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A 
 G 
 
THE 
 
 ENCYCLOP-ffiDIA 
 
 or 
 
 GEOGRAPHY: 
 
 COMPRISINO A 
 
 COMPLETE DESCRIPTION OP THE EARTH, 
 
 PHYSICAL, STTATISnCAL, CIVIL, AND POLITICAL; 
 
 EXHIBITING ITS RELATION TO THE HEAVENLY BODIES, 
 
 ITS PHYSICAL STRUCTURE, 
 
 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF EACH COUNTRY, 
 
 AND THE INDUSTRY, OOMHBROE, POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS, 
 
 4/ . • AND CIVIL AND SOCIAL STATE 
 
 or 
 
 ALL NATIONS. 
 
 BY HUGH MURRAY, F.R.S.E. 
 
 ASSMTZD IN 
 
 ASTRONOMY, See. BY PROF. WALLACE, I BOTANT, Ac BY PROFESSOR HOOKER. 
 GEOLOGY, &e. BY PROF. JAMESON, I ZOOLOGY, &e. BY W. SWAINSON, ES^ 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY EIGHTY-TWO MAPS, 
 AND ABOUT ELEVEN HUi^DRED OTHER ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD 
 
 UTREaENTINO THE HOST REMARKABLE OBnCTS OP NATURC AND ART 
 IN EVERY REGION OF THE GLOBE, 
 
 TOOGTHER WITH A 
 
 NEW MAP OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ,,'#■ 
 
 REVISED, WITH ADDITIONS, 
 
 BY THOMAS G. BRADFORD. 
 
 IN THREE VOLUMES. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 
 LEA AND BLANCHARD, 
 
 
 FOR 
 
 
 GEORGE W. GORTON. 
 
 1845. • '. -- 
 
 
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 Entered according to the act of Congress in the year eighteen hundred and tliirly-six, bf 
 
 UABEr, LEA, AND BLANCHARD, 
 
 In the clerk's office of the district court for the ea<tern district of Pennsylvania. 
 
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 STERGOTTPED BY J. FAOAN PHILADELrilll. 
 
 PRINTED BY C. SHERMAN AND CO. 
 
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 - \ |B' 
 
 PREFACE TO THE ENGUSH EDITION. * 
 
 The value and importance of the studr of Geography are w obvious, and indeed 
 ■o universally acknowledged, as to require little illustration. Nothing can be more 
 interesting to man, or more gratiry his thirst for knowledge, than a survey of the 
 earth which he inhabits, peopled as it is by beings of the same nature with himself. 
 To visit and observe foreign climes and regions Is an object of seneral desire, and 
 forms one of the most enectual means of enlarging and enligntening the human 
 mind. This wish, however, unless in the case oia lew individuals, can be gratified 
 only to a very limited extent, and in none can embrace more than a small portion 
 of the vast variety of interesting objects which the earth comprises. This necessary 
 defect of personal observation may, however, be in a ^reat measure supplied, by 
 collecting the reports and narratives of those intelhj^ont individuals who tutve 
 explored and described its various regions, and forming out of these a general 
 description of the world and its inhabitants. 
 
 Works of this class have always possessed a peculiar attraction. Even in ancient 
 times, when the extent of the known world, and the information with respect to 
 the inhabitants and productions of its remoter regions, were comparatively limited, 
 the geographical descriptions of Herodotus, Strabo, Pomponius Mela, and Pliny, 
 rank among the most valuable productions of the classic ages. But in modem 
 times, and particularly in the present age, Geography has acquired a much more 
 prominent place among the departments of human knowledge. The discovery of 
 America in the fifteenth century awakened a spirit of enterprise, and a desire to 
 explore unknown regions, that have continued to gain new strength. During the 
 last half century more especially, the most civilised nations of Europe have oeen 
 contending with each other for the glory of discovery ; and there is now scarcely a 
 shore however remote, or the interior of a continent however barbarous or difficult 
 of access, which has not been surveyed and described. Materials have thus been 
 provided for a much more complete, interesting, and authentic description of the 
 earth, than could have been drawn up at any former period. 
 
 The extensive discoveries thus recently made have thrown a wonderfiil light on 
 the structure and productions of the earth, and afforded large contributions to all 
 the departments or natural history They have also display^ man in every varied 
 condition, from the highest refinement of civilised society, to the rudest and most 
 abject condition of savage life. These representations are not only interesting in 
 themselves, but throw light on the history of past ages. Communities are still 
 found exactly similar to some of those described in the earliest records of antiquity. 
 The tent of the Arab sheik differs little from that which Abraham pitched on the 
 plains of Mamre ; many of the Tartar tribes are a people exactly similar to those 
 who roamed in early ages over the plains of Scythia ; and the splendid courts of 
 Babylon and Persepolis have their representatives in the existing world. We may 
 thus, in fact, trace back man to an earlier and ruder stage than any represented in 
 the ancient records ; for these convey only faint and fabulous notions of what 
 mankind had been at a very early period. But the wilds of America, and the 
 shores of the Pacific, exhibit the state of savage simplicity, which doubtless existed 
 in Europe before the light of authentic history had begun to dawn. Hence it is 
 that Geography, in its present extended range, not only shows man as he actually 
 exists, but delineates, as it were, the progressive history of the species. 
 
 Besides the gratification thus afforded to a liberal curiosity, the knowledge of 
 even the remotest regions has, through recent events, become an object of the 
 utmost practical importance. In many of these, colonies have been founded, 
 political relations formed, and a commercial intercourse with them opened, by th» 
 civilised nations of Europe, and particularly by Britain. Regions the most distant' 
 to which a ship can sail form integral portions of her dominion, and have theii 
 ports crowded with her vessels. There are thousands in tills country who have a 
 more intimate connection with Calcutta or Sydney, than with towns in their 
 immediate vicinity. The manufacturer labours to supply the markets of countries, 
 the very existence of which, fifty years ago, was unknown ; the circumnavigation 
 of the globe is now an ordinary trading voyage. The knowledge of Geography 
 has thus become a necessary qualification for the pursuits of conunerce and indus- 
 try, and for much of the ordinary and current business of life. A great proportion 
 of the youth of Britain are trained for employments in countries which lie &r 
 beyond the limits of Europe. 
 
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 Vi^■•'. 
 
 1032792 
 
IV 
 
 PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. 
 
 « » 
 
 The same causes have, moreover, given to the knowledge of distant countries a 
 peculiar hold on the domestic and social affections. There are few amongst us 
 who have not a near relation, perhaps a brother or a child, residing in another 
 hemisphere. Oceans now separate us from those to whom we are united by the 
 tenderest ties ; the objects of our affection have their abode on the banks of the 
 Ganges, or the shores of the Pacific ; and many, whose hearts are knit in the closest 
 friendship, are divided from each other bv half the earth. In this situation, a 
 description of the place in which our friend or relative dwells, the objects which 
 meet his eye, the society in which he mingles, must afford peculiar gratification, 
 and soothe the mind under this painful separation. 
 
 Deeply impressed with a sense of the great extent and difficult execution of a 
 complete geographical work, the Editor, during nearly ten years in which he has 
 been engaged upon it, has used the utmost exertion to procure from every quarter 
 information a'hd aid. He has studiously collected the most recent, authentic, and 
 accurate accounts of the extent, natural features, population, productions, industry, 
 political constitution, literature, religion, and social state of the various regions of 
 the globe, with the leadins details as to their districts and cities. The sciences 
 connected with the natural history of the earth have, however, attained to such an 
 extent and importance, that a thorough knowledge of them can only be possessed 
 by individuals who have specially devoted themselves to one particular branch. 
 The Editor, therefore, considered it essential to procure the co-operation of writers 
 who had risen to acknowledged eminence in the departments of Geology and 
 Mineralogy, Zoology and Botany. He considered that he had fully succeeded, 
 when Professor Jameson undertook to delineate the geological structure of the 
 
 globe, and the distribution of minerals over its surface ; Mr. Swainson to explain 
 le distribution of animals, and the most remarkable of those found in each particu- 
 lar region ; and Dr. Hooker to perform the same task in regard to the vegetable 
 kingdom. Professor Wallace has illustrated the relations of the earth as a planet, 
 the trigonometrical surveys, the construction of maps, and other subjects connected 
 with mathematical science. These tasks have been executed in a manner which, 
 it is hoped, will fully support the high reputation of their respective authors, bi 
 preparing the sections relating to commerce, the editor derived much assistance 
 from Mr. M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce, and he is also indebted to that 
 gentleman for many valuable communications. Various parts relating to remote 
 countries have been revised by gentlemen recently returned from them. 
 
 The Maps, which are so numerous as to form a complete Atlas, have been 
 executed from drawings by Hall ; and having been carefully revised by the Editor, 
 they will, it is hoped, be found to be accurate, and to include all the most recent dis- 
 coveries. Notwithstanding the smallness of the scale, they are illustrated by the 
 letter-press in a manner which enables them to comprise equal information with 
 others of much larger dimensions. 
 
 The other Wood Engravings are mostly original, or have been carefully selected 
 from the most faithful representations of the objects described ; and they are exe- 
 cuted in the best style by the eminent artists whose names appear on the title-page. 
 They exhibit the most remarkable plants and animals, the chief cities, public buud- 
 ings, natural curiosities, and picturesque scenery, with the characteristic figures 
 and costumes of the natives, in the countries described. It is not believed that any 
 work of this kind is similarly embellished, at least to nearly the same extent. 
 These representations are by no means introduced for the sake of mere ornament ; 
 they will be found of the greatest utility, convesing an infinitely better i lea of the 
 objects than could be derived from the most laboured description. 
 
 Notwithstanding all these efforts, it is impossible to lay this volume before the 
 Public without the painful reflection, that, in a subject involving such an infinite 
 number and variety of details, many of which are often very difficult to procure, 
 not a few imperfections and even errors must inevitably occur. M. Balbi, whose 
 exertions to collect the most recent geographical information are well known, and 
 to whose labours the present volume is much indebted, candidly observes : — " One 
 of the greatest obstacles to be surmounted in the composition of an elementary 
 treatise of Geography is the want of contemporary documents. Geography is 
 almost necessarily a compound of things which are, with things which have ceased 
 to be. How can one be informed of all the changes that take place in the course 
 of a few years, even in the capitals of Europe, still more in those of Asia, Africa, 
 and America 1 To compose a Geography which should exhibit a complete picture 
 of the g^obe at a particular period, it would be necessary to have authentic docu- 
 ments, all of the same date and that a recent one ; which never has been, and 
 never can be." 
 
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 ADVERTISEMENT 
 
 TO TUB 
 
 AMERICAN EDITION, 
 
 « * ,. f- •• 
 
 
 The object and plan of the Enctolopadia of Gboorapht have 
 been very fully set forth in the Preface to the English Edition, and 
 the names of the editor and his collaborators are sufficient vouch- 
 ers for its value. It is due, however, to the American reader, to 
 inform him in what respects these volumes differ from the original. 
 The whole of the English work is here given, with the single ex- 
 ception, that the description of Great Britain, which occupied 
 more than one-third of the Book devoted to Europe, and con- 
 siderably more than the space given to the whole of America, has 
 been somewhat abridged ; but, it is believed, without the omission 
 of any thing of importance. The text has been carefully revised 
 and corrected throughout, and in most cases more recent statis- 
 tical details have been substituted for those of the original. The 
 additions to the first volumes are not considerable in amount, but 
 are generally such as have been required by changes in our know- 
 ledge or in the condition of things. The Book relating to America 
 has been enlarged as far as the limits of the work would a i-vw, 
 principally by the addition of local details ; the condition of the 
 new American states is too unsettled to render it worth while to 
 fill much space with accounts of their political relations, which 
 might be entirely changed before these pages met the eye of the 
 reader. The Chapter which treats of the United States has been 
 written anew, the original being extremely imperfect and incorrect, 
 as all European treatises on the subject are. — Our growth is so 
 rapid, the increase of our population, wealth, commerce, manufac- 
 tures, and other industrial resources, so amazing, the creation of 
 
 new towns, cities, nay, states, is continually making such a change 
 
 1* 5 
 
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^ ADTBRTIBBMBNT TO THE AmRICAN EDITION. 
 
 in the face of things, public works are conceived, planned, and 
 executed on so great a scale and with such promptitude, that it is 
 not at all surprising that a distant writer should be entirely baffled 
 in his attempts to describe the country as it is. The Zoological 
 section has alone been retained, but it has been much enlarged, 
 chiefly from a later work of Mr. Swainson's ; and some general 
 remarks upon the shells of the United States have been added. 
 For the account of the Gbolooy of our country, the reader is 
 indebted to Prof. Rogers, of the University of Pennsylvania. The 
 Botanical section has also been prepared by a gentleman of high 
 reputation in the scientific world. The Editor is painfully sensible 
 of the imperfection of the other parts of this Chapter, but he trusts 
 that the difficulties of the subject will obtain for him the indulgence 
 of the reader. 
 
 PBn.ADn.PHiA, October IK, 1886. 
 
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 CONTENTS OF VOL. I. 
 
 i? 
 
 •tlPAOl TO THl INOUSH IDinON M 
 
 rBWAOa BY THI AMCBIOAN IDITOB v 
 
 amoDucmoN t 
 
 
 
 PART I. 
 nsTOBT or oaooiuraT. 
 
 BOOKL 
 
 ANonm QKMBAMr 
 
 CHAP. L 
 
 ItbKiw Md Mtmlelu a«o|raphr 
 
 ',\ 
 
 Pa'riafrte* Ant. • ■ 
 11. KiofdooiorfiiMl. 
 
 IIL OoBiiMm of 1>i« 
 
 IV. Tin Woild MconUoi to Um HikNWi. 
 
 ~.f 1. nnhlih 
 
 ■^ % Opbii 
 
 8.TlMlllM 
 
 4. HmIw tnil IMan 
 
 5. OouBtriM on Um Eupbratea 
 
 •. Oof, MifOf, ud tiM NorU 
 
 .rvtie 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 14 
 
 M 
 
 U 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 :* 
 
 "»>• »:■ 4 
 
 CHAT. II. 
 
 AnetratVajrifMof IHieovtnr U 
 
 I. Olraima«Tl(alton of AMea nndtrNaatao U 
 
 U. VoyateofBataipM M 
 
 III. VojraiaofHanno IB 
 
 IV. Voyaf* of Eudoiui M 
 
 V. Vojrafa of PytlMai n 
 
 VL Voyace of Neatebui M 
 
 VII. r«riplafortlwBnrtlinaa8«a 87 
 
 CHAP. nL 
 
 Graak Oaotrapiqr befbf* Atoxander 30 
 
 I. GMiraphjr of Honar 30 
 
 II. Poetical Oaonapiqr 31 
 
 ni. Bebool of Mllalu » 
 
 IV. Oeopapby of Harodotoa S3 
 
 1. Baio|w of Herodotna 34 
 
 9, Alia of Harodolua 34 
 
 1 Aflrieaof Heiodotua 30 
 
 OHAP. IV. 
 Pint Alexandrian School. Eratoatbenea and BIrabo 37 
 
 I. Expedition of Alexander 37 
 
 II. Expedition of Selaucna SB 
 
 UL Brataatbenea 38 
 
 IV. Hlppaithna 30 
 
 V. Tbe world aeeordingto Eratoatbenea and Btrabo SO 
 
 L Europe 40 
 
 a. Aala 43 
 
 3. Aftiea 43 
 
 OHAP. V. 
 
 Boaaaa Gaomphy 43 
 
 I. Mela7T:...V.. 48 
 
 n. Pliny 48 
 
 ni. Iltnerarle»— Peutiniarian Table 40 
 
 r;r / 
 
 Ah 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Beeond Alexandrian Bebool 81 
 
 I. Mariana of Tl'n 81 
 
 n. Ptolemy n 
 
 I. Europe 83 
 
 B Aala 80 
 
 3. AMea 80 
 
 BOOKIL 
 OBoaBATBT Of m mssu 
 OHAP. L 
 
 Arabian Oaocrapby . 
 
 I. Oaneral flytiem . 
 
 II. Aria 
 
 III. AMea 
 
 '■^J 
 
 .00 
 .01 
 
 OHAP. n. 
 European Oeorapby dnrini Iba Dark Afaa OS 
 
 CHAP. in. 
 OaopapUcal Knowledfa derived ftom tbe Oiuaadat. 04 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 Tartar Oaograpby as 
 
 OHAP.V. 
 
 Venetian Geo|rapby oi 
 
 BOOK ni. 
 
 MomnN aioaBAPiiT. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Diaeevwy of America and the Eaat Indlaa 00 
 
 CHAP. IL 
 Early Byatam of Modem Oeograpby n 
 
 CHAP. in. 
 Modem Aatronomleal Oeograpby 7| 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 Modem Critical OcofTaphy n 
 
 ri»AP. V. 
 Modem DeaeriptlTe and Butiitical Oeograpby 73 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 Modem Geography of Alia 74 
 
 CHAP. VIL 
 Modern Oeograpby of Aftlea f| 
 
 CHAP. vin. 
 
 Modem Oeograpby of America 70 
 
 OHAP. n. 
 Modem Geography of the Aualial Baaa and Uanda. 77 
 
 » 4 
 
 •«» 
 
 PART II. 
 
 PRIHOIPtKS or OBOORAPHT. 
 
 BOOK L 
 
 AonoNoiaoAi. mmomit. 
 
 cahx. I. 
 
 Oaaeral View of tbe PhenonMna of tbe HaaTana, 
 •ppaitat MoUona, fixed Btaia,PlaiMtt,fce. 00 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Hw HeaTona, at aeen through the TelcKopa 01 
 
 CHAP. in. 
 Approximation to the Pigure and Magnitude of tba 
 
 *8!SS." 
 
 r 
 
 r^' 
 
VUi OONTIRTt. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 llMMn* or Ik* IplMra M 
 
 OIIAP. V. 
 ■•Mllon of llM Bun, Moon, and n*n«U oa ibflr 
 
 Aim -llMlf Pl|un H 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 PlitancM •nil Mm "'Xm** <>' ll** HMTtnly BodlM. ■ 17 
 
 OHAP. Vli. 
 
 liHtilon or lb* Rwth • 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 ApfMranl Annual Muiloa or lb* ■an. VkMudo 
 of Btuoni W 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Divlilon nad Maanirt or TloM M 
 
 OHAP. X. 
 Pioper Mellon or tho Mnon. Uir Pbaiaa. Hdlpata 
 nr llM Bun tad Moon (7 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 MallOBor llM Plantta round llM Sua MM 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 Motion nr llw Earth round lb* Bun 110 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 
 Ofblti or the Planet! 113 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 
 CWnau 114 
 
 CHAP. XV. 
 
 Law or Unlvonal Gravllallon 116 
 
 CHAP. XVI. 
 
 Plfura and Conitltiitinn or lb« Bartb deduced ttom 
 the Theory or Oravllatlon 
 
 IM 
 
 m 
 m 
 
 CHAP. XVIL 
 
 TheTMea 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. 
 Oaaeral View or Ibe Bular Byiicm 
 
 CHAP. XIX. 
 Plrinaad Mifnllude or Ibe Earib IM 
 
 CHAP. XX. 
 OeienBlaailoa or Latitude and Lon|llude 147 
 
 CHAP. XXL 
 BapteaHMIloB or Ibe Banb . 117 
 
 Metoorolo(r. 
 Hydraloty... 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 aCOLOOIOAL MINOirUM. 
 OHAP. I. 
 
 OHAP. n. 
 
 CHAP. IIL 
 
 Oeofnoqr m 
 
 BOOK III. 
 OBMMUL rtiNoirLn or •■ooBAniy vnobb m 
 
 RBUkTION TO OROANIMO AND UTINO •BINOI. 
 CHAP. L 
 Oeofrapbyronildered In relation to Iba Otitribnlloii 
 orPlante 138 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Oeoaraphy eonildered In relalloa to the DtftrikMtlaii 
 
 of Man and Animali SM 
 
 CHAP. in. 
 Geography oaneldered In relation to Maa ia toetaty lU 
 
 PART III. 
 
 OEOORAPHV COiraiDBRBD llf RELATION TO THE VARIOUS REOIOlfS OF THE OIX)BI>. 
 
 BOOK I.-EUROPE. 
 CHAP. L 
 
 GiKeaiL BoBViT or Eoaora 980 
 
 I. Natural Featurae SM 
 
 n. Inhabllanu 901 
 
 III. Botany 904 
 
 IV. Zoology 908 
 
 V. Languagaa ■ * JOB 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 Enolard 919 
 
 I. Oeographlcal Outline 317 
 
 II. Natural Geography 910 
 
 III. Illitorical Geography 341 
 
 IV. Political Geography 349 
 
 V. Productive Induetry 381 
 
 VI. Civil and Social State 3S7 
 
 VII. Local Geography 3in 
 
 1. Southern OiHintlee 364 
 
 S. Eaitern Counllei 368 
 
 3. Central Countiea 371 
 
 4. Northern Countiea 383 
 
 5. Wectero Countlee 301 
 
 6. Waira 306 
 
 CHAP. IIL 
 ricoTitno 401 
 
 I. Geographical Outline 401 
 
 II. Natural Oeoiiraphy 403 
 
 III. Hiatorlcal Survey 408 
 
 IV. Political Conttilution 400 
 
 V. Productive Indiiitry 410 
 
 VI. Civil and Social Slate 413 
 
 VIL Local Oeoi;rnphy 415 
 
 1. The I^iowland Countiea 4I.'< 
 
 9. The liighlamt Pountiei 4S3 
 
 3. The Scottlih Iilande 49B 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 laiLtmi 433 
 
 I. General Outline and Aipect 433 
 
 II. Natural GeiiRraphy 433 
 
 III. Illitorical Geography 440 
 
 IV. Political lionititution 441 
 
 V. Productive Induttry 443 
 
 VI. Civil and Social State 44n 
 
 VII. Local Geography 4S0 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 DlRB/kRK 463 
 
 I. General Outline and Aapeet 461 
 
 II. Naturul Geography 471 
 
 III. Hlitorical Geography 471 
 
 IV. Productive Induetry 471 
 
 r. Political Geography 473 
 
 VL Civil and Social State , 473 
 
 VIL Local Oeograpb* » .473 
 
 CHAP. VL 
 
 BwiDBN AMn NoawAT 476 
 
 I. General Outlino and Aapeet 476 
 
 II. Natural Geography 476 
 
 III. Hialoricai Geography 481 
 
 IV. Political Geography 481 
 
 V. Productive Induetry 489 
 
 VL Civil and Social Stala 484 
 
 VII. Local Geography 486 
 
 I. Sweden 488 
 
 9. Norway 401 
 
 X Lapland 4B9 
 
 CHAP. VIL 
 
 RottABDAini BaiaiDM 4BS 
 
 I. General Outline and Atpect 408 
 
 If. Natural Geography 408 
 
 III. Illitorical Geography 408 
 
 IV. Political Geography 809 
 
 V. Productive Induitry 103 
 
 VI. Civil and Social State SOS 
 
 Vn. Local Geography 808 
 
 1. Belgium 800 
 
 9. Holland 811 
 
 CHAP. VIIL 
 
 PBAaoa 
 
 L General Outline and Aspect ... 
 
 II. Natural Oeoaraphy 
 
 III. Illitorical Geography 
 
 IV. Political Geography 
 
 V. Productive liiduilry . 
 
 818 
 
 819 
 
 890 
 
 830 
 
 839 
 
 834 
 
 VI. Civil and Social State 840 
 
 VIL Local Geography 843 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 SrAiR SS8 
 
 I. General Outline and Aipect 8S8 
 
 II. Natural Geography SSO 
 
 III. Hiitiirical Geography S68 
 
 IV. Political Geography 870 
 
 V. Productive Induitry S7I 
 
 VL Civil and Social State S79 
 
 VIL Local G«>graphy 878 
 
 VIIL Republic or Andorra 880 
 
 OHAP. X. 
 
 PoRTnOAL 800 
 
 I. General Outline and Aipect SOO 
 
 n. Natural Geography 800 
 
 IIL Hlitorical Geography 801 
 
 IV. Political Geography 801 
 
 V. Productive Induitry ggg 
 
 VL Civil and Social State 803 
 
 VIL Local Geofraphy 803 
 
 - Ti 
 
 » * 
 
 E 
 
 P 
 
 ia 
 
 G 
 
 ct 
 S 
 
 ai 
 ni 
 U 
 ti 
 ol 
 
 K 
 t\ 
 
 ir 
 
 M 
 CI 
 
 tl 
 
 tu 
 
 C( 
 
 U 
 
 a) 
 
 e 
 
:^ 
 
 ^ I. ^ 
 
 4-' 
 
 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 i f^' "c INTRODUcmON. 
 
 OiooBAriiv coniiaU in tho dcicripUon and delineation of tho F^orth. It conaidora that 
 planet in ronpocl to it* form, ita cunnoxiun with otlior bodiea in the univerae, tho varioua 
 parta into which it i* divided, tituir relations to each other, and tho objecta with which 
 each iH roipoctivnly fliicd. (icflt(ra|)hy indowl could not attempt a acientiflc analyaia of 
 all theio objects, without aockinif tu comprehend within itaelf a complete circle oi acience, 
 tt viewa only thoir obvioua and viaible chnrectera, and chiefly thuoe featurca which arf> 
 peculiar to each rnxpectivo coiuitry and roffion on tho fiico of tho globe. 
 
 The ifreat iniportonco of thia branch of knowledge muat bo aufflciontly obvioua. It 
 embmcea a vast voricty uf those objecta which arc moat intereating in themaelvea, and 
 with which it moat coiionma man to be convenont. It enablea tlie navigator, tlio merchant, 
 the military commander, to carry on their respective operations. Geography is moreover 
 eaaential to tlio clear undemtanding of every branch of the history both of man and nature. 
 The traiiHactioim of bordoriiit; atates ore unintelligible without a knowledge of their relo* 
 tive cxti'nt and |)osition, and of tlio theatre on which tlie great eyenta of their history are 
 acted. Ever)' form, both of animal and vegotablu nature, is modified in tho most striking 
 inaniiur by tho climate or tho country in which it is placed. Still more intimate is its re- 
 lation with geology and other aciences, which investigate the materials coinpo«ing the 
 substance and cruat of the earth. None of theao branchea of knowlc<lgo can bo diminctly 
 undersitoal, or viewed under it8 prujier relation and arrangement, without a previous know 
 ledge of geography. 
 
 Thia important and extcnaive subject aeems to divide itaelf naturally into three parta. 
 
 The First Part treats of the "History of Gcoi,'raphy ;" the origin and progress of the 
 Science ; and the atepe by which man, who seemed fixed by nature in a local and limited 
 position, has made himaelf acquainted with tlie immense circuit of the globe. This Part 
 is divided into— I. Ancient Geography ;— II. Geography of the Middle Ages; — III. Modem 
 Geography. 
 
 The Secmid Part comprises the Principles of the Science. These are — I. MathenuUi- 
 cal: those whicli relate to the form of tlie earth, its movements, its place in the Solar 
 Syatem, the great circlea by which it is divided, the operations by which it is surveyed, 
 and tho modes in which its spherical outline can bo represented on the plane surface of a 
 map. II. Plii/sii'dl : those which treat of the substances which cover the earth's aurfact , 
 tho elements which compose and surround it ; rock, eartli, water, air, as they appear under 
 the varioiiH furm» of mountain, plain, river, aeo, and present all the changing phenomena 
 of the atinosplicro. III. Geography may be considered in its relation to other objecta and 
 sciences. 1. To Zoology, or tho distribution of animals over tlie globe. 2. To Botany, or 
 the diffusion of vcgeUible productions. 3, To the human race, and the various branches 
 into which it has been formed, considered in relation to numbers, wealth, political union, 
 social, intellectual, and moral condition. 
 
 The Third Part considers Geography in detail, as it applies to the various quarters and 
 countries into which t!io world is divided, tlie outline and extent of each, its natural fea- 
 tures, the revolutions througli which it has passed, its political constitution, tho industry 
 and wealth, the civil and social condition of its inhabitants. The description of each 
 country will conclu'le with a local and topographical survey of its districts, cities, and 
 towns. 
 
 This Part will divide itself into five general heatis : — I. Europe. II. Asia. III. Afirica. 
 rV. Australia. V. America. 
 
 An Index will be added, which, being extremely copious, and containing references to 
 all the places montioned in the work, will answer in a great degree the purposes of a Geo- 
 trraphical Gazetteer. 
 
 aFoi. I ,.B 
 
 
 i. -^ i- 
 
■•%^ 
 
 '*■ 
 
 t. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ,if'' 
 
 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The History of Geography may be divided into three books: — ^I. Ancient Geography. 
 !I. Geography of tlic middle ages. III. Modem Geography. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 * ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The Geography of the Ancients may be considered under the heads of, I. Hebrew 
 and Phcenician Geography ; the princi]»l features of which may be found in the Jewidi 
 Scriptures. II. Greek Geography, in its early state, before the expedition of Alexuider. 
 in. The first Alexandrian school formed by Eratosthenes. IV. The Roman school, formed 
 chiefly by Mela and Pliny. V. The second Alexandrian school, formed by Ptolemy. 
 
 * ,, ' CHAPTER I. 
 
 HEBBEW AND PHCENICIAN GEOGRAPHY;' 
 
 The Sacred Records, in addition to their higher claims on the attention of mankind, 
 possess the important secondary advantage, that they enable us to trace human existence, 
 and the forms of society, back to a much earlier period than the information derived firom 
 any other source. They were long anterior in this respect to the classic story of Greece 
 and Rome ; tlie faintest light even of whose fabulous history cannot be traced back to the 
 period when Abraham was driving his flocks over the seats offiiture empire on the Euphrates. 
 Amonff Abraham's contemporaries wo discern the germ of the great monarchies which 
 first cnanged the fiice of human affairs. Nimrod, tlie founder of Babylon, almost like an 
 Iroquois chief, is mainly celebrated for his activity and success in the chase. Modern dis- 
 covery has indeed made us acquainted with tribes existing in a still ruder form ; but there 
 is no narrative in which we can trace so distinctly the gradual, yet somewhat rapid, transi- 
 tion made in these fiivoured regions, fi-om tlie hunting and ])astoral, to the commercial and 
 agricultural states of society. 
 
 Sect. L — The Patriarchal Ages. 
 
 In the early patriarchal records we discover first the rich Mesopotamian plain, not yet 
 covered with cities and harvests, but standing as an open common, over which the sons of 
 Terah drove unmolested tlieir flocks and herds. In these favourable circumstances, and 
 surrounded by simple and rural plenty, the flocks and the shepherds multiplied in an extra- 
 ordinary manner. The heads of the fiimilies became petty princes, and were as such at 
 once respected and feared. As they went on increasing, the land became " not able to 
 bear them ;" and the most intimate friends were able to prevent dissension among their 
 adherents only by an entire though painful separation ; nay, even by striking into routes so 
 opposite, as to prevent the possibility of a future union. This, however, was rather a 
 palliation than a cure for the evil ; for, in whatever quarter each directed his course, he 
 came into contact with other fiimilies. The difficulty was still augmented, when all the 
 more fertile tracts began to be cultivated by a fixed population, subject to regular govern- 
 ment The first regions whicli came under these circumstances appear to have been Lower 
 Egypt and Gerar, on the coast of Philistia, along the Mediterranean. In the latter we find 
 Isaac attempting to settle and cultivate the ground ; but the king, though evidently afraid 
 to offend so potent a tribe, insisted, in a determined though courteous manner, upon their 
 quitting his territory. The family were therefore obliged finally to estiblish themselves 
 in the vicinity of llohron, collecting the somewhat scanty licrbage which grew amid the 
 rugged mountains to tlio west of the Dead Sea. It was, therefore, an auspicious change 
 when they were transported into the Land of Goshen, a rich pastoral district of Egypt. 
 The circumstances attending the captivity of Joseph enable us already to observe the 
 activitv of that interior caravan-trade, which afterwards on so great a scale, traversed 
 
 10 
 
 ►^ 
 
 
 -., ff-^' 
 
 • ^'.r, " 
 
■'TSRSt. 
 
 I Book I. 
 
 »^- 
 
 * *: 
 
 v.^ 
 
 '■ 
 
 '.Stsj 
 
 HEBREW AND PH(ENICIAN GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 11 
 
 Arabia. Two caravans, destined for the supply of Egypt, appear meeting^ each other in 
 opposite directions ; and that cruel trade, of which men were the object, is already carried 
 on in the same remorseless manner, and by the same unjust means, by which it hat ever 
 since been conducted. '^ ir; 
 
 Sect. II. — Thr Kingdom of Israel. 
 
 The Israelites, after being established in Egypt for more than two centuries, were 
 led back into vhe promised land, so long the seat of their ancestors. Every thin? there, 
 since the patriarchal age, had assumed quite a different aspect : it presented walled cities, 
 and high cultivation, accompanied with that gross superstition and dissolute voluptuousness 
 which are the too common attendants of early wealth. The guilty inhabitants of Canaan 
 with their country were delivered into the hwaia of the Israelites ; and the territory being 
 divided among the ten tribes, gave occasion to a very careful topographical survey ; but 
 nothing yet occurred to attract the views of the nation beyond these limits, or towards the 
 world in general. Still less could this take place during the subsequent period, when thev 
 were forsaken of heaven, and reduced to servitude under the neighbouring nations, it 
 was under the favoured reign of David that Israel fmally triumphed over all her ene- 
 mies. That great prince left to Solomon, either as subject or tributary, a territory extend- 
 mg from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean and the borders of Egypt, forming the most 
 powerful state then in western Asia. Solomon, by the terror of his father's name, and of 
 the powerful army transmitted to him, was enabled to preserve the whole of this king- 
 dom, during a long reign, in peaceful submission. This accomplished prince devoted him- 
 self to the arts of peace, to the extension of commerce, to the culture of science, and to 
 the improvement and embellishment of his dominions in every direction. By the alliance 
 with Hiram, he was enabled to accomplish voyages more remote than had, perhaps, been 
 ever undertaken under any former sovereign. His alliance, and even his society, were 
 courted by distant princes ; and the observation of the Jews began to extend over a con- 
 siderable portion of the globe. 
 
 The separation of the kingdoms after the death of Solomon, was a fatal blow to the 
 greatness of the house of Israel. Their divided power could no longer maintain numer- 
 ous tributaries in submission, nor was it adequate to distant and extensive enterprises. All 
 the states beyond the Jordan shnok off the yoke ; the attempts to navigate the Red Sea 
 were abandoned ; and all distant regions in a great measure lost sight of Their view, 
 however, was enlarged by unexpected and unwelcome events from another quarter. 
 
 The successive invasions of Assyria and Babylon, which terminated in the downfall of 
 both the kingdoms, forced upon the Israelites a knowledge of the existence of these proud 
 and powerful empires. At tlie same time, the colossal grandeur of Egypt, the only power 
 capable of contending with them, was brought into prominent notice. Ample materials 
 were thus afforded for those lofly and awful images, those pictures of the shaking of the 
 world and the downfall of nations, which abound in the writings of the prophets during 
 the regal times. Another and nearer object attracted wonder, and afibrded tiie means of 
 knowledge respecting regions still more distant This was Tyre, the earliest seat of 
 commerce, in whose markets were found collected the tin of Britain, the gold of Afirica, 
 the cotton of India, and, perhaps, the silks of China. This forms so fpiand a feature, and 
 the descriptions of it tend so much to illustrate early geography, that it must claim some 
 separate notice. 
 
 Sect. III. — Commerce of Tyre. 
 
 Tyre, which under Solomon was already great and flourishing, continued to increase 
 till, with the exception of one of its own colonies, it became the most splendid emporium 
 of the ancient world. It appears, indeed, truly wonderful that, at this early period of arts 
 and history, when Rome yet consisted only of a few straw-thatched cottages, merchants in 
 Tyre should vie with the pomp of kings. So magnificent was the scene, that the prophet, 
 in annoiincing the divine intention to destroy Tyre, considers it as implying a purpose " to 
 stain the pride of all glory, and to bring mto contempt all the honourable of the earth." 
 (/sat. xxiii. 9.) Perhaps, however, commerce in its earlier efforts has a particular ten- 
 dency to concentrate itself in one point, where alone it finds protection, infbrmatioii, and 
 regular channels ; while in the advance of society its streams begin to be more widely 
 dimised. 
 
 In the interesting picture of Tyrian commerce drawn by Ezekiel, the foundation of the 
 intercourse with Damascus and other contiguous districts, is stated to be " the multitude 
 of the wares of her making ;" that is, it consisted in the exchange of her manufactured 
 j)roduce for the raw produce of these rich agricultural districts. There is little specifica- 
 tion of the Tyrian manufactures, but the returns were all made in natural products, of the 
 first quality which the soils of Judea and of Syria aflbrded; from Judea, the finest wheat, 
 honey, oils, and balsam ; from Syria, white wool, and the wine of Helbon. No situatior 
 could be more fortunate than that of Tyre for the formation of a navy, with the magnifi- 
 
 \- 
 
 's?4 
 
■i!^ 
 
 13 
 
 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Past I 
 
 
 cent forests of Lebanon, Scnir, and Bashan, rising; immediately behind. The timbers, it 
 appears, were constructed of fir; the cedar supplied masts; while the oak was used for 
 those long and powerful oars, which were then the chief instruments of navigation. The 
 vessels appear to have been fitted up with a luxury unknown to modern times. The 
 benches were of the finest cypress wood, inlaid with ivory; the fine linen of Egypt, 
 adorned even witli embroidery, was spread out in sails. Tyre, like Carthage, appears to 
 have adopted the policy of employing mercena^ troops, which she drew even from the 
 mountainous districts of Persia and the upper Euphrates. The immediate guard of the 
 city, however, was intrusted to its neighbours of Arvad and Gammadin, who, standing 
 round the walls in brilliant armour, are said to have " made its beauty perfect" 
 
 With regud to the distant commerce of Tyre, the quarters to which it was carried on 
 must become the subject of some discussion, in the course of which we shall introduce the 
 interesting pnrticolarB given by the prophet 
 
 Swrr. rv. — The World according to the Hebrews. 
 
 No system of Geography can be traced in the sacred writers, who, occupied with higher 
 objects, do not even allude to any such as existing among the Hebrews. The ideas of that 
 people witli regard to tlie structure and boundaries of the earth may, however, be inferred 
 r from the genealogical chapters (Oen. x., repeated 1 Chron. L), which contain, in fact a 
 view of the known divisions of the earth, agreeing in some striking particulars with the 
 records of profane history ; also from the accounts of the commerce of Tyre, and from 
 various detached notices in the historians and prophets. 
 
 The Hebrews obviously never attempted to form any scientific theorv respecting the 
 structure of the earth. The natural impression, which represents it as a flat sur&ce, with 
 the heaven as a firmament or curtain spread over it is found universally prevalent Be- 
 neath was conceived to be a deep pit the abode of darkness and tlie shadow of death. In 
 one place we find the grand image of tlie earth being hung upon notliing ; but elsewhere, 
 the pillars of the eartii are repeatedly mentioned ; and sometimes the pillars of heaven. 
 In short it is evident that every writer caught the idea impressed on his senses and im- 
 agination by the view of these grand objects, without endeavouring to arrange them into 
 any regular system. Altliougii, however, the Jews never indulged in speculative geogra- 
 phy, yet there are copious examples of minute and careful topography for practical pur- 
 poses. Our object however, is not to mark the divisions of Judea, but to trace the ideas 
 of the Jews respecting the extent and boundaries of the known world. We shall at the 
 same time be able to collect all Umt is now to be known of the Phcenician Geography ; for 
 it is evident that Ezekiel visited Tyre, as Herodotus did Babylon, with the eye of an in- 
 telligent observer ; and he would doubtless hold intercourse wim the best informed men in 
 that great school of commerce and navigation. The objects always alluded to, as placed 
 at the &rthest limits of their knowledge, are Tarshish ; Ophir ; The Isles ; Sheba and 
 Dedan ; The River ; Gog, Magog, and the north. (Fig. 1.) 
 
 SuBSEcr. 1. — Tarshish. '■■-.■. 
 
 Tarshish is the name which, in the annals of Jewish and Phcenician navigation, occiurs 
 most fi^quently, and ranks next to Tyre ; yet nothing has been found more difficult than 
 to fix thai name to any precise place. The peculiar difficulty is this; that there are two 
 voyages from Tarshiali : one up the Mediterranean, bringing iron, silver, lead, and tin, the 
 produce of Spain and Britain (Ezek. xxvii. 12.) ; tlie other up the Red Sea, bringing gold, 
 ivory, and apes, the produce of tropical Africa (1 Kinffs, x. 22.). How tliese two voyages 
 can be from the same place, appears at first sight to baffle research. 
 
 Various places have been suggested, among which I should not think it necessary to 
 mention Tarsus, in Cilicia, were it not supported by such names as Volney and Malte 
 Brun. Except the resemblance of name, it lias not a single feature which can be recon- 
 ciled to the Tarshish of Scripture. Besides, tlie name Tarsus is evidently of Greek origin 
 {See Sleph. Byzani. in v. Strabo, 1. 14. Bocharfs Phaleg., and Wetstein's Nov. Test, 
 vdjf ii. p. .511. and 608.), whereas Tarshish is manifestly of oriental derivation, and is 
 doubtless of Phcenician origin. Indeed, jMalte Brun admits it to be tenable only on the 
 clumsy and improbable supposition of there being two places of the name of Tarshish. 
 Tortessus or Cadiz is certainly more plausible, and agrees with the Mediterranean voyage ; 
 but the distance is too great, and notice might have been expected to be taken of not a 
 few intermediate objects, particularly of the Straits of Gibraltar. It is altogether foreign 
 to the voyage by the Red Sea. This last objection appears also to hold against Carthage, 
 which, in every other respect, seems preferable to Tartessus, and of which more will be 
 mid in the sequel. 
 
 To solve the problem of the two voyages, llie only attempt so far as I know, has 
 been in tlie ingenious hypothesis of Gosselin : Tarshish, according to him, signifies the 
 greet or open sea, as distinguished even from the largest of its inclosed gulfs. The name 
 may then be applied eiiualiy to the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean ; and the voyage to and 
 
 M 
 
'^. 
 
 
 .4 • 
 
 L'oOK I. HEBREW AND PUCENICIAN GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Fiff. 1.— GEOCRAPHICAL SYSTEM OF THE HEBREWS. 
 
 W 30 40 iO 
 
 lU 
 
 -4f 
 
 from Tarshish may equally be by the Red Sea or the Mediterranean. But though this 
 hypothesis be supported by the signitication of an old Hebrew term, and though it solve 
 the great problem, I think any one, who attentively traces the various occasions on which 
 Tarshish is mentioned in Scripture, will be satisfied that it has a sense quite different from 
 the loose and vague one here ascribed to it. Let us only read the following verse : — " But 
 Jonah rose up to flee into Tarshish from the presence ot^ the Lord, and went down to Joppa, 
 and he found a ship going to Tarshish ; so he paid the tare thereof, and went down into it, 
 to go with them into Tarshish from the presence of the Lord." Do not these words una- 
 vowbly suggest a precise port, to which there was a regular packet, with a fixed rate of 
 fare T — not a mere vague setting out into the wide and open sea. If the following expres- 
 ' sions can be reconciled to M. Gosselin's hypothesis, it is only by very strained interpretar 
 tions : — " The kings of Tarshish ; — the merchants of Tarshish ; — pass ye over to Tarshish ; — 
 Tarshish was thy merchant ; — with silver, &c. they traded in the fairs ; — silver in plates 
 is brought fi-om Tarsiiish, and gold from Ophir ; — ^the daughter of Tarshisli," &c. In the 
 genealogical chapters, Tarshish is introduced as one of the sons of Javan. But the other 
 three sons, and every other name mentioned in these chapters, are the fathers of a country 
 and nation ; and it would bo quite singular if Tarshish alone should have had only thfi $ea 
 for his offspring. What a strange idea to call the sea one of the sons of Javan ! Indeed, 
 this is so glaringly improbable, that M. Gosselin has recourse to the hypothesis of inter- 
 polation — a supiKwition very unlikely in regard to books held so sacred, and in respect to 
 these chapters among a people so fond of genealogy, auid altogether a most imsouna prin- 
 ciple, as applied to the sacred volume. Finally, I think it very evident, from the general 
 tenour of Hebrew writers, tliat they had no distinct notion of the Mediterranean as an 
 inclosed sea, tend of an ocean beyond it. The expression, " the sea," used in that vague 
 and wide sense, will, I apprehend, be always found to signify the Mediterranean, the Red 
 Sea being designated by that particular term. Thus, there appears to be no motive for 
 adopting M. Gosselin's hypothesis, except the want of any other by which the problem of 
 the two voyages can possibly be solved. But if another can be stated, which shall solve 
 that problem, and at the same time make Tarshish the very place it might be expected to 
 be, this great question may, perhaps, he con8idere<l as settled in a more satisfactory manner 
 than heretofore. 
 
 That Tarsiiish must be, fimdamentally, Carthage, cannot, I think, admit of a moment's 
 doubt. Tiie strongest argument is, that if it be not, then that grand emporium of Medi- 
 terranean trade, the colony of Tyre, tlie place of all others with which Tyre held always 
 the close:5t intercourse, must never have been named by the prophets, who give such copious 
 
 Vol. 1. 2 
 
. i. 
 
 14 
 
 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part I. 
 
 L 
 
 I* 
 
 iind detailed accounts of Tyrian commerce. When Ezekiel was enumerating every place, 
 even the most obscure, with which Tyre held intercourse, can it be supposed that this, the 
 chief of all others, would have been totally omitted ] But if Tarshieh be Carthage, then 
 that celebrated city holds exactly the prominent place which, according to every circum- 
 stance, it ought to have held in relation to Tyre. This general negative argument does 
 appear to me quite irresistible. The details are equally conformable. Carthage in her 
 glory monopolized, almost entirely, the commerce of Spain and Britain. She even took 
 the most violent measures to prevent any maritime power from penetratuig to the west of 
 Sicily. There appears no trace of the Tyrians ever proceedmg fiirtlier. They found, 
 apparently, in Carthage, a complete assortment of the commodities of all the countries to 
 the west, and on the ocean — silver, iron, lead, and tin, which were thus naturally viewed 
 by the Jews, and perhaps by the Tyrians themselves, as Carthaginian commodities. With 
 regard to the name, considering that both Tarshish and Carthage arc corruptions of the 
 original Phcenician term, they Iwive that rude resemblance which might be expected. The 
 connexion is rendered stronger by Carchedon, the Greek name of Carthage, which forms 
 a sort of middle term between them. 
 
 The voyage from Tarshish by the Red Sea, however, which forms the grand difficulty, 
 remains yet unaccounted for ; and it can only, I think, be solved in the following manner : 
 t conceive Uie name of this great African metropolis must have been generally extended 
 to the whole of the continent of Africa. All the names of the continents, we may observe, 
 were originally derived from one of their remarkable and frequented districts. The name 
 of Asia was extended by the Greeks from a tract of that name immediately opposite to 
 their shore, including Troas, Ionia, and some other of the more eastern districts of Asia 
 Minor. With the Romans, Africa derived its name from tlic very district now in question, 
 called always Africa Propria, being the finest on that coast, and including Carthage. It 
 appears, then, quite natural that a place so very prominent, with which Tyre held such 
 close and constant intercourse, apparently the only place much frequented by her on the 
 coast of Africa, should be associated in her conception with the whole continent in which 
 it was situated. On any other supposition, tlie Jews and Phoenicians must have had no 
 name for Africa, which is not very probable. It is observable that Tarshish evidently does 
 not comprehend either Egypt or Upper Ethiopia, which countries, in fact, were never by 
 tlie ancients considered as decidedly African, that continent, according to their conception, 
 having the Nile for its eastern boundary. If we admit Tarshish to be Africa, the whole 
 difficulty respecting the two voyages at once disappears. As the voyage to the northern 
 coa!<t was by the Mediterranean, so that to the eastern coast was of course by the Red Sea. 
 It is in favour of this solution that Jerome, in fact, calls the voyage to Tarshish " an Afri- 
 can voyage." The Jews, unacquainted with intermediate countries, had probably a very 
 inadequate conception of the distance between these coasts ; at all events, they justly con- 
 sidered them as parts of the same vast expanse of continent. 
 
 SvBSECT. 2. — Ophir. 
 
 The name of Ophir, combined, as it always is, with the most precious of metals, and 
 the most coveted of all commodities, ranks among the distant countries known to the 
 Jews, almost superior in splendour to Tarshish, though not equal m greatness and com- 
 mercial importance. The voyages of Solomon to Ophir for gold, form the greatest naval 
 enterprise in which the kingdom of Jiidea was ever engaged. Yet this name has been 
 attended with little less difficulty, and produced scarcely less controversy, than that of 
 Tarshish. 
 
 The belief that Ophir was in Arabia has certainly not a little to urge in its favour. In 
 the genealogical chapters it is always combined with Sheba, or Sabea, which was undoubt- 
 edly situated at the south-west angle of Arabia. It was from Sheba that gold (doubtless, 
 tlie gold of Ophir,) was regularly brought to Judea and Phoenicia. Even Bochart, who 
 tliinks himself obliged to seek in India a more distant Ophir, clumsily compounds the 
 matter by making another Ophir in Arabia. He is followed by M. Malte Brim. M. Gos- 
 selin, with his usual zeal to restrict ancient knowledge, insists, that there never was any 
 Opliir except the Arabian, and places it in the modem interior district of Dofiir. There 
 appear to me, I confess, viwt improbabilities in this Arabian Ophir. As an interior district, 
 it must have been nearer, or certainly as near, to Judea as Shebo ; and it appears strange, 
 that no direct land communication should ever have been opened with it. Let us consider 
 tlie mighty operations of Solomon ; his utmost efforts combined with those of Hiram ; the 
 materials of shipbuilding conveyed by land over a vast desert; the most skilful workmen 
 transported to Ezion Geber ; a fleet composed of large vcs.sels, called ships of Tarshish, at 
 last formed, and undertaking a series of voyajres, in each of which three years were 
 employed. What a waste of labour and expenditnrn to obtain a commodity whicli could 
 have been conveyed across Arabia in two months on the backs of camels ! Yet the repe- 
 tition of tlie voyaijc shows that the article was, in fact, procured on b«:'tter terms tha!i bv 
 the usual chunuel. In the voyage from Ophir, also, we find new articles never mentioned 
 
"^ 
 
 « 
 
 Book L 
 
 tt '. ^ ■» 
 
 " HEBREW AND PHCENICIAN GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 -■■^ii. 
 
 15 
 
 in relation to Sheba or Arabia, but charactGristic of equatorm. Africa — ivory, ajies, and 
 peacocks. Witli regard to the cloee combination in whicli Shcba and Ophir are alwaya 
 found, it will appear natural enough, when we consider that, unless during the short 
 expedition of Solomon, Sheba appears to have been the channel by which the gold of 
 Ophir was transmitted to Judea and Phoenicia. This circumstance might readily lead the 
 inhabitants of those countries to consider the two as closely connected, though Ophir 
 might be beyond Sheba, and even be separated from it by seas and territories of consider- 
 able extent 
 
 The hypothesis which places Ophir in India, though supported by great names, appears 
 
 ?uite untenable. The trade of Ophir bears not the uast resemblance to an Indian trade, 
 t does not include the fine manulactures and rich spices which India has always iiiniished ; 
 and its staple is gold, which never, at any time, was an article of export ft<cnn that quarter 
 of Asia. India has, on the contrary, always demanded a large balance of specie, iwd has 
 formed a gulf in which the gold of the west has been absorbed. If we reject India, we 
 shall not certainlv, with some savans, travel as far as Peru in quest of our object, notwith- 
 standing the slight resemblance of name, and the attempt to eke it out by the expression 
 " oM of Parvaun," which has some appearance of being synonymous. 
 
 The eastern coast of Africa is the quarter to which all the indications appear very clearlv 
 to point In the voyage to Tarshish by the Red Sea, its name and that of Ophir are al- 
 ways combined; nay, the voyage, which in the Book of Kings is called the voyage to 
 Tarshish, in the Chronicles is called the voyage to Ophir; so that it is evident the two are 
 one and the same voyage ; and, if Tarshish was Africa, Ophir must clearly be in Africa. 
 There is, however, on mis coast no abundant supply of gold till we reach as &r south as 
 SofUa ; thus implying an extent of navigation which is certainly somewhat startling. M. 
 Goeselin particularly urges, that in the time of Alexander there was no longer any know- 
 ledge of eastern Africa ; and that even the Romans never appear to have penetrated beyond 
 Cape Delgado. On the other hand, it is to be considered that the alliance of Hiram and 
 Solomon united advantages which never Existed again in an equal degree. The wealth, 
 naval skill, and ample materials which those great princes could command were scarcely 
 equalled, even by the Ptolemies. After the deaUi of Solomon, the kingdom, split into two, 
 and weakened by continued dissention, abandoned entirely these distant commercial enter- 
 prises, A solitary attempt to renew the trade was made by Jehoshaphat, but the vessels 
 prepared ibr that purpose were wrecked in the very mouth of the port of Ezion Geber ; 
 after which the undertaking was entirely given up. In the calamities which afterwards 
 befbl Israel and Judah, and the revolutions which subverted the whole political system of 
 western Asia, it is not wonderful that every trace of this distant intercourse should have 
 been obliterated ; and that the successors of Alexander should have had to enter on a new 
 field of discovery. In support of the supposition of So&la, there may also be noticed a 
 certain resemblance of name ; and the duration of the voyage, stated at three years, would 
 afibrd very ample time to reach the Zombese, even under all the imperfections of ancient 
 navigation. 
 
 SvBSECT. 3. — The Isles, 
 
 The Isles, a term which occurs much in Scripture, might be supposed to describe gene- 
 rally those portions of the globe which come under this description ; yet a careflil compa- 
 rison of the different passages in which the word occurs will probably show, that it is used 
 in a much more precise and determinate sense, and is applied to a wide and connected 
 range of territory. The whole of the southern coasts of Europe, consisting either of real 
 islands or of peninsular tracts, appears by the Jews and Phoenicians to have been viewed 
 as a long range of islands. Besides, the terms mjsoj and insula were, in periods of remote 
 antiquity, applied loosely to peninsulas as well as islands proper. Among many examples 
 which might be adduced, one will suffice — Peloponnesus. The isles, relative to Tjrre, 
 appear to have ranked only second to Tarshish as a source of wealth, and in respect of 
 close and intimate intercourse. Tyre is called expressly, "a merchant of many isles :" 
 and the consternation which shook the isles at the sound of her fall ; the dismay of their 
 kings, who are said to have then cast off their robes, and sat on the ground, — all point out 
 the extent and importance of this commerce. Tarshish, Elisha, Chittim, and Dodanim 
 are named in the geneological chapter as the four who divided among them the isles of 
 the Gentiles; but, though Tarshish is so often named in combination with "the isles" 
 among the most distant maritime territories, there is never any indication as if it were 
 itself an island. The combination is probably produced by the extensive possessions and 
 commerce of the Carthaginians in the western islands and coasts of Europe. These, in- 
 cluding the southern point of Italy, were, as already observed, probably considered as insu- 
 lar, and were distinguished by the appellations of the " isles afar off" and " the distant 
 isles of the sea." The " isle" in particular, which Isaiah mentions in such close connex- 
 ion with Tarshish, and which the merchants of Sidon, "by passing over the sea, had 
 replenished," can scarcelyr be anv other than Sicilv. an island almost Carthaginian, and 
 
 '■ i 
 
';^ 
 
 16 
 
 inSTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt I. 
 
 containinff k many flouriBhing cities. With regard to the isles of Elisha, they ore evidently 
 Hellas, the Creek name of Greece. The only distinctive characteristic, indeed, Uiat 
 of furnishing Tyre with the blue and purple dye, docs not recall to us any of the features 
 under which we have been accustomed to recognize that celebrated region. But Greece 
 was not yet the seat of arts and arms ; and, had she been so, the Tyrian mercheuits might 
 ■till have viewed her only as she served their purpose. Bochart has collected ample testi- 
 monies to show that the murox, the shell which yielded those celebrated d^es, was found 
 in peculiar abundance on the coast of Laconia. Cliittim appears very evidently Cyprur, 
 and its early capital of CitiuTi The alarm being given thence of the approach of the 
 king of Babylon, and its beinp^'xinsidcred as tlie natural place of rcfiige for the inhabitants 
 of Tyre, where yet they would not be fully secure, mark a proximity which belongs to no 
 other island. The name, indeed, is in one instance given to Greece, and in another to 
 Italy ; but this seems merely to be, that, as the nesrest known island, its name is some- 
 times thus vaguely extended to the whole of that territory considered by the Jews as insu- 
 lar. The attempts of Bochart to find the name of Chittim in Italv have been wholly abor- 
 tive ; fbr we cannot consider as worthy of notice the observation that it and iMtium, in the 
 respective Greek and LAtin languages, both signify "to hide." In regard to Dodanini, 
 convertible into Rodanim(1 and ^ being perpetually interchanged and confounded), though 
 it is mentioned only once, we seem justified in fixing on Rhodes, already flourishing and 
 commercial, though not yet become the rival of kings. Bochart seems to go much too far, 
 when he seeks for it on the Rhone or the Ebro. 
 
 ' SvBSECT. 4. — Sheha and Dedan, 
 
 Of the internal trade of western Asia during tlie early ages, the most extensive and 
 important was that carried on across Arabia. It consisted, not so much in the productions 
 of the region itself, as in those of India and Africa, which found their way by tfiis channel 
 to Judea and Phoanicia. 
 
 Sheba, among the Arabian states, holds thfl most prominent place, being undoubtedly 
 the same with the Sabea or Arabia Felix of the classic writers. Its imports were tlie 
 precious commodities of gold and incense : the latter anciently in most extensive demand 
 for the purpose of sacrifice. These articles appear to have been brought to Judeo, not by 
 any maritime channel, but in crowded caravans. The " companies of Sheba" are mentioned 
 even in Job. Isaiah speaks of the " multitude of camels ;" and of " all tliey from Sheba." 
 Yet the incense, it is now certain, must have come chiefly fh>m the opposite African coast of 
 Berbera ; and the gold, we have some reason to think, must have been derived from a still 
 more remote part of that continent 
 
 The commerce of Dedan rivalled that of Sheba, being carried on from tlie opposite or 
 eastern coast The mention of " many isles" in combination vvitli Dedan, seems to fix it 
 to that point at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, which is, in fact, bordered by numerous 
 islands. One of these, Ormuz, became aflern'ords the scat of a kingdom, which, from a 
 situation and commerce similar to that of Dedan, derived a splendour which made it the 
 pride of the East The imports from Dedan — " ivory and precious cloths" — point out the 
 source of this prosperity. These were the commodities of India, brought to the mouth of 
 the Persian Gulf, and thence transported across the desert to the western regions. The 
 caravan trade of Dedan appears to have been most extensive ; insomuch that tlie prophet in 
 denouncing the judgment upon Arabia, mentions the " travelling companies of Dedonim" as 
 its most conspicuous feature. In the prophets, Edom and Dedan are almost universally named 
 together, and the same judgments represented as affecting both. Hence they are usually 
 considered as parts of the same country, and the ordinary maps include Dedan as a district 
 of Edom. Even Bochart whose learning showed him that there must be a more distant 
 Dedan, adopts tlie hackneyed scheme of supposing that there were two Dedans. There is 
 no occasion for so unskilful a theory to explain the intimate connexion between these two 
 states. When caravans came across Arabia fiwm the Persian Gulf, it was at Edom or Idumea 
 that they first touched on the civilized world. A dep6t was thus naturally formed there of 
 the commodities in which they traded. This traffic raised Idumea and its capital, Petra, to 
 a high pitch of wealth and imjiortance. So close a connexion necessarily caused Dedan to 
 be deeply afiected by any calamity which desolated Edom, and rendered her no longer the 
 channel through which this commerce could flow. But these disasters arc by no means 
 represented as touching her so closely or so deeply ; and while Edom is represented as utterly 
 spoiled, and converted into a waste and reproach, the inhabitants of Dedan are merely warned 
 to " turn back and dwell deep;" (Jer. xlix. 8.) ond the expression, " they of Dedan shall fall 
 by the sword," is more correctly interpreted in the margin, " they shall fall by the sword 
 unto Dedan." These circumstances appear to mark, along with an intimate connexion, a 
 complete distance and separation between these two great Arabian states. 
 
 Raamah is mentioned amonjr other nations of Arabia, along with Sheba, as producing the 
 same articles, but as a much less remarkable country. It appears to be the modern Had 
 nunuth, neither situated so commodiously as Sheba tor the .African, nor as Dedan for tlio 
 
 \ 
 
 'll 
 
 4 I 
 
& 
 
 Book I. 
 
 IIKBREW AND PIICENICIAN GF.OGRArHY. 
 
 tt 
 
 Indian, friidn. Some of thn bpst-wntcrnd districts probably of the Nedsjed, appear to have 
 composed thn kitiijdoni of KcJar, cnriciicd by the breeding of numerous sheep and goats, 
 with which it supplied even Tyre, and rose to 8uch prosperity, as to make it be considered 
 a mighty catastrophe " when nil the glory of Kcdar shoulci fail." 
 
 , ■ * * ■ ''V< 
 
 SviMECT. T). — Countries on the Euphrates. " ■ 
 
 The river (for such is the import of the term) presents itself oa a grand feature of the 
 landscape after passing across the wide Syrian desert, towards the eastern extremity of the 
 known world. This name, in ])rctbrence even over the Nile and tlie Jordan, was always 
 applied to the Euphrates, which, holding so immense a course tJirough kingdoms the most 
 celebrated in history, was considered as one of the grand boundaries of the eartli. The great 
 empires and capitals of Assyria and Babylon gave to it a lustre, which was scarcely divided 
 by the Tigris, whose name was little known to the Jews before tlie captivity. Along this 
 I'ne of territory EzekicI enumerates a number of cities, Haran, Canneh, Eden, Ashur, &c., 
 from which great caravans proceeded to Tyro with cloths and other articles of the most 
 valuable description. In such early accounts, however, the country from which commodities 
 last came is seldom distinguished from their original seat I therefore entirely agree with 
 Dr. Vincent, that they must have been brought by a long overland voyage across Asia ; 
 that these chests of rich apparel, so carefully bound with cords, came, prol^bly, by interior 
 caravans from Hindostan, and, perhaps, already from the frontier of China. 
 
 Of the countries beyond the Euphrates, only some broken fragments of knowledge appear 
 to have reached Judea before the captivity. Elam is particularly noticed ; the residence of 
 a warlike people, occupying the long mountainous tract east of the Tigris. Media and 
 Persia are also named on a few occasions, but so as to prove that they were only contem- 
 l)lated in dim and obscure distance. At a vague and uidefinite distance beyond, the ends 
 of the earth were imagined to exist The early Greeks and, after them, the Arabians, viewed 
 the habitable earth as an island, surrounded on every side by water. Ptolemy, on the con- 
 trary, places at every extremity of his map a vague expanse of unknown land. The He- 
 brews combined in some measure these two views of the subject To the west, the remotest 
 object for them was the sea, studded witli numerous and distant isles ; but to the east, where 
 land was seen indefinitely extending, tlioy formed the idea of an inland termination, without 
 being able to attich to it any prociso limits. Such a boundary was apparently supposed to 
 exist in various directions, since " all tlio ends of the earth" is an expression frequently 
 occurring. It was to the eat-t, however, that this idea peculiarly attached itself; and " from 
 the river to the ends of the earth," is the farthest point to which the figurative kingdom 
 .•>f the Messiah is made to extend. 
 
 SuBSECT. 6. — fHoff, Magog, and the North. 
 
 The north quarter is the only part of the circuit of the geographical knowledge of the 
 .Tows which remoins to be surveyed. It presented features of peculiarly rude and formi- 
 dable aspect. Ezekiel, in anticipating an approaching inroad, draws the most gloomy feature 
 of the hordes which it poured forth : Go;.', with all his bands, coming like a storm or a 
 cloud to cover the land ; Gomer with all his bands; the house of Togarmah, from the north 
 (piarter : " a great company and a mighty army," directing their course against those nations 
 which " were at rest, dwelt safely, and had gotten cattle and goods ;" and with the eager 
 purpose "to take a prey, to carry away tiioir silver and gold, to take a great spoil." This 
 picture, tlicse hostile and tumultuous crowds, " all riding upon horses," with their wide- 
 rr)aming and predatory habit:*, has always s\iggested the idea of Scythian invasion; and 
 the Arabian geographers have placed the castle of Gog and Magog at the remotest extremity 
 of Tartary. On looking narrowly into tlie matter, however, wo shall find it difficult to 
 suppose tills inroad to have proceeded from any part of those unbounded plains. The fact 
 is, we have no occasion to look so far ; for the high table-lands in the interior and north of 
 Asia Minor, Phrygia, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Paphlagonia, have always presented the 
 same rude ' pastoral aspect and have bred tribes of migratory shepherds and warriors, very 
 similar to those of Scythia itself. These tracts, in fact, continue still to pour forth vast bodies 
 of irregular cavalry, which form the main strenirth of the Turkish armies. Tliis view of 
 the subject appears complet(>ly fixed by the account of the rommercial intercourse main- 
 tained by tlinso nations with Tyre. The iirophet mentions Meshech and Tubal, elsewhere 
 completely identified with Gog, who is called tlicir "chief prince." There never has been 
 the least doubt ns to the position of these countries in Upper Armenia, and on the southern 
 Iwrder of Caucasus. There the classical writers mention in the Moschi and the Tibareni. 
 which are, perhaps, the same names. The imports into Tyre are stated to be "vessels of 
 brass, and persons of men." This somewhat curious combination is, however, altogotlier 
 characteristic of the region in (juestion, which was, in ancient time, highly distinguished 
 for the copio\isness and excellence of its copper and iron, which last is not wholly exclml(?u 
 by the term used ui the original. The skill with which it was worked into steel by the 
 Chalybes, a people of this region, caused their name to be generally given to this product. 
 
 Vol. I. ?* C 
 
 ^vl 
 
 .-.0- 
 
Id 
 
 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PaktI. 
 
 *.» 
 
 Even in the present Btate of neglect, the neigtibourliood of Trebiaond rappliei wifh excel- 
 lent copper all the Lewcr Asia. The other article, also, is but too descriptive. The 
 expression, "persons of men," marks the trade in slaves, with which it has always been 
 the liite of Caucasian countries to supply the East Horses and mules are reported as 
 brought by the " house of Togarmah." Horses have always been a boast of Tartary ; and 
 nn nilianco has been imagined between this name and that of the Turcomans, who still 
 furniHh the finest horses. But there was a race called Trogmi, in the upland tracts of 
 I'aphlogonia, a region celebrated for its horses, and also for its mules, in which last respect 
 it has a decided advantage over Tartary, to which tliis last breed is a stranger. Thus we 
 seem justified in finding Gog, with all his rude and terrible appendages, in the northern 
 extremity indeed of the civilized and classical world of Asia, but still hi distant from those 
 boundless wastes which composed the ancient Scythia and the modem Tartary. 
 
 Javan, which is described as furnishing the same objects of trade with Meshech and 
 Tubal, but not as having any concern in the desolating invasion of Gog, is, in (act, the 
 same word with Ion, or Ionia, an extensive appellation, wnich comprehendM all the western 
 part of the Lesser Asia. The Jews and Phcsnicians, overlooking the long range of narrow 
 straits which separated it from Europe, not yet recopised as a separate continent, appear 
 to have extended the name to Thrace, and the interior of continental Greece. Alexander 
 the Great is in one place called king of Javan. That a similar extension was recognised 
 in the early ages of Greece itself, appears by the celebrated ancient inscription at the 
 Isthmus of Corinth. " This is Peloponnesus, not Ionia." The Javan slaves were probably 
 drawn fix>m Thrace, whose barbarous regions amply supplied the ancient markets with this 
 cruel species of commodity. , 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 ANCIENT VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 
 
 The early voyages of discovery formed the most important materials ibr those delineations 
 of the globe whicn were made by the geographical gchools of Greece and Rome in their 
 more advanced and perfected state. Before proceeding, therefore, to consider the systems 
 of these schools, it may be proper to toke a survey of the exploratory voyages performed 
 by ancient navigators. These do not appear very congidcrablc in the eyes of a modem 
 mariner. There is not one of them, perhaps, which the captain of a tolerably appointed 
 merchant-vessel would not, in the course of his ordinary business, be ready to undertake. 
 But in steering along an unexplored coast, in vessels which could scarcely rank above boats, 
 without the use of the compass, or any correct means of astronomical observation, even 
 these limited voyages were fraught with peril and adventure. The record of them is, 
 however, involved in much mystery and controversy. They were not reported to the world 
 in those regular narratives with which the modem press teems. The ancient narratives 
 are always meagre, and in many cases we have only fragments of hearsay testimony, col- 
 lected by careless or prejudiced writers. A learned investigation, therefore, is usually 
 necessary, to discover along what coast the navigator sailed, to what point of it he reached, 
 and sometimes whether he ever sailed along any coast. In several cases the most skilfiil 
 disputants are still divided on questions, which, sunk in the deep abyss of time, must probably 
 remain for ever undecided. Faint and dubious, however, as are these records, they will 
 lead us over some of the most interesting problems of antiquity, and will enable us to trace, 
 in some degree, the infant steps of maritime enterprise. 
 
 Sect. I, — Circumnaviffation of Africa under Necho, 
 
 To perform tne circuit of the coast of Africa was the favourite object of ancient maritime 
 "Wterprise, as it continued to be of that of modem times, till the era of its final happy 
 accomplishment. The manner in which its coasts, beyond the Mediterranean and the Red 
 Sea, begin to converge, suggested the idea of a peninsula, the circumnavigation of which 
 might be effected, even by the limited resources of ancient navigation. The wide sphere, 
 both of knowledge and trade, which such a discovery would open to the enterprising mari- 
 time nations round the Mediterranean, was sufficiently obvious. The first attempt of this 
 description originated in a quarter which had usually been accustomed to keep aloof fVom 
 every ppocics of naval enterprise. 
 
 Egypt ho/l long held itelf as a country strictly agricultural ; but .\echo, who, next to 
 Scsostri.s, raised its military glory to the greatest height appears, like other conquerors, 
 to have been animated by an active spirit which exerted itself in every direction. Not 
 possessing fit instrumnats among his own subjects, he engaged some Phoenician .navigators 
 10 descend tlip Red Sea, find endeavour to find their way back to the Mediterranean, by 
 the PillarK of Hepcules. The narrative is so very short, that we may easily give it in the 
 words of Herodotus : " The PhtEflicians, sotting sail from the Red Sea, made their way into 
 the southern sea ; wlien autwiiu ujiproachcd, they drew their ve.ssels to land, sowed a 
 
 > ( 
 
 ■*! V 
 
 '^, 
 
 I 
 

 AP ^ 
 
 Book I. 
 
 \ft 
 
 VOYAGES OP SATASPES AND HANKO. 
 
 10> 
 
 crop, and waited till it waa gprown, when they reaped it, and agrain put to sea. Havini; 
 Bpont two years in this manner, in the third year they reached the Pillars of Hercules, 
 and returned to Egypt, reporting what does not find lielief with me, biit may, perhaps, 
 with some other person; for they said tliat in passing Afirica they had the sun on their 
 right hand (i. e. the north). In this manner libya was first known." 
 
 The authenticity of this narrative has been in a remarkable degree the object of learned 
 curiosity, and lias produced a mass of controversy, greater, perhapi, than its short and 
 vague nature is well able to admit The arguments appear to have been exlJtusted on 
 the believing side by Rennell, on the sceptical by Goeaelin and Vincent. Formidable as 
 the achievement was, it does not seem to involve any absolute impossibilito, since the 
 whole voyage might be performed without losing sight of the shore, or launcning into the 
 open sea, through which the ancients had no moans of guiding their course; and their 
 smaller vosscls, keeping close to the shore, might even poeseas some advantage over our 
 larger ones, obliged to stand out to sea, and encounter the stormy waves of the Atlantic. 
 Herodotus seems inclined to credit the information, unless, on the ground of one general 
 statement, which, being the ver^ thing that should have happened, and disbelieved only 
 through his ignorance, strongly fortifies our inclination to credit the story. 
 
 Skt. IL — The Voyage of Satatpet. 
 
 The Persian monarchs, after their sway was established over the eastern coasts of the 
 Mediterranean, found the exploration of Afirica in some degree their peculiar province. 
 This nation, however, laboured under an aversion and dread of the sea, greater, perhaps, 
 than that of the other orientals. The only efKirt of theirs on record was one which arose 
 in a singular and rather casual manner. 
 
 Sataspes, a Persian nobleman, having committed a heinous offence, was condemned by 
 Xerxes to a cruel death. His firiends, however, persuaded the monarch, that by com- 
 muting this sentence into that of a voyage round Afirica, he would inflict sufferings scarce- 
 ly less severe, and might render a national benefit. They prevailed, and Sataspes, having 
 procured in Egypt a vessel and crew, passed the Straits of Gibraltar, and bent his course 
 southwards. He is represented as havmg beat about for several months, at the end of 
 which he probably reached the coasts of the Sahara. The view of those firightful and 
 desolate shores, and of the tempestuous ocean which dashed against them, might well 
 intimidate a navigator bred in tlie luxurious indolence of the Persian court. Sataspes was 
 struck with a panic, and measured back his course Ui the straits. Yet, hoping that 
 tune and the degree in which ho had accomplished his mission might eflkce tlie im- 
 pression, both of former offence and of present failure, he again presented himself before 
 Xerxes. In giving an account of his voyage, he merely related, that wherever he landed 
 he had seen little men wearing a Phoenician dress, who immediately fled into the moun- 
 tains ; but his people had done them no injury, bevond carrying off the cattle of which 
 they stood in need. The failure of the ultimate object of the expedition he imputed to 
 the occurrence of an insurmountable obstacle, the nature of which has not been satisfac- 
 torily explained. Xerxes, however, accustomed to expect that all nature should be sub- 
 servient to his will, would listen to no excuse, and ordered the original sentence to be im- 
 mediately executed. 
 
 Sect. III. — Voyage of Hanno. 
 
 The Carthaginians, as the greatest maritime and commercial people of antiquity, might 
 have been expected to make earlier and further progress in the discovery of Afi'ica tlnn 
 any other nation. In general, however, a veil of deep mystery shrouded all the proceed- 
 ings of that powerful and aspiring people. It is even asserted that they considered as ex-> 
 clusively theirs the whole Mediterranean west of a line drawn across to Sicily, and that 
 they captured all the vessels, and put to death the crews, that W'^re found navigating 
 within these forbidden precincts. The Romans, on the other side, animated by inex- 
 tinguishable enmity, are said to have industriously destroyed all the records of the 
 literature and history of their fallen rivals. The only fragment that escaped is the 
 Periplus of Hanno, which, notwithstanding the scepticism of Dodwell, its editor, the 
 learned world are now generally agreed in considering as ancient and authentic. This 
 celebrated document is so short, that we may find space here for a complete translation 
 of it 
 
 " It pleased the Carthaginians that Hanno should sail beyond the Pillars of Hercules, 
 and should found cities of the Liby-Phoenicians. He set sail, therefore, with a fleet of 
 sixty vessels, each of which was impelled by fifly oars. They carried with them men and 
 women to the number of thirty thousand, with provisions and supplies of various kinds. 
 We sailed two days beyond the straits, and founded a city overlooking an ample plain, and 
 which we called Thymiatcrium. Thence we proceeded westward to Soloe, a promontory 
 of Libya, thickly shaded with trees, where we founded a temple to Neptune ; then turning 
 tnstward for half a day's sail, we came into a lake not far from tfie sea, overgrown with 
 
# 
 
 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Past I. 
 
 numoronii and high recdii, and on whooo banks olcphiiiitB and a numticr of wild aniinala 
 were feeding. Having nuiscd this lake in tiio courtio of a day'H nail, wo founded cities on 
 Uio Bca coast, Coricuni-TeichoH, Gytto, Aero, Moliwsa, and Arambys. Tlion settinj? sail, 
 wc made our way to tlie groat river IJxus, which flows tVuni Libya. On its bunks the 
 Lixita-, a pastoral race, ted tlioir flocks ; with whom wo formed tics of friendship, and spent 
 a short interval. The country abuvo them wm inhabited by itdiotipitablo Ethiopians, tilled 
 with wild beasts, and traversed by very high mountains, whence the Lixus is said to descend ; 
 and it was added, that tlieso mountains wore inliabitod bv men dwcllinfi^ in caves, of a 
 strange appearance, who outran even horses in the chase. Having received mterprcters from 
 the Lixito!, we proceeded along a desert coast till the middle or the second dav ; when we 
 sailed one day to the eastward^ and in tl>e recess of a littie bay found a small island. Are 
 stadia in curcuit We leil iidiabitants there, and named it Ceme. This island, on taking an 
 account of our course, wo conjectured to bo opposite to Carthage ; for tlie navigation num 
 Cartilage to the Pillars, and from the Pillars to Ceme, corresponded. Then we came to a 
 lake through which flows a groat river called Chrctos. That lake contained three islands 
 greater tlian Come ; by these, in tlie course of a day's navigation, wc reached tlio interior 
 shore of the lake, where very great mountains impended over it, inhabited by a rough people 
 dressed in skiu of wild beasts, who by tlirowing stones repelled us, and prevented us iVom 
 landing. We then sailed into another river, largo and broad, ilill of crocodiles and river 
 horses. We then returned to Ceme. From Ceme, renewing our course to the south, we 
 passed for twelve days along a shore, the whole of which was m the possession of the Ethi- 
 opians, who showed a trembling dread of our aspect, and spoke a language unknown to our 
 Lixite interpreters. On the lost day, we came to high mountains covered with trees, the 
 wood of which was odoriferous and variously tinted. Passing round these mountains by a 
 navigation of two days, we came to an immense opening of the sea, bordered by plains in 
 which we saw fires of different magnitude glittering at intervals fVom every spot. Having 
 watered there, we proceeded five days along tlie snore, till wo came to an immense bay, 
 which the interpreters called the Western Horn. In it was a large island, and m that island 
 a nit water lake, in which again there was another island. Entering this lake, wc saw in 
 the day nothing but forest ; but m tlio night there were many fires burning ; and we heard 
 various sounds of musical instmmcnts, and the cries of numberless human beings. Being 
 terrified by these objects, and the prophets altiu exhorting us to quit the island, we made otf, 
 and reached next the fiery region of^Thymiamata, whence torrents of flame poured down 
 into the sea. Here the heat of the earth was such, that the foot could not tread upon it. 
 We therefore took our speedy deporturo from this place, and after four days' fiirtlier sail, saw 
 the earth in the night fiill of flames. There appeared also in the midst of them one lofty 
 fire greater than the rest, which seemed to much to the very stars ; this, when seen by day- 
 light, proved to be a very lofty mountain, called tlie chariot of tho gods. Thence by a navi- 
 gation of three days, having passed these fiery torrents, we came u|xin another bay, called 
 tiie Southern Horn. In its inmost recess was an island similar to that formerly described, 
 which contained in like manner a lake with another island, inhabited by a rude description 
 of people. The females were much more numerous than the males, and hod rough skins : 
 our interpreters called them Oorilla, Wo pursued but could take none of tho males ; tliey 
 all escaped to tlio tfip of precipices, which they mounted with cufc, and threw down stones; 
 wc took three of tho females, but they made such violent strufrfjles, biting and tearing their 
 captors, that we killed them, and stripped oflTthc skins, which we carried to Carthago : being 
 out of provisions, we could g6 no flirther." 
 
 Such is tlie entire narrative of this most celebrated of the ancient voyages; but it would 
 be impoi-sible to compris>> \^ ithin the same limits even a sketch of the commentaries to which 
 it has given rise among tlio learned. 
 
 Three leading hypotheses have been formed ; one, that of Hougainville, who conceives 
 Hanno to have reached the Gulf of Benin ; another, of Major RennoU, who carries his 
 course only to Sherbro Soimd, a little beyond Sierra liCone ; while M. GoEselin insists 
 upon termmating it about tlie river of Nun. (^Fif^. 2.) When wc reflect that tiic first 
 or these courses is upwards of three thousand miles, and the last under seven hundred, an 
 idea may be fomicd of the extremely vague nature of these data, where all tho names arc 
 changed, and no one point fixed with such certainty that tho othrrs can rest upon it. 
 
 Bougainville contends that his assigned limits do not exceed what may reasonably be 
 supposed to have been passed over by the most (^kilful nnvijrator of antiquity; in fact, 
 the period of thirty-eight days is precisely tho time employed by tho squadron sent in 
 1641 to found the Portuguese fort of Elmina. All tho grand features of man and nature 
 described by Ilanno are to be found in tropical Africa only; Ethiopians or Negroes; 
 Gorilla;, who are evidently apes or orang-outangs ; rivers so large as to contain croco- 
 diles and hippopotami. The great conflagrations of the gniss, and the music and dancing 
 prolonged through the night, are phenomena which have been observed only in the 
 negro territories. 
 
 Major Rennoir.-j system retains all the arguments by which that of Bougainville is sup 
 
 f 
 
Book 1. VOYAGE OF HANNO. 
 
 Fif!.z-M\v ii,i,iysTiivn\(i thi; voyage of lUNNa 
 
 II ID 10 
 
 21 
 
 Kniliiit 
 
 ava« 
 
 r. 
 
 SitmUo"" 
 
 f,.»^ 
 
 c.^ 
 
 ported, at the same time tliut it avoiils the extravagant supposition of ancient vessels hav- 
 ing made a course of seventy gcoprriiphical miles in the day. The Gulfs of Bissago and 
 Sherbro present tliose numerous islands described by Hanno, and not found on any other 
 part of the coast ; and even their form seems to correspond to the appellation of Horn, 
 applied by him to these great gulfs. If, "tlien, Hanno's career reached central Africa, there 
 can be little doubt that Major Rcnnell's hypothesis, or something near it, exliibits his real 
 progress. 
 
 M. Gosselin restricts the voyage within much narrower limits. It was impossible, he 
 urges, that the course could be otherwise than slow in a voyage of discovery upon on un- 
 known sea, where the mariner could sail only by daylight, with constant precautions, and 
 minutely examining every part of the coast. The motions of Hanno were clogged also by 
 the large and incumbered fleet of which he was the escort. Destitute of the compass, and 
 without the power of standing out to sea, he could never, it is alleged, have doubled Cape 
 Bojador, which so long baffled the eftbrts of the Portuguese. With regard to the features 
 supposed to be exclusively characteristic of tropical Africa, M. Gosselin conceives that 
 Morocco, yet in no degree civilized or subdued, but in the full possession of rude native 
 tribes, would bear a much more similar aspect than now to the interior portions of the con- 
 tinent. The ape tribe and the wild river amphibia might probably fill a region unoccupied 
 by man, though now, it is supposed, expelled by culture and a more crowded population. 
 The term Ethiopians hns been applied, not to negroes only, but to all nations of a dark 
 colour. He conceives, therefore, that Hanno's course could never pass much beyond the 
 frontier of Morocco, and could liavo reached only a very little further than the estuary of 
 tlie river of Nun. 
 
 To (locide a fniint on which such lonrnod mon so widely disagree, is what we do not 
 Ibcl vf>ry tbrwiinl to undortiilio ; and really the difficultios appear very great in any view of 
 llie siilij(!ct. Tlio detail of tlio ixitiitioiia would, on tlic whole, lead us to prefer the most 
 

 ' nn" 
 
 a 
 
 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pait I. 
 
 limited uporo. Of thoKe (xmitioiM tlio iHlanil of Orno fonn* tlio kry ; and Iho iilontifying of 
 it with Arifuin i« (<iMM<iiti«l to tli<> Miipiwrt of thn two rciiHitu liyputlu>M'«. Hut IhouKh it i* 
 evident tluit the whole of Ihu iMxhug uerioil U» Ccmc ia not given, tlie time beinjf oniilt«Mi 
 during which the Hvo citinii were tiiunilud, yet tlin general tenuur MieaiH hurdlv coniiiiitent 
 with M> great a way being made along luch u ilittlcult and unknown uliore. 1 he defect w 
 in lonie degree supplied by an ancient nautical guide of loinn authority, called the Peri- 
 plMK of Hcylax, in wnieh the wiil from the «lniit!t U) Cerno if given at twelve daya, o period 
 which Major Kennell adinita to bo wholly inMuttlcient for reat-hmg Argiiin. Ptolemy, indeed, 
 carries Cerne to almoat a tropical latitude ; but as he kcepa it still north of the Canaries, his 
 graduation hero is manifestly erroneous, and his authority, on the whole, is in iiivour of n- 
 taining Cerne witliin tlie hniits of Morocco. The details of Haimo do not appear to be 
 always very satisikctory ; but porhapa thov might prove more so, did wo possess a more 
 accurate survey of this coast than has yet been taken. On the whole, then, the great quea- 
 tion is, whether M. GosMlin's solutions can account for tlio aspect of nature and life being 
 so dilibront from that of Morocco, and so like that of a negro coaat : perham here, too, some 
 light might be obtained fixxn a rarefiil observation of the ruder borders of the former empire. 
 
 Skct. IV. — Voyagri nf Eudoxvi, 
 
 The ambition of noriunning the circuit of Africa, the grand maritime problem of an- 
 tiquity, was not solely conflnni to princes and states. Even private adventurem, animated 
 by the ambition of achieving so great an enterprise, and hoping, perhaps, to combinu with 
 it opportunities of lucrative commerce, are found in the list of tlio explorers of Africa. 
 KuduxiiM was tlio most memorable of these adventurers, whoso story, however, lias come 
 down to us through a very clouded medium. In ancient, still more than in modem times, 
 there existed men whose habit it was to treat with doubt and derision all narratives of dis- 
 covery that extended beyond the ordinary limits. At the head of this sceptical band stands 
 Htrabo, one of the greatest f^eogiaphers whose works survive, and who fonns the chief 
 medium by which these narratives have rea(;hod our time ; a moot unfortunate circumstance 
 to the fkme of tlieso early discovcren. However, in many instances, nature herself has 
 stood forth as their vindicator ; and our moro cxtenchid knowledge has enabled us to detect 
 the fallacy of the arguments by which SStnibo hus endeavoured to refute them. This is not 
 jxirticularly tlin case with regard to Eudoxus; but really, in Strabo's notices respecting the 
 adventurous lite of the bold navigator, wo cannot see any thing which tends to controvert 
 tlio general btjiief of antiquity, that he had inado repeated and spirited attempts to explore 
 the unknown coasts of the African continent. 
 
 According to the narratives of Htrabo, Eudoxus was a native of Cyzicus, sent on a miaaion 
 to Alexandria, then the great scat of maritime enterprise and geographical knowledge. 
 His ardent mind was strongly imbued with the spirit which reigned there; and he oflered 
 himself to Ptolemy Evergctes, t'><(i rsiiiniing king, as a zealous instrument to be employed in 
 any expedition having these objects in view. There was, at first, some talk of ascending 
 the Nile, and endeavouring to reach its unknown sources ; but their views received a new 
 direction from the arrival of a person who was, or professed to be, a native of India, 
 escaped alone from tlie wreck of his vessel near the foot of the Arabian Gulf. Ptolemy im- 
 mediately fitted out a naval armament, witli which Eudoxus proceeded on this destination. 
 He appears to have made a proHperous voyage, and to have returned with a cargo of aroma- 
 tics and precious stones, which last hod eitlicr been washed down by tlie rivers, or dug out in 
 a concrete state. It is scarcely probable, however, that Eudoxus ever reached tlie real shores 
 of India, or went beyond the southeni shore of Arabia, and, at fiirthest, the Persian Gulf. 
 Of this wealth, Evcrgetes appears to have plundered him ; which Strobo insinuates was in 
 resentment of ijoine dishonest conduct on his own |>art. We cannot, in these days, attempt 
 to judge between the two parties. However, Evergetes dying, his widow Cleopatra took 
 Eudoxus a^ain into favour, and sent him on a fresh voyage. He was now driven by unfii- 
 vourable winds to the coaat of Ethiopia, where he was wefl received by the inhabitants, and 
 :;arried on some advantageous trade. His return to Alexandria was again unfortunate. 
 Cleopatra was dead ; and her son, who succeeded, treated him as ill as Evcrgetes hod done. 
 Eudoxus brought with him, however, one trophy from the extremity of his voyage — tho 
 prow of a vessel, said to have come frvm the westward as a portion of a wreck, and on 
 which was sculptured the figure of a horse. This prow being exhibited by Eudoxus on the 
 harbour, some mariners frtim Cadiz declared it to be the very tbnn peculiar to a species of 
 Inrjre vessel which went from that port for purposes partly of trade, and partly of fishing, 
 to the ctrnst of Mauritania, Eudoxus listened with enthusiastic credulity, and detcniiin^ 
 now to reiioiinco tlie deceitfiil patronage of coiirta, and to fit out a new expedition from the 
 commerciul city of Ciuliz. He proceeded thither by way of Mansilia anil other maritime 
 stations, whore he loudly proclaimed his hopes, and invited all who were nnimatcd with any 
 jipirit of piiterpriso to accompany liini. He accordinifly succeeded in ecjuipping an expedition 
 on a considerable, and even magnificent sca'.i'. Ho had one ship and two large boats, on 
 board of whirl, he curried, not only goods and provisions, but artisans, medical men, and even 
 

 
 BUUK I. 
 
 VOYAOK OF PYTIIEAS. 
 
 pUyrm on iniiiiral iiiHtruniontii. A irKW ^o ^v, and IUIlhI, prubtbly, with oxtrava^tnt hopm, 
 woru ill tlttod to oiu'iiiiiitcr tlm ImnlMiiiM of .\ 'Vicaii diiicovury. Thny touk fright at the 
 iwr>ll ut' thu opim NKa, tliMiiKh winch KuiI(/xih wub iiixiuun to conduct thorn, ami iiwintofl, 
 acconlinif to thn uaiml timid Hyittttiii, on biniig brougiu iWM to th)' Hhore. Thii l»d tu thu 
 (liMuitur wliicli KiiduxuN had t'orim><>ii: tlw ithi|M w»re straiuli ^ bikI tho carffu with difficulty 
 Mvod. Thu iiMMit valunlilo articlnit wiirv ilioii p«it on boiml ooe tcgKit-'l of alightrr coiwtruc- 
 tion, and ho pruMvcuttHl tho voyngu till ' " camo to a ritop nf people wh<y aiipearntl tu him t4> 
 iipoak the wiiiie lanffungo with thumi whom ' had met on '\i>^ opposite siioro ot' tho coiiti* 
 neiit. Conceiving niiiiwdf to huvo tliiw ami iin«^l tho objfct <if \m voyage, ho returned, 
 and endeavoured to procure tho Iwrbaric aid of Borrhiit<, king of Mauribdiin ; but, Nuapocting 
 that monarch of a treochoroua duiiign ugainat him, he. a^^'lm lN>took himatdf to Hpdji). Hero 
 he Nuccoodod in equipping a fVoah expedition, conNistiiig of one largo voMel fitted |i>f tho 
 open Boa, and another oi iiiiallcr diiiiuiirtioiia for exploring t'lo t'oant. Here, unfortunately, 
 the narrative brcaka off) referring tu thu Hpuniarda and Uaditonianit, an likely to know more ; 
 but a« nothing more ia atated on any authority, wo four tliat thia loat cxp^lition mvat have 
 had an untbrtiinato iwue. Huch ia thu narrative given by Htrabo, upon infbrnia(j(< i which 
 acema to have been orii^itially obtained flrom Eudoxua himaelf ; and wo aeo nothing in it un< 
 worthy of belief, or which might not very well be accompliahcd bv a man of bold and cnthu> 
 aioatic character, poaaeiwod of ticienco and talent, and devotod with Much anient zeal to tho 
 cauae of diacovery. Eudoxua cunnot bo mode reaponsiblo for tho fnblca which antimiitv haa 
 put into Ilia mouth. Ho ia roprefluntod by some aa having actually made tho circuit or Airica ; 
 by othora aa having come to onu niition tlint waa dumb, and another whoao mouth waa entirely 
 closed, and which received food through nn orifice in the noHC. But nono of thcae fiibloa 
 aro found in the report of Eudoxua himsolf, aa coming through tho medium of Btrebo hia 
 enemy. 
 
 Sbctt. V. — Voyage of Pylheai. 
 
 The voyage of Pythcaa, tho Maaailian navigator, is of peculiar interoat, oa it ia tho only 
 one descriDod in any detail, having Europe, and uiirticularly tho Britiah lalea, for ita object. 
 It comea to ua, however, atill moru deeply tinged by tho Hainc dim and diacolourod medium 
 through which that of Eiiduxua Iiom puHsod. It is known almoMt Hololy by the hoatilo quo- 
 tationa of tho aceptical Strabo, adduced tor tho purpose of proving I'ythcaa to bo "a liar 
 of the first magnitude." Yet, tho naturo of tho grounda on which thia concluaion ia modo 
 to reat, ia auch aa to place in the clc!iroHt light Strobo'a own ignorance, and tho superior 
 information of Pytheoti. This last will lieconie more conspicuous, if wo aiippoec, as seems 
 probable, that tho errors of tho geographer wero transmitted to him from Massilia itself; in 
 which cose, Pytheas being found posscHKcd of knowlc<igo of which his countrymen were 
 destitute, thero appears no mode in which he could have obtained it, except the actual per- 
 formance of tho voyages. 
 
 Tho following are statements on which Strabo rests his refutation of Pytheas. That navi- 
 gator stated, that the dalbiurn Promonlorium, tho extremity of Brctagno, pointed to tlie 
 west, while Strabo affirms it to be perfectly notorious that its direction was to tho north. 
 This lost strange idea waa connected with what wo shall find to bo the general error of this 
 Kcliool, which allowed to Franco a southern coast only, and not a western one. Again, 
 Pytheas represented Britain as having one of its sides much longer than five hundred miles, 
 wlinreas, his adversary maintains this to bo tho dimensions of its longest side, which, accord- 
 ing to him, is that opposite to and seen from the shores of Gaul. Finally, Pytheas asserts 
 that hia Ultima Thule was farther north than Ireland ; whereas, all wcll-infbrmcd persons, 
 knowing Ireland to bo tour hundred miles north f^om Britain, and scarcely habitable on ac- 
 count of tho cold, considered it as forming on that side the extreme boundary of the in- 
 habited earth. Thus far it is necessary only to nuinc the charges against Pytheas, to make 
 him shine conspicuous above his enemies. 
 
 There are other statements, it must be confessed, which appear at first sight a little start- 
 ling. Pytheas describes tlio longest side of Britain not only as more thon five hundred miles 
 in length, but as exceeding two thousand. It is to be observed, however, that while Strabo 
 described Britain as a triangle, having ita longest side opposite to Gaul, Pytheas conceived 
 it to have only two sides', one of which, consequently, rcnciwl from the Liand's End, or tho 
 Lizard Point, to tho extremity of Scotland. If we consider this vast extent of coast, with 
 so many winding shores and deep bayw, all the sinuosities of which an ancient navigator waa 
 obliged to follow, the estimate will oppoar not very extravagant. Again Pytheas described 
 the coast of Kent as several days' sail from that of Gaul. But tho term by which Straixi 
 designates Gaul, is KBXrtxij (Celtica); and it appoiirs fVom Cajsar, tliat Ccltica formed only 
 one of the three parts into which Gaul was divided, and was bounded on the east by the 
 Seine. Pytheas probably used the tonn in tliis restricted and more proper sense ; when tho 
 distance assigned became r<lrictly rorrect. Ho moreover described tho coast of Spain as 
 iiihiibited by Gallic niitions; it would even soom. timt hn considered tiio Calbiuin Promon- 
 torium as Spanish. Here he was clearly in the wrong; but the error will probably bo 
 
24 
 
 rnSTORY OF GEOGRAl'IIV. 
 
 Part I, 
 
 'Sy 
 
 
 found to Imve rested not in liis obsorviitions and Hints, but in mixiiiij tlicni with an errone- 
 ous tlioory prevalent at Massilia, ncconlinfj to wliicii, Fmnco had not a wcstcrii coast, nor 
 one facinij the Atlantic; hucIi a const belonn^i'il to Spain only. Under thin impression, 
 Pythcas, so loiip an he sailed aionfr tise western toist of Gaul, and till he came to that 
 opposite to Britain, would naturally imajfiiic tiiat he was sailiufr nlonjf the coast of Spain. 
 
 Stmbo at la.st traces Pytlieas to Tliule, and "iier utmost isles," when he does, certainly, 
 present a narrative ussuininj; somewhat ot' a fabulous aspect. Tiie most daring' na\ ijrator, 
 as he approached the dreary boundaries of cartii and ocean, and saw only the liijrii billows 
 of the Nortii Sea doshinj,' apiinst a rocky and misty shore, mi{fht become liable to .some 
 sinister impressions. Pytlieas, it seems, said, t!mt beyond Thulo there commenced what 
 was neither earth, sea, nor air, but a confused blending of all the three, similar to the sub- 
 stance called pulmo mnrinus (a species of medusa connnon on our shores). He added, that 
 this substance was the basis of the universe, and that in it, air, eartli, and sky hinif; as it 
 were suspended. If we place ourselves in the situation of Pytlieas, seeinff before him the 
 northern sea, overhun|^ by tliick and ploomy mists, shrouded in twilight, and darkened by 
 tempest, we may sui>pose liini very easily persuaded, that what he beheld was a confused 
 blending of all the elements, not very dissimilar even to that thick viscid anhnal substance 
 to which it was compared. Nor can we feel much wonder, if, after this long and difficult 
 navigation through so many perils, he should lend somewhat of a ready ear to a report 
 which represented him to have reached that farthest boundary of nature, beyond which it 
 was no longer possible tor mortal sail to penetrate. Another report of Pytheas was, that 
 at Thule the phenomenon took place which belongs only to tJie polar circle, — a summer of 
 one long day, and a winter of one long night. Antiquity is somewhat full of rumours of 
 this phenomenon, which science had pointed out as likely "to take i)lace at a certain latitude ; 
 and there was a general disposition in those who had made any progress northwards to an- 
 ticipate the term. Considering the loose way in which rumour then spread, it may easily 
 be supposed, that the partisans of this idea might support it by an exaggerated representa- 
 tion of the real statements of Pytheas. One of these (Geminius) merely reports him as 
 saying that the nights appeared to him to last only for two or three hours, a statement 
 which at midsummer would be quite correct. Indeed, we have been assured by persons 
 who have resided in the Shetland islands, that at that season there was scarcely any sen- 
 sible term of darkness. A foreigner, then, visiting the islands, might very readily imagine 
 he had arrived at that point on the globe where the summer was one uninternipted day. 
 
 The theories, which would make Thule any other place than Shetland, seem not to 
 require much discussion, though there are not wanting learned partisans in iiivour of each. 
 Iceland would imply too great an extent of open sea tor an ancient navigator ; and the 
 period of five days' sail from the continent would be very inadequate. Some Scandinavian 
 writers have claimed Thule as belonging to their own region ; Rudbeck for Sweden ; Saxo 
 Grammaticus, and SchaMining for the Norwegian Tellemach ; Malte Brun for Jutland. 
 These theories seem sufficiently refuted by the single consideration, that Pytheas invariably 
 considered Thule as British, and expressly calls it the " farthest of the Britains." But 
 Jutland or tiie Baltic he could iiave only reached by a long navigation along the coasts of 
 Germany, which could never have been performnd without the clear perception of having 
 left far behind him every thing belonging to Britain. 
 
 Sect. VI. — The Voijage of yetrrchus. 
 
 Alexander the Great was animated beyond, jjorhaps, any other ancient monarch or sage, 
 with an ardent noal for discovery His expedition became almost as much one of explora- 
 tion as of conquest. Its course was in general hy land, and through the interior of the 
 continent ; but his mind was not less deeply fixed uixin commerce and maritime discovery. 
 On reaching, therefore, the kinks of the Indus, and being obliged by the mutiny of his 
 troops to fix there the teniiiuation of his career, ho was seized with a desire to explore the 
 lower course of that river, and allerwiirds the southern coasts of Asia; a long range com- 
 pletely unknown to the Greeks. The prospects of this voyage, however, were such as to 
 apjKil the most enterprising of his naval officers. The perils of tempest and slii|)wrock on 
 this wide and unknown ocean, with tiiase of being driven uiwn a barbarous and d'\sert 
 coast, appenred almost to i)riTlud(! the hope of reaching by this long circuit tlw^ destined 
 station of the army on the bunks of the Euphrates. The inferior officers variously excused 
 themselves from so heavy a task ; and the onteriiriso appeared ready to fail f!ir lack of instru- 
 ments, when Nearchus, the admiral of the fleet, came forward and proffered liis own ser- 
 vices. Alexander iinwilliiiirly committed this task to an officer so high in rank, and his 
 intimate friend ; but the eurni-stness of Nearchus, and the backwardness of all tiie others, 
 left him at leiiglii no alternative. 
 
 The vov.igo down the Imlns v.ns brilliant. Alexumler conveyed his army in a crowded 
 fleet of two tiiousHU'l vessels. Tiie sound of tlie luiiiiherless ours, echoed by the .■ urround- 
 intr W(X)ds, iw t'l 'v tloati'J down this iiiijestic stre:iui, excited the admiring g;izi' of the 
 natives. Ale.v'.ai.r even accompanied U'n adminil down the U'jlta of the Iiidu-, and took 
 
 ^■ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
3 
 
 W^ 
 
 ■^? 
 
 ! 
 
 T 
 
 Book I. 
 
 VOYAGE OP OTARCIIUS. 
 
 a view of the ocean, after which lie returned, to lead liis army by a moat perilous and diffi- 
 cult route through Gedrosia and Karamania to Babylon. 
 Nearchus now began his arduous naval route {Fig. 3.),after the usual antique preparation 
 
 Fig. 3.— MAP OF THE VOYAGE OF NEARCHUS. 
 
 50 56 eo 69 
 
 I III ' ' 
 
 -SO 
 
 of sacrifices and games. At the mouth of the river appeared a most formidable obstacle , a 
 rock barring the passage, and against which the waves broke with fiiry. This was sur- 
 mounted by cutting a canal across tiio softest port of the rock, through which the vessels 
 were able to piiss at fall tide. He then passed the sandy island of Krokali (Corachie,) 
 and Mount Eirus (Cape Monze,) when, being now in tlie open ocean, a series of gales 
 began, so heavy and continued, as obliged hun to seek the shelter of an excellent harbour 
 formed by an island called Bibacta. The crews here landed, threw up an entrenchment 
 to defend themselves against the natives, and remained for twenty-three days, subsisting 
 chiefly on shell-fish. The wind having abated, they set sail, and came to a coast where 
 water, of which they appear to have needed almost daily supplies, was only to be got by 
 going several miles up into the country. They then passed between a range of rocks, so 
 close to each other, that the oars struck against them on each side. After sailing a con- 
 siderable space, partly in a narrow channel between a wooded island and the shore, they 
 came to the river Arabius (the modem Pooralee). It gave name to a numerous people, 
 inhabiting all the territory between this river and the Indus. On the other side was the 
 coast of the Orita;. In proceeding, however, Nearchus met with a dreadful tempest, in 
 which three of his vessels perished, though the crews were saved by swimming, and he 
 with difficulty brought his shattered vessels to the coast. Here he found Leonntus, whom 
 Alexander had detached to open a communication with him, which he obtained only by 
 very hard fighting. Nearclius here spent some time in refitting his shattered vessels, and 
 exchanged those of his crew who had proved themselves less efficient, for fresh men out 
 of the Greek army. Having laid in com for ten days, they sailed with a prosperous wind, 
 and reached the rapid stream of Tomcrus (the modern Wudd). Here tlic natives, six 
 hundred strong, were drawn up to oppose tlieir landing; a barbarous race, armed with 
 lances six cubits long, pointed not witli iron, but with wood hardened in tlie fire. Near- 
 chus caused a band of his light troops to swim on shore, and to make no movement till 
 they wore drawn up in a triple line, then suddenly to raise a general shout, and pour in 
 clouds of darts and missiles. This sudden attack, tlieir shouts, and the glitter of their 
 armour, produced instant and total rout on tlie part of the natives. They are described as 
 presenting an aspect almost incredibly savage, being covered in a great measure with hair, 
 and having long nails like the claws of wild beasts. Their dress consisted in the skins of 
 animals and of large fishes. 
 
 The expedition now steering out to sea, and takuig a southerly course, observed pheno- 
 mena belonging to the midsummer of the tropic, tlic novelty of which struck them with 
 surprise. When the sun was in tlic meridian no shadow was projected, and when there 
 came to be a little sliadow, it declined to the southward. Stars, which were wont to be seen 
 liigh in the hoavcn-!, were now little above the horizon. At Bagaziri (Capo Arnibiih) they 
 left the rciast of tiic Orita^ and entered that of tiio Iclitliyopliagi, or fisli-eaters, a food which 
 is said to ha\'o so remarkably abounded, that even the flesh of the cattle savoured of fish, 
 from their making it, like sea-birds, their daily food. The people were hospitable, but could 
 give only lislips ;ni(l iroats. It was not till the Greeks had sailed a considerable distance that 
 ut Ikniii thm- iimnil stiino palms, giirdcns, and verdure, .\fter passing Cophantn- (Guadel,) 
 
 Vol. 1. ■ a 1) 
 
 
20 
 
 fflSTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Past I 
 
 where they obtained a supply of fine water, and Cyzia (Gwutter) on a desert and rocky 
 shore, they came to a small town on a hill a little inland (probably Churbar,) where it 
 appeared probable that a supply of grain might be obtained. To possess himself of this, 
 Nearchus had recourse to measures tliat harmonized much more with the character of a buc- 
 caneering freebooter, than with that of an officer of the first prince in the world. The 
 people met him in the most kindly manner, and presented to him roasted fish and other vic- 
 tuals. Meeting their friendly advances, he expressed a wish to visit their city, and being 
 cordially admitted, his first step was to take military occupation of it, and command the 
 natives to lay open to him all their stores of grain. The poor citizens at first flew to arms, 
 but having no means of effectual resistance, were obliged to yield. It proved, however, 
 that they had little except dried fish reduced to powder, and Nearchus could get only a very 
 small stock of grain. In sailing now along an almost desert coast, the stock of provisions 
 became excessively scanty; and they obtained only a poor supply by landing and cutting off* 
 the leaves of wild palm-trees. The pressure became so extreme, and was so impatiently 
 borne by the crews, that Nearchus did not think it safe to land at night, lest they should all 
 take ffight into tJie interior. In one place he found a paltry village, all the inhabitants of 
 which fled ; but the Greeks found seven camels, which they killed and eagerly devoured. 
 The same distress continued to press upon them so long as they sailed along the coast of the 
 " fish-eaters." Notwithstanding this name, few of them were fishers, or had even boats. 
 They procured this food by immense nets, sometimes a quarter of a mile long, formed out 
 of the fibrous bark of the pilm tree. These they placed at high tide across the mouth of 
 little bays, so that when the waters receded, the nets retained all the fish which had been 
 carried up with the tide. The houses of the rich were built with the bones of whales cast 
 ashore, those of the poor with the back-bones of smaller fishes. Nearchus descried a number 
 of whales, whose presence was at first made sensible only by tlie quantity of water thrown 
 up into the air, and tossed as in a whirlpool, a spectacle which struck the sailors with terror, 
 and made the oars drop ffvm their hands. The commander, however, on being informed of 
 the cause, made his crews raise the loudest possible sound by shouts, trumpets, and dashing 
 of oars, which at once kept up their own spirits, and was supposed to induce these monsters 
 of the deep to replunge into their abysses. 
 
 The coak of Caramania was next reached by Nearchus, afler passing the fabulous abode 
 of a Persian Circe, who, according to report, was accustomed to seduce the navigator by 
 voluptuous pleasures, and then convert him into a fish. Nearchus now found his distresses 
 nearly at an end, as tlie soil was tolerably productive in grain and fruits, and there was plenty 
 of good water. After passing Capes Jask and Bombareek, they came in view of a huge pro- 
 montory, stretching far into the sea, called Cape Maceta (Mussendoon), and forming the 
 entrance of the Persian Gulf. The great body of the sailors, and even Onesicrotus, an officer 
 high in command, weary of tliis long navigation, earnestly proposed to land, and march on foot 
 to Babylon. Nearchus justly and strongly insisted that this was in no degree to fiilfil the 
 intention of Alexander, whose injunction it was, to survey every coast, every harbour, and 
 every bay, between India and the Euphrates ; and that besides they incurred great hazard of 
 being involved in those arid and bummg deserts, ot which Arabia in a great lueasure con- 
 sists. This wise opinion prevailed, and in ascending the Persian Gulf they found, for tlie 
 most part, a fertile and beautiful coast. In the delightful country at the mouth of the river 
 Anamis (the modem Minab) they landed, and began to refresh themselves after so many 
 hardships. Nay, a party having proceeded to some distance into the interior, met, with tears 
 of surprise and joy, a man in a Greek dress, and speaking the Greek language. This proved 
 to be a soldier who had straggled from the army of Alexander, which he reported to be at a 
 distance of only five days' journey. On receiving this intelligence, Nearchus caused the 
 ships to be drawn on shore, a rampart to be formed round them, and the crews to take rest 
 and refreshment, while he and Archias set out alone for the camp. On their arrival they 
 presented an aspect so haggard, pale, and squalid, that the pertins they met did not know 
 them, but on being told their name, hastened to carry the first tidings to Alexander. They 
 added (a hasty conclusion formed fVom appearances,) that the fleet and the army had per- 
 ished. Alexander received Nearchus with a kindness mingled with sorrow, and after the 
 first salutations, began to ask particulars of the catastrophe of his favourite armament ; but 
 when Nearchus replied, "O king! thy ships and men ore safe," the conqnoror burst into a 
 flood of tears, and swore by Jupiter Ammon, that he derived more pleasure from this event 
 than from the entire conquest of Asia. 
 
 The rest of the navigation of Nearchus, when he had with some difficulty regained the fleet, 
 was easy, care being taken that he should find on the coast every kind of supply. They 
 passed the barren and desert rock of Organa, afterwards fo celebrnted under tlie name o( 
 Orrnuz, the large and fertile Oariicta (the modem Kishme). Soon at\er they (iiiitted the 
 coast of Caramania and entered that of Persia proper (tim moflerii Fars,) which they follow- 
 ed till its termination at the river Arosis (the modern Endinn Tub,) which appeared to them 
 llie largest they had seen since thi^y had loft the Indus. They wore now in Susiana, and 
 soon reached the mouth of the Tigris, where the vovagc terminated. 
 

 .r 
 
 I 
 
 Book I. 
 
 PERIPLUa OP THE ERYTHRKAN SEA. 
 
 27 
 
 The circumnavigation of Arabia, and the o[)cning of a cuminunication between the Red 
 Sea and the Persian Gulf, formed to Alexander an object of ahnost equal ambition. He 
 accordingly appears to have sent expeditions dovvn botii seas, in tlio hope of accomplishing 
 this object. Those, however, who went from Persia were never able to double that formidable 
 promontory (the Mussendoon) which Nearchus had passed at tlie entrance of the gulf; while 
 those who went from Egypt, after making a certain progress, were always obliged to return 
 for want of water. The narrator chose to conclude with inferring, that such an achieve- 
 ment must be beyond human skill or power, otherwise the daring curiosity of Alexander 
 would certainly have accomplished it. He reinforces this argument by observing, that as 
 caravans which crossed Arabia were able to travel only during the night and in the day 
 were unable to bear the intense heat of the sun, it was unreasonable to suppose that a region 
 still farther to the south should be at all habitable. 
 
 Sect. VII. — Periplm of the Erythrean Sea. 
 
 The complete establishment of the dominion of Rome produced a long period of compara- 
 tive peace. The encouragement of industry and commerce never formed i»rt of the policy 
 of that powerful empire ; but the demand for luxuries of every description in its overgrown 
 capital, where the wealth of the world was collected, and to procure which the remotest 
 extremities of the earth and sea were ransacked, powerfully stimulated mercantile enterprise. 
 Alexandria continued still the great nautical school, by whose mariners the obstacles which 
 in the time of Alexander had been deemed insurmountable were completely overcome. 
 Regular voyages were established across to India, and for a considerable extent along the 
 eastern coast of Africa. The course of this commercial voyage is related by Arrian, not 
 the historian of Alexander, but a merchant of Alexandria ; and though not so much a voya^ 
 of discovery as a coasting guide, it is founded, probably, upon personal observation, and will 
 enable us to complete the survey of the great naval routes of the ancient world. 
 
 The voyage down the west coast of the Red Sea began with Berenice, founded by the 
 Ptolemies, and the site of which, afler being long sought for in vain, seems to have been 
 nearly fixed by Belzoni. The coast on the African side was wild, and occupied only by a 
 few rude huts of barbarous Nubians. The small port called Ptoleraais Theron was the 
 only place where refreshments could be obtained. At length, the navigator came to Aduli, 
 a great emporium, whose site Mr. Salt seems to have ascertained in the vicinity of Arkeeko. 
 Here was a profusion of excellent ivory, collected and sent down from Axum, the metropo- 
 lis, about eight days' journey in the interior. In return for this single staple of Ethiopia 
 was exchanged that variety of showy colours, suited to a rude taste , pottery and glass 
 vessels, the manufacture of Diospolis ; brass for vessels and ornaments, iron for pointing 
 lances, arms, and cutting instruments. Some fine cloths, and ornaments of gold and silver, 
 were brought as presents or tribute to tlie king. Farther down, apparently in the Gulf of 
 Zeyla, was the kingdom of Zoskalcs, a prince who is described in glowing terms os adorned 
 with every virtue, and eminently skilled in Grecian literature ; but these seeds of civiliza- 
 tion, if they ever existed, did not ripen in so ungenial a climate. The coast now turns 
 eastward to the Indian Ocean. 
 
 A view of the passage down the opposite or eastern coast of the Red Sea must now be 
 taken. Navigators do not seem to have ventured across the breadth of that sea from Berenice, 
 but went by Myos Hormus, along the mouth of the Gulf of Suez, touching at Leuke Kome, 
 the fair village, which formed the port of the great commercial capital of Petra. The coast 
 downwards was most unfavourable to navigation, " full of danger, without harbours, beset 
 with rocks, everywhere full of horror;" and such the whole of the Red Sea is described to 
 be by modern navigators. If a vessel was driven too near the shore, it was immediately 
 plundered by the barbarous inhabitants, and all who survived carried into slavery. At lengtn 
 they came to the Burnt Island, which seems to be Gebel Tor, on the coast of Yemen, where 
 they found a fine country and a friendly people. The emporium of this coast wos Moosa, 
 near the modern Mocha, said to be inhabited by a race skilled in maritime afluirs. The 
 imports were of the same description as at Aduli, but of finer quality, including a 
 considerable quantity of dye-stuffs. The exports were myrrh, gum, alabaster (no mention 
 yet of coffee). They then proceeded downwards, and passed the straits now called Bab el 
 Maiulel. 
 
 The southern coast of Arabia formed the next object of navigation. Ocelis (the modem 
 Giiella) was a good harbour, though with little trade ; but Arabia Felix, which seems to 
 have boon near the site of Aden, had been a most flourisliing port, forming a depot in which 
 (lie merchants of Alexandria found all the commodities of India. It had lately, however, 
 been destroyed by the Romans. In coasting along Arabia, they found Kane (the modem 
 Macculla) ; the Gulf of Sachalites, in which is found the modern Sahar ; and Syagros, de- 
 scribed as the largest promontory in the world, usually supposed to be Ras el Had, but 
 which Vincent appears clearly to fix in the much more westerly position of Cape Fartash. 
 This region is described as yielding a considerable quantity of incense, but as extremely 
 moist and unhcaltliy. They now passed Mosca (Morebat), Asichone (Hasec), the islands 
 
 :^ 
 
#' 
 
 28 
 
 %, 
 
 of Zenobius (Curia Muria) 'f'''''''' ^^ <^^OGRAPHY. , ' 
 
 «erial«fo;coXVcT 
 ^ne coaet of India (fin- a\„ "" """^vn to be destitufn n7 
 
 iich name he _^- ^— ^^"""i-fs-CoAH-rA^ .. ' '" *"« 
 
 ™ 7» 
 
 *l^ 
 
 -•#■, 
 
 freat river «XThr k"?°."*'' <"" 'f-e 
 designates the fc ^T't^ '^^ he 
 as entering the sea hv«>. represented 
 one of ^■hihtZlThJe\?r'^'' P^'^ 
 18 Situated a olacp PnTi„ i i,"'"' on wiiich 
 »wricum. subject to thi»^^P°^'™ B^^" 
 
 of Minn^gtt^'Shkh L?-'T'' '".'^'^oPo'^^^ 
 Scythian citv Tl.« if '« described as a 
 
 tached to th J-parT of iS "'^ ^7'^^^ '^^ 
 suggested by Te rud,. n ^''°",''' ""'y ^^ 
 of tSe people, aSd cnrnK^i*"^' banners 
 cumstance^f 1?'bpT!"?^,"''"» »he cir- 
 Parthian empire noinf^^ "'A'^^^ « the 
 belonging to wh;tTnnr' *'*?"agara as«, 
 
 ta of the Indus LS « V-" '^*^'' ^''o »*- 
 
 chants were obSL'^-"'''^ Themer- 
 
 pra. and to neSat'^ fi-oup to Minna- '» 
 
 himself After En' thfr *^ P""'=o 
 
 £?tors found suSvelV/"''""', "'^^'- 
 
 Emn(Cutch) and of ft.„ ^ "'^ ^'f« of's 
 
 The narrator here rSPf•'^ (^--oacJO. 
 
 of ever^ kind S ;& "''' ''';^'^^^^ 
 
 heset, shallows, conSn^^f S^"'*^ "^e.. 
 
 and difficult entrances hn? T^'' "'^'^"^^ 
 
 extraordinary owasiol) •^'^''^ ^"' ^he 
 
 tide; in co/senuenee S wv"!!"'' °^ ""= 
 
 rienced navigaCften Ll if ' ""-^^P"-.^ 
 
 either sunk or driven on 2 ^'^^ ^^^'"^^ 
 
 Iv.when they wire °ailt ''• ^«1"ent- 
 
 sniooth water, a sound tlf '" Perfectly 
 
 ad vancinff arA, v • ? . ^^ ''"ard as of an ^— =». 
 
 onwith"inrco";h:rn"'''*''?"''^'''d Z T ., 
 
 emporium, at which w^L ? ""?'""" <^o"M secure thp v«» 7 t, '' ™ 
 
 deur of K^ ''"•^^ J°""iey south from 1,'° ^"^^ ""terior capitals wL'""''' ""'' <^na"y, 
 
 of thelttter r\co"'"V ^'-^^^^^^^ 
 
 no«^ Dowlatab^d! m S""" '" ^''tanahon ho r!f^™ "^^'^^ "^e «"£' h„T ,'? ^'■""- 
 
 M Jccordmg to the usual 
 
 '*■ 
 
r I. 
 
 I to 
 red 
 
 its 
 tes. 
 tlio 
 
 of 
 
 the 
 
 . * f ' 
 
 
 ••■ %< 
 
 % 
 
 
 Book I. 
 
 PERIPLUS OF THE ERYTIJREAN SEA. 
 
 29 
 
 course of Indian tmdo, stood foremost " mucli money," a little cloth, and a little wine ; but 
 a considerable quantity of metals and toys, brass, lead, tin, glass, coral, stibium for painting 
 the eyes, orpiment, and cinnabar. There is mucJi appcaranco tliat Nelkunda was the far- 
 thest point to which the Greek navigators actually p<3netrated, and that they found there a 
 supply of the commodities produced in the more eastern regions. 
 
 All beyond Nelkunda is faint and tinctured with fiible. vVe recognise, however, Comar 
 >' (Cape Comorin), Taprobane (Ceylon), and its great pearl-fishery. The Coromandcl coast 
 is nearly a blank, till we arrive at Masalin, which, with the great abundance of its cotton 
 cloths, speaks clearly Masulipatan. In proceeding northwards, navigators came to a strange 
 I ^ and Imrbarous people, with visages sometimes of enormous length, at others resembling 
 those of horses, and some eating human flesh : an exaggerated picture of the fierce preda- 
 tory races who occupy the mountain and jungle tracts of Orissa. A i rian describes accurately, 
 however, the direction to the east which tlie coast of the ocean takes, before it receives the 
 mighty flood of the Ganges. At its niouth there was then, it seems, a great emporium 
 bearing the name, which no city now does, of the river itself. The staple was " superla- 
 tively fine cotton clotlis, called Gaiigetic," and which still exist in the superb fabrics of 
 Dacca and Mooi'shedabad. 
 
 In the regions beyond Ganges the author of the Periplus gropes almost in total darkness. 
 Mention is made of an island, tlie fiirthest part of the world to the east, and which is richly 
 stored with the most precious productions of the countries that lie on the shore of the Red 
 Sea. This cannot seemingly be any other than Sumatra, though erroneously placed near 
 the Ganges. The only ulterior position is Tliinrn, a great interior city, situated opposite to 
 Pontus and the Caspian Sea, and near to where the Polus McEotis flows into the ocean. This 
 strange site we shall afterwards find reason to consider as a combination of some actual 
 rumours with the theory formed by the first Alexandrian school respecting the form and 
 dimensions of the continent of Asia. There seems some reason, however, to conclude with 
 Dr. Vincent, that this Thine, whence caravans came by way of Bactria to Barygaza, must 
 have obscurely indicated Uie capital of China. Nor can we be easily persuaded that in 
 the malabalhrum, though most usually applied to betel-leaf, some confused idea of tea is not 
 involved. Its being so strictly characteristic of China, and being brought by persons of a 
 
 Fig. 5 — Periplus— African Coast. 
 
 broad forehead, .short body, and flat nose, 
 features decidedly Mongol and Chinese, 
 seem all in favour of this supposition, and 
 inconsistent with that which would make 
 it merely betel-leaf, a pro<luct of Indostan ; 
 though there is doubtless a great and mani- 
 fest confusion between the two substances. 
 We must now look back to the Straits 
 of Bab-el-Mandel, and follow our author 
 along the African coast. {Fiff. 5.) From 
 those straits vessels proceeded eastward 
 along the shore opposite to Arabia, the 
 modern Berbera. Its ports, Avalites, Mo- 
 syllum, Mundos, Daphnon, and others, 
 cannot be, easily identified on a coast, with 
 respect to wiiich wo have scarcely any 
 modern data. The imports were nearly 
 the same as at Adulis ; the exports were 
 myrrh, frankincense, a species of cinna- 
 mon called casia, some other aromatics, 
 slaves, and a little ivory. At length they 
 doubled the promontory of Aromata (Guar- 
 dafui), when they came to a coast .stretch- 
 ing to the southward and facinir the Indian 
 -10 Ocean. Here was a port, the scat of a 
 considerable.' trade, but by no means secure ; 
 however, when tlic north wind began to 
 blow with dancrerous violence, the vessels 
 found shelter in the neighbouring promon- 
 tory and port of Tabai. Proceeding on- 
 wards, they found Oiwne, Apokapa the 
 less and greater, Nicon, Scriipion, seven 
 successive rivers, with anchorages at the 
 mouth of cncli. Soon allor, nt the distance 
 of about tiirce hundred stjulia from the 
 continent, there occurred a low wooded is- 
 land, bearui!]; the very expanded name of 
 
 J 
 
 "'♦(■ 
 
 
 ■fM^- — ^»*.- 
 
.L*,' 
 
 -m 
 
 T*»«. 
 
 SO 
 
 ^ 
 
 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 4'. 
 
 Pabt I. 
 
 Eitenediom-tnenouthegias, which other writers wisely contract into Mcnuthias. It contained 
 no wild animals, but abounded in fish, particularly tortoises, which tho inhabitants were very 
 diligent in catching. Two days' voyage fartlier brought them to Rhapta, a promontory and 
 port, and the scut of a great trade. Beyond this point, the ocean was not yet explored; but 
 It tunicd to the west and south, and was supposed to continue in that direction till it joined 
 tiie Atlantic. The exports from this coast were ivory in great abundance, but not equal in 
 •luality to that of Aduli ; tortoise-shell, superior to every other except that of India; and a 
 number of valuable slaves, chiefly destined for the Egyptian market The territory was 
 governed by a number of petty kings, all owning the supremacy of Mopharites, who was 
 himself tributary to Moosa, by the vessels of which great commercial state the trade of this 
 coast waa almost entirely carried on. 
 
 The extent of coast thus described by the author of the Periplus has been the subject of 
 considerable controversy. Dr. Vincent fixes Rhapta, its farthest point, at Quiloa, thus 
 allowing a navigation of upwards of fitlecn hundred miles ; while tlie rigl'l scepticism of 
 M. Gossclin, placing it at Brava near the mouth of the Doaro, allows a goiod deal less than 
 lialf that distance. Dr. Vincent here, however, appears to carry the question triumphantly, 
 by means of his seven mouths of rivers, of which M. Gosselin admits that no trace can be 
 found within his limits. They are clearly presented by the estuaries of the Quillimanci, 
 on which ore the important lurbours of Patte, Melinda, and Mombaza. But we cannot, with 
 Dr. Vincent, pass by Pemba and Zanzibar, to find in the little island of Monfia the Menu- 
 thias of Arrian. Zanzibar, from its size and its proximity to the coast, appears a feature 
 which it was impossible to overlook, and its position is in much better bearing with the 
 seven estuaries previously passed. The next cape m;ist then be Rhapta, and this will be 
 that opposite to which is situated the small group of the Hinagie Islands. Beyond it fbr 
 a considerable distance the coast runs in the direction of south-west, which does not at all 
 admit the placing Rhapta beyond Quiloa, nor, indeed, on any other poit of the coast till 
 after we pass Mosambiquc. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 GREEK GEOQRAPHY BEFORE ALEXANDER. 
 
 Greece is regarded by all civilized nations as their instructress in the sciences, many of 
 the most brilliant of which she carried to the utmost perfbction. In that of geography, 
 however, little progress was made until the ibrmation of the Greek kingdom in Egypt 
 under the Ptolemies. Neither extensive commerce nor distant conquest characterised the 
 Grecian states, otlierwise so illustrious fbr all the arts of peace and war. It was not till 
 the conquering career of Alexander, that the survey of the Greeks was extended over the 
 wide circuit of the ancient world. Engaged before that era in the glorious defensive war 
 against Persia, and the contests with each other for pre-eminence, they confined their views 
 very much within the limits of Greece and its neighbouring coasts and islands. 
 
 The first traces of Greek geography are found among its poets, whose brilliant fancy has 
 spread its lustre over all the regions with which Greece ever held intercourse. Homer 
 took the lead, and his high authority gave to the geography of the Greeks a poetical cast, 
 which they transmitted to the nations whom they taught, and of which the traces are not 
 entirely obliterated. 
 
 Sect. I. — Geography of Home~. 
 
 It is in Homer that we find the first trace of the widely-prevalent idea, that the earth is a 
 flat circle, begirt on every side by the ocean. This was indeed a natural idea in a region so 
 entirely insular and peninsular, nowhere presenting, like Judea, a vast tract stretching so 
 far as to give the idea of immeasurable distance. The circulor shape was suggested by that 
 of the visible horizon ; and until science demonstrated the globular form of our planet, the 
 very natural opinion prevailed that the earth was a flat circle, with the vault of heaven above, 
 darkness, and the abode of departed souls beneath. 
 
 Homer, like Hesiod and the ancient poets generally, delights in topographical detail, and 
 scarcely allows a city or natural object to pains without applying to it some characteristic 
 epithet. It was only, however, within a very limited range that he could give these distinct 
 and animated notices. The Greek islands, beautifiil and fertile spots, which seem to have 
 been the first cradle of European civilization, were the central point from which his know- 
 ledge emanated. He knew well, and had probably visited, on one side Peloponnesus, Attico, 
 and the regions immediately adjoining ; on the other, the western coast of Asia Minor, and 
 the banks of the beautifiil rivers by which it is watered. Perhaps scarcely any other tract 
 on the globe presents within the same compass such a variety of grand and beautiful objects 
 to rouse the imagination. Beyond this circuit the world of Homer was soon involved in 
 mysterious obscurity. Some grand and distant features, discernible through the gloom, were 
 exaggerated and distorted by ignorance and superstition. Thebes, tlie mighty capital of 
 
 4 
 
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 P. 
 
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 h...- 
 
 H. 
 
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 ^l 
 
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 4 
 
 Book I 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF HOMER. 
 
 31 
 
 Egypt, when that kingdom was in its greatest glory, is celebrated ibr its hundred gatei, and 
 the hosts of warriors which they sent forth to battle. Beyond lay the Ethiopians, deemed 
 the remotest of men, dwelling on the farthest verge of the earth, and to whoso distant 
 confines Jupiter repaired to hold an annual festival. In the western part of the same conti- 
 nent the stupendous ridges of Atlas had excited in Grecian fancy the imacc of a gigantic 
 deified being, to whom was intrusted the support of the heavens. Even fiirUicr to the west, 
 the exploits and wanderings of tlic great Grecian demigod had conveyed a tradition of the 
 strait leading into the ocean, and of the rocks on each side, celebrated under the denomination 
 of the Pillars of Hercules. On the east, Colchoe was distinguished by its early woulth and 
 commerce ; it was considered a city on the ocean, with which, therefore, the Black Sea 
 must have been confounded ; and being supposed to contain the palace of the Sun, where 
 during the night he gave rest to his coursers, and whence in the morning he drove his 
 chariot to its diurnal career, Colchos must have been regarded by Homer as placed on the 
 most eastern verge of the earth. On the north, Rhodope, under the name ot theRiphsan 
 Mountains, was considered a chain of indefinite extent, closing in the northern limits of the 
 world. The poet, however, had heard a vague report of the Scythians, under the description 
 of a people subsisting on mares' milk. The vessels which conveyed the Grecian army to 
 Troy were evidently little better than large boats ; and all distant voyages, or those in which 
 land was lost night of, were considered as fraught with the extrcmest peril. A navigation 
 to Africa or to Sicily took place only through tempest, terminating usually in shipwreck ; 
 and a return from these shores was esteemed almost miraculous. In regard to Sicily, indeed. 
 Homer has largely communicated his ideas, having made it the theatre of the woes and 
 wanderings of the hero of the Odyssey. Making every allowance for poetical license, we see 
 evident traces of the terrified and excited state of mind in the navigators who returned from 
 these diorea Monsters of strange form and magnitude, who watched for the destruction of 
 the mariner, and even fed upon his quivering lunhs ; delusive syrens, who lured but to destroy ; 
 imprisonment under the transformed shape of wild beasts ; these, probably, are only a highly- 
 coloured repetition of the terrific rumours brought by the few whose bark had been wailed 
 to those as yet savage coasts. 
 
 Sect. II. — Poetical Geography. 
 
 An ideal and poetical character was communicated to the science of ^reography itself by 
 the fables with which Homer thus tinged his narrative. This tendency indeed did not rest 
 solely upon Homeric uifluence, but proceeded from certain secret workings of the human 
 heart There exist in man ideas and wishes for which, in the sphere of his actual existence, 
 he can find no corresponding objects ; these he creates for hunself in tliat dim boundary 
 which separates the known from the unknown world. There involuntarily arises in his 
 breast a longing afler a more exalted state of existence than the world before him presents — 
 bright scenes, which he seeks but never finds in the circuit of realities. In a newly-discovered 
 region, however, which possesses any share of beauty, imagination soon heightens the colours 
 of nature, till they appear to fulfil its fond anticipations. Such were those brilliant spots 
 celebrated by the poets under the title of the Gardens of the Hesperides — the Fortunate 
 Islands — the Isles of the Blest — for which, when knowledge had dispelled the first illusion, 
 and brought them down to the ordinaiy level, a place was still found in some more distan; 
 extremity of the globe. Northern Africa, as it stretched westward, was peculiarly adapted, 
 by its striking and brilliant contrasts, to excite these illusions. The first site of the Hesperian 
 gardens was at tlie frontier of Cyrene, where they are described by Scylax as forming a 
 luxuriant grove, in which the lotus and the palm were mingled with the finest trees of 
 Europe. Other and more western sites were successively found, both for them and the 
 Fortunate Islands, which last were finally fixed, probably on very imperfect observation, at 
 the Canaries. Those islands have not altogether lost the appellation ; and they are painted 
 by Ho-ace in glowing colours as a refii^e still lefl for mortals from that troubled and imper- 
 fect existence which they experience in every other quarter of the globe. Independent, 
 however, of this bright and romantic enjoyment, there are other objects of fond desire to the 
 human heart In this agitated world it sighs afler peace — a scene of profound repose, exempt 
 from the tumults of passion and the corrosion of care. Such a scene, indeed, would never 
 fulfil the hopes thus formed ; yet these hopes spring from a natural illusion, to flatter wliich 
 Grecian poetry conjured up a fabled race, the Hyperboreans, seated in the recesses of the 
 North, and sheltered by vast mountains from the rage of the elements. They wore repre- 
 sented as exempted from all ills, physical and moral, the change of seasons, sickness, and 
 even from death. The original seat assigned to them was behind the Riphiean Mountaiuf, 
 which seem to have been originally Rhodope, the northern boundary of the Homeric world. 
 The Greeks having soon acquired knowledge sufficient to ascertain that no such people was 
 there to be found, sought them next on the bonks of the Danube; but every thing there was 
 remote from that tranquil aspect under which the poets had painted the Hyperborean world. 
 Some traditions carry them westward; but their seat was finolly fixed in that northern 
 extremity of Asiatic Russia which the ancients never explored. They even carried with 
 
 
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 tft 
 
 m 
 
 ^ PI 
 
 W.ffi 
 
 m 
 
 r 
 
i*V 
 
 IsR * 
 
 ,M- 
 
 »2 
 
 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part 1. 
 
 them tho Ripluvan Mouiitiins, whicli became thus an idcol chain, delineated in modern mapa 
 as exteiidinff aloiij» tlio extreme frontier of Kuropo. Impressions of gloomy darkness, and 
 oven of tho teriniiiation of existence, are, in other moods of the human mind, associated with 
 images of distance and obscurity. These intluencos gave birth to the Cimmerians, a people 
 who dwelt in poriKJtiial darkness, and were never illumined by the chcorfiil rays of tho sun. 
 Thi;ir fiivourlte seat was on the straits at tho mouth of the peninsula of Taurida, the farthest 
 jviint, probably, of which rumour had spoken in the |xx;ticHl iigcs, and which was called tho 
 Cimmoriuu Bospliorus. It was prolKibly from similitude of name that tliey wore atlerwards 
 confounded with the people called Cimbri. Tho learned, however, have found traces of 
 Cinmicrians in the extremities both of the east and tho west; and the idea of the earth as 
 terminated by a I)oundary of darkness, being founded on natural impressions, has very gone- 
 rnlly prevailed. Park mentions it as the reigning belief among tho Mandingos at this day; 
 iind the world, in tho system of tho Arabian geographers, was enclased by a sea of darkness. 
 Otiior fubulotis creations, siiringing from those of Homer, continued long to hold a place in 
 gpogr.ii)hy. The one-eyed Cyclops apiKJars under the name of Arimaspian on tho frontier 
 of India, and in the remotest extremity of Africa. The Pigmies multiplied etill more exten- 
 sively ; they had seats on the Strymon, tlie Hebrus, in India, and the north of Europe. 
 Acconiiiig to Stnibo they were spread over the whole southern border of the earth; and this 
 represpiitiilion even induced Banicr to suspect that, on that side, they have been confounded 
 with the monkeys. 
 
 Sect. III.— School of Miletus 
 
 The astronomical schools of i\Iilctua and Samoa appear, so far at leost as there is any 
 precise record, to have made the first attempts to form geography into a system, and to apply 
 to it the ligiits derived from astronomy. These and other cities of Asia Minor rank high 
 among the early seats of commerce, and tliey established colonies in various quarters of the 
 Mediterranean and the Euxine. While they continued independent they were very wealthy 
 and prosperous and the sciences were cultivated with ardour and success. To a commercial 
 peo|)le practical mathematics, and especially those branches subservient to geography and 
 navigation, iiitist have peculiarly recommended themselves. Thales, Anaximander, Anaxi- 
 nionos, and Pythtigoras, are celebrated by tlioir countrymen as the inventors of all tlie pro 
 cesses by which tlie phenomena of the globe arc calculated. The gnomon or sundial, fiir 
 ascertaining the progress of the sun from tropic to tropic, and finally the latitude of particu- 
 lar places, the division of the year into 365 days, and into tour seasons, are represented as 
 Imving originated in this school. It appears doubtfiil, however, whether these discoveries 
 were due to their own exertions or borrowed firom the Egyptians and Chaldeans, whoso fiune, 
 amid the dim traditions of antiquity, stands pre-eminent for astronomical otecrvation. 
 
 Tho first rude mode of forming a division of the earth was into climutes, determined 
 1)V tho spoeins of animals and plants produced in each. Thus the negro, the rhinoceros, the 
 elephant, wore considered as characteristic of the torrid zone. 'J'his very loose method gave 
 place to another, formed by observing at each place the length of the longest and shortest 
 days. This could only be done with accuracy by a gnomon or dial, erected on a horizontal 
 plane, and sliowing, by the length or sliortness of its shadow, the elevation of the siin above 
 the horizon. There is much reason to think that this simple instrument was employed by 
 the Egyptians, especially in the operation, which they undoubtedly performed, of adding five 
 days and a (piartpr to 360, the number originally supposed to form a complete year. It has 
 even been imacined by some, that the pyramids, those enormous structures by which this 
 people I'xrited ;he astonishment of the world, were only huge sundials; and though it might 
 doubtless bn extravagant to conclude this to have been their sole object, yet it really appears 
 that, being placed in tho direct position of the cardinal jwints, they are jiertbctly fitted for 
 being thus employed. Rut, though it is clear that Thales and his disciples had largely drawn 
 from these early sources, they probably made considerable additions to tho information thence 
 derived. Two books, one on the tropic, and tho otiier on the equinoxes, are reported to 
 have been written by Tliales himself. The degree of knowledge thus attained enabled him 
 to discover the error of tho vulijar in supposing the o-irtli to be a plane surface; but he could 
 not roach tho precise idea of its globular form. .Am viiuamlor viewed it as a cylinder; some 
 rompared its form to tliac of a boat; others to tli.it of a lotly mountain. The details of the 
 Pythagorean cn-niography have not re.iched us; but the fiict that they placed the sun in the 
 centre of the system, with the earth moving round it, indicates at tliat infimt era attainments 
 which were lost during many ayes, and only recovered at a tar more advanced stage of 
 nioilcrn science. 
 
 Tho map must, as soon as goo.Tiphy was cultivr.tod, have occurred as the best and 
 most perspicuous form of nmbodyincr its results, Anaximander is tho first who is reported to 
 have constructed a map of the world, eiribrncing that limited sphere of objects which were 
 then coinpreliPiidoil under that form. Rut tlie most celol)ratod production of this nature was 
 that emjdoyod by .\ristagoras, the prince of Miletus, to induce Cleomones, the Spartan king 
 to undertake the cou<iuest of Persia. lie entered, it is said, the presence of that monarch, 
 
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 »"♦ 
 
 ' ■■*-' 
 > ■ 
 
. 1 
 
 
 i-..- _. 
 
 
 . .t 
 
 Book 1. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF HERODOTUS. 
 
 83 
 
 huldin^ in liis hand a tablet of brasH, on whicli wore inscribed " tlie whole circuit of the earth, 
 the Bea, and nil tlio rivers." Under this )»mpous description, howovor, was probably included 
 little more tliun a route from tlio Ionian soa to Sunn, which was specially pointed to as that 
 by which the >Spartan prince might lead liis victorious troops to the Persian capital. Even 
 of tills linn, rPHpecting which lie woa so deeply interested, the siiort detail of Hcrodot'is 
 shows liiiii to jxjssess by no means complete information. Beyond Cilicia his descriptions are 
 very indistinct. Mu has omitted Media altonrcther, and has given to Armenia quite an undue 
 extension. 
 
 The continental Greeks, during the era of their greatest power, did not cultivate 
 systematic geography, nor indeed any sciences dependent upon mathematical principles, 
 with niucli activity ; indeed, they did not even keep them up to the state in which they had 
 ., . been received from the Ionian cities. One solitary observation of latitude is recorded as 
 
 *?**■' having been made at Athens, by Meton and Eudemon, 432 years A. C. The different states, 
 
 in the course of their extensive wars, must have acquired a great portion of that topographi- 
 cal knowledge which is indispensable for military operations. Engrossed by these internal 
 objects, their attention was little directed to the general system of Uie world. One individual 
 *'*'•' alone, by extensive travels and diligent enquiries, procured an ample accession to the science 
 of history and of historical geography. 
 
 Sect. IV. — Geography of Herodotus. * n . • s» 
 
 The system of geonaphy included in the great historical work of Herodotus is as 
 complete as could be tormed from the materials witliin his reach. It comprises a general 
 summary of all that he could learn respecting the human race, and the regions which they 
 inhabited. His information was obtained not solely or chiefly from books, but mostly by 
 f\ travelling, the only mode in which at that era geographical knowledge could be effectually 
 
 ■'^i collected. He assures us that ho had visited Persia, Assyria, Egypt, Thrace, Scythia, and 
 
 j_ all tlie distant regions which he describes. He viewed them, however, only aa tracts of ter- 
 < ritory, tlie abode of men, and did not attempt to combine them into any system of the earth ; 
 
 ' nor did he possess, or, at least, apply any of the mathematical or astronomical principles of 
 
 the Milesian school. He even derides some of its conclusions ; as that of /the earth being 
 round and encompossod by the ocean. His strange statement, that the sun in India was ver- 
 tical in the morning instead of at midday, is evidently a misunderstood report of what he had 
 •% been informed respecting the diflTerencc of time in the difTcrcnt parts of the earth's circum- 
 
 ference. His knowledge, however, such as it is, consisting of plain (nets, untinctured with 
 theory, is botli solid and extensive. 
 
 The division of the earth into tiiree quarters, or continents, was by this time completely 
 formed. Sea, or at least water, seems to have been the prinoiplc of separation, though not 
 required to be altogether complete. Setting out from Europe, ii'r the origin of Which appel- 
 lation we have nothing but the fable of Europo, the Greeks seem to have named the other 
 continents from the districts immediately beyond the intervening sea. Homer already men- 
 tions the name of Asia as applied to a large and fine tract on tlio coast of Ionia. Thence it 
 spread through the spacious peninsula of which it forms part, and which Europeans con- 
 tinue to call Asia Minor ; but soon passing these limits, it was vaguely extended through the 
 boundless regions of the East, till it finally embraced entirely the largest of the three conti- 
 nents. On the other side, directly to the south, the Greeks first landed on the coast of Libya ; 
 and the name of Ijibya was by them applied to the entire continent. With the Romans, on 
 , the contrary, wiiose position and political relations attached them entirely to the district 
 
 of Afirica proper, in which Cartilage is situated, the name of Africa soon prevailed over 
 every other. 
 
 These grand divisions of the oncient world were already known to Herodotus; but he 
 has astonished I'^iiropean readers in an extraordinary degree by the assertion, that Europe is 
 longer and of greater extent than Asia and Africa united. The severe judgment of M. 
 Gosselin pronounces such an assertion, made in the midst of the nations which carried on 
 the most extensive navigation, to bo a proof that they had not formed the least idea of the 
 distance which their vessels sailed along the Mediterranean. Before pronouncing so severe 
 a sentence, we must consider attentively what, in the conception of Herodotus, was Europe, 
 and what was Asia. He mentions two boundaries : one formed by the Black Sea and the 
 Don, which, though it does not form a very appropriate boundary of a continent, continues 
 still to prevail, being connected with the Northern Ocean by the mountain chain of the 
 Urals. But in the other, which is that preferred by Hcrmlotus, the Black Sea is continued 
 "^ by the Caspian ; the boundary line being carried along the north of that sea, and tlicnco 
 indefinitely eastward. Taking Europe in this sense, wo find it in the west co-extended with 
 the opposite coast of Africa, which the ancients necessarily considered as marking the lenglli 
 of that continent, wliile, in the east, however far Asia might he prolonged, Europe was still 
 regarded as co-extensive. With regard to the boundaries of Africa, too, there was an 
 extreme want of precision. Our limit of tlie Isthmus of Suez is certainly the most accurate ; 
 
 Vol. I. E 
 
 
 fV'.; 
 
 I 
 
f^} 
 
 M 
 
 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Past I. 
 
 
 ^'- 
 
 but tho ancicntii, who could not readily admit tlio notion of a continent boundo<l by any thinjr 
 but water attached thein»olveg more to tlio Nile, and did not weH know whetlior to consider 
 F^fypt as Asiatic or African. 
 
 Si'DSKOT. 1. — The Europe of Herodotus. 
 
 ScytiiJa was tho oxtremity of Europe, beyond Greece, with which Herodotug appoara 
 to Juivi! beoii moHt familiar, and which, m fact, ho knew better tlian almost any other ancient 
 writer. 'I'hiH iinmo, which became ultimately Asiatic, was restricted by him to tho tractn 
 that now form the Bouthcm provinces of tho Russian empire. These repfions were tlmn, 
 and in a p-cat measure still are, possessed by the same description of rude Nomadic and 
 paxtoral people, who have always occuniod tlio central plains of Asia. The attention of the 
 liiatoriiia was npecially called t») thcin by the rash and daring expedition of Darius into u 
 rcffion secured by its natural barriers, and the wandering; and untamed character of its 
 people, a^iinst every form of reffulor subjection. Darius, crosninjf tho Hellespont, marched 
 alonj; the southern shore of the Euxino, reached tho bunks of tho Voljfa, and after the fruit- 
 lees lalwur of erecting there several (brtrcsHes, returned by a morn inland route, in which 
 Major Reimell even supposes him to have passed the site of Little Novogorod. The know- 
 ledge acnuire<l by this expedition, however, did not enable Herodotus to avoid great errors 
 in the delineation of European Scytliia. Ho imbibed a most exaggerated idea of the dimen- 
 sions of tho Palus Mtrotin, which ho calls the "mother of tho Euxino." This appears to 
 have arisen chiefly from the false orienting of tlio side which faces Russia, and which is 
 made to stretch almost duo north, instead of west, while tho sea itself is represented as 
 forming the eastern boundary of tliat great space of four hundred miles square, within which 
 Herodotus comprises Scythia. The southern boundarjr was fbnned by the Euxine, and tho 
 other two by the land, so that he does not connect it in any shape with tho Northern 
 Ocean. 
 
 Tho details of this extensive region are given by Herodotus with considerable accu- 
 racy. Of its rivers, after tho Danube, which ho ranks second to the Nile, ho mentions the 
 Tyres or Dniester, the Hypanin, or Bog (and even describes the close approach of these 
 rivers to each otlier in tlie upper part of their course), tlio great channel of tho Borystlienes, 
 or Dnieper, and the Tanais or Don. Between the lii.st ho mentions several streams, the 
 Panticupes, Hypacyris, and Gcrrhus, which not being recognized by modem geography. 
 Major Renncll supposes to bo creeks or branches of the greater rivers. 
 
 Milesian colonies had, by the active enterprise of that commercial people, been 
 already formed even on those rude shon^s. One, called the port of the Borystlienes, is 
 described as the centre of the trade of Scythia. On tho Imiiks of this great river dwelt a 
 people, bearing the run! character of the plonghin/r Scythian.n, who renouncing the almost 
 universal <iabits of thiMr race, raised crops of grain in tliis fertile district, wli'ch still 
 (iimishes to the ports of Taganrog and Odessa those supplies, which render t' u 'i the 
 granary of the Mediterranean. Tho Milesians had also a colony established at th>> mouth 
 of the Danube. 
 
 The northern interior countries of Europe, which lay bevond the limits of tho Scythia 
 explored by the expedition of Darius, were covered for Hrro<lotus with a veil of dim obscu- 
 rity. On tho Scytliian frontier, along the heads of tlie Dniester and Borystlienes, he repre- 
 sents several niitions ; the Mclanchlcni, " men clothed' in black ;" the Androphagi, " men 
 raters ;" tlie Neuri, " once a year converted into foxes," These Greek nimes, and partly 
 f ibulous attributes, .show tlie very imperfect noture of the notices collected on the subject 
 The regions beyond the Danube are expressly stated to be occupied by nations to him 
 unknown. Two precious commodities, tlie amber from the coast of Prussia, and the tin of 
 the Cassiterides, under which lost name a vague idea of the British Islands seems to be 
 included, communicated the knowledge, that there was a great ocean in the north, but 
 without tho means of ascertaining its extent and limits. On the east, however, as already 
 observed, he hail attached to Europe a vast (extent of territory which has been entirely 
 severed from it in subsequent systems. The cxptinse of northern and even middle Asia, 
 which the ancients afterwards called Scytliin, and which forms tlio modem Tartary, inha- 
 bited by races exactly similar to the Scythians already descriliod, Appeared to Herodotus 
 decidedly European. It was bounded by the Phasis, the Caspian, the Anil (not distinctly 
 recognized), and tlio J.ixartes. The Mussagota;, cclebnitcd for their contest with Cyrus, 
 gave name with Heroilotiis to all the wandering triiies in this eastern p.art of Europe; but 
 they were afterwards merged into the prevailing appellation of Scythion.s. 
 
 SiiBSECT. 2. Asia of Ilerodolus. ,^ 
 
 Asia, according to tlie conception of it formed by Hero<lotus, will appear, from what has 
 been said, to inclmle only a small portion of tho vast continent to whicli we assign that 
 name. On tlie north it Imd the same seas and rivers just enuiiierated as the Ixiundaries of 
 eastern Europe ; to the east it tenninaled with India ; while even to the south, a large por- 
 tion of the desert tracts of .Arabia were not yet believed to exist. When this great historian 
 
 H % 
 
 
..■-. ■ -.-.» ■ ^• 
 
 Book L 
 
 ASIA OF HERODOTUS. 
 
 1 repre- 
 men 
 partly 
 ibject. 
 to him 
 tin of 
 to be 
 th, but 
 llrcady 
 itirely 
 Asia, 
 inlm- 
 lodotus 
 tinctly 
 "lyruB, 
 but 
 
 a.t hoB 
 In that 
 ries of 
 re por- 
 Itorian 
 
 wrote, all tho various kinfifdoms and petty titatcH, ink) which, in the infhncy of the world, 
 A«ia had been partitioned, were abtK)rliL'd into onu vut ompiro. The PeriiianN claimed Asia 
 OH their own, and hod diHtributed it into twenty-four HatrnpieH, which have been illustrated 
 in a very learned manner by Major Rennnll. They includciid, with the exception of the 
 northern part, which ho conHidcrcd an Euroiican, all of AHia that wan known to tiie Greeks, 
 In collectinff therefore firom Major Kenncd'H invc8ti{^ution tho following table of those 
 sutrapii-M, wo exhibit not only the outline of tliat gtent empire, but, with tlio somewhat 
 dubiouri exception of a small part of Greece, the whole of the civilized world, Tho tribute 
 paid in talents of silver will exhibit their relative wealth and importance. 
 
 TADLR OP TIIE DIVIBIOM OF ABIA INTO BATRAPIE& 
 
 Innii). Mnnnniii), Tarin, ^.nlia, I.yclH, PiinpliyllK (IIib wot and louth coail of Atln Minor) 
 
 Myiiiii, l.yilia, *r. (llic ni'»U'rn iiitrrlnr) 
 
 I'lirytin, i'ii|ililnKniiia, Cn |>iinilucia, Ilc. (llio north rnniit and the K'aal inteiior table'land of Ada Minor) 
 
 Cilinn (incliiitinit part of Syria, ami ri'ai'liliiii to tho Kiiphratca) 
 
 Phronlcia, Palcotinc. anil Cyiirux (which furnlahi-il hIiki a Ihinl part of Hie naval force of the emplri) 
 
 Eifvpt, incliiiUnii I'vrenc anil narra(hnir of tho tribiitu paiil In grain] 
 
 HnhylDM nnil Anayrla, inrliiiling Syria, anil furnlahing alio 300 eunuchi 
 
 BiiHiaua, nr Southern Pemia. 
 
 Mi'iliu, (Northern Pomia) 
 
 The Canpiana, PiralcB, Panliinathi, anil Darltm (IhaCnipian provinces of Pania) 
 
 Tho MatlenI, Saiplroi, &c. (Ailcrliljan and the Armenian province!) 
 
 Armnnia. 
 
 The Mnaynoici, TibarenI, Moichi, let. (the Wettrrn Caucaiua, Oeorfia, Mingrelia, aa ftr aa Trebi- 
 
 ronil) 
 
 Thi- Sagartinna, Saraincana, he. (Si<i»tnn, Caromanio, Lar, and other territories along the Indian 
 
 Ocean, and the eaitrrn part of tho Peraian Rulf) 
 
 Tho Pnrthiana, Choaamiana, Bogdiana, and Ariana (Klioraaan, Herat, Candahar) 
 
 Tho Oanilaril, the Dadicn, Ilc. (Margiana, the country on the Murghab, between Khoraaan and the 
 
 Oxua 
 
 Bnctria (Balk) 
 
 The Snru! and Caaplca)(Kasligar, Famer, and other tracts of mounlainoui country about the head of 
 
 tho Oliia) 
 
 Tho I'ariranii and Elhiopianaof Aain (Mckran, including, perhaps, Caubul, and the Delta of the 
 
 Indua) 
 
 India, the largeat of all. being 300 talents in gold, which amounts in ailver to 
 
 400 
 800 
 
 300 
 SOO 
 360 
 1400 
 lUOO 
 300 
 4S0 
 900 
 900 
 «J0 
 
 300 
 
 000 
 300 
 
 170 
 360 
 
 S50 
 
 400 
 4060 
 
 Some tracts of this vast empire, not formed into regular satrapies, were privileged to 
 furnish only presents, or gifts, under an appearance of voluntary homage. Among these 
 were ranked the Persians proper, inhabiting the modern Fars, who obtained this distinction 
 as the conquering people by whom the empire was originally founded. The Southern 
 Arabians, and the Ethiopians above Egypt, derived the same immunity from the difficult 
 acces,-. to those rude regions in which they dwelt. The Southern Arabians are said to have 
 propitiated the favour of the great king by the present of a thousand talent's of incense. The 
 Colchians, ond tho occupants of the neighbouring heights of Caucasus, were also numbered 
 among the " givers of gifts ;" while the inhabitants of the northern parts of that great range, 
 secure in their mountain fastnesses, are said to have cared very little about the miglity ruler 
 of Persia. 
 
 These delineations of Asia display, upon the whole, a surprising accuracy nnd extent of 
 knowledge ; yet several remarkable errors occur with regard to points of which the investi- 
 gation does not appear very difficult. Thus the breadth of Asia Minor was reduced almost 
 a half; that between Babylon and the capital of Egypt was underrated at least a fourth ; 
 and the country between the Black Sea and the Caspian was placed in the same meridian 
 with the Persian Gulf, while it is really four degrees to tho westward. These errors are 
 the more remarkable, as the distances, instead of being in excfss, according to almost every 
 other ancient example, fall short of the truth. The early travellers exaggerated every space 
 over which they actually passed; but it sometimes happened that two points were ap- 
 proached from different quarters, and then united to each other by a hypothetical line, which, 
 as men usually undervalue what they know nothing of, was made generally too small. It 
 would not Appear that any regular route had been fonnotl acra«8 the high and rugged table- 
 land in the interior of Asia Minor from Cilicia to Trcbisond. These two points, being 
 approached respectively along the southern and northern coasts of the peninsula, might bo 
 supposed nearer to each other than they really were. Egypt was approached through Syria 
 and Palestine, and Babylon by descending the Euphrates; but tho direct line between them 
 lying across the Arabian desert, was scarcely known or frequented, and therefore became 
 an ideal lino in tlie view of Herodotus. Tho line from Armenia to the Persian Gulf was 
 of course measured along the Euphrates, tlie general course of which was south ; and as 
 the ancients oriented all their lines to a cardinal point, they overlooked the gradual but 
 constant bend which that river takes to the eastward. 
 
 The ideas of Herodotus concerning the extent of Asia, even including all that portion 
 of it which he assigned to Europe, could not fail to be defective. He knew nothing of 
 India beyond the Ganges, Thibet, China, Eastern Tartary, or Siberia, more than half the 
 superficial extent of the continent. Even his notions concerning India were most imper- 
 
88 
 
 HISTORY OF OEOORAPHY. 
 
 P*«T T. 
 
 tbct. Ho ilcHorihoH it oh lioiinilcd nn tlii' oiint by Htinil, Htrctcliin^ iiitn nii unknown nnd 
 mcuKurclcw dcNrrt, Frnni tliirt Htntcninit it clcnriy iipiMvirM tliiit IiIm lii<liu cciiniirpliiMKliMl 
 merely tho wnitnrn (xirt wiitcrcil by tlio Induri anil it* tlvt* tribiitflrirx; li« know nolliin^ ol' 
 ita widcmt nnd richrst rrjfionH, tho Onn|;<'tic provincoH, Dollii, ncnifnl, niul tho I)<Tciin ; 
 \htge iiortiuHN were ulno cut olT tVuin the Moiitliorn coMtH uf AHin, which wrro itiippoxtid to 
 bo woHhcd bv an ocoun nulled tho Rod or F.rytlironn Hon, without any diitinctiun of ttin 
 Pcnian Gult, aiid vory little of that which wo now call tho Rod Hoa. 
 
 SvMBOT, 3. — i^rtca of Herodolui. 
 
 In hid inquirioH rmtpcctinff AtVica, Ilorodotuit npponrH to hovo boon rqunlly dilifrnnt ai 
 concorning' tho other rojfions of tho pflobo; but oh hn never procooded U'yond F'tfypf, nnd 
 U tho formidable hnrriers which nntiirc oppiMca to him who nttoinplH to penetmto tho irito- 
 rior had Injon vory imperfectly overcome, much in what he collecterl iH otiicurod with my». 
 tery or perplexed with conjecture. 
 
 Eoypt is described with (^rcut accuracy, and under aome features which no lonj^er exist; 
 for the Tanitic and Peluxiac branchoH of the Nile, of which little more than the chnnnelu 
 can now bo traced, wore then in tbll flow. It appears, however, that conMidernhlo contusion 
 prevailed respoctinj} tho quarter of tho world to which Kj^nt wos to bo adjudge* As 
 water formed tho basis of tho division into continents, tho sanuy isthmus of 8uez, believed 
 to be broader than it really was, appeared very ill-flttcd to fonn such a limit. The Nile, 
 therefore, in the opinion of all tho Greeks, was tho boundary of the continents: all to the 
 east was Arabia ; all to the west Libya ; but a difficulty here arose in flxinf^ tho lot of K^pt 
 itself Tho Greeks, it appears, considered nothings as Egypt beyond tho Delta ; but this 
 opinion is ridiculed by Herodotus, who observes, that in that case there must formerly havo 
 been no Egypt at all, since this its lower branch was evidentlv produced by tho gradual 
 alluvial depositions of the Nile, Ho contends reasonably, that all tho banks of tho Nile as 
 fkr up as Elephanta,, which was inhabited by Eiryptians, was clearly Egypt. Ho accuses 
 tho Greeks of referring tho Delta, or their Egypt, neither to Asia nor Libya. If wo rightly 
 understand his own idea, it is tlmt the niiddlo or Scbcnnytic branch was tho proper point 
 of division between those continents. 
 
 In tracing the ^Jilo above Egypt, Herodotus states a lino of two months' journey partly 
 along tho banks, partly in b<wts which were dragged by ropes along tho current through 
 tho rocky channel. At tho end of this journey tney came to Meroe, the capital of Ethiopiu 
 above Egvpt, an ancient and celebrated kingdom, whoso monu.r.ents were viewed with 
 almost religious veneration, and whose monarchs had repeatedly conquered h^'ypt and 
 founded dynasties. Two moiitlis' journey farther was tho country of the Egyptian exiles, 
 a numerous body, who, having revolted from Psammotirus, sought tho protection of tho 
 king of Ethiopia, and were cantoned bv him in this remote district, which may bo Sonnaar, 
 or rather, perhaps, tho branch of the mhr-el-Abiad opixisito to it ; for Herodotus shows his 
 knowledge of this lust stream by observing tlmt it comes from tho west. 
 
 The long tract of desert to the west of Egypt is also described by Hero<lotus in some 
 detail, though apparently only from hearsay. Fho most conspicuous objects hero are the 
 oa.<ies, particularly that which contains the ancient and venerated templo of .Tupiter Ammon, 
 and which has been identified with the modern Siwali, To the west he gives tho names 
 of a i-uccession of wandering and pastoral tribes, such as still roam over those arid and sandy 
 regions, deriving from the soil only the produce of the dato-trce. Many of thorn stand 
 charged with morals peculiarly shameless and dissolute, the fcniiiles indulging openly in 
 the most irregular conduct, nnd making even a Ixjust of the tuimber of their paramours. 
 Probably there may be scandal mixed in those very evil reports of the African ladies. An 
 exception tx) this rude pastoral rliaractor existed on tho coast of Cyronaica, where tho 
 Greeks established flourishing polonies, which could b<' approached, however, only by tlio 
 dangerous route of the Syrlis or (luicksand, proverbial in ancient times as the scene of dis- 
 astrous shipwreck. 
 
 The Nasjimones, the most westerly as well as the most numerous of tho wandering 
 tribes, in general drove their herds along the sea-const, but in sununer repaired to tho Oasis 
 of itigila (Augila) to collect tho dates produced in that district. A tribe among this people 
 were called the Psylli, or devourers of serpent-s; and in fiict iippenr to have had a ))oculiur 
 iwwer of charming those noxir.us reptiles with which their deserts alKiund. Within their 
 borders, on the side of Cyrcno, whore verdure first began to adorn tho waste, Herodotus 
 has fixed the fabled site of the He.-;perian gardens. 
 
 The Garumantcs, to the south-west of Augila, and tho Nasamoncs, arc represented by 
 our historian as inhabitants of a region infested by wild boasts, and of a timid character, 
 flying the view and intercour,'<o of other men, destitute of amis, nnd unacquainted with war. 
 These characters do not apply to the people of modern Fezznn, which, however, is undoubt- 
 edly tho tract pointed out. To the north-west wore tho (lindanes (the mo<lern Gudamis), 
 among whom the license of public morals had risen to a greater height, than among all tho 
 wandering tribes of Libya. Still proceeding north-west, the traveller came to the lake Tri- 
 
 if- 
 
BunK I. 
 
 THK KXI'KDITION OP AI.KXANDKH. 
 
 Itho Oasis 
 
 lis people 
 
 pcculiiir 
 
 jliin their 
 
 ^ntnd by 
 llmractcr, 
 Ivith war. 
 lundonbt- 
 riudiimis), 
 Ip all the 
 
 lake Tri- 
 
 tonin, <'(>l('l)rnl('(l in nnrioni (Mf ii<! tlii< birf li-plnrc of MinrrvM, who, ncoonlin;? to ono liwMid, 
 wn>i N|>ritriif tVoiii Ni'ptiino nnd flc nymph of Ihi- hiki-. Thin hikf liirinH thn wuMtt'rn limit 
 i)t' thi> liin^f riin;.'<> nt' noniiidu' trihnii. Ik'yoiid it, lliTodotiH (rivcM um the Miixy'N, who ciiU 
 livati'd till' (.'riiiu\d. Ho had now ri-nrhod that tine raiijfi' ot'tiTritory lirlnn^jiinf fo Ciirthajff, 
 Ktri'trhlM',' aloM(^ thii nxwf, writi-n^l nnd rnrirht'il hy ntrrnniH tVoin Ihii Athin, It in very 
 ri'tnarkiilili', hownvrr, that hi> bixinld piKM hv entindy that uug\\iy anri rcdnbrated KtutP, 
 whii li was not only thn \m<<{ |h .wortlll in Atripa, hut wan iilwi tl'o rcritni of indiinlry and 
 riiiriiiii'rco with rocprct to tli*^ icicnt world. .Major Konmdl han iinH|N<('tc(| that tliin arowi 
 
 f'r a national I'l'idinir of oiiin on acroiitit of tlit'ir allianro with tim IVrKlnnx; hnl whrn 
 
 wo conxidcr that no miidi t(<(dni_ hn« prcvcntod tlio Inlh'Ht acTount tVoin hoini; jjivcii ol' thf 
 l't'r-'ian-< thoniHtdvfn, it can prarcoly 1h> mippoMcd that the h(>inif inrrely tVicnilM to tho Per- 
 HiiinN would cxrhido ho (jri'at a pi'opic iVoin Imm notico. It Honuix roally very dilH( nil to 
 ronjci'fnrn liifi motive, unleHw, aerordini; to the Hn)ffjeHtion of a learniMl t'rienil, we Hiip|H)(.o tliat 
 HercKlotns, writinjjf nlnifwt entirely tn ilhiHtratiMvliat waa oliHcure, or connnunicate know- 
 ledjje on [viintn renpeetin)? whieh ttu* world were in ignorance, ini(;lit think it HU|)erMnoiiH to 
 doHcribe what muct have been well known to the bulk of hiri readers, for the name reason 
 that hn has ffiven no reifidar desoription of (ireere. In reference to the trani>nrtionN of this 
 pooolo with other nntioni, he tjiken re()eated occasion to mention thoni, no that the oinisMion 
 conid not arise from absolnte ij,'noninco. 
 
 Atlas and fh> doBert bonier behind it next onpajfo the attention of onr historian; b tract 
 renrhinj; as fur as the utraits, which he mils the hiqli fnrvhrml of Africa. He describes 
 .Atlas as a lonff and lolly ranpe, wliotin lii)r|iest pinnacles arc wrapped in perpetnal rhaids 
 and he asoribes to the natives the oripin of the belief adopted by the Greeks, which made 
 it the pillar of heaven. Even in this extreme Iniundary of the continent, ho mcntifais some 
 pccnliarities that really exist : — the enormous size and formidable rharacter of the serpent 
 tribe; oxen with lar(?o nnd crooked horns; houses of salt whirh would melt away it'a sinjflo 
 shower were to interrupt the continued drouffht. When he bejjins, however, to speak of 
 people with horses' heads, and others without heads at all, it is time to fake our leave ; 
 thou(;li some learned writers suppose this to be a mere oxajffforateil description of some 
 animals of the desert. Wo must still follow him, however, to the western creist beyond the 
 straits, where the rnrthnfjinians, ho was informed, carried on trad«> witii the natives in a 
 peculiar manner. The prties did not see each other, but after a sijifiial made by smoke, (me 
 laid down his nrofler, went away, and left room for the other to do the seme ; when the first 
 came, and eitlicr accepted or rejected the barirnin, till the terms wore adjusted. Tluire 
 have been re|)ort8 in various quarters of this mo(m of traffic, hut all, wo suspect, exnjfgerated 
 representations of the timid manner in which civilized traders make their approachi^s to 
 those savaije people who possessed any valuable commodities. The priMluct soujrht \hhiu 
 this shore was jjold ; anil, as it does not exist in any latitude north of the Hone),'al, Major 
 Reimell concliidea that the trade of Carthatre extended to that distant river. A sceptic 
 mipht surmise tliat the pold was brouL.'ht across the desert to the coast of Barbary ; yet, 
 considerinrf the formidable character of this desert, it seems doubtful if at so early a period 
 a comnorcial route across itc(Hild have been opened. 
 
 The interior of Africa could not fail deeply to attract the curiosity of llorodotus. The 
 part already noticed as described by him forms only a belt along its northern coast, and 
 mcludes none of the vast inland tracts. On this subject, however, ho has only one talc to 
 tell. Several Nasamoniun youths of distinction, seisied with that desire to penetrate the 
 continent which has prevailed throuirhout all ages, departed on an expedition to the south- 
 ward. They traversed three successive bolts; first, the cultivated, or at least verdant and 
 inhabited tract alonfj tiie sea-shore ; then, another occupied only by wild beasts ; and, lastly, 
 n refjion arid and desolate. Here, while pluckinpf fruits, they were surprised by some 
 men of small stature, who carried them by the way of very great lakes, to a city inhabilsd 
 bv black inhabitants, and situated on a large river flowing from west to east. This river 
 iterodotus, Naturally enough, judges to W the Nile. Major Rennell conceives it to bo pro- 
 bably the river of Tombuctoo, wliich Riiropcan.s call the Niger; but we think, since the 
 late discoveries, there can scarcely be any hesitation in fixing it as the Ycou, the river 
 which rolls through Bornou, while the Tchad may be identified with tlio great lakes 
 along which the expedition was conducted. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FIRST .M.EXANDniAN SCHOOL—ERAToaTlIENES AND BTRABO. 
 
 Rkct. I. — The Expedilion of Alexander, 
 
 The geography of the Greeks became little more than a topographical delineation of 
 military routes, litler the intestine wars in which they were involved caused them to lose 
 eiglit of the more distant rcLMons of the earth. Reside}--, as they never cultivated mathe- 
 
 VOL. I. ' * 
 
 it'J 
 
 i 
 
 
 m 
 
f 
 
 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt I. 
 
 ! 
 
 iv 
 
 matical science with any care or to any extent, tliey Imd not the power of arranging 
 even these limited materials into a KyKtematic form. 
 
 The expedition of Alexander gave a much greater degree of expansion to the human mind. 
 That monarch transferred the scut of war into the Persian empire, and carried his victorious 
 arms into the remotest regions of the East. Whatever might be the faults ancl follies with 
 which his career was stained, it cannot be denied that an enlightened curiosity animated 
 all his proceedings. Wherever he went, he was accompanied by skilful surveyors, Diogne- 
 tus and Boiton, wlio measured the length and direction of every route over which the 
 army passed. Alexander himself carefully inspected these itineraries, employed all prac- 
 ticable means for obtaining the best materials, and his letters are even quoted by Pliny as 
 authorities for many geographical statements. These itineraries are said to have been 
 afterwards published by Bteton, under the title of " the Marches of Alexander." From the 
 defective state of the science, however, which that prince could not remedy, all these 
 materials were necessarily imperfect They could include nothing beyond mechanical 
 measurement, nor is there any record, throughout this long career, of a single attempt to 
 fix the position of any spot by celestial oteervation. Imperfect as they were, however, 
 these documents did not the less form a completely new era in geographical science. After 
 the death of Alexander, they passed through the hands of Scleucus into those of Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus, who spared no efforts to render Alexandria the greatest seat of learning and 
 science in the ancient world ; and among the sciences there cultivated, geography and 
 astronomy held the most distinguished place. 
 
 The progress of Alexander led him at first through Syria, Egypt and Persia, but did not 
 bring the Greeks to the knowledge of any countries, of whose existence and limits they 
 were not already fully apprised. But after he began the pursuit of Eessus, who had carried 
 off Darius into Bactriana, his march became a sort of exploratory route. In his vain pur- 
 suit of the Scythian armies he reached the banks of tlie Jaxartes, though he did not fully 
 trace the course either of that river or of the Oxus. On his way thence to India, he had 
 to penetrate the narrow passes overhung by the snowy ramparts of the Hindoo Coosh, and, 
 with much difficulty and many hardships to his troops, learned to appreciate the magnitude 
 of that great inland barrier of Asia. In India, Alexander could not penetrate beyond the 
 region watered by the five rivers. Yet he did not consider it as the boundary of the 
 earth ; he learned the existence and beauty of the fine regions on the Ganges, whither he 
 in vain attempted to persuade his fatigued and refractory troops to follow him. He consoled 
 himself by conveying his army in pomp down the Indus, to view the entrance of that great 
 stream into the ocean, and with instructions, as we have already seen, to trace the shores 
 of Asia round the Persian Gulf. He himself, upon very bad information, undertook to lead 
 back his army through Gedrosia and Caramania, the greater part of which he found, as 
 modem travellers have done, to be a desert of the most dreary and formidable character, in 
 which his army was with difficulty saved from total destruction. 
 
 Sect. II. — Expedition of Seleucus. 
 Seleucus, on the partition of the empire of Alexander, succeeded to the dominion of 
 Syria and the East. Neither that prince nor his successors were either learned or patrons of 
 learning; but as the owner of extensive dominions, and aiming at farther conquest, he 
 cherished tlie natural wish to be acquainted with what he possessed or hoped to obtain. Ho 
 employed his admiral, Patrocles, to make a survey of the Caspian Sea, which had not 
 entered into tlie line of Alexander's route; but the information gained by this voyage must, 
 as we shall see, have been far from complete. It would also seem as if he had employed the 
 same admiral in an attempt to circumnavigate Asia; but the assertion which obtained credit 
 in that age, tliat he had sailed round from India to the Ciispian, sufficiently attests the failure 
 of the enterprise. Seleucus, also, finding, probably, that the inroad of Alexander into India 
 had been of very transient result, undertook a military expedition, the details of which are 
 little kno\vn, and which enabled him to establish no permanent footing in the country ; but 
 he collected some further materials for the geographer, and the record of his marches appears 
 to have been of imjwrtant service to Pliny. He sent also an embassy under Megasthenes 
 to Palibothra, capital of the great Indian kingdom situated on the Ganges, from which the 
 ancients derived a more accurate knowledge of these eastern parts of the world than they 
 liad previously possessed. 
 
 SErr. III. — Eratosthenes. 
 Eratosthenes at length succeeded in reducing geography to a system under the patronage 
 of the Ptolemies, whicli gave him access to all the materials colloctpd by Alexander, his 
 generals, and successors, and to the immense mass of docunients assembled in the Alexan- 
 drian library. The astronomical observations made in this school were now sufficient to 
 prove the globular form of t\w earth. Eratosthenes, proceeding u|)on tiiis principle, made it 
 his study to adjust to it all llie known features of the globe. He did not, however, attend 
 to the gnmd original division.s of the equator, tlie pole, or even tlie tropics. The line which 
 
nironape 
 
 nder, his 
 
 Alcxan- 
 
 Scient to 
 
 \, inado it 
 
 attend 
 
 no wliici' 
 
 Book I. WORLD ACCORDING TO ERATOSTHENES AND STRABO. 39 
 
 formed the basis of his geograpliy, and generally of that of the Alexandrian school, wa« a 
 parallel drawn across the Mediterranean, and thence prolonged through Asia. It waa 
 formed in a very rough manner, upon no actual observation, and comprising all leading 
 positions which came nearly though not strictly within its sphere. It was called generally, the 
 parallel of Rhodes. The most westerly point was the Sacred Cape of Iberia (Cape St Vin- 
 cent), after which followed the " Strait of the Pillars" (of Hercules). The next point waa 
 tiic Strait of Sicily, erroneously considered to be under the same meridian with Rome and 
 Carthage. Then came Rhodes, the centre of the line. Issus, celebrated as the site of the 
 victory of Alexander, was with little dilFiculty brought within the limit Next followed the 
 somewhat doubtful position of tlie Caspian gates, and the line was extended along the chain 
 of Mount Taurus, supposed to divide Asia into two parts, till it terminated at the remote 
 city of Tliina?, situated on the eastern ocean. This entire length of the habitable world, aa 
 it was called, amounted to about 70,000 stadia, or, according to his estimate, one hundred 
 degrees, not quite a third of tlie circuit of the globe. 
 
 In determining a meridian to exhibit liis breadth of the habitable world, Eratosthenes 
 laboured under still greater difficulties. On the extreme south was " the limit of the habitable 
 earth;" for, accordmg to this school, a certain tract around the equator was, from the 
 excess of heat, unfit for human habi' ition. The uninhabitable zone was supposed to extend 
 8,300 stadia, or about twelve degrees to the north of the equator. Under the next parallel 
 were included the " Isle of the Exiles," in or near Sennoar ; the cinnamon-bearing region, 
 which appears to be Berbera, and Taproban, or Ceylon. Next comes Meroe, the capital of 
 Ethiopia, which was supposed, though with great error, to correspond as to latitude with 
 the southern extremity of India : thence descending the Nile the geographer marks the 
 jelebrated position of Syene, which was concluded to be immediately under the tropic, 
 iiince there was a well, in the depth of which at noon-day, at the precise time of the vernal 
 equinox, the disk of the sun \.as seen reflected entire. The observation was very nearly 
 correct Next came Alexandria, of which, as the centre of all these observations, the 
 position aa to latitude was very closely approximated. Then followed Rhodes in the centre 
 of the great parallel already described as exhibiting the length of the habitable globe. 
 Continuing northward, though not upon the same lino, were found the Hellespont, Byzan- 
 tium, the mouth of the Borysthenes, and passing over the vast obscurely-known tracts of 
 Germany, Gaul, and Britain, tlic farthest Thulc, which, on the report of Pytheas, Eratos- 
 thenes regarded as the extreme northern boundary of the earth. As the same authority 
 placed Thule under the Arctic circle, or at sixty-six degrees of latitude, the interval be- 
 tween that position and the limit of the habitable earth on the side of the equator amounted 
 to about fifty-four degrees, or according to his estimate 38,000 stadia, which formed thus 
 the supposed breadth firom north to south of the habitable earth. 
 
 Sect. IV. — Hipparchus. 
 Hipparchus, carrying still farther the system adopted by Eratosthenes, subjected the 
 whole science of geography to astronomical principles. His labours in numbering the stars, 
 and arranging them according to their place in the heavens, were such as appeared mar- 
 vellous to the ancients, and are esteemed by Pliny aa achievements that would have been 
 nrduous even for a god. In this career, however, he had been preceded by Timocharis and 
 Aristillus, wlio, more than a century before, had made some observations whicii paved the 
 way for the present extended discoveries. Hipparchus appears to have first conceived the 
 idea of transferring the observed latitudes find longitudes of the stars to their correspond- 
 ing places on the eartli's surface, thus fixing the latter with a precision which no itinerary 
 measurements could ever attain. He made a considerable number of observations of lati- 
 tude, in addition to the very few previously existing, and he pointed out the mode in which 
 (he longitudes might be ascertained by observing the eclipses of the sun and moon. It does 
 not appear to what extent he carried the diflicult operations requisite for this investigation ; 
 bu' he is said to have calculated the eclipses for six hundred years, including the moments 
 of their appearance at different places ; a performance which seems to indicate a know- 
 ledge of their astronomical position. Thus Hipparchus distinctly perceived all tiie prin- 
 ciples upon which an accurate system of geography might be founded, and made some 
 progress in their application; but tiiese important principles, like others which wore beyond 
 the comprehension of the age in which they were made, remained for a long time dormant 
 or misapplied, and were not brought into full practical opplication until a much more 
 advanced period in the progress of science. 
 
 Sect. V. — The world accordinff to Eratosthenes aitd Stralo. 
 The application to the different parts of the earth's surface of the principles according 
 to which the globe was to bo delinnatcd, formed a task still more arduous tiiaii that of the 
 first estnblislmioiit of those ])riiiriplos. Tho longitudes and latitudes of the ancients are 
 both erroneous; more cspocially the longitudes, to wliicli astronomical observation waa 
 never verv cxt?nsivcly apulicd ; lionco it is not wonderful that tlie errors should be great; 
 
 i 
 
If 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 '.' « 
 
 40 
 
 TSM 
 
 mSTORY OP GEOGRArilY. 
 
 'P 
 
 Part I. 
 
 but the regular and rapid manner in which they accnmulato appears very surprisinx 
 They begin from the Sacred Cape of Iberia (Cape St. Vincent), which the aiicienU mane 
 their first meridian, and continue regularly increasing as we proceed eastward. To the 
 Pillars of Hercules were assigned more than two dcgree.s beyond the trutli; to Alo.xandria, 
 nearly seven ; to Issus, ten ; to the Caspian gates, fourteen ; to Pattalena, or tiie Delta of 
 the Indus, twenty-three ; to the mouth of tlio Ganges, nearly twenty-seven. We have 
 already had occasion to observe, and the remark is found in the best ancient geographers, 
 that merchants and travellers of that age gave an exaggerated report of all the distances 
 over which they passed. The windings of the route, the hardships and obstacles encoun-- 
 tared by them, the desire to magnify their own achievements, all concurred in inducing 
 them to view and present this particular tlirough an amplified medium. All the ituicraries 
 continued along the line upon which Eratosthenes measured his length of the habitable 
 globe being tlms unduly extended, the degrees calculated out of mem were of course 
 equally in excess ; and this excess became always the greater in proportion to the length 
 to which the line was protracted beyond its commencement at the Sacred Cape. The lati- 
 tude of the principal places in and round the Mediterranean is in general not far from the 
 truth, probably because it was determined by such rude observations as were within the 
 compass of Greek science at that early period. 
 
 In tracing the outline of the known world, and especially of the continents, geographers 
 still proceeded amid obscurity and doubt This school had laid down tlie fiindaraental prin- 
 ciple of a great circumambient ocean, embracing the entire circuit of the three continents. 
 This idea, mherited from Homer, was doubtless supported by facts to a considerable extent ; 
 but its application to the world in general, and especially to the nprthern shores of Europe 
 and Asia, was manifestly hypothetical, Eratosthenes, in comparing the magnitude of his 
 known world, even under its eroggerated dimensions, with the general circumference of 
 the earth, became sensible that only a third part of this last was filled up. He indulges in 
 conjecture as to the contents of this vast unknown region, which, he observes, might either 
 be supposed to consist of one great ocean, the whole of which he denominates the Atlantic, 
 or of lands and islands which might be discovered in sailing to the westward. With a 
 degree of caution, however, not very common in that age, he declines to give any decisive 
 opinion on this question. — The system of Eratosthenes may now be considered in regard to 
 Europe, Asia, and Africa. 
 
 Sdbsect. 1. — Europe. (Fig. 6.) 
 
 The imperfection of ancient geography is often conspicuous with respect to countries 
 which were very near and familiar. In regard to the very centre of the Mediterranean, 
 Eratosthenes conmiitted a capital error. Following the propensity to include all the lead- 
 ing positions under some one line to which they approximate, he placed in the same me- 
 ridian Rome, the Sicilian strait (that of Messina), and Carthage. The mistake with regard 
 to the first and last of these points did not much exceed a degree ; but the middle point is 
 nearly four degrees east from Rome, and five from Carthage. Such an error could not fail 
 to produce others. M. Gossolin shows that it has led to a signal mistake respecting the 
 position of Sicily, as the geographer, in order to retain its relative position towanls Carthage, 
 necessarily represented its greatest length as from north to south, instead of from east to 
 west. The promontory of Lilyboenm, facing Carthage, became the southern instead of 
 the western extremity of Sicily ; while Cape Pachynum, instead of the southern, became 
 the eastern. Sicily being thus projected so unreasonably towaitis the south, Carthage also 
 was made to recede too far in the same direction; and the coast leading thither from the 
 straits of Gibraltar was supposed to bend to the south instead of the north. The same 
 erroneous process, placing Sicily too far west, enlarged beyond measure the eastern basin 
 of tlie Mediterranean comprehended between it and Asia Minor. This deformity became 
 still more serious from another application, to Alexandria and Rhodes, of the system of 
 placing leading points under the same meridian. As the former error had made Sicily too 
 fer west, this mode Rhodes too far cast, and rendered the sea between these islands too 
 large by at least a half. 
 
 Strabo, ever alive to the faults of his predecessors, detected the mistake of Eratos- 
 thenes with respect to the relotive positions of Rome and Carthage. He has been fer, 
 however, from rectifying all the wrwig positions established by his predecessor. He haa 
 
 1. OfldM 
 3. C'aipe 
 
 3. Carthavo Nova 
 
 4. Narbo 
 
 5. Manilla 
 fl. Aniipolir 
 7. Ocnuu 
 a Luna 
 
 0, Populonium 
 }f. Cu3>a 
 
 11. noma 
 
 K. 0«lia 
 
 IS. (,'irceii 
 
 14. PiiieoK 
 
 I.*!. Nenpuli^ 
 
 1A. Pnmtlonia 
 
 17. Velia 
 
 IR I.nui 
 
 K. IlitipoBiuin 
 
 of Europe according 
 
 to Eratotlhentn. 
 
 
 90. Rhpfriiim 
 
 
 SS). Pnla 
 
 il I'iccr 
 
 21. Hrjtlaoiam 
 
 
 7)0. K[)i<lnunia 
 
 fjurnmna 
 
 n. Thutii 
 
 
 .11. KindHmnQi 
 
 f Durmj 
 
 21. 'I'arenlDin 
 
 
 '.fi. ApoJIunia 
 
 * Tttaua 
 n Anan 
 
 ^. Hriinduaium 
 
 
 
 15. flipiiB 
 
 
 Rivert 
 
 i Roofia 
 
 %. I'eanum 
 
 
 a Alhi* 
 
 j IhRriia 
 1i Khndaoua 
 1 Varui 
 
 W. Ancnna 
 «. Aiimiouni 
 
 
 b Rhnnoa 
 
 
 G Bcquana 
 
•r ., 
 
 '■. .-*. 
 
 » 
 
 Fio. 6. EUROPE ACCORDING TO ERATOSTHENES. 
 
 41 
 
 M A Jl E 
 
 A TLANTlCVia 
 
 ^ k 
 
 m. 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 ill; 
 
 ^■t 
 
 .^. 
 
 
mmm 
 
 ^ 
 
 43 
 
 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PartL 
 
 S 
 
 left untouched the false orienting of Sicily, and all the errorn dependent upon it. Botli ho 
 and Eratosthenes describe Italy aa extending from north to south, which, allowing for the 
 early tendency to orient nil lines towards a cardinal point, may be taken us a pretty fail 
 representation. M. Gosselin hoii undertaken to show tliat sucli a tlircction would be incon- 
 sistent with the other data given by these geographers, in confbrmity to which Italy must 
 stretcli from east to west. Consideruig, however, the imperfect state of geograpiiical deli- 
 neation at that puriotl, it f^eems going too far to follow each error into all its conscquenceB, 
 or to suppose that all the views given can be brought into complete harmony. 
 
 The outline of the central and northern countries of Europe drawn by these geogra^ 
 phcrs is excessively vague. Strabo indeed makes some approach to accuracy in comparing 
 the Spanish peninsula to a " hide spread out," or to a parallelogram. Various countries 
 were by the ancients denominated from a fancied resemblance to some object in nature, nor 
 are examples wanting in modern times. But the eastern side of this figure is formed by 
 the Pyrenees, which are thus made to extend from north to south, to form the western 
 boundary of Gaul, and to be parallel to the Rhine. Hence arises the greatest of all these 
 errors ; for Gaul is allowed to have on the ocean only one coast, which is that looking to 
 the north, and every whore opposite to Britain. Strabo treats with derision the report of 
 Pytlicas, that the Calbium promontorium, the extreme point of Brittany, looked to the west, 
 and he represents vessels as sailing to Britain as readily from the mouth of the Loire and 
 Graronne as from tliat of tlie Rhine and the Seine. Great as these errors arc, we shall easily 
 trace their origin in considering the sources whence the Greeks derived their information 
 respecting these extremities of Europe. Whatever may have been the case with regard to 
 the Carthaginians, it is evident that neither Greeks nor Romans ever navigated its exterior 
 seas. Pytlieas alone performed that daring voyage ; but having no witnesses to bring in 
 support of his relation, it was denounced as fabulous, in common with others made by early 
 discoverers. The regular channel of communication was Marseilles. The merchanthse of 
 Britain being brouglit across the British channel to the mouths of the Rhine and the Seine, 
 was conveyed up lliose rivers, and by land carriage to that great emporium of Gaul. Hence 
 the geography of Gaul and Britain, in that age, was ruled entirely by Massilian ideas. 
 From the causes stated, the Massilians had no communication with Britain unless by the 
 northern coast of Gaul, and by routes directed from .'^oulh to north tiirough that country. 
 Reasoning only from what they knew, they might soon arrive nt the conclusion, that Gaul 
 had only a nortiiern coast, and might apply to it the wlioie of the erroneous system now 
 described. The result of this system was, that the Casisitoridcs, Islands of Tin, in which 
 term the Scilly islands were evidently blended with Cornwall, were made to approach to 
 Spain, and came to bo considered as much Spanish as British. So prevalent was this idea, 
 that even afterwards, when the conquests of Rome had made known the wide separation 
 between the two countries, tlie Cassiterides are found in some maps still attached to Spain, 
 and at a little distance from Cape Ortegal. 
 
 Britain, under this system, was represented as a triangle, of which the base, or 
 longest side, was that along the channel and opposite to Gaul. As the coast, after passing 
 the two extremities of this line, begins on one side to bend inward towards the Bristol 
 Channel, and on the other to the Thames, navigators then probably considered it as continu- 
 ing in these directions till it came to a point, far short of its real termination. lerne, or 
 Hibemia, (Ireland) appears in dim obscurity. It is said to be situated four hundred miles 
 north from the centre of Britain, under a climate so excessively cold that there could not 
 possibly 1)0 any inhabited country nearer to the pole. If the four hundred miles be measured 
 from the centre of the southern coast, and allowance be made for false orienting, it will not 
 be found so very wide of the truth. Tlie rest of the description was probably made out by 
 confused ideas of Scotland, and particularly the bleak mountainous tracts in the north. 
 Eratosthenes, indeed, hius derived from Pytheas a knowledge of the far northern limit of 
 Thule, and of its appendant islands, stretching towards the Arctic sea ; but, as the proud 
 scepticism of Strabo rejected this statement, he was thrown back upon the more imperfect 
 information aflbrded by tlie merchants of Marseilles. 
 
 The eastern shores of northern Europe occasioned still more emlmrrnssmciit to the 
 Greeks. They had, in general, the idea of this continent having tlie sea for its boundary ; 
 but this seems mainly to rest upon the general vague belief of a circumambient oooan, and 
 an understanding that Germany had on the north a maritime boundary, indicated by the 
 amber brought from the shores of the Baltic. Here, too, Pytheas, either by personal 
 investigation or by careful inquiry, had collected some particulars which if Strabo had not 
 disdained, he would not have been left in such total darkness. After proceeding fir along 
 the German coast, that navigator, it is said, came to a great gulf (evidently the Baltic). He 
 found Basilia, a very large i.-land, the same which Pliny calls Baltia ; being, in fact, the 
 peninsula of Scandinavia, which, until it was circumnavigiited, must have been regarded by 
 navigators ns nil island. Then, it is said, he came to the Tanais, wliich appears, no dnuht, 
 a very startling assertion; but we must remember that, in this sehixil, the circumambient 
 ocean was supposed to liave a coast only a little north of the Euxine and the Caspian, and 
 
Book I. 
 
 ROMAN GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 48 
 
 the 
 
 to communicate with theso seas or {julfe (an they were supposed to he) by narrow straits, 
 one of which was the Tanais, and the nioutli of one of tiio great Baltic rivers might very 
 easily be imagined to form the terininutlon of thia strait. 
 
 SuBSECT. 2. — Asia. {Fig. 7. pnge 44.) 
 
 The limits assigned to Asia, already too small, were contracted by the geographers of the 
 Alexandrian school, notwitlistanding the additional sources of information which they pos- 
 sessed respecting that continent. This error arose partly from their theory of a surround- 
 ing ocoon, and partly from their neglect of tlie important information obtained by Herodo- 
 tus respecting the countries along the heads of the Euxine and Caspian. The expedition 
 of Alexander, indeed, and the embassy of Megasthenes, made them acquainted with the 
 fJnngps, rolling eastward through the fine plain of Upper Hindostan. Seeing it pursue 
 this direction to the utmost limit of the then known world, they were led to conclude that 
 its course continued eastward, and that it fell into the eastern ocean, which formed, on that 
 side, the boundary of the continent. Connecting this with the Caspian, the only northern 
 Asiatic sea known to them, they drew a Una from one to the other, by which they excluded 
 nearly two-thirds the extent of Asia ; the Birman empire, China, tlie greater part of Tar- 
 tary, and the whole of Siberia. On the shore of the eastern ocean was placed ThinK, evi- 
 dently known only by vague rumour, and which they fixed at the extremity of the line 
 measuring the length of the habitable globe. What may be the import of this mysterious 
 name, and whether it be the capital of Siam or of China, is a discussion which will be bet- 
 ter reserved until we come to the more precise notices of Ptolemy. One other grand 
 feature was known to this school; the cape of the Coliaci or Cape Comorin; but conceiving 
 the coast of Coromandel to follow the line of the Ganges, and, consequently, to verge to- 
 wards the west, they made it several degrees more easterly than even ThinE. 
 
 Asia within and Asia beyond Taurus were made the grand divisions of tliat continent. 
 That great mountain chain arising in Asia Minor was supposed to be prolonged by those 
 of the Elburz, of Khorasan, and of Hindoo Coosh, which, m fact, there is much reason to 
 believe, may form a chain nowhere wholly interrupted. Within Taurus were all the fertile, 
 populous, and splendid kingdoms and countries of Asia; Syria, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, 
 Susiana, Ionia, Cilicia; beyond, were the ruder tracts of Scythia, Boctria, Sogdiana; and 
 more westerly, the Caucasian territory, and the part of Asia Minor situated along the shore 
 of the Black Sea. 
 
 SuDSECT. 3. — Africa. 
 
 In regard to Africa, the knowledge of these geographers, though accurate in some re- 
 spects, was extremely limited. They believed its boundary to be the sea ; but this correct 
 judgment proceeded rather from a casual coincidence with their theory of an encircling 
 ocean, than from any actual knowledge ; since Strabo rejected even the possibility of cir- 
 cumnavigation. This scepticism was founded upon the hypothesis of an uninhabitable tor- 
 rid zone, which formed an essential part of the reigning system at this period. It is a be- 
 lief manifestly Atrican, founded on the observation of those vast and burning deserts, which 
 extend indefinitely beyond the narrow inhabited stripe bordering on the Mediterranean. 
 The Nile, then, being still considered as the eastern boundary, Africa became a sort of 
 right-angled triangle, of which the two smaller sides were formed by that river and the 
 Mediterranean, while the hypotenuse, or largest side, was the unexplored shore. It was 
 •(ton the Nile that Eratosthenes measured the habitable world of Africa ; yet he does not 
 trace that river so high as Herodotus, his details reaching only between three and four 
 hundred miles above Meroe. In these details, however, he is very accurate : on the east- 
 ern side, he represents it as receiving two great rivers, the Astapus and the Astaboras, the 
 former of which flows from lakes in the south, and, when swelled by the summer rains, 
 forms almost the main body of the Nile. He describes also the bend which the river makes 
 in its passage through Nubia. Tiie source, being imagined to exist in regions rendered in- 
 accessible by extreme heat, could not be considcuod as within the reach of discovery. The 
 idea, however, still prevailed, that it came from the west, and Strabo even mentions a re- 
 port, that its source was in the remote region of Mauritania, south of the Atlas. This is 
 the only statement made by geographers of this school, which can be considered as indi- 
 cating any idea of the existence of the Niger. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ROMAN GEOGKAPHV. 
 
 The Roman geographers attained no proficiency in the mathematical branch of the 
 science. M. Gosselin does not even hesitate to a.ssert, tiiat they remained always strangers 
 to ifs very flrr^t elenients. They made no attempt, therefore, to combine their materials into 
 one harmonious system, or to fix their positions with that strict accuracy, which astronomi- 
 
^ 
 
 *• 'W I P' 
 
 I 
 
 ff 'S 
 
 44 
 
 v 
 
 THE WORLD ACCORDING TO ERATOSTHENES. 
 
 ^ , 
 
 Fio. 7 
 
 ,r.'' 
 
f 
 
 'Itt 
 
 1.7 
 
 DooK 1. 
 
 ROMAN GEOGRAPHY.— MELA. 
 
 45 
 
 cal obsorvation alone can reach. Yet no notion omployed greater diligence in the opera- 
 lions of practical survey. This wu«, iiuleed, absolutely requisite, witli a view to that in- 
 ci>9nant warlure in which thoy were cngiigod ; they could not conqner tho world without 
 oreviously surveying it. Their geographical researches were, however, held strictly sub- 
 servient to this ambitious design. 
 
 Itineraries were thus the only form in which the results of Roman investigation 
 were presented. Vegetius informs us that when war was to be carried into any country, 
 tlie first cure was to procure a complete set of routes, and place them in the hands of tho 
 general. These itineraries, it is observed, ought, if ]iof)sible, to contain, not merely tlie inter- 
 vals, in paces and Roman miles, between one place and onother, but the (juality of the roads, 
 the surrounding objects, mountains and rivers, delineated with the utmost possible precision. 
 They were not only to be noted, but painted, that the commanders might not know merely, 
 but see betbre tlicir eyes, tlie route by which they were to proceed. The Romans became 
 thus the surveyors as well as tho conquerors of the world ; and every new war in which 
 they engaged, every new conquest which their arms acliieved, produced a fresli accumula- 
 tion of materials for the use of tho geographer. Even after a country was subdued, tho 
 necessity of accurate 8ur\'ey did not cease. The empire was long held in a state of mere 
 military occupation ; camps formed at proper distances were connected bjr those excellent 
 and durable roads, many of which remain to this day. An accurate acquaintance with the 
 position and intervals of these camps, and tlie nature of the intervening territory, was essen- 
 tial to tlie maintenance of their dominion over the vast extent of their conquered countries. 
 No sooner, tlieretbre, had Julius Cfesar seated himself on the undisputed throne of the empire, 
 than he caused a senates consultum to be passed for a general measurement of the Roman 
 world. This task, it is said, was intrusted to " the most prudent men, adorned with every 
 endowment of philosophy." The east was assigned to Zenodoxus, the west to Theodotus, 
 and the soutli to Polycletus. In the course of twenty-five years, as we are informed by 
 iEthicus, tlie whole was completed. Julius CBsar, however, did not long survive the com- 
 mencement of this great work, which the civil wars probably suspended. It was apparently 
 resumed and completed under the reign of Augustus and the ministry of his son-in-law 
 Agrippa, to w'hom it appears, from Pliny, to have been afterwards ascribed. The exact prin- 
 ciples upon which this grand measurement was conducted have nowhere been stated. The 
 reform of tho calendar, effected by Ctesor, seems to point out that some elements of astro- 
 nomy existed among those with whom he consulted. 
 
 Rome, in tlie most flourishing era of its literature, produced two eminent g'iographers, 
 Mela and Pliny. 
 
 Sect. I. — Mela. 
 
 The personal history of this eminent geographer is a subject respecting which 
 scarcely any particulars have transpired. From the allusions, however, in his own writings, 
 to the conquest of Britain by Claudius as a recent event, made in those flattering terms 
 which only a contemporary would have employed, it would appear that his work was written 
 under the reign of that inglorious prince, and is, consequently, anterior to that of Pliny. 
 
 Mela, in forming his system, does not appear to have possessed those extensive mea- 
 surements and itineraries, which were probably deposited in the imperial archives. Faith- 
 ful, however, to the object of his treatise, " do situ orbis," he discovers very considerable 
 anxiety to determine the position of tlie globe, and trace with accuracy its general outlines. 
 He adopts the general principles of the school of Eratosthenes, incorporating into it the new 
 features which had been onorded by Roman conquest. He does not appear, however, to 
 have compreliendcd their idea of the globular form of the earth, nor is he very perspicuous 
 in any thing that he says upon that subject. lie begins — "All that, whatever it is, to which 
 ■we give the name of tlio world and heaven, is one tiling, and in one circuit embraces itself 
 and all things;" vague and pompous exprrsfions, to which no determinate idea can be 
 attached. We find him, however, adopting in its fullest extent the belief of a circumam- 
 bient ocean ; and when he speaks of "the high earth in this middle part of it," and describes 
 the sea as going under and washing round it, we nre led to believe, that he viewed the earth 
 as a sort of cone, or as a high mountain raised by its elevation above the abyss of waters. 
 Having made a vague division of the world into cast, west, and north, he distributed it into 
 five zones, two temperate, one torrid, and two frigid. Only the first two were habitable ; 
 
 
 Refrrences to the 
 
 Map of the Worltl arcordi 
 
 ng to Eratomhenet. 
 
 
 EtIROPA. 
 
 'X AmUtis 
 
 l.'i. Pixtnla 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 10. Bcrenico 
 
 1. Matwilia 
 
 :i. Rinope 
 
 Hi. rahbulhra 
 
 ]. I.ixiia 
 
 11. t<«ene 
 
 2. Knnia 
 
 4. r.vhnm 
 
 
 2. Oarlhaco 
 
 12. Mwr.K, 
 
 X Athenm 
 
 .S. laitat 
 
 Rivtrs. 
 
 3. Ptntamats 
 
 i:i. Pinlemaii 
 
 4. Uyzantium 
 
 n. TImpanciu 
 
 a Oxui" 
 
 4. ryreno 
 ."i. KereniCQ 
 
 14. Aduli 
 
 
 7. Ninua 
 
 b JaiariM 
 
 
 RiveT$. 
 
 S. Su«a 
 
 1. Phasis 
 
 G. Alexandria 
 
 Rivera, 
 
 a Rhentii 
 
 9. Bnliylon 
 
 d F.nphratpR 
 
 7. Canopna 
 
 a Nilus 
 
 b Borypitlienes 
 
 ; 0. Rhinoeolura 
 
 9 I'igria 
 f ImTiis 
 
 8. Pelmmm 
 
 b Asia pus 
 c Aataboras. 
 
 c Tanaia 
 
 1. /F.lana 
 
 0. Arainoe 
 
 
 '2. Gorra 
 
 t Uungea 
 
 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 3. Tiru» Imiila 
 
 
 
 
 1. Dioscurias 
 
 14. Arailuii Insula 
 
 
 
 
 V? 
 
 H 
 
 m 
 
 " V, 
 

 iMtfei 
 
 
 h 
 
 f •■- 
 
 l> 
 
 
 k 
 
 !• 
 
 * 
 ^ 
 
 40 
 
 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 rig. &-BYSTUM OF MEI.A. 
 
 Pabt ' 
 
 and that on tlic south was inaccessible to man, on account of the torrid regions intervening. 
 .\ccor(ling to this system, however, there was on tlwt side another earth, inhabited by people, 
 whom he calls Antichlhoneg, from their opposite position with respect to that part which we 
 inhabit. The form and boundaries of tlie known and habitable earth are thus delineated : — 
 The Mediterranean, with its branches of the Straits, the Euxinc, and the Palus Mceotis ; itii 
 great tributaries, the Nile and the Tanais ; — these combine, in his conception, to form the 
 grand line by which the universe is divided. The Mediterranean itself separates Europe^ 
 from Africa ; and these continents are bounded on the east, the former by the Tanais, the 
 latter by the Nile ; all beyond or to the east of these limits wfts Asia. (.fHff. 8.) 
 
 Tn drawing the outline of Asia, Mela adheres very strictly to his Alexandrian models. 
 He describes it as bounded by an ocean on every side except the western, where it confines 
 with Africa and Europe. It presents, he says, a iiuge and perpetual front to the eastern 
 ocean, its shores being occupied by the three farthest known nations, tlie Indians on the 
 south, the Seres in the middle, and the Scythians on the north ; but the territory of the 
 Indians and Scythians is rendered in a great measure uninhabitable by the extremes of heat 
 and cold. The limited extent of his accurate information, however, is appirent fl-om the 
 representation he gives of this ocean, as flowing directly north from the point of Colis (Cape 
 Comorin), the Ganges flowing into it, and the Scythians occupying its shores ns far as " the 
 Caspian Bay." He even inclines to credit the report of an Indian vessel having been driven 
 round by stress of weather to the coast of Germany. Thus he gave to Asia the same trun- 
 cated form which it had received from the authors whom he followed; but !'.e certaijily ren- 
 dered the dimensions of its eastern shore more ample, when he made it to consist, not of Indio 
 only, but also of Serica and part of Scythia. With regard to the southern shores of Asia, 
 they were known with sufficient accuracy, ever since the expedition of Alexander, and the 
 voyage of Nearchus. He calls the Indian ocean the Red Sea, and recognises the Red Sea 
 of modem geographers only under the name of the Arabian guif j but this is plainly a niert 
 nominal difference. 
 
 1£ 
 
 ai 
 
 in 
 in 
 O 
 th 
 
 CL 
 
 of 
 id( 
 w] 
 rei 
 sei 
 wh 
 He 
 opi 
 
AET 
 
 -^ 
 
 Book I. 
 
 nOMAN GEOGRAPHY.— MELA. 
 
 47 
 
 Itcrvening. 
 by people, 
 , which we 
 fneated :— 
 [ceotia; it" 
 o form thi! 
 tes Europe 
 anais, the 
 
 an models. 
 Jit confines 
 |he eastern 
 ns on the 
 lory of the 
 Vea of heat 
 _ from the 
 fiolis (Cape 
 lar as " tho 
 lecn driver 
 iHanic trim- 
 Itainly ren- 
 ]iot of India 
 iea of Aaia, 
 ler, and the 
 \e Red Sea 
 Inly a mere 
 
 Europe, as dewribed by Mela, extends from the Tanais to Cadiz, and, with the exception 
 of its eastern river-limit, is bounded every where by seai and oceans. Its leading feature 
 in the Mediterranean, joined to tho Euxme and tlic Palus Ma'otis, which are considered 
 only as prolongations of that sea ; while the iEgean, tho Ionian, and the Adriatic seas, 
 form its three great gulfs. The western part he divides into the Tuscan and the Libyan 
 seas. His delineation of tho exterior coasts marks a great advance of knowledge. He 
 assigiis to Spain a northern, and to Franco a western coast of great extent, and adds that 
 tlie Pyrenees, after separating France from Spain, enter tho latter country and penetrate to 
 its extremity, when tliey face the Atlantic. Hero the whole chain of the Cantabrian motm- 
 tains is considere<l, by no very strained meaning, aa Pyrenean. In treating of these outer 
 shores of Europe, and the " huge and infinite sea" on which they border, Mela relates, with 
 exaggerating wonder, tho phenomena, unknown to a Mediterranean people, of the tides, 
 " that mighty movement by which the sea alternately advances and rctunis into itself, over- 
 flowing the lands, driving back mighty rivers, and sweeping away the strongest land 
 animals." His speculations on the cause are singular; either the world is a great animal 
 whose breathings excite in its breast these alternate movements ; or it contains deep caves, 
 into which the waters are alternately absorbed and ejected. He does, however, mention 
 the theory which supposes them influenced by the moon, and remarks their correspondence 
 with the movements of that body. In treating of the Cassiterides, or Islands of Tm, which 
 include, as already observed, the Scilly Islands and Cornwall, he shows considerable per- 
 plexity, only observing that they are " in Celticis," indicating their close alliance with 
 Fmnce. In regard to Britain itself, however, he confidently undertakes to give the world 
 better information, in conseqrence of the victories of " the greatest of princes" over nations 
 hitherto unsubdued and unknown ; and he certainly makes a great progress beyond the im- 
 perfect notions of Strabo. He describes Britain as presenting two extensive oblique coasts, 
 one looking towards France, the other towards Germany ; the two forming a great angle 
 nearly opposite to the mouth of the Rhine. The coasts then began to bend inwards, and 
 form a triangle varied with numerous points and angles, and somewhat similar in form to 
 Sicily. The countrv is described as flat, large, and ihiitfiil, but contrary to what now ob- 
 tains, more favourable to the support of flocks than of men. The natives were uncultivated, 
 warlike, and ignorant of wealth ; they were accustomed to paint their bodies, and to ride in 
 chariots. Above Britain was Juvema (Ireland), nearly equal in size, and of an oblong form, 
 its soil scarcely fit for the production of grain, but its pastures so luxuriant, that if the 
 cattle were allowed to feed for more than a short period of the day, they died of repletion. 
 The relative dimensions assigned to Britain and Ireland would seem to show that the former 
 was known only in its southern part, yet the writer discovers himself not unacquainted with 
 the Scottish islands. He mentions thirty Orcades, in which number the Shetland Islands 
 are probably included. 
 
 In proceeding to the east and north, Germany is described by Mela as a region of great 
 extent, intersected by many rivers, and covered m a great measure with woods and marshes. 
 The inhabitants were tall and remarkable for courage and strength, continually exercised 
 in war and hard labour, eating raw flesh, and clothed partly in the haik of trees. Passing 
 the Vistula, wo enter into Sarmatia, extending to the Danube, rather a vague limit, but the 
 term is evidently meant to comprehend the greater part of modern Poland. The people 
 are some stages in barbarism beyond even the Germans, having no cities or even settled 
 abodes, and carrying their fierceness to sucli a pitch, that hunting and bending the bow 
 were considered the best accomplishments of their females, no one of whom, the writer 
 even asserts, could enter the matrimonial state till she had killed her man. On this shore 
 hs represents the Codanus Sinus, a great bay filled with large and small islands ; nowhere 
 presenting an expanse resembling a sea, but dispersed and scattered in narrow clionnels 
 like rivers ; a description very applicable to the entrance of the Baltic and tho Danish 
 islands. In common with all the ancients, however, Mela appears to have been ignorant of 
 any thing like a continent on the other side of this great bay. 
 
 The outline of Africa, drawn by this geographer, sufficiently shows his limited range of 
 information. This continent he views as a triangle, the greatest length of which, measured 
 in his system from the Nile to the Atlantic, is considerably less tlian the length of Europe. 
 Of this triangle, the Nile forms the base ; and firoro thence tho southern coast, or that of 
 the Ethiopic ocean, continually approximates to the northern, til!, beyond the Pillars of Her- 
 cules, it tapers almost to a point. The origin and course of the Nile arc to Mela a subject 
 of much speculation. One account, esteemed by him as tolerably credible (aliqud credibile) 
 identifies it with a great Ethiopian river, called in the language of the natives Nuchul ; 
 which, while all other rivers tend towards the ocean, alone flows eastward to the central 
 region, and no one knows where it terminates ; a striking coincidence with the actual ob- 
 servation of the moderns, respecting that celebrated stream denominated the Niger. Else- 
 where, however, Mela propounds an hypothesis of a much more extraordinary character 
 He says, that if there be another earth (on the south of the equator), and Antichthones 
 opposite to us, " it might not be departing too far from the truth" to suppose tliat tlie Nile 
 
 fm 
 
 i 
 
 tl 
 
I 
 
 I 
 
 I'l ? 
 
 Ij r 
 
 \ I 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part I. 
 
 ■1 ., 
 
 nroso in Umt cnrtli, anil reanhod niir oide of tlio glnho by a clianncl bcnontli tlie ocean. 
 Tims it would niitiinilly swell diiriiij,' tlio KUinninr Holntico, which, on tlio siilo of tho world 
 from wliicli it came, was tlio scaHon of winter, nertins and Vincent, however, liivo per- 
 haps dealt too hiirdly with tho nntlior, in cnilxMlyinff this wild conception into a map, and 
 pivinj.' it to the vM)rld as the systom of Mela, wlu mentions it merely as a conjecture. Tho 
 lower part of the course of tho Nile he dencrihes with less accuracy than Strabo, tho two 
 cimnnids of the Astjipus and Astnlwnw beinjf made branches of the Nile itself, first separat- 
 ing and then re-unitinp. His ignorance respecting even tho shores of tho Red Sea ia 
 proved by their being filled with poetical wonders; tho pigmies waging tlieir ancient war 
 with theVriinos; the pha-nix, after a life of lour hundred years, dying, and reviving from 
 its ashe.-,. Proceeding to the interior and remoter shores of Ethiopia, lie finds always new 
 woikIith, sphynxes, birds with horns, flying horses. He refers to the voyages of Hannoand 
 of EuddxiiH, to w iiom he ascribes a variety of fables, by which the reputation of that navi- 
 gator hius been much and perhaps unjustly tarnished ; lastly, he comes to the Fortunate 
 Lilandf, ol" which the soil produces all things spontaneously, and tho fountains are possessed 
 of miniciiloiia virtues. In short, every tiling that Mela says of Africa beyond the mere 
 Mediterranean coast betrays a remarkable ignorance of tlie mysteries of that continent. 
 
 Sect. II. — Pliny. 
 
 Pliny, the most learned of the Roman writers, devotes two books of his extensive work 
 on natural history to a system of geography. lie appears to have iMssessed a greater store 
 of authentic materials than any former writer. From his intimate conne.xion with the 
 imperial tliiiiily, and with many of the most eminent commanders, all the military measure- 
 ments, as well as the general survey of the Roman empire, were placed at his disposal. 
 Ho has intnxluced, therefore, a multitude of itinerary details, which are generally very 
 accurate an<l valuable. But ho employs no astronomical elements, and appears to have 
 taken no pains to construct a regular system. All the general ideas which we can trace in 
 his delineation a|)!)ear to be founded on the same basis with those of Mela. 
 
 IMiny begins with Europe, which ho considers as by far the most beautiful and fruitful of 
 the throe quarters of the globe ; anil he applauds the opinion of those who consider it not 
 merely as a third, but as a half of the whole globe, separated from tho other half by tho 
 Tanais and tlie Mediterranean. This capital error, however, will not appear so surprising, 
 when we consider that the regions here compared witli Europe weie Asia terminated by 
 tho Gnnyes and the Jnxartes, and Africa extending only a few hundred miles inland from 
 the Mediterranean. Europe had been computed by Agrippa at 3440 miles in length, by 
 Polybius at only 2440; which last dimension is nearly correct. Pliny discovers a clear 
 conception of the fi)rin of Spain, drawing the Pyrenees not from south to north, but from 
 south-east to north-wes-t, and observing that Spain, " where it begins from them, is narrower 
 than France, aiul even than itself." The petition of Britain in the mup of Europe is very 
 fairly given ; though, to enumerate Spain, with Franco and Germany, among the countries 
 to which it is op|K).site, partakes too much of antiquated theories. He states the belief of 
 Agrippa that Britain was eight hundred miles in length, and three hundred in breadth ; Ire- 
 land the same in breadth, but shorter by two hundred miles; which is a tolerable estimate, 
 the last pai ' ictilar excepted. His disposal of the islands around Britain is not a little con- 
 fused. He mentions the Orkney.s seven .lEmoda}, and thirty Ebudte, but without showing 
 any precise idea of how they stand. Not only tho Isle of Man, but that of Wight also, is 
 placed between England and Ireland. He commits also a rcmorkable error when he men- 
 tions (!Jussiterim or Cattiterim, where tin is produced, as uii island at the distance of six 
 days' sail from Britain. To the remotest point, Thule, he assigns the uttri'jutes of a region 
 beneath tho Arctic circle, having only one day and one night in the year; and only a day's 
 sail from tho Cronium or Concrete Sea. Here, also, ho inentinns reports of oilier islands, 
 Scandia, Borgos (Bergen), Nerigon, which have intercourse with Thule. These features 
 evidently belong to the coast of Norway. 
 
 In describing the north of Europe, Pliny begins from tlic northern sliores of the Euxinc, 
 and Palus Ma-otis. The latter receives the Tanais, flowing ti'oin the Uiphiean Mountains, 
 and forming the lionndary of Europe. Beyond that celebrated and dcmi-ttibnlons range, he 
 still finds the Hyperboreans, p people screened I'roin every noxious blast, leading a happy 
 life exempt from old age, sickness, di.-<cord, and grief; till at length, satiated witli felicity, 
 they throw themselves from a rock into the sea. Tliese fables are, however, qualified with 
 the sjiving clause, " if we are to believe them," which shows tliat the liiitli of I'liny w.is 
 nut implicit. Tho shores of the ocean, ho confesses, are " marked by uucert-iinty." On 
 the authority, however, of Xenophon Lanipsacenus and of Pytlieas, he re|xn-ts liiisilia or 
 Baltia ns an island of immense magnitude, tlirec dayn' journey from the Scythian cott.st. 
 I'roceediiig westward, he comes to the Cimbric Chersonese, and op|)osite to it anotiier island. 
 Scandinavia, of unexplored magnitude, but which was ijy many described as forming quite 
 another world. Thus Baltia and Scandinavia, approached from diflbrent points, are con- 
 
i- 
 
 .^ 
 
 iRT 1. 
 
 [jCCRtl. 
 
 worlil 
 o por- 
 ip, and 
 . Tlic 
 lio two 
 eparat- 
 tica is 
 >nt war 
 Iff from 
 yg new 
 nno and 
 nt navi- 
 jrtunate 
 oflscBsed 
 lio mere 
 lont. 
 
 ive work 
 iter gtore 
 with the 
 measure- 
 disposal. 
 uUy very 
 J to have 
 n trace in 
 
 fruitful of 
 
 lidcr it not 
 
 itilf by tho 
 
 surprising, 
 
 ninated by 
 
 [lUind from 
 lonRth, by 
 
 jra a clear 
 
 1, but from 
 8 narrower 
 ope is very 
 e countries 
 e belief of 
 ;>adtlr, Ire- 
 e estimate, 
 little con- 
 [ut showing 
 (jht also, is 
 |en he men- 
 iicc of six 
 of a region 
 [,nly a day's 
 licr islands, 
 so features 
 
 Itho Euxinc, 
 Mountains, 
 lis ranjie, he 
 lin<i a happy 
 litli felicity, 
 liiilifird with 
 If I'liny was 
 liinty." On 
 U Ifcisilia or 
 Ithiiin coast, 
 lotlier island. 
 Vininf? quite 
 (its, are con- 
 
 Door I. 
 
 ROMAN oeography.-1'i;i:tin(Ji;ri.\n tahlr. 
 
 4U 
 
 HidpriMJ iiM fu'c) (lisfiiirt iii.-iiilar tprriturioH, llic vii -t oxti'iit of which, howovor, uppears to be 
 lii'tlor iippri'liriiilcd by IMiny thiiii liy iiiiy ntliiT miriiMit writer. 
 
 Asiii, in I'liny, Ih dolincatod iicconliii;,' to tlio (jfiicral irlfiis of Stnilio and Meln, Tlio 
 ('iis|iiiin (ir llyrounian Sea ih a jjulf opi'niiijf into the nnrthcrn or Srytliinn oc"an, which is 
 ill p )iiiuiiiiiication with that called iSoric or Orifiital. I'liny scoiuh to iiavo liillcr informa- 
 tion ,'t' till' {jnindijur and woiilth of India tlinn any of his pred^ccsHors. Its inhahitjints and 
 iN citins tt(>ri) iniium(!rahle, and it wan ri']X)rtr'cl on ffood aiitiiority to form a third of tho 
 whole World. It enjoyed gentle breo/.es, two siiniincrs, two harvestn, one before, another 
 atlor the poriodicol winds. HlesHcd with these advantages, this happy people wore never 
 known to cmiffrate beyond their own territories. Ho descrites the marches of Ale.xander, 
 iVnm the measurements of Diofjnetiis and Bifiton, and where these fail, ho continues them 
 by those of Heleucus, and by the embassy of Megasthen'^s, as fur ns the month of the 
 (innpfos. These itineraries seem very y^ood. In treating of Taprobone, he observes, that 
 it had been believed by some to 1)0 an opposite continent oi earth, but that the inquiries of 
 Alexander had clearly proved it to bo an island. His report, however, tiiat tho country of 
 the Seres was seen from it, implies a most inadequate and erroneous conception of the 
 eastern coasts of Asia. 
 
 The Africa of Pliny does not differ in its general outline from that of Mela. His access, 
 however, to the archives of the empire, and his acquaintance with some of the Roman 
 generals, enabled him to give new details as to some of its most interior tracts. The region 
 of Atlas had boon first penetrated in tho reign of Claudius, by iEdemon, an adherent of 
 the extinct family of the Ptolemies, who souglit refuge there, Suetonius Pauliiuis, with 
 whom Pliny had conversed, found it of immense height, covered with snow even in summer; 
 on one side rising fVorn the sands, rough, horrid, and bare ; on tlie other, covered with thick 
 groves of unknown species of trees, and sparkling with fountains. An account is given of 
 a voyage along the western coast, which Polybius had made by order of Scipio. Only the 
 names of the places and tho distances are given. Tho former coincide in a great measure 
 with those of Hanno; and if Polybius was right in this coincidence, his report tends much 
 to confirm M. Gosselin's view of tho limited extent of Hanno's discoveries. In the time of 
 Vespasinn, another expedit on, under Cornelius Ralbiis, pent;trated into and concprered Gam- 
 ma (Germa), and Cydamns (Gadamis). Tho Romans here Ixdield with surprise houses built 
 of salt, and on digging to a small depth, water sprung out of the sand. A number of names 
 of conqnored places ore here given, which it is dillii'',ilt to recognize; for it seems too hasty 
 to identify Boin with Bomou. 
 
 A theory of the course of tho Niger was formed by Pliny from these materials with con- 
 siderable pains, but very imperfect success. Its soup"', according to king Juba, existed in 
 Mauritania, and it is even said to have been found by Suetonius Paulinas after a tew days' 
 march to the south of the Atlas. Tho Niger springs hero from a lake ; but soon, indignant 
 at (lowing through sandy and squalid tracts, it passes under ground for several days, and 
 emerges into another lake of Mauritania. After a circuit, however, of some extent, it again 
 disappears, and having pursued a .subterranean course of twenty days, re-appears, dividing 
 Africa from Ethiopia. At last, in its passage through Ethiopia itself, it assumes the charac- 
 ter of the Nile, first in two channels, Astusapes and Astaboras, enclosing the island of 
 Meroe, and afterwards uniting to form the entire and proper Nile. This wild and absurd 
 detail evidently includes the course of several rivers telonging to different and widely re- 
 mote regions of Africa. It may even be doubted, if any part belongs to what by motlems 
 has been considered tho Niger. It seems very probable, however, that the middle part, 
 which divides Africa from Etliiopia, has been suggested by the river of Bomou, or the Yeou, 
 as it has been called by our recent discoverers. 
 
 Sect. III. — Itineraries. — Peutiiifferian Table. 
 
 Of the itineraries composed by the masters of the world, and employed by them as nn 
 instnimcnt in its conquest, some fragments yet remain. Tlie most memorable" is that which 
 bears the name of Antoninus. It has been ascribed by some to Sevenis, by others to Theo- 
 dosiuB, and in fiict contains many particulars which could not have been written prior to the 
 era of tho last sovereigns; but it seems probable that there were .successive editions, with 
 such amendments and alterations as time suggested. It is a mere skcloton road-book, with 
 nothing but the names of places and their distance fVom each other. The same may be 
 said of the Jenis;ilem Itinerary, exhibiting in great detail tho route from Bordeaux to that 
 holy city. 
 
 i'lie Peutingcrian Table (the Italian portion of which is exhibited in FHir. 9. p. 50.) is a 
 more remarkable monument, and may be considered, probably, as a s])ecimen of the "painted 
 roads" of the ancinnts. It fijrms a map of the world, constructed, however, on the most 
 novel and peculiar principles. Its dimensions being twenty feet in length and one in breadth, 
 nn idea may be formed of the correctness with which the proportion of tho different parts is 
 exhibited. The iiigh road which traversed the Roman empire in tho general direction of 
 cast and west vj made the first meridian, and to this every other part is subjected. The ob- 
 
 VoL. f, 5 « 
 
h*.. l». 
 
 BuuH r. 
 
 KKCOND ALKXANDIllAN S<;iIO()K 
 
 61 
 
 jortii nlonjj this linn nro iniiiiiti'ly nt\<\ fiiitliriilly cxIiihitfHl ; ,>f thiMn lyipR to Ihn north 
 miiilli lit' It iiiily H<iiii(> K'''!*'"'! notion riin Im> ronvi'yi'il : iIii'ihi itro M rvpriwoutuil, of "' 
 nioxt unornioiiNly fxtundiNl in lonKtIi uml rMluci»l in brnoilllt. 
 
 'J 
 
 CIIAI'TKIl VI. 
 
 RKCONI) AI.KXAMIKIAiy XtMOOI.. 
 
 At.RXANiiRiA by her rontribntionH l^i u<'oi;rn|ihy Nii|i|ilii<il tn « jfrnut rxtcnt tlifi (li'fioioncicH 
 of tlio Itoiiiiiim, who, iiiiiiil tho NU''ci'NM with which lhi*y culliviituil hiHtory iinil literature, 
 never iittiiMieil to any eininencn in thii« MiMeni-e. 'I'hiit ciimtal, evvn in lli Hiihject utiite, 
 retitineil Mlill tho inipiilHit received t'roiii thn I'toleniieH, ami contiiuieil to \m tliii MerontI iu 
 iiiiii;tiitnile, iiMil the liireiiioxt in leiirniii);, ot' ull in the empire. In lli» Heconil century thern 
 wiu eHliililiHlitMl, here iind at Tyre, ii f;eii^rnphiciil ncIiooI, [KiHMVMiin); more am|ile ninterinlN 
 nnd renourneH thim imy thiit hnd liitlii-rto exiHted. To the coniiueMtM imd itineraries nf Alex- 
 ander were now lulded thoNii of llomo, which, extending; in ii ilili'erent direction, eiiilirnred 
 many roiintrieN lo tho north nnd to the went, (iaul, llritain, (iermnny, N|min, nnd Muuritn- 
 nia, reN|N'ctin|{ which tho (iroekN had imNNeiwed only ronfuHed and imp^'rfect notionn. ThuH 
 n (rrenler (Kirtion of the ^IoImi thnn nt any former |M'riiHl wan now united under one (rovorn- 
 ment, which, hy a Nttindini; army and n regular NyHlein of lawH, priMorved the whole iu [mace 
 and order. The terror of tho Roman arnm enabled truvellerH to [)enrtrato with naft'ty oven 
 beyond tho limits of tho empirn. lANtly, tho unlM)unded luxury of tho ((rent capitnhi, and 
 aUivo all of imperial Rome, enriched with tho njioilH of tlie t'lolie, fired tho entoriirise of tho 
 merchant, who lliund hiM way int/) thoKo remoteiit marketH of tho raHtem world, tho rich 
 cnmmcxIiticH of whicli Imd hiliinrto boon oithcr bruu({ht by cnrnvnuH or found nt intunnediato 
 fltntionii. 
 
 Theno eidar|;ed material* woro connected togethnr hy n much moro nccurato and Hcion- 
 tific nrrnnf;emeut than had been ndopti-d under tho hcIiooI of EmtoHtheneti. Tho molhod 
 miffi^oMted hy IlipiNirchiiH of mibjectin;; the whole of (jeojrraphy to otitronomicnl principloH, 
 and of fixing' the poHition of every H|iot upon tho j;lobo accordiii); to itH lonf^itude ami Inti- 
 tu<le, wiiH now attempted to \m carrii^l into full eflect. The iittemnt, however, wa.s mado but 
 in a very rudo inaimor, nnd u[K)n n very narrow biiHia of olwervation. Not only, theroforo, 
 did it proHent a very im|X!rfect edition of tho new nyHtoni, hut involved errors which caused 
 it in Homo res[K!ctH lo retroffrado even from tho rudo HtJito to which it hod been brought by 
 tho formor hcIiooI of Alcxaudrin. 
 
 Sk«t. T, — MnrinuK of Tyre. 
 No Tyrinn Hystcm of jjoogrnphy has come down to uh, notwithstondinff tho noinniercial 
 OToatnosH of itH people at an early period. Froni the Ilrbrow writers wo hnvo accounts per- 
 haps of nearly tho whole of tho iliBtont conntricB with which tho Tyrians held intorcourgc ; 
 
 NORTH PART. 
 1. Hlipia 
 'I Hariluna 
 
 3. A()ninrn 
 
 4. Bninntio 
 
 0. Jnilf ra 
 n. Raf aitana 
 
 7. fabaria 
 
 8. Camunto 
 
 9. CjOtija 
 
 10. Vindnbnlia 
 
 11. Tanntica 
 13. Kmuna 
 
 13. Pnia 
 
 14. Rilvn 
 ).f. Paritnlin 
 
 1ft. Ftin(t?'iiiniaia 
 
 17. Aiiuileia 
 
 la 0>ilia 
 
 IU. Altino 
 
 90. Rnaino 
 
 Sl.Trldrnta 
 
 92. Placenlia 
 
 '2.'!, .Aqua' Pnmilanip 
 
 'J4. Kliirpntia TuKOium 
 
 3.V Hoiia Julia 
 
 !M. Riluiiba 
 
 i!7. Vcrnna 
 
 3R Manilla 
 
 Sn. Mutina 
 
 :iO, Cma 
 
 31. Ailn-lio 
 
 39. Biiiionitt 
 
 3:1. riuiio 
 
 .14. Volainia 
 
 It. Aquaa Paiaatii 
 
 30. Ravenna 
 
 37. Arimino 
 
 3H. nianiaca 
 
 3W. Conlum cellia 
 
 to. Aquaa luari 
 
 Keferttice$ lo Ike I'tulingerian 7bWe (pn/fe W). 
 
 
 41. Anonna 
 
 a Riibiriim 
 1 Nrlnrum 
 
 31.Tnrento 
 
 70. Ourra 
 
 49. CHHirn-nnvo 
 
 39. Rriniliii 
 
 71. Ad llnrraa 
 
 43. Aquaa Apulliuaiia 
 
 44. Hiili'ln 
 
 u Maliina 
 V Ml«i 
 
 IM.Iinalia 
 34. N«rur<M 
 
 79. Iffipinminua 
 ri. Wiforo Col. 
 
 4.-.. Pnl.-nlia 
 
 wj'lnala 
 X 1'umii 
 
 M. ."laterni) 
 
 74. Ad Aquaa 
 
 49. KoalK 
 
 47. ('aniplloFirinHnl 
 
 rw. Niircria 
 
 7.1. Tapnrura 
 
 r Niirninum 
 
 'n. Oplonlia 
 
 7H. Tacapi^ 
 
 4H. Ad Hum. Pmiura 
 
 a Amu 
 
 3H. Hi'iii'vi'nto 
 
 77. llrtipanid 
 
 411. Kiima 
 .VJ. hiiaiia 
 .tt. Charlailna 
 M ('lira Colonla 
 
 
 311. Venuiie 
 
 7H. i.ilyhmi 
 
 BOimi PART. 
 
 40. Ni'apidl 
 
 7(t. Aqimi I.abndoa 
 
 1. Ad Pniluiiim 
 
 41. Cnpuii 
 
 HO. Hiriiruaiii 
 
 4. 8.^r»iiio 
 
 49. Cumaa 
 
 HI. Afliiia Mona 
 
 .M. Aquia 
 
 M. titponte rilariln 
 
 K. Capm (^nlonia 
 
 3. Ad Praloium 
 
 4. Miina Major 
 
 43 SyWitt 
 
 «9. Mmiuna 
 
 44. Aonii* 
 
 
 a. liidHnaa 
 H. Titlobiirgo 
 
 43. Pritlunium Laucria 
 
 „ Divert. 
 
 M. All Modna 
 
 num 
 
 a Danubiuri 
 
 .'i7. Tlii.lmilo t'ol. 
 
 7. Rayuriu 
 H. Hirlla, run. 
 
 4tl. Pip<lTllll 
 
 b Ilrlnum 
 
 W. 'rhonano 
 
 47. K«.>rnio 
 
 n Hmvuoi 
 
 .W. Sirca-vpria 
 
 n. Haliina 
 
 4H. Tiinnii Sccdiclno 
 
 d Maraum 
 
 HO. All Aquaa CaiiiiriR 
 
 111. Kpetin 
 11. limrnna 
 
 4<l. Hinucua 
 
 (•unt.'ais 
 
 
 .V). Monturnil 
 
 f llapaum 
 
 liioert. 
 
 19. Hirmiuin 
 
 .M. Fundia 
 
 a Tannn 
 h Cralor 
 
 a DanubiUB 
 
 3. Naruit;! 
 
 rti. Trrrarinn 
 
 h Drinum 
 
 4. Tatiriinn 
 
 .VI. Fnrfnllnimi 
 
 i Hilarum 
 
 c Bavum 
 
 a. Ad Matrlcum 
 
 M. Fidiralcriy 
 
 It AvHdium 
 
 d Anta 
 
 n. Binaiduna 
 
 .V'l. Inlnntltn 
 
 a Frifido 
 f Lirpnna 
 
 7. Kpitauro 
 
 .Ml. f 'nniniii 
 
 1 Aufidnnui 
 
 i>. Slaneiti 
 
 .'>?. Mnrniliiii 
 
 in Larinum 
 
 a Afnaia 
 
 1 M. l.iHun 
 90. Viminatio 
 
 .W. Trea Toljernaa 
 
 n Clocnria 
 
 h rii'iiKia 
 
 .V.I. Ciiriiulia 
 
 Bannum 
 
 Umaiia 
 
 91. nirrrnliu 
 
 IU). nnia di.-rni 
 
 p Cumari 
 
 Padua 
 
 I Puala 
 
 99. Aulona 
 
 ni. Pinna 
 
 q NornMm 
 
 'it. Oia Cul. 
 
 li'J. <'m\!n nova 
 
 r Arno 
 
 1 Aninio 
 
 94. Babrata 
 
 63. PreneilB 
 
 a Tiboria 
 
 m laex 
 
 9X. Rrtio 
 
 (14. Roma 
 
 1 Siifo 
 
 n Umbra 
 Palha 
 
 9A. Caulon 
 
 IK. Hnilii 
 
 u Vultamui 
 
 77. Lacenlum 
 
 HA. Chanaaine 
 
 V Hlmera 
 w Niranua 
 
 p AnneaiK 
 q Maria 
 
 9n. Ciiitra Minervb) 
 
 07. Mnxula 
 
 91). Vibona Valenlia 
 
 HN. Ad Aqiiai 
 
 a Auaere 
 
 r Tiberia 
 
 30. Temn 
 
 W. Miiua Clipcia 
 
 y Geiin 
 
 M 
 
 f.,. M 
 
 m 
 
 •'ill 
 
 
■ ,- ': 
 
 
 88 
 
 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt I. 
 
 but if those writers are supposed to have borrowed from tliem their ideas respecting,' the 
 general structure and boundaries of the earth, gcograpiiy among tlie early Phoenicians will 
 not appear to have passed ita infancy. As Tyre, however, even under the Roman empire, 
 remained still the seat of an extensive commerce, some of her intelligent citizens availed 
 themselves of the lights afibrded by the learning of Alexandria, and applied them to the 
 illustration of those subjects on which the greatness and prosj)erily of their city depended. 
 If the merchants of Tyre had notliing left of that proud rule, and tliose nionoiwlizing profits, 
 which enabled tliem to rival the pomp of princes, their commercial relations probably ex- 
 tended over a wider surface of tlie globe than ever. Thejr seem to liave been en^ged 
 in that vast caravan route which was opened firom Byzantium across tlie whole interior 
 of Asia, conductmg the merchants by a journey of ten or eleven months to tlie Chinese 
 frontier, whence they brought silk, the staple product of that great country. Collect- 
 ing these enlarged materials, Marinus, a native of Tyre, sought to apply to them the 
 astronomical principles of Hipparchus, and tlius to arrange geography into a new and more 
 accurate form. 
 
 The works of Marinus have perished, and are known to us only by tlie references and 
 extracts of Ptolemy ; but these are sufficient to show that his system partook lorgely of the 
 imperfection of a first eflbrt. Aware that the degree of longitude diminished as it receded 
 from the equator, he "et did not attempt to express this difference by representing the meri- 
 dians with curved lines approaching each other, although this had been already shown by 
 Hipparchus to be the proper course. He made them parallel to each otlier, not at the equa- 
 torial distance, but at that which belonged to them at the meridion of Rhodes. Thus in the 
 part of tlie glube which came into his immediate observation he avoided any material error ; 
 but the meridians, adjusted only to this latitude, became too near each other as tliey were 
 carried southward, and too distant as they went northward. He fell into a still more per- 
 nicious error in adopting the geodesic measurement of Posidonius, according to which the 
 circumference of the earth was made to consist of only 180,000 stadia, and consecjucntly the 
 degree to contain only 500 stadia. This short degree, being calculated out of the e,\agge- 
 rated itineraries upon which the maps of those days were constructed, enormously amplified 
 all the dimensions of the globe. Marinus appears also to have admitted with excessive cre- 
 dulity the extravagant reports of the merchants who had penetrated across the vast moun- 
 tain and desert tracts in the east of Asia. The rugged and difficult character of the region, 
 the circuitous route which they w 're frequently obliged to follow, and the obstacles often 
 encountered from the rude inhabitants, caused this journey to occupy a much longer time 
 tlian tliose performed through districts better known ; and time, as alrea<ly observed, was the 
 element out of which tlie ancients were chiefly accustomed to calculate space. Ptolemy 
 also accuses the mercliants of vain-gloriou* propensities, which led tliem to magnify beyond 
 truth the extent and vastness of the regions which they traversed. Hence the great line 
 upon wiiich Marinus measured the length of the habitable globe, instewl of one hundred and 
 twenty-nine degrees given to it in the measurement of Eratosthenes, is swelled out to 
 two hundred and twenty-five degrees, not much less than two-thirds of the globe ; whereas 
 tlio actual length, placing Thinm even at the eastern extremity of China, is not much more 
 than one tliird. The exaggeration is enormous chiefly with respect to the country beyond 
 India, which is made to comprise one hundred degress. This being probably a new route 
 opened through the Himaleh, and across the vast deserts of Eastern Tartary, had been 
 affected by all the sources of amplification in a remarkable degree. 
 
 Sect. II. — Ptolemy. 
 Ptolemy, tlie la.st and greatest of the geographers of antiquity, and equally illustrious as 
 an astronomer, instituted a complete reform of the science, and undertook to purify it from 
 all the flilae elements with which it hud been alloyed. The principles, in fact, which he 
 adopted were strictly correct; tor though, as an ustroncjmcr, his theory of the universe was 
 subfituntinlly fiilse, yet, in admitting the globular fonn of the earth and the revolution of the 
 hea\'enly bodies, lie admitted all the elements which were requisite for the Ic^s lofty .siiherc 
 of earthly dclinpatinii. He n.lopted tlie system of Hipparchus in its utmost extent, subject- 
 ing e\pry f-pot on the known globe to ostrononiical data, and constructing his tablets, never 
 accordiiiLT to itiiiemry dlHtiince, but according to the supposed latitude and longitude of oacii 
 place, lie siiw and corrected tlio error of Marinus in making tiie degrees of longitude c>\\m\ 
 under every hititiule. Thus, though Ptolemy did not actually intro<luce any now principle 
 into gpogrnphy, he was the first who combined together all the sound views of his prede- 
 cessors, and formed out of them a just and harmonious delineation. Yet he was far from 
 reaciiinir liis aim offormhig a perf'-ct sy.steni. Ho still retjiined the erroneous ineaFurcnient 
 of the degree fiirmed liy Posidonius, and of which Marinus liiid made so uiitiirtunato a use. 
 Hence, while lie t'eit the extravagance of the distances a.ssignod by his predecessor, in con- 
 sequence of the adoption of the degree of 500 stadia, he extricated himself but partiiilly 
 from the same error. All his longitudes, extended along the length of the known world, 
 present a similar accumulation of f.'rrors, onli' somewhat diminished in amount. These 
 
 .W 
 
 daj'f 
 
 show 
 
 the 
 
 eonti 
 
 his 
 
 Runij 
 
;t-'-H 
 
 Book I. 
 
 PTOLEMY— EUROPE. 
 
 53 
 
 If; the -^i 
 la will 
 •mpire, 
 iivailed 
 to the 
 jended. 
 profits, 
 ibly ex- 
 mgaged 
 interior 
 Chinese 
 CoUect- 
 liem the 
 ind more 
 
 noes and 
 ly of the 
 t receded 
 the meri- 
 shown by 
 the equtt- 
 [lus in the 
 rial error ; 
 tliey were 
 more per- 
 which the 
 juently the 
 le exagge- 
 y amplified 
 jessive cre- 
 vast moun- 
 the region, 
 Uicles often 
 longer time 
 cd, was the 
 
 Ptolemy 
 nify beyond 
 great line 
 lundrcd and 
 ;lled out to 
 e; whereas 
 much more 
 [itry beyond 
 new route 
 
 had been 
 
 Uustrious as 
 irify it IVom 
 which he 
 inverse was 
 ution of the 
 lofty sphere 
 p.'nt, subjcct- 
 abley, never 
 lule of each 
 gitude e(iuiil 
 >w principle 
 r his predo- 
 kvns far from 
 icasuroniont 
 unate a use. 
 
 Issor, in con- 
 liut partially 
 liiown world, 
 lunt. These 
 
 errors, beginning from Cape St. Vincent, constantly increase till, in India, they amount to 
 ^. upwards of forty degrees. M. Gosselin ha.s even accused him of an error wliich, as lie jiwtly 
 
 observes, would mark a strange departure from overy principle, and a neglect of what ought 
 ♦ to be the first care of a geograpiier. This consists in giving to his degrees of latitude ii 
 different dimension from that of the degrees of longitude, an<l retaining, with regard to the 
 former, Eratosthenes's standard of 7(KJ sbidiiu I suspect, iiowever, that M. Gosselin has 
 been somewhat precipitate in advancing so serious a eliarge against the first geographer of 
 antiquity. Tlie ground on which he pmceods seems to be, that while Ptolemy has changed 
 materially all tlie longitudes of Eratosthenes, the latitudes along the groat line continue 
 unaltered and generally correct. The real cause of this, however, appears to be, that the 
 latitudes of Rhodes and several other leading points of this great line were determined by 
 observations which, though not perfect, at least approached to the truth, while the loniritudes 
 were calculated merely out of the itineraries. This central line, therefore, bisecting the 
 breadth of the iinown world, was fi.xed upon sound data, and the errors could accumulate 
 only to the north and sontli of it. In fact, wo shall find that they did accumulate as rapidly 
 as in the longitudes, when tlie sphere of observation was passctl, which was bounded by 
 Syene on the south, Marseilles and Byzantium on the north. The mouth of the Seine is 
 placed one degree too far north ; that of the Rhine, nearly two degrees ; that of the Elbe, 
 more than two degrees ; York is three degrees ; and the farther accumulation is only pre- 
 vented by that singular conformation which we shall find given by Ptolemy to the northern 
 part of Britain. To the south, again, Axum is placed thJee degrees too far south ; Cape 
 Aromata (Guardaflii), nearly six degrees ; and from tliat point tlie errors continually become 
 greater. Thus it appears, that as soon as Ptolemy quits the sphere of observation, his lati- 
 tudes are calculated exactly as his longitudes, out of itineraries, and exhibit the same accu- 
 mulation of errors. 
 
 The manuscripts of Ptolemy arc clearly shown by M. Gosselin to have reached us 
 in a very imperfect state. In collating with care the difTerent editions, that learned writer 
 has found a ^eater number of variations than in those of almost any other ancient writer. 
 These variations were of coiurse very likely to occur in copying cyphers where there was 
 no connexion of sense to check the copyist. The manuscripts and the maps appear to liave 
 been copied by different hands, holding no communication with each other ; and accordingly 
 these two parts of the same work do not, in many instances, correspond. Lastly, tiie work 
 of Ptolemy appears, for several centuries, to have been carried about as a guide by mariners 
 and travellers, who, wherever they found any feature which did not agree with their obser- 
 vations, altered tlie writing or the map accordingly. This process appears in the numerous 
 variations of the Latin copies with regard to the western part of the Mediterranean, and of 
 tlie Greek with regard to the eastern. Tlie alterations thus made would often, and indeed, 
 most generally, be improvements; but tlie great discrepancies which they introduced into 
 the different copies, must have greatly bewildered the public. 
 
 In delineating the geographical system of Ptolemy, we can only consider the general 
 outline, which is pretty nmch the same in all the editions. Ptolemy begins with rejecting 
 the tiieory of his predecessors, from Homer to Stralio downwards, who represent the whole 
 eartli as enclosed by a circumambient ocean. Mercantile caravans, especially in tlie east 
 of Asia, had now proceeded considerably beyond the line of coast which, according to tlie 
 last school, liad marked the eastern bounding ocean. They had passed that line without 
 reaching the distant corresponding one by whicli the Pacific and Arctic seas were actually 
 drawn around tliis vast continent. The eastern Atlantic, and tlie Northern Oceans were, 
 therefore, efliiced from the delineation of Asia, and an indefinite expanse of terra incognita 
 (unknown land) was substituted as the boundary of the world. This proceeding must 
 certainly be considered as more precise and pliilosophical than the gratuitous theoretical 
 one for which it was substituted. Men, however, seldom know exactly where to stop : 
 Ptolemy, having once formed the idea of a Ixiunding terra incognita, extended it round 
 nearly the entire circuit oftiic known world. All the reports of tlie circumnavigation of 
 Africa were rejected; tliat contirient was re])rescnted as stretching indefinitely south, and 
 it was even carried round to join the east of Asia, and form the Erytlirean or Iiuliun sea 
 into a vast basin. Thus the wliolo system and structure of these two continents underwent, 
 in the hands of Ptolemy, a. complete transmutation. 
 
 SuBSECT. 1. Europe. {Fifr. 10.) 
 In regard to all the remoter boundaries of Europe, Ptoleiny displays an advancement 
 in knowledge, truly wonderful, considrring the short period which had elapsed since the 
 days of Strabo. The fiicts wiiich wo have stated under the head of Roman geography 
 sliow the vast additional mass of intiinnation dorived from the conquests of Ca'sar, and from 
 tlie iinperiiil surveys. This hnvinij lieen incorporated info the writinirs of Mela and Pliny, a 
 century bo fore the age of Ptohniiy. would eiisily, thrnugh these and other channels, roach 
 his knowlodgo. It is not surprising that the rriide delineation of the exterior coasts of 
 Europe under the Stnilionic system should liave been iiiaterially amended; that Spain 
 
 5* 
 
 ^■li 
 
IJfe, 
 
 04 
 
 THE WORLD ACCORDING TO PTOLEMY. 
 
 Fia. la 
 
 ■^ 
 

 Book L 
 
 PTOLEMY— EUROPE. 
 
 56 
 
 should have now a soutliern, and Gaul (. western coaat; and that the Bay of Biscay should 
 appear clearly under the appellations ci't)<e Cantabrian Ocean and the Aquitanian 8ea. In 
 regard to Britain, also, or, at least, England, a groat reform had been effected. Its coast, 
 after passing tlie promontory of Kent, bends inward toward the estuary of the Thames, 
 called here Idumanus. Still more decided, on the opposite side, is the " Sabrina estuarium" 
 (the estuary of the Severn), a very appropriate appellation for the Bristol Channel. The 
 projection of Wales, and its entire outline, appears then drawn in a very unexceptionable 
 manner. With regard to Ireland, Ptolemy has not been able wholly to shako off the errone- 
 ous impressions of the first Alexandrian school, according to which that country lay to the 
 north of Britain. He makes it west, indeed, but at the some time greatly too mr north, its 
 southern coast being on a line with that of Lancashire, or, at least, with the north-western 
 point of Wales. The consequence is, that the island of Mona (Man) is placed off the south- 
 eastern point of Ireland, not far firom Wexford. Having pointed out this great error, we 
 must add, that the whole form and circuit of Ireland is given with a correctness which ap- 
 pears very surprising, when contrasted with so great a mistake as to its relative position. 
 Again, the eastern coast of England proceeds correctly till it reaches the vicinity of York, 
 when an aberration takes place of the most extraordinary nature. The rest of the English 
 coast, with the whole of that of Scotland, instead of ranging from north to south, runs from 
 west to cast The eastern coast becomes thus the southern, the western becomes the 
 northern ; and the coast of Germany appears opposite and parallel throughout its whole 
 extent The most northerly extremity of Britain is thus fixed at a point which Mr. Pinker- 
 ton supposed to be the Mull of Galloway, but which seems more probably to be some point 
 near Port Patrick, which might be supiKjsed the most westerly, for the west is here the 
 north. It is part of this arrangement, that the iBbuda; (Hebrides) are placed in the Deuca- 
 ledonian Ocean, which washes the western coast of Scotland, made herp the northern ; and 
 the Orkneys are in the same ocean ; for, instead of following the line of the main land, they 
 are placed, as '■•''• sd, they ought to be, nortli, becoming thus at right angles to that line. 
 
 To accoun' tor =» strangely distorted form of northern Britain, M. Gosselin has formed 
 a very ingenit- r . The southern extremity of the island being in lat 52° N., and 
 
 Thule, the re ■.■ c remity, in 63°, Ptolemy could not, within these limits, find space 
 
 for that vast ex, i> -r coast, which tlie itineraries represented to him as belonging to 
 Britain, To make out this space ho had no alternative but to give to the northerr. part the 
 form it actually bears in his maps, and under which the latitude is augmented only by the 
 breadth of Scotland, a much smaller dimension than the length. The question, however, is, 
 by what circumstance Ptolemy was checked in his latitude of Thule, and why he should 
 not have driven it out to the north as far as his itineraries seemed to require. We at one 
 time thought it possible that tiiis grand boundary point might have been fixed by some rude 
 observation which was not applied to the intermediate points. But it appears very improba- 
 ble, that any expedition which should have made an observation of latitude at Shetland, 
 should not have done the same in the southern and much more accessible parts of Britain. 
 I rather incline to adopt the following solution. We have seen, that in the ideas of the 
 Roman navigators, Thule was in a great measure separated from Britain, and attached to 
 the east of Germany, or rather to Scandinavia; whether its existence was made known to 
 them by Scandinavian navigators, or whether a part of the coast of Norway was actually 
 fixed upon by them instead of Shetland for this most northern limit of the earth. This idea, 
 which attached Thule to Scandinavia, appears to have been combined in Ptolemy's mind 
 with tliat of Pytheas, who made it the remotest extremity of Britain. Such a combination 
 could be accomplished only by stretching Scotland across the German ocean in that strange 
 direction. 
 
 The details of Scotland, if we pass over this radical error, are given in a manner much 
 more tolerable than could have been expected in o country unsubdued by the Romans, and 
 with their imperfect navigution. Thule, in Ptolemy, is not a -iluster of islands, like those 
 of Shetland, but onu large island, upwards of a hundred miles in length : this circumstance 
 more and more strengthens tlio suspicion that Norway, to a considerable extent entered 
 into the idea attached to tliat celebrated name. 
 
 
 Reference! to Ow 
 
 Map nfihe WorU 
 
 according to Ptolemy. 
 
 
 EunopA. 
 
 5. Sinnpn 
 
 11). naraoura 
 
 A Pntyltmoliu 
 
 5. Cvrene 
 fl. Alvxandria 
 
 1. (yurtlmgu Nova 
 
 3. Amiaui 
 
 30. noaynga 
 
 n .l«xftrt«'M 
 
 S. Mnisilia 
 
 4. Iiwua 
 
 SI. B»raliiB 
 
 f (Echardca 
 
 7. Hernopulu 
 
 3. (tcnua 
 
 .*>. Klana 
 
 22. Taenia 
 
 g Rnutiaus 
 ASeniH 
 
 8. .lyene 
 
 4. Rfinm 
 
 6. Ziiaram 
 
 9:l. Hatmiia 
 
 0. Piiilomaia 
 
 S. Allienm 
 
 7. Mum 
 
 24. ( 'Htisnra 
 
 i Ganiiei 
 
 10. Mermi 
 
 6. Brzuntium 
 
 fl. Werro 
 (1 Tcrcdnri 
 
 9.5. Thinm 
 
 j Indua 
 
 11. Adulii 
 
 
 5fi. Aspillira 
 
 
 
 Rittcrt. 
 
 10. nahylon 
 
 VI. Timiaia 
 
 Taprobana Inauta. 
 
 Rivera 
 
 a Rhciiui 
 
 II. Ninut 
 
 2H. Simla 
 
 a Gange§ 
 
 a Stachir 
 
 b Chcuinn* 
 
 H. DioBcuriaa 
 
 m. nai.ina 
 
 
 b I>Hratui 
 
 c Tnnnii 
 
 n. Oniinra 
 
 30. 8eiB 
 
 LIBYA VEL AFRICA 
 
 c Nigir 
 
 >l Rhn 
 
 14. Sii«a 
 
 
 1. Nigim 
 
 dCif 
 
 c UorysthoncK 
 
 I.V Pflrtionnlis 
 
 Rirer*. 
 
 '}. Rira 
 
 5 Nilui 
 
 
 Itl. Hunlni 
 
 a fliipliraien 
 
 3. rarlhago 
 
 1 Antapus 
 f Aaiaboras 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 17. Piitalri 
 
 h TijriH 
 
 4. Phycui 
 
 I. EphesiiJi 
 
 16. Palibulhrj 
 
 C 1>XU< 
 
 
 
 
f1 
 
 M 
 
 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part 1. 
 
 ! I 
 
 ; U 
 
 Under the licads of great Germany and of Sammtin, Ptolemy lias jriven nil tlie knowledge 
 he had acquired of the north ond east of Eiirtpe, wliicli was not incoiiBidernblo. The line 
 ■jf the German coast is very well formed, and tiio Anmrii\is or Ems, tiie Visurgis or Weser, 
 the Aibis or Elbe, the Vedra or Odor, and tlie Visula or Vistula, appear in regular sncccs- 
 sion, and almost under their modern names. Jutland appears as the Cimbric Cliersonese, 
 and the soutlicrn coast of the Baltic is carried on very correctly ; but, in regard to Scandi- 
 navia, he fails entirely. Evidently ignorant that the Biiltic is an enclosed gulf, ho calls it 
 " the Sarmatic Ocean," and places in it fbur islands. Three of those, close to tlii^ Cimbric 
 Chersonese, are clearly recognised in the islands of Denmiirk; but the other, of grciiter 
 extent, farther to the east and opposite to the mouth of the Vistula, is probably part of Swe- 
 den, and perhaps Gothland. It is clear, that navigators had not then rounded Jutland, and 
 passed through the Skagerrack or Cattegat, otherwise tliey must have noticed these straita, 
 and the great extent of continent opposite the Cimbric Chersone.-o. The Alocciau islands, 
 however, situated off the northern extremity of Jutland, must have been suggested by some 
 part of the Norwegian coast, as there are no islands in that quarter. The more northern 
 part of the Norwegian coast was probably, as already observed, identified with Thule. 
 
 The coast of Sarmatia is described by Ptolemy on passing the Vistula, and he truces with 
 accuracy the great bend which it takes northward to the gulf of Riga. Four rivers are 
 giveli, which cannot be recognised by their names, but which M. Gosselin conceives to be 
 the Pregel, the Niemen, the Windau, and the Dwina. Beyond this he places " tlie end of 
 the sea of the known land," and immediately commences that boundary of (irra incognita 
 which he carries around the whole of Asia. 
 
 In regard to the south of European Russia, Ptolemy recovers much of the knowledge 
 which had been wholly or partially lost under Stnibo. He appears indeed to have gone back 
 in a great measure to Herodotus, whom he imitates in giving most nnreasonabl(> extension 
 to the Palus Mieotis. There is little room for complaint as to the Tanais, the Boryslhencs, 
 and the other great rivers which fall into the Euxine. In this remote and wild extremity 
 of Europe, however, he has found a place for certain poetical and historical fictions, which 
 experience had banished from better known quarters, but which could not find a place here 
 with any propriety; — the grove of Diana, the race-course of Achilles, the altars of C-esar 
 and of Alexander ; neither of whom ever carried their arms into this part of the ancient 
 Scythia. 
 
 In tracing the Mediterranean, Ptolemy improves considerably upon the labours of his pre- 
 decessors. Sicily, in particular, is much better constructed, and the straits of Messina ore 
 placed nearly in their true latitude. He still, however, merits deep reproach for the utterly 
 barbarous form which he has given to Italy, that ruling country, winch must of all others 
 have appeared to him the most interesting, and for which he must have possessed the most 
 ample materials. Yet Italy, with the exception of a slight bend at its extremity, is oriented 
 almost entirely east and west, having tlie Adriatic for its northern, and tiie Tyrrhenian for 
 its southern boundary. I cannot find any account of an error so strange, except by supposing 
 that Ptolemy must have been led into it by one of those itinerary ma])s which, like the 
 Peutingerian, made everything sul)servient to the direction of the Roman high road, and 
 drew it in a straight line from one extremity to the other. It is easy to siipjiose that he 
 might not comprehend the very odd principle upon which this map was constructed, and 
 might conceive that being made with regard to Italy, a country so near, and so completely 
 within reach, it might be implicitly relied on. This suspicion is strengthened when we 
 find, after passing Dyrnichiuni, the port of embarkation for Greece, this being the direction 
 of the great road of the empire, that the coast of Italy suddenly resumes its just form, and 
 the peninsula of Campania makes oven too abrupt a bond to the south. 
 
 SmsECT. 2. — Asia. 
 In regard of Asia also, important discoveries had been mrtde pince the time of Eratos- 
 tliencs. Immense territories, included by that geographer within the domain of the 
 ocean, were known to Ptolemy as occupied by the wandering hordes of Scythia, or by the 
 peaceful and industrious nation of the Sores or Ciiinese. This advantage might be partly 
 due to the military itineraries, especially that of Trajan in his victorious expedition into 
 Parthia. The grand source, however, evidently was that bold spirit of commercial enter- 
 prise, to which an impulse was given by the vai^t consumption of Rome, when the wealth of 
 tlie world centred in that mighty ami voluptuous capital. The East was tiie region mainly 
 resorted to for the supjily of the boundless wants which arose in that artificial ami luxurious 
 ebite of society. The merchants soon learned to trace routes, both by land and sea, much 
 longer and more adventurous than had been achieved by their predecessors at, any tornier 
 period. Under the narrative entitlod"tho Pcriplusof the Erythrean Sea," we liave lidlowcd 
 tirj maritime career by which the merchants of Alexandria were led to the cn:i;-t of .Mala- 
 bar. Whether, in the time of Ptolemy, thr^ (Jre(>k iiavif:nt<irs had acttialiy procei-deil tiirtlier, 
 it may be dilFunilt. to say with certainty. He has cirtainly, however obtained a considera- 
 ble accessi;)ii of knowli'ilge with reganl to this eastern extremity of the known world. He 
 
Book I. 
 
 PTOLEMY— ASIA. 
 
 vr 
 
 f Eratos- 
 II of the 
 or by the 
 U) partly 
 ition into 
 ■cial pnter- 
 wcaltli of 
 ion mainly 
 luxurious 
 -('!!, inucli 
 uiy tornier 
 vc foUowctl 
 of Miilti- 
 ■a furtlicr, 
 ,MiisiiU;ra- 
 ssorld. He 
 
 
 goes fur beyoi"] t!>» raonth of tlic Ganges, at which wc have olisorved the termination of 
 all precise knowledge in the author of the Periplus. After delineating a coast, with a 
 succession of ports which it is difficult to identify, he comes to a grand feature, wliich he 
 calls " tlio Golden Cliersonese," formed by three great estuaries discharging their waters 
 into the sea. These phenomena are actually presented by the mouths of the Irrawaddy at 
 tiie sonthcm extremity of Pegu. This is followed by an extensive feature, the Magnus 
 Sinus, or Great Bay, penetrating far inland, and receiving some considerable rivers. The 
 jfulf of Malacca is not nearly so largo or so deep as this Magnus Sinus; but its mouth 
 Coing very broad, and its shores very winding, it is not very improbable that, in the eyes of 
 ancient and unskilful navi \tors, it might assume this exaggerated form and dimension. 
 Beyond the Magnus Sin\ the coast, in continuity with its eastern shore, stretches due 
 routli to tiio farthest known extremity of the world. On tliis coast tiie leading features are 
 Tiiino!, a great interior metropolis, and Cattigara, its sea-port at the mouth of the river Cotiaris. 
 This coast, it should seem, can only be that of Malacca and the Isthmus of Kraw, which 
 runs exactly in the direction here assigned by Ptolemy. Gosselin identifies Thinse with 
 Tenasserin ; but there seems more reason for acceding to Dr. Vincent's opinion that it ia 
 Siam. This exposition, which is supported by Vossius, Gosselin, and Vincent, appears to me 
 undoubtedly preferable to the more general one supported by the authority of d'Anville, 
 which makes the coast of the Sinie extend along the gulf of Siam and tlie sea of China. 
 Such a line would involve Ptolemy in the strange and incredible blunder of making a coast 
 face the east wliich really feces the west Sumatra, indeed, is so land-locked that it might 
 easily enough have been taken for a part of the continent, and have been called the Golden 
 Chersonese. But it seems inconceivable how the straits of Malacca and of Sunda, so im- 
 portant and so critical to navigators, and by one or the other of which they must have 
 entered the eea of China, could have been overlooked. On this supposition, indeed, the 
 coasts are swelled very fer beyond tlieir due dimensions ; but we have oftc^n remarked how 
 enormously this is apt to be the case, in regard to routes, and above all coasts which are 
 traversed for the first time, and by inexperienced navigators. Ptolemy, as we liavo seen, 
 after retrenching the eastern itineraries of Marinns one half, left them still greatly too large ; 
 and he does not mention any similar retrenchment in regard to the coasts. If, on the other 
 hand, those of Ptolemy extend to the Chinese sea and to China, then, contrary to every 
 ancient example, he must have immensely underrated the extent of these imperfectly dis- 
 covered tracts ; an error wjiicii would be contrary to all precedent : — this, however, does not 
 imply that there may not, within tliis line of positive knowledge, have been a confused 
 blending of features that lay in reality beyond. 
 
 The increased knowledge of Ptolemy respecting the eastern part of the Asiatic continent was 
 chiefly derived, as we have already remarked, firom the great caravan wiiicli proceeded from 
 Byzantium, having the country of Serica for its ultimate destination. This caravan, having 
 traversed Asia Minor, crossed the Euphrates at Hierapolis, and journeyed through Media, 
 by way of Ecbatana (Hamadan), to Hecatompylos (Daumghaun), the capital of Partliia. It 
 then advanced north to Hyrcania (Horkan or Jorjan), thence south, to take in the fine 
 province of Aria (Herat). It now again turned north, to include the capital of Marglana 
 (Moru Rood), thence due east to Bactria (Balk), which then formed, as at present, the main 
 centre of the commerce of interior Asia. The caravan now quitted the easy and level tract 
 through which its route had hitherto led, and began to ascend that vast and rugged mountain 
 world which fills the eastern interior of Asia. Alter accomplishing the steep iiscent of the 
 Monies Comedorum, which seems to be the chain of the Beloor, it reached a station called 
 the " Stono Tower," which there is nothing to identify i.e,xcept that the direction towards it 
 is north-east, and it may be either I.adauk or Yarcund, the great modem emporium of this 
 part of the East. From the Stone Tower to the frontier of Serica, Marinus, on the authority 
 of the merchants, reported a journey of seven months, which Ptolemy considers as monstrous 
 and incredible, though ho admits tiiat the road is exposed to the greatest liardships and difl[i- 
 culties. The question, what is the country described by Ptolemy and his contemporaries as 
 Serica, is the most curious in the ancient geography of Asin. The earliest modern opinion 
 identified Serica with northern China, while tiie country if the SinK composed tiie southern 
 part. D'Anville, however, wiio transported the Sina: into the coast of Cambodia, carried 
 westward also the Seres into the country of the Igours, or Eygurs, including in their terri- 
 tory only the small projecting portion of the Chinese province of Shensec. Mr. Pinkerton 
 places it still fiirther west, in Little Bucharia. M. Gosselin, followed generally by the 
 present French school, contends that Scrinagur, in the north of Hindostin, is the real Sera 
 metropolis of Ptolemy. I can see no reason for altering the grounds on which I concluded 
 formerly, and endeavoured to prove, Serica to bo simply China. (See EiUnburg Phil. Trans. 
 vol. viii. On the ancient Geogrnpliy of Central and Eastern Asia.) All the natives of India 
 whom Ptolemy saw assured him that the Sores lay beyond tlie Sinm, and China is beyond 
 Siam. The Sinai (Siam) had to the north Scythia beyond Imaus, which rmintry had Srrica 
 on tlio oast. Sprica is described as traversed by two great rivers, flowing eastwiiril, as the 
 Himng-h- nnd Yang-t.-e-kiang actually do. Soricii, according to Ptolemy's graduation, was 
 
 Vol,. I. II 
 
 r 
 
M 
 
 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Past I. 
 
 I 
 
 I! 
 
 ii!l 
 
 •, i 
 
 fourteen hundred miles from north to south, and eleven hundred from east to west, a very 
 close approiicii to the dimensions of modern China. Herica, tlieii, in form, extent, peogra- 
 phical features, and relations to the neighbouring countries, exactly corresponds to the mo- 
 dem China. Not less conformable is the report given of the national character, Tlie Seres 
 are represented as frugal, quiet, sedate, and tranquil beyond all other nations; as of all 
 others the most unwarlike, and the most averse to the use of arms; as shinming, with the 
 most studious care, the society and intercourse of strangers, and scarcely ever allowing 
 them to enter their territory ; as carrying on trade at a fixed frontier station only, and under 
 •he strictest precautions; as selling their own commodities without receiving the commo- 
 dities of other nations in return. Silk waa the staple of Serica, and it is of China. Witli 
 regard to M. Gossclin's Indian theory, it must now, we suppose, be on all hands given up, 
 since Thibet and Northern India, instead of being connected bv the valley of the Ganges, 
 have been found separated by the unbroken continuity of the loftiest ridge of the Iliininaleh, 
 which can be penetrated only by a few most perilous and tremendous passes. 
 
 Respecting Ilindostan, and its limitary regions, the details given by Ptolemy include a 
 great mass of sound information. In some important particulars, indeed, his map is decidedly 
 superior to those possessed by the moderns, previous to the late important accessions to their 
 knowledge. He describes the Ganges rising, as it really docs, on the southern side of the 
 Himmaleh, and in the outer limits of Ilindostan, while, prior to the mission sent by Col. 
 Colebrooke, in 1806, its origin, and a considerable part of its early course, were supposed to 
 be in Little Thibet. The mission to Caubul first found that all the great western rivers 
 emptied themselves by one channel into the Indus, as they had been represented hy Ptolemy, 
 while modern maps had exhibited them entering by two great separate chiinncls. The 
 same mission discovered two very considerable rivers, western tributaries of the Indus, 
 the Kauraeh and the Suaut, of which no trace had yet appeared in modern delineation ; 
 but, on turning to Ptolemy, we find them accurately traced under the names of the Coo and 
 the Suoste. Thus we find him delineating with success geographical features in the most 
 secret recesses of Asia, which remained unknown till lately to tlie best-informed of modem 
 geographers. 
 
 The site of Palibotlira is one main point in which, after much discussion, geographers 
 have in vain endeavoured to form an unanimous opinion. It was found by Mcgiisthenes the 
 proud capital of the Gangetic kingdom, and the greatest city of all India. Yet modern 
 geographers have not been able to agree within several hundred miles upon this marked 
 and celebrated position. Arrian states that it is situated at the junction of the Ganges with 
 the Erranaboiis, the third river of India as to magnitude, being surpassed only by the Ganges 
 and the Indus. This scale of magnitude suggests the Jumna, and at the confluenee of the 
 Jumna with the Ganges actually stands Allahabad, a city of great magnitude and high anti- 
 quity, which is even revered by the Hindoos as the " king of holy cities." Upon this general 
 idea D'Anville and, after him, Robertson, have considered Allahabad as occupying the site 
 of Palibothra. On examination, however, this is found in contradiction to the most jxjsitive 
 statements of Pliny and Ptolemy. Pliny, in express words, states Palilxithra to be 425 miles 
 distant fram the junction of these two rivers. Ptolemy makes the distance somewhat greater 
 still. In considering Allahabad, then, as Palibothra, we abandon altogether the authority of 
 these two great geographers, a step in which we should be very little justified, either by a 
 reference to thi'ir general character, or by our knowledge of their remarkable accuracy with 
 regard to the other features of central and northern India. Their account of Palibothra, too, 
 is given upon the authority of Greek ambassadors, who actually visited that capital. The 
 river next in magnitude is the Gogra or Sarayu. But the junction of this river with the 
 Ganges is not nearly so far from that of the Jumna as the above statements v.-ould require. 
 Besides, Ptolemy actually gives us tlie Sarabus (Sarayu), with its junction ii\ the due relative 
 position to that of the Jumna, but Palibothra much fiirther down. Major Rennel has made 
 choice of Patna, and considers the junction of the Soane, at present thirty miles above that 
 city, as having taken place formerly by a different and nearer channel. This theory stands 
 on much higher ground than the other; yet it by no means closely corresponds with the 
 ancient data. Pliny mentions both the Sonus and the Erranalwas as quite distinct tributaries 
 of the Ganges, and he places the city considerably farther down than Patna is. Ptolemy, 
 also, in giving the junction of the Soa and the Ganges, places Palibotlira more than two 
 hundred miles below. Major Rennell's theory, then, brings us considoral)ly short of the 
 point at which this great capital ought to be situated. 
 
 Another point which appeared to ine to unite the name and position of Palibothra has 
 been mentioned {Discoveries in Asia, v. i. p. 491.), and, without being inclined very confi- 
 dently to dogmatize, it still appears to me to combine better the difierent rpf|nisili's than 
 any other yet named. The name of BoffUponr may be considered identical \\itli I'aliboor; 
 for, in transferring Indian terms into our characters, P and B, O and A, are always used 
 promiscuously; and the termination attached by the Romans is evidently ncrording to their 
 system of harnionizing foreign sounds with their own. A name is of little cnn.sequence 
 when it is not !iccom|ianied wit'' a corresjwnding position ; but here this appears to couicide 
 
 i '! 
 
■w 
 
 Hook I. 
 
 PTOLEMY— AFRICA. 
 
 b» 
 
 >tlirii lias 
 ry confi- 
 ics than 
 'iiliboor; 
 xys used 
 'to their 
 pqiienco 
 coijic'ide 
 
 nearly, though not indeed quite exactly, with Pliny, He makes Palibothra 4'V) miles from 
 the junction of the Ganges and Jumna, and 6(M) from Gauge, a capital ttituuteJ ut the mouth 
 of the former. Boglipoor, however, iuHteud of being only two-fifllis of tlio distance between 
 these two points, is about^ exactly midway. Tlie space lower down the river, being less 
 
 ' I most easterly 
 place assigned 
 
 position of Bogli- 
 poor. Near it the Ganges receives tiie Coosy, or river of Nepaul, certainly not the third 
 m India as ti magnitude ; but the ambassadors might not have very precise means of os- 
 certaininj^ the relative dimensions of the Indian rivers. There is, therefore, a great weight 
 of evidence, as to name and position, in favour of the theory here proposed. I must confesii, 
 iiowevcr, that I find no description of any monuments, such as might be expected to mark 
 the ancient site of so splendid a capital. Indian structures, however, are not usually 
 composed of materials sufficiently solid to resist the ravages of sixteen centuries. If the 
 local data could at all have allowed us to fix upon tlie thrice ancient and holy Benares, its 
 character would have given it at once a pre-emiuence ; but this is impossible. Ra- 
 jemahl, suggested, is not very distant from Boglipoor; but besides losing the coin- 
 cidence of name, it agrees less than the other position with the statements both of Ptolemy 
 and Pliny. 
 
 SuBSECT. 3. — Africa. 
 
 In the delineation of Africa, Ptolemy, himself an African, had obvious advantages. Ac- 
 cordingly his delineations of ceveral of tlie most interior features have, as in the case of 
 southern India, proved to be more accurate than those given by modern geographers down 
 to a very recent period. The course of tlie Nile, up to its highest probable source in the 
 central range of the mountains of the Moon, has been justified by recent inquiry, in oppo- 
 sition to the Portuguese missionaries, who drew it. from the mountains and lakes of Abys- 
 sinia. This original fountain-head has not yet \ .1 traced by the daring foot of the modern 
 traveller ; but the description given to Brown, of its descent from the great mountain chain 
 south of Darfoor, corresponds very exactly with Ptolemy, making allowance only for his 
 erroneous graduation. With equal fidelity, lie delineates the Astaboras, or Atbara, the As- 
 tapus, or river of Abyssinia, successively fiillinff into it from the east. He has, indeed, made 
 Meroe an island, enclosed by brandies of the Nile ; but modern discovery has shown it to 
 be so very nearly insular, in consequence of the great bend taken to the south, that the 
 error cannot be considered excessive. 
 
 In regard to central Africa, Ptolemy had not equal advantages, on account of the dis- 
 tance, kjcause no track had yet been formed across the vast ocean of desert which inter- 
 vened. It appears to me a matter of some difficulty to ascertain the precise extent of hia 
 knowledge as to this region. M. Gossclin lias not hesitated to assert, that he knew nothing 
 of Africa south of the desert, and tliat all the features which he has assigned to interior 
 Libya, and the course of the Niger, belong in fact to Fezzan and that region behind the 
 Atlas which we call the B'led-el-Jereedc, or Land of Dates. This opinion certainly receives 
 much countenance when we find the Garamantes and the Garamantica vallis placed on thu 
 same line with the Niger, the lake of Nigritia, and the other leading central features. I 
 still, however, think it probable that Ptolemy might, by way of tlie Upper Nile, have ob- 
 tained intelligence respecting a portion at least of tliese vast regions, the approach to which 
 by way of Dongola and Sennaar was not obstructed by any very insurmountable barriers. 
 Besides the agreement of several names, as Gaua, Tagana, Panagro, the general picture 
 of this region as one of lakes, rivers, and mountains, agrees much better with the interior 
 tiian with the arid tract between Atlas and the desert. My suspicion tiiercfore is, that Ptol- 
 emy, unacquainted with any route across the great desert, was not aware of the wide in- 
 terval between the features to the nortli and those to the south of it, and linked them to- 
 gether in his description as contiguous and connected. As his knowledge of central Africa 
 w:is thus obtained only in a westerly course from the Nile, it was not likely to extend be- 
 yond the eastern part of the vast brea/lth between the Nile and the ocean. The Mons Man- 
 drus, his mo.st western feature, with a great river flowing from it into tlie lake of Nigritia, 
 may pcriinps be recognized in the miglity range of the mountains of Mandara and the river 
 Shary flowing from them into the lake or sea of tlie Tchad. About this quarter I should 
 conceive the knowledge w!iich reached Ptolemy by inland channels probably terminated ; 
 and llie Atlantic coast, known to exist by the voyages of Ilanno, Scylax, and Polybius, was 
 united to those objects by a merely hypotlietical construction. In regard to the course of 
 the Niger, it is difficult to say very precisely what were Ptolemy's views, and we only per- 
 ceive that he made it an inland river, neither flowing into the Atlantic, nor by the Nile into 
 the Mediterranean. 
 
 Respecting tliis gretrt central region of Africa, however, Ptolemy had obtained some no- 
 tices from whicii he might have estimated itp- magnitude. Two Roman expeditions had 
 been reported to him, one made by Septimius Flaccus from Garama, and the other by Julius 
 
 
 ■A ;i 
 
 m 
 m 
 
 S-? 
 
 I- ' Mil 
 
r' ■("' •■ map* 
 
 ,* *• 
 
 m 
 
 00 
 
 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Pa»tI. 
 
 
 ! 
 
 Matornug from tho coast of Cyrcnc. Tho former in three, and the latter in four month*, 
 had penetrated into tlic country of the Ethiopians. Ptolemy expresses himself very scepti- 
 cal lis to tho possible length of tliis marcli ; nevertheless he loys down the conntry of 
 Agisynibu as tliat furthest region of intc^rior Etiiiopia into which these commnnders had 
 ponotratcd. Agis}'mba wo suspect to ho Agndoz ; at leust as tho march comprehends no 
 rivers or lakes, it cannot well have reached the lino of the Nifjer. Nevertlieless Ptolemy 
 places it considerably to the south of Nigritiu ; which is doubtless in fiivour of the limited 
 ext'mt which M. Gossclin allows to his information. But we may observe that, supposing 
 Ptolemy to have formed, in the manner above supiKwcd, his idea of tho plain of tho Niger 
 as little removed to the south of Fczzan, ho must, in protracting marches of throe or four 
 months, necessarily have carried the lino much farther to tho south. 
 
 In regard to the western coasts of Africa, Ptolemy's delineation is not very luminous, but 
 appears on the whole to favour M. Gosselin's views respecting tho extent of Hanno's voy- 
 age and of the knowledge of the ancients. He does indeed present two rivers, the Daradus 
 and the Stochir, flowing on a line witli tho plain of Nigritio. But I have no idea that 
 Ptolemy could have any precise information reaching across tho entire breadth of the con- 
 tinent, and conceive, as already hinted, that the coast and interior were hero hypothctically 
 united. As Ptolemy placed the plain of tho Niger much too fkr north, he might make 
 these rivers on a line with it, without identifying them with the Senegal and Gambia. 
 His position of the Fortunate Islands (Canaries) opposite to their mouths, and south of 
 Cemc, is not at all in favour of tho opinion which carries these last features deep into cen- 
 tral Africa. 
 
 On the eastern coast of Africa, Ptolemy adds to the line described by the author of the 
 Periplus a coast extending from the promontory of Rhaptum to that of Prasum. At this 
 point the coast, hitherto running Bouth-west, changes to soutli-east. No details are given 
 of this coast, which is described as rough and difficult to navigate. We can neither, with 
 M. Goeselin, lunit Prasum to Brava, nor with Vincent carry it so far as Mosambique. There 
 is no part of the coast to which the direction assigned to it belongs, except from Quiloa 
 to Cape Delgado; and if Rhaptum be at or near Quiloa, tho latter, allowing for some exag- 
 geration of distance on a coast so little known, will be the promontory Prasum. Five de- 
 ffrees east and three degrees south of this promontory is the island of Mcnuthios. The 
 Mcnouthesias of the Periplus appeared pretty plainly to bo one of tho smaller islands near 
 the African coast, and probably Zanzibar ; but none of these could be the Menuthias of 
 Ptolemy, which is manifestly Aiodagoscar. 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Undek the " geography of the middle ages " may be comprehended that of the Arabian or 
 Saracen nations, during the period when science was successfully cultivated among them ; 
 and the geographical ideas prevalent in Europe, during that long darkness which preceded 
 the revival of learning, and the commencement of maritime discovery. 
 
 - CHAPTER I. 
 
 ARABIAN GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The Arabs wore for some time the most learned of nations. As the mantle of science 
 dropped from the sagos of Greece and Rome, it fell upon this wild and strange race, sprung 
 fhjm the bosom of bigotry and barbarism. The fanatic hordes, who, under the guidance of 
 their fiilse prophet, rushed from the heart of Arabia, at first owned no law but the Koran ond 
 the sword. When they had conquered half tlie world, however, and founded splendid capi- 
 tals on the banks of the Euphrates and the Guadalquivir, there arose a race of humane and 
 polished princes, who studiously sought to reluraine the ailmost extinguished lamp of science. 
 Almamoun above all, in the ninth century, may rank among the most distinguished of its 
 patrons who have ever filled a tlirone. 
 
 Geography among the Arabian states, appears to have been studied with greater ardour 
 than at any other place or country, except at Alexandria. It employed the pens of several 
 of their most eminent writers ; Masudi and Ebn Haukal in the ninth and tenth centuries j 
 Abulfoda and Edrisi in the twelfth and thirteenth ; to whom may be added the respectable 
 names of Ibn-al-Vardi, Bakoui, and Schoabeddin. Although none of their works Jiavo be- 
 come at all familiar to the European reader, yet learned men have translated jwrtions, which 
 
 J. 
 4. 
 s. 
 n. 
 
 s. 
 «. . 
 
 10. ' 
 !1. , 
 
 (2. , 
 
■%' 
 
 ART 1. 
 
 lonthii, 
 Bcepti- 
 ntry of 
 ■rs had 
 t-nds no 
 •tolcmy 
 limited 
 pposing 
 3 Niger 
 I or four 
 
 lous, but 
 io'b voy- 
 Daradus 
 (lea that 
 the con- 
 heticully 
 ht make 
 Gambia. 
 Bouth of 
 into cen- 
 
 lor of the 
 At this 
 ire given 
 ther, with 
 je. There 
 )m Quiloa 
 )me exag- 
 Five de- 
 lias. The 
 lands near 
 muthias of 
 
 • 1^ 
 
 Arabian or 
 long them; 
 h preceded 
 
 of science 
 ace, sprung 
 Etuidance ot 
 
 Koran and 
 lendid capi- 
 humane and 
 
 of science, 
 ished of its 
 
 cater ardour 
 18 of several 
 h centuries ; 
 rospectoble 
 ks liavc be- 
 •tions, whicli 
 
 Book II. 
 
 ARABIAN GEOGRAPIIV. 
 
 01 
 
 not only convey a general idea of their system, but have enabled gcom-aphcrs to delineate 
 Nome districts of the globe wb >:h otiiorwiso would have long remained unknown. 
 
 i 1 Sect. I. — Qeneral System, Fiff.W. ^. 
 
 The mathematical sciences, and above all astronomy, wore among the most fovourito pur- 
 suits of the covirt of Bagdad ; and the ample resources which they afl'onlod were applied 
 with considerable care to tlie improvement of geography. In 833, tiie calipli Almamoun en- 
 deavoured, l)y observations of latitude made at Kufa, and at a point in tiio desert of Pal- 
 myra, Ijo measure the circumference of the globe. In all the countries subject to the Maho- 
 medan arms, numerous observations are recorded which, though not always rigorously cor- 
 rect, appear at least to have been real, and not merely calculated out of itineraries, like those 
 of the Alexandrian gecjgranhers. The tables of Abulfcda, of Ulug Beg, and of Nuzir Eil- 
 din, edited by Gra;vius, anil republished by Hudson, alford miterials that are still useful for 
 the construction of the maps of interior Asia. 
 
 Fig. ll.-MAr OP TIIR WORLD TAKEN FROM AN ARARIAN MANIJBCRIFT OF AL EDRISI, IN TIIE 
 
 UODLEIAN LIBRARY. 
 
 1. 
 
 Mnuntnina of Uie 15 
 Mi>i>nun(l SourcuB Iti 
 of tho Nilo 17 
 
 BL'rtiiira (kingdom 18 
 of AJfl) 
 
 Al-Zunt[(/an7iiebar) 19. 
 
 Hcliilii (Snfnlu) 
 
 Al-Wttk VVnk 
 
 Scrrniieeb (t'liylun) 
 
 Al-Comor (Xliuiu- 
 !in»ciir) 
 
 A-I)ll!| 
 
 AlVcman (Arnbia 
 
 Felix) 
 Ti'hnma 
 Al-lli-jii7. (ArabiaT 
 
 Dranrlu) 
 Al-Shujnr (SoKor) 
 AI-linnma{Yimania) 
 Al-Habp0h (Klbiupiii, 
 
 AliyMinia) 
 
 Vol. I 
 
 AI Nuha(NuI)ia) rtl 
 AI Tigdiien 3: 
 
 AI-Hi-jah 
 Al-aaiieed ((Tpper 3; 
 
 C(iypt, S(ii(1) 
 Aloiihal-what (Oa- :\3. 
 
 Gowas 
 
 Kaiiuii 
 
 itolHd Al-Iomlum 
 
 Hulail Mufratlfi 
 
 IIaIiuI Ni-manch 
 
 At-Multtini.Sitihiijcli 
 
 Cnniii {Karooaiit 
 
 KurtMic) 
 NnKroliinfl 
 AI-SoHs Xijia 
 Al-Mu«hnili AI 
 
 Amkftm (Mosrob 4.'*. 
 
 Iliu VV(Mt) 4ti. 
 
 •M. 
 35. 
 
 rw. 
 
 :w. 
 
 m. 
 
 40. 
 41. 
 41 
 4X 
 44 
 
 Afieokei'a (ATripa) 
 llola.U-lGcrid(I)ute 
 
 Cmmtry) 
 Sphiirt'(',Henmnfik(nr 
 
 Dyst'rtnf Hcniiike) 
 Mi^fltir (r.KVpl) 
 Al-8bain fHynn) 
 Al-lrak (Puraian 
 
 cmiiiru) 
 Fnt8(Por!»iii Proper) 
 Kirriiun (Canniniia) 
 Altiiziih 
 Miiuhan 
 
 AI-Hiinila(Scin()i) 
 Al-Hind (India) 
 Al-Seeii (China) 
 Khnrnsan 
 AI-ltoharuB 
 AzRihijan (Mcdis) 
 Klmwarizra 
 
 6 
 
 Al-Slinsh 
 
 KhirktH'E 
 
 Al-Sefur 
 
 Al-'I'ibut (Tibet) 
 
 Al-Nufuz Izz 
 
 Kurjisoa (Goorgia) 
 
 Kt'ymak 
 
 Kultusa 
 
 l7zea 
 
 A/kush 
 
 TurkcBh 
 
 Ittirab 
 
 Hut^har (Hulgnria) 
 
 Al-Miitenah 
 
 Yiijooj (G..S) 
 
 Mnjoiij (MuKop) 
 
 Asiatic (IluBSta) 
 
 Bpjot-rut 
 
 AI Alinan 
 
 66. Al-Kliuiiziis Khosra 
 
 /CaHpian Sea) 
 
 67. Tirkoa (Turkey) 
 nn. Albfiian(Alhuma) 
 til>. Miikodunoeab (Ma- 
 
 ccfionia) 
 TO. Baltic Sea 
 71. Jenubda (probably 
 
 Sweden) 
 73. Gerinania(Gormany) 
 7X OonniBTk 
 71. Alrnngpenh (France) 
 T.*!, Felttwiuh (Norway) 
 "S. Unrtoa nr ISurtenou 
 
 (Britnin) 
 77. rorplca,Sardinia.&c. 
 7H. Italy 
 
 7i). Ashicerimiah (part ol 
 tipaiQ,Q.Andaluiia) 
 
 'hi 
 
 
» 
 
 i : I 
 
 !l 
 
 I 
 
 m 
 
 I J 
 
 J I 
 
 J 1 ' 
 
 « 
 
 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 P*«T I. 
 
 Many countrico, hitherto unknown awl liarbaroim, wore explored, and in sonio de^co 
 civilizeil, by the Moslem armij. Tho«o on tlie Oxus iind the JuxiirtoH, the AHJutic Scythui of 
 the ancients, and occupied then only liy Nomiulic hordoH, were covered l>y tiicin with (^eot 
 and flourishinp cities. Among thews Bamarcand became aftcrwiinls tiie capital of an empire 
 that extender over half of Axia. At tjio opiK)Nite extremity, Mauritania, wiiich had been 
 regardod by the Romans aa almoHt beyond tlio limits of social existetiee, lincame a flourishing 
 kingdom, and possessed in Fez an eminent school of learning. Even beyoml the limits ot 
 the Mahomedan world, missions were sent to explore the remotest limits of the east and 
 west. One i'lterestinjf result of these has been conmiunicated ui the relation of two Maho- 
 medan travellers, Wahad and Abuzaid, who in the ninth century penetrated into China; and 
 gave a description of that country ; which, though only recently known to us by the transla- 
 tion of Renaudot, must have licen Uie earliest ever conununicoted to the nations of the west. 
 From Lisbon, also, the brothers Almagrurim sailed, endeavouring to anticipate the discoveries 
 of Columbus, by exploring unlmown countries beyond " the sea of durkiiess." For ten tvr 
 eleven days they steered westward ; but seeing a storm approachinjj, the light faint, and tlie 
 sea tempestuous, they <lreaded having come to tlie dark boundaries of the earth. They turned 
 therefore waith, sailed twelve days in that direction, imd came to an island, which they called 
 Ganam, or the island of birds ; but the flesh of these binls was too bitter to be eaten. They 
 Bailed on twelve days fartlier, and came to another island, the kinjj of which assured them 
 that their pursuit wos vain: that his father had sent an experlition for tlie same purpose; but 
 that, after a month's sail, the light had wholly failed, and Uiey had been obliged to return. The 
 adventurers, therefore, mode their way back to the coast of Africa, which they reached in 
 three days. The bearings stated seem to point out Madeira and the Canaries as the two 
 islands visited in tliis expedition. 
 
 In regard to the general outline of the earth, the Arabs seem to have closely adhered to 
 ancient theories. They revived the early impression of an ocean, which, like a zone, encom- 
 passed the whole earth. This, according to a natural feeling, was characterized as the " Sea 
 of Darkness," an appellation most usually given to the Atlantic ; but the northern sea of 
 Europe and Asia, inspiring still more mysterious and gloomy idea.s, is called the " Sea of 
 pitchy Darkness." Edrisi has even imagined tlie land as doating in the sea, and only part 
 appearing above, like an egg in a basin of water. At the same time he divides it into seven 
 seas, fancifiilly appropriated to the seven climates into which the earth was divided. Ac 
 cording to these climates, he describes the earth beginning at the western and proceeding to 
 the eastern extremity ; an ill-judged arrangement, which, by a mechanical section, separates 
 portions of territory the most intimately connected. The knowledge of the Arabs was sub- 
 jected to another and a voluntary limitation. They studiously desisted from nil inquiry 
 respecting those blinded nations, whose minds had never been illumined by the light of the 
 Koran. Ibn Ilaukal even makes it a subject of glory, tliat he had found nothing worthy of 
 remark among nations who could not be viewed without horror by men who had any innate 
 principles of virtue, wisdom, or religion. Those views of the subject greatly restricted their 
 means of knowledge in respect to Europe, and rendered it of little value, unless with regard 
 to those two continents, which their arms had rendered to a great extent Mahomedan, 
 
 Sect. II, — Asia, 
 
 The Asia of the Arabs comprised a wider range than had belonged to that continent under 
 any former system. China is distinctly marked, partly under the appellation of Seen, ond 
 partly under that of Catliay ; the former term appearing to comprehend India beyond tlic 
 Ganges. Lamery, productive in camphor, gold, ivory, and dye-woods, appears by these 
 products to be Sumatra, and mention is even made of Al Djavah. The countries on the 
 Oxus and Jaxartes having become the seat of an extended Moslem empire, of which Samar- 
 cand was the capital, Tartary, both ca-stem and western, was, for the first time, delineated 
 with tolerable accuracy ; many of tlie leading ptxsitions, in this hitherto inaccessible part of 
 the continent, were even fixed by astronomical observation ; and some positive though tiiint 
 and indistinct notice appears to have been received respecting the people situated along the 
 shores of the Northern Ocean. Unfortunately the main objects of curiosity and inquiry were 
 Gog and Magog, The authentic application of these names has been observed under the 
 Hebrew system as belonging to a devastating race from the shores of the Euxine and Caspian, 
 Oriental mncy had transformed them into two enormous giants, who had erected an impreg 
 liable castle on the borders of Scythia. The eflforts made by the court of Bagdad in pursuit 
 of this chimera were very extraortlinary. The first expedition woe undertaken with the 
 hope of finding it somewhere on the shores of the Caspian ; but a.s their conquests soon 
 embraced the whole of that region, without the slightest trace of this tremendous castle, the 
 more southern country of Bokhara was the next object of search. When that also had been 
 surveyed in vain, the court wua involved in much perplexity, and scarcely knew to what 
 ulterior region their view was to be directed. At length one of the caliphs di&patched a 
 mission, with strict injunctions on no account to return without having discovered the castle 
 of Gog. The envoys, according to Edrisi's report, proceeded first along the shores of the 
 
^^ 
 
 TUtou. n. 
 
 IN EUROPE DURING THE DARK AGES. 
 
 nt under 
 cen, and 
 rond Uie 
 by these 
 on the 
 Somnr- 
 ■lineatod 
 part of 
 igh faint 
 long the 
 iry wore 
 nder the 
 Caspian, 
 imprcfj ■ 
 \ pursuit 
 with the 
 fcsts soon 
 jitlc.tlie 
 hod been 
 I to what 
 atched u 
 hie castle 
 bs of the 
 
 Ciiflpiiin, then through a vart extent of desert, probably the country of t!i« Kirghisfi, when 
 tliey arrived at a atuiicndous range of mountaing, which must have been tlie Altai. IIiTC 
 they (lid nrtuiilly finu or protend to find immothing whicli they concluded to be the castle of 
 (log and Magog. Perhaps they reached Home of thoao ancient monuments which have been 
 found alonp tlilH range, and gladly etnbraced thiH pretext to rid thomMclvcH of so troubloHomu 
 a coinmiKMioii. The picture they drew of it wan certainly very highly colour<'d, according 
 to Oriental tante. Tl'o walls were of iron cemented with brass, and a gate fitly cubits high 
 was 8<!curod by bolts and bars of enormous magnitude. The minds of the Arabs were thus 
 set at rest, and in all the future delineations of Asia this mighty castin was seen towering at 
 its fiirtlicft extremity. 
 
 Skct. ni. — Africa. 
 In regard to AtVica, the wide-extended settlements of the Arabs afforded them new sources 
 of inibrmatiun. The Mediterranean coast, indeed, as fiiras Numidia, had been fully explored 
 by the ancients, and hod even formed a more intimate part of their political system than it 
 has done of that of the moderns. By the Arabs, however, who had established here a suc- 
 cession of kingdoms, it was described in greater detail than over ; and as the most wentt-m 
 of those kingdoms was the flourishing one of Morocco, tliis region, comprising the nearly 
 unknown tracU of ancient Mauritania, formed an almost entirely now ac<iuisition to know- 
 lodffo. But their grandest achievement consisted in forming a road across the Great Desert, 
 and in colonising a considerable part of the central regions of Africa. They here tuunded a 
 series of powerful kingdoms : Ghana, the modern Kano ; Tocrur, which we conceive to be 
 Sackatoo ; Kuku and Kaugn, which recent travellers have found in and near the modem 
 region called Bornou. They described tliose countries as situated on the Nile of the Ne- 
 groes, which, contrary to ancient opinions, they represented as rising indeed from the same 
 fountain with theNde; but as flowing westward across all Africa, and falling into the 
 Atlantic ocean or sea of darkness. At its mouth they placed the island of Ulil, \vnence salt 
 was conveyed to all the Negro territories, which were entirely destitute of that necessary 
 of life. This view of the subject, though erroneous, was naturally suggested by the course 
 of tho rivers within the region with which they were alone intimately acquainted ; but we 
 reserve this discussion for a separate chapter, when we propose to give a succinct view of 
 tho successive theories respecting this great African river. We shall at present only 
 observe, that, as Tocrur is described to be only eighteen days' journey ♦rom the ocean, it is 
 plain that the knowledge of tho Arabs did not extend to Tombuctoo ; that they know nothing 
 of the Senegal or Gambia, or the countries upon these rivers ; and that the ocean into which 
 they represented the Nile of the Negroes as falling was either a hypothetical feature alto- 
 gether, or was at least hypothetically connected with all that they knew of tlie eastern tracts 
 of interior Africa. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 EUROPEAN GEOGRAPHY DURING THE DARK AGES. 
 
 Even the imperfect knowledge possessed by the ancient geographers became involved in 
 the general progress of that intellectual darkness, which ensued on the decline of the Roman 
 empire. Europe, overwhelmed with a deluge of barbarism, no longer cultivated art or 
 science ; and the rude states into which it was divided had only a vague idea of each other's 
 situation. The advance of this darkness may be observed in an anonyniniis work, published 
 at Ravenna in the eighth century. The writer presents only confused fragments of the 
 information contained in Ptolemy and Pliny. The coast of India, indeed, the mercantile 
 route to which appears to have been kept open, is still delineated with some degree of cor- 
 rectness. But the whole interior of Aisia, from China to Uactriana, is included under the 
 name of " Seric India :" the Caspian re-appears as a gulf of tho Nortliern Ocean ; in short, 
 all these distant regions are viewed, in tho manner natural to ignorance, as a dim and inde- 
 finite expanse, the features of which were all confusedly blended with each other. 
 
 The monasteries during the dark ages afforded an asylum for all that remained of ancient 
 knowledge ; in them the manuscripts of many of the classic writers wore Btill preserved, 
 though little consulted. The reading aloud of histories, and descriptions of noighlxHiring, 
 and even of distant countries, formed a mode of beguiling' the tedious hours ; but these being 
 recorded under the title of " Wonders of the World," and crowded with the most extrava- 
 gant fables, served rather for the amusement of the fire-side, than for any real instruction. 
 
 The missions undertaken for the conversion of the northern pagans wore tho principal 
 channel by which any geographical knowledge was convoyed. The missionnrio.s did not, at 
 this time, attempt to pass the limits ot Europe ; but directed their efforts towards the con- 
 version of the Slavonic tribes, who occupied Poland, Prussia and Livonia. Other appears 
 even to have penetrated through the interior of Russia to the White Sea ; he undertook also 
 an extensive voyage along the coasts of Norway. The Anglo-Saxon Wilfrid, named by the 
 pope the apostle of the Germans, appears to have been the person who transmitted the most 
 
 ;l 
 
 ¥: 
 
 m 
 
 i; 
 
 If 
 
 I: 
 
 tm 
 
 .-I 
 
 I im 
 
 Mrt; 
 
fl' 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 > Ml 
 
 M 
 
 Sitt 
 
 HISTORY OP fJKOORAPHV. 
 
 ■I* 
 
 PabtI 
 
 ftill (li'tnilH rt'liitivo t<i thn Sliivonie trilmn. St. Otto, biiihop of n(inil)or(r, niiil AiiHoairc, ii 
 monk of Corhio, itcnclriiti'il to llm kiii^nloiim of Swotloii ami Doiimiirkj l>iit the (lutniU of 
 tlicir iiiiHHJoii havo not Ix'nn prcuprvvd. AlthonKlii liowiiviT, thn nionkii llnii did HonK'thinf; 
 to illustrnti- tlic j(''"({"'l'''y "'" I'liiropo, tlieru in Hiiflicifnt I'vidunco that thoy lulHiurrd, in 
 many in^tunci-H, under tho jfronw^Hl i^noriinKo; komio of tlioni knew not eviMi the ca))ital of 
 tlicir own country, or tlin citii'H nt-nrcNt to tlii'ir own. 
 
 'J"he ifriMil inoniirrlm niiulo homip otlortu to rcHcuo tlio iijfo from tlii» ntnto of prnfonnd i(nio- 
 ranci'. 'I'lit! two iiluflriouH nionnrclip, ('liiirli-niajrno iind Alfred, distin^fniHlicd tlK'niwlvoi 
 by tlii'lr t'liduavonrH to proniolu ^•'"(ri'opliy : tlio Ibrmor con»truct(:d a nilvcr taldn of lar)(o 
 dunonHJiinH, on wliii-li whh d<'linpiili'<l tho wlioln world ho fiir iim known to him ; untortnniitcly 
 tlio miitcriiiirt wirn too cowtly, und tlio nilvor world wim wxm inclti-d down lo cupply the 
 nPccxHitii'y of r)iic n|' itu kintfdoniH. Alfn-d pro<liircd a more vuliiublu nioiiunient in ii (lfi«rri|i- 
 tioii of tlio north (f Kuropi-, from tlio host niaforiiils which coiilil bo then ctdlcctcd, nml which 
 ft)nns ofili tlip Im-sI record of the peo/jriiphical knowlcdj{0 of that n(fn. Under the direction 
 of Willinm tin? (.'ompieror wan dravvn up that important docnnicnt called Doonmday Book, in 
 which the populati hi, the culture, and the taxcH paid by cuch diHtrict, aro ('xhihitcd hi the 
 jp-eate.Ht detail. A ^limilar aurvey of nomnark wa.-* made in tho thirteenth century, by its 
 Boverei<^n VValdein ir II.; and of tho Mark of Brandenburg, in tho fourteenth century, by tho 
 cniperor Charles IV. 
 
 The Dnwn and Norwoffians, the Northmen bh they were called, while under their mighty 
 iea-kin<;s they spread desolation over the maritime diNtricfn of Europe, nercMsarily ac(|uirod 
 a very extenaive kiii)\\1edpc of its sens and coasts. Such knowledge, though nowhere formed 
 into any regular system, may 1h! traced in the sagas, or metrical historicH in which they 
 celebrate the gallant exploits of their countrymen. Th('y were, of course, familiar with all 
 tho countries bordering on tho Baltic. They knew by conquest Orkney, Hhetland, the He- 
 brides, anil the western coast of Ireland. Their fleets reached even the shores of Italy and 
 Sicily. Towards the north, they established colonies in Iceland and fireenland. But the 
 most iniiHirtant ili-rovery of the Northmen was, undoubtedly, America, if their claim to tho 
 merit of that discovery shall bo admitted to lie made gixxl. In the lieginning of the eleventh 
 ccnlnry, Thorwald and Leif, two natives of Iceland, having sailed fiir to the -Hiuth-we.-'t, came 
 to a I'oiintry wliirli appeared to them, doubtless by comparison, to he mild and ngreeahlo ; 
 the natives were of dwarfish stature, and maintained with them sometimes a hostile, but 
 ottener a friendly intercourse. Finding that the rivers abounded with fish, and that the finest 
 furs could be procured, they and their countrymen repeated their visits; and in 1211, Bishop 
 F>ic is said to have re|)aired thither with the view of converting the natives. The name 
 given to tho reirion is Vinland, from the i'/He.<t growing in it; a feature which certainly 
 occurs to us aa very foreign to this part of the world; but, in fact, wild vines arc found 
 growing in all the most northerly districts of America. It is highly probable that tho conti- 
 nent was not rearlied by tho Icolandic adventurers, and that Vinlund was nicruly a southerly 
 district of Greenland. 
 
 CHAPTER m. 
 
 OKOCIlAPItlCAL KXOVVLEDCE DEUIVKD FROM THE CRUSADES. 
 
 The crusades tormed a scries of events which roused the European mind from its local and 
 limited range, und directed its ken into the regions of another continent. The high-wrought 
 enthusiasm which impelled Europe to pour itself, os it were, in one mass on tho eastern 
 world, however blind might have been the zeal which inspired it, was, on the whole, highly 
 beneficial : it drove back the tide of Saracen and Turkish conquest, which might have swal- 
 lowed up the whole West, and involved it in tho same gloom of barbarism and superstition 
 that pervaded the East. Above all, the cniHiides had a powerful influence in dispelling the 
 mental darkness in which the western regions were involved, and in projmring that light of 
 science and intelligence which was so soon to dawn upon them. The attention of Europe 
 wos thus directed to these interesting and meiiiorable regions, known hitherto only by tne 
 meagre re|X)rt of some occasional pilgrims. Not only the Holy 1-and, with the kingiloins of 
 Jorusttleiu and Edessa, founded by the victorious cru.«derH, but the extensive domains 
 belonging to the Saracen and Turkish empires, became objects of inquiry; search was now 
 made in thn writings of the ancient geograpliers, anil perhaps some lights were derived even 
 from the .\raliian writers. Samido compiled a ma)) of tho world, annexed to Hjngar's 
 "Gesta Dei per Francos," (fff. 12.) in which the ideas formed out of the crusading expedi- 
 tions arc fully cxeuiplified: Jerusalem is jilnced in the centre of the world, ns the iNiiiit to 
 which every other object is to be referred; tho earth is made a circle suriouiided by tho 
 ocean, the shore.-i of which are represented ns everywhere nearly ccpiidisfant from that 
 spiritual capital, the site of which is, indeed, remarkable tor its relation to the three conti- 
 nents, Asia, Kuro|)e, and Africa. Persia ritands in its pro|K'r jdace ; but India, mwler the 
 modifications of Greater and Lesser, is confiisedly rejieated at ditlerent |K)iiits. while the 
 river Indu:i is muntiuncd in the text as the eastern boundary of Asia. To tho north, the 
 
 cast 
 wlii( 
 pian 
 feati 
 the I 
 Euro 
 thouj 
 toget 
 
 Til 
 quart) 
 
 anciei 
 and di 
 turies 
 Tartn 
 
 Gengi 
 over I 
 most : 
 Asia, 
 and pe 
 ments 
 prossil) 
 was 811 
 
 Vo7,. 
 
 ;Si 
 
 
 i 
 
Bom n. 
 
 * 
 
 
 KNOW LKDT.E FROM TFrR CUUSADES. 
 
 ng. IS-HANUDOU MAP OF THE WORUi. 
 
 «' 
 
 I ,.l 
 
 r I 
 
 w 
 
 > it 
 
 i local an^ 
 h-wrouRht 
 lio eastern 
 )lc, higUlv 
 iiiive swal- 
 uporiitition 
 
 at lidht of 
 of Europe 
 inly by tne 
 nRiloins of 
 ■0 (lomivina 
 111 was now 
 Irivcd cvon 
 l() Bonsftr's 
 linjr oxpodi- 
 Ihc |M)iiit to 
 li(l(i\ by tho 
 from tliiit 
 Itlirrc conti- 
 T, yiuilor the 
 k while the 
 le north, the 
 
 castlo of Gog and Mogop, an Arabian feature, crowns a vast ranpe of mountains, withiii 
 wiiich it is Httid that tho Tartars had been imprisoned by Alexander the Great. The Cbji- 
 pian appears, with tho bordorintf countries of Gcorjfia, Hyrcania, ond Albania ; but these 
 features stand nearly at the northern boundary of the Imbitable earth. Africa has a sea to 
 the south, stated, however, to bo inaccessible, on account of the intensity of tho heat. The 
 European countries stand in their dun place, not even exccptinff Russia and Scandinavia ; 
 though some overiiglits are observable in tho manner in which the two are connected 
 together. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 TARTAR OEOORAPIIY. 
 
 The revolutiotia of tho north of Asia next attracted llie eyes of Europeans to the distant 
 quarters of tho world. Tho roaming tenants of those boundless wilds, l.'.-rifn under the 
 ancient name of Scythia, and the modern one of Tartary, have at various . riods conquered 
 and desolated tho civilized world of Asia. Tlie offspring of Tartar hi is .--dt for many cen- 
 turies on tl\o tlirones of Pekin, of Delhi, of Ispahan, and of Constantinople : but, of the 
 Tartar rulers, none ever raised so terrible a niinie, or established so wiae un empire, as 
 Gengis or Zingi.s; originally an individual chief of the Mongiil8,ho attained the general sway 
 over that warlike race, and led them as coraiuorors froi.i empire to empire. His first and 
 most signal exploit was tlic couijuest of China; liaving thence crossed the wliolo breadth of 
 Asia, ho died on the phoresoftlie Caspian. Ilissuccossor.-" pressed on westward,overran Russia, 
 and penetrated tlirongh Poland into Ilungnry and Silesia; their approach, their rapid move- 
 ments, and the e.\agi;erated reports of their ravages, stnirk tho nations of Europe with inex- 
 pressible terror; this was greatly heightened by tho prevailing ignorance of geography, which 
 was sucli thai none know when they might arrive, or where they might bo encounteretl. The 
 
 Vor,. I. 0* L 
 
 ? fl'J 
 
 ^H 
 
 Ul 
 
 1.;;^- 
 
 im 
 
n& 
 
 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part I. 
 
 Danes wore thus dotorrcd one season even from going t») tlio lierring-fisliery, on the coast of 
 Scotland. Tlie Tartars defeated and killed the Dnke of Silesia ; but a general muster of 
 the Gerniun chivalry lioing made to oppose them, they retreated into the interior of Poland, 
 and even fnrther to tlie ea.'st, leaving only a numerous vanguard ; but it was susiwctcd that 
 they were only mustering their strengtli, agam to invade Europe, in more dreadful and 
 destructive array. 
 
 Embassy, at this crisis, was deemed the expedient most likely to appnisc the fury of these 
 dreaded invaders. According to the ideas of the age, the pope appeared the most respectable 
 character, in whose name a mission could be undertaken, and monks tiie mewt fitting ambas- 
 sadors. Tlio choice was injudicious : these envoys, ignorant of the political relations of 
 countries, of the usages of society, and the mode of treating with mankind, obtained no 
 respect in the eyes of the fierce conquerors of Asia. They returned without fulfilling any 
 obiect of their mission ; and if Europe was not again exposed to this barbarous inundation, it 
 owed its safety only to the division of the immense empire of Kaptchak, and the dissension!) 
 among its princes. These ambassadors, however, traversed a large portion of the continent, 
 Uetbre unknown to Europeans. One mission, indeed, under Ascelin, which mec the Monguls 
 on the frontier of Persia, does not communicate any geographical information; but the 
 journey of Carpini, and after liim of Rubruquis, (Jig. 13.). led Ihem through the north of 
 
 Fig. 13.— MAP OF THE JOURNEY OF RUBRUQUIS. 
 
 Russia, along the shores of the Black Sea, and the Caspian, and thence into the very heart 
 of the immense plains of interior Asia, where thoy found the great Tartar capital of Kara- 
 koruin, the chief seat of the posterity of Zingis. Here the masters of the world, while 
 embassies and presents were w.iitiiig them from all the courts of southern Asia, were living 
 in the rudest Scythian fashion, feeding scantily on iiorse-flcsh and mares' milk, roving about 
 in tents, destitute of arts, and occupied only witii war and plunder. The Tartars, however, 
 treated with a proud disdain all other nations, over whom they lield themselves as commis- 
 sioned by Iieaven to rule, while they paid the most abject submission to their own Khan, re- 
 vering him as the appointed representative of the doity on earth. 
 
 Karakoruin was tbund scarcely entitled to the name of city, being little larger than one 
 of the suburbs of Paris, and its most sumptuous edifices scarcely suitable to a European 
 country town. The situation of this capital of so great an empire has been a subject of some 
 controversy. D'Anvilh; places it at a point to the north of China, ne.ir the eastern limit of 
 the great desert of Sliamo or Cobi, while Fischer fixes it on the Orclion, one of the rivers 
 which unho in (i)rming the Selingha. I have elsewhere endeavoured to show (Discoveries 
 in Asia, F.) that both these positions must be about a thousand miles to. the eastward of the 
 real site. It is true tliat upwards of four months was occupied in pa.ssiiig from the western 
 frontier of Russia to this capital; and the missionaries complniuof the grievous rajudity with 
 wliirli they were conveyed. They estimate the daily riite as equal to the distance from Paris 
 to Orleans, or about seventy miles; and this time iind route would doubtless bo sufficient to 
 carry them to the most eastern extremity of the cuntinent. But whenever they give us the 
 time ttctiiiilly employed in tnivelling between known |X)ints, a rate is found which does not 
 even approach to the alxwe. Two months nre spent by Ciir|)ini in travelling from the Dniei)er 
 to the Volira, and by RnbriHjuis *rnm the Daniibu to the Don, " riding |>ost as the Tartars 
 do;" yet neither of these spaces exceeds in direct distance six hundred miles. Tiicn from 
 the Volga to the Unil, which may be two hundred and fifty miles, we have twelve days; 
 while the journey fi'.in the Ural to the inland sen of Balkash, or Palcafi, occupied aliove 
 forty-three days. Tli.is down to that ix):iit it re(;uired four months to travel not (piite eighteen 
 hundred miles. From the BilkiUih to Karakoruin, the journey was performed in three weeks. 
 
 ' 
 
I. 
 
 of 
 of 
 nd, 
 Imt 
 iml 
 
 ese 
 ible 
 jas- 
 
 of 
 . no 
 any 
 ti, it 
 ions 
 lent, 
 gills 
 
 the 
 hof 
 
 I 
 
 
 1 one 
 bpcan 
 yome 
 lit of 
 livers 
 Icriea 
 the 
 fetcrn 
 I with 
 I'aris 
 ntto 
 ttie 
 1 not 
 lopfr 
 Irtiirt! 
 Ifrom 
 lays; 
 llmve 
 Iteen 
 I'cks. 
 
 Book II. 
 
 VENETIAN GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 67 
 
 Is it possible to suppose that they could in that time have travelled fifteen hundred mucs, the 
 space wiiicli would be necessary to enable Uiem to reach the Karakorum either of D'Anville 
 or of Fischer ! They could not have passed the great table plain of Soongaria, compared by 
 the OrieiitJil histories to a groat sea of verdure, and consequently of all others the best fitted 
 to foriii the central encampment of tiiis great pastoral and military empire. All the geo- 
 graphical indications given by Rubruquis agree witli this position; and disagree wholly with 
 Ilie oilier two. He says all the rivers observed by him flowed to the westward, which is true 
 as fiir iio Soongaria, but directly contrary to wiiat takes place in the other pasitions, botli of 
 whicli are even placed upon rivers that flow to the eastward. China is said to lie to the 
 south-ciiht, as it does from Soongaria; but from the two other positions it would be directly 
 south. The Kirghises are said to lie to the north, and the Baschkirs to the west; but these, 
 according to the ordinary site, would liavc been at a distance quite immense, and could have 
 had no relations with Karakorum. The hypothesis which places that city in Mongolia is 
 founded upon the latter having been the original seat of Zingis ; but Rubruquis expressly 
 states, that this arrangement had now ceased, and that Tartaria was " the chief and royal 
 city." Such a change was, indeed, almost necessary to ftn empire which was to embrace at 
 once the East and the West ; to hold China in one hand, and Russia in the other. 
 
 CHAPTER V, 
 
 VENETIAN GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The republics of Italy, and above all that of Venice, were the states in which the spirit of 
 commerce and inquiry, after being long dormant, revived with the most brilliant lustre. 
 The commerce which they carried on was one which connected them with the most distant 
 regions : they traded in the jewels, the spices, and the fine cloths of India, a country situated 
 at a distance really vast, and which then appeared almost immeasurable. It was not by 
 Venetians, however, or by any Europeans, that the vast intervening space was traversed. 
 They found the Indian commodities in the ports of the Mediterranean or the Black Sea, to 
 which tliey were brought by the Arabs up the Red Sea, or by the interior caravans across 
 central Asia. It was impossible, however, that they could see these precious end profitable 
 commodities continuing to enter their ports, without feeling some curiosity as to the splendid 
 and beautiful regions whence they came ; and, in that age of enterprise, it was likely that 
 some would be impelled to brave even the obstacles presented by this vast unknown space, 
 occupied by people of a hostile and bigoted fiiitli. The Abbe Zurla has collected notices of 
 a considerable number who, actuated by this spirit of discovery, penetrated to a considerable 
 depth into the interior of Asia. But the feme of all tlicse is eclipsed by one, whose travels 
 extended fer beyond the rest, and who has always ranked among the greatest of discoverers 
 of any age. 
 
 Marco Polo was a noble Venetian, whose family, like many others of the same rank, was 
 engaged in extensive commerce. His uncles, Maffeo and Nicole, had visited Tartary, and 
 afterwards China, though without leaving any narrative of their observations. The pope, 
 however, being apprized of their discoveries, sent out an ecclesiastical mission, accompanied 
 by the young Marco Polo, then only nineteen. They spent twenty-four years in traversing 
 the most remote regions of Asia. The result of their religious mission is not stated ; but they 
 returned laden with precious jewels, with which tliey dazzled the eyes of their countrymen, 
 by whom they were not at first recognised. Marco being afterwards made prisoner by the 
 Genoese, was persuaded to amuse the hours of confinement by dictating a narrative of his 
 travels, which was read with avidity, and soon translateil into all the European languages. 
 He has suffered like many other eminent travellers, under those injurious suspicions which 
 arise in the minds of persons unwilling to believe any event or object which goes beyond 
 the sphere of tlieir ordinary experience. His name even fiimislied the nickname given to a 
 personage introduced into the comedies of the age, to recite every species of e.xtravugant 
 fable. But modem information has verified in all its most es.sontial points the narrative of 
 Marco Polo, leaving only a slight tincture of that credulity which was characteristic of the 
 age, and is confined to what was told him by otiiers of countries which he did not himself 
 visit. Ho appears to have first proceeded along the northern shore of Asia Minor, then the 
 seat of a flourishing Turkish dynasty. He passed throii'rh Armenia, along the lofty ridges 
 of Ararat, and descending the Kuphratos through Curdistaii ranio to Bagdad, no longer the 
 capital of the caliphate, but still a flourishing and civilized city under its Tartar ronquerors. 
 He visited the groat commercial capital of Orniuz, and tlmnce proceeded eastward throupli 
 the southern part of Persia by Kermn'i and Kiibboes, across tlie great salt desert. At length 
 he reachefl Balkh, which, though st'i! a considerable emporium of central Asia, presented 
 only in its ruined temples and spacious squares the vestiges of \Xs ancient grandeur. Then 
 passing along the borders of Cashniire and the mountain tract of Balashan (Badakshan), cele- 
 brated for its mines of rubies, lie nscrndcd to tJie elevated plain of Pamere, forming the sum- 
 mit of that cross branch of the Hinimaleli called the Beloor. On this, which appeared to hiiu 
 
 ' 
 
 I 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 \'; ' 
 
 
 ,-!".; 
 
 
 i r' 
 
I 
 
 r! 
 
 
 68 
 
 mSTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt 1. 
 
 the highest ground in the world, he felt tliat difficulty in rcrspiration, and in producing com- 
 bustion, which is peculiar to the most elevated mountain sites. He atlerwards reached the 
 lar^e Tartar cities of Yarkund and Cashgar, and entered on that great eastern table-land 
 which, before and since, has formed the Terra Incognita of Asia. He then entered Northern 
 China, which he calls Cathay, and visited its capital Cambalu, his description of which strik- 
 ingly coincides with that of the modem Pekin. He atlerwards visited Mangi or Southern 
 China, and found in its capital, Quinsai, a scene eclipsing all that he had beheld cither in 
 Europe or in the East It is described as a most immense, and, from its splendour and the 
 beauty of its situation, almost a magic city. In fact Hongtchooibo, which corresponds with 
 Quinsai, though it has long ceased to be the capital of China, is still a very large city, very 
 charmingly situated. From China, Marco Polo passed tlirough the Indian Archipelago, hear- 
 ing only of Great Java, but visiting Sumatra, which he calls Little Java. He touched at 
 the coasts both of Malabar and Coromandel, and learned many particulars respecting India 
 and its people, which have since been confirmed by modem observation. He returned by 
 the Red Sea to Europe. 
 
 A map of the worlo on a large scale, (Jig. 14.) by Fra Mauro, which is preserved at Venice, 
 and of which a highly finished copy exists in the British Museum, exhibits a view of the 
 geographical ideas ibrmcd by the Venetians, founded upon the information derived from tlieir 
 Asiatic travellers, and prior to the discovery of America. 
 
 Fig. 14. — Map or tub Wobld by Fra Mavro. 
 
 1. Buira 
 
 2. Difur 
 
 3. Fundan 
 
 4. Maruchu 
 
 5. Bienc 
 fl. Mncha 
 7. Thui 
 a Thale 
 
 9. Stilunfur 
 1C Pellirondi 
 II. Ilweneia 
 IS. T'lrrailli 
 
 13. Deli 
 
 14. Avi 
 
 S Chsracan 
 
 29. 
 
 Zanlavo 
 
 43. Bnpolcro Uncain 
 
 e Nilo 
 
 fi. Charaiaii 
 
 M. 
 
 Hire 
 
 41. fainargaiu 
 
 1 Kufratn 
 
 17. Mlhen 
 
 31. 
 
 Baleh 
 
 4.^. Nngra 
 
 fc l"i«ri« 
 li Indua 
 
 ti. Moiinan 
 
 32. 
 
 Tangui 
 
 4G. Moacliftvia 
 
 9. Biachone 
 
 33. 
 
 Chansay 
 
 47. I'ormia 
 
 i Mandua 
 
 SU Bclfetoii 
 
 34. 
 
 NanKin 
 
 4H. Nuvuaradu 
 
 j Ganvea 
 
 iti. Canilar 
 
 35. 
 
 Uimnzu 
 Cambalu 
 
 4'.i. Kiga 
 
 k Uuian 
 
 1 Mam Ureunto 
 
 *i3. Thrmchain 
 
 M. 
 
 !iO. Praia. 
 
 iO. lIuLiluuia 
 34. Minciputamia 
 
 ■.r. 
 
 Arctidiiara 
 
 
 m Ainu 
 
 3H. 
 
 Silan 
 
 Rineri, Lake: ie. 
 
 n P(ilr*anchin 
 
 tU. Artha Noo 
 
 3U. 
 
 Olraf 
 
 a Oalla 
 
 MareBttiKhu 
 
 !». Tiphilii 
 
 40. 
 
 Chatajo 
 
 b Xebe 
 
 p Edit 
 
 37. Armenia 
 
 41. 
 
 BMenach 
 
 c Avaai 
 
 q Tanai 
 
 W. Spalma 
 
 43 
 
 Sepultun 
 
 b Abtvi 
 
 r Oanubio. 
 
n 1. 
 
 mice, 
 f the 
 their 
 
 BooKin. 
 
 MODERN GEOGIL*rprY. 
 
 ' A- BOOK III. 
 
 MODERNr-prw.-.r. 
 GB«o„.r„vwa,„owtoa.umo ^^OGRAPHY. .' ' 
 
 prehended within her domahf aIk "*'T '^P«"=*' "nd worlds before ., l 
 nont astronomers. skilfbrSts'^S^Fh '^e Italian states p^uM""^" ^«'« ^ be con- 
 by land conveyance, am] thlT' ■ ■ ^'^y navigators thpirV» ^? "^most exclusively Pmi 
 or even attemjt to foUoVtut n'.'""!'"" °*""'« '"terSet of P. r""°" ^"^ "•'"ly S^" 
 coasts of Europe, and eLdallv X-V;^'"?5 '^^^ioiuZverf %V ^7'^'^ "otorSX^ 
 
 discovery, conquest, and coL^^r^'-P"-"^ ^'"^ "*• t^e a^e emLSed°i^ Sl^S 
 
 cba 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 The progress of di'I^rvrvT.r.r'"'''''^ ''"'" ™^ '=^''' ^"'Es. 
 astonishinelyraDid- n„^ 7^" *be globe, when th» a . 
 
 <ar as Virginia. In the next tlo^nr^h P'"'""' ^rritSry "f thelfn^i''S!P'*="'' discovered 
 guese navigators, began the ]o„„ 2l "■• ^ ^'^''' 'he Cor?erSs „ ,. "^^ ®'^'"'' P^°bably as 
 they saiiod along tht coa^t of f T i"^'" ^"''i* of a pas^^p i™ '',*l"ng family of Portu- 
 which they seen? to haTmltat„'lT%r'^ '^'^^^^^S^^^^^Mir^^^''^'^^^-- 
 them unbippily perished. hmTrZ "j" t^" ^^^ween Africa fndi^.''^-^^'''^^'^ ^h 
 coast of Brazil, which he clahntd fnV D f '' '',*''*'"«'' for Indk strnct ^"'^™a; but two of 
 P«rt of Terra Firma, and Sna ZFuT'^"^' ^'""'?° ^t^ucTLZ^^T'^^^y °» »b« 
 ot Brazil ; services which ohta inf A <• , • ""^^ "lade two extpn«iv„ ^''^'' along a great 
 
 gulf of Mexico, In Kill ivr ^ ' "^ound a great n»rt «♦• .u^ • ^ "'* "ame to the whnU 
 boundless expanse oflh^ fe??!"^^' "°-'5 tt Srowtthr "''. ST *''« ""^^^ of tt 
 prompted Cortez and Pizarrr?^ f ^'^?"- '^''^^e discovwTefnff "? of Panama, beheld the 
 
 ^vith a handful of darfn7fo^oteTtfe '" '\''' -'ventumus "„" ±11;"^ ^'P"'^- which 
 Mexico and Pern P. 5 ,"'.*'^^~ tney subverted Hm -, » "^"'"ary career- in wfifoi, 
 
 Siam and Pegu; and even „f ,*'''* «nd Uie Spice iS , '^'^"' ^fr'™, of Ara- 
 
 joalousy of tlfat ^wer wa s^TP't' '"."'"*'' *be S of C,fca T^l*''" existence^f 
 be presence of {he emjeror and f '""^V *'"' I'ortuguese emZ^ ^ ^^^ characteristic 
 boards and larrre eves shn'.U ' . t """"'ate was issued th!^^ Z^^ ""' ndmittrd into 
 coverie., the fTranJ achiovSn f ^ '^^ ''''^""^ of the cele'stS « ""^ °^ ""' "i^" with long 
 and western discovery an „f/ ^'* '•^""''■"'■<'' of cL^t^'^L^y -^/f^^' "" "'ese d"f 
 of the globe, whic" d'.ough Ll^'"^. "P*'" ^° ^he wondSevTs If^*" *•>? .'*"??''« of easto n 
 mankin,! contrary tn\JrtlinKr "nf'^ '-" *''" '^«t~erfs"emeT?o;h' '''^' ^^""^t"- 
 , Magellan, in ir,2(), Mndertr!?tT • ^''" ^""''^s- ° ""^ &onpraIity of 
 
 %^ 
 
 / 11 
 
 
 •^j 
 

 i 
 
 
 il 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 !^ 
 
 I 
 
 70 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Pabt 1. 
 
