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Fur (he li-gree of Doilor of Petiaffoifj/. ST. THOMAS, 0\T.: TnK SiTHKRLANi> Printini; Hot sk 1902. '«/ H w' 1 • o »-' / K.WMIXKRS- fKRTIMCXTK T.' TlIK KK<;lHrH.\H OK IIIK l^ilVKHSlrV .>l T»H.>M,>: \\V bt-K to r.-pnrl il.al llu- ih.-sis ol .\tr. S. Sil.ox ami hi<. v.Ty i-ri-ilitiiblf ili^cu^ion ol llu- Hui-stioii, m-i in l'hil..v>pl.> ..n.l Klhi. •,, ..lul in thf Sri.MKc- ami An of Kd,..;,iio.i. quality him tor llu- I ).■«..•.■ ot Do. lor of I'lilaxoK.V, with so»-oml ilass honors. JUMN \\'AlM>N. J. A. Ml I.H.l.vs. laua >2 The Psychology of Nature Study. •• MM vr«*', »«/k in w >r a» H Jin,h ,.tl>ni,i„n ./i,r iu^lj. _ "f,lm„fi„H i, „/>,»,,>» ,,/ ,rm„t,„v r.r/W>-,V„y, ^ivimif i/ „ mnrt j/i /.Ay./..i.\', , llM, ,.,.u.« i, Ir. ,„ ,1... v„K.,.. lo |..fl„i,... ,„„„ ,..^, ,„ i,,,.^, T,,.^ 1^^,,^., I.y .1 lu-r.. .1,,,, .Hl,,.»li..., i,., ,„.H,.SS hv Wl.uh .1... Mulnia.Ml lH..O,M... .„....• «ml mo,.. .■ul.p..,.cl..nl oi ,„.| ,|,i„K> ,., „ H,i,„.,|,., ,., „,.,„„|„ „,.j ;„ ..^ j ^ IhoHKhl. IhouKhl H.ul ..x,.r..«io„.«M„„l b...livo,.v.l. Tho m.«..r ol rxpr.-" ' ''.""••.' «'• "••"'"»>"••»' '•> 'I.OUKM. is v.. ,„..„,„ hy «hi. I, ih.M.Kl.l is ,„ Ut'hiiiii', ,iii>l is thus i'oiiiiiiiiiiical>'U lo olliors, ; Tlu. KM.«ll. Of m:.ul is a ,,ro.-..ss ot ...w.l^.s ,.,||o«...l hy synllu-sis. \ ''"''■ ''"'."' ••'• """« '"-'.Vi.- Hn>.hl.,K U'll'o... (oll,mi„K „,; ,1.,., „,,,,, |.r,....ss l.v ,.„ ,u, of s^„„,.„i,. ,-. ,,. ,,,„..,,,,„. Tlu. ..K,.r..ssio., is ,|.. visible ^ ..K" by «l,.,,, „,. .„„ ,,.,,„.. „„. .,,,,„^,^,^ ^^^^j .^ .|..,..„„i„,s ,1,.. ,„.,„r ul the I i.mriil ol analysis ot Hit. iiialcriMl ol' sHuly. I ... ■^'•'V;'"'-'"''"" "' """'y-i'. H"J Vnlh..sis is so (...Kl;., „«IU. i,n,K,rt,.nl ll,.., thc,,sy.h.,..«yol „..y snl.j...., i, „...,.ssa, ily J..,H.„ ,.,,,.„„.' A ImsU.-. ...a v f b..a„al,...la.ul ,( s„. om- should U- um.!.- lik.. i,. \V|,..„ natural ol.j...,, «re I «nal>....l. ol...„ ,1... only possibl.. sy .sis Is a drawinK of ,1... ol,j... ,. hut this lorn, of ..xpr..ss,o„ is ,n.ssll,K. ,., „„v ^,,..„, ..,„.,„, .,„,^. ,„.„.^ ^ . I To U.....n.Hn.. ,1... .„..,„ of ,h.. analysis whivh ,nay lu- n.ad.- a, any hk-. «■• have : only o .l..,..,n,in.. ,h.. ,K.w..r of expression poss,...e a. ,l.„, a^e. A . I„M is quite able ,„anal>.... ,l,a, .s. to tear to pieces, n.e. I i.ally. a .leliea.e flouer. but if he ., unable to represent this analysis, either by a drawing, by a ,nod..|. o- nv words, the analysis .s a waste of time, nay, worse, it ^ives the destruetive be . of the m.nd an unpe.us. uhieh. unbala.ued as i, is by eons.rue.ive abili: y. lead only lo mental dissipation. No one would think ..f asking a ehild of seven years of a , n.odel .1 parts o. a (lower nor al sinuosities of a leaf n.arK'Jn. the inde. , ,nsof bark nor the „rue.„re of a eell. Vet we often find teaehers ..ndeavorinK, •" leao ve.y yo„n« . Inldren all these de.ails of lorn, and structure. Thev are lo,. in^ Ihe.r p.,p,U ,o a■,.ly^e without possessinK the ,«,wer to synthesize and will tail in secuiMi^' pioper developnienl. An exa.nple fro,n the teaching of nun.ber in ari.h.netie will n.ake clear the n eessny o. both processes. Suppose a teacher is teaching the number seven She has ,au,.l„ s,x. and now hands each p. even sticks with instru. tions t , Uk..„ stick s,x tunes m the riKht hand and a stick one ti.ne in the lef, hand- Uould any teacher think of stopping; .here? I think no,. She will ,eH..l.e that 4 — THE PS VC I/O LOGY the slicks be put (o^retliei again and tho whole proiess described. A similar analysis and synthesis is necessary in all mental activity, hut we must acknow- ledKe that in too many cases we have iieBlecled one-half of the operation. And herein is the value of lan^uaKe. The teacher can never be sure that the pupil performs li.e synthesis unless he is able to express himself in fairly exact la..tfuaKe. At best, modelling, drawing, diagrams are limil-d. if not by executive ability, then by stress of lime a,u. lack of equipment and space. Con- sequently each step in analysis must be associated will, descriptive terms of some kind, technical or colloquial. If the pupil cannot make such a verbal svnthesis, the analysis is premature. On the other hand, the verbal svnthesis'may be tested by demanding that it be put into the more concrete form of the drawing or model. " The Modes of Expression. Tiiought finds expression in the following ways: ( I ) Tieslure (including facial expression). {2) Modelling. (.1) Drawing (including form, color or shade, and pioporlion). (4) Diagrams (in which details are omitted). (5I I.Hiigiiage (or il or written). (6) Singing, the social mode of expression. (7) Calisthenics, also social in nature. While it is true that all modes of expression have a social as well as an indi- vidual side, singing and calisthenics are prc-cninenllv social, while the others arepie-eminen.ly individual; that is, the first five are the expression of individual activity, whil, iIk. last two are the expression of the social instinct. C.esluieinay be made a means of communicating thought, but it is usuallv an accompaniment of oral speech. Facial expression and l.odiiv movement a.'e the signs ol emotion, /. e., the personal element, while the langnag.- used repre- sents the universal element of knowledge. So long as these two elements enter into thought, we shall have gesture and speech together. C.estuiv IS perfect in the young and becomes less prominent as devlopmenl proceeds (roin real to ideal, because knowledge become* moie universal. At least the individual recognizes the universal element more, «l,eiv,-,s. at first he recognizes only the personal element. The mechanical grind of learning by rote will soon eliminate the personal elemen. and will give rise to thai vacani stare and listless manner of the uiilortunale spoon-fed pupil, who is t.iught nol to think, who takes no interest in the work of the class-room. Compare the vivacity ol that boy over a game of marbles with his lisllcssness in the school- room and then think what the result in afterlife will be, when the fluctuation^ ot the sti>ck market are more interesting than the beaut v of nature and of art. Modelling. B.-fore M child learns to describe form and [jiopoilion, he can represent these in inodels. There are all ;;rades of representative ability in this, from llu L>re i-- V- -- -- I'- —-■»•■•.»... * ii-riiii. III l|||>, llllll model in crude clay to that of an intricate and complex machine Tliei OF NATURE STUDY. — 5 no sta^e of exlsti-iice in which it is not an essential mode of expression, not- withslandiMK the lait that many ediuated (?) men can scanely "whittle " with a . jaik-knife. The perfection of the model depends upon the power of .dialysis, accompanied by the power of synthesis. To become efficient in modelling one ntust analyze the object. To become an efficient analyzer one must nunlel, must he not ? It is in the attempt to model an object that one learns wherein his ; analysis was defective, just as in the higher slaRe, defective expression in speech discovers defective analysis of thouKht. Ourin^ the presentative staKe, the child cannot discover his faults of analysis by any more ideal nuxje of express- ion than modellin>f. The teacher may point out defects of analysis but this is not cullivatiti); the child's self-actvi(y. Drawing. j Drawing is a more ideal fcrm of expression than modelling. The represent- j ation is limited to two dimensions in space (surface), thoush the third dimension is represented by an illusion of perception. At first, however, the child's draw- ings are somewhat diajframmatic in appearance, though by no means so in ; reality. Instead of eliniinalin>f details as is done in a diafjram, every detail is i represented, even tbouKh it be not apparent from the |X)int of view. The draw- '■ injf is too real at first. The child must learn to leave somethin),' to the idealizing power of mind. The point we wish to emphasize, however, is that drawing is a mode of expressio.i of thought, and should not be divorced there-lrom as it too often is. Also, every child in its life passes throu«h a stage when drawing is the predominant means of thought expression. It may be possible for ,i few to miss this stage and still acquire the right mental development, but for the great majority, the counnonplace men and women, it is essential that this mode of •xpression receive attention at the proper time. This time will probably come b.lween the years of eight and twelve, during which time the motor centres of the brain are developed. If not developed at this age, there must be serious deficiency in mental equipment. Probably the most common mistake in connection with drawing and the use of pictures in general in school, is the neglect to interpret illustrations. Just as in studying Latin, it is essential to translate from Latin to English and from English to Latin, so in making use of illustrations we must illustrate our thoughts HI drawing, and also interpret the thoughts of others as expressed in their draw- ings. By such a process we make the transition from this stage of expression to the higher stage of oral or written expression. This transition is quite as import- ant in its time and place as is the transition from modelling to drawing. Diagrams. Here, again, is an important mode of expression which has been entirely overlooked. Probably the majority of educationists would consider it a con- venience rather than a necessity. Yet, in the world of science, at least, it is more important than drawing. It is scarcely possible to make a drawing that would have any scientific value. At any rate, it is of far loss value than a good diagram, which expresses a general principle. The diagram is the concrete way of express- ing a principle and is the logical method of introducing it, just as we begin to ^ THE PSYCHOLOGY arouse mental ac-.ivi,y by the ..ne of object. And here .-.k.,., the child .a„ dis- cover .t. faults o. analysis by .,.aki„K u diagran. to represent the KenerahzH.iio^ A Kood example of the use of a diagram is seen in representing the inflore- scenoe o. ph.nts. No two mochooNifei„ wh.ch si..Ki.,^,. acco.„pa.,ied bv rhy.h,„»al ...ot.o.,. forn.s a., ...tcKral par. of .he mI.ooI exercises b.„ .his should extend ar beyond the KindcKarten aK^. If sin,i.„, has been fo.n.d so benefioal .n rehsions exe.oses, surely it has a heneHcial effect in educatinjr the nioial sense. " Stages of Mental Development. Nature Study .nus.confonn.o these Reneral principles, which unde.lie .he rela.,on between tho.,»;ht and expression, but like other subjec.s „,„s. bead.p.ed .o .he sta^e of n.en.al developn.e.U of the students. There are three well recOKtnzed stages in n.en.al develop.nent. which co.espond.o .h.ee well n.arked stages o. physical growth. Close observation and study of children have shown .ha. .he per,od o ch.ldhood up .o eigh. years of age is one of rapid grow..., „"h of nnnd and body. ,t .s a period of great susceptibility to i-npresst^ns bu with «hght power of re.en„on. It is, therefore, essent.ally an in.pressionis, period. Fron. eight to twelve years of age, there is li„le growth bu. .here is great developmen., nevertheless, in at least the lower mental activities. HeaUh i« good ntusdes hrm, the b,ain re.en.ive. U-i.h. perhaps, di.ninish. npressibi.i.v. here - '"-eased power o. retention, which is ve,y chanu .eris.ic of the period ta^e tf." , ■ "'"■■"T" '" '••'^— """- - -o- --'Ply the secondary iwo exual developmen. be.o.nes marked. This characterizes tl.e peri, d as one o. ela ,onsh,p. Kela.,ons of ideas develop ; rela.ions of self .o socielv ; of man to (.od. I. .s the s.age of thinking. We shall use .he terms prin.a,y, secondary, and ter.iarv, .« indicate these .hr... stages n.stead o. the n.ore technical .ern.s. which .nay arouse p.econceived ^^■^■'7-'-.'" '•""-id'-r in each s.age : (,.) how id-as are aroused ; (...) the nature ot the .deas aroused: (,„., .he mode of expressing .he idea; (.v. the subjects of study best adapted to the stage. ' The Primary Stage. I" all stages mental development n.ust be associated wi.h .he constructive ac.,v,.y o the c.nid, ence, the ideas aroused and the n.ode of expression are md.ssolublycombnted except for purposes of analvuc d.scussion. In the prin,! 7m"'T'.. " '*'■""''""-• '"-""-J I'-V .lirect stimulation of the senses. The ch^d should see. handle, taste the object and operate upon i, in some wav to adap , to .s .deal end. ,n thus operating upon objecs under the direction of ns teacher, he contes to recognize them, first as wholes, .h.-n as integrated parts, and assoca.es w,th them the symbols by which society knows them. Tl ,s recogn.tu,,, .