWN. 1. Where it is. — In what country and state; on what river, or near what noted natural object : ocean, lake, river, mountain, etc. Is it a great city? If not, how far, and in what direction, is it from a large city? 2. Size.— Number of inhabitants. — Is it increasing in Bi?^ or stationary? Causes of either? 3. Connections WITH other Places.— Steamers.— Railroads. How long have the railroads been built? What new lines are building? 4. Streets. — Which are the principal ones? Name. and locate ihe public buildings: colleges, schools, churches, banks, etc. 6. Occupations of the Inhabitants. — What leading industry, if any, is pursued? How do most of the people gain a livelihdbd. • 22 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. a. Surrounding ScENEHv.-Description of fine viewa: forest, mountain, river. When the compositions are written, the pupils should exchange papers for criticism, asking the follow- ing questions: 1. Does each sentence begin with a capital and end with a period? 2. Are there any errors of spelling? 3. Are there any errors of grammar? 4. Can any improvements be made in arrangement expression, etc.? * ' CHAPTER ir. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. I. Nature of the Complex Sentence. 15. A Complex sentence is a sentence in which two or more simplo statements are combined, so that one is principal, and one or moi-e are sub^^ ordinate. A subordinate proposition is termed a clause. 16. There are three kinds of cbuses : I. The adjective clause; II. The adverbial CLAUSE ; III. The substantive clause. 17. An adjective clause is equivalent to an adjective, and limits nouns just as do adjectives. It is generally joined to the principal statement by a relative pronoun or by a conjunctive ad- verb, as where, when, why : thus — 1. The poet who wro/e " Paradise Lost "sold it for five pounds. " Who wrote Paradise Lost " is an adjective clause, connected with the principal statement, "the poet sold it for five pounds," by means of the relative "who." The clause modifies the subject " poet." 2. De Soto discovered a great river, which, the Indians named Mesaseba. "Which the Indians named," etc., is an adjective clause, introduced by " which," and modifying the ob« iect "river." 24 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 3. She 18 far from the land where her young hero Sleeps* mTI !^'' jr"^ ^'^'^ «^««P«" is an adjective clause, utiodiced by the relative adverb " where," and n.od ifying the noun " land." 4. Avenge, O Lord, thy slaughtered saints, whose bones Lie scattered on the Alpine mountains cold; hven them who kept thy truth of old. Whose bones," etc., is an adjective clause, modifying the noun "saints." ««Who tpnf" ^*^ • """J'/i& 1 ,., . ^^P''' etc., IS an adjective clause, modifying the pronoun « ' them." 18. An adverbial clause is a clause equivalent to an adverb.; It limits a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, and denotes the various circum- stances of place, time, cause, degree, manner, consequence, etc. It is joined to the principal Htatement by a subordinate conjunction, or by a conjunctive adverb. [For a list of clause-oonnectires, see English Grammar, ■p. 224.] ' 1. When Columhus had finished speaking, the sovereigns sank upon their knees. ;' Y^«" Columbus," etc., is an adverbial clause of time n roduced by the conjunctive adverb ^ when," Id modifying the principal predicate, " sank on their knees." 2 If you wish to he well, you must live temperately. ; ^l y^l f «h." etc., is an adverbial clause (condition) introduced by the subordinate conjunction « l^,,'"''^' 3. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. " Where angels," etc., is an adverbial clause (place) mtroduced by the relative adva,-b - where." THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 25 4, The ostrich is unable to fly, because it has not wings in proportion to its body. "■ Uecuuse it hjis," etc., is an adverbial clause (reason), introduced by the subordinate conjunction " because." 6. A bird flies swifter than a horse can run. " Than a horse," etc., is an adverbial clause (com- parison), introduced by the subordinate conjunction *♦ than." 19. A substantive clause is a clause that is equivalent to a noun ; hence it may be the sub- ject or object of a complex sentence. It is gen- erally introduced by the interrogative pronouns who or what., by a conjunctive adverb, or by a subordinate conjunction : thus — 1. When letters first came into use is uncertain — [noun clause, subject of *' is."] 2. Socrates proved Ma< virtue is its own reward — [noun clause, object of " proved."] • 3. *' Tell me not in mournful numbers Life is but an empty dream " — [noun clause, the introductory conjunction that being understood : object of " tell."] EXERCISE 5. Complete the following complex sentences by supplying adjective clauses : 1. Chemistry is the science 2. The whale is the largest of all the animals 3. The reason .... is because the earth turns on its axis. 26 KN'JLISH COMPOSITION. 4. We saw' the spot .... 5. The soul is dead . . . . C. The day will come . . Complete the following complex sentences by supplying adverbial clauses : 1. We must gain a character for truthfulness and diligence if 2. The pursuit did not cease till .... 3. The example of one she loved had more influence with her Man 4. Though the Laplanders keep themselves warm ih their snow huts. 5. The ground is never frozen in Palestine, as .... ^ (''"'6) Washington retired to Mount Vernon. 7. The camel is called the " ship of the desert," (cause) .... 8 an eclipse is produced. C. Complete the following complex sentences by supplying substantive clauses : 1. It is very amusing to watch the spider and see 2. Every child knows .... 3. We cannot tell .... 4. Look at the elephant : did you ever wonder ? 5. .... has long been accepted as one of the funda- mental truths of astronomy. 6. As was foreseen, the judge decided II. PUNOTUATTON OF THE COMPLEX SeisteNCB. ^ 20. General Kule— The rules for punctuating simple sentences apply to the main divisions of THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 27 a complex sentence, that is, to the principal member and to the subordinate clause or clauses. 21. The following are the principal special rules for punctuating complex sentences : thVptinXX'oS^^^ ^'-^ .eparafdfr.ni 1. Be ready when I give the signal. 2. It is a well-known fact that the earth is nearly round. ^ 1. While the world lasts, fashion will continue to lead it by the nose. 2. As my lieart was entirely subdued by the captiva- mg strains T had heard, I fell down at his feet. 1. Franklin who became a great statesman and philosopher, was in youth a poor printer's boy. 2. The friar pointed to the book that he held, as his authority. 4. Parenthetical elanses are set oflf by commas : es- The project, it is certain, will succeed. 6. When the main divisions are lone- and <-1ia ««»♦- ^ .» ts^ij^ --^-^- -^ b/^^^d^r^eSrhrL^^!: When snow accumulates on the ground in winter it ^ 18 useful in keeping the earth ata moderate degree of cold ; for, where the snow lies, the temperature of the ground beneath seldom fails below the f re ez- mg-point prlifbyacoYon :t-" ''''''''' ^" quotation-marks, and His defence is : « To be i-obbed, violated, oppressed, IS their privilege." 28 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 7- When the quotation forms a part of the narrative, it may be preceded by a comma : as— To a tribune who insulted him, he replied, " I am still your emperor." i! : ' I EXERCISE 6. Punctuate the following complex sentences : 1. As we were the first that came into the house so we were the last that went out of it being re- solved to have a clear passage for our old friend whom we did not care to venture among the jostling of the crowd. 2. Thousands whom indolence has sunk into con- temptible obscurity miglit have attained the highest distinctions if idleness had not frustrated the effect of all their powers. 3. Forbes in his Oriental Memoirs when speaking of the ace of such trees states that be smoked his hookah undei- the very banyan beneath which part of Alexander's cavalry took shelter. 4. The horse tired with his journey was led into the stable. 5. Though deep yet clear though gentle yet not dull Strong without rage without overflowing full. III. Synthesis of Complex Sentences. 22. Two or more statements may be united into one complex sentence, by making one state- ment tiie leading, or principal, proposition, and the other statemen^t, or statements, dependent upon it : thus — \ THE COMl'LEX Sli.VTEXCK. (1) 29 Separate Sepatato f^* ^°*^^® ^*^ unknown iu this country Statements. ) *^® centuries ago- 12. It is now iu general use as a beverage. Combined.-Coffee, which is now in general use aa a beverage, was unknown in this country two centuries ago. The sentence might have been put together in this way: Coffee was unknown in this country two centuries ago, Init It IS now m general use as a beverage." This is a" perfectly pmper sentence, but it is compound, not com- plex. It ,8 compound because it contains two indepenam over these pampas. i Great herds of horses roam over them. Combined.- Along the La Plata are extensive grass- covered plains, over which roam vast herds of cattle ana horses. 23. The following exemplifies the rhetorical analysis of a complex sentence : The elephant, which in size and strength surpasses all other animals, is a native both of Asia and Africa. '1. The elephant surpasses all other land animals in size. a. The elephant surpasses all other land animals in strength. 3. The elephant is a native of Asia. . 4. The elephant is a native of Africa. Analysis..- 30 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. m 24. Variety of Arrangement.— Variety in the arrangement of complex sentences is obtained in the same manner as in simple sentences (by changing the position of phrases), and also by changing the position of clauses. niuBtration. — An old clock that had stood for fifty years in a farmer's kitchen without giving its owner any cause of complaint, early one summer morning, before the family was stirring, suddenly stopped. This may ^>e varied thus ; 1. An old clock that had stood for fifty years in a farmer's kitchen without giving its owner any cause of complaint, suddenly stopped early one summer morning before the family was stirring. 2. Early one summer morning, before the family was stirring, an old clock that had stood for fifty years in a farmer's kitchen without giving its owner any cause of complaint, suddenly stopped. 25. Directions. — I^i combining a number of given elements into a complex sentence, the pupil may be guided by the following consider- ations : I. Consider carefully the nature of the assertion in each of the constituent elements (statements), with the view of determining its connection with the main statement, which will always come first. II. A clause should be placed beside the statement containing the word wiiich it modijies, or with which it has grammatical i-elatiou. III. An adjective clause follows the noun which it modifies ; an adverbial clause generally follows the THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 31 word which it modifies; but a clause denoting place, time, cause, condition, concession, may pre- cede it. EXERCISE 7. Combine each group of statements into one complete sentence. NoTE.-It is not necessary that all the statements be turned into clauses; some of them may, with greater clearness, be rendered in the complex sentence as phrases. 1. The Spaniards were surrounded by many of tlie natives. The Spaniards were thus employed. [Clause of tirile, introduced by while, and introducing the sentence.] The natives gazed with silent admiration upon their actions. [Adjective clause. J They could not comprehend these actions. [Ad- jective clause, adjunct to « actions."] They did not foresee the consequences of these ac tions. [Adjective clause, adjunct to '« actions, connected by " and » to preceding clause.] 2. Alexandria is situated on the shores of the Medi- terranean. It was one of the most celebrated cities of antiquity [Adjective clause, adjunct to " Alexandria."] It was formerly the residence of the kings of Egypt. I Adjective clause. a.(iiun(»*- 1^ " xt^^ j~:- **-> 8. In the Olympic games, the only reward was a wreath composed of wild olives. The Olympic games were regarded as the most hon. orable. [Adjective clause, adjunct to "games."] »> 32 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. They were so regarded, because sacred to Jupiter. [Phrase of reason, adjunct to "honorable."] They were so regarded, also, because instituted by the early Greek heroes. [Phrase of reason, ad- junct to " honorable. "] 4. Napoleon made his son King of Rome. 7 He did this after he had divorced Josephine. [Abverbial clause of time.] He did this after he espoused Maria Louisa. [Adverbial clause of time.] Maria Louisa was daughter of the Emperor of Austria. [Adjective clause, adjunct to " Maria Louisa."] 6. Augustas held a council in order to try certain prisoners. This was while he was at Samos. •[Adverbial cla'iae of time.] Ii was after the famous battle of Actium. [Ad- verbial clause of time.] This battle made him master of the world. [Ad- jective clause, adjunct j3f "battle of Actium."] The prisoners tried were those who had been en- gaged in Antony's party. [Adjective clause, adjunct of "prisoners."] 6. Columbus saw at a distance a light. This was about two hours before midnight. [Ad- verbial phrase of time.] Columbus was standing on the forecastle. [Par- ticipial phrase, adjunct to " Columbus." He pointed the light out to Pedro. [Adjective clause, adjuuet to "light."] Pedro was a page of the queen's wardrobe. [Noun phrase, in apposition with "Pedro."] 7. The man succeeded in reaching the bank. ^ I \ •f THE COMPLEX SENTENC5':. 33 V: ■a! HI P. [Adjective clause, The man fell into the river. adjunct of subject.] Assistance arrived. [Participial phrase.] 8. Caesar might not have been murdered. * Suppose Caesar had taken the advice of the friend. [Adverbial clause of condition (if).] The friend waroed him not to go to the Senate- house on the Ides of March. [Adjective clause, adjunct of "friend."] 9. That valor lingered only among pirates and rob^ bers. This valor had won the great battle of human civ- ilization. [Adjective clause, adjunct to " valor."] It had saved Europe. [Adjective clause, adjunct to "valor."] It had subjugated Asia. ""Adjective clause, ad- junct to "valor." | 10. There will be a camp-meeting. It is to commence the last IVIonday of this month. It is to be at the Double-spring Grove. This grove is near Peter Brinton's. Peter Brinton's is in the county of Shelby. 11. My friend Sir Roger has often told me, with a gi'eat deal of mirth. He found three parts of his house altogether use- less. [Noun clause, object of " told."] He came to his estate. [Adverbial clause, time.] The best room in it had the reputation of being haunted. [ Jj oun clause, object of " told. "] It was locked up. Noises had been heard in his long gallery. [Noun clause, object of « told."] He could not get a servant to enter it after eight o'clock at night. • 8 34 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. The door of one of his chambers was nailed up. [Noun clause, object of *' told."] A story went in the family. [Adverbial clause, cause.l * A butler had formerly hanged himself in it. His mother had shut up half the rooms in the house. His mother had lived to a great age. In the room her husbaod, a son, or a daughter had died. -J . B. Separate the following complex sentences into the different propositions they contain: 1. Animals of the cat kind are distinguished chiefly by their sharp claws, which they can hide or ex- tend at pleasure. 2. The plant samphire always grows in certain places on the sea-shore which are never covered by the sea. 3. As they approached the coast, they saw it covered with a multitude of people whom the novelty of the spectacle had drawn together, and whose attitudes and gestures expressed wonder and astonishment at the strange objects which pre- sented themselves to their view. Change the position of the clauses and phrases in the following sentences in at least three differ- ent ways, without altering the construction or destroying the sense : 1. I shall never consent to such proposals while 1 live. 2. Augustus, while he was at Samos, after the famous 3. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 35 battle of Actium, which made him master of the world, held a council, in order to try the prisoners who had been engaged in Antony's party. A scene of woe then ensued the like of which no eye had seen. Practical Exercises in Composing. A. ^. Read aloud the following piece, and make an abstract irom memory. Underline any complex sentences that you may write. PLEASANT REWARD OF CANDOR. A certain Spanish duke having obtained leave of the King of Spain to release some galley-slaves, went on board the galley at Barcelona, where the prisoners were chained at their work. Passing through the benches of slaves at the oar, he asked several of tl'lem what their offences were. All excused them- selves,— one saying that he was put there out of malice, another by the bribery of a judge ; but all unjustly. Among the rest was a sturdy little fellow, whom the duke asked what he was there for. «' Sir," said he, '« I cannot deny that I am justly sent here ; for I wanted money, and so I took a purse upon the highway to keep me from starving." When he heard this, the duke, with a little stick he had in his hand, gave the man two or three slight blows on the back, saying, « You .*ogue, what are you doing among so many honest men ? Get you gone out of their company." So he was freed, and the rest of the gang remained there still to tug at the oar. d6 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. m 3- Write a composition from the following out- line: OUR THREE GREATEST AMERICAN INVEN- TIONS. 1. The Cottox-Gin. (a.) Invented by Eli Whitnej- : state (if you can find out) when it was invented. (b.) Its uUlity— for what it is used— effect in in- creasingjihe cultivation of cotton— eifect on the ' growth of slavery. 