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Opposing pages with varying colouration or discotourations are filmed twk» to ensure the best possible image / Les pages s'opposant ayant des colorations variables ou des decolorations sont fiimtes deux fois afin d'obtenir la meilleP^l 7/ \.'k:l 7^7^ DOMINION OF CANADA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DOMINION EXPERIMENTAL FARMS DIVI8ICN OF BOTANY FLAX FOR FIBRE: ITS CULTIVATION AND HANDLING BT J. ADAMS, M.A. Afiatant dominion BolanUt. BULLETIN No. 28 Snoond Swrlett FUBLISHII> BY AVTHOHITY OF Hon. MARTIN BURRELL, Minister of Agriouitura, Ottawa, Ont. OTTAWA GOVERNMENT PRINTING BUREAU 1916 544—1 - ^ Ottawa. April 6, 1916. The Flonourable Tho MiiiUtor of Affriculture, Otta .a. Sir,— 1 hove tiiu hoimur to tmimmit herewith, for your •pproval, the manuicrlpt ot Bulletin No. as of the Second Het'u-*, entitleeen prciwrcd by Mr. John Adamx, Awiiiitaiit Dominion Rotaniiit. Tho poKsibilities of producing flux for fibre in ("anndii liuvo nlrcndy l)een provinl to be very cuniidcrnblc. It would wi-ni wise, therefore, to do anythini; i)OK«iblc to encourairo the Krowfh of thin inuustry in dixtrictit nuitctl thereto at thix ' tic, when unufiunlly hiuh prices will nerve a* an imiH-tun to it* development nnd extenxion. The occompanyintr brief bulletin on method* of (rrowinjr and handlinfr thi* crop will, I believe, be of much use to our fiirniers in thin connection, and I have therefore to recommend that it lie published nt nn early date. I have the honour to bo, »ir. Your obedient nervant, J. n. ORISDALE. Dirrelor, Dominion Experimental Famu. The DiHBCTOB, Dominion Kxiierimcntal Farms, Ottawa, Out. Dear Sir, — I have the honour to -.ibmit licf * itt* a n for Fibre, its cult'vation and ban ' lug," whieli iias W' Adams, M.A., Assistant Dominiou iiotnnirt. Mr. Adnnis from many yenrs of intimate n>*><'iati<., industry, and from his technical and scientific ahiliti, \m» P' i?paro a very clear and vomprchensive account of **« cultivation and handling of flax for tho prod 'ction of fiV useful at this stafre of enhanced interest in an indiisti'^ a wide scope in suitable localities in the Dnmininn of f I beg: to recommend the publication of the manu». second series of the Experimental Farms. I have the honour to be, sir. Your obedient «. April 3, 1914. •iiiscript entitled " Flax prepared by Mr. John IB Ireland with the flax been in a poaition to ^inciiVles "f -.iccessful *l« ^ will !*■ fiiund most tliere certainly is a bulleiln of the >f. n. 1 #Tss(>«r. TABU or ooimim Paoi nUtorical iiitrixluction 5 Diwriptioii of tlio plant 7 Climate H Soil Rotntioii Manurcfi 9 Prpparatinn of tlio Iniid » 8«h1 10 DininfcH-tioii of M>p i ^'.■ wrapping the Egyptian mummies were composed of linen; and, in the account - ae destruction vrrought by hail, one of the plnguoo nf Egypt, . is recorded that " the flax and the barley was smitten, for the barley was in the ear, and the flax waa boiled." Th« plant is also figured in ancient Egyptian pointings, and these are of interest as showing that the crop was not reaped with a sickle like cereals, but waft pulled up by the root. In the British Islands the growing of flux for fibre, although it has been carried on to a certain extent over the greater jtart of the country at different times, has become firmly established only in the province of Ulster in Ireland. Its cultivation in that country by the Keltic inhabitants U also of very ancient date. In the Brehon laws, which date back long before the Christian era, there are various references to fax and to the implements employed in its manufacture. It is of interest to note that ht e also the crop was pulled up by the root, and that steeping in water was the recog- nized inethod of retting. The crop, however, in Ireland did not assume very important proportions until near the close of the seventeenth century, when large numbers of Huguenot refugees settled in the North of Ireland, bringing with them their spinning wheels and looms, and an acquired skill in the manufacture of flax products. With the formation of the "Board of Trustees of the Linen and Hempen Manufactures of Ireland" in 1711, and the administration of government grants in aid of the flax industry by that body, the record has been one of continued progress to the present time. The acreage under cultivation has varied greatly from year to year and, on the whole, has gradual'y declined. In recent years only about one-foiirth of the fibre used in the linen industry has been grown in Ireland, the rest being imported from other countries of Europe. In the year 1809 there were 76,749 acres of flax grown in Ireland, in 1S64 the maximum area of 301,693 acres was reached, and in 1898 there were only 34,469 acres grown, the lowest acreage for the cr itury. From 1901 to 1910 there has been a slight increase in the area grown, the zr :imum being 59,659 acres in 1907. Looking bock over the past century it will be uund that a rise in the price of flax has usual', brought about an increase in the acreage grown. 644—2 Among other European countries which produce flax fibre are France, Belgium, Holland, Austria, Hungary, and Russia. In the first four countries the acreage has steadily declined, but is stationary in Hungary and Bussia. Since 1>901 the area under flax in Bussia has yaried between Si and 3} million acres. In Canada, flax has been grown for its fibre for a number of years in the province of Ontario, but there also the acreage has declined. According to official reports of the Provincial Government, the area devoted to the crop in that province was 12,128 acres in 1911, but less than half that amount in 1916, namely, 6,334 acres. Flax has also been grown foi ^'."