-.nd associntion involves the higher mental aciv'i.ies. implici.Iy •n. not exphctly. and thus lays a foundation for the discovery of mori ideal relationships in the higher stages. ' ""'^'^"'ea" S- THE PSYCHOLOGY This bTiusfs iw la a consideration o» Ibe idea» aroused. Expressed in tech- friial tenns they are sensiitions and perceptions, btit they are far from definite. While each sensation is sufficiently clear to convey knowledKe, it is not such hnosvledne as tlu- child will Rain from later sensations. Memory is present in the act of perception, but it is limited to the assocuilion between the former ex- pericMce and the experience which recalls it. The child cannot continue a train of associations heyond very simple associations by contiguity, though I knew a child two years of age who carried out this train, beginning from a copper which was in her lii.nd: "copjier— daddy— bank— nanny," meaning that her father was in a bank where there were lots of coppers, which could be be used in buying bananas. I'lobably any image which arises in the child's mind at this age is believed by the child to be aroused l>y an ol.jeil or, at least, the child is incapable of distinguishing those images which have been arous.?d by actual stinnilalion of the nerve endings and those wliii h are the product of the im- agination. Instead, therefore, of saying that a child of this age is imaginative. we contend that he does not as yet know the Jistinction between re.d and ideal. Expression in this stage is most effectually and definitely made bv gesture and by modelling ; drawing and oral d«'scription being comparatively undeveloped modes of expression, so muih s*i, th.it they cannot be sufficiently accurate .ind perfect modes of expression, to enable the child to make a synthesis in anyway appropriate to the analysis which he maki-s. Wherever detailed expression is desired, resort must be made to modelling. It is a question whether the higher modes of expression will be adequ.tte, if this mode is omitted. I think they will not. As society becomes more complex, there is less and less incidental expression by modelling at the age when expres- sion of this nature is essential ; hence the greater need of providing for it in con- nection with the regular school work. Fortunately thi- play instinct, if unhampered, will not let this mode of expression completely die out. The modelling in this primary stage will be the simpler process, in which the material remains unchanged, except in form, size and shape. Neither mind nor body has as yet been sufficiently differentiated to secure precise movements such as are required where material has to be changed in structure, in order to adapt it to particular use, e. g. carpentry. The subjects of study best adapted for this stage, are therefore, those subjects which call for expression by gesture and modelling and which do not demand the exercise of memory, imagination, and the powers of thought, except incidentally. The child should study objects which are associated with his daily life and which he can observe in their natural relations. These objects should be comprehensive in structure, not particular. They should appeal to the child's love of activity, and of the novel in its relation to the familiar. This limits the child's study to his immediate environment, and to things which appeal directly to his senses. Evidently the phenomena and the things of nature should be the basis of the child's mental development in this period. In connection with these he may measure and learn the rudiments of arithmetic and also begin the recognition of the symbols which stand for these things and thus learn to read. So exact and ideal a form of expression as writing should occupy a very unimportant place 1 ■i I OF NATURE STUDY. _p I whilo drawing and oral expn-ssion should bo jfradually d<-vvlop.-d, as precision « of constructivo activity makes these possible. I The Secondary Stage. 1 T!-.e secondary stajre is one o(>reat activity and the phvsioio^fi.al .ondition tnakcs possible greater precision of movement. There should accordingly he a better adaptation of means to end in his reaction >,pon his material envirohinent. which he ivill now hef;!,, to view in its relation to social life. Direct stinuilalion of the si-nses miisl continue as before but indirect stimulation should gradually become more important. Objects need not be actually present but mav be represented by J pictures, diagrams, etc., assisted, of course, by oral description, which, however, IS still subsidiary. The nature of more remote thinifs is conceiv.-d IhrouKli his mcreased poxvcr of idealization. Hence interest widens bevond the immediate present, which is actual, and enters the domain of imaginative activity. Ideas in this sta^e become more definite. \a,fue wholes, bv the process of analysis, are more clearly comprehended. .Sensations and p.-neptions revive images of objects not present, and ima^res are constructed of experiences which , have not yet had existence in fact but which mn v be realized. Tliere is, therefore, a Kreat advance in ideal dev.-lopment, and it the same time there is a diflerent- lalioi. ot what has been realized from that which slill remains id. ;d or merelv imatfed. The mode of expression will now be by reconstruction of m.-.lcrl.d in the model in wood or „, metal and by drawing ; these two processes bein;f conipl.-mentarv. - X model IS made Iron, a drawinsj and the object studied is repivsenle.l lor l.,!ure I use and reference In- a drawing. While in the precedini; s.a^e. material was I -studied as It aflected the senses directly, it is i,ow studied in its'ivlalion to man ; I m Its use as a factor in sociali/in>r the race . for all fhls adaptation of material to I use has been the exprcssio;i of hijfher social ideals. / The aim .^( drawing should not be to secure perfection of lorin so much :.s to secure free expression of thought. The perfect form will even,„..llv follow, if the tho.i^di, of the perfect form is there. Then by interpreting the drawing' either in the concrete material, e. >f. wood, or by a verbal dcscrip.i.,n, bo.h thou^'ht and expression are made more definite. i The secret of correct drawing and c.xact making is comparison. The teacher : wil msist on the comparison o( M parts of an object with the whole ; (...) parts w„h ..ach other ; (....) wholes with each other. All such comparison and adapt- a ,01, IS a p,ocess of abstraction, so that the pupil is bein^ prep.ued for a hij,her staj{-e of mental development. \ The subjects of study fbr this stajfe are, therefore, those which involve the , study of material and the processes by which this material has been made ,0 serve I social progress. Hut as ntental development has no, vet reached the sl.-.vfo ^f dis- j covennK laws and underlyinjf principles, the sl.idv must be limited I.-.r.^elv to icain- , inK mt.>rn,a.ion about these mate, ials, and repeating .n „ li.nUal ..„r, sonte of the typical processes which have influenced soci.d piOK'ivss. The teaJher will now find niemory a..d imagination active and need no. depend upon actual presentation of material, but may extend the field of operations by the use of pictures, etc. '^^ THE PSYCHOLOGY The study of naturo i^, ovidently all important her.- I, Huppllos all the materials, whuh, by adaptation to human n.-edN, hav.- beon the- basis of pro^ross. In con- nL-ction with thos.. matonaN, Ki-oRraphy beoomos an important study. Arilhm.-tic must be- studied in rHation to adiiptation of matorials to suit man's in.Tcasinir needs. J res..nt complex society can be understood only by the study ol former sunpler modi-s of liyinK'-history. Ima^inatiye liteniture finds a responsiye ehord m the eh.ld s mental state. The foundations of the seienees should be laid in this penod by mak.njf the child acquainted throujfh his own actiyilies with the fundamental facts. The Tertiary Stag:e. rn the third stajre. the child should become more independent of objects and the,r representations and more proficient in the use of symbolic modes of expres- •on. If the education up to the a^e of tweUv or thirteen year, of a^e has pro- y.ded the pup.l wth a ^ood stock of fundamental facts, learned by his own sense activity, and in connection with his constructive activity, he will be in i pos.t.on to use lanK-ua^e extensively and to learn new facts throuRh the medium of lanjfuaKe. Then he should be occupied chiefiy in discovering' relations be- tweentacts rather than fads themselves ; at least his motive in discoyerine facts .s now tor the sake of their relations. Reason becomes the arbiter I what .sand what .snot. All experiences must be subject to ri^id examination m order to d.scover the /.„. relations. Instead of comparinj. objects and their Ivatures. whu.h .s ot course, a relatiuK, Ideal process he must now compare .d.Hs. a sfll h.jfher relafn^ and more ideal mental process. He must classify, judjfe, and reaso... • ' The most important feature of this period, the a^e of puberty, is the develop- ment ol the .dea o. social relationship. The child becomes conscious of self, as a un..t ..ja lar^-er whole, just as he formerly became conscious of himself as an ".d.y.d..al d.st.nct (rem the whole. He also becomes consc-ious of the distinction ot sex and .nterest in the opposite sex occupies a lar^e part of the mental field. The ideas aroused are more abstract than in any preceding stat-e. Their content ,s more ideal, less limited by time and space conditions. The relations ot cause and effect beco.„e predominant. Hitherto this relation has been apt to be determined \^y post hoc ergo propter hoc, but now such relations are seen to be ummportant. He discovers the essential conditions of phenomena by a process of abstracfon a.id diagnosis by exclusion. Why becomes the all important question, as how, what, and where have been important heretofore. The search for the underlymjf principles of thi.ig-s has now begun. The mode of expression must accordinjfly be more ideal than formerly and that 'I •', . "' " u ^'■•'^■■''■"■^•■y ^^^'^-^ oral or written. .Spoken and written lanjfu.ajre should now become the thought medium in the final count. It is. in fa-t. impossible to express the hijfher ideal relations of the hiffher mental state by those modes which are suflficient in the lower. An ideal relation may b. ..vV,,,////?^,/ by a model, drawing, or dia-ram, but cannot be ./„//,, expressed so. As lanKuasre .s developed there will be less and less need of drawing and modelli..>., thoujh lor purposes ot communication it may be .lecessary to convert the symbolic ex- press.on :nto picture langruage, or the langruase of the model, in order to adapt it OF NATURE STUDY. _,, to Iho mi.iJ vvhUh iN to K- ait..d „pon by it. H.-tiiV thi- n...-,-,si(v of haviiiK U-arn.-il ihov modes ^^i oxpr.-ssloi, at ttu- propor ll„u-. inas.muh as I'lu- majoritv ol miiuls rospond, adf^iiati-ly, only to llu- lowor nuulos of .-xpr.ssio... Our ivn- stanl ann as educationists should In- to make our pupils independent of these lower modes, not by iffnorin^^ them entirely as we haw Iv.m. doluK, but bv arousnijf and devolopiii),' them at the proper time. The subjeets of study for this si.Hjre. therefore, will be- those whirl, emphasize the soeial side of life, .-.nd whieh demand the ex.-re.se of the thought powers I he eonslruetive aetiulies should be exereised throu^'hout .-.s il,.. I.;.sis of "remaking experi-nue." Subjeets whieh r...,uire elassifuation .-ire essenti.il, sueh as botany, jfeoKr.iphy. /oolo,,-y, jframmar. The deduelive sei-Mu-.'s, arith- metie and ^'rammar, will euItiv.-.tejudK'menl and reason ; historv, properly tau^'ht will also c-xereise the reasoni.iK. Any series ..^ reht.ed faets will furnish' m.-.lerial (or the thoUKht powers ; heiue, any of the above subjeets will eultivate thought. 1 he altei, , 1 to explain the various phenomena of natun- will brinj,' into op>r.ition all the thouKlll-powers, henee, el.-mentary seienee slumld be .i subjeet of stud\ in this st;i<,'e. The Subjects Study. It we now make a list of the subjeets of publie sehool s'.udv ,ind pl.-.ee op- pos.te eaeh study the mode or modes ,.1 expression usu.-.llv .issoei.-.led therewith m the elass-reom, we shall be able to see more elearly th,- relative value- of eaeh subjeet in the three stjiifes of i-duealion up to the ;iif.. of sLxteiMi. SiBjKCTs OK Srinv Arithmelie Ciranimar literature History Cleojfraphy I'hysiolojfv \ature Study Ml'DK m- KXF'KKSSION Diajframs and Speech Speech Speed) All the modes Thoujfh history and literature are us.ially associated will, speech only, it is quite e.-isy to cultivate all the modes in these subjects. The remainin^r subjects, usually pl.-,ced on a curriculum as subjects ,.i study, are not properly speakinjr subjects of study for public school pupils'.il ,ill. There IS a scientiCie study of these modes of expression as thev are ivl.-.ted to the - rcKMlar branches of study, but such a study is not suit.-.bl.. for public school pupils. Ihese so-called .ubjects of study, re.idin.ij, writ inif, drawini,^ .oul com- position, .-.re simply mod.s ,.i expression tor thought. HavinK l.illeil lo recognize the absolute necessity of m.-ikin^ use of these modes of expression, except r.-adini; ,. and wntin.^-. we haxe thought it necess.-try to .ifive then, .-. distinct place in the school curriculum as sul^ects of study. By this act of placiiij. them on the . curriculum so. the evil has !>een in(e.,sili.-d, and «e are compeiled to witness , meaniUKless exercises in combining sentences, filling blank sp;,ces, correctins,' felse I syntax. ehanKin^ the forms of sentences, the coiyuj^alion of the verb,'undir Ih e name of composition. The composition has b .Ml .iccomplished .tlready '■'" THE rSVCHOLOGY »uch ..xrr.isoH. \\\. nr.. simply „skinK our pupil, to shift countc-rs on th.