2. The Steamk'oat. (a.) Invented by Robert Fulton : do you know any- thing about hiin? Name of the first steamer made in this country, the Clermont; to what place did it run? When was the first trip made? (6.) What has grown out of this first experiment ? Speak of the great numbei- of large steamers now found on all the waters of the world. 3. The Telegraph. (a.) Invented by Professor Morse. Is he now alive ? The first line was constructed between Balti- more and Washington. In what year was this? (6.) Progress of the telegraph— immense number of lines now constructed— mention in what coun- tries — the Atlantic cable. - (c.) Utility of the telegraph: its effect on every- day life— on business — on our knowledge of 1 all over tl: goin^ I'orld. Exchange papers, and correct with ref- erence to— THK COMPLEX SKNTENCE. 37 1. Spelling, capiials, and gframmar. 2. The arrangement of the phrases in all the sen- tences. 8. The arrangeraent of the clauses in the complex sentences. 38 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. CHAPTER III. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE T. Nature of Compound Sentences. 26. A compounfl sentence consists of two or more independent propositions joined together in such a way as to be of equal rank (co-ordi- nate). * 27. The connection of the separate statements of a compound sentence is effected by means of co-ordinate conjunctions ; and the nature of the connection depends on the kind of conjunction used. I. Co-ordinate conjunctions are divided into four classes— namely: (1) copulative, (2) disjunctive, (3) adversfitive, (4) illative. [For a list of the con- nectives of compound sentences, see English Grammar, p. 232.] The following are illustra- tions : 1. The rains descended and the floods came— [two statements united into a compound sentence by the copulative conjunction " and "]. 2. We must win the fight or Molly Stark is a widow —[two statements united into a compound sen- tence by the disjunctive conjunction " or "]. 8. The commander w^s unwilling to surrendei ; but the garrison compelled him to do so— [two state- THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 39 ments united into a compound sentence by tho adversative conjunction " but "]. 4. Pittsburgh is in the centre of a rich coal region ; hence it is a great nianufacturing city — [two statements united into a compound sentence by the illative conjunction *' hence "]. II. Frequently the connective is omitted ; as — 1. The queen of the spring, as she passed down tho vale, Left her robe on the trees, [and] her breath on tho gale.* 2. The evil that men do lives after them ; [buQ the good is oft interred with their bones. III. In a compound frv-ntence in which the relation of the members is copulative, the conjunction is often merged in a relative pronoun or conjunc- ' tive adverb; as — 1. He gave it to Peter, who [= and he] immediately handed it to John. 2. I hope to meet you to-morrow, iohen [= and then] we can arrange the matter. The principal conjunctive adverbs so used are when, where, while, wherefore. Obs.— As relative pronouns and conjunctive adverbs generally in- troduce subordinate propositions (clauses), ii compound sentence lilce those given above must not be confounded with a complex sentence. EXERCISE 8. Add to each of the following statements an- other statement, so as to make a copulative com* pound sentence : ■ 40 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Model . « In sprivg the farmer ploughs, ami " In spring the farmer ploughs, and in autumn be reaps. 1. In spring the farmer ploughs, and 2. In winter the days are short, and 3. Salt is procured from salt-mines ; it is also .... 4. Hannibal was a gi-eat soldier ... 5. In various countries, different animals are nsetl for beasts of burden ; we use the horse, and .... Ill Ml Add to each of the following statements an- other statement, so as to make an adversative compound sentence: Model: '' Many persons tried to discourage Columbus, *"' " Many persons tried to discourage Columbus, but be was determined to perseveie. '. Many persons tried to discourage Columbus, but 2. Though Belgium is a small country, yet . . . , 3. Religion dwells not on the tong-ue, 4. It must be so: Plato, thou reasonest well; else .. . 5. Napoleon was the greatest conqueror that ever lived; nevertheless 6. Although sugar is made chiefly from the sugar- cane, .... m' Add to each of the following statements an- other statement, so as to make an illative com- pound sentence : Model : « The shadow off he earth on the moon's dhk is always round; hence...." The shadow of the earth on the moon's disk is always round ; hence this is a proof of the earths rotundity- THE COMPOUND 8KNTENCE. 41 1. The shadow of the earth on the moon's disk is always round ; hence .... 2. The boy studied diligently, and therefore .... 3. The Persians treated the Greeks unjustly, and consequently .... 4. He lived extravagantly ; therefore .... 5. Arnold had never firmness to resist the slightest teinptation ; so that .... II. Contracted Compound Sentences. 23. The members of a compound sentence may have a common part in either the subject or the predicate; in which case the sentence is said to be contracted. Thus — 1. The birds saw the little pool, and the birds came there to drink=Tlie birds saw the Uttle pool, and came there to drink — [contraction in the subject']. 2. The reasonable expectations of himself and the reasonable ex^ ectations of his friends were disap- pointed=The reasonable expectations of himself ^ and of his friends were disappointed — [contrac- tion of adjunct of the subject]. 3. Cold pi-oduces ice, and heat dissolves tc«=Cold produces and heat dissolves ice — [contiaction in the object']. I Tlivfla rvf +iia oiv ^r\A oViolfor in ilio wirIf>aiM'pn.<1infr branches, and beast? of the forest find shelter in the shadow of its widespreading branches™ Birds of the air and beasts of the forest find *^ ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Shelter yi the shadow of its widespreading branche3~[contraction in predicate and ad- junctsj. EXERCISE 9. Contract the following compound sentences, and state the nature of the contraction : 1. The jackal happened to be at a short distance, and the jackal was instantly despatched on this important business. 2. The rice-plant grows in great abundance in China; the rice-plant grows in great abundance in Ja- pan; the rice-plant grows in gi-eat abundance in India. " 3. The east coast of Australia is rugged, and the east coast of Australia is deeply indented. 4. Julius CflBsar wrote with great vigor ; Julius Caesar fought with the same vigor. 5. Light is a necessity of life, and air is a necessity of life. ~- ' III. Punctuation of Compound Sentences. 29. The members of a compound sentence are subject to the rules of punctuation that have been given for the simple and for the complex sentence. The following rules apply specially to the compound sentence : 1. When a compound sentence consists of two short mm, JS!t?r;?/^ \* ^^"i^^ctlon, especially whertherfisc^ traction, the members are not separated by a comma ; m- THE COMPOUND SENTENCK. 43 1. A little school girl pressed a cheny between lier lips and threw away the stone. 2. I will arise and go to my father. n.L?"^*?''/'^"^^"*^®" °^ * compound sentence, whether ftill whrJf"*'^' *'* ff^T^Uy separated by conuna ,Tnd X^s when there are more than two ; as— «««»»» »ua axways 1. On these trees they placed large stones, and then covered the whole with damp earth. 2. The rich and the poor, the high and the low, the old and the young, were alike subjected to thr' vengeance of the conqueror. 3. The members of a compound sentence, which arn tiiAn, selves subdivided by commas, are separated bVTmto"ns fas- Having detained you so long already, I shall not trespass longer upon your patience; but, before concludmg, I wish you to observe this point. «r«t^3?*'**'^*'*°*®^ compound sentences, omissions within the propositions are generally indicated by commas; as- To err is human; to forgive, olivine. EXERCISE 10. Punctuate the following compound sentences : 1. The keenest wit the most playful fancy the most genial criticism were lavished year after year "With a profusion almost miraculous. 2. On my approach the buffalo heaving himself for- ward with a heavy rolling gallop and dashing • with precipitation through brakes and ravinea 44 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. again set ofE full tilt while several deer and wolves startled from their coverts by his thun- dering career ran helter-skelter right and left across the prairie. 9. 1 spared no means to bring to pass whatever ap- peared necessary for my comfortable support for I considered the keeping up a breed of true creatures thus at my hand would be a living magazine of fresh milk butter and cheese. 4. Prosperity will gain friends but adversity will try them. 5. Ovid's pretended offence was the writing of cer- tain verses but it is agreed on all hands and is in effect owned by himself that thid was not the real cause of his exile. 6. All nature is but art unknown to thee All chance direction which thou canst not see. All discord harmony not understood. All partial evil universal good. IV. Synthesis of Compound Sentences. 30- In the sj'^nthesis of compound sentences from elements, the nature of the separate state- ments should be carefully considered, so as to connect in construction the members that are connected in sense; attention should also be given to the employment of the proper con- junction when one is required. In connecting the statements into one com- pound sentence, contraction is much employed, and the participial phrase is very useful. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 45 Elements. H 2. 3. '1. 1 had often received an invitation from my friend Sir Roger de Coverley to pass away a month with him in the country. I last week acco 'jpanied him thither. I am settled with him for some time at his country-house. 4. 1 intend there to form several of my ensuing speculations. Combined.— Having often received an invitation ^ from my friend Sir Roger de Coverley to pass^ away a month with him in the country, I last week accompanied him thither, and am settled with him for ^^^r^^e time at his country-house, where I inte form several of my ensuing speculations. In combining the elements, statement 1 is changed to a participial phrase, and introduces the sen- tence. Statement 2 forms the first member. Statement 3 forms the second member, and is connected with the preceding by a copulative conjunction. Statement 4 appears as a third member, and is connected by the conjunctive abverb where (==and there). EXERCISE 11. Combine the following statements into conv- pound sentences : 1. The island at first seemed uninhabited. The natives gradually assembled in groups on tho shore. The natives overcame their natural sh ness. The natives received us very hospitably. 46 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. They brought down for our use the various pro- ducts of their islanc 2. The storm increased with the night. The sea was lashed into tremendous confusion. There was a fearful, sullen sound of rushing waves. There was a fearful sullen sound of broken surges. Deep called unto deep. 8. The graat southern ocean is crowded with coral islands. It is crowded with submarine rocks of the same nature. These rocks are rapidly growing up to the surface. There they are destined to 'form new habitations for man. They will at length overtop the ocean. 4. On the scaffold his behavior was calm. On the scaffold his countenance was unaltered. On the scaffold his voice was unaltered. He spent some time in devotion. Afterwards he suffered death. He died with intrepidity. This intrepidity became the name of Douglas. 5. In the interior of the Cape of Good Hope, the beasts of the forest had for ages lived in com- parative peace— [first leading proposition]. The wounded and terrified animals felt (some- thing)— [second leading member, introduced by an adversative conjunction]. The Europeans spread themselves along the coast — [adverbial clause of time]. The Europeans forced their way into the woods— [adverbial clauae of time]. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 47 The security was now gone— [noun clause, object of « felt "]. They had enjoyed security— [adjective clause, ad- junct of " security "]. Practical Exercises in Composing. A. Write a composition from the following out- lines, and underline the compound sentences : BIRDS'-NESTS. 1. Why they are built.— Places where the birds may lay and hatch their eggs— as dwellings for their young. 2. Materials from which they are made.— Enumerate these— straw, twigs, moss, wool, clay, etc. 3. Form, and how they are made.— Describe the shape of birds'-nests, and how the birds work them into shape. This is done by "instinct." What is instinct f 4. Where birds build.— Mention, where the birds with whose habits you are acquainted build. Where does the thrush build ? the whippoor- will? the martin ? "The swallow twittering from its straw-built shed? " Where do birds of prey buila? 6. Relate any personal experiencG you have had with birds'-nests. Exchange papers for criticism. i 48 ENOLiaH COMPOSITION. Write a short account of the work and mate- rials of the following tradesmen: THE COOPER. The cooper is principally employed in making bar- rels for the preservation of various substances. These barrels differ greatly in size, from the huge vat, required by the distiller and brewer, to the ' nail cask used by the grocer. Besides these, he manufaclures tubs, pails, and other vessels of domestic utility. The best kinds of wood for cooperage are oak, beech, and fir. For the pur- poses of the cooper, these are cut into long, flat pieces, called staves, a few inches broad, and about half an inch thick. In making barrels, the staves are cut a certain length, and tapered a little toward each end. They are also formed with a slight curve, which produces the swelling in the centre peculiar to barrels. The bottom of the barrel consists either of one piece of wood, o^" of several joined together. The staves being ar- ranged round it, they are kept in their places by iron hoops. The cooper then forces on the hoops, and, after placing in the head, continues to drive them towards the centre until the vessel is ren- dered perfectly water-tight. The adze, the plane, and a peculiar kind of knife, called a drawing- knife, are the principal instruments used by the cooper. The blacksmith. The book-binder. The boiler-maker. The painter. The plumber. The trunk-maker. The wheelwright. The rope-spinner. The ship-carpenter. The glass-blower. CONVERSION AND COMBINATION OP SENTENCES. 49 rl CHAPTER IV. CONVERSION AND COMBINATION OP SEN- TENCES. L Expansion. 31i Method. — A simple sentence may be con- verted into a complex sentence by changing some word or phrase into a clause. A complex sentence may be converted into a compound sentence by changing a clause into an independent member. The process by which these changes are made is called expansion. (1) Simple Quarrelsome persons are despised. Complex Persons who are quarrekame are despised. (2) Simple The minutest animal, examined atteri' lively, affords a thousand wonders. Complex The minutest animal, when it is examined attentively, affords a thousand won- ders. (3) Simple No one doubts the soundness of the earth. Complex No one doubts that the earth is round. Compound. .The earth is round, and no one doubts it [or the fact]. 4 50 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. t» EXERCISE 12. A. Expand tho following simple into com,plex sentences : 1. The physician predicted the recovery of your father. 2. Men of great talent are not always lovable ^qv- sons. 3. The Jews still expect the coming of the Messiah. 4. The rainbow seen yesterday afternoon was very beautiful. 6. The stars appear small to us because of their dis- tance. 6. Riding along, I observed a man by the roads.de. B. Expand the following simple sentences into complex.^ and then, if possible, into compound : 1. The light infantry having joined the main body, the enemy retired precipitately towards the river. 2. The water is not fit to drink on account of its salt- ness. 3. With patience he might have succeeded. 4. The wind being fair, the V€ sel put to sea. 5. The door being opened, 'he people crowded into the hall. 6. The child obeys, from love to his parents. 32. Method. — Compound sentences are re- duced to complex and to simple sentences by cjHircct'on — which is the reverse of expansion. a CONVERSION AND COMBINATION OF SENTENCES. 51 It consists in converting one of the independent members of the compound sentence into a clause, and in converting the clause of the complex sentence into a phrase or a word. (1) Compound. .Egy^pt is a fertile country, and is watered by the river Nile, which annually inundates it. Complex. . . .Egypt is a fertile country, which is wa- tered by the river Nile, and which is , annually inundated by it. Simple Egypt is a fertile country watered by the river Nile, and annually inundated by it. (2) Compound. .He was a worthless man, and therefore he could not be respected by his sub- jects. Complex. . . .Since he was a worthless man, he could not be respected by his subjects. Simple Being a worthless man, he could not be respected by his subjects. EXERCISE 13. A. Contract the following complex sentences into simple sentences : 1. As Egypt is annually inundated by the Nile, it is a very fertile country. 2. The ostrich is unable to fly, because it has not wings in proportion to its body. 3. While Dr. Johnson was toriting many of his works^ he was in great distress. 52 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 4. Unlets we are diligent, nothing can be done that is worth doing. 6. Sulla resigned the dictatorship for the reason that he hoped to enjoy quiet in private life. [Participial phrase.] Contract the following compound sentences into complex^ and, where possible, into simple : ' 1. The doors were opened, and the croAU immedi- ately rushed in. 2, Croesus was enormously rich, and yet he was far from happy. 8. He descended from his throne, ascended the scaf- fold, and said, " Li^e, incomparable pair." 4. You are perplexed, and I see it. 7 III. Combination of Sentences. 