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Coloured pages / Pages de couleur I I Pages damaged / Pages endommag6es D Pages restored and/or laminated / Pages restaur^es et/ou pellicul^es Pages discoloured, stained or foxed / Pages d^olor^es, tachet^es ou piqu^es I ^/j Pages detached / Pages d6tach6es I (Til) r?'rsss^?iJi^v*. W^'Wmfl^ilBSTBK PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. These lectures upon the Mechanism of Speech were delivered at the First Summer Meeting of the American Association to Pro- mote the Teaching of Si)eech to the Deaf, hefore an audience com- posed largely of persons professionally engaged in the work of teaching speech to deaf children. In 1906 these lectures were for the first time collected in book form and reprinted by the Association, chiefly for the use of its members, but enough copies were struck off to allow of the presenta- tion of the work to the general public in the hope that it would prove of interest to a larger circle of readers. This hope was realized and there is now a demand for another edition. The first edition was printed during the author's absence in Europe, so that he had no opportunity of revising the proofs ; and, unfortunately, in using the unfamiliar type representing Melville bell's Speech-Symbols, the printers made quite a number of typo- graphical mistakes. In this second edition advantage has been taken of the opportunity to correct these errors. When the lectures were originally delivered the teachers present were encouraged to ask questions concerning difficulties experienced in imparting the power of articulate speech to deaf children. In this volume the questions and answers have been appended to the lectures, ,.1 the hope that the replies may be of assistance to other teachers engaged in this diflScult and laborious work. A paper by the author upon "Vowel Theories" is also appended, as the original publication is difficult to find, and "the paper itself is out of print. This paper was read before the National Academy of Sciences, April 15, 1879, and appeared in the American Journal of Otology, Vol. I, July, 1879. The experiments described were made with the phonograph in the form in which it was given to the world by Edison — a grooved cylinder covered with tinfoil ; but still more conclusive results are obtained with the improved phonographs and graphophones of to-day. Alexander Grauam Bell. WASHINGtON, D. C, May 24, 1907. (1«) fi mm^^^^ SYNOPSIS. THE THORAX AN'D LARYNX. Pac Action of the diaphragm during inspiration and expiration i-j Forcible expulsion of air needed for speech effected by the abdominal muscles 2_ . Chest expansion preferable to breathing exercises j-4 Two methods of varying the pitch of the voice 6 Dr. Hewson's suggestion that certain vowels are formed in the Larynx instead of the mouth 7 Surgical case apparently favoring Dr. Hewson's suggestion. Dr. Moore's patient who attempted suicide by c.tting his throat. Results inconclusive 7_8 Another surgical case leading to the opposite conclusion. A patient of Dr. McKendrick whose Larynx had been excised. The Scotchman at the Glasgow University with a harmonium reed in his throat in piac» of vocal cords ^ Still another surgical case mdicating that vowels are formed in the mouth and not the Larynx. The case of Edward Matthews upon whom Dr. Moore had performed the operation of Trache- otomy. There was no passage of air from the lungs into the mouth, and yet the man was able to speak intelligibly 9-11 QUESTIONS. Is it possible to constrict the false vocal cords? ... n Ple~..se illustrate the development of ng i i.i.^ ^r. Bell develops non-vocal r from Ih; please demonstrate ii-ia How would you develop sh 11-12 How to manii date the tongue. General principles involved 11-12 What would you do with a pupil who gives ng too f.-r back ? 1 j Please demonstrate that intelligible speech does not depend upon perfect vowel positions 13-16 In a whisper are the vocal cords lax or ten^e ? ig THE PHARYNX AND MOUTH IN THEIR RELATION TO SPEECH. Pitch, loudness, and quality o* the voice originate in three differ- ent parts of the vocal apparatus. Pitch determined by vo. cords, loudness by abdominal muscles, and quality by the pa above the vocal cords 17-ig Metallic quality caused by the approximation of the posterior pillars of the soft palate ig. _,, Guttural quality caused by approximating the base of the tongue to the back of tlie Pharynx ^i Nasal quality caused by the habitual depression of the soft palate 21-22 xii SYNOPSIS. Pleasant quality produced by i-lcvatioii of soft palate and rxpan- '"*** sion of the cavity ol (lit- Pharynx. Any constriction in the pharyngeal cavity fatal i.. the lieaiity of the vi>ice 2V-J4 Vowel quality caused by the shape of the nioiuli cavity ; variations of shape pruluciiiK correspi.udniK variations of vowel quality.. J^ Why change in the shape of the cavities of the I'harynx and month affect the quality of the voice. Resonance. 24-21; Resonance-tone of bottle containing water can be lowered in two ways : By pouring out some of the water or by constrict- ing the neck of the bottle. Application to the cavities of the Pharynx and Mouth „_2^ (-.erman rlt should be treated as an English element and taught to every deaf child :i - the position of the tongue enters, as a con- cealed position, into the com|.osition of tb-ee English elements which are usually pronotniecd in a very cfcctive manner by deaf children, viz.. r./i. -w. ami „n. Correct position for German ch readily determined by the resonance-oitch of the mouth "vity 3g_2y Examples of sympathetic vibration 27-28 Sympathetic vibration a result of inertia. Illustrated by child's s*'"K 39 The double resonance of the front series of vowels y, The /r.thesis of vowel sounds by Helmholtz; and reference to the technical paper reprinted in the Appendix entitled, "Vowel Theories" THE FUNCTIONS OF THE EPIGLOTTIS AND SOFT PALATE. During the act of swallowing, the closure of the Epiglottis against the upper part of the Larynx, prevents food from passing into thelnngs ^_^ Durmg the act of mastication the soft palafe is depressed against the back of the tongue, thus shutting in the partly masticated food within the mouth-cavity, and permitting breathing to be carried on through the nasal passages without anv danger of inhaling particles of food ', ,. ^ During the act 01 speech the position of the soft palate directs the current of an- from the lungs through the mouth alone, through the nose aione, or through both passage ways simul- taneously ' METHODS OF STUDYINf; THE MECHANISM OK SPEECH. Effort of expiration continuous during act of speech. Bagpipe illustrations. Intermittent action of abdominal muscles apt to become habitual ii-i« The material from which speech is made is a -,tore of compressed air within the Thorax, Escape of air hindered by partial closure of the glottis so that emission takes r -ce only through f^ne orifice. 35 Effect of partial!- plugging a water-faucet with the finger. Slow silent stream converted into rushing torrent which spurts out SYNUfSIS. xm i Pift 35 .« 36 with great noise. In the production of noise a little water goes a Rreat way, and noiiiy spurt ran be sustained for long period without expenditure of much lUiid. Application to the case of the vocal organs Speech 'bounds produced hy partially plugging the air passage from the lungs. Elements of speech result from constrictions of some kind; 'nd tile mechanism of speech sounds is studied by determining the location aiiil nature of those constrictions that produce an 4 modify the sounds In describing a constriction we distinguish three associated ele- ments, vir., (I, h, two organs which are approximated together, and c, the condition of the passaKc way Ijctween them. A constriction is usually term'-d "A position of ihe vocal organs", Wlien two or more positions of the vocal organs are simultane- ously assumed the effect upon the ear is that of a single sound. Combinations of positions produce a sound of different quality from that proa- ratcly. Chemical simili'. Water is a substance of different character from either of the gases of which it is formed; and the vow,-' 00 is a sound of very different character from that of any of its elementary positions Relations of speech sounds to one another can be shown by means of algebraical equations. Performing la equation upon the mouth Description of the Speech-Symbols devised by Alexander Melville Bell. The fundamental characters represent the vocal organs, and the various kinds of appertures employed in the production of speech sounds. These ar; combined into a compound char- acter tu express a position of the vocal organs. Illustrations.. . In order to fit the symbols for use as a phonetical alphabet, it became necessary that associated position symbols should bn combined into a single symbol capable of use like a letter of the alphabet. Principles of abbreviation employed to accomplish this result — with illustrations 46-49 General plan of using the symbols in the instruction of the deaf. . 50 MELVILLE liELL'S SPEECH-SYMBOLS AS TAUGHT TO THE DEAF. Exhibition of seven charts illustrating the method of explaining the meaning of the speech-symbols to deaf children who know no language; with detailed explanations of the mode of pro- "''"« 57-74 QUESTION'S. Can a person realize by any feel-ing ;he muscular condition repre- sented by the symbols? 75 Why do you begin with lip positions instead of back positions?. . 75 Learning to speak is like learning to shoot. If you fail to hit the bull's-eye and are simply told that you have failed, you get no 38-39 39 40-46 ihr ■YHOntS. information that will help to make you a good marksman. You must know where your bullet struck when you failed ; so as to •ee the relation between the point struck and the noint you intended to hit. Through the speech-symbols the eaf child can be shown what he did with his mouth when he failed to produce the sound intended, and the relation of the incorrect to the correct position. The 'NO-NC)" method, besides di.courag- ing the begnuicr. fails to give the very information that is neces s«ry to his progress ^ What is accent .> Accented syllable "longer than the others' rather than louder Illustrations ".ay not syllables containing short vowels be accented ; and how can you prolong the syllable if the vowel is short? In such cases the succeeding consonant is prolonged instead of the vowel. Illlustration:-'Tc. be or AOr to be, that is the que:- tion. With an emphatic ".Vo^' the hiatus caused by the pro- longation of the shut position of the / is so great as to occasion a perceptible silence in the midst of the sentence. 77 78 Have you ever thought of there bemn a difference of pitch' in accent? Please imitate lU-lon Kollir'.s voice '...'....[.''. !» How would you teai-Ii r and /.' _g_^ Adopt the rule of tt. idling deaf children to give r, / ':i. and y ' withoi.t voice where tliey follow non-vocal consonants in the same syllable „ Vocal consonants where they occur as final 'elenieius' arc' much improved when the pupil is taught to finish off with the non- vocal form of the ronsorant softly uttered g^J WTien two vocal consonants end the last syllable uttered^ it is better to give the last consonant iion-vocally g^ How do you get pupils to give long c easily?,. g^, Please H monstrate the leaching of i^ in "cotton." ' 'Exercises recomn.ended to gain control of the soft palate in uttering such combinations as /-»,, tn. kng; bm. H„. g„g. Also «/, „d. Int. '^"'' '"''"' 8,-«,, DEFECTIVE CONSOXANTS AND HOW TO CORRECT THEM Defects of the shut consonants. /-. /,, ,„.• (, ,/, „; k, a ne Click defects a o Analy,sis of the actions'of'the vocal organs in producing 'the ^ sound of a kiss, a typical click sound g,_j;ij, A click results from opening a passage way into a cavity in which ' the air is of diflferent density from that outside ««_«., Suction clicks, and expulsion clicks ^"^ Clicks given by deaf children and the mode of 'correction .' '.'..' ^. Defective combinations of />. /, and * . Z}1 Corrections of the defects of b. d. g, m, and «. ' Other defects' of the consonants and the mode of correction g^.^^ I :'£l^'^^Siit 'i r%9^ ■VNOMIt. sv DEFECTIVE VOWELS. GLIDES. AND DII UTHONGS. Precise vowel quality difficult to obtain from deaf children. The reason why thit is so. A mirror essential in correcting vowel defects loo-lcu German , A forms the keynote to the vowels 103 Melville Cell's complete vowel scheme 103 Table of English vowels showing their place in the complete vuwrl •scheme 104 Table of English Vowels as taught ti) the deaf 107 Frnklinifc murmur of the ''oice in place of glide r 108-109 Ordinary usage tolerate .isidcrable latitude in the pronuncia- tion of vowels Consonants, and small-aperture vowels in accented syllables must tje accurately given ; whereas consider- able latitude may be allow d in the pronunciation of medium- aperture, and large-aperture vowt's ; and of diphthongal sounds wherever they occur til La* of combination. Successive positions of the vocal organs do not smiply come one after the other like the letters on a printed page, but overlap. A position is retained until the mouth is in positiot; for the next element. Principle of com- bination illustrated b) the syllables ^t\-, iii-i\ and gcc. The chief difficulties of ---tici.Jation teaching lie, not so much with the elementary sounds, as with their combinations into syllables. Thorough comprehension of the law A combination by both teachers and pupils essential Iia CONCLUDING REMARKS UPON ARTICUL.\TION TEAv HING With hearing persons {he elements of speech constitute the frial, not the initial, exercises of articulation. Word-method of teach- ing commended as more natural than the element-method now in use 1 13-1 14 Practical difficulties in the way of applying the word-method to the deaf. Suggestions how to overcome them. That method which conforms most nearly to the method whereby hearing children acquire speech most worthy of adoption by teachers of the deaf 1 14-1 15 QUESTIONS. I would like to know if the symbols on your charts represent the elements to which you would reduce all the English wordr 115 I notice that the glide r is omitted. I see in the symbols that an indefinite position of the mouth represents voice glide. Is it the same thing? 115-116 When we give a deaf child the indefinite voice mark in place of glide r, we obtain from him a sound that approximates very closely to the vernacular effect. This plan commended by Miss Yale 1 16 'fwitfSMS. wi''"j^mTrirKr^:3^^LM^mt'»i' THF THOKAX AND LARYNX. Ph. thoi IX is the trc-jsun'-housc of the huin.in body.— .1 verit- able stronK-room. gin about with walls of bone for iho protection nf those precious organs the heart anj lungs. Let ui imagine our- selves for a moi.ienl inside the thoiax. but first, with your permis- sion, let us empty this safe-deposit vault of its valuable contents, so that we may have space for exploration. We find ourselves in a d.irk room or x-ault with a door in the roof. The floor of this vault, instead of being firm and solid, is a soft membrane or muscle, -not flat like an or.jmary floor, but dome- shaped like the top of an open umbrell.t. The door above is a sort of double trap door set at an angle intead of being flat, and open- ing upwards. But the most extraordinary thi.ng about this room is. that the floor is in constant motion, heaving upwards and down- wards in regular pulsations. The trapdoors a',o are in motion; now they are opened so that a i-limpse c n be obtained of passages above, and now thev come together with ,1 quiverir motion, open- ing and shutting with great r.ipiditv. smd causing a vibration that makes the whole thorax tremble. The walls also are in motion, the whole room alternately increasing and diminishing in size. A membranous muscle when it contrads tends to become flat and tense; and many of us have had the idea that the diaphragm or dome-like floor of the thoracic cavity, in contracting becomes flat like the head of a drum. This idea is incorreft, for the central portion of the diaphragm is attached above by ligaments and tis- sues to the bony walls of the thorax, so that it is incapable of descent. The circumference or edge, also, is attached. When, therefore, the diaphragm contrarts. the dome-like floor becomes somewhat conical in shape. As I pifture the adion in my mind, it IS as though the dome of the capitol ii. vVashington were to change into a cone somewhat like a blunt church spire. '.'IV-'.^" .^¥^rs- When, then, the diaphragm contraas, the thoracic floor becomes unse and somewhat conical in sh.,pe, and the cavity of the thorax is thus enlarged. When the muscular fibres relax, the tense floor becomes loose and baggy, resuming its dome-like shape, and the space within the thorax then becomes less. Con- tinuing our explorations we find that the front or chest wall of the thorax is capable of slight motion. By the operation of cer- tain muscles, the ribs can be raised to a limited degree, so as to cause an increase in the circumference of the chest, and thus an expansion of the thoracic cavity. In animals which are prostrate gravity helps the expanding aftion, but in man, on account of his upright position, the weight of the bony framework renders a dis- tinct effort necessary in order to elevate the chest wall, and relaxa- tion of the muscles tends to collapse and consequent contraction of Ihe thoracic cavity. It will thus be seen that the interior capacity of the thorax can be increased; (i) by the contraftion and consequent depression of the diaphragm; (2) by the elevation of the front wall of the chest; or. 0) by both aftions performed simultaneously. When the interior capacity is increased, the air within the thorax expands to fill the increased space, thus becoming rarified. If the trap doors are open the denser air of the atmosphere then presses its way into the thorax to supply the partial vacuum. The act of inspiration is completed when the air pressures within and without the thorax are equal If now the interior capacity of the thorax be diminished, the contained air by compression becomes denser than the air outside, and therefore tends to rush out. and the act of expiration is completed when the air pressures within and without are equal. Exhalation can be effected; (1) by relaxation of the diaphragm which rises into its dome-like shape; (2) by relaxation of the mus- cles that raise the ribs, thus allowing the front wall of the chest to fall; or (3) by both processes performed simultaneously. We can- not, however, by any of these means produce that forcible expul- sion of air that is requisite for speech, for relaxing muscles cannot exert much compressing power. What we need for speech is a forcible compression of the thoracic cavity. This can be effected by the abdominal or waist muscles. The contradion of these muscles produces a compressing effect upon the viscera, just as though a rope were passed around the waist and drawn tightly. This com- pression forces the viscera upwards against the under «ide of the diaphragm. The diaphragm is thus pushed up like a piston Into the thoracic cavity, compressing the contained air. In this way f i I for able emission of ..r is caused by the contraction of the abdom- .nnl muscles, and these are the muscles that we employ in throwing out the voice. For example :-Prolon,r a vowel sound, suddenly mcrcasmg the force into a shout, a number of times in succession without stopping the voice, thus:-ah. AH-ah-AH-ah-AH M every shout a forcible contradion of the abdominal muscles can be felt by the h.and. and the front wall of the chest is thrown upwards by the force of the compressed air within the thorax, pulsatin,. out- wards with every shout. ' Alternate inspiration and expin.tion, result from alternate cxpan- two il", '''""■''^'"" °^ '^' '^"'''''^ <^^'^«v. This can be effeded in r.,- r T T"'* '^" "'''-'' ^') '>' "^'"g '""^'^''^^ that tend to n t Tr ""'' '"'"^ '' '''''''' ^^°'" «"'^ ^'"°»her slightly; .Hid (2) by depressing the diaphragm. We can contrad the cavity: (,) by allowing the chest wall to a .using muscles that tend to bring the ribs nearer together; and (2) by employing the abdominal or waist muscles. Of these two possible modes of adtion, it will be seen that one involves the expenditure of less energy than the other. It is less mborious to breathe by using the diaphragm and waist muscles, than by moving the heavy bony framework of the chest. When the diaphragm contrads, cnanging from the dome-like to the conical shape, .t presses downwards upon the viscera, thus causmg an expansion of the abdominal cavity. When the abdom- Ina muscles contraa. the circumference of the waist diminishes. Thus in natural breathing, produced by the alternate aftion of the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles, the circumference of the waist increases during inspiration, and diminishes during expiration I doubt the advisability of direding a pupils attention to these .notions, for his attempts at reprodudion are often attended bv ludicrous results. The end desired would, I think, be better attained by direding his attention to the chest, and not to the abdomen. Get the pupil to expand the chest and keep it con- tinuously expanded even when breathing out. If the bony frame- work of the chest is kept raised and fixed, breathing can only be performed by the diaphragm and waist muscles ; and. as the pupil cannot he p breathing, nature will work the proper muscles without his knowledge or will. This effort of continuous expansion can only be sustained for n b •■uuis. ine exercise usually results in ■! ~.-,i i increase in the capacity of the ch^^t i u , ^*'^'^^'' I . „ '""y exercised a^ those of ordinary children. at;on of the b bod, and 1-- a^ttincr w^ ^r .u ! ^ oxygen- nterfermg with the primary funrtion of the lungs. Ere Ijves the s.gnal for inspiration when the blood needs oxvirenat on InH When we attempt to regulate the breath consciousTwe a ; a"p o interfere with the circulation of the blood. Breat Jng exercises should be stopped the moment dizziness is produced for thaU nature's indication of a disturbance in the circulation Inspiration is utilized for the oxygenation of the blood and expiration alone is employed in the produdion of speech. Observe he breathing of . person engaged in conversation at a ime wh^n he ,s unconscious of your observation. You will find th^t In! words are articulated between each inspiration. Te t'm re- fer inspiration IS instantaneous, whereas the duration of the expira on IS very long. The breath comes in quickly, and go" o" slovvly. Th means that the trap doors in the roof of the thorack dunng the aa of speech, that only a fine stream of air can escane from the thorax. The prime requisite for speech is a sto of com pressed air. which can be let out little by httle. as w n^ed ?tt obvious that the air would escape with a gush unless restain d wh!c ?t ''"'''. f'^^'y ^""^^'l to. constitute the chief mtnrb; which a too rapid escape of air is prevented. These trap doors arl known as the vocal cords, and they are contained in the Lynx 5 THE LARYNX. Fig. 1. Vertical seftion of the Larynx as seen from behind. Vertical seftion of the Larynx as seen from the side. Tu^ 1 ^* ***" "■<"" the side. «a«y Of a L. sLouX'bt ml* ZlJ 'r^T"' entering the lungs. Inside this box are two oair. nf . lower pair caned the true voca. cords. ^^S^J^Z I'' upward, and the upper pair known .