- surface o( th.-ir papcT. tl is jusl «s m^Hhaniiul «s makinK polhiH)ks. riKht nnU U-ft curve,. Mraijflit linos, otv. • In acKlitlon to th.-so suhjoVts Ihoro aro also manual traininR. domostic- sWrnc.-. nn.su- and ral.sth.-ni.s. and .ommcToial trans;utions. Thoro is no n-ason why the .•U-mi-ntary operations in connection with comtnc-rec- should not he tatieht as a part o. arithnu-tie. and take the place of purely ahstract problems which so often hnd a plaee there. The cl.anjfe would be henetieial in all respc-els. Musie and ealisthen.es have been surtieiently diseussc-d. They are not subjeets of study but soc-.a aetivitu-s. Manual traini-.^ and domestie science should not be considered as mdependent subjeets of study any more than eomposition. readinJ,^ and draw- n.>f. I., one sense they are modes of expression, but in r,-alilv are the underlying acvmes ot all education. Inder these headings are arranged a series of ac- t.v.t.es typual of .he dcvelopnu-nt ..i the raee, and as the raee, in this reaetion upon Mia.er.als from whieh IochI. elolhiuK ""cl shelter haye be.-n obtained, has learned lo adjust environment to its needs, so must the ehild rc-ael in a more ideal way ,.pon material, to l.-arn how to adjust environment to its needs. The pro,e,,es by whieh the raee has developed nu.st be repeated by the individual. Gc-o^-raphy is advaneed nature study and physiolo^v a braneh of it. J'raetic- ally. Ih.-refore, nature study is the onesubjeet whieh demands all the modes of ex- pression .-.nd ,s therefore adapted to each sta^'e of education. \et this is th.- sub- ject which we have omitted f.oni our c.rriculum. puttin,^- in its st -ad as indepe.uU-nt Mibjects the very modes of expression which must ..i necessity be cultivated if the subject be properly tau^'ht. This is worse than askinjr a child to K-arn a foreign, tonjrue to the ne^'lect .^i his vernacular. We ask our pupils to pass by the wonders ol crc-ation at their v -ry d ,or and learn about •'.African lions, Roman c-mp -rors. mountains in the moo.., and angels in heaven." What the Port Koval- . >ls did lor the child in e.nphasi/ii.K' the i.nportance of the vornacular.ihe advocates ot nature study are doii.K- for the child of tod.-.y. We dise.iss le;,n,edly a tLeek ode but lail to discern the ^reat epic of creation w.it l.-.r^e on every' leaf, and twijj, on field and wood, in sky and plain. ^ Once properly correlated with the other subieets ..i our school curriculum, t.u. pro;vr study of nature will revolutionize reading, drawing-, and composition, .t not writing' and other school subjects. History is but the o.d.-r|y account ol .Natures masterpiece in his social relations, and literature is the product of a complex orK-anizalion, which has its countcrp.-.rt in the Vnvest organism. .\o other study is so comprehensive as nature and none is so accessible. It reciuires "■•■.ther buildiiiK, books, nor equipment, exe.-pt such as nature has provided for us. " '"'f "'■ '" ''■''''■<. h>ok^ ill till- niiiiiiinr brooks, Si-rmons in s/uiii:s, iiiiii irnoil in fVirylliiiiir,' Nature has been and still is the immediate environment of the majority of the human r.cce, and the senses have been adapted to detect its variations jus'l so far and as lonj? as necessary. The sense of smell has ceased to be an educative sense and taste has been reduced to a position of unimportance but all the other senses are still ^A' vital importance. In the evolution of the race natural objects were first of interest - utilitarian "Uerest, and I think we are safe in saying that all interest is based on the OF NATURE STUDY. j^... or .hi„Ks. I„ ,i.,u...u. HHV.K.- Kanu... ,o ..uHlify hi, natural .-..vironmen.. ;'"'";' "•"'•''•' '" "" '"•"•■' J»f- ■'••.„, h..Ka„ ,1k. ar, o, anhi,..-...... h. .«.•, nuHl.. o. .houKh, ..v„v„io„ ...uHK.lli.,,., „.., ,„.. .o;,v r.-.„. wl.;... . "oU-lU.U,vasa„KU.alo,u.. T.u. .mtural obj.v, ,r> ., .av.. or hank M„.^.., .J oh„pon.,a,,„n,damor..,n.r.;v.s, Thi> KU.aK,r.u„.r. « .'n,.,a v r..ah.oU .„ ,ho w-Kwan.. ,. • ar.i.Kial .avo. Th...., in ..„„. m.,.,.-.,. ., . • '"■•■ ' •"^";;"'-'-- ■•"■ "■ "->■ -v.-^l-.. .h.r r. d>.v.t,nu. ., rroKr.ss. I ho,o rac.s whi. 1, havo no, had idoaN. or « hiW. havo no, pro^^rossi , rouh...d ,ho.,.. .K.VO .V, p.,,,,,,„. Why sh I , ,,i,u paL ,',r.,..^^l a ,,n„lar pro^.s . U „a, is ,o ho ^ainod hy p.aoin^ holoro ,ho Jnld ,ho n '. ohjoo, whuh ,s ,rro,,..lar and oo.nprohonsivo. ..uhor ,han ro.M.lar an par u-ular .nan».ao,..rod ,on„, ... ^., sphoro. .nh... .-ylindor. U„v shonid o ch.ldro,H.a,.hooNporlon r,horaooy Th.ro aro ,„o ro,- ,s. ,,M,,h.., , ": '^ "■'"" •."•.''•••'•K'"l- ,o.h.. r..^^u!ar. ho „,u„ pn, i„u„h.. prooossa p.-rsonal . o,„on, an .nj,v:dnal .ao.or. and ,h..ro wi p..,,.,..... , !, .,, ,, J,^,,„ „;j ihild Will bo onooura^od, sino,- he- has produood s. n.>..hi„,^ '.all his own so,no.h,nK' whioh. ,o hin, a, loas.. is an in.provon.on, on ,h.. na.ural ohi.v, masmu.-h as „ has ,h.. Womon. of individnah.y abou, i,. whioh .ho or.,^nal has noil If ,ho opposi.o .vnrso bo pursuod, and ,ho ohild b. .>,ivon ■. p.Ti;. > ..dv ,., oxannno ho oanno, imajcino a .noro p.r,..o, ,on„, hon.o his individnaliu is no. «oro,sod ,o any ox.on,. I, ho a„o,np,s ,o n.ako a nunh-, o, i.. ho oa , p.ssib • mako as p.Hoo, a ,onn and will b. disooura>:od. Tho s.udv of ,ho porf..., Koon,o.ra- sohds ,n ,h. Kind.,.,.ar..n i ,nly n aooord wi.h so , d ednoauonal pnno.p los. Mowovor. ,ho na.uro s.ndy in ,ho Ki,uK.r,.ar,. n , ah v oomi.orao.s Iho ovil. liii'.icii\ » Tho firs. a,Knn,on,. ,hon, for na.uro s.udy is .ha. i, Inrnishos su..^. vo .t.K vanod o>-n,s, n. obsorvin^ whioh ,lu- i.na.^nna.ion is oNoroisod and d.'u U,n..., and n, n.od.- :n,. whioh. or ,1,. n.,,.. .,,,;,, .,„,,.,,,, ,, ,„.,,, „;■' ' mak..s nu.n.al pro^ross. This pro^ross in ,„rn rnakos ,1... ohsorvin,. pow.rs n.or ' ;uH..o and hnn.,.ry ,or n.a.orial ,o ao, upon. Dr. ,„ S.anlov Hall. aT ,ho V F \ olih 'v.'r'';"' '' "'V^'''"^'^'-"^' '- ^'--'^-J 'oan,hn,;.i.and .vadin^ hWo.;: -Kl.. . wars o .Hj,o, and n,o,o ,o n.„u>o s.udy.' If „.,„„,, .„,„. i. ,.,„„,„ ;„ „,,. K«w.-r ,on„s ,lu..-o will ho no r , in, , aoooun, o. i, in , ho l.i^hor lorn,: Vo d^ "O, proposo ,o losson ,ho .rainin.,^ in liioraiuro. n,ail,on,a,ios. o,o.. bu, ,, ^pp omon, .. Tho basis of oou., ,ion, ,i,ora,uro, ^oo,,.,,,. dra; i ! „ roadn.K, -. tho s,ndy of na.uro. Tho addition of this sulvoo i,, s.udv ,: cu.-r,ouh,,n w,ll not roally ino,oaso tho work, but will soouro bo.tor rosul s . . i::::,::^:-^ "" - -^ ^'>- ---' ^^i,, i., and wi,h .poi;;::'; In tho sooondary s,.aKo o.c-duoa.ion, na.uro s.udy hasa ol.aiu, .o our.a.tontion hasod o,w.u.d psyoholoKioal prinoiplos. OrawiuK sh d ho basod on na;!:: wo "; ,h^ :■ T- """" ^"""' "" ""■ "'"'•'•'••" '"•"'■"■" '■-■ "-• «-' ho on fa ■ • '"'""""' ■" ^'■•''"'"•<- '■-■"'• -'-• •-'-' P-Por,ion aro all •XP n V ::"7 ' 7r"T --"ina-io., than oan possibly bo ,nado in .ho ,nos, a"u::^:i::^;:'„ro:' "'::""':"•:. ^:'■^■--' -'^^^•>- -h. u ioo.in. L-rial at hand is tho host possiblo kind of tranii "K- 14 — THE PSYCHOLOGY Ax prrvioiiHly piiintfil out, Iho uw of liiiiKramt i^ mnd«- olrar fruin thi- Mudy of nattirnl objt-t ts. Tlu- jonHlruilion of UiaKraitis in llu- firit Mi-p ImlaHslfiialion. \Vi- sfU'it on«' peiiiliarlly wliiili wo find lonimoii l«i M-viTalobjoi Is. W.> i-xprcH^ Ihio in ndiaKrain. \VV tlii-ii usf thin a*i Ihi- lyp»> lo whiih we Hiid olhor ohjoiti conform, and coiu'ludi- thitt all iIu-m' In-lon); to llio •tame clast. Havlnjf laid a firm foundation throiijfh tin- ii<«> of ohjfit*. drawinjf-i. and dia>frams, wi- •.hull liavt- pri-parcd our piipiK for thf hi^hi-Ht itaifi- of tnt-ntal di-Vflt)ptni'nt tlu- ntudy of relations, which, in ils«'lf, In purely ideal, for rolalionshipexistHonly in the mind. Education may now depend principally on the use of nu-re symbols. The dominant mode of expression should be by symboln arranged sysiemalically in what is known as written composition. What has nature study to furnish here? Simply the subjects for comptisition. Half the field of coniposition, i. e., narrative and descriptive, is bound up in nature. It forms the seltinj; of more than h.ilf the literature for all time. What makes the ch.ii m >^'i I'arknian's history ? It is the description iM natural scem-ry and spirited narrative yi the contest of man with m.in, and man with nature. There l», Iherefore, no sl.ijfe of education in which nalun- study is not an important subject of study. It is all important in the first sl.t)fe ; equally important as any other in the second, and scircely subsidiary in the third slajfe. Of course, there can never K" a divorce of any one stajfe of education from the others. In the first stajfe relations will he noted, and symbols usi-d, and in the third slajfc, olijecis, draw in>fs, and dia).T,inis must always be in I'vidence. I'u' each sl.iffc has it-, predominant mental aillMly. imans of instruction, and nK>de of ^'xpression, to which the others ;trc merely complementary. OF NA TV RE ST I'D V '5 What Human Needs are Satisfied by the Study of Nature ? I. INHERITED TENDENCIES AND INSTINCTS rrim.>val ninii wn« ..nliivly iI.i>.muI.-iiI upon Dalmv, (iml wo aiv mill il.-poml.-nt, llio.iK'h ofu-ii iiuliivitlv. HiMUf w.- lu-ril lo »l.ijy iiHliii.. to uiuh-r^li.nJ Iht law>. jiiul llui>t piVMTVt' our livi"«. Sine.' the lif,- of till- iiuliviJual U a ivp.-iilioii m iiiiiil;i'iir.- of llu- lil.- ..t tin- rai-.-, il is J,.sirrtbl.. Iliitl, in .nuIi %la({.', llu- .■nviioiirn-nl sl.o jKI h.. an i,l,,il .opy of that in wliiili llu- ra.o Uhh inaile llu- most pm^ii.,,. fp ii|| i.-n or Iw.-lvi- y.Nirs of a^.-, \\w .liiUls synipalhi.-* an- wiili aniniaU- anil inaninialo naliir.-, anil lie Nhoiilil lonii. in ilo»e- touili with lh,-so. At llu- hk.' of pnh.Tiv irit.-r.-M in s.lf «nil Ml Ih.- opposil,. «.x oii»pi..» Ihf nioiilal fi.-lil. anil an id.-al mu iai .•nvii..inni.n» •thoulil 111' iri-ateil for \\\% pro[vr il>-vi>lopnii-nl. f.Ttain inslinils of man an- i-SM-iitial (or the .ontinueil exislenii- of the laie. If then,, are not lu.nrishe.l at llu- pn.|).T tiin.- in ,i snllahle environment, thev perish. ./ fiiiliM,- fiirionimfii/ i.t uiif llnil is .umilar U, llnif in i,-/ii,/i Ihe iiistiiirt vas first d,Vfl,,p,iL To imf>r.nv the tHStin.t the ,;,vir,,;!m,>,t must her,,,,,,' »wr, iiifiil. A sipiirrpl in laplivity, on a liaril floor, will attempt lo l.iiry a nut. il will »iratih al the floor anil le„ve the nut exposed. I'mler su.-h lomlitions the impulse to bury nuts >oon ilies ami riiiinot th,r,ofler (,,■ amiitiil. So il i» in the i-hikl. " In all peilanoKy, the ^reat thiuK is to strike the iron while hot, anil to seize the wave of the pupils interest in eadi suieessive Mil.jeil hrfore ils ehh has i-onie. so that knowledge may he k>'I and hahil of skill a.i|Mired a headway of niterest. in short, seeureil. on whiih afterwards ilie individual may float. There is a haopy moment lor lixiuK skill in drawinjf, for makin^c hovs lolle.lors in natural history, and piesenlly disseetors and holanisis, ihen lor iniliatinjf Ih.-ni into Ihe hirmonies of meehaniis and the wonders of phvsieal and i liemiial law." — Jamks. Suppose the instin.t were the fishing; insliu.t, ,ould il be aroused and developed in Ihe xiliaied atmosphere of a sehool room. ioimin>; over,-, deseripllon of some lishi..« expedition of past aK'es? \o, of eourse not. At the ajje when Ibis insli.ul stirs the blood, Ihe boy must bend a pin, a'laeli it to a lollon slrinjt. and with worm well set and properly mounted, n" forth .uid sit in the ^;l,>,ious spring sunshine on a dry bank, at Ihe base of a foamini; rapid, beside some semi, transparent stream, and /^W the exultant tuj;, experieiue Ihe delight of haiirmjf o„t the fi.t.ty dweller of the si,.-,.,.,, lounl up his ston- and even enjov Ihe weary homeward lnidj;e, h.ippy in his knowledK.- "I' somelhinj,' aeeomplished. Why does Ihe balmy spring nir seem to invite me lo far away streams and sunny b.mks, to the su-ar woods, ilu- c.imp, and the swills-pole? Because the i6 — THK PSYCHOLOGY hMlncI WH. im,,lM„i..U l,y „. t.,«I ..,,H.ri..,u r in .mlur.. , own onvironm.-nt. «, ,|,.. m\nI.kkI. I..l...rih.il t.... Hir, d..mH,ul iI.hI w.. ,|.o,.UI ...m.- .u-ar to ,„.l..r.. , h^Hrl i.. our iI,.I.II..k:.I i( w,- „r.. not to r.Mirel,. in « K->.T..lM.n or Iw... tlu- ('.oj.uiw.i lovH of (rMHl.-m I.I t;«r» (rw uir i.*. WV «r^ "iH-ir* ol „l| .(,.. „K..,. h„i. ,., ,, „u-... „r.. in .lan^.-r .,( I..,m„ „„r h^rilHK... •»..• r..M.II .,f ...nh.ri.., „l l,o„..M .oil. K..,.. .,..„ „,h„. ..HviM-.u,,..,.. ... »d..|.. .. ... hiMnnn IU....I, l..„ IH m... ... „ ...rlain .■v...... in,.in..iv... l',,!..,, ,1... ''"'''" "• "•"''•• '" "■••"»' ""• '■''•■"/ '»««/'■«. Air «r/.r Klor.. ll ««• "f I..,,,. .■••.• \\w c.,.>Mr»..iw. |H.«vr, w.ll h.-hU.... ,.m.I ,.. ., f..,v K.-n.rM.lon, .li.. „.„. 2. ACTIVITY OF THE SENSES, AND MUSCLES. rn Ihrir „.,n.wl luMl.hy ,.«.... tl... s.m,,.. , „,..,.,.., .|..,lr.. .ulivily i„ r...,,H«.,.. .„ M..„..l«.io.„. ami .1... ,.l..as..,al.l.. ..x,H.ri..„.v .„ ,„,h „,.,ivi,y i, ,h.. ban., ..r.lu. .IhUU i„...,vM i„ .(,.. „™^|., „,„„„ ,,i,„. .,,,;, i„„.^,.^, ^.^,.^^,^^ ...>..„«. .,r,„„vi..: .!"..«» ..r ...r .hanKinn .Im.Ks. Th.. ...m,,.., i„. , a„i,„„, I.U. «,H ,.l,y,UMl .;.r.