 CHAPTER H. 
 
 EARLY BVBTF.M OF MODERN GEOcnAPIlY. 
 
 The systematic arrangement of the immense rcjfions thus discovered, tlieir adjustment to 
 each otl\er, and to the mass of knowledge previously ]X)S£C8sed, was a task as yet beyond the 
 resources of modem geography. It was to Venice tliat the results of discovery were still 
 referred to be arranged and systematised ; but the Venetian geographers, however skilful, 
 laboured under many diflRculties. The navigators seldom furnished them with any celestial 
 observations, or even accurate survey.?; for which, indeed, science had as yet provided no 
 suitable instruments : they gave only rude delineations, on which the geographer was obliged 
 to trace his uncertain way ; most of the countries formerly known were touched at new 
 pomts, and recognised under new names ; and tlie continents, being made to contain both the 
 olil and the new features, were swelled to a preposterous magnitude. The east of Asia 
 WHS obliged to contain at once tlie Serica of Ptolemy, the Mangi and Cathay of Marco Polo, 
 and the Ciiina of tlie Portuguese, all as f-parate empires. The relative site of the two 
 continents of Asia and America, the presentation of the west coast of the one to the cast 
 coast of the otiicr, was of course the problem which they had the fewest means of solving. 
 In a series of Venetian map?, preserved in the king's library, the two continents are de- 
 scribed througiiout tlieir whole extent as either united or separated only by the narrow Strait 
 of Anian : the former delineation is retained even in a map by Bertclli, dated 1571 ; and in 
 one by Cimertinus (1560), Cathay is placed upon the Gulf of Mexico. The expedition 
 of Magellan, it might be suppose*!, would already have opened their eyes to the extent of that 
 vast ocean which here intervened : but Magellan scarcely penetrated into tlie northern 
 Pacific; and his ill-understood course was probably supposed to reach direct from Cape 
 Horn to the Moluccas, which did not interfere with the hypothesis of the two continents 
 meeting each other in a diflerent latitude. The breadth of America, like all unknown 
 spaces, was vastly exaggerated in the early maps; while eastern Asia, by the procc.-s above 
 pointed out, was tripled ui all dimensions, and thus made to cover an ample portion of the 
 Pacific. 
 
 Sebastian Munster, in 1572, produced a delineation of the world, which is cleared of 
 some of the grossest mistakes, and which very tolerably delineates the general outline of the 
 earth. He commits, however, ,• very discreditable mistake, in tjiking Ptolemy for his guide 
 ill regard to Scotland, and consequently representing that country as extending from west to 
 east; a blunder the more singular, as his forms of Scandinavia and Ireland are liable to little 
 exception. Singular flights of fancy are found in the works of these early geographers. 
 Munster undertakes to describe, not only the surface of the earth, but also its interior : this 
 i.s stated to be occupied by hell, a huge cavern two or tliree thousand German miles in length 
 and breadth, and "capable of holding many millions of damned souls." Its existence was 
 proved by the spirits which, in the depth of mineral cuvcrns, as he had been assured by Cor- 
 nelius Agrippa, often killed instantly a great number of men. The inflammatory gases, 
 which are still frequently producing such disasters, afibrd certainly no unplausible ground 
 for that strange conclusion. 
 
 Ortelius, in the commencement of the sixteenth century, exhibits a remarkable im- 
 provement in geography. In his maps, all the parts of the globe begin to assume their real 
 form and dimensions ; America and Asia are ^\ idely separated, the expanse of the South Sea 
 interposing between them. The south pole is invested with a Terra Avstralis Incognita ; 
 whicl), as it relates to New Holland, is said to rest on the autliority of Marco Polo and Bar- 
 thema, and in regard to the West, on that of Magellan. Terra del Fiieffo is made a por- 
 tion of this Austral continent ; while in lat. 41° S., and long. 10° west of Ferro, is Protnon- 
 torium Terrts Australis. There is a Terra Septentrionalis Incognita, nearly as extensive, 
 and seeming to include Nova Zembla. Greenland, however, exists distinct from it. In the 
 interior of Asia, the Caspian, under the appellation of Mer de Bachu, presents the same form 
 and dimensions as in Ptolemy, and receives all the rivers falling really into the Aral, the 
 exi.«tence of which seems not to be suspected by this geographer. 
 
 Mercator advanced considerably farther, particulnrly by siiowing tlie imperfections of 
 Ptolemy, and the mjudicious manner in which the Jelineatior.s given by him had been mixed 
 with tliosp furnished by modern authority. Mer.-.ator retiiins the .Austral continent, includ- 
 ing in it Terra del Fiiego. The lakes of Canai.a appear for the first time in his maps, as a 
 hoa of tresli water^ the termination of which is unknown. In Africa, .Abyssinia, enormously 
 amplified, is made the principal and almost sole feature; it extends soutliwiinl to the vicinity 
 of the Ciipe, romprehending Mosiimbiriue, and bordering on CaflrarlH : tlie Nile rises only 
 "bout ton degrees north of the Cape, and consequently traverses all Africa from south to north. 
 iVitli respect to the extreme northern regions, this very learned man has indulged in some 
 extnioriiinary (lights of iniii!.'inatinii. The ocean resumes, as in Homer, the character of o 
 river, and is seen riisliintj by tmir mouths into the Polar (Julf, to lie absorbed, it is said, into 
 the tiowels of the i>artli. On one of the river brunches are placed pigmies, scarcely four 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 I; 
 ti 
 n 
 P 
 
 V 
 
 e 
 w 
 c'. 
 w 
 ol 
 fi: 
 
 ol 
 m 
 re 
 lit 
 ih 
 
f 
 
 nsive, 
 tn the 
 
 ifomi 
 the 
 
 ns of 
 nixed 
 Iclud- 
 aa a 
 lously 
 ymity 
 lonly 
 lorth. 
 ■some 
 ' of 8 
 into 
 four 
 
 fioOK UI. 
 
 MODERN ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 n 
 
 feet high ; a notion Buirjrosted, perhaps, by the diminutive stature of the Laplanders and Sa- 
 inoyedfM : on another is phic<;d u Mort of northern paradise, wliile the Pole iteelf, a black and 
 immenao rock, towers to u prodigious height. 
 
 From the timu of Mercalor modern geography made rapid and continued progress, till it 
 attained the state approaching towards perfection, in which it now exists : tliis will appear, 
 when we consider it as astronomical, critical, or statistical ; and when we view it in its rela- 
 tion to tlie dilferent quarters of the globe. 
 
 CHAPTER UI. 
 
 MODERN ASTIIONOMICAL OEOGRAPHY 
 
 The astronomical geogrophy of the Greeks rested on a basis exceedingly narrow. It was 
 only at Alexandria, Syene, Rhodes, and a few other leading points, that observations of lati- 
 tude appear to have been mode witlj a tolerable approach to accuracy ; all the otlicrs seem to 
 have been only extended froni rude itineraries. With regard to the longitudes, altliough the 
 mode of calculating tiiem by means of eclipses appears to have been understood, only one or 
 two actual observations of this nature are recorded ; nor does it seem to have exerted any 
 important influence on geography in general. The Arabs made much greater progress in 
 this department; but, through the separation produced by religious antipathy, their works 
 were scarcely at all known in P^urope at the period of the revival of letters. At that time, 
 the pompous display of latitudes and longitudes made by Ptolemy, venerable as it hod become 
 from its antiquity, commanded universal assent. 
 
 Modern observations have gradually shown the magnitude of Ptolemi's errors. The first 
 great shock to his authority was given by the latitude of Constantinople, v'hich Amurath III. 
 caused to be taken in 1574, when it ))rovod to bo two degrees lower than ancient authorities 
 had assigned : the idea of such a ditfercnco, however, was treated with derision by some 
 European geographers, till it was confirmed, in 1638, by Greaves, who had been sent to the 
 East by Archbishop Laud. Even then, many, rather than renounce the authority of Ptolemy, 
 believed tiiat a change had taken place in tiie position of the earth ; but this notion became 
 no longer tenable to any extent when Alexandria and other points were found very nearly 
 to coincide with ancient observation. But tlie groat alarm as to the unsoundness of ancient 
 graduation was given in 1635, when M. de Peiresc caused an eclipse of the moon to be 
 observed at Marseilles and at Aleppo ; and the difierenco of longitude, instead of 45° as it 
 had l:cen represented, was found to bo only about 30° : such an enormous error, in a dimen- 
 sion which ought of all others to have been most exactly ascertained, shook altogether the 
 blind confidence hitherto reposed in the longitudes of Ptolemy. It was at last perceived, 
 that an entire reform of his graduations must be effected, before geography could rest on any 
 secure basis. Numerous observations upon eclipses now began to be made ; but it was then 
 discovered, that this only known mode of ascertaining tiic longitude was attended with many 
 imperfections. In the observation of fifty-six eclipses, collected by Ricciolus, there were 
 no two, observed in tlie same two places by the same men, which exhibited the same quantity 
 of longitude : even the same ecl'ps'^ gave different results, when observed at its four critical 
 periods. As it was found impossible to guard against errors amounting even to three or 
 four degrees, on opinion became prevalent, in tlie middle of the seventeenth century, that unless 
 for very great distances, even itinerary measures would give the result with greater accu- 
 racy ; yet Galileo, in 1610, had already pointed out a source of more accurate knowledge : 
 he had in that year discovered three of the satellites of Jupiter, and in his Nuncius Sidereus, 
 pointed out the use to which they miglit be applied. As his hints did not meet with the 
 attention tlicy merited, lie communicated them more fully, in 1631, to Philip II. of Spain ; 
 but that bigoted prince was unable to estimate their importance. Galileo met with a more 
 tavourahlc reception from the Dutch, who sent Hortensius and Bleau to Florence, to commu- 
 nicate with Jiini on the subject. Tliey found that great man involved in the storm of 
 jwrsccution which tlie ignorant bigotry of the Romish church had raised against him : he 
 was thrown into prison ; and, after having asked pardon on his knees, for asserting that the 
 earth moved round tlie sun, obtained only a mitigation of his confinement. This discovery 
 was therof()rc of little use till 1668, when Cassini published his tables of the revolutions and 
 clipses of these satellites ; and tiiree years afterwards, he and Picard made joint observations 
 at Piiris, and in the observatories of Tycho Bralie at Copenhagen, by which tlie longitude 
 of these two importiint points, which had been tlic subject of long controversy, was finally 
 fixed. 
 
 The French government now took the most active measures for extending geographical 
 observation. Two academicians, Picard and I)e la Hire, were employed to construct a new 
 map of Franco upon astronomical principles. In this operation they almost everywhere 
 reduced the previous dimensions, wliieh h-id been tbundod upon itinerary measures, and were 
 liable to tlioir usuiil excess: they took ofl' a whole dt.'gree from the western coast between 
 Britanv and Gascoiiy, and half a ilegree from the coa.sts of Ijanguedoc and Provence; so that 
 
 wm 
 
 f 
 
4'- 
 
 72 
 
 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Past I. 
 
 on their return, Louis XIV. facetiously roproncliod tiicin with having robbed hini of a part 
 of his kingdom. Other academicians were employed to determine the longitude of Goree 
 on the coast of Africa, and of Guadaloupo and Martinico in the West Indies; and M. Cha- 
 zelles was sent up the Levant on a similar mission. E.xpeditions on a much grander scale 
 were dispatched, under Alappcrtuis to the Arctic circle, and Condamino to the eiiuator. 
 The primary object of these was to determine the figure of the earth by the application of 
 the pendulum; but the opixjrtunity was taken of making various observations of longitude 
 and latitude, in regions which had been formerly delineated only by processes of the meet 
 vague description. 
 
 In the operation of determining the position of places on the globe, importniit improve- 
 ments have been made since the above criw. Although there can be no more accurate mode 
 of detennining the longitude, thon by the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, these ore of too 
 unfrequent occurrence to answer the practical purposes roqiiiretl. Observations of the transits 
 of Mercury and Venus over the sun, of the occultations of the fixed stars, and of what are 
 called lunar distances ; processes, the nature of which will bo fiilly explained in the following 
 book, have been employed with success. Nay, to such perfection have chronometers been 
 brought, that, by showmg the difference of time between known and unknown points, they 
 serve many of the ordinary purposes of navigation. The voyages undertaken by Capt Cook, 
 under the auspices of George III., afforded the means not onlj^ of exploring many islands and 
 regions of the Pacific and Polar sens, but of throwing much light upon the general structure 
 of the earth. The expeditions of Capt. Parry, and the nautical surveys executed under the 
 direction of the British government by Flinders, King, Owen, and other officers, have gone 
 far to fix the outlines of the great continents. The trigonometrical surveys of France and 
 England, executed within the last thirty years, have almost completed tlie delineation of 
 tliose countries. Still tliis branch of geography remains very imperfect 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MODERN CRITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Thb application of a sound criticism to geographical materials cannot be discerned in the 
 rude and infant stages of the science. There is no branch in which the inquirer is so likely 
 to be misled by fiilse and fabulous rumours. Tlio persons from whom ho must draw his 
 in.ormation, — the navigator, t!ie merchant, the traveller, — make observations often only in a 
 rough and superficial manner, and are swayed in their reports by fancy or vanity. The results 
 of their own observation, or the authentic relations of well-informed persons, are confounded 
 with the most vague rumours which float among the vulgar. Hence almost all the early 
 systems have a portion of truth, mingled with many ideal and fabulous creations. The human 
 mind imwillingly owns its ignorance even to itself. The geographer was reluctant to stop 
 short at the point where his authentic information ceased. Having to delineate a kingdom 
 or a continent, he filled up the really unknown parts from vague rumour, or a fanciful pro- 
 longation of those that were known. Whatever object had once foimd a place was copied 
 mechanically without any inquiry, tmtil modem maps and descriptions became crowded with 
 objects, for Uie position of which no reason could be assigned. 
 
 Strabo, among the ancient geographers, was alone endowed with a critical spirit : but not 
 having a sufliciently ample stock of materials, he exercised his judgment with a blind severity, 
 which appears to have done injustice to several individuals whose exertions in the infiint 
 cause or discovery were highly meritorious. This extreme of scepticism, opposite to that 
 of credulity, has indeed thrown unjustly into shade the merits of some of tlio most eminent 
 discoverers, both ancient and modem. It is only by the collation of numerous authorities, 
 accumulated by time and extended intercourse, that the just medium can be observed, and 
 an equitable sentence pronounced on the report^ of each party. 
 
 D'Anville, in the eighteenth century, possessed of ample materials, endued with indefa- 
 tigable patience and sound judgment, undertook to revise the whole system, upon which the 
 world and its regions had boon hitherto delineated. The maps of the aire wore still rnvered 
 with many obsolete and many fanciful particulars; and largo portions of tlm world, con- 
 cerning which absolutely nothmg was known, were filled with imaginary citits nnd coimtries. 
 D'Anville subjected every geographical feature to the strictest revision, and c.vpunged 
 without mercy those which rested on no positive and actual authority. 'I'lic world, imder 
 his hands, assumed a new, and in some respects, a less flattering aspect. INIaps, wiiich had 
 before boon amply and regularly covered, now exhibifod vast and unsornily hl.iiilis, which, 
 amid the boiisted learning of this age. implied a mortifying confession of itrnoriiiico. It was 
 in]|KPSsil)lo, however, to deny, that this was the soimd system upon wiiicii to proceed. 
 Oociirrapliy rested at last upon sure bases, and prociv-dod in u regular coiirso of iuijiroveiiient. 
 
 Jlajor Rennell, with a skill and siiiracity not inlrrjor to that of D'Anville, arnniged and 
 illustrated tlie mass of important materials collected respecting India and Africa ; and. though 
 
Book III. 
 
 MODERN DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 W 
 
 not 
 Irity, 
 lifiint 
 jthat 
 Incnl 
 Ities, 
 
 and 
 
 Icon- 
 
 ulditional contributions of vast importance have in some ilcfprec superseded his actual delinea- 
 tion, his example has intro(Uiced a still preatcr precision into the mode of troatinj? the subject. 
 The comparison of ancient and modern geography, and the tracing of tiie infant steps of 
 early discovery, conntitutu an iuterestiMg field of inquiry, which lias been much cultivated 
 during the present age. Vonsius, Bochart, and other learned scholarsofthesoventeenth cen- 
 tury, had exercised much diligence in tiiese researches ; but they were not always guided 
 by tiie soundest judgment, nor were tiiey sufficiently acquainted with the objects actually 
 existing, to be able to recognise them under the early descriptions. Rennell, Vincent, and 
 Mannert, seemed to have carried this research nearly as far as it can go, though without 
 being able to dispel that impenetrable darkness in which some questions arc still involved. 
 Gosselin has applied to the science an extent of investigation, and a critical acumen, which, 
 perhaps, none of his predecessors have equalled ; but animated by too Strabonic a spirit, and 
 seeking to subvert all the bases on which ancient geography had before rested, he has in 
 many instances ratlier given lustre to bold and ingenious paradoxes, than made solid addi- 
 tions to the science. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MODERN DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The mere outline of the globe, its continents and countries, the leading features of moun- 
 tains, rivers, and cities, their distance and position witli respect to each other, constitute all 
 that in the very strictest sense can bo called geogrephy. But tlie mind cannot pass these in 
 review, without feeling its interest excited, in even a superior degree, by ether objects, for 
 which thosd only serve as the basis. The productions of the cartli, whether natural or arti- 
 ficial ; the treasures hid in its bosom ; the animals which roam or are bred on its surface ; 
 above all, the men by whom each region is peopled, — their manners, laws, industry, com- 
 merce, the revolutions through which they have pas%d, — these possess the strongest claim 
 on our attention, and are of an importance superior to that of the mere geometricol outline. 
 
 The ancients did not occupy themselves with much more than the simple and fundamental 
 bases of the science. The delineation of these formed alone an arduous task, which the 
 geographer was required to accomplish before he could attend to the accessary and orna- 
 mental parts. Eratosthenes does not appear to have extended his research beyond those 
 branches which were connected with astronomy. The work of Ptolemy forms a mere naked 
 tabular list of positions, rarely enlivened by any historical or descriptive notices. Pliny does 
 not go much farther. Strabo alone has enriched his work with numerous anecdotes and de- 
 scriptions whicii, though not given on any complete or systematic principle, constitute a 
 great portion of its value. 
 
 Early modem writers confined themselves, like the ancient geographers, to mere outlines. 
 All the first treatises were formed on the model of Ptolemy ; D'Anville, the head of the 
 French school, applied himself solely to the boundaries and positions of countries, which he 
 fixed with a precision before unknown, but without directing much attention to their physical 
 and social relations. 
 
 Statistics, the science which treats of kingdoms and states in their relations of population, 
 wealth, productions, commerce, and public force, is, as a separate branch of knowledge, only 
 of recent origin. From the first it had a natural alliance with geography. Busching may 
 be considered us the father of sUitistical geography : his vast research, strict fidelity, and 
 access to the best sources, enabled him, in his description of Europe, to assemble a mass of 
 infijrmation unequalled by any of his predecessors. He has arranged it, however, nearly in 
 the same mechanical manner in which they had drawn the mathematical outlines of the 
 globe. His writings, instead of convoying to the mind striking general views, are loaded 
 with minute and burdensome details, which can bo usefiil only as matter of reference, and 
 would therefore have most properly appeared in the form of a dictionary. His successors have 
 been numerous, a!nd their labours are of similar character and value. Brnns, with regard to 
 Africa, and Ebcling to Asia, continued the series. The great geographical work recently 
 completed by Ilassel, Cannabich, Gaspari, and Gutsmuth, in twenty-five octavo volumes, each 
 equal to three or four of ordinary size, comprises, probably, the largest mass of statistical 
 information ever assembled into one work. 
 
 The English compilations of Bowen, Guthrie, Salmon, and others of the same school were, 
 perhaps, the first works which embraced nearly all tiie objects that can give interest to a 
 system of geography; and though indiflcrently executed, and devoid of any charms of style^ 
 they ac(iuired a very extensive popularity. Mr. Pinkerton has executed a work on the same 
 plan, in a su|)prior manner, adding notices of the difl^erent branches of natural history, and 
 of the diffemnt languages of nations. M. Malte-Brun, by his acquaintance with the eastern 
 and northern literature of Eluropo, and by an animated and interesting style, has produced a 
 work in some respects superior. M. Rilbi has distinguished himself by the industry with 
 which he has collected geographical facts. 
 
 We shall now take a view of modern discovery in the remoter quarters of the globe. 
 Vol. I. 7 ■ K 
 
 I 
 
 m 
 
r#» 
 
 
 Mi 
 
 74 
 
 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 MODERN GBOORArilY OC ASIA. 
 
 Past I. 
 
 Asia was the firet continent wliicli attracted the ottention of Europeans, and tlie journeys 
 of all the early travellers. The enterprise of the Venetians penetrated into womo of the 
 wide and perilous tracts of its interior, which tlie boldest of more modern travellers liavo in 
 vain essayed to reach. Since the passage of the Cape, the career of discovery has been 
 ciiiefly maritime. We liavc seen liow rapidly the Portuguese fleets explored all the south- 
 ern coasts and islands. Tlio eastern shores beyond Japan, as thoy presented nothing tempt- 
 ing to conuiiorcial avidity, wore left to be examined by expeditions having science and curi- 
 osity for their object. This task was efi'eoted by Cook, Perouse, Broughton, and Krusenstern. 
 Jesso, which had figured as a large continental tract, stretching between Asia and America, 
 was reduced by tliem to its insular form and dimensions, and its separation from Saghalicn 
 established ; the range of the Kurile islands was also traced ; but some questions respecting 
 tliis very remote and irregular coast remain yet to be solved. Along its northern boundary, 
 beset by tlie almost perpetual ices of the polar sea, the progress of navigation was slow and 
 laborious. The English and Dutcli, tlio chief maritime states, made extraordinary eflbrtb 
 and braved fearful disasters, in the hopeless attempt to effect by this route a nearer passogo 
 ♦o India ; but though they penetrated beyond Nova Zemblu, they never could pass the formi- 
 dable promontory of Severovostochnoi, the most northern point of the Asiatic continent. The 
 Russians now claimed for tliemselves the task of advancing farther. They had most rapidly 
 discovered, and conquered the whole south and centre of Siberia, and reached the eastern 
 ocean at Ochotzk ; but the fVozen bounds of the north for some tune defied their investiga- 
 tion. Proceeding in little bnrks, however, they worked their way from promontory to pro- 
 montory. Bchring and Tchirikoff, early in the last century, sailed through tlie Northern 
 Pacific, discovered the American coast, and the straits, bearing the name of the former, which 
 divide Asia from America. Deschnew and Shalaurof, by rounding the Asiatic side of this 
 Cape, and discovering the coast stretching away to the westward, were supposed to liave es- 
 tablished the fact of the entire separation of the two continents. There still remained a 
 portion of coast on the side of Asm, which, it was alleged, might, by an immense circuit, 
 have connected the two together ; but the late voyage of Baron Wrangle seom.s to have re- 
 moved every ground on whicli such conjecture could rest, and to have established beyond 
 doubt or dispute, the existence of Asia and America as continents altogether distinct. 
 
 Respecting the interior of Asia, the British obtained much additional information from 
 India, after they became undisputed masters of that region. Tliis information was in many 
 respects only a revival of ancient knowledge. The mountain boundary of India was traced, 
 and found to rise to a height teforo unsuspected. Tlie sources and early courses of the 
 Ganges and the Indus, were found in quarters quite different from those which modern 
 geography had long assigned to them. The mountain territories of Cabul and Candahar, 
 the vast .sandy plains of Mekran, were illustrated by the missions of Elphinstone and Pottin- 
 ger ; while Turner and Moorcroft penetrated into the high interior table-land of Thibet. 
 Recent and authentic information has al.so been furnished by Burnes respecting Bochara and 
 Samarcand, those celebrated capitals of the early masters of Asia : but there remains still a 
 great central Terra Incognita, respecting which our information rests chiefly upon the desul- 
 tory and somewhat clouded reports of Marco Polo, and the meagre narrative of Goez ; thougli 
 iome important and more precise information has recently been aiTordcd by the researches of 
 Humboldt and Klaproth. 
 
 CHAPTER VH. 
 
 MODERN GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA. 
 
 Africa, more than any other quarter of the globe, has defied the research, and humbled the 
 pride, of motlern inquiry. After accurate surveys had been made of tlie remotest oceans and 
 shores, this continent, placed almost in view of Europe, still baffled every attempt to pene- 
 trate the mighty secrets which it held in its bosom. Tliis vast and unbroken region enclosed 
 by huge expanses of desert, and occupied by barbarous and predatory tribe.s for a long 
 period proved fatal to every daring mortal who attempted to penetrate into its depths. The 
 Portuguese, however, at an early period, made very extraordinary exertions, impelled by tlie 
 odd chimera of Prester John, a Christian prince, whom they expc'cted to find in tlio interior. 
 With this view they explored Abyssinia, of which they vastly exaggerated the dimensions, 
 making it extend even to llii' Cape, in the vicinity of which, according to their idea, the 
 Nile took its origin. In thfir progress also along the western coast, thoy sent repeated em- 
 bassies into the interior, to discover, if pwsible, the alxxle of Prestor Jolin; and tiiougli that 
 favourite object always eluded their search, they apjiear to have reached on one o<'cu.sion as 
 fiir OS Timbuctoo, and learned at Benin some particuhrs respecting tlie great interior king- 
 dom of Ogane or Ghana. 
 
-*. 
 
 Book III. 
 
 MODERN GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA. 
 
 75 
 
 lied the 
 uns and 
 pene- 
 iicloscd 
 la long 
 The 
 I by the 
 litprior. 
 Insionf, 
 len, the 
 ImI cin- 
 li that 
 fiion as 
 king- 
 
 Tho preiit interior river called by Ptolemy the Niger, was the object wliich from the first 
 excited the chief intcreiit in respect to the African interior. All tlio curly Euroixian navi- 
 gatora, on coining to the two broad eBtimries of the Senegal ond Gainbiu, concluded thnt one 
 or both formed the termination of the long courac which the Niger had been described as 
 taking across the entire breadth of Africa. For several centuries the Knrofii.'un nations, 
 intent ojily on the trade in slaves, merely touched at different pointd of the const, to which 
 tiiose unhappy victims were brougiit down by large caravans. In the beginning of the 
 seventeenth century, however, tiio French and English having rcs])octivcly settled on the 
 Senegal and Gambia, wore tempted, by the rejiort and view of the gold brougiit from the 
 interior, to push up these rivers and endeavour to reach Tiinbuctoo. They had nut ascended 
 tlir, when tliey became sensible that the extraordinary magnitude and distant origin ascribed 
 to both waa altogether chimerical. They were traced so near to their sources as to be 
 little more than rivulets ; yet still the explorers were far from Tiinbuctoo, and from the 
 great central plain, through wiiich the main course of the Niger was understood to flow. 
 At the same time, notices were transmitted to the French geographers Delislc and D'Anville, 
 which led them to infer that there was in that region another and greater river, which 
 flowed eastward towards the interior, and of which they were unable to learn the termina- 
 tion. Vet this delineation of these great geographers had been in a great measure lost 
 sight of, even among their own countrymen. 
 
 The information obtained by the African Association at first tended to confirm this impres- 
 sion. The persons who hod crossed the Niger at the most eastern part of the central Afri- 
 can plain, described it to Mr. Lucas as flowing westward : but these conflicting statements 
 were silenced by tlie first expedition of Mr. Park, who at Sego behold it a broad and majes- 
 tic stream, flowing through the plain of Bambarra from west to east, and directing its course 
 into the depths of interior Africa. From tliat time, the termination of tlie Niger became 
 the grand problem which the science and the enterprise of the age were exerted to solve. 
 A boundless field was open to conjecture. By one theory, the Niger was lost in some great 
 inland seas or lakes of the interior ; by anotlier, it bent to the south and west, and reached 
 the Atlantic either in the Gulf of Benin, or by the estuary of the Congo ; lastly, it rolled to 
 the eastward, till, under the name of the Abiad, or Wliite River, it became the principal 
 head of the Nile of Egypt. At last, by the persevering exertions of the British govern- 
 ment, an expedition fairly succeeded in penetrating into the hitliorto unknown interior of 
 Africa, and m tlirowing a wonderful addition of light upon its structure. This mission, how- 
 ever, broke up the gnmd question. They discovered, flowing through the great African 
 plain, not one river in one direction, but several in different directions ; all of which, it 
 appears, have been considered at dillerent times, and under difl'creiit circumstances, as the 
 Niger. These rivers are four: — 1. The Senegal, considered by the Arabians and modern 
 Europeans as the embouchure by which the Niger entered the ocean. 2. The Joliba, which 
 ever since it wos visited, and its course ascertained, by Park, has been fixed in the mind of 
 Europeans as the only Niger ; though probably not known to any of the ancient geographers 
 who used tliat term. 3. The Quarrama, or river of Zinnio, first discovered by the late 
 mission, flowing from east to west, and falling into the Joliba or QuoUa. This is evidently 
 the Arabian Nile of the negroes, on or near which are situated all their great cities — Ghana, 
 now known under the name of Cano ; Bcrissa, under that of Bcrshee ; Tocrur, as I appre- 
 hend, under that of Sackatoo. 4. The Yeou, flowing eastward into the great lake of Bornou, 
 and which appears to have been the western Nile of Herodotus, visited by the Nasamonian 
 adventurers fVom Tripoli. The mission also ascertained the site of the kingdom of Bornou, 
 which had been very erroneously placed ; they discovered the fertile kingdom of Loggun, 
 perhaps the Cauga of Edrisi, and the great mountain region of Mandara, which appears to 
 lie the Mons Mandrus of Ptolemy. The subsequent expedition of Clapperton from the 
 Gulf of Benin showed the connexion between the Atlantic coast and the interior, and com- 
 pleted the diagonal section made across the greatest breadth of the African continent. It 
 allowed also the continuity of large ond populous kingdoms extending in this direction : 
 Eyeo, tlie Gago of Leo and the early geographers; Zegzeg, wuth its large capital Zoria; 
 Nyffe, tiio most industrious of the African states ; Boussa, Koolfu, and other flourishing 
 cities. The Niger of Pork was here seen holding a southerly direction towards the Gulf 
 of Benin; but it was reserved for Lander finally to solve the grand problem by tracing the 
 Niger down to its termination in the Gulf of Benin. This discover}-, with that of its numer- 
 ous tributaries, opens to commerce the prospect of being able to penetrate into the most 
 interior and finest regions of the African continent. 
 
 Among partial but important contributions to the knowledge of Africa, may be mentioned 
 tlio observations of Bruce and Salt in Abyssinia; those of Brown in Durfiir; of Waddington 
 and Caillniid in the upper part of tlia Nile; and, lastly, of Lichtenstein, Campbell, and 
 Burchcll, upon tlie countries wliich lie in the interior northward from tlio Cape of Good 
 Hope. Yet a vast field still remains for future difcovory. In particular, all the southern 
 interior, from the equator nearly to the Cape, has scarcely been the subject even of rumour. 
 The sources of the Nile, after the search of so many ages, are yet unexplored ; as well as 
 
 A'i\ 
 
 W 
 
 11 
 
 
 I 
 
 ^'i 
 
76 
 
 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Paht 1. 
 
 Ihftt wide rnndo of territory wliirli iiitervenon bcUvcrn it nml the series of rivers wliirh wo 
 have jtiMt noticed us Bssumiiis: the iiuiiie of i\i(ror. The (•(nitiiiiiity uiiil striiKtiiro also of 
 that vast chiiin of inouiitjiiiis, whieli, nccordinff to rereiit tnivcllers, iipiH-iirs to cnms Africa 
 ut its (jrentcst breadth, mul gives rise to so (nuny iiiigiity ►frettiiis.iiavoyet by iiomeansbeen 
 completely traced. 
 
 CHAPTER Vni. 
 
 MODERN OEOOUAI'liy OF AMKHICA. 
 
 Th« discovery of America, as formerly observed, was made in tiio first instance with 
 extraordinary rupiditv. The tliirat for gold and the spirit of adventure urged niition after 
 nation to explore '.,3 consts, and |)enetrate its interior. Within twenty years was formed 
 a fliU and tolerably precise outline of the whole eastern coast, from the nioulh of Hudson's 
 Bay to the Straitu of Magellan. The conquest of Cortez, of Pizarro, and of their im- 
 mediate successors, soon conveyed a pretty accurate idea of tlic western coast of South 
 America, of Mexico, and even of the peninsula of California. But the northern regions, 
 Btretcliing into the ices of the Pole, presented barriers of a formidable description, which 
 long baffled tiic utmost efforts of navigators. America on this side resisted for a longer 
 time the attempts to complete its delineation than any other continent. 
 
 To explore the north-western coast seems to have been an undertaking properly belong- 
 ing to Spain, the possessor of all the vast and opulent regions which extend along the 
 Pacific. Recent notices have shown that they did not neglect tliat inquiry, for Cortez and 
 several of the other viceroys sent expeditions along this coast, to which they gave the name 
 of New-Mexico. The Spaniards, however, as usual, shrouded in deep mystery even these 
 limited discoveries, and were long able to prevent the other nations of Europe from visiting 
 tiiis coast, the moat remote and inaccessible of any in the circuit of the globe. Europeans, 
 therefore, were not aware of the vast breadth to which this ccmtinent expanded towards the 
 north. They rather supposed that, like South America, it narrowed to a point or cape, 
 upon passing which the navigator wm'ld enter upon the expanse of the Pacific, and might 
 bear down upon Japan, China, and the Eii*t Indies. The commercial nations therefore, 
 made vigorous and almost ceaseless clK)rts to turn this point, and effect, as tlicy imagined, a 
 nearer and more direct route into the eastern st^as. 
 
 The English took the lead in this important career. Under the reign of Queen Eliza- 
 l)eth, Frobisher and Davis made each three HUcocs.«ivo voyages. One discovered tlie 
 entrance into Hudson's Bay, the other fiiuiui the nntranco into the great sea wliieh bears 
 the name of Baffin's Bay ; but, partly urrohted by Mie well known obstructions to which 
 these seas are liable, partly divertc^d by a cliimcriciil search after gold, they could not pene- 
 trate beyond the numerous islands and inlut.^ by which these entrances are besot. Hudson, 
 in 1610, steered a bolder course, and cntert'il the vast bay, which has received its appella- 
 tion from that groat navigsitor, wiio there unfortunately terminated his adventurous career. 
 The treachery of a ferocious and mutinous rrew exi)oi-ed him on these frozen and desolate 
 shores, where he miserably perished. Sir Thomas Button followe<l in 1612, and finding 
 himself in the middle of this capacious Iwsin, imagined himself already in the Pacific, and 
 stood full sail to the westward. To his utter (U.-imay he came to the long continuous line 
 of shore which forms the western Iwundary of Hudsdn's Bay. He expressed his disappoint- 
 ment by giving to the coast the name of "Hope chcclovl." Bylot and Baffin, who followed 
 three years after, were stopped by the ice at SoutIian»pton Island. Baffin, however, made 
 afterwards a more impf)rtant voyage, in which he completely rounded the shores of that 
 great sea which bears his name, and which, appearing to him to be inclosed on all sides by 
 land, has been denominated Baffin's Riy. The error involved in this appellation deterred 
 subsequent navigators from any further attempt ; for Baffin, in passing the great opening 
 of Lancaster sound, had concluded it to be merely a gulf From that period the English 
 navigators, though they ceased not to view this object with ardour, hoped to flilfil it only by 
 the channel of Hudson s Bay. In 1631, two vessels were sent thither under Fox and James. 
 The latter, entangled in some of the southern bays, returned after dreadful sulferings from 
 the cold of tlie winter; but the former, (piaintly calling hitiiself North-west Fox, explored a 
 part of that great opening called Sir Thomas Roe's Welcome, which appeared now to afford 
 almost the only hope of a passage; but he stopped short at a point which ho termed "Fox's 
 farthest." Under Charles II. a company was formed for the purpose of settlement and 
 commerce in Hudson's Bay, and engaged to makf the most strenuous exertions to discover 
 western passage; but it is believed that the only exertions really moile by the Company 
 ended to prevent any such discovery. Middletoti, an officer in their service, was sent out 
 in 1741, sailed up the Welcome, and believed himself tf) have discovered that the head of 
 that channel was completely closed. He was strongly charged with having roeeived a high 
 bribe from the Hutlson's Bay Company to stifle the discover}-, and Moor and i^iiiith were 
 sent out in the following year with the most sanguine hopes; but when they returned with 
 
^ 
 
 A, 
 
 DOOK III. 
 
 TlIE AUSTRAL SEAS AND ISLANDS. 
 
 opening 
 
 English 
 
 ; only by 
 
 ": James. 
 
 ligs Irom 
 
 Kplored a 
 
 I to afford 
 
 I " Fox's 
 
 lent and 
 
 Idiscover 
 
 '()rn|)any 
 
 |sont out 
 
 I load of 
 
 a high 
 
 Ih weir 
 
 k wilh 
 
 out having e(foctnd any thing, tiio puhjic Pxpeotations wero greatly ahate<l. Tt became the 
 general impreHHion that America, on thim side, formed a musM uf iinuroken land, and that the 
 long Bought pasmgo had no exiHteiice. 
 
 New viewH of Iho extent and form of the northern extrumitifiR of America were opened 
 by the dincov(<ries of (^Jook, corroborated by thone of nomo other Englisii navigators in the 
 Nortiiem Pacific. It a|>p«'ttred that America there stretched away tn tiie iiorth-weKt, till it 
 reached a breadth equal to one-fourth port of the circumferenee of tiie globe. Cook ])eno- 
 trutcd, indeed, through the strait which lK)und8 the continent and separates it tVom Asia ; hut 
 the coast appeared there extending indefinitely north ; and it l)ecame a general impression 
 that America formed a huge unbroken mass of land approaching tiie I'ole, and perlmpa 
 reaching tliat ultimate |xiint of the globe. This belief received a sudden shock from 
 Ileariie's voyage down the Copper Mine River, and his discovery of the sea into which it 
 fell, in a latitude not liigher than that of the north of Hudson's Bay. Soon afVer, Sir 
 Alexander Mackenzie traced also to the sea another river twenty degrees farther west. 
 Tiiero was now a strong jirenumption that a sea Ixnindcd the whole of America to the north, 
 and that there really wiw such a passage ntt hud been fo long sought, and might be found, 
 were it not too closely barred by ice and tempest. The British administration, animated 
 with an active and laudable zeal in tlio cause of discovery, determined tliot no ixjssiblo effort 
 should be omitted by which this imixirtant and long agitated question might be brought to a 
 final decision. 
 
 A series of exploratory voyages was now begun. Capt. Ross, in 1918, made the circuit 
 of Baflin's Bay, and returned with the belief that no optining existed : Lieut. Parry, second 
 in command, formed a different judgincnt, and having satisfied the Admiralty aa to hia 
 grounds of belief, was sent out with the command of a new expedition. In this memorable 
 voyage, Capt. Parry penetrated through Ivincastcr Sound, wliich he found to widen gradually, 
 until it opened into the expanse of the Polar Sea. lie did not touch on any part of the 
 American coast, but found parallel to it a chain of large islands; and his progress through 
 these was arrested, not by land, but by straits and channels encumbered with ice. In con- 
 sideration of these obstacles, his next attempt was made through Hudson's Buy, by the yet 
 imperfectly explored channel of the Welcome. Struggling througli various obstacles, ho 
 readied at length a point considerably beyond that where Middleton ha<l stopped, and 
 found a strait opening from Hudson's Bjiy into the Polar Sea. This strait was, however, so 
 norrow, and so completely blocked with ice, that there appeared no room to hope that it 
 would ever aflbrd an open passage. Capt. Parry was therefore again sent out in his first 
 direction; but he made no material addition to his former discoveries. Meantime a land 
 journey, under Capt. Franklin, following in the footsteps of Ilearnc, reached the sea, and 
 discovered a considerable extent of the hitherto unknown northern coast of the American 
 continent. A tolerably clear glimpse was thus obtained of its extent and boundaries ; and 
 the zealous eflbrts of government wero employed to verify the whole by actual survey. A 
 second expedition under Capt. Franklin extended this survey over three-fourtlis of this 
 boundary coast, and reached beyond the 140th degree of hmgitude. Meantime an expedi- 
 tion, under Captain Beechy, sent to meet Captain PVanklin from the westward, passed the 
 ley Cape of Cook, and arrived at neorly 150° W. longitude ; between which point and 
 Captain Franklin's farthest limit there intervene<l only 7°, or 150 miles. 
 
 The belief was hence entertained, that the whole coast extended in a line not vanring 
 much from the 70th degree of latitude ; but tlic important expedition which Captain Rosa 
 has just achieved through so many difliculties, proves the existence of a large peninsula, 
 extending as far north as 74° N. latitude. It remains still probable that a naval passage 
 may exist farther north, in the line of Captoin Parry's first voyage. But the encumbering 
 ice is so thick, and so wedged into various straits end channels, that probably no vessel will 
 ever be able even once to work its way through ; and certainly a ship could never set out 
 with any assurance of thus finding its way from the .\tlantic into the Pacific. Britain has, 
 however, reaped an ample share of glory in contributing so essentially to delineate the 
 boundaries and dimensions of this great and important continent. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 MODERN GEOGRAPHY OF TIi.. AL'STRAh SEAa AND ISLANDS. 
 
 More than lialf the surface of the globe, including long groups of islands and vast 
 expanses of ocean, remained unexplored, even after regular naval routes had been formed 
 round the Capo of Good Hope, and Cape Horn; yet there soon arose the belief of an Austral 
 continent, as extensive and as abounding in wealt'i as that which had been discovered by 
 Columbus. An ideal balance was fancied, which It was supposed must exist between the 
 lands of the northern and those of tiie Bouthcrn hemispheres; and the more disproportionate 
 tlie extent of sea which existed in the known parts of the latter, the greater it was sup- 
 posed must be the mass of southern continent which was to establish this ideal, imaginary 
 
 7* 
 
 i 48 
 
 I'JJ 
 
 IIM 
 
«l 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 rl 
 
 i' 
 
 V8 
 
 HISTORY OF 0KO<JRAl'IIY. 
 
 Paut I. IkwK III. 
 
 bnlnnco. In all the onrly mn|w, n \\\\\fn continoiitiil ninH* r'ncirclp* the Antnrctin tmlp, ami 
 prrHontH to lli<! (jrcitt kccuii ii (-iintiiiiiouN rirciiit of Mliorc ri'iicliinjr rtmiid the (tIoIh): tho 
 iiIk)Vi! iiniilo/iics wiTc ilmilttlcsM iiidiMJ liy iliMovcrirH iiiiulo <m ffrciit irifiiilHr Iriii'tH of tlio 
 Simtli Sell, Ml pnrtiiil tliiit tht>y might be niiittiikcti t(>r |iroriioiittirinH, or imrtuiim of u i^rcat 
 niiitiH of Aiitarrtir l.'iiul. 
 
 Till' l'orfiii,'iiL'si', HI l(iii;j III" iiioct Mkiiriil mill iiifropid niivijfntorH of tlip vxTiiii, npp<'iir lo 
 hnvc livi'ii tli(< tlr^t w lio threw iiiiy li}r|it u|Hin iIiIh titUi ami iiiont miioto |xirtioii of iIk- ciirth ; 
 ill Irnn than twi'iify yciirs alh'r their imssnift' of the Capo tlioy hiul riMclu'il thr iiiomI oxtroinc 
 iHlniKJ!) of thn Orii'iitiil Arcliipola^o, iiicliiiliii); Java mid tho MoiiiccaH, mid np|H<iir ovt'ii to 
 have ohwrvod mhuo |)nrt« of tlip c<Kist r)f Now (iiiiiiiMi. Tlu'rc iiro no ri'vordn of thnir hiiving 
 priK'podpd tiirtlior; but iimpM huvc boon liinnd in tlio DritiHli Miixoiiin, niid other collections, 
 which rxliiliit iiii cxtcnHivi! iiiiid to thu niuth of Javn, under tho titio of bivii Major, on 
 wliicli occur n number of iiniin>H, wmie of them I'ortuKUCHO : ono of these iimpn, iHirtly 
 translated into French, has the " VttU'. dv» llrrlM^rii" a. iiaino somewliiit curioiiHly coinciiU 
 ing with Botany lluy. Noiio of these discoverien, however, liavo been uinUiiiied in any 
 known narration. 
 
 The SiMiiiiardu also, durinfj their early and advnnturoiiH career, made streniiouH cfl'orln to 
 explore Uio soitlhern snaM: Majrcllan, u.s already observed, by hiH firnt circumnaviiration of 
 the (flobe, ett'ected a grand utep in );eo(;rapliicul dincovery. Alvaro Mcndanii, in iriflH, 
 Bailed iVum Lima, and, allcr croxHinfr tiio breadth of thu I'aciHc, iliHCovercd a j;roup of larffc 
 maritime landfi, to which, fVom a chiinnrical rcfercnco to Ophir, he save the name of 
 " Islands of Solomon :" they appear to bo part of that great Rroiip which Ibrnw tho outer 
 range of AustraiaMia. Mendana Het out on a Bocond voyage, and reachetl tho wimo quarter, 
 but, by Koniu liitulity, could not again find the inlandn tbrmcrly discovered. Qiiiroa made a 
 btill more important expedition ; ho pawed through tho l>(dynciiimi group ; and Sagittaria, 
 one of tho islanda dincovcred by him, appearn clearly identiticd with Otaheito ; ho ter- 
 minated hin Voyage, like Mendana, among the exterior ialandB of AustralaBia ; and with 
 him expired the spirit of Spanish cntcrpriMe. 
 
 Tlio Dutch, when tliey had expelled the I'ortuguoHC from Java and tlie Spice Ivlandp, and 
 hul established in them the centre of their Indian dominion, were placed in such clocie 
 proximity with New Ilidlnnd, that it was scarcely |)oHsihlo tor a great maritime nation to 
 avoid extending their search to that region. Van Dienien, the Dutch governor of India 
 about tho middle of the seventeenth century, greatly promoted this object, and sent succesaive 
 vessels to explore the coast of New Holland, llertog, ('arpenter, Nuytz, and Ulaming 
 niaile very extensive obscrvationB on tiio northern and western shores, but found them so 
 dreary and unpromising, that no settlement of any description was over attempted. Abel 
 Tasman, however, went b<'yoiid his predecessors; he ri^ached the southern extremity of this 
 great mass of land, to which he gave the name of Van Diemen, without discovering it to be 
 an island : he then sailed across, surveyed tho western coast of New /calaiid, and returned 
 home by the Friendly Islands. This important range of discovery was not followed up ; it 
 reftited, however, tho delineation by which New Holland had been made part of the imagined 
 Austral continent. In the newly arranged charts, that continent still remained, but with 
 its position shifted farther to the south, and New Zealand probably contributing to form part 
 of Its fancied outline. 
 
 The English nation, by the voyages of several navigators, and particularly of Cook, secured 
 the glory of fully explormg the depths of the great Pacific. The previous voyages of Byron, 
 Wallis, and Carteret had already mode known some of the interesting groups of islands 
 with which its vast surface is studded. Cook fully traced the great chains of the Society 
 Islands, and of the Friendly Islands ; he discovered and surveyed tho eastern coasts of New 
 Holland and Van Diemen's Ijund. He settled the form and relations of New Zealand, New 
 Caledonia, and the otlier great Australasian lands and islands. This side he passed thrice the 
 Antarctic circle, and ranging along the yet unvisite<l bonlers of tho southern polo, solved, by 
 refuting, the famous modern hypotiicsis of an Austral continent. Ho navigated also through 
 the northern Pacific, observed carefully the group of the Sandwich Islands, and establishe<l, 
 in the mamicr before pointed out, the relation between the continents of Asia and America. 
 Many eminent navigators, among the French, 1-a Perouse, Marchand, D'Entrecasteaux ; 
 among the Russians, Kotzebue and Krusenstern ; among the English, Vancouver and Beechey, 
 followed ; and, though the grand prizes of discovery had been carried ofT, found still some 
 gleanings in so vast a field. The circumnavigation of tho globe has ended in becoming a 
 mere trailing voyage, which conveys neither name nor glory to him by whom it is nchioved. 
 Captain Wcddell, however, has lately, in New South Shetland, finind a tract of land situated 
 nearer to the Antarctic pole than any previously supposed to exist 
 
 New Holland, much the most extensive of the lands belonging to tho southern hemisphere, 
 and rendered doubly interesting by its recent relations with Europe, has formed the theatre 
 of late southern discoveries. Bass, in an open boat, found tlie strait which bears his 
 name, separating New Holland from Van Diemen's land, and making the latter a separate 
 island. Baudin and Flinders, cunteni(X)raneou8ly employed by the French and Englisl 
 

 III. 
 
 c, secured 
 I of Byron, 
 jf islands 
 Society 
 of Ni'W 
 ind, New 
 khrice the 
 )lved, by 
 throiijjii 
 :jiblislip<l, 
 lAmorica. 
 ^nsteaux ; 
 iBeechoy, 
 kill Bome 
 |comin<; n 
 ncliieved, 
 |l situated 
 
 fiisphcre, 
 
 theatre 
 
 cars his 
 
 I separate 
 
 Englisl 
 
 Past IT. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GKOWRAPIIY. 
 
 
 I 
 
 nntioiiN, innde a cnntinunuN Murvey of tlio vnnt circuit of itn coiwtii, which had Ih-ch Ixiforc 
 ti>uuh)!il only nt piirtiiil \Mnt». At a lutiT poriud, Frcyciiu't iiiiulo hoiiid ndditioiiiil i)l»«>rva- 
 tionii; and kiin{ Ibuiid hIUI u xroiit cxtriil of north Mn<I norlh-wcHli'rn cihimI to Hiirvry fur the 
 Hrnt tiiiie, .More recently, the dincovery of 8wan River and itit HJiores pnuniHi'M to redeem 
 the ri'proucli of »torility which had been uttttched to the whole wcHtern I'miHt of lliJM conti- 
 nent ; the interior on the eaMern side aU), thouKh .xuardtui by Hteep and loOy barrierH, hiin 
 b<'en penetrated to a considerable depth, and found to contain extiMmive pliiinH traverM'd by 
 lar(;e rivern. Htill the explored traut« form only a uniuU pro|iurliuii of litu viut nurfacu ul' 
 thin louthcrn continent. 
 
 PART II. 
 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Amono the various branches of human knowlodiro there is so intimnto a connexion, that 
 no science can bo truly said to be independent of all others. Some, indee<l, may bo re^^ardcd 
 as primary, because, to a certain extent, they have had an independent existence, and be- 
 cause other sciences have sprunfr from them. Huch, for example, are arithmetic and 
 geometry, the prolific parents of oil the branches of modern mathcmaticH. Other sciences, 
 again, are connecte<l by collateral relationship, in respect of their aflbrding mutual aid : and 
 in this manner all the branches of human knowledge depend one on another, each repaying 
 the advantages which it has received. 
 
 The subject of this treatise, (JEOoRAPinr, which in common with other sciences owes its 
 origin tt) the wants of man, joined with his inherent desire of knowledge, has arrived at its 
 present state of improvement by the aid of several sciences, and of a very great number of 
 the arts which are the fruit ot human ingenuity. It is more particularly indebted to the 
 mathematical sciences, either directly, as Aimishing rules and methods by which the mog- 
 nitude of the earth, its figure, and the position of the different parts of it.s surface, moy be 
 determined ; or indirectly, inasmuch as it has been improved by astronomy, navigation, and 
 other sciences which owe their perfection to the matnematics. To tlie arts it.s obligations 
 are innumerable : for every step of progress which has been mailo in the construction and 
 management of ships, in the fabrication of mathematical, optical, and nautical instruments, 
 and in the collateral arts on which those depend, has contributed to the advancement of 
 geographical knowledge. 
 
 The doctrines of geography strongly support, and have a close affinity with, those of 
 astronomy. It is only by the application of this latter science that we have been able to 
 discover the true figure of the earth, and its magnitude : and some of the most important 
 divisions of the earth's surface are marked out by astronomical phenomena. On tlie other 
 hand, an exact knowledge of the figure and magnitude of the earth is of the highest import- 
 ance in th A explication of the more recondite doctrines of astronomy. Hence, while the 
 doctrines of astronomy involve the principles of geography, it holds equally true that the 
 principles of geography can only bo understood by a due application of some of tho more 
 simple theories of astronomy. 
 
 The science of geology has, if possible, a still more intimate connexion with the descrip- 
 tion of the earth. While astronomy delineates the form and movements of that planet, and 
 its relation to otlier bodies in the universe, geology describes the materials which compose 
 its surface, and the order in which they are arranged, with the composition and phenomena 
 of the surrounding atmosphere. The various inequalities into which it is formed, the Aif>- 
 tinction of land and sea, with their origin and effects, come all within the sphere of this 
 important science. 
 
 The organized and living beings which cover the surface of our planet, form a most in- 
 teresting feature in its delineation. For the support and nourishment of these, tho whole 
 of its vast structure was originally destined. In taking a survey of this interesting range 
 of objects, we may begin with plants ; then ascend to animals ; and, lastly, to man, who 
 holds tlio chief rank in the constitution of this lower world. 
 
 Three divisions, comprehending each a separate book, will, on the grounds now stated. 
 comprehend the Principles of Geography : these are — I. Astronomical Principles. II. Geo- 
 logical principles. III. Geography considered in relation to the organized living and rationa , 
 natures which cover the surmce of the earth. 
 
 .ii:] 
 
 I 
 
 ij 
 
 II 
 
 lA: 
 
 f^m 
 
>• 
 
 s 
 
 
 '\ ^:4^- 
 
 80 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PabtII. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 ASTRONOMICAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 CHAPTER I, 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE PHENOMENA OF THE HEAVENS, APPARENT MOTIONS, FIXED 
 
 8TAR3, PLANETS, ic. 
 
 The succession of day and niglit brings under our observation the sun, the moon, and an 
 innumerable multitude of luminous bodies, which appear like points on the concave surface 
 of the heavens. Of these the sun and the moon are tlie most remarkable. The sui at all 
 times presents to us a circular disc : the disc of the noon is also at certain periods circular, 
 but she undergoes a succession of changes in the appearances of her luminous part, which 
 are denominated phases. With regard to the distances of the sun and moon from tliis earth, 
 we are certain that they are very remote ; for we observe that their apparent magnitude is 
 not sensibly affected by any change in our l(>cal position. We may with probability suppose 
 the star? to be bodies of the same nature witl» tlie sun and moon, appearing smaller only 
 because they are at a greater distance. 
 
 The apparent motion of the heavens from east to west about a fixed point in the nv^rthern 
 quarter of the sky, as seen in thi:i country, is a phenomenon quite familiar to every one. Tf 
 we change our position on the earth by going always south, this fixed point appears to de- 
 scend, and at last it sinks below the horizon : but we now perceive that there is another 
 fixed point in the southern region of the heavens, exactly opposite to the former, about 
 whicii tlie diurnal motion is also in like manner performed. These two points are the north 
 and SOUTH, or the arctio and antarctic poles of the heavens. 
 
 From wliat we see on the earth's surface, we learn by experience that the real and ap- 
 parent motions of bodies may he very different. An observer in a vessel carried along by 
 tlie current of a river, will feel disposed to believe himself at rest; and then, if he were to 
 judge from appearances, he would suppose that trees and fixed objects on the banks were 
 in motion, because of the apparent change in their relative positions. Hence we may infer, 
 that we cannot judge immediately respecting the absolute motions of the heavenly bodies 
 from tlieir apparent motions. It has only been by a series of nice observations, and the appli- 
 cation of the doctrines of mathematics, that the former have with absolute certainty been 
 deduced from the latter. 
 
 The general plienoniena of the apparent motions have, however, been discovered by the 
 ordinary observation of mankind from the remotest ages. To a spectator in any place of 
 the earth, tlie whole system of the celestial bodies appears as if placed on the surfiice of a 
 concave sphere, the centre of wliich is the place where ho stands ; and this sphere appears 
 to revolve daily on an ideal line whicli passes through the poles of the heavens, and is called 
 the AXIS of the world. Although tlie supposition tliat the celestial bodies are all situated in 
 the surface of a sphere, of which the eye is the centre, be perfectly consiste]|| with the 
 appearance of the heavens, it is easy to understand that tiiis may be a consequence of their 
 immense distances. To an observer standing on an extensive plain, objects very remote 
 around hiin, though at unequal distances, would appear in the circumference of a circle 
 having his eye in the centre. 
 
 Besides the diurnal motion of tlie heavenly bodies, which is common to them all, we dis- 
 cover that some of them have peculiar motions by which they chanffe their apparent places 
 in respect of one another. Thus we see the moon in the course of^ about a montli describe 
 a circle quite round the heavens from west to east. The sun also appears to cfiange his 
 position daily, and to go round the heavens from west to east in a year. It is in consequence 
 of this peculiar motion of the sun, that we find diflbrent stars at different seasons of the 
 year set immediately after him, or rise immediately before him; and that the appearance of 
 the heavens through the course of the year is continually changing. 
 
 From the remotest antiquity ^'ve stArs hail been observixl to change their position ; and in 
 modem times five others have been discovered. These " wandering stars " have bee.i appro- 
 priately denominated planets ; and, generally speaking, they can be seen at all times, except 
 when their feeble light is rendered insensible by the effulgence of the sun. The planets 
 have received particular names, and are distinguished by iwrticular characters; these are 
 Mercury ?, Venus ?, Mars X, Vesta g, Juno *, Ceres ?, Pallas ■$, Jupiter U, Saturn ';, 
 Uranus 'i*. 
 
 Tliprc are otlir r luminous IkxHps having a proper motion, which arc seen flir a short time 
 and atlerwiirds disippoar. Their existence, iiowover, is permanent. They are distinguished 
 from tlip phincts iiy their being visible only for a siiort peritK], and also by a train of light 
 proceeding from tliem on one side, fiirming a iiiil ; tlicso bodies are called comets. Tliei* 
 number is not known, but it appears to be very considerable. 
 
 fS 
 
 „i:.i 
 
r* 
 
 
 Book I. 
 
 »!.„„ .> i'""iti8, and comfita fho, .. 
 
 All the heavenlv bodip, u,i,i i, .l- afterwards find fuJlv 
 
 science in investigatin" he r^i ? ', ""'' ''3' employinff all tho' r^ "■'"='"S^ ""'' measunW 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 From the mscovJyZ"het^T ""' '^"^ '"'"°"''" "^"^ tklescope 
 
 est are reckoned to be of th; fi' .'" P™.'^>Ph arriinged under svl'"- ,^^° ^^rs visible 
 to the sixt!, marrnitude T? ' "'«8'"tu<Io, the next in hrlh '""^«'""^e^« The briZ 
 
 combining tlH,.priS;t of J LCsr"""'''"''"^ "^ '"'« Sr "ha t "f^tm r ^f^'^"''' "^"d ^on 
 In maps of the heavens and op .T"?'!""^^ ""ingeinent with^ . "I"!'"'' ftcilitated by 
 'n each constellation are t"ke,f> ^^■"^'' ^'"^ constellatb " , f ,,'"r''^°1°^"''«'e]lations. 
 de^ees of bri„.htness. ''''"'^^'^ "'"' '"« letters of the Si ^^1^'"'''^"'' "'« «^-^rs 
 rhe use of the telescope has ^m... ■ '^ according to their 
 
 fund when obse^ed'^,^;„,,fe«^the .tars wlSchJ'un da" vS''"^ ^'^^^ 'hLfa^e' 
 
 »" iple stars ^-ere observed bv Sir Un-'"''^ ??="• ^ "nS another SpJn ^u ""T'^^ °^ two. 
 
 'V t'lejonit lalwurs of his son an^'L-^^i""^"! Hcrechcl, and the n,>mh T ^T^'""^ °^ t''e«e 
 /n some of then, the smafl Xrs 1 .Ti.r""'^'* ^'°""'' "'^o S e &;; ^^ '«^''" "'"onsed 
 Thus a Herculis is doub e ^ ' , different m bri.W,tness an 1 in n ^^tronomer Struvo 
 '•omposed of four stars thro'n ''f '"Sfer of the stars i" roc ,n "'°,f°'°"'- "f tl.eir li,r ,t' 
 ""•^qnal, the lar<.,"t a Si? "■' ""'' ""^ red: y AmSo n '" '"' '''"''• ' ^-yrnV^ 
 ^'n?le stars evid<fn Iv ,^lff ', '''"''■' t'^e «'"alle.t a 'k.Ti " "'.'"■'■^'^ "*' t"<' stars verv 
 
 'A 
 
 ri 
 
 >^ii 
 
a2 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part II, 
 
 blended together produces tlie luminous appearance. In a portion of the Galaxy, about 
 filleen degrees in lengtii, and two in breadth, Dr. Herschcl found no fewer tlian fitly thousand 
 stars large enough to be distinctly counted. The number of nebulce is very considerable. 
 Herschol discovered two thousand ; before his time only one hundred and three wore known. 
 
 Continued observation has shown that the fixed stars are not altoffether exempt from 
 iJutnge. Several stars mentioned by the ancient astronomers are no longer visible, while 
 ."omn are now seen by the naked eye which are not in the ancient catalogues. Some stars 
 hiive f\i(ldi'nly appeared, and atler having been seen for a short time have ceased to be visi- 
 ble. In 1575 a new star appeared in Cassiopeia's Chair ; and in 1604 another appeared in 
 Sprpent;irius. These stJirs did not change their places : but having gradually increased in 
 brilliancy, until they exceeded Venus or Jupiter in brightness, and were even seen in the 
 (luy-tinie, they diminished in the same gradual manner, and in a few months entirely disap- 
 pt'urod. Sonic stars are observed to have periodical changes of brightness. Of this descrip- 
 tion is Algol, or|3 Persei: when brightest it is of the second, and when least bright of- the 
 ♦burth magnitude. It goes tlirough all its changes of lustre in four dayf^, twenty-one hours. 
 Other stars like (3 in the Whale, have gradually increased in brilliancy; or, like 6 in the 
 Great Bear, have continually diminished in brightness. 
 
 The fixed stars, when viewed tlirough the telescope, appear like luminous points on the 
 concave surlace of the heavens ; but tlie planets are found to exhibit the appearance of discs 
 of greater or less diameter. Mercury and Venus accompany the sun, appearing at one time 
 on the east, and at another time on tlie west of that luminary, and never receding from him 
 beyond a certain distance. Tiio other planets recede from the sun to all nossiblo angular 
 distances. Connected with tiiis circumstance i.s a distinction which it is i.o<,iul to make of 
 inferior planets and superior planets ; the Ibriner appellation being applied to Mercury and 
 Venus, and the latter to the remaining planets. 
 
 Mercury and Venus, as they o.<cillate about the sun, exhibit all the phases of the moon. 
 From liaving the a])pearancc of a crescent, they gradually assume that of tlie lialf-moon. 
 The illuminated part of the disc increasing, they become gibbous, and at last present a com- 
 plete circular disc, like the full moon. From this state of illumination they again pass 
 through the same appearances in an inverted cmlor, until they disappear altogether. Some- 
 times these planets are seen like black sixjls in tlio sun; tlav appearances urc called tran- 
 sits of the planets over the sun's disc. They are rare, but \v!ien observed, particularly the 
 transit of Venus, they give the best means of determining the .niagnitudc of the solar system. 
 In all the phases of Mercury and Venus the convexity of the illuminated portion of the disc 
 is turned towards the sun. 
 
 The discs of the otlier planets are always nearly circular. Mars, however, in certain posi- 
 titms with regard to t!ie sun, asi-iimes a gibbtjus appearance ; but he never becomes cornicu- 
 lar like Venus. He has no satellite. As viewed from t)ie earth, he is known by his red 
 and fiery appearance. Dr. llerschel observed that the polar regions of Mars, after having 
 been turned from the sun, appeared brighter than the rest of the planetary disc ; just as if 
 these regions had in the absence of the sun's heat been covered with snow. 
 
 Certain .spots appear on the di.'^cs of the sun and th(; four planets Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and 
 Saturn, wiien they are viewed through the telescope, and are distinguished from other parts 
 of the discs by the colour or intensity of their light. Similar spots are seen on fliii moon 
 with the naked eye. Jupiter has also his disc marked with several parallel belts or stripes, 
 which stretch across it. They are subject to considerable variation with regard to number, 
 brcadtii, and dist^ince from each other. Mercury is too much immorsed in tlie solar rays; 
 Vesta, Ceres, Juno, and I'aD'is, are too small ; and Uranus is too distant to allow points of 
 unequal brilliaiiry to be observed on their surt'ace. The spots uixin the sun are very varia- 
 able in their miiiil)er, position, and magnitude. Often they are numerous, and of great exten'. 
 Each of them, in general, consists of a dark .space, or iiinhra, surrounded by a pennmlirn, 
 or fiiintcr shade, beyond which is a border of light more brilliant tiian the re.st of the sun's 
 di.-T. Somotiiiie.-i, thoujrli seldom, the sun has been without .spots for several yt;ars; this was 
 the case from 1(570 to lOS-'l. Tlio dark nucleus of tiie spot is seen to form and disappear 
 ;iiiiidst the greatiT brilliancy that siirround.s it. .After the nucleus ceases to be soen, the 
 umbra eontinues visible fir some time : the place where it at length disappears becomes 
 like Iho other parts of the .solar surface, unless it be succeeded, which is sometimes the case, 
 by a luminous spot. Umbra; of great extent have, with few exceptions, a nucleus in their 
 iTiitre ; but smiill uinbnn arc oftnn seen witlioiit it. 
 
 Tlio sdliir .spots are never stationary, but are seen to move slowly over the sun's disc fron< 
 en'f to west. Tlirir p;itli.s across tlie di.-c, when iiccurntely traced, are finiud to be rectili 
 tiral in the beginning of June, an<l in the beginning of Decnuibcr; but in the intermediatt 
 sea.sons they an; Ibuiid to be elliptic. Hctweeu Juiic> anil December the convexity of the 
 path is towards tlio upper part of the disc, and between December and June it is' towards 
 t.'ie lower part. 
 
 The planet Jupiter, when viewed through the telescope, appears to be attended by four 
 email stars, ranged nearly in a i^tniiglit line, which are seen sometinie.s on the same side, 
 
iter, and 
 or parts 
 moon 
 stripes, 
 lumber, 
 ir rays ; 
 lints of 
 variii- 
 cxten^. 
 umhra, 
 sun's 
 us was 
 ippear 
 in, the 
 [comes 
 case, 
 their 
 
 fron> 
 potih 
 hiliatt 
 If tiie 
 Ivanls 
 
 fo\ir 
 I side, 
 
 Book I. 
 
 FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. 
 
 83 
 
 and at other tiiK s on opposite sides of the planet. These small stars occasionally poaii 
 between us and Jupiter, and then they are tbund to project shadows wliich are seen to tra- 
 verse iiis disc. On tile other hand, they are often immersed in the shadow of Jupiter, and 
 exhibit tiic phenomenon called an eclipse. The planets Saturn and Uranus are also simi- 
 larly attended, the former by seven, and the latter by six, little stars. These accompanying 
 stars are calh^d satellites, and also secondary planets, in contradistinction to the others, 
 which are called primary. 
 
 Saturn is distinguished from all the othc" planets, in being surrounded by a circular ring 
 concentric with itself. When first exan ined by the telescope, this planet was almost 
 always seen between two small luminous bodies of an irregular form, which seemed to be 
 attaclied to it, and which, as they suggested the idea of handles, were denominated ans<e. 
 Sometimes tlio ansa) disappeared, and then Saturn appeared round like the other planets. 
 By tracing witli care these singular appearances, and combining them with the positions of 
 Satuvu relatively to tlie sun and the earth, Huygens at last discovered that they are pro- 
 duced by a ring which encompasses the body of the planet, and which is everywhere sepa- 
 rated from it. Being seen obliquely, the rmg appears of an oval or elliptic form. Before 
 the time of Herschel the ring of Saturn was supposed to be single ; but this distinguislieo 
 astronomer discovered that it is double : so that two rings concentric, and in the same plane, 
 constitute what was formerly supposed to be a single ririg. The ring, which is very thin, is 
 inclined to tlie plane of the ecliptic. It revolves from west to east in lO"" 39' 54". Its 
 breadth is nearly equal to its distance from Saturn ; that is, about one third of the diameter 
 of the planet. The interval between the rings is very little ; yet Dr. Herschel saw a star 
 through it. The inner ring is somewhat broader than the outer. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 APPROXIMATION TO THE FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OP THE EARTH. 
 
 The true figure and e.xact magnitude of the earth are elements of the highest importance 
 in geography. Their determination, however, has required the aid of astronomy in its most 
 improved state ; yet it is necessary, to- the explanation of the general doctrines of astronomy, 
 that we should, in the outset, know nearly its figure and magnitude : wo shall afterwards 
 explain by what means the first conceptions have been corrected, and its true figure and 
 magnitude found. Having now pointed out, generally, the phenomena of the heavens — 
 taking into view the more remarkable discoveries made by aid of tlie telescope — we are next 
 to consider the causes and mutual dependence of these phenomena. The first step towards 
 obtaining an explication of the motions of the heavenly bodies, is to form some notion of tlie 
 figure and magnitude of the earth which we iniiabit, and from which all the celestial phe- 
 nomena are observed. To a person placed in an elevated situation in an open country, 
 where the view is unconfined on all sides, tiic earth appears an extended plane, with the 
 concave sphere of the heavens resting upon it, — the horizon being the common boundary. 
 This appearance is, however, altogether illusory. 
 
 The earth is a round body, and is isolated in space. This is sufBcicntly established by 
 the following facts : — 
 
 1. To an observer who travels from north to south the nocturnal heavens appear conti 
 nually to change their a.spect. The stars, indeed, retain the same relative position in 
 respect of each otiier, and the points on which the heavens appear to revolve remain 
 unchanged ; but the angle, wliich the axis of their motion forms with the horizon, continually 
 decreases ; so that stars which, at the place from which he set out, appeared to roach their 
 greatest elevation to the south of the point directly over his head, now that he has changed 
 his position, appear, when iiigliest, on the north of that point. This clearly indicates that 
 his path oh the earth's surfiice has not been a straight lino, but a curve of which the con- 
 vexity is turned towards the sky. 
 
 2. The convexity of the earth is quite apparent to a spectator in a ship receding from tin; 
 shore. At first low objects disappear ; then those more elevated; and at la.'^t the highest 
 points of the land sink in the horizon, on account of the direct visual ray being broken by 
 the interposed curved surface of the ocean. In like manner, when two ships approach each 
 other, the navigators in each see at first the upper part of the rigging of the otiier vessel, 
 the hull being still invisible: as the di.sUinco becomes less the body of each vessel conies 
 gradually into view. The reverse happens if the distance botwocii the vessels is incrcasiiiL'. 
 From these appearances it is evident, that a straight lino joining any two points of tin' 
 eorth's surfaces paa.ses within the IkkIv of the earth. 
 
 3. That the horizon of the sea, which, to the eye, terminates its surface, is only an appa- 
 rent limit in reference to the position of the observer, is evident from the fact, that if we 
 •idvance towards it we find it recede ; and, at the same time, we still imagine ourselves 
 placed in the centre of nn extended plane, bounded by the line in which the heavens and 
 
 lU 
 
 \4 
 
 .fi' 
 
1*^-^ 
 
 64 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 eartn appear to meet. This is what tlic navigator uniformly experiences ; wliilc, to an 
 observer on the shore, his vessel appears to sink below the horizon ; and by continuing to 
 sail in the same direction, he will at last arrive at the same port from whi^h he set out, — 
 having tiius circumnavigated the earth. This enterprise has, it is well kr ■ in numerous 
 instances, been accomplished by navigators, who have left the shores of F ' ■ o and returned 
 home, some by sailing always towards the west, and others by holding an easterly course. 
 This great experiment demonstrates that the sea and land have a curved surface which 
 returns into itself, so that no part of it is touched by the heavens. 
 
 There r.re other phenomena which prove that the earth, if not an exact sphere, is at least 
 nearly of that figure. The various appe, ranees of the moon, in the course of her revolution 
 round the earth, show that she is an opaque body, and is visible only by the reflected light 
 of the sun. The earth being also an opaque body, must project a shadow in a direction 
 opposite to the sun. It will atlerwaids be shown that the moon, when full, must sometimes 
 pass through this shadow. In this case, when the moon begins to penetrate, or is about to 
 leave, the shadow, the greater part of the disc is still illuminated by the sun ; and it is 
 found tliat this luminous part is always of the form of a crescent, having its concave side 
 bounded by an arch of a circle. The section of the earth's shadow, shown by its projection 
 on the moon, is, therefore, as to sense, circular, — a proof that the earth is a sphere, or nearly 
 of a spherical figure ; whence we may conclude that there is a point within the earth which 
 is its centre. 
 
 That the earth is a round body, is thus completely proved by experience and observation j 
 yet, when this doctrine is pre-^nted to the mind for the first time, there is some difficulty 
 in believing that the earth is balanced, as it were, on its centre, without any visible sup- 
 port ; while all things at rest on its suriface require to be supported. We must, however, 
 consider tliat the bodies which we see tall towards the centre of the earth are mere atoms 
 in comparison to the earth itself; and that, although their tendercy to its centre is another 
 fact established by experience, yet it does not thence fijllow that the earth itself should move 
 towards one point of space rather than towards another. A little reflection will show tliat 
 there is no inconsistency in supposing the earth, an immense mass, to bo at rest, and all 
 things to be retained on its surface by some force analogous to tliat by wliich a i)icce of iron 
 is drawn towards a magnet. This is roiilly the fact ; and a consequence of it is, that on 
 opposite sides of the earth its iniiabitiints stand in opjwsite directions, with their feet towards 
 each other, for which reason they are called Antipodes ; and every country has its own 
 Antipodes. 
 
 The knowledge of the true figure and magnitude of the earth is of the greatest importance 
 in geography, and on tliis account we shall treat of them in a particular manner. In the 
 mean time, as a near approximation to tlie trutii, the earth may be considered as differing 
 but little from a sphere, 7916 miles in diameter, and consequently nearly 24,870 miles in 
 circumference. In geometry, t'ln circumierenco of every circle is supposed to be divided 
 into 360 equal parts, called dogrees ; and each of these into fiO equal parts, called minutes, 
 and so on. A degree, therefore, of any circle on the eartli's surface, whose centre is the 
 same with that of tiie earth, \v ill be rather more than 69 miles ; and a minute of a degree 
 will be about Ij^ mile. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 DOCTRINE OF T1!E PPHERE. 
 
 The motions of the celestial bodies being in appearance all performed on a sphere, of 
 which the eye of the spectator is the centre; with a view to describe the nature of these 
 motions, it has been found nxpedieni to suppose cf^rtain circles to 1x2 traced on this sphere, 
 to which, also, the positions of the heavenly boiiins in space are roCerrod. 
 
 The distance of tlie fixed stars is immensely great in respect of the earth's semi-diameter; 
 for it is found that, when viewed from any two jjoints of tlic earth's surface, they have the 
 very same relative (Xjsition. mil the same apparent distances, at a given instant of time. 
 Hence it follows, that the appciiriince of the heavens, and the imgular distonces of the fixed 
 stars, will be, as to sense, the same, whether thoy be viewed from the centie of the earth, 
 or from a point on its surfiice. We may, therefore, conceive the axis of the diurnal revo- 
 lution to pass through the centre of the cartli, which will be also the centre of the celestial 
 sphere. 
 
 DEFSNITIONS. 
 
 A groat circle of the sphere is that whoso plane passes through its centre ; and all others 
 are called small circles. 
 
 A circle of the celestial sjihere, whose phine passes through the earth's centre, and i« 
 perpendicular to the axis, is called the Ecjuaiok. TIi(> lino in which tliLs plane meets tin., 
 earth's surface is called the Eiulvtor of the f irt'!, or the Eiivinoctial. 
 
Book I. 
 
 flmoTnm Jnt - t . 
 
 9U 
 
 m 
 
 ''^ " ''"'^™' '«te bo the centre of „ «< 
 
 .--^'^^T^'^*^ onrti, „ . , '^o'ncide with tfwT -^' *""^'» 
 
 cle, ^/'osediamete/sEA'"; .^?'^- thou the c ! 
 
 fho circles which tfm .. ^',"' "'^ £/tt«/«r 
 
 ;'""-'m revolution are nn'"'"' t''"''''^^ by the 
 
 '-;, «"c|i is the circle tiCt' '° "'« ^"J"'- 
 
 ,^ circle, v.'hosp ,>i ^ """""etor is A R 
 
 P«l««. is called the £"" '"'««-« through L 
 
 F" the MEHrniANof all tho ni^ ""'V'''"'« ^ call- 
 
 t passes. Thus PRp^ f ^n""^?^'' ^^''i<''' 
 
 jn the heavens. Th/r^uJu "meridian circle 
 
 « mdefinite. ""^ "'""ber oC these circles 
 
 iownZitgXl IT. P"'"' "»^h a ;g« of water at ret "^ f 'ToT' ^^"^P'^'"^ 
 the Zenith and N!;"''i'^^^KTioAL,wml'r'^'=''''^P'-oduc,.l ind'efinW ^""^ "> the 
 
 semidiameter v!k ^'''^'"'■•*i- Horizov 0„ ,. *''° "^''"r, the former k „.,'^? '^ 'I'so called 
 '^-viwn.se of the hi ""■"™ "^ «»>' Phce ton.h ., ""' " ^^''" "early 
 
 '•"^'^"n- The m^Wdian "; ''^ "'« Proportie ' • T T"''''' 
 ""« '« PornondicuT ''..'" «'"'-.« verti^:, l-.'LfP'"^''*": 
 
 are -.A ""'^,"' '"r exninp 
 •- -III porpendicnhir tn f , - ••".-'^- i^ircie /.ON ',., „ '■ "-v I'lace are called V..„ 
 
 " """'''^-^'— id,an,a„dit..,l, 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 'hni 
 
 
 1 jpS 
 
 / 
 
 l\ VM 
 
 *) 
 
 ■' 1 
 
 
 
 ^V.if; 
 
 « 
 
^ ■' 
 
 "ifS 
 
 36 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Past a 
 
 have cqiml altitudes when it is at equal distanuea from tlio meridian ; tliat is, when ito eastern 
 and western azimuths arc equal. 
 
 SuppciFO a meridian to pass through a star, then the arc intercepted between tlie star 
 and the equator is called the Declination of tlie star. Thus P Hip beinff a meridian that 
 passes through tlie star S, and meets tlie equator in K, the arc S K is the declination of the 
 star. 
 
 If the meridian circle pass through the zenith of any place, the arc intercepted between 
 the zenith and the equator is called the Latitude of that place. Thus Z being the zenith of 
 any place, and E K Q the equator, the latitude of the place is the arc Z E. 
 
 Assuming the meridian circle that passes through the zenith of any particular place as the 
 First Meridian, the arc of the equator intercepted between tlie first meridian and the meri- 
 dian circle passing through the zenith of any other place, is called tlie IjONoitvde of that 
 place. It is usual, in this country, to reckon the longitude of places from the meridian circle 
 that passes through the zeinUi of the Observatory at Greenwich. 
 
 Because the arcs Z R, the distance of the zenith from the horizon, and P E, the distance 
 of the pole from the equator, ore each one-fourth of the circumference of a circle or a 
 quadrnnt, they are equal, and consequently, leaving out the common arc PZ, the arcs ZE 
 and P R are equal. Hence it appears that P R, the distance of the pole from the horizon of 
 any plnco, cul'ed the elevation or uUitndc of tlie pole, is equal to the latitude of that place. 
 
 ^ m 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Uii- '.VTIOa 0«' the sun, moon, and planets on their AXEa THEIR FIGURE. 
 
 Vrou '.!ip liienomena of the spots which, by aid of the telescope, are visible on his disc, 
 \\t; urn le(' ti- conclude that tho sun revolves from west to cast on an axis, in about twenty- 
 ^:ve lis v.- iii'l n li.ilf. Though these spots are subject to many variations, they are suffi- 
 c\f>nth 1.(1 . wT^nt ij enable us to discover that they have regular motions across the disc, 
 exoft'3 the .-m-ii lui iiust belong to corresponding points on the surface of the sun, supjxaing 
 him ai'tu.illy o have a motion of rotation from west to east on an axis nearly perpendicular 
 to ti, nliiue of the path or ordit, which, in virtue of his apparent motion, he describes 
 round i' heavens in the course of a year. When a spot is first discovered on the eastern 
 edge of the disc, it appears like a fine line: as it approaches the centre of the disc its 
 breadth i.icreases ; as it advances towards the western edge the breadth again diminishes, 
 until the spot at length entirely rtisanpears. The same spot is sometimes again observed, 
 after fourteen days, on the ciist side ol the disc ; but more frequently the spot is dissolved, 
 and is no more seen. By curcfiil observation of the time occupied by a spot in crossing 
 the disc, taking also into account the proper motion of tlie sun from west to east during 
 that period, the tiu" of the sun's rotation on his axis is found to be about twenty-five and a 
 half days. 
 
 That the moon, and the plii, is Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Satuni, have each a 
 motion of rotation from west to east, on an axis inclined to the plane of the sun's orbit, is 
 inferred in like manner from the spots that are seen to traverse their discs. The moon pre- 
 sents always nearly the same side to the earth ; and must, therefore, revolve on her axis in 
 the same time in which she is carried round the heavens by her apparent motion, namely, in 
 27 d 7 D, 4^ , Mercury revolves in 24 '■ 5 ■" ; Venus in 23 '' :j(t "' ; Mars in V± '' 39 "> ; Jupiter in 
 9'' r-iC)'"; Saturn in lO"" 29"". In the remaining planets no appearances h.iVL' been discovered 
 which enable us to ascertain whether or not tliey revolve on axes; though, from analogy, it 
 is hiijhly probable that they do. 
 
 Witli regard to the figure of the sun and of those planets which are known to revolve on 
 axes, we may conclude that they are nearly spherical ; because no other but a spherical body 
 can, when revolving on an axis in the manr o of thr ■ lanets (with the exception of the 
 mcxjii), present in every positio.i the appearan e -*' a eiiculiir disc. The spherical figure of 
 the moon, and, indeed, of the other planets whir!> exhibit phases, ni.Ty hi; inferred from the 
 tiiet, that the concavity of the crescent which th. v from time to time lii.splay is boun(Ie<l by 
 an elliptic lin". The planet Urnims always presents a disr that is nearly circular, and it lia.i 
 not been ascertained that he revolves on an axis; hut it i.s very improbable, when wc con 
 sider how very irregular his motions among tin- fixed stars appenr when seen from the eartli, 
 that he should k(>ep the same side alway- turned towards us. Ilis apparent motion is some- 
 times direct, that is from west tn east, .sometimes retr.ijrrade, or ui ;he eoiitrarv direction ; .so 
 that to present ronstantly fiie iipju'rinince of a cir"iiliir dise, flu- |)lMMet would re(|uire, wore 
 it not spherical, to have iiinfions in f)pprisite riri^rlinns about trie sanie axis. The same rea 
 soning will apply to the remaining plnrifts. We may conclude, tlieretl ro, tl.\t the sun, 
 inioii, and planets, are b(jdies nearly spliorical. 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 in 
 III 
 
 si 
 n; 
 fb 
 
Ivc on 
 
 rbody 
 
 of the 
 
 lire of 
 
 ni the 
 
 0(1 by 
 
 it 1ms 
 
 con 
 
 eartli, 
 
 some- 
 
 )n ; so 
 
 were 
 
 rea 
 
 sun. 
 
 
 \' 
 
 Book L 
 
 4 
 
 DISTANCES, ETC. OP THE HEAVENLY BODIES. 
 
 ., CHAPTER VI. 
 
 BISTANCES AND MAGNITUDES OP THE HEAVENLY BODIES. 
 
 DiSTAN'oEs of the fixed stars. From wlmtcvcr point of the earth's surface we observe the 
 fixed stara, they always appear to preserve the very same relative positions. We may hence 
 conclude thut these bodies are situated at immeasurable distances from the earth ; and that 
 though tu us who inhabit it the dimensions of the earth appear very ^cat, they are insensi- 
 ble when compared with these immense distances. The earth is in reality but as a point in 
 space. But though the fixed stars r.ro vastly too remote to admit of their distances being 
 determined, we have reason to believe that they are placed at very different degrees of 
 remoteness. They shine with very various degrees of brilliancy ; multitudes are not visible 
 without tho aid of the telescope, and it muy rea-sonably be supposed that many more have 
 not yet been discovered by tho most powerful instrumenta which have been directed to the 
 heavens. 
 
 The distances of the fixed stars being unknown, we can only form conjectures from 
 hypothesis and analogy respecting tlieir true magnitudes. When viewed through tho best 
 telescopes, they have no apimrent diameter, but appear like points in the heavens. 
 
 Mode of determining the distance of the sun, moon, and planets. In reference to the 
 sphere of the fixed stars, then,tlie eartli is to be regarded as a point. To a spectator, at the 
 sun, moon, and planets, however, it would present a disc subtending an angle of greater or 
 less magnitude, and, even when smallest, nilmitting of measurement. This angle can be 
 determined by an observer on the earth's surface ; and as wo know the true magnitude of the 
 earth, it affords us the means of estimating the distances of these bodies. Let O o (Jig. 16) be 
 the places of two observers under tho same meridian, but very distant firom each other. Let P 
 be a planet in tho meridian of those jilaces, and let some fixed star which comes to the meri- 
 dian at the same time with the planet, be seen by tlie observers at O and o, in the directions 
 O S, o s. Join O P, o P, and produce O P, to meet o s in A. Then, because O S, o s, are 
 parallel (tho distance of the star S bninfr regarded as infinite), tlie angles O A o, A O S are 
 equal ; and, because O P o is the exterior angle of the triangle o A P, it is equal to the sum 
 of the two interior and opposite angles A o P, o A P. Wiiereforo tho angle O P o is equal 
 to tho sum of tho angles A o P, P O S ; that is, tho angle subtended at the planet by tho 
 chord of the terrestrial arc intercepted between the points of observation, is equal to the sum 
 of the apparent distances of the planet from tho star, provided the planet is seen (as we have 
 here supposed) on opposite sides of llin star liy the two observers. If the star is seen on the 
 same side by both, the angle at the planet will then be equal to the difference of the appa- 
 rent distances. 
 
 If the observers are so situated that P O, P o (Jig. 17) are tangents to the circle O E o at the 
 points O and o, the angle O P o will be the angle subtended by the disc of the earth at the planet. 
 
 But if P O, P o are not tangents, draw P O' and P 6 tangents to the circle O E o, and from 
 C the centre draw C O', C « to tiio points of contjict: draw also tlio vortical lines C Z and 
 C 7.' tlirough () and o tlie places of the obs(>rvcrs, and produce P O, P o to meet C O', C d 
 in B and IX Now, for the sun and planets the an<rlc O P » is very small, and oven for the 
 moon it is not very considerable. 'I'lic distance P C may therefore bo regarded, in every 
 case, as mm h greater than C O', nr C 6. Ilcnco the lines C O', C B, C D may without sen- 
 sible error lie considered as proportional to the angles C P 0', C P B, C P I) ; sfi that we 
 nave Z C P O' : / C P O = C (J' : C B and Z C P : Z C P o = C O' : CD; where- 
 fore Z C P O' : Z C P O + Z C P » or Z O 1' « =: C O' : C B + C D But the anglers 
 
 m 
 
 i 
 
 'irnii 
 
 m 
 
 
 m 
 
 M 
 
I ! J' 
 
 1-1 
 
 « 
 
 I- 
 
 I. 
 
 ^i' I 
 
 
 de 
 
 *ti 'if.- , 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 at B and D are very nearly rij^lit iingli:--<i mul tliorutorp, to rudiiix C O', we Imvo C B = 
 
 Sin. C O B = Sin. P O '/; and C IJ = Sin. C o I) = Sin. P o '/': lloncc wo obtain 
 
 ZCPO': ZOPo = (CO:CB+ C D=--)Rml.: Sin. P O v, -f- Sin. P o Z' : And 'i Z 
 
 Riul. 
 
 C P O' or / C P d = 2 Z O P o X 5^-ir,. .> jI «— »- v- ' 
 
 Sin. P O Z + Sin. P o Z 
 
 If tho planet be on the same side of tlio zpiiitli to both olwerv-ers, then the difference, 
 instead ot the sum of the sines of titc zenith di^tanccR, miiHt bo ttikon tor thi> donominator. 
 Expressing the above formula in wonls, wo give tho followinf^ .siniplo riilo : — Divide the arc, 
 {expressed in parlt of the radius,) which measures the observed angle at the plaurl, liu the 
 sum of the sines of the zenith distijnces of the planet, if it is between the zeniths of the 
 two observers ; or by the difference of these sines if the planet is on the same side of the 
 zenith to both observers ; and twice the result will 6f the arc, expressed in parts of the 
 radius, that measures the angle subtended at the planet by the disc of the earth. 
 
 Since small angles, tliat require for their measurement only tho use of the micrometer, 
 con be determined with much more accuracy than large angles retiuiring tho whole telescope 
 to be moved, it is best to employ, in finding the angle O P o a star which is near the planet ; 
 a small error in taking the zenith distances of tlic planet will produce no sensible error in 
 the result 
 
 Another method of determining this angle, is by obserA-ations on the transit of Venu.s over 
 the disc of the sun ; a phenomenon in which the planet is seen like a dark spot on the disc ; 
 but the method now explained is sufficient for our present purpose. 
 
 Tho following arc the angles subtended by the earth's disc at the tun, moon, and planets. 
 when the earth is nearest to each : 
 
 Sceondf. 8c<onil». 
 
 Angle at the Sun = 17 Anglo at Uranus = 1 
 
 Mercury = 28 Vesta "^ 
 
 Venus =62 Juno 
 
 Mars =42 "• . Ceres 
 
 Jupiter = 4 Pallas 
 
 Saturn = 2 Moon ' =2" 2' 
 
 To determine, now, the distance of the sun or moon, or of a planet : — Tn tho right angled 
 
 triiinglf P O C we have given the angle P equal to 
 half the angle subtended by the earth's disc at tho 
 body wliftso distance is to bo fijund ; also O C the 
 earth's semi-diameter: therrfore 'lie distance P C 
 may bo determined by the proportion Sin. P : Rad.= 
 C O : P C. Since tho angle P is small, its sine 
 must be nearly equal to the arc whicli moasurcs it. 
 Observing therctbre that the arc to whicli tho radius 
 is equal, expressed in seconds, is 2(1020.'")" we have 
 Z P (in seconds) : 2(K)2G.J = C O : PC. Hence 
 
 Whence wo derive the followin'' nilc : — Divide the constant 
 
 9 
 
 PC = 2CO X 
 
 206265 
 2P 
 
 number 2(X)205 by the number of seconds in the angle subtended by the rarlh'n disc as seen 
 from the body whose distance is tn be determined ; mulliply the ri.\ult by the diameter of 
 the earth, and the product is the distance refjiiiicd. In the case of the sun ; assuming the 
 
 20(326.5 
 diameter of the earth as unity, we have the distance equal to "—-- — or 121S;} diameters of 
 
 the earth. In like manner, Uiking 4", 2", 1" for the angles subtended by the earth's disc at 
 Jupiter, Sotuni, and Uranus, tho distances of those planets from tlif! earth, wlien least, will 
 be oliVif), 1031:52, 20G2(;.j diametors of the onrtli respectively. The moan distance of the 
 moon is nl)oiit si,xty scmi-diniiu'tcrs of the earth. 
 
 Tiie apparent dianietor of any one of the heavenly bodies, is the nimiher of seconds in the 
 measure of the angle under which its circular disc is .seen by a spectator ujKjn the earth. 
 When measured by a inirrometer, the apparent diameters of tho sun, moon, and planets are 
 found to be, when greatest, as follows : 
 
 Hni-oiiils. Spriiiiila. 
 
 Diameter of tho Sun = 1923 Diameter of Jupiter — 46 
 
 Mercury = 12 Saturn — IS 
 
 Venus =61 Unmus := 4 
 
 Mars = 18 Moon — 2020 
 
 Tho four remaining planrtf. according to the most careful obserx'ations, appear to subtend 
 
 only a small part of a s(>cond. 
 
 Now, for deducing the real diameters from the np])arent, we have this rule: — As the 
 
 apparent diameter of the earth, {or the seconds in the angle which ils disc subtends,) as 
 
 ll 
 
 4;=. 
 
II. 
 
 M' 
 
 "^.i 
 
 ^* 
 
 Booa I. 
 
 9^ 
 
 4> 
 
 ROTATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Been from the planet, i» to t.«e apparent diameter o/ ihn planet as teen from the earth, st 
 it thi: true dinmetrr of the earth to the true diameter of the planet. 
 Calling; tiiR diameter of the earin unity, or 8(N)0 miles in round numbers, we obtain, 
 
 Uisinnlsra of 
 
 Diameter of the Sun = 
 
 Ihe Garth. 
 
 111.4.')4 
 
 — 
 
 Miln. 
 
 882,000 nearly 
 
 Mercury = 
 
 0.308 
 
 = 
 
 3,140 — 
 
 Venus = 
 
 0.0 
 
 = 
 
 7,200 — 
 
 Mars = 
 
 0.617 
 
 =^ 
 
 4,100 — 
 
 Jupiter = 
 
 10.860 
 
 = 
 
 87,000 — 
 
 Saturn = 
 
 9.982 
 
 = 
 
 70,068 — 
 
 Uranus = 
 
 4.332 
 
 ^ 
 
 34,500 — 
 
 Moon = 
 
 0.273 
 
 = 
 
 2,160 — 
 
 As the sun, moon, and planets are spherical bodies, Iheir magnitudes compared witli the 
 magnitude of the earth, may be found upon the principle that similar solids arc to one 
 another as the cubes of their similar dimensions ; so that as the cube cf the diameter of the 
 earth is to the cube of the diameter of the sun, moon, or a planet, so is the magnitude of 
 tlie former to the magnitude of the latter. 
 Assuming the magnitude of the earth as unity : 
 
 The magnitude of the Sun = 1384472.000 ' 
 
 Mercury = .063 
 
 Venus 
 
 = 
 
 .927 
 
 Mars 
 
 =z 
 
 .139 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 = 
 
 1280.900 
 
 Saturn 
 
 = 
 
 993.000 
 
 Uranus 
 
 = 
 
 80.490 
 
 Moon 
 
 = 
 
 .020 
 
 Having now ascertained the distances and magnitudes of the heavenly bodies, we proceed 
 to inquire whether the diurnal motion which we observe in them be a real or only an ap- 
 parent motion ; and whether the earth is the centre to which the proper motion of any of 
 them is to be referred. 
 
 (IS seen 
 
 <t(r of 
 
 ning the 
 
 letcrs of 
 
 s disc at 
 iist, will 
 of the 
 
 Is in the 
 earth, 
 nets are 
 
 1) 
 
 pubtend 
 
 -As the 
 tills,) as 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ROTATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 The diurnal motion of the heavenly bodies suggests the existence of some cause, under ., 
 the influence of which they either perform or appear to perform a revolution from east to 
 west round the axis of the celestial sphere in the space ot a day and a night. Now, there 
 are two suppositions, on either of which tlie diurnal motion may be explained. We may 
 suppose the heavens to be carried round the earth, while the latter remains immoveable in 
 the centre ; or we may suppose the heavens to be at rest, and the earth to revolve on an 
 axis in an opposite direction ; that i.*, from west to east. To which of these hyjiotheses tlie 
 preference is due, will be evident if we consider that the heavenly bodies are independent 
 one of another, and are placed at very different distances from the earth ; that variations in 
 the apparent diameters of the planets indicate great changes in their distances, while the 
 comets traverse the heavens in all directions; so that it is difficult to conceive that one and 
 the same cause should impress on all these bodies a common motion of rotation. 
 
 Since the earth is a globe of alwut 8000 miles diameter, it is small when compared with 
 the immense mass of the sun. Were the centres of the sun and earth brought into coinci- 
 dence, the former body would fill the orbit of the moon and extend as far again beyond it. 
 Besides, the sun is distant from us about twelve thousand diameters of the earth ; so that to 
 revolve round the heavens in the interval of twenty-four hours, he must move at the im- 
 mense velocity of about twcnty-nve millions of miles in an hour. It is therefore more 
 reasonable to suppose the earth to iiavo a motion of rotation on an axis, than to suppose the 
 sun, a body so distant and of such immense magnitude, to move with the vast rapidity that 
 would be requisite to carry him round the heavens in so short an interval. With regard to 
 the fixed stars, we may reason in the same manner with still greater force : for the velocity 
 necoptary to carry the sun round in twenty-four hours is really insensible when compared 
 with thi' rapidity with which the ii.xed stars must move to accomplish a like revolution. In 
 order to account for the diurnal motion of the heavens on the hypothesis that the earth is 
 at rest, it must he supposed that the sun, moon, and stars have tiieir velocities so adapted 
 to their respective distances, that all of them com[)lcte tiieir revo'utions round the earth 
 in exactly the same numlier of seconds. Such an adaptation among innumerable indepen- 
 dent botlies, placed at such a variety of distances, it is impossible to admit. 
 
 There are other phenomena of the heawns which serve still farther to confirm the con- 
 elusion, that the diurnal motion of the hciivenly bodies is not a real motion. Every difficulty, 
 
 Vol. I. 8* M 
 
 ^y 
 
 -' V 
 
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4 
 
 00 
 
 PRINCIPLES Ov GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 however difiupponrs, if wu Hiippotic tlio earth to have a motion of mtntion on an iixIh from 
 west to caHt. Ciiiricd round with a velocity cunimun to all tlio olijrctB whicii gurround iw 
 on the enrthV Hiirfuco, we are in a situation similar to tiiat of a Hpnctator placed in a vcsmd 
 in motion. ,\t, thn first careloss i;lanco ho iiiiagiiirH liiniHolf nt rc^t, whili* the HJinri', ml 
 all the ohji'utrt which iio scoh, unconnected with the vcsiicl, appciir to bo in motion, liy 
 reflecting, however, on the extent of the RJiore, on the mapiitude of the ninuntaiiin, i.'ij 
 otiier ohjoclH on land, when comiinred with the vowel from which he observes (horn, he free* 
 hin mind from thin momentary illuHion, and becomes convinced that the motion of thoHC 
 objects is only apparent, and that it is produced by the real motion of the vohhoI. The 
 nmltitude of Hturs scattered over the heavenii are, with retspect to us, what the shore and 
 the objects u|X)n it are with regard to the Bi)ertator ])hicod in the vessel : nnd by the same 
 considerations, by which his first impressions are so corrected that ho becomes assured of 
 the reality of his motion, we are led to the conclusion that the rotation of the earth on an 
 axis produces the apparent diurnal motion of the heavens. 
 
 An arj;iiment tor the rotation of the earth may also be drawn firom analogy. Several of 
 tlie planets are known to have a motion on an axis similar to that which we have supposed 
 to belong to the earth. Jupiter, for example, which is miiny times greater than the earth, 
 revolves on his axis from west to east in less than half a day; and to an observer on his 
 surtace, tlie iieavcns would appear to revolve round that planet in the same manner as wo 
 see them revolve round the earth, but in about half the time. This motion of tiie heavens 
 in reference to a spectator on the planet Jupiter would, however, be only apparent ; and 
 hence we may reasonably conclude, that the case is the same in reference to a spectator on 
 tlie earth. 
 
 Lastly, if the earth is actually in motion, there will be generated a cvntrifusrnl force, or 
 a tendency to throw off objects from its surface, which must diminish the torco of gravity, 
 particularly at the eciuator, where the motion is most rapid. Now, by observations mode 
 with the pendulum, this diminution of the force of gravity has been found to e.vist. The 
 same cause affects also the figure of the earth, which has been found to be flattened some- 
 what at the points of rotation, and elevated at the e(iuatorial regions. The same is ob.-;orved 
 to be the figure of Jupiter, — a circumstance wliicli greatly strengthens the argument drawn 
 from analogy. The evidence which iius now been adduced leaves no doubt respecting the 
 earth's motion of rotation ; and tlms we are enabled to ascertain the true place which the 
 globe that we inhabit holds in the \miver.se. 
 
 The points in which the axis of rotation meets the surface are called the poles of the 
 eaith; and it is evident that the nxis, if produced, must pass through the ))oles of the 
 iicavens. 
 
 CHAPTER Vin. 
 
 APPARENT ANNUAL MOTION OP THE SVfi. VICISSITUDE OP SEASONS. 
 
 While the sun participn.tes in the diurnal motion of the heavens, he also apjiears to move 
 eastward among the fixed sfjirs. This motioi. it will be of importance now to trace out, 
 and to explain the change of seasons to which it gives rise. If we observe each day of the 
 year thj meridian altitude of tlie sun, and note the time which elapses between his passage 
 over the meridian and the passage of any particular star, we shall have the apparent motion 
 of the sun in the direction of the meridian, and of the circles parallel to tlio e(|uator in 
 which lie appears daily to be carried by the diurnal motion of the heavens. Tlio result of 
 the composition of these two motions will give the true motion for each day. In this manner 
 it has been found that the sun moves in a path or orbit which cuts the equator in two oppo- 
 site points, and makes with it an angle equal to 23° 28' jiccrly. 
 
 The name of eclintic is given to the circle which tlie pluno of this orbit marks out on the 
 sphere of the heavens. It passes through twelve constellations, which are culled the 
 TWELVE SIGNS. Tliis has given rise to the division of the ecliptic into twelve equal parts, 
 called SIGNS, each containing, of course, 30°. The twelve signs are coiituinod in a zone of 
 the starry heaven.", called the Zodiac. The names of thorc constellations, with '.lie charac- 
 ters by which they are usually denoted, are as follow: — AriesT, Taurus b, (ieniini IT, Cancer 
 2E, IjCo il. Virgo "I, Libra ===, Scorpio HI., Sagittarius /, Ciipriconuis V5, Aquarius 'Xc, Pisces >;• 
 
 The vioLssitiide of seasons arises from the combination of the apparent iiiotidn of the sun 
 m the ecliptic with his apparent diiirnul motion. When tlie suii is in cither of the points 
 in whicii the ecliptic intersects the equator, he do.=i';;Ml)os the equator on tliat duy in virtue 
 of his diurnal motion; and as by the properties of tlio sphere this circle is divided into two 
 equal parts by the iiorizon, at whatever point of lli" oartii's surface the sjiectator is situated, 
 the d.ay is then o(iuiil to the night over nil tlie globe. 
 
 The points of intersection of equator and ecliptic are called the Equlnoctiai, Points. 
 The first point of tlie av^n Arks is supposed to coincide with the point of the vernal equinox ; 
 and from that jwint the signs of the ecliptic are reckoned : the first point of the sign Libra 
 

 ^t 
 
 Book I. 
 
 VICISHITUDE OP HBASONS. 
 
 91 
 
 It nn tlie 
 lied the 
 111 parts, 
 Izoiie of 
 Icharac- 
 IC'ancer 
 
 f-cps y{, 
 
 llic Sim 
 
 points 
 
 virtue 
 
 bto two 
 
 tiiated, 
 
 fOINTS. 
 
 liinox ; 
 \ Libra 
 
 will tlicroforo coincido with tlio )K)int uf tliu uututmuil miuiiiox. Ah the min, when ho IcavcH 
 till! [Miint of tli(> vorriiil G(|iiiiiux advancoM in tlii! ecliptic, hi.s iiioriiliaii allitudu iiliovo our 
 liori/.iiri daily mcrcuHi'M, ami a largor |>urtiun ot'tlic paiiilld which hf daily dcscribcw bocoiiicii 
 viHiliji'. lloiico arises a gradual incrcai!u in the le!ii;tii of the day in all countries to the 
 north (if the equat4)r; until the mm haviii); reached IiIh ^n-eatest altitude, the day ai'ipiireii itti 
 (rreiiteNt lenjrth, and bef^ins to Hhurten. Ah the variationx of the altitude on each ^idu of the 
 pointH ut which it is (greatest are iiiHcnsiblo, the eun, if wc attend only to his altitude, uppoar»i 
 »<t-iti{)iiary, and the day continiiGri, for Bonic time, very nearly of the same lenjrtli. Tho point 
 of llio ecliptic at which the maximum taknti place is theri'iiiie ilciiouiinated the |)oint of the 
 HiiMMKK SoijrricE. Tho sun, having; reached this point, now returns towards the eipiator, 
 which he crosseH at tho point of the autunnial ccjuinox. His meridian altitude gradually 
 diminishes until it reaches tlie minimum at the point of the VVintkii SoLsneE. ^'he day, 
 which has been ^rradually shortenmi^ from tho sninmor Bolsticc, is then the shortest in the 
 year, mid for some time does not sensibly lengtlicn. The sun, however, agaui jrraduully 
 a|){iroachcs the equator, and reachoH it at tiic vernal equinox. 
 
 Such is the constant pro^fresa of the sun in the heavens, and such the succession of tlie 
 sensoiis of the year. Tho Spring is the time comprised between the vernal or spring equinox, 
 which tails about tiic '21st of March, and the summer solstice, which happens about the 21st 
 of June : the interval between thn solstice and the autumnal e(iuinox, which liills about the 
 "2nd of September is the Summer: the time between the autumnal eciuinox and tho winter 
 solstice, which occurs atiout tho 22d of December, is the Autumn: and, lastly, tlie Winter 
 is tlio time that elapses between tho winter Rolstico and the spring equinox. 
 
 Tho two circles parallel to the cipiator, which the sun describes on the longest and 
 shortest days, arc called, one the summer or northern Tropic, and tlie other the winter or 
 southern 1 ropic. They are also respectively denominated the tropic of Cancer and tlie 
 tropic of Capricorn, in reference to the points in which they touch the ecliptic. 
 
 The ])rescnco of the sun aliove tho horizon being the cause of heat, and tho temperature 
 increasing as tho altitude increases, it might be inferred that the temperature should bo the 
 same in summer as in spring, and in winter as in autumn ; because the altitudes of the sun 
 in these seasons exactly corretoond. But it is to be observed that the temperature is not an 
 instantaneous effect of the sun's presence ; hut is the result of the continued action of his 
 rays. On this account it is not greatest on the day when the altitude is greatest, but some 
 time between the summer solstice and autumnal equi"')X. In like manner, tho greatest cold 
 of winter does not occur on the shortest day, but some time between the winter solstice and 
 the spring equinox. 
 
 With regard both to temperature and tho length of tlie day, great difl'erences arise from 
 the different elevations of tho polo above the horizon, as we proceed from the et|uator 
 towards either of the poles. The horizon of an observer at the equator passes through the 
 poles, and by the geometrical properties of the sphere it divides the equator and all tlie circles, 
 parallel to it into two equal parts. It also cuts them at right angles ; and hence the position 
 of the celestial sphere, in reference to the horizon of an observer at the equator, is called the 
 RioiiT position of the sphere. In whatever point of the ecliptic the sun is situated, his 
 diurnal course is therefore at right angles to the horizon, and one half of it is in the visible 
 hemisphere, and the other half in the invisible ; hence, at the equator, the day is at all 
 seasons equal to the ni<^it. 
 
 When the sun is in either of tho equinoctial points, he passes through the zenith at 
 mid-day. When he is in either of the solstitial points his meridian altitude is the least, and 
 is equal to tho complement of the inclination of the ecliptic to the equator. In these two 
 positions of the sun tho shadows of objects fall, at mid-day, in opposite directions, — a pheno- 
 menon which at no season occurs in our climate, where the solar shadows are at mid-day 
 always directed towards the north : there are, then, properly speaking, two summers and 
 two winters in the year at the equator. The same thing takes place in all the countries 
 where the elevation of tho pole above tho horizon is less than the obliquity of tho ecliptic. 
 In every country beyond this region there is only one summer and one winter in the year, 
 with the intervening seasons of spring and autumn: tho sun is never in the zenith: the 
 length of the longest day increases, and that of the shortest day diminishes, as wo advance 
 towards either of tho poles ; and when we liave reached such a position, that the zenith is 
 distant from the pole by an arc of the meridian equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic, the 
 sun docs not set at the summer solstice, nor rise at the winter solstice. 
 
 The polar circles. About eacii of the poles of the celestial sphere, suppose a circle to be 
 described distant from it by an arc equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic ; these tw^o circles 
 are called the Polar Circlks. In the region of the earth situated around either of its 
 poles, at every point whose zenith lines within the jxilar circle, the time of the sun's presence 
 above the horizon and of his absence below it, at certain seasons, exceeds twenty-four hours : 
 it increases as wo approach the iwle, and may amount to days or even to months. Thus, 
 when the sun's declination north, increasing, becomes equal to the distance of the zenith of 
 .iny place in the northern polar region from the north \Kilc of the heavens, he ceases to set 
 
 4 
 
 1 1 1,' 
 
 
 = m 
 
^, 
 
 
 IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
 1.0 
 
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 £ ri^ |2£ 
 warn 
 
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 Photogiaphk) 
 
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 CorporEition 
 
 13 WIST MAIN STREET 
 
 WIUTER.N.Y. 14S80 
 
 (716)872-4503 
 
 
,*!. 
 
 * 
 
 n 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Past II. 
 
 at that place, and continues above Uie horizon until he has reached the same declination in 
 returning towards the equator. From timt time the sun rises and sets in the course of 
 twenty-four hours, until the sun's declinatiun south becomes equal to the distance of the 
 zenith iVom the pole, and then he ceases to rise and continues below the horizon tL" he has 
 again acquired the same declination in returning northward. 
 
 At the pole, the equator coincides with the horizon, and all the circles parallel to tlip 
 equator are also parallel to the horizon. This is called the Paraixel position of the sphere. 
 To an observer, placed at the pole, the heavenly bodies would appear to move round, either 
 in the horizon or parallel to it Hence the sun is constantly above the horizon when he is 
 on the same side of the equator with the pole, and constantly below it when on the other 
 side ; so that at either of the poles of the earth there is only one day and one night in the 
 year. 
 
 At any point on the earth's surface, between the equator and either of the poles, the 
 equator and the circles parallel to it, are oblique to the horizon. This is called the Obuque 
 position of the sphere ; and by the geometrical properties of the sphere, the horizon, in this 
 position, divides all the circles panulel to the equator into two unequal parts ; hence arises 
 the inequality of the days and nights at all places between the equator and either pole. In 
 thia country, for example, in summer, when the sun is on the north side of the equator, the 
 larger portion of his diurnal course liies in the visible hemisphere, and the less in die invisible, 
 ■0 that the day is longer than the night The reverse is the case in the winter when the 
 ■un is on the south side of the equator. 
 
 If two places are situated on opposite sides of the equator, the spring and summer of the 
 one will, it is evident, correspond to the autumn and winter of the other. 
 
 With regard to the temperature, it is higher in the equatorial regions than in any other 
 part of the earth, because there the action of the sun's rays is most direct To every point 
 of tlie earth's surface, whose zenith lies between the tropics, the sun is vertical twice in the 
 year ; so that his rays, acting perpendicularly, produce their greatest effect In the polar 
 regions the temperature is lowest, in consequence of the obliquity with which the sun's rays 
 fkll on the earth's surfkce, and the great length of the winter night In the countries situated 
 between the equatorial region and the two polar regions, there prevails a medium tempera- 
 ture, increasing as the zenith approaches the nearer of the two tropics, and diminishing as 
 it approaches the nearer of the polar circles. 
 A division of the earth's surfkce into five zones has been suggested by this difference of 
 
 temperature fh>m the equator towards either pole. 
 In the adjoining figure let P p represent the earth's 
 axis, P £ p Q, a meridian, and E Q the equatorial 
 diameter. Let E C Q be the representation of a 
 circle on tlie earth's surface equally distant fVom 
 the poles, which will therefore be the equator: 
 and F G H, fg h circles on the earth's surface 
 parallel to the equator, and at the distance of about 
 23i degrees ; on each side of it, and A B D, a 6 d 
 circles round the poles P, p, and at the same dis- 
 tance of 2.3i degrees. 
 
 At the times of the year when the sun is in the 
 tropic of Cancer, he will, in his apparent revolu- 
 tion, be vertical to all places on tlie circle F G H ; 
 and when he is in the tropic of Capricorn, he will 
 be vertical to the circle/^ h. The space on the 
 earth's surface between these circles is the Torrid 
 Zone. 
 
 When the sun is in the southern tropic he will not be seen anywhere in the space bounded 
 by the circle A B D. This is, therefore, the northern Frigid Zone : and when he is in the 
 northern tropic there is a like tract bounded by the circle abd, round the south pole, where 
 he will then be invisible. This is the southern Frigid Zone. The two tracts between the 
 torrid zone and the frigid zones are the temperate zones. 
 
 Another division of the earth into zones was used by the ancient geographers, founded on 
 the different lengths of the longest day, as we proceed fhim the equator towards either of 
 the poles. These zones were denominated Climates, and were each of such a breadth, that 
 the longest day at the boundary nearer tlie pole exceeded the longest day at tlie boundary 
 nearer the equator by some certain space of time, as half an hour or an hour. Within the 
 polar circle, the climates were supposed of such a breadth as to make the longest day at the 
 opposite sides differ by a month. 
 
 The points in which the equator and ecliptic intersect each other are not immoveable, but 
 appear, with respect to the fixed stars, to recede towards the west at the rate of SOttj" 
 nearly, annually, or about 1° in 72 years. This motion is called the Precession of the 
 Equinoxes. When the constellations of the zodiac were first delineated by the ancient 
 
 19 A^^ 
 
 P^ 
 
 \ 
 
 '^^-~I111__ 
 
 ^-_J11^^^ 
 
 liC E 
 
 
 Z^Q 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 )cl' 
 
 
 Z^^ 
 
 X. 
 
 9 
 
 ^ 
 
v».. 
 
 BooeL 
 
 VICISSITUDE OF SEASONS. 
 
 is in the 
 revolu- 
 
 FGH; 
 he will 
 on the 
 Torrid 
 
 jided on 
 Ither of 
 Ith, that 
 lundary 
 lin the 
 ' at the 
 
 lie, but 
 JSOA" 
 lof the 
 
 Indent 
 
 Mtronomers, the middle of the sign Ariel was at the point of tlio vernal equinox, from which 
 it is now distant more than 58° towards the east In consequence of the precession of the 
 equinoxes, the time in which the sun moves fh>m the vernal equinox to tlie vernal equinox 
 again, is less than the time in which he moves from any star to the same stor a^in ; — the 
 point of the vernal equinox moving westward, so as to meet the sun, and thus anticipate the 
 time of his crossing the equator in the preceding year. 
 
 The intervals of time which separate the equinoxes or the solstices are unequal. Almost 
 eight days more elapse from the spring to the autumnal equinox, than from the latter to the 
 former. We may therefore conclude, that the motion of the sun is not uniform. From 
 precise and multiplied observations, it has been ascertained that his motion is most rapid at 
 a point of the ecliptic situated near the winter solsticial point, and slowest at the opposite 
 point towards the summer solstice. At the former point the sun describes daily 1° 1' 10", 
 at the latter only 57' IIJ^". The distance of the sun from the earth is also variable. This 
 is proved by variations observed in his apparent diameter, which increases and diminishes at 
 tiie some tune with his angular velocity, but not in the same ratio. The angular velocities 
 at any two instants of time ore, to one another, as the squares of the apparent diameters. 
 
 If V and v' be the angular velocities of the sun, or his daily advances in the ecliptic at any 
 two seasons of the year, and d and d' his apparent diameters at the same time, then v : v' ^= 
 «r:d". 
 
 To diminish the apparent motion of the sun, it would be sufficient to suppose that body 
 removed to a greater distance from the earth, without altering his true angular velocity. 
 But if the diminution of his motion depended entirely on this cause, the apparent velocity 
 would diminish in the same ratio with the apparent diameter. Since it diminishes, however, 
 08 the square of the diameter, there must necessarily be an actual diminution of the 
 velocity of the sun while he recedes to a greater distance from the earth. 
 
 His distance being reciprocally as his apparent diameter, if D and D' be his distances at 
 the two seasons when his diameters are d and d', we have » : w' = D" : D" ; and »D* = v'D". 
 Hence it appears, that from the combined effect of the two causes influencing the sun's 
 apparent motions, — namely, the diminution of his velocity and the increase of his distance, — 
 his daily angular motion diminishes as the square of his distance increases ; so that the pro- 
 duct of the Eojare of the distance by the velocity is a constant quantity. 
 
 Let us imagine a straight line to join the centres of the sun and of the earth. This line 
 is usually called the Radivs Vector. It is not difficult to prove that the small sector, or 
 the area which the Radius Vector traces in a day, in consequence of the sun's motion, is 
 proportional to the product of the square of this radius by the sun's daily motion, that is, to 
 V D*. This area is therefore constant ; and the whole area, described by the Radius Vector, 
 setting out from a fixed radius, increases as the number of days reckoned from the epoch 
 when the sun was at the fixed radius. 
 
 Since vD* = »'D'*, we have D' = 'D-,/1. Assuming, therefore, any Ime whatever for D,. 
 
 and finding, by observation, the sun's angular velocity for every day of the year, the value 
 of D' for each day may be found. 
 
 Thus we shall be able to trace a curve lino representing the orbit of the sun. This curve 
 is ibund to be not exactly circular, but a little elongated in the direction of the straight line 
 passing through the centre of the earth, and joining the points in the orbit at which the sun 
 IS at its greatest and least distances. The resemblance of this curve to an ellipse having 
 given rise to a comparison between them, their identity has been discovered. Hence we 
 conclude, that the apparent solar orbit is an ellipse having the centre of the earth in one 
 of its foci. 
 
 The solar ellipse is not much different from a circle ; for its eccentricity, which, from the 
 geometrical projierties of the ellipse, is equal to holf the diffijrence of the sun's greatest and 
 least distances from the earth, is a quantity which bears but a very small proportion to the 
 distance of the sun. It appears, from observation, that there is a small diminution of the 
 eccentricity, — so small, indeed, as scarcely to be perceptible in a century. 
 
 The position of the greater axis of the solar ellipse is not constantly the same. Its 
 extremities have an annual motion eastward, in reference to the fixed stars, of about 12" in 
 the direction of the sun's motion. 
 
 The obliquity of the sun's orbit, or of the ecliptic to the equator, is also subject to change, 
 and appears to have been continually diminishing from the remotest date of astronomical 
 observation. Its present rate of diminution may te stated at nearly 49" in a century. 
 
 The apparent elliptic motion of the sun does not represent, with perfect exactness, the 
 results of modern observation. The great precision now attained in the art of observing 
 has made known to us small inequalities, the laws of which it would have been almost 
 impossible to determine by mere observation. These laws can be investigated only after 
 the physical cause has been discovered upon which the phenomena depend. 
 
 ' rr 
 
.1" 
 
 Sj 
 
 
 m 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 DIVISION AND MEASURE OP TIME. 
 
 i 
 
 PabtII. 
 
 The notion of (imc is suggested by tl»e succession of phenomena in the universe. When 
 two events exactly correspond in all ineir circumstances, they are conceived to occupy 
 equal portions of time. The descent of a heavy body to the earth, for example, from a 
 given height, if repeated under precisely similar circumstances, will in every case be per- 
 formed in the same interval of time. Suppose then that a number of heavy bodies fell to 
 the ground one after another from the same height,— the descent of the second and of each 
 succeeding body commencing at the instant in which the body that preceded it had reached 
 the ground ; the whole time occupied by the fall of these bodies will be divided into equal 
 portions, one of which may be assumed as the mcnsuring unit of time. The vibrations of 
 a pendulum, performed under precisely the same circumstances, are employed for estimating 
 the smaller portions of time : the larger portions are determined by tlie motions of the sun ; 
 from which arise the vicissitude of day and night, and the changt) of seasons. 
 
 The Day, in civil life, is the time that elap$<es between the rising and setting of the sun ; 
 and the Night the time between his setting and rising. The AerrRONOMicAi. or Solah Day, 
 on the other hand, comprehends the whole period of tlie sun's diurnal revolution, and is 
 reckoned trom the time of his passing any particular meridian, to the time of his returning 
 to the same meridian. The pendulum usually employed is of such a length as to divide the 
 mean astronomical day into 24X00X60=86400 equal parts called lecondt; 60 of these 
 parts make a minute ; 60 minutes make an hour ; and 24 hours complete the day. 
 
 As the apparent motion of the sun carries him eastward among the fixed stars, the time 
 that elapses between his passing the meridian, and his returning to it again, is longer than 
 llie time that intervenes between two successive passages (called transits) of any particular 
 star. This latter period is the exact time of the earth's revolution on its axis, and is called 
 a SiDEHEAL day : it is about 23'' 56" 4' in length. 
 
 The motion of the earth on its axis being perfectly uniform, the length of the sidereal day 
 is always the same. This is not, however, the cose with respect to the astronomical or solar 
 day, which is ulTected by the unequable motion of the sun, and by the obliquity of the ecliptic. 
 At the summer solstice, towards which the sun's motion in the ecliptic is slowest, the solar 
 day is more nearly equal to the sidereal day than at the winter solstice, when the sun's motion 
 is quickest. 
 
 With regard to the effect of the obliquity of the ecliptic in reference to the length of the 
 solar day, it is to be observed, that, by the geometrical properties of the sphere, equal portions 
 of any circle, whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of revolution, pass over the meridian 
 in equal times ; but if the plane of a circle is oblique to the axis, the arcs that pass over the 
 meridian in equal times are not equal. Hence, if the sun moved uniformly in the equator, 
 the solar day would be always of the same length : but as he moves in the ecliptic, whose 
 plane is oblique to the axis, even if he did proceed with a uniform motion, the equal area 
 which he daily described would pass over the meridian in unequal times ; so that the solar 
 day would be longer or shorter according to the sun's place in the ecliptic. 
 
 The motion of the shadow on a sun-dial marks out time as measured by the sun's motion 
 in the ecliptic : but if the sun moved uniformly in the equator at such a rate as to complete 
 the annual circuit of the heavens, in the same time as he does by his actual motion in the 
 ecliptic, time measured by his motion would then correspond with that of a well-regulated 
 clock. 
 
 The difference between the time shown by the sun-dial, and that shown by the clock, is 
 sailed the E<iuation of Time. The part of this equation which depends on the obliquity of 
 the ecliptic, vanishes at the equinoxes and at the solstices ; because at these seasons the sun 
 comes to the meridian at the same moment as ho would do if he moved in the equator. 
 
 Prom the vernal equinox till the summer solstice, and from the autumnal equinox till the 
 winter solstice, the time as shown by the sun-dial is in advance of that indicated by the 
 clock; because then the sun's distance from the first point of Ane#, and first point of Libra, 
 passes sooner over the meridian than the equal arc upon the equator, which the sun would 
 have described had he moved in that circle. 
 
 Again, the hour shown by the sun-dial is behind that shown by the clock, from the summer 
 and winter solstices, till the autumnal and vernal equinoxes ; because at these two seasons 
 the distance of the sun from the first point of Aries, and from the first point of Libra, re- 
 quires longer time to pass over the meridian, than the equal arc tipon the equator. 
 
 The port of the equation of time which arises from the unequable motion of the sun, will 
 vanish when ho is at his greatest and least distances from the earth ; because he is in these 
 two points of his orbit at the same instants of time as he would be if he moved uniformly 
 with his mean velocity ; that is, with a rate of motion by which he would describe equally 
 the ecliptic in the same time in which he describes it by his unequable motion. 
 
 The dial, during the time when the sun is moving from the point of his greatest, to the 
 point of his least distance from the earth, is faster than the clock; bccnuso the sun is then 
 
\ •• 
 
 Book I. 
 
 DIVISION AND MEASURE OF TIME. 
 
 9B 
 
 at no instant so far advanced in his orbit, as he would have been if he had been moving uni- 
 formly with his mean velocity. The reverse is the case while the sun is moving from the 
 point of his least to that of his greatest distance. Time measured by the dial is called 
 APPARENT time ; that shown by a well-regulated clock is called true time. The eflect of 
 the obliquity of the ecliptic, and that of the sun's unequable motion,.in rendering the dial 
 fbister or slower than the clock, sometimes combine with and at other times counteract each 
 other. The amount of each is given in the two fdlowing tables for every fifth day of the 
 vear ; and by taking the sum or difference, according as the obliquity of the ecliptic and 
 ihe sun's unequable motion produce similar or opposite effects, a table may be formed of 
 Jie equation of^ time. 
 
 Tabk showing the Part of the Equation qf Time that arises from the Obliquity of 
 
 the Ecliptic. 
 
 Dial Filter. 
 
 Dial Blower. 
 
 Dial Falter. 
 
 Dial Slower. 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 8. 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 B. 
 
 March - - 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 June • • 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 Beptember 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 
 December- 
 
 81 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 1 
 
 39 
 
 
 36 
 
 1 
 
 48 
 
 
 38 
 
 1 
 
 39 
 
 
 30 
 
 I 
 
 48 
 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 IS 
 
 July • • • 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 33 
 
 October 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 IS 
 
 
 31 
 
 3 
 
 38 
 
 April . . 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 46 
 
 
 7 
 
 S 
 
 8 
 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 46 
 
 January - 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 8 
 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 3S 
 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 3S 
 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 S3 
 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 48 
 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 33 
 
 
 IS 
 
 7 
 
 48 
 
 
 ig 
 
 8 
 
 83 
 
 
 33 
 
 8 
 
 4S 
 
 
 S3 
 
 8 
 
 S3 
 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 45 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 38 
 
 9 
 
 36 
 
 
 38 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 
 3S 
 
 9 
 
 SO 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 Auguit- - 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 49 
 
 November- 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 40 
 
 
 39 
 
 9 
 
 49 
 
 Mty- • • 
 
 5 
 
 B 
 
 S3 
 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 S3 
 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 S3 
 
 February • 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 S3 
 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 49 
 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 40 
 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 49 
 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 40 
 
 
 is 
 
 9 
 
 36 
 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 36 
 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 
 90 
 
 8 
 
 4S 
 
 
 33 
 
 8 
 
 S3 
 
 
 33 
 
 8 
 
 4S 
 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 S3 
 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 48 
 
 
 38 
 
 7 
 
 33 
 
 
 37 
 
 7 
 
 48 
 
 
 S3 
 
 7 
 
 S3 
 
 
 31 
 
 6 
 
 3S 
 
 September 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 December - 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3S 
 
 
 38 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 June • • 
 
 5 
 
 S 
 
 8 
 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 46 
 
 
 7 
 
 s 
 
 8 
 
 March . . 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 46 
 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 » 
 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 IS 
 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 IS 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 48 
 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 39 
 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 48 
 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SO 
 
 
 
 
 
 Table showing the Part <f the Eqtiation of Time that arises from the Inequality of the 
 
 Sun^s Motion. 
 
 Jtill the 
 Iby the 
 l^&ra, 
 1 would 
 
 liramer 
 leasons 
 fa, re- 
 will 
 I these 
 Ibrmly 
 finally 
 
 ,tht 
 I then 
 
 Dial Falter than Oock. 
 
 Dial Slower than Clock. 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 8. 
 
 July • • 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 October • 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 43 
 
 December • 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 March • . 
 
 .*» 
 
 7 
 
 43 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 43 
 
 January • 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 April - . 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 40 
 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 :n 
 
 
 lU 
 
 1 
 
 33 
 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 M 
 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 57 
 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 S9 
 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 
 S2 
 
 S 
 
 35 
 
 
 83 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 
 SO 
 
 3 
 
 41 
 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 
 38 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 
 38 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 
 35 
 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 
 34 
 
 6 
 
 56 
 
 Auguit. - 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 47 
 
 November. 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 45 
 
 
 89 
 
 3 
 
 56 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 SI 
 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 34 
 
 February . 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 May. . . 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 . 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 Si 
 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 
 H 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 33 
 
 
 17 
 
 S 
 
 33 
 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 32 
 
 
 IS 
 
 5 
 
 33 
 
 
 33 
 
 5 
 
 SO 
 
 
 38 
 
 5 
 
 S 
 
 
 18 
 
 S 
 
 39 
 
 
 SO 
 
 4 
 
 53 
 
 
 38 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 
 87 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 
 33 
 
 6 
 
 84 
 
 
 36 
 
 4 
 
 31 
 
 September 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 December • 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 56 
 
 
 38 
 
 6 
 
 45 
 
 
 31 
 
 3 
 
 47 
 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 S6 
 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 March • ■ 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 June • • 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 41 
 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 35 
 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 34 
 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 15 7 
 
 SO 
 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 57 
 
 
 3:1 
 
 7 
 
 34 
 
 
 31 
 
 1 
 
 23 
 
 
 20 , 7 
 
 37 
 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 I» 
 
 1 
 
 38 
 
 7 
 
 40 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 35 7 
 
 43 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 The difference between the apparent and the true time, is very observable about the 
 season when the day is lengthening or shortening with most rapidity. It is a common 
 remark, that when the day is shortening, the change is more observable in the evening than 
 in the morning; but that the reverse is the case when the day is lengthening. This arises 
 from the clock being before or after the sun. Thus, in the end of October, the dial is 
 upwards of sixteen minutes faster than the clock; so that the time of sun-rise, and tlie time 
 of sun-set, will each, as indicated by the clock, appear earlier by 16 minutes, than as indicated 
 by the motion of the solar shadow. Hence tiie instant of noon, as shown by the clock, 
 appears not to divide equally the time during which the sun is above the horizon : the time 
 from sun-rise till noon, appears longer than from noon till sun-set. Again, about the middle 
 of February, the dial is about 15 minutes slower than the clock; so that the time of sun-rise 
 and the time of sun-set will each, as indicated by the clock, be later by 15 minutes than as 
 indicated by the dial ; and the time from sun-rise till noon, as shown by the clock, will 
 appear shorter than the time from noon till sun-set. 
 
 4 i;l 
 
 
 fy^i.t 
 
 'iU 
 
 i(! 
 
,# 
 
 ii 
 
 06 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Paut n. 
 
 Aa the return of the frnn to the meridian marks out the day, so hia return to the same 
 equinox murks out another pnrlion qf time of much importance to bo determined with 
 accuracy ; namely, the Year. Thin period comprehends tlie seasons which divide it into 
 four parts. Within tliis period also, the moon jroes twelve times througli all her phases, 
 which occupy the space of nearly twenty-nine and a half days : hence the year has been 
 divided into twelve months, three of which arc allotted to each season. By accurate obser- 
 vation it is found, that the time which elapses between the instant at which the sun paaaes 
 the vernal cquiiio-x, and the period of his return to it, is 365'' 5'' 48" 48*. Tliis period is 
 called the Tropical year. It is found to be shorter than the interval between two successive 
 returns of the sun to the same star by 20"' 20'. This last-mentioned period is called the 
 Sidereal year, and consists of 305'' 6'' 9"' 11'. 
 
 In order to mnkc sucli a distribution of time as is accommodated to the purposes of liffe, 
 it is necessary so to adjust the reckoning of the solar revolution to the length of the mean 
 solur day, that the beginning of the year may coincide with the beginning of the day, and 
 the seasons may always recur in the same months. If the solar revolution consisted of an 
 exact number of days, there would be no difficulty ; but as it includes a fraction of a day, 
 it is evident that one year cannot be mode equal to one revolution, without incurring the 
 inconvenience of making the year commence at a different point of time from the beginning 
 of the day. But though one year cannot be made equal to one revolution, a certain number 
 of years may be made equal to a like number of revolutions. 
 
 Julius Cvsar introduced the first near approximation to accuracy on this subject, in the 
 4.5th year before the commencement of the Christian era. The Romans had before that 
 time estimated the year according to the course of the moon, in imitation of the Greeks ; 
 dividing it into twelve months, which consisted in all of 354 days; but as an odd number 
 was thought the more fortunate, one day was added which made the year consist of 355 
 days. To make the lunar year correspond witli the course of the sun, on which depends 
 the vicissitude of seasons, an intercalary month was inserted every other year, between the 
 23d and 24th day of February. The intercalation of this month was left to the discretion 
 of tlie priests, who, from interested motives, inserted often more or fewer than the proper 
 number of days, so as to make the year longer or shorter, according as it suited their own 
 purposes. This caused the montlis to be transposed from their stated seasons, the winter 
 months being carried back into autumn, and the autumnal months into summer. When Julius 
 Cajsar became master of the state, he resolved to put an end to this disorder, by abolishing 
 the use of intercalations which had been the source of it ; and for that purpose, by the 
 assistance of Sosipcnes, a celebrated astronomer of Alexandria, he adjusted the year to the 
 course of the sun, and assigned to the respective months the number of days which they 
 still contain. That matters might proceed with regularity from the beginning of the ensuing 
 January, he made the current year, which was called the last year of confusion, consist of 
 fifteen months, or 445 days. 
 
 The Julian year is founded upon the supposition that the solar revolution is exactly 
 365* 6\ For three successive years the six hours are omitted ; but in the fourth year an 
 additional day is inserted in the month of February, which makes the four years correspond 
 with four solar revolutions. This fourth year, consisting of 366 day», is called Bissextile 
 or Leap year. But as the true length of the solar revolution is not 365'' &", but only 
 365* 5^ 48™ 48', the Julian year is too long by ll" 12' ; so that before a new year begins, 
 the sun has passed the point of the ecliptic where the preceding year began. The error 
 thence arising is, however, so small, that it was long before it was observed. The Julian 
 Calendar was introduced into the church at the time of the Council of Nice, in the year 325 
 of the Christian era ; and the vernal equinox was at that time fixed to the 2lBt of March. 
 In the year 1582, however, it was found that the vernol equinox fell, not on the 2l8t of 
 March, but on the 11th of that month ; so that the Julian year had fiillen about ten days 
 behind the sun. If this erroneous reckoning had been continued, the seasons would have 
 entirely changed their places. // wag there/ore resolved to reform the calendar, which was 
 done by Pope Gregory XIII., and the first step was to correct the loss of the ten days, by 
 counting the day after the 4th of October, not tiie 5th, but the 15th day of the month. The 
 error in the Julian year reckoning, being about eleven minutes yearly, amounts to nearly 
 three days in four centuries. Hence to prevent its accumulr tion in future, it was agreed to 
 suppress three intercalary days in the course of four hundred years, by considering the last 
 of three succeasive centuries common, instead of leap years. The years in which the inter- 
 calary days are omitted are 1700, 1800, 1900: and, in general, the last year of every century 
 not divisible by four, is reckoned a common year, which in the Julian account is bissextile. 
 The degree of accuracy thus attained is very considerable ; for taking the annual error at llj 
 minutes, in four centuries, it will amount to 4480 minutes, or to 3' 2'' 40'". Of this error, 
 the fractional part, 2'' 40"', is all that remains uncorrected ; and this error will require the 
 lapse of 3600 years before it amounts to a day. . 
 
 Other modes of intercalation. If tlie tropical year were 36.5'' 5'' 49'^ 12", the Gregorian 
 intercalation would be norfuctly exact. Accurate observation proves, however, that the year 
 
Boos L 
 
 DIVISION AND MEASURE OP TIME. 
 
 0} 
 
 IS shorter by about 2'! seconds. If scientific principles had been strictly followed, they would 
 have p(>intu(l out other modes of intercalation still more accurate, though perhaps not more 
 convcniniit, than tliat which lias been adopted. The determination of the methods of inter- 
 calation best suited to make the computations in the calendar correspond as nearly as possible 
 with the rnal motions of the sun, requires all the integer numbers to be found, which most 
 nearly e.\pros9 the ratio of .V 48'" 48' to a day. These numbers are easily determined by the 
 method of continued fraction*. In the Gregorian calendar, 97 days are intercalated in the 
 course of 400 years; but it would be much more exact to intercalate 109 days in the course 
 of 4.'}0 years. If the troiMcal yeor were precisely 385'' 6'' 48'" 48', this intercalation would, in- 
 deed, bo quite accurate : for 5" 48" 48", multiplied by 450, give exactly 109 days. 
 
 The reformation of the calendar, or the change from the Old Style to the New Styi.e, 
 did no. take place in Enffland, till the year 1752, at which time it was established by an 
 act of parliament. The alteration was ordered to be made on the 2'! nf September; and as 
 rho error of the Julian reckoning now amounted to 11 days, the 3d was to be counted the 
 I4tn of September. 
 
 Correspondence between the days of the teeek and month. As the common year consists 
 of 52 weeks and one day, it is evident that the beginning and end of each common year will 
 fall on tlie same day of the week. In a scries of years, therefore, if no leap years occurred, 
 the first day of each month would, year after year, be one day farther advanced in the week, 
 till, in the course of seven years, the same days of the month would return to the same days 
 of the week. But since leap year contains 52 weeks ond 2 days, and occurs every fourth 
 year, it follows that the days of the week cannot correspond to the same days of the month, 
 till after the lapse of four times seven or twenty-eight years. This period is called the 
 Cycle of the Sun. When this period is completed, the sun's place in the ecliptic returns 
 to the same signs and degrees on the same months and days, so as not to differ a degree in 
 a century ; and the leap years, as well as the common years, begin the same course over 
 again with respect to the days of the week on which the days of the month fall. The year 
 of our Saviour's birth, according to the vulgar era, was the ninth year of the solar cycle : 
 hence, to find the current year of that cycle, we must add nine to the given year of the 
 Christian era, and divide the sum by twenty-eight ; the quotient will be the number of cycles 
 which have been completed since the birth of Christ, and the remainder will be the current 
 year of the prQsent cycle. Thus, for the year 1829, the cycle of the sun is found to be 18. 
 The first .seven letters of the alphabet have been employed to mark the several days of the 
 week. As one of those seven letters must necessarily stand against Sunday, it is printed in 
 the calendar in a capital form, and called the Dominical Letter : Uio other six letters are 
 inserted in a difieront character, to denote the other six days of the week. When January 
 begins on Sunday, A is the Dominical letter for that year : but because the next year begins 
 on Monday, the Sunday will of course fall on the seventh day, to which is annexed the 
 seventh letter G, which will therefore be the Dominical letter for all that year : and as the 
 third year will begin on Tuesday, Sunday will fiill on the sixth day, so that F will be the 
 Dominical letter pr that year, and so on. Hence it is evident tliat tlie Dominical letters 
 will succeed each other in a retrograde order, viz. G, F, E, D, C, B, A. As the days of the 
 week correspond to the same days of the month only once in twenty-eight years, it follows 
 that it is only after the lapse of the same period, that tlie series of Dominical letters can 
 proceed in the same order in reference to the days of the month. Every leap year has two 
 Dominical letters; one answering from the beginning of January till the end of February; 
 the other being the letter immediately preceding, answering for the remainder of the year. 
 The Dominical letter may be found for any year of any century by the following rule : 
 divide the centuries by 4, and take twice what remains from 6: then add together this last 
 remaiiuler, the odd years above the even centuries, and the fourth part of these odd years, 
 neglecting the remainder if any : divide the sum by 7, and the excess of 7 above the 
 'emainder is the number answering to the letter required. Thus, for the year 1830, the 
 Dominical letter is C. For the centuries 18 divided by 4 leave 2 ; and twice this remainder 
 taken from 6 also leaves 2 ; by adding to which the odd number of years 30, and their fourth 
 part 7, we obtain 39 : this sum divided by 7 leaves the remainder 4, which taken from 7 
 leaves 3, answering to C, the third letter of tlie alphabet. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 PROPER MOTION OP THE MOON. HER PHASES. ECLIPSES OF THE SUN AND MOON. 
 
 The moon, next to the sun, is the most interesting to us of all the heavenly bodies. Her 
 phases, or that scries of changes in her figure and illumination which she undergoes in the 
 course of about a month, are one of the most striking of the celestial phenomena; and presen 
 n division of time so remarkable that it has been the first in use among all nations. 
 
 The moon has an apimrent motion among the fixed stars similar to that of the sun, bu. 
 Vol. L N 
 
 m 
 
M 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt R. 
 
 h 
 
 hii 
 
 much more rapid ; it carries her caiitward at the rate of nciirly 13° lOJ', at an average, in 
 'H liuurs. Wlien this motion m accuniteljr traced out, it is found, tliat the moon dcRcribes 
 round tho earth, in 2T' 7" 43", a path or orbit inclined to the ecliptic at an angle of nearly 
 .^'^ 0'. Tho line in which tho plane of tho orbit cuts the plane or tho ecliptic is called the 
 Ijnb or THB NoDis. The point in which the moon crosses the ecliptic when ascending 
 to the north, is called tlio asoendino node ; and the opposite point, in which she crosses it 
 wlinn deeceudinff to the south, is called the descgndino node. 
 
 Tho figure of tlie lunar orbit is determined in the same manner as that of the solar, by 
 obRcrving the changes in the apparent diameter of the moon, and comparing these with the 
 variations in her angular velocity. It is thus found, that the moon's orbit, like that of the 
 Kuii, is in appearance an ellipse, having tho centre of the earth in one of the foci, and that 
 (lie nulius vector, or the line joining the centres of the earth and moon, describes areas pro- 
 portional to tho times. Neither tlie line of the nodes nor the greater axis of the lunar orbit 
 is fixed. The former has a slow retrograde motion, by which it makes an entire revolution 
 in something more than 18 J years ; the latter has a progressive motion, by which it com- 
 pletes a revolution in something less than 9 years. The elliptic orbit is liable, indeed, to so 
 many changes, that tho full investigation of the lunar motion has been found one of the most 
 difficult problems in astronomy. At the same time it is one of the most usefii^'as connected 
 with the finding of the longitude of places on the surface of the earth. Accordingly, the 
 eiforts of astronomers have been assiduously directed to the perfecting of the lunar theory ; 
 and by employing the resources of modem science, and combining these with continued and 
 accurate observation, their labours have been crowned with wonderful success. 
 The phases of the moon depend on her position with regard to the sun. Let E be the 
 
 earth, M the moon revolving in her orbit 
 round the earth, E S the direction of the sun, 
 and let us suppose all the solar rays which 
 illuminate the moon to proceed in straight lines 
 parallel to S E. The moon is an opaque body 
 like the earth, and is visible only in conse- 
 quence of reflecting the light of the sun. When 
 she comes to the meridian, therefore, about tlie 
 mme time with the sun, that is, when she is at 
 M, she must bo invisible, on account of the 
 unenlightened side being turned towards us. 
 It is then s.aid to be new moon : and, in refer- 
 ence to her position with regard to the sun, the 
 moon is said to be in conjunction. Again, 
 when the moon comes to the meridian about 
 midnight, that is, when she is at m, she is said 
 to be in opposition, and in that position she 
 presents an entire circular disc; because the 
 whole of the enlightened side is then turned 
 towards the earth. It is then said to be full 
 moon. At any point of her orbit, between the 
 points of conjunction and opposition, the moon 
 turns more or less of her enlightened side towards the earth, occording to her angular dis- 
 tance Irom the sun, and presents exactly the same appearances as an opaque spherical body, 
 of which one side is illuminated, would exhibit, if viewed from a distance, and in the same 
 positions in which tho moon is seen from the earth. After the conjunction, as soon as she 
 lias emerged sufficiently from the solar rays, she is seen in the western sky, after sunset, in 
 the form of a Crescent, as at M', having the convex side turned towards the sun, and the 
 poncave bounded by an elliptic line. On every succeeding night the luminous part increases, 
 while the elliptic boundary continually approaches to a straight line. On the seventh night 
 from the time of new moon, the moon reaches tiie position M", where her distance from the 
 sun is 90°: she is then said to be in her first Quadrature, and exhibits tho appearance of 
 HALF moon ; that is, the disc is a semicircle. The enlightened part still continuing to 
 increase on the same side, tlie rectilineal boundary of the semicircular disc passes again 
 into an elliptic line, and the moon becomes oibbovs, as at M'": on all sides the disc is con- 
 vex, though it docs not become entirely fiill orbed until she reaches tiie point of opposition, 
 at m, about the end of seven days from the time of half moon. From tho instant of opposi- 
 tion the moon begins to return to the sun on the wostom side ; and in her progress towards 
 the conjunction she goes throuch the same series of changes in an inverted order, becoming 
 first gibbous, as at m' ; then haif moon at ttie time when she reaches the position m", her 
 second quadrature ; then a crescent, as at m'", which, continually diminishing, at last dis- 
 appears altogether. Thus, on the supposition tliat the moon is an opaque body and nearly 
 -spherica), and that she revolves in an orbit round the earth, the phenomena of her phases 
 ure easily explained. 
 
 i 
 
 
Boob I. 
 
 PHASES OF THE MOON. 
 
 W 
 
 Strictly Bpeaking, tlie moon is not exactly 00 donees distant fVom tho sun when ahe pro* 
 
 ■enta Uio appuarance of half moon. This phaais 
 occurs at tho momunt when tho moon ia in such a 
 position that two straight lines drawn from her 
 centre, — the one to the centre of the earth, tho 
 other to tho centre of the sim, — form a right angle. 
 By observing, therefore, the moon's distance mini 
 tlie sun, at the instant when the boundary between 
 tho enlightened and dark part exactly bisects tho 
 lunar disc, we should have in the right^ngled tri- 
 
 anglo S M F tlie angle at F ; and hence, since the 
 
 Hide F M is also known, S F, the distance of tho sun may bo determined. This was the 
 first method employed for flnding the sun's distance from the earth ; but, from the nicety of 
 the observations required, it cannot bo expected to lead to any very satisfactory result 
 
 To a spectator un tlic moon the earth must evidently exhibit a series of changes similar 
 to the lunar phases as seen from the earth. At the time of conjunction the moon is on the 
 illuminated side of tho earth, so that the earth must then appear, as seen from the moon, 
 an entire circular disc. Again, at the time of opposition, the moon is on the dark side of 
 the earth ; so that the earth must then be invisible. When tho moon is seen as a crescent, 
 the earth will appear gibbous ; and when the moon appears gibbous, the earth will bo seen 
 as a crescent. 
 
 The fact of tlie earth appearing to a spectator on the moon an entire luminous disc, at 
 the time of the moon's conjunction with the sun, furnishes an explanation of a phenomenon 
 with which every one is fomiliar. In clear weather, when the moon is three or four days 
 old, her whole body is visible. The horns of tho enlightened crescent appear to project 
 beyond the old moon as if they were part of a sphere of considerably larger diameter than 
 the unenlightened part. Now, the port of the moon not directly illuminated by the sun is 
 seen by tho light reflected from the eartli. The appearance of a lucid bow, connecting the 
 horns of the crescent, is produced by the circumstance of the eastern edge of the moon's 
 disc being more luminous tlian the adjacent regions towards the centre. Witli regard to 
 the enlightened crescent appearing a portion of a larger sphere, this is an optical deception, 
 and furnishes a remarkable proof that of two objects of equal magnitude, but of different 
 degrees of brightness, tho brighter appears larger. 
 
 A lunation or lunar month is formed by the time that elapses between one new moon 
 and another. It consists of 29'' 12' 44°" 3* nearly ; and therefore exceeds tlie period of her 
 mean sidereal revolution, which is 27" 7* 43°' 11^'. This excess arises from tho proper 
 motion of the sun in the ecliptic ; for it ia evident that the period in which the moon goes 
 through all her phases must be equal to the time required to describe 360°, with an angular 
 velocity equal to the difference between angular velocities of moon and sun. 
 
 Cycle of the moon. In 19 Julian solar years there are 23.'> lunations, and about one 
 hour and a half more. Hence, alter 19 years, the conjunctions, oppositions, and other 
 aspects of tlie moon recur on the same days of the month, and only about an hour and a 
 half sooner. This period is accordingly called the Cycle of the Moon, and has been 
 found of so much use in adjusting the lunar to the solar year, in order to know the time of 
 new and full moon, and to determine the time of Easter, and other moveable feasts, that tl'>: 
 numbers of it have been called Golden Numbers. The year of our Saviour's birth, accoi I 
 ing to the vulgar era, was the first year of the lunar cycle : hence, to find the golden 
 number, or the current year of that cycle, we must add one to the yeor of Christ for which 
 the golden number is requured, and divide the sum by 19 : the quotient will be the number 
 of cycles which have elapsed since the birth of Christ, ond the remainder will be the golden 
 iinmber or current yeor of the cycle. 
 
 The epact is the difference between the solar and lunar periods at the end of each year, 
 or the moon's age on the first of January. Since the Julian solar year is 365'' 6\ and the 
 lunar year, or twelve lunations, 3.54'' 8'' 48" 36', if we suppose new moon to have happened 
 on the first of January, so that the epact for that year is 0, it follows that the epact for the 
 next succeeding year will be 10'' Ql"" 11" 24", or nearly 11 days. For the third yeor, the 
 epact will be nearly 22 days. For the fourth year it will be 3S days, or (rejecting 30 days 
 for a complete lunation) 3 days, and so oa 
 
 The annexed table contains the golden num- 
 bers with the corresponding enacts adapted 
 to the Gregorian calendar, till the year 1900. 
 The epact for each month of the year is, in 
 like manner, the moon's age on the first day 
 of the month, supposing new moon to have 
 happened on the first of January. 
 
 GoMm 
 Nujiibera. 
 
 Epacti. 
 
 OoMtn 
 Nuniben. 
 
 Cpactl. 
 
 r.olJni 
 .Numbtn. 
 
 Epuli. 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 vm. 
 
 17 
 
 XV. 
 
 4 
 
 II. 
 
 11 
 
 IX. 
 
 28 
 
 XVI. 
 
 15 
 
 III. 
 
 92 
 
 X. 
 
 9 
 
 XVII. 
 
 36 
 
 IV. 
 
 3 
 
 XI. 
 
 SO 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 7 
 
 V. 
 
 14 
 
 XII. 
 
 1 
 
 XIX. 
 
 18 
 
 VI. 
 
 25 
 
 XIII. 
 
 13 
 
 I. 
 
 
 
 VII. 
 
 6 
 
 XIV. 
 
 !i3 
 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 i 1'! 
 
 !l't 
 
I' — 
 
 leo 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 pax-c n. 
 
 ii; 
 
 t- 
 
 The eptcta for the montha of the common and leap year aro ait followa :— 
 
 
 Jin. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 r 
 
 May. 
 
 Junn. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Bon. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov, 
 
 Deo. 
 
 Common year 
 
 0. 
 
 1, 
 
 «, 
 
 «. 
 
 3. 
 
 4, 
 
 «, 
 
 :' 
 
 7, 
 
 «, 
 
 U. 
 
 Leap ynt 
 
 0, 
 
 1, 
 
 1. 
 
 3, 
 
 3. 
 
 4, 
 
 a, 
 
 «, 
 
 8. 
 
 ". 
 
 lU 
 
 10. 
 
 It is evident that the moun'a age will be tuund by adding to(^thcr the opact of tho year, 
 the epect of the month, and the day of the month, rejecting tliirty if tho auiii amount to tliat 
 number. Thua, if it ia required to And the moon'8 af^o on tho 11th November ISItO; by 
 adding 1 to 1620 and dividing by 19, wo obtain a rcmamder 6, which is Uio golden number 
 for the year 1829. Now, against VI. in the table, wo find !25 tor the cpact ot the year, and 
 9 ia the epact for November: hence 25 + 9+11 — 30 = 15, which ia Uie moon's age ; ao 
 that the moon ia flill on that day. 
 
 The lunar cycle of 19 years, though remarkably simple, ia however far from being accu- 
 tate. Nineteen yeara contain about an hour and a half more than 235 lunations ; so tliat at 
 the termination of that period the moon has odvanced about an hour and a half in tho next 
 lunation. This error amounta to a day in tho course of 16 cycles, or about 300 years. But, 
 to compenaate this ezcesa, the epacta may be advanced one day every 300 years, and in 
 thia manner the lunar and solar periods will bo made to agree. In consequence of her 
 apparent motion eastward, the moon ia about 48 minutes later oiler every diurnal revolution 
 of coming to the meridian. Aa 48 minutea ia equal to * of an hour, an approximation ia 
 made to Uie time of her southing, by multiplying her age by 4, and dividing Ly 5. Thia 
 gives tho time, nearly, before or after noon, according aa the moon is post tlie opposition or 
 coniunctioa 
 
 The time of her rising and setting ia affected by the aame cause. In one part of the 
 orbit, however, thia ia in a great measure counteracted hy the smallncss of tho angle which 
 the orbit makes with the horizon. For facilitating tho illustration of this phenomenon, let 
 ua auppoae the moon to move in the ecliptic, from which slie never deviates much more 
 than 5°. By turning round the celestial globe, it will be seen that the ecliptic makes with 
 the horizon very different angles, aa the pointa of their intersection vary, If the first point 
 vf Aries be broujght to coincide with tho east point of the liorizon, the angle wliich the 
 ecliptic makes with the horizon is equal to tiiu difference of the obliquity of tho ecliptic and 
 the complement of the latitude : but if the first point oi Libra be brought into coincidence 
 with the east point, the angle between the ecliptic and the horizon is equal to the sum of 
 the obliquity und the complement of the latitude. When the moon is in Pitces or Aries, 
 her motion m her orbit will therefore produce a considerable change, each succeeding night, 
 on the distance between the east and the point of rising, but the time of rising will not be 
 much afibcted, The reverse will be the case when the moon ia in Virgo or Libra. Hence 
 it ia obvious that in every lunation, at a certain time, tlie moon must rise nearly at the some 
 hour for several days togetlicr. This phenomenon, however, for tlie most part, passes unob- 
 served ; but in the harvest season it attractii attention, as being tlien much more coniipicuous 
 than at anv other time of tlic year. In the autumnal months the moon is full in tlie signs 
 Pisces and Aries, (the sun being at that season m the opposite signs Virgo and JAbra,) and 
 on that account rises an entire orb (or nearly so) for about a week, almost at the time of 
 sunset, thus alTording a supply of li^ht very beneficial to the husbandman, in gathering in 
 the iruita of the earth. This lunation has accordingly been distinguished by the name of 
 the BAKvnr moon. 
 
 The inclination of the moon's orbit to the ecliptic, makes the harvest moon rise, more or 
 leas, nearly at the same time that she would if she moved in the ecliptic, according to the 
 poeition of the line of the nodes. If we suppose the ascending node to be in Aries, the 
 moon's orbit makes with the horizon an angle upwards of 5° less than the angle which the 
 ecliptic makes with it, and consequently the harvest moon will rise more nearly at the same 
 time than if the moon had been in the ecliptic. In a little less than 9J years, however, the 
 line of the nodes will have made half a revolution, and the descending node will be in Aries. 
 The moon's orbit will then make with tlie horizon an angle more than 5° greater than that 
 which the ecliptic makes with it ; and, consequently, the harvest moon will not rise so nearly 
 at the same time as if tlic moon had been in the ecliptic. 
 
 The quantity of moonlight which we emoy in winter is much greater than in summer. 
 As the moon is always on the same side of tho heavens witli the sun, at the time of new 
 pioon, and on the opposite side at the time of full moon ; it is evident that at midsummer the 
 moon, when seen as a crescent, will rise at a point of tlic horizon to the north of east, and 
 set at a point to the north of west, and will be seen high in the heavens when she passes 
 tlie meridian. As she approaches full moon, however, she will rise farther and farther to the 
 aouth of east, will appear low in the heavens when on the meridian, and will set farther and 
 &rther to the south of west. The reverse takes place at mid-winter : the moon is low 
 when seen as a crescent, and rises higher and higher in the heavens as she approaches full 
 moon. She also rises to the south of east when a crescent, and sets to the south of west ; 
 but, when full, rises and sets to the north of these points. Thus the great quantitv of moon- 
 light during the long nights of winter arises from the moon being full in tlie northern eigm 
 
 It 
 
%' 
 
 Book I. 
 
 PHASES OF THE MOON 
 
 m 
 
 to the 
 erand 
 is low 
 es full 
 west ; 
 moon- 
 . signn 
 
 of the pr.liptic, and is analogous to that of MiinHhino in tho long days of lummcr. As wn 
 approach tliu pole, the mmntity nf moonlit;lit in wiritor bccmnos still morn rctnarkahin ; luiil 
 at tht< iKilu itHclt', nt mi«l-winter, thn nioondoos nut set liirtitlcun days toj^ethor, nainoly, frum 
 tiie tirHt to tho last quarter. 
 
 TliP liiimr (line is (livorsitind with a (frcnt viirioty of npots, which aro miito permanent, bn( 
 dlller very coiwidorubiy tVom each other in doKTees <>t bri)rhtness. TlieHO inp(|uiilitii3S of 
 ilhiminntion aro visiUo to tho naked eye. Hinco the discovery of tho telescope tin y have 
 entfajfod the porticiilnr attention of Heveral nstronomers, by whom llioir relative |x>Niti()iiH 
 have been careftilly ancertained, and laid down in maps of the lunar surface. From iin 
 attentive examination of the li|rhts and shades seen on tho moon's disc, it has boon inferred 
 that her surface is very irref^ular, being diversified by lolly mountains, prceipitnus r(H-l(M,Hn(l 
 deep caverns. The existence of these irrcf^ularitics of surface is strikin|;ly evitlent from the 
 serrated appearance of the line which separates tho enlijrhtnned firom the dark (lart of the 
 moon, and by a variety of briji^ht detached spots, almost always visible on tho dark part and 
 near the line of separation between liirht and darkness. These bright spots aro the tops of 
 mountains illuminated by the sun, while his rays have not yet reached tho bottom of the 
 intervening; valleys. Tho dark spots of the moon are smooth, and apparently level, while 
 the luminous parts are elevated regions, which either rise into high mountains or sink into 
 deep and immense cavities. The (general smoothness of the dark spots naturally led to the 
 conclusion that they were collections of water ; but moro careful observation has made it 
 appear that the line which separates the enlightened from the dark part of tho moon is not 
 smooth and regular, even when it passes over a dark spot ; so that there is no reason to sup- 
 pose tliat there is any largo collection of water in the moon : and this conclusion is 8trcn|)rth- 
 ened by the constant serenity of her appearance, which seems undisturbed bv any of those 
 atmospherical phenomena which arise on our globe fhmi the existenco of water. The 
 mountainous scenery of the moon, and more especially the immense caverns with which her 
 surface is broken, bear little analogy to what we see on the surface of the earth. The 
 resemblance may, however, be conceived to be considerably increased if all the waters of 
 the earth were removed, and tho beds of the ocean, seas, and lakes were led dry with all 
 the inequalities of their surfaces exposed to view. The earth would then be diversified, not 
 only with the rocks and mountains now seen upon its surface, but likewise with deep caverns 
 of immense extent, and having detached mountains and rocks rising fiom the bottom, similar 
 to the cavities discovered in the moon. From certain light spots which have sometimes 
 been seen on the dark prt of the moon, at such a distance from the enlightened portion 
 that they could not arise from the light of the sun, astronomers have inferred the existence 
 of volcanoes in the moon. Dr. Herschel, in particular, two or three difTorcnt times, observed 
 such spots. 
 Tho height of a lunar mountain may be measured by the following method. Let D A R 
 
 be a section of the moon made by a plane passing 
 through O, the eye of an observer on the earth, M the 
 summit of a mountain situated in the dark part of the 
 lunar disc, and S the sun. It is evident that this plane 
 will be perpendicular to the line which joins the horns 
 : of the moon. Let D A be the arch of the circle 
 J) A F, which passes ovev ihe visible portion of the 
 enlightened hemisphere. Whenever the point M bo- 
 comes visible to a spectator at O, it must be illumi- 
 nated by a ray of the sun S A M, which will be a 
 tangent to the circle D A F at the point A, and there- 
 fore at right angles to the diameter A F. Produce 
 O M to meet the diameter D E in m, and draw A r 
 and A n parallel to D E and M m ; also produce E D to meet S M in C. Because DAE 
 is a section of that hemisphere of the moon which is turned towards the earth, the visual 
 ray O M m is perpendicular to D E : hence the angles wi M C, M C m are together equal 
 to two right angles. But because C A is perpendicular to A B, the angles ABC and A C B 
 (or M C »n) are also together equal to two right angles : whence it is evident that the angle 
 m M C is equal to A B C ; and that tho triangles A M r, A B n are similar. We have, 
 
 therefore. An: AB = Ar: AM. Hence A M = r • 
 
 An 
 
 Now, A r is the projection of A M on the lunar disc, and will be found by measuring, 
 with the micrometer, m a direction perpendicular to a line joining the horns of the moon. 
 
 An 
 the distance of the illuminated summit M from the enlightened disc at A ; also ips" Sin. 
 
 ^ A B C, radius being unity, the angle A B C is equal to S M m the moon's distance or 
 
 A r 
 
 !; ' 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 1'^ 
 
 1 ^] 
 
 i 
 
 elongation from Uie sun 
 
 wherefore we obtain A M 
 9* 
 
 Sin. elongation 
 
 I a given quantity. 
 
^ v^ 
 
 Hi 
 
 I if 
 
 PRINCII>I£8 OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Past II. 
 
 Next, lot A O II bo a noction of tlin inunn modn by it plonn pamiini; n\(mg tim tanir<'nt A M, 
 and tlirouffli thn contro K : draw M K G ; then, by a wuU-kiiown 
 proiMTtv of tlio circle, A M' - O M X M il = M H X ((} II + II M). 
 or, II AI binng much «nmllor than G II, wu have A M ^ = M II X G II, 
 
 A M' 
 and M H = qjt nearly. Now, A M and G II aro both given ; there- 
 fore II M, the hoiglit of the mountain above the general aurtiico, may 
 be dotcrminod. 
 
 Suppow, for example, that when tlio a|>|Mront diameter of tlio 
 moon iH 31' 15", and nor okinaation (Vom the lun 03° &7i', the dii- 
 tance between Uie onlishtoneJ part of her dine, and the tiimmit of a 
 mountain aituatmi in the dark part of it ia found to be 4lVi And let 
 it bo required thence to detcrmmo tho height of the mountain. 
 
 The diameter of the moon ia about 2180 .niloH; hence 31' 15" or 1875": 4U" = 2160: 
 
 Ar = 48-25 
 
 48*25, which ia the number of mileii in 41^" on tho lunar dine ; ao that wo have 
 miloH, 
 
 Ar 
 
 Affain, tho Nat Sin. of the elongation 08° 57J = "0076 } therefore A M = Sin elonga tion 
 
 ~ 0076 
 
 = 48-30 milos. 
 
 Lastly. The height = AJ!!' 
 ' OH 
 
 (48-36)-^ 
 " 2180 
 
 = 107 mile. 
 
 Thus the height of the lunar mountain in question ia found to bo about a mile. The 
 principle now explained is correct in theory ; but witli regard to the results obtained iVom 
 tho practical application of it, a greater diflbronce of opinion exists than might have been 
 expected. These results are, however, highly curious and interesting. 
 
 itfoon*« motion round the earth. The moon's surface, when viewed through a telescope, 
 ia so strongly characterised by tho spots visible upon it, as to leave no doubt of ita bemg 
 always tho same. From this the intereiico ia obvious, since wc are certain from tho moon's 
 motion round the earth, that she must revolve on an axis nearly perpendicular to tlie plane 
 of her orbit in tho same time that she revolves about tho earth, namely in 27^ days nearly. 
 Her rotation on her axis is equable ; but this is not the case with her motion in her orbit, 
 which is periodically variable : and hence there are parts of the eastern and western edges 
 of tho moon which are seen occasionally. This appcaninco ia ciillod the libration or tub 
 HooN IN LONGITUDE. It is entirely optical, and argues no inequality in tlie moon's motion 
 on her axis. 
 
 The moon's axis of rotation is not altogether perpendicular to the plane of her orbit, but 
 inclined to it at an angle of 88° 20' 40". In consequence of this position of her axis her 
 poles are alternately visible, and a small portion of tho polar regions; this phenomenon is 
 called the libration or the moon in latitude. 
 
 The diurnal libration of the moon is another optical appearance arising from tho moon 
 being viowed from the surface instead of the centre of the eartli. At rising, a part of the 
 western edge is seen, which is invisible at setting; and, at setting, a part of tho eastern 
 edge is seen, which is invisible at rising. 
 
 The explication of the lunar phases leads to that of Eclipses — those occasional obscura- 
 tions of the sun and moon which have, in ages of ignorance, been objects of superstitious 
 terror to mankind, and at all times objects of curiosity to the philosopher. At the time of 
 new moon, the moon is upon the same side of tho heavens with tlie sun, but, fur the most 
 part, passes either above or below the solar disc without obscuring any part of it. This 
 arises from her orbit being inclined to the ecliptic : for it is evident that if the planes of the 
 orbit and ecliptic coincided, tho centres of the sun, moon, and earth would, at every nev 
 moon, bo in the same straight line ; so that the moon would bo seen to pass over tho sun's 
 disc, and the sun would appear to bo totally or partially eclipsed, according to the position 
 of an inhabitant upon the earth's surface. Again, at the time of fiill moon, tho moon is on 
 the opposite side of the heavens from tho sun ; and therefore she is on the same side of the 
 heavens with the shadow, which the earth, as an oparpic body, projects into space. In most 
 cases, however, the moon passes above or Mov/ this conical shadow; so that she is not 
 deprived of tlie sun's niys. But if the plane of tho orbit coincided with that of the ecliptic, 
 the centres of tho sun, moon, and earth would evidently 1)0 in the same straight line at every 
 full moon as well as at ovory new mixin : the mnon would thorpfnro fiill into tho earth's 
 shadow, iiiid would be eclipsed to all the inhabitants on that side of the earth which is turned 
 towards tlio moon nt the time. 
 
 Though the inclination of tho lunar orbit to tlic ecliptic prevents tho occurrence at every 
 now and full moon of these phenomena, there aro certain distances from the nodes of the 
 moon's orbit, called ecliptic limits, within which, if the moon is situated at the time of 
 now or full moon, there will be a solar or lunar eclipse. 
 
i^y •'#. 
 
 * * 
 
 Bom I. 
 
 ECUPBE8. 
 
 loe 
 
 uarth s 
 i turned 
 
 To illuatnto thft Kenoral phonomnnn of lunar eclipaci. IjBi A D, D E be Mctiom of the 
 fun tnd oarth, by a planu iwrpeiidiculur to tlio planu of llio ecliptic. Dnw A V, B V touchin(( 
 
 ?^ 
 
 the circlet A B, D B on the corri'spondinif Bidoe in E and D, and meeting each other in V : 
 alio draw D O, A H, tiiuchinK tlieflo circlci on tho oppuwitn Hidoa in M onu N. Then, if wc 
 auppoao tho figuro A B H O to revolve about tlio lino C F, which joins the centre* of the 
 circle*, BH an axiii, tlio cone (generated by the lino E V represonta the ihadow which tho 
 earth projects into space ; and iVom every pint of that conical shadow tho livht of the sun 
 is entirely excluded. The spaces between E V, M O, and between D V, N If, will receive 
 the light of a part of tlie sun ; and hoiice tho space round tlie shadow, which ia generated by 
 tho motion of tho lines O M, E V, is called tho pbnviibra. 
 
 Join C E. It in evident that the angle E V F is equal to the difference of the angles 
 A E C, E C F. But A E C is tho angle under which tho sun's semidiametcr is seen mm 
 the earth ; and E C F is the angle under which the earth's semidiametcr is seen fVom the 
 Hun. Both of thoHO angles being hiM)wn, their diflcrence E V F is a given angle. Now, in 
 the right ang1e<l triangle E V F wo have given the angle at V, and tlie side E F, which in 
 the earth's semidiaineter : hence F V, tho height of the earth's shadow, may be determined. 
 The height of tiie shadow varies fi-nm 'ilU to 2ii0 seniidiamctnrs of tho earth. 
 
 Again, lot F O be the distance of tho motjn fl-om tho cnrth : draw K O L perpendicular 
 to P V, and join F I* The angle L F O, under which the somidiameter of tho section of 
 the earth's shadow is seen from tho earth, is equal to the ditrorenco of tlio angles, F L E, 
 F V L. But F L E is the angle under which tho somidiameter of the earth is seen fVom the 
 moon, and F V L is, as has been shown, equal to tho difl'erenco lietween tho angle under 
 which the sun's scniidiaroetor is seen from tho earth, and tlio anglo under which the earth's 
 seniidianietor is seen from tlie sun: hence, to find tlie angle under which the section of tho 
 earth's shadow through which tho moon passes in a lunar eclijise is seen IVom tho earth, 
 we must add together tlie two angles under which the semidiametcr of tho earth appears 
 when seen firuin the sun and moon, and fVom the sum subtract the sun's apparent semi- 
 diameter, the remainder is tho angle required. The angle L F O, when greatest, is about 
 46': but the inclination of the lunar orbit to tho ecliptic is upward of fi''. and to this distance 
 the moon may recede from the ecliptic. It is evident, therefore, that an eclips«< itf the moon 
 can tako place only when she is near her nodes. 
 
 Let tho cwcle A H B be tho section of tho earth's shadow at tho moon; A B a portion 
 af the ecliptic, and D F a portion of the moon's orbit near the ascending node. Draw C (i 
 fVom the centre of the shadow, (which must be the noint of the ecliptic directly opposite the 
 sun,) perpendicular to A B, and let it meet D F in U ; thon G is the point of opposition at 
 which tho moon will be 180 degrees of the ecliptic distant from the sun. Now, in moving 
 
 from D to G, the moon must enter the earth's shadow, 
 and will therefore be eclipsed. The beginning of the 
 eclipse will bo the moment that she enters on the shadow 
 at K : the middle of the eclipse will be the moment when 
 her centre reaches the point E, the extremity of the per- 
 pendicular drawn from C to D F; and the end of the 
 eclipso will be tho moment when she leaves the shadow 
 at the point L The portion of the moon's disc that is 
 obscured will depend on tlie distance between E and C, 
 which will vanish when tlie point of the opposition coin- 
 cides with tho node. It is evident that Iind the eclipso 
 happened on the other side of tho node, tho opposite edge of the moon would have been 
 immersed in the shadow. 
 
 In eclipses there are various degrees of immersion. When this is entire, it is soid to be 
 total; when only a part of the moon is immersed, the eclipse is said to be partial; and 
 when the centre of the moon passes througii tho centre of the shadow, the eclipse is said 
 to be r«n/r«/ and /ofol. The breadth of the shadow at the moon is about three times her 
 diameter, so that in the cat<c of a total central eclipse, the moon may be entirely obscured 
 for nearly two hours. 
 
 
 iS 
 
 I 
 
 '1 
 
 :i: 
 
 •I'! .i- 
 
^"^ 
 
 I /> 
 
 104 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part II 
 
 Tho time when eclipses shall httppeii may be computed from the luws which regulate the 
 motiurii of tho Hun aim moon. This computution requires astronomical tablc.«, and is per- 
 ftirmeil with considerable labour. But it may be observed that in 22;) lunations, or 18 years 
 10 duys (or 11 days according as tbur or five leup years occur in tlie interim), 7 houM 
 4<) inllititeB, tho moon returns to tlie same position nearly with regard to the sun, and the 
 luniir nodes, and therefore the eclipses, will return nearly in the same order and circum- 
 Nlitncis, 'J'iiis is tiiought to be the period called tlie Clialdcan Saros, being used by the 
 ( 'hitldeaiiH in predicting eclipses. 
 
 When it is known that a lunar eclipse is to happen, it is easy to compute its general cir- 
 MiiimtJincee. The distance of the moon from the ecliptic at opposition, the time of opposi- 
 tliin, the angles under which tlie eartli's semidiumetcr is seen at the sun and moon, qlso tlie 
 lippiifont diameters of these two hur'naries, are known from tlie tables. In the right angled 
 frliin^io CEO we have given C G, and the angle G C E, which is equal to the inclination 
 •A' the in(xtn's orbit to the ecliptic, nearly ; lience we find C E and E G. From C E and 
 < J F, tlio HUm of tiio semidiameters of the section of tlie earth's shadow and the moon, we 
 (Iml E F, which is equal to E D; thence D G, G F become known. We can compute from 
 tllo tabloa tho angular motion of the moon in her orbit relatively to the sun, the latter body 
 beliijf Wjpposed at rest. Her motion relatively to the opposite point C is evidently the same : 
 liondo we can determine the time of describing D G and G F; that is, the time that elapses 
 bfltweon tho bcginnmg of the eclipse and the opposition, and between the opposition and 
 thti end of tho eclipse. But the time of the opposition is known, therefore the times of the 
 t)«tf Itinittg and end of the eclipse will also be known. 
 
 For cfltimntin^ the quantity of on eclipse, the diameter of the solar or lunar disc is con- 
 ceived to be divided into twelve equal paris called dioith ; and according to the number of 
 thow parts which are obscured, so many digits are said to be eclipsed. 
 Lit It be Btipposed that the edge of the moon's disc just touches the edge of the section 
 
 of the eartli's shadow at P, and that at the same time 
 the diameters of the moon and shadow are each at the 
 maximum, and we shall find the ecliptic limit for lunar 
 eclipses. Produce E D and B A to meet in N : then 
 N C is the limit of the distance of the node from the 
 opposition at which an eclipse can happen. Since the 
 line in wliich tiie centre of the moon moves (whicli for 
 a short distance may be considered as a straight line) 
 must be supposed parallel to tho tangent to the circle 
 A P B at the point P, the angle at E is a right angle. 
 The angle N, is the inclination of the lunar orbit to the 
 eellptle ! also C E is equal to the sum of the semidiameters of the moon and shadow. 
 ]{@IIC0 iVom tho spherical triangle C E N, C N may be determined; and is found to be 
 Hlxitit lU", UnlesB wiien the node and the point of opposition, which are both liable 
 U> cuntiniinl change of position, come within this distance, there cannot possibly be a 
 iuiiitr (^cllpKe. 
 
 ('it'".i1ation of longitude. The penumbra makes it very difficult to observe, with pre- 
 finltm, tho beginning or end of a hmar eclipse; so that though these periods may be em- 
 plitvod fur determining the longitude of places on tlie earth, no great degree of accuracy is 
 U) m cxpcvhn], The best method is to note t!ie time of the arrival of the boundary of the 
 fihttdtiw tit the different ipots on tlie lunar surface, which may be considered as so many 
 dilfrffnt observations. 
 
 Tlio tfiooti seldom disappears entirely in lunar eclipses, but is seen of a dusky red colour : 
 «'Vt'n tho iipofs on the lunar surface may be distinguislied through the shade. This effect is 
 to hp (tltrihtited to a portion of the sun's light, whicli enters the conical shsulow in conse- 
 qiiflifo of iK^ing refracted by tho atmosphere of the earth. The nature and effects of atmos- 
 |ill"flfnl reffnrtion will afterwards be explained. 
 
 J'Vli|W« of tho Pini. With regnrd to the general phenomena of solar eclipses, we may 
 '»e((ill with remarking, that when the sun's light is intercepted by the moon, so that at any 
 plltcn (III the enrth's surface he becomes partly or wholly invisible, properly speaking, it is 
 ftn I'flipjio nf lliHt portion of the earth on which the moon's shadow or penumbra tails. 
 
 Till' i>eini"nngIo at tho vertex of the moon's shadow is determined in a similar manner 
 f« tllNt nn which the semi-angle at Uie vertex of the earth's shadow was found. It is equal 
 to tho difll'reiico of tho angles under which the semi-<liameters of the sun and moon would 
 l»n piocn, if onrh of these bodies were viewed from the other at the time of their conjunc- 
 tion ; flhil will thorofore not be very fur from being equal to the apparent semi-dinmotor nf 
 tllo WIIM ttf> pvrn from tho eurth. Computing, then, tlin longfli of tho conical shiulow of the 
 moon, Wo pIiiiII find it viiry from about fi(l^ to Twi semi-dianicters of tho earth. Tlio length 
 of llio |i|iii(lnw (it tho time m tho ronjnnction miiy tlierofbre at one time exceed, null at 
 (Hiollii'f tiim- (lill short of the moon's distance from the earth, which varies from (i-l to .")0 
 •*Pftli'illiiiiii'lor9, In the former case, if tho conjunction happen when the moon is witliin a 
 
 M 
 
i 
 
 4 
 
 
 Book I. 
 
 ECLIPSES. 
 
 '* 
 
 105 
 
 certain diBtancc of the node, the lunar shadow will reach tlic eartli, and a section of it will 
 traverse a portion of the earth's surface, producing, wherever it falls, a total eclipse of the 
 sun. 
 
 Whenjvcr tlie penumbra falls, the sun will appear partially eclipsed ; more or fewer 
 digits being eclipsed according as the place is less or more removed from the shadow, 
 Beyond the penumbra tiie sun is not eclipsed at all. The section of the lunar shadow is so 
 near tlie vortex, tiiat, even wiien greatest, the portion of the eartli's s'lrface which it covers 
 is not very extensive, being only about 180 miles in diameter : the penumbra, however 
 extends over a considerable part of that hemisphere of the earth which is turned towards 
 tlie sun. A total eclipse in any place cannot exceed 7' 58". If tlie vertex of the lunar 
 shadow just reaches the surface, tlie total eclipse then produced will be instantaneous. 
 
 When the vertex of the lunar shadow foils short of the earth's surfoce, at no place will 
 there be a total eclipse : but at places near the' axis of the cone, there will be seen an 
 ANNULAR eclipse ; that is, the central parts of the sun's disc will be obscured, but a bright 
 ring will be left, visible round the dark body of tlie moon. Thus let A B, C I) be sections 
 of the sun and moon and V the vertex of the lunar 
 
 l; 
 
 colour : 
 fToct is 
 conse- 
 atmos- 
 
 'e may 
 at any 
 
 it is 
 
 lanner 
 equal 
 •oulil 
 njunc- 
 tor of 
 nf tlif 
 cngth 
 ii(i iit 
 to TiO 
 Ithin a 
 
 w 
 
 shadow which is supposed not to reach the earth. Produce F V the axis of the shadow to 
 meet the surface of the earth in E. From E draw E C G, E D H tangents to the moon, 
 and intersecting the sun's disc in G and H. The circle of which the line joinmg G H is 
 the diameter, marks out the portion of the sun that is hid by the body of the moon from an 
 observer at E, and the annulus, of which the breadth is A G, will be visible. 
 
 The general circumstances of a solar eclipse may be represented by projection ; and a 
 map may be constructed to show the progress of the shadow over the surface of the earth. 
 The most simple projection is that which supposes the observer to be placed in the sun, and 
 to see the path which any place on the earth's surface describes in consequence of the 
 diurnal nio*.ion projected into an e'.lipse on the plane of the earth's disc, while the path of 
 the moon's sliadow is projected into a straight line on the same disc. The geometrical con- 
 struction thus obtained is sufficiently accurate for the prediction of eclipses. 
 
 The circumstances of a solar eclipse may, however, be computed with considerable accu- 
 racy. Thus, find for the given place, from the tables, the time of the conjunction of the 
 sun and moon. The position of the lieavenly bodies in reference to the ecliptic is deter- 
 mined by latitude and longitude, in the same manner as the position of a place on the sur- 
 face of the earth in reference to the equator. Find, then, for the time of the conjunction, 
 the latitude and longitude of the moon, and apply to them the small change produced by 
 the spectator being placed on the surface instead of the centre of the earth ; a change 
 whicli depends on the angle which the earth's .=omidiameter subtends at the sun and moon 
 at the time : this will give us the apparent latitude and longitude of the moon as seen on 
 the concave surface of the heavens. Compute from these and the longitude of the sun, 
 that is, his distance from the first point of Aries, tlie apparent distance of the centres of the 
 sun and moon at the instant of conjunction ; whence we may nearly conclude tiie time of 
 the beginning and ending of tiie eclipse, by taking into account the apparent horary motion 
 of the moon in latitude and longitude at tiie time of conjunction, computed from the tables. 
 About the conjectured time of the beginning of tiie eclipse, compute two or three opparent 
 latitudes and longitudes of the moon, and thence, combined with the longitude of the sun, 
 the apparent distances of the centres. From these results the time may be computed by 
 proportion when the apparent distance of the centres is equal to the sum of the apparent 
 semi-diameters, that is, the time of the beginning of the eclipse. 
 
 The magnitude also of the eclipse at any time may be thus determined : let S E {fg. 28.) 
 be the computed apparent diflbrcncc of longitude of the centres S, M, of the sun and moon, and 
 M E the computed apparent latitude of the moon. In the right-angled triangle M E S, we 
 have therefore given the two sides to find the hypothenuse M S, which, being known, we 
 obtain m n the eclipsed part of the sun : for m n—S w+M n — M S. 
 
 The eclintic limits of the sun may be determined in the following manner: lot S and M 
 (29— ;^^>'. 1.; be the sun and moon, seen from E the centre of the earth at the moment of con- 
 junction ; that is, when their centres arc in the same circle S B perpendicular to the ecliptic. 
 Lot the aiisrlo « E b, formed by tangents drawn from E to the adjacent edges of tiie solar 
 and lunar discs, be equal to the greatest' difference between the true place B and apparent 
 
 Vol. I O 
 
 
 <'|l 
 
 •U;: M 
 
 m 
 
 111! 
 
7)f » 
 
 ^ 
 
 109 
 
 principij:s of geography. 
 
 Paet n. 
 
 ill* " 
 
 I 
 
 place m of tlie moon, which can arise from her being viewed from the surface instead of tlie 
 centre of the earth. It is not difficult to see that this difference will be greatest when the 
 moon is in the horizon, and that its effect will be to depress her altitude. The distance of 
 the sun is so great, that wo may at present consider his true and apparent place as coinci- 
 dent. Suppose now an observer on tlie eartli's surface at A, whoso horizon is at right angles 
 to S B, to have the moon in his horizon at the moment of conjunction ; it is evident tiiat to 
 him the two discs would appear to be in contact: but to an observer on any other point of 
 the earth's surface, the discs would appear asunder. In the moment of conjunction, tliere- 
 fore, the penumbra must have just touched the earth at the point A ; and when the centres 
 of the sun and moon approach nearest to each other before or after tlic conjunction, it will 
 spread over a very small portion of the earth's surface near A, so as to produce barely an 
 ucli]iBe. Hence the distance of the sun from the node at the time of conjunction will be 
 the solar ecliptic limit, nearly. In the right-angled spherical triangle S m N (_Jig, 2.) let 
 N S be a ]x)rtion of the ecliptic, and N »n a portion of tlie moon's orbit, N being tiie node, and 
 let the perpendicular S m be equal to S m in^^. 1. The arc N S is the ecliptic limit required : 
 and to find it, we have given tiio angle at N equal to the inclination of tiie moon's orbit to the 
 ecliptic, and S m equal to the sum of the apparent diuiiicters of the sun and moon together 
 with the angle 6 E a, which is e(iual to B M »n or A M E, the angle subtended by the semi- 
 diamotor of the earth's disc as seen from the moon. The angle N and the perpendicular 
 S tn being known, the base N S is easily determined. The three quantities to the sum of 
 which S m is e(iual, are variable in their values. Taking for S m the sum of the semi- 
 diameters of the solar and lunar disc, and of the disc of the earth as seen from the moon 
 when tiiey are greatest, we find S N equal to 17° 12' nearly. But if S m be made equal 
 to the sum of the semidiameters when they are least, S N is found to be nearly equal to 
 16° 19'. Within tlie former of these limits an eclipse of the sun may happen, within the 
 latter it must happen. 
 
 If the moon's apparent diameter be greater than or equal to that of the sun, the eclipse 
 will be total wherever the lunar shadow Bills. But if the sun's apparent diameter be greater 
 than that of the moon, the eclipse will be annular within the lunar shadow. 
 
 Number of eclipses. The ecliptic limits of the sun taken on each side of the node, give 
 an arc of the ecliptic exceeding 30°, so that the sun will be more than a month in passing 
 through these limits. Hence there must be two eclipses of the sun every year. Since the 
 ecliptic limits of the moon, however, taken on each side give an arc only of about 2.3°, and 
 since through this portion of the ecliptic the sun passes in less than a month, there may be 
 no eclipse of the moon in the course of a year. 
 
 When a total and central eclipse of the moon happens, there may be an eclipse of the 
 sun at tlio preceding and following conjunctions, because between new and full moons the 
 sun describes only about 1.5 degrees of the ecliptic, so that each conjunction may happen 
 within tiie solar ecliptic limits. The snr j may take place at the opposite node: there may 
 therefore ho six eclipses in the coiir.se of a year. The retrogradation of the node at the 
 rate of 20° yearly renders it possible, when the first eclipse of the year luipp(>na early in 
 January, that another eclipse of the sun may occur in the end of the year. On the whole, 
 there may bo seven eclipses in the course of one year; live of tlio sun, and two of the moon: 
 and there never can be fewer than two, but though more s-olar eclipses hiippm than lunar, 
 there are fewer of the former visible than of the latter; beciiuse a lunar t'cli])si' is visible at 
 every place on the earth which is turned towards the moon diirin;^ its contiiiuiinne ; hut in 
 a solar eclipse the sun continues visible at all places over wliicli tin; penuinlira docs not pass. 
 The greatest (lossiblo duration of the annular appcaraiiro of a solar ncli|)S(' is 12 ' 21", and 
 the greatest possible time during which the sun can be wholly obscun^d is 7"' .")8'. 
 
 Ah the l)eginning and end of a solar eclipse can be observed with considenible ncruracy, 
 they are usefiil for determining the longitude, though the method which they furnish is 
 complex and laborious. 
 
 i i 
 
■ wr 
 
 Part 11. 
 
 Book I. 
 
 ECLIPSES. 
 
 I9t 
 
 lead oftlte 
 I when the 
 liiitance of 
 > as coinci- 
 ight angles 
 lent that to 
 ler point of 
 lion, there- 
 the centres 
 lion, it will 
 e barely an 
 lion will be 
 [Jig. 2.) let 
 10 node, and 
 litrecjuired: 
 1 orbit to the 
 3on together 
 by the semi- 
 orpendicular 
 ) the sum of 
 of the semi- 
 m the moon 
 made equal 
 irly equal to 
 within the 
 
 the eclipse 
 • be greater 
 
 node, give 
 in passing 
 Since the 
 lout 23°, and 
 here may be 
 
 clipsc of the 
 ill moons the 
 
 may Iiappen 
 there may 
 
 node at the 
 pens early in 
 
 II the whole, 
 
 of tlin moon : 
 11 tlian lunar, 
 is vit^iWe at 
 
 inco ; but in 
 
 oi's not pass. 
 
 12 ' 21", and 
 
 iKTuracy, 
 ev furnish ia 
 
 Effects of atmospherical refraction and parallax. In the preceding' explanation of solar 
 eclipses wc have had occasion to refer to the etfects of atmospherical refraction; also 
 to the diU'orence between the apparent places of the sun and moon, called their parallax, 
 produced from tiieir being viewed from the surface instead of the centre of the earth. 
 Before leaving this subject, we shall state a little more fully the ofl'ects arising from these 
 causes. 
 
 Atmospherical refraction. The earth is surrounded on all sides by an aeriform elastic 
 fluid, which is called the atmosphere. This fluid possesses weight, and is compressible ; 
 and hence the parts near the surface of the earth are more dense than those above them, on 
 account of the greater superincumbent pressure which they sustain. The same thing holds 
 true of every stratum when compared, m reference to density, with that immediately below 
 it; so that from the surface upwards the density gradually diminishes, at a few miles' eleva- 
 tion becomes very small, and at some point may be considered as altogether evanescent. 
 Now, it is a well known principle, that if a ray of light, after passing through one medium 
 (air, for instance), enters another (say water) of a difl^erent density, in a direction not per- 
 pendicular to its surface, it is bent out of its course towards the perpendicular to tiie surface on 
 which the ray is incident, if the second medium is the denser of the two; hut from that per- 
 pendicular if the second medium is the rarer. In passing through the atmosphere, tiieretore, 
 a ray of light will be continually deflected from the rectilineal into a curvilineal path ; be- 
 cause at every point of its course it is entering a medium of a greater density. The ray is 
 said to be refracted ; and as the tangent draws from tlie eye to the curve which it describes 
 is the direction in which celestial objects appear, it follows, that refraction renders the appa- 
 rent altitude of all tlie heavenly holies greater than the true. Hence Uiey often appear 
 above the horizon when they are actually below it. 
 
 The deviation of the refracted ray from its original course increases with the angle of 
 incidence, and vanishes when the direction of the ray is perpendicular to the surface of the 
 second medium. Hence atmospherical refraction is greatest when the object is in the 
 horizon, where it may be about 84' : at 45° altitude, it is about 57^" : in tlic zenith it 
 vanishes. 
 
 Whatever alters the density of the atmosphere must affect also its refractive power. In 
 all accurate observations, therefore, the state of the barometer and thermometer must be 
 taken into account. At the same zenith distances, the quantity of refraction varies nearly 
 as the height of the barometer, supposing the temperature to remain the same. The effect 
 of a variation in the temperature is to diminish the (juantity of refraction about ^jfth part for 
 every increase of one degree in the height of the thermometer. 
 
 In passing through the atmosphere light is reflected as well as refracted. The reflective 
 power of tlie atmosphere produces the splendour of day by diffusing light in every direction. 
 Combined with its refractive power, it causes that faint light called twilight, which is per- 
 ceived before sunrise and after sunset ; — ^beginning in the morning in our latitude, and end- 
 ing in the evening, when the sun's depression below the horizon is about 18°. Various 
 other phenomena are to be attributed to the same cause : the red and orange colour of the 
 morning and evening clouds ; the ruddy appearance of all the heavenly bodies when near 
 the horizon ; the blue colour of the sky ; and the bright azure of the distant mountains, are 
 all the effects of tlie refiractive powers of the atmosphere. 
 
 Refraction is also the cause of the oval appearance of the sun and moon when near the 
 horizon. The diameter of the disc that is parallel to the horizon remains unaffected in its 
 apparent lennrth, because both extremitio.i are equally refracted ; but the diameter perpen- 
 dicular to the horizon is shortened by about jtii of its length, because the lower edge of the 
 dLsc, being nearer the horizon, is refracted nearly five minutes more than the upper. 
 
 The great ■ apparent magnitude of the sun and moon when in the horizon is another 
 remarkable phenomenon whicli we may here notice. Tliis illusion, which is altogether 
 optical, is usually accounted for on tiiis principle, that we form an erroneous judgment 
 respecting the distances of these bodies when they are in the liorizon, compared with their 
 distances when they have attained a considerable elevation. When we see the moon, for 
 example, in the heavens at a considerable altitude, we intuitively suppose her nearer than 
 when she is in tlie horizon ; because, in the latter case, we see a multitude of objects, — 
 many of thorn at great distances, and the moon beyond tliem all ; but, in the former case, 
 we have no intervening objects by which to form an estimate of her distance. The angle 
 under whicli she is sepn being nearly the same, we infer a greater magnitude when wo 
 imagine tlio distance greatest, that is, when the moon is in tiie iiorizon. Sucli is the error 
 into wliicii we, in this instance, fall, in tiie rapid judgments of the mind respecting magni- 
 tude and distance connected with vision. The more deliberate conclusion on this subject 
 drawn by reason is, tliat the moon must indeed be at a greater distance from an observer on 
 the earth, wlion she is in his horizon, than when she is in or near his zenith ; but that, how- 
 over tiio eye may be doeoivcd, her apparent diameter must, when exactly measured, be found 
 leas. This is accordingly the case ; for, when accurately measured with the micrometer, 
 
 :-t 
 
 m 
 
 rill 
 
 i ■ 
 
 If 
 
 
 Mm 
 
 I'v 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 .- '^ 
 
 f^M 
 
 '■; 
 
 ^' 
 
 m 
 
 
 .j 
 
 H 
 
 HI' 
 ! 
 
 r' 
 
■,^ 
 
 108 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 'U 
 
 i\ 
 
 
 I; «. 
 
 the iriiwn's apparent diameter, when she is in the horizon, ia actually found to be less than 
 when she has attained a considerable altitude. 
 
 Parallax. We have formerly sliown that, in comparison with the distances of the fixed 
 stars, the earth is but as a point in the universe ; so tliat tlicir positions in the heavens appear 
 the same when viewed from the earth's surface, as they would if they wore viewed from 
 its centre. This, however, is not the case with regard to the sun, moon, and planets. At 
 each of these bodies the earth presents a disc of an appreciable magnitude: and, on the 
 other hand, tlieir positions among the fixed stars, when viewed from difiercnt points of the 
 surface of the earth, vary, and are diflferent from what they would be were they seen from 
 the centre of the earth. 
 
 Let A B E (Jig. 30.) be the earth, C its centre, and M, M", M' (a heavenly body, for 
 example) the moon in the sensible horizon, the zenith, and 
 any intermediate position. The true places of tlie moon in 
 these positions, as seen from the centre C, and referred to the 
 starry heavens, will be m, m", m! ; and their apparent places, 
 as seen from B, will be n, m", n'. It is evident, that in the 
 zenith the true and apparent places coincide, so that there is 
 no parallax. In the horizon the parallax is greatest: it is 
 measured by the arc m n, and is equal to the an^le B M C, 
 under which the semidiameter of the earth's disc appears 
 when viewed from the moon. At the intermediate position 
 M' the parallax is measured by the arc m' n' ; it is less than 
 in the horizon, and decreases as the body ascends until it 
 vanishes when the body reaches the zenith. From the horizon 
 to the zenith, parallax diminishes the apparent altitude of a 
 body ; but as the altitude increases, this diminution becomes less and less. Its effect, there- 
 fore, is contrary to that of refraction, which always increases tlie apparent altitude of a body. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 MOTION OF THE PLANETS ROUND THE SUN. 
 
 The phenomena of the motions of tlie other planets differ from those of the moon, which, 
 as we have shown, are all easily accounted for, on the supposition tliat the moon revolves 
 round the carth'in an elliptic orbit, subject to various changes ; whicli ore confined, how- 
 ever, within certain limits. The attempts which the ancient astronomers made to explain 
 the celestial phenomena, by supposing the earth to be the centre of the universe, introduced 
 a system, the ptolgmaio, which was received for about 1500 years, as affording tlie true 
 explanation of tlie planetary motions ; but which tiie progress of scientific discovery has 
 proved to be absurd. Ptolemy, an astronomer of Egypt, who flourished about 140 years 
 after the Christian era, supposed the planets to revolve about the eorth in the following 
 order ; viz. the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. Beyond the region 
 of the planets he placed the sphere of the fixed stars. While he thus accounted for the 
 proper motions of tiie planets from west to east, he conceived the whole to be carried round 
 the earth by a diurnal motion, in the opposite direction, in twenty-four lionrs. Tlie irregu- 
 larities of the planetary motions, — these being sometimes direct, at other times retrograde ; 
 sometimes swift, and at other times slow, — were imagined by him to arise from cacli planet 
 moving in a small circle, called an epicycle, whose centre was carried round a larger 
 circle, called the deferent, having the earth placed a little to the one side of its centre. 
 The motions in these circles he imagined to be produced by the revolution of transparent 
 globes ; eacli planet being supposed to be attached to a globe, which carried it round in its 
 epicycle ; and this globe again supposed to be contained in the shell of another globe of 
 sufficient thickness to receive it within its solid substance, and to allow it to revolve on its 
 own centre, at the same time that it was carried in the deferent round the earth. 
 
 Setting aside the obvious objections to this theory, arising from the extravagance of the 
 suppositions, as well as the awkwardness and complication of the machinery which it em- 
 plovs, an insuperable difficulty remains; viz. that the whole system is entirely hypothetical, 
 and offers no proof of the existence of the agents to which it attributes such mighiy effects. 
 It is not surprising, therefore, that instead of being confirmed by subsequent discoveries, it 
 fell to the ground as soon as the true method of investigating the laws of nature was under- 
 stood and adopted. 
 
 Of the planets, two. Mercury and Venus, always accompany the sun, never receding from 
 him beyond certoin limits : the rest are seen at oil possible angular distances from the sun. Let 
 us, then, fix upon Venus as the most conspicuous of the two wliich accompany the sun, and 
 upon Mars as one of the most conspicuous among tiiose whirh lecede to oil angular distances 
 from him; and by trocing out the opparent motions of tliese planets, let us endeavour to 
 ascertain the centre olwut wliicli thoy revolve. 
 
 
 
^ 
 
 Part II. 
 
 e less than 
 
 of the fixed 
 vens appear 
 •iewed from 
 (lanets. At 
 and, on the 
 loints of the 
 y seen from 
 
 ily body, for 
 ' zenith, and 
 the moon in 
 ferred to the 
 irent places, 
 that in the 
 that there is 
 eatest: it is 
 n^\e B M C, 
 disc appears 
 iate position 
 , is less than 
 ;ndB until it 
 n the horizon 
 altitude of a 
 effect, there- 
 de of a body. 
 
 moon, which, 
 
 oon revolves 
 
 bnfined, how- 
 
 ie to explain 
 
 introduced 
 
 ing tlie true 
 
 iscovery has 
 
 140 years 
 
 followiniy 
 
 the region 
 
 nted for the 
 
 rried round 
 
 Tlie irregu- 
 
 retrograde ; 
 
 each planet 
 
 nd a larger 
 
 its centre. 
 
 transparent 
 
 round in its 
 
 ler globe of 
 
 volve on its 
 
 I, 
 
 ranee of the 
 liich it em- 
 ypothetical, 
 hiy effects, 
 scoveries, it 
 was under- 
 ceding from 
 lie sun. Let 
 lie sun, and 
 ar distance.s 
 ndeavour to 
 
 Book I. 
 
 MOTION OF THE PLANETS ROUND THE SUN, 
 
 100 
 
 
 When the planet Venus is near the sun, siie is invisible ; bat a lion she has emerged 
 sufficiently from his rays, she is seen in the twilight of the morning or evening, accordmg 
 as she is to tlie west or east of tlie sun. In the former case slic is the murninu stah ; in the 
 latter, the evknino star. Wlien she begins to be seen in the evening, site is found to be 
 receding from the sun towards the east, and thus disengaging herself more and lucre from 
 his rays. Having readied her greatest angular distance, or elongation, which is from 45° 
 to 48°, she begins again to approach him, and continues to do so till her angular distance is 
 about 28°. During all this time her motion is direct, that is, in the order of the signs ; but 
 now she becomes stationary, and in a short tune she is seen moving in a direction contrary 
 to the order of the signs, and has thus acquired a retrograde motion ; but still she continues 
 to approach the sun, until in a short time she is lost in his light. Afler being iiivisible for 
 about six weeks, she is again seen ; but now in the morning to the west of the sun, emerging 
 from the solar rays. Her motion is still retrograde ; but when she has reached about 28° 
 distance from the sun, she again becomes stationary ; and in a. short tune resumes a direct 
 motion, receding from him iifght alter night, until her angular distance exceeds Ao°. She 
 then returns to the sun ; is for a time lost in his rays ; and at lengtli is seen in the evening 
 to the east of the sun, to repeat the some round of phenomena. While Venus thus appears 
 to have on oscillatory motion to the east and west of the sun, she is found, when viewed 
 through a telescope, to present phases exactly similar to those of the moon, the illuminated 
 portion being always turned towards the sun. VVc may hence infer that Venus is an opaque 
 body, and shines in consequence of reflecting the solar light. At the same time her apparent 
 diameter also varies, its variations having an evident relation to the position of the planet 
 with regard to the sun. The diameter appears least when the planet is about to be immersed 
 in the rays of tlie sun in the morning, or immecliately after her emerging from them in the 
 evening. On the other hand, it appears greatest when she is about to be lost in the solar 
 rays in the evening, or when she emerges from them in the morning. Such is a general 
 view of the apparent motion of Venus ; and by attending to the phenomena which she ex- 
 hibits, we are led to the conclusion that she revolves round the sun. When in the morning 
 she begins to disengage herself from the solar rays, she is seen to rise before the sun in tlie 
 form of a crescent; and it is tiien that her diameter appears greatest. At that time, therefore, 
 she must be nearer to us than the sun is, and not tar from being in conjunction with him. 
 Her crescent increases, and her diameter diminishes, as she recedes from the sun : when she 
 has reached her greatest elongation and returns again towards him, she continues to discover 
 to us more and more of her linlightened liemisphere, her diameter all the time diminishing, 
 until she is lost, in the morning, in the sun's rays. At the instant of her disappearing, 
 Venus is seen as a full disc ; and at tiie same time her diameter is least. Hence we may 
 witii certainty infer, that she is then at a greater distance from us than the sun, and agaui 
 nearly in conjunction with him. After having remained for some time invisible, she re- 
 appears in the evening to tlie east of tlie sun ; and in receding from and returning towards 
 him exhibits, in an inverted order, the same phenomena, in reference to the changes in her 
 disc and apparent diameter, which she had presented when seen in the morning, on the west 
 of the sun : her enlightened hemisphere turns more and more from us, and her apparent 
 diameter continually increases, until she again disappears, or is seen as a black spot traversing 
 tlie disc of the sun. 
 
 From these phenomena only one inference can be drawn ; viz. tliat Venus revolves in an 
 orbit, near the centra of which the sun is placed. This conclusion, which rests on the firm 
 basis of observation, leads to a natural and simple explanation of all the peculiarities of her 
 motion. 
 
 The planet Mars, the next to be considered, appears to be carried round the earth by a 
 motion which is. subject to greot ineciualitics. When he begins to be seen in the morning 
 emerging from the solar rays, his motion is direct, and at its greatest rapidity; but it gradu- 
 ally diminishes until the planet's angular distance from the sun is about 137°. At that time 
 it changes into a retrograde motion, whose rapidity increases till the moment that tlie planet 
 comes into opposition with the sun, or is on the meridian at midnight. It is then at its 
 greatest rate, and presently begins to decrease, continuing to do so till the planet becomes 
 stationary wlien at the angular distance of about 137° from the sun. The motion now 
 returns to its direct state, after having been retrograde for about seventy-three days ; and 
 in that period the planet describes an arc of retrogradation of about 16°. Mars continues 
 to approach the sun, until he becomes immersed in his rays in the evening. These pheno- 
 mena are repeated at every opjwsition of the planet, with considerable differences, however, 
 in reference to the duration and extent of tlio retrogradations. At different points of his 
 course round the iieavens, the apparent dianieter of Mars is very different: it varies from 
 about 13.3" to 20.1". It is greatest wlien tiie planet is in opposition to tlie sun. 
 
 The phenomena now described can be satisfactorily explained in no other way but by sup- 
 posing Mars to revolve round the sun. As he recedes from tiie sun to all jxissible angular 
 distances, the earth must be situated within his orbit; but the increase of his apparent 
 iiameter as he approaches his opposition, and its decrease when he approaches the sun, show 
 
 Vol. I. 10 
 
 ■Hi 
 
110 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF 'iEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt IL 
 
 that Iho (.';irt)i is not the centre of his motion. Before he reaches the point of opposition, 
 hia motion, from beinfj^ direct, Iiccomea retrograde; after the opposition it resumes its direct 
 state, wiiou the planet is at the same distance from the sim, at which he was situated wlien 
 tlie motion became retrograde ; and it is at the moment of conjunction that this last motion 
 is most rapid. Now, all these circumstances evidently indicate that tlie apparent motion of 
 Mars is the result of two combined mot iunc, which alternately conspire with and oppose eacli 
 other, and of which one depends on the apparent motion of the sun. As we have found 
 that Venus revolves round the sun, and accompanies him in his apparent annual motion 
 round tlio earth, we are led by analogy to extend the same law to Mars, and to conclude that 
 he al»!o revolves in an orbit round the sim. 
 
 Tiic disc of Mars changes its figure, and becomes sensibly oval, according to his position 
 relatively to the sun: hence we may conclude that Mars is an opaque body, and derives his 
 light from the sim. 
 
 Tiic .same reasoning being applicable in the case of the other planets, we may extend to 
 all of them the conclusion which we have now established in reference to Venus and Mars, 
 — namely, tliat tliey are opaque bodies, and revolve about the sun in orbits nearly circular ; 
 while that luminary of the system either describes or appears to describe an orbit about the 
 earth in the course of a year. This general law, which aflbrds a simple aild complete expli- 
 cation of the planetary motions, receives additional confirmation from the piienomena of the 
 satellites of Jupiter and the ring of Saturn; for these phenomena prove directly that Jupiter 
 and Saturn revolve about the sun in nearly circular orbits. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 .MOTION OF THE EARTH ROUND THE SUN. 
 
 The conclusion to which we have now been led, — that all the planets describe orbits that 
 have the sun near to their centre, — naturally suggests the question, whether the earth itself 
 is not subject to the same law, and therefore to be ranked among the planets which revolve 
 round the sun. With regard to the celestial motions, every appearance would remain the 
 same to us, whether the earth described an orbit round the sun, or the sun with his accom- 
 panying planets revolved round the earth. To which of these hypotheses the preference is 
 due will appear from the following considerations: — 
 
 The immense masses of the sun and of several of the planets, combined with their great 
 distances from the earth, render it much more simple to suppose that the earth describes an 
 orbit round the sun, than that the whole planetary system revolves round the earth. What 
 an inconceivable rapidity of motion is it necessary to a&sign to Saturn, almost ten times 
 more distant from us than the sun, or to Uranus, at about double the distance of Saturn, in 
 order that these planets may complete a revolution round the earth in a year, at the same 
 time that they revolve about the sun ! It is a law which is found to pervade the planetary 
 system, that the less body revolves about the greater body which is in its neighbourhood ; 
 and by supposing the earth, in conformity with this law, to revolve about the sun, which in 
 magnitude greatly exceeds all the planets taken together, we avoid all the complication and 
 rapidity of motion which follow from the supposition of the eartlj being at rest. 
 
 The analogy which subsists between tlie earth and the planets confirms the hypothesis of 
 the earth being carried round the sun by a motion of translation : Jupiter, for example, is 
 known to have a revolution on his own axis, and to be attended by four satellites. In these 
 particulars the earth resembles that planet, having also a revolution on its own axis, and 
 being attended by one satellite, the moon. An observer placed on Jupiter would be led 
 from appearances to imagine that the planetary system revolved round him, in like manner 
 ns an inhabitant of the earth supposes himself placed at the centre of the celestial notions : 
 and the greater magnitude of Jupiter woulil give to such a conclusion, when drawn by an 
 observer placed on that planet, a greater resemblance to tlie truth than it would have when 
 drawn by an inhabitant of the earth. With such a close analogy in these respects before 
 our eyes, may we not naturally conclude that it extends still farther ; and that as Jupiter 
 revolves in an orbit round the sun, the earth must also have a similar motion 1 
 
 Let us imagine ourselves to be placed on the surface of the sun, and from that position to 
 observe the earth and the planets. All these bodies would appear to move from west to cast ; 
 the planets would be found free from all that complication in tlioir motion to which they 
 apj)ear subject when viewed from the earth; and the motion of liie earth itself would in 
 every circumstance correspond with that of the planets. The more distant a planet is fiom 
 the sun, the longer is the time which it requires to perform its revolution round him ; but 
 throughout the planetary system tliis remarkable law prevails, connecting the periodic times 
 with the distances, — the squares of the former are proportional to the cubes of the latter. 
 If we compute, by this principle, what should bo the time of revolution of a planet situated 
 at the distance of the earth from the sun, wo find the result correspond exactly with the 
 sidereal year ; tlms, the earth's distance from the sun being assumed as unity, the distance of 
 
 t 
 
 t 
 a 
 li 
 hi 
 M 
 
 C( 
 
 hi 
 ec 
 w 
 ha 
 ca 
 eq 
 mi 
 
 ac 
 rat 
 ble 
 ren 
 at] 
 i 
 
 10,0( 
 
 axis 
 
 direc 
 
 tityr 
 
 evide 
 
 FEl 
 
 face I 
 
 tion c 
 
 If 1 
 
 angle 
 
 tion o 
 
 fwssib 
 
 of A J 
 
 Fisg 
 
 In the 
 
 round 
 
 the po 
 
 will bi 
 
 greate 
 
 throug 
 
Pabt IL 
 
 pposition, 
 its dirnct 
 led wlien 
 st motion 
 motion of 
 pose caclj 
 ive found 
 al motion 
 elude that 
 
 is position 
 lerives his 
 
 extend to 
 and Mars, 
 r circular; 
 about the 
 ilctc expli- 
 ena of the 
 hat Jupiter 
 
 Book I. 
 
 MOTION OP THE EARTH ROUND THE SUN. 
 
 HI 
 
 ! orbits that 
 ]arth itself 
 lich revolve 
 remain the 
 1 his accom- 
 reference is 
 
 I their great 
 
 describes an 
 
 th. What 
 
 It ten times 
 
 Saturn, in 
 
 t the same 
 
 planetary 
 
 hbourhood ; 
 
 which in 
 
 ication and 
 
 ^pothesis of 
 [example, i? 
 In these 
 axis, and 
 £uld bo led 
 Ike manner 
 lal notions : 
 1-awn by an 
 I have when 
 [ects before 
 I as Jupiter 
 
 [ position to 
 test to east ; 
 Ivhich they 
 Tf would in 
 
 [net is fiom 
 him; but 
 
 liodic times 
 
 Ithe latter. 
 
 let situated 
 ' with the 
 
 [distance of 
 
 Mars is known to be 1 '523693: his periodic time is G80'0706 days. Hence we have 
 fr62693) :>:!>:: (68«-97efl)«: (365-250)3. The periodic time of a planet, at the same 
 distance from tlio sun as the earth is, should therefore be 305'25G days, wliich is the length 
 of the sidereal year. This result leaves no doubt that the motion which the earth would 
 bo seen to have, if it wore viewed from the sun, arises from the same causes, and is regu- 
 lated by the same laws as the motions of the planets : hence wo may conclude that it is no 
 less real. 
 
 The motion of the earth in an orbit round the sun, which the preceding considerations 
 render so highly probable, is directly proved by the phenomena of the tiberralion of light. 
 It was long supposed that light was propagated from the sun and otlier luminous bodies 
 instantaneously ; but modem observations have proved that this hypothesis is erroneous, and 
 that light, like all other projectiles, occupies a certain time in passing from one point of space 
 to another. The fact that light has a progressive motion was first discovered by Roemer, 
 a celebrated Danish astronomer, from observations made on the eclipses which the satel- 
 lites of Jupiter undergo when they fall into his shadow. He found that these eclipses 
 happened sometimes sooner and sometimes later than the time deduced from the tables of 
 their motions ; the observation being before or after the computed time, according as tht 
 earth was nearer to or farther from Jupiter than the mean distance. Repeated observations 
 have proved, that when the earth is between the sun and Jupiter, his satellites are seen 
 eclipsed about 8| minutes sooner than tiiey should be according to the tables; but that 
 when the earth is on the opposite side of the sun from Jupiter, the eclipses of his satellites 
 happen about 8^ minutes later than the time shown by the tables. The only conclusion that 
 can be drawn from these facts is, that light occupies about 16 J minutes in traversing a space 
 equal to the diameter of the earth's orbit, which is upwards of 190 millions of miles ; it 
 must therefore move at the enormous rate of nearly 210,000 miles in a second. 
 
 Now, if the earth is really in motion, it must be moving at the rate of about 20 miles in 
 a second, in order to accomplish its revolution round the sun in the course of a year. Tliis 
 rate of motion, although small when compared with the velocity of light, bears to it a sensi- 
 ble proportion ; so that an evident consequence of the earth's motion will be, that the apivi- 
 rent places of the heavenly bodies will not be the same as they would be if the earth were 
 at rest. 
 
 Suppose A B to be a portion of the earth's orbit, S a fixed star, and S A the direction 
 rif light proceeding from the star to the earth at A. It is evident that if the earth were at 
 
 rest at A, a telescope presented in the direction A S would 
 receive the light of the star, which, proceeding along the axis 
 of the telescope, would reach the eye at A, and sliow the 
 star in its true position. But if the earth be supposed to 
 move from A towards B with a velocity that bears a sensible 
 proportion to the velocity of light, the ray S A, which enters 
 ^E the telescope at C, cannot reach the eye, but must, in conse- 
 quence of the motion, be lost against the interior of the tube. 
 In order that the light from the star may reach the eye when 
 carried forward by the earth's motion, the telescope must 
 have such an inclination to A B, that S F being supposed a 
 ray parallel to S A, and meeting the axis of the telescope in 
 D, A F may have to F D the same ratio as the earlli's veloci- 
 ty in its orbit has to the velocity of light ; that is, of 1 to 
 10,000 nearly. In this position of the telescope, the light entering at D will pass along the 
 axis as it moves from A to F, and will reach the eye at F ; but the star will be seen in the 
 direction, not of F S, but of F E : so that its apparent place differs from its true by a qiuoi- 
 tity measured by the angle S F E or A D F. The angle D F E is the aberration which will 
 evidently be towards that part of the heavens to which the earth is moving. Let the axis 
 F E be supposed to be produced to the starry heavens : it will trace out on tiie convex sur- 
 face a circle, if the star S is in the pole of the ecliptic ; but an ellipse in every other posi- 
 tion of the star. The true place of the star is the centre of the circle or ellipse. 
 
 If the star be in the pole of the ecliptic, the angle D A F may be considered as a right 
 angle; for the line joining the star and the earth will always be perpendicular to the direc- 
 tion of the earth's motion. In this case, therefore, the angle A D F will be the greatest 
 possible ; for the ratio of sin. A D F to sin. D A F is constant, being the same with tlie ratio 
 of A F to F D, or of 1 to 10,000 nearly : so that sin. A D F is greatest, and therefore A D 
 F is greatest when sin. D A F is the greatest possible ; that is, when D A F is a right angle. 
 In the case of any other star the greater axis of the ellipse which it appears to describe 
 round its true place as a centre will be equal to the diameter of the circle which a star in 
 the pole of the ecliptic would appear to describe about the pole as a centre: for the ellipse 
 will be the orthographic projection of a circle equal to that described alwut the pole, the 
 greater axis being the diameter, which is perpendicular to a circle of the sphere passing 
 through the star and the pole of the ecliptic, and at right angles to the cnliptin. When the 
 
 i'liM' 
 
 i:-i 
 
 ,i^;nl 
 
 It! ^'W 
 
 *t 
 
112 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pa«t 11. 
 
 h; 
 
 ?iii . !- 
 
 star ia in tho ecliptic, it will appear to describe an arch equal to the greater axis of the 
 ellipse (lesoribcd by a star not in tho ecliptic, or to the diameter of the circle of aberration 
 thot would 1)0 described by a star in the pole of the ecliptic. 
 
 When nnsflo D A F is a right angle, we huvo D F : F A : : rod : sin. £ A D P ; that is, 
 10,0(M) : 1 : : 1 : (XlOl = sine of greatest aberration, which will therefore bo 20" nearly. 
 'I'lu! nberration of a planet will depend on its own motion as well as on that of the eartn. 
 If tlic motion of the planet were etjual and parallel to that of the earth, no aberration would 
 tjikc plucc. Tlio aberration of a planet may be found by first considering tiio effect of the 
 motion of the earth on the apparent place, and then the aberration arising from the planet's 
 own motion. 
 
 Huch are the effects which, if the- earth have actually a motion of translation tl.at carries 
 it in an orbit round tho sun, must arise from that motion combined with the progressive 
 motion of light. To obtain, therefore, decisive proof of the earth's annual motion, it is only 
 necessary to ascertain by accurate observation the existence of these phenomena. 
 
 The true system of the world, which supposes the Hun to be at rest in the centre, and the 
 onrth and planets to revolve round him, while the moon revolves about the earth, and the 
 diurnal motioti of tlie heavens arises from tho motion of the earth on its axis, was taught by 
 several of t!ie ancient philosophers, and particularly by Pythagoras. It was also held by 
 Archimedes; but after him it was neglected, and even forjjotten for many ages, until at 
 length, in the beginning of tlic sixteenth century, it was revived and improved by Coperni- 
 cus, from whom it took the name of the Copbrnicaji System. Notwithstanding the beauty 
 and simplicity which distinguished this theory, it was at first coldly received or utterly 
 rejected. Tyciio Brahe, an illustrious Dane, was among its adversaries. He regarded the 
 doctrine of the earth's motion as untenable, without abandoning the testimony of Scripture : 
 hence he was led to imagine another system, which boars his name ; in which the sun, with 
 all tho planets and comets revolving round him, is supposed to perform a revolution about 
 the earth in a solar year, while at tlie same time all the heavenly bodies are supposed to be 
 carried round tlic earth from east to west in twenty-four liours. 
 
 The only apparent difficulty connected with the Copemican system arises from tlie fact, that 
 tlie earth's axis is always pointed to the same star, and that the stars preserve always the same 
 relative positions ; though by the annual motion of tho earth, a spectator on its surface views 
 them at any two instants of time separated by the period of about six months, from two 
 points nearly 200,000,000 miles asunder. During tlio seventeenth century tiie supporters 
 of the Copcrnican system laboured to remove this objection, by detecting a change in the 
 (wsition of the fixed stars. 
 
 The minute and accurate observations instituted for this purpose led, in tlie end, to the 
 imi)ortant discovery made by the celebrated Dr. Bradley, that the very effects which we 
 have shown, must result from the annual motion of the earth combined with the progressive 
 motion of light. He found that each star describes, round its true place as a centre, a small 
 ellipse of which the greater axis is about 40" ; and that this ellipse approaches to a circle 
 or to a straight line, which are its limits, according as the star is situated towards the pole 
 of the ecliptic, or towards the ecliptic itself No parallax ia observable in the fixed stars 
 arising from the earth's annual motion ; and hence it must be inferred that their distance 
 is so great, that even the diameter of tho eartli's orbit is to be regarded as a point in the 
 universe. 
 
 From an attentive consideration of the celestial motions, we are therefore led to reject 
 as crrorfmis the notions which appearances at first suggest respecting the system of the 
 world. Instead of the globe which we inhabit being at rest in the centre of the universe, 
 it is a planet in motion about its own axis and about the sun. In regarding it under this 
 aspect, we find all tlie celestial phenomena explained in the most simple manner, the laws 
 of tlic motions of the heavenly bodies appear uniform, and every analogy subsisting among 
 tliom is preserved unbroken. Like Jupiter, Saturn, and Urnnus, the earth is accompanied 
 by a sateilite; it revolves on its own axis as Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and perhaps all 
 the planets; like them it receives light from the sun; and to complete the analogy, it 
 revolves about tlio sun in tlie same direction, and according to the same laws. By following 
 out the results arising from tiie earth's motion being combined with the real motions of the 
 planets and of light, we find all the phenomena of the heavens flow, as necessary conse- 
 quences, from one great principle. Thus the motion of the eartii acquires all the certainty 
 of which a physical truth is susceptible. 
 
 The vicissitudes of seasons arise, as we have already explained, from the obliquity of the 
 ecliptic to the equator. The ecliptic, which we have hitiierto considered cs the path of the 
 sun round tiie earth, we have now proved to be the orbit of the earth round the sun. The 
 axis of the eartli's diurnal motion is inclined to the plane of its orbit at an angle of aliuut 
 6(5'' .'32', and remains, as the eartli revolves round the sun, nearly parallel to itself. Hence 
 tlie circle which the sun appears to trace in the heavens in the course of a year forms with 
 the equator an angle of about 23' 28'. This produces the differences in the distributior <f 
 tiie solar I'flit and heat wliich we observe throughout tlie seasons of the year. 
 
 I t 
 
OookI. 
 
 ORBITS OP THE PLANETS 
 
 IM 
 
 to reject 
 
 Im of the 
 
 I universe, 
 
 Tinder this 
 
 the laws 
 
 [ig amonff 
 
 pmpaniea 
 
 firhaps all 
 
 Jialofry, it 
 
 IfoUowing 
 
 IS of the 
 
 Iry conse- 
 
 Icertainty 
 
 jty of the 
 
 Ith of the 
 
 Tin. The 
 
 1 of aliout 
 
 Hence 
 
 Irms with 
 
 kutior »f 
 
 The parullcliBni of tlie earth is not absolute ; for tlie axis is found to have n slow motion 
 of revolution from cast to west round a line passing; tlirouf;li the centre of the eartli, and 
 pcr])endiculur to the ecliptic ; its revolution bcinff completed in the period of 25,745 years. 
 In consequence of this motion the poles in the sphere of the starry heavens depcribo each a 
 circle round the polo of the ecliptic, at the distance of 23° 28' nearly ; and tlio two point* 
 in which the terrestrial equator, when produced to the starry heavens, cuts the ecliptic, shift 
 to the westward, at the rate of about 50^ seconds yearly, which causes the precession of the 
 equinoxes. A small inequality has been observed in the precession of tlie equinoxes, and in 
 the mean obliquity of the ecliptic, which arises from a slifirht motion in the earth's axis, 
 whereby its inclination to the ecliptic is not always exactly the same, but varies backwards 
 and forwards some seconds. This is called the nutation of the earth's axis, and was discovered 
 by Dr. Bradley while employed in verifying his theory of aberration. The period of the 
 changes of this inequality is nearly nine years. 
 
 CHAPTER Xin. 
 
 ORDira OF THE rLANETS. 
 
 To an observer placed on the sun, all the planets would appear to trace on the concave 
 surface circular paths, cutting each other at various angles, but all comprehended within a 
 certain zone of the heavens of some degrees in breadth. The angle which the plane of the 
 orbit of a planet makes with the ecliptic is called the inclination of that orbit; and the line 
 of their intersection is called the line op the nodes. If a planet be observed twice in the 
 same node, the node being supposed to have in the mean time remained stationary, the posi- 
 tion of the lino of the nodes can be determined, and also the distance of the planets from 
 the sun at the times of observation. 
 
 Let a superior planet be observed in its node N from the earth at E, {Fig. 32), and after the 
 planet has mode an entire revolution let the earth be at E'. Then, from the time and the theory 
 of the earth's motion, E E' is given, and the andes S E E', S E' E. But the angles SEN, 
 S E' N are known by observation ; therefore, in tne triangle E E' N, the angles E E' N, E' E N, 
 and the base E E' are given ; and hence the sides N E and E' N may be found. Wherefore 
 from either of the triangles S E N, S E' N the distance S N is determined ; also the angle 
 ESN, which ascertains the position of the node as seen from the sun. 
 
 From observations of this kind, mode at times considerably distant from each other, it 
 found that the nodes of each planet have a slow retrograde motion. 
 
 Again, the distance of a planet from the sun, and its place as seen from the sun, may be 
 determined from observations made at the time of its opposition to the sun. 
 
 32 
 
 (Fiff, 33). Let E be the earth, S the sun, P the planet, O its place reduced to the eclip- 
 tic, S N the line of the nodes passing through the sun. Since the planet is in its opposi- 
 tion, the points S. E, O are in the same straight line. The angle E S N is known by the last 
 problem, which determines the position of the line of the nodes ; therefore the arcli O N in 
 the heavens, which measures it, is also given. The angle P N O ie equal to the inclination 
 of the planet's orbit to the ecliptic, ant^ is therefore given; also the angle P O N is a right 
 angle. Hence in the spherical triangle P N O, the perpendicular P O and the hypotenuse 
 P N may be found. Now tlie arc P O is the measure of the angle P S O, and P N is the 
 measure of P S N ; therefore these two angles are given. In the rectilineal triangle P S E, 
 the exterior nngle PEG can be determined by observation ; the angle P S E or P S O is 
 given, and tlio base E S is known by tlie theory of the earth's motion ; whence P S, the 
 distance of tlie planet from the sun, mav be computed. 
 
 Vol. I. 10* P 
 
 :t^ 
 
 i 
 
 ii' 
 
 
 
lU 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt II. 
 
 Orbil of a ptanet. Sinco the an((lo P S N is also known, tho lino P R io f^ivon in poRi- 
 tion as well oa in umgnitudc. If many opponilionii of u plunot arc thui olwrrvrd, anil it the 
 radii obtnincHl be laid down, the lino cimnoctinfr tticir rxtrcnic points will roproNc-nt tho orbit 
 of the pluiint. In this manner it in found that the orbitx of all tho planets are ellipxcB, having 
 the 8un in their common focus; and that the anf^ular niotions of a planet round the sun are 
 invenwly as tho sijuarca of itx diatanco from tho sim : so that the sectors dcxcribcd by the 
 roilius vector urc proportional to tho times. This exactly corresponds with what was proved 
 refipcctiii); tho apiNircnt motion of tho sun in tho ecliptic, and therefore tho motion of the 
 earth is re^^ulutcd by the same law. 
 
 The nliiiiuts which move immediately round the sun are called primary, their satellites 
 lire called hgcondary planbtb. Thus, the moon is a secondary planet to tho earth. In 
 considcriiii; the lunar motion, wo found that tho moon describes round the earth an elliptic 
 orbit, and that the radius vector describes equal areas in equal times. The same holds of 
 the satcllitpx of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus; so that the same principle runs through the 
 raotiona of all the bodies of the planetary system. 
 
 When the mean distances of the planets are compared, and also their periodical times, it 
 is found that the squares of the periodic times are as the cubes of the distances. 
 
 The great general facta which have now been pointed out respecting tho orbits of the 
 planets, and their motions in these orbits, were first discovered by Kepler, after ho had 
 employed immense labour and ingenuity in the research, and are usually called Kepler'h 
 LAWa. It may be proper to bring them under one point of view : — 
 
 I. The primary planets all revolve in elliptic orbits round the sun, which occupies one of 
 the foci ot the ellipse; the plane of the orbit passing through tho centre of the sun. 
 
 n. The radius vector describes equal areas m equal times. 
 
 III. The squares of the times of revolution in the planetary bodies are aa the cube* of 
 their distances from the Bun. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 COMETS. 
 
 The fixed stars and the planets are always visible when not obscured by the superior 
 light of the Kun ; but the class of bodies called comets are seen only when they are in that 
 part of their several paths which lies nearest to the sun : at all other times they move through 
 regions of space tar beyond the reach of our vision, even when assisted by the most powerful 
 telescopes. The motions of the comets are, like those of the planets, performed in elliptic 
 orbits according to Kepler's laws; but, unlike the planetary orbits, the ellipses which the 
 comets describe are extremely elongated : so tliut the small portion of their orbits through 
 which we have an opportunity of tracing them coincides very nearly with a parabola, the 
 curve of which is the limit of the ellipse when its greater axis is indefinitely increased. 
 The inclination of the orbits of the comets is very vorious; some move in planes almost 
 coincident with the ecliptic, and others in planes nearly perpendicular to it They move 
 also in very different directions ; tho motion of some being direct, and of others retrograde. 
 
 The comets differ widely from the planets in their appearance, as well as in the figure 
 and position of their orbits. When a comet is first seen, it is usually surrounded by a famtly 
 luminous vapour, which becomes more bright ns the comet approaches the sun, and at lengm 
 shoots out into a long luminous and transparent train, very much resembling a streamer, and 
 extending in a dirortion opposite to the sun. The dense part of the comet, which both to 
 the naked eye, ami when viewed through a telescope, resembles much the planetary bodies, 
 is called the nucleus ; the faintly luminous vapour by which it is surrounded is called the 
 coma ; and the long luminous train proceeding from the comet in an opposite direction from 
 the sun is called the tail. Between the nucleus and the coma lies a part fainter than the 
 former, but brighter than the latter, and in which the nucleus appears involved : this is called 
 the head of the comet. 
 
 The length of the tail is very various. Sometimes it extends only a few degrees ; in 
 other cases it has been found to reach over more than a fourth part of the heavens. If a 
 comet docs nf)t come very near the sun, the coma docs not shoot into a tail, but retains the 
 appearance of a nebulosity round the comet during the whole period of its being visible. 
 The tail poinotimes consists of two or more diverging streams of light, and is always so 
 transparent tiiat tlie smallest stars are seen through it without any sensible diminution of 
 their brilliancy. 
 
 Nature of comet*. In ages of ignorance, comets have always, from their extraordinary 
 appearance, been sources of superstitious terror to mankind. This fear has been di8sipat«d 
 by the light of science, which has shown that the appearances of comets are regulated by 
 the same laws as other celestial phenomena. We are still, however, almost entirely igno- 
 rant of the nature of these bodies, though a great many hypotheses have been formed con- 
 cerning them. They were considered by some of the ancients, and particularly by Aristotle, 
 
Book I. 
 
 COMETS. 
 
 liti 
 
 M nccidontnl firrfl or motoora (^^norotml in tlio atmoaphoro of tlio oarth ; but thii opinion \» 
 ohvioiisly frrouiuilesit. If tlioy were connucteii with tlio oartli or ilH ntino«plior(% llioy would 
 piirtuko i)r' tlie diurnal motion on tiio n.xi.i, and could not thorotbro a|)|M!iir to liuvo it diurnni 
 i)-voliitli)ii in tlii> hRuvonx ulonff with tho other colustial bodit'g, Ili.'HidcH, ttii'ir hnviiiK no 
 diiirniil piirullnx provR* that they aro at a i^rcat diatanco tVom the earth ; while the fact of 
 tiii'ir iippiirciit motion being atTocted by tho annual motion of tho earth iliowa that they aro 
 litiiutod in tiio planetary re^iona. OlMervation has demonstrated that, like tho pluniitu, they 
 uru periiinncnt bcMlieH, and, in all prolnbility, derive their light flroni the aun. 
 
 From the small portion of the orbit of any comet which wu have an opportunity of observ- 
 ing, we cannot ascertain with Bufllcicnt accuracy Uie elements necciwary for ifetermining 
 tliR period of itri return ; but suppouing that their orbits are not diiiturbed by any cuiisc in 
 thoiie diKtiint rcirioim of npacn throiiirh which the greater portion of tho puths of cometM lie, 
 it is evident that by accurately observing all tho comets that come witnin view, and care- 
 fully recording tho reHults, in tlin course of ages tho return of many comets may bo detected 
 and their |ioriu<lic times ascerUiinod. Ilcnco the greater axis of tlie orbit of each may be 
 determined by Kepler's third law ; and tho comet's Toast distance from the sun being found 
 by observation, tho less axis will also become known. In this manner the periodic time of 
 some comets has been found, and thoir return predicted. 
 
 The first and most remarkable instance is that of Dr. Halley, who, by comparing his 
 observations on the comet of 1082, with those of Kepler on the comet of 1607, and those of 
 Apian on tho comet of 1531, found reason to conclude, fhim tlie agreement of the circum- 
 stances of each, that what had been considered three distinct comets were only ro-appear- 
 anees of tho same comet after a period of about 76 years. In all the three cases the dis- 
 'tanco of the comet from the sun when nearest to him was almost the same ; the position of 
 the comet in tho heavens at the time of its nearest approach to the sun likewise corre- 
 sponded ; as did also the inclination of the orbit, the place of the nodes, and the variableness 
 of tho motion, as being direct or retrograde. 
 
 These coincidences rendered the identity of the comet almost absolutely certain. Hence 
 Halley predicted its return in the end of 1758 or the beginning of 1759. It appeared about 
 the end of December 1758, and made its noarest approach to the sun on tho 13th of March 
 1759, differing not many days from the time expected. Again it made its appearance, as 
 prediclrij, at the completion of its periwi, toward the end of August, 18;).5. 
 
 Though there con be no doubt of the identity of tho comet of 1531, 1(J<)7, 1082, 1759, and 
 1835, tho appearances were considerably different. In 1531 the comet was of a bright 
 gold colour ; in 16U7, it was dark and livid ; it was bright again in 1682 ; and obscure in 
 1759. 
 
 The mean distance of this comet from the sun is about eighteen times that of tho earth ; 
 but in consequence of the great eccentricity of its orbit, its distance, when at tlie farther 
 extremity of its greater axis, is nearly double that of Uranus, the most distant of the planets. 
 When nearest to tho sun, its distance from him ia about rgth parts of the earth s mean 
 distance. 
 
 A very remarkable comet was seen in the end of 1680 and beginning of 1681. Its tail 
 extended 70°, and was very brilliant. This comet, of all those which h^ve been observed, 
 I'pproacI ' s nearest to the sun. Descending with immense velocity in a path almost per- 
 pendicular to his surface, it proceeded until its distance from his centre was only about 
 540,000 inili'E. Sir Isaac Newton computed that, in consequence of so near an approach 
 to the sun, it must have received a heat 2000 times greater than that of iron almost going 
 into fusion ; und that if it was equal in magnitude to our earth, and cooled in the same man- 
 ner as terrestrial bodies, its heat would not be expended in less than 50,000 years. 
 
 Three observations on comets are recorded in history, agreeing in remarkable circum- 
 stances with the comet of 1680 :— one in the 44th year before Christ ; another in the con- 
 sulate of Lampadius ond Orestes, about the year of Christ 531 ; ond the third in the reign 
 of Henry I. of^ England, in tho year 1106. These dates are nearly at equal distances of 
 time, namely, 575 years ; which is also tlie period between 1106 and 1681. Hence Dr. 
 Halley conjectured that these might bo successive appearances of one and the same comet, 
 revolving about the sun in the period of about 575 years. If this conjecture is well 
 founded, tliis comet may be expected again, after finishing the same period, about the year 
 2255. 
 
 A comet remarkable for its beauty appeared in 1811. The tail of this comet was com- 
 |K>sed of two diverging streams of faint light, slightly coloured, which mode an angle of 
 from 15° to 20°, ana sometimes much more, and were bent outwards. The space between 
 was comparatively obscure. When at its greatest length, the tail subtended an angle cf at 
 least 16° ; and was then computed to extend about 23,000,000 miles in length. 
 
 Besides Dr. Hal ley's comet there are two others whose returns have been observed, and 
 tho elements of their orbits determined, with such certainty, as to enable astronomers to 
 predict their re-appearance. One of these was recognised for the first time in 1819 as a 
 Dcriodic comet. Encke, a Gerinun astronomer, has determined the time of its revolution 
 
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 PRINCIPLRS OP OKOORAPIIY, 
 
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 tbniit tlio Kiiit to lii< tliroo ypiim iind thri^* niniitliN ii>'iirly. TIik ntlicr wnx lni<t Hi>i<n in IH'hf, 
 ItH p<<rin(li(; tinio wiw ilclcrininoU by Uiula, u UdIk-iiiiiiii iiNlronoiMcr, in Im> nix yonrH und 
 tliriM! qimrtcra, Alto|;uthor, then, Uinro ore only tlirco comctji ulitwu iM'riixlH ari< I'lTbiiiily 
 known. 
 
 Dangtr from ecmtt: Aa tho comsU travemo the plancUry rojfion* in nil (Iirp^tir)|l^ it in 
 noturni to inquire whether thcrn xn not a poiwilillily timt miiiio onn of tliitin iiiiiy ii|)|irfioi'li 
 ho near to thn rnrth m ^cotly to diiturb itji motion, or by »n antiml coiitiirt to |iro<lii('o \\\o 
 moHt ilisnutroiiH i<l1<>ctji. Upon this Huliject tlinro in no ronHonnbIn i^ronnd lor fear. If it id 
 not ubdoluteiy iinpoMiblo that n comet may como in cont^ict with the cnrth, the probnbililin* 
 ai^ainnt mich nn event hiippeninf|[ ore aH millionii to one. Amon|f bcxIieH wi Hmull in com< 
 pariwui with tho imuienHe Hpnce m whirh they move; and moving with nil volocitieii, nnd 
 in orbitH that are inclined in all dircctinnit, and are of nil diinrniiionH, how Hiimll miiit be 
 tho probability that any twoKhull como in contact! Hmull, however, an thin prolmbility in 
 tor any ono ago, if wo tako into account a long aoricit of agOH, thu probability may be greatly 
 increaaod. 
 
 If wo iuppom tho earth actually to rcrcivo inch a Hhock, it iaoaay to imagine the calami- 
 toua coniequencei which must tblfow, Tiio axis and motion of rotation being changed, tho 
 watora of tho ocean would leave their ancient poaition, and wouhl bo precipitated toward* 
 the new equator. A great part of tho huiniin raco, and of tho lower animali), would be 
 drowned by this univeraal deluge, or doHtmycd bv tho violent aliock improHHed on the ter- 
 restrial globe. Whole apccica of animalii might bo annihilated. All the monumenta of 
 human induNtry and invention would bo overthrown. In hiicIi a catastrophe we fin<l, too, a 
 cause adequate to account for the ocean having overflowed lotly mountains, on which it has 
 left incontestable evidence of ita presence ; and to explain how the animals and plants of 
 tho south may have existed in tJio clintatea of tlio north, where we find tho remains and im- 
 preniona of them. lastly, such an event accounts for tho reccntneas of the modem world, 
 tho monuments of which go back scarcely 30(MI years. The human race, reduced to a small 
 number of individuals, and to the moat miHorablo condition, would for a long time be mainly 
 occupied in providing for their preservation, amidst tho wreck which surrounded them, and 
 would lose all remembrance of arta and sciences; and when, by the progress of civilization, 
 they at length became scnsiblo of the want of these, they would find it necessary to roccm- 
 mence, as if man had boon newly placed upon tlio earth. 
 
 It seems imjKwsible to contemplate the picture of calamity hero drawn, without being 
 fbrcibly utruck with this singular coincidence ; — that if wo suppose the period of the comet 
 of IfiW (which in that year made a considerably near approach to the earth's orbit) to be 
 575j years; and count back, from tho year 1080, sovon revolutions, or a jieriod of 4028 
 years, we reach tho year 2349 before Christ, — tho year of the deluge, as fix(!d by chrono- 
 logers. 
 
 If we tako into consideration tlie great velocity with which the comets move in approach 
 ing to and receding iVom the sun, it is evident that the mere approximation of a comet to 
 the terrestrial orbit, tootdd he productive of little or no effect. Accordingty, though a 
 comet is said to have eclipsed the moon, in which case it must have been very near tlie 
 earth, no sensible effect was produced. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 LAW OF UNIVERSAL QRAVITATION. 
 
 Having now taken a brief view of the planetary motions, and pointed out generally thei 
 laws, we may next inquire whether from thepo any general principle can be deduced to 
 which the motions regulated by them may be referred as to their cause. 
 
 The motions of the heavenly bodies have been variously accounted for. We have already 
 adverted to the rude mechanism of deferent and epicyclic spheres, by which some of the 
 ancient philosophers attempted to explain tho celestial motions. This doctrine originated 
 with Eudoxus and Callipus. But a more sensible attempt was made by Cleanthcs, another 
 philosopher of Greece, who, from observing that bodies are easily carried round by whirl- 
 pools or vortices of water, imagined that tho celestial spaces are filled with an ethereal 
 fluid, which is in continual motion round the earth, and that it carried the sun and planets 
 round with it. Though this hypothesis affords no real explanation of the phenomena, it was 
 revived in modem times, and maintained by two of the most eminent mathematicians and 
 philosophers in Europe, namely, by Des Cartes and Ijoibnitz, and for a long time met with 
 general acquiescence. But a much nearer approximation to right conceptions on this sub- 
 
 iect was made by many philosophers, both of ancient and modern times, who supposed thiil 
 19 planets were deflected from uniform rectilineal motions, by forces similar to what wo 
 Observe in the motions of magnetical and electrical IkkUoh, or in the motion of common heavy 
 bodies; where one body seems to influence the motion of another at a distance from it, with- 
 -it any intervening impulsion. Ferniut was tho first who suggested tliat file weight of a 
 
Ive already 
 Vne of the 
 |originated 
 
 8, another 
 
 by whirl- 
 ethereal 
 
 lid planets 
 f na, it waH 
 licians and 
 
 [ met with 
 tiiia siib- 
 
 OHCd till) I 
 
 what w(! 
 pion heavy 
 
 it, witli- 
 eiffht of a 
 
 IIOM I. 
 
 I^W OF UNIVKUHAI, GRAVITATION. 
 
 117 
 
 b«ly in the mm of Iho triidrnriea of enth portido . •' matter in the body to every pnrticli* of 
 the I'lirtli. Ki'pliT niiidi' iiniitlicr ii|)pri>xiniikliiin tn i|i« tin'h when he ''nid, that it' there wem 
 two ImmIich pliiL-i'd out lit' III"' ri'iich nt' all exti'riial ti>rcoH, niul Hi p'-rlei ' IiIktIv I" iimve, they 
 would .iiiiiriNii'li eiieh other witli vi'lueitirn iiivirMly pf ^portinnal i,, 'li' >> <|uantitii'M of miiltrr ■ 
 when hi! iiHHrrti'il that the eiirth uiiil the iiio'ii iiiiitiinlly H'tnu-t each othef, mH'I are prrveii'eti 
 iVoin iiiei'iiii); hy llieir revolution round tli, " <''>ii)iiion diiirr 'f attniotion , xnil when he 
 ntlrilxiteil the lideH to the nttnictive iiilhienci ,. 'lie imkhi m Ik iipi/>g up the watern idiiiU!- 
 iliately under her. 
 
 Hut Dr. Ilooke innile the miMt preciite Kiirmiiin to MlJa purpose. At a iiie* (in? of the 
 Itiyul Society, Ma^ SI, KMW, he exprehwd hiinnelf in (li. tollowinif nuinmr: — "Iv'iH 
 e.xplain a Nyotcni ot the world very illMerent iVuiii any yet reeeiveil, and it in tiiunded on the 
 tlirou tidlowing proponilionn : 
 
 " 1. That all the heavenly boilie)i have not only ■ Kiravitation of their ptirta to their own 
 proper centred, hut that they aUo mutually attract each other within their npheres of fiction. 
 
 '*'i. That all boilieH haviu;;a Himple motion will continue to movo inaiitraiuht lino unlew) 
 continually deflectetl tVmn it, by immo extraneous ibrcu cauain(( thoni to duHcribo a circle, an 
 ollipao, or Home other curve, 
 
 ":i. That tliii attraction ia ao much the (greater aa the iNxlica are nearer. Am to the pro- 
 portion in which theKO forcea diminivli hy an iiicreawe of dintanre, I own I have not yet din- 
 covered it, althou);!) I have made Hinie experimenta to that pur|KMiG. I leave thia to othcra 
 wh'> have time and knowledge autlicient tor the tank." 
 
 Tlie truly philoNophical viewa ntated in tlieNo proiKmiliona relatively to the celeatial motiona 
 wore illu.--tmted by a very pretty experiment, which llooko had nonie time before exhibited 
 to tho S<xMety. A ball, auapended by a loni; thread fVoiii the ceiling, waa made to awin^ 
 round another liall laid on a table inmieilintely below the point of MnHpenaion. When the 
 imnulao );iven to tho |R>uilulum waa very nicely adjuated to ita deviation iVniii the |M<rpendi- 
 I'ular, it deHcrilied a |M'riect circle round the Imll on tho table; hut when the impulco was 
 very great or very little, it ilenerilieil an elliiwe bavin); tho other ball in its centre. Tho 
 force, nmlcr tho influence of which thia circular or elliptic motion waa prmlueeil, Ilooko 
 ahowed to ho a deflecting? tiirce, pro|iortioiial to tho diatancc t'rom the other bull. But he 
 added, that althi)u;;li thia illustrated the planetary motiona in aome dejrree, yet it wnH not 
 (uitablo to their cane ; fertile planeta ileHcribc ellipaeH, having tho xiin not in their centre 
 but in their fiicua, ao that they are not retuim^d in their orbita by a force pro|iortiiinal to tho 
 distance fVom tho aun. 
 
 Thus wo aeo that certain pointa of reaeniblance between the motiona of the planets and 
 tho motiona of magni'ta and heavy bixliea, had attracted the attention of miiny philoHopherH; 
 but these obacrvera failed to deduce from the principlea which they ho dimly perceived any 
 satiefactory concluaion. 
 
 At length tho jioworful gcniua of Sir laaoc Newton was directed to the aubject, and by 
 Ilia penetrating sagacity the law of iMiiversal gravitation was brought fully into view, ond 
 Bucceaafully applied to explain the celestial phenomena. He hail ^tired from Cambridge to 
 the country on account of tho plague, ond while walking in his garden he waa led to meditate 
 on the planetary motions, and on the nature of that central force which retains the planets 
 in their orbits. The thought happily occurred to him that the aamc force, or aome modifica- 
 tion of tho same force, which caiiaca a heavy Ixaly to descend to tho earth, might extend to 
 tho moon, and might retain that body in ita orbit by deflecting it from the rectilineal path. 
 However plausible thia conjecture might appear, the mind of Newton waa too deeply imbued 
 with tho true spirit of philosophy to adopt it as the groundwork of h theory, unless it conld 
 be shown by calculation to Iw coincident with fact. But before it could be brought to thi? 
 test, it was necessary that lie should fbrin some conditional hypothesis reapecting the modi- 
 fication of the force as tho distance increased, and also that he ahoiild know nearly the 
 magnitude of the earth. The hypothesis which he assumed with regard to the modification 
 of the force according to the increase of the distance was correct ; namely, that the force 
 decreases as the square of the distance increusea. But ho made a fiilse cstimatinn of the bulk 
 of the earth ; so that his calculations showed that his conjecture did not agree with the phe- 
 nomenon : he accordingly abandoned it. A few years afterwards ho was induced, however. 
 to renew his calculations, having in tho interval obtained more correct data, in consequence 
 of tho measurement of a degree in France by Picard. The attempt now succeeded ; and it 
 ia said that, os his calculations drew to a close, ho became so agitated that he was obliged to 
 request a frionil to finish them. His former conjecture waa found to agree with the pheno- 
 mena with tho utmost precision; and in exploring tho grand scene which was now laid open 
 before him, he was led to an explanation of the system of tho world, consisting simply in an 
 accurate narration of facts, and such an arrangement of them as showed their mutual depen- 
 dence, and, at the same time, their reference to one great fact of which they were all neces- 
 sary consequences. 
 
 We are now to explain briefly tho tlieory of gravitation ; but our account of it must of 
 course be very limited. 
 
 4 ! 
 
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 ilA 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Paht II. 
 
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 m 
 
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 if 
 
 
 Hi Ki 
 
 Thf'f'. In nn ptionomonon in nature more familiar to us than motion ; and although it be 
 
 5r<'(itly (Iiv('r=i(ic(l according to the causes by which it is produced, yet all motions are sub- 
 wl tn till" tliri'p fl)llowiiiff Taws: — 
 
 Ixt I.*w. Mvrry luxly continues in a state of rest, or of uniform rectilinear motion, unlesB 
 lll)i'(^ti<d l)y fiiiiiin iiirrhanicnl tbrce. 
 
 'Al li*w. Kvpry change of motion is proportional to the force impressed, and is made in 
 tlio ilift'Clidll III' that force. 
 
 'M li*w, Kvfry action is accompanied by an equal and contrary re-action. 
 
 It In a I'liiiPwiiKMice of the first two laws, that if a body or particle of matter bo subjected 
 fit tilt* wiinc titiio to the action of two moving forces, each of which would separately cause 
 it U> di^cfilip Ihn side of a parallelogram uniformly in a given time, the body will describe 
 tlu' illMifiiiinl iinitorinly in the same time. By these very simple laws, the result of e.\pc- 
 rii'lM't', ittiil by the (irinciples of geometry, Newton established the sublime doctrines of tlie 
 |>l»ii(tti(fy tiKitions, 
 
 It will nut be expected that we should enter at any considerable length into the recondite 
 dwtriiM'N (if physical astronomy. This subject requires for its full discussion ample space, 
 11(1(1 (ill tho fcpdiirct's of jie higher mathematics : the more elements of geometry, however, 
 are milllt'ieiit to indicate generally some of the fundamentiil principles. Let us suppose that 
 
 S (Jig. 34.) is a fixed point, 
 
 ---E, 
 
 fiM 
 
 and that a iMxly moves in 
 the direction A B witli an 
 uniform velocity, at such a 
 rate, that if not disturbed 
 by any external cause, it 
 would move from B to 6 in 
 .r^'b a second of time. Let us 
 ; also supiwse that when the 
 body' arrives at B, it re- 
 ceives an impulse in the 
 direction B S, and of such 
 intensity, that, if acting 
 alone, it would cause the 
 body to move uniformly 
 from B to H in a second. 
 Complete the parallelo- 
 gram H B 6 C, and draw 
 
 the (liitKOiml 11 C ; the impulse at B, combined with the tendency to continue its motion in 
 lll(} 11(11) U h, will cause the body to move along the diagonal B C; so that at the end of a 
 »(*('(»nl It Will nrtually be at the point C ; and if no external cause acted on the body, by the 
 llN. Iitw, it Would continue to move uniformly ever afler in the direction B C c ; so that in 
 llie liuxt H'Coild it would'doscribe a line C c, equal to B C. But now suppose that the body, 
 wIlt'H lit 0, receives a second impulse in the direction C S, by which it would be carried 
 lillitlifliily iVniii C to I in a second: then, completing the parallelogram D I C c, the actual 
 pidli til' tilt! ImkIv will be the diagonal C D, which will be uniformly described in a second; 
 iMiil H'lllltliBturbtMl, tho motion would be continued uniformly in the straight line C D <t, the 
 (lifttndt'n 1) (/ (lt!Bcribcd in the ne.xt second being equal to C D. A third impulse at D, in the 
 ilir«utitiii 1) N, such os would carry the body unilbrmly from D to K in a second of time, 
 Wwiltl) wlit'ii combined with the tendency to move in the direction D d, pnxluce a motion 
 bIuiijI I) K, the diagonal of the parallelogram E K D rf, and a fourth impulse in the direction 
 l'( H, Wiiiild, when combined with the motion in the direction E c, produce a motion along 
 tllB tliduoiml E P, and so on. In this way, by successive instantaneous impulses, a body may 
 bti (iiiultt to depcribe tho path A B C D E F, &c., which will bo all in one plane. 
 
 HilH!it the linos A H, B b are equal, the triangles A S B, B S /< are equal ; but because 
 < ' // In iMifiillfl to H U, the triangle B S 6 is equal to the triangle B S C ; therefore the trian- 
 1(1(1 II H (J in ofiual to A S B. In like manner, it may be proved that C S D is equal to B 
 H (;, (Kill 1) H H to C H D, and so on : thus it appears tliat the triangles A S B, B S C, C S D, 
 I) H E, iVc. lire nil equal. If we suppose a straight line to be drawn from the moving body to 
 tlitt lUi'il jKilnl H, niid to be continually carried along with it, it is evident that this lino will 
 IKINN over or gfiK'rato the equal areas A S B, B S C, C S D, D S E, &c. in equal intervals 
 of tiliiM 1 il in also evident that the shorter the interval between the impulses communi- 
 rnUnl to tilt! inoving body, the greater will be the number of sides of the figure formed hy 
 lilt* tliiimnmlB of the parallelograms, and the nearer will the line composed of these 
 (ll(t(((i(iiilN itpptoiich to a curve. If we suppose, therefore, that tho body is urged towards P 
 by K Ibfco lu'tiiig, not at intervals, Init incessantly, the body will move in that curve to 
 wlihdi, UN its limit, the line, composed of the diagonals continually approaches, while the 
 litlti (Iruwii fhim tho movmg body A S, or radius vector, will continue to describe areas pro 
 (idttitjiial to the times. 
 
BookL 
 
 ♦» 
 
 LAW OP UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. 
 
 no 
 
 The force which urges the body towards S, is called a centripetal force. If the action 
 of that force were to cease, tlie body would proceed in a straight line, — a tangent to its 
 curvilinear path. The tendency of the body to proceed in the direction of the tangent, is 
 called its centrifvoal force. 
 
 Prom the important conclusion to which we have now been led, wo may infer, conversely 
 that if a bmly revolve in a curvilinear path about a point, and if the radius vector drawn 
 from that point describe round it areas proportional to the times, the body is deflected from 
 the rectilineal path by a force directed to that point Now, this is exactly the case of the 
 planets, both primary and secondary. The former describe curvilinear orbits round the sun 
 and, according to the second of Kepler's laws, the nulius vector describes areas proportionul 
 to the times. Hence we may infer, that each is retained in its orbit by a centripetal force 
 directed towards the sun ; and that this force is counteracted by a centrifxigal force genera- 
 ted by tlio planet's motion in its orbit. In like manner, each secondary planet revolves 
 about its primary, the areas described by the radius vector following the same law ; so that 
 the secondary must be acted upon by a centripetal force directed towards tlie primary 
 planet. 
 
 The next thing to be determined is the law of the centripetal force when a body moves 
 in an elliptic orbit, the force being directed towards one of the foci. First, let us suppose a 
 body to revolve in the circumference of a circle ADC {fig. 35.), about any point S, as Uie 
 centre of its motion, and let us inquire into the law of the centripetal force in that case. 
 ^ 35 Draw the chord A S C, and let A D be so small an arc, that 
 
 it may be considered coincident with its chord. Draw D E 
 parallel to the tangent A B, and join C D. Then A D will 
 measure the velocity of the body m its orbit at the point A, 
 and A E the space over which the centripetal force directed 
 towards S, if acting alone, would cause the body to move in 
 the time in which it moves from A to D. Put v to denote the 
 velocity, and / the centripetal force. Since the triangles A 
 DC, A E D, are equiangular and similar, we have A C ; 
 A D=A D : A E ; that is, 
 
 AC ; » = B ;/: therefbre/=^ 
 Next, let A P B (fig. 36.) be the elliptic orbit of a planet> 
 S the focus in which the sun is placed, A the point at which 
 the planet is at its greatest distance from the sun, and P any other point in its orbit. Join 
 P S ; draw the tangent P D, and draw S D perpendicular to P D. Let v and v' denote the 
 velocities of the planet at A and P respectively ; and c and c' the chords of the equicurve 
 circles at A and P which pass through the point S, and let /be the deflecting force at A, 
 and /' the deflecting force at P. Then from what we have proved respecting a baly 
 moving in the circumference of a circle round any point F as the centre of its motion, we 
 have/;/' = ~ : ^ = d'c' : «''c. But since the small arcs which represent the velocities 
 at A and P must be supposed to be described in equal times, the corresponding areas described 
 
 by the radius vector will also be equal. Hence it is not 
 difficult to see that t)XAS = r'XSD, and v : v' = 
 S D : a A. We obtain, therefore, /: /'= S D' X r': 
 S A' X c. Draw P E perpendicular to the tangent 
 P D, meeting the axis in E, and draw E G perpendicular 
 to P E, and E H perpendicular to P G. From the pro- 
 JA. perties of the ellipse, P H is equal to half the principal 
 parameter, and consequently to half of c, the chord of the 
 circle, of equal curvature at A, which passes through S. 
 Also P G is half of c', the chord of the cciuicurve circl(> 
 at P, which passes through S. Therefore, 
 
 /:/'=:2SD'' X PG:2SA' X PH. - 
 
 = S D' X P G : S A' X P II. 
 Now, from the similar triangles G P E, E P II, we have GP:PE = PE:PH; honce 
 G P : P II = G P' : P E'. But the triangles G P E, PSD being also simihir, G P' : P E" 
 = P S' : S D'; therefore, G P : P H = P S' : S D'; and P S'XP II = S IVxG P: nnd 
 since it was shown that/:/'= S D^'X P G : S A'X P II, wherefore/: /'=P S'x P H : R A' 
 X P H ; or leaving the common factor P H out of the two consequents we have 
 /:/'=PS' : SA^ 
 Thus we have arrived at this important conclusion ; that the force by which the planets 
 evolve round the sun in elliptical orbits, the sun being in one of the foci, and the radius 
 vector describing areas proportional to the times, is always inversely as the squares of the 
 distances. 
 
 l-'lj 
 
 
 
 
 '■'r 
 
 ' ! 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 :i^ 
 
 ,'M 
 
 m 
 
 '•;• 
 
1 
 
 !' 
 
 1 
 
 I )' 
 
 1 
 
 1 ■*' 
 
 1 
 
 it 
 
 1 
 
 ■ jsl'i 
 
 ,ll 
 
 r • , 
 
 1 
 
 i^-' 
 
 1 
 
 ■ ', 1 
 
 1 •!'■ 
 
 :i 
 
 |. '^^ ' 
 
 1 
 
 f|l 
 
 120 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 There remains yet another point to be determined rcspcctinjj the forces which retain the 
 different planets in their orbits; namely, whether there is any analogy letween them 
 From Kepler's third law, we know that the squares of the periodical times of any two 
 of the planets are proportional to the ctibcs of their mean distances from the sun. This law 
 is independent of tlie eccentricities of the orbits ; and the same relation would subsist 
 between the moon distances and tlie periodic times, though the eccentricities were to 
 become infinitely small ; or, what is the same thing, the orbits were to become circles. Let 
 us then suppose tlie planets to move with uniform velocities in circular orbits, having the 
 sun in the centre. This supposition differs very little from the truth. Put v, v' to denote 
 the velocities of two of the planets, r, r' the radii of their orbits, /, t' their periodic times, 
 and/,/' tiie forces by which they are retained in their orbits. From what we have already 
 shown respecting a body moving in a circle round any point as the centre of its motion, we 
 iiave/= ^ and/' =p, therefore/:/' =^ : ^. But since the circumferences of circlee 
 are to one another as their radii, and the velocity or the space passed over by the planet in 
 the unit of time is equal to the circumference of its orbit, divided by the periodic time 
 expressed in that unit, it is evident that v : v'=-y- :— : hence — : ~=i-^ : -jr, ; or, 
 
 ili uB ^ li'2 r ^ r[ I , I ,< 
 
 smcc t' : <'-=r' : r'\ - : -:^=-r : -n=- 
 
 ^ _^j . ^,,_^ . ^,— , . r". Wherefore we obtain/:/' 
 =r" : r". 
 
 This result shows that the forces which, acting on two planets, would cause them 
 to describe circular orbits, agreeing with Kepler's third law, are inversely as the squares 
 of the distances. Hence we may infer the sameness of the force which retains the planets 
 in their respective orbiU ; since it varies from orbit to orbit, according to the very same law 
 which regulates its intensity at different distances in the same orbit. This conclusion is 
 fully cstablislicd by the fact, that the force which acts upon the comets during their descent 
 to the sun, varies exactly according to the law whicli we have now assigned as the law of 
 the planetary force. The comet of 1759, which was predicted by Dr. Halloy, came from 
 regions fjir boycnd the most distant of the known planets, and approached nearer to the 
 sun than Venus ; and when it arrived at the same distance from the sun as any of the 
 ])lanets, its deflection from the rectilineal course by the action of the centripetal force, was 
 tlie very same as that of the planet. We may, therefore, conclude, that it is one and the 
 same force which deflects all the planets as well as the comets. 
 
 From what has now been shown, it is evident that if all the planets were placed at 
 the same distance from the sun, they would all be deflected equally by the centripetal force 
 independently of the quantity of matter in each. Hence it follows that, at equal distances, 
 the centripetal force must act equally on every particle of matter of which the planets arc 
 composed ; so that if one planet contain exactly double the quantity of matter that another 
 planet contains, and if both are placed at exactly the same distance from the sun, the former 
 will receive a double impulse. We may infer, therefore, that another lau of the force 
 which retains the planets in their orbits is, that, at equal distances, it is proportional tc 
 the mass on which it acts ; and tliat if two bodies act on the same particle of matter, the 
 forces which they exert are proportional In their masses. The force may be supposed to 
 be produced cither by a cause residing in tlie hotly which is placed in the centre of motion, 
 or by a cause residing in the revolving body. In the former point of view, it is called a 
 force of ATTRACTION ; in the latter, a force of gravitation. The truth is, however, that the 
 cause of this force is absolutely unknown. We see only the effects produced, and from these 
 wo investigate t)ic laws which connect them with each other, and the general principles on 
 which they depend. 
 
 Thus, from the facts discovered by Kepler respecting the planetary motion, we 
 have shown tliat each planet has a tendency towards the sun, in consequence of which 
 from a state of rest it would move towards him, acquir.ng at every instant an increase of 
 velocity according to a fixed and determinate ntlc or law whicli applies alike to all the 
 plaiietw. This tendency, if not counteracted, would bring the matter of tiie sun and planets 
 mfo one mass. Tliis, however, is prevented from taking place, in consequence of an impulse 
 having been ori^nnally communicated to each planet, giving it a constant tendency to move 
 in a Btraight line with on uniform velocity. The effecti arising from these two tendencies 
 are so odjustcd, as to produce elliptic orbity. But the law whicli regulates the effects arising 
 from the tendency of the planets towards the .snn remaining the same, such a velocity 
 might have bci>n Cdnimnnicatcd to each planet, by the original impulse wliirh gave it its 
 ti'iidi ncy to move uniformly in a straight line, as would have produced piirabolic or liyper- 
 liolic orbits. In a circular orbit, if tlie centre of motion coincide v.itli the centre of the 
 orbit, the velocity of a planet is uniform, and of such rapidity as at every point to produce a 
 tendency to move in a tangent to the orbit, exactly sufficient to coiinterbaliinci the tendency 
 to mov(! towards the centre of the orbit. If the orbit be elliptical, and one of the foci 
 the centre of motion, the motion of the ))lanot is variable, and its tendency to move uni- 
 formly in a tangent to the orbit sometimes exceeds, and at other times fa.ls short of, that 
 
•-X 
 
 UOOK I. 
 
 LAW OP UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. 
 
 121 
 
 cncies 
 irising 
 :>Iocity 
 
 it its 
 hypor- 
 
 " the 
 luce a 
 idency 
 foci 
 
 
 which would be necessary to cause it to revolve in a circle at the same diBtonce from the 
 centre of motion. 
 
 Let A D B E be the elliptic orbit of a planet revolving about the sun, which is supposed 
 to be placed in the focus S. Suppose the planet to set out from A in the direction A P, 
 A being the |)oint of its greatest distance from the sun. At A tlie direction of the planet's 
 motion is at riglit angles to the radius vector, and if the velocity were such as to produce 
 a tendency to move in the direction of tiie tangent A G, exactly equivalent to the tendency 
 of the planet to move towards the sun, the planet would revolve in a circle of which S is 
 the centre, and S A the radius. But tlie velocity being supposed less, the path of the 
 planet will fall within the circle, and the angle S P H contained between tlie radius vector 
 and the tangent P H, which shows the direction of the planet's motion, changes from a right 
 angle to an acute angle. The tendency of the planet towards the sun is now exerted partly 
 
 in accelerating its velocity in its orbit, and partly in- 
 curvating its path. While the planet describes the 
 quadrant A P D, its velocity is always less than that 
 which would produce a circular motion ; until it is at 
 the point D, and then the velocity is precisely what 
 would be sufficient for a circular motion about S, if its 
 A. direction were perpendicular to the radius vector : the 
 direction, however, being oblique, the planet is brought 
 still nearer to S. The tendency towards the sun is, in 
 a great measure, still exerted in accelerating the motion, 
 and as soon as the planet passes D, its velocity becomes 
 greater than what might produce a circular motion 
 about S. The angle S D K is, therefore, the least angle 
 which the ndius vect«r makes with the direction of the planet's motion, and from the moment 
 when the planet passes the point D, that angle begins to increase ; and the effect of this is 
 to cause the tendency of the planet towards the sun to be principally exerted in incurvating 
 the orbit. Its influence in accelerating the planet's motion, though it still exists, is gradually 
 diminished, until the planet arrives at the point B, where it ceases altogether, in consequence 
 of the radius vector being at right angles to the tangent B L. 
 
 As the velocity of the planet at B is greater than what is sufficient to produce a motion in 
 a circle of which the radius is S B, the path of the planet falls wholly without that circle; 
 and consequently, it is now receding from the sun. The angle which the radius vector 
 makes with the direction of its motion becoming obtuse, the tendency of the planet towards 
 the sun is now partly employed in retarding its motion, so that its velocity is diminished. 
 The angle contained between the radius vector and the direction of the planet's motion 
 increases while the planet is moving from B to E, and decreases from E to A, when it be- 
 comes a right angle, as it had formerly decreased from A to D, and increased from D to B. 
 The velocity of tlie planet in its orbit must, therefore, decrease from B to A, as it had for- 
 merly increased from A to B ; at the point E it will be equal to what it was at D, and from 
 E to A, the influence of the planet's tendency towards the sun to diminish its velocity will 
 become less and less, until when the planet has arrived at A, it will cease altogether. The 
 velocity is then the same as at first, and the motion goes on in this way for ever. 
 
 Whatever has now been deduced from Kepler's Laws respecting the orbits of the pri- 
 mary planets, and the law of the force by which they are described, will apply equally to 
 tlie orbits of the secondary planets : for in each of these little systems, there is the same 
 analogy between the periodic times and the distances, which takes place in the general 
 system; the figure of the orbits is also elliptic, and the areas described by the radius vector 
 is proportional to the times. Wo may legitimately conclude, therefore, that the satellites 
 revolving about any planrt, are retained in their orbits by a force inversely proportional to 
 the sqnares of their distances from their primary planet ; so that all the celestial motions 
 are produced by forces regulated by this general law. 
 
 The force that keeps the Moon in her orbit is, then, the attraction of the earth, or her gra- 
 vitation towards the earth. But wo find that the earth attracts all the bodies near its surftce 
 by a force wliich is proportional to tlie mass of the body attracted. Whatever be the weight 
 of a body, it falls to the earth from the same height in the same time, and with the same 
 velocity. Thus, if the resistance of the atmosphere be removed, it is found by experiment 
 that the lightest feather falls to the earth, from a given height, in the very same time, and 
 with the very same velocity, as a stone, however groat its weight. Let us inquire whether 
 the force which retains the moon in its orbit may not be identified with this attractive force 
 which causes the descent of heavy bodies to the surface of the earth. 
 
 We may without great error supiiose the lunar orbit to be circular, and its scmidiameter 
 to be equal to sixty semidiameters of the earth. Let it be represented by the circle C M A, 
 the earth being supposed to be placed at the centre E ; and let M C be the small portioa 
 VOL.L 11 Q 
 
129 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Past Ii. 
 
 of the orbit which the moon describes in a second of time. 
 Draw M B a tangent to tlie orbit at M : draw also C D paral- 
 lel to M B, and C B parallel to MA, the diameter of the orbit. 
 The arch M C may be regarded as coincident with its chord ; 
 therefore, joining A C, it is evident that in the right angled 
 triangle A C M we have AM: M C=M C : M D. Hence, 
 since A M and M C are known, M D or B C, the deflection 
 of tlie moon from the tangent in a second, by the attraction of 
 the earth, may be found. 
 
 The moon describes her orbit round the earth in about STj 
 T" 43™ or 2,360,580 seconds ; the circumference of her orbit is 
 about 60 times the circumference of the enrth, that is, if we 
 reckon 69j English miles to a degree, 7,926,336,000 feet ; 
 therefore the length of the arc M C, which the moon describes 
 in a second, will be found nearly equal to 33o8 feet. Again, A M, the diameter of the 
 nHMn's orbit, is about 2,52i),031,140 feet. Hence we obtain M D equal to 00447 feet nearly. 
 This small iVactional part of a foot is the space which a body, placed at the distance of the 
 moon, and falling from a state of rest by the action of the force which retains the raoon in 
 her orbit, would pass over in the first second of time. Observing, now, that this force increa«es 
 na the squares of tlie distances decrease, we may determine the space which a body at the sur- 
 face of the earth (or at the distance of one semidinnieter from the earth's centre), and felling 
 from a state of rest, would pass over in tlie first second of time, if urged by the same force. 
 For, since the moon's distance from the earth is equal to about sixty times the semidiameter 
 of the earth, we have 1*: 60'=00447: the space required, which is found to be 16'09 feet. 
 Now, this is exactly the space which a body, falling from rest by its own weight, is found 
 by experiment to pass over in the first second of time. Hence we may infer, that the moon 
 is retained in its orbit by the very same force which produces pressure in a body supported, 
 or causes a body when unsupported to fall to the ground. 
 
 Though the attraction of the earth on bodies near its surface is only a particular case of 
 a general principle, which produces all the planetary motions, the eflbcts are, to appearance, 
 considerably modified. At all the heights to wliich wo are able to ascend above the general 
 surface of the earth, or to which we can project a body, the force of gravity acts, as to sense, 
 uniformly: it also acts in the direction of straight lines, perpendicular to the horizon, and 
 tlierefore parallel to one another, for the greatest range that can be given to a projectile. 
 Hence the phenomena, which depend on the force diminishing in intensity, as the S(iuare 
 of the distance increases, and on its emanating in the direction of straight lines drawn to 
 the centre of the attracting sphere, become imperceptible. In consequence of the compa- 
 ratively small velocity with which hr.man power can project a body, its path always meets 
 the earth, and its motion terminates. But if the whole matter of the earth were collected 
 into a point at the centre, a liody projected from a point 4000 miles distant from the centre, 
 and with such a velocity as human power can communicate, would be acted upon by the 
 same forces, with a bo<ly similarly projected from the surface of the narth. But on the sup- 
 position now miido, the body would meet with no obsticle, but would approach within a cer- 
 tain distance of the centre, and would then recede from it until it reached another limit, 
 when it would again approach, and go on in this manner, approaching and receding alter- 
 nately, for ever. The path of the body would be an el'ipse, resembling in fig\ire the orbit 
 3f a comet. The extreme portions of the path would, as to sense, be portions of a parabola. 
 Hence it is usually laid down as a law regulating the motion of projectiles, that if a heavy 
 body be projected in a straiirhl line, not perpendicular to the lutriznn, it wilt describe a 
 parabola situated in the vertical plane passing through that straight line, and having its 
 axis perpendicular to the horizon. Tiiis physical truth was first discovered by Galileo. 
 
 The force of gravity near the surface of the earth being uniform in its action, it is found 
 that the motion wiiich it produces corresponds in all its circumstances with that which 
 matheriiatical reasoning shows should result from the action of a constant force. The spaces 
 through which the body falls are proportional to the squares nf the times, and the velocity 
 is proportional to the time during which the body has been falling. 
 
 From tiio third law of Kepler, it is not difficult to sec that the periodic time of a planet 
 in its orbit is determined entirely by the mean distance, that is, half the transverse axis; 
 and is not at all uflt'cteil by the increase or do<Tensn of the ciiiijiigntn ax's. By supposing, 
 then, the conjugate axis to bo continually diminished, wo are led to this roiirlusion, that the 
 time in whicii a Ixxly would descend to the sun, if allowed to fall from a state of rest at any 
 distance from him, is e(iua.l to half the time of nvolutlon in an ellijisc the semitransverse 
 axis of wliich is half of that distance. I,rt T be the time of ri'volutioii of ii planet at any 
 distance, and t the time of revolution at half that distance; then, by tiio third law of Kepler, 
 
 T T 
 
 T*: t': 2': 1'; hence we have t = T/V and J< = ^/^. But It is the time in which a body 
 would fall from the distance corresponding to T. Hence the lime in which a planet would 
 
 mi 
 
 m\ 
 
 / 
 
'\T^ ■• 
 
 'P 
 
 f 
 
 Book I. 
 
 LAW OP UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. 
 
 123 
 
 planet 
 axis: 
 liposiiifr, 
 
 lint thn 
 :t at any 
 insvcrso 
 t at any 
 
 Kepler, 
 
 1 a body 
 •t would 
 
 fall to the sun by the action of the centripetal force m equal to the periodic time divided 
 hy y/'^^ ; or (what amounts to thn eamo thing) to the periodic time multiplied by 0"176776, 
 the reciprocal of the square root of 32. By this general rule, the times in which tlie dif- 
 ferent planets would reach tlie sun, if the action of their centrifugal force entirely ceased 
 at the moment when they are at their mean distances, arc as follow : 
 
 °5U' 
 
 Dayp. Hrs. 
 
 Mercury in 15 13 
 
 VcnuH 3il 17 
 
 The Earth 04 13 
 
 Mnrs 121 10 
 
 Ceres 2!I7 
 
 Pallaa 301 4 
 
 Jiinn 
 
 Veata aoj 
 
 Jupiter 7CS 
 
 Saturn inoi 
 
 Genrfiium Sidus 5425 
 
 The Moon would fill! to the Earth in.. 4 
 
 ttn. 
 10 
 
 
 111 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 The principle in tlie Newtonian philosophy, that the effecta produced by the attraction 
 of a body depend very much upon the quantity of matter which it contains, fiimishes the 
 means of resolving a problem which at first sight may appear of such difficulty as to tran- 
 scend the powers of the human mind ; namely, to determine the quantity of matter in the 
 sun and planets. Let f and f denote the forces by which two bodies revolve in circular 
 orbits round two central bodies, of which the masses are denoted by m and m'. Let r and 
 r be the radii of the orbits, and t and t' the periodic times. From what we have already 
 proved with regard to a force tliat retains a body in a circular orbit, we have 
 
 t r' mm' m m' r r 
 
 f . fi — — . — Bu^ yfiQ },ave al8o/:/'= — : — : therefore, — : — = — : — : and 
 
 (2 ra rJ r-t Tt r*! II fl 
 
 ra r' S 
 
 consequently, m : m' = — : — 
 
 Thus it appears tliat the masses of matter in the bodies which compose the solar system 
 are directly as the cubes of the mean distances of any bodies which revolve round them, 
 and inversely as the squares of the times in which the revolutions are performed. By 
 means of this principle, the masses of the sun and of the planets which have satellites may 
 be compared with one another. With regard to the planets which have no satellites, the 
 quantity of matter contained in them can only be guessed from the effects they produce on 
 the motions of the other planets. The quantity of matter in the moon can, however, be 
 determined with greater certainty, by comparing together the influence of the sun and moon 
 in producing the tides and the precession of the equinoxes. Hence we learn, that the mat- 
 ter in the moon is about Vir of the matter in the earth. 
 
 The following table exhibits the masses of the planets, that of the sun being considered 
 as unity : 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 Mercury 
 Venus 
 The Earth 
 Mars 
 
 292S5T(r 
 
 Jupiter 
 Saturn 
 Uranus 
 
 
 If we add together the numbers given in this table, it will be found that the whole matter 
 in all the planets is not one-six-hundredth part of the matter in the sun. 
 
 Knowing the masses of tlie planets and their diameters, we can determine the force of 
 gravity at their surfaces ; for, supposing them to be spherical bodies, and to have no rotation 
 on their axes, the forces with which a hotly placed on their surfaces gravitates to them will 
 be proportional to their masses, divided by the squares of their diameters. 
 
 From the masses of Jupiter and the earth, Ija Place calculates that if we suppose them 
 to liave no rotation, a body which at the earth's equator weighs one pound would, if carried 
 to the equator of Jupiter, weigh 2..'jn9 pounds, supposing the weights to be measured by 
 the pressures exerted in the two situations. If the centrifiigal force produced by the rota- 
 tion of the planets be taken into account, however, this weight must be diminished by about 
 one-ninth part. The same body would wei:rh utout 27.6.') pounds at tlie surface of the sun. 
 Hence it follows that a heavy body would there descend about 425 feet in the first second 
 of time. 
 
 We have hitherto attended chiefly to the action of the central body upon that which 
 revolves round it; but, in reality, the action is mutual. The planets attract the sun in the 
 same manner as the sun attracts tlie planets ; and the same action and re-aotion have place 
 among the primary planets and their satellites. Indeed, the gravitation of all the great 
 bodies of the system towards one another, appears only to bo a consequence of a similar 
 action between every particle of matter nnd every other particle of matter. This great 
 fao.t, to which nil the celestial phenomena are ultimately to be referred — Ihtit the particles 
 of matter mutually attract each other hy a force varying inversely as the squares of the 
 distances — is commonly called the principle of Universal Gravitation. 
 
 The mutual attraction of the bodies composing the planetary system gives rise to a train 
 of consequences which it has required the utmost efforts of human ingenuity to unfold. 
 We have already remarked that the planetary motions are liable to a variety of irregula.i- 
 
 1, if!-«K 
 
i' 
 
 Ssi'J' 
 
 hlliilifi 
 
 VH 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Past II 
 
 ties with which accurate observation has made us acquainted. Now, here we see tlie cause 
 to which all these irrefirularitics are to be referred. If the sun were fi.xed immovable in the 
 centre, and only one planet revolving round him, then the path of that planet would be an 
 ellipse, from which there would not be tlie least deviation ; and that focus which is the 
 centre of motion would coincide with the centre of the sim, supposing that body to be 
 spherical and composed of matter of uniform density. But since the planet attracts the siu< 
 as well as the sun attracts tlie planet, with a force directly proportional to tlie mass and 
 inversely proportional to tlie square of the distance, it follows that the sun must also move 
 in an elliptic orbit round that point of which the condition is in no way disturbed by the 
 mutual action of the revolving bodies, namely, their centre of gravity. It is with this 
 point that tlie focus of tlic orbit of the planet, and that of the solar orbit, would coincide, 
 and about which the radius vector of each would describe areas proportional to the times. 
 In reference to this point also, the squares of the periodic times would be proportional to the 
 cubes of the distances. 
 
 If we suppose two or more planets to revolve about the sun, it is evident that the motions 
 of all would be disturbed by their mutual gravitation. The immense magnitude of the 
 sun compared with that of any of the planets, or of all the planets taken together, might, 
 however, give to his attraction such a preponderance as would preserve all the planetary 
 orbits nearly elliptical ; while his own orbit would become a more complicated curve, but 
 auch as to mmish a centrifugal force in respect of each planet, just able to counterbalance 
 the gravitation towards it. The centre of gravity of the whole system would be a point to 
 which all their motions are to be referred. Now this is actually the case of the planetary 
 system. Accurate observation proves that the sun is not at rest in the centre, though his 
 motion is very small. His centre is never distant from the centre of gravity of the system 
 80 much as his own diameter ; and hence tlio orbit which he describes must be very incon- 
 siderable, when compared with the orbits of the planets. With regard to those planets 
 which are accompanied by satellites, it is not the centre of tlie primary which traces the 
 elliptic orbit round the sun, but the conimou centre of gravity of the primary planet and 
 secondary planets which revolve round it. 
 
 Tlie perturbations which the mutual attraction of the planets produce in each other's mo- 
 tions are divided into two classes. The one class affect the figure and position of the elliptic 
 orbits, and increase with extreme slowness : these are called secular inequalities. The 
 other class depend on the mutual situation of tlie different planets, and acquire the same 
 amount whenever the same relative positions occur : these are called periodic inequalities. 
 Both these classes of inequalities have been demonstrated to be periodical; that is, they 
 increase only to a certain extent, and tlien decrease. Amidst all the changes which arise 
 from the mutual actions of the heavenly bodies, there aie two things which remain perpetu- 
 ally tlie same ; namely, the greater axis of the orbit wliich the planet describes, and its 
 periodic time. Thus the permanency of the planetary system is secured. 
 
 To subject to calculation the perturbations of the system, requires the solution of tlie 
 following problem : three bodies of given magnitude.^, as the sun, the earth, and the moon, 
 being projected into space witli given velocities, and in given directions, and attracting each 
 other according to a given law, namely, inversely as the s<iuares of their distances from each 
 ether, and directly as their masses ; it is required to determine the nature of the curve, tliat 
 one of them, as the moon, describes about one of the other two, ns the earth. This is the 
 celebrated problem of the three bodies, stated in all its generality, but under this af.pect 
 its solution is beyond the reach of the most refined methods of analysis wiiich the mathe- 
 matical sciences in their present state furnish. In its application to the purposes of physical 
 astronomy, there are certain conditions wliich render the problem less difficult: viz. I. 
 That the sun greatly exceeds in magnitude tlie other two Ixxlics, and is nearly at rest. 2. 
 Its distance from the earth and moon is so great, that it may iie considered the same for both. 
 This condition duh, however, in reference to tiio action of the primary planets on one 
 another, a circumstance which augments tlie difficulty of investigating the perturbations 
 arising from their mutual gravitation. 3. The planetary orbits are nearly elliptical, and 
 the aberrations from the ellipses in reference to each, are all that is required. Even with 
 these limitations the problem is sufficiently difficult, and has engaged the attention, and 
 exercised the skill of the most celebrated mathematicians of modern times. 
 
 The general view which wo have now given of the planetary disturbances is all that our 
 present object requires. We shall only, therefore, farther advert to tlio explanation which 
 the theory of graviti.tion affords of the figure of the eartli, and of the tides. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 FIGiniE AND CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH DEDUCED FROM THE THEORY OF GRAVITATION 
 
 In the beginning (Chap. III.) wo proved that the earth must be nearly spherical, in ordei 
 to account for the general phenomena which we constantly observe. As soon, however, 
 
 If 
 
-K T 
 
 DOOK I. 
 
 HGURE OF THE EARTH. 
 
 IJfa. 
 
 that our 
 on which 
 
 llTATION 
 
 in ordei 
 ■however, 
 
 as the Koncral lam of frravitation was discovered, it was a neccBsary consequence tliat the 
 cartli cimld nut bo a purlcct Bphere, but must rnliier be an oblate spheroid fattened at tlio 
 polos, ami swoUod out at the tnpiator, and tliiti intbrenco is independent of all actual rnrasuro 
 nieiit, but niiiy be contirmed by obncrvulion, and in fact has been bo, as will be afterward!" 
 fully proved. This deviation from the spiierical figure is to bo attributed to the influence 
 of till' coutrifu;;al force, arisiu^r from the earth's diurnal rotation, in diminishing the force ot 
 gravity from the pole towards the eciuator, where the centrifujjal force, in reference to the 
 Burliice, is the {,'reatest possible. This tendency which every particle of matter in the earth 
 liiis to Hy ort' in the direction of a tanj^cnt to the circle in which the particle is carried (>y 
 the I'lirtli's motion of rotation would bo increased if that motion were to be accelerated : 
 and may be conceived to be increased to such power as not only to overcome the force of 
 gravity, but also the force by which the particles adhere to one another, and so to cause Uie 
 earth to separate into fragments. Suppose a small satellite to revolve round tlio earth close 
 to its surface at the equator ; its periodic time may be deduced from that of the moon, on 
 the principle that the squares of their periodic times would be to one anotlier as the cubes 
 of their distances. For we have (since the moon's distance is alxjut sixty times the semi- 
 diameter of the earth, and the time of her periodic revolution 80343 minutes), 
 
 60': l'=39343': sq. of the periodic time of the satellite. 
 Hence we obtain the periodic time nearly equal to 84j minutes. If the earth revolved 
 about its axis in 84.; minutes while such a satellite described a circular orbit close to its 
 suitiice, the satellite would theretbrt: appear to be at rest on the surface, but would not in 
 the least degree press upon it, because the force of gravity would be exactly counterbalanced 
 by the centrifugal force produced by the motion of the satellite in its orbit. Now, all the 
 objects on the surface at the equator would be in the very same circumstances with the 
 satellite; for they actually describe circles in consequence of the earth's motion, and if the 
 earth revolved in 845 minutes, their centrifugal force would become exactly equal to the 
 force of gravity ; so tJiat they would no longer have weight. If the earth's motion of rota- 
 tion became still more rapid, they would fly off from the surface. 
 
 At the equator a body describes a circle of which the circumference is about 132,105,(j0() 
 feet in 23'' 56"' nearly : it must therefore describe an arc of about 1528 feet in a second 
 of time. From what we have shown already respecting central forces, it is evident that, by 
 dividing the square of this arc by the diameter of the earth, we shall find the deflection 
 from the tangent in a second, which will be the measure of the centrifugal force. This 
 deflection amounts to about {^f, of an inch, or j% of 16,3 feet, the space tlirough which a 
 body would liill in a second by the force of apparent gravity. The centrifugal force at the 
 equator is therefore the 5' j part of the sensible weight of a botly, or ^Ji, pait of its real 
 weight. SupiKise, then, a body, when weighed at the equator by a spring-steel yard, to be 
 fbiind capable of drawing out the spring to the division 288 : if that body were weighed at 
 the pole, where the centrifugal force vanishes, it would draw out the spring to the 
 division 289. 
 
 It admits of being demonstrated that, proceeding from the equator where the centrifugal 
 fi)ree is the greatest toward either pole, where it vanishes, the increase 0/ gravity in different 
 liititvdes is as the square of the sine of the latitude. 
 
 Such being the nature of the forces that act upon every particle of matter of which the 
 earth is com])Oped, the determination of its figure from physical principles involves tlie 
 solution of the two following problems : — 
 
 1. What is the law according to which a particle will gravitate towards a solid of a 
 given form and constitution, the particle being supposed situated either within or without 
 the solid! 
 
 2. What figure will a mass of matter, either wholly or partly fluid, assume in conse- 
 quence of the joint efl'ect of the attraction of its particles (that attraction varying inversely 
 ns the squares of their distances), and a centrifugal force arising from the rotation of the 
 mass about an axisi Both these problems involve a great degree of difficulty; and the 
 second is even more intricate than the first, in consequence of the reciprocal relations 
 subsisting between the figure of the attracting Ixxly and the law of gravitation at its surfoce, 
 whii'li renders a knowledge of the one necessary to the determination of the other. 
 Assiiniiiig that an homogeneous fluid of the same mean density with the earth has the 
 figure of an oblate spheroid, and revolves on its axis in 23" 50"' 4" of solar time, it would be 
 in quilihrio, if the axis of revolution were to the equatorial diameter in the projwrtion of 
 22!) to 230. This is the figure which Newton ascribed to the earth; and tliough the 
 assumption which he made of such a figure was certain'y gratuitous, the result of his inves- 
 tigation is almost the same as later writers have obtained by a more rigorous as well as 
 direct mode of reasoning than that which he employed. Again, it has been demonstrated by 
 La IM.ici-', liiiit a fluid iind homogeneous mass, of the moan density of the earth, cannot 
 remain in eiiiiilibrium ami jxjssess at the same time an elliptic figure, if the time of its 
 rotiition be less than 2'' 2.")'" 17'. If the time of revolution exceed this, there may always be 
 two elliptic spheroids, ami not more, in ^vhich the equilibrium mav be maintained. In the 
 
 11* 
 
 ' h'vi. 
 
 ■:ill.| 
 
■^ 
 
 186 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pa«t n. 
 
 ■.•.'( 
 
 case of the moss revolving in 2!$'' !ytt'" 4', tho one spheroid is tlmt which lias already been 
 mentioned; the other is one in which tiie polar diameter in to the equatorial in the ratio of 
 I to 6H1. The extreme flatncfn of this spheroid must render the force of {frivity ot thi; 
 equator almost nothing ; the tluid, tiicrcfore, would be so easily dissi|)atcd that this equilibrium 
 can scarcely be regarded as stable. 
 
 Another conclusion on this subject, dcducc<l by Clairault, is, that if the fluid mass supposed 
 to revolve on its axis, instead of being homogeneous, be composed of strata which increase 
 in density towards the centre, hi order to remain in equilibrium, it must still possess the figure 
 of an elliptic spheroid, but tho o')late"r?'« will bo diminished. 
 
 The oblateness of the earth at its poles ib a phenomenon which the measurements that 
 have been made of arcs of the meridian have (placed beyond all doubt; but there is still an 
 uncertainty as to the exact quantity of the compression. The results obtained, however, 
 render it highly probable that it is less than ^^g, which Newton, proceeding on the supposition 
 of a unifonn density, assigned for the compression. Hence we may conclude, that if the 
 earth is a spheroid of equilibrium, it is denser in the interior than at its surface. This 
 inference has been verified by very accurate experiments made by the late Dr. Maskelyne 
 on the sides of the mountain Schehallien, in Perthshire. The object was to determine the 
 derangement of the plummet by the vicinity of this loflyand solid mountain; and the results, 
 obtained from observation made at two stations on the south and north sides of it, showed 
 tliat tlie plummet deviated from the direction of gravity towards tho mountain more than 
 7' '. The quantity of this change of direction gives tho ratio of the attraction of the mountain 
 to tliat of die whole earth, or to the force of gravity, equal to tlie ratio cf 1 to 17804. But 
 the bulk and figure of the mountain being also obtained by a trigonometrical survey, its mean 
 density was found to be to the mean density of the earth nearly as 5 to 9. Thus it appears 
 that the mean density of the earth is not much less than double the density of the rocks 
 which compose tlie mountain Schehallien; and these, again, seem considerably more dense 
 than the mean of those which form the exterior crust of the earth. 
 
 It may appear an objection to this mode of reasoning concerning the figure of the earth, 
 that it is not evident how a centrifugal force should produce the same effect on a solid body, 
 like the earth, that it does upon a fluid mass. But the fact that the earth has made an 
 approximation to the spheroid of equililrriiim, is an indication that either the entire mass 
 wos originally fluid, from whatever cause ; or tlie repeated waste and reconsolidation of the 
 parts near the surface hos gmdually produced the spheroidal figure. In either of these 
 modes the power of cohesion, which in the solid body resists the effects of the centrifugal 
 force, may have been overcome. However irregular a body, whose surface is composed of 
 land and water, may be in its primitive form ; by the process of constant waste, the more 
 prominent parts are gradually worn down, and the matter which composed them is deposited 
 in the lower parts which are occupied by the water : here it acquires a horizontal stratifica- 
 tion; and having, by certain mineral operations, under the transforming hand of nature, been 
 consolidated into stone, the water being removed, it may again form a part of the solid crust 
 of the earth. In this manner the primitive irregular form will gradually disappear, and the 
 surface in the course of ages acquire a position at right angles to the direction of gravity; 
 so that, by the action of the centrifugal force, there will be a constant approximation made 
 to the spheroid of equilibrium. The irregular distribution of the heterogeneous materials 
 which compose this terraqueous globe may, perhaps, prevent the coincidence from ever 
 being complete. 
 
 It admits of being demonstrated, that if tiie earth were a perfect sphere, and composed of 
 matter of uniibrm density at equal distances from its centre, the action of the solar and 
 lunar attraction upon it would be the same os if the whole terraqueous mass we'e condensed 
 into a point at the centre. Hence the position of its axis would not, in that case, be in the 
 least degree affected by its gravitation towards the sun and moon, but would remain parallel 
 to itself while the earth performed its annual revolution. In consequence of the spheroidal 
 figure, however, the earth may be considered as composed of a sphere of which the radius is 
 half the polar axis, and of a quantity of redundant matter, which is distributed over it in 
 such a manner as to swell out the equatorial regioas. The action of the solar and lunar 
 attraction on this redundant matter produci.-- the precession of tlie equinoxes and the nutation 
 of the earth's axis. The complete explanation of these phenomena affords one of the linji- 
 piest illustrations of tlie Newtonian doctrine of attraction ; but requires at the same time 
 'he aid of some of the most abstruse theories both in pure mathematics and mechanics. 
 
 'i»;: 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE TIDES. 
 
 The clternate rise and fall of tho surface of the .sea, or it flux and reflux, known by the 
 name of the tides, is a phenomnnon which hns nttracted the attention of mankind from tho 
 earliest periodH. Herodotu^i and Diodorus Siculu.i take notice of the daily flux and reflux 
 
Book I. 
 
 •1 
 
 THE TIDES. 
 
 m 
 
 of tho waters of tijo Rod Sea or Arabian Gulf, tho latter historian describing it as a great 
 and rapid tide ; but neither of these writers forms any conjecture respecting its cause. Ob- 
 servation must soon have shown, that this periodical ebbinji; and flowing of the waters of tho 
 ocean had an intimate connexion with the position of tho sun and moon in tho heavens ; and, 
 accordingly, we Und that Plinv not only describes the phenomena of tides, but expressly 
 attributes them to the action oi^ these luminaries, 
 
 It was not, however, until Newton applied the principle of universal gravitation to explain 
 these phenomena that tho theory of the tides was fully understood. The weight of a body 
 on the surface of the earth arises from the tendency which the particles composing it have 
 to the centre (or to a point near the centre), in obedience to the law of gravity. But as 
 every object on the earth's surface gravitates towards tho sun and moon, as well as towards 
 tho earth, it follows that the solar and lunar attraction must affect tlie weight of terrestrial 
 objects. Upon solid bodies, between the particles of which adhesive force is powerful, no 
 discernible effects are produced by this attraction. But the case is altogether different with 
 regard to the waters of the ocean, the component particles of which yield to the slightest 
 impulse ; so that any alteration in their weight that does not equally affect the whole must 
 be followed immediately by a motion of the parts of the fluid mass, which will continue 
 until, by a new arrangement of t^ie particles, the equilibrium is restored. 
 
 To see what must be the general effect, arising from the action of the sun, if tho whole 
 surface of the globe were covered with water ; let A C B O (Jig. 39.) be the watery sphere, S the 
 
 39 
 
 41 
 
 40 O. 
 
 I by tho 
 
 om tho 
 
 reflux 
 
 sun, and E the centre of the earth. Let the gravitation of the central particle E to the sun 
 be represented by the line E S, and the gravitation of any other particle M by the line 
 M S D. Let the force M D be resolved into two forces, M H equal and parallel to E S, and 
 M G. The force M H does not in the least degree affect the gravitation of the particle M 
 towards the centre E ; and M G is, tiicrefore, the only disturbing force. If S M be pro- 
 duced to moot the circle A C B O in the point m, the action of the sun on a particle situated 
 at m is less than its action on the central particle E ; so that if m d represent the gravita- 
 tion of tho particle m towards the sun, the point il will fall on the opposite side of S from 
 the point D ; and the force m d being resolved into two forces, m h equal and parallel to E S, 
 and Jie disturbing force m ff, it is evident that tiio tendency of the force m g' is to diminish 
 the gravity of the particle jn, in like manner as the force M G diminishes the gravity of the 
 particle M. When the point M coincides with A, the angle E S M is the angle under 
 which the semidiameter of the earth is soon from tlie sun ; therefore E S M can never ex- 
 ceed 8j" : whence, in determining the direction and quantity of the disturbing force from 
 the geometrical relations of the linns, we may consider tlie lines D G, S L, and D M as 
 coincident, and M L may be taken for tlie disturbing force. Again, the difference between 
 
 . 1 
 
 ■ i'' 
 
 ' ( 
 
 
 ' 1 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 !| 
 
 
 *l:3i 
 
'A\ 
 
 rh>^ 
 
 i-> 
 
 138 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GECHiKAl'IIY. 
 
 PmtII. 
 
 B M nnd S K \n (jrentP.-t wlirn tlio (Kiiut M idincitlrn with C Df O. But if wo coiwider 
 
 llmt C K, tlic (lifToronco bctwomi S I] itiiil S M wliuii (jfiitt'st, is (nily hUjuI , ,', „ jxirt of 
 
 8 E, it ia ovidi'iif. tliiit wo roniiiiit lint ii very mnull i-rror in mipiniMiii;,' S M, S iN, and t) E 
 
 in cvory position piiiiiil. Now, Hinco S E nnd DTVI roprt'sciit tlio f^mvitiition of tlio piirti- 
 
 cles E and M towards tho sun rositcctivuly, wu liuvc H E : J) M — S M^ : H E'; tiion-lbrp, 
 
 8N» 
 •inco a E and S N may bo considered wpmi, I) M = ^j^j^. Dut S N = 8 M + M N, there- 
 
 fore S N' - S M' + 3 S M' X M N + « S M X M N^ + M N\ Tlio (juaiitity M N in so 
 Dmall, compared witli S M, tiiat Uio two lust ternw of tliia cxprcHsion lor 8 N' may bo ne- 
 
 HN' 
 gloctcd : we have, therefore, S N' = S AP + 3 S M' X M N, and y-^a = S M + 3 M N . 
 
 wherefore, also, D M = S M + 3 M N ; nnd taking S M IVom each, wo find S D = 3 M N. 
 Now, since G 1) may be considered oeuul to L S + S I), ami E S ia by constrnction equal 
 to G D, it is evident that ES=LS4-SD, or tukinjr L S from eacii, E L = 8 1). Hence 
 E L = 3 M N, and the dittturbin^r force for any point M ia determined both in direction and 
 magnitude. 
 
 Suppose now that A C B O (fii^. 40.) is tho terraqueous glojc, E S a lino directed to tho 
 sun, and A E B a section by that circle which sopanitos tho enlig'htcncd from the dark 
 hemisphere. IjCt M bo any particle on or within tho mass. Throujfh the point M draw a 
 strniffht lino M N perpendicular to tho piano A E B, nnd in E S tiiko E L, rqunl to 3 M N : 
 join L M; then L M represents tho direction and intensity of tho diKtiirbin;,' force which 
 tho sun exerts on tho particle M. Let tho force L M be resolved into two forces, one, M E, 
 directed towards thv' centre of t!ic earth, nnd tho other, M R, tending; from tho plane A E B 
 towards the sun. Suppose the same construction to be made for every point of the sphere, 
 tho whole being supposed covered with water, it is evident that the forces rnprosented by 
 M E will balance one another, nnd therefore need not bo considered. But the force repre- 
 sented by M R will diminish tho gravity of every particle M, reckoned in tho direction of 
 a line perpendicular to tho plane of that great circle of tho earth which separates the illi'- 
 minatcd from the dark hemisphere. Tho force thus diminishing tho gravity will bo propor- 
 tional to tJireo times tiio distance of the particle from the same piano ; for R M is equal to 
 Ii E or 3 M N. Every particle in any column M N being thus acted on by a force whicii 
 evidently tends to destroy the e(iuilibrium of tlio fluid mass, the water in that column can- 
 not remain at rest. Its equilibrium may bo restored, however, by tin; addition of n small 
 [xwtion M m, which, by restoring the weight of the column, enables it to resist tho pressure 
 (if the odjacent columns. A similar addition may be made to cnch column, perpendicular 
 to the plane A E B: and the result will be that, from being sphoricnl, the figure of the globn 
 will be changed into that of an oblong elliptical spheroid, having its axis directed towards 
 the sun, and its poles in those points of the surface which have the sun .>! the zenith and 
 nadir. 
 
 Let tho figure into which the watery sphere would be transformed by the solar iiction be 
 represented by the ellipse acbo {Jiff. 41.) : the points o nnd c are the polos of the spheroid ; 
 nnd at these points the waters are highest above the sphere A C B O of equal capacity, while 
 all round the circumference B E A tne waters are below their natural level. By calculation 
 it is found that the differenco between E c and E n is about twenty-four and a half inches ; 
 80 that the deviation from the spherical figure is not great. 
 
 The figure which the watery spheroid assumes must be in a slight degree influenced by 
 the spheroidal figure of the earth ; but the deviation from the spherical figure is so small, 
 that its effect in changing the spheroidal figure of the waters on the surface of the earth 
 must be quite inconsiderable. If the earth were at rest, the watery spheroid would acquire 
 that form which would produce an equilibrium among all its particles. This, however, can 
 never happen under the actual circumstances of the case, because some time must elapse 
 before an accelerating force can produce a finite change in the disposition of tho waters; 
 but, by the motion of the earth on its axis, tiie disturbing force is every instant applied to a 
 different part of the surface, .so that the jjosition of equilibrium can never actually be attain- 
 ed. Such, then, is the general efl*ect which the solar action would produce if the whole 
 globe were fluid, or a spherical nucleus covered with a fluid of o«jual density. To explain 
 9io phenomena of the tides, however, it is indispensably necessary to take into account the 
 action of the moon. 
 
 It is witli the moon that tho tides are principally connected ; ami the sun's influence is 
 known only by its increasing or diminishing the effects of her nicre powerful action. This 
 greater influence of the mcxm in producing the tides arises from her vicinity to the earth, 
 when compared with tlie sun, her distance being only about jiU part of his. It must be 
 carefully kept in view, that it is not tho more action of the sun and moon that produces the 
 tides in the ocean, but the iiirqiialiticii in the action of each : and the gravitation of tho 
 waters of the ocean to the moon is much more uno(|ual than their gravitation to the sim. 
 Whatnvpr has been proved with regard to tho influence of the sun in producing tides in the 
 
•^hi 
 
 Book I. 
 
 THE TIDES. 
 
 lonced by 
 
 Iso small, 
 
 khe earth 
 
 1(1 ocquire 
 
 Icvnr, can 
 
 |st elapse 
 
 waters ; 
 
 plied to u 
 
 be attuin- 
 
 lie \s'liole 
 
 explain 
 
 count the 
 
 lucncc is 
 Iji. This 
 bic earth, 
 Imust be 
 luces the 
 In of the 
 1 tlie sun. 
 es in tlio 
 
 130 
 
 nr.ean \* cqimlly npplical)lo to the rnnon. The water* will Ihj acciimulnted iinmudiatoly 
 under her, and cm the opposite nido of the (jlolie, pruducin;^ a Hpheroid (rf'tho anmo kind with 
 Ih'it wliii^h we have nhown mUHt bo produced by tiie luieipial action of the Hun, but more 
 elon;X'i'"'' ■> "'"' t'li^ spiieroid, directed toward the moon, will follow her in her apparent 
 daily r(!VohiUon nlnHit tiio earth. In consoiiuence of thin siniultaneoutf jfravitation towards 
 iKith huuiivirie.'', the ocean iiuist aMsuino a tljiurn diti'eront from Intth of theno spheroids; 
 which will i)econio blended and undiBtinj{uiHliabli>, The reHultin(» fi;,'uro rcsemljles each of 
 the spheroids in bein^f ulonjfateil, and its moat chn'ated [Mirts nro tbimd to follow the more 
 powerful of the distnrbinjrlKxlies, namely, the inoim, in her apparent diurnal revolution about 
 lilt! earth, \V(> may, without sonsiblo error, suppose that the chango produced in any part 
 of the ocean by tlio combined actien of the sun and moon, is the sum or the difference of the 
 clianRca which they would have pro<luced if actin;; separately. 
 
 Wo have already remarked that the rapid motion of the waters, in conacquenco of the 
 diurnal motion, prevents them from ever assuminj; the figure which would bo rcnuisito for 
 the equilibrium of the tbrces actinir on thcni; so that tln'y ascillate continually, alternately 
 approachinij to that figure and receding from it. The motion thus communicated to thorn 
 is one not of transfenmce, but of undulation, one part rising and another sinking, unless 
 when from want of depth of water the balance between the adjacent columns is destroyed. 
 We may, therefore, regard the two elevations prcxluccsd in the ocean by the inequalities in 
 the solar and lunar actions as two vast waves which follow the moon in her apparent diurnal 
 motion. The lino joining the tops of these two waves is not directed to the moon, as would 
 bo the case if the earth and moon were at rest, but is directed to a point about 30° to the 
 eastward of the moon. This arises from the inirlia of the water, wliich causes it, when 
 oncn put in motion, to continue to rise for a time after the impulse communicated has ceased. 
 If we consider the tides relatively to the whole surfiico of the globe, tliere is a meridian, there- 
 fore, about ;M)° eastward of the moon whore it is always man wateu, both in the hemisphere 
 where the moon is, and the opposite hemisphere. On the west side of the meridian the tide 
 '^ftowinir, and on the east side of it the tide is ehhinn. On the meridian which is at right 
 iinglos to the former, it is everywhere low water. If wo suppose, tlion, the sun and moon 
 to bo in the equator, and an observer to be situated on the surface of the water under the 
 equator; when the moon has risen 30° above his horizon, the state of the tide to that observer 
 will be low water. As the mocm advances towards his zenith, the tide will flow ; ami when 
 she has reached a point about 30^ to the westward of his zenith, the summit of the wave will 
 roach him, and then the state of the tide will bo high water. As the moon approaches the 
 western horizon, tli3 observer will see the water gradually subside as it hod formerly risen; 
 and when she has descended WP below the horizon, it is again low water. As the moon 
 eoniiniies her course below the horizon, the waters again gradually rise by the approach of 
 the other wave until its simimit arrives at tlie observer, and again produces high water; 
 when tlie moon has passed the opposite meridian, and reached a [loint 30" beyond it, tho tide 
 again begins to ebb as tho wave rolls on, and the same phenomena are repeated in the same 
 order. Thuji, in tho space of time in which the moon performs her diurnal revolution, which 
 may be called a liuiar day, and consi.«ts of nearly 24'' .50", there occur two tides of flood and 
 two of ebb. The time between one higli water to tho next is alwut 12'' 25"", and the instant 
 of low water is nearly but not e.\actly the middle of this interval, the tide in general taking 
 about nine or ten minutes more in ebbing than in flowing. 
 
 Sprinif anil neap Hilen. As the magnitude of tlie two waves wliich produce the rise and 
 tall of the tide depends on the action of the sim as well as on tliat of the moon, it is evident 
 that tho height to which the water rises and tails must be affected by the relative position 
 of the two luminaries. At new moon and full moon the actions of the sun and moon arc 
 combined, but at tlio quadratures they counteract each other. In tho foiTner case, the two 
 spheroids produced by the solar and lunar actions have their axes coincident or nearly so ; 
 in the latter, their axes are at right anghis to each other. Ilcnco, at new and full moon the 
 (l(X)d tide will rise higher, and tho ebb tide will sink lower, than usual. The reverse of this 
 will happen when the moon is in either of her quadratures: the flood tide will not rise so 
 high as usual, nor will the ebb tide sink so low. This is exactly coincident witli experience ; 
 and we hero perceive tho cause of what are called spring tides and neap tides. About 
 flio time of full moon and change the tides rise higher than when the moon presents any 
 other phasi.J. The liighest tide does not happen, howevor, tho first after tiie opposition or 
 conjunction, though tlio disturbing force.? are then united, but some time after; and the 
 cause of this is the same which prevents tho time of high water of any one tide coinciding 
 with the time of the moon being on that meridian under which tho tide happens ; namely, 
 the inertia of the water, or that tendency which all matter has to retain its state whether 
 of rest or motion. At Brest, whore an accurate register was kept of the phenomena of tho 
 tides about the beginning of the last century, it was found that tiie highest tide happened 
 about a day and a half after the new and full moon. If tho time of high water coincide with 
 the very time of conjunction or opposition, the third high water after that is the highest of all. 
 This is called le spri.no tide. From this period the tides gradually decrease, until the third 
 
 Vol. I. a 
 
 ;:■ \\ I 
 
 U -^ 
 
lao 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP OF.OORAPHY. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 ' If 
 
 I .!i 
 
 hijrli wiitrr (iftf'f llio miii>ir« (|iiii(lnitiirr, wliicli Iri tlic IowphI of nil, mid in riillcd tlii' nv,\r 
 Tim;. Hut liiiviiid riMrlii-cl tlwir iitrmwt ilHpri'HMidfi, tin- tiilrn iijriiin iiicri'iim' until llw orniN 
 roiK'i' (if tin' next Hpriii); tiili'; nml ko tin ci>ntiiiiiiilly, Tlii' liijflior the lidn (irtlooil rini'ti, tlio 
 lower III" cbl) ti<l(< utMiiTiilly HJiiki* on timt ihiy. Tlic total mnjftiitiKlci'ifthit tide m (>Htiiiintnd 
 by tim dilli'D'tifp lii'iwfi'ii h'ufh nnd low wntcr. At UrcHt tliu nii'daitn HpriiiK lido in about 
 1!) li'i't, mid tlio iiii'diiiiii iii'iip lido ulioiit II tret, 
 
 lltf'irt iiiiliffimil himinphvrin. I.of hh iioxt Kiippocn tlio min nnil moon to lio Nitiintod in 
 fjni' of tlio tropirit; tlio two wuvoh riiinod in llio iK-ciin by llioir itrtionH on oitixwito mIiIo!* of 
 llio (fliilio will now roll iilonjj nndor llin IropicH. If nii ofiwrvor \w pinrcd on tlio Kiirliiru of 
 tlio uiilor, nnd iindrr tlio Hnrni< tropic in which tlin Knn nnd mkhhi uro xiliiiilcd, ho will Htill 
 SCO two tidoM of Hood iinil twoofolih; liiittlioy will not corn'H|)ond in nil tlioir cirnnnHttinrof, 
 OH they did on tho forinor Hiipixwilion. Tlio dopth of tlio hi|;li water prcMliirod by tlio wavo 
 Kituntod in thn winio lioinLsphoro with tho iiuxwi, will ovidontly bo ffronfor tliiiii lliiit of the 
 high wator prodiirod by the wiivo which roIlM nionj; iindrr tho otlii-r tropic in llu! uppoxitc 
 hemisphoro from tho nuKin ; fiir tho olmorvcr will hoc tho vory Honiinit of tho ono wavo, and 
 only tho Nlopinff Hide of llio ollior. To nn olworvor Hitiialod under tho tropic on llie opiMwito 
 Hide of tho cqimtor from tho .sun nnd mcKin, tlio cnHo would bo revorscd; nnd if ho were bo 
 fnr removed from tho oqiintor ns to be «ituntod under tho (xilnr circle, no port of tho wavo 
 accumulntod in tho snmo hcmiitphoro with tho moon would reach him; ho tliiit hn would 
 SCO only ono tide of fl(wd nnd ono tide of ebb daily pnjduced by tho motion of tho other 
 wnve. 
 
 This also is conNixtcnt with what we know reH|M'ctinn' tho t'uhn from olwervntion, All the 
 phcnomeim iiro found to ho modified by tho liitiludo of the place of obgervatioii; nnd some 
 phenomena iiro found to occur in hijjh latitudoH, whirh .ire not nt nil Been when the place 
 of observation in under tho efpintur. In particiilnr when tho mcnm nnd the obeervcr nro on 
 the snmo side of thn equator, that fide in which tho moon is nliovo tho horizon is (frcater 
 than the other tido of tho mime dny which hnppons when tho moon is below thn horizon. 
 Tho contrary takes place when the moon nnd Ihc obnerver nro on oppoHito sides of tho 
 nqnntor: in this latter ruse, if tho iwliir diKlnnco of tlio observer bo erpial to llio moon's 
 doclinntion, ho will see but ono tidi! m the diiy, conliimin;; to flow for twelve hours and to 
 ebb for twelve hours. Wo hnvc supposed tor siiiiplirily the f^nn nnd moon lo he in the equa- 
 tor, or in one of tho tropics; but it is evident thiit this can seldom be tho case. Tho two 
 luminaries nro cnimble of an intinito viirinly of positions in Tn'renco to eiich oilier, iis well 
 as in reference to nny piirticiihir point of tho e:irth's siirfhce. The phenomena with regard 
 to particular places must, therelore, hr> endh'ssly diversified ; but by trariii!.'' the gonoral 
 features, tho priiicij)leH become apparent upon which all the phenomena deiiend. 
 
 The inthienco of the sun and moon in priHlncin<j tides in tlio ocean will eviilenlly be aug- 
 mented when these bfvlios are nearer to tho e;irt!i, and diminished when their <listunccs are 
 increiisod. from Ibis ciimo it nrisp.j, that wlieii tho nuion is in that part of her orbit where 
 she approaches nearest to the earth, tho siirin.? tido which happens at that time is the highest, 
 and the next spring tide is Hie smallest; because the moon is then nearly at her greatest 
 distance from the earth. This makes a ditrcrence of 2,' feet from the mean height of the 
 spring tido at IJrest; and consequently of double that quantity, or 5J feet, between the 
 greatest spring tide and the least. The neap tide which happens between these two very 
 unc(pial spring tides is regular, because tho tnonu is then nearly at her mean distance, Tho 
 reverse of this takes place when the mo<in is at her mean distance nt tho time of Ihc change: 
 the spring tide is regular, but the two neap tides difTi-r considerably in height. Tho incrcnsod 
 distance of the sun is tho reason why the si>riiig fides in our summer arc not so great as in 
 our winter. At the menu intensitii^s of the disturbing forces, tho sun tends to raise tho 
 WBters about '2-1\ inches, nnd the moon nlxiut 5S. Ili-nco tho spring tido should be about 
 .')8 f 21i=H'2i inches, nnd the neap tide about r)8—24^—\Y.ii inches. 
 
 Varintionx ruiisid by ronlimiit.i, isliniih, tfr. \V(! have hitherto supposed the two 
 wnt'os which produce the phenomena of the tides to meet with no interruption in their pro- 
 gress round the worlil. This is, however, t'lr from being the case ; they are interrupted by 
 (•(inlinenfs nnd islands, and mny be propidleil or retarded by the action of the wind; their 
 velocHv and direction mny also be changed by irregularities in tlie bed of the ocean: so that, 
 to explain nil tlie phenomena nt any particular place, tho etfect of local circumstances, 
 which is often great, must be taken into the account. Tho great Pacific Ocean is, perliaps, 
 the only part of the torrnfiueoiis globe in which all the fi)rces liav(; rooiri to operate. But 
 the wavt^ which they f<>rm must, in ndling westward, encounter the coasts of Asia and New 
 Holland, with the interjacent islands ; and amidst these olistncles it imist force its way to the 
 Indian Ocean. Its figure will thus tir' changed, and the phenomena of the tides, which it 
 produces, yiowerfully modified. « On its eastern sido the I'acific is Iwunded by a vast stretch 
 of coast, extending without interruption from Cape Horn to Bohring's Straits. This barrier 
 prevents all supply from the eastward fiir making up the watery spheroid, nnd must be 
 equally effectual in arresting f!ie progress of the wafers nccumulnted to the eastward of the 
 American continent. So far as wo have information respecting the tides in the Pacific 
 
Book!. 
 
 THE TIDES. 
 
 181 
 
 (IciMiii, Ihoy nppoar t(> \m vnrjr unliki; tlm Furopt'sn Men, until wo rcnch about 40° or AO" 
 vvi'Ht iVoin till! coniit of AiiiPncu. In the nci((lilHHirli(i<)(l <it' tlint coiinl, wnriMtlv any tidn 
 iH'cnrM wlit'ii till) niiHin Ih beluw tlio horizon. F.vimi hi tlni iniiliili! of llio i'acitic Ocean tliP 
 tidc'M urn very kmiiiII, liiit at tint Miiiin tinio very rii|{ulitr. 
 
 Ah a ({ri'iit extent of i-urfico jh ni-ci>Hwry in nriii'r timt tlio una uliouiil l)0 ncnHibiy atfcctnU 
 liy till' iiii'i|iiiililii>H in tlii' nctii.nMof tin' nun unil nKx)n, thn liilm wIik-Ii urn exixiricncrd in 
 niirriiw hi'iih, unci on ><liiiri>s t? reniovi'd tVoni tlm main InNly of tlio dceuiii urn nut priNlui.'iid 
 in tliiMn NcuH, liiit arc \vitv'~ ru|iu);utnd tVoin llin f;ri'»t diurnal iindulntiiini and tnovin(( with 
 niiii'h li'NH vi'lcK'ity, 'I'lii' u< h wliioh vixit tlin roiiNtM of Kn^liind, iniiHt, in a grnnt incniiiiro, 
 lit' Hiipiilinil tViini the iicruiiiulution of wntor in tlio Indinn uiid Ktliiopin Ocean, fVoni tlio eant- 
 wiird, iind liy wlint is tirmiprlit or kept hack IVoin the Hniitli Sen. The undiilntinnH will lio 
 ililUisi'd IIS prix^eudin^r iVnin u cullectinii coiniiitf round tlio('n|H' of (iinnI Hope, nnd round 
 Ciipe lliirii. ('onniHtently with tlii.s Niip|Nmitioii, it in found tImt hixh wutor, which (x:ciirii at 
 the Cuiie of (iood Hope nt new and nil! moon alniut tliroo o'olrM^k, In later and Inter a< wo 
 priH'eed northward iiloiijf tlio conxt of AtVicu; later and Inter Htill oh wo follow it alonj; tho 
 wenteni countH of Hpuin uiul Fraiic)', until we reach the mouth of tho KnitliMli Channel. The 
 wiive now dividi'M itself into three lirunclu'H; one part naimin;; up Nt. (Icorjjo'H Channel, 
 iiiiother iiroceediii)f northwurd aloni; tho wuHtern coawt ot Irelnnd, and tho third piuisin); up 
 the Kii(jlinh Clmniicl, between the Uritiiih nnd French ciwBtd. Tho two branchcH that pro. 
 I'oed uhrng tho euHt mid vvoNt Hiiieii of Ireland unite and form one tii\go or wave, which con 
 tiniies iiN prof^reHH alonf; tho woHtern coastM nnd iilandN of Hcoflund, and tlicn diffliiOM itaelt' 
 PiiHtwnrd townrdH Norway nnd Denmark, nnd circlin)'' round the ontitcni eooals of Britain, 
 I'oiiieH Kouthvvnrd through tho German Ocean, until it renchcs Dover, where it meofs tho 
 linincli which puhnoh up tho EngliHli Channel. It Ih to be remarked, however, that this tido 
 which comcH up the channel in not tho Humo with that which meets it from tho north, but ia 
 a whole tide curlier if not two, um appears from tho diet of the spring; tido at Ryo being a 
 tide eiirlier thiin tho spring tido at the Noro; it even seeniN two tides eorlior, for it nppenm 
 tho gno as otleii as tho other. By trnciiig the hour of high water fVom the Lizard up St 
 fieorge's Channel, nnd along the west coofts of Scotland, it nppoars that tho two tides which 
 [).uM along tlio east and west sides of Ireland nnd unite into oik; wave to tho north of it, 
 travel round Brit^iin in iilwut tweiify-eiglit hours, in which time the primitive tide hns gone 
 round tho whole circumference of the earth, nnd nenrly VS degrees more. By nttending 
 also to the successive hours of high water ulong the western consts of Africa and Europe, 
 it appears that the wave, which divides into flireo branches nt the mouth of tho English 
 Chufincl, takes up nearly two days, or between four and five tides, in travelling thither tVom 
 tho Capo of Good Hope. A si4iiilar progretis of tho some high water tVon '.he southward is 
 observed nlong the cnstern shores of South America ; but beyond Brazil .:nd Surinam tho 
 Atlantic Ocean is sufficiently extensive to contribute greatly to fho formation of tho regular 
 spheroid ; so that tho effect of this high wutor from tho soiithword, being blended with tho 
 tide raised in the Atlantic itself, beconu.'s insensible. In nn ocenn of such a breadth from 
 east to west ns the Atlantic, tho water can rise on the one shore only by descending on the 
 other. In the middle, therefore, it will ret^iin nearly the nieiin height between its elevations 
 on tho two op|)osito coasts ; this appears to he the reason why the tides nro small in islands 
 that are very far distant from the shores. 
 
 Tho reflection of the tido from shore to shore is a great cause of irregularity in the tides. 
 The coasts may be so situated that tho time in which the undulation thut constitutes the 
 tide would of itself vibrate backward and forward fVom shore to shore, may bo so exactly 
 uccommodnted to the recurring action of tho moon thnt tho succeeding impulses, being 
 always added to tho natural undulation, iniiy raise it to a height altogether disproixirtioncd 
 to what tho action of the moon can produce in the open sen, where the undulation ditFuses 
 itself to a vast distance. 
 
 The inequalities which umloubfedly obtain in the bottom of the ocean afTect the tides, by 
 changing the direction of the waters; nlso their velocity either absolutely or in respect of 
 particular places. They may also influence the height by causing the tido to rush with 
 increasing velocity towards a particular [Xjiiit, where tho wuters iiiiust at Icu^'th bo suddenly 
 cliecked, nnd therefore be iiccuiimlated in an extrnordinnry degree: this npiteiirs to bo the 
 cause of the astonishingly high tides which occur in the Bay of Fiindy. Tiie hi!;h wiitcirof 
 the Atlantic Ocean at St, Helena does not exceed four or five feet; but, setting in nbliquelv 
 on the coast of North America, it seems to range along that coast in a channel or bed, 
 gradually narrowing till it is stopped in tho Bay of Fiindy, where the accumulation of tho 
 waters becomes treiiiondous. The tide approaches with a prodigious noise in ono vast wave, 
 that is seen many niilos off", and the waters rise to tlio height of more than seventy feet in 
 the gulf of Cumberland basin; the rapidity of tho waters is so great as to overUiko animals 
 feeding on the shores. 
 
 In consccpiencc of the lonnfth of time required for a tide to propagate itself up a great 
 river, one or two succeeding tides may reach tho mouth of the river before tho first tide has 
 anived at the highest point to which it ranges up the stream. The second tide will also 
 
 .-C-'l. 
 
<:;i 
 
 liU 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOC^RAPHY. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 :?i ;. 
 
 
 hlivo nrnpngatcd itself bo far up the river, by tiie time tliat the tliinl tide reaches tlio moiitli ; 
 iilitl tfius lliore may be three coexistent high waterw in the river. The two iiiturveninff low 
 Wfttt'fs in the ocean will also produce two corresponding low waters in tiie river: these 
 uhniifi'iH ill tlio deptii of the gtreani arc produced by tiio high waters which arrive at its 
 tnitlitii checking its velocity, and the low waters accelerating it. To cause high water at 
 iiliv particular point, it is by no means necessary tiiat the water should be raised to tiiat level 
 Itirtlio way from that jwint to the mouth of the river. Before sucii an accumulation could 
 Inko place, in many instances, places fartlier down tiie stream would be inundated. At many 
 plavc'g tliiit uro far from the sea, the stream at the moment of high water is down the river, 
 and MtuietimoB it is considerable. At Quebec, the current in the St. Lawrence runs at the 
 rntti of not less than three miles per hour : this is a clear proof that the water is not heaped 
 up, for there can be no stream without a declivity. The phenomenon termed the bobe of a 
 fivor, which occurs chiefly in large rivers that have a wide outlet, and where the greatest 
 tide* ttfo experienced, arises from the waters accumulated in the gulf or outlet by one tide 
 liot being, in such circumstances, discharged before the approach of the ensuing tide. 
 TliOBO accumulated waters encounter, therefore, the waters of the ocean flowing in an op- 
 p«Mito direction; so that the re-action of the conflicting waves produces an elevation of the 
 Wtttof Ihr above tlio natural level. The surge formed in this manner rolls up the river with 
 IrreHistiblo force, overwhelming every thing which it encounters ; until, exhausted by the 
 fdoiitanco which it has to overcome, it at length sinks into a feeble undulation. The vio- 
 lonoe and elevation with which tiie boie nirfies along in some rivers is almost incredible : at 
 Ihct mouth of the Severn the flood comes up in one head about ten feet in height ; but in the 
 grcttt riverB of America, and particularly in the Amazon, it becomes a rolling mountain of 
 wtttor, which is said to attain the height of 180 feet. 
 
 tit confined seas of small extent, such as the Caspian, the Euxine, the Baltic, and the 
 Iffont lakes of North America, the tides must necessarily be almost insensible ; the dis- 
 tlirbing forces in such situations have not room to act to any extent : the greatest height to 
 wlllcli the waters of the Caspian can rise above their level on the shore, in consequence of 
 It Hphoroidal shape being given to them by the lunar action, does not exceed seven inches ; 
 mi nccumulation which a slight breeze of wind is sufficient to counteract. Even in cases 
 whore a confined sea is connected with the ocean by a narrow channel, no sensible tide can 
 Iwppen J for the tide in the ocean cannot diffiise itself through the contracted inlet during 
 tlio ppricnl tliat elapses between two consecutive tides. 
 
 Tlio Mediterranean is a confined sea of consideriible extent; and the tides there might be 
 VOry nensible if the effects of the solar and lunar actions were not diminished by its distance 
 frirtil the equator. As the moon approaches the meridian of the eastern part of the Medi- 
 turrnnean, there is a considerable elevation of the waters on the Syrian coast, and a con- 
 «lilnfHlilo depression at Gib altar. In the middle of the length the water is at the mean 
 liolfflit ; in the Atlantic Ocean, an open and extensive surface of water, the regular spheroid- 
 nl form is nearly attained, and the water stands considerably higher on the outside of the 
 fitfrtlfj* than on the inside ; it is nearly low water within, while it is about one third or one 
 liulf flood without. Notwithstanding this accumulation, the communication is too narrow 
 l4i (illow the tide of the ocean to diffiise itself in a regular manner into the basin of the 
 Mediterranean. As the moon moves westwardj toward Gibraltar, the water will begin to 
 riw), but slowly, within the straits, while without it is flowing very rapidly. The accu- 
 mulntioii within increases with the progress of tlio moon westward, until it reaches high 
 Wntiir ; but by this time the tide has been ebbing for some hours without the straits. It will 
 now be Iriw water on the coast of Syria; and during all this time the water at the middle 
 llOtWfen the eastern and western extremities will "ot have sensibly altered its depth. 
 