33, In combining sentences into short com- positions, the following directions should be ob- served : Direction I, — Read carefully the srarious state- ments. Select such as seem to be the leading statements, and express the other thoughts by- means of adjuncts — words, phrases, or clauses. Direction II. — Aim at variety of construction ; that is, do not form a succession of sentences of »ut make th< any type simple, compl( or compound, as seems best suited to the pur- pose. V CONVERSION AND COMBINATION OF SENTENCES. 53 Direotion HI. — Be very careful not to join facts that have no natural or logical connection into long, loose, compound sentences connected by ands.* 34i The following will illustrate the method of combining detached statements into well- constructed sentences : DETACHED STATEMENTS. 1. Alphonso was King of Sicily. 2. Alphonso was Iling of Naples. 3. Alphonso was remarkable for his kindness to his subjects. 4. Af. one time Alphonso was travelling privately through Campania. 5. Alphonso came up to a muleteer. 6. The muleteer's beast had stuck in the mud. 7. The muleteer could not draw it out with all his strength. 8. The poor man had implored the aid of every passer in vain. 9. He now sought assistance from the king. • 10. He did not know who the king was. *The kind of sentence condemned in Direction III. ia shown be- low, and an improved form is given : LooBP Compound ^ Sentence ^ i Improved' A fox was passing through a vineyard, and he saw some tine bunches of grapes on one of the trees, and so he tried to reach one of them, but it was hanging very high, and he could not get it. A fox, passing through a vineyard, saw some fine bunches of grapes on one of the trees. He tried to reach one of them, but as it hung very high he could not get it. 04 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 11. Alphonso quickly dismounted from his horse. 12. Alphonso helped the man. 13. Alphonso )on freed the mule. 14. Alphonso brought it upon safe ground. 15. The muletoer learned that it was the king. 16. The muleteer fell on his knees. ,17. The muleteer asked his pardon. 18. Alphonso removed his fears. 19. Afphonso told him that he had given no offence. 20. This goodness of the king reconciled many to him. 21. Many had formerly opposed him. METHOD OF SYNTHESIS. Unite 1, 2, 3 into one simple sentence, because the principal statement is, "was remarkable for his kindness," etc. ; King of Sicily," " King of Naples," will come in as appositional elements. Unite i, 5, 6, 7 into one complex sentence, and substi- tute the pronoun he for " Alphonso." Unite 8, 9, 10 into one complex sentence, making 9 the principal predicate, 8 an adjective clause. Unite 11, 12, 13, and 14 into one compound sentence, making 11 one principal member, 12 a participial phrase, 13 and 14 principal members. Unite 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 into one compound sentence, making 15 a participial phrase, 16 and 17 principal predicates ; connect 18 as a principal member by means of hut, and convert 19 into a prepositional phrase. Unite 20 and 21 as a complex sentence. Combination.— Alphonso, King of Sicily and Naples, ^as rfimarlrahlft for )ii« Vin/lnooo +r. hi" c.,v^««*a * i. time, when travelling privately through Campania, he came up to a muleteer, whose beast had stuck in the mud, and who could not di-aw it out with all his strength. The »> CONVERSION AND COMBINATION OF SENTENCES. 50 poor man, who had in vain implored the aid of every passer, now songht assistance from the king, not knowing who he was. Alphonso quickly dismounted from his horse, and helping the man, soon freed the mule, and brought it upon safe ground. The nnileteer, learning that it was the king, fell on his knees and asked his pardon ; but Alphonso removed his fears by telling him that he had given no oifenco. This goodr.ejjs ^ f the king reconciled many who had formerly been apposed o him. EXERCISE 14. Combine the following statements into well- constructed sentences, forming a continuous narrative : L ABOUT TEA. Tea is the dried leaf of a shrub. This shrub grows chiefly in China and Japan. It is an evergreen. It grows to the height of from four to six feet. It bears beautiful white flowers. These flowers resemble wild roses. In China, there are many tea-farms. These are generally of small extent. They are situ- ated in the upper valleys. They are situated on the sloping sides of the hills. In these places tiie soil is light. It is rich. It is well drained. The plants are raised from seed. They are generally al- lowed to remain three years in the ground. A crop of leaves is then taken from them. The leaves are carefully picked by the hand. 2. THE OSTKICH. The ostrich inhabits the sandy deserts of Asia. It in- habits the sandy deserts of Africa. It is from seven to eight feet high. We measure from the top of the head to the ground. The head is sraaU. The neck 56 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. is long. Both head and neck are destitute of feath- ers. The feathers on the body of the male are black. The feathers on the female are dusky. The thighs are naked. The legs are hard. The legs are scaly. The ostrich has two very large toes. These toes are of unequal size. The largest is seven inches long. The other is about four inches long. The hunting of this bird is very laborious. The bird is very swift. The fleetest horse cannot overtake it. The following mode is adopted by the Arabians to catch it. One continues the chase as long as pos- sible. The chase is then taken up by another. The bird is at length worn down. 8. HISTORY OF PAPER. The first manufactured paper we hear of Was that made from the papyrus. The papyrus is a species of reed growing abundantly in the waters of the Nile. Did the art of making it originate among the Egyptians themselves? We have no means of judging of this. Paper of this sort was known to the Greeks and Uomans, The first appears beyond a doubt to have been manufactured in Egypt. The article became known and valued. It formed an important article of commerce to the Egyptians. The Egyptians ex- ported it in large quantities. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 57 CHAPTER V. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 35. Variation of expression is effected in two ways: 1. By variation of the arrangement oi^ structure of the sentence. 2. By variation of phraseology. I. Variation in Arrangement and Structure. 36, The following are the principal methods of varying the structure of sentences : fhi^.r*''' I--By using the passive voice of a verb instead of the active, or the active instead of the passive. Thus- Active. .One common spirit actuated all the leading men of the Revolution. Passive. The leading men of the Revolution were all actuated by one common spirit. EXERCISE 15. Vary the structure of the following sen- tences by changing the active into passive, and the passive into active : 1. Galileo invented the telescope. 2. Whatever is offensive in our manner is corrected by gentloncfB. *^^ ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 3. Darius, king of Persia, was defeated by Miltiades the Athenian. 4. Education forms the youthful mind. 5. Every summer we may observe- the mischievous eifects of tlie rapacity of birds in tlie vegetable kingdom. G. About two hours before midnight, Columbus, standing on the deck, noticed a light at a dis- tance, and pointed it out to his companion, Pedro. 7. It was said by Talleyrand that the object of lan- guage is to conceal thought. Mkthod ii.-By changing a declarative into an InterroR- ative sentence. ° Declaration.— No one can count the number of the stars. QuKSTioN.— Who can count the number of the stars'? Declaration.— Every one hopes to live long. Question.— Who does not hope to live long? The primary use of interrogation is to ask a ques- tion; but a statement may often be made in the form of a question when no answer is ex- pected. Such a question is frequently more em- phatic and convincing than the direct declaration would be. Obs.— A negative statement Implies an affirmative qiiestion, and the reverse. EXERCISE 16. Vary the expression by using the interroga- tive forTii ' 1. No one can listen to the recital of such liiisery and remain unmoved. VARIETY OP KXlMtKSSIOK. 59 2. This id not tho chamcfcer of British justice, 3. The Judge of all the eartli will do right. 4. We are indebted to the vegetable world for a great part of our clothing. 6. We ghall not gather strength by irresolution and inaction. 0. Can storied urn or animated bust Back to its mansion call .the fleeting breath? Can honor's voice provoke the silent dust? Or flattery soothe the dull cold ear of death? . y I STATEMENT.->The moon light sleeps tweet upon this bank. Exclamation.— How sweet the moonlight sleepa upon this bankl In exclamative sentences the verb is frequently omitted; as, "What enchanting music!" =- What enchanting music this is 1 This, in turn, ia the exclamative form of the statement, " The musio is enchanting." EXBRCISB 17. Vary the structure by changing the sentences into the exclamative form : 1. The scenes of mv ohWilUnml ama. j— « *-> i ^ 2. I wjsh that I were capable of placing this great man before you. 3. Sleep is wonderful. fiO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 4. Their harmony foretells a world of happiness. 5. I would give my kingdom for a horse, a horse. 6. It is very cold. Method iv.-By using " there » or " it » as the anticipative suoject. Thus— 1. A voice came from heaven, saying, " Thou art my beloved Son " = There came a voice from heaven, saying, " Thou art my beloved Son." 2. With a handful of men Napoleon routed all these forces = Jt was with a handful of men [that] Napoleon routed all these forces. Since the beginning is the usual place for the. subject, to remove it from the beginning is a mode of emphasizing it. EXERCISE la Vary the following expressions by using the anticipative subjects there or it : i. A very large comet was seen in 1680. 2. A report was in circulation that the army had been defeated. 3. No place is like home. 4. A braver soldier than Old Put never lived. 5. A poor exile of Erin came to the beach. 6. " A divinity shapes our ends,*' says Shakspeare. 7. Scipio conquered Hannibal. 8. Mutual respect makes friendship lasting. 9. We are to blame. 10. Thomas built this house. 11. By rigid economy men grow rich. VARIKTY OF EXPRESSION. ^l 12. To have ioved and lost is better than never to have loved at all. 1. When they hxd reduced \\^havmg reduced it. ^. Ail hxive no wcix\eiy^havmg no anxiety. 3. A fact that must not be spoken about=.^ fact not to ,. be spoken about. 4. I know the reason why yov do f»o^ w;,rooe=I know the reason of your not improving, 6. We believe that the earth is round^,,e beliove th<5 earth to be round, 6. I hear that he has gone to oollege=r hear of his having gone to college. EXERCISE la Vary the expressions in italics by employinff equivalent phrases or words : 1. As I looked over the paper, I saw this advertise- ment. 2. If this point is admitted, we proceed to the next argument. 8. Wellington was sure of victory even before Biucher arrived. 4. It is a great secret iJtat must not he whispered even to your cat. 6. The period when the mariner's r.nmpan. .««- ^:. covered is uncertain (the period of the discovery, 6. I desire that you should read Milton. 62 ENGLi: J COMPOSITION. Mi Hi I H.- ! ;ii 7. His favorite project ^^.s that he might make Scot- land a republic. 8. My father bougJit n machine with which to mow. 9. Sidney asked a soldier that he would bring him sorao water. 10. Loyalty to the kmg which amounted to abjeot servility was a national trait of the I orsians. 11. The ma*s that hath not music in himself is fit for treaso-is, stratagems, and s^wils. 12. The place i.herg Moses- in buriea is unknown. Motho© VI— By clfiangin^ tmt* fis «. dim.! to the indirect Ibrm of speech» or the revamp,. Indirect.— Henry Chiy uidd that he woald rather be right than be President DrRECt.— " I would rather," said Henry Clay, "be right tiian be President.'' I. Tii'. direct foi-m of speech gives the words of a spc^nker exactly as uttered by himself; the m- direct/m-m gives them as reported by another. All words iij the direct form are to be enclosed in quotation marks. II. The principal variations in passing from the direct form of speech to the indirect are these: 1. The firet and second persons are changed to the third. 2. The present tense is changed to its corresponding past. 2. The near demonstrative this is changed into the more remote that. 1 li I % i VARIETY OP EXPRESSION. SZERCISB 20. 63 Onmge the quotations in the following pass- » ^es xrom the direct to the indirect statement : 1. When Alexander the Great was asked why he did not contend iu the Olympic games, he said, " I will when I have kings for my competitors." . i. In one of his letters. Pope says, - I should hardly care to have an old post pulled up that I remem- ber when a child." 8. "I have often," said Byron, "left my childish sports to ramble in this place; its glooms and Its solitude had a mysterious charm for my young mind, nurturing within me that love of quietness and lonely thinking which has accom. panied me to maturer years." 4, Lord Chatham remarked; *« I rejoice that the grave has not closed upon me : that I am still alive to lift up my voice against a great wrong " i Mbthod VU-By transposition, i. e., by varyinir tha otHai. of tne component parts of a sentence. ^"^^g tie order There is a customary order of the parts of a sentence which in ordinary speech and writing we unconsciously follow; but, for the sake of emphasis or adornment, this natural arrangement of woods is often departed from". The common arrangement may be called the grammatical order; he inverted arrangement, the rhetorical order. The rhetorical order belongs peculiarly to poetry, but it 18 often used in ^ose also. • J* "^ ^s 37, General Rule.— Emphatic words must stand in prominent positions ; i e.. for the most part, at the beginning or at the end of sentences. Thus— I 64' ENGLISH COMPOSITION. I lii OBAVMATIOAL OBDEB. I shall attempt neither to palliate nor deny the atro- cious crime of being a young man. The gate is wide and the way is broad that leadeth to destruction. They could ^ake their rest, for they knew that Lord Stratford watched. Thev feared him, they trusted Am, they obeyed him. The night-winds sigh, the breakers roar, and the wild sea-mew shrieks. BHBTOHICAIj obdbb. The atrocious crime of being a young man I shall attempt neither to palliate nor deny. Wide is the gate and broad is the way that leadeth to destruction. They could take their rest, for they knew that Lord Stratford watched. Hhn they feared, him they trust- ed, Am they obeyed. The night-winds sigh, the breakers roar, And shrieks the wild sea- mew. 38, The rhetorical order belongs peculiarly to poetry. The following are some of the princi- pal poetical constructions : 1. The auxiliary verb to do is dispensed with in in- terrogation: as — Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle?— ' Byron. How ! come ye in peace here, or come ye in war?— Scott. 2. The verb precedes the nominative : as— While stands the Coliseum, Kome shall stand Byron. Answered Fitz-James : « And if I thought."— ;S«.-o«. O'er the path so well known still proceeded the maid. — Southey. , # 8. The object precedes the verb : as Lands he could measure, times and tides presage.-^ Goldsmith. *- VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. ' 65 The Stuart sceptre well she ,n,ayed, but the sword she could not wield H. G. Bell. 4. The noun precedes the adjective: as— ^ j^fadst thou sent z^arn/n^r./a/r and fra..-6>o«. ■ Novv ,s the pleasant time, the cool, tlie .dent.^ MiLton. 6. The adjective precedes the verb to he: as— Few and /^Aorf urerg the prayers we said— Wolfe Rich were the sable robes she more.-//. G. Bell.-^^ 6. The pronoun is expressed in tl.e imperative : as- Wipe thou thine eye^.^Shakspeare. But, blench not thou.—Byron. 7. Adjectives are used for adverbs: as— ^' ^d'ents'^s- '"''' ""'' ^''^ ^''^ ^^^^'^ ^'^*«««- JoVttl' t"^"''^ '^' ^^"^^ boughs.-^.„,;i,,. Fo. the deck, u was their field of i^rae.-Ca.npLl. 0. The antecedent is omitted : as— Who steals ray purse, steals tr ^Bh.Shaksveare Happy, who walks with him.-C.«,^t 10. ^n^-anrf is used for hoth-and; or~or for «^/>i.r-or; nor-nor iov neither-nor : as- ^nrf trump a«rf timbr.] . .s^ered keen.-^.« I whom nor avarice n.. pleasures move.-irl^i. 11. Adverbial phrases are not placed in juxtapo- 66 ENGLISH COJirOSITION. sition with the words to whicl; tlio/ f i imuaatically belong : as — On thy voiceless shore The heroic lay is tuneless now. — Byron. By fortns unseen their dirgn is aung. — Collins. 12. Prepositions are suppressed : as — Despair and anguish fled . . . the struggling soul.— Goldsmith, And like the bird v>hose pinions quake But cannot fly . . . tiie gazing snake. — Byron. : ilH I !; NOTE. In transposing poetical passages from the meti ical to ihe prose order, all ellipses sliould be supplied, and the elements of each s'^ntence should in the first instance bo arranged in logical order, viz. : 1. The subject with its modifiers ; 2. The vei"b; 3. The object (or complement) ; 4. The adverbial phrases or clauses. This order may afterwards be modified according to the lulet? we have already had for the arrangement of phrases and c luses, 80 as to make the sentence more .-aceiul and irmo- nious. EXERCISE 21. A. Change the following sentences common to the rheto- ical order : 1. The AlpH are behind you. 2. The uses of adversity are sweet. 3* My brothers shall never again embrace me. 4. He is a freeman M'hom ^le truth makes free. m he VARIETY OP EXPRESSrOW. 67 6. Dianna of the Ephesians is great e. Yet a few days and the all-beholding sun shall see thee no more. 7. They laid him down slowly and sadly 8. I know JPsus, and I kiiow Paul ; but who are ye ? in' m' y"^;'^°"«^ «^'"«' he put to death others. 10. Macbeth could scarcely understand v^at they said. y Passages of poetry should be selected by the teacher for transposition into the prose order. C. Write a composition from the following out- line, being careful as to ,arzefy of expression : Cii.lISTOPHER COLUMBUS. iNTROi^TTc ^:,: State what parts of the world were the birth of Colu. us - speak about the prevail- ing mconect notions re.^arding the shape of the Biography op CoLUMBus.