^ th« fV ^* ^"^^^ with their edges downwards Th. . "" '*'"' '°'^'- '^^"« doors to Which , have beforltudid ""^ ""^''"^^ ''^ ^"*> no. iooi'iik. ."„r"„ inr .:? ".r „7 "■''"'" '""' -""^ * suggestive of tr.n^. or strings jt .ill-nor perhaps are they very inrclosJ™^ ,h "^ '■ "^ '"''" '•"■"'"'"•'•y ""d remain, the nlZ^, *■ " '■'S'il.ir serte of puffs „,, , be produced 1 trv„r Lr'rt f"^' °' "- '""" "-«-"'/*- and closed more thin thirtv ^n. • ^ "" '' °P'-'°'^^' ;;<^...u.u.fd:fr;x::n;::r:;i;i;l::-;;: serve the v.olnmt tuning his instrument. He turns , nZ , , end, thus tightening the string At ^ ,.h ,n / ^^ ^ "''' The short tt-K whole-and the pitch becomes higher instead of the whole. Observtions mH. k '"'"''*'• manner; whereas in tit <. hi "' ''' ^''^'^""'^ *" ^^is . wnereas, m the chest register." the vocal cords vibrate ..s wholes, and the changes of pitch are produced by variation, .f Vocal cords vibrating in part. Vocal cords Nibrating as wholes.* Dr. Hewson. during the course of his lecture, gave utterance to rather a startling remark. If I understood him corredlv ho ^.x' pressed the opinion that some of the vowel sounds are formed in the larynx and not m the mouth. 1 cannot agree with him in this op>n.on although I am aware that he can quote authorities in su ! port of h,s position For example: Dr. E. M. Moore, of Rochester. N. Y.. has published an account of the following case:f Some years ago Dr. Moore attended a man who had attempted suicide by utting h,s throaty The cut was immediately above the thyroid cZ tilage. shaving off the epiglottis at its base. The wound resulted in an oval opening, two inches long by three quarters of an inch wide The man was able to talk at any time by bending his head forward and temporarily closing the opening. When the head was thrown back he lost the power, but Dr. Moore noticed that under such circums ances he could pronounce vowel sounds like ah, oh, etc The doaor was surprised at the clearness and distinc'tness of the vowel effeas. for the sounds seemed to emanate from th J^wn L: wound in the throat, and not from the mouth. Struck by this cir cumstance. the worthy doftor made a unique experiment. He introduced .nto the wound a sheet of buckskin, so placed as to prevent the possibility of any air passing from the larynx into t ! mouth The only outlet left for the breath, was the yawning, wound. He then asked the man to repeat the alphabet. A. B. C etc Or. Moore found that under these circumstances, certain vowel sounds could be distinguished, and he came to the conclusion tha these vowek were formed in the larynx, and not in the mouth This conclusion would be more reliable if he had shown that the man cou.d pronounce these vowels with his mouth shut Of course. If the vowe.s heard were really produced in the brynx alone, the closure of the lips would have made no difference in the * These cuts .,e reproduced „om " Voice, Song, andS^^^dT^^ ^ « Transactions , ■:,. New York State .Medical Society. .S^,, pp. ^yo-^S:. .'vt due'lo theT '' "" """"^ '""'"'y '^ ''^''^'- »hat vowel nu.I- effect. *" '^°'^ ^'"'^'' ^°"'J '^^^^ been fatal to the took precauTons to r^ 'h "''"^ '"'^ '''• ^ooresimply The luth ^^^^r^^jr;:::^^;: t;r«^ ''- -r^ the mofth would then in effefl h. .T . ' "''""^'^^' ""^ positions, held near TZ:f:^X^^^^^^^ ''' T' cumstances. resonance effeds .houM i! ^ .' "'^^^ *"''' *="- aaualpassageofarthroulhfh K*!' P'°''""'* ^'^^out the tor. wh'en pfoperlT un^^be' ^"'^^ ordinary resona- vibrating tuning fork '°"°''°"' ^''^^ ^'^'^ "^ar a -d 1' krjoft Xr IJ^T"'"-^ - ^y -y -e- conclusive ; -.weisa^;^:---:---^^^^ whose larynx had bLn excLd Th. !• ''^\'P/"'' °f « '"a" -r^PmWin r^ "^'' ^"'^ ^ 8^00'! sonorous voice resulted Thr :xrr it:: s^r ^^'^ ^-'^ ^^-^'^-^ ^^^^^^^^ was simply perfect Verv ^Z\' ."""'''' ""'^ ^'' ^'"'^"'»»'"o" artificial vdce excepting th.f '^^ '"'^ '°""* ^'^ ''*^*^'^^'* '" the tion. The speech was InT'^ .'"^""tonous and without inflec- realize that the so rrof Z"T '" '"'"^ *'^' ''^ ^^^ '^'^•-"'t to throat. '^ '°"'"* ^^^ •'' "^^tal reed inserted into the tirnel^;:!;;:^;:;;::^^;::^;^:^^ ror experimental purposes, and T L hear^hl^ffea "^^^^ \anous sizes and materials H^ rn,.M T "^'"" *"^ '^"««^ o<^ reeds of tenor, and from tTnT o "sop^ral t^l '^ T '"" '^^'^ ^^ reeds. soprano at will, by employmg suitable The point to which , would dired your attention is this r-^that the vowels were all perfeaiy produced, although the larynx had been We have seen that a metal reed can be used in place of the ocal cords; and I am inclined to think that the real larynx ^ detached from the body and operated by means of a wind chest' o organ bellows would produce an efted more resembling th so nd of a beatmg reed, than the human voice. The quality or '• timbre "of he aman vo.ce. I believe, is due in a very minor degree to the vo a, cord., and m a much greater degree, to the sha^s of pas ages through which the vibrating column of air is passed As the shape o , e passage above the vocal cords controls the qual- ity or /;,«*r. of the voice, we may be sure that the false vocal cords exert some influence upon the quality of the voice especially if they -re capable of approximation, a point 1 am unable to decide The ventnc^s, also, the spaces between the true and talse vocal cords qua hty of the vo.ce. for they constitute two small resonance-cham- bers, situated close to the source of sound. In the howling monkey the ventncles are expanded into pouches, and the charaaeristic howl produced by the creature is due to the resonance of air in those chambers. In the case of the Scotchman at the Glasgow University, the pitch of the artificial voice produced was undoubtedly due to the reed employed, but the quality of the voice, and the consonant and vowel eflfefts were due to the passages above, through which the vibrating column of air was passed. J have already direded your attention to the case reported by Dr. Moore of Rochester, New York, in which he claimed that cert^ vowels are formed in the larynx and not in the mouth. Dr Moore direded my attention to the case of another patient of his which seems to prove the converse proposition. * Dr. Moore had performed upon this man the operation of tracheotomy. At the time 1 saw the patient he had for over twenty years been dependent (or hfe upon air supplied through a silver tube inserted in the trachea. The glottis had become completely closed and -o air could be forced through the larynx into the mouth. The strange feature of the case was that under these circumstances the man could talk. Of course the speech was peculiar on account of *C«e of Edward Matthews. See Transactions of the New York State Medical Society. iSjj, pp. t^t>-^82. lO the absence of voice, but there wa« nn -^ «• , • it- In this case the ir v.hirh "^'""^ '" understanding from the lung bu from t^ k '"°""'^'' '"'^ '^'^'^ "'"«= "ol -d compress' the r'n^eih'::, '^ we Cose the ,ips tightly pharynx expands under thpse ^rt " f ^^^ ^'°-' «"«-• rubber ball would expand if Z were ! N '' "^.' ^'"^^ "^ '' opening the lips the contradion of The oh '"'° " ^P°" puff of air. A puff of air of thi I I ^ '''"^ ""'''' ^ ^"J'l'-n though the glottis • o;%?,o'" 'V ^"'""^ -- acquired such .xpertness n .h ^ r P"^'" '^'^ "'^" ^ad pharynx th.u he co^upoUeetl'L^ ?"'"^ •^'°"' «'^'^ could be distinctly heard a a dis^n' e wl ? '^ '""' ^"'^^ nants were formed with very g e t im. .' ''''"''• ''*' '^"^^ consonant position resulted m.^' '"'^ '''' ''"'^'''^ ^^ the tior^s assumed l" th 1, ' so'^.h ? T ''""«' '^'^ ^°"^' P«- soundinglike. Jhs^er^d :l , ' ^^ ''' '''^ ''^' ^■°-^' ^-''ty "peech so that you ma v und-r . """''' "^^ ''^^^^'^'^•-*'- ^f his it. the nature ^ZIZZ^'^'^ ""''''''"'' '^^ ' "" '^-rib. through the larynx into It moutf "'' '^'"'"^'^ "^ ^"'^ passed -^jr^ry^cL:::— — ^^^^^ J^«. Bell. Yes. sir; quite audible speech «aual'u^i:nperilnrS Tc '"^ ""t" ' ^'^'^^^^ '^o- tracheotomy has been performed' i i, T" ^u"' ^''-- "P^^^''°" ^i under such circumstancefuls; 13?: ^"J""^ '"' ^°-'' in the trachea. Now of cou^ ! th ^ I "''"^ °^^'' ^''^ tube Which you have a.read^ S '• t^Hh ! t '' ''' ""'"•^- duced by this individual by long 'p a^i e X\ ^'^'^ ^^"^ Pro- People to speak when that tube k Hf?" "^ '' '' P^^^*""^ for part of the vocal app 11 ' 'L d 'rr'''^^'' ^"^^ P""'^'?^" There is some so/o'f ^,1 , ^^ ^r" '"-^-1 speech. The remark I made some tZ u ""^ " "° '"■"'^'^"^ being made in the larvnx I "l amLT "'°"' ''' ""^^^ ^-^^ the experiments thatvou hav hrthe n '""^ '"'' °' '°"^^^ not come to the notice of either myself or^h'T' °' '''''"^' ^'^^ preceded me. in making sU^^JZ^ZllZ"^^^^^^ ,"!;°. ''^' quoted. Your experience / believe ilT ^ '^''"'' ' ^^^^ 1 II made :.s you h.,vc .L-Uik-d mem U,-a.,v. With reference to th, closure of the uppci p.,rt of the vo.al app.r.itus by diphtheric mem- brane, and the introduction of a tube into the trachea: I may say that m order that any sound may be produced at all. the tracheal tube must be closed. Now. if the parts above, are almost closed by the diphtheric membrane, no sound is produced. However I can readily see. from a knowledge of the muscular tissue surround- ing the parts, that .such sounds could be produced as you have detailed in this individual. Dr. Bell: In the case of this individual I have just men- tioned, no air could pa.ss up into the mouth, under any circum- stances. The aperture in the windpipe remained open.' and. all the time he was speaking, air gushed out of the tube in his thioat forming a whistling accompaniment to his speech. Dr. Bell. I have a number of questions here for Miss Yalr: you to answer. Dr. Bfiix: The first question is: "Is it possible to constrid the faLse vocal cords.?" I think that Dr. Hewson will be more competent than I am to answer that question. Dr. Hewson: I cannot conceive of any muscular fibres con- stricting the ventricular bands, or false vocal cords. Mr. Crouter: How was it with the Scotchman, Dr. BeiP Dr. Bell: There were no vocal cords in the case of the Scotchman the vocal cords were represented by a harmonium reed. I hardly know how to commence on the stream of questions you have set for me. They appear to be of very great impor- tance, and I should be very glad if I can be of any assistance to teachers here in answering them. I may, perhaps, group them so as to answer two or three at one time. (i) " Please illustrate the deve'-«pment of m;.' (2) "Dr. Bell develops non-vocal r from //^• please demon- strate." 0) "How would you develop sAi'" I will take up these in one group. In difficult c.ises you wHl find manipuLition of the tongue of great assistance: and I think that this series of questions may be answered by showing you how to manipulate the tongue; and by direding your attention to the nature of the changes, you can produce by manipulation. You can push a position further back, and you can enlarge an aperture by manipulation; but you cannot do the converse. If, then, your pu- pil cannot pronounce a given sound, let him give a sound of similar 12 The pupi, c^nnot^o^oit :;"Nor: : '" '': ^"""^"'- <■•> " - a sound of similar fornv.tk n l,u T T, ^' ''"' P^^"^""" ^<>'^ it in the Pupirs S :i' /ro';;/\:^^"r- -tter). and the tongue. Now tell the pupil o "T tT '^ °' ''""' ^'^^ ^^ t'-e fondue bcinx fettered the bl!-k .f ^ '"""^ ""'' ^^°"» °' ■' '-n^i-'ninor and Ml him "to I '" "^^ ^°^ ^'^-^ '^'^ P^P'' rronouncc ,;,. n.t indi mcuTt " '^' ^"P" '^ '"'t once able to manipulate hL to^ " t ^^r^^.^r't"'' '' ''' '^"^ '«> mirror. "''"' ^^tchmg the effea in a hand- llfl the point of the tongue whir . ""'■ ""'' «"''''»"' -nd changes ,o . hrso«t 1 kT ''1: '" T" "^ ^"^ raised higher the sounH h. "■" '""• ^- th™ ijs iho longue is '..«H=r, ,? becotrr :rr w;:r,;:*'- "v '""- ""■ reached, ,he poi„, oca, J,l, is ag „ ', „ "•''^ P""'"" » "Pper gum-just where the Dall * '"'"■' P"' ">' •"« aperture over the eemre "^ ""■"'ehces ,o arch-wilh an pJ'tl":„^Sr-rT;ronhe^" ^'-^ '™"°""«'*' y»u cant get ng ,oo far ba k Yo, """"" ""^ """'i"". f°' -J these are vfry com™ 'defells ,u *"', * '"^ ' "^ '" "»'"■ tongueisp,aced:gai„s,,™;a;1r,hVr':7'''%^-;°f>^= the soft palate, but such i no.itinn P'^-''^^"" '"stead of against cause the •'epression'^f tL'so '^ , I TXt^ "f "™'' '^ nasal passages, the shut no.ifinn k u ^'^'"'^ ''"'' '"to the v»,difficu,?tocorrer:p''oro:tS,rh:4^"v:r=- "» -"outh, and push the ongu.h'^^fk^: X° 'V"*"" '" "» ex»p,e,. where ,ou havt * toor;^:^^:?;-^*;", .r/;: pronounce /. v/hilc you hold the manipulator over the tongue so as to prevent any portion frum rising, fxceptin^ the back. In this way you will be sure of a Rood k, if the pupil docs mt know what you are aiming at. By vocaii/inK the /, \ou gtt m- (Dr. Bell illustrated his remarks by manipulating the 'oiigue of a deal pupil.) The next question is. "Please demonstrate that intelligible speech does not depend upon perfeit vowel positions." I sh.ill read a few sentences from a book, substituting for each vowel sound a mere indefinite murmur of voice. You observe that the articulation, though, of course, very peculiar, is perfectly intelli- gible.* We may learn from such an experiment as this, that con- sonants are much more important elements than vowels. Intelli- gibility of speech mainly depends upon the correct pronunciation of consonants. We could manage to get along very well with only one vowel sound, if indefinite enough, and yet make ourselves understood. I don t mean to advise you to teach speech of this charader to your pupils, but many of you may be encouraged to know that very imperfed vowel sounds will not prevent your pupils from being understood by relatives and friends. Consonants are much more easily acquired than vowels, .md all pupils who can pronounce the consonants corredly can acquire a useful articulation, even though they murder the vowels. That is their speech will be intelligible to hearing people, and therefore useful as a means of communication, even though it may not be very pleasant to hear. Too much effort, I think, is made to impart a niceness of pro- nunciation that is not appreciated by the outside world. When 1 first entered upon the work of articulation teaching, I was very proud of the pronunciation of some of my congenitally deaf pupils. They had been drilled upon the elements and were able to pronounce words and sentences written in Visible Speech with absolute corredness, slowly, it is true, but with pvrfecl ele- mentary sounds. To my (reat mortification, however, I found that * Re.ld the following passaRe aloud, giving an indefinite murmur of the voice for each dash, and the passage will be intelligible:— - p-nt-d t- th- c-t -nd th-n t- -ts n-m -nd -nd-v-rd t- m-k h-m -n-rst-nd th- m-n-ng -v th- r-t-ng . -Is- t-t h-m t- sp-l th- w-rd -n h-s f-ngg-rs. -v-th-ng th-t h- d-d w-s p-rf-mid w-th - p-- -r-s 5-rt -V -mf-s-j th-t w-d h-v n-d - p-rs-n -nf-m-ly-r w-th th- d-f s-p-i th-t h- n- -1 -b-t 't—Fromilny4mijls/br/atiujrr,i8<)i,p.^^, You miy substitut* for the (-) any larg-; aperture vowei, such as u in uft tr \n her., e in o«, or «vfn « in eat, without destroying inSelligih!!:!-.- 1,.^,, 'N,iL, of p Jn.i L' f." '" '•■; "- ^l'™-" ""-'I- '"- on J„or I'ililv K. us-,i, ,. , "" """-I"™"- 10 i„i,.|ii»|. world ,aik w I ^ V :n ;„''::;'''','v'''' '"■■■"■"•' i-f'^- "' -h, or.hl'r;r\tt,k tat'l.ri"'''"':™'''''''"'" '"'^ ■'-« -» speech l,ke h",, wl ch I ^' ""'"'■■ ■-"' ■" "' '■">'«'•' ^''K aiiuuucr II given in the same manner bv i H-.f ^k;i i -r . such ttle words a«^„y«r ^ '"*"'"*"^ "y •• deaf child. Take --nar^.n:^c.ria^Cr^rr^^^^^^ boy. ^nn apple, or ^i::^V cn^^Z:%^ T '''' '''' is heard, and our utterance is more^LT/1 k ""''" '"""'* The same indefinitene o^e ound ! rh''' T 'P^'^' " P"^" unaccented syllables Whv thl n h '^'^'^^^^<^^'-'«»": of all our pronunciation of the un^c'ent ^ ;v hbj in T'"'" ^'°"^ ^'^^ fortable (kumf-t-ble) lesson let nf w ■!""' '''''^' ''• """ nee). woLan (w:!km! riffe. j (^1^0 Tbo "."n^f ^^^"^■ (r-«ot). etc. Any sort of indefinT ow ^o n^w"/^^^^^^^^ in these syllables if uMlysomy uttered. '^ " *"""" ■i';^-/ .*=»..' IS Wc arc tr.nn.nK our children t. t.i!k f. ordin.iry ,.c..pk. not to clotutumists. There .ire cert.iin points that ir.ust be attended t.> in order that the speech may he satisfadory to ordinary people: but in icKard to other points, ^uat latitude may be allowed. Consonant elements and the voweLs in accented syllables must be properly ..ronounced, but the vowels in unaccented syllables may be uttered in any sort ot indetiniic way without oIlondinK' the . hnary ear. .\ca-nt and rhythm. I think, are of uunv importance th.in e.xact pronunciation. In ViMble Speech the voice symbol (,) is used to indicate an in- definite vowel sound like <-/• in the word her. or like the .t sound used by public speakers to ill! up ^.ips in tiuMr sentences- when-er - they are not-er- very - tr - er - sure-,.- what thevw.mt to say This indefinite vowel si^n I consider ,. pc-rfcct God-send to the teacher ol articulation. cnaMinK him to -d rul m h,,lf the I ibor of articulation teaching. In spelling phonetically the vast majority of the vowel sounds in the unaccented syllables may be represented by this indefinite voice mark ; and it may also be' substituted every- where for glide /•. I would recommend those who do not use Visible Speech to use a dash. Ordinary people who know nothing ol phonetics or elocution have difticuhv in understanding slow speech composed of perfea elementary sounds, while they have no difTiculty in comprehending an imperfea gabble if only the accent and ihythm are natural. Too mutii labor is bestowed upon unaccented syllable- Any child can give an indefinite vowel sound that may be combined rapidly with consonants. I have seen a teacher puzzling herself over the word comfotlabU. The first syllable gave no difficulty, but the second syllable was not pronounced eiisily by the child. There was an attempt on the part of the pupil to give long d, as in pole, followed by a consonant r of an exaggerated kind, and the teacher was try- ing to get the pupil to substitute aw for o. With regard to the last syllable the teacher was puzzled to decide whether the vowel should have the sound of a in table, a in cat, or a in ask. Now the fad is that the exact vowe! sounds in the unaccented syllables are of no earthly consequence. An ordinary ear will accept an ^f inde- finite sound as good speech, if the word is uttered rapidl . 'h due accent on the first syllable. Even an elocutionist would not ask for a consonant r in the second syllable. He would simply demand a gliding of the tongue towards the position for // but ordinary peo- JiL^'^mr ,\,i!r .■k">f*! 10 syllable may be L„ * /■ f» Tl "'""'•ortable" ,h, «o„d word: .-.-te ml^be tZ aT83 ^^^^^^^ ^^^ "'* "ounce ,he fc. syLle wri. dS^!!*"'"''-'-'''-. '"- However M. .h."" ''°"'' """' '" '''' ""' "'"■ "ceented vowels JO. j;.;:e'eryrz'deSer;:r;;'t'f^ '» -- crrr:i::a:ss*-'i~^^^^^^^ vowe, sound In ,b. 'd'e ^waT Tn ,".1?" "' ^"■"•' ^^ accented vowels ? ^' ^^^^^ '^'"■'■>' '^ '"to the be«ef:„fZionT;"a„le;t''beir '^ *" ""• °'-"-' "" in nine,y-„lne ou'^f" fundtl ' '°* "" '" "^ '>"' -,e,y, .MindefinlJsoJd /ctw^r '^ ™" '" """""'■ *^^s and „so l„,o nearly A Z^lZ^I^Il^' "'""'"' or,ens;."'1nret;eS;wh" ""?"• '" "' ™-' "* '- an Obstroaion ,o .VeTarl^t'I In' re'^J.rr "" ^ f'" " are not adjusted <:r> -,<: f^ • g'ottis. The voca cords .1-.. .be oCa -'u^r™ r ^'r""'" ™'''"' ^'^"''™- - •whisper." " ■' ""''"ne W"nd tha we lerm Pkop^ B«, : Von mean cons,ri«ion of ,he vocal cords I .weenihe v^calcoS;;' """*" °""' «'»'*- >^' »Pa« be- i .m-wi THE PHARYNX AND MOUTH IN THEIR RELATION TO SPEECH. In my last lecture I told you about a man with a harmonium reed in his throat, in place of vocal cords. Now, ordinarily, there is vast deal of ditlcience between the sound of a harmonium, and the sound of the human voice, and yet in this case the reed pro- duced the effea of a human voice wtien the man spoke. To the ear, therefore, it made all the difference in the world, whether the reed was vibrated outside or inside the man's throat. Now, we have no reason to suppose that the thorax and lungs operated in any different way from the wind chest of a harmonium. They simply supplied air to set the reed in vibration. The difference of effea, therefore, must have been due to the parts above the reed. In other words, the pharynx, mouth, etc., were the agencies involved in changing the harmonium effed into a human voice. Consider for a moment, the nature of the difference between the sound of a harmonium reed and a sound of similar pitch sung by the voice. The same note may be played upon a piano, a violin, a flute, or a trumpet, and yet each sound has an individuality of its own. We can tell by the ear, at once, which instrument is used, although all the notes may be alike in pitch, and equally loud. The sounds differ from one another in "character," "quality" or "tim- bre," and it will thus be understood that the pharynx, mouth, etc., atTeft the quality or timbre of the voice. We can recognize that every sound possesses the elements of pitch, loudness, and quality. It matters not whether the sound be produced by the human voice, by a musical instrument, by the rustling of leaves, or by a knock upon the door— it has a certain •7 |8 loudness. ;. certain pitch miJ a certain clKin.acr, or timbre of its "wn, by which u-c reco-rnizc- it from other sounds of similar pitcii and loudness. No\v-, when w, study ..he i-roeluction of voice, we find tli.n these three characleristus .>ii:rin.,te piinupailv in tiiree ditlereiit parts ol the vocal apparatus. (1) The pitch of the v.iici is determined hv the vocal cords. (2) The loudness by the .likiumin.il (rr expira- tory muscles: and (5) The quality or timbre hv the parts above the vocal cords. 1. The lips of the glottis open and close with great rapidity and the frequency of the vibration is mainly determined bv the- tension of the vocal cords. 