-..: ,1... la.,..,. «-«!.,« .I.in^,. ,,la,„s a.ul a,„m„K. „„J "...I.T.al .l,mK,. „..,...| .,„ l.y ,«„,.. f.„.-... pl.y.i.al .,r . I, i.a|. «ln.h ,..chI„..., iI.anK.- ... Hl,a|.... v..|,„.,.., a,,,,..aran.-... I,a,.l,...ss. .„ m...... ...1,.., ,.r..,h.,.v. Tl.e^e r.nn.l,..|,a,.,..f.l,..s.i..„...., -.o..|..K'y.lK.,a..y,,.l,vsi.-,.a.,.l.l,..„,i,.rv.' TI,..aKe .!...,..« « .1, .l,..a..iv,.y ... ,lu.H.. ,..,„.., „ ,„a,. pl.Ms..rabl.. „„.| pr.,H.al,l.. i„ lor,„m^. .L.ar ,..r.-..plia..s m,„| i„ r.«,si„K ,m.,„al a.llvi.v. i, fi-.n. )h.- ««.• •>» Hir. .. to II,.. aK.- of r,«„i..,.„ y.-ars .1... ,.„a „( p„l,li.- h,|,.,.,| jji... |f ,|,..y ar.- ,.„i *x.Mv,s...l .|,„„,« ,1,.., ,H.,i,- '. y„„ .vill f.,ul wha. i, .CM .„,..„ ,.„„„| ;„ .;„, ,,„,,,j,. V'"";^.^"-"' *• ■•' '•"•'* "f '■-.••.•,, h. .l.i„K, „rs..„s.. ... a «..„. „, ..onfi.l..n.e In ""■ '•"""••"•> '" H... rua.,, , o. a,,,..,,^ ...a.h.-.s. a h,. k ..I'.l,.. ,..„s.. ol .1... .."|.or.«„.e o( .■.,l.iva.i„K •!..• «m,s..s. TI... la...-. ,s pai„f..llv .-vi.l...... I,„. is ,|,.. ..«lm..l ...s„l. ol .1,.. p„|,|i.. s..„.H,l lrai,.i.,»f. 0( .....rM-. ..ai;.i„K llu- s...,s.., is .,ol an .Mul in ils.-jl, Im,i a ii,<-aiis lo a liiKli.-r so. iai hlV-. 3. THE DISCOVERY OF RELATIONS. r„ .1,,. ,l„nl s.aK.- ..!• ...l„.a.io.,. iIk- pa.li.ular l,...u.r,l of „a.„... s.„.lv is ,n <...M,sl„M^. m.,..,ial fo, .1... r..|a.in>{ a.^livily of ,„i.,.|. This a.livilv is as .'.onnal a.ulaspl..asu,al.l..a,.l,..a..ivily..f II,.. s..„s..s, but ,!,.■ la.l.T is .!,.. nowssarv bas.s ol .1,.. l,„,„..r. I ai„ aware .l,a. .1... joy of .lis.ov... v .lo.s nn. s...-,,. ,„ a.„M,a..- .1,.. ,„ajo,i,y of o„, a.lva.,.-...l pupils. H„, |,.,vv .an i. ..xis. «|,..„ ,|,..r.. is no Imsis lo,- .l,s.ov.TV an.l vM,..„ ,1,,. s.-ns.-s a.,.1 . o.,s,n,.-.iv.- a.,ivi.i.-s. have- .,.,. b...-., sys,..n,;,l,.ally .-x-.r. is...| for a p.-.io.l ..f .-1^1,. or t.-n v.nos? Tl,.- .-ftor. ,o ar.M.s.. .I,..,n .o living a..iv,tv aller th.-s.- y.-ars of anvs,...| .l..v..|opn,.-nt is .-Lher an .n.possil,!.. ,ask. or is ,.,or.. .I,an n.os, ...a..|,..,-s l.av.- patio,,.-.. ,o do. The v..ry sa,.,.- l.-,.-k ol d.-si,.- lo „s.. any pa,, of ,1,.. body will ,-..s„l, fr.,,,, non-ex.-r.is.. Ol ,>, a,id llif vi.-lnn of non-us.- is .-v.-r ...ns.ioas of his w.-akn.-ss. 4. THE DISCOVERY OF THE UNITY OF ALL NATURE. WhcM, .1... r.-la.i..K a.livi.y l,..s op.-,al.-d for a n„n,l...r of v..a,-s, (he .onscious- ..ess of the ..ni.y of all .hinjjs h.-^ins ,o .nanifes. i.sell. I„.. is a p,.>duc, of ...a.ure life rather tl,a,i of school life. O F XA T IJ H K S T (' /)}'. __ 5. PRACTICAL ADVANTAGES OF NATURE SI DDY. H.rl,..r. S,H.„.... I .,«, ,„.. V f ,. |..,..,v,.,,^.. .„ ..„„„.. ■ , „,^ „. .v,....».,n„..:-,l„.... ^,.,,,.1 „, ,„i, „.., , „,„.„..,,..,.,.„, „ ^,, ,,^ «M«llv. III..*,. wl.Hl. Imw lo d., will, ih,. I..|,u..- |...rio,l ol l,(... Whil.. S,H....... , .K.» i, ,..„ y ..,„ , „,.. „„,.,. ,„ , .^ ,.,^.„„.,„ .,„,i.., tniivii'iiiiii to mII. *. CONQUEST OF THE VORLD. The m .ivi.y of ,„i„.| „„ ....viro..,,,..... i, ,. ,„.h-..s .,1 .1...,, ..vin^ i. an.l .h.....|,v b„.ljM.K .,«.|, ..,,. , ,„, ,„,,.,„ „,,, ,, .„„,.,„ _,^^^^^ ^ , ^_ I ^^^_ ^"'" '• '^* "'"■ l'''*^"- •K'"Mi,m a.,s , .K.s..,„, i, „s s... t, TiuJ r.Mrnn.K.., „h ..1..,„..„,s ,o ,„,.., . ,...r. of i„..|,, ,.. „... ,„ ,^,.,..,„. „.„ l'1'.-.-..-.m. A ,,;.,lunl.., (a. I ..,...s,,..,..U ... ,,„.l. Ih.. „„„ i.... .-m/ov. ... ,.a..,.„lan,y a.ul ...ak.-. ,. a ,,aM ol i.M-l.. 1 l,i «... ... .1... ;, „ial lo siiiirst/uf I'lislciu-f. \al.,...(o,„.,moMoCo,„ ...vl,. >.,„.■■„. i„..a,|y |,(.., „, i, ,.„„„,, „,„,,. .■..v.ro.„„e„r of ,,ri.n..val ,.,a... O... ,.,„^„.s, ..fi, is as .......ssarv ... p..,«,..ss HS .. was to hi.... Th.. saxa^f... wl ....^....s, „, ,.i ,i,,„„„.,., ;, ,;'„,(, , .h,„Ksof sons.., a.,.l wh.. h ., .,.., r.-ally ...,,.,,,..,...1 i,. vi.nvs i. as a n.vs,...io.,s ''■'"'' "'"''' '"''■•• '"'" '" '"" '.vsLMious wav. Mi.h is ,1,.- vi..w ol all s,,..... - s.m.M.s ,,..„,„... „.,., ,h..,rs„,,,,s,„io,. ..,.„i„., „,,.„,.. , ,.,.,. „,„ ,..„ . ,„.^ of iialui'o. ..(.... " lo, Ih.- |«x)r Iiuliaii, wiiji miliiloii.il iniiul S..OS lloil ill iloHils a. Ill h.. IIS hiin in Hu- wi.ul." How JilVo,....! Ih.- vi..»v or hi,., who has .•o.iq,u-,..J i,..l,..v : " I do not own an imli ol jaiul, Hill all I s..,. is iniiii- Thi- or.-hauls an.l tin- iiiowlnj; li,-l.|s, III.- lawns, ami i;aril..|is liii.'. Till- wiiuls n.y lax-.ollci-iois are, Tliry hiinjf m.. liihcs ili\in,., U'iUI s.cnis anil siihih- ,.ssi-iiii.s — A l.ihiii.. lari' anil Ir.-i- ; •Ami, iiioii- iii,i«;iiilii-..nt lliai. all, .Mv ninilow k....ps lor nii- .\ nil-. ipsi- ill hill,, iniiiu.nsity, A link- snip ols.-a. " l.iVv I.AHCHM. What a fi.kli- hein^ is f.o.l ,o Mu- " .,„.,. I oivil m.IikI ' whii h h-ils lo loiiq ...,• .■nvMonnu..,., ,o d.-sliov s.ra..>j..n..ss. ami to s.-.- |,..himl plu.no.m ..a. /„«.. livllillr" ''. """ r '""'■'■ '''"'-"-""^ "■^•^" "'"" "'-• Tlu- oinvaril man I, of v.h.at.on ili-ma,uls ,ap,d ami acoirati- ailap.atioi, ,o i-nvironm-.-nl. Laikinif Ih.-. pow. I toionfol ciriumslaoii-s, man f.-.-ls that i- is too p„wv,f.,l fo, Iw.i. am. lasts about for a renu-ilv. My ihaniv, hi- pa-tak-s of so...i. movotii- .- e :;'!""• ,f ■•"""• '""'""r''- --• -^ - ^'-^^-h .l- woiM s....,ns l.-ss .onniUahl:; Iniause the sen.i-s a.e l.-ss a.-iite ii. reaitinK tosiiimilalion. M.-f.-.-ls that he la.. conmier ,l„s new wcihl. Hm„ani.y is prone to ileieplion ; the unreal se.-.ns re. /,?-- THE P SVC HO LOGY iiiiil till? viitiiii of tlu> prtijtIyiziiiK iliiijj bolioves il to b.' an i-flTuiiMit sliiinilant. How imu-li of our iiili-iiiperaiu-e is duo to our lit.>lplossiu->llu>rs. In diu- to tlieir inahilily to adapt tluMiisilvi-s to tliaiiKinK^ eiivironiiifnl. Evfii lopiiif; with our fi-llo\v-iiu>ii is an advaiucd pliast- of nature study, ;ind tin- Iwst pn-pinitiinis for any ointinjiiMU-y is tin- ili-vclopnu>nt of the powiM- of adaptation to cnvironint-ni «o7i'. What ari> our invt-ntors i-ontinually trying to do hut toronq'.u'r theopposing lori-es of nature; llie inertia of matter; the opai-ity of soliils J the inertness of the I'onducling ether? And when one inventor sui-rei'ds in t'oni|uerlnK time and spaei-, do we not all share in the sense of power ovi-r nature? The thrill of salislaition experieni-ed in talking; across a eonlinent i-annot but make us more ioura({eous, and confident of oui power to conquer. The absurdity of atteniplin^ the coiupiest o( nature by thus modifying our conception of it, is at once apparent, and the method whicli looks to imntal development as the basis of conquest will be accepted by all true educationists. Yet theie are visionaries who propose just such absurdities, comparable with that of benumbing the senses with alcohol, hashei-sh, opium, or tob.icco. These men would mak.- the work so easy as to rcdtici- it to play. They would not hava the child realize that there is an end which it should consciously strive to attain, but hope that through phiy this end may be obtained. If the enil be attained through play, i. e. activity not consciously directed to an end, Ihen- will not be the essential development which cm come only by a consciousness of (i) a diflieulty to be met ; (i) the means to meet it ; (,?) the will to use these means. The day must come in the natural order of events when the child, grown to man's estate, must face ilifficullies, and it will be a costly experience for him and perhaps (or others, if he has, hitherto, failed to develop those activities which will enable him to adapt himself to them. Xol by deireasing resistance but by iiirreiisinir mentiii pinver must n/itest be made. What is the Process in Nature Study? Tht- mental process is the same whatever may be the subject of study. It begins with ,in undelined. homogeneous whole, which the mind, if interested, inunedialely l.egins to analyze into particular parts, aided, of course, by previous experience which has left in the mind notions ^^i these or of simil.ir p.irls. Comparing these fixed notions with the new p.irliculars, theininil csl.iblishes new rel.itions, by which the tixi-d notion is still further el.d)orated and the new particular is brought into . -I I'atniliar relation. Il becomes a p.irt of mind. The process ol comparison is carried on bi-lweenthe parlsof the whole, or more propi'rly between the mental images .-f these parts, until all an' properly related so far as this cati be accomplished b\- the mind in its existing state \.-\i development. The farthei this r.'laliiig proci-ss is c.irried, the more clearly will the things rel.ited be defined, and the origiii.il underm;'d,luimogeiieous whole becomes .i ilelined, heterogeneous, yet nlated whole. We may describe this menia process bv saving that -.vithinthi- undefiiK-d whole mind moves in two directions, (i| towards the p.irlicular ; (jl towards the univers.il. The teacher is apt either to stop with the p.irticular; that is, stop with .-itialysis without securing a corresponding synthesis, or is apt to force OF N ATT RE STUDY. upon her pupils univiTsals which have not rosulled fri iho pupil's mind. In naluro study tho order of mental i - ig ■om aetive mental profess in process is, therefore, as follows : (I.) I ndefined notions of individual wholes. (2.) U-arniuK their names, uses, and important characteristics, .\nimate nature ,s first of interest, while, later, inanimate nature becomes interesting bv the same process. - (J.) Keco^nition of liKenesses and differences. (4.) C-.roupins objects according to these likenesses and diff.-rences (5. ) Summarization of facts learned into a connected life history. Unimportant details are here omitted. (6.) Study of embryonic development. (7.) Kelalion of object to whole kin^'dom. This is classification on a scientific basis. E.uh step, as here stated, is an advance in the discoverv of relations, ending: ,n .u, uUal state-a knowledK'c of all relations. A fully rounded course in nature study IS not complete without classification, but this is nccessarilv preceded bvyear, ot observinj.' and comparinjj in preparation for this classification. I. The child should upon enleriii>f school continue that course which he has been followmjf in his previous experience. He should extend his acquaintance with nature, but under more ideal conditions than have hitherto obtained, nistractin- influences will be removed, and the material for stimulation will be selected and .id.ipted to a systematic course of development. The studv of individual wholes will be followed immediately by analysis, and this in turn must be followed by synthesis. .\s stated under the general principles of psvcholo^v analysis and synthesis must j,'o hand in hand, and the extent of the a.ialvsis will be determined by the power of synthesis. Since the principal mode of sVnthesis in this stance is modelliuK, we should not demand minute analysis of obje'cts, nor should we attempt to analyse very complex objects. J. This study of individuals as wholes will be followed bv the studv of parts, the uses o( the whole and of the parts .md the prominent char.icterisl'ics which will attract the attention of all youn^' pupils. As soon as a clear notion of each part IS obtained, the name should be Kiven and the pupil should discover the use o le.-uh part by observinjf the object in its natural surrounding's, \aturallv a child IS first interested in movinj,' IhiuK^s, because his attention is compelled to chaufre from point ,0 poh.t hv ,he external ol,jWt ,„ovin^r „„,, „,, fiM „,- ,„•,,„„ • "f. T T '"'"'''"' ""''"""" "■ •'"•"'"/*." "'"'''"fr II"- eye fro,,, poh.'t to p,'.!,., of the object. The child delijfhis in activity, but the teacher must see that the child's own activity is developed and not merely his observation of others' aclivitv The former means development ; ,lie latter arrested development. The chil.l ,„ust express ,t,elf hy the ,„o,le best fitted to its st„jre of ,m;,t„l po^ver. .1. Some claim that differences .ire first noticed bv children; others .hat nesemblancesare. The fact seems .0 be .hat both are phages of one menial process. Two .hinKs would no. be recoKni/ed as two unless thev differed, at least in poM.ion, ,n tmu-, or in space; hence, in recoKni.in.„' anvthiuK' we have .wo Jud^Muen.s, imphci. or explicit, i. e.. this is not .he same object as that ; thisobject -s like .hat. Since .he notions of space and time are necessary jud^men.s. we 20 — THE PSYCHOLOGY have the recoK„.t.on of res^-mblance as the actual mental process. The child is W . .. *"" '""""*' •"•'''•^'"-- ">oo...oo,s," all coins "doll-.^s.- NVhen Hdu ts see a s,nu,Ke face, .hey i„.„.edi:.,..|y see a likeness to sonu- fan II L eel";: "T ;"'""""■ ""' *"""• '"" •" "-•^ «• ""• "— . ■— • ■-- : «eems to proceed from no,i„K resemblances to noting differences. I„ „.e s.udv of .u. tnre therefore we will beKin with nonn,. resemblances, and later di,i:re k^. "r tr.r.r.'''"'''^ ^-"'"^ how does 1...^.., Can.y.hecom,.arison ^. This recojjnition of likenesse„s leads lo a ^ronpin,; of objects which are z::^: ^tr-^-^f^^^ ;•"-"- This ^J-pin, is r^nm..:;:^': d icnlatne. U „h n.crease o( analysis and comparison, classification will bccon.e n ore ,n,e„s.ve as to species, and n.ore extensive as ,o characteristics. A fi ohjecs are classed n.,o two classes, with one distinKnishinj; cbaraCerfs.ic. Ko Z^ileHsr r"^7"""' ''"""-"«-- -CryplOKams. I. one distin^isl^^^ ur":ci."'"'"T'^7'' """"'"• ^^'"-— •i-'hec,as'fica,iot cha actens,.csd.stn.K.nsInnK i, fron. others. Hence, dassifica.ion is seldon., i'f ever, final In na.nre study, therefore, we be^in with lar,.. classes based on one k" 3t '!;""■""*■""''■• "-^^'^ ''""-^-"-'' -in, to habitat; ,„::: KrowniK n s .