-His early history^ bom in Genoa during the first half of the loth century-his early training and sea-life-his conviction that the earth is globe-like in shape - his theory of a western continent -is spurned by various govern mnts - aided by Spain - his first voyage, and the discovery. [Merely mention the it!.:T?^!" " ^^"^^^ «*^'^*^««-] His death in X -r^ivjr ai-u ciisgrace. Character op Coi.uMBUs.-The grandeur f his Idea-- his faith and perseveraace-his boL-Iness and courage -lessons his life should teacii u.. 1.= \i:\ ti ■' 68 • ENGLISH COMPOSITION. II. Variation of Phraseology. I. BY THE USB OP SYNONYMS. 39, Phraseology, or the language used in ex- pressing a* thought, is varied by substitution, which is the process of writing in place of one word or phrase another of the same or similar meaning. 40i Synonyms are words that have the same or nearly the same signification. I. Synonymous words sometimes have the same gen- eral meaning, but a different shade of significsr tion ; as, for example, mix and blend. Both these words mean, in general, to put substances together so that their parts mingle or uliite in some way ; but when we are speaking of mixing two colors, and of the colors of the rainbow Mending with one another, the particular meaning is very different. Mixing makes two colors one ; blending is their gradual, almost imperceptible, merging into one another. • n. There are more words which are nearly synon- ymous (in the strict sense) in English than ia olner languages, because in the case of a large proportion of words we have often two sets of de rivatives, one from Latin, the other from Anglo- Saxon, which are nearly parallel in meaning: as — LATIN. pueriltt conceal deride SAXON= boyish hide laugh at VAHIEXy OK EXPKESSION. 69 It Will be found, generally speaking, that the Saxou expression is the stronger of the two-the plainer, and therefore the st.onger. Thus/nV„^/^ fs much more hearty and forcible than amicable. Hence it as t e ifn TT"^'^^ "'' "'""^^^- ««^veaswell III. Facility of expression is a most important qual- % of good writing. In order to acquire this w^ must have an ample stock of words, and we must also learn to distinguish the different shades of meanmg in a group of generically allied worda. li-xercises hke those which follow will be useful EXERCISE 22. Supply the appropriate words i Account, description, detail, history, narration, narratvve, relation, story. ^'ZZr'- ''''-''''''' ''^'-'^-^y^^ He gives an interesting of the early voyagers. Have you read the of Damon and Pythi.^ T I hope to move him by a of the dangers I have gone through. ■^^^ of that event is striking. Ease, relieve, mitinnta ni?^,.:^,^ -n ' ■-""•' "'--'^ '"ft^, ««ay, appease, soothe, tran- quillize, quiet, still. • Bunyan represents Christian as being of hia burden at the sight of the cross. 70 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. It is our d\ity to .the distifsses of others, by their sorrows, ; their fears, and their resentments. Tlie wrath of Achilles was not to be Do not hope to your conscience while enjoy- ing tlie fruits of youi- offence. Enjoyment, pleasure, delight, satisfaction, gratif cation. She is the of excellent health. I hope to have the of spending a long evening with vou. It gives me no to have the private affairs of my neighbor overhauled in my "hearing. Life was given us for more important purposes than the of our animal appetites. True friendship is a source of exquisite Make sentences, using each of the following synonyms : Model.— 1. He did not arrive in time ; the delay of the train was a fortunate circumstance for him. 2. One would think your brother is always to be lucky. 1. Fortunate — lucky. 2. Folly — fooling. S. Communicate — im- part. 4. Brave — courageous. 5. Erect — construct. 6. Bind — tie. 1. Reprove — reprr^ach, 8. Blame — censure. 9. Behavior — conduct. 10. Beat — strike. 11. Pride — haughtiness. 12. Proposal — proposition. 13. Rural — rustic. 14. Safe — secure. 15. Shadow — shade. 16. Sorry — grieved. 17. Diligent — industrious 18. Pride — vanity. 19. Healthy — wholesome. 20. Petition — request. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 71 In the following passages, change such words and phrases as are printed in italics to the proper synonymous words or phrases : 1. What safety can we have from tyranny, if judges are removable by the executive ? 2. Julius Caesar is said to have been a man of amia- ble inclination. 3. I have the pride to think that I have dh'covered a^ new machine. 4. Brooklyn is contiguous to N"ew York. 6. What do you esteem this ring to be worth ? 6. The sailors having asked leave of the captain, were admitted to go on shore. 7. Will you allow my first proposition to be true ? 8. "Tomatoes," said she, "are very healthy, they give /o?-ce to the liver." II. BT DENYING THE CONTRARY. 41. Ad affirmative can often be converted into an equivalent negative, or a negative into an equivalent affirmative, by the use of a jvord of opposite meaning in the predicate^ Thus— There is as much beauty in the earth as there is grand- eur in the lieavens = There is no less beauty in the earth than grandeur in the heavens. Vary the expressions in the manner indi- cated : 1. The miser is unhappy (far from). 72 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 2. That tree, is alive. 3. It is diJicuU to get rid of bad habits. 4. 1 hate you, Dr. Fell. 5. The success at Trenton had a great influence on the war. 6. The duration of our existence \s finite. 7. Henry is indolent^KQnry is not diligent. 8. Solon, the Athenian, effected a great change in the constitution of his country. 42. A change similar to that just given is made by euphemism (soft-speaking), which is a roundabout manner of expression, used to avoid the harehness of direct statement. Thus— EUPHEMISMS. He had indulged himself in liquor, Mary is not noted for industry. I have not the warmest feeling of af- fection /or that man. DIKKCT. He was di'unk = Mary is lazy = I hate that man = EXERCISE 24. Vary the expression by using euphemtam ; 1. Charles is^ coward. 2. He is a conceited fellow. 3. I believe that he stole that book. 4. John Brown was hanged. 5. Jessie is a careless girl. 6. That man was turned out of office. ni.-BY PERIPHRASIS, OR CIRCUMLOCUTION. 4.3. Periphrasis or circumlocution, is the use VARIETr OF EXPRESSION. 73 of several words to express the sense of one. Ihus — PLAIN FORM, The sun Mankind Geogi-aphy PERIPHUASIS. The glorious orb of day. The human race. The science which describes the earth, and its inhabit- ants. a ft EXERCISE 25. Vary the expression in the manner indicated : 1 • We must die. 2. The ocean is calm. 3. A hero is dead. 4. Astronomy is a delightful study. 5. Life is short. 6. Obedience is due to our parents. IV.-BY RECASTING THE SENTENCE. 44. The mode of varying the expression which IS called recasting the sentence is one that cannot be reduced to fixed rule. Practice however, will give skill in changing the forms' ot statement so as to express a thought in many uiiierent ways. ^ 46. The following are variant modes of mak- ing the statement, "The whale is the largest animal: " & II ii U I Variatioiis... *^ ENGLISH COMPOSITION. The whale is larger than any other animal. 2. The whale sui-passes all other animals in size. 3. The whale is unequalled in size byciny other animal. 4. The size of the whale exceeds that of any other animal. 5. No other animal la so large as the whale. 6. All other animals are inferior in ^ize to the whale. 7. The whale is pre-eminent over every other animal in size. 8* No other animal approaches the whale in magnitude. 9. All animals ranst yield to the whale in point ot size. 10. No other animal ever reaches the mag- in'tude of the whale. 11. The whale is without a rival in mag- nitude among animals. 12. In point of size, the whale surpasses all other animals. Note.— In substance, each of these twelve sentences is identical with the original statement; but how many forms do we obtain by calling in the aid of the art of varying expression ! Now, the practical importance of facility in changing the form of statement is this : we cannot, in any case, be quite sure that we have employed thehest mode of wording a given sentence until we have rapidly run over in our minds the various ways in which it may be worded. By practice we learn to think promptly of many forms of expression, and to select thff best. I, 1' i''i VARIETY OP EXPRESSION 76 EXERCISE 26. Write the following simple sentences in as many w.iys as possible without chanmno- the meaning : 1. Iron is the most useful of all metals. 2. The eye infinitely surpasses all the works of human ingenuity. 3. Industry is the cause of prosperity. 4. We may derive many useful lessons from the lower animals. 5. A profusion of beautiful objects eveiywhere sur- rounds us. 6. Beware of desperate steps-the darkest day will by to-morrow have passed away. Jl Practical Exercises in Composing. I. Descriptive Subjects. Write a short composition from the following outline : ^ Bread :-^A preparation from one of the grains, or cereals-^name the leading ones-mention the kinds of bread-which is most m, ,,,,, i„ y^..^ ^^,^ ^^ the country v.-,„ode of r ..paring ^heateu bread: trace the process from tL. thro.hing of the wheat vix. .he xoa;. comes froiu th.. ovon— thestaft' of life- used for food every where -whatever eh^ a country uses, Its food IB cheap or dear according to the price of bread. * ■1.1* PI 76 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. n. Letter-"Writ±ng. 1. Write a letter to your teacher narrating your '♦Experiences during L-ast Vacation." 2. Write and tell your duties at school—your amuse- ments or recreations — your walks— books— thoughts or observations. 8. Write and tell about a visit to a museum or pub- lic garden— the objects of interest, etc. 4. Write about the days of your childhood— your earliest recollections— your first days at school— your impressions— your ideas about that period of your life. 5. Tell about the book you are reading— the name— the subject— the style— the information— your opinion of it— any other works by the same author. 6. Write and tell about an evening party— the num- ber—the amusements— the music— the pleasures of social intercourse. 7. Write the results of the last examination—whether you were promoted— what studies you are pur- suing with most interest, etc. m. Newspaper Paragraphs. On the following heads write paragraphs such as you read in the " locals '^Kjf the newspapers ; A Fire.— Late last night our quiet town was startled by an alarm of fire VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. ^^ Presbyterian SociABLE.-The Ladies' Sociable connected with the Presbyterian Church met A New School-House.-To day the laying of the cornerstone of the Washington School in this city will take place „ , Railroad AcciDENT-Yesterday as the cars were starting from the Broad Street Station. . IV. Stories from Heads. Write stories from the following heads : 1. Columbus and the Egg • Thecardinal--thebanquetlthecourtier-theenvT -the detraction-the egg-the challenge-the 1 tempts the failures-the accomplishment-tSe application. 2. Th« Old Man and the Bundle of Sticks : Xhe sons-the disagreement-the dearh-bed-the meeting the ,dvice-the bundle-the command -the failure-the single stiok-the moral. 8. *' DoN*T Give up the Ship • " Challenge of the British ship Shannon-the brief fight^the dreadful slaug].ter-the surrender^ i-awrence's memorable words. k 78 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. !l V. Biographical Sketches. Write sliort biographical sketches from the following outlines : 1. George Washington : Founder of the Republic of the United States- born at Bridge's Creek, Va., 1732— education, simple and meagre — early taste for military life — becomes public surveyor to Lord Fairfax — adju- tant-general of the Virginia militia— encroach- ments of the French — his first campaign — cam- paign under Braddock — marries and settles at Mount Vornon — outbreak of the Revolution — ap- pointed commander-in-chief, 1775 — (two or three general sentences about Washington's conduct dur- ing the war) — elected first President— re-elected — dies — his character : simple, truthful, sincere, patriotic — ^patient, persevering, disinterested — his influence on the young republic. 2. Sir Walter Raleigh : Birthplace — education — his first voyage — other employments — his appearance at the court of Elizabeth — his accomplishments — anecdote of his readiness and tact — the queen and the velvet cloak — his promotions and rewards — his next voy- age to America — the importation of tobacco and potatoes into England — the colony of Virginia — his arrest for treason, and imprisonment in the Tower — his release after thirteen years — his expe- dition to Oronoco, and its object — circumstances j.i_ _ J. 1 , ly! humu iuu «) His execution — ins cnaraccer, xnorax and intellectual. ON STYLE. 79 CHAPTER VI. ON STYLE. 46- Tbe manner in which thoughts are ex- p essed constitutes style. The term "style "is derived from the Latin word.. stylus, the name of the instrument with which the Romans wrote. The change by which the word, ftt)m designating tha instrument, came to denote the use made of it, is similar to the transformation m the meaning of the English word pen. Thus, "Swift wields a caustic Ren "=his manner of of writmg (i. e., his " style") is caustic. 47. The excellence of a piece of writing depends primarily upon that of its separate sentences. Now, the excellence of a sentence depends upon two things : 1. Language, or the choice of words. 2. Construction, or the arrangement of the parts of a sentence. a * I. Choice of "Woeds. Wwds^'^'"^ ^^<^^'s^^^-Accuracy in tlie Use of Accuracy is that quality of language which 80 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. consists in using the " right word in the riffht place." ^ I. Accuracy in the use of words cannot be acquired m a few easy lessons. All that can be done is to put pupils in the way of thinking about the words they employ; and this habit, once gained, will gradually bring about correctness in the use of language. IT. Particular care should be exercised in the use of • ^ prepositions, conjunctions, and other particles. 1. There never was such a quantity of animals at any cattle-show. A "quantity" means a single mass, and hence this term cannot be used to denotp many different animals. It should be, " There never were so many;'' or, "There never was such a number,''' etc. 2. The attempt wa^ found to br^ impracticable. An "attempt" may be umuec^s^ful, or futile ; but as an attempt implies some effort mune, it cannot be said to be " impracticable," which means impossible of doing. 3. I find no difficulty o/keeping up with my class. This should be, " in keeping," etc. EXERCISE 27. A. Substitute terms of correct signification for the italicized words r 1. child is educated in the gram /oar of a language, and instructed to speak it correctly. 2. He spoke most contemptibly of the man. ON STTLB. 81 8. The veracity of the statement was called in ques- tion. 4. His apparent guilt justified his friends in disown- ing- him. 5. 1 do not want any cranberries. 6. By the observance of the habits of the lower animals we may learn many interesting- facts. 7. I have persuaded him that he is wrong. B. In the following sentences' correct the wrongly used particles : 1. Poetry has the same aim with Christianity. 2. Scarcely had he uttered the fatal word, than the fairy disappeared. 3. We should always be ready to assist such poor persons toho are unable to obtain a livelihood.' 4. I find grent difficulty of writing now. 5. The Italian universities were forced to send for their professors /rom Snain and France. 6. He drew a different conclusion from the subject than I did. 7. Favors are not always bestowed to the most de- serving. MISUSED WORDS. 49. There are in current use many words em- ployed in a sense that does not properly belong to them. A few of these* are here given : they "-- v.ttieii5Uj iiv>i,cv*, itiiu tiieir misuse avoided. aggravate ior irritate: as, «' He aggravates me by his impudence." IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 4^ / y. 1.0 I.I IAS 128 |2.5 "■ llll£ IL25 i 1.4 2.0 1.6 Photographic Sdences Corporation 93 WIST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716)872-4503 U.A ^Ilii •* ENGLISH COMPOSITION. ' •""*••• for refer. To «//ade means to hint at in an indirect way. ***^*°®* ^*^^ remainder: as, "The balance of the people went home." calculate. . . .for design or intend, or as an equivalent to hkeli/, apt: as, '« Sensational newspapers are calculated to injure the morals of the young ; " they are not " calculated » to do so ; but they are certainly likely to do so. ^^^^P''^ ^or/tvo: as, « A couple of ladies fell upon the ice yestorday." A "couple" means properly two that are coupled. *®™"° ^o** 'debase: as, "I would not demean my- self by doing so." To " demean " means U> behave in any way, and has no connection with the terra mean. • emblem for tnotto, sentiment, or meaning: generally applied to flowers. The emb/em of this flower is, " / live for thee.'' In this case the flower itself is the emblem: " / live for thee " is the meaning given to it. •*P**** ^^^ -'suppose, or think : as, " I expect vou had a pretty hard time of it yesterday • " for I suppose or I think you had, eto. Expect re. fers only to that which is to come. inaugnrate. . .for begin, or set up. To inaugurate is to in- duct into oflice with solemn ceremonies ; thus we speak of the President's being inaugurated. But we cannot " inaugurate" a thing. ma-_.s r,.often wrongly nsod in announcements : as, " Afamerf— John Smith to Mary Jones." It shouldbe," Mary Jones to John Smith," ON STYJ.E. 83 as, properly speaking, it is the woman that 18 married (French man, a husband) to a . man. °*°'® ^«^' '"«"'*''» • as, «' I never nume.d the mat- ter to any one." predicated., .iov founded, or hmed : as, " ThU opinion is predicated on the plainest teachings of com- mon-sense," meaning founded on, etc. ...for see: as, "This is the most splendid bay I ever witnessed.'* We may witness an act at the performance of which we are present, but we cannot witness a thing. wituess . as, 50.