2. Air escapes from the L.n^s through this vibrating glottis in a series ol puffs, and the force of emission is chieHy determined by the adion of the abdominal or expiratory muscles. 3. The upper part of the larynx, together with the pharynx, nares, and mouth, constitutes a p.issage-way. or tube, of variable Mze and shape, through whi. the vibrating current of air is passed. It IS here that the voice is moulded, so to speak, on its way to the ear, and the shape of the passage-way largely determines the quality or timbre of the voice. You can produce a crude voice-like sound bv the vibration of the lips of the mouth. Press your lips very /irmly together while you blow air between them, so as to cause the edges to vibrate. The sound produced is not very pleasant, and resembles more than anything else the hum of a bee, or the buzz of an imprisoned tly. But place the buzzing lips at the end of a tube— for e.xampie'a trumpet— and at r.nce the quaiitv changes. Out come the clear ringing tones so famili.ir to us in a br.i.ss band! In this ca,-e tlu- source of sound is found in the vibr.ition t. was produced. By means of the mirror 1 direaed their attention to the constriaion. and told them to expand the pharynx, as they had done before when they made no no.se At first they were unable to relax the muscles of the pharynx, ■with- out stopping the voice, but. after some pradice, they succeeded in doing this, and at once the voice became natural and pleasant in quality. The cavity of the ph.irynx may be roughly likened to a room with four walls. The b.ick part ot the tongue constitutes the r.oiit wall of the chamber, and opposite to it is the back wall of the pharynx. The side walls are formed by muscles that extend upwards to the soft palate. The approximation of these side walls, as I have already explained, imparts to the voice a dis.inreeable metallic quality. The front and back w.ills. too. are capable of approxima- tion, and in this case, also, the quality of the voice is injuriously affected. For example : The tongue may be held so far back in the mouth as to cause the base of the tongue to come almost into contact with the back of the pharynx. The voice then acquires a peculiar "guttural quality." I have heard ehis kind of voi. pro- duced by deaf children, hut it is more cominop I think, an^ong persons who hear, it is rarely heard during the act of speech, but many persons afled this guttural quality of the voice when they smg. The "metallic quality " of voice, on the other hand, is quite common among the deaf, although it is rarely so marked as to be painful to the ear. Many hearing persons also possess it in a greater or less degree.-espccialiy persons who use their voices much in the open air. For example, the rasping voice of the street hawker is of this description. Another peculiarity of voice very common among the deaf, is "nasal quality." This is occasioned by the habitual depression of the soft palate. By means of a hand miiror, the cause may be shown to a deaf child. The soft palate is capable of elevation and depression. When it is raised it fits closely against the back of the pharynx, forming a ceiling to the pharyngeal cavity. When it is depressed, it hangs down like a curtain, leaving a passage-way behind it, which leads into the nares or nasal passages. I would recommend every te.icher of articulation to learn to control the movements of the soft palate and the muscles of the pharynx, so as to be able to exhibit the adion of the parts to pupils 22 ->'^'i,(, The (list point you have to learn, is to depress the tongue so as to unveil the pharynx and soft palate. Many persons find difficulty in doing this, but by persistent elTorts before a mirror, all can acquire the power. Now watch the soft pal.ite while you breathe gently sometimes through the mouth, sometimes throu-h the nose. At first the soft palate appears to move about in .i most mvsterious ni.in- ner by itself, without any volition on vour part. Nr.w it goes up and then the ne.xt moment you see it hanging loosely down By watching these motions in a mirror, and attempting to control them you will soon find yourself able to elevate or depress the palate at will. Now sound the voice continuously, and observe wha* cffea IS produced upon its quality by the movement. You will notice that the moment the palate falls, the voice acquires nas.ilitv and that this effed disappe.irs when the palate is raised into conta/t with the back of the pharyn.v. During the a.t of speech, the soft palate is raised continuously excepting when the sound of ;«, /,. and „ff, are uttered. In order to correa a nasal quality of voice, therefore, your pupil must raise his soft palate. The question arises, however, -how arc you goinc to make him do it .^ ^ b b Various expedients may be resorted to. such as the common one of telling him to blow an imaginary feather away fn,ni his mouth while bespeaks; but these are all indired methods, and do not touch the root of the matter. I would recommend you to go for the soft palate itself, diiedly, wth a hand-mirror. Teach your pupil to elevate and depress it at will. Dired the adion with your hand V/hen you raise your hand let him raise the palate (Cut A), and keep It elevated till you give the signal for depression (Cut B). (Cut B. )» •These cuts are reproduceJ from " Voice, S.,1,1:, and Sneech." Then let him keep it depressed wjlh.tiii motion, till yoii dirt i liim to niise it. Control myr the ro,iit oA^.n/v is i>,i/iit\t not so tiituli hv mcrviiii^ tlicm jv In- /urp/iij^ tlum still. Keep the soft pahite de- pressed ;ind still (or a lotig period of time, and then raised for an equal length of time. Do this at first silentlv. and then .ifterw.irds with voice. Klevate and depress the pal.ite uilhoci stopping the voice hi'* retain the elevated or depressed position for a consi ierabie period of time. When your pupil cm do this without looking in the mirror you may usefully vary the exercise by requiring him to raise or dcpres> the palate while .it the same time he prolongs a vowel sound. (I"or example: ah or ,-K- ♦!,. • produced bv the .aion ,.( the tonj,n.e and lips, occasion ch.nces o -welcuaiuy. In sin,i„, different vowel sounds the vo"e m y'^ v he r. VoweJ differences, therefore, are differences in the quality or mhre o the vo.ce; and vowels themselves are in reality ,»./,^W '!/ ro,.e to which we have given specific names, and wh h w employ as elements of speech. ' ;;« ":>' P'-«P«>'^- «o-J^.y to enter into any detailed description of he posmons assunu.d by the tongue and lips, during the produc- t'oo of vowel sounds, as most of you. . know, are familiar wl he te. fe, 1 .1-8 (Cut C).* subjea I shall rather attempt to show you why it is thit chan«r^, -n the shape of the cavities of the mou h, pharynx ecoccasfon changes m the quality of the voice. ' "°" When we prolong a vowel sound without varying the pitch of the vo.ce. the effed produced upon the ear is not simply ha of a the oth rs ttt [ ■ K ''"' '""'' '^ ^° '""'^h '""''^^ than a ion The o^'r ""'"'' ' "'''''''' '''''''' '' '''' ^'^^''^ ^o-bi- ki !^' ! *"""' '""■"■ ''° '■^^b'y produced, that it takes •. skilled ear to recognize them as musical effeds t II 15 !k so" n7 W^ ""'"^ P""''^^^ ^^^^ - ^'^^ c,uan y o; 'tii^'b^e of he' "ng t^ Pitch' o"fT'" °' ^°"^' '^^^ ^""^ sui;cessively wUho jyr^ gthc pitch of the voice , a trained ear readily perceives that •This cut is reproduced from ■' Voir.-, Snng, and Speccii.^^ 35 the partial tones change in pitch with every change of vowel cffed. The loud fundamcnti.! is due to the viliratioii of the vocal cords, and the " partial tones " are caused by the resonance of the air in the cavities of the mouth. " What do you mean by ' the resonance of the air in the cavities of the mouth ?•'" I fancv some of you ask. In order to answer this question I have brought a few empty bottles from tbe dining- rooir t.ible nul from the kitchen of the hotel. Here we h;.ve a pep- per-pot a pickle-bottle, a must.ird-pot, a vinegar-bottle from the cruet-.stand, and a few other bottles of ditfercnt shapes and sizes. Now let me blow into the mouth of one of these bottles. At once you hear a musical tone something like that produced by an organ pipe. I shall now blow into the mouths of the others. You observe that each bottle has a resonance tor.r of its own. In some cases the pitch is high, in otheis low. Observe the pitch of the bottle I hold in my hand. I shall now pour in a littie water so as to reduce the air space within. The bottle produces a tone of higher pitch than it did before. I pour in a little more water and again the pitch rises. In fad, the si.ialler the cavity is made the higher does the pitch become. Now you have in your mouth a bottle-shaped cavity, and in this case also the air within has a tendency to vibrate at a definite rate so as to produce a musical tone. When the size of the cavity is reduced by elevating the tongue and bringing it further forward in the mouth, the pitch becomes higher, just as the tone produced by the bottle rose in pitch when I poured in water. I am afraid } i would h-.rdly like me to demonstrate the truth of this statement by blowing into your mouth as I did into the bottle! If you are anxious to make the experiment you can blow into your own mouth with a pair of bellows! A still simpler way, however, of testing the efTed is to blow air through the inouth from the lungs. For example : whistle. The pitch of the whistle rises as the tongue is advanced in the mouth. Let me dired your attention once more to the bottle. The pitch rose when I poured in water, and of course 1 can lower it again, if I choose, by pouring out the water. Instead of doing this, however, I shall change the pitch in another way, without varying the size of the air space within. While I blow into the bottle I shall gradually cover its mouth with my hand. The tone, you observe, falls in pitch as the orifice is reduced. You see from this that you can vary the pitch; (i) by varying the size of the cavity, and (2) by chang- ing the size of the opening into it. Allow me to illustrate these two ways with my mouth. ■•B..ck ,,:.': "^ ''■">" Vi«iN. Sp„d, »,.,„,,„, "d^mcc, M ,;:2::,, ^'^ '""" ""^' --' ^ - .i-- -...„„.. , as the lal)i.,l aperture is re Juced ' ''"''' '•'"'' ^*. belt i^;: :':;;;''";';:'" ^»'" <-''•" - p""'-- r..,,™,, vowei 00 in the word foo ts "T;"" '' ^"' ^''' ^"'^' ''^^• liDS is sn ^.. ■• . '•'■''■^ ''^'-' •'P^''ture between tiie h to" :; '' " P"^-^'"' ^^'^ P"P" f^"m observing the po '. n -e ^.uon..e:::• i^t ^d t:f:::^::t;- f -'^ -^^ mat.on to the erred sound " '^'- •''^''"'"•^'- Children Who ^.ve th^^^l^ j^^^ :^r::::ii,/:; :'^ then modify it by rouX the L "'" '"^'"^ ''' ''''''• ^'"'^ Round the lips aL you "te // 'a , ^ ""^^"" ^''^'^ ^^■""^'" ^^'• all practical purposes thin /^^^'^ ^«'" ""^ yo" have oo. For When the two eTem nt r > '' , ' '""''''''' ""^^'^■^" ^'^^ -• effeft If th. f '^ ''"^"''' I'^s'^'o" 'destroys the oo v.. fai. .0 produce a ,o„d L „.e„ .K^llt'-rr^d t voice is souiuicJ. in sucli c.isis the pitih nl the ricrm.in i h will Ii'il you tl)c nature of the ddict. .iiiJ how tnu'imdv ii. ll the pitih IS too hij^h the toii^'Uv- is too l.ir lotwaivi; if it is Iom low tiie toii^me is too f.ir Kuk. You i.in ol't.iiii yuur st.iiiJ.ird fur comp.irison in the lollowinj,' w;iy : Pronounce .1 yootl oi>. Convert it into :*// iiy substituting breath for voice, and then loi.e your lips .ipart so a> to obtain the elTect of the lingual position alone. Observe the pitch i>t the German (// thus produced. If the pitch o' the sound produced by your pupil is higher than tiiis, direct him to pi.ico the ton.i^ue further back; and if it is lower, tell him to briii^' the tonj;ue forw.ird. The pilch of the mouth t:.in be bi ought out by other me.ins than by blowing air into or through the cavity. Reson.mce is c.iused whenever a .sound of similar pitch is produced in the nelghborlu/od. For example: Here is a tuning fork, and upon tiie t.ible is a bottle which has tne same pitch. I hold the vibrating prongs of the loik over the mouth of the bottle, and .it once its re.son.mce tone is loudly evoked. Here is another bottle, but it remains silent when the lork is ;'pulied. Upon blowing into it you perceive that tiie pitch is too low. Let me tune it by pouring in water. It siill f.iils to respond— the pitch is now too high. Upon pouring out a little w.iter the bot- tle resounds, but very faintly, it has almost the same pitch as the fork — but is still a little too high. I pour out a few more drops, and now you hear the full and loud response made when the fork 's ap- plied. Let me hold the fork in front of my lips while my mouth is ,ie position of 'u.li. You have no response, because the proper tone of the mouth cavity is ditTerent from that of the fork. Upon tuning the cavity by shifting the position of the tongue, the mouth resounds as the bottle did a few moments ago. In these cases you have resonance produced by "sympathetic vibration." If you have in the same neighborhood two bodies that tend to vibrate at the .same rate, seC the one vibrating and the other vibrates of itself — out of "sympathy" as it were! I shall show you another case. Here we have a piano. I shall depress the pedal so as to release all the strings, and then sing into the instrument. When 1 stop singing you will observe that the piano echoes my voice. That string of the piano that had the same pitch as my voice was set sympathetically into vibration. A similar effect is produced in the case of vibrations which are too slow to produce the sensation of sound. For example: If two clocks having pendulums of simiLr length are attached to the same wall you need only set one of them going, for by and by the other will go by itself. Of ■ F -1 48 'it.1^ w,.v ,.u, ..,:„: .X ,f;:^ ; *= :-"« ■-- ^--d a 'orw.rcf, at a definite .te ,^ "' ^'^^"^-''^^ ^'nd '"Jccd. wore it o . , i ': /'"'' "'"^" "^•'"^^' " ^^"^" ^^ ^-t- stop .,t ..II nm woU T ' ■ '"''''"^''' "'■ '''' '" " ^""'^'"t 'he effect of a single push is ret .in', t M ' ' '""""''' ''^*"'^' 'hen. you push tt ^ t^ " ^^ t"" '"''"■ """'""^- "^ ■nc-scd. Very .i«,. 1.:;^"^ i e tr^L'T^ "'7"'"? swing into lull vihrition if .h • , " '' '" ^"' *^« ^.ve .shove :;,d.^e,; rth'"?";"'^ T ''''' "^ "^'^ ^— '"^J'vidual impulses are s|i«ht ' If h ,h ^ ^ '"'" '^""^'^ '^« time that is uh.n, ,h '''''''*' " «'^'-"" ''^ 'he wrong '»<.. mat IS, when the swing is moving on its hickwini n,.h »k every impulse tends to stop the vibr.ti F.rh k ' i '" motion to a certain extent ml ^ '"'' '"^''"^^ '^^^ bring the swing rprev.mT V^ ''''' ""P"'^" -'" stops it in time if vou Lav " .re' Th '''T^ '' '''' *'^ svmg at the wrong time u eacl^v br.Ln '"'v'" ''''■'''' ''''^" ^'^ -././ /.«... and the conveL Llw I H T '! ''"'' ''' '^'^ the strings of th^^i ':x^::::::'';;ri'': t^^- ^-'^ ^" •hem all swinging luit the T-^ u '^'■'' '^^^'^ ^^^^'^^^ -turnpathand^ p heVmoIn^Th '"''' "''''"' ''" ''' V-^s a^ ccntinuei in vibration jftcr vou stop pt '.in>.' ii The same kind ol aition took place when the tuning fork w.in htid over a bottle of similar pitch to its own. At i-ach descent of the prung the .lir in the bottle received a shove; .md the .nr w.is thus set into vibration, u you set a swing into vibration by the hand. A similar adlion took place when I held the vibr.itinK' fork in front of my lips. At first no sound was produced. bu» a hen I shifted the position of the tongue, so as to tunc the mouth-cavity to the pitch of the fork, resonance resulted, and you all heard the effed. I have no doubt that the Scotchm.in with the aitiiici.il larynx could have produced the s.ime etTeit, if lie had slipped a tuning-fork into his throat in place of the harmonium reed. Itnagine a multitude of tuning-forks of different pitch to be missed together i I front of the mouth and all simultaneously to be set in vibration. It should then be possible, by shifting the position of the t' ..guc. to reinforce the tone— now of one fork, now of mother— at will. Indeed under such circum.stances, it would hardly be possible to assume a position of the mouth, that would not reinforce some fork— at least in a greater or less degree. Imagine the mass of tun- ing-forks to be placed in the Scotchman's throat, and similar effects would result. Now the vocal cords like the hypothetical torks, produce a number of feeble tones of different pitch; when we pronounce a vowel sound, the mouth cavity reinforces, bv resonance, that " par- tial tone " of the voice which is nearest in pitch, to the proper tone of the cavity. The effect produced we call the ' vowel quality." The loud fundament.il tone of the voice, so distracts the ittention of the untrained observer, that he finds ditFiculty at lirst in hearing the resonance tone produced by the mouth. The best way to train the ea- is to commence by observing the pit. hes of non-vocal sounds. Then listen for similar effeds when the voice is sounded. If you whisper the vowels ah, au\ oh. 60. 1 think you will have little difficulty in recognizing the faa that the pitch of the whisper falls as the lips are approximated. More dilFiculty will be experi- er.ced in determining the relative pitches of other vowels. For example: whisper the vowels in the words <• , c\ a. You perceive at once a descending series of sounds in which ec IS the highest, and d the lowest pitch. | shall now hold the pencil against my throat so that each tap M,av agitate the air in the back cavity. Upon whispering the same vowels, the taps pro- duce an ascending series, ,v having the lowest pitch and „■ the highest. The effect is improved by closing the glottis so as to con- vert the back cavity into a bottle closed at the bottom. The front cavity also yields a much louder e.fed if it is shut off completely from the back cavity, by allowing the soft palate to fall into contad with the back of the tongue {ng position). In these cases of course, the vowel positions must be silently assumed When we pronounce these vowels aloud, feeble -{vutial tones-.- due to the fP 3« the back .iiid tiont cavitie if tlie mouth, resonance u( tlic aii mingle with the tone of the voice, and produce in our ears the sensation of "vowel quality." Helmholtz has not only resolved vowels, by a process of an.ily- sis. into their constituent musical elements, but has produced vowel sounds artificially by a synthetical process, in place of voice, he caused a tuning fork to vibrate continuously in front of a tuned bottle or " resonator." thus producing a loud musical tone. He then selected two forks having the pitches of the partial tones he had recognized as characteristic of the vowel tr. One was very high, and the other low. (They represented, indeed, the front and back cavities of the mouth in forming tl c vowel.) These forks were then placed in front of bottles, tuned almost but not quite to their own pitch, so that the sounds produced should be very faint. The simul- taneous vibration of the three forks in front of their respeftive resonators, or bottles, produced one loud sound, and two feeble partial tones. The effed upon the ear was that of the vowel r pillars of the fauces, which in each case .almost lose themselves in the w.ilK of the p.is.sagc. The pharynx comes into importance, if we re- gard, as I do, the a (ah) vowel as made with the place of constnc^ion against the back wall'of th ■ phaivnx, thus giving this vowel a place to tlie rear of the proper "b.ick vowels," jte, 0, CO, etc., which have the place of constridion in the soft palate. Bell might symboli/e it by an adiiilioiul turn ( ). This relieves Bell and Sweet from the vacillation and diversity in the place assigned by them to this vowel. The pharynx Sets together with the cheeks and the soft palate in producing, by their elastic reaction, the explosion of a p, and, without the cliecks, of a /, and, by itself alone, of a *. 1 imagine also that the pharynx acts, together with the soi't palate, as a cusliion, and may tlius be made to affeft the ring of the voice or quality of tone, giving it somttinies soilness, and sometimes sononty in the "oiotuuJ'' quality, etc. Yours truly, Ni-!.:-.".! S.W.LEL PoRTtB THE FUNCTIONS OF THE EPIGLOTTIS AND SOFT PALATE. The instrument of speech consists essentially of a colleftion of tubes or passage-ways conneaed together somewhat as shown in the following crude diagram, which I have found of assisunce in explaining to pupils the functions of the epiglottis and soft palate. (See Fig. 4.) Fig. 4. Diaeram illustrating the adion of the epiglottis ( k ) and soft palate (n). 32 -«i.w4*- fti i«A * 1BM#^ • 33 li^;. ;. Kc-y to >liagr.ini, Fi«. 