•a to some extent in the province of Quebec. The late Dr. Wm. Saunders, Director of the Dominion Experimental Farms, endeavoured to stimulate the interest taken in this crop bv the publication of Bulletin No. 26 in the year 1896. Later, in 1906, he published Bulletin No. 69, dealing with the same subject and describing the result of tests made in growing flax for fibre in the different provinces of Canada. Dr. C. E. Saunders has been engaged for a number of years in improving the varieties of flax by breeding from selected strains. Prof. C. A. Zavitz, of Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, has experimented with a number of different varieties of flax in order to determine the best rate of sowing and the yield per acre. Some of fiis results will be found quoted farther on. d. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. Flax or lint, known botanically as Linum tuitatiasimum L. — the Latin name means common or ordinary flax — ia an annual, that is, it completes its whole life-history in a single season. It has delicate roots, a slender wiry stem about 2 to 3 feet high, narrow leaves, and blue, sometimes white, flowers. The fibre, to which it owes its strength and its chief value, is situated near the outside of the stem. If a fully grown flax stem is cut across the middle with a sharp knife or razor and examined with n small magnifying glass, it will be seen to consist of three regions. In the centre i< Fio. 1 — Diagnun of the timaivene nation of a flax stem . A. Pith. B. Woody Eone. 0. External layer. a soft region known as the pith, which is sometimes hollow (fig. lA). Surroundiui{ the pith and nearly equal to it in width is a much harder and denser region known as the woody zone (fig. IB). The pith and the woody zone together make up what is known as the " shive," or " shove." Outside the woody zone is a much narrower region, the external layer (fig. IC), in which the fibre-bundles are situated. These fibre- bundles, two of which are shown in fig. 2, are frequently separate from each other, but it often happens that they run into each other at the edges. The number of individual Fio. 2.— Twoflbre-buodlM. A. ThiokwaUa(flfan«eU. (hifhly macoifiad). B. Oavity in the centre of flbre-ceU fibre-cells in the bundle also varies; those in the figure contain thirteen and nine, respectively. The fibre-cells shown in the figure can only be seen when magnified by a microscope. 644— a* 8 The flowe« on the san^e individual plant open in -c«es«on and in «uen^. all the seeds do not ripen at the ««r,n:ow^";^r^Ae capsul^ open by a series :n:^L''X£:z\zT'^o:::^s':& - auow^the seeds to fau out (fig. 3). Fig. 3. Ripe »eod loll or capsule. When ilax is sown thinly, each plant is e't-J-^/^itui^^^^^^ the ripening of the capsules extends ^'^ll^^^l^Xii^-^^-ior fibre. When the is much greater. Such a plant has '^'^y ^""^ " ^ ^all unbranched seed is sown sufficiently thickly each plant P'° similar throughout. ROTATION. Flax should not be sown on the same land oftener than once in five to seven years. Its exact place in the rotation varies, but the common practice is to sow after corn or some other cereal, or on land that has been in sml for several years. A crop of flax should not succeed mangels, as the soil is apt to be deficient in potash in that case. MANURES. Stable manure should not be applied to land immediately before sowing with flax, as it is liable to promote the growth of wood and leaves without a corresponding increase in the amount of fibre. It is better to manure heavily some previous crop in the rotation, and apply no manure to a crop of flax except potash in an artificial form, and then only where the land reijuires it. As potash is not at present available, owing to the war, wood ashes may be used wherever they can be obtained. In dis- tricts near the sea it may be possible to apply seaweed to some previous crop, as it contains a considerable amount of potash. From very early times flax has had the reputation of being an exhaustive crop. Judged by its effect on the yield of subsequent crops there seems to be little founda- tion for this belief. On the other hand, when the crop is pulled, there is none of it left in the soil except the very fine roots, whereas, in the case of a crop of wieat, all the roots are left in the soil, and several inches of stubble are ploughed under in addition. In this sense flax removes more from the soil than other crops. Analysis of the plant should throw some light on this problem, but, at the present time, the results of analyses made by different investigators are so discordant that no general conclusion can be drawn. In all probability there is considerable variability ' the chemical eomposition due to differences of soil and climate. PREPARATION OF THE LAND. The preparation of the laud should be such as will reduce it to as fine a state of tilth as possible. It should be ploughed in autumn to a moderate depth, if light, but to a greater depth if heavy, and should be frequently worked in spring to pulverize it thoroughly. Land that is badly infested with weeds should not be used for flax, as