-SECOND REQuisiTE—Simpiicity of Words. We should ordinarily avoid all such words as require persons to consult a dictionary, pro- vided simpler and easier words can be found to express tlie meaning. We sliould also avoid pompous expressions and high-flown words and phrases, because the use of tliese is always a Bign eitJier of halWearning or of vulgar taste. It is well to remember that large words will not in- crease the size of little thoughts. A disastrous conflagration commenced to rage ="^^ great fire broke out. A vast concourse of citizens- assembled to behold the=Agreat crowd came to see. spectacle h 'if I ml: i i ' 1 64 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. STILTED BXPRBSSIONS POUND IN MANY Xf WSPAPEBS. The conflagration extended its devastating career ~ The progress of the de- vouring element could not= be arrested One of those omnipresent characters who, as if in pursuance of some previous arrangement, are certain=» to be encountered when an accident occurs, ventured the suggestion However, the edifice was totally consumed, notwith standing the most ener.= getic efforts of those noble men who, on such occa- sions, rush to the call of duty MEANING IN PLAIN BNOLISH. sTho fire spread. Tne fire could not be checked. A bystander observed. But the house was burned to the ground, in spite of all that the firemen could do.* EXERCISE 28. ^ Translate the following into simple, natural English : 1. An individual was precipitated 2. They called into requisition the services of the phy- sician 8. His spirit quitted its earthly habitation 4. There are some youthful personages whom it' always delights you to accompany. 5. There are others, the very aspect of whose fanial leatures superinduces disagreeable emotions. * BoniieU : Manual qf Composition. ON STYI.K. 85 6. Mary was the possessor of a diminutive specimen of the sheep species. 7. Your uncle was evidently laboring under some hal- lucination. 8. At the present moment I retire to slumber: I offer up my petitions to the Lord to preserve my spirit- ual part in safety; but should I quit this earthly sphere ere I awakr, I beseech him to receive mv soul. ^ 9. Ceteris paribus, when a Saxon and a Latin word offer themselves, we should choose the Saxon. 51. Third REQuisiTE.-Oonciseness, or brevity of language. Conciseness consists in using the smallest number of words necessary for the complete ex- pression of a thought— the maximum of thought m the minimum of words. The fcllowing will be found a useful general rule : Go critically over what you have written, and strike out every word, phrase, and clause the omission of which impairs neither the clearness nor the force of the sen- tence. 52. This requisite of good writing is violated m three ways : 1. By redundancy, or the use of words which the sense does not require. Thus— form^''^'^ '"''" "" '^^ •^'"' ""^^^^ '"""'^ ^^^ ^""'« *<^ P**^- The italicized phrase is superfluous, as "every man '» b«'» i f"^ ? r^""'"^ ' ' °^*y «*^«^y be supposed to be "on the face of the eArth." 86 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 2. He appears to enjoy the universal esteem of all men. The ♦' esteem of all men " is universal esteem; hence the adjective is unnecessary. 2. By tautology^ or the repetition of the same idea in different words : Thus — The whole nation applauded his magnanimity and greatness of mind. ** Greatness of mind " is simply a translation of «* mag- nanimity ; " hence the one or the other of the expressions is unnecessary. The repetition of the idea not only adds nothing to the thought, but it also detracts from the clear- ness. ,, 8. By circumlocution^ or a roundabout, diffuse way of expressing a thought. < Example. — Pope professed to have learned Aw poetry from D'yden, whom, whenever an opportunity pre- sented itself, he praised through the whole period of his existence with a liberality which never varied , and perhaps his character may receive some illustra- tion, if a con^parison be instituted between him and the man whose pupil he was. Which may be thus condensed : Pope professed himself the pupil of Dryden, whom, on every opportunity, he praised through his whole life with unvaried liberality ; and perhaps his character may he illustrated by comparing him with his master. Ob8. — The remedy for circumlocution consists, not in leaving out parts, but in recasting the whole in terser language. It may be observed that in the remodelling of the sentence just given the condensation has been effected mainly by the substitution of phrases for clauses. Thus, "whenever an opportunity presented itself "=o» every ON 8TTLE. 87 Opportunity; "which never varied ".^iinranerf • "if a comparison be instituted "=6^ comparing, etc ' X2XERCISE 29. A. Remove the redundancies in these sentences : 1. Another old veteran has departed. 2. Thought and language act and react mutttally" upon each other. 3. Emma writes very well for a new beginner. 4. The time for learning is in the period of youtli. 6. Whenever I call, he always inquires for you. 6. The ocean is the great reservoir for receiving the waters of rivers. 7. The world is fitly compared to a stage, and its in- habitants to the actors who perform their parts. 8. I go ; but I return again. 9. The Egyptians used to use myrrh, spices, and nitre for embalming the dead bodies of the de- ceased. I Remove the tautological expressions: 1. I will give you n.y advice and counsel gratis, and charge you nothing. 2. It was on a calm and tranquil night that we sailed down the river. 8. Our intercourse was always and invariably friendly and amicable until he married and became the husband of a wife. 4. I think Joseph must take especial and particular pains with his writing. ly 88 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 6. Thert is a simple and easy way of dealing with such chances and accidents. 6. Hence he must necessarily, therefore, be in error. 7. The effects and consequence of such corruption and degeneracy are deplorable and lamentable. 8. Thought and expression act and react upon each other mutually. 53. Fourth Requisite.— Purity of Wordi. This quality requires that the words we era- ploy shall be good, reputable English. It does not mean that we are prohibited from using familiar or colloquial forms of expression ; but only that we shall avoid slang. The pupil should aim at purity of language, without being a purist in language, that is, one who affects exc ssive nicety in the choice of words. II. Construction. 54. As regards the arrangement of its parts, there are three qualities which a sentence should possess: 1. Unity; 2. Clearness; 8. Strength. I. UNITY. 55, Unity is that property in a sentence which keeps all its parts in connection with, and logi- cally subordinate to, the principal thought. ON STYLE. 89 56. The rules for preserving the tmity of a sentence are as follows : m tT;roi7e%^^^^^^^^ '^ <^-««d " little a. po.dbIe There is commonly, in every sentence, the name of ^ W ' FT"" "' *^""S^ ^^^^^ '« the prominent sub- c of discourse; this should be continued, if pos- •«ble, from the beginning to the end of the ^o- position. The following will illustrate : ^ After we came to anchor, they put me on shore Jhere I was welcomed by all my friends, who r': ceived me with the greatest kindness. oonneotiou is a,».e lost. 3^'„er Z, t ^'l ~f fiieads, and received with the greatest kindness." ' '■rije great danger of violating this rule is in writine long compound sentences. In a ,i„p,e .entenof umty ,s secured by its very form, and'in the coT quality. But tlie compound sentence contains two h nori.:";'-:,'!;?^ ''"""'P"' propositions, a„d • , ' "!' ,''*'"'"y to ei-owding. If there he a r^vi°*''M v™""."""''" '•''"»™ ">e propositions, bat if there l,e no inherent connection, the t^ positions should be stated as separate sentenooT^ 90 ENOLISn COMrOSlTlOK. ExAMPLK.— The Britons, daily liarassed by the Picts, were forced to call in tho Saxons for their defence, who, after liaviiijr repelled the invaders, turned their arms agaiiist the Britons themselves, drove them into the most remote and mountainous jiarts of the kingdom, and reduced the greater part of the island under their dominion, so that in tlie course of a century and a half the country became almost wholly Saxon in customs, religion, and lan- guage. Criticism.— In this sentence different events and facts without any close connection are grouped together in such a way as to produce a very confused impression. It should be broken up into at lenst three sentences, thus: «♦ The Britons, daily harassed by the Picts, were forced to call in the Saxons for their defence. These, after having repelled the invaders, turned their arms against the Britons themselves, driving them into the most re- mote and mountainous parts of the kingdom, and reducing the greater part of the island under their dominion. The result was that, in the course of a century and a half, the country became almost wholly Saxon in customs, religion, and language." • Bums Ill.-Iong parentheses in the middle of a sentence •honld be avoided, as interfering with unity of expression. Example.— The quicksilver nines of Idria, in Austria (which were discovered in 1797, by a peas- ant, who, catching some water from a spring, found the tub so heavy that he could not move it, and the bottom covered with a shining substance which turned out to be mercury), yield, every year, over three hundred thousand jjounds of that valuable metal. OK bTYLK. 91 Criticism.— Every pupil will readily gee how de- •tructive to unity is the long pareiithusis. To remedy the fault, romovo thi; matter from the parenthegig, and make it a Heparate «ent«'nce. SZEBCI8B 30. Reconstruct tlie following sentences, bo as to attain unity of aubject : 1. The march of the Greeks was through au unculti- vated country, whose savage inhabitants fared hardly, having no other riches than a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and ansavory, by reason of their continual feeding upon sea- fish. 2. In summer the reindeer feed on various kinds of plants, and seek the highest hills to avoid the gadfly, which at that period deposits its eggs iu their skin, from which cause many of them die. B. Improve the following sentences by removing the connectives, and breaking up each sentence into two or more distinct propositions : 1. There are a great many diiferent kinds of trees, some furnishing us with wood for common purposes, such as flooring for our houses and frames for the windows; while others afford a more beautiful wood, which, when polished, is made into tables and chairs, and various articleg of furniture. 92 !f. KNCJLISH COMPOSITION. 2. At last the conch 8topi>ed, and the driver, opening he door, to d us to get out; which we di^ and ^und ourselves in front of a largo tavern, ^hose bnght and ruddy winouuteous su^ per that smoked upon the board, soon ,nade ua forget the hardships of the long, cold ride. «!' .^'?' ^'"^ ^""'^ '"^" 'li^^ «» the 17th of Septeiuber, im, leaving behind him the mem- ory of many noble actions, and a numerous fam- ily, of whom three were sons; one of them George, the eldest, heir to his father's virtues as well as to his principal estates in Cumberland' and shortly afterwards elected men»ber for thj IZ^'J^'f m'^ ^"^' ^^^^''^' generations .^ turned Hub family to serve in Parliament. II.~CLBARNBSS. 57, Clearness requires that the parts of a sen- tence-words, plu-ases, clauses-should be so arranged as to leave no possibility of doubt as to the writer's meaning. ^titrth^' ' •''' '*''"^' '" *^^ ^'-'^^ consideration with the young composer. It may indeed seem TZTl:' T "^^^ '''" ^-^^^/^»*-^ere ^ me rules for clearness. Rt.f ;* ;„ i,-a.x_ , ., events for beginners, to aim nci so much at bein^ brief or forciblp la uf k«; . "cmg iwrcioie, as at being perspicuous. ON STYLE. 'Xi 58i Tlie faults opposed to clearness are two : 1. Ohsmrity, which leaves us wholly in doubt as to what the meaning is. 2. Amhiguiiy, which leaves us in doubt as to which of two or more meanings is the one in- tended. 59. It is chiefly through the wrong placing of words, phrases, or clauses that clearness is lost. In the English language, which is very deficient in inflections to mark the grammatical relations of words, position is a matter of prime import- ance. Rum l—Words, phrases, and clauses that are closely related Should be placed as near to each other as possible, that their mutual relation xnay clearly appear. Thus— 1. Rome once more ruled over the prostrate nations hy the power of superstition. Criticism.— This sentence is ambiguous, because it may mean, (1) that Rome had at a former time ruled over the nations " by the power of superstition," and now ruled over them a second time by the same power ; (2) that she had formerly ruled over them by some other power, and now did so " by the power of superstition. '» The latter meaning is probably the one intended, and to bring this out the sentence should be arranged as follows: " Rome, by the power of superstition, once more ruled over the prostrate nations." 2. The following lines were written by one who, for more liian ten yeai-s, had been confined in the penitentiary, for his own diversion. !k ater man restore us, and regain the blissful Beat. III. Figures of Language. 70. One of tlie principal means for addino- both strength and beauty to a sentence is the use of figures of speech. 71. Definition.-— Figures of speech are certain modes of expression different from those of or- dinary speech. A word used figuratively is a word used in a sense suggested by tlie imaoina- tion. The four figures of speech most used are— 1. Simile. 2. Metaplior. 4. JMetouyn.y. 5. Synecdoche. 72. Simile and metaphor both express com- parison. In the simile, one object is said to re- «em6^*j another ; and some sign of comparison (a«, like, etc.) stands between tliem. Li the metaphor, an object is spoken of as if it were another, and no sign of comparison is used. A metaphor is an implied simile. Thus— 1. Simile— The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. ON STYLE. 101 MetAphou.— The Assyrian wolf came down on the fold. 2. SiMiLK.— He is like a lion in the fight. Mrtai'hop.— He is a lion in the fight. 73. Melonymy is the use of the name of one object to represent some related object, when tlie relation is not mere resemblance. In this figure correlative terms are interchanged. 1. The effect is sometimes put for the cause : as, Graij hairs [meaning old age'} should be respected. 2. The thing containing is put for the thing contained : as, He drank the fatal cup [meaning the draught in the cup]. 3. The sign is put for the thing g'gnified : as, T^e sceptre [meaning sovereignty] shall not depart from Judab. 4. The author is put for his writings : as. Have you read Milton f [meaning Milton's works]. 74. Synecdoche is the figure which puts a part for the whole : as, " Consider the lilies [that is, flowers in general] how they grow." EXERCISE 33. A. Underline the words expressing simile : 1. Keep me as the apple of thine eye, 2. Grateful persons resemble fertile fields. 3. Homer, like the Nile, pours out his riches with a sudden overflow ; Virgil, like a river in its banks, with a constant stream. ' . • !.: r .0 ^f^H m .s^^H M- -i^^l <£ li^^H 102 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 4. My doctrine shall drop as the rain, ray speech shaU distil as the dew, as tlie small rain upon the ten- der herb, as the dew upon the grass. 6. The broad circumference (of the shield) hung on his shoulders like the moon. 6. Black were her eyes as the berry that grows on the thorn by the wayside. B. Comjpare the following pairs of objects re- spectively, showing their points of resemblance : 1. Food and books. 2. The troubles of a child and an April shower. 3. Life and a battle. 4. Prosperity and sunshine. ■ 5. Heaven and home. * - C. ^ Transpose the following metaphoric expres- sions into the plain form : Example.— He bore away the palm. Changed.— He obtained the prize. 1. He bore away the palm. 2. The clouds of adversity soon pass away. 3. Virtue is a jewel. 4. Choate was one of the brightest luminaries of the - age. 6. She shed a flood of tears. 6. Though his couch was the wayside and his piUow; a stone, he slept sotmd till morning. 7. There is a blush on the cheek of night. D. Underline the metonymus, and then change the figures into plain language : ON STYLE. 103 Flee from the bottle = avoid intoxicating drinks. 1. Flee from the bottle. 2. Have you read Irving ? 3. The country was waited by the sword. 4. The stranger praised the eloquence of our pulpit, bar, and senate. 6. He has a long purse. 6. Death knocks alike at the palace and the cottage. B. Underline the synecdoches, and then convert them into plain language : There are fifty sail in the harbor = There are fifty ships in the harbor. * 1. There are fifty sail in the harbor. 2. All hands take hold. 3. Give us this day our daily bread. 4. The face of the deep is frozen over. 5. My roof shall always shelter you. P. ^ Tell the kind of figure exemplified in each of the following sentences : 1. The sun of liberty is set ; we must now light the candles of industry and economyt 2. Trade, like a restive horse, is not easily managed. 3. Father, thy hand Hath reared these venerable columns ; thou Didst weave this verdant rool 4. Am I a soldier of the cross V 6. The pen is mightier than the sword. 6. Pitt was the pilot who guided the ship of st»«e through a stormy sea. 4', * c i:\ 104 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 8 111 fll'" *''' "^'^^^ ' '^' P^P -^« beaten g;icL 8. All flesh IS gra«8, and all its glory fades Like the fair flower dishevelled in the wind, y. Like a tempest down the ridges Swept the hurricane of steel 10. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. io ^u *'*^*^^ ""^ P"""^® «*^a^s trash. IJ. The hedges are white with May. THKMKS AND KSSAYS. 105 CHAPTER VII. THEMES AND ESSATS. 75. A theme is an exercise in which the sub- ject is treated according to a set of heads method-" ically arranged. In this respect it differs from tbe essay, wherein the writer is at liberty to follow his own inclination as to the arrange- ment of his ideas. Por a systematic exhibit of the Rules of Punctuation, tee page 133. I. The Structure of Paragraphs. 1Q» A paragraph is a connected series of sen- tences relating to the same subject and forming a constituent part of a composition. A composition of any length— even a letter Cunless the very briefest note)— requires a division into paragraphs in order to please the eye and to render the relation of its parts readily intelligible. TJ. There are three qualities to be aimed at in the construction of paragraphs, namely : I. UxiTY ; II. Continuity ; III. Variety. 