„,,,„. „, ,va.er, etc. Aft, , a fuller analysis, we K.oup then, in 0.ders. then ,n C.enera, and finally species. At first .. dassiCv f, on externa co.u.e e leatures ; later we base our classification on n.ore ideal ..... :^ : h as relationship of parts, etc. 5- Whenever a phase of any object has been completely s,..died .he knowledge ^a.ned should be arranged in a., orderly wav, Ji.l.er'as a vi.., dMK.a,n or wr..,e., composition. This will cons.i...... a ,„e his,.,rv .,r ,l.e s..l.je^ .xped.te con,par,so.,. In any such sun.n.a.y ..nin,p„..,an, details. „„icl. were ne.essar,ly .,o.ed .n the first analysis, will be o.ni.,ed. whether .he s..,n,na.-v be ... one or o.her of „.e above for.ns. Such a su.nn.arv is a prepara.i br . e to .he wn.ten symbol ,s a process of on.i..inj,. de.a.ls. The .node o. exn.vs.ion At tins su^e, .herefore. na.u.e s.udy is pa.,ic..la„y associated w.,h co.npnsUion. 6. h.nb,-yonic developmcn.. in i,. r..|.,,i.,„ ,., Science, is a par. of „ .,.,re a^Zr^s..^ '.":,?""'■: *"" "•'^'■"'" "^- ^"""^ .-Pilseo.npara,i.'.,v we,,. e h'ulv of h '':•"*■; '""■'■'"^'- ■''"""■'' """"^ ""''''^ -..s...d^ .he whole hfe h.s.ory o. .he f.og or of .he .oad, fVom ckk .o adult, as easilv as ,hcv c„, observe any o.her na.ural process. The s...dy of ,l,e life his.orv of .he b Me t^ .s very easy, as is also .ha. of the n.osunito Often onlv a ■,.... .... '""""> n.y be Observed, bu. .his observa.il ^4 ^:X^:::::1 1 ^^^^Z verbal de,scr.p..ons. However, the true beari.,, of s..ch s.udy do'es no be^^o. clear un..l an advanced s.^ge of mental progress is reached Thisme^Irtl'a'r;'"*'''°""'"T'""''^ "^ Hassifica.ionon a scien.ific basis, means that the d.scovery ot relations a-no-.g particulars has been carried to I i ■1 OF XATURE STUDY. _^, a fiiialily. so that each individual is di»ti„KiiisI,t-d from all others. When an objeL-t has been classified, then, and not t ,en. ean it be defined. The lullness and hnahty ot the definition depend upon the completeness and corre.lness of • he elass,heat,on. Such a classification can be made only after years ot study. 1 Ins does not mean that a pupil cannot b.- tauRhl to use a kev and thus find the nan.e o. an n.d.v.dual, hut such a mechanical operation. thouKh bas<>d on the analysis o( the object, does not mean what is meant here by classification. We "..an by ,, the actual comparison of the individuals, and the K-oupiuK' of them M.to hrnuhcs, ,.nn,ies Cc, acco.diuK 'o .heir .esen.blances and differences. ...,//,»«/ //„. uui,.J ..key. The key sifould be constructed by each student for himsell. a' least m part. Course in Nature Study. T he clearest exen.plification of the preceding princi|,les can be shown most cle.yly by Kun.jj a course of nature study adapted to the different grades in puhhc schools. 1 he coursehere ^iven has been prepared by the author for a certain sys,e,n ol schools n, a Canadian city, and has been in .>peration for a sufficiently Ion., .une, nearly three years) to prove its prac.cability. It is assun:e.l tnrouKhou, .ha, the course w,ll be dl- -ctly related to readinj.. drawing, and con.position. as nuules ol expression a .J to KOORraphy and physioloKV. Teachers are also expeded to Innit the analysis of any object of study according! .o the p- er of synthesis ol her pupils. .Accordinjilv when we say in made M. " Review work of precedn.^' Krade." we mean that the analysis will be extended in the higher Krade. 1 Ins will be exemplified later in the outline of a lesson on a particular object, the butterfly, adapted to each of the three staRes of mental development, primary, secondary and tertiary. FIRST CLASS, Parti I and II. Position and appearance of sun, moon and larger stars, observed throuKhout the year. " Color of sky at different times under varying conditions. tJeneral color of landscape at different seasons. WINTER. Ice and snow, Jack Frost, wind. Winter birds, crow, sparrow, chickadee. Trees in winter. Comparison of evergreens and deciduous trees. Study the domestic animals during the winter. At Christmas study liolly and mistletoe. SPRING AND SIMMER. Study sap and making maple sugar. Melting of snow and ice. Return of the birds— keep a bird calendar. I- cod ol birds and their actions — singing, nesting. Common flowers, e. g., trillium, hepatica, spring beauty, etc.-Names, color, place of growth, time of flowering. 3i — THE PSYCHOLOGY Plant NecdN, and observe germination autl growth. Observe squirrels, rabbits. FALL TERM. A few common plants, seeds and fruits. Dis-semination of such seeds as thistle, burr, dandelion, milkweed, maple. SECOND READER, More details about sun. moon, and stars. Color continued. Eclipse of sun or moon , one occurs. .Need of sunlight for plants and animals. Movements of plants towards sun. WrNTER. .Study forms of snowflakes. Different forms of water-ice. water, vapor, steam. Change from one form to another. How much of a piece of ice floats U-low the surface of water? Compare large and small pieces. ^ leav.S'T' How ?" "' "'^'"' '"'""'' ^°'" "^"''""'' ^'''""'- ' '^' ''P'"^'^ "^ed its d.^ m wmter? W hat do bears, squirrels, coons and frogs do ? SPRING AND .SIMMKR. Add details to course in Parts I. and H. Continue bird and plant calendars. Begin a butterfly and moth calendar. J^;*'P '^dpolcs m glass jars for two or throe monthsand observe development to adult frog. \\ rite story of its life. and bieat^e!"""""' '"'"""'" ""'""*• ""'*' ''^'"'' '""""'• »f'"'*- ""^ '"'■>• ^-i"* Young mud turtles -observe them burv themselves in the fall Collect iar^-^ from milkweed, parsley, carrots tomatoes, etc. Keep until they change to chrysalis. P KALL. Observe emergence of butterflies from chrjsalids. Write stor^-of the butterfly. 1^ ter observe cocoons and chrysalids which live through winter. Collect coccoons and keep in cool place through winter. i^oi loons Observe date of departure of common birds. Why do they leave ? Use of birds, and why we should protect them. Ix>ok for buds Oil the trees before the leaves fall. Obsc-rvv falling of leaves, change in color, mode of falling. Observe ever- greens. What becomes of the fallen leaves if not burned' rod, gerans.*""" •"•"'"* = '-'^'-■"'"^f P^—. butter-and-eggs, and asters golden- birds^etc' "' "-''^'''*-'"*-"'"'»»-" "f -eds by various agents, wind, water. the >'^™n ' °' '^'"'' '"'" '■""'""' """ '""'"'"• '-''■ • '^''''""^ •«" "-'"'"*''^ throughout Observe plants mentioned in second reader. OF NATURE STUDY 33 THIRD READER. funv*'"or' "^ T^ """""• ^'"■"'' ""'* P'»"^'"*' «'' "'^■y »PP-«r. Eclipses more s. aso, s - effoct - pos.t.on of moon in various months. Observe wind oaoh d-.v P;...hn.d,rec..on-.H.. s.ron..s. -eff... on .re.s. Soi, ofditr^n'^K WINTER. As before passing to consideration of glacier. ieeber»r ivalan.he \r f ^^"o;:;rz:"'' n""""- ^''''^ ^"^"-^"^ --- ^'ori::.':;.:^^^"^ Ubst r\e shapes of trees, nests in them. Examine struelure of buds, twijfs. Winter condition of former animals, also flies. mos-'■' '>■• -•'^""-- ""-■■%. ^"a^on. FAI.I.. Collect cones of eyerfcm>ens ^ keep till seeds discharso. Observe those «lmh remain on tree all winter. When do they fall ' ^^ J'lan.s, especially of sunflower type, (composites,. Detailed study of two or Crayfish, spiders, snail, slug, clam, bee - Instinct. Comparison of the two great types of plants, bean-type and wheat-tyne Compare leaves, stems, flowers and seeds. ^' Improvement of species by grafting, cultivating, selecting seed. FOURTH CLASS. Previous course more fully studied, inquiring into causes. ^4~ THE PSYCHOLOGY I WINTER, Discover causes of cold weather — glacial action. Summarize knowledRt- in cmpositions on " Our Winter Birds :" " The Sleep of I lanis i" " Hibernation of Animals i" " Ho»v Plants shed their U-aves." Simple physical and chemical experiments. SPRINti ANI> SI MMRR. Collection and classification of plants. IVep.',rc first .-. rudinu-nlary key before making use of the botanical keys. .S|X.c,aI study ol injurious plants Ihrouffhout the year, and how to destroy bliKlu ''""'' "' '''■'"" ^ ''''"^'' ''"'' '-".^--rust. smut, black-knot, apple scab. Study of fun>ri, m.Ks.,, lichens, ferns, externally. I'olsot.ous plants, parasites. Kelalioii o( plants to insects. Compositions ..Cross Fertilisation;" "Plant Enemies T ...Movement of » lants i Relation of Plants to Soil ; " " How Insects Benefit Plants." ANIMALS. Classify animals into branches, thus : Biick-boned animals — squirrel type — Vert ebrata. Soft-bodied, boneless — snail type — Mollusca. I.c>fs. nian> -jointed ~ crayfish' type - .Arthropoda. Classifj X'ertebrata in classes. Cat type — Mammalia. Bird type — Aves. Lizard type — Reptilla. Krojr type — Amphibia. Fish tv pe — Pisces. Study smaller forms of animal life, e. s- plant lice and related pests, buffalo carpet bci-lle, caddice-flies. clothes moth. spidcfr"" '"' '""'^""^^'^ ^""'>- '^'"''"'' ^•'a-"' of animals, birds, fish, butterflies, moths, Let pupils develop individuality. Summarize as under plants. Relations of animals lo man. History of certain forms, when introduced, how spread, loss to country aiviually, directly and indirectlv. ">""r^ Our duly towards animals. OF NATURE STUDY. — 'S Method of Nature Study. "A metkud is derived from a principle.' —HAifKlS. After so .nmh ha. be.-., ,aid abou. the ,.rind,,le of oonMr.uliv.- a. livi.v a..d ... a...o„ upon e„viro.,„u.„,. ,bo.e is li„l. ,o be said o.. ..u- <,.u.s,io„ of ....'..hoU. ..x.ep .oshow.he practical application of .l.c principle ,o ..ach Ma^.- of cl.iUI l.re. I, .s evident that our n.e.l.od n.ust vary in these three stages. In each stHKc we have to consider : (,) .n.ter of study and how to obtain it ; (.) the teacher s work ; (3) the p„pil s v»ork. ' In the first sta^^e the matter of nature study is that with which the pupil can and does co.ne n. contact. The innnediate envitontnen. of the cluld is , e field of study. 1 he extent o. the an .lysis of the n.afer studied will be de.ern.in. d as heretolore stated by the child's power of synthesis. Mow shall this „,a., . Z obta-ued.^ n.h,spnn.ary sta^e we cannot depend to anv ..eat extent upo.' hepupdsab,l..y .0 collect, unless under the direct supervision of the tea C onsenuently. teacher and p s nn.st n.aUe excursions together. »u, freouent 3r^:""""'M "'■""'"" "°' """''*'-''"'■• """ ■'- ^- -"""• "•^'' '"'^- .0 natu.e. ue nu.s, h,..^ nature to the children. The ren.arks which follow con- cernmK school j^ardens. etc.. are applicable ,0 all three stages of child-life A par. o the school yard. nus. be se. apart for the .eception of plants of d.fte.ent k.nds. 1 he li...it of the kinds of plants will be de.ern 'in. v ,h'e exten o ne K^.rden space, and by the natu.e of the soil, and the possibil,; of varvin^ .he ond,.,ons. I, one pa.-, can be kept shady, another sunnv, another dan.p ; i^ ai ' a^i t- 7'^ ' "r""'" '*"""^' """""'^ '■"''>•• "■'■ - — - V c..l.!v te ■ anv .n.les. In stockn-K this pardon with root stocks, bulbs and s.nall trees , in plan„.,K seeds a,,d in caring, .or all. .he .nost i.npor.ant facts about plants vill and w.ll br,nK w,.hn, reach .he insects and bi.ds which cot.stantly visit th.'n, i, s ..ccessary to have some n.ore lin.ited space in which livinjc ani.nals and plants n.a, be brouKh, „„o the class-roon,. There should be a caKe, in which .a .bits .SU.nels. bnds, etc.. can be kept for a few days, observc^l. and then se. L a.d ,,ay be Mocked f.om ,.„,e to ,.„,. with the prope. food plants of the ..sect « Ich ar.Mo be studied. A few yout^K cabbaKe plants on which the e«Ks of t e .abbaKebu.te.fly have been laid , a you..^ potato plant with the e^Ks o le 'J atr 'Iv r* "r '" '"l'" ^^ ^■"'■^'"' ^^'"^ ""^ ^^^^^ "<■ "- ^asten'swano .. hMi;? ""'"•°'"^'-r«-"- «'-" ■■'•"■"His. e. g.. toad. ...ud-turtle. ,nav be >^. P .n the terranun, and their habits observed, especially their burtow iuR when .old weather comes on. A sn.all terrarium may be ar. an^ed ,0 open to t ,e Tnte g6 — THE PSYCHOLOGY air Bnd bee. can be kept and observed in iiafely. One molh, kepi in h cage on window oil! will «ltrai-l olhern of its kind of Ihe oppoxile sex. Then there muil be an aquarium, Mmall enoHijIi to be cariied about, jet large enough to acionimodate Nmall Mixed fish, iray fish, niudturlle*., etc. A lillle care in obHerving and collecting water-plant,, will «>on enable Ihe teacher and pupiN to keep a balance between plant and animal life without any further care than to keep Ihe vessel clean, in a favorable light, and to replenish' the water as It evaporates. Care must be taken to put just enough food in the aquarium so that none will remain. If loo much is put in, Ihe surplus must he carefully removed. All theie are for living things. Rut there is a place for dead things and pictures of living things, especially if the pictures are in colors. There should be stiiffeJ s|H;cimens of representative birds and mammals and preserved specimens of insects and plants for ref-rence and for the purpose of showing how this work should li.