weeding must be done by hand after the seed germinates. The seed-bed should be compact, and to accomplish this it will be necessary to roll it, either before the seed is sown or after. Sometimes the land is rolled both before and after sowing, the* practice depending largely on the nature of the soil. Tf the soil is so soft that the horses' feet leave a deep impression, the seeds, when sown on the rolled surface, will 10 have a tendency to accumulate in these hollows, and will probably be buried moro deeply; hence the crop will not be so uniform. On the other hand, if the soil con- tains a considerable amount of clay, the practice of rolling after sowing the seed will tend to make the surface crust even more readily after rain. SEED. The seed used should be that of a fibre-producing flax, and not that of a flax grown solely for oil. If possible, Russian or Dutch seed should be obtained, or the produce of such seed grown in Canada. It would be advisable for a farmer to allow a small portion of his crop to ripen its seeds fully for next year's sowing, sacrificing the fibre, or, at any rate, keeping it separate from the rest. Various varieties of flax are grown, some being blue-flowered, others white-flowered. Blue-flowered flax is considered to give a better quality of fibre Flax seed often contains immature seeds and weed seeds; and it is very desirable that these should be got rid of by re-screening and re-cleaning. It is usually imprac- ticable to do much weeding among a growing flax crop, and weeds are a great nuis- ance at harvesting time. Not only is time lost in disentangling them from the flax stems, but weeds such as Canada Thistle with prickl*' leaves inflict serious injury on the hands of the pullers. Flax seed that contains Dodder should not be sown. After the seeds have been re-cleaned, a sample may be sent to Ottawa to be tested for germination, but any farmer can do this readily for himcelf in the follow- ing manner : Take two flower pots, each measuring 8 inches in diameter across the top ; fill them to within one inch from the top with sifted garden soil, which should be moderately damp and level on the surface; count 200 flax seeds taken at random, and scatter 100 on the surface of the soil in each pot ; with a small piece of smooth board Fk., a.— Simple apptntus for eenniiuiting teedt. A. Plate. B. Seed. C. Soil D. Small Btone. press the seeds gently into the soil, but do not cover them; place a large plate bott3m upwards over the surface of the i>ot to keep in the moisture (fig. 5) ; place the two flower pots in a moderately warm kitchen, taking care that the soil does not become too dry. After three days remove on the point of a needle the seeds which have ger- minated, and count them. The average of the two lots will give the percentage of germioation. 1] DISINFECTION OF SEED. BefoK Flax is subject to seyeral diseases which may be carried by infected seeo sowing, the seed should be treated as follows:— o •. Spread the seed in a thin layer on a clean floor or a sheet of canvas. Spray it with a solution of formalin consisting of one ounce of formalin in ten quarts of water, mixing the seed thorougUy so that each seed is cvered with the solution. Two quarts of the solution will be suflSeient to spray one bushel of seed. Continue to turn and mix the seeds until they are quite dry. AMOUNT TO SOW. The amount of seed to sow per acre will depend on several circumstances, such as the nature of the land and the germination of the seed when tested. It wiU be advisable to sow a little more thickly on heavy soil than on light sod, as m ths former a larger number of seeds will probably die without germinating. The se^s must be sown sufficiently close together to keep the pknts from branching, but thew are some other points to be taken into consideration. F"!'" ''»'^««V'""^^W fl« at the Central Experimental Farm during the past year it has been found that flax stems of medium thickness gave a larger percentage of fibre than stouter and coa«e. ZZ Lken from the same bundle. It therefore follows that the seed should be sown sufficiently closely to produce stems of medium thickness. If it be assumed th»t tjere should be at least one plant to each square inch, we can readily form an est mate of the minimum amount of seed to sow. Calculations bpsed on an actual weighed ^fe of iTLls showed that there were 106,728 seeds in a pound. Some sample* ^Ug've fewer seeds, others a larger number per pound. Taking the above number of I^s ir pound, and assuming that the seeds sown are absolutely free from impunti« aS th^t every seed will germinate, and that we wish to have one plant per square inch, thin 58? pounds of seed will give this result This is a little over one bushd if 56 pounds are reckoned to the bushel. But one plant per square inch is a co^r^ i vely thin rate of seeding, and no sample of seed is absolutely pure, nor will a sample of seed hat germinates 100 per cent in the laboratory attain this germination raU whe'lwn i/rfi«ld. ConSuently a thicker rate of seeding will be necess^. A lood sample of flax should be nearly free from impurities and. l\^J> ^^^'''y'^^^^ three days is 95 per cent or more, the seed should be sown at the rate of U busheU Sracrefif the germination comes between 85 and 95 per cent, 2 bushjs per acre Zmhe sown: and with a germination of 75 to 85 per cent, 2* bushds v^l be neSsary. It i^ worth remarking that, if the seeds are sown too closely together the st^ may become lodged, or may rot during wet weather. As showing the result ol sSg dffferent amounts of seed per acre, the following figures f'T^«^'«P°'J°* nvesrigations conducted by Prof. C. A. Zavitz at Guelph. Ont., are «* ^^^^fj ^J^" ing each of the five years 1905-9, inclusive, four varieties of flax were sown at different rates per acre. The rate of sowing, height, and yield per acre were as foUows.