 The tiingular currents which prevail in the Straits of Gibraltar appear in a great measure 
 cxiilnincd by these peculiarities with regard to the tidc.f in the Mediterranean Sea and 
 Atliitltic Ocean. Changes of tide, always diflbront and frequently quite opposite, are 
 oliwirvod on the east and west sides of the narrow neck which connects the rock wivh Spain ; 
 ftlld the genenil tenor of those clinnges has a very groat analogy witli wliat has now been 
 di^irfibeil. 
 
 It in a fact which strikes the attention, upon the most cursory observation of the pheno- 
 tiU'tift of the tides, that they fall later every day. This variation in the interval of the tides 
 in called the pniMiNo or largino of the tides, acconliug as we refer them to lunar or sfdar 
 timi', If we suppose the sun and moon to be in the equator, and the watery spheroid to 
 ntfaili hiflrintnnrmir'if the form suited to its equilibrium, then the lino joining the summits 
 of the two waves produced in the ocean by tlieir combined actions will always be directed to 
 i |Wlnt pitiuitnd between their centres; except in the case of the sun and moon being in con- 
 jlini^tion or opposition, when it will he directed towards their centres. The following table, 
 PHJCiiliilc'd on the above supposition, and for the mean distances of the sun and moon from 
 tho piirtli, exhibits the minutes of solar time that tlie moment of high water precedes or fol- 
 lows llif moon's southing, corresjxinding to every tenth degree of the moon's elongation (east 
 ward) from tho sun or from the point opposite to' the sun. It shows also the hour and minutt- 
 
>■ 
 
 Book I. 
 
 THE TIDES. 
 
 1S3 
 
 of the day, nearly, when it is high water ; and the height of the tide, supposuig the height 
 of a spriiij; tide to be 1000: — 
 
 S Moon's Elongation 
 S at southing. 
 
 Tinio of High Water. 
 
 HL'ijiht 
 
 of 
 Tide. 
 
 Time of High Water. 
 
 Q 
 O 
 
 S| 
 « S 
 
 r 
 
 Befnro 
 Miion's 
 southing. 
 
 Ant'rnonn 
 or Midnight, 
 
 Ancriioon 
 or Midnight. 
 
 After 
 Moon's 
 soutliing. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Ho. Min. 
 
 1000 
 
 087 
 040 
 887 
 80(1 
 715 
 tilO 
 518 
 453 
 429 
 
 Ho. Min. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 
 10 
 SO 
 30 
 40 
 50 
 60 
 70 
 
 eo 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 lU 
 22 
 3U 
 40 
 45 
 
 Jilt 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 21:1^ 
 
 5H 
 
 1 28^ 
 3 
 8 35 
 3 13i 
 
 3 snj 
 
 4 Ji 
 
 C 
 
 13 
 11 31 
 11 2 
 10 31 
 10 
 U 25 
 H 4Ci 
 R 01 
 7 5 
 U 
 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 22 
 
 3U 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 40i 
 
 . m 
 
 25 
 
 
 160 
 170 
 160 
 150 
 140 
 130 
 120 
 110 
 100 
 90 
 
 If we note the exact time of high water of spring tide for any harbour, and the exact 
 position of the sun and moon at that time, we can easily make a table of the monthly scries 
 for tliat port, by noticing the difference of that time from tlie table, and making the some 
 (liflbrence for every succeeding phasis of the tide. 
 
 night be 
 distance 
 
 Medi- 
 
 1 a con- 
 le moan 
 iphcroid- 
 |e of the 
 
 or one 
 nanow 
 of the 
 !gin to 
 10 accu- 
 les high 
 It will 
 middle 
 
 li. 
 
 incasnre 
 Sea and 
 lite, ore 
 h Spain ; 
 )W been 
 
 pheno- 
 Iho tides 
 I or sf)liiv 
 Icroid tvi 
 Umnnits 
 Irctcd to 
 r in con- 
 Jg table, 
 on from 
 Is or fol- 
 In (east 
 I minuti- 
 
 CHAPTER XVni. 
 
 t 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OP THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 Ten stars, among the countless number with which, in a clear night, the heavens appeal 
 so resplendent, have been proved, by the observations and reasonings of which we have now 
 given a brief outline, to oe planets revolving about the sun, and deriving their light from 
 him. Tlie earth which wo inhabit has been proved to have a similar motion, and to belong 
 to the siime class of IxMlies. Several of these primary planets are accompanied by sateiiitcs; 
 and the whole are preserved in theii' respective orbits by a centripetal combined with a 
 centrifugal force. Thus there subsist among tliese bodies relations which are regarded as 
 uniting them in one system, having the sun in the centre; and which is tlierefore called the 
 
 80LAlt SYSTEM. 
 
 In regard to the other planets, as we have employed the obvious analogy subsisting 
 between them and our earth, in proving its annual and diurnal motion ; so, on the other 
 hand, I'rom the same grounds, it seems reasonable to conclude that, like the earth, they arc 
 designed and fitted by Infinite Wisdom fur the accommo<lation of inhabitants, and that in 
 all probability millions of beings are placed u[)on tiieni. Thougli our observations in relation 
 to the subserviency of the arrangements of nature to the enjoyment of sentient beings is 
 confined to this narrow scene ; yet, seeing this small portion of the universe crowded witli 
 e.vamples of utility, why sliould we imagine that Divine Goodness has not tliroughout the 
 system in like manner diffused its bounty 1 As our knowledge of the celestial phenomena 
 is extended, the probability becomes proportionably stronger that the other planets are stored 
 with inhabitants who share in the blessings of rntional and sentient existence. Their rota 
 tion, tlicir atmospheres, of which the telescope lias enabled us to detect the existence, and 
 the changes which we see going on in tliese atmospheres, so mucii resemble what we expe- 
 rience on the earth, that no man who clearly conceives them can divest his mind of the 
 thought that this is not tiio only part of the system where the Creator lias displayed his 
 bounty by giving existence to sentient beings. There is nothing that forbids us to suppose 
 that in each of the other planets there is the same inexhaustible store of sulwrdinate 
 contrivances that we see here for living creatures in every situation, possessing appropriate 
 forms, desires, and abilities. Before abandoning such an opinion, there may surely V 
 expected, from those wlio require us to do so, some goo<l reason for its rejection. 
 
 In regard to the fi.ved stars, as the sun, if viewed from a sufficient distance, would be 
 diminished into a linniiious point, v.'hile the planets that revolve round him would become 
 invisible; so, on the cither hnnd, it is highly probable that each fixed star is itself a sun, and 
 the centre of a partieuiiir system, being surrounded witli a certain number of planets and 
 comets, wliicli, at ditli'rent distances and in different periods, perform their revolutions 
 around it. 
 
 There npperirs .■stroiiir reason to suppose tlmt the sun, with hin accompanying planets, hall 
 a mntioti amnvfr /.'.'• find .•■liirs, round a centre. From a comparison of ancient and modern 
 
 Vor,. [. ' !'>' 
 
 :■:' itt 
 
 .: l! 
 
1 
 
 :i: 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Hii 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 134 
 
 PRINCIPIJIS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt II. 
 
 observations, it appears tlmt while tlie stars in one quarter of the heavens are receding from 
 each otiier, those in the opposite region are griulually approaching. Dr. Herschel has 
 found that these motions of tlie star.-* are nearly in the direction that would result from a 
 motion of the sun towards the constellation of Hercules. It is the opinion of Lalandc that 
 there is a kind of equilibrium among all the systems of the universe, and that they liave a 
 periodic circulation about their common centre of gravity. 
 
 TABULAR VIEW OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 I. SECONDARY PLANETS. 
 
 1. The Moom. 
 
 Revolutiona. 
 
 r n. H. M. a. 
 
 ; Synodical 29 12 44 2.9 
 
 ' AiinmnlUtic 27 13 IH 37.4 
 
 ! Biilereal 27 7 43 11.5 
 
 I Trniiical 27 7 43 4.7 
 
 I Nodical 27 5 S 30.0 
 
 Inclination nf Orbit to ( .. a, ahi a 
 planeof Ecliptic... i ^ ° *' " 
 Oreatpr svini-axis of Orbit — 1.0000(10 
 Eccentricity = .054844 
 
 Seinidiamcler nf Terrettrial Equator 
 Moon'a mean distance => 59.96435. 
 
 in milci ~ 237000. 
 Moon's mean diameter — 21G0 miles. 
 Her volume — ^ of volume of the Earth 
 
 1. 
 
 Her ninas = 
 
 ' of mass of the Earth. 
 
 Hur density » j-^ — .615 of density of the Earth. 
 Her light is ^^th of the light of the Sun. 
 
 2. Satellites of Jupiter. 
 
 3. Satellites or Saturn. 
 
 4. Satellites uf Uranus. 
 
 Is 
 
 Sidereal 
 Revolution. 
 
 Mean distance 
 
 in sainidiame- 
 
 ter>*()fjupiter*8 
 
 Equator. 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 3 
 4 
 
 D. n. M. 
 1 18 28 
 3 13 14 
 7 8 43 
 IS IG 32 
 
 6.049 
 
 9.623 
 
 15.350 
 
 26.098 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 •£ 
 
 
 Mean distance 
 
 ^ 
 
 Sidereal 
 
 in scmidiame- 
 
 V 
 
 Revolution. 
 
 tcrs of Saturn's 
 
 ■2 
 
 
 Equator. 
 
 
 D. H. M. 
 
 
 1 
 
 22 38 
 
 .3.351 
 
 2 
 
 1 6 .53 
 
 4.300 
 
 3 
 
 1 21 18 
 
 5.284 
 
 4 
 
 2 17 45 
 
 6.81!l 
 
 5 
 
 4 12 45 
 
 9..'(24 
 
 fi 
 
 15 22 41 
 
 22.081 
 
 7 
 
 79 7 55 
 
 64.359 
 
 t 
 
 
 ■ ■■■-! 
 
 Mean distance 
 
 
 Sidcical 
 
 in seniidiamt- 
 
 &) 
 
 Rcvokition. 
 
 lers of I'ra- 
 
 »1 
 
 
 nus's Equator. 
 
 
 D. H. M. 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 21 25 
 
 13.120 
 
 2 
 
 8 16 m 
 
 17.028 
 
 3 
 
 10 23 4 
 
 19.845 
 
 4 
 
 13 10 SO 
 
 22.753 
 
 5 
 
 38 1 48 
 
 45.507 
 
 6 
 
 107 16 40 
 
 91.008 
 
 n. PRIMARY PLANETS AND SUN. 
 
 FUiuKi. 
 
 SUetal Period. 
 
 Mran 
 Disunce. 
 
 Ecwntricily. 
 
 MeaDl.Dn{itude. 
 Jan 1, IWI. 
 
 IjoTX. I'erhclioii. 
 Jan.!, 1K)I. 
 
 Inclio.urOrbil. 
 Jan. 1, irei. 
 
 Lone. Nodea. 
 Jan. 1,1801. 
 
 Mein DaUr 
 MoUon in Orbit. 
 
 
 D. 
 
 
 
 / II 
 
 * II 
 
 o 1 II 
 
 ' II 
 
 O / " 
 
 
 87.9«)2.iH) 
 
 0.3fi70!'RI 
 
 .205'iUM 
 
 166 48.6 
 
 74 21 46.9 
 
 7 9.1 
 
 45 67 30.9 
 
 4 5 32.6 
 
 Venus . . . 
 
 ?i4.1007«i9 
 
 0.72W1I6 
 
 .ooei«o:4 
 
 II 31 3 
 
 12!) 43 53.1 
 
 3 23 28.3 
 
 74 54 129 
 
 1 36 7.8 
 
 Earth . . . 
 
 36>.lf>Klel2 
 
 1.0000000 
 
 .01679357 
 
 100 3!l 10.J 
 
 99 30 60 
 
 
 
 69 8.3 
 
 Mm. . . . 
 
 69«.97Pli43« 
 
 l.r,236iS3 
 
 .ora307no 
 
 64 22 55..i 
 
 332 23 56 6 
 
 1 51 6.2 
 
 48 3.5 
 
 31 86.7 
 
 Vnia . . . 
 
 1325.7431 
 
 2.387*700 
 
 .OH913000 
 
 ■27« 30 0.4 
 
 r219 23 44.4 
 
 r 7 S 90 
 
 riio 13 l«.2 
 
 16 17.9 
 
 
 i,sw.6eon 
 
 a.OfiSOODO 
 
 .25781*0 
 
 §1200 16 19.1 
 »Sl23 16 11.9 
 
 S 53 33 46.0 
 2il47 7 3I..T 
 
 S 13 4 9.7 
 S 1 10 37 26.2 
 
 ia J 171 7 40.4 
 g 1 fO 41 24.0 
 
 13 32.9 
 
 rem . . . 
 
 1681.3931 
 
 2.76724-.0 
 
 .07843900 
 
 > 12 60.9 
 
 Pal 1.11 . . . 
 
 I6W53S8 
 
 2.7:2|i8«0 
 
 .24I64I<00 
 
 . 108 24 57.9 
 
 .121 7 4.3 
 
 .34 34 5i.O 
 
 (.172 30 26.8 
 
 12 48.4 
 
 
 43.1-2.'.»tai2 
 
 5.2027760 
 
 .04X16210 
 
 112 l.'>23.0 
 
 13 P 3<.6 
 
 1 IS 51.3 
 
 98 26 18.9 
 
 4 69.3 
 
 .^(urn . . . 
 
 I07.W.JI9SI74 
 
 9..'^:W7f«l 
 
 .056l«»0 
 
 135 20 6.5 
 
 89 9 20.8 
 
 2 29 35.7 
 
 111 56 37.4 
 
 1 0.« 
 
 Crauut . . . 
 
 30686. 8120829« 
 
 10.1H-23ilOO 
 
 .Moergss 
 
 177 48 23.0 
 
 167 31 16.1 
 
 4C28.4 
 
 72 59 36.3 
 
 42.4 
 
 Planets 
 nnd 
 Sun. 
 
 1 
 
 True 
 Diameter. 
 
 Volume. 
 
 Mass. 
 
 Density. 
 
 (Irnvi. 
 
 Sidcrcnl Ro- 
 tation. 
 
 Tnclinption of Axis 
 to Ajifl of Ecliptic. 
 
 LiRht 
 
 and 
 
 Heat. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h. m. s. 
 
 o ' " 
 
 
 Mercury 
 
 0.398 
 
 0.398 
 
 L'lj-imriT 
 
 ■ • 
 
 1.0324 5 28 
 
 not known 
 
 6.680 
 
 Venus 
 
 0.975 
 
 0.927 
 
 IffSSTT 
 
 - . 
 
 0.9823 21 7 
 
 not exactly known 
 
 1.911 
 
 Earth 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 35T5T? 
 
 3.9320 
 
 1.00 
 
 24 
 
 23 ' 27 50.5 
 
 1.000 
 
 Mars 
 
 OMl 
 
 0.139 
 
 23t:«32ff 
 
 . . 
 
 .33 
 
 24 39 21 
 
 30 19 10.8 
 
 0.431 ' 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 10.860 
 
 1280.900 
 
 Til'^ff-7 
 
 .9924 
 
 2.72 
 
 9 55 .50 
 
 3 5 30.0 
 
 0.037 
 
 Saturn 
 
 9.982 
 
 • 995.0(M) 
 
 flJ|l5 
 
 .mw 
 
 1.01 
 
 10 29 17 
 
 31 19 
 
 0.011 
 
 Uranus 
 
 4..T:}2 
 
 80.490 
 
 T?5rB 
 
 LIOOO 
 
 . . 
 
 unknown 
 
 not known 
 
 0.0031 
 
 Sun 
 
 111.4.>t 
 
 1384472.0(M) 
 
 1 
 
 l.(MMH) 
 
 27.{)025 12 
 
 7 30 
 
 
 iMoon 
 
 .0275 
 
 .000 0^,00 f nil '2.41 W"^ 
 
 0.1027 7 43 
 
 1 30 10.8 
 
 1.000 
 
 1' 
 
^^. 
 
 4 S 92.8 
 
 1 36 7.ti 
 59 8J 
 31 36.T 
 16 n.9 
 
 13 31.9 
 , 12 60.9 
 12 48.4 
 4 69.3 
 2 0.6 
 42.4 
 
 UgM 
 lllltl 
 
 Iliat. 
 
 6.680 
 
 1.911 
 
 1.000 
 
 0.431 
 
 0.0371 
 
 0.011 
 
 0.003 
 
 1 1.000 
 
 Book L FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OP THE EARTH. 18B 
 
 CIIAl'TER XIX. 
 
 FIGURE AND M.^GNITUDE OF THE EARTH. 
 
 VVb have sufficiently establisheil the impuitant proposition that the earth is a round body ; 
 and liave inferred from the figure of its simdow, as seen on the moon's disc in lunar eclipses, 
 that it must be a sphere, or at least that it approaches to that figure. The hypothesis of ita 
 being exactly spherical is sufficient to explain, in a satisfactory manner, the general appear- 
 ance of the heavens, a.<! seen from difTerent points of its surface; and before the true doctrine 
 of motion and the law of gravitation, which connects the most remote bodies in tlic universe, 
 were discovered, a sphere was considered to be an exact representation of ita shape, and the 
 ingenuity of mathematicians was exerted to discover its magnitude. 
 
 The determination of the magnitude of the earth might appear, to one altogether ignorant 
 of mathematical science, as a problem of insuperable difficulty, and, indeed, as too sublime to 
 be resolved by a human being. If, however, we suppose the earth an exact sphere, the 
 theory of the solution is by no means difficult ; it is within the bounds of elementary geome- 
 try, and has been known from the earliest ages : but the case is very difTerent with the 
 practice. In the actual resolution, instruments of the greatest nicety are required ; and to 
 
 ftroduco these, the ingenuity of man has been tasked to the utmost during the last two 
 lundred years ; besides, the application of them demands, in addition to liie principles of 
 geometry, some of the most refined tiieories in physics : so that, on the whole, lew problems 
 present a more ample field for the exertion of the mind of man, or have more extensively 
 called fortii the assistance of arts and sciences. 
 It is now about two thousand years since Eratosthenes attempted to resolve this important 
 problem. He knew that on the day of the summer solstice 
 the sun illuminated the bottom of a well at Syene. At the 
 same instant he observed at Alexandria that the sun was 7° 
 12' from the zenith : and it was supposed that Syene was due 
 south from that place, and therefore tliat both were under the 
 same meridian. Let C (Jig. 42.) be the earth's centre, A 
 Alexandria, Z its zenith in tlie heavens, B Syene, and S the 
 sun at the instant when it illuminated tiie bottom of tlie well, 
 and consequently was in tlie zenith of that place. The angu- 
 lar measure of the celestial arc Z S, or the corresponding ter- 
 restrial arc A B, is the angle Z C S at tiie earth's centre. 
 Eratostlienes observed the angle Z A S, which by the element* 
 of geometry, is less than tiie former by the angle A S C. 
 However, tnis difference is so small, that it may be altogether 
 neglected in the present case ; and thus the angle A C B will 
 bo nearly 7° 12', that is, one fiftieth part of 360° ; and conse- 
 quently the arc A B of the terrestrial meridian one fiftieth of 
 ttie earth's circumference. The distance between Alexandria and Syene had been deter- 
 mined to be 5000 stadia. Hence it immediately followed that the earth's circumference was 
 2r)0,000 stadia. As it could not be supposed that this result was very accurate, Eratos- 
 thenes reckoned the circumference to be 252,000 stadia, which give in round numbers 700 
 stadia to the length of a degree. 
 
 The geometrical principle here employed was quite correct, and indeed was the same 
 which is used at this time ; but the data were very inaccurate and uncertain, for Syene, 
 instead of being exactly south from Alexandria, lies considerably to the east; and it may 
 well be supposed that the assigned distance between Alexandria and Syene was not an 
 accurate measurement, but merely a rude approximation. It is impossible, however, now to 
 determine how near Eratostlienes came to the truth, for want of a knowledge of the exact 
 length of the stadium by which the distance was reckoned. 
 
 The principles by which Eratosthenes was directed in his measurement of the earth 
 appear to have been afterwards employed by Posidonius. This astronomer had remarked, 
 that at RIkxIos the stiir Canopus was just visible in the horizon, but never rose alwve it ; 
 while at Alexandria it attii inod an altitude of 7-J°, or j jth part of the circumference of a great 
 circle. The direct distance between tiioso two places, wliich were supposed to be on the 
 same meridian, was iifcoiiiited to he .')000 stadia; and therefore, according to this observa- 
 tion, the circumferciici- should have been 240,000: but here the uncertainty of a distance 
 reckoned by a sea-voyage, not to speak of other causes of error, renders the conclusion of 
 no value. 
 
 About tlio ynar 800 of the Christian era, the caliph Almaman directed that his astro- 
 iioinors should inc:i.'<uro a degree of the innridiau in the plains of Meso|)otamifi. The method 
 which tlii'y oiiiployod was suscoptiblf of greater accuracy than that of the Greeks. They 
 divided tliernselvcs into two parties: aftrr oljscrviiig the altitude of the polo, one went 
 directly north and the other south, measuring as they proceeded, and taking from time to 
 
 
 '.;;':? 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 ■ • ii * 
 
 * l! 
 
 [<•' 
 
 i 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 - u 
 
 111 
 
 ^^ 
 
 1 
 
186 
 
 PRmCII'IJIS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part II 
 
 time the altitude of tlio polo, until ciicli jwrty Imd chiinijro:! its latitude by a dcffreo. Thus 
 the nioasurc of two dotfrccs was olitainod ; but, at tin; present tiiiif, our iirnorunci! of tlio 
 fixact loufjth of tiic unit of inoasure rcndci-s nil their labour useless to us, even if (what is 
 very unlikely) its accuracy niifjht iiavo been relied on. It ajipcnrs, however, that their 
 
 litude 
 
 Ics 
 
 than that of the astronomer of 
 
 estimation of the earth' 
 Alexandria. 
 
 The method of Eratosthenes was practised in modern limes, first by Fernel, a Flemish 
 physician. He travelled from Paris towards Amiens, whidi places arc nearly under the 
 same meridian, until he had passed over a defjree of latitude ; and, by a contrivance attached 
 to the wheel of his carriaffo, he ascertained the muid)er of revolutions it made in that dis- 
 tance. In this way he found the lenrrth of the defrroc- to Ik; 57,070 Frencli toises. 
 
 The same dnirrce was afterwards measured by La faille, and found to be .57,074 toises. 
 The near nnrreement of Pernors result with this last, obtained by a more accurate and 
 scientific process, is very remarkable. 
 
 The Dutch astronomer Snellius was the first who attempted to resolve this most inter- 
 esting and difficult problem in practical jjeometry with those scientific aids which its import- 
 ance required. In the year 1(!17 he published his Eniloslhenes Batuvus, in which ho ha» 
 detailed the whole process. The extreme points of his meridional arc are terminated in the 
 parallels of Alcmaor, in lat. ry2° 40J', and Bergen-op-Zoom, lat. 51° 29', the arc between 
 them beinjj 1° 11 J'. He fonned a series of triangles between these places alonfj the earth'n 
 surface, and determined (as well as the imperfect instruments of the time enabled him to 
 determine) their angles; and by several ba.se lines, actually measured, he found their sides. 
 He reduced the (xwitions of his stations to the meridian ; and he concluded that a degree of 
 the meridian was 28,500 perches, which were equivalent to 55,1(K) toises of that period ; 
 which, however, were rather longer than the toise as it is now estimated. The error of 
 Snellius appears to have been about 2000 toises on the length of a degree, of which 19(M) 
 may have arisen from the error in measuring the celestial arc, and the rest from the imper- 
 fection of his geodetical measurements. Snellius measured his original base over again, 
 and corrected his concluaioii : he died, however, before he could publi.sh the result. Cassini 
 made certain correction.s in his calculations, by which the length of the degree came out 
 56,075 toi.-es; and Muschenbroek, by an e.vamination of Snellius's jiapers, found that the 
 degree ought to have been reckoned 57,033 toises. 
 
 Richard Norwood made a remarkable approximation to the true length of a degree in 
 1635, by apparently inadeciuato moans. He measured the distance between London and 
 York, observing the bearings as he proceeded, and reducing all to the direction of the 
 meridian and the horizontal plane. He determined the difference of latitude to be 2° 28' ; and 
 from the whole distance he determined the degree to be 367,17() feet English, or 57,800 toises. 
 
 As far as pure mathematical theory was contorned, the metiiod of Snellius was excellent; 
 the chief imperfection was in his instruments: but an immens(! improvement was made by 
 Picard, in the application of the telescope and the micrometer to the measurement of 
 angles; and, with the assistance of instruuients constructed on tlie new principle, this astro- 
 nomer, by tlie direction of the French Academy, began tiio measurement of an arc of the 
 meridian, taking for its extremities the parallels of Sourdon near Amiens, and Malvoisine. 
 His general manner of conducting the proce.ss was the same as that of Snellius. He con- 
 nected the extreme parallels by a series of triangles, the sides of which were determined 
 from a base of 5003 toises, measured twice with great care at one extremity of the series. 
 There was a base of verilication of 3002 toi.ses measured at the other extremity. The 
 horizontal angles were measured by a quadrant of thirty-eight inches' radius; and the 
 celestial arc, which was about V 12', by a sector ten feet in radius. He concluded the 
 length of a degree to h(> 57,060 toises. 
 
 This was the first measurement in which confldeneo could be placed. It is true there 
 wore several elements wanting in the determination of the celestial arc, owing to the imper- 
 fect state of astronomicnl seienre nt that time; but, by a fortunate compensation, the errors 
 thence arising corrected each otlier. Tliismeasuroment of Picard wasof sor.'ice to Newton, 
 in verifying his happy thought of the law of universal gravitation. 
 
 The measurement begun by Picard was continued northward to Dunkirk by La Hire , 
 and in the opposite direction, as ftr as Pcrpignan, by the second Cassini, who published the 
 whole in 1718, in a work on the magnitude and figure of tiio earth. 
 
 The labour of the French astrr)nomer3 determined the magnitude of the earth with a 
 degree of accuracy sufl^cient for the general purposes of geography; but science was now 
 proceeding with rapid strides, and a new question was agitated, — Is the earth an o.vact 
 sphere, as had been hitherto supjio.sod ! or, if it bo not a sphere, what is its true figure? 
 
 Huygens and Newton had establisheil the doctrine of the centrifiigal force of biMlies 
 revolving in circles ; and from this it was justly inferred that the earth, in c/)nsequence of 
 its rotation on an axis, ine.-t necessarily deviate from a spherical figure, and assume tiiat of 
 an oblate s|)lieroid; tint is, n sulid geueriti^d l)y the revolution of an ellipse on its 'esser 
 axis, the extremities of whi' 'i in this case were the polo.s. 
 
• 11 
 
 no there 
 It' impor- 
 l^c errors- 
 
 iNowton, 
 
 1, a Hire, 
 Ishod thi; 
 
 li with a 
 Ivvas now 
 Ln exact 
 111 re ! 
 Tit' bodies 
 licnee ot" 
 that of 
 Its 'esser 
 
 Book I. 
 
 FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OP THE EARTH. 
 
 137 
 
 Tliis opinion received support from some astronomical observations made by Riciier, who 
 was sent l)y tiic Academy of ycionces, in 1672, to Cayenne. He tiierc found that his clock, 
 whicii liad been regulated to nuian time at I'aris, went slower by a sensible quantity. This 
 interesting observation showed that the weight of the pendulum was less at the ei^uatorthan 
 it had been at Furis; and hence the increase of the force of gravity in proceeding from tlie 
 o(iiiator towards the iwle, as shown theoretically by Newton, was completely established ; 
 and consequently also the oblatenesa of the earth at the poles, and its elevation at the equator, 
 which arc tiic confjequence of this diminution. 
 
 If the earth were a perfect sphere, then all the degrees 
 of the terrestrial meridian from the equator to the pole 
 would be c(\ua.\ in length. But this will by no means be 
 the case if tiie eartli be a spheroid. For, supiwsiug the 
 earth to be an oblate spheroid {Jig. 43.), of which the 
 lesser axis is P P', that diameter of tlie earth which 
 passes through P P' the poles. Let E Q. be any equa- 
 torial diameter, and E P Q P' a section of the earth, 
 through tlie axis P P', which will therefore be a terres- 
 trial meridian. Because the direction of gravity is always 
 in a line perpendicular to the eartli's surface ; at tlie 
 poles and equator, the direction of gravity will pass 
 through the centre. It will be otherwise, however, at any jwint, D, between the equator 
 mid jxiles; fur, by the nature of the ellipse, a line, 1) F, drawn perpendicular to the curve 
 iit D will pass on one side of the centre. Now let us suppose that li F, H F, are two straight 
 linos perpendicular to the earth's, surface at D arJ H, which meet in P, and contain an 
 angle D F H, of one degree; also let G K, L K, be other two lines perpendicular to the 
 earth's surface at points nearer the jiole ; and suppose these also to contoin an angle G K L, 
 of one degree. The elliptic arc D H, because of its smollness, may lie considered as an arc 
 of a circle of which D P or H F is the radius ; and similarly the elliptic arc G L may be 
 considered as an arc of a circle whose radius is G K or L K. The curvature of tlie ellipse 
 is greatest at E, the extremity of the greater axis, and gradually decreases to P, the 
 extremity of the lesser axis, where it is least Hence the arc D H will be more incurvated 
 than G F ; and since the angles at F and K are equal, eacii being one degree, the almost 
 equal lines G K, L K, will be greater than tlie almost equal lines D H, H F ; and the arc 
 G L must tlioreibrc be greater than tlie arc D H. Thus, if the earth is an oblate spheroid, 
 a degree of the terrestrial meridian will, by actual measurement, be found to be least at tlie 
 equator; and the degrees will gradually increase as we proceed towards either pole. 
 
 It is manifest tliat the case would be just the reverse if the earth were an oblong .spheroid, 
 generated by the rotation of an ellipse on its greater axis E Q. Hence the important question, 
 What is the figure of the terrestrial meridian ] may be resolved by measuring arcs of the 
 meridian in diHcrcnt latitudes. 
 
 None of Uie measurements before that begun by Picard were made with such accuracy 
 as to enable inatliematicians to resolve the ([ucstion. But it was then supjxjsed that this 
 had been performed with such care as to afford the necessary datii. Sucii, however, appears 
 not to iiave been the case. The degrees actually measured were found to be unequal; 
 but, instead of increasing in going from south to north, the reverse was supposed to be the 
 tact ; and had this been really true, the polar axis would have been greater than the equa- 
 torial, — a conclusion quite in opposition to that derivable from the doctrine of centrifugal 
 force. 
 
 To determine this most important question, the Academy of Sciences resolved that degrees 
 of the meridian should be ineaf>ured in various latitudes which niiglit diflcr as much im 
 possible ; and it was determined that one party should be sent to the neighbourhood of the 
 equator, and another to tlie polar circle. Two scientific expeditions were accordingly 
 undertaken. Maiipertuis, Clairaut, Coiniis, Lenionnier, and Outhier, went to Lapland, where 
 the Swedish astronomer Celsius joined them ; and there they measured an arc of hfly-seven 
 minutes of a degree, from which I hoy concluded that a degree under the polar circle, viz. in 
 lat. 66° 20', was 57,419 toisos, that is, about 349 toises greater than that of Paris. This 
 degree has been since remoasurcd with great care by Svanberg and other Swedish mathe- 
 maticians, who found it to be .'}7,1!)6 toises. This is 223 toises less tlian the determination 
 of the French academicans ; but it is certainly more correct 
 
 The other party, composed of (lodiii, Bouguijr, and La Condamine, performed a similar 
 but more extensive operation in Peru. After ten years' labour, they, with the assistance of 
 two Spanish officers, Don Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa, accomplished the measuremeni 
 of an arc of about 3° 7'. From this they concluded that the length of a degree was r)6,758 
 toises, which was shorter than the French degree by 302 toisos. Those measuronients set 
 the question completely at rest. There could no longer be any doubt that tlio polar diame- 
 ter of tlie earth was shorter than the equatorial. 
 The measurement of different degrees has been since performed many times in dilforent 
 Vol. I. 12* S 
 
 «Y 
 
138 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part II, 
 
 H 
 
 ^1 
 
 H 
 
 I 
 
 Wmi 
 
 »i .. I 
 
 ii li ''. ' 
 
 
 countries ; as apain in Franco, and also at the Cupe of Good Hopn, by T,a Ctiillo ; in Italy, by 
 Mairo, UohcovIcIi, and Beccaria; in Pennsylvania, by Mason ana Dixon; in Hini;,mry, by 
 Lifsjriini^; in India, by Lanibton. 
 
 Tlicro linve lieen, in ad<lition to these, two admeasurements of arcs of the meridian which 
 deserve piirticidur notice, on account of their e-dent, the excellence of the instruments 
 omploycil, and the skill with which the operations iiave been conducted. We nro indebted 
 to the spirit of refortn and improvement which spruni; out of the French revolution t()r one 
 of these, and to the liberal and enlifjhtened views of the Enjj^lish government lor the other. 
 
 The {Treat diversity in the units of a measure is an evil which lias been lonji; felt and com- 
 plained of in every commeicial cotnitry. The French Constitutional Assembly took up this 
 most important subject in the year 1790 ; and, at the suffgestion of Talleyrand, it was decreed, 
 tliat the king' should request his Britannic majesty to engoge the parliament of England to 
 concur with the National Assembly in fixing a natural unit of weights and measures; that, 
 under the auspicos of the two nations, commissioners of the Academy of Sciences, and an 
 equal nund)cr of member? of the Royal Society of liondon, should determine the length of 
 the pendulum in i: e latitude of 45°, or other preferable latitude, and from this deduce an 
 invariable standard for all weights and measures. 
 
 The Academy named a commission, composed of Borda, Lagrange, Laplace, Monge, and 
 Condoroi.'t, who gave a rcjwrt, which is printed in the Memoirs of the Academy for 1788. 
 Three difl'ercnt fundamental units were suggested in their report The first is the pendulum 
 which beats seconds in u given parallel. That of 45° was thought preferable to any other, 
 because there the pendulum is a mean among all those which beat seconds in the dillerent 
 latitudes between the equator and the pole. They observed, however, that the pendulum 
 contains a heterogeneous element, namely, time ; and an arbitrary element, viz. the division 
 of the day into 86,400 seconds. They, therefore, considered it to be less proper as a standard 
 unit of lineal measure, than another which they regarded as unexcepi ionable. This is the 
 length of a quadrant of the meridian, a linear magnitude of the saii kind as the thing to 
 be determined, and therefore more natural than tiie pendulum, whicii avolved the considera- 
 tion of time. There is yet another linear unit, namely, the circumference of the earth's 
 equator. But this is not better known than the elliptic meridian ; nor does it admit of being 
 determined with so much precision. On the whole, therefore, it wos recommcnd(>d that the 
 quadrant of the meridian should be taken as the primary unit, and that its ten-millionth part 
 (a lineal space about SOVi Engli.«h inches) should be the ordinary unit for the measurements 
 which occur in the affairs of life. This was named a metre. 
 
 Although in the beginning it had been proposec' to invite the English philosophers to assist 
 in establishing a standard unit, yet, as the object to be attained could be accomplished per- 
 fectly by the French mathematicians, without any foreign aid, it was reconinnmded to 
 commence immediately the measurement of the arc of the meridian between Dunkirk and 
 Barcelona, an extent of nearly 9J degrees. The operations necessary for this labour were, 
 1. To determine the difTerenco of latitude between Dunkirk and Barcelona; and, in general, 
 to make such astronomical observations on the whole line as might be thought useful. 2. To 
 measure again the bases which had served for the measurement of the degree made at Paris, 
 and the construction of the map of France. 3. To verify by new observations the series of 
 triangles which had formerly been employed for the measurement of the meridian, and to 
 prolong them to Barcelona. 4. To make, at the 45th degree, such observations as might 
 determine the number of vibrations which a pendulum equal in length to one ten-millionth 
 part of tlie meridian would make in a day, in a vacnttm at the level of the son, nnd at the 
 temperature of molting ice, in order that, this number being once known, the tm'Ire might be 
 determined at any time by the length of the pendulum. In this way the advantages of the 
 two methods of forming a standard would be united. 5. To verify by new experiments the 
 specific gravity of pure water in a vacuum, and at the temperature of water just beginning 
 to freeze. 6. And lastly. To reduce all tlic old mea.«ures of every kind employed in com- 
 merce to the new standards. 
 
 To accomplish these object.s, it was recommended that six distinct comniissini.nrs should 
 bo appointed. This was done by a decree of the National Assembly, dated 2fith March, 
 1791 ; only it was thought to be bettor to commit the astronomical and geodetical observa- 
 tions to a single commission. Immediately directions were given for the construction of the 
 necessary instruments. Lenoir, a celebrated French artist, was em])loyed to make repeating 
 circles, long rules of platina (or the measurement of the bases, and a shorter rule ; also, balls 
 of ])latina and gold for the pendulum observations. 
 
 .About the middle of the year 1792, Cassini and Borda began a series of experiments on 
 the pendulum; and, in the following year, Ijavoisier was engaged in experiments on the 
 expansion of metals. And alxiut the same time Merliain began his operations i;)r tiic deter- 
 miuation of the portion of the meridian between Rodez and Barcelona, an extent of 170,000 
 tnises. Delaiiibre liad undertaken the portion of the arc between Dunkirk and Rodez, 
 ;W,fl(H) toiscs in extent. Thin, however, had been twice measured before; and for this 
 rea.son the labour was expect; 1 to bo less than was requisite for the other portion, which 
 
r 
 
 AHT II. 
 
 tiily.hy 
 rury, by 
 
 n which 
 ruments 
 indebted 
 
 tor one 
 
 other, 
 md coin- 
 ; up this 
 decreed, 
 ijjliind to 
 cs; that, 
 ^, and tin 
 length of 
 educe un 
 
 ongc, and 
 
 for 1788. 
 pendulum 
 any other, 
 a dilTerent 
 peniUilum 
 le division 
 a standard 
 ^his is the 
 le tiling to 
 
 considera- 
 thc earth's 
 lit of being 
 c<(l that the 
 Uionth part 
 asurements 
 
 ■rs to assist 
 ..ishcd per- 
 dniended to 
 .inkirk and 
 .hour were, 
 in general, 
 fill. 2. To 
 le at Paris, 
 „ series of 
 ian, and to 
 aa might 
 n-millionth 
 and at the 
 ■c iniglit be 
 [res of the 
 mcnts the 
 beginning 
 cd in com- 
 
 lers should 
 
 ith March, 
 
 lal observa- 
 
 Ition of the 
 
 repeating 
 
 also, balls 
 
 Iriments on 
 nts on the 
 i the deter- 
 |(.f 170.000 
 Ind Roilcz, 
 la for this 
 lion, which 
 
 Book T. 
 
 FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. 
 
 ISO 
 
 was entirely new. Besides the privations and liardships, the ordinary accompaniments, of a 
 •iervico wliich requires those who iKjrforin it to live in elevated situations, with little siulter, 
 witli few of the comforts to whicli tiiey have been accustomed, and exjMwod to tiio vicissi- 
 tudes of iieat and cold, and tiic influence of the nocturnal dews, they had to encounter iiie 
 perils arising from a disorganized state of society. Mechain was stopped in the iielghbour- 
 liood of Paris; but wlien he pursued his labours at u distance Irom the capital, lie met 
 with no tiirtiier interruption ; while Delambre, in the north of France, was otlen exposed 
 to tiie most imminent danger. In the heat of the French revolution, the people were 
 jealous of what they did not understand ; and the astronomers were at once exiKjsed to the 
 machinations of their enemies at Paris, and to the brutality of the ignorant jicasants in the 
 provinces. 
 
 In the course of their operations they measured two bases, on the accurate determination 
 of which the utility of all their labours was to depend. One base, of 607.5.9 toises, was 
 measured by Delambre at Molun ; and the other, of 6006.2478 toises, at Perpignan. The 
 distance between them was 860,330 toises, nlwut 436 English miles. They were connected 
 by a chain of triangles, the sides and angles of which were all known ; so tliat the length 
 of one base being known, that of the other might be found by computation. It is a remark- 
 able fact, that when the base of Perpignan was interred by calculation irom that of Mclun, 
 tlie result was found to be only ten or eleven inches less than that obtained by actual mea- 
 surement. This striking agreement afibrds a strong presumptive proof of the accuracy with 
 which the operations had been conducted. 
 
 The determination of the latitudes of the two extremities of the arc was also a matter 
 of the utmost importance. The pains wliich the astronomers took to arrive at true results 
 are almost incredible. Delambre made 800 observations to ascertain the true latitude of the 
 Dunkirk extremity ; and a corresponding degree of attention was bestowed on different 
 intermediate points. 
 
 This most imjiortant undertaking vms at last, oftcr seven years' labour, brought to a con- 
 clusion in the year 1799. Although the result was, in its first application, to be directed to 
 the establishment of a standard unit of lineal measure for the French nation, yet the advan- 
 tages which may be deduced from it extended mucli farther, and were available to every 
 nation enlightened by science. For this rca.son, the states living in peace with France had 
 been invited to send eminent mathematicians and astronomers to assist in a rigorous exami- 
 nation of every step of the operation. The astronomical and geodetical observations, in 
 particular, were subjected to the examination of Tralles, the deputy of the Helvetian republic; 
 Van Swindell, tiie Batavian deputy ; and the two French philosophers Laplace and Lcgendre. 
 They entered into all the details of the measurement of the bases ; and they examined the 
 three angles of every triangle, and determined their values. The calculations were then 
 separately performed by four different persons — Tralles, Van Swinden, Legendre, and De- 
 lambre ; and this last astronomer calculated the length of the meridian by mur different and 
 independent methotls ; and a report was made to the National Institute at Paris, in June 
 1799, in the name of the Class of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, on the Measure of 
 the Meridian of France, and its Results. 
 
 The general fact, that the degrees of the meridian increase as we recede from the equator 
 towards the pole, was again fully confirmed ; so that the oblateness of the earth in the 
 direction of the polar axis is a truth now placed beyond all controversy. Notwithstanding, 
 however, the almost incredible care with which the operations were conducted, the exact 
 quantity of this compression was still letl in some uncertainty. The limits between which 
 the true measure of the oblateness is contained are, however, narrower ; and it is likely 
 that the problem. What is flic exact proportion of the polar to the equatorial axis 1 does 
 not, from its nature, admit of a nearer approximation to the truth than has been already 
 obtained. 
 
 If we could suppose the measurements of lines and angles to bo perfectly correct, it 
 would follow, that although on the whole, taking considerable intervals, the length of arcs 
 of the meridian corresponding to equal celestial arcs go on increasing from south to north, 
 yet the law of the increase is irregular, and not that which ought to result from an exact 
 elliptic meridian. The result of the measurement will be seen in the following table ; — 
 
 1 Latitudes. 
 
 Intervals. 
 
 Intervals in 
 Toises. 
 
 Length of a 
 Degree. 
 
 Mean 
 Latitude. 
 
 Arc of one 
 Second. 
 
 . o ' " 
 Dunkirk . 51 S 9.20 
 r.in(lii.'oa 4S 50 49 :j7 
 Kvnin ' 4ti 10 42.54 
 c;nrrnssono ^ 43 12 54 ;)() 
 Montjoiiy 41 21 44.'.H5 
 
 f " 
 
 2 11 lO.m 
 2 40 0.83 
 2 57 48.24 
 
 1 51 0.34 
 
 124944.8 
 15'.K9.3.1 
 ltiCH4ti.7 
 105199.0 
 
 Toises. 
 S-OPn.liS 
 570ti9.31 
 5(1977.80 
 5G94G.B8 
 
 O ' " 
 
 49 .W 29.30 
 47 30 45.91 
 44 41 4H.37 
 42 17 19.00 
 
 Toises 
 1.1.8,59283 
 15.M2588 
 1.V827107 
 15.H18508 
 
 !;■•!. 
 
 •ill 
 
 
 r^:^ 
 
 .•ifii 
 
 t-i ! 
 
 IMI 
 

 ^n I 
 
 140 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt II. 
 
 From this table \vc see that tlie Icnijlli of a dogrco in tlio four iiioiin latitudes goes on in- 
 creasing. Also, from tiia column of moan littituilos, iiiul Hint of tlin length of a dogrne, it 
 appears that n diminution of '2° 25' 4!}".39 in the first mean latitude corresponds to u 
 diminution of 13.13 toises in the tcrrowtrinl meridian: this givM 5.5 toises to a degree. 
 Again, that a farther diminution of 2° -IS' ■')7 ".5t prorhice.s a diinimition of 01.51 toises, 
 which is at the rate of 32.4 toises to a degree. Ijistly, that a third diminution of 2° 84' 
 28".T7 gives a diminution of 31.17 toises, which is at tlio rate of alKiut 12.9 toises to n 
 degree. These changes of 5.5, 32.4, and 31.17 toises in the length of a degree in going 
 southward evidently do not follow a regular law, siieli as should result from a continuous 
 increase of curvature. Wo may, therefore, reasonably suppose that all the observations 
 have not been equally perfect, or tliat, in addition to unavoidable errors in tiio estimation of 
 lines and angles, some disturbing cause must have operated : probably, an inequality of 
 density, in the density of the strata over whicli the measurement was performed, may have 
 had great influence in producing the irregularity. 
 
 The small discrepancies in the results of the observations must produce corresponding 
 uncertainty in the determination of the great objects to be attained. On the whole, how- 
 ever, it was concluded that the length of the terrestrial meridian between the pole and the 
 equator was 5,130,740 toises ; and hence the metre, or ten-millionth part of the meridian, 
 was .513074 of a toise, wliich is 443.29598<i lines. 
 
 Another most important result, deduciblc from these observations, was the ratio of the 
 polar axis of the earth to the equatorial axis. This must partake of the uncertainty of the 
 data by which it is to be determined. We may, however, assume, without sensible error, 
 that tlie equatorial axis is to the polar as 334 to 333. The difference, therefore, of the 
 semi-axes, compared w'ith the equatorial radius, will be one part in 334. The fractionjij — 
 that is, the difference of the semi-axes divided by the equatorial radius, — is called the com' 
 pression of the earth at the ])oles. 
 
 The astronomer Mechain hod contemplated the extension of the measurement of the 
 meridian beyond the limit at first proposed ; but he did not live to carry his views into execu- 
 tion. However, the undertaking was resumed, after a cessation of three years, by Biot and 
 Arago, French astronomers, with whom were associated MM. Chaix and Rodriguez, Span- 
 iards, all eminently distinguished for their talent and devotedness to the object to be ac- 
 complished. By their exertions, a train of triangles was carried southward from the jwint 
 where Mechain and Delambre hod stopped, to Formcntera, a small island near Ivica, in the 
 Mediterranean. This is the southern limit of a most interesting labour: but, if ever 
 European civilization extends into Africa, the measurement may be extended to Cape de 
 Gata, and thence across the Mediterranean to the coast of Africa, and continued to the city 
 of Algiers, which is nearly in the meridian of Paris; so tliat in time the .southern extremity 
 may be actually carried to the summit of Mount Atlas. 
 
 The other measurement of a considerable portion of the earth, to which we have alluded, 
 was begun under the auspices aiid at the expense of the British government as long ago as 
 the year 1784. At that time a memoir, drawn up by Cassini de Thary, was presented to 
 the minister (Mr. Fox) by tlie French ambassador. It stated the advantages which would 
 accrue to geography and astronomy by determining tlie difference of longitude between the 
 observatories of Greenwich and Paris, by means of a series of triangles from the former to 
 Dunkirk, to which place the meridian of Paris had previously been extended. The proposal 
 was communicated to the Royal Society ; and having been approved of, tlie execution was 
 Committed to general Roy. The first step was to measure a base, from the length of wliich 
 the sides of all the triangles might be inferred ; and a line rather more than five miles in 
 length was traced out on Hounslow Heath, and measured with the most scrupulous care. 
 It may at first sight appear a very simple matter to measure a straight line on the ground ; 
 but if the utmost exactness is required, the operation must be performed with instruments 
 constructed with the greatest ingenuity, and the application of much physical knowledge, 
 (lenerally all solid bodies expand by heat, and contract by cold ; and, moreover, some change 
 their dimensions by moisture and dryness. To counteract or to estimate precisely these 
 changes, so as to allow for them in the final result, is a matter of great difficulty, and only 
 to be accomplished by infinite care and perseverance. 
 
 The measurement of the base was first undertaken with deal rods, twenty feet in length. 
 These, however, were found to be much affected by the changes in the atmosphere from 
 moisture to dryness : they were therefore laid aside ; and instead of them glass rods, of th"" 
 bame length in frameS; were employed. This substance was chosen, from a belief that it 
 was less affected by changes of temperature than the metals. The measurement, which 
 had been begu i about the middle of Juno, was completed in the end of October; and it was 
 ibiind that the base measured exactly 27404.08 feet, or 5.19 miles. 
 
 The work in the field was not carried f irthor at that time : it was, liowover, resumed m 
 1787. A theodolite of greater dimensions than had ever been employei' in geodetical opera- 
 tions was constructed by the celebrated artist Rarnsden. Tlio series of observations was 
 lie^n at the base in the beginning of August, by General Roy, assisted by Isaac Dalby, an 
 
 ]4« 
 
Ill length. 
 
 here from 
 :l9, of th- 
 ef that it 
 
 •nt, which 
 nd itwius 
 
 •sumeil m 
 
 ical operii- 
 
 ^Ttions WHS 
 
 JDalby, an 
 
 Rook I. 
 
 FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OP THE EARTH 
 
 J41 
 
 pxooUcnt matlicmatician, and most vonicioiis nstronuniiciil observer. After mntinuinfj to a 
 ccrtJiin lonjjtii, it wns jiiilj;ed to be e.\|)i;dieiit to breuk otV, iiiiii proceed with tlie instriunoiits 
 to Dover. A series of obsurvulionti wub tiiero nmdo, in coiijunclion witii the I'Vench nciidc- 
 iniciiins Cnssini, Mecliuin, und lieffoiidro, by wlucli tin! triiin},'ulati<in between I'aris and 
 DiMil<irk lniji;iit bo coniii;cted with tiiat between Dover and Greenwich. As a check on the 
 oporutions, u l>aso of veriticalion \vun al.so measured on llonniey .Marsh; and in this, instead 
 of the (flass rods, ii steel chain, con.structed Ibr the purpose by Ranisdoii, was ein|)h)yc(l ; it 
 having been found by o.vpurienco that tliere was no sen.siHo ditrcrence in iM)int of accuracy 
 between tiiis and the ffhiss rods, while the chain manifestly was more convenient. Allor- 
 wurds, when the two basea wore coimocted by calculating the sides of the trianirh^s, it waa 
 found that Uie measured base diflered from its computed value by only twenty-eight inches, 
 although Romney Marsh is more than si.xty miles from Ilounslow Heatli. 'J ho junction of 
 the observatories of (Jreenwich and Paris, by a series of triangles, waH completed in 1788, 
 and an account of the oi>»!rations conmmnicated to the Royal Society ; but the death of Gene- 
 ral Roy again suspended the survey until the year 1701. 
 
 At this time, by the exertions of the Duke of Richmond, ftlastor-general of the Ordnance, 
 the survey was resumed with great vigour. A now theodolite, and various other instrument!?, 
 in addition to those formerly employed, were liberally supplied, and placed under the 
 direction of Captain (afterwards Colonel) Mudgc of the Royal Artillery, ond Mr. Dalby. 
 Ueginning their labours by a re-measurement of the base on Ilounslow Heath with steel 
 chains, they found the difference between this and the former, in which gloss rods were 
 employed, to be no more than two inches and three quarters. They also meosurod another 
 base of verification, 3G574.4 feet in length, on Salisbury Plain. When tliis was connected 
 by a chaui of triangle.s with the base on Ilounslow Heath, and its length computed, the 
 result did not differ more than an inch from the actual measurement ; a convincing proof of 
 the accuracy with which all the operations had been conducted. 
 
 Although an accurate survey of the island was the main object for which all this labour 
 was undertaken, yet, as its complete accomplishment rciiuires a knowledge of ttie figure and 
 dimensions of the earth, no opportunity of solving this grand problem is to ho neglected. The 
 44 t^vo stations of Boachy Head in Sussex, and Dunnose in the Isle of 
 Wight, are visible from each other, and nwrc tlian sixly-tbur miles 
 asimder, nearly in a direction from east to west: their exact distance 
 was found by the geodetical operations to be 339397 tbot. The azi- 
 muth, or bearing of the line between them with respect to the meri- 
 dian, also the latitude of Beachy Head, were determined by astro- 
 nomical observations. From these data tlio length of a degree per- 
 pendicular to the meridian was computed ; and this, compared with 
 the length of a meridional degree in the sumo latitude, gave the pro- 
 portion of the ijolar to the equatorial axis. 
 
 The result tlius obtained, however, differed consideriibly from that 
 obtained by meridional degrees. It has been found impossible to ex- 
 plain the wantof ogroement in a satisfactory way ; and, for this reason. 
 It has been thought better to rest the solution of the problem entirely 
 on the measurement of degrees of the meridian in different lati- 
 tudes, which, on the whole, give results more consistent with one 
 another. 
 
 Without noticing in detail all the steps by which the survey has 
 advanced, we shall next advert to the measurement of on arc of the 
 meridian between Dunnose, in the Isle of Wight, and Cliflon, near 
 Doncaster ; the f«)rmer in lat. 50° 37' 5", and the latter in 53° 27' 30". 
 To accomidish this, the ingenuity of the artist Ramsden was again 
 exercised in the construction of an instrument, a zenith sector, for 
 finding the latitude of the difl'erent points of the arc : this was almost 
 the last work of a man to whose genius astronomy and geography are 
 highly ind(.'bted ; and it was superior to any thing of the kind ever 
 before constructed. 
 To give the reader a distinct notion of this most important operation, we here present a 
 sketch (Jig. 44.) of the series of triangles, twenty-two in number, which connect the extreme 
 points together with the angles contained by "the straight lines which join the difterent 
 stations, and the length of their sides. The numbers marked on the diagram indicate the 
 names of the stations, by referring to the following table. The northern extremity of tlie 
 base, Beacon Hill, or Clifton, is marked No. 3. ; and the southern extremity, Dunnose, is 23 
 The names of the intermediate points may be seen in the tabic. 
 
 il 
 
 :&t 
 
 K a ( 
 
I 3 
 
 119 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 lliH: 
 
 r; 
 
 'li 
 
 ii 
 
 M 
 
 !ii 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOORAPIIV. 
 
 Part 
 
 Nil. of 
 TriuiiKli't. 
 
 Nnmoaof gtntiona. 
 
 Anitli'n riirrcrlcil 
 fur Cnlculiitiiiii. 
 
 Oinlnnce. 
 
 Fuul. 
 
 1 
 
 niiiMT Mill (W 
 
 Di'iiii Hill I UI\ 
 
 ' 6 ' " 
 
 in u 'H.n 
 
 4H 4 :i 1.7.1 
 M 4:i <.7S 
 
 From DiinnoM tn 
 
 lllltMiir llill 
 
 140580.4 
 
 IKMWi.a 
 
 
 HiiiiiioM' (ii;i) 
 
 oDtMiii Hitl 
 
 s 
 
 Di'iiii Mill H) 
 
 lliit'ir Mill <») 
 
 Jlilllicliro IW) 
 
 tW W 47 
 4H '*< 40 
 
 00 ti ;i3 
 
 Ocnii (lil) from 
 
 IliitNnr II iM 
 
 isniss.! 
 
 1350H4.0 
 
 
 IHlllirlnrn 
 
 3. 
 
 lliitii'r Mill ......tei) 
 
 lliiiil llunil 'JK) 
 
 HI :ii \\.!i 
 m irt 34.'ri 
 
 80 IS SI.'W 
 
 lliitacr Hill froin 
 
 Hiiiil Ik.nil 
 
 7Bfl05.7 
 14H03I.0 
 
 Hiiihclt'rii 10) 
 
 Hinhi-liTO 
 
 4. 
 
 HlKholiTii (Ill) 
 
 Miiiil Hi'ttil i'mS 
 
 :m 4U 15 
 
 Kl 30 14 
 
 III 5:i 31 
 
 Hilthrlcrp friiiii 
 
 llni/Mlirit llpntli 
 
 143il52.tl 
 lti(KI732 
 
 nnii«Jint lli.nih jlH) 
 
 Hind fiend 
 
 S. 
 
 lliiL'»liiit Moalh (IH) 
 
 Mi.'lirli'in Ill) 
 
 Niirtlclil (Hi) 
 
 .Vi 32 'i.y-a 
 
 411 10 17.75 
 1/^ 17 17 
 
 NiifHt'ld iVorii 
 
 10.53SI.9 
 130374. 
 
 Hidliclpro 
 
 0. 
 
 Wiiitii lli>r.(ul|i'l (17) 
 
 MichrliTu HI) 
 
 IViifflHd (Ifi) 
 
 (13 7 53.5 
 Ii3 IH 17 
 S3 33 40.5 
 
 VVIiili! Ilurnu Hill tymii 
 IViiHii.ld 
 
 130557.7 
 10HSII3.I 
 
 HIgliclnrc 
 
 7. 
 
 Wliiii' Morse Hill (17) 
 
 ;iH 4H 13.J 
 Hi 4 15 
 K 7 .T-2.5 
 
 Mrill frnin 
 
 Wliilt! Hurae Hill 
 
 140603.3 
 
 U2805.3 
 
 Hrill 1.5) 
 
 Niilficid 
 
 N. 
 
 Itrill 15) 
 
 VVhilu IIiirsG Hill 17) 
 
 Stniv on Ihi- Wi.'IJ U) 
 
 SO 14 45 
 M 45 43.5 
 fi4 50 33.5 
 
 Stnw ftiim 
 
 Whito ilnrae Hill 
 
 1343i;5.6 
 140.^(1.3 
 
 Ilrill 
 
 9. 
 
 lltill 0.1' 
 
 Hinwnn Iho Weld (M) 
 
 KiMVPlI (1.1) 
 
 33 34 43.35 
 00 .50 5 5 
 m 20 12.85 
 
 Epwoll friiiii 
 
 gtow 
 
 7M138.8 
 12H140 
 
 Drill 
 
 10. 
 
 llriii 1 151 
 
 34 23 57 5 
 PS 17.5 
 «0 33 45 
 
 Arbiiry Kill from 
 
 p:io!ia4 
 
 1465;)0 
 
 Kpwcll 13) 
 
 ArhiiryHill (13) 
 
 nrlll 
 
 11. 
 
 Arlmrv Mill (Vl) 
 
 Hit 57 5.5 
 54 4.5 lri.35 
 35 17 3ti.3.5 
 
 Corloy frnin 
 
 117403 
 
 MlltW.S 
 
 Kpwcll i;i) 
 
 C'l.rliy 11) 
 
 Epwi'll 
 
 The distanco of Biitser Hill (22.) from Dunnosc, 140580.4 fret, had been previously found, 
 by a series of triangles connectinjj these stations with the bases measured on Hounslow 
 Heath and Salisbury Plain ; but, for i^rcatcr security against error, a new ba.'ie of 26342.7 
 feet was measured on Mistcrton Carr, in the northern part of Lincolnshire. From this the 
 sides of the triangles proceeding from the north to the south were computed, as exhibited 
 in the remainder of the table. 
 
 No. nf 
 Triangleii. 
 
 Nnm(>s n( Statinna. 
 
 Angles corrected 
 for Cnlculnlion. 
 
 Diatancc. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 IS. 
 
 BiMirnn Mill /3 
 
 1 1' 
 
 20 47 30 
 (iO 17 13 
 flP .55 27 
 
 Beacon Hill f^nm 
 
 fi4 401.7 
 73321.0 
 
 NorilicMil of Itnac jl' 
 
 Smith nnd of Dnso (S 
 
 South end of Bniie 
 
 13. 
 
 Bcncoii Hill (3) 
 
 34 44 43 
 74 40 .5(1 
 70 38 22 
 
 Gringley from 
 
 North cud of Base 
 
 Beacon Hill 
 
 443,18.2 
 75008.0 
 
 North end of Base (l) 
 
 Grincley (4) 
 
 14. 
 
 Di'ncmi Hill (3) 
 
 Orimlpy (4) 
 
 South end of Bane (3) 
 
 13 57 33 
 51 11 5 
 114 51 S3 
 
 Grindley from 
 
 Beacon Hill 
 
 75008.2 
 
 03327.2 
 1.50384.8 
 
 15. 
 
 1 '■allicrai^ilxc 5) 
 
 Bnriron Hill 3l 
 
 18 40 :<8 
 13^ !• 1« 
 23 10 B 
 
 HeatherHeilKo from 
 
 Beacon Hill 
 
 OrinRley 
 
 Grinelpy 1) 
 
 16. 
 
 flnttnn Aflhllpld i A 
 
 78 47 1 
 54 52 35 
 
 46 20 24 
 
 Siitlcn Ashtield from 
 
 Oringley 
 
 ffenthprsedffe 
 
 130399.7 
 115339.9 
 
 Heathcrsodgo 5) 
 
 Grincley (4 
 
 17. 
 
 Orpit (7 
 
 Henthcrnciige (5 
 
 Sutton Ashflcld (fi) 
 
 80 28 57 
 39 8 38 
 00 33 25 
 
 Orpit from 
 
 HenthersedfTR 
 
 Hiitton Ashfteld 
 
 101fi(!0 3 
 7;i«!0.0 
 
 18. 
 
 Ifollan Hill (8^ 
 
 44 43 31 
 
 113 40 7 
 21 37 23 
 
 llollna Hill from 
 
 38375.3 
 95075 1 
 
 Sutton Ashflcid fl) 
 
 Orpit 7) 
 
 Orpit 
 
 
 
 1 19. 
 
 1 
 
 Pardon Hill (10) 
 
 HollnnHill (8) 
 
 Orpit (7) 
 
 42 58 5ft 
 74 53 37 
 
 fi2 H 24 
 
 Bardon Mill from 
 
 llollan Hill 
 
 134454.7 
 
 13.5«I5.3 
 
 Orpit 
 
 SO. 
 
 Cnstlo Bin? (0) 
 
 BnrilonHill '10) 
 
 Orpit (7) 
 
 ,M 32 43 
 08 24 3 
 56 3 14 
 
 CastJo Rintf from 
 
 1.53335.2 
 130717.8 
 
 Bardon ilill 
 
 21. 
 
 Corlcy (11) 
 
 ("nslln Rin? (») 
 
 Bnrdnn Hill (10) 
 
 ArhuryHill flS) 
 
 Corley (11) 
 
 Bnrdoii Hill (10) 
 
 72 33 40 
 47 M 42 
 .59 32 32 
 
 Corloy from 
 
 Hnrrton Hill 
 
 10(13,57.3 
 133530.7 
 
 Castle Ring 
 
 SS. 
 
 34 14 33 
 107 20 14 
 38 25 13 
 
 Arhiiry Hill from 
 
 Bardon Hill 
 
 180420.0 
 117457.1 
 
 Corley 
 
 
DookI. 
 
 FIGURE AND \fAGNITUDE OP THE EARTH. 
 
 149 
 
 iini'i 
 
 H43.%.2 
 pSOfiS.O 
 
 b50ti8.2 
 
 ir.n;Ki.9 
 
 Plfiti0 3 
 
 ;:i>^.u 
 
 P5fl7».3 
 
 b44547 
 
 llU7RH_ 
 lira57.3 
 
 i43r>.n 
 
 117457.1 
 
 Prom the Inst trinni^lu tho diNtiincc between Corlcy aii<l Arliury Hill ooineB i 
 foot. Tlii.H result Ims been tbiiml from tho biwo on Mitilertoii Ciirr: but tho sii 
 
 lout 117457.1 
 
 Biinii' ilJMtance, 
 
 deilucod from tho ba§cH on Hounxlow Hcuth and HuliHbury IMuin, cither of which ih more than 
 inOmileadixtiint from Miiitcrt(m (3arr, was found to bo 117,403 feet, only wix teet dilfereut. Here 
 wo have a rcmiirkablo proof of tho e.xtremo accuracy with which the operatioiiH havo been 
 condiu'tcd; no that, from whatever cause any uncertainty in the condusiou H()uy;lit may 
 proceed, it can hardly bo found cither in tho want of perfection in the instruments, or ot 
 eare in those who used them. 
 
 Ty olMorvationii on tho polo star, tho exact bearing of Butser Hill from Dunnoso (that is, 
 tho uziruuth or angle which tho lino joining them makes with the meridian,) was tinind : 
 
 >y 
 
 Hy these data, and by tho known lengths of tho siuca of tho trianjries, tlie ])ortions 
 of tho meridian intercepted by perpendiculars on it tVom the stations was obtained. 
 
 ed 
 
 Their 
 
 and by like observations Uio bearing of tho station at Gringloy from Clitlon was determin- 
 
 I'y P . 
 sum gave 1,0!M},337 feet for tho meridional distance en tho surface of tho earth, between 
 Dunnoso and Clitlon. Moreover, by tho zenith sector, t)ie arc of tho celestial meridian 
 between them was found to be 2' 50' 23" .38, or 2.«mS of difference of latitude. Tho 
 length of the measured arc of the meridian, viz. 1,030,3^7 feet, divided by this number, 
 gives 304,933 feet, or fl()82 fathoms for the length of a degree ir, iho iwrallel midway 
 between Dunnoso and Cliflon, which is 50° 2' 20". 
 
 In tho same way that the length of a degree, at tho miSdlo point between Cliflon and 
 Dunnoso, was determined, the length of degrees at other intermcdioto points was finmd. Tho 
 latitude of the station at Arbury Hill was carcfliUy observed with tho sector. Tho latitude 
 of Greenwich was well known; and that of Blenheim, an observatory belonging to the 
 Duke of Marlborough, had been determined from five years' observations. Tho two observa- 
 tories were assumed as stations, in addition to those in tho meridional chain of triangles, 
 and their position in respect of the others was found. 
 
 By comparing the celestial with the terrestrial arcs, tho lengtli of degrees in various 
 parallels was determined, as in the following table : — 
 
 Arl)iiry Hill and Clifton.... 
 
 nienlieim and Clifton 
 
 Rrcunwich and Clifton. ... 
 
 Diinnosn and Clifton 
 
 Arbury Hill and Greenwi' h 
 Diinnnsa and Arbury Hill.. 
 
 niiMihciin and Oiinnoie 
 
 Dunnoao and Greenwich .. 
 
 Latitiido (if Middle 
 Poi nt. 
 
 5.7 
 19.8 
 
 4.1 
 1H.2 
 
 18. a 
 
 54.3 
 
 SUP 50' 
 
 52 38 
 
 !H 28 
 
 52 2 
 
 51 
 51 
 51 
 51 
 
 Fatlioms. 
 
 Ii0,7n9 
 00,794 
 liO.WO 
 (ifl.SI9 
 l'l).H(!4 
 1.0,890 
 119,884 
 
 Tills table presents a singular deviation from the common rule ; for, in.stoad of the degrees 
 increasing as we proceed from north to south, they appear to decrease, as if the earth were 
 an oblong instead of an oblato spheroid. Tho oblatenoss of tho earth at tho poles Is, how- 
 ever, a fact so well established by more extensive measurements, that wo inu.-'t suppose 
 either that some error has been committed in the observations, — a thing, however, not 
 probable; or else, what is more probable, that by inequality in the density of the strata, 
 producing a local attraction, the plumb-line of the sector has suffered a deflection at some 
 of the stations. 
 
 Notwithstanding the discrepancy of tho results of the measurements in this particular 
 arc, the length of a degree at the middle station (viz. lat. 52° 2' 20") agrees very well with 
 the measurements of the meridian in Franco and other places. ln(lcod, tlie mcasuremenbi 
 of the small arcs of the meridian in other countries nave presented similar anomalies, 
 although in general not so remarkable. It is, therefore, only by comparison of the measures 
 of e.xtensive arcs at considerable intervals that we can arrive at certain conclusions. The 
 British survey has now been extended from the southern parts of tho island to Unst, the 
 northernmost of the Shetland Islands. At present the engineer officers who carried it on 
 are employed in the survey of Ireland; but wo may expect that at no remote period they 
 will resume the British survey, and supply the observations still wanting. Wlion this is 
 done, and the complete triangulation is published, it will then appear how far local attrac- 
 tion may have disturbed the plummet in pa.ssing over the variety of rocks throughout thi; 
 island. 
 
 Although the compression of tho earth bo small, yet an exact knowledge of its quantity 
 is of great importance, because of the deductions which are to be made from it. It has 
 been explained, that the direction of a plumb-line is always perpemliciilar to the enrth' 
 surface ; therefore, and because of the continual change of curvature of tlie meridian in 
 going fVom north to south, the direction of gravity can only pass through the earth's centre 
 at the poles and equator. Thus it appears that there is a necessary connexion between the 
 form of the earth and terrestrial gravity ; so that the small variations in the latter, which 
 are owing to the deviations from the exact spherical figure, being known, that deviation 
 itself may be determined. 
 
 ■ ' i 1 
 
 
m 
 
 I'RINCIl'I.IiS OF UE(XJUAl'liY. 
 
 PaatU. 
 
 i;< S i 
 
 If llii> (Mirtli wcrii uplicrioal ami Iuuiiokimioub, Hip iiitriicticm of its mw* 11(101) iliflbront 
 jKiiiitM iif it.-i t-iirtlici', or till' liiri'i! wliirli MilicitN ovi'ry |Hirticli< iif mutter at tin ■iiirliica 
 ttiwanlH till' ci'iitrf, woiilil In; fvorywlicri) tlm Hiimo. liiit tliu ulliptii; Icirm priKliii'im a Hiimll 
 ili'viiiliiiii from tliiK (Miimlity, wliicli iiuTi'uwfH in jrninj,' Iroiii tlio (M|iiiitiir towunlH the piiloH, 
 ;m till' !<i|iiiiri' of tlic KJiii! cif tilt! latilmlu; iiiul tliw wtiuhi lin triin i^vi'ii if tlio fiirtli wuri^ ill 
 rest: tiiil, bv ItH rinoliition iiIhiiiI its xiiurtiT axi.s tlii>rii in priMluci'il 11 i'('iitriliii;ul force, 
 wliicli ticlH III II ilirLTtiiiii |H?r|M>iiiliciilar to thai axiii, and tlifrctiiro (liiiiiniHiu'H tlm t'orco of 
 ;|ravity mu.-t of all ut tlio tMjiiator, JM-caiiHo llii>ro tlm two lori'iix net in coiilriiry tliri'ctionM. 
 At till! |Hili' ilM direction iM puriiondiciilur to tlm diruction of jjriivity, and prixliicc* no elU'ct. 
 
 Ily the iiiiilc'd opi!ration of tlioHU two ciiuhuh, in H"Wi( '^'"" •■''" •''I""'"'" ti>warili( tlio ix)1(!h, 
 Ih prodiiceil a variation in thu do^ruo of ipiickiH'rin of do^cent of u heavy iKidy, which incruuMOH 
 an tlm square of the nine of the latitude. 
 
 'I'he o:-cillatioiiH of a (ivnduliiiii iifliird a niinplo nieanM of veriiyin(( this llict, The incroano 
 of wcii,'lit ill II heavy body, — that i;^, the force of gravity in procnedinjy from l\v eipmtor to 
 till! jNiles, — will be indicated by n diiiiiniitioii of the tiiiiu in which un invariable pemluliini 
 perforiiiH II \ ibriition. Accordiiijfly the [xiMdiiluin Iiuh been enijiloyed to deterniinu the liguro 
 of the eiirtli ; and the reHiiIlii obtained have been found to accord |)crfcctly with the gco- 
 deticul nieasiiroiiientij which we Iwvu duHcribt'd, 
 
 The Hritiuli and French poverninontH Imvc both intitituted obnervations on tho pendulum. 
 The latter, on tho recomniendution of the Academy of Scieucee, directed that the intenHity 
 of the firee of (gravity nIioiiIiI bo determined at dinbreiit pointH of the arc of tha meridian 
 between Dunkirk and Formenteni; and committed tho labour to MM. Diot, Ara^o, Muthieu, 
 lioiivard, and ('iiaix : Kubseciiiently, liiot extended bin obHerviitionti to tho northern nxtromity 
 of the Uriti.sh islands. Tlicse operations were be{(mi in the year ltt07. At a somcwhul 
 Inter period the British govorninent, with tho aHHistanco of tlie Royal Society, employed 
 Captain Knter, nn eminent observer and rix|H>rimenter, in tho same labour; and a!so KonI 
 Captain Sabine, a Dritish artillery otHcer, with invariablu pendulums, to tho eniiator on tho 
 one liaiiil, and the hi;;liest ncces.^ible latitudes of the north(!rn hemisphcro on tlie other. It 
 was expected that, by thus mulUplyinjf tho pliices of oliHorvution, ♦he combination of results 
 would de.stroy the irregular intliiencos of local <lensity, and j;ive tlm true variations of the 
 tl)rce of gravity, which are owini; to the earth's ellipticity. From 1, mean of all the obser- 
 vaf 'oiia made by the British und French txpcrinicnters, it was lound 'hut tho compression or 
 ell.ulicily of tho earth was about jj'j 1 of jai-iis Laplace had previously concluded, frwn 
 the combined meusurementii of terrestrial degrees and pendulum experiments, and the lunar 
 ineipialities dependent on tho fiirure of the earth, that the sumo ini|)ortant element was 
 ,„«'., J. There is a ditl'ercnco between the two conclusions ; but, on tlie whole, all tho results 
 which have been obtained are comprehended within limits which may bo deemed moderate, 
 considering the dilliculty of tho inquiry. 
 
 The following tables exhibit numorical values of tlio magnitudes of tho degrees of lutitudo 
 and longitude, and their proportioi\ to each other. 
 
 The first is from a valuable collection of lUMtronomical tables and formula! by F. Daii.v, 
 Ksq., President of tho Astronomical Hocicty of I»ndon. It shows tho length of a degree 
 of latitude and longitude on tho earth's surfkce, assuming the compression to bo .,,',„, toge- 
 ther with the length of the pendulum beating seconds there, supposing tho compression to 
 bu ;|'., the measures at the equator being considered ns unity; also the increa.se in tlio 
 number of vibrations of an invariable pendulum beating seconds at the equator on procooeling 
 towards the pole. This merely shows the relative values of tho (piantities thercrti stated. 
 
 'J'lio second and third tables are from Mendoza'h Tables for Navigation and Nautical 
 Astronomy. And the fourth is from tlio very valuable Introduction to Practical Astronomy 
 by Dr. Pearson, where it is statcl to be computed from a Formula given by Licut.-Col. 
 I«imbton ill tho Asiatic Researches, vol. xii. 
 
 The tables arc constructed from dillbrcnt values of the earth's compression nt the poles. 
 'I'lie uncort;iinty of this important element, in all questions of geography and astronomy, is 
 un inconvenience which cannot yet be got rid of. 
 
 In Tables II. and III., the dimensions of tlie degrees of latitude and longitude arc given 
 ill minutes of tho equator. To change these into feet or fathoms, we must know tho number 
 of Ihem ill 11 degree of the equator. 
 
 .\ecording to I'iii.s.saiit and Svanberg, the equatorial degree, or 60 geographical miles, is 
 ii0,^17 fathoms. 
 
 (Jagiioli has a-ssumcd = 00,893 fatlioms. 
 
 liiuut.-Col. Liimbton reckoned it to bo 00,8.57 fathoms, 
 
 (jeneral Miidgc concluded it to be 00,81.5 fathoms. 
 
 .Mr. lliiily, a.-' an »r, 'im|)animuMt to his table ('I'liblo I.), assumes the eijuaforial diameter 
 of the eiirth to bo 71)"i-I iiiile.s, and the (xjlar ~ 7910 miles. A degree of longitude at the 
 c<iuutor will, on this sup|)osilion, be 09.1.'> miles, = 00,Hj2 lallioms, = 36.5,110 feet: so one 
 second of time, or fiilecii seconds of a degree of longitude, will bo 1521 feet. 
 
 Tabic IV. gives the measure of each degri!!; of hititinle anil longitude in futlioms. 
 
OOOK I. 
 
 Ficriir. AND MA(JMri:i)K of THK KAKTIl. 
 T*II.R I. 
 
 14ft 
 
 no poles, 
 inoray, is 
 
 Ire given 
 1 number 
 
 Imiles, is 
 
 tiumcter 
 at the 
 BO one 
 
 
 Cuinpruwion 
 
 — :l(l«i 
 
 Cumproiwion = ;,,',,. 
 
 Ul. 
 
 Dufri iir 
 
 llt'fri r 
 
 i.riii[tii (if iiiii 
 
 InrrinM iif 
 
 l^iiniiliiclH. 
 
 l.*lltll<)ll. 
 
 I'ltllllllllMII. 
 
 VHirmliiiia, 
 
 o 
 
 
 1 01)1)0(1 
 
 1.000000 
 
 I.OOOOO 
 
 II 
 0.0 
 
 & 
 
 0.!)!)l>;ia 
 
 1.000070 
 
 l.oooot 
 
 1.77 
 
 10 
 
 ,!)H|!)0 
 
 LOOO-lOl 
 
 1.00010 
 
 7.09 
 
 t:s 
 
 .!lli(il4 
 
 l.OOOliO!) 
 
 1.00030 
 
 15.00 
 
 >M 
 
 .IIIDIXi 
 
 1.001108 
 
 i.oooi;;) 
 
 97J94 
 
 95 
 
 .!)()(iHj 
 
 1.001 7m;j 
 
 l.OOODO 
 
 41,59 
 
 :i(i 
 
 .8fi(i75 
 
 l.l)():j|!lO 
 
 1.00135 
 
 58,91 
 
 35 
 
 .H!>()05 
 
 l.oo:<-jH4 
 
 1.00177 
 
 70,60 
 
 40 
 
 .70710 
 
 l.()()41U5 
 
 1.00993 
 
 !)G,91 
 
 45 
 
 .7089H 
 
 1.004<)!)9 
 
 1.0090!) 
 
 110.49 
 
 50 
 
 .01104 
 
 1.0().W,8 
 
 1.00310 
 
 130.64 
 
 55 
 
 ..'>7Ih:. 
 
 l.OOfiK!)!) 
 
 1.00309 
 
 156.95 
 
 CO 
 
 ,M)IUU 
 
 1.007487 
 
 1.00404 
 
 174.03 
 
 (a 
 
 .4'.>:n7 
 
 1.008'JOO 
 
 1.00443 
 
 191.90 
 
 70 
 
 .34;)0'J 
 
 1.008815 
 
 1,00470 
 
 90.5.61 
 
 75 
 
 jasiitio 
 
 1.001)315 
 
 1.00503 
 
 917Ji5 
 
 80 
 
 .17121 
 
 l.OO'JKH'J 
 
 1.00593 
 
 995.89 
 
 85 
 
 .08704 
 
 l.on!)ll07 
 
 1.00535 
 
 931,08 
 
 90 
 
 .ooooo 
 
 1.00<J!)83 
 
 1,00539 
 
 939.85 
 
 
 
 
 
 Taili II. 
 
 
 
 
 The Mcusure of a Degree of Ix)ngituilc, on each Parallel of Latitude in Minutes of tli" ' 
 
 Pur, 
 
 of 
 
 Equator, on the Sphere and Spheroid. Compression = j^). 
 
 
 Di^iirmi (in lli« 
 
 Di'liroo iin Ihit 
 
 Par, 
 
 •if 
 
 Di'Kri'non tin- 
 
 Drorep on tho 
 njilitirold. 
 
 Pnr 
 
 of 
 
 Dl'LTIMOIltllO 
 
 Di'uree on tho 
 
 Lnt. 
 
 HplllTO 
 
 Bjilii'riild. 
 
 1.III. 
 
 Hphiri'. 
 
 Lnt. 
 
 Hplicru. 
 
 Hpheruid, 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 60,000 
 
 / 
 60,000 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 51,969 
 
 .59.009 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 1 
 30.000 
 
 30.070 
 
 1 
 
 .'i9,991 
 
 .59.991 
 
 31 
 
 51,430 
 
 51.473 
 
 61 
 
 29.089 
 
 99.1.58 
 
 3 
 
 59.963 
 
 59,964 
 
 39 
 
 50.883 
 
 50,927 
 
 62 
 
 98.168 
 
 38JJ37 
 
 3 
 
 59.918 
 
 59,918 
 
 33 
 
 50.320 
 
 50,367 
 
 63 
 
 97.939 
 
 37.307 
 
 4 
 
 59,8;i4 
 
 .59,855 
 
 34 
 
 49.742 
 
 49.791 
 
 64 
 
 96.309 
 
 26.369 
 
 5 
 
 59,773 
 
 59.773 
 
 35 
 
 49,149 
 
 49,199 
 
 65 
 
 25,357 
 
 95.422 
 
 6 
 
 59,671 
 
 59.673 
 
 36 
 
 48..541 
 
 48,593 
 
 66 
 
 34,404 
 
 24.468 
 
 7 
 
 59.553 
 
 59.556 
 
 37 
 
 47.918 
 
 47.972 
 
 67 
 
 93.444 
 
 23.506 
 
 8 
 
 59.416 
 
 59.420 
 
 38 
 
 47,281 
 
 47.336 
 
 68 
 
 22.476 
 
 22.537 
 
 9 
 
 59.961 
 
 59JJ66 
 
 39 
 
 46.029 
 
 46.686 
 
 69 
 
 91.503 
 
 31J62 
 
 10 
 
 59,088 
 
 59,094 
 
 40 
 
 45.903 
 
 46,092 
 
 70 
 
 20,521 
 
 20.578 
 
 11 
 
 5S.898 
 
 59.904 
 
 41 
 
 45.283 
 
 43.343 
 
 71 
 
 19..534 
 
 19.589 
 
 19 
 
 58.689 
 
 58.697 
 
 42 
 
 44„'->89 
 
 44.651 
 
 72 
 
 18,541 
 
 18.593 
 
 13 
 
 58.463 
 
 58,471 
 
 43 
 
 43,881 
 
 43.945 
 
 73 
 
 17.542 
 
 17.592 
 
 14 
 
 58.218 
 
 58,228 
 
 44 
 
 43.160 
 
 43.225 
 
 74 
 
 16.538 
 
 16,586 
 
 15 
 
 57.956 
 
 57.963 
 
 45 
 
 42,426 
 
 42.493 
 
 75 
 
 15.529 
 
 15,574 
 
 16 
 
 57.676 
 
 57,689 
 
 46 
 
 41.680 
 
 41.747 
 
 76 
 
 14.515 
 
 14,558 
 
 17 
 
 57,378 
 
 57.394 
 
 47 
 
 40.920 
 
 40,988 
 
 77 
 
 13.497 
 
 13,.537 
 
 18 
 
 57,063 
 
 57080 
 
 48 
 
 40.148 
 
 40,217 
 
 78 
 
 re.475 
 
 12,512 
 
 19 
 
 56,731 
 
 56.750 
 
 49 
 
 39,364 
 
 39,434 
 
 7!» 
 
 11.449 
 
 11,483 
 
 90 
 
 56.382 
 
 56,402 
 
 50 
 
 38,567 
 
 38,638 
 
 80 
 
 10.419 
 
 10,450 
 
 91 
 
 50.015 
 
 56.037 
 
 51 
 
 37,759 
 
 37,831 
 
 81 
 
 9.386 
 
 9,414 
 
 29 
 
 55.631 
 
 55.665 
 
 53 
 
 36.940 
 
 37,011 
 
 82 
 
 8.350 
 
 8,376 
 
 93 
 
 55,230 
 
 55.257 
 
 53 
 
 36.109 
 
 36.181 
 
 83 
 
 7,312 
 
 7,335 
 
 94 
 
 .').1,H!3 
 
 54,841 
 
 54 
 
 35,267 
 
 35,3.39 
 
 84 
 
 6.272 
 
 6.292 
 
 25 
 
 51.378 
 
 54,409 
 
 55 
 
 34,415 
 
 34.487 
 
 85 
 
 5,229 
 
 5,246 
 
 26 
 
 53,928 
 
 53.960 
 
 56 
 
 33,5.52 
 
 33,634 
 
 86 
 
 4,185 
 
 4,193 
 
 27 
 
 5,3.460 
 
 53.4!)5 
 
 57 
 
 32,678 
 
 32.750 
 
 87 
 
 3,140 
 
 3,149 
 
 38 
 
 53,997 
 
 5.3.013 
 
 58 
 
 31,795 
 
 31.866 
 
 88 
 
 2,094 
 
 2,100 
 
 39 
 
 5:i,477 
 
 52,002 
 
 59 
 
 30.902 
 
 30.973 
 
 89 
 
 1.047 
 
 1.050 
 
 30 
 
 51,963 
 
 52,002 
 
 60 
 
 30.000 
 
 30.070 
 
 90 
 
 0.000 
 
 0.000 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 13 
 
 "I 
 
 i>|i 
 
 li ;> 
 
 
 '!;( 
 
 ■ III 
 
146 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Table III. 
 
 Part 11 
 
 Tllf Measures of diflcront Arcs of tlio Meridian in tlic Spliuroid from tlic Equator to tlie Pole; 
 mill ulflo the resiicctivo Degrees of Latitude in Minutes of the Equator. C'oni|irc8- 
 
 ■ :13T- 
 
 <3 
 
 II 
 
 n.iioo 
 
 1 
 
 SIMWrt 
 
 'J 
 
 I lii.asT 
 
 ;i 
 
 llH.t*? 
 
 4 
 
 umsiH 
 
 A 
 
 aiiH.iJO 
 
 11 
 
 :«7.7H4 
 
 7 
 
 4l7.4ai 
 
 f 
 
 477.0SB 
 
 » 
 
 5:Hi.l'illll 
 
 III 
 
 61ir..343 
 
 II 
 
 (iss.tnw) 
 
 ISl 
 
 71S.«41 
 
 III 
 
 77.'i.!Klt) 
 
 M 
 
 KM.II.'io 
 
 M 
 
 I<!I4,II1H 
 
 III 
 
 ll,'-.4.SHfl 
 
 17 
 
 lOKI.IIiW 
 
 IH 
 
 107;i.tKW 
 
 lU 
 
 II33.:R.'I 
 
 1H 
 
 1 Mil 014 
 
 Ul 
 
 IV.W,711 
 
 <li 
 
 i;ii'j.4i4 
 
 «;i 
 
 lArivii 
 
 •li 
 
 u:iiH4i 
 
 lli 
 
 )4»I.5U3 
 
 «rt 
 
 IS5I.S07 
 
 «r 
 
 10)1.030 
 
 w 
 
 II17(I.7K) 
 
 «t 
 
 17:10.838 
 
 ;hi 
 
 I71KI.;MH 
 
 50.028 
 5!).(a!l 
 
 5U.(i:io 
 
 .5!l.«31 
 .■ill.tiS-J 
 5!).(i34 
 S'.l(i;)(i 
 
 S9.(i:w 
 
 S'.I.IMI 
 5D.r><i4 
 59.047 
 
 sn.CiSi 
 
 5U.I>55 
 5!l.li.1<J 
 59.1)03 
 50.068 
 50.073 
 50.079 
 59.085 
 
 59.001 
 
 50.007 
 50.703 
 5!I.7I0 
 59.717 
 S9.?i4 
 5».7;K 
 50.7:w 
 30.747 
 50.755 
 59.704 
 
 40 
 41 
 42 
 43 
 44 
 45 
 40 
 47 
 48 
 49 
 
 50 
 51 
 52 
 5:( 
 54 
 
 58 
 50 
 00 
 
 1700.302 
 1H5U.074 
 1!K)9.M5 
 1<M>9.044 
 2029.442 
 20rt».249 
 3140.005 
 2208.KI1 
 2ao:).72<J 
 3328.570 
 
 3388.424 
 3448.287 
 25CK100 
 2508.043 
 2027.0.30 
 2687.K)8 
 2747.750 
 2807.672 
 2867.0a3 
 2927.W4 
 
 3987.405 
 3047 45.5 
 310; i25 
 3107.4(M 
 3227.:t03 
 3287.301 
 .■«47.:t08 
 ;M07.414 
 3407.4:10 
 
 :«27.47:t 
 
 3587.515 
 
 59.772 
 59.781 
 59.789 
 50.798 
 59.807 
 50.810 
 50.820 
 50.835 
 S0.844 
 
 59.854 
 
 59.803 
 59..='73 
 59.883 
 50.893 
 .VJ.90a 
 59.012 
 59.022 
 .'•0.931 
 50.941 
 
 50.051 
 
 59.000 
 59 070 
 59.97'.t 
 50.08!! 
 50.008 
 00.007 
 
 00.010 
 
 (lO.IW.'i 
 CO 034 
 10.042 
 
 «0 
 01 
 03 
 63 
 04 
 05 
 00 
 07 
 08 
 09 
 
 3587.515 
 ;i647.S(i*i 
 3707.025 
 3707.0!W 
 :1827.707 
 3887.849 
 3047.0:iO 
 4UU8.030 
 40(J8.140 
 4128.251 
 
 70 
 71 
 72 
 73 
 74 
 75 
 70 
 77 
 78 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 81 
 82 
 K) 
 84 
 85 
 80 
 87 
 
 89 
 •10 
 
 4188.3<'>8 
 4348.402 
 4:108.022 
 4:108.757 
 442H.808 
 4489.044 
 454!l. 105 
 40O'.l.:i5O 
 4liOO.S10 
 4720.074 
 
 4780.841 
 48iiO.OI3 
 4010.180 
 4970.:)(i2 
 50:)0.541 
 5000722 
 5150.'.I04 
 .Kl 1.088 
 5271.273 
 5;i:l 1.458 
 5:101.044 
 
 00.051 
 0O.0.VJ 
 00.007 
 00.075 
 00.082 
 00.090 
 00.097 
 00.104 
 00.111 
 
 00.117 
 
 00.124 
 00130 
 00.135 
 00.141 
 00.140 
 00.151 
 00.155 
 00.100 
 00.164 
 
 00.107 
 
 00.171 
 00.174 
 00.170 
 00.179 
 t».181 
 00.182 
 60.184 
 00.183 
 00185 
 00.180 
 
 Table IV. 
 
 Tllo Measure of eacli ncfrroc 
 
 of Latitude and of a Degree of Longitude in each Parallel of 
 
 
 
 Latitude from the Equator to eitlier Pole. Comprtssio.i -r^l^. 
 
 
 I'nf. 
 
 tlrgien nf 
 
 DPEfcp of 
 
 Par. 
 
 Decree of 
 
 Degree of 
 
 Par. 
 
 Decree of 
 
 Depree of 
 
 iif 
 
 l.ntiliidp in 
 
 L(int(itu(ln iti 
 
 nf 
 
 I.ntittiile ill 
 
 LoiiBiiiiile in 
 
 of 
 
 Latitutle in 
 
 Lnncitiiile in 
 
 Ml. 
 
 Fnlliipiiiii. 
 
 rallKims. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Fathiiiiis. 
 
 Fat hums. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 
 00 
 
 Fallinms. 
 
 FalhiiniB. 
 30503.5 
 
 n 
 
 004.18.0 
 
 C0R'i7.1 
 
 o 
 
 :m 
 
 60007.4 
 
 5274(i.9 
 
 00906.6 
 
 1 
 
 Ii04.'>».8 
 
 (•.fl,■^7.a 
 
 31 
 
 00010.5 
 
 .5-2210.0 
 
 01 
 
 00915.7 
 
 211378.2 
 
 <t 
 
 (m459.8 
 
 00820.2 
 
 :k 
 
 00025.8 
 
 51ii,57.2 
 
 02 
 
 C(HI24.5 
 
 2804:1.8 
 
 II 
 
 00400.3 
 
 007T4.2 
 
 33 
 
 0003.5.2 
 
 51088.0 
 
 (i3 
 
 0003:1.1 
 
 27700.0 
 
 4 
 
 (,0101.5 
 
 00700.8 
 
 34 
 
 00r>44.8 
 
 50,504.5 
 
 (.4 
 
 (;fl!.'41.4 
 
 20748.8 
 
 n 
 
 r,(Mo:i2 
 
 O0<i27.0 
 
 33 
 
 006.54.5 
 
 4y!H)4.0 
 
 03 
 
 0(K'40.0 
 
 25788.7 
 
 « 
 
 00405.1 
 
 (iO,W..8 
 
 :io 
 
 00f>04.4 
 
 4021HI.2 
 
 (ifl 
 
 00057.5 
 
 24820.7 
 
 7 
 
 004075 
 
 ooiiri.4 
 
 37 
 
 00074.3 
 
 4H(Mi0.3 
 
 07 
 
 00!h:5.3 
 
 23845.0 
 
 H 
 
 00170 1 
 
 00208.0 
 
 :i8 
 
 riOO.«4.4 
 
 48015.0 
 
 08 
 
 f,0072.7 
 
 22801.0 
 
 II 
 
 00173 2 
 
 00112.0 
 
 :t9 
 
 00004.0 
 
 47:13.5 2 
 
 00 
 
 60070.8 
 
 21871.7 
 
 10 
 
 00471! 5 
 
 KtO.V.l 
 
 40 
 
 00704.8 
 
 40082.4 
 
 70 
 
 00980.7 
 
 20874.8 
 
 II 
 
 1^11^0 3 
 
 5074O.I 
 
 41 
 
 r)07i3i 
 
 4.5!I04.2 
 
 71 
 
 00003.4 
 
 I087I.4 
 
 tt 
 
 00l-<|.3 
 
 59.';:ij.0 
 
 12 
 
 00723.4 
 
 43'02.0 
 
 Ti 
 
 00!I00.7 
 
 18801.8 
 
 t:i 
 
 r.(H8H.7 
 
 ,1!1307.1 
 
 4:i 
 
 007:l.'J.8 
 
 4437(!.0 
 
 7:1 
 
 01003.7 
 
 178404 
 
 11 
 
 i.oto:i.4 
 
 5!MI*'i0.li 
 
 44 
 
 00740.3 
 
 43840.2 
 
 74 
 
 0101 1.5 
 
 10823,4 
 
 in 
 
 00 lOH 4 
 
 .W?.!!!.:! 
 
 45 
 
 00750.7 
 
 43io:t.o 
 
 75 
 
 010IO8 
 
 15700.3 
 
 10 
 
 (;o.-,o:t8 
 
 58314.1 
 
 40 
 
 00707.2 
 
 42:l4(i.O 
 
 70 
 
 01(«.0 
 
 14708.2 
 
 17 
 
 0(l.-ill!i.4 
 
 38214.2 
 
 47 
 
 f.0777.0 
 
 4I.'-.77.3 
 
 77 
 
 6I()'.'0.7 
 
 137:12.6 
 
 IK 
 
 Ofl.-il5.4 
 
 .'■.7«!Hi.(i 
 
 48 
 
 00788.0 
 
 40705.1 
 
 78 
 
 01031.2 
 
 12003.7 
 
 Ml 
 
 00.521.0 
 
 57501.4 
 
 49 
 
 00708.4 
 
 40(K)0.5 
 
 7!l 
 
 610;l5.3 
 
 11648.9 
 
 uo 
 
 flO.VJ8.2 
 
 5T208.8 
 
 ,50 
 
 f,0F08.7 
 
 :)'I103.3 
 
 80 
 
 01030.1 
 
 10(^)1.4 
 
 El 
 
 oo.'-.n.i.o 
 
 30>38.0 
 
 SI 
 
 00810.0 
 
 38:174.3 
 
 81 
 
 010425 
 
 0,M0.7 
 
 «i 
 
 Ii0.'i42.0 
 
 .WSl.O 
 
 52 
 
 i;082<>2 
 
 37.74:1.7 
 
 82 
 
 01045.0 
 
 8407,0 
 
 a;i 
 
 oir,io4 
 
 .'it;(M7.2 
 
 53 
 
 0U8;t>l.3 
 
 ;i(;7fli.4 
 
 83 
 
 01048.3 
 
 7440.0 
 
 '11 
 
 co.v.rn 
 
 5.'i02,'i,8 
 
 54 
 
 (,0,-40.3 
 
 :i.5847.8 
 
 84 
 
 01ll,'.07 
 
 0:11-20 
 
 M 
 
 r,o.-iiii,8 
 
 .55187.3 
 
 55 
 
 00^10.3 
 
 .34083.1 
 
 85 
 
 mtm.i 
 
 5:121,4 
 
 tm 
 
 00.172 
 
 54732.4 
 
 .50 
 
 (WL-iOO.O 
 
 34107.0 
 
 8(i 
 
 010,'H.3 
 
 42,50.1 
 
 VI 
 
 o(r.''i.2 
 
 542(10.0 
 
 57 
 
 00878.7 
 
 ^:^J■JI5 
 
 87 
 
 010,5.5.0 
 
 3195.5 
 
 *< 
 
 r.o.T--o,7 
 
 5:i772.4 
 
 ,58 
 
 0088>!.2 
 
 32:fr>,5 
 
 88 
 
 610,50,3 
 
 3130.9 
 
 w 
 
 W1.J08.1 
 
 5:1207.8 
 
 50 
 
 r*897.3 
 
 31419.4 
 
 89 
 
 Oia57.I 
 
 10030 
 
 JUL 
 
 r4l0O7.4 
 
 52740.0 
 
 CO 
 
 00000.0 
 
 ;t0503.5 
 
 00 
 
 61057.2 
 
 0000.0 
 
 <£k 
 
l>i«71.4 
 hHHil.H 
 B7r-4t>.4 
 
 ir.K::-.4 
 
 ||47li*'-2 
 
 ia7:tt.6 
 i'.>iin27 
 
 ntl4H.9 
 
 Book I. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. W 
 
 (ja^ V CHAPTER XX. . 
 
 DETERMINATION OF LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 
 
 There are throe important problems in geof^pliy which require ibr their Bolution the 
 doctrines of astronomy. The first requires to find the direction of the meridian at any point 
 of tiic eiirtira surface ; the second, to find tlie latitude of an> place ; and the third, to find 
 the longitude. 
 
 Problem I. — To determine the Meridian, or to draw a Meridian Liiir. 
 
 This problem, like many others in practical astronomy, admits of a comparatively easy 
 solution, if no great degree of accuracy is required ; but to obtain a very accurate result, 
 much care, and instruments of the most perfect construction, are indispensable. 
 
 The general principle of the solution is tiie fact, that the celestial bodies which do not 
 sensibly change their declination in the course of a day, have the same apparent altitude at 
 equal mtervals of time before and afler passing the meridian : also, that their altitude is 
 greatest or least when in the plane of the meridian ; that is, when t.''ey are due south or due 
 north. 
 
 About the time of the summer and winter solstice, the sun changes his declination very 
 little in the course of a day : and hence it happens that the shadow of an upright rod or 
 gnomon is almost exactly of the same length when the sun is at equal distances from the 
 meridian. To determine the position of the meridian, then, let a number of coi'centric 
 circles be described on a horizontal plane, and let a wire or rod be placed dire* tly over 
 tlieir common centre, and perpendicular to the plane; and, the sun shining on the plane, let 
 the two points in which the extremity of the shadow of the wire crosses each circle be 
 exactly noted. Then, through any point of the plane which is at equal distances, from each 
 pair of"^ intersections draw a straight lino through the centre of the circle; and this will be 
 in the plane of the meridian, or will be a meridian line. It is easy to see that one circle, 
 and one pair of intersections of the path of the extremity of the shadow and the circle, 
 would be sufficient ; but several circles will fulfil the object with greater accuracy and 
 more certainty ; because a mean position of the meridian line may be (bund among all the 
 results ; and beeides, one of a pair, or both, may be lost by clouds intercepting the light of 
 the sun. 
 
 The imperfection of this method of finding the meridian arises from the indistinctness of 
 the termination of the shadow of the upright wire, and from the change of the sun's decli- 
 nation between the observations. There is, however, another as simple and exact as can 
 be expected, without the assistance of a telescope. It is known tiiat the pole star and the 
 star Alioth, or e of the Great Bear, pass the meridian within about nine minutes of each 
 other. If, therefore, ve suspend two plummets by threads to the ends of a rod whicii turns 
 horizontally on a pivot, and by muving the rod, keep the two plumb-lines exactly between 
 the eye and Alioth when near the meridian, then, at the moment when the pole star i.s also 
 seen along the two plumb-lines, the two stars and the plumb-lines will be all nearly in the 
 plane of the meridian. To keep the plumb-lines steady in the vertical plane, the plummets 
 mny hang in vessels filled with water. 
 
 If we could determine the position of a star when its altitude is greatest or least, we 
 would then have a point of the heavens in the plane of the meridian : but that position cannot 
 be found with certainty, because the change of altitude is imperceptible to a sensible distance 
 on each side of tiie meridian. 
 
 The exact determination of the meridian requires the aid of the telescope, a well-regulated 
 clock, and an instrument for determining the altitude of the sun or a star: lladley's sextant, 
 or a reflecting Circle, are the proper instruments for this purpose. By the sextant we can 
 determine two instants of time when the star has the same altitude ; the clock will give the 
 interval of time between them: and half this interval will be tiie time lietween each obser- 
 vation and the passage of the star over the meridian. If we next day note the time I)y the 
 clock when the star again attains that altitude, and add to that time the above-mentioned 
 half interval, we fliall have the time by the clock when the star will be on the meridian. 
 If at tliat instiint a telescope, moveable in a vertical plane, be directed to the star, so that in 
 passing the meridian the star may be in the axis of the telescope, tiie position of the plane 
 of tlie meridian will lie obtained : and if the telescope lie fixed to a horizontal axis which is 
 perpendicular to that plane, it will liavo a vertical motion in the plane of the meridian, and 
 will be what is ciilled a transit instrument. By this instrument the exact instant when 
 any celestial phcnonionon is on the meridian is known. It is, therefore, one of the most 
 essential instruments in an observatory. 
 
 In a variable climate, it may happen tliat the obscri'ations necessary to determine the 
 meridian may be interrupted by cloudy weather. This, however, is on inconvenience to 
 whicii all astronomical observations arc liable. It must also be observed, that a single set 
 of observations will not give so perfect a result as a considerable number of sets, from 
 which a mean may be deduced. 
 
 <ii 
 
 %A 
 
 h^l 
 
 i 
 
 l:i' 
 
 
 ; -.1 
 
 * 
 
 ; ; 
 
 1' 
 
 ..1 
 
 1' 
 
 
 
 ' 1^ 
 
 .J 
 
 : .1- ;' 
 
,1 *' I 
 
 148 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Past U. 
 
 If the celestial object change its position otlierwise than by the diurnal motions of the 
 earth, as liappens whcii it is tlie sun, still tlie problem may bo resolved, as has been explained, 
 by making allowance for the change of position, by applying the principles of spherical trigo- 
 nometry to the laws of the motion. 
 
 Pboblem n. — To determine the Latitude. 
 
 In treating of the doctrine of the sphere, it has been already shown that the distance of 
 the pole of the world (that is, tlie point of the heavens about which all the stars turn) from 
 the horizon of any place is equal to its latitude. Now, in the course of twenty-four hours, 
 every star passes the meridian twice, at equal distances from the pole, and on opposite sides 
 of it When the star passes the meridian below the pole, — that is, between tlie pole and 
 the horizon, — its altitude is the least possible ; and when it crosses the meridian above the 
 pole, or between the pole and the south part of the horizon, its distance from the north point 
 of the horizon will be the greatest possible. If, therefore, with a suitable instrument, (a 
 quadrant for instance,) we take the star's altitude when it is least, and also when it is greatest, 
 and correct these for refraction, it is manifest that half their sum will be the latitude of the 
 place where the observations were made. 
 
 We have supposed the star to pass the meridian between the pole and the zenith, and then 
 its greatest altitude will be its distance from the north point of the horizon : but it may pass 
 to we south of the zenith, and then its altitude, reckoned from the south, must be subtracted 
 from 180° to get its distance from the north pouit of the horizon ; and half the sum of the 
 two distances, as before, will be the latitude. 
 
 Any one star that never sets, the pole star for instance, will serve to determine the latitude : 
 but it will be proper, if circumstances allow, to observe various stars, and the mean of all 
 the observations may be expected to be more correct than a single pair. 
 
 If, instead of the greatest and least altitudes of a star, its greatest and least distances from 
 the zenith be found, then half their sum will be the complemenl of the latitude ; that is, the 
 difference between the latitude and ninety degrees. 
 
 For example, by observations made on the pole star at the Dublin Observatory, found 
 
 that 
 
 Its greatest zenitli distance, corrected for refraction, was - • • 38° 19 .» .11 
 
 Least 34 53 49.55 
 
 The sum 73 13 32.66 
 
 Half the sum, or co-latitude of the observatory 36 36 46 . 33 
 
 The latitude 53 23 13.67 
 
 When the latitude of one place is known, the latitude of another place may be found by 
 observing with a quadrant, or other suitable instrument, the zenith distances of any star at 
 both places. The difference of these zenith distances, when corrected for refraction, will bo 
 the difference of latitude of the two places. 
 
 Thus, for example, to determine the difference between the latitudes of Greenwich Ob- 
 servatory and Dunnose in the Isle of Wight, it was found that 
 
 At Dunnose the z. d. of |J Draconis was ..-...-..l°50' 5".24 
 And at Greenwich 58 33.13 
 
 Difference of latitude 51 32.11 
 
 The latitude of Greenwich was known to be 51 28 30 .05 
 
 The latitude of Dunnose is 50 3 7 8^39 
 
 The navigator has daily occasion to determine his latitude at sea. For this purpose, he 
 finds the sun's zenith distance, or its altitude at noon, by Iladley's sextant. The Nautical 
 Almanac gives him the sun's declination, or distance from the equator at the time he makes 
 his observation: the sum or difference of these is his latitude, according as the ship and the 
 sun are on the same or opposite sides of the equator. 
 
 Ex. On July 24, 1783, at a place in lonj^itude 54° (3' SB") west of Greenwich, the alti- 
 tude of the sun's lower limb, when cleared from refraction and parallax, was observed by a 
 sextant to be 59° 15' 30". By the Nautical Almanac, the sun's semidiameter wns 15' 48", 
 and his declination at the time of noon in that longitude 19° 51' N. The calculation for 
 the latitude will stand thus :— 
 
 Altitude of the sun's lower limb 59° l.'j' 30" 
 
 Add sun's semidiameter --.. ......... 15 48 
 
 Subtract altitude of sun's centre ........... 59 31 ig 
 
 From - 90 
 
 To sun's zenith distance -------•■--.-. .30 28 42 
 
 Add sun's declination -..••.-.•..... -1951 q 
 
 The latitude of the place is-...-. 50 19 42 
 
found 
 
 .24 
 
 •.05 
 ^.39 
 
 fpose, he 
 ifuutical 
 
 \c makes 
 i find the 
 
 I the alti- 
 Ivcd by a 
 
 ll5'48", 
 lation for 
 
 '"'\ 
 
 Book I. 
 
 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 
 
 U? 
 
 The navigator cannot always obtain an observation of the sun or a star when on the me- 
 ridian, lie may, however, be able to observe two latitudes out of tlie meridian, and the 
 interval of time between tiiem. V'ith these data, and the aid of spherical trigonometry and 
 tlio Nautical Almanac, he may find hi,, latitude by rules given by writers on navigation and 
 atitrnnoiiiy. It is, in general, by one or otiier of these methods that the roconlod latitudes 
 of all pliices have been obtained, and arranged in a table for the use of tlie geographer and 
 navigator. 
 
 PaoBLEH III. — To determine the Long-itude. 
 
 The interval of time between two successive passages of the sun over the meridian of any 
 place is twenty-four hours. If, therefore, we suppose a number of meridians to be drawn 
 ut eipial intervals, — that is, to form successively with eacli other equal angles at the poles, — 
 then, in the course of twenty-four hours, each of these meridians (supposing their planes 
 produced) will pass through the sun. Therefore twenty-four hours of mean solar time will 
 correspond to 36() degrees of longitude ; for the whole scale of longitude must be containe<l 
 between the eastern and western sides of the meridian at the same place. At places situated 
 on the meridian opposite that on which the sun was at 0'', or, in civil reckoning, at 12 at 
 noon, the time would be 12\ or 12 at night ; and 12' would correspond to 180 degrees of 
 longitude. At places situated on the meridian at right angles to the former, tlie time would 
 be 6'' or IS"", or, in civil reckoning, six in the mornmg or six in the evening ; and, accord- 
 ingly, six hours and eighteen hours of mean solar time will correspond to 90° or 270° of 
 longitude ; and so on for intermediate meridians. 
 
 The selection of a meridian, from which the longitude is to be reckoned, is entirely arbi- 
 trary. The English take the meridian passing through Greenwich Observatory for the Jirst 
 meridian, and reckon its longitude to be 0° or 0". The first meridian of the PVencli is that 
 which passes through the observatory of Paris. An interval of O™ 21' elapses between the 
 passages of the sun over the meridians of Paris and Greenwich : the longitude of Paris 
 Observatory =■ therefore, by English geographers, accounted to be 9° 21' east in time; or 
 in degrees, 2° : ' ?.^". 
 
 Since it ir v ir ill places on the meridian of Greenwich from pole to pole at tlie same 
 instant, it '■ i n hour past noon, or l', at all places on the meridian 15° to the east of 
 
 that of Gree.- ■■ . ' , and two liours past noon, or 2*, at all places on the meridian S0° enst 
 from that of Greenwich; and so on. On the other hand, it will want an hour to noon, or 
 will he 11', at all places on the meridian 15° west from that of Greenwich; and it will be 
 two hours before noon, or lO"*, at places on the meridian 30° west from that of Greenwich ; 
 and so on, reckoning an hour, or sixty minutes of time, to correspond to fifteen degrees, and 
 four minutes of time to one (legree. 
 
 Since it appears that all places on the same meridian have noon, or any assumed hour, 
 at the same instant, and that the instiint of noon is different at places on different meridians, — 
 being earlier or later on meridians having west longitude, according as they are nearer tc 
 or farther from the first meridian, and the reverse on meridians having cast longitude ; aiid 
 moreover, that the difference between the time of noon on two meridians is proportional to 
 the diffbroricc of their longitude, and therefore a measure of that difference; it follows that 
 if, knowing the hour of the day iit any ))lace, wo can at the same instant by any means know 
 the hour at a place on any other meridian, then we can determine the difference of longitude 
 between the meridians : for it will be the difference between the times of the day, as esti- 
 mated on the two meridians, reckoned in hours, minutes, &c. ; and this may be converted 
 into degrees, minutes, and seconds, by reckoning fifteen degrees to an hour, and proportionally 
 for minutes and seconds of time. 
 
 The practical methods of determining the longitude are the following : — 
 
 1. By a Chronometer or Time-keeper. 
 
 Let tis suppose ♦hat a traveller departs from any place, (St. Paul's, London, for example,) 
 and carries with him a watch regulated to mean solar time, and which indicates 12'' at the 
 instant of mean noon at Ixindon : then, supposing the watch to go with perfect regularity, 
 if ho go to I'Miiiburnfli, and compare the estimated solar time there witli that sliown by his 
 watch, ho will find that they differ by twelves minutes twenty-one seconds ; so that when it is 
 12'' lit I'/linhurgh Oliservatory, it will be 12'' 12'' 21' by his watch. He may therefiire con- 
 clude, tli:it the difference of longitude between liondon and Edinburgh is 12" 21" west; 
 nud since St. Paul's is twenty-three seconds of time west from Greenwich, the longitude of 
 L'.diiihurtrli 01),serviitory is 12'" 44" west, which corresponds to 3° 11'. If, leaving London, he 
 luid gone to Piiris, he would there have found the rstimated time to be 9'" 44" earlier tlian 
 that sliowii liy his wiitrh: iience the difference between the meridians of Ixjndon and Paris 
 is 9 " 44 , .'ind the longitude of Paris (from Gr'enwioh) 9"' 21" east. 
 
 In the siiiiic w.iy the nnviiiiitur at se.i niiiy determine his Inniritude bj' n gno<l chronometer. 
 He ciiii ill IvrMiiie tlie Imur cf tiie (l;iv hv the sun's altitude, and the principles of fpherical 
 
 13 * 
 
 i|^ 
 
"',f, 
 
 150 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 trigonometry. Or ho may take equal altitudes, noting the times; the middle point of time 
 between tlieiu will be the instiint of noon, as shown hy the watch: he must, however, make 
 a correction tor tlic change of the sun'w declination, and the distance run by the ship in the 
 interval. Sup|X)8ing now the chronometer to have been set to the true time at the port from 
 whence he sailed, and to have gone uniformly with a small known daily acceleration oi 
 retardation, called its rate ; this correction being applied, he will have the time at the jwrt 
 corre.sponding to his observed time of noon, and their difference will be the longitude of the 
 ship eastwanl or westward from the meridian whence she sailed. 
 
 The longitude of any point on the earth, either at sea or on land, may be determined by 
 a good chronometer; in the latter case, however, the jolting it must suffer by carriage will 
 disturb its motion, and render the result sought uncertain. At sea, the mode of transport is 
 not so liable to sudden jerks ; and, therefore, the chronometer may be expected to go with 
 more regularity. If several be employed, considerable accuracy may be obtained. The 
 Board of Admiralty sent ten or twelve chronometers from Greenwich to Falmouth, and 
 thence in a vessel to Madeira, and in this way determined the longitude of Funchal from a 
 mean of their results. 
 
 The &cility of this mode of determining the longitude makes perfection in the construc- 
 tion of chronometers an object of high importance in a maritime nation like Britain. It was, 
 therefore, for many years encouraged by acts of parliament offering high rewards for pre- 
 scribed degrees of excellence. These, however, are now repealed ; but the government has 
 not lost sight of this important subject. 
 
 2. The Longitude by Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites. 
 
 If a celestial phenomenon can be seen at the same absolute instant of time in two dif- 
 ferent places of tlie earth, this appearance gives the means of determining the difference of 
 their longitudes ; for if the phenomenon be seen at both places, and the times, according to 
 their reckoning, be noted, it is manifest that their difference will be the difference of longi- 
 tude, in time, of the two places. 
 
 Now the eclipses of Jupiter's moons are phenomena of this kind. They may be seen, 
 almost at the same instant, everywhere in the hemisphere in which Jupiter is visible: and 
 such is the perfection of astronomy, that the times at whicli they will happen can be pre- 
 dicted with considerable accuracy. These are computed according to Greenwich time, and 
 published, olong with variouy other matters, in the Nautical Almanac, several years before 
 they happen, for the benefit of travellers. This method of finding the longitude can, how- 
 ever, only be applied on land ; for at sea the rolling of the ship makes it next to impossible 
 to direct a telescope so steadily to Jupiter as to view the eclipse of a satellite. 
 
 Example. — Suppose an immersion of the first satellite should be observed at the Cape 
 of Good Hope, April 16, 1805, at 18" 25"" 35' mean time ; the predicted time given by the 
 Ephemeris being 12'' 12'" 2' at Greenwich. Here the difference is P 13"° 33"; whence the 
 longitude of the Cape should be 18° 23' 15" east of Greenwich. 
 
 In this example, the observed time at the Cape is compared with the computed time of 
 the eclipse at Greenwich. If, instead of this, the observed time ot Greenwich had been 
 used, greater accuracy might have been expected. 
 
 This method is easy, and therefore much practised ; but it is liable to unccrtointy : for 
 two observers in the same room, but using different telescopes, will sometimes differ in noting 
 the time of an eclipse of the first satellite by as much as fifteen or twenty seconds. Delam- 
 bre thinks that the time of an eclipse of the fourth satellite may be doubtful to the amount 
 of four minutes. 
 
 3. Longitude by an Eclipse of the Moon. 
 
 An eclipse of the motjn has exactly the same appearance, at the same instant, wherever 
 seen ; but it is impossible to bo quite sure, by observation, of the exact time of their begin- 
 ning or end, because of the penumbra whicli bounds the earth's shadow. The results to be 
 obtained from them are therefore uncertain, to perhaps two minutes of time ; and therefore 
 only to be regarded as approximations to the truth. 
 
 Exumptf:. An eclipse of the moon was observed Aug. 28. 1729, by the astronomer Cas- 
 sini at Paris, and by Mr. Stephenson at Barbad(x>s. 
 At Paris, Imm. ) - 12'' 19"' 13* 
 At Barbadoes, Imm. > 8 11 
 
 Emer. 
 Emer. 
 
 13" 
 9 
 
 .59"' 
 51 
 
 4 8 13 
 
 4 8 
 
 By the mean of f lie two, the difference of longitude is 4" 8"' 6'"5 ; that is, Barbadoes is 
 62" r30" west of Paris. 
 
linty: for 
 
 r in noting 
 
 Dekm- 
 
 ke amount 
 
 I wherever 
 Icir bcgin- 
 lults to be 
 1 there forft 
 
 bmer Cas- 
 
 tbadocs is 
 
 Book I. 
 
 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 
 
 m 
 
 4. Longitude by Lunar Distances, or by Occultations of Stars by the Moon, 
 
 The moon is, of all the celestial bodies, the most convenient fur determining the longi> 
 tudo, because of the greater qu.ckness of her apparent motion among the stars. She makes 
 the complete circuit of the heavens in 27'' 7'' 43'" 4'.7 (this is her mean sidereal revolu- 
 tion) : therefore she changes her place among the stars more than half a degree, or her own 
 apparent diameter, in an hour ; so that in two minutes of time she passes over one minute 
 of a degree. This, or even its half, is quite a measurable quantity by a good sextant 
 
 By the tiieory of the moon's motion, her place among the stars is known at any time 
 that is, knowing the time of the day at Greenwich, the place of the moon is known ; and, 
 on the other hand, kn ving the place of the moon, the time at Greenwich is known. The 
 Nautical Almanac giv the distance of the moon's centre from the sun, and some of the 
 brighter stars, os it would be seen from the earth's centre, for every third hour of the doy, 
 Greenwich time. If, therefore, the Almanoe show that the moon, considered as seen from 
 the earth's centre, will be 10° from a certain fixed star at six o'clock in the evening at 
 Greenwich ; and we make an observation at a distant place, and find tliat the moon's dis- 
 tance from the same star, reduced by computation to what it would be if seen at tlie earth's 
 centre, is 10°, we immediately conclude that at tliat instant it is six o'clock at Greenwich. 
 Thus the moon, with the brighter fixed stars near her path, serve the purpose of a chroncw 
 meter. 
 
 To determine the longitude in this way, one observer measures the moon's distance from 
 the sun or a bright star (one of those in the Ephemeris) ; another observer ot the same time 
 finds the altitudes of the moon and star ; and a third should observe the exact time by a 
 chronometer or good watch at which the observations were made. These observations, 
 corrected for refraction, give data for finding what would be the apparent place of the moon 
 in the heavens, if it could be seen fixim the centre of the earth at that time. The Nautical 
 Almanac enables the observer to find the hour at Greenwich, when the position of the moon 
 in the heavens was such as he observed it, and the interval between the Greenwich time 
 and his own gives him his longitude. 
 
 This method of finding the longitude is commonly practised in the service of the East 
 India Company, and in the navy. By it the longitude may be generally known to within 
 twenty miles, and very often much nearer. This, although less accurate (hun the latitude, 
 is yet an invaluable acquisition to the navigator. A striking proof how much it may be 
 depended on has been given by a distinguished navigator (Capt. Basil Hall, R. N.). After 
 a voyage of 8000 miles, occupying eighty-nine days, he arrived olf Rio de Janeiro, having 
 passed through the Pacific Ocean, rounded Cape Horn, and crossed the South Atlantic, 
 without making any land. When within a week's sail of Rio, he set about determining, 
 by lunar observations, the ship's course and place at a determinate moment ; and having 
 found this, within from five to ten miles, he trusted to the ordinary and more compendious 
 way of finding his position, such as is used in short trips, for the remainder of his voyage. 
 When he arrived within fifteen or twenty miles of the coast (according to his estimation), 
 he hove to at four in the morning, waiting for day-break. He then proceeded, altho'igh the 
 weather was hazy ; but about eight it become so foggy that he did not like to stand in 
 farther. The tog sudden'y cleared ofl^, and then he had tlie satisfaction to see the Great 
 Sugar-loaf Rock, which stands on one side of the harbour, so nearly right a-head, that he 
 liad not to alter his course above a jwint in order to hit the entrance of Rio. 
 
 Occultations of stars by the moon serve exactly the same purpose as a distance of the 
 moon from a star : these, however, are not so generally observed at sea as on hind. They 
 ^ive llie distance of the moon from the star with almost perfect accuracy, and therefore are 
 an excellent method of determining the longitude. When an occultation has been observed, 
 wo can, by the lunar tables or the Nautical Almanac, which is a species of lunar and solar 
 tables, compute the distance between the centre of the moon and star as it would appear at 
 the cartii's centre at the moment the occultation was observed, provided we know the lon- 
 gitude of tiio place where the observation was made : but tjiis longitude is the very thing 
 \vc want; theretbre we Ciinnot proceed by a direct process. However, we may know the 
 longitude nearly by some oilier means ; an eclipse of one of Jupiter's satellites, for exam- 
 ple. Willi this, as if it were the true longitude, we may calculate the apparent distance 
 between the star and centre of the moon reduced to the earth's centre at tlie time the occul- 
 tation was seer If the longitude had lieen correctly assumed, tliis would have been exactly 
 tlie moon's .scniidiameter; but it will difl'er more or less, according to the magnitude of the 
 error wo have made in the lussuined longitude. There will, however, be such a determi- 
 nate connexion between the error of the longitude and the difli'erence between the moon's 
 semidiuineter mid computed distance of the star and moon's centre, that the one will be dedu- 
 cible from tlie otlior by calculation. In this way, then, the error may be estimated, and a 
 nearer apiiroxiiuation to the longitude obtained; and a repetition of the proces.:: will give a 
 still more correct result. 
 
 Iti 
 
 IS! 
 'J 
 
 
 t 
 
 i|)i 
 
 ■;! kii 
 
 il. ^ 
 
 i 
 
 n 
 
Uft 
 
 PRINCIPLES t)F GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 .;t!fe 
 
 Pabt XL 
 
 5. Longitude hy the Transit of the Moon over the Meridian. 
 
 Let T be the time by the clock when tlio mfioii i« obsorvod on the meridian of nny place, 
 t the time of transit of a known fixed star, 24 + x tlio interval brtwoon two Hiiccessivo 
 transits of the same star: then 24 + x iT - t :: 3fl()° : difference of right ascension of the 
 moon and star at the instant the moon was on the meridian ; to which adding the known 
 right ascension of the star, the right ascension (A) of tiic moon when on tiio meridian is 
 detennine<l. Now the moon's right ascension when on the meridian of Greenwich is given 
 m the Nantical Almanac for every day of the year, from whence the daily increment of licr 
 right ascension may be determined : let, therefore, a be the moon's right ascension when on 
 the meridian of Greenwich, E the increment of right ascension in the time between two 
 successive transits over the same meridian; then, considering the change of right ascension 
 as uniform, 
 
 E : o - A : : 360° : the required longitude. 
 
 ■ . - • ,* 
 
 6. Longitude hy Siffnah. 
 
 The most accurate way of determining "small diifcrences of longitude is by signals made 
 on the earth's surface. A rocket fired from an elevated spot on a clear ni^ht may be seen 
 distinctly with a telescope at the distance of twenty or thirty miles: therefore, by observing 
 the times at which the same explosion is seen at two places, the difference of longitudT of 
 the places may be found. 
 
 The same method will apply to places at any distance, if they be connected by a chain 
 of stations sufficiently near to each other to admit of a rocket to be seen from every two 
 adjoining stations. The difference of longituds between Greenwich and Paris was deter- 
 mmed iu 1825 in this wny. Rockets were exploded at Wrotlmm, ond seen simultaneously 
 at Greenwich and Fairlight Down: also at Iji Canche on the French coast, which were 
 seen at Fairlight and Lignicrs ; and at Mont Javoult, which were observed at Ligniera and 
 Paris. 
 
 In the same way the difference of longitude between Geneva and Milan has been deter- 
 mined by signals made by illumination on the t.ops of intermediate mountains. 
 
 The mtensely brilliant light which Licutonant Urummond, of the Royal Engineers, has 
 proposed for light-houses, and which is produced by placing a ball of lime, about the size of 
 a pea, in a flame supported by oxygen gas, may be emidoyed in determining differences of 
 longitude. We believe that, in favourable weather, this light exhibited on the top of Ben 
 Lomond may be seen at the sjime time at Edinburgh and in Ireland : indeed, we know that 
 it has actually been seen in the north of Ireland. Here, then, we have the means of deter 
 mining with great exactness tlie diflerence between the longitude of Uublin and Edinburgh. 
 
 7. Longitude by Triangulation. 
 The trigonometrical survey of Britain has determined the longitude of all the principal 
 points on the coast, as well as the mountains and cities in the interior, particularly in Eng- 
 land. At present the survey is suspended in Britain, but is going on in Ireland. When 
 this is completed, the British survey will doubtless be restmied, and the geography of the 
 northern part of the island made as perfect in its minute details as the southern, which, 
 from its proximity to the continent, is more necessary to be known in preparing plans of 
 national defence. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 nKPRESEXTATION OP THE EARTH. 
 
 The most natural and correct representation which can be given of the geographical divi- 
 sions of the earth's surface is that which is made on a sphere or globe. In this way the 
 different countries may bo truly delineated, so as to exhibit jierfoctly to the eye their relative 
 position, their magnitude, and boundaries; and hy such a representation of the earth, all the 
 problems in geography may bo resolved with elegance and fiicility. 
 
 But although the surti'.ce of a solid having the exact figure of the earth, or differing but 
 little fi-oiri it, affords in theory the most complete and the only perfect representation of any 
 considerable tract of country, yet there is a limit in practice to this precious advantage. A 
 globe of a moderate size serves very well to give a distinct notion of tiie figure, the magni- 
 tude, the position, and general features of the great continents and islands: but tlic largest 
 globe flint can conveniently be constructed is insufficient for minute details; and then We 
 must have rncoiirse to the more simple, although less perfect, representations of ^^APS. 
 
 It is imix)ssililo to represent on a plane a large extent of the earti.'s surface, so that the 
 distances of places in the plane map shall have to each otliei" precisely the same proportion 
 as their distances on the gloljc. To obviate this (lilliciilty, gengmphers have had rocoursf 
 to different methods of representing portions of the globe on a plane. 
 
 ■Ji'- 1 
 
hRT 
 
 n. 
 
 y place, 
 icessivo 
 1 of the 
 I known 
 ridian is 
 is given 
 It of her 
 tvhen on 
 ccn two 
 scenBion 
 
 als made 
 be seen ' 
 )bserving 
 xitud'' of 
 
 y a chain 
 ivcry two 
 :aG deter- 
 taneously 
 lich were 
 rnier3 and 
 
 een deter- 
 
 ncers, has 
 he size of 
 ■fences of 
 top of Ben 
 know that 
 I of deter 
 Winburgh. 
 
 principal 
 
 in Eng- 
 
 When 
 
 >hy of the 
 
 rn, which, 
 
 plans of 
 
 lical divi- 
 s way the 
 ir relative 
 Lh, all the 
 
 ering but 
 m of any 
 tta^e. A 
 |io magni- 
 !■ largest 
 then we 
 
 lAPS. 
 
 that the 
 
 |)roportion 
 
 rocoursf 
 
 TT 
 
 ^' 
 
 f^' 
 
 Book L 
 
 REPRESENTATION OP THE EARTlt K,« 
 
 153 
 
 By one method the countries are represented by tlio rules of perspective, as they wonid 
 appear to an eye tiiat should view them on the surface of a sphere from a given point The 
 ditibreiit positions which may bo aiisuiiiod for tlie point from whicii the sphere is viewed give 
 rise to (liflercnt projections, whicii all answer very well when the surface to be represented 
 is of small extent, and the point of view, or projecting point, is nearly over its centre. 
 However, when the surface is of great extent, a whole hemisphere for instance, those places 
 which 1 ie near the border of the projection are in them all much distorted. 
 
 According to another method, the spiierical surface to be represented is supposed to be a 
 cone whose vertex is somewhere in the polar axis produced, and its curved surfaco either 
 touches tlie sphere at tiie middle parallel of the map, or falls within the sphere at tlio mid- 
 dle parallel, and without it at tiie extreme parallels. The surface of the cone is then sup- 
 posed to be extended into a plane. This way of constructing maps is called tlie method of 
 development. 
 
 There are other mathematical hypotheses according to which maps are delineated, and 
 one in particular by which marine charts are constructed. In this, tlie parallels of latitude 
 and circles of longitude are all represented by straight lines (that is, a line making always 
 the same angle with the meridian), and the course of a ship sailing always on the same 
 rhomb is also a straight line. A representation of the earth in this way is commonly 
 called Mercator's chart, although the invention is due to an English mathematician, Edward 
 Wright. Charts of this construction are of great importance in navigation. 
 
 I. CONSTRUCTION OF MAPS DY PROJECTION. 
 
 There are two projections of the sphere by which portions of its surface may be truly 
 delineated by the rules of perspective : the c iooraphic and the stergooraphio. In each, 
 the plane on which the projection is made is called the plane of projection. 
 
 1. orthographic PROJECTION. 
 
 To project any point in space orthograpb'r.ally on a plane, a perpendicular is to be drawn 
 from the point on the plane and the bottom of the perpendicular ; that is, the point in which 
 it meets the plane is the orthographic projection of the point. 
 
 The orthographic projection of a line of anv kind on a plane is found by supposing per- 
 pendiculars to be drawn from every point in the line, and that line on the plane wliich passes 
 through the bottom of all the perpendiculars in the orthographic projection of tlie proposed 
 line. 
 
 It is easy to see that the orthographic projection of a straight line must be a straight line, 
 because the perpendiculars drawn from every point in it to the plane of projection will all 
 lie in a plane, and the common section of two planes is a straight line. It is also apparent 
 that the projection of a rectilineal figure will be a rectilineal figure. 
 
 If a circle be parallel to the plane of projection, its orthographic projection or representa- 
 tion will be a circle: for the perpendiculars supposed to be drawn from every point in the 
 circle to the plane of projection will all be on the curve surface of a cylinder, and they may 
 be considered as constituting tliat surfiice. The circle and its projection will be tlie top and 
 Iwttom of the cylinder ; and since they are parallel, they will be alike and equal. 
 
 If the plane in which a circle lies be perpendicular to the plane of projection, its projec- 
 tion will manifestly be a straight line, which will be equal in length to the diameter; and 
 the projection of any arc reckoned from the extremities of the diameter will be projected 
 into its versed sine ; also the complement of the arc, or what it wonts of ninety degrees, will 
 bo projected into its sine. 
 
 But if a circle be in a plane which is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the plane of 
 projection, then its projection will neither be a circle nor a straight line ; it will be an oval 
 figure. The boimding line will be in ellipse, a curve formed by cutting a cylinder by a 
 plane oblique to its axis ; and it is al^o one of the conic sections. 
 
 An exact notion may lie formpd c'' the orthographic projection of any line or figure by 
 holding it in the light of tlie suti, and observing its shadow formed on a plane which is per- 
 jinndicular to the directiuu r: the solar rays. The rays which pass close to the figure are 
 the perpendiculars to the plane, and the shadow is the projection of the figure. 
 
 The plans and sections by whicii artificers execute different constructions are no other 
 than orthographic projections of the things to be constructed ; with these all workmen are 
 familiar. 
 
 The orthographic projection of any object, — tlie terrestrial glebe, for example, — with nil 
 its circles, and the continents and islands on its surface, is nearly the representation or pic- 
 ture which an artist would delineate on a plane surface, if he meant to represent the globe 
 at a great distance from the eye ; and it is exactly the appearance which tlie globe would 
 have, supposing an eye could view it at an infinite distance. 
 
 From the nature of tliis projection, it appears that the orthographic representation of half 
 the surfiice of tiie globe will show nearly the true figure and proportions of rnuntrics about 
 the middle ; that is, directly opiiosito to the supposed position of the eve : but, tow ards the 
 
 Vol. I. U 
 
 I m 
 
 i'iv 
 
 S I 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 !;:■» 
 
 , 
 
 m 
 
 ■1 j 
 
 
 .' i 
 
 
 
 
 ■i ■ 
 
 i 
 
 \d 
 
154 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 Hi'it 
 
 ilJ! 
 
 pxtremitics of the map, tho frrapliic representations of places will imperfectly exhibit their 
 true figure and position. For thin reason it is seldom employed in geography, although its 
 use ia tTO(|Ucnt in astronomy. 
 
 (A.) To project the Sphere orthographically on the PlaM of the Eipiator. 
 
 About any point, C, as a centre (_Jig. 45), with any radius, C A, describe a circle B A 00 
 
 to represent the equator. Draw two diameters, 
 45 AC 180, B C 00, perpendicular to each other : 
 
 these will be the projections of meridians distant 
 90° from each other, and C will be the projection 
 of the pole. 
 
 Divide each quadrant mto six equal parts, and 
 let A 15, 15 30 be two of these ; draw diameters 
 through 15 and 30, and these will be the projec- 
 tions of meridians 15° ond 30° from A C 180; and, 
 ' in this way, meridians dividing the ecjuator into 
 twenty-four equal parts may be represented. Of 
 these, any one, C A, may be assumed as the first 
 meridian. 
 
 To project the parallels of latitude: divide A B, 
 one of the quadrants, into nine e(|ual parts ; let 80, 
 70, 60 be the throe of these points of division ad- 
 joining to B: draw perpendiculnrs thim these, and 
 all the other points on the radius A C meeting it 
 in 80, 70, 60, &c. About C as a centre at tlie distances C 80, C 70, C CO, &c. describe 
 circles, and these will be the projections of parallels of latitude at the distance of ten 
 degrees. 
 
 The polar circles and tropics may be tbund by laying off an arc of 23^° from A towards 
 B, and from B towards A, and drawing perpendiculars from the points thus dcfemiined on 
 C A, circles described alwut C, through the bottoms of the perpendiculars, will be the pro- 
 jections of the polar circle and tro|)i(:. In this way, the projection may bo completed. 
 
 It is easy to see that the regions within the polur circle may be roproscnted by this pro- 
 jection so as to give a tolerable notion of tlioir position and magnitude, judging by the eye; 
 but that the appearance of the cciuatorial regions will be altogether distorted. 
 
 (B.) To project the Sphere orthographically on the Plane of the Meridian. 
 Describe any circle, N E S Q (Jig. 46.), to represent tho meridian, and draw two diame- 
 ters, E C Q, N C S, perpendicular to each other; 
 the former may be taken as the projection of the 
 equator, and then the latter will represent a meri- 
 dian 90° from tho meridian N E S. 
 
 To represent other meridians : divide a quadrant 
 
 S E into six ('([ual parts, ns at 15, 30, &c. ; from 
 
 ^^ these points of division draw perpendiculars 15 «, 
 
 10 30 6, &c. on E a DescrilK? ellipses N « S, N 6 S, 
 
 -iy having a common transverse axis N S, and the lines 
 C a, C 6, &c. t()r their semiconjugate axes; and 
 these will be tho projections of meridians which pass 
 through every fitlecnth degree of the e(iUtttor. Or, 
 by dividing E S into nine equal parts, tliey may be 
 made to pass tlirougli every tenth degree. 
 
 For the parallels of latitude : divide the quadrants 
 E N, N Q each into nine equal [wrts at 10, 20, 30, 
 &c. ; join tho corresponding numbers by straight 
 lines, and these will be the projections of porallels of latitude at distances of 10°, 20°, 30°, 
 &c. from the eiiuator. The tropics and polar circles are to bo drawn in the same way ; the 
 former at 23i° on each side of the equator, and the latter 2J}i° from the jxiles. 
 
 In this projection, the polar regions, and all places near the meridian N E S Q, are very 
 much distorted in appearance to the eye : it is only towards the centre that there is any con- 
 siderable resemblance of a projected portion of the earth's surface to its appearance on a 
 globe. 
 
 2. BTEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION. 
 
 In the stereographic projection, the eye is sujiposed to be situated at a point in the surface 
 of the sphere, and the plane on which the projection is to be made is the plane of that great 
 circle, which is everywhere 90° distant from the position of the eye : hence it nuist be evi- 
 
 Ei '^ii 
 
 ^m 
 
 M'' 
 
Paut II. M 
 
 quadrant 
 
 c. ; from 
 
 liars 15 «, 
 
 S, N 6 S, 
 
 the lines 
 
 lixes; untl 
 
 [vhich p;is8 
 
 itor. Or, 
 
 jy may be 
 
 I quadrants 
 
 ^0, 20, ao, 
 
 straiffht 
 
 ' 20°, ao°, 
 
 |\vay ; the 
 
 are very 
 any con- 
 lance on a 
 
 lie surface 
 Ithat great 
 Ist be evi- 
 
 f- 
 
 
 Book I. 
 
 rei»i.EkSentatu)n of the earth. 
 
 155 
 
 dent that tlio eye can sec only llie innidc or concave Kurlitce; howcvrr, wo niny sup|>nse the 
 sphere to iio traimpureiit, and its various circles, and the isluniis, coiitiiicntH, iSLc. drlineated 
 on its siu'tiice to ho seen through it. If we now conccive'a line to be drawn IVuim the eye 
 to any jjoint on the concave siirliice, the point in which that line cuts the plane of projection 
 will be the projection of the point on the spherical surfiice. 
 
 To illustrate wimt has been said, let E A (> B CA/j-. 47.) bo a great circle of the sphere 
 
 p If r s a plane passing through its centre, and perpen- 
 dicular to the plane of the great circle; let C E bo a 
 diameter of the sphere perpendicular to the plane; then 
 assuming p q r s as the plane of projection, E, one end 
 of that diameter, may bo taken as the place of the eye 
 or projecting point. If, now, straight lines E A, E B, 
 EC, ED, &.C. bo drawn to A, B, C, I), any points on 
 the Burfiice of the sphere, the points a, b, c, </, &c. in 
 which tlie.se lines meet the plane p r, will be the pro- 
 jections of the corresponding points on the surface of 
 the sphere. Let A 1) B be any circle of the sphere : 
 conceive a straight line to be drawn from E, the place 
 of the eye, to D, any point in tiie circundcrence. If D, 
 the end of this line, be now carried round llie circle, 
 supposing it always to pass through the fixed point E, the line will generate the surface of 
 a cone whose base is the circle, and vertex the place of the eye; and t'.e curve line adb, 
 which is tiie coirimon section of the plane p r, and the surface of the oone will be the pro- 
 jection of the circle. 
 It will now be sufficiently obvious, 
 
 1. TluU every circle which pusses throuffh the eye will he projected into or repreit, ''d 
 by a straiffht line on the plane of projection. 
 
 2. That every circle whose plane is parallel to the plane of the circle will b'; projected 
 into a circle. 
 
 These two properties hold true wherever the eye be situated. The assumptioi.. however, 
 that it is in the surliice of the sphere gives rise to geometrical properties which are peculiar 
 to this proj(!ction, and which by their simplicity and elegance give it great value. 
 
 One geometrical property is this: whatever be the position of tlie circle ADB (or base 
 of the cone) on the surface of tlie sphere, the portion of the cone between the projecting 
 point E and the plane of projection p r is always similar to the whole cone. If the plane 
 of the base be parallel to the plane of projection, the truth of this proposition is obviout ; 
 but writers on geometry prove, tiuit when it is oblique, still the cones whose bases are ADB 
 and adb, and common vertex E, are similar ; only tiioy have contrary positions. From the 
 similarity of the whole cone to the part cut off, it follows that, 
 
 3. In the atereoirraphical projection of the sphere, the representation of any circle that 
 does not pass through the eye will always be a circle. 
 
 There is another proposition demonstrated by writers on spherical geometry which is of 
 groat imiwrtaiice in tliis projection ; viz. if two straight linos be drawn from any point on 
 the surface of the sphere to touch it in that point, their representation on the plane of pro- 
 jection will contain an angle exactly equal to the angle contained by the lines themselves. 
 Since straight lines touching the surface of a sphere at any point may be regarded as tan- 
 gents to any circles of the sphere passing tlirough that point, we have this otiier remarkable 
 property : — 
 
 4. The angle made on the surface of the sphere by two circles which cut each other, and 
 the angle made by circles which are their representations, are in all cases equal. 
 
 This projection is extremely convenient in practice, because a circle may be easily de- 
 scribed when three points in its circumference are given, or when two points and its radius 
 are known ; also, the projierty of lines making angles at their intersection on the surface of 
 the sphere etpinl to tliose formed by their projections, is of great value in tlie representation 
 of the surface of tiio sphere of a plane, jloreover, the contraction of the map towards the 
 extremities of an liemisphere is not so great as in tlie orthographical projection ; on all these 
 accounts, the stereographical projection deserves a preference. 
 
 Supposing K to be the projecting point, or place of the eye, and pr the plane of projection, 
 lot C bo the point of the sphere opposite to E, and therefore 90° everywhere from the circle, 
 which is tlie common section of the sphere and plane of projection ; it is evident that any 
 arc, A C, of a great circle passing through C and E will be projected into a straight line a c; 
 now this line is manifestly the tangent of the angle A E C to the radius E c, and the measure 
 of this angle is half the arc A C. 
 
 5. Hence it follows, that if a great circle pass through the projecting point, any arc of 
 that circle, reckoned from the opposite point of the sphere, is projected into a straight line 
 nassi'ng through the centre, and equal to the tangent of that arc. 
 
 if 
 
fe. 
 
 
 I* ■'! 
 
 S p. ' 
 
 166 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GKOGRAPIIY. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 (A) To projvct the Sphere ttereoffruphiiiilly on Ihv Plum of the Ei/tuilor. 
 
 Deicribe a circio, A 1) |) (Jiff, 48.), to rcpreHoiit tlu- equator, and ilriiw iiiiy ilminetpr 
 
 A C D mill a riuliua C 1) m'r|H.'iiiliculitr to A I>. 
 Hiip|X)Min^r now timttlic iMirnllolsoflatitmlo tocvery 
 tfiitii (Icffrco are to lie roprcscntcd in the inuj), 
 divide A i), a quadnint of the circle, li.iu iiineeqiiiil 
 imrts, nH at the (luiiits 10, '^0, 'M, &c. and dniw 
 Htruight lineH from the points of diviHion to U, the 
 extremity of the diameter A C I), nieetiii); the 
 riidiug n C in tlin iioints 10, 30, IJO, «Stc. Then, 
 nliout the centre C describe circles to pits!i throu^jfli 
 the points 10, 20, 130, &.c., and tliese will rcprofHnit 
 the parallels of 10, 20, 30, Sic. dc);recs of lati- 
 tude. In this way, all the parallels of latitude nmy 
 be found, as also the tropic and polar circio, hy lay- 
 ing off arcs of 83,}° and 665° from H towards A. 
 
 Next divide the circumference of the circio into 
 into 2i eipinl parts, and draw radii from tlio centre 
 
 .o the points of division, 
 one hour. 
 
 These will represent the incridians which differ in longitude by 
 
 quadrantal arcs, N Q, into nine equal parts, an at 10, 20, 30, &c., and di 
 lines from S to the points of division, meeting C Q in 1, 2, 3, &c. Then, a i 
 
 (B) To project the Sphere itrreographically on the Plane of a Meridian. 
 Describe any circle N Q S E (Jig. 49.), to represent the meridian on which the projection 
 
 is to be made ; which should be so chosen as to include 
 nearly one of the continents, — the eastern, for in- 
 stance : this will be accomplished if N E S be the 
 meridian 20° west from London. Draw the diameter 
 N C S, which will represent the meridian tiiat 
 passes through the projecting point, and therefore is 
 perpendicular to the plane of projection. Then N 
 will represent the north, and S the south pole ; draw 
 jQ another diameter, E C Q, which will represent the 
 equator. 
 
 Since, by the nature of the projection, all the 
 meridians will be represented by circles which pass 
 through the poles N, S, it will be sufficient if we 
 determine the points in which they cut the equator : 
 we shall suppose the meridians to pass through every 
 tenth degree of longitude : tiic points v.'horo tlioy cut 
 the equator will be found by dividing one ot the 
 
 drawing straight 
 . circle described 
 through the points N 1 S will represent the meridian which cuts the equator 10° from Q, 
 and a circle through N 2 S will be the meridian that cuts the equator 20° from Q. The 
 remaining meridians N 3 S, &c. will be determined exactly in the same way ; and it appears 
 firom the construction, that the centres of the circles will be in the diameter E tj and its 
 prolongation, and their distances from the centre will be the tangents of 10°, 20°, &c. : viz. 
 the inclination of the circles to the plane of the primitive ; also, that their radii will be the 
 secants of the same inclinations. 
 
 To describe the parallels of latitude, divide the four quadrants each into nine etpial parts, 
 as at 80, 70, 60, &c., and draw straight lines from E, one end of the diameter E Q, to the 
 points of division, meeting N S in 8, 7, 6, &c. Then circles described through 80, 8, 80 ; 
 70, 7, 70, &c., will represent the parallels of 80°, 70°, &c. The centres of all the circles 
 will be in the line N S, and distant from it by the secants of the distances of the parallels 
 from the pole : also, the radii will bo the tangents of the same distances. The polar circles 
 and tropics being described by the same rules at the distances 23^° and 661° from the poles, 
 the projection will be completed. 
 
 (C.) To project the Sphere stereographically on the Plane of the Horizon for a given 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 In this projection, the eye is supposed to be in the nadir of the place for which the pro- 
 jection is made. 
 
 On C (Jig. 50.) and C (Jig. HI.) as centres with any radius, describe circles \V .\ E S, 
 W'N'E'S', of which//?-. .50. is to be the primitive or horizon ; the oihcr,, fig. 51., is to serve 
 for determining the position of the circles to be described on _fig. 50. Draw the diameters 
 N S, W E, N'S', W'H' in both circles [icrpcndicular to one another ; then N S in Jig. .')0. wil: 
 be tlie projection of the meridian, and W E tlic projection of the circle passing through 
 
 af 
 
mil parts, 
 Q, to the 
 
 80, 8, 80 ; 
 
 the circles 
 parallels 
 
 )lar circles 
 the poles, 
 
 • a given 
 ;h the pro- 
 
 through 
 
 i 
 
 DOOK I. 
 
 REPRESENTATION OF THE KARTII. 
 
 \57 
 
 the caHt and west poiiitH of the horizon and the /.cnitli, — that is, tho prime vertical j N will 
 ho the north |X)iiit of tho horizon, H tho oouth, and E urul W the caut and west points. 
 
 6- 
 
 81 3 
 
 jL_40 
 
 ^ 
 
 T^x^v^o 
 
 /^ 
 
 'in X'-Vv 
 
 
 
 / \ ''' 
 
 •"''' \^' 
 
 / yc.'''' 
 
 
 
 
 / ^.v'--;'-^^' 
 
 y^ V.-Y" 
 
 IV 41';':^^'-"- C 
 
 "y^ \ x^ 
 
 
 X" ^4(1 
 
 \ y^^' 
 
 \ / 
 
 \X Q 
 
 "■'-- \ / 
 
 .'t\. 
 
 '~^,\ / 
 
 
 
 .'^....™::-^ 
 
 ^Zd 
 
 S' 
 
 Make tho arc NT', or tho angle N' C P', fig. 51., equal to the latitude of the place; joiri 
 W'P' cutting C N' in P; make C P in *^. 50. equal to C P mfig. 51., and P,/^'. 50., will 
 ho the projection of the north pole. Draw the diameter E Q, fig. 51., perpendicular to 
 P' C;(' ; jom W'Q' meeting C S' in Q'. Take C Q, fig. 50., equal to C U', fig. 51. ; de- 
 Hcribe a circle through tho points W, Q, E, and the arc W Q E will represent the equator. 
 Next, to project the parallels of latitude, — for example, those which are 4(P and 20° from 
 the polo, — from P', fig. 51., take P' 40 and P' 40, each arcs of 40' on opposite sides of P' ; 
 also, P' 20, P' 20, arcs of 20°. Join W 40, W'40, meeting C N' in m and n ; also W 20, 
 W 20, meeting C N' in r and ». In N C S, fig. 50., take C m, C ?i, r, C if, equal to C w, 
 C n, C r, C lyfig. 51. ; describe circles on mn,r s as diameters, and these will be projections 
 of parallels of latitude at the distances of 40° and 20° from the pole. In this way may all 
 tiie parallels, also the tropics and jwlar circle, be projected. 
 
 To project the meridian : in fig. 51. draw S' B perpendicular to N' S', meeting P' p 
 produced in B; take C A, fig. 50., equal to S' B, fig. 51., and through A draw a perpen- 
 dicular to C A. Let us suppose that the meridians are to mako with each other angles of 
 15° : at P, in the lino P A, draw P 15 and P 15 on each side of P A, making angles with 
 it of 1.5° ; and, in like manner, P 30, P 30, making angles of 30°, and so on to angles of 
 75°. On A, as a centre, describe a circle to pass through P ; this will pass througii W and 
 E, and will be the projection of the six o'clock hour circle in the heavens, or that meridian 
 on the globe that is perpendicular to the meridian of the place for which the projection is 
 made. On the points 15, 15 describe ores a P o', a P a' to pass through P, and meet the 
 |)rojection of the horizon in a, a' ; a, a' ; and in like manner on 30, 30 os centres describe 
 the arcs h V h', b P b\ &c, all passing througii P : these will be the projections of meridians 
 on the terrestrial sphere, or of hour circles on tlie celestial sphere. In this way, the pro- 
 jection may be completed. 
 
 3. GLOBULAR PROJECTION. 
 
 In the orthographic projection, equal portions of the earth's spherical surface are repre- 
 sented by unequal plane surfaces; and the deviation from equality in the surface to be 
 represented, and its plane representation, increases from the centre to the circumference of 
 the projection. 
 
 The same is tnio of the stereographic projection, but with this difference, that the dis- 
 tortion in the representation of the figure of any portion of the spherical siirfiices proceeds 
 in a contrary direction : in the former case, the degrees of longitude and latitude are gra- 
 dually contracted from the centre to the circumference ; but in the latter, they are enlarged. 
 
 In the stereographic projection, tlie projecting ptiint, or point of view, is the pole of the 
 circle on which the projection is made ; and in tho orthographic, it may be supposed in the 
 axis, and at a very great, or rathe, indefinitely great, distance. It is this change of position 
 of the point of view that protluces the change in the direction in wiiich the degrees of lati- 
 tude or longitude are contracted. Hence it maybe supixisod, that, by taking a point of view 
 at some finite distance greater than the radius of the spliere, a perspective representition will 
 be obtained, in which the degrees in the representation will be nearly ciiual, and the deviation 
 from equality in the representation of equal portions of the spherical surface in some mea- 
 sure corrected. 
 
 Vol. I. 14 
 
 ■: M 
 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 ;'M 
 
 yL^_ i ' 
 
 £ 
 
 ■" li 
 
jj '-^f^^-H 
 
 \l» 
 
 PRINCIPLES or (JKOfJRAPIIY. 
 
 Part I) 
 
 Ix't A I) H (^fif(. .V2.) Ih" ti wH-tion of tho iplierc 
 by a pliinn (mHHinn; tliroii);)! K, tlin |xiirit of virvv, 
 nntl (' tliii ci'iilns 'Iruw tlio (Imiiii'tnr / I) to |Nii<k 
 tliriiiiiih K, mill ilruw A (' It |i)'r|H>iiili(:ular to 1> K. 
 Hiiioi tlin wliiilo i|im(lriiMt A F Im to bo prfijcrtcd 
 into Ihi* rHiliiiri A (', if it lio jKiMMiblit to inako bn 
 rcproHi'iitiitionNoriHiiml ixirtionit of it mmrly (iipml, 
 itM biiivi'N A K iiiiil K V limy Im! h.-'kiiiiiciI iix r<'pr>>- 
 Ht'iitiMl by A II mill il C, ImlvuH of llii; rniliUH: 
 tlicrutiirc, II lino ilrnwn from K to K niimt liiiu'ct 
 tbc riuiiim in II. 'I'Iiih ilutormincK I) b], the iHm- 
 tana' nf Ihc projnHiiiff poini, tn he viiuul li> K G, 
 a ptrpvnilicvlar from tin: miildli; nf tlir nuudrant. 
 To provn tbis (jCDinctrical pro|)otiitinii, draw A V 
 nmi K C iiitnrHcctintf in I, and join II I. Tbcn A 
 1=1 F nnd A 1 : I F : : A II : 11 C ; tbfiroforo II I 
 IM iNiriiilol to C F : ln-ncn, K I : I C : : K II : II E : : 
 G C : C E. Now, K l=F (} mid I C=(J C ; tborr- 
 foro F G : G C : : G C : C E : bunco F (JC E=:(i 
 C«==K G'=F G-G D; tbiroforu E=G I), iinil, 
 tnkiiif; iiwiiy tliR liiiit C I) commoii to butli, D E ia 
 oqiml tn C G or U) K G. 
 linnet! it npponrs tlint Ibo diBtanco D E in tbti Bine of 45''; and thorcforo noiiriv 71 of 
 "iicb jiarts us llif nuliiw C A contains KH). Tbin projection wiw first snjofeHtod by Al. DoIh- 
 liiri<, mill is now cotniiiiiiily callod tlio Globubir projection. If we 8up[H)so tbo (lundrant A 
 F divided into ton equal purts, tben tbe projections of tbe arcs of 0°, reckoning from F to A, 
 will be as in tbia table, in wbicli tbc radius C A is supposed to be 10. 
 
 Arc. 
 
 Kt'prciienmtiiin. 
 
 Arc. 
 
 Ri'prcaciilntlnn. 
 
 (K>.. 
 
 110 
 
 .Wl 
 
 413.. 
 
 .MO 
 
 1.017 
 
 tf .. 
 
 IS 
 
 .9H 
 
 M .. 
 
 (Kl 
 
 1.0'JO 
 
 JH .. 
 
 B? 
 
 sm 
 
 K\ .. 
 
 7'J 
 
 1.013 
 
 S7 .. 
 
 % 
 
 1.004 
 
 M .. 
 
 «1 
 
 .11117 
 
 3B ... 
 
 45 
 
 1.013 
 
 fl .. 
 
 no 
 
 .UM 
 
 N 80 
 
 , 1 I 
 
 Prom tliis t<iblo it appears, that the appro.xiinntion to equality in the projection of equal arc8 
 of a circle perpendicular to tbe plane of i)rojnetion is considerable. 
 
 According to tbe principles of perspectivis in tbis projection the circles of tbo sphere will 
 lie represented by ellipses; and they navo been so dolincatcd in two hemispheres, projected, 
 drawn, and beautifully engraved by Mr. Joseph Lowry, of liondon. He has placed London 
 at the centre of tbe northern hemisphere, and instead of .707, Dolahire's distance of tho 
 projecting point, be has made it .88 of the radius. 
 
 In general, however, tbe projection is made on a meridian, and the circleB of tbo sphero 
 are represented by circles, and without any regard to the distance of a point of view. .\lst), 
 the dfgroes of longitude on tbe equator, and of latitude on a meridian, are made all equal. 
 With tiiese simplijications, the meridians and parallels on a hemisphere of the earth's sur- 
 face may be represented by the following construction : — 
 
 Let us suppose the parallels of latitude to be traced through every tenth degree, and that 
 tlie meridians are to be an hour from each otiier. 
 
 Describe a circle, E N Q S (Jg. T^\\ for the 
 representation of the meridian. Draw the diame- 
 ters E Q, N S perpendicular to each other ; one, E 
 Q, to represent the oquntor, and the other, N S, the 
 meridian, which is 00° from that on which the pro- 
 jection is mode ; N being the north, and S the south 
 pole. 
 Divide the quadrants E N, Q N, and the radius 
 iQ C N, each into nine equal parts ; let N 80, 80 70, 
 &c. be the etjual divisions of the quadrants, and N c, 
 c rf, &c. the equal divisions of the radius : describe 
 a circle through the three points 80, c, 80, and it 
 will be the representation of tbe parallel of 80° of 
 latitude ; in like manner a circle described tlirougli 
 the points 70, d, 70 will represent tbe pariillel of 
 70° ; the remaining parallels, tbe tropics and polur 
 circles, on Ix)tb sides of E Q, the equator, are to be 
 found in the same manner. 
 
, and that 
 
 for the 
 |c diame- 
 
 one, E 
 |NS, the 
 
 the pro- 
 Ithc south 
 
 Ihe radius 
 
 )0, 80 70, 
 
 i and N c, 
 
 describe 
 
 lO, and it 
 
 y 80= fif 
 
 tliroufrli 
 
 linillel of 
 
 iind poluf 
 
 lare to be 
 
 Book 1. 
 
 REI'RKHRNTATION OP TlIK KARTIl. 
 
 ItiO 
 
 Next for thn mpridlann: divide the rndii C K, C Q eiirh into n\x cnnnl pnrtu nt the point* 
 a, A, 6ir„ : di<i«'rilM> (.■iri-li'M thniu^li the |K>inlN N ri S, N h H, Hic. nnd tliexe will lie the repre- 
 NrntutioiiM ot' tlif iiieridinMN, luiy one of whicli, in luvinif down the |Mwiitioni< ot' placid hy 
 their Istitudu and hingitiide, iiiity Iw amiunied nil tho flrMt meridinn. 
 
 II. I'ONarilllCJTIUIil OV mam DV nRVRM)PBMItNT, 
 
 Tho throe tnethodn ot" pnijectinn whicli have lM>en oxplnined lire nwinlly employed in 
 the repreHentiilion of a lieniiMpnere, hut are wldoin u«ed in delinentiiiK Ihe );i'o|friipliicitl 
 t'enturi'N of ii ninjflu country. For thoM!, tho method of drvrUtprmint iH roininonly eni- 
 ploved. 
 
 A iM'rfect ifeotfraphical repro^entntion of a country Bhonld tepre»ent nil ItM imrta in jiint 
 proportion, nnd uTiould exhihit itn true tiKure, ThiH \n e.xactly done on the npliere; but it 
 can only bo nearly nccoin|>liiihed on a piano nurtkco. 
 
 The puriKweH of civil government reiiuire ninpH that (fivo tho true figure and dinienNionfl 
 of territory. Military aHiiirit reipiiro mucIi iih frjvo correct diHtnncex; nnd nnvl);iition deinnmlR 
 tlie exact oearinff ot one place from another. Ordinary innjw t\ilHI npproxiiimti'ly the two 
 tirst purpose*. Tho laiit ih completely wtixtied by a niup of a peculiar contitructlon, called 
 MerentDr'N chart; but thJH in not iimnediately iippficnble to tlio other purpiweH. 
 
 It i* a known property of u cone tliiit it* curve siirfnco can be expnnded in*' < .i plane ; 
 honco any tijfuro delineated on it can always bo exhibited cxnctly in all its diincDf* onn on a 
 
 filane Murface. Now, a part of tho iiurtkco of a gpliere contained between two pninllclN of 
 atitude, not very remote, will not differ much tVoni tho Hurikce of a tVuKtum of a cone thn^ 
 touches the Hphere in tho parallel midway between them ; and thJH will nUo he true if it 
 {Wtia aloni;^ the chord, or if it \\asa partly within und partly without tho Hphere, cutting,' it be- 
 tween the middle nnd extreme parallelR: in each caso the lenf^th of tlie Mniit Hide of tho 
 frustunt must be supposed cipial to the lenf^th of tho meridian between the extreme paral- 
 lels. On this principle, diflbrcnt constructiona havo been givon for representing the surfhcc 
 of a sphere on a plane. 
 
 1. Conical Devflnpemenl, 
 
 Let P A Q (Jig. 54.) bo a section of tlio meridian, P Q tho axis, C thn centre, E C the 
 radius of the oipiator, B D any arc of tho meridian, and A tho middle point between D ani' 
 D: draw tho tangent A O, meeting the axis in O. Suppose now the plane fiifuie O A E 
 to rovolvo about tho axis P Q ; tho semicircle P A Q will generate a sphere, nnd tlus taniGfcnt 
 O A will generato tho surface of a cone which touches tho sphere in A. Tho points I), A, D 
 will generate tho parallels of latitude B 6, A II a, D </, of which tho middle parallel A II a 
 will be a section of^tho cone perpendicular to its axis. 
 Take H any point in tho parallel A H a; draw P II to its centre, and join II O. Con- 
 
 , coivc now the cone to be expnnded into n 
 
 © Ri O plane, and tlmf tho surfiire () A II be- 
 
 comes, by develnpement, O' A' IT. The 
 expansion of A II, the arc of the parallel 
 of latitude on the sphere, whoso radius is 
 P II, the cosine of the hititiido, will now 
 become A' H', on are of a circle whose 
 radius is A' O' = A O, the cotangent of 
 the latitude of the parallel. 
 In 0' A' take A' B' nm; v P', each 
 L^ equal to A B or A D, and ' ' '.tic radii 
 C B', C D' describe arcs B m, D' n. 
 II ' The plane figure B' m n D' may now be 
 taken as nearly equal to tlif spliericol sur- 
 II face bounded by meridif- p.is'i'jntT through 
 A and H, and the pr.Aions of the paral- 
 lels B 6, A a inter ..'Cil between them: 
 and any tract Pi' country delineated on the 
 sphere may be nearly shown by a delinea- 
 tion on the plane ; the approximation be- 
 ing 'i.o more accurate as the breadth of 
 tho spherical zone is less. 
 Let the middle latitude E A and tho angle A P H, or brendth in longitude of tho sphori- 
 cnl surface, be supposed given, to determine the radius C A' and the nngle C A' H 
 Because the middle latitude is known, its cotangent O H is given in parts of the radius by 
 the trigonometrical tables, or it may be expressed in minutes of latitude, by considering that 
 tialf the circumference (to radius = 1) is 3.1416; therefore, the radius in minutes will be 
 expressed. eOXim 
 
 -3-1416 = 3437.r. 
 
 64 
 
 / /£ \ 
 
 Ai / — Iff 
 
 ^Vn 1^ — P "^^'v 
 
 mi \T^ Vt 
 
 K" ""c "A 
 
 U 
 
 M, 
 
 :> ii 
 
w 
 
 m 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part II 
 
 Hence O' A', llic nulius of the middle parallel in the developeraent, will be expressed in 
 minutes of latitude by 
 
 3437.7' X cot. middle lat. 
 
 Next, tn find the angle A' O' H'. The arc A H on the sphere and the arc A' H' on the 
 piano boiiig equal ; by the principles of geometry, the angle A F H will be to the angle 
 A' O' II' 08 A' O' to A F: now, A' O' = A O is the cotangent of the middle latitude, and 
 A V ia its cosine, and the cotangent is to the cosine as radius to the sine ; therefore, putting 
 L to denote the degrees of longitude between two meridians on the spiiere, the angle A' O' H , 
 contained by the straight lines which represent them in the developement, will ba in degrees 
 
 L X Sine middle lat. 
 The angle O', and the lines O' A', A' B', A' D', in the developement, are now known ; it 
 rornains only to divide B' D', the representation of the arc of the meridian, and B' m, D' n, 
 llio parallels of latitude, into equal parts to form scales of latitude and longitude : then, 
 circles described about O' as a centre, through the proper divisions of B' D', will form the 
 parallels of latitude ; and straight lines drawn joining corresponding degrees on the extreme 
 parallels D' w, D' n, will represent the meridians on the map ; which is now ready for the 
 delineation of tiie geographical features of the tract it is to represent This is the way in 
 which the common maps are constructed. 
 
 Example. Let it be required to construct a map to comprehend the British islands, 
 which extend from 50° to about 61° of north latitude, and from 2° east toll°west, about 13° 
 of longitude. Tiie middle latitude is 55° 30', of which the cotangent in the tables is .68728 
 ond sme = .82413. From these data, O' A', the radius of the middle parallel, is 
 3487.7 X .08728 = 2362' .7 : the length of the arc B D ia 11° = 660' ; therefore. A' B' = 
 A' D', its half, is 330, and hence 
 
 O B = 2362.7 X 330 = 2692'.7 
 O A = 2362.7 — 330 = 2032.7. 
 
 The number of degrees of longitude (L) in this case is 13° ; therefore, angle A' O' H' 
 = 13=' X .82413 = 10° 42. 
 
 Knowing now the radii O' B', O' D', and the angle O', we can find the arcs B' m,J)'n; 
 or wo can find tiieir chords. 
 
 Thus we have, 
 
 chord of arc B' m = 2 O B Sin. * O' = 375' .6. 
 chord of arc D' n = 2 O D Sin. I O' = 502' .1. 
 
 We have now obtained the chords of 13° of longitude on the extreme parallels, and the 
 ninridians which form their extremities in minutes of a degree of the meridian; also the 
 rndii of the parallels of latitude: with these, the intelligent student of geography will find 
 iio difficulty in constructing a map of Britain. 
 
 2. Murdoch's Conical Developement, 
 
 There have been various modifications of the conical developement : of these, one was 
 ffivcn by tlio Rev. Patrick Murdoch, in the Lond. Phil. Trans. 1758. Let M denote the are 
 of the meridian which is to be represented in a map: he proposed to make O' A', the radius 
 of the middle parallel, equal to 
 
 chord of arc M 
 
 i;^M — ^ ^°*- "''^- '"*• 
 
 the cotangent being supposed expressed by the radius of the sphere. The remainder of the 
 piiiistrncfion is the same as the ordinary conical projection. 
 
 By Murdoch's method, the surface of the developement is exactly equal to the spherical 
 piirtnco which it represents, and the cone passes through pwints of the meridian between the 
 middle latitudes and the extremities of the projected arc, its side being parallel to the tangent 
 at the middle latitude. 
 
 3. De Lisle't Conical Developement. 
 
 The astronomer Do Lisle employed the conical projection in constructing a general chart 
 of the Rtission empire, which extended from 40° to 70° of north latitude. lie, however, 
 fiipposcd tlio cone to enter the sphere fo as to cut it in two parallels midway between the 
 tuean and nxlrpiue parallels: these, in the developement, had the same dimensions as the 
 cnrrespondiiitf circles of the sphere, and its whole extent differed but little from that of the 
 tract it was meant to represent; because the excess at the two extremities of the chart was 
 compi/nsoted, at lea.st in part, by the opposite error in the middle. 
 
 4. Euler's Method. 
 Euler wn? also occupied with this projection: but he sulisiituted for the determination of 
 
 riirallels which should be common with the sphere, that of the point of concourse of straight 
 ineR .vliicli roprpsent the meridians, and of the angle which they make when tney contain 
 one (iPLTci' iif lomritiule. Ilin calculations rest on the following conditions : — 1. That the 
 errors an- cqinl at the northern and southern extremities of the inao. 2. That tliey are 
 
 Booi 
 
 also ( 
 
 of CO 
 
 of lat 
 
 t;, 
 
 parall 
 which 
 dicnla 
 the di 
 the c( 
 just at 
 spondi 
 
 by mixi 
 project! 
 particul 
 instancf 
 
 Ther( 
 5( 
 
 extend fr 
 Let us 
 from wlii 
 the spher 
 minutes, 
 Let O 
 AD, BE 
 and C tJie 
 centre of 
 By the 
 this, to ra( 
 
 Having 
 be found I 
 parallel. 
 
 350 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 :i(i 
 
 27 
 
 parallel on 
 
 degrees of 
 
 Vot.L 
 
Ition of 
 Jtraight 
 nontaiii 
 |l\at the 
 liey are 
 
 Book I. 
 
 '«!}' 
 
 REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 161 
 
 also equal to the greatest of those towards ita middle. Hence he concluded that the point 
 of concourse of the meridians should be situated beyond tlie polo by a quantity equal to 5P 
 of latitude, and tliat the angle of two consecutive meridians should be 48° 44'. 
 
 5. Flamsteed's Projection. 
 
 TI Enjrlish astronomer Flamstoed, in constructing his celestial atlas, developed all the 
 parallciH of latitude on the sphere into straight lines, and also one of the meridians; viz. that 
 which passes through the middle of the chart : then the parallels, which are all perpen- 
 dicular to that meridian, are exactly of the same length as on the glohe, and consequently 
 the degrees of longitude on the parallels will be shown in their just proportion, that is, as 
 the cosines of the latitude. If, now, the parallels on the map be divided into equal parts, 
 just as the parallels on the globe are, by the meridians, curve lines traced through corre- 
 sponding points of division will represent tiie meridians. 
 
 The adjoining figure (Jig. 55.) exhibits a sketch of a map of 
 this construction. 
 
 According to Flamsteed's method, any distance on the map in 
 the direction of the parallels is everywhere equal to the corre- 
 sponding distance on the globe ; but the configuration of places 
 near the extremities is considerably distorted by the obliquity of 
 the meridians to the parallels, so that tlie spherical quadrilaterals, 
 the sides of which cross at right angles, are in the map represented 
 by raixtilineal trapeziums, of which the angles are very unequal. Flamsteed employed this 
 projection in representing the positions of the stari. ; but it is also employed in geography, 
 particularly in delineating countries which extend on both sides of tlie equator : Africa, tor 
 instance. 
 
 6. Modification of Flamsteed's Projection. 
 There is a modification of Flamsteed's projection {fig. 56.), which has been extensively 
 
 North. 
 
 /// 
 
 TY^^ 
 
 //n 
 
 1 \\\ 
 
 aJJ L 
 
 \ \\\ 
 
 m 
 
 , \ I >_ '' 
 
 South. 
 
 56 
 
 employed, and which deserves particular attention, bec.use it 
 correcti, in part, the defect of tlie obliquity of the meridians. 
 This substitutes arcs of concentric circles for the straight lines, 
 which he proposed to represent the parallels of latitude. The 
 common centre of the circles is in a straight line drawn 
 through the middle of the map as an axis, and which repre- 
 sents a meridian ; ond its position in the axis ought to be such, 
 that the obliquity of the angles made at the intersection of the 
 curves which represent the meridians, and the circles which 
 represent tlie parallels, should be as little as possible. 
 
 The position of the centre is so assumed, that the radius of 
 the middle parallel of latitude is equal to its cotangent ; and 
 in this the modified projection of Flamsteed agrees witli the 
 g ordinary conical projection. 
 
 To exemplify this'constniction, let it be proposed to describe 
 the parallels and meridians for a map of Europe, which shall 
 extend from 35° north latitude to 70°. 
 
 Let us, as before, assume a minute of a degree of latitude for the unit of the scale 
 from which the measures of tlie lines are to be taken. Therefore, as before, the radius of 
 the sphere, of which a portion of the spherical surface is to be represented, will be 3437.7 
 minutes. 
 
 Let O A C B (fig. 56.) be assumed as the axis or middle meridian of the map ; and let 
 A D, B E be tiie lialves of the part of the extreme parallels of latitude to be represented, 
 anu C the point in which the middle parallel (52° 30') cuts the axis ; also, let O be the 
 centre of the circles, arcs of which are to represent the parallels. 
 
 By the nature of the projection, O C must be taken equal to the cotangent of 52° 30' ; 
 this, to radius = 1, is .76733, and to a radius expressed by minutes, we have 
 
 O C = .76733 X 3437.7 = 2637'.8. 
 Having found OC, the radius of the middle parallel, the radius of any other parallel may 
 be found by adding or subtracting its distance in minutes of the nioridian from the middle 
 parallel. Thus we find the radii of parallels differing by 5°, as in the annexed table : — 
 
 Next, we must find the points in which some one meri- 
 dian cuts all the parallels. We shall suppose it to be 30° 
 of longitude from O C, the axis of the map. 
 
 From the nature of tlie developement, the arc of longi- 
 tude on any parallel in the map is equal to the arc of the 
 parallel on the sjihere which it represents. 'This has to an arc of the same number of 
 degrees of the meridian the proportion oi the cosine of tlie latitude of the parallel to th« 
 VouL 14* V 
 
 I-.in.llel. 
 
 R>ii:u>. 
 
 Panllsl. 
 
 R.i.iiui. 
 
 350 
 
 ;lli^7.'^ 
 
 M 
 
 24f<7.H 
 
 40 
 
 :i:k^7.h 
 
 iiO 
 
 iW.f 
 
 4.'i 
 
 mir-T.H 
 
 (i5 
 
 1HH7.K 
 
 an 
 
 STrt.S 
 
 70 
 
 lSfl7.« 
 
 1, I 
 
 !'. 
 
 
 •I 
 
 H 
 
 ¥ 
 h 
 
 J\ ' 
 
 
 
 b'i! 
 
 ■■'■il 
 
m' 
 
 
 162 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PartII. 
 
 radius. Therefore, an arc of 30° = 1800' on a parallel whose latitude is L will be in 
 minutes, 
 
 1800 X cosine L. 
 By this formula, the lengths of the arcs may be easily computed by a table of logarithmic 
 sines; but, for a practical construction, it will be more convenient to ha!,e the chords of the 
 arcs. Now, in arcs not exceeding 30°, the arc diminished by a fraction whose numerator ia 
 the cube of the arc, and denominator 24 times the square of the radius, is very near equal 
 to the chord ; that is, a being put for any arc, and r its radius, 
 
 chord o=fl — 22~ nearly. 
 
 From this formula, the chords may easily be deduced from the arcs. 
 As an example, let the arc of 30° of longitude, and its, chord on the parallel 35°, be 
 required. For facility of calculation, we shall use logarithms. 
 
 Calculation of Arc. 
 
 Calculation of Log. of iMr«. 
 
 Lomrilhmi- 
 
 Log&rithmi. 
 Radius of arc 087.8 3.50077 
 
 CoBine 350 9.913;W 
 
 2 
 
 Arc a=>i1474' 5. 3 IfiWil 
 
 Log. of square of radius 7.13354 
 
 Si 1.38021 
 
 3 
 
 From loff of riibo of arc 9 5(1589 
 
 Logarithm 34rS 8.51375 
 
 Subtract Log. 24ra 8,51375 
 
 Differ, of arc and chord 9' .8 099214 
 
 ftr. o( Ul. 
 
 Am. 
 
 Chonl of Arc. 
 
 35 
 
 1474.5 
 
 1404.7 
 
 40 
 
 1378.9 
 
 1.3lin.4 
 
 45 
 
 1272.8 
 
 12«3.8 
 
 50 
 
 1157.0 
 
 1148.7 
 
 55 
 
 1032.4 
 
 lOiM.O 
 
 00 
 
 900.0 
 
 893.0 
 
 65 
 
 700.7 
 
 755.5 
 
 70 
 
 015.0 
 
 011.8 
 
 Thus, by an easy logarithmic calculation, we have found the arc 
 to be 1474'.5, and its excess above the chord to be 9'.8. There- 
 fore, the chord is 14G4'.7 of the meridian. By a like process, 
 we have found the arcs of 30° of longitude, and their chords 
 on the parallels to every fifth degree, as in this table. 
 
 Having now found the chord of 30° of longitude on the paral- 
 lel of 35° to be 1404'.7 of the meridian, we must, with com- 
 passes, place that distance taken from a scale of minutes from 
 B to E, and to e; and the points E, e will be in the representations of meridians 30° of lon- 
 gitude from the axis on each side. In tiie same way, the intersections of these meridians 
 with the other parallels arc found. Curve lines E D, e fZ must now be traced through all 
 the intersections, and these will be the meridians on the map. 
 
 The intersections of the intermediate meridians with the parallels may be found by divid- 
 ing each parallel into thirty equal parts, from the axis botii ways ; and as many meridian 
 lines may bo exhibited as may be tlioug.:t, necessary. In tlio figure here given, they are 
 traced to every tenth degree. 
 
 If the map is to extend furtlier than 30° on each side of its middle meridian, the divisions 
 of the parallels may bo repeated on each, and meridians drawn. 
 
 This construction of a map is memorable, because it was adopted by the general depdt of 
 war of France, alwut the year 1803, as the groundwork of a system of geographical charts 
 which should exhibit tlie French original territory, as well as the additions which had been 
 made, and were expected to be made, by conquest or negotiation. 
 
 Devdopement of the Curve Surface nfa Cyliiidcr. 
 
 The mariner, in navigating a ship between remote noints on the globe, directs his course 
 by the compass ; steering as nearly as possible always m tiie same direction, supposing there 
 are no obsticles to prevent him. If tlie place from which lie sets out, and that of his des- 
 tination, be due north and south from each other, the ship's patii will evidently be a great 
 circle, viz. the meridian piit^slng through tlicm. If, iigain, tliey iiave the same latitude, he 
 must sail on a parallel of hv iide ; that i.s, his course must be due oast or west. But if the 
 places differ both in latitude and longitu-!i', llion it becomes a rpiestion, what is the nature 
 of the line on tlic globe along which a sliip must sail, with her head always in the same 
 direction, as indicated by the compass, so as to pass from one to the other? 
 
 The lino in (piostion, wlucli is called a rhumb line or loxmlromir, linr, has manifestly this 
 property, — it cuts all llir meridians on the fflohi: at the same aniilc. By this property, a 
 ship sailing alone it will move always in tlio same direction, ns shown by a compa.»s: but it 
 will not be a great circle ; for the oijuator is tlin only great cirrle that cuts all the meridians 
 at the .same angle; and hence it appears that the lino on tlie globe by which a ship passes 
 from one ]dace to another is never the shortest [wssible, except when they arc on the same 
 meridian, or on the equator. 
 
 Supposing a navigatnr had a perfect delineation of the earth on a sphere, it is by no means 
 evident how he should (ind the course he ought to steer to reach ii remote port. By due con- 
 Bidcration, however, he would sec that the i)ath must be a spiral. It would also be repre- 
 
 iU' Ii! 
 
Ifcstly this 
 Iropwrty, a 
 but. it 
 InxTulians 
 Blip passes 
 the same 
 
 I nn moan* 
 ■ (iue con- 
 I be repre- 
 
 BookII. 
 
 REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 16.3 
 
 sented by a spiral curve on a map, formed by tl"" developement of a cone ; but navigators 
 required charts before the theory of such curve-, was inderstood ; therefore at that period his 
 art must have been imperfect. 
 
 Tlie wants of the niivigator, accordinfjly, gave rise to the construction of n chart, in which 
 the meridians and parallels were straight lines ; and in this the developement of the curve 
 surface of a cylinder was employed. Let us conceive that a zone of tiie earth's surface, of 
 no great extent in latitude, is inscribed in or circumscribed about a right cylinder, whose 
 axis coincides with that of the globe: the planes of the meridians will cut the curve surface 
 of the cylinder in straight lines, parallel to the axis; and the planes of the parallels will cut 
 it in sections perpendicular to the axis, wiiich will be circles equal to the base of the cylin- 
 der. But in supposing the surface of the cylinder developed into a plane, these circles will 
 oecome straight lines, perpendicular to the meridians. This developement has received the 
 name of the plane chart : its invention is attributed to Henry, son of John, king of Por- 
 tugal. This kind of chart has nothing but its simplicity to recommend it ; for the degrees 
 of longitude have, indeed, their just proportion to the degrees of latitude in the parallel com- 
 mon to the cylinder and sphere, but in no other parallel. 
 
 In the developement of a cylinder circumscribing the whole sphere, the area of any zone 
 in the sphere is exactly equal to that of its representation in the chart ; and indeed the same 
 equality may be observed in all cases, by a proper assumption of a parallel of latitude as the 
 base of the cylinder. The developement, however, has this great fault, — the degrees of 
 longitude always err in excess towards the north and in defect towards the south of the mean 
 parallel, which is assumed as the base of the cylinder. 
 
 There is a construction, described in books of navigation under the name of a plane chart, 
 the principle of which is somewhat diflerent from that just described. In the seaman's plane 
 chart the meridians are parallel straight lines, and so also are the parallels of latitude ; and 
 both are so laid down that a degree of latitude and a degree of longitude are equal in all 
 latitudes. It may easily be conceived how incompetent such a representation must be to the 
 purposes of navigation or geography. 
 
 Mercator''s Chart, 
 
 The utter inadequacy of the old plane charts to the wants of geography and navigation 
 induced ingenious men to consider whether a chart might not be so constructed as to repre- 
 sent the meridians and parallels by straight lines, and at tlie same time readily show the true 
 bearings of places from one another. The first that gave a true solution — at least an 
 approximate one — of this important problem was Gerard Mercator, who was born at 
 Ruremond, in Upper Guelderland, in the year 1512, and published a chart in 1556, wherein 
 the rhumbs, which on the globe are spirals, were represented by straight lines, as in tlie 
 plane chart; and so aliso were the meridians and parallels. It is not known by what prin- 
 ciple Mercator constructed his chart ; it has been supposed that he observed on a globe fur- 
 nished with rhumbs what meridians the rhumbs passed in each degree of latitude : it is cer- 
 tain ho did not know the true principles of tlie construction ; for these were first found by 
 Edward Wright, of Cains College, in Cambridge, who communicated his discovery to his 
 friend Tliomas Blundeville, with a short tabic, showing the correct distances of the parallels 
 of latitude from the equator, which was published in 1594 by Blundeville, among his Exer- 
 ciser. The truth of the divisions of Mercator's chart was then tried by the numbers given 
 by Wright, and they were found to be inaccurate ; hence it appears that Mercator did not 
 understand the principles of the map bearing his name, and that this important invention is 
 due to Wright, who explained it himself, in his treatise entitled The Correction of certain 
 Errors in Navigation, published 1599, but written many years before. 
 
 Although Wright's numbers were sufficiently correct for all nautical purposes, and might 
 be carried to any degree of accuracy, yet, in the progress of mathematical science, an im- 
 provement Was made in his theory. Napier's invention of logaritiims had proved an inesti- 
 mable advantage to navigation and geography, by shortening calculations : this, howovpr, 
 was not the only advantage that the navigator derived from the invention ; for, about tlie year 
 1645, Henry Bond showed that the division of the meridian in Wright's chart was altogether 
 analogous to the logarithmic tangents of lialf the complements of tlio latitudes, and might 
 be expressed by them. He seems to have fiiund this by chance : such accidental discoveries 
 are, iiowevcr, never made but by men of genius. He could not demonstrate his important 
 theorem. At last .Tame.* Gregory proved its trutii in his Exercitationes Geomclric<B, pub- 
 lished in IflfiR. The con-struction of tiie clinrt was now made perfect. 
 
 The invention of Mercator's chart,, one of tiie most important in the 16th century, affords 
 a notable instance of the slowness witli which men adopt improvements in science. Although 
 designed for tiie use of sailors, it was at first by no means generally used by them. William 
 Biirrough, a celebrated navigator, who had entered ( n his profession at the age of fifteen, 
 and risen by his merit to the rank of controller of Queen Elizabeth's navy, objected to its 
 isefiihicss. He said — " By Mercator's augmenting his degrees of latitude towards the poles, 
 the samo is more fit for such to behold as study in cosmograuhv, bv reading authors upon the 
 
 I 
 
 m^^'i 
 
 tj 
 
 am 
 
 ^hI I 
 
 ^4 mm 
 
 lli' : ' 
 
 li; 
 
 iBSSl 
 
 ■ll'J '.' ' 
 
 9' 
 
 Wi 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 H 
 
 
 m 
 
 ^B 
 
 lu-fl 
 
hi- 1 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 ^li 
 
 
 If 
 
 
 ill 
 
 Is**' 
 
 184 
 
 MERCATOR'S CHART. 
 
Book I. 
 
 REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 165 
 
 land, than to be used in navifration at tlie sea." It is curious to observe that logarithms, the 
 other grand auxiliary of nttvigation, met with a like reception from the German mathema- 
 ticians that were somewhat advanced in years. 
 
 Mercator's chnrt may be produced hy dcvelopcmcnt, as follows: — Conceive that a sphere 
 with the meridians and parallels and countries delineated on it, is inclosed in a hollow cyl- 
 inder, and that the axis of the sphere coincides with that of the cylinder. Imagine now that 
 tlin sphere i.s expanded in its dimensions, just as a soap-bubble is produced by blowing air into 
 it, or as a bladder would swell in all directions by inflation, the parts always stretching uni- 
 formly ; the meridians will lengtlien in the same proportion as the parallels, till every point 
 of tin expanding spherical surface comns into contact with the concave surface of the cyl- 
 inder : the meridians will at last become straight lines, and the parallels, circles on that 
 surface ; the former in the direction of its length, and the latter parallel to its base, which 
 is the equator. Suppose now the surface of the cylinder to be cut open along one of the 
 meridians, and spread into a plane ; the surface thus produced will be Mercator's chart. 
 
 Mercator's chart is constructed, then, on the following geometrical principles : — 1. The 
 meridians are parallel straight lines at equal distances, for equal differences of longitude; 
 and the parallels of latitude are also straight lines, perpendicular to the meridians. 2. Sup- 
 posing a meridian on the globe be divided into minutes of a degree; one of these, at any 
 parallel of latitude, will be to a minute of longitude taken on that parallel in the proportion 
 of the radius of the cq— iVir to the radius of the parallel, which is the cosine of the latitude ; 
 that is, as the secant ol ..he latitude to radius. Now the same holds true in the chart; that 
 is, a minute of the meridian, at any parallel, has to a minute of longi' jde in that parallel the 
 proportion of the secant of the latitude of the parallel to radius. 
 
 By the first of these properties a minute of longitude in the map it, represented by a line 
 of the same length in every parallel ; therefore, by the second the minutes of the meridian 
 will be represented by lines which ^ on increasing from the equator towards the poles. 
 From this it follows that, if a minute on the equator be taken as the unit of a scale, and that 
 unit be considered as the radius of a circle, then the representation of a minute of the 
 meridian, at any latitude, will be expressed by the number in the trigonometrical tables 
 which is the secant of that latitude. Thus it appears that, while the degrees of longitude 
 on the equator form a scale of which the divisions are all equal in the map, the degrees of 
 latitude marked on a meridian form a scale of which the divisions go on increasing from the 
 equator towards both jwles, each being the sum of the secants of all the minutes in the 
 degree. 
 
 The numbers which result from the addition of the secants of 1 minute, 2 minutes, and so 
 on to the last minute of any arc of the meridian, reckoned from the equator, arc given in 
 books on navigation. They form the table of meridional parts, and serve tor laying down 
 the position of any place in the chart. The addition of the secants is, however, only an 
 approximation to the true length of the enlarged meridian in the chart; but it is sufficiently 
 near the truth for nautical or geographical purposes. In strictness, also, it must be considered 
 that the earth is not a sphere, hut a spheroid, and on that account allowance ought to be 
 made for its compression at the jwles. The following short table shows the length of the 
 enlarged meridian, both on the sphere and the spheroid, to every fifth degree of latitude. 
 The compression is assumed to be '^j. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 OO 
 
 S 
 1U 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 Xi 
 40 
 45 
 
 Mnridinnal PnrtB. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Meriilional Parts. 
 
 Splicre. 
 
 Splicrdid. 
 
 Sphere. 
 
 Spheroid. 
 
 0.00 
 
 300.38 
 
 00307 
 
 flIfl.-tIi 
 
 1225.14 
 
 1540.00 
 
 lHH8,:t8 
 
 •2244.20 
 
 2li22.(iU 
 
 3020.04 
 
 fl.OO 
 
 208.37 
 5!«l.fll 
 
 flo.'i.as 
 
 1217.110 
 I.'ill.l7 i 
 
 1H77.!KI 
 22:12.00 
 
 3ii08.:t5 1 
 
 :WI4.41 
 
 503 
 55 
 
 eo 
 
 05 
 70 
 75 
 80 
 85 
 90 
 
 3474.47 
 
 30ti7 07 
 4527..37 
 5178.81 
 S005.03 
 0970.34 
 8375.29 
 10704.02 
 Infinite. 
 
 3457.39 
 30.50.57 
 4500.41 
 5159.03 
 5045.S1 
 6951.07 
 83.'i2.24 
 10741.75 
 Infinite. ' 
 
 To construct Mercator's chart (Jis!: 57.), draw two straight lines W E, N S at right 
 angles to each other, intersecting in C ; of these W E is to represent the equator, and N S 
 a nipriiliiin, in the middle of the chart: from any convenient scale lay nff equal parts along 
 the equator, from C both wayj^, to represent degrees of longitude, and each of which should, 
 if thorp ho room, contain 60 subdivisions for minutes. 
 
 .Assuming the equator ns a scale of minutps, lay off from C, north and south on the middle 
 inpridi'iM, the nnmbor of minutes in the Piilanred meridian, corresponding to each degree of 
 hititiidp as shown hy a table of nieridioniil parts, of which that just given is an abridgement 
 
 Driiw straiclit lines tiirough every titlh or every tenth degree of the equator and divided 
 meridian, nml pprppndiciilar to them. The pprppndiculars to the equator will be meridiatu, 
 and till! linos parallpl to it jmrallds ofhililude. 
 
 ' \:\ 
 
 ii^ > I 
 
 vy\ 
 
 1^. 
 
J* 
 
 'W 
 
 4 
 
 166 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 Fio. 57. 
 
 PartIT. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /\ 
 
 L 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 1 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 
 20 
 C 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 120 
 
 140 
 
 160 
 
 W 
 
 L 
 
 16U 
 
 140 
 
 120 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 GU 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 To put any place in its proper position on the chart, assume some one meridian for the 
 first, and lay off from its intersection with the equator, and along it in the proper direction, 
 tlie longitude of the place in minutes; draw a line through the point thus found perpen- 
 dicular to tiie equator: this will be the meridian of the place. 
 
 On this meridian lay off the latitude, as shown by the table of meridional parts; and the 
 point thus determined will be the true position of the place in the chart. 
 
 To find the bearing of one point from another, or course in which a ship tught to sail in 
 passing from one to the other, draw a straight lino joining the two points, and the angle 
 which that line makes with the meridians is the course or bearing. 
 
 Thus, if L bo the Lizard Point on the chart, and M the east end of the Island of Madeira, 
 draw L I parallel to the meridian N S, and the angle I L M will be the course on v/hich a 
 ship ought to steer from the Lizard to reach Madeira. 
 
 The course may be found by a trigonometrical calculation, by considering that the meri- 
 dional difference of latitude of the two places (as given by the table of meridional parts), 
 and the difference of longitude in minutes, are the sides of a right-angled triangle, of which 
 the line joining the places is the hypotenuse, and the course one of the acute angles, viz. 
 that made by the meridian and line joining the places. 
 
 Again, tiie distance of the places, measured on the rliumb line passing through them, 
 may also be found by trigonometry. It is the hyiwtenuso of a right-angled triangle, of 
 which the proper difference of latitude (not the meridional difference) is one side, and the 
 course the adjacent angle. 
 
 These properties of the ciiart apply alike to the bearings and distances of all places on 
 the globe measured on rhumb lines. The bearing and distances of Ijondon, Edinburgh, and 
 Dublin, for instance, fi-om each, may bo found in this way from a table of meridional part.** 
 and their known latitudes and longitudes. 
 
 It is evident that Mercator's cliart does not serve well to show the figure of the countries 
 on the globe, nor their relative magnitudes. These are purposes, however, which it is not 
 intended to serve ; but it does serve perfectly the purposes for which it was first constructed, 
 and which, before its invention, were a desideratum in geography. 
 
 
PahtH. 
 
 dian for the 
 :r direction, 
 und perpen- 
 
 ts ; and the 
 
 ht to sail in 
 d the angle 
 
 of Madeira, 
 Ion which a 
 
 It the meri- 
 |onal parts), 
 le, of which 
 |angles, viz. 
 
 DUgrh them, 
 trianjile, of 
 tide, and the 
 
 ll places on 
 liburgh, and 
 ((lioniil parts 
 
 lie countries 
 Ich it is not 
 Constructed, 
 
 THE HEMISPHERES. 
 
 16 
 
 MM 
 
 ti 
 
 ^if : 
 
 ■' 'Wl 
 
 it 
 
m 
 
 ■■* 
 
 I' 
 
 fiV -ii. 
 
 .i)il i 
 
 SCIENCE OF GLOCillAl'HY. Pabt II. 
 
 BOOK II 
 
 GEOLOGICAL PUINCIPLES. 
 
 Geuiaksv is thnt brancli of iiiitiirnl liititury wiiicli trciits of tlie tttinosplicir, the watcro of 
 tlio iijlolio, find of the inoiiiitain-rockH of wliicli tin- earth is cuiii|x>8L'(1. No (lo|MrtiiirMt of 
 natural history nlKmri'x tti„h. in iin|H)rtant futlB and iiitorestinff eonchiHions; and tiicri^tbro 
 wo nhall hiy before our rendois a short view, Int, Of tlio natural hititory of the atnionpherc, 
 or mrlrornlnffy ; 2illy, Of the natural history of the waters of the globe, or hyilrulngy ; nnd, 
 !3<lly, Of tlio solid matcriald of which liie cu'rth is coui)H)6cd, or geognosy. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 METEOROLOOV. 
 
 This beautiful dnpiirtmcnt of science mukc^a us ac(|uaintcd with all the properties and 
 relations of the atmosphre which surrounds our planet. Althougli in general but littlo 
 studied by {feolojjists, a knowled);o of it is, novcrtheloss, most useful in a geological point of 
 view, of which the details wo shall now lay before our readers will atford ani|)lc proof. 
 
 Sect. I. — Pressure, Height, Form, and Trmperature of the Atmosphere. 
 
 The air in which wo breathe, with tlie clouds and vapours floating in it, surroiindstho 
 earth on all sides to nn unknown height, and forms a moveable envelope denominated the 
 atmosphere. The human species, and other land animals, being thus entirely immersed in 
 this fluid, may with some propriety bo said to inhabit an ocean as really as the fishes which 
 live in the great deep. But the latter have tlio advantage in being able to mount up, 
 remain, or descend at pleasure in ihoir element: whereas, without some additional aid, we 
 must content ourselves with the more humble allotment of remaining on the bottom of our 
 ocean. The winged tribes, doubtles.s, have the power of ascending to great heights ; still 
 they can never roach the summit. There is nothing more essential to the existence or 
 health of man himself, or of the various inl'erior animals and vegetables which live on our 
 globe, than the air or atmosphere ; nor ha.s any agent a greater share in the innumerable 
 changes wliicli are daily tjikiiig place in tho inanimate materials cominising our planet. It 
 is not wonderful, then, that the composition and properties of the atmosphere should have 
 so otlcn excited inquiry. To give an account of these, and of their relations to other 
 bodies, particularly to the various substjincos which arc difl'used in the atmi Milierc, and 
 really or apparently deposited from it, constitutes the; science of meteorology. Whilst 
 engaging in this task, so fur as our limits permit, it will be fully as instructive, and scarcely 
 more tedious, occasionally to introduce a very lirief sketch of the mode in which some of tlie 
 leading facts were first discovered • but there is reason to think that a few of the more obvi- 
 ous properties of air have been known, as it were instinctively, from the remotest antiijuity. 
 
 That air is a body or substance possessing the essential properties of matter, appears 
 from the resistance which it offers to the occujKition of its place by other bodies. Thus, if 
 an apparently empty glass jar be first inverted, and then immersed in a vessel of water, that 
 liquid will only enter a very little way into the jar, the rest being occupied by the air. This 
 fumijiar experiment shows that air is a Ixxly, by its resisting the entry of the water. At the 
 same time it shows the air to be an elasti , or compressible substance, otherwise it should 
 have completely excluded the water. Thai it is a fluid is evident from the ease with which 
 bodies move in it, from its pressing e(|ually in every direction, and passing with great fiicility 
 through extremely minute openings. 
 
 The ancients mutt have been aware of these properties, or at least of some of their 
 practical applications, otherwise they could not ha\e constructed their powerful air-guns, 
 nor availed themselves of the principle of tlie diving-b(!ll : for, in those early nges, the 
 adventurers who dived in search of pearls, &c. were accustomed to hold large p<its or kettles 
 inverted on their heads. The air which these open vessels contained both excluded the 
 water, and for a short time supported respiration ; thus forming diving-bells in a portable 
 shape. The ancients likewise, in some of their meclianical contrivances, availed theuisolves 
 of that property of air by which it expands with lie:it nnd conlrncts with cold. It was on 
 this principle tliat, in more modem tim(>s, Sancforio ((Ptistructed the air thermometer. 
 
 Weight and pressure are properties of the air lis of nil other baiies: it presses on the 
 earth's surliice, and on every other bfKly with which it roiiies into contact. This was con- 
 jectured even by the ancients. But the en'fCtH wliii ii are now known to result tVoin tne 
 weight nnd elasticity of the air were (()r a Imiir time iiscrihed to a ]»rineiple culled nature's 
 horror of a vacniiin. Sci latr' as the beginning of the sin'cnteenth century, it was generally 
 believed, that tlie ascent of water in pumps was owing to this principle, and tiiat by means 
 
of their 
 liir-i:mis 
 Icrop, the 
 Irkcttlrs 
 Idod the 
 Iportablc 
 
 >lTlpelvCK 
 
 1 was on 
 
 on the 
 Las con- 
 toin tne 
 Iniiture't? 
 I'ncriilh' 
 L- means 
 
 Book II. 
 
 METEOROLOGY. 
 
 IGO 
 
 of miction fliiiiia might bo miscd to any iieidit whiitcver. But Galileo, tlioufrh still inclinin}; 
 to the old opinion, remarked that water diclnot rise in a common pump nnleiis the sucker oi 
 bucket reached within 34 feet of it« hurliice in the well. Hence ho was forced to conjec- 
 ture, that not the [wwer of Muction, but the prcsHure of the atmosphere on the Burfiico of tho 
 well, was the cause of the water's ascent; that acolunm of water 34 feet high was acoun- 
 teriK)iso to one of air on an ecpial base, but reaching; to the top of the atmosphere ; and that, 
 for this reason, water could not follow the sucker any farther, 
 
 Torricelli, n disciple of Galileo, profited by this hint. It occurred to him that the sanio 
 tbrcc which supported water to the boijjht of 34 feet would sustain a column of any other 
 (luid which weijfhed as much on an equal base; and thcretbro mercury, lieing 13.0 tunes as 
 heavy as water, should only bo suspended to the heijrjit of 20 or 30 inches. Accordingly, 
 he took a glass tube from three to lour feet long, and closed at one end ; this he filled with 
 mercury ; then, stopping its mouth with his finger, he inverted the tube, and on re-opening 
 its mouth in a vessel of quicksilver the result verified his expectation. The mercury, 
 obeying the laws of hydrostatics, descended in the tube till the vertical column was about 
 30 inciies above the level of the cistern, leaving the remaining space at the top empty or 
 nearly a vacuum. Hence he inferred that it was only the weight or pressure of the 
 atmosphere on the mercury in the cistern, which balancetl the column in the tube. This 
 is usually called the Toricellian experiment, and is tiio foundation of tlie barometer. 
 
 The mean pressure is everywhere the same at the level of the sea, and p(iu;il to about 
 14j lbs. on the sciuare inch. It becomes less as the place is elevated alxive the sea, and 
 greater if below its level. The pressure of the atniospherc, as measured by the mercurial 
 column, varies somewhat at every place on the earth s surface. Generally speaking, its 
 variations are greatest in the temperate zones, decreasing towards the equator and poles. 
 The annual range rarely exceeds half an inch in the torrid zone. It is olwut two inches at 
 London, and the same at St. Petersburg, but rather less at Melville Island. It nowliere 
 exceeds 3^ inches. The annual range is more considerable at the level of the sea than on 
 mountain? ; and under the same latitude it is less, as the height of the place above the sea 
 is greater. The barometer has a tendency to rise from 4 P. M. to 10 P. M. ; to fall from 
 10 P. M. to 4 A. M. ; to rise from 4 A. M. to 10 A. M. ; and again to fall from 10 A. M. to 
 4 P. M. Different authors, however, dift'er a little both as to the hours and the nniouiit of 
 the diurnal variation, which appears to be greater i s the latitude is lower. The barometer 
 is likewise elevated a little at the quarters of the niTon, and depressed at the new and fbll. 
 The range of this instrument is greater in winter than in summer. 
 
 The barometer ranges higher in proportion as tiio weather is more serene and settled ; 
 calm weather, with a tendency to rain, depresses it ; high winds have a similar effect. In 
 extra-tropical climates, a fall in the barometer, with a change or rise of wind, is usually 
 followed by rain. 
 
 The law which regulates the elasticity of the air formed the next important stc^p, after the 
 discovery of the pressure. Boyle in England, and Mariottc in France, discovered, much 
 about the same time, that the temperature being the same, the pressure or elastic force of 
 air is directly as its density, or inversely as the space it occupies. This law, though received 
 as correct at the time of its discovery, continued to be suspected till within those few years. 
 Rut Dulong and Petit have recently examined it through a wide range of temperature ; 
 Professor Oersted has tried it under a great variety of pressures ; and within the limits of 
 their experiments it was found to hold good. 
 
 The variable capacity for heat forms another property of air of no less importance, but 
 which seems to have been little known or attended to till towards the end of the last cen- 
 tury. VVhen air undergoes a change of volume, it at the same time changes its capacity for 
 heat ; becoming hotter by compression, and colder by rarefaction. The want of ac<niaintance 
 with this circumstance led Newton, and many others after him, into the mistake of con- 
 cluding, that the particles of elastic fluids repel each other with forces inversely as their 
 central dist^mces; which cannot be the case if the capacity be affected, no matter in what 
 manner or degree, by a change of density. But very extensive experiments, made by some 
 of the most eminent scientific men in France, and repeated in England, are favourable to the 
 idea that the particles of air observe the same law as magnetism and electricity, repelling 
 each other with forces inversely as tiie squares of their distances. 
 
 There is a gradation of density in the air. Being, as already stated, a compressible body, 
 It is obvious that the lower parts of the atmosphere, by sustaining tlic greater weiglit or 
 pressure of the air above them, must be so much the more condensed ; and therefiirp. as we 
 ascend in the atmosphere, the density will continually diminish. Accordingly, it may bo 
 shown fi-om tiio principles already laid down, that were the temperature nnd the force of 
 gravity uniform at all heights atx)ve thi- oartli's surface, the densities of the strata would 
 decrease in geometrical progression for altitudes taken in arithmeticiil progrnssion, so as 
 nearly to halve the density for every 3..') miles of ascent. But, independently of a trifling 
 change in the force of gravity, this is not exactly the law of nature; for it is tbund that the 
 temperature generally decreases as we go upward, and tliut not according to any fixed law 
 
 Vol. I. 15 " W 
 
 'm 
 
 m 
 
i^ 
 
 ITO 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GFAXiRAPIIY. 
 
 Part 11. 
 
 Ilencc U»c rolnlion betwcon the dcn^iity und iilliliMli^ in not of a ntciiily clmrnrlor» and can 
 only bo ol»tainc«l in nny purtirulur cuhc I'roin ohHcrviii^f tlic prrsHuro, tem|M'r»liin^ uml liypriv 
 metrir sUilo of the iiir. Tliis Ih n roscnrcli to wliicli many cniinont nii-n Imvo liiriiod tlieir 
 attrntioii ; and th'^ir HticcotiHivo latMHirH huvo 1<m1 to the titrnnition of convt*iiirnt rulcH, by 
 which til'.' hrif^rhttf of tnoinitiuns can bo uhtaimnl to a ('onMidoruhlo drgroo of uecurucy, and 
 with jrrcat llicility, t>y inoaii.s of the Uironiet«ir, Sin, 
 
 Tho ii#M^r[it fin<i form 'f the atmoHphorc are objnrlH of intrroHt. With nn nniform torn- 
 nerafun-, tho hiw of IJoyh; would involve tho notion that itH hoij,'ht in infinitt! ; hut thin in an 
 idea whirh lian Ncarcc^Iy any HupporterH, and is jjenerally Indii'ved to bo inroiM|)atiblo with 
 tho liiWH of motion. Dr. WolhiHton, whono opinion in ontitlod to (jroat doforrnoo, inain- 
 tainn Ihiit the atmoHphcro nuiHt torniinato at tlic hoij^ht wlioro the ropulHivo tlirce Ijctwoon 
 xiti partirh'H ('(inals their tendency to gravitate towunlw tho earth. The law of jjravity may 
 bo adinittod » . known, but the Hamo can hardly bt> at!irniod of the law whicii roLMilutOH tho 
 repiilHivo tI»roo, h) lon^ aH tf»e teniporaturo at ^rrcai hoiffhts in unknown ; and thin circuni- 
 Htance I(>av<'H the Inmndary umlctormined. A doubt of a more RoriouH nature, however, 
 atldchcs \u thiH npoculation, on the ground that we are totally ignorant with what materialH 
 the air miiy ho mixo<l at great olevationH. The atmoHphcrc in generally KUpponod to be 
 high* r at tho ccpiator than at the poles ; but we have neither data Tor computing tho heights, 
 nt)r the pro|K>rtion in which thoy ditlbr: so that the oblate splieroidal figure which souiO give 
 to tho atmosphoro can bo couHidered an little cIho than an ingenious conjecture. 
 
 Tlie tomporaturo of tho atmoHphero has great influence on most meteorological phono* 
 inena; but it is oxcoedingly variable, and can as yol be determined only by actual obHorva- 
 tion on tho npot. Nothing would tend to throw greater light on many of the unroHolvcd 
 qucHtions iu moloorology, than a ready mmle of co..;puting witli certainty the temperature 
 which ohtaiufi at any iiiHtant in a |)oint of the atmobphnro remote from tlio cont^ict of Uio 
 earth's surtiiro, and at any i)ouit on tlic surface remote from the observer: l»ut these are 
 likely to continue desiderata. Tho very little that is known of tho temperature of air remote 
 from the eartirs surface has W^vn derived from a few aeronautic excursions, particularly the 
 ascontof Al. Gay-Lussac to the height of 761)0 yards. 
 
 The heat of the air in on*' shajK^ or another is no doubt greatly derived from the sun, 
 either innn<»diatoly, by intorctpting tho solar rayn, or indirectly, from itii contact with the 
 cartli's r^urtiico, which i.s more or less hratnd according as it is turned more or less towards 
 the sun : hut whether heat, in return, U» projected tVom the earth or its atmosphere towards 
 other refrioUH of space, is a disputed question. Professor Leslie maintains that heat, which 
 is not aecoinpanied with or rather is not in tho state of light, cannot [Miss through a vacuum, 
 and, of course, that it cannot pass tho boundary of the atmosphere. If so, it would follow 
 that the atmosphere docs not continually draw otf heat from the earth, but may oflener be 
 tho warmor of the two. Many philosophers, however, are of a diflerent opinion, among 
 whom WIS tho ingf»nious Dr. Wells, with most of those who embraced his thoctry of dew. 
 Those allege, that heat is couHtaritly projected from tho earth and atmosphorc towards tho 
 boundless regions of sjmco. Obs( rvation shows, that much heat pa?ses upward from the 
 earth's surface, especially when the air k clear. In tliis way, tho stratum of air in contact 
 with tln^ surface is C(xded more thrm tliat which is somewhat higher. It is probable that 
 there exists a naturil tendency in tho atmosphere, as in most other bodies, towards un uni- 
 form temperature throughout its whole height ; and since currents in its upper regions usually 
 :!ome from a warmor quarter, und tho lower currents from a colder, there is u|Km the whole, 
 independently of aeronautic observations, some groimd tor 8upf>osing tliat the decrease of 
 temporal lire on ascending in the atmosphere should be slower than the law of capacity as 
 increased by dilatation requires. 
 
 Tlie follow ing list of temperatures, chiefly observed at stations employed in the barome- 
 trical measurements of heights, is taken from M. Ramomrs work on that subject. Only a 
 few of these measurements embrace the whole lieights of the mountains on which they 
 were made, and the first case is of a different cla^s. We Iiave reduced the temperatures to 
 Fahrenheit's scale : — 
 
 Oif-I.uMar'B Hr^nl .... 
 
 C'hlmh-KUn 
 
 Moiil aian.' 
 
 pillo 
 
 rir<lr Tfiiftlffi! 
 
 M'ini Hlan>'. Chimouiiir . 
 
 Flij« .. 
 
 Muiit iVMii. Tirbr* 
 
 (^>l itn rirHhl 
 
 HrMHIi- 
 
 Picdu Mill), Tartwi 
 
 Piltii 
 
 Pttin 
 
 Ditin 
 
 nuin 
 
 IMIln 
 
 hi'tn 
 
 KIO 
 B4M 
 
 S34fl 
 1174 
 
 M 7 
 7II,S 
 714 
 
 It.fl 
 
 Bl.S 
 
 Ttb 
 
 74 J 
 
 fi5 I* 
 
 ft" e 
 
 Tfl U 
 
 77.0 
 
 Temp. 
 al tup. 
 
 14.9 
 
 ?y 1 
 
 W 8 
 'JO. I 
 
 4T.t 
 
 aa.H 
 
 Sl).8 
 44 4 
 
 W.l 
 
 r<3 
 
 I 47.6 
 40.0 
 M)7 
 
 I 4(1. H 
 
 ■ auT 
 
 { 40 I 
 41 I 
 
 rir rt'ftrp, TaiI>M , 
 
 ricdii Mnniilin 
 
 Plcdti Mill), Btni:'^ 
 
 Dtilo 
 
 I)lHi> 
 
 Dttln 
 
 Pllln 
 
 Ditto 
 
 nitio 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Puy (1^ |k<mr, Clt-rmoDt ., 
 
 Dillfl. 
 
 Dilln 
 
 ntlln 
 
 Dill'K 
 
 Ilrctkt ilii Hainen-*, TartMl 
 l'L>n( it'i Itrrirr*, Orrmont 
 La BarrtKur, CIrrrouBt ... 
 
 Yif.l* 
 Mt7 
 
 n4i 
 
 IN)9 
 
 79 3 
 Bt-.l 
 CO I 
 71 1 
 :i)3 
 
 naa 
 tun 
 
 04.0 
 
 fSK.O 
 M.1 
 
 70 a 
 
 640 
 (U.A 
 
 7ne 
 
 V].Z 
 
 bit 
 
 ».A 
 
 74. ft 
 
 ftl.R 
 97. « 
 «1.6 
 4A,4 
 
 44.fl 
 49.4 
 41.4 
 67.0 
 AI.4 
 M.) 
 69.4 
 74 1 
 46.4 
 M.0 
 Tl.t 
 
n. 
 
 mp. 
 
 T*mp. 
 
 hot. 
 
 ftl top. 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 • 
 
 BS 
 
 ftl.R 
 
 Kl 
 
 r.« 
 
 1 
 
 Sl.ft 
 
 1 1 
 
 41.4 
 
 3 
 
 4«.lt 
 
 Ii3 
 
 S" 
 
 nrt 
 
 U.t 
 
 
 44.6 
 
 tto 
 
 «,4 
 
 ii.i 
 
 41.4 
 
 Hi 3 
 
 H.9 
 
 
 61.4 
 
 i^.S 
 
 ba.i 
 
 tt fl 
 
 All. 4 
 
 
 1*1 
 
 
 4fi.4 
 
 ■J'ib 
 
 M.S 
 
 74.a 
 
 1 ,... 
 
 OOOK II. 
 
 METKOUOLOGY. 
 
 m 
 
 Hnlghl in 
 
 Kiiuli'li 
 I'uut. 
 
 KiliiBtcirinI 7.nni' 
 nruiiilut.U3|(ilUO. 
 
 Tfin|«.'fnti' 7.1)110 1 
 rromlnl. 41'^ to47''| 
 
 Miiuii 
 Tniiip. 
 
 Ulllfcr. 
 eiico. 
 
 MiiOii 
 Temp. 
 
 mice. 
 
 
 
 IKIIKI 
 IISC7 
 197IM 
 ISlKiJ 
 
 o 
 
 81. .1 
 71.J 
 tlAI 
 S7.7 
 44.11 
 34.7 
 
 
 o 
 
 , 10.;l 
 1 ti.l 
 ! 7.4 
 
 i:i 1 
 
 ' u.u 
 
 o 
 
 S3.fl 
 4I.U 
 .'11.11 1 
 '.£1.4 
 
 o 
 
 , 12.11 
 11.4 
 
 Thin tablo bIiow*, in a vory strikiiiK iniiimtr, witli how little ccrtninty the ilocrcMO of 
 t<!m|K!mtiiru can liu UHtiiiiutt'il t'roiii thii iiicrt-ii.su of height; iiiui Imw- iiiiHtcnd}' tlio rulu of 
 (lijcruiiso iH otlcii lit till) Huino plucn. M. ilutiiuiid, howuver, Im8 colluctud some ciised which 
 are titill luoru iliHcorduiit. 
 
 Tho jirccitlinK '"''''" eontiiinH the tein|)urttturi>H of the air ot diffcrniit hui)flittt for ono or a 
 few parliciiiiir iiwtuiitx; hut wo shuU now udd a lahte from Huron llumMdt nf Ihi- mrun 
 leinjicniliirrg of devatcd giluatinitu, aa deduced from neverai yearn olworvatious. The 
 do|{riR'i4 are those of Fahruiihiiit'ci fualu. 
 
 Fruin thiH tuble it appcan*, that, in tho moan state of tho atmosphere, tho tcinporaturo 
 
 does not dccroatio uniformly for u unitiirni accent. 
 At the equator, tlio thurtiioineter failH 1(P in tho 
 first KKK) yanls of ascent, or alwut 1° li)r :U(> foot. 
 In tiie next l(KH) yards, it is only 1° (or rfiA feet • 
 but in the third and Iburtii stages there is a re- 
 markable acceleration, which huvin); attained its 
 maximum rate, is diminished a^ain in tho fltlh 
 stuffo to Homuwhat less tiian it was in tlio first, or 
 to 1° in 'MO foet. The mean rate in tho varia- 
 tion of temperature, throuffiiout tlio whole hei(;ht 
 of lijtMW feet, at tho limit of perpetual snow, is 1° 
 for every 341 foet. Tho smaller rate of decreaso in tho second and third sta^'es is ascribcu 
 by Ilumhtjidt to the large dense clouds which aro suspended in this region, and which, he 
 alleges, have tho triple effect of absorbing tho sun's rays, forming rain, and intercepting 
 tho radiation of heat from the earth. In tho temperate zone, the uecreaso is at tl.o rate of 
 1° for arili feet, during the first UKM) yards of ascent. But throughout tho whole height of 
 9587 feet, to tho limit of perpetual snow, where tho mean temperature is 38,4°, tho decreaso 
 is 1° tor iJ17 foet, or almost 1° for 10() yards. As already remarked, observations made in 
 the free regions of the atmos])hero have not yet been so numerous as to warrant any certain 
 conclusion regarding the teiiiperature ; but, so far as such observations go, they do not diflbr 
 very widely ^om the mean of those observed on the sides and summits of mountains. But 
 generally in the temperato zone, a difference of lOflO yards in height will produce a dilTorence 
 of 12° of tempernture ; and so on in proportion for smaller heights. In higher regions, the 
 difference between tho heats of day and night, summer and wiiitir, seem to be loss than at 
 the level of the sea ; though from this there are some exceptions. Extensive tablo-Iands 
 arc usually warmer than insulated peaks of tho same height. Humboldt calculates that, in 
 the temperate zone, an ascent of 110 yards diminishes tho temperature as much as an addi- 
 tional degree of latitude. 
 
 Temperature of air in mines. Having thus noticed tho lower temperatures which obtain 
 in more elevated situations, wo shall now give some account of the increased temperature 
 which generally prevails in air occupying deep caverns and mines. There can be no doubt 
 ;is to such facts, but the source of tho heat is still a subject of controversy. There are some 
 mines intensely cold; and as these were first observed, the explanation oflfered was, that 
 till! colder portions of air had, by their greater weijjiit, descended into the mines : but this 
 solution entirely vanished when it was known that mines are generally hot. The heat of 
 the workmen, their fires and lights, have been stated as sources of heat ; as likewise the 
 ciiemical action of air and water on the minerals. Some again allege that a high tempera- 
 ture obtains in the interior of our globe, and consequently that the heat will always be 
 greater as we penetrate fartlicr. However, it is found that on boring into the solid strata in 
 tho bottom of warm mines, and letting down a thermometer, the temperature, so fiir from 
 increasing, comes short of that in the mine. This sufficiently proves that, whatever be the 
 sources of heat, some of them at least must operate in or be situated about the mine itself. 
 That a higlr temperature obtains in the interior, is in many instances evident from the 
 streams of hot water and vapour which i.ssue from fissures in the strata : but in many warm 
 mines nothing of this is observable. Profesoor Leslie, Dr. Forbes, and aflerwards Mr. Mat- 
 thew Miller, have suggested the heat evolved by a current of air, while it undergoes an 
 increase of pressure in descending into the mine. The first two of these philosophers did 
 not deem this an adequate source of heat ; and Mr. Miller seems to entertain similar doubts. 
 But from what is now known of the great heat evolved by the compression of air, there can 
 be little room to question that this furnishes a considerable supply, wherever there is a suf- 
 ficient current of air. Thus, if air at the temperature of 02° P. have its density suddenly 
 increased by the 170th part, the temperature will be raised 1° ; supposing no heat to be lost 
 on the sides of tho shafl. This would give 1° for a descent of 170 feet, which is still short 
 of the rate at which the temperature is observed to increase in British mines; but when 
 added to the heat caused by the presence of the workmen and horses, their lights, blas'ing 
 of rocks, fires, &c. together with some increase of temperature belonging to the deeper 
 strata, there does not seem any mystery in the heat of some, although probably not of all, 
 mines. Those mines, again, in which there is almost no circulation of air, and which pre- 
 
 I! 
 
 >m 
 
 '■]:• 
 
 v,;h 
 
 m 
 
 II 
 
 m 
 
 
m 
 
 SCIENCE OP OKOORAIMIY. 
 
 Paht II 
 
 nenta wi<lp iiioutli to n clcornky, rimy Imvo tlirir li-finwr itiiro rt'diiiM'd tiy radmlinn lii-iii 
 iipwiinlH, ill tlin wiinu wiiy tlint plniitN iiro stiirvcil uitti cold liy \h;\u^ Urn imu'li hludti'n.'d 
 tVoin tlir> wind whili' tliey nro <>x|Kmi'd to ii clciir hl<y. 
 
 An immonM collection of tkutN (ind nbpiTvutiniiH rclutint; to tliix itulij''''t may )»• Mi<i>n in 
 tlio 7V'in«fic(tonj i^ the Uvoloaiciil Snrirlij of ('nriiwull, mid in tlii> lirxt nuiiiliiT of tlm 
 Kdin. Phil. Journal. From the luttiT wu ('xtract tlm llillowinjj Huiiiinury of Mr. UiiUI'i* 
 obaurvations, miulo in tho dnepeiit cuil-niincH in (iri'iit. Uritiiiii: — 
 
 IVnIiir IK ili^plli nf 444 fci'l 01° f 
 
 Air III p-aiMiMli'iMli M 
 
 I'err) Main Callitry, MrlhumbtrlimJ, 
 
 Air III tlm ■iirtarii i^ V 
 
 A KprtiiK 'It Miirfficr* 411 
 
 IViiipr at depth a( v/n IWal IK) 
 
 Air m •■INI' dcjilh 113 
 
 Air Hlilc|illi ol'iwrout (Ml 
 
 IfurUiiftm Collitri, Cumitrltni. 
 
 Air at the iiirrarp M 
 
 A uprliiK at niirl'iire 4H 
 
 Wnter ut dvpth uflHO diet 00 
 
 Water SIM Diet beneath tlie iiirfkce ofthe Iriih 
 B«a 60 
 
 7tom OoUlify, County <if UurUm. 
 Water «l iurfaca 4D 
 
 y\lr at tile riirHire 49 
 
 Wilier nt niirfiiie 4U 
 
 Air III duplli c<r IND' feet beiow tlm luvid nf tho 
 •en, and iiiiiiiediiituly under tlm In.'d iif tlm 
 
 river Tyiii' 70 
 
 Witter III •iinm depth 68 
 
 lleru Leilif!'! Iiynrunietcr Indiriilml ilrynuM . . . .H3 
 
 Jamnt CtlUtry, Onrnty rf Durham. 
 
 Air nl the mirfliCD 40) 
 
 Water ul mirlHCH 411 
 
 Air lit iluplh cirHH-i fc>et 70 
 
 Wiilir at aanit' depth 68 
 
 The engino pit of Jarrow is tho deepest perpendicular uhafl in Dritain, being OflO feet to 
 the foot ofthe pumps, where the temperature of tho air wan 04°. 
 
 KUUnfwcTlh (MU4rf, Mrlhumitrhiid. 
 
 Air at lurftice 4A0 K 
 
 Water at iiirnirn 411 
 
 Air «l bottom of ihaft 7tlO feel deep 31 
 
 Air at depth of INK) (but, and a niilu and half from 
 bottom ofdowii-cait pit 70 
 
 Water at iiiotl dl>tant fori'lieud and ISiOU fuvt 
 
 below Kiirrare 74° P 
 
 Air nt mime de|ith 77 
 
 At thin depth, ilistilliHl water boiled at UI3 
 
 When at aurfuce U boilud at SlO-.t 
 
 The temperature of aprin^rg and caverns, in many places, coincidoa with the mean annual 
 tempcraturo of tho air : but Hinnboldt alle^rcs that, in latituileu above 4r)°, the mean heut of 
 s])ring;8 and caves exceeds that of tho atmosphere. As connected with this subject, Mr. 
 Fcr^ruson, of Raith, had four largo thennoinetors sunk in his garden, to tho respective depths 
 of 1, 2, 4, and 8 feet, in lat. 56° 10', and 50 foot above tho sea. The stents and scales rose 
 above ground, and indicated the follow in<r monthly mean temperatures: 
 
 January.., 
 February . . 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 Juno 
 
 July 
 
 AuRuat. ■ .. 
 September. 
 October. . . . 
 November . 
 December. . 
 
 1810, 
 
 1 Foot. 
 
 33.00 
 
 33.7 
 
 3S.0 
 
 39.7 
 
 40.0 
 
 SI.O 
 
 S4.0 
 
 SOD 
 
 SI.O 
 
 47.0 
 
 40.R 
 
 3S.7 
 
 i Feet. 4 Feet, i H Feet. 
 
 Meanofthe Year I 43.B 
 
 3(1.30 
 
 .111.0 
 
 311.7 
 
 38.4 
 
 43.3 
 
 MO 
 
 5J.3 
 
 M.H 
 
 SI.3 
 
 411.3 
 
 43.8 
 
 400 
 
 44.1 
 
 4fl.;o 
 :ni.o 
 
 SII.O 
 41.4 
 43.4 
 47.1 
 30.4 
 30.11 
 Sl.fl 
 411.7 
 4r>..'l 
 43.0 
 
 43.1 
 
 43.00 
 
 4-i.O 
 
 4i.3 
 
 43.H 
 
 44.0 
 
 4.1.H 
 
 47.7 
 
 4!). 4 
 
 30.0 
 
 40.0 
 
 43.11 
 
 411.0 
 
 40.8 
 
 1817. 
 
 I Foot. 
 
 33.r.o 
 
 37.n 
 
 3114 
 4.V0 
 4IIH 
 31 1 
 33.'J 
 33.4 
 93.0 
 43.7 
 41.0 
 33.0 
 
 44.U 
 
 a Feet. 
 
 :w.7o 
 
 40.0 
 WM 
 44.4 
 44.7 
 411.4 
 33.0 
 33.0 
 32.7 
 40.4 
 44.7 
 40.8 
 
 43,0 
 
 4 Feet. 
 
 40.53 
 
 41.11 
 
 41.7 
 
 4i2.ll 
 
 44.0 
 
 47.0 
 
 31.4 
 
 320 
 
 53.0 
 
 411.4 
 
 47.0 
 
 44.11 
 
 40,12 
 
 a Feet. 
 
 43.10 
 
 42.7 
 42.3 
 42.U 
 44.2 
 47.H 
 411.0 
 ;'i0.0 
 .10.7 
 411.8 
 47.11 
 4U.4 
 
 4*1.0 
 
 Hod the thermometers been sunk considerably deeper, they might have been expected to 
 have indicated 47° 7', which is the constant temperature of a neighbouring' spring issuing 
 from a trap rock. 
 
 The local temperature or climate of a country depends very much upon its distance from 
 the equator, and its height above the level of the sea : but the nature of tho surface, tho 
 proportion of humidity, the distance of the sea, of lakes, of mountains, of arid or frozen 
 plains, and perhaps, also, the internal heat ofthe earth, have each their share in tho fertility 
 or salubrity of a country. The decrease of lieat as we recede from the equator follows dif- 
 ferent laws in tho two hemispheres, being greater in tho 
 southern than in the northern, and is also affected by the 
 longitude. On tho west of Europe, the cold increases less 
 with the latitude than in any other quarter. Under meri- 
 dians which arc 00° cither cast or west of Ix)ndon, the 
 increase of cold, as we go northward, is more rapid than in 
 England. According to Humboldt, continents and largo 
 islands are warmer on their western sides than on the eastern. 
 The annexed table shows the mean temperatures of western 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Old 
 World. 
 
 New 
 World. 
 
 Diflr. 
 
 OO 
 
 81.50 
 
 81.30 
 
 OO 
 
 SO 
 
 77.lt 
 
 77.1) 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 70.7 
 
 67.1 
 
 3.0 
 
 40 
 
 03.3 
 
 .34.8 
 
 «.o 
 
 30 
 
 30.11 
 
 38.3 
 
 13.0 
 
 60 
 
 41.0 
 
 23.0 
 
 11)0 
 
 70 
 
 :i3.o 
 
 0.0 
 
 33.0 
 
 Europe and North America continued to tho equator. 
 
 ' 
 
BuoK II, 
 
 MKTK(m()I,COY. 
 
 173 
 
 4«i 
 
 W 
 .70 
 .08 
 
 iMitlicriiml lincH lirivn Ixx'ii cin)Hiik>rf<l lut uiiMuiiiriii)^ thu iioat nii<l cold of llio rnrtli. Tliu 
 rlinmti' (if KaHfrrn AmIii i-dirii'H nt'nrrr to lliiit nf Kiixtorii AiniTini tliiiti ot' \V»»ti'ni Kiirupc, 
 Tliiirt tliii liililiiilcH (if NiipU'H, I'fkmif, mill l'liiliulfl|)hiii urn r<'i«;MTtivi'ly 41°, 40", iiiul 4<P, 
 whilHt tlii'ir iiK'uii ti!tiiiH>riitiirui« iir« Ilil.M'', M.h'^, imil ri:i,4''. Much <liir<>rtitice* uri) ri'iiilcrnl 
 iiioro nciiHiblo wlioii \vi! ciiniDtct tlin plnri-N linvin}( thu mnio iiicnn tfinpomtiiri^ liy liiu>ii 
 whicli lliiiiiMilt il<>iiiiiiiiniit<'K iMollM'ririiil lincx. 'I'Iiiin, tho iwHhrriiiul liiin nlTiO^ F. trnvi<r><i'H 
 thn liititucli! of 4:1' ill KiiniiM', hut iIcnci'IkIh to Int. 'M' in Aiiic>ri<'ii ; the iKntlicniiiil lim- i>t' 
 41° F. iNiHscH t'ri)iii lilt. (HI'' ill Kiirii|M' !•> lut, 4^"" in America: hut Hiiii'i- ilic wt'otmi ctxi.-t 
 (if Niirtli AiiD'rica is wnriiicr (liiiii tlic i'ii:«tiTii, tli<> iNotlK'niial linrn, b<'iii)f triirixl niuiiil Uio 
 iiortlii'rn lioiiiiHph<!r«<, woiiM liiivu coiinnvo HUiniiiit« ut tliu Haul Mo of Initli uorlilM, iiiid cuii- 
 V(>x nt tlio wmt. 
 
 Tlio (litlnrfiici! Ix'twfoii tlin iiionn tcinpcrntiiro of wuinnirr nnd wiiiltT in nnthiiif; «t tlio 
 equator, anil incronmiH cuntiiuiully witli tlin liititiiilc. But tlio rxtri'irio (liUvri'iirn of thu 
 Nonwiim id conipciriitivi'ly hmiuU in VVi'Htcrn KiiroiM-, anil (^reiit when' tliii nwmn niiinml tciii- 
 licratiiro in low, uh on tlii> oust ronMn of Axia iiiiil Atncrica. If \Vi> ilrnw a lino in a north- 
 cant dirnction iVoin lloriloiiiix to WarHaw, and coiitiiiuo it to the Wolj»«, in lat. !VP, then 
 all placoa niidor this line, at the Nunin idovation, will have nearly the winie Humnier ti'iniHTU- 
 ture of »I9° or 70° F. The lineM of equal winter temperature decline in an opponite direr- 
 tion. Thus n Htrai^rht lino drawn tVoni t^linliur);h to Milan, almwt nt riirlit aii^luM to the 
 tbnner lino, would (mihs over places which, if equally elevatctl, would have nearly the oaiiie 
 winter temperature of 37° or :W° F. 
 
 Tlio oxtromoH of temperature are experienced chiofly in largo inland IriictH, and littlo felt 
 in mnall i.slandH romolo from continentH. In the United HtatoH inteiiNO cold in felt when the 
 wind blown tVom the frozen regions round lIuilHon'M Day. From Miow-clad mountains, gMAn 
 of cold wind, called mow whulii, ruHli down nnd cixil the adjacent plaiiiM. Tho heat acoii- 
 miilatCH to an iuitQniHhin;r dejjreo when the wind iMsses over cxtonwive de^erts of burnin)|r 
 Hand, which aro said, in mme inxtancoH in Africa, to bo heated to the Niilin^ point. This 
 fino Hand, or rathor dust, HomctiineH rixen in tho air and ohHCuroH it like 11 tii^r, eominunicnting 
 to it an intolemblo heat. In arctic countries the temperatiirn m very iiiiirh regulated by 
 tho freezing of tho water and the melting of tho ice; by tho frco/.inL' of the water great 
 quantities of heat are given out which iniHlornto tho severity of the winterV cold, nnd thus 
 save from doHtniction tho arctic land aniinuls, and plnntH; while in Kiiniiner, the inteiiHity 
 of tho heat, produced by tho long continuance of the sun above the horizon, is moderated by 
 tho abstraction of a considoriible |)ortion of tlmt heat by tho water during the melting of the 
 ice. Had tho arctic regionn been entirely of land, neither plants nor animals could have 
 existed in them : for during summer, owing to the Bun remaining akive tho horizon tor 
 months, an elevation of atmospheric temperature would have Ix'on proiluced fatal to nnimaU 
 and plants ; nnd in winter, tho long darkness nnd intense cold would have proved equally 
 fatal to animated k'ings. The cold of the icy regions of tho north has been alleged to 
 reach, by currents of air, southern latitudes, and thus to lower their temperature. 
 
 Baron Humboldt has added more to our knowledge of the distribution of temperatiiro over 
 tho glolm than any other who had laboured in tho same boundless field of research. The 
 table on the following page contains his gonenil summary, to which is added Melville 
 Island. The temperatures have licen reduced to FahrenhiMt's scale, and the longitudes are 
 reckoned from Greenwich. An asterisk is prefixed to those places whose temperatures 
 have been most accurately dotcrmined, and in general by meanH of 8000 observations. 
 
 In treating on tho mean annual tempcr.iture which obtains nt diflerent places, it is cus- 
 tomary to give ft taldc which makes the teinpnrature depend entirely on tho latitude. But 
 observation shows, that tho temperature is usually higher nt the same latitude in the old 
 world than in the new, nnd in north latitude than in south ; and, as was already mentioned, 
 it differs in tho same continent nnderdiffercnt meridians. So that more than one table would 
 be required tor each quarter of tho globe ; or else one very extensive table, involving the 
 longitude aa well as latitude, which is tho ease with Humboldt's table, so far as it goes. 
 
 As tho earth and its atmos|)hero are continually receiving heat from tlie sun, it is plain 
 that their mean annual temperature must ho continually on tho increase, if no heat be 
 thrown off by them into surrounding space. Professor Leslie accordingly alleges, tlmt the 
 increase of tempornture is at the rate of aliout 1° in 80 years. This would help to explain 
 .some of the changes of climule which seem to have been gradually taking place during 
 successive ages in manv places, and particularly in tlie west of Europe. But the late cele- 
 brated Marquis de In Place has endeavoured to show, from astronomical observations, that 
 tho mean temperature of the earth has undi:rgoiio no sensible change during tho last two 
 thousand years. His arguments, however, arc not free from objection. 
 
 Sect. II. — Effvct ofClimutr on Plants and Animals. 
 Tho geographical distribution of plants and animals appears to be chiefly regulated by the 
 temperature of the atnuisphere. Each has generally a particular climate in which it thrives 
 best, aiid beyond certain limits it ceases to exist. Since an increnee of height has an effect 
 
 
 h'. ■■! 
 
 ^#"" ,. 
 
^. .,, 
 
 f-i i 
 
 174 
 
 SCIRNCR OP fiKOORAI'HY. 
 
 Part 11. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ft 
 
 3 
 is 
 
 a 
 
 f^^ 111 
 
 N.imM of KacM. 
 
 IMi'Mlli* Inliiiiil . . . , 
 
 Niiiii 
 
 'I'm iiiii'kics 
 
 Iliw|iir<> di' Si. (,'ii- 
 llinnl 
 
 NiMlll t'niio 
 
 MM.-,. 
 
 'I'liii'ii 
 
 *St. I*i>lrn*hiirfj; . , , . 
 
 liniiiilu'im 
 
 IMiwiiw 
 
 Aim 
 
 *l>nl 
 
 'Si,),kh.ilin 
 
 (J.i.'IWT 
 
 I'liriNiiiunii 
 
 "("ninclll 111 IViwoii 
 Ih'1-k 
 
 '< i>|«'nliii|nMi 
 
 •Ki'iiiliil 
 
 Kiilkliiiiil IsliiniJN .. . 
 •I'niuiic 
 
 lillMlllm'll 
 
 •Ziiruli 
 
 *ri|Mil>iir!;li 
 
 Wainiiw 
 
 ('din' 
 
 DnWiii 
 
 Ili-riic 
 
 I il'IICVII 
 
 Miiiiln'im 
 
 \ipmm 
 
 Tl.'rmoiil 
 
 •Hn.iii 
 
 'itnilirlilKi", MiiHx. . . 
 
 r,in< 
 
 IxMllllllI 
 
 niiiiliirK 
 
 Ainslinliim 
 
 MrtiHvt'Is 
 
 •rrmi'lvor 
 
 I'liilnilolpliln 
 
 Ni'w Yiirk 
 
 rini'iniiiili 
 
 Si. Main 
 
 !\iititr,< 
 
 IV'kuiji 
 
 Mlinn 
 
 Ilonlcniix 
 
 I.M. 
 
 ri 
 
 CiS 
 
 'til :iii 
 
 71 II 
 
 I'li'i 
 
 lilt .'ill 
 
 .'i'.t rni 
 
 T).'! tri 
 I'll) 
 
 17 
 
 f) JC, 
 17 
 
 !.>< .'1(1 
 
 ■ii :ui 
 .'ii 
 
 .v: m; 
 
 :w .w 
 
 ID to 
 
 :!<) 1 
 
 •18 H'l 
 
 ■17 i:t 
 
 :('.• M 
 
 (4.'> t'H 
 
 ■It fK) 
 
 PiwlUrtn. 
 
 i,"iie. 
 
 O I 
 
 110 IHw. 
 
 C.l'.'Ow. 
 •-Nl 17 K. 
 
 H >z:\ K. 
 
 V.'i Wt c. 
 ii') a> K. 
 V.1I lI'iK 
 
 mi I'.iK. 
 
 10 'i'i K. 
 
 :t7:(v!K. 
 
 :i8k. 
 :ir. 
 
 (Iw 
 481! 
 
 :I4e. 
 X> K. 
 
 4li W' 
 
 M»\v 
 a-ti:. 
 Mi:. 
 
 •■tiK. 
 
 10 w 
 
 •: K. 
 :io K. 
 
 I'.lw. 
 *•. K. 
 
 8r. 
 \!8 K. 
 
 *J* K. 
 
 Mnrsrillrs. . . 
 MoiiIiH'llirr . 
 
 Hdlllc 
 
 'rnilliili 
 
 \iini;nsaki .. 
 •Nnlclic-/. .. .. 
 
 Piinrlml 
 Alulrra . 
 
 in 17 
 
 . 1:1 :tr. 
 
 ■11 .'):i 
 
 . i:) 7 
 
 :vi i.'i 
 
 ;ti 31 
 
 :w :t7 
 
 »! 18 
 
 •Cnim :t0 2 
 
 •Vomrruz I'.i II 
 
 if'IMliivnim W:t 10 
 
 " I'Cimmim 10 '>7 
 
 3 ftK. 
 
 19 Ik. 
 71 7w. 
 
 a Wk. 
 
 II r.w. 
 ■^ r>o K. 
 
 ■t •.^.! K. 
 
 7:> 10 vv. 
 
 73 .Wh, 
 
 8l'J7w. 
 
 'i l\v. 
 
 i:w\v 
 iir.\>7K. 
 
 •J 1 1 K. 
 OSIw. 
 
 ri a-' K. 
 
 3 .'.2 K. 
 
 la a7 K. 
 
 r> M K. 
 
 f-X.t.V.K. 
 
 •11 aiH. 
 ir.rnnv. 
 
 3 Ik. 
 
 30 18 k 
 if. l\v. 
 8ai3w. 
 (Wi l.^w. 
 
 II«M. 
 
 Kool 
 
 
 
 
 
 13.'iO 
 
 ri3<.N) 
 
 
 
 II 
 II 
 II 
 
 
 
 '.(711 
 
 
 
 
 
 (I 
 (I 
 II 
 
 3oiin 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 •I 
 
 i:k-, 
 
 13.V1 
 l.'rtt 
 
 II 
 
 1871' 
 
 
 
 IIISO 
 
 .t3a 
 ■laii 
 
 laro 
 ■tin 
 
 
 
 «MO 
 
 "ll 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (I 
 II 
 
 
 
 .Mil 
 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 3<J0 
 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 (I 
 180 
 
 Irini.r. 
 mtviUi' 
 
 u 
 
 — a.iiii 
 
 i ai'.. I'j 
 
 a('i.'.iri 
 
 30.38 
 
 3a.iio 
 
 3:).0H 
 
 33.ai'i 
 38.; 'I 
 3'.i.'.ia 
 
 10.10 
 
 4i;.a8 
 
 ia.08 
 ■ia.ai"i 
 
 4171 
 
 4a.80 
 
 4a.'.i8 
 
 4.M',8 
 4Ci.'J'.' 
 
 4r..'.>i 
 
 4'.).4('. 
 IC.'II 
 
 47.81 
 17 84 
 48..W 
 48.'.ia 
 4'.l.lll 
 
 •i'.i.a8 
 4y.as 
 
 .'iOI8 
 ,'iO.,'>l 
 
 WI.IK) 
 M.liH 
 
 fio.ni'. 
 
 .M.08 
 
 .'•.o.3r. 
 .'Hi.rii 
 5i.r.a 
 r)i..«o 
 .'1I.80 
 ;>XK 
 
 .'i3.78 
 .')3.78 
 ,M.M 
 
 .'ll. r.8 
 
 .'il.Sh 
 
 ri."..7Ci 
 
 .Vi.t8 
 
 .v.i.oo 
 
 .'i'.».3t'i 
 CiO.ll 
 
 (ia.oi'i 
 
 ("0..«(l 
 f.4.7Ci 
 
 ri8.M 
 
 (•I'J.'.IH 
 
 7a.3a 
 77.7? 
 
 78.08 
 81.8*1 
 
 Mt-Ait rrni|itrAlui« of 
 
 —31 .33 
 
 - Ol'.ll 
 0.l",8 
 
 18.3a 
 a3.7a 
 
 11.84 
 
 la.'ja 
 n.iM'i 
 a3.7a 
 
 10.78 
 
 ao.84 
 
 21.'.t8 
 
 a.'L.v.! 
 
 11.18 
 
 128.78 
 
 a8.fi8 
 30.74 
 30.8I'. 
 
 3',i.r)ri 
 
 31.4C. 
 30.38 
 a'.l.liC. 
 
 38.r,f, 
 
 a8.7C. 
 
 3a.3r. 
 3'.i.ao 
 3a.(iii 
 
 34.70 
 
 38.80 
 
 :ta.7a 
 34. .'12 
 
 33.'.1M 
 33.08 
 38 iV, 
 
 :\'XM 
 
 .•18. IS 
 3C1.8C. 
 
 3r..(';8 
 
 3lVr8 
 3'.18 
 
 a'.i.8i 
 3a.iiii 
 laaci 
 
 40.4(' 
 
 aivi'j 
 
 3Ci.3a 
 42.08 
 
 4.'i..'iO 
 
 41.01' 
 4:1 81". 
 ■18.,38 
 3'.'.:W 
 48.,'-i(' 
 
 f.4.40 
 
 f.i.aa 
 :.8.4r. 
 
 71.'.lfi 
 
 7i.ei 
 
 80.a4 
 
 4a.()8 
 
 41.18 
 4r>14 
 
 4l'i..'i8 
 47.l"iri 
 44.21 
 48.20 
 4l"i.4ll 
 47.^18 
 fill.lKl 
 
 47 :to 
 
 48.'.I2 
 ■I7.(il'. 
 4'.MV| 
 
 r.i.ai; 
 rui.M 
 
 M 08 
 47i';ii 
 41128 
 48..''iii 
 48."ir. 
 
 M.oa 
 r^iai 
 
 .'■1,118 
 
 :ii.i4 
 
 .'ii.ai'i 
 :>4 14 
 fia.ic. 
 
 M..'.0 
 
 .V. ;ni 
 .Vi.ia 
 
 .')Ci.l8 
 
 rc.Vi 
 
 fiClVi 
 ri7.74 
 
 i"iii.8ii 7.').iia 
 
 .'C.. v., 82. Ill 
 
 (W.48i7y.iri 
 
 rA81i72.'i<) 
 
 Cift.iifrPd.at 
 
 73..SS 8.').10 
 77. W 81. so 
 78.118 8.3.30 
 83.nf. 82.04! 
 
 Slim, 
 incr. 
 
 33.78 
 
 18.:;8 
 
 .'ll.Wi 
 
 44.<)(-i 
 43.31 
 r>7.7 1 
 .'1 1 8li 
 l'.2.0(i 
 I'll. -.'4 
 111 
 I'll. 88 
 
 r.0 ao 
 
 I'll 88 
 
 ri8.oo 
 iia.CiO 
 
 riH.ir. 
 iia.i'io 
 
 .'■||'i.84 
 
 ri3.oi'. 
 
 (.8.110 
 ('.4.71' 
 CtOl 
 
 riR.'.^ 
 ('1II.O8 
 
 ('.3.32 
 .ML.'il 
 MM 
 Cil.in 
 I'u.IO 
 (•,lt2('. 
 
 (•.■1.40 
 ()..'i2 
 ■0.70 
 (''■I .'■18 
 Ii3.14 
 I'.KH 
 ('..'■i HI 
 I'.Ci 211 
 
 ri7.a8 
 3.111 
 
 lUCi 
 2.8C. 
 
 Cirioa 
 
 (•8..'il 
 
 8a..w 
 73.01 
 
 70.Sf. 
 
 72..'iO 
 7.'-).74 
 7.''i.20 
 
 MrAirrriiipfnluirnf 
 
 Aiiltinm. 
 
 Wirn.rx 
 Miirdli. 
 
 ('■■l.liM 
 Molilll. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 3.81 
 
 39.08 
 
 — 3ri.ri2 
 
 33.11 
 
 .'■1I.81I 
 
 -11.20 
 
 a7.32 
 
 MM 
 
 ^ ll,f.8 
 
 -I ir..(i8 
 
 31.8a 
 
 4().22 
 
 
 3a.(i8 
 
 4(i..'i8 
 
 22.10 
 
 3.''i.ll('i 
 
 ili.fia 
 
 7.70 
 
 33.41 
 
 ('i2.i;o 
 
 11.18 
 
 38.l',(', 
 
 liriiiii 
 
 8 CO 
 
 ■1(1.10 
 
 (ii.in 
 
 I9r)8 
 
 38.30 
 
 70.rrJ 
 
 n.oK 
 
 40.li4 
 
 — 
 
 
 12.80 
 
 ri2.42 
 
 22.4ri 
 
 13.1fi 
 
 i'kUM 
 
 22.82 
 
 ■lli.Ot 
 
 73.10 
 
 13.81 
 
 41.18 
 
 ('i('i.7t 
 
 28.41 
 
 ■ia.118 
 
 r)9.3('i 
 
 30.20 
 
 4R38 
 
 ('iri.CiH 
 
 27.14 
 
 4i'.aa 
 
 .'18.10 
 
 31.88 
 
 48.1C1 
 
 .'>.').7ri 
 
 37.10 
 
 rm.i8 
 
 
 
 48.74 
 
 I'lC.IW 
 
 aiu'ii'i 
 
 48.112 
 
 CilVliCi 
 
 2C..78 
 
 ■18 fil'i 
 
 .'ill.3(') 
 
 38,3(1 
 
 ■lll.4'i 
 
 70 34 
 
 27.14 
 
 r)0.3('i 
 
 fi4.;i8 
 
 a9.48 
 
 riium 
 
 Cil.U'i 
 
 .■i.'..4a 
 
 4ii.8a 
 
 07.28 
 
 3ll..'i0 
 
 noiKi 
 
 ri('i.,'ii', 
 
 31.1f, 
 
 49.82 
 
 (•■8.72 
 
 33.44 
 
 rKi.ri4 
 
 7o.:ia 
 
 aiil'iO 
 
 rii.ari 
 
 I'lCi.ao 
 
 28.04 
 
 f.2.34 
 
 71. CO 
 
 27,78 
 
 ■111 82 
 
 72.81'i 
 
 'J1I.8I 
 
 f>144 
 
 fti.30 
 
 31',. 14 
 
 rio.i8 
 
 Cil.lO 
 
 37.7C1 
 
 fiO'.K) 
 
 l'.1.7i'. 
 
 37,7l'i 
 
 .'iica 
 
 iiCi.iia 
 
 35,12 
 
 .M.IW 
 
 Ii7,28 
 
 3.''ir.0 
 
 .'■>4 3a 
 
 r,908 
 
 32.90 
 
 rn'i -18 
 
 77,00 
 
 32.72 
 
 .'">4,.'Ki 
 
 80.70 
 
 2,'i.3l 
 
 Til. 811 
 
 74.30 
 
 30.'J(I 
 
 :>.'..7(i 
 
 CiCi.ita 
 
 41.74 
 
 .vi :>H 
 
 70..'i2 
 
 39.(R! 
 
 fit 3a 
 
 8i.:t8 
 
 24.1.2 
 
 f)('..8t 
 
 71.1'it', 
 
 31'.. 14 
 
 S('i.3(l 
 
 73.114 
 
 4I.IH) 
 
 fi0.08 
 
 Tir.1'1 
 
 44.42 
 
 CiOlW 
 
 78.1 IK 
 
 42(18 
 
 ('ia.78 
 
 77.(10 
 
 42.2.'. 
 
 I'vl.lO 
 
 77,(MI 
 
 4('..40 
 
 I'll. 22 
 
 8i'. ltd 
 
 37.10 
 
 fii'i.iia 
 
 79,7(1 
 
 4i'..m 
 
 72.32 
 
 7.'>,.'i(*i 
 
 r,i.04 
 
 7a.:io 
 
 82.711 
 
 ('0.08 
 
 714a 
 
 8.'-i,82 
 
 .')(•. 12 
 
 78.1'a 
 
 8I,8('i 
 
 71 (W 
 
 78,98 
 
 83,81 
 
 f,9.98 
 
 80.21 
 
 81.38 , 
 
 79Ifi 
 
 tlio 
 tlic , 
 im (I 
 nml : 
 III It, ( 
 
 *' i 
 
 
'7: 
 
 'jy.t'it') 
 
 •JIV7H 
 
 •.is.:io 
 
 Ti.W 
 U'.t.lH 
 
 :tr..tu 
 :hi..V' 
 :ii.ici 
 
 ll'.Ml 
 
 !2H.(ll 
 
 'J7.7H 
 'J'.I.HI 
 
 :;r..n 
 :t7.7ti 
 :n.7f. 
 
 H&. 12 
 
 :ir)f.(t 
 ;!'j.'.Hi 
 
 'jr..;M 
 
 ■11.71 
 
 ;i',i.<K.' 
 :ir..i4 
 
 •ll.(H) 
 
 •lt.l'.> 
 .IC..40 
 
 ic.io 
 
 4f..'.M 
 
 rvi.()4 
 
 (•,0.08 1 
 
 71 (If. 
 f.«.98 
 7016 
 
 
 Book IT. 
 
 METROROLOOY. 
 
 I7r> 
 
 on cliiniito in Minio rrsppcts Nimiliir t<i iin iiirn-iiHc of Intiliulr, it. hns boon cnintiioiily mip- 
 (HtHcil t,lml, tlicri' iirn prn|)crly no pliiiilH nrciiliiir to liiuli liil.ituili'H, Iwcuiw! biicIi imiy l«' riiin(!il 
 oil llio iiKiiiiitnlnH iiiidrr tin: ('(|iintor, wliii-li cnilmicc evory variety of climate) li(!twrt'ti tlie-ir 
 siiiiiiiiit iinil Ikikc, at iciiHt in w) fnr iih tctimnriifiin! iw (Mnicornnl. In |)oint of iilinoKplicri? 
 prcHKiirc, liowcvcr, tlio two Hitimtioim dillpr cHHcntiiilly ; iinil Boiiif niitiinilislH iiili'jrc, timl 
 prrssiirc w of viliil iiniM)rliilic(> to tlir (rrowtli of pliiiitK I'rofcHMir Kolicri'iiii'r in fif npinioii 
 tliiit till! iliiiiiiiiitivi' Hi/p orpliiiitH, in cliwiitcd HitiiatioiiH, dc|M'iiilH more dm IIic iliiiiiiiiitlnti of 
 pri'swiro tliiin of IcmixTiitiin!. To iiHCcrlain tliiH, lir put rcpiiil (piiintilicH nl' Imilcy mid 
 moint earth into two equal ri^oeiverH: tlio air in tli(! one had a preHKiirc ol" 14 iiiehew ofniiT- 
 ciiry, mid the olli(;rf)<(; ^erniiiiiition roiiimenenil in tiotli at the hhiiii' time, mid the h-aveH 
 Jmd the mum! ^ft'"" •'»'• At the end of fifteen diiyH, the Hhootw in the rarefied iiir wen; iS 
 iiiclieH IdiiK, mid in tiio otiier tVdni 1) to 10. The firHt were expatuh'd miil Kof), mid wet on 
 tlie mirtiiee, especially towards their extreniitioH ; the ot.hern were firm, rolled ronml the stem, 
 and nearly dry. fn .';onin reHpectw, this n.-eordH with wliiit lliimlHildt observed of the treeH 
 on the Aiidt-'N, that water tniiiKpireH from them ev<:n in the driert weather. Thit mcli expe- 
 riments are inconchiHive, iihIi-hh there were wime contrivance employed to renew the eonlined 
 air f'r('(]uently. Independently of prenwire, the Imrley in Iho conueiiHed air had the uho of 
 four times tim quantity of air in the other vesHel. 
 
 I'lantH are most iiimierous, and exhibit the fjniatcBt variety of Bpccies, and the most luxu- 
 riant ffri'Wth, within the tnipics, beyond which they gradually diminish. In the arctic 
 rejrion.s, and in the north of Russia, the ve};etnblo kingdom Iuih dwindled to almost imthing. 
 The lines which limit the jrrowth of certnin plants depend (m the averape summer fempern- 
 liire, lor plants which reqiiiri- a Ion;? luid iiMKlerntc heat; on the temperature of the wiirmiot 
 month, for those which recpiire a short but great heat; and on the tcimperatiire of the cnldeBt 
 month, for those which cannot hear cold. The trans]iareiicy of the air is also of innxirtiinco 
 to many idants; but our limits will not admit of enlanriuff, and thfirefore we shall confine 
 ourselves to a short account of the cliniates of cultivated plants. The plant.'iin, which is a 
 primary article of finxl in tropical America, Te<piircH a t.empisratiire from 8'2° to T>i° F., 
 which occurs between lat. 0° and 87": but, in iho iMpiinoctial zone (hit. ((° to 10°), its fruit 
 dtKis not ripen at a greater altitude than !KUK) feijt. The sugar-cane has nearly ilie siime 
 range, but Ih cultivated, though with loss advantage, in the old world to Int. 'M\° W, wherc! 
 the nieiin temperature is iiliout »i7°. The severity of the North American winter iirevents 
 the cultivation of the sugar-cane beyond lat. .'n°; but it succeeds at an altitude of r)7f)0 feet 
 on the t^ttile-land of Mexico. The fiivouritc climate of the cotton pliiiit lies hetween lat. 0° 
 and 'M°\ but it succeeds with a mean mimmer beat of 75° or 7!)'^ F., if that of winter do 
 not descend below !10° or 38°. In America, it is cultivated at hit. 1)7° ; in Kiirope, at hit. 40° ; 
 and in Aslracan, at lat. 40°. The dote (lalm thrives best hetween Int. 2!i° and .').")"; but, 
 when sheltered from the north wind, it is cultivated on the nliores of Italy to Inf. 44°. The 
 citron has nearly the snme lange, but is cultivated at Nice, at altitudes of 400 li'ef. This 
 tree, with the sweet orange, grows in liouisiana to lat. !10°, but beyoiid that it is injured by 
 the cold. 'I'lie olive ranges in Euroiio between lat. 110° and 44° .V; it succeeds wherever, 
 with a mean annual temperature from 66° to 58° V„ that of summer is not below 71°, nor 
 that of the coldest month below 42 ', which excludes all North Americi lieyoiiil Int. 'M'\ 
 The favourite climate of the vino in the old world is tie'ween bit, ;tO°and 4H"; hut it thrives 
 wherever the mean tem]ierature is from 62° to 47.5°, provided that of winter is not lielow 
 33°, nor summer under t(6" or 68°. Such is the case on the shores of Eurojie to hit. 47°. 
 and in the interior to lat. 50°, but only to lat. 40° in North Ariieric;i. The rirrulia or com- 
 mon grain, as wheat, rye, barley, and oatu, thrive where the mean annual lem[ierntiire 
 descends to 28° F., provided that of summer rise to .')2° or 53°. In l,a|)lmid, barley 
 ripens wherever the mean temperatnro of sumnuir rises to 47° or 4*^°. The r.iiiid growth 
 of' Imrley and oats adapts them to tlie short summers of the north; they are fijiiiid as high 
 as lat. ()'t,J° in Lapland, along with the jiotato. In some ])arts of enstern RiiH!-i;i, no grain 
 is found beyond hit. ()()°. Wheiit, which is a precarious crop, ai.d little ciiltiviited heyoiid 
 lat, 58" in western Europe, yields gncxl returns in this part of the temperate zone, when 
 the mean heat, while the grain is on the ground, is 55°; but if no more than 40°, none of 
 the rrmilia come to maturity. These species of gniin are cultivated ;it a liiMght of 3500 
 feet on the .Alps, in lat. 46°. Rnrley and oats succeed nt double 'hat height on Caiicani.-, 
 and at almost a triple height on the Andes, along with wheat mid rye. In the \ve.«t of 
 Europe, iniiize has the same range as the vine, hut reiiclies liiithrr north on the cui^t. In its 
 native American soil, it forms the chief article of fixid, from the river I'jiita to the hil<r'-: of 
 Canada. Requiring a short bnt warm seas;in of four months, it is well .'^iiitid to the eiiriiati' 
 of the New World up to the latitude of 45°. The oak ceases at lat. 03° in Nnr\\My, nt 
 ()0° or 01° in Finland, and at 57° in the government of Perm. The piniis silveslris, or Scots 
 fir, grows to a height of 60 feet in l.apland, at lat 70°, i.nd 8.50 li'et iiIkivo the level of the 
 sea : there the birch is found at double that elevation. In eastern Russia, the larch, pine, 
 bircli, and mountain-nsb, disappear about lat. 68°; ond, nt Hudson's Bay, all trees cease 
 about lat. 60°. 
 
 na 
 
 
r- 
 
 176 
 
 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 pabt n 
 
 Sbct. III. — Composition of the Atmosphere. — Aqueous Meteors. 
 
 Regarding the composition of the atmospiierc, abundantly vague and fanciful notionsi 
 prevailed lor many ages. The ancients considered air as one of the four simple olements, 
 of which they supposed all other bodies to be compounded. These were earth, air, fire, and 
 water, l^ow far the opinion was correct, which made fire an element, is a question on 
 which nothing i^: yet known; but the researches of modern chemistry have shown tiiat the 
 other three are all ccmiiwund bodies. The chief, and perhaps the only essential, component 
 substances iti the atmosphere, are the two gases called oxygen and azote ; its other ingre- 
 dients, occurring only in small and variable quantities, are rather to be considered as foreign 
 bodies. The analysis of air is a difficult problem. Many cliemists have found it to consist 
 of 21 iKirts by voluiiic of oxygen to 79 of nzote; and this proportion is sensibly the same 
 whether the air be from the polar or tropical regions, from the level of the sea or a mountain 
 top, from the most healthy or insalubrious countries. But Dr. Prout, guided by the laws of 
 definite proportions, alleges, that if the two gases of which air principally consists be really 
 combined, tlioy ought to be 20 oxygen to 80 azote; and it must be allowed that similar 
 conjectures of the same eminent chemist iiave been verified regarding the composition of 
 other bodies, which Imd apparently deviated farther from tlie atomic system. 
 
 The investigation of the comixincnt parts of the atmosphere did not keep pace with that 
 of its mechanical properties. i3oyle, however, and his cotemporaries, put it beyond doubt 
 that it contiinod an elastic fluid and water in the state of vapour. They also conjectured 
 that it contained various other substances, which rose from the earth .. ihe form of vapours, 
 and often altered its properties, rendering it noxious or fatal. Since the discovery of car- 
 bonic acid by Dr. Black, it has been ascertained that this elastic fluid always constitutes a 
 part, though a very minute one, of the atmosphere. 
 
 VVith respect to moisture, or the state in which water exists in air, two opinions have 
 been formed : 1. Water may be dissolved in air, in the same manner as salt is held in solu- 
 tion by water; 2. It may be mi.\ed with air in the stiito of steam or vapour, after having 
 been converted into vapour. The first of these was hinted at by Dr. Ilooke, and afterwards 
 ])roposed by Dr. 1 [alley. It has been adopted by many others in succession, among whom 
 is Professor Leslie ; and it cannot bo denied that many of the phenomena agree with tliat 
 theory. The second opinion seems to have originated with Mr. Deluc ; but it is to Mr. 
 Dalton and M. Gay Lussac that we arc indebted for subjecting tliis theory to the test of 
 experiment. 
 
 Evaporation from the waters on the surface of the earth is undoubtedly the source whence 
 the moisture which exists in air is derived. Accordingly we find tliat water exposed to the 
 air suffers a gradual diminution of bulk, till it entirely disappears. It is then said, in com- 
 mon language, to have dried up, or to have evaporated. Under an exhausted receiver, water 
 diminishes even mori- rapidly than in the open air. Were this owing to solution, tha very 
 reverse ought to follow; because, in place of ,'apour being caused by the presence of air, it 
 goes on mor(! rapidly in its absence. By comparing a set of experiments made at fJeneva, 
 with a similar set on the Col-du-Geant, I0,95() feet higher, Saussure found that, supposing 
 the temperature and dryness of the air the same at both places, ihe evaporation at the upper 
 would be to that at tlie lowei nearly as 7 to 3; so that a diminution of about one third in 
 the density of the air more than doubled the rate of evaporation. It is well known, that 
 cold is always generated during spontaneous evajroration ; that is to say, that water, as it 
 disappears, carries off a quantity of heat. Dr. Black has rendered it probable, that the 
 quantity of heat wliicii disappeai ■ during spontaneous evaporation i" ns great as that which 
 is required to form water into steam. A wet body is always cooled by exposure to dry air, 
 owing to the evaporation from its surflice. Hence, in warm countries, liquors are cooled by 
 wrapping wet clotlis round the bottles and exposing them to the air. M. Saussure observed, 
 that the evaporation from the surfiice of melting snow caused it to freeze again, when the 
 temperature of the air was 4° or fi" above the freezing point. The simplest nuKle of illus- 
 trating the cooling inniiciicc of eva|K)ration, is to cover the ball of a thermometer with wet 
 cloth and expose it to the air, wiicn it will be found to indicate a greater cr less degree of 
 cold. This, it is true, does not take ])lace if the air be very damp, because tlien^ is tiien no 
 ova|X)ration. Wind tends to promote evaporation, both by connnuuieating its heat to the 
 collier evaporating surface, and also by sweeping away the va|M)ur as it is formed. On the 
 contrary, thi re is scarcely any evaporation in perfectly still air, unless some substance be 
 present which absorbs the vaix)ur as it forms. 
 
 On this principle. Professor Lesli(> cdutrived on elegant mode of pnxlucing ice in any cli- 
 mate. A rup u ith water is ])!aeed within the receiver of an air-puinp, alonsr w iih some 
 substance uliich absurbs the vapour. Tlie rate of eva[wration is then increased in an aston- 
 ishing degrei, hy I'xhausting the air from the receiver; and the [)ortion of the water which 
 is converted into va|Kjur abstracts so much iieiit from the remainder, that the latter is .speed- 
 ily converted into ice. 
 
 Dew is a remarkable product of atmospheric moisture. The quantity of atiueous vapour 
 
Ii iiny cli- 
 Jii!i some 
 Inn iiston- 
 li-r whicli 
 1 is spood- 
 
 lis vnjicmr 
 
 Book II. 
 
 METEOROLOGY. 
 
 m 
 
 tttiidi Cijn exist m , nivcn fipaco, as a cubic fnot, is pretty frencrally hnlieved to be the same, 
 whollicr tiling be ii.r present in the space, or iicithiiiir but the vapour alone. The quantity 
 is always (<•«■/. par.) the same at the same temperature, but it is <;reater as the temperature 
 is hii^ber; ami therefore, supposing the space to be saturated witii vapour at a particular 
 tomi)oriiture, a portion of this will return into drops of water whenever the temperature 
 falls. It is on this principle that a cold body, such as a Iwtt' • of liquor, being carried into a 
 warm moist a))artment, becomes bedewed on the outside, till, perhaps, the water trickles 
 down its sides; the contact of the cold surface chills the air, which in return deposits a por- 
 tion of its moisture. Now this is similar to the mode in which moisture is insensibly depo- 
 sited troni the atmosphere on Ixidies at the eurth's surface, and which is known by the name 
 of (/tl/^ All bodies, placed in still air and exposed to the aspect of a clear sky, are found to 
 liecomo colder than they would be if some screen or awning were interposed between them 
 and tlie sky. In such circumstances, bodies often become mucli colder than the surrounding 
 air, w hich, if sufficiently moist, deposits on them a portion of its moisture or dew. When 
 the temperature is low, the ilew is frozen, and forms hoar frost. 
 
 The radiation of heat also deserves notice. About the commencement of the present 
 century, Professor Leslie discovered that bodies possess very different powers of radiating 
 heat ; and that this depends on the nature and condition of their surfaces. Metals possess 
 this quality in a degree inferior to vitreous bodies, and it is diminished in all of them by 
 jKilishing the surface. Most fibrous and filamentous vegetable substances are good radiators, 
 as are likewise bodies in general which are bad conductors or bad reflectors of heat. Now 
 the degrees of cooling, wliich difl'erent bodies undergo when exposed together to the aspect 
 of the sky, is observed to follow the same order as that of their radiating powers ; and, of 
 course, the order in which they begin to acquire dew, as also the quantity acquired; is regu- 
 lated by a similar law, as will be seen from what follows. 
 
 For the investigation of the causes of dew we are chiefly indebted to the late ingenious 
 Dr. Wells. The ancients maintained, that dew appears only on calm and clear nights. Dr. 
 Wells found that, in opposite circumstances, very little is ever deposited, and that little only 
 when the clouds are very high. Dew never occurs in nights both cloudy and windy ; and 
 if in the course of the night, the weather, from being serene, sli(i\ild become dark and stormy, 
 dew which had been deposited will disappear. In calm \M'ather, more dew will appear if 
 the sky be partially covered with clouds, than if it were (juito clear. It often happens, that 
 even before sunset, dew begins to adhere to grass in spots which are sheltered from both sun 
 and wind ; for, in clear weather, such spots sufter much from the chilling aspect of the sky, 
 and may often continue to accpiire dew during the whole night, and tor some time after sun- 
 rise. The quantity of dew depends on the nioistness of the air, being greater after rain than 
 atler long-continued dry weather. It is more abundant, in Europe, with southerly and west- 
 erly winds, than with those which blow from the opposite points. The reason of this seems 
 to be the direction of the sea rendering the wind moist; for, in Egypt,. dew rarely occurs 
 unless the wind come from the sea. But with a southerly wind, which has passed along the 
 flrxids of the Nile, dew is usually observed in the Delta five or six days betbrc the inimda- 
 tion. Atler a long perio<l of drought, Dr. Wells exposed to the clear sky, 28 minutes before 
 sunset in a calm evening, known weights of wool and swan-down, upon a smooth, unpainted, 
 dry fir table about 3 feet in height, and which liad been placed an hour before in the sun- 
 shine in a large grass field. At 12 minutes after sunset the wool was 14° colder than the 
 air, but had gained no weight. The swan-down was 13° colder than the nir, but had got no 
 additional weight; nor was it any heavier at the end of 20 minutes longer, but it had then 
 become 14J° colder than the air ; whilst the grass was 15° colder than the air 4 feet above 
 ground. — From these, and many similar experiments. Dr. Wells concluded that bodies be- 
 come colder than the neightouring air liefm-c they are dcnvcd. — Ho bent a sheet of pa.ste- 
 board into the form of a penthouse, making the angle of flexure 9()°, and leaving both ends 
 open. This was placed one evening, with its ridge uppermost, upon a grass-plat, and, as 
 nearly as couhl be guessed, in the direction of the v.ind. On the middle of the spot of grass 
 sheltered by the roof, was placed 10 grains of wool, and an ecpial quantity on a sjiot of the 
 grass fully exposed to the sky. In the morning, the first 10 grains were only 2 grains 
 heavier, whilst the other had gained 16. The wool does not here acquire moisture from the 
 grass by capillary attraction, for the same efl'ect happens if it be placed in a saucer; nor is it 
 iiy hygronietric attraction, for in a cloudy night, wool placed on an elevated board scarcely 
 gained any weight. 
 
 The (|uantity of dew varies according to circumstances. When wool ir placed upon a bad 
 commctor of heat, as a deal board, a few feet from the ground, it will become colder and 
 acqu re more dew than if laid on the grass. At the windward end of the board, it is less 
 bedewed than at the sheltered end; because, in the former case, the wnid keeps up tlio 
 ti'mperature nearer to that of the atmosphere. Rough and porous surfaces, as shavings of 
 wood, straw, cS.c., take more dew than smooth and .solid IxMlies, Raw silk and line cotton 
 collect more than even wool. Glass, being a goo<l radiator of heat, is nnich more cpiickly 
 "oated with dew than bright metals, which, indeed, receive it more readily than many other 
 
 Vol,. I. X 
 
 lit'] I 
 ■i.l 
 
 t| 
 
 :) >1 
 
 ■■r ( 
 
 »! 
 
 I 
 
■^■-r-'-' 
 
 0' 
 
 re 
 
 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 tKxIioa. This circumstance has tjiven rise to the strango i(h;a that metaJH absorb dew, though 
 thuy bo the most compact bodies known. If wo cwvt a piece of ghv ■ oartially with bright 
 tin-toil, or ^'ilver loaf, tlie imcovercd portion of the gloss quickly b^ i cold by radiation, 
 
 on cx|K)snre to a clear nocturnal sky, and acquires moisturr;; w .., begirming on thaie 
 parts most remote frt.m the metal, gradually approaches it. Thus, also, if wo coat a part of 
 ihc outside of a window-pane with tin-foil m a clour night, then moisture will be dojwsitcd 
 inside, on every part but that opposite to the metal ; but if the metal be inside, then the 
 nutside of the coated part of the jjane will be sooner and more copiously bedewed. In tlio 
 lirst oise, the tin-foil prevents the glitss under it from dissipating its lu'ut, and tiiereforo it 
 ran receive no dew; in the second case, the tin-foil prevents the part of the glass which it 
 coats from receiving the calorific influence of the !fi):irtn)ent, and hence it is sixiner cooled 
 oil the outside than the rest of the pane. When the night, after having boon clear, becomes 
 cloudy, though there be no change with respect to calmne.«s, a rise in the temperature of the 
 glii;:s always ensues. In clear nights the temperature always falls, but, unless the air be 
 siitticiently moist, dew does not necessarily follow ; from which it is evident, that the cold 
 cannot bo the etTect of dew. For a more particular account of these interesting phenomena, 
 we must refer the reader to Dr. Wells's elegant Esuay on Dexo. 
 
 Clouds. The various forms of clouds were first successfully attempted to be arranged 
 under a few general modifications by Mr. Luke Howard, and published in the 16th and 17th 
 vols, of the Philosoph. Magazine. The modifications of clouds is a term used to express the 
 structure or manner of aggregation, in which the influence of certain constant laws is suf- 
 ficiently evident amidst the endless subordinate diversities resulting from occasional causes. 
 Hence the principal modifications are as distinguishable from each other, as a tree from a 
 hill, or the latter from a lake; although clouds, in the same modificntion, compared with 
 each other, have often only the common resemblance which exists among trees, hills, and 
 lakes, taken generally. 
 
 There are three simple and distinct modifications, which are thus named and defined by 
 Mr. Howard: — 
 
 (1.) Cirrus. A cloud resembling a lock of hair or a feather. Parallel, flexous, or diverg- 
 ing fibres, unlimited in their extent or direction. 
 
 (2.) Cumulus. A cloud which increases from above in dense convex or conical heaps. 
 
 (;J.) Stratus. An extended continuous level sheet of cloud, increasing from beneath. 
 
 There are two modifications which appenr to be of an intcrmediiitc nature: these are — 
 
 (4.) Cirro-cumHlus. A connected system of small roundish clouds, in close order or 
 contact. 
 
 (">.) (Vrro-strnlns. A horizont-.l or slightly inclined sheet, attenuated at its circumference, 
 concave downward, r undulated. Groups or p;ifches have tliese characters. 
 
 There are two modifications which exhibit a compound stnicture, viz.: — 
 
 ((].) (:umuln-.<itni,lus. A cloud in which the structure of the cumulus is mixed with that 
 nf thii rirro-slralus or cirrn-rumulus. The cumulus flattened at top, and overhanging its 
 1)3 so. 
 
 (7.) Mimbus. A dense cloiirl spreading out into a crown of cirrus, and piissing beneath 
 into a shower. 
 
 Regiinliiig the mode in which clouds arc suspended in the air, philosophers are not agreed. 
 About the commencement of the lust century, if wa'^ supposed that the aqueous particles of 
 clouds were in the form of liollow slinlls, specilically lighter than the air in which they float. 
 Rut as no evidence or probiiliility CDuld bi> adrluced in fiivour of this theory, it has given 
 place to other speculations ; -md, at oresent, iii;my consider the suspension of clouds as nn 
 electrical phenomenon. On attentively observin<r the forms of clouds, it will be found that 
 they have a tendency to ns-iMTie one or other of the seven distinct modifications above men- 
 tioned ; the pectiliiir charactiTs of which mav be discovered in all the endless configurations 
 exhiliited liv cjnnds under difl'cr'Mit cirrumst:incn-;. It niay be (iliserved llirthcr, that the 
 most indefinite and shapeiess miLsses of clouds, if attentively watched, will sooner or later 
 show a tendency to assumt^ the form of some of these mollifications; a circumstance which 
 sliows not only their distinct nature, but al.^ii proves that there are some geiierMl causes, as 
 yet undiscovered, why a(|U( ous vapour, suspended in the air, sho'ild assumi; certain dilir-able 
 and constant modifications. 
 
 A more minute description of the formntion and changes of the clouds, and of the 
 pro;rnostics of the werither to be deduced from their peculiar appearances, shall now be 
 attempted. 
 
 The cirrus or curl-cloud* may he distinguished from every other by the lightness of its 
 nature, its (Ihrous structure, and the great and perpetually changing variety of figures which 
 it presents to th" eye. It is gi'nerallv the iiiost (devated of clouds, occupying the higher 
 regions of the atmos[>here. As this cloud, under dilVerent circumstances, presents consider- 
 
 •Tliia, mid x\\o nttiiT ailililidnil tPriiiH whirli tiill'tw. have Ivvu proposi'd as Kiiylish n.iiiies hy Dr. TtioniBX 
 Korstpr. 
 
RT 11. 
 
 though 
 
 bright 
 liation, 
 1 thoso 
 part, of 
 ^posited 
 lun the 
 
 In thn 
 pfore it 
 ivhich it 
 r cooled 
 becomes 
 re of the 
 e air be 
 the cold 
 ;nomena, 
 
 arranged 
 and 17th 
 press the 
 A's is suf- 
 al causes, 
 ce from a 
 inred with 
 hills, and 
 
 iefmed by 
 
 or diverg- 
 
 l heaps, 
 jnealh. 
 psc are — 
 io order or 
 
 umference, 
 
 d with that 
 lianging its 
 
 ng beneath 
 
 |not agreed. 
 KirticlcR of 
 tlipy float. 
 It has given 
 louds as nn 
 fo\md that 
 tibnvc men- 
 ifiSTurations 
 ir,"thnt the 
 or or later 
 knco whicli 
 ll cniisos. as 
 lin lie finable 
 
 Innil of the 
 now bi> 
 
 ■tiu'ss of its 
 liiroa which 
 jfho higher 
 Its consider- 
 
 BooK II. 
 
 METEOROLOGY. 
 
 179 
 
 Ly Dr. ThoniBi 
 
 abl<! varieties of appearances, it will be jiroper to consider these separately, with reference 
 to the particular kind of wcatlier in wliich they prevail. After a continuance of clear fine 
 weather, a wliitisli line of cloud may often be observed at a great height, like a white 
 thread stretched across the sky, the ends seeming lost in each horizon : this is often the first 
 indication of a ciiange to wet weather. To this line of cirrus, others are added laterally, 
 and souicliiiios, as it were, propagated from the sides of the line in an oblique or transverse 
 direction ; the whole iiaving the appearance of net-work. At other times the lines become 
 gradually denser; descend lower in the atmosphere; and, uniting witii others below, pro- 
 duce rain without o.xtiibiting the above-montioned transverse reticulations. The above- 
 described varieties of cloud, though composed of straight lines, are ranged under the general 
 head of ciirus, from tiieir resemblance to this cloud when it appears under ci ived and con- 
 torted forms. The comnid cirrii/t, popularly known under the nsjne of the grey mare's tail, 
 is the proper cirrus. It somewliat resembles a distended lock of white hair, or a bunch of 
 combed wool, and from this it got the name comoid. It usually occurs in variable weather, 
 and is reckoned a precursor of wind and ruin. In changeable weather it varies considerably 
 in a low hours; but when the fibres have a constant direction to the same point of the com- 
 pass for any considerable time, a gale of wind generally springs up from that quarter. 
 During warm changeable weather, when there are light breezes of wind, long and obliquely 
 descending bands of cirrus are often observed in the air, and sometimes seem to connect 
 distant clouds. Frequently, by means of the interposition of these cirri between a cumulus 
 and some other cloud, as, for instance, cirro-stratus, the cumulo-stratus, and ultimately the 
 nimbus or rain-cloud, is formed. The cirrus, when attentively examined, is found to be in 
 constant motion, not merely chang.ng its form, but often exldbiting an internal commotion 
 in the substance of the cloud, especially in the larger end of it. Every particle seems alive 
 and in motion, while the whole mass scarcely changes its place. This motion, on a minute 
 examination, often appears to consist of the fibres which compose l;ie cirrus, gentiy waving 
 to and from each other; froiiuently, however, it seems like minute specks all in commotion. 
 This takes place more firequently in those large and lofty cirri, with rounded heads and 
 long pointed tails, so coiimion in dry winds during summer and autumn. 
 
 The formation of the cumuhis is best viewed in fine settled weather, about sunrise 
 or a little after. Small specks of cloud are seen here and there in the atmosphere. These 
 seem to be the result of small gatherings of the stratus or evening mist, which rising in the 
 morning grows into small masses of cloud, whilst thn rest of the sky becomes clearer. About 
 sunrise these clouds increase; two or more of them unite, till a lorge cloud be formed, which, 
 assuming a cumulated nnd irregularly hemispherical shape, has received the name ofciimvhts 
 or slacki'ii-cloud. This i.- ".-iperly the cloud of day, as it usually subsides in the evoninp; 
 by retracing the steps of its Ibrmution in the morning. It separates into small fragments 
 and evaporates, giving place to the stratus or fiill-cloud, which is therefore styled the cloud 
 of night. 
 
 Some varieties in the forms of the cumulus deserve particular notice, as they are sup- 
 posed to be connected with electrical phenomena. The hemispherical form is more perfect 
 in fine than in changeable weiithcr. When such well-formed ciunuj^i prevail during many 
 successive days, the weatlier is settled, and the electrometer pretty feteady in its indications. 
 They are wliitish coloured, and when op|K)sed to the sun reflect a silvery light. Cunuili 
 whicii occur during intervals between showers are more fleecy, and variable in form and 
 colour. Sometimes tliry are blackish, and may at any time increase till they obscure the 
 sky, or assume the fiirm of the twain-cloud or cumulo-stratus. 
 
 The stratus or fall-cloud comprehends fogs, and all thoso creeping mists which, towards 
 evening, fill the valleys, and disappear in the morning. The cmnuli which have prevailed 
 during a hot summer's day decrease towards evening, and hy degrees there is formed a 
 white mist near the ground, increasing in density till midnight or even till morning, and 
 generally disappearing aller sunrise, [n autimm, this cloud sometimes lasts lonj er in the 
 morning. In winter it becomes still nion; dense, and sometimes continues a wlm •• liay or 
 many successive day.s. A remarkable instance of this occurred in .January, 1814. >chen a 
 dense fog provaileil tor about a fortui<rht, extending over a great part of the south a. i west 
 of England. It was particularly felt at l.ondon, where tlie stagnation and subsidein'C of 
 the smok<! more than doubled the dismal visitation. The stratiis is often jxisitivt^ly electrified, 
 and its component parts ilo not wet loaves or oth' r substances connected with the eartli. 
 On this, however, it may bo remarked that dry liolios, wliich continue warmer than the fog, 
 must remain dry on the ordinary principles of evaporation. The stratus may be distin- 
 guisiied from some varieties of cirro-stratus which re.^omble it, by the circumstimce that the 
 latter wets every object it alights on. 
 
 The cirro-cumulus or sotider-cloud is ."iuhioct to some vari.itions in the size and figure 
 of the orbicular ma.ssos of which it is composed, and in their distances from each other. 
 About the time of thunder storms, the component part-, are denser in their structure, rounder 
 in their form, and closer tojirothcr than usual. Thi3 tias l«en frequently noticed by jwois as 
 
 'l iP 
 
 
 i!r 
 
 .^. I 
 
Itl. 
 
 ISO 
 
 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAl'IIV. 
 
 PabtII 
 
 t 
 
 a progfiiostic of tliunder and tcin|H>stuoii8 weatlier. In rainy cliangcable woatlier, this cloud 
 has a li{,'ht fleecy texture, and is very irreffular in tiio Ibnn of its component [Kirtw; so tliatit 
 then approachea to Hio form of tlio cirro-stratiiH. Sometimes, indeed, it Lonsists of iwheciilte, 
 so Bniall and litfht colonrod us to be scarcely discernible. In fnio summer weather, the cirro- 
 cumulus is neither so dense as the stormy variety, nor so light as tiie one last (lcscril)cd ; itH 
 parts vary in size, and in tiieir proximity. During line dry weather witli light breezes, small 
 detachmentu of cirro-cumulus rapidly form and subside, which do not lie in one plane ; but 
 their arrangement is commonly horizontal. The cirro-cumulus sometimes commences in the 
 clear sky. At other times tiie cirrus, tlie cirro-strntus, or some other cloud, changes into 
 cirro-cuimilns, and vice vcmd. In summer, tliia cloud forebodes heat: in winter, the break- 
 ing up of frost, and mild wet weatlier. 
 
 The cirro-stratus is remarkable for its shallowness, compared with ita horizontal extent; 
 80 tlin.t when any otiier cloud assume.^ this form, it seldom fails to end in a cirro-stratus. 
 This cloud is constantly changing its form, and gradually subsiding ; hence it has been 
 called the wane-doud. There are many varieties in its Hgure; sometimes it is disposed 
 in waving bars or streaks, varying almost infinitely in size and sliapc. A flat horizontal 
 clo'id, consisting of such streaks, frequently occurs during changeable summer weather; its 
 bars are generally confused in the middle, but more distin<;t towards the edges. A variety 
 ot this Evrl constitutes what is called the mackerel-back sky. It is ollen very high in tlie 
 atmornheic, n: is proved from its still appearing high wlien viewed from the top of a lofly 
 Piouotain. The cumulus, on the contrary, may be seen on a level with, or even lower than, 
 th'^ observer. The cirro-stratus often appears in the form of a long plain streak, tai)ering 
 >v/n'cis >)i.- extremities. Sometimes sucii a figure seems to alight on the cumulo-stratus ; 
 futid, )• . \L jse cases, the density of the latter inci eases in proportion as the former alternately 
 app "irs and evaporates again on its summits. The usual result is the formation ot' the 
 nin 'ins, and a fall of rain. Another principal variety of the cirro-stmtus consists of sii\all 
 c ws of little clouds, curved in a peculiar maimer : it is called the cymoid cirro-stratus, and 
 ', 'i sur-j indication of approaching storms. The last variety of this cloud which we shall 
 now notlt >. is that large and shallow veil of cloud which covers a large portion of the sky, 
 pfir'ituliirly towards night, and through whicli tiie sun and mixni are indistinctly seen. 
 Tho.se peculiar refruclioiis of the light of these luminaries, called halos and mock suns, 
 ucually app«;ar in tliis clou<l. These are the most certain signs, yet known, of approaching 
 rain or snow. 
 
 The cumiilo-siratus or twain-cloud is a stage towards the production of rain, ond is fro- 
 iiucntly formed in the following manner: — The c;;miiliis which usually passes along in the 
 wind, seems retarded in its progress, grows (l('ii.--er, spreads out laterally till it overhangs 
 the base in dark an<l irregular jirotuberanees. This change often takes place in all the 
 cumuli which are near to each other; their bases unite, whilst the superstructure remains 
 asunder, r"sing up like so many iiiountain summit.-', or mnssps of rocks. The cumulo-sfniti, 
 in which .mil showfis and thunder .storms occur, look extremely black and menacing before 
 the rain commence Sometimes the eunuilo-stratus evaporates, or changes again to tamulus, 
 Imt it oftener ends m the nimbus and rain. 
 
 The nimbus remains to be described ; a cloud whicli always precedes the fiill of rain, 
 snow, or hail. Any of the others idiovo described may increase so much as to oliscure the 
 sky, without ending in rain, hetoro which the peculiar characteristic of the rain-cloud may 
 always be distinguishiMi, Tho best way of obtaining a clear idea of the formation of the 
 nimbus or rain-cloud is to observe a distant shrvver in profile, from its first formation to its 
 fill in rain. Tho cumulns seems first arrested in its progrci=t' : ^licn a cirrus or cirro-.stratiis 
 may appear 'o alight on the top of it. The change to cumulo-stratus then goes on rapidly ; 
 and this cloud, increasing in dens, y, assumes that black and threatening aspect which i,-^ a 
 known indication of rnln. This hlackne.ss is sroin clinngod for a more gray obscurity; find 
 tiiis is the criterion of the nctiinl (orination of rain drops, which now liegin ^) tall, while a 
 cirriform crown of fiiiies extend- .Vom t! r upper jwitsof tho clouds, and small ciimnli 
 enter into the under jiart. .\tV', t.u" shower has spent itself the different modifications 
 appear again in their .several sti!ii.;.is: the cirrus, the cirri)-stratiis, or perhaps the cirro- 
 cumulus, ap|»ear in the ii])per regi Ills ot the air; wliile tlii- remaining piTt of the broken 
 nuiihus assumes the tniin of llocI;y I'ir.iiili, and sails aloKg in the lower current of wind. The 
 reappearance of large riininlo-strati inilL^iites a return of the rain. In showery weatlier, tiie 
 alternate formation luid (iestriiffinn of rain-.-loiids goes on rapidly, ami is attended by the 
 other inodifications in siu'ce.ssion, as above described. From its connexion with local 
 showers, the iiiiiibiis is distinguished almost exclusively by bearing in its broad field of sable 
 the 111 nours of the rii.idm'.i. 
 
 Rain. The<iries of rain have been timnded on the alxwe observations. Since, as already 
 mentioiii'i. ii greater (|uantity <>f moisture can exist in a giv o spiic'^ as the temnerature is 
 higher, it is plain that there is a certain temperature at winch air containing some moisture, 
 will just be saturated, and which is called the point of deposition, or the dewing point ; ffir, 
 
Hook II. 
 
 if WETEOUOIOGY 
 
 ^■i"f ■ ■■tro mostly on tl.";., ".,"V""r'7' ""■^" "'<' ■-im>'n,Nv'i' '"''•' ,^"''l''''''' ''y the 
 
 ■ 1« '"^^•'''""'^^'••'^■•-■'^"''-". table, show.^ 
 
 s.^^ 
 
 liM 
 
 I J'I'l! II 
 
 .,' I 
 
'%i<il, 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 Iff ' J I 
 
 162 
 
 SCIENCE OF GEOCJRAPIIY. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 the menn moiidily iind (iniiiml quuiititioa of rain wliicli Imvu fallen at several placen, beinff 
 the average for imi!iy years : — 
 
 Jnniinry.. . 
 Fi'liniiiry . . 
 
 Miirch 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 Jrinc 
 
 July 
 
 Aiiuust . . . 
 Heptcmber 
 (October . . 
 Nnvciiilior 
 Ucc'uiiilicr 
 
 V 4 
 
 Is 
 
 Inch. 
 
 3.:iiu 
 
 2.0!tH 
 
 sunt 
 
 2H:i5 
 ■iMS 
 ;i.tl!l7 
 
 :).(i(i5 
 
 :i.!hW 
 
 n.stw 
 
 3G.140 
 
 Inch. 
 
 a. 177 
 
 1.H47 
 
 152;) 
 
 3.IU4 
 
 a..'i73 
 
 ■Mm 
 ;).:iii 
 
 3.1154 
 3.T.'4 
 
 :un 
 
 3.28H 
 
 34.I1H 
 
 9 n 
 
 *:•• 
 
 Inch. 
 2.1W 
 1.1)52 
 1.322 
 2.07rt 
 2.llri 
 
 3.UUII 
 2.435 
 2.2*1 
 3.0711 
 2.(i34 
 2.SI>M 
 
 i 2 
 
 5a I «a 
 
 Inch. 
 3.41)1 
 S.IIUS 
 1.753 
 S.1H0 
 2.4I)(I 
 2.512 
 4.110 
 45H1 
 3751 
 4.151 
 3 775 
 3.1)55 
 
 27.U04 ' 3U.714 
 
 Inch. 
 S.2ii!i 
 5.1'.><l 
 3.151 
 2.UHII 
 3.4HO 
 2.722 
 4.il.V.) 
 5.0X1 
 4.H74 
 5.4311 
 4.7H5 
 ti.OlM 
 
 53.IM4 
 
 ax 
 
 Jr. 
 
 Inch. 
 3.li'.)5 
 2.H:t7 
 2.11)4 
 2.017 
 2.5«rt 
 2.1174 
 \\>iM 
 3.1im 
 
 4.350 
 
 4.143 
 
 3.174 
 
 3.142 
 
 sii.oia 
 
 _51f_ 
 
 Inch. 
 1.5115 
 1741 
 MM 
 «.ll71t 
 1.1)41 
 1.343 
 2.303 
 2.7411 
 l.t)17 
 2.2117 
 
 i!rK)4 
 i.ipfi 
 
 2i.3;n 
 
 
 .2 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?>< 
 
 «> 
 
 
 Jg 
 
 o-a 
 
 >% 
 
 Inch. 
 
 I'r. Inch. 
 
 Fr. Inch. 
 
 1.41)4 
 
 1.22rt 
 
 2.477 
 
 l.'i'.0 
 
 1.2:t2 
 
 1.71I0 
 
 1.172 
 
 l.lliO 
 
 1.1127 
 
 1271) 
 
 1.IK5 
 
 2.I)MI 
 
 1.1)3(1 
 
 1.7117 
 
 2.1131 
 
 i.rw 
 
 1.11117 
 
 2.5()2 
 
 2.44H 
 
 l.i-OO 
 
 i.ma 
 
 1.H07 
 
 l.WKI 
 
 2347 
 
 1.H42 
 
 1.550 
 
 4 140 
 
 2.0112 
 
 1.7HI 
 
 4.741 
 
 2.'.'22 
 
 1.7!0 
 
 4.1B7 
 
 1.7311 
 
 l.liOO 
 
 2.3117 
 
 20.(18U 
 
 laiHlt ; 33.1177 
 
 The depth of rain, accordincf to Humboldt, at the latitudes of 0°, 10°, '15°, and 0()°, is, 
 respectively, 90, 80, 29, and 17 inclies. In the torrid zone, a small thick rain falls almost 
 every day on that side of the e(iuator where the sun is ; but it generally intermits during the 
 nigiit. In many places, there are two wet and two dry sea.sons in the year ; and in some 
 regions, from the effect ef the mountiiins and peculiar winds, places under the same iwrallel 
 have tlioir wet and dry seasons at opposite pericxhs. Tiioiigh the ainiual deptii of rain be 
 greatest toward the e(iuator, the number of rainy days increases with the latitude. 
 
 A(iucous meteors, so essential to vegetation, have their salutary effi^cts modified by the 
 chemical quuUlirs of the moisture in the atmosphere. The salt rain and dew of the vicinity 
 of the Caspian Sea, owing to the vapnirs which arc (exhaled from tlio soil, jirobably contribute 
 to tliose saline efflorescences which are said to lie gradually overspreading the once fertile 
 Boil of Persia. The salt fogs in tlie west of Jutland are very injurious to the foliage of 
 trees, without being hurtful to the grass. Rain has also been known to be impregnated with 
 sulphur, and with various substances approaching to that of animal and vegetable matters. 
 Some of these communicate to tiie rain a peculiar colour, as that of blood, &,c. On the 
 other iiiind, togs occur in which little or no moisture is present: sucli are called dry fogs ; 
 and are supiwsed to bo the vapours and ashes i>jected by volcanoes, and diffused in the 
 atmosphere by the winds. Their occurring about the time of great eruptions strengthens 
 this conjecture. 
 
 lllacifrs. Ice and snow absorb a large portion of heat during liquefaction, which they 
 give out again on freezing; for, in the ordinary process of nature, water does not cool below 
 ;W° r. till the whole be frozen; nor docs its temperature rise above that jioint, while in 
 contact with Ici? or snow, — that is, till the whole be melted. Tiiis property has an important 
 effect on the temperature of snowy districts. It retards and often prevents tiie occurrence 
 of e.xtromo cold, and it opposes a sudden rise of temperature above the freezing point. The 
 cold in the at'.iosphere, as was formerly stated, continually increases with the elevation ; 
 and, at a certain height, depending on the climate or latitude, perpetual frost prevails. 
 Where the earth's surface attains this heiglit, it is, with the exception of some steep or ver- 
 tical cliffs, continually covered with .«now. The snow acquires new additions from time to 
 time ; for, though it may melt slowly from the heat of the ground on wiiich it rests, yet it 
 suffers little decay externally, ('xccpt what the air carries off by evaporation. The wamifh 
 of the .solar rays may soften it a little, but this only tends to its farther coasolidation. Masses 
 of this sort are called glaciers. By accumulating in the manner just mentioned, they often 
 become top-heavy, or a(,'([iiire such an enoriiious weight as to break their hold, or crush theii 
 lowiT jiarts, which are besides liable to be undermined by the w'armth of the mountain on 
 wliici) they rest. Ilenco it not uufrecmcutly hai)pens, that huge masses of ice or coiiglo- 
 merat'd snow slide or roll down tliii sides of mount liiis, transporting, iicrliaps, large .stones or 
 rngiiK'iils of rock-! til uliirh they had aillicrfd, or wliieli iiiul lieeii .separated from their bods 
 by till' agi'iicy of the weather. Detached glai'iers otlon de.sceml into districts having a 
 mean teniiierature coiisidcnibly above the midting point of snow. Hut so great is the heat 
 consiiMied in lii|ri'tying such huge iiin.sses, that years may elapse before they entirely dis- 
 appi'.ir; ami iliiriiii;- liiat interval others descend; and so on continually. So that the limit 
 of perpetual .~iiow may be tiiunil in a climate where little snow falls from the clouds. When 
 glaciers di'.-coiiil into the sea, and particularly whi'n detaclwil and lloiting, they are termed 
 icrhi nrs. 
 
 'i'lie siiow-liue, or lowi'r limit in iiiountains rnvereil with perpetual snow, de.scends in 
 winter ami rises again in summer. Uml'T the equator, this change is scarcely percejjtib't 
 
IRT 11. 
 
 I, ho'mft 
 
 1.1 00°, is, 
 lUa almost 
 luring the 
 id in Bome 
 le imrallel 
 of rain be 
 
 fieil bjr the 
 he vicinity 
 
 contribute 
 jnco fertile 
 
 foliage of 
 :natcd with 
 )le matters. 
 
 . On the 
 
 dry fogs i 
 isnil in the 
 ilreiigthens 
 
 ll'SCIMllls ill 
 
 liceptib't 
 
 Rook II. 
 
 METEOROLOGY. 
 
 183 
 
 Imt it ini;rfiases with the hititiulc, and in high latitudes the gnow-lino has a great range. Tlio 
 (lirectiou of tlu; prevuili.ig winilr*, with inuiiy ciicuuwtancos tcK) ninuerous to bo detailed, huH 
 each itH clU'Ct. The Bnow-lltii; '\s lower on tlie sides of Mumntiiinx turned from the mm, than 
 on acclivities whicli receive hl^ rays more perpendicular to their surfiicos. Hence it huppenH, 
 that one side of a mountain may bo covered with perpetual wiow, whilst at the same height 
 on the (ipixjsite side it is in a state of cultivation. The snow-line, therefore, de])en(ts so 
 nmch on localities, that no general rule can be given for computing; its altitude. Though 
 oflen employed for estimating tiio heights of mountains, it is a most fallacious criterion. 
 
 Humboldt gives the followmg heights of perpetual snow in dilTerent parts of the world : — 
 Andes of Quito (lat. 1° to 1° 30'), 24(K) toises. Volcano of Purace (lat. 2° 18), 2420 toiscs. 
 Tolima flat. 4° 40'), 2:180 toises. Nevados of Mexico (lat. 19°), 23.'J0 toises. Hinmldva 
 (lat. ai°), northern side, 1950 toises; southern side, 2605 toises. Summit of Sierra Nevada, 
 Grenada (lat. 'M° 10), 1780 toises. Caucasus (lat. 42° to 4^1°), 1650 toiscs Pyrenees (lat. 
 42° 5' to 4:i°), 1400 toises. Swiss Alps (lat. 46°), 1370 toises. Carpathian mountains 
 (49° 10'), 1330 toises. Norway (lut. 01° to 67°), 850 to 600 toises; and (laU 70° to 71° 30') 
 550 to 366 toises. 
 
 Colour of the Atmosphere. That the air has a blue colour, 1ms been conjectured because 
 a distant landscape appears of that cast, which, however, is greatly diminished by a good 
 telescope. Newton ascribed this phenomenon to the greater refrangibility of the blue rays ; 
 and some consider it the etfect of vapour. The appearance of the sky, when viewed from 
 a iiigh mountain, is of a deep blue, approaching to black. But this must be in some way 
 illusory ; because the upper atmusphure is highly transparent, as the heavenly bodies shine 
 with increased splendour. 
 
 Sect. TV. — Luininous Meteors. 
 
 Tlie refraction and reflection of light by air produce a remarkable phenomenon. While 
 the rays of light move in a medium of uniform density and composition, they are straight; 
 but when tliey pass obli(iucly into a medium of a difl'erent density, they are bent or refracted 
 toward the denser medium. Tlie rays of light, therefore, whil.st coming through the atmo- 
 sphere from tlie heavenly bodies, are always entering into a denser and denser stratum of 
 air, and are consequently bent down towards the eartii. The dilfercnt rays suffer different 
 degrees of refraction, according to tlieir colour. Tliut of red is the least, then orange, 
 yellow, green, light blue, indigo, and violet. All solid bodies have the property of reflecting 
 light; and it is probable that all bodies whatever reflect light in a greater or less degree. 
 The clouds and air possess this property. The rays which are the most refrangible, arc 
 also the most easily reflected. NV'lien the sky shines with a fine azure hue, it is by means 
 of the more reflexible rays, which are first reflected from the earth, and afterwards returned 
 by the atmosphere. The refraction and reflection of light enable it to diffuse itself over 
 tlie atmosi)here, illuminating our hemisphere for a considerable time after the sun has gone 
 down and before helms arisen, producing the morning and evening twilight. 
 
 The rainbow is a circular unage of the sun, variously coloured, and produced thus : — 
 The solar rays, by entering the drops of falling rain, are refracted to their farther surfaces, 
 and thence, by one or more reflections, transmitted to the eye. But on escaping from the 
 drop, they undergo a second refraction, by which the rays are separated into their difl'erent 
 colours; and in this state are exhibited to an eye properly placed to receive them. The 
 rainbow is never seen but when rain is falling, and the sun and bow are always on opposite 
 sides of the observer. 
 
 Tlio halo is a broad circle of a variable diameter, sometimes white, but more commonly 
 exhibiting a faint representation of the colours of the rainbow. It appears in a thin cloud, 
 or in a haze, around the .sun and moon's disc. 
 
 The corona is a circular space, full of mild whitish light, around the moon's disc. It 
 soniefinics passes into a yellowish or brownish colour towards the edges. Tliis and the halo 
 are ]K)pularly known by the name o^ burrs ; and the latter is accounted a prognostic of rain, 
 especially when its diameter is large. 
 
 Parhelia or iiwck-suns arc images which appear sometimes above and .sometimes below 
 the disc of the true sun. They arc supposed to be seated in the points of intersection of 
 different liiilos, and to derive tlieir brightness from the union of several reflections. Parhelia 
 are soinotinies surrounded by a whitish border, sometimes by the colours of the rainbow. 
 They are rarely quite circular, and some have luminous trains, as has likewise tiio sun him- 
 self, when near tlio horizon, in the vicinity of Hudson's Bay. It is there, und in sinular 
 cold toggy situatioiiH, tluit parhelia are usually seen. 
 
 M(x-k-nioons or jiaraselena' are of less frequent occurrence than parhelia, but they are 
 generally us<,'ribiMl to a similar cause. 
 
 Luriiinoiis shadows or glories are reniarkalile phendmena, ir. which a spectator sees his 
 .sliiulow projected on a cloud with a luiiiiiums ring, sometimes coloured like the rainbow, 
 (encircling his head. 'J'lic spi"ctator, in such cas(;s, must either be on an elevation, or the 
 rloud niusi be verv low. Tlic siinilow is usuallv of an eiioviiious size. 
 
 i?S 
 
 i: ' 
 
 li 
 
 I'll 
 
 It M 
 
 m 
 
 i '('t 
 
 ■;■■.! 
 : i 
 
 
 
SCIENCK OP GE(XJRAI'HY. 
 
 Part 11 
 
 Lonminff is the tnnii iisnd by KailcirM to ('xl)^l■.^.^ ii niriiniK i)|itic,il ilnci'ptidM, liy which 
 objocts como into view, thoii|rh mntcrially iiltiTiMJ im to tlii'lr n-ul xitimtioii or iMwition. Thr 
 Preiicli (••.ill it iniragr, iiiiil the ItiiiiiiiiH fuia mnrffiinii. It ollfii hii|i|i<ns ut mm, th.ii a dis- 
 tant Hbip iipponrH tiK if |)aiiiteil in the fky, pcrhu|iH iri an inviTicd |Hi!'itioii, mid n-it su|>{uirt('(l 
 by the water. Sunkun n cltH nnd windM apponr iix if mined alune tin' Mirlim'. 'i'li" -J.u'deH 
 lun^r tioarclied in viiin tor un illuHury i.slnnd of tliiM Hort, wliieli llii>y kiw from a di'<tiiiife, iin 
 if plueed between tim ImIrh of Aland and the eoust of Uphiiid. 'I'lie >liippiiiy iiml hi.i'.ilinirn 
 on the shore of Nai)lo» have, troin Mes«inii, HoinetiuieN appeared lloatiriir inverted in llie air. 
 In 179H, the Frenrii coaHt appeared diMtinetly raim'd alxive the sea, llir an hour, as viewed 
 firom the oppovitn shore of Suhho.x. 'J'o the French, whilst inarching in tiio K(ryptian deserts, 
 the sandy plain covered in the distance \n a diMise va()<)iir pnwented the illusive iiiiriifu of a 
 vast lake, towards which thoy hastened, Imt could never roach it, 
 
 The aurora borealis, or northern li)flit, is ii remarkable luminous phenomenon v\hich 
 occurs durinff night, and nioht commonly in clear or frosty weather. It is iinkiiowii in h)W 
 latitudes, and becomes more frequent as wo recede from the eipjutor. But it is lionlitful if 
 its maximum either as to frccpiency or brilliancy bo at the [nde; tor in the late norlii polar 
 expeditions it was seen to the south of the olwerver, wliercan at preater distances from the 
 pole it appears to the north or n little tf) the west of north of tlie spectator. It is usually of 
 a reddish colour, inclininfr to yellow, and sends out frequent coruscations of pah* lisfht, 
 which seem to arise from the horizon in pyramidal nndnlatin); foriri.s, and kIukiIs with i^reat 
 velocity towards the zenith. Some maintain that a whizzing noise acconqmnies tliis phono- 
 inenon, hut this is not very well ascertained. Tlie lijrht appears sometimes remarkably red, 
 ns was the case in many parts of Eiiro[)e, Doc. 5, 17J37. The aurora borealis freipiently 
 appears in the fonn of a luminnus arch, chiefly in the sprinff, and in the autumn of a dry 
 season. The arch is partly bright and partly dark, but penerally transparent. This kind of 
 meteor is almost constant during? the lonjf winter niffhts, in hiph latitudes. Tlie "merry 
 dancers," as it is called in Shetland, afford the inhabitants ffreat relief amid the jjliHim of 
 their lonjy dreary nights. They commonly appear at twilight near the horizon, of a dun 
 yellow, and sometimes continue so for several hours, without nifrfion ; alliTwards they break 
 mto streams of a stronger light, passing into columns nnd innunierahle difl'erent shapes. 
 During this, the colour vnriej from all the tints of yellow to the most obscure russet, e.xhi- 
 biting the most beautiful appearance. In the northern parts of Sweden and Lapland, the 
 aurora borealis is singularly beautiful, and nftords to travellers a very fine light during the 
 whole night. In Hud.son's Bay it ditfiises a variegated splendour sometimes e<iual to that 
 of the full moon. Similar lights were observed by Dr. Forster towards the south pole, but 
 they were much feebler than in ihe nortliern hemisphere. The cause of such phenomena is 
 unknown. Some nscfibc thoiii to electricity and magnetism. 
 
 The electricity of tlin atmosphere is very impert'cctly understood. In storms, the cloiuls 
 usually exhibit trie vitreous or |K)sitive electricity. In summer, when the earth is drv', and 
 the day warm and serene, tlio electricity of the air increases from sunrise to noon ; in which 
 state it continues for an hour or two, and again diminishes, till the dew ap]K!ar. It revives 
 towards midnight, and again decreases till it become insensible. 
 
 The phenomena of thunder are so '..ell known, as to require no description; but no satis- 
 factory explanation has yet been discovered, except that it is intimately connected with elec- 
 tricity, which being itself in a great 'neasurc among the incofrnitii, leaves us still in the 
 dark. Thunder is more frequent as we approach the equator, and decreases as the latitude 
 increases, being totally unknown in the arctic regions. It is a very rare phenomenon in 
 intensely cold weather, and seldom occurs during night in Ihe temperate zones. It is 
 usually attended by heavy showers of hail or sleet, nnd le.'^s frequently by rain. The distance 
 of thunder may be estimated, by allowing IKH) feet fiir each second which elapses between 
 seeing the flash ot lightning and honang thi> rejtort. It is seldom heard at a greater dis- 
 tance than two miles, and only does mischief when vrry near. 
 
 St. Filrno's fire is a faint light which seems to adh.re to the points of bodies carried swiflly 
 through the air. It appears on the tops of ship mastJ, nnd at the points of spears and other 
 warlike instruments when in motion. It is generally believed to be an accumulation of 
 electric matter, A single flame of this sort was called by the ancients IMena. When 
 seen in pairs, thoy were called Cantor and I'ollvx. 
 
 Fire-balls arc those luminous bodies which appear usually at a gre:it height above the 
 earth, and were on that account long known by the tcnn mrtror, which is now npidied to 
 many other aerial phenomena. They present a very imposing appearance, and are seen of 
 an immense size, sometimes red, but oftener of a vivid dazzling white. They traverse the 
 atmosphere with amazing velocity. This, and their great height, have been inferred from 
 their being seen from various distant places almost at the same instant. Sometimes they 
 burst in pieces, or discharge torrents of flames, with a detonation making both the air and 
 earth to tremble. Some of these balls descend like lightning, break through the ri«>*s of 
 buildings, destroy animals, and shutter vessels at sea; in .short, tli(>y an; oflen attendeil witli 
 all the disastrous cfl^'cts of thunder and lightning, with which they are occasionally acroiri- 
 
 I.) » '. i 
 
Book II. 
 
 MKTEOROLOGY. 
 
 18B 
 
 1(1 swiftly 
 Inil other 
 J at inn of 
 Wlien 
 
 IIkivo tlio 
 
 Ipplicd to 
 
 ■ M^on ot" 
 
 [crt^c the 
 
 Irr-d from 
 
 liirs thi\v 
 
 |e air and 
 
 r(in*s of 
 
 Illicit witli 
 
 ly atTOill- 
 
 panifd. Hoiiin consider tlicsn IotIIh to lie ^(rimt iiiamicM of electric matter, pnming from ono 
 place U> tuiother. Utlicra HiipiMMO tlieni to be tlie mine with the iierolitn«. 
 
 AcrolitcH, (ir meteoric ulnneH, have Iroqiiently deNcended iVotn the atincwphere Iroin the 
 remotest anliipiity, llotli the ahovo opiniunH may be in no tiir correct; Inrunie the tlre-bullii 
 exhibit very dill'eri'nt ap|>eiiranceH. I'hiloHopiierM are very nnich divided re^mnlinjf the ori- 
 j(in of nieleiiric utonen. Hom(! imagine them to !»■ I'jected I'roni volcanocH on the earth'n cur- 
 tiice; oIIkth from volcunoeH on the moon. A tiiinl claHS maintain, that they are (lentinited 
 by the ('(iiiiiiiuation and condeniiation of their coin|M)nent parts, previouKly dilliined in the 
 atnl<)^<plll're m the KaseouH form. (HherH allegro, that they are detached stomas inovinj,' 
 throiiiLrii the bonnrllcss rej^ions of H|)ace, and which caHiially conio into contact with onr 
 planet. All tbest' are little else than conjecture, althoufrh their liimmtion in the attnosphere 
 IS tiie most plausible. A numcruus list of the moot authentic falls of such Ixxlies in (riven 
 in Phil. M<iff. vol. Ixvii. 
 
 Falling .ttars are very ordinary phenomena everywhere, but still they belonfj to a class 
 which is not well understood. Near the place of their apparent descent, a fci'tid gelatinous 
 substance has freijuenfly been fiainil, of a whitish yellow colour.* 
 
 The zodiacal lifjlit is u luminous appearance, seen after sunset, or before sunrise, some- 
 what similar to the milky way, but of a tliintcr lipht, in the figure of an inverted cone or 
 ]iyrainid, with it« base towards the sun. Ita axis is variously inclined to the horizon, and 
 makes an anj;'le of nearly 7° with the plane of the ecliptic. The earliest distinct account 
 of it was given by Cassini in IfiWl; but this niTords no ground for suppof-iiig that it had not 
 existed or been seim prior to that date : it is always observable, when the sky is clear, in the 
 torrid zone ; but is more rarely to be found us wo recede from the equator. The season 
 most favourable llir observing it is about the beginning of March: it is much brighter in 
 some years than others, and was particularly brilliant at Paris, 16th February, 1760. The 
 zodiacal light lies in the plono of the sun's equator, and is therefore supposed by some to bo 
 connected with his rotation, 
 
 Sbctt. \.— Winds. 
 
 Winds are currents of air occasioned by the disturbance of the equilibrium of tlio atmo- 
 sphere by the unequal distribution of heot. The general tendency, in such circumstances, 
 is for the heavier columns to di.splace the lighter ; iiiid for the air at the earth's surface to move 
 from the jKiles toward the equator: in consequence of the rotation of the earth on its axis, 
 another motion is combined with the currents just described. The air, which is constantly 
 moving from points where the earth's motion on its axis is slower to those where it is 
 quicker, cannot have precisely the same motion eastward with the part of tlie r^iirface over 
 which it is jjassing, and therefore must, relatively to that surface, acquire a motion some- 
 what westerly. The two currents, therefore, from the opposite hemisiiheres, will, on meet- 
 ing, about the e(iuator, destroy that part of each other's motion which is in the direction of 
 the meridian, leaving nothing but their united motion towards the west. Such is the cause 
 of the trade-wind, as proposed and rejected by Dr. Hallcy : it was shortly after revived by 
 Iladley, and is pretty generally received. The ti'ade-wind (with certain cxce])tions) blows 
 constantly from the oast, between the latitudes of 30° N. and 3(t° S. ; it declines somewhat 
 from due east, towards the parallel to which the sun is vertical at different seasons of the 
 year. The only supply for the air constantly abstracted from the higher latitudes must bo 
 made by a counter current, in the upper regions of the atmosphere, carrying back the air 
 from the eciuator to the poles. In a zone of variable breadth, within the region of trade- 
 winds, calms and rains prevail, caused prolmbly by the mingling and ascending of the oppo- 
 site currenls. High lands change or interrupt the course of the trade-winds: thus, under 
 the lee of tlie African shore, calms and variable winds prevail near the Capo Vcrd islands, 
 while an eddy, or counter current of air from the south-west, is generated under the coast 
 of Guinea. The lofty birrier of the Andes shelters the sea on the Peruvian shores from 
 the trade-winds, which are net felt till a ship has sailed eighty leagues westward ; but the 
 intervening space is occupied by a wind from the south. In the Indian ocean, the trade- 
 wind is curiously modified by the surrounding land : the southern trade-wind blows regularly 
 from the cast and south-east, from 10° to 23° south latitude ; but between 10° south and the 
 equator norfli-west winds prevail from October to April, and south-cast the rest of the year; 
 while north of the equator, the wind is south-west in summer, and north-east in winter : 
 these are called mnnsno7is, but are not fully understood. 
 
 As to the ])arts of the globe that lie beyond the region of trade-winds, calms prevail pretty 
 generally over a narrow space ; beyond which, the region of variable winds extends probably 
 to the poles. Mr. Forster ob.erves, that beyond the tropics the west winds aie most common. 
 He also supjiosi's that east winds have an ascendency within the antartic circle. According 
 to Robins, a westerly wind almost constantly prevails about latitude G0° S. in the Pacific 
 
 h ' 
 
 ♦ PrnfcsBor Hr.nnili'rt. of llrcsliiii, lias |mhliah«il « curious Trcatine on Falling Stars, to wliicli nu may direct the 
 attention of our readers. ,, 
 
 Vol. I. Ifl* Y 
 
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 IMAGE EVALUATION 
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 Hiotographic 
 
 Sciences 
 
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 33 WEST MAIN STREET 
 
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186 
 
 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PabtIL 
 
 Ocean. In Hudson's Bav, westerly winds prevail during three fourths of the year, as also 
 in Kamt^hatka. At Melville island, the north and north-west winds prevail : on account of 
 these winds, the Atlantic may be crossed eastward in about half the time of returning 
 westward. 
 
 Sea and land breezes arise from the same general principle which chiefly occasions the 
 trade-winds: during the day, when the sun renders the surfiice of the land warmer tiian that 
 of the sea, the warmer rarefied air of the land ascends, being buoyed up and displaced by 
 the heavier air rushing firom the sea, and thus forming the sea breeze ; but the reverse often 
 happens during the night, when the surface of the land becomes colder than the sea, and 
 occasions a wind from the land, or a Umd breeze. Winds of this sort are more fVequent 
 about islands and small peninsulas than in other situations ; but they are not confined to any 
 particular latitude. 
 
 A variety of local winds have also been observed. The etesiati, which is a northerly or 
 north-easterly wind, prevails very much in summer all over Europe. Pliny describes it as 
 blowing regularly m Italy for forty days after the summer solstice. It is supposed to be a 
 part of the great lower current moving towards the equator. Another northern wind, which 
 often continues about a month in February and March, is called the omithian wind, because 
 some birds of passage then make their appearance in the south of Europe. A squall, or 
 sudden gust of wind, is common in many places ; and when its impetuosity is sufncient to 
 bear along trees, buildings, &c., it is called a hurricane; such winds have frequently a 
 whirling motion, and are accompanied with torrents of rain or hail, and even thunder ; these 
 are sometimes called (orruulof* .* they are principally confined to the torrid zone. The sirocco 
 is a hot southern wind, known on the shores of the Mediterranean ; when it reaches Naples 
 and Sicily, it is ven moist and relaxing to the human frame. Some warm climates are 
 occasionally visited by excessive hot pestilential winds, generally firom the south, and known 
 under a great variety of names in different quarters, ^ch are the kamsin of Ei>ypt, the 
 simoom or samiel of Arabia and the Desert The deleterious effects, which frequently cut 
 off whole hordes or caravans, are sometimes ascribed to the predominance of one of the 
 component gases of the air, or to a mixture of nitrous gas, &c. ; but this is not well ascer- 
 tained. The very arid state of the air, bearing along vast quantities of burning sand and 
 dust, must of itself be very prejudicial to animal life. The harmattan is a warm, dry, east 
 wind, which occurs in Guinea, and is also of an unwholesome description. 
 
 The velocity of the wind varies from nothing up to 100 miles in an hour ; but the maximum 
 is variously stated by different authors. According to Smeaton, a gentle breeze moves 
 between 4 and 5 miles per hour, and has a force of about 2 ounces on a foot ; a brisk pleasant 
 gale moves from 10 to 15 miles, with a force of 12 ounces ; a high wind, 30 to 35 miles, 
 with a fiiroe of 5 or 8 pounds ; a hurricane, bearing along trees, houses, &c. has a velocity 
 of 100 miles, and a force of 49 pounds on the square foot. 
 
 The force of the wind is nearly as tlie square of the velocity multiplied by tlie density of 
 the air. Some interesting experiments are described by Colonel Beaufoy, Annah PkU. 
 vol. viiL p. 64. 
 
 The atmosphere is the vehicle of sound, and we shall close this brief sketch by noticing 
 this property. Till lately, the velocity of sound used to be greatly over-rated. Prom the 
 experiments of Dr. Moll, in the plains of Utrecht, in 1823, it appears, that the mean velocity 
 of sound is nearly 1100 feet per second; but it varies a litde with the temperature and 
 humidity of the air. See PAt2. 7Van«. for 1824. 
 
 ,^»-' 
 •^ 
 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 HTDROLOOT. 
 
 This branch of natural history makes us acquainted with the various properties and rela- 
 tions of the waters of the globe. Any definition of water is unnecessary ; but mankind must 
 have remarked, at a very early period, that the waters distributed over the globe differ con- 
 siderably in their fitness for drinking, for preparing food, and for other domestic purposes. 
 These differences are occasioned by the foreign bodies which this liquid holds in a state of 
 solution or suspension ; for water is capable of dissolving a greater number of substances 
 than any other fluid. Hence it is scaroely ever found native in a state of absolute purity: 
 in some cases, the quantity of foreign matter is so minute, as to have little influence on the 
 taste or other properties ; but in other instances they are so abundant, as to render it unfit 
 for common use, or even noxious ; while at other times it is medicinal, &c., according to Uie 
 nature of the substances with which it is impregnated. Native water, free from colour, is 
 almost never poisonous, especially if it be at the same time tasteless ; but if blue from cop- 
 per, green from iron, or brown from vegetable iinpregnation, it is unfit for the use of man. 
 Water performs the most important functions in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, ami 
 enters largely into their composition-, as a constituent part. 
 
BookII. 
 
 HYDROLOGY. 
 
 187 
 
 Heiu 
 
 The substance of water presents itself under three different forms of ajrgre^tion. If 
 under sufficient pressure, it is liquid at all temperatures above 82'^, so far as is known. It is 
 densest at the temperature of 40°. When cooled down to 32°, it ordinarily assumes the 
 solid form of ice ; but if great care be taken to avoid agitation, it may be cooled almost to 
 zero, without freezing. Congelation commences in the form of prismatic crystals, crossing 
 each other at angles of 60° or 120°, and the temperature, however low before, instantly 
 rises to 32°. Dunng this process, the mass expands with a prodigious force, the volume 
 suddenly increasing about a ninth part. Glass bottles filled with water, and properly stopped, 
 are burst during its congelation, and the same has happened to a strong bomb-shelL Water 
 passes into vapour at all temperatures, and under any pressure ; when the <!la8ticity of the 
 vapour equals or exceeds the incumbent pressure, the process proceeds with violence, and is 
 called boiling. Under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere, this takes place at about 
 212° of Fahrenheit's scale ; but the boiling temperature varies with the pressure : hence, 
 water boils at a lower temperature on a mountain top, and at a higher in a deep pit 
 
 The relations of water to heat are very remarkable. With the exception of hydrogen 
 OS, it absorbs more heat in warming, and parts with more in cooling, than other bodies do. 
 lence, large bodies of water have a powerful influence in checking or retarding sudden 
 alterations of temperature in the surrounding air. Ice, in melting, absorbs as much heat as 
 would raise its temperature 140°, and gives out the like quantity again in freezing, — a pro* 
 perty that enables it to resist or retard sudden alterations of temperature in cold climates, in 
 a more remarkable degree than the other ; which, however, exerts its influence in the torrid 
 and temperate as wellas in the frigid zone. Lastly, water, in assuming the elastic form, 
 absorbs heat sufficient to raise its temperature 1000°, and parts with as much during re-coiH 
 densing into water; so that water possesses an almost boundless influence in tempering 
 climate. 
 
 Water, as to its composition, was long ranked among the simple elements; but the 
 researches of modem chemistry have ascertained that it is a compound of 88.0 of oxygen, 
 and 11.1 of hydrogen ; or' its composition by volume and weight may be thus stated : one 
 volume of oxygen combined with two of hydrogen, or eight parts by weight of oxygen, with 
 one of hydrogen. It is composed and decompwed, during many of the operations of nature, 
 and its chemical agency is almost universal It is an ingredient in most bodies which 
 appear under the crystalline form. 
 
 Sect. I. — The Ocean, 
 
 The ocean is the origin and fountain of all the other waters which occnr, in whatever 
 form, on the face of the globe. According to some naturalists, it forms the remains of the 
 menstruum or chaotic fluid, in which all solid bodies were originally held in a state of solu- 
 tion, and fVom which they have been precipitated or crystallized, m short, brought to their 
 present state, during the countless ages which these processes are supposed to have occupied, 
 anterior to the creation of man : be this as it may, we are certain, that it is from the vapours 
 exhaled by the ocean that the atmosphere is furnished with sufficient moisture to support and 
 reftesh the organized beings which inhabit the earth. All nature languishes when the 
 atmosphere withholds its rain and dews; plants fade and droop; animals foel their strength 
 failing ; even man himself, breathing nothing but dust, can with difficulty procure shelter 
 from the sultry heat by which his frame is parched and overpowered. The ocean is the 
 grand thoroughfare of commerce, forming a medium of communication between the most 
 distant and otherwise inaccessible portions of the earth. It consists of one continuous fluid, 
 spread round the land, and probably extending from pole to pole. All the gulfs, all the 
 inland seas, form only portions detached, but not entirely separated, from that universal sea, 
 denominated the oceaa Geographers roundly estimate the ocean and its branches to occupy 
 three fourths of the entire surfkce of the globe. But to ascertain the exact proportion 
 between the land and water will afford them ample employment for ages to come, though 
 every day adds to the stock of information already acquired. 
 
 The ocean is variously subdivided by different authors : it may be conveniently divided 
 into five great basins. 
 
 The Pacific, so named from its comparative tranquillity, and often called also the Great 
 South Sea, separates Asia from America. It is the largest of the basins, and somewhat 
 exceeds the entire surface of diy land. Its greatest extent, fVom east to west, is about 3700 
 leagues, and breadth 2700. It is bounded on the east by the western and north-west shores 
 of America, and on the west by the eastern coasts of Asia : on the western side, and between 
 the tropics, its surfece is studded with innumerable groups of islands, all remarkably small ; 
 and consisting generally of coral reefs, rising up like a wall from unknown depths, and 
 emerging but a very little above the sea. These islonds are the works of innumerable 
 minute insects, whose incessant labours are thus gradually forming new lands in the bosom 
 of the ocean. On the western side, it communicates with the inland seas of Japan and 
 Okotsk, the Yellow and Chinese seas ; and on the eastern side, it has the inlets of California 
 and Queen Charlotte's Sound. The small isles of the Pacific, scattered over the torrid zone. 
 
 '<;? 
 
 |-- 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
-«• 
 
 ^> 
 
 i ''^ 
 
 188 
 
 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part 11. 
 
 have their temporature so moderated by the ocean as to enjoy t!io most delightful climate ia 
 the world. 
 
 The second basin, or Atliintic Oceiin, is UHunlly divided into the North Atlantic, und the 
 South Atlantic, or Ethiopic Ocean. The Atlantic is boiuuled on the east by Europe and 
 Africa ; and on the west, by America : that part of it between Eiiniiic and North America 
 is fVe<iuently called the Western Ocean. The Atlantic basin extends from 7((° N. to 35' 
 and 50° S. latitude; but it is only about lialf the size of the I'ucilic Oceau. The length is 
 about 2800 leagues, but the breadth, which is very unequal, varies from 600 to 1800. The 
 South Atlantic contains few islands of any size, and no inlets of consequence ; but the North 
 Atlantic abounds in large islands, and in deep and numerous inland seas, which penetrate 
 far on each side into both the old and new worlds, and have fitted it for the most extensive 
 commerce on tlie globe. On its eastern shores it receives few large rivers except the 
 Niger; but on the west it raceives the Plata, Orinoco, Amazons, and Mississippi, — the 
 largest rivers on the face of the earth. 
 