4. There are three entrances i.no the vocal organs; a, the r.iOUth, and b, c, the nostrils. Followir., - ^8 added together (P+P-f p*); but the three elements (a b c) which compose each position, must be taken as multiplied into one an- other (axbxc.) Thus:— Position for 00= P-|-P + P"=a b c + a b' c' 4- a' b' c'. Position symbols placed in juxtaposition without any connec- tive sign between them must be taken as successively, not simul- taneously, assumed. Thus P P' P' means: Assume first the posi- tion P alone, then P' alone, and then P' alone. If the positions (P, P, P',) are assumed separately, instead of together, they yield sounds that are quite unlike the vowel 00. For example : If the labial position (P) be assumed witaout any other constri(5\ion in > e passage-way, a sound results which is not an English element of speech. English-speaking children, however, give the sound when they blow upon their porridge to make it cool. If the lingual position (P) alone be assumed, the resulting sound is the German eh in such a word as tiach. If the vocalizing position of the glottis, (P*), be assumed with- out any other constriction higher up in the passage-way, an indef- inite vowel sound results like the er-er-er of a hesitating speaker, or like the vowel heard in such words as her, sir, word, etc. If two of the positions (P, P', P',) are simultaneously assumed without the third, still other sounds result which neither resemble the vowel 00, nor the sounds I have just described. For example: If the positions P and P' are simultaneously assumed without P', the English consonant -wh is produced. If the positions P and P' are simultaneously assumed without P', the sound heard is that of the German u\ in the word wie. If the positions P' and P' are simultaneously assumed without P, the result is the Gaelic vowel in the word "laogh." These fads may be arranged in tabular form as follows : fOSITIOMS A&&t'.tllSO. RESULTING SOL-NDS. P Blowing to cnol. P German ch in " tiach." P* The vowel er \n " her." P+P' The consonant uh in "what." P+P' German zi' in "wie." P' + P' Gaelic " aohg" in "laogh." P+P' + P" The vowel 00 in "too." What we term an "element of speech" may in reality, like the vowel 00, be the result of a combination of positions. The t.ue element of articulation. I think, is a constriAion or position of the vocal organs rather than a sound. Combinations of positions ^ield new sounds just us combinations of chemical elements yield new substances. Water is a substance of very different character from either of the gases of which it is formed ; and the vowel oo is a sound of very different charafler from that of any of its elementary positions. When we symbolize positions, the organic relations of speech- sounds to Ciie another can be shown by means of an equation, for example ; — tnglish u'/i — P + P'. German ch — P'. Hence German ih =- tnglish :» A - P. The e«]uation asserts that the English wli without the labial con- striftion (P) is the German ch. I performed this equation upon the mouth of Mr. Lyon during the course of my last lecture. While Mr. Lyon was prolonging the sound of wh, I forced his lips apart with my fingers, ;;nd you then heard the sound of German rk. Take another case: — The English vowel oo in " too " = P -|- P ' + P'. The Gaelic vowel " aogh " in " laogh " == P' + P'. Hence " aogh" -^oo — P. That is: The English vowel "oo," without the labial constric- tion (P) is the Gaelic Toicel " aogh." If then you desire to pronounce the Gaelic vowel "aogh, "sing the vowel oo while some one else forces your lips apart. This is a diredion that will enable any English-speaking person to convert the known vowel oo into the unknown Gaelic sound "aogh," with- out the aid of hearing. In a sin^'' ^ 'nner, the sounds known to the deaf child can be converted i-mc tne unknown sounds of the English language. Indeed, manip ilation succeeds better with a deaf person than with one who hea: -. because the hearing person attempts to retain the souiui. whereas 'he deaf child simply tries to retain the position. The symbols of Visible Speech bear the same relation to pho- netics that chemical symbols do to tlie science of chemistry. In dealing with the mechanism ot speech, it is as necessary now-a- days to make use of my father's symbols, as it is to use chemical symbols in treating of the composition of matter. As many of you are already famili.ir with the subjed, it will not be necessary lor me to enter into any detailed description of Visible Speech. I shall, therefore, to-day, simply attempt to give a 40 1 ■I general idea of the iiatuie of my father's iin-thod of symbolizing positions of the vocal organs, so as to enable those who are unfa- miliar with the subjecl to follow me intelligently in my use of the symbols. The fundamental characters represent the vocal organs and the various kinds of apertures employed in the production of speech ; and these can be combined into a compound form to express a position of the vocal organs. A character shaped like a tube ( C ) is used to denote a very small aperture lor the escape of breath; and when this tube is plugged up at one end (3) the symbol then indicates complete closure of the passage-way. The symbols for the principal organs c , speech are shown in Figure 7. The adive organs of the mouth, viz: the under lip, the point of the tongue, the top or " front " part of the tongue, and the back of the tongue are represented by curves that form, in such a dia- gram as that shown, the outlines of the organs themselves. This pictorial basis forms an element of great value in teaching the deaf. The upper or "passive " organs, to which the lower or "active" organs are usually applied, are represented by the same symbols, written upon a small scale. Thus, the symbol for the upper lip is a miniature of that for the lower I'p; the upper gum, to which the point of the tongut is usually applied, has the point-tongur sign upon a small scale - the top of the hard palate is expressed by the symbol for the or "front" of the tongue; and that part of the soft palate t( nich the back of the tongue is applied is denoted by the back .ongue symbol upon a reduced scale. / mK 41 Fir 7. ) Under lip. ^ Point of tongue. — " Top " or " Front " part of tongue. ( Bacl( of tongue. \ Bacic of toft palate. I Slit-like aperture between the vocal cords. » Upper lip. " Upper gum, n Top of hard palate. « Front pirt of soft palate. » Back of pharynx behind soft palate. Ji i o be V, " E «« fee e - « c e - n c "I •- c E § 4i WD o <»?> -"■Or, I '^ ts 5^ — c k. U V XI u u = = i rs J2 c .2 c ii u II 3 M • 3 ■ c • r • o • 5 ■ D. • _ n -3 - : o"n c : ^ u . ^ ■— . 3 C=5 . -C ^i ?^ . 'J '•^ § ■ JZ J= <« . c o >. i. c _ o n I u 3. I? ■3; * I ■a k. o 1 t n 3 o " is iJ 2L^,r C o u £ 3 fl- c ^ H £ c . .ii^^lMiil.- : ^- 1L .4-^ 4) The various comhin;tttons of these po!iiiton^ tabulated upon page 4a, may he symboli/eJ .is lollows: POSITIONS A.S.SUMH>. Expressed Expressed upon pliin shown upon pl.in shown in Fig. 6. in Fig. 7. rk.si ltino solnds. P y Blowing to cool, P' -C* (u'liD.in th ill " tidch," P' • The vowel i«r in "her." P + P' 0' + C« .. The consonant k7i in" U'Aj/.' P+ P' 3'+ • Germ.in :. in "uie." P'-t-P* C«-t-l Gaelic jogh in •'taoghr P+P +P' D»-f-C*+l ..The vowel 00 in "too.-' The equations to which I have directed your attention may he thus expressed : 1. German ih — hnglish -^h — P. C = (D» + C') - O' 2. Gaelic aogh = English 00 — !'. C -f I = (D' -(- C f I) - D» Three positions (P, P', P'). have been shown in Fig. b, but a fourth position, which has not hitherto been noticed, is also indi- cated in thjt diagram. The soft palate is in contact with the back of the pharynx thus closing the entrance to the nasal passages. Visible Speech affords us a means ot expressing this position if we so desire. The portion of the soft p.ti.ite that fits ai^ainst the back of thf phui\nx. like other adive organs, is represented by its own outline (» ), '-n such a dia- gram as Fig. 7; and the part of the pharynx with v -'Ch it makes contad could, cc 'isistently with the not. twn, be represented by the same symbol in miniature ('). Combining these with the symbol lor passage-way closed (3), we could form the compound character O' (soft palate shut against back of phirynx). In English utterance this position is con- stantly a.ssumed during the act of speech, excepting when the sounds of »/, II. and ng occu,. As a matter of convenience the position u' the soft palate is not noted exceptini,' when thest- \ounds occur. When the soft palate is depressed. .i> in I i,u 7, .1 pa>sagc-way exists between it and the back of the pharvnx thiouuh whi^ h mt escapes into the nasal p.iss.iges. 44 This position may be thus expressed : In forming « we shut the lips and pass voice through the nose This sound, therefore, results from three positions which are simultaneously assumed. Position forw = D' + C H- I (See Fig. 8). That is: "Under lip shut against upper lip" plus "central aperture, between the soft palate and back of the pharynx." plus slit-like aperture between the vocal cords." Position for « = O- + C + I (See Fig. 9). Th.it is. "point of tongue, shut against upper gum" plus central aperture, between the soft palate, and back of the pharynx, ' pKis slit-hke aperture between the vocal cords." Position for »g = a< + c' + I (See Fig. 10). That is: "Back of the tongue shut against the soft palate" plus central aperture, between the soft palate and back of thcphar- ynx plus " slit-like aperture between the vocal cords." RESUMfi OF ELEMENTARY POSITIONS. D' = Under lip, shut against upper lip. 0- = Point of tongue, shut against upper gum. palatf " ^°^ ^°' '^'°"* ^ of tongue, shut, against top of hard Q' = Back ot tongue, shut against soft palate. D' = Soft palate, shut against back of pharynx. ^_ O' = Central aperture, between the under lip* and the upper O" = Central aperture between the point of the tongue and the upper gum. " 0" = Central aperture between the top (or "front") of th* tongue and the hard palate. C« = Central aperture between the back of the tongue and the soft palate. C = Central aperture between the soft palate and back of the pharynx. I = Slit-like aperture between the two vocal cords. An elementary position is expressed by a symbol composed of three associated charaaers. For example:— 0> = :>' or P = a b c. (Fig. 6). The sign for the constriaion (c) is united with that for the 45 Fig. 8. Position for M. i+c' + D'=a Fig. o. I'osition for N. l+C'+0" = Fig. 10. Position for NG. 1 + c + Q' = e 46 adive organ (a) so as to form one charader; and the passive organ (b) appears as a diacritical mark. In order to express the mechanism ol speech-sounds with accu- racy, as many symbols are n-quircd as there are elementary positions to be represented. Hence many sounds like the vowel oo (Fig. 6), require at least three position-symbols to express their formation. (See also positions for //;, //, and ;7^.- Figs. 8. q, lo.) This method of .symbolization. though admirable for the pur- poses of scientific analysis, would be unsuitable for current use as a phonetical representation of speech. For example: It would hardly be convenient to write the word " moon " in the following way! M OO N (D=> + C + I) (0' -I- C^ + I) 0" + C + I) See Fig. 8. See Fig. 6 See Fig. 9. In order to fit the symbols for use as a phonetical alphabet, my father saw that it was necessary, or at all events advisable, that each sound should be represented by only one character; and that there- fore, associated positions should be combined into a compound form capable of use like a letter of the alphabet. By the adoption of c^'rtain principles of abbreviation this has been accomplished without interfering with the symbolic charader of the notation. ABBREVIATIONS. I . Passive organs may in general be implied and not written. Th.s plan gets rid of the diacritical marks save in exceptional cases. For example: O ('Point shut ") alone, without any representation of the passive organ, is to be taken as meaning O- ("Point shut against the upper gum ") for the upper gum is the usual place of application for the point of the tongue. The symbol expresses the position for /. If, however, a deaf child should pronounce / by placing the point of the tongue against the top of the hard palate, then the passive organ must be shown, thus O". So also when we repre- sent the Mike sound produced during the ad of spitting, 0> (" Point of the tongue, shut, against the upper lip.") In forming the Sanscrit "cerebral /" 0« ("Point of the tongue, shut against the soft palate ") the passive organ, being abnormal, must also be indicated. In general, the passive organ may be omitted withoui ambi- guity, by adopting the rule that in such cases the adive organ shall r^S^^- 47 be considered as applied to that passive organ whidi is rt-presenteJ by its own symbol in miniature. For example: = 0' U = O- O = O" C = €<= C r= c' D = D' = 0" Q-Q" = 0' = 0' 2. I have already alluded to tlie abbreviation employed to represent the vocalizing position of the larynx. The slit-iike aper- ture (I) alone, is used for the full position — the organs themselves (the vc.al cords) being implied. This simple symbol (1) is admirably adapted for combination with other signs into a single character. For example: — D' + I = D + I = O- + I = O + I .- ^) Q" + I = Q -f I = Q a<^ -f- 1 = a -I- 1 = Q 0=> + C + I (Fig. 0) = + C + | = 3 + C = + e = 3 + e 3. The symbol » ("soft palate") is used to indicate C (centre- aperture, between the soft palate and back of the pharynx "). This can be combined with other symbols into a single charader. For example: — (Fig. 8) D' + C' + l = D + t + | = D + l = G + » = 8 (Position for m). (Fig. 9)0» + C' + l= O4-» + l = O + l = O + l = C0 (Position for n). (Fig. io.)a' + C' + l = a-f-J-|-l = a + l = G + t = a (Position for ng). 4. The most difficult case arises when two mouth-positions are simultaneously assumed, Fortunately the curves to be combined are usually of opposite kind so that one can be hooked on to the end of the other. Thus C + O = O or c The resulting charader, however, is of so awkward a shape that another hook is added for the sake of symmetry. Curves of this kind are what my father terms "mixed" symbols. For example : — C + O = O a labial position modified by the back of the tongue (English wh). Or = G a back tongue position modified by the lips. (A labi- alized German ck). <^ + O = O A front-tongue position modified by the point of the tongue (English sh). Or = y a point-tongue position modified by the top or "from " of the tongue (English s). 5. When two or more positions are simultaneously assumed, the sound may be considered as originating at the point of greatest constridlion — the other constridions metely modifying the effeft. In representing associated positions, therefore, the point of greatest constriction is selefted as the base for the compound sym- bol, and the other positions are indie. ted in a subordinate manner. t-or example, take the positions shown in Fig. 6. In this case we have three associated positions, P, P', and P'. Now if P, (the labial position), should happf n to be the point of greatest constriftion, a rustling noise will be perceived originating at the labial aperture. This kind of sound is characteristic of air under pressure, escaping through a fine orifice. We can recognize by ear many varieties of the sound for which we have no name. It varies, according to the ,si/:e of the orifice, and the degree of pressure, from a simple rustling sound — like the rustling of leaves upon a tree, to an intense hiss — like the noise of steam escaping from a loco- motive. When the vocal organs yield a noise of this charader, we call the effeft a " consonant sound." If, then, the 00-like eflfecl produced by the positions shown in Fig, 6, is accompanied by a rustling sound at the labial orifice (P), we call the result a labial "consonant," and not a " vowel" although the voice is heard. The labial position becomes the base for the compound symbol which is ti.en written as follows: — 0' + C + 1 = 3 (English v) a labial position modified by the back of the tongue and the throat. If P', (Fig. 6), be the point of greatest constriction a rustling sound is also heard, but in this case it originates within the mouth, at the back-tongue position (German rh), and the labial aperture simply modifies the effed. This rustling noise charadlerizes the sound as a " consonant " although the voice is also heard. In this case the back-tongue position becomes the base and the other posi- tions are indicated in a subordinate mannor. C + 0' + • = €J (German ck modified by the lips and vocal cords. If P' (Fig. 6), be the point of greatest constriftion, the sound heard originates in the glottis. Instead of a continuous ructling noise or hiss, an intermittent effedl is produced by the vibration of the vocal cords The air escapes in a series of puffs that succeed 49 one another with such rapidity as to produce upon the ear the effe£\ of a musical tone. Voice alone is heard without any rustling or whistling accompaniment in the mouth. This charaderizes the sound as a "vowel '. The sound originates at the position P". and the mouth positions \\ P'. merely modify the effect. The slit-like aperture between the vocal cords is therefore made the base for the compound symbol; and the mouth positions P, P', are indicated in a subordinate manner as follows :— I 4- C' + 3' = i (vowel oo), a laryngeal position modified by the back of the tongue and the lips. The vertical line or "vowel stem." represents (I) the slit-like aperture between the vocal cords (P', Fig. 6). the black dot indi- cates the back-tongue position C (P ) • and the horizontal cross- bar the labial position 0' (P). The three sounds represented by the symbols S3, G and i, result from almost identical positions of the vocal org.ins, and in teaching the deaf the sounds themselves may be considered as iden- tical. The subtle distindions, however, recognized by the ear are faithfully depicted to the eye, in the shape and general appearance of the symbols. The symbols for w (&). and the vowel oo (\), may be taken as typical of consonant and vowel symbols in general. A curve {/. e. a mouth-position), is the charaderistic feature of a consonant sym- bol ; and a straight line (I) (the slit-like aperture between the vocal cords), forms the basis of the vowel notation. In conclusion I may say that the symbols for all the English consonant.^ and vowels have been abbreviated to single signs, and that the phonetical alphabet thus produced is admirably adapted for use in schools for the deaf. The following example of abbrevintion may be of interest : M OO N (D'4-C*-|-l) (C^-f O' + l) (0--|-C' + l) =SiCO Fig. 8. Fig. 6. Fig. 9- In my next ieclure 1 shall present the symbols of Visible Speech in the way they are taught to the deaf. Dr. Bell then took charge of some children and illustrated his method of teaching. Dr. Bell : You must understand that while 1 claim the privi- lege of telling you in the forenoon what I want to tell you, I want to do in the afternoon just what you want. (Dr. Bell here gave an exhibition of the clicks with Miss Black's little girl pupil.) so 1 He said : "It dots not matter what sound you get from a child as long as you get a sound. The plan is to follow the child up and symbolize the different sounds made, and get him to remember and repeat the varieties that occur. I go from the known to the un- known. The queer sounds cliildren make are the known sounds to them and the English sounds the unknown. Children like the process, and this to my mind is a proof that it is suited to their con- dition. There is something wrong about a process that gives pain to a child. It grieves my heart to visit schools for the deaf and find little children constantly correc'ted for minor defers of pronuncia- tion. The nagging process interrupts the flow of thought through speech, and is ipt to dishearten the child in his attempts to speak. I would accept all sounds with approval, and utilize defedlive sounds in the way I have suggested above." - f VISIBLE SPEECH AS TAUGHT TO THE DEAF. The following Ch.irts are employed for the purpose of explain- ing to deaf children the meaning of my fathers 'Visible Speech" symbols. The elementary symbols shown m Chart I. are compounded in Charts II. and III. to express positions of the vocal organs which yield consonant sounds. In Chart IV. we have other elementary symbols which are combined in Chart V. to express vowel positions Chart VI. Illustrates symbolically the positions of the vocal organs in uttering English consonants, and Chart VII. symbolizes positions that yield English vowels. CHART I. The teacher selects some member of her class, and pretends to draw upon the blackboard the profile of the pupils face. She then looks into the pupils mouth and proceeds to draw a piclure of the interior of the mouth. The whole picture when completed con- stitutes a diagram like that shown in Chart I. The tea-her then proceeds to test the child. en's comprehension of the drawing She points to different parts of the diagram, for example the forehead nose, upper lip, lower lip, chin, lower part of jaw, throat, etc. The children indicate their comprehension of the diagram by touching the corresponding parts of their own faces. Attention is then direded to the interior of tiie mouth, and the teacher points to the pidure of the upper teeth, upper gum, top of the hard palate, soft palate, etc. The children touch or attempt to touch the correspond- ing parts of their own mouths. So with the lower organs,— the under teeth, the point of the tongue, the top or " front ' part of the tongue, the b;;ck of the tongue, etc. 51 k7^5i' ^ V'^ar'w^ 53 When the comprehension of th* clnss hns been well tested, the teacher erases from the blackboard all those parts of the diagram which are shown by dotted lines in Chart I., leaving the Visible Speech symbols in position as shown by the heavy lines. The teacher points to the fragmentary remains of the pi£\ure upon the blackboard, and the pupils recognize the symbol' as "the nose," the "under lip," "the point of the tongue," "the top. or front of the tongue," "the back of the tongue," and "the throat." The arrow-head, which represents a sudden emission, or puff, of air from the mouth, is indicated by a sudden motion of the hand away from the mouth. The next step is to have the pupils recognize the symbols inde- pendently of their position on the blackboard. The symbols are therefore written in one line below the fragments of the head (see Chart I.) The heavy lines alone are written, th« dotted lines not appearing at all. The pupils then compare these symbols with the fragments of the drawings above and identify them, — as (i) the throat, (2) the back of the tongue, (3) the top, or front part, of the tongue, (4) the point of the tongue, (s) the under lip, (6) the nose, and (7) puff of air from the mouth. Finally the upper dr.-'wing is entirely removed from the black- board, and the lower line of symbols alone is left. Each pupil describes these as follows: (1) he touches his throat; (2) he points backwards into his mouth with u little jerk of the hand, indicating a part of the tongue further back in the mouth than he can well touch with his finger; (3) he touches the top, or front part, of his tongue; (4) he touches the tip, or point, of his tongue; (5) he touches his under lip; (6) he touches his nose; (7) iic places his hand near his mouth to indicate a sudden emission, or puff, of air. After these have been mastered, two new symbols, shown at the bottom of Chart I. are introduced. Here again it should be noticed that the symbols drawn on tli^ blackboard consist only of the parts in heavy lines, the parts in dotted lines being omitted. The first of these new marks as you already know, symbol! - a pipe or passage through which air may pass. In the second e the pipe is shut or stopped up, at one end. The first indicate^ a narrow central aperture or passage, somewhere in the mouth ; the second indicates the complete closure or shutting of the mouth- passsire at some part. The idea is of too abstract a charafter to be explained at once to a deaf child who knows no language; hence '■■'-'^ f.* .ti%_v%':s('«*s.-'. CHART I J /P ( I \ I ( ZCl ) s M f f these symbols nrc taught nrbitrnrily as positions of the fingers with out any attempt being nude to explain their si^jnificance. As a matter of fad, deaf children come to underst.md their meaning when applied to the explanation ot positions of the mouth. 