- Tleld of Grain in BuaheU. 14-* W« lit TIME TO SOW. Flax should be -own as soon as the ground can be got into prop- condition. Light frosts do not injure flax seedlings; only a froat sufficient to freeze the ground Amov wd Height of Crop Yield of 8t So«. ^\a. m Inches. In Tons. 29 1-B5 29 1-68 M 1-9S tt 2-24 IS IT 2-85 1« M 2-24 M Ifl •olid is likdy to do any bann. Sowinc can be carried out earlier on light soil*. Heavy land, that i» cold and wet in spring, reoll on each plant, is ripe by crushing it between the fingers. The sap has been all absorbed, and the brown seeds will fall out readily. It is also easy to estimate roughly when half the capsules are ripe by pulling up a plant and counting the ripe and unripe seed-bolls present. It will be a good plan to pull between these limits, that is, after the first seed-boll has ripened and before half the seed-bolls are ripe. The sheaves are then set up in stooks to dry. It is of great importa.ice to keep the tips of the roots at the same level when pulling, as this renders the subsequent handling of the flax much easier. Any soil that adheres tc the roots should be shaken or knocked off. The bundles should bie tied rather loosely, should be uniform in size and of about 8 inches in diameter. A few stalks of the flax are generally used to make a band for tying. It will be found an advantage, if the weather is wet, to tie the sheaf not in the middle, but nearer the top end. istead of putting the sheaves in stooVs, each sheaf will, if spread out at the base, ind alone and will dry much more quickly after rain (fig. 6). A flax has a delicate root, it is readily removed from the grround, and the work can easily be done by children. About as much flax as can be conveniently grasped between the hands is caught a short distance below the seed-bolls, the right hand having the thumb lowest in position. Care should be taken to avoid pulling off the seed-bolls, as this is likely to happen if they become entangled. Each handful, a.s pulled, is laid flat on the ground and more flax is placed on the top, until there is thout sufficient to form a bundle. It is much more satisfactory for one and the same person to tie the bundles, as they are in that case more likely to be uniform in size and to be tied with the same degree of tightness. Any short patches of flax in the field should be kept separate from the general bulk. u At the aTerage rate of pulling, four men will be required to pull an acre in a day. Ezperimenta have been made with machines for pullinir ilax, but further teating is neeeaaaiy before they can be recommended. Aa there ii very little fibre in the loweat inch of flax stem, it might be possible to cut the crop with comparatively little waste. Thia would only be practicable where the crop is of considerable height, and where the land haa been rolled after sowing. The great difficulty in the way of devising a auo- cessful machine for handling flax at thia stage is the eaae with which the seed-bolU become entangled. Flo. 6.— Flax bundle tied lie>r the top and iptead outat tbebaje. REMOVAL OF THE SEED. The dried flax may be put into stacks, or stored in a barn until time can be found to remove and clean the seeds. If, however, it is intended to ret the flax during the season in which it is g:rown, the removal of the seed-capsules will require to be done at once, as retting cannot be accomplished satisfactorily if the weather is too cold. It would seem quite possible to save a considerable percentage of the seeds and ret the straw the same season without drying the flax in stooks. A flax plant branches slightly at the top, and the amount of fibre contained in these branches is, if the seed has been sown sufficiently thickly, of comparative!^ little moment. When the flax has been pulled and tied into bundles, it should be comparatively easy to remove these branching tops, at the ends of which the seed-bolls are situated, with a single stroke of a large, sharp knife. The seed-bolls could be placed on a large cloth and turned until they are dry, and the flax straw could be immediatdy retted. It is a method which might be used with advantage during wet weather, and it is practised to a con- aiderable extent in parts of Russia. u AMuminff that the flax haa been dried, there are yarioui methods in wo for tvoaring the teed. One of theae ia " rippling," which conaitta in pulling handfuia of flax over and between iron teeth placed dote enough to pull off the capaulea (fig. 7). The teeth of the rippling comb should be round in section and tho upaces between should be about three-sixteentha of an inch. The -apaul^a are afterwards crushed on the floor by a wooden mallet, or by a roller drawn over them, and the seeds can be separated by a fanning mill. The oapaulea may be crushed without rippling by placing the bundle on a stout board on the floor and pounding it with a mallet But, if the buii.ll s have been care- lessly tied, rippling has the advantage of enabling the operator to (-ven the ends and remove weeds before tying up again. Another method is to pass the handful of flnx between smooth rollers pressed together by springs. The crushed capsulet re then passed through o fanning mill. There is a threshing machine in use in eastern Fio. 7.