- done. But avoid trying to have a complete set of specimens, and, above all things, do not think that the study of dead specimens, especially dead birds, IS nature study. It is belter to get your s,H?cimens of birds and mammals from a regular t.ixidermist. rather than to accept them from pupils, who should rather be discouraged from collecting birds and birds' eggs, because of the im- poilance of preserving our birds from complete destruction. Encourage your pupils to expend their collecting energy on insects and plants. A few life histories of butterflies, moths, and beetles, should be prepared for reference and for review work. Several typical si>ecimens of plants, especially of those more difficult to obtain, should be pressed, dried, mounted, and properly immed, in order to show how this work should be done. Specimens from remote districts very properly find a place in the museum, as they will arouse interest in their native country and extend the knowledge oi familiar nature. Kiiially, althouf.h these should not be studied very extensively until Ihe third stage ofscluKjl-life is reached, specimens of all the common minerals and rocks of the coiinlry should be in every museum. If, corresponding to each mineral, pictures of the mines, of mining machinery and of Ihe mining country can be procured, geography may be made a profitable study. Sections of wood, in its natural state and also polished and stained should be obtained. Corres|jonding to these, pictures of Ihe whole tree in its natural environment should be secured. The Work of the Teacher and Pupils. The teacher will first of all select the material for study. Having done this and provided suitable quarters for it, she must direct the analysis and 111.- expression of llio pupils in each stage in an orderly way. She must not allow tli. material to be so great in quantity as to confuse the pupil or to cause dissipatior, of energy and yet must sustain interci by allowing the p.ipils love of activity and discovery to find free play. The chief work of the teacher, at first, is wis', questioning suited to the pupils capacity. We shall illustrate the work o teacher and pupils, in all three stages, in a lesson or series of lessons on ih. butterfly. OF NATURE STUDY. _ FIRST STAGE, (5 to 8 years o( a|(.) Matkiiul: l-arva, i'hr>>Hiti>, nnilhulU'rt1>-al>ir, IIOMK, P„piN will ..HI. Where tlu-y haw Mvn each. ' Afu-r ohs.-. u.,»f i" li.e »l..«.room. Ihey may observe in their Kardeim «| home. .MOVKMKNTS: Observe .he larva era«l «„U eal. TelMunv i. doen , \\ha..loes ,t do when dls.nrbed? Observe i. ,„oul. and .ell what .h,,,,.- in apivarame resuhs. Observe i. pass into .he W.rvsalis s.ale. n.ns llu- . hrvsalis move-. Howisi, Hxed? Obs,.rve -he b..,.erfly en.erKe ,ron. .he .lu^sali^ W ha. .loes .. look hke f How does Ihe buLerllv move ahou. ? Can it w .Ik •' F.H>,.: Wha. does .he larva ea, :^ Does ,he chrysalis ea, 1' Supplv wild il .w..r, ^••.J o .s>Tv. .he h..,.errty «... m..,ar. Feed .lu- b...,erHv w,.h ho„ev and sunar. 1 ell how i. " drinks." Mow lonjf is i.s lon^iie ? 1"HU!K : What is .he lolor of eaih form ? STK.rr.KK: Wha. does the larva look like ? Has it a head ? Il.mmanv K'Ks has .,:■. Are .hey all alike? I|..« many are alike :> Mow. and for wha't purpose does ,. use them. Wha. does .he ehrysalis look like? Mas i. a h. -.d » Wha. doe, .he bm.erfly look like? Mow many divisio.is in i,s bodv ? Mow ." oiv w„.«s has it ? Mow ntany le^s has i. ? Observe i.s head. eves. a„.e,m„ ami .ell what .hey aie like. There is very li.lle that the pMpil can do here beyond M,akinjr oral deseri.v t.ons oteach observation. C... out a bultortly from paper, and color i, ,o n.atch 1 he pup.l must learn each of the above f.u-.s through his own s Mse-ae.ivi.v. .Mould the chrysalis ni clay. SECOND STAGE, (8 lo 12 years of ag«.) M-CI KR,,o, : K^^,,. Urv^. dT>«l,,. hutUrUy. Ii:,..lr.ui>.„s ..f o.lur,, .,r oiIkt, pr.s.nt. The ehild Is now capable of dependinjr p.nH, on n.en.orv and can .Iso .inajf.ne new lorms, if a.ded by .he .eachers descriplion. 11.,,,.:: Where are .he ejfK- laid? IWs .he mo.her wa.ch over .hem' I pon wha. plan.s d.n-s ,he larva f.vd ? Wha, plan.s will i, „o, e.„ ? Obser^; at ditr.Mvn, tinu-s of day. Where is the ch.ysalis usually foun.l ? (la.her information about ,l,is ,V.>„, oilti'ii'iit sources. What flowers do.-s the butterfly p,vf..r? Where docs it go ..t nl.^h, '^ In wint.'r.-' Obtain information fioin other soiMces ^7 '^^■;^;-= K-iew. IVscribe i.s mode of walking, m.n.Mlnj,, an.l eating Ob':.. 'V';" ^- ;">^-:'- «•— - i.. IK ac.ivi.y l,e,o..e and altr n. ti,,;; Obse.xe .1 breathe. Compare with o.n own biealhinj; 0„ '^T .""':7' ;'■"'" ,^""- " - ■'-' • \V"- ''-s it do most .,...„a«e ? Cou.K: Review. Mow does its color hannonize with its su,roundim,s ^ i ompa.e color of JilTercnt specimens. Mow do thev vary " ^'«'^nRK: Count the .mmber.,friM^.s.,se^nn;.n.s,: in, Ik. larva b..!,i„d ,he - - . On whuh one a.e the le^'s situated ? On whieh segments a,e th.- fleshy P--le«s s„na,ed? Compare larv.-e of difle.en, species actu-.lv ,' ;-u.red. and decide if they a^ree in these particu.a. '. ^rlt^ o: 5!;,.^^* "' "^ »8- THE I'SVCHOLOGY Conipart- tlu- ihry^li, with tho larvH. and Ull how ihey r..,.-,.,l.|,. .ai h other. M«k»> a Jraw liiK oC th.- i lir> H<.li». Compan. UifTriviit ihrysaliU,. How nia..> iM^rl, in tho hulL-rfly? How many wi,.^, and l..»rs? Wh.r.. an- th.v allaWud / Mako a drawing of the whoU- and irt' iho pi.rts. ».on,|«.ri. with larva and with ihry.4illH. IlK.M) AM. S|.;nsk OR.iASHi Examino tho ..yc-s with a l.ns and do..Tib... Kxamnn-th.- antinna-. Compar,- with olht-r hult.-rlli.s and moths. rVaw. Kxainitu- th.- lotiK'Ui- and compare with th.' mouth parts o( thr larva. tan it h«ar? Kxpcrinifnt to disi ovir. C'lin it snu'll? Kxpcrimcnt to disiwi-r. Kii.is: Obs..rvv a hutt.-rfly deposit its o^'k-*- Wher.. ar. th.v d.-poslfd / \\hy.' How many are d.-posifd in a pla.v ? Keop in a box untii th.v halih. Mow lonjf lH.|or.. they h;.t>h / OI„..rv. d.v.lopmeni o( the larva and ionipare dtflerenl stajfos with eaeh other, and with other larva;. Make drawinjfs ol eaeh ■laKi- to ki-ep lor n-lereiu-e. THIRD STAGE, (J2 to t6 Year, of Ag«.j The aim of tl,.. third stajje shouh' be to discover reUitioi.s. Whereas we have been more eoneerned about the where, how and the what, we now become eo.uern..d with the why. Kinally. we eU.ssily s,H.eimen as minutely as possible. Matkhia,.: As belor.. anil in .uldilion verbal descriptions ol dilVerenl lorms .-I ammal l,le and .-.n .inalytieal key of each branch, par.lv. .it leasi, the pupils own work. ' Hovi.: In a.l.liiion to what has b..en learned before the student should now delermnu. wh.o clfec. the larv.. h.is on its U....\ pl.u,,. Does i. des.rov it entirelv or m part .' Mow does the buUerlly ben^-Hl the Mow.-rs? Whv h;.s the butterH'v so lonj; a louKue .^ What relation is there helwecn the lenKlh .^< its lonjfue and j the llowers it visits';' Wh.t. rel.ition exists between the ti.ne o, appear.u.ce o. certain bulterllics and of certain llowers? MovKMHATs: Why does it moult its skin/ Why does i, Income resiles, b.-(ore„un.ltinK? Of whal benelit is this r-'stiessnes, te .he larxa ? Has it am ...ovcments «hich are protective? Re.ul about the mi^fra.ion of bu.terllies, ami what they do n. winter, (.on.pare wi.h other ins .ds. and with birds. looi): Why iire not c.-rlain bu.terllies tound in Can.ui.i ? W li.it ileti-nniiies .lu'ir ran>;e? Which is inosi e.isily killed by poisoning, .lie larv.u or .he bul.crllv '' W l,y - It you hnd Urv.e ondillc, ,. plan.s, li„d from your bo.miv if .here is an^ relationship between .hese pl.uHs. They will prob.d.ly belon,. ,o' >lie s.„ne familv C o,.ok: Observe if .he dillerent lorms arc pro.ec.ed bv iheii color? l-oinpare llie color of .he l.irv.i- in dilfeivn. coiidi.ions. fompiire the color of the chrysalis wi.h (he surlace on which ;. ri-sls STRtitiR,,: lompare all the bu..erlli..s sludied wi.h one ..Mo.her. and will, o.her inseils, spiilers, e.c. Tell what is char;ic.eris,ic of .dl bu..erllies which dis.in^niishes .hem Iron mo.hs, bei-lles, e.c. " resemblances I.iFK Hi II lip diflV ow are .hey adapted to tlu'ir -.pecics sludied .i Write mode t^i liviii)^-' iioidiiiff to the I complete account of its life. OF XATl'R/i STVny. «.v.. .•MT.-ssuv, t. ..a.h llu-, in sonu- wav. HmhII,- ,„mmari.i„« .1 ul ' ' .■xpr,.,MO.Msi,u.UK.,„al|y.ul,iva,..Ui„„„in,,roMi„Kwav. ' " ;','';' "•;"•';•■■ '••"' ''»' » «"•"• ''••»' ".•orr..|a..„a...r..'H..Klv ,vi.h oth.-r suhl..,, . ool study. ... K.. KooKraphy and phy, »,y. and should „„ ■ ,' :o::r::.nr:^:;::;;r;:::^r--- - - ■-•>. „.. ;;s ,he.:i;d;:::;rdX::;:;r.:;::^^ "-- ^ -P-- y in". ■o.u.<.ry and Z^^^t sZ^^ZTl T''"""' ;';;:: :"^r^'7 -' ^- ;• • Ha^t...::;-,::;::*;:*; :;;:;; -;;r on.'raU.d in tho d.-volopm.,,, of, ho ra.v Jan Ih. hild •• r • . k «'"'•''.'••'*•'■ .Vow, as bWor.. stated, dcvelopnu-nt of the ra.e r.-suhed Iron, the reaction of ;;'■"' ' " -vron-nen, in adapting it to his needs and ain.s. Toad p, i „ the present eoniplex environn.enl it is n.-eessirv I ho h . I , -'' - ^-- ""• - " as earpent ^ r;! ^^ ^ iSt^!;:" T f "■ u ds ,o..v„ every .ndus.rial n.eehanis.n in ord. ,e', and elothi. Z^J'\^^ lu- -.us, know enouKh about them to be able to interpret then, and ul-.ot h n -, nl.u m.^Mhese on the eurruuhnn as separate subjects thev should be vie d ' ."Odes o, expression of the eonstruetive aetivitv of theehild i, , • r::x;'— "- '• — ■-' ■- r ;.xp. ";o:;:;o^:;::-s:- IVoKressive development would lead Iron, the eonstruetive activities to the -.Uerlvn,^^ pruu.pL.s ^^overnin^ ,he growth of material, the pro. -sses de -I " men,, the a,,pliea.ion of toree neeessa,. to ae, upo,! the . n ^^ ' ," I :;^;::;.rt: r ;::: trr :trr - ""• ^'^'-' -- - -- ,rr.| I I .. , loinplele course in nature studv must be .oruUted w.lh manual tra.ninjf and domestic science. 3o~ THE PSYCHOLOGY Study of a Plant in Different Stages of School Life. I'LAXT - HitUfr.amit-Kf!jit, •i- Ta«ii f/nx. Sp.-iiim-n-. »rf ih.' wh.»l.- pltint shoiiUI b,- ohlniiu'il by Ih.- pupil,. Tlu-y should •liK up ii t.-w iiiiU tritiioplaiit Ihoin in ll... mIi.h.I ,n»rU.-i,. or, in nbM-n.'i- of nn •ppropilal.- pliMV. in .. b*.x. whiih may K- ki-pt in Iho wl..H.|.r.H.ni. Th,. .■urlit.r in On- vi.M.n iHom- planln nn- oblalm-il ili.- mor.- liki-ly ih.-y an- to rtiuirish. Try lo imilal.' in Ihi- stluH.|.r»H»in or yard ih.. railunil lonUilion- ol ,oil, liKlit, and nioi«'ndly prosi-m. nil surroinidinjfH, and Ih.- tiair of roll.iiion. WVro lh.-r.- f.-w or many plant, lOKi-thi-r ? Did ih.-y pull up lasily i.r not / W.-r,- Ihrro btv* or oth.T iuMvl, about llu- flowvrs? W.-r.- Ih.-n- any larMi- f,-,dinK upon tho pUiOts Ho .atllo or olh.-r animal, .•«( llu- plant / How do Inv, or oth.r in,ivl» fnt.-rand l.av th.-flowor,? \V,-r,- lluroany inMHt,ab,.ul llu- plant, whiih cannot get at Ihi- nn-lar in ihi- flower, ? In 111.' .lass-riHun, riH>t, ,ti-m, and l.-av.-, may In- ob,.-rv.-d in il.-l.iil. Kvi-ry- thlnjf ,li.«,ld 1>.- di,.ov.-r.-d by Ih.- pupil, ih.-ni,.-lv.-,, if po,,il,l... without wa,t.. of timi- and iin.rl. but th.-r.- ar.- alway, .-.rtain r.-lat.-d (a.l, whi. Ii may b.- .-onwv.-J to Ihi' pupil, ihrouK'h piilur.-, or by word,, .•,p.-.-ially in hi^hiT . la,^.-,. Th.' onv Ihinjf to avoid i, th.- all.-nipt lo for..- th.- pupil, to l.-arn mor.- form, wllhoul a.lual ns,iinilalion. Tlu' m.lhod of arousiuff nu-iiial a.tlvity vari.-, in ilu' dilf.r.'nl staR.-, M pr.-vi..UNly ,lati-d, and th.- ,auu- hold, in th.- study of plant, a, in any otlu-r study. nRST STAGE. What part of th.- plant jfrow, abovi- (fr.'und? What i, llu- natur.- of th.- und.-rK'rouiul part ? Wh.-ro was this parti.ular ,p.-iim.-n found? T.-ll wh.-lh.-r it jfri'w in ,had.- or iti sun. in dry, moist or in w.-l soil, or in water. Mow in;.»v plants jfrew where llu- speeinu-n, w.r.- foinul ? Mow .lo,,- ioj;.'tlu'r .l,J i. , Krow ? W.-re any of llu- pl.-.nl, .-..ten olf by aninjals ? What inse. Is were noli.ed about the Howers? Wh.ii were llu-y doiiivf ? PART UK PI.ANI AltitVK (;K.>IMI. How hi>fh diH-s it jrrow ? How wi.l.- •• Are ih.-re hran.hes V What kind .-i leaves are there ? Ho all ih,- plants b.-.-.r tK.wers ? What eolor ar.- the flowers ^ What iHK>r V How many on i-a.h plant ? How are Ihev ariaii>f.-.| ? Are all th. flowers open at the sanu- linn- ? What ilo llu y l.>ok lik.-'? Cut out paper flower- and l.-aves to look like the r.-.tl ones. Color ih.-ni. I'AKI OV PLANT I NUKRliRlU XI>. What kind of sirueture do the braiuh.s >jrow from ? (liive name r.>ol-sloek. . How many branehes -row from one r.^M-st.vk ? H.-« lonj,' is a r.Kn-sI.Kk Find llu- fibrous p.in, ^'rowinij downw.ird (rom th.- root-slo.k. How many ar there ? How lon^ ? Cut up the root-sloek into sever.-.l pieees and plant all tl pieces. OF AM TURK STl'DV. -Jf rmiT. Whal N ih.- Hhnp.' of ihi- rruil f U ii ^joihI Io .ni ? l\, „ni.tmU i-iit ii ? How mimy s.'.d, l«.il»nr..Kro«inK iu-«r it:' lompar.- .omlieioiiN ol pliml, (ouinl in iliinr.iil lo. aliii.,. |)„ Uu- plants vary with .•.»ndill..ii, ? lonip-.r,- pUnts «hi.li ^row in >liiul.- .in.l in snn. Compjir.' pl.mlN wlii.li jfr.uv in Mi..is( «oil with iIioh.- in drv M.il. Ulial kin.l ol' M.il H.-..n.s nio,i l.ivoraM.