1 he pupils .ire taught to indicate the first symbol at the bottom of Chart I. by holding the thumb and foretiiiger ot the light hand near to one another without touching. This sign we may translate as "centre aperture." The second or "shut ' symbol, is shown bv bringing the thumb and Ibretinger together with a shutting action. We may here notice that the .straight line indicating a slit-like aperture between the vocal cords, is used in the sense of " voice." When a deaf child pl.iccs his hand upon the throat of his teacher he can feel a vibration or tiemor in the throat, whenever the voice is sounded. Hence he soon comes to associate the throat sign with a vibration of the vocal cords, and he mdicates •' voice" by touch- ing his throat. It should also be noticed that the "no.se ' sign is really pictorial 0( the pendulous extremity of the soft palate, and it indicates, as you have already learned, -soft palate depressed" ;;o as to allow air tc pass into the nasal passages. When a de.if child places his finger against the nose of his teacher while she pronounces in. ii, or ng. he can feel a vibration or tremor of the nostrils, and to him the soft palate symbol means voice or breath passing through the nose. The symbols shown upon Chart I. are capable of being com- bined into compound forms, some of which are shown in Charts II. and III.. Before proceeding, however, to the analysis of the com- pound charaders on these Charts it may be well to assign brief names to the elementary symbols of Chart 1. : these we can use to designate the gestures or signs employed by the deaf child which have been explained above. In the following Charts, 1 shall refer lo the symbols at the bot- tom of Chart I. as — I. Voice. 2. Back. }. 1-ront. 4. I'oint. s. I.ip. 6. Nose. 7. Puff of air. 8. Centre-aperture. 9. Shut. CHART II. The symbols on this Chart are named by the deaf child by analyzing them into the elementary symbols of which they are com- posed We may translate his signs as follows:— First line.— I. Lip centre-aperture. 2. Point centre-aperture. }. Front centre-aperture. 4. Back centte-aperture. %s Second line.— I, Lip contrc-apertun . \oiCf. 2. I\nnf ceiitic ;ip,eti,er leaving a small aperture between Hem. .Sae then takes a pupils hand and blows th:oiigh th's small centre-aperture .against his hand. The resulting sound is noi an tnglish element of speech, but is th,. sound produced by blowing to cool .something. 3. She descriiies the next symbol, '•Poin' 're-aperture." Uith her hand .she lifts up the point of her to.,_... and brin-s it into positicn again.st the upper gum, and makes the pupil look into her mouth and observe that there is a small aperture or hole between the point of her tongue and the upper gum. She then, without rnoving her tongue, blows through the point centre-aperture against the pupils hand. The resultant sound is that of the French r in the wc-d thedtre, or the English r. (non-vocal), in the word tree In a similar manner she %howi that in protiouncin« ih- third symbol "From .fntrc-;.pcmire,- the tongue is h-im^.J up i,, the middle. IcavinR .. sm.iI! centre pass.iKe or channel over the front of the tongue, through which she can Mow against ihc pupils hand. 4 he resultant sound is that of the letter A in the word Hu,: 4 In pronouncing the fourth symbol she pushes her tongue towards the back part ol her mouth with her hand, a.id shows that her tongue remains back when her hand is removed. She then lets the pupil feci that an can be blown upon his hand without moving the tongue. The resulting sound is that of the German ch in vhe word HdiA. Proi ceding next to the second line: — I. She shows that the first symbol, "Lip center-apcrture. Voice." IS the same as the first symbol in the first line, •• Up certre- •perture.- excepting that a straight line is pbced within the curve. She shows then that the lips are in the same position, but that a tremor or vibration can be felt in the throat which could not be felt when the other symbol was sounded. She takes the two hands of her pupil and places one against her throat, and holds the other in front of her mouth while she produces "Lip centre-aperture. Voice, The pupil sees the small centre-aperture between the lips and feels the emission of air against his hand, and also perceives the trcmbhng of the throat when the voice is sounded. The resulting sound is the German w in the word wie. a. In a similar manner, keeping one of the pupils hands on her throat and the other in front of the mouth, she produces the second symbol in tbc second line. "Point centre-aperture. Voice" contrasting it with the second symbol in the first line, which his no voice. He sees the centre-aperture over the point of the tongue and feels the vibration of the voice and the emission of air from the mouth. The resulUng sound is that of the letter r in the word run. }. In a similar manner she exemplifies the third symbol in the second line, " Front centre-aperture. Voice." The resultant sound is that cf the consonant y in you. In teaching the deaf, this may be considered identical with the vowel ee. 4. The fourth symbol in the second line, " Back centre-aperture, Voice." is shown to be the same as the German ch (Back centre- aperture), excepting that a vibration is felt in the throat. Proceeding next to the eighth line ;— I. The teacher describes the first symbol. " Lip shut. Voice, Nose." In forming this sound the lips are shut and the voice is wm km] ! " before, so that the aperture between the hands is reduced to a mere slit. At the same time give a quivering or trembling motion to the hands. The idea to be conveyed, is that the aperture in the throat !s a mere slit, and that a trembling or quivering motion occurs m the throat which the pupil may perceive for himself by placing his hand upon the teachers throat while the teacher produces voice 4. Touch the throat, and then press the two hands together palm to palm, with a shutting action, causing the hands to assume the appearance of the fourth symbol in the seventh line. We r^iay translate these gestures into words, and give names to these symbols, in the following manner:— Seventh line.-.. Thro.it open. 2. Throat contraded. 3 Throat a-slit fVoice). 4. Throat shut. CHART IV. When we comp; -e the symbols shown on Charts H. and III with those on Chart V.. we notice a radical difference between them' The most prominent feature of the symbols on Charts II. and III is ^yurve of some sort, whereas the charaaeristic of those on Chart V. .s a straight line-. By reference to Chart I. it will be seen that a urve .s mdicafve ol sume part of the mouth, and that a straight l.ne represents voice. The symbols on Charts II. and III. represent positions ot the organs that yield consonant, and those on Chart V positions that vield vowel, sounds. The generic difference between eonsonants ami vowels is thus portrayed in the svmbols. In conso- nansymbcWs the mouth position is made the charaaeristic I e of he symbol, the voice where it occurs being written subordin .e^.^ a straight line wi-hin the curve. In votel symbo^^te other hand, the voice sign is made the charadoristic feature and the ■nouth position is repre.sented subordinately by curves or' dots o other marks appended to the voice line. ClL'lV.Tus fo the Panose explaining to deaf children the meaning of ,.1 ^^ tfn, " P'"^ ''^ '^' ^^"^'"'^ ^'"P'«ved in forming vowel =^ounds are the back and the front parts of the' tongue. W hen w of th. Ime rests on the back of the tongue. In vowel symbols a H •CHART IV •* n J ni L fi 65 mark on the right-hand side of the voice line indicates the front pjrt of the tongue, a inailc on the left indicates the back ol the tongue, and a short horizontal line drawn acro.ss the vowil stem indicates that the lips are employed. Thus the symbols .it the bottnm ol Chart IV'. indicate (i) the voice; (2) the back of the tonjiue; (3) the back of the tongue; (4) both back and front of the tonjfue used simultaneously; [this is what my father terms a "'mi-xed' position), (si) Back and front ["mi.\ed' |; (6) back and front I "mixed"]: (7) the (ront of the tongue; (X) the front of the tongue; (q) the lips. It will be observed that the appendages are placed sometimes at the top of the vovvcl stem, sometimes at the bottom, and some- limcs at both ends. This pictures the elevation of the tongue in the mouth. When the mark is at the top of the vowel stem the part of the tongue indicated is placed high up in the mouth, leaving a small aperture between the tongue and the palate; when the m.-rk IS .It the bottom the tongue is low with a large aperture; and when the mark is at both ends the tongue occupies an intermediate posi- tion with an intermediate aperture. Reading again the symbols at the bottom of Chart IV.. we have (1) the voice; (2) back of the tongue high; (3) back of the tongue low; (4) back .md front both high ["high mixed]; {■-,) back and front both mid positions ["mid mixed ']; (6) back and front both low [ "low mixed " ]; (7) front low; (8) front high; (g) this symbol means not only that the lips are used but that ihe aperture between the 1 is of a rounded form. The deaf child is taught to indicate the small aperture formed by the high position of the tongue, by holding his thumb and fore- finger close together without touching. (This is the same sign for- merly described as meaning "centre aperture.") The low tongue position with large aperture, is indicated by holding the linger and thumb far apart. ; and the intermediate position is represented by a half-way position of the thumb .md forefinger. Thus, degrees of aperture are indicated by degrees of separation of the thumb and the forefinger. We are now prepared to analyze the symbols on Chart V. CHART v.— Vowels. The vowels on Chart V. may be divided into four groups of nine symbols each : — First Gkoi p.— Pi iniary t^our/s. Reading downwards we have:— if' 66 Wo '??•■"• "'«" ^''^' '■ ^'<1 B.ck. y Low Back J!""?^. ""'-'•"'«»« Mixed. ..Mid Mixed. Tlow Mixed Third ime.-.. High Front. . Mid From. ,. low Front Second GRovp.—iVije yoweis. Reading downwards we have — Third Group. ~p„„iarv Round f^owHs. Readihr downwards we have-— '"To^M-iJS:,"'-^^-^-^--'^ Mixed Round., Th.rd Line.-, High Front Round. .. Mid Front Round 3 Low Front Round. "^uunu. , Fourth GRoup.-lVuie Round bowels. Reading downwards we have — First line.-,. High Back Wide Round, a. Mid Back Wide Round. , Low Back Wide Round Wide Round. , Low Mixed Wide Round. RoL"'; "!''' c™"' '^''•^ '^°""''- ^- '^'■'^ Front Wid. Round. , Low Front Wide Round. Wide vowels differ from primary vowels by a slight vvidenin,. wur /A tT T'^' "'' ^'"^ "'^'^'^ ^^°"^ wide' vowel (, inTh and Pro7'MeIvirR^?lT '" ^'^ '^"" '^ ^""^'^^'y '-ger than for « the clTv the : '''' ''" '"'■^ ^'^^ '^'^"^ P^« °f ^^-^ -o"^h or fne cavity of the pharynx, is more expanded in wide vowels n tead of a dot. Groups III. and IV. are rounded vowels thatT the passage between the lips is of a rounded form ment':it"t:r?bTnrc;:nTv^^"^r '^"^'"^ ''' ^'^"^ ^-''y for the symbols Tnctf V 1 roll'orsi "^ "^^ '"""" ^'"^ ^'^'^ First Group.— /Viiwary yawtts. Reading downwards we have: — First line.— I. Voice. Back small-aperture, a. Voice, Back mid-aperture, y Voice, Back l;irge-aperture. Second line.— i. Voice, Back small- aperture. Front small-aper- ture. 3. Voice, Back niid-apcrture, Front mid-aperture. }. Voice, Back large-aperture, Front large-aperture. Third line.— I. Voice. Front small-aperture, a. Voice, Front mid-aperture. }. Voice, Front large-aperture. Srr.oND Gnov )'.—Widt ycrwe/s. In teaching de.if children, the symbols of this group are con- sidered as identic;il with those of Group I., and are described in the s.ime manner. When the pupils have become familiar with the analysis of Visible Speech symbols, they are shown, by means of the thumb and forefinger, that the position symbolized in Group II. have a slightly wider aperture than the corresponding positions in Group I. Prof. Melville Bell's conception of the expansion of the pharynx during th? utterance of wide vowels, is a difficult one to convey to deaf children who know no language; I have, therefore, not at- tempted to do more than convey the idea that the mouth passage fcr wide vowels, is slightly wider than for primary vowels, so that the primary and wide symbols, taken together, represent si\ degrees of aperture; for example: Take the front vowels, commencing with the smallest aperture and ending with the largest, we have the following series of apertures : — I. High Front. a. High Front Wide. }. Mid Front. 4. Mid Front Wide. 5. Low Front. ft. Low Front Wide. Third Grow.— Primary Round bowels. Reading downwards we have: — First line.— I. Voice, Back small-aperture. Lip, small-aperture. 2. Voice, Back nud-aperture, Lip mid-aperture. 3. Voice Back largL -aperture, Lip large-aperture. .Second line.— I. Voice, Bad small-aperture. Front small-aper- ture, Lip small-aperture. 3. Voice, Back mid-aperture. Front mid-apertuie, Lip mid-aperture. ). Voice, Back large-aperture. Front I irge-aperture. Lip large-aperture. •CHART V- ■I t II • « uv, «9 Third hnc— I. Voice, Front small- jperturc. Lip imall-ap«rture. 3. Voice, Front mid-apcrtute, t.ip mid-aperture. i. Voice, Front largc-apcrture, l.ip l.ir«e-aperturc. 1 he labial apertures described are of a rounded form, but as the pupils cm see for themselves the shape of the labial apertures, it h.is not been considered necessary to Rive them .1 distinct sign for I rounded aperture; they simply describe the sitt of aperture by thi- separation of linger and thumb. FoiKTH CjRot I'.— U^/./t' Round k'meels. In teaching deaf children, the symbols of this group are con- sidered as identical with those of Group ill., and are described in a similar manner. The differ., 'ices are explained later on. The sym- bols of Group IV. bear the .sume relation to those of Group III., that the symbols of Group II. bear to those of Group I. (See ne'e above relating to Group II. CHART VI. Chart VI. shows the mechanism or the English consonants as explained to the deal. P/'rst line: — (1) "Lip shut." followed by a "puflT of air." We have here two symbols, the first of which (Lip shut), represents /«. as in put, cup, etc. It is not advisable to teach "shut" consonants .ns sepa- rate c!i ments. They are best taught in connection with vowels. The nil ,t elementary form of /» taught, is the final p, as in cup, where the "Lip shut" position is followed by a puff ol air, as shown in the Chart. (a) "Lip shut. Voice," followed by "voice." The first of these symbols (Lip shut, voice), represents b in but. cub, etc. This is not taught elementarily, luit in connection with a vowel. The simplest form is that shown in the Chart where the "Lip shut. Voice ■ position is followed by an indefinite murmur of voice, form- ing a syllable somewhat like bir in bird. (3) "Lip shut, Voice, Nose." represents m in man, conw, etc. (4) "Lip dividid-aperture, ■ represents / in file, luff, etc. The upper organ in this case is the edge ot the teeth, instead of the upper lip. Second line: — (I) "Point .shut, idllo wed by "a puff of air." The first sym- bol (Point shut), represents / as in to, not, etc. When / occurs as a final letter, as in no!, the ' Point shut " position is followed by a puif ol air, as shown in the Chart. mn?. MiaoCOPY «SOlUTWN TRT CHART (ANSI and ISO TEiT CHART No 21 ^ d^PUiajM^GE '653 Easi Morn Street ("6) 288 - 5989 - Fox 70 111 "si J I -V I if ft i (a) "Point shut, Voice," followed by "Voice." The first symbol (Point shut. Voice), represents d, as in do, nod, etc. In the symbols shown in the Chart, the "Point shut, Voice" position is followed by an indefinite murmur of voice, thus representing a syl- lable somewhat like dir in dirh. (3) " Point shut, Voice, Nose " represents n, as in no, nun, etc. (4) "Lip divided-aperture. Voice" represents v, as in vie, love, etc. Third line: — (1) " Back shut" followed by a "puff of air." The first sym. bol (Back shut), represents k, as in key, sick, etc. When k occurs as a final letter, as in sick, the " Back shut" positibn is followed by a puff of air, as shown in the Chart. (2) "Back shut, Voice," followed by •'Voice." The first o these symbols ( Back shut, Voice, represents g, as in go. log, etc. The " Back shut, Voice " position is followed by an indefinite mur- mur of Voice, forming a syllable somewhat like gir in !;ir/. (}) "Back shut, Voice, Nose," represents tig, as in /ung, tongue, etc. (4) "Lip centre-nperture. Back centre-aperture," represents wh, as in wfiet. It is taught to the deaf as "Back centre-aperture" (German ch), with the lips rounded as in the ad of whistling. In obtaining this sound from a deaf child, it is found essential to dired attention to the " Back centre-aperture position. ' Fourth line: — (i) "Point divided-aperture, Voice" represents /, in lull. (2) "Point divided-aperture. Front centre-aperture " represents th as in thin, kith, etc. (5) " Point divided-aperture, Front centre-aperture, Voice " rep- resents fh as in then, with, etc. (4) " Lip centre-aperture. Back centre-aperture, Voice " repre- sents u< in the word wet. In teaching the deaf it is essential to dire(f> attention to the "Back centre aperture " position, and the sound is taught as identical with the vowel 00 in pool. Fifth line:— (i) "Point centre-aperture, Front centre-aperture" represents s, as in sown, hiss, etc. (j) "Point centre-aperture. Front centre-aperture, Voice, rep- resents ^ in {one, and s in his. #s .11 •J i o •CHART VI- 01 9 3 o> Ql 05 3 a=> ai G D U) U U 3 u u n ^ o ■ - (4) "Front ccntrt-:.pemire. Point centre-aoerture Voi- •• resents s in fmisinr. und ,- in a-,m- If h , '"'^" ''fter •• Point shut Voice " in Zrh . "^ '" ^ '"^ '" '^ ^^^'"'' tl-- consonant,, it rnav be rep 'nted b ' Z^"""'-"' ^-- «> non-vocal consonants" -.s in ^ 7r , ' " '^ «'s« occurs after (k,7,oo). '" ■^''' ^^•■"^'^^ ^'""' (trAoon), .,r. .-/1n^'"cl^ttS"•?•• ''""" "'^^^■^'-'"'^-»' '" ^'- -rd vowel .. ' ' '^'"'^ '^ '^ ""■""^^•'•^•J ='^ '•d'-'ntical with the CHART VII. (4) "High Front Wide" reoresent^ th. I'tiihi, etc. represents the vowel heard in ;//. Second line: — 1) (a) "Mid rrom," followed by a glide tow.irds " Hi«h hVont," r presents the diphthongal vowel heard in ,//<•. (sleep), etc. sound as if there were two -yllables in e:'ch word, and if any'defeft of combination exist, the vccality of the r or / causes the introduc- tion of a voice glide after the non- ocal consonant. Thus, CDlWf, f5lC0fD> (tCiree, suleep), etc. 'w,'*i''"'. where they follow Hon voca 1 "' ^"■^ ' "' "" '^' '«"'' 'or example, in sud, wo d . " X' "r"""" '" '^' "'"^ »> liable. ^'^V. fl..y. slay; ,...,„. quetn Vw, n pe^'/''' ''"''■ "''"■"''= '^'"V sue. ' "• ■''^""' r«w. tune, cute, few. thews, -ci ' thin. It w::;^:;:: H:;rr;:rf "^ '^^ ^^^'-^^^ - •simple expedient by which the eT^'l u ^°"' '"''""°" •« ^' example .-take such words a! ov '^ " '""'"'' *'"P'°^^^- F"r - when they occurChei:::' oTl^^riVl^r ' ^^ The voca tv of th^ i-i.t 1 °' ** P'"^''s*?. Wuvs instead of duv,) .« Wh" J ""'' '""'"' »' ""3B. *«')■ If a pupil does L. S ,"t ''^r,"'°'"' '""" " <* '" ('*) O' O W in Hie manner iZlll ^ ' ' "'""'l'"!"' it from O Nen well fixed-,ha, is when 1 " '"""*"• ^"^ " "» manipulation, I add voice' "' ' '" *""' " '"'''y '^l«»" « M. """ "" '" ' "" "■ «•"• " P"fl-"y ,K. same ,„„,, Vlj^ •l The next question en nty list is this:— " Please demonstrate the teaching of /« ia cotton." In this worJ, (QIOV) the sound of n alone (CB) constitutes a distina syllable. Indeed B (iii) 9 (n) 6 {ng) and also W (/,) when prolonged, are in reality vowels. That is, the aperture through which the voice is passed is so large as to be non-obstructive. We fail to hear any rustling or hissing 'r puffing sound from the mouth position. The fricative noise which is charaderistic of a consonant is not heard excepting at the momont of the rci nquishment of the position. These sounds can be used both as coiiionants and vow- els. If the positions arc assumed only momentarily so ih;il the sound of the removal ul the position is the chief effect perceived, then we recogni/e the sounds as conson.ir dements of speech. If on the other hand the chief efftiX pirccived is due to the retention of the position, and not to its removal, we he.ir only a quality of voice, that is, a vowel soun*'. and this sound may constitute a di:.- tinft syllable by itself. In the English language V (/<) and (i) (/) are often employed as vowels. B (m) is more rarely used, B (ng) not at all. A vowelized 9 (m) is not usually recognized as constituting a distindl syllable by itself, but surely such words as U)tU8 (rhythni) and litl^B (schism) are as really dis-syllabic as IOQ0 (ea'en), QIOV (cotton), or lOCi) (apple). The termination, "ful," which is so often murdered by deaf children is pronounced by most people simply as 3Ct) (fl). For example: }3U (awfl), OWIO3C0 (dreadful), BnlO£3&' (beautiful), etc. Surely the word }3U (awfl) would be more accept -ble to ordinary ears than the }3l9«l(i} pronunciation commonly hei .'rem the deaf. it is difficult to teach the sound of tn in such a word as cotton without the use of symbols. The pupil associates the single char- after / with a double adion of the organs (D>). Hence, he tries to give this donble atition to the / in cotton; that is, 0>CD for OCO. The vocality of the C(J («), however, usually causes him to t.iil in his aim. so that the puff of air (>) is vocalized (I). Thus, QJOICB. In our pronunciation of the word the point of the tongue is not w moved from the upper gum between the positions for / and n, ajOCD. The point-shut position is common to the two sounds OW. The soft palate is closed against the back of the pharynx (□) during the produi^ion of the / and drops (C) durin;; the production of the 8j 'H Rg. .6. Aaion of the soft palate in fo.ming /„ ^W^ in "cotton." First Position. 0+0=0 Second Position. C-f 0=C7 ~c>T(acr=oc? h. al.a °°; at; ;,on and"/ "" "" "" ""* "«■"" "««« '" gainst. Ke upper gl. O^^rjli+.'acococ " H' ""'' of them quite freauentlv .nH i 1 , u "^''"*' '^°"^^' ^"'"e ta difficult cases 1 would recommend the following plan : Give 8j your pupil a hand mirror and teach him to elevate and depress his soft palate (DCOC, etc.), in the manner described in mv second leiture. When he can do this at will without looking in the mirror, ask him to repeat the exercise with his lips shut all the time. This results in D+(DCDCaC, etc.)