— Appuktiu for rippling. Michigan which, it is claimed, keeps the ends straight, and afterwards binds the flax again into bundles. This machine is said to thresh 15 tons of flax straw a day. Whatever typo of machine is employed, care must be taken to avoid crushing or injur- ing the flax straw. After removing the capsules, the stra " should be tied into mode- raU'v loose bundles of about the same size as before. Any weeds that are noticed in the sheaves during the threshing should be removed, and the ends of the bundles should be squared before tying up. Flax screenings are sometimes used for feeding purposes, but should be employed for this purpose in small quantities only, as thera are several records of cattle and sheep being poisoned by eating them. As flax seeds are liable to absorb moisture readily, if kept in a damp state, and to heat in consequence, it is much easier to keep them dry if allowed to remain in the seed-bolls as long as possible. It is very important that sacks of cleaned flax seed should be stored in a dry, airy place. The dried flax sti. v must also be kept dry until the time for retting arrives. If allowed to become damp, moulds will develop and the fibre will be seriously injured. BETTING OB STEEPING. The object of retting is to bring about certain chemical changes in the flax stem 80 that the fibres may be readily separated from the shoves. It is really the first stage in the manufacture of flas, and it is open to question whether this operation should be carried out by the farmer, or should bo undertaken, together with the next stages of breaking and scutching, by the flax mannfactnier. St Thm art two methoda of Nttin* in coaunoa um, tunnaUr, dew-wttinf ai. . watar- rattinc. In the former caM the flax is spread in a thin layer in rows on the grasa, which should be short and h.»e a level surface. It I. turned at frequent mterral. with a long pole. The k.MTth of tinn, required for retting rane. with the cU.«oter of ti» weather, and will extend over several weeks. Two acre, of grass l«nd *«" bo ^quTredtr es'ch acre of flax. When it is found 1;hut the fibre «,parat«. .'"•d'ly *«« the shoves, it should bo lifted carefully on a dry day and tied up again mto bundles S^vidTth* flax straw i, perfectly dry it can be tied up into much larger bundle, than before. If the weather is wet, drying may be hastened by setting the flax up on end as shown in fig. 8. , . , - Dew-i«tted flax is not so uniform in quality aa water-retted flax, and !«-«•• considerably lower price. This is what might bo expected. -aa it is much more exposed to weather conditions. _ i. .„ Water-retting produce* the highest quality of flbre. but it requirea much more judgment and precision to carry the process out properly. FermenUtion due to the action of bacteria goe. on much more rapidly in the water. As mentioned previously, the fibres occur more or less in bundles. The object of retting is to break down and SLolTthe tiaauea betw*n and around theae bundlea, so that the latter may be Fio. 8k— FU« irt up to dry . readily separated. The fibre-cells composing the bundle are held together by a gummy substance, and, if the retting is too prolonged, this gummy -ubstance «»»o^«aohres and the fibre-cells become separated lirom each other. The reeult is that the flax stem, when pulled has lost its strength and breaks across as easily as a piece of wheaten straw. Mucn, therefore, depends on taking the flax out of the water just at «>e "ght time. On the other hand, if the flax is retted insufficiently, it will be much hariet to separate the fibre from the shove. The work of scutching will be more difficult to ^r^ out. and will be accompanied by greater waste of fibre. Of the two evils, however, the second is certainly the leaser. .^ . , , ., ^ , a Although the main features of water-retting are described below, it must be under- stood that a full understanding of the subject in all ite details can only be gamed by several years' experience. .. i ^ ^ * The water used for retting should be soft and free from iron. It is rossible to treat water containing lime with chemicals bO as to soften it, but this adda considerably to the trouble and expense. The pond used for retting should be constructed, if possible, in a clay soil. Where soft water is not available, it may be possible m some cases to fill the 1. .d with rain water some time before it is required, but it entails considerably more trouole to put the flax bundles into the tank, if it is already f uU of watey. The ■mount of water used in proportion to the flax steeped vanes m different distn. IT WhM« • large quantity of water ii uwd, tue flax it lighter in colour and tliu tinell ia said to Le leaa objectionable, after it i« taken out of the water. The Mnie tank can be uied any number of timet for retting, but it it adviiable to empty it and iiil with freth water after each tot of flax hat been taken out. Water that flax hat been tteeped in hat a ttrong odour and blackinh colour, and it poiitunoua to fish. Retting may be carried out from !Uay to September. The time required for immer- sion variet with the temperature. Latt year at the Central Experimental Farm tome imall tomplet of flax were retted in three daya, but usually from five day* up to twelve dayi, or longer, will be retiuired. The best temperature for retting it al>out 73° F., but cr.re utiould be taken to test the water both at the liottom and at tho turfacti of the ix>nd. The water at the turfore on n sunny day will be leveral devreet warmer. Tliu tank for retting thould be constructed several months before it is ruqu? 