 The third basin is the Indian Ocean, which washes the shores of the south-cast coasts of 
 Africa and the south of Asia. It is bounded on the cast by the Indian islands. New Holland, 
 and New Zealand : its length and breadth are each about 1500 leagues : it contains many 
 islands, the two large bays of Bengal and Oman, with the deep inlets of the Persian Gulf 
 and Red Sea. The halt-yearly winds called monsoons prevail in its northern parts. 
 
 Tlie fourth basin is the Arctic Ocean, an immense circular basin, surrounding the North 
 Pole, and communicating with the Pacific and Atlantic by two channels; tlie one separating 
 America from Europe, the other America firom Asia. Few points of the coasts of^ Europe 
 and Asia, which occupy a full half of the circumscribing circle, extend much beyond the 
 70t.h parallel ; and it is doubtful if the other boundaries, consisting of the northern coosta 
 of America and Old Greenland, reach nearer the Pole ; so that tlie mean diameter of this 
 basin may be taken at 800 leagues. Its interior or central parts ore little known : several 
 islands are scattered over its southern extremities, the largest of which is Old Greenland, 
 whose northern limit is unknown ; the others are Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, the Isles of 
 New Siberia, those lately discovered by Captain Parry, and several towards Baffin's Bay. 
 The White Sea, on the north coast of Europe, is the only deep gulf connected with this 
 basin, which is of any importance to navigation. 
 
 The fiflh basin is the Antarctic, which is still less known than the preceding : it joins 
 the Pacific in the latitude of 50° S., and the Indian Ocean in that of 40°. Floating ice 
 occurs in every part of it; lint it is very abundant within the parallel of 60°. It was long 
 supposed, that a large continent of land and fixed ice occnpied the greater part within the 
 antarctic circle. In 1819, Captain Smith discovered land lying between the longitudes of 
 65° and 66° W., and beginning at the latitude of 62°. Mr. Weddell has since examined 
 tliia quarter nearer the Pole, which he believes to be free from fixed ice. 
 
 Of the inland seas, the Mediterranean is the largest and most important : it is deserving 
 of notice on various accounts, and in |mrticular as having been the scene of by far the 
 greater number of the nautical adventures of antiquity. It is the " Great Sea" of the Sacred 
 Writings, though we find it there spoken of under other names. Its greatest length, flrom 
 east to west, is about 2350 miles ; and the breadth, which is sometimes small, is at the 
 greatest 650. It is bounded on the south by Africa, on the east by Asia, and on the north by 
 Europe. It communicates on the west with the Atlantic by the Straits of Gibraltar, and 
 with the Black Sea by the Dardanelles Strait on the east. It has many islands, gulfs, and 
 bays, with a very deep inlet on the north called the Adriatic Sea, or Gulf of Venice. The 
 Black Sea is connected with the Sea of Azof; but these containing only brackish water, 
 and being so for inland, have more of the character of lakes than branches of the ocean. 
 Proceeding still farther eastward, we come to the Caspian Sea, which is abundantly salt, and 
 of great dimensions ; but being wholly uncoimected with the ocean, will be aflerwards 
 spoken of under the character of a lake. 
 
 The Baltic is pretty much allied to the Black Sea, in having only brackish waters, which 
 are sometimes wholly frozen over for several months in winter, and the ice so strong, that 
 armies have been marched across. The Baltic communicates with the German Sea by the 
 strait called the Catte^t: its greatest length is 1200 miles. The North Sea, or German 
 Ocean, is bounded by Britain and the Orkneys on the west, and the continent of Europe oa 
 the east ; and reaches from the Straits of Dover to the Shetland Islands, where it joins the 
 Nortiiem Ocean. On the west of the Atlantic are the Gulfs of Mexico and St. liawrence, 
 and Hudson's and Baffin's Bays; butwc must now proceed to treat of the different properties 
 and relations of the ocean, so far aa our limits will permit 
 
 The usual colour which sea water exhibits is a bluish green, of various shades. Some 
 mauitaui, that this is its true and proper colour ; others, that it is an optical illusion, occa- 
 sioned by the greater refrangibility of the blue rays of light, — opinions which may both be 
 true to a certain extent. The ocean seems often to assume various other colours ; some of 
 them no doubt real, but as oflen illusory. Among the more general sources of deception, 
 may be reckoned the a6]K!ct of the sky : tlius, an apparently dark-coloured sea is a commor 
 
 I?' 
 

 Europe on 
 
 I joins the 
 
 iwrence, 
 
 broperties 
 
 Is. Some 
 
 |ion, occa- 
 
 both be 
 
 some of 
 
 Hcccption, 
 
 , commop 
 
 BookII. 
 
 HYDROLOGY. 
 
 189 
 
 prognostic of on approaching storm ; not tliot tlie water thon is really blacker than usual, 
 but because the dark colour of the cloudH indistinctly seen in, or reflected from the waves, is 
 mistaken for the colour of the sea itself. VVImtover other colour the sky happens to wear 
 1)08 a greater or less influence on the appearance of the ocopji ; thus red clouds seem to tinge 
 it red, &c. On some occasions, the edges of the waves, by refracting tlie solar beanw like a 
 priam, exiiibit all tiie diflerent colours of the rainbow, which is still more nearly imitated by 
 the refraction of the rays in the spray. Not unfrequcntly, an indistinct image of the neigh- 
 bouring coast reflected from the ruffled surface is mistaken for the colour of tlie water. 
 
 The variety of colours in the sea may probably arise from animal and vegetable matters 
 diffused through the waters in a putrescent state, and communicating various tints. The 
 yellow and bright green shades seem to be owing to living marine vegetables, which grow 
 at the bottom, stretch their fibres through the water, or spread over the surface ; and it ia 
 supposed that the colour of innumerable minute animals is often confounded with that of the 
 sea. Near the shore, and especially towanls the mouths of rivers, the diffusion of mud and 
 other earthy matters caimot fail to affect the colour of the sea : where it is shallow or very 
 transparent, the colour of the bottom is frequently mistaken for that of the water. 
 
 The colour of the Greenland Sea, according to Mr. Scoresby, varies from ultramarine blue 
 to olive-green, and from the most pure transparency to great opacity. These appearances, 
 he thinks, are not transitory, but permonent ; not depending on the state of the weather, 
 but on the quality of the water. Hudson, in 1607, noticed these changes, and observed that 
 the sea was blue where there was ice, and green where it was open. This, however, was 
 only accidental. Phipps does not mention tlie green water ; it forms, perhaps, one-fourth of 
 the Greenland Sea, between the latitudes of 74° and 80° ; often it constitutes long bands or 
 currents, lying north and south, or N. E. and S. W. Mr. Scoresby sometimes passed through 
 stripes of pale green, olive-green, and transparent blue, in the course of ten minutes. The 
 fooa of the whale occurs chiefly in the green water, and there the fishers look for them. 
 Whales are more easily taken in the opaque green woter than in the transparent blue, be- 
 cause they do not readily see their enemies through the former. On examining the differently- 
 coloured poa waters, Mr. Scoresby found various substances and animalcules, especially in the 
 olive-green water. The number of meduste was immense : they were about one-fourth of 
 an inch asunder. Hence a cubic foot would contain 110,.'J92. From these, and many similar 
 observations, Mr. Scoresby concludes, that the Arctic Sea owes its colour to animalcule^:, and 
 that they occasion the opacity of the olive-green water. The blue water contains few ani- 
 malcules, and is uncommonly transparent. The surface of the Mediterranean sometimes 
 appears of a purple tint. In the Gulf of Guinea, the sea is sometimes white ; and around 
 the Maldive islands, black. 
 
 The transparency of the sea may in many places he very great, without such property 
 being readily noticed. Thus, where the water is sufficiently deep to be dark at the bottom, 
 it may seem quite opaque, unless some fish or other object happen to come within view. 
 Agitation of the surface will likewise tend to conceal the transparency. In general, the 
 sea is more transparent as we recede from the shore, and in cold climates than in hot ; owing 
 perhaps, to the smaller quantity of organic matter difldised in the waters of high latitudes. 
 Prom this, however, there are exceptions ; as in the opacity of the Arctic Sea just noticed, 
 and in the case of the Caribbean Sea, which is often remarkably transparent. Admiral 
 Milne observed the bottom at a depth of 150 feet in the Caribbean Sea. Authors are not 
 agreed to what depth the solar rays penetrate ; and indeed we have every reason to suppose 
 that this must depend upon and be as various as the transparency. Some limit the penetra- 
 tion to a depth of 100 yards ; while others more than double that quantity. The light 
 should surely penetrate to at least double the depth to which an observer can see from the 
 surface. 
 
 The temperature of the sea hos probably a tendency to follow the mean temperature of 
 the climate; but many powerfiil causes must interfere and modify it. Thus, between the 
 tropics, the mean temperature of the surface of the ocean is about 80°, and generally ranges 
 between 77° and 84°. Beyond the tropics, it begins to decrease, but without observing any 
 strict connexion with the latitude ; because, on account of the great specific heat of water, 
 powerfiil currents cannot fiiil partially to preserve, for some time, the temperature of the 
 
 filaco from which they come. Hence, currents from the torrid zone, on passing into higher 
 atitudes, raise the temperature of the sea above what usually belongs to such parallels ; the 
 reverse holds of cold icy currents from the orctic regions. The teiniicrature of the ocean is 
 much more steady than that of the superincumbent air, and has likewise a smaller annual 
 range : unless where very shallow, it hos scarcely any diurnal range. 
 
 The temperature of the sea on desccndin? below the surface generally decreases, but not 
 according to any uniform or known law. Thus, at a depth of five fiithoms, it is sometimes 
 1° colder, while in other instances it requires 100 fathoms for 1°. Sometimes the cold 
 attains its maximum at a depth of 100 fathoms, and sometimes it requires 400 or .500 fathoms. 
 According to an experiment related by Capt. Sabine, the temperature of the Caribbean Sea 
 was 4.5.5° at a depth of 1000 fathoms, while its surfiice was 83°. But the enormous pre»> 
 
 U in 
 
 =*>''& I 
 
.r 
 
 .00 
 
 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PaxtIL 
 
 sure lit the bottom probably comprcsBcd tlie boll of the thermometer, and kept the apparent 
 temperature 45.5° above the truth. In the Arctic Sea, however, the temperature increases 
 with the depth. Mr. Scoresby, who first ascertained this, found an increase of 6.6° and 8° 
 nt the respective depths of I2(> and 73() futhonw; Capt. Parry, 6° at 240 fathoms; Capt 
 Sabine, 7.5° at 680 futhoms; Lieut. Beechy, 10° at 700 fathoms; and Mr. Fislier, 9.6° at a 
 depth (it' 188 futiioms. Thus, tlie rate of increase of temperature in the Arctic Sea has as 
 incoiii^tiint a connexion with the depth as the decrease in the temperate and torrid zones. 
 Sea water freezes about 28°; after which, the ice has been olwerved to cool down to 
 — ar)° ; but we cannot thence infer, that a lower temperature does not occur in the polar 
 reffioiis. 
 
 Tim phosphorescence of the sea is a common but very remarkable phenomenon, concern- 
 ing till! cause of which authors are not agreed. But most probably, as Newton conjectured, 
 it proceed.s from a variety of causes. Since his time, it has engaged the attention of many 
 eminent pliilosopiiers. The appearance of these lights is by no means uniform. Sometimes 
 a vessel, in tniversing the ocean, seems to mark out n track of fire ; while each stroke of an 
 oar emits a light, sometimes brilliant and dazzling, at other times tranquil and pearly. These 
 lights lire grouped in endless variety. Perhaps, at one time, innumerable shining points 
 float on the surface, and tlien unite into one extensive sheet of light At another time, the 
 spectator fancies he sees large sparkling figures, like animals in pursuit of each otiier, inces- 
 santly vanishing and re-appearing. Such light) have been ascribed to luminous animals, 
 and to the phosphorescence of^emiputrescent matter diffused in the ocean. It is well known, 
 that various fishes and other marine animals emit light, which does not in every instance 
 appear to be voluntary, or to depend on the vital principle, as, in some of them, it continues, 
 and p<;rhaps increases, atler death : but motion seems to be either a principal cause, or at 
 least an exciting one ; for this light more rarely occurs, and is much fainter, in still water, 
 whilst it becomes more and more brilliant as the motion increases. It is also more abundant 
 immediately before and during storms. In vol. v. p. SOS. of the Edin. Phil. Jour., Dr. 
 Francis Buchanan has given a very interesting account of an extraordinary shining of the 
 sea, which he observed, JHst July, 17a% in longitude 61° 25' E,, latitude 6° 32' N. " About 
 a quarter past seven p. m.," says he, " the sea was observed to be remarkably white. The 
 sky was everywhere clear, except xiund the horizon, where, for about 15°, it was covered 
 with a dark haze, as is usual in sui ' latitudes. The whiteness gradually increased till past 
 eight. The sea was then as high-coloured as milk, not unlike tlie milky way, the luminous 
 appearance very much resembling the brighter stars in that constellation. It continued in 
 this state till past midnight, and only disappeared as daylight advanced. The whiteness 
 prevented >is from being able to see either the break or the swell of the sea, although botli 
 were considerable, as we knew from the motion of the ship and the noise. There was much 
 light upon deck, as we could discern all the ropes much more distinctly than usual. We 
 drew several buckets of water, in which, even when at rest there appeared a great number 
 of luminous bodies. The bulk of them did not appear to be more than one quarter of an 
 inch in length, and nearly as much in breadth. Some, however, were one inch and a half 
 long, and of the same breadth as the others. These were seer, to move in the same manner 
 as a worm does in water. When taken up on the finger, they retained their shining faculty 
 even when dry. When brought near a candle, their light disappeared ; but, by minute 
 attention, an extremely fine white filament could be observed and lifted upon tlie point of a 
 pin. It was of a uniform shining colour and form, and about the thickness of a spider'd 
 thread. In a gallon of water there might be about 400 of these animals emitting light. 
 The water itself, when in the bucket had a natural appearance. The atmosphere was 
 seemingly free from fog. The stars were bright and there was no moonlight The night 
 before, the same appearance was observed at ten p. m. ; it lasted only 20 minutes ; but as I 
 was below, I did not hear of it till it was over." — " "The animalcules which occasion the 
 unusual luminousness of the sea emit light only when strongly agitated, and hence appear 
 close by the sides of the ship, or when any larger fish passes swiftly, or when a bucket of 
 water is drawn and suddenly poured out" — " In the year 1805, on returning from St Helena 
 to England, a little north from the equinoctial line, and near the coast of Africa, I had an 
 opportunity of seeing a still more splendid appearance of the luminous animalcules. Soon 
 afier dark in the evening, it being nearly calm, we saw numerous lights at a distance, like 
 the lamps of a great city. The lights gradually approached the frigate, and on reaching us 
 appeared to arise from a great many large fishes (albicores) sporting in the water, and agi- 
 tating the animalcules, so as to excite their luminous powers." 
 
 The depth of the sea is a question on which our information is very imperfect, and there 
 is little likelihood that much accurate information will ever be obtained on the subject so 
 fiir as regards the wide ocean. According to the speculations of the late celebrated Mar- 
 quis Laplace, the depth of the ocean is comparatively small, and nearly uniform. If, how- 
 ever, it be recollected that the bottom of tlie sea is still a part of the earth's sur&ce, and by 
 much the greater part too, one would be apt to ask, why that larger part of the surface 
 should be more level than what appears as dry land 1 "The soundings which have been made 
 
??• 
 
 nd there 
 ubject, 80 
 fed Mar- 
 1 If, how- 
 , and by 
 surface 
 ben made 
 
 Book II. 
 
 HYDROLOGY. 
 
 191 
 
 in the ocean are quite inadequate to decide the question. They, however, oflcn uidlcate great 
 inequalities in the depth ; but how far hollows may have been filled with dibri», or asperi- 
 ties worn down, it is not easy to say ; though it is more likely that the Hummits of moun- 
 tains exposed to the alternate or combined actions of air and moisture suffer a more rapid 
 abrasion thiin those which are wholly under water. In general, the slope of the adjacent 
 shore is continued downward for a good way under water ; that is, the sea is usually shallow 
 where tlie shore is flat, while its depth increases rapidly by the side of a cliff or steep moun- 
 tain. It is therefore probable, that some islands, though very small, may be the tops of 
 sub-marine mountains as large, pcrhap, as the highest which occur on the earth's surface. 
 In many instances, no bottom has been found; but this might proceed either from the 
 shortness of the line, or from its being borne aside by rapid currents. We have already 
 mentioned a sounding of 6000 feet in the Caribbean sea; but Lord Mulgrave's line of 4080 
 feet did not reach the bottom of the Northern Ocean. In the entrance of the German or 
 North Sea, at the Straits of Dover, the central depth is 20 fbthoni^. Tiiis extensive basin 
 bontains various shallows and sand-banks; yet, generally speaking, the deptii increases in 
 going northward, and near to Bergen in Norway it amounts to 190 fethoms. A very inter- 
 esting account of the bed of the German Sea is given by Mr. Stevenson, Edin. Phil. Jour, 
 iii. 42. ; aad in the third volume of the Memoirs of the Wemerian Society. 
 
 The level of the open sea is believed, generally speaking, to be everywhere the same ; 
 or to form a portion of the surfiice of an oblate spheroid, to which the surface of the 
 land approaches with less accuracy. Some gulfs and inland seas appear to deviate in 
 some measure from the general rule. This is more particularly the case where the com- 
 munication of such seas with the ocean is narrow ; and there are a few other exceptions."' 
 When the general motion of the ocean or of the trade-winds is directed into the mouth of 
 an inland sea, it has a tendency to raise its level above that of the ocean. On this account 
 it is that the Arabian Gulf or Red Sea is higher than the ocean, and still higher than 
 the Mediterranean, which, from the opposite action of the wind and the great evapora- 
 tion, is supposed to be a little below the general level.f Some gulfs and mland seas, as 
 the Baltic and Black Sea, rise in spring, from the copious influx of river water, and are 
 lowered in summer by evaporation and the efflux at their mouths. Of late years, there has 
 been considerable discussion regarding the subsidence of tlie Baltic below the level it had 
 formerly maintained. Whilst some support this opinion, and venture to explain the cause 
 of the subsidence, others deny the fact altogether. The trade-winds and general westward 
 motion of the ocean force the water into the Gulf of Mexico, so as to maintain a higher 
 level there than on the western coast of the Isthmus of Darien.J The consequence of this 
 accumulation of water is, that it generates a current moving northwards; and which, after 
 various windings through the Atlantic, at length reaches the western shores of Europe, as 
 will be more particularly noticed hereafter. Some naturalists allege, that the debris, or 
 alluvial matters daily abraded by the action of the weather on the surface of the land, and 
 swept into the ocean by the rain and rivers, must, at length, raise the level of the ocean till 
 it cover the whole globe, and restore the reign of ancient chaos. Unless there be some 
 compensating process, which either makes up for the exhausted materials, or gradually ele- 
 vates the entire continents above the water, it is not very easy to guess at an alternative. 
 A compensating power is situated deep in the crust of the earth. 
 
 The taste of sea water is disagreeable and bitter, at least when taken from the surface or 
 near the shore ; but when drawn from great depths, its taste is only saline. It would there- 
 fore seem that the bitterness is owing_ to the greater abundance of animal and vegetable 
 matter near the surface. Man, in a civilized state, cannot make use of sea water as drink ; 
 yet it is said that the inhabitants of Easter Island, in the Pacific Ocean, make it their 
 usual beverage. Some of the lower animals occasionally travel far to drink sea water. 
 Sheep are very fond of licking the dry salt ; and so are horses and cattle. With them it is 
 a cure for various complaints. Several attempts have been made to render sea water pota- 
 ble, or to free it from salt Distillation is the most effectual ; but the expense of fuel is a 
 serious objection to this method at sea, and, after all, it does not divest it of all its bitterness. 
 Thus, in the midst of water, mariners are frequently in danger of dying of thirst, when 
 they run short of fresh water. Sea ice, when melted, aflbrds nearly fresh water ; but being 
 devoid of air, its taste is not very agreeable, though it would be highly prized in time of 
 need. A temporary, and in some degree an imaginary, relief may be obtained, by holdin<^ 
 salt water in the mouth. 
 
 The saline contents of the waters of the wide ocean do not, so far as experience has gone, 
 vary much in different latitudes and under different meridians, although we ought to find 
 the sea fresher in the spaces occupied by the internal limits of the trade-wind, and also in 
 those tracts of the ocean where calms and a high temperature prevail, as on the west coast 
 
 * BIrabo says the level of the Gulf of Corinth i!> higher than that of the Gulf of Cenchreee, 
 t yUt Maclarcn on the level of the Red Sea, in the Edinburgh Philoimphical Journal. 
 ( The mean height of the Fecifie above the Atlantic i> eaid to be 153 feet. 
 
 
 41' I 
 
 i 
 
 ^■^ 
 
 :J 
 
^f 
 
 'm' 
 
 ¥ 
 
 •mmL- 
 
 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PamtII. 
 
 
 Black Bes 1.01418 
 
 While B(« 1.01001 
 
 Biillic l.OlSin 
 
 Lake Oiirmia, in Persia 1.16507 
 
 DumI 8ea 1.11100 
 
 of Africa. The moan is about 3.5 per cent, in tbo weif^ht of the water; but the MtltnesB i« 
 more or loss atfcctod by cunrents and iitornis. It is diuiiniiihed at the surrace during heavy 
 rainH, and by the discharge of rivors; but incroaHed by evaporation, which carries off the 
 water froHh, and leaves tlio salt behind : hence there in often little consistency in detached 
 observation!*. From a great variety of experimental, Dr. Marcot concludes : 1. That the 
 Southern Ocean contains more salt than the Northern, in the ratio of l.()201 to 1.02757. 
 3. Tiiat the mean spcciflc gravity of sea water near the equator is l.()2777, intermediate 
 , >^ l)etweon those of the northern and southern hemispheres. 3. That there is no notable dif- 
 i^^ ference in sea water under different meridians. 4. That there is no satisfkctor^ evidence 
 tliat the sea at great depths is more salt than at the surface. 5, That the sea, ui general, 
 contains mure salt where it ia deepest and most remote from land ; and that its saltness is 
 always diminished in the vicinity of large masses of ice. 6. That small inland seas, though 
 communicating with the ocean, are mucli less salt Uian the open ocean. 7. That tlio Medi- 
 terranean contains rather larger proportions of salt than the ocean. This last is explained 
 from tlie fact, tliat a pretty strong current ftom the Atlantic always flows inward at the 
 mouth of the Mediterranean, to supply, aa was supposed, the water which escaped by 
 evaporiition, and left its salt behind. So great, however, is the influx, that this inland sea 
 ouglit to hiivo become perfect brine, or perhaps to have deposited beds of salt, if there were 
 MO efflux ; and accordingly it is maintained tliat tliere is an outward current at the bottom, 
 very dcc|), which carries off this excess of salt, and prevents its deposition in the vast hol- 
 lows in tiie bottom. The water drawn up tVom this lower current is Salter, in a small de- 
 gree, than at the surface. 
 
 The following are the mean specific gravities of tlie waters of different seas, according 
 to Dr. Marcet'a experiments : — 
 
 Arctic Oci-an 1.02084 
 
 Ncirthrrn Hptniiiplicre 1.02858) 
 
 SniitliKrn llomisplicre 1.02f«! 
 
 Yellow fl.li 1.02««1 
 
 Mmlilcrrniioan 1.02030 
 
 Snit nf Mnrmnra I.OIUIS 
 
 The saltness of inland seas is subject to many varieties. In the entrance to the Black 
 Sea, the wntcr is much saltcr at the bottom than the surface. To account for this, it is said 
 that an under current enters from the Mediterranean. It is well known that there is an 
 outward current at the surface, which brings with it the less salt water of the Black Sea. 
 The saltness of inland seas is often affected by the direction and strength of the wind, either 
 forcing in, or retarding the entrance of, water from the ocean. Accordingly, from the expe- 
 riments of Wilcke, it appears that the saltness of the Baltic is increased by a west wind, and 
 still more so by a north-west wind ; but it undergoes a diminution when the wind is fh>m 
 the east Thus, the specific gravities are, for a 
 
 Wind at W 1.0087 I Ptorm at W 1.0118 
 
 DiltontN.W 1.0098 | Wind at E l.OOW 
 
 Hence, the proportion of salt in the Baltic depends in no small degree on the different winds; 
 a proof that tiic salt is not only derived from the neighbouring ocean, but that storms have a 
 much greater effect on it than has been commonly supposed. 
 
 The constituent parts of sea water have been an object of examination to many chemists, 
 and various sets of experiments made to determine them. The late Dr. Murray of Edin- 
 burgh was of opinion that there were various sources of fallacy in analysing sea water; and 
 that different modes of operating on the same water gave very different results. Two 
 reasons are assigned for this ; viz. that some of the different mlta mutually decompose each 
 other in the process, and that a part is lost altogether by evaporation, especially if the tem- 
 perature be high. According to this eminent chemist, 10,000 parts of water from tlie Frith 
 of Forth, which is not sensibly different from that of the ocean, contain 220 parts of common 
 salt, 33 of sulphate of sodo, 42 of muriate of magnesia, and 8 of muriate of lime. On 
 analysing sea water from N. latitude 25° 30', W. longitude 32° 30', Dr. Marcct made the 
 numbers respectively 266, 47, 52, and 12. According to Bladh, the saltness is greater about 
 the tropics than at the equator. Dr. Trail maintains the contrary ; and also that the salt- 
 ness increases with the depth. 
 
 Ice is formed on the sea, though its saltness enables it to resist the process of congelation 
 at tlie ordinary freezing point of fresh water. This quality does not withstand the rigour 
 of the Arctic regions, where the temperature of the air has been observed so low as 55° F. 
 Sea Wiitrr freezes about 28°, but the temperature varies a little with the saltness. — It is a 
 curious circumstance, that sea water parts with its salt in freezing. Hence compact trans- 
 parent s''ii ico affords fresh water on being melted. When, however, the ice is of a loose 
 Dr celhilur texture, its pores sometimes contain liquid brine ; and therefore, on being melted, 
 it affi)r(l.-! bruckish water. It is supposed to be the affinity between the water and suit which 
 retnnis llic (.■oiinelation of sea water ; because the greater the saltness, the lower is the 
 fineziiijr teinprratiire. Detached masses of ice are occasionally met with, floating in the 
 ocean ut so low a parallel ef latitude as 40° in botli hemispheres ; having been conveyed 
 
 M 
 
xjhemiBts, 
 1 of Edin- 
 ktcr; and 
 Two 
 ! each 
 Ithe tern- 
 Itlie Frith 
 j" common 
 Ime. On 
 Inoide the 
 Iter about 
 \ the salt- 
 
 n<Tclation 
 he rigour 
 L 55° F. 
 [.—It is a 
 let trans- 
 |f a loose 
 
 • melted, 
 lit which 
 Icr is the 
 Ip in the 
 
 Iconveyed 
 
 A-- 
 
 Book II 
 
 HYDROLOGY. 
 
 im 
 
 thither by cnrrnnls from tlio polar regions.* At tho parallel of 50° they are more abundant; 
 and there it is common, in wmtor, to sec tlic shiJlow I'dffcs of tho iea covered with ice. At 
 00° N. latitude, tiie g\i\fy and inland sens are frequently tVozon over their wholo surfliee. 
 As we proceed toward tlio poles, the ice Imcotnes more and more abundant, and of larffor 
 dimensions, till nt length wo come to fidd» of ice, and icebergs or moiuituins of ice. The 
 process of conj;elatioii conmionces at tho »\irfiico of the sea, with the formation of slender 
 prismatic crystals resembling wet snow : this the seamen call tludge. Tho mirfaco is at 
 tirst rough ; but, by the union of the crystals and the accumulation of the sludge, tho surface 
 becomes smootii and forms a continued sheet, which is next broken, by the agitation of the 
 water, into fragments of about three inches diameter; these again coalesco into a continued 
 sheet of u stronger texture, which is in its turn broken as before, but into larver fragment! 
 called pancake ice. Where the water is free fVom all asitation, the congelation goes on 
 more regularly, and some allege more rapidly. During 24 nours of keen frost, the ice fre- 
 quently attains a thickness of from two to three inches, and is soon fit for walking on : it is 
 then called hay ice. When tho thickness is about a foot, it is called light ice ; and when 
 three feet thick, heavy ice. Tlio term feld is given to a sheet of ice so extensive that its 
 farther end cannot be seen from a mast-head. Very large loosened pieces, whose boundaries 
 may be seen readily, are culled Jloes. Fragments of thick ice floating together are called 
 brash ice. Floating ice of any sort, sutRcicntly loose to allow a vessel to pass through, is 
 called open or drift ice. Indeed, there is no end to the terms which seamen apply to dif^rent 
 sorts of ice. The sudden disruption of extensive fields is sometimes produced by that power- 
 ful tendency to undulation of the surface, communicated by the motions of the adjoining 
 liquid surfiicc of the ocean during a continued storm, which is denominated a ground swell. 
 The ice, when thin, merely yields ; but, if thick and little flexible, it is broken with tre- 
 mendous noise. A very interesting account of such a phenomenon is given by a party of 
 missionaries who passed along tho coast of Labrador in sledges drawn by dogs. They nar- 
 rowly escaped destruction ; but were near enouj^h to witness all its grandeur. " The mis- 
 sionaries met a sledge with Efwiuimnux turning in from the sea, who threw out some hint^ 
 that it might be us well for them to return. Afler some time, their own Estiuimaux hinted 
 that there was a ground swell under the ice. It was then scarcely perceptible, except on 
 lying down and applying the car close to tho ice, when a hollow disagreeable grating noise 
 was heard ascendmg from the abyss. As the motion of the sea under tho ice hacTgrown 
 more perceptible, they became alarmed, luid began to think it prudent to keep close to the 
 shore. Tho ice also had fissures in many places, some of which formed chasms of one or 
 two feet ; but as these arc not uncommon even in its best state, and tho dogs easily leap 
 over them, they are frightful only to strangers. As tlie wind rose to a storm, the swell had 
 now increased so much that its effects on t)ic ice were extraordinary, and really alarming. 
 The sledges, insteod of gliding smoothly along as on an even surface, sometimes ran wiUi 
 violence after the dogs, and sometimes seemed with difficulty to ascend a rising hill. Noises, 
 too, were now distinctly heard in many directions, like the report of cannon, from the burst- 
 ing of tlie ico at a distance. Alarmed by tliese irightfiil phenomena, our travellers drove 
 with all haste towards the sliorc ; and us tliey approached it, the prospect before them was 
 tremendous. The ice, having burst loose from the rocks, was tossed to and fro, and broken 
 in a thousand pieces against the precipices with a dreadful noise ; which, added to the raging 
 of the sea, the roaring of tho wind, and the driving of the snow, so completely overpowered 
 them as almost to deprive them of the use botli of their eyes and ears. To make the land 
 was now tho only resource that remained ; but it was with the utmost difficulty that the 
 frightened dogs could be driven forward ; and as the whole body of tlie ice frequently sunk 
 below the summits of tlic rocks, and tlien rose above them, the only tunc for landing was the 
 moment it gained the level of the coast, — a circumstance which rendered the attempt 
 extremely nice and hazardous. Both sledges, however, succeeded in gaining the shore, and 
 were drawn up on' the beach, though not without great difficulty. Scarcely had they reached 
 it, when that part of tlie ice from which they had just escaped burst asunder, and the water, 
 rushing up from beneath, instantly precipitated it into the ocean. In a moment, as if by 
 signal, the whole mass of ice for several miles along the const, and extending as far as the 
 eye could reach, began to break and to be overwhelmed with the waves. The spectacle was 
 awfully grand. Tlie immense fields of ice rising out of the ocean, clashing against one 
 another, and then plunging into tho deep with a violence which no language can describe, 
 and a noise like the discharge of a thousand cannon, was a sight which must have struck the. 
 most unrodocting mind with solemn awe. The brethren were overwhelmed with amaze- 
 ment nt Ihnir miraculous escape; and even the pagan Esquimaux expressed gratitude to 
 God lor their deliverance. "t 
 
 Tho term icvUrg i.s applied to huge masses of ice resembling mountains, whether resting 
 on the land or lloating on tlie sea. The latter part appear to be sometimes formed in the 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 li;Jr ■' 
 
 i. n 
 
 * Horahiireh inriilniiH iccbprgii having been mot with in Sonlli lat.35° M)', nidWest long. 17° 50'. — PkiLMig. 
 f Brnwn'H History uf Die Propagation of Christianity, vol. ii. p. 17 
 
 Vol, I. 17 Z 
 
IIM 
 
 SCIKNCE OP GEOGRAIMIV. 
 
 PabtII, 
 
 •CK itxoir, by tlin accumiilation of ico and riiow ; at other timoH In ho fVn((tnont« of lond icci- 
 ber^rNor)r|ncicni, which have b«3cn pilinj; upon tho i<horo till quite overgrown, nnil ultimately 
 IimIomi fliid launched into tho ocean by their own weight. MoMeii of thiH imrt abound in 
 Uifl'iii'n lliiy, where Iheyaro RomotimeH two miles lonir, ami half or one third an bnmd. They 
 are hriHtletl with variouo Roircs, risinjir, perhaps, 1(N) feet above the surfiice, and doHcf^ndiii); 
 li'ilf iiH much below it. When compact ico flouts in water, the port under tho Nurthct^ in 
 iiliout nine times ns groat os that alxivo it; and hence the icebergs may sometimoH denceud 
 fi) n j;rc:it depth, thouf^h they should be fiir from consisting of very comiMict ico. Icpber),'rt 
 of (in even surface, rising 00 feet abovu the sen, and having on area of five or six sipiari! 
 Miilo", lire very common. Thono of East Greenland are of inferior size, and they aro still 
 sniollor around Spit/.bergcn, where some of enormous dimensions occur on shore. The 
 reason which Mr. Sroresby aNsigns for this is, that, owing to the shallowncfs of tho water 
 into which tho huge moiwuH are precipitatc<l, they are all shattered against tho liottom into 
 a thouHand pieces before they are fairly launchml into deep water. " On an excurBion to one 
 of the Seven Icebergs, in July 1818," says Mr. Scoresby, " I was particularly fortuiioto in 
 witncswing one of the grandest effects which these polar glaciers ever present. A strong 
 north-westerly swell, having for some hours been beating on tho shore, hod loosened a num- 
 ber of fragments attacheil to tho iceberg, and vorious iKiaps of broken ico denoted recent 
 shoots of the seaward odgo. As wo rowed towards it, with a view of proceeding close to 
 its base, I observed a few little pieces fall from the top; and while my cyo whs Hxed upon 
 the place, an immense column, probably 50 feet smiaro and 150 feet high, began to leave 
 the parent ico at the top; and leaning majestically forward, with an accelerated velocity 
 fell with an awful crash mto the sea. The water into which it plunged was converted into 
 an appearance of vapour or smoke, like that from a furious cannona<lin^. Tho noise was 
 equal to that of thunder, which it nearly resembled. Tho column which fell was nearly 
 square, and in magnitude resembled a church, It broke into a thousand pieces. This cir- 
 cumstance was a happy caution ; for wo might have inadvertently gone to the very base of 
 tho icy cliff, fVom which masses of considerable magnitude were continiiolly falling." A 
 huge ina.ss of this sort which fcdl on a RuH,'<ian ship, broke the fore and main masts, xprung 
 the bowsprit, and flung the ship over with siich violence that a piece of ordnance was thrown 
 overboard from under tho half-dock, niid the captain and some of the crew were projected in 
 fJio same manner. Tho captain, however, CBcapcd unhurt ; but tho mate and two others 
 were killed, and many were wounded. 
 
 Icnberg.s variously affect navigation. They are often highly useful by protecting naviga- 
 tors from gales, as well as from the concussions of drift ice, which moves more quickly when 
 acted on by the wind than tho inaswy iceberg. To the latter, ships are scjmetimes moored, 
 hut not without danger; for these floating masses aro sometimes so nicely balanced as to be 
 easily overturned, should they happen to calcli the Imttoin of tho sea. The concussion pro- 
 duced in this way sometimes detaches large firagmcnts; and sometimes the iceberg rolls 
 forward, to tho imminent danger of the ves.sel, though perhaps 100 yards distant, — so great 
 are tho waves and whirls caii.sod by such an occurrence. Many dangers and discourage- 
 ments attend the navigation of tho polar seas : but ttie recent attempts to discover a north- 
 west passage through the Arctic Sou have rendered tho ice a subject of considerable interest. 
 Theso attempts have not yet been crowned with success: but difl'eront navigators have 
 brought such (lifferent«accounts of the state of tho ice, that it is probably vofy changeable 
 and very difficult to examine. It is not qtiite agreed that any navigator has been within 6° 
 of tiic North Polo ; although some accounts pretend to a still nearer approach. Captain 
 Parry, in his last voyage, reached to 82° 45' N. lat. The failure of Captain Cook's attempt 
 to pt<netratc to tho South Pole gave rise to an idea, which has been pretty generally enter- 
 tained since his time, tliat tho South Pole is surrounded with fixed ico to the distance of 18° 
 or 19° ; and a more recent Russian expedition gave .still worse hopes, as they could not get 
 heyond the latitude of 70° S. Mr. Woddoll, however, has since reached 255 miles nearer 
 the pole, and mot with no such obstruction: this enterprising navigator contends strenuously 
 tliat the South Pole must be free from ice, and might be reached by sea. Some of his argu- 
 ments aro rather plausible ; but tho question is involved in so many uncertainties, that nothing 
 less tliO/n actual trial con decide it. 
 
 The expansion and contraction of ice has important effects. Though water undergoes a 
 <rreat expansion in the act of freezing, yet ice obeys the ordinary law of solids, — that of 
 expanding' by heat and contracting by cold. Tiie effect, therefore, of intense cold is to con- 
 tract ice, which, if of largo dimensions, or fixed all around, has no alternative but to rend 
 wlicro it is contracting most. This is ofl<m attended with a tremendous reiM)rt. On tho 
 contrary, a rise of temperature may not only bring tlie parts to meet again, but often makes 
 them lap over, or burst up with great violence.* 
 
 The motion of the waters of the ocean is almost perpetual ; and it is believed, that without 
 
 * TIiP iiinst nntiitfnctnry urcnnnt if the [Hilar ico ia that of Scnrcghy, first puhliMietl in the Memoirs or Ibe Wei 
 neuan Natural Hiatury Society 
 
mTlI. 
 
 id icft- 
 nntely 
 ind in 
 TJipy 
 mid ill); 
 thci^ w 
 occond 
 pboriJH 
 Hciimrit 
 ro Btill 
 . The 
 D water 
 om into 
 1 to one 
 iiiato in 
 i Htrong 
 a num- 
 1 recent 
 close to 
 cd upon 
 to leave 
 velocity 
 rted into 
 oiue was 
 18 nearly 
 TliiB cir- 
 y base of 
 img." A 
 ts, sprung 
 08 thrown 
 •ojccted in 
 wo others 
 
 [i(f navipa- 
 ickly when 
 >s moored, 
 m1 as to be 
 
 j 
 il 
 
 Iderpfoes a 
 I— that of 
 1 is to con- 
 lit to rend 
 On the 
 |en makes 
 
 at without 
 
 |arilieW«i 
 
 Boob II. 
 
 MBTEOttOLOOY. 
 
 19ft 
 
 this provision in the economy of nature the Hoa, in place oftnmporlng and purifying the air, 
 would both hncome putrid and exhale noxinuM vaimurH. 
 
 Wnve». The motions which firMt present themsnlvpH to our notice nro the partial and 
 iiltr>rnate rising and tailing of the surl'aco, known by tho name of undulations or woven. This 
 «>rt of motion is caused by the wind, which, bydiBlod|fing or depressing a certain portion of 
 tlio wiitnrs, has destroyed tho equilibrium or lovol, which they naturally endeavour to recover, 
 Waves in'iy bo cumparod to tho reciprocation of water in a syphon or bent tube. It was in 
 this way that Newton deduced tho velocity of waves, and tho time required to an undulation. 
 If water ascend and doscenil altornatoly m tho legs of a bent tube, and a pendulum bo con- 
 Ntnictcd whose length liotweon tho |viint of suspension and centre of oscillation is e(|ual t.i 
 half tho length of the water in tho tube, then this fluid will ascend and descend during eiicli 
 oscillation of tho pendulum. Hence the velocity of tho waves is as the square roots of their 
 breadths ; the breadth being the di.stanco between the tops of the ridges. In tho same way, 
 it may be shown that tho apparent progressive motions or waves through spaces equal to their 
 breadths are perfonnod in tno times in which pendulums oscillate whoso lengths are equal to 
 those breiulths. I lenco waves, whose breadth is 39j inches, will seem to pass over that sparo 
 in ono second. Waves are scarcely over without progressive motion ; but the real progrens 
 of tho surface of the water is generally small, compared to tlio apparent motion of the 
 waves; as is easily prove<l from any floating body which does not rise above tho surfiice so 
 ns to bo hurried forward by tho wind. Waves are distinguished into natural and accidentnl. 
 Tho natural arc proportional to the strength of tho wind producing them: — the accidontiil 
 are occasioned by repercussion of tho wind from hills and bold coasts, and by tho dashini; 
 of the waves on rocks and shoals. Divers, it is ssid. And tho waters perfectly still at the 
 depth of thirty yards, during the greatest tempest. But this can only be known of some 
 sheltered spots ; for when do divers descend in an open sea during a tempest 1 Waves are 
 always seen rolling towards the shore ; but an obstacle op|X)sed to them becomes tho centre 
 of a new series wnich spreads in circles. Ono sot of waves, however, may not interfere 
 with the motion of another, and they may mutually cross without interruption. Sometimes 
 the ordinary oscillations are combined with a distant swell, called tho bore, which rises 
 impetuous after certain intervals. Breakers, or waves which break against some obstaclo, 
 when formed over a great extent of shore, are distinguished by the name ofmtrf. The surf 
 is greatest in those parts of tho ocean where the wind blows always nearly in the same 
 :lirection. 
 
 Currents. There are two permanent and general sorts of currents in tho ocean, wliich 
 aro supposed to originate in two great movements, — that of tho tropical waters westward 
 round the globe, and that of the pcdar waters towards tho equator. But it is plain that the 
 latter, or polar currents, imply the existence of a Ihiril set, moving in the opposite direc- 
 tion; otherwise the waftrs at the poles would soon be exhausted, together with the ice from 
 which they are partly derived. It is well known that the rain, fog, or snow, which foils in 
 the polar regions, could never supply any perceptible current towanls the equator. The 
 movement of the tropical waters westward is ascribed to tho agency of the trade winds, 
 which, blowing constantly from the east, must impress their motion on the sea to a certain 
 extent But tlie 'resulting current is necessarily modified by the position of the great conti- 
 nents. This grand westerly motion prevails generally between 30° P. and 30° N. latitude. 
 According to Humboldt, its mean velocity is from nine to ten miles a-day. In the Atlantic 
 it separates into two branches, ono of which forms the well-known Gulf Stream. This 
 branch flows northward, through the middle of the Atlantic, till it reaches the Cape Verd 
 Islands : it then turns west, passe'; through tho Caribbean Sen, and the strait between Cuba 
 and Yucatan, winds round the Mexican Gulf, and rushes out by the Bahama Channel; then 
 spreading out to a greater breadth, it sweeps along the shores of the United States to New- 
 foundland. At this point it is deflected south-eastward by a southerly current from Baffin's 
 Bay, and piisaing tlio Azores and Canary Isles, returns in a groat measure into itself, and 
 repeats its circumgyration. The waters of the North Atlantic, between tho latitudes of 11° 
 and 43°, thus form a continued whirlpool, completing a circuit of 3800 leagues in about 31 
 months. Its velocity is greater as the depth and breadth aro less. Its breadth is 51 
 leagues in the Bahama Channel, and velocity from three to five miles an hour. In its 
 retrograde course from longitude 50° to the Azores the bremhh is 160 leagues, and velocity 
 from seven to eight miles a-day. An insulated expanse of almost motionless water, 140 
 leagues in breadth, occupies the interior of tho circuit. This grand current sends off one 
 branch near Newfoundland, which proceeds north-eastward, and sometimes deposits tropical 
 fniits on the shores of the British isles and Norway. In ITTQ, Dr. Franklin traced this 
 current, by means of its high temperature, quite across the Atlantic ; and, since his time, 
 it has been more closely traced, especially by Captain Sabine. A second branch, escaping 
 at the Azores, enters the Straits of Gibraltar, and forms the upper and middle current which 
 prevails in that strait Another branch of the great tropical current sets along the coast of 
 Brazil, and at length passes tlirough the Straits of Magellan. In the Pacific Ocean the 
 waters have a general westward motion from the coast of Peru, which must he partly sup» 
 
m 
 
 HCIKNCE OF aEOORAPIlV. 
 
 ^' 
 
 Past II. 
 
 pliod bv the lut-montionml ciirrunt after iloulilintf Cbin3 Hum. The cnrrpnt fVuin the 
 coRMt ur I'oru M luiiM |)orceptil)l<!, till it vnUin tliu Indiutt (kcan ; wlirn, Htri'iiKthcntvd by tlin 
 iiiirthcrly currontii thorn, it fluwH nioiitf the cuturn cimat of AtVica, atiil (loiiliiox Ihu ('a|)« iii' 
 (i<Niil Hupo, in a rapid utrcuin, \M) niiietf bruud, and from 7° to 8^ wariiKT thiiii tho cunti- 
 KUuuH Hcu. A current fruin the H<iuth I'olu tetii along the wont Mf of Nuw Ilollniid into 
 llio Day of Bengal : it m mipixMod that other portionit of tho gcnurul |)oliir ciirrtMit dvtioct 
 tho great weiterly current northward, atlor it Iiom paaaed theiouthurn proniontorioH of Africo 
 and Aaiorica. In the Northern l)coun, in the ipoco compriHod betwoi-n Ort'cnlund and tlin 
 coostti of Britain and Norwiiy, and between I^abrador and HpitzbvrgiMi, a. gri^ut body of 
 watera, acted on by three or four latenil currentit, in luppoaed to perform a M.-rDotual circuit. 
 Theao watera receive their iuipulne eoHtward Oom a branch of the Oulf Htroam, which 
 nuMoa fVom Newfoundland ulong tiie north-woitt cooatii of Scotland and Norway, At tho 
 North Capo in Lapland, a great weaterly current tVuni Nova Zoinbla tnrni tho watera north- 
 westward along both aidea of Hpitzlicrgun. Beyond thit) iHland, being met by a current iVom 
 the pole, they turn aouth-wcutward, and paaa along the cuant of (irennland to Daviij'a Htraita, 
 where they are deflected tiuiithward by a fourth current from Duflin'H Bay ; and having re- 
 turned to Newfoundland, reconmience thnir revolution. Thua two great whirlpoolH, con- 
 nected with one another, touch at the Bank of Newfoundland, which Mccina to bo a bar cant 
 up by their conflicting watera ; and revolving inHippoMite dircctiona, occupy four-flflha of tlic 
 North Atlantic. The aniall current which euU trom the Bay of Biacay acroaa the mouth 
 of the English Channel, and through St. George'a Channel, Ih moat probably a branch of tho 
 Gulf Stream which had come oflT at the Azorea. Wore other parta of the ocean oa minutely 
 examined aa the North Atlantic, it ia to bo expected that other great vortices would be 
 diacoverod. 
 
 Local or temporary currents are produced bv winds, the discharge of rivers, tho melting 
 af ice, &G. In general, currents which do not duaucnd to a great depth are liable to change 
 with the winda, (nrticularly when they blow for a long time with oqual force, oa the men- 
 aooiu do. These winds give by turns entirely opiweite directions to the currents which pre- 
 vail from the Maldivia Inlands to Arabia and Zungucbar. When the supply of fVcsh water 
 in an inland sea falls short of what in carried utT by evaporation, itx level will have a tend- 
 ency to fall below that of the ocean; and hence tho water will flow into it from the ocean. 
 But, as formerly noticed, a continual influx of salt water, to be concentrated by evaporation, 
 must have a tendency to render such inland hch italter than the ocean ; and the saltcr water 
 being the heavier, naturally endeavours to keep under the lighter, which enters from tho 
 ocean. In this way, it forms an outward current in the bottom of the entrance. Such is 
 Haid to be the cose witli the Mediterranean, as was first hinted b^ Dr. Hudson in 1724. The 
 reverse of all this takes plaoo where the iiupply of fresh water m an inland sea exceeds the 
 evaporation, as is the case with the Baltic, tiie Black Sea, and the Sea of Azof. In these 
 the outward fresher current is uppermost, while the heavier saltcr current enters below. 
 Since the mean quantity of salt brought in must equal what is carried out, if no permanent 
 change take place in the saltncss of tho inland sea, it follows that the Salter current is the 
 rimaller of tho two. However, the weather sometinios produces temporaty exceptions to this 
 general rule. The current which flows into the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar 
 sots along the shores of Africa and Egypt to Syria, where it turns north-westward ; and, 
 joined by the current from the Diirdanclles, it makes the circuit of the Adriatic, then of the 
 coasts of Tuscany, France and Spain, and ultimately returns to the Straits, In the Cattegat, 
 a northern current proceeds from the Baltic along the coasts of Sweden ; and anotlier, a 
 southern current, enters into the Baltic along the coasts of Jutland. In the German Sea, 
 u north current sets from the Straits of Dover along the continental shore, while a south 
 current comes from the Orkneys along the British coast 
 
 Whirlpools or eddies are produced by the meeting of currents which come in difierent 
 directions. These, by encountering in a narrow passage, turn, as it were, about a centre, 
 which is sometimes spiral, till they unite or one of them escapes. The most celebrated 
 whirlpools are the Euripus near the coast of Negropont, the UharybdiH in the Straits of 
 Sicily, and the Malstrocm on the northern coast of Norway. Such eddies sometimes aug- 
 inent their force by means of two contrary high tides, or by the action of the winds. In 
 certain states of the tide, some of tiiem cease altogether ; but they do not fail to make up for 
 this afterwards. Their danger to navigation is well known ; but is, perhaps, inferior to the 
 dread which they inspire. They draw vcs-sols along, and dash thnin against the rocks, or 
 engulf them in the eddies. The wrecks, perhaps, do not appear till some time afterwards ; 
 or, indeed, they may never be seen at all, Tliis has given rise to the notion that these vortices 
 have no bottom. The phenomena and dread of whirlpools have aflbrded excellent matter 
 tor marvellous fables, both to the ancient poets and more modern writers. 
 
 The tides form a remarkable phenomenon, consisting in the alternate rise and fall of 
 the surface of the sea twice in the course of a lunar day, or at a mean rate every 12" 25° 
 14". The instant of low water is nearly, but not exactly, in the middle of tlie interval 
 between two liigli waters. Tho tide generally takes nine or ten minutes longer in ebbin;; 
 
 ■ m 
 
 V- 
 
below, 
 rinancnt 
 
 is the 
 
 to this 
 ibraltav 
 rd; and, 
 n of the 
 attegat, 
 lothcr, a 
 lan Soa, 
 
 a Hiiuth 
 
 different 
 I centre, 
 jlebratcd 
 Itraits of 
 TICS au";- 
 iiidf. In 
 ke up for 
 or to the 
 rocks, or 
 orwards ; 
 \ vortices 
 it matter 
 
 Id fall of 
 12" 25° 
 interval 
 
 I in ebbinp. 
 
 Book II. 
 
 v^ht 
 
 IIYDFIOI/KJV. 
 
 Wl 
 
 than flowinif. At the now ami fUll moon tho tidri attain tlie irrrateiit height, and thn in. 
 trrviil iM'twcni (wii lii;r|| watem in limut, vie. Vi' UY" '.^4'. At the minrtrrH of the moon the 
 tidcHiiri' the h-nnt, and the inturvulH tho Krentiitt, viz. Vi'' 'M)" 7*. I'he time of hi|;h water 
 IN moHily rcvuhtted hy Iho nmon ; and in (jencrul, in the open mta, in from two to thre*- lurtirx 
 allrr thiit plunct jiiinm-n the nieridiun, either uliuvo or under the horizon. On the NhorcN of 
 \urili' ciiiiliiiiMitN, and where tliere itru NhaHoWH ami otntniction*, Kroat irref^ularitieN tiikc 
 phicf III thiNreN|N'rt; and when theNo exceed Nix himrit, it may »eem iin if tho hijrh wnt< r 
 jircfi'di'd the iikioii'n imHMaKe over the meridian. TiiouKh tho tideH neem to be regulated 
 chierty liy the iiiiH)n, they appenr iiImi in a certain dojjree to bo under the inlhience of tlio 
 mill. ThiiN, at the Hvzi){ieH, when the nuii iind moon come to the meridian to|;ether, the 
 tiih'i", I'Vi^ry thiiijf else conxich'red, are the hiifhrnt At the qiiarterN, when the Hiin atnl 
 moon are IN)° drntant, thn tideH are leant. The former aro called tho upriiiff, the latter the 
 . tifiip tiileN, The lii|{heHt of the nprinif tideH in not that immediately atVer the new or full 
 nvH)ii ; hut In hi }(enenil tho third, and in wime caaoa tho fourth. The lowent of tho nenp 
 tiden iM-ciirH much about the name time ntler the qimrteri. Tho total mnpiitiide of the tide 
 in eHtiinateil by the diflbrence between tho hoiffhta of hif|h and low water. The hi^lier the 
 flood tide rlHex, tho lower tho ebb tide ({omirally «inka on the mmo diiy. At Brent, thn 
 medium Nprini; tide in about 19 feet, and the mean neap tide about 0. On other parts of 
 the count of Prance oppoHJte to England, the wateni, lieing confincil, rine to a (jreat hei|;ht, 
 and do so on liotli »ideN of tho Channel, At St. Male it is tVoni45toft()ft>et. Nearly im hlRJi 
 tidoH occur at AnnapollH Royal, in Nova Hcotiii. It in the obNtruction which the land pr^'- 
 Rents to the niotioiiH of tho waterH wliicli occaHJonii tiden of any conNenuence at all : were 
 tho (flohe entirely covered with water, the tideo would be very insiijniticant. ThuR, m the 
 I'acilic Ocean, tlio tiprin|; tide amnuntH only to Ti f<>et, and the neap to from 2 to 2.!S f(>et. 
 On the other hand, a free coimnunicatiun with tho ocean is indinpenHahie, to proilure a hiph 
 tide. ThuH, in inland Hean, the tiden aro very triflin)f, bccaueio the luminarieH act nearly 
 equally over the whole surface at the same time. 
 
 The height of thn tide increaaeH oa the eun or moon is nearer the earth, but in a higher 
 ratio. The riHO of the tides is likewise preater when the sun or moon is in the eiiiiator, and 
 less aH they decline from it When tho observer and thn moon are on the same Me of the 
 C(iuator, tho tide which happens when the moon ia above the horizon \a greater thnn when 
 she is liclow it. Tho reverse occurs when the observer and tho moon are on oppowite pidcti 
 of the eijiiator. If the tides be considered relatively to the whole globe and to the open Ken. 
 it appears thut there isa meridian alxiut IM)" eastward of tlie moon, where it is always high 
 water, both in the hemisphere where the moon is and in the opposite. On the we,it cide o!" 
 this circle the tide is flowing; on the cast it is ebbing; and on the meridian, whicli is iit 
 right angles to the same, it is everywhere low water. These meridian circles move west- 
 ward, keeping nearly at the same distance from tho m(X)n : onlv approaching nearer to her 
 when new or full, and withdrawing at the quarters. In high latitudes tho tides are \'ery 
 inconsiderable. It is prolmble that at the poles there are no diurnal tides ; but there is i-iaw 
 ground tor thinking that the water will rise higher at tho pole to which the luminaries are 
 at any time nearest, than at tho opposite. 
 
 Ti„. r..o..( wave which f illows tho moon as aliove described, and constitutes the tide, is 
 to be considered as an undulation or reciprocation of the waters of the ocean ; in which 
 tJiere is, excent when it passes over shallows or approaches thn shore, very little progressive 
 motion. In all this wo ore as yet overlooking the operation of local causes, winds, currents, 
 &.C., liy which these general laws are mmlilied, overruled, or even reversed. Most people 
 find little ditficulty in conceiving how the waters should rise on tho side of tho globe which 
 is n(!.\t the nuxm ; but there can scarcely be a harder task than bringing many to aeo why 
 the. waU'TR xhoiild at the name lime rise on the side which is turned from the moon. We 
 must, however, confine ourselves to a very brief and palpable explanation. The force by 
 which the moon draws any particle of our glolw towards her is greater when it is nearer to 
 ner, and less when more remote. The force, therefore, with which the moon attracts tho 
 particles on the side nearest her ia greater than the average force which she exerts on the 
 whol(> globe. These particles, therefore, rise or endeavour tf^ come near the moon. On the 
 other hand, the force by which the moon draws the particles which are farthest from her 
 Doing less than the average force, these particles endeavour to recede from the nuxjn, and in 
 80 doing they also recede from the earth's centre ; that is, they rise higher than the general 
 level. The action of the sun is similar to that of the moon ; but his being almost four 
 liundred times as distant, greatly diminishes his effect. At the new and full moon the 
 luminaries act together. an<l (iroduce sprinff tides. The highest of all are a little after the 
 autunmal, and before the vernal, equinox ; and the least spring tides occur a little after the 
 solstices. At the <iuarters of tho moon her action is opposed by tliat of the sun, and there- 
 fore itifip tiiles !ire the result. 
 
 Tho time of liiirh water deserves consideration. The precedin? is suflicient to show that 
 lliei)lioMninena (iftiie tiih^s an; etlects that miirht l)eexp«'cted from thn principle of attrarlion 
 or ii'r:ivit.atioii; l)iil since liie waters iiccessirily occupy some time in moving from one 
 
 */ 
 
lee 
 
 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Pabt IL 
 
 I'll 
 
 it 
 
 ill!! I 
 
 place to another, this is tlic reason why the high water occurs, not when the moon is on tiie 
 meridian, but from two to tliree lioiirs uftorwards. /or the same reason, wlien the sun is 
 before or west of the moon, he hastens the rise of the tide ; and when behind her, he retards 
 it. Considerable extent of surface is necessary, in order that the sea should be sensibly . 
 affected by the action of the sun and moon ; for it is only by the inequalitv of such action 
 on different parts ofthe mass of waters that their level is disturbed. In imrrow seas, and 
 on bhores far from the main body of the water, the tides are not caused by the direct action 
 of the sun and moon, but are waves propagated from the great diurnal undulation. Of thi;^ 
 the tides on tlie coast of Britain, and in the German sea, are remarkable examples. The 
 high water transmitted from the tide in the Atlantic reaches Ushant between three and four 
 hours atler the moon has passed the meridian, and its ridge stretches north-west, so as to fall 
 a little south of the coast of Ireland. This wave soon after divides itself into three branches ; 
 one passing up the British Channel, another ranging along the west side of Ireland and 
 Scotland, and tiie third entering the Irish Channel. The first of these flows at the rate of 
 about TiO mil(!s an hour, so as to pass through the Straits of Dover, and to reach the Nore 
 about midnight at the time of spring tide. The second being in a more open sea, moves 
 more rapidly, reaching the north of Ireland by six p. m. ; about nine it has got to the Ork- 
 neys, and forms a wave or ridge btretching due north ; at twelve the summit of the same 
 wave extends from the coast of Buchan eastward tc the Naze of Norway ; and in twelve 
 hours more it passes southward through the German Sea and reaches the Nore, where it 
 meets the morning tide that lotl the mouth of the Channel only eight Iiours before. Thus, 
 these two tides travel round Britain in 28 hours ; in which time the primitive tide has gone 
 quite round the globe, and nearly 45 degrees more. Various curious anomalies are observed 
 in the tides of particular places : such as their ceasing altogether for a day or two, at a 
 certain age of the moon ; while at other times they become considerable, though perhaps 
 occurring only once a day It is said that on some coasts there is never more than one 
 tide in the course of a lunar day, which is probably owing to some oversight : but it may bo 
 shown from theory, that if the observer's distance from the pole be equal to the moon's 
 declination, he will see but one tide in tl^e day. Small tides occur six times a day on the 
 shore of the Isle of Negropont.* 
 
 Tlie agency of the tides is probably very extensive in many of the operations of nature, 
 and in particular in those which regard geology. The late Professor Robison suggested how 
 experiments might be made to determine the mean density of the globe, from the temporary 
 cliange which is undoubtedly caused on the directio:-. of gravity by the great body of water 
 brougiit to Annapolis Royal, and then withdrawn by the stream tides. 
 
 Sect. II. — Springs, 
 
 Springs are composed of the waters issuing from crevices in the earth. Of such there 
 are great varieties. Some of the principal distinctions, independently of the qualities of 
 their waters, are, — temporary springs, which only flow during a certain season of the year ; 
 perennial, which always run ; intvrmiitinfr, which alternately run and cease, either wholly 
 or in part, at short intervals; periodical, which flow and ebb regularly at particular periods; 
 spouting, which issue with considerable force, forming, perhaps, a jet of water. The mag- 
 nitude of springs passes through every gradation, from being scarcely perceptible, to con- 
 siderable rivulets. They have, likewiise, a wide range of temperature; but necessarily 
 limited between the freezing and boiling points. It is most usual for springs which are 
 large, and which appear to is^'ue from a considerable depth, to have nearly the mean tempe- 
 rature of the place ; and in some instances the temperature is remarkably steady, — not the 
 slightest variation being perceptible in the course of the year. Hence apparently, or rela- 
 tively to the air, they are colder in summer and hotter in winter. It is, no doubt, this con- 
 trast which has given rise to the popular notion, that good springs are really colder in sum- 
 mer and hotter in winter. Nothing is more common than to see a well smoking during 
 intense frost, which shows nothing of the kind during warm weather; but it does not require 
 a really high temperature to exhibit such an appearance, but only a temperature not so low- 
 as that of the air. The most that any spring keeps within the range of both seasons, is to 
 remain always at one temperature. The greater number of the smaller springs, however, 
 becoino a little wo'-mcr in summer and colder in winter; particularly those which come 
 along for a considerable way at a small depth under ground. By so doing, they participate 
 ill the temperature of the surface, which varies with the season : but all springs preserve a 
 greater warmtli than the mean temperature of winter ; and, excepting the thermal or hot 
 tiprinirs, tjicy do not reach the mean heat of summer. 
 
 Hot springs are tliose which preserve a heat above the mean temperature of the place. 
 Such iLs are merely tepid are common in most countries, especially in mines. Those having 
 II c<)ni<i(lorul)ly higlier tempt^rature are less frc(iucntly met with, and mostly in volcanic dis- 
 tricts ; but some of tlicm reach the boiling point, or are actually boiling and spouting forth 
 
 * Vide Bteveii«i>n°« nruat work nn llic Bell-Rock I.iKlit-liousR, Tor nbBervntionB on Tides in the Britiah Man 
 
'1' 
 
 BooeIL 
 
 HYDROLOGY. 
 
 109 
 
 br in sum- 
 
 i the place, 
 lose having 
 Llcanic dis- 
 futing forth 
 
 litiali aaal 
 
 
 with great violence, which indicates tlieir having had a still higher temperature before get- 
 ting vent The most remarkable are tiie hot springs of Iceland, some of which are con- 
 sidered among the greatest wonders of the world. They are believed to be more abundant 
 in Iceland tlian in any other country. But the interest which the number and variety of 
 these hot springs excites in a person who never saw any thing similar, is quickly lost in the 
 feelings which are roused on beholding the magnificent and tremendous explosions of the 
 Geysers, as they are called. Besides the principal fountains, there is a great number of 
 boiling springs, cavities full of hot water, and several from which steam issues. There are 
 also some places full of boiling mud of gray and red colours. The silicious depositions of 
 the waters of the Great Geyser have formed for it a basin 56 feet in diameter in one direction, 
 and 46 in the other ; a projection from one side causing it to deviate from the perfect circle. 
 In the centre of this boisin is a cylindrical pit or shan 10 feet in diameter. Through this 
 the hot water rises gradually, filling it and the basin, after wliich it runs over in small quan- 
 tities. At intervals of some hours, when the basin is full, explosions are heard from below, 
 like the report of distant cannon, and at tlie same time a tremulous motion of the ground is 
 felt all around the basin : immediately the water rises in a mass from the pit, and sinking 
 again, causes the water in the basin to be agitated and to overflow : another and a stronger 
 propulsion follows, and clouds of vapour ascend. At length, strong explosions 'take place, 
 and, large quantities of steam escaping, the water is thrown to a height of from 30 to 00 
 feet, and even to 200 or 300 feet. The steam, coming into contact with the cold air of that 
 climate, is condensed into thick clouds, which are tossed and rolled with great rapidity ; the 
 whole forming a very singular and magnificent exhibition. After continuing for some time, 
 tliO explosions cease, when the basin and pit are found empty. Bursts of steam sometimes 
 take place, when the water is rising, without any warning by subterraneous noise. These 
 phenomena seem to be occasioned by steam finding its way from below into cavities, where 
 part of it is condensed into water, which water is at length forced out by the action of the 
 steam under high pressure. The New Geyser is somewhat smaller tlian the other. There 
 are many hot springs of less note in Iceland ; but perhaps the most curious of the whole is 
 the Tunguhver. Among a great number of boiling springs are two cavities, within a yard 
 of each otlier, fi-om which the water spouts alternately : while fironi one the water is tlirown 
 about ten feet high in a narrow jet, the other cavity is full of water boiling violently. This 
 jet continues about four minutes, and then subsides ; when the water from the other imme- 
 diately rises, in a thicker column, to the height of three or four feet. This continues about 
 three minutes ; when it sinks and the other rises, and so on alternately. 
 
 The natural jets of water, called spouting springs, only difler from the rest in comir 
 down sonie oloee canal from a fouLlainon a higher level. Being thus closely confined, they 
 burst forth in consequence of the pressure, in the same manner as the artificial spouting foun- 
 tains do.* 
 
 Intermitting fountains have sometimes been viewed by the multitude as of a miraculous 
 nature. One at Como, in Italy, rises and falls every hour: another at Colmars, in 
 Provence, rises eight times as often. At Fronzanches, in Languedoc, one has a period of 
 24 hours 15 minutes. England aflbrds many examples of such springs; particularly those 
 on the sea coast, whose waters rise and fall witli the pressure of the tides. The town of 
 Tideswell, in Derbyshire, is named from a noted fountain of this sort which once flowed 
 there, but has now ceased to observe its tides. The principles on which intermitting springs 
 depend are attempted to be explained in every popular treatise on hydrostatics and 
 hydraulics.f 
 
 Various have been the opinions of philosophers concerning the origin of springs. Some 
 suppose tliat sea water is convoyed through subterraneous ducta or canals to the places 
 where the springs flow out of tlie earth : but in this way fresh-water springs could not be 
 produced ; because sea water cannot be freed from its salt by filtration. It is, besides, dif- 
 ficult to conceive how tiie water should filter vpwards. In order to overcome these objec- 
 tions, recourse has been had to subterranean heat, by which the water is conceived to rise 
 upwards in vajwur through certain fissures and cavities of the mountains where it is col- 
 lected, and issues forth, as we see, in springs. Others vory the iiypothesis a little, by saying 
 that the sea water is raised tlirough tiie mountains by capillary action ; but here we ought 
 still to liave salt springs ; and it has been further objected that a current cannot be produced 
 by capillary action. 
 
 Tlio most prol)ablo theory is that proposed by Dr. Ilalley, who maintained that springs 
 arc nothing iiioro than ii part of tlie water which fills on higher ground filtrating through, 
 and nflorwards issuing forth at a lower level. This, it is true, does not at first sight appea 
 to account for the permanent flow of springs during dry weather. To complete the theory 
 it is supixisod that the water at fii-st collects in large subterranean cavities, from which it 
 afterwards filtrates slowly, and passps towards the springs. The disposition of the rocks in 
 
 ■» 'i't 
 
 * Vide Ed. Nkw riiil. Journal, vol. ix. for oliscrvations on apouting upringa and Artesian ivells. 
 t Vide Ed. NVvv Pliil. Journal, vol. viii. for an account of intermitting springs. 
 
 ^^■^\ 
 
» . .,!*• 
 
 *«: 
 
 ■JOO 
 
 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPIIV. 
 
 pAiir U. 
 
 strata contributes much to the collecting of the waters under the surfiice, ami conveyir.g 
 them without waste, as if in clowi pipes, till they ure united in fountain!^, lukos, rivers 
 dtc. Dr. Halley showed that the evaporation from the sea alone is a sufficient supply for 
 all the waters that the rivers carry into it. His calculation was founded on a very complex 
 view of the subject, and liable to several objections. Buifon took a more Hinii>lo view of 
 .the matter, by selecting one of those lakes that send out no strenm to the ocean, and show- 
 ing that tlio probable evaporation from the suriuce of the lake is equal to all the water car- 
 ried into it. 
 
 The thcorj' of hot springs is deserving of consideration. It has been ascertained that the 
 greater number of warm and hot springs occur in volcanic countries — wliere volcanoes for- 
 merly burnt or are still in a state of activity ; and of those that do not occur in volcanic dis- 
 tricts, some arc associated with trap and granite rocks, to which most geologists assign an 
 igneous origin. Hence it is inferred that they owe their temperature to the same cause or 
 causes as gave rise to volcanic and ignigenous rocks. That the heat of such springs is 
 oilen connected with volcanic action cannot admit of doubt; for, from the Geyser of Iceland, 
 the transition is almost unintenupted to the hot springs in the dormant volcano of the 
 island of Ischia, and from thence to those connected witii the process which formerly took 
 place in the now extinct volcanoes of Hungary and Auvergne. The hot and warm springs 
 of Bath and Bristol, however, occur in a limestone country wherr 10 igneous rocks are visi- 
 ble ; but these may be under the limcs^tone. This opinion is fui .her countenanced by the 
 fact that many of tlie hot springs met with in primitive, and also in secondary, formations, 
 occur in spots where the strata afipear to have been disturbed by igneous agency. Of this 
 there is a striking example at the hot springs of Carlsbad in Bohemia ; the hot springs of 
 Clifton issue from a limestone which appears, at an early period, to have been disturbed by 
 igneoi'i action : the hot springs of Pfefl'ers, in tlie Grisons, gush from a ravine from 400 to 
 654 feet in depth, and so perpendicular that the provisions required for the inmates of tlie 
 bath are lowered from ropes attached to the summit of the cliff, and so narrow that the rocks 
 in some places touch overhead, and nowhere, perhaps, are more than 30 feet apart. The 
 most obvious explanation of such a phenomenon is to be found in some convulsion of nature, 
 such as that caused by an earthquake, or the sudden elevation of a large tract of country. 
 The other hot springs in Switzerland appear in circumstances for the most part similar. 
 Those of Weissenburg, in tlie canton of Berne, rise out of a gorge of the same kind ns that 
 of Pfeflers : those of Ijouechi appear at the foot of the mural precipice of the Gemini : whilst 
 the spring of Baden, in tlie canton of Argovia, from which the only remaining one, that of 
 Schinzatii, is not far removed, lies near the [wint where, in consequence of the two moun- 
 tains of Staflelegg and Lagern having been severed asunder by .some great convulsion, the 
 waters of the Rhine and of the other rivers, — which appear to have once constituted a single 
 lake extending from Coiro in the Grisons to tliis mountain ridge, including the lakes of 
 Zurich and of Wallenstailt, with the intermediate country, — in one continuous sheet of 
 water, flowed off by the channel now taken by one of the rivers, the Limmat alone. Thus 
 the Rhine, says Dr. Daub<Miy, may be supposed to owe its original direction to tiie event 
 which produced one hot spring, and its present course to that which occasioned another. 
 
 Some springs apparently emit inflammable matter; for when a light is applied, it seems 
 to take Are like ardent spirits. But it is not so much the water that is inflammable, as some 
 gas which it exhales, or bituminous matter floating on ila surface. 
 
 Springs in the sea. Powerfiil springs are occasionally met with boiling up in the bottom 
 of the sea, so as, in some instances, to rise above the surtiice. From some of them naviga- 
 tors can draw up fresh water fit for taking on board as store. The natives, in certain places, 
 know where to dive under the surface of the sea for fresh water ; which, perliaps, may be 
 the only source whence they could obtain it. 
 
 Mineral waters, and the quantity of matter they deposit. Springs in their course through 
 strata convoy along with them portions of the strata, not only from higher to lower situa- 
 tions, but also from below npwards. They contain salts, earths, acids, metals, and inflam- 
 mable matters, of very varied nature: the variety depending sometimes on the nature of the 
 strata through which they pass ; at other times, as in those that rise upwavds in \-olcanic 
 districts, on igneous agency. Holfman remarks, that when warm and hot springs, and 
 those richly impregnated with mineral matters, occur in countries at a distance from active 
 and extinct volcanoes, we observe the strata from which they issue to be much deranged, 
 thus intimating that formerly earthquakes and other igneous agencies were ut work in the 
 district* where these springs now flow. The quantity of mineral water brought from the 
 interior of the earth by springs is very great; whether that matter is ab.Kliactcil from tiio 
 stratT traversed by the springs, or is brought by them from a great depth, iis in volcanic 
 countries. Blven some ciilcan-ous springs in Britain deposit annually vast quantities of cal- 
 careous tuffii and ealcanviiis sinter. In the neighboHrlioo<l of Edinburgh there are great 
 calcare{,ns deposits from calcareous sjirings that flow through limestone rocks ; and appear- 
 ances of the same description abound around all the calcareous springs in Enu'land. Near 
 to Clermont, in France, some calcareous springs, rising througli toc\i.AO^ granite and g%ieiss. 
 
 •*• 
 
 W'^'l\ 
 
" rr^ ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Book IL 
 
 HYDROLOGY. 
 
 »1 
 
 have formed a mound or iiilt 240 feet high. Many of tlie great edifices in Rome are huilt 
 of calcareous deposits from calcareous springs. The hot springs of Carlsbad annually deposit 
 much calcareous tufTu and sinter. Other springs, as the hot springs in Iceland and in the 
 Azores, dc|iosit unnuully great quantities of silica. Salt springs also bring from the Ulterior 
 of the earth, and spread over tlieir vicinity, much salt, which salt may be derived from the 
 saline clays and salt beds through which they pass; in other instances the salt may come 
 from a grciit depth as an igneous production. 
 
 Chemical nature of spring waters. The water of springs, when very pure, is named 
 foft ; if iujprbgnated wiUi calcareous suits, hard ; and if impregnated with various mineral 
 matters, mineral. It was long believed tltat hard water was unfit for brewing and diitilla- 
 tion ; and hence soil water was often procured for these operations, at great expense ; but it 
 is now found that water which owes its hardness to lime is the most proper of all tor tlie 
 fermentation of worts. A time will, however, be necessary to remove the popular prejudice 
 in favour of soft water. We have, in the Table on the following page, given a view of the 
 composition of the most celebrated mineral springs. 
 
 According to some chemists, the salts found by chemical analysis in springs are considered 
 as existing in the waters ; the lute Dr. Murray considers the compound existing before con- 
 centration of the water as, in all cases, the most soluble salts that can be formed out of the 
 ingredients present. But, ui reality, so far from our having determined in any given case 
 the nature of the existing combinations between tlie ingredients, we are ignorant even of 
 any method by which such knowledge is attainable. If, says Berzelius, tlie physician 
 inquires of the chemist, what the proportion these salts bear to each other in any given case 
 may be, the latter must reply, that this is a question as to which we are at present entirely 
 in the dark ; as tlie proportion depends not only on the quantity of acids and bases present, 
 which admits being ascertained, but also on the relative force of affinity subsisting iJetween 
 tlie one and the other, for determining which we have as yet no data whatever. 
 
 Sect. III. — Lakes. 
 
 A lake is a body of water which does not communicate with the ocean. Independently 
 of the qualities of their waters, lakes are distinguished into several sorts : — 1. Those which 
 receive streams of water, and have an outlet, are tlie class of lakes best known. It is rare 
 for a lake to give rise to more than one river, which oflcn bears the name of the principal 
 stream whicii flows into the lake, though tlie two rivers may differ materially in every 
 respect. 2. Those which receive streams of water, and often great rivers, without having 
 any visible outlet. This class is less numerous than the former, and is confined to warm 
 climates ; but the largest of all lakes, the Caspian Sea, belongs to it. 3. Those whicli 
 receive no running water, but have an outlet, — circumstances which imply that such lakes 
 are fed with springs from beneath, or with small imperceptible streams from the adjacent 
 land. 4. Those which receive no running water, and have no visible outlet. Lakes of this 
 class, exclusive of marshes, are for the most part small, and merit little attention. Without 
 regarding the foregoing distinctions, some writers subtlivide lakes into two kinds, according 
 to the general character of the surface in which their basins ore situated : viz. those which 
 are formed in deep hollows between the ridges or at the foot of mountains, and fed by 
 springs or torrents ; and tliosc whicii are formed in low and level countries for want of a 
 general declivity, or dammed up by a mere accumulation of alluvial matter. 
 
 Subterranean lakes form a class of lakes diflering remarkably from all the preceding, and 
 are bodies of water contained in cavities quite covered over by earthy strata. It is only 
 when such cavities are laid open by earthquakes, by the falling asunder of mountains, by the 
 action of the weather or of rivers, by the operations of mining, or when the roof falls in, 
 that their situation becomes known. But they are probably very numerous, though perhaps 
 often of small size. It is not easy to account for the permanent and uniform flow of many 
 springs on any otiior supiMsitioii. Some of them appear to give rise to rivers, while others 
 are known to receive very considerable streams which lose themselves in the interior. Such 
 are the numerous cavities of the Julian Alps. It is to similar reservoirs that wo must attri- 
 bute the periodical disappearance of certain lakes situated above ground. There are some 
 caverns in Norway which affonl a passa^je to rapid currents of woter, as appears from the 
 sound heard through their roofs. It is natural to suppose that many strcnins, finding no 
 readier outlet, flow into subterranean cavities, are absorbed by the earth, or discharge them- 
 selves under ground into the sea. In this way may be explained the origin of those springs 
 of fresh water that are to be seen spouting up even in the midst of the waves of the ocean. 
 The waters thrown up by volcanoes, the sudden and terrible inundation of mines, the number 
 of rivers which disappear, the mountains w-hich are suddenly engulfed in tlic bosom of new 
 lakes, — all these facts leave no doubt of the existence of extensive subterranoan cavities 
 containing largo bodies of water. Tlie digging of wells has supplied a fact still more inter- 
 esting to pliysical geography. It oppears that there are lakes, or ratlier sheets of water, 
 which extend under ground to considerable distJinces. In digging wells near Aire, in the 
 province of Artoin, tliey always come to a cluvey bed ; which being pierced, the water gushes 
 
 Vol. L ' 2 A 
 
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 tpt!'' 
 
 HI"; 
 
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 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
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 TABLE OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE MOST CELEBRATED MINERAL SPRINGS. &c 
 
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 Book II. 
 
 HYDROLOGY. 
 
 203 
 
 forth in largo bubblcei, and forms pomiuneiit t>priiiga. In tliu coimlry of Mtxlena, \yo And 
 every wliere, iit the doptli of twenty yards, u bod of clay live Itiot thick; wliich being pierced, 
 the water t<|x>iit8 up with considerable force — indicating that it i.s connected with a reservoir 
 which stjinds at o higher level. There is a district in the interior of Algiers, where the 
 inhabitants, after digging to a depth of about 200 fathoms, invariably come to nater, wliich 
 flows up in such abundance that they call it tlie subterranean sea. 
 
 Lakes wliich receive niucli water, but have no outlet, were believed necessarily to com- 
 municate with tlie ocean by some subterraneous channel. The great distance of some of 
 them troin the ocean seemed to stand in the way of such an explanation ; and doubts might 
 still have remained, were it not for the discoveiy of the remarkable fact, that home of the 
 principal lakes of this description have their surfaces far d(!pressed below the level of the 
 ocean. Thus the surface of the Caspian Sea, which i.s the largest known lake, and without 
 an outlet, was found by Engelhardt and Parrot to be 334 feet beneath the level of the Black 
 Sea. A similar depression has been iscertuincd of the level of the tiimous Bead Sea, in 
 Judea, which is also a lake without an outlet. Its surface is below that of the Mediterra- 
 nean in its neighbourhood, and consequently still farther below the higher level of the Red 
 Sea. The true explanation as to the consumption of the waters of such lakes seems to bo, 
 tliat it is carried off by evaporation. The climates in which the two last-mentioned are 
 situated accord well with this supposition. The level of these lakes, liowever, varies with 
 the weather, and with the abundance or scarcity of the waters discharged into them by rivers 
 at particular seasons of the year. The variation in the licight of the Caspian Sea is from 
 four to cigiit feet ; but the level, at a particular jioint of its shore, must be aft'ected by the 
 direction of the wind, and probably by a very trifling tide. When tiio banks of lakes are 
 very porous, they cannot fail, during very dry weatlier, to absorb a large (wrtion of the water, 
 and to throw it off by evaporation. 
 
 The depth of great lakes has been seldom ascertained with much exactness. The gene- 
 ral depth of the Caspian Sea is from 60 to 70 fathoms ; but this increases towards the south 
 end to such a degree, that no bottom can be found with a lino of 880 fathoms. In lakes, as 
 in the ocean, the slope of the bank is continued downward tor a considerable way below the 
 water; that is, deep lakes are to be found in mountainous districts, and shallow niurshy ones 
 in flatter countries. The depth of liOch Ness, in the Highlands of Scotland, is in some 
 places 130 fathoms, which is tour times the mean depth of the German Soa; and its JKittom 
 IS actually 30 fiithoms below the deepest part of that sea, between the hititiidos of Dover 
 and Inverness.* The Lake of Geneva attains the still greater depth of 161 llitlioms. Many 
 other lakes are known to be excee<lingly deep, without the amount being ascertained. Seve- 
 ral have passed for ages as bottomless; but this opinion now obtains little credit. It is more 
 probable, that most lakes are daily getting more shallow, from being tilled up with mud or 
 debris. 
 
 The temperature of tlie surface of lakes depends on the climate and sca.-on ; but at the 
 bottom of deep lakes it undergoes little or no change throughout the year, and approaches 
 to that which corresponds to the maximum density of water, which different writers estimate 
 variously, from 39" F. to 42.5° ; but 40° is most commonly received. In Loch Catrine and 
 liOch Lomond, the temperature, at all depths below 40 fathoms, is 41°; but the mean for 
 the climate is 47°. The deep lakes of Tliun and Zug, in Switzerland, have a temperature 
 of 42° at the depth of 15 brasses. Thun was 41.5° at the depth of lOo brasses, while the 
 surface was 60° ; and Zug, 41° at 38 brasses, with surface 58°. The bottom of the Lake of 
 Geneva has a temperature of 42° : that of tiie I^ago Sabatino at Rome is 44.5°, at a depth 
 of 80 fathoms. Tepid springs may, in some cases, keep up the temperature, when they 
 occur at the bottom of lakes. From what wo mentioned of the Caribbean Sen, it docs not 
 appear that the climate has much influence ; and yet most powerful springs of fresh water 
 are known to boil up in its shallower parts. Such springs probably approach to the moan 
 temperature of the climate; or, perhaps, those who contend for an increiuse of heat with the 
 depth of the solid strata would claim for them a higher temperature. Deep lakes almost 
 never freeze, except in a very cold climate ; because the whole body of water must cool 
 below 40° before congelation could commence. Accordingly, neitiier Ixicli Ness nor its 
 elfliient river of the same name are ever frozen over. 
 
 The qualities of the waters of lakes are various, according to the nature of the substances 
 with which they may be mixed or contaminated. The principal distinctions, in this ro.^pect. 
 are fresh, saline, and alkaline. I^akes which receive much fresh water, and have a copious 
 efflux, are almost always fresh ; but those which lose much of their water by evaporation 
 may be slightly saline, especially if the neighlwuring soil abouiid in salt. When lakes have 
 no outlet, they are invariably saline. To account for this, two reasons have been given, 
 which are quite compatible with each other. The one is, that salt lakes having no outlet 
 ore concentrated [lortions of the waters of the deluge, retained by the hollows of the earth's 
 surface; and that nil other lakes were originally such, and saline; but those have had their 
 
 * Vidu SteveiiBon, Wurncrian McmoirB, niiil Etiinburgli Pliil. Journal. 
 
 
 1\ 111* 
 
 r. ' .;;; 
 
m. 
 
 m 
 
 I 
 
 ^§wm 
 
 204 
 
 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAI IIY. 
 
 Part II 
 
 salt washed out and carried to the ocean, wliich are travereod by rivers or otiier fresh water 
 The other opinion is, that the salt in lokes has come from Bpriiigs, or been washed from the 
 soil of tlie adjacent country by means of the rain nnd rivers : for such laites are most abun- 
 dant where the soil contahis saline matter; and where lakes only lose water by evHiwration, 
 the vapour goes off fresh and leaves the salt bciiind. The Dead Sea is the saltest of all 
 known lakes, and appears to have been so lor upwards of 4(HM) years ; for in the book of 
 Genesis it is called, by way of distinction, the " Salt Sea," even at a time when the adjacent 
 plain was as noted for fortdity as it is now for barrenness. The waters of this lake are in a 
 state of saturation, containing about eight times as much salt as those of the ocean. The 
 salt must be accumulating in beds at its bottom ; for the river Jordan, which is brackish, 
 necessarily carries in more. Masses of bitumen frequently float on the surface, and seem 
 to rise from the bottom of the lake. The same thing occurs in other Asiatic lake?, some of 
 which are impregnated with borax. In tlio island of Trinidad, there is a lake which pro- 
 duces an enonnous quantity of bitumen fit for naval purposes. 
 
 Some lakes are both saline and alkaline, as is the case with a series of lakes in Jjower 
 Egypt These are called the Natron Lakes, from their abounding in soda, which is tliere 
 called trona and natron, the nitre of the Sacred Writings. 
 
 Lakes appear to have been much more numerous at a former period than at present, and 
 to have occupied a large proportion of the surface of the land. Traces of their existence 
 occur everywhere. Many of them have been filled up with debris, and become level plains 
 traversed by a river ; some have been drained by the gradual deepening of their outlets ; or 
 both causes have often operated together. Others have got vent through cracks caused by 
 earthquakes, or by the subsiding of a part of the basin. The kingdom of Hungary is sup- 
 posed to have been originally the basin of a lake ; and some go so far as to allege the same 
 of the Mediterranean Sea. Geological phenomena also show that new lakes arise, and old 
 ones disa])pear, during those great risings and sinkings of the land which have taken place 
 during former periods, and even now are not without example. 
 
 *rhere are several modes in which now lakes may be formed. In hot tropical climates, 
 many large lakes are formed during the rainy season, and entirely disappear on a change of 
 weather ; but such hardly deserve the name, being rather land-floods, though they would be 
 permanent lakes in a colder country. We have already mentioned the formation of a visible 
 or open lake from the felling in of the roof of a subterranean one. When a mountain falls 
 asunder, it often happens that it stops up a neighbouring river and valley, and forms a lake. 
 But the water of a river obstructed in this manner will always overflow, and can scarcely 
 tail to regain its former level, either by wearing away a cut for itself above, or by under- 
 mining the ruins beneath. Shallow marshy lakes are frequently formed by the surplus 
 waters of rivers detained on flat ground by an accumulation of mud. Ice and snow some- 
 times accumulate in narrow passes between mountains, so ns to obstruct and make the water 
 stagnant, and form a temporary lake, increasing perhaps for years, till at length the pressure 
 of the water is augmented to such a degree as to burst the icy barrier. The consequences 
 are sometimes dreadful. So great a discharge of water and ice, precipitated from the 
 mountains, tears up not only alluvial substances, but frequently portions of rocks, which are 
 scattered over the plain below. Thus villages and fertile fields are almost instantly con- 
 verted into deep hollows and heaps of rubbish. These cavities perhaps continue filled with 
 water, forming small lakes. 
 
 There are certain lakes which disappear and re-appear periodically, without regard to 
 the rainy season. Such are supposed to be filled and emptied in a manner similar to the 
 cavities of intermitting springs, or to communicate with some subterranean lake wliich 
 undergoes such periodical changes. That any lakes, remote from the sea, should communi- 
 cate with it under ground, so as to rise and fall with the tide, is very improbable. In 
 Portugal there is a small lake near Boja, which emits a loud noise on the approach of a 
 storm. Other lakes appear agitated by the disengagement of gas. Near Boleslaw, in 
 Bohemia, a lake of unfethomable depth sometimes emits blasts of wind which raise up 
 pieces of ice. Some of the Scottish lakes, and the Wetter in Sweden, experience violent 
 agitations even during serene weather. A coincidence of dates has given ground for believ- 
 ing that these agitations are connected with earthquakes in distant countries. 
 
 Sect. FV. — Rivers. 
 
 The origin and progress of rivers have been compared by Pliny to the life of man. " Its 
 beginnings are insignificant, and its infancy is frivolous; it plays among the flowers of a 
 meadow, it waters a garden, or turns a little mill. Gathering strength, in its youth it 
 becomes wild and impetuous. Impatient of the restraints which it still meets with in the 
 hollows among the mountains, it is restless and fretful ; quick in its turning, nnd unsteady 
 in its course. Now it is a roaring cataract, tearing up and overturning whatever opposes 
 its progress, and it shoots headlong down from a rock ; then it becomes a sullen nnd gloomy 
 pool, buried in the bottom of a glen. Recovering breath by repose, it ngniii diislics nlontr, 
 till, tired of uproar and mischief, it quits all that it has swept along, and leaves the oppnin<.^ 
 
 li 
 
regard to 
 ilar to the 
 kc which 
 communi- 
 bable. In 
 Iroach of a 
 lleslaw, in 
 raise up 
 Ice violent 
 Iforbeliev- 
 
 fcan. "Its 
 Iwers of a 
 y youtli it 
 titli in the 
 1 unsteady 
 hi opposes 
 lid ploomy 
 lii'S aloriL'i 
 lo opcnin^^ 
 
 nooK II. 
 
 HYDROLOGY. 
 
 206 
 
 of the valley strewed witli the rejected waste. Now quitting its retirement, it comes abroad 
 into the world, journeying with more prudence and discretion, tiirough cultivated fitdds, 
 yielding to circumstancca, and winding round what would trouble it tooverwheliri or remove. 
 It posses tiirough the populous cities, and ull the busy haunts of man, temlering its services 
 on every side, and becomes the support and ornament of tlie country. Increa.sed by 
 numerous alliances, and advanced in its course, it becomes grave and stately in itti motions, 
 loves peace and quiet, and ih majestic silence rolls on its miglity waters till it is laid to rest 
 in the vast abyss." The sun and tiio host of heaven have, in all ages nnd nations, been 
 objects of sincere worship. Next to them, the rivers seem to have ttttri'cted the grateful 
 aclcnowledgcmenta of the inhabitants of the neighbouring countries. They liave every- 
 where been considered a sort of tutelar deities, and each little district, every retired 
 valley, had its river god, who was preferred to the others. The expostulation of Naainan 
 the Syrian, who was offended with the prophet for enjoining him to wash in tlie river 
 Jordan, was the natural effusion of tiiis attachment. " Wliat (said he), are not Abana and 
 Pharpar, rivers of Dama.scus, more excellent tlian all the waters of Judea] Miglit I not 
 wash in them and be clean 1 so he went away wroth." In those countries particularly 
 where the labours of the husbandman and shepherd depended on what took place in a far 
 distant country by the fulling of periodical rains, or the melting of the collected snows, the 
 Nile, the Ganges, the Indus, were tlie sensible agents of nature in procuring to tlie inhabit- 
 ants of their fertile banks all their abundance, and they bscume objects of gratefiil adoration. 
 Their sources were sought for even by conquering princes, and wlien found were worshipped 
 with the most affectionate devotion. These rivers preserve to this day the fond adoration of 
 the inhabitants of the countries through which they pass, and their waters are still held sacred. 
 
 The terra river is applied to any lorge current of water which is not in the ocean or its 
 branches, and which may discharge itself into the ocean, into lakes, marshes, or into other 
 rivers ; for the waters ot some rivers never reach the ocean ; as is tiie case with the Wolga, 
 the Jordan, and others, which discharge themselves into salt lakes, having usually th(! name 
 of seas. Wlien the atmosphere supplies a country witli more water than it has an opportu- 
 nity of carrying off again by evaporation, the surplus either penetrates through tlu,' surface 
 or collects into small streams, which, afterwards uniting and receiving the water of springs, 
 gradually form larger and larger currents, wiiich, if allowed to proceed increasinjr, !it length 
 become rivers. Some rivers proceed from lakes or marshes, but none come immediately from 
 the sea. They invariably occupy the lowest parts of the districts from which their waters 
 are derived, and these districts are called their basins. The Imsins are usually lM)unded by 
 high lands, and sometimes by mountains. They form natural divisions in physical geography. 
 Those of tlie Rhone, Garonne, Loire, Seine, and part of the basin of the Rhine, comprehend 
 the greatest part of France. In some cases, the boundaries of basins are not well defined ; 
 as where the surface becomes flat or marshy. This is the casc! between the basins of the 
 Amazon and Orinoco, which are connected by a natural and navigable communication. In 
 Europe, the sources of the Dwina, of the Niemen, and of the Borysthcnos, are nearly united 
 in a marshy plain. It is evident that the deep ravines through which rivers flow could not 
 in many instances be the work of the rivers themselves ; because the margins of such ravines 
 are often higher than other places of the district, through which the rivers ought to have 
 flowed before such vr.lleys were cut, as some fancy, out of solid rock. A more rational 
 explanation is, that a crack or rent, — the effect of some earthquake or subsidence, — had 
 taken place ; and that the water, getting through such rent, had gradually widened it by the 
 attrition of its sand and gravel : the still more corroding action of the weather would mate- 
 rially assist in widening the upper part of the ravine. Many rivers appear to have been at 
 first a scries of lakes and cataracts alternately, through which the water was conveyed from 
 higher to lower ground. The bottoms of these lakes are gradually filled up with debris, 
 the outlets are by degrees deepened, or the basins rent through as above described. The 
 lakes at length become dry plains, traversed by the river; the cataracts, clefts or deep 
 ravines ; and the river acquires, upon the whole, a pretty uniform descent. There arc traces 
 of these changes everywhere : the parallel roads of Lochaber, ns they are called, seem to be 
 nothing else than the horizontal shelves with which lakes are usually siirroiindod. From 
 these it appears that the valleys of Glen Glnoy, Glen Roy, and Glen Six-an, have formerly 
 been the basins of lakes, which are now cut through an(l emptied. Throe distinct basins 
 are observed in the course of the Rhine : first, that of the Lsiko of Constance ; the second 
 reaches from Ba.sle to Bingen ; and tlio third from tliis to the sea. They are separated from 
 each other by rocky straits. In many cases, the suhsidciioe of the water, at successive sUiges, 
 can ho traced from one level to another, by mreins of the difl'oront horizontal siiclves still 
 visible on the sides of the valleys. Sir Thomas Lauder reinnrked this, in the ahovf nimod 
 glens in the Highlands of Scotland. In the valley of the Rhino, Professor Pl.iytair distin- 
 guished four or five such terraces, at the successive heights of twenty, thirty, or tin-ty fi't'l 
 alove one another. The same thing occurs on the banks in the great chain of North .\morican 
 lakes which are not yet empty. 
 
 The larger rivers are, their fall or declivity is generally so much the smaller. The reason 
 
 Vol. I. 18 
 
 n 
 
 111 
 
 ! 1 
 
 ■'fl 
 
 -'■(•, 
 
 "l!:;:i 
 
 m 
 
 |||1|!P" 
 
T 
 
 ii 
 
 206 
 
 SCIENCE OP (lEOGRAPHY. 
 
 # 
 
 Part II. 
 
 of this is, that largfi rivers nncessarily occupy tlin lowest parts of the country; an J also, that 
 there are no materials of which Iwds of rivers are ordinarily formed, that could hav(! resiHtcd 
 the action of a jjrent river, having a rapid tall, during the lapse of ages. In the last 20(' 
 leagues of the Amazons, the fall is only 10.5 feet ; and in the 30(X) miles above that, the 
 mean fill is only five inches per mile. The Seine, between Valvins and Sevres, has a fall 
 of nlwiit i)..") inches per mile. The Ijoirc, between Briairo and Orleans, has only one foot in 
 ]:<,.%(!. Between the Himalaya chain and the hoh, the Ganges has only four inches jier mile. 
 'I'ho (Mitirn fall of the Wolga is 9-'J7 PVench feet, or five inches per mile. Notwithstanding 
 the rnpiiiity of the Rhine, it has only a fall of four feet per mile between Schaffliauscn and 
 Stnishurg; and of two feet between that and Sclienckonschontz. Sometimes a river falling 
 into another with great rapidity, and at an acute angle, will nt the time of flood force the 
 hitter to flow back for a short way. Such is sometimes the eflect of the Arve on the Rhone, 
 which is fiirced back into the Lake of Geneva. 
 
 The bnre is a phenomenon which occurs on some great rivers, which enter the sea with 
 ponsidcrnbly velocity, and experience a sudden check or obstruction from the flow of the tide : 
 the consequence is, that an enormous wave, known by the term 6orc, and various other names, 
 is generated and sent backward or up the river with great velocity, to the no small danger 
 nf the navigation. The principle on which this phenomenon depends is nearly allied to that 
 if the hydraulic ram : at the spring tides, it appears of a correspondingly greater magnitude. 
 In the Amazons, the lieight of this wave is estimated at 180 feet 
 
 Rivers are subject to inundation. In the Sacred Writings, some allusions are made to the 
 jvertlowings of the Nile; but those of the Jordan are distinctly mentioned, as covering all 
 the banks during harvest, and expelling the lions which lurked in the thickets, so as to 
 drive them infuriated through the country. Modern travellers, however, assert that this 
 river does not now overflow ; and they allege as a reason, that its channel is become deep 
 enough to hold tlie floods. It is as likely that the banks have been raised by the de|X)8ition 
 of mud and tlie growth of vegetables : perhaps the fall of snow and rain upon Mount Leba- 
 non, from which the floods came, is not so abundant since its forests of cedars were cut 
 down ; Ibr some travellers arc of opinion that this river must, from the accounts of the an- 
 ficnts, have been formerly of much greater magnitude, at all seasons of the yeai , than it 
 now ap|K!ars to be. 
 
 The excessive rains which fall in tropical regions, during a certain season of the year, 
 •<c<'.isioii the inundation or overflowing of the rivers which originate in the torrid zone. 
 I'hc following Ls nearly the general rulo for the rainy reason ; viz., that periodical rains 
 n-(>rywhcre prevail from the equator to the parallel of latitude over which the sun is 
 vprticul. Humboldt mentions as another pretty correct and still more general rule, apply- 
 ing likewise to the frigid zone, that the season of floods falls within fi)ur months of midsum- 
 mer. The floods of rivers originating in high latitudes proceed principally from the melt- 
 ing of the ice and snow on the mountains, by means of the summer's heat. Such floods are 
 violent, but of short duration, and occur in the four months preceding the summer solstice. 
 Some of these rivers have two, or perhaps three, successive floods, corresponding to the 
 seasons of tlmw in the low ground, on the sides of mountains, and on their summits. 
 
 The ancients were quite aware that some rivers derived their floods from the sources we 
 have just mentioned ; but the overflowings of the Nile, in a country remote from Iwth rain 
 and snow, excited their surprise. The mystery was, however, dispelled, when once it was 
 known that tlie Nile principally draws its waters from the tropical regions, where the exces- 
 sive peritxlical rains cause other rivers to overflow. The Nile begins to swell in June, and 
 contii.ues to do so till the middle of August, when it has reached its maximum lieight of 
 from 24 to 28 feet. With the exception of a few elevated spots, and some of the higlier 
 accumulations of alluvia) matter, on the margin of the river, the whole of the Delta and the 
 long valley of Egypt ie then covered with water. The rising of the Ganges, which is partly 
 owing to the melting of snow and partly to the rainy season, commences in April, nnil, like 
 the Nile, attains its maximum of about 31 or 32 feet in the middle of August. Tropical 
 rivers which move parallel to the equator spread their waters pretty uniformly over the 1om» 
 ground : such is the case with the Orinoco and the Senegal. In rivers which descend from 
 great elevations, or move at right angles to the equator, the action of the tropical rains is 
 extremely une()ual ; for the surplus water only overflows the low and flat districts. This is 
 exactly what happens with the Nile : but it is sufficient here to mention the general princi- 
 ples ; as the inundations of particular rivers will be described along with their respective 
 countries. 
 
 Waterfalls, or cascades and cataracts, are often formed by rivers in descending from pri 
 mitive mountains into secondary countries. Compact durable rocks are requisite for pro 
 ducing a permanent eflect of this kind : such are the cataracts of the Nile, of the GangeSi 
 and various other rivers. Some cataracts, like those of Tunguska, in Siberia, have gradu- 
 ally lost their elevation by the wearing away of the rocks, and have now only a rapid de- 
 scent. According to Humboldt, the height of the groat cataract of the Rio de Bogota, in 
 South America, long estimated at liJOO feet, is about 800 feet ; that of Staubbach is about 
 
"»■ 
 
 Book II. 
 
 HYDROLOGY. 
 
 307 
 
 000 feet. The small river Ache, in Bavaria, which rises in the cavern of tlin jflacior of 
 Mount Tnurnri, runs throu|;h tho volley of Anhenthal, and, after reaching the Gulf of Tau- 
 rcn, throws itnelf over an olevotion of "2000 feet. It has five ifrcat falln; tho lawt of which 
 •brnis a niowt inafrnificent arch of waters, which is resolved into spray before it reaciics the 
 f(round. The noise of tho waters is so terrible, that it is hoard at the distuncc of more thon 
 a league; anil the current of air produced by the descent of the water is so vioU.'iit, that it 
 drives Imck those who attempt to odvanco towards tho pulf: it is necessary, therefore, to 
 approiicli it by walking backwards. The full of Garispa m India is KKH) foot. One of tho 
 most considerable known falls takes place on tho river Niagara, whicli connects I.nkes Erie 
 and Ontario. The river here, just before the full, is divided by Goat Island into two prts : 
 tho one, 6(K) feet broad, falls to the depth of 150 feet ; while the other, 3.'» yards brouci, fulls 
 164 feet in perpendicular height In Scotland the most considerable falls are those on the 
 river Clyde, near Lanark, where the river is precipitated down three successive precipices 
 of red sandstone. In tho upper fall, that of Bonnilon, the whole river throws itself over n 
 precipice !M) feet high: lower down, M Corra Linn, it is precipitated from a height of P4 
 feet The lowest fall, that of Slonebyreg, consists of three stages, being broken by two pro- 
 jecting rocks ; its fall is 80 feet In tho course of tho river Foyers, on the side of I/)ch 
 Ness, there are two falls ; the upper fall is 40 feet high, tho lower 90 feet. In the miner- 
 alogical report of Lapland, presented to the Swedish government, the discovery of a great 
 waterfall in the river Lulea is particularly mentioned. It is said to be one eighth of a mile 
 broad, and to fall 400 feet; if the mile be German, as is most likely (equal to four and a half 
 English miles), the breadth exceeds half an English mile. 
 
 rces we 
 )th rain 
 it was 
 excesi- 
 uie, and 
 ight of 
 higlier 
 and the 
 is \mrtly 
 nil, like 
 topical 
 the low 
 I ml from 
 rains is 
 This is 
 princi- 
 tpectivc 
 
 torn pri 
 [for pro 
 
 Ganges, 
 
 jradu* 
 
 lapid de- 
 
 Igota, in 
 
 lib about 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 OGOaNOSY. 
 
 This branch of natural history makes us acquainted with the structure, materials, relative 
 position, and mode of formation, of the great mineral masses of which tho crust of tlie 
 earth is composed. 
 
 In conveymg to our readers a short view of this important subject, we shall adopt the 
 following arrangement : — 
 
 I. Describe the physiognomy of the earth's surface. 
 
 II. Give an account of the action of water and air on that surfocc. 
 
 III. Give an account of the action of volcanoes and earthquakes on the earth's surface. 
 
 IV. Describe the different structures observable in the solid moss of the globe. 
 
 v. Define and describe the different classes and species of rocks of which the crust of tiio 
 earth is composed. 
 
 Sect. I. — Physiognomy of the Earth's surface. 
 
 Dry land. The dry land, or the land above the level of the sea, is arranged into masses 
 of various magnitudes and forms. It is not equally distributed ; for a much larger portion 
 of it occurs to the north than to the south of the equator ; and the difference in this respect 
 is so great, that the southern half of the globe is principally water, while the northern is 
 chiefly land. About the middle of the last century, it was asserted that a great contment 
 must exist towards the south pole, in order to counterbalance the mass of land in the north- 
 em hemisphere ; but by the voyages of Cook and Bellinghausen, and particularly the late enter- 
 prise of Weddel, it has been shown that in high southern latitudes, in place of a continent, 
 there are but a few groups of islands. The absence of a continent near the south pole does 
 not itself prove that there is less land there than in the north, since it is possible that the 
 land in general may be only rather more depressed in the south, and consequently the ocean 
 is spread more ■ extensively over the surface of the earth in that quarter. Tho dry land 
 is arranged into two grand divisions named worlds, viz. the Old World and the Neto 
 World. The Old World, in the eastern hemisphere, extends from S. W. to N. E., and 
 comprehends the three continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Nrw World, in the 
 western hemisphere, extends from N. to S., and is composed of two continents, viz. North 
 and South America. 
 
 The general direction of the land in the two worlds is different In America, it is from 
 N. to S. : in the Old World, it is S. W. to N. E: and, if we omit Africa, it is almost parallel 
 with the equator. The longest straight line that can bo drawn on the Old World com- 
 mences on the western coast of Africa, from about Capo Verd, and extends to Behring' 
 Strait, on the north-east coast of Asia: it is about 11,000 miles in length. A similar linp 
 traced along the New World from the Strait of Terra del Fuego to the northern shore of 
 North America measures nearly 9000 miles. 
 
 "The Old and New Worlds have the following features in common : northern ond southern 
 halves, connecting isthmuses, a peninsula on the one side, and a group of islands on the 
 other. This arrangement will appear evident fi^m the following details. 
 
 m 
 
 ! m 
 
vi 
 
 906 
 
 SriKNCK OK (}KO(!RAI'IIY. 
 
 I'aht II. 
 
 Tho olil world inny Ut conHidcii'il ah ciiiniMiNi'il of two i;ri<at lialvrH: tlin nno, llio wi<Mtorn« 
 iiicliiili'H Kiiro|M» iiiiil AlVU'ii; tlio olln«r, tlu« ciiHti'm, Anm anil Ni-w llolliiiiil. In tlm wontorn 
 liiilt', tint two coiitinrntx, vi/.. Kiimpo luiil AlVifii, aro connrcti'il to|;i'tlii'r liy tlio iNlluuuH of 
 Sill'/, mill liavo (III tlii< oiii) hiiiiil tlu< JHlanilMiirtlii- Mt'iiitrrraiittan, ami on tliti oilier tho pon- 
 iiiMiilii of Ariiliiii. Ill tho oitHtorn hall', tlio two (■oiilinonlH ul' Axia anil Now llollund uro, to 
 n ri-rtiiiii oxti'iit, I'oliiii'iUoil to^rcthcr hy tho iHlaiiilM of Java, Siinintni, il'r. ; ami in (Voiit of 
 this lintkiu isllimiiii is I'lijiiia and other iNlands, and on tho other Hide the |N>nin!'iilii of India, 
 'riie New World in eoniiNiseil of two ha1vt>ii, a northorn and ii Moiitherii : thi-He aro connected 
 (iiirelher liy the ii^thinuti of Darieii; and on tlio front aro Hitnuted tho WoHt India iHhindH, and 
 lii'hinil tile peniiiNula of ('iilifurnia, ^ 
 
 Another };eiier:il feature in tho ^roneral diNtriliiitioii of tho dry land, Ih tho tn)M)rin|f of nil 
 the irreat |ieniiisiilaH to the miulh. Thin, li>r exainplo, In the cane with tho continent of Africa, 
 with Arahia, liidiii. South Aiiiericii, Scandinavia, S|Niiii, Italy, (iruece, Coroa, AliiHhka, Knm< 
 tchatka, ('alilorniii, Florida, and (ireenhtnd. 
 
 llewiileH the Old and New VVorlilH, u» aliove doticrilM>d, thero (x:cur, disporBcd thronifh tho 
 ix-eaii, niitiieroiirt NMiallor niusoe.s of land, tbrniiii); inlandri of varioim iimffnitudcH and tiiruiH. 
 Those i>liinilH situated near to the continontM aro coiiMiderod an h<donKin)f to them. Thux 
 the Dritish isles Mon)r to Kiirope, thotie of Ja|>an tu Asia, tho West India iHlnndH to 
 Aiiierioii, imd Maihiffasear to Africa, Hut huHides these there are other inland.^ and ^roupH 
 of ishinils, situated at a diHtanco from continents, and which cannot bo referred to any of tho 
 
 tireoHlinir divisions, hut to tho ocoans in which tliuy occur; as, tiir p.xainple, tliu Sandwich 
 HlamlH, in tho North Pacific Ocean. 
 
 SuRNKcr. I. — liifqimlitieii of the Sitrfucv nf thr Dry Iinnd. 
 
 Tim snrlace of the land exhihits (jreat variety in as|)ect, tiiriniii},'' iiinuntaiim, hills, viilloyH, 
 mill plains. The most j;eneriil of these features are what ;;eo{;rii pliers term hi^h laud and 
 low Idiul. llifth himh aro lolly, uneven, and widely extended miiHses of land : thus, tho 
 iiioiiiitainoiis tnii-t of country cxtendin;,' from the Na/e of Norway to the North (/'apo is n 
 liiijh land. Liup Imuh are widely extended low and flat coinitries: thus, tho northern (iiirt 
 of Kiiince, the Netherlands, llollund, imrt of fierniany, and Silesia; Poland, and l']uro|toan 
 llussiii form what may he called the jrreat Knro|H'aii low Iniul. Wo Hhall first explain the 
 structure of hifjii land, and next that of low liiiiil. 
 
 (1.) Sirurliirc of liiifh limit. In a \i\g\\ land, the centml [wirts aro gouorally tho most 
 rufrijed anil lorty, while the exterior districts, those which lionler on the low land, aro lower, 
 and less riii.'fred. The centml part is named nlpinv, the lower and tho exterior part hilly. 
 The alpine part of a liipfh land is coni|)osed of a central and lolly chain of monntaiiiH, named 
 the rrntriil, or hifrli mnuiiliiin chain, towards which there tend a (Toatcr or lesser number 
 of hitrrnl or princi;>al ; and from these iiirain SHhonliniitr chains. 'I'lio high mountain chain 
 forms the walir-shrd {divnrtia aqiiaruni) of the district; and tho hollows that traverse the 
 up|>er part of this chain aro named pa»»rs (roh.) On pasisinpf from one side to another of 
 tho alpine land, we do not always travel throni;h a pas.s or col, but somotimes across a com- 
 paratively Mat tract, many loaH;uns in extent; such arc namp<l table-liind». In crossing 
 from Norway to Sweden, wc pass in somo parts across a table-land ; also in tnivellinp from 
 Vera Cruz by Mexico to Acapulco. Tho inclined planes on which tho latenil, or principal 
 and sulwrdinate, chains aro distributed nro named the mdivitins of tho hii^h land. Tho 
 hollows that si-i'iirato thcso chain.s from each other are named vnllcys: those valleys lioiinded 
 by principal ciiains nro namwl principal valleys, nw\ sometimes truntvemt; valln/a ; while 
 the valleys between subordinate chains are named milmrdinutc valleys. Tho hilly or lower 
 part of the ''isrh land is coni|Ki8ed of comoaratively low and less rusjifcd chains, called chains 
 of hills, \\\i\J\ are irregularly grouped, lieing entirely without a central or hipjli mountain 
 chain. The valleys in this hilly land are shorter, less steep, and not so ruffged as in tho 
 more central or alpine part of the high land. 
 
 (2.) Stnirtiire of low land. Low land is formed principally of extensive plains, li«t.le 
 elevated alH)ve the level c*' tho soa, in which we occasionally observe fjentle risiii;.'s and 
 undulations of the surface, that ollen extend to .i considerable distance, and sometimes form 
 the limits between neijjhbourinff rivers. Now niid then conical and table-shaped hills rise 
 np sinijly and suddenly in a low country, as is the case with volcanic and iffneous hills, The 
 plains of the low land an- characteri.sed by the presence of pjirliciiliir hollows or concavities, 
 which are named rivrr-coiirses or rivrr-viiHcys ; because in those rivers flow. In such hol- 
 lows we ilistiiisriiish the bed of the river, and the holm or haiiu^h land ; further we observe 
 the /ii'n-A and low \mnks of tho river, and the ravines or small valleys, that traverse tho hiph 
 bank and terminate in tho low tank. There is still another kind of hollow met with in the 
 low land ; it is that in which lakes, {fenerally shallow, are contained. 
 
 Coast.i. The marjjin of the dry land, where it meets ).lio waters of the ocean, has received 
 the general name of con**. It varies in its aspect. Sometimes it is low and shelvinpr, and 
 then the neicrhbonrinfj gea is shallow to a considerabli! distance; at otl>er times it is steep, 
 lolly, and ni<.'!jed, and then the sea is deep. In many parts of Great Hritain, and on the 
 
T 
 
 DOOK II. 
 
 GEOGNOSY. 
 
 auu 
 
 Lna, li'tlP 
 
 linK" ""'' 
 no's torn* 
 |hi\l« rise 
 lis. Tin' 
 liruvitiop, 
 \w\\ liol- 
 . observo 
 I tlio high 
 1th in tlie 
 
 I rpccivcil 
 
 jrinjT, and 
 
 is steeP) 
 
 Id on the 
 
 rontiiii'iit, ns in IlDllnnd, tlio coaitt In lnw unil Hnndy, nnd the iiniul '\» ocrnaiunully blown into 
 hillH. 
 
 ('iivi:<. Tlii'.ii' iin; nivilii'H nl" KrctitiT or Ii'hm rxli'iij, wliidi nrti (•illicr opnn ti> diiy, ■« in 
 llip cisi' (if till' iiiii^.niilid'nt ciivrM in tin; 1h1i< of FnIii, iIiomo in Arriin, liiimo nriir Wi'myxn un 
 the fill t ii|' I'Mc'^liiro, &r., wln-n llicy iiro nnnicd vxlirnnl or o/k'/i ravit ; or they iirii nioro 
 or h'MM fonri'iili'd in tho interior of tin; tdcMh in which thoy lire conliiiiird, iih Maclran'H Ciivi! 
 in thi' I di' of hi(;|r, und nmny cuiich in tlio linicMtono of DorliyHhiru : Hnch uru nuniud inlirnal 
 ciivrg. 
 
 HuwiMrr. 2. — Inequaliliei iif Ihf Sur/ari! of the Suhmarint: ImhuI, 
 
 Th(< iNittnni of tlin wn, likn thit mirtiico of tlio dry land, vnricN in form. In Homo mm 
 thori' iHM'ur llatx iind |diiinH rnn^in|i( to n conHidoriildn oxtont, und near to tiin mirfltcn id' tho 
 WRtcr, liinnintf what iiro riilhul nhmih ; in other euMOH, pliiiiiH, of Kreiit ('xlent, occur ihie|dy 
 neiited, or iniirh h<>low tiic Nnrfacu of the Men, which iiro iU>noniinated ilivp tubmnriiw plaini. 
 'rhoNo Huhm.'irine piiiinn, like tlin pliiinn on tlio dry land, Nonii!tinie.i contain IioIIowh of con- 
 Hiderablo extent, nnd of i^'reat depth; the <l(«op IioIIowh nnder the Hea off tlui c<Mi«t of Scot- 
 limd, known under the name of Sfimtroif pita, are of tliJH deHcriptioii. The wa bottom iH 
 HometiineH hiUij ; thuHo IuIIh vary in form nnd iiinf^nitiido, and arc either deeply neated, or 
 rino »lH>ve the Hiirfaco of tho water, forniinf; rockH or iNlandx. In tropical wcaN, tho iNittom, 
 when not very dnei>, ItocomoH enoruwted with coral; which coral Honietinios riMos to tho wur- 
 'Cnct^, and then formn vnrul nhouh, coral rirfg, or coral iiilfs. If tho lN)ttoni in very ducp, 
 bnt KouiU u|) tVoin 1m>1ow hillN whone HinniiiitN an; not far bc'low the level of tho ocean, those 
 in tropical scad uIho Iwcoino covered with coral. 
 
 Hbct. 11. — Ffffrcin of Waltr and thn Atmosphere on the Surface of the Lanil, 
 
 Water is a very nctivo agent in altorinf; and varionwly niodifyin^r the Hiirfiicn of tho earth, 
 nnd itH enerfjy is increased when it carries along with it mechanical matter, as sand, jjravol. 
 Sic, anil particularly when aided by tho gnawinj,' influence of the iitmospliere. Through 
 these agents tho whole snrliire of the dry land is kept more or less in a slat^' of motion, by 
 their breaking up thn strata, and removing with greater or less rapidity, the broken rocky 
 matter" fVom point to i)oint, and ollen into lakes nnd tho ooa. 
 
 Water acts mechanically and chemically: it acts mcchunicuUy when it removcH \wc\. of 
 tho soil or broken rocky matter over which it passes, or corrmles tho channel in which it 
 flows, or the reservoirs in which it is contained ; it also acts nu'clianically, when, on being 
 iinbilM'd by rocks, it increases their weight, nnd thus favours their rending, blipping, and 
 overturning; and, lastly, it actjf niechanieally, when, by its freezing in finsures, it breaks up 
 moimtain innsses nnd rocks. It acts chi'iniralli/, when it dissolves ixirticnlar mineral sub- 
 stances, as rm-k-salt, out of the rocks through which it percolates. 
 
 SuiMECT. 1. — Mechanical lUstroying Effects of Water. 
 
 (1.) Rivulets and Rivers. Running waters, in their conrso from the higher to the 
 lower parts of a country, carry along with them the debris already ])re|)ared by the action 
 of the weather on exposed rocks, and also more or less considerahlo ]Kirtions of the strata 
 of the basin in wiiich tlioy flow. The ([uantity of abraded matter depends in a great degree 
 on tho quantity of sand or gravel the river carries along with it ; it being a fact, that running 
 water, when i)uro, acts but feebly on com])iict strata, and displays its sciK)i)iiig or excavating 
 |Kiwer only when carrying ahaig with it sand, gravel, nnd such other matters, which com- 
 nninicate to it a mechanical destroying action. As the velocity of tho river diminishes, 
 its carrying jiower diminishes; and frequently, long before it has reached the marsh, lake, 
 or the sea into which it disemliogues itself, it carries only slime and slcech, leaving the 
 gravels and larger solid masses in higher parts of its course. The transporting power of 
 water is nmch greater than many aro aware of: it is strikingly shown by the enormous 
 quantities of rubbisli, and great blocks of stone, which are swept along by ri\ iilets when in 
 the state of flixxl or swollen. This transporting power is materially assisted by flio diminished 
 specific gravity of the rocks when hnmerseil in the water, by which their weight is often 
 diminished one-third, and even one-half. The transporting of heavy stones by water in 
 situations whore ice occurs is assisted by tho ice which adheres to them, and which dimin- 
 ishes the specific gravity of tho mass. 
 
 (2.) Lakes. Around the margins of many lakes we ol)serve a beach, formed of tho fi'ag- 
 inents of tho neighliouring strata, broken ofT in pnrt by the waters of t!ie lake. Tho bursting 
 of lakes also occasions great changes in the neighbouring country, which changes are of a 
 mechanical destroying nature. 
 
 (3.) Ocean. The waters of tho ocean exercise a powerful destroying ofTcct on coasts. 
 If tlie coasts are Iwld and rugged, they are violently assaulted by tho waves of the ocean ; 
 the crags and cliffs split and tumble down, in frightful and irregular succession. The perfo- 
 rated rocli, tho Diireholm, on the west coast of Shetland ; the perforated rocks described by 
 Captain Cook near New Zealand ; the stalks, holms, and skerries on the coasts of Shetland,. 
 
 Vol. I. 18* 2B 
 
 
 i\\\ 
 
 ii-^ 
 
 ri 
 
 01 
 
 I* 
 
 ttf"' 
 
■i 
 
 m scrKNCR OP awMiHAPHY. Pa«t n. 
 
 Srotliiml, Bwl Norway, arc oft'citii of flm ilcHtroyiiix imwur of tho wnven of flic moiin, con- 
 jdiiii'il Willi till' Kimwmix actuiii ot'llm wnitlii'r. On iliiim) riH'ky ohihIh wIktp llii' Htriitii iiro 
 of uiii"<iiml linnlmwM, tli(> nottrr iKirtioiiH, uml nWt |Mirt of llio niirrdiiiMlinj; ImrdtT iimitu, nrn 
 ruiiKivi'il liy llio nction of tlii> wavi-*; anil limn ura-rai'rt lire toriiiiMl, 
 
 Tim wiitiTH of llm orciiii tirtcn iiIiki raiw I'.ri'iiiltlil riivii(;i'H in low roiintrifd i'.v|K)hp(I to 
 llii'ir tiiry. Itollitnd tlmiiiilirH iniiny Htrikini; i>xiuii|>I<>n of itn ili'viidtatiiiK power, In llie 
 yi'iir l-'*i» tlio wntofN nt' the ori-tin, ii)j;itittpil by ii violent teiii|)«'Hf, iniinilaleil the eoiintry j 
 ilie Uliiiie, HWollen lit the time hv e.vtraordiniiry (IihxIh, ami retiiineil iit a ((reat heifflit, |Mirlly 
 by till' wiitem of tlio ixtean, miif partly by the wiiwl blowin({ in ii contrary ilireelion to ita 
 coiirne, Kprend over the neiylilHHiriii;,' eoiiiitry : but, the tein|M!Ht luiviiii,' nuddeidy Htibnided, 
 the lnt'hly nlevtttwl waterM retired, with unrli velocity and forco ns to carry with them ii 
 ciiiiiiiderafdo |iortion of the noil, and letl in it» idiiro the mm nosv named tho '/.iii^ilrr Sin. 
 Ill the year I'Wl, a ffreat inundation wibniorKed the Kouthern part of the province ot llullnnd, 
 drowned (l<),(NHI porwiiiN, and on retirin(( formed the Hifn-lluoK. 
 
 The action of tho Hen on the mibmnrine land in alwi worthy of notice. Stovcnnon spcnkH 
 of nitritntiona of tho »ca reacliinf^ to a depth of iipwardn of 2(K) feet ; ntntint; that, at a con- 
 niileruble depth the power of the ocean in m conNiderablo nn to break rocka in piecea, und 
 throw them npon tho coasts in iiiaHMei), of varioiw ai/es and forma. Thiia ho aaya, " mimeroua 
 proot'a of tho a«ia boinjf diatiirbed to n coiiaidprHble depth liave alao la'currod ainc(! the erec- 
 tion of tho Bell-Rock lii^rlit-hoiixe, Hitiiated u|Hin a annkcn rock in tho aea, twelve milea ofl' 
 Arbroath, in FortUrahire. S<iino ilrift-slonvii of lar^o dirnenaiona, nieaaurin^r npwarda of 
 thirty cubic foct, or more than two tona wnijjht, have, during atorma, been often thrown upon 
 the rock from the deep water. Theae larjje lionhler-sfonta are ao familiar to the light- 
 lionae koepora at tliia atiUion, iia to bo by thorn tenned travellera,* On the couat of the muin 
 land of Shetlnml, particularly on the weat coaat, wo have obaerveil many atriking diaplaya 
 of tho power of tho waves in moviiiflf enormona ninaaea of rocka. 
 
 The currents that traverse tho neean, like rivera on the dry land, probably acoop out beda 
 for thomaolvoa, and carry awiiv, und often to distant placea, frtcnt ijuantitiea of abraded 
 matter. Tho pulf atreain, and other brunchca of tlio (jreiit etpiinoi'tial current, may oct 
 powert'nlly inthia way; and flie piime mny he the caao with the currents in other aciia, 
 nnd thiMi< that enter mcditerrunnaii acna and wind round them, oa tho Baltic and Medi- 
 terranean. 
 
 (4.) Arlion of wairr hy its own wrifrfit. Water by ita own weiRht contribntea very much 
 to the deirrndation of the siirliiee of the fflolie, Sometimea great nuiaaea of rock, particu- 
 larly thoae of a RolV and ixiroua nature, imbibe much water, by which their weight ia in- 
 creased, and tlina occasions breakinij nnd rending, and slipping of ^la8^e8 often of enormona 
 magnitude. Clay beds wnnetimes heconin soft from the jiercolutidn of rain or anow water 
 from the superincumbent strata. When this takes place the superincumbent beds loso their 
 anpport, ami if the clay and superiiiiposed rocks ure inclined at a conaideriible angle, the 
 rwks in vast masses separate, and slide down into the lower part of the country. The fall 
 of the Rosabcrg, in Hwitzerland, in September 1H()2, may be mentioned aa an e.vamplo of 
 this phenomenon. This mountain (Rosabers) is fillKl feet high, nnd lies opjwsito to tho 
 Rigiberg, which rises 0182 fed ataive the level of the aea. Tho Rosaberg ia com[)oaed of 
 molasse, with beda of clay, and nil inclined at an angle of 45° to .W. It is aaid that the 
 clay in some of the beds was much softened by the percolating water, nnd the thick aupcr- 
 incnmbent bods of molasse, in this way losing their supiairt, were aeparated from the inclmcd 
 and sort surface nndornoatli, nnd slid into tiie valley below. This avnlnnche of dcbria nnd 
 mnd overwhelmed several villages, nnd destroyed from 800 to 000 persons. In the year 
 1714, the west aide of the Diablereta, in tho Valais, separated, and in ita ccairsc downwards 
 covered the neighlKiuring country with its ruins for two miles in length nnd breadth ; the 
 immense l)l<K;ks of stones and heaps of rnbbish interrupted the course of the rivers, and 
 lakes were thus formed. In the venr 101-". the once considerable town of I'leurs, in the 
 Grisons, with the neighliotiring village of Rchehuio, were overwhelmed W a vast niaaa 
 of rock, which had imbibed nuich water, and seixiratcd from the south side of tho mountain 
 -of Corto. 
 
 (5.) Effectx of the frnziiiir of wittvr. In those regions of the earth where tho freezing 
 and thawing of water tikes place, tho expansive uml destroying nction of ice ia often dis- 
 played on n grand scale. In tho history of northern countries we meet with many accounts 
 of the noiaes nnd rendiiigs of rocks, occasioned hy the expansion of water during its freezing 
 in tho fltsiires of rocks. Terrible disa.sfers take pliee in nlpino countries by the bursting 
 nnd tall of great masses of rock, split by the freezing of the water in rents. 
 
 (().) Drslroi/inff pffirls of irp twil snow. Water in the form of ice causes considerable 
 changes on the snrfiice of the earth. Thus, when floated along in great innsses by rivers, it 
 breaks up their bank.s nnd thus ntlbrds them an opportunity of ileva.stating the lower country ; 
 and the ma.ssos are ofl»n so great, that enormous heaps of'^the strntA are thereby torn oft' and 
 carried to a distance. When sea ice is drifted against tho clifl's and precipices on the coast, 
 the breaking and destruction it occasions sometimes almost pass belief. For tho breaking 
 
 ' vi • v: 
 
 r!.i!i S,-.r. IT/ 
 
IT 
 
 II. 
 
 notm II. 
 
 GKOONOflY. 
 
 til 
 
 I, roll- 
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 Vlist 1111188 
 
 mountain 
 
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 I 
 
 up mid inovini; of InrKo nuuiMHi of nick, oii>' of ihc moiit pi verfuT engine* employed by 
 nature uro the irlncirrH. TheN*' iiiiihueH nl' riin|{ritli 'I WBter aii<l !<iui\v, 'n their coiirtndown- 
 wnril, piiNh iH'liirii them eiioriiiiiiiM i|ii(intitii'n of brofcu'M fieky matter, which fiiriil gtetA 
 MioiiiiiU, niiiiiud nioriuno. 
 
 HuMMrr. 'i. — t'himwal ilrxh 'i/iiiu l\ffirt$ nf Waitf. 
 AtliioNiiliorin water eiilrrii into thu lUNiire!* of rockn in 'i pure Ntate, hut inMiea ftiflh "Ifiiin 
 more or leHN iinureKiiatod with iiiiiierul iiiiitterN of viiriiKiH kiiuN nliraih'd tVom the strata 
 through which they |nihii. The nioNt uhiiiidant HiilMitiinco hriJii)(ht out in thin way tVoin tho 
 interior of the criiHl of the earth i* lime, which iM de|KiHito<l iVom t.hcsft rHlcarcoim water* in 
 tho l!irm of tullH. Many of the excavatioim in hmeHtono are (mrtly owinj; tu thjii df^stroyinpr 
 otil'ct of water. Sprint; watern, in puHHin^ throu|;h hed* of tfy|Niiim and rock wit, diMwdvn 
 a |x)rtioii of them, and in thin way HomutimeH occiiMion uunaiderable chanj;oii in the interior 
 and even thu Nurliice of the cartli, liy tho Nii|wrincumbunt ■trata yloldinn (*^'^' ^'i" holhiwM 
 formed by tho removal of the Halt and (fy|Mum. 
 
 HiiBKKrr, \\.—\ffchanirul fitrming FJfce.U i\f Wattr. 
 
 (1.) tWminff vffvrU of titrinif*. HprinK* briiiif from tho interior of the oarth muddy 
 matter of variuun iteMcriptionH ; and in thu coiirHo ol time, if the HprinffH aro RpoutinK-nprini^ii, 
 liillockH and hillH of coiiNideruble nmKnitiidn are thiiH formo<l. 
 
 ('2.) liukiH. When lake* aro tilled up, or are eniiitie<l, we And the wpacc formerly occin 
 iod liy tiiem covered, to a ffreater or leiwi denlli, with tho alluvial matter broii(;ht into them 
 ly tho river* tliat How into them. When liiKe* humt tlioir barrier*, at different time*, they 
 leave on their *ide* a »erie* of natural terrace* or platfonn*, of which wo have a *plendiil 
 example in (ilen Koy. In Olcn Roy theHO terrace* are known under the namo of Pnrallrl 
 Rnath of Ulfu Roy ; liecaiiae *omo have fancied they were not natural arrangement*, but 
 work* of art, — riNul* tortned by tho ancient inhabitant*. 
 
 (:),) Riven. When river* aro in a Htato of fltNxl they nflen overflow their bank*, and 
 cover tho nei};hbourin)f country with their woter*. Thus the Oiuijjch, near if* mouth, in tho 
 rainy *oaM<)ri overflow* the country to tiie breadth of one hundred mile*, and to tho depth of 
 nearly twelve fectj and the Indii*, during it* period of inundation, extends thirty or forty 
 mile* ft-om it* bank*. Thi* fltHxl water carrie* with il muddy and other matter*, and dcpoHit* 
 them u|K)n tho land. Oenird say* that the annual fliKid* of the Nile hail raised the surface 
 of UpjH'r K({ypt about six feet four inche*, Eii|;li*h moamire, wince the commencement of' 
 the CliriHtian era, or four inches in a century. In other countrie* extensive depo*it«, 
 extendinif aloiiff the «iiies of river*, are fonned by the overflowiiiff of their water*. VVhero 
 river* enter lake* and the aea, they form triiinKular piece* of lanil named drltas, fVom their 
 resoiiiblance in form to tho trianJ(umr-^llapell Greek letter A. These deltji* ore more strongly 
 marked in lake* than in nearly inchxtcil hoiih, a* tlie IMediterrancan ; and in these sea* than 
 in tho ocean, where the deposition* are much interrupted by current*. The most fiimou* 
 in history of these delta* is that of tho Nile. This delta ha* been considerably enlarf^ed 
 since tlie time of Herodotus, but not to the extent stated by many writers. At no pjeat 
 distance from tho shore of tlie delta tho depth of tho Mediterranean is about seventy-two 
 feet, and fiirtiier out tho sea suddenly deepen* to 20<K) feet, — a depth very probably beyond 
 reach of the delta, and which may lie conjectured to bo tho orijrinal depth of this part of 
 tlie Mediterranean aea. The deltas of the other river* that flow into the Mediterranean, 
 as the Rhone and tho Po, exhibit phenomena similar to those observed in the delta of Effypt ; 
 and by their considerable extent, oiid annual prowth, furnisli ample proof* of the forminjj 
 power of rivers, and of tho resemblance of alluvial matter* to strata of an older date. The 
 great sea-<leltu8, or those formed where rivers flow info the ocniin, are sometime* on a great 
 scale, as is tho ciise with the Ganges, of which a most interesting account ha* been given 
 by Reiinel and some other writers. A full description of this tiiagnificciit delta, as also of 
 the vast deposite* at the mouths of tho Mis»is.sippi, Orinoco, and other great rivers, will bo 
 given in the Ixidy of this work. At present, however, we may remark, that the quantity of 
 matter carried into tho sea by all tho river* on the globe i* very great, and fully as consider- 
 able us that stated by some author*, who have been held as exaggerating the amount of this 
 earthy matter carried from the dry land to the shores of the ocean. Tho alluvial matter 
 brought down by rivcr* not only forms great tract* of land at their mouths, but also, through 
 the ogency of currents, ii««iBfed by tlie waves of the iKean, gives rise to extensive tracts of 
 low and flat land, which extend along the coast*. 
 
 Downs. When the sea-coast i* low, and the bottom consists of sand, the waves push 
 this sand toward* the shore, where, at every reflux of the tide, it becomes partially dried, 
 and the winds, which oflen blow from the sea, drill up some portions of it upon tho beach. 
 By this forming action of the ocean, sandy flats and ilownK, or ranges of sond-hills, are 
 formed along tho coast. When this sand is moved about by tho wind, it forms what is called 
 ilig sand-flood. Westward from the mouth of the river Findhorn, in Morayshire, a district 
 consisting of upwards of ten square miles of land, which, owing to its fertility, was once 
 
 i , I 
 
SI3 
 
 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part U. 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 n* 
 
 III'. 
 
 li 
 
 named the Granary of Moray, has boon depopulated, and rendered utterly unproductive by 
 the sand-flood. This barren waste may be cliaracterised as liilly ; tlic accumulatiuns of sand 
 composing tliese liills freijuently varyinj,' in tlieir heigiit, and liitowir'o in tlicir situations. 
 The sand hills of Barry, at tlio mouth of tiie Tay, composed of blown sand, are from 200 
 to 300 feet high. Belnelvic links, in Aberdccnsiure, and tiie extensive sandy tracu in tiio 
 Shetland and Western Islands, are of the same description. These blowing sands some- 
 times block up the mouths of rivers and rivulets : thus, many years ago, the mouth of tlio 
 river Findhorn in Moray having become blocked up with blowing sand, it cut out for itself 
 its present channel, which conducts it by a more direct course to the sea. In consequence 
 of this, the old town of Findhorn had changed its situation irom the cast to the west side of 
 the river, and its site has since been covered by the sea. The lake at Strathbeg, which 
 covers a square mile of country, on the coast of Aberdeenshire, about ten miles north from 
 Peterhead, was formed about 170 years ago, by the ciioking up by blowing sand of a small ^ 
 stream that fell into the sea. These barriers sometimes give way, when tlie tract is again, 
 for a time, covered by the sea; a new barrier again rises, and the sea is excluded a second 
 time. These operations, on a great scale, would aiford alternation of productions of the land 
 and of the sea. The sands of the African deserts may be sea sands, or land sands, or botii 
 together. Dr. Oudnoy, Major Denham, and Captain Clapperton have abided to our knowledge 
 of the blowing sands of the African deserts. The coloured engraving of the sand-hills of 
 tlie African desert in Denham, Oudney, and Clapperton's Narrative, is a striking and in- 
 teresting representation of the form of the moving sand-hills of Africa. 
 
 Sand banks. The bed of the German Ocean supports many accumulations of sand, 
 called sand-banks. One of these extends fiwm the Frith of Forth, in a north-easterly 
 direction, to a distance of 110 miles, while another, the Dogger Bank, extends, north and 
 south, for upwards of 350 miles. The average height of these submarine sand-banks is 
 estimated at about seventy-eight feet : the whole surface of the various shoals in this sea 
 laid down in charts, according to Stevenson, is equal to about one-fifth of the whole area of 
 the German Ocean, or about one-third of the whole extent of England and Scotland. These 
 banks are composed of quartz sand, varying in the size of the grain, from coarse to fine, 
 which is abundantly mixed with broken shells and fragments or corals. These banks are 
 conjectured to owe their origin to the action of currents and the tides. 
 
 SuBSECT. 4. — Chemical forming Effects of Water. 
 
 (1.) Springs. Many spring waters, after dissolving, by means of the superabundant 
 carbonic acid with which they are impregnateii, calcareous matter abraded from limestone 
 rocks, or rocks contairing lime, allow the carbonate of lime to crystallize, in consequence of 
 the escape of the acid, and in this way form depositions of calc-sinter, or calcareous alaba.ster, 
 on the roofs, sides, and floors of caves; or fill up fissures in rocks, and form veins; or wlien 
 flowmg over the surface of rocks, form, if the surface is horizontal, horizontal beds — it 
 inclined, inclined beds — of calcareous sinter and calcareous tuflu. These beds sometimes 
 extend very far, and with a thickness of 200 or 300 feet The water of such springs, when 
 collected into hollows so as to form lakes, often deiwsits vast quantities of calcareous sinters 
 and tuffos; and hence sucli lakes, when emptied, present extensive calcareous dejiosits. 
 The travertine employed at Rome for building is a lake or spring calcareous deposit of 
 sinter and tufla ; and the town of Guancavelica in South America is built of a compact cal- 
 careous tuffa from the calcareous springs in the neiglilwurhood. In the mountain limestone 
 districts in England, also in tlie lias districts both in England and Scotland, the roofs, walls, 
 and floors of caves are often elegantly ornamented by numerous varieties of calcareous 
 sinter. In Persia, as mentioned by Sir John Malcolm, there are great deposits of a very fine 
 calc sinter, whicli is extensively employed for ornamental purposes ; and in tlie marshes of 
 the great plain of the vast circular valley of Hungary, according to Beudant, there is a 
 constant deposition of horizontal strata of calcareous tuflu and sinter, which are so hard as 
 to be used for building, all tlu; houses of Czlca being constructed of these minerals. Thf 
 |)ea-stono, a beautiful calcareous carbonate, is formed in very considerable abundance from 
 the waters of calcareous hot springs, as those at Carlsbad in Bohemia. As these calcareous 
 springs often flow into rivers, and the.so rivers terminate in the sea, it is evident that in this 
 way a vast quantity of carbonate of lime must reach the o<;can where it will be deposited in 
 the various forms of sinter, luffa, and limestone. The Geysers, or hot springs of Iceland, 
 and those of St. Michael's in the Azore.s, deposit on the dry land vast quantities of siliceous 
 .sinter. This siliceous mineral, which is sometimes like o|)al, although generally pure, is 
 not always so, being occasionally intermixed with other earths, and thus giving rise to par- 
 ticular mineral substances. Such springs also pour their waters into the ocean, and even 
 rise from the bottom of the sea sometimes a considerable way upwards, or even jot above the 
 surface level of the sea, all the time throwing out much water impregnated with silica, 
 which is deposited on the submarine land in various forms and states, depending on a variety 
 Df circumstances, which our limits prevent our noticing. 
 
 (2.) Lakes. Having already noticed the calcareous depositions from the waters of 
 
 Sect. 
 
u. 
 
 eby 
 Banil 
 ions. 
 •200 
 I the 
 loine- 
 if the 
 itself 
 acnce 
 iile of 
 which 
 I from 
 1 ginaU ,. 
 againt 
 second 
 [w land 
 or both 
 wledge 
 •hills of 
 and in- 
 
 3f sand, 
 •easterly 
 jrth and 
 banks is 
 
 this sea 
 e area of 
 1. These 
 e tx) fine, 
 banks an: 
 
 ;rabundant 
 limestone 
 lequence of 
 [alabaster, 
 ; or when 
 il beds— it 
 .sometimes 
 ings, when 
 lous sinters 
 Is dejHJsits. 
 deposit of 
 impact cal- 
 1 limestone 
 [oofs, walls, 
 calcareous 
 a very fine 
 marshes of 
 there is a 
 so hard as 
 irals. The 
 lance from 
 calcareous 
 ithat in thif' 
 leposited in 
 of Iceland, 
 of siliceous 
 tlly pure, i'^ 
 rise to par- 
 ti, and even 
 pt alwve t\ic 
 with silicn, 
 m a variety 
 
 waters of 
 
 Book II. 
 
 GEOGNOSY. 
 
 SIS 
 
 some lakes, we may now mention some other dejjoaits that appear to owe their origin ic 
 lakes. The lx)g iron-ore, or liydro-pliosphato of iron, is often found in such situations as to 
 sliow tliat it has been deposited from the waters of lakes ; and in pome countries it is col- 
 lected from the sides and bottoms of lakes once in a certoin number of years; thus allowing 
 tliat it is still forming in such situations. In salt lakes considerable depositions of salt take 
 place; and wiien such collections of wafer dry up, or are drained off, the sides and bottoms 
 of the liollows are found incrusted with salt, wliicli is sometimes disjMiscd in bods alternately 
 witii buds of clay. 
 
 (8.) Marine incruflatinns. Collections of perfect and broken sea-shells and nf corals are 
 sometimes found agglutinated by calcareous, clayey, or ferruginous matters, forming banks 
 or bods of considerable extent. Beds of tliis kind, particularly those formed of shells, are 
 met with in many parts of the coasts of this island. In other coimtries, as in the West 
 Indies, a solid conglomerate of shells and corals lines a considerable extent of coast on 
 several of the islands. The human skeleton from the island of Guiulaloupo, in the British 
 Aluseum, is imbedded in a rock of this description. 
 
 SuBSECT. 5. — Effects of the Atmosphere, tj-c. 
 
 Effects of the atmosphere. The air and moisture of tlie atmosphere effect great clianges 
 on the rocks at the surface of the earth. They eitlier simply disintegrate the rock, or not 
 only break it down, but also occasion a change in its chemical constitution. Sandstone, and 
 other rocks of the same general description, oflen yield very readily to the weather; their 
 basis or ground is washed away, and the quartz, mica, and otlier particles remain in the form 
 of sand and grovel. When trap veins intersect strata, it frequently happens that the softer 
 parts of the rock are destroyed, while the harder trap appears rising several feet or yards 
 above the neiglibouring surface, and crossing the country like walls ; hence, in Scotland, 
 they are named tbjkes. The variously shaped summits of mountains and hills owe much 
 of their form to the destroying influence of the weather. Some caves, as certain open caves 
 in sandstones and limestones, are also formed by the destroying powers of tiie atmosphere. 
 The various changes in tlie form of rocks, by which they assume columnar, globular, tabular, 
 and indeterminate angular forms, and fall into scales, crusts, layers, g-ravrls, and saiuls, are, 
 to a certiin extent, effects of the destroying powers of the atmosphere. Valleys owe much 
 of their form and extent to the destroying influence of the atmosphere. Their sides and 
 summits, everywhere exposed to its action, become covered with debris; and in this way 
 valleys experience greater changes than are produced on their bottom by the passage of 
 the river, and on its sides by the rushing of the torrent. The chemical destroyinff etTects 
 are to be tracul to the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and to the vast (piantities of the 
 same matter which rise from the interior of the enrtii : this acid dissolves lime, abstracts 
 alkaline matters from granite and other similar rocks, and by combining with iron, converts 
 that universally distributed substance into a s-oluble carbonate. The oxygen of tiio atmo- 
 sphere also, by its action on the iron and other constituents of rocks, assists in breaking 
 them down. 
 
 Effects of electricity on rocks. Electricity, as a chemical agent, may be considered not 
 only as directly producing an infinity of changes, but also as influencing almost all that take 
 place. There are not two substances on the surface of the globe that are not in different 
 electrical relations to each other; and chemical attraction itself seems to be a peculiar form 
 of the exhibition of electric attraction : and whenever the atmosphere, or water, or any part 
 of the surface of the earth, gains accunuilated electricity of a difl'erent kind from tlie con- 
 tiguous surfaces, the tendency of this electricity is to produce new arrangements of the 
 parts of those surfaces. Thus, a positively electrified cloud, acting even at a great distance 
 on a moistened stone, tends to attract its oxygenous, or acidiform, or acid ingredients; and 
 a negatively electrified cloud has the same effect uiwn its earthj', alkaline, or metallic mat- 
 ter; and the silent and slow operation of electricity is much more important in the economy 
 of nature than its grand and impressive operation in lightning and thunder. 
 
 Sect. III. — On Volcanoes, and the Chanires thry produce on the Land and the Bottom of 
 
 the Sea. 
 The agents whicli the globe conceals in its interior, and whose existence is manifested at 
 its surfiiee, are made known to us by the phenomena of volcano(s and earthquakes. We 
 shall first describe these jihenomena, and afterwards add some observations on their causes. 
 
 SimsECT. 1. — Distributintt of Volcanoes. 
 
 Volennoes, as is well known, are openings in the crust of the earth, whence there issue 
 from time to time jets of iMiriiing substances and currents of melted matters whicli bear the 
 name n\' hinis. These openinirs are generally on the summit of isolated mountains; tiiey 
 have the f^inn of a fiituirl, and take tlie name of craters. 
 
 Position if volriinoes. Volcanoes occur in all quarters of the globe, and are often d'» 
 '.ributed in a linear direction. 
 
 fl 
 
 i 
 
 m 
 T 
 
 I: i 
 
 i ii. 
 ii a!, 
 
 I'm 
 
 'Vl 
 
 4! I 
 
 ' k";* 
 
 ,jt»' 
 
214 
 
 SCIENCK OF r.KO(JRAPIIV. 
 
 Part IF. 
 
 Dislrilintion. — Etiropo coiilains l)nt low Ixirnin^ voIciiiuhh, On llin coimt of Sicily, wi' 
 Hoe A']Umi rixiiifjf iiku u cuIossum to ii hcijrlit of 1(),H7() IOii;;liNli fbot On liio opiKwiii! uoaHt 
 of Iliily Nvn liiivn V'cHuviuH, wliiirh iI(m\m not uttuin more tliiui tlio third of this ulfviilion, viz. 
 iVXti l('('l. Iti'twcuii thcui, in the l.ipiiri iHlandn, wo liiiil the Hiniill volcimo of Hlroiiiholi, 
 uiiil tiio voh'iiiiiirs of Vuloano and Viiluunollo, wiiich Htill Hrn(lk(^ Tin' ixhuidH of the Aiclii- 
 pohijTd, at Milo and Kantoriiio, contiiin nionntaiiiH whicii, dnrin^r an rarly hiHtoric porioil, pro- 
 (hiccd torribh* i};nciMis pliononiena. Icohind in tin; north, in tlie midst of snow an<i ice, pre- 
 sents til our view many voicaiKK's, of wliii;h tht; most tirominent, Meehi, rises to u liiii^rhl of 
 Th'MK) fe(>t. Farther to tin; nortli, in the desolate and dreary Jan Maven's Islaiiil, extendinfr 
 between nortli latitnde 70" 40' mid 71° H', is the volcano of Ksk Alount, which rises to u 
 hoijjht of ir)(K) feet nliovo the Noa-l>eauli in Janu!'<on'H Hay. Tlift continent of /l(tin, as Itir 
 ns IS known at present, exhibits but few volcanoes. Wo can scarcely reckon three or lour 
 un itii wt>stern shores, or on tin; od^es of the (Jasniaii : there arc none in ibt northern part : 
 Hutnt' but va|r)iely known exist in Central Asia: in the east, the peninsula of Kamtschatka 
 contains live or six; but in the islands which surround this continent their number is j^reat. 
 The islands on thecoastof /\/ric«, suclias Iknirbon, Madapiscar, the (.'ape de Verd Islands, the 
 Canaries, and the Azores, also coutuin several volcanotw. In Amirini, if we except those of 
 the West India islands, we observe the jj reater jiart of them on the rid^e of that jrreat Cordil- 
 lera, which, like an immense wall or lolVy terrace, Ixirders the weHt<>rn part of that conti- 
 nent. They are remarkable not only on account of their iHwition, but also tiir their colossal 
 form, the nature of the ma.sses of which they are com|Kised, and the materials they throw 
 out. Torrents of tire rarely issue from them, but stn-anis of water and mud are of treijuent 
 occurrence: the total number of American volcanoes is iilHiut eifrhty-six; tln^y are placed as 
 it were in {jroups. The kinj^doni of (luatemala presi'iits alwiit twenty ; iii M(!xico there are 
 si.v, in the number of which is the Joriillo, ho well known from the account of Ilumlioldt. 
 But it is in Peru that the (greatest (Kcur: there are seven in that country, of which we shall 
 luenlion I'iehincha, nearly 15,9:11 feet hifjh ; Cotopaxi, wicli ri.scs to the heifjlit of 18,807 
 feet; and Antisana, which attiiins a height of ID.llUi i'eet. On a roufjh estimate, we state 
 the number of buruiiifr volcanoes includiiifr solliitjiras at :)()!<; of these 1!)-1 are in islands, 
 ond the other 109 are on the continents : tlu! most distant from the sea an; those of Aiin'rica 
 and .\sia ; in I'eru there are volcanoes thirty leaijues from the sea; and that of Poixicntepell 
 near Mexico, which, however, is now only a smoking volciino, is fitly-six leiii,'nes; and th(;y 
 occur in the very centre of Asia. The circnmstaiice of the most active volcanoes beiu<:f situ- 
 ated in the vicinity of the sea, is a fact worthy of beinj,' recollected ; it becomes still moro 
 so when we obs(>rve, that there are submarin<! volcanoes burning in the midst of tlu? waters. 
 The islands, and the phenomena which they have lieen observed to produce, at Santorino, 
 on the coast of Iceland, in the Azores, &c., leave no doubt respi^ctini; tlieir existence. 
 
 Independently of volcanoes in a stjite of activity, the interior of our continents ('oninins a 
 prcat number of fxtinrt vokanor.i, but which still present their oriffinal form, or incontes- 
 table remains of that form : perhaps no country contains moro numerous and splendid displays 
 of them than France; there are moro than a hundred in Auverffiie, Vivarais, and Cevennes. 
 They are conical niountain.s, composed of laviw, scoria^, and volcanic ashi-s heaiHid uiwii tjacli 
 other ; many of f hem present a crater, whicli has retained its form in a ffreiiter or less defrrcn ; 
 and sometimes there are seen as it were issuing from their bases lavas which extend to a 
 ilistjince of several thousand yards, and which have perfectly jin'scrved the form of cnr- 
 rmts : the matter of which they are composiMl resembles that of lava trap. VVe may fur- 
 ther remark, that volcanoes ore never or scarcely ever isolated ; they are collected into 
 irroups. This is the case willi the American volcanoes; those of Asm, and the* different 
 Archipeliijjoes are similarly situated : in Eiiropi!, the Greek islands and soethorn Italy i)re- 
 seiit distinct fjroups. Sometimes volcanoes ar^ arranged one after the oilier in the same 
 line, as is tlie ciisc in South America, and in the extinct volcanoes in the neighbourhood of 
 the Puy de Dome. 
 
 Si'iwF.rr. 2. — Phrnomena and Throry of Vnlcannrs. 
 
 Volcanoes do not incessantly t>mit flames, nor do lavas constantly flow from them ; they 
 remain tor ages in a state of inactivity. Vesuvius was extinct from time immemorial, when, 
 awakening t'nim its slnmlier, it suddenly rekindled, in the reign of Titus, and buried the 
 cities of I'ompeii, Ilerculaneum, and Staliiie under its ashes. It became quiet again at the 
 end of the fiHeenth century; and in l(i:l(), when it resumed its action, its summit wr.s inlia- 
 liited, and (hovered with W(xh1. The inhubitaiits of Catania regarded as fables the accounts 
 of history respecting eruptions of .Etna, till the perio<l when their city was ravaged, and in 
 part destroyed, by the lire.-! of that volc'uio. 
 
 Siibterrancmi noises, and the appearance or increase of smoke, which issues from the 
 crater, are generally the I'lrst symptoms of volcanic action. Presently the noi.se becomes 
 louder, the earth treiiibles, it experieuc(!s shocks, and every thing pr(x;laim3 that it is in 
 labour. The smoke increases, thickens, and becomes charged w^ith ashes. When the air is 
 traui|iiil, the >iiiol<e is seen rising, under tin' torin ol' an immen.se column, to a very great 
 
tII. 
 
 f, we 
 
 COtt»* 
 
 1, viz.. 
 
 \iTlii- 
 
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 X (rrullt. 
 
 ,i(Ih, llic 
 
 lllOMC of 
 
 t Ciirilil- 
 
 it CDllti- 
 
 colofwil 
 ;.y throw 
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 llitsrt! are 
 luiiilwUlt. 
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 \vo Htatc 
 ill islands, 
 ,(• Anuirii'tt 
 l>iiitali'l>ull 
 ; and tlioy 
 
 still more 
 
 1„. wiiUirH. 
 
 Saiitorino, 
 
 Mice, 
 couuiiis a 
 
 ir incontcs- 
 
 |li(\ (lisplnya 
 CfWfunoH. 
 \H)on «!icli 
 iss (lojrrcR ■) 
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 [nil of cnr- 
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 lectctl into 
 lie- (ViiTercnt 
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 ri the same 
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 Ihcni; they 
 [)rial, when, 
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 It wr.s inha- 
 lie accounts 
 Igcd, and in 
 
 _^., from the 
 
 ■se l)i'conie!i 
 
 Tliat it is i" 
 
 l>n the air is 
 
 L very great 
 
 Book II. 
 
 (JECJGNOSV. 
 
 215 
 
 hoij^lif,. There, fMidin^r itholf in a mnT ntniiiNphere, it cnuwH to rise ; its upper part dilatinjr, 
 torniH iiK It W(!ri! an e.\|)aniieil Hilininit, placed iiprin a lenfrlliened Nhal).. 'I'lie chxiil, with Uie 
 hU|i|><)rtiii<r eohinin, in liivoiirahie cireuMibtnlice.s, haH the li^riire of an iiiiiiienHe iiinbrellu, or 
 of tlie llaliiin piM(>, lo which i'liny the i'lider conipan^d that of tlie eruption of Vemivins in 
 A. 1). "0, and which was accurately represiinlt^l in OcUAh'.t, 18*22. At other times tlie snioko 
 disperses in the air: it there tonus thick and vast clouds whicii oliscuro tho day, and covci 
 tlie surroundin;,' country with darkness, 'J'huse ccdiiiiuis and chiuds are ollcn travi.Tsed by 
 cnornioiiH jcXn of re<i-hot sand, resendilin^j llaiM(!s, and rising to extruordinary heights. Home- 
 times Ihi'V are trav(!rsed l)y llashiis of li{r|itnin^r, un<i <jn ail sides loud explosionH are 
 heard. 'I hen then' are projected ri;d-hot stimes and niasH4^s in fusion. They issue from the 
 volcano with a noise which is fre(|uently vi^y loud. 'J'hey ris*; into the air, spreadin^r out in 
 their ]>rofrress, and liill around the month of tlie volcano under the (i)rni of showers of ashuH, 
 ficorin', or stxnies. The shocks and (piakinj,'s of the (Ground continue and increase in violence. 
 in lh(! midst of these convulsions, and on these accessions, the m<'lte<l matter which filled 
 the suhterruuean furnaces, alre.'uly carried into the mountain, is raist-d up by elastic fluidfl; 
 it ascends to the crater, iills it up, and passiuf; over the least elevateil part of this enormous 
 cavity, spreads out ujion the tliinks of the volcano. It then dcsc(;nds, sometimes vary (|uickly ; 
 Hometimes, and more liecpiently, as a majestic river, (piielly rolled ulon^ its peaceliil waters. 
 Very frt'tpiently, when the lava rises, the walls which contain it beintf unable to resist its 
 inunense pressun; or its heat, (rive way and hurst asunder. It rushes forth like an imp<!tuuuR 
 torrent throiifjh this new aptirture; rivers and torrents of fire make their way t<i the fixjt of 
 the mountain ; tlu^y s|iri!ad out u|Km the nei;r|||K)iirinjr p^round, carryiufr alon(<^ or huryin^r all 
 that they (ind in their way, hreakiu},' down or overthrowing,' every oi)stacle that op|)oses their 
 patisu^e. In tlit; midst of torrents of fire, enormous currents of water and nnid sometirncH 
 issue from v'olcanoo.^, and delujjes falling!; from the atmosphere increase the ravafjes, lay 
 waste fields which lavas had spared, and carry dei-'olation into places which hud ulrea<ly 
 thought themselves liappy in haviiijr escaped the scoiir^i's of the eruption. Mitphitie gases 
 and noxious exhalations sometimes arise, particularly in low situations; they destroy animals 
 and blast vejjetation, and thus complete the scene of mi.sery and di'solation. 
 
 Afler the emission of llie lavas tlu; (Mirth seems freed of tb(! evil whicli agitated it, the 
 carth(|uakes cease, the cxplosioii.s and ejections diminish tiir Hime time, and the volcanc 
 enjoys a moment of rest: hut i>reHonlly a new accession takes place, reproducing in a still 
 more terrible manner the same ))h(Miomena ; and this slate of tilings continiK-s during a 
 variahle periwl of time. At length the crisis cea-se's, and the volcano finally resumes its 
 original traiKjuillity. 
 
 Having premised this general account of volcanic action, we shall next treat of the huI)- 
 stanc(!s ejected or projected into the atmosjihere by volcanoes, and the lavas which they 
 pour onU 
 
 n. Ejected Mailers. 
 
 These arc, 1. Smoke. 2. Ashes, !J, Sands, 4. Scoriij;. 5. Volcanic bombs, 0. Unal- 
 tered Masses ? 
 
 (1,) Smoke. Tho enormous ctdumns of smoke which are seen issuing from the crater, 
 sometimes with extraordinary rapidity, are chiefly composed of atpieous vapour. This vapour 
 is generally charged with gaseous siilistances, and particularly with hydrogen gas, sometimes 
 also with carlKinic acid. Sulphurous ncid and muriatic acid an; also given out. TIk; .smoke 
 is gray or white; sometimes als(} brownish black, or fuliginous, and then the smell is not 
 unlike that of asphaltum, or mineral (litcli. It oflen contains a great quantity of volcanic 
 ashes. 
 
 (2.) Aslus. The.sc ashes, which appear to Ix; nothing else than the substances of the lava 
 reduced to a state of minute mechanical division, are fiirmed of flocculent and extremely 
 minute particles of a gray colour, and forming a paste with water. They are always mixed 
 with a greater or less «iuantity of sand, which gives them tho blackish colour which they 
 sometimes exhibit. The torrents of gas and va|)our which issue from the craters carry 
 these ashes along witli them, bearing them into the atmosphere, where they form vast 
 clouds, sometimes so dens(! as to cever the surrounding country with darkness. During the 
 eruption of ITecla in 170(5, clouds of this kind pnHluccd such a degree of darkness that at 
 Glaiimba, which is more than (itly l(>,igues distant from the inountain, people could only find 
 tlieir way by groping. During ilie eriiptioii of Vesuvius in 1794, at TasertLi, fiiur leagues 
 distant, peciple could only wiiik by the light of torches. On iIk! 1st of jNliiy, 1812, a clouil 
 of volcimie ashes and .sand, coming from a volcano in the island of St. Vincent, crjvered th 
 whole of Harbadoes, spreading over it so intensi^ a darkness, that at mid-day, in the open air 
 one could not (lerceive the trees or other objeets near bini, or even a white Irindliercliicf 
 plaee(l at the distance of six inches from tlie eye. The distance to whicli these volcanic 
 ashes are carried by the winds is truly astonishing. Barliadoes is najre than twenty leagues 
 from St. Vincent's, and lleela is filly liMiL'ues from Oliiundia. I'rocojiius relates, that in 472 
 the ashes of Vesuvius were carried as far u.s Constantinople ; that is to .«ay, to a distance of 
 
-•fy 
 
 216 
 
 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPIIV. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 250 Icajrues. These showers of nslics proiluco, in llic countries wlicrc tliey fiill, uartiiy 
 beds, often of great thickness, whicli, on being licaped up and penetrated by water, form 
 some kind of volcanic tuffa. 
 
 (3.) Volcanic sands. Tliese are small particles of lavas which have been ejected into tlie 
 air in the form of drops, and there harden. Tiiey are notjiiiig but very (small sized scorim, 
 or fragmonta of onlinary scorin\ Tiiey arc, nioroovcr, mingled with numerous small crys- 
 tals of augite and felspar, or with fragments of these crystals. Tiie (luantity of these sands 
 which volcanoes eject is immense. Tiiey form tiie greater part of the ejections, and of tlie 
 mass of many volcanic mountains, of Alinn. for exuniplu, according to M. Dolomiou. The 
 tincst mingle with tlie ashes, and form ])art of the clouds already mentioned. Otiu^rs, accu- 
 mulating in too great quantity to be sustained upon tlie acclivities of tlie mountain, slide 
 down and spread out at its base. In the eruption of Vesuvius of 1822, a current of sand of 
 this description, still red-hot, was taken at a distance f!)r a torrent of lava. 
 
 (4.) Scoria. The gases which come from the depths of the volcano, passing through 
 the moss of melted lava with great force and velocity, carry off some parts of that viscid 
 matter, and bear them along with them into the atmosphere. They are there furtiicr divided, 
 in consequence of the resistance which the air opposes to them ; and, in cooling, they assume 
 the intumesced and slaggy appearance which the scorisu of forges so frc(iuently have. 
 
 (5.) Volcanic bombs. When the matter of lavas is projected in a soil state, as is most 
 commonly the case, it sometimes on cooling in the air assumes the form of drops, tears, or 
 elongated spheroids, to which the name of volcanic bombs is given. They abound in the 
 extinct volcanoes of Auvergne. 
 
 (6.) Unaltered ejected masses. Volcanoes sometimes eject stones, many of which boar 
 no marks of common fusion. These, by some, are considered as fragments of rocks, which 
 form the walls of internal cavities, and which may have been torn off and projected by some 
 current of elastic fluids; others, again, maintiiin that they are fragments of rocks, which 
 have been formed by igneous solution and crystallization. Fragments of these dubious 
 masses are found in great numbers on the Monte Somma. There they arc of granular 
 limestone, containing mica, and many other minerals besides. 
 
 Projectile power of volcanoes. Did our space allow of it, it would be interesting to 
 inquire what is the intensity of that force which throws such quantities of matter to so great 
 a height. We can only remark, that the greatest velocity in the case of ^Etna and Vesuvius 
 was found to be equal to that of a cannon-ball at the moment when it issues from a cannon, 
 the velocity being from four to five hundred yards per second. The gigantic Cotopaxi pro- 
 jected a piece of rock about an Iiundred cubic yards in magnitude to the distance of three 
 leagues. 
 
 b. Lavas. 
 
 Eruptions of lavas. When we have an opportunity of seeing the liquid lava in the 
 crater, it resembles the melted matter in our funiaces, and appears as it were Iwiling with 
 greater or less violence. .lets of the melted matter are thrown up from the liquid sur- 
 face, through the agency of elastic fluids. It is by these elastic fluids that the lava is raised 
 upwards in the crater. When the mountain is high, as Teneriffe or JEtna, these fluids are 
 not sufficiently powerfiil to raise the lava to tlie summit, or rather the sides of the mountain 
 are not sufficiently strong to resist the weight and force of the long and iieavy column of 
 lava ; it therefore presses or melts the walls whicli surround it, and thus forms an opening, 
 through which it issues with great rapidity. When, on the contrary, the mountains arc 
 comparatively low, as Vesuvius for example, the lava reaches the mouth of tliR crater and 
 flows over its lijis, and from tlienco downwards along the acclivities of the mountain. On 
 reaching the bottom they divide into several branches, according to the nature and slope of 
 the ground over which they flow. The currents or streams of lava vary much in regard to 
 the velocity with whicli tlioy move. This velocity deiiends upon the slope of the ground 
 upon which it flows, as well as upon the quantity and visridity of the lava. At Vesuvius, 
 M. de la Torre saw currents jiassing over a space of about 800 yards in an hour. Sir 
 William Hamilton observed one which traversed 1800 yards in the same time. The eruption 
 of 1776 presented another, which moved more than 2000 yards in 14 minutes. Hurlik 
 observed, during the eruption of 180.5, a torrent flow from the summit to the siw-sliore, a 
 distance, in a straight line, ot' about 7000 yards. Those we have mentioned, however, are 
 extraordinary velocities ; f(>r in general lavas move slowly. Those of jEtna, flowing uptiii 
 an inclined plane, are considered quick when they traverse a space of 400 yards in an hour. 
 In flat grounds they sometimes occupy whole days in advancing a few yards. 
 
 The slowness with which la\as cotd is not less remarkable than that with which they 
 move. If tlieir siirfiiee is quickly cooled and consolidated, the case is different with the 
 interior; the heat cnnrentnitcs there, and is retained fijr whole year.s. Currents are 
 mentioned which were llouiiig ten yr.irs after emerging from the crater, and lavas were seen 
 smoking in A\U\a twenty yciirs iiller mm cniptidii. 
 
 Tlie heat of li(|uiii lava is ni'rirly tli;il of liquid trap, a^ greenstone or l)a.salt. The 
 
V 
 
 Book II. 
 
 GEOGNOSY 
 
 217 
 
 linfT upon 
 \ un hour. 
 
 li\cii ttipy 
 I with the 
 Vents ate 
 Ivere seen 
 
 Lit. The 
 
 particular temperatures ore given by Dr. Kennedy, Sir James Hall, and Professor 
 Jameson. 
 
 Tlie ma^jnitudo of lava currents varies much. The largest current wiiich has ever 
 issued from Vesuvius \va.s about 14,000 yards long; tliat of the eruption of 1805 waa 
 8000; that of 1704 was in length 4200 yards, in breadth from 100 to 4(K) yards, and in 
 depth from eight to ton yards; tliat wiiich issued from ^Etna in 1787 was four times 
 larger ; and Doloniieu relates tliat that volcano furnished one more than ten leagues in length. 
 But the largest current known is that which in Iceland, in 1783, covered an extent of 
 twenty leagues in length by four in breadth. 
 
 Tliese currents, by being superinduced on each other, and having interposed between them 
 other products of eruptions, as sand, ashes, and scoria-, form a series of inclined beds that 
 give rise to the cone of the mountain. In short, the cone is composed of a series of con- 
 centric layers or coats of lava, scoriiB, &c. ; the outgoings of which are sometimes well seen 
 in natural sections in the mountain. 
 
 c. Different Kinds of Eruptions. 
 
 Watery and muddy eruptions. In the accounts of volcanic eruptions, mention is often 
 made of torrents of water and mud vomited forth by volcanoes. Many of these watery and 
 muddy eruptions are external actions, as is the case with those mentioned as having taken 
 place in Vesuvius, yEtna, and Hecla ; others are internal, as those of Quito. 
 
 (1.) External aqueous anil muddy eruptions. These are owing to great rains, which 
 frequently take place by the condensation of the great volumes of aqueous vapour that rise 
 from the craters during volcanic action. This rain, on mixing witli tiie ashes and sands, 
 forms currents, more or less charged with earthy matters, which descend on tiie sides of tiie 
 mountain, spread themselves at its base, and sometimes to a distance in the low country. 
 The melting of bodies of snow by the lavas also occasions great floods of water and mud. 
 Of this a striking instance is related as having taken place on Mount JEina in 1735, where, 
 by the sudden melting of a great body of snow by a stream of liquid lava, a terril)le inunda- 
 tion was produced, which devastated the sides of the mountain for eight miles in length, and 
 afterwards covered the lower parts of ./Etna, together with the plains near tlie sea, with great 
 deposits of sand, ashes, scorim, and fVagments of lava. Similar floods of ashes and sand arc 
 mentioned by authors as taking place in Iceland and in America, where the summits reach 
 above the snow line. 
 
 (2.) Internal aqueous and muddy eruptions. These waters also frecpiontly make their 
 way into tlio mountain by infiltration. They there collect in particular reservoirs; and at 
 the period of explosion, or when tlie mountain happens to split in consequence of some shock, 
 tlicy issue forth, and cover the neighbouring countries. During the earthquake wiiich over- 
 turned Lima in 1746, four volcanoes opened at Lucanos and in the mountains of Cfnicepcion, 
 and occasioned a frightful inundation. The mountains of Quito sometimes present tiic same 
 phenomena: but it is tliere accompanied with extraordinary circumstances. The enormous 
 cones of Cotopaxi, Pichincha, Tunguragua, &c., are but in some measure tlie summits of the 
 volcanoes to wiiich they belong, and whose acclivities are probably encased in tiio great mass 
 of the Andca. No true lavas, within the memory of man, have been vomited forth by these 
 volcanoes ; yet Humboldt saw consolidated lava currents on Sanguay, and even on Antisana. 
 It miglit be said, says Humboldt, that the volcanic agents, which seldom have force sufficient 
 to raise the column of lava to the summit of ^Etna and of tiie Peak of Teneritt'e, would still 
 less be able to raise it in volcanoes of nearly double the height. In ^tna and Tencriffe, the 
 lava may force an opening at the lower part of tho mountains, and thus burst out ; but this 
 could not happen in volcanoes whose sides are strengthened, to a height of nearly 3000 
 yards, by tho whole breadth of the Cordilleras. These volcanoes confine themselves to the 
 emission of ashes, scorim, and pumice. They also vomit immense quantities of water and 
 mud, but much more frequently by openings which take place on the sides of the cone than 
 by the craters. These muddy waters form, as it were, great lakes in the difll'rcnt cavities 
 which these enormous mountains contain. They issue from these cavities, as wo have said, 
 when a communication is opened with the exterior. Thus, in 1698, the volcano of Cargu- 
 arazo, which is in tho neighbourhood of Chimborazo, and perhaps forms a part of it, broke 
 down, and covered with mud eighteen square leagues of country. Similar muddy waters 
 are still conUiined in jMirts of the same country, which are of volcanic origin, l)ut which no 
 longer present any indication of fire; and they are equally vomitnl forth during great 
 commotions of the ground. In Peru and Quito it is not by fire and currents of burning mat- 
 ters that the volcanoes commit their ravages, but by the water and enormous streams of 
 mud. This substance is mud which is at first of a soft consistence, soon hardens, and bears 
 the name oi" nutya. It presents two curious ])lienomona. Sometimes, as in the inoya which 
 inundated the country of Pilielo, and which destroyed the village of that name during the 
 earthquake of 1797, it contains a combustible matter, which renders it blackish and soiling, 
 and which exists in so large a i|uantity in it that the inhabitants make use of this nioya as a 
 kind of fiiol. Frequently the same muddy waters, issuing from subterranean caverns, carry 
 
 Vol. I. 19 2C 
 
 i R 
 
 ■ 
 
 P 
 
 mi 
 
 v U 
 
 m 
 
 ii 
 
 
 r 
 ■ i 
 
 '1 
 
 
T ■ 
 
 218 
 
 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 witli thom a ffrcnt quantity of small flshcB. These fislios are u species of pimrlodrs (P. 
 cycloiniin). Most of thcin ure not more thun four inches lonff. Their number is sometimes 
 m jrriMit tlint diseases are occasioned in the country by their i>ntrefaction. They arc the 
 same as those which live in the brooks of the country. What, then, lias intruiuccd them 
 into tho^(' siil)t(>ri-aiioan lakes! It would appear that there are some conummications i)otween 
 the upper and lower level of these lakes and thi;'" surface of the ground; hut what could have 
 raised lliepi from the level of this surface to the summit of the volcanoes, lor they sometimes 
 issue from the crater! It is very difficult to give any exjilanation of this. From all that 
 has been said alH)ve, it does not appear that the mud which issues from these volciinoes comes 
 from the subterranean caverns where the volcanic fires have their focus, and prepare the 
 matter of lava. 
 
 Air tiNil mud volcanoes. In some countries we obsorvo issuini; from the pround jots im- 
 pelled by leases and charfred with earth, which, on beinnf de|)ositcd in the form of mud, in 
 the noiirhlKiurluKxl of und chiefly around the apertures which have vomited them, form cones, 
 which represent on a vi-ry small scale volconic cones, and which are theretbre named air 
 vnlcdiwrs. One of the most remarkable of these is that of Macalouba in Sicily. It consists 
 of a hill of dried nuid about IfK) feet high. Its upper part, which is 2(M)() feet in circum- 
 ference, presents a nuiltitude of small cones of which the larirest are not atxive a yard in 
 diameter. They have a small crut(!r full of soft clay, which is every instant traversed by 
 larfjc bubbles of {jus, which burst with an explo<lin}T noise, aTid scatter the clay aroimtl. 
 Some of these explosions have been seen throwinff jets of mud to the heiijht ot 16() feet. 
 In the neighliourhood of Modena there are many of these small nmd volcanoes, where they 
 arc called sahrs on account of the saltness of the water they scatter alwuf . Tlie gas which 
 occasions the phenomena is hydrogen gas charged with petroleum and carbonic acid. Similar 
 mud volcanoes occur in the Crimea, Java, Trinidad, and America. 
 
 d. Periods of Aclivilij of Volcanoes, and the Theory of their Formation. 
 
 Periods of aclivily of volcanoes. The periods of activity of volcanoes are hut transitory 
 and of short duration. They arc followed by years, and even ages, of rest. Ilnmboldt is 
 of opinion that the frequency of eruptions seems to be in the inverse ratio of the size of the 
 volcano. The smallest of them, Stromboli, is continually throwing up volcanic matter; the 
 eruptions of Vesuvius are less frequent, there having been but eighteen recorded since 1701; 
 those of yEtna are iiuich rarer; those of the Peak of Tenpritfe still more so; and the colossal 
 summits of Cotopaxi and Tunguragua scarcelj' exhibit one in the course of a hundred years. 
 To periods of activity there sometimes succeed jjoriods of repose. The crater is filled up 
 and becomes cov<;red with f5)rests. These burning furnaces, whence torrents of fire have 
 issued, become the reservoirs of subterranean lakes, whose waters are peopled with fishes, 
 and in elevated situations the sides and summits of the mo\mtain9 become covered with snow 
 and ice. But most commonly the state of rest is not complete; the- crater remains open, 
 and there is exhale<l from it a greater or less quantity of vapours, which attack the masses 
 that lie in their way. Sometimes they produce different saline and metallic incrustations. 
 Volcanic districts in which, however, no eruption has taken place since the commencement 
 of our history, and in which the volcanic cones are nearly effaced, still betray by their vajiours 
 and exhalations the tire which formerly ravaged them, and which is not yet extinct. Such 
 are the Phleffrcun Fields, on the coast of Puzzoli, in the kingdom of Naples, 
 
 Cause of volcanoes. This is an obscure subject. A conjecture, hazarded many years ago, 
 may be stated. There being no decided proof of a central heat, in the commoiily received 
 sense, it may Ik; assumed that the matter of lavas is seated deep in the crust of the earth, in 
 spaces of greater or less extent, from whence it is sent up from time to time among tho 
 previously existing stratJi, by tho agency of elastic fluids. 
 
 Sect. IV. — Earthquakes. 
 
 On earthquakes, and the changes they produce on the eartVs svrfacf. Werner distin- 
 guishes two kinds of earthquakes. Some, he says, appear to bo connected with n particular 
 volcano, and to have their focus in the same region as it. They are only felt to the distat.je 
 of a few leagues around, and their paroxysms are almost always connected with those of 
 the volcano. Others, which appear tu have their focus at a much greater deptli, and whoso 
 effects are niurli greater, are propagated to inunense distances with inrrodible celerity, and 
 are felt almost at the same time at points thousands of miles rlistnnt from each other. "So;r' 
 of the latter however approach the former, and are still connected with volcanic phenor, ■in. 
 Tims, during the earthquake which overturned Lima in 174f),and which was one oC the most 
 terrible that has been recorded, four volcanoes opened in one night, -"ui! the agitation of tho 
 earth ceased. 
 
 rnirirsiiHty of rartlKjvnkes. If in the more violent we include the slighter agitations 
 of the earth's snrfiice in particular places, earthquakes may be said to be universal or general, 
 and we may affirm that no considerable country is entirely exempted from them. Sandy 
 deserts ami fertile region,", primitive, secondary, and tertiary hills, extensive plains, and even 
 
11. 
 
 ^noT (listin- 
 I particular 
 lip (liHtai.CP 
 111 thoso of 
 Iniul wliose 
 llpTity, and 
 Ipr. So:r' 
 llipnov, 'in. 
 1(4" tho most 
 Ition of the 
 
 ;\ (jit at ions 
 lor nrpiipral, 
 ■in. " Sandy 
 Is, and even 
 
 4r' 
 
 Book II. 
 
 GEOGNOSY. 
 
 210 
 
 rnnrshy districta but little olovatod ulwvc tin; level of the sen, uffiird no protection airainst 
 ti. -se destruutivu phunoiiieim, which are equally prevalent in cold, in ifnipemte, and in tropical 
 climuteH. Tliey are, however, jjenerally considered more freiiucnt nt'iir to coasts; thuSi 
 Syria, the coasts and islands of Asia, America, the European coasts of the Mediterranean, 
 and Iceland, are mast subject to them; while the plains of Africa, Asia, and the North of 
 Europe are least cxixtsed. Viewinjj tlie whole earth, and including every slijjhterugitjition, 
 carthquukes appear to he oxceedin^'ly numerous, and it may ho maintained that not a week 
 passes in which the earth's surface in some place or other is not more or less aj^itatert. Tlic 
 fjreat number of concussions observed in civilized countries, and the tiict that some districts 
 are constantly agitated by them, entitle us to draw the conclusioti. Their return in the 
 places most subject to them, and in the places where they are less frequent, is not regulated 
 by any precise |)eriod of time. Their appearance is not connected with any particular season 
 of the year or state of the atmosphere, and they take place by day as well as by night. 
 
 Phv.iwmenu of Earlhiuakm. The phenomena peculiar to earthquakes are in themselves 
 sutficiently simple. They consist in tremblings and oscillations of the earth's surface, called 
 shocks; extending over greater or smaller tracts of country, and frequently following a par- 
 ticular direction. The shocks appear at first chiefly as perpendicular heavings; then as 
 horizontal undulations or oscillations; lastly, in some instances, there is a violent agitation: 
 the motion is more or le.ss rotatory. If to these we add the rending, slipping, rising and 
 sinking of the ground, the violent agitations of the sea, lakes, rivers, and springs; consist- 
 ing, in springs, in their drying up or bursting forth with great violence ; in lakes, rivers, and 
 the ocean, in their fiiUing and rising, and rushing backwards and forwards, owing to the 
 sinking and rising of the land, we obtain un enumeration of the princii>al phenomena. As 
 the subject is very interesting, we shall view it somewhat in detail, and under the following 
 heads : — 1. Shocks, 'i. Extent of earthquakes. 3. Duration of shocks. 4. Magnitude of 
 rents formed, and the phenomena connected with them, 5. Elevation and subsidence of the 
 land. 6. Agitations in the sea. 7. Notice of particular earthquakes. 
 
 (1.) Shocks. The slighter shocks of an earthquake, consisting of perpendicular heavings 
 and horizontal undulations, commonly produce rents in houses, moving light objects in them, 
 as articles of furniture. Persons unacquainted with the phenomenon, or who do not per- 
 ceive it from tlic subterraneous noise resembling thunder which accompanies it, feel un- 
 steady while in their beds, but particularly when sitting, and believe themselves seized with 
 a sudden giddiness. The shocks proceed gradually to be more violent, and then they are 
 very easily perceived even by the inexperienced. Then the most substantial buildings are 
 shattered to |)ieces, and the inhabitants buried beneath their ruins : while buildings of a lighter 
 coa.struction are only rent, and very slender reed huts are least of all exposed to destruction. 
 In some cases the fracturing, or as it were trituration, surpas-ses description. Ilence, for 
 the plainest reasons, it is most dangerous to remain in houses or inhabited places ; but even 
 the fields and mountains themselves afford no perfect security, inasmuch as the fields fre- 
 quently in some places open into fissures, and are rent asunder ; while mountains are not 
 only rent, but slide down into the valleys, dam up rivers, form lakes, and cause inundations. 
 Although the desolation produced by these convulsions exceeds all description, this is much 
 more the case with the rotatory motions ; a species of motion, however, the existence of 
 which has been denied by some geologists. In proof of it, however, it may be mentioned, 
 that during the earthquake of Catania, whose general direction was from S. E. to N. W., 
 many sUitucs were turned round, and a largo mass of rock was turned 2ij° from South to 
 East. But the rotatory motion was more strikingly exemplified in the earthquake at Val- 
 paraiso, on the 19th November, 1822, by which many houses were turned round, and three 
 palm-trees were found twisted round one another like willows. These rotatory motions of 
 masses of rock are particularly interesting when viewed in connexion with the pheno- 
 mena of faults or shifls among strata in non-volcanic districts. It is only tlie slighter earth- 
 quakes that pass by with a single shock; in most of them more shocks follow at short inter- 
 vals, and for the most part the number is proportioned to the violence of the concussion. 
 The first shock is sometimes the most powerful, but the second is as often, if not oftener, 
 ecjually violent. Further, the concussions arc also repeated atlor longer intervals, as the 
 eartiiquakes in Syria, that sometimes continue fiir a number of months, with longer or shorter 
 intermissions ; but the first catastroplie is generally the most violent and destructive. 
 
 (2.) Kxtcnt of earthquakes. It is tlie agitation of the sea that points out the great extent 
 of the tracts of land convulsed by earthquake.*. In this respect, the earthquake at Lisbon, 
 in 17.V), wa.s the most remarkable and most violent that over visited Europe. In conse- 
 quence of it, by tiic concussion on the bottom, or momentary rising or upheaving of the sub- 
 marine land, the sea overfl."i\ved the coasts of Sweden, England, and Spain, and of the 
 isl.'iniis of Antigua, Barbanoos, and Martinicpie in America. In Barbadoes the tide, which 
 rises only 28 inches, rose 20 feet in the bay of Carlisle, and the water appeared as black as 
 ink, owing probably to bituminous matter thrown up from the bed of the ocean. On the 1st 
 of November, when the concussion was most violent, the wafer at Guadaloupe retreated 
 twice, and on its return rose in the channel of the island to a height of from 10 to 12 feet. 
 
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 220 
 
 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAI'llY. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 Similar appearances were witnessed at Martinique. A wave of the sea, 00 feet high, over- 
 flowed a part of the city of Cadiz ; and the lakes of Switzerland, sncli as Geneva, were ob- 
 served to be in commotion six hours after the first shock. It is also remarkable tliat a(;ita- 
 tions were noticed in lake Ontario, in October, 175.'). Durinff the earthquake at Lima, ir)86, 
 a wave of the sea rose 84 feet high in the harbour of Calliio, During tlio eartlKjuakes in 
 Calabria in 179t3, the sea not only overflowed the coast and drowned many people, but was 
 in general so much agitated that the guns on shipboard sprung from the deck to u height of 
 several inches. 
 
 (3.) Slippinff of Utountaiiu. Besides the common operations of earti«iuakes already 
 mentioned, others occur that do not immediately succeed the concussions, and therefore 
 happen less frequently. To these belong tlie sliding down of parts of mountains, as at 
 Dobratch in 1345, and the fulling together of two mountains in Jamaica in lOtVi, by which 
 the bed of a river was dammed up. In the latter place, a part of a mountain slid down and 
 covered many plantations ; the city of Port Royal sunk to the depth of eight fathoms ; and 
 a plain of 1000 acres fell in, with all the buildings upon it. 
 
 (4.) Duration of ahockt. Single shocks frc()uently succeed one another very rapidly, and 
 often ofter greater or smaller intervals of time ; they are occasionally single, frequently very 
 numerous ; and in volcanic districts, shocks sometimes happen after a lapse of months or 
 years, are tlien followed by longer or shorter intervals, and even periods of 10 or 100 
 years. In regard to this, it is remarkable that since the earthquake which in 1204 shook 
 Antioch, Damascus, and Tripoli, Syria was spared till the latter half of the seventeenth 
 century, although no region of the earth suflt'rs more from these destructive phenomena 
 tlian that country. It is, in short, difficult to define the duration of a single shock. It is 
 undoubtedly brief in general ; and in slighter shocks, witnessed by tranquil spectators and 
 consequently observed with greater attention, it is not longer than a few seconds. In the 
 greater convulsions, for instance at Lima, Caraccas, Calabria, Catania, Zante, Antioch, &c. 
 tiie time is reckoned from fifty seconds to one minute and five seconds, or indefinitely from 
 a few minutes to a few seconds. When we consider how exceedingly distracted the atten- 
 tion is when the shock is first perceived, that the duration cannot be measured by means of 
 a watch, but by supposition, and that by such a m(Kle of computation we are in the habit of 
 reckoning time much longer than it really is, we may with great probability conclude that 
 the duration of a single shock does not go beyond a few seconds, and wc may aflirm that, 
 at the most, it rarely exceeds half a minute. 
 
 (.5.) Magnitude of rents formed by earthquakes. These vary from a few feet to many 
 fathoms in extent They have either a direction which is nearly straight or more or less 
 winding, or they run in all directions from a centre. During the terrible Calabrinn earth- 
 quakes of 1783, rents were formed of great dimensions ; in the territory of San Fili there 
 was formed a rent half a mile long, two feet and a half broad, and twenty-five feet deep ; in 
 the district of Plaisano, a rent, of nearly a mile in length, one hundred and five font broad, 
 and thirty feet deep opened ; and in the same district two gulfs arose, one at CerzuUi, three 
 quarters of a mile long, one hundred and fifty feet broad, and about one hundred feet deep ; 
 and another, nearly a quarter of a mile long, about thirty feet broad, and two hundred and 
 twenty-five feet deep. Ulloa relates that in the earthquake of 1746, in Peru, a rent took 
 place, which was two miles and a half long, and four or five feet wide. These rents some- 
 times close again ; thus, in the year 1692, in the island of Jamaica, during an earthquake, 
 the ground heaved like a boiling sea, and was traversed by numerous rents, two or three 
 hundred of which were often seen at a time opening and closing rapidly again. 
 
 (6.) Elevation and subsidence of land during earthquakes. It is evident that, if the 
 land is fractured and then traversed with vast rents by earthquakes, that portion of the 
 land will in some places sink and in others rise, and this not once but several times in the 
 ftime place. In the year 1772, during an eruption of one of the loftiest mountains in Java, 
 the ground began to sink, and a great part of the volcano, and part of the neighbouring 
 country, estimated to be fifteen miles long and six miles broad, was swallowed up. During 
 the earthquake at Lisbon in 17.'i.'>, a new quay entirely di8ai)peared ; thousands of the in- 
 habitants had taken shelter on it, in be out of the reach of the tottering and fiiUing build- 
 ings, wiien suddenly the quay sunk down with its thousands of human beings, and not one 
 of their dead bodies ever floated to the surfiice. In the year 1692, during an earthquake in 
 Jamaica, a tract of land about a thousand acres in extent sank down in less than a minute, 
 and the sea immediately took its place. On the north side of the island several large tracts 
 with their whole population were swallowed up, and a lake appeared in their place covering 
 above a thousand acres. Numerous examples of the upraising of the land by earthquakes 
 might be given ; we shall enumerate a few of them. On the 19th of November, 1822, a 
 most dreadful earthquake visited the coast of Chili ; the shock was felt at the same time 
 throughout a space of one thousand two hundred miles from north to south. When the 
 country around Valparaiso was examined on the morning after tiie shock, it was foimd that 
 the entire line of coast, for the distance of more tiiau a hundred miles, was raised above its 
 foimVr leVei. Tiie area over which tliis u))raising took place was estimated at one hundred 
 
»^^ 
 
 OOOK II. 
 
 GEOGNOSV. 
 
 221 
 
 IIT II. 
 
 over- 
 re ob- 
 
 11)1 iUi- 
 
 ,i.m 
 
 .kes in 
 it was 
 ight of 
 
 ilrcady 
 ci'otbre 
 ■1, as lit 
 ' which 
 iwn and 
 m; and 
 
 dly, and 
 itly very 
 onths or 
 or 10() 
 )4 shook 
 cntnenth 
 enomena 
 k. It is 
 itors and 
 . In the 
 ioch, &c. 
 itely from 
 the atten- 
 means of 
 e habit of 
 elude that 
 iffirm that, 
 
 ct to many 
 
 ore or less 
 
 ■ian earth- 
 Fili there 
 
 •t deep ; in 
 feot broad, 
 
 siiUi, three 
 feet deep ; 
 indred and 
 _ vent took 
 [Cuts somc- 
 arthquake, 
 ]o or three 
 
 Ihat, if the 
 lion of tlic 
 Jncs in tiic 
 lis in Java, 
 Ighbourinn; 
 V Durin<: 
 lof the in- 
 ling build- 
 W not one 
 fchquake in 
 1 a minute, 
 krgc tracts 
 |c coverinfr 
 Trtiiquakes 
 
 ]pr, 1822, a 
 janie timo 
 JvVlicn the 
 Ifound that 
 ll atove it^ 
 Ic hundred 
 
 tliousand square miles : tiie rise upon tlie const was from two to four foot ; at the distance of 
 u mile inland, it was estimated from live to seven ftet. On the iHth of Marcii in the year 
 17W), ut 8t. Maria di Niscomi, some miles troni 'J'crranuovo, near tlie noulh const of Sicily, 
 u loud subterranean noise was heard under the town just mentioned, and the day ailcr oarth- 
 quakes were tblt; then the ground gradually sunk down for a circumference ol three Italian 
 miles, during seven shocks, and in one (jlace to a depth of thirty feet ; us the subsidence was 
 unequal, rents were formed, some of which were so wide that they could not be leaped over : 
 this gradual sinking continued to the end of the month, About the middle of this period 
 an opening took place in the subsiding land, aliout tliTeo feet in diameter; througli these 
 continued to flow, for tliree hours, a stream of nuid, which covered a space sixty t(?<'t long 
 and thirty feet broad ; the mud was saltish and composed of chalky marl and a viscid clay, 
 with fragments of crystalline limestone ; it smelt of sulphur and petroleum. On tlie lOlh 
 June, 1819, at Cutch in Bombay, a violent carth()uake took place, during which, indopenilent 
 of otiier changes, the eastern and almost abandoned channel of the Indus was much altered : 
 this estuary was, before the earthquake, fordable at Luckput, being only a foot deep wiicn 
 the tide was at ebb, at flood tide never more than six feet ; but it was deepened at the fort of 
 Luckput, alter the earthquake, to more than eighteen feet nt low water, showing that a con- 
 siderable depression had taken place. The channel of the river Runn was so much sunli 
 that, instead of being dry as before, during that period of the year, it was no longer fordablo 
 except at one place ; and it is remarked by Captain Macmurdoch, — and the observation is of 
 high geological import, as connected with the formation of valleys, of river districts, &c. — 
 "should the water continue throughout the year, we may perhaps see an inland navigation 
 along the northern shore of Cutch ; which, from stone anchors, &,c. still to be seen, and the 
 tradition of the country, I lielieve to have existed at some former period." Sindree, a small 
 mud fort and village belonging to the Cutch government, situated where the Runn joins 
 the Indus, was overflowed at the time of the shock. The people escaped with difficulty, 
 and the tops of the houses and walls are now alone seen above water. In the year 179(), 
 in the Caraccas, during an earthquake, a portion of granite soil sunk, and left a lake 80() 
 yards in diameter, and from eighty to an hundred feet deep; it was a part of the forest of 
 Aripao which sunk, and the trees remained green for several months under water. 
 
 (7.) Affilations of the i>ea. We have already noticed, in a general way, the agitations 
 observed in the sea during earthquakes; we shall now add some particulars illustrative of 
 these motions. During the Lisbon earthquake of 175.5, the sea rose along the coast of 
 Spain ; and at Cadiz it advanced in the form of vast waves sixty feet high. At Lisbon 
 about sixty thousand persons perished. The sea first retired, and laid the bar dry ; it then 
 rushed in, rising upwards of fifty feet a1x)ve its ordinary level. At Kinsale, in Ireland, the 
 sea rushed into the harbour, and invaded the land. At Tangier, in Africa, it rose and fell 
 eighteen times on the coast At Funchal, in Madeira, it rose fifteen feet above high-water 
 mark ; although the tide, which ebbs and flows there seven feet, was then half ebb. Even 
 ships at sea, a considerable distance from land, felt, in the midst of these convulsive motions, 
 as if hurried across a ridge of rocks. This took place, to a distance of 100 or 270 nautical 
 miles from the coast, during the earthquake at Lisbon in 1816. During the Lisbon earth- 
 quake of 1755, the shock was felt at sea, on the deck of a ship to the west of Lisbon, and 
 produced nearly the same feeling as on land. At San Lucar, the captain of the Nancy 
 frigate felt his ship so violently agitated that he thought he had struck on the ground ; but, 
 on heaving the lead, found lie was in deep water. Captain Clark, from Derina, in N. lat. 
 36° 2-1', between nine and ten in the morning, had his ship shaken as if she had struck 
 upon a rock, so that the seams of the deck opened. Dr. Shaw relates, that in 1724, being 
 on lioard the Gazello, an Algerine ship of 50 guns, they felt such violent shocks, one after 
 another, as if the weight of twenty or thirty tons had been let fall from a ijood height on 
 the ballast. Schouten, speaking of an earthquake which happened in the Moluccas, says, 
 that the mountains were shaken, ii nd ships that wore at anchor in thirty or forty fathoms' 
 water were jerked as if they had run ashore, or come foul of rocks, Le Genii says, " that 
 ships at sea and at anchor suffer, during earthquakes, such violent agitations that they seem 
 to be falling asunder; their ginis break kw.so, and their masts spring." 
 
 (8.) Notices of jmrticuhir Earthqitalics. A full account of all the principal earthquakes 
 that are known would much exceed uur limits ; wo shall, therefore, select only a few of the 
 more interesting. 
 
 No part of Europe is more visited by onrthqunkos than Italy and the neighbouring 
 islands. The first earthquake particularly worthy of notice was that which, in the year 
 63, destroyed Herculancuni and Pompeii. Since that period they have frciiuently visited 
 Italy and Sicily, but much snldomer from A. D. fi.'j to the twelfth century, than from that 
 period till modern times, that is, till tlie eighteenth and nineteenth crnturies. Of these 
 we shall describe one of the most recent in Calabria, and another of still later date in 
 Sicily. 
 
 Earthquake of 1783. The earthquake that so much nficcted Calabria, and destroyed the 
 city of Messina, ra:;ed at unequal periods from tiic 5th of February till the 28th of March, 
 
 19* 
 
 m 
 
 ;ifi M 
 
 I,:! IP: 
 
 I'i. 
 
 lO;^ 
 
 ml i\ 
 
399 
 
 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt II. 
 
 178H. Acconlinff to Sorcin, its principal Htvit wbh tlio smiill town of Oppido in the neish- 
 biiurliotKJ (if Atniiiionto, ii snnw-covoroil p<'iik of tliu Apminiiii.'ij. From tliis point, mya Sir 
 Williiiiii Iliimilton, nMuiid to a (liHtniict! of twenty-five iniicH, comprehendB the surtace of 
 country which sufl'erod most, and whore all the towns and villajfCH wcni destroyed. If we 
 dPKcribo the circle with a radius of neventy-two iriiles, it will includo the whole country 
 whicli was in iiny wny allbcted by the enrlhciuiike. The first shock, on the 6th February, 
 ill two niiniitcM threw down the preatcsl purt of the houses in all the cities, towns, and 
 vilbiifes fVoni tlin western acclivities of tiu! ApiMUiinus, in Calubriu Ultra, to Messina in 
 Sicily, iiiid convulsed the whole surface of the country. Another shock, which tofik pluco 
 on the "^.'jtli of Miirch, was nearly e(|ually violent. The jfranito chain which extends 
 throuj^h Calabria from imrth to south was but slightly agitated, the princi|)al shocks being 
 propagated with a wave-like motion tlirouffh the tertiary sands, sand-stones, and clays, from 
 west to east. It was remarked that the violence of the shock was greatest at the line of 
 junction of the f^ninito iiiid tertiary rooks, occasioned probably by the interruption of tho 
 undulatory movement of the poller strata by tho harder granite. Tho granite range also 
 prevented the passage of the shocks to the countries on the opposite Bide of the niountain- 
 rnnge. Alxiut iJlKI towns anil villages were dcatroyod, more than one hundred hills slid 
 down, fell together, (lanmied up rivers, and formed lakes: numerous rents, often of vast 
 magnitude, were formed; many subsidences and also upraisings of the ground took place; 
 and tho general features of the country were so much changed that they could scarcely be 
 recognised. Thus, in a very short space of time, the whole country was as much changed 
 as if it had been exposed to common influences for many thousand years. The total num- 
 ber of human beings that perished was estimated at 100,(100, and it was difficult to find even 
 distant relations to succeed to tho prtmerty of some families, 
 
 Earthniiahi: of Lisbon in 17.55. In no part of southern Europe has so tremendous aii 
 earthquake occurred as that which began on the Ist of November, 1753. On the morning 
 of that day, at thirty-five minutes after nine, without the least worning, except a noise liku 
 thunder heard under ground, a most dreadful earthquake shook, by short but quick vibra- 
 tions, the foundations of Lisbon, so that ninny of the principal edifices fell to the ground lii 
 an instant : then, with a scarcely perceptible pause, the nature of the motion changed, now 
 resembling that of a wngon driven violently over rough stones, which laid in ruins almost 
 every house, church, convent, and public building, with an incredible destruction of the 
 people. It continued in all about six minutes. At the moment of its beginning, some per- 
 sons on tho Tagus, near a mile from the city, heard their boat make a noise as if it had run 
 aground, tliough then in deep water, and saw at the same time houses falling on both sides 
 of the river. Four or five minutes after, the boat made the like noise, caused by another 
 shock, which brought down more houses. The bed of the Tagus was in many places raised 
 to its surfrice. Ships wore driven from their anchors, and jostled toget k with great vio- 
 lence ; and the masters did not know if they were afloat or aground. Tlu large quay called 
 Caes dti Prada, was overturned, crowded with people, and sunk to an unfatliomable depth 
 in the water, not so much as one body afterwards ajipearing. The bar was seen dry from 
 shore to shore ; then suddenly the sea, like a mountain, came rolling in, and alwut Belem 
 castle the water rose fifty feet almost in an instant ; and had it not been for the great bay 
 opposite tho city, which received and spread the great flux, the lower part must have been 
 under water. As it was, it came up to the houses, and drove the inhabitants to the hills. 
 About noon, there was another shock, when the walls of several houses which were yet 
 standing were seen to open from top to bottom more than a quarter of a yard, but closed 
 again so exactly as to leave scarce any mark of injury. It is remarked, that on the Ist of 
 November, 17.56, being the anniversary of tho fatal tragedy of this unhappy city, another 
 shock gave the inhabitants so terrible an alarm that they were preparing for their flight into 
 the country, but wore prevented by several regiments of horse placed all around by the 
 king's orders. Many of the largest mountains in Portugal during the great earthquake were 
 shaken as it were to their foundation, and many of them opened at their summits, split, and 
 rent, and huge masses of them were cast down into the subjacent volleys. The same dread- 
 ful visitation was experienced at Oporto. We are told that at about forty minutes past nine 
 in the morning, the sky being serene, was heard a dreadful hollow noise like thunder or the 
 rattling of coaches over rugged stones at a distance; and almost at the same instant was 
 felt a severe slioch of an earthquake, which lasted six or seven minutes, during which every 
 thing shook and rattled. It rent several churches. In the streets the earth was seen to 
 heave under the people's feet, as if in labour. The river was also amazingly affected ; for 
 in the space of a minute or two, it rose and fell five or six feet, and continued to do so for 
 four hours. The river Douro was observed to burst open in some parts, and discharge vast 
 quantities of air ; and the agitation was so great in the sea, beyond the bar, that it was ima- 
 gined the air got vent there also. 
 
 On the fatal day of the great earthquake of Lisbon, at Ayamonte, near where the Gua- 
 diana falls into the bay of Cadiz, a little before ten o'clock, immediately on a rushing noise 
 being heard, a terrible earthquake was felt, which during fourteen or fifteen minutes damaged 
 

 I the Gua- 
 ling noise 
 I damaged 
 
 Book II. 
 
 GEOGNOSY. 
 
 alnifwt nil tho Imililinirs. In littlo mure than half an hour after, tho M>a and river, with all 
 their canaN, overllowoa their bdiindH with great violunco, laying under water all tliu conxta 
 of the iiilnnils adjacent to the city and \ta neighbourhood, flowing into tho ntrei^lH. The 
 water roHu three timet), after it liiul ax many times tiulMiidcd. One of the HwelU wax at tho 
 time of ohh. The water came on in voMt black niountaiuH, white with fuum at the top, and 
 demolished more than lialf of tho town at tho bar called I)e Canala. Tiio earlii was 
 observed to open in several places, and from tho apertures (lowc<l vast (juiintilieH of water. 
 
 At Cadiz, m tho same monung, some minutes after nine, tho whole town was ^Imken 
 with a violiMit earthquake, which lasted about ftvo minutes. The water in the cisterns 
 under ground rolled backwards and forwards. At ten minutes after eleven, a wave wiut 
 seen coming from sea, eight miles oft*, at least sixty feet higher than umuiiI. It dai^hed 
 against tlie west part of tho city ; at lost it camo upon the walls, beat in tlm breast-work, 
 and carried pieces of eight or ten tons weight forty or fifty yards from the wall. When tlio 
 wave was gone, some parts that are deep at low water were left quite dry, tor the water 
 returned there witli the same violence as it came. On the same eventful morning (libraltur 
 wiiH agitated by an earthquake. It lasted about two minutes. The ffuns on the battery 
 wvrr. Keen to rine, other* to sink, the earth having an iindulalinff motion. Alust iMioplc 
 wero seized with giddiness and sickness, and some fell down, oUiers were stupefied, tliough 
 many that were walking or riding felt no motion, but wero sick. The sea rose six feet 
 every fifteen minutes, and fell so low that boats and all tho small craft near the shore wero 
 left aground, as were numbers of fish. Ships in tlie bay seemed as if they hud struck on 
 rocks. The flux and reflux lasted till six next morning, having decreased gradually from 
 two in the afternoon. 
 
 This earth(iuakc excited much attention, from the incredibly great extent at which slighter 
 contemporary shocks wero experienced. They extended from Greenland and Iceland to 
 Norway, Sweden, Germany, Britain, Switzerland, Prance, Simin, Morocco, Salee, Fez, 
 Teutan, and even to the West Indies and the lake Ontario in North America. 
 
 However dreadful many of the earthquakes of Europe were, they bear no comparison 
 with those which have desolate<l many parts of Asia. Passing over those which were 
 observed in the islands, on the eastern continent, and in the environs of the Caspian Sea, 
 our attention is particularly drawn towards Syria, on account of tho ravages it has frequently 
 experienced. 
 
 Gibbon, in the forty-third chapter of his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, gives the 
 following account of the earthquake that took place at Antioch in A. D. 520. May 3(t. 
 "The near approach of a comet may injure or destroy the globe which we inhabit; but the 
 changes on its surfoce have been hitherto produced by the action of volcanoes and earth- 
 quakes. The nature of the soil may indicate the countries most exposed to these formidable 
 concussions, since they are caused by subterraneous fires, and such fires arc kindled by tho 
 union and fermentation of iron and sulphur. But their times and efTects appear to lie beyond 
 the reach of human curiosity, and the philosopher will discreetly abstain from the prediction 
 of earthquakes, till he has counted tho drops of water that silently filtrate on tho iufliun- 
 mable mmeral, and measured tlie caverns which increase by resistance tho explosion of the 
 imprisoned air. Without assigning the cause, history will distinguish the periods in wiiieh 
 these calomitous events have been rare or frequent, and will observe, that this fever of the 
 earth raged with uncommon violence during the reign of Justinian. Each year is marked 
 by the repetition of earthquakes, of such duration, that Constantinople has been shaken 
 above forty doys ; of such extent, that the shock haa been communicated to the whole sur- 
 face of the globe, or at least of the Roman empire. An impilsivc or vibratory motion was 
 felt : enormous chasms were opened, huge and heavy bodies were discharged into the air, 
 the sea alternately advanced and retreated beyond its ordinary bounds, and a mountain was 
 torn from Libanus, and cast into tho waves, where it protected, as a mole, the new harbour 
 of Botrys, in Phtenicia. The stroke that agitates an ant-hill, may crush the insect myriads 
 in the dust; yet truth must extort a confession, that man has industriously laboured lor his 
 own destruction. The institution of great cities, which include a nation within tiic limits 
 of a wall, almost realizes the wish of Caligula, that the Roman people had but one neck. 
 7\oo hundred and fifty thousand persons arc said to have perished in tho eartliquake of 
 Antioch, whose domestic multitudes were swelled by the conflux of strangers to the festival 
 of the Ascension. The loss of Berytus was of smaller account, but of much greater value. 
 That city, on the coast of Phmnicia, was illustrated by the study of the civil law, wliicii 
 opened the surest road to wealth and dignity : the schools of Berytus wero filled with the 
 rising spirits of the age, and many a youth was lost in the earthquake who might have lived 
 to be the scourge or the guardian of his country. In these disasters, tho architect becomes 
 the enemy of mankind. The hut of a savage, or the tent of an Arab, may be thrown down 
 without injury to the inhabitants ; and the Peruvians ha<l reason to deride the folly of tlieir 
 Spanish conquerors, who with so much cost and labour erecte<l their own sepulchres. The 
 rich marbles of a patrician are dashed on his own head ; a whole people is buried under the 
 ruins of public and private edifices, and the conflagration is kindled and propagated by ti»e 
 
 %:A 
 
 ■;IM|' 
 
 |'»i 
 
 :lli!:i 
 
BCIENCE OF tJK(X;HAPHY. 
 
 PabtU. 
 
 1 ( 
 
 inmniii'rablo flrnx wliich mo iicumKury tt)r llio mibitiiiti'iicn uiul iimmit'urturnH of a jfront city, 
 liiNtiMiil of the iiiiitiml Mytnimtliy wliicli niijflit comt'ort atxl nofii^i llii' diMtniNxcil, iFicy ilruiul* 
 l\illy cxpcrii'Mi'f (lie vioi'H iinil |HiHHl(>im wliirli iini ri'lciiHcil I'riuii tin- li'iir ot'|HiniHliim'iil: tha 
 tiilti'riiiir liiiii.-i''H iiri' |iillii(;i>il by intrriiiil iiviiri('i>; rcvciiKP I'liiltriici'H tlir iiiiiirji'iit, unil hi'IccU 
 dm victlin; iiml tlii< ciirtli otii'ii kwiiIIdU)! tlin nHHiiNHiii or tlic rnviHiicr in tln' ruiihiiiiiiiiiitiun 
 of tlinr criiiii'H, SujM'rMtitioii involvrn tlir« prcKcMl (lunger witli iiivixilili' tcrnirH; iiriil if tlio 
 iiiiiix''' "f ili'iiili iniiy foiiii'tiiiicx l)(! Hul)H)>rvi)'iit to tliu virtiin ur rrpciitiinci' ul' jmiIimiIiiiiIh, an 
 nlVriifliti'tl j)ci)|)li' JM nioro toruilily iiiuvimI to nx|)«(ct tlio fiid of tlin worl<l, or foilcpnciiti! with 
 HorviN' lioiniii,'"' the wrath of an avfriginj/ Doily." In 1109 Hin((ln Hhcnikn i:oiitiiiui'.l tor four 
 iMoiilhM; iiiid in I'Hn aiuitlicr ('nrthi|iiitKi> ili-ntroyed many cilioH, fiilfd np the viilicyH of 
 (.I'hiiiiiiM, mill r<hiitti'r<Hi till' IxiHiiltic diMtrit-tii of Hiiiirun, ho thiit, acrordiii)^ to tlio i'.\pri'Ntiiuii 
 tlicii ciiri'i'iit, '/ wiif nil litii/^^ir p^uiiiHilr to nay, llvrr. flood ihin ur Ihiit cily. A drcadlUl 
 piirtlKpiiiki' t'Kik pliic<> ill IIW; tlii> Nliook» coiitimicd tor u'lx nioiitiiH. At tlu' lirxt xhoc'k the 
 ritii's nf Aiitincli, IJiiIIm'c, Acri', 'rrijMdi, &c. wero laid ia ruiiiM, and nO.CMN) pcrwiiiH kiliod. 
 Tlio iimrc ri'ci'iit oiirtli(piuki', of l^tW, JiiHfed still lunger, and coiiiniittcd drt'iidful ruvii((ci. 
 On the Ilttli nf Aii(;iist, in one liorriblts niulit, Alomn), Aiitioch, Diiin, (IcKHcr, indeed every 
 Hin;;le villiij;i' iind eottajfo witliin the paHliiilic of Alepixi, wan, within ton or twelvu xecondiii 
 ronipli'tely di'-itroyed, and converted into a heap of nibbiuli : m> letM than '.'0,(MM) |mjoii1o IudI 
 their livcH, and innny iiioro wore mutilated; a very grout nuinWr, cuimidorini; tlio low 
 population of these placex. 
 
 Africa is very little known, and we nro thoreforo ignorant of any cnrthqimkeH in ita 
 interior, where they may oceur ax IVoqiiently na in other places. The southern extremity of 
 this rontiiient is rarely vii<ited by slijrht Nliocks, but they iiro more mimerniis in the north, 
 where, in .Miircli, lf<VJ5, they did considorablo dama);i> to Aljjiers and Blida, On the contrary, 
 Amrririi, particularly in the southern [kitU, is inferior to no (lurtuf tlio world for the mu^niitudo, 
 iiuiiiber, iind duration of its eartluiiiaki's. We shall now mention a few of the jjreiitesl 
 recorded by uiitiiralisfs. To these belonj; the oarth(|uiike of 1740, which, within live iiiiiiuteti, 
 destroyed the ifreiiter piirt of Lima; Callao was inundated; and of 4(I0() persons, *20() only 
 psciijM'd, Till' destruction of New Andalusia, on the 81st of October, 17(KI, was 0(|iially 
 lerrinlc. The shucks extended over Cumaim, Caniccas, Miiriicaibo, the shores of the ('asiinar, 
 the Metii, llie Orinoco, and Ventures; and the >rraiiito districts in tlio mission of Kncaranada 
 were iilsd sli ikeii by their violence. An oarthipuike, in 1707, destroyed a jyreat partof I'erii. 
 It proceeded I'njin the volcano Tiinjjuratfua, continued witii slijfht shocks during; tlio whole 
 of Febniiiry iind March, ond returned on the irnh of Apiil, with increased violence. Many 
 places were lilb'd up by the siiniiuits of itiountuiiis tumbling; down; niudily water flowed t'roiii 
 the volciino; and, spreading over the country, became atlerwards an iniUiratcd crust of clay. 
 The eiitiri' number of persons who pi^rished on this occasion was 10,(HK). No carthcpuike 
 coiilil well be more destructive to any place than that which destroyed the Caraccas in 1812, 
 and of which Humboldt has given an excellent description. The Caraccas was thought 
 secure (III nceonnt of its primitive mountains, although in 1041, 1703, and 1778, violent 
 eartlKpiakes were experienced, and a slighter shock in 1802. Humboldt, from actual inspec- 
 tion, hiid no doubt but this country, from lieing in a volcanic region, must Ik; liable to such 
 disasters. In December, 1811, various shocks wore felt; on the 12th of March, 1812, the 
 city of Cnracctts was destroyed. The sky was clear, and in Venezuela, there had not been 
 a drop of rain for five months: there was no (brewurning prognostic, for the tirst shock at 
 seven ininufes past four in the aflernoon came on unexpectedly, and set the bells a ringing. 
 This was immediately succeeded by a second shock, which caused a waving and rolling 
 motion in the earth, then a subterraneous rumbling noise wns heard, and there was a third 
 shock, in wliicli the motion was perpendicular, and sometimes rolling horizontally, with a 
 violence wliicli nothing could withstand. The people, in place of flying directly to the 
 open liclds. flocked in crowds to the churches, where arrangements liad been made fiir a 
 prm^ession ; ami the multitudes assembled there wore buried beneath the ruins. Two churches 
 l.TO feet liiirh, and supported by columns of from twelve to filleen feet in diameter, fell in a 
 mass of riil)bish, and were for the most part ground into dust. The Caserne cl Qiinrtel 
 vanished almost entirely, and a regiment of soldiers stationed there, and about to join the 
 procession, disappeared at the same time along with it; a few individimls only escaped ; nino- 
 tentlis iif tlio city were completely destroyed, and most of the houses that remained were 
 rendered iiniiiliabitable; the number of people killed was reckoned at nearly 1(),(MHI, without 
 includiMi; t'n-^o who iierished afterwards from bruises and want of sustenance. The clouds 
 of dii.-t liavm;,' fillen, were succeeded by a serene night, which formed a frightful contrast 
 with llie de-tniction on the earth, and with the dead IxMlies lying scattered among the ruins. 
 The duratiiiii of each particular shock was reckoned by some 50 seconds, by others 1 minute 
 12 seconds. These shocks extended over the provinces of Venezuela, Varinas, INIarocaibo 
 and into lli>' mountains in the interior. La Oiuiyra, Mayrpiatia, Iji Vegn, St. Felipe and 
 Merida, uere almost entirely destroyed. In La Guayra and St. Felipe the numl)er of persons 
 killed was about 5000. On the 5th of April another violent eurthquakc took place, during 
 
v^^ 
 
 I in ill 
 inily of 
 3 north, 
 )nlriiry, 
 rnituiie, 
 |{ri!iileMt 
 niiiulos, 
 >00 oi>ly 
 cinwUy 
 ('iiMinar, 
 caraniiiliv 
 ; tif I'l'rn. 
 Im wliok' 
 •. Miiny 
 iwed from 
 it. ofdiiy. 
 irthciutiko 
 in IHl'i, 
 thought 
 l-t, violent 
 111 inspcc- 
 o to Huch 
 |l812, the 
 not been 
 shock at 
 . ringing. 
 [A rollinn 
 ,iH a third 
 y, with a 
 hy to the 
 lade for a 
 churches 
 , fell in a 
 [l Qunrtel 
 join the 
 m'I ; ninc- 
 ned were 
 I, without 
 lie clouda 
 rontrast 
 the ruins. 
 jl minute 
 iiracaibo 
 •lipe and 
 (f persons 
 I, during 
 
 Dootll. 
 
 0K(K1N()HY. 
 
 92r) 
 
 whioh nnormoiDi IVn;rn«'HfK \vnr« dctnrlicil fVoni thn nunintiiiiin. It wu mid tlmt the moun- 
 tain Hilla limt tVoiii .K*) to U(M) foot of iIm height liy xinkintf. 
 
 <:ati»r i\f t'lirlhipiakrn. — The ori|{inal hy|iutheMiH, whicli nltrilmtcd volcanic eruptiotiN ami 
 enrtliqtinki'H In the ()|H'riition of ciintrul tire, whn at lirKt attacked chieHy liy Stnki'ly, wiui, 
 tVoMi the phi'noiiii'iui iif two earthipmkeit olwerved nt Itondon on the ftli Fi'hniury, and Hth 
 of Mnivh, 171(1, ciMlwi'viiured to prove that they were caUMed hy a highly ovrrcliarged 
 Htate of (he eli'i'tric fl' il, Andrew liena alHrtiiH, that they urn Hudden expIoitionM, I'liii.ied 
 by giiM in the intcruu >( the earth, which he helieveit wouhl Imi liiund then* incloHed ii> 
 reoervoirH of Kiilphiir and bitumen. D<<ccariii, an in known, endeavoured to attribuli^ to elec- 
 tricity every tiling that had any pMlxilde utilnity for it; hence he lielieved that an uccuiiiu* 
 lation of it m the cruxt of the earth produced concumionH with the clondti, and then exhibited 
 the appearance (if oarth(|uiikeN, lluniboldt found it to bo a prevail itig opinion in America 
 that carthiiuakeH are idectrieal phenomena ; but ubacrven, tliat tluH nuiHt bo excuied by 
 reiiMon of the partiality entertained for Franklin. The invention of the Voltaic pile, and 
 the olworvatiou of itH wingular oporationis induced many philoMpherM, at leant tho«e nuturaliMtf 
 who were norfuctly intimate with tho nature of this) rGiimrkabio appratna, to couHider the 
 whole cartii an a column er pile of thin deiicription, or that it containH an apparatus of this 
 deicription in itM interior. These fancies, however, load to nothing satisfactory. Where 
 then can wo seek tor the cause or caiises of oarthquakcs? Tho subject is entirely hypothe- 
 tical, as wo have no means of reaching tho seat of these remarkable phenomena. The 
 theory of the eartlupiako is the same astTiatof tho volcano. The agitations may be imxluccd 
 by the motions of the li()uid and gasooui matter at a. great depth in the cru*t (^ the earth 
 endeavouring to f grape. 
 
 Snr. V. — Account (\fthe different Structures oh»ervable in the Cnut of the Earth. 
 
 Before the time of Werner, little had been accomplif' tnl in rejford to the determination 
 of tho structures that occur in the crust of tho earth. Somo maintained that everywhere 
 irregularity prevailed, and that it was in vain to look for order or rcgiilarity in tho coarse 
 rocky masxes of which mountains, hills, and plains are composed. Werner, however, on 
 flfeiieral groundc, assumed that if determinate structures and arrangements occurred in tlie 
 vegetable and uniiiial kingdoniH, the same must be the case in the mineral kingdom, not 
 only in simple minerals, but also in the great and more generally distributed masses of 
 which the crust of tho earth is principally composed. His investigations fully confirmed 
 tho truth of this opinion, for minerals he found as well characterised as plants and animals 
 and the following details will show tlmt there exists aniun^ mountain rocks, or those groa 
 masses of which the crust of tho earth is composed, a beautiful series of structure, from that 
 of hand-specimens to tho general arrangements of the great rock formations. Wo shall 
 consider tnese structures in tho tbllowing order, beginning with the smallest and terminating 
 with tlio greatest. 
 
 Sunsirr. — Different Structures, 
 
 1. Structure of mountain rocks in hand-specimens. 
 
 3. Structure of strata and beds, 
 
 3. Structure of formations. 
 
 4. Arrangements of formations in regard to each other. 
 
 5. Structure of veins. 
 
 (1.) Structure of mountain rochs. The kinds of structure occurring in mountain rocks 
 are tho following: — 1. Compact. 2. Slaty. H. Granular. 4. Porphyritic. 5. Amygda- 
 loidal. 6. Conglomerated. In the compart structure, tho mass is uniform, without slaty 
 or any other arrangement, and when broken exhibits various fractures as earthy, splintery, 
 conchoidal, oven, &ic. Common compact quartz is an example of this kind of structure. 
 In tho slnlt) .itrnrturc the rocks split readily into thin layers or slates, as in common roofing 
 slate. Rocks having tho granular sirurlure are composed of granular concretions or 
 imperfect crystals, as in primitive limestone or statuary marble. In the pwpht/rilic .structure 
 there is a basis or ground with imbedded crystals, generally of felspar or (luartz, or both, 
 as in porphyry: in tlie amygdnloidul structure tliere is also a basis orgrounil ; but here the 
 Imiso does not contain imbedded crystals, but amygdaloidnl cavities, whicli are cither nearly 
 empty, half filled, or completely filled with minerals. The rock named amygdaloid 
 exhibits this kind of structure. Ijistly, the conglomeratrd structure is that wliicli we 
 observe in the rock named conglomerate, which is composed of fragments imbedded in a 
 basis or ground. 
 
 (2.) Structure of strata and beds. When a mountain or hill is composed of tabular 
 masses of the same kind of rock, as of sandstone, that extend throughout the hill, it is said to 
 be stratified, and the individual tabular masses are named strata, as in fg. 58. If among 
 these strata there occur tabular masses of a different rock, the masses are named beds: a. fig 
 
 Vol. I. a D 
 
 
 il 
 
 li m 
 
 < . f 
 
£26 
 
 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 pabt n. 
 
 69. represents a bed of limestone iu tljo cliff of stratified Bandstonc. These strata and beds 
 
 58 
 
 vary in positio7i ; sometimes they are flat or horizontal, or they are more or less inclined until 
 they become vertical, or are set on their edges. They also vary in the point of the compass 
 towards which they arc inclined, or dip ; but it is worthy of remark that the dip is always 
 at riffht angles to the range or direction of the strata; and that if the dip is given, we know 
 the direction : but a knowledge of the direction will not give us the dip. Their direction 
 also varies. The position of strata is determined by a well-known instrument, the clinometer, 
 which is a compass with an attached quadrant. When we e.\amiue the structure of indi- 
 vidual strata and beds, several varieties may be discovered : thus, in some beds, the rock is 
 arranged in columns, as in basalt ; in others, the arrangement is in tables, as in porphyry ; 
 or in balls, as in granite and greenstone. 
 
 (3.) Structure of formation*. The idea of formations was first clearly brought out by 
 Werner. To his views on this most important subject we con trace tlie new character of 
 geology, and the great progress made in geognosy within these Inst tliirty years. But this 
 IS not the place for discussing the subject All those rocks which appear to have been formed 
 ai the same time, and in tlie same or similar circumstances, and which agree in position, 
 structure, mass, petrifactions, imbedded minerals, &c. are said to belong to the same formation. 
 These formations are divided into simple and compound. Simple formations are those prin- 
 cipally composed of one rock ; compound formations, of more than one species of rock : 
 granite is an example of a simple formation ; the first secondary sandstone, or the great 
 coal formation, of a compound formation, because it contains several rocks; viz. sandstone, 
 slate, limestone, coal, and ironstone. 
 
 (4.) Arrangement of formations in re/fard to each other. When two formations occur 
 together, and the one rests upon the other, the subjacent formation is named the fundamen- 
 tal rock, and that which covers or lies upon the other, the superincumbent. The line where 
 the two rocks or formations meet is called the line of separation or line of junction. In 
 j^g. 59. a is the fundamental rock, and 6 the superimposed rook, and c c the line of junction. 
 
 When the strata of the s\ii)erimposed formation is parallel with the strata of tin? fundamental 
 or subjacent rock, the stratification is said to be conformable, aejig. 60 where a formation a, 
 
 we shall say of limestone, rests on b, of sandstone. If the strata of the superimposed 
 formation are disposed as at c, fg. 61., they are said to be unconformable. Laustly, if the 
 
 Virata lie over tlie ends of the strata of the fundamental rock, as at b, in ^fig. 59., they arc said 
 

 % s 
 
 ift. 
 
 Book 1L GEOGNOSY. 287 
 
 to be unconformable and overlying. If the strata rest on the fundamental rock, as represented 
 
 in Jig. 62., they are said to bo saMle-shaped ; if ns represented 'mfig. 63., they are said to 
 
 be mantle-shaped i if disposed in a boson-shaped hollow, as in Jig. 64., they are said to be 
 
 hasonrshaped ; if in a lengthened or trough-like hollow, aa in^^. 65., thev are said to be 
 
 trough-shaped. Li a mountain or natural section of Neptunian or aquatic rocks, as limestone, 
 sandstone, slate, &c., the undermost or lowest-lying strata are considered to be the oldest : 
 therefore, on ascending a mountain, as that in^^. 66., from atob, we pass from the newer 
 
 to the older rocks; but if from c to 6, from the older to the newer. Formations were 
 formerly more continuous than at present, portions only remaining of extensive deposits. 
 The remaining portions occupying different situations have received particular names, ac- 
 cording to the situations in which they occur. When in patches on tlie summits of hills, as 
 represented at a a a in Jig. 67., they are called mountain-caps. When in hollows, as at 6 6, 
 they are named upjillings. 
 
 (5.) Structure of Veins. These arc tabular masses that intersect the strata and beds of 
 the mountain or tract in which they occur. The tabular masses of trap or whinstone veins 
 that cut across the strata of Great Britain are there popularly known under the name of 
 ivhin dykes. Veins, like strata, vary in position, being sometimes vertical, at other times 
 not much inclined to the horizon ; their direction, inclination, and dip are determined in the 
 same manner as in strata. These intersecting masses vary in breadth from an incli or less 
 to many Mhoms ; in length, from a few inches to several miles ; and in depth, from a few 
 inches to an unknown and vast depth. Veins appear to have been originally open rents or 
 fissures traversing the strata, which have been filled by an afler-process witli the mineral 
 matters they now contain. This being the case, we naturally expect to find the strata on 
 
 ■ 'ffi^ 
 
 ■! ^■<'-:( 
 
, 
 
 4 
 
 
 228 
 
 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 the walls of veins exhibiting the same phenomena as occur in the walls of rents. When 
 rents cut across strata, they sometimes, as in Jig. 68., at a, b, produce no derangement ; 
 
 
 
 68 
 
 while, in other cases, the strata on the opposite sides of the rent do not correspond, owinc^ 
 to the strata on one side sinking down, as represented in Jig. 69. : this derangement is call- 
 ed a shiji, flip, or fault. 
 
 Such, then, are the different structures observable in tlic great masses of whicli the crust 
 of the earth is composed. We next proceed to give — 
 
 Sect. VI. — An Account of the different Classes and Species of Rocks of which the Crust 
 
 of the Earth is composed. 
 
 It was at one time a general opinion that the formations of which the crust of the eartli 
 is composed were destitute of all regularity in distribution and in individual characterii. 
 Lehman, a German miner, was early convinced of a certain degree of order in their arrange- 
 ment; and in his well-known work, first stated their division into Primitive and Secondary ; 
 under the first including those destitute of fossil organic remains, while under the other he 
 arranged all those containing petrifactions or fossil organic remains. The first, he said, 
 were generally in highly inclined strata, the other in horizontal strata. Werner first dis- 
 tinctly characterised these two classes of rocks, and added to them other two classes, viz. 
 the Transition and Local, or what are now called the Tertiary. The whole rocks, from 
 the oldest to the newest, were arranged by Werner under the following names and in the 
 following order : — 1. Primitive. 2. Transition. 3. Secondary. 4. Local, the Tertiary of 
 the presen* geology. 5. Alluvial. 6. Volcanic. This arrangement, more or less modifieil, 
 still remains, being adopted by the principal geologists in Europe and America. 
 
 Primitive rocks. The rocks of this class lie under those of the succeeding classes. Coun- 
 tries in which they predominate are in general more rugged and lolly than those composed 
 of rocks of the other classes; fiirther, their cliflB are more extensive, their valleys narrower 
 and deeper, and more uneven, than those in secondary countries. The strata of primitive 
 mountains are very frequently highly inclined ; a circumstance which contributes in an 
 especial manner to the increase of the ruggedness and inequalities of the surface of primi- 
 tive regions. The primitive strata in many countries maintain a wonderful uniformity of 
 direction. Thus, in Scotland the general direction of the strata of primitive mountains is 
 from N. E. to S. W. ; and the some is nearly the case in the vast alpine regions of Norway, 
 and in many of the lofly and widely extended primitive lands of other parts of Europe. The 
 rocks of which primitive mountains and plains are composed are throughout of a crystalline 
 nature, and present such characters as intimate their formation from a state of solution. 
 These characters arc the intermixture of the concretions of which they are composed at 
 their line of junction, their mutual penetration of each other, their considerable lustre, pure 
 colours, and translucency. Thus, in granite the concretions of felspar, quartz, and mica are 
 joined together without ony basis or ground ; and at their line of juncture are either closely 
 attached together, or are intennixed ; and frequently branches of the one concretion shoot 
 into the other, tims occasioning a mutual interlacement, as is observed in bodies that have 
 been formed simultaneously and fi-om a state of solution. These characters show that the 
 concretions of granite (and the same applies to the concretions of limestone, gneiss, micH 
 slate, and other rocks of the primitive cla.ss,) are of a crystalline nature, and have been 
 formed at the same time. The strata are so arranged as to show that they are crystalline 
 formations. Primitive rocks contain no organic remains, hence arc inferred to have been 
 formed before onimals and vegetables were called into existence. Primitive rocks abound 
 
UlT II. 
 
 When 
 cment ; 
 
 Book II. 
 
 GEOGNOSY. 
 
 220 
 
 d, owing 
 it is call- 
 
 the crust 
 
 I the Crust 
 
 ,f the earth 
 character?. 
 Bir arrangc- 
 Secondary ; 
 fhe other he 
 3t, he said, 
 >r first dis- 
 jlasses, viz. 
 I rocks, from 
 and in tlie 
 'ertiary of 
 modified. 
 
 very much in metalliferous minerals, and hitherto no metol has been met with which does 
 not occur, either exclusively or occasionally, in this class of rocks. Tin, wolfram, lead, cop- 
 per, iron, cobalt, zinc, iimntfanese, arsenic, and mercury, occur either disseminated, in beds 
 and veins, or imbedded in various rocks of tliis class, and many primitive distxicta are char- 
 acterised by the metalliferous deposits they contain. 
 
 Tiie most beautiful of all productions ot the mineral kingdom, the gems, occur in great 
 variety in primitive rocks. Nothinfr can be more beautiful than the drussy cavities met with 
 in primitive mountains, whose walls are lined with pure and variously tinted and crystallized 
 topaz, beryl, rock crystal, fluor spar, and calcareous spar; the gneiss, granite, and mica 
 slate, with their imbedded crystals and grains of sapphire, chrysolite, and garnet; and tlie 
 vehis in granite, clay slate, and other primitive rocks, with their emeralds, axinites, and 
 spinel rubies, afford to the mineralogist highly interesting combinations. 
 
 Species of primitive rocks. — The following are tlie species of rocks that form the primi- 
 tive parts of the crust of the earth : — 1. Granite. 2. Syenite. 3. Protogine. 4. Trap. 
 5. Serpentine. 6. Porpliyry. 7. Gneiss, 8. Mica slate. 9. Clay slate. 10. Quartz rock. 
 11. Limestone. 
 
 Of these rocks one set, consisting of certain granites, with trap, gneiss, mica slate, clay 
 slate, quartz rock, and limestone, are said to be of Neptunian origin, that is, have been de- 
 posited from a liquid, probably water ; the other set, including certain granites, with syenite, 
 porphyry, protogine, serpentine and diallage rock, are named Plutonic or igneous, it being 
 probable that they have been formed from a state of igneous solution. We shall describe 
 first tiie Neptunian, and next the Plutonian primitive rocks. 
 
 SuBSECT. 1. — Neptunian Primitive Rocks, 
 
 (1.) Granite is a granular compound of felspar, quartz, and mica. It occurs in beds and 
 in imbedded masses, and also in included veins in gneiss, mica slate, and clay slate. From 
 its intimate connexion with these rocks, it is inferred to be a Neptunian deposit. 
 
 (2.) 7Vfl/>. Under this name we include all those granular primitive rocks in which 
 hornblende is the sole or predominant constituent part These rocks sometimes ajjpear 
 arranged like the steps of a stair ; hence the name trap, from the Swedish word trappa, a 
 stair. 
 
 (3.) Gneiss is a granular slaty compound of felspar, mica, and quartz. 
 
 (4.) Mica slate is a slaty compound of mica and quartz. Talc shte and micaceous talc 
 rocks may be arranged under this head. 
 
 (iji.) Clay slate is a slaty rock, frequently entirely composed of minute scales of mica. 
 
 (6.) Quartz rock. This rock is almost entirely composed of quartz, either in granular 
 concretions or in the compact form; and grains of fclspar and scales of mica not unfrequently 
 occur in it When the felspar increases in (piantity, the compound at length passes into 
 granite. When the scales of mica increase and the felspar disappears, mica slate is formed. 
 
 (7.) Limestone. This rock has generally a white or gray colour, is composed of shining 
 granular concretions, and is more or less translucent It frequently contains scales of mica 
 and grains of quartz, seldom or never grains and crystals of felspar. 
 
 SuBSECT. 2. — Plutonian or Iffnigenous Primitive Rocks. 
 
 (1.) Granite. The structure and composition of this granite is in general the same as 
 that of the Neptunian kind already noticed. It differs from it in occurring in vast and often 
 widely extended masses, which form the central parts of mountain groups, and appear to 
 have come from below after the deposition of the Neptunian rocks that rest upon them. 
 The highly inclined position of the primitive strata is considered to have been occasioned by 
 this granite, with its syenites and porphyries. 
 
 (2.) Syenite is a compound of felspar, hornblende, and quartz : in short it is a granite in 
 which the mica is replaced by hornblende. Some of the primitive traps belong to this head. 
 
 (3.) Porphyry is a rock with a felspar basis, including grains and crystals of felspar and 
 quartz, and s<imetimes scales of mica. This porphyry is a mere modification of granite. 
 
 (4.) Protogine is a granular compound of felspar, quartz, and chlorite. It differs from 
 granite in the mica being replaced by chlorite. 
 
 (f>.) Serpentine is a simple green-coloured rock, with a compact fracture, feeble trans- 
 luccncy on the edges, which yields readily to the knife, and feels greasy. 
 
 (6.) Diallage rock is a compound of felspar and diallage. It belongs probably to the 
 primitive trap series. 
 
 Sect. VII. — Transition Rocks. 
 
 The rocks of this class, in the reg\ilar succession, rest immediately upon those of the 
 primitive class. Most of the rocks are distinctly stratified, and the strata are frequently 
 vortical, and, like those of the primitive class, exhibit the same general direction through- 
 out iiTCut tracts of country. Some of the deposits are of a chemical, others of a mechanical 
 nature : limestone is an example of a chcmic-al, groywacke of a mechanical deposit They 
 
 Vol.. I. 20 
 
 .^11 
 
 m 
 
 1 i! 
 
■ I 
 
 • i * 
 
 030 
 
 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt H. 
 
 arc (listin^'uishcd from primilivu rocliH by tlio proscnco uf fuatiil or^jiinic remains, and the 
 poHitivc characters are drawn from the occurrcuco of corluin (i)ssil crustacnous animals, 
 sholls, and corals. _ Tlio extensive dc|)osit8 of limestone, particularly nf tlic viiriefjateil kinds 
 so hijfhly prized for ornamental pur|)o^es, which they contain; tlu! line granites and por- 
 phyries which they uUbrd ; and the ores of lead and copper distributtMl anions them, arc 
 priMifs of their importance in tlic arts. In this class there arc also Neptunian and Plutonian 
 rocks. The Neptunian are the followuig, viz. 1. Groywacke. 2. Transition cluy slate, a. 
 Gneiss and mica slate. 4. Quartz rock. 0. Red sandstone. 6. Limestone. 7. Glance coal. 
 The Plutonian arc, 1. Granite. 2. Syenite. 3. Porphyry. 4. Trap. 5. Serpentine. 
 
 SvnsEOT. 1, — Neptunian Tranrition Rocks. 
 
 (I.) Greywacke is a conglomerated rock, having a basis of clay slate, in which fragments 
 of various primitive rocks, as clay slate, quartz rock, &c. occur imbedded. When tlie 
 imbedded fragments become very small, and the quantity of the basis increases, the rock 
 uciiuircs a slaty fracture, and is named greywacke slate. 
 
 (2.) Transition clai/ slate. This is tlie rock known under the name roofing slate. It 
 soinotimcs contains trilobitcs. 
 
 (3.) Gneiss and mica slate. These have the same general aspect as the varieties met 
 with in primitive regions. 
 
 (4.) (Quartz rock. This rock very much resembles the kinds met with in primitive moun- 
 tains. 
 
 (.5.) Limestone. It frequently occurs with less lustre and translucency than primitive 
 jiniesloncs, and often exhibits in the same bed various tints and shades of beautiful colours. 
 It is frequently traversed by veins of calcareous si)ar. Some varieties are conglomerated, 
 forming the hrecciated marble of artists ; and others contain fossil shells and corals, and also 
 the characteristic trilobite. 
 
 (6.) Glance coal, or Anthracite. Beds of this coal, known by its metallic lustre, and 
 burning without flame or smoke, are met with in transition districts. 
 
 Si)B8EnT. 2. — Plutonian TVansition Rocks. 
 
 (1.) Granite. This rock does not differ inatorially from that of the primitive period. It is 
 principally distinguished by its being intermingled with greywacke and other transition rocks. 
 
 (2.) Syenite. This rock, which bus the same mineralogical characters with tlie primi- 
 tive varieties, very generally contains crystals of spheno. 
 
 (3.) Porphyry. This porphyry has sometimes a basis of felspar, sometimes of clay stone, 
 und as usual contains imbedded grains nnd crystals of felspar. It occurs either alone, or 
 associated with syenite and trap, forming mountains, and even ranges of mountains. 
 
 (1.) 'Prop. In this as in the ])rimitive trap, the sole or predominating mineral is horn 
 blende. It passes into syenite 
 
 (5.) Serpentine. This rock does not differ materially from the primitive rock of the 
 .sime name : geognostically it is distinguished from it by its altcnmting with, and sometimes 
 traversing in the form of veins, greywacke and other characteristic transition rocks. 
 
 Sect. VIII. — Secondary Rocks. 
 This very interesting class of rocks rests, in the regular succession, immediately upon 
 those of the transition ciass. Much of the mineral matter of which they are composed 
 appears to have been deposited from a state of mechanical suspension, a circumstance which 
 may be considered as distinguishing them, in some measure, from the transition class, where 
 chemical deposits prevail over those of a mechanical nature. They abound in fossil organic 
 remains, and it is here that for the first time we meet with remains of vertebrated animals, 
 as lacertct and other species of the same general description. Coal, which occurs but in 
 small quantity in transition deposits, is profusely distributed among secondary formations. 
 Of ores, by far the most abundant, and at the same time most important in an economical 
 view, are those of iron and lead: of these the iron (it is the common clay ironstone, the 
 aluminous carbonate of iron,) is the most abundant and most widely distributed. In tliis, as 
 ill the preceding class, there are Neptunian and Plutonian rocks. The Neptunian rocks are 
 the following: — 1. Sandstone. 2. Slate. 3. Limestone. 4. Gypsum. 5. Coal. The 
 I'lutonian are, 1. Granite. 2. Porphyry. 3. Trap. 
 
 SuBSECT. 1. — Neptunian Secondary Rocks. 
 
 In the primitive and transition classes geologists have not hitherto observed any very 
 determinate arrangement among the Neptunian deposits; whereas in tlie present class a 
 detcrniinatn order has lieeii discovered throughout the whole series. In our sketch we 
 shall follow tlio order of succi's.sion, beginning with the oldest, und finishing our account 
 witl". a description of the newest l()rmation. The whole Neptunian series is divided into 
 formations of sumlstone an<i formations of limestone ; the other members of the series, as the 
 slate, gypsum, coiil, nnd ironstone, occurring subordinate to these. 
 
 First secondary formal inn ; or the old red sundslonr. This formation is a sandstone of 8 
 
T :>■ 1 
 
 .* 
 
 'ART 11. 
 
 and the 
 aiiiiimlfl, 
 oil kinila 
 mill por- 
 tion, urc 
 •lutoniaii 
 slate. ^• 
 nee coul. 
 
 0. 
 
 Vogments 
 Vhen tlio 
 , the rock 
 
 slate. It 
 
 'ieticB mot 
 
 live rnoun- 
 
 i primitive 
 fui colours. 
 ;lomerated, 
 is, and also 
 
 lustre, and 
 
 period. It is 
 sition rocke. 
 h Uie primi- 
 
 [f clay stone, 
 ,er alone, or 
 tins. 
 ra\ is horn 
 
 Irock of the 
 sometimes 
 
 !ks. 
 
 any very 
 lent class a 
 T sketch we 
 lur account 
 livided into 
 tries, as the 
 
 kdstone of a 
 
 .f. 
 
 Book XL GEOGNOSY. SU 
 
 red colour, and, bfinff tho oldest of the snndHtonoH, is named the old red >and»tonc. It is 
 composed of iHirticios of qiiiirtz, witli iiccaHidriiil Hcalcs of mica and fragments of felspar, 
 held tojr(!ihnr by an iroii-Hliot basin or fjroiiiid. HometinicH it in ORsuciated with a conglome- 
 rate uiailo up of fniijineiits of trauHition and priinitivo rocks. 
 
 Second xecnnilary formation, or mountain limriilonc, or mrtalliforous limestone, or car- 
 boniferoH.H limestone of ffcMilojjistH. 'J'his doixwit rcHts, (jcniorally conformably, sometimes 
 also uncoiiformably, on the old red Kandstoue. It is diNtiiictly Htratiticd, and the strata 
 arc fre(iiicntly more or less inclined. \U colours are generally gray; tlie fracture is 
 compact. .Sometimes it has a graimlar foliated structure, particularly where it occurs in 
 contact with tnip rocks. Some varieties, viz. those named lucullite, have a black colour. 
 It contains fossil organic remains of animals of various descriptioiiH. Of these the most 
 characteristic are genera of the trilobite tribe. 
 
 Third secondary formation ; or the second seeondarij sandstone, or the great coal forma- 
 tion. This very important deposit is a compound formation, therefore consists of different 
 rocks. Of these rocks the predominating one is sandstone. The rocks of the formation 
 are the following: — 1. Sandstone. 2. Slate. 3. Clay. 4. Limestone. 5. Coal. 0. Iron- 
 stone. 1. Sandstone. Tlie general colours are white and gray ; sometimes also it is reddish, 
 and then it much resembles the old red sandstone. Some varieties are entirely com- 
 posed of particles of quartz, held togetlier by a very inconsiderable basis or ground ; otiiers 
 contain, besides quartz, also felspar and mica-, those are by some geologists named arkose. 
 It frequently contains coaly matter, und casts and impressions of plants. — 2. Slate. Of the 
 slate there are two kinds, named slate clay and bituminous shale, both of which are mere 
 modifications of clay with the slaty structure. These also contain fossil organic remains. — 
 3. Clay. This is compact clay without the slaty structure, and from its use in the arts is 
 named fire clay. — 4. Limestone. This limestone very much rcsond)le8 the mountain lime- 
 stone which lies below the coal ; but hitherto no trilobites iiave been found in it It altcrnales 
 in beds with the other rocks of tliis formation. Some gt^olngists refer it to the mountain 
 limestone, and consequently that limoslono to the coal formation; an opinion which may be 
 correct — 5. Coal. The coal in this formation occurs in beds that alternate with tlie slates, 
 sandstone, and limestones. The coal is bitumin<>t;s or black coal. — 0. Ironstone. This iron- 
 stone is the wnimon gray clay ironstone of niinoralogirits. It is an aluminous carlxmato of 
 iron, and is the species of ironstone which affords most of the iron manufactunul iii (Jreat 
 Britain. It occurs in beds or imbedded, and most freciuontly in Ihi! slate of this liinnution. 
 
 Fourth secondary formation ; the second si condary limextonr ; tUa tnagne.iian and idpiw 
 limestone of authors. This formation, in the regular succession, rests immediately upon 
 the coal formation. It contains several varieties of liinoslone. One of these, which fre- 
 quently occupies the lowest part of the deposit, has a brownish black colour, a thick slaty 
 fracture, and emits an animal bituminous smell, and is named bituminous marl slate. 
 Another variety has a yellowish gray, or even at times an ochre yellow colour, with a 
 compact or small granular foliated structure, with a low degree of lustre, and is named 
 magnesian limestone. Another variety has a brownish or yellowish colour, is sometimes 
 compact, sometimes granular or cavernous, impregnated with sparry iron, forms the upper 
 part of the deposit, and is called calcaire ferrifere. When this variety becomes chorged 
 with bitumen and cavernous, it is named by German miners rauchwacke. It abounds 
 in the fossil shell named Produetus aculeatus. This formation does not abotmd in fossil 
 organic remains. No true ferns, but fossil fuci and iostera, occur in it. Remains of 
 the monitor, and it is said also of tiio crocodile, have liccn met with in it. Fishes of the 
 genus chietodon and of other tribes, and numerous remains of shells and corals, occur more 
 or less fre(juently in different varieties of the limestone. The trilobite tribe, so abundant in 
 the transition period, and also in the first secondary limestone, occur liere along with ortho- 
 ceratiles. It is the species named trilobites bituminous. Entrochi and pentacrini of great 
 size also occur in it. The shells are not distributed througlioiit the whole mass of the beds, 
 but rather occur hi particular parts. The following arc the shells; — 
 
 Orthoceratites, \eTy rare. Encrinns racemosiis. 
 
 Ammonites gibbosus. I'roductus rugosus. 
 
 Terebralida paradoxa. Mytilus roslrntus. 
 
 Terebratula elongata. Tcrehratula ovata, lacunosa, trigonella. 
 
 Spirifer alatns. 
 
 Fifth secondary formation ; the third secondary sandstone, or variegated sandstone, or 
 new red sandstone. In this formation, liesidos the sandstone, there are, when the deposit 
 is complete, also beds of marl, with gypsum i:nd rock-salt. The inferior part of tliis form- 
 ation is a red coloured sandstime conglomerate, which rarely contains subordinate beds of 
 dolomite, but no fossil orgiinic remains. .Mmve this reiw)ses what may be called the middle 
 part of the deposit, which is the variegated sandstone, so nanied because it sometimes 
 e.xliibits diffl'rent colours, princi|villy rod, with yellow and gray blotches. It is composed 
 iif fine grain- of qunrtz, witli a jitth' mica, and sometimes felspar, held together by a base 
 
 If^" i; 
 
 ii' I 
 
 t;; 
 
232 
 
 SCIKNCK OF GEOGllAl'IIV. 
 
 I'AKT II. 
 
 of ferrii}jinous cluy. It coiitnlntt lint low orj^iiiic roimiiii!*, |iriiici|)iilly i>f vi'ffohililcH. The 
 upper purl of llio ilt'ixwit is )j;iMit'riilly coiiiiKiscd of lifils of ii cliiyi'y marl, iilwiiyM inoro or 
 lusM sliity, iind ^rt>iiurally ulteriiiUiii^ in llio lowor )>iirt witli ImmIh of tlit> slMllltltolu^ U>* 
 colours iiro roil, j,miy, iiiul yellow; tidinotiiuo!) it in viiriepitfil in the HiimiMiiiimier as thti 
 sdiulsfoiio with which it allcniiiti-s. It cuiitaiiis xiiUinliiialc licds of fiyjiKiim, and riirk-iiiill, 
 and souiotinies iilao bods of ilolomilt'. It contains littoral shells and hones of siiiiriim animals. 
 
 Sixlk mrimdiinj formal ion ; the .s7(i7/ liiiic.iloiir, or mimrliii kalkslihi. 'I'his niterestiii^r 
 ile|K)sit, in the rojfular succession, rests ininic'diat<;ly on the varit^fjuted or new red sandstone 
 ti)nnution. This limestone is of a ffray, yellow, or reddish tint of c(dmir. — It is conipact, 
 hut tlie fracture surthces e.xhihit numerous shiuini; liicets from animal llissil remains. IkMJH 
 of marl, which are souietunes (K>litic, alternate with it. It otVen aliuunds in well preserved 
 !(issil shells; hence the nanu* shell limestone. It sometimes contains /i,'^)iKi/m an<l rock-mill. 
 It contains l)csides numerous s|K'cies of tiwsil shells, ollen very well preserved, lH>nes of (,'reat 
 saurian animals, and impressions of fuci and ti-rns. Corals and echinites are rare, but 
 entrochiles arc sonictiincs so ahuiuUuit that in some |>arl.s of (iermany it is nanuul trocliital 
 limestone (trochiten kalk). The encrinites liliiliirmis, very common in this formation, is 
 cons.rereil to bo characteristic of it. Of the tbssil shells, the Atnmonitcn nodniius and Avicultt 
 nociar.s are considered as characteristic of the shell Innt^stone. 
 
 Seventh stconJnryJ'ormiilwn ; the third secondary sandstone, red f^round, mnrnen iriseef, 
 Keuper. This depotiit is princi|)a!ly com|x)s(Hl of sandstone, marls, and dulomiti\s with mil 
 and ffifftsum. It liaa been divided into the following liinr {frou|>s: — 1. Keu|K!r salt and 
 {fypsum. 2. Inferior keu|)er, \\. Variegated marls. 4. Up|)or or superior keuper. — The 
 xall and ffi/psum, with their marls and beds of saline clay, tlie most im|X)rtant members of 
 this formation in an economical )X)int of view, (X'cupy the lowest ])iirt of tlie series. 8cv»'ml 
 e.xtonsivo salt-mines occupy this situation. — The inferior keuper, that which rests on tlie 
 <ry|)suni and salt, is a sandstone which is red in the up|)er strata, but {rradually |iasses into 
 );ruy in tlio lower. This sandstone sometimes alternates with marls, slate clay, anci dolomites, 
 and contains ImxIs of pyjisum and coal. The slate clay ont4iiiis bivalve shells, a s|x;cic8 of 
 Ophiura, and several species of Euuisetum, Filiccs, ai ilso some Cticuduce<e. — Tlie vnrie- 
 littlvd marls (marnesirisees), restmij upon the inferior keu|)er, exhibit alternate stri])es of 
 whi'e, green, violet, red, };•■•''>'' '""' blue; they nre Renenilly comimct or slaty, and soft. 
 They eonfain few or no orffanic remain.s, very little {ryiwum, and no rock-salt. — 'i'hc upper 
 kniprr is sandstone of a ^'ray, yellow, or variegated colour. It is eoiii|iose(l principally of 
 irniiiis of ipmrt/, jjenenilly but loosely held tofjether, so that the mass can fre(piently be 
 pressed into i;niins between tlie tini;rers. Contains some traces of coal, and a few tbssil shells 
 :ind impressions of plants. 
 
 Kiifhth secondary formation, or /mirth secondary limestone, contains the lias and oolite 
 liinesloncs and Jura limestone of authors. This, which is one of th(> most e.vtensive and 
 impdrtant of the secondary tiirmations, n.ay Iw dividwl into the followiiiff members; pro- 
 ceedinir, as usual, from below upwards: — 1. Lias. 2. Oolite. <i. O.xford clay. 4. ('oral raff. 
 .">. Kimmeridjre clay. 6. I'ortlaiul (xtlito. 
 
 (1.) Lias. Lias is a provincial name applic<l to limestone shales, and marl stones, and 
 s<ime sandstones that (x;ciir alongf with them. The marls are sometimes very bituminons, 
 and contain beds of lignite or b.own coal, and also fiiesil shells, and occasionally beds of 
 <ryi)8um. The tbssil vegetables of the lias are lignites, fossil wood, sometimes siliceouB 
 impressions of ferns, cycadacea', and fnci. The animal remains are numerous and interest- 
 ing. It is in this dejiosit that Iwnes and skeletons of extinct tribes of saurian animals are 
 met with ; such as the genera fcensaiiriis, ichlhyosaiinis, and pl< siosaurus. DilVerent species 
 of Jishcs and of crabs also occur. The lias contains un immense quantity of fossil shells, of 
 which the predominating one is the (iryphtrn arciiata ; hence the marl stones or limestones 
 of the lias have been named grj-phite limestones. Besides, the following may also be 
 mentioned as characteristic fossils, viz. Ammonites Hiiclandii, Plagiostoma ffifrantca, 
 Beleinnitfs paxillosu.s, and Belemnites digitalis. 
 
 (2.) (Mile. The oolite is divided into inferior oolite and great oolite. Inferior oolite. 
 This is a limestone coni[H)sed of round granular concretions, resembling the roe of fishes; 
 hence the name oolite, or roestone, given to it. It is associat(.'d with compact limestones 
 and marls, and sometimes it abounds in fossil organic remains. It contains, as at Brora in 
 Sutherland, Ix'ds of coal. The I'otisil vegetables, which are numerous and ofl(!n well pre- 
 served, are of the fern and cycas tribes. It also contains bones and skeletons of greot 
 e.Ttent, saurian animals, also tortoises and crabs. Species of the tribe echinus, which makes 
 its first app<'un\nce in the eighth secondary formation, are not iinonmmoii ; the crinoid fiunily 
 has also representatives here, .-■■ii also have sevenil genera of the coral tribe. The charac- 
 teristic tiissil shells of the inferior rnilite are the lUkmnitis aalensis and liel. siilciiliis. — 
 Great oolite. This is a thick de[X)sit, com]x>sed chielly of an oolitic limestone. It rontains 
 beds of iloiomite, and .soinetiines rests uix)n lie<ls offiiflirs' i iirtli. Resting n|)oii this (udite 
 is the Bradford clay ; next t]\o forest inar/dr, to which beimiirs the lilhoirriiplnc limestones 
 of Ravuria. This forest marble, which includos also the Stonesjield slate, contains remains 
 
"W 
 
 '•' ^''Twiw 'it ^ n m^j l' 
 
 Hook II. ^ 
 
 (.•>.; fimmeridge clau Th' i ""'^'''y «xam nod ^lypem are mut win, 
 
 
 
 
 (2.) »<,„ft. TheffrcPnsan,? ,« r •. . ■ — "t-nst.c of this lower^een 
 
 mmnifv^^r'^r"""""^- The lower Dart^T''"*^*«^««'«*- ^' ^""tams a^. 
 
 shells aro very ..uinorons s^'j! °' "° °"""- vcrtebmted TnS i ''"' P°"°fn«fo,l with 
 
 al«o cords of vario,,., kLk^'""' °'^""' ff<'"«ra cW„n, a^U^^t^,;:";'" '*• ''''^^ «-S 
 
 C4.) r,,„ ..„,, ,,„. , ^^,,^^^, J ». ..re ...ot w.h. and 
 
 20* °^" """'*=''™-^"'^tter,,,.I,.,v,nd.s„nd 
 
 ■ 1 
 
234 
 
 SCIKNCK OF ClROfiRAl'lIY. 
 
 Part H. 
 
 Ill I! 
 
 Ill •' 
 
 w 
 
 tt in khIVt tliitu clirtlk, iiiiil luwiircls the Ihwit pint, of lli(> miiH.-t tlio rlay prnloiiiiimlt'H, iiml 
 hIiiIv I'liiy iii.nl is timiiil. Wln'ii tin- hiiiiiI |>n'(l(iiiiiimlrH, ii liHwcly iifffjrc/ruic jrmyiMh hiiiiiI- 
 Htoiii' N ruiNii'il. No llmts iH'ciir ill lliis tiillact'iiiis clmlk, their pliifo Immii^j tiikni liy clicrt. 
 FiwNil vi'f,'(>t!ilili<H, even lifiiiilc, urn lluind in it. KoMHiln iirr imwt aliiiiiiliiiit in the Inwor part 
 ot'tliis iIi'|k>.mI. 'I'Iic fliii'l'an- hiliinnihii, iiiiimoniUH, naiilitiltn, hiimidn, hiirnlUin, turri- 
 liirs, irliiiiiliK, Willi imiilripiirrii luul rnrrinilrg. 
 
 (;■».) 'riic iijipirnmiit is tlif chalk properly «<> I'alU'il, of wliicli there are two principal 
 kimlf. VIZ. llie »/7ifT or (iul>. or coinnioii ulialk, whieli alHUiiiil.-i in llintn in IkmIs, veins, and 
 iinliedcli'd nias.-ieM; and tlie lower or hard idiiilk, in whieli Dint is inortf rarely met with, 
 'riu'w chalks also eontiiin iron pyrites and i-aleareons s|>ar. 'I'lu! fimsils are vrrUliTtr. and 
 triih i>f I'tKhi's ; nunierons vchinilvx m\A tvrrhrtiliilUrn ix-cnr tlironjjhonl the whole niiiHa; 
 and In the de«H'iidin<; onler, ummnniUH and brhmuitm lirist niako their appearance in the 
 lower iKirt of the chalk. 
 
 HuiHKDT. 'i. — I'lutonian ur Ifcncniu Scconilartj Hoekt. 
 
 Ifiuiium rorks app<<ar, at dilVeri'nt deterniiiinte periiMis, to have hroken in anionj; thu 
 Neptunian roek.s of this elasit, and also to have forced np thron^rji them older HHrks of variuuH 
 do.srriplions, toriniii); monntains, mountain ranges, and groups of niountuiii.M. The iirnoous 
 rix'k.M are jNirphyry, and sonu'tinius also granite and syenite. 
 
 Swrr. IX.—Tertiari/ Itwkn. 
 iivrnwr. 1. — Nrptuiiian Tcrlinry litwks. 
 
 TliP rocks of this class were first pointed ont by Werner; but it was not until the pulili- 
 cotion of liu- excellent work of I'nvier and Itrun^niart on the fjeolojjy of I'aris, that their 
 iliilMirtaiice wius ftdt and acknowledp'd by ffeolojjists. In the rt'^nliir HUCcc.«sion they rest 
 iniineilialidy u|Hin the chalk or uppermost memlH<r of liie .secondary class. Allliou^r|| t,|m 
 rocks are iiH>ser in texture than those of the .H<<condarv cla.ss, yet amoni; them beds cK'cnr 
 o<piallv compact with tht;:^e of the secondary class, 'l^hey aUnnid in tossil remaiiiH of the 
 animai and vi'fretjibh; kinmhuiis; alth(iiiy:li many .species iire dilVeront from the pre.^i-nt oneH, 
 many of the >renera are tlie same. 'J'lie lollowiiuj np; tlie Neptunian rocks in the order of 
 their occurrenct-, tVoiii lielow upwards: 1. Plastic clay. 2. ('alcairtf ^rossier, or I,4indon 
 clay. •'!. (ivpsiim with Imnes. •!. Superior marine sandstones and snnds, siiiidslone of I'Vm- 
 tninelileau. 5. Upper fresh-water formation. 
 
 (1.) Pliiiilie cliiij. This clay is freipiently divided into two beds by a bed of snnd; the 
 upper lied is more or h^ss mi.xed with tlie sand, the lower bed is pure, kneads completely witli 
 water, and is infusible in the |)orcelain furnace. The up|>cr bed abounds in fossil remains; 
 the lower bed contains none. J< I and brown coiil, which are fossilised remains o( dicotyle- 
 donous and iiionocotyledonous plants occur, in it. Remains of the palm trilic are very 
 freipieiit ; hut ferns have not been met with. Jiisirtu well preserved in amber are also met 
 with. 'I'he tossil shells are partly fresh-water, jMirtly marine, whicli ure sometimes separjite, 
 sometimes nii.\od toffcther. 
 
 (2.) Calcuire grossirr, or a cerites of French authors, tho London clay of English 
 peoloifistis. This dcix)sit is sometiniea seimrated from the plastic chiy by n bi;d of sand, 
 wliich occasioniUly contains pure and solid sandstone, but lu; petrifactions. Kestiiiff u|ioii 
 this sand is a bed of .shelly limestone, alM>undin<; in fjreeii coloured {Trains of silicate of 
 iron, and which sometimes passes into a kind of sand; it is in this limestone that the niim- 
 mulite shells are so abundant, and which are mi.\ed with corals and numerous shells in a 
 liigh slate of preservation. Immediately alxive this lies the great bod of true calciiirc 
 grossior. It is so comimct, that in tho Paris basin, where it abounds, it is used extensively 
 as a buildinof-stone. It is the common buildinjr-stonc in Paris. It contains marine shells 
 well preserveil, an<I al.so remains of plants. In some districts it is divided into two beds 
 by an interixwed bed ofliffnite or brown coal, which is intermixed with fresh-w;iter shells. 
 It is interestinff to notice, that here a limestone alxiunding in marine shells is separated 
 into two beds by an interposed mass of coal, filled witli tresli-watcr shells. Around liOndon 
 there is a ifreat de[X)sit of clay abomidinji in the same shells as occur in the c:ilcaire fjrossier; 
 thence, for this and other reasons, it is considered as tho eciuivalent of the Paris calcaire 
 prossier. Tho uppermost part of this tbnnation consists of sand, hornstone, and sandstone, 
 with nlternatinij bods of limestone. It somotimcs abounds in crritcs. 
 
 (M.) (ii/i>siim ipilh bones. This deposit may be considered as consistinj^ of three stages ; 
 a lower, a middle, and an upi>or. The hirer part, or that which rests immediately upon 
 the caicaire nrrassior, consists of ijray and white limestoi'e, inore or less compact, penetrated 
 in all directions by silica. This silica, when it finds its way into cavities in the limestone, 
 lines tiiem with chalcedony or with cpKirtz crystals. It contains species of tlie fresh-water 
 peneni I.i/mnru am\ Plauorbis. The inidillc part is com|X>sed of gypsum which alternates 
 with layers of marl. Tt is in this gyiisum that remains of tho genera Pala-olhiriinii, Anaplo- 
 
Bo«K ir. 
 
 0KO0\()sv. 
 
 Iwo principiil 
 
 Ih, VtMIIH, lirill 
 
 ly riict with. 
 vvrlilinr. and 
 wliolo nmn8; 
 iraiiuu in tho 
 
 I iinion); tlic 
 :kHorvitriuuH 
 'J'iiu i^iiouus 
 
 il till! imhli. 
 «, timt thoir 
 uii llioy roHt 
 UtlKiiiifli t.lm 
 !)im1h ocoiir 
 iiiiiiH of tlio 
 
 ll(V('llt OIllW, 
 
 tlin order of 
 I or h)iid(m 
 toni! of Fon- 
 
 f sfind; tho 
 pli'tcly with 
 <ii rciniiins ; 
 o( dicotyle- 
 w an; very 
 iro also mot 
 es soparate, 
 
 of Enfjlish 
 0(1 of wuid, 
 L'stinir upon 
 silicate of 
 t th(> ?j«;n- 
 ^^ll<'ll(^ in a 
 ii; cnlcairo 
 'xtonsivcly 
 rino sliells 
 
 two bods 
 iter shells. 
 
 1 Hoparatod 
 lid Ijondon 
 f <jroHKier ; 
 ris calcaire 
 »and8tunc, 
 
 on .Kfafjes ; 
 Jitoly upon 
 [lonotrated 
 limestone, 
 •csh-watcr 
 nltnrnatca 
 I, Anaplo- 
 
 ll/(0. 
 
 II '■"''tHJivosv 
 
 elv 
 (il- 
 
 It f .rth,..r clmractoriHod' by t . m ;^::^"'"";> ''/f''' A/<^ /W.L r/h ^ ''T ''"""•"*" 
 
 It . f rth,..r charactoriHod b- 
 
 "f-^ir iwiar 7a^;'''"-'"''"'t '-'''^i^rS^^^ «"«!'-.^'^':;;;:::! s:^;- 
 
 sigipsiiiiiisi 
 
 Un.lor thin hea,l wo include M.n "''^■- -^—'^"«"'«' /iot-A*. 
 
 " ;.;-i'tr?r^ R^^ =-« ■«-, ™,„ ^ 
 
 Those are rocky maases whieh ''"'' "^Z'" ^"''^'""c «oc/l,. 
 
 Dim n,I iiMfi r ""'y ™ve sfreamerl ti, ., .^ country where tho, 
 
 
 '^1 
 
330 
 
 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Pabt II. 
 
 BOOK III. 
 
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY UNDER ITS RELATION TO 
 ORGANIZED AND LIVING BEINGS. 
 
 In considering tho extensive ran(;o of subjects which this b(x)k embraces, wc have arranged 
 them as they successively rise above the scale of inanimate nature. 
 
 The first chapter treats of geography, in its relation to botany, or to tho distribution of 
 plants over tho surface of tho globe. 
 
 The second chapter considers it in its relation to zoology, or the distribution of animals, 
 including man viewed simply as to his physical condition. 
 
 The third chapter views geography in reference to human society, to man in his political, 
 moral, and social condition. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 GEOGRAPHY CONSIDERBD IN RELATION TO THE DISTRIBUTION OP PLANTS. 
 
 In proportion as our knowledge increases relative to any of the sciences, we find a more 
 intimate relation anii connexion between them. Formerly geography was only studied as it 
 regarded the surface of the earth itself, its figure, the constitution of the several regions and 
 countries, their boundaries, &c. ; and botany has had too many votaries who devoted their atten- 
 tion almost exclusively to determining the generic and specific names of plants, neglecting the 
 more beautiful and philosophical parts of the science. Of late years, indeed, our systems of 
 geography have, in some instances, contained a meagre catalogue of the vegetable produc- 
 tions ot the diflerent regions, but nothing that could give the least information with respect 
 to the laws of their general distribution : and now that some of the most able naturalists and 
 philosophers of our nay have, by their labours, thrown new light upon this interesting sub- 
 ject, we should feel that our work would ill merit the character which we hope it may obtain 
 with the public, were we to omit a notice of it. At the same time, the limits of our publica- 
 tion will permit us to give only a sketch of what indeed must be considered as still in its 
 infancy ; and those who have most devoted their attention to botanical geography will most 
 readily join with Mirbel in declaring that " we are even yet far from having arrived at that 
 period when it will be possible to write a good history of this subject. What ws do 
 know of climates and of vegetation, is little, in comparison with what we have yet to learn ; 
 and hence it would be rash in us to form an estimate of what we do not know by what we 
 are already acquainted with. The surest way is to confine ourselves to collecting and 
 arranging facts, leaving, to those who muy follow us, the charge of discovering and de- 
 veloping the theory." 
 
 To exhibit tho present state of botanical science, we shall endeavour to put together the 
 more interesting facts, collected principally from the writings of our most authentic travel- 
 lers and naturalists; and, devoting this memoir to vegetable geography in its more en- 
 larged and general sense, shall afterwards, in the different countries, under the head of 
 botany, point out some of the most striking and important productions of their respective 
 regions. As the nature of the present work docs not permit us to enter minutely into the 
 subject in all its bearings, we shall give a popular view of it, as little encumbered as possible 
 with technical terms. 
 
 That certain vegetables are confined to certain districts or limits, depending in a great 
 measure, but by no means altogether, upon soil and climate, must be familiar to the most 
 careless inquirer into the works of nature. In regard to climate, the two extremes are re- 
 presented by the country within the tropics, and that which approaches the poles. In the 
 one, nature exhibits herself in her most lovely and her most magnifif ent and exuberant form, 
 and the earth is covered with vegetables which indicate a never-ending summer; whilst in 
 the others a brief summer, a few days of freedom from frost and snow, call into existence a 
 thinly scattered vegetation of small and stunted flowering plants, which scarcely rise above 
 the mosses and lichens that surround them ; and the intermediate zones will be found to be 
 occupied by other racs, gradually, however, increasing in difierence as they approach to 
 one or other of these extremities. The same gradation exists, we know, upon a lofty moun- 
 tain, situated within the tropics. At its base may be seen those plants which are peculiar 
 to the tropics ; and the beauty, the grandeur and perpetual verdure will gradually diminish 
 in the ascent, until a soil and climate be found on the higher summits similar in respect to 
 climate and productions to those in the vicinity of tho poles. 
 
 In regard to climate and vegetable productions, our globe has been aptly compared, in it.= 
 two hemispheres, to two immense mountains, ])lacod base to base, tne circumference ol 
 
Book III. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. 
 
 287 
 
 a great 
 lie moet 
 are re- 
 in the 
 nt form, 
 bilst in 
 itence a 
 e above 
 id to be 
 •oach to 
 f moun- 
 iculiar 
 iminieh 
 Ispect to 
 
 in itp 
 cnco ol 
 
 whicii nt tiio fuot \» cnnRtitiitcd by the equator, and the two polci roprcttrnt the minimits, 
 crownotl with perp* timl (fluciorB. 
 
 That ahnotit cvnry country poescHHOs a vogctatioii peculiar to ifHolt', in also well known ; and 
 this is iNirticuIurly the case with countricH whuse natural bciunilurloii nrc tbriiii'd i)y moun- 
 tains, sens, or deserts, even in the same or dilTernnt degroos of latitude. F.nroix! rxhibils a 
 widely difljerent class of plonts from that part of North America whicli lies iuunrdiatoly op- 
 posite to it. The botany of Southern Africa has little or no rescmbiunco 1o that of Iho same 
 parallclH in South America, or to that of New Holland. In Great Britain, snine plautM are 
 confined to the eastern and some to the western side of the island. !n Scotland, the Tut' 
 sane and the hlv nf Man Cabbage are never foimd but on the western side of the rountry, 
 and the same is the case with the pale Butteruort (Pinffuicula Lusitanica), Imth in Knjrland 
 and Scotland. Nature has constituted the barrier, for by art they may be cultivated as well 
 on one as the other side of the island. 
 
 Botanical geography is constituted by cor.oidering plants in relation to their habitation, 
 region, or the country m which they grow, and 'n regard to their locality or particular ilation, 
 ana forming a collection of facts, deduced fron these circumstances, from which general 
 laws may be derived: nor is this a science desiitute of advantages; such, we mean, as are 
 immediately manifest; for there are few, in the present ugc, who will be disposed to deny 
 that the study of the works of nature, like every tiling that cai> nxnlt and renne the mind, 
 is highly deserving of our attention. Vegetable geography is intimately connected with hor- 
 ticulture. Our gardens will be better stocked with vegetables and fruits, our forests with 
 trees, our fields with corn, and our pastures with grasses, in proportion to our knowledge of 
 the relation of plants with the e.xterior elements. Nay, Schouw has justly observed, that a 
 good chart of the distribution of the vegetable forms over any given country will afford a far 
 more correct idea of the productive strength of that country than many statistical tables. 
 The systematic botanist may thence derive benefit ; for by it he will be better able to deter- 
 mine whether certain kinds of plants are species or varieties ; he will consider that a dif^ 
 ferent local situation produces different efTects upon them ; that those growing in wet places 
 are less hairy or downy than those growing in dry ; that at great elevations plants ore more 
 dwarf in their stature, with fewer leaves, but with larger and more brilliant flowers than 
 those found at lesser heights. The station, too, of certain plants, or groups of plants, fre- 
 quently lead to a discovery of characters diverse from other individuals of other countries 
 with which tiny had been a&sociated. Thus the Canadian Strawberry and the Canadian 
 chickweed Wintergreen (Trientalis), though long confounded with the European Strawber- 
 ry and Trientalis, are found to be quite distinct. The regions, too, and the limits of those 
 regions, of very important medicinal H'ugs, are determined by vegetable geography. 
 
 Sect. I. — Progress of Botanical Geography. 
 This branch of science had been, hov'"ver, for a long time, wholly neglected. Linna}us, 
 indeed, with whom originated so many improvements in botany, besides what related to sys- 
 tematic arrangement, was the first writer who gave stations for plants, as ho called them, or 
 rather habitations, or frequently both combined, and this plon has been followed by every suc- 
 ceeding systematic botanist. Yet although these stations or habitations are frequently con- 
 sulted in the geographical arrangement of plants, they arc too vague and uncertain to be 
 generally depended upon ; and they must be employed with caution. De Saussure, who so 
 assiduously studied vegetable physiology, was particularly attentive, on that account, to the 
 elevation at which plants grow above the level of the sea ; and appears to have been the 
 first to ascertain that elevation barometrically. Mr. Young, the celebrated agriculturist, in 
 his Travels upon the Continent, determined with considerable accuracy the northern boun- 
 daries of several of the most important cultivated plants, the Olive, the Vine, and the 
 Maize ; whilst Soulavie, in the south of France, has characterised the limits of them, and 
 of the Orange and Chestnut. These, and other authors of less note, prepared the way, 
 during the last century, for the more important labours of the present, when the .study has 
 begun to rank as a science. Stromeyer described, to a certain extent, the boundaries of the 
 vegetable kingdom, in a work entitled "A Specimen of the History of Vegetable Geogra- 
 phy," Gottingen, 1800. The work of Kielmann, entitled " A Dissertation concerning Vege- 
 tation in the Alpine Regions," Tubingen, 1804, was followed by that of Treviranus, named 
 " Biologic," which seems to \ie the first wherein attention was paid to the distribution of 
 plants according to their natural families; the hitter author dividing the globe into regions 
 or distinct Floras ; and De Candolle, about the same time, partitioned France into regions in 
 the same way, and wrote on the influence of height upon vegetation. To the celebrated 
 Humboldt, however, we are indebted for the most valuable writings on vegetable geography, 
 which have first given it the true character of a science. His " Essai siir la Gt'ographie 
 des Plantes," in 1807, and his beautiful " Tableaux de la Nature," contained his first ideas 
 on the subject; while his celebrated "Prolegomena de distributione geographica Planta- 
 'iim secundum cceli temperiem et allitudinem montium," forming the introductory chapter 
 'o the botanical part of his travels; his invaluable "Memoir on Isothermal Lines and the 
 
 vi>, 
 
 . ,!•: » 
 
 flu J 
 
 .?!.: 
 
 ^..11 
 
I 
 
 988 
 
 aCIKNCK OF fJK(K;RAPlIY, 
 
 Part II. 
 
 IHiitrihutinn nf tlnil over the dlohr, |)til)liNli<>(l in tlic MpinoirfH (l'Arcii«iI, nnil trniiNlntiHl 
 iiitii lirinvritcr'H mid JiiiiicwiirH I'liiloNopliicnl Jdiirniil, vol, iii. ; totfftlicr witli liin Inter work 
 oil tlid Hiibjoct, " \ru> KiuiuirifH into Ihr l,iiw» which ore ohnrrvrd in Ihe I)i»trilmlinn nj 
 \'if(i lohlf Forinii," likfwiiin itwcrtcil in (Iki Kdiii. Phil. Joiiriml, vol. vi., iniiy Im' (•ouHiiir 'cd 
 UH till' inoHt iiii|mrtuiit diKst>rtiitionrt on ii coiiipri'lii'iiHivc hciiIi' ti:iit. Iinvo yot n|i|i<>iiri'il. In tlio 
 nifiin tiiiic', otiior oiniii'Mit iiiilnritliMt.H, liy tlioir wt'ji-dirrctcd InlKHirH, rontriitiiti'd iiiiitrriiilly 
 til t'.\t(>iid till! NciiMico: NViilileiilHTff, liir cxiiiiiiilo, in liiM lulmiriililo Flora lidp/ionifii, iiiul in 
 tliiit lit' 11 iNirtioii (if Mwit/.criiind, iind of the ('iir|mtliiiLn Alpn; whilft Von Iliicli, in liiH 7V«- 
 rils in .Xorwiiij, dotiiiloil nmny curious liicts n'MpoctinK the diHtrihution of vexetiiblcM in that 
 cliniiite, mid iiUi in his int(>r<'stin({ Voyuffr to the danarifg, nmdo in cunipiiny with I'ro 
 ti'.-isor Smith. Mr. U. Drown Iiiih iiiililinht'd iiiciiioirH which riink uinoiifr tlm iiioHt viilnublo 
 thiit hiivt! n()i)fiirud on thin nnlijcct. We p:irticiiliirly iillndo to his " Itrmarku, (hoffniphical 
 iind Sijftrmiilir, on Ihr ItoUimj of Trrrii AiiKlriilis, 1H14," und " OhKrrviitioiiK on Ihv Iter- 
 biirinin colli cti'd hij I'rofnmor ('hrint. Smith, in the vicinity of i\e (Smffo, \hln." I)r. 
 Schoiiw coinpiird, iii IH'24, an iidmiriiblo luMtory of tho Hcinticp, of which Home |>ortioiiM have 
 btMMi translated into DruwHtur'H nnd Jiiineson's Journal!). TliiH vuluiiblo work in accompa- 
 nied by iin Atlii8 of several iiiiipn of the worhl; ciicli exliibitincr the geo(;rapliicni extent of 
 cprtiiin tribes or fiiniilies of vpfjotnblos, iudicut(.>d by dilTeront colours; so that we ."ee, at oii« 
 viinv, u|)on a i)!>in of the world, the countries in which those pliintu nro found, their liounda- 
 ries, nnd their coin(>arativo abundance, indicated by the greater or lens depth of colour em- 
 ployed. Do CiindoUc, in the " Nouveau IHctiimtuiire tics Scirncr» NatHrfllm," has given 
 an admirable rrsume of these writorti, and huii added much important originul information. 
 A somewhat similar plan is odojrted by M. Drongniurt in the " Dictionnuire Cla»»ique 
 <rHiiitoire Natnrclle. Mr. Allan Cunningham, both in Mr. Biirron Field'* " Memoirs of 
 New South Walm" and in the second volume of " Captain King'* Survry of the Inter- 
 tropical Coasts of Australia," has furnished some excellent remarks upon tho distribution 
 of vegctiibles, especially of the less fre(iiu'nted ])arts of New Holland. The " Mimoiris du 
 Museum iPIIisloire Ntiturille" contain some iniportnnt paix^rs on this subject, particularly 
 that of Mirbel, " Sur la Uio^raphic des Conifcren," a trilio of plants valuable for its eco- 
 nomicul uses; and his " Recherc.hts sur la Distribution Oiograpliiquc des Vegetaux pha- 
 nirogames dans fancicn Monde, depuis rEquatrur ji.squau P6lc Arctiquv : aiid, lastly, 
 wo shall name a useful little manual, entitled u " Leclur". un the Geography of Plants," by 
 Mr. J. Barton. 
 
 Sbct. II. — On the lt\fluence of the Elements on Plants. 
 In regarding tho limits to which certain plants arc circumscribed upon tho surface of the 
 globe, we shall see that it is with them as with the mighty ocean ; they arc equally subject 
 to that fiat of the Almighty, " Thus far shall thou go. nnd no fartlier." The Palms, the 
 Treo-Ferns, tho parasitical (Jrchideo', are ever confined io the tropics; the Cruciferous and 
 Umbelliferous plants almost exclusively to the temperate regions ; while tho Coniferous 
 plants, and many of the Amentaceous tribes flourish in those of tho north ; and since these 
 are all aflbcted by physical agents, we must consider, before proceeding any farther, the 
 influcncc.'i which the elements or exterior agents exercise upon plants. These M. do Can- 
 doUe considers to be Heat, Light, Moisture, Soil, Atmosphere, 
 
 Si)B8ECT. I. — On the Influence of Heat. 
 Hc't is the most obvious nnd iwwerfiil agent in aflecting the existence nnd growth of 
 plants : and of this we have continual experience before our oyes. In winter all vegetation 
 is at a stand, and we can only cultivate those plonts which are i.i a continued state of 
 vegetation, by artificio.1 heat. Plants are nourished either by water alone, or by substances 
 dissolved or suspended in the water. Hence vegetation is arrested when the temperature 
 is below the freezing point; for the water, becoming solid, cannot enter the vegetable 
 tissue. Again, as in the great deserts of many countries, the heat may be so great thnt the 
 earth is dried up, and cannot part with its nutritive properties. These effects, liowover, ,1 
 is but reasonable to suppose, are more remarkable iipin the surface of the earth than nt a 
 considerable depth : hence it happens that trees which have long tap-roots resist both the 
 extremes of temperature better than those whose roots are nearer to tne surface ; their fibres 
 penetrate into a soil, whoso temperature is greater in winter than that of the outer air, so 
 that the fluids imbibed keep the interior of largo trees, as has been ascertained by experi- 
 ment, at a degree of heat pretty neorly the same os that indicated by a thermometer placed 
 nt tlie roots of such trees. Hence, the greater tho thickness of the stem or branch, and the 
 greater the number of layers interposed between the fith (the softest part being the moisleist 
 and the r^ost susceptible of cold) and the exterior air, the better are they able to resist the 
 severity ot ihe cold. It is a well-known fact that a shrub or tree ns it grows older becomes 
 more hnrdoned ngainst frost. Do Candollo relates that at Montpellicr the Pride of India 
 (Melia Azedarach) when young is destroyed by a moderate degree of cold ; but tliat when 
 
 ciei 
 
^ 
 
 m 
 
 DttOK III. 
 
 IN ITH RKI-ATION TO BOTANY. 
 
 330 
 
 rowth of 
 bgotation 
 Btate of 
 ubstanccB 
 Lperature 
 |C}][o table 
 that the 
 vever, It. 
 limn at a 
 Iboth the 
 leir fibres 
 pr air, so 
 expcri- 
 [t placed 
 , and the 
 I moisiest 
 jpsist tiie 
 I becomes 
 ff India 
 lat when 
 
 it nttninrt a inoro advani'i'd ii[(n, it will ondiiri*i in thf (fiinli'ii iit Ornova, np intPtmity of 
 atmonplipro fmir liiiii's hh hi-vitu an that wliicli killiMJ tlii> yoiiriK plant in llio wiiith of h'rniicc, 
 
 .Atfaiii, ill prii|Nirti(iii uh the (<iit<>rior laytTH aro di'privi^l of nap or wuti'ry lliiiil, iiiid fiirtlHo«l 
 liy a di'|K>HJt of rarlion and ri'HiiioiiH iiiattrr, tlio iiioro iN)W(<rthlly thoy withstand Iho cold. 
 Lvt'ry t;ardriic'r and (Miltivali>r ih acipiaintud with the fact (hat in cold ami wot NiiiimiofM 
 whiMi tho Niii) aiicl lioat liavo Ih'<-ii iiiitiiMlciiMit to pnxliico ^otxl liark iiiion tho now .tJUHitH of 
 till) tViiit-trci'-i, tlioy an; liulih' to ho alfoetod liy a very iiiiMlrratn tVont in tlin imihiiIii;; viiitor. 
 Sitcciiliiit pliinlii iiiui Miiiwritltflriltmimt jiliiiilii,'in K<'ni'ral, which have no diKtiin't '.mrk, 
 are highly NiiHcoptlblo of colil ; whilst tlio llirrh, which Ih fnnuod around with iiiiiiii'ioiii) 
 layori* of olil and dry Ixirk, and the Fir, whofit liark iilmiindH with rcHin, ondiiro an iiitoi.m) 
 dpRfco of it without injury. ,\t Fort Kntorprini", in North America, lat. dl" ;10", l)r, 
 RichanlHon liaM BMCcrtainud that the Hanktinn Pine (I'inuH liiuikitiana), tlin inhitr, tho rtil, 
 and lilai'k Spruce, tho tmall-frniled Ijiirrh, and other Aiiiontacormn trocK, hour a di'j'reo of 
 cold oiiiial to 44" below zero of Fahrcnhoit ; and in Hilioria, Int. ♦W 28", thocnmmo/i Larch, 
 tho Sihirian Stone I'iiii; tho Aider, Rirrh, and Juniw-r, &c. attain their (frniitUNt itizu, nrid 
 uro not aifcctod by the oxtremoHt cold of that Hovoro cliniato. 
 
 Powerful mimmor heats are capable of caunini; trees and Hlirnbri to endure the moxt tryinp 
 offeetH of cold in tho ensuinj; winter, as wo finiT in innnincrablo inHtanccs; and vivu virti, 
 Hoiico, in Oroat Britain, so many vcffctahles, tVuit-trecs in particular, for want of a suflR- 
 ciently [Hiworfiil sun in summer, are affected by our comparatively moderate fronts in winter j 
 whilst ujion continenti) in tho same dnjfreo of latitude tho same trees arrive at the highest 
 (le((reo of perfection. Kvon in the climate of Paris the Pistucia tree and tho Olvandrr will 
 not boar tho winter. Yet tho winters there are mild in coinparison with those which prevail 
 in the envinms of Pekinff, where tho Oleander was found by Lord Macartney to remain 
 abroad tho whole year; and at Casbin in Persia, whore Chardin assures us that the Pistacia 
 nuts, produced in tho open air, aro larger than those of Syria. On tho other hand, the 
 hoat of these two countries in summer is infinitely ^eater than that at Paris; the summer 
 temperature of Peking especially nearly eiiiials that of Cairo, and siiriMHses that of Alpriors. 
 For tho same reason, too, tho \Veepinf( Willow liocomes a largo tree in Finfrland ; while in 
 tScotlund, whore tho winters are at leist as mild, but where tho summer afii'rds much less 
 warmth, this beautiflil tree can only bo cultivated in highly favoured situations, and even 
 there its vegetation is exceedingly languid : its young snoots, not ripened by tho summer 
 sun, are destroyed even by a slight frost 
 
 Ilence tho influence of temperature upon the geography of plants !-■» pointi^d out by M. 
 de Candollo under three points of view:— 1. The mean temperature of tho year. 2. The 
 extreme of temperature, whether in regard to cold or heat. 3. The distribution of tempera- 
 ture in tho different months of the year. 
 
 The mean temperature, that point which it has for a long time been the great object to 
 ascertain, is in reality what is of tho least importance in regard to the geography of plants. 
 In a general view, it may be usefiil to take it into consideration ; but the mean teni|)erature 
 is often determined by circumstances so widely different, that the consequences and the 
 analogies to be deduced from them relative to vegetables would be very erroneous. 
 
 By attending to the extreme points of temperature, results more limited, hut fur more 
 exact, are to he obtained. Thus, every locality which, though at only short intervals, affords 
 a degree of cold or heat of certain int^onBity, cannot but produce plants which are capable 
 of supporting those extreme degrees. When, however, these widely different temperatures 
 recur at very long intervals, man may cultivate in such a country a vegctablo which cannot 
 exist in a wild state; either because, when destroyed by tho rigour of the season, ho restores 
 it by seeds or by plants derived from a more temperate country ; or because he shelters it 
 from the inclemency of the air ; or, becauso he is satisfied with the product of the plant, 
 although it should not bring its seeds to perfection. And thus it is that, in the south of 
 Europe, the Vine, Olive, and Oranpre trees often vegetate exceedingly well for all the pur- 
 poses for which they are required, though, if left to themselves, they could not propagate 
 themselves, nor sustain the winter. Thus we see a wide difference in the geography of 
 plants, between those in a state of nature, and those individuals whose growth is artificially 
 encouraged by man. 
 
 This, indeed, is a subject closely connected with the acclimatation of plant*, or the 
 power which man is supposed to exert over them in inuring them by degrees to a climate 
 not originally natural to them. This power is, however, denied by very able vegetable 
 physiologists. Mirbel, in particular, declares that ho has known many species indeed 
 whose wants have been, to ii certain degree, artificially supplied • but not one whose con- 
 stitution has been changed. "If," he says, "from time to time, exotics mingle themselves 
 with our indigenous tribes, propagate as they do, and even dispute the very possession of the 
 soil with tho native inhabitants ; this, assuredly, is not the work of man, but it is the 
 climate which dispenses this faculty of naturalization." ("Cultivators, however, maintain that 
 seedlings from Myrtles, which had ripened their finiit in Pevonshire in the open nir, are 
 better able to endure the cold of the climate than those seeds perfected by artificial heat, or 
 
 if'. 
 
 VI' 1 
 
 }V 'M 
 
 I M 
 
 
240 
 
 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 that havo como from the warmer parU of Europe. It is true, the power of so acclimatinpr 
 itself already exislB in the vejjetable ; but it ia man that calls it into action, for naturally the 
 myrtle would never extend itself to these latitudes. Nay, something of the same kind 
 M. Mirbel himself allows, where he says, " When we consider that the Vine is cultivated 
 in tiie plains of Hindostan and Arabia, between the 13tl» and 15th parallels ; that it is cul- 
 tivated on the banks of the Rhino and Maine, in lat. 51° ; in Thibet, at an elevation above 
 the level of the sea of from 9,0(X) to nearly 11,000 feet, under the 32d degree of latitude; 
 what astonislies and interests us the most is, not that the vine inhabits countries so remote 
 I'roin one another, or that it grows at so great an elevation above the sea, but that it possesses 
 in so eminent a degree the property of accommodating itself to d\ff^erent climates ; a pro- 
 perty, indeed, much more restricted in a great number of vegetables, which extend firom the 
 equator to the tropics on both sides, without ever crossing them ; for notwithstanding the 
 greater distance between the 23d degree of south latitude and the I33d degree of north lati- 
 tude, the climatic differences are much less from one tropic to the other than from the plains 
 of Hindostan to the banks of the Maine." 
 
 Tlie distribution of heat at different months of the year is what we shall find to be of 
 ♦,ho most importance in regard to vegetable geography. Some climates are eminently uni- 
 form ; a certain mean temperature is produced by a mild winter and a moderate degree of 
 warmth in summer. This is frequently the case on the sea-coasts, because the extremes of 
 heat are continually modified by the sea ; tiiat vast reservoir of nearly equal temperature, 
 which therefore imparts heat in winter and cold in summer, and enables even tropical plants 
 to subsist in some situations of the temperate zone. Such ore the western shores of Europe 
 and America, and p. great portion of the southern hemisphere. A similar mean temperature 
 may indeed be produced by a combination of very severe winters and very hot summers, as 
 in the great continents compared with islands, or tlie shores of those continents ; or the 
 eastern side of continents as compared with the western ; or the northern with the southern 
 hemisphere ; but these two climates, as may be expected, will produce a very different 
 vegetation. 
 
 Annual plants, which require heat during the summer to ripen their seeds, and which 
 [mss the winter, so to say, in torpidity, in the state of grain, indifferent to the intensity of 
 cold,* abound most in those regions where the extremes are the greatest ; whilst the peren- 
 nial plants, which can better dispense with the maturing of their seeds, and which are 
 injured by the severities of winter, affect the temperate climates. Of these, again, those 
 kinds which have deciduous leaves accommodate tliemselves best to unequal temperatures ; 
 whilst the individuals en which the foliage remains, or evergreens, give the preference to 
 districts where the temperature is more constantly equal. 
 
 Mirbel reckons that there are about 150 or 160 natural groups or families of plants in the 
 Old World, types of all which exist in the tropical parts of it. Beyond these limits, a great 
 number become gradually extinct. In the 48th degree of latitude, scarcely one half of 
 that number appear ; in the 65th, not 40 ; and but 17 in the vicinity of the polar regions. 
 He further estnnates, that within the tropics the proportion of woody species, trees and shrubs, 
 emials, if it does not exceed, that of herbaceous, annual, biennial, and perennial plants. 
 The relative number of the woody species to the herbaceous, annual, biennial, and perennial, 
 fiecreases from the equator to the poles ; but, as an equivalent, the proportion of perennial 
 to annual or biennial plants goes on increasing. Near the extreme limits of vegetation 
 these are, at least, as twenty to one. 
 
 We must, however, by no means conclude that the same elevation in corresponding 
 degrees of latitude is necessarily suited to the vegetation of the same plants. A number of 
 circumstances may exist to modify the degree of heat at the same elevation. In Switzer- 
 land, for example, the elevation of the valley of Untersee is the same as that of (iestein ; 
 yet the tliermometer, in 1822-3, fell only to 6° below zero in the former spot; whereas 
 at Gestein it foil to 10i°, and ot Berne to 16°, The depth of tlie valleys influences 
 vegetation ; the deeper they are, the more intense is the cold on the summits of the 
 surrounding mountains. Thus, the pine does not thrive on the Bragel, at a height of 5100 
 feet; whereas it succeeds perfectly, ot the same elevation, on the Rhetian Alps, the valleys 
 of the Linth, the Muotta, and Kloen being deeper than those of the latter districts. In like 
 manner, in tiie vnlley of the Davos, agricultural produce is certain in places much more 
 elevated tli;\n tlio riornese valleys, because the latter are deeper. The warm winds from 
 Italy havo n porcoptible power over the vegetation of the contiguous jmrts of Switzerland ; 
 hut the degrees nf that influence depend upon circumstances. In the valley of the Inn, 
 Imrley and flax are cultivated with success at an elevation of more than 5400 foet ; whereas 
 at I.aret, in the valley of Davos, though the height is only 4900 feet, no grain will thrive. 
 Yet, these valleys are alike in most respects, and are surroui.dcd by mountains of simila- 
 altitudes; they are both sheltered from the north-east wind; their soil is of the same nature; 
 
 •St'cds blind, in t'cmriil, rnrninliril with I't'W nriinn.'< wliirli nbuiiiiil in mnistnre, are in a dcarre in»''nsihlc to 
 rlic pxlrunii's i)f hint nml rold ; wiinnro it Hr:K('ii lliat, in rcinvfjiny llu in from one country to anotliur, they paM 
 ilircingh a variuty i>r olininti' uninjnrcil. ' 
 
ants in the 
 
 1, a {fTeftt 
 
 half of 
 
 regions. 
 
 ind shrubs, 
 
 plants. 
 
 perennial, 
 
 perennial 
 
 egelation 
 
 responding 
 niimber of 
 Switzer- 
 Gestein ; 
 whereas 
 influences 
 lits of the 
 lit of 5100 
 the valleys 
 ... In like 
 n\ich more 
 vinds from 
 itzerlond ; 
 if the Tnn, 
 ; whereas 
 ;ill thrive, 
 of eimila- 
 110 nature ; 
 
 iiift^iiaiWe to 
 litr, they pR'l 
 
 Book III. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION To BOTANY 
 
 241 
 
 hut in the valley of tlic Inn, the warm winds from Italy arc intercepted only by a single 
 chain of mountains, whereas two chains lie between Italy and the valley of Davos: and, 
 besides, the latter being of smaller extent than the former, it admits of tlio reception of less 
 solar heat. In tlie Oborland of Berne, an increase in height of 2000 feet diinini^iies the 
 crop one third.* 
 
 SvDSGCT. 2. — On the Influence of Light. 
 
 The inlhicnce of the solar light upon vegetation De CandoUe corsiders to be as imf jrtant 
 as that of temperature ; and although it acts less powerfully upon the geographical distri- 
 bution of plants, it nevortlieless merits a particular notice. 
 
 Light is that agent whicli oi»erates in producing tlie greatest number of phenomena in 
 vegetable life. It determines, in a great measure, tiie absorption ; for plants imbibe less 
 humidity during the niglit and in darkness. It completely influences the watery exhalations 
 of the green parts of plants ; for these parts do not exhale during the night or in obscurity, 
 whilst these exhalations are very considerable during the day, and especially under the 
 direct influence of the rays of the sun. The light aflects, in most cases, the decomposition 
 of the carbonic acid ; and consequently the deposition of carbon in vegetables, their sub- 
 stance and tlieir growth, the intensity of their sensible properties, and the direction of many 
 organs. It is the principal, and perhaps tlic only, cause of tliose singular movements known 
 by the name of the sleep of nlanls ; and, lastly, during tlie absence of light the green parts 
 absorb a certain quantity ot oxygen gas. Although these difierent causes afi'ect all vege- 
 tables, yet tiiey are not affected in the same degree. 
 
 liigiit is more equally distributed tlian heat upon the surface of the globe ; but its mode 
 of diffusion induces some very important consequences. In the countries situated under the 
 eipiator, an intense light, since it acts more perpendicularly, influences vegetables nearly 
 equally, during twelve hours each day, throughout the whole year. In prr^wrtion as we 
 recede from the equator and approach the poles, the intensity of the more oblique rays gra- 
 dually diminisiics; but in regard to the distribution of these rays, tlie light is completely 
 wanting during the winter, when the absence of vegetation indeed renders it nearly useless 
 to plants ; ami it is continued during almost the whole period of vegetation, in such a man- 
 ner that its Icngtiicned influence compensates wholly or in part for its want of intensity. 
 Thus we see that, independently of what concerns the temperature, plants which lose their 
 leaves can belter exist in northern countries, and that those whose vegetation is continued 
 have need of the southern regions. And another beautiful and just remark is made by De 
 CttudoUe, in reference to the distribution of light; namely, that those plants whose foliage 
 and flowers maintain habitually and constantly the same position, can live in northern cli- 
 mates, where the light is almost continued in summer; whilst it is in the regions of the 
 south that we find, as might naturally be expected, those species whicii are remarkable for 
 the alternate closing and expanding, or sleeping and waking, of their flowers, a motion 
 which has an intimate connexion with the alternation of days and nights. Thus we see 
 why it is found so difficult in our country to cultivate many of tlie tropical vegetables, or, at 
 any rate, to brin^ them to perfection. M. de Humboldt has proved that it is less owing to 
 the absence of heat tlian to tlie want of sufficient solar light that the Vine does not ripen 
 its fruit beneatii tiie foggy skies of Normandy ; and M. Mirbel has satisfied himself that the 
 uninterrupted action of the sun's rnys, during a great number of days, is the cause of the 
 astonishingly rapid developement of alpine plants in high northern regions.! Dr. Richard- 
 son, too, states that the sugar-boilers in the Canadian forests observe that tiie flow of sap in 
 the Suffar Maple (Negundo fraxinifolium) is not so immediately influenced by a high mean 
 temperature as by tiie power of the direct rays of the sun. The greatest quantity of sap is 
 collected wlien a smart frost during night is succeeded by a warm sunshiny day. Again, 
 Humboldt assures us, that in all places where the moan temperature is below 62° 6', the 
 revival of nature takes place in spring in that month whose mean temperature reaches 42° 
 8', or 4Q° 4'. At Cumberland Ilouse, Dr. Richardson found vernation to begin in May, 
 
 • We limy hurc iniintinn a nirious fact of vogniiilion restiric upon a hasis of icn. The glacier of Roccosecco, 
 which foriii!* one of the hfanrhi^s of tli«.' Rerneria, has on its suiniiiit a valh?y tilted witli ice ; aiiit on tills the ava- 
 lanches have lironsht down inasscs of earth. This earth prodnces a number of alpino plants, that nlHirrt ahun- 
 ilaiit and nourishing; food to the Ancks of tlie inhabitants of Saniadeii. Tliia fingiilar pasture has been used ever 
 since the year I5.1li. 
 
 t " Vet'etaliles." says M. Mirhcl, in his FJtmtns de Phij.^ologic ffgttah, " wlien Kecluded IVoni the light, send out 
 lone, thin, and whitish shoots; ll]"ir substance bccnnicH lax, and without ftrniness; in fact, they are bleached. 
 Tilt; operation of the Inniinoiis iH'ains on these orsaniscd bodies consifsts chiefly in sepnratiiiK the constituent 
 partH of water and carbonic miil, which they contain, and in disen|!ai;iii|>thc oxyeen of the latter. The carbonic 
 aeid, with the hyiiroyen and oxiijeu of the water, produce those jjunis, resins, and oils, which flow in the vessels 
 and which fill tlie cells. These juices nourish the inenibrnnes. anil lirini; Iheni into the ligneous state ; a result 
 whicli becomes more marked a^ the )jj:ht is strnncest and its action most protracted. Darkness and light produce, 
 thi!refore, diametrically oppi'siie edects on vegetation. Darkness, by keeping up the softness of tlie vegetable 
 parts, favours their increas-' in length : light, by ministering to their nourishment, consolidates them, and arrests 
 their growth. Hence it follows that a line state of vegetation, such as unites in just pro)Kirtions size anil strength, 
 must ilepend, in a measure, on the nicely halauceil alternation of day and night. Now, the liy|)erhorenn plants 
 «pring up at a period when I he sun is constantly above the horizon, and the light which incessantly acts upon 
 tlieni coutirms and perfects them before they have time to attain a censiderablc degruc of length. 7*heir vegetOr 
 lion is active, but suuii over ; they are robust, but sniall.' 
 
 Vol. I 21 2 P 
 
 ^l=ii|l 
 
 m 
 
 im\ 
 
 
 
vi^ 
 
 ' ,(■'• 
 
 l¥: 
 
 
 
 242 
 
 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part II. 
 
 when tlie mean temperature was only 49°, nearly 3° below that which Baron Humboldt 
 consitlnrod necessary fur the evolution of deciduous leaves; but he atlds, "the influence of 
 the direct rays of the sun u,as at this time very great, and the hifjh temperature of the last 
 decade of the month compensated for the first." We can imitate tiie native climes of many 
 of the delicate exotics, as far as regards temperature; and in summer, wiien tiie days are 
 long, we see them flourish almost as if they were in tiieir natural situations ; but in « inter 
 they languish, and often die, especially the more tender species, such as the Hettysaruni 
 fryrnn.i, and the humble plant (Slimosa pudica). It is evident that they want that distribu- 
 tion of light which is most congenial to them. 
 
 Plant*, then, are arranged in their different localities, according to the certain quantity of 
 light which they may require. All those with very watery leaves, which evaporate much, 
 which are of a succulent nature, which, having few pores or organs of evaporation, need a 
 stimulus to determine their action, all which have a tissue abounding in carbon, or which 
 contain very resinous or oily juices, or which offer a great extent of green surface, require 
 much light, and are generally found in exposed places ; the rest, according as they are more 
 or less distinguished by these properties, exi.st either under the slight shadow of bushes, or 
 beneath the more powerful Fheltcr of hedges and walls, or of forests ; or, as is the case with 
 many Fungi, in caves and darkness. These lost are, indeed, destitute of any green colour; 
 but Mosses, Ferns, and even some evergreens, such as the Ivtj, flourish best beneath the 
 shade of dense forests, if the trees of those forests have deciduous leaves ; and in situations 
 where plants that vegetate only during the summer could scarcely live. 
 
 The subject, however, of the action of light upon vegetation, has not yet received the 
 attention which it deserves. Many more observations and experiments are required before 
 we can employ it with certainty in connexion with botanical geography. 
 
 SvBSECT. 3. — On the Influence of Moisture. 
 
 Water being the vehicle by means of which nourishment is conveyed into the plant, and, 
 indeed, itself yielding a large proportion or even the whole of the nutriment of many ve- 
 getables, it follows that tiiis clement is not only of the highest importance in vegetable 
 economy, but one of the causes which affects most powerfully tlie geographical distribution 
 of plants upon the surface of the globe. 
 
 Those vegetables, in partiimlar, necessarily absorb a great quantity of water, which have 
 a large and spongy cellular tissue; those wliich possess broadly expanded soft leaves, fur- 
 nished with a great number of cortical pores ; those having few or no hairs on their surface ; 
 those whose growth is very rapid, which deposit but little oily or resinous matter ; those of 
 which the texture is not subject to ba changed or cornipted by humidity; those, in fine, 
 whose roots are very numerous, generally need to absorb much moisture, and cannot live 
 but in places where they find naturally a largo proportion of it. On the other hand, those 
 plants which are of a firm and compact cellular tissue, which have small or rigid leaves, 
 i'urnished with very few pores, wliich are abundantly clothed with hairs, of which the 
 growth is slow, and wiiich deposit, during the progress of their vegetation, much oily or 
 resinous matter ; tliase whoso cciluliir tissue is liable to be changed and decayed by too much 
 moisture, and of which the roob* are not numerous, require little water, and prefer, for their 
 natural situation, dry pl:icps. Great differences, however, are produced, according to the 
 nature of the water tliat is absorbed ; the less it is charged with the nutritive principle, the 
 more necessary is it that the vegetable shall absorb, in a given time, enough to suffice for its 
 support. Again, the more the water abounds with substances which alter its fluidity or 
 transparency, and which, inasmuch as fhcy are solid particles, tend to obstruct the orifices 
 of tiie pores, or to impede absorption by their viscosity, tlie less do such vegetables imbibe in 
 a given time. 
 
 The very nature even of those substances dissolved or suspended in the water has a great 
 influence upon the topographical distribution or the locality of plants. The matters so dis- 
 solved are, 1. Cirboiiic acid. 2. Atmospheric air. '\. Animal and vogctal)le substances. 4. 
 Alkaline principles or earths. Those plants wlioso cellular tissue is found to contain much 
 <arbon, such as trees producing hard wcxxl, avoid, more than others, the vicinity of waters 
 whicli are extremely pure, and which contain but little carbonic acid gas. Plants which 
 exhibit much azote in their chemical composition, such as the Critciftrnus Plants and the 
 Fungi, seek tho«o spots where there is much animal matter in solution. Tlio.se, again, which 
 present, when chemically analyzed, a considerable quantity of certain earthy substances, 
 such as silica* in the Monocolylrdnnous Plants, gypsum in the Lrguminosa;, &c. will re- 
 quire it in a greater or less proixirtion in the soil where they grow; and if it does not exist 
 there naturally, the agriculturist must supply it artificially ; and those species which yield, 
 
 • ThidBilirn.wi' know, ,ilimiiiil» in tin: crnssi':", na well risin nlliTmonorniyli'ilmMMin planti ; nnd M. ilnCnnilnlle 
 olwprvps. tlint it if in rnwvi\w.mv nf iis i\isli'nri' in tlie LTiissfs, &c ;inili)f the rdniparntivi' Inilissoliihilily wiiicli 
 is Ihn ro*nlt, thnl it in proferrril by nininst nil nntioii'! r.f the vnrM fnr a ri>verin;r tn ilu-ir hnnsr-s. The («?np|p 
 (if the Norlli thiia employ straw liir that pnrimsc, nn Ihn same princi[)le that Ihusc I'f llip tropics use the leaves of 
 Die palma. 
 
 if" 
 
 111 
 
Book IIL 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. 
 
 243 
 
 [has a great 
 
 Iters so dic- 
 
 jtjnccK. 4. 
 
 Iitain nmcli 
 
 of wntcrs 
 
 lints whicli 
 
 (s will the 
 
 iiin, whicli 
 
 iubstanccp, 
 
 Ic. will re- 
 
 ]s not oxist 
 
 fiich yield, 
 
 1. (In Canilollc 
 [iliility wliiili 
 
 I the leaves of 
 
 when burned, a more abundant 'portion of alkaline substances than usual, can only flourish 
 or even live where these matters abound. The specien whicii have need of carbonate of 
 soda will only grow successful]/ near the sea or saline lakes or springs. Thus the different 
 property of tlie substances dissolved in the water is evidently one of the many causes which 
 determine the stations of the vegetable species. 
 
 SvBSECT. 4. — Chi the Influence of the Soil. 
 
 The influence of soil M. de Candolle considers as perhaps more complicated than that of 
 the preceding agents. He reduces it to the following heads : — 
 
 (1.) The soil serves as a means of support to vegetables, and consequently its consistence 
 or tenacity ought to possess, in tliis point of view, a peculiar fitness for sustaining, in a 
 greater or less degree, plants cvliibiting very various foqjis. Thus, soils composed of blow- 
 ing sand can only serve as a support to vegetables which are of very humble stature and 
 prostrate growth, so that the winds may not overturn them ; or to trees, furnished with very 
 deep and branching roots, which may attach them into this moveable matrix. The contrary 
 holds good in regard to very compact soils. Small-rooted plants may thus be firmly enough 
 fixed, and they may subsist ; but the very large roots are incapable of penetrating into soils 
 that are very tenacious. The two extremes of these soils present an equally sterile vege- 
 tation. Sands whicli are not sufficiently stationary (as those very remarkable ones on the 
 northern shores of the Moray Frith), water which is subject to very rapid currents, clay of 
 an extremely compact nature, or rocks of great hardness, are equally unfriendly to the 
 growth of plants. 
 
 (2.) The chemical nature of the earths or stones of whicli the soil is composed, affects 
 the choice of vegetables, as regirds their flourishing in such situations. But this subject, 
 simple as it appears at first sight, is in reality very complicated. For the difl'erent earths 
 act upon vegetation by pliysical circumstances ; as, for example, according as they absorb 
 the surrounding water with more or less fiicility, retain it with more or less force, or part 
 with 't r^orc or less easily. Now, tlie celebrated Kirwan ascertained by a comparative 
 anal .'.-IS ■ enrths which were reckoned excellent for the growth of wheat in various coun- 
 tries, 'fii,' -y .'ontain more silica if the climate is more subject to rain, more alumine if 
 the r 1 I ;)c ne case; in short, that the soil, to be good for any given vegetable, ought 
 to have ; n ■ cr of absorbing more moisture in a dry climate, less in an humid atmosphere : 
 whence it is plain that in different localities the same species of vegetable may be found in 
 diifcrent soils. 
 
 (3.) Every kind of rock has a certain degree of tenacity, and a certain disposition to 
 decomiKJse or become pulverized : whence results the greater or less fiicility of particular 
 soils to be forme<l either of sand or gravel, and to be composed of fragments of a nearly 
 determined form and size. Certain vegetables, from causes which we sholl presently indicate, 
 will prefer such or such of this sand or gravel ; bi'V the peculiar nature of the soil does not 
 act here immediately; thus, when we find cnlcaicous rocks which decompose like argilla- 
 ceous schist, the same species of vegetation is observed. These two considerations are 
 particularly applicable to lichens. 
 
 (4.) Rocks, according to their colour or their nature, are more susceptible of being heated 
 by the direct rays of the sun ; and consequently they may, in some degree, modify the 
 temperature of a given place ; and influence also, tliough slightly, the choice of plants 
 capable of succeeding upon them. 
 
 But, independently of all these physical causes, it may be asked, whether the chemical 
 nature of rocks has any eflTect upon vegetables 1 It is generally considered to be so ; hut it 
 must be allowed that this action has been frequently very much exaggerated. Bory de St. 
 Vincent, indeed, has assured us that calamine, or native carbonate of zinc, in the vicinity of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, is always indicated, to a certainty, by particular plants ; and the fact is 
 confirmed by a little work, since piiblishml, oallod A Jiora of the Enviro.ns of Spa. The 
 yellow heartsease, a small variety of tlie cotnmon eye.briffht (Euphrasia ofliicinaliM), the while 
 Campion (Sileno inflata), a Santlwort (Arcnaria), a shrubby Lichen, a species of Bromiis 
 (Brome-grass), constitute this poor but constant vegetation. These, however, no doubt, 
 grow in greater abundance and perfection in other soils: the wonder is that they do not 
 altogether perish hero; for even the gallinaceous binls, -vhich oat gravel to triturate their 
 food, (lie from swallowing fragments of calamine. It must be remarked, in reality, that plants 
 do not often live upon pure rook, hut ninmig the decomposed matter of that rock ; that the 
 rocks, even thoiigli very (•irnmiFrribed, often present very different natures ; that vegetable 
 mould i.s not only formed by the rocks which inimediately surround it, but also by the 
 udmixture of earthy substances carried by the waters, and transported by the winds, or by 
 the remains of animals and vegetables which have before existed there. Hence it will be 
 inderstoixl how the vegetable earths differ much less in themselves, than the rorks which 
 produce them or serve to support them; and that the greater numher of plants yield, in most 
 situations, the alimentary earths which are necessary for them. Indeed, after various 
 botanical journeys made through France, M. de Candolle has found nearly the same plants 
 
 i\. 
 
 
 .!.!d 
 
•*,'■» 
 
 iV 
 
 244 
 
 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part II. 
 
 i'i «i' 
 
 vagutating spontaneously in almost all the different rocky substances. It has been said that 
 the Box (Buxus senipcrvirens) grows only in calcureous soila, and it certainly prct'ors them ; 
 but it is found abundantly in the argillaceous calcareous schistose rocks of the_ Pyrenees; 
 and it is even seen among the granite of Britany and upon the volcanic parts of Auvergne. 
 The Chestnut has been said to avoid a calcareous country ; but there are beautiful chestnuts 
 on both sides of tlio Lake of Geneva, at the foot of the calcareous mountains of Jura and 
 Chablais. 
 
 Pure magnesia, M. Carradori has found, by chemical experiment, acta ns a poison on most 
 plants : yet M. Dunal, in visiting a portion of the environs of Lunel, where the soil presents 
 a great quantity of almost pure magnesia, found there the same plants as in the surrounding 
 calcareous soil, and the roots flourishing in the clefts of this magnesian rock. Thus we must 
 be careful not to attach too much importance to the nature of the earth, which is tlrequently 
 acted upon by causes purely physical. • ' 
 
 SuBSEOT. 5. — Atmospheric Influence. 
 
 The atmosphere, taken in its pure state, we know to be composed, at all times, of the 
 same proportions of ozofe and oxygen; and in such cases we may suppose its action to be 
 similar upon all vegetables. But tlie atmosphere also is of different degrees of transparency 
 or density ; it holds in solution other matters or substances, which mix with it in certain 
 places, and render it more or less suitable to certain species of plants. In mines, for instance, 
 the quantity of carbonic acid gas, or of hydrogen, may be so great as to preclude vegeta- 
 tion altogether : or to allow only of the growth of such individuals as are very strong and 
 vigorous, or particularly absorbent of these substances. Then, too, the air charged with 
 saline emanations from the sea injures some plants, and on the other hand encourages the 
 developement of such as require carbonate of soda ; as may be seen in the valleys of the 
 south of Europe, where maritime plants affording soda may be cultivated at a considerable 
 distance from the ocean, provided that they lie open towards tlie sea, and are exposed to the 
 winds that blow from it 
 
 Wc cultivate in our inland gardens, languidly and but for a year or two, many of the 
 maritime plants, such as the Lithospermum. The Nitraria Schoberi is improved by em- 
 ploying salt where it is grown. Many of the Statices may be, however, easily cultivated, 
 and one of them, the common Thrift (S. Armeria) even succeeds in crowded towns, whence; 
 its English name; yet its native country is either on the shores of the sea or .in salt marshes, 
 or upon the summits of the highest mountains. 
 
 The most general influence, however, exercisetl by the atmosphere, is its power of con- 
 taining and parting witli moisture, or its hygroscopic action. The atmosphere is habitually 
 charged with moisture ; sometimes in such a manner as to be invisible, and then only ascer- 
 tainable by the hygrometer; at other times visible in a state of vapour or dew ; and we find 
 that vegetables m general succeed better in a climate where, at a given degree of tem- 
 perature, the air is moderately moist, than in another where it is either too much saturated 
 with moisture or too dry. This is a circumstance which cannot well be imitated in the cul- 
 tivation of plants in the open air: but in our stoves, and especially by the aid of steam, the 
 various degrees of humidity necessary to a vigorous vegetation may be produced to the 
 greatest nicety. 
 
 The agitation or movement of the air by winds and other causes exercises some power 
 o\'er vegetation; but we are too little acipiainted with this subject to be able to deduce any 
 I>articular theory from it. 
 
 Of all the atmospheric influences, the most difficult to reduce to its proper value is that of 
 density ; or, what is the same thing, the influence of height or elevation above the level of 
 the sea. This M. de Candolle has made the subject of a memoir in the volume of the Soci- 
 ety of Arcueil, and we shall here give his general ideas upon it. 
 
 In proportion as we are elevated in the air, the temperature as well as the moisture con- 
 tinues to diminish ; a circumstanoe which appears to depend upon this, that the rare air has 
 more capacity for lieat than dense air. The fiicts that go to prove that the diminution of 
 the temperature upon high mountains is one of the causes which most oflect the distribution 
 of vegetables, are the following : — 
 
 (I.) The natural situation of each plant at a determined elevation above the level of the 
 sea is so nmcli the greater in pro(K)rtion as the country is nearer the equator, and lest in 
 more temperate regions ; that is to say, the fiirther we recede from the equator, the greater 
 influence has the exposure upon the temperature. 
 
 (2.) In temperate climates, as France, for instance, those pl.ints which are but little affect- 
 ed by temix!rature, and which grow in all its latitudes, are found also at all those elevations 
 where tlie earth is not covered by eternal snows ; from the level of the sea to the summits 
 of the mountains. M. de Candolle has detected about 700 examples of this law; the com- 
 num Heath, tlie Juniper, the Birch, &c. grown indifferently at the level of the sea, and at 
 a height of 10,000 feet 
 
 (3.) If plants which, according to their nature, avoid either too high or too low a degree oV 
 

 Book III. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. 
 
 MR 
 
 evcl of tlio 
 and lcB» in 
 the greater 
 
 littln affcct- 
 ; elevations 
 lie summits 
 1 ; the com- 
 Isen, and at 
 
 , degree o» 
 
 temperature, yet gmw at different latitudes, wo may observe thiit it is at heigiits where the 
 elluct of elevation may coinixMisale that of latituiic ; tlnia the native plant* of tlie nurtheni 
 plains will bo seen to jjfrow upon tlie mountains of tlio south. 
 
 (4.) Plants which are cultivated uiwn a larjfe scale are guided by laws whicli entirely 
 correspond with the preceding ; those which are cultivated in various latitudes will grow 
 indiHorently at various hcij^htH; tho.se wiiich are only found at certain latitudes will extend 
 no iiirther than to proportional elevations. The polator., wliich succeoils so well in our 
 plains, is cultivated in I'eru at an elevation of 10,(KK) foot above tlie level of the sea : the 
 olu'e, which nowiiero passes 44° nortli latitude, will not grow at a height exceeding 125(1 
 feet. 
 
 (5.) The elevation above the level of tlie sea, wlien wo compare the temperaturo of the 
 seasons, establisl h effects very analogous to those which result from the distance from tlie 
 equator ; so tliat ..ere is the more analogy between the results on vegetation in the two 
 cases. Inproportion us we rise in a direct line, it follows, from tiie lessened density of the 
 air, that the intenseness of the solar light continues to increase ; this effect is re|)resent- 
 ed in the lino of distances from the equator, because the perpetuity of light during the 
 continuance of vegetation is so inucli the greater in proixirtion as the latitude is more 
 elevated. 
 
 (6.) In proportion to tiie greater lieight upon the mountains, so will the hygrometer bo seen 
 to indicate a less degree of liumidity ; tiie same general eH'ect takes place as we recede from 
 the equator towards the poles. 
 
 On mountains, covered with perpetual snow, where the plants are constantly moistened 
 with water in a freezing state, those species, to wiiich a warm temperature is unfriendly, 
 will live at inferior heights to those which they brave in the same latitude, wlien they are 
 not watered from those cold sources. 
 
 It would appear therefore, from all these considerations, that the situation or fixed locality 
 of plants at certain heights depends mainly on the fill of the temperature attributable to 
 that elevation. Now, the only purely theoretical point of view, says M. de Candollo, accord- 
 ing to which we can comprehend how tho rarefaction of the air bears in itself a direct influ- 
 ence upon vegetation, is this ; that plants require to absorb a greater or less degree of oxy- 
 gen gas in their green or their coloured parts. It cannot be doubted that there is a certain 
 point of elevation where the atmospiiere becomes Ux) much rarefied to supply tlie wants of 
 plants; but wiiere this is the case the mountains are always clothed with snow. M. de 
 Humboldt, too, inclines to think that the pressure of the air rnay act in encouraging niid in- 
 creasing the quantity of cvajwration. But wc must say that direct experiment is still want- 
 ing to confirm these opinions (and this is perhaps unattainable in the present state of 
 science), in order that we rnay ibrm a conclusive judgment on their value. 
 
 Sect. III. — Station and Habitation of Plants. 
 
 The station and habitation of plants must next engage a portion of our attention. They 
 are both important: the former implies their situation as regarding local circumstances, and 
 tlie action of physical causes upon vegetables; tiie latter implies the goographicol position. 
 When we say thot such a plant is found in marshe.-j, on the sea-siiore, in woods, or upon 
 mountains, in England, in France, in North America; by the maishos, shore, woods, or 
 mountain.?, we mean what we hero term the station ; and by England, Franco, or North 
 America, the habitation: such is tlio sense, at least, in which we shall hero use the terms; 
 for in systematic botanical writings the meaning is by no means always thus restricted. 
 
 The seeds of plant", by varied and beautiful means, are icidely dispersed by the liberal 
 hand of nature ; whilst some, however, fall upon barren ground, or a soil unfit for the nature 
 of that particular vegetable, others take root in situations, both with regard to the earth 
 and surrounding medium, which are in harmony with their growth, and produce, "some 
 thirty, some sixty, and some an hundred-fold." There are, again, tribes which, under these 
 circumstances, increase so pro<ligiously that they destroy vegetables of a less vigorous 
 growth, and, to the exclusion of others, appropriate to themselves a great extent of tho surface 
 of the earth. Such are termed by Humboldt social plants. In this way, and notwithstand- 
 ing the extreme poverty of the soil, the Seaside Sedrre (Carcx arenaria), the npri/rht Sea 
 Lymegruss (Elymus arenarius), and the Sea-reed or Marram* (Arundo arenaria), occupy a 
 protligious surface of tho sandy shores of Great Britain, almost to the exclusion of otlior 
 vegetation ; their long, creeping, and entangled rcxjts serving to bind the sands together, and 
 thus foiming a barrier to the encroachments of the sea. Thus it is with the heoths in the 
 eame country, where the sterile moors are purple witli tho blossoms of the heath. 
 
 The flowers of tho Gentians cover, as with a carpet of the most brilliant ultramarine 
 blue, the sides of tin; alpine hills in Switzerland and tho south of Europe. In England the 
 fields are too often rod with Poppies, and lh(> mar.-hcs are whitonoil with the "snowy beard" 
 of the Coltonirrass, and the pastures with the blossoms of the Cardarnine pratensis, so that 
 
 • Thf Ci'ltic nniiip ^r tlii-" pl;int is Mnraim. A villnTP iipim the siM cnnat of Norfolk is ii.'iiii(<<l Marliam, fropi 
 llio err-!it nt)iiiulii:id' in uhirli llio Aruniic armaria (.ToH-s in its viriiiil)'. 
 
 ^■i''^i 
 
 
 m 
 
246 
 
 SCIENCK OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Pakt II. 
 
 J 
 
 ifi'' 
 
 m.. 
 
 N. 
 
 tlicy appear at a distance as if covered witli linen laid out for bleaching, whence arises the 
 vulffar English name* of the latter plant. Some of these plantjt thus living in society are 
 continually striving with their neighbours, till tlie strongest oblJiin tiie victory. Many low 
 perennial and herbaceous vcg(!tables are over[x)wered by a colony of taller shrubs ; such as 
 the Whin or Fitrze and the Broom: and these in their turns must (x;casionally give place 
 to trees and shrubs of a larger and stronger growth. Mr. Brown has, however, noticed a 
 curious fact in regard to the Field Erynffo (Eryngium campestre,) and the Starthisth 
 (Centiiuroa Calcitrapa), which cover much cultivated ground upon the continent; viz. that 
 these two engrossers are never mixed together indiscriminately, but that each forms groups 
 of imrtial masses, placed at certain distances from their rivals. 
 
 On the other hand, there arc plants, which, from the circumstance of their not increasing 
 nuich by root, or bearing few seeds, or such seeds as from their liglit and volatile nature arc 
 much dispersed, and which arc not particular in their choice of soil, do net form groups, but 
 lie scattered {Plantes eparses, Cffrenees, or rares, of the French). 
 
 The former kind, or " social plants," are those which it will be most important for us to 
 con.'iider in relation to Botanical Geography. 
 