=DODDDO, etc. Then rep 't the c:;crcise with the point of the tongue shut igainst the uppe gum : 0-h(acaCDC. etc.,)=0CJDC30C?. etc. Then with the back of the tongue shut against the soft palate: a+(DCDCDc)=aaaaaa, etc. Then let him repeat these exercises with the voice sounded intermittently through the nose: DSOS, etc. (pm, pm, etc.) OCeoCD. etc. (tn, tn, etc.) aeae, etc. (kng, kng, etc.) Then with the voice continuously sounded: 08B8, etc. (bm, bm, etc.) OOCOCO, etc. (dn. dn, etc.) eeee, etc. (gng. gng, etc.) If a pupil is taught to control the movement of his soft palate at will, such combinations as that of In in cotton will present no difficulty. [Dr. Bell here illustrated his method with Mr.Kiesel]. i CONSONANTS. ' propose in my letiur^ t,^ . . consonants. "^^ '^'^^ '°"«'der first the defers of shut TheiabiaMetterr:""""^^^^-- '" '^-ing , .. „. ,^,^; • ;; - not liabie to errors of position ord'naryearandmay^therlTeTenl'^^^^^^^^^^ '° "'' °«^nd 'he the tongue should b; placelLa n^^K '^''">' '^- ^"^ PO'nt of ^hut against the teeth. eventoTh;! "'^'^ ^"'"' ''"^itmay be defeft sufficient to attraa the a^ t ol 0^'"°" "''°"* ^^^''"-"^ a teacher. In forming ;t ^ .7 i ^"-^ °"^ ''"» ^n articulation ;"owed so long as the poSti^Xf'' /''"'^'"^^^^ 'atitude maybe ^;^^ the ^ereaatonce^a^as tltn'^r- ^''-'tistoof you try to form a ,, with yl mo hon f °"" '*^ ^°-^^^' to produce the tongue to the back of th:Xynx %T"'f'"' «^^'^« ^^ of sound of A to which I have allM7/;.,:^P''°'^"«s the defeaive g'ven by deaf children. J, te/,^K ' ''''"' '^"'t^ ^-'"-o 1 to the mode of teaching. Zltl' -^ '''"'^ "^^'^ the defed is due as w.de,y as possible to^hlw ;'";: T ''' '' °P^" ''' -" h ^---tetheaaion.andth.=-^,Xhe:;:V^ 8i low a position. It is very difficult to correit a position that is too far back. I think the best way is to teach the sound anew Take a position which is too f.ir forward, for example. / (O). then manip- ulate the tongue. The same remarks, of course, apply to g (€). The shut consonants, though generally pronounced well by deaf children, are liable to a defe ft of a very extraordinary nature. In nearly every school for the a>af some pupils maybe found who give clicks in place of these consonants. For example: p will be pronounced like the sound of a kiss, and / like the clicking sound we make as a sign of impatience, or like the cluck with which we hurry up a horse. 1 may not be able to tell you exaftly what to do. but of one thing you may be sure. -the first step in the correaion of a defea is to understand the mechanism of the defedive sound. . "Knowledge is power," and when we know the nature of a defeft ingenuity will find a remedy. The first step then is to study the mechanism of the defedive sound. How are you to investigate it .> Imitate the defeftive sound yourself, and then study your own vocal organs. Your pupil, we shall suppose, gives a kiss instead of the sound of p. Let us study the mechanism together. When the lips are opened you observe that air goes into the mouth instead of coming out. Let us examine into the cause. But first, let us express by means of symbols and diagrams the condition of our knowledge at each stage of the investigation, so 'hat we may realize as clearly as possible what we are about. First PoMtioii StconJ Position. /n. ^'rK^'"'^ '^"'^"""'"^ '" ^'''«- "• '""strates the closure of the lips (D) The second shows, by means of an arrow-head, the diredion ol the air when the lips are opened (<). Can it be that the pupil makes an effort of inspiration while he •s trying to say p ? How can we satisfy ourselves on this point ? 86 yet to be determined. 'tThe ylo o ^ V" " ""^ ^°'"' ^^^ '•""-*y'"f'o'D< now becomes D-9 1 Repeat the kissing sound m.ny times-D. D- n ■■= d.Zrm'™°" "" »" *- f™- '^^ ' [.) The soft pa.,. no -ir^iXw^tr xrr "°!: '^- ^^-'-^ '^^ Let us exDre« thic u , , P""'^'^ ^"'^ '''e '""gs- becomes » + [d<]. ^ ^' ''"'^ the symbol 0< ;;j li •<3 Fig. I J First Position. r. , ^, S'^'^ond Position. '^ anything further to be discovered ? Th- . , If no other constridion exists han! I ^"^ '^'' °"^ '^°'^^"t- there must be an open pa s ge-waTi 1' h^"" °" ''^ "■^^"'"' *'^^" and air should escape throuTthTm u "'°"'" ^'""^ the lungs. Does it do so ? We knowf d^^^lT^f T " ^'™"^^ ^'^^ "-' air enters the mouth in Just tht o^po ,f dla^^^ ? ^^^^^ The passage-way, then must h.T^ '^"'edtion [< and not >J. soft palate and the lips TLljT '°".'"'"^ '^^^^^ thi P What organs are there in the mouth by ! if fi? which the closure could be effected ? We are limited in our choice to the point of the tongue, the "top" or "front" of the tongue, the back of the tongue, or to intermediate parts. If you repeat the .sound of a kiss, I think you will feel that the concealed shut position must be pretty fir back in the mouth. Cer- tainly the point of the tongue is not involved, and we are limited therefore to the top or back of the tongue, with the probabilities in favor of the back. How can you decide the matter ? Make a hypothesis, and then experiment upon your mouth to test the truth of your assumption. For example: Assume that the back of the tongue is shut against the soft palate (Q). Fill in this position upon the diagrams. Figure 12 now becomes Figure 13, and the expres- sion S ■+■ {0<) becomes Q + (D<) Fig. IV First Position. Second Position. (> + a + D) (»-(-a-f-<) = a + (D<) Now study the diagrams and the symbols and try to establish some relation between the hypothetical position (G) and some sound of known formation. Then experiment upon the mouth to see if that relation holds good. Now we know that Q -f- 1 = e (Hg). If then your hypothetical position (Q) is correft, you should get e (tig), by adding voice to a kiss. Test the matter. Sound the voice continuously while you repeat the sound of a kiss : — i+a+ (0< D) ; or 4. If you keep the lips closed and open the passage-way between the back of the tongue and the soft palate, air will rush out of the cavity into the pharynx D -f (0>). Numbers 1 and 2 are suftion clicks. Numbers } and 4 are ex- pulsion clicks. Numbers 1 and 3 are both given by deaf children inste.id of p (D>). In order to have a click sound it is necessary that you should have ;. cavity in which the air is of different density from that out- side. There must, therefore, be two constridions of the passage- way which we may call x, y, with a cavity between them. If the air in that cavity is of less density than the air outside, the opening of the passage-w.iy at either end will result in a sudden in-rush of air, forming a suftion click. 90 4- .y + (x^)i ^''Pulsion C/h ks. '" '">' "^^ of the symbols- '• X + 4- X + Q +^o^^ •^«^/0« C//i-^5. ^£xf,u/shn Chcks. 5- X +(Q>)+ D ivvosnut positions is 1)1 largci than in the cuse shown in Fij;. 14. Ttu sciukI thcrcl.ni- iuis a lower pitch than any of the clicks rcsulini},' liom tho pcMiioiis shown in Fig, 14. The pupil also is unable to breathe through the nose while pro- ducing the sound. The closure of the soft pal.,te against the back ol the pharynx (0} is of course assumed though n<'t expressed in the symbol X + (0!»). There are really in this c;ise three shut positions, and theory therefore indicates the possibility of producing three expulsion and three su'tion clicks from the positions shown. Below Fig. is I give the symbols for the six clicks alluded to lor the benefit of those who des.re to study them. I need not describe them further in detail, as we meet with only one of them— the fourth — in our work. The fourth click X + (D>) is sometimes given by deaf children in place of 0> (/>). We meet with three click Icms of O- (/). a4-(0<) ; 0+ (0»); andX + (0>) The inner shut positions in each case is the same as that »'.eady noted for p. K is subjed to only one click X+ (0>). (M is often given as a vocalized kiss S-f- (D<) — such a word as •'mamma " for example, being pronounced as two kisses with the voice passing continuously through the nose. 6+ (D"•»''■«■«. For f. a4.tn^\ « * ^ For' ^^^"^ a+(0*) For ^7 For ff. For r/f. _. For *. For d. for jr. \f ~ » -h (a<) 'file pupil „„t„„„ ,.„ ^ ^ *■""=»' 'I'-'g/oWMX). P'-'n of ascertainin^r ,he loctfl • ^"'^^^^ ^^^ most certain J sourd Will be l,,ard which «^ I .„ , ^°'""" °f ■'•linquishmenl "".ten of ,he co„ce,w ^^ i"„'" '"* >■•>" "> """min.' v „m™ t-'Sl' jl'.%^:s^Pfl£li;'Jlii3^\*«llii@S^Km« f-- pronounced either with the air going In or out of the lungs. If the glottis is closed you will hear ( \> or X*) the effcit of throat shut followed by a puff of air. If you are uncertain whether or not the pupil can breathe through the nose, hold the nostrils closed with your fingers imtil the pupils breath kivcs out. If the concealed position was Q {ng without voice) v or a<) for O - » = a. The first step in the rorredion of a deftvt is a knowledge oi ihe cause. With this knowledge the te;.:hcrcan not only devise rni.tns (I) of correfling the defed. but (3) of utilizing i in the production of other sounds. Let us take as a typical case of a click defed, the sound of a kiss given instead of p. How can we corredt it and how can we utilize it ? (I) CorreaioH of the defea. In this case the cause consists in the assumption of a shut position (Q) which prevents the breath from reaching ihe lips. If then, we can d^'/isc any method of caus- ing air from the lungs to press against the lips the assumption of the concealed position becomes impossible. For example: You can make your pupil blow feathers or pieces of paper away from his lips, or inflate his cheeks while trying to pron(>uncc p. These „re simple expedients that are usually successful; but they may fail because it is perfectly possible to produce inflation of the cheeks and expulsion of air from the mouth, and yet have the back of the tongue shut against the soft palate when the lips are opened. The charafteristic puff heard during the production of a click is necessarily of very short duration. Then get your pupil to make a continuous elTort of expiration. For example : Let him shut his lips and blow continuously through a very fine orifice between them (D0«) as though he were blowing to cool something. In producing a prolonged emission of this kind the air can only come from the lungs, and the assumption of any interior shut posi- tion is therefore impossible. It is true that the inflation of the cheeks suggested above, and the too small aperture between the lips just alluded to, themselves constitute defeats; but they are easily cor- redleJ, because the anions are visible. A skillful teacher will not hesitate to substitute a dcfed that is easy of correftion for one that is more difficult. '■2^m^m- 94 (i) Utilirath'^ of Ik, i.f^a- Syou i> kiss. tnat the conce.leu shut poMtion i, a vn.. « m " '"" ^'•"" '"'ity of p,od,,„, „^ j;^ ^om?^: ^"/cco«ni.c the po„i. pupil to add voice to the ki„. The moment you reallw ;' f'^'^^ogni/e the po,s|. f-or example; Get (he f°+(O^^J+l=«+(D^) •"'d you then pet /,^ .,|o,H. If ,h ;^--dor«, yoic..:;,;.; ;,^^^;;'^ -« -^eady ..uired '« «o h'm; and i. he alre.idv h .. h '' '' '"""« of teaching «) ''^-'^^pr-ent.Snrt ;„;::;! ;r.'"^ "» '^-^• h.s .md an idea of the n.cch.sm of ,,",': "? ^'■" ''"'^y ^^ [«^ '^ '"^'^'y advisable, if possible H./k '" corrc^ing de- teachcr shnuld know the cause ^nd" . '^' P"P" '' ^<>" at fhe 'he defeaive sound. " ""^ ""''*^«»^"J the mechanism of '^'^'t is not right." G ive h^'nf^" '^°7 ^» "im and „y. .-n' ^^ •^^ by . sign Of apprlv^d ''' '^'"'°' ^"^ <°^> and'encou^ .he -X^wam^d"^;^^^^^^^^^^ ^-'t that he failed to give was right in his attempt^m ^.t r ^ '°''''°"^ '« '^'■"' ^"d he POs.t.on Which alone he coud ^ZTuT '""'^'^'^ ^^^^^^^'^ 'he then should we ..press disapprov.lT 1'^'!'? "' ^''^ ">=*• ^hy of censure. The ..No-no method . ''"^ '^0"'= nothing worthy t e defedt-.nd it doe. ZnZToM w t" "°' '^'^ """ ' ' -^-^ P'ease. Give him a sign fo7 TZnT "f'°" ''onest attempts to approbation. Ifyou do not kn^w h" '"' ''^'^' '^'^ '^^^ hy ^'ve him . as a pL.sion s ^1 oT ""'^ ''^'^ ^^""'^ P^^Per^ f-t -t. Say. .-That is wh^vo^d /''"'"'''"'*" '° ^'p^^ ^' No-no method - gives him tL' dea ir: '° " "'''"■ " ^he "o.se of that kind. On the contr ' ' " '"^''^ ^° '"^'^e a sound so that you may study it" ndLdorn'"' ''" '° ^^P-» 'he 'n i>'s instruaion. jf the sound k?r.^ ''°'^ ^''^ 'o utilize it not know how it is formL'S'; .t^'r/" >'°- ^^ -'^ you^d^ ho'd on to it and not throw it a Jay Whe^'^^^'^ >'°" ^'^°"'d ^- ^'^'"yo" have an.<'vzed its =^T^-?raPffl^«j«t?3i^7:iiaiS®^ ^fj«^i^:x'aiW^^#.=^r;«r?i^.^^ 95 (omposition you may Imd it to contain gold where you only asked for lead. Let your pupil repeat the sound until you can anitate it yourself. Then study your own mouth. In the meantime do not let him fornet the sound. Fix it by reference to the letter x, or some other mark, and when you have satisfied yourself how it should be expressed, substitute lor v the proper symbol. The meaning of the symbol need not be explained to a young child. It may be treated is an arbitrary sign. The expression 0+ (D*) need only me.m to him, " That's what you did. now do it again." The deaf child soon comes to . iderstand the application of the symbols even though he may not understand their full mean- ing. For example: V/he.i he knows th.it O-f (O^) represents the sound he makes, then if you change the symbol to e+(0^) he will ai once attempt to vocalize the kiss. He will do this even though he may be unable to analyze or understand the full significance of the expression. The symbols of Visible Speech are invaluable as a means of cor- refting and utilizing defeaive sounds. Indeed, I think their chief value lies in their ability to express the mechanism of the sounds the children make, so as to show in a graphical manner their relation to the English sounds we wish them to give. The methods suggested above are applicable to the correilion of all the clicks of / and *. (See Table of Clicks). UF.FKCTIVK COMBINATIONS OK P, T, K. Pupils who are taught by means of Visible Speech h >ve many ad- vantages over these taught only by means of Roman letters a i ' diacritical marks. Defects of combination, which are ineviti'Ne upon the latter plan, and which require the expenditure of much time and labor on the part of the teacher in order to correct them, need not arise at all vhen symbols are employed, and if they do arise are easily corre(fted. Let me illustrate by a common case. The position foi p (D) by itself yields no sound, because the lips are closed, it is usual, therefore, to teach it in combination with an open position. Thus, D-. The lips are first shut and then opened to allow of the escape of a puff of air. Here we have two successive positions represented by only one character p. This leads at once to a defecl when p is com- bined with other letters, for the child naturally a.„mpts to give l^WV"-^ "Ml i J '- • ii ■ 6 ♦ - ^1 *■ 96 S/and " ^^ '"'^ '' ^'^ ^^""'^ ^^-- ''^P -d ^)- So ai:o Ti becomes 0>0 instead of Oy, /fi becomes a>U instead of GO, Ts/i{c/i) becomes 0>ft instead of Oft etc th.Hi? ^ ^'- ?'""«'°*'^^''"'^''"^^^ Of the pupil's eye to disceVn the difference m her mouth Your ^k; «• ■• k" »cyc 10 aiscern 1. "SayO>" "That is right." 2. "Nowsiiy y •• "Right." 3. •'NowsayO>y " Right again." sitions aaually assumed hv hlr . "^ expressed the po- right." With aVapZ ing drie"trr''"'^"^' "^'"'^ could only sav. "n'o' noAtJ^trl;. V "" ^"^'^^ 4- " Now try first 0>U and then OU •• thetwreffeas'tAif"'''" '^ ''''''' '^ '''' '^'^^ between - i i'A ^?* ;■!"•'-:':: 97 him to put it in — now in one place, now in another; tor example, the pupil may say, 0>U or >0U or >0>U, etc. It is not the teacher's objec^t to have him foi'Hi't the incorred sounds but to remember them and contrast them one with the other. The greater the number of slight variations that can be pro- nounced at will by the pupil the more power does he obtain over his vocal organs. A good marksman should be able to hit one mark just as well as another. The sound oi ch (tsh) presents exceptional difficulties to a dea. child. Even when the / is properly combined with sli without any puff of air between the two (thus Of?) your ear usually tells you that there is something wrong when the combination is uttered in a word. 1 think the fault lies in the undue prolongation of the sh position (OfJ»)- If you observe your own utterance of such words as chair, cheese, church, such, much, touch, watch, etc., you will notice that the tongue does not remain for any length of time in the .«;// position. Thesfe indeed constitutes a non-vocal glide, a mere transitional effed, between / and the succeeding element. The unnatural effect pro- duced by prolongation is most marked when sh occurs finally, as in much, touch, etc. (9]0n»0]0n», etc.). 1 have rarely failed to ob- tain the vernacular efTed from a deaf child by expressing the sound of cA final as On> instead of 0S5. Indeed, as a general rule a non- vocal consonant occurring as a final element is most naturally given by a deaf child when the symbol for the sound is followed by >. For example: (curt) a]3> (us) jy- (both) 0}W> (cup) a]D- (nut) CD]0> (sick I Ufa> (cuffs) a]3U> (nuts) CC10U> (deaths) Q\UU> (watch) !3}On> Of course, when these words occur in the middle of a phrase, the puff of air must be omitted, for the phrase is pronounced as one word and the consonant is then no longer final. CORRECTION OF THE DEFFXTS OF B, D, G, M AND N. It is difficult to pronounce the sound of b (0), without opening the lips and when a deaf child attempts to do this a defedive sound arises which, when combined in a word with other sounds, produces the click form of ^ [l+(D<*)J alluded to in the table of clicks. "TD and g are subjed to a similar defed. 1 would recommend combining these consonants with vowels from the very first. I commence with an indefinite vowel (I), which (wish) !3fn> (maps) SIDO. (books) elau:. yf^J, •- 98 ScaV^al;:' ;o:exL;L.'"VT"'^ -we. sound th.t the teaching * in combination for ii-.n I " ""'"'^ "" '''^^""y '" produces the vowel sound Le .h T^^'^""'^' ^'^"^ ^'^^ ^'^i'^ vowel sound with his lios nr..tJ 1 ^''"'''"^ ''" '"definite thumb and finger under his b2 ^''''^- ^''^ P''^" ^^^^ and down so !. to do n d :;;: :, ".^ , 7^ ^'^^ "P -pidi; up in 313.01 etc. (ber, ber ber TO C ! T'""''- '^"'^ '"'^^'^ the movement n open nrnV ^''' '^^^^'^ ^^ taken to make be only momenta^' Th'eu de r'h' u"- ""'^ ^'^^"^^ ^'^-'^ the upper lip as a hammer rebo'd V '"'"""^ ''^^^""'^ ^^«'" child himself to movTh TZ T. '" '""'• ^°^ ^^^^^ the attempt should be to ro "ou 'ce h'e tower" ""' ''^ '"^^^^ "'^ no muscular effort with the Tps Aft k ^ ^ ^^"^'""o^sly and make try to move his lip rapidK u' -H ^ ''• "" '° ^"^'^ ^-" 'et him the assistance of hL hT d^ There sC b ''' ""^ "^^ "'^^^^ but on the contr.,ry the lips slo^^d ^e'rsoft a^dTor^"^ ""'■°"' when^rp^p^xtr^^^^^^^^ After the child can gi:; 0:3,;; eJc^Trtn.S'"^"'* °^ --'^-• whether analogy will not l^d h „; / ' '''- '^ '' ^^" *° ^O^ This Often sucfleds. but in dl '^ Lrthfb '^J " ^''^''^' ^^^ remains closed against the .«r . ? ^ ^^'^'^ °*^ ^^^ tongue accompanied by a succesti n of ctks V'heTfrr"'"'''^ retention of the back-shut position Q) , thL f 'J '"\^° *'^« way to deal with a difficult case i. f.I^^* ' ^^^'^f°'^' the best tongue, so that the puXha, '? Y ""''°'°'^''^^^^'^ ^ depressing,, at wi/T^o; Id^^^^^ ?/ ^^^^^^^^^^ -d -e^^.d combining th^;jt-----^^ e.e-t;^reiSr"^---'-' etc.. thus. If? ■'i i 99 /•", I, ///, fli, (3 3 U U) piL'si'iit no dil'tkuliies of importance. S, sh, yk, (U n O) and their vocal forms Z, {//, .v ( Ji5 n and O), are liable chiefly to faults of position. That is, the tongue may be a little too far forward (>); or too far back({);or too high up. There may be too much compression of t" e passage-way ( a ) ; or too little compression (v). My plan of correction is — to write what the pupil does, using these modifiers according to the character of the defed to be sym- bolized. For example: f5< Cl> fJv Qa etc. 1 then get the pupil to vary the position slightly and contrast the new position with the old making him pronounce both sounds alter- nately so as to observe their difference. In difficult cases it is well to manipulate the non-vocal forms 5, 5//, and yh, (25, fJ, and O,) from th (U) in the manner 1 have already described in answer to a question. When these are well fixed the vocal forms foliow as a matter of course by the addition of voice. i i n f VOWELS, CLIDES,^D COMBINATIONS. or .n'^LtfintTpfr ;, ', 'n f ™"""' "' -V «e„„., .. syllables. You ,JZ ° „«v "' I' ™""' Z"""" i" ""«-=a. or u.';e™r"'^c?^rfs/:„rr'r.:r'^^'"^-'' ;3».-vowe. .e „es. „„d .L'^^:' tt' ^ wf£ ■atlon'^bu::,™:" p^S,r :r,''%"°' ■"^"^ - in,e„i^Me,r„cu. however, nor advisable, ,ha, every voJet ., 1 "'"^^ "'"''"'■ ■« full value. Unaccented syllaWels^' H?"'"'" "''°"" "^ «'«" shaded portions of „ piaurf ,h„ K '™'' '*""'" "k^ ll>= accented parts of words """^ '"" '">• ""•"«, the lables as upon accLc; of tol^f^ttr" "' '" """™"'"' '''- 't IS a very difficult thing even fn/h ■ accented vowels their proper ;ounds with Tf '"''''''' *° «'^^ ""' prominently, so as to proS celhat n.H " ""^'"^ '"""^ ""^^^^ which is often n^istakent elocution " '"'"^ °^ Pronunciation The really good speaker gives fh J nr« vowels Without italicizing them 7: he eT" h'e n! ^° TT"'"' however, are no more able to do this th n th '' °^ '^' ^^' Indeed, the attempt results in ! u ' '""'" °^''^= ''taring. mpt results m a much more unnatural effed than ;■ A lOI the utterance of the pedantic speaker— because the vov/el quality it- self is usually defedive. Under such circumstances indefmiteness is of importance, it produces, not a worse, but a better effect. You must not suppose, when I advocate a careless utti-r.ince of un- .iccented syllables, that I am urging you to teach worse speech than your pupils now possess; on the contrary, I believe that the result will be recognized as a great improvement. You will tone down sounds that are usually defective so that they will not come out so prominently to the ear; and accent, which is now conspicuous chiefly by its absence, will be produced by the subordination of the unimportant parts of words. Give as detmite vowels as possible in the accented syllables, but don't be too precise about the others. Vowels are the most difficult elements we are called upon to teach. Why is this so ? The discovery of the cause may perhaps enable us to devise a remedy. Let us examine into the matter. How do vowel positions differ from the positions that yield con- sonant sounds.' They result from larger apertures. Can this have anything to do with the difficulty of the acquirement .' It seems so, for wide-aperture vowels are more difficult to obtain in perfeiftion than the others. Get a pupil to prolong a small-aperture vowel. The sound, even when defefiive, has a definite quality of its own. A lower po- sition of the tongue, however, yields an effect of indefinite kind. The oral aperture is usually too large and the sound, when prolonged, is unstable and variable in quality, showing that the pupil finds diffi- culty in retaining the position unchanged. Sometimes the attempt results in a visible trembling of the tongue. In forming consonants and small-aperture vowels, the tongue makes actual contact with the upper part of the mouth at one or more points; but in lower positions it is hung in the air, so to speak, without anything against which to press. Extend your arm and you can easily retain it in a fixed position if you press your hand against the under surface of a table or shelf but extend it in the air and I fancy you will find more difficulty in keeping it still. Your hand— if you do not watch it — is apt to waver like the uns*..