78. Unity, — In order thq,t a sentence shall possess the quality of unitti, \t is requisite that am M i' fa.-'ll i 106 UNOLIBII COMPOKITIOK. the senten.,.. «omp„»ing it shall relate, each «„d all. to one ,lefl<„U, .ilvi.i.,,, of the subject . Inch they illustrate and explain. "men ^ZTV°"T^-''" "' •"""<""'»'• *'"«"" =• central «<>«i-S^.. destitute of the eseential element rf a paragraph, just a. a sentence made up of .evera! heterogeneous idea, is properly „„ sent^eWe Tt all 79. Oontinnity.-In order that a pavncraph «hal possess the quality of oontinuiff, it tZ qtustte hat the sentences be so stated and : ai w?i -stively from one to the other. The . .iS.r™« of the constituent element, of a .-.ra. graph ., an ewential quality. To this end free Z 80. Variety.-^In order that a paragraph shall possess the quality of .ariet,^ it .s requiS tha uLT A """^ '"''''''''' «^«^1 differ both in length and in structure. I. German writers generally tend to long and In- 1^6 nr^'- ^^^"^' "'*^-«' - the other hand, usually ^^rit. h brief, compact sentences ^^iJ^-t^'"'^^ -^-- a combinltion lorce, the ampler nen-'d* i • Airr^u^ j • •iveiie8s. P^' -^' ^- dignity and, mpre*. THEMES AND ESSATfl. 107 II. " It will be found to be of advantage," ,«.ay,s Dal- gleish, "to make the sentences at the beginning of the paragraph brief. The attention of the reader is thus arrested at the outset, without being sub- jected to any unnec'casary strain. A longer sen- tence thai' usupI, gathering up the various threads of tJjought, has its appropriate place at the close. 81. The three qualities of a well-constructed paragraph are exemplified in the following from' Addison and Macau) ay : I. From ADmsoN. [The theme) : A man of polite imaginati.in is let into a great m.-vny pl.^asures that the vukrar are not ca- pable of receiving. (First illustrniion) : He can converse with a picture, and find an agreeable companion in a statue. (Second illuMmtlnn) ■ He meets with a secret refreshment in a description and often feels a gi-eater satisfaction in the pros- pect of fields and meadows than another does in the possession of thera. ( Third illustration, partly repetitxonary) : Jt gives him a kind of property in • everything he sees, and makes the most rude un- cultivated part; of nature administer to his pleas- ures ^rhe theme repeated) : So that he looks on the world in another light, and discovers in it a multitude of charms that conceal themselves from the generality of mmkind.-Pleasures of hnaaina- tton. '' '' II. From Macaui.ay. It is by his essays that Bacon is best known to the multitude. The Novum Organum and Li,e De ' . Auffment^s are much talked of, but little read .^' ENGLISH COMPOSITION. They have produced, indeed, a vast effect upon the opinions of mankind; but they have produced it through the operation of intermediate agents Ihey have moved the intellects which have moved the world. It is in the essays alone that the mind of Badon is brought into immediate contact with the nands of ordinary readers. There he opens an exoteric school, and talks to plain men in lan-^ guage which everybody understands, about thino-g m winch everybody is interested. He has thCs enabled those whe must otherwise have taken his merits on trust to judge for themselves ; and the great body of readers have, during several genera- tions, acknowledged that the man who has treated withsuch consummate ability questions with which they are familiar, may well be supposed to deserve all the praise bestowed on him by those who have sat 111 the inner school-Essay on Bacon. II. Themes. FIRST METHOD I. INTKODUCTION : Make a fe^v preliminary remarks applicable to the subject. II. Definition : State the subject distinctly, and, It necessary, explain it by a formal defini- tion, a paraphrase, or a description. ^ III. Origin: Explain the origin of the su{>. *'":"', "^ "^'^^^ ^^^^ pnncipies upon which its origin may be accounted for. IV. Progress; Give an account of the do- THEMES AND ESSAYS. 109 velopment of the subject from its origin to the present time. y. Present Condition : Describe the sub- ject as it is now in operation. VI. Effects: Show the influence of the subject upon society, and the relation in which It stands to kindred subjects. VII. Conclusion: Conclude with such re^ marks or reflections, apposite to the subject, as could not have been conveniently introduced under any of the previous heads. Write themes on the following subjects: 1. The Art of Printing : INTRODUCTION.-Necessity for diffusion of knowl- edge-means for this end in ancient times-their inefficiency— ouf great means. . DKFiNiTioN.-Printing-what it is. ORiGiN.-First attempts in the art-their deficiency -the inventor of modern printing-story of Faust and Gutenberg-first printed book. PROGRE88.-Its introduction into England-into America-application of steam to printing. nnr' CoNDiTiON-Extent to which printing is now applied. ^ Effects -Effecte of this invention on the condi- tion of the world as regards knowledge and the moral improvement of men. Conclusion. — dnri aoiri ht^l ^.y.-.^ . ,. , . - -"'^f -Licu uiure oe iiglit, and tiiere was light "-so printing diffuses, etc. -J. Agriculture:* '^11 d 1 '« 110 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. The various sources of subsistence which God has put in man's power— agriculture— what is meant by It— its antiquity— Scripture proof— how it has been estimated by various nations— its progress not so rapid as that of some other ai l;s— war its special enemy— its present advanced position- effects on the condition of man shown by consid- ering his state without it— its connection with civilization— real dignity and independence of the farmer's life. 8. Nkwspapeks: One of the many advantages of printing— news- papers as a branch of the periodical press— date, country, and circumstances of their origin— feeling that gave them birth— what contributed to their spread— introduction into the United States— their present universality— process of printing news- papers—illustrate by a newspaper in your town— their effects— contributions iio freedom, justice, humanity, the promotion of general intelligence- influence on literary taste— possible abuse of their mflueuce— advantages derived from reading news- papers-different position of the ancients and moderns in this respect-duty of a modern citizen with regard to them. 4. The Telescope : Feebleness of our senses compared with the extent of the universe around as— value of any invention that extends their range— the telescope— what it is— how it acts— its different parts— author of the ' invention— defects of the firat telescope— causes— by what successive improvements removed— au- thors of these improvements— the two most famous telescopes— the one of the last century— what it achieved— the other— difficulties of its construe- THEMES AND ESSAYS. Ill tion— its achievements—uses of the telescope for astronomical and nautical purposes— illustrate both—general extension of our knowledge of the system of the universe— enlarged ideas of the Creator. 6. Music : Meaning of the term, and the considerations involved in it—its first development in melody— what are the two constituents of this— show that they are^ implanted in our nature, and manifest themselves sponuneously- music, then, as the expression of feeling, has its foundation in the constitution of our nature— what is harmony— belongs to an ad- vanced stage of musical cultivation— different kinds of music— its antiquity naturally to be in- ferred—earliest record of it— chief musical nations of antiquity— Hebrew music— Greek music— with what intimately connected— extent of our knowl- edge of ancient music— early use of ^usic. SECOITD METHOD. I. Introduction : Make a few preliminary remarks applicable to the subject. II. Definition: State the object distinctly, and, if necessary, explain it by a formal defini- tion or a description. III. Nature: Give such an account of the subject as may serve to determine its character. IV. Operation and Effects: How the subject is manifested, and in what manner it affects the individual or society. w Hi in 112 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. non ot the subject. VI. ApPLicATroK: Show what our duty is w.th refereuce to the subject, and how we mar pioht by au examiuation of it. 1. FitiBNosmp: Instinctive aversion of our nature to solitude and Its a3soczatK)«..i-the mere presence of our fellow- men gives cheerful..ess~how much more friend- ship-what is^true friendship, and what is included in it-acquaintance not friendship-distinguish it from Its counterfeits-its characteristicsAt is rare like everything of tiue value-it is limited m Its objects, i. e., we canndt have a great many true friends-it is unselfish-its effects-it largely contributes to the happiness of the world by the sympathy and aid which it offers-reference to this in >cnpture-it purifies and elevates the nature of him who cherishes it-ardor which may pervade i^-example from history: David and Jonathan, Damon and Pythias, Achilles and Pa- troclus, Douglas and Randolph, Wallace and Gra- ham-apphcation-advantage of cultivating it- necessity of caution in selecting friends, from its ^ great influence on our character and prospects- constancy in friendship when once entered into. 2. Ambition : Some of the passions commonly condemned are im- pkmted in man for good ends-mention instanc-s and show their propriety— ambition one of these-- not necessarily bad— define it in its good sense— the end it seeks to attain— the means it will em- ploy-its beneficial operation, both on the subject of It, as involving the exertion and expansion of THEMFiS AND KS8AY8. 113 his faculties, and as raising him to a higher sphere of influence and happiness— and orf mankind as experiencing the happy results of all this— extent of its benefits from the universality of its opera- tion—every man in every occupation who has raised himself to eminence an exami)le of it- ambition in its bad sense— its characteristics; for example, its exclusiveness and consequent in- humanity—its unscrupulousness, insatiableness— . show how these necessarily spring out of it— its effects— makes the subject of it the unhappy prey of contending passions, and withdraws him from the true end of his being— its effects on the world —endless misery, mental, moral, and physical- examples from civil and ecclesiastical history— Cajsar, Alexander, Pyrrhus, Sextus, V., Wolsey, Henry VII I.— the hollo wness of its attainments often reluctantly testified to by conscience— anec- dotes of Napoleon— practical inferences from the foregoing. m III. Essays. Write essays from the following outlines: 1. On Cruelty to Animals : a. The obligations of man to the lower animals— the ingratitude of maltreating his benefactors. b. The goodness of God in providing these animals for our usb, and in giving man " dominion over them"— the injustice or immorality of abusing God's gifts, and of violating the trust which that "dominion " implies. c. The duty of caring for the helpless, of being kind to the dumb— the cowardice of taking advantage of their helplessness and inability to plead their own cause. 8 ^-ii^ ^n ' li* ^^^ ENGLISH COMPOSITION. d.The hardening effect upon the heart and affec tions ^f systematic ill-treatment of dumb animals —the mtelhgencethat can be developed in them— the pleasure derivable from their companionship- the fidehty and love with which they are capable of rewarding their benefactors. 2. On Foreign Travel : a. Solitude often produces selfishness-men's sympa- thies expand the more the more they n.ix with their fellows-thc men of a small circle and lim- ited experience are narrowest and most bigoted in • their views. i. Men who know no country but their own are apt to be filled with national prejudices, to underrate other countries-travel removes those prejudines expands the intellect, increases our knowledge of men and things, shows us nature and art under different circumstances, makes us less vain, and more charitable. 8. A Summer Morning : a. Pleasure of being alone with nature-iu early morning the bustle of the day's work does not yet distract us— only so much of human activity as to lead to meditation instead of disturbing it. b. Beauty of the scene on a fine summer morning- clear atmosphere— familiar scenes appear in a ilew . light— dewy fragrance of flowers and leaves- music of birds— (name some in illustration). c. Ample reasoji for the common belief that it is good to be up betimes— morning air fresh and exh|larating-after night's repose the temper is call.! and unruified- disposed for cheeiful contem- plation— a wholesome introduction to tl»e work of the day. THEMES AND ESSAYS. 115 d. Such pleasure may be commended with all con- fidence—its experience not attended* with loss or regret— on the contrary, leaves no impressions but such as are healthful and gratifying. 4. A Tastk for Rkadixg: a. Variety of work requires variety of recreation- contrast the cases of mental and of manual labor —one resource always available is the taste for reading. "* ^ b. Eminently a rational recreation— furnishes the mmd with substantial ideas and eloquent images —drives away listlessness— excludes temptation- lightens labor. c. Reading not only gives occupation, but introduces a man into the choicest friendships— the wisest, the best, and the worthiest of all time: this society is ennobling. * d. All may find in reading something to suit their taste— instruction, incident, adventure, scenes from nature and from human life— to increase the store of knowledge, stimulate imagination, nurify the sentiments. e. A source of happiness to others as well as to one's self— prompts and enriches conversation. /. What a great Fvench writer (Montesquieu) has said, " He had never known any cares that were not lightened by an hour's reading "-experience of all who have the taste. 6. On the Advantages of a Good Education : a. Men of " education " in its limited or school sense —Its more enlarged meaning : the development of all our faculities, and the formation of character. ft. Fortune may be left to us by our parents or rel- atives ; but education must be acquired by our- Vm if'i 116 ENGLISH C0MP081TI<»N. selves, or wo must lack it forever— fortune may be acquired at an advanced time of life ; if education is neglected in youth, uliuost impossible to make it up. c. Education to be gained by work— anecdote : when Dionysius, the tyrant of Syniouso, wanted Archi- medus to instruct him in geometry by an easier method than common, the philosopher replied, '♦ I know of no royal road to geometry." d. It is to education that men owe the superiority they liave over their fellow-creatures, more than to any advantages of nature— many persons would have risen high, had they been educated— fine illustration from Gray's Elegy: But knowledge to their eyes her ample page, Rich with the spoils of time, did ne'er unroll • Chill penury repress'd th^ir noble rage, And froze the genial current of the soul. Full many a gem of purest ray serene. The dark un fathomed oaves of ocean bear : Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 6. On Method in Daily Life : a. Enables us to do more work, and better work in less time. h. The proper division of time will do for the in- dividual what the division of labor does for the community. c. Much time is wasted in thinking what we are to do next ; much by not taking our duties in a proper succession (illustration), as if a letter-carrier were to take out his letters in a general heap, and deliver them just as the addresses turned up. d. Show how organization is applicable to various 1 1 1: li 1^ W li u IS THEMES AND ESSAYS 117 occupations and pursuits; to daily business ; to the weekly round of duties ; to amusements ; to travel- ling; to associations of men for ail purposes, as churches, insurance companies, railroads, public libraries, etc. e. The greater comfort and happiness arising from doing work methodically, thoroughly, and well. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS FOR ESSATB. 1. The Microscope. 2. The Art of Writing. 3. Never too Late to Learn. 4. The Cotton Manufac- ture. 5. The Silk Manufacture. 6. Necessity is the Mother of Invention. 7. Politeness. 8. Independence. 9. Self-denial. 10. Example is Better than Precept. 11. Desei-ve Success, and you will Command it. 12. Recollections of Early Childhood. 13. Making the Best of Things. 14. Value of Time. 15. Industry. 16. Power of Custom. 17. Importance of Trifles. 18. Love of Fame. 19. Conscience. ot 20. Intemperance. 21. True Greatness. 22. Truth. 23. Heroism. 24. Good and Evil War. 25. Reading of History. 26. Avarice. 27. Uses of Rain. 28. Good and Evil of Novel- reading. 29. Uses of Adversity. 30. Power of Fashion. 31. True Happiness. 32 Extravagance. 33. Modesty. 34. Party Spirit. 35. Division of Labor. 36. Female Suffrage. 37. The Cultivation of the Memory. 38. The Pleasures of Aati- cipation. 39. Amusements. 40. National Costumes. ■ aiil ii'l 118 ' ENGLISH COMPOSITION. CHAPTER VIII. PROSOD7 AND VERSITICATIOW O many are the poets that are sown By nature, men endowed with highest gifts, The vision and the faculty divine; Yet wanting the accomplishment of verse, Which, in th6 docile .°cason of their youth, It was denied them to acquire, through lack Of culture, and the inspiring aid of books.— PTord!*. worth. I. Definitions. 82, Prosody* is that division of rhetoric which treats of versification^ or the art of composing poetic verse. 83, Verse is that species of composition in which the words are arranged in lines contain- ing a definite number and succession of accented and unaccented syllables : as — The mel' | -anchol' J -y days' | are come', J the sad' | -dest of I the year' ; • The term " prosody," from the Qreeln proaodia (pros, to, and otO^ a song), literally Bignifies a Bong Bung to or with an accompanying long, the accent accompanying the pronanciation. rd»^ Lch llg m iii- >ed est ing PROSODY ANI» VKUdlFICATIO.V. 1 HJ Of wail' I -ing winds' | a.nl ,.a' | -k«,l woo.ls', | and n»ea.l' I -OW8 brown' | and soar'. I. Verse (Latin vertere, to turn) is m called because when a line is complotod the writr,r lurnn hack and begins another. Verse is the natural forniassumud by poetry, which is defined by Milton as "the simple, sensuous, and passionatM utterance of feel- mg and thought." n. Verne in its restricted sense signiiies a single line of peetry. A number of lines forming a division ^ of a poem constitutes a ^^ansra : this usually con- sists of groups of four, six, or eight lines.» 