- lo it,., plant? Why ar.' llu- planln l.nnul in pal.lu-,? If animal- will not .-al llu-ni, dis.ox.r why. l>l.s..rv.- h..w tu-.-- . „i.t and l.-avo Ihi- fl.)w.r'.. Wluil in^Hls .ainu.t .nl.-r? Why I' Whal do Ih.- h.v, «.•! (rom thi- rtow.-r< ■/ Uhai do Ih.-y larry Ironi on.- flow.-i lo aii..lli.-r ■• I'AKr UK CI.AM AHUVK liH»l Ml. R.-vi.-w work ..r first Ma^.-. Wh.-r,- .|.h-s il jft ow hi^h.-r. In snn .t in shad.- ? In sand ..r in .lay? In m..i,l ..r in dry s..il ? What ar.- Hi.- hi^jh.-M plantn ohs.-rv.-il? Tlu- wid.-sl/ |.o.,k al llu- plant Ir.-ni al.ov.-. |).s. rih.- th.- app,-aran.-.- ..I Ih.- l.-av.-s. Mow ar.- th.-y alla.h.-d lo Ih.- sl.-ni ? Why ar.- Ih.-y n.>t pla.-.d ..n.- ahox.- tlu- ..||u-r? l>o ih.- l,-av.-s . Iiaii>f.- [hW,. lion in sunliKiM and at iiijflit. Mai..- .Irawin^s .>! wliol.- plant 1.. show vari.>ns p.>ints obs,-rv,-d. IVs.-rih.- a I.-a( liilly, and draw. I'.Mnpar.- with l.-av.-s ..I ..th.-r plants. Why ar.- Ih.- I.-av.-s narr.tw ? lonipar.- th.- nnnili.-r of l,-a\.-s with tin- MumtH-r .,n tlu- s..nrt..w.-r or otiu-r lar«.- l.-;.v.-d pla.it. Mako ;. .liavfra.n showinjf tlu- .ird.-r in whi.h tlu- flow.-rs op.-n. What advanlaK'.- is il to tlu- plant to hav,- llowvrs v)p«n siKi.-ssiv.-ly ? .Mak.- a dr.iwintf »»• •» How.r. H.OWKR. Ot>s.-rv.- tlu- diir.-r.-nt rt..r.il or^'.ms, .,dyx, .-on-Ila, slanu-iis, pistil. Ij.uv many parts in .-...h ? Show by di.-iKrani w li.-r.- .-.i.h pan is sitiial.-d. I l.,w is ih.- ..; -Ila ail..pl.-d lo invit.- tlu- h.-.- lo visit it ? What ..Mra.ls lli - 1..-.- ? Ol.s.-rv.- .mu- IikI.I ..n 111.- Ho«.-r and t.-ll jnst what h,.pp..|is .,s ih. h...- |,i;|,i,, .-nl. rs, an.l l.-avfs. What pari of llu- I..-.- l..-ionu-s .ov.-r.-d with poll.-n? What lu-.oini-s ot this poll.-n ? Wlu-ri- is thi- n.-.tar I'otnul ? KRI IT. R.-vi.-w Is it dry ortl.-shy ? ll.nvl.>n>f .l.vs it tak.- lo iiiatur.- ? n.vsit split opon wh.Mi rip.- ? How ? Why ? How tn.-.ny .aviti.-s in th,- Ihiit ? How many >.vds? Whor.- ,ir.- th.- s.-.-ds alt.i.lu-.l in tlu- fruit ? I low an- llu- s.-.-ds dis.harjf.-d Irom thi- pod/ Kxaniin.- a s.-.-d and mak.- .-. .lrawl„if. Mow is it mad.- so ..s to In-.arri.-d away? What .-.vf.-nt will .arry ilV I', , s.-rvo som.- s.-.-.ls and plant lu-xl sprinjf. fompar.- with ollu-r s.-.-.ls in shapo, si/.-, .■.)lor, ol.-. PART UK I'l.ANT INDKR.iR.H NH. R.-vi.-w .\...nint tor Ihi- pl.int jTrowin^ in pal.h.-s. Mow d.n-s th.- root-st.vk I,'. ow in li-nK'th .-a.-h y.-ar? What h.-.-om.-s .iC tlu- old p.-irf/ What happ.-ns to i!h- plant in wint.-r? Pn-si-rv.- rool-sto.-ks and plant thom in spring. (Civ,- nam.- iHr.-miial, tor plant whi.-h livos from year to y.-.ir, aft.-r pupils haw discov.-rod J' THE PSYCHOLOGY this f;u-l.) Compan- root-sloi-k with piilnto tiiht>r, bulb of oiiiiMi, i-orm of Indian liirnip. Is thf nii'l-sliH-k a stoiii or a root? Why? Cuiiipari- roots with braiu-hfs, in size, shape, strui-tur»-, as tar a.s ptvssibk-. Coinparo roots with those of othiT plants. THIRD STAGE. I'luliM- thi- lu'ail of oai-h, rovii-w work of pn'f«liii>r slajfi-s. \Vh\ do Ihi- plants jjrown in cliflt>ri-iU t'oiiJiliotis vary? In what kind of soil would a plant of this naturi- spn-ad most rapidly? How shouUI plants that jfrow in patilu's Ih- di'stroyi-d? What othor plants jjrow in patihosV Coinparo with this om- aflir inforriiiff in what rospi-i-ts thoy should ajfroo. What is the rolation of tho stnuluri- of thi- flowor to that of thi- hoi-? I'AKT OF IM.ANT AHOVK (IKOIM). PotiTinini- Iho i-xart loaf arranjfomont of the li-avos on Iho stem. Why arranjfcd in lliis way? Is (hi- sli-m woody or soft? An- tlu- Icavi's ni-t vi-ini-dor parallcl-winfil? Wrilo a full dosi-riplion of stem, loaf, and modi- i.^^ tlowi-rinjf, nsinjj li-ihniial lornis. What olhi-rflowors rosi-niblo this uno in niodoof floworinjf? (Intlorosi-onii'.) Is tho plant an oxojfon or ondojrcn? KI.OWKR. Writ I- lull di'si-riptionaooordinjf tosoinoprosi-riln-dfonn, slalinirthc numbor of parts in oaili whorl, and tho relation of oaoh whorl to oai-h ollior. Do this first in sinipli- lanifuai;.', and i,'radnally inlroduoo tochniial t.'rins, siuli as j^aniopotalous, oto. IX-tonnini' tlu' reljilion botwivii tho position ^^'i slanions and slijrnia, which favors cross Icrtilization by boos. Wli.it other flowers have closed corollas? Why? Why is the i-orolla spurred? What other fli>wers luave spurred corollas? Compare the lenj,--llis of the spurs. By what other me.iiis dopl.inls favor visitsby bees? What other insects cross-fertili/e flowers? Obt.iin further information from books on Xatinv, by IXirwin, Ciibson, Ciriinl, etc. Classify the plant. Writea full description of the fniit. Compare with other dry dehiscent fruits. In wh.it w.iys does the fruit favor the preservation of the plant? I'AKT 0|- I'l.ANT INDKRCiRlH Nl). Conip.ire the structure of the root-stock with that of the stem above fjround. What is the dilfi-rence between root-slock .iiul root? Oetermine the ajfe of the rooi-stoik by counlinjj the ring's of wood. Examine the root-stock in the fall and si-e what • •vir.ilion has been made for next year's jfrowth. Compare with annu.-ils ;ind mials. OF NATURE STUDY. —33 Matter of Nature Study. INTRODUCTION TO PLANTS. OUTLINE OF NATURE-STUDY WORK T'TH PLANT LIFE. Cl.iUlr.M, canh.. innod.u.Hl lo llu- >..uly of ,.,,.,.ls as .-.slv ... ,., ,.ny other .. ..r ,r ...Kis o, , ,.. woods a.ul .i.-Uls. W,,. , ,..,.. „„..„..,.., , . ^. ,.,„ ,„.^._,„, tliein a fonnal iiilroiliiilioii. *" "Why. that is a Wak.- Uol.h,. who liv.-s i„ ,h. woods ov.-r Ih.Mv. - or '. that ■ s my l.ady s Slipin-r, whi.h was lost n.any y.-ars a^c i.i Ih.- Corosl. A to.uh ot n.ali.y is add.-d hy li-is ,nMso„i.ua.ion, whi.h is roallv n.oro MruHy ,„ aoord w„h .h. ,r. ha„ ,o .onsid.. a plan, as so „„uh doadn.a.U.r I-a.K-y„„rod,u.,„,^achild of .onr,...,. y.-ars, „r l.-ss. ,o a hvi..,. i.ua.aa, . o •'.•au.y ,„ ,h.. ,..r,„s ofa .l.-ad la„«„aK.- Cj/WA.//,,,,, p„h,...:;,.. ,, ]''" "';"■*■'■ ^ '"' '•'•"• •■••■■"-' "■"' ^""li.-l MS a livi,,^, .hin^f. and aO.-r. _ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^ .lu. I.ad> s Shp.H., t A.,d wha. if i, is .,o. p,„ v ...lor ? UV ...v.-r thi.lk of h.- Ihfcolois o( llow.isaiv .K'vvr i-hi-ap. ^ UV ,„ay h-a... so.,u.lhi„,r fron, .\oko..,is i„ l,o„^;r..Mows " Hiawa.h. ' Sh.. was jfraiidmolh.r a.id li-aiher to him. "Ma.iy lhiiij;s Xoko.iiis laiiijhl him Ot thf stars that shim- in iiciarn ; Showi'd him Ishkoodah, Ih.- loni.'t, Ishkoodah, with fiery t.<'ss,.s; Showvd Ihf ih-alh-ila.ii-.. ol ihi- spirits, \yai.io.s with th.-ir phmi..s and war-i'liihs, I'lai.nj,' far awav lo .lorlhwaid I" tln' frosty ll|^|l|s of wii.lir ; Show.-d the l>road whit.- ...ad in h.-avi-ii, Pathway of Ihi- jfhosts, Ih.- shadows, Rmmi.iic st.-aiifht ai-.oss th.' h.-av.-.is, Crowdi-d with ihoKhosIs, Ih,- shadows. S;iw thi' r.'iinhow in thi' h.-avci, In tho fasti'rn sk^, Ihi' laiiih.iw, Whispfivd, -What is Iha', Xoko.nis? • And the f;ooil Nokoriiis answ 'n'd : lis till- h.'avcii of llowi-rs yon „-i. Ihoro ; All the wlld-HowiMs of iho loi.-st, All the lilios of tin- p..iiii,', \Vhi-ii on .•anil thoy fad.- and pi-.isl., Hlosso.ii ill that hi-av.-n al)ovi- us." 34- THE PSYCHOLOGY m 111 i\ "Of all heasta he learned llie lan^uaKe, Learned their names, and all llieir >ecret», How the beavers built Iheir Knijfes, Where the squirrels hid their ai-orns, How the reindeer ran so swit'tly. Why the rabbit was so timid, T.ilked with them, when e'er he met them. Called them, Hiawatha's brothers." Here was an ideal teacher of nature. There was no disserting but an interest in what they did. By some such simple method, the child should, in the course of an ordinary school life, become acquainted with the names of all our common trees and plants. As si>on as he is able, he should nole likenesses and differences, lie>;inning with the grosser and jjradually extendin>{ to the liner details, but the teacher must keep within the limits of interest, direct his elTorts, yet see that knowledge is acquired throujjh his own >elf-aclivily. Classification into orders, genera, and Hpecies, should be left for advanced public school work or for introduclion to high Kchool work. While becoming acqu.iinled with the names of trees and plants, quite young pupils can begin systematic work which requires only keen eyes and an interested mind to accomplish. They should note where the plants grow ; the kind of soil; the color, etc., and prepare lists of plants aci'ording to habitat : Plants growing in water, sagittaria, eel gr.iss ; plants growing in sandy soil, clotbur, evening prinnose ; plants growing in woods, lily, anemone. If such work as this is begun in a second form and continued throughout the school course, the child would h.ivi- a store of information about plants which would be of the gieatest value, whatever his future might be. Another line ot work, similar in nature, is gioupiM< plants according to lime of flowering, at first by seasons, then by moiillis, ami later by definite limiting dates, showing earliest and latest appearance in bloom. As a guide to teachers, and as an indication of the work that n)ight be done bv the pupil in the course of seven or eight years, a list of common plants is given in the appendix, grouped iiccording to habitat and color of flowers, with the time of floweiing indic.iled by figures, denoting the month, and letters denoting the seasons. The study of plants so far, in the schools of Canada, has been almost entirely limited to minute descriptions of individual plants with a view to tlieii- exact classifi- cation. While this work isquile in place for the advanced student, it isq: leunsuit- ed to the younger classes. Furthermore, t he h.tsis of classification has bci-i, :lie flowei to the exclusion of the leaf. As the latter is a much more permanent pirl of the plant than the flower, a classification b.iscd upon it has many advantages. In any case children should be trained to recognize plants by their leaves and general appi'arance, so that they can gather tliein at any time during the season and examine them. Alter a class has learned lo know a plant, it should be collected at regular intervals, say every month, and its development and changes noted. Tin illation mav be seen in the case of the dandelion, whici nnpurtance ol such exami immediately after flowering season should be examined daily, until the fruit OF NATURE STUDY. _ fully for„K.d. Th..n ,1,. life s.ory ofi, „.ay be wri.,.-.. jus. as no would w.i,o .ho li»e story o( a (,o>;, or ollu-r aniaial. This ,u.nodKoxamiMalion will lead :,, ,o Ih.. formation and d.-vHopnu-nt of fr«„ and the d,s sal of s....ds. Tl,.. seeds should be preserved in 1,. d paeka^es. planted in the ...lowin, spring, and ..,eirKern.inLionandt v « , 2 "Oted, thus ,on.plelniK tl'e observation of the life-evele. " \V,ledoinj;sueh work as the above, the p„pi, „,„ ,,;,,.,,.., ,„.. ji„i„„i„„ beU^e.. annua s,b.ennu.ls. and perennials. INnallv thisd u.ion is brou.h. be- o,otlu stnden. aOer a tew nu-nths' studv. bnt. eviden.lv. no one ean apprena.e .l.e d,stnu„on until a type of eaeh class has been studied for two or n.o! ';:.::: Ihus, the study of plants. ■• in the lar«e." will be followed by the study of Uu^u „.ore partu-u lar strueture : the buds, leaves. Howers, .ruit. andleeds. Kad of these may be taken ui turn, aud studie.l n.inulelv. Urin^r into your sehool-roo.n. in Mareh, branches of diflferent trees e ir .napU. apple h,.rse-ehes,n„, Keep ,beir cut ends in.n.ers „a,er. or ii. n.^, W M '/:; . '''"''•'■°-">-> ""'' "'—•'• .l..-developu.e,.,„f ,he bud. W 1 at luconu-s o. the brown scales? „ow is ,1,,. b,„, ,„,„,c.ed'r Where are ,be buds snuated? UhiH. ,s develop firs.V Are anv which J 1 d... opm,u.ro.,,„. Observe,)., develo, .„t of ,;,... ,,,,,. ,,„,., .sabud Mow does „ Krow.^ I.nd the buds which becou.e H.nver,. Which appear hrsl, Iju- leaves or the /lowersy '" "'>• -..aple. .he Howers are noticeable first. i„ ,he apple bo.l. develop -^.her. wh.le n. ,he horse chestnut ,he tree is in tul, .oliaKe'belore the twll •M'lH..,. iry .o d.scovero.her trees l,ke each of these .vpes „, respect ,o .he appearance ol the H.nvei s. compared with the leaves Following, the plan suj^^ex n a precedn-K paraKra observe these trees a Last o..cea mouth throughout the season. The developuu-nt of the fruit so.,ldbeh,llowedc.oselyandarecordofo. .ons kept. Does each blossl pro luce a fru.t . I, not. about how ,nany C • son.s do produce tru,.. Of ^ mts winch se, how.nany mature ? What ca .. .„■ ,be frui, „>„ to develop , Ope., hose .runs winch .all early to discover , .e cause o. their uon.developn.en. Study the structure of the fruits of tlu- trees n,en,ioned. (Third book nunils can do , ,s., ,n the maple ,Vuit. the peculiar win^ and .he n.anner o. ^ih.!: e MO ueable; n, the horse chesMu... ,he burr or shell, and the richlv colored brown ..s;.n..e apple, the fleshy n-ui, and seed cavities. Mow n.any se. avi." a.c the.e? How .nany seeds m each cavity? Look for otlu'r fruits like e uh of . ese types. Thus the ash and the elm have ,ed .Vnits, the chJ^n;, .^^ .h-nut have burrs; the pear and quince are fleshv. Why are fruits ^reen wh.le nnn,a.ure. a.,d b.own when ripe? Do ..ese colors protect them i,^ any In higher classes the study of buds n,ay be continued, in order to find when, where and how new buds are .orn.ed each year. Kxan.ine the bra.,cl,es closel • ;r. 