-ady tongue of the df child, and a constant tendency exists to a lower position. Your ear aids you in the retention of a vowel position, because any change affefts the quality of the sound. I'M 103 ""'ks a guide. "'"'* "P'nmced by y„„r pup,,, „^ mo.™:mth;;::™r' " ""- ^^ ^"'"" «--- or „. The sound is your euide m.* .r that helps you to rLin TpoiTon ^1""''^ '""' ""'''' ^-d' by seeing he will learn control The 1 ^k" ' '""''' '^ ^'■^'^^' ^"^ seen in the mirror will help him I hi 2 ? '' '"'*"' '"' ""'' you. P ""• ■'' ^^^ t'^0"ght of the sound helps I cannot overestimate the v iIup m^ .- .articulation work, it is not eno "h Jat 7'°'?" °' ^ '"'-^^ *" t-chers mouth, he must see his ow ! '"''" ''°"'' ^'^'""'^ '^'^ of sound depend upon the abilirtr^-tat":"? ;'"' '^''"'^^""^ '"deed, as I said in n,. second lect, r. ^ P°"*'"" ""^hanged. is..ned not so much I> t^l^^ L^ s" v^T ''^ ^^^^'' ^^'^'"'^ Clearness of pronunciation dev.tu 7 ''"P'"^ *'^^"' ■"'t'". every element in a word with 'c 'ir^d ^ T' ''' ^'""^'^^^ ^^P^sitionsofthetong^^:.:^^ Little children delight tn unusual positions of the toneue'ThTK°';' '"°'^'' ^^^ ^^-^"'"'ng They should I- encouraged nh,-,^^^'^,;'^^ ^^^^'^ """ot imitate"^ of value as a prepantL f^ pe '"'' "bT '"r' ''^'^ ''"'^ ^^"^ unconsciously £ain . ^ntrol ov^r th ^ '"'''' '^^*^'-<:''ses they better able to imitate posit on'o, f ''"k "^""^ ''"'^ '^-o-' muscular exertion and see the efflV n 7"''' ''''' ''''^ ' '^^^i- association of seeing and feelinrMt. l^ "'""''''• ""'^ ^'^'"'^ '-■^"^^^"t by muscular sensation alon'^y^^^^^^^^ ^.^- to realise I consider a looking glass as .n ^^"' " '^°'"^- Youcannomoreexpeatoteachal?f??y '" '"^^ ^-^^oolroom. a mirror than you can h pe to te' ch , h ^"5 ^P"'^'^ "'^'^^^ wthout letting him see the're.!ult of hii eff::^ ' '° '''"' "^" aiterna^^'lSng^-^^ - an --'- before a mirror narrow the tongue causes it t„ h "^ '''' ''"^"^- ^ ^e attempt to 3:1j , .1 « ^' ind He he d. Id IS )S M 3 flat and soft. The most common fault, I think, among deaf children is an exaggerated muscular adion leading to a stiffening and narrow- ing of the tongue. For example : Many children in trying to form X {ee) make so much muscular effort that the tongue (eels hard. The tongue is narrowed and fits up into the arch of the palate, making contad with the top of the hard palate, and though .1 centre aperture exists over the front of the tongue the effect of the vowel i is not produced. I Java found C (the German i //) to be a very important position. It forms, indeed, the key note to the vowels. As a general rule if a child can pronounce C you can teach him to glide the tongue forward {C>) nnd backward (C<), retaining the small centre aperture, and by getting him to do this as tar back and as far forward as possible, the latter position generally gives O, which, by the addition of voice, becomes a good f (.v). In dilHicult cases I have found it a good plan to give the pupil the idea that O is C modified by expansion of the tongue so as to press sideways against the molar teeth on each side instead of pressing up into the arch of the palate. In some cases the simple direction to broaden the tongue will corred the defedive T (f,-). Pupils sometimes give I or even 1 for f {ee), and sometimes f T or 1. These defe(5\s arise from the attempt to say ee with the teeth too far apart. You cannot pronounce (ee) properly with the mouth wide open. A teacher, hov/ever, is apt to separate the teeth as much as possible in order to show her pupil the position of the tongue. The pupil imitates the opening of the jaws, and this is apt to result in a position of the tongue too far back (I or 1) or in a position having too wide an aperture (fl or 1 ). I give below a tabulated list of the elementary vowels used in the English language arranged in such a manner as to show their place in the complete vowel scheme elaborated by my father. Melville Bell's Vowel Scheme. 1 I f : I c J I I J I f » \ i I i \ I04 'JTW^. Enoi.ish V'oWEtK -- f -_ f I I 3 - f - - [ 1 - } — Some one h.(s observed th.t ,-^.. Scotch .,r hy striking a n 1 „ H T '" ''"' '""^ P™^"-' " •"usicl scale of the Celts .s d.i i v i "°'" "' '''' P'^'""" 'h^- -sounds as given by my f , he n J T"" '''' '^^"""^ ^' ^'^^'^^ "-sical notes. Only Zl If' th H, l"" ' "V'*-' ''^^'^'^ '^^^ ''^ '-" 'he fcn,.Iish language two 0^11 '''^ V"' °'^'^^^'^ '"-^ "^'■'J '" --- Out of'the eigh'l rlr T"' ^'"' ''^^ «^ '-^^ <"-"' ployed in our languagf '^ '"^'■'''^- ^"'-^ «^'-- '" ^"1 are em- series (land I) .' ITvs of loT'T '°"''" '^'^^ ''^^» ^^-^e ch (rand 1) always shor" tI: ^i'd'ard'.?"^'"'' ^'"' '^^ ^-^ but is used simply .s the initia ni r V"'""" °""^^ ^^ itself, ends With the g^iJing of^t^r^^ ^t: h: ZlT'\ J'' ^^""^ Thus C IS pronounced as fr m finfth ^^i"^'' ^o^*-*' of its series, tongue towards the pos tioi ft U "^ fj'^!^ the gliding of the '■^•hing Off with a glide toXd^^ ,h ^^ ' ""'^ * ^'''^1^^^ fin- vowel of each seri?st Hit ^^" '^ j^^ ''^ ^^^-^ front series I (. in ^,/) ,-, sometimes Ion! L ^^"^ "°^'-'' ^^^ ''^^ fifth of the back-round series ^^^''1? ?'"'"'"'''' ^'^^'' ^^^ both series the sixth vowel J or n ' ^ ^"'"^ " '"^^'>'-"= '°"»^- '" 't may also be notelth- 1 th '^ t^"'' °^'^°'' ''"^^'t'on- always short. "^"* '"^^ "^''-''^"^'^ ^owel ] (u in ./,) also .s the mistaken idea that the owdf f t'f ""«!• ^•■'" V persons have of the same vowels, but if y "sinTl"' ''V'"' '"' ''''' "'^"^^ th^U the vowels remain dis^n, Ih^ ^r Zt " '" ^^ "^^^"'^^ ::^:ith::rj-:--r~ P--tion given .rl^rt^-trsp:r^^^^^ »^^ J*^_ I05 I am inclined to think that there is some natural cause for the analogous peculiarities appearing in the front and back-round series of vowels, because ! notice in both dialciftic and individual utterance that variations from the standard, appearing in one series, have their analogues in the other. For example : whi , e \f (V is pronounced C without any gliding of the tongue toward f .is in Scotch and in Con- tinental pronunciation, you find also that Jl d') is pronounced^ without the } glide. So. too, where individual .-peakers give [f or It for JT (J) they also usually say }^ or J> for }} (6), etc. Examine the table of English vowels and you will see that the front and back-round series are nearly complete, and you will recog- nize at once the importance off (ee) and \ (oo). for from them the other vowels of their series can be developed bv simply enlarging the aperture. The mixed vowels (land I) and the back vowels (] ] and J) pre- sent no difficulties, for the following reason: any sort of an ii. defi- nite sound will pass for I (er in licr) and I (the sound of the indefi- nite article a in a sentence) dilTers so slightly from this that there is no need of distinguishing between them. In unaccented syllables I would express these two sounds indiscriminatelv In' (1) the voice sign. 3 {a in ask, path, etc.) also differs soslightiy from J {a in father, calm, etc.) that there is no need to bother a deaf child with the dis- tinction. I teach and write them both as ] and few deaf children have any difficulty in giving the sound. Then, again, this may be considered as identical with ]. For example: though the vowels in calf and cuff are really different vowels in teaching the deaf, we may consider them as the long and short form of the same vowel, because, as a matter of fact, a deaf child gives ] when he attempts to shorten 3. It should be noted that this vowel ] (« in up) like ^ (it in pull), and J {o in on) never occurs by itself or as a final element. ! would not. therefore, teach these sounds elementarily, but always in combination with a succeeding consonant. The short effect should -ot be produced by a sudden impulse of voice, but by cutting ou the sound by the afsumption and prolongation of the succeeding consonant. For example: let a child prolong (Othe vowel 3 and wind up with a softly uttered 3>, and you get the effeft of "calf" (033 = a3»3>). Whereas, let the child attempt to give the same vowel sound, but prolong the 3 position, jumping as quickly as possible / \) So X'''T •'"V''" «^'' ^'''^ ^'f^-^ or ..cuff- s-e vow. ^i^l^^^'X;-; '^'^ tries . ,^::l passmg quickly fron, the Q o Zl ^ ® '" '^' ^''"-'^ ^ord vowel and .. prolooKcd conson . T °'® ^"^ '^ -""^ortcnc-d shor,vowdsJ,..„jf,h,td7S^^^ '^ '" '^•-•^^^«-" of the Cher over the vowel to the succeeding? con ^' f'^'"">'"« quickly .Thus ,f ,. child pronounces Ol^'f /oT^'V"'' ^'^°'°"«'"« 't 'he « passing ,, ^.i^.;^, ,^ poslieti 'T^'-^' '^"^ ^im prolong produces the effed ofoL(pZ L I '^' ° "^ '^e « ..nd he ;^V to pronounce it .s 3ioi" l.'Tnr 7"' '"" '-^'' h-'" A ;'nd passing .s cjuicklv ..s possible Z h' o "' ^'""'^'"'^ ° "^ '^e get the proper vern.cubV ellTcl o! si ,'" '"'^ °^' '"^ Vou v-t , ..^/,/ into ,of by prolonging ;he st^ ■'• ^^'^ "" •--«"- '^7- from r in /ny ot^ r ^es ' .rfH " !' ■' "^'^'^ ^""J ''^'t ^ -'e. ir the de.fchila prolong i; ^^ a genera, he word ,•.,/, p.^sing qui,kt ovvrTh ^ °" ^°^ ^' "^^ / (O.) i„ - e/fed Of it is prod'uc!d fO> : ; 'r ^Tj' T''-"' the vernaL the succeeding consonant is prolonged ' '" ^"' ^'^'^^^ '^^^^^^ •^R- Bhi.i.: Yes lOW*'-™^'"*— you .„„„„„,,„,, ^^„_^_^^^_ Dr. Bell: Thit's tru^ Th always succeeded by consonmts Tl' f""'' '°'^'*^'^ * ^ and ] .re Of the short vowels excepting f occur ir. /', " ""^ 'hink any sound of final ,• is f (, .-^ J ;^"'^^-'^ ^^al elenu-nts. Th. corred the effect corredly i he tdes to m .f "'k" '"'' '''' ^'"P'' ^'" ^'ve -.th little „n,scul.' exertio t'elV' ' ^"'^ '"''^'^^^ t^y to say r (,,) softly. ,f ,he eff a 7 ' '?'" '^ -^'-""'"^^ '^'•'" to leave .t alone, if, however w^ n h "'''' ^'^" ^"'^ &ooJ- 1 the. exp,,„ ,hat the Tp!:;:: f r s.n7%"r""^ '"' ^-> ' that .f you tell a deaf child that f h s . ' ^'''' ^'■^"hle is ^Pt to exaggerate the dilTerenL alld jiT L:T"^ ^'^'" ^ '^ ^ s'^e 100 i.irge an aperture. sii I07 Whereas, if you don't say anything at alt about the tperiun the attempt to say t with httle muscular exertion usually results in a satisfadory f. I give below a table of the English vowels, as I teach them to the deaf, arranging them so as to show their pl.icc in my father's complete vowel system already given. - - f - I ] - I _ The short vowels 11} and J, as I h.ive already explained, may be considered as identical with I J J and ], save in exceptional cases, where the organic difference must Iv explained. The medium aperture vowels C and } arc only used in English as the initial parts of the diphthongs tf («n -iMf chlldrm. however ,,, child gives thaT in ^ ^ ^P"'" ""'^ '^ "^''y uttered WK '°'" "^nen r occurs ^ I(>) ot he m is ^ I wrx a s.itisljclory pronunciation of the word "there, but if you put that into a sentence where the next wr>ril tDintnenccs with a vowel (for example, "there is." etc.), then U\f fU would not prove acceptable, and we must introduce a consun.mt / tht.s 65liUJrM. 1^ Now it is a difTicult thing for a teacher to get a deaf child to say 9]0Ix without an exaggeration ot "le glide / element that produces an unnatural effect, but any child can give GlOl which is perfedly satisfactory to most ea.s. If you didn t know there was no r there, you would never find it out. I would have the deaf child give simply '-» indefinite vowel (i) for the whole syllable <•/ in such words. In English utterance two other glides (« and i) are employed in the diphthongal vowels. In forming a the tongue glides towards the position for <*> (y) or I {(•(•) ; and in Ibrming i the glide is towards the position for 3 i'u) or \ (oo.) Diphthongal sounds present great difliculties to the deaf md are rarely given correitly. Both the initial and final posi- ti are apt to be wrong, and a strong tendency is manilcsted to prolong the final instead of the initial part of the diphthong. 3 My plan of correction is to write what the pupils do, so that ^ they may see the difference between the sounds they artually utter f and those we wish them to give. J My father has not provided a sufficient number of glide symbols J to enable us to represent the incorred sounds uttered by our pupils, f and I have, therefore, found it advisable to express glides by vowel \ symbols upon '. small scale. This gives us a suftkient number of : forms without introducing new symbols. For »he dtuf I write th- J diphthongs Ia ]« }r>hh as [f ]r }f M ]». I The common defect of prolongation ol the final element can be expressed as tX Of it A A. and when the combination is dis-syllabic this becomes inurji]!. in teaching such a diphthong as 3f, I commence in the following manner: Say 3. Now say f. Now 3f 3X]f, etc. Now 3f 3f 3l, etc. Now ]r3r3r, etc. Whatever variations occur during the course of the lesson are represented symbolically, and the pupil is requested to repeat them in contrast with the corred sound. Thus: "You said 3l. Doit again 31 3l3l etc." ' Now give 3l3f3l3r etc." " Now you said If. Try it again II If If etc. Now give ]f 3llf etc. ' The principle of corredion is : uriie what the pupil does, and .^.: '«H i I lO //wngc'f hhn to jyp.a/ the incorrea sound in contrast nill, the sound von ictsh him to utter. I do not think it is possible to obtnin grent accuracy of vowel quality without the use of symbols of some sort for incorred sounds and the adoption of the principle referred to above. The symbols of visible speech are of great utility for this purpose. Indeed I believe them to be essential. Without them you can only hope for approximations to the correct vowel positions. Without them your great, and indeed your only reliance must be upon imitation. In any case the power of imitation should be developed bv con- stant practice before ,i mirror. I always teach (T Ui) and 3f (/) in contrast with one another so as to m.ike the pupil familiar with the difference. These diphthongs are apt to be pronounced alike .as If or .f. For example: A pupil will say .O.rOiO.f. instead ol .GOfJCOf (tine dav). For the same reason I teach h and 3l in contrast. In giving jr. pupils generally give too small an aperture between the lips for the initial position. I think this results chiefly from the spelling {oi). They try to give an 6 followed by short / Indeed, very often the o is followed bv glide oo, thus making a dis- syllabic compound something like W. For example : Q}M (bo-ee) for 0jr (boy). Sounds that differ only slightly from one another should I think, be taught together, in contrast, as the best means of securing a distinaion. Thus : teach ir3r and }f as one group, and }> and ]> as another. I would also pradice such compounds as [Ti Ofi lU (vowels in layer, liar and hra:yer written ajf or Wjmi). J», 3^ (vowels in sower and sour). In such words as sore and more there is no glide. Many persons say U}| 9}|. My father would write lih BJx, but I should recommend a still larger aperture in teaching the deaf. I would write y|. and SJ, (saw-er maw-er) for "sore " and "more." and UMl andS}W (so-erand mo-er) for "sower" (one who sows) and "mower" (one who mows). It is very difficult to get a deaf child to distinguish I from I {e in pet. from a in pat). It is important, however, that the attempt should be made, as the slight difference of sound often makes a great difference in the sen.se. For example: Met, mat, bet, bat. etc. The distinction is best obtained, I think, by pradice before a mirror. ■H -^ .-tf ' 1 1 1 Vowels arc so difficult of acquirement by the deaf with accu- racy and precision that we may consider it fortunate that usage tolerates considerable latitude in the pronunciation of these elements. The precise shade of vowel quality given in one part of the country is not heard in another. Tr.ivclers in F:n,t;land are startled by the'crv a\3 Ul OIG Ul (" Keb, sir, keb. si,.) trom the c.bmen in London. The Irisinn.m says '•oi' for 1. Many Americans say 3IIi30» for 3IvC0> (lirst) and everywhere we hear I^CCI> for }^CC}Moh. no). Certain defects are recognized as individual, or family peculiarities of speech; others are characteristic of whole commu- nities and constitute a provincial utterance or dialed • and still others reveal the nationality of the foreigner. I think I am pretty safe in saying that the •• standard pronun- ciation. ' like the "average school b^v." nowhere exists! We all depart from it in a greater or le- ..- .•.• Study the character and extent of the variations that exi; .imong c-Ilu a-n people and don t be too critical of defefts of y.' ir ; apis if th. y fall within those limits. . The pronunciation of the consonant eie..ients of speech is so uniform in all English-speaking countries that very shght variations are received as foreign sounds, while greater departures from the standard convey the idea that the vocal organs are themselves defeaive. People speak of "curing " such defeds, as though they were diseases, or the result of malformations, requiring the surgeon's care. Vowel peculiarities, osi the othjr hand, fail to convey this idea and are more suggestive of provincial or foreign utterance. Small-aperture vowels, like i or I, are given everywhere with substantial uniformity, and any marked deviation from the standard is suggestive of foreign birth. Vowels of larger aperture are con- stantly mispronounced by the best educated people. Even culti- vated Bostonians. for example, sometimes call their own city 3300.0 (Bahston). Unusual variations from the standard if of slight extent, are suggestive of provincialism, and where the departure is greater the speaker is supposed to be a foreigner. From this it will be seen that exaditude of pronunciation is more necessary with certain sounds than with others. Consonants and small-aperture vowels in accented syllables must be accurately given; whereas considerable latitude may be allowed in the pro- nunciation of medium and large-aperture vowels, and of diphthongal sounds wherever they occur. This is fortunate, for these are just the U3 linauisS ,,''"'" •■PO"""" unchanged, until dircdej to „. th nl ,h r f "''"""'^''^ °'" P"-^'""" "'fo™ Kc a sum MJurn,. a„ord,„8 .. ,ne dements themsdves arl vocal o, non- yo.^j:^ir'^: r "'^"^ <^-^-^ee,and Dressed for t» '"''""■''■''- T"> longuc is raised for X and de- all the elements '^ ^'^ combination runs through mere;^-::?:: ttr;LT.:",er f nrS°"^ " r wof rZj^j;-^,,;;; --n.tio„ „ ^^ dea, c,i,d. , m that the tongue rei^^nf n the f "'"''' ""™'°" '» '>" M that i. does L z::z I tJzzt. '" """■ -"" ■" own lips and then tn nr^w u ^ " ''^ '"^'nipuiate his When hi can" dots 1 twcj \r",„r,t: '7"'"'""°"- symbols will help him to give the corre i'^ff « , """*'' "' "" ilea 01 retaining [he f oosi.tn ,"""* '*«■ Let him have the of.he tongue;';': rrJ^erT^r:!?,* ^"°-^*'P°™ moves the back of th» » ,::' '^^*'""'"^ ^he f position while he teaching: so IcwItTthr '^'"' '''"'^""'^^ of articulation combinLn IXL '^^^^^^ ^-"'^^ -with their * "^H ARTICULATION TEACHING. I should Jike in conclusion to say a few words upon the general subjeft of articulation teaching. We don't know yet how best to teach speech to the deaf. If we did we wouldn't be here. We have come here to learn from one another in the hope of improving our methods of teaching. Now I am inclined to think that the more nearly we can pattern our methods of teaching after the method adopted by nature in teaching speech to hearing children, the better should be our results. It is certainly the case that the methods usually employed in schools for the deaf do not even approximate to the nursery method of the hearing child. Not one of the little hear- ing children whom you may have left at home commenced by learn- ing elementary sounds. Mothers do not begin with elementary sounds and then combine them into syllables and words. The mother speaks whole sentences even to the infant in arms. The child listens and listens, until a model is established in the mind. Then the child commences to imitate, not elementary sounds, but whole words. Indeed, people e^^ow up to adult life without ever having uttered elementary s -"nd when they do come to study them, it is for the purpose ot ng and perfeding their speech. With hearing persons the elen^uts come last, not first. They con- stitute the final, not the initial, exercises of articulation. I would commend this fad to the serious attention of the members of this Association. The question is often in my mind whether we are not making a radical mistake, and whether it would not be better to commence with sentences and whole words, rather than with ele- ments, and accept imperfeft speech from little deaf children as we do from hearing children. m. s ■•( i "4 Bui Ihe mor. I ,hi„t Ir , "^^ "" "' ■-"""'I'""'" idling, 'vc element is always present he hear, w . u ^^" 1. Speech-reading fulfills the first condition only in r^.rf ti IIS resort to a diaionury to ascertain how a word should he pro- nounced. What we most need i. reading matter for our pupils in which the words are spelt as they are pronounced. In two hours a deaf child can read as many words as a hearing child hears in the cou'.e of a day. and if .he spelling only corresponded to the pronunciation, reading would fix the model in his mind, and speech- reading would constantly recall it. Any kind of phonetical alpha- bet would do for this purpose ; but Visible Speech would be especi- ally advantageous because it would be possible through this agency to fulfill the second condition also. 2. The deaf child must see the relation between the sound he utters and the corred sounds of speech. I know of no other means of accomplishing this end than Visible Speech or the Lyon Manual,— but they will do it. I think with these agencies we would have a correJ^ive element that would K-ad to improvement of speech as the child grows up and permit cf the adoption of a more natural method of teaching than now exists. I throw out these thoughts as suggestions merely, for I recog-- "Sze, of course, the great difficulty of carrying them pradically into execution. I would have you, however, appreciate the importance of the principle involved, and consider whether in the face of the difTiculties that present themselves, it would be better to abandon the principle, or study the difficulties and attempt to remove them. I think that that method which conforms most nearly to the method whereby hearing children acquire speech, will be most wcthy of adoption by teachers of the deaf. With these remarks I shall close 1 shall now be glad to answer any questions. Mr. Lyon : I would like to know if the symbols on your charts represent the elements to which you would reduce all the English words ? Dr. Bell: Yes. There are some elements not usually con- sidered as English. The German ck (C) for instance, and its cor- responding vocal (€), I would recommend that those should be taught to every denf child, because they enter into the composition of » {wh) and i {oo) and, indeed, form the kev to the English vowels. Mr. Lyon: 1 notice that the glide r is omitted. Dr. Bell: Yes. And I consider that as a very important matter. 