84. Verse is of two kinds— r%me and blank verse. 85. Bhyme is that spec-es of verse in which is touna correspondence of sound in two or more verses, one succeeding another immediately or at no great distance : thus— , All are but parts of one harmonious whole Whose body nature is, and God, the soul. I. Lines ending like those above are called rhymes. Two^hnes rhyming form a couplet; three, a II. To constitute a "perfect rhyme " it is necessary (1) that the syllables should be accented; (2) t.iat the sound of the vowel and of the le t r fo leaving the vowel should be the same ; and (3) that the sound of the letters preceding the vowel should be different. Thus ring andsJ and love and above, are perfect rhvmes^: Z^r and car, love and move, are not perfect. How- *SoiiuUmefl the irord"TflnM"iB hmj « hjimu. "• " ""'"<>"<»»«», MPMIIUI, to * «■: Ifr 120 CKGt ISII COMrOSITrON. ev^r, the number of words in tlie English lan- guage which form perfect rhymes is so limited that many slight deviations are sanctioned, and are terr.ted allotoab/e rhymes. III. Rhymes are single: as, plain, grain ; double : as, glo-ry, sto-ry; or triple: as, read-i-ly, stead-i-ly. In double and triple rhymes the last syllables are unaccented, being mere appendages to the true rhyming sound. IV. Sometimes there is a rhyme betweeh half lines : as — Once upon a midnight dreat-y, while I pondered, weak and iceari/j Over many a quaint and curious volume of for- gotten lore. — Poe. 86, Blank verse consists of unrhymed lines : as — Now came still evening on, and twilight gray Ha;d in her sober livery all things clad ; Silence accompanied; for beast and bird. They to their grassy couch, these to their nests, Were slunk, all but the wakeful nightingale ; She all night long her amorous descant aaag.-^MUton, II. Rhythm and Poetic Feet. I.-RHYTHM. 87, Ehythm is the recurrence of stress, or accent, at regular intervals of duration. It is from rhi/thm that English verse derives its char- acter. 1. There is an essential diiference between English and classical versification; for while English PROSODr AND VERSIFICATION. J 21 Terse depends on accent, Greek and Latin verse ^as constructed principally according to the -' The amphibrach first short, second long, third short, The tribrach . three short, >^ ^ w III. Kinds of Veesb. as I.— CLASSIFICATION. 90i Vei«e is named according to two char- acteristics : namely — 1. According to the kind ot foot prevailing in aline. 2. According to the number of feet contained in a line. 91. From Kind. — A line in which iambuses prevail is cg^lled an iambic line ; that in which trochees prevail, a trochaic ; that in which ana- pests, an anapestic ; and that in which dactyls, a dactylic. Often in the case of the trochaic and dactylic meas- ures, in which tlie accent falls on tiie first syllable, the last foot is shortened by the omission of the unaccented part. On the other hand, the iambic measm'e, in which the accent is on the last sylla- ble, may be supplemented at the end by an addi- tional unaccented syllable forming no part of any new foot. When a syllable is wanting, the line is denominated catalectk ; when there is a redundant hypermeter (excessive) : thus — (Catalectic) — Life is (Hypermeter}— So o but au I empty | dream .... -ver vi | -olent | and o | -ver dv ] -il. m m i' Mi; I ■"i ^ 124 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 92. From N\mheT,—Monometer is a line of one foot ; dimeter, of two feet ; trimeter, of three feet; tetrameter, of four feet ; pentameter, of five feet; hexameter, of «ix feet; heptameter, ot seven feet ; odometer, of eiglit feet The combination of kind of foot with number of feet gives rise to such designations as iambic mo- nometer ^ambic dimeter-, etc.; trochaic mommeter, trochaic dimeter, etc. H.—IAMBIC VERSB. 93. In iambic verse the accent is placed upon the second syllable, the fourth, etc. Of all the measures, the iambic is the on^ the most easily kept up : it is, therefore, in very "common u.e, and IS peculiarly adapted for long poems. Monometer. . . . H8w bright The hght I Dimeter. ....... To me.| the ros^ NO long j -er glows. '^'^^^^ Thy tooth I Is not | sC keen.' Because pthOu art | nCt seen. Tetrameter . . . .That nien | „,fty n^e | ?n step | -pi„g sfelnes Of tlieir I dead selves | to high | -er things Pentameter . . . . Tli6 ser I -vice past | around | the pi | .Qua mail, With read | -y zeal | each hon | -est rus I -tic ran. . • Hexameter. ... F6r thnn I Urt y^ix* \ m ^,-,„* i v- ».«- . . . and I be wise. Heptameter....Th« mel | -anchol | -y days | have cf«ne | the n^. X I -dCst of I the .year. PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 125 NOTES ON THE IAMBIC METRES. I. The iambic metres of a single foot (monometer) and two feet (dirmter) are too short to be continued through any great number of lines, but aa individual lines they ure met with in stanzas. (Trimeter) la this | a fast | tQ keep (Dimeter) thyiar | -d6r lean (Monometer) and clean ( Tnm^ter) FrOm fat | -ty meats 1 and sheep ? ir. The iambic trimeter is rarely used by itself, but is often found in connection with tetrameters. These two alternating, an^- with divers unions of rhymes, form the most common of lyrical measures. (In hymns it forms the common m£tre stanza.*) Thtls fares | It still | In our | dScay ; Xnd yet | thg wis ( -6r mind , . Mourns less for what age takes away, Thau what it leaves behind. The iambic tetrameter is also largely used uncombined ; it is the metre of most of Sir Walter Scott's works. Ill, Iambic pentameter is the "heroic measure" of English poetry, h. its rhymed form it is the measure of Chaucer and Spenser, of Dryden and Pope, of Campbell and Byron: thus— Trfle ease | In writ | -Ing comes j frOm art, | not chance, As those move easiest who have learned to dance. In its unrhymed form the iambic pentameter is the stately blank verse of Milton aud Wordsworth, t rv. The iambic hexameter is commonly called the Alexandrine measure ; it is used sparingly and in combination with other measures. The iambic heptameter is now generally divided into alternate lines of four and of three feet, forming " common metre," Odometer, also, is usually written as two tetrameters, thus forming " long metre," V. Each siiecies of iambic verse may have one additional short syllable, which is redundant, thus forming iambic hypermeters. •In the "short metre" stanza the fii-st, second, and fourth lines contain three iambic feet ; the third contains four. t Four lines of iambic pentameter rhyming alternately form tha elegiac stanza lead it by the nose. 2. As my heart was entirely subdued by tlie •aptivating strains I had heard, I fell down at his feet. X. Adjective clauses arc set off from the words they modify by comriias, except when ihey are restrictive : as — 1. Franklin, wlio became a great statesman and pfeilosopheri. was in youth a poor prii > t er's boy. 2. The friar pointed to the book that he held. XI. Parenthetical clauses are to be set off by comma*: as — The project, it ia certain, will succeed. ' XII. The members of a compound sentence, whether full or contracted, are generally set oft" by commas, and always when there are more than two : as — 1. On these trees they placed large atones, and then covered the whole with damp earth. 2. The rich and the poor, the high and the low, the old and the young, were alike subjected to the VQiiggauce of the con- queror. ir. 136 APPENDIX. XIII. In contracted compound sentences, the omissions within the propositions are indicated by commas: as— To err is human ; to forgive, divine. XIV. The comma may be used in introducing a quo- tation not sufficiently formal to be introduced bv the colon : as — Lawrence said, "Don't give up the ship." XV. The words as, namely, and to wit, intioducing an example, is generally followed by a comma : as— There are three cases ; namely, the nominative, possesBive, and objective. " XVI. Yes and no, when followed by a word of address, should be set off by the comma: as— No, sir. Xyil. The introductory words, Voted, Resolved, Or- dered, should be followed by a comma : ag^ Voted, To appoint Mr. WilUam Rich commiBsioner. The Semicolon. The members of a compound sentence, which are themselves subdivided by commas, are separated by the semicolon : as — 1. When Columbus had landed, he prostrated himself: nnd having erected a crucilix, he took possession of the country in the name of Spain. ' 2. You may quit the field of business, though not the field of i:^frurour'^"*' '^'^ ^"""^^ ^^^ «^«' ^^^ -*y -- *<> The Colon. I. When a compound sentence contains a series of dis- tinct propositions, and concludes with a member on which SlIMMARX OF PUNCTUATION. 137 they all depend, that member is preceded by a colon : as — That the diamond should be made of the same material as coal ; that water slionUl bo chiefly composed of an inflammable substance ; that acids should be almost all formed of diller- ent kinds of air ; and that one of those acids, whose strength can dissolve almost any of the metals, should be made of the self-same ingredients with the common air we breathe : these, surely, are things to excite the wonder of any reflect- ing mind. II. A direct and formal method of introducing a quo- tation should be followed by a colon. By the direct and formal method of introducing a quotation is meant the use of such expressions as ihe following^ as follows^ these : as — Governor Dix made the following statement : " Our finances are in a sound condition." III. In a compound sentence, when the iutroductoiy member is followed by some remark or illustration that is not introduced by a conjunction, it is sepa ated by a colon : as — No man should be too positive : the V'sest are often deceived. IV. The connectives to wit, namely, and as, introducing an example, are generally preceded by the colon : as — There are three cases : namely, the nominative, possessive, and objective. V. Yes and no should be followed by the colon when there comes after them a statement in continuation or repetition of the answer : as — Is it wise to live beyond our means ? No : it is not wise. Th?: Period. -I. A period should close every declarative sentence (affirmative or negative), and also most imperative aeu- t^nces. 138 APPENplX>- n. A period is used after every abbreviation ; as— O. WMhlngton. C. O. D, m. A period is used after a title or heading, and after an address and a signature : as MUton'8 Paradise Lost. Cbapter UI. A. T. Stewart, Broad- way, New York. The Interrogation-Poikt. The interrogation-point is placed after every direct question: as — "Who will be ihe next President? Th^ Exclamation-Poikt. The exclamation-point is placed after words and sen- tences that express some emotion: as— - Alas I Bow are the mighty fallen I The Apostrophe.— Hyphen.— -Caret. I. The apostrophe denotes the omission of a letter or letters: as — Thers's » There is; King's » KIngea (Old English). ir. The hyphen is often used in separating the parts of compound words : as, steam-engine; also at the end of a line to show that a word is not completed. m. The caret (A) ia used to indicate that one or more letters or words have been omitted and afterwards inter- lined. The Dash. 1. The dash m wupA fn vnavir fi.o+ n^i^'.i- -,-..--_ -j»i.- if a statement of the particulars of what has gone before: We caaght foo;- fl«h-a trout, a salmon, a mackerel, and a Uue-flBhi » « " EXPLANATION OF TKRMB. 139 liter roacU rect also, to mark that what comes after it is a general state- ment, or summing up of particulars preceding it: as — He was witty, learned, industrious, ipla\i6ihle— everything but honest. II. Bashes are sometimes used instead of the usual signs of parenthesis, to enclose parenthetical expressions: as — ^ The smile of a cliild— always so ready where there is no dls- tress— is like an opening of the sky. ^'^ III. The dash, is used to mark an abrupt or unexpected tjirn in a sentence : as — And one— o'er 1 Its leaves, by 5 myrtle showen ds fanned. en- or The Paeenthesis. The parenthesis is used to enclose some explanatory word or phrase introduced into the middle of a sentence, but entirely independent in construction : as — 1. The vapor of water (steam) upon cooling becomes a liquid. 2. The bliss of man (could pride that blessing find) Is not to act or think beyond mankind. rts of )re er- ic •e: i « B. EXPLANATION OF TERMS. Allegory (Greek 'alios, other, and agoreuein, to speak in the assembly). A narrative representing objects and events that are intended to be symbolical of other objects muxx \j\-^liva UarlUg a iiivia,k ur spiJLlLUUi CilUriUClier. 1118 Pilgrim's Progress, by John Bunyan, is a weil-known ex- ample. In it the spiritual life or progress of the Chris- tian is represented in detail by the story of a pilgrim on ft journey to a distant country, which he reaches after Ir.U I 140 APPENDIX. many struggles and difficulties. Other examples: Spen- ser's FaiVy Queen, Thomson's Castle of Indolence, Swift's Tale of a Tub and Travels of Gulliver. Alliteration (Latin ad, to, and littera, a letter), ^he device of beginning successive words with the same initial letter: as — Up the high hill he heaved a huge round stone.— Pope. It formed the distinctive mark of the oldest English poe- try. ^ It is used occusionally for effect by modern authors; but its frequent introduction savors of affectation. Ambiguity (Latin amhiguus, from amhigere, to wander about with irresolute mind). A double meaning involved in the construction of a sentence: as, «'John promised his father never to abandon his friends." It is impos- sible to decide whose friends are meant, whether those of John or of his father. Analogy (Greek ana, according to, and logos, ratio, proportion). A similarity of relationship— not a direct, resemblance of things themselves, but of the relations they hold to some third thing. Thus there is an analogy between an egg and a seed. Not that the two things are alike ; but there is a similarity between the relation which an egg bears to the parent bird and to her future nestling, • and the relation which a seed bears to the old and to the young plant, and this resemblance is an analogy. Anticlimax. A climax is the arranging of the terms or particulars of a sentence or other portions of discoui-se, 80 as to rise in strength to the last. An anticlimax is a D^.^lu^.^u•^o iii ?. iiiuix t.Qc xuuiis suuuKniy oecome less digni- fied at the close. Thus, Hawthorne speaks of a custom which he intended to ridicule as " befitting the Christian, the good citizen, and the horticulturist.^' EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 141 Antlth'eais (Greek anti, against, and tithemi, to place). A contrast of words or ideas in successive clauses or sen- tences. Thus: "In the plant the clock is wound up, in the animal it runs down. In the plant the atoms are sejv arated, in the animal they recombine." Used judiciously, antithesis is a great beauty, but it may be carried too far. Macaulay has been blamed for an excessive use of this form of expression. Apos'tro-phe (Greek apo, away, and strephein, to turn). A figure of language in which the speaker turns aside from the natural course of his ideas to address the absent or the dead, as if they were present. Thus- Glorious Washington, break the long silence of that votivo canvas : speak, speak, marble lips ; teach us the love of liberty protected by law.— Edward Everett. Bur-lesque' (French, from Italian burlare, to ridicule) consists in using high-sounding epithets and an apparently dignified style to describe unworthy or unimportant ob- jects. Thus — Then flashed the lurid lightning from her eyes. And screams of horror rend the affrighted skies : Not louder shrieks to pitying Heaven are cast, When husbands and when lap-dogs breathe their last.— Pope Circumlocution (Latin circum, around, and loqui, to speak). A roundabout way of expressing a simple idea. It may be resorted to with an object, as in what is called " euphemism," or the mode of softening a harsh or too direct and literal expression. But unless justified in this way, circumlocution is to be avoided as enfeebling one's style. Climax (Greek klimax, a ladder or staircase) consists in so arranging the words of a series, or the parts of a I 142 APPENDIX. sentence, that the least impressive shall stand first, and the successive words or parts grow in strength. Thus— It Is an outrage to bind a Boman citizen; to acmrge him Is an atroclouB crime ; to put him to d^ath Is almost a parricide ; but to OBuoiPY Ixim-what shall I call It ?