 The stations of plants being thus, as we have already mentioned, liable to the influence 
 of physical agents, it becomes necessary to define them by terms which are calculated at 
 once to point out the places and the circumstances in which they grow. This, however, is 
 n tiisk of no small difficulty ; for, vvitliout swelling the list to an unmeasurableleii-jth, it will 
 be impossible to define the various local situations of plants. There are many situations 
 which produce only one or two kinds : for example, the snow, in the highest arctic regions 
 to wliich travellers have attiiined, has been found to nourish and to bring to the greatest per- 
 fection that highly curious vegetable, tjic Red Snow (Protococcus nivalis). The truffle 
 (Tuber cibariuni) is found entirely hid beneath the surface of the earth. Some fuiiffi are 
 detected upon the dead horns and hoofs of animals (no plant exists upon living bodies-t), and 
 upon dead chrysalides; and both /un/fi and mosses grow on the dung of animals. Paper 
 nourishes the minute Conferva dvmlroidea : the glass of window.^, and the glass table of the 
 microscope, if laid by in a moist state for a certain lengtli of time, produce the Cmiferva 
 feriestralis. VVine-casks in damp cellars give birth to the Racodinm cellare ; and Dutrochet 
 has detected living vegetables in lyfutleira wine and in Goulard water, (a solution of Saturn). 
 Those, however, and many others that might be noticed, niay be numbered among the extra- 
 ordinary stations, and they principally affect cryptogamic vegetables. In a popular view of 
 the subject, though we cannot altogether omit the notice of such minute yet curious vege- 
 table productions, we shall mainly direct our attention to the more conspicuous plants ; and 
 they may be thus divided. 1. Murilime or saline plants. Tiiese are terrestrial, but grow- 
 ing upon the borders of the ocean or near salt lakes ; as the Saltworts (Salsola;) and GlasS' 
 worts (Salicornia;), &c. Ilonce these plants abound in the interior of Africa and the Rus- 
 sian dominions, where there are saltpans, as well as on the shores. 2. Marine Plants. 
 This tril)c is indeed mostly cryptogamic, and comprises the Alffte, Fuci, Ulvee, &c. The 
 phtenogamous, or ])crfect marine plants, are the Sea-wracks (Ruppia and Zostera), and a 
 few others allied to them. 3. Aquatic plants. Growing in fresh water. Both stagnant 
 pools and running streams in various situations, abound in plants. Some are entirely sub- 
 merged, but in tills case, with tlie rare exception of the little Awlwort (Subularia aqoatica), 
 the flowers rise to the surface of the water for the purpose of fructification.^ 4. Marsh or 
 swamp plants. 5. Meadow and pasture plants. 6. Field plants. This tribe often includes 
 .such as, introduced with tiie grain sown in those districts are equally placed there by the 
 hand of man. 7. Rock plants, which may include the natives of very stony spots, and such 
 as grow upon walls. Walls, although artificial structures, are knowit to produce many plants 
 in greater perfection than natural rock; yet we must not supiwse that any vegetable is 
 exclusively confined to tliis habitat. The Jlolosteum umhellatum and Draha muralis may 
 he cited as examples of this trilie in England ; and amongst mosses, the Grimmia pulvinata, 
 Torlula murali-i, &c. 8. Sand Plants. 9. Plants of dry moors, where heaths (Erica;) 
 abound. 10. Plants which attach themselves to the vicinity of places inhabited by man. 
 Such are the Dock, Nettle,. &c. ; these species follow everywhere the human footsteps, even 
 
 • /.ndij's Smock. Siirli iiliinis woro in nldpii lime iledicatRil to Our I.ndy thi! Virgin Mary. 
 
 t Minnw. iiidfiMl. hnsn Iribfof plants «hifh ho i"«IIh *' PtaJitte F.pizoir,'" aftaehedtoUt^iuf^ nnimnh. TInrs. hftsnys. 
 fVrr nnfintlior .^lir<r nr*? all.irtif^il Id wlialeR, Miussola, and Ijarrinrlf-J. Ilia in this pum Iht* plants inanifi'stly adlit'rc 
 III a iliiiil portion iif the animal ; like Ihnap viiKrtaliles wliich exist upon the nuti}r aiiddead part of the hark orireea 
 
 1 Ravinond certainly nhservod, in (he Pyrenees, a species of Croir/oo/, the Water Crntr/oof (Ranunciiliis aqua- 
 litis,) prodiicinB its tloiver and fruit wholly under water; Inn upon a closer investigation of the phenomi'iinn, he 
 found Mint in these cases the calyx encloseil a eloliule of air. with which this ini|iortant function of fertilizntinii 
 was perforined. Th-' curious af|iintir. VnUUnrria Hpirath, has a still more wonderful contrivance for hrinijinf; the 
 male .'ind female llmvers in contact. The plant is cliiecioiis. Tin,' female flower is atlnehed to the parent plant 
 hv means of a ver\' 10112 stnlk. spirally tv\isterl like a corkscrew, so that when it is in perfection, it rises to tile 
 surface bvthe nntwisiinc of Ihe sialic. The male flowers, upon a separate plant, are almost si'ssile, honie on a 
 very short straight si, 'in. which never could reach Hie surface without deiachinitthenisi'lves from the plant. This 
 they do at Ihe proper season ; they float upon the top of the water alon-j w ith the female flowers, pcatter their 
 polieii. and die. Tli' fenmie hlo».soms on the contrary. Iiy the spiral twistini; of tln'ir stalk«. retire, and riiM-n 
 their seeds under wulir. 
 
Book III. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO BOT.VNY. 
 
 M7 
 
 hinis. hft Rays, 
 Iri'stly ndlicro 
 |h;irk fiftreen 
 nciiliii> nqiia- 
 linniiMion, ho 
 Ifcrtili/ntiim 
 Ilirinu'iMgthr' 
 li;iri'nt pl.iiil 
 1 rifca to thr 
 J hiirnn on n 
 Iplant. Tins 
 JnttliT tlmir 
 le, and ri|ten 
 
 to the lints and cubins of tho liigliest mountains ; encouraged, perhapa by the presence of 
 unimal substances, and tlic azuto which in sucii BubstiinccH in known to abound, 11. Fore*' 
 plants, consisting of Huch trees as live in society. 12. Plants of the hedges, as are many 
 climbing plants, tho Himeysnckle, tho Traveller's joy, tho Bryony, &.c. 13. Subterranean 
 plmUs. Those that live in mines and caves, and which, though tolerably numerous and ini- 
 [wrtant, are yet mostly cryptogamous. One species, a fungus, yields a pale phosphoric light 
 of considerable intensity. 14. Alpine or mountain plants, for it is very ditlicult to draw tho 
 limit, and indeed they will depend much upon latitude. A plant which grows upon a hill ot 
 inconsiderable elevation in Norway, Lapland, and Iceland, will of course inhabit the loilicst 
 Alps of the south of Europe. Again, upon mountains that have no perpetual snow lying on 
 them, alpine plants will be found much higher than on such as have continued streams of 
 cold snow-water descending, which affect the state of the atmosphere at much lower regions. 
 l."). Parasitic plants, such iis the Misseltoe, the various species of Loranthus, &c., and the 
 most wonderful of all vegetable productions, the Rafflesia Arnoldii : these, as their name 
 implies, derive nourishment from a living portion of the vegetable to which they attach 
 themselves. This is the case, too, with many Fungi which subsist upon the living foliage 
 of plants ; some exclusively on tho upper, others as invariably on the lower side of these 
 leaves ; and, lastly, the name of 16. Pseudo-parasites has been given to a very extensive 
 tribe, which subsists upon the decayed portions of the trunk or branches of the trees to 
 which they are attached, as many of the Lichens, Mosses, &c. ; or which are simply attach- 
 ed by the surface of their roots to tropical trees, obtaining no nourishment from them, but 
 from the surrounding element. Among this number may be reckoned that numerous and 
 singular family of the Orchidca, called, from their nature and property, " air plants." 
 Greatly as this list might be swelled, we shall find that even here there is a gradation and 
 an approximation of one tribe to anoth , but these are amply sufficient for our purpose. 
 
 We have been able to account in some measure for tho stations of plants, affected as these 
 are by local circumstances; but the study of the succeeding part, which refers to their habi- 
 tations, considered in their most extensive sciile, for instance, as belonging to certain regions 
 or countries, we shall find to be mur'-. more difficult; and we must freciuently be content to 
 study and to admire the amazing variety of vegetable forms which the beneficent hand of 
 nature has scattered over the different parts ot' our world, without being able to account for 
 these important phenomena. In Now Holland we find almot^t exclusively, all the species 
 of Banksia, Goodenia, and Epacris, and tho curious Acacia, without leaves, but with peti- 
 oles so much enlarged as to assume the shape and perform the functions of leaves. At the 
 Cape of Good Hope, the Fi<^ Marigolds (Mesembryantheniu), the Stapplitc, the numerous 
 kinds of Ixia, Gladiolus, Pelargonium, and Protea aliound. The Auranliacea; the family 
 of plants to which the Orange and Lemon belong, aro of Asiatic origin ; as the Camellia 
 and Thea are of Chinese. Those curious plants, the Mutisia^, the various species of Fuch- 
 sia, the Cinchona: or medicinal harks, the Cacti, aro all peculiar to South America. If a 
 few of them are found in other countries, tuch circumstances aro of very rare occurrence, 
 and do not overturn the general laws for the exclusive existence of many plants in certain 
 countries. There are in the temperate parts of Europe one species of Ixia, one of Gladio- 
 lus, and in the north of Africa and south of Europe a few kinds of Fig Marigold. Within 
 the tropics the genera of plants throughout Asia, Africa, and Amrrica, are similar, but rare- 
 ly arc the species the same. This rule nearly holds good on the op))osite continents in tem- 
 perate climates. We find the Oriental Plane (Platanus orientalis) in the old world, and 
 the Occidental Plane (P. occidentalis) in tho new. Even in the two hemispheres, in simi- 
 lar parallels of latitude, the genera of plants have a great affinity : tho southern extremity 
 of the great continent of America has many in common with tho north of Europe ; and the 
 plants of the latter region, transported thither, succeed extremely well. 
 
 To what extent plants migrate, unaided by man, it is not easy to say ; but that such mi- 
 gration is going on, by various means and causes, cannot be questioned. Islands which lie 
 near to continents, .nnd which evidently appear at one period to have been joined with them, 
 as England for example, altiioiii^'h they may contain a vegetation similar to that of the neigli- 
 Iwuring continental shores, have always a smaller number of species; and this can only be 
 accounted for by liie .aterruption which straits or soas occasion to the progress of the seeds. 
 
 Tho Field Eryngo (Eryngium eampestre), to which we have already alluded, the Venus's 
 looking-glii.''s (Campanula Speculum), and many other plants of France and Germany, seem 
 to stop at the lino tbrmed by the sea; yet these, and many other vegetables of France, reach 
 a limit upon the same continent more northern than any part of England. 
 
 The migration of plants may bo reckoned to be facilitated by the following causes. 1. Th 
 sea and its currents, tmt to a very limited extent; for if tho seed bo of such a nat'-re tha 
 tho water penetrates its iiitogumr'nis anil ronclios the embryo, life is destroyed. Yet to such 
 a distance arc tliey carried by this medium, tliiit uixin tho coiists of Britain, of Iceland, and 
 Norway, tho seeds of tlio West Indies aro frequently cast, and it is said sometimes even in 
 a fit state lor vegetation. 2. liivrrs, by tho rontinunl movement of tlieir water.-i, convey 
 many plants to a considerable distance from their original place of growth; and the banks 
 
 '■ fi 
 
 im 
 
 1 ■■si 
 
 m 
 
»! 
 
 1 i 
 
 m ■, 
 
 ii .1- 
 
 248 
 
 SCIENCE OF (JE(J0RAI'1IV, 
 
 rAiiT II. 
 
 of streams are (fcncriilly udorned witli u vrj^otiUidii of ii iiHirc? varied kind tliiiii tin' districts 
 rcmoto from them. TIiuh, too, tlie dillurcnt tiprcics of Saxifrii^<' mid oIIut iil|)iiii! jiliiiitti 
 are, in niuuntuinoua rojiioiis, broiifrlit down from llm lii(flii'r bitiuitioiis, uik' llourisli in the 
 valleyd. I). Winds, wliifli wiitl the li;,'lit, wiiiffnd, and imppont! hi'imIh lo iiiinniiNc distance!', 
 and by nieaiiB of which thi'y iiro \vi(U'ly dispersed. 4. Aiiiinulii, wiiich, in wiMiih'riiijj' from 
 place to place, often carry on tlieir coatH those seeds wliicli have hooked hn^tU's, tVe. 5. 
 Birds, which, swullowiii^; lierries and other Iriiifs, pass thi; teeds in a perleet stale, and, it 
 is even said, soinctimeH Ix^ter fitted for ^crmiiiiition tiian before. In this manner the seeds 
 are often de|)ositcd in the places necessary lor tlieir {rrowth, and to wliicii tiiey coiihl not 
 otlierwiso have reached ; of wiiioli a tiiiniliar instance is found in the Missidlt>i\ 
 
 Man is however the most active a;,'ent in the dispersion of plants, and we iimst not over- 
 look tlio important conBeciucnccs of his influence. Sometimes, indeed, the causes are acci- 
 dental, but more frequently intentional. 'I'he shipwreck of a vessel on the island of (liiernsey, 
 having some bulbs on board from the Cape of Clixxl Hope, caused a plant to propa^'ate in tli« 
 sanda upon the shores of that mild climate, to which has been since given tliu name of Ama- 
 ryllis Samiensis or Quernsey Lily, and a branch of trade of some importance is carried on 
 in the sale of this very root. At lluenoa Ayres, a species of ilr<jcAo<e (Cynara Carduii- 
 culus) has increased so much by seeds im|x>rte<l from Euro|)e, that Mr. Head, in his amusing 
 "Sketches of a Journey across tli" l'ani|)us," Sic. tells us that "there are three rrvrions of 
 vegetation between Buenos Ayre.s and tlie base of the Cordilleras ; a .siKico of IHH) miles : 
 the first of which is covered, tor 180 miles, with clover and thistles. This region," the 
 author continues, "varies with the seasons of the year in a most extraordinary manner. In 
 winter, the leaves of the thistles* are large and luxuriant, and the whole surfiice of the 
 country has the rough appearance of a turnip field. The clover in this season is extremely 
 rich and strong; and the sight of the wild cattle grazing in full liberty on such pasture is 
 very beautiftil. In spring the clover ha.s vanisiied, the leaves of the thistles have e.xteiidcd 
 along the ground, and the country still looks like a rough crop of turnips. In less than n 
 month tlio change is most extraordinary; the whole region becomes a luxuriant wooil of 
 '•normous thistles, which have suddenly shot up to a height of ton or eleven feet, and are ail in 
 Hill bloom. The road or path is hemmed in on Nifh sides; the view is completely obstnictcii ; 
 not an animal is to be seen; and the stems of the thistles are so close to each other, and so 
 strong, that, independent of the prickles with which they are armed, they form an impene- 
 trable barrier. The sudden growth of these plants is quite astonishing ; and thonjrli it 
 would be on unusual misfortune in military history, yet it is really possible that an invadinjr' 
 iinny, unacquainted with this country, might bo imprisoned by tluwe thistles betbro it iiad 
 time to escape from them. The summer is not over before the scene undergoes aiiotlier 
 rapid change: the thistles suddenly lose their sap and verdure, their heads dri«)P, the leavi's 
 shrink and fade, the stems become black and dead; and they remain rattling with the 
 breeze, one against another, until the violence of the pampero or hurricane levels them with 
 llie ground, when they rapidly decomjKJse and disappear, the clover rushes up, and the sccno 
 is again verdant." 
 
 The strong-scented Everlasting (Elichrysuin foctidum), a native of the Cape of Oo<k1 Hope, 
 has ibund a soil and climate ecjually suited to its growth on the shores of Brest, where it 
 covers a great portion of the sands, to the exclusion of the almriginal natives of the soil. 
 Wheat is supposed to be indigenous to Barbary. The p<it<iloe, first finind in Soiitli Anierica, 
 is now cultivated all over the world. liici; from .Asia, is grown to an immense extent in 
 America, &c. ; these, and many other plants similarly circumstanced, which wc could men- 
 tion, together with those that adorn our gardens, often owe tlieir wide diffusion to having 
 escaped into uncultivated places, and become to u certain degree naturalised there. 
 
 But there are limits to migration, for some of which wo can account, and for others wo 
 cannot. Even many garden plants, which, escaping by accident, or designedly placed in 
 uncultivated sjwf.s so as to appear wild, have only for a time maintained a languid existence, 
 and then have disappeared altogether. Thus we know that the beautiful (tmliandla (fi.'ii- 
 tiana acaiilis) cannot have a title to a place in the British Flora, nor can some; others, wliirli 
 are more outcasts from gardens. Some plants arc wholly confined to particular s|)ots, and 
 can be found nowhere else. The Tree-Pink (Dianthiis arboreus) grows still on tiie single 
 rock in the island of Crete, where Prosper Alpinus first detected it; and the Dnuldc Cocou- 
 nut of the isle Praslin, one of the little group of islands called the Seychelles, notwith- 
 standing the annual migration of its nuts for many thousands of miles, has never established 
 itself in any other place. Nature has planted the cnrnmon Thrift (Statice Arnieria), the 
 Scurvy Grasses (Cochlearia nnglica and danica), and the Rosi-ronl (Rhodiola rosea), in 
 rocky and stony places, upon shores and on the tops of the highest moimtains; yet tliese 
 plants are never found in any intermediate places. 
 
 The vlsihli oh.ilach's to the iiiiifralion of plants arc — 
 
 (I.) The ura, which, tlioiifili wo have intnjdiiced it as a means of extending ti.e Iiabitatioiw 
 
 ♦ Fnirii npiTiiiii'ns ril mir ltiTli:iri:liri \y liiivc ii<rcrl'irnoil Hint Wualliisllt is Ihr Carilixm {i'\t\:\r:i ('.■iriliinrillii!'). 
 introdticeil no douNt rniin V.:n>-\f ii>- a:i .irliclc if Hiol, li-it iimv L'r.iH'iiin wild, U8uk>Fii, niiil prniiriciiis. 
 
 •J'l 
 of 
 
 fe'" 
 
 ll f 
 
^ 
 
 9"^ 
 
 ' 
 
 TIopp, 
 wliprn it 
 tin- soil. 
 Anicricii, 
 'xtt'iit in 
 )iil(l incn- 
 ti) Imving 
 
 itliprs we 
 |)l;icp(l in 
 xistcnrp, 
 //(/ (fion- 
 rs, wliirli 
 |«)ts, and 
 10 siiii;lo 
 e Cocoii- 
 nnt.witli- 
 talilislind 
 ■riii), tlie 
 Dsca), in 
 I'ot these 
 
 l)itati<MH 
 
 LltMUMlllt9), 
 
 Book III. 
 
 IN ITS REI.ATION TO BOTANY. 
 
 24U 
 
 of plants, lit yot a far greater inipcdimont, by tlio injury it docs to the sco(1h, nml tiio diffi- 
 culty of liicii hoini^ convoyed to distant countries in a Mulficicntly .;liort time to prevent the 
 natural dentil of tlio wnod. It iniiBt bo obiierved, too, that the (froutor number of Hooda have 
 a Hpccilic pravily hoiivif.T than tliiit of wutcr when in a livinjf state, Tlie VouMe Cocoa- 
 nut, w'leii t'oiind lloiitinjr, Ims always hwt iti; vegetative property. TJio livinjj nut is im- 
 mensely hoiivy, iind would inevitably tiiiik. 
 
 (li.) I)ri/ nml Imraiiiff ilesfrlg. These, in spite of their oases, which have been happily 
 assimilated to llio ish^s of tin; ocean, piovo a |)owerful ol>stacle to tlio transjMirt of nj(;ds. 
 'J'lius, those districts of Africa which are separated from one another by the scorching Hi.nds 
 of Sahara exhibit a groat dissimilarity in their vegetation. The plants of Morocco and the 
 iiortliern parts of Africa have little rcsonibhinco to the indigenous growth of Senegul ; whilst 
 the uiiinity of the vegetables brouglil by Caillaud from Upner Egypt to those collected by 
 I'alisot do Beauvois in Owarc and Benin would in itself lead to the conclusion that no very 
 great and continued deserts intervene between these far distant countries. 
 
 (3.) Mountain ranges. The barriers which these present would almost bo insurmountable, 
 were it not for the defiles which hero and there occur, fonning passages for men and ani- 
 rnals, as well as for plants. Thus, the plants on the Italian side of the Alps are (piito dill'or- 
 ent from those on the Switzerland side ; tlioso of the Spanish Pyrenees from those of the 
 French Pyrenees; and it was a subject of peculiar regret to the enterprising Dniniinoiid, 
 when he readied the summits of the Rocky Mountains in North America, that his coniiiiis- 
 aion did not allow liim to |)enetrato farther into the western side of that great continent, 
 where he found, every stop ho took, a vegetation very different from what had been presentocl 
 to him by the eastern side. 
 
 A knowledge of the Natural Orders of plants is in no dopartmc; of botany so important 
 as in treating of their geographical distribution. The system of Linneeus, or the Artificial 
 .\rrangement, does not, as we know, regard the habits and atfinitics of vegpu.'>'ef . but simply 
 and beautifully points out to us, by certain characters, the means of arriving Hi. 'ho know- 
 ledge of any given species. The natural method, which owes so much to tho lalh,.-»s of 
 .lussieii, Decandollc and Brown, has a higher object in view, that of grouping frlants togetlier 
 according to their natural affinities ; and by such an arrangement we are oflrn led to other 
 and very important results. The primary divisions of the Natural Method are, first, acotv- 
 i.EDoNKR, or plants which have no cotyledons to tlie seed : these are synonymous to the 
 ('ryptogamia, and include the Mosses, Lichens, Sea-weeds, Punffi, Ferns, &c. , secondly, 
 MONofiOTYi.KDONEs ; tlioso wliosc scods littvo onc cotyledon, such as the Grasses, Idliareous 
 I'Idiits, the Rushes, Sedges, tho Palms, <Sj;c. ; and, thirdly, nicorvLEDONEs, or tho ])lunta 
 '.vliieli have two or rarely more cotyledons to the seed, such a.s our Shrubs and Trees, and 
 '■!'ry many Herbacenus Plants. Eacli of these possesses external characters which, though 
 imt very easily defined in words, yet cannot fail to strike the observer who devotes hisalt'-n- 
 lion, even for a little while, to tho subject; and wo find that, in a great proportion of 
 instances, they have not only a peculiar station, but that their geographical distribution is 
 different. 
 
 Tho AcoTYLEDONous plants increase in number in proportion to the other great classes, as 
 \vc recede from the equator to tho poles ; with the exception, however, of the Ferns. Tho 
 latter abound more within the tropics than anywhere else: not, however, so much in open 
 plains OS in the sheltered, moist, and hilly countries; so that their maximum is in the moun- 
 tainous part of the tropics. The island of Martinique atlbrdcd to the Abbe Plumicr a rich 
 and abundant harvest of ferns ; and some isles of small extent aro said to have one-third of 
 their vegetation composed of this kind of plants. 
 
 Among the monocotyledosoiis Plants, the Palms are exclusively confined to the tropics : 
 rhe JAliacenus plants abound there and in the warm zones ; the three fiimilies of Urasses, 
 Sedffes (Cyperacco-), and Rushes (Junci), present some important differences in regard to s 
 comparison with tho pha-nogainous or flowering plants. The disparity between these latter 
 and the grasses is not great in each of tho zones ; whilst the two other families, the Cype- 
 racea: and Jnnci, diminish near tho equator and increase towards the north. Nevertheless, 
 there are exceptions to this rule ; for the grasses aro very rare upon the coasts of Greenland. 
 In what we have now said, wo allude to the grasses, &c. in a wild state ; having no refer- 
 ence to those regions whore so many of the grass tribe, as the Wheat, Barley, Oat, Maize, 
 Rye, Rice, &c., aro found simply in a stite of cultivation. 
 
 The DicoTVLEDONous plants aro the most extensively distributed, and wo must ofTer some 
 further remarks upon them. Tho Compound or Syngenesious plants (Compo.sitffi), as every 
 one knows, form a very extensive natural family. They are diffiised throughout the whole 
 earth, but thoy are most abundant in the temperate and tropical climates. Fewer, however, 
 of them aro found in the warm regions of equinoctial America than in the sub-alpine and 
 temperate districts of the same country. At the Congo and Sierra Leone in Africa, in tho 
 East Indies and New Holland, they exist in comparatively smaller numbers than in other 
 regions situated in similar parallels, but which afford situations more congenial to their 
 
 Vol. 1. 2G 
 
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 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, 
 
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 growth. Aijiiin, in tlio fVozrn zone, in Knmtfichati<n hihI Lnpliinil, fho rolntivo proijortion of 
 pliinbt of tiiis tlimiiy in oiic-imif \vhh timn in the tfiiiprriitc rliinatr'H. 
 
 Tlio Iifffiiminowi ylmilK (to wliicli the I'cu, tho Bi'un, At. iK'lonjf, ami wicli nn bciir popi- 
 lionnccdiis /lnwcrs,) aUiiiml mo.it in tho eqiiinoctiiil rcifioiis; tlicy diininifih pfrmiiiiilly in each 
 lunnisphcrc in tllvcrifiny from tin; ('([tiiitor, except indfcil in ccrtiiin conntriPM where iVirticu- 
 lur jiciic'ivi, h)' the nniitiplicity of their Bpncies, jriv<! a peculiar featiiro to tho vejf(^t«tion, a» 
 in Hiherii anil tho vast provincea of RusHia, where bo many Anlragali or Bittcr-vetchrs aro 
 tunnd. 
 
 Mr. I'.riiwn hiw judicioualy separated the natural order of Ruhiacfte into two (.'roups: 
 those w ilh verticillato leaves and no Htipulcs (the Stellatte of Linno!u»), to which hclonjf tho 
 (ttmgrni-tinii ((Jaliuni), MaiUler (Uubia), &c., and which are almost peculiar to tho temperate 
 zonen; iiml the true Ruhutcriv, with oppotiito pairH of leaven, and two opposite istipulcs 
 (which are in fact abortive leaves, and thus show their affinity with the Stflf<il<v), to which 
 belong' tiie real medicinal barhs (or Cinchona'), ami son\e otiier nearly related pluntfl pos- 
 sessinif similar virtues: those hitter are almost wholly confined to the equinoctial rc|;ionB. 
 
 The two well-known and extensive natural families, the I'mMliJermm and Cnicifrroux 
 planln, aro very rare in the tropics, if we except the mountains. 1 hey abound in the south 
 of Europe, and especially about tho valley or basin of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Sbot. IV. — View of lintanical Regions. 
 
 To divide tho globe into botanical rejrions or districts will not be difficult, seeing that cer- 
 tain eduntries possess a peculiar vegetation, ond that numerous impediments prevent emi- 
 gration ; seeing, too, that certain forms or tribes are incompatible with certain climates. 
 M. Do C^aiidollo has constituted twenty of those regions ; but although each is, to a certain 
 degree, peculiar in its vegetable productions, it would rc(|uire more space than we ran devote 
 to such a subject to characterise them. Wo must, therefore, content ourselves with giving 
 a bare list. 1. Hyperhnrcan region. This district includes tho northern extremity of Asia, 
 Europe, and America; and gradually merges into the following. 2. European region; 
 comprising all Euro|)o, except the part bordering upon the (xilo, and tho southern districts 
 approaching the Mediterranean. To the east it extends to the Altaic mountains. 3. Sibe- 
 riiin region, comprehending the great plains of Siberia and Tartary. 4. Mfililerranran 
 region; comprising all tho ba.«in of this great inland sea; that is, Africa on this side the 
 Sahara, and tliat part of Europe which is sheltered from the north by a more or less conti- 
 nued range of mountains. 5. Oriental region ; thus called relatively to southern Europe, 
 and containing the countries bordering u|)on the Black and Caspian Seas. 0. India, with 
 its archipelago. 7. China, (.^ochinchina, and Japan. 8. New Holland. 9. The Cape of 
 Good Hope, or southern extremity of Africa, beyond tho tropics. 10. Abyssinia, Nubia, and 
 the Moz,imbi<]uo Coast (imperfectly known). 11. Eqninnclial Africa ; viz. the neighbour- 
 hood of tho (-^ongo, the Senegal, and Niger. 12. The Canary Isles. ID. Tlw United 
 Stales of .\orth America. 14. The Western and Tempertfle (Joasts of North America. 
 ir). The West Indian Isles. 10. Mexico. 17. Tropi-al South America. 18. Chili. 19. 
 Southern Brazil and Buenos Ayres. 20. The Straits of Magellan. 
 
 Many of the productions of those regions will be considered somewhat at large in other 
 parts of this work; and we shall conclude our introductory sketch of Botanical Geography 
 by a notice of Professor Schouw's Phyto-Geographics or General Botanical Division of the 
 Globe. This is illustrated by a map, which accoinimnies this memoir. Unlike M. Do Can- 
 dolle. Professor Schouw characterises tho regions by the most remarkable feature of theii 
 vegetation, adopting commonly used geographical terms only where he conceives that a cer- 
 tain division of the eartii ought to constitute a distinct region, but is not sufficiently Jccquainted 
 with its productions to determine and define their forms. He makes tho characteristic fea- 
 ture of his regions to depend on these fiicts : first, that at least one-half of tho species should 
 be peculiar to that region; secondly, that at least a quarter of the genera sliould belong 
 exclusively to it, or at least have there a decided maximum, so that their species in other 
 districts might merely be considered as their representatives; and, thirdlj', that individual 
 families of plants be either peculiar to the region, or e!.-e have their maxima there ; never- 
 theless, when this last characteristic is wanting, while tho differonce in genera and species 
 is very considerable, it may yet bo admitted as a region. 
 
 Professor Schouw in this manner reckons twenty-two regions : — 
 
 (1.) Reixion of Saxifrages and Mos,if:s, or tho Alpine Arctic Flora. — This corresponds 
 with De Candollo's first region, and comprehends all the roiintries within the polar circle; 
 namely, Ijipland, the north part of Rus>ia and Siberia, Kniiitsehatka, Russian America, part 
 of British Anioricn, Greenland, and Iceland; hut I'rofessor Schouw adds to it, with much 
 propriety, part of the Scottish and Scandinavian mountains, as llir as they tail within the 
 alpine region, as also the mouotains in the southern and central parts of Europe, inasmuch 
 us they are related to the alpine reirions. It is characterised by the abundance of mosses 
 and lichens, the presence of tlie Saxifrages, Geiilians, Chickwecd tribe (Alsincie). Sedges, 
 and Willoios; an entire absence of tropical familic*, a considerable decrease of the peculiar 
 
Book III. 
 
 IN ITS RKLATION TO BOTANY 
 
 251 
 
 Cormn of the tumpcruto zorin; by tlio forfnUi of Iterch or fir, or olno tfM> total want of trco»; 
 tlio scarcity of uniiiiiilH, iiiiil tlit< provitleiicu of cuvspitonu plitntM, wliosn lilo-'HniiiH uic lar^c in 
 pro|itirlliin, and ^riMu^riilly of ii piilo colour. 
 
 I^i.) ItiKionoJ' the VinhelliJ'erons und (,'nififrrniiH plnnin. — Tliin Irilic tMkrs in tlic wliolc 
 ol' Europe, oxci'ul what b«'lon(((t to tlie pn'W'diri); division, I'rotn tlio Pyii'inc.-', tin- iiioniituinn 
 of tlio Niulli of I'Vuiico, of Switzorliiud, und tliu north oftiruocc, tlif Krciicr piirt ol' Silirrin, 
 und tho toiinlry about Mount Cuucuhuh. Hchouw hiw clmrneteri/od it liy iho tnirifirouii 
 and iiinlitltiftrmis plimtx, bncuiwo thuy form a latyn'.r ixirtion of tliu totiil nnpiliTr llrin iiny 
 otlior kindM, and bc'cuuHU it may thus bo host Hopiirntod from the voj,"'tation of North Atncrica 
 ill thu Nam<! pariiUul. It m nut ttaiiily distin(;uiHhud fruni tliu next ri jrion : but it may Ik; Huid 
 of it, thai Fuiiffi abound more, that tlio Ronuccous family nnd thu CVouj/(«)/.«(Uaninu'iilacon!)» 
 tho AiiiriitaccdiiK und Conifvrous tribus (I'incs), form rutlior a larpo projiortioii ; that it hoars 
 u ruHombliincu to many of the pidar fnriiiH, CKpucially in thu ubundunco of itN SviJ^m (Cypo- 
 rucou.'); Ihut itM muudows arc niofit flouriHliing, and that almost all thu tree's nro (Icciduouti in 
 winter. In tho northern part of thiu rojfion, thu Cidwracctc (u tribe of the CcimiHwitB! or 
 Hyn);onuriionM pluntH, including tho Eiuliw, Li:tluce, Dandelion, &.C.) much prevail; while 
 in itrt soulhern division, or in northern Awio, the Cynarovephul(B (Artichoke and Thistle 
 tribus), tojretliur with the Uuttcr-vetchet (Astragali), und Siil'ue plants (Sea-worts and Glusd- 
 worts), seem to have their maximum. 
 
 (3.) UefrUm of the Labiate flowers and CaryophylletB (to which the Pink, the Ciitclfly, 
 the Suiidworts, &.c. belong); or the Mvditerraneun Flora. — This is bounded on the north by 
 the Pyrenees, tho Alp.s of Switzerland and of the south of France, and the north of Greece, 
 and thus includiM the three peninsulas of southern Europe, namely, Smin, Italy, and Orcece; 
 on the east by Asia Minor and its islands; on the south it takes in Egypt and all the north 
 of Africa us fur us the deserts; and, lastly, it includes the Canary Islands, Madeira, and tho 
 Azores. It is marked especially by the two families atiove mentioned, which are much rarer 
 both to tho north and south of the countries just enumerated, and in tho corres|K)nding 
 parallels in North America. The Co7npnsiltf, tlie Stellata (Goosigrass, Maddrr, &c.), and 
 the rougli-leaved plants {Asperij'oUai), are here in considerable numbers, as well as in the 
 similar latitudes. A few tropical plants, or individuals allied to them, now appear; one or 
 two Palms, the Laurels, the Arum tribe, the Terrhinthacea: (Pistacia, &c.), .some trojiicttl 
 grussti.s und true Cyperacca. Nifrhtshadrn (Solaneie), Lefriiminous plants, tlii; Mallow and 
 Nettle tribes, and the Spurffcs (KupliorbiuceaO, increase; Everifrci ns are numerous; vege- 
 tation never entirely ceases, but verdant inoadows arc more rare. This region may bo sub- 
 divided into provinces: of the Cisti, Spain and Portugal; of the iSn^t,'-*; and SeaMiuts, the 
 south of France, Italy, and Sicily; of the shrubby Itiihiata;, the Levant, Greece, Asia Minor, 
 and the southern part of the Cuucusiun country; andof //oi(»f/'f7i»(Semperviva), the Canary 
 Isles, probably also tho Azores, Madeira, and tho north-west coast of Africa. Many Sem- 
 pcrviva;, some succulent plants. Spurges nnd Caralitf, characterise especially this province. 
 
 (4.) The Japanese region. — The eastern temperate part of the old continent, namely, 
 Japan, the north of China, and Chinese Tartury, probably forms a peculiar region ; but we are 
 too little acquainted with the botany of these countries to admit it with certainty, and still 
 less are we able to define correctly the characteristics of its Flora. Of tho ft58 generu found 
 in Japan, 270 occur in Eerope and the north of Africa, and about the same number in North 
 America; so that its Flora seems to occupy a middle place between those of tho old and new 
 worlds. Its vegetation, indeed, approaches more to tho tropical than to the European ; for 
 we meet with the Cycas family, the Scitamineet! (to which belong the Ginger, Cardammn, 
 &,c.), the Bananas, the Palms, the Anonm or Custard-applrs, and the Sapindacete ; so that 
 there is a considerable affinity, as might bo expected from its situation, to the flora of India. 
 The families of the Buckthorns (Rliamni) and Honeysuckles are (bund in a relatively con- 
 siderable miinbcr, nnd they exhibit some ptculiar genera; thus, perhaps, this region might 
 be correctly termed that of the Rhamni and the Cuprifoliacece. 
 
 (.5.) Region of the Asters and Solidagns (Michaelmas-daisies and golden-rods.) — The 
 eastern part of North America, with the exception cf such as belongs to tho first or arctic 
 district, comprehends without doubt two regions; for amongst 417 genera in Walter's Flora 
 of Carolina, 117 are wanting in Barton's Flora of Philadelphia. The northern divisions of 
 the United States have, indeed, but few genera which do not occur also in the southern ; but 
 this only shows that a similar relation exist., here to what takes place between tho north and 
 south of Europe. The southern region will include Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, 
 liouisiana, and Carolina; the northern contains tho other states of North America. What 
 cha'ucterisos this region is (be.sides the number ofspecios of the genera A.s/er and Solidago), 
 the gnnit variety of (Daks and Firs ; the very few Crurifrrcp and llmheUiferte, Cichoracea 
 and Cynuroci phalw ; the total ab.senco of the genus Erica, and the presence of more nume- 
 rous s|>ecics of the allied family of Vaccinium (Whortleberries) than are to be met with in 
 Kurono. 
 
 (0.) Region of Magnolia'. — This, which comprises the southern parts of North America, 
 is separated troin the preceding region by the number of tropical forms which here appeal 
 
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SCIKNCK OP (IKiMJllAI'HY, 
 
 Paht II 
 
 and wliidi 
 
 t tlifiniiRlve* iiioro lri'<|iin[itly tliiiii on tlin f<iiiiilar|>nrnll('l!<i>t'tlii' cilil ciiiitinont 
 (hiu'Ii, t(ir liitit<iiici>, itM tlio Nriliimintfr, Cijfwliir, .\iit>n<iri<r, Najtiniliiiiii, Milimlnmea, 
 Carli, ikv.) Frniii tiko old wurld, U»>, in i'(irri'M|Niiiiliii^ liititudi'M, it iri xtill tlirtlicr dmtiii- 
 ffuisliiHl by II (iinitlliT priiportioii oC hatiialir iiii.l ('nnjujjlii/lli ir ; iiiid liy Imviu^r iimri' Iituh of 
 Driiiid-iiliiiiiii;r loliiti;*) and HpltMidiil hliiHMrnin, (tlic Slnifiioliiin, tlic Tidi/t Irvr, thi.' Ilnrie' 
 ckestniil, 6ic,) iind with iiinniiind lt>avi'!< (tlin (ilnliliirliiir, liiilniiiw, Araciu , &('.) 
 
 (7.) Hi'giim i>f Ihr ('acli, l'vpinr», iind Mi Itinttiiniin ; ii very fxti'iinivi' n%'i(iii, incliitlinf; 
 the lower dislriclM of Mfxieo, (iiiiitciiiiiln, llio NVcitt Indii'i', New (ircninla, Vi'iiczuolii, 
 Ciniunii, unj IVru, perlmpii hIho, u |utrt of Hiii/.il ; in iiliort, all iiitortro|iieiil Aiiu'i-k m, TIiu 
 tlireo tiiiMiliea liuro inuntioncd iip|K<iir piMMiliiirly to clmrnctoriHo tliciiu couiitriiri ; l()r tlin lint 
 buloiiKH oxuliiHividy to Anirricii, and of tlic other two tlieru I'xiHt ('oiii|)urutively lew mM'cicH 
 out ul tlit'Ho (liMlriclM. I'dliim, tlio Itnliiarrn; the Solaiiva; (in wliicli are ehiNHed the i\if(hl- 
 nhiidrn uiid I'otatoe), tliu rmiffh-Uiiwil nliiiiln (l)iirn|,niieii>), tlio Pamiion-Jliiwi m ut\il Cnmpo- 
 •tVcr, arc hero very coininon. It may iidinit of nt-veral pruvinceH, an that of the i'Vrna and 
 Orcliulfm (in the VVeHt India iidaiulH); of tlio I'olins (the continent of South America.) 
 Drazil (iii^rht cortiiinly to conHtitute a peculiar provinco, if indeed it lie not a iliHiinct roKiun; 
 and llu> worliH of 8pix and Marliiiri, St. Ililaire, the I'riiicodi! Neuwied, Ac, will noon etiablo 
 us to cliHracteriBO itH voffetalile loriiiH. Tho .yftltislimnc and I'liliiu ap|M-ar to helonif to the 
 more iiiiiiierous iimuiteii of tluH re^fion. 
 
 (8.) i<*x*"" '{/"'Af f'inrA«H<B (or Medicinal IJarkH.) — It apjioarH fVont lIutnbuldt'H worliH 
 that the middle diiitrictH (such at leant in reM|M>ct to their altitude) of South America ehould 
 form a dintinct re^fion from that laxt mentioned, as they ditler coiiitideralily from the low 
 landH; and the name now pro[M)8ed seems to be cliiiractorihtic of their vej;etation, at leuist of 
 Peru and New Grenada, thoii^^h certainly not of Mexico, where the species of (,'i)icA(»«a are 
 wantiiifr. 
 
 (9.) Krgion of EKcalloni<e, Vaccinia (Whortleberries), and Winterte (Winter's Barks). 
 — These, accordinjf to Hnmlnddt, occupy the hi^rhest parts of South America. Benides tho 
 plants inentiiincd, there bi'loiifj to this ro|j[ion many H|)ecies of I^thilin, Onilian, Slijmer- 
 toorl (Calceolaria), Sai(c, several Euro|H'an genera of OramirK, lirainr, Fesluca and I'ou, 
 the CichoracinF, as Jfi/vocharis and Ajtur^in ; as well as the more strictly sneakiiij; aljiine 
 plants (.S'(ix{/r«ic«», VV/ji7/ou)-<crrt»»c», Sundworln, and Srilffi^,) Perhaps aUu those ])arts 
 of tho hijfh lands where the s|)ecies of Oak and Fir Houri.sh beloiiff to the same refjion, thou(;ii 
 in all proliability they constitute a peculiar nrovince. 
 
 (lit.) Chilian TCffion. — It appears that ('liili should form a distinct region ; fur amonj^st 
 the (f'nera which appear there, not one half are fiiund in the low districts of South America. 
 Its character, perhaps, most resembles that of the mountainous country in its Slippirwortii, 
 Escalhmicp, Wiinmaiinio', Ha-a, neUflowim, and liuddlra ; but yet tli(? dilference is 
 scarcely siilUcient to constitute it a province. The Flora of this country appears to be essen- 
 tially distinct from that of New Holland, the C'ape, and New Zealand; though an approach 
 to them is observable in Ctoodtnia, Araiiciiria (('hilian pine,) the I'rolia family, Gunniru, 
 and Ancixlnim. 
 
 (II.) Ri'ifion of arhoresccnt Cnmj)osila; (syngcnesious plants with tren-liko stems.) — 
 This takes in Buenos Ay res, and in jfenernl the eastern side of the temperate part of South 
 America. It has t)een already renmrkod, that the Flora of this district of tho world agrees 
 to a considerable degree with that of Europe ; amongst 109 genera, 70 are likewise Euroijoan, 
 and 85 in the north temperate zone. On tho other hand, it dili'ers considerably from the 
 Floras of tho Cape and of New Holland, for the I'roteag, the Myrtle tribe, and tho Mimosas 
 are either wholly wanting, or are seen but sparingly; and there are no Epacrida; Ikathii, 
 Iridr<v, Mfntmhryanthrma, or ISiraninms. Nor can it be compared with tho Flora of the 
 north-west coast of America; for amongst 180 goneni mentioned, only M5 are found in Chili. 
 The characti'ristics of this region seem to lie in the great number of Arborescent Syni(<'nt:si(B, 
 (particularly of the sub-family Boopidio"), which, however, do not excluBively appertain l^) 
 it, but are also seen at the Cape. 
 
 (12.) Antarctic rcffion. — This includes the countries near the Straits of Magellan. There 
 is a considerable affinity between the vegetation here and wluit is seen in the north temperate 
 zone ; for, amongst 82 known genera from thence, there are 59 of them which have species 
 in the northern hemisphere. The arctic [jolar forms also appear, such as Sedffcs (Carices), 
 Saxifrages, Gentians, Arbutus, and Primroses. Some resemblance to the highlands of 
 South America and to Chili is olso shown in tho Slipperworts, Ourisia, Baa, Bolax, Win- 
 tera, Esrallonia ; to the Cape, in the genera Gladiolus, Witsenia, Gunnera, Ancistrum, 
 Oxalis ; and to Now Holland, in Proteacta; and Mniarum, 
 
 (13.) Rcffion of New Zealand. — This well deserves to t)c characterised as a separate 
 region, although its vegetation bo a mixture of what prevails on the nearest continents, as 
 South America, Southern Africa, ami New Holland. It has, in common with Sotith Ame- 
 rica, Ancistrum, Wrinmannia, Wiutrra ; with Southern Africa, the Fig Marigolds, Gna- 
 phidium Xerauthema (Everlastings), Trlragnnia (tho fiiinous Now Zealand Spinach), Wood- 
 torrel, and Passerina; and' with New Holland, the Epacris, Melaleuca, Mi/oporum; with 
 
 DooK II 
 
 both th 
 
 l)ulli to 
 
 loriilis, 
 
 (H.) 
 
 Ilollilllii 
 
 Staikh 
 
 I'rotrai- 
 
 genera 
 
 IHainu 
 
 Brown, 
 
 rosembi 
 
 (15.) 
 tho soul 
 peculiar 
 Imj recoj 
 two mm 
 is hero I 
 found in 
 pimiic. 
 thojiO pe 
 ceti-, I'll 
 
 (1«.) 
 vogetati 
 mixftire 
 rican tro 
 or they 
 two thii 
 Indies. 
 
^i^ 
 
 II 
 
 Book III. 
 
 IN ITS IIKLATION TO HoTANY. 
 
 bi>th till! Irtttcr, till! tUiiiilicit of /V»/<(/('''<i' mill li<nliiiri(f : hiiiiii> i<|ircii'M iiImi iiri> rDiniiiou 
 butll to NrW lliilliiiiil uilil Villi jliriiii'il'x liillil, l!>r limtiiliri' Miiiiiriiiii liijliinim, Snitiiiliin tit. 
 Inrulin, (iruliitiia monlitna ; tint lirHt iiImi ii iiulivr of tlif HtriiilN nt' Mii|{i'llnii. 
 
 (14.) Ufffion iijr.piiiriiliH iinil Hinulyiili : i.oni|ir<'lii'iiiliii)( tlii' li'ni|M'nili' piirtH of New 
 IltilUiiil, loKJftliiT with Vuii l>it!iiiiMi'i4 Ijiiiil, — 'I'lii* rcffiiin Im vi'ry iiiiirkcil. Tin' tinnilii'M of 
 Slarlilimiiicti: anil Tnmaiiilrra: iiri- niiito |ir>'iiliiir to Now ilolliuiil, tlir r./imriilur iiinrly ho, 
 I'rolciitrn; Anicia, Ajihylltr, uiul llit'Kri'atcr nimiber oftlio .Wyrf/«'liiiiiily (''Hpcriiiily nl'tlio 
 tfi'iiiTil I'liviilypliin, 1,1 fititupirmiim, MiUiUucii) : tli" Slylidrtr, Uinlimin, ('inimriiii'ir, 
 J)io»initr, Hi^immto it rniiii otlicr ri^uions. Tim tropical [Hirt of Ninv llolliiiul, iiri'unlinif to 
 Drown, I'ltn iiiinlly Ix' nniliil to tliiH, liiit iiiiir't Imi nitlicr a |iarticular r(>(riiiii, wlnnf Flum 
 rDHoiiiliiiiH tliiit of Iniiiii, or risn a provinri) of tliiit latter rc|fion. 
 
 (ir».) Ufffioii of l-'iff-Miirigiilih (Mrwiiiliryantlminii) nnil Staprlian. — TIiIh i-oniprclinndi 
 till! Hiiiitiicrn cxtri'iiiily of Alricii, liic Flora of which Ih iliMtiiiiriiiHlii-il by u lii(,'li ilc^rro of 
 pociilinrity. Uy tliofuniiliri* PrnUncviF, Itmlinrrtr, Polyifiiltr. (NlilkwortM), IHnnninr, it may 
 DO ri'coKniiicil Iroiii inoNt otlmrH, nxcrpt Now llollanil, nnil (Voni thin it Im ili!<tin);iiiHlii>il liy tlio 
 two niiiiiorouM Kfiwra Mrsi mhri/iiiilhtiiiiim ami Slmtrlin, anil liy tlio timiily Erirrir, which 
 18 lioro iiioro aminilant tiiaii miywhoro >'Imi\ Furthor cliaractoriHticM of tliix ri't;iiiii may bn 
 fimiiil in tlio muiiy Iriilitr, (iiruniir, ()xaliilr<r, ami tlio i-xtrcmely largo projxirtion of t'tmi' 
 poiilir. On tlio other liaml, then) oxiMt in thin liintrict, an in Now Hollanil, Init 'cry Hparin^ly, 
 tlio-ic pi'culiar tbrnia of tlio northi-rn toiiiiM-rato zones, tho Cruc\fera,Runum luvva;, liuiO' 
 Cf<i; I'liilitiliftra', Caryophylka: 
 
 (10.) Urtfion ojf WrHlirii Africa. — Wo am only acquaintcil with Guinna aid Conff". the 
 vojfotatioii of which, as we havo alroady roiiiarknd, ponHi-ssos but finv peculiar tii's, iinil is a 
 niixtiiri! of tho Floras of Asia anil Atiiorica, thoiiffh nioHt roHi'mblinjj tho fornior. Tho ' 'uc- 
 rican tropical farnilicN of Cacti, I'rppcru, Palm*, Viiniiionfliiwcrii, iiro oither ubHoiit nitiroly, 
 or thi'V occur in small niiinborH. Lcguminnme arc nmro numorous than in Ainini 'a. Aliovo 
 two thiril.i of till! t'onora ami Homu of tho (ipouics of (Juinoa arc foiinil uIno in tho Fast 
 IndicH. On tho otlior hand, this rogion iipproximatos to Ainoricn, in jKWHcs.sinfr inmiy Rn- 
 biacrn; iw also in tho gonrra Schwrnkia, lUain (ii piiliii), I'uiilliiiia, yfttlpi^hiit, iiiid Hovrral 
 iiion; which arc wanting in A.-<ia, and in Hovural niMJcicH which it lmn in cdiiiiiioii with Amu- 
 rica. ,\ coiisidoriihlo proportion of UranscH and Sctlgis (Cyporacon;), with tho prcnliar gon .■ 
 AilaiiHoiiia (tho Baobab, which in tho largo«t known tree in tlio world), belong to Iho cli r- 
 nctoristicH of this country. Tlin interior of Africa is unknown to uh. 
 
 (17.) Ucf(iim (f FMstrrn Africa. — Of tho coast of this side of Africa and tho adjnccnt 
 islands our know lodge is iniporfect. We are tolerably aci|uaintod with the i.-<laii(!s of Hour- 
 Ixiii and France; of Madagascar we know but little; and of the oast coast itself scarcely 
 unythiiig, The Flora of tlio two first-named islands has a considerable respinblunce to thu* 
 of India. Amongst 'J\h) known genera, llKl of them (cipial to two thirds) are found also in 
 India; and of tho species, not a few aro likewise Indian; many of these, however, may liavo 
 Ih'I'h introduced by tho constant intercourse that takes place between these two parts of tl<(i 
 globe. The gvnvra Euifunia, Ficim (tig), Vrlica (nettle), Kuphorhia (simrge). Ihilynarn, , 
 I'anicum, Andri>])nfrnn, Sida, Pandauus (scrow-pine), Dnicernn (ilrugon-wrKid), <'nnyza 
 are very numerous in species, us aro tho same genera in India. In fmis, these islamlB aro 
 pi!Ciiliarly rich. Again, their flora diflt'rs considerably from the South African; an analogy 
 existing, however, in their (HLssessing single reprosentiitivesof the f'ii|)o genera F.rica, Ixia, 
 (iladiotus, Bhria, Mvsvinttrynnthnnuin, Scriphium, and several arborescent Syiifiriu'siec, 
 Still losa is tho uflinity to the extra -tropical jmrta of New Ilidland. The similarity la 
 stronger to tho tropical portion of that country, of which the flora also approaches that of 
 India. Single genera are all that it seems to pos.sess in common with An^ricp ; for instance, 
 Mdicncca, Ritiziu, Dodono'a, Dichondrii. The following are, perlia,.. .i-culiar to this 
 ri.'gion, Latania, Ilubcrtia, Poupartia, Tristrmma, Fiii)iilia,C<trdyUn- , nia, Firnalia, 
 
 Luhinia, ami others. Tho flora of Madagascar seems very |>eculiar. It agrees with the 
 islands lost mentioned ; and several genera are seen nowhere else than in them and Mada- 
 gascar ; for example, Danais, Ambora, Ihmdiryn, Dnfniirra, Didymom /".t, Snuicra ; several 
 species also are common to both; as Didymiimrlen MiuUignxcr ■' -ms, Dannin fraprann, 
 Cinchona \frn-inda. Still, among the 101 known genera fri> Madagascar,")'! only are 
 tinind in the Isles of Franco and Bourbon ; so that there n.'gl ..' gcHKl grounds tiir forming^ 
 a separate region of the first; unless, perlia|>s, the east cimst of Africa should come nnder 
 the same. With New Holland and the Cape, Madagascar lias prolmbly still less in common 
 than the two other i-slamls. 
 
 (18.) Scitamiiivnn rvifion (of tile Tiirinrrir, Zcdnnry, Ctirdamtiin, Indiati-slini, &c.), or 
 the Indian Flora. — To this appertain Iiiiiia, east and west of" the riaiines, together with the 
 islands between India and New Ihdbiiid; perhaps, also, that division of New llolbind whi h 
 falls within the tropics. The Scilainincai are here in far greater numbers Ihnn in America; 
 also, though to a less degree, the Lririiminoinr, Ciirurbilaccfr, Tiliacrtr. The previously 
 mentioned South American fonns are rare, or else wanting. This region tihoiild be- seiNtratcd 
 
 Vol. I. 22 
 
 I I 
 
 ■ '.,1 
 
 Ji 
 
Tg, 
 
 '^ 
 
 954 
 
 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part II. 
 
 into several provinces; but as yet we know too little to undertake such a division with any 
 deij^reo of certainty. 
 
 (19.) The Indian highlands ought to form one or perhaps two regions, their vegetation 
 being very dissimilar to that of the lowlands: in the middle region, Melastomtc, Orchide<c, 
 and Filicrs, appear to prevail ; in the higher, the vegetation is more like the European and 
 Nortii Asiatic, and proliably the Japanese : these districts perhaps constitute one region with 
 tlje w iiolo of Central Asia ; but of all these countries we shall know much more when the 
 Flora of India by Roxburgh and Wallich is completed. 
 
 (tiO.) The Flora of the South of China and of Cochinchina partly resembles that of India, 
 especially in regard to families ; but still Loureiro's Flora contains a great many peculiar 
 genera. It is true tliat perliaps the number of these genera might be reduced; but even 
 then, the vegetation of this tract will probably prove sufficiently peculiar to constitute a 
 distinct region. 
 
 (21.) The region of the Cassia and Mimosa:, which prevail particularly in Arabia and 
 Persia, seems likewise to have a good right to be separated from India, as it is already 
 sufficiently distinct from the Mediterranean region (No. 3.) ; for, of 281 genera mentioned 
 by For.sk:il, 109 only are found in the south of Europe. It is more proboble that the Flora 
 of Nubia and part of Central Africa appertains to this region. Abyssinia perhaps forms a 
 distinct region, its elevated parts possessing such a different climate. 
 
 (22.) The islands in the South Sea wliicli lie witliin the tropics form perhaps a separate 
 region ; though witli but a slender degree of peculiarity. Among 214 genera, 173 are 
 found in India ; most of the remainder are in common with America ; for instance, Chio- 
 cncca, Weinmannia. Gnajacttm. Of the ppecies which exist equally in them and Asia, are 
 Zapania nodijlora, Kyllingia monocephala, Fimbristylis dichotoma, Toumefartia argentea, 
 Plumbago zeylanira, Morinda umhellata, Sophora tomentosa. In common with America, 
 I)od(m<ca viscosa, Sapindus saponaria (soap-berry) : with both Rhizophora Mangle (man- 
 grove tree) : it has also some in common witii New Holland, as Daphne indica (a species 
 of Spurge Laurel), Peculiar families, or such as have there a decided maximum, can 
 scarcely be cited ; tiiough, on the other hand, most of the species are peculiar. The Bread- 
 fruit is among the characteristics of these islands ; though this tree is not confined to the 
 South Seas. 
 
 Tlie limit of the present es.say does not allow of the intended introduction of the geo- 
 graphical situation of many of the more useful and important plants, which Professor Schouw 
 has so ably delineated ; such as tliat of the Beech, the Vine, the Fir tribes, the Heaths, 
 Corn, and such fruits or vegetables as are employed as bread : the Palms, the Proteaca, 
 which form so remarkably striking a feature in the Cape of Good Hope and in New Holland ; 
 the CompositeB, which are perhaps more universally diffused than any other kind of plant; 
 the Crucifer<e, to which the Cabbage, Turnip, Mustard, Scurvy-grass, &c. appertain ; 
 and the leguminous tribes, whose seeds (as the Pea ond Bean) are so valuable for man, 
 and whoso foliage, as the Lupine and Trefoil, &c. affords most of the nourishment to cattle. 
 We must endeavour to incorporate these with the vegetation of the various regions where 
 they are found in the greatest abundance. 
 
 Doo 
 
 Plai 
 thei 
 
 (•it)ii 
 !r:in 
 ).iwi 
 Imv( 
 r.'iii 
 but, 
 (if n 
 .si;v« 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 GKOGRAPHY CONSIDEHED IN RELATION TO THE DISTRIBUTION OP MAN AND ANIMALS. 
 
 The geographic distribution of animated beings is a branch of natural history which only 
 of late years lias engaged the attention of philosophers. The celebrated Blumcnbach was 
 the first, we believe, who generalized the numerous iacts connected with the physiology of 
 man, and proved that all the varieties may be referred to certain types of form, equally 
 distinct in their physical structure and in their geographic distribution. But whether from 
 prejudice, or from the varied and comprehensive sphere of zoology, which renders the subject 
 too vast for the power of any one mind, certain it is that animal geography has been almost 
 neglected. Isolated details, relative to particular coimtrief, classes, or families, have been suc- 
 cessfully investigated ; but no one has yet attempted to generalize these materials, and use them 
 towards the discovery of tlie laws of creation. An attempt to ascertain the range of par- 
 ticular species simply within a fcrtain district or kingdom, is merely an inquiry into their 
 local distribution ; but if our views are extended beyond such confines, and we embrace a 
 large portion of the globe, tracing the relations of it^ animals, with those of the remaining 
 portions, it is then only that we enter upon the comprehensive subject of geographic dis- 
 tribution. 
 
 The inquiries relative to physical distribution, when directed to the animal world, assume 
 a higher importonce than those, however interesting, which regard plants: for not only do 
 animals appear incalculably more numerous than vegetables, but their natural range, depen- 
 dent in a multiplicity of concurrent causes, appears to be much more distinctly marked. 
 
T 
 
 Hook III. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. 
 
 ZbT) 
 
 assume 
 . only do 
 !, depen- 
 marked. 
 
 Plants, indoivl, in a groat dcprrep, are stationary beings; but nature has wisely provida. for 
 tlieir rciiKival and dispersion to tlie most distant regions, by the diversified structure or tena- 
 ciiius vitality with which the seeds of numerous families are endowed ; liencc they become 
 !r:ins|>(nto(l by various natnnil causes to distant shores, and, without any assistance from 
 l.iiiiiaii aid, take root, flourisli, and increase, in lands far distant from those which appear to 
 !i 1 vc lii'nn their native regions. It is otherwise with animals : they may, it is true, be 
 rcin()V(!(l from tiieir birth-nlaco, and even become domesticated and naturalized elsewhere; 
 hut, with tiie exception ot those which seem to have been originally destined for the service 
 of man, such naturalization ia only effected by artificial means, and by slow degrees, through 
 several generations. If such transported animals be left to themselves, or rather to the 
 natural resources for supporting life peculiar to their new abode, they almost invariably pine 
 and die. Again, plants, from being mferior to animals in the complexity of tlieir structure, 
 are, perhaps, necessarily dependent on fewer causes for retaining the vital energy; their 
 dispersion is, consequently, upon the whole, much more extensive. It may be mentioned, 
 in support of this remark, that out of 600 plants discovered in tropical Africa by Professor 
 Smith, one-twelfth have been ascertained, by Robert Brown, to be natives also of India and 
 South America. Now, if either the vertebrated or invertebrated animals, not aquatic, of 
 Western Africa, were compared in a similar way with those of the parallel latitudes in 
 America and India, the proportion collectively would hardly amount to one in a hundred : 
 indeed, with regard to the vertebrated orders, it is very questionable whether even one spe- 
 cies is truly indigenous to tropical Africa and to America; so totally different are the zoolo- 
 gical features of these continents, even at their nearest approximation : and yet, in the 
 above number of plants, no less than twenty-two species are enumerated, as common to equi- 
 noctial Africa, India, and America. These facts, while they strengthen the belief that 
 zoology is a more fiivourable field than botany for discovering the laws of natural distribu- 
 tion, lead US to consider the modes by which such inquiries are most beneficially prosecuted. 
 
 Sect. I. — Modes of investigating the Subject. 
 
 The powerful effect produced on animals by temperature, food, and locality, are known to 
 all : whether as regards the range of any particular species, or the numbers of which it may 
 be composed. The effect of these agencies is indeed so great, that some writers have looked 
 upon them as primary causes, and have imagined that by such laws alone has nature regu- 
 lated the distribution of the whole animal creation. Very many instances, no doubt, from 
 among the diversities of animal structure, may be urged in support of this theorj' ; but how 
 far it can be reconciled with other and more general facts, which will bo apparent on a 
 wider view of the subject, we shall hereafter mvestigate. It is clear that, by whatever 
 laws Nature may have been guided, numerous exceptions will be found, proportionate to the 
 vast and almost infinite variety she has displayed in her productions. There is, perhaps, no 
 theory professing to explain the laws of Nature, whether on animal distribution or natural 
 affinities, which the wit of man could possibly devise, that might not be supported with great 
 plausibility, by certain facta, presented by those radiating threads of connexion, and Uioso 
 apparent deviations from her general laws, which are everywhere apparent : yet these will 
 frequently be opposed to other facts ; and thus it becomes necessary, before determining on 
 which side the preponderance of evidence Ilea, that we take as wide a survey of the general 
 distribution of animals as the existing state of knowledge will admit. To set out with the 
 belief that the laws of geographic distribution are fully ascertained, and that nothing remains 
 but to make ourselves acquainted with the rttnge of individual species, is a doctrine which 
 can only be compared to those principles of classification insisted upon by the methodists of 
 the last age in natural history, who considered that all the generic groups had been discovered, 
 and that future naturalists had nothing left but to appropriate to them the newly discovered 
 species, in the best manner they could. 
 
 Towards the discovery of the natural geography of animals there is, however, another 
 mode of investigation, analogous to what we now pursue, in searching after the true series 
 of their affinities : this is, to lay aside all preconceived theories, and to begin with considerinpr 
 the primary causes of geographic distribution to be, what in truth tliey really arc, totally 
 unknown. We are thus compelled to take a general survey of all the existing animals yd 
 discovered, and now dispersed over the globe ; and, from the facts so elicited, endeavour to 
 attain such general inferences as are supported by a preponderance of evidence, furnished 
 by nature herself. By the first method, as it has been truly said, wo make nature bend to 
 our own arbitrary theories; while by the secind wo humbly endeavour to receive her 
 instructions; striving to obtain a glimpse of that stupendous plan which can never be fiilly 
 undcrstcml by fallible and imperfect mortals. 
 
 The geographic distribution of man is connected in our survey with that of animals ; not 
 so much in compliance with the popular notion, by which the noblest work of God is classed 
 as a genus next to the brute, but because we may fhirly presume, from the great diversity 
 
 d 
 
 m 
 
 iii- 1 
 
 IP; 5! 
 
 ! ' »f 
 
 '>'.:\- 
 
"'^-^.f 
 
 n 
 
 250 
 
 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 PaktII. 
 
 observed nmong the human species, tliiit ttieir variation nnd dispersion is regulated by some 
 
 feneral plan ; and that such plan may bo analoirous to tliat wliich is apparent in the distri- 
 ution of animals. It may be urged, indeed, that sucli a remarkable coincidence, if proved, 
 miglit tend to sanction the modern theory of classing man and brutes together ; but the only 
 legitimate construction which we think could be fairly drawn from sdch a fact would be, 
 that there is but one plan of geographic distribution and of creation throughout nature. 
 
 Against classing man with quadrupeds we must enter our decided protest. And here we 
 cannot refrain from expressing regret that a naturalist of no ordinary talent has rrcently 
 adopted this degrading theory, m apparent opposition to hin former most just and philosophic 
 views of the subject. He admits " the greatness of the gulf between man and the orang 
 outang ;" yet, because they possess certain analogies of physical structure, is it a necessary 
 conclusion that they form one group] (Linn. Traru. xvi. 1. p. 22.) This, at least, was not 
 tlie opinion (as this philosopher candidly admits) of either Aristotle or Ray, whom he justly 
 considers the two greatest zoologists that have ever existed. It has been argued that the 
 natural pride of philosophy withheld such men from classing themselves with brutes ; but 
 we arc more disposed to think they were influenced by higher considerations. However 
 this may be, there is an innate repugnance, or rather a disgust and abhorrence, in every 
 human mind, enlightened or illiterate, against the admission of such a relationship. Reve- 
 lation everywhere places man, even in his fallen state, in absolute contrast and contradiction 
 with " the beasts that perish." It is not merely a feeling of pride ; it is an innate loathing, 
 engrafted in our nature, apparently for the very purpose of teaching us how immeasurably 
 far wc are removed from the brutes that have no understanding. Man has fallen, miserably 
 fallen, but this is from the corruption of that pure spirit with which he was created : his 
 form was tlion, as it is now ; nor are we to suppose that man, as he came fiishioned by hie 
 Creator, without sin, was clothed in a different form to that which he now, in a sinful state, 
 exhibits. Are we then to place such a being in a zoological circle, surrounded with apes 
 and baboons ? or are material and immaterial natures so closely allied, that they may be 
 classed together! 
 
 Tliere is another argument against including man in the zoological circle, furni.shed by 
 tlie very theory upon wiiicii that iiypothesis is built. If the circular system i.* part of the 
 system of nature, which at this time of day is perfectly demonstrable, every being has two 
 alHnities : by the one, it is connected to that which precedes it ; by the other, to that by 
 which it is succeeded. Now, before we can bring man witliin the circle of the Quadruma- 
 na, on the strength of his affinity (wiiether near or remote) to the ornng outang, we must 
 show to wiiat cla&s of animals lie is connected on tlie other hand. Wiiat then are our dou- 
 ble affinities in tlie vertebrate circled We may be allied distantly, perhaps, to Simia. But 
 where is the second affinity! If this cannot be pointed out, tlie whole theory, in our esti- 
 mation, falls to the ground, since the presi'^ied type of the animal kingdom contradicts the 
 laws by which creation is supposed to be /eguiated ; man exhibiting a single affinity, and 
 the rest of organised matter a double one. Take him frmn the animal circle, — place him 
 between matter and spirit ; — and his double affinities become at once apparent. 
 
 A general sketch of the physical peculiarities of man in all his variations will first claim 
 our attention ; the regions inhabited by the different races, and the affinities by which they 
 appear connected, will also be briefly noticed. This part of our subject will be conducted 
 on a somewhat different plan from that which we shall pursue in the sequel. The profound 
 researches of Blumenbach and Cuvier, and the acute and patient investigations of Lawrence 
 and Pritchard, have all conspired to produce nearly the same general conclusions on those 
 points to which wo shall particularly draw the reader's attention. These conclusions, more- 
 over, demand our fullest confidence, from being founded on as rigid analysis as the nature 
 of the subject will admit. Hence, we have no need, in this place, of entering into details, 
 or of pursuing the same mode of invi'jitigation to which we shall have recourse when sub- 
 sequently treating of animal distribution. 
 
 Sbct TI. — Varieties of the Human Race. 
 
 The varieties of the human race, according In the ojiiiiion of the greatest comparative 
 anatomist, may all be included under three priin:iry divisions, between which, in their typi- 
 cal e.vamples, a very marked difference is observed. Those M. Cuvier has termed, 1. the 
 fair or Caucasian variety; 2. the yellow or Montrolian; 3. the black or Ethiopian. 
 
 The eliissifination proposed by the celebrated Blumenbach. although apparently different, 
 is but a modification of that promulgated by Baron (!Juvier. The former considers the Ethio. 
 pian type as .livisible into tliree, 1. the American ; 2. the Negro; and II. the Malay, Tlie latter 
 indicates tliesi! additional races, but considers their peculiarities as less prominent than those 
 of the two former ; ho does not therefore admit them among the primary divisions of the 
 human race. Without, at present, offering any opinion U|Kin this question, we shall first 
 take a rapid survey of the peculiarities, physical and moral, of all these groups. 
 
 
■^: 
 
 ,-^.. 
 
 Book III. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. 
 
 8517 
 
 (1) The Caucasian race (Jig. 70.) is typically characterised by a white skin ; red cheeka; 
 
 70 
 
 copious, soft, flowing hair, generally curled or waving; ample beard; small, oval, and 
 straight face, with tlie features very distinct ; expanded forehead ; large and elevated crani- 
 um ; narrow nose ; and small moutli. 
 
 The moral feelings and intellectual powers of this race have been developed in the highest 
 degree of perfection which human nature has ever exhibited. The Caucasian has given 
 birth to the most civilized nations, both in ancient and modem times, and has always exer- 
 cised dominion over tiie rest of mankind, when not opposed by a vast superiority of physical 
 strength. The mighty nations of antiquity, and the no less resistless powers concentrated 
 in molern Europe, evince the superiority of this race in all that ennobles the immaterial 
 part of man, and all that renders him formidable to his fellow-creatures ; while every age 
 witnesses a progressive but a surprising advance in all those qualities which indicate intel- 
 lectual endowment. 
 
 The original scat of the Caucasian race is supposed, as the name implies, to have been 
 that lofty chain of mountains between the Black and Caspian Seas. This supposition, as 
 Jjawrence observes, is in uni.son with all that can be traced of the original abode of our first 
 parents ; and is further confirmed by the natives of these regions being, to this day, the most 
 beautifully formed of all the ir'iabitants of the earth. From the Caucasian Alps different 
 branches of this race diverge in every direction, as from a common centre ; the peculiarities 
 of each being modified, altered, and finally lost, in proportion as they recede from the ori- 
 ginal seat of their tribe. 
 
 Of the branches of the Caucasian race, the most powerful is the Pelasgic, which spreads 
 o^er the greater part of Europe and Western Asia at its most northern limits, while it blends 
 with the Jlongolian race by means of the Fins and Laplanders. From this branch sprang 
 the powerful nations of Greece and Rome, which have been succeeded by the mighty king- 
 doms of modern Europe. Tiie next is tlie Syrian, which takes a southerly direction ; and 
 includes that portion of Asia formerly inhabited by the Assyrians, Chaldeans, and the ancient 
 Egyptians. The Indian branch, by some thought to be the same with the Pelasgic, passes 
 to the East, and loses itself among tlie inferior casts of Hindostan. A fourth branch is the 
 Scythian or Tartaric, which spread over the more northern parts of Asia ; and gave birth to 
 those wandering and ruthless hordes who, by the physical power of numbers, devastated and 
 fmally overthrew the polished empires of Greece and Rome. The wandering and pastoral 
 habits of this tribe have conspired to preserve their peculiarities unmixed with those of the 
 neighbouring nations; except, indeed, in Lesser Tartary, whore this branch of the Caucasian 
 race loses itself in the Mongolian. 
 
 (2.) The Mongolian variety (Jig. 71.) has these characteristics : — The skin, instead of 
 
 white or fair, is olive yellow ; the hair thin, coarse, and straight ; little or no beard ; broad 
 flattened face, witii the features running together ; small and low forehead ; s<]uare-shaped 
 croniuni; wide and small nose; very oblique eyes; and thick lips. Stature interior to the 
 Caucasian. In this race the moral and intellectual energies have been developed in an inferior 
 degree. Tradition, indeed, has assigned to the most powerful nation, the Chinese, a high 
 degree of civilization, at a period when Europe was in a state of barbarism. Yet there are 
 many circumstances which throw considerable suspicion on this fact : and even if it be allowed, 
 a stronger proof could not possibly be produced to show the limited intellectual powers of tliis 
 Vol. I. 22* 2H 
 
 
 !t,i 
 
 i^'B 
 
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 Jm 
 
 fjllj 
 
 
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 ii 
 
 M 
 
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 258 
 
 t 
 
 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part II, 
 
 race ; for while tlie European Caucasian nations have advanced from rude savages to bccunie 
 masters of the world, the Cliinese, after reaching a certain state of civilization, liave remain- 
 ed stationary, in every respect, through a long series of ages. Solit^iry e.vceptions cannot 
 invnlidati^ the fact; and while we know that, not only in our own times, but so tiir back as 
 history informs us, neither the sciences, the inventions, nor tiie improvements of the last 
 three centuries have changed the Mongolian nations from what they then were, we can conio 
 to no other conclusion tbim that they are nationally incapacitated from further improve- 
 ment. Cuvier supposes that the origin of the Mongolian race may have been in the moun- 
 tains of Altai'. Prom tlicnco it has spread over the whole of central and northern Asia, 
 where it is lost among the Esquimaux on the one hand, and the Caucasian Tartars on the 
 other. It further extends to the Eastern Ocean, and includes the Japanese, the Coicans, 
 and a large [xirtion of the Siberians. Its limits to the south appear to extend no 
 farther than to that part of Ilindostan north of the Ganges, while the Mongolian fea- 
 tures only predominate over those of the Indo-Caucasian in the lower casts of the Eastern 
 Peninsula. 
 
 The origin of the Esquimaux and other polaric nations found on the most northern limits 
 of Europe and America, has given rise to great diversity of opinion. Arguments of nearly 
 equal weight, but of opposite tendency, have been employed to show, on the one hand, that 
 the Esquimaux belong to the American variety ; and on the other, to prove their structure 
 more in unison with that of the Mongolian. The latter opinion has been supported by Mr. 
 Lawrence ; and although we consider the weight of argument to be on this side, it appears 
 not at all improbable that both these suppositions are in part correct We have Ixiforc 
 observed, that the characters of each race become less and less a))parent, the farther they 
 arc removed from their particular type. The proximity of the northern regions of Asia to 
 those of America, renders it highly probable either that their respective inhabitants mingled 
 their races at a remote period, or that the northern Mongolians, whose civilization is sup- 
 posed to be of so great antiquity, were the first to emigrate, and peoi)le the northern regions 
 of America. At all events, it appears certain that the Esquimaux nations unite in themselves 
 many of the characters of two distinct races ; and the only theory by which wc can recon- 
 cile these doubts on their true origin, is that of supposing them to form the link of connex- 
 ion between the Mongolian and that race which spreads over the remaining jwrtion of the 
 new world. Tl . brief notice we have now taken of the two most powerful races or varie- 
 ties of the human form is sufficient to show their marked superiority over all others, whether 
 as regards the symmetry or beauty of their physical structure, or the still more striking 
 developoment of their moral jwwers. Hence they both become typical, although in ditferent 
 degrees, of that jwrfeotion which the Creator has bestowed upon man, in this his probatory 
 stain of existence. 
 
 The third i)rimary division or leading variety of the human race, according to the views 
 of the illustrious Cuvier, is the negro or Ethiopian. This, again, presents three variations, 
 considered by Cuvier as secondary, and by Blumenbach as primary. Although these varia- 
 tions are not so great as those l)etween either the Caucasian, the Mongolian, or the African 
 (the letter being considered the type of the Ethiopian variety), still they are sufficiently im- 
 portant to merit a particular pnecification under distinct names; and they are accordingly 
 termed the American, the Ethiopian, and the Malay varieties. 
 
 In the American variety iJia. 72.) the skin is dark, and more or less red ■ the hair black, 
 
 72 
 
 05''^^; A 
 
 straight, and strong, with the beard small ; fiice and skull very similar to the Mongolian, 
 but the former not so flattened ; eyes stmk ; foreliead low ; the noso and other features being 
 somewhat projecting. The moral and intellectual character of this race is in unison with 
 the great diffi.Tenco it presents in outward form from the Caucasian. Likn the Mongolian, 
 it has remained stationary; but stopped at a point very much below that to which the 
 Asiatics have reai^hed. The ancient and now extinct empires of Mexico and tii(! Incas 
 may he cotisidtrerl analogous to those of Cliina and India, exhibiting the highest \mnt of 
 civilization to wliich the two races have ever reached; but farther than this the comparison 
 ronnot be carried. Arts, sciences, and all those intellectual endowments which have fol- 
 
9^ 
 
 Paht II. 
 
 Book m. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. 
 
 259 
 
 lowed the progress of the Caucasian race, and to a certain extent belong also to the Asiatics, 
 appear to have made little or no progress among tlie Americans, even m the gorgeous court 
 nf Montezuma. When that monarch despatched messengers to bring him an account of the 
 first Spaniards who landed on his territories, so ignorant were the Mexicans of figures or 
 of writing, that their report was made in complicated hieroglyphics, mixed with rude figures 
 of the horses and persons of these unknown invaders. Their idolatrous worship enjoined 
 no moral duties, like tliose of the superstition of Fo; and its rites were celebrated by human 
 sacrifioes of such a revolting nature as to bo wortliy only of demons. It deserves attention, 
 that while the central portion of America presented in its original inhabitants such a de- 
 graded picture of the human mind, the northern nations of the new world, partaking more 
 of the Mongolian aspect, evinced a higher degree of intellect. It is true they were only 
 wandering tribes of hunters, yet they appear to have had a full belief in the existence of 
 one " Great Spirit," and in a blissful immortality for themselves. The American race, 
 blending with the Mongolian to the north, spreads over the whole of the new world ; but 
 whether any traces of this type exist beyond these limits, is a question which has not hitherto 
 been investigated. 
 In tlie Ethiopian variety (fig. 73.), the skin is black ; hair short, black, and woolly ; skulJ 
 
 compressed on the sides, and elongated towards the front ; forehead low, narrow, ard slant- 
 ing ; cheekbones very prominent ; jaws projecting, so as to render the upper front teeth 
 oblique; eyes prominent; nose broad and flat; lips (especially the upper one) particularly 
 thick. The African or Ethiopian race has ever remainetl in a rude and comparatively bar- 
 barous state. Their cities are but congregations of huts; their laws, the despotic whim of 
 the reigning chief. Incessantly occupied in war or in tlie chase, they seek not to perpetuate 
 their ideas. They have no written language, nor even a code of hieroglyphics. Abundantly 
 supplied by nature with every necessary of life, they have retained their character un- 
 chanwfid, after centuries of intercourse with thu most enlightened nations. DifTerent branches 
 of this type spread over the whole of the African continent, excepting those parts bordering 
 ihe north and east of the Great Desert, which are occupied by the Caucasian Syrians, and 
 wiiere all traces of the npijro formation disappear. 
 Tlio Malay variety {fig. 74.) varies in the colour of the skin from a light tawny to a deep 
 
 74 
 
 -(■ 
 
 brown, approaching to black ; hair black, more or less curled, and abundant ; head rather 
 narrow; bones of the fiice large and prominent; nose full and broad towards the tip. Under 
 this variety, observes Mr. LaATence, are included races of men very difterent in organiza- 
 tion and qualities. They nevertheless present certain general points of resemblance, which 
 forbid tiicir association with either of the foregoing varieties. Under this head are, there- 
 fore, included the inhabitants of Malacca, of Sumatra, and of the innumerable islands of the 
 Indian Archipelago and the groat Pacific Ocean. Most of these tribes are stated to speak 
 the Malay language, which may be traced, in the various ramifications of this diversifie<l 
 race, from Madagascar to Easter Island. Their moral character is no less various than their 
 
 
%. 
 
 260 
 
 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Pakt II 
 
 \ 
 
 if 
 jl 
 ft . 
 
 outward funn. In such as, by the colour of their Bkin and their woolly hair, show a general 
 approximation to the African type, the mental powers are little developed. Their language, 
 however, is stated to be peculiar, and they appear to have a copious bushy beard. (IjOW- 
 rence, 489.) Branches of this division of the Malay race spread over the great islands ot' 
 Sumatra, Borneo, and Andaman ; and they appear also to occupy the Molucca and Philippine 
 Islands. They are described as living in the same state of wild and savage barbarity as do 
 the Bushmen of Southern Africa, and such other branches of the Ethiopian variety as appear 
 the lowest in the scale of form and intellect. There is, however, u lighter-coloured and 
 superior race, inhabiting some of tlie Indian islands, where an oval countenance, longer hair, 
 and finer form, evince a much greater affinity with the Indo-Caucasian type on one side, 
 and a strong analogy to the New Zealanders and Pacific tribes on the other. Proceeding 
 along the same insular chain, we meet with " negro-like men " having curly hair, in the 
 immense island of New Guinea, and in those south-western groups denominated New Ire- 
 land, New Hebrides, and New Caledonia. The natives of tlie vast continent of New Hol- 
 land show strong indications of the same origin, and of the same untameable barbarism ; 
 yet their features are described as not unpleasant, their skin is rather copper-coloured than 
 black, and their hair either curling or straight. The natives of the interior liave been 
 described aa somewhat more civilized, and as speaking a language different fi-om that used 
 on the codst In the neighbouring island of Nevv Zealand a considerable change from tlie 
 black Malayan tribes takes place. The superior castes of these islanders in their persons 
 are tall, active, and well made ; their skin is brown, and their long black hair is sometimes 
 straight, sometimes curling. A degree of intellect, superior to all the tribes we have 
 enumerated, accompanies these personal advantages. Retaining many of the barbarous 
 customs of their neighbours, the New Zealanders have, nevertheless, made some progress 
 in the arts of life smce their intercourse with Europeans : they believe in a Supreme Being, 
 and in a happy immortality ; and evince, in various ways, a desire to improve their condition. 
 The natives of the Friendly Islands have the dark complexion of the New Zealanders, but are 
 a much superior race. They are of the ordinary European stature, though some are above 
 six feet high; their colour is a deep brown, verging in the better classes on a light olive; 
 their features, like those of the Now Zealanders, are various, approximating in some respects 
 to them, and also to the true Europeans. Their progress in civilization and in intellectual 
 developement is considerable ; as a pnxif of which, it is mentioned that they have terms to 
 express numbers up to 100,000. The Otaheitians have long been celebrated for their per- 
 sonal beauty : the lower orders, indeed, are of tlio same brown tint so generally prevalent 
 in the Friendly Islands, but in those of a superior caste this is gradually lost, until we find 
 in the higher ranks a skin nearly white, or at least but slightly tinged with brown; and 
 although the usual colour of their hair is black, yet it is of a tine texture, and frequent 
 instances occur in which it is brown, flaxen, and even red. Their persons are well made, 
 their features sometimes even beautiful, and a blush may be readily observed on the check 
 of the women. The harmony of their language, and their simple though refined mannor.<i, 
 have been universally remarked. These nationnl characteristics extend to the Society 
 Islands. Lastly, The nativi.-s of tiie Marquesos have been described as the finest race in the 
 Southern Ocean: "in form they are, perhaps, the finest in the world." Their skin is 
 naturally " very fair," and the colour of tlicir hair exliibits all the varied shades, (excepting 
 red), which are found in the difieront tribes of the Caucasian race. 
 
 Sect. III. — (hi the Caimes of these Varieties. 
 
 The following questions naturally arise fi-om considering these characteristics of the most 
 prominent varieties of the human race ; founded as they are on the concurrent testimony of 
 travellers, and generalised by the most eminent physiologists : — 1. Whether these races, so 
 dissimilar in their typical peculiarities, have originally proceeded from one, or from distinct 
 stocks? 2. Are they so strongly m'^rked as not to present many and great deviations'! and, 
 3. To what causes are they to be attributed ] 
 
 In regard to the origin of the human race, there have not been wanting those, who, 
 disbelieving the evidences of the Mosaic history, have attempted to establish the hypothesis 
 that these races have each sprung from different stocks ; or, that they are, in fact, so many 
 species. Now, this, at the host, is but an assumption perfectly gratuitous; not only because 
 every record from which it could receive any support is expressly opposed to it, but because 
 it is in direct violation of a primary and universal law of nature : a law by which the lowest 
 being of the animal creation shrinks instinctively from intermixing its species with that of 
 another. It has, moreover, been fully ascertained that, however great the variations of the 
 human form may be, such variations amon^r different breeds of the same species of animal 
 are even greater. Unless, therefore, it can be proved that the laws of nature with respect 
 to man and animals are ccintradictory, we shall, by attaching the least weight to the alwve 
 theory, openly violate every principle of philosophic reasoning, as well as renounce all belief 
 in revealed religion. On this head the Mosaic records are clear and explicit; nnd however 
 the bceptic may deny their inspiration, he cannot bring forward, on his side, any testimony 
 
 •»*' 
 
 i'f \ 
 
Pabt II 
 
 a general 
 language, 
 
 1. (/ifltC- 
 
 islands of 
 Philippine 
 .rily as do 
 as appear 
 oured and 
 nger hair, 
 one side, 
 •roceeding 
 lir, in the 
 1 New Ire- 
 New Hol- 
 barbarism ; 
 Burcd than 
 )iave been 
 (1 that used 
 [c from the 
 leir persons 
 1 Bometimcs 
 s we have 
 • barbarous 
 ne progress 
 eme Being, 
 ir condition, 
 lers, but are 
 le are above 
 light olive ; 
 ime respects 
 intellectual 
 ave terms to 
 )r their per- 
 lly prevalent 
 mtil we find 
 brown; and 
 ind frequent 
 J well made, 
 m the cheek 
 led manners, 
 the Society 
 It race in tho 
 Iheir skin is 
 (excepting 
 
 of the most 
 [testimony of 
 lese races, so 
 [from distinct 
 Jations'! and, 
 
 p, those, who, 
 le hypothesis 
 fiict, so many 
 lonly because 
 1 but because 
 th the lowest 
 [with that of 
 litions of the 
 Irs of animal 
 1 with respect 
 Vo the above 
 Jice nil belief 
 land however 
 Iny testimony 
 
 DooK m. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. 
 
 261 
 
 of such remote antiquity, or of such generally admitted credibility. As to the second quet- 
 tion, it must not be understood that, iu arranging tho varieties uf man uiv.ler a certain num- 
 ber of divisions, and assigning to each a peculiar ciiaructer, there does not occur many and 
 very remarkable exceptions in each. So much, indeed, is this tho case, that there arc not 
 wanting instances of native African tribes having the light skin of Europeans, Caucasians 
 combinmg tho Mongolian witli the Malay structure, Americans resembling whites, and Afri- 
 cans with the copper-coloured skin of tho American; nay, even in the sumo island or \m- 
 vince, a groat diversity Inith in language and in physical structure, is sometimes apparent, unii 
 this between tribes Iwrdering close upon each other; so that, witli tho exception of a com- 
 paratively small portion of each principal race, we find so much diversify in the rcniainiufr 
 or aberrant branches — the typiciil peculiarities become so modified, altered, or evanescent, 
 that it is totally impossible to draw an absolute line of demarcation between them. 
 
 This point has frequently been adverted to by a well-known physiologist, who says. " there 
 is no circumstance, whether of corporeal structure or of mental endowment, which does not 
 pass by imperceptible gradations into the opposite character, rendering all those dictinctions 
 merely relative, and reducing them to differences in degree. It is concluded, tlierefbre, that 
 every arrangement of these varieties must be in a great meas\ire arbitrary." (Lawrence^ x 
 Led. p. 472.) Yet, admitting this variation to the fullest extent, it caimut alter the correct- 
 ness of the principle on which these distinctions are founded. Whatever might have been 
 formerly thought as to the nature of terms employed by naturalists to designate the parlic\i- 
 lar groups of animals, it is now generally admitted that, throughout nature, there are no 
 isolating distinctions, save such as separate species. The characters of every zoological 
 group, of whatever magnitude or denomination, are subject to exceptions equally mimerouf. 
 The typical peculiarities may, indeed, be prominent; but in pro|)ortion to the number of 
 objects which are embraced under any definition, will be the diversity of those imperceptible 
 gradations, those threads of connexion, which shoot out in all directions, and unite not only 
 genera and orders, but the primary kingdoms of the animal and the vegetable worlds. It 
 is, therefore, irrelevant to argue that, because those divisions are liable to mnncrous excep- 
 tions, and are not always uniform and constant, they arc either artificial or objectionable : 
 for as we find that all natural groups, both in the animal and vegetable worlds, are suhjcct 
 to tho same variations, they are therefore liable to the suinc objections. In sliort, if such 
 reasoning is valid, the distinction between plants and animals can no longer bo niainlainod ; 
 for it is to this day unsettled at what point the peculiarities of one are lost, and those of the 
 other assumed. 
 
 The causes that may have led to these variations in the human species, form the only 
 question of a general nature remaining to he discussed. It has been argued by some writers, 
 that particular climates, food, and modes of life, have gradually operated, through a succes- 
 sion of ages, to produce these effects on the colour, stature, and intellect of different nation.". 
 But, however greatly these causes may aft'ect individuals, or even to a certain extent a whole 
 people, they entirely fail when bro\ight to solve our present question ; were it otherwise, the 
 same causes would naturally have the same effect on all the iniiabitants of a particular 
 region ; but such, as is well known, is far from being the case. The negro, under a tropical 
 sun, is black; while an Indian of Para, in the same degree of latitude, is reddish brown. No 
 race produces men more athletic, or more finely formed, than arc witnessed among the Gold 
 Coast negroes ; yet they inhabit, proverbially, some of the most pestilential districts of Africa. 
 On the other hand, the New Ilollanders, and the Soutli African Bushmen, living in a salu- 
 brious climate, are described as lean, s<iualid, and with an appearance scarcely human. It 
 is therefore obvious, that neither the physical nor the moral condition of man can be so 
 affected by climate, or other external agencies, as to produce any great or permanent varia- 
 tion in his forjn. Indeed, when we consider that such agencies have not produced any 
 physical change in any one nation, within the memory or tho records of man, we are tempted 
 to believe that in a general point of view, their influence has boon very slight ; otherwise, 
 there is no mason to doubt but that the same natural causes which operated at one period 
 of time, would still continue to do so at another ; and that we siiould find the descendants 
 of Europeans long since settled in the New World, and in Southern Africa, beginning to 
 assume the red tinge of tho American, or the black skin of the Ethiopian. Still lo.=s can it 
 be supposed that this departure from one common standard has been effected by civilization, 
 a consequent devolopcment of tlie mental faculties, or even by diversified mo<les of 1 ife. Man, 
 in remote ages, must have lived pretty nearly the .same life in every region; whether as 
 shepherds, hunters, or tillers of the field, their food, habits and modes of life, must have been 
 simple and regular. Whence comes it, then, that nations wiiich still retain a great portion 
 of what may bo conceived their primitive simplicity, do nut exliibit a corresponding resem- 
 blance in physical structure 1 If food, raiment, and moral improvement have ."uch a powerful 
 effect in modifying the human frame, it would naturally follow that tribes living nearly in a 
 state of nature would all show a close approximation to one common type; that they would, 
 in siiort. rotiiiii iiioro of tiio lineaments and characters which must have belonged to our first 
 IMtronts, than if they )i;ul deviated from their primitive simplicity; yet the very revers'" of 
 
 -1: 
 
 na 
 
 i<' :-l;' 
 
 k!J 
 
{•^ 
 
 u 
 
 262 
 
 SCIENCK OF GEOGIlAI'Hy, 
 
 Part II. 
 
 i: 
 
 £' '\ 
 
 it 
 
 this is the fiict. Tlio apparent iibori^jinort of every nution arc flioso in wliicli tlio leading; 
 chariictors ot'tlioir own Iribu arc most conspicuous; and wliicli c.xliihit tliostron(fe«t contruHl 
 to those of ollinrs. It is only wlii'n tlioy iiavo nuicln sonio projf ross in tlio arts of lifo, wiien 
 conquest ur comniorue lias li;il to a iniiun with otiier races, that tlie national cliaracteristicH, 
 both personal and mental, give way, and bcffin cither to blend or tobi; lost in other imxlitica- 
 tions. These reasons, did they more inimediatnly conourn the piir|>oses of tliis essay, nii|{ht 
 be niucli enlarjjed uiwn, more particularly as they have been ottered by some (h'setveilly 
 eminent writers as a satisfactory dilution of the question we are now diseussinjf. Vet, allow- 
 ing' to all these causes the full ott'ect they are known to have protluced, we nuist yet confess 
 they appear to us totally inade(|uate to explain the origin of the races of man. A writiM' 
 intimately versed on this subject luw well observed, that '* external agencies, whether phy- 
 sical or moral, will not account for the bodily and mental differences which cliaractcrise tin- 
 several tribes of mankind." {Lawrence's Lectures, p. 431.) We liave, in short, now lirou^'ht 
 the inquiry to a point where human reason is baffled : there is neither history nor tradition to 
 guide us in a research which carries us back to the obscurity of ages ; to that remote period 
 when the earth, for a second time, was again peopled, if not by a single pair, yet by the lltret; 
 sons of a single family. 
 
 We are now to view the question in another light. It has been generally admitted, oven 
 by those who reject the Mosaic testimony, that the diversity in the human structure can in 
 no way bo accounted for by any known combination of naturitl causes : arc we, thert'lbrc 
 to suppose, in a quc^stion which concerns the most perfect earthly being made by Oiniii[Hi- 
 tenco, that nothing .iiiprrnatHnil is to enter ! that causes which cflect tlie developemeiit nut 
 only of the material but of the spiritual essence of man, have been left to chance ! Is it. not 
 more reasonable to conclude, that, tor purposes unknown to us, a supornaturnl agency was 
 employed ? and tiiat the immediate descendants of the sons of Noah wore as distinctly nwrl;- 
 ed m their outward form as they were in their moral character ! The sacred writings, it is 
 true, are not written to answer philosophic in(|uiries. Those who, in tlie pre,<ciit age, Iimvc 
 been the most profound investigators of nature, discover in every part of creation a symbolic 
 relationship; a mysterious system of types and symbols, which extends from the most com- 
 plex to the most simple of organized beings: and when we know, lor instance, that oven the 
 colours of a bird or an insect have a direct reference to such a system, and are eiiiployod as 
 typical in.lications of its station in nature, can it be supposed that such a system does not 
 extend to man ? That this will not, in the present infancy of our inqnirios, admit of such 
 direct and unanswerable proof as amounts to mathematical demonstration, wo do not attempt 
 to deny ; but that such a supposition is in harmony with that perfection which belongs to 
 the works of Omnipotence, every reasonable ptirson must admit. Nor are there wanting 
 circumstances which give some degree of sanction to this belief The curse pronounced 
 upon Canaan as the son of Ham has unquestionably been fulhllod. Learned commentators 
 agree in considering that central Africa was peopled by his descendants, and the.se have been 
 for ages, and still continue to be, " a servant of servants," to their more favoured brethren. 
 Even their own despotic governments render the subjects but slaves. In them the human 
 form i.s most debased, tlie divinity of mind least developed. They still exhibit those leading 
 resemblances which rendered Cain a type of Canaan: with few exceptions, they are, to this 
 day, but " wanderers and vagatwnd.s" on the earth. The blessings pronounced on the two 
 remaining sons of Noah, it has been well observed, are of a very different nature : Sliem was 
 more peculiarly favoured than his brother; from his race not only the great ]mtriarchs who 
 typified Christ, bnt even Christ himself, descended. The peculiarity of the Jewish polity, 
 which preserved the physical peculiarities of their race pure and unmixed through successive 
 generations, leaves us in no doubt that they belong to the Caucasian type, in which, both 
 in structure and intellect, a marked superiority over all the nations of the earth has been 
 universally admitted. The early descendants of Japheth, as is plainly intimated by Moses, 
 were eminently warlike. All writers agree in considering that from the Mongolian race 
 descended those vast and overpowering hordes of barbaric warriors who, at remote periods 
 of time, conquered all Asia, and devastated Europe under Attila, Zingis Khan, and Tamer- 
 lane. " It is remarkable," says Dr. Scott, " that the first king of whom we read in authentic 
 history, is Nimrod, the mighty hunter." The same learned writer mentions that there is 
 some ground for believing that the greatest part of Asia (now peopled by the Mongolian race) 
 de.'ceiidcd from Japheth. The popidation of Asia has been frequently mentioned as in an 
 e(pial ratio to the superiority of its size over Europe, or rather of those countries over which 
 the Caucasian variety has spread. Thus, in every sense, it appears, that the promise to 
 Xoali's fir.<t soil, "G(xl shall enlarge Japheth, and Canaan shall be his servant," has literally 
 and figuratively been fulfilled. 
 
 That the three sons of Noah overspread and peopled the whole earth, is so expressly 
 staterl in Scripture, that, if wo had not to argue against those who unfortunately disbelieve 
 such eviileiiei', wi> miirht here stop: let us, however, inquire how far the truth of this decla- 
 ration is s'lhstuitiatod by other considerations. Enough has been said to show that there is a 
 curious, if not a rcrinrkilili', analogy between the predictions of Noah, on the future descend 
 
Part II. 
 
 Book III. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. 
 
 263 
 
 ants of his three sons, nnd the ac'iml state of tlioso mcoa which arc ffencrally Biippnscd to 
 hnve Hprmifj from thpin. It miiy hi^ro bo offiiiii rciimriioii, thiit alttiou(;h, to render the 
 Hiibject more cloar, we have uJoptuil the <)uirmry arrunj^nmcnt of Blumcnluch, yet that 
 Ciivier and other learned phyHiohp(,'istH are of opinion that the nrimarw varieticH of tlio human 
 form are more projierly but thrve ; namely, Caucasian, the Mon(;olian, and the Ethiopian. 
 This numlicr corrcspondH with tliat of Noah's houh : atwipninpi therefore, the Mongolian race to 
 Juphcth, and the Ethiopian to Ham, the Cauciisian, the noblest race, will belonjj to Shem 
 the third son of Noah, himself descended from Scth tho third son of Adam. That the 
 primary distinctions of tho human varieties aro but thrre, has been further maintained by the 
 erudite Fritchard, who, while ho rejects tho nomenclature both of BlumcnliaRh and Cuvier, 
 as implying absolute divisions, arran^res tho Icadinfr varieties of the human skull under throe 
 sections, dift'erinfr from those of Cuvier only by name. That the three sons of Noah, who 
 were to " replenish the earth," and on whose propeny very opposite destinies were pro- 
 nounced, should privo birth to different races, is wiiat mi^rht reasonably be coniccturcd. But 
 that the observations of those who do, and of those who do not believe the Mosaic history 
 should tend to confirm its truth, by pointin>T out in what respect these three races do actually 
 ditfer, both physically and morally, is, to say the least, a singular coincidence. It amounts, 
 in short, to presumptive evidence that a mysterious, but a very beautiftil analojfy pervades 
 throughout ; and teaches us to look beyond natural causes, in attempting to account for 
 etfcctd apparently interwoven in the plans of Omnipotence. 
 
 To reconcile the different theories regarding the numlwr of primary variations in the 
 human form is our next object. The greatest authorities on this subject are Blumenbach 
 and Jjawronce, Cuvier and I'ritchird. 'J'he first two, as already observed, maintain that the 
 primary divisions are five ; while tiio latter, with more she" of reason, contend that there 
 are but three, although they readily admit the distinctions rssigned to the other two. In 
 what manner, therefore, can these opposite theories be recoi ciled ! To do this, we must 
 revert to a third and very remarkable one, which, although u I'as hitherto been solely di- 
 rected to the animal kingdom, will yet be found to exercise a v.^ry imrortant influence on 
 tho present question : wo allude to the circular theory of Macl^.ay. It is the opinion of 
 this learned naturalist that every groui» of organised beings div'des itself, as it were, into 
 two branches of affinities, which finally uniting again at their >pposite extremities, form a 
 circle; and that this disposition of affinities holds good, not or ly in every group, of what- 
 ever magnitude or denomination, but throughout the animal a v\ tho vegetable world. It 
 has been further shown that as such a circular arrangement of beings cannot, of necessity, 
 present any absolute or isolated divisions, (tor it could not then ue continuous nnd circular), 
 yet, that there may be traced, in each circle, five deviations or varieties of structure ; which, 
 however conspicuous in their typical examples, are blended and lost the nearer they approx- 
 imate to each other. Now, so tiir as regards the affinities of animals, this circular theory 
 lias been demonstrated ; but it long remained a matter of doubt what number of primary 
 divisions every group contained. Mr. MacLeay considers there are five ; and this accords 
 with Blumenbach's arrangement of the human species. M. Cuvier, and Dr. Pritchard, as 
 we have before stated, limit tho leading varieties of man to three. In our arrangement of 
 the order Insessores (North. Zoology, vol. ii.), one of the most comprehensive divisions in 
 ornithology, we have shown that the primary divisions of every natural group are only three ; 
 nno of which, by forming a circle of its own, includes three of those pointed out by Mr. 
 MacLcay, — thus making the number five. Now, this theory, on the natural divisions of 
 birds, rests upon no speculative assumption ; it is founded on the most rigorous and minute 
 analysis, and has thus been capable of mathematic demonstration. The question, whether 
 this theory is applicable to one part only of the animal creation, or whether there is pre- 
 sumptive evidence to conclude that it pervades all nature, has been discussed at some 
 length in the " Introductory Observations on the Natural System," prefixed to the same 
 work. . In some respects the trinary and the quinary theory of divisions may be thought 
 virtually the same ; and so far as regards our present subject, considered abstractly, this 
 observation may be true. We can analyze a group of insects, of birds, or of other animals, 
 hut how aro we to analyze the different modifications of man I The thing is utterly impos- 
 sible. Now, as every true theory must rest upon analysis, our present views on this 
 subject would be purely speculative, did they not so strikingly and wonderfully coincide 
 with those in other departments of nature, into which we can prosecute minute re.search, 
 and attain logical demonstration. Besides, by supposing tliat there; axe five principal varia- 
 tions in man, e.'ch etpiiiUy important with the pther, we entirely destroy the beatitifiil 
 analogy betweer. those variations and the sacred writings. But without entoring farther 
 upon this (|uestion, it will be sufficient for our pio.«eiit pur))ose to repeat, that, in regard to 
 man, the views of Blumenbach and Cuvier are virtually the same ; for if, with the fi)rmer, 
 we reckon five, there will he two groups more conispicuoiisly typical of perfection, nnd three 
 others, which, however distinct in many respects, jjossess spvenil characters in common. If, 
 on the other hand, we follow Cuvier and Pritchard. and restrict the number to three, we have 
 the Caucasian and the Mongolian as the two principal groups, while there is a third, typi- 
 
 'IJ 
 
 h;; 
 
 i) tl 
 
•J<V 
 
 .M4 
 
 SCTENCK OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part II 
 
 4r' 
 
 (•ally roprcHcnttul inJi-cd liy tlu< Kthiopiiin, Imt htiU so divnrHifintl iw to wimit at'a thrfclblu 
 ilivisinn, into llii> Auiorinin, the AlViciin, iiiid tin- Miiiiiy varictioB. 
 
 'I'll It the variation of mini Ii.ih licoii rojruliiti'd hy Hiiniliir Iiiwh to tiioso which hiivn licrn 
 tnii'i'd throiiifhoKt nnturo, is) ii roiifUiHioii Hii|ip(irtiMl by stronjf and prosiiinptivp rvidnnce ; 
 Iniwn bith Croiii thi! Hurrcd writini'H, iind froui infcrencoH in z<N)l(i(;ieiil Hcii'ncn, which no 
 nut' h;iH vi-nturrd to dinputo. In n»tnbliBhinj; this point, I liuvo studionfiy conlinod niysolf 
 tdsiicli tlirtii, connected with tho pliyxifiil hiistory of iiinn, ns rcHt on hifrli nnd indiMpiifable 
 iiiitlu'rity. On a Mibjoct so viist nnd intrirnto, illuNtrntod by tho united liilMinrs of the most 
 acute philosopherH now livinp, little that is new could bo said, and that little iniifht have 
 been Huspected of being brought forward to favour a particular theory. In the prncedin}; 
 nketch ot tho principal diirerencos in man, wo have, therefore, merely condensed tlie obner- 
 vations and facts detailed in tho writingn of Bluincnbach, Cuvier, Pritchnrd, I^iwrence, and 
 Humner ; rather wishing, that, whatever inferences aro drawn from such sourcen, the iiictM 
 themselve:. should rest on testimonies of so much weight. 
 
 The order in which these races are here placed leads us to otiier considerations, Blumon- 
 bach is of opinion that the American form is intermediate between tho Caucasian and Mon- 
 golian; but wo have failed to discover any assigned reason for such a disposition, wliirli 
 also seems at varianco with tho progression of dcrelopement. Tiie geographical HJtuation 
 of tho two continents, as wo have before observed, renders it highly probable timt flic 
 American variety is more immediately connected with the Mongolian ; ond the simple liirt. 
 that tho Esquimaux have been by somo considered as of Asiatic origin, while by others thr'y 
 are thouglit to exhibit more of the American type, is, perhaps, the strongest proof of their 
 intimate relationship to both. Neither does the American race exhibit any direct affinity 
 to the Caucasian ; while, on the contrary, both their physical structure and mental developo- 
 ment seem to place them in close approximation to tno Africans. For these and sul).<e(|ueiit 
 reasons, we have felt no hesitation m adopting the series intimated in the Rrifiir Animal. 
 Wo must now advert to another peculiarity in this arrangement, which renders itH Hiniili- 
 tude to tho zoological scries still more remarkable. This is tho progressive series of uffinitirs, 
 resulting from placing the five leading varieties in the order in which they have been hero 
 noticed. The Caucasian and the Mongolian races present tho highest degree of civiliza- 
 tion, although in very diffl'rent degrees when compared with each other: the regions they 
 respectively inhabit, in liki' manner, npproximntf! so closely as not to be divided by water. 
 Yet tho confignration of tlx so races is so remarkable, that they cannot bo mistaken or con- 
 tbnnded. In the third race, comprehending the American, the Malay, nnd the Ethiopian, 
 very marked deviations from the typical endowments of the two former are manifest. This 
 inferiority is first shown in the American, whoso outward form and moral capacity is never- 
 theless superior to the African. Yet, ns nattin^ in the animal kingdom is ever prone to 
 retrace her steps, and \n return again to her orijrinal typo ; so we oKserve that, after exhibit- 
 ing, in some of the African hordes, tho lowest debasement of tho human form, and tlie least 
 eiipacity for mental improvement, she begins, as Blumenbach observes, in the diversified 
 races of the Malay variety, to show a progressive but a very marked inclination to return 
 through them to the Coucasian type. So strong, indeed, does this appear in many tribes of 
 tho South Rca Islanders, not only in the beauty of their forms, but in the advance they are 
 continually making towar^ls intellectual improvement, that every voyager, who has visited 
 their shores, concurs in likening them to Europeans. 
 
 The inferences to be drawn from this circular disposition are important, if merely con- 
 sidered in relation to those systems, which, by presupposing a lineal scale in creation, would 
 place the negro in immediate contact with the monkey. Now, without laying any stress 
 upon that primary characteristic of man, a reasoning, thinking, and immaterial soul, of 
 which the Ixidy is but a temporary receptacle, we must, before we consent to this hypothesis, 
 got over difficulties which appear insurmountable. That tho Ethiopian holds the lowest station 
 among the vorieties of his species, is fully gn nted; but that this admission implies un 
 affinity to tho ape, does by no means follow. Tliero may be an approximation: but it is 
 necessary, before we decide on the dr/rree of such approximation, that we should examine 
 the relative affinity which tho Ethiopian bears to the Cauca.«ian. For if it should appear 
 that the difference between tho most perfect and the most imperfect of the human rates is 
 unquestionably leas than l)etween the latter nnd the brutes; or, in other words, that the 
 similarities between the negro nnd the Caucasian are decidedly greater f.hiin those between 
 the negro and the ape; we must admit that this latter approximation is tfx) slight to be 
 termed an affinity. If, on the other hand, we consider man only as a material being, ho 
 stands so far removed from brutes — tho interval lietween him and them i.s so great — that it 
 would be a violation of natural ailinities, ami certainly an insult on his better nature, to class 
 him in the same system. To arrive at ; just conclnsitm on this subject, we must not look so 
 much to any one point of comparison, or to mere anntomiral analogii!S, but bring the di.s- 
 linguishing characters of each into direct comparistm. Does tlin negro, it may then be asked, 
 itvinro a deficiency of those i|nalities which lit'loiii; to the Caiicasinnsl we nihide not to the 
 natural atrcctions, for these nre, in some (Ifjrrfo, fomnioii to brutes; l)nt in solf-orivation, 
 
 I ■! 
 
Book III. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. 
 
 S6S 
 
 pst statifin 
 
 niplit's un 
 
 but it ia 
 
 pxnrnine 
 
 1(1 iippear 
 
 riiics is 
 
 tliiif fhf 
 
 betwpfln 
 
 irrht to ho 
 
 lioing-. ho 
 
 -tiiiit it 
 
 R, to rlasH 
 
 ot look w 
 
 the (lis- 
 
 bc asked, 
 
 not to the 
 
 Drivation, 
 
 rompiiHMion, and linroir lovo of their country. Are thny incajwiWo of learninff European 
 nrtH, or of iiivciitinj.' olherH Huitahlt! to tiioir wuntu or habitH ! To deny tliom mirli qiinlitica 
 would 1m> prcpnstcrouH ; they po^noHH tln^ jfiTinx of othorrt infinitely niphor, which, under 
 fiivourahlo cireiiiristaiires, Imvo produced exiMrt urtiganH, Bkill\il phyHJciunx, piouH divinen, 
 and nIeaKiiii,' (Mietc "I protest eH|M'cially," oltHBrves Mr. I Jiwroncc, " ftj^iiuNt the opinion 
 whicli either deniew to the Atricims tlio enjovnient of reaHon, or ascriliew to tho whoh' race 
 propnnsities which would de;;rad(,' thcrn even Indow tho level of the brute. It can he proved 
 inoMt clearly, that theru is no circuuintance of b(¥lily Htructuro no peculiar tij the ue^ro, a« 
 not to he found also iti other far diHttiiit imtiouH; no character whicli d(x*H not run into thoNu 
 of other races, hy lis iiiseiisihle ifrulations as tliOHO which connect together all the varieties 
 of mankind." (p. 4viM.) To pursue this comiMiriBon (hrllior Ih needlewH; and to ask whether 
 the leant inilieation of hiicIi |)f)\verH hiiH over l)ecn ninnifeoted by the quadrumanons annnulri 
 would be ridiciiloiiH. The learned and eIo(iuent Bishop Hunincr fiircibly oIimtvl's, "Thero 
 i« nothing philosophical in tho comparison of a being |)osHesHcd of improvublo reason witli 
 one that ih ;roverned by natural instinct, because thero is no just affinity between the talents 
 which are coinjmred." (Recorrf/i of Creation, vol, i, p. ij.3.) Wo consider this urjfument as 
 conclusive. To class man, lheref!)re, in tho same zoological division with apes, merely 
 because lx)th have n hyoid Ixine, is, to our apprehension, as glaring a violation of natural 
 affinities as to arrange liiita with birds, because Doth Hy in the air, and possess a crest to their 
 sternum. So far, indeed, iVom considering man as tho typo of a zoological order of brutes, 
 wo cannot allow that ho oven belongs to the same system in which they are arranged. It 
 may bo, that tho deviations of his structure are regulated by those laws which govern the 
 universe ; yet, nevortheless, hy his nobler qualities (which in fact are his truo distinctions) 
 ho belongs to a hiplier order of beings: that ho is, in short, a link between matter and 
 spirit; that he carries this evidence, through revelation, within himself; and will heroafler 
 bo most assuredly rewarded or punished, according as he suffers hia spiritual or his earthly 
 nature to prcpondorato. 
 
 Seer. IV. — On '.he Oeographic Dutribution of Animah. 
 
 The geographic distribution of animals over the globe, ia tho next subject of inquiry. In 
 tho general outline of tho variations in man whicli has hccn given above, wo liave deemed 
 it more im[Kirtant to sock after general results than to enter upon minute details, Our atten- 
 tion has been (i.\ed, not so much on those ramifications which shoot out near the extremities 
 of every branch, and become too indistinct for clear elucidation, but rather to the leading 
 branches themselves, on the nature of which there has been little diversity of opinion. 
 
 In the inquiry regarding tho geographic distribution of animals, on which v,e now enter, 
 tho same mode will be adopted, but with this diff'erence, that whereas we have hitherto 
 drawn our inl'ereii(;es solely from the facts and general opinions of otlirTs, wo shall now put 
 aside all theories lieretotbre promulgated on the distribution of animals, and merely depend 
 on simple fiicts for tho support of those inferences which thoy may appear to sanction. Wo 
 shall first briefly notice those principles which have been applied to elucidate the phenoinena 
 of animal distribution, and then in(iuire how far they appear conducive to that end, 
 
 , That climate, temperature, s<iil, and food, exercise a paramount influence on the distribu- 
 tion of animals, has been generally believed; and on this assumption naturalists have divided 
 the world into climates, zones, or provinces regulated by degrees of longitude or latitude. 
 Such has been tho favourite theory not only of physiologists, but of profosse<l naturalists, 
 whose knowledge of details might have furnished them with insuperable objections against 
 such views. Thus, t\\e. celebrated entomologist Fabricius conceived that the insect world 
 could be naturally divided into eight climates : one of which is made to comprehend all those 
 mountains, in every part of the world, whose summits ore covered by eternal snow. It is, 
 therefore, not surprising that M. Latreille should consider such a theory as altogether vague 
 in some. respects, and arbitrary in others. But will not the latter objection be equally appli- 
 cable to the distribution which this eminent naturalist has himself proposed for this part of 
 the creation ! At least, such is the ofilnion of one fully competent to judge tho que.stion. 
 "A chart of animal geography," says Mr. Kirby, "which is divided into climates of 24° of 
 longitude and 12° of latitude, wears upf)n its face the stamp of an artificial and orbitrory 
 systom, rothcr than of one according with nature." On much the same principles another 
 theory has been built, by which the earth is divided into seven zoological provinces, or zones, 
 mainly dependent on the respective degrees of latitude they occupy. Now, so far as regards 
 one of these provinces — that comprehended within the arctic circle — this view of the subject, 
 at first sight, appears perfectly just : for thero is not only a strong analogy between the groups 
 of animals inhabiting such parts of the two continents as enter into this circle, but there is also 
 an absolute attinity between them ; inasmuch as the arctic regions contain not only genera, 
 but numerous species, common to both continents. This theory, however, loses all its force 
 when applied to such divisions as are made to include the tropical regions of Africa, Ame- 
 rica, and Asia, in one province, and the southern extremities of America and Africa in 
 another. The zoologist immediately perceives that the only relation which these countries 
 
 Vol. I. 23 21 
 
 m 
 
 ■'i 
 
 ''■ .'<! 
 
MO 
 
 HriKNCK OF r,E()(.llAIMIY, 
 
 Part 11. 
 
 Iwnr til iMirh (itlicr in tlmir nriliii.il |inNliii'tiiiiiis in piin-ly nnnloirirnl ; Miil wo nro t'lim nim- 
 pnllnd 111 r''lm.|iiihli ii'tliniry wliicli iipiM'nrii ri)rr<H:t mily in mii' [mint ol" vii'w. TIhho mid 
 otlitT li'-i" riniiii'iit wriU-rH ii))|icMr tii liiivi' crml in llu- v<'ry (Ipiinilalinn nt' tlii'ir inrtluMl*. 
 
 Tlicy II -I ' UN ({riiiitcd, whiil liii.t iii'vcr yet Ihtii pnivi'il, tlmt ti'iiipi-niliiri' rxiTrisi-H it pri- 
 
 iriiiry inlliuMici' on iuiiimiiI (li.<*triliiitioii. Vvi<ri> sucli lliii (-iim>, it woiilil niitiiriilly liillow lluit 
 till' iiiiiiiiiU III Niicli partN III' Aiiitiricu, AIVIlm, uiiiI Ahwi, a.s nri' pliicril iii riirri'H|Kitiilin(' 
 (li'ijri'i'H 111' lalitiiili', wtiulil liii nearly (if Hiiiiiliir npt'cirH; or, at ii'iist, nf lln' Hami' niituriii 
 ^'iHit'M. Vrt Hiu'li, uM wt> HJiiill hcriMtlor hIiiiw, is not t)ii< fact lii'twi<i>n tlio iiniiiiilH ot' 
 lliodi! ri 'riiiiw tlirni in, imlt't'il, in viTy nmny inKtanci'.t, ii slronif liinilniify : kiicIi, tiir iiiMtuncr, 
 ni in ap; iri'iil bi't kvrt'n llif Trorhiliiltr ot" tlio Now NVorlil, tin' Cinni/riilir of Asia anil AtVira, 
 ami till' \h U'ntluiHiiltt of the AuMtruliiin iMliimlH. Such, :i;.min, in fiiiit ht'twi>iin tlio 'ri)nc:iin» 
 ofAnii'i'ii'ii {fif(. 75. <i), uiul ilio liornbillH of AHia (_/iV. 7.'>, h). Vt't not oni- Hprcir* of tlinso 
 75 birds (K;cnr in any two of tlicsi! coiintrioH. Nfvortbi'loimft 
 
 cannot bi; di'nii'il, that tlio tcmpornturt! und eiinfi).'nralion of 
 a country oxcrciBCH n iKivvi-rliil inlliicncu on Ilio ilintribntion 
 of animaJM, lint tlu'cc clfoctH nri' of a KPcondnry imliiro, iind 
 totully fail when cniiiloycil to clncidato iIiohp tfcnrraj princi- 
 
 plcii which apuciir to ri'jjnlatu the wholo Hyslcin of aniniiil 
 ■ SncI .. .. - 
 
 |K»u4eHH riiiicli \V)'i(;lit, when wo dcBCPnd to details aim 
 
 (.'•-oyraphy. Such atfoncioH, howevor, may be witt'l 
 
 ly allowed 
 \\» and in- 
 vr-Htijfato till' liical Fauna of any particulnr country or diH- 
 trii-t. It huH Imm'ii obHcrvnl by tiic colebratcd lliiniliolilt, and 
 confirmed by an authority of nearly ecpial weiffht, thai, with 
 rcffftrd to certain lrib(>9 of inscctd, their (reo;i;raphical distribution doen not appear to dejiend 
 solt'ly on the deyren of heat or humidity to which they are exposed, or on the pirlicular 
 Mituiitioii lliry inliabit; "but rather on local circuniHtnnces, tlmt aredillicult tocliaracferiHe." 
 This opinion is in unison with IIk^ whole tenor of the tiicts to which we shall hereiitler 
 lulverl. W'e must, thereliire, iii;ree willi Mr. Kirby, and consider that the distrilmfioii, nut 
 only ol' instcli, but of animals in jjeneral, is "fixed by the will of the Creator, rntlier limn 
 corlaiiily re)L.'iilated by any isnllierinal lines." {Introthictum to Enlomolvpy, vol, iv. p. 'Nl.) 
 The ili>triliulioii ot' animals, in nmne.xion with that of the human race, remaiiis lo be 
 considered. From what has been already Htafed, there appears stronrj reason to believe, that 
 the viirialiiiiis in the structure of man and of animals are rejjuliitod by similar laws; and 
 this supiH)sitiim will receive coiisiderabln weiyht, slinuld it appear, U|mn investiiration. 
 that those divisions of our (ilobe which have been apportioned to the ditferent varieties of 
 mail, are e.pmlly characterised by certain peculiarities in their animal tribes, Now, to 
 establish ilie iriiih of such a theory, it is necessary to waive all pcncral abstract reasoninjf, 
 and to draw deductions from known facts. And it is e(pially obvious that, if such liicts am 
 to be ciijlected from the whole animal kinffdom, this essay must W extondeil to sevpral 
 vnlnmi.'s, even admitting; that our materials were sulViciontly extcnsivn for such a purpose. 
 But the truth is, that tho daUi for such a comprehensive investitrntion are so few, so meagre, 
 und so iiusatistiictory when compared with the diversify and vastnpss of the subjpct, that thpy 
 sink iuiii iiisi^fiiiticanco. Nor will this appear surprising, if wo consider the astonishing number 
 of animals that have been already described by natnralist.s, or arc known to exist in cabinets ; 
 setting aside llie hosts of species yet unknown, which, in many departments, may possibly 
 amount to double or treble the number we are acquainted with. Yet, as details of some 
 sort must be gone into, it becomes absolutely necessary to select for such a purpose some 
 one department of nature ; oiid the result which might follow, we may tiiirly presume, 
 would III- in unison with those that would attend the investigation of other divisions of the 
 animal world, could they be investigated upon tho same principles. Nature, in all her 
 operations, is uniform: and it cannot be supposed that the distribution of quadrupeds, birds, 
 insects, or reptiles, would each be rpgulated by different laws. 
 
 In choosing, therefore, from the animal kingdom some one order of beings for particular 
 investigation, it might bo thought that the distribution of ipiadrupcds would present the best 
 field of inquiry. It possibly might, did not their investigation involve certain points of con- 
 troversy connected with geology, which, however important, are not so intinmtely connected 
 with our present object as to render their discussion necessary in this place. The division 
 of reptiles is subject to the same objection, and is not sutRcienfiy extensive for our purpose. 
 The annulose animals, on tho other hand, are so iinmeroim that they appear to hafHo our 
 inquiries; nor can we hope, while yet in the infancy of geographic natural history, to do 
 more than has boon already done by the genius of I.atreille, Birds alone remain. It has, 
 indeed, been argiierl, that no very certain results can attend the study of their distribution; 
 because, from [Kissessing the powers of locomotion, and the instinct of migration, in a high 
 degree, they appear more widely dispersed than any other class of jiiiimals. How fiir this 
 may be true Ins never, indeed, been made apparent; yet, allowing the assertion its full 
 weight, wu iiiiy safely conclude, tlmt if, under these di.sadvantnges, any defmite notions 
 •}f geographic di.-^tributiou can be gathered from tho study of such volatile beings, the 
 
 
p*«T n. 
 
 DwiK Ml. 
 
 IN ITH RI'J.ATIO.V TO AN'IMAI.S. 
 
 •jn7 
 
 ri^MiiltH wiiiilil lie iniitcriully Htri'ii^tlii'iiiil If liiiiinl to liiirtiiniii/.i' with wliiit In nlrcfiilv known 
 Dtk thiMliNlrilMitiiiii of otln'r cinli'rx nf iiiiiiimiIn, wliicli, t'nitn llicir iiliy^ical ruiihtnn Uin, urn 
 li'MH rii|iiili|i' i)t' t'xtcinliin; llii'lr K<'i)|{ra|)lii(' riiiiifi'. It in li(>r<', Ihuvcvit, lll'^(•^^!•ilr)■ in iirmiHr, 
 
 tliiit ill iliin, UN ill iill iitiiiT liriiiii'lit'H iit' iiiituriil liiHtory, tln' ii iiiiIn uiuI rrl.itioiih nt' trn- 
 
 vollcrc, lint ill llii'iilNclvi'il ZoiilinfiHlH, iiillHt 111" rcc'uivPil with Krcul callliiPll. I'iiiir(|iiii.titiMl 
 with tJKwt' nii'c ilihtiiu'tiiiiiH iii"iii wliich imt only thn iliiriTi'iicfH of H|>l■(•i(•^', hiil nl' ^jt-iicrii 
 mill tlllllllil'^ an- now known to iIi>|n>iiiI, they |ir>r|M'tiiiilly coiilrnilirt, by ii linHty ii{i|ilii'atioii 
 lit' well-known iiiiniiiH, wiiniMit' tiif^ iiionI nrknowluilKril trntliH in Hiiinial >;i'oi;ra|)liy. Nor 
 raw tin- liu'l.-t lU'tuiloil in thiM'oin|iiiiiti<inH ofniorM Mcifiitilic wriltTH li«(nlwayHilf|ii'iiili'c| iiiion. 
 Thii voliiiiiiiioii<i workn of ii iiioHt iiuliiHtrioiis hikI zimiIouh (iriiitliiilo|;ii4t of the !.iiiiiii'aM niIiihiI 
 uIioiiikI with tiiiHtiikt'8 of tliiH niilnrn; wlKTrrin not only HiN'cicH lint ),M'nrru nrc Mini tu in- 
 hiiliit noiintrirH wlicrn tlu'y liuvn nuvnr Ihtii foniul oxccpt in tlio ViiKiic iinil crronooUB 
 niirriitivc of tnivcllrrH. It Ih (he iniNliirtniui of tliomi who coiniiiain ntruiiiKt the multiplicity, 
 mill ro);ret tlio adoption, of iiiinIitii ilivisioiiH, that liy m) diiiii^ tht'y ilrbur tlll'l||^<•'lv^H I'rom 
 utiidyin^jf till- variiitioiiM of pliyMical Htriicturi', iiiul nn^lrct tin' miiin duo to ciilarjfi'i! coticop- 
 tionH of /.iMilo^iritl Ncii'iici'. It i.n ncci'NMiry to make tlicNn nlliiHioiiH, that tho rL>adi>r may be 
 iipprJHi'd of our iidontion, in tluH pliicc, of tlio ))rincipiil niixlRrn ((iMir'ru; and our ri'ji'ction ot 
 iiiuny uf thu lociililiuH errdiiuou.sly );ivon to cnrtuin Npociim in tlin (rciiurul hittlurioH uf birdit. 
 
 1. Thr dauraiiiiH nr Eurojiran I'riwinrr. 
 The ornitlinlo(jirnl fi'iiturrx of tlin CaiiciiHinn riuiffo, or of tho rrfflotm ovrr wliich the 
 Cmit'iiHian viiriuty of thu liiinmn Hprcii'H in Mtid to Im iliMtrihnti'd, will firnt claim nnr iitten- 
 tion. It luiH Im'cii ulri'iidy nIiowii that tluM rnnifo conipriHOM hiicIi portion of Africa iih lies 
 north of till! (ircat Dcxcrt, nearly tho wliido of Kuropi-, and a conMidoraMc extent of WcMtnrn 
 AhIii. Tim ornithidoifv of tho coiintricH iKirderinff uiMin this re^'ion him been Imt partially 
 iiiviwtitiated ; yet Hiithcient in known to show that it presentH a mixture of tliosi f\wc'uia 
 which have their ciiief nietro|i(iliM in other coiiiitrieH. It hiifi Imen thonjrht that tlie aninmU 
 of tho urctic circle iiro no peculinr, ii» to jiiMtity iw in considering' that reifion in tlie light 
 ■jf tt dititiiict /.ooloffical province. The objectionH ii|rainMt this idcii have already been nlliidcd 
 to; and tlK-y beconio morn foriMblo when wc discover, that on calculatin;,' the niiiiibcr of 
 liirdn, Uilh terrcHtrial nnil uipiatie, which iM-ciir within tho arctic circle, they do not amount 
 U) more than twenty-two; and that inoMt of these, dnrin<r tho (rreateiit ixirtion of the year, 
 are I'onnd in the more northern parts of nrit4iiii atid Aniorica. They probiibly occur in Hiiiii- 
 lur latitudes on the Asiatic continent; lint on this point our information is defective. 
 
 The Mwiimnin),' birds are known to |ii»sesH a very wide range; but this is less extensivo, 
 perhaps, than is generally iiiiajfined. Tho number of species found on the shores of Kiiropo 
 and Northern Africa, iiulependently of tlioso more peculiar to the arctic circle, is sixty. 
 Of these, two alone have been discovered in tho four quarters of tho jjlobo; three are com- 
 inon to Europe, Asia, and America; one to Europe, Asia, and Southom Africa; and twenty- 
 seven to Europe and Northern America: thus leaving fwonty-seven (or nearly one-half tho 
 number of European natatorial Fi)ecios) as peculiar to this zoological division of the world. 
 
 Among the firallatores, or wailors, some particular species arc so widely dispersed as to 
 suggest tho idea that tho geographic range of this order is oven wider than that of the 
 Natatnrcn ; and this, generally s|)eaking, may l)e true. Of tho sixty-five sfiecios descrilied 
 as natives of Europe, thirtoen only occur in America, and two only can be reckoned arctic 
 birds, although several others occasionally frequent those regions. Of the remainder, four 
 70 occur in Asia; two in Asia and Africa; finir in Asia and 
 
 America ; seven in Asia, Africa, and America ; and the Whim- 
 brel (,fifr. 76.) {IVumenius Phcppwi) is said to bo the same in 
 all the five divisions of the globe. It is conseipiently among 
 tho wading birds that wo find thoso whaso range is most exten- 
 sive ; yet, on a general calculation, the number of species pecu- 
 liar to Europe is considerably greater than those of tho Nata- 
 
 ^ ..,_ „_j^s^^ lorps ; the former being as one to two, the latter nearly as one 
 
 ^^••""•^^■^'UiJi -.of^^; to four. It thus appears, that, even among birds of the most 
 '"^'' vagrant habits, the ornithology of Europe is characterised by a 
 
 Th« Wliimiini. decided superiority in the number of it« own peculiar species. 
 
 The rapacious birds, next to tho aquatic orders, are tlmtight to bo tho most widely distri- 
 buted ; ])nrticiilarly the nocturnal species. It is very remarkable, that out of thirteen dif- 
 ferent owls inhabiting Europe, five only are peculiar to this continent; and two of these 
 more particularly froqiiont the arctic regions. Of tho rest, five occur in America, two in 
 Southern Africa, and ono both in Asia and America. The F(ilrnnid<r, or diurnal birds of 
 pti-y, ill regard to their species, have a more restricted distribution ; yet, of these, the eagles 
 enjoy no 'uconsiderahle range. Out of eight discovered in Europe, ono is more properly 
 arctic, tlirei have been found in several jiarts of Africa, and one occurs in America; leaving 
 three only to Kiirope. It is singular that those ra])nciou8 birds which, from the peculiar 
 structure of thei.' wings, have been supnosed to i.'tijoy the greatest powers of flight among 
 
 Jt ^i 1 « 
 
 i -M 
 
 = ^''iH 
 
268 
 
 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part II. 
 
 4»: 
 
 1^ 
 
 The Great Biii.t>rd, 
 
 Europe and Western Asia. 
 
 their congeners, are those most restricted in their goojrrnphic limits. Tiiis is proved by the 
 fiicf, that out of eight genuine falcons occurring in Europe and Northern Africa, two only 
 have been discovered in America. It has, however, recently been stated that the Falco 
 percgrinus of Australia is identically the same as that of Europe : neither docs Southern 
 Africa, we believe, possess a single European species, or not one of tliose inhabiting the 
 nortiiorn extremity of that peninsula; the Monto^vnrd of i,c Vaillant, long confounded 
 with the European Kestril, being a decidedly distinct species. UiK)n the whole, tlie distri- 
 bution of the forty-four species of European Ruplnris will stand thus: three arc Arctic, 
 eleven are found also in America, two in Asia and Africa, and one in Asia and America; 
 leaving twenty-seven, or more than one-half, peculiar to European ornitliology. 
 
 The Gallinaceous genera are few ; and their wide dispersion 
 is decidedly against the theory, that all birds with heavy bodies 
 and short wings are more limittid in their geographic range than 
 other terrestrial tribes. This argument has been ingeniously 
 used to account fbr tlie very restricted limits within which many 
 of tlio Indian panxjts have been found ; one or two species being 
 frequently confined to a particular island. Ornithologists, how- 
 ever, need not be told tliat the wings of the Psillacida are pecu- 
 liarly adapted fbr strong and vigorous flight; and those who havo 
 seen these birds in their native regions cannot fuil to have re- 
 marketl that their flight is peculiarly rapid ; many genera, in 
 this respect, passing through the air with the celerity of the 
 hawk. The wide dispersion of the Gallinaceous order is very 
 evident The range of the great bustard (_Jig. 77.) extends from 
 one extremity of temperate Europe to the confines of Asia ; and 
 the ([uail, remarkable for its heavy body and short wings, per- 
 forms two annual migrations, from and to Northern Africa, over 
 We consider very few of the European Gallinaceous birds as 
 truly arctic ; for nearly all the species appear to occur us plentifully beyond those regions 
 as within them. Many of the meridional European birds, as ITpupa Epops, Oriolus galbula, 
 Coraceos garrulus, &,c., might with equal justice be chussed as peculiarly ciiaracleristic of 
 Central or Southern Africa. It nevertheless appears that, even among tiio Gnllinucoo'. 
 fourteen out of twenty-seven liave their principal seat in Etirop(>. The remainder are thus 
 apportioned: five extend to Western Asia, five to the confines of tlie great African desert, 
 two are dispersed in Central Asia and Africii. while two only occur in North America. 
 
 The Fissircstriil birds, lypi<'iilly ropresonted by the swallow, 
 
 k ^ ^^ are, of all the insectivorous tribes, most cons])icuous for their 
 
 \-^-\x-^ j^^^^ powers of flight. With Imt one exception, the European King- 
 
 "AA^ ^Kr! f- fisher {Alc(<lo vnrnpivii, fig. 78), they arc all migratory: hence 
 
 we find that most of the species occur beyond the limits of the 
 
 European Fauna. The proportion of those which appear confined 
 
 to Europe and Northern Africa is as one to three. 
 
 The small Granivorous birds not only present a great diversity 
 in their species, but a considerable preponderance in their nu- 
 merical amount. Forty-one are included in the European list ; 
 two of which, at certain seasons, frequent the polar regions in 
 great numbers, but are nevertheless abundant in all the northern 
 latitudes ; seven inhabit North America, and three extend both 
 to Asia and Africa ; so that Europe may be considered the metropolis of nearly thirty pecu- 
 liar species. 
 
 The Scansorial birds are few ; yet eight out of the fifteen recorded as European are 
 unknown in other regions. It is among the Inseclivorons and soft-billed birds that we must 
 look for the principal ornithological features of any particular region. The immense family 
 of Iluiiiiniiig-birds in the New World, and of Mt'lMpliagidm, or Honey-suckers, in the Aus- 
 tralian islands, would alone be sufficient to mark these regions with a distinct zoological 
 character. To what cause we are to attribute the fact that these birds, by n,i means deficiwl 
 in the power of flight (wliich, indeed, in many of tliem is considerably developed,) should 
 nevertheless be so strictly confined within certain geographic limits, remains unexplair»!d. 
 We can only in this place illustrate the fact. Of eighty-five species belonging to the I m- 
 neean genera of Turdus, Sylvia, Parus, and Muscicapa, eighty-two are strictly Europ«Hn. 
 In this number we of course include those which migrate, at certain .seasons, to Nortl>-;ni 
 Africa and Western Asia; for these regions, it must be always remembered, come wi>«iir. 
 the zoological province we are now treating of; yet, if we deduct the number of those w)«ich 
 have actually been dett!Cted in jiarts biijoiid the shores of the Mediterranean on one i^de, 
 and Western Asia on the other, they will nniount only to ten; leaving seventy-two i*« a 
 marked peculiarity in tlio ornithology of Europe, lii liirther proof of the liniitcd rangr «)'' 
 these fiimilies, it may bo remarked, that thr.'o only out of eighly-five have beini delccti. vn 
 
 European KingfishRr. 
 
 
'^^' 
 
 !if 
 
 i'art n. 
 
 Book III. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO ANIMALS. 
 
 269 
 
 America ; and that tlie identity of one of tiiese (Parus atricapillus L.) with nn European 
 tpecies (Parus palustris L.) is very questionable. 
 
 The Omnivorous birds, as tlie Sturnidm, Corvidie, &,c., are the last requirin-r notice. A 
 few of these appear widely dispersed ; but upon the whole, severnl species, and oven peculiar 
 genera, are lett to characterise this portion of the world. We may state their rumber at 
 twenty-one : tiiirteen of which, or more than one half, habitually reside in Europe , four occu' 
 in Northern and Central Africa ; one (Pastor roseus T.) inhabits botli the table-land of Asia 
 and the deserts of Central Africa ; and three have been found in Ame-ica. 
 
 These details, tedious perhaps to tlie general reader, but interesting to the man of science, 
 it becomes necessary to dwell upon, before any valid deductions can be drawn from the 
 facts they exhibit. In this difficult and somewhat laborious investigation we have been 
 much assisted by the writings of Wilson, Temminck, and IjC Vaillant ; but more than all by 
 the liberality which llirows the magnificent collections of the French Museum open to the 
 use of all scientific inquirers, whatever their object or their nation may be.* It cannot, 
 iiowever, be supposed that, even with greater sources of information, some inaccuracies 
 may not have occurred. Such calculations, in short, from their very nature, can never 
 be perfect; because they are founded upon present knowledge, and that is perpetually 
 extending. The most that can be done is to make as near an approximation to the truth as 
 circumstances will admit; and having done this, (i»e resultmay be entitled to some degree of 
 confidence. 
 
 As a general recapitulation of the European birds, wo may state the total number, exclu- 
 sive of a few which occasionally appear at remote intervals as stragglers, at 388. Of these, 
 thirty-one are more peculiar to the arctic regions of Europe, America, and probably of Asia ; 
 the proportion being as one to thirteen. Sixty-eight (forty being aquatic) occur also in tem- 
 perate America; nine are dispersed over four divisions of the globe, to neither of which can 
 they be particularly appropriated ; and either one (Numenius Phcepus) or two extend to 
 Australia. With Uieso deductions, the number will thus be reduced to about 28(1. If from 
 these we abstract such others as may possihbjhaxc a partial range beyond the limits nlready 
 defined, the number may be farther reduced to about 250; so that, even with this allowance, 
 nearly two tliirds of the birds of Europe, Northern Africa, and VVestern Asia may safely be 
 considered ns zoologically characteristic of those countries. 
 
 Another character in European ornithology deserves attention. This regards the s-upcrior 
 number of generic types which it exhibits, in proportion to the number of species. Those 
 genera amount to 108, omitting those which have not been generally adopted, or which, from 
 the modifications of form being but slight, should more properly be teniied sections. Tlie 
 projiortion which these genera bear to the number of species (estimated before at 3S8) 
 amounts to more than two to seven ; or, in other words, does not give se^'en birds to two 
 genera. It is further remarkable, that most of these exhibit in their structure the p;rcatcnt 
 perfection of those orders or families to wliich they respectively belong ; and which groups 
 are denominated by naturalists typical. True it is that such genera are widely dispersed ; 
 but in no division of the world do they appear so numerous, in proportion to the species, iis 
 in Europe. This remark not only applies to the typical genera, but is frequently applicable 
 to the number of species tliey respectively contain. One instance may suffice. The noble 
 falcons, or those to whom tho generic name of Falco is now restricted, are generally con- 
 sidered the most typical group of their family : of these, the Kestril (fg. 79.) and five others 
 
 have their metropolis in Europe and Northern Afi'ica. The 
 whole of North America has hitherto produced but four. Le 
 Vaillant enumerates the same number from Southern and Cen- 
 tral Africa. Those of Centri.l Asia are not known ; but only 
 two have been recently described as peculiar to the vast re- 
 gions of Australia. Now, if we merely look at these respective 
 numbers, the diH'erence does not appear very remarkable ; but 
 when the great inferiority between the Caucasian regions and 
 those of America, Afi'ica, an' Australia, in point of extent, is 
 taken into the account, it will be immediately seen that the 
 proportion of these eminently typical species in the European 
 regions is particularly great. Among the typical groups of 
 the wading and swimming birds this is still more apparent; so tiiat, if we endeavour to 
 define what is the most ^striking feature in the ornithology of this zof>logical province, none 
 is so remarkable as tlie number of purely typical groups. This peculiarity will be more 
 apparent on looking further into tlio matter. The total number of birds tlirouifhout the 
 world, existing in museums or clearly described in authentic works, may he osliinated at 
 6(K)0. Tlioso have been arranged under about M80 genera ; but as several of tiiesc genera 
 will comprise more than oni; sul)-gcnua, we will put down 4(X) as a nearer approximation to 
 
 * Wi' liavt! Iiwii officwllii iiiliirniPil tliat, liy tlio Inws of tlif' /.nnlngiral Piiciotv nf I.nnilrm. no iiiii' rim rorcivo 
 |K!riiii>'!>i»ii to niiikfi iiw ol' iheir Miikimiiii, lor )!«i"'''al friiiilitic imrpoai'i', who is not a mcinbcr. 
 
 23* 
 
 The Koitril. 
 
 r A 
 
 i! 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 Jill 
 
 I'M 
 
1 ^ ' , I V 
 
 ' 'J 
 
 f*,'- 
 
 •270 
 
 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part II. 
 
 I . 
 
 corrcclnosa: this would leave rather more tlian fourteen species to each generic group 
 wiiile, it" the oniitholonry of Europe and Northern Africa is alone considered, the proportion 
 is no more than one to three ; and even tiiis will he further diminished wiien those geo- 
 prapliic groups among the Fringillida: and Syhuida, which are decidedly peculiar to this 
 portion of the glohe, are irivnstigated and defined. Now, it is very singular that, in speak- 
 ing of the leading varieties of tiie Caucasian race, a writer, whose testimony is no mean 
 authority, ohserves, " that the tribes among the Caucas ans arc more numerous than in any 
 other." And again — " Whether wc consider the several nations or the individuals in each, 
 bodily difl'crenees are much more numerous in the iiighly civilized Caucasir ty than in 
 
 either of the other divisions of mankind." (^Lawrence, p. 442. 47.J.) Wlii 'lance over 
 
 tlie list of thoi^o .nations generally sup|X)sed to have sprung from this tyji-, ive arc struck 
 with the justice of those observations. It is the more remarkable, as the regions they occupy 
 are disproiwrtionahly small, when compared with those peopled by the Mongolian and Ethi- 
 opian races. That there are instances wherein typical forms of higher groups than genera 
 do not occur within the European range, is a circumstance which will not materially affect 
 the question. Thus the only European bird belonging to the Teniiirosiris of M. Cuvier 
 is the European Hoopoe ( Ujmpa Epops), which is certainly not a typical example ; but this, 
 so far as tribes arc concerned, is the only exceptioi to the rule. It is curious, also, that this 
 exception shoidd occur in that division which comprises the smallest and weakest of birds. 
 If we (It^scend to tiirnilies, there is scarcely one pre-eminently \ ical of its own perfection 
 which is not European. A further objection may possibly be urged, that, although such 
 forms are indeed abundant in this Fauna, they are nevertheless found in nearly every other 
 part of the world ; and cannot, therefore, be looked upon as characterising Europe more than 
 any other country: but this will not be a just conclusion, unless it is first shown that 
 the pro[X)rtion of such types to the total number of European species is not decidedly 
 prfatcr than in any other region. Now the facts we have already stated prove this 
 b(\viind doubt. 
 
 Tliose residts, obtained from unquestionable data, arc so important to our present inquiry, 
 that their hasty notice would not have been sufficient. The materials for illustrating the 
 crnitholoiry of Europe are naturally more numerous than can be expected for other portions 
 of the glolie ; tind it became very desirable to ascertain how far the ornithology of those 
 regi<ins. occupied by the Caucasian race, presented a peculiarity of character sulliciently 
 strong to show a mutual relation.ship with tlie geographic distribution of this variety of man. 
 We are, I think, sufficiently authorised to consider that both are in unison. At least, there 
 are so many singular points of analogy, as to render it highly probable that there exists an 
 intimate relationship lictween the dis.tributicm of one race of mankind and one of the prin- 
 cipal geographic divisions of birds. 
 
 How far this view nf European orni 'lohigy would be Iwrne out by an extended investiga- 
 tion of other orders of animals, it is itniiossihie to say. Yet even if our present limits would 
 permit the inquiry, we should have to rely mon^ upon theory than facts. Many of the 
 quadrupeds of Euro|)c have long been slowly but crtainly disapi'caring, in proportion as 
 culture and civilizatic.n have advanced ; and any conclusions drawn from those which std! 
 remain in a wild state would be open to great objections, particularly as the question nmst 
 necessarily i.mbraco the nature of those no longer existing, but whose bones occur in a fossil 
 state throughout Europe. We think it may fairly h(! presumed that, in all those convulsions 
 which have agit'ited our globe, birds have suffered less than any other vertcbratoti animals. 
 Their fossil remains are few, and f>r rare occurrenci; ; while extensive deposits of bones and 
 skeletons, belonging to quadrupeds, reptiles, and fish, occur more or less abundantly in 
 almost every region, and attest the wide destruction to which such animals were exposed. 
 It naturally follows that, in tracing the distriliution of the feathered creation, wo are lell 
 unshackled by geological controversy. 
 
 The few observations on the Ichthyology, ]''ntomology, and Conchology of the IMcditer- 
 ran^an we shall hereafter make, in conjunction with thosi; of Britain, will be found in unison 
 with those features in the geographic distribution of birds we have already traced; and will 
 equally evince the propric!ty of including the whole under one zoological division. This 
 we propose to name tiie European. Such a designation is, indeed, somewhat objectionable, 
 inasmuch a.s it embraces not only Europe, hut Northern Africa and Western Asia ; yet it 
 will, perhaps, convey more definite ideas than if the name were adopted from the particular 
 race of men belonging to these regions. 
 
 2. The Moii£;olinn nr Asiatic Prnvmce, 
 The birds of the .Monjolian range will he now adverted to. The ty|)ical nations of this 
 variety of man occupy tlie remaining [xirtion of the vast continent of Asia; while their 
 characteristic peculiarities appear blended witli the Malays in the more eastern islands of 
 the Indian ,in;liipelatrii. The ornithology of such a vast proportion of .Asia is as varied as 
 it is remarkable ; but the very imperfect nature of the materials liitherto furnished for it:J 
 elucidation, renders it impossible for us to give those satisfactory data which have beer 
 
•■?» 
 
 Part II. 
 
 iLTic group 
 n proportion 
 n lliosc gco- 
 •uliar to this 
 it, in speak- 
 in no mean 
 ; tlinn in any 
 uuIh in each, 
 ■ty than in 
 'lance over 
 ,0 are struck 
 1 tlioy occupy 
 ian and Ethi- 
 than genera 
 orially affect 
 sf M. Cuvier 
 pie; but this, 
 also, that this 
 kost of birds. 
 ,vn perfection 
 Ithough such 
 y every other 
 ipc more than 
 t sliown that 
 [lot deciJedly 
 :d prove this 
 
 esent inquiry, 
 hislrating the 
 other |X)rtions 
 ulogy iif those 
 ir sullicicntly 
 aricty of man. 
 At least, there 
 ;horp exists an 
 10 of the prin- 
 
 ided investiga- 
 
 it limits would 
 
 Many of the 
 
 proportion as 
 
 )se which still 
 
 question must 
 
 ccur in a fossil 
 
 )sc convulsions 
 
 iratcd animals. 
 
 ts of bones and 
 
 abundantly in 
 
 were exposed. 
 
 )n, we are li'tV 
 
 jf the Meditcr- 
 found in uiii.-ion 
 raced; and will 
 division. This 
 it object iunable, 
 ■rn Asia ; yet it 
 n tlu! particular 
 
 Book III. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO AiMMALS. 
 
 271 
 
 nations of this 
 lia; wiiile their 
 stern islands of 
 ;i is lis varied as 
 iiniisiied for its 
 iiich have beer 
 
 furnished by v. riters on the birds of Europe. Naturalists look forward with tlie greatest 
 interest to tliu speedy termination of the zoological researches of General llardwicke, as 
 likely to supply these deficiencies. The vast stores of knowledge which a long residence 
 in the East, and an ardent passion for natural history, have plated at the command of this 
 naturalist, render him peculiarly qualified for such an undertaking. 
 
 For our present purpose, minute detail is not, however, essential. Whatever doubts might 
 at first have arisen on the propriety of considering Europe as the centre of an ornithological 
 province, there can bo none with respect to Asia. It is in these regions tliiit the chief scat 
 of tlie typical Gallinaceui is placed; they abound in China, Thibet, the Indian Peninsula, 
 and even extend to those islands which t re considered the confines of the Jlongolian race. 
 
 The larger species, arranged in tlie genera 
 I'avo and Polypleclron, appear to charac- 
 terise the more elevated and central parts 
 of the continent ; while those of tlio genus 
 Gallus are more numerous in Sumatra, 
 Java, and the adjacent " nds. The phea- 
 sants of China and Thibew lorm a no less 
 striking feature in Asiatic ornithology ; five 
 species of magnificent plumage are pecu- 
 Tho Silver PhcoBant. Hav: one of thesc, the elegant Silver Phea- 
 
 sant (Nycfhemcrus argtntatus) (Jiff. 80.) has been long domesticated in our aviaries. Three 
 other superb species represent a group {Ijophophorus Tern.), discovered only upon the con- 
 tinent. The whole of these Gallinaceous genera arc totally unknown in Africa, Australia, 
 or in the New World. When to these we add the Ilornbills (Buceridcr), the Sun-birds 
 (Cinnyrifia;), the short-legged Thrushes (G. Brachypus), the short-tailed Tl. rushes {Pitia), 
 certain groups among the Psittaciden, and many others totally unknown in Europe, Northern 
 Africa, and Western Asia, yet abounding in the Mongolian nations, no further details appear 
 necessary to mark the ornithological peculiarities of Asia, as distinct from those of Europe. 
 
 From the Asiatic islands it would, perhaps, be more natural if we proceeded at once to 
 notice the Malay or Australian range, as it is here that the Faunas of those divisions of tlie 
 globe evidently meet. But as this would interfere with the order observed in the early 
 portion of this essay, wc shall pass from the northern regions of Asia to those of the New 
 World ; particularly as both present a mixed race of men, probably originating from the 
 Asiatic continent. 
 
 3. The American Province. 
 We proceed to a rapid sketch of American ornithology. It has already been shown that, 
 excepting the Natatorial birds, there are fewer species common alike to Northern America 
 and to Europe tiin.n might, perhaps, have been supposed ; yet, were the proportion nmch 
 greater, the circumstance would only prove that nature knows no abrupt distinction. It is 
 not to tlie rcTiotc ramifications which she employs to connect her chain of operations that 
 our attention is to be fixed ; for they are too subtile to bo unravelled by beings with facul- 
 ties so limited. But as soon as she quits the.se inexplicable mazes, and again displays her- 
 self in a new but decided form, we may hope to gain soine acquainUince with her laws. 
 It IS not, therefore, from either extremity of the New World that we must form our opinion 
 on its zoological peculiarities. The ornithology of the Northern latitudes is evidently 
 blended with that of Europe, and in all probability many of these species exist in Northern 
 Asia; those of the more southern parts of America, beyond the Rio do la Plata and Para- 
 guay, arc nearly unknown. It is only within the last few years that the provinces, elcvateil 
 on the Mexican Cordilleras, and now constituting a great repuh'''^, have bc(m opened to the 
 naturalist; and although, as yet, but superficially explored, there is perhaps no region in the 
 New World which promises to yield more interesting fiicts, as connected with the animal 
 geography of that hemisphere. Even the configuration of the continent, at the junction of 
 its two great divisions, is typical of this distribution. It appear? as if nature, elevated as 
 on a throne upon this vast table-land, 7200 feet above the level of the sea, had dinpensed 
 her forms to the right hand and to the left, retaining immediately around her a typical 
 representation of every group. To the nortli she has given innum(?rable flocks of slender- 
 billed insectivorous birds (Sylvirol(r, &c.), which annually depart to breed in those more 
 temperate climes. These are accompanied by particular species of I'^lycatcher.s, TIniislie.s 
 Pigeons and Ilangnests {Ictcrimi); the two latter in such countless numbers as to darken 
 the air. To Southern America has been more particularly assigned the Macaws, Toucans, 
 Scansorial Creepers (Dcnilrncnlaptes), Ant Thrushes (Mynlhrrina), Ground Doves ((.'ha- 
 mtepfJiii), Tanagers ( Tn?rr/^r(i), Trogons, Fruit-caters (Am/jf/jWa-), and the numerous an.i 
 splendid race of numming-birds. Yet of all these groups, save one (AmjuiiiJa'), typical 
 examples are concentrated on the table-lund of Mexico. Thesi?, moreover, are accompa- 
 nied by .some peculiar forms, not yet discovered in either portion of America, and by 
 species among the natatorial tribes liitlicrto found only in the more northern latitudes. 
 
 IJH 
 
 W 
 
 t\: 
 
 ilrq 
 
 iff 
 
•H 
 
 •Tft 
 
 272 
 
 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part n. 
 
 1*5 
 
 in 
 
 i 
 
 
 1^- 
 
 i 
 
 '»«f-V 
 
 
 The typical Gallinaceous birds begin to show themselves adjoining the equator, nearly 
 in the same parallel of latitude OS they occur in A ' 'hey belong, however, 
 81 to distinct und peculiar types ; as the genera ^ > ;; b'^'k, Crax, Penelope, 
 
 Ourax, Phosphea, Ortalida, and Opisthocomus. . nose find tlicir represent- 
 atives, for the most part, in the ancient, continents, but not one species has 
 been detected beyond the New World. The foregoing remark applies to 
 tlie two great divisions of the Simi<B, or Monkeys, so accurately illustrated 
 by those distinguished naturalists, MM. Cuvier and Geoflroy St. Hilaire. 
 
 The Melliplmgous groups of Ar'erica, at the head of which shine the 
 splendid fiiniily of Iluniming-birds (Jig. 81.), form the chief peculiarity of 
 its ornithology ; other races, scarcely less beautiful, occur in Africa, Asia, 
 and Australia : yet the natural genera are totally distinct. The number 
 of species, and the variety of forms, among tlie frugivorous birds is another 
 striking feature in the productions of tlie New World. Under this term 
 HumminB Bir<i. ^^^ ^^^^^ include the richly coloured Chatterers {Ampelida Sw.) and 
 Manakins (Piprinm Sw.); togctiier with the whole family of Tanagers (TanusniuB), 
 Hongnosts (Ictcrince), and Parrots (Psittacidte). The first four belong solely to this conti- 
 nent, which more than any other abounds in vast forests of lotly trees, affording a perpetual 
 and countless vari.'cy of fruits and berries, adapted to nourish all the families of hard and soft- 
 billed frugivorous bird.s. If we turn to the other orders of vertebrated animals, the Mollusca, 
 Annulosa, or Radiuta;, oacii und all conspire to stamp certain peculiar features on the 
 zoology of the New World, and to mark it as a distinct zoological empire. 
 
 4. The Ethiopian or African Province. 
 
 The chief seat of the Ethiopian variety of our species is central Africa; while most writers 
 agree in thinking that its northern limits do not pass the Great Desert. The pestilential 
 ntmosphnre of tropical Africa has been an insuperable bar to the researches of Europeans ; 
 and all the ideas that can bo formed on the zoology of such regions must bo gathered fVom 
 the partial gleanings made by travellers on tlie shores of Senegal and of Sierra Leone. The 
 ornithological productions received from these districts evince a total dissimilarity from those 
 of Northern Africa, but intimately accord, both in species and genern, with the ornitholcgy 
 of the south : to this, however, there ara several exceptions. The Plantain-eaters {Muso- 
 phii^i(l<r), and the bristle-nocked Thrushes {Trichophorus Tern.), are among the groups 
 hitherto found only towards Sierra Leone. The Guinea Fowl, as its name implies, is most 
 nbundiint in the interior of that country, where three species have boon discovered. The 
 common Boe-eai r, and the Golden Oriole are the only species among the land birds of 
 Western Africa that occur in the European range; and these extend southward to the Cape 
 of Gooil Hope. Tiie whole extent of Africa south of the desert exhibits, in short, a marked 
 diflbronce in its ornithological groups and species from these belonging to Europe, Northern 
 Africa, and \Vestern Asia. The comparatively few exceptions of birds common to Europ« 
 and the Cajio cannot diminish the general force of this remark, but merely shows that a few 
 exceptions must never be taken as the groundwork of any particular theory. It is to one of 
 the greatest ornithologists that France, or indeed any other nation, has produced, that W6 
 are ind(!btpd for the most porfect account of South African ornithology yet published ; but it 
 must over be regretted that this portion of iu. le Vaiilant's labours terminated abruptly ; 
 leaving the Gallinaceous, Wading, and Swimming orders to be completed by some other, 
 who, with equal enterprise and jbservation, should visit the same regions, and record their 
 mannois with the same veracity. 
 
 Between the ornithology of Africa and of America there is, within the same parallels of 
 latitude, a very strong analogy, although (in the sense in which we apply the term) there is 
 none of afliiiity. We know not, in short, a single jjercliing bird common to both continents; 
 although III ilie rapacious order, which among terrestrial birds are well known to have nearly 
 the widest range, two or three specie*-- occur which 'ikewiso inhabit both extremities ol 
 Africa no loss than North America. 
 
 The other vertebrated animals, and the insects of Southern Africa, furnish similar results. 
 On examining the large collection of insects formed by Mr. TJurchell, in the territories of the 
 Cape of fi<xHi Hope, wo could nut discover one out of many hundreds which was to be found 
 in a nnicli more considerable collection brought bv \is from South America, although many 
 gonoric "roups, particularly among tlio T,e;)i(ioptera, appeari'd common to both contineiUs. 
 
 Bet ween tin' launas of Africa and America the dilferei.ct? is umiuosfioniibly strilung; yet 
 there are several points of connexion between the ornithology of Africa, Asia, and Aus- 
 tralia ; and these appear not merely in generic groups, hut even in species. The Drongo 
 Sh'-ikes f(I. r.il'iHiis), till' l,arva-eaters (G. Cddepyria), the typical Fly-catchers (G. M«,v- 
 rip.'tii, C), the ('nli-enters ((i. ffiilri/nn), the Grakli's (fjiimprnloiiis), the African Snxicolip, 
 the two ffrouns of tropical Fiiichi-.. 'Eslrrldu Aiiiiiilina Sw.), are all genera common to these 
 tiiree regidiis,- tf) neither of which, in a geographic clivision, ciiii they be exclusively 
 assigned. But we need not dwell tiirther on such resoniblances, which, after alt, are but s( 
 
 Ai 
 (h 
 V, 
 th 
 th 
 
 811 
 hit 
 
 of 
 (In 
 
Part II. 
 
 jr, nearly 
 , however, 
 Penelope, 
 represent- 
 pccies has 
 applies to 
 illustrated 
 Hilaire. 
 shine the 
 !uliarity of 
 frica, Asia, 
 'he number 
 ! is another 
 ■r this term 
 i Sw.) and 
 anaffrtn<e), 
 ) this conti- 
 a perpetual 
 ird and soft- 
 e Mollusca, 
 iires on the 
 
 most writers 
 pestilential 
 ' Europeans ; 
 nthered ftom 
 :.eono. The 
 y from those 
 3 ornitholcgy 
 iters {Muso- 
 T the groups 
 ^lics, is most 
 )vcred. The 
 land birds of 
 i to the Cape 
 ort, a marked 
 jpe, Northern 
 ion to Europe 
 ws that a few 
 it is to one of 
 iced, that W6 
 lishcd ; but it 
 ited abruptly ; 
 y some other, 
 id record their 
 
 le parallels of 
 term) tliere is 
 ith continents ; 
 to have nearly 
 extremities ol 
 
 gimilar results. 
 ;rr'.torios of the 
 ^ras to i)i; found 
 although many 
 1 continents, 
 y strikiri!^; yet 
 Asia, and .\us- 
 Tlio Drongo 
 
 iiprs (Cr. Mii^- 
 ricnn Haxicolff, 
 omiuon to these 
 
 be exclusively 
 r all, are but s( 
 
 
 Book HI. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO ANIMALS. 
 
 5873 
 
 many points of connexion between geographic divisions, sufficiently distinct in tlieir more 
 proniinoiit cliaractcrs. 
 
 5. The Malay or Australian Province. 
 
 Tiie regions peopled by the Malay tribes is the lust zoological division requiring elucida- 
 tion. VVe liave already adverted to tlic groat diversity of tribes comprised under this variety 
 of the human race, and the little autlientic information yet collected concerning their origin 
 or history. The z(X)logical results, however, are more definite. 
 
 On looking to the Indian Archipelago, as to that region wliere physiologists concur in 
 thinking tiiat tlic Malayan form is first apparent, we nro told that several of these islands 
 are pei-plod by two different races of men (^Lawrence, p. 489. and Cuvier, p. 187.) ; the one 
 frequently confined to the inland tracts, while the otiier people the maritime districts : their 
 respective origins, liowever, are so little known, that it is still a matter of doubt which has 
 usurped the territories of the other. (Marsden's Sumatra, 326, 3"7.) We confine these 
 remarks to Sumatra and Java ; for with regard to the vast islands of Borneo, Celebes, and 
 those smaller groups to the eastward, we know little or nothing of their productions or of 
 their people. 
 
 That the istlimus of Malacca and tlie adjacent islands exhibit the first indications of a 
 peculiar race of people, is a fact ujxin which all writers appear to agree ; and that we here 
 begin to discern the indications of a new zoological region is equally certain : yet it would 
 be altogetlier rash, with our present limited intbrmation, to hazard any theory which would 
 respectively assign to these islands a definite character in its inhabitants or productions. 
 But the zoology of Java and Sumatra have been of late so zealously and ably investigated 
 not only by two distinguished British naturalists,* but by otiiersf sent from France, that we 
 sliall in this place attempt to draw some results from their labours. The ornithology of these 
 islands, with some few peculiarities, differs in no very decided manner from that of southern 
 India, In both, the Gallinaceous genera, when they occur, a. a the same, although some ol 
 tlie Javanese species differ. Of the more typical Siiirnidee, common to the Old World, but 
 as yet unknown to the Australian or Oceanic islands, no less than tliree inhabit Java. To 
 these groups must be added, Parus, Silla, Bneco, Cursorius, Clareola, Buceros, Oriolus, 
 Brachypus, and many other genera characteristic of the ancient 
 continents. The number of typical Scansorial birds within th' 
 narrow limits of these two islands is truly remarkable. Eight 
 species of Pints are descrii)ed by Dr. Horsfiekl, and four or five 
 otliors ; one, the Malacoloplius Concrctuy, Sw. {Jiff. 82.), of a 
 remarkably small size, liave been sent to Franco by M. Diard. 
 Tlie total absence of tliis family throughout the wliole Australian 
 range, is a circumstance in itself sufficiently strong to place the 
 ornitliology of Java and Sumatra beyond sucli limits ; to which, 
 nevertheless, it approximates very closely. 
 The birds of Java and Sumatra, whicli indicfito an approximation to the Australian 
 province belong to certain genera common to both regions; but unknown in Africa or 
 India: those are. Pitta, Ccntropuf, Ocyplrrus, Prinra, Pogardus, Cralrropus, Dacelo, 
 &c. In the Suctorial birds (tlie Tenuiroslres of M. Cuvier,) we find in Java an evident 
 departure from the typical form of Cimiyris tcjwurds the Mdlipliufrida of Australia, 
 in the genus Dicaum; four of the known sjiecies being Javaue.se, and tluee Austra- 
 lian. What little is yet known of the birds of New Guinea, and its surrounding islands, 
 exhibits a still greater deviation from the ornithological features of India. These enchant- 
 ing regions, long the fairy-l aid of naturalists, remained n(;arly unknown until visited by 
 learned Frenchmen, to one of whom has been assigned the distinguished honour of giving 
 to the world the fruits of their scientific and imjiortaiit discoveries.| It is in these islands 
 that the Melliphagous genera begin to be developed in the most novel forms, and the most 
 sumptuous plumage. The grand Promrrnps of New Guinea can only be likened to the 
 Australian Pliluris. Several typical McUiphaffidir. are in M. Lesson's ollertions. To 
 these we can now add two species of genuine Philcdimx (Cuvior), and two of the genus 
 Vanga. The group of which the Mtisciccpa carinala (S\v.)5 is the type, displays itself in 
 three new and beautiful bird;-', accurately de.'^cribcd and figuroil by M. Lesson. The stay of 
 the French naturalists on the coast of New Guinea was comparatively short, and their 
 gleanings of its ornithology could not, from necessity, be otherwise than scanty ; yet it is 
 surprising that, among the birds thus procured, so large a proportion should belong to groups 
 hitherto supposed peculiar to Now Holland. It is clear, therefore, in a natural arrangement 
 of ornithological geography, that the islands of New Guinea may bo safely brought into that 
 division which includes New Holland, Now Zealand, and their dependencies: this distribu- 
 
 Malnco]uplm5 (^oncretus. 
 
 • Sir Slnmlunl Raffli !« nnil Dr. Flnrsriclil. 
 t M. Lesson, V<i) ugu aulour dii Munde. 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 t MM, A, Duviivircl ami Diard. 
 § Zooliigii .il IlluBlrntions, vol, iii. pi. 117. Zool. Jouni i. p. 306 
 
 2K 
 
 
 i :i i 
 
^!^^ 
 
 ?r4 
 
 SCIP:XCE of tJKOr.RAPIIY, 
 
 Part II, 
 
 ■| 
 
 .Alrniirn f^iipprln. 
 
 lion lias, indeciJ, been generully adopted by gcograplior?, merely from the relative positions 
 of these islands. 
 
 On the zoology of New Holland it is .scarcely ncccBsary, in this place, to expatiate. All 
 natiirali.sls concur in viewing this insular continent ns the chief metropolis of a peculiar cre- 
 ation of animals; whose limitd on one side we have already traced, and whose range on the 
 other extends over the innumerable islands scattered in the great Pacific Ocean. The Munura 
 
 Sujwrba (Jifr. 83.) is the most remarkable gal- 
 linaceous bird of this range. The Australian 
 province is thus in fiill accordance with the dis- 
 tribution assigned to the Malay variety of our 
 I species : its connexion with Asiatic zoology is 
 unquestionable; but we have no means of judg- 
 ing into which of the three remaining divisions 
 it blends, at its opposite extremity. Of the birds 
 peculiar to those remote clusters cf islands atl- 
 joining the north-west coast of America we are 
 completely ignorant ; nor ore our materials 
 sufficient to furnish even a plausible conjecture 
 ii; the subject. Whether the Australian province, at its northern limits unites again with 
 the Asiatic, the American, or the European, must therotbre be left to future discovery. 
 
 ^V" have now completed a general survey of the distribution of birds over the globe. The 
 "n ,1 { wc have st .ted sliow the propriety of arranging the whole inidcr five great divisions or 
 provinces, which may be distinguished is Iho European, the Asiatic, the American, the 
 African, and the AustrJian : each of these corres(K)iMls, with little variation, to the geogra- 
 phic distribution assigned by authors to the dift'orent races of man. Wo must, therelbre, now 
 adrpt one out of the two following conclusions: either that there is just and sufficient 
 gi"i liiid for believing tliat the distribution of man and animals in general has been regulated 
 'r;,- ■■ c same laws; or, that man and bird.s have been distributed alike, and all other animals 
 differently. To us, at least, the latter conclusion ap|)oars highly improbable ; not only as being 
 unsupported by the least shadow of eviilence, but as opposed to that harmony in creation, 
 which is more apparent the more it is viewed in all its relations. 
 
 Sect. V. — General Summary of the Subject, 
 
 In offering these elucidations of a subject so vast in itself, and so important in all its 
 bearings, it will be readily perceived that two different relations between animal groups are 
 alluded lu; one v.'O have considered us of affinity, the other of analogy ; and as the truth or 
 fallacy of these views will mainly depend on the justness of these distinctions, a few obser- 
 vations upon thoiii o])pear necessary. Naturalists, in general, have considered those resem- 
 blances whicli exist botwoun certain groups placed in different regions, but in the same 
 parallels of 1 ''ulo, as indicating affinities; and on this supposition, as before stited, have 
 framed theorir .ly which animal geography has been divided into zones or provinces, limited 
 more or loss by certain degrees of latitude. It nuist be confessed that, upon a superficial 
 view, there are many circunistjinces which appear to justify such a theory. Confining our 
 attention to that department of nature which we have throughout selected, we shall partly 
 recapitulate our former observations. 
 
 Tlie arctic regions, in one sen.-e, may be considered an ornithological zone ; for not only 
 the same groups, but the same species arc Inmd in such jj.irts of Europe, America, and pro- 
 bably Asia, as enter within its limits. But admitting this to the full extent, let us ask if 
 these regions — !)y the numlit", \aricty, and peculiarity ot' tlujir animals, are entitled to hold 
 a primary rank witii the great geographic groups already mentionnd ! Is there to be met 
 with among the arctic binls numerous species which are not distributed far beyond such 
 limits'! Are there any gen r o or siil feneric groujis which do U'lt occur even towards the 
 central parts of Europe, Asi;', ; I'.l .\ii,.; ica ! Tiio.sc i|uestions which uuist bo answered in 
 the negiitive, sufficiently pro/i thiil thi; arctic regi m.-; vo not possess tiu^ characteristics of a 
 primary division; they mu.s; iither he hviked Ui^-i' ii, a [wint of junction, where the orni- 
 tliology of the three northern o ,<tinent.s Mends and n.innonizcs together. 
 
 The tropical regions of the Ol.l :ind tiio Now Worlds have likewise been united in one 
 province. How widely the ornithology of these countries really differs, has been already 
 explained. True it is, that in numerous instances one group typifies another, ns in the ca.se 
 of thr Aiiiericaii llurii:iiing-binls (7V(«7iJ/((/rt') being ro|ir(vcnted in the Old World by the 
 Sun-birils (('/;u((/r/V/rtO; and such ndatioiiship, in one .sense, is certiinly an affinity, inas- 
 mucli as in tin' natural system tiiey ap|)<'ar to tullow one another; but if we admit such a 
 deLrn-r of affiriity to ho a sulVicient guide to a distributing of birds, we iruist also do the same 
 with regard to the variilics of nnn, sini. ! both app.^ar dispers.il upon tlm same plan. The 
 red Indian of .\merica as certainly represents tlie black negro of Africa as the latter does 
 the sooty inh:iliit.ant of New CJuinea; yet no one would think of cla.ssing them in the !;.ame 
 jace, merely because they inhabited countries under similar degrees of latitude. The dis- 
 
T;'*T - 
 
 Part II. 
 
 vc positions 
 
 itiiito. All 
 ociiliiir cre- 
 [iiigp on the 
 'liH Moniira 
 irkablf! (jal- 
 
 AuKtraliun 
 with tliedis- 
 iripty of our 
 c zoology is 
 sans of judg- 
 ing divisions 
 
 Of tho birds 
 f islands atl- 
 ?rica we are 
 ir materials 
 conjecture 
 s ajTam with 
 lovcry. 
 ijlobo. The 
 
 divisions or 
 nerican, the 
 
 tho geogra- 
 lerefore, now 
 nd Kiifficient 
 en regulated 
 )ther animals 
 only as being 
 
 in creation, 
 
 mt in nil its 
 lal groups are 
 s the truth or 
 , a few obser- 
 thosc rescm- 
 t in tlie same 
 3 stated, have 
 incet--, limited 
 1 a s'lperficial 
 Confining our 
 e shall partly 
 
 ; for not only 
 irica, and pro- 
 ;, let us asit if 
 ntitltMl to hold 
 ?ro to be met 
 r beyond such 
 -n towards tho 
 !0 answered in 
 iictoristics of a 
 'here tlie orni- 
 
 united in one 
 s been already 
 
 ns in llie ease 
 
 World by tiie 
 I alfuiity, inaa- 
 j admit such a 
 so do tho same 
 [ii(^ plan. The 
 
 the latter does 
 nil in the s,ame 
 ude. The die- 
 
 DOOK til. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO MAN L\ SOCIETY. 
 
 275 
 
 
 persion of particular groups and of their spccie.s upon the whole, is more in a longitudinal 
 than in a latitudinal direction. This is exemplified in a remarkable manner by the migra- 
 tory birds, whicli invarialily proceed from north to south, or from south to north. It would, 
 indeed, appear, that if animal distribution is to be regulated by geographic degrees, as accu- 
 rate notions miglit result from making the divisions of longitude as of latitude : both, how- 
 ever, would be clearly artificial. 
 
 These parallel relations of analogy, whicli everywhere present themselves in the animal 
 kingdom, nevertliolcss deserve our greatest attention, as fraught with peculiar interest to 
 the reflecting mind. There are throughout nature so many immediate and remote relations, 
 so many unexplained ties of connexion, that the most careful of her students are perpetually 
 misled in attempting to trace her footsteps. In ordinary cases, the admirable distinction 
 tlmt'has been drawn between affinity and analogy {Hor. Ent.) is, perhaps, the test liiat can 
 be given ; yet instances might be named, in which even this is totally inadequate to the end 
 proponed. Natural relations are so complicated, tlmt series of affinities apparently incon- 
 testable, will frequently, upon rigid analysis, turn out completely erroneous; proving no 
 more than that nature, however diversified, presents so many points of general resemblance 
 and of connexion, that partial harmony will result even from a false combination of parts. 
 Let us not therefore conclude, as is now too generally done, that by synthesis alone we can 
 exhibit the true affinities of nature ; that we may henceforward, without hesitation, assign 
 to each of her productions its true station in the scale of teing ; that we have suddenly, 
 and as if by magic, got full possession of that mighty secret which at once explains her 
 laws, and cxjxjunds all that lias perplexed the wise and confounded the learned, since science 
 first dawned uiwn man. Tiiat the circular system is the nearest approach yet made to the 
 true disposition which pervades nature, — a system which, from the perfections of its Creator, 
 must be replete with order and beauty surpassing our utmost comprehension, — is indisputable, 
 because none other has attempted to explain the relations of parts and the unity of the 
 whole ; but farther than this its pretensions must not be carried : it still involves questions 
 of great weight, since by one theory tho numter of its primary divisions is stated to be five, 
 while by another, founded on much more extensive analysis, it is maintained to bo three. 
 The searcher after truth will give to these his patient investigation, his cool and unpreju- 
 diced judgment: he may then hope to make one step nearer to truth; for science, in all 
 ages, has ever remained most stationary when the advocates of any system have been In()^'• 
 prejudiced. 
 
 It is with these qualifications that the views here taken on the distribution of man and 
 animals arc given to tho render. It has been our desire to trace a connexion, and a unity 
 of plan, in both, and to simplify a subject hitherto involved m much intricacy. How far 
 this object may have been attained, it is not for us to determine ; but ho who draws proofe 
 of a Divine Creator from the harmony and design apparent in his works, has surely not writ- 
 ten in vain. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY CONSIDERED IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY. 
 
 Man, when considered not os a mere animal, but as a teing endowed with thought, reason, 
 and contrivance, capable of social intercourse and union, must be regarded as the moHt con- 
 spicuous object in the delineation of the globe. These attributes raise him to the first rank 
 in this lower world; and in every region occupied and improved by him, the communities 
 which he has formed become the most prominent characteristic ; all other beings are there 
 subordinate and subservient to him. The description therefore which, hi the succeeding part 
 of the work, will be given of tho different regions of the globe, must be chiefly employed in 
 delineating the aspects which man, as an active and social being, presents. At present, 
 however, it would be premature to enter into tho numerous details wiiich this sulijcct 
 embraces. We can do little more than indicate the following general heads, under wliich 
 it will be treated : — 1. Historical Geography. 2. Political Constitution of the different coun- 
 tries. 3. Productive Industry. 4. Civil and Social State of Man. 5. lAiigiiages. 
 
 Sect. I. — Historical Geography. 
 
 A survey of tho history of man is neces.sary for enabling us accurately to understand, 
 and duly to estimate his present condition. Not only inanimate nature, but even the animal 
 and vegetable kingdoms, if left to themselves, would remain constantly in the same situation : 
 tho ciiangcs a:id modifications undergone by them have been produced entirely by man's 
 interposition. That improved an(i civilized form under wiiich he now appears, is llio result 
 of a continmid succession of changes, which have teen taking place from the earliest periods 
 of authentic history. /Ml the revolutions, teth of ancient and modern times, liavo had a 
 grciter or less influence in producing the presp'-.t moral, political, and social condition of man 
 in the more improved quarters of the globe. 
 
 #1^^ 
 
 in 
 
 4 'li 
 
 ^! 
 
 
.wg' 
 
 '\ 
 
 ffW 
 
 Hi 
 
 *5, 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY, 
 SuBSKCT. 1.— Ancient Ilittory, 
 
 PartU. 
 
 Ancient history is generally conHidcrcd as coniprelicndinj,' the period wliich claptiod from 
 the earliest authentic records, and particularly from the rise of the jfreat inonurciiicH, to the 
 downfall of the Roman empire. The various Ibrnia which govcrninciit and Kociuty uasuined 
 during that long period, though they were instrumental in prcimring thoHU which huvo exist- 
 ed in the modern world, did nut bear any exact resemblance to them. Through tiio cun(|uest 
 of Rome by the barbarous nations, with which the first of these eras closed, almost every 
 connexion between them was cut off, except those of record and tradition. 
 
 The rise of the great monarchies, Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon, constitutes the first grand 
 epoch in ancient history. It nearly coincides with that of the great connncrcial republics, 
 Tyre and Carthage. Human society, which had before existed in a very rude and imperfect 
 sliape, began to assume a regular, orderly, and oven splendid character. All the arts which 
 contribute to man's support and accommodation were carried to a considerable degree of 
 improvement; and the toundation was laid of those intellectual attainments, which were to 
 constitute his highest honour. Alphabetic writing was invented and widely diffused ; the 
 arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture, made a considerable progress ; there were even 
 formed some elements of science and philosophy. During this periml, too, while the world 
 generally was buried in the darkest superstition, a divine revelation, preparatory for another 
 more perfect, having been first communicated to tlie patriarchs, was more formally disclosed 
 to the legislator of the Jewish nation. 
 
 The Persian empire embraced a wider extent of the globe than any that had previously 
 existed, and comprehended those countries which had been most remarkable as the seats of 
 improvement and civilization. Although, however, it thus became instrumental in linking 
 distant nations together, it bore chiefly the character of empty and barbarous pomp, and does 
 not appear to have produced any material advance in knowledge and improvement. 
 
 The rise of the Grecian States formed, perhaps, the proudest era in the history of the 
 human race. The constitutions then formed afforded a degree of |)olitical liberty, and a 
 dovelopement of the higher energies of the human mind, which could not be attained in 
 extensive empires, subjected to the arbitrary rule of a single individual. The military 
 exploits of the Grecian people, by which they baffled the force of almost the wliole known 
 world united under the sway of Persia, were the most splendid that had hitherto illustrated 
 the annals of mankind. Genius was exerted with nearly unrivalled jwwer in every depart- 
 ment ; the historic pa.go unfolded its utmost degree of energy and beauty ; and many sub- 
 lime lessons of morality were taught by the Grecian snges. The lino arts, poetry, painting, 
 and architecture, reached an eminence which they have scarcely since regained, and in each 
 the purest models were loft for fiiture imitation. After Greece had long maintained a glorious 
 defensive war against Persia, her arms were directed to conquest. Tiie reign and triumphs 
 of Alexander, while they subverted her admired forms of civil polity, diffused tier language, 
 her arts, her knowledge, over a wide extent of the eastern world, and thus spreatl a circle 
 of civilization, the traces of wliich have never been wholly obliterated. 
 
 The dominion of Rfjme, which succeeded and overpowered that of Greece, extended over 
 a still greater variety of countries and people, than had been compreheruled under any for- 
 mer empire. Her character, at first stern and austere, was gradually softened ; and on 
 arriving at her highest pinnanlc of wealth and power, slie made at the same time an unri- 
 valled display of the jxMnp and refinement of polished life. She emulated, without fully 
 equalling, what was m<wt brilliant ui the arts and intellectual attainments of Greece. But 
 the most signal service which Rome rendered to the cause of civilization, was by extending 
 its empire over wide regions in northern and western Europe, which hwl jireviously been the 
 seat of almost complete barbarism ; though they now form the most enlightened and im- 
 proveil portion of the globe. 
 
 SuftsECT. 3. — Modern History. 
 
 The downfall of the Roman Empire, which marked the commencement of modern his- 
 tory, formed one of the most remarkable and disastrous eras in the destiny of the Aorld. 
 During the fourth and fifth centuries, a succession of barbarous hordes from Germany, 
 Scandinavia, Russia, and even the remotest extremities of northern Asia, iX)urod in upon 
 civilized Europe, and exterminated or reduced to bondage the greater part of its people. 
 All the arts and sciences, which had shed such a lustre on the Greek and Roman name, 
 disappeared, leaving only some imperfect remnants, which were preserved in the depth ot' 
 monasteries. The empire was partitioned into a number of disorderly little kingdoms, gra- 
 dually merged into a few great monarchies, which, m their general outline, have eontinued 
 to the present day. 'J'his era was also distinguished, in the East, by the intriKluctioii of tlie 
 religion of Mohammed, and the rise of the Saracen power, which undertook, by force of 
 arms, to diffuse that religion over the world. I*s armed votaries overran a great part of 
 Asia, Africa, and even of Europe, and continue s'ill to maintain a powerfiil influence over 
 the destinies of the human species. For some tiiii?, the states formctl under this system pre 
 
PahtIL 
 
 n<>oK III. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY. 
 
 277 
 
 uDMcd from 
 lues, to the 
 ity assumed 
 I have exist- 
 h(! comiucst 
 Iniodt every 
 
 first grand 
 al republics, 
 iiJ imperfect 
 
 arts which 
 Ic degree of 
 hicli were to 
 iliffused; tlio 
 ro were even 
 ilc the world 
 y for another 
 ally disclosed 
 
 ad previously 
 s the seats of 
 ital in linking 
 amp, and does 
 iicnt. 
 
 history of tho 
 liberty, and a 
 be attained in 
 The military 
 . whole known 
 ;rto illustrated 
 
 1 every depart- 
 iind many sub- 
 )Otry, painting, 
 ed, ami in eacli 
 lined a glorious 
 II and triumphs 
 . her language, 
 sprcoil a circle 
 
 , extended over 
 vmdnr any for- 
 flcned; and on 
 c time an unri- 
 I, without fully 
 r Greece. But 
 lis by extending 
 viously been the 
 htened and im- 
 
 of modern his- 
 
 iiy of the world. 
 
 from Germany. 
 
 poured in upon 
 
 rt (if its people. 
 
 . Roman name, 
 
 in the depth of 
 
 kingdoms, gra- 
 
 luive routinuod 
 
 lr(Kluc;tio\i of tlie 
 
 took, by force of 
 
 , a great part ot 
 
 il influence over 
 
 r this system pre 
 
 A 
 
 sented a Bomcwhat nnlightened aspect, and even revived the expiring lamp of icience; but 
 tho Himl issue of Moi'.mii asr(m(inncy has Ik'imi, toditfuHO through the world, ignorance, des- 
 potism, Imrharism, and every principio hosrije to human miprovemciit. 
 
 'J'he tl.'udai syi-tem was e. ibliwiicd grachially among the bari)iirinis states formed out of 
 llie (h»inemb(;re(l portions of the Koman empire. The king, or chief, distributed the terri- 
 tory among liis nobhisor Ibllowors, Hubject only to tho condition of military service. These 
 nobles, possessing almost uncontrolled jurisdictiim within their own limits, holding at their 
 liisitosal the services of numerous vassals, took adviintJige of every interval of wenknesn in 
 the reign of the sovereign, and rendered his power little more than nominal. They reduced 
 tlie body of the people to a state of comparative slavery, waged numerous private wars with 
 each other, and practised various robberies and extortions. During this turbulent erii, all 
 retined arts and pursuits languLshcd, while, on the basis of ignorance, superstition erected an 
 absolute and tyrannical dominion. The institutions of chivalry, however, which were then 
 formed and gradually improved, introduced a sense of honour, and a dignity and rofmement 
 of manners, which have beneficially intluenced modern society. This perio<l was also 
 marked by tho piratical inroails of the Scandinavians or Northmen, who ravaged all the 
 coasts of Europe, and obtained at least a temporary possessicm of considerable districts and 
 even kingdoms. It was morked, lastly, by those memorable expeditions into the East, 
 called tho crusades, which, though attended with groat e.vtravagance, and occasioning much 
 disaster and bloodshed, tended, on tho whole, towards the improvement of European i)olipy 
 and social life. 
 
 Tho subversion of tho feudal power, accompanied by the revival of knowledge, arts, and 
 industry, formed a most memorable era in the history of mankind. This change, which 
 had been for several ages silently iJreiMiring, was carried into complete effect during the fif- 
 teenth and sixteenth centuries. The turbulent rule of the great nobles was then broken 
 down, and was succeeded by several extensive but mildly administered monarchies, along 
 with some free and commercial republics, and in one instance a limited constitutional mon- 
 archy. The reformation of religion eminently distinguished this periocl ; but being opposed 
 by the violent intolerance of the Catholic church, it gave rise to a series of dreadful anri 
 sanguinary struggles. A general activity prevailed throughout the whole sphere of humnn 
 exertion. The revival of learning, the invention of printinir, the extension of innritime 
 enterprise, leading to the discovery of new regions, and of new routes to those tbrmorly 
 known, rendered the age peculiarly eventful and interesting. It derived, however, a some- 
 what disa.strous character from the ostablislimont of the Turkish empire in the East, by 
 which tho throne of tho Greek emperors at Constantinople was finally subverted, and very 
 serious alarms spread through the whole body of tho European nations. 
 
 The mixlern system of (xdity followed, as the result of the great changes which had 
 taken place in the preceding period. During tli(! seventeenth and eigliteenth cenfuries, when 
 it prevailed, civilization made very remarkable advances. The manners of social life became 
 more polished and refined. The arts and sciences were carried nearer to perfection, and 
 more widely diffused through the groat htnly of mankind. Amicable relations, before un- 
 known, were established between the difterent nations of Europe ; fixed laws were agreed 
 uptm for regulating their intercourst- ; and war, when it did occur, was carried on with 
 greatly diminished ferocity. The system of colonization in the other quarters of tiie globe 
 was also carried to a vast extent, particularly in America; and though its first establishment 
 was attended with many circumstances of injustice and tyranny, it had tho effect of bringing 
 those (juarters of the world into a more improved and civilized condition. 
 
 The era of political revolution, which commenced towards the end of tho eighteenth cen- 
 tury, being that which is still in progress, cannot be characterised in so decided a manner. 
 The formation of the great monarchies had delivered Europe from the turbulent sway of the 
 feudal chiellains ; yet the almost absolute power with which the sovereign was then invested, 
 was fouiid productive of many evils. The hereditary nobles, exchanging their rural scats 
 for a residence in the groat capitils, and indulging in eajie and luxury, lost all influence over 
 the Ixjily of the people. The difliision of intelligence and wealth through the middling and, 
 in some degree, even the lower ranks, was followed by a demand, on their part, to be ad- 
 mitted to some share in tho administration of public afliiirs. This spirit, after fermenting 
 for some time, and being <liffus('d by the exertions of many di.stinguislied writers, produced 
 the French revolution, and the extraordinary series of events which have thence arisen. 
 That gretit crisis did not merely agitato tho interior of France, but by exposing it to fiireign 
 interference, and then impelling its own rulers to schemes of conquest, it changed for some 
 time, in an extraordinary m-iimer, tho aspect of all Europe. Then, however, by a grand 
 re-action, France was driven back within her original boundaries, and the political relations 
 of tho Continent were re-established nearly on their former footing. Considerable agita- 
 tions, however, still prevail in the interior of different kingdoms, and their political constitu- 
 tions have suffered, and arc likely to suffer, material altcr-itions. 
 
 Vol. I. 24 
 
 m 
 
 ;i¥> 
 
 \m 
 
 i'i 
 
! I 
 
 Mi 
 III 
 
 91t 
 
 I'RINCIPLKS OP (JKOOHAl'IIY, 
 
 Past II. 
 
 Skit. I[. — Vnlilkal CniiKliiiitinn. 
 
 The political constitutioii iimlor wliicli unv coiniimnity milMintH, forinit a mi<>t important 
 cleinuiit in iti) social cunditiun. liinng imuully ustiiblihliiul witliin curtain livul Ixtixiduriug, 
 and acconi|)uniud witli a iiiinilurily in nmniiorii, religion, uiid otiier ulmruclerii'tii; i:ircuin- 
 atanccH, it ih the leudin)f a({cnt in conHtitutin^; a cmiiilry ur htato. In diMtriLaliii|f, thuioloro, 
 the four qiiurturH of tlio ((lubu into thoir Hinullur portionx, tho )(uo);rn|>li)'r utum chi<*lly uoliti- 
 cat divinionti. IIu findi) Htutcn which liavo niadu any profirfHi* in civilization nrranKud uito 
 kinKdoniH, entpiruH, and rcimblicd. 'I'ho clomuntH of political (wwor uppuar to conaiat of 
 nionarcliy, ari»touracy, uiul duinocrucy ; whilo th» public functions, to uo exuiciHud withui 
 any btutc, ore tlic exucutivo, loKiMlativu, and Judicial, 
 
 A kingdom in a state of conBidurablo though not vaut extent, governed by a siiiglo person, 
 aa France, Spain, PruiiKiu. Tlie subiectti are usually united bv a similarity of language and 
 manners, anu pervaded by a national spirit. The power of tlio sovereign is commonly cx< 
 tensive, though controlled in Mume instances by national assemblies; and there is almost 
 always a body of nobles possessed of high privileges an<l immunities. 
 
 An empire generally consists of a number of detached kingdoms, which have been united 
 by conipiust under one head, us the Turkish, Persian, and Chinese, Being thus formed of 
 an aggregation of ditibrent stiites, empires are usually of very great extent ; and as military 
 force has been the instrument of tlicir combination, the sovereigns exercise almost always an 
 unlimited authority. The dillerent members having been brought into union by force only, 
 rarely feel united by any national tie, and remain very dissimilar in manners, religion, and 
 social institutions. 
 
 Republics consist of states which own the supremacy of no king or sovereign, but are 
 governed by a senate, an assembly of the people, or by Iwth conjoined. Though these govern- 
 ments have acted a conspicuous part in the history of tlie world, they have been generally 
 of small extent, consisting, in many instances, of not more than a single city, with a 
 limited circle of territory. Where this form of government has been diffused over a great 
 surface of country, it has consisted usually of a number of states, Joined in u federal union. 
 This is remarkably the case with the United States of America, where such a government 
 has been introduced on a scale of greater magnitude than in any other quarter of the globe. 
 
 Alonarcliy, among tlic rlcmcnts which compose the |M)litical system, holds the most con- 
 spicuous place, und is the most generally prevalent. In some coses, the power of the 
 monarch is who'ly or very nearly absolute. In a majority of instances, however, it is moro 
 or less controlled by the intlueiice of certain powerful and privileged bodies. In somi; con- 
 stitutions tlie power of the monarch is combined with that of aristocratic and |iopuli<i bodies, 
 which share witli I lie sovereign all the higher functions of government. These are called 
 limited monarchies, und are well adapted (or the preservation of a great |)eople in u state of 
 peace and pros(H;rity. This form of government, after being for a long time confined to 
 Britain, is now spreading, though with some difficulty and confusion, over the rest of Kuropo. 
 
 Aristocracy, or tlie power vested in a distinguished and privileged class, is found existing 
 much less frequently as a distinct and decided form of government, than as an element com- 
 bined with monarchy and denioc racy. Venice, perhaps, oflbrded almost the only example 
 in which aristocracy subsisted for a series of ages pure and unmixed. In monarchies, the 
 aristocracy consist of a body of nobility, possessing various gradations of personal and 
 hereditary titles and rights; while in a republic it is formed into a deliberative body, or 
 senate, exerciring or sharing the powers of the stote. In mixed monarchies, both thesis 
 privileges are usually held by the nobles. 
 
 Democracy is liie name given to the government in which the sovereignty resides in the 
 great body of the citizens. They exercise it, either in a general assembly of the whole 
 nation, or by means of persons elected, during a certain period, to act for the body of their 
 constituents. The former was the mode usual among the ancient republics ; the latter is 
 more prevalent in modern times, and is alone compatible with the great extent of territory 
 occupied by the leading repul)lic8 of the present day. Popular government has been very 
 generally combined in a greater or less degree with aristocracy, though there seldom fails to 
 he an almost incessant opposition between the two parlies. 
 
 The legislative, among the different functions of the body jwlitic, is justly considered 
 supreme ; it establishes the laws and regulations, according to which all public affairs are to 
 be adiiiiniiitered, and to which the persons exercising the other functions are bound to con- 
 form. Countries in which the legislative as well as the executive power is exercised by one 
 man, form absolute inonarcliie:>, where every thing depends upon the arbitrary will of that 
 single individual. A purdy aristocratic logislaturo is commonly felt to bi; severe and oppres- 
 sive by the great Iwiiy of the people. A government cannot be considered as free, unless 
 the Viirioiis classes of wliicli tlie nation is composed have a voice in hfgislative arrangements. 
 Those political systems, however, in which the laws are enacted by the whole Ixxly of the 
 Bsseinbled people, are fitted only fiir a single city with a territory of limited extent. Of 
 such a nature and scale were the ancient republics of Greece, and also that of Rome, during 
 
 
Part IT. 
 
 .it important 
 I UiuiiiJurios, 
 iwiic I'.ircum- 
 \g, tlioriiloro, 
 dw'Ay vxiliti- 
 irran({i3ij ii'to 
 to consist of 
 rcisud within 
 
 aiiijjlo pergoii, 
 lttii){uui?o und 
 coiiiinonly ex- 
 ere i» almost 
 
 re been united 
 liUH formed of 
 md as military 
 iiost always an 
 by force only, 
 ), religion, and 
 
 reijifn, but are 
 I tliesc fjovern- 
 jeen generally 
 
 city, wiili a 
 f!d over a great 
 
 1 federal union. 
 1 a government 
 sr of tlit3 globe, 
 s the most con- 
 ! power of tlie 
 ever, it is more 
 
 In somt; con- 
 ]iopuliM bodies, 
 hesc are called 
 )io in a state of 
 me confined to 
 ! rest of Europe. 
 i founil existing 
 in element com- 
 e only example 
 monarchies, the 
 of personal and 
 erative body, or 
 shies, both these 
 
 ty resides in the 
 i)ly of the whole 
 ,he bmly of tlieir 
 ics ; tlie latter is 
 [tent of territory 
 it has been very 
 re seldom fails to 
 
 UHtly considered 
 lilic affairs are to 
 ir(! bound to con- 
 exercised by one 
 Irary will of that 
 
 vote and opprea- 
 hI as free, unless 
 ve arrangements, 
 vliole iKKly of the 
 
 ,od extent. Of 
 t of Home, during 
 
 Book III. 
 
 IN ITH RELATION TO MAN IN SOCUrrY. 
 
 a7'J 
 
 llio earlier pfnodH of her history. But wlien the whole of a great [d'oplo are convened into 
 u*m pliice, tlifv furin ii ui'to tiiMiiiltiiary crowil, inciiimlilc of any regular or effectual exer- 
 rise iif li'giHliitivi! functions. Tins diHiiiivantiigi has, among iiiihIitu nation.", been Htuiliously 
 reinedieil by tiie reprt'Hontative Hyntcin, unilcr wliich the iulmbititlitH of each different dii»- 
 trint elect lui imiividnal imilerNtfMxl to |k)mxch tluMr confidence, wlio exuniies in their Rtead 
 the Icgisliitive function. U|xjm this IhimIs liave been found'(!d tliom- constitutions that have 
 been considered as exhibiting tli(> most pcrft'ct forms of civil |)<)lily. 
 
 Tlie juilicial power provides for the .security of ptirson and property niiiong all ranks of 
 individuals composing the [Kditical b<Mly, and Ibriiis thus one of the arraiigeineuts most esaon- 
 tial te genrral prosperity ami wcll-bt'ing. The institutions for this puriMise vary greatly in 
 different nations and stages of society. Among very rude tribes, the individual has only hia 
 own strength and that ot his kindred to aid in repelling aggression. As society advanccH, 
 tiie adiiiiiiistratliiii of justice between iiiun and man becomes a li'ading object of public con- 
 cern. Ill the earlier forms of jxility, however, the executive and legislative functions are 
 usuiilly blended ; the monarch, or his dejmty, sits on the tribunal of judgment, and the forms 
 of procedure ore exceedingly simple. The parties appear, and plead thcnr. cause vivdvoce; 
 while the judge decides itnuiiptly and on the spot. In the further progress of improvement, 
 it is discovered that this branch of j)ublic economy cannot bo duly executed, without being 
 entirely separated from the legislative and judicial departments, and made independent of 
 them. Hence arise the different orders, judges, lawyers, ond agents, by whom the different 
 stages of prnnedun! are conducted ; written and voluminous codes of law are formed, with 
 the view of providing for every particular case. Yet the expense and delay consequent 
 upon these complicatiKl arrangements sonietimes cause the society to look back with regret 
 on the t<iiiiplo and expeditious machinery employed by their rude ancestors. 
 
 Other important particulars nn; comprehended in the political state of o society : — the 
 titles nf nihility, and the badges of himour and distinction among individuals; the military 
 and naviil force employed in the defence of a country ; the demvnts wliicli compose it; and 
 the manner in which these are arranged and dirocteif. The same subject cmbraceB also the 
 revenue, its amount, the sources whciico it is derived, and the manner in which it is levied 
 and expended. , , 
 
 Sect. III. — Proditrtive Induntry. 
 
 The industry of a nation is employed in producing the necrssarit's, the conveniences, the 
 ornaments, and the luxuries of lite — all that is comprehended under the name of wealth. It 
 forms thus one of the most ini|X)rtant constituents of their prosperity and well-being. 
 
 The sources of national wealth are usually divided into three; agriculture, manufactures, 
 and commerce : each of these is divisible into several distinct branches, nor can the cata- 
 logue be completed without including the two occupations of mining and fishing. 
 
 Agriculture, including the moans of procuring every part of the produce of land, or what, 
 land boars on its surface, is unquestionably the grand source of human subsistence and 
 BCComnio<lation. Hence chiefly are derived the materials used in manufacture ; the objects, 
 in the exchange of which commerce consists. The modes in wliich support and the means 
 of enjoyment arc obtained from land may be divided into three; hunting, pasturage, and 
 tillage, which last being the only form in which labour is employed upon the ground itself, 
 is more specially considered as agriculture. The collection of the spontaneous fruits of the 
 earth, being confined to a few tribes in the lowest stage of improvement, scarcely requires 
 to be taken into consideration. 
 
 Hunting, or the chase of wild animals, to obtain their flesh as food, and their skins an 
 raiment, is the earliest and rudest mode of procuring human support. This employment 
 re(iuiros art and contrivance as well as bold adventure; but is usually accompanied with rudo 
 and turbulent habits, and, combined with tliem, constitutes what is called the savage state. 
 As ciilturc advances, and the greater proportion of the soil is devoted to the plough, or to 
 the support of tame animals, its range is greatly limited, and in a high slate of cultivation 
 becomes little more than tlie amusement of the opulent. The chase of the fur-bearing ani- 
 mals, however, still affords one of the most valuable materials of commerce. 
 
 Pasturage, or the deriving of subsistence fi-oin herds and flocks, tamed and trained so as 
 to be subservient to the use of man, forms a more improved and comfortable occupation than 
 hunting. Peculiar habits of life usually distinguish nations subsisting sohily by pasturage. 
 They are often destitute of any li.\od abodes, moving from place to place in large bands or 
 enc.iiiipiuents, living within tlieir tents in patriarchal simplicity, but towards other nations 
 practisiinr on a great scale war and robbery. These habits constitute what is called the bar 
 barous state, still ['..-evn-lcnt among the Arabs, Tartars, and other nations occupying an exten 
 give portion of the earth's siirlace. 
 
 Tillage, or the culture of the soil by the jiroccsses of ploughing or sowing, is employed, 
 by all the more improved nations, as the most cllicacious means of drawing siibsisteiice from 
 the earth. In proportion to the general improvement which any people have attained, ia 
 usually the ekill ami diligence with which this mast important art is practi.^ed. The cora- 
 
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 PMNCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part III. 
 
 munity which derives its chief subsistence from the culture of the soil, merits generally, to 
 a ffreat extent, the character of civilized. Some of the oriental people, as the Hindoo and 
 Chinese, practise this important art with an indefatigable industry applied to every available 
 portion of their soil, which is scarcely to be paralleled elsewhere ; but in Europe, and espe- 
 cially in Britain, the use of machinery, the skilful rotation of crops, and various improved 
 processes, render the same measure of industry much more productive. The objects of 
 culture vary exceedingly, and for the most part accoidinj> to the varieties of soil and cli- 
 mate. Grain, the mam staff of human subsistence, forms everywhere the most extensive 
 and important object of tillage. Climate chiefly determines the grain cultivated ip any 
 particular region. In the tropical countries it is rice ; in the best part of the tempcratu 
 K)ne, wheat and barley ; in the colder tracts, oats and rye. Of luxuries, wine and oil are 
 the most grateful, and in the most general demand; tiiey have their almost exclusive 
 growth in the wanner tracts of the temperate zone. The delicate fruits, from which they 
 are produced, do not flourish in tlie excessively luxuriant soil of the tropics. There, how- 
 ever, the fragrant aromatic plants, and those filled with rich and saccharine juices, produce 
 valuable substances, which are eagerly sought after by the natives of less genial climates. 
 
 FiaheiT, by which subsistence and wealth are derived from the waters, forms a peculiar 
 branch of industry, which flourishes in every stage of society. Even the rudest savages, 
 wherever their situation admits, conjoin it with hunting, as a means of aflbrding an imme- 
 diate supply to their wants. They practise it often with a great degree of diligence and 
 contrivance; but the progress of industry leads to various processes for extending and 
 improving this branch. By the operations of salting and drying, fish is rendered fit to be 
 conveyed as merchandise to the most distant countries. Some of the great maritime nations 
 send large fleets into remote seas, where they find situations favourable to this pui'suit. The 
 whale, die cod, and the herring fisheries have, in this manner, been raised to the rank of 
 great national concerns. 
 
 Mining, or the extraction of valuable substances from beneath the surface of the earth, 
 can be extensively pnictised only in a somewhat advanced state of human industry. Yet 
 nature has lodged in these dark repositories objects the most essentially conducive to the use 
 and com^t oi man, and others which afford his most brilliant ornaments. Here are found 
 the bright and attractive metals of gold and silver; there the solidly useful ores of iron and 
 copper; here glitter the diamond, the ruby, and the amethyst; there e.xtend vast beds of 
 coal, lime, and freestone. Gold, the most precious of the metals, is often the most easily 
 accessible ; but we can scarcely give the name of mining to the operation by which the 
 savage merely collects its grains in the sands of the rivers, or even extracts it by pounding, 
 when mechanically combined with other substances. But metalti, in general, when lodged 
 in the bowels of the earth, exist in the form of ore, intimately and even chemically united 
 with other materials, from which they can be separated only by smelting, refining, and other 
 elaborate and even scientific processes. From the toilsome nature of these operations, and 
 from the gloomy depths in which they ore conducted, it is often difficult to procure a supply 
 of workmen ; hence slaves and individuals condemned for crimes have been employe<l to a 
 later period in this than in most other species of labour. Whatever skill may be employed 
 in mining, it is necessarily a local occupation, nature having irregularly and almost capri- 
 ciously distributed its objects over the different regions of the globe. Even the experiments 
 made to discover whether metals are lodged in any particular spot, are often attended with 
 considerable cost, and even peril. 
 
 Manufactures may be regarded as a process by which man creates, as it were, a value 
 for himself. He cannot, indeed, make any new substance; he can seldom even alter 
 essentially the quality of that which is furnished to him ; but he can altogether change its 
 character and quality, can convert a rude and shapeless substance into one eminently con- 
 ducive to benefit, convenience, or ornament. The excrescence shorn from an animal, the 
 pod hanging from a shrub, objects in themselves neither useful nor beautiful, are converted 
 into commodious and magnificent robes, adorned with the most brilliant tints. Almost 
 every natural product requires to undergo some change before it is fitted for the use of 
 civilized man. Grain must undergo the process of grinding and baking; the juice of the 
 vine, that of fermentation ; even animal food, that of cooking. But the name of manufac- 
 ture is not given to these processes, nor to any which do not, to a material extent, increase 
 the value of the substances on which they are employed. The various articles of clothing 
 form the principal objects of manufacture; next to which rank stufls for furniture, metallic 
 implements, and utensils. Manufacturing skill and industry, carried to a certain extent, 
 mark, beyond almost any other circumstance, the advance of a people in orts and civiliza^ 
 tion. The savage usually employs unalterecl the substances with which nature fiirni.hos 
 him. He feeds on the flesh of^ tlie animals which ho has killed in the chase; he clothes 
 himself in their skins ; he consumes in their crude ptite the roots and herbs which tlie earth 
 spontaneously aflbrds. Even the nations which subsist by pfifiturago, and have made, per- 
 haps, a certain progress in agriculture, thoutrh they have usually acquired a desire for articles 
 of fine monufiicture, prefer to obtain them from more industrious neighbours, in exchange for 
 
 m consil 
 North 
 made, 
 observatl 
 be peoplT 
 
 A natl 
 often e\ 
 viduals ;| 
 and anof 
 and refij 
 absence | 
 
 Vol, 
 
» 
 
 Boomin. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO MAN AND SOCIETY. 
 
 281 
 
 their own rudo produce. The eastern empires, for the consumption of their courts and great 
 men, produce a few articles of exquisite fineness and beauty by mere manual labour, with- 
 out any capital or any machinery at all costly or complicated. It is among European nations, 
 that the two principles, the division of labour and large capital employed in the constraction 
 of the most ingenious machines, have enabled the manuikcturer to produce fabrics which, . 
 for abundance, elegance, and cheapness, have surpassed those of every other age or nation, 
 and have found their way into all the markets of the fflobe. 
 
 Commerce, the third grand source of national wealu, does not even aim at producing any 
 new article, or altering the texture or quality of that in which it truffles. It merely con> 
 veys it from a place in which it is superabundant, to another in which it is wanted. This 
 sometimes confers an exchangeable value on that which previously had none ; in every case, 
 where judiciously exercised, it very considerably enhanced the value attached to the article 
 which it conveys Irom one place to another. 
 
 The home and the foreigii trade form the two great branches into which commerce is 
 divided. The former, in consequence of each of its transactions being on a smaller scale, 
 and affording little scope for brilliant adventure and splendid speculation, attracts, in general, 
 less notice, and is considered of inferior political importance ; yet it is proved by Smith to 
 be by much the most extensive, as well as the most conducive to national prosperity. Its 
 basis consists in the exchange between the country and the town, of the grain, cattle, and 
 other raw produce of the one, for the varied commodities framed by the manufitcturing in- 
 dustry of the other, or, in countries of great extent, of the raw or manufiictured productions 
 of one section for those of another. lume trade is either coasting or inland, the former, . 
 where practicable, being preferred for bulky commodities, or those to be conveyed between 
 distant parts of a kingdom ; much of the interior commerce also passes along rivers and 
 canals. Foreign trade has no limits but those of the habitable globe; and, for reasons simi- 
 lar to those just hinted at in another case, the more distant branches are considered generally 
 as the most brilliant and important ; while, in fact, the trade with the countries most closely 
 contiguous, from its quicker returns, ranks highest in real amount and value. Unfortunately, 
 it has been hitherto much fettered by the jealousy and rivalry between neighbouring nations, 
 which make each imagine the prosperity of another to be gained at its expense, and every 
 commodity received from them, to be so much abstracted from its own wealth. Although 
 this illiberal system has somewhat abated, yet the consequence still is, that intercourse with 
 distant colonial possessions is more sure and steady than with any power entirely foreign. 
 The extensive capitals now possessed by some European powers, especially Britain, enable 
 them to carry on the moit extensive commerce with countries situated at the greatest di»- 
 tance, and even at the opposite extremity of the globe. In the interior, also, of the great 
 continents, there is a foreign trade by land, carried on by caravans, which are bo numerous 
 as to resemble armies, and proceed to an immense distance. 
 
 The instruments employed in conducting and &cilitatmg commerce, and which are chiefly 
 shipping, roads, and canals, form the most important part of what is called the fixed capital 
 of a country. Under the head of roads, the invention of railways, though yet only in its '■ 
 infiuicy, promises to facilitate, in a remarkable manner, the interior commimications of the 
 countries in which it is employed. 
 
 Skct. IV. — Civil and Social Condition of Man. 
 
 The population, or the number of individuals, of whom any community is composed, forms, 
 if not the most important, at least the most prominent circumstance in its social condition, 
 and one on which its magnitude, and its place in the scale of nations, intimately depend. ,- 
 The ancient statesmen cjnsidered the increase of the numbers of a people as one of the most 
 important of national objects, with a view both to its prosperity in peace, and its strength in 
 war. Some politicians of the present doy take a different view of the subject, maintaining 
 that population in all circumstances of tolerable peace and prosperity easily keeps itself on 
 a level with the means of subsistence, has even a tendency to rise higher, and by its super- . 
 abundance to produce a distressing degree of national poverty : they have suggested schemes 
 for checking the progress of population. 
 
 The actual amount of the population in any particular period or country, has been involved 
 in considerable uncertainty. It is only in modem Europe, and in the United States of b 
 North America, and there very recently, that general or careful enumerations have been r 
 made. But in all the other quarters of the globe, tlie estimates are formed upon very vague . 
 observation, founded on the density with which, on a superficial view, the districts appear to 
 be peopled, 
 
 A national character is found to pervade every community. The particulars have been 
 often exaggerated, fancifully delineated, and rashly and indiscriminately applied to indi- 
 viduals ; but to a certain extent such a variation mak be always traced between one people 
 and another. The grand distinction, founded upon tne progress of arts, letters, knowledge, 
 and refinement, is into savage, barbarous, and civilized : the first being marked by the total 
 absence of these improvements; the second, by the possession of them in only an imperfect 
 
 Vol. I. 24* 2L 
 
288 
 
 PBINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Pabt n. 
 
 and progressive degree ; the third, by their having arrived at a certain maturity. The savage 
 state prevails among the natives of America, and tlie islanders of the South Sea ; the former, 
 however, being now in a great measure supplanted by Euroiwan colonists. I'he barbaroua 
 state is general throughout Africa, and extends over a great part of Asia. The civilized state 
 is found in the great empires of Eastern Asia, and in a higher degree, as well as under dif- 
 ferent chiuucters, among the nations of Europe, and tiieir widely-spread colonies. In these 
 last, too, civilization appears to continue in a progressive and advancing state, while over the 
 rest of the world it is nearly stationary. 
 
 The religion professed by any people is a remarkable and most important feature in their 
 social condition. Religious opinions do not come directly under the cognizance of the 
 geographer ; but he is (»lled upon to mark this, as a particular in which nations strikingly 
 differ from each other. The inhabitants of the earth may, in rerard to religion, be divided 
 into three great classes, — Christian, Mahomedon, and Pagan. The first, as to numerical 
 amount, does not exceed the second, and still iiills short of the third ; but the nations pro- 
 fessing it, have acquired such an ascendency in arts, social improvement, and political 
 power, while their colonics have filled, and are multiplying over ail the lately savage and 
 unoccupied portions of the globe, that in all probability this faith will, in a few generations, 
 be more widely diffiised than any other. Tlie Mahomedan nations, though in numbers they 
 perhaps equal the last mentioned, and though tliey occupy a large proportion of the most 
 fertile regions of the globe, are yet sunk into such a state of slaveiy and degradation, and 
 80 decidedly surpassed by the Christian people, tliat their sway is not likely to endure above 
 two or three centuries. Of the Pagan religions, much the most numerous, and the only 
 civilized, professors, are those attached to the kindred creeds of Brahma and Boodh, estab- 
 lished, the one over the greater part of Hindoetan ; the other in China, and other continental 
 kingdoms, and insular territories of Eastern Asia. From their peculiar habits, and the 
 immutable nature of their institutions, they are likely to adhere to these systems with 
 greater pertinacity than the votaries of superstition in Africa, the South Sea, and other 
 quarters, where the train of belief and observance, however fantastic, is of a slighter and 
 looser texture. 
 
 The progress of knowledge forms a most conspicuous chapter in the history of the human 
 species: it follows generally that train of civilization which we have already delineated. In 
 surveying difierent communities, various particulars connected with this subject are highly 
 deserving of the attention of the geographer. Among these we may mention the most 
 eminent philosophers, men of science, and authors who have flourished in any nation, — tlie 
 institutions formed for the promotion and advancement of science, — the degree in which 
 knowledge is ditTused throughout the community, — the establishments formed for public and 
 private educatioa 
 
 The fine arts, — which are intimately connected with the more elevated and intellectual 
 port of man's nature, and of which the successful cultivation confers glory on a people, and 
 polishes and improves their manners, — merit to be considered similarly, and under the same 
 general heads, as their intellectual attainments. 
 
 There ore various points of minor importance, M'hich yet are distinctive and characteristic 
 of a people, and excite thus a just and natural curiosity. Such are the amusements in which 
 they chiefly delight, the peculiar costume in which they are attired, the species of food on 
 which they subsist, and the liquor by which they are exliilaratcd, as well as tlie mode in 
 which these articles are prepared for their use. .-, ' >. 
 
 Skot. V. — The Langw^et of the World. 
 
 On the subjects now enumerated, it has been judged sufllcient to indicate their nature, 
 and the light under which they will be treated, reserving the details for the succeeding part 
 of the work, when they come to be considered successively in reference to the various regions 
 of the globe. But there is one subject into which it will be expedient, even at the present 
 stage, to enter more particularly. 
 
 Language is one of the strongest characteristics by which nations are distinguished from 
 each other ; at the same time the dialects spoken by different communities, even when most 
 widely dissimilar, display in many cases relations and alliances indicative ol^ a common origin. 
 There exist over the world classes of languages, each of which comprehends the speech of 
 numerous people, and forms a tie between them, marking early relations and connexions. 
 Language thus acquires a character especially geographical, illustrating the origin and fami- 
 lies of nations, and the connexions between different countries. It will then be advantageous 
 to consider, in a large and comprehf nsivc view, first, the languages spoken generally over 
 the globe, and then those which prevail in its different quarters. 
 
 The languages by which the nations of the earth are distinguished, and from w hich are 
 derived tlio names, not only of its princ^l features, natural and artificial, but of its different 
 regions, and of the placet contained in them, constitute an important department of geo- 
 graphy. When we contemplate those names in maps, a little reflection suffices to convince 
 us that most of them are to be regarded, not as mere arbitrary or fortuitous appellations, but 
 
Book III. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY. 
 
 u terms of definite meaning, or as significant memorials of the people by whom they were 
 imposed ; and, in tracing thoae of ancient origin through the mutations they have undergone, 
 we are compelled to summon history to the aid of geography, for the purposes of cxplammtf 
 them with reference to the great events which have, from time to time, altered the political, 
 civil, and social condition of the nations composing the great family of mankind. Thus, 
 without adverting to tlie rise, growth, and extinction of kmgdoms and empires in Asia, we 
 may observe, tliat the series of revolutions which ended in the overthrow of the Roman 
 empire, and the foundation of the existing system of Europe on its ruins, is in nothing more 
 remarkable tlian in the change which it contributed to produce in the greater part of the 
 world, through the migration of nations ; a change so absolute, that it has served to mark 
 the distinction between ancient and modern history, ancient and modem geography, and 
 ancient and modem languages. Of this change the geographer, equally with the historian, 
 is at every step of his investigations reminded. France, for instance, commemorates in her 
 modern name that branch of the Germanic fiimily of nations who prevailed in Oaul ; vet 
 ahe retains, not less in her topographical vocabulary than in her language generally, 
 unequivocal traces of Roman dommion ; and we recognise, though strangely curtailed, the 
 imperial appellations Augustodunum and Aureliana, in Autun and Orleans. Italy and 
 S{Hiin, preserving semblance of their ancient names, exhibit similar instances of disfigure- 
 ment in those of^rticular places : Forum Julii and Casar-Augusta survive in Frinli and 
 Saragosm ; but the Trasimene suggests a less classic reminiscence as the lake of Perugia ; 
 nor can the Betis and the Durias be recognised under the more sonorous names, the Gua- 
 dalquivir and the Guadalaviar (the great river and the white river), conferred on them by 
 the Arab conquerors of Sp&in. Apptsllatives, also derived from languages little known, 
 whether ancient or modem, are liable to mutilation from the varying orthography of travel- 
 lers ; and we can no longer wonder at the confUsion caused by voyagers in this particular, 
 when we call to mind the difference not only between foreign and vernacular names, but 
 between their written and oral expression ; as when a German spells his native country 
 Deutschland, and pronounces it Teytshland; or a Persian writes for Persia Iran, and pro- 
 nounces it Eeratin. But the different idioms of the human race claim our attention from 
 (kr higher considerations than the mere naming of places or of countries ; for geography, 
 considered as an auxiliary to what has been emphatically called " the proper study of man- 
 kind," is principally valuable as combining, with a description of the earth, a view of the 
 different branches of the great human family by whom such vast portions of it have been 
 " replenished and subdued." 
 
 Ethnography is the term \vhich has been employed to designate this branch of geographi- 
 cal science. It distinguishes nations by their languages, and professes to class them in kmg- 
 doms, families, genera, speciep and varieties; but this systematic arrangement is as. yet ftr 
 from being completed. Of the numerous languages that are or have been spoken on the e&rth, 
 many are so imperfectly known that it is difficult to determine to what family they belong. 
 For this and other reasons it has been deemed expedient by a modem writer, who appears to 
 have collated the labours of his predecessors on the subject,* to adopt a geographical arrange- 
 ment, and consider languages in their relation to the five great divisions of the globe; the 
 Asiatic, the European, the African, the Oceanic, and the American. It is obvious, how- 
 ever, that the ethnographical and geographical limits of a nation and its language may be 
 widely different; the Spanish and the British, for instance, extend ethnographically to the 
 remotest regions of both the Indies. Adopting this arrangement, not only as most convenient 
 in regard to a branch of knowledge still in its infancy, but as most suitable to a geographi- 
 cal treatise, we shall proceed, without pausing to discuss the merits of any particular theory, 
 to oflTer, in this and subsequent parts of the present work, such a succinct view of the known 
 languages of mankind as its just proportions will allow. 
 
 The distribution of languages into Shemitic, Hamitic, and Japhetic, according to the 
 scriptural account, seems however entitled to some notice, as being well warranted in rela- 
 tion to the early languages of the world, if we can reconcile our thoughts to an affinity of 
 languages after their confusion, and the consequent dispersion of the human race. It has 
 been placed in a striking point of view by the able author of the " History of Maritime 
 and Inland Discovery," in Dr. Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopadia ; and a brief sketch of his 
 observations may be useful as an introduction to an account of languages more strictly 
 geographical. 
 
 On reference to the sacred records, we find that in the order in which the generations of 
 the sons of Noah are given, Japheth takes precedence of Ham and Shem, and is called the 
 elder. This the learned writer we are now citing has not noticed ; he has taken the names 
 in the order which long and universal usage has sanctioned. 
 
 " The family of Shem," he observes, " comprised the pastoral nations which were spread 
 over the plains between the Euphrates and the shores of the Mediterranean, from Ararat to 
 Arabia. The Hebrews themselves were of this stock ; and the resemblance of their Ian- 
 
 * Beibi, Atlas Ethnographique du Globe. Parin, VdH. 
 
I 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 384 
 
 PWNCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Pakt n. 
 
 gyutge with the Aramean, or ancient Syrian, and with Arabic, sufficicntlv proves the iden- 
 tity in race of what are called the Shemitic nations. There is no difficulty in oiwigning to 
 each of the sons of Shorn his proper situation. Elam founded the kin(j^om of Elymeis ; 
 Assur, that of Assyria; and Aram, the kingdom of Aramcu or Syria, a name Mtill clearly 
 preserved in that of Armenia. From Arphaxad were descended the Hebrews tliomselvos, 
 and the various tribes of Arabia ; and this close affinity of origin waN always manifust in the 
 lanffuage and in the intimate correspondence of the two nations. Some of tlie names given 
 by Moses to the children of Shem are still used in Arabia as local designations : thus there 
 is still in that country a district called Havilah ; and Uzal, the name given to Sana by the 
 sacred historian, is not quite extinct. 
 
 " The descendants of Ham," continues this learned writer, " constituted the most civilized 
 and industrious nations of the Mosaic age. The sons of that patriarch were Cush, Mhraim, 
 Phut, and Canaan. The naine of Ham is identical with Cham or Chamia, by which Egypt 
 has in all ages been called by its native inhabitants ; and Miter or Mitraim is the name by 
 which the same country, or more probably the Delta, is still known by the Turks and Ara- 
 bians." [We may add, that it is the name by which, in the original Hebrew, Egypt is called 
 in the admonition that precedes the decalogue.] " The land of Phut appears to signify Libya 
 in general ; and the name Cush, though sometimes used vaguely, is obviously applied to the 
 southern and eastern parts of Arabia. The names of Saba, Sabtah, Ra^ah, and Sheba, 
 children of Cush, have long survived in the geography of Arabia. The posterity of Canaan 
 rivalled the children of Mizraim in the early splendour of arts and cultivation. Though the 
 Canaanites, properly speaking, and the Phoenicians, were separated from each other by 
 Mount Carmel, yet, as tlie same spirit of industry animated both, they may in a general 
 sense be considered as one people. The Phoenicians possessed the knowledge of the Egyp- 
 tians, free from superstitious reluctance to venture upon the soa. Their local position 
 naturally engaged them in commercial enterprise. Their chief cities, Tyre and Sidon, had 
 reached the highest point of commercial opulence, when the first dawn of social polity was 
 only commencmg in Greece." 
 
 To Japheth, " the Japetus of the Greeks," this writer concurs with others in ascribing 
 the superiority over the sons of Noah, if not in the number of his descendants, in the extent 
 of their possessions. All the Indo-Teutonic nations, stretching without interruption firom 
 the extremity of Western Europe, through the peninsula of India, to the isle of Ceylon, he 
 considers as belonging to this common ancestor. The Turkish nation also, occupying the 
 elevated countries of central Asia, boasts the same descent. Their own traditions accent 
 with the Mosaic history; and indeed the affinities of language, which arc still evident among 
 all the nations of the Japhethian family, fully confirm the relation of the sacred writer ; yet 
 the meaning assigned to the patriarch s name in the Sanscrit language, Yapati, " lord of 
 the earth," tells for nothing unless we can suppose the name Japheth to be thence derived. 
 
 To Gomer, the eldest of Japhetli's sons, is ascribed, on the authority of Joscphus, the 
 distinction of being ancestor of the Celts. Magog may have been the founder of some 
 Scythian nation. Madai is recognised as the ancestor of the Mcdes. The posterity of Ja van 
 and Tubal, and Meshech and Tiros, may be traced from Ararat, always called Masis by its 
 inhabitants, througli Phrygia into Europe. Tubal and Meshech left their names to the 
 Tibareni and Moschi, Armenian tribes, whose early emigrations appear to have extended 
 mto Moesia. In lite manner tiie Thracians may have owed their origin to Tiras. 
 
 That the progeny of Japheth peopled Europe, seems apparent on another ground, which 
 we shall explain, after mentioning the remaining branches of his posterity. Ashkenaz, the 
 son of Gomer, is thought to be that Ascanius whose name so frequently occurs in the ancient 
 topography of Phrygia, and from whom, probably, the Euxinc, at first the Axine, Sea derived 
 its appellation. " In To^rmah," observes this writer, " we see the proper ancestor of the 
 Armenian nation, and it is even asserted by the Turks." 
 
 " Javan was the Ion of the Greeks, the father of the lonians. In the names of his sons 
 we find fresh proofs of the consistency of the Mosaic history. In Elishah we see the origin 
 of Ellis or Hellas. The name of Tarshish is supposed, with little foundation, to refer to 
 Tarsus in Cilicia. Kittim is said to mean Cyprus ; and Dodanim, or Rodanim, is understood 
 to apply to the island Rhodes." Here we may remark, that the sacred text contains a most 
 important record relative to the descendants of Japheth : " By these were the isles of the 
 Gentiles divided in their lands, every one after his tongue after their /amt{tes, in their 
 nations." Now, if the Oriental latitude of expression be allowed in this instance, the isles 
 of the Gentiles must include not only the isui» of the Mediterranean and other European 
 seas, but the peninsulas of Asia Minor, of Greece, of Italy, and of Spain. 
 
 To the Phoenicians must be partly ascribed the discovery of those territories collectively 
 called " The isles of the Gentiles," and the earliest intercourse with them. Unfortunately 
 those early navigators have left no records of tlieir discoveries ; and the little wo know of 
 their enterprises is derived from Scripture, and from the scattered notices of the Greek and 
 Latin authors. Tliey were, as elsewhere oliserved, the pilots of Solomon's fleet ; and as often 
 as the fleets of Egypt arc mentioned by ancient historians, we find them manned and guide<) 
 
yet 
 
 BooRni. 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETy. 
 
 i286 
 
 by PhcBniciana, Their commercial enterprises had contributed to augment the wealth of 
 that kinij^dom, which had attained a hi^h degree of social order and economy seven hundred 
 years before the Greeks became acquainted with the use of money. The numerous tolonies 
 which they planted along the shores of the Euxino, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic, 
 beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, attest the extent of their early voyages. Those of Utico, 
 Carthage, and Gades, or Cadiz, were founded between twelve and eight hundrod years 
 bofbre the Christian e*u ; but the seas of the west were probably explored for ages before 
 settlements were formed at such a distance from the parent state. Their geogrnphical 
 knowledge, even in the febulous times of Greece, probablv embraced as large a portion of 
 the earth as that of the Romans in the time of Augustus ; but, with the caution charnclcristic 
 of a mercantile people, they forbore to communicate that knowledge to the rest of mankind. 
 The silence of these descendants of Ham leaves us in uncertainty as to the progress of those 
 of Japheth in peopling the continent, the peninsulas, and the isles of Europe. In still deeper 
 mystery is involved the descent of the negro tribes of Africa from the father of Canaan. 
 Having thus briefly characterized the Sheniitic, Hamitii, and Japhetic races, we leave to 
 the consideration of the curious the tlieories that have been fnitnud upon them in respect to 
 the different idioms of mankind, and revert to the geographical arrangement which we pro- 
 poM to adopt 
 
 Separating all the known languages of the globe into five grand divisions, we name them 
 the Asiatic, the European, the African, the Oceanic, and the American, according to the 
 part of the world in which they are spoken. Then tracing, according to the best authori- 
 ties, the several languages by their affinities, we class those which appear to be sister idioms 
 in one group, assigning to it a distinctive name ; as the Mongolian mmily, the Celtic family, 
 or the Sanscrit family, conformably, in most cases, to tlie name of the principal people of 
 each of those families. But here a difficulty arises fVom the variance between geographic 
 and ethnographic limits. Several nations included in one of these groups have dwelt from 
 time immemorial at once in Asia, Africa, and Europe ; others in regions partly European, 
 partly Asiatic : to which part of the world then must the family be assigned to which those 
 nations belong ! Two reasons influence the decision ; the historical importance of the people, 
 and its mass, or relative number, as may be better understood from one or two examples. 
 
 That the Chaldeans, the Assyrians, the Arabs, the Hebrews, and other nations of the 
 great Shemitic family, were from the earliest times inhabitants of Western Asia, we know 
 from the writings of Moses, with which tlie results of the most eminent philologers and 
 mathematicians wonderfully agree. These nations, therefore, belong unquestionably to 
 Asia ; and the comparison of the Gheez and Amharic vocabularies having demonstrated an 
 indisputable affinity between them and the people of Abyssinia, who speak the idioms com- 
 prehended in the branch called Abyssinian, the languages of the latter also are classed in 
 the Asiatic branch, though in all epochs, even anterior to historical tradition, those nations 
 have dwelt in Africa. 
 
 The great mass of the Malay people occupies almost all the isles of the Indian Archi- 
 pelago, those of Polynesia, and some of Australia. Hence we regard the Malay family 
 as Oceanic, and class all the people characterized by this idiom as belonging to that great 
 ethnographical group. Thus, besides the Malays of the peninsula of Malacca, whose settle- 
 ment in the extremity of Asia is of no remote date, this division includes the Si Delia or 
 Formosans of Asia, and the Madecasses of the African isle Madagascar. 
 
 The Uralian nations belong equally to Europe and Asia ; because, from the little we 
 know of them, they have inhabited, time out of mind, the north-east and east of Europe, 
 and the north-west and west of Asia. Following the demarcation prescribed by M. Malte 
 Brun, we find that the great mass of the Uralian or Finnish nations belongs to Europe. Wo 
 therefore regard the Finnish family as European, and class among them all the ancient and 
 modern nations who, from striking analogies in their respective idioms, seem to belong to 
 them. 
 
 The Esquimaux have from time immemorial extended over all the north of the New 
 World ; while the sedentary Tchutchhis, who speak a language evidently related to the 
 idioms of those American tribes, occupy only the extreme nortli-cast of Asia. The Tchutch- 
 his we therefore consider as American colonies, ond, following the precedent of Balbi, 
 re-unite them as such to the other nations of America who form the family of the Es- 
 quimaux. 
 
 Under a perfect ethnographical arrangement, the languages of the Indo-Germanic nations, 
 extending from Ceylon and the Ganges to the extreme west of Europe, and even to Ice- 
 land, would form, not a single family, but rather an ethnographic kingdom divided into six 
 families. 
 
 In subsequent parts of this work, the languages of the earth will be considered as divided 
 into five principal branches ; the European, the Asiatic, the African, the American, and 
 the Oceanic. 
 
 T'f^ 
 
\ 
 
 ll' 
 
 I 
 
 'i 
 
 MAP OF EUROPE— WBR pakt. 
 
 Fia. 84. 
 
 t'> lUlKlUHWl 
 
 • Id J 
 *3 
 
 toifiiailt t WM 
 
^4: 
 
 Fia. 80. * 
 
 MAP OF EUROPK— nurr past. 
 
 987 
 
 La^ilule Eail ia fnm Oimwicb Jt 
 
 .* '■ 
 
 '$•'.. 
 
h 
 
 1. 
 
 DESCRIFTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 « Past Of. 
 
 ■^ 
 
 GEOGRAPHV CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE VARIOUS REGIONS 
 
 OP THE GLOBE. 
 
 In the second part of thia work, tho princi^es of ffco|propliy havo been treated of lui 
 tnunilud upon a (general aurvey of the ^lobo. The mo8t cxtoniivo portion of our task itill 
 renminH. We must delineate tho leadinjf objects of nature, art, and human life, aa they 
 appear Mucceaiiively in eacli diflbrent region into whicli tho earth ia divided. 
 
 Five gtoBit general divisions of the earth are now uaually rccoffnized : — 1. Europe, 2. 
 Aaio. '.i. Atirica. 4. America. 5. The extensive and numerous islands of tho South Sea, 
 to which tile PVench give the name of Oceania, tho Enf^lish those of Australasia and Poly- 
 iieaia, to which wo may add the islands of the Polar Sea. Each of these will form the wb- 
 ject of a separate book. 
 
 BOOK L 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe ia tlie smallest in extent of the four great continenta, and yet we may pronounce 
 it the moHt important of all the divisions of tho globe. Asia, indeed, was tlie cradle of 
 civilization and knowledge; but her empires soon became, and havo over since continued 
 <<tationnry ; while Europe has carried tlie sciences, arts, and refinement, with almost unin 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 I, lliirhani 
 
 5. Miruoih 
 ». ('arlialo 
 
 4. Ki ndiil 
 
 5. Y.irk 
 
 fi, Mnnchonlcr 
 7, I.incolii 
 8. 1'hi-iler 
 
 II. im. AiiHpn 
 
 10. t'ltnliiinn 
 
 11. Llandiiir 
 W. Wnri'oitir 
 I'l. (iloiici>Hifr 
 14. IVtvrlMiriiUKh 
 IV Niirwirh 
 
 IR. I'ainliridin 
 17. riinioibury 
 la. piivFr 
 111. I.uniltin 
 'iO. Mnnrheiter 
 «l. HriMol 
 U-i. PiHiIo 
 t£). KxeMr 
 
 SCOTLANO. 
 1. Thunii 
 % Ulvptn'iBa 
 :i. BiinfT 
 
 4. Aberdeen 
 .1. Penh 
 
 6. Kdinliurgh 
 
 7. Selkirk 
 
 8. Ayr 
 
 JREtiANIl. 
 
 1. l.ondiindurry 
 
 5. 8lif (> 
 
 3. Galwar 
 
 4. Limerick 
 
 5. Ork 
 
 6. Woxfiird 
 T. n<ildin 
 
 C. llriiiheda 
 
 9. Beinist 
 
 NORWAY. 
 
 1. Ralldillnil 
 
 3. SelneH 
 
 :!. Rys Vniid 
 
 4. PirviiB 
 
 .'i. Ilrnritnpim 
 (1. Roir.adnl 
 
 7 Fiiide 
 
 8 Ardiit 
 
 9 Lni'riK 
 10 HiTjun 
 It.Ti.nihil 
 li. P'ftvftniTpr 
 n. ('hrialinnpiiiul 
 14. Tdiwlierit 
 
 iy Kunrrlferg 
 in. Oiiid' 
 17. C^hriiitiania 
 la Faaldberi 
 
 W. Tonninnr 
 IM. FiederiokalMll 
 
 8W£DEN. 
 
 1. Turn* 
 9. Taiijo 
 ;i. hideii 
 4. Otturaand 
 .1. Hundawkll 
 
 6. IJoda 
 
 7. Tara 
 
 8. Sam* 
 
 9. Iludikavall 
 10. Swlerhamn 
 n. Iluiby 
 
 13. Salii 
 
 13. Orebro 
 
 14. C«rlibad 
 l.t. Ovllki 
 
 16. NykupilK 
 
 17. tiinkopin* 
 
 18. JnnkupiiK 
 
 19. nnltsnburt 
 SO. T'llkanberf 
 31. Malmo 
 
 93. ChriJiianitad 
 93. Kalmai 
 34. Emin 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 1. Aallmri 
 9. VVibucf 
 :i. Veita 
 
 4. Ripon 
 
 5. Bleawiek 
 A. Kiel 
 
 7. Cupenhateii 
 
 ICELAND. 
 1. Holar 
 9.BeaK!ate(l 
 3. Sand rail 
 
 PRITSSIA. 
 1. Colberf 
 3. Siamard 
 
 3. Sietiin 
 
 4. Berlin 
 
 5. Frankfort 
 fl. Powfi 
 
 7. Gneana 
 H. I.iaaa 
 9. Brealau 
 
 10. GluU 
 
 11. Hniian 
 
 12. Tiir»au 
 
 13. MafdebUK 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 1. nimutz 
 3. Briinn 
 
 3. Tabnr 
 
 4. Praiu* 
 
 5. Pilaen 
 
 Referencei to the Map of Europe. — Weil Part 
 
 43. Anilllac 
 
 44. Pri 
 
 m. Chi 
 
 n. Llnti 
 
 7. Krema 
 
 8. Prnburi 
 
 0. Vienna 
 ID. Sopron 
 ll.nrali 
 13. Bruek 
 
 13. Villaeh 
 
 14. Saltxburf 
 IX Hall 
 
 in. priien 
 17. Milan 
 la Manlua 
 
 10. Padua 
 90. Venie* 
 21. Balluno 
 93. Rimini 
 93. Laybaeh 
 34. A If am 
 as. CarlaUdt 
 SI 7.Vf 
 37. Spalatro 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 1. Genoa 
 
 2. Turin . 
 
 3. Aleaaandria 
 
 4. Parma 
 
 5. Bnlntna 
 
 6. Florence 
 
 7. I.oahorn 
 
 8. Orbotello 
 
 0. Rome 
 1U. Neiiuno 
 
 11. Naplaa 
 13. Policaitro 
 
 13. Tarnnto 
 
 14. Bilonlo 
 
 15. Foafia 
 
 16. Peacara 
 
 17. Ancona 
 
 18. Peaaro 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 1. Straiaiind 
 3. Ilnmburf 
 
 3. Bremrn 
 
 4. OManbun 
 .5. Oannburg 
 
 6. Hanover 
 
 7. Brunawick 
 H. raaael 
 
 9 Pnlda 
 
 10. Oirnialadt 
 
 11. Wiirma 
 13. Miillirunn 
 
 13. Freybilrg 
 
 14. ITIm 
 
 l.V Aui>liur« 
 ID. Munich 
 17. Nuremburt 
 IN. Ilof 
 
 19. Leipxii 
 SO. UrcHlen 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 I. I'onaiance 
 9. Buriie 
 3, Uene«a 
 
 WEST PRUSSIA, 
 I. Miinaier 
 9. Woaol 
 
 . (Tlevca 
 
 44. Privaa 
 
 jambarrjr 
 46. Grenoble 
 
 47. nil 
 48.Kri 
 
 4. C'<i|a>ne 
 
 5. r!iibb-nli 
 0. Pruym 
 
 IJiane. 
 . J>raiuinon 
 4|i. Toulon 
 
 50. Aviinon 
 
 51. Nil 
 
 HiamcB 
 
 NGTIIERLANDB. 
 
 i. Amaterdam 
 . Raiiordam 
 
 3. An:werp 
 
 J. Ghent 
 . Bruiaela 
 
 1. Luxemburc 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 1. Calaia 
 9. Amiena 
 a 8i. auintin 
 
 4. Houen 
 
 5. Evreux 
 0. Caen 
 7.SI. I.O 
 
 8. Si. BrieDX 
 
 9. Breit 
 
 10. Quimper 
 
 11. Vanaea 
 13. Rennea 
 
 13. Alencnn 
 
 14. <7hartrpa 
 
 15. Paria 
 
 16. Stiiaaona 
 
 17. MaU 
 
 18. Siraabnrg 
 10. Epinal 
 90. Chiiumnnt 
 31. <7hntillon 
 22. Tr.iyoa 
 93. nrlenna 
 34. Tiiura 
 3.5. Antren 
 96. Nanlea 
 
 37. I.n Ruche 
 
 38. Poiiiera 
 
 39. Gui-ret 
 
 30. Mnulina 
 
 31. Lnna 
 .13. Ijyona 
 3:1. INIncon 
 34. Clermont 
 3.T Periaaux 
 311. Bordeaux 
 37. Dn« 
 :«. Piiu 
 
 39. Tiiulouaa 
 
 40. Albr 
 
 41. Rralex 
 49. Acen 
 
 n. Aal 
 7. 1« 
 8.0« 
 O.La 
 
 SPAIN. 
 I. Ferrol 
 9, Santiago 
 
 3. Vim 
 
 4. Ortmae 
 •V LuKO 
 6. Aaliirca 
 
 tieofi 
 fiado 
 .. ..anea 
 
 10. Bantnnder 
 
 11. Bitboa 
 19. Pampeluna 
 J3. Viltoria 
 14. Rurfoa 
 l.V Palencia 
 
 16. Znmiira 
 
 17. Salamanca 
 
 18. Ciudad Rodriio 
 
 19. Avila 
 
 30. Senovia 
 
 31. Soria 
 
 33. Tudela 
 3:1. Hucam 
 
 34. Air» 
 
 2.1. Harealona 
 
 20. Tarragoaa 
 
 97. I^erida 
 
 98. Peniacola 
 
 99. Sarnf oaaa 
 
 30. Teruel 
 
 31. Ulrilla 
 
 33. Gnadaxara 
 3:1. Huein 
 31. Toh-dq 
 3,1. Madrid 
 3il. PUcontia 
 .T7.Truxill'i 
 38, Badaiiix 
 3!) Mnura 
 
 40. Zarra 
 
 41. Cordova 
 49. Andiifnr 
 
 4:), Ciiidad Real 
 44, Torrenuuva 
 4.1. Alvacele 
 
 46. Ville de Canal 
 
 47. Miirviedro 
 
 48. V^iloncia 
 4!l. Villencia 
 .K). Airuenle 
 ,11. Murcia 
 .12. Vera 
 .1:1. Bnza 
 54. Graoada 
 
 ,1.1. Almeria 
 SO, Malait 
 
 57, Ecija 
 
 58, Carmon 
 M. Iluebia 
 
 60, Aivilla 
 
 61. Gibraltar 
 03. Cadix 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 I. Molaaco 
 Sj. Bwf •n»» 
 
 3. Almeida 
 
 4. Oporto 
 
 5. Aveyro 
 D. Guarda 
 
 7. Coimbit 
 
 8. Leria 
 
 9. Liabnn 
 
 10. Obido* 
 
 11. AbranlM 
 13.Evora '-'■■ 
 
 13. Alvilo 
 
 14. Oiirique 
 1.1. Laxoa 
 16. Faro. 
 
 RivtnandlaJm. 
 a Dal, R. 
 b Moiaen, L. 
 Wrner, L. 
 d Wetter, U, 
 » Odor, It. 
 f Ellie, ft, 
 g Wi'acr, R. 
 h Rhine. R, 
 
 . Mcuaf, R. 
 j S'iiie, R. 
 k Luiia, R. 
 I Gariinne,ll. 
 m Dnuro, K. 
 n THiiua, R. 
 u Gunninna, R. 
 p Giiadnlouivir, R 
 q Ebrn, R. 
 r Rhone. R. 
 a Geneva, L. nf 
 t Conaiance, L. a 
 U Pn, R. 
 V Drave, R. 
 w Danube, R. 
 
 CORSICA. 
 
 1. C.irte 
 
 3. Porlu Vecchio 
 
 SARDINIA. 
 1. Haaaari 
 3. Orimarni 
 3. Cnnliari 
 
 SICILY. 
 
 1. Miwea 
 3. Palermo 
 
 3. Sciacca 
 
 4. Syracuae 
 
 
 II 
 
 . „»ussi 
 
 1. Enare 
 
 3. Voronez 
 i- Pano 
 S. PaHlxa 
 
 1% &°« 
 
 J Ton 
 
 \l- Kpu 
 
 ar kiikaia 
 
 34. Tavailteh 
 
 43.. 
 
 43. Staroiabisc 
 40. Mezene 
 47. Labavko 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 
,R. 
 
 . 
 t. 
 
 ,R. 
 
 ,K. 
 
 ., R. . 
 a, L. of 
 ince, L. o- 
 
 •V 
 
 ICA. 
 
 Vxcchlo 
 MNIA. 
 
 !1LY. 
 
 Bool I. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 m 
 
 temipted pragtf'M, to tlio comparatively elevatod iitato at which they havo now tniVMJ. All 
 th« brancliun of imluHtry aro conducted with o Mkill and to an extent unattaincd in anv other 
 part of tlio uurth. Kuropean voaiiol* carry on the coininerco of tiio moat distant regiona. 
 The niiiitury and political influonco of Uiiro|j<i in now of a magnitude witli which the rooit 
 powerful und populous nmpiroa of the other contuii'Uta can no lonvcr be compared. European 
 colonisti) hiivu now peopled, and aro more and more peopling, all the formerly lavage and 
 unoccupied (luartom of the earth ; and, with the exception of iome atrongholdi of ancient 
 and impfrfvct civilization, the whole world ia, through tlieir influence, rapidly becoming 
 civilised and European. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL SURVEY Or EUROPE. 
 
 EvROPi is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, and on the weit by the Atlantic. 
 On the south, the grand inlet of the Mediterranean divides it from Afirica ; and the Grecian 
 Archipelago, with its subordinate branch, connected only by a narrow atraitt the Euxine 
 or Black Sea, divides it fVom a groat part of Asia. Between the nortb-east extremity of tlte 
 Black Sea and tlio Northern Ocean is an interval of 1400 or 1500 miles of land, forming 
 the eastern boundary of Europe. Hod this been known to the ancients, they would perhaps 
 havo identiAed Europe with Asia ; but the separation ia now too deeply marked, ana ia de- 
 fined by too many characters, moral and political, ever to be altered. The absence of sea, 
 the natural and most obvioua boundary of a continent, haa somewhat embarraaaed modem 
 geographers; for oven a river limit is hero wanting. The chain of the Urals, running from 
 
 i Jul 
 
 5. Goija 
 A. Arjop 
 7. tiulei 
 R. PilH 
 9. Uircki 
 
 10. r,i>nii 
 
 11. Uimi 
 l3.Hai 
 13. Up 
 
 
 Rtfermct* to Ihe Map tf £urap<. — EaA Part. 
 
 SWEDEN 
 
 Allannard 
 .. Jukaa Jervl 
 X Gellivara 
 
 4. or Kalii 
 
 5. Gogan 
 
 6. Arjoploi 
 
 i|r«ii«lo 
 >iiniii(«n 
 mn 
 Hania 
 - . Upaal 
 U. Stockholm 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 I. Gnara 
 a. Kola 
 
 3. Voroiwxkaya 
 
 4. Panoi 
 
 5. Pnliiia 
 
 6. Oumbs 
 
 7. Ekotlrovikaro 
 
 8. Kandalikava 
 HOilankrla 
 
 Kamitraik 
 Rotamemi 
 _ rornek 
 
 IS. u1eabor( 
 
 18. Knat NoTolok 
 
 17. Kuunia 
 
 18. Viio 
 
 19. AiMoiara 
 JiD. Sotkanio 
 91. Kajana 
 Sa. Braki-ttod 
 in. Rarlflbir 
 S4. Pio Piqarvi 
 !». Pinlla . 
 90. fcibalira 
 97. Puc-nala 
 
 SH. llllOVMT 
 
 99. Waia 
 
 30. rhriitineatad 
 
 31. Bioimborg 
 39. Abo 
 
 33. Kilkala 
 
 34. Tavanohui 
 :». Bnrgo 
 
 3«. Vrhort 
 
 37. St. PolAriburt 
 
 38. Oloneti 
 
 39. PetroiHvndHk 
 
 40. Povlfloetx 
 
 41. VniovHkaya 
 it. ()ne«« 
 
 43. Arnnangel 
 
 44. Routt 
 
 45. Siaroiabiacho 
 4A. Mezeno 
 
 47. t.abnvka 
 4fl. Nikilza 
 49. Ouia 
 
 Voi^I. 
 
 M. OfiiHilka 
 M. Golovu 
 S9. Bichemaia 
 K). Uorovtkaf a 
 M. Miiuiioijikara 
 K. Pineaa 
 
 Vofkouakri , 
 BhMtilzcirakoi 
 H. Chalr,h«lakii;a 
 ISO. Karahakiivika 
 flO. Makaoovtka 
 61. Krawoboak 
 IB. Met«rnkava 
 n.'t. Yarnniik 
 04. Oual SiHilik 
 0.V Kai 
 on. Tchrnlin 
 H7. Sniikarnak 
 W. Vilionaku« 
 in. Ortova 
 
 s?; 
 
 IIH. 
 "I . 
 
 iia 
 iiu. 
 
 190.' 
 
 7U. Obira 
 
 -- GaiihkoTa 
 79. Miahamnvak 
 T.\. Ivoiovaka 
 74. Akaanlnrakoo 
 7.1. Valikouatoni 
 
 76. VIelak 
 
 77. Pudo* 
 7H. viiaira 
 79. Biiiliiiarak 
 83. KiriloT 
 Hl.Volocd* 
 83. Tolnia 
 
 83. Tchuehloma 
 
 84. KolochW 
 8.1. Nikobli 
 
 86. Bergioviln 
 
 87. Koielnilch 
 
 88. ainbiidakuv 
 
 89. Viaika 
 
 90. Nolinak 
 
 91. Glaxov 
 93. Ochanak 
 0:1. Perm 
 04. Oia 
 
 91. Kra'ahainiuk 
 
 Oil. Bink 
 
 1)7. Siirnpoul 
 
 98. KlabflUita 
 
 91). Malmiah 
 ino. K'iz:tna 
 lUI. Hviajik 
 iO-i. Kniinodemi- 
 
 aniik 
 103 Ynranik 
 lUt. ViiilniiKa 
 IM. Viirimvin 
 1116. Semanov 
 107. Inrevotz Povol- 
 
 akon 
 in». Knilrnm 
 lO*). JnrnilHV 
 no. Rlbiiiak 
 III Pimchon 
 119. OMiiijna 
 113. TikviD 
 
 114. Yamburt 
 ■15. Narva 
 
 leval 
 
 >«rpi 
 
 .Ilia 
 
 «ci»arod 
 .... ^nWal 
 191. Oiiiihkai 
 199. Biiinvilchl 
 
 193. Viahnei Volo- 
 
 tobiikl 
 
 194. Oiiditrh 
 19.1 Pnlrovik 
 136. Kovriiv 
 
 197. Nizncf Noy- 
 
 icorod 
 198 ifiuinik 
 199. Sinblrak 
 i;iO. Bingilal 
 131. Siiian 
 139. Kanader 
 
 133. Ardiitov 
 
 134. Potchinki 
 
 135. Nuruvichat 
 
 136. Temnikuv 
 
 137. Murom 
 118. Sudoiila 
 
 139. Kaamor 
 
 140. Moaoow 
 
 IM. 
 
 155.1 
 
 156.- 
 
 141. Pnkov 
 149. Tier 
 14.3. Mnjaiik 
 144. Ziiblaoy 
 14.1. Bicliix 
 
 146. Velikie Luki 
 
 147. Cholm 
 
 148. l>akoy 
 
 149. Oalror 
 l.in. I.uiixin 
 151. Valk 
 159. C<'n*i> 
 1.W Ri/ia 
 
 liiau 
 
 .iliau 
 
 _. lemol 
 
 157. a«veni»ani 
 1.18. Vileika 
 1.10. nriaaa 
 IIH). Pnlotzk 
 161. Wiiepak 
 169. Velii 
 
 163. Smnlenik 
 
 164. Domgobui 
 1AV Kalouta 
 168. Kaliimna 
 
 167. Tnola 
 
 168. Kiazane 
 
 169. Kniluv 
 
 170. TiimboY 
 
 171. Tchambar 
 m. Ponaa . 
 
 173. Pntriivak 
 
 174. Volak 
 
 175. SaraliiT 
 
 176. Balaahav 
 
 177. Nuvokhopack 
 
 17V. yoranci 
 )8a Pbain 
 irn. hivnl 
 189. Krapiyna 
 IH3.HDlehaf 
 Jral 
 kirai 
 (oakivl 
 
 Joihilaw 
 
 188. hot alehav 
 180. Sloiiiik 
 "oriaeT 
 
 Irn'na 
 ,1 Grodno 
 
 198. Rawa 
 
 197. Vldara 
 
 198. Lublin 
 
 199. Miai^lrieU 
 900. Rnat Ulor 
 90!. BieFik 
 »1. kobrin 
 903. Pinak 
 90«. Viaolik 
 9U1. Oyroutch 
 9M. Moiir 
 
 7. Chnlmlieh 
 
 "1. Tehfrniiiov 
 
 "T.Hw" 
 
 ielttlia 
 
 909. N 
 
 910. Rihk 
 9ll.pouml 
 919. Kourak 
 
 913. Oakol 
 
 914. VolouiU 
 91.1. Bobror 
 aiO. Paylonk 
 917. Zaiovikaya 
 9ta Kamiahin 
 919. ijoliniknya 
 99U Taarilxin 
 391. Tilkha 
 399. Koalin 
 393. Shealibalotch- 
 
 kaya 
 994. Tcherkuk 
 99.1. Donelik 
 
 998. Iziuna 
 997. Charkoy 
 !K8. Poltava 
 
 999. NoTomoakoTak 
 ZW. Kroment 
 931. Zolninnoiha 
 
 939. Kozelelz 
 3:13. Kiev 
 9:14. Padomiat 
 9:15. Jiiomir 
 9:!6. Rovno 
 9:17. Kameli 
 338. Ralta 
 930. Gaiain 
 
 940. Tchork 
 
 911. Nnvomirtorod 
 349. Olviopol 
 
 25 
 
 AU8TSIA. 
 
 1. Treuiaen 
 9. Schemnia 
 3. Ep«rl«i 
 
 ibraenn 
 
 yBoL 
 
 10. Pel; 
 
 11. St. Maria 
 liBaeea . 
 
 13. Belitradr 
 
 14. Temcawar 
 
 15. Arad 
 
 16. Bihar 
 
 17. Ciauaenbort 
 
 18. Carlaburt 
 
 19. Herraanaladt 
 SO.KuU 
 
 91. Tamopi 
 99. Siry, 
 
 33. Sember 
 
 34. ].ember( 
 9.1. gandeex 
 
 96. Sendomia* 
 
 97. Cracow 
 
 TURKEY 
 1. Jaaay 
 9. Biirlal 
 
 3. Aairad 
 
 4. Garaia 
 
 5. Ibraila 
 «. Sil'Mria 
 
 7. Bukaraal 
 
 8. Slatina 
 D.CratoT« 
 
 o*n>_ 
 
 lopla 
 iiaa 
 
 ,p1!r. 
 
 raava 
 icopoll 
 humla 
 luriM 
 lidleh 
 
 loiMaaUoopIt 
 ... -todoflo 
 98. Adrianoph 
 "" Cavalla 
 rhillPPoU 
 labar 
 >to1l> 
 
 lalonioa 
 
 34. BcttUri 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 9. Butrinto 
 X Jannina 
 f Aim 
 5. Lepanto 
 ' TripolHai 
 
 Bnarf and Lata 
 
 b Meiene, R. 
 e Pitchova, R. 
 d Kama, K, 
 • Viaika. R. 
 f Volia. R. 
 I Oka. R. 
 h Don, R. , 
 i Poneli, 1 
 
 fpoiepar, 
 Dniealer, . 
 Pruth, £. 
 m Panuba, R. 
 n Viatult, R, 
 o Niemen. R. 
 p Dwina, R. 
 q Tchadakoe, L. 
 r Ihnen, L. 
 a Ladoga, L. 
 t Onega, L. 
 u Pnruveai, L. 
 y Bfgo, u. 
 wVigo.L. 
 X Top. L. 
 y Imandra, L, 
 X Enaie. L> 
 
 I 
 
 ^ 
 
 
1^ 
 
 m 
 
 DRRCRIPTIVE OEOGRAPIIY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 I 
 
 If 
 
 .**"!►•. 
 
 111! 
 
 north to miith, fnrnm no itnpnrtAnt n fontiiro, that it hox b(>oii tnknn oh thn gnnil liM af 
 liiviRiiin ; nnd in prolriictnd ti> thr Bltick Hon by mean* nf contiimoim pnrtiunH of tlie gmi 
 rivpiK Kiima, Vfilffti, niul IVm. 
 
 Th" limn of thig rotitiriont \n »ing\i\M]y broknn nnd vnrinil. Whiln A«in, AlVirn, and the 
 •wo AmnricAH nro nnrh furinnd into a vnxt inlnnd cxpnniie, Eiirnpo m Kplit into mnny dirtinrt 
 portiiinn; pl•ninl<t)ln^ Inrpfn inlumlN, and kinj^domx, with rxti'ndnd nnd windinj; conhtD. Thi» 
 form irinoH chiefly out of it« inland w-a*, which ponotrato farther, and iirc morn dunply 
 ombaycd, than thofw of any other part of the g]o\iii. Niimnroni pilfii, ncnrcrly ncconilary 
 n ninjfnifiido nnd imiHirtiinco, bninoh out IVom tlicm. Tho Mpditormnonn, which fornin, 
 M it wcrr', a littlo ocpim, Hcpnrntinn' Europe, AiiiB, and Aflrica, i» connected with tho Atlantic 
 only liy thn celobrntnd KtmiUt of iSibralUr, twenty miloa in breadth. Itn jfrtMit cncioMd 
 oriincheH of the Adriatic and the Dlack Sea penetrate, and render maritime, M)ine of the 
 moHt inland diMtriots of tho continent. In the north, the Baltic, with its grpnt pulfii of 
 Bothnia and Finland, is neither indeed bo oxtenHivc nor ao accoiwiblo ; but it ii of the highoHt 
 commercial value, oa aflbrdintr a channel by which the rude ncco8Kiiieii, tho nictala and 
 woods of thn north, may be exchanged for tho wines, tho silks, and other luxuries of tho 
 south. Tho British ihles, by their varied confipiration, enclose bowccn thcmiinlvcs and tlio 
 opposite continent several important seas and channels. We may odd, that tho mountains 
 and tho plains of Europe do not display those immcnxo unbroken groups, or those level and 
 almost endless expanses, which give so vast and monotonous a characttir to the interior 
 regions of Asia and Aft'ica. In general thev arc separated into smaller portions, and are 
 happily and commodiously interchanged. Thev have kept Europe divided into a number of 
 separate nations, holding easy intercourse. Probably, tiiis relative position tios been one 
 great cause of that intellectual activity, and those vifforous exertions in all liberal and in- 
 genious arts, which have raised this part of tho globe to so high a pro-eminence. Tho 
 immense inlnnd plains of Russia nnd Poland, presenting an aspect wholly Asiatic, remained, 
 even after the civilization and improvement or nil western Europe, sunk in tho deepest bar- 
 barism, flxun which they are but slowly and with difficulty emerging. 
 
 Sect. I. — Natural Fenlvrei. 
 
 The Bcrfkce of Europe, as wo have observed, is very diversified. Its mountains do not 
 reach that stupendous lieight, nnr stretch in such unbroken chain«, as those of Asia and 
 America: nevertheless, wo mny trace pretty distinctly two highlands, tho northern and 
 southern, and an intermediate lowland. I'ho Nouthcrn highland comprises tho most elevated 
 \nountainB of tho continent, thn Alpn and the Pyrenees, connected together by the low chain 
 of the Cevennes. Inferior branches fVom tho Pyrnnens extend through tho Spanish penin- 
 sula; while from tho Alps branch forth the Apennines, which range through all Italy, 
 and spread their lower slopes over thn greater [xirt of southern Germany. The extremity 
 of the Julian Alps, and the mnuntains of Dulmntia, connect tho range with the great 
 Turkish chains of Ilnimus and llhodopc ; parallel to which, though with a lurgo group 
 intervening, stretches the circuit of the Carpathian mountains. North of this, the great 
 European lowland comprises tho largest part of France, tho south of England, the 
 Netherlands, Northern Germnny, all Poland, and tho greater port of Russia. In tho 
 extreme north of Europe tlio mountainous character again prevails. The Dol'rincs roach 
 throuffh Scandinavia; while the nortli of England and neorly all Scotland is covered with 
 mountains of secondary magnitude. Of all tho European mountains the Alps are by much 
 the highest, and perhaps mny rank fourth to the Himalaya, tho Andes, and Caucasus, among 
 the mountain chains ot tho globo. Mont Blanc and Monte Roea exceed 15,(K)0 feet above 
 the sea. Tho luimnrous other summits of this chain exemplify all tho descending grades of 
 elevation. The Apennines vary from 3(K)0 to 6000 feet; but il'^tnn, at their utini>st extremi- 
 ty, is nearly 11,000. The mo.«t olevnted of tho Pyrenees risi-s somewhat above that height. 
 The Spanish summits arc in general of the level of tho Apennine, except tho Guadarrama, 
 which exceeds 8000 feet, and the Sierra Nevada, which equals the Pyrenees. The Thmcian 
 chains have not yet been subjected to survey ; but they doubtless exceed those of Greece, 
 which ascend to 6000 or 7000 feet, Tho Dofrines, notwithstanding their snowy and terrible 
 luipect, are not of first-rate elevation. The great Norwegian chain does not quite reach 
 JXKM) feet ; Ben Nevis is only 4;}00 feet ; nnil none of tlie English mountains roach that 
 altitude. 
 
 Tlio rivor.'i of Europe nro numerous, but none of them of the very first magnitude. 
 The two largest flow tiirough tho great eastern plain, a semi-Asiatic region, and terminate 
 in distant and interior sens, where they contribute little to commercial intercourse. The 
 Volga, which alone can come into rivalry with the great rivers of Asia, passes the Asiatic 
 limit, where it spreads into the great interior expanse of thn Caspian. The Black Sea absorbs 
 the other rivers from thn creat plain of Russia nnd Poland : it receives nlso tho noble stream 
 of tho Danube, whirli helongn indeed to the central region of Europe ; but directing its 
 lower course thrnugji barbarous nnd uncultivated regions, and terminating in this distant 
 feceptacle, it conduces only in a secondary degree to the distribution of wealth and plenty 
 
 % 
 
 Thei 
 of the I 
 some di( 
 been ins 
 some, te 
 
 
Boot I. 
 
 BUROPE. 
 
 9U1 
 
 fi 
 
 thinuKh tlin rontinnnt. Wortom Eurnpo ia tno much broken intn lepnrnto portioiu, and 
 oroHMxl hy hiffli mnuntain Iwrriorii, to allow to iu rivnni a longth of nmro than tWtm 4iD0 to 
 60() milm; anil thny hnvn iimially thiir ontiro coumc throuirh a aingln country, — the Rhin^. 
 tho RItio, mill tlin (Mcr, tliroiivli flormanv; tho lioiro, tho Khono, and tlin (lanmno, thruuf^h 
 Franco , Iho I'd tliriiii|{h Italy ; tho Kbns thu IXiiiro, tho Tii|{ua, aiul tho Guadahiuivir, 
 thn)ii;{li Hinin. Tho northorn rivoni of Oritain anil Hciimlinavia, rniitriclail tu a atill nar- 
 rownr flxlil, m>liloin accomplish an \oni/( a courao oa 9(M) iniloa. Yut, thou|;h Ruropo dooa 
 not prnHiMit tho gnml river* which diatim^iiiah tho greater continonta, it ia on tho whole 
 happily and cotniiinitiuiiMly watnroil. AlinuMt ovory part of it oiiioya the benefit of river 
 coininunication , it iit neither ovcrapread by tho droarv awainiM ot America, nor the aandy 
 doaorta which roniler uniuh:ibitiiblo ao i^roat a part of Aaia and AtVica. 
 
 The lakca of Ruropo aro iminoroua, chiufly onvloaoil within itn mountain rogiona; but fow 
 of them nrn of auHicinnt mik|fnitudc to rank aa inland acaa. Thoao alono entitled to thia 
 diatiiiitioti are the Lndoffa and the Ono({a, which, forming a aort of continuation of the Gulf 
 if Finland, and bcinff nituated in bleak and fVoson roginna, miniator very little to internal 
 intorcourHo. (^nlnnd is covered with limilar lakea. Tho Wener and Wetter of Sweden 
 rank next in maffnitmle, and, aurrounde<l by imninnao woixla and ircn minea, poaaeaa conHid- 
 orablo beauty and value. Hwitzorland, with it4 Italian bortlor, ia the chief lake-region of 
 Europe; ita watorn, particularly thuao of Geneva and Lucerne, cncloacd between the loflicat 
 anowy pinnaclcii of the Alps, preaont acenea of grandeur and beauty altnoat unrivalled ; but 
 they are not on auch a acalo or ao aituatod aa to afTord any important inland navigation. 
 Those of England and Ireland aro merely "imall picturoaquo fcaturea. Those of Scotland 
 are larger and more numeroua ; and a chain of them, having been connected by a broad 
 canal, waa cxpecto«l to form a great naval route acruaa the island. 
 
 Tho European soil ia diatinffuishcd fur procluctions, perhaps surpaasing in value thow 
 of any other ijiinrter of tho glubr. It does not, indeed, |i08m!«H that brilliant luxuriance of 
 vegetation which adorns tho equatorial regions of AhIq nnd America. But com and wine, 
 the most substantial and most agreeable iirticica of human diet, are nowhere produced on ao 
 groat a acale or in such high perfection. Grain, of one description or another, ia raised over 
 ita whole surface, excepting in the extreme nortit ; wines throughout all ita southern king- 
 doms. In hemp, flax, and wool, those staple materials of clothing, Europe ia equally pre- 
 eminent. Silk, another valuable commodity, it produces copiously, though not ao aa to bo 
 independent of supplies from India and China. Cotton is the only grout material which the 
 immense manufactures of Europe derive almost entirely from foreign regions. If we except 
 the horse and the cuinul, for which Awia is renowned, Europe contains tno most valuable ns 
 well as tho most numerous breeds of domestic animals. Its northern f(>reat8 produce the 
 finest timber in tho world, with tho exception of the teak ; and its iron, the most useful nf 
 metals, surpasses that of the rest of the world: but all tho more precious substances, goll. 
 silver, pearls, jewels, exist in an extent ao limited as scarcely to ti deserving of mention. 
 The cultivation of the soil is carried on with much greater diligence than in any countricH 
 exccpl in the south-east of Asia, while in science, skill, and the extent of capital employeil 
 upon it, European agriculture is quite unrivalled. 
 
 In manufacturing industry, this quarter of tho world has, within these fow eentnriea, far 
 surpassed all tho others of the globe. Asia, indeed, has long Ixnstcd somo fabrics of extra- 
 ordinary beauty, — silks, muslins, carpets, and porcelain, — which aro not yet altogether equal- 
 led : but the looms and workshops of Europe now yield a variety of fine and beautiful fnbrics, 
 in such proflision, and at so cheap a rate, as to place them within the reach of iilmost 
 every class of society. This continent thus clothes all tho young nations which have 
 issued from her own Imsom, and which fill nearly two entire quarters of the habitable earth. 
 
 Commerce, on so great a scale as to connect together the distant quarters of the world, 
 can hardly be said to exist out of Europe. European vessels arc found in the utmost boundw 
 of Asia and America, in the snowy regions of cither pole, and crowding tho ports of the 
 Austral continent. There is not now a place on earth, however remote, affording any flcoi>e 
 for tho employment of commercial capital, which is not immediately filled with the same 
 promptitude as if it had been situated in the heart of Europe. The ships of that continent 
 exceed thoej of all the others in number and dimensions : they arc also tho most skilfully 
 constructed, and navigated by the only seamen who are qualified to ofuide a vessel across the 
 great oceans. All these observations are liable to one exception : the new American states 
 are beginning to form a commercial and maritime system, modelled on that of Europe — a 
 system which may one day surpass the original. 
 
 Sect. II. — Inhabttantn. 
 
 The population of Europe, though more closely calculated than that of any other quarter 
 of the globe, is yet far from being ascertained on data that are very precise. In regard to 
 some districts, and in particular tn the whole of the Turkish empire, no census has ever 
 been instituted ; in others, the computation is founded only on the number of houses : and in 
 some, ten, twenty, and thirty years have elapsed since any was attempted.* 
 ~" * Sec the Tabic It iilM cloae of thii book. 
 
 '■VkH 
 
:rf : ,,,. ^...Vn— ■»Ml«M.«».~l^^ 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 The people of Europe are divided chiefly into three ^eat races, which differ, to a very 
 mtrked dej^ree, in language, political situation, and habits of life. These are the Sclavonic, 
 the Teutonic, and a third which Hassel calls the Romish, as occupying the chief of those 
 countries which once composed the Western Empire. 
 
 The Sclavonic races cover the greater extent of Europe, since they occupy the whole of 
 the eastern plain bordering on Asia. The people have a resemblance to thane of that 
 continent; and were considered almost as beyond the social and political pale of Europe, till 
 within the last half century. They have now forcibly thrust themselves into the European 
 srstem, and rank among its most influential members. The Sclavonic people consist of 
 about twenty-five millions of Russians, ten millions of Poles, Lithuanians, and Letts, and 
 about ten millions of other races, known under the namen of Windes, Tcheches, Slawakes, 
 Croats, Morlauihians, which have found their way into eastern Germany, Hungary, and Illy<- 
 ria. Without wishing to consider intellectual and moral qualities as necessarily belonging 
 to any particular race exclusively, we may notice it as a ract, that the Sclavonians are, in 
 both respects, less improved than otiier Europeans. They have only some infant forms of 
 art and literature, which have sprung up from the imitation of those of the eastern nations. 
 They are generally subjected to abmlute monarchy, and the greater part of them are only 
 beginning to emerge from the degrading condition of personal slavery. All the habits of 
 life which connect them with polished society have been recently and studiously imported 
 from the west, and are still intermingled with deep remnants of barbarism. The majority 
 profess that superstitious form of Christianity acknowledged by the Greek church. Yet they 
 are a brave, enterprising, and persevering race, and have established themselves as a ruling 
 and conquering people, m reference to all the contiguous nations of Europe and Asia. 
 
 The Teutonic race occupies generally the centre and north of Europe ; besides Germany, 
 their original seat, they have filled the greater part of Scandinavia, the Netherlands, and 
 Great Britain, and may be reckoned at upwards of fifty millions. Under the limitatic.:s 
 above stated, we may describe the Teutonic people generally as brave, hardy, intelligent, 
 and industrious, though somewhat blunt and unpoli^ed. All the sciences, and even the 
 arts, both useful and ornamental, have been carried among them to the highest perfection ; 
 yet they are accused of wanting some of the graces and agremens which embellish the 
 courts and fashionable circles of the south, by whom they are treated as semi-barbarians. A 
 great majority of the Teutonic nations are Protestants ; and that profession is in a great 
 measure confined to them, and to the nations in the other parts of the world who have sprung 
 from them. 
 
 The race called Romish, which comprehends the modem inhabitants of France, Italy, and 
 Spain, has only a very imperfect claim to that title. The Teutonic nations, in conquering 
 these countries, poured into them a vast muss of their own population : but Roman manner 
 and the Roman bnguage had taken such deep root in countries which once constituted the 
 main body of the western empire, that the latter forms still the chief basis of the dialects 
 Hpoken in this part of Europe. The Romish were the most early civilized of the modem 
 nations. They have carried the polish of manners and the cultivation of the elegant arts 
 to a higher pitcli than any other known nation. In solid energy and intelligence, they 
 scarcely equal tlie Teutonic nations. The Roman Catholic is tlie raling religion in all these 
 countries, and has among them her metropolitan seat. 
 
 Certain interesting and antique races inhabit the rude and mountainous extremities of 
 Europe. The Celts were the most numerous people, and at a period of high antiquity, the 
 possessors of all western Europe. Subdued and disarmed by the Romans, they rapidly declined 
 when the falling empire could no longer protect them, and became the helpless victims of 
 tliat mighty torrent of barbarous invasion which poured in from the remotest extremities 
 of Europe and Asia. At this dreadful period they sought or found a refuge, partly in Ire- _ 
 land and the Highlands of Scotland, where they exist under the name of Gael ; partly in 
 Wales and Britany, where they are called Cymri ; and partly in the north of Spain, where 
 they are termed Basques. Having retained their condition unaltered during so many ages, 
 they cherish a fond attachment to antiquity, and trace their pedigree higher than any of the 
 Romish or Teutonic nobles. They have a traditional poetry celebrating the exploits of their 
 ancestors, to which tliey are fondly attached ; but in general they have, in the rapid pro- 
 gress made by the more modern races, been lefl somewhat behind ; though individual emi- 
 grants have raised themselves to eminence in every department. Hassel calculates the 
 Gael at 3,720,000, which, from the last census of Ireland, must be much too low ; the 
 Cymri at 1,610,000 ; the Basques at 630,000. The Oreeks, once the most illustrious of all 
 the races, no longer plant their colonies along the shores of the Mediterranean, but still 
 occupy their old seats, and are spread through difleront parts of the Turkish empire. De- 
 pressed by two thousand years of slavery, they had ceased to display those high attributes 
 which excited the admiration of mankind ; but the prospects of independence which they 
 have now opened for themselves, afford some hope that they may regain their place in the 
 scale of nations. Their number may be about 2,100,000. The Jetcs, that singularly inte- 
 resting people, are spread through all Europe, b<it especially the eastern countries, Poland, 
 
* 
 
 lities of 
 lity, the 
 leclined 
 ctims of 
 remities 
 in Ire-, 
 wrtly in 
 whore 
 ny ages, 
 y of the 
 of their 
 ipid pro- 
 aal emi- 
 ates the 
 ow; the 
 us of all 
 but still 
 ._. Dc- 
 ttributes 
 ich they 
 :e in the 
 irly inte- 
 I, Pokni), 
 
 re. 
 
 Book I. 
 
 W^ 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 S»3 
 
 Russia, and Turkey. They are supposed rather to exceed 2,000,000. The Gipaiet, in aii 
 humbler sphere, are strangely scattered over all Europe to the supposed number of 340,000; 
 a wild, roaming, dcmi-savage race, of unknown origin, but probably Asiatic rather than 
 Egyptian. 
 
 Several Asiatic nations have penetrated by conquest or migration into the east of Europe. 
 These are chiefly Tartars, whom Hassel estimates at 3,250,')()0 heads. The most prominent 
 branch is that of the Turks, the ruling people in the Ottoman empire, though they form in 
 a few districts only a majority of the population. It seems doubtful, however, if all the 
 Tartars who wander over the southern steppes of Russia can be considered as Asiatic in their 
 origin. Ttie Magyars, who, to the number of 3,000,000, prevail in Hungary and Transyl- 
 vania, appear to be also Asiatic, or at least to have sprung from that most eastern border of 
 European Russia, which can scarcely be distinguished from Asia. 
 
 Tlie religion of Europe is almost entirely monotheistic. A mere handful of pagans, the 
 Samoiedes, are found in its north-eastern extremity, on the shores of the Icy Sea. Europe 
 is almost entirely Christian ; and the small population of Mahomedans who have found their 
 way into it consist of Asiatic races, Turks and Tartars. The Jews, however generally dif- 
 fused, have nowhere a national church, nor are they in any nation fully identified with the 
 body of the people. The Christians of Europe are divided into tliree great churches, the 
 Greek, the Latin or Roman Catholic, and the Protestant 
 
 The Greek or Eastern church, which was that of the Constantinopolitan empire, was 
 severed from the Latin by the great schism in the ninth century, caused by some abstruse 
 questions respecting the nature and person of Christ It is still professed by the modern 
 Greeks, is the established religion of Russia, and has votaries in Hungary and all its append- 
 ant territories. Hassel reckons its numbers at 32,000,000 ; Malte-Brun at 50,000,000 — a 
 strange discrepancy. We should think the former much nearer the truth, though perhaps 
 somewhat under it This religion having been long prevalent among unenlightened and 
 degraded nations, has become encumbereKl with empty pomp and childish ceremonies ; and 
 many of its clergy are ill-informed and of irregular lives. 
 
 Tne Roman Catholic religion, which reigned so long with supreme sway over Europe, 
 embraces still a numerical majority of its people. In Italy, Spain, France, and the dominions 
 Df the house of Austria, it is dommant and almo-st exclusive. It still holds attached to it 
 1 large portion of the smaller states of Germany, and of the Cantons of Switzerland. The 
 greater part of Ireland and of Russian Poland continue attached to it, without regard to the 
 opposite systems supported by the state. Tliat intolerance which gave birth to so many 
 struggles in attempting to extirpate the Protestant fiiith, has been greatly mitigated, and, 
 except in Italy and Spain, all professions enjoy an almost complete toleration. Tlie number 
 of Faman Catholics seems lO be fairly estimated at between 90,000,000 and 100,000,000. 
 The absolute authority of the Pope in matters of faith and worship, auricular confession, the 
 prohibition of tlie Scriptures in the vulgar tongue, and a splendid ritual colculated to dazzle 
 the eyes of the multitude, form the peculiar characters of the Roman Catliolic system. The 
 monstrous pretensions once advanceil to excommunicate and depose kings, and to grant indul- 
 gences to commit crime, seem now to be generally withdrawn. 
 
 Tlie Protestant or Reformed religion raised its standard early in the fifteenth century, and 
 made most rapid progress, especially in the north of Europe. It sought to purge Christianity 
 from the superstitious observances which ha<l enveloped it during many ages of darkness ; to 
 introduce a more spiritual and simple form of worship ; to break up the institutions devoted 
 to celibacy ; to deny human authority in matters of doctrine, and rest it solely on the found- 
 ation of Scripture, It had to maintain a dreadful struggle against the Romish see, which 
 armed in its cause all the great monarchs of Europe ; and in France and Bohemia, after 
 taking deep root, it was nearly extirpated. It has been finally established, however, in Great 
 Britain, in the Netherlands, the north of Germany, and tlie Scandinavian peninsula. Not- 
 withstanding its numerical inferiority, it now ranks among its votaries the most powerful, the 
 most opulent and the most intelligent nations of Europe and tlie globe. Its rejection of 
 human authority, and direct appeal to the Scriptures, have caused it to be split into numerous 
 sects and divisions. The most prominent is into Lutherans and Calvinists ; tlie Luthcraas 
 retaining still many of the Romish rites and doctrines, to which, in every point, the Calvinists 
 place themselves in the most decided opposition. The Englisli church may be considered a 
 sort of medium between the two, inclming nearer to tiie Lutheran. In the Protestant 
 countries, numerous smaller sects have asserted the right of private judgment, on which the 
 Refbrnintion was founded. Among these are tiie Anabaptists, chiefly in Germany, the Neth- 
 erlands, and England, whom Hassel perhaps underrates at 240,0(K) ; Methodists and Quakers 
 in Britain, estimated at I9(),(K)0 ; the Moravian brethren in Germany, 40,000. The Unita- 
 rians have an established church in Transylvania, comprising 40,000 souls, and are difliised, 
 openly or secretly, through tlie other European countries, especially Britain. 
 
 In learning, nrt Kcionce, all th** piirsiiits which dcvclope the intellectual nature of man, 
 wiiich refine and pnlirirn liis idens, Europe has fur surpassed every other continent The 
 enioiros of Southern and Eai-tcrn Asia alone liiive an ancient traditional literature, of which 
 
 85* 
 
 MP 
 
'HT*' 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 the remains are yet preserved. But, besides being now in a very decayed state, it never 
 included any autiientic history, sound pliilosophy, or accurate knowledge of nature. An 
 extravagant though sometimes ]X)ctical mytiiology, proverbial maxims of wisdom, and a 
 poetry replete with bold and hyperbolical images, compoHe almost its entire circle. The 
 science of Europe has been employed with equal success in exploring tiie most distant regions 
 of the universe, and in improving tlie condition of man in society. Astronomy, which else- 
 where is a mere mass of superstition and wild conjecture, has here not onlv delineated witli 
 perfect precision the situation and movements of the heavenly bodies, but has disclosed 
 numberless systems of worlds, of which without her aid the existence could never have 
 been suspected. Chemistry, which was formerly a mere collection of empirical receipts and 
 chimeras, is become a mighty science, which analyses the meet secret operations of nature, 
 and discovers important, and before unknown, substances. A similarly sound and compre- 
 1,^, hcnsive character marks her attainments in physical science, and in every branch of natural 
 
 ',i\ ,., history. In regard to poetic fancy, although some natural flights may be found among the 
 
 rudest tribes, and though the Orientals possess a peculiar vein of learned and studied orna- 
 ment, it is in Europe, during either ancient or modem times, that the polished and classic 
 models of poetical composition have been exclusively produced. 
 
 The invention of printing, and tlie consequent general diflusion of information among all 
 
 classes, are features especially European. By their means, in its enlightened countries, the 
 
 essential branches of knowledge are now placed within the reach of the humblest classes, 
 
 ^ and even tlie highest branches are not absolutely beyond tlieir attainment. The endowments 
 
 * for tlie support of learning are very extensive, founded in a great measure during the middle 
 
 ages, and bearing some stamp of the then infant state of literature ; but they are now adapting 
 
 i*f themselves to modern improvements. The extensive and extending institutions for the 
 
 T^ instruction of the lower orders have produced a general diflusion of intelligence, to which 
 
 in the other parts of the world, if we except America, there is nothing analogous. 
 
 The political state of Europe is also peculiarly fortunate. Elsewhere, with rare exceptions, 
 u turbulent anarchy prevails, or vast empires are subjected to the absolute sway of a single 
 despot. It is in this continent only that the secret has been found of establishing a regular 
 and constitutional liberty, in whicli the extremes of tyranny and licentiousness are equally 
 avoided. Even the absolute monarcliies arc generally administered with mildness, according 
 to legal forms, and afford to the bulk of the people a tolerable security of person and pro- 
 perty. The European states have also establisheil among themselves a balance of power, 
 wiiich sets bounds to the encroachments of any particular state, and has repeatedly rescued 
 the whole continent from the imminent danger of universal subjugation. The military and 
 naval [wwer has been raised to a height, to which none of the other continents can offer any 
 effectual resistance. A great proportion of them has now been conquered, occupied, or 
 colonised by Europe; and if the whole is not reduced under this condition, it is only through 
 distance and extensive deserts that many great countries still preserve their independence. 
 The geology of Europe will be more odvantageously treated of under its respective 
 countries. 
 
 Sect. III. — Botany. 
 
 The botany of Europe presents some general characters, which it may be important to 
 notice. In the preliminary observations, we have given a very general and rapid sketch of 
 the vegetable geography of the globe, taken in its more enlarged sense. We must now 
 survey it in its subordinate divisions; and the plan which we have prescribed to our- 
 selves, is, in the first instance, under the great principal divisions of the eartli, to mention 
 the more striking vegetable features ; and then, under each respective country, to give a 
 more particular statement of the plants belonging to it which deserve notice, either from 
 their extreme abundance, their rarity, their peculiar properties and qualities, or some circum- 
 stance of general interest. 
 
 The nature of the present publication only allowing us to consider, in a very general 
 way, tlie vegetable productions as connected witli their geographical distribution, we can- 
 not devote much space to what concerns the primary divisions. The artificial boundaries 
 of Europe, especially to the east and to the south, are of that nature that many of what 
 might otherwise be ranked among its more striking botanical features arc gradually blended 
 into those of Asia on the one hand, and of the north of Africa on the other. Liocal circum 
 stances, as we have already seen, affect the presence or absence of certain plants, to an extent 
 more than equal to that of any artificial geographical arrangement. Temperature, which 
 has so powerful an efl'pct upon them, varies in a regular progression upon a lofty mountain ; 
 ;* but it is not so in nil situations, and with the same regulr.rity, especially on tlie great conti- 
 
 nents-, upon the plains and low grounds. "Sometimes," says the elixnicnt Mirbel, "a chain 
 of mountains f()rms a barrier against the freezing winds of the north,* and receives and 
 
 * T» oTti? ppnt. iTi (he rutrnrnr' iin»th nf Pwpdni), ftirinir Ihc Ken, nrii! hnrkfil hy liifly hilH, otiven h;ivfi siirnROtletl 
 in Ihn (i|hmi nir, unci ripviiecl llinir fruit ; while, nl thn (liil.incR of fix Sninliiih iiiilo nnrtliwaril, Uio inhabiunli 
 clothi' thcinsrlvrs with TiirB in the v.intcr. to |irol>!ct thunimlVM Trom the suverity of tho cold. 
 
 ! f '1 
 
 fi 
 
[y general 
 
 we can- 
 
 Bundaries 
 
 ly of what 
 
 lly blended 
 »1 circum 
 I an extent 
 
 lire, which 
 
 linountain; 
 
 |r«;nt conti- 
 ' tt chain 
 
 Iceives and 
 
 Ive »\icce(>cleil 
 iiihabitanli 
 
 Book UI. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 206 
 
 rcfVacts upon the plants the heat which it dcriveH from the nolar rays; somctinios a parching 
 Hirocco fruin the south raisen the temperature ; in some places, the winters are tempered by 
 the proximity to the aea ; whilst at other times all these causes combined, produce a climate 
 BO mild, that, to Judge of its geographical position only by the indication of the thermometer, 
 wo should suppose its latitude to be much nearer the tropics than it actually is. Again, 
 continued plains of vast extent, exactly on a level with the sea, are of rare occurrence; and 
 if there be but an elevation of 1000 or 1100 feet, it suffices to proiUico a considerable reduc- 
 tion of temperature. This, in its turn, obtains an influence over the vegetable creation ; it 
 changes the line of the progress of plants in their migration ; it arrests them, and limits their 
 boundaries. Sometimes the northern species procc^ southward towards the tropics; some- 
 limes those of the south migrate northwards ; and sometimes groups belonging to both of these 
 
 tribes exchange countries, passing one an- 
 other ; each about to establish colonics in privi- 
 leged stations, in the midst of a vegetable popu- 
 lation to which they are no less strangers bv 
 their physiognomy than by their temperament 
 
 We shall here confine, as much as pos- 
 sible, our observations to a table, by M. Mir- 
 bel, of the pha-nogamous (or flowering) plants 
 of Europe ; to which have been adlled, for 
 reasons already alluded to, part of those of 
 Asia and of Northern Africa. He divides 
 the northern hemisphere into imaginary belts 
 or zones ; the equatorial, the transition tem- 
 perate, the temperate, the transition frozen, 
 and the frozen zones. The temperate transi- 
 tion, where European vegetation commences, 
 is limited, to the north, by the disappearance 
 of the Olive ; the temperate zone by the ces- 
 sation of the Oak; and the frozen transition 
 by that of the Fir {Piniis sylvestris) in the 
 west, and of the Spruce (P. Aides) in the 
 east. The frozen zone is divided into two 
 bands; the lowrr or muthern, and the upper 
 or northern. Both are entirely destitute of 
 trees ; but in the frst band are many shrubs 
 and suflhiticoso plants :* whilst in the second 
 scarcely any thing is foimd but small herba- 
 ceous plants ; and these cease where the Ime 
 of perpetual snow commences.f Here, too, 
 another im|K>rtant fact must be considered, — 
 that, in the frozen or arctic regions, almost 
 exactly the same flora is exhibited in Europe, 
 Asia, and America. 
 
 In the extent of country to which the following table is more peculiarly applicable, the 
 Owarf Palm (Chamarops humilUi), and the Date Tree {Phcenix dactylifera), (fifr. 86.), are 
 ■he plants that have the nearest approximation to a tro|>ical vegetation, and which are, of 
 
 course, the most southern. The plant which is found the 
 nearest to the pole, and which, there is every reason to 
 believe, ascends to it, is the Palmella nivalis (Hooker), 
 Red Snow (Jiff. 87.) of arctic navigators, belonging to 
 the Cryptogamic fiimily, and which will be more especially 
 noticed hereafter. In speaking of vegetat'on, however, 
 generally, and except tiio contrary is otherwise expressed, 
 the Cryptogamic plants ore not taken into account; partly 
 because wc are at present but imperfectly acquainted 
 with their extent or limits, and partly because they are not 
 fled s»now. of such general interest. 
 
 *ThR nhriiliby or siiflViitiRose plants nf the smithrrn hninl of tlin frozen none, lire fifteen willows : ihe Dwarf 
 nirrh {Betula Banol, the lliiiiible Iliiili (B. iiumila), the White Birch (JJ. alba)—lh\s Inst ia only found on tha 
 southern roasts ofOreoiilauil ; the Hoary llirch (H. infiino), the Juniper (.luniiicruH rommitni.i^ the Trailing; Azale 
 {A. proeHmlirna), the Blue Meniiesia (.W. rcfrulm). the IMum r"!"""^' ami f, lalifolivm, the Lapland Diapensia, 
 the DowMV Whiirtlclierry (Fii«ii?ii<m puk«.ircn.<\ the Marsh Whortli'herry (V. uligitioium), the Ueil (Cowberry (K 
 Vilis I<l,rn\ th ■■ I'ranlicrry (r. Oiycotro* , the (ilnucoiis Kiihnia, eiuht speries of llhoiloilenilron, thc> Alpine Arbu- 
 tus, the Crow iierry, the Common Heath, the Bhriihliy Pnteiililla, ami the Rowan Fir (Pyrui aucnpnria), on the 
 nuuthern shores of Greenland. 
 
 t Almost the only shriihhv plants of the northern band nf the tVo/.en zone, are the little Arctic Willow (8>/ii 
 foUtrii), the reticulated Willow (S. rctitulatB), and the I'oursideU Androuieila (.4 tetrcjona). 
 
 Boranui. 
 
 Data Trca. Dwarf Pa'm 
 
 <> 
 
 ti 
 
 ■'4 
 
 t 
 
 ■61 i 
 
 Ml 
 
290 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 COMPARATIVE TABLE 
 
 ^ 
 
 Part ID. 
 
 '.rv 
 
 ttt the phenogamout reitetatlon of n part of the Tsmperale TVaniitim Zmt (Palealine, Syria, Asia IMiiior, tat 
 tbe Caiicaiian regloiia; a portion of the north of Africu and llm inutli of Europe being comprised in tliia zone); 
 of the TTimptrati Zone (Central Euri>|H! as far as tliu UrnI Mniinlains and th« Ciispiuii S<!a. and parts of Tartarv 
 bordering upon that ten) ; of the 'rrannilian Frmcii Zone (Nurlliern Europii, Silmria, and Kniiitscliiilka) ; and all 
 the Frmen Zone (Polar Rufions) of the Old and Now World. Extracted from M. MirlHil'a table, in tliu Mem. iu 
 Museum d'HM. Jfat. de Parit. ! 
 
 9k 
 
 ^^m 
 
 > of Ritanl rsMlllM. 
 
 llM«>MttM, TnfclMt, ud ArntM. AlOldau... 
 
 OrwM, UnmlacM. 
 
 Mc«« CfparartM, 
 
 Knttn, lUMlVMt, 
 
 BMb«,JuMcai, 
 
 Watai^plaRUlm, AMimwaM. 
 
 AnmnM, Aa|«ra«tM 
 
 Cfltohkuna, Colcblr«MM 
 
 Ulin, UllaeMt, 
 
 Iftrrlipus, IfarclMcw 
 
 Ittl,IrMrM 
 
 Orrbta. UrobUvM 
 
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 BookUI. . EUROPK ''-i 297 
 
 In the temperate tranBition zone, out of 6103 epeciee, 1202 have been ascertained to be 
 woody, and 6808 herbaceous ; and of these latter 9861 are known to have perennial, and 
 2373 annual or biennial roots. 
 
 In the temperate zone, out if 3982 species, there are ^1 '.voody, and 3(f2!i herbaceous ; 
 of which 2010 arc understood to have perennial, and 944 annual or biennial roots. 
 
 In the frozen tiansition zone, out of 2129 species, are 103 woody plants, and 1030 herba- 
 ceous ; of which 511 are supposed to have perennial, and 363 annual or biennial roots. 
 
 In the frozen zone, of the 438 species, 46 are woody, and 392 herbaceous ; of which 371 
 are estimated to have perennial roots, and only 15 annual or biennial roots. 
 
 We have already stated that in the frozen or polar region the vegetation is very similar 
 ^ throughout the north of Europe, Asia, and America ; which mav in part arise from its 
 
 \ limited oxtciit, and from the continents approaching comparatively so near to each other. 
 ^ There must necessarily, too, be a greater equality of temperature than in the other zones ; 
 V. the vegetation everywhere appearing nearly upon a level with the sea. In Greenland, 
 ^houw estimates that there is hardly one-sixth of the plants that are not equally found in 
 Lapland. Of tlie genera of Greenland only two are not found in I^pland (Streplopus and 
 Ck^tis), and both occnr in North America. We shall, by-and-by, notice how analogous is 
 the vegetation discovered during Captain Parry's arctic voyages to that both of the European 
 and American continents, in corresponding latitudes. Even in Kamtschatka, one half of 
 the plants found by Wormskiold arc European ; and of the genera only eight or ten are not 
 European ; and they are North American. But, as we proceed from the Arctic Regions to 
 the south, wo find the vegetation gradually becoming more and more dissimilar between 
 America and Europe ; except, indeed, when the high mountains in the respective countries 
 are examined, and then the resemblance again appears. Pursh, whose flora comprises, to a 
 very limited extent, the plants of the arctic or sub-arctic regions, or of the lofty mountains 
 of North America, but is principally confined to Canada, and to those districts of the United 
 States whose latitude corresponds pretty nearly with that of the more temperate parts of the 
 European continent, has about one-seventh of his species only European ; and if the doubt- 
 ful natives, those probably introduced from the Old World, be taken into account, only one- 
 tenth: out of 716 genera of North American plants, 480, or two-thirds, also occur in 
 Europe, or in Northern Africa. 
 
 Schouw estimates the most striking disparities between the vegetation of the western 
 parts of the Old World, and the eastern parts of the New, to be as follows : — 
 
 1. The Cruciform (Jig. 88. a) and Umbelliferotu families (6) : those of the Pinks (c) and 
 Labiate flowers (jf) arc much the most numerous on the old continent. The first, in North 
 America, mny be estimated at oV, in Europe at about ^; and the otlier families may be 
 classed in the following proportions : — 
 
 Nonh Amertca. Fruce. Deanurk. 
 
 , . Umbelliferous - 3V tt 21 
 
 Pink Family jV Vs Ti 
 
 Labiate flowers ----- jV ■51 iV 
 
 2. Of the family with Compound flowers {Composita:), the groups of the Endives (<•) 
 Ci^ffi. gg (Cichoraceoi), and of the Arti- 
 
 "-^ -~ / chokf.s and Thistles {Cynaro- 
 
 cephala), are more abundant 
 in Europe; whilst, on the 
 other hand. North America 
 possesses such a number of spe- 
 cies of Michaelmas Daisy {As- 
 ter), and Golden Rod {Solida- 
 go), that they constitute one- 
 ___ third of the compound flowers 
 
 )>i!^^^ V CBH^'tiHiMiiS^ ISL^Ob ^jSkll^ °^ ^^ country, forming a 
 .^Kl^W^Mb. Ikl^wflBw^^ !/■» Jrrv SSffifUnJli^. striking feature in the vegeta- 
 tion of the United States, and 
 
 _3. I carrying the preponderance in 
 
 ^\3^ ''^. ^^J^JL^J^tKSIiflif^^^j^ [S^SXS^s^ favour of North America. 
 'l^^%^(^^^|^^^^g/^^10^^g', 3- I'he family of Bellflow- 
 '^<^^]|^^g^^ro^^^^^^fe^8,jy;^^^r ers(/)('Cflwpanti/flccg;)aboimd 
 
 "*'" of the Cardinal Flowers (Lo- 
 
 d ^^ beliacetE), in thg New. 
 
 4. Not a single species of Heath (g) is found in the new continent ; while, in the old, 
 immense tracts are covered with them ; but their places are taken in America by the Whor- 
 tleberries ( Vaccinia). 
 
 5. Both in North America and in Europe, the forests are constituted by the families of 
 Vol. 2N 
 
 .h 
 
f 
 
 296 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PartUI 
 
 the Conc-I)earin>; (,Con\fertB) und Amentaceous (_Amentace<e) trees ; but in America they fiir 
 exceed those of Curope in respect to the number of spccios. 
 
 6. In North America we tind the typce or representatives of many tropical families; 
 
 as, for cximple, of tiie Cactuses, Scitamineous plants, the Han;o {Cycadetc), the Custard 
 
 Apples {Aniwiwcea), the Sapindaceous, and the Melastomuce.ous plants: those are wholly 
 
 t wantiiiij; in Kiniilur latitudes in the Old World ; and in regard to many olliers, which are 
 
 •i^ common to both countries, such as the Palms, Laurels, Swallowworts (Asclepiadem), 
 
 J, Sumachs, Cassias, and Mimosas, they are more abundant, and generally reach a higher 
 
 northern Iiititude, in North America than in the Old World. In Europe, again, there are 
 
 fewer arborescent plants ; for, according to Humboldt, while North America has 137 trees 
 
 whose trunks reach the height of 30 feet and upwards, Europe possesses only 45 of that 
 
 character. 
 
 Siberia, Iwunded as it is on the side of Europe by the Ural Mountains, differs from the 
 latter country in a much less degree ; and it is mostly in North American genera that this 
 jt^ difference lies; aa in the presence of the genus Phlox, Mitella, Claytonia, &c. and in the 
 
 predomintinne of the tribes of Michaelmas Daisy {Aster), Golden Rod {Solidatro), Meadow- 
 Sweet {Spircptt), and especially of the Milkvetches {Astragalus) and Wormwoods {Arte- 
 misia), as well as (on account of the numerous saline lakes) the Goospfoots und Saltworts. 
 
 In the soulliern hemisphere, the vegetation is very dift'erent from that of Europe in the 
 corresponding degrees of latitude. In Southern Africa, Thunberg enumerates 118 species 
 which arc analogous to those of Europe ; which would probably be found considerably to 
 exceed the truth, if the species were accurately examined. Mr. Brown assures us that the 
 Alpine Catstail Grass {Phleum Alpinum) and the Moonwort Fern {Botrychium lunaria) 
 exist in the Banksinn herbarium, which were gathered in the extreme parts of South Ame- 
 rica : and the same accurate writer observed 45 European phoinogamous plants in Terra 
 Australis, of which 23 are dicotyledonous and 21 monocotyledonous, and 121 acotyledonous 
 or Cryptogamia; namely, 2 of the Fern family, 25 Mosses, 14 Hepaticm, 38 Lichens, 10 
 Fungi, 12 Alga;.* The very general distribution of plants of this class over the surface of 
 the globe, we have before, indeed, hod occasion to notice. 
 
 Sect. IV. — Zoology. 
 
 The zoological features of Europe, although sufficiently important to render this continent 
 a primary division of geographic natural history, are neither so extensive nor so varied as 
 those of more genial regions. We have already shown the propriety of including within 
 this range the southern parts of Africa bordering the Great Desert; while the western 
 provinces of Asia appear to partake both of the European and the Oriental zoology. It 
 might be imagined that such a division, including countries suffering by the extremes of 
 cold and boat, would present animals of the most diversified nature : but such is by no means 
 the case, at least to any great extent. The chief seat of this zoological province appears 
 to be on the southern side of Central Europe, towards the Alps, or those countries lying 
 between the latitudes of 40° and .50° N. ; as within these parallels the greatest proportionate 
 number of species appear to be found. It may, however, be more natural to consider this 
 zoological region as presenting three minor divisions: 1. The arctic ; 2. The central ; and, 
 3. The southern. 
 
 The arctic division will include Greenland, the islands of Spitzbergen and Iceland, and a 
 considerable part of Norway, Sweden, and Northern Russia. The central division may be 
 said to commence towards the northern limits of Scotland, and to reach the shores of North- 
 ern Italy ; or, more properly, to about the 45th degree of north latitude. The southern 
 range includes the whole of the Mediterranean countries. Northern Africa, and Asia Minor. 
 
 The animals more particularly belonging to the arctic circle are few in species. Those 
 dreary and inhospitable regions afford but little sustenance to ruminating quadrupeds, or to 
 insectivorous land birds ; while the intense cold is as inimical to vegetation as to the pro- 
 duction of insects. Yet these undisturbed solitudes are instinctively chosen by multitudes 
 of marine animals, as secure retreats from the interruption of man, for breeding and pro- 
 viding tor their young. The polar seas abound with innumerable water-fowl ; they congre- 
 gate and build among the rocks, whose surface they almost cover by their numbers. 
 
 Of the Herring, {fg. 89.) Pennant was among the first naturalists who believed that 
 
 the countless myriads which annually visit the northern 
 shores of Europe, migrated from the Arctic Ocean. 
 , The account given by this elo(iuent writer is so inte- 
 resting, that we shall repeat it nearly in his own 
 words: — "The great winter rendezvous of the herring 
 is within the arctic circle. There they continue for 
 many months, in order to recruit themselves afler the fatigue of spawning ; the seas within 
 that space swarming with insect food in a degree fnr greater than in our wnrniiir latitudes. 
 Thus renovated, this mighty army begins to put itself in motion in the spring. They appear 
 
 *nr Ihn 1<<| Hcnt)loclonou8 plaiita it may b» obicrvcd, lliat all, cici'iit one, liin Mnri«ili'a r|uuilrjr»li:i, am found 
 in Uruat Bniaiii. 
 
 nrititli Hnrrinf. 
 
Book I. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 200 
 
 Ptarmigan. 
 
 off the Shetland Isles in April and Mny : tiieso are only the forerunners of the prand divi- 
 bion, which comes in June ; and their appcurnnce is marked by certain si^^ntt, and hy the 
 numbers of birds which follow' to prey Ujwn them: but when the main body ttppro;i(;!iO!<, its 
 breadtl) and its depth are sucli as to alter the appearance of the vory occiin. It is divided 
 into distinct columns, of five or six miles in length, and three or four in breadth ; and they 
 drive the water before them with a kind of rippling. Sometimes they sink for ten or lifleen 
 minutes, then rise again to the surface, and, m bright weather, reflect a variety of splendid 
 colours, like a field of the most precious gems." 
 
 The zoology of arctic Europe has received much less attention than that of Northern 
 America ; we must, therefore, be somewhat concise on this head. Among the few original 
 writers who have treated on the fauna of arctic Europe, the learned and acute Otlio Fabri- 
 ciuB, many years a resident in those dreary regions, deservedly ranks foremost. He enumer- 
 ates thirty-two species of Mammalia as natives of Greenland, nine of whicii belong to the 
 genera ot Walrus and Seal {Trichecus and Phoca), and fifteen to the cetaceous order; thus 
 
 leaving but eight species of terrestrial quadrupedx, a propor- 
 tion at once explained by the wild and desolate nature of these 
 regions. The number of birds, comprehending such as are 
 occasional visiters, amounts to fifty-two. Seven of these are 
 rapacious, and five are referable to the families of Warblers 
 and Finciies (Sy/vi(i</(r and Fringillid<c); the remainder, with 
 the solitary exception of the Ptarmigan {fig. 00.), or Lago- 
 pus mvlus, belong to the wading and swimming orders, to 
 whose nourishment and increase the arctic solitudes are par- 
 ticularly congenial. Nevertheless:, by far the greater number 
 of these birds occur abundantly in more southern latitudes ; 
 and many extend their flight to the warm shores of tiie Me- 
 diterranean. Those species, in fact, which habitually live 
 within the arctic circle, as if by preference, are remarkably few, and offer no good founda- 
 tion to ground a belief that these regions constitute one of the primary groups in animal 
 geoffraphy. 
 
 The zoology of Central Europe may be said to commence towards the fiOth degree of 
 northern latitude, where a sensible change in tiie number and species of animals may be 
 perceived ; vegetation assumes a marked and decisive character ; and those animals which 
 depend for thoir support both on the produce of the earth and on the insect world are greatly 
 increased, at once in number and in species. Vegetables fiirnish nutrition to insects, and 
 seeds to birds: the former, again, become the prey of the latter; and thus 
 the supplies of nature are nicely and accurately balanced, with a just 
 regard to the preservation of all her creatures. The dark pine forests of 
 Norway, Sweden, and Lnpland are the most northern boimdaries of the 
 Woodpeckers; one of which (Ap/firnn» triductylus Sw.) is remnrkable 
 for having but three toes to its feet (Jig. 91.), and is more peculiarly a 
 native of these high latitudes. The insectivorous and omnivorous tribes 
 begin, also, to be common; while the wading and natatorial birds diminish 
 in numbers, though not in species ; for as they congregate at certain seasons 
 in the polar seas, so during winter they disperse themselves on the shores 
 of Great Britain and the Continent. We have no very precise informa- 
 tion as to the extreme northern range of those birds whoso chief metropo- 
 lis is in Central Europe ; and we are still deficient in a Fauna Scotica. 
 Most of the Arctic birds occur on the northern shores of Scotland, the islands of Orkney 
 and Shetland, and on the coasts of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. Miiller, in his Zoologio 
 Danica, enumerates 57 species of Mammalia, and 131 of birds, as natives of that kingdom. 
 Among the former, 3 only are marine, and 14 are Cetacets: while the land birds amount to 
 87, exclusive of 26 belonging to the rapacious genera of Eagles, Falcons, and Owls. On 
 comparing these numbers with those of the Greenland fauna, we observe, on the one hand, 
 a considerable diminution of marine Mammalia, and a very large addition to the list of 
 terrestrial birds ; this latter circumstance is easily accounted for, — they are not formed to 
 endure extreme cold ; and being dependent upon insects and seeds for their support, their 
 dispersion is naturally limited by the facilities afforded by nature for supporting life. Pro- 
 ceeding to those countries which lie towards the centre of Europe, there is a gradual aug 
 mentation of animal life : we may even trace this change in the local distribution of the 
 animals peculiar to the British islands. Many species, in every department of zoology, are 
 common in the southern and western counties of England, which are totally unknown in the 
 northern counties and in Scotland. Even among the domesticated races, a greater develope- 
 ment of structure under a more genial climate is apparent in the horse, the sheep, and the ox 
 of Britain, whon compared to those of the i.slands and mountains of Scotland ; while among 
 birds the gallinaceous genera, which, in the former climates, breed and live at all seasons in 
 the open air, are roare(l and preserved with Jifiiculty in countries farther north ; of these tho 
 peacock and Guinea fowl mav be cited as examples. 
 
 Thne.toed Wood^scker. 
 
 e 
 
 ||M 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 
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 $ 
 
 m 
 
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 M 
 
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 100 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part IU. 
 
 Brown Earopcen Bmr. 
 
 The Bouthem part of central Europe is, then, the field best cnlculated for studying the 
 peculiarities of European zoology. Commencing with the existing (|uudrupt<(lt>, we may 
 remurl{, tliat while two species alone appear to inlmbit the 6old regions of Denmark, there 
 are thirteen described as natives of France and the adjacent kinffdoms, seven of wiiicii have 
 been enumerated among British quadrupeds. The great wliitn Bcur, whicli is perhiipa more 
 July an arctic animal than any other, disappears on the southern shores of the Polar Sea, 
 and is replaced in temperate Europe by the common brown species. Of this genus tiicre are, 
 ccording to Cuvier, but two recent species belonging to Europe, the brown (_Jig. if2.) and the 
 black bear. Others imagine, with some show of reason, that 
 there are more ; as the varieties from the first are very remark- 
 I able. The second is the black bear of Europe, diflcring from 
 that of America in many important [wints of structure : only 
 one living example appears to have been seen and dissected ; 
 and this, having died in confinement, afiTorded no clue to a 
 knowledge of its haunts or manners. 
 
 The VVolf and the Fox, under different varieties or species, 
 appear generally distributed over Europe : to these we must add 
 the Lynx and the Wild Cat, as the onljr true rapacious or car- 
 nivorous animals that have been appropriated to this division of 
 the globe. The Lynx, once common in central Europe, is now 
 only known in some parts of Spain, the Apennines, and in the northern kingdoms. The 
 wild cat is still said to be a native of Britain, and is spread over other kingdoms on the Con- 
 tinent A recent author includes among the " extinct animals" of Britain tiic liysna and 
 tiger whose bones have been found in the caves of Kirkdale, as forming part of the modern 
 geographic distribution of animals. This hypothesis lies open to many and great objections. 
 If such formidable and terrific carnivorous animals have existed in Europe since the last 
 revolution of our globe, what others constituted their prey 1 Their food being flesh alone* 
 what were the other races of quadrupeds destined by nature to furnish them with subsistence 1 
 These questions must be first considered, before we can assent to an opinion so confidently 
 advanced. Whatever might have been the character of European zoology before the deluge, 
 certain it is, that in its present state it exhibits that harmony and consistency which peculi- 
 arly marks a wise provision for all created things. As the number of European Mammalia 
 is so disproportionably small, when compared with those of Asia, Africa, and America, so arc 
 the species which are to keep their own class under subjection feeble and few ; and tliis law 
 is not only apparent among quadrupeds, but is equally observable in every other division of 
 animals. Now, aa buds are much more numerous, we find that in addition to the natural 
 enemies in their own class, there is a group of quadnipcds more particularly destructive to 
 tlie feathered tribes. These are the MusIcUb, or Weasels; few perhaps in species, but im- 
 portant in their numbers, and in their powers of destruction. No less than eight species 
 mhabit different parts of Europe. Like the monkeys of the tropics, many of them climb 
 trees and suck eggs; and by thus destroying birds in every stage of life, from the egg to the 
 adult, are peculiany adapted to prevent an undue increase of numbers. 
 
 On the granivorous quadrupetls it may be observed, that although the woods of Europe are 
 deficient in that variety of pulpy fruits so abundant in tropical countries, and upon which the 
 numerous monkeys, bats, and other animals of those regions principally live, yet there is a 
 03 great diversity of nuts and grain. Hence we find a propor- 
 
 tionate number of small quadrupeds, whose subsistence en- 
 tirely depends upon these boimtiful supplies of nature: 
 under this head may be enumerated the Hedgehog, Squirrel, 
 and the various Mice, of which seven species belong to 
 Europe. The Beaver (Jig. 93.) is found in the vicinity of 
 the Rhone, the Danube, the Rhine, and other of the larger 
 European rivers. If naturalists are correct in considering 
 this to be identical with the American beaver, it is one of 
 tlie very few instances of the same species of animal inhab- 
 B«a»et. iting the temperate parts of the old and new continents. 
 
 The black bear of Europe was long confounded with that of America; and a similar differ- 
 ence may possibly exist between the beavers of the two continenta. 
 
 The different species of Mice, &c., now arranged under many genera, form an important 
 part of European zoology ; as will appear from the following list, furnished by Mr. Grifiitli 
 'rom the valuable Mammalogie of M. Desmarest : — 
 
 Arvicnia amphibiuB Water Rat. 
 
 arvalia Field Moiiso. 
 
 — — — Ailviia FiilvntiR riiltrt. 
 
 ortientorati^nsiii Htranbiirfr ditto. 
 
 Genryclm» Norve):icu8 Thn Leiiiniiiig, 
 
 ti'rrcstriii Land ditto. 
 
 MuB sylvatiriig Fiold Mouse. 
 
 ^— campcBtris Plain ditto. 
 
 MiiB muKuliia Hoiisn Moimr. 
 
 nii?88ariiiH Ilarv»!t ditto. 
 
 iiiiiiiitiiB Riiinll ditto. 
 
 niirariiiR Sntnic ditto. 
 
 Boririiiiis Sliri'W-liko ditto. 
 
 dichriiriiH Pnrtyoolmircd Rat. 
 
 iHlandicua Iceland ditto. 
 
 •'^ 
 
 Bo 
 
 » Tli 
 fan 
 
 oac 
 
 tog 
 
 spe 
 
 plel 
 
 / 
 
 norl 
 
 in t 
 
 Alp 
 
 Rtan 
 
 rupe 
 
 tict 
 
 ofC 
 
 taint 
 
 appe 
 
 exist 
 
 vario 
 
 some 
 
 tingu 
 
 althoi 
 
 the e, 
 
 Fr( 
 
 numb 
 
 being 
 
 anima 
 
 the re 
 
 Hamil 
 
 Full 
 
 Bcatteret 
 
 Then 
 
 are we a 
 
 towards i 
 
 't8 centn 
 
 tildes. 1 
 
 a defence 
 
 the middl 
 
 of the At 
 
 Oriole, in 
 
 but becon; 
 
 In the 1 
 
 of Spain, ] 
 
 bordering 
 
 On the , 
 
 saidjasthi 
 
 we genera 
 
 such as tht 
 
 the Medite 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
m. 
 
 I the 
 may 
 there 
 have 
 more 
 r Sea, 
 re are, 
 nd the 
 II, tliat 
 ;mark- 
 g from 
 i: only 
 iccled ; 
 le to a 
 
 speciei), 
 
 iU8t add 
 
 I or car- 
 
 rision of 
 
 , is now 
 
 8. The 
 
 the Con- 
 
 ffina and 
 
 > modern 
 
 jjectionB. 
 
 3 the last 
 
 sh alonci ' 
 
 gistence 1 
 
 luftdcntly 
 
 ic deluge, 
 
 ch peculi- 
 
 \fammalia 
 
 ica, so are 
 
 id this law 
 ivieion of 
 lir natural 
 iructive to 
 _ but im- 
 lit species 
 lem climb 
 igg to the 
 
 Europe arc 
 which the 
 there is a 
 _ propor- 
 stcnce en- 
 ' nature: 
 , Squirrel, 
 belong to 
 vicinity of 
 the larger 
 onsidering 
 ^ is one of 
 nal inhab- 
 lontinento. 
 ^ilar diflfer- 
 
 I important 
 Ir. (Jriffitli 
 
 lilitto. 
 led Rat. 
 
 ■^■• 
 
 BooeI. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 aoi 
 
 The Ilamstors, remarkable for their cheek pouches, and lielonging to the snmo natural 
 family as tlie mice, have their chief metroiKilit) in Siberia; yet one species {CHcrluii vuU 
 ffaria) extends to central and nortiiern Eurupu. Tlio Marmots (Arclomyn Marmnttii, Bo. 
 bac) are likewise nucivorous, and occur on Uie mountains of central and norttiern Europe, 
 together with the Spermophilua cUillug, or Soulisk of the Germans. Of tlie I lure, four 
 species are European, the snowy, the common, the calling, and the rabbit ; and these com- 
 plete tiie list of European Glireg. 
 
 Among ruminating quadrupeds, the Elk and Reindeer are well-known inhabitants of the 
 northern countries ; the latter giving place to the Fallow-deer, the Stag, and the Roebuck, 
 in the midland parts of Europe. In the lofly mountains and inaccessible precipices of the 
 Alps and Pyrenees, the Chamois, Yzard, and Ibex still live in partial security, notwith- 
 standing the daring intrepidity of their hunters. The Musmon is another European quad- 
 ruped deserving particular notice, as being generally considered the origin of all our domes- 
 tic breeds of sheep. It appears still to exist in a state of nature among the high mountains 
 of Corsica and Sardinia; and although now extirpated upon the continent, is well ascer- 
 tained to have formerly been common in the mountains of Asturia in Spain. Lastly, it 
 appears incontestable that the ox, one of Uie most valuable of nature's gifts to man, originally 
 existed in a wild state over the whole of Europe, but whether as a distinct species or mere 
 variety is still uncertain. The white ox of Scotland is a peculiar breed, still preserved in 
 some few parks of the nobility, and will be noticed hereafter. But a much larger race, dis- 
 tinguished by Hamilton Smith under the name of the Fossil Urus {Griff. Cuv. iv. 414.), 
 although, probably, in existence long after the invasion of Cojsar, is now only known, like 
 the elk of Ireland, by its gi^ntic bones. 
 
 From this brief enumeration of the European quadrupeds it will be perceived that their 
 numbers are too few, and tlieir original dispersion too obscure, to allow of any correct notions 
 being formed as to their natural distribution. With regard to the origin of our domestic 
 animals, and the several races, breeds, or varieties that have apparently sprung from them, 
 the reader must be referred to the writings of F. Cuvier, and the extensive resenrches of 
 Hamilton Smith, whose acquaintance with the order of ruminating animals, more particu- 
 larly, is, perhaps, superior to that of any other living zoologist. 
 
 The ornithological features of the zoological province to which Europe belonn^s, have 
 already claimed our attention. We shall, therefore, now merely notice a few circumstances 
 connected with the ornithology of central Europe. On the highest 
 summits of the Alps, and in the vast forests which clothe their sides 
 in Hungary, Switzerland, and the Tyrol, are found nil the four spe- 
 cies of European Vultures : only one of these, Vtiltur fnlvus (Jig, 
 94.), appears to have a range in countries farther north ; yet all are 
 distributed over the southern kingdoms, and two are again met with 
 on the northern lunits of Africa and western Asia. The Iceland or 
 gyr Falcon, long supposed to bo peculiar to the high northern lati- 
 tudes, is now considered the same with the Falco candicans of the 
 northern parts of Germany. The wide geogmphic range of the 
 rapacious order has already been odverted to ; nor do we find any 
 species besides the Vultures which serve to mark the ornithology 
 of central Europe. The forests of Germany, Austria, Switzerland, 
 and France appear to contain all the European Woodpeckers, which, 
 notwithstanding their wide dispersion, are but thinly and partially 
 scattered in the northern and southern kingdoms. 
 
 The range of the small insectivorous birds, or warbV.rs, requires much investigation ; nor 
 are we at this moment aware of any species in Germany which does not occur in Prance or 
 towards northern Italy. The few gallinaceous birds of Europe are nearly all found towards 
 its centre, although the different species of grouse seem to affect the more northern lati- 
 tudes. The warm covering of feathers which protects their feet, is peculiarly adapted as 
 a defence from the intense cold of the polar regions. The Bustards, on the contrary, occupy 
 the middle regions of Europe, and extend latitudinally fl-om the confines of Asia to the shores 
 of the Atlantic. The Bee-eater (Merops apiaster), the Roller, the Hoopoe, and the Golden 
 Oriole, in their annual migrations from Africa, visit all the central parts of the Continent, 
 but become progressively scarce as we advance northward. 
 
 In the third portion of the European range, we comprehend the south of France, the whole 
 of Spain, Italy, and Turkey, together with the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean Sea 
 bordering Asia Minor, and Northern Africa. 
 
 On the geographic range of the quadrupeds more peculiar to those countries, little ran be 
 said ; as the materials to be gathered from the relations of travellers unacquainted with zoolopy 
 are generally most imperfect. There is no evidence of the great northern ruminatinrj animals, 
 such as the Elk and the Reindeer, being found wild in any of the countries which border 
 the Mediterranean Sea, although a small species, probably the fallow deer or the roebuck, 
 Vol. I. 26 
 
 Folvoui Vullun. 
 
:w 
 
 .MrT. 
 
 8USI 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOTiRAPIIY. 
 
 Pamt ni. 
 
 1 
 
 IH 
 
 ii 
 
 in rcprowntnd m still to lie met with in thn oxtonHJvo fiiroHts nf Calabria. The Porcupine, 
 now wild in IhiiM) countrim, in supposed, (but with a slicrht nlinw of reason,) to have been 
 intnxliicod rtoni AtVira; but for what purpose we are unuilbrnii'd. Thn Huffalo is domesti- 
 ciUcmI ill (Jrocpn luid Turkey, and somcpiirtsof southern Italy ; where it is sometinics, though 
 rarely, iHi'd for draujfht. 
 
 Tin' (irnitliolojry of the rountries bordering upon the Mediterranean presents many 
 mteri'stin;,' peculiarities. The vultures, which are seldom found northward of the Alps, 
 (tccur niciro ireiiunntly as thn climate becomes wanner. This tribe appears to follow the 
 cours(- of the Apennines iti Italy, and of the higher mountains of Spam and Greece, from 
 whence they extend their ranjfo to Asia Minor and northern Africa. The Imperial Eagle 
 {Fako imperialin Tern.) is chiefly found in southern Europ«), while the Gohlen Eagle is 
 iiuich more numerous in the colder latitudes. The gigantic (Vwls of the polar regions are 
 hero unknown ; but two or three homed spccipfi, of diminutive size, follow the migratory 
 troops of smaller birds in their annual journeys across the Mediterranean. Two of these 
 small owls have not yet been described. In the extensive family of the warblers, ' many 
 appear ])eculiar to Italy, Spain, Sicily, luid Sardinia ; and in the latter Mand there has recently 
 ~ been discovered a second species of European Btarl ing ( Sturnu* 
 
 unicolor Tem.) (Jig. OTy) The grouse of northern Europe are 
 rarely, if ever, seen. But two species of bustard {Olis Tetrao 
 and Ilmtbara) seldom met with farther north, are common in 
 Spain, Italy, and Turkey. Hero also we first meet with the 
 African and Asiatic genera Cur»oriu» and Hemipodiui ; birds 
 which delight in the dry and arid plains of those continents, 
 where they run with amazingswiflncBS. The rocky and un- 
 cultivated wastes of Spain, Turkey, and Asia Minor, furnish 
 two species of rock grouse (Plerocles) long confounded with 
 Biurnui Unicflior. that northern genus, of which it is the representative in warm 
 
 climates. The beautiful Wall-creeper, with its bright rosy wings, although rare in other 
 parts of Europe, is not uncommon in Italy ; while the Golden Oriole, the Bee-eater, the 
 Hoopoe, and the Roller, four of the most beautiful Etiropean binls, are so abundant in the two 
 Sicilies during the spring and autumnal migrations, that they may occasionally be seen hang- 
 ing in the poulterers' shops of Naples and Palermo. The union of the African, European, 
 and Asiatic ornithology on the coasts of the Mediterranean is further apparent among the 
 water-birds. The Pelican, the Spoon-bill, and the Flamingo, are still to be met with in these 
 countries ; although, from their large size attracting tlie sportsmen, they arc never seen in 
 anv considerable numbers. 
 
 Die European reptiles are too few to afford any material illustration of animal diatribution. 
 The mo.st remarkable forms and the greatest numerical proportion occur in southern Europe, 
 particularly in Italy and Greece, and the islands of Sicily and Malta : some of these, as the 
 Gecko, or house lizards of Naples and Sicily, belong to genera not met with farther north, 
 but common on the opposite shores of Africa and Asia Minor. 
 
 The fish and other marine animals of the Spanish and Portuguese coasts bordering on the 
 Atlantic have not been well investigated, and our slight acquaintance with them is insufficient 
 to give us uny correct idea of tiieir nature ; but on entering the Mediterranean, we find, at 
 Gihriiltar, many of those peculiar to much more southern latitudes. Spain and Portugal 
 nimuit be said, like England, France, or Holland, to have national fisheries ; but no sooner 
 do we pass Gibraltar, than these natural sources of prosperity and plenty are agoin opened 
 to the industry and support of man. The enormous shoals of Anchovies, (Jig. 96.) annually 
 
 employ, in their capture and preparation, a great number 
 of persons: ond the exportation of this highly flavoured 
 little fish, to all parts of the world, creates an important 
 branch of permoncnt commerce. The Herring apd, we 
 believe, the Pilchard, are not unknown in the fish-mar- 
 kets of Sicily and Malta; but, notwithstanding their 
 abundance in northern Europe, tJicy are scarce in the Mediterranean, and never seen in any 
 considerable numbers. The tunny fishery is peculiar to Sicily, although there is very little 
 doubt that the some fish frequents the shores ond islands of the Peloponnesus ; yet the tota' 
 disregard of the Turks to all sources of national wealth blinds them to this, and to every 
 other advantage which Nature has placed within their grasp. The Ichthyology of southern 
 Europe is certainly of a more marked and peculiar character than any other department of 
 European zoology. Of nearly 1.% species observed in the Mediterranean Sea, not more 
 than one-third belonged to the Ichthyology of Great Britain and northern Europe. 
 
 The Turtle of the Mediterranean is that described by authors under the name of Testudo 
 carella : writers have uniformly copied each other in asserting that this ia the same as the 
 Loggerhead Turtle of the West Indies ; and that its flesh is coarse, rank, oily, and not 
 
 ;^gSg*(sis.i 
 
 AnehOTT. 
 
 % 
 
 a 
 On cor 
 
rin. 
 
 ipine, 
 
 occn 
 
 mcBti- 
 
 liough 
 
 many 
 
 Alpe, 
 )W ino 
 <, from 
 
 Eagle 
 agle ia 
 onB are 
 igrntory 
 )f these 
 s, many 
 recently 
 dturnwi 
 irope ore 
 , Tetrao 
 nnmon in 
 with the 
 u$ ; birds 
 mtincnts, 
 f and nn- 
 )r, furnish 
 jded with 
 B in worm 
 > in other 
 ■eater, the 
 ; in the two 
 seen hang- 
 
 Enropean, 
 among the 
 ith in these 
 vcr seen in 
 
 listribution. 
 ;rii Europe, 
 icse, as the 
 ther north, 
 
 ring on the 
 insufficient 
 we find, at 
 id Portugal 
 t no Booner 
 jtiin opened 
 }.) annually 
 •eat number 
 ly flavoured 
 n important 
 ng and, we 
 le fish-mar- 
 nding their 
 seen in any 
 8 very little 
 ^et the tota' 
 nd to every 
 of southern 
 lartment of 
 la, not more 
 
 of Tettudo 
 jimc as the 
 fily, and not 
 
 Book I. 
 
 edible. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 .4v 
 
 8(n 
 
 Lo«(mI>miI Tattlt. 
 