1 have found it a very difficult thing to get glide r from a deaf child without gross exaggeration of the movement of the Ii6 r, weobuinfrom him a sound ,ha, app™,rates 1.^^," ' the vernacular elTefl. PProximales very closely to M.SS y.u , I believe in Dr. Bells Iheory thoroughly. I : 1 Is VOWEL THEORIES. 3 t 3 BY ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL. Read l;efore the National Ac.idemy of Arts and SLienccs, April 15. 1879. and rephntPd from the Amt-ricin Journal of Ulology, Vol. I., Jul), 1879. Hcmholtz has shown that ati educated ear perceives a combina- tion of musical tones where an uneducated ear fupposes a single sound ; and his theory, that the feeble, usually unheard, musical 'ones are the cause of the peculiar sensation we term the "quality" of a sound, seems now to be universally accepted as correct. According to this theory, a vowel is a musical comixjund, con- sisting of a mixture of musical tones of different pitches and vari- ous intensities. The lowest, or fundamental tone, gives the pitch to the whole, and is determined by the rate of vibration of the vocal cords. It is certainly the case that an attentive ear can perceive, in every vowel uttered, a number of distinct musical sounds ; but the hypothesis that the ear perceives them on/y. and that it is unable to appreciate the quality of the vowel directly, should be received wth caution. According to Helmholtz, the human ear is incapable of perceiving any other than simple pendular vibration.s. and it is therefore under the necessity of splitting up a vowel into its con- stttuent musical elements before it can perceive its quality Thus Helmholz hold.s that vowels are i„/enrd from the pres- ence of certain musical tones, and th.-tt they do not give rise in the ear to distinct sensations of their own. The rods of Corti arc supposed by him to anahve the vibrations unpatted to the hquid of the internal ear, so as to split them up into the pendular motions of which they are theoretica ly com^ I-sed but U cannot be received as proven that the sin.ttl aneous vibratton of certain of the.se rods gives rise to the perception of the quahty of a sound; for Pritch..rd and other cotnparative anat- onust^s have shown that the rods of Corti are entirely wantin" In parrots and other birds that i.nHote and therefore perceive%ie sounds of .speech. (ti>.cnt mc forTtwll'r "r""l' ''""■^''■'■■''' '''""" "'•''' '" ^''^ ^""'•'»" ^-^r ^" ■'apparatus ior taking direct coRnizatice of the qualitv of a sound, Helmholtz has proved, by the synthesis of vowel sounds, that there exists the most tnt.mate relation between certain combi.tations of musical tones and the quality of a .sound. Not only are such tones audible whe.iever a vowel IS produced, but the converse is equally true ; and we may therefore assume, at lea.t as a working hypothesis, that vowels are "7 .i&aii. ii8 to designate t.ei. s.,Lr;;;:;t ul ^l^.^t^S:" " '""- and' the i^ ^:, fr-1-nc.cs „r. „.„,ti,.les of the A.„.la„,e„ ofuu .o,c, ,L.r /.;; :s;x:/,;'?''''''''''^ "/ //-y-./,.../.,/ These (juestions at first s..rl„ . "^ '"^^ """' "'"-'' 6.-f sideralion of the «rga2 1.^;^ I'^"'^'^'" ") f-m aeon the pho.w-Kraph The res u i '^ ^''^ P'-onautcprnph. and t y. „f Ration, however po^Jt to LTT" '" f" ''"^" ""-'""^'^ "^ '"-•^t,. with the ideas oV He "uLur""'^'°r''-^'"^''"'^^^ accor.lnnce luiKlKsh Pronunciation? plrtiv, 'p'Tr- ' '•'"' '" '"' ''■'">■ In examining these oiie^fimio ,V C' distinet «an.es, uvo varS ^'hc "? ^^^°"^-'"'">t to designate, l,v which there has been oThte cnn^f Jl' ' '■"'""' ""^°^>-' <^"ncerninK 7/^^ /J-ivv/ *,/ / r , considerable discussion : of voi^^^r „;^r':t;oied r'T^ ^'"^■=" "-- ^'--^-^-^^ and the element of S„,aT "? ^i ""'*'' '"^'^riable pitches, 7-^. //«,.,,.«,. KL" -WoTr T' *•:' •'■'^»'"S"i«''in^ Mature, partial tones charactt^^ ie ~?"° ^"^ '"^ *^" ">P«thesis, the upper sounds of certain tuning-forks whose rl-s of v,hl r ^ '""^'""'">'' the of that of the lowe" fort Tl, T I vibration were multiples 5th forks were avowed toso^^, Sv an" th^? " V'V^ f"' ^^"' '"'^ was brought out much more l,u ,v t„ .^ ""''• "^ ''''^ ^"' '""'■'' characteristic tone Id') wl, Tt,! V' k, «^-^Pcrunent, then, the Xow, if the fixed uitchivnM ^'1':'°"*''*-' °^tave of the fundamental. be di'sting^^-std'Ca pa/ a? ::r ^r^!'^, "^ir^' ' ■ ^'"^'' -"^--^-^ hypothesis be correct the nrtT ! " ' '• ^''^'■^«-''' " the harmonic wuh the Pitch o^r v^^,srr3rr^ifttr;- ^" '^^-^'^ . larjnx. pharjnx. nares, and in the mouth. The air in J;" "9 each cuvity has a UiuUncy towards a lUfinitt. rate ..i \ ilir.4ti..ii an 1 when ajjitatol in iin>- wny prothicL-s its ri.s(M)aiui luiu In the act i.f speech the ai/ is set in vihrati.in in all th. se ea\ itus, the reson -nee tones of tlic cavities mingle with the toms dui. to tli.. vibration of the vocal cords, ami thns produce the complex sounds ot human speech. The movements of the tonKUe. lip^, it, . ni..dilv th. shape and si/e of some of these resonance cavities, an;ans, the mouthi.,issaj,'e is sli^rhtly con.stricted at s.miu- particular part (see Fig. i), and thus t .'o rcw^iance cavities, „ and 6, .ire estab- , no. I. lished, the interior of the mouth .somewhat resembling in shape the interior of a chamber formed by pl.icing two bottles neck to neck, the two resonance chamlx;rs being represented by the bodies of the bottles, and the constricted pass.ige between them by the necks. I have found that the resonance tones of these cavities can be readily studied in the following manner: To Study the Pitch of the Posurior Cavity : Close the glottis, assume the vowel position, nnd tap gentlv against the throat with the thumb-nail. (A sound will be perceived .some- what similar to that produced by tapping against the side of an empty Iwttle). A double pitch will be noticed, but the tone due to the posterior cavity, a, will be much more fully produced than that due to the other. I have succeeded in making the sound audible to large audiences by placing the forefing'>r of the left hand again.st the throat, and tapping it very forcibly with the thumb-nail of the right hand. !lili5^v».^.4:tv' •> ^**"^ 110 ^Jr.? ,?""''."" ■'*' ** produced by Mrikinir a cork held againnt the throat. uniting a piece of wood oi To Study th, IHtch of the Antmor Gmty ■ cheek. I h.uc found iha tan ordilTr. . / ' 'T'^' ''' »«"'"»' ^h^ one Micle of th. mouth radilyTtJls'thotr'''' ''" '""'^' "«•""'» cavity when struck with Ue thu £, TT"m '"""^ °^ '''* ""'"»'' ceived, but that due to ih" • nt. «r . '*''"' '''"^ ''''" "^^ P*^" than the other. "'""" '■"*''*>■ '« "'»^'' "'ore pro,ninVnt The tone due to the anterior civifv «,.,.. I . . . ing the soft palate until it Tuch" the U k o/ ." ."' '''°"^' »'>■ ''^P^""- position for • nK •■ in the word ■■ W • r^ J '^ '""^"'- C^'"" i" "'^ ■soft palate cuts off all eommunicat ^f uL .. " ""''' ^*'-^"»>«tanceB the arranged in regular nn si.S' sc^n" For ns."''*'"' ''" '""'"' '° "^ the high-front vowol («.^ . s<-"-i for instance, commencing with voweifof tj; frnrgrL"i AZur^-rri^- '"^ ^^"'°"^ '^ "'-»»'- soarrange .'^T^' r^"^''^ ^°"" "^ unrounded vouels The t , for the air space in cavity f> Inxomes larger when the tongue is depressed , and the width of the exterior oiK.ning (c) of cavjtx a is at the same time increased. A'zrn position assumed by Hit vocal oranus deUnnims the slinfn- and size of the laiitii-s of the mouth, and thus determines the absolute pitch o/ the lesonancc tones proper to those cavities. When air is pa.ssed through th • mouth, as in the act of speech, a new element enters into the inquiry : Is vowel (juality due to the mouth per, and can even be produced by forcing .".ir into the mouth by means of a pair of bi-llows. It should be noted, in this connection, that vowels are generally pre- c^A^A in actual utterance by elemetit.s tl;at approximate very closely to co: Its in their organic formation ; "initial vowels" being precedifl l)y the throat-shut consonant— an element belonging to the same general class as p— t— K, but for which we have no letter in the English language. Consonants result from obstructive positions of the vix^al organs. During the utterance of speech the air in the thorax is continually'com- pressed by the action of the abdominal muscles, diaphragm, and muscles of the thorax, so that when the emissio:i of breath is momer'.arily checked by the formation of some obstructive position, the cavities behind the point of constriction Ivecome inflated. Thus, when a vowel is prc-ceded by a con.sonant— a sudden puff of air accompanies the relinquishiiKnt of the consonantal iwsition— and this puff, passing through the vowel-configuration, is sufficient to bring out the characteristic tones of one or more of the vowel-cavities quite independently of the vibration of the vocal cords. An interesting ca.se may be mentioned which bears ujwn this jioint. Dr. Moore, of Rochester. K V. had a p.^tiet1t wh.-^sc glottis had become L^ speak, ...l.houKl no , Jr tf r m I T" r '", "'" "''"''"'■ "^^ ^""'■' •"'-"11. I., a w..n.k.,A.I .xtuu The ^.ir whir ,^ ,,".'' '"''* "^ "'" vv,.sallcr„aU.ly.lraw„ i,.tu I is c u I ...^ "as „„„„,,..., j,,,,, ^|,^^.^,,_ t.......c. Th. cavity ..e„.., J, t . n.; ^^^ ^ r^:'. 'T! ""^ "^ ^"^ natdy cx.,an.l,„K an.l contract,,,,, .h.r ' \ r. 1 u^ . '''''^'~f ^• a,t.c,llalion-.s» that the nun .m,!,?.., i r . ''■ 1"'"»''^'^'< "f I'i^ 1MUM„K for breath • " t" , ,' ''^ '^^" ""I ''"«"' "^ '*">^' ""•'""' hra„. . of the conncctio U t'u , ' T'""'- '" '^ "" '"stinctivc runen,- halat of expel .,;Xu rt IT, .?"'"f "".'' ''""'''' '•' ''^ "-" '" "- an., of -i.^«r :z';,:':;;r :;t;:;L",^-^^ -- ---- A>,olher cur.ous case has l.een n.a.le p„,,Iie hv Dr. Moore ■ A patient liad attempted suicide l.vruttinL' his fliro.f ti. • , was severed trom the larvnx -,,,,1 .J „ , ^'"' 'P'R'"""* man con d pro,,o„nce intelligibly certain vowel sounds. Dm.. satisfied himself and other ohsor^■er8 that there was no passa. e o through the mouth. I,> artidcially closing the ajHrturc he wee tl epiglottis and hack of the pharynx. ""^ r.ei«tin tli< Dr. Moore argued from tlli.s experiment that the^o^veI.s heard uoe produced in the Iar>-nx instead of in the mouth, This position h .lev , seem.s to be untenable ; for the mouth positions for these ^■owe s n igt have been assumed during the production of the sounds, and the tones of the mouth cavities would bo brought out by SMi.p.nthetic reson. ,ce without the necessity of pa.ssing nir directly through the mouth In whistling, th ■ resonance tone of the anterior cavity is brouglr .„t so loudly as to constitute a clearly recognizable musicaftone. A . .f„ notTTT, , i "'•''' '"■" ''"'^"" '''''"''' ' ''^•''"''^- I-it-" f-caci note whistled, and a person cr.n be made to whi.stle an air ut,intei,tio,iallv by making him attempt tr whistle certain vowels ,n succession I„ w_hi,stling, ,t seems necessary that the constricted passage in the mouth shouhl he inucli more narrowed than in actual articulation and that the anterior orifice should al.so be small. Sing such a vowel as 6 and gradually contract the passage bet w. en he Uck of the tongue and the .soft palate. The resonance tone of 6 will be observed to grow in intensity as the passage is contracted, until finally he vowel IS converted into a vocalized whistle. By labializing the varous vowel positions, the resonance tone of the anterior cavity can be brought into great prominence, and a whistle produced of definite fixed pitch for each vowel-position. >Sm Tr»n5 N V, Si.te MtHUa! IvKittv r.i 1S71 •r, *, •I w ^ ^-••'.jflr''' I -'J It in fiiuiul that the pitch of tiK' voufcaii Ik' varied \vttho\il.i|)|irii i.ihlv nfftftinjr the jiilth of Ihi' v.iwil whisUt.'. It im iirl.iiiilv ilithnilt t.i Imiii- out the whistle of iV) ..i r, ttpdn i-«it.mi iiiichcs ul llii \i,iii, luit th(. hi^h front ami hinh-illi\< iipwarils i.r ilnwnw.in In ttiiilyin); tlie ilmililf reson.uin of the miiulh-favily. I have lnui led to tile )H.lief lliat the luiidanieiital of the anterior cavit\ is niiuh inoit essential to the prixhii'tion of vowel ijuality than that of the poMteri'.i If we |)rolon;f the sound of the vou'e, and study the ellttl of lln- movement of the dilli-reMt vocal or>»es of vowel (|ualitv, Imt th.it motions of llie parts iKlutuI tlie \>,n k of the ton;{uc do not. The motions of such part"! jiroduce ipute asiiiarUid, if not more marked, eluuijus of (|u.dily than in tie lormer case ; hut iKe fesntlant soiiiuls wonlil not nrdiuaiilv he ilesij;ii.Ue- P^*^"-" P--^- — s. whatever pitch r SffeSn? ?^ '''^''''°" ^'*' ""' ^ '^°«''^^"t Characteristic, simtlafiun^ "'^ ""^' ^"^ '^''''^^"* P'^^*"- «>"- -m to produce -t. Different vowels sung to the same pitch traced curves of different an/ ti?"'' '^'"*"' '" ''^' ^ ''"'•''"''" '^^'"■^"' ^^^ c«»'plexity of the tracing and the vowel aperture; close aperture vowels yielding curves thaf app,.x,rnated very cIo.sdy to. simple peadular vibrations. ■ V,''",''""'^' that the results obtained with Mr. Morey's phonautoirraDh ...gh be mfluenced l,y the imperfection of the apparatlrenmS-ed I tncd the tympanic n.embrane of a human ear as a phonau ogZh' d/ Clarence J Blake, of noston, suggested this idea, and kindly prepared a siH.c„uen for „.e, with which I carried on experiments. rL^ympanic a s tljro7ln » °T'?1^' " ^^ ""'•^^^"^'^ ^^•'^" ^^'>-"- -d watTand astj us of hay attached to the incus enabled me to obtain tracings of vowel vbrafons on sheets of smoked glass pa.ssed rapidly undernfath wtl. Mr 4 .""■;' """ ''"^ apparatus were similar to those obtaTned th Mr. Morey s phonautograph, and I found it impossil^le to recognize the var.o„s vowel sounds by their tracings. I do not know the fuU r^^S S trt ■', °' '''' Y- '''t^ "'"' '''' photographic phonautograph bu all the vowe curves drawn byhin,, that I have seen, were periodic cu;ves and seemed to support the conclusions noted above. The general i"dica' Uou. of all orn.s of phonautograph ,scem to favor the harmonicl , prthesL much more than the other. The unstable character of the vibrat on fo^s nnght be explained by supposing the phases of the harmolic partiS^o ha^•e varied at different times ; fcr Hehuholtz has shown that the phies of he upper partial tones are immatenal to the perception of'wS m u W^} 125 III. yit other tones that difllr slightly in pitch from that. The reinforcement is greater or less as the exciting lotie is more or less removed in pitch from the proper tone of the cavity. Thus, T-hen a vowel is sung or spoken, those harmonics of the voice which .-i'. nearest in pitch to the proper tones of the mouth cavities would be reinforced at the expense of the proper tones themselves. And althongh the ear may be guided in its recognition of \owel ([uality by a feeling of absolute pitch, the vowels would be recognized from the presence of partials of slightly different pitch— the ear locating, as it were, the distance of the fixed pitch by the loudness of the reinforced harmonic. In ordinary speech the voice is rarely on a level, but is constantly gliding upwards or downwards. When a vowel is spoken, the pitch of the voice is constantly changing. The reinforced partials must also change in pitch, swelling and dying away in intensity, as they approach or recede from the proper pitches of the mouth cavities. Thus, in the rapid succession of reinforced partial tones, accompanying an inflection of the voice, a point of maximum resonance should be perceived having the absolute pitch characteristic of the \owel uttered.' Treating vowels as we find them, as genera of sounds, in.stead of individuals, the mosv plausible theorj- .seems to be what we may term "the hannonic fiw J pitch theor>- of vowel sounds." according to which a vowel is a musical compound, of partial tones, whose frequencies are multiples of the fundamental of the voice; the predominant partials being always those that are nearest in pitch to the resonance cavities formed in the mouth by the position of the vocal organs assumed during the utterance of the vowel. > It U well known that lh« duration of a v wtl is an ekmeni ,n (fcltrmining its quality. It i> eatremely difficult to dttecl the qutlity of short vowels, and they are often spoken of as "obscure." Wrl INDEX. AbbrtrUtioiis, 46-50 Accent mere important than exact pronunciation, 15-16, 77-78, IOD- IC I, 107 Articulation, method o( teaching, 1I3-U5 perfect, unnecessary, 13-16, loo-iOt. 107, III b, defective, how to correct, 84-99 Back centre-aperture, how to teach. Jf>, 56-57 voice, how to teach, 56-57 shut, voice, nose, how to teach, 57-58. 70-71 BcU'a (Prof. Alexander Melville) Visible Speech s)'mbol5 ex- plained, 37-50 vowel scheme, loj Bottlei used to illustrate resonance of air, 2S, 27, 121 Breathing exercises, 3-4 mechanism of, 1-4 ch, German, development of 26, 56-57 importance of teach- ing, a6, 103, 115 Cheat expansion exercises, 3-4 Clicln, how to correct, 85-99 Combtnationa, 95-99, lu Comfortable, how to teach, 15-16 Consonant positions compared with vowel positions, 13-16, 100 Consonants, 84-99 illustrated by charts, I, II, III, and VI, 5lt 53. 57. 62-63, 71 pronunciation of, determines in- telligibility, 13-16, 100, in shut, defects of, 84-99 how to teach, 69 vocal, how to improve, 80 Constriction defined, 36 of vocal cords, 11 Cords, see Vocal cords. d, defective, how to correct. 84-99 Defective positions, how to correct, see individual letters; e. g, de- fective r, see r Development, see individual let- ters; e. R., for development of ng, see ng. Diaphragm, action 01 in breathing, 1-3 Diphthongs, defective, how to cor- rect, 109-110 Diacouragcmcnt, avoid, IQ. 50, 75- 76, 94-97 Divided aperture, explain, 75 ee, detective, how to correct, 103 how to teach, .^6-57, 71-72. 80 Epiglottis, functions of, 32-34 Exercises tor chest expansion, 3-4 Failures, explain, 76, 94-97 False vocal cord', see Vocal cords. Front centre-aperture, how to teach, 56-57. 71-72 voice, how to teach, 56-57, 71-72 g, defective, how to correct, 84-99 Glides, 108-109 h, how to teach, 56-57. 71-72, 73-74 Helmholz, synthesis of vowel sounds, 31, 1 17-1 18 Hewson, Dr. A., discussion of first lecture, lO-ii Intelligibility depends on pronunci- ation of consonants, 13-16, 100, III more important than perfection, 13-16 k, defective, how to correct, 84-99 Kiss, action of vocal organs in pro- ducing, 85-88 1, how to teach, 59, 62, 70-71. 78-80 Larynx, arc vowel sounds formed in? 7-8, y II, 121-122 functions of, 5- 11 substitute for, 8-9. 121-122 I3« •X i«Ki3c^~-.: .-^Az^ ' '3» INDRX. Up centre-aperture, hack centre- aperture, how to te.ich. 59. 6a, 70-71 Lip centrc-aperitire, liow to teach, 55. 57 voice, how to teach, sfr-57 positions, why begin with? 75 »hut, voice, nose, how to teach. 56-58. 69, 71 Loudntta of voire. Iiow dettrinined. 17-19 m, defective, how to correct, 84-99 how to teach. 44-45. 47, 49. 56-58, 69, 71 McKtndrick, Dr., excision of pa- tient's larynx, 8-9 Metallir qnahty of voice, how to correct, i9-aa Mirror, importance of using, loa Mixed symbols, 47- (8, 59. 75 Moore, Dr. E. M.. larynx experi- ment, 7-», I3i tracheotomy operation, 9-ti, ui- 123 Mouth, relatioti to speech, a4-ji. ii^iai Miucular feehng. 75 n, defective, how to correct. 84-99 how to te.ich. 44-45. 47, 49, 57-58, 70-71 Naaal quality of voice, how to cor- rect, 21-23 ng, defective, how to correct. 84-99 how to teach, 11-12. 44-45, 47, 57- 58, 70-71 'No-no" metho7 00, defective, how to correct, 26-27 position for, 36-38, 49 p, defective, how to correct, 84-99 Palate, soft, functions of. 32-34 how to ra'se, 21-23. 82-83 Pharynx, relation to speech, 17- 24. 31 Phonautograph, experiments with, 123-124 Phonograph, experiments with. r2S-i28 Pitch of voice, how determined. 17-19 how to study, ii>-i2j vary. 6. 25, 27-30 Point centre-apertnrc, how to teach. 55. 57. 71-72 voice, how to teach, 56-57. 71-72 divided aperture, voice, how to teach, 59, 62. 70-71 shut, symbol for, 46, 69, 71 voice, nose, how to teadi. 57-58, 70-71 Porter, Prof. Samuel, letter on functions of the pharynx, 31 Pronunciation, perfect, unnecessary. i,m6. ioo-ioi, 107. Ill Quality of voice, how determiner!. 9, t7-i9 r, defc'ive, how to correct. loS-iwj how teach, 11-12, 55. 56. 57. 71 72, 78-80 glide, may be ignored. 16. 108. 11S-116 Reed as substitute for vocal cords. 8-9. 17 Resonance illustrated. 25, 27-30 Rhythm more important than exact pronunciation, 15-16 Shoot, learning to. like learning to speak, 76 Shut consonants, see Consonants, shut. Soft palate, see Palate, soft. Speech after excision of larynx. 8- 9 tracheotomy, 9-1 1, 121 ■ 122 mechanism of, methods of study- ing. 34-50 reading. 1 13- 1 15 relation of mouth to. 24-31, 119- 121 pharynx to. 17-24. 31 breathing to, 2-3, 35 ntDBZ. '33 Swing, child's, illustrates sympa- thetic vibration, 3^-39 IjnnpadiMic vibration, 37-jg t, defective, how to correct, 84-99 position for, 46, 69, 71 TMcMng articulation, method of. "3-115 Visible Speech, method -{. Si-8.1 Thorax, funitions of, 1 4 Throat symbols, how to teach, 60^3 tn, how to teach, 81-83 Tongua, how to manipulate, it-13, loa-ioj Trachaotomy, speech nfter, 9-1 1. I3I-I33 Vitibla Speech, method of teaching, Si-83 Mymhois explained, 37-50 Vocal consonants, how to improve, 80 cords, action of, 5-6, 9 constriction of, 11. 16 substitute for, 8-9 Voica, harsh, how to correct, 19-33 mechanism of, 6 metallic, how to correct, 19-33 Voice, nasal, how to correct, 31 -33 q'lality of. how determined, 9, 17- 19 Vowal positions, compared with consonant, lj-if>. 100 perfect, unnecessary. 13- 16, loo-ioi, 107, ill sounds after excision oif laryiia. are they formed in larynx ' 7-8, 9-". I3I-I33 synthesis of, 31 theories, 34-31, 1 17-139 Vowala. defective, 100-113 illustrated by charts IV, V, and VII. SI. 63-64. 68. 74 primary, 65-69 wide. 66-69 w, how to teach, 56-57, 70-71, 80 wh, how to teach, 59, 63, 70-71 w and wh, defective, how to cor- rect. 36-37 Whitpar, vocal chords in. 16 Whiatling, mechanism of, 133 Word method of teaching, 113-115 jr. how to teach, 80, 108 Yale, Miss Caroline A., supports Dr. Bell's theory. 116 s.'m^