'T ■„ uV " "■■"""■ "'"'•* "^'^ •■'"•■""''•" •• ■ "-eason before ■ he UMVes all. W here are they fo.u.ed ? How and when a.e they coated with u.m . U hat otbe.. prote..ion have they ? Open one to see. T.^ to disco ^ .11 tla ,s con.a.ned n. a bud. S.udy the mark (scar) left by the leaf after i, has fallen .ro.n the ..ee, also the rin^.-liUe .narks of the scales of a bud. The 36- THE PSYCHOLOGY distance bHwepn these rin^-like marks represenlia year's jfrowth, hence the age of a shtiol can be determined hy observhig these. The little sp«ls scallered over the surliiie of the stem are breathing pores (leiiticels. ) Where are ihey most numerous ? The terminal buds continue the growth of the stem next year. Some of the axilhiry buds develop and produce lateral branches. But many of the axillary buds never develop unless some accident happens lo the terminal buds. Break off the terminal buds of healthy branches on a tree and note the result. A few years ago the tussock moth larvs destroyed ihe entire foliage of shade trees in Toronto and elsewhere. Later in the season the trees were not only covered with leaves but flowers as well. Sometimes in spring, trees leaf out early and have their leaves totally destroyed by late frosts, but the reserve buds are sufficient to renew the foliage and prevent the death of the trees. During the winter, trees and shrubs should be observed as to outline, habit of branching, nature of bark, etc. Leafless trees are especially valuable as objects for drawing lessons, and birds' nests can then be observed, which escaped detection in the summer. The nature of the wood itself should be studied, so that unscrupulous dealers can not pass off black ash for oak, or stained pine ' r mahogany. In autumn, study the tailing of the leaves. Some trees shed their leaves sudden- ly, e. g., horse-chestnut, walnut; some shed them gradually, e. g., maple, poplar; some retain a few brown and withered leaves throughout the winter, e. g.. oak, boech. When do these latter leaves fall? Why? Group the trees according to these different ways of shedding their leaves. Study the evergreens. Do they shed their leaves? One is apt to answer " No;" but is immediately reminded of the bed of pine needles which carpet the ground under the old pines. Cut off a branch of a pine or spruce which has a l.-^afless portion. Observe the different years' growth. Examine the leaves on each year's growth. Which year's growth is entirely leafless ? What portions have lost part of the leaves? What portions have lost no leaves? Compare different cvorgrc-cns, as some shed ther leaves in a different way from others. Notice the Scotch pines and yellow pines in October. Certain groups of the leaves are noticeably yellow and falling. Which year's growth is this ? In what way are evergreens better adapted to withstand winter weather than maples ? Which kind of tree will flourish better far to the north ? The cause of the falling of leaves is not, as is generally supposed, due to frost, though a frost may hurry the process of falling. The leaves would die if there were no frosts, as you may observe many do early in the season. Examine the point of connection between the leaf and the tree at different times during the year, and try to discover the cause of falling. RlXJTS. There are many interesting facts about roots, which may be made the subject of nature study. They must be distinguished from underground stems, which bear buds. In origin they grow from the descending axis of the plant. Ob- serve sprouiing seeds and distinguish the ascending axis (stem) from the descending axis (root ) Examine the small rootlets for the root-hairs, which OF NATURE STUDY -37 absorb Hater Where are these root-hairs mu.,t numerous? Why a r.- roots so .rreKular unhKe stems ? How would the soil affect the regularity o, a J" off b> the soil. throuKh whuh it forces its way. This root-cap is a verv important part of the root. »ap is a w r> Examine the roots of clover and other n.embers of that family of plant. noUuhs play a very nnportant part in the nourishn.e,., of these plants, as .heyare tenanted by mn.ute forn.s of plant life (bacteria), which have ,h • p :.' of a«sn.,.a.n,K n.troKcn directly fron. the ai., which plants and a a.V Z.1 fcr .hze.s of .he so.l. as (arn.ers have lonK known. A crop of clover plo..»:hed as n:rnni:r " """ "" '"■'■'""■'■" '"■■ ^"'- J"" "- ■""-'"""- »- -'^' mor."s".d''"7 "'■"" ""'"^'- ;""'>' — -- - '° '"'ve each p„pi, ,„ant a dozen or more seeds of var.ous kn.ds. (wheat, bean. pea. corn, nu-lon.) and report each week or o ,ene. u,K.n their K'rowth. The teacher should keep few sec' Is .f e same kn,d ,rown„ (b.- .,ass demonstration. ,o correct errors and 2^^:^^ TRKKS THAT SIIKD TIIKIR BARK. We are all fan.iliar with the phenomenon of trees shedding their leaves We tame , tZ .l 'TV "" """"•• ""■ ^•"•>"- ""■ -"-""• -^ "-« stan,ens. Then, usually, at the close of the season, the fruit falls. There are exceptions to nearly all these s.a.e.nents. but Kcnerally speakin,. they a!: tnle Most of our trees shed their bark also. This is most evident on the sycan.ores and birches, bu it ,s none the less true of other trees. ,n winter the bunches of the sycamore ^list.-n alon^ the river valleys, and the lateness of the leaves . spring marks these trees distinctly against the surrounding ,'reenness T, c^:'::i 7 ""■'""'r''''"""' "'"''"' '■ -'"'^i^-.' fvoi.; ^hici'th Us bark .'"• :■ T ""' '°"'-"'*''' ^"'^"'■" "r'"" ""^"^-^-^^ '- Xory sheds ts bark in strips, which K-ves the name to the tree, while the ro.iKl. surfaces ot he maple, oak. walmit. and other trees shows that the same process is g. in. - there_^tho.igh less regularly. ,t is. in fact, a necessity of their' mode of ^o^t^i. TheKrowthofourcommontreestakesplaceintheareajustunder.hebaik or between the bark and the wood. This area is called the cambium. ,t g o^ boU nwards and outwards, forming wood on the inside and bark on the o.ftside A the tree increases m circumference, the bark of previous years' growth is shoved outward, but being too small to cover the increased circumfereL it sp its Ze or less irregularly, and eventually scales off very quickly and coinpletily in "he sycamore, and more slowly in the maple and other trees' ' ^ Some trees e. g., palm, and some plants, e. g.. corn, lily, do not grow as above desc-ribed and in these there is no bark, although the outer layers of ceU are somewhat different from the inner ones. These trees and plantshav " poims of growth throughout the stem, and the wood is formed at these points ilbud In the more advanced classes the pupils should observe the relation between 3S~ THE PSYCHOLOGY |Haiil» and the •.oil. Some plants flourisfi bef»l In Hamly noII, and are likely lo crowd olhi-r!. out of snih soil, ihouKh these otliers miffht be able to jjrow there, if not li> loniiwlitioii with tli«.e natives, a, they may be c«lled. Oilier plants Krow in water, and cannot possibly live on dry land. Others k^'W ii» swan.iw, others in shady woods, some in sunny |>laces, and some prefer nMtieral soil. Thus, of trees. ever>;reens prefer saiuly or Kravelly soil, while the hardwiwd trees, oak, maple, beech, need a heavier soil, clay loam. Willow and sycamore jfrow bi-side flowintf Mreanw. and tamarack in cold, wet soils. The study i.t these >{roupj of tree* may be carried on tor several years. Modern botany |>laces great stress upon the study of the adaptation of plants »o enviromnent, which Is known as evoloKy. Plants are found to g. ow In societies, according to the nature of the soil, moisture and climate. Thus, we have peat bi^K «>cielies, swamp societies, forest societies, descMt wui.'iits, lence-corner, and roailside societies. Four great societies are now recognized : (i) Water plants, i. e., those which grow where water is abundant, (Hydrophytes); (2) Drought plants, i.e.. those which grow in extremely dry soil, and In a dry atmosphere, (Xeropl.ytes) ; (3) Plants that grow where there Is a medium water si.,,ply, ( Mesophyles. ); (4) PlanK that grow in soil which contains a large amount of ntineral matter, ( Halophytes). OF NATURE STUDY —39 Appendix. The mimlu.rN Mjiiul for llu- nionliw of flow.-riiii: • S MUinmer ; L. S. — lat,. ,.,„„,„,.r. MiniiiK-r ; A. S. all PLANTS OF ROADSIDE, BANKS, ETC. ShepluTd's Purse, 4-11. Virjfiiiia CVfi-por, 7. Hedni- Miiulwfed, A. S. BiHiiu-iiij; Hi'i, S. MiiNk-M.'ilJoiv, 6-g While Sweet Clover, 7.9, Wild Carrot, 6-9. Charloek, 6-8. Mustard, 6-9, Wood Sorrel, A. S. Butler and V.^^s, 6-10. Yellow Sweet Clover, 7.9. Sweet Biier, 6-9. Aix)eyiiuiii, 6-7. Bouiieiiif; Het, S. Catnip, 7-9. H.OVVKns WIIITK. Mayweed, (yellow disk), 7.9 Boiiesel, 8.9. Yarrow, 7.9. Asters, 6-0. Kib Grass, (Kn>f. Planlain,) 3. Round-leaved Mallow, 6- 10. FLOWKRS VKI.I.inV. Tansy, O-io. Eleeanipaiie, S. Mayweed, (white ray,) 7.9. Mullein, 7.9. Wild Sunflower, I,. S. Fl.t)WKRS PINK, RKI>, ETC. Musk Mallow, 6-9. Yairow, 7-9. Teasel, 5-8. FLOWERS BLIE, PI RPLE. Common Speedwell, 6-8. Asters S Wild Toad Flax, 7-9. Be^Ka'rs Lice. 6-8. C ue Veteh, 7.9. B^,,^ ^,^^^.^._^^ Chicory, (also whiie, or pink,) 7.0. Self- Heal, 6.9 Vipers Bujfloss, 6-8. PLANTS OF DEEP WOODS Soloiiion's Seai, 5.6, False Solomon's Seal, 5. False Lily of the Valley, 5-6. W'ake Robin, 4-5. Fainted Trillium, (crimson veins,) 4.5 Canada Violet, S. Blood Root, 4.5 Toothwort, 4.5. Leek, 6 FLOWERS WHITE. Mitrewort, 5. False Mitrewort, 5. Bunch Berry, 6. Shin-Leaf, 5-7. Indian Pipe, 6-7. Dutchman's Breeches, 4.5. Squirrel Corn, 4-5. Wood Sorrel I, 6-7. 40 — THE PSVCHOLOCY ruiWItllS VKLLOW. Wild 0{ii|t»r, \$. Hliif Colitmli, 4.5. Yellow LuUy'n Slipper, 7; Yi-llow Wood Sorrfll, 5i), ^ KlAlWKRii PINK, tW HKI). Wild OiHHKefed Lily, 6-8. Herb Uoht-rt, 6-8. HIiiii-LeHl', b-1. Twill Flower. 6. Twiatcd Sl.ilk, yh. Jack in tlu' Pulpit. Aslers, 5, Rock RoMe, 7-K. Hairy I'uccooii, 6-7. Sweet (ioldeii Rod, H. SWKKM, BLl'K, OR H^RPLK, lil-M'eiiled Wake Roliiii, 4-5. PLANTS tiMKF.N. PLANTS OF SANDY SOIL KUnVKRS WHITK. ri-OWKKS \KI.I.OW. Yellow Kvi-iiinj; Primrose, 6-9. Coliiii)!)iiie, 6-7. S*. J(>liii'> Wort, 6-9 American ^a Rocket, 7-H, Uusli Clover, I.. S. Wild t.iiinit*-, 6-7. Purple lierardia, 7. n.OWKKS PINK, RHD. ilolbiii, L. S. Bird's-eye l'riiiii«»e, 5-6. ri.t>WI-:HS BLie OR PIKKI-K. Asters, 7. Hepalicii, j-4. Wood Anemone, 4-5. Kue Aifinoiie, 4-5. TiKmble Weed, A. S. T Will J.eaf, 4-5. Diiwiiy Veil,,-* Violet, f Spring Beauty, 4-5. Wild Geranium, 5-7- Thorn Apple, 6-g. Dodder, (paraKitic) i-S. Wild Carrot, 8-9. PLANTS OF OPEN WOODS, AND GROVtS. i>'lA>WI':KS WHITK. May Apple, 5 Star Flower, 5. While Aveiis, 5-8, Kive-leavi'd (•iiiseii^;, 6-8. Wild Sars»|Ktrilla, 6. FI.OWKRK VF.I.LOW. Dojj's-Tootli Violrl. 4-5. FLOWERS PINK, RKD, ETC. I-ousewort, (also yellow,) 5-7. Piirple-floweriiijt Raspberry, 6-8. PLANTS <0f DRY SOIL, FLOWERS lAHITF. Everkislinif, 4-5. Kleabafw (yellow disk) 6-7. Ox-Eye Dati>>y, (yellow disk) 6-7. y OF NArr/fE srtrnr. fiuttcrcup, 6-9. J-'ivo-KinKor, 5.H. .Shrubby Cinquefoil, A .S. Silvery Cimjiu'C.il, A. ». Evi>ninfr Priruro-H', 6k,. Harbtfrry, 5^ rUlWKRM VKLUW. Bluf VIoIft, 4.5. VipiT-* Bu^Ioss, 6-8. t'Tound Ivy, 4-^. Indi«n Tobaiio, 6-8. -Sflf-Hoal, 6-q. l'oi<(on Ivy, 6-7. St. Johnii Wort, S. Atiiltoin, 7.9. HIaik-Eyed Su-wn, S. r)nndi>lion, A .S. CoMon Ri>d, H^ Prickly U>tluf FLOWKRS PINK, RKD, KTC. Ureal U",now Herb, 7.9, Milkweed, 6-8, Canada Thistle, S. Wild Bertfan n, j-8. FLOW'KRS BLIK OB Pt'RPLK. tluund'n Tonjfiie, 5.7. Corn Cockle, 7^, Thistle, 7.10. WiH Rerffaniot. 7.8. FLOWKRS CRRK.N-ISH WHITR. -^t PLANTS OF MOIST SOIL. FI.IMVKR.S WHITK. Choke Cherrj-, 4.5. Doffwood, 6-7. Cut-leav.'d Tooihwort, 4-6. Plantain, (aboiil dwullinf^rs) S. PoiNon Hemlock, 6-8. Oogs Tooth \ioIet, 4-5. Meadow Parsnip, 5-6. White Violet, 5. Elderberry, 6-7. Chickweed, A. S. Virjrins^Bower, 7-8. Small Willow Herb, S. Turtle Head, L. S. Cardinal Flower, 8. Blue FInjf, 5.6. Blue- Eyed t'lrass, 6-8. Common Harebell, 6-9. Korjfet-me-not, 6-8. ClrounJ Ivy, 5.6. KI.OWKR.S YELLOW. Jewel Weed, S. Money Wort, S. I/Oosestrife, 6-7. FLOWKRS PINK OR RED. Mint, 8-9, Ofiwejfo Tea, S. FLOWERS BLlK OR PIrpLk. N'lKhtshade, 7.9, Blue Wrvain, 6-8, Fringed Gentian, 8-9. Closed Gentian, 9-10. /* THE PSYCHOLOGY PLANTS OF SWAMPS. lioUl Thri'nd, yh. Rouml-lfiiVi'il Siiiiilow, ft-7. I'oison Stim.'u'li, (>. U'jilor lliMiiloi'k, iy-1>. Miirth MnriKoUl, 4-5. Ka>WKKH WIIITK. Whlli- Swnnip llom-yxufklc, 6-7, CriH'pinjf SnowlHTry, 5 llrass ot Parnn-xiis. <» WhIit I'lirsiiip, 7-;olil, S. H-OWKRS PINK, RKI>, III. AiiuTii'an t'laiiln-iiy, (>. Swamp Milkwi-oil. S. Showy I. ally's SlippiT, 5. I l.l'WKKS m.l K I'R I'lKIM.K. I'ili-luT Plant, (varii's) (>. Sktiiik t'al'ba){f, (vaiii'jfalfil) i-oiiu's up lliroii>;li it-i- MHiu'liinrs, j.4. I'l'rplo Awns, 5-7. AsliTs, 7-<). Maisli Kiv.-KinjfiT, S. PLANTS IN WATER. Kl.vnVKKS WIIIIK. Willi falla, 6. Wliilf WaliT l.i'y, A. S. VVIiili- WaliM- Crowlool, A. S. WaliT IIiMnliH-k, A. S. \\';itiT Parsnip, A. S. Yi'lKnv Pond l.ily, 5-S. Vfllow Nrlinnbo, 7-S. ^'l•llo^v '"VatiT C"i-oivrool, A. S Arrow lloail, A. S. WaliT Plantain, I.. S. Ki-I C'.r.iss, S. W'ali'r Cross, 5-6, n.tnvKRs vKi.i.mv. Potoinajjolon, 7-H. H.OWKKS HI. IK. .Xnii'iiian Hrookliino, 5-y.