 Tho acc iracy of both these atatcmentii may bn nucstioncd. Whutcvcr may be the 
 qualition of the Woat Indian Ixigffcrhead, wo know, flom 
 personal experience, that the flcidi of thu Me<litcrranoan 
 species ia delicioua. V\'o were once lH<cnlniod off tho iHle 
 of Elba, and in one morning captured a tiutficient number ot 
 ^^ small turtle to supply tlio cabin tublo (Jir u week. They 
 '^ mode exquisite soup; and although one of tlio cuiiipuny wai< 
 ill, it aroHO fl-om repletion. Wn omitted to draw and dcKcribo 
 tho animal, from a Dclief that it was the llawk'n-bill Turtle, 
 tho only species described as inhabiting the Mediterranean; 
 the figure given by Gottwold (.fig- 97.) has been considered, 
 by Dr. Shaw, aa representing the Tvitudo carettu. 
 Of European insects, a bare enumeration of the gcneru would alono fill a vuluiiio; and in 
 tho half-artitlcial, half-natural, arrangement in which our entomological syttteiiiH at this 
 moment remain, it is impossible to form any precise idea oven on the natural distribution of 
 tlio families. As we approach the provinces of southern Italy and tho Pclu|)onncijUs, we 
 And many genera which more properly characterise Western Asia and Africa ; while, in 
 99 Sicily and Malta, the geodephacous groups, particularly the 
 
 Linneean Carabii, are diminishoa; apparently in species, but 
 certainly in numbers. It is in these countries that tiio Ants, 
 those universal scavengers of nature in tropical countries, begin 
 to appear in almost every situation, and to perform tlioHo otTices 
 which in more temperate regions have been uMbigned to the 
 Gendephaga, Brachelylra, and Necrnphagu among coleopter- 
 ous insects. Most of the northern Butterflies {Papilioncs Sw.) 
 Cienpatrt'i Buiierflf. gjQ common even in Sicily, whore, notwithstanding a dissimilar 
 
 vegetation and a more heated atmosphere, we find only three or four species unknown to 
 the British fauna : among these, the Gonepteryx Cleopatra {fig. 08.) or Cleopatra's Butter- 
 fly, much resembles a British species, but has the middle of the anterior wings of a rich 
 orange. 
 The Radiated animals of tho Mediterranean are particularly numerous ; the many liar- 
 • hours, coves, and sub-immersed rocks, sheltered from tlioso violent 
 commotions which agitate the mighty Atlantic, afford them secure 
 protection, and contribute to their rapid increase. Their investiga- 
 tion, hitherto much neglected, offers a wide ticid fur the discoveries 
 of naturalists who can study them in their native seas. Numerous 
 ; species of Sea Anemone, or animal flowers, unfold themselves in 
 the crevices of the rocks; one of these {fig. 09.), ornamented witii 
 rich purple, is particularly common on all tho shores of Sicily. 
 
 The tubular and cellular polypes, whoso habitations arc termed 
 corals and corallines, are generally abund- 
 ant in warm latitudes. Among tliese a 
 vast number of species occurs on the ' 
 shores of Sicily, Italy, and the Greek 
 Aiiiinni Fiiitvcn. islands, which do not inhabit the British 
 
 coasts. Sicily, for many ages, has been celebrated for its fisheries 
 of the true red coral {fig. 100.); and it still affords employment at 
 certain seasons to many fishermen : but the produce of the old 
 grounds of late years has materially diminished, through want of 
 care and duo preservation. The Bay of Naples likewise produces 
 this beautiful substance, but the pieces usually found are small, and 
 in no groat abundance. 
 The Molluscous animals or shell-fish of southern Europe are in 
 101 great variety ; and are much prized by 
 
 all classes, as general articles of food. It is no uncommon thing 
 
 to see from twelve to fifteen diflerent sorts of shell-fish, none of 
 
 a small size, exposed in the principal market at Naples; and we 
 
 have been assured that double this number are not unfrequcntly 
 
 served at the tables of the higher ecclesiastics and nobility of 
 
 Tarentum during Lent, that city being higlily celebrated tor its 
 
 slicll-tish. The Solen atrigilatus {fig. 1()1.) is abundant sit 
 
 Siiicn stritiiuiiis. Naples, and considered most delicate food. 
 
 On comparing the conchology of the Mediterranean with that of Britain, there does not 
 
 appear so much difference as at first might have been imagined ; nor are we aware of more 
 
 than three or four genera in those southern latitudes of which examples have not been found 
 
 in the British seas. Yet, on descending to species, the difference is much greater. Perhaps 
 
 Kcd Coral. 
 
 k'lM 
 
i«taidlfai 
 
 I ill 
 5'' 
 
 iRi. 
 
 4 
 
 804 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PAmxin. 
 
 two-thirdM or throo-flfthii oflho Mcditcrruiionn hIioIIh havo brnn fi)iiii<l in thn Chnnnnl, and on 
 tlio wnntorn or other cnaiiU (if BriUiii. Tho rcmaininif portion imlionti! BBtrotijf ullinity with 
 tlio coiiciiolofry nf India and tlio Ui<d Hon on ono hand, nnd that of Africa, townrdn Menogal, 
 on tho otht-r. Tlio (luviptilo iipecio* are nio«t numrroiia in central Europe, whero tho hwt 
 ofmnniiier iM Ii-ms calculated to dry up thoMO Rnmll poola ami siiallow Ktreanm, in which moat 
 of tiieKO univnlvo inolluKa delight to dwell. Tha fluviatilo bivalven nro few ; but aro of 
 Hiiecios wh ch Honin [mculiar to tho Europ«!an range. Independently of thoao common alik* 
 to Hritnin and the Continent, thcro aro other* in Franco and tho miuth of Enron*! (Jg. 108). 
 Uiiw littnrnU» (n) and the true V. balava (.6) aro common in tho Heine | and wo have recoivoi] 
 another Nhell from near Gibraltar, which wo miapoct to bo a now ipocica, intemiodiato be 
 I^'^ -^^ii^^m. b .^Mkw tweon tho latter and ovalui ; wo name it 
 
 proviiiionally Vnio inlermediui (r, c), 
 'I'iio Cephalopoda, or cuttle-nih of 
 
 tho 
 
 Mediterranean, thouifh not of many apccioi, 
 arc Dometimeii fuimd in prodiginua numberi, 
 and fre<|uently vrow to an enonnouM hIzo. 
 Tho zoolofry of tho Black and Caspian Sou 
 ia very little known. 
 
 Tho phosphorexccnco of tho Mediterra- 
 nean ia at timcH ho brilliant, that it cxcitea 
 tho admiration of all vovagera; it therefore 
 
 rj ,11 J deacrvca to be particularly mentioned. Thia 
 
 Rivnr iiivaivn stM-iii. phenomenon, ia cntiroly produced by various 
 
 marine nnimnlH. Hpix, tho Bavarian naturaliat and traveller, in his poaanfro down the Modi* 
 terrancan, cauaod aevoral buckets to be filled with thia luminoua water; and tho followin); 
 results attended hia experiments : — 
 
 Th'iao luminoua animalcula odhcrcd to whatever waa wetted with the water, and continued 
 to ehinc thereon ; tho buckcta, when ahakon, appoarinjr full of luminoua particlea. Tho 
 water, examined by a inicroacopc, waa filled with little bodies, aomo roundiiili, acme oblon)r, 
 nnil f^enerally almiit the aizo of a poppy-accd ; each of theac had, at one end, a i<mall navel- 
 likn opcninjr, encircled by from six to nine delicate filamcnta which float within tho bladder, 
 and witli which tho animal aeoma to attach itaclf to other bodies, and to aoizo ita nourish- 
 nicnt. In tho inside of these bladdcra tlioro were many other Rmall'Harker points, crowded 
 toi^cthor on ono side, or here and there aomo larger onea, which might be either tho remains 
 of smiillr>r animals which they hod awallowed, or their own spawn. These globular anitnal- 
 pula (which Spix considers to be of the nature of MctluHo;) have been named by I'eron and 
 Lechcnault Arcthuaa pelagka, and by Savigny Noctiluca miliaru. They swim in greater 
 or loss numbers at nignt, but in tlie sunshine they appear to tho naked eye like little drops 
 of grease. When put into a vessel they soon dio and fiill to tho bottom ; when they come 
 near together, they appear involuntarily to attach each other, so that they form whole groupa. 
 The aame phenomenon is aomctimoa observed in tho day-time, when the aky ia dark, which 
 rarely happens : as these animals aro seldom found in water taken up in the day-time, it ia 
 probable they then sink to the deptha of tho ocean, and only return near the aurfacc towards 
 night {Sptx, Trav.) 
 
 Other luminoua bodies resemble balla oa large oa a nut ; and every wave atriking a ship, 
 when filled with these animals, lights up all surrounding objects. Bcsidoa thcae, there are 
 aomctimca inaulatcd luminous bladders, like fiery balls, a foot in diameter, which rise singly 
 above the water ; and the striking of two waves together produces a shallow bluish atreak 
 of light, resembling tho reflection of lightning on the water. {Spix, TVav. i. 44. 47.) 
 
 The quadrupeds of Europe, according to tho most recent distribution of the species (jOriff. 
 Cull.), under tho modern aiviaiona, compriao about ninety species, arranged under the fol- 
 lowing genera and sub-genera. To these rauat be added the fish-quadrupeds, or Cetacee, 
 chiefly inhabiting the high northern latitudes : — 
 
 
 Snn . . 
 
 
 Lom . . . 
 
 . . 1 
 
 Mtohh . . , 
 
 . .9 
 
 
 Mymle . . 
 
 
 full . . . 
 
 . . 1 
 
 m'h .... 
 
 . . ■ 
 
 ainoliihiil ... 2 
 
 T.l|« . . 
 
 
 yr : : : 
 
 . .* 
 
 CricMu . . 
 
 . .1 
 
 Rnrntus .... 1 
 
 l'r.J» . . 
 
 
 . . 1 
 
 nerblUw . . 
 
 . . 1 
 
 Va^MKIlin ... 13 
 
 Mela . . 
 
 
 i.yii . . . 
 
 . . 1 
 
 A>paU<. . . 
 
 . . 1 
 
 
 Uulo. . . 
 rnlnriui . 
 
 
 C>i«<r . . . 
 Anrlcnta . . 
 
 . . 1 
 . . 4 
 
 Sriunjf . . . 
 
 . .1 
 
 Krioucui . . . . S 
 
 M«nn . . 
 
 
 Gwrrchn . . 
 
 . . 1 
 
 rtUDin;! . . 
 
 . . 1 
 
 llj«rii. . 
 
 I.rpiu . . 
 
 Ujiomya . 
 
 Onrtif . . 
 
 ADIIInp« . 
 Riipricapim 
 
 Capn . . 
 
 0,li . . 
 
 Tvava . . . . 
 
 Mwim. 
 Phom . . . . 
 TrlrhflOM , , . 
 (Xarla . . . . 
 MirauDgi. . . . 
 
 The genera of European birds, in reference to our former remarks on the geographic dis- 
 tribution of animals, deserves particular attention. Those marked * ore typical of fiimilica or 
 sub-families; thoaef include sub-genera, or subordinate variotions of structure to which we 
 shall not attach a distinct patronymic name ; cither because the higher pfroups have not been 
 aufticiently analysed, or because these subordinate forms have been mistaken for genera. 
 Decided stragglers arc excluded ; other genera, of uncertain rank, are not marked. The 
 typical genera of tho wading birds have not yet been ascertained. 
 
 Tlio 
 extinct, i 
 in Bolgiii 
 2. Ancien 
 Proper, 
 of Ireland 
 Cambrian 
 and now ^ 
 three prim 
 od fKiin til 
 since nlwn 
 tlio C,l/o-. 
 de.scon<l(int 
 Arinorica. 
 
 
 ^lllir. 
 
a iihip, 
 jicte are 
 ^0 singly 
 |h streak 
 
 Is (Oriff- 
 the fol- 
 >tacete, 
 
 . . I 
 
 Iphic d'lB- 
 Imilies or 
 vhich wc 
 I not been 
 genera, 
 bd. The 
 
 Door I. 
 
 • VnllMf 4i^l 
 
 H<ll>>'i> *>ii<. 
 
 iairr 
 
 • r«l'" 
 
 jtlnw 
 tMrU 
 
 fniiriirtm. 
 
 SipHmuUui 
 lllruii'lii 
 Cyuwlu) //i. 
 
 • AInil" 
 
 EURors. 
 
 • MtlM-ICAUl 
 
 • u • 
 
 • Mtnila any. 
 ( inctiii 
 
 • OricliM 
 •miu'.iU 
 Vrfihre* .^'r. 
 I'tHonlntn >l«. 
 
 • miiloniaU Xi« 
 t CiimiAi ■••*. 
 
 • t!i,l(l< l.m. 
 
 • t l^na /.M. 
 Accitnlitr vmA. 
 
 HiKlktai ( Ml>. 
 
 • »l>>urill> /.III. 
 t Anthw *<rA. 
 
 • HmubKllli (rU. 
 
 • * Al4gd» 
 
 • IKliWrTH 
 •CwlwIM 
 
 t rVrlit«>tl«ffMf 
 
 • fyrrtiiiU Cu«. 
 
 • llHiriHN 
 
 • t Pw..r n -n. 
 N<Kirrt(« ■».!, 
 
 • t CervtM 
 
 Ir^filut (. iw. 
 
 tk>ii<lr<>i->>pu* .t'wi 
 AiHrrixw .<(U'. 
 I [ir]r«t|>llliH Hw, 
 
 • NilU Alt*. 
 
 • (■rliu tin. 
 TU|iM,tr'4iui 
 TroKl'NlytM 
 
 ; • rtwpa ;.«fi. 
 
 l-«n>u'' ^'•l'' 
 
 I •r«4uii.U t, . 
 
 * t Sitl&Jkii* i.tak 
 
 • Wr.lis /.in. 
 
 II.-. w., f. 
 
 (if'i- 
 
 ~h\U 
 
 i>h<cfti> li'f riM £.ifk 
 Tinuiut Lm, 
 I NuuianliM *na. 
 
 I t T>lainii VmM. 
 
 ' llMiiri>in>«irM 
 
 < StwhMlvt CMIh 
 
 Mh.lih.i..* 
 
 Kxltu« 
 Cnct Sl»4; 
 
 ri%llimila«r)*, 
 
 Tifhy In. mm /J. 
 tilriiwitti /W. 
 I Irtniri, /- 
 V«irlliw Mr,*. 
 t( MrhlrliM /tn. 
 
 I lllmMtopw VrH, 
 
 ' • y AiMr 
 
 • f Amm 
 
 • t Mirfw 
 
 t Cum.* 
 
 (nlvHibu* 
 t I'ru 
 
 MtTNtiill \\L 
 
 • AtP« 
 Milioiii///. 
 |h«|iiirii« /If. 
 
 • I'vlKariiH J^iMl. 
 
 • Slum. L. 
 
 •L. ., /.. 
 (.Mint /U. 
 I'nf.lUtU /,. 
 l*t«wwJlaf* 
 
 Skct. v. — Languages, 
 
 Europo, con«ulcro<l in repfard to its lanfj^aufOM, coniprulieiulH tho whole globe, Uiruii^h those 
 imnioiiHti culonif38 which liuvo buuii fuiinduiT by tho natioan of thin cuntuient in ovory othor 
 quarter or* tho worhl. 
 
 Tho European lun^uaffOH, ancient and modern, fonn nix tlunitieti: — 1. Tho family of tho 
 Pierian lanj^uajfes; ii. That of tho (UUic lanffuai^OH; !J. That of tho Thraco-Pdangic or 
 Grtvcii-Latin hnifjfuagcs; 4. Tlio family uf tho Germanic lan^ua^fOH; 5. That of the NWa- 
 vonic languaKCd; 0, Tho family of tliu Vralian languages, conununly callud tho FinnUk or 
 Chudir, 
 
 SUMECT. 1. 
 
 Tho Iberian or IkMiiio fhmily Ima boon ilividnd into tho two following branciirs : — 1, 
 Ancient liin^fungog long extinct, under which nrn classed tho idioms spoken by tho Ik-riani 
 in the (rreatcr [mrt ot tlio Spanish peninsula, in southern Gnul, and in some piirts of Italy 
 and its three i^ruat iHhimis. 2. Anciiuit hin{;un|;es still living ; of which thn only one remain- 
 injy is tho Etcuarn or Batquc, formerly sjiokcn in a largo portion of Spain niul of southern 
 Oaul, and now spokon only by tho VuKconf^iulos or ttaixiwn in tho Spanish provinces of 
 Biscay and Navurro, ond in some parts of tho south of Friincp. Tlio DnHijues are tlio 
 doscondanta of tho ancient Vascones. Their hinguagc, which resembles no othor European 
 idiom, though it has adopted several Latin and somo German words, appears to have a certain 
 affinity to tho Shomitic languages, and, in its conjugations, some analogy to tho langugcs of 
 America. 
 
 SvMECT. 2. 
 
 Tho Celtic family exhibits, like tho Basque, two branches: — 1. Ancient lan/'im^'os long 
 extinct, among which aro clussed tho idioms si)uken by tho numerous Celtic nations in Gaul, 
 in Belgium, in tho British Isles, in parts of Germany, Italy, and also Galatia in Asia Minor. 
 2. Ancient languages still livimr, of which tliero aro two: 1. Tho Gallic, Gnrlic or Celtic 
 Proper, spoken in different dialects by tho descendonts of the true Celts, in a liirge portion 
 of Ireland, in tiie itighlands of Scotland, in tho Hebrides, and in tho Isle of Mun. 2. The 
 Cambrian or Cclto-Belgic, formerly spoken by the Cymri or Belgie in Belgium acid Britain, 
 and now confined to a part of Englund and Franco. In this language are distinguished 
 three principal dialects: tho Wvhh, siyjken iiiul written by the peojilo of that name descend- 
 ed fniin the ancient Britons; tho Cnrnish, formerly spoken throughout Cornwall, but extinct 
 since alwut the middle of tho last century ; nnd the Bas-Bretoii, culled also by French writers 
 tho CtilD-lireton, s|)okon in tho part of Franco formerly called I/jwer Brotague, by the 
 descendants of those British fugitives who, in the fiflh. century, sought roAigo and settled in 
 Arinorica. The Ban-Breton has many sub-dialects and varieties. 
 
 SCBSECT. 3. 
 
 The numerous family of tho Grnjco-Latin languages may be divided into four branches : 
 I. The nii/rian ; II. The Etruscan ; III. The Hellenic ; IV. The Italic, including the Latin, 
 the Romaic or Roniaiio-Rustic, the nKxIcrn Italian, tho French, tho Spanish or Ciistilinn, the 
 I'orf'iguese, and tho Valaciue or Wallachian. 
 
 I. 'i'lie Tliraco-Illyriiui branch includes all those Thracian nnd Illyrian nations once seated 
 in Asia Minor west of the river Halys, nnd in Europe all over its eastern portion, from Nori- 
 cum, occupied hy Celtic tribes, to tho mouths of tho Donube and the Dnieper, and even 
 beyond. Of those nations, long extinct, or confounded with others, the principal were tin; 
 Phrygians, the Trojans, tho Bithynians, the Lydians, the Carians, the Lycians, the Cinunerii, 
 the Tauri, the Tlirueians properly so called, the Ma?si, the Goto?, the MaccdonianF, the 
 ancient Illyrians, among whom wero the Dalmati nnd tlie Istri, the Pannonians or Pieones, 
 the Veiipti, and tho Siculi. In this branch, according to M. Maltc-Brun, rnay be not impro- 
 perly placed — 
 
 The Albanian, sjwken in Albania and otlicr countries by tho Skipatar, named Arnnuts by 
 
 Vol,. L 26* 20 
 
 (,i? 
 
 M 
 
 \n 
 
■■^- 
 
 - ■ ■* s^-SXSt9 
 
 sMir 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 the Turk?, and generally known under the name of Albanians. They form the principal 
 impiilation of Albania, aiui are scattered throughout European Turkey, especially in Rou- 
 melia, liiilgaria, and Macedonia; others on the Slavonic military confines of the Austrian 
 oin|)ire, and others in various j)art3 of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. This Scyp, or 
 Albanian language, according to M. Malte-Brun, appears to be fornicd of one-third of ancient 
 (Jreck, especially the jfJolic dialect, one-third Latin, and one-third of an idiom not yet ascer- 
 tained, probably the lllyrian. The Albanians have three different alphabets: one sacred or 
 hieratic, now fallen into disuse ; another, the Greek alphabet ; a tliird, the modern Italian or 
 litttin. 
 
 II. The Etruscan, (wo are here reminded of the Osci and Heterosci, quasi Elrusci ?) 
 spoken by the Etrurians, called also Tyrrhenians by the Greeks. This nation, according tc 
 some, appears to have been a mixture of Rhietian Celts with the Aborigines of Italy. The 
 Etruscan alphabet was the same with the primitive alphabet of the Greeks ; it had sixteen 
 letters, niul was written from right to lefl. 
 
 III. The Pelasgo-Hellenic, including the idioms in ancient times spoken by the famous 
 Pelusgi and Hellenes, long since incorporated with other nations. The people of early 
 origin who may with probability be classed under tliis branch are, the Pelasgi, the Lelegcs, 
 and other tribes enumerated by ancient geographers among the population of Greece and its 
 isles, especially the Gra>ci, originally a small community of Thessaly, but remarkable for 
 having given name to the whole of that celebrated nation, whose language wos — 
 
 The Hellenic, or ancient Greek, formerly spoken in Greece and its dependencies, and 
 at a later period in a great part of Sicily, Lower Italy, Asia Minor, Egypt, and its dependen- 
 cies, in part of Gallia Narboncnsis, and in other districts bordering on the Mediterranean. 
 
 During the Macedonian empire the Hellenic wos spoken at all the courts of the descend- 
 ants of Alexander, and by persons of distinction in all the countries subject to the Macedo- 
 nians. In a subsequent age, it was studied by all the most distinguished subjects of the 
 Roman empire, and was the prevailing idiom in the East until the fall of Constantinople, at 
 which period it was studied witii reneweu ardour in the West. In this language, 270 years 
 befbrc Christ, was written the famous version of the Hebrew Scriptures called the Septua- 
 gint ; in this language also was the Gospel promulgated by the Apostles ; and it thus became 
 tor ever sacred. It appears not the least wonderful among the dispensations of Providence, 
 that the light of Christianity should have been originally diffused under the most powerful 
 empire and in the most cultivated language of the ancient world, and that it should prevail 
 notwithstanding the power of the one, and the learning and philo.sophy for which the other 
 was .so proudly distinguished. The literature of the Groek.«, comprehending some of the 
 finest productions of the human mind, i.^, perhaps, the richest in the world, and presents an 
 unparalleled series of eminent writer.?, extending from the age of Homer to the middle of 
 ■iho fitlecnth century. The language is one of the most flexible, harmonious, and copious 
 t.!iat have ever existed; its grammatical forms are almost identical with those of the Latin, 
 to the formation of which it has greatly contributed, but in many essential points it is 
 .«tipprior, and especially in '.he unlimited tiiculty of making as many compounds as can bo 
 ri'quKed. M. Malte-IJrun distinguishes in tlic ancient Greek two ditlerent idioms: — 1. The 
 jtrimithf Hrllniic, which he subdivides into three principal dialects — the Arcadian, the 
 'rijessalian, with the ancient Macedonian, and the 0<]notrian, transported into Italy and min- 
 L'li'd with file Latin; '2. The Hellenic of the historical times, divided into four principal 
 ilialocfs and several varieties. 
 
 Tiie RoiMRic, or the modern Greek, spoken by the Greeks of our own times, especially 
 in the Morea, in Livadia, Tliessaly, the isle of Candia, the Archipelago, part of Albania, 
 -Macedonia, Kounielri, Thrace, Asia Minor, Cyprus, and by the Greeks established in Wal- 
 iaciiia, Moldavia, Syria, and Egypt. The Romaic is also spoken by the inhabitants of the 
 Ionian Isles, by considerable numbers of Greeks in the Austrian and Russian empires, and 
 some hiiiidrcd of Mainotes in Corsica, near Ajarrio. It is dividnil into two principal dialects, 
 t!ie Romanic and tiie yKolo-Dorian, each inchuliiig various sub-dialects. 
 
 IV. Tiie Italic branch, so called, as including the languages of the aborigines of Itoly, 
 nliich form the sti.-in of the modern idioms comprised in this branch. Those nbnnffiiirx 
 were, the Ruganoi, the Atisonrs, the Lucani, the Briitti, the Piceni, tlie Marsi, the Latini 
 the Sal)ille^. and the Samnites, From a mixture of the three last idioms, primarily with 
 the oriirin.il Hellenic, afterwards with the old ^Tlolian and ancient Doric, was formed, as M. 
 Miilte-Urun inclines to think, the hingiirige spoken by the Romans, and called the I^itin 
 Inniriinire. The Inngiiages included in that brniirli are, — 
 
 'i'lic I.iitiii, which was tiie written and current language of the higher classes in Italy 
 and flirnuglidut the Roman empire. It was very ilifferent from the linffun jthheiaor ruslini, 
 s|)oki'ii in the rural districts of the peninsula, and by the lower clii.sses in S|)ain, (Jaiil, and 
 the other provinres. Its grammatical forms are similar to the Greek, though less perfect. 
 I.itin literature, formed on that of Greece, is very rich in all branches of knov\ledge, and, 
 t^'getlier with the Greek, is tiie source from which flows the literature of the malerii nations 
 cf Europe. Il.s most brilliant epoch was the Augustan age. In this language St. Jerome 
 
Part III. 
 
 he principnl 
 iiilly in Rou- 
 the Austrian 
 'hiB Scyp, or 
 ril of ancient 
 lot yet uscer- 
 ne sacred or 
 jm Italian or 
 
 isi Etrusci ?) 
 
 according' tc 
 
 f Italy. The 
 
 t had sixteen 
 
 by the famous 
 loplc of eai-ly 
 , tlie Lelegcs, 
 Srcoce and its 
 •emarkable for 
 
 :fct 
 
 jndencies, and 
 I its dependen- 
 diterranean. 
 if the descend- 
 to the Macedo- 
 Bubjccts of the 
 nstantinople, at 
 lage, 270 years 
 ted the Septua- 
 it thus became 
 of Providence, 
 most powerful 
 t shoi'.ld prevail 
 which the other 
 ijr some of the 
 and presents lin 
 the middle of 
 ms, and copious 
 ?e of the Latin, 
 :ial points it is 
 unds as can bo 
 dioms:— 1. The 
 Arcadian, the 
 o Italy and min- 
 o four principal 
 
 imes, especially 
 part of Albania, 
 iblishod in Wal- 
 liabitants of the 
 an empires, and 
 rincipiil dialects, 
 
 iri^ines of Italy, 
 
 M)^f. nbOfifriHfS 
 
 (ursi, till! Latini 
 , primarily wit! 
 1^ fiirmcd, as M. 
 ciiUcd the Ijitin 
 
 classes in Italy 
 liheia or rnstica, 
 Spain, (5niil, and 
 niRh loss perfect. 
 
 knowledjio, and, 
 e modern nations 
 r\iagc St. Jerome 
 
 K- 
 
 Book I. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 307 
 
 wrote the Vulgate, or Latin translation of the Bible which is used in tlie Romish church. 
 The overthrow of the Roman empire in the fifth century gave birtii to a corrupt Latin, 
 mingled witii a great number of barbarous words, and named low Latin, which, until the 
 fourteenth, was, almost exclusively, the written language tliroughout the West. In the two 
 succeeding centuries, Ijitin literature again flourished, especially in Italy ; but it was only 
 to contribute to tiie improvement of modem languages, which being diligently and success- 
 fiiUy cultivated, the Latin was restricted to works of erudition alone. Its phraseology has 
 had a marked influence on tliat of the most polite nations of Europe. It is now a dead lan- 
 guage, except in Poland and Hungary, where some educated persons speak it in ordinary 
 life with considerable purity, and with the continental pronunciation, of course almost unin- 
 telligible to English travellers, who cannot or will not relinquish the Saxon diphthongal 
 sounds of the vowels A, I, and U, the chief causes of their embarrassment. Lotin is no 
 longer employed except in tlie Catholic liturgy, in medicine, in the diplomacy of the court 
 of Rome, and partially in the literature of all the civilized nations of Europe. The alpiia- 
 bet, of twenty-three letters, having been improved in its characters by the Italians and 
 French, is used by all the people of Europe, except the Greeks, the Russians, and some 
 other nations who have particular alphabets. This same Latin alphabet, with the Gothic 
 forms it assumed under the pen of the writers of the middle ages, is used by the Germans 
 and Danes, and by the Bohemians, and other Slavonic nations; and, according to some 
 authors, its capital letters, truncated and squared to facilitate the inscription of them in wootl 
 or stone, constitute the Runic alphabet, formerly used in the north of Europe. 
 
 The Romana, or Romana Rusticu, spoken in the brightest ages of Rome by the lower 
 classes in tiie south of the empire, excepting Greece, and some other counties. After various 
 modilications more or less considerable, it appears still to subsist among the vulgar dialects 
 spoken throughout a great part of Spain, France, Switzerland, and some districts of Italy. 
 The chief of tliose dialects, according to M. Champollion Figeac, are the following, classed 
 with reference to those four regions : — In Spain, Sardinia, ana the Balearic Isles, the Catalan, 
 the Valencian, the Majorcan. In PVonce, the Languedocian, the Provencal, the Dauphinois, 
 the Lyonnais, the Auvorgnat, the Limousin, and the Gascon. In Switzerland, tlie Romanic, 
 or Celto-Romanic, (frecjuently called Romance, Khurwelsii, and Rhietish,) the Volaisan in 
 the Valais. In the states of the king of Sardinia are spoken the Savoisian ; and the Vaudo'.'i 
 in the vales of Lucerne, Perosa, and part of Piedmont. To these might b<3 added tin 
 jargon called lingua Franca, in which Catalan, Limousin, Sicilian, and Arabic are the princi- 
 pal ingredients. The Romance literature is also called that of the Troubadours. From tlic 
 mixture of this language with the diflerent Germanic, Slavonic, and other idioms, were 
 formed, in the tenth century, the following languoges : — 
 
 The Italian, spoken by the Italians in almost all Italy, in the isles geographically connected 
 with that peninsula, and in various Alpine territories; also frequent in Dalmatia and the ish; 
 of Tino; very common at Constantinople, and in several mercantile towns of the Ottoman 
 empire. The toritten language, which is nowhere generally spoken, is common with all 
 well-educated Italians, and differs considerably from the vulgar tongue, whicli is sulxliviilwl 
 into a great number of dialects. The principal of these are, the Piedmontese and Genoese ; 
 the Milanese, or Iximbard proper ; the Low Ijombard ; the Bolognese, the Bergamase ; the 
 Venetian, the Friulian, the Tyrolean, the vulgar Tuscan; the Roman; (he Sabine and 
 Abruzzan; the Calabrian and Apulian; the Tarentine; tlie Neapolitan; the Sicilian, and 
 the Sardinian. 
 
 The French language, spoken by the French almost throughout the north of France ; by 
 the Walloons and Flemings in various Netherlandish provinces ; by the Swiss, in several of 
 their cantons ; by the people of Jersey and Guernsey ; also in some parts of the Austrian 
 and Russian empires, and of the Prussian monarchy ; by the French colonists in Asia, Africa, 
 and America. The following are the principal dialects : — the Picard, the Flemish, tlie Nor- 
 man, the Walloon or Roimchi, tlio vulsrar French, the Breton French, the Champenois, the 
 Lorraine, the Burgnndian, the Franchr-Comte, the Neufchatelain, the OrUannois, tlip 
 Angevin, and the Manceau. To these might, perhaps, be added the jargon spoken by the 
 negroes and Creoles m the French West Indies. 
 
 The Spanish or Castilian language, spoken by the Spaniards in the greater part of i-'piiin, 
 and, with some variation and admixture, by their descendants in Oceania, Africa, and America ; 
 also by the numerous Spanish Jews established in the Ottoman empire, and in other states 
 of Europe, and of Nortli Africa ; in the isle of Trinidad belonging to the crown of Great 
 Britain ; in some parts of Florida and I^ouisiana ; and in the eastern part of Hispaniola or 
 St. Domingo. This language is also common to all the inhabitants of the towns of Spain 
 where the Basque and Romance languages are spoken. The written and polished language 
 is almost identical in its grommatical forms with the Romance and the Portuguese ; and 
 differs little from the Italian ; it is very rich and harmonious, notwithstanding some guttural 
 and aspirate sounds taken from the Arabic, from which it iins liorrowed many words. It is 
 singular to remark, that the German is characterised by similar gutturals or aspirates. The 
 reigns of tlie emperor Charles V. and of his son Philip II. were the golden ago of Spanish 
 
 lA'. 
 
 hii 
 
 k 
 
 
 i ■( 
 
 h^iif 
 
 
 ■ i 
 
■y^w- 
 
 309 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. 
 
 literature ; afler which it fell into decay, but partially revived under tlio Bourbon kinga 
 Philip V. and Charles III. Of the dialects, which differ little from each other, tlie following 
 are the principal : — the dialect of Toledo ; that of Ldon and the Aslurias ; the Andalusian ; 
 the Murcian; the Gulician, or Gallcgo; and tlie Transatlantic, spoken in America; where, 
 next to the English, the Spanish languaj^e is mpokcn by the greatest number of inhabitants. 
 
 The Portuguese language, spoken by tlie Portuguese in Portugal and the Azores, and, 
 with some difterences, by the Portuguese Jews settled in Hamburg, Amsterdam, the Tyrol, 
 and other parts of Europe, Asia, and Airica ; also by the descendants of tlie Portuguese in 
 tlieir Asiatic, African, Oceanic, and American colonies. The Portuguese is as rich and 
 concise as its sister languages; it hos borrowed some words from the Arabic and the French; 
 to the French it seems indebted for the soft sound of g, and for the nasal syllables ; it ia 
 sonorous, sotl, and unimpeded by the aspirates and gutturals of the Spanish ; but the fre- 
 quency of hiatus, and of the modem nasal ao, equisonant with the French am or an, injure 
 the harmony of tlie language. Its origin, like that of the Spanish, is dated in tlie eleventh 
 century ; and it had attaine<l its maturity in the sixteenth. The Portuguese literature, 
 which Camoens illustrated with one of the finest epics in existence, is as varied and rich as 
 the Spanbh, though less known. It revived in the memorable reign of Joseph. The 
 language may be said to exhibit no differences of dialect ; tlicro arc only varieties : those 
 which differ most from the written language are, the Minho, Algarve, and Azores varieties 
 in Europe; the Brazilian in America; those of Congo and Mozambique in Africa; and of 
 Goa and Macao in Asia. Some, however, regard as a dialect of the Portuguese, the jargon 
 called lingua geral, spoken along the east and west coasts of Africa, also along the coasts of 
 Ceylon and the Indian peninsula. In Africa, as well as in Asia, it presents the phenomenon 
 offered by the lingua Franca in the Mediterranean, and attests the power formerly held 
 by the Portuguese in those regions. 
 
 The Valac or Wallachian, spoken by the Rumanje or Roumouni, better known as Valacs, 
 a people apparently descended from the ancient Roman colonists settled in Dacia and Thrace, 
 and the Slavonic and other nations dwelling there. Its literature is very meagre. Among 
 its numerous dialects the more remarkable are the Roumounic or Valac proper, spoken in 
 Wallacliia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia ; the Hungarian Valac, the Macedo- Valac, and tlie 
 Kutzo- Valac, spoken in various sub^lialects, in several parts of European Turkey, south of 
 the Danube. . - , 
 
 SUBSECT. 4. 
 
 The family of the Germanic languages next claims our notice. Without entering into 
 the history of the Germanic nations, which rivals in importance that of the Graeco- Latin, we 
 may class these different idioms, according to M. Malte-Brun's theory, in four branches; 
 the Teutonic, the Saxon or Cimbric, the Scandinavian or Normanno-Gothic, and the Anglo- 
 Britannic. 
 
 The Teutonic branch, wliicli comprises the idioms of the various ancient nations and 
 tribes recognised as German by the Roman historians and writers ; as the Bastarne, tlie 
 Suevi, the Marcomanni, the Hcrmonduri, and the Franci, (iresonts the following idioms : — 
 
 The ancient higii German (alt hoch Deutscb), formerly sjiokcn in different dialects 
 throughout South Germany, Switzerlniui, Alsace, Hesse, Thuringia, Wetteravia, and a 
 great part of the countries once subjected to the Franks. It has been extinct for several 
 centuries : its three prhicipal dialects wrre, the Francic, and the Aiemnnnic, which are of 
 contemporary origin, and contain the most ancient productions of that language, and the 
 .Middle High German, wliich succeeded tliem. The Francic or Tudesc was tlie language 
 of the Franks: it was spoken at the court of the Merovingian and Carlovingian sovereigns, 
 until ("liarles the Bold ; after whose rnign it gave way to the old French in France, but 
 continued to be the court langungi; in Germany until the times of the Ilolienstaul'en. The 
 Middle High German is tiio language in which were composed the numerous works of the 
 Suabian, Bavarian, Austrian, and Swiss writers, and several other authors in Middle and Lower 
 Germany, from the eleventh to tlie fifloonth centuries. Its finest productions arc dated in 
 the period of the Hoiienstaufen, from 11M6 to 1254, called also the Minnemingfr, the 
 trouveurs and troubadours of Germany. The Nibelimgen-lied, the finest epic in this lan- 
 guage, is supposed by Winter to liave lieeu (-(imposed in ItiiM), by Conrad of Wiirtzburg. 
 
 The German, called also niu hncli Dpiitfch, in which distinction must be made between 
 the written and the spoken language. Tlie latter is divided into a great number of very 
 diflbront dialects, subdivided into several sub-dialects and varieties. The written language 
 is nowhere spoken by the people : it was formed at the period wiicn Luther, rejei^ting the 
 Middle High and the Middle fjow (irrmaii, adopted in preference fii(> diiile(;t of Misnia or 
 Meissen, which had begun to be written much later. This Misniun dialect, aidy employed 
 by that great man and his numerous followers, sfK)n became, as the language of Ixxiks and 
 of gocKl society, commou to all well-educated Germans, and also ranked as the learned lan- 
 guage of the north and great part of the east of Europe. Tiie literature of Germany, in 
 regard to the qualify of its productions, rivals those of France and England, and surooasea 
 
T»?' 
 
 Part IIL 
 
 •bon kings 
 3 following 
 iiidalusian ; 
 ca; wUerc, 
 ihabiUinta. 
 .zorcs, and, 
 , the Tyrol, 
 ttui^iese in 
 08 ricli and 
 the French; 
 llables; it is 
 but the fre- 
 er on, injure 
 Uie eleventh 
 se literature, 
 I and rich aa 
 [oseph. The 
 irieties: those 
 lores varieties 
 frica; and of 
 ISC, the jargon 
 [J the coasts ot 
 e phenomenon 
 formerly held 
 
 own as Valacs, 
 :ia and Tlirace, 
 ■agrc. Among 
 (jper, spoken in 
 Valac, and the 
 'urkey, south of 
 
 ut entering mto 
 Jraeco-Latin, we 
 ■^four branches; 
 ;, and the AngJo- 
 
 ent nations and 
 lie Bastarnffi, tlie 
 wing idioms ; — 
 iffercnt dialects 
 jtteravia, and a 
 itinct for several 
 kc, which are ot 
 Inguagc, and the 
 IS the language 
 icrian sovereigns, 
 .in France, but 
 [pnstauten. The 
 aus works of the 
 [iddie and I^wcr 
 MA arc dated in 
 \inneitiini;<'r, the 
 .pic in this lan- 
 I'WVirtzburg. 
 L made between 
 number of very 
 Lvritton language 
 pr, re'iccting tlie 
 pet of M'""'"^ "' 
 •t, iiltly cuiployed 
 ipe of iHXiks and 
 the learned lan- 
 ^ of Germany, m 
 lid, and suroassea 
 
 Book I. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 309 
 
 tliem in abundance. The German is the richest in words of any language in Europe ; and 
 thif< dJHtinction it owes to the great number of its monosyllabic root", witii which it creates 
 new terms ad itifiniluin, by derivation and comjxjsition. It.« principal dialects nre, ttie Swiss; 
 the Rhenish; the Danubian, with its four sub-dialects', tlie Bavariiiii, the Tyroleiin, Austrian, 
 and Uoliemo-Hungaro-Silesian ; and the Frunconian, or Mittel-Deutsch. To these, on the 
 autliority of Adelung, wo may add two others, remarkable for the strange admi.xture of words 
 totally foreign; these are, the German Jewish; and tlie Rothwelsh, t^poken by the Jenish 
 or Jaunrr, who are generally rejwrted to be thieves and vagabonds. It contains a multitude 
 of terms and expressions quite dillerent from German. 
 
 The Saxon, or Cimbric, which comprises the idioms anciently spoken by the Cimbri ; also 
 by the Angli, who, with the Jutes and Saxons, afterwards made so great a figure in northern 
 history ; the Bmcteri and Chauci, the Menapi, the Tungri, the Butavi, tlie Frisones, and 
 other nations of less note, the ancient Saxons, and probably the Longobardi. This branch 
 includes the four following idioms : — 
 
 The ancient low German {alt nieder Deutsch), called also the ancient Saxon, after the 
 people who spoke it. This language, now extinct, was current throughout Ijower Germany 
 and the Netherlands, except in the countries occupied by the Frisones and the Angli. About 
 the commencement of the seventeenth century it wholly ceased to be written. Its principal 
 dialects are, the Saxon proper, or idiom of Lower Saxony ; the Eastern Saxon, spoken in 
 various sub-dialects in Prussia, and the Wcstphalian, or Western Saxon. 
 
 The Frisic, formerly spoken along the coast, from the Rhine to the Elbe, by the Frisones, 
 and their allies the Chauci, the ancestors of the present Frisians, who are now far from 
 numerous, and speak a language very diflerent from the ancient Frisic, being mixed with 
 other idioms. Its three principal dialects are, the Batavian Frisic, the Westphalian Frisic, 
 and the North Frisic, or Cimbric. 
 
 The Netherlandish, or modern Batavian, hos two principol dialects, the Flemish, and the 
 Hollandish, or, as it is commonly called in this country, the Dutch. The Flemish is s;M)kcn 
 in the southern provinces of the kingdom of the Netherlands, excepting those wlicrc (!ur- 
 man and French are spoken. It was the written and oral language of the sevontern pro- 
 vinces once subject to the Counts of Burgundy. After their extinction, and undrr tlio 
 Spanish rule, the Flemish idiom gradually gave way in the north to the Dutcli, in the s.,iitli 
 to the French language. The Dutch is ppokcn in different varieties in the seven i)r()viiicos 
 of the North, and in some bordering districts of the South : with certain chnngos and 
 admixtures it is also spoken, or at least understood, in the various settlements founded liy 
 the Dutch in Africa, Oceania, and America, and in several places in Ceylon, India, mid '■.ho 
 peninsula of Malacca; in South Africa; at the Cape of Hope; and on the American con- 
 tinent in Guiana. Some descendants of Dutcli settlors also in the United States retain their 
 native language. It was only in the sixteenth century that this vulgar idiom of the pro- 
 vince of lloiland, in some degree polished ond improved, became the national language of 
 the Dutch. It is a riixture of ancient Francic, Frisic, and low German. 
 
 Tiie Scandinavian, or Normanno-Gothic, comprises the idioms formerly spoken by the 
 Jutes, the Goths or Guto", and other less considerable nations of pure Gothic race. There 
 are five different idioms in this branch : — 
 
 The Mffiso-Gotiiic, formerly spoken by the Gotlis established in Mcesia. According to 
 Grimm, this is the richest of the Germanic languages in grammatical forms: it has not less 
 than fifteen declensions, with 120 rases, and sixteen conjugations. The Mceso-Gotiiic has 
 been dead many centuries. Its most ancient productions are, the fiimous Codex Argenteiis 
 of Upsal ; and otlier li-agtneuts of the translation of the Bililo, made between the years ;160 
 and :isO, by Bishop Ulphilas. The Ma'so-Gotlis appear to have been the first to embrace 
 Christianity of all those nations who overthrew the Roman empire. 
 
 The Norinannic, called by Grimm the AIt-\ordisch. It is the language of the Edda, of 
 the Vohispa, and other poems of uncertain date, and was generally spoken throughout Scan- 
 dinavia in the eighth, nintii, and tenth centuries. 
 
 The Norwegian, ancient Norwegian, Norrrena tunga, not to be confounded with tlio 
 mixlcrn Norwegian or Norsk, which is only a dialect of the Danish. Its principal dialects 
 are, the Icelandic, the Norwegian proper, the Dalska, or Western Dalecarlian, the Jiinit- 
 landish, and the Norse, spoken in the Shetland Isles. 
 
 The Swedish (Svrnski), spoken by the Swedes throughout the greater part of the Swed- 
 isli monarchy ; also in the principal towns of Finland and the isle of Runoe, in the Russian 
 empire. It has two principal dialects, the Swedish, and the modern Gothic, subdivided into 
 several suh-dialects and varieties. 
 
 The Danish, spoken l)y the Danes in Denmark, and in their Asiatic, African, and Ame- 
 rican sctth'inor.ls; also liy the higher classes in the Feriie I<les, ond in Iceland. It lias two 
 nrinripal dialects, each having several sub-dialerts and varieties: the Dntiish proper, which 
 includes the insular Dnnisti. the anrieiit siilwlialert of Rornholm, the modern Norwegian, 
 and the idiom of Scania. The Jiillanilish, or modern Jutic, including the Nornianno-Jutic, 
 the Dnno-Jiitic, and the Anfflo-Jtitic. 
 
 Ml 
 
 ■I'''" 
 
 ■ A t: i 
 

 
 t.i»' 
 
 ifi^''"" ■!-f!*f*tfl| 
 
 . 
 
 jar- :> 
 
 
 #■ 
 
 310 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part HI. 
 
 .•rfv 
 
 li !ll 
 
 Ki* !■ 
 
 The Anglo- Britannic (not to be conrounded with tiie Brituh, which is Welsh), comprises 
 only two idioms. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon, formed by a mixture of tlie idioms spoken by the Angli, the Saxons, 
 and tlie Jutes, who, invited by the Britons against the Picts, finally toolt possession of the 
 country, wiiore their language was successively preserved in three dialects, until the eighth 
 century. During the invoiiions and tem|X>rary ascendency of the Danes, it was so moditied 
 us to become Dano-Saxmt, or rather this may be called a dialect of the Anglo-Saxon. For 
 several centuries this language has been totally dead. 
 
 The English, spoken in England, in the east and south-east of Scotland, in part of Ireland 
 and of Wales ; in the Shetland Isles, in the isles of Jersey and Guernsey, in the British 
 colonies of Asia, Oceania, Africfi, and America. It is the national language of the United 
 States of America. It is also cultivated and spoken by a great number of persons of differ* 
 cnt nations in all parts of the world on account of its literary, political, and commercial 
 importance : the two latter considerations render it very current ui the kingdom of Hanover, 
 in the Ionian Isles and Malta, in Portugal and Brazil, and in the republic of Hayti. The 
 English language is a mixture of the Anglo-Saxon and the Neustrian French or Franco 
 Norman, with some Celtic words, and a tew of ancient British origin. It has imported 
 largely from the Greek and Latin, as knowledge and culture advanced in the nation. If the 
 number of words in the language be taken at thirty-eight thousand, those of Saxon or north- 
 ern origin will be found limited to about eight thousand, the rest being principally Greek 
 and Latin derivatives. Copious and energetic, the English language is tlie simplest and 
 most monosyllabic of all European idioms ; and it is that also of which the pronunciation 
 differs most from the orthography. It did not become the language of the state until the 
 reign of Edward III., since which time it has rapidly improved. Towards the commence- 
 ment of the seventeentli century may be dated its regular developement, and in the begin- 
 ning of the eighteenth it took its fi.\ed and invariable form. The English language occupies 
 one of the most eminent places in European literature ; it is comparable with any of them 
 in elegance, and perhaps, surpasses them all in energy. It is no less graceful than concise ; 
 its poetry is at once manly and harmonious; and, like that of the cognate languages of the 
 north, is admirably adapted to depict the sublimities of nature and pourtray the stronger pas- 
 sions: aw the language of political and parliamentary eloquence, it is without a rival. Of 
 the number of its dialects it might be difficult to speak with precision: foreign philologers 
 distinguish four as the principal : — the English proper ; the Northumbrian English, called 
 also Dano-English from the great number of Danish words retained in it, and spoken in 
 various sub-dialects in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cumberland, and Westmoreland : the Scottish 
 01 Anglo-Scandinavian, including i\\o Lowland Scottish, vi\\h the Border language ; and 
 lastly the Ultra-European English, prevalent in the English colonies and in the United 
 States. It has been observed that the English language is spoken by the greatest number 
 of the irdiabitants of the New World. 
 
 SUBSECT. 5. 
 
 The family of the Slavonic languages is widely diffused. From the neighboiu-hood of 
 Udina in Italy, from Silliiin in the Tyrol, and from the centre of Germany to the remotest 
 extremities of Europe and of Asia, and even to the north-west coast of America, are nations 
 of Slavonic origin to be found ; the tract of country over which they hold sway amounting 
 to about a si.vth part of the habitable surface of the globe. These nations exhibit almost all 
 the varieties of the human race, botli physical and moral, if not from the most exalted, at 
 least to the most degraded. 
 
 The Slavonic languages, so far as is at present known, may be regarded as forming 
 three branches : — 1. The Russo-Illyrian. 2. The Bohemo-Polish. 3. The Wendo-Lithu- 
 anian. 
 
 (1.) The Russo-Illvrian is so called from its chief people, the Russians, and from the 
 general appellation Illyrian given to most of the nations who speak Servian or Create. The 
 languages comprised in this branch are : — 
 
 The Slavonic, Servian, Serbe, or Illyriun, called also by some authors Rulcna, siwken in 
 different dialects by the more southern Slavi, generally denominated Illyrians. They dwell 
 in the Austrian and Ottoman empires, excepting a small number, settled a.s colonists in south 
 RiiAsia. The dialects dilfi'ring most frr»n eacli other, and from the ancient Slavonic, are 
 the Sirvian or Sirblin, with various sub-dialects ; tiio Italiano- Slavonic, .spoken on the 
 coiist of Dalmatia ; the Uxkokc, s|x)kcn by the wandering tribes in Scrvia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, 
 Croatiii, Maritime Hmignry, and Curniola. It is mixed with many Turkish words. Lastly, 
 the Hiilifarian, sixikiMi in Buliraria, in the Ottoman empire. 
 
 Tlie Russian, Ruski, or modern Russian, spoken throughout the Russian empire by the 
 Russians, who are tin,' ruling nation; also sjwken in a great partof Gallicia and port of Hun- 
 gary in the Austrian empire. Since the reign of the Czar Peter, when the Slavvenski was 
 abandoned for the Ruski, it became the language of literature and of business throughout 
 Russia. It has the tbilowing dialects, which dilU'rlittlL" from each other, the Valiki-Rttski 
 
 mans- 
 be add 
 Slavi 
 tated f 
 
i4-viftf. 
 
 Book I. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 811 
 
 in. 
 
 ixons, 
 )f the 
 iiglitli 
 xlitied 
 For 
 
 rcland 
 British 
 United 
 'differ- 
 mercial 
 anover, 
 . The 
 Franco- 
 nnported 
 , If the 
 )r north- 
 y Greek 
 )lest and 
 inciation 
 mtil the 
 mmonce- 
 le begin- 
 occupies 
 r of them 
 I concise ; 
 res of the 
 jnger pas- 
 ival. Of 
 ihilo\o<;ers 
 ish, calletl 
 [spoken in 
 e Scoltish 
 
 lage; 
 
 and 
 
 J\e United 
 number 
 
 lurhood of 
 remotest 
 ire nations 
 amountuig 
 almost all 
 exalted, at 
 
 IS forming 
 ndo-Litliu- 
 
 from the 
 roate. The 
 
 siK)kcn in 
 ?hey dwell 
 i\s in south 
 ivonic, arc 
 on on the 
 , Dalmatia, 
 Is. Lastly, 
 
 pire by the 
 
 artof llun- 
 
 Ivenski was 
 
 Ithroufrhou* 
 
 or Russian of Great Ruattia; the Malo-Iluski, or Russian of Little Russia; the Suzdalian; 
 tlie Olonetzian, and the Rusniac. 
 
 The Croate, spoken by the Croatcs or Khorliatos, who dcliglit to call it the Blyrian. 
 
 The Wendo or Winde, s))okcn by several Slavonic nations sulycct to the Austrian 
 empire, and known by different names in the countries tiiey inhabit. In the Wende 
 appear to be distuiguisiied three principal dialects, the Carniolan, the Carintliian, and the 
 Styrian. 
 
 (2.) The B0HEM0-POLI8H, named from its two principal nations, the Boliemians and the 
 Poles. The languages belonging to this branch are the Bohemian or Chekhe, including the 
 Bohemian proper, and certain idioms, bearing the character of principal dialects, and spoken 
 in the Austrian empire. 
 
 The Bohemian proper, or Chekhe, is spoken in several very different sub-dialects by the 
 Chekiies or Czecks, better known by the appellation of Bohemians. The dialect of Prague 
 is the most elegant and pure. Tlie others are the Slowac, the Hannac, the Slraniac, the 
 Passekarsk, the Sallashac, and tiic Szotac. 
 
 The Polish is spoken by the Poles, called in the middle ages, Lechen or Liachy. They 
 form more than three-fourtlis of the population of the present Russian kingdom of Poland, 
 almost the whole population of tiie province of Cracow, and of the western part of Gallicio, 
 in the empire of Austria. They also form three-fourtJis of the population of the grand 
 duchy of Posen, two-thirds of that of West-Prussia, and part of that of Silesia. The Polish 
 is also the national language of the nobility and part of tiie commonalty in all the countries 
 formerly belonging to the kingdom of Poland, and is spoken by thousands of colonists in 
 Russia. Its prmcipal dialects are those of Great Poland, of Little Poland, of West Prussia, 
 of Mazovia, of Polish Silesia, of the Geralys or highlandcrs, belonging to part of the Carpa- 
 thians in Gallicia. The preference given in Poland to the Latin, long retarded the progress 
 of this national language. 
 
 The Serbe or Sorabe, spoken until the fourteenth century by the Serbes, or Sserske. It 
 lias two dialects ; the Upper Lusatian, and the Lower Lusatian. 
 
 (3.) The Wendo-IjIthuanian, called also the Germano-Slavonic. Tliis branch comprises 
 the following idioms : — 
 
 The Wend, spoken until tlie fourteenth century in different dialects tliroughout the 
 north of Germany, from Holstein to Pomerania, by various nations, as the Wogriaiis, the 
 Pnlaben, the Wilzians, the Obotrites, the Ruffians, and the Pomeranians. Since the 
 fourteenth century it has been extinct, with the exception of the Linonish, improperly 
 called the Polabish dialect, which subsisted in some districts, until the latter half of the 
 eighteenth. 
 
 The Prucze or ancient Prussian, formerly spoken in eleven very different dialects, by the 
 tribes forming the powerful nation of the Pruczi, dwelling between the Vistula and tlie Pre- 
 gel. It is almost entirely extinct. 
 
 The Lithuanian or Littauish, formerly spoken by those powerful nations the Lithuanians 
 and Kriwitschi, and now current only among the common people ; as the higher classes 
 speak Polish, with Russian or German, according to their different countries. Its principal 
 dialects have been thus classed : — The Lithuanian proper, the Samogilian, the Kriwitsh, 
 and the Prusso-Lithuanian. 
 
 The Lelte, Lettwa, Lettonian, or Lettish, spoken by the IjCtts or Lcttons, forming the 
 bulk of the population in the government of Mitta, a larire pnrt of that of Riga, a small por- 
 tion of that o*" Witcpsk in Russia, and of the province of Eiist Prussia. It has five principal 
 dialects, subdivided into a multitude of very different sub-dialects. The former, accorduig 
 to Mr. Watson, are, tlie Lette proper ; the Seingallian or Sengallish ; the Lclto-Livonian 
 or Lirflnndish ; the Seclian, s]X)ken by the Secies in Courland : the Wende by the Wendes, 
 in the north-east of that duchy, particularly in the neighbourhood of Windau. This language 
 abounds witli Gorman phrases and expressions. 
 
 Tlift Slavonic nations employ five different alphabets : — 1. The Cyrilian, invented by St. 
 Cyril in 80."i, called also tlic Servian or Ruthenian. 2. Tiie (ilagolitir, Slavonic, Krtiko- 
 witza, or Divinira, called also that of St. .Toroine. 3. The Russian alphabet of the Czar 
 Peter, which is the Cyrilian modified by that emperor: it lias tliirty-fivc letters, and is in 
 use throughout the Russian empire. 4. The Sorabes, Bohemians, and Slavo-Silesians use 
 the Gcrnitm alpiinbet or character. .'5. The other Slavonic nations, as tlic Poles, Lithua- 
 nians, Lottcs and WpikIps, use the Latin or Roman letters. To those five alphabets may 
 he added the Runic M^rnil, the Grook al])lial)ot, adopted, according to Karamsin, by those 
 Slavi wiio, in the eighth century, .•settled in Peloponnesus; and lantly, the Bulgarian, iini 
 tated from tlie Glagolitic, and used by the Bulgarians. 
 
 SUBSECT. 0. 
 
 The fiimily of the Uralian languafros, also called the Finnish or Cliudic, completes the 
 cthnogriiphie division of Europe. 
 From the north-west coast of Norway to the long chain of the Urals, and beyond tliose 
 
 "Ml ' 
 
 m. 
 
 - ivj 
 
 ;-1i'iii 
 
fMnmsmami 
 
 < 
 
 :»; :\ 
 
 M ' 
 
 812 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 .\ mountains to near the Yenisei in tlie centre of Siberia, in another direction from the Leitha 
 gtO- to tiie Scrot, and from tlie Carputhiann to the Diinube, nations of Uralian race live among 
 
 ■r * other nations, and retain the niiinners, liabits, aiid laiiguajre of their furefatiiers. In n)arl{ing 
 
 the gradations among the people composing tliin liimily, wo may consider the Ilinigarians 
 and the Ostiaks as exhibiting the two e.xtremes in a moral as well as physical respect, not- 
 withstanding the great affinity of their respective languages. 
 
 The Uralian fiimily includes (bur brandies, according to Klaproth ; but some languages 
 not included in them may be separately considered as a fifth. 
 
 The Finnish, or Germanised P'innish branch, includes the four following languages : — 
 (1.) The Finnish proper, or Sumenkieli, spoken by the Suomi, better known as the Fins 
 , or Finlanders. Its principal dialects are, the Finlandish, the Tawastian, the Carelian or 
 
 Kyriala, the Olonetzian, and the VVatailaiset 
 
 The Esthonian spoken by the Estlionians or Estlien, whoso ancestors were formidable 
 
 Eirates, and who now form the most numerous part of the population of the government ot 
 Leval, and of the circles of Pernau and Dorpat in tliat of Riga. Its two principal dialects 
 ^ are that of Reval and that of Dorp.t 
 
 ^* ;' The Liapponian, spoken by the Shames, better known as the Lappons or Laplanders, inha- 
 
 biting the northern extremity of Europe, partly under the monarchy of the Swedes, and 
 partly under the Russian empire. Tliis language, which is said to have more affinity witii 
 the Hungarian than with the Finnioii, has a groat number of very different dialects, which 
 have been classed under tlie Liippn-Norweffian, tiie Lappo-Swedish (western and eastern), 
 the Lappn-Russ, epokp.n in tlie circle of Kola, in the government of Archangel. Through 
 the beneficent care of the Swedish government, at the close of the last and tlie beginning 
 of the present century, the Laplanders have been reclaimed from idolatry, and have begun 
 to enjoy the blessings of Christianity and civilization. 
 
 The Livonian, spokeii formerly by the Lives or Liven, who gradually abandoned this 
 idiom for the Lettish, in consequence of which it is become nearly extinct. 
 
 (2.) The Wolgaic brancii includes the languages spoken along the Wolga and its tributa- 
 ries. They liave a strong admixture of Turkish, and may rank under two classes, the Che- 
 remisse and the Morduino, including as dialects the Mokshau and the Ersan. 
 
 (3.) The Permian branch includes two languages, the Permiun proper, spoken by the 
 Korni or Permians, and tiio Syrencs or Syranos ; and the Wotieqtic, spoken by the Udi or 
 VVotiaks scattered among tlic governments of Wiatka, Oremburg, and Kasan. They are all 
 Christians, and the most industrious people of Uralian race in the Russian empire, except 
 tlie Fins and pcrliaps the Estlionians. 
 
 (4.) The Hungarian brancli includes the following languages: — 
 i Tiic Hungarian or Magyar, spoken by the Magyars or Iluiigarians. They form about a 
 
 third of the population of Hungary, aiu! alinost a fourth of that of Traasylvania ; several 
 thousands also of this people are settled in the Rukowine in Gallicia, and about Ibrty thou- 
 sand in Moldavia, under the Turkish sway. The Hungarian, according to Czaplovicz, has 
 four principal dialects: — 1. The Paloczen. 2. The dialect of the .W(/,i; //«rs beyond the 
 Danube. M. That of the Magyars of the Theiss ; and 4. That of the Szeklrr, living in 
 j Transylvania, in the Bukowine, and in Moldavia. Tlie Hungarian language is very harmo- 
 
 nious; and is mixed with many foreign words, especially Slavonic, German, and Latin. 
 
 The Wogoulo, spoken by the Mansi or Miuiskum, more known as the Woguls, an<l called 
 
 • Wogoulitshe by the Russians. They are alinost all Christians, and live principally aa 
 hunters and fishermen, scattered over the govorninent of Saratow, in the high valleys of the 
 Ural, in that of Perm, and in that of Tobolsk, between Kourjan and Bercsow. Klaproth 
 distinguishes in it four dialects, that of Chiasow, those of Werchoturia, and Cherdin, and 
 that of Bercsow in the government of Tobolsk. 
 
 Tlie Ostiak, or Obi-Ostiak, which is not to be confounded with the Yenisei family. The 
 As-jachs or Ostiaks of the Obi, who speak this language, are mostly Christians; some are 
 still idolaters. The principal dialects are those of licresow, Lumpokol, Wass-i-giin, and 
 Narym. Under the branch still uncertain are ranked the Hunniuc, the Awur, the Oulga' 
 
 * 'ian, and the Chazar. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ENGLAND, 
 
 The British islands, placed nonrly in the north-western angle of Europe, coinni. n ! ,~5cu- 
 liar udvantages, no less tor natural strength in war, than as an emporium of t. ; .mi-rce in 
 peace: on the southern side, they arc almost in contact with France, Holland, and Gcrinan}', 
 for ages tlie most enlighti'invl anil flourishing coiiiifrins of the civilized world; on tlie fasf, 
 ' a wide expanse <if sea si'parales them from the bleak region of Scandinavia; on the west, 
 they ov(!rlook the Atlantic Ocean, whose limit in another hemisphere is the coast of Ameri- 
 ca; vvliile, ill the extreme north tiiey may be almost said to face the unexplored expanse of 
 the Polar Sea. Exclusive of the nortliern insular appendages, they may lie considered as 
 
 < : 
 
 10 
 
 Vol. 
 
in. 
 
 Fio. 103. 
 
 MAP OP THE BRITISH ISLES, 
 
 313 
 
 uLout a 
 several 
 
 jrty tliou- 
 ,icz, lias 
 ))((/ the 
 living in 
 
 ;ry harmo- 
 ilin. 
 
 and called 
 ipiilly aa 
 
 leys of the 
 Klaproth 
 .'rdin, and 
 
 lily. TIk' 
 
 some are 
 
 i-friin, and 
 
 ] , ?cu- 
 Mucfce in 
 Germany, 
 tlie east, 
 tl„. west, 
 , of Amcri- 
 jxpinise of 
 isiderod as 
 
 It 
 
 t« 
 
 ■J. 
 
 10 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 6 LDogitwIe West i from Qnenwicb 2 
 
 27 
 
 2P 
 
 1 .!!')' 
 
 if:.., 
 
 ^..■^ ■!* 
 
■atni I ■'•■■' 
 
 ''■V'ftrt 
 
 • » 
 
 314 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part HI. 
 
 Rituatcd between the fiftieth and fifty-ninth degrees of north latitude, and between the 
 oecond dcfrroo of east and the tenth of west longitude. They are gcogrupliically divided 
 into two iiilunda of unequal magnitude, Great Britain and Ireland : Britain, again, is divided 
 into two unequal parts : England, which, including Wales, contains 57,0(30 square miles ; 
 and Scotlunil, which contains 30,500. Tlie tlirce, though united into one kingdom, respec- 
 tively cxitibit peculiarities which characterise them as distinct countries. It will, therefore, 
 be ro«|ui.site to describe each separately, commencing with England, the seat of empire and 
 legislation. The chapter which treats of England will afford the proper plnce for many 
 details, particularly of a political nature, which arc alike applicable to the two sister 
 countries. 
 
 Refertnctn to the Map of the lirilish Itland$. 
 
 Ti :il 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 m. 
 
 1. AlnwiLk 
 U. Rolhbuiy 
 X Mnrpelh 
 4. Ilrilio 
 
 w. 
 
 Wl. 
 
 W), 
 Ul. 
 
 .V Newi'Mlio 
 
 w. 
 
 6. lexlilni 
 
 »:<, 
 
 7. BilliiiKhrtin 
 S. 'nilwlii 
 
 94. 
 
 lis. 
 
 \t, Cocktirmoulh 
 
 w. 
 
 10. Efiroiiinnt 
 
 >c. 
 
 1 1. Rnvuiiftlttu 
 W. Ulvrnlun 
 
 !W, 
 
 09, 
 
 \X Krmlul 
 
 (10. 
 Ul. 
 
 U. Kuiwick 
 
 IS. Pnnrith 
 
 I», 
 
 IB. AuulBbir 
 7. Alimone 
 
 a". 
 
 ot. 
 
 B. Darliniclun 
 
 !«. 
 
 ILporhiiin 
 W. Buml.irland 
 
 INt. 
 07. 
 
 21. Siockton 
 
 IIH, 
 
 iM. Hiokolry 
 
 00. 
 
 Zi, (iuiilwniuch 
 
 10, 
 
 !M. Whitby 
 
 II. 
 
 'Hi. Piekerinii 
 
 IS 
 
 •X. Think 
 
 i:i. 
 
 in. Norih Allorton 
 
 14. 
 
 <«. Uwei 
 
 1.5, 
 
 'UK Ripon 
 
 Hi, 
 
 :in. KeiiHil 
 
 17 
 
 HI. .itnciister 
 
 18. 
 
 ■H. CJnrmang 
 
 lU. 
 
 :«. I'uulicm 
 
 iW, 
 
 :I4. nrniiriiril 
 
 ■n. 
 
 US. Skiplon 
 
 
 'M. Knaroaborough 
 
 IK. 
 
 :W. Irfcils 
 
 I'fl, 
 
 V>. York 
 
 134, 
 
 *W. Nhw Malton 
 
 I'iS, 
 
 4(). Ililliiigion 
 
 136. 
 
 41, 9cnrl>nroui?h 
 
 1'^, 
 
 42. GtL'at Diiffield 
 
 liM. 
 
 4:<. HiirnMa 
 
 129, 
 
 44. Hi'diin 
 
 r.io. 
 
 43. Kiiiinton on Hull 
 
 III. Barlon 
 
 31. 
 
 47. nrimsby 
 
 48. Ravcndale 
 
 .12, 
 
 3,1, 
 
 49. SnIlfli'iM 
 
 :i4. 
 
 SO. Thedlclhoipe 
 
 35, 
 
 m. Rnttun 
 
 36. 
 
 Si. Mford 
 
 i:n. 
 
 5.1, larncaette 
 
 i:w. 
 
 .M, Lincoln 
 
 39. 
 
 .V>. (iainiborouih 
 
 40, 
 
 .W, Aihby 
 
 41. 
 
 57, Doncniler 
 
 42, 
 
 .58, Sheffield 
 
 43. 
 
 59, Poniofract 
 
 44. 
 
 no. Manchnttcr 
 
 1.5, 
 
 fli, Prtiion 
 
 40. 
 
 fri. Liverpool 
 
 47. 
 
 SI. Cheater 
 
 48, 
 
 64, Ncwcnitle 
 
 49, 
 
 as, .Newport 
 n6, Siafli)rd 
 
 1.50, 
 
 .51. 
 
 f17, Riirion 
 
 .52. 
 
 (W, Perhy 
 
 .53. 
 
 in. Aihbourn 
 
 51. 
 
 7U, Cheslertield 
 
 ,5.5. 
 
 71. Miin«flold 
 
 l.'iO. 
 
 7i Alfruton 
 
 1.57. 
 
 7:1, Noiiiniiimm 
 
 1.58, 
 
 74. Mellon Mowuray I.SU, 
 
 75, (iranlhani 
 
 lliO. 
 
 76, Newark 
 
 161. 
 
 77, Slenford 
 
 1(K, 
 
 7a Ppalding 
 
 lli3. 
 
 79, Lynn Roiii 
 R), Wells 
 
 164, 
 16), 
 
 81. <,'romRr 
 
 166. 
 
 9%. Yarmouth 
 
 167. 
 
 R3. RccclM 
 
 Iffl. 
 
 B4, Harloilon 
 
 169, 
 
 H.5, Norwich 
 
 170, 
 
 H6, Recpham 
 
 171, 
 
 Eaal Dereham 
 Dim 
 
 Theirord 
 Ely 
 March 
 
 PelerboruUfh 
 . Oundle 
 Hiamrtird 
 Harburuugh 
 Leicivter 
 . Tovenlry 
 Tamworth 
 Lichfield 
 . Rirminehjm 
 Hridguiiorth 
 SItrowgbury 
 Plynlinimun 
 Ludlow 
 Tenbury 
 I.puminglor 
 llrotnrord 
 Tewkeibury 
 WorcMlor 
 Alceaiet 
 Warwick 
 Kveaham 
 Towceator 
 Northampton 
 Wellingborough 
 Thrapiton 
 lliintingdnn 
 lledr<inl 
 Cambridgo 
 Mildenhnll 
 Bury Bt. Ed 
 
 mund'a 
 Framlingham 
 Aldborough 
 Ipawich 
 Sudbury 
 Harwich 
 Colchcater 
 Coggeahall 
 Royiton 
 Biinup's Stort' 
 
 ford 
 
 Hertford 
 St. Albana 
 Ayletbury 
 Winiluw 
 Bijckinghain 
 Wooditock 
 Burfurd 
 Cfloucesler 
 Hereford 
 Koaa 
 (Jotford 
 Briilol 
 Melkiham 
 Malmeibury 
 Cirencc ' r 
 Swindon 
 llungcrford 
 Kennel 
 Abingdon 
 Ojford 
 Wallingford 
 Thame 
 Windaor 
 Uxbridge 
 Kingiton 
 C'rnydnn 
 GreeiiHirh 
 Londiin 
 (Jhelmaford 
 Maldon 
 Maidstone 
 Canterbury 
 Mnmalo 
 Kamigate 
 Dover 
 Rye 
 
 Haalinn 
 Seaford 
 Rattle 
 
 East Grinatead 
 Reigate 
 
 172, Honham 
 
 173, Briahlon 
 
 174, Arundel 
 
 175, Pulboniugh 
 
 176, (iuildford 
 
 177, Rodalming 
 
 178, Pelworih 
 ITX Cliichrater 
 
 180, Porlimoulh 
 
 181, H"Ulhainptan 
 
 182, Whiichurch 
 IKI. Andover 
 IHI. Sniubury 
 
 185, Lyminglon 
 
 186. I'uule 
 
 187. Shafteiburr 
 
 188, Baih 
 181). tTxbridge 
 
 190. Wt'llt 
 
 191. Glaalonbury 
 
 192. llcheator 
 
 193. Tauninn 
 
 194. Porloek 
 
 195. South Bam- 
 
 iiapio 
 196 Bideford 
 
 197. Torringlun 
 
 198. Launceiton 
 
 199. Bodmin 
 2110. Si. Agnea 
 201. Penzance 
 2112. Falmouth 
 203, Tregony 
 201, Tavialock 
 21^5. Plymoulh 
 2116. Modbiiry 
 
 207, Durlinouth 
 
 208. Aihburton 
 
 209, Chumleigh 
 
 210. Tivertou 
 211.Eieh)r 
 
 212. Sidmoulh 
 
 213. Honimn 
 
 214. Lyme Regie 
 
 21 5. Dorcheater 
 210. Weymouth 
 
 Rivera, 
 
 a Tyne 
 b Teei 
 c Derwent 
 d Swule 
 e Wharfa 
 f Aire 
 
 RDon 
 Trent 
 i Ouse 
 J Thamea 
 k Avon 
 1 Severn 
 in Dee 
 
 WALES. 
 
 1. Flint 
 
 2. Si. Aaaph 
 
 3. Uonbigh 
 
 4. .Aberconway 
 
 5. Bangor 
 
 6. Benumaria 
 
 7. Holyhead 
 
 8. Caernarvon 
 
 9. I.Ian Haiarn 
 
 10. Si, Mary'a 
 
 11. Harlech 
 
 12. Bala 
 
 13. Corwen 
 
 14. Mfmlgomery 
 1,5, Diiiaainowa 
 
 16. Tnwyn 
 
 17. AlK'ryatwitli 
 
 18. Rhainrier 
 
 19. Bault 
 
 20. Tregnrron 
 
 21. LlnnlH>»r 
 
 22. Cardigan 
 
 23. Newport 
 
 24. Fi«:ard 
 
 25. St. David'i 
 
 26. Pembroke 
 
 27. Caennarthen 
 
 28. Cwyrgryg 
 
 50. Brc'^.m 
 
 30, Monmouth 
 
 31, Uake 
 
 32, 1'heptlow 
 
 33, Nuw'Mirt 
 
 34. Cardiir 
 :i3, Laiidair 
 30. Llantriiacnl 
 37. Swansea 
 
 Rivert. 
 a Towey 
 b Tievy 
 c Dee 
 
 SCOTLAND 
 
 1. Durneai 
 
 2. Tongue 
 
 3. Reay 
 
 4. Thurao 
 
 5. Wick 
 
 6. Dunbeath 
 
 7. Helmadale 
 c. Dornoch 
 9. Tain 
 
 10, Portinleik 
 
 11, llllnpuol 
 
 12, Poolew 
 
 13, Torridon 
 
 14, Loch l^irron 
 
 15, Dingwall 
 
 16, Beauly 
 
 17, loverneaa 
 
 18, Graniown 
 
 19, Nairn 
 
 20, Elgin 
 
 21, Inveraven 
 
 22, Cullen 
 
 23, Banff 
 
 24, Huntley 
 
 25, Turroff 
 
 26, Fiaaeraburih 
 
 27, Peterhead 
 
 28, Nuwhurgh 
 
 29, Aberdeen 
 
 30, Sionehavcn 
 
 31, Bervie 
 
 32, Tulloch 
 
 33, Braemar 
 
 34, Fort Auguitua 
 
 35, Glencig 
 
 36, Araaaig 
 
 37, Appin 
 
 :i8. Fort William 
 
 39. Perth 
 
 40. Dunkeld 
 
 41. Blair Athol 
 
 42. Brechin 
 
 43. Montrose 
 
 44. Forfar 
 4.5. Arbroath 
 
 46, Dundee 
 
 47. St. Andrews 
 
 48. Anatruther 
 
 49, Kinross 
 
 .50, Inverkcithing 
 
 51. Clackmannan 
 
 52. Muihill 
 5,1. Slirling 
 .54. Inverary 
 55, Oban 
 
 .56, Diimbnrlon 
 .57. Grei-nock 
 .58. Paialey 
 .59, Irviiw 
 
 60. Hamilton 
 
 61. Glasgow 
 63, Falkirk 
 6.3. Linlithgow 
 1)4, Whitlium 
 
 65, Peebles 
 
 66, Edinburgh 
 
 67, Haddington 
 
 68. North Berwick 
 
 69, Dunbar 
 
 70, Berwick 
 
 71. Kekoe 
 Ti. Jedburgh 
 
 73. Hawick 
 
 74, Aahkirk 
 7.5, Bjggiir 
 70. Moffat 
 
 77, Sanquhar 
 
 78, Lanark 
 
 79. Kilmarnock 
 
 80, Ayr 
 
 81, (iirvan 
 
 82. Ballintrae 
 
 83. Stranraer 
 
 84. Port Patrick 
 83. Wigton 
 
 86, Kircudbright 
 
 87, Now Galloway 
 
 88, Monihivu 
 
 89, Dumfries 
 
 90, Langholm 
 Ul, Annan 
 
 Rivert. 
 a Spey 
 b Don 
 c Deo 
 dTay 
 o Clyde 
 f Ken 
 g Nith 
 h Annan 
 i Tweed 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 1. Belfast 
 
 2. Antrim 
 
 3. Lame 
 
 4. Glenarm 
 
 5. Ballycaslle 
 
 6. Rallymoney 
 
 7. Cnleraine 
 
 8. Tubbermute 
 
 9. Strabane 
 
 10. Londonderry 
 
 11. White Castle 
 13. Raphoe 
 
 13. Lifford 
 
 14. Leticrkenny 
 
 15. Killybeis 
 
 10. Donegal 
 
 17, llallybofy 
 
 18, Omagh 
 
 19, Pomcroy 
 
 20, Clogher 
 
 21, Dungannon 
 
 22, Armagh 
 
 23, jurgan 
 
 24, Donughadce 
 
 25, Porlaferry 
 
 26, Downpairick 
 
 27, .Strevoy 
 
 28, Ncwry 
 
 29, Dundalk 
 
 30, Moiiaghan 
 
 31, Cavan 
 33. Cnllahill 
 :t3, K.nriiakillen 
 :U. Churchill 
 
 35. Sligo 
 
 36. Drumoirn 
 
 37. Bnllyinoro 
 
 38. Citliioiiey 
 
 39. Rrillina 
 411, Kilbla 
 
 41, Biillyglasa 
 
 42, Cliigaiin 
 
 43, Ni'wport 
 
 44, Wealport 
 4,5, Konior 
 41). Ilallinrolio 
 
 47. (^Batte Barr 
 
 48, Kilcolmaii 
 
 49, Tuam 
 
 50. Elphin 
 
 51, Roscommon 
 
 .52. Leilrim 
 
 .53. Longford 
 
 .54, Moyiinliy 
 
 .55. Carrickmacrou 
 
 .50. Donleer 
 
 .57. Diogheda 
 
 58. Ilalhriggan 
 
 59. llulilin 
 
 60. Screen 
 
 61. Trim 
 
 62. ,>liivriouth 
 at. IViitia 
 
 64, Tullamore 
 
 65, Mullingar 
 
 66, Aihlono 
 
 67, Eyrecourt 
 
 68, Ballyforan 
 
 69, Newion Bellow 
 
 70, I.iiughrea 
 
 71, Ornmure 
 
 72, Oogiiiera 
 
 73, Galway 
 
 74, Cort 
 
 7.5. Innialymon 
 
 76, Kilrush 
 
 77, Clare 
 
 78, Eiinis 
 
 79. Limerick 
 
 80. Porlumn 
 
 81. Nenagh 
 K. Kllliiloe 
 K<, Tliurles 
 84. Kuaorea 
 K5, Durrow 
 
 86, Alh 
 
 87, Kildare 
 
 88, Catlow 
 
 89, Tullow 
 
 90, Biillinglaas 
 
 91, Bh>8siiigluu 
 
 92, Togher 
 
 93, Wicklow 
 
 94, Gorey 
 
 9.5, Ballycanoe 
 06. Enniacorlhy 
 
 97. Wesfuid 
 
 98. Felhaid 
 
 99. Waterford 
 100. Thomas Town 
 nil. Kilkenny 
 
 102, CariickonSuirn 
 
 103, Clonmol 
 
 104. Ballyporecn 
 
 105. Tiptierary 
 
 106, Killmullock 
 
 107. Aakeyion 
 
 108. Ballylongfurd 
 
 109, Tralen 
 no CnaileFord 
 
 111, Killainey 
 
 112, Kenmare 
 
 113, v''(iallctown 
 
 114, Biiiilry 
 
 115, ('nalletown 
 
 116, Kiusalo 
 
 117, Crk 
 
 118, Killady 
 
 1 19, Torlijteola 
 
 120, Mitllnw 
 
 121, R;illirormuck 
 
 122, Kildorery 
 12:1, l.iamore 
 124, ViMigliall 
 1'iS, Dungarvan 
 126. Tramoro 
 
 Rivtrt. 
 
 n 11:10 
 
 h Ciirtingford 
 e lloyne 
 d Harrow 
 e Note 
 f Siiiro 
 
 Rlllackwatei 
 Shannon 
 i Buck. 
 
Rivers. 
 
 riiillngfuTa 
 oyne 
 t'lrruw 
 kiire 
 Miini 
 
 hliickwatei 
 Rtmnnun 
 Buck. 
 
 Book L 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 I 
 
 315 
 
 Sect. I. — Oencrul Outline and Aspect. 
 
 England is bounded on the soutli by tho Eiiglitih CImnnol, iiitprposod between its coast 
 and tlial of Franco; on tlio east by tlio Gennan Sea, on tlio north by Scotland, from which 
 it is sopariitfd by tho Tweed, the Cheviot hillH, and the Frith of Sol way ; on tho woHt by the 
 Irish Sea and St. George's Channel : the promontory of the Lanil's-End, forming its south- 
 western extremity, faces the vast expanse of the Atlantic. 
 
 The greatest dimension of England is from south to north, between tho Lizard Point, 
 49° 58' N., and Berwick on Tweed, 55° 45' N. ; four hundred miles in length. Tiie points 
 of extreme breadth are the Lund's-End (^g. 104.), in 5° 41' \V.,and Lowestoffe, in 1°44' E., 
 
 forming a space of about 280 mil's. There 
 is no point, however, where a line of this 
 extent can be carried across the island, and 
 the northern part does not on an average 
 exceed one hundred miles in breadth. 
 
 The surface of England is of a diversifi- 
 ed character ; the eastern districts are in 
 general level, and there arc several direc- 
 tions in which hundreds of miles may be 
 travelled without seeing a hill. Along the 
 western side of the island are large tracts, 
 not only hilly, but sometimes rising even to 
 mountain grandeur. Such are the counties 
 of Cumberland and Westmoreland, the bleak ridge of Ingleborough, extending like a spine 
 through tlie north of England: of the same character are Derbyshire, the whole principality 
 of Wales, and a great part of Devon and Cornwall. These tracts exhibit all tho varieties of 
 mountain scenery: in Cumberland, encircling little plains filled with beautiful lakes; in 
 Wales, enclosing narrow valleys through which the rapid mountain stream dashes ; in Der- 
 
 LindVEnd. 
 
 References to the Map of England. — North Fart. 
 
 .NORTH SEIIIKS. 
 1. KHrwirk 
 
 3. Molilniin 
 X \\,'\f,m\ 
 
 4. \, rhiirl'on 
 r>. Alnwiuk 
 
 0. VVhitlinghnni 
 7. IJdwayturd 
 H. F.lsdun 
 U. Rcithhuty 
 
 10. Warkwutih 
 
 11. Morpeih 
 n. Ilivthe 
 i:t. Clifton 
 
 14. Siamrtirdlmm 
 
 15. Kirk Harlu 
 IH. Hatliiiillun 
 IV. Ri>llin)innti) 
 IH. Hutii'rshuugh 
 It). Shillburn 
 
 311. KonnrI 
 31. Kewrastle 
 'J^l. Iiunglown 
 'H. Rrarnplon 
 •U. Ilallwhiitic 
 'i.'i. Simonbiiin 
 •Hi. Hexham 
 •••7. Hickloy 
 28. NuwcBBtlB 
 '.tt. .North Sliirlils 
 :U). Tynpmniith 
 :il. Houlh Sliit'lJd 
 '.^i. Sunderland 
 :<:i. Shuiton 
 :U. Durliiini. 
 :i.'). ('hcstcr-leSlrect 
 .lit. I.nnchcstcr 
 :I7. VVultiiniiliuni 
 'X'. Hianliiipu 
 :19. Aciun 
 
 40. .Mdsliinn 
 
 41. *'rnfe!tj:ill 
 
 4'i. Kirk Oswald 
 4:1. 1.aionby 
 44. Hiiltdii 
 Vi. Tarliflle 
 4B. Oricin 
 47. Wiiitiin 
 4H. Ahbeyholmo 
 i\i. Maryport 
 .W. Wurkiniiion 
 .'il. rockerinduiti 
 fit. Iroby 
 .'1:1. Ki'swick 
 .54. Matierdalo 
 .W. IVmilh 
 .5fi. Clifton 
 57. Aimloliy 
 .W. Milljurn 
 ,50. nroouli 
 6U. aiackiiolin 
 
 Middleton 
 
 Bflglostnn 
 
 Harnard <?H8tIo 
 
 Hiaindrop 
 
 VVi-8l Auckland 
 
 Bishop Auck- 
 land 
 
 Sedtfefiuld 
 
 Hartlepool 
 
 Seaton Carow 
 
 Gnighrougb 
 
 Whitby 
 
 Btokeilcy 
 
 Raunton 
 
 Yarm 
 
 Darlington 
 
 Croll 
 
 Rokeby 
 
 Roweri 
 
 Reeih 
 
 Kirkby Stephen 
 
 Orion 
 
 Mardale 
 
 Amblciiilo 
 
 St-atbwaite 
 
 Whitehaven 
 
 Kgreriiotit 
 
 Ravrnglass 
 
 Whitheck 
 
 IJtvergion 
 
 Hawkshoad 
 
 Kendal 
 
 Fawcott 
 
 Millthorpe 
 
 Sedbcrgh 
 
 Hawea 
 
 Ankrigg 
 
 Miildlulmm 
 
 Richmond 
 
 <*ntterick 
 
 Hcrlkle 
 
 Rnrneiton 
 
 Thitsk 
 
 North Allerton 
 
 lli'lmalev 
 
 Kirby Mnorside 
 
 Snainion 
 
 Cloughttin 
 
 Srarhurongh 
 
 Filey , 
 
 llunmanby 
 
 llridlington 
 
 Kilhnm 
 
 nrillicld 
 
 Sledmero 
 Wintrintibam 
 
 Now Malton 
 
 (larrnhy 
 
 Stillenham 
 
 t'oxwold 
 
 Euaingwold 
 
 121. Aldburouch 
 It^i. KnarosUirough 
 12:1. Ripon 
 VH. iMtmham 
 V2^. Whernsido 
 1% Grauinatun 
 l'/7. Arnclilfe 
 128. Settle 
 I3». Indeton 
 IJO. Kirkby Long- 
 dale 
 Itll. Hornby 
 1:13. Lancagtor 
 i;t;f. Oargtung 
 1:14. Slaidbiirn 
 ia5. Clithoroe 
 ItW. L'nine 
 i:n. PMythorne 
 1.18. Bkiptun 
 130. ThurcroM 
 
 140. Olley 
 
 141. llarewood 
 
 142. Ripl.y 
 14:1. Weiherby 
 144. Tndcagter 
 W^. Cawoud 
 14B. York 
 
 147. Porklington 
 
 148. Middletnn 
 
 149. Market Wcigh- 
 
 ton 
 l.'iO. Meverlry 
 l.^l. Rrandgburton 
 152. Horngea 
 15:1. Aldborough 
 VA. Hedon 
 155. Pattrington 
 
 SOtJTH SERIES. 
 
 1. Poullon 
 
 2. RIackpoul 
 :i. KIrkham 
 
 4. Predion 
 
 5. Ohotley 
 
 fi. niaekburn 
 7. Iturntey 
 H. Halifax 
 9. Koiiihley 
 
 10. nradrnril 
 
 11. Oow^bnry 
 
 12. Wakefield 
 
 13. Leeds 
 
 14. Poniefract 
 1.5. Snaiih 
 
 IK. Selby 
 
 17. Howdon 
 
 18. Riirlun 
 
 19. Snuth Covo 
 
 20. Hull 
 
 21. Uarton 
 
 22. Oriiniby 
 
 2:1. Ravendalo 
 
 24. Caigtor 
 
 2.5. Rlanhird Bridge 
 
 20. Kiitun 
 
 27. lirunihy • 
 
 28. Crowie 
 
 29. Thome 
 RO. DuncBiter 
 .11. Iludgwonh 
 
 32. Barnegley 
 
 33. Penigtune 
 
 34. Huddergfield 
 ;i5. Meltham 
 
 36. Aghton-under- 
 
 Line 
 .17. Manchegter 
 :h Rochdale 
 :I9. Rury 
 
 40. Bolton 
 
 41. Iieigh 
 
 42. Wigan 
 4:1. Ornigkirk 
 
 44, Forniby 
 
 45. Liverpool 
 40. Pregcol 
 
 47. Newton 
 
 48. Warrington 
 
 49. Knuigiiird 
 ,50, Atlringham 
 51. Slockport 
 ,52. Digley 
 
 53. Chniiel in tho 
 
 Frith 
 .54. Tidegwoll 
 .5.5, Cagtleton 
 .50. Sheineld 
 ,57. Dronlield 
 .58. Rolherham 
 ,59, Worksop 
 m. RIyth 
 61. Retl'ord 
 02, Oaingborouah 
 fU. Willouuhtun 
 
 64. Wrnehy 
 
 65. Market Rosen 
 <iO. I.MUth 
 
 07. Salilleet 
 68. ."Jution 
 09. A I ford 
 
 70. Biirgh 
 
 71. VVaiiifleet 
 
 72. SSpil.by 
 
 73. Horn('ii.<;Ilo 
 
 74. Tnttershall 
 
 75. n-.iiig1on 
 70. Naveiiby 
 ii. Lincoln 
 
 78. Thornev 
 
 79. TuxI'urd 
 
 80. Newark 
 
 81. Mangfield 
 
 82. Rolgover 
 
 83. L'lii'gKirlield 
 
 84. All'reton 
 8.5, Mat lock 
 
 86. Wirkgworth 
 
 87. Wingtcr 
 
 88. Buxton 
 
 89. Lognur 
 90. 1..veke 
 
 91. Horton 
 
 92. MaccleiifiRld 
 
 93. Conglotun 
 
 94. Talk 
 
 95. Nanlwich 
 
 96. Middlewieh 
 
 97. Northwich 
 
 98. Tarportey 
 
 99. C'begter 
 100. Hidt 
 
 nil, Wrexham 
 102, Mold 
 10:1. Flint 
 104. Ruthin 
 10.5. Denbigh 
 100, St. Asaph 
 
 107. Aberiieley 
 
 108. Aberconway 
 
 109. Llanrwst 
 
 110 Penire Vnelai 
 lll.Treniadoc 
 
 112. Bangor 
 
 113. Beaumaris 
 
 114. Amlwch 
 
 11,5. Llanerchymedd 
 116 Holyhead 
 1 17. I'aernarvon 
 
 118. Bwich Mawr 
 
 119. Pwllheli 
 
 120. Crickieth 
 
 121. Harlech 
 
 122. ,\rrennip 
 
 123. Llanuwch- 
 
 Uwyn 
 
 124. Bala 
 12.5. (,'nrvGn 
 120. Tilangollen 
 
 127. KlleBniere 
 
 128. Wem 
 
 129. Whitchurch 
 1:10. Mnl|i:is 
 131. Druylon 
 i:H. rcclcshall 
 1:1:1. Ptnno 
 
 i:i4. Newrrtfttle-un- 
 
 der- Line 
 13.5, Rurslem 
 i:i6. Cheadle 
 137. Ulio.xetcr 
 
 1,38, Aabborna 
 i:«l. Derby 
 
 140. Bi^per 
 
 141. Nottingham 
 
 142. Biilteslbnl 
 
 143. tirantbam 
 
 144. ^lealbrd 
 14,5. Folkinghnm 
 140. Doiiningtuu 
 
 147. Boston 
 
 148. Bnrnliam 
 
 Market 
 140. Cagtle Riging 
 150. Fakenliam 
 ISI.NcwWalsing- 
 
 ham 
 1.52. Holt 
 1,5,3, Crumer 
 154. N. Waliham 
 
 ISLE OF MAN 
 
 1. Ramsey 
 
 2. Peel 
 
 3. Douglas 
 
 4. Caslletown 
 
 RiverB, 
 a Till 
 b Aln 
 c CcHiuet 
 d Wensbeck 
 e Blyth 
 f Tvne 
 
 KWear 
 Tecs 
 ■ F.Hk 
 J Rye 
 k Dorwent 
 
 1 Ouse 
 in Swale 
 n Hro 
 
 o Wharf 
 p Air 
 q Calder 
 r Don 
 B Rother 
 t Dcrwent 
 u Dove 
 V Trent 
 w Ankbolm 
 X Wiiham 
 y Cnnwoy 
 
 2 t'lwyd 
 a* Dee 
 
 b* Weaver 
 c* Mersey 
 d» Rihblu 
 e* Lunc 
 f * Derwent 
 g» Eden 
 
 •^» 
 
 -i;,) 
 
 lit 
 
 'M 
 
 
'»♦ 
 
 ne 
 
 MAP OP ENGLAND— NORTH. 
 
 Fio. 105 
 
 ;#^ 
 
r 
 
€ 
 
 818 
 
 DESCRIl'TIVK OROGRAPHY. 
 
 Pa>t ni 
 
 liVMhirc, pniKonJinff rocky nconiTy in nvrry picliin-Hiiiii) innl firitnBtic Mlmpo; wliilo in Devon- 
 Mliirn low liroad sIi'i'jm oviTsliiirtoNV wiili< itiiil liriiiitil'iil viiIoh. 
 
 Willi one iMti'<'|>ti(iii, till- riioHt iin|i(>rtiiiit rivi-rn of Kii(r|iini| trivrw tlin lircndtli of tho 
 kiti;(iloni : rininif niiion)f llii> woxtcrn liillii, utiil tlowiiijf towiinl tlio (mtiiihii OriMiii, they do 
 not Dttiiiii tliiit ltm;(tli of I'Diirno which tlitt r.xtciit nf iIh t)>rrilory in iitiothcr ilircction wonlil 
 liiivR ii(liniti*>(l. 'riioiiirli ili'licii'Mt, howovcr, in niii|[;nitii(l<>, tlii>y urn nuiiicroiiH, coiiHriudioiiii, 
 nnil vaiinli!)' ; (lowing tliroii|{h lirunil vuIoh anil \viil('-''|>riMiilin;^ jilaiiiM. 
 
 The 'riinnii'.", thmi^rli not tlii> lon)r('Mt, ilfHrrvcK to bn rankcilaM thu flrnt of HritiHh rivnrii. 
 It ori;;iiuiti<ii tVoin u number uf rivulutM on tho burdorM of Wiltii ami ISIouccntorHliiro, which, 
 
 Kiferrncei to the .Wa/i uf F.nnUinil. — South I'arl, 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 .NoiiTH Hi:imw. 
 
 j. TnllifbiMil 
 
 3. IHnaariMWiliIy 
 
 4. Ilonilrii 
 
 A. I.lHnCyllitl 
 
 fl. I'llnl 
 
 7. Llniit'tur 
 
 H. Hhriiwalillir 
 
 It. (Hwii.lrx 
 
 10. Vvallin«i(in 
 M. Nii»jii>ri 
 
 n. rfiiinitrk 
 
 M. l.irhHillil 
 
 l.'i. AblHirallfijinl"; 
 
 III. HllTlllll 
 
 17. .Atliliy lie la 
 
 y.ulirh 
 \A Knliiwiirih 
 11*. UMiBlilinrniiu'li 
 ill. MtMint Honi'l 
 •Jl. MnlidiiMoivliriiy 
 '.'■.•. Oniilmm 
 ■i:i. ( 'oil.y 
 -.'1. lliMini 
 *.'•>. Hiamrnrl 
 •Jli. Murlici Diii'iiinj 
 *,*T. rniwIiiMil 
 •i''. Hpnliliiil 
 VI. Hi'llipuni 
 :<ll. Wialiinch 
 
 :ii. lnliiiuiiMi 
 
 'M. I.ynn Kt'niii 
 :'"I. .N'.wlliirniuh 
 :M. Iillrliiiiii 
 :C>. Hw'iirtmm 
 r.fi. Kimi Oft'ihuni 
 n*. Finiiahiirn 
 :h. \vl»li!iiii 
 !l!l. .S'lirwicli 
 4i> \Vrii«lMm 
 
 11. YnriiMMiih 
 4; l..i>v,..t„i'i 
 
 rl. Ilorrlpi 
 
 M. I.MiM.in 
 
 4.'i. Itiiiiitny 
 
 411. llHrlmiiil 
 
 47. .Nhw lluckins- 
 
 hiiin 
 ■H. VVyiiifinHtmm 
 I'l. Ilinirhiiin 
 'Jl. Wniiiii 
 'il. Ka.«> llaiiiiii 
 .V.'. 'I'tii'tliira 
 X\. Ilrnndon 
 .%4 MdiIiwuIiI 
 .'i.^. Ildwnhnin 
 :«. K.ly 
 .'i*. M.ircli 
 .V. Kamicr 
 .'i!i. Tliiirnpi' 
 IHI. I'ftorbiirniirh 
 III. NorniAi) Criim 
 fi'. Ouiull.' 
 IVI. Knrkiniehitm 
 ('■-I. ('[iiiiiiKhdin 
 \Vi. I<flirt'nter 
 m. .Mniki't Ilnrbo- 
 
 rixigb 
 117. liiittprwiirth 
 
 fin, llliirklir 
 
 I'd. Niinoiiinn 
 711. .^ItirrrttiiiiQ 
 71. 'I minvnitli 
 7-.>. Ciiluhill 
 7:i S.iliuii CuUm«lil 
 74. WnUiiM 
 7.'i. IllTininnliftin 
 7fJ. Wiilvor'iiiiniilon 
 77. Itrtilffi'niirlli 
 7-^ HroHi-ky 
 7>.i. Mcirh Wcnlork 
 HI. IIinIiop'h CiiKtlo 
 HI. MniilKiitnnry 
 H2. Nowinwn 
 HI Ijlanfiiir 
 w-1. Mafhynllclh 
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 117. 
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 1117. 
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 111. 
 
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 1311. 
 140, 
 
 141. 
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 144. 
 
 14.'i. 
 
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 147. 
 14H. 
 
 14!l. 
 1.1(1. 
 Ml. 
 
 Ma. 
 
 1.VI. 
 l.M. 
 155. 
 
 l.W. 
 157. 
 
 IIW. 
 I.V.I. 
 IIUI 
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 Id'l. 
 1114. 
 IIIV 
 I IVI. 
 107. 
 IBH. 
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 Abt'ryHivvith 
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 HuilMy V><»lth 
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 I'lllDM 
 
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 Cli'iiliury .Miir 
 
 tlmi*r 
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 Hi. Nnii'i 
 
 llllMlMltflluil 
 
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 nH<ll(!itfti 
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 niiib-ahill 
 
 NVirilliitin 
 
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 Sudbury 
 
 Haverhill 
 
 LIniiiii 
 
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 Ncwiuirl PaK- 
 
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 lliinilbiiry 
 
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 HltiiiRinn upun 
 
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 1711. Tulirarib 
 171. X,l».w„o 
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 I7;l. I.iinililln* 
 Ijl. 'rrt'iiaiiin 
 17.1 1.1 miMcur 
 17)1. Ni'w Ciuilo 
 
 Kiiilyii 
 177. ('[irdikiin 
 7H. N<"*piirl 
 
 JTit, pi. i)»vi.r. , 
 
 IHI. Millord 
 I**!. Prinbriika 
 IKI Tenby 
 IHI. Narborih 
 IKV Hi. I'li'ai'a 
 iH(l. Ijanvflrimrh 
 iH7. r'aiTnmrlht'il 
 W. l.niulubii] 
 IHI*. |.aniiaili>n 
 lUO. Laiidiivniy 
 llll. Triru«llii 
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 lli:t. Cnrkhowi'll 
 int. AbiMiavi'iiiiy 
 IIH. Hi. Wuuiianri 
 imi. KiiH 
 I!I7. Miirbi'ldonn 
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 '.111. Clii'lh'iilinnl 
 •»H Niirlbiinrb 
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 301. Miwliin in Ibn 
 
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 >»». Charbiiry 
 VIA. WoiKl.liirk 
 3117. flcditiKiun 
 Slf. tliruiiiir 
 <Mt. Winilow 
 
 910. Ayltiliiiry 
 
 911. VVuiMliivor 
 919. Ivlnihiio 
 
 913. I^eifhliin lluz- 
 
 tard 
 
 914. Lulun 
 
 915. Sievennae 
 9m. Riild.H'k 
 917. Iliillliikl nialiop 
 9IH. Ilt'rtrnrd 
 3IU. Iliahiip'i Slnil- 
 
 ford 
 990. nunmuw 
 a-il.Thaated 
 292. Ilralnirre 
 99:1. (.'tiffpaball 
 
 994. Ilnl Ill 
 
 995. Culfhi'aiiT 
 'tX, Harwich 
 997. St. Oayih 
 ■tit. Bradwi'll 
 99ft. RiK-hf.ird 
 9:HI. Maldiin 
 9*11. Chelmarord 
 
 939. Inaiitt^Mliinu 
 9.13. Hiirndiin 
 9:14. Rmnforil 
 9:15. C'hippinil Ollinr 
 
 916. Rppinii 
 9117. Knd.-ld 
 9nH. Si. Alban'a 
 9'm. WallWrd 
 
 940. BerkhnmiMluad 
 
 941. AiiiiTchiiin 
 91.'. Mnrli.w 
 913. Wiillinnl'.iril 
 941. Oxri.id 
 9 l.'i, Alijnuiliiti 
 •-'4li. WanlHKn 
 
 917. Whilni'y 
 9|H. llurfdid 
 9 m. U'chiade 
 9.')0. Cirfniwater 
 9.'il. Miiliiieahury 
 9.59. Wiiliim uiidiT 
 
 Edfe 
 
 9.53. MiiirhmlmiiiP' 
 
 lull 
 9.V4. Hiiiiiid 
 9.V1. Iliirkflay 
 9.'in. illaikiiiy 
 9.H. Miiiiniiiuili 
 •IV.i'tk 
 
 9.'»ll. Chi'paldW 
 900. Nvwpnrt 
 9(11 Nlnilliyr Tyilvil 
 9119. l.liiiilMiiBiint 
 9ii:l. i.lniidair 
 9(14. (*iiwbndtf6 
 WIV l'rl« 
 9lkl. NViilh 
 9(17. Alit>riiant 
 9'IH, I'lininrilylala 
 91H1. Kiilwi'lly 
 970. Punriru 
 
 WIl'TII Hr.RIKH. 
 I. Thnrnbiiry 
 9. OiippiiiK nud- 
 
 hiirv 
 3 nriatiil 
 4. Wriiitfinn 
 .5. I'i'iitliird 
 n. .MimhtlBld 
 7. Iliiiilfnrd 
 H. ( 'hipiivnbani 
 •I. Cnlnii 
 
 10. Wiiilim Bnawt 
 
 11. Miirlbiiriiiiith 
 19. Miiniii'rrord 
 
 13. (.I'iMTinlirilu 
 
 14. K. llaliiy 
 1.5. HiMd^K 
 
 III. Wiikinihnm 
 17. ^lNidf<iin6ad 
 IH. Windaiir 
 I'.l. I'xlirldiia 
 
 90. Kiiiailu 
 
 91. Kwill 
 9*2. (.'rnydiin 
 91. I.imhIiiii 
 94. VViMilwirh 
 9,5. (irHVpadiid 
 9A. Rncbiiatfr 
 97. C'lialhaiii 
 f^. HheuriH'aa 
 9*.!. Fiivi-rabnm 
 .'Ml. ( niiU'ibiiry 
 31. Martfnli) 
 
 39. Haiulwich 
 3:1, Hull 
 
 34, Duvur 
 Xt. Hyihu 
 3«. Wyn 
 37. Aahf.ird 
 3H, Bmiirileii 
 ;i*.l l.t'nham 
 
 40. Miiitlahilio 
 
 41. Wrolhnm 
 49. Tiiiibridne 
 43. Sfvi-nnaka 
 41. VVcslorlmm 
 45. I'^firiiiaload 
 411. Ilifiiuli! 
 
 47. ItiirKiiitf 
 4a Itu.li'y 
 4'.l. (iiiildliiril 
 .50. (fiidiitmiiiff 
 51. Ahnn 
 
 59. Oililiaiii 
 
 .51. H;iainualiike 
 ,54. Ni'wbury 
 55. Whiicliurch 
 .Vi. .Aiidiivtif 
 ,57. l.uilxcraliull 
 .5H, Arnculiiiry 
 511. HliiiiidiHiiifO 
 00. n.'vin-a 
 Bl. Trnwbridso 
 (i9. Wi'Hibury 
 (H. Baih 
 fA. Hruton 
 6.5. Hliiiptiin Mallot 
 
 60. Uluiluabury 
 
 (17, VV..|la 
 w. Aabridin 
 (III, |llai-kl..rd 
 .0, llridnuwalttr 
 71. Whaii-hrt 
 79 Mini'h.'iid 
 
 73. I'.irlliK-k 
 
 74. (\iiiitM- Mnrhii 
 .5, IllVaruiiilm 
 
 711, llarnaliitiln 
 77, Appl'doio 
 7H. Ilidiil'iird 
 711. Halllaiid 
 HO. 'rnrrinatnn 
 HI, Hnllth Multuii 
 t^i. llnlvi'rifMl 
 Kt. VVivfliaronilMl 
 HJ. W. llllKlull 
 Ki, Taunliin 
 Hll. liiiniipiirt 
 H7. Hiimurton 
 HH. Iirhoicr 
 H!i. Slilboiii Port 
 m. Caallo Ciiry 
 111. Wiiiraiintnn 
 09 Hhiil'loabury 
 ICI. Mom 
 
 114. Waniiinalcr 
 
 115. Ilinduii 
 IHI, Wiliiin 
 07. Haliabury 
 IH lluwiiliill 
 |l!l. Itiimacy 
 
 1(10. Hlorkbiid>n 
 jbl. VVillrhialur 
 
 109. Ilraniilrim 
 103. I'liltuahulil 
 KM Midhurat 
 IU5. Pi'twoilh 
 llkl. Ilaalflinrra 
 1117. Ili.iahnin 
 lOH. Cui'kni'ld 
 IIKI. I'ckflvlil 
 
 110. TiinbridgQ 
 
 Wdla 
 111 Wadhunit 
 119 (ioudhural 
 
 113. Criinbrmiko 
 
 114. Applntiiro 
 11.5. New Riiniiwy 
 no. l.ydd 
 
 117 Hy« 
 
 1 |H. VVincholaca 
 
 llll. Ilaaiinga 
 
 190. Iluiilu 
 
 191, ilailaham 
 199. K. Biiuino 
 
 193. Hraliird 
 
 194. l.<'Wila 
 
 195. Ilriiihton 
 19(1. N. Shnraham 
 197. Hieyninn 
 19H, VVorthlnn 
 19!l. Arundel 
 1:10. Cbichoitor 
 131. llavani 
 
 ri9. Fiiri'liiim 
 VXl Hniiihaniptun 
 134. Newtown 
 
 i;i.5. iVi'wpuTt 
 
 1:111 Viiriniiuth 
 1:17. I.ymlnilun 
 i:iH. Chrinlrliurch 
 i:i'.l. Kingwiiud 
 1411. PooTo 
 141, WinibnrnMin- 
 
 Mtur 
 149. niandford 
 143. Ileer RhbIi 
 141, W.in-bam 
 145, CiirluCiiKllo 
 14n, M.'jcuiiibc Itu- 
 
 KJi 
 
 147. VVefmoiith 
 14H. Durcheator 
 1411. (^I'rne Abbai 
 1.50. Bridport 
 ISI.LyinoIlcfi) 
 
 151. ,5«ininatar 
 I.VI. t'harii 
 154. Iloiilian 
 I,''i5. 1'ldrlon 
 1,50. Hiilniiiuih 
 
 1.57. i;i uih 
 
 1,5H. Hilvnrion 
 I.VI, I olliinipluD 
 lliti, Crmliion 
 IHI. Chunileifh 
 11.9, I 'riH knrnwiill 
 IIU. (iflkhamplun 
 Hit. Iliilhirlmih 
 105 Hhi'i'pwaali 
 Hkl. Iliilaworlby 
 107, HirnlliMi 
 |(IH. Jncolwlow 
 Hill. Ciiniolluid 
 
 170. I.iiniii't'alon 
 
 171. Callintfion 
 179, 'I'uviaiiick 
 
 173. Hiaiihird 
 
 Hpiiioy 
 
 174. Murelun HnmR 
 
 lien 
 
 175. Ktnii'r 
 1711. I'lmdli'lih 
 
 r/7. Ni'wiiiii Biuhel 
 17H. Aabtiurtnn 
 170 Tolnraa 
 IHO. l)iiriMiuuih 
 |H|, Kiniabiidice 
 |H9. Miidliiiry 
 IH3. Pljinpiiin Eiri 
 1,-<^I, Plyiiiiiulh 
 IH5, Hnllnah 
 IHil. Hi. (iurmant 
 Ih7. I.iaki'ard 
 inn. Liioe 
 l".!. Fowcy 
 IINI, LoaiwilMol 
 llll, Hoilniin 
 I!I9, fit Miiiver 
 Itl3, Padaiow 
 
 1114. Hi. Michanl 
 
 1115, (triimpuund 
 lIHI Trudinr 
 1117. 'riiirii 
 
 llie. Ili'drulh 
 llHI. Penryn 
 900. Ilnialon 
 901 MuraaiuD 
 909. Hi. 1v« 
 90.1, Poniaiic* 
 
 Rivtrt. 
 
 a VViilland 
 
 l> Nen 
 
 R Old Bedrord 
 
 d OldUiw 
 
 11 Oiiafl 
 
 f Wi'iiion 
 
 n ]i«tt 
 i Thamea 
 I <!liarwell 
 
 K KlMlflOt 
 
 1 Wpy 
 m Molo 
 n Mt'dwa 
 
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 p Kiilher 
 i| \nm 
 
 r Avon 
 H Kxo 
 
 1 Turner 
 u Taw 
 
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 w Axe 
 X Avon 
 y Haven* 
 ' Tern* 
 a«Wy« 
 b* Tatf 
 c* Toway 
 d» Toi« 
 0* Yaiwllh 
 f • Dovoy 
 
 TJlis 1 
 
 £ 
 
Book I. 
 
 ENOI^AND. 
 
 319 
 
 , fiirfr*. 
 I VVulland 
 
 I oil! Bedforil 
 1 olil Ou» 
 InnM) 
 1 Wrmon 
 1 Coin 
 
 liCU 
 
 J 'I'hsmM, 
 
 1 Konn«l 
 
 Wey 
 L Miilo 
 T Miilwa 
 Biiiur 
 
 t UlllIlM 
 
 Aviiii 
 
 I'.xo 
 I Tumor 
 iTuw 
 1 Peitot 
 
 r Axe 
 
 Avun 
 J Beveiu . 
 
 !• Tovnj 
 l»Toi»,^ 
 I* Yitwitb 
 > Dovoy 
 
 unitinif lit Crickladn, foriH a fitri'itiii which in aUmt nine fi'i't Imiiiil in wiiiniH'r, iiiiil in ciillod 
 thd 'rliniiin, Ntmr (Vxfnnl it riK-iiivi'H tho (Ihiirwttll iiikI the Ikin, iiw<iiiiiiii)f on iIh iiini^tion 
 with thn liitti<rriviir t>i('(^'<ri|)<)iiiiil iiiiiiutot'TiiiitKNiM, which Ii:im hi'ci) ithhri'viiiti'd into Thiimcii. 
 Alter n cciiirNn nlinoKt Nouthwiinl to Knndinif, it wiiiiU northwanl thriiii|rh tlin W(i<kIi>iI viih< of 
 HiMiloy mill M.'iidiMihoiid, mid lhiinci> by tim CAntidlnti'd hi<ii;htM ut' WiiidMir. lis ronrxii to 
 Liiiiloii in liy ('hnrtHpy, I|iiiii|itiiii, Twickcnhiiin, and llichiiniiid, nimm;^ tlin iniii^niHront 
 wihkU mid iNihici'M it" ttnH imnulimt of I'liiulniiil. Nimr 'ritidiiiKton ifn riirrcnt im Nlijr|it|y 
 nclt'd ii|i<)ii liy till- i>xtfi " II' I'hli iiiid How ol the tide, whicii rinim lii({hpr in iIiih Ihun in iiny 
 other nviT of Kiimix'. t dividen tIm cii|iititl into two uni<(|iinl |HirtH, hiivinif mi it-i northern 
 hniik the citioM of I,i»i' n and WeNtininHter, niiil on itx wmtliern the lioriiii^rh of Smithwark. 
 nidiiw liondon nriilu(> ii im imvi|;abie tiir vcHHolHof lnr(;e hnrtlien ; itx aiiijile i-hmini'l,and the 
 ■imciiiiiH (liK'kH ciiiiiieetcd with it, are thuro conMtantly lliieil witii liireHtM of iminti', and Heeiii 
 to contain, m it wisre, tiie wealth of the world. It windn ito way to the nceiin Ihnmtrh a 
 country prenenting few ohjectn of interent, excopt tho viiHt naval OHtahlinhiiientH Hitmited on 
 the Month hank of tho river. Woolwich clainiH |iarticnlar attention, not only on iici'iiiint of 
 the royal diK'kyard, and the national de|)At of artillery, but lor itH military acadeiny, uliich 
 runkH iiM the lirnt in tho enipire. Tho cntuary of tho Medwiiy, o|ienin); into the river from 
 Kent, alForilM comiiiiMlioiiH mtcH for the naval Htutiong of Chatham and 8hcernesii. 'I'lii- entire 
 cournn of tho Thanien Ih alwiit iRJO miles. 
 
 Tho Trent, with its trihiitary, tho iiorthom Ouho, travcrHCs tho whole midland territory of 
 Kni^rland, and several of its princi|)al maniitiictiirinif districts, to which it airurdri a cominnni- 
 cation with tho eastern, and by canals with tho western, ocean. It rises anioiif; the low 
 Stalfurdshiro hills, and at niirtnn, it becomes navi(»ablo for vessels of moderate si/.e. Ue- 
 coivinif tho Dove and Derwent, which, after dashing; thrimf;h the rocky rei;enses of Dorby- 
 shirc, have already subsided into |M<ucofnl streams, it jmssos Nottiiiuhani, and at (iain.ilHiroii^h 
 becomes navijfabfo for steam-b<Mit8, and other vo8.sels of larjfer burthen. Aller a liirther 
 course of alKiiit thirty miles, it Hows into tho Ilumber, already rendered a bruud estuary by 
 tho Ouse, whicli lias collected Iho princi|)al streams of Vorkdliiro. The Ouse, lormed \<y 
 tho confluence of tho Aire and tho Swalo from tho uplands of the North Ridini.', is ciilise- 
 quently augmented by tho VVhart'o. Tho Aire, with its tributaries the Calder and Don, ena- 
 ble it to commuuicato with all tho great nianutiicturiiifr towns of tho West Ridiiiij, iini! tiiD 
 conlliiencoof tho Derwent iVom tho East RidiiiK renders it eiiual inmaffnitude to the Thame.s. 
 The Ouse, with its branches, forms one of the most useful and least beautiful of Kinflinh 
 rivers. It winds a slupfgish course tlirnuirh maniifiicturiiijjr districts and rich anilile fields 
 without any diversity of scenery. The llumbor, formed by tho junction of the 'i'reiit and 
 Ouse, resembles an arm of tho sea; and ita trade contributes mainly to tho commercial 
 prosperity of Hull. 
 
 Tlio .Severn is tho only groat stream which runs from north to south for a considerable part 
 of its course. Rising in \Vales, near the fiwit of Plinliiiimon, it flows throufrli tho vales of 
 Moiitiroinory ; and, after winding round Shrewsbury, directs its coursi.' to the southward, 
 thniugli somn of tho richest and most beautiful plains of Kngland, piLssiiii; by the cities nl' 
 Worcester, Tewkesbury, and Gloucester. In commercial importance it also niiiks hijili, 
 since it flows through Colcbrook Dale, and other principal seats of the iron triiile; while tho 
 tracts on its lower course have for ages been distinguished for the manufiicture of fine wool- 
 lens. Its navigation is not free from obstructions, but much has been done to oliviatr- these 
 disadvantages, and to connect the Severn by canals with the other groat rivers. In approach- 
 ing Bristol, it receives the Wye, which, rising in Wales, flows through scenery that renders 
 it tho most picturesque of English rivers. The Severn then expands into tho estuary of the 
 Bristol Channel, tho seat of a commerce once second only to that of the metropolis, but now 
 surpassed by that of Liverpool. 
 
 The other rivers of England arc small ; tho Eden, the beautiful river of Cumberland, 
 forms the Solway ; the Mersey of liiincashire, with its tributary the Irwell, is iiii|)<irt:int, for 
 the mass of commodities which it conveys from the great tnauufacturiiig districts to Liver- 
 pool ; the southern Ouse, combines with the William of Lincolnshire in forminjf that broad, 
 shallow, marshy estuary called tho Wash, through which is exported a consideratde quantity 
 of grain from tho agricultural districts; tlie Tyne and the Tees in the north of nnirliind art; 
 the channels of extensive trade; tho Tyne, in particular, which carries down the product 
 of the vast coal mines of Newcastle. 
 
 The lakes of England occur principally in tho counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland, 
 whicli are denominated the country of the lakes. These, of which Wiiiderinere, the largest, 
 is only twelve miles long and one broad, have been raised to distinction by the ttiste of tho 
 ago for picturesque beauty, rather than as geographical features of the eounfry. Their 
 number, which is considerable, entitles them to notice; and a description of them will accom- 
 pany that of the districts to which they belong. 
 
 Sect. TI. — Natural Qeoirraphy. 
 This subject will be treated under the heads of Geology, Botany, and Zoology. 
 
 '¥ 
 
 f'i 
 
 1 1 
 
 ■ ■ iifl 
 
 
i^:* .*i»'*t...-)«»v,>^iiw. 
 
 sua 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part III. 
 
 I 
 
 SuBSECT. 1. — Oeology of England. 
 
 While in Scotland tlie prevailing formations belong to the primitive and transition classes, 
 in England tlic deposits tliat most abound arc t)ic secondary, tertiary, and alluviiil. Ilcncc 
 it is that Scotland appears lofly and rugged, when contrasted with the hilly, Hat, and low 
 land of England. To enable our readers to form a general conception of tim geognostical 
 structure of England, we siiall consider the mineral formations in the following order : — I. 
 Primitive and Transition. 11. Secondary. III. Tertiary. IV. Alluvial. 
 
 I. Primitive and Transition. These rocks are principally confined to the more moun 
 tainous parts of England, and appear most abundantly, in Cumberland ond some neiglibouring 
 counties ; in Wales ; and in Cornwall and Devon. 
 
 (1.) Cumberland district. This district is bounded to the west and the south by the Irish 
 Sea and Morecombe Bay ; towards tlie north it descends into the plain of the new red sand- 
 stone, within tlie basin of the Eden ; and on the east it is bounde<i by the central carbonifer- 
 ous chain of the north. Within these limits there are two sets of rocks, viz. Plutonian and 
 Neptunian ; the more central parts being Plutonian, and the others Neptunian. The order 
 in whicli they occur, is as follows : — 
 
 1. Granite and Syenite. They form the geognostical axis of all this region, and extend 
 from the centre of the Skiddaw range to tlie neighbourhood of Egremont. There is a fine 
 display of the granite in the bed of the Calden, where it is intersected by veins of quartz, 
 and contains, besides other minerals, molybdena, tungsten, wolfram, and phosphate of lime. 
 
 2. A scries of crystalline slaty deposits, forming the centre of the Skiddaw region, extend- 
 ing across Cromac lake, and by the foot of Ennerdale, as far as Denthill, is composed of 
 gneiss, mica slate, hornblende slate, and cliiastolite slate. In some parts of Skiddaw and 
 Saddleback the curious mineral named chiastolite occurs: veins of quartz and galena occui* 
 in Thornthwaite, Newlands, Ix)wes water, and other places; a copper-mine was formerly 
 worked in Newlands. The salt springs of Borrowdale issue from these rocks. 
 
 3. Deposit of clay slate. 
 
 4. An enormous fonnation of a green felspathose slate, intimately associated with porphyry, 
 likn that of Snowdonia in Wales, and the Needle's Eye in Scotland. The fiimous graphite 
 or bliick-lead mine of Borrowdale is situated in the upper end of the valley of that name, 
 where the grapliite occurs in irregular veins associated with calc spar, brown spar, and 
 quartz. The graphite is in nests in these veins, and the veins are contained in a Plutonian 
 rock, viz. felspar porphyry, which is in some places amygdaloidal. Some nests of graphite 
 liave atTordcd 3000i. wortli of that mineral. 
 
 5. Greywacke, with subordinate beds of limestone enclosing organic remains. A gryphma 
 i'.nil turritell- occur near to Kirby-Lonsdale ; a pecten, plagiostoma, trigonia, and patella 
 near to Keswick. On the north side of the geognostical axis the Neptunian formotions are 
 repeated, with the exception of the greywacke series, which is probably buried under the 
 old red sandstone and mountain limestone ; and on this northern side, notwithstanding its 
 less extensive devolopcment, tliere is a group of mountains, almost entirely composed of 
 didUage rnrk, and other minerals; of which, it is said, no trace occurs in the south. These 
 occupy the place of the green felspar slate and porphyry series of No. 3. of Wales, after- 
 wards to be noticed ; and seem to be in the precise place of the serpentine of the Lizard in 
 Cornwall. Further, there is on the west side of Cumberland another formation of granite 
 and syenite, which underlies, traverses, and overlies the clay slate, No. 3., and is considered 
 tlie great centre of elevation of the region. It never overlies, it is said, the mica slate, 
 chiastolite slate, &c. ; but is probably connected with veins of syenite, and other detached 
 masses of crystalline rock, which ao not belong to the ordinary rocks of Kuporposition. A 
 range of transition limestone extending from Mellam in Cumberland to the neighbourhood 
 of Wa.sdalo Head in Westmoreland, nearly across the wliole region we are now describing, 
 is finally cut off by a protruding mass of granite, newer than the limestone. 
 
 (2.) Wales, including the Isle of Anglesca. The Neptunian and Plutonian rocks in this 
 extensive district are arranged as follows : — 1st, Granite rising among the clay slate strata in 
 the Isle of Anglnsea. 2dly, A group of slaty rocks consisting of mica slate, chlorite slate, and 
 quartz rock. These appear upheaved by the subjacent granite. They occur in the Isle of 
 Anglesca. In this island are tlio great Mona marble and Paris copper mines, in which the 
 ore is coinninn copper pyrites. The Mona marble, a beautiful compound of marble and ser- 
 pcii'inc, occurs among tliesc rocks, 3dly, A great group containing a very large proportion 
 of felspathose rncks and porphyries. Of those the district of Snowdonia is probably tiio 
 lowest portidn. Some of the slates of the Snowdon range contain organic remains, princi- 
 pn.Uy of shells, some of which appear rcfiirablo to the genus Producta. 4tlily, A vast 
 deposit of clay .slate, ."jthly, GreywiLcke, which fJirnis the uppermost or newest member of 
 the gmat serins of deposits. Ciinnn(;tod witli these series are great bods of limestone. 
 Fossil organic remains are met with in this series, and iniich more abundantly than in tlie 
 deeper-seated siiitcs. Cnrols of various kinds, crinoid animal shells, and rrvstacra occur 
 among thciso rocks, in a fos.-;il state. Of full, llic remain* of bones, teeth, and the defensive 
 
HI. 
 
 iSSUS, 
 
 Icncc 
 1 low 
 stical 
 : :— I. 
 
 moun 
 )uring 
 
 e Irish 
 I sand- 
 jonifcr- 
 an and 
 e order 
 
 extend 
 is a fine 
 ' quartz, 
 f lime, 
 extend- 
 poscd of 
 [daw and 
 na ocelli 
 formerly 
 
 porpliyry. 
 1 trrapliite 
 hat name, 
 
 Book I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 1 
 it 
 
 321 
 
 spar, 
 
 and 
 
 I'lutonian 
 )f graphite 
 
 ^ crryphiea 
 
 ind patella 
 
 lations are 
 
 1 under the 
 
 [landing its 
 )mpoaed of 
 
 Ith. These 
 
 [ales, after- 
 
 lAzard in 
 
 of granite 
 
 considered 
 
 mica slate, 
 
 ;r detached 
 
 position. A 
 
 [ghbourhood 
 
 describing, 
 
 locks in this 
 late strata in 
 Vc slate, and 
 L the Isle of 
 In which the 
 Tble and ser- 
 le proportion 
 Irohably the 
 lains, princi- 
 Ihly, A vast 
 I. member ot 
 If limestone. 
 \ than in the 
 Isfnffrt occur 
 Iho defensive 
 
 fin-bones named ichthyndornUies, are met with. In the lists of organic remains of these slates 
 we find extinct genera, and genera that still exist ; and, judging from the nature of the 
 remains, wo infer that some of the animals were inhabitants of deep, others of sliallow, seas. 
 The organic remains in greywacke rocks are rare, and form a very small proportion to the 
 extent of the rock. 
 
 (3.) Cornwall and Devon. In this district of England the rocks of the primitive class 
 are arranged in tlie following order : — 1st, Oranite. There are four great projecting masses 
 of granite rising through the bounding slaty strata: they send arms or veins among the 
 Neptunian strata, and have upraised and variously modified them. Tlie granite is traversed 
 by contemporaneous veins of granite, and also encloses contemporaneous masses and v^'ns 
 of a compound of quartz and schorl, named schorl-rock. It is also traveried by veins of 
 porphyry, called elvan. 2dly, Resting upon, or adjacent to, the granite there is a vast deposit 
 of clay slate, named, in the county, killas. It abound." in ores, hence is sometimes named 
 metalliferous slate. Where in the vicinity of granite, there is interposed gneiss or mica 
 slate, or both ; and in many parts it contains subordinate beds of greenstone, felspathose 
 slate, &c. 3dly, Apparently above the preceding slates there occurs, in two places, a form- 
 ation of serpentine, whic*-, in the Lizard, contains diallage rock, talc slate, hornblende 
 slate, and mica slate, and appears to occur below the greywacke. 4thly, Oreyieacke. This, 
 which appears to form a great mass, is the uppermost and newest member of the stratified 
 series. It contains considerable beds of limestone, including various organic remains. 
 
 Mines in Cornwall and Devon. Cornwall and Devonshire present three principal mining 
 districts. The part of Cornwall situated in the vicinity ^nd to the southward of Truro, the 
 neighbourhood of St. Austle, and the neighbourhood of Tavistock. The first of these dis- 
 tricts is the most important of the three, fi-om the number and richne.ss of its mines, in which 
 copper, tin, and lead are obtained. The ores of copper, which are principally copper pyrites 
 and gray copper, form regular veins, having a direction nearly from E. to W. in the rock 
 named killas ; and sometimes in the granite which projects amongst the slaty strata. The 
 tin occurs principally in veins, which, like the preceding, traverse the killas and granite. 
 They have also, very often, a direction nearly from E. to W. ; they have a different inclina- 
 tion from that of the copper veins, which mterscct and interrupt them, and which are, 
 consequently, newer. The tin also occurs in contemporaneous masses and veins, and dis- 
 seminated through the granite. Some veins afford, at the same time, copper and tin ; but 
 most of them produce only one of these metals in any quantity. There are also in Cornwall 
 cross vein.i, that intersect the veins botli of copper and tin ; these contain argentiferous galena, 
 native silver, and ores of silver. Near to Tavistock there are veins of copper, tin, and lead. 
 Mines of antimony occur at Huel Boys in Devonshire, and at Saltash in Cornwall. The tin 
 and copper ores of Cornwall arc accompanied with arsenical pyrites, which is turned to profit 
 by manufacturing oxide of arsenic from it. 
 
 II. Seconilary Rocks. The rocks of this class form the largest portion of the surface of 
 England, and the districts composed of them are generally flat or hilly ; never assuming 
 the mountainous character, unless where the old red sandstone or mountain lunestone appears. 
 We shall now describe the different formations in the order in which they occur, beginning 
 with the deeper-seated or oldest (the old red sandstone), and finishing our view with an 
 account of the newest, or chalk. 
 
 (1.) Old ml sandstone. This sandstone, which is distinguished from those newer in the 
 series by its greater hardness and red colour, occurs in greatest abundance in Herefordshire 
 and Brecknockshire. Smaller portions cccur in the Cumberland district, tlie Isle of Man 
 and the Isle of Anglesea. 
 
 (2.) Mountain limestone, metalliferous limistone, or carboniferous limestone. This rock 
 is generally grey coloured ; sometimes, however, it exhibits various tints when it is worked 
 as an inferior kind of marble. Its fracture is compact, lustre glimmering, and opaque or 
 translucent on the edges. Its structure is sometimes oolitic, as is the case in tlie vicinity of 
 Bristol, Veins of calcareous spar frequently traverse it, and occasionally contribute to the 
 beauty of the varieties used as marble. Sometimes remains of the encrinus are so abundant 
 in it, that it is named encrinal limestone. Its name carboniferous is from its somotimea 
 occurring along with coal, as that of metalliferous from its, in some districts, abounding in 
 ores. It alxHinds in organic remains of various genera of corals, radiaria, and shells ; also 
 some genera of Crustacea a.m\ fishes. Tliose bear a strong reseniblancc to the fossils of the 
 transition limestone in the greywacke districts. Derbyshire, Nortiiumberland, and Cumber- 
 land aftbrd fine displays of this formation. 
 
 Mines in mountain limestone. The mountain limestone forms several mountuinous dis- 
 tricts in England and Wales; in which there arc three districts rich in lead mines. The 
 first of these comprehends the upper parts of the valleys of the Tync, the Wear, and tlie 
 Tees, in the counties of Cumberland, Durham, and York. Its principal mines arc .situated 
 near Aldston Moor in Cumberland. The veins of sulphurct of lead or galena, which form 
 the principal oliject of the works, traverse alternately hods of limestone and sandstone. They, 
 are remarkable, from the circumstance that they suddenly become thinner and jworer on 
 
 Vol. I 2(1 
 
 '.. ■ m 
 
wtii 
 
 -"■'"■-'■^iihiiiiiii 
 
 »22 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 I 1 
 
 oassing from the limestone into the sandstone; an iirrang-emcnl probably connected with 
 Bonie uloctro-magnetic action. Tlicro is also a copjjer mine S. W. of Aldston Moor. The 
 ore is common yellow copper pyrites, which is associated with galena in a vein of great 
 extent, and which does not neem to belong to the same formation a.«! the other veins in this 
 county. The iron mines of Ulverston are in this district. The ore is red hematite, which 
 traverses the limestone in tiie form of veins ; some of which are said to be 30 yards wide. 
 Near Whitehaven great masses of reniform hematite alternate with red beds of mountain 
 limestone. The second mctallife.roun district is situated in the northern part of Derbyshire, 
 and tiio contiguous jmrtsof the neighbouring counties. The districts called Peak and Kings- 
 tieltl are the richest in ore. Tiie blende, associated with the lead, is worked as an ore, and 
 zinc is obtained from it. A vein of copper pyrites occurs at Ecton in Staffordshire, on the 
 borders of Derbyshire. The Derbyshire vems have been long famous on account of the 
 beautit'ul minerals they produce, especially J?uor spart, and also from the interruption which 
 the metalliferous veins experience on meeting with trap rocks, called loadstone, which occurs 
 alternately witli the limestone. The third metalliferous district is situated in Flintshire 
 and Denbighshire, which form the N. E. part of Wales. It is the most productive next to 
 Aldston Moor. Besides lead, it furnishes also calamine or true ore of zinc. The mines are 
 situated partly in the mountain limestone, partly in various rocks of older formation. To 
 the S. W. of this district there are also lead mines in Shropshire : like the preceding, they 
 occur partly in mountain limestone and partly in older rocks. They yield a great annual 
 return of lead. Some mines of galeno and of calamine are mentioned as occurring in the 
 Mendip hills to the south of Bristol ; but they appear to be now aimndoned. Many beautiful 
 and interesting minerals are met with in these mines. Of the vein stones, quartz, in Corn- 
 wall, is the most abundant ; while it is fluor spar and calcareous spar in Derbyshire ; in 
 Yorkshire heavy spar or sulphate of barytes; and in Cumberland, heavy spar and fluor spar. 
 (,").) Coal formation. This, which is the most important of the secondary deposits, follows 
 in the regular succession the mountain limestone, on which it therefore rests. The lower 
 beds of this deposit sometimes alternate with the upper strata of the mountain limestone. 
 The rocks of which it is composed are shale, sandstone, clay ironstone, induratfd clay, and 
 coal, alternating in various ways witli each other. The shale, sandstone.^, ironstones, and 
 clays contain numerous fossil remains of extinct species of plants, rarely of animals, the 
 animal remains occurring principally in tlic limestone. No country of the same size in the 
 world affords so much coal as England, end nowhere has its natural and economical history 
 been so well examined as in this island. Messrs. Cony beare and Phillipe arrange the different 
 coal districts in the following manner : — 
 
 1. Coal district north of the Trent, or grand Penine chain. — 1. Northumberland and 
 Durham. 2. North of Yorkshire. 3. South York, Nottingham, and Derby. 4. South of 
 Derby. 5. North Staff()rd. fi. South Iioncashire. 7. North Lancashire. 8. Cumberland 
 and Whitehaven. 9. Foot of Crossfell. 
 
 2. Central coal district. — 1. Ashby de la Zouch. 2. Warwickshire. 3. South Stafford 
 (>r Dudley. 4. Indications near the Lickey hill, &c. 
 
 3. Western coal district, divided into, 1. North Western or North Welsh. — 1. Isle of 
 Anglesea. 2. Flintshire. 
 
 4. Middle western or Shropshire. — 1. Plain of Shrewsbury. 2. Colebrook-dale. 3. The 
 Clce hills and South Shropshire. 4. Near the Abberley hill. 
 
 T). South Western. — 1. South Wales. 2. Forest of Dean. 3. South Gloucester and 
 Somerset 
 
 These different districts ore accurately described in Conybcarc and Phillips's Geology of 
 Enffland and Wal-es. 
 
 Changes of the conl frldx from the British Channel to the Tweed. The great coal fields 
 in England experience a great change of stnicturo in their range from the Bristol Channel 
 to the valley of the Tweed : these changes we shall now enumerate, using the view given 
 by Sedgwick. In tlie various coal basins on the Bristol Channel, tlio limestone strata are 
 developed only in the lower, and the coal licds in the upper, part of the series ; and the 
 two members arc separated by nearly unproductive deposits of millstone-grit and sliale 
 The arrangement in Derbysliire is nearly tiie same; there, however, the millstone-grit is 
 more varied, and is of very great thickness, and subordinate to the groat dc|)osit of shale, 
 and, hero and there, \ery thick mas.«e3 of a peculiar argillaceous sandstone, disposed in a 
 tnlndar manner. On the re-appoariinee of the carboniferous limestone, nt the biiRO of the 
 Yorkshire chain, wc ftill find the same L'enernl iiiinlogies of structure; enormous deposits 
 of iiinestone firm the lowest part, and tlii! coiil fields tlio highest part of the whole series; 
 and. ns in the former instance?, we al.-o find the inillstone-grit occupying an intermediate 
 position. The millstnne-grit. however, becomes a very complex deposit, with several 
 piibordinafe beds of coal ; and is sninrnted from the jrreat inferior calcareous group (the scat 
 limestone), not merely liy the ;'r '.it sliale a'ld sliale-liinestone, ns in DerbysliLre, but hy a 
 still more complex dep.isit, in some place.s not less than KKK) feel, thick ; in which five 
 groups of limestone strata alternate with great mosses of sandstone and shale, aliound in 
 
Part 111. 
 
 inccted with 
 1 Moor. The 
 vein of great 
 veins in this 
 matite, which 
 10 yards wide. 
 la of mountain 
 of Dcrhyshire, 
 ■ak and Kings- 
 BB an ore, and 
 rdshire, on the 
 account of the 
 irruption which 
 e, which occurs 
 d in Flintshire 
 luctive next to 
 
 The mines are 
 formation. To 
 preceding, they 
 I a great annual 
 ccurring in the 
 
 Many beautiful 
 quartz, in Corn- 
 i Derbyshire ; in 
 ir and fluor spar. 
 J deposits, follows 
 ists. The lower 
 mtain limestone. 
 luratfd clay, and 
 !, ironstones, and 
 y of animals, the 
 , same size in the 
 conomical history 
 range tlie different 
 
 rthumberland and 
 
 •by. 4. South of 
 
 8. Cumberland 
 
 3. South Stafford 
 
 Velsh.—\. Isle of 
 
 •ook-dale. 3. The 
 
 h Gloucester and 
 
 illips's Geology nf 
 
 10 great coal fields 
 le Bristol Channel 
 ng tho view given 
 nestoiio strata are 
 he series ; and tho 
 ine-grii and shale 
 le millstone-grit is 
 at dcpsit of shale, 
 tone, disposed in a 
 at the buso of the 
 
 enormous deposits 
 _i" the whole scries ; 
 ig an intermediate 
 wnit, with several 
 
 ons groiip (the scai 
 )orl)VKliije, but by a 
 
 lick'; in which five 
 
 id shale, aliound in 
 
 Book I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 impressions of coal plants, and three or four thin beds of good coal extensively worked for 
 'iornestic use. 
 
 In tho range of the carboniferous chain from Stainmoor, through the ridge of Crossfell to 
 the confines of Northumberland, we imve a repetition of the same general phenomena. On 
 its eastern flanks, and superior to all its component groups, is the coal field of Durham. 
 Under the coal field, we have, in a regular descending order, the millstone-grit, the alterna- 
 tions of limestone and coal measures nearly identical with tlioee of the Yorkshire chain, 
 and at the base of all is the great scar limestone. The scar limestone begins, however, to 
 be subdivided by thick masses of sandstone and carbonaceous shale, of which we had hardly 
 a trace in Yorkshire ; and gradually passes into a complex deposit, not distinguishable from 
 the next superior division of the series. Along with this gradual change is a great devel- 
 opement of the inferior coal beds alternating with the limestone ; some of which on the 
 north-eastern skirts of Cumberland, are three or four feet in thickness, and are now worked 
 for domestic use. 
 
 The alternating beds of sandstone and shale expand more and more as we advance 
 towards the north, at the expense of all the calcareous groups, which gradually thin off and 
 cease to produce any impress on the features of the country. And thus it is, that the lowest 
 portion of the whole carboniferous system, from Bewcastle Forest, along the skirts of the 
 Cheviot Hills, to the valley of the Tweed, has hardly a single feature in common with the 
 inferior part of the Yorkshire chain ; but, on the contrary, has almost all the most ordinary 
 external characters of a coal formation. Corresponding to this change, is also a gradual 
 thickening of carbonaceous matter in some of the lower groups. Many coal works have 
 been opened upon this line ; and near the right bank of the Tweed (almopt on a parallel 
 with the great scar limestone) is a coal field, with five or six good seams, some of which are 
 pretty extensively worked. The beds of sandstone, shale, and limestone, forming tlie base 
 m the carboniferous system in the basin of the Tweed, are often deeply tinged with oxide of 
 iron ; and have been compared sometimes with the new, sometimes with uie old, red sand- 
 stone: to the new red sandstone they have no relations; "and I would rather compare 
 them," says Sedgwick, "especially as the old red sandstone of the north of England seldom 
 exist but as a conglomerate, and is seen in that form on tlie flanks of the Cheviot Hills, with 
 the red beds of mountain limestone and sandstone, which, both in Cumberland and Lan- 
 cashire, sometimes form the base of the whole carboniferous series." 
 
 These coal fields are traversed and variously deranged by great faults; interesting 
 descriptions of which, particularly those in the northern fields, have been published by 
 Messrs. Phillips and Sedgwick. 
 
 The coal strata, or metals as they are sometimes called, arc in some parts of England 
 affected by Plutonian trap rocks, hut in a very inferior degree to what takes plnce in Scot- 
 land. The principal trap rock k greenstone, which appears in the form of overlyinir masses, 
 OS at Clee Hill and at Dudley ; in the form of intersecting tabular masses or dikes (veins), 
 as in Northumberland and Durham. Sometimes the trap mass has been forced between the 
 strata, when it has the character of « bed, or these bed-like masses may be .some of the rocks 
 of the coal formation softened and recrystallised in situ by hent from below. The great 
 lehin sill of Northumberland, and the toodstonc beds of Derbyshire, are examples of these 
 trap beds. The strata near the trap frequently appear changed, the clays hardened, the 
 limestone rendered crystalline and magnesian, the coal charred, and the sandstone hardened, 
 &c. ; and these strata are either moved fi-om their original position, or are unchanged. 
 
 Although rather foreign to our subject, we may, as an illustration of the importance of 
 the coal formation to England, mention the quantity of iron manufactured, and of coal con- 
 sumed, in the carboniferous district of Wales. The quantity of iron, according to Mr. 
 Forster, aimually manuihcturcd in Wales, has been calculated at 270,000 tons. Of this 
 quantity a proportion of about three-fourths is made into bars, and one-fourth sold as pigs and 
 castings. The quantity of coal required for its manuflicture on tlie average of the whole, 
 including that used by engines, workmen, &c. will be about ."ij tons for each ton of iron ; 
 the annual consumption of coal by the ironworks will, therefore, be about 1,.500,000 tons. 
 The quantity used in the smelting of copper ore imported into Wales from Cornwall, in 
 the manufacture of tin-plate, forging of iron for various purposes, and for domestic uses, 
 may be calculated at 350,000, which makes altogether the annual consumption in Wales, 
 1,850,000 tons. 
 
 (4.) Magnesian limestone formation. The upper part of the coal formation has some- 
 times a red colour with an arenaceous and conglomerated cliaracter. Above or resting upon 
 it we have the magnesian limestone deposit. This deposit extends through Yorkshire and 
 Durham^ Its lower part is said to be separated from the coal formation by a deposit of sand 
 and sandstone, with occasional rod marl ond gypsum. The magnesian limestone itself con- 
 sists in its lower part of a bitutninous marl slate, abounding in fossil fishes of the genus 
 Palaothrissum ; the middle and upper parts being a yellowish small granulor or glimmer- 
 ing magnesian limestone. The organic character of this limestone approaches nearly to 
 
324 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III 
 
 that of t^ie mountain limestone already described. It contaiuij Products, which, however 
 do not occur higher in the series ; also Spir\fcr<e, a tribe found as high as the oolite. 
 
 (5.) Varicffuted or new red sandstone, with the red variegated marl deposit . As the 
 shell limestone is wanting in England, the variegated sandstone and the red and variegated 
 marls come together, and moy here, therefore, be viewed as one fonnation. They rest 
 immediately upon the mogncsian limestone, but of the two sets the marl appears in general 
 to be the uppermost or newest. The sandstone is of a looser texture than tiiat of the old 
 red sandstone deposit, has a red or variegated colour, and the strata are generally horizontal. 
 The marls arc red or variegated in colour. In these sandstones and marls, beds and great 
 masses or nodules of gypsum occur, as in Derbysliire, Staffordshire, &c. All the salt mines 
 in England are situated in this deposit. At Northwich there is an extensive deposit of solid 
 rock salt, forming two beds, together not less than 60 feet in thickness. These beds are 
 supposed to form large insulated masses of this mineral, extending in length about a mile 
 and a half, and in breadth about 18(K) yards. The salt works at Droitwich in Worcester- 
 shire are also in this red marl deposit. Iron-sand and iserine are said to occur in this sand- 
 stone on the banks of the Mersey opposite Liverpool ; and in other places sulphuret of cop- 
 per, gray oxide of cobalt, and black oxide of manganese occur in the sandstone or its marls. 
 It forms Uie surface of vast tracts extending with little interruption from the northern bank 
 of the Tees in Durham to the southern coast of Devonshire. We find a tract in the great 
 plain in the centre of England of about 80 miles in length and sixty in breadth, principally 
 covered with tliis deposit ; several islands of the older rocks, however, rising, in various 
 places, through it. These are, 1st, the syenite, greenstone, and slate district of Charnwood 
 forest in Leicestershire ; 2dly, the coal district surrounding Ashby de la Zouch in the same 
 county ; connected with which are several patches of the carboniferous magnesian lime- 
 stone, and a patch of millstone-grit at Stanton-bridge on the Trent ; 3dly, the coal-field of 
 Warwickshire ; 4thly, the coal-field in the south of Staffordshire, with the transition lime- 
 stone on which it rests; 5thly, the lower and northern range of the Lickey hill, near Broms- 
 grove in Worcestershire, which exhibits strata, probably of transition quartz rock. Some 
 trap rocks occur in this formation at Upton Pyne, a village five miles nortli of Exeter, and 
 at other points near that town. 
 
 (6.) Lias and oolite formation. This great fonnation occupies a zone having nearly 30 
 miles in average breadth, extending across the island from Yorkshire on the north-east, to 
 Devonshire on the south-west It is eminently remarkable on account of the number and 
 variety of fossil organic remains whicii it contains, and its wide distribution not only in 
 England, but also in many other parts of the world. In this fonnation, at Stonesfield, the 
 first or earliest remains of mammiferous animals were found. Crocodiles and many vast 
 and strangely organised reptiles occur in this deposit, with a vast variety of shells, many 
 radiaria, una also corals. Fisiies are also met with in a fossil state, but by no means so fre- 
 quently as reptiles. Fossil plants of various tribes also occur, and tlius add to the organic 
 variety of this remarkable formation : they belong to the Alga, Emisetacca, Filices, Cy' 
 cadets, Conifera, and Lilia. Beds of coal, generally of an indinerent quality, occur in 
 different parts of the country in this deposit. 
 
 (7.) Wealden clay and Purbeck stone. This formation, which lies immediately upon 
 the oolite, consists of limestones, sands, and clay.s abounding in fossil organic remains, 
 principally of terrestrial and fresh-water plants and animals, marine species being rare. In 
 the lower part of this formation, in tlie neighbourhood of Weymouth, there is a bed of black 
 earth, called tlie dirt bed, containing, in a silicified state, long prostrate trunks of coniferous 
 trees, and stems of Cycadeoidea. These trunks lie partly sunk into the deep black eartli, 
 like fiillen trees on the surface of a peat bog, and partly covered by tlie incumbent Purbeck 
 limestone. Many tnmks of trees also remain erect, with their roots attached to the black 
 soil in which they grew, and their upper jmrt in the limestone ; and show that the .^uiiace of 
 the subjacent Portland stone was for some time dry land, and covered with a forest ; and 
 probably in a climate such as admits the growth of tiie modem Zamia and Cycnn, remains 
 of these genera being found here. This forest has been s-'brnerged ; first, beneath the fresh 
 waters of a lake or estuary, in which were deposited tlie Purbeck bods, and sands and clays 
 of tlie Wealden formation (amounting together to nearly 1000 feet), and subsequently 
 beneath the salt water of on ocean of sufficient depth to accumulate all the great marine 
 formations of green sand and ciialk that rest upon it. 
 
 (8.) Chalk formatinn with green sand. This great deposit consists principally of chalk, 
 with less extensive subjacent beds of green sand and tuffiiccous chalk. It stretches, with 
 little interruption, from Flamlwroiigh Head on the coast of Yorkshire, to near Sidmouth on 
 the coast of Devonshire ; forming a range of hills often of some hundred feet high, and of 
 which the most precipitous face is generally on the nortii-wcst side. From this long range 
 several ranges sliiwt toward the east and soutli-east. Chalk does not often bear the charac- 
 ter of a level or flat country ; but, on the contrary, is subject to perpetual undulation of sur- 
 face, tJio liills being remarkable for their smooth rounded outline, and the deep hollows and 
 indentatiuiiB on their sides. 
 
 759 /;., 
 ■'rom thJ 
 ihosc /ii[ 
 •cry bol 
 ''"0' fe J 
 "|<J sj)ccr 
 f'" frequJ 
 cloy, nfi 
 known s 
 cocoa-mj 
 fcrrdo ] 
 "'o sea.-) 
 ff'oenishi 
 fjochi nnJ 
 Pre.'^hwaJ 
 "y the prj 
 supposed 
 Paris. T 
 of fnigme, 
 'ooth of al 
 marly bed! 
 pne/iydpnif 
 %' the iij 
 
 "1 (lio lowJ 
 
 have hoeiil 
 
 "^ .vo!),mii 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
■* 
 
 in 
 
 ever 
 
 B the 
 gated 
 y rest 
 moral 
 lie cW 
 lontiil. 
 great 
 mine* 
 )f solid 
 ids are 
 a mile 
 rcester- 
 18 eand- 
 of cop- 
 s marls, 
 irn bank 
 ,e great 
 incipally 
 y various 
 larnwood 
 the same 
 ian lime- 
 il-field ol 
 tion lime- 
 ■ar Broms- 
 ;1{. Some 
 xeter, and 
 
 nearly 30 
 rth-east, to 
 mmber and 
 not only in 
 tesfieW, the 
 
 many vast 
 lells, many 
 
 eans so fte- 
 
 the organic 
 
 'ilices, Cy- 
 occur m 
 
 iiitely upon 
 lie remains, 
 ngrare. In 
 bed of black 
 >f coniferous 
 black eartli, 
 ;nt Purbeck 
 to the black 
 ic 3Uiface of 
 .forest; and 
 ens, remains 
 nth the fresh 
 ids and clays 
 subsequently 
 great marine 
 
 illy of chalk, 
 
 [retches, witli 
 
 1 Sidmouth on 
 
 I high, andol 
 
 Is long rang" 
 
 It the charac- 
 
 tlation of sur- 
 
 |p hollows and 
 
 Book I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 3a5 
 
 The upper part of this formation, through a great imrt of England, ia characterised by 
 the presence of common gun-flint, arranged in thin beds or in variously-gjiaped masrios, dis- 
 posed more or less in parallel lines. In the lower part of the formation the flints beconiu 
 Jess and less abundant, and at length entirely disappear. 'This arrangement, however, is not 
 nlway.s to be observed, for in some places the lower chalk abounds in flints. In the chalk 
 formation, the upper and middle parts are of clialk, while the lower and under are of sands, 
 sandstones, and clays. The upper part may be considered an original dciwsit, the matter 
 derived from the interior of the earth ; the lower of a mechanical and alluvial nature. 
 Chalk abounds in fossil remains of animals, and also contains fossilised plants. Corals in great 
 variety, radiated animals, particularly cchinites, are in vast numbers ; shells of all the grand 
 divisions and in great variety add to the zoological interest of the formation, which isfurthei 
 heightened by llie fossil crabs, (ii<hes, and reptiles, occasionally met with in it. The plants 
 are Conferva, Fuci, Zosttree, Cycadea, with dicotyledonous woo<l perforated by some 
 boring animal. The formation, as it occurs in England, appears to have b<}en variously 
 elevated and depressed at different times by some subterrnnean actions ; but, aa far as we 
 know, it does not anywhere occur in contact with trap or other Plutonian rocks. 
 
 III. Tertiary rocks Hitherto, in England, these deposits have been found only in what 
 are called the London basin and the Isle of Wight basin ; two spaces conjectured formerly 
 to have had the basin shape, but now more or less filled with tertiary rocks; an opinion, 
 however, which the late observations of Professor Buckland have shown to be less plausible 
 than has been generally believed. Tim boundary of the first of these supposed basins may 
 be stated, generally, as a line running from the inner edge of the chalk, south of Flam- 
 borough Head, in Yorkshire, nearly south, till it crosses the Wash, then south-west to the 
 upper part of the valley of the river Kennet, near Hungerford, in Wiltshire ; and thence 
 trending south-east to the south of tl;3 Thames, and the north-west angle of the Isle of 
 Thanet: in all these directions the boundary line is formed by the chalk liills; on tivt east 
 side, the boundary is the coast of the German Ocean. The boundaries of the Isle of Wight 
 basin may be stated as follows :— on the north, a few miles south of Winchester ; on the 
 south, a little north of Carisbrook in the Isle of Wight; on the east, Brighton ; and on the 
 west, Dorchester. It is everywhere circumscribed by clialk hills, excepting whe-e broken 
 in by the channel between the Isle of Wight and the main land. The difftrent members 
 of tlie tertiary series met with in England, are named Plastic clay, London clay, Bairshot 
 sands, the Freshwater formations of tho Lsle of Wight, and the Crag.—,Plastic clay. This 
 deposit consists of a plastic clay with gravel beds, alternating with beds of sand (sometimes 
 in a state of sandstone) and clay. Its organic remains are principally marine shells, with 
 layers of lignite or brown coal. — London clay. This is a bluish or blackish clay, sometimes 
 so much impregnated with carbonate of lime as to form a kind of compact marl. Layers or 
 noilules of septjiria (a calcareous concretion) frequently occur in it. It is the great clayey 
 ileposit on which I/jndon is built. It has been bored to a depth of 700 feet, without rouch- 
 'iiig its bottom. The highest point it attains is the summit of High Beach in Essex, being 
 759 feet above the sea. It abounds in fossil organic remains from the animal as well as 
 from tho vegetable kingdom. Crocodiles, turtles, fishes, and crabs have been observed ; but 
 vhese are few in number compared with the host of fossil shells. These shells are often 
 .•ery beautifully preserved, frequently retaining the appearance of recent species. There are 
 very few genera of recent shells which have not some representative in this formation, but 
 the siwcific character is usually diflerent; on the other hand, but few of the extinct genera, 
 so frecjueiit in the older formations, occur in this. The Isle of Sheppey, formed of London 
 clay, afliirds a vast variety of fossil fruits and seeds, very few of which agree with any 
 known seed-vessels ; many of them are conjectured to belong to tropical plants, some to the 
 cocoa-nut and spice trites. Fragments of wootl pierced by a shell animal, resembling the 
 Teredo navalis, are met with; a fact which shows that the wood may have floated about in 
 the sca,.-^ Hair shot satids. These rest upon the London clay ; they consist of stiiid, with 
 greenish-coloured clay, variously coloured marls, containing grains of grenn sf.nd, and fossil 
 trtxihi and pcctinites. — Freshwater formations of the Isle of Wight and Hampshire. The 
 Freshwater strata of the Isle of Wight are divided into two deposits by a rock characterised 
 ny the presence of marine remains, and named the nppir marine formation, from being a 
 supposed equivalent to the sands which intervene between the two freshwater deposits of 
 Paris. The lower freshwater deposit of Binstead, near Ryde, consists of a limestone formed 
 of fragments of freshwater shells, white shell marl, siliceous limestone, and snnd. One 
 tooth of an Anaplotherium and two teeth of a Palaotherittm have been found in the lower 
 marly beds of the quarries at Binstead. In the same quarriop several rolled fragments of 
 pachydprmatous animals, and tho jaw of an animal allied to the mn^k-deer tribe. In Col well 
 Bay tlio upper part of thi.s deposit contains a mixture of freshwater and marine bIioUs. — The 
 upper marine formation. This deposit of calcareous beds aimunds with freshwater shells 
 in the lower part, but in the upper part we find marine shells; hence it is conjectured to 
 liave been formed in an estuary. — Vpp''rfreshwat(r formation. This consists principally 
 of vellowish wliite marls. The orcjanic reiiiiiins are either freshwater or land. The geo- 
 
 Vol. I. -^^ 
 
 m 
 
 ■\-¥ 
 
 : \-t\ 
 
^ 
 
 828 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part in. 
 
 logical history of tlio tertiary dcnositfl in England Iihh not yet been placed in direct con- 
 nexion with tiiat of similar dcpositti on the continent of Europe. No trap or granite rocka 
 have hitherto been met witii in England in any way connected with tlie tertiary strata. 
 
 IV. Alluvial rocks. Nearly tlie wiiole of England k more or loss covered with alluvium, 
 or debris of previously existing rocks : tlius it occurs on mountain ridges, and on the sides 
 and bottoms of valleys ; it is spread over plains, fills up, wholly or partially, fissures in rocks, 
 and caves, and caverns, and forms beaches and otlier accumulations of greater or lesser 
 extent on the sea coast. It varies in age, from the oldest called diluvium, which stands in 
 immediate connexion with the crag or upper tertiary deposit, to the newest, tliose terming 
 at present tlirough the agency of the atmosphere, springs, lakes, rivers, and the waves and 
 currents of the ocean. It encloses numerous remains of plants and animals, either more or 
 less mineralized, or simply bleached : those of the oldest deposits appear to be of animals, 
 and sometimes of plants, which are cpparently extinct ; while the newer enclose remains 
 only of living animal and vegetable species. Although our limits do not allow ua to enter 
 into 'ntttils on thia very important and curious department of geology, we may remark, that 
 the churacters and modes of distribution of these alluvia arc, m many instances, intimately 
 connected with risings and depressions of the land ; and consequently with apparent sinking 
 and rising of the waters of the ocean, and the violent agitations sometimes induced in the 
 great mass of the ocean, and also in lakes, by changes in the level of the solid parts of tlie 
 globe. 
 
 ^j. . SuBSECT. 2. — Botany, 
 
 The botany of the different parts of the British empire is so similar, that we propose to 
 treat under one head that of England, Scotland, Ireland, and their adjacent islands. 
 
 Extending tlirough eleven degrees of latitude, Great Britain includes a considerable vari- 
 ety op climate, but everywhere, more or less tempered by the surrounding ocean ; so that, 
 in no part of the island, except on the mountains, or ' irh table-lands, can the temperature 
 be compared to similar latitudes, upon the European uich less upon the American conti- 
 nent Yet, from its proximity to the former, the veguiution is, with few exceptions, similar 
 to that of tlie adjacent districts of Europe. Although in consequence of the un&vourable 
 summers, the frequent obscurity of the sun, the damp and foggy atmosphere, it is not pos- 
 sible, without artificial heat and protection, to bring many ofthc fruits of more favoured 
 climates to perfection; yet the mildness of the winter renders it easy to introduce and to 
 naturalise plants of much more southern latitudes : so that the gardens, parks, shrubberies, 
 and even forests, are adorned with the most varied vegetation, producing the most beautiful 
 flowers, or the most valued timbers. 
 
 On the extreme southern coast of England and Ireland, the native vegetables of the 
 warmer temperate zone are successfully grown in the open air, and come to considerable 
 perfection. In the south of Devonshire, the orange and lemon trees are loaded with fruit 
 of the finest kind, trained, indeed, to a wall, but without protection, or only provided with it 
 during a very short portion of the winter months ; the Lemon-scented Vervain (Lippia 
 citriodora, formerly called Verbena triphylla, becomes quite a tree, without any artificial 
 protection ; the American Agave, the creeping Cereus, the Prickly Pear, myrtles from the 
 south of Europe ; the Tea, Camellias and other Chinese and Japanese plants, thrive well in 
 the open air, as well as the Magnolias, and many other trees, from the southern states of 
 North America, whose native latitudes lie many degrees nearer to the tropics. 
 
 The only two floras of Great Britain, which are so complete as to demand particular atten- 
 tion, are Sir J. E. Smith's English Flora, ond Gray's Arrangement of British Plants ; the 
 former classed according to the Linnmun system, extending, however, only to the end of the 
 class Polygamia, and the first order of the class Cryptoganiia Filices. Gray's Flora includes 
 the whole of the British vegetables, arranged according to the natural method, and is the 
 only one tliat approaches, however deficient it may still be, to any thing like a catalogue of 
 our present state of knowledge of the Cryptogamia. Among the Pha;noganiou8 plants, 
 however, Mr. Gray has included a great number that are only known in a state of cultiva- 
 tion, as has been done by De Candollc, in Iiis Flore Francaise, and many other continental 
 botanists. Wo have, therefore, deemed it convenient tnus to give a list of tlie plants, 
 according to each of these authors; and the increased number in the columns of species, 
 according to Mr. Groy, will be thus easily accounted for. 
 
 ♦ Draw 
 tTh.. 1 
 
 Ml ih(? n 
 
 t'nptnin 
 ill thosd ; 
 were prcv 
 
 ? llri 
 
Tin. 
 
 t con- 
 ) rocks 
 a. 
 
 uvium, 
 e sided 
 1 rocka, 
 : lesser 
 :amls in 
 forming 
 ives anil 
 more or 
 animalsi 
 remaina 
 to enter 
 ark, that 
 jtimntely 
 t sinking 
 >d in the 
 rts of tlie 
 
 propose to 
 
 B. 
 
 rablc vari- 
 n ; so that, 
 jmperature 
 ican conti- 
 jns, similar 
 nfiivourable 
 t is not pos- 
 re favoured 
 diice and to 
 shrubberies, 
 )st beautiful 
 
 ibles of the 
 •onsiderable 
 \A with fruit 
 ided with it 
 lain {Lippia 
 [ny artificial 
 [es from the 
 irive well in 
 im states of 
 
 licular atten- 
 IPlants; the 
 lo end of the 
 \ora includes 
 R, and is the 
 [catalogue of 
 nous plants, 
 [e of cultiva- 
 continental 
 Uie plants, 
 is of species. 
 
 Book I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 327 
 
 A LiiT of the Number of Spccici of Dritlih Plants, arranged according to the Cla«*ci and principal Fomiliea to 
 which they belong; exiiibiling the relative |iropurti<iii wliich those latter bear to the whole uf the rcipectiva 
 Claaaei.* 
 
 Nam^ nf the Natural 
 Familiea. 
 
 Fungi 
 
 Algo 
 
 Lichenea 
 
 HepaticB, ny Hoolier.. 
 
 Muxi, by Hooker 
 
 Filicet 
 
 ACOTTLEDONM 
 
 Oraniinen 
 
 CyperaceaB 
 
 Juncen and Rcatiaeec . . . 
 
 Glumaccie 
 
 Orchidcn 
 
 Monocotyledonca ciBteroi 
 
 MOHOCOTTLEDOXaa ■ . . 
 
 Cunifem 
 
 Amentacea 
 
 Eupliorbiacen 
 
 Scrophul. and Orobanches 
 Labiato and Vcrbens. ■ . 
 
 Boragineie 
 
 Ericineae and Fyrolec ■ . 
 
 Canipanulaceie 
 
 Composite 
 
 RubiaceiB 
 
 UmbelliCcra 
 
 Rosaces! 
 
 Leguminoaai 
 
 Malvacen 
 
 Cnryophylleee 
 
 Crucireroe 
 
 Ranuncniacea 
 
 Dicotyledoncs cetera . . . 
 D1COTVLSDONE8 
 
 It must be remarked, that in Cyperaceen, Juncea, Salix, Saxifraga, Rosa, Rnhus, and 
 some others, tlie species are not formed on the same rules as in Smith's English Flora ; 
 and therefore, before drawing a parallel between these orders in Scotland, and in the whole 
 of Britain, a considerable number of species ought to be added. To make this comparison, 
 then, about twenty species may be added to the Monocotyledoncs, and about fifty (say forty- 
 seven), to the Uicolyledonous plants, making tliese two, 280 and 870 ; whence tlie Monoco- 
 tyledones of Scotland are to the wliole of those in the British dominions as one to one and a 
 quarter, or as four to five ; and the Dicotyledoncs as eight to eleven. 
 
 Ireland possesses a flora which partakes of the nature of those of England and Scotland. 
 A list of the phoinogamous plants has been recently published by Mr. J. T. Mackay, of the 
 Dublin College Botanic Garden. It exhibits a much poorer vegetation tlian its sister island, 
 including only 934 species; of which tiiere are, 41 Filices; 211 Monocotyledoncs, and 682 
 Dicotylcdones. So that the proportion of Filices to Pha?no{ramou8 plants is as 1 to 2I4 ; 
 Monocotyledoncs to Phojnogamous plants, 1 to 4| ; Dicotylcdones to Phoinogamous plants, 
 1 to I5. The proportion of Irish ISIonocotylodones to British Monocotyledoncs (according 
 to tlie species of Smith) is as 1 to 1 5, or as 3 to 5 : of Irish Dicotylcdones, 1 to 1 fj, or as 3 to 5. 
 
 ♦ Drawn up by O. A. W. Arnott, Esq. of Riliiiburijh. 
 
 tTho prnportinna in the Cryptocaniin \v\\\ ho foiinil probnhly nmrh more rnrrrrt f()r Srotlnnd than Ihofie (riven 
 in lh(! ltriti:*h tahU* nro Tor tlio \vlii>li> nf Britain ; nwini; (o tlie resnnrrhcs niailn in Hint tribe hy Dr. Grcville, and 
 ('aptnin (.'nrmirhacl ; particularly by the latter in the Ftinifi and Al}zu* ; the iljscoveries of that ^eiitteinnn nione 
 in those Iwii jiniiips. in one shiall ilistrirt (.VppiiO in the west liiehlninl.H iifSi^otland, amount to more speci'is than 
 were previously described as inhabiting the whole of the British douiiniuiis. 
 
 ■»■ !' 
 
 
?rf 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGUAI'lIV. 
 
 Part III 
 
 Few, indeed, of tlio species of plnnts now uiiimior.iti'il iis niitivc.i of Eiijfliinif, Kcotlnnd, 
 and Ireland, und tlio udjucent isleto, cun bo conHidored as i-xckiwivcly l)cloiii;itii; to tliOHe 
 countries. For tliougii tliere are rnuny whicii ure not referred to as t-pncies in the works of 
 other aiitiiors, yet thny are, for tiie most jxirt, anionij such timiilifs as nro nut well under- 
 Btood, and nliout wliicij there will always exibt a dillbrence of opinion ; us ainoiifj tlio Grasses, 
 Willows, Brambles, &c. 
 
 Many plants reach their northern limits in the south of Englnnd and Ireland. We must 
 particularly mention the Strawberry Tree {Arbntu* IJniilo, Jig. 107.). which forms so 
 chorming a feature in that most beautiful of all scenery, the Lake of Killarney. Some have, 
 indeed, supposed that it was introduced into Ireland by the monks of Mucrusa Abbey, at 
 
 108 
 
 Sbawbernr Tim. 
 
 Cornith llealh. 
 
 Ciliitad Hettb. 
 
 ^ 
 
 some very remote period. Its appearance is, Iiowever, altogether that of an aboriginal native, 
 coming to a great size,* perfecting its bright scarlet berries, which are disseminated over the 
 rocks and islands in every direction. The Erica vagans, or Cornish Heath (Jig. 108. a), is 
 found nowhere in Britain except Cornwall ; and the same may be said of the newly-disco- 
 vered E. ciliaris (6), and the following, of great beauty or rarity : Lobelia Dorlmanna, 
 Pkyleuma orbicularis and P. spicata, Sibthorpia europaa and Isnardiu pahistris, are quite 
 southern plants in the British dominions. 
 
 The Wiitcr-Soldier {Stratiotes aloides) ; the Water Violet {Hottnnia palitstris) ; the small 
 Maidenhair Grass {Briza minor) ; the Sweet Violet ( Viola odorala) ; several Mulleins ; the 
 Primrose-peerless (AarmsMs ;joericMs and biflorus); the common Snake's Head {Fritillaria 
 tneleogris) ; the Agrostis setacca, the Star of Bethlehem {Ornithogulum pijrcnaicim); the 
 two spocies of Squill (Scilla autumnalis and bifolia) ; the Mountain Spiderwort [Antheri- 
 cum xerolinmn); the Solomon's Seal (jCanvallaria polygonalum); and Sweet Sedge (ylcorus 
 Calmnns) ; the Yellow-wort {Chlora perfoliata) ; the Mezereum (Daphne Mezirettm) ; tlie 
 Flowering Rush (Bulomvs umbellatus) ; the Yellow Marsh Saxifrage (Saxifraga Hircuhts) ; 
 though on the Continent a very arctic plant, the Clove Pink (^Dianthus caryophylhis) ; and 
 D. prolifer; several Catchflys (Silene); Euphorbias, Cistuses, Anemones, the Traveller's 
 Joy (Clematis Vitalba); the GroHnd Pine (AjugaChama:pitys); the Woo<l-Sago ( 7'cucnttm 
 Scorndonia) ; the crested and field Cow-wheat ( Helampyrxtm cristalvm and arvense) ; some 
 Orobanches, the Vella annua, Draba aizoides, and Iberis ama.Ti, some Fumitories (Fximaria 
 solida, liitca, and parvijlora') ; the yellow and crimson Vetchlings (Lathyrus Aphaca and 
 Nissolia) ; tlie Vicia hybrida, lievigata, and bithynica, Hippocrcpis comosa ; Orchis ]Morio,t 
 pyramidalis, ustulata, fusca, militaris, tephrosanthos, hircina; Aceras anthropophora, Her- 
 minium monorchis; all the species of Opfirys, Epipactis rubra, Malaxis Loeselii ; the beau- 
 tiful and rare Lady's Slipper (Cypriperftum Calccobis); the Birthwort (Aristolochia Clema- 
 tills') ; the Roman Nettle ( Urtica pilulifera) ; the Xanthium strumarinm and Amaranthus 
 Blitum; the Spanish Chestnut Tree (Fagus caslanea); and Misseltoe (Viscum album); 
 the Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) ; and White Poplar (Popnlus canescens) : these 
 are some among the most striking of the British plants, which do not reach the middle of 
 the kingdom, and fail below the south of Scotland. 
 
 The most interesting of the Scottish plants are, principally, such whose types are found 
 on the continent of Europe, in high northern latitudes, or in the extreme arctic regions of 
 both Asia and America; such as Veronica fruticulosn, saxatilis, and alpina, several alpine 
 grasses, and other glumaceous plants; such as Phlcum alpinum and Alopncurns alpinus. 
 Eriophornm alpinum ; Juncus castancus, arcticiis, and biglumis ; and Luzula nrcticn, Primula 
 scotica (Jig. 109. a), the Myosotis alpestris (d), Azalea procumbens, (lentianii nivalis (c) 
 Sibbaldia procumbens, Convallaria verticilhita, Epilo'Dlum alpinum, Arbutus alpina, Pyrola 
 uniflora (b), Saxifraga nivalis and rivularis, Stellaria scKpigera (the latter is exclusively 
 
 * Mr. Mackay iiirnsiirfMl n trunk vf tluB fini! rvorirri'iMi troc on R*hi^Ii lijlund, iioarly o|ipo»itu O'Siilliviiirti Caji- 
 cadc, nliicli, in IHI5, wiis tl^ rent in Kirlli. nt n t'niit rriiiu thi' l'MujiiI. 
 
 t On tlin antliortty (•{ I.iL'lttfoot, in<I<M^il, tliiK plnnt, an alMiinliinttv foiinrt in England, is fiveii as u native nf 
 £>colland ; biit no living buliiiiit!t, tliut I iim aware of, lias I'ver wen it tlietc. 
 
 Voul. 
 
1; 
 
 I 'i; 
 
 r HI 
 
 tlnn('., 
 thowo 
 rks ut" 
 
 rasses, 
 
 I' mvist 
 rnis BO 
 Imve, 
 ibey, at 
 
 -^ 
 
 ml native, 
 d over the 
 108. a), ia 
 wly-di'ico- 
 orlmonna, 
 I, are quite 
 
 ; the small 
 lleins; the 
 Pritilli'i''" 
 icim); the 
 t [Antheri- 
 pp (Acorus 
 
 Hirciilus); 
 ,)llus); and 
 Traveller's 
 
 \nse); some 
 {Fvmaria 
 iphaca and 
 fhis Morio,t 
 phora, ller- 
 ; the bcau- 
 hia Clema- 
 Amnranthus 
 7« album); 
 lens), these 
 e middle of 
 
 Ifs are found 
 regions of 
 
 Loral alpine 
 |rns nlpinus. 
 ■en, Primula 
 1 nivalis (c) 
 
 liina, Pyrola 
 
 T exclusively 
 
 B,i\livim'« Cos- 
 las II n»i»ve of 
 
 Book I. . ENGLAND. 326 
 
 British), Aronaria rubella and fastigiata. the Chcrleria sodoides. Lychnis Viscaria and alplna, 
 Spergula Haginoideg, Potontilla oixicn, Nuphar Kalmiana, Ranunculus alpestris, Ajupa pyra- 
 inidttliB, Cardiunino bcllidiflora, Orobus niger. Astragalus nralensis and campestris, Eriareron 
 
 lUU 
 
 b mm^. . sj^ 110 
 
 a, ScollMi Primrow. t, Rock Scorpion Oram, a, TrHM-Loaved Cinqueroil. 
 
 e, Single-Flowered Water-Green, d, Smnli Alpine Gentian. b, Jointed Pipewort. 
 
 alpinum, Corallorliiza innata, Achilliea tomentosa, Goodyera repena ; the most alpine Carices 
 and Salices, and the Dwarf Birch (Betula nana). 
 
 There are two plants whicli deserve particular notice, as natives of Great Britain, and 
 found nowhere else .'n Europe ; but these are a,nrain met with in North America ; the one is 
 Potentilla tridentata (Jig. 110. a) abundant in arctic America and upon the Rocky and White 
 Mountains, the other tlie Eriocaulon septangulare (jUff. 110. 6). This latter genus is mostly 
 tropical, or a native of tiie warm temperate zones in America, the East Indies, and Australia. 
 The only exceptions to tliis rule are the Eriocaulon pellucidum of Michaux, and tiie plant in 
 question; the former being found in North America as high as Canada; and, upon exanii- 
 nation, the two species prove identical. In these instances, the Eriocaulon and the Poten- 
 tilla seem to have overcome many obstacles in their migration, and to have reached their 
 eastern boimdary. The Eriocaulon is confined to a few lakes in the Hebrides, where we 
 have been surprised in the month of September at the liigh temperature of the water, which 
 probably never freezes ; and in some spots in the south and west of Ireland : tlie Potentilla 
 is only found on one hill in Angusshire. 
 
 It is wortliy of remark, that the genus Pedicularis, which is so numerous in species, in 
 the eastern and southern parts of Europe, almost wholly disappears in Britain; for, notwith- 
 standing the vast numbers of it which arc found in Siberia, the South of Russia, Switzer- 
 land, extending even to the Pyrenees, and Germany, Great Britain possesses but two, 
 which are equally abundant upon the Continent ; and although almost wholly an alpine 
 genus, the British mountains possess not one really alpine species. It would appear that the 
 climate is peculiarly unsuited to their nurture: for in North America, in the same and espe- 
 cially in still higher northern latitudes, they again become abundant. 
 
 Ireland exhibits a few striking peculiarities m some of its vegetable productions. Besides 
 the Strawberry tree {Arbutus unedo) already mentioned, it can boast of Pinguicula grandi- 
 flora (Jig. 111. a), a beautiful flower, native of PYance and the Pyrenees ; Menziesia poll- 
 
 111 
 
 ■' .! I! 
 
 W'^] 
 
 HI f 
 
 VouL 
 
 a. Large-flowered BuUerwort. 
 d, Naked-italked Vcllow Puppy. 
 
 b, Irish Mcnziesin. 
 r, Marih Ludum. 
 
 28* 
 
 c, Kidner-Ieaved Suirraec 
 
 •W 111 
 
sw 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part in. 
 
 I , 1 
 
 I 
 
 , I'nio Maidwn-IUir. 
 
 , tfliiiri-ilyli-il Ilri«ili)-Fcrn. 
 
 folia (h), n »iiH'i;i('M liolonffinff to llio Inttor country nnd to Spnin, nnd t'oiiml in n wilii Htato in 
 no otlior purls of the world ; it ia, too, a inoBt lovely one : iiImo St. PiitrickV (.'abl)af{n {Saxi- 
 jfrafra uin/irnsn) nnd the Ixindoii I'rido (.S. Ueum, c) and their varieties, which are scarcely 
 known tci exist but in Hwit/.erlaml and the PyreneeM; Areiiaria ciliiita, a unlive of tho 
 mountaitiH (ni llie continent of Europe; and to tliest; raritiex iiave lately been added by Pro- 
 fessor (iii'Mecke, the Yellow Poppy {Pupavfr nudicaiiU, (/), and the Ledum |mluHtro (r,) 
 both of llu'ui peculiarly arctic productions, and plentiful on the northern extremity of Ame- 
 rica and (Jreeulaiid; and with Uiese wo must be permitted to number, thouijh Cryptotramic 
 -s^Jf plants, the TrichoiimiieH brevisetum {^ff, ny. l,\ which 
 
 Bcarccly jjfrows nnyw here else in the world but in Ma- 
 deira and in Yorkshire (if it be not '.low extinct in the 
 latter habitat), the Adiantuni Capillus Veneris (rt), whoso 
 only locality in the nritixli dominions w the west of Ire- 
 land, and one spot in Wales, but which is frequent in 
 the south of Europe, nnd even in the tropical parts of 
 America; and two mosses, Hookcria latevirons, and 
 Dnltonin splanchnoides, entirely peculiar to Ireland. 
 
 That country also possesses lliree remarkable voge- 
 tjible productions, now pretty generally distrilmtcd in 
 gardens and shrubberies tliroughout the kingdom, and 
 universolly known by the names of the Irish Broom, 
 Irish Furze, and Irish Yew. The former we believe to 
 be the Spartium patens of Linnieus, a Spanish species, 
 with very hairy pods; and it is, probably, not wild in 
 that country. The Irish Furze has an appearance very 
 different from that of the European or J)warf Furzes 
 (_Ulcx tiiropaiis and namm), having very erect short branches, and closely placed spines; 
 .so that the whole plant has a remarkably dense and compact habit, appearing almost as if 
 
 it were kept close clipped with shears. It blossoms rarely, 
 but we have seen both flowers and soed-vessols, which do 
 not differ in any material point from those of Ule.\ nanus. 
 In some gardens it is called U. curopams var. strictus; but 
 Mr. Mttckny considers it to be quite a distinct species, and 
 hn has called it, in his "Catalogue of the Indigenous Plants 
 of Ireland," Ule.\ strictus. Still, the only stations for this 
 plant are in the Marquess of Londonderry's park and shrub- 
 beries, at Mount Stew art, county of Down, where there are 
 sonie very largo bushes; but whence it came, no one can 
 tell. This would, however, be a very valuable plant to the 
 agriculturist ; for, it has been plontcd (it increases readily 
 by cuttings) in dry hilly pastures in the north of Scotland, 
 and in the early spring throws up an abundant crop of suc- 
 culent shoots, which are greedily eaten by sheep, when there 
 is little or no grass to support them. 
 
 The third Irish botanical curiosity is the Irish Yew (Jig, 
 113), Florence-Court Yew, as it is called in that country, 
 from its being first di.*covered at Florence Court, the seat of 
 Lord Enniskillen. Mr. Mackay does not consider it to be 
 wild ; but Mr. Hervey, in the Agricultural Magazine, for 
 October, 1828, says, that it is an undoubted native, and plen- 
 tiful in tlie neigljbourhixxl of Antrim, where there are trees 
 at least a century old. It is distinguished by its upright 
 branches, which give the whole plant somewhat the habit of 
 a Cypress; by the leaves growing, not in a distichous man- 
 ner, but from all sides of the stem : the drupe or berry, too, 
 is of a different form from that of the common Yew. 
 The trees that are aboriginal natives of Britain are the Oak (two species); the Elm (five 
 species); the Boccli, the Ash, the Maple, Sycamore, Hornbeam, Limo (throe species) ; the 
 Spanish Chestnut (!) ; the Alder, Birch, Poplar (four species) ; nnd the Scotch Fir ; to which 
 may be addnl the Mountain Ash, which ir some parts of Scotland attains to a great size. 
 Of these, then, the Oak, the Beech, Birch, and Scotch Fir, live in society, forming vast, 
 forests, almost to the exclusion of otlier trees. The finest forests of Oak and Beech are 
 to be seen in tliu southern parts of England ; the latter flourishing, in an extraordinary 
 degree, in tlie chalk and deep clay soils of Sussex and some of the neighbouring counties. 
 In Scotland, the oak, though there may be some exceptions, generally forms copse v'oods, 
 and is mostly confined to the valleys. Its northern limit is scarcely within the British domi- 
 
 Iriih Vow 
 
• ^ t- 
 
 * r 
 
 iter Ut 
 
 Btato in 
 
 ! (Srtxi- 
 
 scarcoly 
 
 . of tho 
 
 by Pro- 
 
 iHlro (r,) 
 
 of Amc- 
 
 |)togiiniic 
 
 !»), which 
 
 t in Ma- 
 
 ct in the 
 
 a), whoso 
 
 !8t of Ire- 
 
 cqucnt in 
 porta of 
 
 rnns, and 
 
 eland. 
 
 ible vcgo- 
 
 rilmtcd in 
 
 i(rdoin, and 
 
 sIj Broom, 
 
 ! believe to 
 
 isli BpecicB, 
 
 lot wild in 
 
 iruncc very 
 
 ^■urf Furzos 
 
 ccd spines; 
 
 diuost as it 
 
 Boins rarely, 
 
 i», which do 
 
 Ulcx nanus. 
 
 <tricUw; but 
 
 species, and 
 
 enous Plants 
 
 ions for this 
 
 k and shrub- 
 ire there are 
 , no one can 
 plant to the 
 jases readily 
 of Scotland, 
 crop of BUC- 
 I, when there 
 
 Lh Yew (Jig. 
 that country, 
 tt, the seat of 
 [idcr it to be 
 Ifriifrtztn'' for 
 hvo, and plen- 
 Icro arc trees 
 [y its upright 
 It the habit of 
 Miclious nmn- 
 for berry, too, 
 J Yew. 
 
 Itlie Elm (five 
 Ispccies) ; the 
 JFir ; to which 
 1 a jrreat size, 
 forming vast 
 Jnd Boecli are 
 [extraordinary 
 Ting counties, 
 [copse V'oods, 
 I British aomi- 
 
 BooK 1. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 sai 
 
 Scotch Fir. 
 
 nioiiB. It extends to lot 00", on tlie continent in Russia, and 64° in Norway; and if in Scot- 
 land oukN ure not found in th(! extreme north, it is rather owing to want of slicltcr and of 
 suitable Hoil, timn to any otiier circuitiHtiince. 
 The Pine, {Pimm Syhi:stris,Jig. 114.) constitutes noble forests among the nmuntainoua 
 
 districts of North Britain, liiling tho valipys, 
 and ascending, probably, to the height of '2.')0U 
 feet upon tho hills, among the norlliern (irani- 
 pians, and exhibiting individual s]x>ciinens of 
 great size and beauty. 
 
 Of the fruit trees which are successfully cul- 
 tivated in the o|)en air, tlio number is limited. 
 In tho south, exclusively, or, perhaps, as far as 
 tho centre of the kingdom, imder favourable 
 cii'cumstances, the Vino, the Fig, the Quince, 
 the Mulberry, Chestnut, Wolruit, and Medlar 
 may bo advantageously planted. Tho Apple, 
 Peai, the Plum nf various kinds, the Peach, 
 Nectariii"; and Apricot; all, according to soil, 
 exposure, and other local circumstances, ripen 
 their fruit in the open air, if afforded the protec- 
 tion of a wall, as nigh north as Inverness, and 
 some of the most hardy ones much higher ; but 
 the want of sun must ever be a hindrance to the 
 thorough perfecting of good fruit in tho north of Scotland. 
 
 Of the various kmds of Com, which are used as food for man or cattle, Wheat, Barley, 
 Bere, Bigg, Oats, and Rye are the universal crops ; and these all succeed in situations 
 not too much elevated above the level of the sea, as far to the northward as Ifivcrness, 
 beyond which the wheat becomes a very uncertain crop; and even considerably south of 
 Inverness, to tho north of the Forth and Clyde, in lat. 66°, the cultivation ot wheat is 
 almost wholly confined to tho eastern side ot the country, the west being tho district for 
 posture. 
 
 In regard to ihe height at which certain plants will grow above the level of the sea, the 
 southern and midland parts of Great Britam do not contain mountains upon a sufficiently 
 lofty scale to render their investigation particularly interesting. The northern parts of 
 England pos.jess mountains of upwards of 3000 feet ; and as Winch's " Essay on the Geo- 
 graphical distribution of Plants througho' , the Counties of Northumberland, Cumberland, and 
 Durliam," of which tho lat. .55° may bt considered the medium, embraces a very great pro- 
 tion of this very country, which, from its situation, may, in point of cUmate, be considered as 
 intermediote between the more northern and southern floras of Great Britain, we select 
 from his work what concerns the more valuable and more striking vegetable productions. 
 
 The Oak, in lat. .55°, attains a large size ui the valleys ; it ascends tho hills, but gradu- 
 ally becomes of stunted growth in Weardale and Teesdule, to the elevation of 16()0 and 
 1700 feet. 
 
 The Common Elm ( Ulmus CumpcMris) is not indigenous north of the Tees ; its place 
 being taken by the Wych Elm {if. montana), which skirts the mountains at a height of 
 2000 feet. 
 
 The Beech and Aspen flourish beautifully in the low sheltered spots, but do not climb 
 the hills to equal heights with the oak. The White and Black Poplars (Populus alba 
 and niffra) are doubtful natives of the north of England, as of Scotland ; tiiough the White 
 Poplar is remarkable for withstanding the north-easterly winds, which are so destructive to 
 vegetation in the counties of Northumberland and Durham. The Lime, (Tilia Europaa), 
 the Ciiestnut {Castanea vesca), and tho Hornbeam (Carpinus Betulus), stand in tho same 
 predicament. 
 
 Holly trees are among the chief ornaments of the woods in Durham, Northumberland, 
 and Cumberland, as is the Yew (Taxus Baccala). The Birch {Bctula alba) is not ibund 
 on the mountains at a greater elevation than the Sycamore (Acer Pseudo-platanus), which 
 ill the sulmlplnc regions seems to be as vigorous, and to attain as great a size as it does 
 near the sea-coast. The Mountain Ash {Pyrus aucuparia) is found on the hills ; the White 
 Beam {Pyrus Arid) may be traced from the High-Force of the river Tees to the coast ; 
 the Alder {Alnus glutinosa) and the Guelder Rose ( Vibxtmum Opulus) accompany the 
 streams ; and the Hazel, Black Cherry {Prunus Cerasus), Bird Cherry (Prumis Padus), 
 tlie Spindle-tree {Enonymus europtcus), the Raspberry (Riibus idaus), and the common 
 Elder, {Sambucus nigra), are found in all the woods from the sea-shore to those situated on 
 an elevation of 1600 feet : but the common Muple {Acer campestris) occurs only in. the 
 hedges, in some parts of the flat country. 
 
 Tlic Ash tree {Praxinus fxrrhior), the White Thorn {Mespilus Oxyacantha), the Crab 
 tree, or Wild Apple {Pyrus Miilus), and Black Tliorn (Primus spinosa), abound throughout 
 
!' * 
 
 8U 
 
 DEaCRlITIVR OROC.riAPlIV. 
 
 I'ART in. 
 
 r 
 
 ■* ■ 
 
 ■A ♦ 
 
 f ] 
 
 f 
 
 ■ ?f I: 
 
 m 
 
 tho diatrirt in (luoHlion. Tho Riillncc (I'riniiin iimililin) it* ran' ; mid tlin riiim-lri'i' (l'ninn» 
 diimvilini), I'ciir {I'ynm cnmmitiiii), Ucd ciirriiiil {ItihiB riihniiii), tin- lliTlirrry {llirtirriii 
 vulMtiris), iiiul (icmsclKTry (Ki/xo (Inmsiilitriii), iIidiihL of Iri'iiiH'iit tici'iirrrm-i', iiiipiiir not 
 tu bt> uriKiiial niitiviti ol'tlio Moil. Hut tlii! Itiwrk Ciirriint {UHhh j»lr<r,im), tin! Ai ul .Mdiiii- 
 tain ('iirruiit (RUhm ipieatum), Alpini- ('iirriiiit {liilim iiljiiiniin), IHiic k Ciirniiit {Uilnn ni- 
 fSruin), and I'rivot (Liffutlrum vittffarv), iiro indijfciiDiiM, mid imt iinrrt'i|iiriil. 
 
 'J'lio Fur/.u {Ulcx funinaut,) attjiiiiH to mi cIcviiliDri nf "JOdO l'(!ot in wiiiic'fili'rcd npotx, 
 nccoinpiinicd l)y tiie llriuiildn. Jimi|M'r niiiy Iw; triiccd fnm the cmiHt to llic lii'lylit cif I.*"!*!*! 
 fet't. TIh! tMi)iidlM<rry (.Ruhim Vhnmamnrun), the HciirlM'rry (IrAii/iM Vva I'mi), iind Smid 
 Wiiliiw {Salijc iirrnaria), iitliiin tlio wiino cli'viition ; wiiilt^ tlio DwiirC Willow {Suli.r hir- 
 bacea), but witliout itji uniiiiI attcndiint tho Kctiriiliitcd Willow (S. ritiiiilala), roiiclic* 
 to tlio tup!) of t)io lortit'Bt moiintiiinH, iipwnrdH ot'.M(l(M> foot nl)ovo tlic lovol of tlio moii. 
 
 Cuurw) OnuiHOH, Sodgcd, and UuhIiom Uki oUrn cover llio wot in(K)rii with a Kcunty md 
 olmoHt UHoleiB) vojjetiition. To tho affriciiltiirint tho difToroni Iloatlw uro Hcarceiy nioro 
 accoptahio; but tlicv uro uiiqucHtioimbly anion); tho most boiiutil\il of the nittivo plniitx, iiml 
 their iibundanco and tho voMt oxtoiit uf );roiiiid which ihov clotho, jfivo ii (Kjculiiir oharactor 
 to very many parts of Grout Britain, OHpocially in tho North. In llio di.«trictH in (pioHtioii, 
 tho common Heather (0<//una vKJ/ifari*)! the Fir-lcavod I loath (LViVm Ciinn'a), mid tho 
 CroHH-louvod Uoath (Erica Telrulix), tho latter, however, lean tVaKrmit, and preferring nioint 
 situutioiiH, floiiriidi in various situntionH, iVoin l(NN) In ;<(MM) feet above tlie level of tho Kon, 
 but never in calcarfX)U8 noil, which circuinstanco oeooHionH the strikinjj difforonco lM>twocn 
 tlio hcatlis of Durham and Nortlmuiborland, and tho Yorknliiro Woldx aH they aro called, 
 where tho substratum is chalk. 
 
 The most considerable elevation to which tho cultivation of wheat extends in tho north 
 of England. does not exceed l(KK) feet above tho level of tho sea. Oafs fjrow at nearly 
 double that lioinrht; but in unfavourable years tho sheaves may often lie seen wtamlinpimnonjf 
 tlie snow, which not uncommonly covers the tops of the mountains in October, and is never 
 later in fallin)|f than tho middle of Novcmb<!r. Tho limits of Hnrley nnd Rye iiro between 
 those of wheat and oats ; but Bij^p, a more hardy kind of fjrain than either of the tormer, is 
 no louf^er cultivated. Turnips, though of small siso, and I'otatoes, grow at the wiiiie heiifht 
 as Ottts. On tho soil of tho moors being ploughed for the first time, and lime applied. White 
 Clover ( Trifolium repfns) coinci.' up in abundance. 
 
 ScBSECT. 3. — Zoology of Great Britain. 
 Tho Zoofo/j-y of tho United Empire mij^lit be treated of under tho three kingdoms of which 
 it is com|K)sed, wore our materials sufficiently ample to mark tho peculiarities of eiicli. Hut 
 although every year witnesses an accession of new npecies to the British fauna, no attempt lios 
 yet been made to generalise these discoveries, with reference to the geographic range of groups 
 or species. The zoology of Ireland has been sadly neglecteil, and wo are still .vithout a 
 Fauna Scotica. We must therefore consider the natural history of Britain in the aggregate; 
 noticing such species as more particularly belong to tho northern ami the southern extre- 
 mities. 
 
 Of Quadruped.'^, the most recent catalogue contains sixty living species, including the 
 whale tribe; besides those which progressive civilisation, and tho eil'erts of the chase, have 
 now extirpated from the islands. Nine species of Bats have been detected, four of which 
 '<avo as yet boon found only in the southern and western counties; two belong to the division 
 of horse-shoe bats, so named, from their nostrils being furnished with a complicated nieiiihrane, 
 like a horse-shoo; an apiicndago which is probably intended to act as a sucker to assist tho 
 animal in retaining its prey. Tho Vesportilio murinus, or common bat, has been so fiir 
 tamed as to take flies out of its master's hand, carefully throwing aside the wings, The 
 woods and heaths still shelter the Hedgehog (_/f^. ll.'j.), a harmless and a motit useful animal 
 in destroying snails, slugs, and worms; but persecuted by the 
 vulgar for a long list of imaginary and nonsensical properties. 
 Those prejudices have been extended to the Mole, whosi; liitlc 
 hillocks form the best top-dressing, as a sensible fiirmer once 
 assured us, to poor lands, that can possibly lie given : their soft 
 fnr has long been mixed with that of the Beaver, in the making 
 of hats. Allied to the Mole, in general conformation, are tho 
 Shrew Mice, of which two species arc natives, the common and 
 tho Water Shrew {Sorex aranviix and fodiens) ; Iwth these 
 appear to be widely distributed. Of true Mice there are three 
 di.*»nct sorts: the Common or House Mouse, the Field Mouse, and tho Harvest Mouse; the 
 lattei' being as destructive to the farmer as the first is to the housewife. The Brown and 
 the Black R.it infest dwellings, and aro equally injurions: tho latter is known by the tail 
 being longer than the body; whereas, in the Brown Rat, both these pirts are eipinl. The 
 pretty little normoiiso (.yft/oxus avdlunarius), like the Squirrel and JerlKja, eats its fixid in 
 an erect attitude, sitting on its haunches, and using its forefeet as hands. The Water Itat 
 
 HeilKchoK. 
 
 sIlUIIIl 
 
'AHT ni< 
 
 {I'riinui 
 l\,rl»ri» 
 \\w:\y IU)l 
 
 „; Miiiiii- 
 
 ■rod snotH, 
 
 ,t of ir)0(i 
 
 , iiiitl Siiiul 
 Sillir liir- 
 i), roiiclies 
 
 Hciiiity a'ul 
 reply ii>"f" 
 plniitH, and 
 r ohiiriicter 
 in tuii'Htioii, 
 «■). nnd Uiu 
 nrrini* nmii*t 
 of the »<!ni 
 ico l«<tween 
 r nru cnllwl, 
 
 in tlio north 
 w lit nciirly 
 udiiijtamonR 
 and iH never 
 lire liotween 
 ihe former, is 
 . Hiiu\e \ieiuht 
 pphed, White 
 
 loms of which 
 of piich. But 
 in iiltenipt iiaa 
 in),'e of firoupa 
 ft ill .vitlioiit a 
 
 lutiiern extrc- 
 
 Jincliidini; the 
 le chuwe, liave 
 Ifonr of which 
 Ito the division 
 led nieiiibrane, 
 \r to iissist the 
 {s been so fiir 
 winiTM. The 
 useful animal 
 lecuteil by the 
 :(U propcrtieB. 
 
 J(', wIloNi; l.liiO 
 
 I. fiiriner once 
 Ion : tlieir soil 
 lin the nmkinff 
 [ntion, lire the 
 common and 
 ; lioth tliesi! 
 liero are thrci; 
 Lt Mouse ; tiie 
 1)0 Brown and 
 Ivn by the tail 
 \ (M|unl. The 
 tats its food in 
 [he Water Rat 
 
 Book I. 
 
 KN(H,AN1). 
 
 aaa 
 
 mid Shiirt-talli'd MoiiHe of Pi'iiimnl (now pijiccil in thi' ^i'Iiii.h AniiDhi) iK'ciir in T'liiijhiiiil ; 
 nut tliii liiriiirr iH nluliMl not lo have liei ii louiid in llm tiortliern iflniicU; the l:itter i» a imomI 
 dcftriictivo litllo aiiiniai mi ({iirdiiiH, where it ^riiliH up mi'i'iIx, |Hirlic:uliirly ni"!", ju--t alter 
 tliey liave he^uii to i^triniiiali!, A few years liack, the dhort-ludid luoiise ^udtlriily iippearcMl 
 in iinineiiHe iiuuiht'rH in the New Forect, and iiotwithxtundjii); every artillie eiiiployrd to 
 Htoji their rava^en, tliey di'Htroyed many tiioiisandii uf yonii){ trei'», and devastated whuiu 
 tcreH of voiui); plantations. 
 
 TIki ihiilfiir IS a nocturnal fiH'der, sleeping' in its hole diiriii(( the day, yet, when atlarked, 
 is remarkalilv ipink in its motions, and Mii'eestttiil in its defeiict). If uiidisturlH-d, it is h.<riii- 
 less and iiiolli'iiMve, chielly siibsistin;; u|i<in veMriaaliles, althoiit;h it will likewise devour trie's 
 and shifts. The Olltr has become much lens freipient tliun torinerly ; it was euire I'luisiiiered 
 as u beaHt of chase, as old ifaiiie-lxMiks inentioii otter hounds jiarlicnlarly truini'd t'or himtinir 
 this animal. It feuds entirely upon fish, which it dives uller with ^reat celerity ; and, unless 
 pressod by extreme liun){ur, invariably leaves the tail extremity nntonclied, 'I'Ik; lejrii are 
 very short; and the t^M.'s [w'\\\fi connected to){etiiur by a nionibrune, giwn to the animal tlio 
 [WW er of Nwimniinff very rapidly. 
 
 Tiio rapacious or carnivorous ipiadrupeds of Britain arc very few, and from their small 
 «izu tix) iiisi)rniii(.vtnt to inlliet imu'h piTsunal injury n|)on man. The Uiar and the \Vii{f' 
 have lonjT been extinct in Uriliiin, oiid the Fox iui(,'lit liavi? shiirtMl the name Hite, liail it not 
 been preserved im a beast of the cluwu since the extirpiiti.m of more formidable >ramo. 
 Pennant mentions three vari(<ties of this animal fouiiit in Wales and other mountainous parta 
 of Britain: — 1. Tho Milf(ri, or (ireybomid Fox, is the lar>;est, tallest, and iMitdest, and ia 
 distin^ruisbed by a white tuj( or tip to the tail. '2. The MastiH'Fox, which i.s less, but more 
 8tron){ly built. .'). The Curgi, or Cur Fox, of n still smaller size, ami having; the tip of thu 
 tail black. (Wri/. Zool. i. 87.) The varieties do not ap|)uar, however, to have fallen under 
 the actual observation of subsoouent naturalists. 
 
 Tlu! Ferret tribe coinprehcnds the I'olecat, Weasel, Stoat or Ermine, the Common Marten, 
 and the I'iiic Mart(<n. 
 
 The I'olecat {I'litoriun vnlguris Cuv.), called al'io tho Fitchia, Fitchew, or Foumart, 
 mcotiureLi, with tiio tail, iilHiut twenty-three inches. Its fetid smell is proverbial. Alfliounh 
 included in the list of British quadrupeds, it appears, according to Striibo, to liavo been 
 uiiptrted from the north of Africa. Like all it.s conjjeners, its habits are san;ruinary ; lor it 
 will destroy and suck the blood of many victims, befiiro it attempts to carry oil" their liodies. 
 Tho well-known Ferri.'t is considered only a variety of this species. The Weasel is much 
 smaller, and althoiiirh repulsive from its (nlour, is yet an elefjant-shaiM'd animal. It feeds on 
 mice and small birds, but will occasionally attack animals of a much larfjer size. Few 
 persons suspect that tho skins they see nailed ajjaiiust farm out-houses freijuently belimjf to 
 an animal wiiose fur, in another state, tbrms a most cle(,miit and expensive ornament to 
 female dres.s. This animal, despised in one state, and valued in another; is the Stoat 
 (Jig. llfi.), the iH;st of the farmer, and tho destroyer of his poultry. In the teinporiitu and 
 llfl 117 
 
 .Sioiil. Pinii Mnrtcn. 
 
 •outhcrn parts of Europe, its fur is yellowish-brown uliovc, and pale yellow beneath ; yet 
 ■M soon as' its {{cographic range enters on tho more northern countries, ns Russia, Norway, 
 and Siberia, these colours vanish, leavinjr tiio fur of a pure white in every part but the tail, 
 which is tipped with deep black ; and in this state tho skin is called ermine. In Scotland 
 the animal, durinjr winter, is fre(iiiently found in an intermediate stuifo of summer and win- 
 ter clotliiiifr. Although small, it will attack large rats, and has licen known to pursue a 
 young hare by tho scent. 
 
 The Common or Beech Marten (.V. Fagnrum Ray) seems to prefer dwelling near habita- 
 tions, choosing tho shelter of out-houses and t'lrin-buildings, as convenient retreats for carry- 
 ■tig on its depredations among poultry, of which it is a great devourcr; it also breeds 
 occasionally in the hollows of trees. 
 
 Tho Pino Marten {M. AbirtumRiyy,Jig. 117.) is rather larger, and is further distingnishod 
 from the last in having the throat and breast yellow, histe.id of white. It is wild and solitary; 
 shunning mankind ; and only dwells in thick womls and forests, princiiwilly those composed 
 of pines. It climbs with great fucility ; preys ajHrn birds and their eggs, and also upon 
 bquurela ; the female generally making use of Uie nest of one of her victima for the rearing 
 
 1 ' I' 
 
 ' -i! 
 
 'f. ' b 
 
 f k 
 
m^ 
 
 
 iii 
 
 1!^ 
 
 11 
 
 r 
 
 " \ 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 of her own young. The skin of this is much more prized than that jf the common Marten, 
 and appears to have been formerly, at least in Scotland, a lucrative article of commerce. 
 
 The Wild Cut closes our list of these small but ferocious indigenous animals. Its mannem 
 are similar to those of the lynx, and Mr. Pennant justly calls it the British tiger. In its 
 savage stale it appears to be much larger tlian the ordinary domestic cat ; and the teeth and 
 claws, for the size of the animal, are tremendous. It is still found, although rarely, in the 
 mountainous and woody partii of Great Britain. Formerly they appear to have been mcih 
 more numeroiis, and to have been considered a beast of chase. The best authorities agree 
 in considering this species, common to the forests of Europe, as the origin of our domestic 
 breed, the usual varieties of which are well known. Another, which seems peculiar to 
 Cornwull, is witliout any visible tail, and is stated to be an hereditary variety. {Cuv. ii. 489.) 
 
 To enumerate the varieties of the Dog now domesticated in Britain would be tedious, 
 particularly after the luminous manner in which this subject has been treated by Pennant 
 {Brit. Zool. i. 70.). Britain has been famous for her dogs from remote antiquity. Ihe British 
 mastiffs were held in such estimation by tlie Romans, that their emperors appointed an officer 
 in the island, with the name of Procurctor Cynegii, whose business was to transmit thence 
 such as would prove equal to the ferocious combats of the amphitheatre. Strabo also men- 
 tions that the mastiffs of Britain were in great repute, being trained for war, and used by 
 the Gauls in their battles. 
 
 The Bloodhound, during the troubled periods of English history, was in high estimation, 
 and much used to track the footsteps of robbers and marauders ; but the breed is now extinct. 
 A remarkable variety of the Greyhound, more peculiar to Ireland (hence called the Irish 
 Greyhound or Wolf I)og), is nearly lost, a few couples alone having been preserved in one 
 of the parks in that island. The Terrier is the best house guard ; while the Shepherd, the 
 Water, and the Newfoundland dogs are probably the most sagacious. 
 
 Of ruminating animals now existing in a state of nature, there are but three; the Stag or 
 Red Deer, the Fallow Deer, and the Roebuck. It would appear, however, that the first two 
 are not indigenous to these islands. Mr. Pennant writes — "We have two varieties of fallow 
 deer, which are said to be of foreign origin : these were introduced by King James I. out of 
 Norway, which he visited for his mtended b'ide, Anne of Denmark. He first brought some 
 iuto Scotland, and from thence transported them to his chases of Enfield and Epping, to be 
 near his palace of Theobald's." The only memorial of this palace is probably preserved in 
 tiio name of The 'lald's Road. M. Cuvicr, indeed, expresses a doubt whether the stag was 
 originally European; but Major Hamilton Smith, with much better reason, considers the 
 Fallow Deer {Cervtis Dama) as indigenous to Europe ; adding, that it is still found wild 
 from Sweden to Gibraltar, and from Ireland to Constantinople. The Stag {Cervus Elaphug) 
 seems to be unquestioned as an indigenous species; and although the wild breed is yearly 
 duninishing in numbers, it is still found in Gloucestershire, the north-west part of Devon, 
 and in some of the remote districts of Scotland. Pennant, by some unaccountable mistake, 
 has placed the Stag and the Fallow Deer as varieties of one species. 
 
 The Roebuck (Cervus capreolus Ham. Smitli) is much less than the two preceding, and 
 is, indeed, the smallest of European deer. It is remarkably graceful and active, habitually 
 preferring the sides of elevated woods or forests. As he leaves a strong scent, nature has 
 given him peculiar sagacity to perplex his pursuers : he begins, after a forward dash, bv 
 doubling over his track, to mislead the hounds, and then by some great bounds he springs 
 forward to a cover, where he lies down to let the chase pass. The roebuck is now become 
 very scarce in Britain, and was equally so in Scotland, but we are told it has re-appeared of 
 late years in Fifeshire, in consequence of the increased plantations. {Brit. An. p. 26.) 
 
 The Ox is the only remaining animal of this order which claims a place among the 
 indigenous quadrupeds. We have before observed, that in remote ages, a gigantic race of 
 oxen was numerous throughout Europe ; and that, although now extinct, there is reason to 
 Iwlieve that the colossal species mentioned by Ciesar, as existing in his time, was cf this 
 race, now only known by its fossil bones. Those remains lie scattered through the whole 
 of temperate Europe, in the same strata with the lost species of Elephant but that the race 
 was preserved to a much later period is proved by similar bones occurring in more recent 
 formations, as in peat mosses, drained lakes, marshes, and beds of sand. The wild races, 
 of inferior size, belonging to this species, may probably, as Major Smith observes, even now 
 exist in Asia. However this may be, it appears certain that the real Urus was found wild 
 in the Vosges mountains, and in the forests of Ardennes and Germany; while its existence 
 in England is incontestably proved by Fitz-Steplien, vho speaks of the Uri silvestres, which 
 in his time (that is, alxiut 11.50) infested the great forests — round I/)ndon ! 
 
 The only existing breed of wild oxen now known, is the white Urus, or Urus grnficns of 
 Ham. Smith. Its skull agrees with the fossil breed in being " square from the orbits to 
 Ihe occipital crest, .somewhat hollow at the forehead, and the horns showing a peculiar rise 
 fiom their root, at the side of the above crest, upwards, and then bending outwards, then 
 iorwanl and inward : no domestic race shows this turn." The true Urus was further di» 
 
Book I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 336 
 
 Wild Scotliib Ox. 
 
 tinguished by a mane, which iB still observed about two inches lon^, in old bulls of the Scot- 
 '■"^ tish race (^g'. 118.). When this breed was exterminated 
 
 from the opNBn forests is not known ; but it was confined 
 to parks long before tlie Refonnation. The colour is en- 
 tirely white, with the muzzle wholly black. Tiieir man- 
 ners are singular : upon perceiving a stranger, they gallop 
 wildly in a circle round him, stop and gaze, toss their 
 heads, and show signs of defiance ; this is repented seve- 
 ral times, each circle being made smaller, lill they ap- 
 preach sufficiently near to make an effective charge. The 
 cows conceal their young eight or ten days: and when 
 one of the herd is wounded or enfeebled, the others gore 
 it to death. The breed is still preserved at Chill ingham 
 Castle, near Berwick-upon-Tweed, Wollaston in Notting- 
 ham, Gisbume in Craven, Limchall in Cheshire, and at Chartley in Staffordshire. 
 
 The domestic 0» (Bos Taurus), considered by some as a variety, and by otliers as a dis- 
 tinct species from the last, is supposed by Hamilton Smith to have been first domesticated 
 by the Caucasian nations of western Asia. It is stated to have fourteen ribs, whereas tliose 
 of the B. Urus are but twelve ; a distinction sufficiently important to sanction the belief of 
 a specific difference. Whether or not this parent of our domestic races ever existed in these 
 islands in a state of nature, is very doubtful. The various breeds for which Britain has long 
 been Justly celebrated will be noticed under the head of domestic animals. 
 
 The marine and cetaceous mammalia are few, and are not very generally dispersed. Two 
 species of seal have been noticed by Pennant. The Piked Whales {Baltcnoptera musculus 
 and boops), the Razor-back Whale, and several others of the great norther" i cetacea, wander 
 near the Hebrides and Orkney islands, and occasionally visit the shores ol Northumberland 
 and Yorkshire. The Porpoise and the Grampus have a wider range, and large shoals roam 
 unmolested near all the coasts. 
 
 Exterminated native animals. In every country the increase of civilization and agricul- 
 ture is marked by the progressive diminution and final extirpation of the larger quadrupeds, 
 particularly of such as are injurious to man. Among those which history clearly informs us 
 were once living in Britain, the most remarkable are the Bear, the Wolf, the Beaver, and 
 tlie wild Boar. To the writings of Pennant and Hamilton Smith we are indebted for the 
 following notes on these lost inhabitants of our forests. 
 
 It appears that Bears, in the time of Plutarch, were transported from Britain to Rome 
 where they were much admired. They appear to have been extinct in Britain long before 
 Queen Elizabeth's time. 
 
 Wolves. It seems to have been a vulgar error that the wolf was extirpated in Britain 
 by tlie salutary edicts of King Edgar, who accepted their tongues and heads as tribute, or as 
 a commutation for certain crimes; for in the reign of Edward I. these animals had again 
 increased to such a degree, that officers were appointed to promote their destruction, and 
 lands were held by hunting and destroying them. Wolves infested Ireland many centuries 
 after their extinction in England ; some having been killed so late as 1710. In Scotland, 
 the last on record was destroyed in 1680. 
 
 The Beaver was still an inhabitant of the Welsh rivers in 1188, as is attested, according 
 to Pennant, by Giraldus Cambrensis ; but even at that remote period they must have con- 
 siderably diminished, as the historian only mentions their being found on tlie river Teivi. 
 Local names of other waters in the principality attest their existence in other places. Fossil 
 remains of this species are stated to have been found in beds of marl, under peat moss in 
 Berkshire ; and similar bones have occurred in Perthshire and Berwickshire. 
 
 The Wild Boar, from which have sprung the domestic breeds of swine, must be reckoned 
 among indigenous quadrupeds, although now extinct in Britain. Willium the Conqueror 
 punished those who killed the Wild Boar, the Stag and the Roebuck, by the loss of their 
 eyes. Fitz-Stephen affirms that the vast forest, which in his time stood on the north sideiSf 
 London, was the retreat of Stags, Fallow Deer, Wild Boars and Bulls. At a more recent 
 period, Charles the First turned out Wild Boars in the New Forest ; but they were destroyed 
 duruig the civil wars. 
 
 Fossil quadrupeds. The splendid discoveries that have resulted from the investigations 
 of Buckland, Mantell, Conybeare, and other eminent geologists, have opened a field of re- 
 search, which in Britain had long been overlooked or neglected. Without entering into the 
 question whether tliese fossil remains belong to animals which did or did not at some period 
 inhabit the spots wherein their bones have been found, it is sufficient to confine ourselves to 
 simple facts. The remains of the cave bear of Dr. Buckland occur in several caverns, and 
 are sufficient to prove the living animal must have equalled a horse in size. The Kirkdale 
 and Plymouth caves abound with the bones of an extinct liya>na, somewhat resenililing in 
 its osteology tliat now existing in South Africa ; with these have been found the bones of n 
 tiger, which must have been as large as the Bengal species. The tusks, teeth, and other 
 
"%, 
 
 descriptive: geography. 
 
 Part HI. 
 
 i ■ 
 
 
 The long-hornod Ox. 
 
 MP 
 
 (rogments of an extinct .species of elephant, totally different from tliose now in existence, 
 119 __ have been detected in marl clay, &c. joined with tliose of two 
 other gigantic quadrupedfl, a rliinoceros and hippopotamus; while 
 the jaw of a Qiarsupial animal, unknown among the existing 
 race of beings, has been found in the Stoncafield slate quarries 
 (Jff. 119.) 
 
 Domestic tpiadrupeds. No nation, perhaps, has been more 
 Jow of Mnr'upmi Aiiitnni. BoHcitous to improvo their originally poor breeds of domesti- 
 cated quadnipeds than the British ; and hence their present superiority over most of those 
 on the Continent. Under this liead we commence with the ruminating animals, as the ox, 
 the sheep, and the goat, e>o essential in supplying food and clothing to man ; while the horse, 
 tlie ass, and the dog assist Iiim in his labour, or protect his property. 
 
 The principal breeds of oxen more peculiar to Great Britain have been arranged by Major 
 Hamilton Smith under nine divisions. Of these, three belong to England, three to Scotland, 
 two to Wales, and one to Guernsey. 
 The long-horned or Lancaster breed (Jig. 120.), as the name implies, is remarkable for 
 
 long horns; they have firm thick hides, long close hair, 
 large hoofs, and give in proportion less milk, but more 
 cream. They are of various colours, but are in general 
 finched, that is, with a white streak above the spine, 
 and a white spot inside the houghs. The improved 
 Leicester is a slight variety, originally bred near Co- 
 ventry. 
 
 The short-horned breed includes those that are named 
 the Holderness, Tecswater, Yorkshire, Durham, and 
 Northumberland. This has been the most improved, 
 producing usually twenty-four quarts of milk per day, 
 and three firkins of butter per season. Their colour varies, but is generally red and white 
 mixed ; called by the graziers flocked. 
 
 The middle-horned includes the Devon, Hereford, and Sussex breeds : they are active, 
 hardy, and much esteemed for draught : but altliough they fatten early, do not milk so well 
 as tlip last, The pure Dcvons are of a high red colour, without spots, a light dun ring 
 round the eye, fine m bone, clear nock, thin ftced, and tlie tail set on high : the north Devon 
 is most esteemed for eating. The Sussex and Hereford are larger, the ox weighing from 60 
 to 100 stone. 
 The Scottish breeds may be arranged under the Polled, the Highland, and the Pifeshire. 
 The Polled Galloway is tiie most esteemed : it is straight in tlio back, the hair soft, the 
 colour black or dark brindled, and the size not large. They travel well, and reach the 
 Ijondon markets witliout deterioration. The Suffolk Dun is a variety of this race. The 
 Highland race includes several varieties, the most valuable ones being the West Highland, 
 Argyle, or Skye, and the Kyloe from the Hebridea The Norlands is anotlier variety, with 
 coarse hides, long legs, and of a narrow make. The Orkney or Shetland are very diminu- 
 tive : an ox weighing about 60 lbs. a quarter, and a cow 40 lbs.' Their colours are various, 
 and their shapes bad ; but they give an abundance of excellent milk, and fatten rapidly. 
 The Fifcsliire appears an improved breed of the Highlands, crossed witli tlie Cambridge- 
 shire ; they arc black, spotted witli gray ; tiie horns small, white, and very erect : a variety 
 occurs in Aberdecn.shire. 
 
 The Welsh liave two breeds : the first is large, dark brown, with some white ; tlie legs 
 long and slender; tlie horns wliite, and turned upwards: those, next to the Devon, are the 
 best in yoke, and are a cross of the long-horned : tiie second is lower, well formed, black 
 with little wliite, and are good milkers. The Alderney or Guernsey race is proverbially 
 email : their colour is mostly yellow or light red ; marked with white about tiie face and 
 limbs, and witli crumpled Iiorns The true breed is known by being yellow within tlie ears, 
 and at the root of tiie tail and ita tuft. 
 
 Respecting draught Oxen, we cannot refrain from here inserting an excellent and judi- 
 cious remark of Pennant. " It is now," observes this sensible writer, " generally allowed, 
 that, in many ca-sen, oxen arc more profitable in tiie draught than horses : tlieir food, harness, 
 ond slices being clicaper ; and should they be lamed or grow old, an old working beast will 
 be as good meat, and fatten as wpII, as a young one;." {Brit. Znol. i. 2**.) 
 
 The Sheep is scarcely inferior in utility to the ox: and the breeds now cultivated in 
 Britain, tiikiiig all tiioir qualities into consideration, are perhaps tlio most viiluablo in the 
 world. It is a curious fact, that tiie famed Merino sheep of Spain originated from tlic Eng- 
 li.^li breed, sent to tliat country by Edward IV. as a present to King Jolin of Arragon. (Wrt^. 
 Chron. p. 2iHi.) Major II. Sniitli estimates tlie present annual value of wool HJiorii in Eng 
 land, at five millions sterling. 
 
 Tlie British slionp, according to Mr. Culley, may be arranged under fourteen different 
 breeds, and some otiicrs might also be enumerated. These may be classed under two prin- 
 
H' 
 
 i\ 
 
 pabt ni. 
 
 existence, 
 lioscof two 
 Linus; while 
 he existing 
 ite quarries 
 
 been more 
 of domesti- 
 ost of those 
 g, as the ox, 
 le the horse, 
 
 [cd by Major 
 to Scotland, 
 
 markable for 
 ig close hair, 
 ilk, but more 
 re in general 
 ve the spine, 
 'he improved 
 red near Co- 
 hat are named 
 Durham, and 
 est improved, 
 milk per day, 
 red and white 
 
 .ey are active, 
 )t milk BO well 
 light dun ring 
 )C north Devon 
 ighing from 60 
 
 the Pifeshire. 
 
 jc! hair soft, the 
 
 [and reach the 
 
 Ills race. The 
 
 . est Highland, 
 
 ■r varietjr, with 
 
 e very diminu- 
 
 irs are various, 
 
 fatten rapidly. 
 
 the Cambridge- 
 
 [rcct : a variety 
 
 vhite; the legs 
 Devon, are the 
 [l formed, black 
 is proverbially 
 It the face and 
 Ivithin the ears, 
 
 lollcnt and judi- 
 Vmlly allowed, 
 [r food, harness, 
 rking beast will 
 
 Iv cultivated in 
 1 valunblc in the 
 from tho Eng- 
 lArrnjron. {Bak. 
 1)1 Kliorii in Eng 
 
 Inrtccn different 
 1 under two prin- 
 
 DooK I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 337 
 
 oipaj divisions; those derived from the ancient race being fiimishcd with horns, while tlio 
 others in general have none. 
 
 Of the liorncd breeds, th' most ancient is the biack-faced {fff. 121.), still met with in 
 some licnthy parts of Yorkshirr and tho adjacent northern counties : tlie wool is coarse and 
 shaggy. The Norfolk and Suffolk sjieep, also, have the horns large and spiral, with the face 
 black, but the wool is short and fine : they have a voracious appetite, and a restless dispo- 
 sition. In the Dorset the fiice is no longer black, but botli sexes are usually homed. This 
 breed is remarkable for producing lambs at almost every season, and is therefore highly valu- 
 able for supplying the London markets with house lamb. The Wiltshire is a much larger 
 variety, having no wool on the belly. The Hertfordshire is a fine productive variety, with 
 short tails. The Exmoor comes from Devonshire : it is small, the wool long, and the face and 
 legs white. Scotland furnishes three breeds of horned sheep; the Dun-faced, the Siietland, 
 and the Hebridean. 
 
 Tha Black-Faced Sheep. 
 
 The Herefurd Sheep. 
 
 ths 1 
 
 The 
 
 ;eg;. 
 and a 
 
 The hornless race may be divided into nine breeds. The Lincoln has long wool and a 
 white face: in the Tecswater the wool is shorter and lighter, and tlie legs longer. The 
 Dishley, or new Leicester, is distinguished by a clean head, ond the excellency of its flesh. 
 Tlie Devonshire Nets, like the three preceding, are long-wooUed ; tiiev have white feces and 
 legs, tliick necks, short legs, and large bones. The short-woolled hornless breeds are the 
 follr ., ■ ■ ; — The Hereford (fig. 122.) have very fine wool, wliich grows close to their eyes, 
 ,u *'ace being white : tho fitore sheep of this country are called CoUings or Rylands. 
 ' -wn, principally cultivated on the chalky downs of Sussex, have the face and 
 ■'n i are highly esteemed for the table. The Cheviot have the head bare and clean, 
 ...lutimes spotted v/itli gray or dun ; the fleece is very short and fine. The Hin'- 
 wicke is peculiar to the rocky districts of Cumberland, and is speckled en the face and legs. 
 The Goat, which in some parts of Italy supplies the only milk and butter known to the 
 inhabitants, is of little utility in a country abounding in sheep and o.xen. But to the Welsh 
 inountaincer.s it is a valuable animal : the suet will make excellent candles ; the meat is 
 little inferior to venison, and those who have habitually feasted upon mountain kid, know 
 how superior its flavour is to lamb. 
 
 The Horses of Britain, improved as they have been by the most sedulous care, ne.xt to 
 tlie Arabian, are the finest in the world. Tlic British breeds, originally but ill adapted for 
 the saddle, have progressively improved; ond the crossing of the indigcnou.a kind with those 
 of other countries has pnxluced four principal classes of horses, — the Racer, the Hunter, the 
 Roadster, and the Dray Horse; to these may be added the Poney, one of the original breeds. 
 The Ornithology of Great Britain, ofter the general observations already made on that of 
 Europe, will be hero but briefly dwelt upon. The native birds may be arranged under throe 
 natural divisions: — 1. the rapacious; 2. the perching; and 3. the walking, running an<l 
 swinnning orders. 
 
 Tho rapacious birds, as in all otlier countries, are the smallest in number, but the most 
 formidable in strength. Among these the Golden Eagle {Aquila chrysailon, fig. 123.) is the 
 12;j largest known in the British islands: tliis noble bird 
 
 weighs twelve pounds, and is still fbund among the 
 higliest of the Welsh and Cumberland mountains ; it is 
 said also to breed in Orkney. The Erne or Sea Eagle 
 is somewhat smaller, and is principally confined to the 
 maritime rocks of Wales and North Britain. The Fal- 
 con tribe is more numerous in species ; but tiie destruc- 
 tion to which they are doomed by game preservers has 
 long been diminishing their numbers : some species are 
 GoUou Eojie. almost extirpated, and nearly all are now become rare. 
 
 Tiio Osprey (I'andion ITaluctus), or Fishing Eagle, is now seldom met with. The two 
 species of I lenharrie (Cirrus cyanent and cinrrascens) were first discriminatpd by ]Montagu. 
 Tlio Owls am similar to those of the Continent, but the great Snowy Owl has only of late 
 years been dntncted in the north of Scotland as a native bird. The Eagle or great horned 
 Owl is of tlii> same size; the former hunting by day, the latter by night. The Bam oi 
 White Owl is Imown to every former, and appears to be distributed over the whole habi 
 table glolx*. 
 Vol. I. 28 2 S 
 
 ■>i- 
 
 ■'"... Ji 
 
 mi 
 
 i^u- pi 
 
■.ikf 
 
 338 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part 111. 
 
 iM 
 
 The toothed-bill or perching birds (Dentirostres Sw.) are those fiimished witli a notch to 
 thnir bill, by which their food is held iirm before it is swallowed. Some are formed to climb, 
 others to hop on the ground, and a few catch their food (like the swallows) upon the win^. 
 Tiicy are united to the rapacious order by the shrikes or butcher-birds, so called from their 
 >>ing(ilar custom of impaling insects and small birds upon the tlioms round their nests. Three 
 Kpecies of these birtls are known in Britain. The melody of the Blackbird and Song-thrush 
 ne(\l not be eulogised; and during spring and summer the woods and hedges are enlivened 
 by numbers of warblers, or small insectivorous birds, which visit them in the breeding season : 
 uinong which the Nightingale is most conspicuous. Large flocks of Finches, and similar 
 linnl-billed birds, feast, in winter, upon the red berries of the black and white thorn; while 
 Crows, Starlings, and Fieldfares devour prodigious quantities of slugs, worms, and other 
 animals noxious to the farmer. The Woodpeckers, Creepers, and Titmice prey only upon 
 those insects prejudicial to trees ; the Swallows, during summer, join with the warblers in 
 Keeping within due bounds the myriads of insects, which would otiierwise increase to an 
 ulanning extent 
 
 The entire-billed birds {Curtipedes Sw.) are those which have no notch at the end of their 
 bill, and never seek their food among trees : they are united to the former by the Pigeons, 
 and comprise the gallinaceous, wading, and swimming tribes. Among the first Britain pos- 
 sesses the Partridge, Grouse, and Quail, but more particularly the Great Bustard, the largest 
 of the European gallinacea: its weight is about 25 lbs., and its flesh excellent. To enume- 
 rate the wading and swimming birds would far exceed our limits : they visit the coasts prin- 
 cipally in winter, and depart in spring. 
 The exterminated birds are very few; for although some, as the Egret (Jis. 124.) and the 
 Crane, are no longer common in Britain, yet individuals are some- 
 times met with, showing that man and not nature has scared them 
 from their hereditary range. Perhaps the only extirpated species 
 is the cock of the wood,orcapercaillie grouse (TctraolVo^aZ/usL.), 
 a noble bird of game, weighing near thirteen pounds; once com- 
 mon in the fir forests of Scotland, but which has not been seen, it 
 is said, since 1760. 
 
 Of domesticated birds the Pheasant originally came from Asia 
 Minor; the Guinea Hen from Africa; the Peacock and Fowl from 
 India: and the Turkey from America. 
 
 The fishes, both marine and freshwater, are numerous: most are 
 edible, and many highly esteemed. Whale, and other cetacea, arc 
 mostly confined to the northern shores: but those of the west art 
 famous for the herring and pilchard fisheries. The John Doree is 
 as remarkable for its grotesque form as for its exquisite flavour. 
 The Tiirbot, Cod, Sole, &,c. are well known. The chief river fish 
 are the Salmon, Trout, and Char; and these are principally fbr- 
 nished by the northern counties. The salmon fisheries are highly important, and have long 
 engaged the attention of the legislature: the eggs of one fish will often exceed 15,000. 
 The Cliar is con!iiied to the lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland ; those of Windermere 
 are the best, and when potted become a great delicacy. The Herring and Sprat supply the 
 poor, during winter, with a wliolesome dish ; while the citizens of London consider another 
 f^pecies, called the White Bait, as possessing a peculiarly line flavour. The Anchovy is not 
 unknown in some of our estuaries; and even the Flying-*'^h has occasionally wandered to 
 the Welsh coast. 
 
 The reptiles of Britain, known in a living state, are very few. Besides the Warty Eft 
 {L'ircrta palustris Lin., Jiff. 12.^.) there are two other water lizards, and probably as many 
 125 126 
 
 Egret. 
 
 VViirtr Efi. Cumfflon Viper. 
 
 .-|i(cics inhabiting the land. Of the Frog and Toad two sorts of each occur. The snakes 
 iniil thi' blind-worm are harmless; the Common Viper (fff. 126.) being the only venomous 
 r(>|)tili' : yft this species varies so much in its colours, that naturalists have described it under 
 Kpvi ral names. The Great or Gigantic Frog of Pennant is only a variety of the common 
 -.oad. 
 
 Extinct rrptik.i. The researches of geoloirists have brought to light the remains nf such 
 (.'igantic and extraordinary reptiles, that, but for such indiibitnlilo prwfs, their existence 
 tniglit Ite thought fibiilous. At the head of llifse wi< nrny place the Mr(ralosaiirns, rosem 
 Wiuf both a lizard anil a crocodile, wlio'^p piubible length was near 40 feet! The Ichthyo 
 
 muddy bi 
 plants ; 
 shady sti 
 Native 
 are the p 
 raon in n 
 British 
 
<;V 
 
 BOOE I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 iiaurus, uniting the cliaractera of a lizard with the snout of a dolpliin, the teeth of a croco- 
 dile, the fins of a turtle, aod the vertebrte of a fisti, ia scarcely less wonderful. The Plesio- 
 Baurua is still more extraordinary ; for with the fins of a turtle, it had the head of a lizard, and 
 a long neck, formed like the body of a serpent. Lastly, the remains of several distinct 
 species of crocodiles have been discovered in similar strata. All these attest the existence, 
 lit some unknown period, of a stupendous race of aquatic monsters, which have long been 
 swept away from tlio existing animal creation. 
 
 Among the radiated animals, vast shoals of transparent Medusm wander about the coast 
 during summer, and are frequently by a sudden change of wind cast up on the beach in 
 great numbers. But the deep recesses of the ocean frequently give to the nets of the 
 fisherman animals still more singular. The Black Line Worm, or Sea Long Worm (Lm- 
 n«M« longits, lu Sow., Jf^. 127.), whose mouth is hardljr a quarter of an inch wide, is said, 
 by the fisiiermun, to measure twelve fathoms in length : it is soft, and so fragile, that the 
 entire animal seems not yet to have been procured. 
 
 Black line Warm. 
 
 Mir-bloaom Coral. 
 
 Ellis was the first to make known the true nature of those plant-like productions generally 
 termed corallines. Of Corals, the British seas afford few native species ; the largest and 
 most elegant is the May-blossom coral {Caryophyllia ramea), (Jig. 128.), common in tho 
 Mediterranean, and occasionally found upon the Cornish coast : it is cinnamon-coloured ; and 
 retains, for many years, a slight scent, like that of hawthorn. 
 
 The Conchology of Britain, in the number and interest of its species, compensates for its 
 deficiency in large or richly coloured objects. The beautiful varieties of Per'.en opercti- 
 laris are, nevertheless, frequently variegated with the most lovely tints of yellow, orange, 
 pink, and deep red ; they also afford a nutritious food to the lower classes. The most cele- 
 brated edible shell-fish is the oyster, well known and highly prized by the luxurious Romans ; 
 and every one is acquainted with the superior excellency of those from Colchester and 
 Milton. Fluviatile shells, in a country so humid and watered as Britain, are more abundant 
 than towards the south nf Europe. Most of the rivers produce Unio pictorum (Jiff. 129. a), 
 and Unio ovatus (6) : Cyclas cornea (rf) is generally found in the same situations. The ponds 
 and stagnant waters are frequently covered with Lymneus palustris (e), ovatus (jf), and 
 Planorbis comeus (Z) ; while the large Duck-mussel {Anodon anatinus) (c) burrows in the 
 
 129 I - 
 
 Unio Mariwiliicra. 
 
 Fluviatile Bhclli. 
 
 muddy bottom, A little fragile shell, Succinea amphibia (/), crawls ujion ruslies and aquatic 
 plants; and Physa fontinalis (A), Ancylus lacustris (t), and Planorbis vortex (k) prefer clear 
 shady streams and ditches overhung with wood. 
 
 Native pearls were reckoned by the Romans among the productions of Britain. They 
 are the produce of a fluviatile bivalve shell, the Unio margaritifera, (Jig. 130.), still com- 
 mon in many of the nortliern counties ; but it was on tlie btuiks of the Welsh rivers that the 
 British pearl fishery was chiefly carried on. 
 
 
 f *i 
 
340 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 i I 
 
 ,,w2^ j*V.. Considerinff the nature of the climate, it may excite surpriae, that more than 
 10,(K)0 diflerent species have actually been found to inhabit Britain. Yet the bee may ho 
 reckoned the only insect whose services are immediately and obviousW beneficial to man. 
 Ainong the butterflies, are many of great beauty; while Eurymus Eurodomo, or the Clouded 
 Sulphur (fg. 131.), 18 considered one of the rarest British insects. 
 
 Clouded Sulphur 
 
 Red Grouse. 
 
 Scotland. The zoolo<ry of Scotland exhibits many arctic animals as common inlmbitantR, 
 which are only known as rare visitants to the western shores of England ; in other respects, 
 it does not materially differ from that of South Britain. The northern ii^lands give shelter 
 to innumerable wild fowl, and to many peculiar land birds, as the Ptarmi^n and the Golden 
 Eagle. The great horned or Eagle Owl, is found to breed in Orkney. The Highlands are 
 famous for an abundance of Grouse, the red species {Lagopus sroticus, fig, 132.) being the 
 only bird peculiar to Great Britain. 
 
 The domestic animals are of a small size ; in other respects, they are highly valuable. 
 The polled or honiless cattle, with the Highland and the Fifeshire, have already been noticed. 
 The Kyloe breed are so named, because m their progress to the south from the Hebrides, 
 they cross the kyloes or ferries in the main land and Western Islands. {Ham. Smith.) 
 The same writer considers that the sheep of this kingdom spring from three principal breeds : 
 tlie first is generally named dun-fiiced sheep ; they are a small, homed race, said to have 
 been originally imported from Denmark or Norway, and are still found, with slight varia- 
 tions, in the North of Scotland and the isles. In Kincardineshire, this breed is known by 
 its yellow face and legs, and by the dishevelled texture of its fleece, which is in part coarse, 
 and in part remarkably fine wool ; its flesh also is delicate and highly flavoured. The Shet- 
 land breed carry a very fine wool, in three different successions yearly, two of which resem- 
 ble long hair more than wool, and are called Fors and Scudda. The wool is of various 
 colours. The Ilebridiun sheep is the smallest animal of its kind ; its horns are usually short 
 and straight, the face and legs white, the tail very short, and the W(X)1 of different colours. 
 
 The Highland Ponies and Shetland Ponies (fig. 133.), notwithstanding their diminutive 
 size, are greatly esteemed for their activity and strength. 
 
 133 134 
 
 Highland Pony. Soottah Grejhound. 
 
 Among the numerous breeds of dogs, there appear to be three more particularly found in 
 Scotland: the true Shepherd's Dog, or Colly, is still preserved, unmixed, in many of the 
 sheep districts: the Shetland Hound, approuchos in character to the Greenland Dog; while 
 the Scottish Greyhound (.fig. 134.), common in the Highlands, is possessed of great sagacity, 
 strength, and swiflness. 
 
 The Zoology of Irclnnd lias boon much neglected ; nor are we prepared to show what 
 Mculiarities belong to its natural history. The Irish Wolf Dog, called also the Irish Grtjy- 
 liound, has generally been thought peculiar to this island ; but others consider it the sanie 
 breed as the French mittin (Ciinis laninrius L.) It is a noble animal, standing near four 
 feet in height, and seems to have been mainly instrumental in clearing the country of the 
 numerous wolves which once over-ran it. The cattle and sheep arc inferior to tliose ol' 
 Britain. Yet Ireland exiwrts va.st quantities of salted provisions, besides the supplies fiir- 
 nifthed to the navy and shipping interests. The remains of the Fossil Elk (fig. 135.) are of 
 frequent occurrence in beds of shell marl, beneath peat. Its antlers measure from the 
 extreme tip of each, no less than ten feet ten inches, and from the tip of the right horn tc 
 
LET 
 
 IH. 
 
 ira than 
 may lie 
 to man. 
 CloudfJ 
 
 habitants, 
 : respects, 
 ve shelter 
 he Golden 
 hlands are 
 being the 
 
 y valuable, 
 en noticed. 
 I Hebrides, 
 m. Smith.) 
 pal breeds : 
 mid to have 
 light varia- 
 I known by 
 part coarse, 
 
 The Shet- 
 ihich rescm- 
 j of various 
 isually short 
 ent colours. 
 
 diminutive 
 
 irly found in 
 
 [iiiany of the. 
 
 Dog; wliil« 
 
 |eat saf^city, 
 
 , show what 
 J Irish Grey- 
 fit tlie same 
 ]ig near four 
 luntry of the 
 4 to those of 
 Isupplics fur- 
 1 135.) are of 
 lire froui tlie 
 liglit horn tc 
 
 UOOK I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 341 
 
 its root, five feet two inches. Remains of tlie same animal have been also found in England, 
 and u very perfect specimen in tiie Isle of Man. Tiie Irish sliores furnish the concliologist 
 with several native shells, seldom seen on the British coasts, particularly the Isocardia cor, 
 or Heart Cockle (Jg. 136.). 
 
 , FowllElk. 
 
 Iletn Cackle. 
 
 Sect. III. — Historical Oeography. 
 
 Britain was originally peopled from Gaul, by inhabitants of the Celtic race. For a long 
 time it appears to have bt'cn noticed only as a country supplying; tin ; a rare and useful metal, 
 not then found in any other part of Europe, or in Western Asia. To obtain this valuable 
 mineral, the coasts of Britain were at an early period sought by the ships of various mer- 
 cantile states, especially the Carthaginians ; and the tin of Tarshish, mentioned by Ezekiel, 
 was doubtless brougtit from the mines of ('ornwall. 
 
 Britain was invmled by the Romans, about filly-five years before the Christian era. Of 
 the thirty tribes of barbarians amo' »vliom the country was then divided, the most consid- 
 erable were tlie BelgnJ in the west, the Brigantcs in the north, the Silures in South Wales, 
 tlie Iceni in Norfolk and Suffolk, and the Cantii, who occupied Kent and part of Middlesex. 
 The latter had made some progress in agriculture and the arts of civilized life; but tlie 
 other inhabitants derived tiicir sul.distciice from flocks and herds, clothed themselves in skins, 
 and painted their bodies. The precarious authority of the chiefs derived support from thi- 
 influence e.vercised by the Druids, in one of the most terriiile forms of superstition tliatevor 
 enslaved the human iniml. Besides the ordinary implements of wor, they had armed chariots, 
 wiiich thoy maimged with surprising dexterity; and tlicy were united in a species of polili- 
 cal confedoniry, of which Cassivelaunus wos the Iicad. They could not, however prcvciit 
 the landiiifr of Julins ('ipsir. but that conqueror was prevented by more urgent aft'airs fruisi 
 prosecutinir an enterprise of which the difficulties were not likely to be componhuted l.y its 
 t'lory. In the reign of Claudius the hardihofid of Carnctacus, and tlie heroic desperation ot" 
 Boadicea, failed of exciting an effectual resistance to tlie disciplined legions of Rome, whose 
 victorious progress was continued during the reiu'ii of Nero. In that of Domitian, the Ro- 
 man dominion was extended by the wisdom and valour of Agricola, who defeated tlie Cale- 
 donians under Galgacus, at the foot of the Grampians ; and the only part of the island which 
 remained unsubdued was the region which lies north of that natural rampart. 
 
 The Britons now subjected to the Roman empire were compelled to cultivate the habits 
 and arts of peace : but when that empire, weakened, distracted, and verging to its decline!, 
 was compelled to withdraw its protection from its distant provinces, the Scots and Picts, 
 emerging from their mountain fastnesses, then broke in, and committed dreadfiil devastations 
 among their unwarliko neighbours. The Romans had recourse to the expedient of frontier 
 walls; first, one between the Forth and Clyde, called the Wall of Antonine, and afterwards 
 a similar rampart between the Tyne and Solway, called tiie Wall of Severus. About the 
 middle of the fifth century, the Roman forces were finally withdrawn, and the Briton." 
 were left to depend entirely on their own resources. 
 
 The Saxons wore called in as allies, about forty years after the dissolution of the Roman 
 government. These hardy adventurers, originating from the north of Germany, and occupy- 
 ing the line of coast from Jie mouth of the Rh'ne to .Jutland, hail long infested by their 
 piracies the neitrhb-'iring parts of Britain and Gaul. Thoy eagerly accepted an invitation 
 to a country so superior to their own. In the year V)0, 16(K) men under Ilengist and Horsa, 
 arrived in Britain, and obtained an easy victory over the Scots and Picts. The success of 
 the two brothers attracted numerous bands of their countrymen; and in the course of a cen 
 ttiry, colonies arrived from the mouths of the Ell)e, the Weser, and the Rhine, chiefl) 
 comjitised of three valiant trilics, the Jutrn, the Old Saxons, and the Angles. From iillies, 
 they becaino fiinnidahle enemies to the Britons; whom, afler a long and sanguinary struggle 
 of one huiiilrod and fitly years, thoy compelled to retire into Wales and Cornwall. 
 
 Thus was established the Heptarchy, or Sevou Saxon Kingdoms in Britain: viz. 1. Kent, 
 2. Sussex, including Surrey ; tl Eas-t Englas, including Norfolk, SnlToIk, the Isle of Ely, and 
 'Cambridgeshire; 4. Wesscx, including all tiie southern counties trtnn Ik'rkshire toCornwall ; 
 5. Nortlniiiilii'riand, inclnilin!r all tlie nortliprii counties of England, ;nd tlie southern coun- 
 ties of Scotland to t!ii> I'Yith of Forth; 6. Essex, including Essex, Middlesex, -ind part of 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 n 
 
 tiki' 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 It- ^ 
 
 
 
w 
 
 I 
 
 I.- t 
 
 H 
 
 I 
 
 ;■' ivi 
 
 DESCRirTIVE GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part III. 
 
 HcrtforJsiiiro ; 7. Mcrcryc, or Mnrcia, tliu largest ilivitfion, includin{; the midland district* 
 of Eiifrland to the coiitines of VViilua. 
 
 About the ynur 8()0 thoHc email Htutea wore united into one kingfdoin, uniler the name of 
 Kiiiflunil, by Egbert, king of VVestiox. The Anglo-Siixon dynasty derived its uliief lustro 
 Irnni AUml, one of the wisest and most virtuous inonarchs that have appeared in any age or 
 country. He delivered his country from the thraldom of the Danes; but in the course of 
 the ensuing century, however, they regained the ascendency; and in 1017, Canute, kin#( 
 of Denmark and Norway, added England to his dominions. It was held successively by his 
 sons, Harold and Hardicanute; but on the death of the latter, it waa restored to the Saxon 
 dynasty, and Edward the Confessor ascended the throne. 
 
 The conquest by William of Normandy, in 1006, overthrow for a time tlie liberties of the 
 (leople of EnelanJ. Claiming the crown by virtue of a pretended grant from Edward th(! 
 Confessor, and acquiring it by victory over Harold II., himself an usurper, to the prejudice 
 of Ekl^rar Atheling, the rightful heir, ho maintained by tyranny a dominion gained by fraud 
 and violence. One of the consequences of the acquisition of the English crown by William 
 was to convey to the kings his successors certain claims on the French territory, which led 
 to long, expensive, and sanguinary wars. 
 
 Henry the Second, surnamcd Plantagenet, son of Geoflry of Anjou, who married Matilda, 
 daughter of Henry I., in the right of his father, was master of Anjou and Touraine; in that 
 of his mother, of Normandy and Maine; in that of his wife, of Guicnnc, Poitou, Saintonge, 
 Auvergne, Perigord, Angoumois, and the Limousin. To these states he atlcrwards annexed 
 that ot Brctagne. The possession of provinces composing above one-third of the French 
 monarchy, and superior in opulence to the rest of the territory, rendered this vassal more 
 powerful than his liege lord, and contributed to provoke that rivalry which for ages existed 
 between England and France. Henry the Second acquired the sovereignty of Irclimd ; 
 Edward tlie First annexed Wales to his dominions, and for a time subjugated Scotland. 
 The contending claims of the houses of York and Iioncaster for the crown of England, after 
 n civil war of nearly sixty years, were adjusted by the marriage of Henry the Seventh with 
 Elizubctli, daughter of Edward the Fourth. Among the memorable events that occurred 
 under the Plantogenots, may be noticed the signature of Magna Charto, extorted by the 
 Imrons from King John; the rise of the House of Commons in the reign of Henry tiie Third; 
 and tlie reformation of the church, commenced by John Wicklifle, in 1369. 
 
 Tlie reign of Henry the Seventh was signalized by the overthrow of the feudal sway, and 
 by tlic introduction of the modern system of polity. The emancipation of the kingdom trom 
 papal dominion was effected by his successor. In tlie reign of Elizabeth, the most strenuous 
 exertions were made to strengtlien the maritime power of England, and extend her com- 
 mercial intercourse. The result of these measures was to raise the nation to a very pros- 
 perous and flourishing condition, and to overturn the lawless domination of the nobles, 
 substituting for it, however, an autliority almost absolute on the part of the sovereign. 
 
 The union of the two crowns on the accession of James the Sixth of Scotland to the throne 
 of England, terminated those animosities which had proved alike injurious to both countries. 
 Tiie despotic conduct of Charles the First led to a struggle in which he lost both his crown 
 !ind his life. In the interregnum wliich ensued under the Commonwealth, the vigilant, 
 energetic, end decisive policy of Oliver Cromwell exercised a commanding influence over 
 every cabinet in Europe. Charles the Second suftered England to lose the ascendency 
 wliich .she had attained, and the infatuated conduct of James Uie Second led to the revolu- 
 tion of l(i88, from which epoch to the present time, the industry, commerce, and wealth of 
 <irivit Britain, rapidly rose to a height unparalleled in any other nation, ancient or modern; 
 lint lior political power sustained various fluctuations. She acquired in the East and in the 
 West two empires, each far more extensive tlian her own territory. That in the East she 
 rotJiins and is rontinually extending ; that in tlio West, having become independent, is hei 
 rival in commerce, and manifests a disposition to dispute, at no distant period, her maritime 
 supremacy. Among the memorable transactions and events of this period may be ranked 
 the union with Scotland in 1707 ; that with Ireland in 1801 ; tlie Scottish rebellions in 1715 
 imd 1745 ; the Irish rebellion in 179H ; and a scries of wars with France, occurring at 
 intervals rarely exceeding eight or ten years. The contests arising from the French 
 revolution were distinguished by the most brilliant naval achievements, and afterwards by 
 .successes which raised the military glory of England to a level with her maritime renown, 
 rendering her influence paramount among the states of Europe. 
 
 Sect. IV. — Political Geography. 
 Tiio constitution of Great Britain centres in the laws by which the country is governed, 
 and in the union of powers by which the laws are made and the government is administered. 
 Tlio Irfrisliitive power is vested in the Parliament, consisting of the Kino, an hereditary 
 ■iovereign ; the I/)Rns, an hereditary aristocracy ; and the Hovsr of Commons, consisting of 
 iimmbers chosen by the |)eop!o from among themselves, and theretorc said to represent tho 
 commons of the realm. The exrculice p<wer is entrusted to the kinL'. 
 
 ! , V- ■ .'t 
 
"F 
 
 Part HI. 
 
 1 (llatricU 
 
 3 name of 
 lief lu«tro 
 my age or 
 course of 
 imte, kinj? 
 trcly by Ilia 
 the Saxon 
 
 rties of thu 
 Wward the; 
 B prejiidicc 
 cd by fraud 
 l)y William 
 , which led 
 
 led Matilda, 
 ine ; in that 
 
 Saintongc, 
 .rds annexed 
 the French 
 vassal more 
 ages existed 
 
 of Ireland ; 
 ;d Scotland, 
 ngland, after 
 teventh with 
 hat occurred 
 orted by the 
 ry the Third ; 
 
 lal sway, and 
 tingdom from 
 ost strenuous 
 jnd her com- 
 ) a very pros- 
 f the nobles, 
 ereign. 
 to the throne 
 ath countries. 
 3th his crown 
 the vigilant, 
 ifluence over 
 „ ascendency 
 to the revolu- 
 nd wealth of 
 [jt or modern ; 
 ast and in tho 
 the East she 
 endent, is hei 
 her maritime 
 lay bo ranked 
 illions in 171.'J 
 occurring at 
 ,. the French 
 afterwards by 
 itime renown. 
 
 is governed, 
 1 administered. 
 
 an hereditary 
 I, consisting of 
 
 represent tho 
 
 Book I. ENGLAND. 843 
 
 Of the three « Jites of tho realm thus coiniHwing the legislature, tJie King is the liigjiost: 
 he is tiie head or chief of the parliament: aiul except in extrenio case-s a [Kirlianicnl cannot 
 be held unless convoked by him, nor can it except by him be disM)lved or prorogued. His 
 assent is requisite to give the tbrce of law to any incasure proposed by either of tho two 
 houses, and agreed upon by them. I'ropositiona of laws, or bill* aa they are technically 
 called, may be brought forward in either house ; all money bills must take their origin in tlie 
 House of Commons; but only in one instance con the king initiate an act of parliament, and 
 that is, an act of grace, for the pardon of persons after a rebellion, or tor tho reh^ase of insol- 
 vent debtors. 
 
 The King is not supposed to hold his throne by divine right, or in virtue of any indefea- 
 sible hereditary claim. The nation, by its supreme council, has dictated certain rules of 
 exclusion with regard to the succession, of which the most important is, that tho sovereign 
 shall maintain tho Protestant reformed religion, and, cither at his coronation or on tho first 
 day of the first parliament, shall repeat and subscribe the declaration against popery. On 
 the death or demise of the king, his heir becomes instantly invested with the kingly office 
 and regal power. 
 
 By a constitutional fiction accordant with the feudal policy, all lands are held mediately or 
 immediately from tho crown. Thus the king is entitled to all lands left by the subsiding of 
 the sea ; and estates may revert to him by escheat, ft'om the commission of crime by tneir 
 possessors. He is sovereign in ull seas and great rivers ; he alone has a prerogative to erect 
 beacons and lighthouses; he is entitled to all royal mines of ^old and silver, and is entrusted 
 with the coinage. All persons born in his dominions ore his subjects, and owe to him an 
 allegiance which they can neither renounce nor transfer to an" foreign prince. He is su- 
 preme head of the church within his dominions; and as pat-i . paramount of all tho benefices 
 in England, he has a right to present to all dignities and iienefices of the advowson of arch- 
 bishoprics and bishoprics during the vacancy of thoir respective Be>.' He is the fountain of 
 justice, and has an undoubted prerogative in creating officers of suUe, ; 'nisters, judges, and 
 other functionaries. To him, as parrnn jmtriee, belongs the ciirc of all wi.^ are unable tn 
 take care of themselves; he has an original right to superintend the disposal of c!-"''ti.:.., 
 and in all such cases the application is to the Court of Chancery. Ho has, in certain caso;^, 
 the high prerogative of pardoning, and likewise that of is.suing spctial proclamations fi)r tho 
 prevention of offences. The power of making war or peace is lodged singly in the king. He 
 IS held to be incapable of doing wrong, and if an unlawful act be dont, the minister instru- 
 mental in that act is alone obnoxious to punishment. By virtue of his prerogative the kin^ 
 may make grants and letters patent, conferring various rights and priv'lcgcs. I^astly, tiio 
 king cannot be attainted, and is never a minor; though when the crow.i has devolved to u 
 very young heir, it has been thought prudent to appoint a regent, or council of regency. 
 Tho same expedient has been adopted when, by reason of grievous illness, the exercise of 
 the royal functions has been interrupted. 
 
 All supplies granted by parliament are given to the king ; but of these the largest pro- 
 portion belongs to the public or its creditors; that which pertains to the king in his distinct 
 capacity, called the Civil List, is the provision for the support of the honour and dignity of 
 the crown. On the commencement of the reign of William IV., the civil list was entirely 
 new-modelled, being limited to the personal expenses of the sovereign, and the maintenance 
 of his state ; while the branches of administration hitherto defrayed out of it were charged 
 upon the Consolidated Fund, The sum of 510,00(M. was granted, under the following 
 heads : — 
 
 Privy purse. King's, £60,000 
 
 Queen's, .50,000 
 
 Maintenance of royal establishment, ..--... 171,000 
 
 Salaries in the departments of Chamberlain, Steward, Master of the horse, 
 
 home secret service, &c. -.--....------- 154,000 
 
 Pensions,- - 75,000 
 
 £510,000 
 Thus the royal prerogative is counterbalanced by the control which the representatives 
 of the people in parliament exercise over the public purse. Tho king has the prerogative 
 of commanding arniies and equipping fleets; but without the concurrence of his parliament 
 he cannot maintain thein. Ho can confer appointments to offices ; but without his parlia- 
 ment he cannot pay the salaries. He can declare war; but without the aid of parliament 
 he cannot carry it on. He has the exclusive right of assembling parliaments; but by law 
 he must a."!semble a parliament every three years. Though head of the church, he cannot 
 alter tho established religion, or call individuals to account for their religious opinions. He 
 cannot create any new office inconsistent with the constitution or prejudicial to tlio subject. 
 He has the privilege of coining money ; but he cannot alter the standard. He has the power 
 of pardoninsr offenders ; but ho cannot exempt them from making compensation to the injured 
 parties. Even with the military power he is not absolute, since it is declared in the Bill of 
 

 :s; 
 
 U44 
 
 DEHCRIl'TIVE CJE(XiUAI'llV. 
 
 I'AKT III. 
 
 Rights tliBt II Hlniuliiijf army witliout ilii; cotmunt (ifixirliamt'iit i» illopil. Tlio kiiiij liimwlf 
 cannot In? arriiij^inMl ; but ii" uny nbiise of (Kjwer bo cuiniailtcil, iIidki' who worn citlier the. 
 ndvUiTH or the inslriimontJ) ot" tlio iiioaMiire may bo iiii|K!ai:'ioil iinil trii.'d bofon- Iho Kouho ot" 
 Lorils ; in wbicb caav it in of no avail to pleud tiio kin);'8 coiiiiiinnd, or to prtHliicc IiIh purduii. 
 A (liawjlution of [Nirlianiunt ilocs not ubutu an iuipouclimcnt, ncith(^r cun tlio royal uiithority 
 intor]K)rio to Htay or snsi>L'n(l its coufHU. Other roHtraint« on tlie prtiroKut'vo i^xist in tlio 
 uncontrolled freudoin of HiM'ech in parliuincnt, ucciired by the Bill ot Uit'hts mid in tlip iin- 
 {lortunt provisions by which, durinjr the ruign of Ouorjfo 111., the indopondcncu of rho judfji'i* 
 wiiH cfitiiblishod. 
 
 The Ilonao of Lords in composed of the lords spiritual and toriiporal of Eiijjliuid ; sixteiMi 
 tLMnporal peers of Scotland ; one archbishop, three bishops, and twenty-eight t('tn|ioral peers 
 of Ireland. The roll of the lords spiritual and tcni|H)ral forming the llouse of I'eers, in the 
 
 session of 18i)d, exhibits 420 lords, including the Cutholic peers of England, 
 distinguished : — 
 
 Tliey are thil-s 
 
 Rnval diikfii 4 
 
 AKlibiHhiipii . . ' " ■ 3 
 
 DiikiM with Biiglith lltica SI 
 
 MarqucKwa 10 
 
 Earlii loa 
 
 ViMriiitntH. IH 
 
 niiihi>|i!< 'J7 
 
 Ramus IHI 
 
 Pouri nf Hcntland . 
 of IrfcUnil. . ■ 
 
 10 
 
 Tc.lnl. 
 
 4M 
 
 The Ix)rda Spiritual are, for Eiiiflaiid, t wo archbishops and twenty-four bisliops ; and for 
 Ireland, one archbishop and tiree bishops; the English hold their »r;at» for lite, the Irish by 
 rotation. The archbisho|)s rank above all dukes except the princes of the blood ; the bishops 
 next below viscounts. 
 
 The Ijords Temporal are not limited in number, it l)cing the prerogative of the king to 
 raise to the peerage any of his subjects whuni he thinks deserving, They consist of dukes, 
 marquesses, carls, viscounts, and barons. The sixteen peers of ScotLand are, by the articles 
 of union, elected by tho peers of that country from among themselves: the election is 
 renewed for every parliament. The Peers of Ireland are, as established by the act of union, 
 tour lords spiritual sitting by rotation of sessions, and twenty-eight lords temporal elected for 
 life by tho peers of Ireland. As a supreme court of judicature, the House of Lords exercises 
 jurisdiction in civil causes u|Hjn apiwals or writs of error from tho inferior courts ; and in 
 criminal questions, when brought before them, by presentment of the House of Coinnions, in 
 the form of an impeachment. 
 
 All members of jNirliament have the privilege for themselves and their menlul servants of 
 being fri'c^d from arrests or imprisonment for debt or trespass ; but not from arrests for treason, 
 ll'lony, or breach of tho jjoace. The poors have other privileyis peculiar to thoMiselves. In 
 all cases of treason, felony, or misprision of felony, a nobleman is tried by his i)eers; but in 
 inisdemcanonrs, he is tried like a commoner. In judicial proceedings, a peer gives his ver- 
 dict not upon oath, but u]x>n his honour; ho answers also to bills in cliaiicery upon his honour; 
 but when examined as a witness in the inferior courts or in the high court of parliament, 
 either in civil or criminal cases, he must be sworn. Slander against a peer subjects the 
 offender to very lieavy punishment, being ffranilcd by the law with llio term satu<'aluin mag- 
 nalum. Every peer, by licen.se from the king, may make a proxy to vote for him in his 
 absence, <t privilege which cannot be held by a member of the lower house. All bills which 
 may a.Tect the rights of the peerage, are, by the custom of ])arlianient, to originate in the 
 House of Peers, ond to suffer no changes or amendments in the lower house. 
 
 The House of Commons, as a distinct branch of the legislature, is the peculiar boast of 
 the British constitution. In the earliest times of which any record exists in English history, 
 tliere appear to have been assemblies of the nation, convciked to deliberate on occasions nf 
 great emergency ; but it was not until (A. D. 1266) atlor the overthrow of Simon Montfort, 
 earl of Leicester, that the people were regularly summoned by tho king to send represent- 
 atives to tho great council of Mie nation. The crown, little upprehonsivo of the formidable 
 character which tho House of Commons was artcrwnnls to assume, liivoured nil the sti'jw of 
 its early progress, hoping by those means to coutiter|xiiso the overbearing sway of the great 
 iKirons, and at the same time to obtain supplies of money from the growing wealth of tho 
 people. Tho decline of the feudal system had for some time fiivoured such a course of policy. 
 Baronies escheated by forfeiture or for want of issue had been subdivided ; hence arone a 
 class of men called minor barons, holding by knight's service ; and these being too numerous 
 and too poor to be all called to iMirliament, and to rank with the greater barons, were allowed 
 to sit by representatives. Of Uieso knights, each shirr was summoned to send two; writs 
 to that effect being addressed to the sheriffs of the several counties. The Cinipie Ports 
 probably alwut the same period sent their barons, and tlie cities and boroughs their l>Hrg<sscs. 
 In early times these representatives appear to have considered attendance in parliament as 
 M hardship rutiier than an advantage. It was expensive, ""d, from the iin[M'rfect jiolice then 
 established, olleii insecure; and tho summons, being always the prelinle to a demand for 
 money, was by no means welcome. With the granting of supplies, howeviT, was neces- 
 sarily C(iiiiliiiii«l the right of petition, of staling grievances, and demanding giinranlees; and 
 Uiesc could not, by a tovoreign pressed by various exigencies, bo always denied. 
 
mr HI. 
 
 liimB«!lf 
 lier Uin 
 louao of 
 
 purdon. 
 lUlliority 
 I ill till) 
 
 llip im- 
 
 ; sixtrci) 
 iiiil peers 
 r8, ill tlio 
 , are thiw 
 
 W 
 
 w 
 
 1 ~m 
 
 j; and for 
 o Irish liy 
 ho bifthopii 
 
 10 kinff to 
 ; of dukes', 
 ho articles 
 election is 
 ;t of union, 
 elected for 
 K exercises 
 rts; and in 
 uinniuns, in 
 
 servants of 
 for treason, 
 iselvcs. In 
 .{■rs ; but in 
 vcs his vcr- 
 his honour ; 
 ))iLrl lament, 
 subjects the 
 \iilum mag- 
 liiin in his 
 bills which 
 linatc in the 
 
 iur boast of 
 [lish history, 
 occasions of 
 m Moiitfort, 
 rcpresent- 
 forniidiible 
 [tiie f^tep of 
 |)f the frrcat 
 [oalth of the 
 se of policy, 
 luce urose a 
 ,. nuinerotis 
 -ere allowed 
 two; writs 
 iiuine Ports 
 |r/<i<rA'-f.'i»f!!. 
 lirliiimonl as 
 police then 
 (liMTiand for 
 was ncces- 
 Lnlccs; and 
 
 Book I. ENGLAND. n4fi 
 
 The election of the Commons never rested on any principle of nniversnl or nvcn gonon) 
 MiflVaKe, excepting' perhaps that of knights liir each yiiirc, As the kings, however, could 
 only attain their obiecls by assembling the niont powerful and iiiHuential of the peujilc, they 
 endeavoured to make an ecpml distribution of the riglit of election, so ftir, at least, as related 
 to property and inttuenco, at the time when such a meusuru was adapted to countervail tlio 
 )irepon<k'ninee of the lurons. In atlcr-tiiiies, when seats in parliament ciiiiie to be uppre- 
 '^iiiti'd us conferring a desirable privilege, and as constituting a |)oworful churk on the pro 
 nigative of the monarch, it would huvi; been irregular to have allowed to the king an Drbi> 
 trary selection ; and all parties adhered to the rights conferred on tlinm by early gill or long 
 usage This |)ermanence of the elective frunchiHC, amidst the local changes that ensued in 
 the course of ages, gave rise to some very striking anomalies. Manchester, Leeds, and 
 i^uveral other towns, which within the last century have become the commercial capitals of 
 the kingdom, did not send a single repn^sentativo ; while places once im|)ortant, but now 
 dwindled into insigniticancc, returned each two members. Cornwall, at a period when the 
 rest of the kingdom was (loor and rude, enjoyed an abundant source of opulence in its tin 
 mines, and retained a number of chartered boroughs, beyond all proportion greater than those 
 of any other county. Ttie places holding the right 'a election were in many instances so 
 small, that what is called the patronage of them was easily acquired; and that patronage of 
 rourso involved the advantage of nominating one or both candidates for the reprcKentation. 
 These were called close boroughs, or, more reproachfully, rotten boroughs. Another anomaly 
 ronsiste«l in a number of what were called treasury boroughs, the nomination of which rested 
 with the administration. With the view of remedying these defects, the Reform Bill wus 
 l>assed, in 1892, atler long discussion and opposition. By this bill iifVy-six of the smallest 
 boroughs were entirely disfranchised, ond thirty were reduced from two members to one, 
 while Weymouth and Alelcombe Regis were reduced from four to two ; a reduction was thii.s 
 made of 144 members. In the room of these, twenty-two large places, — Manchester, Uir- 
 muigham, Leeds, ShetHcld, Greenwich, Sunderland, Devonport, Wolverhampton, Bolton, 
 Blackburn, Bradford, Brighton, Halifax, Macclesfield, Oldham, Stockport, Stoke-u|)(m-Trent, 
 Stroud, and four districts of the metropolis, viz. Marylebone, Tinsbury, Tower Hamlets, 
 and Ijambeth, — received each the right of electing two members ; while twenty smaller 
 towns, — Ashton-under-Line, Bury, Chatham, Cheltenham, Dudley, Prome, Gateshead, IIiiil- 
 liersfield, Kidderminster, Kendal, Rochdale, Sulford, South >-iliieMs, Tynemouth, Wakefield, 
 Wal.sall, Warrington, Whitby, Whitehaven, and Merthyr Tydvil, — acquired the right of 
 nominating one member each. At the same time twenty-seven counties acquired the power 
 of sending each two additional members, and seven that of sending one additional member. 
 
 The representation of Great Britain now stands as follows ; — 
 
 English mombors <br counties 143 
 
 iiiiivcrsiticii 4 
 
 cities and buroughs 324 
 
 471 
 
 Welsh members for counties 15 
 
 cities and buniughi 14 
 
 29 
 
 Scotch members fur counties 30 
 
 cities and boroughs 23 
 
 63 
 
 Irish members for counties 64 
 
 university 2 
 
 L'ilies and boroughs 39 
 
 105 
 
 Making in all 658 
 
 The qualifications requisite for a member of the House of Commons, in respect to pro- 
 perty, are th.ose : — A person to bo eligible as a member for a county must have a freehold or 
 copyhold, or must have been mortgagee in possession at least seven years, of a clear estate 
 of the value of 600/. per annum ; and to be eligible for a city, borough, or other place, 
 except the universities, of the value of liOOl, per annum. The person so qualified is also to 
 be of mature ago, and must take the oatlis imposed as indispensable to a member of the 
 legislature. Among the persons who cannot sit in the House of Commons are judges, cler- 
 gymen, persons holding certain offices under the crown, and persons having pensions under 
 tne crown during pleasure or for any term of years; sherifli of counties, and mayors and 
 bailitfs of boroughs, are ineligible in their respective jurisdictions; but a sheriff of one 
 county is eligible as knight for another. 
 
 The qualifications required in electors differ, as they relate to counties or to boroughs. In 
 the election of county members every member must have a freehold of the clour yearly 
 value of forty shillings, over and above all rents and charges payable out of and in respe^'-.t 
 of the same, and must have been in the actual possession of it for twelve calendar months, 
 unless it came to him within that time by descent, ma.-riage settlement, devise, or promotion 
 to a benefice in the church, or to an office. To tliese freeliolders the new bill has added all 
 
 Vol. I. 2T 
 
 i: ' 
 
 
 i 
 
 Mil! 
 
 ilJ 
 
 
 ■:- !J 
 
 ! 
 
 •N 
 
»46 
 
 nKSCRH'TIVR CJKOfiUAPlIY. 
 
 Past III. 
 
 il 
 
 !: 
 
 'i: 
 
 pcnoiiM lioltlini; pmjx^rty t<> tlio miiotint of ten [KnimlM on copyholil, nr nii Icimn of not leu 
 than lixty ytmrN; luul iiIm) tlitxH! <x.-ciipyin(f IiiiiiIh or ttMiciiiuiita titr any pitriixi, at a rent of 
 not IcttM tliiin CAU. por aiiniiin. 
 
 Tim <iimlillcutiiiiii of elcctorH for ritiog and iHirou^'liN wpri>, prnviinix to tlii< proMont act, 
 nxtruiiii'ly viiriiiim. Thn rij^lit of voting; in dilK-rnit plitrcM nmiilod variously in tin* tV(<«)- 
 holdorv, tlio coriMinitionis tlm hnri^iiKo tonantM, ami Homi'tiiucH in tlio wlioln Ixxly of roiiiricnt 
 liouM'liiildi'rM. riiit ni^w act, howovor, ndmitM imly tliu Miinpio ipialiflcution of occMipyin|i( a 
 lnmHi' riiliul ut ni)t Ii<mm than KM. pt'r nnnnm, Tliimp, liowcvcr, who wcrn (Vj-i-nion nndfr the 
 tormcr NyHttmi nro iitill entitliMl to vnti-, althun);h not putu<OHMf>d of tliu 10/. ipialiticiition, 
 providnl tlioy roHidn within the lK)rr)U);h. 
 
 The iiiikIo of prococdinj; to un cipction for a county and for a horonprh in nearly tlio aainf. 
 On a (liHHohition of parlimnvnt, writx, pununnt to a warrant from the kinjf, arc iNHiit'd iindor 
 the ^reiil mml, addreiwed tu the Hherini) of countieM, directing; them to Huiniiion the people to 
 elect two kni^htM liir each county, and one or two huTgcuium for ennh honni(;h. To Niipply a 
 vnciincy while (Nirliairicnt is Hittiiif;, the wiirntnt tiir the writ proceodx from the IIoiimo of 
 (\)iniiiuns. A certain day utler, the date or tfilf of the writ irt fixed tor the election to com- 
 mence ; and on that day the candidate or candidiitcii are put in nomination, at the nlaco 
 iip|)()inted, in the preHenc(! of the rctnrninff otHeer. In a county election, the Hhrriff or 
 the iinder-Hheritf in the roturnin); officer; in a city or horoiiirh, the mayor or Imilitf. If there 
 Im? rival cundidnteH put in nomination, the returninjf officer rallB on the voters for a decinion 
 by a hIiow of the hiindx, after which the friend of any candidate, if diiuuitiHlled, may demand 
 a |H)ll. The poll waH tiirmorly taken at only one place, nnd ini)(ht last for Htleen diiyM; hut 
 under the new uct, the citioH and connticn arc divided into diHtricts with tie|)arate iMxithn, or 
 pollinjj-plncoH, iippnipriated to each. The poll in allowed to continue only tor two days, 
 which must Im) tniccenNive, luid it niunt clone at four o'clock in the atlern<x)n of the Kccond 
 day. Poll clerks attend, to record the names of the votern, and their accuracy Ih watchml 
 by iiiHpectora nouiinnted on each side. The roturninjf officer who presideK muHt, if required, 
 oblif^c the candidates to xwoar to their nualiHcations. At the close of the election, or 
 on the followinj; day, the returnin); officer (leclares the namos of the personn who have the 
 majority of voles; and, iinlcHs a scrutiny be deniand(!d, he forthwith makes his return. 
 
 The duration of a Parliament has, for more tliiin a century, Ix-en extended to the term of 
 seven years, t'rom that of three, to which it was liirmerly limited. The kin>f, however, has 
 the power of dissolving |)arliament at any time; he can also prorof^uo it at any time nnd tiir 
 any periixl ; nnd, as such proropntion concludes the session, it puts an end to nil hills or other 
 proceedinjfs depenilin); in either house, which must in the next session bo again instituted, 
 as if they had never liccn U^gun. Either house, or Ixitli houses, may adjourn of their own 
 accord, anil, at their meeting again, may take up the bills and other proceedings in the state 
 of advancement in which they were left. A session of parliament usually commences in 
 January or February, and continues until Juno or July. 
 
 At the commencement of every session committees of the whole house aro appointed; one 
 called the Committee of Supply, to consider the amount recpiired by the crown for the ser- 
 vice of the army, navy, ordnance, and other departments ; nnd the other the Committee of 
 Way» nnd Means, to devise mcxles of raising, by (axes or loans, the sums which the liouso 
 have j^Tanted. In this committee of ways nnd means, the chancellor of the exche(|iier, in 
 an exjiosition technically called the Rudprri, demonstrates to the house in detail that ttu; 
 sums voted are sutficient to justify the committee in imposing such taxes, or sanctioning 
 such loans, as are then recommended. When the two committees are closed, the House of 
 Commons pass a bill in which the grants made in the committee of ways nnd means are 
 recapitulated, and directed to lie applied to the services voted by the committee of supply, 
 specifying the jxirticular sums granted for each service. 
 
 Parliament have the sole right of making, altering, and amending all the laws of tlie 
 kingdom, and by their authority olone can taxes be imposed or levied. An annual vote of 
 the House of C'Ommons is requisite to maintain the land and sea forces at the degree of 
 strength which is every year fixed and determined upon. By these and other privileges, 
 the annual meeting of parliament is secured without any express stipulation to that eftect. 
 By withholding these annual votes they may testify liieir disapproliation of the measures of 
 government, and even compel it to change its ministers; indeed, the principle has now 
 become indisputable, that the minister who cannot rely on a majority of votes in parliament 
 is disabled from conducting the affiiirs of the nation. 
 
 The Privy (council is composed of persons, ap|iointed by the king, who aro bound by oath 
 to advise their sovereign to the l)estof their judgment with all the fidelity and secrecy which 
 their station prescribes. The king with the advice of his privy council pubhshus proclama- 
 tions binding on the subject; but they are to bo consonant to, and in execution of, the laws 
 of the land. The jiower of the council is, to inquire into all otTences against the govern- 
 ment, and to commit the oflenders to safe custrxly for trial in some of the courts of law; but 
 persons so committed are entitled to flieir hnheas eorpiis as much as if they had been com- 
 mitted by an ordinary justice of the peace. The privy council is a court of appeal in plant- 
 
>' 
 
 '1^ 
 
 Boor I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 847 
 
 ation iinil niliniriilty cnunrn, whii'li nrixo out dt' lint jtiriMlictioti of tlio kiiit;ili)tii, nn oImu in 
 CBHOK of i<lniti:y niKi liiimcy. Wlmii <|iii>iitionH nrUo Ix'twci'ii two i'dIomk-h riwiM't'titiK the 
 uxltMit ot" tlicir <-liitrti!r, " Mr kinu in rmiuril" rxftcutcn ori|;iniil jiiriHilictinn in tlinni, on thn 
 prinoi|ili>H of li'(Hlit| mivi)ri>i|fiity ; Iim uIihi dctormitioM, on th<! hhimo |)rinci|ilc, tlir valiilitv of 
 claiiiiH to uii JHliinil or proviiiuu IoiiiiiIimI iiikhi (;riuit tVom tlio kini; or hiu iiiiccbtorH. Rut Irum 
 all tlio iloiiiiiiioim of thu crown oxri>|itinK Urniir Hritnin ami In'liiiiil,an ii/i/W/dfr; jiirJMliction, 
 in the limt rcHort, in voxtivd in tlin jrrivy eoiiitcil. Thn jiiiliciiil tiiitliority Im cxcruixeil in a 
 coniinittiMt of tlio wholu privy couiirjl, who himr itlli!|{iitioni« luiil piootx, nnil niiiku tli«!ir 
 rp|iort tu Am majmlij in rouiioiI, by wliotn iuilffinont is finally given. Tho diiNolution of the 
 privy roiincil dt>|M<n(lii on tlio plniiHiir)) of tho king, who iniiy nt hiv own (ilNcrclion illHchari^e 
 any ini'iiib4!r, or tho wholn of tliiMii, anil ap|H>int anothor cuuncil. It conllnuuH hIx inonthM 
 ullcr tilt! iluinlRO of tho crown, iiiiIiihh Noonor detorminc«l by tho HUCccHwir. Any nuturuU 
 born Hiiliji'ct uf Kn^land Ih cn|>ahlo of iHiintf a nioinlior of tho privy council, tukin(( tho pruiier 
 ootlw Hir Hociirity of tho Kovornincnt and tost for flio iincurity of tho church, A privy coun- 
 icllur, if ho bu only it privuto i^vntliMiiun, in Htyli.'d rif(hl honmtrable, and takoN precedence 
 of all knl(;liti*, baronets, and tho younffor Miim of all buroiw and viMcouiitit. 
 
 A cnbinnt council in not, Htriclly Hpoakinif, rccoxniicd by tho conflitulion, but by UHa^e 
 it ix r(<);iiril('d iih a iKidy Mnlcctcd by tho Hovi'rni((n to conduct the busii.i'M of tlio state; and 
 till' iniMiilicrs comp<Min}r it am liolcl to Iw tho ro.>i|wnNible adviserM of thr -rowi., Tho cabinut 
 couiirll imiiiilly coiiMiHtM of thoxo niiniMtPrH of atato who oxorciHo the nv» iniportnnt fund' <nii 
 of iho oxocutivo authority ; their number and Boloction depend only on ilie kiiij" s ple-wuro; 
 and each niombor rei-eivoM a HUiniiionH for every uttendniice. Thoii{;li this bu' '. us co- •!.i- 
 tiitinj? what Ih oHHontially the ffowrnmrnt, bo coinponod princi|mlly of officerii ol ntato; yet 
 a privy counsellor Heleeted by the kin{f as a membor of his cabiiiot couiici' may hold ; ' i»eat 
 an Huch, without acceptinf; any particular office. Tho offlcera of ittato are thoBO enuMcratod 
 in tho following lists: — 
 
 Qffittn >/ Stalt forming Ihi Cnbintt. 
 
 Firit I.iiril of 1)10 Treaiury. Hi^cri'inry o( Htaf for Cnlnniei and War. 
 
 Liird Cliiuicc'lliir. ('Iiiiii)'c'lli>r <ir Itic l'1xi'li>'i|iii'r. 
 
 Ijiiril I'rivy B«al. Firal l.ijril iif lliu Adiiiirnlty, 
 
 Pn'milc^iit of Ihn Coiincll. ' MualiTuc'iiMrnl nl' thu OriiiinnrB. 
 
 Hvrruliiry (if Kliilo I'nr tlio llnmR Dopartiiiont. Hnxlili'iit nl' tli<' Iliuiril iif ('(iiitrdl. 
 
 Hcrrt'liiry (if Htiili.' Air Ihn Fnri'lKii Dfpartmi'iil. C'liuiirt'llor i>r the Diiiliy of I.nix'aitrr. 
 
 Iiiird riiniiilM'rlnin 
 Lnril Hlcrwnril. 
 IVtiiKliT c>r thn lloric. 
 H«cri:tiiry nt Wiir. 
 TrcoHuriT of thn Navy. 
 Prcildeiit iif ihii Hnnril of Trade 
 Paymaater iif ihu I'uruo. 
 
 Lord LirMiliinant of Ireland. 
 Iiord Chancellor, 
 (.'inninaniler of the Forcnii. 
 Chief Secrotiiry. 
 
 Offlitn i/ male not oflhiCahliirl. 
 
 Vii'i'-I'roiiidi'nt of tho Board of Trade. 
 
 FnKliiiiKli'r.noni'ral. 
 
 I.iciitiMiunt-Gniiiral of Iho Orilnanrn, 
 
 Firnt roiiiinliaioiior of tho Land Revvniie. 
 
 Altnrnoy-nonoral, 
 
 Bollcltor-aeiioral. 
 
 trelani, 
 
 VircTrcnaiirrr. 
 
 AltunioyOHiioral. 
 
 BollcltorOeiioral. 
 
 That officer of state who holds the appointment of First Lord of the Treasury, is by 
 eminence tho minister. In tho event of a change of minJHtry, tlie person who is directed 
 by the kin^r to form another, receives an implied offer of that hiji;h office, and is generally 
 placed ot the head of tho administration. The first lonl of the treasury, that is, tho first of 
 the five lords commissioners for executing the office of lord high treasurer, possesses most 
 of the |)owcrs formerly held by the lord high treasurer, and is . i. "t'ines, though not in- 
 variably, chancellor and under treasurer of the exchequer. Th . • .uio applicable to the 
 general purposes of the state is, with a trifling exception, deriveil <;iitirely from taxes. In 
 tho course of the lust century it increased to an amount unpiirallelcd in the history of any 
 other country ; but in consequence of the wars in which Great Britain wos engaged with 
 little intermission until tho year 1815, it did not keep pac^ with the expenditure, and an 
 enormous debt was gradually contracted, the interest on ■' Ijich occasioned a correspondent 
 incrimsu of taxation. 
 
 Since 1817, a deduction has been made of about »iiiy millions from the principal of the 
 debt, and about Jive millions from the annual charge on its account. This diminution has 
 been principally effected by taking advantage of the fall in the rate of interest since tho 
 peace, and offering to pay off the holdeit' of different stocks, unless they consented to accept 
 a reduced payment. 
 
 The systetn of funding by which tho debt has been rendered national, rests on the prin- 
 ciple of assigning for the amount of a loan, an equivalent amount of nominal capital, bearing 
 interest charged on tho national revenue in half-yearly payments called dividends, or of 
 temiinHble annuities also payable half-yearly. Annuities granted for an indefinite perio<l 
 are called rcdrrmablc rfrft^ being redeemable at the option of government when at par; 
 those jrrantod for a limited period are called irredef-mnldr debt ; they exist only for a certain 
 number of years, and a portion of the capital is annually nb.sorlied in the interest. The 
 
1 
 
 
 v» 
 
 348 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt UI. 
 
 funds are respectively designated according to tlic rate per cent, they bear; and tlm slurc 
 which a public creditor holds in any of them, being trii.nsferable by sale under the name of 
 slock, they constitute a kind of circulating capital. 
 
 The rate of interest grunted on certani portions of the national debt, thougli nominally 
 lower than that of five per cent, allowed by law, bus been rendered advantageous to tlie 
 lender by being charged on a larger amount of nominal capital than the sum iwrrowed. 
 jjoans liave been mode in funds at four and five per ccnl., but the greater purt has been 
 made in a fund bearing tliree per cent, interest on the nominal capital, and commonly called 
 the three per cent, consolidated annuities. Tlie prices of these and other annuities consti- 
 tuting the redeemable debt are rated according to the money value of one hundred pounds 
 on such stock ; terminable annuities according to the number of years' purchase which they 
 are supposed to be worth. 
 
 Particular taxes were, at an early period of the funding system, appropriated to defray 
 the interest of different descriptions of debt ; but in the year 1786, the whole were collected 
 into one fund, called the Consolidated Fund. The particular branches of rcveiuie included 
 in it were the custotns (with the exception of a certain amount applicable to other public 
 services), the excise, the stamps, the land and assessed taxes, and the post-office. To this 
 fund are applicable moneys arising from other resources, specified in the annual accounts. 
 
 The following statement sliows the progress of the national debt, from the Revolution to 
 the present time: — 
 
 Diibta at the RRVoliition in 1680 
 
 £.Tcc9s nf ilcbt cnntr.icted during the reign of William III. nlmve debt 
 paid off. 
 
 Debt at tlie acccuion of Queen Anne, in 1703 — 
 
 Debt at the acceuion of George I. in 1714 
 
 Debt at the accruion of George II. in 1737 
 
 Debt at the peace uf Farii, in 1703 
 
 Debt at the commencement of the American nar in 1775 
 
 Debt at the conclusion of the American war in 17f4 
 
 Debt at the commencement of tlio French war in 17!I3 
 
 Debt contracted iluring Uie French wur 
 
 Principal. 
 £ 
 
 15,730,4.19 
 
 lutereal. 
 
 I«,S94,70i 
 54,145,3113 
 52,092,238 
 
 138,805,430 
 
 128,583,835 
 
 249,f51,028 
 
 £ 
 
 3!i,85,'i 
 
 ],071,0S7 
 1,310,942 
 3,351,358 
 2,217..'i51 
 4,852,051 
 
 4,471,.'i7I 
 
 Total funded and unfunded debt. 5lh Jiinunry, 1817, when the Eni;li!<h and 
 Irish Kxchequern were coiitiolidated .' 
 
 239,3.'i0,148 
 008,1)32,329 
 
 848.282,477 
 
 9,451 ,7?J 
 
 9,208,495 
 34,(145,971 
 
 33,854,400 
 
 A sinking fund for the gradual reduction of tlio debt had been formed by Sir Robert Wul- 
 pole in 1716, but hod been so fl-equently encroached upon, that in the course of half a cen- 
 tury, it had not extinguished above fifleen millions. Its revival formed part of tiie financial 
 arrangements of Pitt in 1786. Out of the aggregate of the taxes applicable to the consoli- 
 dated fund, government then pledged itself, that one million annually should be paid to the 
 commissioners for the reduction of the national debt. To this annual million were added tho 
 amount of government annuities as they successively expired, and the interest of sucli stock 
 as was annually redeemed. In 1792, Pitt obtained an act of parliament, declaring, that 
 besides a provision for the interest of any loan that might be thcncerorward contracted, taxes 
 .should be imposed for a sinking fund of one per cent, on the capital stock created by it, 
 which should be exclusively employed in tiie li(iuidation of such particular loan; and tliatno 
 relief should be afforded to the public from the taxes wliich constituted the one por cent, 
 sinking fund, until a sum ot capital stock, equal in amount to that created by tiio loan, had 
 been purchased by it. That being accompli-shod, botli tlie interest and the sinking fiind were 
 to be applicable to the public service. It was calculated that, under the most uiifiivourablc 
 circumstances, each loan would be redeemed in forty-five years from the periwl when it wns 
 contracted. Tlie provisions in this act, and in the former act of 1786, were altered by sub- 
 sequent enactments ; but, by an act passed in 1813, those alterations were rescinded; and 
 it was provided first, that, as a sum equal to the debt of 1786, and bearing an intc^n^st nearly 
 equal to the interest of that debt, was tiion vested in the hands of the commissioners, the 
 debt of 1786 sliould bo doclared disclmrgod as soon ns the interest of tlie delit redeemed 
 should become fully equal to that debt ; the sums appropriated to it.s interest and sinking 
 fund applied tn the cliarge of future loans, and no new ta.ves imposed for interest nnd sinking 
 ftind of those loans, till the same should nmtiiint to a sum ecpial to the interest of tint con- 
 sidered as released. Secondly, tiiat. insfoii'l of applyiuff the one per cent, sinkin:.' fund on 
 each loan to the separate disdiarj'e of thul loan, the whole funds of that kind iiuitod should 
 
-f- .-• 
 
 '■*; 
 
 Book I. 
 
 '4' 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 %.. 
 
 'M9 
 
 be applied to the discimrg'c of the first contracted loan, and successively to the redemption 
 of all the loanB contracted since 1792 ; tlie whole sinking fund created in 1786, or subse- 
 quently, bein^ continued for the redemption of all debts then existing or to be created. The 
 system established by this act continued until Marcii, 1823, when an act of parliament was 
 passed, directing that on tlie 5th of April of that year, all payments out of the consolidated 
 t'und to the commissioners for the reduction of the national debt should cease, all stock in 
 their names be cancelled, and that in future the annual sum of five millions shall be payable 
 quarterly to the commissioners, and set apart tor the reduction of the debt, not to be infrmged 
 upon until the accumulation of this sum shall amount to one hundredth part of the debt then 
 existing: at present, however, the sinking fund is declared to be the excess of income over 
 expenditure, whatever that may be. In 1830 it amounted to 2,792,707i. 14». Old. 
 
 On the consolidated fund are likewise charged the annuities for forty-five years, created 
 in the year 1822, for the purpose of apportionmg the burden occasioned by the military and 
 naval pensions and civil 8uperannuatit>ns (collectively called the Dead Weight), amounting 
 to 5,000,000?., into equal annual payments. The original intention was to contract with 
 parties wlio might be willing to engage to pay into the exchequer within forty-five years tlie 
 sum wanted, for a fixed amount of annuity for forty-five years; but no capitalists being found 
 to accept these terms, it was agreed, instead of assigning the fixed annuities to any corporate 
 bo<ly, or to private individuals, that they should be vested, namely, 2,800,000/. terminable at 
 the end of forty-five years, ard charged upon the consolidated fund, in trustees appointed by 
 parliament ; payable at the exchequer half yearly (viz. October 10. and April 5.), and to 
 cease in April, 1867. In March, 1823, a portion was sold to the Bank of England by the 
 trustees, on condition that the bank should undertake the payments to bo made in pursuance 
 of the act, from tlie 5th of January, 1823, to the 5tli of January, 1868, upon tlie transfer to 
 the bank of an annuity of 585,740/., to commence firom the 5th of April, and to continue for 
 the term of forty-five years. The total amount of payments undertaken to be made by the 
 bank in consideration of the said annuity is 13,089,419/. 
 
 Besides the funded debt, there is generally a considerable amount in exchequer bills, 
 navy bills, and ordnance bills, denominated the unfunded or floating debt. Excheciuer bills 
 are issued in consequence of acts of parliament, for obtaining part of the money required for 
 public service. They are sometimes granted on the credit of supplies for the current year, 
 and the produce of the annual taxes is in this way often anticipated. Sometimes they are 
 charged on the supplies of the following year; and in time of war, a large sum to be tlius 
 raised is generally authorised by a vote of credit previous to the rising of parliament. New 
 exchequer bills are often issued in discharge of former ones ; and it has frequently been found 
 necessary to fund them, by granting capital in some of the stocks on certiiin terms, to kucIi 
 holders as are willing to accept them. Exchequer bills are issued for 1(K)/., 5(>'3/., l(MM)/., 
 and upwards, but none for less than 100/. ; and they bear interest at two-pen';e a day tor 
 every 100/. After being in circulation they are received in payment of ta.xes or other debts 
 due to government, and sometimes they are paid ofl" pursuant to previous notice by advertise- 
 ment. The daily transactions between the bank and the exchequer are chiefly carried on 
 by bills of 1000/. each, which are deposited by the bank in the exchequer, to the amount of 
 the suras received by them on account of government ; they remain in the exchequer as 
 pledges or securities, of course bearing interest until the advances on which the bank first 
 received them are paid oft'.* 
 
 Number of persons deriving incomes from the funds. It appears fi-om the regular 
 returns, that in 1830 (and the number has not sensibly varied since), 274,823 dividend 
 warrants were issued to persons deriving incomes from the fiinds. The number of persons 
 dependent ujwn the funds for support is, however, much greater than appears upon the face 
 of this account: for the dividends upon the funded property belonging to public establish- 
 ments, are paid upon single warrants, as if they were due to so many private individuals. 
 
 The customs and excise fonn the two main branches in the collection of the revenue; the 
 former relating to goods imported, the latter to those produced and manufactured within the 
 country. Among the accomiiKxlations to trade, establisilind by Mr. Pitt, is the bonding 
 system, by which the goods of merchants are warehoused under the joint custody of the 
 proprietor and of government ; payment of' duty not being demanded until a sale is efltcted. 
 This has been also extended to British spirits. 
 
 Tlie navy is the force on wiiich Great Britain mainly relies for maintaining her own 
 independence and her ascendency over foreign nations. By it slie has acquired the sover- 
 eignty of the sea.s, and the advantuges, wliich that sovereignty confers, of securing her pos- 
 sessions in the most distant (luartcrs of the globe, of protecting her commerce, and sustaining 
 the exertions of her armies during war. During the mast active period of the las^t maritime 
 war, the number of seamen in employment amounted to 140,(K)() ; and there were in com- 
 mission 100 sail of the line and 150 frigates, with 30,000 marines. The estimate tor 1831 
 
 14 ] 
 
 i\ 
 
 iS 
 
 lit 
 
 it 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 -eoc Stntisticnl Tahlon, nt cud ofChiip. tV. 
 
 30 
 
■sr 
 
 '' 1' I 
 
 IH 
 
 i 
 
 '« 
 
 350 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt in. 
 
 comprehended 22,000 seamen and 10,0tH) marines. The pay of these men amounts to 
 1,081,000/. ; their BubHistence, to fl03,(KK)/. ; wliich, witli the cost of stores, and allowance 
 for wear and tear, raised the regnlnr current expense to nearly 2,000,000/. The building 
 and repair of vessels, the charges of the dock-yards, pay of ofticers connected with the navy, 
 and a variety of other items, amounted to about an equal sum. These charges, with 
 1,088,000/. in half pay and pensions, mode up the sum of 4,657,000/. as the entire navy 
 estimate for the year 1831. 
 
 The military ti)rcc of the nation, at the close of the French wars, amoui.ted to 200,000 
 regular troops, cxcliiHive of about 100,000 emljodied militia, a large amount of local militia 
 and volunteers, to which might also be added a number of regiments employed in the terri- 
 torips of the Ea-st India Company, and in ita pay. After the peace of 1815 a rapid reduction 
 of tlie military establishment was effected. The militia were disembodied; the regular force 
 was reduced, and in 1835 the estimates were for 81,271 men, independent of 19,720 employed 
 in India, and paid out of tlie land revenue of that country. The charge for these forces was 
 5,784,808/. ; but about half of this simi consisted of half-pay, retired allowances, pensions, 
 and other charges consequent on the former immense establishment 
 
 The laws of England, established during ten centuries of legislation, constitute the most 
 extensive system of jurisprudence ever constructed. The municipal law is divided into two 
 kinds, the unwritten or common law ; and the written or statute law. The common law 
 derives its force from immemorial usage ; and its evidences exist in the records of the seve- 
 ral courts of justice, as well as in books of reports and judicial decisions. It includes not 
 only the system by which the ordinary courts of justice are guided and directed ; but certain 
 portions of the ancient civil and canon laws which are used in the ecclesiastical courts, the 
 military courts, the court of admiralty, and the courts of the two universities. The written 
 laws are tiiose made by the king, lords, and commons, in parliament assembled ; they are 
 judicially called Statutes, and are either declaratory of the common law, or remedial of 
 some of its defects. The statutes are also distinguished as either general or special, public 
 or private. 
 
 The high court of parliament, independently of its legislative functions, is the supreme 
 court of judicature in the kingdom. The House of Lords exercise jurisdiction in civil 
 causes, upon appeals or writs of error from the inferior courts, and in criminal questions, 
 when brought before them by presentment of the, House of Commons, in the form of an 
 impeachment. 
 
 The high Court of Chancery, in which presides the Lord High Chancellor, has two dis- 
 tinct tribunals: the one ordinary, being a court of common law; the other extmordinary, 
 being a court of equity. From the ordinory or legal court issue all original writs that pass 
 the great seal, all commissions of charitable uses ; as also of bankruptcy, idiotcy, and lunacy ; 
 tor such writs it is always open to ■ iie subject In the extraordinary court or court of equity, 
 the chancellor exercises a most extensive jurisdiction, determining causes beyond the reach 
 of the ordinary tribunals, and others in which reason and justice require that the rigorous 
 application of tiie rules of common law should be mitigated. These decisions emanate from 
 tlie judgment of tlie lord chancellor alone. An assistant judge, called Vice-chancellor of 
 England, has power to hear and determine all causes depending in the court ; all his decrees 
 are valid and effectual, subject however, to reversal by the lord chancellor, and not to be 
 enrolled until signed by him ; nor are they to discharge, reverse, or alter any decree of the 
 lord chancellor or of the Master of the Rolls. The Master of the Rolls, who ranks next to 
 him in dignity, and holds his office for life, acts in a judicial capacity as assistant to the lord 
 chancellor, and also hears and determines causes on certain appointed days ; but his orders 
 and decrees cannot be enrolled until signe<l by the lord chancellor, who has the power to 
 discharge or alter them. The masters in ciiancery are twelve in number, including the 
 Master of the Rolls, who is their chief, and alw) including the Accountant-Gcneral. They 
 arc assistants and associates of the lord chancellor and the master of the rolls, nnd sit with 
 them in court by tu' s, two at a time. In 1820 the projxjrty of suitors in chancery amounted 
 to more than 40,0(M(,()00/. The masters make up their accounts with the Acccuntant- 
 gencral, and pay into the Bank of England all moneys remaining in their hands, to be place<l 
 to his account He merely keeps the account witli the bank, the governor and company 
 being answerable for such moneys. 
 
 The Court of King's Bench is the supreme court of common law in the kingdom, and 
 takes cognisance both of criminal and civil causes: the former in what is called the crown 
 side or crown office ; the latter in the jilca siili- of the court. It is also n court of appeal, 
 into which may be removed, by writ of error, detcrininntions of all the courts of record in 
 England. The court consisits of a chief justice, and f hreo pui*ne judges. 
 
 The Court of Common Pleas takes cogiiisance of all civil actions dpp«inding lK.'tweon sub- 
 ject and subject Many questions, however, may, by legal contrivoncet., be bruught info 
 this or into the Court of King's- Bencii at tlic option of the parties. The Court of Common 
 Pleas consists of a chief justice, and three puisne judges. 
 
 I 
 
Book I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 351 
 
 voon 8ub- 
 iifiht into 
 Common 
 
 The Court of Exchequer has jurisdiction both in law and erjuity. In it are tried all ques- 
 tions relating to the revenue, and, by fict- jn.? of law, various civil aclions and personal suits. 
 The judges are four; a chief baron ar 1 three! puisne barons. 
 
 Trial by jury, an institution coeval ..'ith the origin of the constitution, and justly valued 
 by the people as the bulwark of their liberties, is employed in all cases between the crown 
 and the subject, in all criminal cases, and in all those for which damages are awarded. The 
 jury in England consists of twelve persons, whose verdict must be delivered by their fore- 
 man as unanimous, or, in the technical phrase, as agreed upon. 
 
 Courts of Assize and Nisi Prius are auxiliaries to the superior courts at Westminster fur 
 tlie trial of causes in every county in England, twice a year in most counties, once a year 
 in others. The counties are comprised in six circuits: 1st, the Home Circuit; 2d, the Mid- 
 land ; 3d, the Norfolk ; 4th, the Oxford ; 5th, the Northern ; and 6th, the Western Circuit. 
 These circuits are supplied by the twelve judges, two being appointed to each. In these 
 courts, the senior or superior judge generally sits on the crown side for the trial of criminals, 
 and the junior or inferior judge on the ni$i prius side, for the decision of cases of property. 
 
 A Court of General Quarter Sessions of tne Peace, held in every county once in every 
 quarter of a year is the most important of the minor tribunals. Its jurisdiction extends to 
 all felonies and trespasses ; but capital felonies are usually remitted to the assize.s. The 
 sheriff's toum is also a court of record, held twice a year at some place within the county. 
 The court -leet or view of frank-pledge is a court of record held once a year, within a par- 
 ticular hundred, lordship, or manor, before the steward of the leet. It is the King's court 
 granted by charter to the lords of those hundreds or manors. In aid of these, and other 
 institutions tending to the maintenance of order and tranquillity throughout the country, 
 subordinate magistrates are appointed in each county, under the name of justices of the 
 peace. They hold special commissions from the king, and are empowered to suppress riots 
 and affrays, to take aecurities for the peace, and to commit felons and inferior criminals. 
 Their jurisdiction is enforced by constables and other subordinate officers. 
 
 Sect. V. — Productive Industry. 
 
 The productive industry of England, at this moment, far surpasses that of any other 
 country, either ancient or modern. Her fabrics clothe the most distant nations; her vessels 
 traverse alike the polar and equatorial seas. The downfall of the feudal power; the civil 
 and social advantages which the people acquired under the last Henries ; and, above all, the 
 spirit of enterprise diffused among them under Elizabeth, gave a great impulse to commerce, 
 and industry. It was not, however, till the era of the Revolution, that the nation entered 
 upon that grand career of prosperity, in which she has ever since proceeded with accelo- 
 "ited activity. 
 
 Agriculture, as the greatest and most essential source of human wealth and comfort, must 
 Always claim pre-eminence over the other branches of human industry. For two or three 
 centuries the English tenantry have been an independent and substantial race. Such had 
 been the progress of agriculture, that, even in the middle of the last century, England had 
 become a regular grain-exporting country. Still, fifty years ago, the practice of this 
 important art was comparatively cumbrous, costly, and unproductive. Since tliat time, 
 nobles and statesmen have vied with each other in their zeal for the promotion of agricul- 
 ture. Prizes, exhibitions, and other institutions calculated to excite a spirit of improvement, 
 have been established on a great scale. Even royal patronage was extended to this most 
 useful of arts, and a board was formed under public auspices for its promotion. An extraor- 
 dinary impulse was also given by the scarcity at the close of the eighteenth century ; when 
 the continental ports were closed, and grain rose to an unprecedented price, from wliich it 
 has since been reduced, indeed, but not to its former rate. The old routine system was, 
 after that crisis, broken up, and every exertion made to augment the products of the soil. 
 Commons were enclosed, marshes drained, grasses of the most useful species cultivated, and 
 every process that multiplied experiments had proved to be advantageous, introduced. Par- 
 ticular attention was bestowed in improving the breed of cattle and sheep ; and for the 
 accomplishment of this purpose, the best species were imported from abroad. At the same 
 time, economical farming was greatly studied ; the disproportionate number of horses and 
 oxen was reduced ; and machinery, particularly the threshing-machine, came into general 
 use. Thus a great augmentation took place in the produce of the soil ; still greater in the 
 profit of the farmers, and much the greatest in the rent of the landlord, which, in many 
 instances, was more than tripled. The reduced prices, however, which have ultimately 
 been the result of tliis augmented production, have, at last, rendered it difficult to suppor 
 the great advance in this last particular. 
 
 Tlie natural fertility of England is not equal to that of the countries in the south of 
 Europe. Her pastures, however, are richer; and her soil is capable of yielding all the 
 valuable kinds of grain in abundance, and of good, if not superior quality. Those natural 
 advantages, improved by her extraordinary industry, raise tiie agricultural products of Eng- 
 land to a mucii greater amount than those of any other country in Europe. 
 
 M''.i 
 
 i>.h 
 
\ 
 
 *v 
 
 352 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part IH. 
 
 The surface of England is tliirty-sevon millions of acres. About half a million is occu- 
 pied by roads ; and if we also make ollowanco for waters, natural and artificial, &c,, we may 
 probably have to deduct two millions from the part which forms the proper subject of agri- 
 culture. Of this, half is under the plougfh, and half devoted to pasturage; upwards of- tlirec 
 millions arc in wheat; about three millions in oats and beans, and between two and three 
 millions in barley. About 30{),(M)0 cwt. of hops, of the value of jC 200,000, and 4,400,000 
 gallons of cider, arc annually produced. 
 
 The manufactures of Britain, still more than even the immense products of her agricul- 
 ture, have astonishc I the world, and raised her to a decided superiority over all other nations. 
 This distinction clio has attained, not so much by their extreme fineness; for, as to this 
 particular, France c.vcols not only in silks and cambrics, but even in woollens; and British 
 porcelain does not oipial that of Dresden. But she stands unrivalled in the immensity of 
 useful and valuable products, calculated for the consumption of the great body of mankmd; 
 and above all in the stupendous exertions made in contriving and constructing the machinery 
 by which they are produced. 
 
 The woollen manuf.. ture is the old staple of the country. As soon as England began to 
 exercise any kind of industry, her first aim was to manufacture her own wools, instead of 
 leaving this openition in the hands of the Flemings. The fobric began in Kent and Sus- 
 sex ; but swn spread, and fixed itself in the interior districts ; that of coarse woollens in the 
 West Riding of YorkHhire, and that of the finer cloths in Gloucestershire and Wiltshire. In 
 1800, tiie total value of the fabrics was 20,00(),000/., of which not much less than half was 
 exported. In the course of the century it has continued increasing, though not with the 
 same rapidity as some other fabrics. The quantity exported has not, however, been aug- 
 mented in proportion. In 1802, it exceedeil 7,000,OOOJ. ; but in 1832 was only 5,240,000/. 
 This manufacture, however, depending chiefly upon home consumption, is less liable to vicis- 
 situde than those which have their principal market in foreign countries. 
 
 The wool is partly produced in Britain, partly drawn from abroad. English wool is 
 ilividc'l into long and short. The former was long considered as exclusively adapted to 
 worsted slufT:;; but the recent improvements in machinery have enabled the manufacturer to 
 jinvliice these stufls almost equally well from shorter wool. The short wool is fitted for 
 clolli and hats; but all that is produced in England is of secondary fineness. Eflbrts were 
 niiide, about the close of the last century, to introduce the merino breed from Spsiin, and not 
 without success; hut the flesh being bad, the farmers gave it up, and, devoting themselves 
 to the improvement of the carcase, have allowed the wool even to degenerate, though the 
 increased quantity is supposed to indemnify them. The best short wool is that of Sussex 
 (Southdown) and Norfolk; the best long wool that of Lincoln. The number of short- woolled 
 sheep throughout England, in 1828, amounted to about 14,8r)0,0(X1, that of long-woolled tc 
 4,150,000; and the produce was 204,000 packs of long, and 120,000 packs of short wool ; 
 to whicii might be added 09,000 jiacks of lamb's wool, and 9000 for Wales ; making in all 
 463,(M)0. The defect of English wool renders it necessary to import a large quantity from 
 abroad. The fleece chiefly valued is that of the merino, long confined to Spain : and Spanish 
 wool, in the early part of this century, was introduced to the extent of 6,000,000 lbs. annu- 
 aliy, but in 1827 it fell short of 4,000,000 lbs., and in 1832 did not exceed 2,026,000 lbs. It 
 has been supplanted by the wool of Saxony, and other parts of northern Germany, where the 
 merino breed has been introduced and propagated with the greatest success. The importa- 
 tion from Germany, which in 1810 was only 778,000 lbs., was in 1830 so high as 26,073,000 lbs., 
 though in 18:32 only 19,832,000 lbs. : Ntw Holland and Van Diemen's Land in that year 
 furnished 2,377,000 lbs. of very fine wool ; and the supply is increasing. The entire im- 
 port amounted in 18:30 and 18531 to about 32,000,000 lbs. ; in 1832 to only 2«.140,()00 lbs. 
 
 The annual value of the wix)llen manufacture appears to he about 20,000,000/. sterlinqr, 
 and the persons employed between 400,000, and 500,000. There were exported, in 18132, 
 390,661 pieces of cloth; 23,453 pieces napped coatings, duffels, &c. ; 40,984 pieces of ker- 
 seymeres ; 34,874 pieces baize ; 1,800,714 stufTs or worsted ; 2,3(34,750 yards flanpcls ; 
 1,681,840 yards blanketing; 690,042 yards carpetinc, &c. There were exported also 
 4,1!39,000 lbs. of British wool, and 2,204,000 lbs. woollen yarn. 
 
 The cotton manufacture n of much more recent introduction, and for a long period the 
 progress of this branch of '.ndustry was slow. In 1760, the value of the fabric was only 
 20(),000/. In 1707, .lames ?iargreaves, a common Lancasliire weaver, invented the spinning 
 jenny, by which at first 8, and fin;illy 120 spindles were moved by a single spinner. Ilar- 
 groaves became exposed to the persecution of the working people employiMl in this operation ; 
 was obliged to flee t/j Nottingliam ; .•mil died in poverty. Richard .\rkwright, a liarbcr of 
 Nottingham, invont(!(l the wntcr-twist, or " perpetual twist," spinning frame, in whicli the 
 whole process was performed by the machine, .and the workmen h:id only to s^upply the material 
 and watch its progress. Samuel Crompton, in 1775, produced the machine called the mule, 
 a combination of the two preceding, which it soon superseded liotli in the finer and more 
 valuable articles. 
 
 That macliinory should weave as well as spin, was necessarj- to consummate the triumpi" 
 
Book I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 )lled tc 
 wool ; 
 in all 
 y from 
 ■misli 
 iinnu- 
 Ibs. It 
 ere the 
 niporta- 
 
 00()11)H., 
 
 lat year 
 tire ini- 
 
 Ibs. 
 itorlii'?, 
 in 1832, 
 of kor- 
 anjiols ; 
 ted also 
 
 riod the 
 •as only 
 ipinning 
 liar- 
 eration ; 
 irlicr of 
 lich the 
 iiatcrial 
 10 mule, 
 id more 
 
 triumpl" 
 
 of art. This waa accomplishod by tlie Rev. Mr. Cartwright, a clergyman of Kent, who in- 
 vented a machine by which cloth waa woven ; but the first trial was unsuccessful as to profit, 
 and an impression long prevailed that cottons could be woven cheaper by the hand. Within 
 the last few years, however, the system of power-loom weaving has been adopted to an im^ 
 inense extent ; it is estimated that there are in Britain 80,000, absorbing 10,000,000/. of fixed 
 and ij,0(K),(KH)?. of floating capital, employing 160,000 operatives, and working up 124,800,000 
 pounds of cotton. 
 
 The steam-engine, the moving power, tlie greatest of all these discoveries, remains to be 
 mentioned. Machines moved by horses and water, originally employed in manufacturing 
 and other processes, were cumbrous, expensive, and often unmanageable. The steam-engine, 
 brought to perfection by Watt, became at once the moving power of all this machinery, and 
 the principal cause to which its vast results may be attributed. 
 
 The cotton wool imported into Britain, which in 1781 little exceeded 5,000,000 lbs., rose 
 in 1809, to 93,000,000; in 1817, to 126,000.000; and in 1832, to 288,000,000. The finest 
 is that called Sea Island, a name given to what is grown on the coast of Georgia and Caro- 
 lina. The bowed Georgia, produced in the interior, is not of equal value. Next to the Sea 
 Island rank the West India and Brazil. Of the quantity imported in 1831, there came 
 from the United States, 219,333,000 lbs. ; from Brazil, 31,695,000; from the East Indies, 
 25,805,000; from the West Indies, 2,401,000; and from Eg;ypt, 7,714,000 lbs. The con- 
 sumption of printed cottons has diminished in England, silk being preferred as an ornamental 
 dress, and the use of cotton, printed or dyed previously t6 weaving, having become preva- 
 lent. The demand abroad, however, is still extensive, so that the amount of pieces printed 
 is about 4,500,(KK), giving employment to 100,000 persons. 
 
 The produce of the cotton manufacture is 34,000,000/. annu .lly. Of this 18,000,000/. is 
 paid in wages to 800,000 persons employed in its different brai hes ; and allowing for those 
 who are dependent upon them, and for the subsidiary employmt.its, it afibrds subsistence to 
 not much fewer than 1,400,000 people. The value of cotton manufactures exported in 1831 
 was 13,282,000/.; of twist and yarn, 3,975,000/. They were chiefly of the following 
 descriptions: — Calicoes, cambric muslins, dimities, &c., 299,597,000 yards; lace, gauze-net 
 and crape, 48,164,000 yards; cotton and linen, mixed, 1,668,000 yards; velvets and vel- 
 veteens, 404,000 yards ; counterpanes and quilts, number, 23,000 ; hosiery, shawls, handker- 
 chiefs, &.C., ."^SfltOOO dozen ; tapes, bobbins, &.C., 99,000 dozen ; thread, 1,105,000 lbs. ; twirt 
 and yarn, 48,098,000 lbs. 
 
 The working in metals is also one of the branches in which England has attained to a 
 most decided pre-eminence. About the middle of the sixteenth century it rose to the rank 
 of a staple; and within the last half century it has greatly increased in importance. Shef- 
 field, perhaps the original seat of the trade in England, is still distinguished for the most 
 solid and useful articles, knives, grates, and their appendages, agricultural implements, &.C.; 
 while Birmingham adds to these utensils a variety of small articles, ornaments, and toys, 
 which, though minute in detail, amount to a vast value in the aggregate. Each of these 
 two great cities forms, as it were, the centre of a large circle of population, all employed in 
 the same manner. The number of persons employed in the product and manufacture of 
 metals is estimated at 350,000, and the entire produce at 17,000,000/. The export of hard- 
 ware and cutlery in 1831 amounted to 16,799 tons, value 1,620,000/.; in 1832, it was 15,294 
 tons ; value, 1,433,000/. 
 
 The silk manufacture was of late origin in England ; but it was considerably improved by 
 tlie revocation of the edict of Nantes, which drove a number of French weavers into that 
 country. It is established in a quarter of the metropolis, called Spitalfields, where it em- 
 ploys about 25,000 men : at Macclesfield, Manchester, Coventry, and in other parts of the 
 country, the number occupied in it may amount to 40,000. The entire value of the manu- 
 facture was estimated some years ago at 4,000,00l«. , and may now, probably, be between 
 ."1,000,000/. and 6,000,000/. Notwithstanding the removal of the prohibitory duties on the 
 importation of foreign silks, the British manufacture has maintained its ground, and gone on 
 increasing. The importation of raw and thrown silk in 1832 was 4,224,000 lbs. : of which 
 1,814,000 lbs. were from the East Indies and China; 1,006,000 lbs. from France; 564,000 lbs. 
 from Italy ; and 458,000 lbs. from Turkey. The exports amounted in 1832 to 525,000/., 
 chiefly to North America and the West Indies. 
 
 In the manufacture of earthenware and porcelain, England has of late made vast ad- 
 vances, and brought its various products to a high degree of beauty and elegance. Burslem 
 in Staflbrdshire had, for centuries, been noted for its fabrication of a coarse kind of ware ; 
 but it was reserved for Mr. Wedgwoml to carry this art to perfection by a combination of 
 elegance and cheapness. Fine white clay from the south-western counties, and ground flint, 
 are the chief materials of this celebrated ware, which hears the name of its inventor. The 
 white ware of Derby and the porcelain of Worcester, tiiough on a smaller scale, are still 
 finer productions. The latter is composed of a mixture of 13 different materials, and each 
 cup passes through 23 hands. Earthenware pavs no duty, so that its amount cannot be olfi- 
 
 VoL. I. 30* 2U 
 
.'■^nj^- 
 
 Ml 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Past III. 
 
 <!• 
 
 cially ascertained ; the cj port, however, has diminished from nearly 700,000/. in 181.5-16, 
 to only 490,000/. in 1832. 
 
 Hitlns arc imported from all quarters of the world ; the entire quantity in 1824 was 
 300,0(K) cwt., value 700,(K)0/. In IS.'JO only 225,000 cwt. were imported. In that year the 
 hides tanned or otherwise manufactured amounted to 40,800,000 lbs., value .3,900,(K)0/. ; and 
 ua the value of tiie finished article is supposed to bo tliree times that of the material, this 
 value will amount to nearly 12,000,000/. The shoes made in England arc estimated at 
 6,8(K),000/. and the whole manufacture employs about 250,000 persons. 
 
 Beer, glass, soap, and candles are branches of production which employ a large capital 
 and numerous workmen, and yield a yearly amount of great value. In London the quantity 
 of malt liquor annually brewed is 1,700,000 barrels, of which 38,000 are exported. This is 
 chiefly porter, a liquor peculiarly appropriate to Ix)ndon, and for which she is famous through- 
 out tlie world. In all England, therfi were brewed, in 1829, about 7,400,000 borrels, of the 
 value of upwards of 22,(K)0,000/. ; without including 1,500,000 barrels of table-beer. Can- 
 dles, — In 1829, the manufacture amounted to 110,(100,000 lbs., which would make a value 
 of 3,208,000/. Soap. — The manufacture, in 1829, was 100,000,000 lbs. which would 
 amount to 3,17.5,000/. 
 
 The linen manufacture is that in which England is most deficient ; for though she is sup- 
 posed to produce the value of 1,000,000/. a year, this does not supersede the necessity of 
 large imports from Scotland and Ireland. Of late, the elegant manufacture of lace has 
 been carried to great perfection by means of bobbinet frames. By this manufiicture a value 
 of 160,000/. in silk and Sea Island cotton is wrought into lace, estimated at 1,890,000/. and 
 employing 208,000 persons. Distilled litjuors or spirifg, too, though they produce a revenue 
 of 2,000,000/., are neither equal in quality nor amount to those of the sister countries of 
 Scotland and Ireland, whose produce, if it had not been excluded by national jealousy, would 
 probably by this time have driven thot of England out of the market. The quantity distilled 
 in 1831 and 1832 averaged 7,:350,000 gallons. 
 
 Mines form one of the most copious sources of the wealth of England. The useful metals 
 and minerals, those which afford the instruments of manufacture and are subservient to the 
 daily purpo.ses of life, are now drawn from the earth more copiously there than in any other 
 country. Her most valuable metals are iron, copper, and tin ; her principal minerals are 
 ccal and salt. 
 
 Iron, the material of so important a class of manufacture, abounds in England, particularly 
 in Wales, Staffordshire, and Derbyshire. While it was supposed, however, that the blast 
 furnaces could be composed only of charcoal, the limited supply of wood depressed the pro- 
 duce, and in the middle of the last century, the iron made in England from fifty new fur- 
 naces did not exceed 17,000 tons. It was then found, however, that, furnaces filled with 
 coke might be heated to the same degree as those of charcoal, and the inexhaustible supply 
 of coal might he employed in bringing the iron mines into value. Hence, the increased 
 production has been astonishingly rapid. In 1796, it amounted to 12.5,000 tons; in 1806, to 
 2.50,000 tons; in 18,'10, it was 680,000 tons, worth 5,100,000/. ; and which the additional 
 labour of forming it into bar iron may raise to 6,300,000/. The export amounted in 1832 to 
 about 1.50,000 tons, worth 1,120,000/. It is exported chiefly in the forms of bar iron, to the 
 amount of 74,024 tons ; bolt and rod iron, 6938 ; pig iron, 17,566 ; cast iron, 12,495 ; hoops, 
 9417; nails, 4347, &c. 
 
 Copper, also, has risen to importance in the course of the la.st half century. It is found chiefly 
 in Cornwall, to the amount, in 18.32, of 11,947 tons, and is carried thence to Swansea, to be 
 smelted with the coal of North Wales, which itself produced 1320 tons of copper. The 
 total produce is 14,440 tons, which, at 90/. per ton, will be 1,300,410/. 
 
 Tin, tt rare and peculiar metal, is found only in Cornwall and part of Devon. So early 
 was it known, that we find the British Islands first recognized by its name, and it is enu- 
 merated among the articles with which the Carthaginians supplied the markets of Tyre. 
 As Cornwall, with the exception of the Indian island of Banca, is the only tract known to 
 produce tin in large quantities, there is a considerable export to most countries of Europe, 
 particulfirlv France and Italy. The annual produce of the mines amounts to 83,000 cwt. ; 
 of the value of 115,000/. 
 
 Lead is found in Cumberland, Derbyshire, and Northumberland, to the supposed amount 
 of about 16,000 tons annually ; which, at 20/. per ton, will be worth 320,000/. In 1833, the 
 British lead exported was 13,898 tons. 
 
 Coal, the most valuable of all the mineral subs-tances from which Britain derives hor pros- 
 perity, exists in almost inexhaustible quantities in the counties of Northumberland, Derby, 
 and Stafford, and in that of Glamorgan in South Wales. It fuses the metals, produces the 
 steam which sets the machinery in motion, and is, indeed, instrumental in bringing almost 
 every substance into a nsefiil and merchantable form. By superseding also the neces- 
 sity of extensive plantations fiir fuel, it enables a much greater proportion of the soil to be 
 devoted to cultivation. The Northumberland and Durham field has been estimated at 732 
 'sqaare miles, the South Wales field is 1200 ; which, allowing for the average depth, will. 
 
UOOE I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 355 
 
 it 18 calculated, be sufRcicnt to supply all England for 1700 or 2000 years. At all events, it 
 seems certain that she is secure for many centuries against any deficiency. The quantity 
 shipped from Durham and Northumberland is stated at 3,300,000 tons ; and the whole em- 
 ployed as fuel, and in the manufactories and mines throughout England (adding 700,000 
 exported to Ireland), at not less than 15,500,000 tons. The mines on the Tyne employed 
 8491 persons underground, and 3403 above ; those on the Wear, about three-fourths of this 
 number : the conveyance of these coastwise employs 1400 vessels and 1.5,000 men ; while, 
 in London, 7i)00 whippers, lighter-men, factors, agents, &c. are engaged in landing and 
 distributing it. Taking into view the whole of Great Britain, Mr. M'CuUoch considers that 
 the coal trade will give occupation to not less than 100,000 persons. In 1829, the total 
 quantity shipped was 0,22'1,125 tons ; of which, 5,014,132 were sent coastwise ; 840,246, to 
 Ireland ; 128,803, to the British colonies : 356,410, to foreign countries. 
 
 Of salt, Britain possesses an immense supply. The finest and most valuable kind is tiic 
 rock salt, drawn from mines and from brine springs in the county of Chester. The salt is 
 refined by being boiled along with the brine of the springs, and is then called white salt. 
 The annual prwluce is 15,0(M),000 bushels, of which about 10,000,000 are exported, chiefly 
 to North America, the Netherlands, and Russia. 
 
 The commerce of Britain, like her manufacturing industry, is now completely without a 
 rival. The exports of Britain consist almost wholly of her manufactured produce. Cotton 
 takes the precedence of all others. In 1830, the quantity exported, including twist and 
 yarn, was valued at about 15,000,000?. sterling ; being two-fifths of the whole exportation. 
 They are sent to every country, but most especially to those from which the raw material is 
 imported. The United States take an immense quantity ; the West Indies and Brazil im- 
 port largely ; the market in the independent states of South America is daily enlarging, and 
 they make their way in increasing quantities even into the East Indies. In Europe, Portu- 
 gal and Italy are extensive markets; and though studiously excluded from Spain, large con- 
 signments are sent to Gibraltar, evidently with a view to clandestine introduction. Germany 
 takes a great quantity both of manufactured goods, and of yarn and twist for her own manu- 
 factories. The woollen manufacture has a diflierent and less extensive range. The United 
 States, the greatest market, take three-eighths of the whole ; afler which rank the East In- 
 dies, Russia, Portugal, and Germany. The wrought metals find a great variety of markets. 
 Of bar iron, 7000 tons, and copper 50,000 tons, go to the East Indies. Ireland takes 7000 
 tons of bar, 700 of cast, and 2300 of wrought iron. The West Indies take largely both 
 iron and copper.* 
 
 Among the imports, a large portion consists of raw materials, brought in vast quantities to 
 bo manufactured, in many instances for the use of the regions from which they come. Under 
 the head of manufactures, we have enumerated the principal of these articles, and the 
 countries from whence imported. They are chiefly cotton, wool, silk, and hides ; to which 
 may be added, bark, ashes, and barilla ; cochineal, indigo, madder, and other dyeing stuffs. 
 Although grain and provisions arc now produced in sufficient quantity fbr internal consump- 
 tion, there is much want of the raw produce of uncultivated land. Under this head a promi- 
 nent rank may be assigned to timber and naval stores. Fir and oak timber, and staves, are 
 brought chiefly fi-oni North America ; masts, deals, and deal ends, from Norway and Russia ; 
 oak plank from Prussia. 
 
 The import trade of consumption is, afler all, the most extensive : it consists chiefly in 
 obtaining from southern regions, and those warmed by tropical suns, the accommodations and 
 luxuries which cannot be matured under a less genial sky. Wine would have been intro- 
 duced to a very great extent, had not its exclusion been made a prime object of fiscal regu- 
 lation. This, however, has been so potently applied, that the use of wine has not increased 
 in any proportion to the general wealth of the nation ; and it has been forced from the near- 
 est and best wines of FrMJce, to the less palatable produce of Spain and Portugal. Brandy, 
 also, still accounted the finest of spirituous liquors, forces itself, to a certain extent, into the 
 circle of imports. But the saccharine and aromatic products of the tropical plains form tlio 
 basis of an immense commerce, which even the adherents of the mercantile system cherish, 
 under the idea that much of it is carried on witli English colonies. The leading articles are 
 sugar, tea, coffee, tobacco, and spices. Notwithstanding the immense cotton manufacture 
 of Britain, the piece goods of India, by tlieir peculiar e.vcellonce, still find their way into 
 the country. 
 
 The shipping by which so extensive a trade is carried on, must necessarily be very exten- 
 sive. In 1663 it was only 95,000 tons. It rose in 1701 to 273,000 ; in 1751, to 609,000 ; 
 in 1792, to 1,186,000. The vessels belonging to the British empire at the end of 1834, were 
 25.05>5, of 2,716,000 tons, and navigated by 168,061 men. The entries and clearances for 
 the coasting troJdc, in 1832, amounted each to 8,500,000 tons. Besides these, in the same 
 year, 4546 foreign vessels, comprising 639,979 tons, and navigated by 35,399 men, entered 
 the ports of Great Britain.* 
 
 It? 
 
 '* 
 
 *a«e Blatiitical Tablet, at end of Chap. IV. 
 
. * 
 
 366 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt UI. 
 
 The fiahericB do not seom to have been so much cultivated in Britain, as Uio hardy enter- 
 priie of the nalion might liave led us to expect. The wliale iisliery was considered su valu- 
 able, both for its products, and as a nursery fur seamen, tliut, till 1824, a bounty was granted 
 in proportion to tlie tonnage of the vessels employed. They have found their way to tlie 
 antarctic polar sea, ui search of ui oil which, tliough not superior for burning, is better 
 adapted to the purposes of manufacture, tlian that urawn from the arctic regions. This 
 fishery, witliin tlie last twelve years, has considerably diminished both in amount and in the 
 value of its products, owing to the use of gas, the greater cheapness of rape-oil for manu- 
 tacture, and also to a larger part of the trade being engrossed by Scotland. In 1820 there 
 sailed from England only 41 vessels, of 13,760 tons burden ; which brought in 4912 tuns of 
 oil, and 269 tons of whalebone. The following year was still more deficient, owing to the 
 disasters encountered by the vessels engaged in the fishery. 
 
 Of the fisheries in tlie British seas, that of Herrings, the most important, belongs almost 
 entirely to Scotland. Next to tliis ranks that of Pilchards, on tlic coast of Cornwall and 
 part of Devon. The fish is found there in such immense shoals, that it forms the chief food 
 of the people duruig the greater part of the year, and is also largely salted for exportation. 
 The value annually taken is reckoned at 50,0001. or 00,0001. 
 
 The interior navigation of England is justly regarded as one of the prime sources of her 
 prosperity. Till the middle of last century, the making of canals did not enter into the 
 system of English economy. In 1755 was formed the Sankey canal, a line of twelve miles, 
 to supply Liverpool with coal from the pits at St. Helen's. The example then set by the 
 Duke of Bridgowater gave a general impulse to the nation. Since that tune, upwards of 
 30,000,0002. sterling have been expended in this object. Twenty-one canals have been car- 
 ried across the cenUal chain of hills, by processes in which no cost has been spared ; all the 
 resources of art and genius have been employed ; every obstacle, however formidable, which 
 nature could present, has been vanquished. By locks, and by inclined planes, the vessels 
 are conveyed up and down the most rugged steeps ; they are even carried across navigable 
 rivers by bridges. When other means fail, the engineer has cut through the heart of rocks 
 and hills a subterraneous passage. Of these tunnels, as they ore called, tliere are said to be 
 forty-eight, the entire length of which is at least forty miles. 
 