-Cicero. Comparison (Latin compar, like ot equal to another). An extended or elaborate simile. Not every statement of mere resemblance constitutes a simile. When objects are compared ir respect of quantity or degree, or to see how they differ, there is no simile. Thus, if we should say that " Emily is like her mother," this would be no simile. It is only when the object of the comparison is to trace internal resemblahce that a comparison becomes a figure of similitude. Thus— ^ Trade, like a restive horse, Is not easily managed : where one Is carried to the end of a successful journey, many are thrown off by the way. Diction (Latin dicere, to speak). The element of style that has reference 'to the words employed by a writer or speaker. Epigram (Greek epi, upon, and graphein to write). A short, pointed, or witty saying, the true sense of which is different from that which appears on the surface. It involves a hidden meaning which contradicts that which is expressed, and the force of epigram lies in the pleasant surprise attendant upon the perception of the real mean- ing. It is an epigi-am to say that " solitude sometimes is best society." Taken Uterally, this is an absurdity ; yet it is a forcible way of saying that the pleasures of sol- itude are greater than those derived from ungenial com- Danionship. Tn a. Inniw xuatr ani,jr'"r> i" '^.r^^i^aJ ^- witty, pointed saying. Bu'phe-mism (Greek eu, well, and phemi, to speak). An allowable circumlocution used to soften a harsh or EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 143 direct way of putting a, thing. Thus : *' Your statement is not quite consistent with truth " is a euphemism for " You are telling a lie." Buphouy (Greek eu, and pkoni, well-sounding). Agi'ee- able effect produced on the ear by the sounds of words — their sounds consiuered independently of any meaning the words may have. -/ Exor'dium (Latin ex, out of, and ordiri, to weave a web). The introductory part of an oration. Its object is to render the hearers well-disposed, attentive, and open to persuasion. Fable. A fictitious story^ in itself improbable, gen- erally impossible, but neverLhele&j conveying or illustra- ting some moral instruction, or some opinion. It differs from an allegory, first, in being improbable and necessa- rily fictitious; and, second, in conveying generally one simple moral lesson, without exhibiting numerous points of similarity as the allegory does. Tl*e famous produc- tions known as the Fables of ^sop are the- best illus- tration. Hezam'eter (Greek hex, six, and metron, a measure). A verse consisting of six feet or measures. In this spe- cies of vorse are composed the Iliad of Homer and the uEneid of Virgil. The feet of classic verse were measured according to quantity, of English verse according to accent. The following are h j -ameter lines : Strongly it | bears ns a | -long on | swelling and | limitless | bil- lows, Nothing be | -fore and | nothing be | -hind but the | sky and the | ocean. Humor. A quality easy to feel but hard to define, and of which ihe best realization will be obtained by 144 ^ APPENDIX. reading the writings of such men as Cervantes (Don Quixote), Sterne, Sydney Smith, Charles Lamb, Hood, Irving, and Holmes. It is not the same thing as " wit." Hyper'bo-le (Greek hyperhoU, overshooting). An ex- aggeration of the literal truth, so as to make a statement more impressive. The following contains an example oi. hyperbole : A rescued land Sent up a shout of victory from the field, That rocked her ancient mountains. It is much used in poetry and in oratory; also in common conversation. But it should be used sparingly, for, lil ^ other spices, if excessive, it becomes disagreeable. Innuen'do (Latin innuere, to give a nod). A form of allusion, in which a thing, instead of being plainly stated, is suggested or implied' merely. It is particularly efEect- ive in vituperation. The thing is said, and yet said so that the vituperated person cannot lay hold of it in the way of ref utatio^or retort. Fuller's saying on Camden the antiquarian is a witty innundo: " He had a number of coins of the Roman emperors, and a good many more of the later English kings " (that is, he was rich). Irony (Greek eiron, a dissemble^) means the contrary of what is expressed, there being something in the tone or manner to show the real drift of the speaker ; as in Job's address to his friends: " No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom will die with you." It professes be- lief in a statement for the purpose of casting ridicule upon it. It bestows praise in such a manner as to convey disapprobation. And Brutus is an Aonora&^ man I Johnsonian Style. Writings in which long and son- orou terms and elaborately balanced periods abound. EXPLANATION OP TERMS. 145 So called from the character of the productions of Dr. Samuel Johnson, an English writer of the last century. Macaulay, criticising Johnson's style, says: " When he talked, he clothed his wit and his sense in forcible and natural expressions. As soon as he took his pen in hand to write for the public, his style became systematically vicious. All his books are written in a learned language — in a language which nobody hears from his mother or his nurse— in a language in which nobody ever quarrels^ or drives bargains, or makes love — in a language in which nobody ever thinks. It is clear that Johnson himself did not think in the dialect in which he wrote." Li'to-tes (Greek litos, plain, simple) is precisely the reverse of hyperbole. It is a form of thought by which, in seeming to lessen, we actually increase the force of an expression. Thus when we say, " These are not the words of a child," we mean, "These are the words of a wise man." *' I cannot eulogize such a man," means, perhaps, " I despise him." Metaphor (Greek meta, beyond, and pherein, to bear). One of the figures of speech — an implied comparison ; whereas an expressed comparison is called a simile. Example: "Thy word is a lamp to my feet." Mixing metaphors is combining in one sentence two inconsistent metaphors on the same subject: as — I bridle in my Btniggling muse with pain, That longB to launch into a nobler %tTS.\n.— Addison. Me-ton'jmy (Greek meta, indicating change, and onoma, a name). A figure of speech in which one word is used for another when the things denoted have some other relation than that of resemblance. The principal kinds of metonymy are set forth in page 101. 1% 146 APPENDIX. Obsolete Words. Such as no longer belong to th« current speech. They are soraeiimes effective *n poetiy, but should not be used in ordinary prose composition. Their employment is as much out of place as would be the wearing the knee-breeches and powdered wigs of our ancestors. " I wot that he gave his artillery unto the knave/' meant, in the seventeenth century, « I knew tliat he gave his bow and arrows to the attendant : " but we should not know that it meant that without the use of a glossary. Ono-mat-o-pcs'ia (Greek onoma, a name, and poieluy to make). The ; name given to that figure of speech in which the very sound of the word is an imitation of the word—" the sound an echo of the sense . " Like our harsh, northern wJiistUng, grunting guUural, Which we're obliged to hiss, and spit, and sputter all.— Byron. Par'ody (Greek para, beside, and ode, a song). A composition similar in sound to another, and yet convey- ing an entirely different meaning. It is always designed to have a ludicrous effect. He thought, as he hoUowed his narrow bed, And punched up hia meagre pillow, How the foe and the stranger should tread o'er his head, As he sped on his way o'er the billow. This verse is a parody of a stanza in the « Burial of Sir John Moore," beginning We thought, as we hollowed his narrow bed, etc. Paronoma'sia (Greek para, beside, and onomazein, to name). A pun or play on words. Fa'thos ( Greek pa^os, feeling). That which touches the tender chord in our nature— a sympathetic pain not wnolly without pleasure. Dickens's description of the death of Little Nell, in the Old Curiosity ,^op, is a fin© EXPLANATION OP TERMS. 147 instance. The Bible also abounds in pathos. If not managed with great skill, this quality is likely to de- generate into mawkishuGss and sentimentality. Period (Greek /»er/, around, and odo/t^s^ way). A sen- tence ill which the complete sense is suspended until the close. It is contrasted with the loose sentence in which the principal predicate is followed by explanatory phrasea or clauses, which may be omitted and still leave the sen- tence a complete sentence. '" Peroration (Latin per, through, and orare, to speak). The conclusion of an oration. Personification. That figure of language by which the lower animals and inanimate objects are represented as endowed with the powers of human beings, especially with speech : as, " /am glad," answered the Bee, "to hear you grant, at least, that Jeame honestly by my wings and my voice." Perspicuity (Latin per and specere, that which maybe ' seen through, transparent). The quality of style by which a writer's meaning is rendered clear and intelligible. It is opposed to obscurity, ambiguity, etc., and is the first requisite of good writing. Ple'onasm (Greek pleos, full). An allowable redund- ancy. " I cried to the Lord with my voice." The phrase '' with my voice " is redundant, since it is i7nplied in the verb cried; but such redundancies are allowable when deep feeling is expressed. Pun (etymology doubtful ; but said to be connected with Anglo-Saxon punian, to bruise, or with the word point) has been characteristically defined in the following rhyming way: A pun's a word that's played upon, And has a double sense ; But when I Bay a double sense, I don't mean double cents. 148 APPENDIX. As thnfc A bat about a room Not long ago i knew To fly ; l»o caught uily, and then Flew up the chimney ^we. Rhetoric (Greek hrein^ to speak). The science and art of expiessin,^ tliought and feeling by language in the best possible manner. The Greek Aristotle, the oldest writer on the subject, defines it as " the faculty of per- ceiving all the possible means of persuasion on every subject." Rhyme (Anglo-Saxon ryme, series, number). The correspondence of one verse with another in final sound. Rhythm (Greek rythinos, order or harmony). Inverse, the recurrence of stress, or accent, at regular intervals; in prose, at variable int,erval8. Sarcasm (Greek aarkazein, to tear flesh like dogs, to flay). A keen, reproachful, but at the same time witty expression. Thus, one Ward, a flippant Parliamentary orator who used to write out and commit to memory bombastic speeches, having severely criticised Rogers's poem entitled " Italy," the poet took his revenge in writ- ing these few lines, which were soon widely quoted : Ward has no heart, they say ; but 1 deny it : He has a heart, and gets his speeches by it! Satire (Latin satira, a mixture). A production in which follies and vices are ridiculed, some humorously and with good-nature, and sometimes severely and indignantly, often employing the bitterest sarcasm. Sim'i-le (Latin simtlis, like). A figure of language in ■which one thing is expressly compared to another, which it resembles in some properties. The comparison isi duced by the words like or as : 1. Like a tempest down the ridges Swept the hurricane of steel. 2. We all do fade as the leaf. XiVi v^ EXPLANATION OP TERMS. 149 Bol'eoism (Greek soloikos, speaking incorreAly). A fault of syntax— a grammatical blunder. Sonnet (Latin sonus, a sound). A poem of four- teen lines of ten syllables, with a peculiar arrangement of the rhymes, not, however, always strictly observe'^ Style (Latin stylus, an instrument for writi/ g). Th. ' mode of expression which one habitually adopts ni nving utterance to his thoughts. When we speak otDi :" -nVj style, Addison's style, Victor Hugo's style, we i,ave a notion of a certain manner of clothing thought in words, and this peculiarity is style. The term comes from the Latin stylus, an instrument used by tlie ancients in writ- ing on tablets covered with wax; and the modern mean- ing is a transference of sense from the instrument to the way of using it—just as we say that a person " wields a forcible /pen." Synonyms (Greek syn, together, and onoma, a name). Words which agi-ee in their general meaning, but differ in their special applications. Thus, discovery atul m- ventto7i have in common the idea of presenting for the first time ; but «' discovery " is applied to making known what previously existed; "invention," to constructing what did not previously exist. Taste. Employed with reference to fine art, this word has two meanings: 1. The susceptibility to pleasure from works of art: a person devoid of this is to have no taste. 2. The kind of artistic excellence that gives the greatest amount of pleasure to cultivated minds : thus we may say that a poem disnlavs " oT.nri fooj-« »» «- » newspaper article " a want of taste." Tau-tol'ogy (Greek tauto, the same, and legein, speech). The repetition of the same tliought in different words. " 150 APPENDIX. Tropes (Greek trop^, turning). Single words used figuratively, or not in their literal sense. The figures called synecdoche, metonymy, and metaphor are tropes. Wit (Anglo-Saxon witan, to know). A combination of ideas, in the first place, unexpected ; secondly, ingeni- ous ; and thirdly, consisting in 2i play upon words. (1.) As regards being unexpected — this is implied in the terms ''flash of wit," " stroke of wit," " sally of wit," etc. (2.) The unexpected combination must display ingenuity or skill, such as gives something to admire. (3.) It is a mode of ingenuity consisting in a play upon words (French jeu de mots). The epigram is the purest form of wit. Next are innuendo and irony, double meaning, etc., down to, and sometimes including, the pun. INDEX TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Accent in Terse, 121. Accuracy, definition of, in use of words, 79. "Aggravate," misuse of, 81. Allegoryj definition of, 82. Alliteration, definition of, 140. "Allude," misuse of, 82. Ambiguity, definition of, 93, 140. Ampliibrach, 123. Analogy, definition of, 140. Analysis, rhetorical 12. Anapest, definition of, 122. Anticlimax, explanation of, MO. Antithesis, definition of, 141. Apostrophe, use of, 138 ; definition of, 141. Arrangement, principles of, in composition, 88, 89. " Balance," misuse of, 82. Blank verse, definition of, 120. Burlesque, definition of, 141. ■ Caesural pause, 129. "Calculate," misuse of, 82. Capital letters, use of, 2, 3. Caret, use of, 138. Choice of words, requisites in, 81, 88. Circumlocution, examples of. 72 : definition of, 141. Clauses, kinds of, 23, abridgment of, into phrases and words, 61. Clearness, nature of, in rhetoric, 92. Climax, definition of, 141. Colon, use of, 136. Combination of sentences, direc- ^ tions for, 62. Comedy, dciijiition of, 132. Comma, use of, 133-136. Comparison, definition of, 142. Complex sentence, nature of, 23 : punctuation of, 26 ; synthesis of. Composition, definition of, 1. Compound sentence, nature of, 38 : contraction in, 41 ; punctuation of, 42, 43 ; synthesis of, 44-47. Conciseness, definition of, 85. Continuity in the paragraph, 106. Contraction in compound senten- ces, 41. Conversion of sentences, 49. "Couple," misuse of, 82. Couplet, definition of, 119. Dactyl, definition of, 122. Dash, use of the, 138. " Demean," misuse of, 82. Denying the contrary, 71. Diction, definition of, 142. Didatic poetry, examples of, 131, Dimeter, definition of, 124. Direct fonn of speech, 62. Discourse, definition of, 2. Elegy, examples of, 131. " Emblem," misuse of, 82. Epic, definition of, 131 ; examples OZf iol* Epigram, definition of, 142. Essay, nature of the, 105 : examples of the, 1 10. Euphemism, examples of, 72 : defl- nition of, 142. Euphony, definition of, 143. Exclamation, use of, in varyinjr expression, 59. Exclamation-point, use of, 138. Exordium, definition of, 143. " Expect," misuse of, 82. Expression, variation of> defined 6Y ; by synonyms, 68 ; by denyin« the contrary, 71; by periphrasis, 72 ; by recasting sentences. 73., Fable, definition of, 143. Feet, poetic, kinds of, 122. 152 INDEX TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Figures of speech, lOO-lWJ. Final pause in poetry, 12!). Foot, definition of, in prosody, 121. Forms of speecli, direct 62 ; indi- rect, 62. Hexameter, definition of, 124. Higliflown words, 83. Humor, definition of, 143. Hyperbole, definition of, 144. Hyphen, use of, 138. Iambus, definition of, 122. '* Inaugurate," misuse of, 82. Indirect form of speech, 62, Innuendo, definition of, 144. " Interrogation, use of, in varying expression, 68. Interrogation-point, use of, 138. Irony, definition of, 144. " It," use of, as anticipative sub- ject, 60. Language, figures of, 100-103. Ijitotes, definition of, 145. Loose sentence, definition of, 97. Lyric poetry, definition of, 130. ♦' Married," misuse of, 82. Measure, definition of, in poetry, 87. Metonymy, definition of, 101. Metre, short, nature of, 126. Misused words, examples of, 82, 83. Monometer, definition of, 124. " Name," misuse of, 82. Negation, use of, 71. Obscurity, definition of, %. Obsolete words, 146. Onomatopoeia, definition of, 146. Order of words, gretnina'dcal and rhetorical, 64. Paragraph, definition of, 105; quali- ties of good. 105, IOC ; examiiles of, from Addison and Macaulav, 107, 108. Parenthesis, when to be avoided, w ; UBC t>i, loy. Parody, nature of, 146. Paronomasia, definition of, 146. Passive voice, use of, in varying ex- pression, 67. Pathos, nature of, 146. Pauses, poetic, 129 : final 129 ; cses- ural, 129. Periphrasis, examples of, 72, 73. Peroration, definition of, 147. Personification, definition of, 147. Perspicuity, definition of, 147. Phraseology, variation of, 68-72. Phrases, arrangement of, 16. Pleonasm, definition of, 147. Poetry, arrangement of words in, 64, 65 : Milton's definition of, 119 ; species of, 130 ; lyric, definition of, 130 ; epic, definition of, 131 ; didactic' definition of, 131 ; dra- matic, definition of, 132. " Predicated," ixii-iuse of, 82. Prosody, 118 : deprivation of term. 118 Pun,*definition of, 147. Punctuation, definition of, 7 ; ofBc© of terminal marks in, 2 ; of sim- ple sentences. 7 ; of complex sen- teiices, 26, .27 ; of compound sentences, 42-44 : summary of, 133-139. Purity of words, 88. Pyrrhic, 123. Redundancy, .amples of, 86. Rhetoric, office of, 1. Rhetorical order of words, 64. Rhyme, definition of. 1 19 ; perfect conditions of, 119 ; single, double, triple, 120. Rhythm, definition of, 120. Sarcasm, definition of, 148. Satire, definition of, 148. Saxon synonyms, 68, 69. Semicolon, use of, J36. Sentence, nature of, 1 ; simple, nature o' 5 ; complex, nature of, 23; coiijpound, nature of, 52 ; synthesis of compound, 4-1-46; loose, definition of, 106. Sentences, conversion of, 49, 50. Simile, definition of. 100. Simple sentence, liaturo of, B ; punctuation of, 7 ; synthesis of, Simplicity, necessity of, in words for good style, 83, 84. Solecism, dciinition of, 149. Sonnet, definition of, 149. Spondee, 122. Strength in style, how effected, 96. Style, definition of, 79 ; derivation of term, 79 ; strength in, how effected, 96. Synecdoche, definition of, 101. e-U<^.»v»no (1r.<* literary, 149. Tennina/ marks, use of, 2. Iheme, detinitioii of, 104 : exam- ple of, 108-112. ' Tragedy, Aristotle's definition of. ^n^'12*f ^"°" ^^ component parts ot sentences, 63. Tribrach, 123. '« Trochee, definition of, 122. Iropee, definition of, 150. « fi;^''^"^"^" "M^ rhetoric, 88: ' jrl^ P paragraph, 105. ' ' use of words, accuracy in the, 82. ^o?**&"7 °* ®^P^«88ion, methods Versification, definition of, 118. .yA.defliiition of, 150. Witness," misuse of, 83. Words, choice of 79-88 ; misuBed-" use m, 83 ; purity in use of, M. K .fi , WW 11 !-<*S', : ^w ■ f