'ed. It should be about 3| feet deep, and should not bo more than or H feet wide. About •160 aquare feet uf water surface should be allowed fur one acre of flax. Tl>u tank should bo constructed near a stream from which it can bo filled when deMin-)]. It* lonstrut' tion sliould also admit of tho water being run ofl bi:fore the flax i^t tnki'ii out. '"^^ pipe with a wooden plug at the end mokes a suitable outlet. It sliuuld bo pi « to leave about U inches of water ill tho tank. It can bo dislodged wlion de^ t long pole (fig. 0). When flax it retted green, that is without drying, it shon -^ into the tank at soon ^ssible after pulling, and should not Le left expo*' «s sun any longer than neoessac. All the flax in any one tank thould be pvt =i» same day ; it should a'sn bo taken out on the same day. ......... .._ 1'. . . Fio. ».— Tank rasdy tjt i Uing with flax. A. Outflow pipe. B. Wood«i plikc Ths method of procedure it aa fellows: The flax, having been cu : to ttx <>i4F of the tank, and the wooden plug having been inserted, a man stands iii ae few iii< ht^ of water nnd places the flax bundles, handed to him by another person on the bank, sf a tlight slope against the lower end of the ponn. The bundles are placed with the tu end downwards, and should not be pressed too closely together, so that water ma) ''9- culate around and through the bundles (fig. 10). It it important that the bundles sliontd U uf the same size and not too tightly tied. This part of the work may abio be J'>*e by stretching two stout planks across the dam for the man to stand on, tho bundiK-* being placed in position by meant of a fork ; but, unless the bundles have been propei% tied, they sometimes fall to pieces when lifted on a fork. When all the flax has beeh put into the tank, stones of moderate size are placed on the top. These are for the purpose of keeping the flax under watsr after fermentation has commenced. The water ie then turned on and allowed to flow until the flax is well covered. No water should be allowed to flow through the dam during the time of immersion, unless it is fuuiul that the dam has leaked owing to improper construction. After a day or two it may happen that some of the flax rises above water owing to tho accumulation of gas bubbles. When this occurs, it should be pushed under water and more stones adci.d. From about the fifth day onward the flax should be tested every morning and evening to see if it is properly retted A few straws should be. pulled out from different parts of the dam and examined in the middle of their length.. If the flax stem, when beut. tl ■napt aeroM iharpljr. and the central woody lono can bo readily Mparatod from tho flbre. the flax hai been long enough immertcd. The water should be allowed to run off with the exception uf a few inches in the bottom to wash the mud off the roots of the flax, at it i* taiien out. Bcffi - ing at the upper end of the dam, a mun itandii in tho water and throws the bundles on to the bank, or they may be removed by a man with a fork itanding on plarki itretched acrou the dam. At the bundlet are now to much hearier, there it cvon grctter danirer ot them falling to pieoM, if careleatly handled. Any mud that adherea to the bur " -a ihould be wa*hcd off before they are thrown out. In oaae U '.» found that the flax, when examined in the cTening, it lufBricntly retted, the water thould be at once let off and the flax thrown out of the dam. It will take much lett harm from lying on the bank orer night than if allowed to remain in tha water. After all the flax hat been remnred from tho water, clean water thould be allowed to flow through the tank, othcrwiwi it will become a favourite breeding place for motquitoai. .ll.,&^ Fto. la— Tank filled with flax. A. Bandle of flax . B. Stune. A description of the "Feuillette" lyttem of retting, in which the operation is carried out in covered tanks at any time of tha year, the water being heated to the requisite temperature, will be found in " Flax Fibre," Pamphlet No. 1 of the Publica- tions Branch, Ottawa, May, 1915. This system is somewhat elaborate ard e:^pensive and would prove satisfactory only where a number of flax-growers co-uperate. A fuller account of the systems of retting followed in various countries of Europe will be found in Dr. J. V. Eyre's " Report on the Possibility of Reviving the Flax Industry in Great Britain," issued in 1914 by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 4 Whitehall Place, London, S.W., Englaud; Price, fourpence, jxMt free. DRYING. After flax is taken from the dam it is left on the bank for about an hour to drain, and is then carted to a grata field to be spread. As in the case of dew-retting, it is spread in a thin layer on tho grass (fig. 11). The individual straws should be sev&rated from each other as far as possible by shaking each handful as it is beins spread. Owing to the gummy substance present, the flax straws have a tendency to cling together, especially if the bundle has been too tightly tied. Unless the straws are separated, the spread flax will not dry uniformly. As soon as the flax is thoroughly dry, it is then collected and tied up in bundles. If left on the grass for a few days, it will become lighter in colour, but there is danger that the quality of the fibre may be affected. Both in the spreading and lifting, care must be taken to keep the tips of the roots at the same level. Owing to the unpleasant smell and the stooping posture, the spreading of flax is rather arduous work, and there seems to be no valid reason why the system of "gating" 1* Fig. II.