 The Duke of Bridgewatcr formed the plan of openuig a communication between !Man- 
 chester and his extensive coal-mines, at Worsley, The obstacles were so great, both from 
 nature and art, that the attempt must have proved abortive, had he not been seconded by the 
 genius of Brindley, who, from a common millwright, raised tiimself to be the first engineer 
 of the age. The canal was curried through vast excavations, made partly in the interior of 
 the mine itself; it was led by aqueducts over a succession of public roads, and over the river 
 Irwcll by a magnificent bridge, which left space for vessels with their sails spread to pass 
 beneath. By deep cuttings, and by artificial mounds, in some places supported upon piles, 
 a level of upwards of fifty miles waa completed. The Duke expended, in tliis undertaking, 
 his whole fortune, amounting to 350,000{. ; and its failure would have left him destitute : 
 but, as it immediately enabled him to reduce the price of coal in Manchester to one half, the 
 trade in a short time yielded twenty per cent, upon his outlay, and rapidly produced an 
 immense income. 
 
 The Grand Trunk Canal, an undertaking on a still greater scale, formed under the 
 imtronage of the Marquess of StaflTord, by a course of ninety miles through StafiTordshire, 
 connects the Trent with tlic Mersey, Liverpool witli Hull, and the eastern with tlie western 
 coasts. It gave animation to the trade of all the districts through which it passed, particu- 
 larly that of the Potteries, and served as a basis for various canals and railways branching 
 from it. From a point near the commencement of the Grand Trunk, the Ellesmcrc canal 
 has branched fiir into Wales, and conveys to Liverpool the mineral and agricultural produce 
 of that principalitv. FVom its eastern termination, large branches have been extended to 
 Derby, to Nottingham, to Grantham, and otlier considerable towns. 
 
 The Leeds and Liverpool Canal, by a more northerly lino of one hundred and twenty 
 miles, connects the Mersey with the Aire, a tributary ot the Ousc, and thus enables Liver- 
 pool and Hull to communicate by another line across the great cloth-nmnufacturing districts. 
 An important branch of this canal is carried to Ijancoster, and on to Kendal. 
 
 From the vicinity of London the Grand Junction, at an expense of two millions, was car- 
 ried by a line of ninety miles to the neighbourhood of Coventry. Near Daventry, the Grand 
 Union strikes off, and joins the Grand Trunk, thus securing for London an inland communi- 
 cation with Liverpool, and with all the great manufacturing cities of the West. A great 
 system of canals was formed round Birmingham, of which one result was to connect the 
 Grand Trunk with the Severn, and thus to form a connexion between all the four great 
 rivers of England, and all its commercial and manufacturing cities. A canal hod already 
 been formed from Coventry to Oxford. That of tlie Thames and Severn joined these two 
 main rivers at the highest navigable point of the former. The Gloucester and Berkeley is 
 a latcrnl canal to the Severn, by means of which Gloucester is connected with the Bristol 
 Channel by a direct line. The principal canals to the south of the Thames are the Kennet 
 
'A«T 111. 
 
 iy cntor- 
 i 8u valu- 
 8 granted 
 'uy to tlie 
 18 better 
 riB. This 
 inJ in the 
 fur inanu- 
 820 there 
 l2 tuns of 
 ing to the 
 
 g9 almoBt 
 nwall and 
 chief food 
 Kportation. 
 
 ces of her 
 ir into the 
 elve inilea, 
 set by the 
 jpwards of 
 e been car- 
 ed ; all the 
 ible, which 
 the vessels 
 a navigable 
 lit of rocks 
 e said to be 
 
 ween Man- 
 
 t, both from 
 
 ided by the 
 
 st engineer 
 
 interior of 
 
 ler the river 
 
 oad to pass 
 
 upon piles, 
 
 nuertaking, 
 
 destitute : 
 
 ne half, the 
 
 roduced an 
 
 under the 
 fordahire, 
 he western 
 3d, particu- 
 brancliiug 
 lorc canal 
 Iral produce 
 Wtcnded to 
 
 Ind twenty 
 [bles Liver- 
 \g districts. 
 
 ■s, was car- 
 I, the Grand 
 I communi- 
 A great 
 eonnect the 
 Tfour great 
 lad already 
 these two 
 Berkeley is 
 fthc Bristol 
 Ithe Kennet 
 
 Book I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 307 
 
 and Avon canal, and the Berks and Wilts canal, tlirough which a conimimication is formed 
 from the Thainos near Abingdon to the cities of Bath and Bristol. The total length of canal;) 
 in Great Britain, excluding those under five miles, is WHl miles. 
 
 Railways form another contrivance, by which the conveyance of goods is wonderfully 
 facilitated, by causing the wheels to roll over a smooth surface of iron. Railvvuys were at 
 first used only on a small scale, chiefly in tlio coal-tnincs round Newcastle, fijr conveying 
 the mineral from the interior to the surhice, and thence to the place of shipping ; uiul it is 
 reckoned that round that city there is an extent of about three lumdred mileH of tlicso rail- 
 ways. They were gradually employed on a greater scale, particularly in Wales, where the 
 county of Glamorgan has one twenty-five miles long, ond in all two huiulrnd miles of riiil- 
 way. The railwoy between Manchester and Liverpool extends thirty-one miles, and is car- 
 ried over sixty-three bridges, thirty of which, pass over the turnpike road, and one over the 
 river Irwell. The entire cost was about 82(),(K)0i. ; but the intercourse has been so exten- 
 sive as to atibrd an ample remuneration. The Cromford and High Peak railway is carried 
 over the high mountainous district of Derbyshire, connecting the two canals which bear 
 these names. Its length is thirty-three miles, carried over fifty bridges, and rising to a level 
 of 992 feet above the Cromford canal. The entire expense has not exceeded 180,01KW. 
 
 The common high roads of the kingdom are also an object of high importance to trade and 
 general intercourse. Half a century ago most of them appear to have been in a miserable 
 state, but they are now, perhaps, the best in the world, chiefly through the application of the 
 turnpike system, under which they are made and repaired by tolls levied upon the travellers, 
 and administered by county trustees. There are a few cases where roads are to be carried 
 through poor provinces, or form grand lines of national communication, in which government 
 judges it expedient to assist, or even to undertake the entire construction of them. In 1823, 
 the turnpike roads extended in all to 24,51)1 miles in length. The amount of tolls was 
 1,214,(KKM., burdened with a debt of 5,20O,000Z. 
 
 Bridges, in a country intersected by numerous and oflen broad rivers, necessarily attracted 
 a great share of attention ; and the ingenuity and wealth of England have been employed 
 in making extensive improvements in this branch of architecture. Southwark Bridge is the 
 most complete of any yet formed of iron. This species of bridge has the advantage of being 
 lighter, and of requiring much fewer arches than those of stone. A still more daring form 
 137 has been given to this material by 
 
 bridges of suspension, formed by 
 iron chains stretched across, and 
 supported by fixed points on each 
 side. This construction, on a cer- 
 tain scale, has existed in China 
 from the earliest ages. The Ame- 
 ricans were the first to adopt it of 
 Mfnai Bridge. any western nation. The greatest 
 
 undertaking of this kind yet executed istlie Menai Bridge (Jifr. 137.),over the strait which 
 separates Wales from Anglesea. Arches of masonry on each side, at the distance of five 
 hundred and sixty feet, are united by a bridge of suspension, composed cf iron chains. 
 
 Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State. 
 The population of England in former times was imperfectly known, being calculated only 
 from very vague surveys and estimates. In 1377 the results of a poll-tax were given as 
 2,300,0(K) ; but from the many evasions to which such a census would give rise, that number 
 was probably below the truth. In the reign of Elizabeth, during the alarm of a menaced 
 Spanish invasion in 1575, a pretty careful survey was made, the result of which gave 4,.'500,000. 
 At the time of the Revolution, the increase appeared to be about a million.* From the com- 
 mencement of the present century decennial enumerations have been made, of which the 
 following are the results: — 
 
 
 ISOl. 
 
 Increue 
 
 perctiut. 
 
 Popiililioii, 
 1811. 
 
 Incnme 
 percciir. 
 
 FoiHihtioD, 
 
 per cent. 
 
 I'oiHiIatinn, 
 1»J1. 
 
 8,331,434 
 541, .MO 
 470„W8 
 
 14} 
 
 13 
 
 «,551,»« 
 
 011,788 
 040,500 
 
 17} 
 
 17 
 
 11,201,437 
 717,43d 
 310,300 
 
 10 
 12 
 
 13,0ft8.:a8 
 H)5,2.10 
 277,017 
 
 ^g|()4 
 
 
 Total 
 
 i),343,578 
 
 27} 
 
 10,804,170 
 
 34} 
 
 12,2118,175 
 
 2a i 14,180,51)1 
 
 • PopKlalion of the British Empire and Colonia. 
 
 r.ri'iit nrimin and Ireland 24,3M,8M 
 
 Noilli Americun Colonies 1,;!(HM)00 
 
 Wi.silii.lia " HXl.ntW 
 
 African " M.inin 
 
 Asiatic •• l,(KM»,ni)0 
 
 Australian " li.i.OOO 
 
 Kast India Company 123,000,000 
 
 Total 150,800,834 , 
 
 TAh. Ed.] 
 
 T- I 
 
i 
 
 358 
 
 DESCRIl'TIVR GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part IK 
 
 Proportion of deaths, marriaf(ri, cjr. to the pojmlation. — Ainon^r llio farts that attCHttlie 
 improved condition ol'Uic people uf England Hince 1770, the uxtruordinury diminution in the 
 rato ot'inurtahty is onuot'thu IcoNt i<(|uivocui. In 17H(), thn (it<ntiiN in Enftlund and VVttlHH 
 amounted to about 1 in 40 of liiu population ; in 17f)0, to about 1 in 'l.'i ; in IHll, to 1 in 52 ; 
 and at un average of tiio five years undinf; witli 18130, 1 in 54. The improvement haH boon 
 iwrticiilarly conspicuous in tlio {U^reat townH ; and is to bo ascribed to tliu more comlortuble 
 HJtuation of uil classes, the (rrcatcr attention (uid to cleanliness, &.c. The proportion of 
 inarrioffes to the |M)pulation has recently declined. In 1760, there was 1 mnrrin({e for every 
 110 individuals; in 1780, 1 in 118. During the five years ending; with INIO, it was as 1 
 to 12*.!; and dnriiiff the live years cndinj; with 1830, it was as 1 to 120. But this decrease 
 is to be oiicribcd wlioUy to the greater prevalence of moral restraint, tlio proportion of ille- 
 g'itimate births not having increased. The number of births to a marriage in England in 
 about 4. Consumption is the most fatal disease. 
 
 The national character of the English exhibits some very bold and marked features. Of 
 tl.eso thc! most conspicuous is that love of liberty which pervades all cla-sses. The liberty 
 ti)r which the English have successfully contended, includes the right of thinking, saying, 
 writing, and doing most things which opinion may dictate, and inclination prompt. The 
 knowledge that the highest omces and dignities in the state are accessible to all, redoubles 
 their activity, and encouraj^es them to perseverance. It is but little more than a century 
 since they began to be distinguished as a manufacturing and commercial people, yet they 
 have already outstripped other European nations in mechanical ingenuity, in industry, and in 
 inercuntilo enterprise. The enormous increase of capital, and the substitution of machinery 
 for human labour in most of their manufactures, seem likely at no distant period topralucea 
 total change in the condition of British society. Much of its tone is given by the landed 
 gentry ; a numerous bo<ly, whose estates, though generally considerable, are not enormous : 
 while, on the Continent, landed property is usually in one or other of two extremes; either 
 divided into minute portions, or partitioned into a few princely domains. The English gentry, 
 unlike their continental neighbours, reside during the greater jmrt of the year at their coun- 
 try-seats; appearing in London and at court only for a few months in the spring. In this 
 clas.s, uiid indeed among the English in general, an uncontrolled temper, elevated by the 
 feeling of independence, often impels individuals into extremes both of go<xl and evil. No- 
 where exists a purer spirit of patriotism ; nowhere break forth more violent excesses of 
 faction. In no country of Euro|)c, |)erha|)s, are there so many men who act steadily upon 
 
 {)rinciplo; yet in noru; exists, at tiie same time, so large a proportion of individuals living in 
 labitual and open violation of all principle, and frequently in contempt of legal ordinances. 
 IJomestic life is cultivated by the English more sedulously than by any of the continental 
 nations ; thc sanctity of marriage is more carefully guarded ; and chastity in the female sex 
 more strictly observed. In its minor features, the English character has undergone various 
 changes. The vices of drinking and swearing, once so prevalent, are happily no longer 
 fashionable. Horse-racing, hunting, and rural sports, are carried to excess by some of the 
 country gentlemen ; and the more barbarous practice of boxing still has cultivators. Per- 
 haps the most estimable quality of the English is their love of justice ; the source of all 
 honourable dealin;; among thc higher cla-sses, and of what is emphatically caWed fair play, 
 in the transaction- of humbler life. The principle, that a man's word should be his bond, la 
 acted upon most rigorously where the greatest interests are at stake ; as on its observance 
 more than on that of any law that has been or can be devised, the commercial and financial 
 prosperity of the country depends. The English are the most provident people in thc world. 
 RIore than a million of individuals are members of friendly societies, and the deposits in 
 savings banks exceed 13,(MXt,(MK)?. The great extension of life insurance affords another 
 proof of this laudable disposition. The English also deserve to be called a humane people, 
 zealoii.s, both from feeling and from principle, for the promotion of every thing that tends to 
 the welfare of their fellow-creatures. Crime in England has undergone a considerable 
 change. Highway robbery, so prevalent towards the beginning and middle of last century, 
 is now nearly unknown, and all sorts of crimes and violence have been materially lessened. 
 On the oilier hand, there has been a very rapid increase, particularly within tlio last twenty 
 years, of crimes against prop»!rty. A material change has recently been ellected in tlie 
 criminal law of England, by the abolition of on immense number of capital puiushmeiita 
 
 Prnision for the Poor. A riipii|iiil«iir.v riitn Imf I" i!ii levicil on all kinds of tixed prnperty, fir thi' mippnrt of nil 
 iinpntctit, iHtnr, iiitti liiM'riiptoycil pt-rmtriH, ever t^iiirc llin riMKii nf Klixiiht'tli. In 17UU the rates ainounteil to iibimt 
 l.ubo.flOU/ . nnil, notwithi'laiiiliiiv llii' iiicria^e of pnpuliitiiin anil tnxntiiiii in the inli'rvnl, tlii'y witi' litlle morn 
 than 'J.IKKI.UOIV al ilir iliw iif tlii' American war. In I71>5 »'vpral ill-ciinaiilcreil I'lianiii'S wpri' nindc in thi' nimle 
 (>r urnniini! ri'ln-t', aiitl thr pr-rtii< U>im prauticit ol' rkinir out watics by (-nntrihutiniis tVnni the rati.'tt was tlMin aliu> 
 ailMpiril. Friiin lhi» piTiml. il.iwn tii tin' li'rniinati'iM uf Ilic' lali' Fniirh war, thi? pniKri'Ks (if Ilie rales was very 
 rapid, sn that tin v anicmiiled in !l,:)jiMKIti/ in llu) year Ii^l7-H. They have Riiire been ndnred, bnt they still 
 
 a iiiteil in 1KII-:I\! tn r'..'>li:i.U(lll/. 'I'm- iiliiises arisine nut nf the practice nf payirii! wairvs nut of rates are nut 
 
 ihliiTf nt in the syKiern. 'I'hey wer t:raned upnn it eto lati' as 17*15, ami niav, and it i^ to be hoped will, be en- 
 
 lipelv ri ved. A nl'nrui of iln^ son unulil nf itself lake nearly a third part from the rates. [By the act of Hth 
 
 Aiiiiijst, IKI4. uhieli provides fnr the eppninlnient nf three pniT lawcominiMiiiners, with power to make rules and 
 feifulatinns for the iriana^ement of the pour and the administration of the poor laws, these abuses have beel 
 ref iniii'd.— Am. Ed.J 
 
!'l 
 
 Book L 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 3&e 
 
 liippnrt of nil 
 lite<l ti> nbnut 
 htlle ninrc 
 ■ in tUr inmlt 
 jviii» then HUt> 
 lli'S wiia viTV 
 till tliry iitill 
 Irutca uro not 
 1l will, be I'li- 
 Tie Dct (if 14th 
 Lkn rules and 
 Es have beei 
 
 The English arc, in ({enoral, a people nuberly rnli(;ioug, tliuu^li tho nation, among ita other 
 excesscrt, huH proMontoil Htrikin^ (lixnlityB uf ititululity ami tunuticism. Tho Church of Eng- 
 land wuN cutabliMhod in the roi)(n ot Qiiocn Elizabeth, uhi-ii thii rnfimnation wan completed 
 which had boon bc((uii in that of llonry VIII. It '\a an inti-}rnil pitrt of the constitution, hav- 
 ing for ita head the kinj;, who, Oii heud of the church, numinatits to vacant bialiopnca and 
 certain other prcfurinuntis coiiHtitutcs ur rcxtraina cccloaiaHtical juriiidictionH, inflicUi occlo- 
 ■iastical censures, and decides in the last resort in all ccclcsiaHticul causes, an appeal lying 
 liltimately to him in chancery, IVum the sentence of every ecclesiastical judgo, In respect 
 to ita church government, England is primarily divided into two provinces or archbishoprics, 
 Canterbury and York, Each province contains various diiwescs or scats of Butfragan bishops, 
 Canterbury including twenty-one, and Yurk three, besides the bishopric of Sodor and Man, 
 which was annexed to it by Henry VIII. Every diocese ia divided into archdnaconriea, 
 of which the whole number amounts to sixty, each archdeaconry^ into rural deaneries, which 
 are the circuita of the archdeacon's and rural dean's jurisdiction; and each deanery into 
 parishes, towns or villages, townships, and hamlets. The principal church of each see ia 
 appropriately called the cathedral church ; it ia possessed by a spiritual body curiwrato, called 
 a aean and chapter, who are tho council of the bishop, but derive their cor))orate capacity 
 tVom the crown. Chapters are usually composed of canons and prebendaries ; the mainte- 
 nance or stipend of a canon aa well iia of a prebendary being a prebend. Prebendaries are 
 distinguished into simple and dignitary. A simple prebendary hoa no cure, and nothing but 
 his revenue for his support ; a digiiitied prebendary has always a jurisdiction annexed, which 
 is gained by prescription. The archdeacon haa authority in the bishop's absence to hold 
 visitations, and under the bishop to examine clerks previous to ordination, and also before 
 institution and induction. He hiia also power to excommunicate, to impose penances, and 
 to reform irregularities and abuses among the clergy, and has charge of the pariah churches 
 within the diocese. Below the archdeacon and tho ecclesiastics composing the chapter, no 
 member of the Church of England is t>iititled to tho appellation of dignitary. The inferior 
 orders constitiito what is called the parochial clergy. The principal person of a parochial 
 church is entitled either rector or vicar, that title, which is really more appropriate and 
 honourable, having become corrupted by vulgar misuse. The revenues of tlie church of 
 England are very e?:tensive ; ond considering tho different offices and gradations of ita mem- 
 bers, very variously distributed. The rental subject to tithe has been stated, in returns made 
 to parliament, at 2U,000,U(K){. Besides the tenth of this amount, that is to say, the tithe, 
 the clergy have other funds, which are supposed to raise their entire income to upwards of 
 3,t)0(),00(W. The Episcopal revenues are of vorious amounts ; that of the see of Durham w 
 estimated at i3(),0(H)/. per annum, and is usually considered the largest The lowest, that of 
 Ijimdafl*, till Is short of 30002. The prebends enjoyed by canons and prebendaries are some 
 of them very ample ; those which exceed lOOtW. a year are called golden prebends. Those 
 dignitaries are also compcteflt to hold livings as rectors and vicars. The salaries of curates 
 were forinoriy in many coses extremely small; but, by a legislative provision and by flinda 
 allotted out of the public revenue, most of them have been augmented in proportion to the 
 value of tho benefice and its population ; 80/. a year is the lowest stipend, and, if tho living 
 be worth 4002. per annum, the bishop may allow the curate of such living 1002. a year, 
 whatever be its population. 
 
 In her intellectual character, England may be justly considered aa standing proudly 
 eminent. Bacon, Boyle, Locke, Newton, Davy, with a long train of coadjutors, have dis- 
 closed to mankind perhaps a greater sum of important truths than the philosophers of any 
 other country. Strong, clear, sound sense appears to be tlie quality peculiarly English ; 
 and her reasoners ■.vero the first to explode those scholastic subtleties which, having usurped 
 the name of philosophy, so long reigned in the schools. It w'as their merit to discover and 
 establish true philosophy, and apply it to objects of real interest and utility. 
 
 In works of imagination, the genius of the English is bold, original, and vigorous. In the 
 drama, Shakspearo stands unrivalled among ancient and nio<lern poets, by his profound and 
 extensive knowledge of mankind, his boundless range of observation throughout all nature, 
 his exquisite play of fancy, and his irresistible power in every province of thought and feel- 
 ing, the sublime and the pathetic, the terrible and the humorous. In epic poetry, Milton 
 is acknowledged by common consent to stand first among the modems. Spenser and Dryden 
 are alike eminent, the one for sweetness, the other for versatility; while in correctness of 
 taste, and the polished harmony of numbers. Pope has no rival among the poets of any 
 modern nation. 
 
 In historical writing, England has many illustrious names, among which that of Gibbon 
 deserves an honourable place. In oratory, some of her statesmen have acquired great 
 renown, tliough tlio general taste both in the senate and at the bar seems to delight rather 
 in plain sense and in cogency of argument, tiian in those elaborate, ornate, and declamatory 
 flights by wliicli the groat speakers of antiquity acted on the imagination and passions of 
 their hearnfiJ. 
 The institutions for public education in England are extensive and splendidly endowed. 
 
 
 11': I.! 
 
 * • 
 
aao 
 
 DKSCUII'TIVK (JK0(JI{AI'I1V. 
 
 I>ABT III. 
 
 Tho two iinivi^riiitifM of Oxford niui Cumhriilpi' urn not only tlu! wmlthior Imt ilio iiioHt 
 (Uiciont in Kuri'|)o. Tlicy rnjiiy iiimm^f otlier iirivilnjft-M tliiit of rt'tiiriiiii;^ I'lU'li two iiii>iiili{irii 
 to piirliiinioiit, uiiil of huliliiiif courtit tor thn ilocinioii of cniiNi'x it) wliicli tiii<iiilH'r>« of thpir 
 own Uiily iirt( inti;ri'ntod. Tlii-y were of r»;i'l('HriiNtii! ori^riii ; hut tliry liiivd Ion;,' U'oii run- 
 niduruii lis liiy coriionitiotiii. Tli'Mr rrwtiirccK liavo Ihuti iiiit^tiiciitctl liy tlio iiiiiiiilin'tn-o of 
 Kovurtti^'iiH, mill III o|iiili'iit itiiliviilimlri. Tiii! pNliililiNJiiiiiMitH riiin|HiMin^ tlu'iii iiri> (liHliii);iiiMho<l 
 into fill li>(;uH iitiil liiillii; tlm |iitti>r li(-itiu; acaili'iiiical liuiirti'- not iiu'or|)orMlt>il or I'liilowcd, 
 tlioti|;h thoy hnvu had cotmiiji'nihli) iMMiciiictiuiiM, wliidi urn ili.-[H'iiNn(l to tiio HtmirtitH in i'xhi> 
 bitiiiiw liniitt'il til a Htiitod |X"riiMl. C)xtiiril Iiiih nitirli'cii coIIi'^tch iiiiiI (Ivii Imlis; ('iiiiiliriilufo 
 liiiH tliirtuiMi coll<>);('M iind limr IiiiIIh, wliioli liint, Imwi'vor, jiohni'hh tlii' muih! privilc^'CH m tno 
 liiriiH'r. Each univpfiiity im nmlur tlif ;;ovrrniiii'iit of a rlmticnllnr, liijfh Htiiwiiril, vice- 
 cliniirullor, mid otiior otficrrH ; tlio porwitis who prciiido ovit tho ditliTont cHt^ililit^liiiiiMitH an 
 nioatora, wnrdons, rt'ctora, priiici|)iilM, or provoxta, Ix'iir tlio pnicral dcnuiiiinatioti of IiciuIh of 
 colicfi^CK, and vacli I'ulli'^ii has u niitnbtir of fi'lloWMhips to which lar^o I'nioluiiiuntH mid rniiy 
 duticM are attnchod. Thoy pogMCHH qImo nxtrnnivo patrona(;o in church livin^'H, mid u luitnbor 
 o4' cxIiibitiotiH or gcholar8lii|>M. 'I'hi'tio, tliou((h ol conxidenihlu vahio, iiro nut Hiip|iiniod ode- 
 quato to dffmy tho ex|N!nH(i of a rcHidonro at n iniivornity, whicii, at tho hiwi-st, in calcu- 
 lated to atiioiitit to irHW. a your. On the bookH of each iinivcrHity aro the nunii's of many 
 mciiiborH who httVd lonff coiiKcd to rPHiih;; but, •■xclusivo of tlii<Hr, the iuiiiiIht actually row- 
 dent ut Oxford may bo stjitpil at lUMN), and thoHo at ('nnibrid^p anioinit to coriHidoriibly inoro, 
 Students, accordinj^ to tlinr proficiency in learning, are entitled to tho dejjrecu of Imchelor 
 and niiMter of art», bachelor and doctor in divinity, and bachelor and doctor in tiie facultioR 
 of pliyBic and law. The time required by the HtatnfoH to be occupied in fludy before each 
 «tudont can be iiualificd for takinf; those degrees in three yean for a bachelor, iiiul almut four 
 years more (or a master of arts ; seven years after that he may commence bachelor of divinity, 
 and then five years more entitle him to take the degree of doctor in divinity. In law, a 
 student may commenco bachelor after six years', and in physic after five years' standing. 
 Only one year's attendance and tho hearing of a single course of lectures arc required as 
 prepiiratory tiir entering into holy orders, the lownes.'i of the inferior church livin^rs, and tho 
 expense ot residence, rendering it difficult to exact morn fVom the greater niiinb<'r of can- 
 didates for ordination. The qualifications tor a bishop include tho degree of doctoi- in divinity. 
 
 The n?xlo of instruction is by private tutors, who teach cloasical literature and tho 
 mathematics, the latter branch of study being particularly cultivated at Cambridge. The 
 public exntninntions are conducted with great diligence, and excite emulation. The lucra- 
 tive fellowships may sometime.M tempt their possesMors to indulge in luxurious ease; but to 
 those who are s«^riously diufxised to study, they afibrd facilities for research hardly attainablo 
 in any other spliure. 
 
 Two educational establishinonts, tho Ix)ndon University and King's College have boon 
 recently instituted in I/indon. 
 
 Of the public scliools of Kngland, tlio most distinguished are those of Westminster, Eton, 
 Winchester, and Harrow. Although originally founded as charity-schools, yet being now 
 appropriated to the education of boys of the first families, the habits formed in them are 
 very expensive. Greek and I^tin are almost exclusively taught there by masters eminently 
 qualified; and Englishmen of education generally excel in tho knowledge of both languages. 
 
 For boys of the middle rank, and thoso destined for commercial pursuits, there are numer- 
 ous private academies. 
 
 Colleges for the particular study of law and equity have long been established in the 
 mctro|K)lis, under the names of inns of court and itms of chancery. The principal of these 
 aro the Middle and Inner Temple, Lincoln's Inn, and Gray's Inn. n<>foro any person can 
 be admitted to practise as an advocate, he nnist be regularly entered in, ond be a member 
 of, one of the inns of court for five years, and must have kept his commons in such inn, 
 twelve terms. In favour of those who have taken a degree of master of arts or bachelor of 
 laws at an English university, tlireo years are sufficient to be a member of tho iim. Afler 
 complying with these conditions, and paying the regular fees, the student may be culled to 
 the bar without having been required to make any public demonstration of his proficiency or 
 ability. 
 
 Of primary schools for the great liody of tho people, there fiirmerly existed a considerable 
 number; but the deficiency of them, at present, is greatly to be deplored. The metropiilis, 
 indeed, contains several, of which the most considerable is Christ-church Hospital or the 
 Blue-coat School, in which ab<iut 1100 children are maintainetl and educated. The number 
 of charitable foundations in different jiarts of tho country amounts to 3,898, yielding an 
 income of fir},3!>')/. Of these, however, many give also board and lodging, so that their 
 advantages can extend to only a small number; others have been neglected, and left exposed 
 to those abuses to which old establishments are generally liable. So greatly was the in- 
 fluence of these institutions on tlie great liody of the lower orders diminishcMl, that within 
 Uie List 30 years the larger projwrtion of labouring people were unable to read. The evils 
 
BOUK I. 
 
 ENGr.AND 
 
 set 
 
 It llipir 
 kxposrtl 
 Itlio in- 
 witliin 
 he evils 
 
 itriNin;; t'ri)iii wnnt (ifriliiciitiiui niiuiiiff tlioin liiivu, lit l(<n|{tli> l>i'<'ii itninfrlv I'olt ; and very 
 (rri'iit I'xcrlioiH Imvi! Im-cii iiiiiili<, rhu'lVy liy thu iNMinvulimci! <il'|iriviit(i iiiiliviiliiuU, tn roiiu-tly 
 
 lUO (Ipll'Ct. 
 
 Of tlin H('if>ntirtc inKtiliitii'iiN of Kni^laml tlin tbromiMit Im "tlio Itoyiil Hurii'ty of l,<milon 
 tor improving,' Nnliiml Kiiou IciIko." In itM iiifuncy it owiil miik-Ii to tlin {iroti't'tiuii of Olivur 
 (.'roiMWi'll ; mill liiiviiitf Miirvj^ I'll ^'"' ('oiiiiiioiiwi-nltli, wiin iiiror|)<imli'il by rnyitl clwirtiT, in 
 l(MK), Till' Sij(!ii'iy |ml)liHh iiii iiiiiiiial vuliiiiiu uiiilur tint niiiiio of I'liilimiiiiliiriil 'l'riin$tir- 
 turn* 'I'lif Soi'ii'ty of Antii|iiiirii'H tritci'ii itx ori)(iii to tlio rclifii of (Iihm'ii Kli/,iilH<tli, liut 
 wuM not iiii'iir|i<>ratiiil until IH'JI. It Iiiim )inliliHlii!il n M)rinitof volniupiiniititli'il ArilnroloffM, 
 Hovi'riil iiriMiti' iHucii.'tii'H liiivn bci-n I'ornii^il for tlio nnltivittion of particiiliir liriinclii'M of 
 knowloil}(i', hy lilt! union of imlivMlnaU i|iHtini;niHlu>ii for tlii'ir iittainmontx in or ili'votiori to 
 tlioHi' liriiiiclii'M. Ik'MJili'it tlii'HO and otlicr in.-«titutioiiN in tlin nu'troiMiliH, iiiiuit of tlio (fri'at 
 jlrovilll;^^l towns, uh MiinclicMtiT, Hriwiol, Dfrliy, LivcriNxil, nnd Nowcnutli', liiivn formed 
 litoriiry iiiiil |iliilo>io|iliirul MKtiotJi's, which havu iniulu houiu iiii|i(irtii!itcontribiitionK to hcIlmico 
 and litiTiitiiro in ilioir 'rrtiiiNuctuiiiH, 
 
 Tlie |)rimn|>iil public libriirniH Imvo owed tlioirori(;iii to tlioMpirit nifd cntorprino uf private 
 individuiiln; tliu liodloimi Library at Oxford wiih tho bciiuuHt of Sir ThoiniiH liiHlli'y, nrnl 
 VIM enrirlii'd by HiicceMsivo ilonatiunM. Tho Uritinh Muhi'iiiii di'rivPil its firHt tri-riHiiroM tVotn 
 tho L-olli'ctiiiiiiJof Sir Robert Cotton and Sir llann SIiniiio; biithiiHac(|uirod, tliroii;;li piirnliiitio 
 by piirliiuiiiMit, tho HarliMiin mid LiinMlownu MSS,, tho librarios of Major I']il\vardM and Dr. 
 liurnoy, ami sovi-nil valuiiblii cidloctiotw of coinn and niincnilN. It Iuih also bi.'cn enrii-hed 
 by tho enliro collection of (Joorno III., proHonted to tin- n.'ition by hw nuecoHwir. With 
 tfuji acc(wnioii, till! library, which previously couHinted of ri'MHK) voluines, has been aug- 
 mented by one-liulf. The Muiicum in alw) very rich in specimcnH of natural liiNtory, par- 
 ticularly of niini'raIo)(Y. 
 
 IntititutioiiH of a hif{nly UHoful cliaracter have Npruni; from the gcnnnil desire of knowleilge 
 which marks the prenent uge. Their object in to coinmunicuto know!od(»o to tho coniiner- 
 cial classes, as well as to persons who have not opjMirtunitics for a regular course of study, 
 and the chief means cmpiovod tor this purpose are a library, a reading-rooni, and courses of 
 lectures. Of these establishmonts are tho Royal Institution, tho liondon Institution, &c.; 
 and all the (rroat cities and towns have now tlicir public libraries. 
 
 Of the Fine Arts, that of painting has been greatly neirlccted in Enjrland. Portrait 
 paintin;;, iniicod, always met with encouragement; yet Vandyke, the leader in this brnnrh of 
 art, wa.s a liiroigiier. It was only toward the close of tho last century that Reynolds formed 
 a style ilociilt'dly Knglish, and of distinguished excellence. 
 
 The Roy;il .Academy, under the iioini'iliati! patronage of the king, consists of fijrty arti.sts, 
 including the president, while a nuiubiT of otiiers are attached in expectancy ns assix'iatei). 
 There are lour profosstirs, viz, of painting, of arcliitectur(>, ofanatoniv, and of pi'rs|)ectivo, 
 who annually read public lectures on tho subjects of their several (lonartinents. To the 
 schools of this academy free admission is given to all students properly qimlilied for receiv- 
 ing instruction, and there is an annual exhibition of paintings, sculpture, and architectural 
 designs, to which all artists may send their works for admission, if approved by the commit* 
 tee appointed to judge them. The splendid collection of paintings formed by the regtut 
 duke of Orleans was imported entire, and tho greater part of it now embellishes the gallery 
 of the Marquess of Staflbrd. Tho nobles of Italy, olso, on tho devastation of that country 
 were obliged to strip their palaces of these valued ornaments, and to dispose of them at 
 low rates to English speculators. From those sources were tbrined tho Xlrosvenor, the An- 
 gerstein, and many otiii-r private collections. On the death of Mr, Angerstein, in 18'24, his 
 collection was purchased by pailianient, and made the Iwisis of a national gallery, which has 
 since received considerable additions both by purchase and bequest. 
 
 In tho other departments of the fine arts, nmsie, sculpture, and architecture, the English 
 have bei'u tlir excelled by the continental nations; in engraving, they have produced some 
 distinguished names. 
 
 The publishing and selling of IxKiks (brm one of tho prmeipal branches of her productive 
 industry. Periodical literature has a very extensive circulation. In the metropolis nearly 
 sixty magazines and reviews are published, of which the monthly value has been estimated 
 at 60()(W. Another important characteristic of tho national spirit may be remarke<l in the 
 immense circulation of newspipers, notwithstanding a heavy stamp-duty. There are in 
 London eight daily morning pap(;rs, anil five daily evening papers; seven papers published 
 thrice a week; and upwards of forty weekly papers. Of the latter species of newspaper, 
 every provincial city has two or three, and every town of consequence has one. The num- 
 ber of stamps issued for the Nondon newspaiicrs in IRIW was 21,4;}2,882. Tho produce of 
 the duty in tliit year was AWA'Af, 
 
 The tiivoiirite aiiiiisonipnts of the En^^lish arc those which combine the advantages of air 
 and exerciso. The staj,fe, though eminently rich in dramas, and supplieil with actors of high 
 talent, is not the habitual resort of the jieople. In former times hunting was almost the 
 sole busiiii.'ss of life aiauuK the EnglLsh squires; and though their tastes arc now much 
 
 VoKi. " *= 31 av 
 
 
 ,*«.. 
 
..k 
 
 ,^-' 
 
 902 
 
 ti 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt m 
 
 varied, this original pastime, in ail its forms, continuos to be eagerly followed. By the 
 nobility and gentry, horse-racing is supported with equal ardour, and no country rivals Eng- 
 land in the liigh excellence to which she lias brought the breed of animals employed in this 
 diversion. The races of Doncaster, of York, and atove all of Newmarket, are attended by the 
 most distinguished persons in the country for rank and opulence; and other race-courses 
 attract great multitudes of miscellaneous spectators. Among, tlie common people boxing 
 matches present a similar occasion of laying wagers. Bull-baiting was pUt down only by 
 statute. Of the national outrdoor games, those ot cricket and tennis deserve especial com- 
 mendation, from their tendency to enliven the spirits and invigorate the frame. 
 
 In their habits and modes of ordinary life, the English may be called a domestic people, 
 especially when compared with the French. In common with other northern nations, the 
 English retain a taste for fermented or distilled liquors, which, however, has been in a 
 great measure corrected and subdued among the higher and middle classes. Beer and porter 
 constitute the staple drink of the great body of the people ; but malt spirit of a cheap and 
 very pernicious kind is consumed in great quantities by the lowest orders, especially in the 
 metropolis, where it is rapidly accelerating their degeneracy. Among the middle classes 
 the wines of Spain, Portugal and Madeira are in general use ; but the cellars of the rich 
 are stored with the choicest products of the French vineyards. Convivial excess, so long the 
 reproach of the English, has become comparatively rare. 
 
 Sect. VII. — Local Geography. ■ '■ 
 
 England and Wales are divided into counties or sliires. Wales, until the time of Ed- 
 ward I., was an independent principality, but is now an appendent territory, of very inferior 
 magnitude. It has still, however, its own courts of judicature, and retains some national 
 peculiarities. The number of counties in England is forty, and in Wales twelve; making in 
 all fifty-two. The following statistical table, gives a general view of the extent, popula- 
 tion, employment, and wealth of each county : — 
 
 
 li 
 
 
 
 
 Income 
 
 in 1814-15, arising Oom 
 
 
 
 
 CoUBtlBt. 
 
 10/. ard 
 U|twards. 
 
 RcDlal 
 
 or llOUKS. 
 
 ti>n, 
 Ibll. 
 
 Lind. 
 
 Tradt. 
 
 OfliMS. 
 
 1% 
 
 Halo, 
 
 Cities ud Towai. 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 Bedford 
 
 Berk! 
 
 430 
 744 
 
 723 
 3,713 
 
 13.019 
 83,573 
 
 95,383 
 145,389 
 
 304,370 
 719,889 
 
 94,790 
 399,703 
 
 1,481 
 3,317 
 
 
 90,994 
 129,333 
 
 Bedford 
 
 5 ?"»''!»« 
 
 W'.mlsor 
 
 Newbury — 
 
 0,939 
 
 15,595 
 
 7,103 
 
 5,939 
 
 Back! 
 
 748 
 
 1,894 
 
 35,055 
 
 140,529 
 
 603,872 
 
 232.981 
 
 1,998 
 
 
 158,483 
 
 Biickingliam . 
 Avle.sbiiry . .. 
 
 3,610 
 3,021 
 
 Cunbridfte.... 
 
 086 
 
 2,045 
 
 49,781 
 
 143,955 
 
 705,371 
 
 239,087 
 
 5,109 
 
 
 115,103 
 
 Cninbridge . . . 
 
 Ely 
 
 30,917 
 0,180 
 
 Cheater (o) ■ • • 
 
 1,017 
 
 l.TfM 
 
 93,854 
 
 334,410 
 
 1,114.937 
 
 380,309 
 
 4,307 
 
 30,608 
 
 144,102 
 
 ( Chenlcr 
 
 1 Maccli'shiild . 
 
 31,363 
 23,129 
 
 Cornwall 
 
 1,407 
 
 2.853 
 
 48,117 
 
 303,440 
 
 932,358 
 
 330,113 
 
 3,233 
 
 77,086 
 
 121,202 
 
 1 l.nuncefttoii. . 
 FalniiMith — 
 
 2,231 
 4,760 
 
 Cumberland . . 
 
 1,497 
 
 3,400 
 
 42,040 
 
 109,081 
 
 737.438 
 
 179,752 
 
 3.447,40,297 
 
 58,830 
 
 Cnrliwlc 
 
 Wliitrhnveii . 
 
 20,000: 
 11,393 
 
 Derby (»).... 
 Devon 
 
 Dorset 
 
 1,077 
 
 2.488 
 
 1.129 
 
 3,287 
 12,397 
 
 3,031 
 
 45,033 
 237,000 
 
 57,868 
 
 237,170 
 494,108 
 
 159,352 
 
 883,370 
 1,934,912 
 
 720,203 
 
 310,583 
 754,444 
 
 341,034 
 
 3,908 
 9,471 
 
 4,002 
 
 43,000 108,303 
 33,800'350,713 
 
 104,822 
 
 Dtrliy 
 
 < K.xeter 
 
 \ I'lyiiiiiiitli 
 
 ( Dcvoiiport . . . 
 ( Wevinoiith . ■ 
 f Poil'lf. 
 
 2;i,637 
 ■.7,9;i2 
 40,631 
 34.883 
 7,6.53i 
 (..439! 
 4,075 
 
 ( 8lierhoriic . . . 
 
 Durham (c) . . . 
 
 1,040 
 
 4,200 
 
 09,471 
 
 353,837 
 
 88.5,.'ieO 
 
 353,031 
 
 3,771 
 
 52,300 100,.M0J^-|j-, Id.-: 
 
 10,133 
 17,0<i0 
 
 EmoiW 
 
 1,535 
 
 6,284 
 
 139,800 
 
 317,333 
 
 1,584,108 
 
 003,935 
 
 8,030 
 
 52,248 
 
 t ColclieMer ... 
 
 320,Wl|< Harwich 
 
 ( RnfTrnn WMv 
 I Glourosier . . . 
 
 16,167 
 
 4.297 
 
 II 4.763 
 
 11.9;i:i 
 
 Gtsuceater (<). 
 
 1,123 
 
 9,080 
 
 251,974 
 
 380.SKM 1,315,733 
 
 307,243 
 
 2.«» ;«'>.^'«;^^^^,.;.•^v: 
 
 59,074 
 3,780 
 
 Hereford 
 
 Herlfiird 
 
 Huntingdon . . 
 
 «7I 
 002 
 US 
 
 1.794 
 
 3,490 
 
 945 
 
 30,4i4 
 70.299 
 10,791 
 
 110,970 
 143.341 
 53,149 
 
 ()20.15fl 
 
 •wi.ia? 
 
 325,094 
 
 01,851 
 
 202,989 
 
 08,401 
 
 2.790 
 4.319 
 4,130 
 
 
 70,000 
 115.09-J 
 50,0il2 
 
 f Cirencester .. 
 
 llcreftird 
 
 Ilurlfnrd 
 
 Ilinilliit!d! 
 C t'niiterbiiiv ■ ■ 
 
 S.l'-H) 
 lO.ofi 
 5.iM7 
 3,'i67 
 13,649 
 
 Kent (/)... . 
 
 1,402 
 
 10,129 
 
 .T47,110 
 
 479,155 
 
 1,087,442 
 
 1,086,228 
 
 19,342 
 
 
 399,081! 
 
 J Di'ptrnril mid 
 i Greeinvirli. 
 
 44.348 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 f Muidstoiie . .. 
 
 13,387 
 
 («; Nantwich - - 4.886 I M GulnhenA ■ 
 lb) Chocilc'ifiold ■ .'1,77.1 lliohnp VVoar- 
 Malluck - - - 3,36;i I niouih 
 
 15,177 BlDcklon - - 7.703 1 (f) Chi'llenliam E2,!M2 
 
 South ShieWi 9,074 Htn.iiil - - 8.607 
 
 14,462 1 M) Chelnniurd 5,435 (/) Koi:he8lcr 9,891 
 
 Deal 7.208 
 
 Miirunte - - 10,339 
 liamxuto ■ 7,9(15 
 
m 
 
 6,059 
 15,595 
 7,103 
 5,059 
 3,610 
 5,031 
 90,017 
 0,180 
 31,363 
 2:1,129 
 3,331 
 4.7(» 
 20,000 : 
 . 11,393 
 . 2;),827 
 . .7,932 
 . 40,(i51 
 . 34.883 
 . 7,6,55 1 
 . li,4S9! 
 . 4,075 
 . 10,135 
 . 17,0(KI 
 . 111,1(17 
 . 4,2!I7 
 ilden 4.763 
 ll.!i:i3 
 511,074 
 5,71-t) 
 5.120 
 I0.2W 
 5.24 
 :i,2li7 
 13,(149 
 ind 
 cli.. '(4.34« 
 i5,3B7 
 
 7,268 
 I(),:t39 
 7,9tlS 
 
 Book I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 TABLE— continued. 
 
 ^:> 
 
 
 C* 
 
 
 
 
 Income in 1814-15, arising flrom 
 
 
 
 
 Countld. 
 
 l(V. uij 
 U)jwardfl. 
 
 Renhl 
 
 18311 
 
 Lud, 
 
 Tndii. 
 
 OOcei. 
 
 sl 
 
 iutn. 
 
 CKIn ud Toira. 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 ( Manchester. . 
 
 189,812 
 
 Lamashiro (a) 
 
 1.806 
 
 38,406 
 
 795,833 
 
 1,336,854 
 
 3,139,013 
 
 2,292,079 
 
 39,030 
 
 
 413,530 
 
 1 Liverpool. .. . 
 J Lancaster . . • 
 
 165,175 
 12,613 
 
 Leicester (») . . 
 Lincoln 
 
 816 
 2,787 
 
 3,357 
 4,036 
 
 63,748 
 78,694 
 
 197,003 
 317,344 
 
 951,908 
 3,096,611 
 
 319,607 
 373,071 
 
 5,827 
 6,550 
 
 
 153,594 
 338,053 
 
 (Wigan 
 
 Leicester — 
 
 ( Lincoln 
 
 < Boston 
 
 ( Stamford — 
 
 20,774 
 39,308 
 11,843 
 11,340 
 
 5,837 
 
 Middlesex.... 
 
 297 
 
 116,270 
 
 5,143,340 
 
 1,358,541 
 
 5,763,373 
 
 15,255,245 
 
 1,174,865 
 
 
 779,125 
 
 Pan of London and 1 
 
 Monmouth • . • 
 
 516 
 
 1,088 
 
 31,572 
 
 98,130 
 
 208,981 
 
 102,571 
 
 437 
 
 0,300 
 
 32,089 
 
 Monmouth . . 
 
 4,916 
 
 Norfolk (£)... 
 
 2,013 
 
 5,333 
 
 97,007 
 
 390,054 
 
 1,516,051 
 
 533,010 
 
 16,505 
 
 
 338,807 
 
 ) Norwich 
 
 ( Yarmoiitli . . . 
 
 61,116 
 21,115 
 
 Northamp- 
 ton 
 
 Northum- 
 berland (d) 
 
 065 
 1,809 
 
 3,337 
 6,140 
 
 40,327 
 120,424 
 
 170,276 
 2«J,912 
 
 947,578 
 1,291,413 
 
 185,301 
 430.404 
 
 1,421 
 5,763 
 
 59,900 
 
 173,018 
 88,035 
 
 Niirthompton 
 Peterborough 
 NewcSBlle . . . 
 Berwick 
 
 15,351 
 5,55,. 
 
 42,360 
 8,920 
 
 Nottingham . . 
 
 774 
 
 3,597 
 
 71,396 
 
 335,330 
 
 751,626 
 
 314,501 
 
 2,073 
 
 
 106,707 
 
 Nottingham . 
 
 50,080 
 U,SS7 
 
 Oxford 
 
 Rutland 
 
 743 
 200 
 
 3,638 
 841 
 
 61,860 
 4,631 
 
 151,720 
 19,385 
 
 700.800 
 138,316 
 
 312,809 
 30,938 
 
 4,815 
 799 
 
 
 151,235 
 13,872 
 
 Oxford 
 
 Shrewsbury.. 
 
 20,649 
 23,492 
 
 Salop 
 
 1,403 
 
 3,402 
 
 63,091 
 
 232,503 
 
 1,083,701 
 
 279,932 
 
 4,861 
 
 38,905 
 
 99,605 
 
 JWenlock .... 
 
 17,435 
 
 5,298 
 
 Somerset (e) . . 
 
 Southamp. ) 
 ton 1 
 
 Stafford (/)... 
 Suffolk 
 
 1,540 
 1,533 
 1,196 
 1,566 
 
 16,508 
 9,363 
 6,133 
 3,573 
 
 512,909 
 198,331 
 108,507 
 01,909 
 
 403,008 
 314,313 
 410,485 
 306,304 
 
 3,308,733 
 1,340,547 
 1,200,3'24 
 1,151,304 
 
 1,329,365 
 923,713 
 536,720 
 453,484 
 
 13,887 
 10,751 
 10,626 
 11,973 
 
 30,100 
 8,700 
 48,000 
 
 309,506 
 339,123 
 
 171,578 
 299,064 
 
 ( Ludlow 
 
 t Bath 
 
 \ llridgewnter . 
 f 1'aiiiiton .... 
 I Southampton 
 
 < Portsmouth. . 
 ( Winchester.. 
 I Statford 
 
 < Newcastle . . . 
 
 <Uc'incld 
 
 i Ipswich 
 
 < Dury St. Ed- 
 
 (mind's .... 
 
 5,353 
 
 38,003 
 
 7,897 
 
 11,139 
 
 19,134 
 
 50,309 
 
 8,713 
 
 6,956 
 
 8,193 
 
 6,499 
 
 30,201 
 
 11,436 
 
 Surrey 
 
 811 
 
 33,865 
 
 064,438 
 
 486,330 
 
 1,589,701 
 
 1,564,532 
 
 21,023 
 
 
 321,304 
 
 Soiithwnrk . . 
 Ruilill'ord 
 
 91,501 
 3,916 
 
 Sussex (g)-..> 
 Warwick (A).. 
 
 1,461 
 084 
 
 6,818 
 9,308 
 
 202,837 
 100,603 
 
 373,328 
 336,968 
 
 919,350 
 1,269,756 
 
 372,058 
 609,309 
 
 4,610 
 12,900 
 
 10,950 
 
 289,051 
 192,303 
 
 ilrighton 
 
 < I.ew.s 
 
 ( Chichester . . . 
 i Birtiiiogham. 
 
 < Coventry .... 
 1 Warwick.... 
 
 40,634 
 
 8,590 
 
 8,370 
 
 148,986 
 
 27,070 
 9,109 
 
 Westniorc- ) 
 land i 
 
 7S2 
 
 1,030 
 
 31,120 
 
 55,041 
 
 299.582 
 
 52,575 
 
 1,184 
 
 
 32,044 
 
 Kendal 
 
 10,015 
 
 Wilts 
 
 Worcester (() . 
 
 1,283 
 674 
 
 3,622 
 4,873 
 
 68,577 
 100,836 
 
 239,181 1,215,619 
 211,350 820,030 
 
 370,070 
 373.303 
 
 6,981 
 1,137 
 
 3,100 
 3,800 
 
 220,931 
 97,178 
 
 Salisbury. .. . 
 
 Worcester . . 
 
 I York 
 
 9,876 
 18.610 
 28,454 
 
 York(t) 
 
 6,013 
 
 20,189 
 
 ^15,539 
 
 1,371,396 4,700,424 
 
 1,719,886 
 
 "4,416 
 
 03,300 
 
 s«-»2eilHulL:;::::; 
 
 123,393 
 36,393 
 
 N. Wales. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( Sheffield 
 
 59,111 
 
 Anglcsca 
 
 403 
 
 220 
 
 4,080 
 
 48,335 
 
 94,766 
 
 3,998 
 
 
 
 19,190 
 
 j Btmiitnaris. . 
 } Holyhead . . . 
 
 3,497 
 4,382 
 
 Caernar- ) 
 
 yon (/).... 
 Denbigh (n).. 
 FlintCn^ 
 
 775 
 
 538 
 
 7,982 
 
 65,753 
 
 131,212 
 
 30.641 
 
 320 
 
 
 23,440 
 
 Caernarvon . 
 
 7,649 
 
 
 856 
 176 
 293 
 60S 
 
 4(iO 
 
 14,411 
 
 3,.I75 
 
 4,578 
 7,971 
 
 7,509 
 
 9(19 
 
 8,:t63 
 
 83.167 
 (10 013 
 
 312,576 
 I?"; IIS 
 
 19.677 
 
 11.060 
 
 7,201 
 
 18,748 
 
 22,783 
 13,727 
 30,320 
 
 305 
 
 795 
 68 
 
 ■m 
 
 SCO 
 
 282 
 
 5,301 
 
 \'i,m 
 
 ..... 
 
 
 41.13<l 
 25,513 
 16,700 
 38,065 
 
 20,928 
 20,085 
 37,957 
 
 Denbigh .... 
 Holywell . . . 
 Dolgeliy .... 
 Welshpool.. 
 
 Brecknock . ■ 
 Cnrdigiin . . . 
 Caermarllien 
 
 3,788 
 8,969 
 4,087 
 5.255 
 
 5,036 
 3,795 
 9,955 
 
 Merioneth 
 
 Montgomery . 
 S. Wales. 
 
 
 35,(J0!li 112,510 
 06,485 313,083 
 
 47 763 161 ORO 
 
 Cardigan (o) . . 
 Caerniarthen . 
 
 720 
 936 
 
 74 
 570 
 
 64,780 
 100,(155 
 
 140.816 
 382,091 
 
 Glamor- j 
 
 ....| 1,713 
 
 31,368 
 
 126,012 
 
 372,fira 
 
 103,203 
 
 3,149 
 
 55,900 
 
 42,301 
 
 Swansea . . . 
 
 13,694 
 
 Pembroke (?) . 
 .Radnor 
 
 
 740 
 174 
 
 12,701 
 2,202 
 
 81,424 
 24.051 
 
 220.241 
 101,95(1 
 
 45.348 
 3.4-.'(l 
 
 1,531 
 40 
 
 
 28,308 
 15,298 
 
 Pembroke . . 
 Radnor 
 
 6,511 
 1,989 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u) Bolton - - 
 Siilfcird 
 
 41,195 
 
 Burr - - - 
 
 1.5,086 
 
 (/) Wolverhnmp- 
 
 4(1,780 
 
 Cborlejr - - 
 
 9,'i»2 
 
 lon - - - 
 
 24,7:H 
 
 Rochdale - - 
 
 35,7:i.'i 
 
 Profcol - - 
 
 5.035 
 
 Bilslon . - 
 
 14.492 
 
 PreKton - - - 
 
 31,112 
 
 (b) Lonifhbo- 
 rnuffh - - 
 
 
 (iOlliwimgs - 
 
 10097 
 
 Oldham - - 
 
 32 381 
 
 10,800 
 
 Rve - ■ 
 
 (A) Leiiminirtoii 
 
 3,715 
 
 Ptlkin8(on 
 
 1I,(I0() 
 7.004 
 
 (c) Lynn llenni 
 
 13,376 
 
 6,209 
 
 Croni(i(on 
 
 (</) TyiiPmou(h 
 
 10.182 
 
 KrixKvortll - 
 
 3.697 
 
 Rlnckliiin) 
 
 27,(191 
 
 Nnrdi Shields 
 
 6 744 
 
 (il nudli'y ■ - 
 
 2:i.043 
 
 Tox(e(h Pntk 
 
 24.007 
 
 llexhiiiii - - 
 
 6,042 
 
 Ki.ldi'MninsliT 
 
 14.981 
 
 Chorltnn Itow 
 
 2(l,.Vt9 
 
 Mnrpotll - - 
 
 3.1-90 
 
 lltinilirid.'-e • 
 
 6.14H 
 
 Warrington - 
 
 16.018 
 
 (f) Wells - - 
 
 0,049 
 
 Kvcslmtn 
 
 3,991 
 
 Drnilwich - 
 (*) Wliiiby - 
 Scarbnrough 
 Beverley - - 
 DoiicuBter - 
 lludilribfield 
 llnlit'tix - 
 Bradford - - 
 KHrnsley - - 
 llipon - - 
 ron(olrac( 
 
 2,4871 
 11.725 
 
 8.:(i() 
 
 8.3(h! 
 10,801 
 I9!«:t5 
 1.5,382 
 23233 
 1(1.330 
 ■>.08(1 
 4,832 
 
 {D Bnnror - 
 (Wi) Wrt'xlmm 
 
 Llio)f!ol|fn - 
 (»)Miild - - 
 
 Fliel - - - 
 (o) Ab<'rv8twi(h 
 (;)) Merlliyr Tyd 
 
 vil - - - 32.083 
 
 Cnrdiff - - 0.187 
 (vllUvirfurd wot 3,915 
 
 Tenby - - 3,138 
 
 4,751 
 
 5,483 
 
 3,s:io 
 
 8.086 
 9.216 
 4.128 
 

 ;fM 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 pAiir 111. 
 
 distrilnitod nmler the following subsec- 
 S. Midlimd counties; 4. Norihern coun- 
 
 The topographical details of England mny bo di 
 tinns: — 1. Southern counties; 2. Eastern counties; 3 
 ties ; 5. Western counties. 
 
 SuBSECT. 1. — Southern Coiinlif's. 
 
 Under this head, Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Bcrksliiro, Iliimpi'liiro, Wiltshire, and Dorset, the 
 counties south of the Thames, and along the Channel, will bo comprehended. Tliis fine 
 district is, in general, of a level character; but is traversed, however, by - vfs of low hills, 
 or downs, which give to it a varied and picturesijue aspect, Cirilk is niiniint ftaturo 
 
 in its soil; and, on the coast, forms those bold clifl's, which cli.iriictoris .-jiitliprn bound- 
 
 ary of Britain. Many tracts are under high cultivation, yieldinc, in perfection, the usual 
 agricultural products, with others of great value, peculiar to tliis district; parfioulurly hops, 
 in Kent, and part of Sussex and Surrey. A prominent feature consists of large e.xpansos of 
 downs, composed of chalky soil, scarcely fit for tlie plough, but pastured by vast flocks of sheep. 
 Kent, the largest and finest of these couni ^, holds u conspicuous place in llnglish annals. 
 The men of Kent have been noted as mrace peculiarly stout, hard)', and courageous. In 
 the west are extensive wealds, presenting still many finely wooded riistrict.s ; also large marshy 
 tracts, interspersed, however, with dry cultivatec portions, in wliich the best grain in the king- 
 dom is raised. The interior around Maidstone and Cantcrliury forms almost a continued 
 garden, supplying fruits for the markets of London ; and abo >. .dl, hops, that essential ingre- 
 dient in the staple beverage of the English nation. 
 
 Canterbury, the chief place in Kent, is one of the most ancient and venerable of the English 
 cities. It is the ecclesiastical metropolis of the kingdom, the residence of its primate ; who, 
 as such, places the crown on the sovereign's head, and ranks next in dignity to tiie royal 
 
 family. Its cathedral {fiff. 138.) is of early 
 origin and of vast extent ; while revered through 
 the Catholic world as the shrine of the mur- 
 dered Beckot, il was visited by crowds of pil- 
 grims, and enriched with ofTerintrs; but of these 
 treasures it was stripped by Henry VIII. Can- 
 terbury is built ill the form of a cross, and in- 
 ter.-:ected by branches of the Stoiir. Manufac- 
 tures of cloth, silk, and cotton were early in- 
 gi'9 troiluced, and still subsist, though they cannot 
 i!^ l)ear a comparison with those of the great towns 
 " of file interior and of tiie norfli. 
 
 Maidstone and Tiinbridsre are among the 
 agreeable inland towns in Kent. The former, 
 of great antiquity, has one of the most elegant parochial churches in the kingi'om. It is 
 the chief market for hops; and has some nrimifactures, particularly of paper. Tunbridge 
 Wells, situated five or six miles from the town of Tnnbridge, have long been a place of 
 public resort. The springs arc considered efficucious in cases of debility and certain chronic 
 disorders. The town hiis also a thriving manufacture of Tunbridge ware, consisting of 
 various wooden ornaments, snutr-boxes, children's toys, &ic. 
 
 But the chief places of Kent are maritinu', the most ancient being those called the 
 Cinque Purls. At an early period, they were considered the most imporJant stations for the 
 defence of the kingdom, and were iKiund to furnish and ecpiip fifly-seven vessels, each 
 manned with twenty-one sailors; in return for which, their citizens held the rank of barons, 
 and sent two members to parliament from each port. Their greatness is now departed, and 
 some of tlieir harbours have been filled up by sand. 
 
 The Kentish Cinque Ports are Dover, Sandwich, Hythe, and Romney. The first is still 
 a place of considerable note. The spacious castle on a commanding eminence, the white 
 and towering cliffs, present to the approaching mariner an imposing spectacle. As the main 
 channel of communication with France, it maintains twenty-seven packets in constant ser- 
 vice. Romney and Hythe are of little maritime importance. Sandwich on the east ^oast, 
 
 yields in importance to iLs nominal de- 
 pendencies. Deal, Margate, and Rams- 
 gate. Deal derives its prosperity from 
 the vicinity of tliat fine ancliorage, the 
 Downs, where the outward-lmuiid fleets 
 of England usually remain (lira certain 
 period, when fliey olitain supplies and 
 refresliini'iits from Deal. Margate ie 
 crowdi'd, though not fashionabli' ; and 
 the estahiishment of steain-packets al- 
 lows daily intercourse with the metro- 
 polis. It likewisi; carries on some trade 
 
 Caiitorbury Cathedral. 
 
>■ 
 
 PAiir 111. 
 
 I<)\vin<f siibscc 
 Noriliern coun- 
 
 and Dorset, the 
 led. This fine 
 'PS of low hills, 
 niiiiiiiit foaturo 
 jiithorn hound- 
 ction, the usual 
 rticul;irly hops, 
 pfo expanses of 
 flocks of sheep. 
 l';nj,'lish annals, 
 ourapeous. In 
 so large marshy 
 ■ain in the king- 
 )st a continued 
 essential ingre- 
 
 G of the English 
 ! primate ; who, 
 ity to the royal 
 )8.) is of early 
 revered through 
 ne of the mur- 
 ' crowds of pil- 
 gs ; hut of these 
 nry Vlil. Can- 
 a cross, and in- 
 ,our. Manufac- 
 were early in^ 
 igh they cannot 
 |tho groat towns 
 
 among the 
 
 The former, 
 
 ;innf('o:n. It is 
 
 Tunbridge 
 
 !en n place of 
 
 certain chronic 
 
 consisting of 
 
 lose called the 
 statmus for the 
 
 vessels, each 
 riiiik ol' barons, 
 
 departed, and 
 
 le first is still 
 ncp, the white 
 As the main 
 constant ser- 
 tho east toast, 
 Us nominal de- 
 to, and Rams- 
 irospnrity fi-om 
 ncliorago, the 
 iiiund fleets 
 n tlir n certain 
 siii)|)li('s and 
 .Mnrgote jg 
 iiimildc; and 
 iii-i);u'kets al- 
 ilh the mftro- 
 011 SOUK' trade 
 
 Book I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 365 
 
 ri 
 
 Greenwich llDspital. 
 
 with the Baltic, and supplies the metropolif) with grain and fish. Having risen within the 
 lust half century, it is built willi regularity, and contains twelve marble baths, into which 
 the sea-water is admitted for those who prefer that mode of bathing. Ramsgate, situated 
 on the isle of Thanet, possesses the advantage of a smooth and extensive beach. Conside- 
 rable improvements have been made in the harbour at the expense of government, with the 
 view to its yielding protection to vessels naviguliug lliis coast, where the dangerous shoals 
 of the Goodwin Sands have often p'oved fatal. 
 
 Deptford, Woolwich, Cliatham, ai d Sheerncss, are grand establishments for the construc- 
 tion of ships of war. Deptford con ,ains also the Victualling OflUce. Woolwich is the de- 
 p6t of artillery, and the theatre of all the operations connected with its construction and 
 preparation. Here is also the Royal Military Academy, m which an hundred young men of 
 respectable family are trained in all the branches of knowledge necessary for the engineer- 
 ing department ; and v>lio, after a strict examination, are appointed to commissions in the 
 service. Cliatham is the grand magazine of naval stores. Tlie rope-ho. is 1128 feet long, 
 in whicli cables 101 fathoms in length, and upwards of two feet in circumference, are con- 
 structed. Twenty forges are constantly employed in the fabrication of anchors, some of 
 which are five tons in weight. This imixtrtaut )x)st, with the exception of Portsmouth, ia 
 now the strongest in Britain. Sheerness, on the Isle of Sheppey, is a smaller station, 
 chiefly employed in the repair of shattered vessels. 
 Greenwich, about two miles below Depllbrd, is celebrated for its superb hospital (^fig. 140.) 
 
 for disabled and superannuated ma- 
 riners. Tills edifice wus begun by 
 Charles II., on a design of Inigo 
 Jones, as a royal palace. It remained 
 unfinished, until the reign of Wil- 
 liiiin III., when it wan converted 
 into a naval hospital. It was en- 
 laiged by the addition of three wings, 
 enriched by donations, and by a tax 
 of 0'/. a month from every seaman, 
 and it now sujiports IKHM) boarders, 
 and pays pensions to .5100 in dif- 
 ferent ([uarters of the kingdom. In 
 Greenwich park .stands the cele- 
 brated observatory, furnished witli the best instruments that can be obtained for perfecting 
 astronomical observations. The recorded observations of Flainstued, of Ilallcy, of Bradley, 
 and of Maskelyne, rank amomf tiiu mo.st important contributions to astronomical science. 
 
 At Grave.send, near the niouili of tlio Thames, the ves.sels employed in fijreign commerce, 
 IhjUi in going up and down, must stop :i.nd undergo an examination. Rochester, with an 
 ancient cathedral, contains in its vicinity nuinorous scats, among which may be particularly 
 noted Cobham Hall. Lee I'riory is also remaikablc for its works of art; and Knowle Park- 
 forms a magnificent structure of great extent. 
 
 Sussex extends about Ibrty miles along the Ciiannel. It is covered to the extent of 
 170,000 or 180,000 acres with noble oaks whicii are sought tor the use of the royal navy. 
 The Sussex sheep are peculiarly valued both li>r mutton and wool. 
 
 The capital is Chichester, an ancient little city with a cathedral. Winchclsca, Rye, and 
 Hastings are Cinque Ports, which have lost their ancient importmcc ; but Ilasting.s, from 
 its fine views of land and sea, attracts numerous visitants during the summer, Brighton, the 
 gayest of all the southern watering-places, from being a large fisiiing village, rapidly rose to 
 be an elegant town. Its e-xtensive lawn called the Steyne, sloping tovv'ards the .=ca, forms 
 an agreeable promenade. The Pavilion, or palace built by George IV,, and the chain pier 
 are among the objects of note. 
 
 The rough downs and bleak lieailis of Surrey contrasted with its numerous fine parks 
 and wooded districts, give to its seeni^ry a striking and picturesiiue character. Southwark 
 IS in Surrey ; but it is too entirely a p;irt of I/indon to bo treated separately from the rest of 
 that capital. Along the southern bank of the Thames ure Ko'v, with its palace and fine 
 gardens, containing plants from every ([uarter of the world; Richmond and its hill, which 
 commands a magnificent view of the Thames winding among wooded parks and palaces. 
 Camberwell, (^lapham, and other villages in the vicinity of the capital, are entin'ly composed 
 of the villas of opulent citizens, and the skiIs are nuiuerous. At St. Anne's Hill, a beautiful 
 villa on the Thame.-, Fox pas.s('d the latter years of his life in literary retirement 
 
 Berkshire contains extensive sheep pastures; and a great expanse of its enstevn liordev is 
 occupied by forests; yet more than half its extent consists of fine arable land. The slseej) 
 fair of Ilsley is the most considerable in the kingdom, the animal number sold averaging twe 
 hundred and filly thousand. The hogs also of this county are in high repute. Bi rKshire is 
 remarkable for its manutiictures of copper, which is brought from Swansea to tlie annual 
 extent of six hundred to ui" thousand tons. 
 
 
 u t il 
 
 J > 
 
 rs? I 
 
 
 li 
 
 
■i^' 
 
 ■^ 
 
 JV*t- 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part III 
 
 Reading, the capital of Berkshire, la remarkable in histur^' -« several parliaments were 
 held there, and a sie^e was sustained during the civil war. 11 enjoys some prosperity, 
 
 through the export ot the produce of the fertile surrounding -ict 
 
 Wmdsor, from tlie beauty of its site, on an eminence near the Thames, and tlie magnifi- 
 cence of its royal castle (Jig. 141.), forms a commanding feature in the prospect for many 
 
 Windnr Caatle. 
 
 miles around. William I. constructed hero a fortress of considerable size ; but tlic whole 
 structure was rc-modellcd by Edward III. Since it ceased to be important as a place of 
 strength, it has been occupied as a palace ; and is the only one, in fact, suifcible to the dignity 
 of the monarch. The noble torraco walk 1870 feet in length, commands a finely varied 
 and extensive prospect. George III. completely repaired St. George's chapel, anil partly 
 restored the north front of the upper ward; but in consequence of his illness, the improve- 
 ments were suspended for eleven years. George IV. resumed them on a scale commensurate 
 with the importance of so venerable an edifice ; and large sums of money were voted by 
 parliament for this national purpose. The royal apartments contain an extensive collection 
 of paintings, among which are some fine portraits by Vandyke, and some historical pictures 
 by Guido, Correggio, Carlo Dolci, and Leonardo da Vinci. The chapel of St. George is 
 considered one of tho finest spncimens of the oriiiimentcd Gothic in the kingdom. The choir 
 in particular is if admirable workmanship, and adorned with banners of knights of the garter 
 ranged on each side. It includes also the imnhs of many of the English princes, particularly 
 their late ninjcsties, and the Princess Charlotte ; and some of its windows are painted after 
 the designs of Reynolds. To the south of the palace extend Windsor Great Park, and 
 Windsor Forest, grand features, first formed by William the Conqueror. Even after the 
 considerable al)ridgninnt that has t.iken place, the domain is still fitly-si.x miles in circum- 
 ference, containing witiiin its range some noble timber. Parts of it were devoted by George 
 til. to his fiivourite pursuit ofoxpcrimentTl farming. 
 
 The other towns of Berksliire are small ; at Newbury, two obstinate battles were fought 
 in 1643 and Ifi'M. Maidenhead (formerly Jlainluthe), on the Thames, is beautifully encircled 
 with villas. 
 
 Hampshire contains extensive remains of those grand forests which once overspread so 
 great a part of England. The principal is the New Forest, bordering on the Channel and 
 the bay of Southampton. From this tnict of about 9*2,36.5 acres, William the Conqueror 
 drove out the inlinbitants, and demolished t ic parish churches, that the royal sports might be 
 carried on undisturted. The forests of Box, Holt, .Mice, &c., containing upwards of 30,000 
 iirres, boloni"' iilso to the crown. Tlie wo<id is chiefly nnk and beech; the former with a 
 short thick trunk and strong crooked branches, rendering it of excellent service as knee- 
 timber for the navy, while the masts and acorns feed hogs of vast size, weighing sometimes 
 eight hundred pounds, and pralucing the best bacon in the kingdom. 
 
 Winchester is one of the most ancient and venerable cities in England. During part of 
 the Saxon periofi, it was the metropolis. It had atone time upwards of ninety churches and 
 chapels, with colleges and monasteries attached to ''lem. Being frequented on accomit cf 
 its fairs, and chosen as one of the staples for wool, it became at one period the seat of a very 
 extensive commerce. After the Norman conquest, when Ijondon became the royal residence, 
 'he decline of Winchester commenced, and was accelerated by the removal of the wool 
 trade; but aliovo all by the dissolution of the monasteries, in tiio time of Henry VIII. It 
 now owes its importance to its rank as an episcopal city, and a eoimty town in which assizes 
 are .'lold alternately with Southampton. Its vonerahln cathednil (fifr, 142.) has been the 
 work of succi'ssivo ages. It was 'Lyrdccl luider the Saxon kings, enlarged by William of 
 Wykeliam under Eflward III., and completed by Bishop Fox, in the sixteenth century, when 
 
PART ni 
 
 menu were 
 prosperity, 
 
 lie magnifi- 
 zt for many 
 
 Book I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 367 
 
 at the whole 
 s a place of 
 a tlie dignity 
 finely varied 
 I, !uid partly 
 the improve- 
 ommensuratc 
 'ere voted hy 
 JVC collection 
 rical pictures 
 St. George is 
 
 The choir 
 of tiie garter 
 , particularly 
 painted after 
 it Park, and 
 
 1 after the 
 >s in circum- 
 ;d by George 
 
 were fought 
 illy encircled 
 
 Iverspread so 
 (channel and 
 )e Conqueror 
 irts might hn 
 •ds of 30,000 
 )rmer with a 
 ace as knee- 
 \g sometimes 
 
 liring part of 
 Tlmrchcs and 
 account cf 
 I'at of a very 
 h\ rosidoncc, 
 lof the wool 
 Iry VIII. It 
 lliich assizes 
 Ins been the 
 IWilliaTi of 
 Intury, whpo 
 
 extensive additions were made to it in the highly ornamented and pointed English style; 
 
 of which several of the specimens liore iire- 
 served are reckoned the finest in the kins'- 
 dom. The college, or rather school, founded 
 by Bishop Wykolmni is al.so a magnificCiit 
 edifice, and is one of the four great classical 
 schools to which the (listinguished youth ol 
 England resort. Southampton now surpasses 
 Winchester, and is a flourishing town, at the 
 head of the bay called Southampton Water. 
 It carries on a considerable trade with the 
 south of Europe, and regular packets sail 
 from it to Havre de Grace. 
 
 Winchater Calhednil. 
 
 Portsmouth is the grand arsenal for equipping the powerful navies of Great Britain. The 
 harbour is formed by a considerable bay, with a commodious entrance, perfectly landlocked, 
 and sheltered from every wind, affording secure anchorage all round ; and capable from its 
 dimensions of containing tiie whole British navy. The Isle of Wight forms at its eastern 
 extremity tlie safe and magnificent road of Spithead, the principal rendezvous of the national 
 fleets. The place has been strengthened by fortifications, till it has become the strongest 
 and most finished fortress in the empire, and is considered absolutely impregnable. Porte- 
 mouth itself is situated on an island about fourteen miles in circumftjrence, separated from 
 the land only by a narrow hannel. The suburb of Portsea, on the same island, begun only 
 a century ago, has now outgrown the original town, and contains the principal dockyards. 
 Here are carried on, upon a gigantic scale, all the operations subservient to building, equip- 
 ping, and refitting ships, and supplying the navy. The sea-wall of the dockyards extends 
 nearly three quarters of a mile, and encloses an area of one hundred acres: the forge, where 
 anchors of huge dimensions are formed; the ropery, above a thousand feet long; the spacious 
 dry docks , the endless range of warehouses ; the gun-wharf, the armoury, are objects which 
 astonish by their immensity. 
 
 Cliristchurch is noted for a fine ancient church ; Bcaulieu for the ruins of its venera .e 
 abbey ; Andover, Basingstoke, and Romsey are considerable towns. 
 
 The Isle of Wight is about twenty-three miles m length, and thirteen in breadth ; divided 
 by a channel of only a few miles from the coast, on which are the bays of Portsmouth and 
 Southampton. It is traversed by a ridge of chalky downs, in which are fed about forty 
 thousand fino-woolir '. sheep of the Dorsetshire breed. On the north are luxuriivnt meadows 
 supporting valuable breeds of horses and cattle; while on ihe south are fine arable plains, 
 yielding grain much beyond the consumption of the island. The island is celebrated for its 
 striking ami peculiar scenery ; the grand views of land and sea enjoyed from its high open 
 downs; the deep and dark ravines of its southern shore, and the Iwld romantic cliffs which 
 it there presents to the expanse of the English Channel. One of the most conspicuous 
 features is the range of coast called the Undercliff. This district presents the appearance 
 of a series of gigantic steps rising from the shore, to the summit of the great perpendicular 
 wall. The chines, or chasms, with torrents bursting through them, are also characteristic 
 features. 
 
 The western part of the Isle presents tlie rugged and pointe<l clifls, called the Needles, 
 and a range of magnificent white clifTs, rising perpendicularly to the height of 500 or 600 
 feet. These precipices are inhabited by gulls and puffins, the eggs of which are taken by 
 the islander, suspended in a liasket, which is fixed by a rope to the summit. Tlie eastern 
 shore presents the Culver Cliffs, a range of precipices which, in grandeur and ruggedness, 
 are not surpassed by any otlier on the island. 
 
 The castle of Carisbrook is an ancient edifice, in which Charles I. was for some time 
 imprisoned. The towns, Newport, Yarmouth, Cowes, and Ryde, are small. 
 
 Dorset consists of open chalky downs, fit only for sheep, wiiich are here of a breed callcil 
 the Southdown {Jig. 143.), peculiarly fine both as to carcase and 
 wool. The fleece is very short and fine ; tiie mutton fine in the 
 grain, and of an excellent flavour. The number of sheep is estimated 
 at 800,000, producing 2,790,000 pounds of wool. The islands of 
 Purbcck and Portland are valuable for tlic production of fine free- 
 stone. 
 
 Dorj-etsliire has no remarkable towns. Dorchester, the capital ; 
 Pot)le, with an excellent harbour ; and Weymouth, finely situated 
 for a bathing-place, are the principal. 
 Wiltshire is a fine county; the chalk hills here terminating, form 
 the tabie-land, termed Salisbury Plain ; a nalii J, undulating surface, whicli affords pn^turage 
 for sheep. The northern part of Wiltshire watered by the Thames, is chiefly underwood 
 and pasture, and suppoita a valuable breed o." cattle, from whose milk is made the excellent 
 
 Soutlidnwn Sheep 
 
 II '} 
 
 jM 
 
•w 
 
 366 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 iS'l 
 
 :\ 
 
 cheese l)ciiring tlie name of tlio province. Wiltsliire is a maniifiicturinff county. The pro- 
 dnce is of the finest description ; suporfino broadcloth, korsryinorcs, and fancy articles ; tine 
 flannels at Salisbury, and at Wilton the carpets which bear its nuine. 
 
 Salisbury, the capital, is a handsome and well-built town. The streets arc spacious and 
 regular, crossing each other at right angles, and kept clean by streams of water, from the 
 
 river Avon. The pride of Salisbury is its 
 catlicdral (Jig. 144.) completed in 1258, 
 which is considered the most elegant and 
 finished Gothic structure in the kingdom. 
 It has also the loflicst spire, rising to the 
 height of four hundred and ten feet. 
 
 Wiltshire has a number of thriving little 
 towns, in which fine woollen manufiicturea 
 are carried on with activity: Devizes, 
 Marlborough, Cliippenham, Malmsbury, 
 Warminster, Wilton, &c. Most of them 
 are adorned with fine old churches. 
 
 Stonehenge (Jiff. 145.), in Salisbury 
 Plain, a remarkable monumentof antiquity, 
 is supposed to bo the remnant of a temple 
 of the Druids. " It consists," says Mr. 
 Sullivan, "of the remains of two circular 
 and two oval ranges, having one common 
 centre. The outer circle is one hundred 
 and eight feet in diameter, and in its per- 
 fection consisted of thirty upright stones. The upright stones are from eighteen to twenty 
 feet high, from si.K to seven broad, and about three feet thick ; and being placed at the 
 
 mMt 
 
 .tj:,---^^ 
 
 Saliubury Cnthedral. 
 
 145 
 
 distance of three feet and a half 
 from each otlier, are joined at 
 the top by imiKjsts or stones laid 
 across. The inner circle is 
 somewhat more than eight feet 
 from the inside of the outward 
 one, and consisted originally of 
 forty smaller stones ; of which 
 
 f^lnnehen^e. 
 
 only eleven are standing." In the interior of all are two oval ranges, supposed to be the prin 
 cipal part of tlio work, composing the cell or adytum. The stones that Ibrm it are stupen- 
 dou-s some of them measuring thirty feet in height. The wliole number is computed to have 
 btien originnlly une hundred and forty. 
 
 ^ • county is iulnrned with so many fine seals as Wiltshire. Wilton House contains the 
 finest private collection of ancient .•^culi)turc in tiie kingdom. Corshiun House and Longford 
 Castle contain celebrated collections of pictures. Wnrdour Castle is distinguished for its 
 grand terrace; Stourhead for the romantic beauty of the grounds: Longleat is a superb seat. 
 
 SuBSEeT. 2. — The Eastern (Umnlies. 
 
 Under this title are comprehended the counties of Esse.v, Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, 
 Huntingdon, ami Lincoln. The surtacn of this division is flat and unvaried. Its sluggish 
 strenms unite in the shallow marshy estuary of the Wi:sl! : a great proportion of its waters, 
 however, never reach that receptacle; but, spreading and stagnating over the land, form the 
 Fens, a tract vlu'ch is not "nprotluctive to the husbandman, but sends forth po'-filential 
 vapours, sidyi'cting the inhabiuuts to attacks of fever and ague. The district eontiiins wide 
 portions of gooil arable land, which are well cultivated liy skilful farmers with largo capitals; 
 and is noted for its breeds of n ttle, ai' ' for the products of butter and cheese. 
 
 Es.sex, sit'iatpd along the nuth oi n(! Thame.', i.--, pnrhaps, the richest of tiie English 
 counties. It is diversified h}- t'cntle undulations, whirl' do not interrupt tl'.e eareful culture 
 given to its rieii alluvial soil, 'ts wlieaf, with thj' of Kent, is reckoned Ihr best in Eng- 
 land ; but the districts near the iMetropolis are chielly in pasture, or artificial griiss, for sup- 
 plying- eiilvos tu rh(> I/)ndon marki'i, or fiir (Iittening the cattle brought up from the north. 
 
 Che1nis!i)rd, flio county town, is a smiill regularly built place, with a handsome town-hall, 
 rololwstnr, the .".iicii'nt Cani('lc;.;;nniin, <'"ulains a strong castle, said to have been founded 
 bv the Romans, It is supporteil by a manuficl:ire of baize, and by the oyster fishery, 
 llarv.-irli, a seiport with a di-ep niid spiicions iinrbour, is the place whore tlie government 
 packets, i'l time of peace, sail Hir Holland ;',nd iJermany. Many villas have been erected in 
 'his county, in '•(iiisei|Uonce of it-: vicie'ty to the metrojKjlis. 
 
 SufKilk is 1 ordered by only a small portion of enstcrn coast. The greater part of it la 
 
'« 
 
 Part III. 
 
 The pro- 
 icles; fine 
 
 icious and 
 ■, from the 
 sbury is its 
 I in 1258, 
 ilegant and 
 ! kingdom. 
 Bing to the 
 feet. 
 
 riving little 
 mufactures 
 : Devizes, 
 Malmsbury, 
 ost of them 
 dies. 
 
 1 Salisbury 
 of antiquity, 
 of a temple 
 ," says Mr. 
 two circular 
 one common 
 one huiulrnd 
 k1 in its pcr- 
 ;mi to twenty 
 lacod ut the 
 et and a half 
 ire joined at 
 or stones laid 
 Lcr circle is 
 lan ci^jjlit feet 
 tl\o outward 
 orijjinally of 
 ^s ; of which 
 be the prin- 
 it are ftupen- 
 mted to have 
 
 contains the 
 
 111(1 TxinL'ford 
 
 lished for its 
 
 superb seat. 
 
 Cambrid|ie, 
 Its slugtrisli 
 bf its water?, 
 jind, form the 
 pp'-tilputinl 
 lontain^ wide 
 lrn;e capitals; 
 
 , the Enfflish 
 Ireful culture 
 .best in Euir- 
 ■riiss, for su))- 
 Ithc north. 
 lie town-h:ill. 
 leen founded 
 Ister fis^hery. 
 1 ffovernmont 
 In erected in 
 
 [part of it is 
 
 Book I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 30U 
 
 capable of fjood cultivation, and is carefully tilled. The county is almost purely agricul- 
 tural, there being neither trade nor manufactures of any importance. 
 
 Among the towns of Suffolk, Ipswich is considerable, thougli its employment is confined 
 to sending down the Orwell malt and grain, the produce of the county. Bury St. Edmund's, 
 an iincipiit town, i.^ rendered venerable by some fine old churches. Lowestofl', the most 
 easterly point of England, is a noted seat of the herring fishery. 
 
 Norfolk, though inferior in fertility to the two counties now described, has, by its industry, 
 rendered itself more flourishing tiian cither. The soil generally is a light sand, scarcely fit, 
 originally, for any thing but sheep ; beneath, however, is a bed of rich soapy marl, which 
 the farmers, with great labour, dig out, and spread over the ground. Tlie light sandy loam 
 tlius formed is peculiarly favourable to the growth of barley, in which grain two-thirds of 
 the country is laid out. Norfolk has extensive manufactures ; producing various ornamental 
 fabrics of .silk and worsted. The iwrts carry on a considerable e.xport of grain, and a spirited 
 fishery. 
 
 Norwich is the finest city in the east of England. The chief industry of Norwich, how- 
 ever, consists in manufactures. Towards the end of the sixteenth century, a large colony 
 of Flemings settled there, and established the fabric of woollens, which soon reached an 
 inprecedented height. The light and ornamented forms became the staples ; bombasines, 
 
 crapes, fine camblets, and worsted damask. In its 
 general structure, it has the defects of an old town, 
 the streets being narrow and winding, though those 
 recently built are in a more improved style. The 
 cathedral {fig. 146.), founded in the eleventh cen- 
 tury, ranks among the finest ecclesiastical edifices in 
 the kingdom. Its style of architecture is the Saxon, 
 of that broad and massive character which prevailed 
 before the intro<luction of the pointed arch and the 
 light ornamental style. The castle, placed in the 
 centre, is more ancient still, since antiquaries refer 
 it to the reign of Canute, Its style is Saxon ; the 
 keep remains entire. 
 
 Yarmouth, by commerce and fishery, has attained 
 a prosperity almost e(puil to that of Norwich. Situ- 
 ated at the moutli of the Varc, it is the chief chan- 
 nel by which the manufactures of that city are 
 transported to foreign parts. A more important 
 resource is its herring-fishery, which employs six 
 tliousand seamen, and produces annually upwards 
 of fifty thousand barrels;. Its quay, upwards of a 
 mile long: is said to be second only to that of 
 Seville. Yarmouth is also much frequented as a watering-place. 
 
 Lynn Regis is a flourishing seaport on the Wash, at the mouth of the Ousc, which, with 
 its tributaries, brings down the agricultural produce of many ricli counties. 
 
 Seats. — Norfolk contains several of the most superb seats in England. Ilolkham, built by 
 Lord Leicester on a design of Inigo Jones, and particularly noted for a gallery room, is richly 
 adorned with sculpture and paintings, and has also a very extensive library. Ilougliton is a 
 magnificent seat. 
 
 Cambridgeshire presents a considerable variety of surface. Its northern district, called 
 the Isle of Ely, intersected by the lower channels of the Ouse and the Nnn, exists almost in 
 an intermediate state between land and .sea. Drainage, however, to a great extent has been 
 ellected, and many tracts have been converted into fine meadow, or made to yield large 
 crops of outs, though the danger of inundation can never be wholly averted. The cUissic 
 stream of the Cam or Granta, in descending to join the Ousc, waters a valley called "the 
 Dairies," where some good cheeses and long rolls of excellent butter are prepared for the 
 tables of llii; Cambridge students. Tb.e soutliern and western (districts, encroaclicd upon by 
 the downs irom the soutli, are only fit tor the pasture of sheep. 
 
 The capital of Cambridge is the seat of one of the two great universities. There are 
 thirteen colleges and four hall:*, in which the masters, tutors, and students, not only teacii 
 and are taught, but are lodged and boarded. Some of the largest of these endowmiMits are 
 stated to be for " poor and indigent scholars ;" but are filled with the sons of opiilent fiuiuliftf, 
 wlio cannot live there but at a very considerable expense. Yet the resort continues to 
 increase, and 'uhe existinir colleges are insufficient to contain the applicants, who wmA otlen 
 wait several years previously to admission. These cidlegos are large, and generally fine 
 And handsome buildings; yet they do not prinluco the saiwe noble and imposinji; eflbct as 
 tlioss in the sister university. There are, however, two structures such as its rival cannot 
 Vol. I. 2 W 
 
 Norwich Cathedral. 
 
 .■: fj 
 
 V \\ 
 
370 
 
 match. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III 
 
 117 
 
 Tho first of tliesc is tho chapel of KinjT's Collofro, (ftff. 117.), built botwoon tlio 
 
 reigiiB of llonry VI. iind Henry V'lll. Its 
 interior hns bcnn en 1 led miitrblesH; tho roof 
 is of the niopt perfect workrnnns^hip, nmi its 
 8up[)ort without pillarH iiiia been viewed nH 
 »n arcliitoctural inyHtory. But the most 
 strikinjf clmractnrihtic is tlic . prodijriouH 
 blaze of pninteil pbiHH, on ench side, I'roni 
 twelve briiliiintly tinted window.>< filly feet 
 hiffh, {.'ivinpr to the fiihric tho iii)i)earaiico of 
 boingr walleil with painted glum. The other 
 is Trinity Colleffp, particularly admired for 
 its libmry, two hundred feet lonfr, dosipneri 
 by Sir Cliristopher Wren, and porhap.s the 
 moHt clepant library-room in tlie kinjrdom. 
 
 King's College Chapul. 
 
 The hall is also the largest in Cambridge; and the roof i.s ornamented with fine specimens 
 of old wood-work. Its chapel is marked by a beautiful simplicity, and contains Roubiliac's 
 statue of Sir Isaac Newton, supposed the best resemblance thnt exists of that great man. 
 
 The principal library contains lOO.CMK) volumes, many of which are scarce and valuable. 
 Trinity college, in its ornamental hall, has 40,0(M). Earl Fitzwilliam, from his seat near 
 Richmond, presented lately a hondsome library, some line picture!', and a large collection of 
 engravings. Tho botanic garden is inferior to none in the kingdom, except those of Kew 
 and Liverpool. The collection of valuable manuscripts and antiquities is likewise extensive. 
 Since the university was adorned by the inmiortal name of Newton, mathematics and natural 
 philosophy have been the ruling pur^'uit'^; and, notwitlistiinding tho lustre reflected on it by 
 Milton, as well as byBentleyand Porson, it has loft to 0.\ford the foremost place in classical 
 knowle<lpe. 
 
 At Newmarket, horsn-rarinff has rhosen its most fiivonrito ground. This town lios amid 
 bleak hills, that have, however, a sufficient extent of level heath to make the finest course 
 in tho kingdom. It consi.sts of one long street, cliiefly filled with inn.'J and coftbe-hoiises for 
 tho reception of the sporting world, who crowd tliitlicM- in the appropriate seasons, which are 
 April, July, and October. The hustle is then immense. "Trains of horses," siiys Dr. 
 ^piker, "were led up and down the streets. E.xceljent eqiiipagc.«, gigs, curricles, landaus, 
 .lew past us and past each other with the suifbiess of an arrow. Horses wore prancing 
 ibout with their riders; jockeys were carrying bridles tD and fro: in short, all was life and 
 aiistle." The course is covered with turf, whence the pursuit of horse-racing itself is usu- 
 ally designate<l Ike turf. Close to tlie goiil is drawn on rollers a small wooden house, in 
 which sit.s the judirp, usually nn experienced groom, who decides which is the winner. The 
 stand is an open rai.sed house tor hidies and other curious spectat<irs; but men of real busi- 
 ness crowd round tho betting jmst, iminediatcly behind the judge, where they remain closely 
 wedged together, "and nothiiiir is hoanl but the continual cry of twenty, thirty, forty, two 
 hundred pounds on such a horse." 
 
 The small city of Ely rises like an island amidst the surrounding fens, and displays n 
 magnificent cathedral. Wishe.ich, a thriving town on a navigable branch of the Ouse, 
 combines a prosperous trade with some spirit of literary encpiiry. 
 
 Huntingdonshire lies to the eastward of Cambridge; the two are governed by the same 
 slierifT, chosen alternately in each. Huntingdon is entirely agricultural ; the pastures are 
 peculiarly rich, and adapt it t()r producing the (imious Stilton cheese. Huntingdon, the 
 ."ounty town, though small, has an antique and rosprctable appearance. St. Ives is a large 
 village on the Otisc. 
 
 Lincolnshire occui)ies the eristern coast from the Wash to the Humber. The southern 
 •erritory, called, from that circiimstnnce. "Holland," comprises more than half of the Hed- 
 lord level, or fbn country, anil is natunilly an almost continuous swamp; but a great extent 
 of it has now been drained, and pro<liices fine pa.sttire land, and excellent crops of oats. The 
 rearing of live ."tock forms the chief occupation; and Lincoln has breeds of every descrip- 
 tion tliii', are held in high estimation. The sheep, which amount to upwards of 2,000,0(M), 
 pn)diice the lonp wool, which, from the length of its staple, is chiefly fitted for, worsted, 
 baize, and other thbrics. Rabbits, almost inniimenible, are bred in the upper districts; and 
 The unreclnimed fens, during the wet season, swarm with teal, ducks, geese, and aquatic 
 game of every form and description, with which London and many other parts of England 
 are chiefly supplied from this county. Maniifiictiires have entirely deserted it; even its 
 own wool, since tlie late inventions in inaciiinery, is no longer spun or carded within itself. 
 The Trent, during nil its course tlirough this county, is navigable for largo vessels, and 
 artificial channels unite its streams, particularly the Foss Hyke, between tho Witham and 
 the Trent. Forei^jn cominercn, however, is much limited by tho increasing sand-banks, by 
 which the coasts and harbours are obstructei' 
 
Part 111 
 
 t botwoon tliu . 
 ,nry VIII. Its 
 •\\cm; the roof 
 mnship, nnd itn 
 men viewed ns 
 But the most 
 ;hc . pro(li{ru)iw 
 nicli side, I'rom 
 idows tirty feet 
 
 ii])l)eiirmico of 
 iiiHH. The oilier 
 rly udmired for 
 
 lon<r, designed 
 nd perhaps the 
 n the kinfrdoni. 
 I line specimenf 
 aina Iloubilinc's 
 it great man. 
 :o and vahiablo. 
 Ti his sent nenr 
 •go collection of 
 it those of Kew 
 ewise extensive, 
 atics and natural 
 eilocted on it by 
 ^lacc in classical 
 
 8 town lies ajiiid 
 he finest course 
 coftbc-houscs for 
 lasons, which are 
 orses," siiys Dr. 
 urriclcs, landaus, 
 a wore prancing 
 all was life and 
 ing itself is usu- 
 voalen house, in 
 he winner. The 
 len of real busi- 
 ly remain closely 
 thirty, forty, two 
 
 and displays a 
 ch of the Ouse, 
 
 ned by the same 
 the pastures are 
 Huntingdon, the 
 Ives is a largo 
 
 Tlio southern 
 half of the Bed- 
 xt a great extent 
 ropsofoats. The 
 of every descrip- 
 rds of 2,0()(»,00(», 
 tted for ^worsted, 
 ler districts; and 
 ■ese, and aquatic 
 parts of England 
 rted it; oven its 
 [led within itself, 
 .rge vessels, and 
 the Witham and 
 ig sand-banks, by 
 
 DooK I. EXOI^^ND. vn 
 
 The citv of Lincoln was, during tiic middle ages, one of the most conspicuous and splen- 
 did capitals of ErTland. The cathedral (J^f. UK) htill holds the first rank oinong religious 
 148 ,1,1 edifices. I'Vum a distance its three towers 
 
 appear cons|)icuous ; two of them 180, and 
 
 one y(M), feet high, and ornamented with 
 
 various pillars and tracery ; and as the 
 
 f^th 1 structure stands on a hill, in the midst of 
 
 -i.. ,-i;"J>\iii.'- 3i rr"'TrT-; g'-'^''''^<*¥»&iL. * **"' surrounding flat, it has the most 
 
 ''^^^i^^^i^'>^iS^i^^ ^WA' M'i.-,^v ■^■.H^. '■•. conunanding site in the county. When 
 
 " ■ ^^!!\^^OB^^^WKmnj Sll^ 'fn'^i plundered by Henry Vlll., it was found 
 
 C^^^jAJJO^^HH9KfflHt>-r|i^^, to contain nu extraordinary treasure, iu 
 
 gold and silver, i)earls, diamonds, and 
 other precious stones. Lincoln, supported 
 only by its county trade, and by the re- 
 f^ maming opulence of the cathedral, now 
 holds a moderate rank among provincial 
 Lincoln Cuthudtai. towHH. Its fitly churchcs are reduced to 
 
 eleven ; and the fragments of the others are dispersed throughout the town, many ordinary 
 houses being adorned with Gothic arches, doorways, and windows. 
 
 Boston, on the Witham, carries on the trade of Holland, or southern Lincolnshire. It 
 exports the grain, and aflbrds a great market for cattle ; and has thus doubled its population. 
 A fine Gothic church attests the early prosperity of Boston. 
 
 SuBSGCT. 3. — Central Cotinties. 
 
 Under this term we comprehend that part of the interior which ia bounded on tlie south 
 and south-west by the two divisions already described ; on the north and north-west by York- 
 shire and Lancashire ; and on the west by the counties of Salop, Worcester, and Gloucester. 
 
 In a description of this portion of the country, Ix>noon claims a distinct and .separate 
 notice. As the metropolis of the united kingdom, it is the seat of legislation, jurisprudence, 
 and govornmont; the principal residence of the sovereign, at which affairs of state are 
 transacted, and relations maintained with foreign courts; the centre of all important opera- 
 tions whether of commerce or finance, and of correspondence with (!very quarter of the globe. 
 London, iu its comprehensive sense, includes the city and liberties of liondon, the city of 
 Westminster ond its liberties, the borough of Southwark, and the parishes and precincts 
 contiguous to those three component parts of the metro])olis. Its extent, from Poplar in 
 the east to Belgrave-squaro in the west, is nearly eight miles; its breadth, from Islington 
 in the north to Walworth in the south, exceeds five miles. The circumference, allowing for 
 inequalities, is computed at thirty miles. The buildings, streets, squares, and other spaces. 
 including that taken up by the river Thames, winding from the eastern to the western 
 extremity, about seven miles on an average breadth of a quarter of a mile, occupy an area 
 of eighteen scpiaro miles. 
 
 By a more convenient topographical arrangement, London has been divided into six grand 
 portions: 1st, the City, which may bo tornied the central division ; 2d, the western division, 
 including Westminster ; 3d, the north-west division, including the district north of Oxford- 
 street and west of Tottonham-court-road, — those two last mentioned divisions constitute the 
 west-end of the town ; 4th, the northern division, comprising the whole district north of 
 Ilolborn and the City from Tr ttenham-court-road on the west to Shored itch and Kingsland- 
 road on the east, including St. Pancras, Somors-town, Pentonville, Islington, Hoxton, and 
 Kingsland ; 5th, the eastern division, including the whole district east of the city and of 
 Shoreditch ; 6tli, the southern division, comprising the borough of Southwark, and the 
 nia.ss of buildings extending from Rothorhitlie to Vauxhall, and rnnging southward for more 
 tiian two miles. The divisions north and smitlinf the Thames communicate by five bridges, 
 — London Bridge, Southwark Bridge, Blackfriars, Waterloo, and Westminster bridges. 
 The port of London extends from London Bridge to Deptford, a distance of about four 
 miles, with an average breadth of from four hundred to five hundred yards. Its divisions 
 are the Upper, Middle, and Lower Pcwis, and the space between Limehouse and Deptford. 
 Connected with it are certain spacious docks, which will be hereafter noticed. 
 
 The population of London, according to the returns in 1831 of the census in 1830, is thus 
 
 stated : — 
 
 Persons 
 
 City of I/>nilcn within tlii' walls. ST.liil.'i 
 
 witlumt lln' wnlls(incliiiling llie Iniisof Court) ii7,*T8 
 
 BoronBh of Southwark (U.-Wl 
 
 t^ity of WoRtnii nster iMKJ.lWO 
 
 PnrishKS within tlie billn of mortality 76I,34« 
 
 .\(IJ8cnnt iiarielien not within thi> bills 3U3,S(i7 
 
 Total 1,474,009 
 
 l^ll 
 
 '■! ? 
 
•» 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE OEOGRAPIIV. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 m 
 
 Tho north divinion of London, an viowcil from llie inoet contrnl niiil olovstod [xiint, rinon 
 i;cnt)y iVoiri the ThainrH, nnd *>xt«nd8 to tlit! foot of ti riin^c of liillx on wliirli are Hitiiiiti'd 
 tlin villn^'eri of Ilatnpsteiid uiid lli|;h)(uti>. ( >ii tlio uii-it iind wi-sl iiro ft^rtili* plitinn cxti'iulin^j 
 lit l(!iiHt twenty mile*, nnd vviUorud by the windintf iind gently flowing Tliiunus. On tho 
 wnith, tho dixtant view in iHiiindi'd l)y tlio liijjh ffrmimlfi of Uiclinmnd, Wiinhh-don, E|)NMn, 
 NofwikhI, and Blacklienth, tcrminiitin); in tho liorizon by Loith Hill, Uoxl. il, and tho lloi- 
 Kuto unil VVrothiiin llillrt, Shooter'M Hill in ii con«|)iciiouM objuct to tho ciiMtward ; and, in a 
 more northerly direction, imrts of Eppin)^ Forost und other wooded uplu'iils u.' Ehhcx. 
 
 So nirly an the reign of Nero, London liad become a plucc of considerublo Imftlc, an upiwars 
 fVom Tiicilus, the earliest of tho Roman hintorianii who mentions it by name. Tho RuuianH 
 fortific<l it with a wall, und made it one of their urincipiil Btations. At tho boffinning of 
 the third century, it Ih roprestMifi-d uh a great ana wealthy city, and conwidured to be the 
 metropolis of Britain, In tho end uf the Bixth century, it became tho capital of the EuHt 
 SaxonH, whoee king, Hcbcrt, ia reputed the founder of the cathedral chnrch dedicated to 
 8aint Paul, and of tho abbey and abbey church of Westminster. Atlor the union of the 
 seven kingdomH, Egbert, in 833, held here his first wittena/fvmolr, or coimcil : but London 
 was not constituted the capital of England until its recovery from tho Danes by Alfred. 
 William of Normandy, whose interest it wob to conciliate the citizens, though he built the 
 fortress called the Tower, to keep them in awe, confirmed tho privileges and immunities 
 which tiicy iiad enjoyed under Edward the Confessor. Notwithstanding several visitations 
 of fire iiml ])e8tilence, I^ondon continued to increase, especially after the accession of tho 
 Tudors, when the overthrow of feudal va.<salnge, and the more frequent resort to the capital, 
 caused an augmentation so rapid as to alarm the government. The dissolution of monas- 
 teries, of which Ijondon contained so largo a proportion, accelerated this increase, while it 
 gave an impulse to industry and commerce. In the reigii of Elizabeth, the infiiix of strangers 
 driven from tho Netherlands, by tho persecutions of the Duko of Alvu, hoiglitened the alarm, 
 and tlie queen was even induced to issue the absurd decree that no more dwelling-houses 
 should be built: a prohibition which did not retard the growth of the city. In 10,36, tho 
 refinements of Pans ami Madrid were emulated in London by tho introduction of hackney 
 coaches and sedan chairs. 
 
 The reign of Charles If. includes tlic most memorable epoch in the history of London, 
 In 1605, a plague swept away 100,()<)(t persons. In Septemlier, 1606, broke out that grcot 
 and awful fire which destroyed 4(K( streets, 13,000 houses, and 89 churches. For the re- 
 building of the city, an admirable plan was presented by Sir Christopher Wren, the archi- 
 tect: the difficulty of mcMiciling conflicting internstn, allowed it to bo but very partially 
 adopted. He rebuilt the cathcilral of St. Paul and nicst of the parish churches in tho 
 Grecian style, and ihn front of Guildhall in tlie original Gothic. Instead of wootl and ;>laster, 
 the chief iimicrials of the former city, the new buildings were of brick, in the substantial 
 though heavy style thon in vogue. There were no flagged footpaths ; the streets were ill- 
 paved : anil as there was no system of drainage by sewers, and no distribution of pure water 
 by pipes, they were in some places far from endurable. The city, however, gained by the 
 changr, though with the sacrifice of many interesting memorials of its ancient state, and of 
 it.s most glorious times. 
 
 WoHtniiiisiter, thougli founded in the time of the Saxons, and chosen at an early period as 
 a royal residence, did not at first keep pane with Jjondon, The abbey nnd its church, founded 
 by Sohert, wore rebuilt by the architects wlio reared so many splendid fabrics of Gothic 
 masonry in tho reigns of Henry HI. and Edward I. The celebrated hall was built by William 
 Rufus in 1097 nnd 100^, and it underwent n thorough repair in that of Richard II. On the 
 dissohition of monasteries, Henry VIII. converted this religious establishment into a college, 
 nnd aflerwar(!s into a bishoiffic. Westminster thus became a city, and has ever since re- 
 tained that rank by courtesy, though it never had but one bishop, having been transferred by 
 Eldward VI. to tho see of Norwich. 
 
 The city of Westminster is comprised in the united parishes of St. Margaret nnd St. 
 John ; the lil)ertics include seven other piirislies. St. Martin's in the Fields, St, James's, St, 
 Ann's, St. Clement Dane?, St. Mary's lo Strand. St. George's Hanover S<iuare, and St. Paul's 
 Covent Garden, with the precinct of the Savoy and that of St. Martin's le Grand. Several 
 <)f the parishes westward of Temple Bar had each its church and contiguous village, com- 
 municating with each other by roads and footpaths. The Strand was originally a liigh road 
 connecting J/)nr1on with Westminster by tho village of Charing. Afler the Re.storation, 
 the west end of the town rapidly increased ; nnd its inhabitants, affecting superior refinC' 
 ment of manners, claimed to be considered as a distinct class of things from the industriou.', 
 merchants east of Temple Rir. I^y degrees, as the vacant ground was built upon, the two 
 cities and their suburbs were unjtetl ; and at length the distant villages of Mary-le-txme 
 and St. Pancros became integrftl parts of the metropolis. A splendid (piarter, now occupied 
 by the most fashionable part of the community, has l)een built to the west of St. James's 
 Park and the new ])alace. The villages surrounding Ixjndon, formerly at some distance,- 
 
 'id 
 
v 
 
 Part III. 
 
 IHiiiit, riHP« 
 arc HitimU'il 
 UK I'xtiuiliniJ 
 les. On tlio 
 I'doii, Kiwiiiii 
 mil till! Hoi- 
 ril ; uiul, in n 
 
 Ewrtt'X. 
 
 fie, iiH upiwars 
 Tho RoinauH 
 bcffiimin({ of 
 ured to be the 
 il of tho Ettut 
 I dedicated to 
 union of the 
 ; but London 
 ncB by Alfretl. 
 [h he built tho 
 nd imniunitieu 
 cral viBitiitionH 
 xcasion of the 
 t to the capital, 
 ition of monas- 
 crease, while it 
 lux of strangers 
 ened the alarm, 
 Iwellinu-houBeB 
 . In 1036, tho 
 lion of hackney 
 
 itory of London. 
 I out that great 
 en. For the re- 
 ^Vren, the archi- 
 iit very partially 
 churcln-H in the 
 •ood and iilastcr, 
 tlie substantial 
 streets were ill- 
 m of pure water 
 , jTiiined by tho 
 mt slate, and of 
 
 . early period as 
 church, founded 
 ibrics of Gothic 
 built by William 
 fird II. On the 
 [it into a college, 
 V ever since re- 
 U transferred by 
 
 largarct and St. 
 I St. James's, St. 
 le, and St. I'aul's 
 llrand. Several 
 lus village, com- 
 lally a high road 
 Ithe Restoration, 
 T superior retinc- 
 L the industrious 
 lit upon, the two 
 lof Mary-le-bonc 
 ^r, now occupied 
 fet of St. James's 
 oino distance,- 
 
 BooK I. 
 
 KNOLAND. 
 
 373 
 
 on tho oust. Stepney nnii liimohnuso; on tho isouth, I'ecklmm, ramborwell, Ilri.vtim, Cliip- 
 hnni ; on the west, fininipton iiml Kni!,'hf»ihriilgc ; on thonnrlli, Hackney, Iloxton, Inhngton, 
 lligligate and lliimpHtciid, — bring now juimd to the nictropohn by continuivl ningcrt of 
 Htrci-lH, may tx; considi-rcd ns mtegral [Kirtions of it. The pcipiiiation within a riimii« of 
 figlit mill's from St. I'liulV, which U all virtually I/nidun, does nut till! short of l,>'(HMNHK 
 
 'I'll'' LTiivvfli of Liiidiin, an a (virt, wum iit lirst by no niians rnpiil. In IKfi, beMiilrn bout* 
 iin<l iitliiT rt:\\\ not rcgiftercil, there belonged to the |)ortof i/milon V!<i<i!>Hlii|N<, of the liiirthen 
 ot' .'iil.'i.lTl tons; iniinnid by IW.THli men ami Iwys. In the; same vi-iir, the gross ciistoinn 
 iliity collecti'd in the |K)rt of Ixmilon amoiuited to 0,4:H,w.")U, 'I'he |)ort of Londim liaM 
 iilri'uily lii'eii (lescrilH>d as extending from (.onilon Bridge to Depftbrd, a diHfiiiu e of lour 
 tiiili-*; tlie average breadth being tully a qimrter of a mile. Kven these limits were liir 
 from iitliir(iingailei|iiatn accommmlntion to the shipping; and the example of improvement 
 exhibited by Liverpixil nt length roused the merchants of Ixtndon to tiirm comimnie.s tlir con- 
 structing docks, with commodioiiH ([uityB and warehouses. The Wmt Inilia Ihtrks, stretch- 
 ing across the isthmus forming tlie Isle of Dogs to the Middlesex side of the river, were 
 o|)i'"eil in 1H()2. They consisted originally of an ini|K)rt and exixirt dock, the tbnner con- 
 tiiiiiuig aliout 3<t and tho latter about 'J5 acres of water, exclusive of basins. To tlie.se have 
 recently been added the south dock, fiirmerly tho City ('anal. The wnreliouses at the West 
 India Docks are of vast extent, and are, in all respi'cts, most comnuHlious. 'I'lie l.iutihn 
 Diirku, also of very great extent, are situated at Wappiiig. The tobacco warehouse be- 
 longing to them is tin- largest and tinest building of its kind in the world. It covers a s|mco 
 of near .'■) acres ! The vaults iimlcrneath the ground are li*\ neres in extent, nnil have 
 stowage tiir (WI,(HH) |)ipes of wine! There are also the .S7, Kulhiiriiir's Docks, adjoining tho 
 'J'ower; the /•'««< India Docks, ill Blackwell ; and tho Comvurciiil Docks, on the Surrey 
 side of till- river, 
 
 Southwark, the third great portion of the metropolis, (more commonly called the Ttorituffh, 
 and as such returning two members to parliament,) is situated on thn south bank of tho 
 Thames. Tho Borough was governed by its own ImilitTs until Edward VI. granted South- 
 wark to the city of I<ondon for a sum of money ; after which it beciitne one of the city 
 wards by the name of Bridge Wiinl Without. It is much freiptented by agricullnrisls from 
 Kent, Surrey, and Sussex ; and is llin principal hop-m:irkel in the kingdom. Numerous 
 etrecta in every direction connect it with the surrounding villages ; and by the five magnifi- 
 cent briilges it communicates with every quarter of Ix)ndon and Westminster. 
 
 liondon, is well built, well paved, well lighted, and abundantly supplied with water. For- 
 eigners who visit it tor tho first time soon discover that utility, not ornament, is the main 
 characteristic of the town, and that business, not amusement, occupies tho minds of its 
 inhabitants. The main strei-ts are spacious ; nnd all tho streets have tho advantage of flagged 
 t!x)t-pavemenl.s on each side. The lifiuses are of brick ; and though in the most populous 
 streets discoloured by smoke, have by no means a glcximy appearance. The charm of Ixjiiilon, 
 as a great city, is its variety. Tlifjse who dislike the narrow streets of the city, shady in 
 summer, and sheltered from cold winds in winter, may delight in the siKicious streets and 
 squares of the west end ; those who desire to contemplate what Dr. Johnson called " the full 
 tide of human existence," may visit Cheapside, Fleet Street, or the Strand : Bt^iiil Street is 
 the resort of gaiety and titshion ; and Regent Street, for architectural efl'ect, is uiie of the 
 grandest streets in Europe. Great improvements have been made on the north side of the 
 Strand from Charing Cross to Burleigh Street, by taking down an immense mass of small 
 nnd old houses, partly in narrow streets and courts, and erecting others of large dimensions 
 and tbrming wide and handsome streets. Hero also has been erected the elegant and com- 
 modious structure of I Inngerford 
 Market. Another improvement is 
 that of opening a line northward 
 from Bridge Street, BlacklViars, 
 through the site of Fleet Market 
 and across Clerkenwell, to Isling- 
 ton: it is intended that a parallel 
 line should extend from Waterloo 
 Bridge across the Strand, iiast tho 
 portico of Coveiit Garden Theatre, 
 and into the northern district of 
 the metropolis. 
 
 St. Paul's Cathedral {ftfr. 149.'), 
 
 the masterpiece of Sir Christopher 
 
 Wren, is the fine.st specimen of 
 
 modern architecture in tho king- 
 
 ^'- ''»'''''• . dom, and, after St. Peter's at Rome, 
 
 inav r:ink as th" tniost ccclesiastiral structure in Christendom; but it is so surrounded with 
 
 \oi,. I. 32 
 
 IT' ( 
 
 <l> 
 
 1^' 
 

 IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
 // 
 
 
 ^. 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 11.25 
 
 Ui|21 125 
 
 |30 ""^ JIIMH 
 
 Wtat. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 >? 
 
 
 HioJDgrafJiic 
 
 Sciences 
 
 Corporation 
 
 23 WIST MAIN STRUT 
 
 WMSTER.N.Y. UStO 
 
 (716) S72-4S03 
 
 ^.V 
 
374 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt III. 
 
 buildings that the beauty of its exterior cannot be appreciated. The style, which is Grecian, 
 
 unites grandeur of design with just- 
 i^ I * » A I 1 1 I ness of proportion. TIjc interior of 
 
 St. Paul's is too bare of ornament ; 
 ^^^ but the defect is partly supplied by 
 
 "V* r^ Hnan flBrKHIsf marble monuments of various de- 
 
 grees of merit. 
 
 Westminster Abbejr (Jigr, 150.) 
 is a noble specimen of Gothic archi- 
 tecture. The interior is grand in 
 design and rich in detail, and the 
 interest which it excites is en- 
 hanced by the numerous monuments 
 of kings, warriors, statesmen, plii- 
 losophers, and poets, which it en- 
 closes. The cliapel built at tlie 
 western extremity by Henry VII. 
 in honour of the blessed Virgin, is 
 
 (xothic, and its exterior has been skilfully renovated. 
 
 Among the parish churches of the metropolis, that of St. Stephen's, Walbrook, is distin- 
 guished for the fine proportions and finished elegance of its interior. Tlie stately portico of 
 St. Martin's, Charing Cross, excites universal admiration ; next to which may rank that of 
 the new churcii of St. Pancras; the steeple of which is constructed on the model of the Temple 
 of the Winds at Athens. The other public buildings are too numerous to be described, and 
 a bare mention of them would give little satisfaction. The principal inns of court, and their 
 subsidiary inns, are remarkable rather for plainness than magnificence of architecture. The 
 
 pile called Somerset House (Jig. 
 151.) would have a grand effect 
 if. its eastern wing were com- 
 pleted; and this desideratum is 
 partly supplied by tlie buildings 
 assigned to " King's College, Lon- 
 don. The Banqueting House at 
 Whitehall is a memorial of tlie 
 fine taste of Inigo Jones ; and its 
 ceiling is decorated with an alle- 
 gorical painting from the pencil 
 of Rubens, wliieli is still exposed 
 to view, though the apartment has 
 been converted into a chapel. 
 Westminster Hall, of which the portal has been rebuilt in the original style, is reputed the 
 longest hall in Europe unsupported by pillars. It is 276 feet long by 70 broad. Within it, 
 on coronation festivals, 10,000 persons liave dined. On its south side arc enlmuces to the 
 new law courts, the King's Bench Common Pleas, E.xchequer and Chancery, witli an addi- 
 tional court for the vice-chancellor. The House of Peers is a spacious and lutty cliamber, 
 decorated with tapestry representing the defeat of the Spanish armada. The subordinate 
 apartments and passages are of recent construction and of a dig- 
 nified elegance. The House of Commons, originally a chapel dedi- 
 cated to St. Steplien, retains, perhaps, too mucli of tiiat cliaractcr 
 in its front and side galleries, the seats rising on either hand 
 beneath them, and tlie s|)eaker's chair exactly in the place where 
 a pulpit might have stood. The house was altered and enlarged, 
 to admit the accession of members consequent on the union with 
 Ireland.* The Bank of England, a building of great extent ; the 
 Royal Excliange ; the East India House, in L^enhall street ; 
 the Tower, which has still nn arsenal and a garriJion, being the 
 depository of the regalia of tlie United Kingdom ; the Trinity 
 House, and tiie New Mint, both situated on Tower Hill; the 
 new Post Office, in St. Martin le Grand ; the new Palace in St. 
 James's Park, &c. deserve mention. 
 
 The Monument (Jifc- 152.) is one of the most conspicuous orna- 
 ments of the metropolis. The pedestal is 42 feet, the shaft of tim 
 The Monument. column 120 foot, the Cone at the top with the blazing urn of gilt 
 
 brass 40 feet, making the total height of tlie iiionuuient 202 feet. It was erected by Sir 
 Christophor Wren, to commemorate the fire of Ijondon, in 1066. 
 
 Somenet House. 
 
 Bm 
 
 1 
 the 
 row 
 the 
 
 men 
 
 ellip 
 
 6in( 
 
 men 
 
 ties 
 
 betw 
 
 a5f( 
 
 arch 
 
 and I 
 
 ofth 
 
 has ^ 
 
 has n 
 fourt( 
 arch 
 piece 
 
 with 
 indiv 
 Th 
 requii 
 Brid>j 
 chose 
 niagii 
 Ixjdy 
 the s( 
 ranki 
 forme 
 militi 
 can ii 
 •rront 
 rntioi 
 
 * The Purliamont [fousf.'s wrru Ijiirrit dnvvn in 18:t4, 
 
^■ 
 
 •*#' 
 
 W^ '\ 
 
 Book I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 375 
 
 The bridges of London attract attention by their beauty and utility. Until the year 1740, 
 the only one existing was London Bridge, built in the twelflli century, with arches so nar- 
 row, unequal, and ill-placed, as to form a sort of breakwater, occasioning' a rapid or fall of 
 the stream, highly dangerous to boats and barges. The new London Brieve (Jig. 153.) com- 
 
 153 
 
 t'r- 
 
 ■m' 
 
 Now London Bridge. 
 
 menced in 1824, and opened in 1831, has taken its place. The bridge consists of five semi- 
 elliptical arches ; the centre arch 152 feet span, with a rise above high water mark of 29 feet 
 6 inches; the two next the centre arch, 140 feet span, rise 27 feet 6 inches; the two abut- 
 ment arches, 130 feet span, rise 24 feet 6 inches. Tlie length of the bridge from the extremi- 
 ties of the abutment is 928 feet , witliin the abutments, 782 feet. The roadway is 53 feet 
 between the parapets; of this width, the footways occupy 9 feet each, and the carriage-way 
 3.5 feet. Southwark Bridge leads from Queenhithe to Bnnksido, Southwark. Of its three 
 arclies of cast iron, the central one is 240 feet span ; the others 210 feet each. The piers 
 and abutments are of stone, the rest of the work iron ; this is the most stupendous bridge 
 of tliese materials in the world. Blackfriars Bridge, built between the years 1760 and 1769, 
 has 8 piers and 9 elliptical arches; lengtli 995 feet. Waterloo Bridge (jig. 154.), of granite. 
 
 Waterloo Bridge. 
 
 has nine arches, each 120 feet span ; the piers are 20 feet thick. Westminster Bridge has 
 fourteen piers supporting thirteen large and two small arches. The widtli of the middle 
 arch is 76 feet; that of the two next, 72, that of the last, 52. Waterloo Bridge is the finest 
 piece of masonry in Europe: the expense exceeded l,000,0()Of. These immense works, 
 with the exception of London Bridge, have all been accomplished by associations of private 
 individuals. 
 
 The municipal institutions of London have received fram time such modifications as were 
 requisite to improve them. The city is divided into twcnty-tive wards, the Borough, as 
 Bridffo Ward Without, making the twenty-sixth. Eacli has for its magistrate an aldermoii 
 chosen for life : and those persons collectively form the Court of AUlermen. The chief 
 magistrate, styled Ixird Mayor, is elected annually, fromtlie Court of Aldermen, hy tiie great 
 body of freemen called the Livery. Tlie Common Council is an elective body reprcscntiii;,' 
 the several wards. — Those public Ixxlies form a sort of parliament, tiio court of nidernion 
 rankinir as peers, that of common council as the commons. The military force uf tlio city 
 formerly cop.sisted of the Train Bands ; but under an act passed in 179-1, two roijimonts of' 
 militia are rained by ballot, each conpistin? of 2200 men. No troops can enter the cit}', nor 
 can its own militia depart frcni it, witliout porniission of the lord mayor. His |K)Wor is very 
 jrrent ; and tliouffh his office lie elpctivo, liis niitliority tloos not cease on the demise or abdi- 
 cation oftlse Inn;;, aa that of the coinmi.-:sion ollicers does : and in such cases the Lord Mayor 
 
 m. 
 
'•«[ 
 
 ■•% "576 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Past m. 
 
 of London is said to be tho principal officer of the kingdom. There are two ghcriffB, one for 
 London and one for Middlesex ; but they make but one officer; and if one of them dies, the 
 office is at an end until a successor to him is chosen. The next officers in rank arc, the 
 Recorder, the Chamberlain, and tlie Common Sergeant 
 
 The police of tlie metropolis lias not been brought to a very liigli degree of efficiency, but 
 is continually undergoing improvements. Tiicre are eleven offices : the Mansion House ; 
 the Guildhall; Bow Street; Queen Square, Westminster; Marlborough Street; High 
 Street, Mary-le-bone ; Hatton Garden ; Worship Street ; lambeth Street, in Whitechapel ; . 
 High Street, Sliadwell ; Union Street, Southwark; and Wapping New Stairs,- for offences ),« 
 connected with the shipping and port. The Bow Street Police Office is wholly under the 
 direction and management of the Secretary of State for tlie Home Department. All the 
 magistrates belonging to it are in the commission of the peace for the counties of Middlesex, 
 Surrey, Kent, and Essex, this being the chief police office of England. Subject to its 
 authority is the body of foot and horse patrolc by which the roads within ten miles of the 
 metropolis are watched and guarded during* a considerable part of the night. In another 
 department of police a most important change has been effected by sul^tituting for the 
 nightly watch appointed by different parishes without concert or co-operation, a constabu- 
 lary POLICE FORCE, regularly organized, and subject to officers appointed by the Home 
 Secretary of State. The men are maintained by rates levied on the different parishes, 
 and are on duty night atid day, in successive divisions, relieving each other like gendarmes. 
 
 The gaols and prisons cannot be passed without notice. The King's Bench prison, in 
 Southwark, is under the particular authority of the Court of King's Bench. Tlie liberties, 
 or rules, comprehend an area three miles in circumference, within any part of wJiich debtors 
 may reside on paying certain fees. The Fleet Prison, chiefly for debtors, is situated on the 
 east side of Farrinedon Street. Whitecross-street prison was erected in 1817, for the 
 reception of such deotors as were liable to be confined in the city gaols of Newgate and tlie 
 Compter. Newgate, a place of confinement for prisoners before and after trial, has been 
 placed under new regulations through the efforts of benevolent persons anxious to render it 
 a place of reform. Bridewell, Blackfi-iars, though a prison, is usually ranked among the 
 hospitals. The Middlesex House of Correction, in Coldbath Fields, has long been the terror 
 of delinquents, through the double punishment of incarceration and hard labour. The Peni- 
 tentiary at Milbank is destined for the reception of convicts selected from those sentenced 
 to transportation or to confinement on board the hulks for a certain term of years. They are 
 confined here to hard labour lor a shorter term, part of which is remitted if they behave well. 
 Tothill-fields Bridewell is u large pile of building, finished m 1833. A new Ilouse of Cor- 
 rection has been erected at Brixton, in Surrey. 
 
 The charitable institutions of London would require a volume for their description. 
 Chelsea and Greenwich hospitals are asylums provided by national gratitude to support the 
 aged or infirm who have devoted their best days to the service of their country by land and 
 sea. St Bartholomew's and St Thomas's hospitals are assigned to the maimed and diseased. 
 Bridewell Hospital to the correction of the idle, and Christ's hospital to the support nnd 
 education of the young and helpless. For the cure of diseases, and for the relief of acci- 
 dental injuries, there are various institutions ; such are t!ic Loudon, Middlesex, St. George's, 
 and Westminster hospitals ; St Bartholomew's, St Thoma.i's, and Guy's, are also celebrated 
 as schools of surgery ; the hospitals of Bethlehem and St. Luke's are appropriated to in.snnc 
 patients : there are sixteen medical charities for particular purposes, as the Ophthalmic 
 Institution, the Small-pox Hospital, the Vaccine Society, &c. ; fourteen lyinif-iii hospitals 
 and charities; schools for the indigent blind, and for the deaf and dumb; the PliiI;inthroi)ic 
 and Humane Societies, the Refuge for the Destitute, the Foundling Hospital, the Magdalen 
 Asylum, the Female Penitentiary, &c. To the class of charitable foundations belong also 
 the alms-houses of the various city companies. 
 
 The most distinguished schools of the metropolis are, Christ's Hospital, the Charter-house, 
 Westminster, St. Paul's, and Merchant Tailor's scliools. For the acquisition of the higher 
 branches of knowledge, an important provision has been made in the estnWishment of the 
 London University, and in that of the institution called King's College, London. 
 
 Of the scientific and literary associations of the metropolis, the most considrrable are the 
 Royal Society, the Society of Antiquaries, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and 
 Manufactures, the Royal Institution for facilitating the introduction of useful Inventions and 
 Improvements, the I/indon, and tho Russel Institutions. Tlie College of Physicians, and the 
 Royal College of Surgeons, decide on the admis-sion of members to pnictise in each of those 
 professions. For tho cultivation of sciences connected with them, fiiur eminent societies 
 e.\ist and looturos are esitiiblisliod at various theatres of anatomy and hospitals. Of institu- 
 tions for ))arf icnlar hranrlies of knowledge, the more eminent are the Liimean, the Geological, 
 the Horticultural, the fieogrniihirnl, and the Zoolnginil societies. As a niitinniil re)X)sitory 
 of literature, of antiquities, nnd of objects belonging to natural history, the Briti^ih ]\lusouni 
 elsewhere dosrribed, is daily rising in public estimation. 
 
 London is the prineipul literary cmjKiriuin of tlie kingdom. Almost all books of import 
 
■*■,.. 
 
 BookL 
 
 , ENGLAND. 
 
 3T7 
 
 import 
 
 ance are thcro printed and published ; and thence distributed over the kingdom ; forming a 
 considerable branch of commerce. The annual value sold is estimated at from 1,000,OUO/. 
 to 2,(K(0,(KX(/. sterling. Being also the centre of intelligence relative to public aifuirs, the 
 metropolis gives circulation to a prodigious number of newspapers and periodical journals. 
 Some of the newspapers circulate upwards of 8000 a day ; and by tlie profit derived from 
 ttuch extensive sale, and from advertisements, they are enabled to maintain complete and 
 ^ costly establishments for obtaining early political intelligence, and for reporting trials and 
 
 parliamentary proceedings. The number of single papers, published annually in London, 
 as calculated from the stamp returns, exceeds 16,000,000. 
 
 The manufactures of the metropolis are too miacellaneoua to be particularised ; indeed, 
 Iiondon may be called a commercial rather than a manufacturing city. The most consider- 
 able is the Spitallields silk manufacture, which, however, has for years remained stationar]r, 
 while that of other parts of the kingdom has been rapidly extending. In household furni- 
 ture the artisans of liondon take the lead both in the design or fashion of the articles, and 
 in the excellence of their construction. The same may be said of coaches, carriages, and 
 harness, of watches, of gold and silver plate, and of jewellery. Of articles of consumption, 
 the peculiar product of London is porter. In 1823-4, the quantity brewed was 1,168,000 
 barrels, including a comparatively small quantity of ale ; and almost the whole of which 
 was produced by eleven great establishments. The distilleries of British spirits are very 
 extensive. 
 
 The foreign trade of London has, since the peace, continued nearly stationary. The vici- 
 nity of Liverpool to the manufacturing districts, and her more easy and frequent intercourse 
 with Ireland, give her considerable advantages. But, on the other hand, tlie vast population 
 of London and of the basin of the Thames, her proximity to the Continent, the immense 
 wealth and connexions of her merchants, will most probably suffice to ensure her predomi- 
 nance. The charges on vessels frequenting the Thames, though within tliese few years 
 veiy heavy, ore now extremely moderate. 
 
 The inland trade of London is very extensive, as appears from the number of arrivals by 
 all the great roads of the metropolis, and by the Regent's Canal, extending from the Thames 
 to the basin at Poddington, a sort of internal port, communicating with the principal canals 
 of the kingdom. Sixty-four mail-coaches and a great number of steam-packets maintain a 
 constant communication between the London General Post-Office and the cities and towns 
 in Great Britain and Ireland. The regulated speed of the mails is eight miles an hour, 
 including stoppages. 
 
 London is the great money market of the empire. The Bank of England, founded in 
 1694, has become the greatest bank of circulation and deposit in Europe. Its usual issue 
 amounts to about 20,000,0001. sterling ; it advances about 10,000,0002. sterling to govern- 
 ment, and discounts bills to the value of about 3,000,OOOZ. Though some of its privileges 
 are curtailed by the late act, this is compensated by the regulation which makes its notes a 
 legal tender. The Stock Exchange is the place where purchases and sales arc effected by 
 brokers, at a commission of one-eighth per cent, on the amount of stock purchased or sold. 
 The establishment consists of a certain number of brokers, about thirteen hundred, elected 
 annually by ballot, and bound in a certain sum to the observance of certain regulations, 
 which are superintended and enforced by a committee. None but members are admitted on 
 the stock exchange ; and no stock-broker can, by the regulations, become a dealer, and sub- 
 ject himself to the opieration of the bankrupt laws. If he becomes a bankrupt, he is desig- 
 nated a scrivener. The property bought and sold in this market, between the hours of ten 
 and four, is sometimes enormous. The Insurance Companies are about twenty in number, 
 of which only three are incorporated by charter. Of other joint-stock companies, for pur- 
 poses immediately connected with London, the principal are ^e Water and Gas Light Com- 
 panies. 
 
 As the seat of legislation and jurisprudence, London is necessarily the resort of the prin- 
 cipal persons in the kingdom during the session of parliament, whicii usually continues from 
 Christmas to midsummer ; and as that period includes three of the four law terms, the afflux 
 of strangers is increased by those who are interested in any proceedings before the courts. 
 
 The town mansions of tlie nobility and ffentry are not so remarkable as their country resi- 
 dences for architectural beauty ; but some of them are celebrated for their treasures of lite- 
 rature or art. The grounds of St. James's Park, Hyde Park, and Kensington Gardens, 
 emphatically called the lungs of Ijondon, and the fine enclosure of the Regent's Park, are 
 destined for the recreation of the |)ublic. 
 
 Middlesex may be regarded as the dairy and garden of London. Its soil is mostly a poor 
 gravel ; but, by tlie application of iimnure, it is fitted for kitchen gardens to tlie extent of 
 nearly throe tlioiisaiid acres ; the same extent of fruit gardens, and about half that extent 
 of nurseries, whence the greater part of England is supplied with choice plants and exotics. 
 But the largest portion of Middlesex is in grass, partly for the support of 10,(K)0 cow>i, 
 whicli supply Ii(Mi(lon with milk, and partly tbr furnishing it with hay, that of Middlesex 
 heiiig s;iid to bo made in a superior manner to any other in the kingdom. Great profits have 
 
 \ou L 32 ♦ 2 X 
 
 
 
 ly 
 
 
I 
 
 ■^ 
 
 878 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Pakt III. 
 
 Himpton Conct 
 
 been derivpd from that species of clay which is convertible into brick. Ijarge tracts have 
 yielded 4(M)()/. an iicre; and after this clayey substance has been pared off, the soil has been 
 easily restored, by manure, to the uses of agriculture. 
 Hampton Court (Jig. 155.), built by Cardinal Wolsey, and enlarged by Sir Christopher 
 
 Wren, forms one of the largest of the 
 English palaces. Here are many fine pic- 
 tures, among which are seven of the car- 
 toons of Raphael, regarded as the master- 
 pieces of that renowned painter. Bushy 
 Park, the seat of William IV. while Duke 
 of Clarence, is surrounded with magnifi- 
 cent woods. Chiswick, the villa of the 
 Duke of Devonshire, ond Osterley Park, 
 both in this vicinity, contain fine pamtings. 
 Syon House is the seat of tlio Duke of 
 Northumberland. But the chief ornaments 
 of Middlesex are the villas of the wealthy 
 citizens of London. At Twickenham, bar- 
 barous hands have demolished Pope's villa. Strawberry Hill is a light fantastic fabric, built 
 by Horace VValpole. The villas which cover the hills of Ilampstead and Highgato com- 
 mand beautiful prospects. 
 
 Hertford, Bedford, Buckingham, Oxford, Northampton, Leicester, consist generally of a 
 vast plain, varied by gentle undulations ; the air is healthy and pure ; the agriculturists are 
 carefiil and laborious. The horses and black cattle of Leicestershire are famous throughout 
 the kingdom. Bedford and Berks have some fabrics of shawls, straw hats, and bone lace. 
 Silk and woollen hosiery have found their way into Leicester and Oxford shires, and Coven- 
 try has for centuries been renowned for its silk manufacture. 
 
 Oxford justly claims the first rank among the midland citiea Its university, the most 
 richly endowed in Europe, and the nursery of so many great men ; the numerous and exten- 
 sive edifices connected with it, arranged in such a manner as to produce a truly noble effect, 
 render it one of tlie most interesting places in England. The visiter, as ho passes along 
 either of the two main streets (Jig. 15(3.), beholds at every step some antique and majestic 
 
 structure ; even the houses of pri- 
 IgQ i«lSii '^' ^''**' individuals, presenting the 
 
 ' ' I rll r, I ("A^k i aspect of ornamented cottagcsrising 
 
 one above the other, have a better 
 effect than the usual mechanical 
 lines of street. This beautiful city 
 is supported almost entirely by the 
 university, which is of great anti- 
 quity, and the principal buildings 
 wiiich now ornament it were built 
 between the times of Henry VI. and 
 Elizabetli. Oxford, in the reign of 
 Charles I., was a place of consider- 
 able political importance; parlia- 
 ments were summoned to meet 
 there, and the king maintained it 
 long as his last strong-hold. It has 
 nineteen colleges and four halls, in which reside above three thousand persons, of whom 
 about a third are maintained out of the funds of the colleges; and many, under the charac- 
 ter of masters, fellows, and other functionaries, enjoy liberal incomes. 
 
 The Bodleian Library is the most extensive in England, after that of the British Museum. 
 In the spacious quadrangle which contains this library are also the public schools ; a large 
 gallery of portraits having reference to the university ; the Arundel marbles, and the Pom- 
 fret statues, wiiich, though much mutilated, present some fine specimens of ancient .sculp- 
 ture. The Radclifl^e Library is the finest library roc^ii in Oxfiird ; but it labours under a 
 deficiency of books. Christ-church is an ample and venerable edifice, adorned with some 
 fine old painted glass. In an adjoining apartment is tiio collection of pictures bequeathed 
 by Geiu>ral Giiiso, svhich coiitiiins some specimens of unquestioned excellence. New Col- 
 lege chiipnl attracts admiration by its fine scries of paintings on glass, executed by Jervis, 
 after the designs of Sir Josliua Reynolds. .Ml-Souls College, Mag<lalcn College, and 
 Queen's College, display architectural beauties of no common order. 
 
 Wixidstock lias a gay aspect; to the interesting features in EnglisI: history and romance 
 it adds tiio solid benefit of a large manufacture of leather gloves. Biickinghnm and Da- 
 ventry arc small antique towns. Newport Pagneil, in Bucks, forma a sort of centre of the 
 lace trade. Bedford carries on some manufactures of this description ; and being situated in 
 
 High Street, Oxrord. 
 
«jn^r. 
 
 BOOE I. 
 
 ENGIJVND. 
 
 370 
 
 Blanhelm. 
 
 II ricli valloy, watered by tlie Oiise, lins a considerable stir in transmittiiifr its produce. The 
 industry of Dunstable is attested by the straw hats which bear its nitiiic. Ilorttbrd is a 
 Hmall provincial capital, chieHy remarkable for the college which the Eubt India Company 
 have founded, for the education of the civil servants whom they send abroad: St. Albans 
 ia venerable for its antiquitv, and its cathedral. Northampton, a place of considerable name 
 in EnjrliMh history, a well-built town on the Ncn, with a niarket-placo which has been 
 reckoned the finest in the kin<;dom, has a manufactory of boots and shoes for exportation, 
 and of lace. It is a great centre of the inland travelling between Ix>ndon and the north; 
 and the trade in horses has always been carried on in great fairs at this place. Leicester 
 is a still more important provincial capital. It is a place of note in Englisli history, and 
 attests its ancient importance by some fine old churches; but it had fallen into considerable 
 decay, till it was revived by the prosperity of the surrounding roiintry, chiefly in conse- 
 quence of the introduction of new breeds of stock into fine pastur , Lcicei«tcr has also a 
 large fabric of woollen stockings, in which it is only excelled by i\ottiii;;liiiin, and which, 
 under favourable circumstances, employs seven or eight thousand persons. (Jukliiim, the 
 capital of Rutlandshire, is a very small town. 
 The seats of this extensive district, though not so thickly planted as in the southern, are 
 157 yet numerous. Foremost stands Blen- 
 
 heim (Jifr. 157.) that proud monument 
 of a nation's gratitude to its long un- 
 rivalled hero. Its exterior displays that 
 minuteness of detail and general hea- 
 viness, which characterise the designs 
 of Vanbrugh : some of the apartments, 
 however, are of almost unequalled 
 grandeur; particularly the great holl^jk 
 fifty-three feet by forty-four, and sixt/'*' 
 high ; and the library, one hundred and 
 eighty feet by forty-three. The woods, 
 also, the lake, and the general disposition of the grounds, are greatly admired. The gallery of 
 
 Sictures is one of the very finest in tlie kingdom, containing some of the best works of 
 Lubens, Vandyke, and Titian. Stowe, the seat of the Duke of Buckingham, is celebrated 
 as the most elaborate and splendid example of the species of gardening called classical, in 
 which an attempt is made to present nature herself in an ornamented form. Her own pro- 
 per ornamente, of wood, water, hill and plain, are heightened by the introduction of tem- 
 ples, ruins, statues, inscriptions, nnd other objects calculated to excite lofty and poetical 
 ideas. Modern taste rejects many of these accessories, as breaking in uiwn the idea of 
 simple nature, to which it seeks to make the nearest possible approach ; yet, a space of four 
 hundred acres, filled with groves, temples, and meandering streams, must present many 
 beautiful sites. "The rich landscapes," says Walpole, "occasioned by the multiplicity of 
 temples and obelisks, and various pictures that present themselves as we shift our situation ; 
 occasion surprise and pleasure, sometimes recalling Albano's landscapes to (>ur mind, and 
 oftener to our fancy the idolatrous and luxurious vales of Daphne and Tempe." The house 
 also is handsome and richly ornamented, and contains some fine paintings. Wobum Abbey, 
 where the house of Russel, by princely shows and festivals, have thrown a new lustre on 
 British agriculture, is a magnificent edifice. The stables, experimental farm, and other 
 appendages of the most useful of arts, excite the admiration of every farmer and even ama- 
 teur ; nor is this residence deficient in tlie lighter embellishments of painting and statuary. 
 Althorp, near Northampton, is adorned with many rare and valuable works of art ; but it is 
 ui London chiefly that Earl Spencer keeps his library, the first in the kingdom. Opposite 
 to Stamford ia Burleigh, a noble old residence of Cecil, Elizabeth's minister. It contains a 
 fine library of books and manuscripts ; and the Exeter family have enriched it with a col- 
 lection of paintiiigs, generally supposed to be the most extensive in England. Near Oak- 
 ham, is another Burleigh on the hill, once the seat of the gay revels of Buckingham. It 
 has a noble terrace in front, and contains a good library, with some curious paintings. On 
 the Iwrder of Leicestershire and Lincolnshire, stands the Duke of Rutland's proud castel- 
 lated edifice of Belvoir. From a lofty height it overlooks a vast extent of country, includ- 
 ing the vale of the same name, one of the richest and most beautiful in England. The col- 
 lection of paintings is of great value. 
 
 VVorwick is a noble county. Its woodlands, the remains of the wide ancient forest of 
 Arden, are still extensive, and a great part lies in fine natural grass. Pasturage predomi- 
 nates greatly over agriculture, occupying nearly two-thirds. 
 
 Warwick, an ancient and well-built town, still preserves a portion of its prosperity by tlie 
 
 .manufacture of woollens. Coventry is a large old town, built very irregularly, and many of 
 
 ' the houses exhibiting tho uncouth architecture of a distant period. Its ecclesiastical monu- 
 
 .ments. however, are of imixirtance. St. Michael's is a very liirht and elegant structure, 
 
 with a spire rising to three Imndred feet. The fabric of silk, introduced more tlian a cen- 
 
 
 I 
 
?w^^ 
 
 ■»- 
 
 980 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 tury ago by tlio French refUgees, has made a iiio«t rnpul pro^frpps, no that in 1819 it rtnploywl 
 2810 looinB. In the nmkinjf ol' wutclieH, iilso, tliirt city now riviilw Jxmtlon, I.uuniintfton, 
 thoujEfii its spa is mentiuncd by Camden, never bcciinie u bC(.Mio of crowded resort, till tho 
 beginning of tliis century ; yet so creut since that jmriod ban lienn its attnionnn, that it has 
 lisen from a mere villaffe to bo a flourishinff place. 'J'liere are both hot onil cold bntiis ; and 
 the waters arc used cither for drinking or bathing. Leamington now possesses, on a hand- 
 some scale, baths, inns, a theatre, an as-scmbly-room, — all tho accommodation for the sick 
 and tlie gay. StratfonI, a considerable town on tho Avon, to which tho muse has given a 
 deathless name, is tho birth-place of Shakspeare ; the poetical pilgrim iicro beholds the 
 genuine tomb of the poet, and the site of the house chosen by him for his final residence ; 
 though the house itself a barbarous hand has demolished. Birmingham is in Warwickshire, 
 but as it is the capital of the iron country, which is almost wholly in Stoflbrdshire, we shall 
 class it witit the great towns devoted to the working of that material. 
 
 There are two castellated scats in this county, Kenilworth and Warwick, both of almost 
 
 matchless grandeur ; but the former presents only tho picturesque remains of its pristine 
 
 158 state (Jg. 158.). Founded in the 
 
 reign of Henry I., it was extended 
 and adorned by John of Gaunt; and 
 remained with the princes of the 
 house of Lancaster till wrested from 
 them by the triumph of the house of 
 York. It continued thenceforth a 
 royal appanage ; and was bestowed 
 by Elizabeth on her handsome fa- 
 vourite, Leicester, whose residence 
 ^^ KeoUwortb Cull*. here, and the splendid flBtes and ro- 
 
 VV -^ ' '^j^Vnuitic incidents connected with it, have been so happily worked up by the greatest romance 
 writer of the age. At the close of the civil wars, it was given up wholly by Cromwell to 
 his soldiers for plunder, and was reduced to the totally fallen state in which it now appears. 
 The walls were indeed entire, but completely naked and roofless ; and the visiter who stands 
 at the interior foot of the tower can trace onljr by chimneys, and other slight marks, the 
 0k > auccessive apartments rising above each other till they are terminated by the dome ot^ the 
 
 ■i f , sky. Kenilworth exhibiif the feudal age in its total downfall ; but the traveller has only to 
 
 proceed a few miles in order to see it entire and in full glory. This is the proud mansion 
 once inhabited by the king-making Earl of Warwick (Jig. 159.). It was built by the Earl 
 
 . of Warwick, who, in the four- 
 
 159 HDtt teenth century, distinguished him- 
 
 self at the battles of Cresfy and 
 Poitiers. Edward IV. seized an 
 opportunity of annexing it to the 
 crown. It was afterwards bestowed 
 by King James on Lord Brooke, 
 who spent a large sum in restoring 
 it fVom a state of decay ; and tho 
 late earl repaired it so judiciously, 
 and made his additions in such 
 harmony witli the or';<'inal pile, 
 that he may be considered almost 
 the creator of the edifice in its 
 Warwick CuU«. present state. The entrance, cut 
 
 through a rock, and opening at once on three of the loftiest towers, has an effect truly 
 striking. The interior is equally grand and interesting. First is a passage or corridor up- 
 wards of 300 feet in extent, seen from end to end, and alon^ which the state apartments arc 
 arranged. The grand hall, 62 feet long, is wainscoted with oak, hung with armour, and 
 maintained in fiill feudal keeping. 
 
 Staffordshire has a somewhat bleak and uninviting aspect ; the farms are smaller, and 
 improvements less advanced than in the other midland counties, but its mineral stores are 
 immense. The region of coal is supposed to be about 5(MX)0 acres in extent, and cannot be 
 exhausted for ages. Besides its economical uses, tliis mineral is the main basis of the works 
 and manufactures of the county, and of all those in the north-west of England, which, but 
 for this ample supply of fuel, could never have attained their present astonishing height. 
 Iron, the most useful of metals, exists in equal abundance ; and since tho discovery that it 
 could be worked with coke, iron works have been established on an immense scale. Tho 
 whole district from Wolverhampton to Birmingham may be called a Cyclopean land, whore 
 furnaces without number are continually pouring out fire and smoke. The clay.^ afford the 
 material of the pottery, which forms the otiicr great Staflbrdshirc manufacture. It is long 
 since some coarse vessels were made at Burslcm ; but Mr. Wedgwood raised this fabric tn 
 
f 
 
 Book I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 m\ 
 
 the tiiglicat perfection, and rendered it an object of national importance. Not content witli 
 the native materialH, lie imported the finest white cluyg and best llintM from the southern 
 counties; and funned that variety of articles called \Vcd{rwoo<rs ware, applicable to all 
 
 fiurixwes of use and ornament, and auperior in some respects to the best porcelain. Hence 
 las Hprun)7 up a range of villages forming; u dintrict culled the Potteries, of which Buralein 
 is tlio centre, and which contain about 0(),(MM) inhabitants. 
 The principal cluster of lurjfo towns in StutTordshire consists of those in the southern 
 
 auarter which arc employed in making iron, and manufacturing it into various forms. Of 
 lis district Birmin^'ham is the capital ; and at the remotest periods iron is mentioned as its 
 staple, but the grand impulse given was early in the lost century, when John Taylor, the 
 founder of the wealtJiy family of that name, Matthew Boulton, &iq., and other individuals, 
 by tlie spirit of their undertakings, and by their liberal patronage of skill and ingenuity in 
 every line, contributed greatly to the e.stablislimcnt of the manufacturing fame of the town. 
 Mr. Boulton, having secured the celebrated Mr. Watt, established, in conjunction with him, 
 at Soho, near Birmingham, their immense manufactory, in which talent, science, capital, ex- 
 perience, united every thing which could raise hardware articles to perfection. Pre-eminent 
 above all is ttie steam-engine, which Mr. Watt, its great improver, not only applied to the 
 use of his works here, but constructed for the rest of England. The copper coinage exe- 
 cuted at Soho by steam-power for the use of government lias been greatly admired. Under 
 the impulse of such an examplei the citizens of Birmingham soon produced their standard 
 articles of a cheapness and excellence which defied all competition. The articles manu- 
 factured in Birmmghum consist, in a great measure, of such as, individually, appear un- 
 worthy of being named, yet astonish and dazzle by their magnitude, when half the world is 
 to be supplied with them ; such as pins, buttons, nails, paper trays, filiifree, and toys. There 
 are not wanting, however, fabrics of greater magnitude, taken even singly, such as that of 
 fire-arms, &c. During the last war, the gunsmiths of Birmingham met the demand with 
 such energy, that, on one occasion, they delivered to government 14,000 ipuskets in a we^|^ 
 Of ponderous machinery, none, perhaps, is more interesting than that of the metal rolling- 
 mills. Birmingham is commodiously built, with suitable churches and other edifices, but 
 without any thmg prominent in architecture, or any antique monuments. The town can 
 boost of enlightened citizens, under whose auspices letters and the arts have been cultivated 
 with ardour. The institutions for the education of the poor are not, perhaps, surpassed by 
 any in the kingdom for extent and efficacy. ^ 
 
 The other great manufacturing towns, almost all in Staffordshire, are Wolverhampton, (/ 
 very populous place, of considerable antiquity, with a fine old church ; but indebted for it.-i 
 present greatness to the making of locks and keys in a manner superior to any town in the 
 world. Wednesbury has a fine old Gothic chitrch ; but its main boast at present is, the 
 making of all tlie hard materials of coach harness in an unrivalled manner. Walsall flour- 
 ishes by the making of every thing connected with saddlery ; Dudley by its nails : but it 
 has alx> a castle of some note in history, commanding a view of seven counties. 
 
 The nominal capital, Stafford, is yet to be noticed ; an ancient but small town, of neat 
 appearance, ornamented with the usual county buildings. The Grand Trunk Canal, how- 
 ever, passing by it, has given an impulse to its industry ; and it carries on a considerable 
 manufacture of boots and shoes. Ncwcastle-undcr-Line, and Tamworth, are both consider- 
 able towns on one of the great Tx)ndon roads. 
 
 Lichfield is a more elegant and interesting place. Its most prominent object is the ca' u'- 
 dral, of high antiquity, the finest part of which was built in 1140; some particular portiont^ 
 are equal to any thing of the kind in Britain : such are the portico, richly adorned with 
 sculpture; the choir; and St. Mary's chapel. The society fixed there by this richly endowed 
 establishment, together with the neatness of the town, and ita pleasant situation, have 
 induced many of the gentry in this quarter to make it their residence. These circumstances 
 have contributed to give to Lichfield that intellectual character which is so conspicuous, 
 and has mado it almost the literary metro]X)lis of south-western England. The birth and 
 early education of Johnson and Garrick are alone sufficient to immortalise it. Lichfield 
 enjoys high privileges as a city, having a district of some extent round it considered a county 
 of itself. 
 
 Derbyshire, in its natural features, is perhaps the most remarkable of ony county of Eng- 
 land. Except in the lower and southern districts on the Trent, the whole county is traversed 
 by ranges of rugged and rocky hills, penetrated by vast excavations, and separated by 
 narrow valleys. Lead is abundant, chiefly in the form of galena. Iron is also worked very 
 plentifiiUy. This county is also celebrated for the variety and beauty of its calcareous sub- 
 stances, particularly the kind called Blue John (fluor spar), which, by the skilful application 
 of a gentle heat, is made to exhibit the most brilliant colours. Lastly, there are numerous 
 hot springs variously impregnated ; and tlie county contains two of the most remarkable 
 watering-places in the kingdom, Matlock and Buxton. 
 
 In proceeding to Castleton, the traveller passes through the Winyats, or gates of the 
 
 J*, 
 
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Pamt III. 
 
 windi, a narrow rood of about a 
 160 
 
 Peak Cavmi, Dnbriblra. 
 
 milti in length, botwcnn prrcipicrs a thouMUul foot high, 
 dark, ruvcvd, and porpcndiculiir. At uio 
 end of tn» ruad opcnM on ono nido Mam 
 Tor, or the 8hivcrmtf Muuntiiin, UHMIfcet 
 hif(h ; on the other tlie Hiffii Ponk crownml 
 with tlio ruins of a Saxon fortreHH ; and 
 at ita foot, the wonder of wondcrn, " the 
 Peak Cavern." (Jg. IflO.) Ti:ia ia a huge 
 gulf, 42 feet liif^i and 120 long, at the foot 
 of perpendicular cliifri. The viaitor i« 
 thence guided through a auccctmion of 
 dark cavernous apartnienta, and \» lerrie<l 
 along a subterrancoua river ; above which 
 the rocka riae so cIobc, that he raUMt lie 
 flat on his face. At the end of oomcwhat 
 above 2000 feet the cavern terminatea, or, 
 at least, becomes no longer posaable. 
 Elden Hole ia a tisauro near Buxton, which 
 descends perpendicularly to an unknown depth. A line of 2052 feet hnw been let down 
 without finding a bottom. Poole's Hole, near Buxton, is chiefly remarkable for the petri- 
 factions with which it is filled. 
 
 On descending into the Low Peak, a milder grandeur presents itaelf. The most rugged chains 
 
 vf Derbyshire are interspersed with beautifhl valleys ; but none equals that of Matlock, where 
 
 ... the banks of the Derwent arc bordered 
 
 *"* by extensive woods, interspersed with 
 
 the boldest and moat varied forma of 
 rock. Dovcdale (/^. 161.) is a wilder 
 scene, where the river Dove ia hem- 
 med in by perpendicular rocks, of forma 
 so bold, and covered with such variety 
 of trees and ahnibs, that this haa some- 
 times been deemed the most picturcaque 
 spot in England. 
 
 Derby, the capital of this county, on 
 the Derwent, is handsome and well 
 built, and has extensive manufactures. 
 Silk, introduced at the commencement 
 of the last century, has contiimed to 
 flourish. Porcelain is also manufac- 
 tured here; and what is called its white ware is considered almost unrivalled, A consider- 
 able number of workmen are employed in cutting and polishing marble ; and the Derbythire 
 spar is foshioned into a variety of beautiful forms. 
 
 The watering-places in Derbyshire have the next claim to notice. Matlock contains 
 mineral spring.", efficacious in consumptive and rheumatic complaints. Buxton, in the High 
 Peak, surrounded by naked mountaina, attracts a much greater multitude ; and its waters 
 are considered very powerful in rheumatism, gout, and other diseases. The Duke of Devon- 
 shire haa here constructed a superb crescent, occupied by inns, shops, ball-rooms, and every 
 tiling that can contribute to the accommodation and gaiety of the visitanta. 
 
 Of acats, Chatsworth haa sometimes been considered the finest in England. It was built 
 by William first duke of Deyonahire, in 1702 ; and is 191 feet square, of the Ionic order, 
 richly ornamented both within and without. Keddlcstone House has a fine Doric front, 360 
 feet long, considered one of the finest nrchitoctural features in England, llardwicke Hall 
 was long the residence of the unfortunate Mary ; the furniture and the portraits remain, in 
 many respects, in the same state as during her residence. 
 
 Nottingham is watered by the broad stream of the Trent, its tributaries, and numerous 
 canals. The Vale of Belvoir, to the south-oast, ranks with the richest tracts in tlie island. 
 The north-western part contains the remnant of the great forest of Sherwood, filmed for the 
 revelries of the merry outlaw Robin Hood. Being covered, also, in a great measure, with 
 the ornamented grounds of noblemen of high rank, it is called the " dukeries." The manu- 
 factures of hosiery in this county, I^eicester and Derby, employ 33,000 frames and 73,000 
 operatives, producing in cotton 880,000/., worsted 870,000/., silk 241,000/. The lace trade 
 employs 150,000 embroiderers in tliis county. 
 
 Nottingham ia a large town, boldly and picturesquely situated upon the Trent. Its streets 
 are arranged along tlie face of a hill so steep, that the ground floors of the street behind, in 
 Kome instances, rise higher than the roofs of those in front. The rocky materials of this hill 
 are ao sofl and yielding, that they are cut to a great extent into cellars and wareiiouses. 
 The making of stockings has always been the staple of Nottingham. They are worked f4i 
 
 
 gr^-,^ ■'■■■* 
 
 m-~'.. 
 
I in 
 
 imcrous 
 island, 
 for the 
 e, with 
 manu- 
 73,000 
 e trade 
 
 streets 
 hind, in 
 this hill 
 housee. 
 rked ciii 
 
 # 
 
 s 
 
 BomL 
 
 -s^» j; ENGLAND. 363 
 
 framci, whidi, in the middle of liut century, icarcely exceeded 1200, and at preiicht amount 
 to 10,(KK). The laco trade recently uhlod w of very ffruat importance. There are stated to 
 he l!i40 machlnen in the town, and 1070 in the nctiifhoourhcxxi ; and the lace aohl in itM mar> 
 kct is valui-il nt i:iO,(K)0/. Nottingham has also a ((rent inland tra<le hy the Trent andcanalii 
 connected with it. 
 
 Newark is noted for its castle, and for a pariwh church, said to be the finest in the king- 
 dom, 
 
 Nottinghamshire may boast mmo splendid seal*. Worksop Manor, huilt by the Duke of 
 Norfolk, contains tine portraits of the Howard fhmily. Cluiiil>er Park is tltted up in a nm^- 
 niflccnt stylo by the Duke of Newcastle, with a very valuable collection of pictures. Wel- 
 bcck Abbey, a seat of the Duke of Portland, is noted for its lino stables, Nowsteod Abbey 
 had been stripped of its fine ftimiture and paintings before it came to the late Lord Byron. 
 
 ScBBECT 4, — The Northern Countie$. 
 
 The northern counties of England may be described, generally, as reaching fVom the 
 Humber and the Mersey to tlio isteottisii border. They include the wide extent of }or/lf«A«rr, 
 divided into throe ridings, and of Lancathire, Durham, Norlhnmherland, Cumbrrland, and 
 Weitmoreland. The eastern portion ia interspersed with large bleak tracts of mountain, 
 mo68, and moor. Its ports carry on a thriving trade in conrse, bulky, and useful conmioditics. 
 The south-western, comprising Ijancoshiro and the west riding of Yorkshire, by the vast pro- 
 duce of its manufactories, leaves far behind it every other district in the world. The north- 
 western, or the country of the Iiakos, has a higher dcgreu of picturesque beauty than any 
 other part of England. 
 
 The counties of Northumberland and Durham are hilly and elevated ; and their chief 
 wealth is subterraneous. A species of coarse coal, mixed with lead, everywhere abounds ; 
 and the lead is exported to the extent of from five to ten thousand tons. But within tliis 
 mineral region there is enclosed a smaller one, reaching from the mouth of the Coquet to 
 the Tees, a length of about fifty miles, and having its greatest breadth of about twenty niilea 
 upon the Tyne. Within this tract are found iminterruptcd beds of that valuable cool with 
 which London is whotly supplied, and of which great quantities are either sent to other parts 
 of the kingdom, or exported. 
 
 Newcastle was famed ut an early period in the military annals of England, It formed a 
 leading point in the wall of Hadrian and in that of Sevcrus, Robert, son of the Conqueror, 
 built here a castle of immense strength, more than two miles in circuit, which served long 
 as the main bulwark against Scottish invasion. Scarcely a trace of it now remains ; and 
 the occupations of Newcastle are entirely changed. Both banks of the river, down to Ty no- 
 mouth, form an immense wharf, to which, by railways ond steam wagons, coals are conveye<l 
 from the contiguous pits. In 1830, the quantity exported was 807,513 chaldrons, about 
 2,300,000 tons. Newcastle carries on very extensive manufactories, particularly tiiat of 
 gloss. There are thirty-one works on the Tyne, which in some years have produced gloss to 
 the value of 500,0001. In shipping it is second only to London, having belongmg to it, in 1832, 
 1077 vessels, of the burthen of 220,784 tons. Foundery, pottery, weaving, are not on a 
 very great scale. Newcastle is now, on the whole, a well-built town, thoujrli some of the 
 streets are inconveniently steep : it is highly ornamented by the spire of St. Nicholas, con- 
 sidered by the best judges as one of the finest specimens of the Gothic. It possesses a lite- 
 rary society, which has published valuable transactions ; and an antiquarian society, destined 
 particularly to receive the Roman coins, Sec. which are fVequently dug up on this lino. The 
 large town of Gateshead, on the opposite side of the river, though placed in Durham, is really 
 part of Newcastle, and raises its population to 57,000. 
 
 A continued range of great commercial towns cluster thick around Newcastle. Near the 
 mouth of^ the Tyne are North Shields and South Shields, on opposite sides of the river ; the 
 lotter being in the county of Durham. They carry on with octivity the coal trade, and the 
 others propr to Newcastle ; particularly ship-building and the making of ropes and sails. 
 Tynemouth, at the immediate opening of the river into the ocean, displays, on a bold prom- 
 ontory, a castle, a light-house, and a fine old abbey ; they form a striking and romantic scene, 
 which contrasts with those immediately above. At the mouth of the Wear, are Sunderland 
 and Wearmouth, — the one a very great, and the other a considerable port. Their prosperity 
 is supported by the same great trade of coals, of which in 1832 they sent 600,000 tons to 
 the port of London, two-thirds of thot which comes down the Tyne. They carry on oLso 
 the same manufactures, particularly ship-building, in which Sunderland is supposed to exer 
 a greoter activity than any other place in the kingdom. The bridge there has long been 
 celebrated : it consists of one arch of iron framework thrown across the river, 2(X) feet span, 
 and 100 feet high, allowing very large vessels to pass under without lowering their sailti. 
 " Nothing," says M. Dupin, " can be more striking than this view of the two cities, and the 
 bridge that unites them ; that majestic arch drawn against the sky, which allows large vessels 
 to pass under its vault with their sails flying." He afterwards adds, in regard to these ports 
 generally : " It is an admirable thing, within an extent of coast which a man may walk over 
 
 !i 
 
 ij 
 I 
 
 Hi 
 
 8 ft 1 
 
 H V 'I 
 
 p. S tl 
 
 "I 
 
 
:i64 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PAkTHL 
 
 4 
 
 on fixit ill tlirno nr I'tHir houri, tu hco two ^rrat rivora rccoivo 10,0(10 voweli, and lond 
 tlirin nwny Imiilcil with tlio prmlucu ut' tlirir banki. On tlio raino iiiirrow apace ara lix 
 fliiuriiiliiii^; lowiu*, coiituinin|{ a pupulntion vX f^ffXl pcrmniii all dovutotl to coinmorco and 
 iniliiiitry." 
 
 niirlinin is liiituliioninly built, tliuii);li on very iinnvcii ffruumi ; Itri vrnnd ornnmont b tho 
 ciithcilnil, ri'nrcil in tho olovcnth ciMitury, which im pcrimpi unrivalled a« to itM itiluation, 
 rnn((iii(; uli>n<r tlui Ruinmitof a prccinitoua rock ci((hty fcot hi^h abovu tho Wuiir, which 
 wiiiiJH nloii;; its liiwo. Thi) dcc of Durham ia the richcat in Knitlnnd ; and tlio cathedral, 
 lx!8iil(.'ii a lit'iiii, twulvo probimdarieri, and two archdeacons, hoa attached to it about sixty 
 npirit'inl aorvniita of varioua raiika. 
 
 The nuiiibir of amnllur towiia in thoae countica ia atill conaidonible. In Durham, Stock* 
 ton near tho nioiith of tho Tooa carries on tho trade of that river ; in 1833 it carried n!),000 
 tona of cuikl to I/iiidon, and has alao the Baltic trade, and tho nuinuikcturo of Miilcloth and 
 other naval materiala. Hexham, on the Upper Tvno, ia the capital of interior Northumber- 
 land, and of tho grand ancient acene of border uebato, Morpeth hoa a weekly market for 
 the cattle brought up ftom Scotland. 
 
 102 The aeata are chiefly great iMronial 
 
 castlei, at tho head of which ntands Aln< 
 wick (fig. 102.). This proud keep of the 
 Porcies covers five acres, and is defend- 
 od by sixteen towers. An expense of 
 200,000/. has been incurcd in converting 
 tho interior fVoin a feudal castle into the 
 most nplcndid of iiiodern mansions. Wark* 
 worth Castle, another seat of thu Pcrciea, 
 rotuiiiH its antique character. I.umley, 
 
 _ tho feudal ciistlo of tho Earls of Scar- 
 
 Ainwiek CittUe, borough, presents entire its august and 
 
 formidable firoiit. Raby Castle, Howick, Lombton Hall, and Bishop Auckland, are lino scats. 
 Yorkshire is next in order : its eastern division resembles the two counties just described ; 
 while the western forms part of tho great central seat of English manufacture. The York- 
 ■hiroman has n character of his own, marked by shrewdness, simplicity, good humour, and a 
 species of drollory ; so tliat tho London comic stage is considered incompleto without one of 
 his reproHontativcs. The North Riding consists, to a great extent, of moorlands ; the hilli 
 of which rise ollon to a considcrablo height. Thcso dreary tracts spread ovor the whole 
 Riding, ao that culturu can exist only in the valleys. The East Riding, which extends to the 
 Huml)cr, is traversed also by a range of high wolds, which, though rugged, have not been 
 able to resist the energies of British industry. These Ridings present to the German Ocean 
 high and nflen precipitous rocks, of which Flamborough Ifead, nearly 500 feet high, forma 
 one of tiic boldest features in English landscape. The West Riding is composed chiefly of 
 a wide, flat, fertile plain, traverscid by tho Aire, the Calder, and other navigable rivers, which 
 convey its profUico to tlie eastern, and, by means of canals, to the westrm sea. In this tract 
 is placed tho inimcnse manufacturing district of Yorkshire ; in its extreme west is the dis- 
 trict of Craven, thu most rugged and mountainous of all England ; for here rise Inglcborough, 
 Wharuside, Pcnnigcnt, each to the height of nearly three thousand feet. There is scarcely 
 a county in whicii tho spirit of agricultural improvement has been so active as in Yorkshire ; 
 and vast tracts of waste and common land have been reclaimed und rendered pro<luctive. 
 
 Hull, the principal port, is the fourth commercial city in England, only surpassed by Lon- 
 don, Liverpool, and Bristol. It carries on a most extensive export of goods brought by the 
 interior system of rivers and canals. It is ihe principal of tho whale-hshcry ports \ though 
 this brancii has lately declined. During tlie nine years ending with 1818, the average 
 number of vessels fltted out from Hull for the whale fieihery amounted to .53^ ; while in 1830, 
 it sent out only 33. In 1832, it owned 557 ships, carrying 68,892 tons, and there entered 
 its port 1279 vest^ols, of the burden of 192,661 tons. The Old Dock, completed in 1778, the 
 Humbcr Dock in 1809, and the Junction Dock in 1829, contain a space of twenty-three 
 acres. Goole, on the Ouse, a little above its junction with the Humber, is beginning to share 
 with Hull in the exportation of woollens. Though a few years ago a mere village, ond still, 
 in 1831, containing only 1070 inhabitants, it has two spacious docks, and in 1829 the customs 
 exceeded 40,000/., and the declared value of exports amounted to 625,000/. GikxIs sent 
 from Leeds or Wakelield by rivers or canals can be embarked at Goole in tlio cuurso of 
 twelve hours. 
 
 Whitby is a very ancient town, with the remains of a fine abbey built soon after tlio Con- 
 quest. Its modern importance is derived from large mines of alum. The export of their 
 produce forms a considemble trade, to which Whitby soon added tho other branches preva- 
 lent on tills coast, and became second only to Hull. 
 
 Scarborough, romantically situated on a promontory lictween two rocks overlooking the 
 ■ea, is tho chief watering-place of tlie nortli of England. 
 
 
^ ' 
 
 
 UooK L 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 asA 
 
 ■o Con- 
 If their 
 Ipreva- 
 
 |ig tlie 
 
 YiirkCtthrdciI. 
 
 Yurk, tlin cnpittil, in t!io flrHt object that Htriknit iih m wu proccml iiitn thn interior of tlie 
 North onil \Vo«tRi(lin((M. TIiIh ct'lnbnitinl city, thuiiKh «(> miic-h ccIIinukI by Mcvcrai thataro 
 only of tiwliiy, itiil biMuil.<< u ili){nity Hii|N!riur tu thcin, and to ulmuHt tiiiy other in Kuiflitntl. 
 Fihoriiciini wiis ii (liMtin{;ui)ih)til Kturian Mtution ; t(>r xuino tiiiio York <liN|>uto<l with Iintuloii thti 
 (liMtinction oriH'ing tho ciipitiii of Kii);laiid ; ami whun uhli|{oiltoirivn up tluH claim, continu- 
 ed the uu<iiiotition<!d inctruiioiii of tliu north, till tho croativu pownm of trade rained up rival* 
 to it in tho north-went. The hoiiHo« nro hi)(h, and the ntreetn narrow ; ynt, altuKetlicr, York 
 u a handitoinc, re»|H!Clalile-liK)kiii); old city. It boaxlM one feature of almiMt unrivalled 
 Iwauty, — ita cathedral. (Jg. 103.) Un tho exterior all the richnuHH and elegance of Gothic 
 
 ornament haii been lavished, particularly 
 upon the wmtern tVont and the hir^u win- 
 dow in tho eaittcrn. But the interior ia 
 without a rival in tho empire ; its effect in 
 altogethor iiublime : itH numerous windows 
 of painted g\Ma nhed a dim, Holemn, reli- 
 Ifious light, in accorilanco with the charac- 
 tor of tho cdiflco. Tho chaptc-liousc is of 
 xingular elegance and mogniHccuce; and, 
 though of great extent, haa its roof support- 
 ed by a single pin. The choir of thin splen- 
 did edifice suflcred severe injury from a fire 
 kindlml by the hands of a maniac ; but by 
 grop.t exertions has been ftiUy repaired. The 
 remains of tho ruined abbey of St. Mary, and those of several of the twenty-tlirco churchcu 
 of York, are also deserving notice. There are likewise some elegant modern edifices, par- 
 ticularly the atiHcmbly room, tho county hall, guildhall, tlie mansion-house, and the museum 
 of the YorkHhire Philosophical Society. YorTt is still a gay town, visited by many of tho 
 northern gentry, particularly at the time of its races. It carries on some inland trade by 
 the Ouse, which ixissea through it. 
 
 Doncastcr is much frequented during tho time of i*8 races. Pontofract is surrounded by 
 a great extent of garden and nursery ground, tho produce of which is sent to a considerable 
 distance. Scarcely a vestige remams of that immense and powerful keep, covering seven 
 acrcji, in which Thomas of ijancaster, Richard II„ and many other fallen chiefs amrstntrs- 
 men, were immured. The parliament, during the civil wars, having taken it utter threo 
 successive and arduous sieges, caused it to be completely dcmolisliud. 
 
 Ijceds J!! the capital of western Yorkshire, and, in a commercial sense, of the whole 
 county. Although it was of some note oven in early times, its present crcatness is modern, 
 and of the most rapid growth. The population, which in 177.") was only 17,117, amounted 
 in 1831 to 13:),303; being thus nearly quintupled. A peculiar activity and spirit of enter- 
 prise has boon observed among the munulacturera of Leeds : it was, doubtless, greatly 
 favoured by the vast extent of inland navigation, which seemed to centre hprt% connecting 
 it with the capital, with both seas, and with tlio counties to the south, fruMi wiiich it derives 
 inexhaustible supplies of tine coal. The woollen inanutactitre is not carried on wholly in 
 large towns; tho cloth ia wrought to a certain state of forwardness in the numerous villages, 
 thence sent into Leeds, where it is purchased and worked up into a saleable state. The 
 cloths are sold in weekly markets, held in the cloth halls, the most remarkable feature in 
 Leeds. That for mixed cloths was built in 1758, that for white cloth in 177.5. They form 
 quadrangular edifices round an open area, and are divided into stands, of which in the first 
 hall are 1800, and in tho second 1210. Those arc let at a moderate rent to the owners of 
 the cloth, who, on the rin^^ing of a bell, occupy their stands, and though tho market remains 
 open only an hour, goods to an immense value are often disposed of. Although the staple 
 of Jjceds and of Yorkshire be common cloth, yet other bmnches are in some degree include<l, 
 as sail-clotii, cotton, carpets, and superfine cloths. Mr. Orinkwater states the persons cm- 
 ployed in the mills for wool at 5290; worsted, 702; flax, 2434 ; cotton, 80; silk, I'id ; in 
 all, 8664 ; of whom .')318 are males, and 3346 females ; to which may be added 1814 in the 
 suburb of Ilolbcck. The town of Leeds is mostly well built, with several broad and spa- 
 rious streets; and the theatre, the new court-house, and the commercial buildinffs, finished 
 in 1829, are elegant structures. Kirkstall Abbey, three miles distant, presents, in a beauti- 
 ful situation, the most complete specimen of the architecture of the 12th century that is 
 extant. Tho people of Leeds have formed a literory and philosophical society, and an insti- 
 tution for the promotion of the fine arts ; for tho purpose of whicii a very handsome and 
 commodious edifice has been erected : meritorious exertions have also been made for the 
 education of the poor. 
 
 Of the other towns of the clothing district, whicli cluster round Leeds, ir«A-p/ff7r?, beauti- 
 fully situated on the Calder, has a cloth market, on a smaller scale, resembling that of Leeds, 
 and also great grain and cattle markets. Halifax, and the whole district about twenty miles 
 round it, has been converted from a desert into a populous and prosperous scene, containing 
 Vol. L 33 2Y 
 
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 altogether 110,000 inhabitants. Its staples are what are properly called stuffs ; shallooiu, 
 ecTgea, haize, morceii.s, kerseys ; and it has lately embraced a considerable share of tlic cot- 
 ton manufiicture. Huddcrsticld is also a very thriving town, employed nearly in the same 
 branches ; and its market hall is supposed, next to that of Leeds, to present the greatest 
 eiiow of woollens.in the kingdom. Bradford and Keighley are large towns, which carry on 
 to a groat extent the tnanuiiicture of worsted : besides which, Bradtbrd has great iron found- 
 -ies in its neighbourliood. 
 
 In the southern part of tiiis riding, the manufactures of iron and cutlery take the place of 
 those of woollen ; and Hoiiri.'^h to such an extent, that they are second only to the great iron 
 district nround Birmingiium. Sheffield is the capital of this district. It early derived im- 
 portance from the fabrication ol arms, but it has reached a much higher degree of greatness 
 since it betook itself to tiie more useful fabrics of knives, forks, razors, suuflers, scissors, 
 combs, buttons, saws, sickles, and various instruments of hu-sbandry. The art of plating 
 goods with silver is carried to a vast extent. The silver is soldered upon the copper ; and 
 the articles are wrought by the hand or stamped. The cutlers of Sheffield keep many hun- 
 dred patterns of knives, of which some are of the value of seven or eight guineas, contain- 
 ing twenty-eight blades within the handle ; while others, afl,er passing through a multitude 
 of different hands, are sold for a penny eacli. The rapid growth of ShefUeld commenced 
 about the year 1750, when the river Don was rendered navigable to within a few miles of 
 the town. Since that time its advance has been steady ; new branches having been con- 
 stantly adding, and the former ones extending. The houses are chiefly modern, and well 
 built ; and the town makes a tolerable appeai^nce, notwithstanding the smoke of the forges 
 in which it is involved. The military barracks erected here form an extensive pile of build- 
 ing. The infirmary is considered equal to any in tlie kingdom ; and great credit is due to 
 Sheffield for the excellence of the schools which it maintains for the education of the lower 
 orders. It supports also many public charities; has a literary society, a mechanics' insti- 
 tute, and a library. 
 
 Bamsley produces wire, nails, and other articles, but derives its chief importance from the 
 linen nianutacturc. Rotherham has a great tbundery for cannon. The first iron bridge was 
 constructed here at the works of Messrs. Walker ; and they have since executed those of 
 Sunderland, Staines, and Yarn). Rotherham, being in a fine country, has also a great corn 
 and cattle market. 
 
 The superb seats wliich adorn Yorkshire are so many, tbat to enumerate even the most 
 distinguished can witli difRculty suit our limits. Castle Howard is a magnificent pile, noted 
 liir its classical collection of sculpture and painting. Duncombe Park is admired tor the 
 noble view obtained from the terrace in front, and for the ruins of Rivaulx Abbey, situated 
 in !i beautiful vale at a little distance; Studley Royal, an almost unrivalled specimen of an 
 ornamental park, encloses within its precincts, Fountain's Abbey, one of the grandest of 
 monastic remains, covering several acres. Wentworth House is generally considered the 
 noblest mansion in the north. The principal front extends upwards of 600 feet, forming a 
 centre arl two wings, in the middle of which is a fine Corinthian portico. 
 
 Ijancashire, situated beyond the hilly border of York West Riding, forms the capital or 
 central seat of manul'acture for Britain, and even for the world. Its soil and climate are 
 unfavourable; tiie upland tracts being rocky an 1 barren, and the coast too low and flat, while 
 tlie moisture from tlie Atlantic is injurious to the growth of the finer kinds of grain. But 
 coal traverses in large beds the south and south-eastern parts of the county ; and being con- 
 veyed by short canal lines to all the great towns, affords cheap and abundant fuel for the 
 steam-engines and other grand manufiicturing apparatus. Canal navigation, which origi- 
 nated in Lancashire, has been carried to a greater extent there than in any other part of the 
 kingdom. Besides those smaller canals which connect all t'lf' great thriving towns, it has 
 tho Lancaster Canal running north and south tlirough ni-^rly ii.-! whole extent, and intc 
 Westmoreland as fiir as Kendal ; and the still more important \i\,f of the Leeds and Liver- 
 ,poa[ (Janal ; while, in the southern boi-der, the Grand Trunk connects it with London and 
 the whole centre of England. A most imi)ortant additional r.o:umunication has recently 
 fxien opened by the railway, elsewhere described, by which Liv;rpool and Manchester, so 
 tar as respects personal conveyance, are brought ahnast into contact. 
 
 Manchester, the centre of British industry, and the manufacturing capital of the empire, 
 is favourably situated on the Irwell ; though this stream, navigable for barges, scarcely makes 
 any (igtirc beside the vast artificial line." formed from its waters. Altliough the cotton maiui- 
 liictHro is now widely ditliiHod throughout England, Manche.-'tcr continues the coiitro of the 
 trade; receiving and distributing the raw material, collecting the produce wcirked up in 
 numerous towns and villages, and transmitting it to the various market.-. From the middle 
 of the last century she has advanced with amazing and accelerated rajjidity ;aiid the system of 
 inland navigation having afforded copious channels by which the material can be introduced 
 and the manufactured article exported, every obsf^iclo to thi; absorjrtiou of the whole into 
 this centre was removed. Its manufacture embraces the finer nuislins and other delicate 
 fabrics, with the plain and useful forms of diniitie?, fustians, velveteens, checks, sliirtings 
 
Book 1. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 387 
 
 ginghams, diancrs, cambric muslins, figured muslins, cnlicocs for printing, and various fancy 
 goods. Tlio diiTcrent cotton fabrics generally denominated Manchester goods, are not all 
 manufactured within the town itself, but in the neighbouring towns and districts ; and, afler 
 being bleached, and some of them printed, arc sent in a iinislied state to Manchester to be 
 «old ; the chief market days being Tuesdays and Saturdays. Thus Marseilles quillings, 
 cambric muslins, calicoes tor printing, bed quilts and counterpanes, checks, fustians, and 
 shirtings, arc brought in from the surrounding towns and villages. A vast deal of yam is 
 also spun for exportation. Manchester has extensive establishments for printing and dyeing; 
 also, for constructing and keeping in repoir Eleam-ongincs, as well as omer machines 
 employed in manufacture. Even iron founderies are necessary to supply the material?. 
 Other important branches have recently been added. Manciiester now rivals Macclesfield 
 and Norwich in the manufacture of silks, and Nottingham in tliat of lace. In 1832, there 
 wore at work in the townships of Manchester and Salford, 96 cotton mills, 16 silk, 4 woollen 
 and worsted, and 2 flax mills. The number employed in cotton Victories amounted to 
 20,.585 ; of whom, 5361 were male and 7035 female adults ; 4286 male and 3903 female 
 children. The wages paid to them per month were 40,333/., making about 9s. 9rf. of ave- 
 rage weekly earnings to each individual. There were 7174 mule spinners, earning 15,106i. 
 per month, averaging 10«. 6d. each per week ; 1497 spinners of a higlier class, earning 
 ?491?. per month, or II. 8s. id. each per week. Pieccrs' scavengers 2944, earning 3287/. 
 per month, each weekly 5». 6rf. In the power looms, women receive 8s. to 12s. ; men, 13s. 
 to 16s. lOi. ; dressers, 28s. to 30s. per week. Manchester is not an elegant town ; some 
 parts of its interior are narrow, crowded, fhll of warehouses and factories in huge masses 
 The entrances, however, have been mode handsome ; and, in the extremities of the town, 
 streets of elegant houses have been built for the accommodation of the opulent merchants. 
 It has one handsome Gothic collegiate church of the fifteenth century, and several more 
 modern, that are creditable to the taste of the town, as the Exchange, which includes a 
 news-room and a good library ; the Infirmary (which in one year received above 12,000 
 patients) ; the Town Hall, which contains one of the most splendid public rooms in Europe ; 
 and the Royal Institution for the Promotion of the Fine Arts. Tlie prison called the New 
 Bailey is an immense structure, — the inmates of wiiicli ore classed and provided with 
 employment to a considerable extent. Manchester is remarkable for its charitable institu- 
 tions ; hospitals of diflerent kinds ; and schools for the education of the poor. Cheetham's 
 Hospital, maintaining eighty poor cliildren, has a library of 18,(MK) or 20,000 volumes, con- 
 taining rare and valuable works. In 1781, a literary and philosophical society was formed 
 at Mancheste', and produced several valuable volumes of Transactions, enriched by the con- 
 tributions of Percival, Ferriar, Dalton, Henry, and other eminent gentlemen there resident. 
 In 1774, the population of the whole parish was 41,000 ; the amount of 142,000 for 1831 by 
 no means comprehends all that may be considered Manchester. The large towns and vil- 
 lages which have sprung up within its parish form really its suburbs, and raise the entire 
 population to 270,000. Of these, the most important are Salford, immediately contiguous, 
 and now raised to the rank of a borough ; and Chorlton Row, which in 1801 contained 675 
 inhabitants; in 1831, 20,565. 
 
 Huge towns, resembling cities, devoted to the cotton manufacture, are found in every 
 direction round Manchester. To the north are Blackburn and Bolton ; the former chiefly 
 employed in the branch of printed calicoes, which are supjiosed to be produced to the annual 
 value of 2,000,000/. A great advantage is derived from the Leeds and Liverpool Canal 
 passing close by it. Bolton is a town anciently of some strength, but now supported entirely 
 by industry. Some of the greatest improvements in the cotton manufacture, have been 
 made by Arkwright and Crompton, residents in this place. Preston, a flourishing seat of 
 manufacture, elects two members on a basis of almost universal suflirage. Wigan is a large 
 town, which adds to those of cotton and linen some manufactures of brass and pewter. 
 Bury, very near Manchester, besides extensive cotton works, has some of woollen. Oldham 
 was early a place of some consequence, carrying on a large fubric of hats ; but the intro- 
 duction of the cotton manufacture has caastxl it to make an astonishing progretss, so that in 
 thirty years it has nearly trebled its population, and the parish, including Pilkington, Cromp- 
 ton, and other towns, contains 67,.500 inhabitants. There are here now 65 cotton mills and 
 140 steam-engines, almost all erected during t'.ie present century. 
 
 Some large towns employed in other manuliictures than those of cotton lie on the borders 
 of Jjancosliirc. Rochdale, near the western point of Yorkshire, and in character a York- 
 shire town, has for its staple woollen stufla and f^.mnels, of which 8000 pieces arc made 
 weekly ; filly-sovon steam-engines are employed here, and about 84,000 lbs. of cotton yam 
 spun in the week. Warrington, on the Mersey, which is navigable tor vessels of eighty 
 tons from Ijiverjiool, in Henry VIII. 's time wan superior to Manchester; but it is now left 
 far behind. Its staples of sailcloth and cairsc linens have been c.vchanged tor cotton, to 
 which it adds glass and pins. Prescot is noted for the making of watch- wheels, springs, 
 chains, &c. several of which have been invented and improved by its workmen. Near it, 
 at St. Helen's, is a great manufactory of plate glass, employing 300 persons. 
 
 '' u,' I 
 
■'^. 
 
 ¥■ 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part III 
 
 Liverpool, the commercial capital of LAiicoahire, is, if possible, a still grander object, and 
 far surpassing indeed every other seaport, witii the exception of tiic metropolis. Nothing 
 can Ini more rcmarlcable titan the contrast of its present state with its humble origin. In 
 the sixteentli century, it is described as a small place with only a chapel, having no parish 
 church within four miles. It had then 186 iniiabitants, and two or three ships, whose aggre- 
 gate tonnage was 223 tons ; and in a petition to Elizabeth, about tho year 1578, it is styled, 
 " her majesty's poor decayed town ;" it continued gradually to increase during the seven- 
 teentti century, till, in 1700, it was constituted a parish, and lioil 5000 inhabitants. 
 Since tiiat time it has advanced with rapid and accelerated steps ; in 1730, it had 12,000 ; 
 in 1760, 26,000; m 1800, 56,000 inhabitants; but the most rapid growth has been between 
 1811 and 1821, when it rose from 04,376 to 141,487. The increase to 165,000 in 1831 
 appears less rapid ; but in fact, the population during this period has overflowed into the 
 adjacent villages, and swelled them into large towns ; Toxteth-park increased from 2060 in 
 1801, to 24,067 in 1831 ; West Derby, Kirkdale, Everton, form in fact the suburbs of Liver- 
 pool, and, added to it, make an amount of 203,000. There must always have been a consi- 
 derable port at the mouth of the Mersey ; but this estuary, in its natural navigation, could 
 never come in competition with tlie Ilumber or the Severn. When, however, its disadvan- 
 tages as a seaport were partly removed, by the formation of docks, — and, much more, when 
 it became the basis of a canal system reaching eastward to the German Ocean, and soutli- 
 ward to the Thames, — Liverpool could communicate with an immense interior curcle. It 
 derived benefit, above all, from the cotton manufacture established, on such an extensive 
 scale, in the country immediately behmd ; the materials of which were brought to Liverpool 
 fix)m the opposite side of the Atlantic, and the finished fabric thence exported, partly to the 
 same quarter. At the same time Liverpool imported, for a great part of England at least, 
 articles of consumption from America and the West Indies. It found also a most extensive 
 employment in bringing grain and provisions from Ireland, and returning salt, coals, and pot- 
 tery. The merchants of Liverpool, meanwhile, were most active in hnproving these cir- 
 cumstances, particularly by the construction of that immense line of docks, which M. Dupin 
 has described with such admiration. A dock, or space enclosed all round, and fed with 
 sluices, in which the vessels while they receive or discharge their cargoes are kept regu- 
 larly afloat, without being exposed to swell, tide, or current, is an obvious improvement upon 
 the best natural harbour. The expense, liowever, is great ; and it was not till 1710 that 
 Liverpool began the first dock in Britain, called the Old Dock, which has recently been filled 
 up. Twenty years were employed in its completion ; and a still longer time in that of the 
 next, or the Saltliouse Dock. The others were, however, constructed on a more extensive 
 scale, and with greater rapidity: — George's (II.) Dock; tho King's Dock, for Greenland 
 ships and tobacco ; the Queen's Dock, directly for the Baltic and North American trade. 
 On a still larger scale have been constructed the Prince Regent Dock, opened in 1821, and 
 the Clarence Dock, in 1830. The Brunswick Dock, fi)r the accommodation of vessels with 
 cargoes of timber, nearly completes tlie present plan, when the whole area of water in the 
 docks will exceed 90 acres. In 1832, there belonged to this port 853 registered vessels, of 
 the burthen of 166,028 tons. Tlie customs paid at the port amounted, in 1765, to 260,000{. ; 
 in 1810, to 2,675,000Z. ; and in 1832 they had risen to 3,925,062/. The following are the 
 leading articles of import in the year 1830 : — 792,350 bags of cotton, 510,000 hides, 42,000 
 hogsheads of sugar, 8000 hogsheads of tobacco, 300,500 barrels of flour, 7800 casks and 
 7300 barrels and bigs of coflfee, 27,000 casks of palm oil, 900 seroons and 1430 chests of 
 indigo, 12,000 puncheons of rum, 31,200 bags of rice, 22,500 barrels of American ashes, 
 42,500 barrels of tar, 51,000 barrels of turpentine, 6200 tons of logwood, 5650 logs of maho- 
 gany. The dock duties, which in 1800 were only 23,379/., amounted, in 1832, to 170,000/. 
 In 1832, the ships entered inwards were 10,266, tonnage 1,361,000 ; outwards, 8717 ships, 
 tonnage 1,218,045. Of this, 610,000 tons were from foreign parts, chiefly the United States 
 and British America, the rest coasters, of which 386,000 were from Ireland. The value of 
 agricultural profluce from that country amounted to 4,444,000/. 
 
 Liverpool has niunerous lines of packets to all the principal foreign ports. Every month 
 four sail to New- York, two to Philadelphia, one to Boston, two respectively to Rio Janeiro, 
 Genoa and Leghorn, and to Lisbon ; one every tlueo weeka to Oporto. The New- York 
 packets are first-rate vessels containing splendid accommodations for jrasscngers, and the 
 value of goo<ls conveyed in one of them has been known to exceed 140,000/. Trading ves- 
 sels also are continually sailing to the above and to all other commercial places throughout 
 the world. An almost daily communication is maintained by steam packets with Dublin, 
 Belfast, Glasgow, Whitehaven, and nil porta of any conse(iuence in Ireland, and on the 
 western coast of England. The solid construction of its docks ; the powerful iron gates by 
 which they are enclosed ; the long covered ways where the goods may be landed without 
 injury from the inclemency of the weather ; the immense magazines, some rising to the 
 height of 12 or 13 stories, — all denote a gigantic industry and a magnificence which spares 
 no sacrifice to attain objects of public utility. The inhabitants of Liverpool have generally 
 shown the same spirit in Uieir other arrangements as in those connected with trade. The 
 
 iC 
 
Book I. 
 
 town is well lighted with gas. 
 
 164 
 
 ENGLAND. 389 
 
 The public building have an elegant and classical cliaractcr, 
 almost peculiar to Liverpool. The Town- 
 Hall (Jig. 164), is a fine Grecian edifice, 
 ornamented with a superb cupola and ap- 
 propriate statues. The Excliunge forms 
 behind it an elegant scjuare, in the midst of 
 which is a sculptural composition by West- 
 macott, representing Nelson and liis victo- 
 ries. The new edifice erected for a market 
 is, perhaps, tlic most spacious and commo- 
 dious of any employed in tiie kingdom for 
 that purpose. There are also several ele- 
 gant modem churches, one formed of cast- 
 iron. The finest view of Liverpool is 
 Town Hall, L«eipool obtained from the sea, whore the vast jmight 
 
 and extent of the exterior dock wall, the forest of masts above, and the town behind, make 
 a most imposing appearance. The charitable institutions are administered on a creat scale, 
 and with activity. Foremost stands the Blind Asylum, the first established in England, which 
 receives inmates from all parts of the kingdom. The infirmary is in a very spacious and 
 airy situation; and, among the other institutions common to great towns, the Strangers' 
 Friends' Society distinguishes itself by its generous exertions. The Englisli mercantile 
 towns generally show a zeal to combine intellectual pursuits with those of wealth ; but ' 
 none, perhaps so successfully as Jjiverpool,— one of whose merchants, while carrying on an 
 extensive business, produced works which rank him among the most classical English 
 writers. Although this example be single, it is connected with a general spirit, which 
 displays itself in the liberal procedure of several individuals; in the Lyceum and the 
 Athenffium; two public libraries and literary institutions, supported by subscription ; and in 
 a botanic garden, which ranks as tlie first that was formed, and at least the third as to 
 eminence, in the kingdom. Both the Athenffium and the Ixrtanic garden owe their founda- 
 tion to the public spirit and the munificent example of Mr. R»scoe, who had also the 
 magnanimity to exert his powerful talents for the abolition of the slave trade, in a town long 
 devoted to that traffic. 
 
 Lancaster, the county town, is handsomely built of a beautiful free-stone ; the Town-lmll 
 
 and some other buildings are handsome ; 
 but the castle {Jig. 165.) forms one of 
 the grandest monuments of tlio feudal 
 age. Its vast extent; its commanding 
 site; the greatness of all its features, 
 even now, when three of its seven towers 
 are fallen into ruin; produce the most 
 powerful impression. If has been con- 
 verted into a well-arranged i)ripon for 
 the county. Lancaster, though its river, 
 the Lune, is not navigable for vessels of 
 more than 250 tons, possesses 73 sail. 
 It builds some ships, makes sailcloth, 
 and manufactures, upon a small scale, 
 some cotton fabrics. About a mile from 
 i:, the lancaster Canal is carried over the Lune by a very noble aqueduct bridge. 
 
 The counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland, or the countn' of the Lakes, form a Imid 
 and peculiar region, presenting a striking contrast to those recently surveyed; being enriched 
 neither by natural wealth, nor by human industry. Wide ranges of high and rocky moun- 
 tains, enclosing long lakes and narrow vales, affonl scanty s|)ace for the plough. A great 
 proportion of these fells and moors is absolutely barren ; in the more fiivoured spots the her- 
 bage is often scanty ; and even the arable tracts are, in general, fit only for the coarser 
 grain of oats. But the multitude of moiuitains crowded together, their bold, perpendicular, 
 and ofleu prnjccting forms; the pleajiing tliougii not extensive lakes, and soft pastoral 
 valleys, wliicii they enclose, render this the most beautiful country of England, and the 
 fivonvite resort of nil the rulmirers of the piofurpsque and sublime. 
 
 Tlircf divisions are distinctly seen in those counties, reaching from north to south. T. A 
 plain eastward of the mountains, through which the high rosid nms by Kendal and Carlisle 
 to IjOikIou, II. The mountains and lakes, occupying the larger portion of their surface. 
 III. .A sea-roast, containing some harbours of importance. 
 
 The first piirt consists of a plain, which, tliou^li narrow, is in many places fertile; and 
 cnntiiins some large towns. In the northern part is " merry Carlisle," long distinguished in 
 the Ixirdor ann:ils, and the scone of intore.«ting events in the contest of 1745. Carlisle being 
 a military po-^t of the First consequence, its castle and walls were considered a model oi 
 
 33* 
 
 Lancnsler Caslle. 
 
390 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt III. 
 
 166 
 
 strength, according to the ideas of the middle ages ; tlie cathedral is an ancient edifice, still 
 nearly entire, in the, heavy Saxon style. Carlisle has of late l)cgun to carry on some manu- 
 fiicture, chiefly cotton ; also woollen, linen, and a few minor articles. A canal connects it 
 with the Solway, and enables it to employ some shipping. Eastward from Carlisle is the 
 great debateable line ; and near Brampton is Naworth Castle, that powerful station when; 
 l-ord William Howard undertook to bridle the license of the border. Yet, however strong, 
 it tbrms rather a dark border keep, than a display of feudal grandeur. Lord Howard's 
 apartments, which, with their books, furniture, and armour, remain almost undisturbed, uro 
 separated by four strong doors from the rest of the castle ; and secret passages lead to every 
 part, and to the dungeons beneath. Farther south is Kendal, the chief town of Westmore- 
 land ; a considerable place, with an old manufactory of woollens bearing its name, and 
 some of cotton and leather. Burton and Kirby Lonsdale are small neat towns on the border 
 of Lancashire. 
 The second division comprises the country of the Lakes, forming the peculiar character- 
 istic of the country, and chiefly distin- 
 guished by its scenery. Ullswater, {fg. 
 166.) divided into three reaches. The 
 mountains are numerous, steep and loft;v, 
 not broken or impending, but of a bold 
 and swelling form. The two highest in 
 the region are Helvellyn, and the sijuare 
 rocky mass of Stone Cross Pike, rearing 
 their almost perpendicular forms to an 
 amazing height above the wooded hills 
 which cluster round them. Opposite 
 rises the immense precipitous steep of 
 Place Fell; and the whole produces a 
 scene of solemn and simple grandeur. At Patterdale, though the features be grand, the 
 ""■ beautiful predominates. From the 
 
 meadows bordering the lake, the nu- 
 merous glens branching oft', with the 
 scattered abodes of the shepherds and 
 oalesmen, present one of the sweetest 
 of alpine pastoral scenes. Keswick or 
 Derwentwater {fig. 167.) is of equal 
 grandeur, but a quite difl'erent aspect. 
 The mountains preserve no regular 
 form, but are broken, shattered, im- 
 pending, shooting into a thousand fan- 
 tastic shapes ; and though they do not 
 pro<luce the same grand unity of eflfect, astonish by a continual change of scenery. In 
 
 the wooded cliffs and waterfall of Lodore {fig. 168.), 
 and on the rocks of Borrowdale, nature seems to have 
 sported her wildest fancies. Yet exquisite beauty is 
 here mingled with horrors, particularly in the views of 
 the lake from the south, with Skiddaw behind ; and in 
 a lovely rural vale, which runs along its northern Ixjr- 
 der, and is seen to peculiar advantage from the road to 
 
 Ulliwat«r. 
 
 KMwick IiAko 
 
 Ludorc \Vat4jrful). 
 
 Windermore Lake. 
 
 Ambleside. Windermore {fig. 109.), is of much wider extent; not shut in by mountamous 
 cliffs, but bordered by wooded and ornamented hills. Around its northern banks, however 
 is ranged an amphitlieatro of very high mountains, which, with thi^ir varied summits, fonii 
 a sublime background to all its landscapes. Tiioso are generally i^nind, open, difl'usivo, und 
 extended. The other lakes, Coniston, Gra.smoro, Butterniere, Cromack, Wastdale, Enuer- 
 
Book I. 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 S91 
 
 dale, have attractions for the admirers of nature. In tliis district, Iho only places to which 
 the name of towns could be given are Keswick on Derwentwater, an., ^imbleside on Win- 
 dermere i and even these are only large villages, supported by the resort of travellers, and 
 by some persons of distinction wlio are induced to reside there by the beauty of the neigh- 
 bourhood. 
 
 The third division consists of the sea-coast. The most considerable port is Whitehaven, 
 which has become flourishing in consequence of the immense coal mines found and worked 
 in its immediate vicinity. Some of them have a depth of 320 yards, supposed to be greater 
 than any other in the world ; and some extend several miles beneath the sea. The total 
 quantity worked is estimated at 100,000 chaldrons, chiefly exported to Ireland : besides wliich, 
 Whitehaven has pushed its trade to Africa, America, and the West Indies ; and carries on 
 much ship-building. 
 
 SvBsECT. 5. — Western Counties, 
 
 The western counties form the last di^sion of England Proper, comprising the counties 
 south of the Mersey, which form the western boundary of England. This extensive line 
 has scarcely any character which can be said generally to apply to it. We mention Cheshire, 
 Shropshire, Hereford, and Monmouth, as bordering on Wales, and the last three partaking 
 somewhat of its rude and romantic character ; Worcester, Gloucester, and Somerset, occu- 
 pying the fine valley of the Severn, — a region filled with commerce ond cultivation, and 
 containing several great cities ; lastly, Cornwall and Devon, the extreme comer of England, 
 but marked by a mild climate, rich mines, and a surface agreeably diversified. 
 
 The soil of Cheshire is generally fit for all the purposes of agriculture, particularly in the 
 valley of the Dee : but the dairy is the branch pursued with peculiar success ; and it pro- 
 duces the cheese which, bearing tlie name of the country, equals in richness, though not in 
 delicacy, any other in Britain. There are valuable mines of coal, and some of iron ; but 
 the mineral substance of which Cheshire chiefly boasts is salt. The pits were discovered 
 about a century and o li,alf ago, at Northwich, Middlewich, and Nantwich, and have proved 
 of the highest importance to the nation, at once for internal consumption, for the curing of 
 fish, and for exportation. 
 
 Chester is, perhaps, the city in Britain which bears the most venerable character of 
 antiquity. The very name implies a Roman camp, the form of which is still preserved in 
 the direction of its principal streets. The eflect is heightened by the mouldering red stone, 
 of whicli its most ancient edifices are built. The principal streets have a very peculiar 
 structure. The lower story, which has been hollowed out of the rock, consists of shops, 
 above which is a paved way covered by the projecting upjier story ; but the middle part of 
 the house appears thus retired from tlie open street belaud this species of arcade. The 
 arrangement is neither very elegant nor very convenient The ca.stle of Chester presents 
 a very complete specimen of early military architecture ; connected with it is a range of 
 handsome Grecian buildings, containing tlie barrncki?, county hall, and county gaol. The 
 cathedral displays considerable grandeur, and has a verj* elegant chapter-house. The im- 
 provements on the Dee enable vos.sels of 300 tons to come up to Chester, which has 62 
 vessels, of above 4000 tons; yet its trade with Ireland has been transferred to Livorixwl. 
 
 Of the other towns, the most remarkable are those near which the salt mines are situated, 
 particularly Northwich. There are fourteen pits of rock salt, and between thirty and forty of 
 brine salt The rock salt is hard and brown ; the pit*, after being dug to a certain deptli, 
 are excavated horizontally, leaving a iX)rtion of the salt for a roof. They thus tbrm apart- 
 ments, often of more than an acre in extent; and the reflection of lights fi'om the mineral, 
 like tliat of numberless precious stones, prmluces a magical effect. Stockport and Maccles- 
 field have flourished greatly in consequence of the introduction from Lancashire of the 
 cotton jnunuliicture, to wiiicli Macclesfield adds some branches of that of silk. 
 
 Among tlie seats are Eaton Hall, a magnificent Gothic edifice, whicli Earl Grosvenor has 
 erected at an cxpence, it is said, of 400,000?. 
 
 Shropshire, or Salop, consists chiefly of a wide plain watered by the Severn. On its 
 eastern Iiordnr it shares to a great extent in the mineral wealth of Staffordshire, coal and 
 iron. These arc carried on in a remarkable rnanner at Colehrook ; a deep-wooded vale on 
 the Severn, here traversed by the first iron bridge erected in the kingdom. This county is 
 also interesting to the student of English history; many s|X)ts having been the scenes of 
 remarkable event.s on which the destinies of the kingdom have depended. 
 
 Shrewsbury, the capital, is particularly rich in momorahle recollections. Being the strong- 
 est fortres.s on the western marches, it became a rendezvous of the royal army, both for 
 overawing the Welsh, and for northern expeditions; many of the streets are narrow, wind- 
 ing, and irregular, and the old and new buildings too closely intermingled ; only a small 
 part of tlie castle remains; St. Mary's church is elegant and entire. The free school, 
 founded hy Edward VI. and Queen Elizabeth, has produced several eminent teachers and 
 pupils. Shrewsbury is praised for its house of industry, and for the arrangement of ita 
 county gaol. 
 
 
 im 
 
\m 
 
 DESCltll'TIVE Gi:OGItAI»IIV. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 i^ 
 
 Ludlow, an ancient town, wii.s triM|iioatly tlic rp.-iidcitci? of royalty, and tlin rG<;ii1ur station 
 of those jwworful officers tlio IjunU Presidents of tiio MurclieH. Tlic cawtie, placed on a 
 wooded rock overlianging the 'J'erne, was amHidercd one of the stronj^est places in the king- 
 dom. In its vicinity occurriMl many of tiio most distinguished events in the contest between 
 the houses of York and I.ancaster. It was altorwards dismantled ; yet nnnained a splendid 
 private mansion, in wliieh Milton's " Comus" was first performed, iind where Butler wrote a 
 part of his " Hudibras." It is now entirely rcKjfless and covered with ivy, but still adorns 
 the town, wliich is well built and pleasantly situated. 
 
 Hereford and Monmouth, two deini-Welsh counties, fill the interval from Shropshire south- 
 wards to the Bristol Channel. Being traversed by the Wye, the most pictures<pie of the 
 English rivers, they vie in bciuily willi almost any part of the kingdom. The chief industry 
 is in the rearing of fruit, and the whole country is a» it were covered with orchards: hence 
 Hereford draws its staple prwluctionof cider and perry, in peculiar abundance and perfection. 
 The crop is precarious; but in u good year the produce of an acre will be from eighteen to 
 j-Q twenty-tour hogsheads, sometimes of such fine quality, that it will 
 
 sell from the press at 2()/. a hogshead. The western district of 
 Hereford pro<luces also a larg(! (pmntity of hops, and has one of 
 the finest breeds of cattle in the kingdom, both fordraugiit and feed- 
 ing. The breed of slicep, called Ilyeland (Jiff. 170.), besides the 
 excellence of their flesh, l)ear the very finest wool in the kingdom, 
 Moimioutli is not so fertile: its chief wealth is mineral, coal being 
 most abundant; and iron works arc established to such an extent, 
 Bjreiand Sheep. that they have been known to produce a thousand tons in the week. 
 
 Of the towns, Hereford bears venerable marks of antiquity, particularly its cathedral, not- 
 J.M .>Mrtfc^A> wftfteak withstanding the tall of its principal 
 
 ^•^ii^uu^ -tniirMmr* tower. Ross, once the residence of 
 Mr. Kyrle, celebrated by I'ope a.H 
 "the Man of Ross," is a beautiful 
 village, considered as a sort of centre 
 of the picturesque scenes of the Wye. 
 The towns of ^loninouthshire are 
 small. The capital has a limited 
 trade along the Wye; but its situa- 
 tion, in a delightful country, has 
 attracted the neighlx)uring gentry. 
 There are still remains of its once 
 powerful castle, and of a B(Miedictine 
 priory. A few miles from Monmouth 
 IS Tintern Abbey (ffr. 171.), the most 
 Tinicrn Aiiixy. pictnresque, perhaps, of all the English 
 
 monastic remains. This arises, not merely ftom its extent and beauty, although these be 
 great: but from its roofless and ruined state, whence the walls, both within and witliout, 
 172 aMai- are overgrown with luxuriant ivy, and de- 
 
 '**™™' caying art and nature are blended together. 
 
 In another direction is Rugland castle, the 
 seat of the dukes of Beaufort (Jiff. 173.), 
 and considered one of the strongest of the 
 ancient fortresses ; but, atler the gallant de- 
 fbnce made by the marquess of \Vorcester 
 for Charles I., "Cromwell," says Gilpin, 
 "laid his iron liand upon it, and shattered it 
 to ruins; to which it owes it:^ present |)ic- 
 turesque form." Ciicpstow, at the month 
 of the Wye, is a neat town, and carries on 
 some trade. It is chiefly interesting, how- 
 ,.„„„,,.,. r II .u • L „ <'^^''' *i"°"> ^he remains of its castle, one of 
 
 the most strikmg of all the mighty fortresses of Wales. Five or six large towers still re- 
 main, with the outer walls of a magnificent chapel. 
 
 Worcester ami Gloucester occupy the lower valley of the Severn, which there becomes a 
 river ot the first magnitude. Tliis valley is broad, smnotii, and fertile, yet nowhere dcrene- 
 rates into a dead unvaried level. Worcester lias, „„ t!,e west, the Malvern Hills, some of 
 , whose summits rise to the height of nearly lij<t0 feet. Gloucestershire, again, has to the 
 east the Cotswold Hills, more rugged, though not so elev.ated ; while to the west are the 
 nigged remains ot the Forest <.f Dean. Worcestershire has, besides, the valley of the I/nver 
 Avon and ot Lv.jsimm, finned for their beniily and fiTtility. The vales of tliesl> fine counties 
 tor produce ot every description,— grain, fruits, pasliirau'e, with some preference of 
 Gloucester is particularly distinguiiihed for its dairies, which produce that 
 
 RMland Culle. 
 
 are fiitiv 
 
 the two latter. 
 
Door I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 S9a 
 
 Worceiter Cathiidral 
 
 rich cheese well known under its name. The best, or double Gloucester, is produced in the 
 vale of Berkeley, situated along the lowest part of the course of the Severn. Both counties 
 have flourishing manufactures, though not on the vast scale of the northern districts. 
 Gloucester, in particular, has a very extensive fabric of fine woollens, corried on through 
 numberless villages, in what are called " the Bottoms," a range of territory along the lower 
 part of the Cotswold Hills. Its scarlet and blue woollens arc in particular repute. 
 
 Worcester is a considerable and very handsome city, the principal streets being spacious 
 and regular, with many good houses, and presenting a general air of neatness iinil conitbrt. 
 It is of high antiquity, the cathedral (Jifr. 173.) having been founded in the 7th century, 
 
 tliough the present structure was almost en- 
 tirely erected in the 13lh and 14th centuries. 
 It is of great extent, simple and august, 
 without the rich ornament which distin- 
 giiishes some others. It contains the tomb 
 of King John, one of the moxt ancient in 
 England ; also that of Prince Arthur. Wor- 
 cester is chiefly noted in history for the 
 great battle in which Cromwell totally routed 
 the Scots army, and compelled Charles II, 
 to quit England as a fugitive. The city has 
 lost its woollen manufacture; but has still . 
 one of porcelain, the flnest in the king- 
 dom. Fifteen difibrcnt materials arc used, 
 chiefly white granite, and steatite from Corn- 
 wall ; and every piece passes through twenty-three hands bcRire it is brought to perfection. 
 Gloves are also made ; and there is a considerable trade up and down the Severn. 
 
 Kidderminster is lar^e and flourishing, in consequence of a very extensive manufactory 
 of carpets. Droitwich is noted for its salt springs. They are covered with a deep stratum 
 of gypsum : and for a long time the salt was made only fron\ the brine whicli penetrated tliis 
 bed ; but, about a centuiy ago, it was bored through, when the brine rushed up in vast ijunn- 
 tities, and a large salt river was found to flow beneath. Thus the salt can now be procured 
 in any quantity, and supplies a great part of England. 
 
 Gloucester is also an ancient and fine city, tliougii not quite so large as Worcester. It 
 bears, in the arrangement of its streets, the marks of having been a Roman station. It was 
 formerly also, a place of groat strength. The manner in which it frequently Imflled the 
 utmost eflbrts of Charles I. was one of the circumstances which contributed iiiotit to the 
 downfall of the royal cause. The most conspicuous feature at present is the cnthcdral, 
 built in the Saxon and Norman styles, between the 11th and 13th centuries. The beautiful 
 lightness of its tower; its cast window, said to be the largest in the kingdom ; and its whis- 
 pering gallery ; attract peculiar notice. The gaol, built at an expense of 40,(KK)?., afforded 
 one of the first applications of the beneficent principles of Howard. Pins arc the chief 
 manufacture of Gloucester ; and, small as the article is, the sale is so great as to rend<!r the 
 amount it returns considerable. Its trade has been much obstructed by the bad navigation 
 of the Severn; but since the parallel line of the Berkeley Canal has just been completed, by 
 which large ships can come up from the Channel, Gloucester is placed almost on a footing 
 with Bristol. 
 
 Cheltenham, by the feme of its waters, and its attractions as a place of fashionable resort, 
 has become a greater and more crowded place than Gloucester. The waters are at onc^ 
 saline and chalybeate ; and, being thus both tonic and aperient, are efficacious in indiges- 
 tion, biliary affections, and similar disorders. Cheltenham now ranks second only to Bath, 
 both as a resort for invalids and a gay rendezvous of the fashionable world. 
 
 There are other interesting towns in Gloucestershire. Tewkesbury has in close vicinity 
 the "Bloody Meadow," on which was fought the great battle which finally crushed the for- 
 tunes of the house of Ijuncaster. Placed at the junction of the Severn (ind Avon, it is a 
 venerable old town, contJiining the Abbey church a remnant of tliat grand monastery, of 
 which the superior, being a mitred abbot, sat in the House of Peers. Cirencester, a town of 
 great historical name, covers only part of its ancient site, but contains one of the finest parociiial 
 churches in the kingdom. Stroud is the centre of the woollen manufacture carried on, not 
 in itself, but in the surrounding valleys, and raising the population of the parish to 42,000. 
 Bristol we shall consider as belonging to Somerset. 
 
 Of the seats the most interesting is Hogley, the grounds of whicii I-iord I.yttnlton adorned 
 with classic taste. Near it is the interesting spot of the Leasowes, embellished by Shen- 
 stonc with all the taste of a poet. Berkeley Castle is a grand castellated edifice, almost as 
 old as the Conquest, and the scene of Edward II.'s death ; retaining still its antique clia- 
 racter. 
 
 Somerset has vales almost as extensive as those of Gloucester, yet it is crossoil by long 
 ranges of those rufrgrd hills which pervade all the extreme west of England. The most 
 Vol. I. 2 Z 
 
 V: i;;! 
 
 m 
 
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III 
 
 
 easterly arc Iho Mendip Hills, rich in mineral stores; furtlier west are the Qimntock Hills, 
 while on tliu iMrdors ot Devon lies Exnioor Forest, the most elevated of all tlicwe tracts — ita 
 higliest point Uunkerry Beacon, being 1668 feet high. The prevailing husbundry is pas- 
 turage, chielly of rich natural grass ; and, besides a number of cattle sent to the I/indon 
 markets, the dairy is a great branch of industry. Chedder cheese is considered equal to any 
 in Eiigliind ; and a great (luantity of what is culled Gloucester is produced in Somerset. 
 The orchards are extensive, and cider and perry nearly as abundant as in the counties on 
 the Severn. The Mendip Hills yield excellent coal, lead of fine quality, and culuniine. The 
 nianutUctures are considerable, both woollen and linen ; the former chietly of the hncr sorts ; 
 the latter, mostly dosvlas, tickons, and suil-cloth. 
 
 Bristol, since wo have attached it to Somerset, must hold the first place. This city 
 ranked long us second to tlie metropolis in commercial importance ; but in the course of the 
 last century, it has remained nearly stationary in extent and population, though not in wealth. 
 In 1736, it had 8(»,(XK) inhabitants; in 1821, 87,771 ; but in 1831, with its suburbs, 104,886. 
 It has still a very extensive trade, chiefly with Wales, Ireland, and the West Indies. Nor 
 does its spirit seem abated ; since, in 1800, it completed, at an expense of (>0,000/., a series 
 of extensive improvements, by which the rivers Avon and Frome were spread out into vost 
 basins, for the commodious reception of vessels. The manufactures of Bristol are very con- 
 siderable ; its glass-works are twenty in number ; its brass founderiea the most extensive 
 in the kingdom; to which it adds shot, pottery, &c. In 1832 there belonged to it 296 ships, 
 of the burthen of 46,.'J07 tons. The amount of customs, in 1831, was 1,168,978/., chiefly 
 from duties on VVest India produce ; and there entered its port 2547 vessels, of the bur- 
 then of C25,0(K) tons. It has still the remains of a magnificent cathedral, and the beau- 
 tiful church of St Mary Redclitfc, with many interesting monuments. The old interior of 
 Bristol is ill-built and inconvenient ; but the merchants in the new quarters of the city have 
 reared .«onie handsome streets and s<juares. Bristol has wells, considered very efiicacious, 
 especially in consumptive complaints. Visiters chiefly resort to the beautiful village of Clif- 
 ton, about a mile distant, amid the romantic rocks of St. Vincent. Bristol stands conspicu- 
 ous for ita beneficent in.stitutions, in which those for education stand prominent. Chat- 
 terlon, Southey, and Coleridge were natives of Bristol. 
 
 The name of Bath (Ji,v. 174.) implies the circumstance to which from the earliest ages it 
 has owed its importance. The Romans made it one of their principal stations, and built 
 
 Bath. 
 
 splendid baths, of which the remains have been discovered. Near the nii<!dle of the las; 
 century, it became very distinguished as a scene of fushiomihio re.sidencr, mid coiitinu-^d 
 to increase till recently, when its attraction was shared by Cheltenham nml some newer 
 places of resort. It became the most beautiful, we may nearly say the only beautifiil, city 
 in England. The houses, built of a fine freestone, while tiiose of almost all the other groat 
 towns are of brick, have a decidedly superior aspect; and several of the streets, as Great 
 Pulteney Street, tiie ('rcscent, the Parades, &c., being not only composed of fine houses, but 
 formed on a regular plan, may vie with the finest in Europe. The city, moreover, rising by 
 a gentle ascent from the Avon, large portions of it may often be seen at once in the most 
 advantageous points of view. Tlie pump-room, the assembly-room, and every structure 
 raised for the sick or the gay, are unequalled in splendour. Bath has a Gothic cathedral 
 one of the latest IniiU, nnd on a small scale, but the most highly ornamented in the king- 
 dom ; the chief beauty is in the west front 
 
DOOK I. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Other voncrablo and interostinjf citios are found in Sompfsotsliiro. Wells ia chiefly 
 distinguished by a cathedral (Jg. 176,), which ranks with the llncxt in Enffiiind. The 
 173 tMM weiitern tVont, built in tlie i:)th ccntur}', 
 
 ia one of the moNt splendid tipccimena 
 exiflting of the li^ht and hliridy orna- 
 mentea Gothic. In the interior, a chape' 
 dedicated to the Vir^'in is much admired ; 
 the rest is iSaxon, and heavy. About two 
 miles distant is Wookcy Hole, a natural 
 cavern ; the aperture, at firt^t, merely al- 
 lows one man to pass ; but it soon opena 
 into a succession of large apartments, 
 filled with spars, concretions, petrifac- 
 Weiii Citiwirai. tions of tlic most fantastic forms. A sub- 
 
 terraneous river prevents &rther advance. Glastonbury contains the small remains of the 
 most extensive monastery in the kingdom ; which, with its various gardens and offices, 
 covered sixty acres, supported 5()0 monks, and enjoyed a revenue of 2.5,000/. Even the 
 church attaclied to it rivalled the greatest of the English cathedrals. Bridgcwater and 
 Tatmton are towns of note in history, which carry on some trade and manufuctiiros. Wel- 
 lington gives a title to the greatest commander of the age, in whose honour a pillar is there 
 erected. Fromo is a large and flourishing town, employed in the woollen manufacture. 
 
 Devonshire is traversed by ridges of hills, low, broad and flat, which, scon from a heijght, 
 appear (iften as one uninterrupted plain; but on minuter inspection are found separated by 
 deep valleys called coomlis, walled in by the steep sides of the hills. This structure pro- 
 duces many so(|uestered and romantic sites ; it renders, however, many of the roads steep and 
 circuitou.a, and in some places scarcely passoble. The forest of Dartmoor, an extensive dis- 
 trict on the west of the county, is of a character peculiarly rugged, broken into fantastic 
 summits, and the valleys chiefly under wood or lying waste. On the other hand, the Vale 
 of Exeter, and what are called the Hams, in the southern districts, are distinguished for 
 fertility, which is rather heightened than injured by the moderate ineipmlitiesof the surface. 
 Grain, cattle, slioep, jxitatoes, excellent cider, are raised according to the Kituation, and are 
 all generally gocnl. The cattle are of a very superior breed, botli for feeding and draught. 
 Devonshire does not rank high as a manufacturing county ; yet woollens arc made to some 
 extent in Exeter and several other places. Fishing is carried on with spirit and success, 
 both in the sea and in the rivers ; of which last, the Exe and the Tamar arc the principal. 
 The Western Canal, joining the two channels, passes chiefly through Devonshire. 
 
 Exeter, the capital, is an ancient and pleasantly situated town, near the mouth of the 
 Exe. In consequence of its advantages fiir education and society, many of the gentry from 
 different parts of the county have made it their residence. Its manufacture and export of 
 serges and kerseys have declined, but are still considerable ; the East India Company taking 
 them to the annual value of 400,0(KW. The catliedral holds a high rank among ecclesiasti- 
 cal antiquities. Some part of it is traced to the ninth century ; but the greater proportion 
 belongs to the thirteenth and fourteenth. The painted east window, and the bell of 
 r2,.'jOO lbs. weight, the gift of Bishop Courtenay, are particularly noticed. Some modern 
 embellishments have been added. 
 
 Plymouth is the most important of the towns of Devonshire, and one of the great naval 
 arsenals of Britain. The main and central depots lie at Portsmouth and on tlie Thames ; 
 but it is important that the fleets should have this exterior station, where they may rendez- 
 vous, and receive their final equipment and supplies before leaving the Channel ; where 
 also, when exhausted, they may put in and refit. The Plyin and the Tamar, at their junc- 
 tion,, form an estuary of nearly two miles broad, composing a harbour, or ratlicr a scries of 
 harlwurs, capable of containing 2000 vessels in a state of perfect security. In that of Ha- 
 nioaze, on the Tamar, 100 sail of the line may be safely moored. Catwater, the |X)rt at the 
 mouthof the Plym; and SuttonPool, immediately adjoining the town; are both excellent and 
 extensive. Plymouth Bay ffarms also an excellent roadstead, though exposed to the heavy 
 swell which came in from the Atlantic. To remedy this, government undertook tliat stu- 
 
 176 
 
 i 
 
 ! n 
 
 i| 
 
 Plymouth Breakwater. 
 
 p(>ndous work the Breakwater, a mole formed by immense stones heaped upon each other 
 stretching across the entrance, ar.d at a certain distance from either shore (Jig. 176.). The 
 
 i' 
 
 i 
 
806 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE QEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III 
 
 P* 
 
 # 
 
 estimated oxpenio waa 1,17j(),0()0{. ; and tho quantity of iituno, 'i.OOOiOOO tniiH. It liaa rom- 
 pletely an8wero<l oxpectation ; anil, in pro|H)rtioii as it Iiiih lulvnncod, Iiiih rondorcd tho 
 roadHtcod more sociiro. An tho approach wan ol«o rendered iliinj{erou« by the KddyMtono 
 rocksi, a li((ht-houiio has, atVcr much dilHculty and Hcveral inwucccMsfiil trials, been erected 
 there by Mr. Sineaton, sniliciontly firm to withittnnd tho ttiriuun awuiultM of tho Atlantic 
 waves to which it is exposed. Plymouth is now divided into two nearly equal |)art« — 
 Plymouth and Plymoutli dock, at tho mouth of the Tamar, recently called Dcvonport, and 
 raised to the dignity of a separate borough. The dook-ynrd is most superb ; iVW() yards in 
 leni^h, and from lUUO to lOtN) in breadtli. All the establixlunents connectc'd with it, tho 
 ropery, smithy, saw-pita, mast-houses, as also the victuallin(f departments, are on tho most 
 extensive scale, yet conducted in tho motit ro(;ular order. Plymouth is not, on tliu whole, 
 a well-built town : but it contains some handsome edifices ; as tho government-house ; the 
 theatre, chiefly of cast-iron ; the public library, &c. The charitable institutions are nu- 
 merous. 
 
 Barnstaple is a sort of capital of North Devon, situated on a rich plain, and retaining a 
 few manufactures. Dartmouth carries on some foreign trade ; while between it and Teign- 
 mouth is Torbay, whore, sheltered from the heavy gales that blow up the Channel, the 
 British fleet can ride safely at anchor. 
 
 Cornwall is a peninsula of a triangular form, bounded by Devon, and tho sea. The hills 
 form a bleuk central ridge, terminating in tho rugged und obtuse point called the land's 
 End. But some of tho narrow volleys wear the aspect of smiling fertility. In some se- 
 cluded spots the climate is so genial, tliut tiie myrtle and other shrubs peculiar to the south 
 of Europe flourish in the open air. Cornwall has from the earliest ages been renowned for its 
 mineral products. These aro principally tin and copper ; it also yields some lead. These 
 metals occur in the granite chain, extending eastward as far as Dartmoor in Devon ; but at 
 present the principal mining district is that between the Land's End and St. Austel. 
 The most celebrated aro the tin mines of Palgooth,* about two miles west of that town : in 
 these there are no fewer tlian fifty shafts, of which twenty or thirty arc constantly in use. 
 The principal vein of ore, which is about six feet thick, runs from cast to west, and dipa to 
 the north with an inclination of about six feet in a fathom. The ore is of the vitreous 
 kind, but rarely found in crystals; the colour for the most part grayish-brown; the country 
 of the ore is a gray killas. The water is carried away. Steam power has been substituted 
 for that of horses in moving the machinery employed for raising, washing, and stamping the 
 ore ; atler which lost operation it is carried to the smelting-houbc. Tin cannot be sold until 
 it is assayed and stamped with the duchy seal ; for which purpose meetings are usually held 
 four times a year. The annual produce is estimated at 20,000 or 25,000 blocks, each block 
 weighing from 23 to 35 cwt., and valued on the average at ten guineas. Grain tin, which 
 is obtained from stream ore, is deemed superior in value to the common metiJ, and has been 
 procurc<l to the amount of 2000 or 2400 blocks annually. The annual produce of copper 
 IS about 13,000 tons, estimated at 1,300,(KHW. The lead mines arc not much worked. The 
 tinners are in many respects a distinct body of men; they have a court and porliament of 
 their own. Tho stannary laws, by which the mines and the operations connected with 
 them are regulated, do not appear to have undergone any change singe the reign of 
 Charles II. The mines give employment to about 16,000 men. 
 
 The pilchard fishery afibrds another source of wealth to Cornwall. The pilchards appear 
 annually in vast shoals about the middle of July ; and are taken in large nets of a peculiar 
 form, called seans, each sean managed by three boats, containing eighteen men. After lying 
 salted in store for six weeks, tlie fish are packed in hogsheads, so closely that the whole 
 contents, when turned out, appear in a compact state. The oil expressed fi"om them is so 
 considerable in quantity as to have become an article of trade. The quantity annually 
 exported from the Cornish coast may be worth 5O,00OJ. including the receipts for oil. The 
 number of persons employed in this fishery is about 5000. 
 
 The towns of Cornwall are small. Launceston, situated on the Tamar, extends up the 
 side of a hill, on the summit of which are the remains of a small fortress called Castle Ter- 
 rible, where a vigorous stand was made to sustain tlie sinking fortunes of Charles I. Truro 
 is a neat thriving town, the trade of which consists in a considerable export of tin. Penzance, 
 near the I^and's End, fit)m the mild salubrity of its air, has been found highly beneficial to 
 persons of delicate constitutions, particularly of a consumptive tendency ; and those who 
 take up their residence at Penzance, are agreeably surprised by the lovely reenery in its 
 neighbourhood. Falmouth, the westernmost of the fine harbours on the Channel, is the prin- 
 cipal packet station for Lisbon, the Mediterranean, and the West Indies. 
 
 SuBSECT 5.— Wales, 
 
 Wales is a territory which, though united to England by early conquest, still retains the 
 title of a separate principality, and possesses a national aspect. The verdant and extensive 
 
 • Dr. Malon'i Obscrvntions on tlie Woatorii Coiintios. 
 
T 
 
 fT- 
 
 BookI. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 397 
 
 |)luinH of wontcni Eiiifluiul lioro i^ivo place to tliu lufly niuiintuin, tlin deep viillcy, tlio ronr- 
 iiiX turrunt, uiiii tliu tVi)r|iU'ul pmciiiiRn, Wnlcs Iium rivcrti niiil turrciiU svitlumt number, 
 wliicli ruU tliruii^li iU luoimtuiu valleys, and wIiuhi! UinkM, ailoriunl with vcnltiru and culti- 
 vutiuii, coinbinu in tliu uumt utrikinK niunnor witli tlio lutly and varied NinniiiitH wliicli tower 
 abovu tliuni. Tliu IoIUumI niountuinH uru in Nurtli VVuIoh; itH vullcyH uro dci'pcr und 
 nurrnwor; iind it pruKontx nioro Mtrikinj^ly nil tlio choructuriHtic I'ciitiircd ut' W'tdi^li Hcoiicry. 
 Ill Huiith VVuluH, on tlio uuutrury, tliu vulluyHiiru broader, nioro t't'rtilc, and t'ullor ut' towiirf 
 und villiiijcvti ; tlioy utlun uvea ex|)and into widu plaiiiH, Htill encircled by ii niuiintain bound- 
 ary. A|;rit:ulture, in hucIi u country, luboiim under many dl8adviintu(,'uii, niiil iii carried un 
 too oflon uiKiii the old MVHtoni ot' intield and ontlield. Munufncturea uro nciirly cimlined to 
 the article of tlunnel, wliicli Iiub always been a tlibric of the VVoltili, in wliicli tliuy titill excel 
 their VurkMhire rivnU. It w tu niinintr, however, that the induntry of WaloH liaH been cliietly 
 attracted, by the proAisiou of niinerul wealth which nature liua lodged in the boweU of itrt 
 niountuins. The lead of Flint, Cueriiurvon, iind other counticH of North Wnlen, the copp<!r 
 of Anglesey, and above all, the iron of Ghiiiior^'nn and other counticH in the Uritish Cliannel, 
 are objects of extensive importance. Coal iu tbiind almowt everywhere, and in employed 
 cither for domestic puiiXMiCH, or in fusing and refining the niutallic ores. 
 
 The Welsh are a Celtic race, the dericendiints of the ancient Dritons, who, in these tnoun- 
 tain recesses, sought rctuge from the destroying sword of the Saxons, which so completely 
 dis()ossc8sed them of the low country of England. They could not resist the overwhelming 
 jiower of Edward I., who annexed Wales to the English crown. In order to hold it in hub- 
 jection, however, lie was obliged to construct, not only on its fVontier, but in its interior, 
 castles of immense extent and strength. Yet they did not prevent fonnidoblo insurrections, 
 in one of which Owen Glcndower maintained himself for years as an independent prince. 
 Witliin the lust 300 years, the Welsh have been as peaceable aa any otlier subjects of the 
 empire. They have retained, of their feudal habits, only venial failings. Among these is 
 national pride, tlirough wliich the genuine Cambrian holds his country and his nation sii|)c- 
 rior to all others; and regards the Sasna or Saxon as a lower nice of yesterday. With this 
 is connected, in u liigh degree, the priac of pedigree ; even the humblest Welshman tracing 
 his origin far above any lowland genealogy. Strong ties of friendship subsist between tliu 
 landowners and their tenants : manifested, on one side, by indulgence and protecting kind- 
 ness; on the other, by a prolbund veneration for the representatives of the ancient chictis of 
 their racL. The Welsh have many 8U])crstition8,mi.\ed with mtich genuine religious feeling. 
 They are liurdy, active, lively, hospitable, kind-licartcd ; only a little hot ond (lunrrclsoMie. 
 Their English neighbours complain that they hive not yet attained that pitch of industry 
 and cleanliness in which the former place their pride. 
 
 North Wales comprises the counties of Caernarvon, Merioneth, Montfromcnj, Denbigh, 
 and Flint, with the island of Anglesey. The characteristic feature of this division consists 
 in the very elevated chains of mountains which cross it from north to south, facing the Irish 
 
 Channel. The chief is Snowdon (Jig, 
 177,) which raises its head to the lieiglit 
 of 37(X) feet; yet it is only the most ele- 
 vated of a crowd of summits, many of 
 which rear their peaks almost as nigh. 
 They cover a great part of the county of 
 Caernarvon, at the northern part of which 
 they present to the Bay of Beaumaris the 
 lofty steep of Penmnnmawr, whose broken 
 fragments threaten to bury him who 
 travels the difficult path which has been 
 formed olong its almost perpendicular 
 sides. Merioneth is chiefly covered with 
 inferior, but lofty and rugged mountains, 
 till towards the southern extremity, tlicy tower into Cader Idris, tlic second summit of 
 Wales. It is everywhere steep, craggy, and precipitous. Lastly, in the heart of Montgomery, 
 towers tlic huge mass of Plinliniinon, with a crowd of attendant mountains. 
 
 The vales which intervene between these heights diversify bleak and barren regions, 
 otherwise calculated to inspire only impressions of dreary sublimity. The most extensive 
 is that of Clwyd, in the county of Denbigh, where the mountain chains gradually sink. It 
 is about' twenty miles in length, and four or five in average breadth; and presents a more 
 brilliant picture of fertility, heightened, doubtless, by contrast, than almost any other syiot 
 in Uie island. The narrower vales, however, present more of pictiircK(iuo beauty, particu- 
 larly that of lilangolen, where tlie Dee, winding through cultivated and pastoral .scenes, 
 overhung by high rocks and cliffs, presents at every step a varying landscapp. The island 
 of Anglesey is generally level, and its scenery presents few striking features, except the 
 rocks of its western shore. It has happened, fortunately for the improvement of this formi- 
 dable range of territory, tiiat it lies on the highway from London towards Dublin ; and witli 
 Vol. I 34 
 
 SllUWdlllt. 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
4 
 
 809 
 
 DKHCRIPTIVE OEOORAPIIY. 
 
 Pmt III 
 
 <'iturr)ftr\itii 4'iiiil«. 
 
 the view of fiirilitatini; tho intprctmrno brtwocn thn kin^dnniM, |i^)Vfriiiiinnt, nt llii' iiatiunal 
 expcnw, hiu lurinctl ono of the tincit rouAn in tho world ; iwii(mt( lh<t priiu'ip'il ti'iitiircn ol 
 
 which iH thi> iron HiiNiipnNidfi-hrlduc, 
 fornifil BcniMM thn nriii <il the hcii, cailod 
 tho Mi'imi (.'himnol. 'I'lic chinf crntro 
 of l)»' llanrH'i nianiifiiftiiro in in Mimt- 
 (i'diiiprv iinil Mi'riont'th. The h'nd mint!* 
 of llolywfdl mid tho ro|)|H>r niinoH of 
 Ant;lcM'y ))0!ii<)>ni< an iniuortiiiird Mcurco- 
 ly inferior to Ihimf of Hoiith VVuh!*. 
 
 ('iiprnnrvon in ii hnndnomr, wull-lmilt 
 town. It,-i chief orniimiMit \n thi- cuHlu, 
 (I Htatcly i-diticc ( /f^. 17H.), hiiilt hy Ed- 
 wnrd I. to curb tlii' npirit of tho nowly 
 Kiibthiod VVi'lHh. It oncloMPti an urea of 
 two acres ami a half; the toworn aro of HtiipondmiH ninffnittidn, iind crowm.'d by liijht and 
 beautiful turret». To tho foiitli of Cacrnnrvon Ih tho Bleon ofrcnl of Snowdon, waoneo a 
 view of BBtoniihing extent is commanded ; though only to be tieun in thoHo tbrtunate duyo 
 
 when the veil of miHt, which usually 
 wraps it, has been disHipated. On 
 its declivity ix thn wild nnd rocky 
 lake of Mnnbieris, with tho ruined 
 castle of Dollmdnrn overhanging its 
 bnnkn. Nnirly nt tlio opiKwitu ex- 
 tremity of tho county in Conway ; 
 a poor town, but rontiiiniiig the walls 
 of a Htill more miip'nificent catitlo 
 (fiff. no.), nlw) erected by Edward 
 I. Tho interior is in ii hIiUo of totul 
 ruin; but tlie view, from a little dis- 
 tance, of ilH eight mighty towers, 
 ninging along the !<uinmit of a lofty 
 rock, which overl(K)kM tho Day of 
 BenunmriH, presents nn image of 
 Ciinwi)' c«iiie. gnindour which scarcely any other 
 
 ciistellotcd Htructurc in tho kingdom can rival. About iriidway lictweon those two castled 
 sites is Oungor, a pleasant little town, on the high road to Holyhead and Dublin. Here, and 
 
 ot Penryn, is a great nhipment of .slates, brought 
 from the steep sides of the neighbouring mountains. 
 Merioneth has a few large villages, each enclosed 
 by a circuit of lofty and almo^^t inaccessible mountains. 
 dala is 8up|)orte(l by a small manufacture of knit 
 gloves and stockings, and by the vicinity of tho largest 
 of the littlo lakes of Wule^, which has clear water 
 and abounds in fish. Dolgelly, about midway between 
 Snowdon and Cader Idris {Jff, 18().), is seated in the 
 very heart of all the grandest scenery of Wales. On 
 the coast, the castle of Harlech, built also by Edward, 
 bears marks of groat strength. 
 Montgomery, though its centre is occupied by tho "huge IMinlimmon," whence branches 
 shoot out in every direction, is yet, on the whole, of a milder aspect. The town of Mont- 
 gomery is sniall, pleasantly situated on the declivity of n hill, crowned with the ruins of a 
 once noble castle. Welshpool is an ill-built straggling town, but has u great market for flan- 
 nels ; and connniinicates by a canal with Chester and Ellesmore. Near Montgomery is Powis 
 Castle, which dotes from the twelfth century, and was long one of the proudest fortresses in 
 Wales: it is still a superb modem seat. 
 
 In proceeding to Denbigh and Flint, we come to broader valleys, and hills gradually dimin- 
 ishing down to the level plain of western England. Denbigh, a pleasant, ancient little 
 town, is crowned by a castle, sauted on a high rock, looking down to tho valeof (^Iwyd, pro- 
 verbial for its smiling fertility. In the valley of the Dee, is Wrexham, noted for its fairs, in 
 which Welsh flnmiel is the staple commodity. But the chief ornament of Denbigh is Llan- 
 gollen VhIo, on the upper Dee, where the mixture of culture nnd wildnees produces the meet 
 striking variety of scenery. .Among its leading features are the ruined cnstio of Dinns Bran, 
 crowning tho steep summit of one of the principal liills; and the reiniiins of tho Abl)ey of 
 Valle Crucis. This last is situated in a valley connected with that of Iilangollen, enclosed 
 by lofty mountjiins verdant to the summit, and sprinkled with trees. The edifice has been 
 in the simplest style of Saxon architecture ; but the situation renders it one of the mwt 
 
DOOK I. 
 
 WALES. 
 
 800 
 
 HolyhMd. 
 
 picturi'iiqim iipoti in Rnfflnml. Chirk hu nonr if a cwtln, one of flu- tnoMt pcrllTt of the 
 mnriy with which VVnIoH in ndoriKMl. Nrar it also is tin fino acnii'duct nf l'iiiit-y-ry»iltp, by 
 which Mr. Telford \\nn rondiictiHl th« Ellentni-re C*niil dVi >■ tho J)(U', ri»tiii(f oa 18 pii'r», 
 10()7 fi'vi in Iimjjth, niul I'M frot alwvo tho lovcl of itw rivrr. 
 
 Flint iM rich in lend and other minonil ntoro*. Thu wumty town (if l-lim nnd it* cimtlp, 
 hovn I'ntircly iiwt tlui iin|iortnncn tln-y [losHCHiM'd when thoy w^rn tho nrisiid ')f Kichard 11, ; 
 ftnd tho if\i'ry of CanrwyH, thn nnciunt ncono <f mu»icnrttn(( iHifticai c.mU'st, !/«« tnitircly 
 [HiHHfd iiwiiv. Holywoll, bcHidoH itii cxtnniiive U„ ' -liMc, curries . a works in hriii<H nnd 
 copimr, nnd even nomo cotton liihricH. More tho mu '"1 well of St. VVirffriile, from which 
 it (Icrivcrt itH numo, ii* bonpficinlly applied to tfio piir[Hws of indnstry. The ImdI inino of 
 Mnn-y-l'undnr ia tho moitt oxtnnHivo in tho kingdom, nnd emplcys Ibur vaat sti'iim-< n^liip* in 
 cloarinK otV the water. Mold in a protty larjfo town, in the eenlro of u rich plniii of the 
 Damn nunie. St. Asaph attrnctH notice by it* nent cathedral. 
 
 Tho Iitlund of Antfloaey in (fononilly a nakoil ond ffIot)niy flat. It wiis niicii'ntly the cnn- 
 tral scat of druidicaj Huporntition, gtill atteiitod by tho rromlichn, or lnr({e, tint, glom tube's 
 ■upportod by rudo pillars, which aro more numerous hero than in any other pnrt of Bfiliufi.. 
 Ita unpgrtance baa rested almoat entirely upon its copper mines, hut nt Into they hnvc become 
 
 unproductive, and tho annual amount is only 
 ihim 750 to 05U tons. Deautniiris, the capital, 
 ia a neat little town. Much nioru importance 
 attaches to HolyhRad, now tho mnin (loint of 
 communication between Plnf(lnnd and Ireland. 
 To render it such, government hns conHlriicted 
 a noblo road from Iiondon across the most ruff(;ed 
 iMirt of North Wales, nnd also inndo an adinirn- 
 ble harbour. The neiijlibourin;,' connt is very 
 bold, and tho promontory, called the Head (Jifj. 
 181.), consists of immenso mnsses of precipitous 
 rocks, hollowed into deep caverns. The town itself has been rapidly extended and improved. 
 South Wales comprises the counties of Radnor, Cardijrnn, Brecknock, Cnerrnnrthcn, Pem- 
 broke, ami Glamorgan. It presents scenery equally romantic with that of North Wnld, 
 mingled with a greater degree of softness and cultivation ; and its agricultural and mining 
 products aro of considerably greater value. 
 
 Radnor is composed of bleak ranges of mountains, in some parts almost impassable; the 
 greater pnrt is only fitted to afford pasture for sheep, the wool of which is valuable. New 
 Radnor, once u fortified city, is dwindled into a village. 
 
 Cardigan includes some of the boldest features of Welsh scenery. Tho domain of Hnf(Hl, 
 in particular, has been covered with extensive plantations, so happily disposed ns to render 
 it almost a scene of enchantment. At a few miles' distance is "tho Devil's Bridge;" an 
 arch thrown over a deep and narrow rocky chasm, overgrown with wood, at tho bottom of 
 which rolls the Mynach, after rushing down three lofty cascades ; forming alto^jcther the 
 grandest scene of the kind in the kingdom. The lead mines of Cardiganshire arc extensive, 
 though tho want of fuel has caused tho working of many of them to be discontinued. Car- 
 digan is a small old town, which carries on a considerable coasting trade, having nearly 3fl<) 
 small vessels belonging to it. There is great resort to Abcryetwith, an agreeable bathing 
 place ; its trade abw is considerablo. 
 
 Brecon, or Brecknock, is mountainous and rugged, but has some fertile lands in tho valleys 
 of the Uske and the Wye. Brecon, an ancient town on the Uskc, amid lotly mountains, hu.s 
 the remains of a castle, which was once strong, and held by Buckingham, the favourite and 
 afterwards the victim of Richard III. 
 
 Caermarthen includes an ample proportion of bleak and barren hills, intermixed vvit!> 
 large fertile valleys. There aro abundance of coal, and some iron works on thn (ilnmnrgnn 
 border. Tho capital, situated on the Towey, which admits to it vessels of 3(10 tons, is one 
 of the most flourishing and best built towns m Wales. 
 
 Pembroke consists of a peninsula branching out between the Irish and British channels , 
 it presents merely an undulating surface, rising at most to elevations of 300 cr 300 feet. 
 Its breed of cattle is in high repute, and its indented coasts contain some of the finest Imr- 
 bours in Britain. Two Roman roads cross this county, which is also cich in druidicnl and 
 feudal monuments. The ancient city of Pembroke is strikingly sitiintod on an nlmot-t in- 
 sulated neck of land on the bay of Milford Haven, the highest part of which presents tlio 
 vast remains of its castle, one of tlie most magnificent structures of Wales or Entjland. 
 Tho town contains some ancient churches. The Inrgo bay composing Milford tlnven 
 forms the most capacious and secure harbour in Britain. Hence government have been 
 induced, at the new towns of Milford and Haberstone, on its northern shore, to form dock- 
 yards and establish packets for the south of Ireland. St. David's, the ecclesiastical capital 
 of South Wales, is now only a large dirty village, adorned, however with venerable ancient 
 atructurea. 
 
 
400 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part IIL 
 
 
 
 *: 
 
 Gkmorgiin is the finest county in South Wales, and, ns to wealth, superior to any other 
 in tlio princij)ulity. Its coast, along the Bristol Channel, and tor some miles inland, is level, 
 and fertile iii tiie extreme. Thence the ground rises into hills of continually increasing 
 elevation, till, on the frontier, they rise to the height of upv/ards of 2(KM) feet, and unite 
 witii the Drocon ciiuins. From these heights descend numerous streams, which, in their 
 progress to the sou, produce uU the varieties of ravines, wooded vales, fails, and cataracts; 
 which, with the beauty of the plains below, and the fine views over the Bristol Channel, 
 render Gluiiiorjrun eciual in picturesque beauty to any other county in Wales. The crops 
 of every do.--cription of grain are ample; and there are good breeds both of cattle and sheep. 
 But these objects are trifling, when compared with the mineral treasures of Glamorgan. 
 It forms tiic centre of a vast field of coal and iron, fironi which branches extend into the 
 neighbouring counties. Since it was found that iron could be smelted with coke, the work 
 in^ of this metal has prodigiously increased, and the town of Merthyr Tydvil, near which 
 it IS must abundant, has grown from a mere village to be the most populous place in Wales. 
 In conseiiiicnco also of the abundance of fuel, the copper ore dug out in Anglesey, Cornwall, 
 and Ireland, is brought hither to be smelted and rehued. The plating of iron with tin is 
 also an extensive occupation. The iron is reduced by rollers to the requisite thinness, and 
 is then cut by scissors into plates, which ailerwards require little more than simple immer- 
 sion into the smelted tin. The coal, besides its essential use in these various works, is in 
 itself a most extensive object of exportation, amounting in some years to 300,000 tons. The 
 rivers of Glamorgan are very imperfectly navigable; but this defect has been supplied by 
 industry. From IS'eath, Cardiff, and Swansea, canals reach far into tlie interior ; and their 
 benefits being extended by railways, a channel has been opened for conveying to the sea the 
 produce even of the most interior mines. Cardiff ranks ad the county town, but is now much 
 surpassed by others. Yet it carries on a considerable trade ; having a commodious harbour, 
 and being connected by a canal with the interior works at Merthyr Tydvil. It is now much 
 surpassed by Swansea, which has risen to its present importance by immense works in iron 
 and cop|K!r, and by the exportation of coal ; which is furnished in such abundance, that a 
 large vessel may enter at one tide and go out loaded at the next. Its pleasant situation on 
 
 a fine bay has also made it an extensive re- 
 sort for sea-bathing, and led to the erection 
 of many elegant buildings. Swansea has 
 thus risen into a sort of capital of South 
 Wales; yet it is not so large as Merthyr 
 Tydvil has been rendered by the extensive 
 iron works in and round it. There are near 
 it seventeen furnaces, in one of which 11,000 
 tons of pig iron and 12,000 tons of bar iron 
 are produced annually. Caerphilly, a thriv- 
 ing little town, with some manufactures, 
 deserves notice chiefly from the remains of 
 ' its immense castle (fig. 18ii.), which pre- 
 sent a most stupendous scene of ruins. It 
 is stated to have been a mile and a quarter 
 in circumference, and capable of contain- 
 ing a garrison of 20,000 men. Llandaff, the only nominal city in the county, is only a vil- 
 lage, tlic seat of tlie least richly endowed bishopric in Wales. The cathedral, however, is 
 a tine ruin. 
 
 The small islands attached to England are unimportant. Man, thirty miles in length by 
 twelve in breadth, is nearly equidistant from each of the three kingdoms. It comprises a 
 considerable extent of level territory ; but rises in the interior into high mountains, among 
 which Snowfell, nearly 2000 feet high, stands conspicuous. Man ranked long as an inde- 
 pendent sovereignty, held by the Earls of Derby, and is celebrated for the gallant defence 
 made by the countess of that name for Charlos I. It descended afterwards to the Duke of 
 Athol, from wlioni the sovereignty was purchased, in 176.3, by the British government, with 
 a view to the prevention of smuggling, and to the establishment of a free trade. The natives 
 are a Celtic race. Castletown, the capital, is the neatest town in the island ; and in its 
 centre, Ciistlc lluslicii, the ancient palace of the kings of Man, rears il« gloomy and majestic 
 brow. Douglas, however, as being tlie spijt in which the whole trade circulates, is now of 
 superior iniportjuicc, and has attracted a great number of English settlers. 
 
 The Scilly isles, situated at some distance from the western extremity of Cornwall, arc 
 tenanted by 2(M)0 (xwr inhabitants, who raise a little grain, but depend chiefly ujwn fishing, 
 pilotage, and the making of kelp. 
 
 Jersey, Gucrn.-'cy, and .\lderncy, with Sark, form a group naturally French, and originally 
 part of the patrimony of the Norman kings, which the naval superiority of England has 
 enabled her to retain. They enjoy certain privileges and immunities, founded on this dis- 
 tinction, as laid down by Coke, that, " though [wircel of the dominion of the crown of Eng- 
 
 Uacrphilly Cutle. 
 
.■^ 
 
 Book I. 
 
 SCOTLAND 
 
 401 
 
 land, thoy arc not, nor over were, parcel of the realm of England." TIio climate is mild 
 and ufTTct-nblD, and the soil generally fertile. Jtney, the finest of the group, is so abundant 
 in orclmrds, that cider forms the chief object of exportation. St. Ilclier, the capital of Jersey, 
 is a handsome town. 
 
 [•nfjth by 
 pprises a 
 
 among 
 
 I an inde- 
 
 defcnce 
 
 iDuko of 
 
 ]nt, with 
 
 natives 
 lid in its 
 jmnjcstic 
 
 now of 
 
 |val1, arc 
 1 fishing, 
 
 jiginuUy 
 luiul has 
 llliis dis- 
 lof Enu- 
 
 Mull of Galluwar. 
 
 ^ CHAPTER 111. 
 
 SCOTLAND 
 
 The place which Scotland holds as part of Great Britain, has already been exhibited in 
 the introduction to the chapter on England. We shall now describe in detail this import- 
 ant, though secondary, member of the empire. 
 
 Sect. I. — Geographical Outline. 
 Scotland is bounded on the south by England, firom which it is separated by a line drawn 
 along the Tweed, the Cheviot Hills, and thence to the Solway Frith. On every other side 
 
 it ia bounded by the Atlantic, the Northern 
 and the German oceans. The cngth of 
 Scotland, from the Mull of Galloway 
 {Jig. 183.), in about 54° 40' to Dunnet 
 Head, Caithness, in 58° 40', is 280 miles. 
 The greatest breadth, from Buchan-Ness to 
 a point on the opposite shore of Inverness is 
 130 miles. This breadth varies little in tlie 
 interval between the friths of Forth and 
 Moray ; but to the south of the former, the 
 average breadth scarcely exceeds 100, and 
 to the north of the Moray Frith, 40 or 50 
 miles. The entire extent of Scotland is 
 29,600 square miles. 
 Scotland, in its general outline, consists of 
 vwo great and perfectly distinct parts : the Lowlands and the Highlands. The former com- 
 prehends all Scotland south of the friths of Forth and Clyde; for the pastoral hills of the 
 southern and western borders, less elevated than the iiortliorn mountains, and inhabited by 
 a different race, are not considered as forming any tie between these and the Highlands 
 properly so called. Immediately north of the Clyde, the highland ranges bosrin to tower in 
 endless succession ; but on the east coast, the Lowlands extend beyond the Forth and north- 
 ward through the counties of Fife, Forfiir, Kincardine, and Aberdeen ; though these last are 
 closely encroached upon by the mountain territory. The lowland district also extends 
 round the northern promontory of Aberdeen, and along the borders of the Murray or Moray 
 Frith, which contain as level tracts of territory, and enjoy as mild a climate, as any part 
 of Scotland. This level tract docs not comprehend quite the half of the country; even the 
 Lothians, and still more the western provinces, are hemmed in by low ridges of bleak table- 
 lands, covered, in a great measure, with heath and moss. The arable lands are almost 
 solely comprised in broad flat valleys, chiefly along the friths, called straths or carses. 
 Several of these are much famed for fertility, a blessing but partially bestowed even on the 
 best districts of Scotland. 
 
 The Highlands, which comprise tiie whole west and centre of northern Scotland, form a 
 region of very bleak and rugged aspect. A chain of long and lofty ridges extends from 
 south-west to north-east, not reaching, however, the Gorman Ocean or the Moray Frith, but 
 leaving between them the level interval of the northern lowland. These mountains usually 
 dip, almost perpendicularly, into the lakes and seas on which they border ; and even the in- 
 terior valleys are on so high a level, that in this climate they admit only in scattered patches 
 the culture of the coarser kinds of grain, particularly oats and bigg. "I'liese mountains, par- 
 ticularly the great Grampian barrier, which extends across from Ben Lomond to Blair-Athol, 
 lock in closely with each other, and can be entered only by formidable and easily defended 
 passes. The consequence has been, that thoy have preserved within their recesses a primi- 
 tivn people, wlio, in dress, language, and the whole train of tlieir social ideas, differ essen- 
 tially from the I^iwlanders, nnd have retained antique and striking characteristics, both 
 physical and moral, that are obliterated in almost every other pn-t of Great Britain. 
 
 The Isles comprise the third part of Scotland. On the east, indeed, and even on great 
 part of the .south-west coast, only a few bold and naked rocks riso perpendicularly from the 
 ocean. But the western highlands an bordered by tiie Hebrides, an extensive range of 
 large islands, some of which are separated from the continent by such narrow channels, that 
 they may almost be considered as forming part of it. Again, tiie northern extremity of 
 Scotland is prolonged by the two ranges of the Orkney and Shetland islands, in a continu- 
 ous line witli each other, but at some distance. These islands are rocky and bare, exposed. 
 Vou L 34* 3 A 
 
 I: i: 
 
 1^ 
 
402 
 
 MAP OP SCOTLAND. 
 
 Fio. 184 
 
 Lii«tti«lt Wat 
 
^^■^. 
 
 ''"%% 
 
 ^ 
 
 •lo. 184 
 
 Book I. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 403 
 
 ^ 
 y 
 
 'M 
 
 to excessive moisture and the perpetual storms of the Atlantic. The population boars, in 
 language and features, the marks of a Scandinavian origin ; dating from the period when 
 the piratical rovers of the north made extensive inroads on the western states of Europe. 
 
 Among the Scottish mountains, the most considerable are the Grampians, a name which 
 is given very generally to all those which cover the surface of tlio Highlands, but applied 
 more imrticularly to the chain running across the counties of Perth and Argyle, and com- 
 prising Hen Ijomond, Ben I^edi, Rsn More, Uen Lawers, and otlicrs of tiiat olevated ridge 
 whicii directly face tho low country of Stii-ling and Perth. Several of tliese mountains 
 exceed tlio altitude of 4000 feet. Ben Nevis rises to the height of 4315 feet On 
 the borders of Inverness and Ross-shire, Ben VVyvis, and some others, are of nearly equal 
 elevation. The soutli of Scotland is also very hilly ; but its heights are seldom more than 
 tJOOO feet, green and pastoral. The most remarkable are the boundary chain of the Cheviot, 
 celebrated in the annals of early feud, hunting, and border warfare. The Lowthers, a steep 
 higli ridge, including valuable lead mines ; tne pastoral hills of Ettrick and Yarrow ; and 
 Criifnl and Cairnsmuir, in Galloway, form important objects : the lower ranges of the Pent- 
 land and Lammcrmoor border the Lothians. 
 
 The rivers of Scotland are not so much distinguished for their length or magnitude, as 
 for tlie pastoral scenery tlirough whicii they wind tlieir early course, and for the magnificent 
 estuaries which tliey form at their junction with the sea. 
 
 The Forth rises near the foot of Ben Lomond, flows east towards Stirling, near which it 
 is swelled by the larger stream of the Teith ; whence, aflcr many windings through the 
 beautiful plain overlooked by Stirling castle, it opens into the great frith on which the capi- 
 tal of Scotland is situated. 
 
 NORTH PART. 
 
 1. Uunnct 
 3. (JHnnuAhy 
 
 3. Freawick 
 
 4. Wick 
 
 5. Ulbaler 
 
 7. ThunS 
 
 8. Brachry 
 
 9. Hiruthy 
 
 10. Fiirr Kirk 
 
 11. Riviegill 
 
 15. Tongue 
 
 I'A, Inch KeHtiloch 
 M. Liich Eiibull 
 Mi. nradey 
 
 16. Drumacray 
 
 17. Bcourie 
 
 18. Cnieirem* 
 m. Iiivor Bavnily 
 20. lioch Nhvit 
 Ul. I.cich Baden 
 ^i, Achnahuo 
 'Si. l.&theran 
 
 ^4. Bfjrryilalc 
 iS. Ilolmadalo 
 
 26. Clyne 
 
 27. Achtntran 
 
 28. Dalmor 
 
 29. Lairs 
 :<0. Tullucli 
 :il. Loich Slim 
 »1. Aisynt 
 113. Stoir 
 
 M, Dorncy 
 
 ;i.5. CannahouTlih 
 
 :)B. i;ilap(iiil 
 
 37. Piirlinlick 
 
 38. Bra 
 :t9. (folspio 
 40. nornf>ch 
 4I.Tarliat 
 
 42. Oomarty 
 
 43. Tain 
 
 44. Invertnrdon 
 m. Kincardine 
 4fi. Kiidrimiire 
 
 47. hen Wyvia 
 
 48. Loclibronm 
 
 49. Loch Fuir 
 .V). Tinafidino 
 HI. Melvng 
 ,S2. F.rridaTe 
 .U. Gairlorh 
 54. Luch IVIarce 
 !iS. Loch Fannich 
 ,50. Loch Luichard 
 .17. Killearn 
 
 .v. Kortroie 
 .■i!!. Fort Ocorgc 
 ni. Nairn 
 
 01. Forrel 
 
 02. F.lgin 
 
 03. Rothei 
 
 04. Fiiclinbera 
 fl.%. Oullen 
 <iO. Mamnch 
 67. Pottioir 
 
 Referencei to the Map of Scotland. 
 
 OS. BnnfT 
 till. Tiirrcff 
 
 70. Atwrdour 
 
 71. FraKfiburgh 
 1i. 8trichi?n 
 
 Tl. Petcrliond 
 74. Crudtiii 
 7.'i. Kllon 
 70. Rnihie 
 
 77. Miildrum 
 
 78. (vtiaaliiiond 
 
 79. Kinnc'thniont 
 
 80. .\chindoro 
 
 81. Huntley 
 
 82. KinUiiL'oil 
 H:l. Aberlour 
 84. (jrantuwn 
 M. Kdomkille 
 811. Dyiner 
 
 87. (^airinichyle 
 f¥. luvorneii 
 89. Daroa 
 00. Obriachan 
 OI.Kdinuir 
 92. Ileauly 
 03. Mucrich 
 94. Kilrtacrow 
 m. Atladale 
 
 96, Turridun 
 
 97, Vuncbano 
 
 98, AuplccroM 
 
 99, Kiililan 
 
 100. ninn Shiel 
 
 101. Afl°arie 
 
 102. Diinilrnian 
 
 103. I^ich Ni'ci 
 lot. Bellaluin 
 10.1. Abiirardcr 
 lOO. Avipmnro 
 
 107. Kincardine 
 
 108. Abcmclhy 
 
 109. Achpnriiw 
 no. Sirnlhdon 
 
 111. Towiu 
 
 112. Cluny 
 
 113. Kimore 
 
 114. Invtiruiy 
 ll,*!, Foveran 
 no, Finlray 
 
 117. Old Alierdwn 
 
 118. Ni'w Aberdeen 
 liO, Stonchiivcn 
 
 120, Ternan 
 
 121, Rino 
 12i>, Balmoral 
 123, Braoiniir 
 12). luck 
 
 y2!i. Inverniiliaven 
 190. Laf!ifan 
 
 127. Fort Aiiffn^tuR 
 
 128. Loch Garry 
 199. Loch Luehy 
 
 130, CluncB 
 
 131. Luch Arkeg 
 1,32. Rotary 
 133. Ruddrech 
 1.34. Loch Morrcy 
 
 I3.t, Araiaig 
 130. Sminasary 
 
 137, I.och Shell 
 
 138, Cromer 
 
 139, Strano 
 
 140, Hen Ncvia 
 
 141, Fort William 
 
 142, Aliernrder 
 
 143, Loch Laifgan 
 
 144, Ualwhinme 
 14.'i, ninth 
 
 140. Clachay 
 
 147, Cluvu 
 
 148, Mcniiuir 
 
 149. Cruigoiir 
 l.TO. Glcnburvie 
 l.^l. Bervic 
 152. Muntroco 
 I.i3 Brechin 
 
 154. Liinan 
 
 155, Oaihlaw 
 
 150. Gleiiiila 
 
 157. Moulin 
 
 158. Blair-Alhol 
 
 159. Dalniicnrdoch 
 100. Shechallion 
 161, Loch Riinnncli 
 103. I^nch Kriclit 
 
 103, Loch Tr<-ag 
 
 104. KinliM'hmore 
 10>. Corriherich 
 
 106. Aryhoulan 
 
 107. Bcarnndalu 
 
 108. Langall 
 
 109. LidcreBilalo 
 
 170. Kinlochalino 
 
 171. Murven 
 
 172. Ardnamurehan 
 
 SOUTH PART. 
 1. Appin 
 3. Ardchnltan 
 
 3. (iliMlCO*' 
 
 4. Locli F.iivo 
 
 5. KinK*g llouao 
 
 6. Fingar 
 
 7. Bon Lau'cra 
 
 8. Killin 
 
 9. I.och Tny 
 
 10. Ki-nmoru 
 
 11. Aberli'ldy 
 
 12. Amubrie 
 
 13. Diinkeld 
 K. Blairgowrie 
 15, Cupar-Anaus 
 10, Meigle 
 
 17. Arhrimlli 
 
 18. Muirdrum 
 
 19, Dundee 
 
 20, Kihnony 
 
 21, ('Opar 
 
 22. Ncwhurgh 
 93. Penh 
 
 34, Crieir 
 9.1. Comrio 
 
 36, Loch Earn 
 
 37, Craggan 
 
 38. Lorh Voil 
 
 39. Loch Lochart 
 :10, Glcnurchay 
 31, (;hidirk 
 
 33, Kilmoru 
 
 33, Ardmaddy 
 
 34, Craigniih 
 
 35, Kilniartin 
 :I0. Invi-rary 
 :)7. Strachur 
 
 38, Kilmoriah 
 
 39, Ben Lomond 
 
 40, Lock Kuirino 
 
 41, Loch Lubnttig 
 43, Doune 
 
 43. Willinniflown 
 41, iMiichart 
 4.'i. Forleviot 
 40, Kiiirou 
 
 47, Falkland 
 
 48, Si, Andrew'! 
 
 49, Anairutlier 
 M. Levcn 
 
 51. KinKhorn 
 
 52. DunfiTmline 
 .53. (Clackmannan 
 .54. Airth 
 
 rt.'i. Stirling 
 .SO. llimibrane 
 57, Milton 
 .58, Catnptifl 
 59. Loch l.omond 
 
 00. Tarbat 
 
 01. Kilmodan 
 
 02. Gilphead 
 0:1. Achahuish 
 
 04. Carnmore 
 
 05. Killarraw 
 00. Kilchenzie 
 
 07. Southend 
 
 08. Camiihelllon 
 
 09. Siiddalo 
 
 70. Gorton 
 
 71. Skipnciia 
 V->, Ruban 
 
 73, Gn-enock 
 
 74, Kilbirnie 
 
 75, Dumbarton 
 
 76, Paisley 
 
 77, Renfrew 
 
 78, Glangow 
 7!l. Bolhwcll 
 
 80, Airdrie 
 
 81, Whitburn 
 
 82, Falkirk 
 
 83, Lintitheow 
 
 84, Borrowpiown- 
 
 neis 
 R5. Kdinbiirgh 
 80. Dalkeith 
 
 87, Mofwelliureh 
 
 88, Haildinirton 
 
 89, North Berwick 
 
 90, Dunbar 
 
 91, Scateraw 
 
 92, Bunkle 
 
 93, Dunw 
 
 94, Pailon 
 
 95, F.cclea 
 90, Gordon 
 
 97. rhannelkirk 
 
 96, Lauder 
 
 99, Middleinn 
 
 100, Linton 
 
 101, Peeblei 
 
 102, Carnweth 
 
 103, Lanark 
 
 104, Hamilton 
 10.1, Fagleshatn 
 100, Stewarton 
 107, Dairy 
 
 ItH Irvine 
 m. Ayr 
 
 110. Mauchline 
 
 111. Kilmarnock 
 
 112. Straihaven 
 
 113. Doualas 
 
 114. ('rawfunljohn 
 11.5, Crawford 
 110, Cultei Fell 
 
 117. Galashiels 
 
 1 18, Melrose 
 
 119, Selkirk 
 
 120. Kelso 
 
 191, Yetholme 
 
 192, Hownam 
 
 123, Southdean 
 
 124, Jedburgh 
 12,5, Hawii^k 
 
 126. Bedford Green 
 
 127. Kirkpatrick 
 
 128. Samiuhar 
 
 129. Kirkcunnel 
 i:iO. Ochiltree 
 131, Dalrymple 
 i:<2. Giivan 
 1:I3, llallintrae 
 134. Balliich 
 i;i5, Garry 
 
 100. Minihive 
 137, Don^core 
 i:W. Puniiont 
 
 139. Loctimalien 
 
 140. VVesterkirk 
 
 141. Laiigludm 
 
 142. (iretiia Green 
 
 143. Annan 
 M4. Duinfriea 
 145. racrlaverock 
 MO. Douglas 
 14T. Urr 
 
 148. Loch Ken 
 
 149. Newton Slew- 
 
 art 
 1.50. rraighncli 
 151, New Luce 
 
 1.52. SiranraiT 
 
 1.53. Porlnalrick 
 
 1.54. Maidenkir 
 1,5.5, Ardwell 
 
 150. Glenluco 
 
 1.57, Mochnim 
 
 1.58. Wnitchorn 
 159, Wigton 
 
 100, Laiirieiton 
 
 101, Kirkcudbright 
 
 102, Colvend 
 
 Rivers. 
 a Naver Water 
 b Thurso Water 
 e, Oikel 
 d Orrin 
 e Nairn 
 r Find horn 
 
 n iJoveran 
 i Hon 
 j Dee 
 k Esk 
 I T«y 
 mEarn 
 n Forth 
 o Tweed 
 p Annan 
 q Nilh 
 r Ken 
 • Ayr 
 
 Ayr 
 Clyde 
 
 SKYE ISLE. 
 1. Dig 
 3. llig 
 
 3. Tolnacmeh 
 
 4. Bnizort 
 
 5. Stein 
 
 0. RuBf 
 
 7. Bracadale 
 
 8. Druinah 
 
 9. Gillan 
 
 10. Rroadford 
 
 11. Kyle 
 
 MULL ISLE. 
 
 1. Kjininian 
 S. Tnhormurie 
 
 3. Keallun 
 
 4. Aros 
 
 ,5, Aciinacraig 
 
 0, (.'ambui 
 
 7. Moy 
 
 8. Fidden 
 
 JURA ISLE. 
 
 1, Lenghall 
 
 2, Lagg 
 
 ISLAY ISLE. 
 
 1, SiuKiig 
 
 2, Kilchoman 
 
 3, Bolsha 
 
 4, AKkaig 
 
 5, Bowmore 
 0, Kildnlton 
 7, Kintra 
 
 ARRAN ISLE 
 1 Oran 
 
 2, ('orrio 
 
 3, Kilbride 
 
 4, Kilmon' 
 
 n 
 
104 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt III 
 
 The Clyde rises on the borders of Dumfries-sliirc ; flows for a considerable space through 
 a wild pastoral valley ; and descends, by a succession of most pictures(iue cascades, into the 
 lower region of Lanarkshire. Atler passing througli a tract wiiich may be denominated the 
 Arden of Scotland, it enters Glasgow, becomes a broad stream, and expands into a winding 
 trith, not so broad as the Forth, but the scene of a much more active trade. 
 
 The Tweed rises irom the same chain as the Clyde, and running eastward, waters the 
 most beautiful and classic of the pastoral districts of Scotland, in whose verse Tweed is the 
 favourite name. Of similar fame are its tributaries, the Yarrow, the Gala, the Tcviot ; 
 swelled by whone waters it forms, on reaching Berwick, a capacious harbour. 
 
 The Tay rises in the central Highlands, descends into tlie lowlands of Perthshire, and 
 after winding beautifully round the city of Perth, expands into the Frith of Tay, and forma 
 the harbour of Dundee. 
 
 The Spey has a longer course than any other ; but, rising in the midst of the Perthshire 
 highlands, and rolling northward tiirough the wild recesses of Attiol and Braemar, its line is 
 comparatively obscure. The other rivers of Scotland are of subordinate rank ; Uie Dee of 
 Aberdeen, the Esk of Montrose, the Nitli and Aiman of Dumfries, the Ayr and Irvine 
 of Ayr. 
 
 Lochs form a characteristic feature of Scotland ; many of them are long arms of the sea, 
 running up into the heart of tiie mountauis. Among these, Loch Lomond is pre-eminent 
 The traveller admires its vast expanse, its gay and numerous islands, its wooded promon- 
 tories and bays, and the high mountain barrier at its head. Loch Katrine, in a smaller 
 compass, presents a singular combination of romantic beauty. Loch Tay, enclosed by the 
 loftiest of the Grampiaas, presents alpine scenery on the grandest scale ; while at Inverary, 
 Loch Fyne unites the pomp of art with that of nature. The long chain of Lochs Linnhe, 
 Lnchy, and Ness, stret^liing diagonally across Scotland, comprises much fine scenery, 
 and bus afforded &cilitie8 for making a navigable communication between the German and 
 Atlantic oceans. 
 
 Sect. II. — Natural Geography. 
 
 This section will contain Geology only, as the Botany and Zoology of Scotland were de- 
 scribed along with that of Great Britain in general, under the head of England. 
 
 SuBSECT. I. — Geology of Scotland. 
 
 Scotland may be divided geologically into the following great districts : — 1. Southern ; 2. 
 Middle ; 3. Northern ; 4. Insular. 
 
 (1.) Southern division. This division includes that part of the country bounded on the 
 south by the northern frontier of England ; and on the north and west, by the comparatively 
 flat country between the Forth and the Clyde. It is traversed fironi St. Abb's Head on the 
 east coast to Portpatrick on the west coast by a high land, named tiie great southern high 
 land of Scotland, in which are situated tlic highest mountains in this division of Scotland. 
 This lofty range sends out branches in different directions, many of which reach the sea- 
 coast, while others terminate in the lower and flatter parts of the country that lies around 
 them. Although abundantly supplied with rivers, the southern division contains but few 
 lakes, in this respect forming a striking contrast with the middle and northern divisions. 
 The mountainous regions are composed of transition rocks, while the lower and flatter con- 
 sist principally of secondary and alluvial formations. 
 
 I. Transition rocAs. The predominating rocks of the Neptunian class are greywacke, 
 with subordinate beds of clay slate, flinty slate, and transition limestone; the Plutonian 
 species are granite, syenite, porpliyry, serpentine, and trap ; by far the most abundant rock 
 is the greywacke, in which the principal load-mines in Scotland, those of I.eadhills and 
 Wanlockhead, are situated. They have been worked from an early jxBriod, and during a 
 long course of years have yielded to tlie proprietors n very rich return. Of late year.s, 
 owing to the disturbed state of the world, their prosperity has been interrupted. Copper 
 ores have been raised in Galloway, but not in considerable quantity ; and the same may be 
 said of the sulphuret of antimony, formerly mined at Glendinning in Dumfries-shire. 
 
 II. Secondary rocks. Scotland is distinguished from England by the smaller number of 
 Its secondary formations, and tlieir more limited distribution; the southern division contuins 
 a greater proportion than the middle or northern ; and hence approaches more nearly to 
 England in a general geognostic point of view. The following secondary forin.itions have 
 been observed : — 1. Old red sandstone. 2. Mountain limestone. 3. Coal formation. 4. New 
 red sandstone. 5. Various trap and porphyry rocks. 
 
 1. Old red sandstone. This formation skirts the transition chains of mountains lying 
 immediately upon the greywacke, &c. It is well exposed in the Pentlands, tlic ujjper i)art 
 of the river district of the river Clyde, in the course of tiie river Tweed, in various points 
 m Dumfries-shire, &c. In the districts where it occurs, it is frequently quarried as a 
 building-stone. 
 
 2. Mountain limestone. The beds of limestune in the lower part of the coal formation 
 
Door I. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 405 
 
 fwacke, 
 [utonian 
 lanl rock 
 hills ami 
 during a 
 tc years, 
 Copppr 
 c may be 
 e. 
 
 umber of 
 
 coiAiins 
 
 nearly to 
 
 ons havn 
 
 4. New 
 
 ina lying 
 Ipper part 
 bus points 
 fried as a 
 
 I formation 
 
 in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and tlic beds of iiinrstone upon which the coal formation 
 rests in other quarters, as in Dunifrics-thirc, belong to tlie niountnin limestone. 
 
 3. Coal formation. This important deposit occipies considerable ix)rtions of £n=% Mid, 
 and West Lothian, and e.vtends westward to Glasgow. It forms extensive tracts in Ayr- 
 shire ; in DumfricB-shirc ; and in Berwicksliire. Tlic coal mines in the Lothians and around 
 Glasgow are the most pro<luctive :n Scotland. The annual quantity of coal brouglit into 
 Glasgow is ."jeiitMO tons ; of whicli 124,000 arc exported. It iimy also be noticed, as con- 
 nected with coal, that in Glasgow, during twenty-four hours in the winter moiitiis, tlio gas 
 company make upwards of 500,(HM) cubic feet of gas from coal ; and during tlio .siunc period 
 in the summer months, about r20,0()(). The pipes extend to more than 100 miles througli 
 streets. The great iron-works ut Carron arc supplied with tlie ore from which tlie iron is 
 obtained, from the coalfields of this and the middle division of Scotland. Tiie ore or stone, 
 which is an argillaceous carbonate of iron, occurs in beds and embedded masses, and princi- 
 pally in the slate of the coal deposit. The admirable building-stone around Edinburgh and 
 Glasgow is a sandstone which occurs in beds in the coal formation. 
 
 4. New red sandstone. This formation in tlie regular succession rests upon the coal 
 formation, in which position it is to be seen in the neighbourhood of Cannoby in Dumfries- 
 shire. 
 
 5. Trap and porphyry rocks. These ignigenous masses occur in many parts: they 
 abound, for instance, all around Edinburgh ; forming part of the Calton Hill, Castle Hill, 
 Salisbury Craigs, Arthur Seat, the Pentlands, &c. : tlie beautifUl conical hill named North 
 Berwick I^aw, the Bass Rock, the Isle of May, Traprain Law, are also formed of trap and 
 porphyry rocks. Renfrewshire and Ayrshire also abound in splendid and interesting displays 
 of trap and porphyry. In many parts of the country these rocks are used us building-stones, 
 and the greenstone of the trap series aflbrds an admirable material for road-making. The 
 splendid causeways and roads around Edinburgh are of greenstone. 
 
 III. Alluvial rocks. In various parts of the country there occur deposits of old alluvium, 
 or what is called diluvium ; and everywhere tlic modern alluvium, or that daily fbrming 
 meets the eye. 
 
 (2.) Middle division. This division of Scotland is bounded to the south by the southern 
 division ; on the north by the Moray Frith and the great chain of lakes extending irom 
 Inverness to Fort William and the Linnhc Loch. It is traversed in a north and south- 
 westerly direction by the Grampian range of mountains, which extends from the Mull of 
 Cantyre to Stonehaven in Kincardineshire, and to the rocky northern coasts of Aberdeen- 
 shire and Banffshire. The country in general falls rapidly to the west of this great moun- 
 tain range, and comparatively gently to the eastward of it: hence the western acclivity is 
 steep and short, the eastern gentle and long. On the eastern acclivity and the low lands 
 connected with it are situated the Sidlay, Ociiil, and Cainpsie hills, forming a pretty conti- 
 nuous range ; and Kellie Law, Ijirgo Law, the Ixunonds, and the Saline Hills in Fifeshire, 
 forming a less continuous and lower range of hills. Water is abundantly distributed over 
 this di.strict, in the Ibrm of rivers, lakes, and springs. Lakes, which are so rare in the 
 southern division, are here abundantly distributed, and exhibit many beautiful and splendid 
 scenes. Of these lakes the most considerable are the following: Loch Lomond, Jjoch Tay, 
 IjOcIi Ness, and Loch Awe. Tlie rocks are more varied in this than in the southern divi- 
 sion ; magnificent displays of primitive, transition, and secondary formations present them- 
 selves to our attention. 
 
 I. Primitive and transition rocks. The Neptunian kinds are granite, gneiss, mica slate, 
 clay slate, talc slate, chlorite slate, quartz rock, grey wacke, limestone : the Plutonian rocks 
 are granite, syenite, porphyry, trap, and serpentine. The iS'eptunian rocks generally range 
 from north-east to south-west ; most freiiuently dip under an angle of about 45° ; and are 
 variously upheaved, broken, and disturbed by the Plutonian rocks. They arc principally 
 confined to the Grampian high land and its branches. The most remarkable granite and 
 syenite districts are Cairngorm, Benachie, Aberdeen, Peterhead, BenCruachan; and Ben 
 Nevis conjoins along with its slaty Neptunian strata, granite, syenite, and porphyry. In 
 some quarters the limestone Is raised as marble, as in Glen Tilt ; but more frequently it is 
 burnt into quicklime. The clay slate quarries of Luss, on the banks of Loch Lomond ; those 
 of Balarhuli.'^li, in Argyleshire; and the slate quarries in the interior of Aberdeenshire, are 
 of considerable extent, and employ many workmen. There were formerly lead-mines in the 
 neighbourhood of Tyiulruni, where the lead glance, or sulphuret of lead, was disposed in 
 veins in quartz rock and mica slute. 
 
 II. Siroiiilary rockn. These are, old red sandstone, mountain limestone, coal formation, 
 and new red sandstone, and probably the lias formation: these strata are variously inter- 
 mingled with trap and [wrphyry rocks. 
 
 1. Old nd sinulsloiw. This rock, in some parts of the country, as in the vicinity of 
 Stoiiehavfu and ufar Blair-Gowrio, exhibits iiiugiiificent cliffs of conglomerate. It tJjrms 
 the prinripiil reck in tlie gfreiit triict of country included between lines drawn from Stonc- 
 naveii by ni,iir-Gowi-ip, Coiiirie, Cullender, Dumbarton, Stirling, Kinross, Dundee, Arbroath, 
 
 •I ;.■ 
 
* f1 
 
 4 
 
 406 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part III 
 
 Montrose, and Bcrvie. It appears again near InvcrnesH, and on the banks of Loch Ness. 
 In many localities there are extensive quarries, the sandstone being used as a building-stone, 
 and as a pavement-stone. The Kinguddie sandstone and the Arbroath pavement-stone, from 
 old red sandstone localities, are well known. 
 
 2. Coal formation. The coal formation in the middle division of Scotland has not been met 
 with farther nortii than Fifeshire. Tlie counties of Fife, Clackmannan, and Stirling, abound 
 m coal ; of those counties, Fife is that which contains the greatest fields of this valuable 
 mineral. 
 
 3. New red sandstone occurs apparently in some points on the east coast, and also on the 
 north coast between CuUen and the Cromarty Frith. 
 
 4. Lias formation. Near to Banff there are beds of clay, which, from tlie organic re- 
 mains contained in them, may turn out to belong to this formation. 
 
 5. Plutonian rocks. These arc various traps, as greenstone, amygdaloid, trap tufla, and 
 basalt; and porphyries, having a hisis of claystone or clinkstone. The famous headland the 
 Red Head, on the east coast, exhibits a fine display of Plutonian rocks, connected with the 
 red sandstone. Bervie Head and the vicinity are interesting fit)m their porphyry rocks. 
 The trap rocks of Montrose are famous on account of the agates they aflbrd. Kinnoul Hill, 
 at Perth, is coniiwsed of amygdaloid, tuffa, and other rocks of the trap series, and abounds 
 in agates. The Ochil Hills are principally composed of trap and porphyry; and trap rocks 
 abound in the Campsie range. The Fifeshire hills, viz. Kellic Law, Largo Law, the cones 
 of the Iximond, and the Saline Hills, are of trap. These various traps and porphyries have, 
 OS is generally the case, broken and changed more or less the Neptunian strata with which 
 they are intermingled. 
 
 III. Alluvial rocks. These have the same general characters as those met with in tlie 
 southern division. In a few districts, however, as near to Peterhead, and in the vicinity of 
 Banfl*! there are numerous chalk flints. These, by some, are considered as alluvial, an<l 
 foreign to Scotland ; while others are of opinion that they are remains of the chalk forma- 
 tion, formerly distributed in some of the tracts where the flints are found. 
 
 (3.) Northern division. This division is bounded on the south by the chain of lakes 
 which forms tlie northern limit of the middle division, and on the north, the east, and the 
 west, by the ocean. The high land ranges throughout its whole length, from south-west to 
 north-east. The western acclivity is steep and short ; the eastern comiMratively gently 
 inclined and long. Rivers, springs, and lakes are numerous. The whole of this division, 
 nearly, is composed of primitive and transition rocks, the secondary occurring principally 
 along the cost coast and a small extent of tlie north-west coast. 
 
 I. Primitive and transition rocks. The Neptunian species are disposed in strata, that 
 oflen range from soutli-west to north-east, are of gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, quartz rock, 
 talc slate, limestone, and greywacke. The Plutonian rocks are less abundant than in the 
 middle and southern divisions of Scotland; and are granite, syenite, porphyry, and trap. 
 The only mines are those at Strontian, where the ore is lead glance, or sulphurct of lead, 
 in veins traversing gneiss. The mineral in which the Strontian earth was first tbund 
 occurs in these mines, along with other curious minerals, of wliicli the cross-stone is the 
 most interesting. 
 
 II. Secondary rocks. The formations of this class are both Neptunian and Plutonian. 
 The Neptunian are old red sandstone, new red sandstone, lias, and oolite ; the Plutonian, trap 
 and porphyry. 
 
 1. Old red sandstone. Much of the county of Caithness, pnd some tracts on the east 
 coast, and a few points on the west, are coinposed of this formation. 
 
 2. New red sandstone. The county of Caitiiness affords examples of this deposit, which 
 is remarkable on account of the beds of fossil Jishes it contains. 
 
 3. Lias and oolite. This formation occurs on the east coast of Sutherland. The coal 
 mines at Brora are situated in this deposit; tne coal is, however, of indifferent quality. 
 
 4. The Plutonian rocks are not frequent, ond consist principally of trap and jxirphyry. 
 
 III. Alluvial rocks. These exhibit the same characters as in the middle and southern 
 divisions. 
 
 (4.) Insular division. Tliis may lie suKlivided in the following manner: — 1. Fortii 
 Mauds; 2. Clyde Islands; 3. Hebrides; 4. Orkneys: .5. Shetlands. 
 
 (1.) Forth islands. The Bell Rock is of a rod sandstone, having the same characters as 
 that on the neightiouring coast at Arbroath. The otlier islands are principally composed of 
 trap rocks, occasion,dly associnti.'d with clinkstune porphyry, and rocks of the coal formation. 
 (2.) Clyde Islaiiil.^ and the Ciimbrnys are composed of secondary rocks ; the Neptunian rocks 
 are chiefly old rod sandstone, which is traversed and overlaid by different kinds of trap rocks, 
 of which there are magnificent displays in these islands^. The southern part of Bute is 
 almost entirely composed <if rocks of igneous origin, belonging to the trap series ; the mid- 
 dle, of old red sandstone; the northern of clay slate, mica slate, quartz rock, and trap. Arran 
 affords highly illu.itrative examples of Neptunian and Plutonian rocks of the primitive and 
 
BookL 
 
 SCOTIiAND. 
 
 407 
 
 the 
 
 ita that 
 rock, 
 in the 
 trap, 
 lead, 
 found 
 is the 
 
 . Fortli 
 
 ctcrs as 
 )osod of 
 rmation. 
 .n rocka 
 p rocks, 
 Bute is 
 ;he mid- 
 Arran 
 ive and 
 
 transition classes, viz. clay slate, mica slate, grey wacke, as Neptunian dcpMits ; and frranite, 
 as a Plutonian rock. The junctions of the granite, of which there are two formations, with 
 each other and with the Neptunian slates, are most instructive. Reposing' on these rocka is 
 a deposit of the old red sandstone, on which rests the coul formation ; and the whole are 
 covered, more or less completely, with new red sandstone. These Neptunian secondary 
 rocks are traversed in all directions by Plutonian rocks of tho porphyry and trap scries, 
 affording an admirable study to tlio geologist. Alluvial deposits occur all round the coast, 
 and covering, more or less deeply, the bottom and sides of valleys. Both old and new allu- 
 vium are met with in Arran. The Craig of Ailso, which is 900 feet high, is composed of 
 secondary syenite, in several cliffs disposed in magnificent columns, and traversed by veins 
 of secondary greenstone, &.e. 
 
 (3.) The Hebrides or Western Islands form two groups ; the one, ranging immediately 
 along the coast, the Inner Hebridet ; the other, lying beyond, to the westward, the Outer 
 Hebrideg. 
 
 Inner Hebrideg. Gigha, Islo, Jura, Colonsay, Oronsay, Scarba, and tho Slate Isles, are 
 principally composed of Neptunian primitive and transition strata, havinfr frequently a north- 
 east and south-west direction ; and variously disposed, from the slightly inclined to the ver- 
 tical position. The rocks are mica slate, quartz rock, talc slate, chlorite slate, hornblende 
 slate, clay slate, limestone, and grey wacke. These are traversed by, and intermingled with, 
 Plutonian rocks of the trap and porphyry series. Tho clay slate is extensively quarried in 
 the isle of Eisdale, one of tho Slate Islands. In I»la there is a great deposit of limestone, 
 in which formerly lead-mines were worked. lona, Tiree, and Coll are principally composed 
 of gneiss, mica slate, quartz rock, hornblende rock, with occasional intermixtures of granite 
 and syenite, and all traversed, more or loss frequently, by veins of trap rock. Mull, with 
 the exception of two or three points, which are composed of granite, gneiss, and mica slate 
 is composed of secondary trap and porphyry rocks, with occasional intermixtures of lias lime- 
 stones, and lias coals. Tlie usual alluvial deposits appear in different parts of the island. 
 Slaffa, which is composed of basalt, amygdaloid, and trap tuffa, has been long celebrated on 
 account of its splendid columnar basaltic cave, the Fingul's (Jave of travellers. Eigff is 
 principally composed of trap rocks, occasionally intermingled w ith lias limestones. The 
 Scure Egg is a remarkable columnar ridi»'e of pitchstone porpliyry, presenting the most 
 splendid display of the natural columnar structure to be met witii anywhere in the British 
 islands. Canna is entirely composed of secondary trap rocks; and Rum, a wild, rugged, 
 and hilly island, besides red sandstone, which forms a prominent constituent part, also con- 
 tains many varieties of trap, some of which are remarkable from their containing agates, 
 bloodstone, opal, die. Skye, the largest of the Inner Ilcbridf's, exhibits great variety of 
 scenery and of geological arrangement. The southern part of the island is composed of 
 primitive and transition rocks, principally of the Neptuni.m series ; namely, mica slate, clay 
 slate, chlorite slate, hornblende rock, (|uartz rock, grcywacke, and limestone. The middle 
 part aflbrds magnificent displays of Plutonian rocks, as syenite, porphyry and trap, which 
 are frequently observed intermixed witii lias limestone, which in many places is seen con- 
 verted mto marble through the agency of those ignigenous rocks : the northern division of 
 the island is principally composed of various trap rocks, often abounding in zeolite and other 
 curious minerals, and mterminglcd with lias limestone and coal. The alluvium here exhibits 
 its usual characters. Ritsay. The southern and middle parts of this island are of secondary 
 formation, principally of old red sandstone and lias sandstone ; the northern extremity is of 
 primitive rocks, principally gneiss. Rona. This island, which appears formerly to have 
 been a part of Rasay, is entirely of primitive formation, tlie prevailing rock being gneiss, 
 with subordinate mica slate, quartz rock, hornblende rock, &,c., traversed by splendid veins 
 of granite. 
 
 Outer Hebrides. This group, which lies in a north-east and south-west direction, con- 
 sists of the following islands ; viz. Lewis, Harris, North Uist, South Uist, and Barra. The 
 whole range of islands is nearly of primitive formation, and the predominating rocks, which 
 are gneiss and mica slate, range generally from north-east to south-west. The following 
 rocks, which are generally subordinate to those just mentioned, viz. quartz rock, clay slate, 
 chlorite slate, hornblende rock of vaiious kinds, limestone (!), serpentine, with masses and 
 veins of granite, syenite, and porphyry, present many interesting phenomena. 
 
 f4.) Orkney Islands. This group of islands is distiniruislied from allotiicrs that lie around 
 the coasts of Scotland, by the uniformity of its structure and composition. With the excep- 
 tion of a small e.^itont of transition rocks near Stromness in the island of Pomona, the largest 
 of the Orkneys, that island and all tiie others are composed of the old red sandstone, with 
 some rare appearance of secondary trap. 
 
 (5.) tShelland Islands. This very interesting group of islands exhibits great variety in 
 its geognostical structure and com|)osition. Mainland. With the exception of a band of 
 old red sandstone extending from the line of Sumburgh Head to Rovey Head, on tlie east 
 coast tlic ttliolo of this island is formed of primitive rocks. The Neptunian strata are 
 
 m'I 
 
 >j' ' 
 
406 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 fS 
 
 ffneiss, with Bubordinato mica slate, clay Blate, quartz rock, limrstone, nnd hornblende rocks; 
 the Plutonian rocks, which frequently alter and upraiBO the Nrptuninn strata, are pranite, 
 ■yenite, porphyry, greenstone, and cpidotic syenite. Ydl is almost entirely comixjfed ot 
 gneiss, variously intersected by veins of granite. Unut is compoKod of gneiss, mica slate, 
 talc slate, chlorite slate, and limestone, which are variously inturmi-xod with sfrpeiitino and 
 diallago rocks. Hermaness, the most northern point of the British dominions in hiiropc, is 
 composed of gneiss; while the Land's End of Cornwall, tlie most south-westerly cape of 
 Britain, is formed of granite. Unst and the neighbouring island of Fetlar abound m chro- 
 mate of iron. Hydrate of magnesia, grciiatite, precious garnet, and <)th(!r beautiful mmerals, 
 occur in this island. Fetlar is composed of serpentine as tlie prrdominatm^; rock, with 
 diallago rock, gneiss, mica slate, chlorite slate, and quartz rock. Whohnj is comptwed of 
 gneiss. Bressay, Nos», and Mousa arc composed of old red sandstone. Ihirrii and ITmiae 
 are composed of gneiss and mica slate, with submliimto limestone ; Pnpa Slniir is a moss ot 
 wrphyry. In Foula the predominating rock is old red sandstone ; at one point there is a 
 imited display of primitive rocks of granite, gneiss, mica slate, and clay slate. 
 
 Sbct. III.— //wtorico/ Survey, 
 To the Greek and Roman writers, Scotland was not known as a distinct country. Albion, 
 or Britain, was viewed as one region, parcelled out among a multitude of different tribes. 
 Agricola first penetrated into that part of Britain, which we now call Scotland. He easily 
 over-ran the low country, but encountered the most obstinate resistance when he approached 
 the Caledonians, who appear then to have held all the northern districts. An olwtinate 
 battle, the precise place or which hos never been ascertained, was fought at the foot of the 
 Grampians. All the rude valour of Caledonia could not match the skill of Agricola and the 
 discipline of the Roman legions. The whole open country was abandoned to the invaders, 
 whose progress, however, was stayed by what they termed the Caledonian forest, under 
 which they seem to have vaguely comprehended the vast pine woods of Glenniore, and the 
 steep barrier of the Grampians. Their military occupation, however, is attested by the form- 
 ation of numerous camps, of which that of 
 Ardoch, {Jig. ISiJ), ten miles north of Stir- 
 ling, is the most extensive and complete. 
 The Romans endeavoured to resist the in- 
 cursions of tlie natives, by rearingut different 
 periotls, two walls, one between tlie Forth 
 and Clyde, and the otiier south of the low 
 country of Scotland, between the Solway 
 and the Tyne. The northern tribes, how- 
 ever, continued their inroads, now chiefly 
 under the name of Picts, who seem clearly 
 to have been the same people with the 
 Caledonians. In the fifth century Britain 
 was abondoned by the Romans, and over-run 
 by the Saxons, who occupied the eastern 
 part of the south of Scotland, as far as the 
 Forth. 
 
 The western part was formed into the 
 kingdom of Strathcliiyd, It flourished for 
 about 300 years, and was rendered illustrious 
 by the name and exploits of Arthur and his 
 knights, whose power I'roiii .'508 to m^, is 
 represented by tradition as having been predominant over the south of Scotland and tlie north 
 of England. The capital and bulwark of this kingdom wos Alcluyd, called afterwards Dun 
 Briton and Dumbarton, seated on an insulated precipitous rock at the moutli of the Clyde. 
 The Strathcluyd Britons, closely pressed by their Saxon neighbours, endeavoured to det'cnd 
 themselves by a lengthened /ossf, of which the traces have lieeu supimsed to remain in the 
 Catrail or Picts'-work Ditch, drawn across the counties of Selkirk and Roxburgh. Such 
 feeble defences could not support a sinking monarchy; in 7.57, Alcluyd was taken by the 
 Saxons, and the kingdom subverted. 
 
 The Scots, before this time, iiad come from Ireland, their original seat, which, in the fourth 
 century, was often called Scotland. Even before the departure of the Romans, tiie Scots, 
 joined with the Picts, are mcntione<l as the ravagers of defenceless Britain. They appear at 
 one time to have been driven Irack into Ireland ; but in .503 they again landed in Cantyre, 
 and during the next four centuries, spread gradually over the kingdom. At length under the 
 victorious reign of Kenneth, which commenced in 830, they wrested tlie sceptre from Wred 
 the Pictish king, and established supreme sway over the whole of that country, which, from 
 Vhem, was ever afterwanls called Scotland. 
 
 Ouiip at Ardoch. 
 
*- 
 
 'u 
 
 Ithe fourth 
 (lie Scots, 
 [appear at 
 1 Cantyre, 
 (under the 
 lorn Wred 
 fich, from 
 
 DookI. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 409 
 
 The Scoto-Saxon era, aH Mr. Chahners calls it, is memorablo rathor for an insensible 
 •iliange, than for any smldcn revolution. After tlio subversion of the kingdom of Strath- 
 cluyd, by tliu Snxoiix, that people liad colonized and filled the whole south; and the Scottish 
 kinjjs, though of Celtic origin, iiaving eKtublisiicd themHelvcs in this more fertile part of their 
 territories, soon began to imbibe the spirit of its occupants. From this or other causes the 
 wliolo lowlanils of Scotland is in language and maimers Teutonic, and tho Gael or Celts 
 were again contiiicd within their mountain boundary. 
 
 An era of disputed succession arose out of the contendinjj claims of Bruce and Baliol, 
 after tlio death of Margaret of Norway. Edward I., availing himself of this dissension, 
 succeeded in introducing liimsclf under tho character of an arbiter, and having established 
 Daliol on the throne by an armed interference, sought to rule Scotland as a vassal kingdom. 
 Tlio result was a struggle, calamitous to Scotland, but which, however, placed in a con- 
 t:piciious light the energy and heroism of the nation, and brought forwanl the names of 
 Wallace and Bruce, ever afterwards the foremost in her annals. The result was glorious ; 
 the concentrated force of the English was finally defeated in a pitched battle at Bannock- 
 burn ; they were compelled to renounce their ambitious pretensions, and allow the kingdom 
 to be governed by its native princes. 
 
 Under tho turbulent and unfortunate sway of the Stuarts, Scotland continued for several 
 centuries without any prominent revolution, though with a continual tendency to internal 
 commotion. This dynasty, from their connexion with the French and English courts, had 
 acquired the idea of more polished manners, and habits of greater subordination as due from 
 the nobles. Such views were ill suited to the power and temper of a Douglas, and many 
 other powerful chieftains, through whose resistance the attempts of tho monarchs were 
 followed with disaster, and often with violent death. The introduction of the reformed 
 religion especially, in open opposition to tho court, which granted only a reluctant and pre- 
 carious toleration, was unfavourable to tho crown, and fatal to a princess whose beauty and 
 misfortunes have rendered her an object of enthusiasm to the gay and chivalric part of the 
 Scottish nation. 
 
 The union of the crowns, by the accession of James VI. in 1603, to the English throne, 
 produced a great change, in itself flattering to Scotland, whose race of princes now held 
 sway over all the three kingdoms. The struggle between presbytery and prelacy gave rise 
 to a conflict which still powerfully influences the temper and character of the Scots. The 
 efl'orts of tho presbytcrians, acting under the bond of tlicir League and Covenant, first 
 enabled the English parliament to rcav its head, and had a great effect in turning tho scale 
 of contest against the crown. The Scots revolted, however, at tiie excesses of the inde- 
 pendents, and endeavoured to rear again, on a covenanted basis, tlio fallen crown of the 
 Stuarts. These bravo but unsuccessful efforts wore ill requited by an embittered persecu- 
 tion against oil the adherents of presbytery, till the Revolution finally fixed that system as 
 the established religion of Scotland. 
 
 The union of the kingdoms, in 1707, placed Scotland in that political position which she 
 has ever since maintained; and, by allaying internal contest, and opening a free trade with 
 the sister kingdom, this union has pro<luccd results highly beneficial, although the devoted 
 attachment of her mountain tribes to the exiled Stuarts repeatedly impelled them to attempt 
 to replace that house on the throne ; attempts which, at one critical moment, spread alarm 
 into the heart of England. 
 
 Sect. IV. — Political Constitution. 
 
 The political system of Scotland being now almost completely incorporated with that of 
 England, little is to be added to the statements given under tlie head of the sister kingdom. 
 A few peculiarities, however, may ho deserving of notice. 
 
 The representation allowed to Scotland at the union was somewhat scanty. It consisted, 
 for the House of Commons, of forty-five members, fifteen from the boroughs, and thirty from 
 the counties. The members were elected, not by the burgesses, but by the magistrates, 
 who themselves were appointed chiefly by their predecessors in office ; thus constituting 
 close boroughs, in which a party having once obtained a majority might keep it in prrpetuiim. 
 In county elections, the right of voting was attached to the possession of lands iield im- 
 mediately of the crown, and of the valued rent of 400Z. Scots. But the feudal .fuperiority 
 which entitled to vote was separable from the actual possession of the property. Tiie original 
 proprietor, wlio, perhaps, had a number of these votes on his estate, might either sell or 
 distribute them among his friends, so as to multiply his own elective influence. The free- 
 holders of Scotland amounted to not quite 3000, of whom a certain number, for the reason 
 stated, had no actual property in land. The peers of Scotland are represented by sixteen 
 of their number, elected at the commencement of each parliament. There arc, besides, 
 upwards of twenty who are British peers, and sit in their personal right. 
 
 Vol. L 35 3 B 
 
 it 
 
 u 
 If 
 
 i: m 
 
 . '-i 
 
 >m 
 
•^ 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt III 
 
 By tho Refonn Kill of 1832, the power of returning membcra to the IIouio of Coi^imoni 
 is vested in the following cities and burghs : — 
 
 Eitinbiirfh . 
 
 Mrmbori. 
 S 
 
 Abfriloen ] 
 
 Pnhlcy I 
 
 nundce } 
 
 Omenuck 1 
 
 P«rtli 1 
 
 Leilh, PiirliilH'llo, Muimlbiiri 1 
 
 Kirkwall, WIrk, Duriinch, Uinnwall, Tain, Cromarty 1 
 
 Forlrcwii, In verrii'M, Nairn, Furrua 1 
 
 Elfin, C'lilli'ii, lluiiir, Invrnry, Kinlnro, Fulerhiiad ' 1 
 
 laverlii'rvif, .Mniilriiw, Arbrnnlh, Uri'cliin, Pnrflir 1 
 
 Cupar. SI. Au>lrotv'«, AiiHtriithur Rniiiornnil Wmtur, Orall, Kilronny, Pitttnwsan 1 
 
 Dyanri, Kirkulily, KiiiKlnirn, RiirnlialancI 1 
 
 Inverki'ithiiiK, D'nifi rnilinr'. Kiiiriwa, Queenaforry, Culrnai, Stirling I 
 
 RiMifri'W, RijIlii'mliMi, Dumbarton, Kilinarnnck, Port Olaagow f 
 
 lladclington. Dniilmr, Nortli llurwick, I.nndnr, Judburgh 1 
 
 Iiinlithgow, l.aimrk. Falkirk, Airilrii>, llnniilton 1 
 
 Ayr, Irvinn, (Tninpbullton, Inverary, Oban 1 
 
 PiimrriiM, 8ani|iinliur, Annan, Ix>climab«n, Kirkcudbright 1 
 
 Wigton, Nuwtialluway.Slranraur, Whithorn 1 
 
 33 
 
 These members arc returned by the inhabitants paying rent to the vnlue of 10/. and upwards. 
 The counties continue each to elect a member, except that only one in conjunction is re- 
 turned by Elfrin and Nairn, one by Ross and Cromarty, and one by Clackmannan and Kin- 
 ross. The power of voting, too, is attached to tlie possession ot actual property yielding 
 10/. of yearly rent. 
 
 The Judicial administration of Scotland has always continued distinct from that of tlie 
 sister kin^rdom. The supreme court, or Court of Session, consisted until lately, of fitleon 
 members, sitting together, and deciding in all civil causes, while six of these constituted a 
 Justiciary Court for tho trial of criminal cases. The trial by jury was employed only in the 
 Justiciary Court, and in revenue <|uestions, which are tried before the Court of Exchequer. 
 But tiie supreme court is now divided into two chambers, one of six and tiie other of seven 
 members. Trials by jury, in civil coses, have been introduced, and are now carried on, like 
 others, under the direction of tiie Court of Session. The Court of Exchequer, which con- 
 sisted of five barons, the Consistory and tho Admiralty Courts have been abolished, and their 
 jurisdiction transferred to the Court of Session. 
 
 The revenue of Scotland has bee.i hitherto collected separately from that of England, 
 and by separate boards for each branch; hut, under recent regulations, the whol<. has been 
 placed under the direction of boards resident in London, and the systems have bee. t a great 
 measure incorporated together. In the year ending 5th January, 1831 — 
 
 The Scottish excise was 
 Customs . - - 
 Stamps ... 
 Assessed taxes 
 Post office ... 
 
 SEcn-. V. — Productive Industry. 
 
 2,395,490 
 
 1,357,000 
 
 526,000 
 
 292,000 
 
 201,000 
 
 4,771,490 
 
 Scotland has always ranked as a poor country ; and, for a long time, natural obstacles were 
 enhanced by moral impediments. The Scots showed an aptitude to embark in all schemes 
 of turbulence ; but indolence, and dislike of plain hard work, might be recognized as a 
 national chaFactcristic. Since the age arrived, however, when industry came into honour, 
 and when improved processes were studiously applied to all the useful arts, tiie Scots have 
 entered with peculiar spirit and intelligence into this new career ; and in its prosecution 
 have been more succossfiil, in some respects, than their southern neighbours. 
 
 The agriculture of Scotland has to contend with obstacles which must be manifest, when 
 we look at its ruarged aspect, and its vast hills and morasses. Forty years ago, moreover, 
 the progrps.s of Scotland in this primary art was generally behind that of the rest of the 
 empire. As soon, however, as the great system of agricultural improvement was adopted 
 throughout the kingdom, the Scottish farmers not only shared in it, but carried it farther 
 than those of Eiiffliind. Tlie farmers of the I<othians, of the Carso of Gowrie, ond even of 
 the district on tho Moray Frith, made ii complete reform in the whole train of agricultural 
 operations. They brought extensive tracts of common and waste under cultivatiDii, reduced 
 the number of cattle and improved the breed, cultivated the artificial grasse.«i, dismissed 
 
 tain; 
 
 silv( 
 
 in tl 
 
 coal 
 
 whif 
 
 ate 
 
 sels. 
 
 field 
 
Book I. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 411 
 
 ■uperfluous hiimls, and adopted tho une of riiachinory, of which tho moHt important, tha 
 throtihin? ninrhino, was of Scotliah invention. Tho conBoquoncu wan, llmt conHideruble 
 fortanoD wnro miido by HucccaHfiil thrmcra, and thut renin wore in alinoHt every inHtnnco 
 trnbled, nnd in mine ciiNPa raiHod to oi^ht or ten timea their former amount. In the moun- 
 tainoud districts, nlno, a new Hystcm was introduced, which proved more protiUiblo to tho 
 landlord, 'l'\u; nuinerouH little fnrma hitherto held by tenantx or vuNsalH, were thrown into 
 extensive Nheep-walka. Considcrablo dejiopnlation, in tho B^rricultural districtti, waa tho 
 vonaetpiencu ; a. groat proportion of this brave und wartn-hcartcd race were forced to quit 
 their native (;lcnH, to which they were tbndly attached, and to Heek Rupport, cither in tho 
 groat munufactiirniK towna, or in Hottlcmentti furnied on tho other Hide ot the Atlantic. 
 
 The cultivated lands of Scotland, and the amount of its produce, aflcr all thcBO improve^ 
 nients, are Htill limited. Of the lN,g44,U(M) acres, its computed extent of land, only r),()43,(M)0 
 aro under regular cultivation, and not more than 1,6()0,UU() imder grain. Of these only 
 140,0U0 produce wheat, though this is considered tho motit profitable crop, and is raised of 
 good quality, where the soil and climate admit. Oats, a hardy plant, is the staple produce 
 of !:)cotIaiid, and the tbod of its rural population : it covers 1,2H(),(N)0 acres. Barley occupioa 
 28(),(MM) acres, being raised chiefly fur distillation ; but in the higher districts it is the ruder 
 species called bear or biff. The chief exportable produce consists in cattle and sheep, which 
 are sent in numbers to the English markets. Tho sheep are not equal to the flno English 
 breeds, but the mutton of the Grampians and Cheviots is of exquisite flavour. 
 
 The maiiufltcturing industry of Scotland has, within the last century, advanced with pro- 
 digious rupidity, being quite equal, compared with the extent and population of tho country, 
 to that of England. Woollen, the grand original staple of England, has never obtained more 
 than a very partial footing in Scotland. Linen, with other products of flax, is the original 
 staple of Scotland. It was throughout the country a household manufacture, and for house- 
 hold use. Flax, in almost every family, was diligently spun into yarn, which was then sent 
 out to be woven ond bleached. The coarser kinds of linen still form the staple of tho eastern 
 countie!), though Dunfermline excels in fine sheeting and diaper. Tho linen made in Scot- 
 land was estimated, in 1810, at 26,437,000 yards, value LSfiTj.OOO/. The increase in the 
 manufacture has .dnce been so great, that in 1831, Dundee alone exported more than 
 57,000,000 yards ! By far the greater pro|x)rtion of the raw material is imported, very little 
 hemp or flax being grown eitlicr in Scotland or England ; almost all the former, and more 
 than half the latter, is brought from Russia, the rest of the flax fVom Holland, Flanders, and 
 Germany. 
 
 The cotton manufacture, though of comparatively recent introduction, has, in Scotland, 
 no less than in England, risen to be the first in point of magnitude. Glasgow and Paisley 
 produce fabrics carried to an extreme degree of fineness. The muslin of Paisley is one of 
 the most delicate fabrics existing. The prmting of cottont), particularly shawls, is also carried 
 on to a greater proportional extent in Scotland than in England. The total quantity of cotton 
 wool spun in Scotland in 1832, amounted to 24,500,000 lbs. of the value of about 4,000,000/. 
 
 Distillation of spirits fh)m grain has been long a characteristic branch of Scottish industry ; 
 and in the highland districts, the quality of the article has been carried to very great per- 
 fection. It has been much cramped by fiscal restrictions, which have, of late, been almost 
 entirely abolished. In the first seven years of the present century, the quantity paying duty 
 averaged 2,000,000 gallons ; it then gradually approached to 4,000,000 ; but in 1824, upon 
 the reduction of the duty, it suddenly increased to above 5,000,000ki and in 1830 it rose to 
 6,070,000. 
 
 Scotland has various other ordinary manufactures, and generally supplies itself with all 
 the common necessaries of life. The ale of Edinburgh and of some Scottish towns enjoys 
 reputation even out of Scotland. In 1829, there were brewed in Scotland 110,000 gallons 
 of strong beer, and 229,000 of table beer. Cilasx is made to the extent of nearly double the 
 consumption of the country ; the surplus being exported, chiefly to Ireland. Salt, which 
 does not exist in a mineral form, is largely extracted from sea-water by boiling ; and though 
 not equal in (juality to English rock salt, nor fit for use in the fisheries, its cheapness recom- 
 mends it for common culinary purposes. Candles, soop, starch, leather, paper,"are |)ro(Juced 
 in quantity sufficient for tho supply of the inhabitants. In 1829, the produce was5,731,000 • 
 lbs. tiillow candles; 12,721,000 lbs. hard soap, and 2,332,000 lbs. soft soap; 812,000 Ibs.l 
 starch; 0,002,000 ll>s. hides; 7,162,000 lbs. paper. J J^^ 
 
 The mineral wealth of Scotland is chiefly of an humble and useful description. (Itsmoun- 
 tains are not metalliferous. In Lanark and Dumfries is a large deposit of load mixed with 
 silver, which, together with some sumller mines in the Hebrides, is supposed to yield 136,O0OZ. 
 in the former metal, and 10,000/. in the latter. Ironstone occurs extensively in the upper 
 coal districts. In 1825, the annual production of pig iron in Scotland was 29,200 tons, 
 which is not, however, sufliicient to supply the founderies at Carron and elsewhere. Those 
 at Carron aro considerable, the costing being chiefly of ordnance, grates, and culinary ves- 
 sels. Coal, lime, and stone, compose the solid mineral wealth of Scotland. The great coal- 
 field extends in a diagonal line of 100 miles along the friths of Clyde and Forth ; beginning 
 
413 
 
 DEHCUIPTIVK OK(MJFlAI'IIY. 
 
 I>A>T III. 
 
 louUi of llu! lorinor, oml ondinK nortli of tli'- lutti-r. It Ih iintntinwly rich in rcml of prottv 
 ffuNi i|iiiility, tlioii^li nut f>i|iinl to tlio b«!i<t Kii|{liHli, A Inr^c (|iiiiiitity in oxiiortiMl ti) Iri'Inml. 
 Liinii Ih ruriilHlii'ii aliinulnrilly, Nith tiir iMiildiii)^ iiiul nmniiri'. FrrfHtoiio, cliit'lly on liolli 
 «i(lo« of tliii Fortli; Krunilc, in Aliuriloinnliirr ; Hlitto, in tliL- I Icliridcn anil Arnyiuxliiro, atfonl 
 cxcollcnt niiiti'riiiU for building. 
 
 Tiiu lixlicricH torni a conMidcnililc hriincli of indiiKtry in M<Mtiand; tho liprrin(f, rod, nnd 
 haddock iilKitiml on varioux iNirtx of itH HhorcN. Tho Diiti-h Ion;; niononoJiHcd tho );r<>iit 
 nortiiern h^rrint; bunk; und, by ii Hii|H'rior iiioih^ of cure, obtiiiiu'd u protoriMii-o in nil ninr- 
 kotH, Thi) liritirih )(ovcrnniont, howuvor, Iiiih tor Noino tiuii' iii:idi' );ri'iit ivviTtion:* tor tho 
 proiiiotioii of tho Hcottinh fiHhuriuii; and thori; ImM JH'on n woiidorfid incr'^iiHo in tho i|nantity 
 caught, und a corr<!ii|i<)ndin|f iinjirovcniont in tho proccHMON of ciiro, Tho t'orincr, which in 
 1815 wuH oidy KMMNMI barrelo, had riwn in IKU) to :)'.>U,(MIO, of which '^17,(100 wcro o.\|K)rtpd. 
 In tho Huniu year, 0:i,5()0cwt, of cod W(!ro riirod in u driod Htuto, nnd •'Vt(M)cwt. in pickle; 
 of tho t!)rnii>r, 'iJMXN) wcro oxpurtod. HnlimiM, taken in nil tho conHidurublo rivcrn, and kept 
 flrcah by bcinj; |)uckcd in ico, chiutly KiipplioM tho Iiondon inurkot. Tho wlmlu Hulipry ni 
 Greenland and DaviH'a Straito Jins for Honio tiino been pnMccntnd by Hcotland with increuHed 
 activity. In tho nine years omlini( in IHIH, tiho nont ut un uveraffu only 40 iihipH: in IHiU), 
 aho acnt 47 ; tho produce of which was Tifllit tuna of oil. Kelp wiia in extonaivo demand 
 during the lato war; but the reiioal of tho duty on aatt, and the reduction of tho duty on 
 barillu, have ruined thia branch ot industry. 
 
 The ridutivo foreign coniinorce of tho jirincipul porta of Scotland ia oxhiljited in tho fol- 
 lowing Table : — 
 
 Atwrdcan 
 
 DO'IICM 
 
 I)ioidi'« 
 
 niii*(nw 
 
 Ortniemoutli. 
 Orcenocli 
 
 Tunnifo 
 Inlt^. 
 
 «i,ino 
 
 ll.lOfl 
 
 sii.iHin 
 
 41,1(10 
 
 ■M.wa 
 
 Prmlucn 111 
 
 inmil^_ 
 X 
 
 (V.IXM 
 
 23,000 
 4.11,000 
 
 Invcrnera 
 
 Irviiiu 
 
 I.«llh 
 
 Miiiiiriwo 
 
 Pi-rth 
 
 Purl niimiinw. 
 
 TunnnwA 
 in laiU. 
 
 7,300 
 11,300 
 H.HOO 
 34,300 
 111,100 
 
 n.NOO 
 
 Proilui'^uf 
 
 f'llallimt 
 
 In mii9, 
 
 £ 
 a,ooo 
 
 4.400 
 ll,N00 
 44,400 
 
 ti.utm 
 
 S4t<,flOO 
 
 Cummerce, till tho union of tho crowns, and even of tho kingdouin, could scarcely bo con- 
 flidcrod as cxiating in Scotland ; but it hua aince been cultivated witii grout ardour and enter- 
 prise. One branch of coniinnrcial intorcourso is that witii her opulent aister kingdom. In 
 England alio finda a market for cattle, her chief ajrricultural aurulua; tor hor wool, auch aa 
 it ia ; for her sail-cloth and other coarae fabrics from flu.x and lieniu ; for piirt of her fine 
 calicoes and mualins, &c. In return, she receives almost all the windlcn cloth, and a groat 
 part of tho silk consumed by her ; hardware and cutlery of ov(;ry kind ; tea und other East 
 India goods ; and through thia channel a |>art of all tho foreign luxuries which she requires. 
 The trado with Ireland ia chieHy supported by tho exchange of coal and iron for oata and 
 cattle. That with tho Baltic, particularly Runsiu, is very active ; the eastern part of tho 
 kingdom deriving thence the hemp and flax, which form the material of her st'iplo manu- 
 facture; alao timber, iron, utid the other bulky and useful stnplea of that trade. Having 
 few articles of her own witli which tiiis market is not already stocked, the payment is made 
 chiefly in bullion und colonial produce. Tiio flourishing trade carried on from the west coast 
 with America and the West Indies, is supported by tho export of cottons, linen, wearing 
 apparel, and otiicr commoditiea ; and by tlio import of cotton, sugar, rum, and tho various 
 luxuries of those fertile regions. The Mediterranean trade is not neglected ; and since the 
 opening of that to India, Greenock has adventured into it witii considerable success. 
 
 The roads, which half a century ago were almost impassable, are now, througli all the 
 Lowlands, little inferior to those of England. After the rebellion of 1745, government con- 
 structed excellent roads into tlio heart of tlie Highlands as fur as Inverness; and in 1803, a 
 body of commissioners was appointed by government, for improving tho roods of the north 
 of Scotland. They proceeded upon tho principle, that half the expense must in every case 
 be defrayed by the county proprietors, and in eighteen years good roads were formed into 
 the remotest tracts of Inverness, Skye, Ross, anil even to tho farthest point of Caithness. 
 
 Artificial navigation meets with peculiar obstructions from the ruggodness of tho surface, 
 and hq^cc canals have never become very numerous. The "Great Canal," admits vessels 
 of considerable size to pass from the Frith of Forth to that of Clyde, and thus unite the Ger- 
 man and Atlantic oceans. Branches to Glasgow and to the fine coal-field at Monkland have 
 boon advantageously opened. The Union Canal, completed at an expense of nearly 4(KMHXW., 
 connects tho Grout Canal, near its eastern point, with Edinburgh, by a line of thirty miles 
 through a country very rich in coal and lime. The Caledonian Canal, unitinff the chain of 
 lakes which crosses Scotland diuffonally through tlie counties of Inverness and Argyle, 
 allows even shi|)8 of war to pass, from tiie east coast, into tho Atlantic, without pucounter- 
 ing the perils of tho Pentland Frith and Capo Wrath. It was finished in l>*'2r2, at an 
 expense of nearly 1,000,000/. sterling, entirely defrayed by government. The gates of the 
 
Part III. 
 
 ttl of prott* 
 il ti) Irclnntl. 
 lly on l)otli 
 ■Hliiro, ntloril 
 
 nn, full nnil 
 1 tlii« tfri'iit 
 ' ill nil iiinr- 
 lioiiH tor till' 
 the «iuiiiitity 
 icr, wliicli in 
 'tv, i!X|X)rto(l. 
 t. in pickle; 
 crx, (iml kopl 
 ilo Mwty in 
 itli incrcMiHrd 
 ipn: in 18!M), 
 iriivo doinaml 
 r the duty on 
 
 ed in the fol- 
 
 """ 
 
 |>riHlui'« of 
 
 n 
 
 Ciivtomi 
 In )*». 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 ~ X 
 
 
 9.000 
 
 
 4,400 
 
 
 «,M00 
 
 
 44.4t» 
 
 
 ii.uoo 
 
 
 34H,tW0 
 
 arccly bo con- 
 our and cntcr- 
 kingiloin. In 
 wool, such as 
 irt of licr fine 
 h, ond a groat 
 ind other East 
 I she roquires. 
 jn for oats an<l 
 rn part of tho 
 
 stiiplo inanu- 
 •ado. I laving 
 yincnt is niado 
 tho west coast 
 linen, wearing 
 nd the various 
 
 ond since the 
 
 1CCC8S. 
 
 iroiigii all the 
 )vcrnment con- 
 and in 1803, ii 
 Is of the north 
 L in every case 
 !re formed into 
 f Caithness, 
 of the surface, 
 admits vessels 
 i unite tho Ger- 
 Monkland have 
 early 4(K),()00«., 
 of thirty miles 
 fr tho chain of 
 js and Arsrylc', 
 lout piioounter- 
 in If'-'J, at an 
 ic gates of the 
 
 ^ -m 
 
 Hook I. 
 
 BCJOTLAND. 
 
 41S 
 
 lock* are of iron; tho «x|)«<n>io of oiirli lock wim 1MHMI/. Tli.' liK-k* nf twoiify-llirpo in n?l 
 eiifiit of which, l'X)kinir down iVmn Un'ti Kil, wlirro it ojm'iw into tho wrnlorn m>n, nro ciillod 
 liy Miilom llio "Hinir of Ni'iiIijimv'' Tho canal i« l\fly foot tmnil; leniftli twonly-two nilloii, 
 with forty iniloN uf iako naviii^nliun. 
 
 Heot. VI,— f aj/ unil Social Stale. 
 Of tho impiilntion of Hcuduiid nn OHliiniilo wiih liritt atloniptod in tho yoar ItlVS, whon it 
 WM coniputod to Im) l,V{t(.">.!*m Tho ri>|)ortii of tho clorgy lor tho "SintiKtionl .Anroiint," 
 bolwoon 17IW and 17J)H, guvo 1 .ti,ilKJ; which won rainoil liy tho uovorniiiont oniiiiionitinn 
 of 1>HI1 to 1,.'>1«),(H)»). 'Hio , utof I«ll gavo 1,K(K'\,(KK»; which wii» niinod liy thiit of 
 IS'Jl to y,(HKV»''\«>. Ill I'^IU, It vvUM '.J,:«l:t,H4'i. 
 
 In imiiit of diHumition, tho Scotn iiro a grave, sorioii*, and roflorting pooplo ; hut hold, 
 untnrpriding, Bmliitioiis und iinhuod with a (liMi|>-r(N>tod dotorininntion to piirKuo tho ohjccts 
 of their doHiro, and ropol tlnMo of their aviTsioii, Under thoMo itiipnUoM, tlioy ijiiit, without 
 much regret, a hnd which alliirilH ti'w opportunities of diiitiiiction, and nook, oithor in the 
 niotropulis and cominorciitl towns of Kiiglund, or in tho rnontdintant trunHiimrino rogion^ that 
 wealth and tiime which thoy eagerly covet ; yot, amid this distanct* and tlioMo eager piirsiiitN, 
 their hop<<H and atlt^ctions reiuaui fi.\od on tho land of their nittivity; and thoy iiHimlly Nook 
 to spend tho evening of their days in Scotland. The Hoots np|M>nr naturally hmvc>; aiiunlity 
 which is imrticularly observablo among tho highland trihos, and hy which thoy rendered 
 theniHolvos toriiiidahio, first under .Montroso, and allerwards in tho rohollion against the hoiiNo 
 of Hanover. Since thoy wore conciliated hy the wise inoaHiires of I'itt, they have crowded 
 into the Hritish urmy, anil liirmod boiiio of its Imivrst rogiments. Among the lower cliisMeH, 
 crimes against tho order of society are of com|Hirativoly niro occurrence, iiiiil ihoro is less 
 necessity tor capital punishment; tk-ro is also lessof oxtroiiie dissoluteness iinioiig the hitrlii-r 
 ranks. Among the Scottish females, iu parti>?ular, the ohligatioiis i>f the marriiii;e tio ure 
 much more soldoiu di-sregarded ; and if the other sex tisi ot>on uhiise the license which pulilic 
 manners are supposed to allov/, they are at least obliged to olisi'rvo soino oiitwnrd iip|M'iir- 
 anccs. Tho pride of birth is still prevalent, particularly among the highliuiil cIuum; and it 
 is accompanied with a general ambition to ri^o aNtvo their original slalinii, and a |iro|ieiisity, 
 with that view, to spend their miNleratc wealth rather in oiitwiinl show tlian in soliil com- 
 fort. The sister nations accuse tho Scots as sidtisli, yi-t Sciit:<inen raised to jKiwer Imvo not 
 shown any backwardness, either in tho general otlices uf humanity, or to proinutu the pros- 
 perity of their ciaintry and countrymen. 
 
 To their religious duties tho Scots [N'oplo have always shown an exemplary iittenlion. In 
 catholic times, tlio Romish church in Scotland enjoyed more innuenco, and had acipiired a 
 much greater pri)|)ortion of the national wealth, than in Knglaiid. IJiit they entered u\>on 
 tho cause of rellirm with an ardent zeal, which left Iwliiiid it that of all their neigldsairs. 
 After a desperate struggle, on which, for nearly a conlnry, the political destinies of tho king- 
 dom depended, they obtained their favourite form of presbytery, tho most remote t'rom that 
 pompous ritual, for which thoy have entertained tho most rooted abhorronco. Tho principle 
 of presbytery consists in tho complete oimality of all its clerical members, who have each a 
 separate parish, of which they perform all tho occlosiastical functions. The title of bishop, 
 so lonjf connected with wealth and power, has been rejected, and that of viuiislrr substi- 
 tuted. In the management of tho piMir, and some church fimctions, the minister is assisted 
 by a baly of lay members called rldern, who constitute tho kirk Kmnion. Tho government 
 of tho church consists in jireshtjieriex fiirmcd by the meeting of the ministers of a certain 
 district, with lay members from each session, tho lust of whom, however, attend only occa- 
 sionally. A synod is formed hy the union of several presbyteries; and tho Uewrol Atixfm' 
 My is com|x>sed of deputii!s, partly clerical and iwrtly lay, from each presbytery arwl Ixirongh. 
 They meet every year, and an appeal lies to them upon ovory subject; but the laws of tho 
 chiireh, though propaxod in tho Assembly, can Ix; |xi8sed only by a majority of presbyteries, 
 after being delmtcd in each. Tho king sends a Commissioner, who is present at tho debates 
 of tho Assembly, and seems oven to claim a right of conslifnting and dissolving it; hut this 
 is dcniml by the church itself, which acknowledges no human head, and accounts itself and 
 the state as powers entirely independent. 
 