— Mathnd of ipnadinfc on thn gtmu. so should not be more largrely adopted. By this method the bundles are set up on end for an hour or more to drain. The stouea taken from the dam, before the flax is removed, can be used as a support for the first row, if they are piled on top of each other, or the flax bundles may be laid against a low wooden rail. When the water has drained off sufficiently, the band is removed, the bui die opened out, and the flax straw, after being shaken, is set up against each side of a wooden rail about 18 inches from the ^ound (fig. 12). When quite dry it can be tied up into large bundles, and should then be Fio. 13.— Method of "gating" flax. A stout nail driven into the upright •take awvM a* a rent for the horizontal rail. Stacked or housed. The advantages of gating are : that the flax is much easier to dry if the weather is wet, less ground is required, and much less stooping is necessary on the part of the worker. SCUTCHING. Scutching is the operation by which the fibre is separated from the central woody lone or shove. It is usually performed during the winter months, and requires an experienced workman. Flax before being scutched is first passed. through a "brake." This consists of a number of rollers, some grooved, some smooth, and revolving at different rates. As the flax straw passes between these, the shove is crushed and broken into short lengths, and is easily knocked off from the fibre during scutching. The principle of braking flax is shown in fig. 13. FiQ. 18.— Flax paasinp between two roller* nf the brake. The arrows indicate the direction of movement of the rollers. 21 The necesaary appliances for scutching consist of an upright frame or stock with a notch cut in one edge (fig. 14). Throuph this notch the operator holds a handful of flax which has already passed through the brake, and the shoves are knocked oS Fin. 15. — Scutching blades or handlpM. The direction of movement in Hhown by the arrow . Fm. 14. — Scutching stock or fnme. The amiw indicates tiie direction of movement o{ tlie scutching blades. by the beating action of " blades " or " handles " flttachod to a revolving wheel (fig. 15). By carefully turning the handful of flax and subjecting it to the action of the blades, all the shoves are eventually removed and nothing but the fibre left. A care- less scutcher will remove a large part of the valuable fibre in the form of waste or " tow " which sells at a much lower figure. In Belgian mills the revolving wheel usually carries twelve wooden blades, while in Irish scutching mills there are six iron blades which are of a heavier type of con- struction, but revolve much more slowly. It will be seen from the above description that the machinery necessary for brak- ing and scutching is comparatively simple. Water-power may be used where avail- able, or an oil engine, or an electric motor. Ten scutching stocks or more can be operated by the same shaft. As scutching flax is dusty work, one or more ventilators should form part of the equipment. YIELD OF FIBRE. No statistics seem to be available showing the amount of scutehcd fibre produced per acre in Canada, although there are figures showing the weight of dry unthresbed flax straw, the average fir the province of Ontario being about 2 tons per acre. The yields of straw per acre at Guelph are given in the next section. The amount of flax S2 straw is not, howevcar, by any monna a correct guide to the amount of fibre present. Furthermore, small carefully weighed samplo* of llax, if scutched with special care, are apt to give a considerably higher percentage of fibre than an acre scutched by the ordinary methods. Several preliminary tests of small samples of flax, weighed before and after scutching, wore made in 1015, but until they have been repeated and care- fully checked it would probably be misleading to publish the figures. For the ten years, 1001-10, the average yield for the whole of Ireland varied bctwwn .l.'iC and :iTS pounds per aero, tlio mcun for the whole period being 4631 pounds. The highest yield obtained in Ireland was in the year 18.52, when an average yield of 5^0 jmunds per acre was obtained over an area of 137,008 acres. YIELD OF HEED. Although the figures quoted below refer in most cases to the amount of seed produced, where the crop is grown exclusively for that purpose and not for fibre, still they will serve a useful purpose in sho-ving the amount of variation there is in differ- ent ioculities and in different years. It is only in the province of Ontario that the crop is grown both for fibre and seed, and the figures for that province as a whole may bo taken as fairly representutiv uf the amount of seed obtained fronj a fibre crop. The experiments conducted at Ouelph, however, seem to refer to seed produc- tion only, no mention '>eing made of the fibre. The average yields of flax seed per acre for the whole ' inion and for the various provinces during the five years 1910-15 were as folio. . Canada, 11-27 bushels; Quebec, 11 14 bushels; Ontario, 1C.44 bushels; Manitoba, 12- IS bushels; Saskatchewan, 11 17 bushels; Alberta, 11 -.M bushels. At Saskatoon, in the province of Saskati-hewun, the yield of seed in 1015 varied from 18-27 to 2(i-50 bushels jR'r acre. The average yield was 22 bushels, the highest yield being obtained after com. The yields in thirty-six districts in Alberta in 1013 varied between 5 and 27 bushels per acre, and in 1014 between 1-20 and 15 bushels iier acre. Tho average yield in Alberta for the twelve years, 1903-14, was 9.21 bushels. Prof. C. A. Zavitz, of Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, carried on experi- ments with flax seed obtained from Ontario, Maiiitoba, Russia, and Holland. His results for the seven years 1005-11 were as follows: — Averase Yield of AveriiRe Yield of Variety. Straw per Acre, drain per Acre. Tons. Bushels. Manitoba 2-51 n-B5 Ontario Common 2*54 1<*4S Russian 2-32 14*»9 Holland 2-31 13'94 " The yields of flax per aero in 1911 were unusually light, owing to the exceedingly hot dry weather." The average yields per acre for that year were: Ontario Common, 8-7 bu-.hels; Manitoba, 8-4 bushels; Holland, 7-7 bushels; and Russian, 7-4 bushels. "In 1012, Manitoba flax gave an average of .30, and Ontario flax 28-1 bushels per acre. The highest yi^.J in 1012 was obtained from Minnesota No. 25, which gave a yield of 32-0 bushels of seed per acre." "In 1013 tho highest results were obtained from tiie following varieties: Mani- toba, 25-9; Ontario, 25-8; the Argentine, 22-8; and the Minnesota No. 25, 22-fi bushels jHjr acre." As there is no mention of the fibre, tho presumption is that the foregoing plots of flax at Ouelph were allowed to ripen their seeds fully beik)re l)eiiig harvested. Still the figures are of interest as showing how in the same locality there is great variation from year to year, according to tho character of the season. It is safe to assume that in an ordinary year from one-half to two-thirds of the above amount-s of seed could have been obtained, and at the «ame time a fibre of good quality. 23 PRICES. In January, 1015, the price of flax at Belfast, Ireland, ranged from $4;)4 tti ^(\0'S>0 |)er short ton for Dutch fibre, and was $301) per tuu for Kuitsiun fibre. The price in December, 1915, was $700 per ton. These prices arc the highest on record. The price of flax seed at Winnipeg during November, 1!»15, ranged from $1.62J to $1.89 per bushel. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. Flax for fibre in a difficult crop to handle, u.s so much of tho work Iibh to be done by hand labour. A farmer, who has never grown tlie crop before, ishould not atti'nipt more tlian 1 or 2 acres at first. Apart from tho value of the seed, there is little profit from tho crop if damafjed by bad weather or neglect at some stage of treatment. A Knmll area i)roi)erly looked after may realize as much profit as double the area enrc- lessly handled. Tho particular stiige at which a farmer should dispose of his crop must be deter- mined largely by local circumstances. Every stage described in the ijrecitling pages, except scutching, can be done on the farm. TIuto apiH'iirs to be no reason why a farmer sEould not i)ull and dry tho crop, remove and c-lean the seeds during the winter months when other work is sh-ck, take out weeds and s(iuaro the ends of the bundles of straw, and sell the straw to tlie scutch mill owner. The latter could carry on retting operations during tho summer mouths and employ tho same staff at scutching in the winter, thus having a nu)re skilled supply of labour, and finding enii)h)yment for them all the year round. Under some such sclieme, farmers living at a distance of up to about 10 miles from tho scutch mill could disi)ose of their crop. (Jreen flax straw loses about two-thirds of its weight in drying. The dried straw after threshing loses one-third of its weight in the form of capsules and seeds. The dried threshed straw further h)ses one-sixth of its weight in the process of retting. This means that 270 pounds of freshly pulled flax will weigh 00 pounds after drying, 60 pounds after threshing, and .50 poinids after retting. Obviously the haulage to tho nearest market is very much reduced if as much of the work of handling as is i)ossiblo is done on the farm. The scutch mill owner is in a much better position as regards marketing tlian the farmer. The fibre, which is the oidy important part of the flax stem, will average only about one-fifth of the weight of the retted straw; in other words, tho 50 pounds of retted straw mentioned above will give about 10 pounds of fibre. The scutched fibre, when pressed and \n.t up in bales of about 100 pounds each, occupies compara- tively little bulk, and the freight even to a market several thousand miles distant amounts to only a comparatively small fraction of the value of the goods. A farmer who is not within a reasomible distance of a scutch null j.ccd not attempt to grow a crop of flax for fibre. As, however, tho machinery recjuircd for the separation of the fibre is comparatively simple, it should not be impossible for a num- ber of farmers in a district where water-iwwer is availablo tu co-cpcrata and erect a small plant of their own.