 The noblos availed themselves of the downtiill of the catholic establishm.int, to appro- 
 priate nearly the whole of tho immense income with which it had been endowed. They 
 took at first not only the lands, hut the tithes; and even when oliliged to make a provision 
 for the presbytorian clergy nut of tho liittor they retained part, vnlii'Ml often at a very low 
 rate, but subject to l)o called iiixm if needed. Thus tho Scots clergy have onioyod only 
 such incomes as onaliled them, with strict econnmy, to iniiiiifain their place in the niidillo 
 rank of society. VV^hen oven this became inipossiblo under the increaseil expense of liviiiij-, 
 augmentations wore grunted out of the I irnils, or valued tithes; and where these were 
 exhausted, tho legislature have come forward, and raised tho lowest stipend t" ■".")()/. a year. 
 No body of clergy have maintained a tiiiror character, or more efficiently performed their 
 important duties, than those of tho Scottish church. 
 
 3.5* 
 
 I '' 
 
' IIIIWIITHHMHI 
 
 VTJt 
 
 414 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt IU. 
 
 The dissenters from the Scottish church consist cliiefly of persons zealously attached to 
 presbytery, and who have seceded because they considered its principles as not maintained 
 m sufficient purity within the establishment. Tiieir chief complaint is against the system 
 of patronage oxercised by the landed interest, wiio present generally to the vacant parishes. 
 Two groat iKidies, into which they were formerly divided on the subject of the burgher oatli, 
 have, since tlio uliolition of that test, been united into wliat is called the Associate Symd. 
 A coiisidi'rable proportion, especially of the higher ranks, is attached to episcopacy, either 
 as it was establislied in Scotland under the Stuarts, or as it now exists in England; indeed, 
 an union has been recently formed between these once separate branches. None of the 
 other sects, independents, baptists, methodists, &c. are numerous ; and the Roman catholics 
 consist chiefly of emiarrants from Ireland, though their form of religion still prevails in some 
 of the remote highland districts. 
 
 Literature, soon after its revival in Europe, was cultivated in Scotland with peculiar 
 ardour. Even in the age of scholastic pursuits, Duns Scotus and Crichton were pre-emi- 
 nently famed throughout the Continent. When the sounder taste for classical knowledge 
 followed, Buchanan acquired the reputation of writing I^atin with groat purity. Letters 
 were almost entirely suppressed during the subsequent period, marked by a conflict between 
 a licentious tyranny and an austere religious party, who condemned or despised the exer- 
 tions of intellect and tiic creations of fancy ; and literature loy dormant till the middle of the 
 last century, wlien Scotland, with a ciiurch and universities alike poorly endowed, produced 
 OS illustrious a constellation of writers as had been called forth by the most lavish patronage 
 in the great European capitals. We shall only mention, in history, Robertson and Hume; 
 in moral and political philosophy, Hume, Reid, Smith, Ferguson, Kames, Stewart, Brown ; 
 divinity, Blair, Campbell, Macknight; poetry. Home, Thomson, Beattie, Burns; physical 
 science, Gregory, Black, Playfair, Leslie. In the present generation, the most popular of 
 tictitious writing's, and one of the most able periodical works known in modern times, have 
 issued from the Edinburgh press. 
 
 The universities of Scotland have been a powerful instrument in supporting her literary 
 fame. Though not richly endowed, the fees of well-attended classes afford a liberal income, 
 and have enabled them to attract the most learned among the clergy ; while, in England, a 
 wealthy church draws eminent scholars from the universities. The students live generally 
 in the towns, without any check on their private conduct, or even any obligation to attend- 
 ance, except what arises from the dread of the refusal of a certificate at the close. The 
 chief exertion of the professors is bestowed on their lectures, by which they hope to attract 
 students to their class and seminary. The more diligent combine with them examinations 
 and exercises, but not on the same systematic and searching plan as in England ; and the 
 degrees are conferred, in rriny instances, with culpable laxity. A much greater proportion 
 of the people receive a college education than in England. The church exacts an attend- 
 ance of eight years ; four for languages and philosophy, and four for divinity : the faculty 
 of medicine requires also several years ; and the gentry and higher grades of the middle 
 ranks in general consider an attendance on the elementary classes as an essential part of 
 education. 
 
 The public libraries arc not rich. That belonging to the advocates or barristers of Edin- 
 burgh contains upwards of 100,000 volumes, among which there are ample materials, both 
 printed and in manuscript, for elucidating the national history. The university library is 
 half as large ; and those of Glasgow, King's College Aberdeen, and St. Andrew's, are highly 
 respectable. Each of these universities con claim a copy of every new work. 
 
 Scotland has a native music, simple and pathetic, expressive of rural feelings and emotions, 
 to which she is fondly attached. Golf and foot-baU are the only amusements that can be 
 deemed strictly national. Skating, and curlitiff, or the rolling of smooth stones upon the 
 ice, are also pursued with great ardour during the season that admits of those amusements. 
 The recreations of the higher ranks are nearly the same as in England. Dancing is prac- 
 tised with peculiar ardour, especially by the Highlanders, who have favourite national steps 
 and movements. 
 
 The Highlanders retain the remnants of a national costume peculiar to themselves ; the 
 tartan, a mixture of woollen and linen cloth, adorned with brilliant stripes variously crossing 
 each other, and marking the distinctions of the clans ; the kilt, or short petticoat, worn by 
 the men, the hose fastened below the knee, which is left bare ; and the boimet, which in 
 another shape is also still worn by the shepherds of the border. 
 
 In regard to food, t:.e Scots, in general, are temperate. Even the rich attach less import- 
 ance than their southern neighbours to the gratifications of the palate. The peasantry, pre- 
 viously to the rise of wages, which took place about thirty years ago, were content with the 
 hardest faro. Neither wheaten broad nor animal food formed part of their ordinary diet 
 Oatmeal, not accounted in the south of England an article of food for human beings, was 
 prepared here under the forms of cakes or porridge, and constituted the chief means of sub- 
 sistence. To this was occasionally added barley broth, with greens or kail, the chief pro- 
 duce of their little gardens. The Scots hav« some dishes which they cherish with nationa] 
 
Book I. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 415 
 
 IS prac- 
 il steps 
 
 38; the 
 Iroflsing 
 Vmby 
 
 Tiich in 
 
 nport- 
 
 ,pre- 
 
 I'lth the 
 
 \y diet 
 
 was 
 
 bf Bub- 
 
 bf pro- 
 
 Btiona] 
 
 enthusiasm, and among which the haggis holds the foremost place. This is a mixture of 
 oatmeal, fat, liver, and onion, boiled up m the bag which composed the stomach of the ani- 
 mal. They have, moreover, hotch-potch, and other soups, the merit of which has been 
 acknowledged by English palates. 
 
 Sect. VII. — Local Geography. 
 
 The following is a table of the extent, population, and rental in the different counties of 
 Scotland, derived fh)m agricultural reports and parliamentary returns : — 
 
 Aberdeen 
 
 Argyle 
 
 Ayr 
 
 Banff 
 
 Berwick 
 
 Bute 
 
 Caithneaa 
 
 Clackmannan. 
 Dumbarton . ■ . 
 OumfViea 
 
 Edinburgh . . . ■ 
 
 Elgin 
 
 Fife 
 
 Forfar 
 
 Haddington . . ■ 
 
 Invernera 
 
 Kincardine . . . 
 
 Kinroes 
 
 Kirkcudbright. 
 
 Lanark 
 
 Linlithgow 
 
 Nairn 
 
 Orkney and Shetland 
 
 Peebles 
 
 Perth 
 
 EenfVew 
 
 Hon and Cromarty. 
 
 Roxburgh 
 
 Selkirk 
 
 Stirling 
 
 Sutherland 
 
 Wtgton 
 
 l.QfiO 
 
 s.isw 
 
 1,039 
 
 645 
 442 
 
 lai 
 
 687 
 
 48 
 
 338 
 
 1,333 
 
 354 
 
 473 
 
 467 
 
 279 
 
 4,054 
 
 380 
 
 72 
 
 83U 
 
 042 
 
 120 
 
 195 
 
 1,380 
 
 319 
 
 2,588 
 
 325 
 3,865 
 
 715 
 
 383 
 
 489 
 
 1,754 
 
 451i 
 
 Acre* 
 
 under Cut- 
 
 tintioD. 
 
 451,000 
 270,000 
 325,000 
 
 123,000 
 137,000 
 29,000 
 92,000 
 33,000 
 54,000 
 333,000 
 
 145,000 
 
 131,000 
 
 209,000 
 
 369,000 
 
 139,000 
 244,000 
 92,000 
 27,000 
 168,000 
 
 271,000 
 
 57,000 
 37,000 
 46,000 
 24,000 
 580,000 
 
 73,000 
 170,000 
 
 206,000 
 
 10,000 
 195,000 
 63,000 
 
 101,000 
 
 Rwlal In 
 IBI2. 
 
 HOOMS 
 
 inini. 
 
 £ 
 301,000 
 207,000 
 
 369,000 
 
 85,000 
 286,000 
 20,000 
 32,000 
 39,000 
 63,000 
 364,000 
 
 713,000 
 
 66,000 
 
 378,000 
 
 336,000 
 
 213,000 
 173,000 
 88,000 
 34,000 
 192,000 
 
 616,000 
 
 91,000 
 12,000 
 20,000 
 60,000 
 612,000 
 
 334,000 
 111,000 
 
 342,000 
 
 41.000 
 207,000 
 28,000 
 
 131,000 
 
 37,579 
 16,059 
 
 17,843 
 
 8,971 
 5,803 
 3.205 
 5,319 
 2,145 
 3,536 
 13,248 
 
 19,077 
 
 6,668 
 
 18,944 
 
 16,813 
 
 6,230 
 17,055 
 5,894 
 
 6,441 
 
 47,016 
 
 3.303 
 
 9,176 
 
 1,750 
 
 26,718 
 
 10,490 
 13,6.18 
 
 6,587 
 
 1,081 
 8,984 
 4,054 
 
 5,819 
 
 Forub- 
 tknln 
 ISI. 
 
 177,651 
 101,425 
 
 145,055 
 
 48,604 
 34.048 
 14,151 
 34,529 
 14,729 
 33,211 
 73,770 
 
 219,592 
 
 34.231 
 
 128,839 
 
 139,606 
 
 36,145 
 94,797 
 31,431 
 9,072 
 40,599 
 
 316,810 
 
 23,391 
 
 9.354 
 
 58,339 
 
 10.578 
 
 143,894 
 
 133,443 
 74,830 
 
 43,663 
 
 6,883 
 72.621 
 25,518 
 
 36,318 
 
 Town, with FopukitioD in 1831. 
 
 Aberdeen... 58,019 
 
 Campbellton 9,473 
 
 (Ayr 7,606 
 
 I Irvine 5,300 
 
 Banff 3,711 
 
 Dunse 3,469 
 
 Rothesay... 4 819 
 
 Thurso 4,670 
 
 Clackmannan 4,266 
 
 Dumbarton . 3,623 
 
 Dumfl-ies ... 11,606 
 
 ( Edinburgh . 136,303 
 
 Dalkeith... 5,386 
 
 Elgin 6,1,30 
 
 t Cupar 6,493 
 
 JKirkaldy... 5.034 
 
 Dundee .... 45.:<55 
 
 i Forfar 7,949 
 
 Haddington . 5.883 
 
 Invernees . . . 15,324 
 
 Bervie 1,137 
 
 Kinross 2,917 
 
 Kirkcudbright! 3,511 
 
 I Glasgow . . . 302,426 
 
 {Lanark .... 7,672 
 
 Linlithgow . 4,874 
 
 Nairn 3,366 
 
 Kirkwall . . . 3.065 
 
 Peebles ....*. 2,750 
 
 Perth 20,016 
 
 i Paisley .... 57,466 
 j Port Glasgow 5.19^ 
 
 I Dingwall . . 2,121 
 
 j Cromarty . . 3,901 
 
 Keiso 4,939 
 
 i Hawick.... 4,<I70 
 
 Selkirk 2,83:! 
 
 Stirling 8,34n 
 
 Dornoch 504 
 
 I Wigton .... 2.337 
 
 i Portpatrick 2,23!) 
 
 Pct<!rhea(l . . . 6,698 
 
 Inverary 2,133 
 
 Kilmarnock . 18,093 
 
 Cullen 1,593 
 
 Lauder 3,063 
 
 Wick 9.850 
 
 Alloa 6,3!9 
 
 Sanquhar ... 3,268 
 
 Leith 25,8,13 
 
 .rfu.''scn)urgh 8,961 
 
 Fnrri'9 3,895 
 
 St. Andrew's S.621 
 
 Dunfi'rniline 17.068 
 
 Mniitrnse . . . 12,055 
 
 Arbroath. . . . 6,660 
 
 Dunbar 4,735 
 
 Hamilton . 
 
 Lerwick . . 
 
 Dumhlane . 
 '^..eiiock. . 
 Renfrew . . 
 Tain 
 
 Jedburgh . 
 
 Falkirk ... 
 Stranraer . 
 
 9,503 
 
 2.750 
 
 3,228 
 
 27,571 
 
 3,133 
 
 3,078 
 
 5,647 
 
 12,743 
 3,321 
 
 The 
 
 In treating of Scotland in detail, we shall divide it into three constituent parts : — 1. 
 Lowland counties ; 2. The Highland counties ; 3. The Islands. 
 
 SuBSECT. 1. — The Lowland Countiet. 
 
 The whole of the south of Scotland, though diversified by elevated ranges of hills, is 
 always considered as belonging to the Lowlands. It presents, however, three districts of 
 opposite character: — 1. The agricultural counties along the German Ocean and the Frith 
 of Forth ; 2. The southern pastoral rounties ; 3. The manufacturing counties of the west. 
 
 The agricultural district of soutliem Scotland consists of the counties of Berwick (for- 
 merly the Merse), of Haddington, Edinburgh, and Linlithgoio (fully as familiar under the 
 appellations of East, Mid, and West Lothian), and of Stirling, which touches westward on 
 the highland bor:ndary. Even of this range, the cultivated part is closely hemmed in by 
 Lammermoor, a low, broad, moorish ridge, which fills all the eastern interior, and has even 
 a considerable extent along the shore of the German Ocean. 
 
 The cultivated part of Berwickshire consists of the Merse, extending chiefly along the 
 Tweed, and reaching to the sea. Above it is Lauderdale, or the Valley of tlio Lauder, 
 which is fitted chiefly for grazing, and touches closely on the heaths of Lammermoor. Ber- 
 wick-upon-Tweed, though its harbour be indiflferent, is the chief channel for exporting the 
 valuable produce of the Merse, to the annual amount, it is said, of 80,0fH) bolls of grain. 
 The strong wall and deep ditch, which once defended Berwick, still remain, though neglected ; 
 and large barracks have been erected. Greenlaw, the seat of coimty business, and Lauder, 
 tlie only borough, are but small places in the upper district. Dunse, in the agricultural tract, 
 
.■"> 
 
 416 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 :^- 
 
 is the most thrivinij. Coldstream, a large village on the Tweed, ia noted as the scene of 
 Monk's retirement. In the western part of Berwickshire is Dryburgh Abbey, a fine old 
 Gothic edifice, in which rest the remains of Scott, 
 
 lladdingtonsiiire, or East Lothian, runs along the Frith of Forth, between which and the 
 range of Ijimnierinoor extends a plain about twenty miles in length and twelve in breadth, 
 perhaps the largest in Scotland, and all under high cultivation. Edinburgh is chiefly supplied 
 with wlieat from the market at Haddington, which is considered one of the first in the 
 country. 'J'he towns ore of secondary importance. Haddington is supported only by the 
 market and by its court for legal proceedings. Dunbar has a little trade and fishery. Its 
 ca.'<tle, the ruins of which extend over a promontory of broken rocks, stretching out into the 
 sea, tiirins a truly grand object. The Btiss, " that sea rock immense," which rises to the height 
 of 4(M) feet, forms a perpendicular precipice, on which build crowds of that rare species of sea- 
 fowl called Solan goose. Their young, whose down is of some value, are taken by the 
 perilous exertions of fishermen, sus]>ended oy ropes from the top of the clifi". There are still 
 some remains of the fortified prison which was in ancient times reserved for state oflfenders, 
 and in whirh some of the most eminent covenanters were confined for several years. On 
 the shore immediately opposite, crowning a perpendicular cliff, appears Tantallon, a strong 
 castle of the Douglases, now in a ruinous state. Prestonpans, a long dirty village, has some 
 manufaofures of salt and vitriol. 
 
 Mid l/ithinn, or Edinburghshire, is penetrated by a branch of the Lammermoor, and by 
 the long range of the Pentlands: and, at the distance of a few miles south from Edinburgh, 
 a generiil high level begins, which is favourable only to the production of oats and barley. 
 There are no manufactures of any consequence, the county being entirely supported by the 
 metropolis iind its appendages. 
 
 F.diuliurgli, the capital of Scotland (Jig. 188.), is a city of no very high antiquity. T^e 
 Castle Hill, indeed, whose rocky and precipitous sides support on the summit a level epr^'e 
 
 188 
 
 Edinbursh. 
 
 of some extent, accessible only by a narrow ridge at one point, must always have been of 
 importance in a military age. It is named in the Pictish annals under the title of Castrum 
 Puellarum, which is supposed to have originated from the custom of placing the princesses 
 and ladies of rank to be educated there, as in a place of security. In the tenth century, 
 mention is first made of the town of Edin ; but David I., in the twelfth century, founded 
 the abbey and palace of Holy rood; and, under the sway of the Stuarts, Edinburgh became 
 the capitiil of Scotland. Edinburgh is built upon three ridges, running from east to west, 
 and separated from each other by deep ravines. The Old Town, which, till the last half 
 century, formed tlie whole of Edinburgh, is situated on the middle ridge, extending nearly 
 n mile of gradual descent from the Castle to the palace of Holyroo<l. To secure the protec- 
 tion nflxirdod by this site, the houses were crowded into the very smallest possible space; 
 th"y are raised six or seven stories on the side facing the street, which from the acclivity 
 of the ground, gives to that facing the ravine a height of ten or even fourteen stories. From 
 this central street, there descend on each side ctosrs or lanes about six feet broiid, and 
 sinping very aliniplly. The Cowgate, a poor street, inhabited by small tradesmen, extends 
 along the bottom of the ravine, and terminates in a spacious Grass-market, completing old 
 Edinburgh. Although it contains many excellent iiouscs, it is now occupied only by tiio infe- 
 .•ior orders of tradesmen, wiio occupy spacious apartments at very low rents. The wealthy 
 citizens have migrated to two towns, built on the opjxisite sidet; of the Old Town; one on 
 the south side, or St. Leonard's Hill, (wcupied by citizens of the middle class, those con- 
 nected with the university, or such :is arc fimd of retirement; the other, called properly the 
 New Town, is on the north ; and comiirisos the residence of almost all the opulent and 
 fashionable classes. Being built on a regular plan, and of fine freestone, it forms one of the 
 most elegant towns in Britain. 
 
 The beauty of Edinburgh is enhanced by its situation : being overlooked on one side by the 
 eminence of the Castle, and its ancient towers, and on the other by a range of tx)ld hills, the 
 hifflie-t of wliicli is called .\rthur's Seat. Tht; lowest, the Cnlton Hill, roiuid which walks 
 of easy access have been formed, commands a fine view of Edinburgh, the Frith of Forth, 
 
Part III. 
 
 scene of 
 a fine old 
 
 ch and the 
 in breadth, 
 Hy supplied 
 irst in the 
 jnly by the 
 shery. Its 
 )ut into the 
 I the height 
 !cies of sou- 
 ken by the 
 ere are still 
 e offenders, 
 yciirs. On 
 OT, a strong 
 e, has some 
 
 Dor, and by 
 Edinburgh, 
 and barley, 
 wted by the 
 
 juity. T»>e 
 level spr^'e 
 
 ive been of 
 
 of Castrum 
 
 princesses 
 
 ith century, 
 
 iry, founded 
 
 gh became 
 
 ist to west, 
 
 last half 
 
 iiig nearly 
 
 the protcc- 
 
 ible space ; 
 
 e acclivity 
 
 ins. From 
 
 broiid, and 
 
 !n, extends 
 
 )leting old 
 
 )y the infc- 
 wc^althy 
 
 Mde by the 
 
 i] hills, the 
 
 liich walks 
 
 I of Forth, 
 
 I 
 
 Book I. 
 
 SCOTLAND 
 
 417 
 
 and its surrounding shores. The general ofibct, rather than that of any particular edifices, 
 constitutes the merit of Edinburgh. Of antique structures, there is nothing very fine, except 
 the largo lidspilal lor boys, erected from the funds bequeathed by Georg'j Heriot, the cele- 
 rated goldsmith. Tlie grout cathedral of St. Giles has been admired almost solely for its 
 spire, and Ilolyrood Palace, a comparatively modern structure, for its little ancient chapel. 
 The former h;us been now externiiily rebi-ilt on a very handsome plan, and the latter has 
 undergone a thorough repair. Four miles south, in a very commanding situation, are the 
 remains of Queen Alary 's pleasant country palace of Craigmillar. The Register Office, the 
 new College, and new High School are elegant structures ; but the National Monument, on 
 the Gallon Ilill, begun on the model of the Parthenon, is stopped for want of funds. 
 
 Tiie inhabitants m 1801, including Leith, were 82,560; in 1831, they had increased to 
 162,ir)fi. The principal support is derived from the law ; the professors of the university, 
 and private lecturers, &c. constitute a considerable number; and genteel families are 
 attracted from every part of Scotland by the opportunities of education and agreeable 
 society. Eklinburgh is a city eminently scientific and literary, and has even become known 
 under the appellation of the " modern Athens." Connected with these pursuits, an extensive 
 trade in printing and publishing books is carried on by some enterprising individuals. There 
 are few manufactures, with the above exception. A great quantity of ale is brewed, which 
 has attained to a high reputation; and there are in the neighbourhood some considerable 
 distilleries. Shawls are manufactured equal to any in the empire. There are extensive 
 banking establishments, both public and private, and considerable fortunes have been made 
 in that branch of commerce. 
 
 The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1581, has risen to great fame, both as an institu- 
 tion for teaching, and a nursery for eminent men. The medical school, in particular, attracts 
 students from all the three kingdoms. The annual number of students at the University 
 exceeds 2000. They are lodged in the town, and are not subject to any personal discipline, 
 except that of attendance on the lectures. Edinburgh has its Royal Society for physical and 
 literary researches, its Antiquarian and Horticultural Societies, an Institution for the promo- 
 tion of the Fine Arts, and an Academy for Painting. 
 
 Leith is the port of Edinburgh, and carries on a considerable import trade for the supply of 
 that capital and all the interior country, for which purpose she carries on a constant inter- 
 course with London and other jwrts on the eastern coast. Her intercourse with the Baltic 
 is very extensive ; and that with the West Indies considerable. The harbour of Leith is 
 not good ; but large sums have been expended in the construction of an extensive range of 
 docks for the accommodation of its shipping ; and of a pier stretching far into the sea, so as 
 to enable vessels to enter at all times of the tide, witii a breakwater opposite. The roads, 
 at the distance of about a mile, afford excellent anchorage. Leith, origmally a collection of 
 dirty lanes, is now everywhere skirted by excellent streets, and ranges of villas, erected by 
 the opulent inhabitants tor their private residence. In 1832 there entered its port 334 
 vessels, tonnage 46,200. 
 
 Besides these great towns. Mid Lothian containsonly some large* pleasant villages. Porto- 
 bello is the principal bathing place of Edinburgh. Musselburgh has a good turf, which has 
 supplanted Leith sands for the annual Edinburgh races. The valley of the Esk contains 
 the finest scenery in the I^thians. Roslin chapel, though not on an extensive scale, exhi- 
 bits some exquisite specimens of Gotiiic sculpture; and the ruins of the castle bear marks 
 of great strength. All the soutli and west of this county consists of wild, hilly, and pastoral 
 scenery, in the heart of which is a pleasingly retired spot, chosen by Ramsay as the scene 
 of his Gentle Shepherd, 
 
 Linlithgow or West Ix)thiar consists, in its upper part, of a bleak table-land ; in its 
 lower, of an extensive, fertile, and highly cultivated plain. It abounds with coal, freestone, 
 lime, and marl. The Union Canal passes through this county. The towns are small; 
 
 .g_ but Linlithgow still retains somewhat 
 
 of the aspect of grandeur suited to a 
 once royal residence. The palace, 
 {^g. 189.) situated on a hill behind 
 the town, and overlooking a beautiful 
 little lake, forms one of the grandest 
 ancient cdiKccs in the kingdom. There 
 is also a Gothic church of some beauty. 
 Stirling, an extensive and beautiful 
 county, the link between the High- 
 lands and Lowlands, extends for tliirty- 
 five miles along the Forth. It encloses several of the richest carses in Scotland ; but the 
 greater part is hilly and pastoral, while many of the lower grounds consist of fine meadows, 
 adorned by tlie beautiflil meanderings of the Forth. It even encroaches on the Highlands, 
 since its western extremity includes Ben Lomond. This county is traversed by the ci'le- 
 brated Roman wall between the Forth uid Clyde, usually ascribed to Antoninus, though,. 
 Vol. I. 3 C 
 
 Linlitbtow Palace. 
 
 !'i 
 
 r^-m 
 
 % 
 
1f« 
 
 418 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 tis 
 
 k; 
 
 from tlic account of Tacitus, it would appear to Imvc bcpu first formed by Agricola. It 
 seems to liave rcacliod from near Duiiibiirton to Carridcu, rather more tiian lliirly-six miles. 
 Stirlii)"^ is also crossed by llio groat canal Iwtwoon the Forth and Clyde. 
 
 The town of Stirling" can boast a situation as noble and connnandin^ as any in Scotland. 
 Tho view from its castle, which includes entire tlie principal range ot tlic Grampians, Uio 
 ineaxlows or links through wiiich tiie Forth winds, and a part of thirteen counties, is gener- 
 ally considered the finest in the country. The main street, likethat of Edinburgh, descends 
 gradually down the ridge of the hill on which tho castle stands (,Jig. 19().). This 'brtrcss, 
 190 in feudal limes, was accounted one of the bulwarks 
 
 of the kingdom ; and Stirling was the freciucnl 
 seat of royalty, and the scene of many of the 
 most memorable and tragic events in Scottish his- 
 tory. The town owes its present limited pros- 
 perity chiefly to its carpet manufacture and other 
 branches of industry. Falkirk is a larger town, 
 situated in a broad and beautiful carse, througli 
 which the Forth flows. Tho three great annual 
 trt/sts exhibit an immense show of highland cattle 
 and sheep brought up for the supply of tho south- 
 ern districts. Near Falkirk is Carron, accounted 
 only a village, but the seat of tlie greatest iron- 
 Biiriini Caiiie. Works in Scotland, in which, during war, 2000 men 
 
 were employed. It particularly excels in grates, and in that species of artillery first cast 
 here, and hence denominated carronados. Grangemouth, at tho conncctmg point of the 
 great canal with tho Frith of Forth, derives from this situation a considerable trade. 
 
 The next district, including the counties of Roxburgh, Selkirk, Peebles, Dumfries, and 
 part of Lanark, may most properly bear the appellation of pastoral Scotland. It is covered 
 with long ranges of hills, from one to two thousand feet high, clothed with pasturage to their 
 summits. This is tlie region of Scottish poetry. It was amid these scenes that Thomson 
 ajid Scott caught that inspiration which has rendered their poetry the delight of their country. 
 Tho chief occupation in thij tract is shcop-farming. 
 
 The towns in this tract are generally small and agreeable. Kelso is one of the moi't 
 beautiful in Scotland, being surrounded by ornamented villas and extensive woods. The 
 abbey is not without grandeur; and the ruins of the castle of Roxburgh are striking. The 
 village of Melrose is only distinguished by its abbey (Jiff. 191.), founded by David I., in the 
 
 twelfth century, and the finest edifice 
 ever erected in the south of Scotland. 
 The profusion of tho ornaments, and 
 the beauty of the sculptures, which 
 remain nearly entire, have rendered 
 it the study of tho painter and the 
 themn of the ]x>c.\.. Selkirk and Pee- 
 bles, capitals of their respective little 
 counties, arc only pleasant villages, 
 bordering on the great pastoral vales 
 of Ettrick and Yarrow. Dumfries:, a 
 well-built, gay-l(X)king city, is a sort 
 Meiroie Abbey. of southern Scottish capital, and it 
 
 has been so distinguished from an early period; but no traces remain elfher of the castle, 
 or of the monastery in which Gumming fell by the hand of Bruce. The town carries on 
 some trade by the Nith, which admits ves.sels of one hundred and twenty tons, and it has 
 two great annual markets for the cattle from the west; but it is chiefly supixirted by tho 
 gentry who make it their rosidotico. Annan is agreeably situated at the uioutli of the river 
 of that name. A small spot, famed in tho annals of gallantry, is Gretna Green, close on 
 the English Iwrder; whither fly many a fond matrimonial pair, tu escape the jealousy of 
 t)ii rents and guardians; On tho bleak northern boundary is Wanloekli'^id ; and nearly con- 
 tiguous to it Leadhills, in Ijanarkshirc. Wanlockhead yields annually lead to the amount 
 of about 15,000 bars, of nine stones each; and Leadhills about 1S,(K)(). 
 
 Sents. 'J'he Duke of Riiccleiigh has 
 numerous seat.-i in tiie dlstriet, of wliieli 
 the chief is DrumtiinrigC:;stle( /lir. 192.), 
 a nuignifieeiit edifice, on the K'itli, ancl 
 surrounded byxtensive p:irks and planta- 
 tions. ,\iiuiiig iiriny others round Kelso, is 
 Fleurs, the s|)lendid seutof the Roxburgh 
 fimiily. AI)bot.<tord, from the many addi- 
 tions made by its illustrious proprietor, has 
 DramliDric Cuiie. become a striking and picturesque object. 
 
Part III. 
 
 fricola. It 
 ^six miles. 
 
 1 Scotland, 
 npiuns, tho 
 s, is geiuT- 
 ii, descends 
 liis *ortruss, 
 e bulwarks 
 10 Iretiucnl 
 any of tho 
 icottish liis- 
 mited pros- 
 e and other 
 irger town, 
 se, through 
 rent annual 
 hiand cattle 
 f tho south- 
 I, accounted 
 eatest iron- 
 r, 2000 men 
 iry first cast 
 [)oint of the 
 ado. 
 
 imfries, and 
 [t is covered 
 rage to their 
 at Thomson 
 leir country. 
 
 of the mot't 
 voods. Tlie 
 iking. The 
 v'u\ I., in the 
 inest edifice 
 of Scotland, 
 anicnts, and 
 ires, which 
 Id rendered 
 ;er and the 
 k and Pec- 
 eclive little 
 nt villages, 
 Istoral vales 
 lumfriey, a 
 is a sort 
 fital, and it 
 the castle, 
 carries on 
 and it haa 
 •ted by tlie 
 if the river 
 |n, close on 
 alousy of 
 jioarly con- 
 he amount 
 
 rlcugh has 
 y, of whii-h 
 J.il. 102.), 
 Nitii, arui 
 jinil plunta- 
 1 Kolso, is 
 [Roxburgh 
 nany addi- 
 brietor, has 
 nue object. 
 
 Book I, 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 m 
 
 The three counties of Ayr, Wigton, and Galloway compose what is called the West of 
 Scotland. They are chiefly under pa«turc, and tiio cultivators are mainly occupied in the 
 roaring of cattle. Tlie rango of mountains which separates Ayr and Galloway is almost 
 as (iloviitcd as any in Scotland ; but the upland coimtry of the latter is, in general, diversi- 
 fied only with stei'p rocky eminences of two or three iiundrcd feet high. In Ayr, too, though 
 the suutJKM'n district of Carrick be very mountainous, tho middle one of Kyle has a level 
 coast ; while C^unningham, the most northerly, consists almost entirely of a fertile plain. 
 Uotli ciiuntii's, from the boundary line of mountains, are watered by fine rivers; in one, the 
 Ayr, the i )o()n, and the Irvine ; m the other, the Dee and the Cree. The Ayrshire breed of 
 horses, called also the Clydesdale, is highly esteemed ; and generally supplies the markets 
 in the cast of Scotland ; but the little active breed called galloways are now become scarce. 
 The kine of Ayrshire are valued chiefly for the dairy. The Galloway bullock produces 
 beef of a peculiar excellence. Tho nortliem division of Ayr participates to a certain extent 
 in the flourishing manufactures of Lanarkshire. It has immense beds of valuable coal, which 
 not only serve for the supply of the inhabitants, but are exported to Ireland in such quanti- 
 ties as to form the chief trade of this county. To facilitate the transport, the Duke of Port- 
 land has formed a fine harbour at Troon, and has connected it by a rail-road witli Kilmar- 
 nock. 
 
 Ayr, at tho point where the rivers Doon and Ayr fall united into the sea, forms a sort of 
 capital for the gentry of a considerable part of Scotland. It was the principal scene of some 
 great historical events in tlie time of Wallace and Bruce ; ond was carefiilly fortified by 
 Oliver Cromwell ; but the bar at the mouth of the harbour has been unfavourable to its 
 progress. It exports, however, chiefly to Ireland, a considerable quantity of coal, brought 
 by railways. The town is irregularly built, but has one handsome principal street. Its 
 theatre, its academy, and some charitable institutions, arc on a greater scale than the size 
 of the town mifeht lead us to expect T'ue ports of Troon, Saltcoats, and Ardrossan send 
 large quantities of coal to Ireland ; whence they receive grain for the supply of the great 
 interior towns. Saltcoats, which has sprung up within the last century, is also noted for 
 the manufacture of salt ; and Ardrossan is now a watering-place of increasing resort. 
 Largs, the celebrated scene of the defeat of Ilaco, the last Danish invader, attracts many 
 visiters by the extreme beauty of its situation. In the interior of Ayrshire is Kilmarnock, 
 its largest and most thriving town. The manufacture of various woollen stufTs, and fabrics 
 of leather ; and latterly branches of tho cotton weaving from Glasgow, place it high in the 
 list of Scottish manufacturing towns. 
 
 Galloway is almost entirely a rural district. Its capitals, Wigton and Kirkcudbright, are 
 pleasant country towns, and the latter, having a good harbour, has, of late, considerably 
 increased. Portpatrick, the nearest point of Great Britain Ut the Irish coast, is the main 
 channel of communication between Scotland and Ireland ; for which purpose an improved 
 harbour has lately been constructed, and regular packet-boats are established. 
 
 The counties of Lanark and Renfrew constitute the valley of the Clyde, the grand thea- 
 tre of Scottish commerce and industry. Lanarkshire, or Clydesdale, is divided into three 
 regions, of widely different character ; the upper valley is altogether a rude i)a8toral region 
 Below Tinto, the banks of the Clyde ossume a softer and gayer character, exhibiting a suc- 
 cession of gardens and orchards. Below Hamilton comes the flat district around Glasgow, 
 which supplies that city with inexhaustible stores of excellent coal. 
 
 Glasgow is the commercial capital of Scotland, and in population ranks as the third 
 town in the island. Tradition ascribes its origin and erection into a bishopric to St. 
 Mungo, in the year 560. Its rapid rise commenced with the union, which opened to it tho 
 trade with America and the West Indies, hitherto monopolised by the English ports. In 1718, 
 for the first time, a vessel from the Clyde sailed across the Atlantic. By the middle of the 
 . century, the merchants of Glasgow imported more than half the entire amount of tobacco 
 which came into Great Britain ; and to them the French farmers-general chiefly looked for 
 their supply of this important article. 
 
 Their mtercourse also with the West Indies, which had hitherto been very limited, was 
 now carried on to a vast extent. A still greater source of wealth was opened at home. 
 Glasirow had, in the course of the century, become a great manufacturing city, employing 
 her 11. lup'ry on the old staple of linen of the finer descriptions, a.'? cambrics, lawns, gauzes ; 
 also in the making of stockings and of shoes for exportation ; but its product in these 
 branches never exceeded 400,000?. But when cotton was pxtcnsively introduced into 
 Britain, Glasgow devoted herself entirely to this now manufacture. She became the rival 
 of Manchester ; and, if circumstances did not allow her to obtain so great a share of the 
 manufacture, she produced some finer fabrics, and was ns prompt in availing herself of 
 every improved process ; immense fortunes were realized, and an annual value of nearly 
 4,(X)0,OOOi. sterling produced. Glasgow was one of the first places which adopted the in- 
 vention of power l(K)ms, and she has now 10,000 of these, and 32,000 worked by the hand. 
 In 1830, the number oi persons receiving parochial aid was only 5000, not quite one-fortieth 
 part of the inhabitants, and the sum expended on the poor was only 17,287?., although 
 
 •■ I -I 
 
 i, i 
 
 i! 
 
 t4 
 
 
 I 
 
 ■4i 
 
 \i 
 
V •*• 
 
 5?» 
 
 120 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRA I'l I V. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 Glasgow is now the largest town in Great Britain, Loudon and Manchester excepted. Tlie 
 harbour is at the BrooinieldW, whore tiiere is an extensive iiuay along the Clyde; but ao 
 great are the obstructions to its navi^mtion, that Glasjrow depends chiutly for imports on 
 Greenock and Liverpool. In IWIS there entered its p<jrt only 79 vessels, of 8154 tons. Glas- 
 ffow is a handsome and well-built town. Its original streets of Argyle and Trongate are 
 broad and spacious ; and several handsome squares have been built within the limits of the 
 city ; but the fashionable residences are now almost exclusively in the west, where, along u 
 range of somewhat elevated ground, a number of elegant and spacious streets have been 
 erected. Gorbals, Calton, Bridgeton, Ilutchesontown, Tradcston, and Anderston, arc the 
 .™ ' principal suburbs, and form the manufacturing part. 
 
 * • ' ■ of the city. The public edifices deserve admiration. 
 
 The cathedra! (Jig. 193.), one of the finest in Scot- 
 land, is a massive structure, with a wooded hill ad- 
 joining, on the top of which a monument has been 
 erected to the memory of John Knox. The modern 
 edifices are also handsome ; the Ijunatic Asylum, the 
 Assembly-rooms, the Infirmary, the Roman Catholic 
 chapel, the new Exchange Rcading-iooms, &.c. de- 
 serve mention. The bridewell is esteemed the most 
 
 perfect in Scotland, both in point of construction and 
 
 oukow CaUiedtai. management Glasgow ia not a mere commercial 
 
 town ; its university, founded in 1450 by Bishop Tumbull, has been adorned by a long suc- 
 cession of illustrious teachers, of whom Simson, Hutcheson, Reid, Smith, Millar, are sufii- 
 cient to ensure its celebrity. It is at present attended by 1400 students, and its name stands 
 as high as at any former period. The library contains 30,000 volumes. The Museum be- 
 queathed by the late Dr. Hunter, is rich in anatomical preparations, shells, insects, fossils, as 
 well as in coins and medals. An elegant Grecian edifice has been erected for its reception. 
 Auxiliary to the University ia the Andersonian Institution, founded with the view of com- 
 municating to the commercial classes a knowledge of the e' tents of physical science ; 
 for which purpose it has been found highly efficacious. The toUectiml spirit of the citi- 
 zens is also proved by three libraries, and a botanic garden, nil supported by public sub- 
 scription. 
 
 Paisley, though in Renfrewshire, may be considered next, in order to connect together tlie 
 great seats of manufacture. This town anciently derived its distinction from its ecclesias- 
 tical character. The abbey founded in 1160, was in a great measure demolished at the 
 period of the Reformation. Several of the windows, however, still aflTord fine specimens oi 
 the ornamented Gothic ; tmd the nave was left so far entire, that it his since served as a place 
 of worship. Paisley was a small town until the middle of the last century, when it con- 
 tained little more than 4000 inhabitants. Soon after, its manufactures, which were already 
 begun, made most rapid advances. Down to tlie year 1783, they consisted chiefly of linen, 
 fine thread, gauzes, both of linen and silk, and other delicate and elegant fabrics. On the 
 introduction of cotton, the manufacturers of Paisley, like those of Glasgow, cultivated this 
 branch almost exclusively, preferring its most elegant species. Muslin, the finest of all the 
 productions of the loom, became the staple of Paisley. In 1805, there were 20,500 persona 
 employed in weaving muslin, the entire pro<luce of whose labours was rated at 1,250,000/. 
 Since that time, the population having increased one-half, the productive indusfi-y has not, 
 probably, advanced in a less proportion. By the improved navigation of the Cart and a canal, 
 this town has communication with the Clyde, and the canal from Glasgow likewise, destined 
 for Ardrossiin, has been carried as far as Paisley. The county gaol and bridewell form one 
 of the finest structures of the kind in the kingdom ; the town-hall and several of the churches 
 are very handsome. Tlio operative weavers of Paisley are equal in intelligence to any class 
 of the same rank elsewhere ; and this spirit has led to the formation among them of a num- 
 ber of book societies, reading rooms, and subscription libraries. 
 
 Greenock is entirely a commercial and maritime station ; it is the only great western port 
 of Scotland, but by far the larger proportion of the vcssnln belonir to Glasgow. The prin- 
 cipal tradt consists in importing the produce of the West Indies, to which is added a very 
 extensive herring fishery, and a share of the cod fisheries of Newfoundland ond Cape Breton. 
 The sum of 90,000/. has been lately expende<l in the improvement of the harbour, which 
 can now contain 500 sail, and a handsome custom-house has been built by government. In 
 1832 there entered this [wrt 282 vessels, tonnage 78,131. Greenock is not an elegant town ; 
 but the hills behind it command a noble view of the river, and of the mountains of Argylo 
 on the opposite coast. 
 
 Port Glasgow, about three miles higher than Greenock, and a much smaller port, continues 
 subservient to Glasgow, receiving such vessels belonging to that city as are too bulky to 
 ascend the Clyde ; in this capacity, its trade is very considerable. Here was built the first 
 dock in Scotland, in front of which a spacious quay extends along the Clyde, for the accom- 
 modation of those vessels which do not require to enter tlie basin. Renfrew, the capital of 
 
 I ; 
 
 i I 
 
 \ li 
 
 t 
 
Part III. 
 
 tod. The 
 e; but so 
 nporta on 
 ns, Glaw- 
 ngatc tire 
 lits of the 
 •0, along a 
 Imve been 
 n, arc the 
 uring part, 
 idmiration. 
 9t in Scot- 
 Bd hill ad- 
 t has been 
 'he modem 
 Lsylum, the 
 in Catholic 
 ns, &.C. de- 
 ad the most 
 niction and 
 commercial 
 a long Buc- 
 ir, are suffi- 
 lame stands 
 Museum be- 
 ts, fossils, aa 
 la reception, 
 iew of corn- 
 eal science ; 
 t of the citi- 
 r public sub- 
 together the 
 its ecclesias- 
 iLshed at the 
 specimens oi 
 1 as a place 
 . hen it con- 
 cro already 
 iHy of linen, 
 ics. On the 
 dtivated this 
 est of all the 
 'lOO persons 
 1,250,000«. 
 !tiy has not, 
 and a canal, 
 ise, destined 
 ell form one 
 the churches 
 to any class 
 in of a num- 
 
 ivestern port 
 The prin- 
 dded a very 
 ^npe Breton, 
 ■hour, which 
 rnment. In 
 egant town ; 
 s of Argyle 
 
 Irt, continues 
 
 \oo bulky to 
 
 jilt the first 
 
 • the accom- 
 
 ke capital of 
 
 Booa 1. 
 
 SCOThAXD. 
 
 481 
 
 The 
 
 Oolliwoll Coallo. 
 
 the county, is an old town, which has not slmred in the prosperity of its neighbours. 
 ■nhabitants, however, rnceivo a little employment from the iimnntiicturers of liliisgow. 
 
 The banks of the Clyde above Glasgow, whowe vicinity forms only a smnll purt, howcvor 
 unportant, of tlie extensive county of Lanark, are still to lie surveyed. First occurs Both- 
 well (Jig, 194.), one of the principal seatw of tlio Douglascn. Ilore Kdwanl I. placed the 
 
 chief garrison, which was intended to hold Scot- 
 land in Hubjection. It is now a bold and striking 
 ruin, rising above tiio river banks. A little above 
 is Bothwell Bridge, so noted lis the disastrous 
 scene of the rout of the covenanting army. Far- 
 ther up is Hamilton, a pleasant handsomn town in 
 a fine country : it is supporlcil by tlio residence of 
 the family of Hamilton, and by a brunch of the 
 cotton manufacture. From Hamilton tlio road 
 leads through a range of orchurdb, niid the. most 
 beautiful scenery, to I,annrk. This town, llioiigli 
 bearing the name of the county, is only n large 
 straggling village; but about a mile distant is 
 New Lanark, noted for the extensive cotton mnnii- 
 factory established by the late Mr. Dale, and Intoly conducted by Mr. Owen. Wlintrvi-r 
 may be thought of the speculative tenets of the latter gentleman, tlie attention |i:iiil to the 
 behaviour and comforts of those employed presented, certainly, in many respects, a. riKKlcl 
 worthy of imitation. But Ijmark has a still greater attraction in the falls of the Clyde, 
 Boniton, Corra, Stonebyres, situated above and telow it, at about two miles' distuiice from 
 eacii other. Their height does not exceed eighty or ninety feet ; but the mass of water, 
 with the grandeur of the rocky walls and hanging woods, render them one of the finest 
 examples of this description of scenery. 
 
 The northern liowlands, beyond the Forth, form a belt of alxiut twenty miles in brendtli, 
 reaching the shores of the Rloray Frith. The coast is generally level and fertile ; but a 
 great part of the interior is bleak and moorish. This district contains, however, sever:;! 
 cities and seaports of considerable ningnitude and imixirtance. 
 
 Fife was formerly distinguished as the centre of Scottish industry; and one of its cities 
 forms the ecclesiastical capital of Scotland. All the foreign commerce of the country was 
 curried on in its ports; and less than two centuries ago its rental amounted to a tenth part 
 of tiiatof the whole kingdom. Since Scotland has ceased to be ogitated by war, Edinburgh 
 and the opposite side of the Forth have attracted all these advantages; and the numerous 
 seajMrts on the northern coast of the Forth, have dwindled into fishing villages. Fife is, in 
 general, a level count.y, yet diversified by a few hills of considerable elevation, as the 
 Ixjmond Hills, and Largo Law. A great part of the interior is bleak and unproductive; and 
 farming is less advanced than in the Lothians ; the spinning and weaving of flax is carried 
 on chiefly for domestic use, unless at Dunfermline, where there is a large fabric of fine sheet- 
 ing and diaper. The western coast abounds in coal, and in fine limestone, which is exiwrted 
 to a very great extent. The county town is Cupar, a place of moderate size, neat, with 
 eome stir of gaiety. A greater interest attaches to St. Andrew's from its former greatness, 
 
 from the remarkable scenes there acted, and 
 tog \tBt ^'''"" '^'' f'P'cndid edifices, of which frag- 
 
 ments still remain. It is seated on a bold 
 coast, facing a wide bay of the German 
 Ocean; and has two fine, broad, parallel 
 _„__, _ , — ,B„^ streets, of which one is now almost deserted. 
 
 _^ tfE^f^MBBK^^I^^fb^^-j'cJl'W '^^^ castle and cathedral {fig. 19.5.) have 
 
 been demolished ; but a high ;'quarc tower, 
 and a gable of the chapel of St. Rule, still 
 attest the elegance of the latter structure. 
 The university contains a school of theology 
 and piiilosophy, but iias no ohisses in law 
 or medicine. Founded under the auspices 
 of Buchanan, it can boast many eminent 
 professors and pupils; though, from its almost insulated situation, it docs not attract so great 
 a concourseas Edinburgh. Kirkaldy has some tbreien trade, and a consideroble linen manu- 
 facture. Dunfermline, anciently the most flourishing town in Fife, was a place of imjior- 
 tance, and the frequent residence of royalty. Malccdm Canmore founded here an abbey, 
 which became one of the richest and most spacior.s in the kingdom ; it has been nearly 
 demolisiied, yet its ruins evince its former splendour; and part of them has been appropri- 
 ated as the parish church. On a contiguous spot, the tomb of Bruce was lately discovered. 
 Dunfermline is distinguished by an extensive manufactory of damask, diaper, and other fine 
 linen cambrirs, wiiirliennihiy l-")fl<) looms, andyioldan estimated annual produce of 120,000/. 
 Kinross, the capital of tho county of the same name, is a pleas.".nt little town, chiefly 
 
 Andrew's Cathudrat. 
 
 V<)i„ 1. 
 
 3« 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 '■'ill, 
 
 V ! II 
 
f 
 
 432 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GP:0GRA1'IIY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 noted for its situation on the shoros of Loclileven. Tliis is a little lake, of considemblo 
 
 bcuuty, liiiviiiir, on un inlund in lis con- 
 
 196 
 
 
 :^^^ 
 
 LocUeven Caailo. 
 
 ?**^ 
 
 tro, a castle, (.//^'■. llXS.)i anciently of 
 ^reat Hlruiif;tli, und noted in liiiitory, 
 even betbro it iicquinnl the roiniuilic 
 interest derived from llie iniprisoiiinent 
 of Mary, and her ndvenlnrous esciiiw. 
 Only a sciimro turreted bnildinj,' and 
 one of the walls of the clm|)"l now re- 
 main. On iinother island ore the trace:) 
 of a very ancient and considerable priory. 
 Clackmannanshire is a pleasant littlu 
 county, with a considerable extent of 
 line carac land, and ;rrcat (inautities of 
 coal and lime. The town of Clackmannan is distinguished for the beauty of its situation. 
 Close to it is an ancient tower, built by Robert the Bruce. Alloa, two miles farther down, 
 is u thriving little place, in whose vicinity are mines of coal, of which about 36,000 tonsaro 
 annually exported. 
 
 Forfar, more usually termed Anirug, is of somewhat rough aspect, the western border 
 beiu!,' encroached uiwn by lower branches of the Grampians, while the Sidlaw Hills, arangu 
 of considerable height, traverse the centre. Between thoic is a portion of the ijrcat valley 
 of Stratlnnore, which is here fertile and beautiful, as is also tiio ])luin between Sidlaw and 
 tiie coast. Its jirosperily depends chiefly ujion manufactures, commerce, and fishery. 
 
 Diuidee, tlie larj^est town in Forlarshiro, ranks fourth in Scotland as to jxipulation and 
 wealth. It was of early im|)ortancc and strenffth, deriving its origin from Malcolm Canmore, 
 and it obtained a fatal celebrity through the sieges, by Edward I. ; by the Marquis of Mon- 
 trose, and by Monk, who gave it up to indiscriminate pillage. Dundee, however, has reco- 
 vered from these disasters, and is become one of the most flourishing commercial towns in 
 Scotland. Her staple employment consists in the importation of flax and hemp, and work- 
 ing them into coarse linens, sailcloth, &c. There have been exjxjrtcd in one year 1(M),713 
 pieces of Osnaburg, 148,377 of sheeting, 81,754 of sailcloth, with bagging, sacking, dowlas, 
 and other fabrics, of llie entire value of alx)ut 1,500,(MK)/. ; Ibur-tittiis of which were made 
 in Dundee itself. Dundee has belonging to her, '270 vessels of 33,(MM) tons; and in a single 
 year a tonnage of 21"2,0(M( has entered the port. The harbour has been greatly enlarged by 
 wet docks and other additions ; and a railway opens a communication mto the valley of 
 Strathmore. The population, exceeding 4.'),()00, shows a remarkable increase since 1821 
 when it vvas only 30,500. Dundee is agreeably situated on un eminence above the Tay; 
 the old streets are narrow and steep, but new and handsome ones are built and building in 
 every direction ; and the vicinity is adorned with elegant villas. There is an academy, 
 distinguished by the scientific attainments of some of its teachers. 
 
 Arbroath carries on upon a smaller scale, the same branches as Dundee; and is adorned 
 with the ruins of a magnificent abbey. Montrose is prettily situated at the mouth of a 
 
 river, bearing, in common with many 
 othc.s, the name of Esk. Its trade 
 and industry are considerable ; and it 
 has a safe harbour. A number of the 
 neighbouring gentry have been at- 
 tracted by its agreeable .situation, 
 which renders it the most fashionable 
 place in the county. Forfar, the 
 county town, situated in the valley 
 of Strathmore, is chiefly supported by 
 the business of the courts ; there is 
 also a manufacture of brown linens. 
 The village of Glammis is distinguished by the ma^ificent castle U{i{- 107.) in its vicinity. 
 Kincardine ie closely hemmed in by tlie GrampmnB on the west : it contains, however, in 
 
 itfl southern di«tiict, the termination of 
 ^™ ' the great vallry of Strathmore, which is 
 
 here called the" " How of the Mearns ;" 
 and forms a tract ecpuilly fertile and de- 
 lightful. Tlio northern jMirt consists 
 chiefly of moiint!iir;s and moors of the 
 most bleak and drorry aspect. The coast 
 is of great extent, and very bold, pre- 
 senting in many parts high prL'ci])itous 
 clifls, covered with innumerable flocks 
 of sea-birds; on one of those are the 
 Dunnottar Csiiie. extensive remains of the castle of Dun 
 
 OlammU Castlo. 
 
 
nooK I. 
 
 SCOTIJ^ND. 
 
 4sa 
 
 is adorned 
 mouth of a 
 with many 
 Its trade 
 ble ; and it 
 nber of the 
 been at- 
 sitiiation, 
 fashionable 
 ^orfar, the 
 Ithe valley 
 jpportcd by 
 there is 
 l^vn linens. 
 1 vicinity, 
 jwcver, in 
 lination of 
 '., which ia 
 Mearns ;" 
 lie and de- 
 It consists 
 irs of tlie 
 The coast 
 |bold, jirc- 
 )recii)itous 
 Ible iiocks 
 are the 
 of Dun 
 
 nottar, (Jiff. IfW.), considored Ibrnierly ua imprcKnablc, where the regalia of llio kingdom 
 wore at oiin time de|)ositi!d. Sluni^huvon, the county-town, curries on Rome trade, and Imsi a 
 nianuliicture of hrown linen. 
 
 Abonli'i-n is a larjje and important northern county. It has a very considerablu lino of 
 coast, i)i)Ui (o the ciist and to tlie riortli, and extends, with incroasin(f breadth, far into the 
 interior. 'I'linre it forms Mar, or Braeniar, a highland district, one of the most clcvati.'d in 
 the kiii;;d()ui, some of the mountains rising to above 4000 foot, and containing extensive 
 tbrewts of ancient pines, with large flocks of wild deer, in the deep glena or valleys. From 
 the h<!i};htr( of liraenmr descend the Deo and the Don, the first of which forms some very 
 pictnro.s(iue falls in its early course. Even the Lowland districts are in general bleak and 
 moorish, adapted only to tho cultivation of inferior 8|)ecies of grain, and the rearing of cattle. 
 The old staple fabric of knittitig worsted stockings has been greatly injured by tho cheap- 
 ness with which these are now produced elsewhere by tho aid of machinery ; but other 
 woollen branches, together with those of linen and cotton, the latter to a considerable 
 extent, have been introduced. The beautiful rock crystals called caitngormg, and also the 
 topaz and the beryl, arc found in the mountains of Braemar; and tho tine grunito which 
 abounds near Aberdeen, yields 12,(NK) tons to be annually shipped to Iiondon and elsewhere. 
 The tishories also constitute a leading occupation. That of salmon in the Don and Dee, and 
 the wliule-fishery, arc extensive branches ; and from the German Ocean, haddocks, co<l, luig, 
 turbot, and sliell-fish, are taken in great quantities. 
 
 Aberdeen, " the Queen of the North," and the largest city beyond the Forth, is situated 
 between the Dee and tho Don. Old Aberdeen is situated near tho Don, whose entrance is 
 obstructed by a natural bar, which renders this harbour inadequate for tho town. Tho mass 
 of |X)pulation has settled on tho banks of the Dee, the narrow entrance of which opens into 
 a basm, forming an excellent harlwur. It had, however, a bar at its mouth, liable to con- 
 tinual increase by tho sand blown from tlio beach which extends along tho coast; a mole of 
 1200 feet in length has been carried out into the sea, and a channel has been formed, by 
 which vessels of 700 tons may enter. New Aberdeen is a handsome city, especially the 
 
 firincipal street, composed of a long range of new and good houses, built of its fine granite, 
 ts commerce, manufactures, and fishery are those of tlie county, all tliese branches center- 
 ing in Ahordeen. This city is now tho principal ship-building port in iJcotland, possessing, 
 in 1832, S.'V) ships of 41,071 tons burden. The old town has rather the aspect of a village, 
 if we except the detached houses of the professors of the university, and a range of villas, 
 the opulent tenants of which have been attracted by tho agreeable situation. It is adorned 
 by the fine old edifice of King's College, from whicii risosas(iuaro tower, with a light and ele- 
 gant crown. This seminary was founded in 1494 ; tho salaries are moderate, but the bur- 
 saries lor poor schools are very extensive. Attiched to it is a library of considerable value. 
 Marischal College, founded by the Earl Marischal, nearly a century later, is situated in the 
 heart of New Aberdeen. It is not so well endowed as King's College ; but has an excellent 
 cabinet of natural philosophy, and a well-furnished observatory. 
 
 Peterhead, an improving place, much frequented for sea-bathing and for a mineral water 
 in its vicinity, has two natural harlxjurs. It sends thirteen ships to the whale fishery, and 
 carries on that of herrings with considerable spirit. To the south is a range of precipitous 
 clifl^'s, called the Bullers of Buchan, against which the waves dash with perpetual fury. 
 
 Three counties, Banfl', Moray or Elgin, and Nairn, occupy tho southern shore of the Moray 
 Frith. The interior districts border on the loftiest highlands; but the coast, only diversified 
 by gentle hills, constitutes the ancient province of IVIoray, wliich the early Scottish writers 
 describe with admiration as the most fruitful part of Scotland, and as enjoying fifteen days 
 more of summer than any other district. Its rivers aflbrd ample fisheries of salmon, which 
 is exported to the computed annual value of 25,000Z. The herring fishery also is prose- 
 cuted with considerable success. 
 
 Elgin is an ancient town, situated on the Lossie, and has a tolerable harbour; but its chief 
 distinction rests on its catliedral, which, even in ruin, may dispute with Melrose the glory 
 of being the finest Gothic edifice in Scotland ; in 1568 the privy codncil ordered its leaden 
 roof to be taken off for tho payment of tiio army, and from that time it gradually decayed. 
 In a neighlwurinif valley are also the remains of the fine priory of Pluscurdine. Banff is a 
 somewhat larger and more thriving place, situated at the mouth of the Deveron ; carrying 
 on some linen manufactures, and a considerable herring fishery. Nairn is a neat little 
 county town, possessing some industry, and frequented for sea-bathing. 
 
 SuBSECT. 2. — The Highland ('aunties. 
 
 The Highlands of Scotland comprise somewhat more than half tho surface of the king- 
 dom. They include the whole region north of the Forth and Clyde, except the belt on the 
 eastern coast, between the fritlis of Forth and Moray, which has just been described. This 
 region consists altogether of continuous ranges of lofty mountains, which on the borders, 
 
 # 
 
•j^. 
 
 434 
 
 DEHCRII'TIVK GKO&RAIMIV. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 ; ! 
 
 leave between them boimc of the fine aiiJ br(«<l viiUeyM, rnllotl ttrnlhf, but in the interior 
 only tho deep and often rocky interviilM rnlled f(lriis. They lire ))eopleil by ii ran' totally 
 diiitiiict from the LowliimlerH. Tliese inoiiiitJiiiici'rs wciir a <•ll^itlmle, nlreuily ib'frriJM'il, (jiiite 
 peculiar to themselves; they si)eiii< a Celtic dinlert, lieep, stnmjr, iiml (ruttiinil, bearitif,' no 
 rosendilniiee to tho Teutonic H|xn'ch of the lowlaniU nnil of Kiifjlmid. Tliey iiavi! ever 
 mnintiiincd that vnloiir, which, under Oiiljjncun, net bonndH to the ciireerof Roninn ronqiioiit, 
 (iiid preserved their inountiiinH untouelird by tho inviidcr; and they hiive Hiiice been eon- 
 verted from forinidiiblo toes into crallnot delemb'rH of Ibe rest of the empire. Down to the 
 year 17'ir), they octcd in elans, icilby ii>-'rodiliiry chiefs, to whom they were entirely devoted, 
 and who e.xercigod over them ii paternal b it absolute sway. 'I'he spirit of clanship led llieni 
 to attach themselves strongly to tho hereditary rij.'ht of the Stuarts, of wliieli, under .Mont- 
 roBP, they gave powerful proofs, which had nearly turned the tide of war in its favour. 
 Afterwards, in 1745, they suddenly invaded Enjfland ; and, in the abs(>ncc of the army in 
 Flanders, struck alarm into the dynasty of Iliinovor. Tho issue of timt contest broke 
 entirely the independence of tho highland chiefs. A number were either broiifrht to tho 
 scaflbld, or sent into exile ; military roads were made, and forts srect(Hl in the heart of their 
 territory; they wer" deprived of their feudal privileges; even tho national dress was pro- 
 hibited, on account of tho recollections it was citlculated to excite. After the first alarms, 
 however, had subsided, the Rritish povommcnt adopted the plan of conciliation. I'itt con- 
 ceived tbo idea of tbrming tlic liigliliinders into national regiments, allowing even a limited 
 use of tho appropriate dress; and they have since ranke<l with tho bravest and nK>st distin- 
 guished troops in the British army. Out of the forfeited estates and other funds voted by 
 government, vast stmis have been expended on tho Caledonian Canal, roads, bridges, an<l 
 other great works for tho !::>prcvi ment of this rude territory. Tho lairih, deprived of their 
 absolute power, and attracted by the gaieties and luxuries of cities, soon accustomed them- 
 selves to view their estates only as " material capitals, to be worked according to the great 
 principles of ))oIitical economy." The multitude of little spots, divided among vassals, in 
 whose numbers they placed tiicir strength, were thrown into largo shcep-fiirms ; and tho 
 tenants were driven out to seek a home wherever they could find it. Some migrated to tho 
 lowland cities, and a great proportion went to America; yot, in consequence of tho advance 
 of commerce and fisheries, even the highland counties augmented their population during 
 this period, though not in tho same proportion as the Lowlands. Between 1801 and 1821, 
 it increased from 434,000 to .')12,0fl0. There is one groat manufiictiire, generally diffused 
 throughout this region, which tends rather to disturb the peace than to improve the condition 
 of tho community; this is whiskey, which the people prepare in small stills from their here, 
 or coarse barley, and give it a flavour suiwrior to any other spirit made in Eiiglaiul or Scot 
 land. 
 
 The Highlands are composed of two great districts, — tho west and the north. The formei 
 comprehends tho shires of numbarton, Argyle, Bute, and jiart of I'erlh ; the latter embraces 
 the Counties of Inverness, Ross, Sutherland, &e. The Hebrides, or Western IsK^s, belong 
 to the counties of Bute, .\rgyle, Ross, and Inverness. 
 
 Perth is a noble and extensive county, forming tho link, as it wore, between the I,owlande 
 and Highlands; in its different parts uniting the beauty and fertility of the one with tht 
 grandeur of the otlier. The former qualities arc conspicuous in the ctirse of Cowrie ; t 
 broad sloping plain, on the north bank of the Tay, profusely covered with orchards and cul- 
 tivated fields. The upper p<art of Strutheam, also, between Perth and Crieff, varied with 
 gentle hills, cultivated valleys, and the windings of two great rivers, may almost be called 
 the garden of Scotland. As we proceed to the north and west, the Grampians gradually 
 swell, a d at length are fi)und occupying tho whole interior of the county, in a line from 
 north-east to south-west, ond comprehending the mighty summits of Ben Liiwer.s, Bonmore, 
 Bengloe, Schchallion, Ben V^)irlicll, Benledi, Benvenue"; all from 3(H)0 to upwards of 40<MI 
 foot high. Within their recesses they enclose the three large lochs, Tay, Earn, and Katrine. 
 These lakes, varie<l with woods and verdure, exhibit in many piirts scon-'s of great griiiuh'ur 
 and beauty. In tho lowlands of Perth, agriculture is carried to greot perfection; the high- 
 land tracts, on the contrary, aro in general fit only for pasturage. They are, however, 
 covered with the remains of ancient forests, to which the great proprietors have been 
 making very extensive additions. The towns of Perthshire parlicipatf in the diffrrent 
 national manufactures : the blonchfields and prinlfields are numerous; but this can in no 
 view be generally reganlcd as a manufiicturing county. 
 
 Perth is well built, and, as to situation, one of tho most beautiful cities in the kingdom. 
 The view of it from the north, in particular, in tho heart of a finely wooded plain, witli tho 
 Tay winding round it, and too Hill of Moiicrieff rising ..hove, is almost without a rival in 
 tho kingdom. Perth might, for a long time, Iw considered the capital of Scotland. It was 
 the frequent residence of the kings. Parliaments and General Assemblies met there otlener 
 than in any other place; and, in the civil contests, the jnissession of I»erth was considered 
 of vital importance by tho contending parties. At present it has declined to a rank decidedly 
 
 ii ill' 
 
 -5* 
 
I'; 
 
 ■f^. 
 
 liOOK I. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 425 
 
 I .o\vlnnd» 
 with tlii 
 owrie ; » 
 
 iirnl cul- 
 ricd with 
 be called 
 (jrathmlly 
 lint! from 
 ■Ron more, 
 s of 40(H) 
 
 Katrine, 
 ijriiiideur 
 the liijj;h- 
 
 liowever, 
 live liecn 
 
 (liffrrent 
 :;ati in no 
 
 kinjrdom. 
 
 \vit!i the 
 
 1 rival in 
 
 It WHS 
 
 |ro iiHiMior 
 
 •onsidorod 
 
 Idccidcdlv 
 
 Frovlncial ; and it.s cummrrce, onco conHidrrable, linn linen alnioflt wholly tramtfurrcd to 
 )iindco. It liiis linen nnd other niamitiicttirex, whicii jinxhice an annuul value of aliout 
 V!(NMMK)f. ; while its advantnjrfoiiH Kite, and tlic excellent education afforded bv tho grammar 
 Hchool and academy, attract a nninlier of the noighbourinj; gentry, and render it gay and 
 tiifihionable. 
 
 The other towns of Perthshire arc small, but distinifuiHhed fur tho (fraud and picturejiquo 
 Kconory amid which they are situated. Dunkeld, in thiH ro8|M!ct, in generally considered tho 
 prido of Scotland; tho finely wooded and rocky hills throujfh which tlii^ Tay meanders, with 
 
 loe 
 
 FallofBruar. 
 
 — _ -- , -n-- - -'J -' ' 
 
 the valleys and glens opening on K\pr\ side, produce 
 a diversity of landscape scarcely e<|ualled el-iewhere. 
 Tho lato Duke of Athol, whose spacious ilomaiu.4 
 cover this oart of Perthshire, was most active in 
 respect to plantations, since those of Dunkeld alone 
 cover 11,()00 acres; and tho whole munbcr of trees 
 planted by the duke amount to ;M),(KH),0()0. A route 
 of twenty nilee, directly north, passing opposite to 
 the fine mountain village of Logierait, and through 
 the bold pss of Killikrankie, leads tn Blair, also part 
 of the Athol territory, Pud or.'i of tho most picturesque 
 spots in Scotland. Its striking f^ntures consist in the 
 lofty mountain Bengloe, the glens of the Tilt and the 
 Garry, and the picturesque rocky falls of the Bruar 
 (Jig. 199.). Westward is Loch Rannoch, surrounded 
 by extensive forests of fir, and overhung by Sche- 
 hallion, on whose lofty summit Dr. Maskelyne per- 
 formed some of his operations for tho measurement 
 of the earth. Out of it flows tho Tumel, a rapid 
 stream, which forms some romantic cascades. From 
 tho Tumel, a military road leads to Loch Tay, the largest of the lakes, and surrounded by 
 the loftiest mountains of Perthshire. Ben Lawers, with a chain of attendant mountains 
 overhangs it from tho north ; while Benmore shuts it in on tho west ; and perhaps there is 
 no lake in Britain enclosed by so grand a circuit. Tho sides of tho mountains are somewhat 
 naked ; but tho gr unds of Taymouth, at tho head of tho loch, fiirm a rich foreirround. 
 
 Farther south is he vale of Strathearn, at one end of which, Crieff, a thriving little town, 
 looks up on tho windings of the river, and the vast mountains from amid which it issues. 
 Loch Earn, a small lake, is Iwunded on the south by grand ranges of very lofty moun- 
 tains. 
 
 The upper valleys of tho Forth and the i'eith have some very remarkable scenery. On 
 tho Allan, j« Dumblano; a pleasantly situated little town, with the remains of a fine 
 cathedral ; Ollender, overhung by Bcnledi, is -\iefly frequented as the key of Ijoch Katrine, 
 situated about ten miles to the westward, and approached by a narrow road along the small 
 lakes of Venachoir and Achray. The scenes of beauty and grandeur which adorn the 
 ea.stern extremity of this lake, the mighty cliffs of Benvenue, the wild woaled glen of the 
 Trosachs, and the beautiful little island in the centre of the scene, have obtained celebrity 
 from the muse of Scott. Farther south, the Forth, rising from Ben Lomond, rolls through 
 a pastoral mountain valley, once the seat of the power and the scene of the adventures of 
 the outlaw Macgregor. It forms several little lakes, of which Jjocii Ard is the largest and 
 most beautiful. 
 
 Tho county of Inverness is purely highland, presenting range after range of mountains, 
 of which Ben Nevis, Cairngorm, and several others, are the most elevated in the United 
 Kingdom. The intervals between them are filled either by long lakes, or by narrow glens, 
 the level space of which does not usually exceed a mile in breadth. The principal one, 
 called the Great Caledonian Glen, reaches from Inverness in an obli(pje direction across the 
 kingdom, filled with an almost unbroken chain of lakes, — Loch Ness, Ijoch Oich, Loch 
 Jjochy, and Ixich Linnhe; which last opens by the Sound of Mull into the western sea; a 
 continuity which facilitated tho formation of the Caledonian Canal. In the east, the district 
 along the upper course of the Sjiey, bearing the name of Strathspey, comprises an unusual 
 extent of level land. Only about a fortieth part of the county is capable of cultivation ; but 
 that fortieth, composed of haugh or alluvial land, on the rivers, or the lakes, is extremely 
 fertile. Tho greatest branch of industry consists in the rearing of black cattle, sheep, and 
 goats. Game of all kinds abounds, and there are still considerable remains of the great 
 Caledonian forest, comjwscd chiefly of fir. 
 
 Inverness, tho gay capital of the Highlands, is of a very different character from that of 
 
 the wild rejrion over which it holds a sort of dominion. Seated on a bay, at the head of the 
 
 Moray Frith, it partakes in a great measure of the mild and fertile character of its shores, 
 
 iind stands at some little distance from the awfiil ranges of mountains by which it is enclosed. 
 
 Vol.. L 36* 3D 
 
 t4\-- 
 
 'I 
 
II 
 
 4*26 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPMY. 
 
 Part HI. 
 
 Fall of Ftfin. 
 
 AftiT HiifTrrinjf a connidfriitili' (Icrlini- fVoin il« nnrjiMil iiii|Kirtniirp, it Iiiik, williiii tlic lant 
 thirty yiNirM, iiuurly triiiii'il its cvlrnt iiiul |N)|iiiliiiiciii, In ^fiicnil, ii riiiiHiclmlili* |i<ili«li 
 of iimnncrM is nhMurvnbMS miil it Iiiin Im'pii rciiiiirkcii tint tlin Kriu;ii!<li liiii);iiii}()) is KimkiMi 
 in (frciitiT purity timii in niiy dIIht port of S»;iitliiiiil ; ii nrruiiiHtiinou wliirli Iiiin hfon 
 OHCribi'd III till' rcHiilciu'c nl' r.iiKlir<li iillici'm nllrr tlic Ixittli' of ('iiIIinIcii. Iiimtiii'sh Iiun i 
 town liciiiNc, iiilirmtiry, iii*ni'iiil)ly-ri«)iriH, ami tlii'iitrr. Miitiiiliictiirt'H ot'liciiip, (Inx, anil tartan 
 liiivf hccii cMtuliliMlii'il. Tliu viuwK, butli of voa and land, in itii vicinity, uru aliiKMt un* 
 rivalli'd. 
 InvoriioNH-Hliirn liaM Hcarcoly uiiothor placn wliicli can iiuikn nuicli prctiMiHiim to tlio naino 
 
 even tif a villaj^p. II<'m Ncvin, UMnally conHidcrml 
 the lollieNt mountain in Scotlnnd and in the 
 United Kingdom, iH4M7l) feet nlK)ve the level of 
 thuHca; the view tVoiu the mnnniil iH verv extcn- 
 hIvc, euibracini; a );n'at |Kirtinn of the llebridcM, 
 To the eant of l/icli Nchk, the rivulet of Kyern or 
 Foyer* (yf jr. y(K).), forniHthe (fre tent wnterthll in 
 Ncutland; the lower or principal liill deitccndH 
 froni a hei|rht of '212 feet; but the stream is not 
 very copious). 
 
 Arjfyle, commonly called tho Western Hi>{h- 
 landx, Ih a wide and irregular territory, iitrctch- 
 ing into lonj; proniontorieH, and indented by deep 
 arnw of the nea, so oh to form n eoa*"t of very 
 (frent extent. In (jenoral tho nhore in Ixirdercd 
 by hi)(li hills, and tho interior covered with ranpfeB 
 of rupjftHl mountains. Itx industry Ib nlinoHt en- 
 tirely pastoral ; herds of black cattle and vnBt 
 flocks of sheep are ted on the sides of it« moun- 
 tains. The herrinjf of tho west coorft, and especially of Ixk'Ii Fyne, eiijoys u liiurh reputa- 
 tion. Tho county is chietly tenanted by Campbells, who were wont to riilly round the Mac- 
 callununore, u desijfnation of their cliieV the Duke of Ariifyle, with all tho ardour of kindred 
 and national altuchinent. 
 
 Dumbarton is mostly .\ part of tho sumo district; 
 yet it has a lowland stri| exteniliujf iilon^' the north- 
 ern banks of the Clyde. In the western p:irt are the 
 (ireat (.'anal, joiniuff the Clyde at Duiii;liiss; and 
 the wall of Antoninus, calleil by the Seotlisli vulgar 
 "Graham's dike." The approach to Dundiarton af- 
 fords (me of the uio.st strikinsj prospects in Scotland; 
 and its castle (_Jifr. ^01.), the ancient and mighty 
 hold of the Britons, fowerinff on tlm suiiiniit of u 
 per|M!ndiculur rock, still maintains its iin|iortance aa 
 a fortress. Dmnlxirton has a larire miinufactory of 
 crown glass, which is exported to toreign parts ; and 
 on the banks of the Levon tliere arc extensive printtields. 
 
 Loch Lomond (Jiff. 202.) is celebrated for tho expanse of its waters, and tho many beautiful 
 ^^ ._ islands with which is studded. Fnim its toot, 
 
 *"* ''- - bordered by cultivated hilN and oniamented 
 
 villas, to its mountain head, there is a con- 
 tinued transition from beanty to (grandeur, 
 and at the central |)oint oi' Loss they arc 
 remarkiibly unitiKl. The ninnerous and 
 beaulitui islands, and the long wixxled pro- 
 montories stretching into the water, with 
 the majestic form of Hen I/imonil in the 
 background, prcxluco a combination of land- 
 scape which perha|)s no other sjxjt in Britain 
 can equal. 
 
 On turning tho head of I/)cli I-ong at 
 Arrochar, the view opens on tho romantic valley of Cilencoe, enclosed between two ranges 
 of momUains rising almost perpendicularly to an amazing height, and leaving between them 
 only a narrow vale, through which a rivulet Hows, The vale of (ilenfmgias is then passed, 
 whast.' high bioping sides covered with innumerable flocks inspire pleasing pastoral imogOB, 
 and at the termination of which appears the grand estuary of l.f)ch Fyne. 
 luvcrary, the t. "itul of the Western Highlands, is situated near the head of Loch Fyne. 
 
 numbotlon Canlo. 
 
 Loch Lomond. 
 
fxtcri- 
 
 vuljfnr 
 
 mrtoii at- 
 
 Sfotlimd i 
 
 inijfhty 
 
 it of a 
 
 mice as 
 
 tory of 
 
 rts; and 
 
 I'nntiful 
 
 its foot, 
 
 iinonted 
 
 a con- 
 
 •[inilciir, 
 
 tliey arc 
 
 •ouH and 
 
 Kled pro- 
 
 pr, with 
 
 in the 
 
 of land- 
 
 Urituin 
 
 Iionp at 
 ninjrcs 
 
 un them 
 passed, 
 
 images, 
 
 ih Fyiie. 
 
 DooK I. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 4*.7 
 
 ItM cnviruMN aru not niountaimiUM ; hut itM ni>liin ciiHtli' (Jii(. •JO.'l.), Kiirroiimhid liy vvoml- 
 ni^ «>d hiiirt and U'uli< Ijiwmk, with tliii lolly 
 
 mountaiuK whicli r<liiit in the diHtiinl viitw, 
 render it a iiiiivnitiri'iit and deli|^litful «|iut, 
 Tho town IH Hiiiall iiiul neat, \Mtliout any 
 omployiiieiit, rxrrlit the lierriii); llhliery. 
 AUiiit ten iiiih'H lit'liw Inverary, tlieCriimn 
 Canal joiiix l.<i<'li Kyiie to the wesliTii Hea, 
 and haM iiiaile Licli^ilphiNui a plaee of moiiki 
 conNeipienee, 
 
 Tlie interior and tho Mextern eoaxt of 
 Arjfyli'Niiire are in many re.siieetH intereit* 
 inn. I'nrallcl tol/xii l''yne,attheiiiHtancuof 
 '""""' ''"•""■ ten or twelv iiiih'H, ii" the loiijr line of ImoIi 
 
 Awe ; an interior lake, over whoHe head towerN Th'ii Oiiaehan, the loliieht Kniiimit in Arffvlo. 
 The eaxtle of Kilcliiirn, riNin(( on one of the isiandH, prodiiees a hi).dily pieliireMiiie ellert, 
 lleyoiiil tliin, l.oeli Ktive, a iiiirrow arm of the nea, HtretitlieH liir into tlie in'erior, Clinihinif 
 the lii^li ijioimtuinH at the lieail of [loeh Htive, we come to <jleiieoe, which in terriHc 
 ffraiideiir siirpansert perhupn every other sjxit in (Jrent itritain. 'I'liis etleet in priKlueed liy 
 itH Ik)IiI iiiid liroken iiiniiiitHiii tiiriiix, its hpiry roel<H, and hlaek preeipireH; at tlie liottom of 
 which, ill a ilt.-eit ehiisiii or ravine, flown the rivulet of ('oo. I'liid wtream Ih the Cona of 
 OHniaii, helieveil the tiivoniiti* haunt of that celrlirateil Cnledoiiian hird. Tht! viile Iuih iiIm 
 a (fliKUny reeollertion attached to it, from the massacre of 1(191. Mmerj^injf from this scene, 
 the traveller is clieere<l with the piy iispect of I/m-Ii Leven, which preseiitH much pleaitinfr 
 hi);liland Hceiierv, while the hills mnnd the ferry of Riilacliiilish afford valuable i|iiiirrie8 of 
 slate. From lialachulish, aloii); the broad expanse of the l.innhe Ixicli with which tho )rreat 
 Caledonian chain terminates, ),<.\teiids Appin, a beautiful district, diversified with fine woods, 
 rich iwstiirafje, and more culture than is usual in Arfjylesbire. On the op|H)Nite side of tho 
 Linnlie 1/ich is a peninsular district called Ardnamiircliaii, separated only by a narrow 
 sound from tho Islmid of Mull. The district of .Strontiaii contains leiid-mines of sonio value, 
 CroHsiii); the I,innlie, and passing: l.ismore, a loun', level, and fertile island, we tind Iiorne, 
 wparated by I/)ch ('reran from Appin, to which it is even siipiTior in beauty and fertility. 
 Near tho oponin^r of l/ich Ktive into tho soa, tradition pltices Jferei/oniiim, the reiwrted 
 capital of tlio Picts in the third century ; and near it is found I)iinstairiiaj;e (./?«-. yo-l.), once 
 o(u , ,, ^M. the scene of Hcottishreifal |)omp, 
 
 ^ .^ jl» . bffi tr^*''^ nowarnin,crownin;.'aclitl'alonx 
 
 '^" ■ ' tho western sea. The loii}; pen- 
 
 insula of Cautyre stretclies far 
 out into the sea, beinjf visible 
 f>om the Irish coa.st of Antrim. 
 The Macdonalds, lords of tho 
 Isles, long held sway over it, 
 till they were driven out by the 
 carls of Arjrylo. CamplM>lltown, 
 ''''""•">"'•• •^""•' near its southern cxtren.ity, is 
 
 a thrivinpf port, now the largest on this coast, and serving in particular as a general ren- 
 dezvous tor tho herring fishery. 
 
 The three extreme counties. Roes, Cromarty, and Sutherland, form the most remote and 
 northerly jKirtion of the Highlands, nnd, Caithness excepted, of all the mainland, 'I'lic south- 
 eastern tiorder of tho friths of Moray, Cromarty, and Dornoch contains some fine land, and 
 several thriving towns; the rest is a contiiiiie(l range of rock, mountain, heath, f!)ie.sf, and 
 loch, similar to Inverness, but stilt wilder. The lochs which indent tho westi>rii coast are 
 largo and numerous, [Mirticuhirly lioch Carron, I,och Terridon, and IxjcIi Hroom ; and they 
 have generally grand mountain boundaries. Capo Wrath, the north-western point of Scot- 
 land, is a lolly pyramidal rock, standing in front of a vast range of broken clilFs, and breasting 
 
 906 
 
 Dun DoniadiUa. 
 
 the whole wide expanse of the ocean. On 
 the northern coast is Loch Eribol, a wide 
 inlet, bordore<I by limestone rocks, per- 
 forated by caves of great extent and re- 
 markable form. Sutherland presents numer- 
 ous Ditnn, or ancient fiirts of peculiar struc- 
 ture, of which the most remarkable is Dun 
 Dornadilla {Ji!>-.''M').), situated on tho lotly 
 sides of Bon Hope, nut far from Loch 
 Eribol. 
 
 Cromarty, the capital of tho little county 
 «f the same name, stands at the foot of its 
 
 m 
 
 
i> r 
 
 'A- 
 
 428 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt III 
 
 own fritli; while Dingwall, the county town of Ross, is s tuatcd at tlic hciid. Cromarty is a 
 considerable fishing station. On the south side of tlic Oornocii Frith is Tuin, and on the 
 north is Dornoch, an ancient town, of whuso cuthedrul some part still remains. 
 
 Caithness forms the nortii-eastcrn angle of Scotland : it is scarcely a hijrhland county, only 
 the Paps of Caithness rising to the character of mountains. Its surface is moist, bleak, and 
 hare, filled with little lakes, and covered with extensive moors. The chief branch of industry 
 is the herring fishery. Kelp is also made from the sea-weed thrown on its shores. Thurso, 
 tlic county town, is an improving place, in the midst of a cultivated country. Its bay affords 
 a safe roadstead, peculiarly valuable for ships, which, in rounding the north of Scotland, 
 must pnss through the Pentland Frith, rendered dangerous by its violent and rapid currents. 
 Wick, the grand rendezvous of the herring fishery, owes to this advantage a very rapid 
 increase. Tiie north-eastern point of Caithness and of Scotland bears the familiar appellation 
 of John o'Groat's house ; though there is not the vestige of a house to correspond to this 
 title, which is founded on a mere traditionary story. 
 
 SvBSECT. 3. — Scottish Islands. 
 
 The islands appendent on Scotland, form one of its most conspicuous features. Though 
 neither rich nor fertile in proportion to their extent, they exhibit a great variety of bold and 
 striking scenery, and are peopled by a race whose habits of life and forms of society are 
 peculiar to themselves. They may be divided into the islands at the mouth of the Clyde; 
 the Hebrides, or Western Islands; and the Northern Islands, or those of Orkney and 
 Shetland. 
 
 The islands of the Clyde are chiefly Bute and Arran, with the smaller ones of tlie Cum- 
 brays and Ailsa. Bute is of beautiful aspect, witii a climate accounted the mildest in Scot- 
 land, and for tliat reason resorted to by invalids; a considerable part of the surface is arable 
 and well cultivated. Rothsay is a pretty town, much frequented for sea-bathing, and en- 
 riched by a considerable herring fishery. Arran presents much bold alpine scenery, the 
 central mountain of Goatfield rising to nearly the height of 3000 feet, while the glen of 
 Sanox at its base has the highest character of savage and romantic grandeur. Lamlash, the 
 principal town, possesses an excellent harbour. Ailsa, off tlic Ayrshire coast, is a rock 000 
 feet high, with lolly basaltic clifTs, formed into columns several hundred feet in height. 
 
 The Hebrides, or Western Islands, stretch far into the Atlantic. Their general aspect is 
 highland, with rude rocks and mountains, deep and dark valleys, large expanses of peat-moss, 
 hill pastures, and scanty bar ^sts ; the mountains ascend rather in single peaks than in long 
 ranges; and the rocky cliffs whicli fiice the sea assume, in many places, columnar forms of 
 jjcculiar grandeur. The climate is moist; yet milder tlian on the mainland. Tlio earliest 
 inhabitants seem to have been Celtic. About the eleventh century, they were conquered, 
 together witli Man, by Harold Harfager, and were governed for several centuries by a Nor- 
 wegian dynasty, after which tliey owned tlie nominal sovereignty of the Scottish kings, but 
 fell really under the sway of the Macdonalds, lords of the Isle.s. Tiioir territory including a 
 great part of the west coast of Scotland, formed a considerable power, till it fell partly under 
 the dominion of the Scottish crown, and was jiartly divided among a number of [wtty cliiefs, 
 whose feuds deform the subsequent pages of Hebridean history. At present these islands 
 may be considered as retaining more of highland habits and feelings, than any part of the 
 mainland. 
 
 The Hebrides may be divided into two main ranges. One of them consists of the large 
 island"- of ^slay. Jura, Mull, and Skye, with several minor attendants, which are nearly 
 cnntiguuus 'jo the west coast, and separated fi-om it only by narrow straits and sounds ; the 
 other is composed of North and South Uist, Harris, I«wis, which are considerably out at 
 sea, and are classed, with no very strict propriety, undei the general appellation of Long 
 Island. 
 
 Islay contains a good deal of level and fertile territory, which induced the lords of the 
 Isles to make it tiieir residence ; good crops of barley, cats, and even wheat, are raised ; and 
 the black cattle, which form the main export, arc held in great estimation. Jura is separated 
 from Islay only by a sound, the opposite sides of which correspond so exactly as to suggest 
 the idea of their having been disjnhied by some violent shock ; it is one contiimcd tract of 
 brown and rocky mountain pasture ; all the inhabitants, if collected, would scarcely people 
 a large village. Scarba consists of a single conical mountain broken into rocky precipices, 
 and forming a striking object. Between Jura and Scarba is the perilous strait of Corryvrc- 
 kan, a 'whirlpool noted for shipwreck. Colonsay and Oronsay form one long island, the 
 cliannel between them being passable at low water. The former has a verdant appearance ; 
 at Oronsay are the remains of a priory, ranking as the finest in the Highlands next to that 
 of lona. 
 
 Mull is a large, rough, stormy island, with winding and deeply indented shores, separated 
 by a long narrow sound from the Argyles^liire coast. The shores are almost everywhere 
 rocky and precipitous ; the two once might y liolds of Duart and Aros crown rocky cliffs on it." 
 eastern shore. Tiie great keep of the former, with its walls nine feet thick, encloses an area 
 
'* 
 
 KnoKl. 
 
 SCOTLAND, 
 
 42b 
 
 eparated 
 Irywhcre 
 
 ItTs on its 
 I an area 
 
 206 
 
 loim. 
 
 •jf thirty-six feet by twelve. Black cattle, black-faced sheep, celebrated for their delicate mut- 
 ton, kelp, and herrings, are exported. 
 StufTo, a large rock, about a mile and a half round, and encircled by cliffs, which nowhere 
 
 exceed in height 144 feet, contains the 
 
 't^'^---!b!St3^3iR;.r'::^';^Uv'. • ■ ^"^'^ "^ Fingal ijlff.^}.) Almost all 
 
 ^'jliiiS^mma^^^fmtrifli.ui-. the rocks of the inland arc basaltic and 
 
 columnar; but here they uro arrangi'd 
 80 as to produce the most singular und 
 magnificent eftect. An opening, sixty- 
 six feet high and forty-two wide, formed 
 by perpendicular walls terminated by an 
 arch at the top, admits into a natural 
 hall, more than two hundred I'eet long, 
 and bounded on each side by basaltic 
 columns rising in regular symmetrical 
 succession. Two other caves, the Cor- 
 Finiii'iCave. morants' Cave and the Boat's Cave, 
 
 present similar scenes. Of the columnar rocks, which extend over a great part of the 
 island, many are bent and twisted in a remarkable manner, 
 lona (Jig. 207), a small island near Staffa, excites the deepest interest by the venerable 
 
 ruins which attest, in this secluded 
 comer, the early existence of re- 
 ligion and learning, at a time when 
 the rest of the kingdoni was buried 
 in baibarisni. St. Cilumba, about 
 the middle of the sixth century, 
 founded here a monastery, and 
 made it a centre wlicrice he en- 
 deavoured to (lifTuse the light of 
 Christianity. This religious estab- 
 lishment was enriched and extend- 
 ed, and a nunnery was afterwards 
 instituted under the same auspices. 
 The Culdecs, or followers of Co- 
 lumba, appear to have rendered very great services to Britain, and even to the whole North. 
 Teachers were often drawn from among them for seminaries in England ; and they under- 
 took missionary expeditions to Norway, and even to Russia. They taught, in a great 
 measure, the principles of primitive Christianity, rejecting both the vows of celibacy, and 
 the ceremonies of the Romish church. lona, however, at length became Roman catliolic, 
 and continued *o flourish till the Reformation, when its monks were dispersed, and its edi- 
 fices demolislied. The Cfnetery also remains, in which, according to tradition, were buried 
 forty-eight kings of Scotland, eight of Norway, four of Ireland, and one of France. Al- 
 lowing the scepticism of Dr. Macculloch as to this magnificent list, it appears confirmed, 
 from the ornaments on the tombs, that many of the West-Insular cliiefs chose this as a 
 sacred spot, where their ashes miglil repose. Tiie ruins are extensive. The cathedral is 
 164 feet long a.id 34 broad ; and near it is a chapel sixty feet long. The style of architecture 
 is early and rude ; and the sculptures, though pretty numerous, are, with a few exceptions, 
 grotesque in design and execution. 
 
 Skye, the most northerly of this inner chain, is the largest of the group. It is forty- 
 five miles long; but its shores are so winding, and so penetrated by lochs, that it may be 
 said to form a cluster of peninsulas. Ranges of rocky mountains, many of them 3000 feet 
 high, cover almost the entire surface, and the high rocks with which it is everywhere 
 bordered, display objects of striking and romantic grandeur. In Strathaird, near the 
 southern point, is the celebrated spar rave ; it is atx)ut 250 feet from the entrance to the 
 e.xtremity ; but a great part of the passage is gloomy and rocky, and only in its most inte- 
 rior part do the stalactites begin to branch out into that variety of intricate and brilliant 
 ornaments which make the cave .so beautiful. The great body of the island is a hilly moor- 
 land, barren, brown, and rugged ; the peaks being generally from .500 to 1000 feet iiigh ; 
 but .some points are level and arable. The r.xportation of cattle, witli that of a con.siderable 
 quantity of kelp, forms the chief trade of the island; large quantities of herrings are also 
 taken, and cured by fishermen, who carry on this branch of commerce on a small scale. The 
 property of Skye is almost siiarcd between the family of I/)rd Macdonald who claims descent 
 from the ancient lords of the Isles, and that of Macleod. Duntulni, the almost ruined seat of 
 the Macdonalds, and the Macleods' castle of Dunvegnn, a magnificent pile, finmded in the 
 thirteenth century, arc on the north-west coast. On the east is Rasay, masked by long 
 lofty cliff^-i of lino sandstone, which have on their tops green and cultivated farms. To the 
 south-west is Rum, a wild and rugged mass of mountains, surrounded by shores scarcely 
 
 i 
 
 m 
 
 { 'm 
 
 ■I' 
 
 I 
 
 Vi 
 
 V 
 
x: 
 
 i 
 
 !i 
 
 430 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 
 Part HI. 
 
 accessible, and involved in almost perpetual tempest. On the east of Rum is Egg or Eigg, 
 which contains several large caves. 
 
 Loiifl- Inland is the general name given to the exterior chain of the Hebrides, which con- 
 sists ol five large and many smaller islands ; so closely contiguous that the whole may be 
 considered as one island. It is a strange mixture of bogs, rocks, lochs, and sands; its pas- 
 tures iiru chiefly occupied with cattle destined for tlie markets of the mainland ; and large 
 quantities of kolp are pro<Iuced, which yield considerable profit. 
 
 Li leis is the largest of all the Hebridei', being upwards of eighty miles from north-east 
 to 8onlh-weKt,and, at some points, more than twenty in breadth. Of its inhabitants, those 
 occu]iying its most northern point, called the Butt of Lewis, appear to be Danish, the rem- 
 nant of that colony wlio once ruled the island. The people are industrious in cultivating 
 tliuir rude soil, and in the fisheries which have rendered Stornoway, the capital of Lewis, u 
 place of some con.sideration. Harris, a peninsula on tlie southern point of Lewis, consists 
 of a mass of ru;jged rocks, whicli project in long promontories into the sea, giving to the 
 shore a very picturestjue aspect. The arable patches are small, and in such inaccessible 
 sites that tliey can bn cultivated only by the spade. Sheep are more numerous than black 
 cattle, being better adapted to this rugged surface. North and South Uist, with Benbecula, 
 exhibit the general aspect of Long Island, of whose length they compose about eighty 
 miles. The cattle are small, and not exported in very large quantities. The most flourish- 
 ing branch of industry is kelp, of which ttiey yield annually about 2500 tons. Barra is 
 distinguished for the industry of its fishermen, who carry their cargoes through the Crinan 
 canal to the Greenock market. About half a mile from the southern shore is Chisamil, the 
 castle of the Macleans, now partly in ruin, but of such extent as to have been capabln of 
 containing 500 men. 
 
 St. Kilda is the remotest point of the Hebrides ; small and solitary, far out in the Atlantic, 
 whose waves da-sh continually against its perpendicular cliffs. It is about three miles long, 
 girt on all sides by a wall of rock, which at one point is about 1300 feet high ; Conoxhan, 
 
 the loftiest hill on the island, being there 
 hg. soa Map qfthe Orhuf isianii. Cut down perpendicular!]^ from the summit 
 
 to the base. " Dizzy heights, from which 
 the eye looks down over jutting crags ; a 
 boiling sea below, without a boundary; 
 dark clifl's beaten by a foaming surge, and 
 lost in the gloom of involving clouds ; the 
 mixed contest of rocks, ocean, and sky," 
 are the scenes which characterise St. 
 Kilda. On the top of the rocks is a green 
 and somewhat fertile surftce, on which are 
 fed sheep of the Norwegian breed, with 
 short tails and coarse wool, but whose mut- 
 ton is delicious ; there are a few cows, and 
 a little very fine bear is grown. But the 
 favourite food of the natives is drawn fi^m 
 the face of the perpendicular cliflfe, which 
 in fearful and dizzy height overliang their 
 shores. Suspended by a rope, they step 
 from point to point, and take the eggs or 
 young of the solan goose, puffin, cormorant, 
 petrel, and others of the numerous species 
 which breed on their sides. 
 
 The Orkneys form a group of about 
 thirty in number; but Pomona or Main- 
 land contains nearly as much ground as all 
 the rest put together. Notliing can be 
 more irregular than their form; the deep 
 sounds by which they are penetrated, and the narrow straits which separate them from each 
 other, cause a complete intermixture of land and sea. These etraits are rendered dangerous 
 by numerous currents and eddies from the two oceans which rush in from opposite sides. 
 
 '■',.. 
 
 ■'Li;i 
 
 Njilliffh H,u. 
 
 ,o\* Sur.i.inri.^%,^ 
 Noup Mi.Wm^ N. RonaMaiv Klh. ''i. 
 
 "■II, 
 
 u.* Sir j;v],^ ', , 
 
 Orrm. \S^^'^ 10. Xi 
 
 Hoy Hill, :r.S::V«.<=* „% 
 
 s r f n I. A M> 
 
 niicss 
 
 '^;# W;^*""-'- "*• 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^niith KoiialdBbay 
 
 '"'K-au.l.y HJ. 
 
 (jllllKli Milr, ' 
 
 Reference to the Map of the Orlney Idand$. 
 
 NORTH RON- 
 ALOSHAY. 
 I. Holland. 
 
 SANDAY. 
 
 1. Taninrai 
 3 Havil 
 :t. Markirk 
 
 4. Crim and Burnen 
 
 5. atov* 
 
 WESTRAY. 
 1. Newark 
 3. Hpuoninv 
 3. 1'yrawall. 
 
 ROWSAY. 
 1. Suvoikroi 
 3. Wciltide. 
 
 SIl^PINailAY. 
 1. WallneM 
 
 'i. Kiikbuiier 
 3. Holland. 
 
 POMONA nr 
 MAINLAND. 
 
 1. Bt. Andrew'! 
 
 3. Bnndijde 
 X Holm 
 
 4. Poplar 
 3. Oalnip 
 
 a^'abo 
 
 7. Kirkwall 
 
 f>. Pirlh 
 
 9. Bcapa 
 in. Wank 
 II. Orphir 
 I?. Chotlron 
 
 13. Turniion 
 
 14. Rrndnll 
 
 15. Wi 
 
 oodwick 
 
 16. Iluriar 
 
 17. Biraa 
 IS. Marwick 
 19. KIrknen 
 90. Holorow 
 QI.Hnndwick 
 'ja. Siromncaa. 
 
 HOY. 
 1. Hor 
 
 2. Brini 
 
 3. Air 
 
 4. St. Walby. 
 
 SOUTH RON- 
 ALDSHAY. 
 
 1. Cara 
 
 2. Kirk 
 
 3. Berwick 
 
 4. Bruufli. 
 
'.•X"}. 
 
 species 
 
 about 
 Main- 
 id as nil 
 can be 
 he deep 
 )m each 
 ngerous 
 e sides. 
 
 ibr 
 
 < HON- 
 IHAY. 
 
 .Ifr/ 
 
 Book I. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 431 
 
 Fig. 21ft itap (ifUe SMrllantl Itlandi. 
 
 The Pentland Frith, in particular, between Orkney and the Mainland, is a most formidable 
 passage. The opposing currents i<eep the channel in a stato of perpetual ebullition, and produce 
 at several points, violent whirlpc jIs. Orkney is in general low, bleak, boggy, and bare ; thoupfh 
 its western islands face the Atlantic with some very bold and ragged clitts. About a twelfth 
 part is cultivated in a rude manner with the plough ; a somewhat larger portion is under 
 regular pasture; the rest is moor and waste. The cattle, though small, are of a goal 
 breed ; and about 50,000 sheep, almost in a wild state, roam through the commons. The 
 fisheries are not extensive ; kelp is the staple commodity for export : it has averaged annu- 
 ally 2500 tons, employing 3000 men. There is some coarse woollen, and of late there has 
 been some linen manufacture. As most of the vessels destined for Hudson's Bay and the 
 whale fishery, and many of those which, from the east coast, sail to all parts of the world, 
 pass by the north of Scotland, the ports of the Orkneys are frequented, and a market is 
 afforded for their provisions. 
 
 The topographical details of Orkney do not possess any peculiar attraction. Kirkwall, 
 however, bears marks of the periods when it was a Danish capital, and a residence of the 
 
 sovereign Earls of Orkney. There is 
 a large and massive cathedral, in some 
 parts very elegantly ornamented ; also 
 ruins of a king's palace, an earl's castle, 
 and a bishop^ palace. The town has 
 of late been considerably extended and 
 improved, and it has a good natural har- 
 bour. Stroniness has one of the best 
 harbours in the kingdom, and is the 
 favourite resort of vessels which seek 
 on this coast for shelter and refreshment. 
 Near Stromncsa is that remarkable 
 remnant of antiquity the "standing 
 stones of Stennis,'' which in magnitude 
 and singular character almost rivals 
 Stonehenge. Shapinshay, Stronsay, 
 Rowsay, Eday, Westray, Papa, antl 
 Sanday, are small islands stretching to 
 the north-east. Burra and South Ro- 
 naldshay are towards Caithness; and 
 to the west the long island of Hoy, 
 which presents a series of bold and 
 rugged promontories. 
 
 The Zetland or Shetland islands, 
 called by the natives Hialtland, form 
 one of the extremities of Europe, en- 
 circled by the illimitable extent of 
 the Arctic and Atlantic oceans. Placed 
 thus far north, and amid so wide a 
 waste of waters, the climate of Zet- 
 land is cold, bleak, swept by furious 
 winds, and deluged by torrents of rain. 
 The surface is rugged, without being 
 mountainous; it is everywhere pene- 
 trated by long lagoons with flat shores, 
 called voes, by which even the largest 
 islands are so intersected, that there is 
 scarcely a spot in them two miles distant from the sea. The extensive mosses, and the 
 trunks of tree^ dug out of them, prove that a vast expanse was once covered with natural 
 forests; but these are now totally eradicated, and the violence of the winds and sea-spray 
 has rendered abortive every attempt to replace them, so that the aspect of the country is 
 now completely naked, scarcely producing even a shrub. The cwists arc peculiarly steep, 
 rocky, and bold, the rocks being hollowed into deep caverns, and broken into precipices and 
 clifls of the most varied forms. The aspect of these shores, against which the waves of the 
 great surrounding ocean dash with almost perpetual fiiry, is equally grand and terrible. The 
 
 SAVI. 
 
 
 ..^♦" 
 
 _!_ 
 
 19 
 
 fV/ff. 
 
 • ^Sh«»p Cny 
 
 Eofliih Mild 
 
 -I 
 
 Reference to the Map of the Shetland Manda. 
 
 UNST. 
 1. Norwick 
 U. Veicarth 
 3. New Kirk. 
 
 yELL. 
 I WiDdhoun 
 
 3. Manae 
 
 2. niahorry 
 
 8. Jafiin 
 
 H. Brnk 
 
 20. aupnilal. 
 
 3. Sandwick 
 
 3. Orbuila 
 
 0. Bnrlild 
 
 l.'i. Iliiigwall 
 
 
 4. Queira. 
 
 
 10. Mclby 
 
 IH. Lerwick 
 
 BRrSSAY 
 
 
 5. 8uthi!rhuUiQ 
 
 11. Miickluro 
 
 17. Si. l>aur» 
 
 1. (lurilis 
 
 MAINLAND. 
 
 6. Deal 
 
 13. Culawlok 
 
 la Murwick 
 
 2. Si. Andie\v« 
 
 I. Bket 
 
 7. Srough 
 
 13. Banditcni! 
 
 lU Uiittuwu. 
 
 
 1 
 
 If 
 
w 
 
 4S2 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Paet III. 
 
 uutJior of " The Pimte" draws a most lively picture of those " deep and dangerous seas of 
 the north, their precipices and headlands, many hundred feet in height — their perilous 
 straits, and currents, and eddies — long sunken reefs of rock, over which the vivid ocean 
 foams and boils,— dark caverns, to whose extremities neither man nor skiff has ever ven- 
 tured, — lonely and oflcn uninhofbited isles, and occaeionall}' tlic ruins of ancient northern fast- 
 nesses, dimly seen by the feeble light of the arctic winter." The dangers of the navigation, 
 however, are considerably mitigated by the spacious and commodious haven?, formed by the 
 deep bays and vnrg, or by the sounds and channels, between different islands. 
 
 The Shetland Islands contain about 20,000 acres of arable land, and nearly as many of 
 gootl metulow ; but this comprises little more than a twentieth part of the surface, all the 
 rest consisting of waste or common, on which the horses, cattle, and sheep are turned out, 
 to find pastures iis best they may. The horses are of a very small size, with o huge mane, 
 but active and hardy. The cows are equally diminutive, and give very little milk, but both 
 the milk and the flesh are of good quality. The sheep ore most numerous of all, being 
 reckoned at seventy or eighty thousand ; they are stunted, like the other animals, and their 
 wool is very scnnty ; but some of it is peculiarly fine, affording the material of almost the only 
 nionufacturc of Shetland, — that of knit hosiery, of a texture close, sotl, and warm. The 
 greatest branch of Shetland industry, however, is the cod and ling fishery. All the coasts 
 abound with these fish ; and, within the last few years, a particularly rich and extensive 
 Iwnk has been discovered to the westward. At the proper season, fleets of boat'^ issue from 
 all the hays and voes, to the hnaf or deep sea-fishery, wiiich is carried on, not without peril, 
 at the distance of from twenty to thirty miles fi^m the coast. The fishermen are supplied 
 l)y tlie Iniidlords with boats and implements, on condition of their delivering to them the fish 
 at a stipuliited rate; and as their farms are held at will, they are in a state of vassalage 
 more complete, perhaps, than any other class in the United Kingdom. 
 
 The annals of Shetland are Norwegian. These islands, according to the earliest tradition, 
 were peopled from Norway. In the ninth century they were conquered by Harold Harfa- 
 ger, or the Fair-haired, the most powerful and formidable of all the sea-kings of the north. 
 The Norwegian sway extended for several centuries over all the Scottish islands ; but in 
 tlie Shetlnnds it was undisputed, till the cession of them, along witli tlio.«e of (!)rkney, as 
 the dowry of a princess of Norway married to James III., in the end of tlie fifteenth century. 
 Lerwick, the capital, is a thriving village, ill and irregularly built, but improving. 
 
 The oiiposite island of Bressay forms Bressay 
 Sound, one of the finest harbours in the 
 world, and the rendezvous of all the vessels 
 destined for the north and the whale fishery 
 Off Bressay is the Noss {fiff. 210.), a small 
 high island, with a flat summit, girt on all 
 sides by perpendicular walls of rock. The 
 communication with Bressay itself is main- 
 tained by strong ropes stretched across, along 
 which a cradle is run, in which the pas- 
 senger is seatetl. The promontories of Sum- 
 burgh and Fitfiil Head, at the southern ex- 
 tremity of tiie Mainland, are also distin- 
 guished by the boldness of their aspect and 
 the perils with which they threaten the ma- 
 riner. The number of the Shetlands has 
 been variously estimated, according to the gradations of islets and rocks included ; bii.': only 
 about forty are inhabited. Of these. Yell, and Unst, stretching northwards from the Main- 
 land, are alone of any magnitude. The last, though the most northerly, is rather the most 
 fertile of any, and distinguished by its numerous caves. Adjacent to Yell is Fetlar; on the 
 east of the Mainland are Whalsay and Bressay ; to the west, Burray, Uousa, Frondray, Papa 
 Stour, Muckle and Little Rooe, all so close as to be little more than peninsulas. Considera- 
 bly out at sen, Foula, a small rocky islet, faces the Atlantic, with high cliff's covered with 
 numberless flocks of sea-fowl. 
 
 210 
 
 NoH Holm, Shelluid. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 IREL.\ND. 
 
 iRELANn is a fine extensive island, sifiiated to the west of England, and forming one of 
 the throe grand [HDrtions of the United Kingdom. 
 
 Sect. 1. — General Outline and Aspect. 
 The greatest dimension of Ireland is from Cape Clear, in .'iP 10', to Malin Head, in 55° 
 23 N. latitude; making about "JHO m:les. The utmost breadth, if reckoned from the mos' 
 
Book I. 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 4Sii 
 
 • one of 
 
 Id, in 55° 
 1 the mos 
 
 easterly point of the county of Down (opposite Bur Island) to Dunmore Head in Kerry, will 
 be 218 miles; but it is nowhere so broad under the same parallel of latitude. The island, 
 accordiiifj to Benufbrt, contains more than 30,000 English square miles, or nearly 20,000,000 
 acres ; but, till the survey be completed, precision on this subject cannot be attained. 
 
 The siirliice of Ireland crnnot on the whole be called mountainous; its central districts 
 comjwsinff one vast plain, wiiich crosses the kingdom from east to west It is, however, 
 diversified by ranges of mountains, superior in extent, and, with the exception of those of 
 Wales, equal in elevation, to any in England. Wicklow, ip the vicinity of Dublin, may be 
 classed as an alpine region. On the borders of Leinster and Munster, the Slieve-Bloom, 
 the Knockmele Down, and the Galties, form long and lofty ranges, commanding an exten- 
 sive view over the wide plains that stretch beneath them. All these, however, are much 
 surpassed by tlie c'treme south-west county of Kerry, which presents a complete chaos of 
 lofty and rocky si "nits. The most elevated are those which enclose the beautiful and 
 finely wooded lakes of Killarney, Mangerton and Macgillicuddy's Reeks, the last of which 
 is considerably more than 3000 feet high. At the opposite or north-eastern extremity of 
 Ireland, Antrim presents to the Scottish seas a barrier of rocky cliffs, less lofty, hut of a 
 very liold and peculiar character ; precipitous, and formed into long columnar ranges ; a 
 phenomenon which the Giant's Causeway exhibits on a greater scale than uay other spot in 
 the known world. The Moume mountains, a lofty granite range in the south of the county 
 of Down ; those of Carlingford, which extend into the county of Armagh; with considerable 
 ranges in Tyrone, Dcrry, and Donegal, may dispute the pre-eminence with those of the 
 south. In Connaught there arc also some considerable detached mountains, of which Croagh- 
 patrick in Mayo has heen reckoned by some to exceed even Macgillicuddy's Reeks ; but Ire- 
 land has no extended tablcv-lands, like those which cover a considerable part of England. 
 The most elevated part of the Bog of Allen, in that central point where the rivers divide, 
 is not more than 270 feet above the level of the sea. 
 
 The Shannon is without a rival in the three kingdoms. It rises far in the north, from 
 Lough Allen in the province of Connaught, and has a course of 170 miles, throughout the 
 whole of which it is more or less navigable, the only obstruction which existed having been 
 removed. Below liimerick it expands into an estuary about sixty miles in length, by which 
 the largest vessels have access to that city. Tiie Barrow is also an important river, which 
 runs southward through the greater part of Leinster, receives from the west the Nore and 
 the Suire, and finally forms tlie harbour of VVaterford. The Boyne, so celebrated for the 
 victory gained on its banks; the Foyle, which, after passing Londonderry, forms Lough 
 Foyle; the Bnnn, which passes through Lough Neogh, and affords a flourishing saimon 
 fishery ; and the Blackwater, which terminates in the bay and port of Youghal, are also de- 
 serving of mention. The other rivers are rather numerous than of long course ; but they 
 almost all terminate in wide estuaries and louffhs, which diffuse through Ireland the means 
 of water communication, and afford a multiplicity of spacious and secure harbours. 
 
 Lakes or loughs are a conspicuous feature in Ireland, where this last name, like the 
 similar one used in Scotland, is in many instances applied to arms of the sea. Lough Neagh 
 is the largest lake in the United Kingdom, covering nearly 100,000 acres. Its banks are 
 flat, tome, and in many places marshy and inundated. Lough Erne, also in Ulster, is 
 divided into two reaches, the united length of which is about thirty miles, while its circuit 
 includes a great variety of rich and ornamented scenery. Iiough Foyle, Lough Swilly, and 
 Belfast Lough, are properly bays. The Shannon forms several lakes, of which Lough Ree 
 is the principal ; and the whole of its course downwards from Limerick resembles more a 
 lough or bay than a river, (connaught has several extensive lakes. That of Killarney, in 
 the soutli, is famed, not for its extent, but for the singular grandeur and beauty of its 
 shores. A fuller description of tliis and some others now mentioned will be found under the 
 local section. 
 
 Sect. II. — Natural Geography. 
 
 The Botany and Zoology of Ireland, having been treated under the head of England, this 
 section will be confined to Geology. 
 
 SuBSECT. 1. — Geology of Ireland, 
 
 The geology of this p:irt of the empire is not so well known as that of Great Britain. 
 Tlio following skoteh will enable our readers to form a general conception of the geognos- 
 tienl structure of those parts of the island which have been already surveyed ; viz. — 1. North 
 of Trclanil ; 2. Connaught coal district ; 3. East of Ireland ; 4. South, and part of the west 
 of Ireland. 
 
 (1.) yorthoflrtland. Thisdistrict.limttcd by Dundalk Bay on the south-east, and by Lough 
 Foyle on the north-west, is marked by three distinct systems or groups of mountains, one of 
 wliich occupies the more southern counties , while the more northern are divided between 
 the two others. 
 
 1st system. The Moume mountains. — ^The Moume mountains form a well-deflned 
 Vol. I. 8T 3 E 
 
484 
 
 MAP OP IRELAND. 
 
 Fio. 211 
 
 11 
 
 UOfttallr Wen 8 Irma Orernwich 
 
BooeI. 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 435 
 
 group, extending from Dundrum Bay to Carlingford Bay, in the southern extremity of Down. 
 Slieve Donard is the highest summit of this group, and rises about 2654 feet above the level 
 of the sea. The north-west of the main group, tiic Fathom Hill, Sliove Girkcn, or the 
 Newry mountains, and Slieve (iullen, are situated in the south-east of Armagh ; and the 
 Rnvcnsdale and Carlingford mountains, in the north of Louth, may be considered aa its ap- 
 pendages. Granite, wliich is the prevailing rock of these niouiitaiiis, contains beautiful 
 ■ rock crystals, also felspar and mica crystals, topaz and beryl. To the north of the Moume 
 mountains Slieve Croob, composed of syenite, and Slieve Anitiky, nf hornblende rock, form 
 an elevated tract, dependent upon, but placed at some distance thui), the main group. Horn- 
 blende rock, greenstone, and porphyry are said to be abundant on the skirts of this granite dis- 
 trict. The Plutonian granite and syenite hills rise through strata of transition rocks, which 
 are greywacke, greywacke slate, transition clay slate, and transition limestone. The Plu- 
 tonian rocks bear but a small proportion in superficial extent to those of the transition class, 
 the latter advancing west and north into Cavan, and to Belfast Ix)Ugh and the peninsula of 
 Ards. The points of tlie coast of Scotland, directly opposite the peninsula of Ards, present in 
 the neighbourhood of Portpatrick, and through the great alpine band which traverses the 
 south of Scotland, and terminates on the east coast of St Abb's Head, the same transition 
 rocks. Hence it is probable that the great southern high land of Scotland was formerly 
 joined with the transition hills of the Moume mountain group by a ridge of land extending 
 across the Channel from Scotland to Ireland. In this district, there are some patches of 
 mountain limestone and of old red sandstone. 
 
 2d system. Primitive chain of Londonderry. — This mountain group rises at the distance 
 of about 30 miles to the north-north-west of the external chains of the first sj^stem, including 
 the counties of liOndonderry and Donegal. One of the iiighest points in this district is Sawell, 
 said to be 22.57 feet above the level of the sea. This great tract of country is principally 
 comiK>sed of mica slate, with various .bordinate beds, as limestone, quartz, &c. On the 
 eastern bank of the Roe, these mica siato hills and mountains are succeeded by a range of 
 secondary hills covered by a great platform of secondary trap, and forming a part of the 
 third system of hills, afterwards to be described. These newer rocks repose upon and con- 
 
 lieferencet to the Map of Inland. 
 
 NORTH PART. 
 I. Newtonglfini 
 3. Ballycnstle 
 
 3. CloiJKh 
 
 4. Raaharkan 
 .5. Italtymnn/ 
 G. Coleraino 
 
 7. Garva;Th 
 
 8. <iiBnt'a Sconce 
 
 9. Ilallrkelly 
 
 10. Muff 
 
 11. Rallynally 
 U. Malm 
 
 13. Cam 
 
 14. nuinroot 
 1.1. Oinakill 
 m. Raihmullin 
 17. rioiiyhock 
 
 15. Dungloti 
 19. Convoy 
 
 50. Htranoilan 
 21. Rmihop 
 
 3-2. Ijoiiilondcrry 
 83. I.iffor.l 
 •U. StraUane 
 2.5. daily 
 
 36. Maghen 
 
 37. flwatlerntEh 
 '». Krlb 
 
 2!>. Glenarm 
 '.n. Ilaltycorry 
 31. rarrickfeTgua 
 .33. Crumlia 
 33. Antrim 
 .M. Kiiri(talfi(own 
 3.1. .Mnneymore 
 
 36. (;7ook8tt)Wn 
 
 37. FrodRrickBtown 
 
 38. Newton Stewart 
 3(1. Heaebrll 
 
 40. Tlori Bridge 
 
 41. Ardrca 
 43. Tillen 
 
 43. Killybegi 
 
 44. Inver 
 
 45. Ponesal 
 
 40. Hiill);8hnnnon 
 47. Garridiui 
 4a Churchill 
 40. ('aiuldy 
 
 aa. KpsIi 
 
 51. OniHgh 
 53. Ghicrterny 
 13. HallyEawley 
 ."M. tlLickWiilcr 
 .1.1. Ilunennnon 
 50. Kingiinilll 
 
 57. MiiM 
 
 58. Heirait 
 S). Holywooil 
 
 60. Donaghadco 
 01. (iray Abbey 
 63. I'orlarerry 
 6:1. Downpatricic 
 04. Killinchy 
 6.1. Ilillnhorough 
 
 66. Dundruni 
 
 67. Raihf'riland 
 
 68. tiouihbrick- 
 
 land 
 60. Lurgan 
 7U. Armagh 
 71. Newtown Ha- 
 
 milion 
 73. Mnnachan 
 
 73. Augher 
 
 74. Clogher 
 
 75. Five Mile 
 
 Town 
 
 76. Donough 
 
 77. Liinaakea 
 
 78. Ralluwhill 
 70. Enniikillcn 
 80. liargay 
 Sl.Siridock 
 83. Slieo 
 
 83. Dunatra 
 W. Bonro 
 K1. Killala 
 
 86. Baltiglan 
 
 87. Inver 
 
 88. CIngan 
 
 89. Ballina 
 
 90. Fo.xr(ird 
 
 91. Swineford 
 93. llalcarra 
 93. Ballymule 
 04. Ijeitrim 
 
 95. Balltngmo;e 
 
 06. BelturtK.t 
 
 97. CavaR 
 
 98 n-.,n 
 
 99. T.idlyhav 
 Ifld. Cantlfl Blaney 
 101. Jnnedboro 
 103. Newry 
 UI3. Narrnw Water 
 1114. Kilkeel 
 10.1. rurltrtirfiird 
 
 106. nundnik 
 
 107. l.oulh 
 1118. Lnrgiin 
 109. CloBhcr 
 no. l.adyrnth 
 111. Nobbcr 
 113. Moynally 
 
 113. Ballyborough 
 
 114. Stradone 
 
 115. Bally Jamcadu 
 lie. Roeaduir 
 
 117. JamoRtown 
 
 118. Elpbm 
 
 119. Carrick on 
 
 Shannon 
 
 120. Tulsk 
 
 131. Ballyhadirecn 
 133. Ballihaunli 
 
 133. Kilkelly 
 
 134. Kilcolman 
 
 135. Boartree 
 
 136. Ballinvary 
 127. Newport 
 138. Cnttlebar 
 129. Weatport 
 l:i0. Killery 
 131. Claggan 
 1.33. Bunowen 
 
 133. Cong 
 
 134. Ballinrnbe 
 131. Hollymnunt 
 136. Kilmainmore 
 i:l7. Blenwoll 
 138. Dunmore 
 1.39. Glanamnddy 
 
 140. Balliniober 
 
 141. Ruacoinmon 
 143. Tarmnnbarry 
 
 143. l.ungford 
 
 144. Krnagb 
 14.1. Ed«9Worlli«- 
 
 town 
 
 146. Johnstown 
 
 147. Miillingar 
 
 148. rionmellon 
 
 149. Trim 
 
 1.10. !)unimcrhill 
 MI.Navan 
 152. Skryne 
 
 1.13. Drogheda 
 
 1.14. Naut 
 155. Bworda 
 
 SOUTH PART. 
 1. Kilkerran 
 3. Inverun 
 
 3. Sunna 
 
 4. Killamecn 
 
 5. Rnlway 
 
 6. Ilmidrord 
 
 7. Reldare 
 
 8. Aihcnry 
 
 9. Monivia 
 
 10. Tuam 
 
 11. CnMle Blackney 
 
 12. Bnllinofitoe 
 
 13. Bailiniimnrfl 
 
 14. Knockroughry 
 
 15. Athlone 
 
 16. Mayatown 
 
 17. Mont a Grenogue 
 
 18. Ballimore 
 
 19. Pbilipalown 
 
 20. Tyrrel'a Paaa 
 
 31. Ballydemot 
 
 32. Longwood 
 
 33. Cluncuny 
 
 34. riane 
 
 35. Maynooth 
 26. Ralnalh 
 37. Rathcoole 
 9a Dublin 
 30. Killuiibbin 
 30. Innixkerry 
 3I.Wicklow 
 33. Donard 
 
 33. BIcaaingtun 
 
 34. Naaa 
 
 3.1. Old Kilcullcn 
 no. Kihiare 
 
 37. Portarlington 
 
 38. Mounlmclick 
 
 39. Birr 
 
 40. Bangher 
 
 41. Eyre Court 
 43. Poitumna 
 
 43. Augbrim 
 
 44. I.oughrca 
 4.1. Carnamart 
 
 46. Rorl 
 
 47. Killany 
 
 48. KillO-nora 
 
 49. Innialymon 
 
 50. Pnnia 
 
 51. Clare 
 
 53. Talla 
 .1.3. Scarriff 
 
 54. Killalue 
 
 55. Nenagh 
 .16. Burreaakan 
 .17. Roacrea 
 .18. Raihdowny 
 .10. Ballynakilf 
 
 60. Maryborough 
 
 61. Alhv 
 63. Carfow 
 
 63. Sirnlford 
 
 64. Bnltinslnsa 
 6.1. Ralbvillo 
 
 66. Tinchely 
 
 67. Ralhdium 
 88. Ark low 
 
 69. Gorer 
 
 70. Ferns 
 
 71. Cloneirnll 
 73. Burria 
 
 73. Old I^ighlm 
 
 74. Kilkenny 
 
 75. Urlingford 
 
 76. Kill?naulo 
 
 77. Burri^leagh 
 
 78. Toomevara 
 
 79. Silver Mine 
 
 80. Newport 
 
 81. liinierick 
 
 83. Bridiretown 
 
 8:1 Six Mile Bridge 
 
 84. Pnrndiso 
 8,1. Clanderlagh 
 
 86. Kilruib 
 
 87. Dunbegs 
 
 88. Ballyhi'igh 
 
 89. Lixnaw 
 
 90. Millilreet 
 
 91. Ballylongford 
 03. Liilowcl) 
 
 93. Abbyroale 
 
 94. Glynn 
 
 95. Ardngh 
 
 96. Aakeaton 
 
 97. Kiddneh 
 if. Hrures 
 
 99. Patrick's Well 
 
 100. Brufl 
 
 101. t^ullen 
 103. Tipperary 
 
 103. Cappagh 
 
 104. Golifen Bridge 
 10.1. Cashol 
 
 106. Felhard 
 
 107. Ballypatrick 
 
 108. Knocktopher 
 
 109. Innibtioge 
 no. Thomnsion 
 
 111. Now Ross 
 
 112. Enniacortby 
 
 113. Killane 
 
 114. Ballrmarlin 
 
 115. Tagnmon 
 
 116. Wexford 
 
 117. Ituncornuck 
 
 118. (Nonmines 
 
 119. Wbitocborch 
 
 120. Walerrord 
 
 131. Kilmacow 
 
 132. Kilmacthomas 
 
 133. Clonmel 
 
 134. Ballynamult 
 125. Cabir 
 
 136. Rallyporecn 
 
 137. Arailin 
 
 138. Kilwnrib 
 129. Ballyhooly 
 riO. n.incrailo 
 131. Mallow 
 133. l.iscarrol 
 1'I3. Newmarket 
 1.14. Ciis bland 
 
 135. Abbey Odoine 
 
 136. Tralee 
 137. 1.ispote 
 138. Dingle 
 i;«. Cahir 
 140. Aghart 
 MLGIanliagh 
 143. Milltown 
 
 143. Kenmare 
 
 144. Killnrncy 
 
 145. Sbinaeh 
 
 146. Mill Street 
 
 147. Mactomp 
 
 148. Cork 
 
 149. Fennoy 
 1.10. Ratcormuck 
 l51 . Ijismore 
 1.12. Dungarvan 
 
 153. Agliah 
 
 154. Voughal 
 15.1. Cloyne 
 
 156. Carlisle Fort 
 
 157. Passage 
 
 158. Camden Fort 
 
 159. Kinsnle 
 
 160. Innisbannon 
 
 161. IncbigeelHgb 
 
 162. Dunmanaway 
 16.3. Glengart 
 
 164. Gariiilah 
 
 165. Rantry 
 
 166. DunmanuB 
 
 167. Baltimore 
 
 168. Skibbereen 
 169. 1.oap 
 
 170. Timoloague 
 
 Kirert. te. 
 a Foyle, R. 
 b Rann, R. 
 c Mayola, R. 
 d Newry Canal 
 
 Bnyoe, R. 
 f l.ifTey. R. 
 g Slaney, R. 
 h Bairow, R. 
 i Nore, R. 
 
 i Siiirn. R. 
 
 k Blackwatcr, R 
 
 1 Lee. R. 
 
 m Bandoii. R. 
 n Flesk, R. 
 o Shannon. R. 
 p Carnamarl, R. 
 q Moyop. R. 
 r Suck, R. 
 a Moy, R. 
 t Deel, R. „ 
 u Munreei R. 
 
 i 'i 
 
ii!i 
 
 486 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt hi. 
 
 I 
 
 ] 
 
 111 
 
 ceal tlio mica alato in tlie enfltorn part of Dcrry, but the mica slate again emerges from 
 beneatii this covering, atlcr an interval uf about 30 miles, on the north-east coubt ut Antrim, 
 and rises into hills, which break down abruptly towards the coast between Tor I'oint and 
 Cushondcn Buy. The mica slute rocks on this part of the Irisih coubt may bo considered a 
 continuation ot those that occur on the oppoHilo coast of Scotland at the Mull of Cuntyro, 
 or, on a more general view, aa u continuation of the great Grampian range, which may, in 
 this way, be said to extend from the north-east coast of Scotland to the western shores of - 
 Ireland, on the coasts of Uunegal. In the eastern part of Tyrone, which intervenes 
 between the transition mountains and the mica slate mountains, a coal Ibrmation occurs 
 associated with that kind of limestone which is usuall> found below coal in Great Britain. 
 The position of this coalfield otfers another analogy witli Scotland, where tlie space between 
 the southern and northern mountains is principally occupied by rocka of the coal formation. 
 
 3d system of mountains. The Trap group. — This group mav be described as separated 
 into two chains, bounding on the east and west the trough or valley through which tlie river 
 Bann flows from liough Neagh to the ocean. The eastern chain lies in the county of An- 
 trim, being comprehended between thu valley of the Bann and the North channel. It pre- 
 sents an abrupt declivity towards the sea, falling with a gentle slope towards the west, in 
 which direction the beds composing its mass incline. Knock-lead, in the northern extremity 
 of the chain, is the highest summit : it rises 1820 feet above the level of the sea ; but the 
 basis of this hill is occupied to the height of 600 feet by primitive mica slate rock, leaving 
 only lf^20 feet for the thickness of the secondary strata peculiar to this system. Diris Hill, 
 near the southern extremity of the chain, is wholly composed of secondary strata, and 
 attains an elevation of 1475 feet. The western port of the chain included between the 
 Roe and the Bann forms the exact counterpart of the former ; but the strata here dip nearly 
 in a contrary direction, viz. towards the north-east ; the fall of the hills being gradually in 
 this direction, while they front the west and south with abrupt and precipitous cliffs. Crag- 
 noshoack, at the southern extremity, rises 1864 feet above the sea, and is the highest sum- 
 mit of the group. The geological nature of this third system is very different from that of 
 the two former ; all the principal formations belonging to the secondary class of rocks. 
 These rocks are partly Plutonian and partly Neptunian. The Neptunian rocks are gene- 
 rally covered with an enormour mass of secondary trap, which appears to attain its greatest 
 thickness on the nortli ; the trap cap of Beny-Avenagh, the most nortliern summit of the 
 western chain, measuring more than 900 feet : the average depth of this superimposed moss 
 may therefore be estimated at 545 feet, and its superficial extent at 800 square miles. The 
 trap rocks are greenstone, basalt, amygdaloid, wacke, and red bole ; occasionally associated 
 with them, forming isolated tmctj, as in tlie Sandybrea district, there are porphyries of dif- 
 ferent kinds, as pitchstonc and [)earl-stone porphyries. The amygdaloid and also some of 
 the other rocks of this scries contain calc spar and white calceduny, semiopal, fV;lspar, and 
 steatite, or serpentine. Tlie ba^^alt contains olivine. Iron pyrites is a mineral frequently 
 disseminated in the greenstone. Wood coal occurs in seams varying from two inches to 
 four or five feet in thickness, altcmatmg with trap rocks, near Ballentoy ; also in the cliffs 
 of Fortnoffer on the east of the Giant's Causoway, at Killymoris near the centre of the trap 
 area, and at Portmaoc, and other places on the eastern shore of Lough Neagh. 
 
 Veins of trap. Trap veins exhibit many interesting phenomena, particularly in their pas- 
 sage through chalk, which they sometimes convert into a kind of marble. Thoy traverse 
 not only the Neptunian strata, us chalk, lias, and coal formation, but also trap itself. The 
 most interesting and splendid displays of tlie trap rocks occur at the Giant's Causeway and 
 Fairhead, so well known to travellers ; and the cliffs of Kenbaan exhibit very interesting 
 displays of the commingling of the trap and chalk. 
 
 Underneath and sometimes intermingled with this vast mass of trap are the following 
 Neptunian formations : — Chalk, which is frequently very compact, and sometimes, as where 
 in immediate contact with the Plutonian rocks, changed into a granular limestone resem- 
 bling marble : the average thickness does not amount to more than 200 feet. Underneath 
 the chalk occurs the deposit known under the name mulatto stone, tlic green sand of Eng- 
 lish geologists, lying upon the lias limestone. Underneath the lias occur beds of red and 
 variegated marl, variegated sandstone with gypsum, and from these issue salt springs. 
 These four formations, which, together with the trap, form the whole mass of the hills 
 belonging to the third system, cannot bo estimated as possessing a less average thickness 
 than from 800 to UKK) feet. The whole system appears at the north-eastern and south- 
 western extremities to repose upon the coal formation and its accompanying rocks, and 
 tliese on the transition or primitive rocks.* Coul occurs in Tyrone, at Coal Island and Dun- 
 gannon, and in Antrim, near Ballycastle. Of these, the collieries at Ballycastle, which 
 occupy an extent of not loss than one English mile along the coatit, arc the most considerable. 
 They have been long wrought, and were once in a more prosperous state than at present, aa 
 
 * Patches of old nd tandtlmt occur on the eut coaal between Ballygelly and Olenarm Bajr ; and alio on tb* 
 jame coail to the southward of Gcrron Point. 
 
Part UI. 
 
 loTUCB from 
 ot Antrim, 
 r I'uint anil 
 unitiilcrcd a 
 uf Cuntyre, 
 ch may, ill 
 n slioruit of 
 
 intorvenea 
 ition occurs 
 eat Britain, 
 ico between 
 1 formation. 
 \B separated 
 ch Uie river 
 unty of An- 
 lel. It pre- 
 tlie west, in 
 rn extremity 
 tea,; but the 
 vck, leaving 
 
 Diria Hill, 
 ' strata, and 
 between the 
 re dip nearly 
 gradually in 
 cliffs. Crag- 
 liighcst sum- 
 from that of 
 ass of rocks. 
 :ks are genc- 
 n its greatest 
 ummit of the 
 imposed mass 
 f miles. The 
 Uy associated 
 hyries of dif- 
 also some of 
 
 felspar, and 
 •al frequently 
 wo inches to 
 
 ill the cliffa 
 re of the trap 
 
 r in their pas- 
 'hey traverse 
 itself. The 
 lauscway and 
 y interesting 
 
 the following 
 les, as where 
 stone resem- 
 Underneatli 
 iand of Eng- 
 \s of red and 
 salt sprin/^s. 
 of the hills 
 ige thickness 
 n and south- 
 ig rocks, and 
 ind and Dun- 
 :astle, which 
 Iconsiderable. 
 it present, as 
 
 I and tlM on tb* 
 
 Book I. 
 
 FREIjKND. 
 
 4S7 
 
 they used formerly to send from 10,(KX) to IS.CMK) tons of coal to tlic market ycurly ; whcroa* 
 now tlic quantity cxp rted docs not amount to more timn KA\0 or 'MM tons. Tlic coal of 
 those districts is ali.iost entirely what Bergcr culls slate coiil. In one of tlio works, liow- 
 cvrr, in Cwil Island, u bod of ciiiino! coal, six fo(>t thick, is saiil to have bi'ru wniiiglit. 
 
 Tlie luoHt rcniarkttblo miiionilH of the alluvial kind tbuiid in this part of Ireland are the 
 fossil woods of lA>ugh Noagli, a shnol of water I'M tint alnivo llio level of tlio sea, ulxjul 
 nineteen miles f^ix tiirlonffs long from N. VV. to H. E., and liirty-five feet deep at its centre. 
 The wood is silicilied, and in some Bpccimcns one extremity will bo petritied, wiiile the other 
 remains in a ligneous state. The oak, the holly, and thu ha/.cl ajipeur to have been the 
 trees tliiia affected. It occurs in alluvium in the neighbourhood of the lake. 
 
 Qi.) Connaughl Coal Dislricl. This district occupies a pt)rtion of the counties )f Roe- 
 common, tSligo, and Leitrim, in the province of Connaught, and part of the county Cavan in 
 the province of Ulster. liough Allen, situated near the head of tlie river Shannon, tbrms a 
 basin in the centre of the district. 
 
 A range of primary mountains, varying in breadth from three miles to a quarter of a mile, 
 extends from Poxforu in the county of Slayo, to Colooiiey in tho county of Sligo, and ter- 
 minates two miles to the north-east of Manor-Hamilton, which may be viewed as the base 
 on which the newer formation of this part of Ireland rests. This range of country is prin- 
 cipally composed of mica slate, with some subordinate rocks. Bcnbo Mountain, near Manor- 
 Hamilton, 1403 feet above the sea, may be cited us exhibiting an interesting display of the 
 various primitive rocks. Tho summit, and about 8(K) feet immediately below it, are com- 
 posed of a fine granular granite : the granite is covered on both siiles of the mountain with 
 gneiss, dipping in tho direction of its declivity at an angle of 5()°. At the base of the 
 mountain, mica slate, with garnets, hornblende rock and hornblende slate, are seen. Large 
 blocks of beautiful syenite, also of serpentine with embedded garne'j, were found in u stream 
 at the base of the mountain near Lurganboy. The western si' ; of Bcnbo is traversed by a 
 vein of copper pyrites, which was formerly wrought, but apparently to no great extent. 
 Veins of iron pyrites also occur there. 
 
 Resting upon these old rocks in many places, wo observe tlie first or oi^ 'cd sandstone 
 formation. A tract of this sandstone extends in Roscommon from west to east, li.-ii Dcrry- 
 naslicve to Cashcarrigans, and in greatest breadth in a southerly and northerly direuiiuu, 
 from Leitrim to the neighbourhood of Drumshambo. Resting uikjii this sandstone, Ibrtning 
 the base of the coal district, and encircling it, is the mountain or carbimiferous limesUme. 
 This limestone exhibits the usual character of the formations. The coal formation rests 
 Mi)on the limestone, nnd is the uppermost or newest of tho secondary deposits met with in 
 this part of Ireland. The external aspect of this coal district is described ns being hilly 
 and dreary, and as extending in greatest h.-ngth in a north and south direction, from Down 
 Mountain to Kodduo, about sixteen miles, and in greotcst breadth from the hi'ls aliove Swud- 
 linbar to Killargy, sixteen miles. The area of the whole coal country witiiin the edge of 
 the limestone is about 114,000 Irish acres; exclnsive of Slieve Russcl, which is Jotuchcd 
 from the great district by the limestone valley of Swadlinbar. The rocks which forn; the 
 coral series in the Connaughl coal district are similar to those met with in otlier coalfields. 
 Besides coal, which is tiie black hitumiiwus species, the formation contains sandstone flag, 
 slate clay, bituminous slate, clay ironstone, and fire clay. Some kinds of the coal afford in 
 the 100 parts, 71.42 carbon, 23.37 bitumen, and 5.21 gray ashes. Iron-works. The beds 
 of clay ironstone that occur in all parts of the Connaught coal district appear, at an early 
 period, to have attracted the attention of miners ; and works, on a small scale, called 
 bloomeries, were carried on in various parts of the adjoining country, as long as any wood 
 remained to supply them with clmrcoal, but they have since been given up. 
 
 (3.) East of Ireland. This district extends nearly 100 miles from north to south, and 
 between sixty and ninety miles from east to west, comprehending about a third part of the 
 island. It is bounded on the east by the Irir.h Channel, on the south and west by the moun- 
 tains which confine tho Siiire and the Shannon, and on the north by the clay slate hills of 
 Louth and the mountain limestone hills of Meath, the cluy slato hills of Cavan and the 
 mountain limestone of Longford, and by a lino produced from thence to the bay of Galway. 
 In the landscape of Ireland there is one very remarkable feature, which cannot fail to strike 
 every observer ; in traversing most parts of the island, we meet with ranges und groups of 
 bold mountainous and hilly tracts, in some degree isolated, while tho interval between thorn 
 is generally occupied by a surface that appears nearly level, when viewed on the great scale, 
 but which is found, on a nearer view, to present a gently waved outline: a considerable 
 expansion of the plain occupies tho central counties of Ireland, and extends across the island 
 from Ilnblin Bay on the east, to fJalway Bay on tho we.»t; and in general, where a similar 
 plain surflice occurs, the immediately subjacent rock is mountain limestone; to the abuiid 
 ance of which mineral, next to tho mild temperature and general moisture of the climate, 
 tho soil of Ireland is prokilily more indebted ibr its superior fertility than to any other cause 
 
 In this di.-trict niounl liiiuiis am! hilly tracts arise alwve the surface of the limestone plain 
 on the east, tlic siuitli, the west, the centre, ami the north. The eastern chain extends from 
 
 37* 
 
 I in 
 
438 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt ni. 
 
 the north side of Dublin Bay to tlio coiifliinnco of lliu Hiirrow with tho Smro on the bouUi. 
 The hiffhcst point i8 Lu|;imiiuiliii, which ia :M)70 t'uct iilmvo low-wutor-niurk in Dublin iky. 
 It cunHibtM alnioHt wholly (if priniitivn anil trunsition rucks, of which tho following 8|)cciox 
 occur; grunito, mica slatp, quurtz rock, clay »lato, greywiickc, trap nnil porphyry. iMetulli- 
 ferous mincralH arc wanting on tho west nIiIo of tho jrri.nito chain, but utxMniu on the caul 
 Hide. In tho irranilo and mica «lato diHtricta there are voinx of galona or load t^lancu ; of 
 thoHC tho niout considerable aro in Glunnialur; in thn clay ulute tract eleven dillerunt 
 metallic oubHtanccs have been met with, via. gold, nilver, copper, iron, load, zinc, tin, tunj^- 
 8ten, nmnganoHe, arsenic, and antimony. 
 
 N'ltive gold occura in the Ballinvalley utrcams at Croghan Kinahcla : and in 1801, regular 
 mining was comtncnced, but did not load to any im|MrtAnt rounltii; and after a time the working 
 was given up. Tho gold of Croghan Kinshela occurred in grains and maBiies from the smallest 
 size to lumpo of considerable weight; onn piece weighed twenty-two ounces. The gold wan 
 found in alluvium, accompanied with other metallic substances, as magnetic iron ore, iron 
 glance, rod iron ore, brown iron ore, iron pyrites, tiimtone, wolfram, gray manganese ore, and 
 fragments of quartz and chlorite. In some specimens the gold was observed ramified in slen- 
 der threads through the wolfram, and in others incorporated with iron ochre : some of the gold 
 was crystallized in octahedrons, and also in the elongated garnet doducahedral form. Native 
 gold was also found in Croghan Moira mine, about seven miles distant from the former 
 mountain, but in small quantity. 
 
 The copper mines of Cronbano and Tigrony, in this district, arc situated in clay slate and 
 ijuartzose cluy slate. The ores, which are copper pyrites and black copper ore, aro asso- 
 ciated witli iron pyrites, and rarely with galena ; and auriferous silver occurs in beds in the 
 slaty strata. In the twelve years ending in 1811, the produce of the mines was 10,!)42tona 
 13 cwt. of ore ; yielding 1040 tons 10 cwt. of copp<:r. Tho mineral waters flowing from 
 the mines are impregnated with blue vitriol or sulphate of copper. These waters are re- 
 ceived into tanks, in which the muddy particles are allowed to subside. The clear waters 
 are then passed into pits filled with plate and scrap iron, which occasions a precipitation of 
 the copper. 
 
 The other tracts of this district are composed of secondary rocks, more or less deeply 
 covered with diluvial and alluvial deposits. The secondary rocks are old red sandstone, 
 7nountain limestone, (or as it u called in Ireland, Irish limestone,) and the coal formation. 
 Of these formations the mountain limestone is by far the most abundant ; indeed, with the 
 exception of the counties of Derry and Antrim in the north, and Wicklow in the east, there 
 is no county in the iuland in which it docs not prevail moro or less. The coal formation 
 occurs in the Leituter coal district. The sandstone, slate, ironstone, clu y, and coal, which 
 constitute the series, alternate with each other, and the whole rests on the niountain lime- 
 stone, and is frequently disposed in the basin shape. Tho coal of this district is glance coal, 
 the blind coal of miners, the anthracite of French geologists, the Kilkenny coal of some 
 authors (so named because the town of Kilkenny is situated in this coalfield). 
 
 The most interesting alluvial phenomena are those exhibited by t! o limestone gravel, the 
 granite blocks, and the vast peat bogs. The great limestone field abounds in hillocks and ridges 
 of limestone gravel. Sometimes these ridges appear like regular mounds, the work of art, 
 forming a continued line of several miles in extent. That which piisse.a by Maryborough, 
 in the Queen's County, is a remarkable instance of this kind ; and similar mounds, hilloclts, 
 and ridgey occur also in the counties of Meatli, Westmeath, Kildare, Carlow, and other por- 
 tions of the limestone field, in which the limestone gravel and sand frequently exhibit a 
 stratified arrangement, the alternate beds being very distinct from each other. The in- 
 equality of surrace thus produced, seems to have occasioned the formation of those extensive 
 tracts of peat bog which cover so considerable a portion of the limestone plain of Ireland.* 
 The natural course of springs and streams being obstructed, stagnant lakes and pools of 
 water were formed ; thus promoting the growth of those aquatic reeds, grasses, and rushes, 
 which, by their constant increase and decay, appear to compose the mass of the bogs of Ire- 
 lajid. In this manner it is conceivable that shallow lakes may in process of time have 
 iKJcome entirely filled with peat ; and that peat bogs may thus have gradually acquired a 
 convexity of surface, or at least that greater declivity by which their borders are dis- 
 tinguished, Tho average depth of these bogs is commonly from sixteen to twenty-five feet, 
 but the extreme depth observed is forty-seven feet. In the same manner we may conceive 
 the graflual growth of peat bog to have successively exti.'nded from the higher regions to 
 the flunks, and thence to the feet, of mountains. That fallen forests were not the primary 
 origin of these pent liogs .seems evident from the circumstance that two and even three suc- 
 cessive ;[jrowtlis of trees liave boon observed nt different depths in a section of the same bog. 
 In these instances, the trees lie liorizuntally, frequently crossing each other, and either 
 attached to their roots or broken over ; and in th"3 latter case the stumps usually stand erect 
 where they grew. The prostration of trees, however, may to a certom extent have acted 
 
 *l'eat ii eatimaliiU In extend over n tenth of the whole island. 
 
Book I. 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 489 
 
 an an auxilinry in promoting tUo growth ot'iioat hogn; and tliw prostmtion appears in ffcnoral 
 tn have tal<L>n pliicu uitlior tVuin natural ducny, or I'roin tTw» |)U!<M!tiMing littlu liold or a wrt 
 spongy soil iiuvinj^ been ovcrlurncd by Mtornm. Tliia mtiy pnrlly account for treen of all aj{pH 
 bcinir fuunil in tho bogH of Ireland, wiiethor tlicac bt>|rii bo Hituiited in uluinH, or Ibrin ttio ini- 
 inedlatu cover of hi^rli mountain IractH, 'I'ho univerHal dtntruction ot the forcstii of Ireland 
 ia principally to bo attributed to the (reneral introduction of iron furnaces, at* tho most profit- 
 able mo<lo of conHuniinft the timber, then a. material OBtoeinod of little value; and hence the 
 almost total ;io(r|oct of co|Min^ those tructx in which the woodn had boon felled. Tho marl 
 beds, Ru frequently mot with in those peat bogs, are curious in a zoological view, fVom their 
 occasionally containing remains of that splendid animal tho fossil elk. But tho rnmains of 
 the extinct s|)ecie8 occur also in the travel; and tho late Mr. Edge worth observed the re- 
 mains of tho red deer in the siime marl as that which contained the extinct species. 
 
 (4.) South of Ireland. Under this division wo comprise tlie counties of Cork, Kerry, 
 Clare, Watertbrd, Tipperary, and part of Gulway. 
 
 This mountainous, hilly, and uiversitied region is chiefly composed of chains having 
 generally a direction from east to west, and attaining their greatest elevation in tho moun- 
 tains of Kerry, where Gurrane Tual, ono of Macgillicuddy's Ilceks, near Killarney (tho 
 highest land in Ireland), is 8410 feet above the sea. The rocks in this elevuti:d county are 
 chiefly of tho transition class: they docline gradually (Mivards tho north, and filially pass 
 under tho old red sandstone and mountain limestone of the midland counties. Tho follow- 
 ing may be considered a general estimate of the gcognostical relations of the south of 
 Ireland : — 
 
 Trantition rocks. In Kerry, tho transition strata range from east to west, and dip to the 
 north and south, with vertical beds in the axes of the ranges: the strata, as they diminish 
 in inclination on each side, form a succession of troughs. The rocks are chiefly Neptunian, 
 tho Plutonian being comparatively rare. Tho Neptunian are oithor simple or compound ; 
 the simple are day »late, quurlz rock, hornatone, Lydian stone, and limestone: the com- 
 pound are, grcywacke, grcywncke slate, sandstone. The Plutonian rocks are greenstone 
 and porphyry. Organic remains occur in tho limestone, slate, and greywackc, but mori- 
 frequently and abundantly in t!ie limestone than in the other rocks. In Kenmaro these 
 fossils consist of a few bivalves, and some crinoidal remains; and these also are most 
 numerous in the Mucruss and Killarney limestones. At tiie foot of tho Slicvemeesh range 
 this limestone includes at>uphua caudatus, calamine macrophtlmlma, with orthoceratites, 
 ellipsolites ovatus, ammonites, euomphalites, tiirbinitrs, nci'itite.s, melanitcs, and several 
 species of tcrebratula, spirifcr, and producta. Neor Smerwick horbour similar organic re- 
 mains arc abundant in slate and grcywacke, together with hyslorolites, and many genera of 
 polyparia. 
 
 7Vo«s»/ton coal. All the coal of the province of Muiister, except that of the county of 
 Clare, is referable to the transition class. At Knockasurtnet, near Killarney, and on the 
 north of Traloe, there are three beds of glance coal, alternating with strata of grcywacke 
 and slate. In tho county of Cork tliis glance coal i.s more abundant, particularly near 
 Kanturk, extending from the north of tiie Blackwater to the Allord. The ravines of the 
 latter river, and various other defiles, expose clay slate, grcywacke, talc, and sondatone, in 
 nearly vertical strata ranging from west to east. This transition tract extends to the river 
 Shannon on the north-west. As the strata range from west to east, in a series of parallel 
 narrow troughs, they exhiuit great variety of inclination, dipping rapidly either to the north 
 or south, and becoming horizontal between the ridges. The glance coal is raised insuflicient 
 quantities for the purpose of burning the limestone of the adjacent districts. 
 
 The coal and the strata with which it is accompanied abound with impressions of equi- 
 setm and calamitos, and afford some traces of fucoides. Bods of glance coal also occur in the 
 county of Limerick, on the left bank of tiie Shannon, north of Abbeyfeale, and at Longhill ; 
 and on the right bank of the river at Labbosheoda. The transition rocks of Kerry and Lime- 
 rick extend into Cork and Waterford. 
 
 Mines. Copper mines occur in limestone in Ross Island in tho lake of Killarney. In the 
 county of Cork, tliuro arc copper mines at AUihier, Audley, and Ballydchol ; and others, 
 producing lead, at Doneen and Rinabelly. The mine at Allihies is one of the richest mines 
 in Ireland ; it was discovered in 1812, and yields more than 2000 tons of copper ore annually. 
 The ore occurs in a large quartz vein, which generally intersects the slaty rocks of tho 
 country from north to south, but in some pln'-os runs parallel to the strata. It is remarked 
 that all this portion of the county of Cork indicates a very general difl'usion of cupreous par- 
 ticles, so much so that in tho ycnr 1812, thrro oxistod a cupriferous peat-bog on the cast side 
 of Giandore harbour, forty or lilfy tons of tlie driod peat producing when burnt one ton of 
 ashes, containing troin leu to filteeu per cL'iit. of copper. Tiie lead-mines of Doiiofn and 
 Rinabelly are in tilate. 
 
 Coal fnrintilion of Cliirr. The transition clay slate of tiiis county is bordered by a zone 
 of old red sandstone, to which succnods, in ascemling order and conformable position, the 
 mountain limestone and coal formation, both of which occupy flat and undulating hills, and 
 
 m 
 
DKSCUIITIVK (;K(KJRAI'HY. 
 
 Paht III. 
 
 kho Rtnta MP nearW horixontul, Tin? licnt wctiDim nrc hti-n in tlin cliff" nn tlip wi-xt coonJ, 
 where bituiiiiiioud Hltalc,sluto cIay,Niiiu|iitiiiii>, nml mirnlHtoiii' (\,\g, rent u|Kin liniciitoiii'. (\ml, 
 howovcr, is of rare occurrence, iind when I'tuinii, ix of iiidirtl'ri'nt (|nniity. 
 
 Ai in ovory othor part of Ircliind, tlit> dlHtrict alKiiindri witli nlliiviiil df|Hi!4itH. In ri'ifnrd 
 to tho dwtributiunof thooldrrof tlit'xn, or tli(Mliliivinni in the miutli of Iri'ltiiid, it I'l ii'iniirki'd, 
 —1. TliMt bouldcfM, {;ravrl, and Mund, di-rivrd tVoin t!ic> truii^ition rcwkN, iirr di^'triliiilc'd nlonv 
 tho Umlcru and HidcH of till) inoiintuinM in Kerry, 'i. In ii xiniill dlHtrict of Lujicrick iinu 
 Tinporary, nituatcd between tlin GiiulteeM und Slii-vn-nn-nmck. tint rolii'd nioHKi-H i nni^iHt nut 
 only of portionn of contiiriitHifi rooko, but coiitiiin uIho porplivry, wliich in not 1o In' found in 
 kUh near tlio vicinity oA'ttlliH Hill. 8. In the peniiiHulii ot'Nonvillc, nearCmlwiiy, the unr- 
 fiico of tho mountain limoHtono in utrowed over witli riiirnorouH iHiulilerii of red lunl (jriy 
 
 Sranito, lyenite, grconotouc, nnd Hiindittonr, wliich numt iip|Kiruntly Imvo boon conveyed trum 
 ic opposito side of tho bay of Galwny. 
 
 Sbct. III. — Hitlorical Geography, 
 
 The earliest inhabitants of Ireland, ftora wliich the native race now cxiiitini^ Iium Kprunjf, 
 appear, by tlie lanfi^uago fitill spoken, to have beun (.'idtic. Tho Konian«, in occupying 
 Britain, coidd not fail to acquire much informiition relative fc> lerne, Ilibernia, or Ireland ; 
 and accordinjtiy wo find that tiio niiip of that country by I'toloniy is lend defective than tho 
 one which lin (jives of Scotland. About the fourth century, we find Iroliind hrnriiiK tho 
 name of Scotliind, from the leading; pt'oplo on its eantern HJiore, who afterwardn iMindinjj into 
 Arpyle, and making thuinselveM miiKtcrti of all ('aledonia, coininiiniruted to it the iiaino of 
 Scotland, finally withdrawn from the country to which it ori{(inally belonged. 
 
 The Danes, during tho height of their power, from the ninth to the twelfth centuries, 
 poflsesscd almost the whole caHtern coast of Ireland, making Dublin their capital, Before 
 tliis time Ireland had been converted to Christianity, ond a number of celebrated nionastpriea 
 had l)een founded, tho tenants of which wore ilixtinguislied, c.von over Europe, for their piety 
 and learning, 
 
 The Knglish sway commenced in 1170. Richard Sirongbow, earl of Pembroke, os a nri* 
 vato individual, formed the first settlement; but Henry II. soon a.<<8iimed tho title of " lonl of 
 Ireland." The range of dominion was long restrirted to a jwrtion of the kingdom enclosed 
 within what is called the English pale, without which the Irish remained still under the rule 
 of their native chieftains. Henry VIII. asHumed the title of" king of Ireland," but without 
 any material extension of his authority over that kingdom. 
 
 The Irish massacre wii.s a droadfiil outrage, to which attachment tn popery nnd zeal fot 
 national independence united in impelling a proud and fierre people. Forty thousand 
 English settlers are stiii)x»sed to liiivo perished, und the rest were driven into Dublin. 
 Cromwell, however, nflerwardH cros.9ed the Channel, nnd made cruel reprisuls ; he t(X)k tho 
 principal (ortificd towns, and reduced Ireland under more full subjection than ever. Yet 
 the dispoHition of tho people reniaine<l the same; and when James II. was driven from tho 
 English throne, he was received with enthusiasm in Ireland, und became for some time its 
 master. The Imttle of the Boyne, followe<l next year by that of Aughrim, decided tho fate 
 of the empire, and more especially of Ireland, which then felt for the first time the miseries 
 of a conquered country. The estates of many principal native proprietors were confiscated ; 
 tho Catholics were deprived of all political privileges; they were rendered incapable of 
 holding any oflicc or einployiiient in tho state ; th(!y were debarred even from holding land, 
 from devising property, and from exercising other important functions of civil society. Under 
 these severities they pertinaciously retained their political attachments together with their 
 religious creed ; und a continual ferment prevailed, which broke out fVom time to time into 
 partial rebellions. 
 
 Tho gradual emancipation of Ireland commenced at tho period of the Amerienn w:ir. Till 
 that era England had denied to her the right of trading directly with any foreign nation ; and 
 had compelled her to extxjrt and import every commodity through the channel of (Ireat 
 Britain. The extremity, however, to which Britain was reduced enabled the Irish to place 
 themselves in a formidable attitude; and by forming armed associations, and .ndopting other 
 threatening measures, they induced iKirliament to grant them free trade with all nations, 
 From this time also the most obnoxious of the restri''tions on tho Catholics were gradually 
 repealed or fell into disuse; and beforo the end of last century, they had obtained almost 
 every political privilege, except that of sitting in parliament, and of holding the very highest 
 offices of state. The propriety of conce<ling these also became one of tho lending (piestiona 
 which long divided the public mind. 
 
 A very formidable rebellion broke forth in spite of these concessions. The French 
 revolution, which caiiserl a general ferment in Europe, was intensely felt Diroughonl 
 Ireland. A .Micicty was forinerl of " United Irishmen ;" and secret meetings were held, 
 having in view the entire sepimtinii from Rnghind, and tiie formation of the kiiiL'ilom into 
 nn independent republic. The vifrilimce of guvernnient, nnd the failure of t!ie FrencJi ir 
 their attempts to land a force of any luagnituile, prevented matters from coming to the las* 
 
Part III. 
 
 ne»t cooat, 
 otii>. Coal) 
 
 In rijrnrd 
 riMiiiirki'd, 
 iiili'il alixiu 
 iicrifk 1111(1 
 ) l>n^•iHt. not 
 lie lotinil in 
 iiv, llio Mir- 
 I'aiid Kfny 
 iveyctl nrom 
 
 has spnmg, 
 1 occiipyins 
 or Ireland ; 
 ive tliiin the 
 l)Piirin({ the 
 piiHsint; into 
 lio nanm of 
 
 h cpnturiM, 
 iuil. Before 
 I niomiHteries 
 )t thoir piety 
 
 )ke, an a pri- 
 leof'Monlof 
 ioni rnclogcil 
 indrr the rule 
 ' but without 
 
 I and zenl foi 
 
 Irty flmuwnd 
 " to llublin. 
 he l<xik the 
 over. Yet 
 pu from tlio 
 
 :oiiic time its 
 the fate 
 the miseries 
 roiifiHcated ; 
 ■iipable of 
 
 holdinp land, 
 iety. Under 
 
 or with their 
 to time into 
 
 nwnr. Till 
 
 nnfion ; and 
 
 iiel of ttreat 
 
 rish to place 
 
 optinir other 
 
 nil nations. 
 
 ro frrndimlly 
 
 nini'd almost 
 
 very hifihest 
 
 njT (piestions 
 
 The French 
 
 throiijriionl 
 
 were held, 
 
 kiiiiidom into 
 
 K" T'rcndi in 
 
 T to tlio las* 
 
 Rook I. 
 
 IRKIJVND. 
 
 441 
 
 pxtreutity liil 1*!H, when n violent inmirrnction iirrae in four of the coiintiei* ncaroit 
 Dublin. Till' rrln'U, tli<iii;;li xo'iloux aiiil lirave, bnini; without di'WMpline, wri! niutu«l in 
 yui'ceMMive eni'iitinterH with niiii'li interior boilieM of rc|{uhir>4 and inilitiit ; and iH'injf uiiiiii|r 
 iMirtoil liy Kreiii'h iiid were completely put down in n few iriontliH. The exiiH|M'ration. 
 however, prndiici'd by thi< trai^leal eveiitH ot' thiit Nliort peritNl coiituuied \ou\i U> rankle in 
 the niiiiiU of tho In 'li, and to n^^^ravate llio t'vlU under which ihey labimri'd. To Huolhe 
 tliiH irritation, another nx|)edleut wiim employed, which niateriiilly ulVected the Hitiiation of 
 Irolnnd. 
 
 The ililllcull ond reluctant union t\f the tieo kiuffdumt wbh eftected in 1H(H) by Mr. PitL 
 Ireland ;;iiineil tiiiiH cormiderablo coinmerciul advantotreM; and, tVoni the example of Hcot- 
 land, it waN hoped that a i;railunl tran()uillity woiihl be the n'Hult. Thix ex[)cctation haa nut 
 yot been fulfilled. The |)<>nwintry of tho aonth, inflamed bv national jealoUMy, by ndigioua 
 animosity, and by tho nevori' privationH under which they labour, have continued, if not in 
 open relM>llion, at Icaxt in a wtate of turbulence conbtantly tending; towardti it; and their dia- 
 contenta have lieen increawid by tho indiHcreet zeal of the I'rotcMtunt party. 
 
 Tho hill for ("utholic emancipation, ho unexpectedly introduced, in IBVM, by the Duke of 
 Wolliuffton, and carried atler niicIi a violent ferment of |iartie8, haa made a remarkable 
 chanffe in the (xditical conNtitution of Ireland. The political diimbilitica under which the 
 (-atholic!* had hitherto lalxiured havo been finally removed. They are n^'ue admitwible to 
 the liif/heMt officeM of dtate, with the exception of that of lord chancolh ; an •■xcluaion 
 decided upon, not no much on account of tho dif^iity of that office, at) tho f ...onHivi church 
 patrunn);e attached to it. Roman Catholica are alw made adnii»Biblc to ui in boti' houaca 
 of parliament, and to every other political privile(;o enjoyod by their fellow countrymen. 
 
 Sbot. IV. — Polilical Geography. 
 
 Tho political evils under which Ireland labouni will anfflciently appear iVont lie forcgoi'>; 
 aurvey of her history. Frotii tho earliest times aho has been in the .situation ot a conqucrixi 
 countryi without ever becoming reconciled to the yoke, or ossiniiloted to the ruling nation. 
 VVithfn tho last two centuries. Tier devoted adherence to a relijfion which hail been renounced 
 by her rulers, has had a must fatal tendency, which we may however hope to sou much miti- 
 j^atcd by the hoalinfr mea«ureH that havo now been uiloplcd. In cuiitjcquence, ulso ■.'' 
 repeated scenes of reixsllioii and forfeiture, by much the greater part of tho lands are i.' Vi*- 
 possession of English and Protestant proprietors, who, liavin<r no natural influence ovc Ihu 
 occupiers of their estates, hold thoir place only by the hated tenure of dominion a' d iaw, 
 BeinfT connected with the country by no natural ties, and attracted by the superior brilliancy 
 of tho Euirlish and French capitals, most of them uuit Ireland, and become haijitual alininlcm. 
 When the Scottish Highlanders arrayed tliemselves against the government, they acicil 
 under tlie influence of a few leading chiefs, whoso interests and passions aflbrded a lever liy 
 which the people could bo moved. But the Irish people, deprived of any such guidance, 
 chose their leaders from among themselves, f>r from those who courted their favour by ('•«:- 
 tcring all their national propensities. Hecret associations, party budges, mystericms nani' ii, 
 have exerted an influence over their minds, the extent and nature ot which it is impossible 
 to calculate. 
 
 Ireland, like Scotland, has been united to England ; yet it retains aomcwhat more of the 
 aspect of a separate kingdom. A lord lieutenant still displays a portion of the state and 
 exercises some of the flmctions of royalty. He has not only a household establishment, but 
 a chancellor, a secretary, and other ministers of state. The courts of justice, and the dif- 
 ferent orders of magistracy, are nearly on the same footing as in England; yet they have 
 not tho reputation of exercising their functions with quite tho same digiity and impartiality. 
 The violence of party spirit acta upon judges, and still more upon juriei, ; .1 in the country, 
 the absence of great proprietors, and tho want of any middling clash •• '• r it difficult to 
 find materials for n. respectable and efl'ective magistracy. Ireland sent to the Imperial par- 
 liament KK) members of tho House of Commons, of whom 36 were for cities and boroughs, 
 and 64 for counties, which latter sent two members each. The Inrge proportion of this 
 latter class was expected to render tho representation more resp^^-'.ible; but, unfortunately, 
 the low qualification required, amounting only to 40»., enabled 'iv; .cfreat proprietors to split 
 votes among their numerous little tenantry to such an oxten* ;. almost to produce universal 
 auffrage. The very system of letting farms on leases ivi Lves, which confers tho right of 
 voting, extended that right to almost every tenant. This could scarcely be suid to confer 
 tho real right of suflrage, as tho dependence of the tenants was almost always such as to 
 enable the landlord to dictate their vote ; tlior.;^'.! in late elections, the influence of the priests 
 was in several counties successfully exerted. To remedy these evils, the same act which 
 removed the disabilities of the Catholics, raised the qualification of freeholders in Ireland 
 from 40s. to 10/. a year, and thus reduced them to less than a third of their former number. 
 Many also of tho principal boroughs, as Belfast, Wexford, Cashel, Sligo, Dundalk, Ennia- 
 killen, were entirely close, the members being chosen by twelve self-olnctcd burgesses; 
 while, in others, tho whole ground on which a borough stood belonged to the nearest great 
 
 Vofc, I. 3 F 
 
 \i 
 
 ill 
 
 « \\ 
 
W^' 
 
 442 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 proprietor. The consequence was, that an oligarchy, formed by the possessors of those vast 
 properties into which the greater part of Ireland is divided, held an almost unlimited sway 
 over the country. Previous to the union, the influence of the three houses of Beresford, 
 Ponsonby, and Foster was such, that the aid of one, and, if possible, two of them, was neces- 
 sary for carrying on the measures of government. That influence, however, lias been on 
 the decline, and there is no prospect of its renewal. 
 
 The Reform Bill gave to Ireland only five additional members, and it made no material 
 change in the returning boroughs ; but, by placing the election in the hands of all house- 
 holders paying 10/. annually, it rendered those nominations )pen which had formerly been 
 made by the small number of individuals composing tlie corporation. 
 
 The naval and military force of the empire in general defends Ireland. There is a com- 
 mander of the forces resident in Dublin ; acting, however, under the orders, not of the lord 
 lieutenant, but of the British commander-in-chief. The number of regular troops stationed 
 at different points is always considerable. 
 
 The revenue levied in Ireland has never borne the same proportion to her natural resources 
 as that of England. The rates in all the principal articles of consumption have been lower. 
 The tax on heartiis, however, was found very oppressive ; as it required inquisitorial visits, 
 and aflftcted the lowest of the people. This and all the other assessed taxes were so irregu- 
 larly levied, that, notwithstanding the discontent excited by them, they did little more than 
 cover the expenses of collection. For this reason, by a motion of the chancellor of the 
 exchequer, tliey were entirely remitted. In 1800 the revenue was 2,684,000i. and the debt 
 25,662,0002. At the union, the stipulation was made that Ireland should pay two-seventeenths 
 of the whole expenditure of the empire ; this arrangement has led to a continual increase 
 both of debt and revenue. In 1811 the former amounted to 77,382,000/., and tlie latter to 
 3,906,900/. In 1830 the revenue was 3,548,822/., and in 1835 it amounted to 4,400,953/. 
 The particulars for the latter year were : — 
 
 Custonn X1,?44,7C4 I Stampa £470,286 
 
 Exciae I,{)fiC,531 | Postage, &c 3111,373 
 
 The public expenditure in 1830 was as follows : — 
 
 Charers of fuiidccl debt £1,178,454 
 
 Civil list, &r 584,909 
 
 Army X9f!6,509 
 
 Miscelluneous 747,U89 
 
 The national debt of Ireland in 1817, when it ceased to form a separate item in the public 
 accounts in consequence of the consolidation of the British and Irish exchequers, was 
 134,602,769/. 
 
 For local and patriotic objects in Ireland, very considerable sums are allowed out of the 
 public revenue. Of these, for the year 1832, there appear the following : — 
 
 Schools and Rilucation X30,000 
 
 Proti'siant Ohnrity School! 3,000 
 
 FoundkiiiK Hospital 38,314 
 
 Four oilier Hospitals ]0,(MS 
 
 House of Industry 21,193 
 
 Eichmond Liinaiic Asylum 1,388 
 
 Hibernian Marine Society 9S0 
 
 Female Orphan House X],833 
 
 Boman Catholic College 8,938 
 
 Itnyal Dublin Society S,30O 
 
 BelfaKt Academical Institution I,SOO 
 
 Noncoiiforuiing and otiier Ministers 24,334 
 
 Public Works 33,564 
 
 Dunmore Harbour 7,500 
 
 Sect. V. — Productive Industry. 
 
 Ireland, in this respect, has long presented a painful spectacle ; a great proportion of her 
 people being involved in extreme and squalid poverty. The Irish do not want enterprise, or 
 even industry ; but various causes have combined to degrade them in the scale of improve- 
 ment. Among these the conduct lonjf held by Britain must be considered as prominent ; 
 thus, after other expedients had proved inefl^ectual, it was prohibited to export woollens to 
 foreign countries. Similar measures were taken with regard to glass, hops, and every 
 branch in respect to which any rivalry was apprehended. There was one article, however, 
 the production of a large surplus of which could by no means be avoided. This was black 
 cattle and sheep ; but the value of these was effectually cut down by the prohibition to 
 import tliem into England, the only accessible market. Under these regulations, all the 
 exertions of Ireland to better her condition were cramped, and while Britain was making 
 the most rapid advances, Ireland continued in the same state of depression. However, in 
 consequence of her spirited efforts at the end of the American war, and of the embarrass- 
 ments of the British government, the most odious and pernicious of these restrictions were 
 repealed. Further advantages were obtained at the time of the Union ; and at present, 
 every exertion is making to place the two countries in a state of perfect recipnxjity. The 
 consequence has been, that in the course of forty years, Ireland has made a rapid progress 
 in industry and commerce ; yet some of her greatest evils are so deeply seated, that they 
 have scaii aly yet begun to give way to th(^ influence of a more auspicious system. 
 
 Agricu.tiiro has been long in a backward and very depressed state. The farms were, for 
 the most part, srniill, managed by the farmer himself and his family, destitute of capital, 
 with wrnteiied ini))Iements, and with a pertinacious udheriMico to all the olisoleto practices 
 of a rude age. The best soils exhausted a great portion of their strength in throwing up 
 weeds, which no effective measures were *aken to extirpate. The system also of infield and 
 
 
Book I. 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 449 
 
 they 
 
 ; and 
 
 outfield was strictly adhered to, the ground being heovily cropped a? long as it would yield 
 any thing, and afterwards of necessity allowed two or three years to recruit. Although 
 these detects still exist to a considerable extent, yet in all parts of the country, but particu- 
 larly in the east and north, improved practices and implements are beginning to be intro- 
 duced. 
 
 The Irish tenures arc long, some of them perpetual, in which ca.se they may be considered 
 as property, the rent being a mere trifle; a lease of thirty-one years and three lives is very 
 common. These long leases are attended with scar ely any of the benefits which might 
 be naturally expected. As the fanner commences usually without any capital, trusting for 
 the payment of the first year's rent to the produce of his fiirm, he almost alwayb falls more 
 or less uito arrear, and thus lies at the mercy of his landlord. This would be less pernicious, 
 were it the landlord himself with whom he had to deal; but the landlords of Ireland, hold- 
 ing usually properties of immense extent, and being mostly resident out of the country, 
 cannot or will not undertake the task of dealing with this impoverished multitude of small 
 tenants. They devolve it upon the intermediate agents and middlemen. The latter, a class 
 peculiar to Ireland, take a large extont of ground, which they let out in small portions to 
 the real cultivator. They grant leases, indeed ; but as the tenant, from the circumstances 
 above mentioned, soon comes under their power, they and the agents treat him with the 
 greatest harshness, exact personal services, presents, bribes; and draw from the land as 
 much as they possibly can, without the least regard to its permanent welfare. This system, 
 while it crushes the tenant, is not less injurious to the landlord, into whose cofl'ers there 
 oflen passes less than one-half of the sum paid by the tenant. The only use to which the 
 latter turns his long lease is to divide and subdivide the lands among his children, till the 
 share of each affords only the most miserable aliment, and an overgrown population is fixed 
 upon the farm. An attempt to let land on a different fboting can only be eflTected by the 
 ejection of more than half its existing occupants, who in that case are apt to fly to violent 
 and revengeful courses, so that even a partial endeavour to introduce such improvements 
 has been a main cause of the existing disturbed state. Another injurious mode is that of part- 
 nership leases, in which a number of persons take a fann jointly, and make it a sort of common 
 property. Each is allowed to put upon it a certain number of collops ; the collop consisting 
 of one horse, two cows, or twelve goats. A degrading stipulation is oflen introduced into 
 leases, by which the occupant is bound to work for his landlord either without wages, or at 
 a rate lower than ordinary. 
 
 Tithe is one of the evils of which the Irish cultivator most grievously complains. Al- 
 though it must in all ca.ses fall ultimately on the landlord, yet to take from the cabin of the 
 peasant the pig which he has reared, or the handful of potatoes which he has raised for the 
 support of his family, is an act peculiarly discouraging and irritating. The exemption of 
 grass lands tends also to discourage tillage. Measures taken by parliament to promote the 
 commutation of tithes, have been attended with considerable success; and by a late act 
 arrangements are made by which the church rates, instead of being taken out of the fanner's 
 produce, are paid by the landlord out of his rent. 
 
 The extent of country, and the objects of culture in Ireland, vary considerably from those 
 of the sister kingdom. Its superficial extent is computed at 12,000,000 Irish, or 19,278,760 
 Englisli acres. Of this, notwithstanding the considerable amount to be deducted for moun- 
 tain, lakes, and bogs, Mr. Young calculates that there is a greater proportion of productive 
 land than in England. The soil of Ireland is shallow, consisting most generally of a thin 
 sprinkling of earth over a rocky ground ; but the copious moisture wafled from the sea, 
 by which it is everywhere surrounded, produces a quick and rapid vegetation, and in par- 
 ticular a brilliancy of verdure, not equalled perhaps in any other region of Europe. Such 
 a country is of course highly favourable to pasturage ; and as this pursuit is suited to the im- 
 perfect stages of culture, the rearing of live stock has been \on^ the main staple of Irish 
 husbandry. Ita luxuriant plains are depastured by vast herds of olack cattle ; and from this 
 source is derived the very large quantity of salted provisions shipped from the southern 
 ports. The number of oxen and cows annually killed for this purpose was reckoned at 
 18,000. This trade has considerably decreased since tlie peace ; but the export "f live 
 cattle is extensively carried on. Great facilities have been lately aflibrded for it by the 
 steam packets. The dairy is also a great branch of industry in Ireland. None of its 
 cheeses, indeed, have acquired a reputation ; but butter of excellent quality is made and 
 largely exported. Another species of live stock is an essential article to tlie economy of an 
 Irish cultivator. The pig usually shares his cabin, and is fed, like himself, on potatoes. It 
 is t(X) grp!it a luxury to be killed for his own consumption ; but is sold and driven to the ports 
 to be suited for exportation. Sheep arc bred extensively on the mountain tracts, which are 
 unfit for rearing any other stock. In many places they are bred for the wool and milk. In 
 this lust respect, however, goats are more i)roductivo ; and they are reared in immense (juan 
 titles in the mountain districts in the north. The Irish horses are small, hardy, and capable 
 of doing nmch work upon little food. Poultry are fed in great numbers in and around all the 
 cabins, the interior of which they are admitted to share; a practice extremely favourable to 
 
'7 
 
 'r 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IU. 
 
 tlieir increase. Great quantities of gcesc arc kept for the sake of the feathers, wliich are 
 cruelly plucked from the animals alive. The produce of grain is also large, notwithstanding 
 the imperfect processes employed in cultivating it. Wheat and barley were little raised till 
 of late, when both the culture and export of the former have been greatly extended. Still 
 the main objects are oats and potatoes ; the former as the subject of a large expoi\, the 
 latter as the staple food of a considerable body of the people. The Irish boast of the potatoe, 
 as if it were nowhere else produced in equal perfection. Compared with grain of any kind, 
 it certainly atforda the means of supporting a greater population upon a given extent of 
 ground. The scope, however, which it affords for the multiplication of the people in miser- 
 able circumstances, is generally considered by the political economists aa one of the causes 
 of the present distress in Ireland. Flax is also a valuable product of Irish husbandry, affi)rd- 
 ing the material of the linen manufacture. According to a return made to the trustees in 
 1809, the extent sown was 76,749 acres; in addition to which, the various little scattered 
 patches raise the number probably to about 100,000 acres, supposed to produce at an average 
 about 30 stones per acre ; which, at 10«. 6tl. per stone, would make the entire value about 
 1,500,0001. 
 
 There is a want of trees in Ireland. The immense forests which some centuries age 
 covered a great proportion of its surface, have fallen and been converted in a great measure 
 into moss or bog. The bogs of Ireland present an extensive obstacle to cultivation, They 
 are estimated by the parliamentary commissioners at 2,330,000 English acres. From them, 
 indeed, fuel is supplied to many districts, yet the draining of a large portion would be cer- 
 tainly desirable; and the commissioners seem to think that, from their generally elevated 
 position, this might be done with great facility and advantage. The great quantity of water 
 beneatli these bogs causes often a singular phenomenon, that of moving bogs. Bursting the 
 sur&ce, tlie bog inundates the surrounding lands, spreading desolation and barrenness 
 through its whole course, which in one instance extended no less than twenty miles. 
 
 In respect to manufactures, the state of Ireland cannot be described as flourishing ; a mia- 
 fortune for which she may accuse the oppressive policy of England. One species of fabric, 
 however, she has been allowed and even encouraged to cultivate, and it has attained to a 
 very considerable magnitude. 
 
 The linen manufacture was first introduced by the Earl of Strafford, who brought flax- 
 seed from Holland, and workmen from France and the Netherlands. His attainder, and the 
 subsequent troubles, suspended the undertaking ; but it was revived by the Duke of Ormond, 
 who established near Dublin a colony from Brussels, Jersey, and Rochelle, and gave lands 
 on advantageous terms to those willing to embark in the business. After the Revolution, 
 the English parliament created a board tor .ne promotion of the linen manufacture, and 
 grante<l bounties both on the raising of flax and the export of linen. These exertions met 
 with great success ; and the manufacture has become general throughout Ireland, and par- 
 ticularly in Ulster. The following, according to a late parliamentary report, was the 
 reputed value of brown or unbleached linens sold in the markets of Ireland in the year 
 1824:— 
 
 Ulster £2,109,309 
 
 Leinster 192,888 
 
 Mnnster 110,421 
 
 Connaught 168,090 
 
 Total £2,580,708 
 
 The mode of conducting this manufacture is, however, in several respects, very rude and 
 imperfect. It is generally practised by individuals holding little spots of ground, the culture 
 of which they combine with that of weaving. The same person, or at least the same family, 
 in many cases raises the flax, dri -ses it, spins it into yarn, and weaves it into cloth. There 
 is too much anxiety to obtain the greatest possible quantity of yarn out of a given quantity 
 of flax, without regard to the quality ; and the sorting of the yam, so that it may be of an 
 uniform texture, suited to the kind of linen intended to be woven, is almost wholly neglected. 
 Ir some instances, however, it is worked to a most extraordinary degree of fineness. Anne 
 M'Quillin, in the county of Down, could spin 105 hanks to the pound, which would reach 
 214 English miles. Exertions have lately been made to intro<luce mill-spinning, which, it 
 is supposed, would generally improve the quality of yarn, though it could not produce it of 
 such extreme fineness as some of that spun by the hand. Twenty years ago the mill could 
 not produce above fifteen cuts to a pound ; now it can make nearly fifty. 
 
 The export of linen from Ireland, in the year 18'J4, amounted in all to 49.491,037 yards, 
 of which 46,466,950 were to Great Britain ; and 3,024,087 to foreign parts. The real value 
 of the whole was 2,412,f*58i. Of that sent to Great Britain, 31,314..5;};? yards were retained 
 for home consumption ; the rcLt were re-r'.viwrtod to the same quarters us Scotch linen. This 
 great inannfiicture is chiefly supported by its own g'rowth of flax. Ireland, iiowever, im- 
 ports 25,000 tons of homp from abroad, and tWOO from Britain ; also about 7500 tons &' 
 linen yarn; of all \,'hich materials the value fulls .short of 45,000/. 
 
 ,^*S* 
 
Book I. 
 
 IRFLANI. 
 
 445 
 
 ude and 
 culture 
 family, 
 
 There 
 luantity 
 
 of an 
 lee ted. 
 
 Anne 
 
 reach 
 liich, it 
 ce it of 
 
 could 
 
 yardfj, 
 1 valuo 
 ptained 
 Thid 
 
 r, im- 
 ons ut' 
 
 Distillation ia another branch of industry characteristic of Ireland, but by no means 
 attended with the same happy effects. It has hitherto been carried on chiefly in detiuiicc 
 of the revenue and government, and bus given birth to a vast system of contraband, equally 
 destructive of morals and of public order. All the mountains, boffs, and deep valleys of the 
 north and west abound with illicit stills, in spots where the most diligent search can scarcely 
 discover them ; and where detected, they can scarcely be seized without the aid of an 
 armed force. When the troops are seen advancing, concerted Bignuls are made, and the 
 small light stills are soon conveyed to a distant quarter. The farmers and proprietors en- 
 courage illicit distillation as the most ready mode of oiTording a market for their grain. The 
 quality of tlie spirit was long much superior to that produced by the legal distillers, owing 
 to rcsti'ii'tions imposed on the latter ; so that, in selling, it was considered the highest re- 
 commendation tliat it " never paid duty." The most rigorous laws were enacted in vain, for 
 they only rendered the people concerned in this practice more desperate and determined. 
 Of late, liowever, the duty, as in Scotland, has been reduced and free exportation permitted. 
 
 The ellect has been remarkable; the quantity of spirits paying duty, which from 1818 to 
 1822 varied from 3,000,0(H) to 4,000,000, rose in 1824 to 7,800,000, and in 1832 to 8,0.57,000 ; 
 thus warranting a presumption, that the contraband fabrication of this article has been 
 greatly diminished. 
 
 The killing and salting of beef and pork for sale forms a great branch of Irish commerce. 
 The beef is packed in three different forms, called planter's beef, India beef, and common 
 beef; the first two, having the coarse pieces taken out, and charged 4s. additional 
 per cwt While the export of salt beef has diminished, that of pork has of late been much 
 extended. 
 
 The cotton manufacture, since 1822, has spread through Ireland in a very surprising 
 manner, particularly in the counties of Antrim, Down, Ijoutli, and part of Dublin. The 
 coarser linon fabrics are disaj,|>caring before it, and proceeding to the westward and south- 
 ward, retaining still an equal hold of the kingdom in general. More recently this fabric 
 has rather declined, and linen has regained the ascendency. 
 
 The other manufkctures are not of primary importance. A great quantity of v'ool is, in- 
 deed, worked up by the peasantry into frieze, linseys, and flannels, for their dorsestic use ; 
 but the only fabrics on a great scale, which are those of broadcloth at Carrick-on-Shannon, 
 ^nd of flannels at Kilkenny, arc on the decline. Breweries have been established in the 
 principal towns, and are rother in a flourishing state. 
 
 In the distribution of minerals, Ireland has by no means been neglected ; but some unpro- 
 pitious circumstances have prevented any of them from being turned to great account. Of 
 these impediments tlie most material is the want of a sufficient supply of good coal. The 
 fuel of Ireland is in general either coal imported from England and Scotland, or the turf 
 dug out of its immense bogs ; but the latter boa not yet been found applicable to the fusion 
 of metals. From these causes tlie veins of iron ore, which are very extensively diflused 
 through the island, have not yet been turned to any important use. The copper, also of 
 fine quality, which is found in the counties of Wicklow and Cork, must be sent over to 
 Swansea to be smelted. The lead, however of Wicklow is worked to a considerable ex- 
 tent with imported coal. 
 
 Fishery is a branch of industry for which the extended shores and deep bays of Ireland 
 would bo peculiarly adapted. Nor do the inland waters, the rivers and lakes, less abound in 
 the species of fish appropriate to them. The diligence of the Irish in taking fish for im- 
 mediate consumption is considerable, being urged on by the frequent abstinence from other 
 food which their Catholic profession enjoins. Their trout and salmon are distinguished 
 both for size and taste : the salmon arc caught by weir.s, stake-nets, and other contrivances, 
 but with so little precaution that their number has been sensibly diminished. The curing 
 of fish has made very little progreto, when compared with the opportunities which the 
 coasts of Ireland aftbrd ; and Ireland cannot come into competition with Scotland. 
 
 Commerce. — The manufactured products of Ireland are quite inconsiderable; she has, how- 
 ever, great facilities for the production of raw materials; and it is in all respects more suit- 
 able for her, as well as for England, that she should direct her etTorts to this department, 
 and import manufactured articles from Britain, than that she should attempt to enter into an 
 unequal co- ipetition with the latter in manufacturing industry. In 18'25 the restraints on 
 the intercourse between Ireland and Great Britain were mostly abolished ; and owing to this 
 circumstance, and to the establishment of a regular intercourse by steam packets between 
 Liverpo<il, Glasgow, Bristol, and the principal towns on the cast and south coasts of Ireland, 
 the trade tetween the two countries has been vastly increased. Owing to the circumstance 
 ot this intercourse being now placed on the footing of a coasting trade, no account has been 
 kept later than 1825, of the reciprocal imports and exports of each, except in the case of 
 cum. 
 
 In 1829, the imports from foreign parts were valued at l,669,406i. ; in 1831, they were 
 1,552,228/.; in 1832, thejr were 1,348,828?. The exports in 1831 were 608,038/. ; in 1832 
 they were 452,77,5/. Within the last few years there hoa been a moat extraordinary in- 
 
 Vol. I. 38 
 
 m 
 
 If 
 
 
 m 
 
416 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pakt III. 
 
 crease in the quantity of grain and live stock imported from Ireland into Great Britain. The 
 former, on on average of 1830 and 1831, amounted to 543,618 quarters of wlieat, and 
 1,.'J63,.')93 quarters of oats and oatnioal. In 18212, th(!rc were imported into Liverpool alone, 
 338,649 quarters of wheat, value 948,217/. ; 825,720 quarters of oats, 309,434i. ; 14,486 
 quarters of bnrloy, 24,620A ; 69,624 cows, 705,864«. ; 149,090 pigs, 484,542i. ; 74,260 sheep, 
 129,9r).U ; 24,077 lambs, 24,077/. ; 169,817 loads of meal, 203,780/. ; 177,252 sacks of flour, 
 407,679/. ; 10,771 bales of bacon, 64,626/. ; 292,830 firkins, 15,861 half firkins, and 10,348 
 coolies of butter, 819,141/. These, with some minor articles, made up a value of 4,444,500/. 
 The imports into I/indon, Bristol, and other ports, may be presumed to be as much more, 
 and porliaps the whole may not fall short of 10,000,000/. sterling. 
 
 The Ibllowinjf tublo e.xliibit.-t the relative foreign commerce of the principal ports of Ire- 
 land in the year 1824. We add tlic ships and tonnage belonging to and the amount of cus- 
 toms on each, which a recent reiiort enables us to bring down to 1829 : — 
 
 Tonnage Enteriil. 
 
 Entered at 
 
 iti'lfast 
 
 (rcirk 
 
 Droclicda — 
 
 Dublin 
 
 nalway 
 
 I.imerirk 
 
 Ijondonilerry. 
 
 Newry 
 
 Sligi) 
 
 VVttterfiird ... 
 Wexford 
 
 Britiah. Foreign. 
 
 Tons. Tons. 
 
 19,12.1 
 
 15,Q2.'i 
 
 MIO 
 
 34,n06 
 
 540 
 
 5,233 
 
 3,203 
 
 0,705 
 
 1,085 
 
 7,600 
 
 1,409 
 
 11,093 
 13,070 
 420 
 10,407 
 2,020 
 3,489 
 5,479 
 7,812 
 3,4C:t 
 3,137 
 332 
 
 Belonging. 
 
 9hip8. Tonnage. 
 
 247 
 
 35,000 
 
 350 
 
 17,000 
 
 30 
 
 3,300 
 
 3W» 
 
 34,000 
 
 19 
 
 800 
 
 39 
 
 1,800 
 
 33 
 
 4,300 
 
 101 
 
 8.000 
 
 30 
 
 l.'JOO 
 
 70 
 
 7,000 
 
 i:<5 
 
 0,700 
 
 Paid. 
 
 Customs. 
 
 359,000 
 
 190,000 
 
 12.000 
 
 609,000 
 
 4,800 
 
 85,700 
 
 74,000 
 
 55,000 
 
 1,GOO 
 
 116,000 
 
 4,800 
 
 The shipping of Ireland is small, compared with that of the sister island. On the 31st 
 December, 1830, she had 1424 vessels ; the tonnage of which was 101,820, navigated by 
 7794 men and boys. In 18J12 there were built twenty-five ships, of 1909 tons. There were 
 entered inwards, in 1831, 14,499 ships, of 1,420,382 tons; outwards, 9801 ships, 1,073,545 
 tons. Of this wore employed in trade with Great Britain, 13,584 ships, and 1,262,221 tons, 
 inwards; 9029 ship.s, 921,128 tons, outwards; in foreign trade, 915 shipe, 158,161 tons, 
 inwards ; 772 ships, 152,417 tons outwards. 
 
 Canals have been undertaken in Ireland on an extensive scale, but with only a small por- 
 tion of the expected benefit. This seems partly owing to the excessive magnitude of the 
 plans, and partly to the prevalence of jobbing. The two chief undertakings are the Grand 
 a.ui the Royal canals, both proceeding from Dublin into the interior. The former, com- 
 menced in 17.")6, has, by large advances from government, been completed, at an expense of 
 (ipwards of '.'.(MIO.OOO/. It is carried across Kildare and King's County to the Shannon, near 
 Clonfert. Tliis distance is eighty-seven miles, which, with a branch to the Barrow at Athy, 
 one westward to Ballinasloe, and several others, makes an entire length of 156 miles. The 
 Royal Canal, of nearly the same dinvusions, reaches from Dublin through Meath and Ix)ng- 
 ford, nearly eighty-throe miles', to Tarmonbarry, o.i the Shannon. The expense was 
 1,420,000/., while the tolls, in 1831, amounted only to 12,700/. 
 
 The roads of Ireland have long been excellent. Any person may present a memorial to 
 the grand jury of the county, showing the necessity of a new road, and if this presentment 
 be approved, the work immediately proceeds. Government has established mail-coaches to 
 all the principal towns, and, since the rebellion, has made fine military roads into the interior 
 of Wicklow; but stage-coaches and other means of conveyance are indifferent 
 
 Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State. 
 
 The population of Ireland, from its grr^t amount and rapid increase is considered as one 
 of the chief causes of the severe povert' which presses upon the body of the people. Till 
 the census of 1821, the data upon whic!i it was calculated were conjectural. Between 1712 
 and 1726, upon a calculation from the liumbcr of houses, at six to a house, it was represented 
 as varying from 2,000,000 to 2,;ifl0,0fl0. Calculations founded on the produce of the hearth 
 duty gave in 1754, 2,372,000 ; and in 1788,4,040,040. In 1812, it was estimated at5,937,000. 
 In 1821, a census gave 6,801,000. That of 1831 amounted to 7,767,401, of whom 3,794,880 
 are male, and 3,972,.^21 female. 
 
 The Irish character presents very marked features, many of which are amiable, and even 
 admirable. Hospitality is an universal trait, and is enhanced by the scantiness of the portion 
 which is liberally shared with the stranger. The Irish are brave, lively, merry, and witty ; 
 and even the lowest ranks have a courteous and polite address. They are celebrated for 
 warmth of heart, and for strong attachments of kindred and friendship, which leads them, out 
 of their scanty means, to support their aged relations with the purest kindness. Benevo- 
 lence is a distingubhing feature of the higher ranks. They are curious, intelligent, anr 
 
 t 
 < 
 a 
 c 
 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
 n 
 r 
 C 
 
 11 
 n 
 a 
 ii 
 
 ti 
 
 01 
 
 n 
 o\ 
 S 
 ft 
 ir 
 til 
 
V. 
 
 norial to 
 
 entment 
 
 achea to 
 
 interior 
 
 OS one 
 Till 
 en 1712 
 
 lesentcd 
 I hearth 
 137,000. 
 
 194,880 
 
 nd even 
 [portion 
 1 witty; 
 Itud tor 
 |cm, onl 
 enevo- 
 [it, anc 
 
 Book I. IRELAND. 447 
 
 eager for information. With so nmny good qualities, it were too much to expect that there 
 should not be some faults. They are deficient in cleanliness ; have little taste for conve- 
 niences or luxuries ; and are destitute of that sober and steady spirit of enterprise which 
 distinguishes the English. The love of fighting seems to be a general infirmity. The fairs, 
 which, in every town and village of Ireland, are regular and of long duration, afford the 
 grand theatres, first of unbounded mirth, and ultimately of bloody conflict. Thclrisii do not 
 fight single-handed, but in bands, and on a great scale. On receiving a supposed injuryi 
 they go round to their companions, friends, and townsmen, and collect a multitude, with 
 which thoy make a joint attack on the objects of their wrath. The other blemishes of the 
 Irish' are rather frailties than sins. They are represented as vain, talkative, prompt to speak 
 as well as act without deliberation; this disposition, with their thoughtless gaiety, betrays 
 them into that peculiar blunder called a bull, which their neighbours have so long held forth 
 as a national characteristic. 
 
 The ecclesiastical state of Ireland has been one of the chief causes of its unsettled con- 
 dition. The native Irish did not share in any degree the reformation so unanimously adopted 
 in England and Scotland. When, therefore, the English church was introduced as the 
 established religion, it threw out, as dissenters, the bulk of the Irish population. Even of 
 the protestant part, a large proportion introduced oa colonists from Scotland, were attached 
 to the presbyterian form. 
 [From a parliamentary paper, it appears that, in 1835, there were, — 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Roman Catholics, 6, 27,712 - - SOJ 
 
 Members of Established Church, ....-- fe. 2,064 • - lOJ 
 
 Presbyterians, 642,356 - - 8 
 
 Other Protestants, - . - . 21,808 - • i 
 
 7,943,940. 
 
 Although there ia here some slight inaccuracy, yet this statement serves to show very 
 nearly the proportion of the different sects. The places of worship are stated in the same 
 paper to be, — 
 
 Roman Catholics, 2105 
 
 Established Church 15^14 
 
 Presbyterians, .••.-..-.--...---- 452 
 
 Others, - 403 
 
 In 41 benefices there was no member of the Established Church. — Am. Ed.] 
 The Roman Catholic clergy receive no ctipend from goi'emment, but are entirely sup- 
 ported by their flocks. They ore formed, however, into a regular hierarchy, at tlie head of 
 which are four archbishops; Armagh (the primate), Tuam, Cashel, and Dublin. Under 
 them are twenty-two bishops, with a vicar-general, dean, and archdeacon in each diocese. 
 The number of Catholic priests has been stated at 1400, besides several hundred friars. 
 Their income arises less from any fixed allowance, than from dues, oflfcrings, and presents ; 
 and the bishops, to make up their incomes, receive from the parish priests a portion of what 
 tliey have collected. Mr. Wakefield has attempted an estimate, according to which, 
 Christmas and Easter offerings amount to 337,0002. ; marriages produce, in licenses, fees, 
 and collections, 78,500Z. ; christenings, 12,500/. ; burials, 12,500/. ; in all, 440,500/. Ac- 
 cording to Archbishop Curteis, the income of a bishop is about 500/. a year; that of a priest 
 varies from 100/. to 400/. Although a conge is asked from the pope, the real election to 
 vacitat places rests with tlie clergy themselves ; but as their incomes depend entirely on the 
 fiivour of their hearers, they are subject to a necessity of choosing popular priests, which is 
 not felt by the established Catholic churches. Hence the influence of the priests, always so 
 remarkable under the Catholic sy? ' n, exists in Ireland to an extent perhaps unequalled. 
 On the other hand, many, especially among the bishops, are remarked for their exemplary 
 life, and for the diligent discharge of their functions. They are even sometimes instru- 
 mental in preventing riot, in discovering theft, and procuring restitution. The recent 
 admission of Roman Catholics to all political privileges, though it does not make any change 
 in the condition of the clergy, has been hailed by the body in general with peculiar satisfac- 
 tion. It is hoped that it will either make them more firiendly to the established government, 
 or diminisii their influence in estranging from it the minds of the people. 
 
 The Prerbyterians, as already observed, are nearly confined to Ulster, where they are the 
 most numerous sect. The synod of Ulster is formed into a sort of establishment, consisting 
 of 201 congregations, besides which there are 110 congregations in communion with the 
 Scottish seceders. The ministers receive a royal gift of 14,000/. annually, which aflbnls 
 from 50/. to 100/. to each. The Presbyterians form tlie most industrious, thriving, and 
 intelligent portion of the people ; yet a great proportion have imbibed republican ideas, and 
 they emigrate to America more readily than any other class. 
 
 : n m 
 
 :tl 
 
 ,*-. 
 
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Past in. 
 
 The Established Church of Ireland is in union with that of England, and every way simi- 
 lar. It conaista of four archbishoprics and eighteen bisiioprics ; but by an act recently passed, 
 two archbishoprics are to bb converted into bisiioprics ; and ten bishoprics are to be ntmlished.* 
 The entire revenue of the Irish church has been ascertained to exceed 1.50,000/. Jbr the 
 bishoprics, and 71.'),200/. for otiier benefices, Tlie lands belonging to tiie bishops are of far 
 greater value ; but in consequence of being let on old leases renewed from time to time on 
 payment of lines, and never coming to a termination, the rent derived from them was greatly 
 under the real value. It is proposed now to oflbr these leases to the present incumbent, in 
 perpetuity, on payment of six years' purchase of their estimated value, which, it is calculated, 
 will prwluco about 3,000,000/. A tax, moreover, varying, according to the amount of income, 
 fVom five to fifteen per cent., is to be laid on all livings above 200/. ; and its produce to be 
 applied to the augmentation of the poorer livings, and the building of glebe houses and of 
 new churches. Hence the parocliial tax, called the vestry cess, or church rate, amounting 
 to about 90,(KKW. a year, is no longer to be levied. 
 
 The literature of Ireland in modern times, cannot boast any very distin^ished pre-emi- 
 nence ; yet she has maintained her station in the literary world. In wit and eloqjence, 
 indeed, slic has excelled both the sister kingdoms. In the fonner quality. Swift and Sheridan 
 shine unriviiUcd ; and in the latter, Burke, Grattan, and Curran have displayed daring and 
 brilliant flights. In her graver pursuits, Ireland has not been so happy; though Usher 
 attained the first eminence in theological learning, and Berkeley was the author of a highly 
 inijeniDna system of philosophy. 
 
 The Irish establisliments for education are scarcely adequate to the magnitude of the coun- 
 try. There is only one university, that of Dublin, founded by Elizabeth on the model of 
 those of England, hut not on so great a scale. Of it and of other Irish literary in.stitutions, 
 an account will be found under the head of Dublin. As the constitution of this university 
 is strictly Protestant, and does not allow the teaching of Catholic theology, the students of 
 that faith muf^t have been all educated abroad, had not government endowed for their use 
 the Colleifo of Alaynootli. It is supported by a revenue of about 9000/. a year, and contains 
 a president, vice-president, and eleven professors, all with moderate appointments. The 
 students rpceivo board and education; and the whole annual expense of each is not supposed 
 to e.\cee(l 20/. The students of the north resort chiefly to Glasgow for theology, and to 
 Edinburgh for medicine; though tliere iias been an attempt to obviate this necessity by the 
 formation ot' an institution at Belfast. 
 
 The e<hication of the poor in Ireland is a subject which excites the deepest interest in all 
 the friends of that country. It appears that by the 8th of Henry VIII., every clergyman, on 
 his induction, becomes bound to keep or cause to be kept an English school. This act, 
 however, is either obsolete, or so far evaded that only 23,000 children are now taught in 
 these parochial schools. The greatest effort at Irish education, however, is that made by 
 the Chartor Schools, instituted in 1733, which, by parliamentary grants and private bene- 
 factions, have enjoyed an income of 30,000/. a year. But this sum, which might almost 
 fiirnish schools to the half of Ireland, is spent upon 2000 boys, who receive board as well as 
 instructicn. Although the act recites no other object than instruction in the English 
 tongue, proselytism has become almost the sole aim. The Hibernian Society, the Baptist 
 Society, and tlia*. for discountenancing vice, support schools to a very considerable extent 
 The Kildarc Street Society, established in 1812, founded numerous schools, in which they 
 endeavoured to induce the Catholics to attend by renouncing all attempts to gain proee- 
 Ivtes ; but from the entire Scriptures being read in these schools, and other alleged causes, 
 the Catholics were supposed to view them with jealousy. The allowance made to this 
 society was therefore withdrawn, and a new plan instituted, in which the moral and literary 
 is separated from the religious education, and is communicated to tlie youth of both religions 
 during four or five days in the week, while, in the remaining period, religious instruction 
 is expected to be administered by the clergy of the respective churches. Extracts only 
 from the Scripture, approved by the leading Catliolic clergy, are read in the common 
 
 * The new arrangement, when completed, will be as rollows : 
 
 Income. 
 
 Armaoh (u ith Clogher, Archb.) Xi:),170 
 
 Meath 5,SS1 
 
 Dcrry ("illi Rnphnc) 8,0.13 
 
 Down (with Cniinor and Drnmure) 5,896 
 
 Kihniiru (with .Aninghanil Elphin^ 7,478 
 
 Tuani(\vilh Killnla and Achonry) 5,030 
 
 DuBi.i N (with CluiMldaKh and Kililare) il,X2l 
 
 Usfinry (Willi L«ij(hlin nnil FcrnM) fi,SSO 
 
 Ca^ho'l (Willi Biiily, Watcrrord, and I.ismore) 7,354 
 
 Clnynp(.vithrork and Rms) .'i,OUO 
 
 Killalnrwith Kilfennru, Ulnnrcrt, and KilmacduaKh) . 4,533 
 
 Limerick (with Ardfurt and A|{hadoe) S,36U 
 
 JPf' 
 
 m- 
 
 Total 83,953 
 
 [Ak. Ed I 
 
l,g&3 
 
 
 Book 1. 
 
 ■^' 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 440 
 
 Bchnola. Locul fiindt), to a certain extent, arc recjuircd to be contributed. Although this 
 syste'm haa met with many opponents, yet, in tlie beginning of 1833 tliere had been estab- 
 lished imdor it between 500 and C(X) Kclioola, calculated for tiie education of about 90,000 
 scholars. Tn 1824, the number of schools in Ireland was 11,828, and scholars 560,540. 
 Of these scholars 394,742 paid for their own instruction, and among this number were 
 307,(M)0 Catholics, who thus showed no small ardour in obtaining the benefits of knowledge. 
 The following table, irom parliamentary documents, shows the number of pupils reccivmg 
 public instruction in the years specified. 
 
 Malei, Femnlea. Total. 
 
 ITOl 2M,n06 ISB.SOT 3IM 81,1 
 
 IftM ."MO.BW 809,(197 J68;964* 
 
 1834 84,044 60,870 14S,5il 
 
 The fine arts do not appear to have attained any great excellence in Ireland. Her best 
 painters have sought for patronage in the British metropolis ; and the attempts to establish 
 an annual e.^hibition in Dublin have not succeeded. The Irish harp and native Irish melo- 
 dies enjoy considerable reputation. The ecclesiastical structures have not that splendour 
 and richness which so strongly mark many of those in England ; but the modem edifices, 
 especially in Dublin, display a taste as well as magnificence which render that capital 
 almost pre-eminent. 
 
 In funerals, marriages, and similar solemnities, the Irish retain several old national cus- 
 toms. The practice of hired howling women at fonerals, called ululates, is very prevalent; 
 a considerable sum is paid to those employed, though, in cases of necessity, they howl gratis. 
 A still more unfortunate custom is that of the wakes, where thirty or forty neighbours 
 assemble, arc entertained with meat and drink, and indulge in every sort of fun. Marriages 
 in many parts of the country are marked by some real, or at least appKirent, violence ; the 
 bridegroom collects a largo party of friends, seizes and carries oflf the seemingly reluctant bride. 
 Alluding to this custom, her going to her husband's house, even in ordinary cases, is called 
 the "hauling home." This is not prompted by any peculiar shyness on the part of the fair 
 sex ; on the contrary, the mothers, with whom the afliair chiefly rests, display even a fever- 
 ish anxiety that their offspring should not remain long in a state of single blessedness. The 
 fair sex are treated among the higher ranks with a gay and romantic gallantry; among the 
 lower almost as slaves, being subjected to the most degrading labour. 
 
 Amusement forma a copious element in the existence of an Irishman. Ample scope is 
 afforded to t!ie Catholics by their numerous holidays, and the Protestants vie with them in 
 this particular. The fairs afford a grand theatre for fun of every description. The chief 
 bodily exercise is hurling, which consists in driving a ball to opposite goals; to this are 
 added horse-racing, cock-fighting, cudgelling, leaping, and dancing; to say nothing of drink- 
 ing and fighting. The conversation of the Irish is distinguished by loud mirth, seasoned 
 with a good deal of humour, by singing, and telling long stories. Thus employed, even the 
 poor will often sit up to a late hour. 
 
 The houses of the Irisli, if we except those of the rich, or in towns, which ore formed 
 after the English model, are mere hovels formed of earth, taken out of the ground on which 
 they stand ; whence the floor is reduced at lea.st a foot below the outer level, and becomes a 
 receptacle for all the superfluous moisture. This is the more incommodious as it has no 
 boards, and the bed no frame ; nor is the latter raised from the ground, being merely straw 
 spread upon the floor. This humble mansion is shared by all the living creatures, which the 
 family are able to muster ; cows, pigs, geese, and fowls ; which are rarely separated by any 
 partition firom the other tenants. 
 
 No compulsory provision exists in Ireland for the support of the poor ; a circumstance to 
 which we arc inclined to ascribe much of their distressed state, as well as of the backward 
 state of the country in general. Not being obliged to contribute any thing to their support, 
 the landlords and occupiers have, generally speaking, manifested great indifference to the 
 condition of the peasantry. Few among them have hesitated to allow their estates to be 
 subdivided into minute portions to advance their political interests, or to obtain an increase 
 of rent. Rut it is abundantly certain that they would have paused before venturing on such 
 a course of proceeding, had they been made responsible, in all time to come, for the paupers 
 they were thus introducing upon their properties. 
 
 The dress of the Irish peasantry consists chiefly of the native wool, worked rudely up 
 into frieze or linsoy; for they seldom can afford to wear the fine linen which they fabricate. 
 But the most prominent feature of this attire among the lowest class, is its lamentable de- 
 ficiency ; in many instances it covers little more than half of the person, and presents an 
 image of extreme poverty. When this deficiency does not exist, the Irishman loves to dis- 
 play the extent of his wardrobe ; when going to a fair, he puts on all the coats he has, though 
 the season be midsummer. 
 
 The food of the Irish peasant is no less scanty than his dress and habitation. It is almost 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 • * Including 9,125 not aacertainad. 
 
 an* 
 
 3G 
 
 
4&0 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAI'IIY 
 
 Pabt III. 
 
 wholly comprised in tlio potato, without any otlior vngctablo (for ho is a utrangcr to tho 
 luxiirv of a ijanlen), nnd only in favourablo circumataiicos is it accompanind witii milk, Thia 
 food, ImwtHi.T, iH siiHicicnt to preserve him in full houlth nnd vigour. In the north, the ubo 
 of oatmeal in the form of cakes and pottage has been derived from Scotland. 
 
 Sect. VII. — Local Geography. 
 
 Ireland is divided into four provinces, or rather regions: Leinstnr in the east, Mnnstcr in 
 the south, ('(innaught in the west, and Ulster in the north. This is independent of the 
 minuter English (livision into counties, a number of which are comprised in each of the 
 four provinces. These last, indeed, when Ireland was rule<l by native governments, formed 
 separate kingdoms. They are still distinguished by marked boundaries, by a diflcrent aspect 
 of nature, and by a considerable variation of monners and customs. 
 
 The following table exhibits tho leading provinciol statistics of Ireland. The population 
 statements) differ considerably from thoee hitherto published; but they have been furnished 
 b^ Mr. Porter, of tho Board uf Trade as the result of the latest and most accurate digest of 
 ' 10 returns for 1831. 
 
 X 
 
 lYovlncN 
 
 and 
 CounKM. 
 
 Simre 
 Iklils. 
 
 ImpmveU 
 
 Vnlm. 
 provH 
 Acres. 
 
 EiOmatid 
 Anniul 
 
 Valua. 
 
 in mi. 
 
 PoiuU, 
 ti(m in 
 1831, 
 
 Cillo iwl TowM, Willi Ihctr Populillon. 
 
 tMmliT. 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dublin 
 
 331 
 
 237,810 
 
 10,819 
 
 250,211 
 
 35,740 
 
 380,107 
 
 Ddhlin 
 
 304,15.1 
 
 
 Louth 
 
 nii 
 
 1»1,;I4S 
 
 14,0111 
 
 lft4,7lU 
 
 21,:«2 
 
 124,840 
 
 Droglicda 
 
 17,305 Dundalk 
 
 0,356 
 
 Meath 
 
 .'ilQ 
 
 561, .537 
 
 5,000 
 
 5:0,4H 
 
 27,042 
 
 170,830 
 
 Trim 
 
 2,470 
 
 
 Wicklow... 
 
 m 
 
 4flO,7fl4 
 
 04,000 
 
 300,822 
 
 17.2h!I 
 
 121,557 
 
 Wicklow , , . , 
 
 3,040 Arklow 
 
 3,808 
 
 Weiforrt . . . 
 
 iM 
 
 545,070 
 
 18„100 
 
 30.5,134 
 
 20,150 
 
 183,713 
 
 W««f.ird 
 
 «,336 
 
 
 Longford. ■. 
 
 20» 
 
 103,500 
 
 55,247 
 
 151,505 
 
 18,087 
 
 112,558 
 
 LongOtrd , , , . 
 KnniHcorthy , 
 
 3,783 New Rosa . . . 
 3.537 
 
 4,475 
 
 Weitmeath 
 
 3BI 
 
 313,03.5 
 
 53,083 
 
 351,003 
 
 2.3,015 
 
 130,872 
 
 Miillingar .. . 
 
 4.100 Atldonc 
 
 11,363 
 
 Klng'a Co. 
 
 44( 
 
 304,500 
 
 i:o,;i40 
 
 317,010 
 
 a.',504 
 
 144,22.5 
 
 Philipuluwn . 
 TiillnMinre . , . 
 
 1031 Birr 
 
 3,406 
 
 
 5,517 
 
 Queen's Co. 
 
 .Tfl? 
 
 3.'W,P.V 
 
 00,072 
 
 277.7(i7 
 
 23,105 
 
 145,851 
 
 Pnrturlington 
 
 2,877 Maryborough 
 
 8,677 
 
 Kildare 
 
 3liU 
 
 325,08f 
 
 00.447 
 
 255,082 
 
 10,478 
 
 108,434 
 
 Alhy 
 
 Kildare 
 
 3,603 Naaa 
 
 1,516 
 
 3,073 
 
 Kilkenny . . 
 
 40!) 
 
 417,117 
 
 00,.'i(lfl 
 
 437,i;0.'! 
 
 '.>0,78<l 
 
 103,080 
 
 Kilkenny 
 
 83,741 
 
 
 Carlow 
 
 i!n 
 
 in«,H3:t 
 
 SM.fl-.IO 
 
 104,805 
 
 13,0'i8 
 
 81,088 
 
 Carlnw 
 
 8,03S 
 
 
 ■),M(i 
 
 4,113,'.>i;0 
 
 035.424 
 
 3,472,4(10 
 
 278,:i!l8 
 
 1,000,713 
 
 Ultler. 
 Down 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 502,077 
 
 10,^,5ii!i 
 
 480,12:1 
 
 50,747 
 
 ;«2,012 
 
 Newry 
 
 10,013 Downpalrick 
 
 4,133 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Donnaghadcc 
 
 2,705 
 
 
 Antrim 
 
 COS 
 
 4K1,10« 
 
 225,070 
 
 500,150 
 
 48,02," 
 
 325,015 
 
 lli'lfnst 
 
 Antrim 
 
 53,000 Cnrrickfcrgua 
 3,485 Linhiirn'' 
 
 8,700 
 4,684 
 
 I/)niIon(li.Tr. 
 
 47!l 
 
 a7'-',f;c.7 
 
 i:tfl.038 
 
 310,002 
 
 .34,001 
 
 222,012 
 
 l.nnilonilirry. 
 
 0,313 Colerain 
 
 4,851 
 
 Donegal . .. 
 
 1,(N!I 
 
 ,5i<l.7:wi 
 
 044,371 
 
 340,,'iOl 
 
 44,800 
 
 '.'»!', 140 
 
 lliillyHhiiinnn 
 
 3,8;il Lifford 
 
 976 
 
 Fermanagh 
 
 44C 
 
 320..V.I!l 
 
 10I,0,V2 
 
 2.V>.301 
 
 22„58.'i 
 
 1 40,703 
 
 Knnitikillen , , 
 
 3,300 
 
 
 Cavan 
 
 47f 
 
 4'.>l,4(i3 
 
 30.0(10 
 
 :(07.741 
 
 34,148 
 
 227,033 
 
 Cavan 
 
 2,323 
 
 
 Mnnaehnit . 
 
 m 
 
 3l)!>.!Ui|J 
 
 1) i>')|: 
 
 2l2.,'i81 
 
 32,378 
 
 105,5:10 
 
 •Monaglian, ,. 
 
 3,7.38 ■ 
 
 
 Armagh 
 
 'i>':\ 
 
 2ii7,:il7 
 
 42,172 
 
 178,05,5 
 
 3ti.2(:o 
 
 220,1:14 
 
 Armagh 
 
 fi,4»3 
 
 
 Tyrone 
 
 -.•n 
 
 ,«0,(-20 
 
 171,314 
 
 528,005 
 
 47,104 
 
 304,408 
 
 Uniagh 
 
 2,005 Dungammon . 
 
 3,843 
 
 4,«M 
 
 ;),74!i,:«2 
 
 1,40:i,'i22 
 
 3,'.'(W:l7i' 
 
 350,801 
 
 2,280,022 
 
 JUuiuter, 
 Clare 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 258,:i22 
 
 Rnnit 
 
 6,701 
 
 
 744 
 
 524,1 111 
 
 S.V,i,5f<4 
 
 441,203 
 
 33,371 
 
 Kerry 
 
 1,013 
 
 581,180 
 
 S.W.Sfii 
 
 :M4,01(i 
 
 35,.507 
 
 203,126 
 
 Tralen 
 
 Dingle 
 
 7,.547 Killarney , . , , 
 
 4,088 
 
 7,014 
 
 Cork 
 
 I,iW 
 
 l,0G8,f-»:i 
 
 70O,7r,O 
 
 1,203,020 
 
 114,150 
 
 810,733 
 
 Cork 
 
 Kinnalc 
 
 Fermoy 
 
 107,010 llondon 
 
 7,(HW Ynufhal 
 
 0,703 MulldW 
 
 10,179 
 8,060 
 4,114 
 
 Waterford . 
 
 4U1 
 
 rt,'i3,247 
 
 118,034 
 
 2!'5,304 
 
 23,8('0 
 
 177,054 
 
 Wiiler'foril , , , 
 
 28,821 Liwiiore 
 
 2,3.30 
 
 Tippcrary. . 
 
 B(i7 
 
 Hlli,MS 
 
 l«,147 
 
 8r'0,53!l 
 
 55,207 
 
 402,503 
 
 Clonnu'l 
 
 Tippcrnry , . , 
 HoKrea 
 
 15,.5!IO ChkIicI 
 
 6,34H Carr.-onSuir 
 5,3:19 
 
 0.548 
 7,460 
 
 Limerick . . . 
 
 604 
 
 .5(«,842 
 
 81,081 
 
 030,932 
 
 43,400 
 
 315,355 
 
 Limerick 
 
 60,554 
 
 
 5,275 
 
 3,035.852 
 
 1,005,308 
 
 3,801,070 
 
 300,005 
 
 2,227,152 
 
 Connauffht. 
 Iz-itrim .. .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40(1 
 
 200.040 
 
 128,107 
 
 210,187 
 
 2l,7i;2 
 
 141,524 
 
 CarrickonPh 
 
 1,073 
 
 
 Siigo 
 
 MHii 
 
 2,57,217 
 
 Jli8,711 
 
 2'27,44,1 
 
 27,0,50 
 
 171,70,5 
 
 Pligo 
 
 9,383 
 
 
 Mayo 
 
 }.1Xi 
 
 871 084 
 
 425,124 
 
 5.W,018 
 
 5,1,031 
 
 30(),:(28 
 
 Cnstleliar 
 
 5.404 
 
 
 Galway — 
 
 l,.-)IO 
 
 !'5.'i,713 
 
 470,n.')7 
 
 808,704 
 
 ,i-',137 
 
 414,084 
 
 Cnlwny 
 
 DnllinaBloe .. 
 
 3:i,l20 Tuam 
 
 1,811 
 
 4.S71 
 
 Rotcomman 
 
 541 
 
 453,455 
 
 131,003 
 
 370,028 
 
 r,300 
 
 340,013 
 
 Roscommon . 
 
 3,015 
 
 
 4,10f 
 
 2,805,000 
 
 1,330,022 2,23(i,070 
 
 107,408 
 
 1,343,014 
 
 ♦iH,«X) 
 
 I4,(10;l,47:l 
 
 5,340,730 
 
 12,715..57r 
 
 1,142,(;0^ 
 
 7,707,401 
 
 SuiwECT. 1. — Lein.iter. 
 
 Leinster is the richest and most cultiv.'ited of the four great divisions, and, as containing 
 the seat of government, tho most iiiiportimt tlioatie of jKilitical events. Though the sur- 
 face be level to a great extent, it is not destitute of considerable ranges of mountains. These 
 
 t* Thia is the Irish mile of 40 to n ili'gric. 
 -Ah. Eo.] 
 
 The area haa already been stated to be 30,000 English square miles 
 
lira. 
 
 
 O.SM 
 
 
 3,808 
 
 
 4,478 
 
 • • • • 
 
 ii,3fia 
 
 5,406 
 
 )ugh 
 
 9,0T7 
 3,073 
 
 irgui 8,700 
 
 . . 4,684 
 
 .. 4.H51 
 
 .. 970 
 
 
 7,014 
 
 10,179 
 8,96!; 
 4,114 
 2,3,10 
 U548 
 7,460 
 
 4,571 
 
 
 Icontaininf; 
 111 tho sur- 
 Ins. These 
 
 Iquare mile* 
 
 Book I. 
 
 IREIJVND 
 
 451 
 
 Jounty, 
 
 include almofit the whole county of Wicklow, whopo Imld nnd picturcsquo fiimmits arc goen 
 oven from Dublin. In tho interior, tho lonjr range of Slievp-Blewrii stri'tches towards the 
 liordcTH of MuHMter. A considerable part luso of the midland counties is covered by the 
 great bojf, whicli crosses the wiiolo centre of Ireland. After all deductions, however, there 
 remains a largo extent of level land, fit either for tillage or poMturnge. This is the part of 
 Ireland where wheat is grown to the greatest extent, oats being idaewherc almost the only 
 grain ; and its rich postures supply the capital with cuttle and the prcxlucts of tho dairy. 
 Lcinstcr comprises tho counties of Dublin, Kildarc, King's county, Queen's Couii 
 Wicklow, Carlow, Kilkenny, WexfortI, Mcuth, VVcslmeath, I^)nglbr(l, and lx>uth. 
 
 The county of Dublin owes its distinction almost exdusivi'ly to its containing tho capital 
 of Ireland. Tho city of Dublin disputes with Edinburgh and Bath the reputation of being 
 tlie most beautiful city in the empire. If the brick of which the houses arc built impair the 
 effect of the general range of its streets and st^uares, its public buildings, composed of stone, 
 surpass in grandeur and taste those of any of its rivals. There is no period of Irish record 
 in wliich Dublin was not an important place. It is mentioned by Ptoleiny under the name 
 of Eblana. The Dunes, in tlie ninth century, made it their capital, and enclosed it with a 
 wall about a mile in length, the course of which may still be traced. As soon as the Eng- 
 lish began to establish themselves in Ireland, its proximity induced them to make it their 
 head-quarters ; it grew with the improvement of Ireland and the extension of the English 
 8way, but all its splendour has arisen within the lost sixty or seventy years. The numerous 
 streets and squares formed during that period have been built on a regular plan, and contain 
 several superb mansions, which once belonged to the principal nobles. The squares are par- 
 ticularly axlmired ; that of St. Stephen's Green is nearly seven furlongs in circuit ; Merrion 
 Square, which contains the splendid mansion of Leinster House; Rutland Square, in the 
 interior of which are the gardens of the Lying-in Hospital ; and Mountjoy Square, are also 
 spacious and finely laid out. Of the streets, the finest is Sackville Street, 170 feet wide, 
 and adorned with many splendid mansions. To the west is the old town, now bearing marks 
 of decay, and still further west is the tract called "the Liberfy," as being out of the juris- 
 diction of the magistrates. It is inhabited only by the lowest orders, and exhibits scenes of 
 filth and wretchedness not to be paralleled in any city of the sister island. A room fifteen 
 feet square is frequently let to three or four families; and one house was ascertained to have 
 lodged 108 personsi. Dublin has been "shorn of its be.ims" since the Union; when the 
 nobles and gentry, no longer called to attend parliament, transferred their own residence to 
 the metropolis of the empire, and their Dublin mansions have been converted to humbler pur- 
 poses. The Castle, the residence of the lord lieutenant, is extensive ; but its architectural 
 beauty is almost confined to a modem Gothic chapel. The cathedral of St. Patrick (^fiff. 212.), 
 and Christ Church have a venerable aspect ; but they can rank only secondary to the fine 
 212 structures in the English cities. The splendid 
 
 structure, formerly the parliament-house of Ire- 
 land, and now the national bank (fifi- 213.), 
 
 Sl. ratrick'8 Calhodrnl. Bank of Ireland, Dublin. 
 
 was built between 1729 and 1739 ; but an eastern front was added in 1785, and a western 
 front shortly after. The portico is 147 feet in length, supiwrted by lofty Ionic columns ; the 
 whole covering an aero and a half of ground. The Royal Exchange {fig. 214.), forms a 
 square of 100 feet, and its principal front has a richly decorated portico of six Corinthian 
 columns. The Four Ijiw Courts, situated on the north bank of the river {fig. 215.), form 
 _ 215 
 
 214 
 
 Eichuia, Dnblii. 
 
 Fooi Cooili, DabliD. 
 
 
 fl 
 
DESCRIPTIVE OEOaRAPlIY. 
 
 Pakt in. 
 
 li 
 
 tlao one of the noblest structurcg in Dublin : it congitits of a square of 140 foot, prcBcntin|r& 
 fW>ntof six Corintliian pillars, Hupportin^; a circular lantern and nm{;niliccnt uonio. Tlie 
 quay ia ornamented by the Custoni-nuuHe, uf wliicit tlie front is entirely of Portland stone, 
 embcllishoil with a Doric colunnadc, and extendinf; :)75 feet. The Post Uflive, in Sackvillo 
 Street, is extensive and rnugniticcnt, with a front of 223 feet, adorned with an Ionic portico 
 of Portlund stone ; the main structure is of granite. In the centre of Backville Street, ia 
 the monument erected to Nelsun ; an object by no means ornamental. The inns of court, 
 the theotre, the half-finished Roman Catholic metro|)olitun chapel, and several other churches 
 and chapels, witli many of the hospitals, may bo mentioned as adding to the architectural 
 •plendour of Dublin. All the usual associations for the relief of distress ore supported on a 
 liberal scale, and great zeal is shown in favour of all institutions for the promotion of know- 
 ledge. Trini'y College was founded in 1503 ; and its students amount to 1600. There are 
 2&7ellow8>.ip8, and the livings in the gill of the university, which aro considerable in num- 
 ber and value, are offered to the fellows in the order of seniority. The gradations of 
 rank, amongst the fellows in Trinity College, are indicated by a different dress and table. 
 The library contains 100,000 volumes ; but its otlier collections are not equal to those of the 
 Dublin Society. Usher, Switl, Berkeley, Chandler, Inland, Pamell, Burke, Grattan, Curran, 
 with other distingui:4hed characters, are mentioned as pupils of this seminary. The buildings 
 of the College are on a large scale, divided into three quadrangles, for the accommodation 
 of the fellows and pupils. The front towards College Green extends 300 feet, and is adorned 
 with columns of tlio Corinthian order. The library forms a fourth quadrangle, built of hewn 
 ■tone, with a rich entablature ; and the principal room, 210 feet long and 41 feet broad, is 
 elegantly fitted up. At a short distance f^om town is a botanic garden. The Royal Dublin 
 Society, incorporated in 1749, for the promotion of husbandry and the useful arts, has a 
 botanic garden; a museum of natural history; a school for drawing, with models; and 
 teachera in all these departments. The Roval Irish Academy, incorporated in 1782, has 
 published many volumes of Transactions. The Dublin Institution has been formed on the 
 model of that of London, and a city Library nr,iablishcd. Although a g:reat literary spirit 
 prevails in Dublin, there are few Wks printed there, and the art of printing is in a back- 
 ward state. The works of Irinh authors issue from the I^ndon presses. Dublin has very 
 little foreign trade ; but she hna a. cons-idcrablo trade with England, particularly with Liver- 
 pool. The bay is spacious, and has good anchorage ; but the entrance is beset with formida- 
 ble sand-banks, particularly those called the North and South Bulls, which cannot be passed 
 by large vessels at low water ; sn that vessels embayed at that time of the tide, and attacked 
 by strong easterly gales, can scarcely escape being driven upon one of them. To avert these 
 evils, a double wall has been constructed throe miles in length, composed of enormous blocks 
 of granite, dovetailed into each other, the interval filled with gravel ; and a light-house 
 erected at tho end. Another pier fif great extent has been built at Dunleary, now Kings- 
 town, on the southern side of the bay, which is connected by a railway with the capital. 
 To these advantages Dublin unites that of being placed at the termination of the Grand 
 Canal on the soutn, and the Royal Canal on the north, which penetrate by different lines to 
 the Shannon and the interior ot Ireland. In 1829, Dublin paid the sum of660,00W. of duty 
 on imported goods, while that paid at all the other ports of Ireland amounted only to 010,0(M){. 
 The environs are celebrated for their beauty. The vast nuinb(!r of villas and villages which 
 cover the adjacent districts, and are rendered conspicuous by the ground sloping down to the 
 bay; the foreground of the Dublin mountains, and the picturesque summits of those of 
 Wicklow in the background, render the situation striking and delightful. To the west, 
 Phcenix Park, a royal demesne of several milon in circumference, affi>ras on agreeable pro- 
 menade, and has lately been adorned with an obelisk, 210 feet high, in honour of the Dnke 
 of Wellington. The rest of the county contains only villages, and tlie interior possesses few 
 interesting objects. The shores of the bay, however, include many striking sites; and the 
 view from the Hill of Killiney is almost matchless. 
 
 Wicklow is in general composed of bog, forest, and mountain, and contributes little to the 
 wealth of Ireland. It is, however, celebrated for picturesque beauty. Its coast, diversified 
 by hills, broken into glens, and richly wooded, is almost covered with the seats of the gentry 
 and opulent citizens of Dublin. These variegated and embellished grounds, having on one 
 side the expanse of the Irish Channel, and on the other the lolly mountains in the interior, 
 produce a number of beautifiil sites. The demesne of Powersconrt is pre-eminent, the water- 
 fall (Jig. 216.), descending 360 feet down a steep hill, amid vast hanging woods. The interior 
 of the county presents features of a very different description ; glens between lofty mountains, 
 naked and desolate. Among tliese is Glpiuhilough (fig. 217.), which is surrounded by amost 
 majestic circuit of mountains, and contains some remarkable ecclesiastical monuments attri- 
 buted to St Kevin, a great patron saint of Ireland in the seventh century. One of his disci- 
 plea founded at Glendalough a little city, long celebrated as a seat of religion and learning. 
 Only its site can now be traced ; but there are distinct remains of seven churches, among 
 which the cathedral and St. Kevin's kitchen are the most entire. Loughs Dan and Bnv 
 
Book I. 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 to the 
 sitied 
 ;entry 
 in one 
 terior, 
 vatcr- 
 iterior 
 itains, 
 imost 
 I attri- 
 I diBci- 
 ning. 
 Lmong 
 iBnv 
 
 iitimtcd in tho booom of tho wildrst ftwiiintiiinH, mul i-nclcwctl by Hnrk tnd lofty rooks, nronrnt 
 nntiiro iitidcr nii ii>i|ic(t tlio most rufloly ^lublllne, VVicklow huH vein* of copper and lootl : 
 gold wiiH collcctfd in ono yeiir to tlio vnliio of KMXKI/. ; but tho voin wiis soon oxhnuHtcd. 
 
 Tho towMM of Wicklow and Arklow, thoU),'h well 
 built, nri! inciin.siiloriihlu ; yot tho latter, at the 
 niotilli of lh<! DvdiM, has n little trade, and was once 
 tho residenoo of the kinffH of Ireland. It wa« the 
 Hceno of a memorable action in 170S, when Uio in* 
 
 Powencourl Wmtrrill 
 
 Glmdalauih 
 
 surgents, above 30,000 strong, were defeated by a small British detachment. 
 
 Wexford, to the south of Wicklow, is separated from it by a range of mountains ; but 
 tho interior contains u great der.l of level land, in which agriculture is pursued with greater 
 diligence, and the tenantry are more comfortable, than in most otlier parts of Ireland. Barley 
 is tt prevailing crop. The woodlands uL-o are extensive and valuable. Wexford is a place 
 of some consequence, with a harbour much obstructed by sand ; yet it carries on some traffic. 
 Some woollens are mode both at Wexford and Ennif'Corlliy. New Ross, in tho western part 
 of the county, is a flourishing town, on the Burrow, which admits of largo ships coining up 
 to its quay. 
 
 Kilkenny, a fine and extensive county, separated from Wexford by the Borrow, is watere<l 
 not only by that river, but by its tributaries tho Noro and the Suirc. These streams carry 
 off the superfluous moistare, and prevent the foriqation of bog or maish to any extent. Kil- 
 kenny, being cliicHy level, or intersected only by hills of moderate height, is composed 
 almost etitirely either of arable or fine pasture lund. Tho latter is employed in extensive 
 dairies, but tho system of cultivation is still imperfect. Kilkenny, tho capital, advantage- 
 ously situated on the Nore, is partly built of the marble of the surrounding quarries. Its 
 cathedral is one of the finest in Ireland, and the castle, with its reinii ining gates and bastions, 
 exhibits indications of that strength which enabled it to hold out against Cromwell longer 
 than any other city in Ireland. At present Kilkenny flourishes by inland trade, and by a 
 manufactory of blankets and other woollens. Tho foreign trade of the county is curried on 
 by Watcrford. 
 
 Carlow is encompassed by mountains, which however enclose a champaign tract of great 
 beauty and fertility, equally fit for tillage and pasture, and producing the best butter in Ire- 
 land. The town of Carlow is a considerable place, distinguished by an abbey and castle, 
 both of great antiquity. The town has a manufactory of coarse woollens, and carries on a 
 considerable trade down the Barrow. An extensive Catholic seminary has lately been 
 founded here. 
 
 Queen's County and King's County fiirm a table-land of moderate elevation. Part of the 
 Bxeit chain of bogs crosses these counties, and renders a large proportion of them unpro- 
 ductive, though it supplies them with cheap and abundant fiiel. The remaining surface ia 
 highly fertile. Queen's County is situated along the heads of the Barrow and the Nore ; 
 Kmg s County reaches to the Shannon ; and both communicate by canals with Dublin. 
 Portarlington, on the borders of the two counties, is a well-built place, with good schools, 
 and the residence of a considerable number of gentry. Tullamore, on the great canal, and 
 Birr or I'urscnstown, uro the most thriving towns in Icing's County. 
 
 Kildare, with the exception of about a sixth part of bog, forms a plain of the finest arable 
 soil, well cultivated, and whence the capital is chiefly supplied with grain. The Grand and 
 Royal Canals, which. lx)tli cross its northern border, afli)r(l the means of ready conveyance 
 to Dull! in. Kildure-town, presenting a lofty round tower and some other vestiges of past 
 importance, is only supported by tho races held on the curragh of Kildare, an expanse of 
 several tliousiiud acres of the very finest turf. Nnas and Athy are larger towns, and the 
 castle of tlic former bears testimony to the period when it was the residence of the kings 
 
 'mt 
 
4M 
 
 DKHCIUI'TIVK (JKOGRAI'UV. 
 
 I'AHT III. 
 
 of I^Miiafcr. In thin county ist iMiiyiuKitli, ii mniill ti.rtii rontnininii tlio collojjn PHtubliil.cd 
 by (roviTiiinont tor tliu nluuiiliiin i>t ihn Koniun ('iitliiviii'H. 
 
 Mdiitli lit ouii ol'tlin niiwt llivonii'il CDntiticNDf Ihn kin({i»iim in ronprrt ti) *)il. Itit ricli paii- 
 tiiri'H bu|i|Kirt viiHt honlH nl' black (.'uttli>, wlilcli p«n|)|)ly tlii! innrki-ls ol' tlm ciipitiil, iiiiU iirc ox- 
 (wrtiul to Kii^lanil. Tim pnxhirU nl' tlio duiry iiro nliinuhint, lliimifli not of very Hiip^rior 
 (luality. Trim, wlioru tint uiwi/cM urti lu'ld, in u Hniiill tiiwn ; iNavnii iiml Kulli* nni liir|(>'r. 
 
 Uuitli, tlidii^li tint HnmlloHt in urea Dt'any [rinli county, iH oun i)t' liw lirHt in |xiint ot' natu- 
 ral anil ac(|iiirc(l advantajru!*. An activo H|iirit ot" irnproviMncnt han lironglit ainiunt I'vory 
 jiarl «)(■ itH cxcclliMit soil undiT cultivation. ItH linen niamifacturo priKlncox cliioMy dowlnn 
 and i<li<'i'tinj{H, with WMnf cuudiric. l,outli prcnonln many HuinplcM of tliu earthen inouniU 
 called nillit. Dundalk, the; capital of the cciinity, in ancii^nt, tiopuluUH, tind tionriiihinr;. It 
 ha» Ik'cii iliu thoatru of iinporlant liimtorical events ; lint itn lolly towi tm and cnMtluit are now 
 dcnioliHhed, and have jfivcn place to conitortahlo dwollinjjH. The town conrtist* chiefly of 
 one lar(;o and broiul Htruet, whoncu many lanen are tieen divorffinuf. It in tho only placo in 
 Ireland where tho cambric manufacture linH been introduced, and continueM to llourixh. 
 I)ro(ilieda, nt tho mouth of the tioyne, whm of Htill f^reator importance 08 a military station, 
 bfiin^ coiisiilcrcd one nf tho keyii ct' Irehiuil. In the f^rcat rebellion of IfVtl, it Htood u lon(( 
 siege, but wan ailerwardH taken by Cromwell, who |>nni8bed itH rc«iHtancn by n moHt barba- 
 rouH maiwacro of tho ^rritton. In IflW), two miles above I)rr)glioda, won fought tho liuttlo 
 of the Doyno, that memorable tleld which CHtabliHhnd the civil and roliffious libertios of tho 
 ompire. Tho fortificationH are of obMohito gtrnctnre, and ore communued on several nidos. 
 Tho place hat* an excellent harbour, and exteiiitive conmiorcc in grain brouf^ht down tho 
 river m couNiderable (piantities tiir ex(Nirtation ; in return for which, cuitlH and other curnnio- 
 diticM are iniiiorted, 
 
 Westineatli and l^onjflord, reachinjj westward nn tar oh tho Shannon, coiwist chiefly of a 
 very oxtonnive plain considerably encumb<<red with lakes, boffs, an<l morassps, and wibjoct in 
 |»art to the overfl iwinjf of the Shannon, but inclndinrr fertile tracts of jjreat extent. Ath- 
 lone, tliu lariifcst iiiland town of Irtdand, is situated partly in Westnieath and partly in Ro<)< 
 common. It is memorable liir its resistance to (ieneral (iinklo in 1001, previous to the Inttle 
 of Anghrim, and is still considered an important military station. It is divided by tho Shan- 
 non into two parts uuiti'd by a liridire. With this exception, these provinces contain only 
 small country towns and large villaires. Mullingar, in VVcstmitath, liasu considerablo trade. 
 Ijongford is the capital of the county of that name. 
 
 SuBSKcrr 2. — Munster. 
 
 Mimster includes the south and south-west of Ireland, and, tboufth not the mo«t extensive 
 division of the kingdom, is on(! of those which presents the boldest and most striking fea- 
 tures. Most of tho great mountain chains of Ireland traverse Munster; among which aro 
 conspicuous tho Galties and the mountains of Kerry, which encircle Killamey ; so that, not- 
 withstanding tho almost Iwundless plains of Limerick and Tipperary, and the level character 
 of a great part of (>ork, it may bo considered as a mountainous region. It has manufactures, 
 though not on so great a scale as those of tho north ; and its cotnmcrce is very considerablo, 
 chiefly in the export of salted provisions. The Catholic religion prevails, with little inter- 
 mixture of that of the English church. Munster is divided into larger and less numerous 
 portions than Leinster ; its counties are Tipperary, Watcrford, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, and 
 Clare. 
 
 Tijiperary, extending over almost the whole frontier of I^instcr, is crossed by a long' 
 chain of mountains r;alled variously Slieve-Bloom, tho Devil's Bit, and other uncouth names; 
 and on the south it includes part of the Galties. On tho north a small portion of tho groat 
 central bog extends across the county ; but one district, along the upper course of the Suire, 
 bears the appellation of tho Golden Vale. The sheep and horned cattlo are of excellent 
 quality. There are manufactures, chiefly tor domestic use; and some coal, similar to that 
 of Kifkoimy. Clonmel, the county town, is one of the most considerablo in tho interior of 
 Ireland : it staxl a long siogo against Cromwell, who after its reduction doni<dishod tho strong 
 wail.s and castles by which it was defended. It is a well-built town, with four streets cross- 
 ing each oilier, and curries on a brisk inland trade. Casliel is a Inrgo and handsome city, 
 the .seal of an archbishop, to whoso residence a considerabln library is attached. In ancient 
 times, it was the capital of the king.-* of Munster, of whose palace some remnants may still 
 bo traced. Noble rragmonts remain of tlie ancient cathedral, majestically seated on tho 
 summit of a precipitous reck. The choir iiuil nave, 210 feet long, aro strewed with the re- 
 mains of its rjcli orniiments. Here was de|)osited tho I,ia Falo, or fatal stone, on which the 
 kiniis of Minister were crowned. Tho .«tructuro is now abandoned to decay, and a modern 
 cathedral of lino Grecian architecture has b«!on substituted. Cashel contains remains of 
 otiier monastic edifices, of which I lore Abbey, on tho same rock with tho cathedral, is a 
 magnificent specimen, still almost entire. 
 
 Waterford is a mountainous county, and only a small portion is under cultivation * th« 
 
Book I. 
 
 IREMND. 
 
 406 
 
 
 chief hmnrli of ritrnl iiuliiNtry w tlin ilniry, and ((rrnt qiinntitimi of butter nrr< hiiIiinI for ei- 
 portntiiiii. VViitcrfiinl, itn cii|>ital, oiii' of tlii< |irinri|)i\l Ki'ii-|N)rtH (if tlic iuniiin>, tM'iii;^ pInciMl 
 at tliii ('(iiilliii'tirn iif tlin narnivv utiil Suirc, tin- hccihhI niiil IliirtI rivcrM nl Irclnriil, cnjoyH a 
 riHwt tvxti'iiMivn iiit)>r<'citirMn with tliu iiili'rior. 'I'Ih' i|imntily of Ix-pf, |H)rk, Imltcr, ami Kriijn 
 (txixirli'd to Kti|{laiiil, in IKII-'J, wah vnliicil nt 'J,(N1.\H(I1/. ; of which Imi^oii vviui M7,(MK)/. ; 
 hiittitr, ri:<H,(MNI/. ; whont and flour, rtlW,inM.; natx, l'^N,(NN)/.; iivn \»ini, I17,(NI0/. Tho 
 Miuthcrii jmoki't coniiiiiniicntinn witli l'',ii);liiMd in carried on fVoiii Waterllird to Miltiird llaviiu 
 Within tlicwii ft'w yearn, wivciitv vcHwi^t have licen flltod out llir tho Ncwfoutidland flihory 
 Watorford fiiJoyN th« l)OM<'tlt oi' a dci-p and Npacious harlmiir, and a flno i|uny half a mile 
 lonif. ItH ('ccl(<8iai«linal lUdnuiiiontM nru of connidornhln nm|{»itud<<, mid it haH an elrifant 
 nMNJern cathedral, witii other Hue puiihc nditico*. Twenty index to thn wewt, on a iinall 
 hay, iH Dun^arvan, thn lar(;eHt li<«hiii){ town in Ireland; and itx anti(|iiity in atlcMtrd by a ca»- 
 tlu and Huverai inoiiaiitin roinaiiiM. l.iHiiiore, on the Dlackwator, ii now dcNorted ; but itjtcaatio, 
 erected liy Kin^ John, in llHri, Htili prnHontd markx of ancient grandeur, and haa been lately 
 repaired. 
 
 Cork in the lar};pHt county of Ireland. On thn northern border ia tho lofty rnngfe of the 
 GaltioH, which prcHent many picturnrt<|ue feature*, and command oxtoniiive and lN>nutif\il 
 prtwpnctH ; itH wetitorn border partakeM of tho mnimtainoufi character of tho nei)rbbouring 
 diHtrictM of Kerry; and thn rocky Nhoren and headlandii washed by tho wavcHof the Atlantic, 
 are of un awful and terrific character. About a titUi of the county conHiNtH of mountain and 
 bo)f ; tho roHt i» only travnraed by hillH of moderate nlnvation, enclnnini; fertile niid often 
 beautiful valleyn, oftpccially that alonjf tho river and bay. Tho ntyln of culture ix iiitoffether 
 Iritih; in Rinall fnrmn, by |xior tonantn, chiefly by tho xiMide, and potjitoea tho prevailiii)( crop. 
 Tlio manutactiireg conniHt uf aailcloth, coarHO lincnii ami woolleiiH. There uro oImo aome 
 oxteniiivo distilleriea, 
 
 Cork, the (jroat nouthern emporium of Ireland, has a population of 107,000 ; boinjf, in point 
 of wealth ami ina(;nitude, tho xccond city in the island. Itx iiionatttic structurcH, onco con- 
 siderable, have almost entirely dif>appenred. Its great nros|H!rity ix mtHlcrn, in consequence 
 of tho provision trade, of which it has become the chiet mart. The river Iico, at its junc- 
 tion with the BOB, tbrms tho xpiicious enclosed bay, called tho Covo of Cork, compoainff one 
 of tho lltiost liarboura in the world. In couseiiuence of its convenient situation, tho West 
 India bound fleets UHiiulIy touch there, and tnkn in provisions. Tho export of salted beef 
 and pork has some what diminished siiu-e tho peace; but that of provisions in (rcncrul, and 
 particularly K'"'"' '""* '"''-'" tC*-*"''}' niiRmcnted; and Cork, on the whole, is in a very 
 flouribhiii); and prosperous state. A gre:it part of tho old town consists of mitierablo and 
 crowded alleys; but a nnmlior of handsome new streets have been built, and several chan- 
 nels branching from the Lee, which flowed through the city, and were detrimental to tho 
 health of tho inhabitants, have been filled up. Cork has a literary institution, with tho usual 
 appendages of library, lectures, and lx)tanic garden; and it supports tliu charitable cstab- 
 lislimont.s usual in great cities on a liberal scale. 
 
 Kinsale, on a fine bay at the mouth of the Bandon, was much more frequented than Cork 
 by tho early English monarchs, who bestowed on the jdaco extensive privileges, and viewed 
 it as tho key of southern Ireland. It has now, however, sunk under the superior importance 
 of its neighbour ; and it is chiefly supported by a fishery. Youglml, at tho mouth of the 
 Blaukwater, has a good harlmiir, though obstructed by a bar ; and carries on some trade and 
 manufacture. 
 
 Kerry presents an assemblage of mountains wild, rocky, and desolote. These are inter- 
 aperaed with valleys and narrow plains which are almost wholly employed in pasturage; and 
 Kerry has a small breed of cows, which yield plenty of excellent milk. Its coast ia broken 
 into several very deep bays, particularly those of Dingle, Konmare, and Tralee. A considerable 
 quantity of herring la caught in these baya. Tralee, the county town, exhibits the remains 
 Q.Q of a strong castle, onco Uie residence of 
 
 ** ■ the Earls of Desmond, when, under tho 
 
 title of Palatine, they exercised tho real 
 sovereignty over this part of Irelimd ; a 
 sway which terminated with their attain- 
 der under the reign of Elizabeth. 
 
 Killarney and its hikes, as to scenery, 
 have no rival in Ireland. There ia only 
 one body of water, to which, however, 
 the tonn laktx is usually applied ; so 
 completely is it divided into three bays 
 united only by narrow straits, and pre- 
 senting each a different ospect. The lower 
 lake, immediately adjoining Killarney 
 {^g, 218.), forms the main exponse of water, and presents all tho features on the greateel 
 
 Laketof Killarnejr. 
 
 i I 
 
 '1'1 
 
 11'' 
 
 
 iMl 
 
>" 
 
 46fi 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part. HI. 
 
 Mucrua Abbcir. 
 
 Kale. On the eoatern shore rise the mountaliu known by the name of Macgillicuddy's 
 
 Ree!<8, the highest of which ridoa to 3400 
 feet, tlie most elevated point in Ireland. 
 On this side nli-o ure tlic mountains of 
 Tomies and Glena, with tlieir immense 
 forests. Near the western bank is tiie 
 beautiful island of Iimisfallon. At the 
 most southern point of the lower lake a 
 much smaller bay branches off from it, 
 through channels formed by Dinis Island. 
 This bay, called Turk Lake, is over- 
 hung on one side by the precipitous 
 sides of the lofly mountain of tliat 
 name, and bordered on the other by 
 the long wooded and winding penin- 
 sula of Mucruss. The venerable ruin 
 of Mucruss Abbey {fiff. 219.) adds 
 greatly to the interest of this jmrt of the 
 scenery. From Dinis Island, a long 
 winding channel of more than two miles leads to the Upper Lake. The scenery seen in 
 this passage is of surpassing grandeur and beauty. The most striking spot is at the Eagle's 
 
 Crag (Jiff. 220.\ a stupendous and 
 220 nigged cliff, which bursts suddenly 
 
 on the view, rising in a pyramidal 
 form from the water. Thioughout 
 all the rocks of Killamey, but here 
 most particularly, the effect of echoes 
 is most powerful and striking. The 
 Upper Lake, the least extensive but 
 the most sublime, exhibits all the lof- 
 tiest mountains under the most im- 
 posing point of view. Its shores are 
 winding and varied with numerous 
 islands, whose rocky sides contrast 
 with the brilliant green of the ar- 
 butus. The ascent of the highest 
 mountains, Mangerton to the north, 
 
 Ea<lo't Crag. 
 
 and Gheran Tual, the highest of the reeks to the south-east, discloses awful ranges of rugged 
 precipices and of dark and rocky ravines; and their summits command an astonishing view 
 of the mountain glens and rocky shores of Kerry, and the expanse of tlie Atlantic, and the 
 distant plains of Cork and Limerick. 
 
 Limerick is onn of the finest counties of Ireland. Its borders include some branches from 
 the high mountains of Kerry and Tlpperary ; but the main body consists of a fertile plain. 
 .\n alluvial tract, two or tlireo miles broad, along tlie Siiannon, is quite exuberant That 
 noble river, now expanded into an estuary or bay sixty miles in length, runs along the whole 
 northern border of Limerick. 
 
 The city of Limerick, now outstripped by Cork, is the third in Ireland Its situation, in 
 the centre of the grand internal navigation of tiie kingdom, secures to it an extensive trade; 
 and the largest vessels can ascend to the harbour. Limerick is one of the great marts lor 
 the export of grain and provisions; the value of those shipped from it in 1831, having been 
 estimated at 8.54,600/. It was anciently the strongest fortress in Ireland, and has always 
 stood out to the last extremity for the Catholic cause. Ireton, Cromwell's lieutenant, re- 
 duced it only after a long siege, aided by a party witiiin the place. In Ifi'JO-l, it stood two 
 long sieges, and yielded only upon those advantageous terms called the " ca|)itulation of 
 Limerick." Its capture was considered as closing the contest in support of the Stuarts. At 
 this day, not more than a twelfth p|art of the (xipulation of Limerick is protestnnt. The 
 spacious monasteries are almost entirely demolished ; the streets are narrow, crowded, and 
 gloomy ; t)ut since the fortifications were demolished, they have been carefully widetied. In 
 a quarter bnilt by Ijord Perry, and bearing his name, they are spacious and regular; and the 
 houses, though only of brick, hui!' in the most handsome modern style. The assembly-rooms, 
 theatre, aril other modern structures, are elegant an! commodious. 
 
 Clare county is a wild, hilly, romantic district, abounding with fine creeks and harbours, 
 but without ooinmerco, and with mines of load, iron and coal, which have not hfon turned to 
 account. More than ha'f the surface rnnsists of mountain, bog, and waste; its liills, how- 
 ever, support numemiis flocks of slicep, the wo(d of wliicli is of superior quality. Tlif plairs 
 on the ivinks of the Khaniinn and the Fergus vie in fnrtility with any in the kingrlom. F.nnis, 
 the capital, is situated on the banks of the l;L',t-mc' 'ioued river, by which it communicates 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 ii 
 a 
 n 
 
 tl 
 1 
 
 ei 
 
 01 
 
 oi 
 fa 
 
 cc 
 
 F 
 T 
 Ja 
 
 it.- 
 dp 
 
IT, lU. 
 
 ruddy's 
 to 3400 
 Teland. 
 tains of 
 nmense 
 { is the 
 At the 
 r lake a 
 from it, 
 9 Island. 
 is over- 
 •cipitous 
 of that 
 )ther by 
 ; penin- 
 ble ruin 
 ).) adds 
 irt of the 
 a long 
 I seen in 
 e Eagle's 
 idous ond 
 suddenly 
 )yrain''dal 
 iioughout 
 , but hero 
 t of echoes 
 ing. The 
 ensive but 
 allthelof- 
 : most im- 
 shores are 
 numerous 
 !s contrast 
 of the ar- 
 le highest 
 the north, 
 of rugged 
 ihing view 
 c, and the 
 
 mt 
 
 *%• 
 
 iches from 
 •tile plain. 
 That 
 the wiiole 
 
 ituation, m 
 sive trade; 
 marts tor 
 iving been 
 las always 
 tenant, re- 
 stood two 
 ulation of 
 tuarts. At 
 ;nnt. The 
 wded, and 
 ideried. In 
 and the 
 bly-rocims, 
 
 harbo\irs, 
 n turned to 
 iiills, liow- 
 Thf plaii-s 
 om. F.nnis, 
 iimunicatcs 
 
 Book 1. 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 457 
 
 with the Shannon. It is considerable, Uiough irregularly built ; and its abbey, in the purest 
 style of Gothic architecture, is considered the finest in ueland. 
 
 SuBSECT. 3. — Connought. 
 
 Connaught forms a great peninsula, the most westerly part of Ireland, extending from thi» 
 Shannon to the Atlantic. This division is of all others the most decidedly Irish, having 
 continued unsubdued long !i*ler the English kings claimed the proud title of lords of the 
 island. It still contains fewer English inhabitants ; the religion is more universally Catholic, 
 industry and manufactures have made less progress, and all the imperfect agricultural im- 
 plements and processes are in more general use. Disturbances, however, have never taken 
 place here to so great an extent as in Munster and Leinstcr. Its shores are penetrated by 
 deep and extensive bays, forming some of the finest harbours in the world. The counties in 
 Connaught are Galway, Mayo, Sligo, Roscommon, and Leitrim. 
 
 Galway presents to the sea ranges of steep clifls, which, with the waves of the Atlantic 
 dashing against them, exhibit a grand spectacle. The interior contains two extensive lakes, 
 and is diversified with hills, though there are few which are not fit for pasturage. The cattle 
 are of good quality, and the flocks of sheep are more extensive than in otiier parts of Ireland. 
 The fisheries of herring and salmon are considerable. Galway has always been a consider- 
 able town, and is still supported by some inland and foreign commerce, by a considerable 
 fishery, by the resort of the gentry to it for sea-bathing, and as the only scene of gay society 
 to be found in Connaught. It was once very strongly fortified both by nature and art ; and 
 to obtain the protection of the walls, the streets were made narrow, and the houses high, 
 massive, and gloomy ; but they have of late been considerably opened, and suburbs built, of 
 a more gay and elegant description. 
 
 Tuam is an ancient, handsome town, of considerable extent, the seat of an archbishopric. 
 Ballinasloe, on the eastern border, holds the greatest cattle fair in Ireland, where the oxen 
 and sheep of the pastoral counties of Galway and Mayo are mustered for the capital. At 
 the mouth of the bay of Galway are the bold and rocky islands of Arran. 
 
 Mayo is chiefly elevated and rugged ; some of the mountains rising to upwards of 2600 
 feet ; but many of their sides are verdant, and the valleys rich and well watere<l ; so that 
 Mayo is a fine pastoral county. The estates are large, but the farms small, and much sub- 
 divided. Mayo contains no town of sufficient importance to return a member to parliament. 
 Castlebar, the county town, is well built, with a linen hall ; and the linen manufacture 
 flourishes. Killala, a straggling village, on a bay of the same name, is chiefly noted for the 
 landing effected in 1798, by a body of French troops under General Humbert, who pene- 
 trated to Castlebar, but were finally obliged to surrender to Marquess Cornwall is. 
 
 Sligo contains a considerable quantity of bog ; but the remainder consists of a sandy 
 gravelly soil, well adapted to the production of barley and oats ; so that pasturage is not so 
 exclusively the employment here as in the two last-mentioned counties. Salmon is caught 
 in large quantities. The linen manufacture has made considerable progress, and is extend- 
 ing. Sligo, the capital, at the mouth of the river and the head of the bay of the same name, 
 was in early times a considerable place : it has suffered severely in civil contention ; yet, by 
 the advantage of a good situation and harbour, it has attained considerable importance and 
 trade. In the vicinity is a remarkable circle of stones, called the Giant's Grave, somewhat 
 resembling Stonehenge. 
 
 Roscommon is mostly level, finely watered, and celebrated for rich pastures ; but the in- 
 crease of population and manufiictures has caused o great jmrt of them to be lately brought 
 into tillage ; it contains some pretty little lakes, among which Lough Key is particularly 
 admired. Roscommon is ancient, and marked by some ecclesiastical antiquities, but it is 
 not now so important as Boyle, pleasantly situated on a river of the same name, over which 
 there are two fine bridges ; in its neighlwurhood are the ruins of a stately abbey, founded in 
 1512, the arches of which, forty-six feet in height, are deemed models of Gothic architect- 
 ural grandeur. Elphin, the seat of a very ancient episcopal soi , is only a village. 
 
 Leitrim is filled with high mountains, presenting nature under bold features, often height- 
 ened by the ruined castles which crown tiieir summits. There are veins of iron, lead, copper, 
 and coal, the last of which has been wrought. There are good pastures in the valleys, and 
 on the sides of the hills; and pretty large quantities of oats are raised. The linen manu- 
 facture is extending, and there are some considerable potteries. Carrick on Shannon, the 
 county town, and leitrim, which gives name to it, are only villages. 
 
 SuBSECT. 4. — Ulster. 
 
 This part of Ireland presents in many respects a superior character to the other three, ita 
 population being more industrious, better instructed, and in more comfortable circuniRtances. 
 The Presibytpriau form of worship, introduced by the Scottish settlers imiler th(! reign of 
 James I., is the prevailing one. The linen inanutiieture, the staple of ilio country, has hero 
 its chief scat, and is carried on alnio.«t in every villajre. The harhcurs- of Heltlist, Irf)m]on- 
 derry, and Loii"'li Swilly, are sutlicient for the wants of commerf'e. 1'he coast of Antrim, 
 
 Vol. T. ' m 3H 
 
 11^!: 
 
 m 
 
 'i.iH 
 
 ■Hi 
 

 -M- 
 
 ; 
 
 U 
 
 
 4m 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GILOGRAPIIY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 in the boWncss arl peculiar character of its rock scenery, is witiiout a match in any other 
 put of tlie world. The counties of tiiis province are, Fermanagh, Donegal, Londonderry, 
 Antrim, Down, Armajjh, Tyrone, Monaghan, Cavan. 
 
 Permanagli is a ssomcwhut rough county, comprising a large proportion of mountain and 
 bog, but with fertile valleys, in which, besides the usual products of oats and potatoes, flax 
 is cultivated to the extent of about 5000 acres. The waters of all the high grounds flow 
 down into Lough Erne, a noble lake, upwards of twenty miles in length. It is studded with 
 numerous islands, covered with fine woods ; long wooded promontories are seen stretching 
 far into the waters ; and, though the immediate borders of the lake are not mountainous, 
 .ofty distant eminences form the general background to its prospects. Castle Caldwel' 
 turbet, and Belleisle are the spots in which its beauties are peculiarly concentrated 
 chief town is EnniskiUen, delightfully situated on an island, accessible only by two oi.i>o.,ite 
 bridges; this site enabled it to make its noble stand against the army of James II. 
 
 Donegal includes a groat extent of tlie north-western coast of Ireland, full of deep bays 
 and fine harbours. In its interior, however, it consists almost entirely of mountain, moas, 
 and mcxir, witb only a few productive valleys. It is often called, with some adjoining dis- 
 tricts, "the black north of Ireland." Distillation forms an active branch of its industry. 
 Lifibrd, its Hniall county town, stands on the Foyln, upon the borders of Derry. Ballyshan- 
 non, almost at the opposite extremity, is a thrivnig town, beautifully situated on the channel 
 by which Lough Erne pours its waters into the Atlantic. Raplioe is a celebrated episcopal 
 see, but now only a decayed village. 
 
 Derry, or Londonderry, a large and fine county, is crossed by a range of mountains, whose 
 principal peaks are from 1000 to 1500 feet high, and a considerable part of whose surface 
 consists of heath and bog. There are, however, tine valleys, and extensive plains, which 
 are cultivated with some diligence, but according to that sy.itcm of minute subdivision which 
 is the bane of Irish agriculture. The linen manufacture flourishes in full vignui, chiefly 
 according to the Irisli system, among the little farmers and cotters, who combine il witii thp 
 cultivation of a few acres. Londonderry is a fnie city, situated at the point wliore the Foyle. 
 after traversing a groat part of this county and tliat of Tyrone, falls into t!io broad basin of 
 Louf h Foylc. It is ancient, being the theatre of remarkable events even in the time of the 
 Dane. In I60S, after the nttainrler of O'Neale, it was granted by James I. to the citizens 
 of London, whence it derived the first j)art of its name. But its ciiiof distinction was from 
 the siege sustained by tlie city in 1690-1, against the united iiircos of Ireland under James 
 II. Londonderry is corniwsed of tour main streets crossing each other at right angles, and 
 surrounded still by its (dd walls in full repair, serving ratlior liir ornament tium defence. It 
 has an ancient Golliic cathedral, and some handsmne modern edifices. It is now supported 
 by an extensive oommfrce, for which liough Foyle, though its entrance is somewhat impeded 
 by a bar, affords a spacious and secure harbour. Its chief intercourse is with the United States 
 and the West Indies, to which it exports the linen manufactured in this part of the country. 
 Coleraine is a well-built town on the Baim, which flows from I/)Ugh Noagh, and on which 
 is the most extensive salmon fishery in the island ; but the rapidity of the stream obstructs 
 the navigation upwards. 
 
 Antrim, occupying the north-eastern corner of the kingdom, opposite the coiwt of Scotland, 
 is one of the most remarkable districts of Ireland, in regard to natural features as well as to 
 commerce and industry. A groat part of the surtiice consists of rugged mountains, com- 
 posed chiefly of rock and moss, and even its best soils are scarcely available for agricultural 
 purposes till improved by the use of the lime with which the country abounds. The moun- 
 tains, where they face the ocean, are broken into vast perpendicular precipices, exhibiting 
 the Imsaltic columnar form on a grander scale than exists in any other part of tlie wor'd. 
 Of these objects, the Giant's Causeway {fig. 221.) is the most celebrated and magnificent. 
 221 Three natural piers or moles, 400 feet 
 
 ■** in height, here stretch out into the 
 
 sea, and are visible above the water 
 ftr about 300 yards. The walls are 
 composed oi' dark l)as;iltic columns, of 
 the most regular form, and so closely 
 united, that only the blade of a knife 
 can bo thrust between them. Each 
 column is distinct from the others, and 
 divided, into joiiitfd portions, as per- 
 fect as if art hud fi)rmi?d thorn; there 
 being in each part a projection, which 
 18 lodged in a corresponding concavity or socket of the one contiguous. The roast eastward 
 of the causeway is composed of a succession of capes, presenting the most siiblimo scenery; 
 dark precipitous cliffs, rising regularly in srradiially retiring strata, and formi'il into various 
 broken rolonnndc;.- which might sip^'gest the idea of palaces overwhidinci! in ruins. 
 Other striking tL-afure;; distinguish ttie coa,st of Antrim. Conspicuous above all ofhcra is 
 
 Tho Gianl'i Cauieway. 
 
UOOK I. 
 
 ^ue 
 
 R moun- 
 {hihiting 
 .'orhl. 
 h.iificent. 
 400 feet 
 I into the 
 in water 
 mils are 
 liimns, of 
 
 closely 
 
 a knife 
 . Each 
 |iprs, and 
 
 as piT- 
 In; tiirrii 
 In, which 
 
 ■astwiird 
 Isconory ; 
 1) various 
 
 I others is 
 
 i 
 
 : 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 459 
 
 Fairhcod, called also Benmore ; a promontory which forms nearly the north-eastern point of 
 Ireland. It consists of a vast mass of columnar greenstone, coinpoi-iiig a mural precipice, 
 rudely columnar, and 350 feet high. At its feet lies a chaos of hui,'R musses of rock, heaped 
 together in tlie wildest confusion, and forming a scene of ruin the awful prandeur of which 
 222 ^""^ scarcely a parallel. A<jainst this 
 
 the sea heaves in a solemn majestic 
 swell, the peculiar attribute of the At- 
 lantic waters. Carrick-a-Redo {Jig. 222.) 
 is a small island composed of a mass of 
 basalt, imperfectly formed into columns, 
 separated from the continent by a chasm 
 of sixty feet. The fishermen, however, 
 have occasion to resort to it with the 
 view of placing nets to intercept the 
 salmon; to reach it, thercii, »hey have 
 constructed a daring and singular bridge, 
 Carrick-Q-Rcrii;. formed of two Strong parallel cables fixed 
 
 to each side, with planks inserted between them. This slight pontage is subject to violent 
 movements, and, if not judiciously trodden, may precipitate the passenger into tiie abyss; 
 but the fishermen, accustomed to tread it, carry great loads across without the slightest 
 apprehension. Several of the precipitous cliffs are adorned with the ruins of ancient castles, 
 the grandest of which is Dunluce (jig. 223.), whose extensive area covers the long ridge of 
 
 an almost insulated rock, which presents 
 its perpendicular face to the ocean. The 
 walls enclose the entire surface of the 
 rock, and rise up as a continuation of its 
 precipitous side;-. In one place, the rocky 
 base having given way, the apartment 
 above actually overhangs the sea. 
 
 Belfast, the gnind emmjriuni of the 
 north of Ireland, has risfu to greatness 
 by rapid steps. Ciirrickfergiis, liy means 
 of peculiar privileges, monopolised all 
 the trade of this part of Ireland, till these 
 privileges were bought up by the Earl 
 of Strafllml. The career of competition 
 was then opened to Belfast, and she gradually outstripped all her rivals. In 1G60, tiio town 
 contained about 6500 inhabitants. At present the population is 5'3,()00, exclusive of a large 
 suburb in the county of Down. The linen manufacture is very flourishing at Belfast, and 
 that of cotton is rapidly e.\tending; besides which there are various minor fabrics. Com- 
 merce, however, is the main source of its wealth. The linen fabrics of tiie north are largely 
 exported, along with oats, oatmeal, and salted provisions ; the entire value of which, in 1810, 
 amounted to 2,900,000?. The duties of customs, which in 1801 were 182,314/., had risen 
 in 1829 to 259,000Z. Belfast Lough forms a noble and secure bay, and the channel at the 
 mouth of the Lagan has been so deepened by art that vessels drawing thirteen feet water 
 can come close to the wharves. Belfast is mostly built of brick ; but several public edifices, 
 recently erected, the Commercial Buildings, the Museum, St. George's Church, &c., are 
 ornamented with pillars of freestone. Belfast has several commercial and literary institu- 
 tions ; and in 1810, the Royal Academical College, a seminary on an extensive scale, was 
 founded. 
 
 The other towns of Antrim can boast little more than names known in history. Antrim 
 itself has lost its former importance, though beautifully situated near the great body of water 
 called Lough Noagh, which covers about 100,000 English acres, and bonlers on five coun- 
 ties, — Armagh, Tyrone, Londonderry, Down, and Antrim. Its flat shores possess little of 
 interest or ho-.iuty ; and its overflowings have converted into bog abo\it 60,000 acres round it. 
 Carrickfergus, at the mouth of Belfast I/iugli, is a very ancient town, once the emporium 
 and key of nortliern Ireland, but it has yielded the palm of commerce entirely to Belfiist, 
 and is supported ordy by being the county town iind resorted to as a watering-place. Lis- 
 hurn is a prosperous town, with a manufacture of damask. 
 
 Down is n liin^ county, penetrated by several largo lakes, ns those of Strangford and Car- 
 lingford. The last of these receives the Newry, which coinrniniicates by a canal with Lough 
 Neagh. The Mourno mountains, on the southern border, exceed 2600 fei^t in height, and 
 form a conspicuous object; hut a largo extent of the county is level, and a greater propor- 
 tion is under tillage than pasturage. The combination of tiirming and weaving exists in a 
 remarkable degree ; and the linen fabrics are not only extensive, but some of them very fine. 
 Of late, however, those of cotton have gained a iirofiTeiicn in many districts. Down, or 
 Downpatrick, celebrated in tradition as the burial-ulace of the patron saint, is cf miderate 
 
 Duntuee Castle. 
 
 :^:^;.:iii 
 
 !•«, 
 
 ,;i> 
 ji 
 
 
 VA^ 
 
y 
 
 460 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt ITT. 
 
 dimensions, and its public buildings respectabl?. Newry is larger and more flourishing. 
 These advantages are owing to its situation in the bay of Carlingford, p- '*s canal commu- 
 nication with Lough Neagh, which enable it to export the linen manuf' ' and provisions 
 produced in an extensive district It is ancient, but in 1689 was redu ju to asiies by Mar- 
 shal Berwick ; so that it is now quite a new town. Donaglmdoc, a considerable port, with a 
 large substantial quay, is chiefly remarkable for tiie ferry between it and Portpatrick, tlie 
 shortest sea communication with Britain, and by which packets are despatched and live stock 
 in very great quantities conveyed over. 
 
 Armagh is also a fine and agreeable county. In general it is only pleasingly diversified 
 with little hills, the bogs are no more than requisite for supplying fuel, and only a small part 
 is left unproductive. Both culture and manufacture are prostcutcd with great activity. 
 The linens produced in 1824 were reputed at 568,000/., exceeding a fifth of the produce of 
 the whole kingdom. Armagh, the capital, was celebrated in the early history of Ireland 
 as one of its most extensive and populous cities, and has always been the ecclesiastical me- 
 tropolis of the kin(,dom. The Augustine monastery, and tlie college attached to it, ranked 
 for a long time ar.iong the most celebrated institutions in Europe for religion and learning; 
 the latter, it is said, could once boast of 7000 students. Armagh sunk, however, under suc- 
 cessive ravages by the Danes, tlie English, and, finally, the Irish insurgents under O'Neale, 
 and fell into decay ; but by good fortune had for its primate Dr. Richard Robinson, to whose 
 munificent exertions is :^cribed its revival and its having become one of the prettiest little 
 cities in Ireland. To him Armagh is indebted for the repair of its cathedral, for a library, 
 and an observatory. The linen market is well supported by the flourishing state of the 
 manufacture in Armagh. The only other place of consequence is Lurgan, a thriving manu- 
 &cturing town. 
 
 The three counties of Tyrone, Monaghan, and Cavan occupy a great proportion of the 
 interior of Ulster, and present a very uniform aspect ; a considerable extent of mountain and 
 bofe, fertile plains, rude cultivation, and the luien manufacture. O'Neale, E!arl of Tyrone, 
 was long one of the most formidable enemies of the English power. Omagh is the county- 
 town of Tyrone, but is not so considerable as Dungannon, a large, populous, and handsome 
 place, once the chief seat of the O'Neales ; but this powerful castle was demolished by the 
 parliamentary forces. Strabane is also a populous place, finely situated on the Foyle. 
 Monaghan and Cavan are both tolerable county-towns, which alone possess any importance 
 in their respective shiies. 
 
 FINANCES OF TIIE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 I. Income for the year 1834. 
 
 CmtomB £21,118,920 
 
 Excise 10,756,716 
 
 Stamps ami Hackney Coaches, &c 7,4(i2,7SS 
 
 Taxes 4,fi«7,.'WO 
 
 Post Office 2,;n«,i>80 
 
 MieccllaneoiiB 456,118 
 
 East India Company 60,000 
 
 Balance on hand 1,007, IPO 
 
 Kepayments 018,738 
 
 £53,450,571 
 
 n. Expenditure for the year 1834. 
 
 Payments tmt of the gross Revenue, 
 
 Drawhuckii, Ri-pavments, &c £3,204,290 
 
 Cliaret'S of Collection, See 3,582,635 
 
 , Miscellaneous 738,810 
 
 * 6,525,741 
 
 Paid at the Exchequer. 
 
 Interest antl Manafrcnient of Permanent Debt 24,158,870 
 
 Terminable Annuities 3,653,923 
 
 Interest on Exchequer Bills 0»1,2!14 
 
 Russian Loan, raised in Holland 1110,810 
 
 Civil List 5I0,(HK) 
 
 Civil, Naval, Military and Judicial Annuitiea and Pensions 50-2,310 
 
 Salaries and Allowances 162,030 
 
 Diplomatic Balarics and Pensions 181,448 
 
 Courta of Justice 4;I3,610 
 
 Mint 14,850 
 
 Army 6,493,025 
 
 Navy 4,503,910 
 
 Ordnance 1,068,223 
 
 Miscellaneous : 2,;n5,5no 
 
 Advances for Public Works 2,014,513 
 
 Total Expenditure £53,441,955 
 
 III. Public Debt— January, IBM. Chavfre for 1833. 
 
 Funded Debt £751,rh'i8,R8,3 £27,782,1 10 
 
 UofUnded Debt 27,0O;;,9OO 770,769 
 
 Totals £770,565.783 £28,501,885 
 
 
I IK 
 
 Book L 
 
 TRADE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM, 
 
 461 
 
 I. Accuunt of the Ofllcial and of the Riml or Duclarcil Value oC the principal Articles of British Produce and 
 Maiiuructuru oxportcil iJi IS^S, 1833, uiiil 1H34.— (Frum the Jlniiuat /''inano Book fur ISIS, pp. idl— 128.) 
 
 Artidn. 
 
 ■an. 
 
 Rr«M and copper Quiiuhcturai 
 
 I'oltou maiiuijclurei 
 
 —~'— yarn 
 
 HardmrM and cuUerjr . * • • 
 Iron tod •letl, wrought and uo 
 
 wnmM 
 
 UiMn iRv^tifacturei 
 
 -.^— yam 
 
 Salt 
 
 Silk Dunuhcturea ....... 
 
 Soap and c indies 
 
 Su^r, rctined 
 
 Tin, wniugUl and unwraught 
 
 Wool, •heo])'. 
 
 Woollen and wonted yarn - - 
 Woollen m.inubclurea .... 
 AlloUierarticlea 
 
 Tolali 
 
 Whereof Irom Great Britain • 
 From Ireland 
 
 L. I. d. 
 
 1,196,246 IB 3 
 
 37,2(le,4«0 10 4 
 
 e,T26,Ml 17 6 
 
 inistwi 17 1 
 
 l,«le,l83 18 3 
 
 l,78V>lt) 13 « 
 
 S,lft8 7 8 
 
 363,824 19 9 
 
 475,16S 18 3 
 
 34!l|2)« 8 3 
 
 I,2u3,48l> S 8 
 
 ISiflM 10 1 
 
 149,091 \i 4 
 
 122,|2I'19 a 
 
 e,&'«,<U4 8 8 
 
 4,332,981 I 5 
 
 6!t,(BS,701 II 
 
 64,581,01)7 9 7 
 444,665 1 S 
 
 Official Value.* 
 ~lb33! 
 
 L. >. </. 
 
 1,018,234 !l 6 
 
 40,133,343 2 3 
 
 e,i'9,076 S 8 
 
 9et,'«3 4 7 
 
 2,690,253 14 3 
 
 3,5B»,639 8 
 
 50,116 16 5 
 
 392,053 7 8 
 
 685,324 6 
 
 4'>3,»I0 17 5 
 
 693,131 14 4 
 
 371,634 3 4 
 
 1-5,479 12 3 
 
 113,191 3 9 
 
 7,7!*,842 6 3 
 
 4,578,646 12 II 
 
 69,969,339 13 8 
 
 9,633,853 16 
 355,48S 17 
 
 1634. 
 
 Declared Value. 
 
 L. I. i. 
 
 1,0M,594 2 4 
 
 44.2t«,902 13 
 
 6,802,2S7 18 9 
 
 MT^e 18 11 
 
 2,621,672 9 8 
 
 3,850,763 14 5 
 
 82,169 10 9 
 
 371,469 19 10 
 
 633,683 9 7 
 
 382,198 10 
 
 1,141,663 14 4 
 
 370,115 18 10 
 
 81,319 17 10 
 
 99,933 II 9 
 
 6,514,703 3 10 
 
 4.678,680 1 8 
 
 18J2. 
 
 L. I. i. 
 
 916,563 1 5 
 
 12,675,612 6 6 
 
 4,722,759 3 6 
 
 1,434,431 7 11 
 
 1,190,747 12 10 
 
 1,774,7^6 13 9 
 
 8,105 7 
 
 149,678 1 6 
 
 529 990 10 10 
 
 315,644 16 3 
 
 1,038,789 16 
 
 355,3j« 9 2 
 
 2I9,(K0 1 
 
 235,307 7 
 
 5,244,558 II 8 
 
 5,532,293 II 6 
 
 1833. 
 
 73,831,550 15 4 36,444 524 18 7 39,167,347 8 5 
 
 L. I. d. 
 
 884,149 4 a 
 
 I3,7»2,.>7l> 17 6 
 
 4,7(M,U24 9 I 
 
 1,466,361 12 II 
 
 1,405,034 19 3 
 
 a,l67,a23 7 I 
 
 T2/1C- 6 
 
 184,1,5 10 2 
 
 737,400 17 10 
 
 362,284 19 1 
 
 563,092 4 3 
 
 369,162 2 
 
 332,503 17 4 
 
 246^ 
 
 6,204,432 3 9 
 
 6,097,113 3 
 
 73,495,536 11 3 36,046,027 11 5 | 39J05,5I2 19 8 
 336,015 4 I I 39M97 7 2 | 361,834 9 9 
 
 le34. 
 
 L. $. d. 
 
 861,823 2 II 
 
 15,302,571 7 I 
 
 5,211,014 17 8 
 
 1,485,233 I 1 
 
 1,406,872 9 I 
 
 2,443044 18 7 
 
 136,312 11 S 
 
 152,126 14 10 
 
 637,198 6 4 
 
 •itaitvt 4 II 
 
 916,391 9 6 
 
 370,382 II S 
 
 192.175 14 1 
 
 238,543 19 ( 
 
 5,i;«i,h70 II 
 
 6,194,368 I 8 
 
 41,619,19: e 6 
 
 II. Account of the Real or Declared Value of the various Articles of the Manuflicture and Produce of the United 
 Kingdom, exported to Foreign Countries during the eight years ending with 1834 ; specifying their Value, the 
 Countries to which exported, and tlie Value of those annually shipped for each.— (Pajin-t published by Board qf 
 Trade, vol. iv. p. 337.) 
 
 Countriea to which exported. 
 
 Ruwia 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway .-•• 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Pru>iia 
 
 Germany 
 
 llolUud 
 
 Belfium -• 
 
 France 
 
 Purlugal, Proper 
 
 Ar^iea 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Spain and the llalearic Islanda* ■ 
 
 Cimry lalauds 
 
 Gibnltar 
 
 Italy and the Italian Islands 
 
 Milla 
 
 loniau IsLlnds 
 
 Turkey and Continental Greece (ex- 
 clusive of the .M(irea) 
 
 Morea .ind Greek Islands 
 
 Ei^ypt (I'oria on the Mediterranean) 
 
 Tripoli, llarltary, .ind Morocco • • ■ 
 
 Wee em Coast nf Africa 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Cape Verd lalands 
 
 St. Helena 
 
 Isle of Bourbon 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Arabia 
 
 East India Company's Territories 
 and (^cylon 
 
 China 
 
 Sumatra and Java 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 New South Wales, Van Diemen's 
 land, and swan Hiver 
 
 New ^.ealaiid, and South Sea Islands 
 
 Ports nf Siain 
 
 British North Americin Colonies- - 
 
 British West Indiea 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Cuba and other Foreign West Indies 
 
 United States of America 
 
 Mexico - • - 
 
 Gualeinala 
 
 Colomblt 
 
 Brazil 
 
 SUtes of the Rio dc la Plata 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Istei or Guenuey, Jeiaey, Aldemey, 
 and Man 
 
 Totals . . - - . - 37,181, 335 , 36,81 2,756 
 
 • The rate at which nil orticlcs of I'jpnrt and import arc oiflcially valued was fixed in 11396, but nn arrount nf 
 the real or declared value nf 'Ma export.^ is also prepared ; there is, however, no such account of the imports, and 
 therefore their olficial value alone can be given. 
 
 ao* 
 
 ;^ 
 
 I 
 
 ' : . \ 
 

 DESCRIPTIVE (SEOGRAl'IIY. 
 
 Part IIL 
 
 Itt. Actiiunt or ilic Uiiniililli'ii iif llw rrhu'i|inl ArliiliH ol' Knrcluii iiiiil ('(iluiiinl Morcliuiiiliau iiii|iiir(u(l Into, 
 ux|»<rli'il niiiM, niid ri'iniiii'il l'>r ('iiiiHuiii|ili(iii In tlin I'jiitcil KiiiKiluiii, with Iho Nitt Hi'vuiiuu uixriiiii|| tliurouii 
 (liiring tlio Vi'iirn ciiiliil Slli Jaiiuiiry, IKll. iiiiil l«W.-(;'iijifr»jiuWl.«*ii/ Inj IlMni ,\f Trndii, vo.. iv. pii. I'J-ltl.) 
 
 ; 
 
 J i 
 
 *. 
 
 DoKri|)lkin nf Mei«luuid>w< 
 
 A%llM, (HMrl AII.I [Mil, ' 
 
 IUrill.1 .II..I alk.\U ' ' 
 
 Hjirli tnt iMiiiliif nr 
 
 •l>ii « — • 
 
 ll.il!.lil.lJulill..u !t.., 
 
 V,jM liklis .iihl Mauriliui — 
 
 I'lMviin itUiiUlluu -~ 
 
 IViul 
 
 C1X.M lU 
 
 lliaki i»l ihelh - 
 
 r-ltiHi .t.<<4 rniiii U)tv\ i ctiunlrle-, 
 
 ^'iillnl S!''ei ./ .'.i>irtirK — 
 
 Bu/i! — 
 
 ■r.irh,; ...IKji.t - 
 
 ui ^*<jiil Ainu BrtUith |Kw<«*totit, 
 
 ' - IrJIma.ilMHU iliut . . . . — 
 \^•l .Xi W I ..KIWI, llio (ruwlll 
 
 fnt^: Upj lutlitfi, imiiorlL'd 
 
 *! >ui — 
 
 tnhei Ji i'ishi''«iMd<iiu — 
 
 'liiJil luantilict 
 
 IkIIm • ■ • ll». 
 
 Uc Ax« — 
 
 I,rt«wp^v! tniil. 
 
 W*i'l,r cwU. 
 
 Hu!.U' :■«< 
 
 PUk »n.2 h>t», or aVitlU of flik 
 
 »Al Iicnif) 
 
 I 'umiiii — 
 
 .' fmoiuaifcl (inmrt clit^i* 
 
 Km«iiu * cwli. 
 
 H.» ^ of ilr^ir Sti. 
 
 riai.imcor>irmr . .Us. 
 
 Mwiip uiulrmc^l cwli. 
 
 lU'M, iiiiiaiiat^l, l\t. i~~ 
 
 lt'ilTal», lull, (4, C'MT, or hone 
 
 IiWp» c«ts. 
 
 Millet, tuinnl, tU. ;— 
 
 lliilTilii, bull, nx, niiv, i>r luinr 
 
 hiilr Ilil. 
 
 I.(utlicr gl 'ITS \\\in 
 
 Miiluics rwli. 
 
 Ull— 
 
 01i« iiilli. 
 
 Wm cwt% 
 
 'I'raiti, ■iwrmamtt vA bliiliber • • turn 
 
 S»l'.i«»iv ,iihl niliic ni'nj cwii. 
 
 ►1*1 ami LiiLKol biishfU 
 
 iiilk- 
 
 Raiv 11,1 
 
 Wa.1i- anil knutilia - 
 
 r.ufcia lajfiwa — 
 
 |Jll« - 
 
 niiieub> — 
 
 Sajnir, \\t, :— 
 
 VVefl liHlia cwlt. 
 
 lUit Imlia aiul Maunitul — 
 
 ViirriKn — 
 
 T»lU)w - 
 
 To. - 
 
 Tiniirr, \i . :— 
 
 Ballena and tutten Mull — 
 
 Ileal ajkl ileal einli . • . - rpral hund. 
 Maati ti ami iiikler |i iiichn in dia- 
 meter No. 
 
 Maala 8 ami under 12 iurhr* in dlt. 
 
 meler — 
 
 Maala 1^ inrhe; and upnaida * • lila. 
 
 lU|il<nk> — 
 
 Slaves tX. hund. 
 
 Kir. !l incliea eenatv and upmirda,Ii-i«ili 
 
 (!•». illim 
 
 llnetnuiiierstod, diltn 
 
 WAin*ei»l In^ dmo — 
 
 T^ibftrco, vir. J — 
 
 Unnuimfaelured It». 
 
 Manufactuml iir lei^ra — 
 
 Snuff ■ — 
 
 U Till, iheep and UniU' — 
 
 Wine, vi^ ; — 
 
 r*(« imp. gallt. 
 
 French 
 
 r irtu<al 
 
 Statiiah - 
 
 MaJrini - 
 
 ijlher «1l - 
 
 Jkil lorti 
 
 tiuamitin inijiurleil, 
 lam iKU. 
 
 I(!!l,7a 
 llll,'*J 
 
 1-,".1.1,».I0 
 
 b.ii^iyii 
 
 ll,37.l,l'l!0 
 
 H-uOilou 
 
 «,0llli,7IH 
 tlS,liHII 
 
 in7,v<e,7.« 
 
 1II,«CI|HII 
 
 um.itiii 
 I.UMi.lO:! 
 
 a],75^liM 
 l,653,II» 
 
 WI.OW 
 IUI,mU 
 
 3a3,66li,l«)7 
 
 6,635,4.16 
 
 'M,OKO 
 bl.9»; 
 Mi,li«J 
 
 l,l«.K» 
 UJiWW 
 
 ;i>i,'ni 
 i.Mi,aM 
 
 .'U7,4i!l 
 
 >I,IX 
 1113,1171 
 
 U,ONI.I£l 
 U.liil.UI 
 Il,^ii,»l7 
 
 4I,SU,II1 
 
 a,'iM,"iw 
 
 4IH,UW 
 
 ift;!i,j(a,i)7j 
 
 l>l,tUI,3M 
 
 »41,107 
 
 II,ibO,ui 
 
 a3,g30,Hii 
 
 I,<I7>I1II 
 
 I24,3I« 
 47,6«S 
 
 3ig,ll7VU 
 
 4.i.u,iig6 
 
 70li,!l»B 
 1I,(V>4 
 7^IX)4 
 l«),t»I 
 
 WI.7/2 
 ll«,7l« 
 lll*,ail 
 
 ii:i,7a 
 
 lli,.MI 
 ■I'vaTi! 
 CTJ.iill 
 
 996,900 ! <.t7,IOI 
 
 («,702 I 
 
 l,-t«l,472 ! 
 
 717,934 j 
 
 I.f»l,(l|ll 
 l!6:.llM , 
 :«,li78 
 ll>S.7lli 
 
 !,i;u,iaj 
 
 SiTSSjira 
 
 v4U,4^l 
 
 l,'.".>7,710 
 N7i»,M2 
 «,li44,t)73 
 
 3,6'i',,62l 
 
 7:17,1,1.1 
 :i4(>,iiH 
 
 l,ll'i,4i7 
 3i,0'J7,KU 
 
 IIUOT 
 S6,7W 
 
 3.136 
 4.416 
 i.38l 
 la.lilM 
 4«6,lfl4 
 
 ii7,ati 
 
 3i.4W 
 
 !>0,2ia 
 I UI7,il44 
 
 c^^wi 
 
 2,3111.1-11 
 i7li,lie!l 
 1S3.'M 
 »V(,4» 
 
 l,>lll,237 
 
 a,643,S'i 
 l,UI2,l>'il 
 3,ll6ti,s3ll 
 7,67»,341l 
 1,106,7-3 
 
 3,844,24.1 
 
 6U7,I4I 
 
 1JS7,407 
 33,6, IMO 
 
 I3JM0 
 67,105 
 
 Ha 
 
 .',T.!«> 
 tii,:--|i> 
 41 ",410 
 .!t>,4»> 
 
 ((uanlltiea eiptirted. 
 
 11,306 
 il,4.1« 
 
 I'.I4,!*0 
 3,V»li,0l<7 
 II,I6(|,WI 
 
 «,3,M,II77 
 
 I7,363,S!S 
 
 3fl84.»l4 
 6AIIII 
 
 I0,U4 
 .VBI 
 36.li7 
 
 i.NII 
 32,170 
 
 10,110 
 
 3,03! 
 
 22,0fl2,<79 3«,,M7.s<il 
 
 386,609 «.i9.Ii"2 
 
 .1,l«4 1^ 
 
 38,046,(IS7 46,iV'.23i 
 
 3!l7,3i;7 
 l!l,73S 
 2,0SJ 
 M\737 
 
 I C(i,IS7 
 
 l,14I.M6 
 
 3.1W7.W7 
 
 2,«I0,3,M 
 
 Ri 
 
 I 3(16.iV) 
 
 Ri-lii 
 
 3!l,!4ri 
 2M,<(>I 
 
 46» 
 
 10 
 
 soul 
 
 010 
 42 
 W 
 
 6,136 
 3,233 
 
 1,1.12 
 
 768,046 
 6,9U3,M;2 
 M77,!)7J 
 
 IS2/iO,4M> 
 
 tfia^yt 
 
 24,46l,Ilb3 
 
 3,92t<.220 
 
 88,234 
 
 4,'>4K 
 
 I,:i27 
 
 lO.MM 
 12,067 
 l.lliO 
 
 27,ia'i 
 
 33,066 
 2,8.'a 
 10,672 
 
 4.(164 
 12,63S 
 1,3:12 2,078 
 
 234,030 
 20,412 
 
 3,727 
 68,2-6 
 
 7,'>23 
 
 207,007 
 l,680.3,-)0 
 6,301,247 
 I,79I>,I43 
 
 ,',98,744 
 I. 
 
 4CI,l)44 
 III.II6K 
 
 l,i8i,oin 
 
 86 
 
 860 
 
 110 
 8« 
 1 
 
 Quanlitiea rv-UiiMxl for 
 tunauilipliuil. 
 
 1116,422 
 210,603 
 
 Il64,27g 
 
 20,041.104 
 
 I,7»»,3I9 
 
 1,471 
 
 U,74I,W4 
 
 l,!M8,2tl7 
 440.168 
 
 293,(iK.,97a 
 
 2,30,300 
 
 436,672 
 
 I7,.'>l« 
 
 72,lr6 
 
 60,640 
 
 1,1 12, mi 
 140.446 
 
 3MI.U7 
 137.8112 
 21,460 
 22,079 
 512,023 
 
 206,861 
 
 48,678 
 1,411.216 
 64.1,886 
 
 1,368,217 
 210,226 
 .11,242 
 ll)t,23.S 
 
 2,222,Mi7 
 
 4,417,027 
 267,472 
 77,1167 
 
 2,228.303 
 330,246 
 
 2,634 
 624 
 32 
 34 
 
 8,000,.'>62 12,080,951 
 
 2;a9:4 273,360 
 
 -2.;»69 1 in.:ui;i 
 
 442,606 I 807,:162 
 
 464,,104 
 2:5,.16<i , 
 2,22lj,7:U 
 3,368,^,30 I 
 ,10t,n-,7 I 
 817,761 
 
 4114,208 
 
 363,37- 
 4.213,427 
 ■',446,.'^63 
 
 372,rtlS 
 
 886 
 
 7,44a.»4 l I 9,7e8,l]6T_ 1.613 
 
 i86 i764 I 
 «8,116T I. 
 
 1,090.766 
 I,H!0,6I9 
 
 12,384 
 
 67,201 
 
 8,756 
 
 .1,209 
 4,«33 
 2.V1I) 
 M.1>.1 
 l»l,i.M 
 27.236 
 03,111 
 
 20,61B.97I 
 
 I4;I,H',6 
 
 i:i8 
 
 30,0«i,l:20 
 
 M6,K11 
 2:12,660 
 i.VM Kill 
 2,240,liK6 
 li;i.042 
 420,372 
 
 6,207,770 
 
 IIO,0<0 
 IHI,4'I0 
 
 2-2,224,073 
 
 I .ri,>,u)4 
 
 2,418 
 23,786,006 
 
 1,173,796 
 443,786 
 
 302,101,66; 
 
 2,447,827 
 
 303,474 
 
 14.020 
 
 70,061 
 
 75,271 
 
 791,-272 
 I6.l,.62:i 
 164,7X1 
 147,407 
 11,487 
 26,4711 
 6b6,006 
 
 40,3.19 
 
 I,«I3,M28 
 
 607,080 
 
 2,225,227 
 264,806 
 21.402 
 2|->,»63 
 
 i,2l 1,068 
 
 1110,182 
 
 2,4.'i7,ll20 
 
 323,761 
 
 3,741,679 
 
 l,l'«,IH) 
 H069,O61 
 
 13,660 
 
 ei,808 
 
 0,586 
 
 3,612 
 3,-'ll 
 2.616 
 
 taiso 
 
 493,20(1 
 26,8.64 
 40362 
 3,209 
 
 2l,048,:<2l 
 
 I4-.,3V, 
 
 161 
 
 40,840,271 
 
 .624,091 
 
 201,100 
 2,7M),:)03 
 2,270,8',,1 
 
 l'fl,31,9 , t ■ 
 
 486 308 I 1 
 
 Ntll Revenue. 
 
 16.703 
 linn 1,41 ki ill 
 re|«yineliU 
 
 ( 601,241 
 
 12,026 
 
 473,011 
 
 1834. 
 
 "i! 
 
 i,a>H 
 
 QniH rev. 
 17,764 
 
 j «.«» 
 13,999 
 
 2a^7« 
 
 6I4,4M 
 
 29,781 
 
 32,066 
 
 1,170 
 
 1,067 
 
 .1,402 
 
 2,949 
 
 14.7:10 
 
 7,907 
 
 3,721 
 
 1,8112 
 
 4,728 
 
 3.406 
 
 311,06:1 
 
 242,180 
 
 60,392 
 
 67,434 
 
 149,101 
 
 192,272 
 
 0,092 
 
 3,VU1 
 
 18.708 
 
 20,016 
 
 2,110 
 
 2,844 
 
 632 
 
 289,623 
 
 46.743 
 27,IU.I 
 l,7bl 
 4.184 
 i:i,tt23 
 
 15,000 
 
 202 
 
 1,778 
 
 111,174 
 
 6,894 
 
 171,605 
 3,444,102 
 
 116,216 
 621,494 
 
 10,110 
 -l,1,.186 
 437,620 
 33.776 
 8,308 
 
 3,I40,0M 
 137,865 
 
 7'.,075 
 63,l66 
 
 S,4H1.644l 1 .1129,219 
 
 617 
 29.052 
 228,621 
 
 46386 
 23,606 
 l,.'i60 
 6 0O2 
 13,8WI 
 
 I3,l«0 
 
 450 
 
 2.106 
 
 122.862 
 
 0,726 
 
 I8!,998 
 3,589,361 
 
 129,774 
 601,914 
 
 10,442 
 
 511,7.66 
 440.300 
 ;I3,07S 
 10,170 
 8,867 
 
 3,223,648 
 131,319 
 
 72,048 
 71,131 
 
 1,662,341 
 
 1,706,»W 
 
 % 
 
J2,n68 
 
 7^7 
 
 5,4(0 
 
 t>7,434 
 
 t\,im 
 
 HI 
 
 23,U)ti 
 
 iJ.eoo 
 3.iw> 
 
 li,72(i 
 
 H9,T7« 
 Ii0l,9l4 
 
 10,«42 
 
 5H,7SC 
 44U.30O 
 
 :o,(n5 
 
 10,170 
 
 6,8e7 
 
 I 3,223,648 
 131,310 
 
 71,131 
 
 i^ 
 
 Book L 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 468 
 
 tV, Account of Iho Slilpping umployeil in (ho Truclii miil Nuvixation ut Iho Uiilloil Kiiigilwii in IHIM; apvcirymi 
 til* NuinlMir niicl Ti>nnn«.i iif VixhuIn vulcriiig Inwnnl-i iiml climrHig OulwiinlK (iniliKliiiK lliilr niifuloil Voy- 
 age*), anil iln! Nuinltcr iif Ihiiir Vtawt j mipuriiling llrltiah fniin Ptiroign Vi'IwIh ; nnil ilinlingiiialiing tlio Navi- 
 gation wllh uucli Counlry. 
 
 Rtiiil>-- 
 HwsJcn ■ 
 Norway 
 
 17 
 
 llnlUial- 
 
 Neliluin 
 
 fnacn 
 
 Hirlugil, Pn>|>ar 
 
 A/ttrni 
 
 M,i<lnln 
 
 fltalD iml th« Halearle Mtni* 
 
 (4iiury liUiitta 
 
 (llbnillar 
 
 Italy umI llaliM Ulaikla • ■ • 
 
 M.fli 
 
 lualan ItUiklt 
 
 Tiirlir) itCoiitliiriiuUiraflce 
 Mitrva aiKl llraak lalanda - • 
 
 R«r|il 
 
 TrIfMilt. Kartiara, k iMoruceu 
 CiMal (II A rricA,fmni Monwco 
 
 tn Ihn i'A\m ofOfHii] Hiipa 
 
 r^lMiirdiMiil llnpfl 
 
 Baalarn CtKisI fnim tha Caps 
 
 or (iofNl iloitfl tu Oabel 
 
 Mariild 
 
 laleof Hoiiilxm 
 
 ra|« (la Vrrl iilamla • ■ • - 
 HI. Hnlann and Aaaiwlna • • 
 
 M.iunliua 
 
 Aniili 
 
 Kaal linlia ('oi!i|Mi>y^l Trrri* 
 
 Inriaa, }ilH(a|]or« k Ceylou 
 
 Stunaln 
 
 China 
 
 Java 
 
 Illlllpiiliia Iilauda 
 
 Rirta of Si-im 
 
 Naar Nmilh Walea 
 
 Briliah Nonhrni Coldola, • 
 
 Hriliali WM liHllaa 
 
 Ilavll 
 
 Cul»,ali(Iniherl\>relKaWaat 
 
 lidlaa 
 
 Unitad KlatM 
 
 Maiicn 
 
 OualemaU 
 
 Hrillah. 
 
 Brailla 
 
 Statoa (if nio lie la I'UU • • • 
 
 Chili 
 
 IVu 
 
 The Whale riiheriaa - ■ ■ • 
 lalaa nr (iiiariuey, Jrney, and 
 
 Man 
 
 OTvenland (Ice) 
 
 Foreijcn parta (nol dilUn- 
 
 piiahed) 
 
 Tnlali ' 
 
 Mici. 
 
 IIXI 
 lU 
 47 
 
 im 
 
 701 
 1,011 
 
 407 
 Ifiti 
 
 m 
 m 
 
 14 
 
 4sn 
 
 30 
 'U 
 
 » 
 
 134 
 
 9117,013 
 
 6,40] 
 S,WI 
 33,Oil 
 
 ii'i,a7H 
 
 I37,%4I1 
 40,1171 
 
 li><,017 
 MO 5 
 12,3311 
 
 ;t,47ii 
 
 4A,ri4 
 S,KIO 
 3,710 
 
 M,m 
 
 1,0(0 
 K,4<W 
 lll,l>llll 
 9,311 
 1,114 
 4,014 
 
 33,313 
 
 41 
 
 illH 
 13 
 
 M 
 
 mi 
 
 36 
 
 1 
 .10 
 140 
 (i 
 17 
 15 
 107 
 
 1,3«0 
 
 13,M0 
 
 nsoo 
 
 75,481 
 
 a>,908 
 1,IWI 
 l,SMI 
 
 11,400 
 
 ea4,(»G 
 i,a>H 
 7,ir,i 
 
 0,11113 
 
 IW 
 
 7,4»a 
 
 18,371 
 lO.IJO 
 6,341 
 2,766 
 34,101 
 
 146,543 
 
 Mn. 
 
 13,'itM 
 
 764 
 
 311s 
 
 176 
 
 1,0116 
 
 9,VIJ 
 
 6,6k4 
 
 .1,W. 
 
 I1,IIM 
 
 3,401 
 
 7V) 
 
 160 
 
 1,MM 
 
 Its 
 
 207 
 3,1IH 
 67 
 462 
 1,012 
 111 
 ri7 
 200 
 
 1,763 
 330 
 
 1* 
 
 1,073 
 
 4,638 
 
 1,»1B 
 
 no 
 
 616 
 057 
 5i7 
 644 
 646 
 371 
 1,40a 
 36 
 
 Kuniipi. 
 
 1\t»i, 
 50,166 
 35,1110 
 
 im^Ki 
 
 53,'2II2 
 
 llHglll 
 
 45,471 
 07,230 
 43,6K1 
 74,3IU 
 4,5.10 
 
 671 
 23,270 
 13,367 
 
 113 
 
 3-i9 
 
 1,078 
 
 366 
 
 II 
 
 414 
 
 1513 
 
 596 
 
 356 
 
 107 
 
 3,0113 
 
 10,103 
 Gl 
 
 6 
 
 401 
 
 1 
 
 3J«U 
 104 
 
 14,360 
 
 664 
 371 
 
 1J6T 
 
 904,529 
 
 490 
 
 608 
 
 Mm. 
 2,721 
 1,731 
 ,5,1311 
 3,116 
 5,061 
 1,551 
 3,1167 
 1,2U) 
 U,207 
 322 
 
 7W 
 
 
 54 
 
 8,417 
 
 93 
 
 96 
 
 1,074 56 
 
 5,661 lag 
 
 Miiii. 
 l,6-2 
 101 
 44 
 33.5 
 155 
 7I'J 
 677 
 873 
 1,574 
 60S 
 165 
 10 
 341 
 34 
 04 
 473 
 60 
 49 
 140 
 10 
 14 
 90 
 
 161 
 
 47 
 
 l,l«0 
 900 
 40 
 
 KT 
 3(0 
 29 
 
 2,141 
 
 Urillih. 
 
 Tiftii. 
 
 217,:i75 
 
 17,2711 
 
 4,177 
 66,7ia 
 9', Mill 
 117,1161 
 I20,.'i>>4 
 34,11,1 
 131,611 
 01,11111 
 12,4li3 
 
 3,4:12 
 3a7UU 
 
 3,' 1 1 
 11,734 
 71,076 
 12,022 
 
 \753 
 90,7MI 
 
 1,166 
 
 6,087 
 
 9,614 
 
 96,633 
 9,146 
 
 195 
 
 Kin 
 9,1511 
 11,102 
 
 UI7 
 
 90,633 
 
 270 
 
 6,W7 
 
 2,706 
 
 726 
 
 3.17 
 
 lO.Mn 
 
 fiia,3'i3 
 
 IIU.UU 
 
 7,726 
 
 l«,7',5 
 
 i;o,7ri 
 
 6,502 
 
 3,fl20 
 41,154 
 9,2II« 
 6,532 
 2, 1:0 
 33,014 
 
 122,305 
 231 
 
 1,296,283 ,'ll6,7« , 6,604 |»33,«16 I 46,697 j n,339 | 2,296^15 
 
 1I,!MI 
 
 770 
 
 9ii3 
 
 9,lill7 
 
 1,216 
 
 ri,i«u 
 
 6,647 
 
 1,WI0 
 I2,3li1 
 
 3,KI2 
 h4a 
 IU7 
 
 1,176 
 IWi 
 046 
 
 3,1143 
 645 
 306 
 
 1,160 
 00 
 200 
 141 
 
 3,091 
 630 
 
 119 
 490 
 
 m 
 
 5,l«0 
 
 21 
 
 632 
 
 lUI 
 
 46 
 
 20 
 
 1,7.56 
 
 23,315 
 
 I3,KIU 
 
 4.'>4 
 
 000 
 
 6,217 
 
 314 
 
 203 
 
 2,101 
 513 
 3*6 
 I3'i 
 
 4,275 
 
 S,!ill 
 10 
 
 hi 
 
 125 
 612 
 
 hl7 
 425 
 Ml 
 5117 
 3.12 
 1,.'U2 
 
 mi 
 
 fiireiipi, 
 
 '/•.nil. 
 36,l'2ll 
 2j,I14 
 MI7,M10 
 Nj,720 
 I«I«,3(I6 
 4a,nt,6 
 61,214 
 ;H,,.16U 
 0(l,4'iU 
 
 iii.na:! 
 21,1 
 
 1,476 
 1,623 
 
 546 220011 
 2 I 4tlU 
 
 l,T.ll 
 1,061 
 ^408 
 4,6a<l 
 3,«IT 
 1,721 
 3,601 
 1,1*0 
 
 7,eHi 
 
 HI6 
 
 6,499 
 
 W 
 
 1,161 
 
 12,047 
 
 964 
 
 too 
 
 8 
 
 6« 
 TOS 
 
 ei 
 
 im 
 
 14 
 
 ICO 
 321 
 
 14 
 
 M 
 
 854 
 
 620 
 
 2 249 
 
 IM 20,G09 
 
 129,504 I 5 ,1123 i «52,l>27 
 
 148 I 
 0,901 
 24 
 
 49 I 
 
 41 
 
 913 
 46,629 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 Denmark is an ancient kin^rdom, formerly very powerful, holding sway over the surround- 
 ing regionw, and, as a predatory state, the terror of all Europe. 'I'hougli now reduced to 
 the secondary rank, her situation renders her of importance in the general Kystein of the 
 Continent. 
 
 Sect. I. — General Outline and Aspect. 
 
 Denmark consists mainly of an extensive peninsula, shooting out from the north-west 
 comer of Germany, and a cluster of large islands to the cast of the peninmilii. Tlio norlliurn 
 shoios of Denmark approach close to the southern jwint of the Scandinavian peninsula, 
 bounding the great interior sea of the Baltic. She commands the only channel by which 
 the countries around this sea can transmit their pro<iiictH to tiio rest of ]';iiri:p(i ; a circum- 
 stance which gives her some consideration ns a nmritiniL f-tato, at the s-uiic tiini! tluit the toll 
 she imposes on ships pa.s.sing and repassing the Sound, is prmliictivc of ri'vciiiie. The Danisli 
 peninsula is lermod .Futliind ; and the islands in the interior of tlio Hiiltir, interposed be- 
 tween Jutland and Scandinavia, are Zealand, Fiinen, Odcnsee, and ii few others of smaller 
 note. Denmark hold.^ clso the Gorman territories of Sleswick and Ifol.sloiii ; with Iceland, 
 the Faroe Islands, and some settlements on the coa.st of Greeiilund, rciiiiiant!- ul' liur former 
 maritime power. 
 
 The extent of the dominions of a country broken into such a variety of detached portions 
 can with difficulty be estimated. The only compact mass consists of Jutland, Slcswick, 
 
 
 
#n 
 
 MAP OF DENMARK. 
 
 Fra. 228. 
 
 9 l/iBgilurl*; But 10 fn'rii firircnwich 11 
 
Jh 
 
 I. 228. 
 
 «t 
 
 VI 
 
 BooE I. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 466 
 
 and IIolHtoin; boiinilod on the went nnd north by tho North Sea or German Ocean ; on the 
 oiiNt by tho hoiiiuIh whicli form the ontrnnco of tbo liiiltic; on tlio south by the Elbe. This 
 tract licH jfiMirrully between •liM^" and 574° north hititiidc, and 8° and IP east longitude. 
 Wo hiivc Hum a lenffth of V.'H(| milt?», anil a breadth of 120. Tho total area of tho Daniih 
 monarchy, w iilxmt 'J'i,00() w'lire iiiileH. 
 
 The Hiirtiico of Denmark in neiirly Hat; forminff, with tho exception of Holland, the lowest 
 part (if tlio tfri'at i)lain of Northern Germany. The iHland.s, in particular, in many places, 
 rise only a tew foot above the level of the Hoa. The soil, aa in the rest of this plain, is fre- 
 quently Handy anil marshy ; the climate humid, though not liable to those severe frosts which 
 prevail in tho interior of Scandinavia. Hence it oifords good pasturage, and its soil is favour- 
 able to tho growth of the coarser species of grain. 
 
 Tho waters of Denmark consist chiefly of its numerous sounds and baya; the Skagerrack, 
 which comes in from the North Sea, and separates Jutland firom Norway; the Categat, 
 which, running southward nearly at right angles to the Skagerrack, separates that peninsula 
 from Sweden ; the Sound, a narrow strait at the extremity of the Cattegat, between Zealand 
 and Sweden, and which forms the main entrance into the Baltic. The insular and penin- 
 sular character of her territory gives Denmark an extent of coast wnich certainly does not 
 fall short of GOO miles ; and there is said to be no part of the land more than ten miles distant 
 from the sea. This structure leaves no room for the formation of any rivers of the least 
 , consequence, except the Eyder in Holstein, and the canal of Kiel, by which an important 
 communication is formed between the ocean and the Baltic. Jutland contains a number of 
 shallow but extensive lakes, closely bordering on the sea, with which they in many places 
 communicate, and may hence be regarded as bays. 
 
 Sect. II. — Natural Qeography, - ,, . 
 
 SvBSECT. 1. — Geology. 
 
 Denmark. The geology of this low and flat country has not been completely ascertained. 
 
 As far as is known ut present, it contains neither prunitive nor transition rocks: the only 
 
 secondary deposits are Weald clay, and the various members of the chalk formation ; both of 
 
 which are generally covered up with tertiary soils ; which, in their turn, are as deeply covered 
 
 Referencct to the Map of Denmark. 
 
 NORTH PART. 
 1. liykomhuus 
 S. lllurinfT 
 
 3. Ilnmlmls 
 
 4. Tooraltiil 
 
 5. Skuieii 
 
 6. Aiill)«k 
 
 7. Flaclitranil 
 R. e<a!b|re 
 
 0. Hottomanr:! 
 10. Hlokhuus 
 ll.Tolatrup 
 
 13. 'I'hUM 
 ■:). Dysli^t 
 
 14. Hieretud 
 1.5. Y»ai 
 lA. Allz 
 
 17. ITIited 
 
 18. Hall 
 
 in. Sundbjc 
 itO. Aalliont 
 31. liORStor 
 'H. KoVleiUD 
 a. Kioiup Vr»- 
 
 Btegaanl 
 21. Kolbyo Hctru- 
 
 gaard 
 'iS. TislHl 
 W. Forbye 
 S!7. Ajster 
 !». Viibyo 
 tS). Sundhr 
 
 :I0. RoaKMl 
 
 !)1, Nykiitbins 
 :K. Ilierk 
 
 33. Sirnndbyv 
 
 34. Mallu 
 
 3.'>. Giinderuted 
 3K. Aara 
 37. llialoy 
 X>. Klluihny 
 311. KiingBley 
 
 40. 8iom 
 
 41. Vivo 
 
 41. Sodrinnhulm 
 
 43. Mariager 
 
 44. Ili>bru« 
 4.1. titinilum 
 4li. nnhlriip 
 
 47. Ulbiprg 
 
 48. Skive 
 4U. Kaaa 
 SX). Rorbcirg 
 51, Lemvig 
 
 Vot. I. 
 
 K. Ilaiboo Oil! 
 .U. Neoi 
 M. IJIhorg 
 .V». Vringelberg 
 511. Iloliibrui) 
 !i1. Hiidaagur 
 •Tfi. Sdnip 
 
 ."iO. KnudstrupOver 
 m. Wiboig 
 fil.Bkierne 
 r>'2. l.aurbfirff 
 lU, Kandera 
 ri4. Horning 
 fi.5. Oeritecr 
 
 06. [JlMrup 
 
 07. Giurild 
 
 08. Grepnaao 
 01). Albo^io 
 
 70. ElielloKt 
 
 71. lleUenaca 
 
 72. Agfin 
 
 73. Thoraagnr 
 71. Ilnrnalc't 
 7.5. Skeibye 
 70. Aathuui 
 77. Duver 
 
 7P. Dallerup 
 70. Midslriip 
 K). Agnrakov 
 HI. Kngiivung 
 P2. Bunda 
 
 83. Arnnburg 
 
 84. Norninnio 
 Ki. Soiulcrvmig 
 W. Kirikiopin? 
 
 87. I)ijl)rr(llund 
 
 88. Ht^rningtihulni 
 80. Kauriiaard 
 W. Rrandholin 
 01. Snne 
 
 !«. Givo 
 
 y;l. Gn'ndstrup 
 
 04. Hcanderbiirg 
 
 0."). TvwiBlrup 
 
 '.Hi. Haldnip 
 
 ^17. Horaens 
 
 98. Aaairup 
 
 00. Kngum 
 100. Veile 
 101 Ringgivo 
 
 102. Greene 
 
 103. (Mdain 
 
 104. Froatrupgaard 
 
 105. Lundage 
 
 lOli. \orili Rurk 
 107. Ilnureig 
 106. Kiorgaard 
 
 SOUTH PART. 
 
 .. III. 
 
 2. Varde 
 
 3. Jorno 
 
 4. llndilo 
 
 ."i. Gionling 
 fi. Fiilduig 
 
 7. Vaaibaae 
 
 8. OiIiImI 
 
 0, Bmidtlrnp 
 0. Froderica 
 
 11, Guiding 
 
 12. Chrialianalblde 
 
 13, Aarne 
 
 14. Hadervleben 
 1.5. Gram 
 
 10. Hyim 
 
 17. Ilio>>land 
 
 IB. Ripen 
 
 lU. Reii'iyo 
 
 20. Ralluin 
 
 31. Iluyer 
 
 32. 1.ygum Kluatcr 
 
 23. Hi.iil 
 
 24. Schrurfilrup 
 
 25. Apenrade 
 20. Gravenalein 
 
 27. llnlebul 
 
 28. Ucke 
 20. Tondcr 
 
 30. Kinbibull 
 
 31. Lock 
 
 :W. Ockkolm 
 
 33. llriidileilt 
 
 34. Mcflelburg 
 
 35. Jorl 
 
 :tfi. Arenholt 
 
 37. Fionaburg 
 
 38. Hlfprup 
 30. GpKing 
 411. Kiippol 
 
 41. Windemark 
 
 42. Fokernforde 
 
 43. Sleawick 
 
 44. Hnllingfltcde 
 
 45. Troya 
 
 46. Huium 
 
 47. Mildsted 
 
 48. Frederickatadt 
 
 49. Girding 
 
 50. Tonningrn 
 
 51, W4!itlingbnrcn 
 ,W. 'I'l llingbleilt 
 •V,l. RLMi(Nt)urg 
 
 54, Rnrluch 
 
 55, Bclinelm 
 .SO. Kiel 
 
 ,57. Kumor 
 58, Reeadorf 
 50, Preol/. 
 00. PliHin 
 til. Siearn 
 62, Kriikan 
 ti3. Dranann 
 61. Liitgunburg 
 65. H.'ilundnrr 
 CO. Olik'nburg 
 
 67. Hurg 
 
 68. Iliiingenharun 
 O*.), Grciinnit 
 
 70. Nijualadl 
 
 71, Kuiin 
 7'2. Piirau 
 
 73. Snhamcrddorf 
 
 74. Neuniunater 
 7.5, VVildenscliarun 
 
 76, Oiiletatod 
 
 77, (JriblMim 
 
 78, Muldorf 
 70, Mama 
 
 80. Brunsbutlcl 
 
 81. Itzehne 
 83. Kreinpo 
 
 83, Gluckaiadt 
 
 84, Uotoraen 
 
 85, Barinaledl 
 
 86, Hubenhorat 
 
 87, Oldealiih 
 
 88, Bedgborg 
 
 89, Travemunde 
 OO, Lubeck 
 
 91, Labenz 
 
 92, Sicrlpy 
 U:i, Guduw 
 94. Greven 
 
 0.5. Roitzenburg 
 
 90, Lauunburg 
 97. Biunau 
 88. Wolhorn 
 99. Lemial 
 
 100. Pinneberg 
 
 101. Wedel 
 
 102. Hamburg 
 1U3. Bergador 
 
 Rivtrt. 
 n Skiern 
 b Gielil 
 c Widaw 
 d Kydor 
 e Blur 
 r KIbo 
 g Trave 
 
 I.AAI.AND, 
 
 1, Frederickadal 
 3. Raunaholl 
 
 3. Nakikov 
 
 4. Skibbelunde 
 
 5. Rrdo 
 
 0. Marieboe 
 
 7. Rodhye 
 
 8. Nyeated 
 
 9. Baxkioping 
 
 FAL8TER. 
 
 1. Onulev 
 
 2. Slubbekioping 
 
 3. Karleby 
 
 4. Nyukioping 
 
 MOF.N. 
 
 1. Mdndomark 
 
 2. Steefro 
 
 3. Phanefiord 
 
 ZEALAND, 
 1, Tumnuerup 
 3. Rumloa 
 
 3. Gillulye 
 
 4, Klflinure 
 
 ,5, Froloniborg 
 0, Blangorup 
 
 7, Lyngbye 
 
 8. (^uponnagcn 
 0. GiiUlrup 
 
 10. Hullerup 
 
 11. Gylling 
 
 12 Knibbesholm 
 
 13, Ilulbek 
 
 14, Nyckinping 
 
 15, Egemnrk 
 10. Calliindborj 
 
 17. Giorlov 
 
 18. Undlose 
 39. Aagerup 
 ao, Roachild 
 31, Kioge 
 
 23. Oitettnip 
 ?.'■ I'rggevelde 
 
 24, Ruhulte 
 35. Glumaoe 
 20. Ringited 
 37. Suroe 
 
 88, Antvorakov 
 W, aiagelaa 
 
 30, Bhielakiov 
 
 31, Baltoealot 
 33. Vallenavod 
 
 33, Neatved 
 
 34, Proealo« 
 
 33, Wordiogborg 
 
 SAM80G, 
 1, Nnrdbye 
 3,Bolvef 
 
 FUNEN, 
 1, MiddelfarUi 
 3. IndaloT 
 
 3, Bogeniee 
 
 4, Bederiluv 
 
 5, Kierteminde 
 0. Rnnkebye 
 
 7, Nyborg 
 
 8, Bellinge 
 
 0, Odenw 
 
 10. Broebye 
 
 11. Hunabya 
 13. Oeraied 
 
 13. Asaoni 
 
 14. Drmlalte 
 
 15, Sallinge 
 
 16, Rialing 
 
 17, Gudbiet 
 
 18. Svendborf 
 19 Faabotg 
 
 ALSEN. 
 
 1, Nordbuiff 
 
 3, Angustcnburg 
 3. Sunderburg 
 
 ARROE, 
 1, Boel>ye 
 3, Kioping 
 
 LANGELAND: 
 I. Humble K. 
 3, Rudkiobibe 
 3, Stocnie 
 
 3L 
 
 slip 
 
 am 
 
 
 w 
 
 ■'■''^ ■l 
 
 
 ■it' 
 
 , ' H 
 
 fm 
 
'.<- 
 
 i't 
 
 ItK) 
 
 DESCRIPTIVK OEOGRAPIIV. 
 
 p*i»T m 
 
 with (liliiviiirn ofnanil, nnd ciilcnrf>)ii* luam; wliicli latter arc occncionnllyroiicfnlcd hy nowo* 
 
 lllllU illl lll<|)*)Hit.S, 
 
 Inliniil. 'W\» Uhw\, Ko tiir lis ii known to ffrnlngxntit, is pntirclv coniptmiMl ('(((niitrpnoni 
 fix'liM. 'I'lii'xc nriMit" tw(i rliiHw'!!; viz. I'liitimiiin and volcaiiic. Thn I'liitoniin i'')riii.ilions 
 iiri' iini iiKii>iir, and itH ai-ciinijiiitiyin;,' rocits, and himiill, with its nssociatcd tiililiji, nniygtin- 
 liiidn, &c. Ot'alj thi! ri'ckM ot'lht" trap wrioH, ninypfdaloid Ih that wIjk'Ii cnntaiiiM tiic HTcntcst 
 varu^ty <)t'iiiiMrral.M; nnd oC thi'.to the '/.nnlitnH and cnlcareou* ^[)ar» arc llif numt inlcri'stintf 
 ami hcaiitirui. Tho volcNinic rucks exhibit tho UHiial cliaractcrs, nnd in leoiiuid nru spread 
 nroniid in vnMt ahnndnnro. 
 
 Fiirnr hland*. This cniall inHnlar ifronp consints of spvontcon largp inhahiti'd iHlnndn, 
 and of many smaller, witli nnd without iidinbitantH. In nono of tlio ndinljitcd iKiandH nro 
 the most olovated Bummits lower than 1(H)(I foot ; the hifjhest land in in tlie inland of ONteroo, 
 wliioh rises tn fully '2,8(M( feet nlxwo tho level of tho sen. Tho two prevuilinjr roekn arc 
 ffreinflonf (dolerite) nnd rl<n/nlon(: The greenstone is sometimes hnsnltic, sonietinies por- 
 phyritic, or nmypfdaloidni. The claysfono is red, yellow, brown, nnd preen. It altemntos 
 with the tfrc^enstone, in hods of varyinjj thicknesH. Tho beds of precnntone nnd elaystone 
 of the proui) nil incline or ilip townrds a central jwint of tho protip, rendering it probnblc 
 that the iHlatiiis nro Imt portions of one whole. The upper surface of the? preenstone is 
 sinjrev, showinp that the mass had l)een in a state of iffneons s(dntion, 'J'liero nro two 
 principal varieties of rrrecufifoue ; one porphyrifie, with crystals of ix^nK'y felsimr, the other, 
 without the porphyrilic strnrturo. In some of thn islands there are IxmIs of pitchriwl, asso- 
 ciated witli fire clny, slnte clay, and splm-roslderite, re.itinfr upon the trnp, and covered by it. 
 The beds of ffrcenstono and slate clny are oHeii traversed by veins or dikes of Imsnltic and 
 porphyritic ftreenstone, which, however, do not appear to occasion nny chnnijfo in them; but 
 the greenstones nre chniiged in position nnd direction by the invasion from Indow of a 
 conjjiomernted rock, n kind of trap tutlii. Tho trap rocks of the Faroes have been lonof 
 celebrated, on nccount of the (•plciuiid zonjites theynHiird: some species of this beuutil^il 
 fcmily appear to be daily forming. The chioropttrilc, pcridote, nnd precious opul nre also 
 productions of this insular ^roup. 
 
 SunsECT. 2. — Tinlnvy. 
 
 Denmark and Sweden, Norwii'j nnd Laphiml, the Fame hhtwh, nnd /c<7«hi^,— tho Intter 
 giving n name, indeed to n plant eciiially comnion in the other 
 countrie.". Lichen islandicus, or Iceland Moss, (fi/f. 224.), — 
 iniiy he considered under one head, so far us regards their 
 ^•(^getublo prwliietions ; for it is ditficult to draw an e.\acl 
 lino of demarcation, and even of these the very nature of our 
 work does not allow us to treat much at largo ; this is the 
 le.';s to be regretted, because the classical works of Linimms 
 and Wahlonberg are in the hands of every botanical student; 
 I Mjjp I ^y ""J t''-'y contain n mine of valuable inliirination in the Flwa 
 Tl^l^yi'^lffli^EISfr? ftAl, ftfipponicn and Sutrica of both these authors, and a fund of 
 
 inlerest'ug and delightful narrative in the Liirhrsis Ltip- 
 ponica of the great Swedish naturalist. The various writings 
 of Q?der, Vahl, and Ilornemann nllord much useful matter 
 rcltttive to the plants of Denmark. Tho vegetation of ngreat 
 portion of these countries may be considered the same as that 
 of the more northern and monntiiiiious parts of Groat Hritnin. 
 Yet as the nortliern regions of the continent of Europe jire- 
 sent an alpine and nrr:ic vegetation, in a much more perfect 
 degree than islands, we should scarcely do justice (o our subject, did we not offer some re- 
 inark.-? on tho distribution of the vegetable productions f a portion of that more interesting 
 and o.vireme northern Europfi»n territory; namely I.aplaiid. The natural iHnmdarinsof this 
 country are formed by some low mountains, aboit oOO feet in heigbt, at a distance of from 
 fivo to eight iSwedisli miles from the extremity of the Gulf of Hothnin. They present no 
 naked summit.«, hut arc covered with forests of Spruce Fir* {/i;s. 225."): these may be con- 
 sidi-red as the Inst sulmlpiiie r.nige in northern Europe. Comii •^ncing in tho south-east, a 
 little beyond tho lake Kemi.-trask, in lat. (J7^, it tends towards I'pper Toriioa, and near to 
 Glover Cali.x in the west; stretches south to Editors, in I,ulca; and reaches its southermost 
 point at the Tafvelsjon, in riiie.ui I.aplaiul, l,it. 04°. This mountain chain exhibits Calla 
 paliistris (fir, 22(i.), (n plant of a jioisonous fiiniily, closely allied to the Arum maculntum 
 or Wake-robin, and to the Caladium esciilentum of tho tropics; and, as with them, a kind of 
 bread called Misioiibnid, or the bread of famine, is made by the Laplanders from the nwts) ; 
 Sweet gale*, comiuoii S|)oedwell*, Ox-eye*, Meadow Fesciirc-grass*, nnd Cnrex stellulata*. 
 The Birch* there produces its leaves in the beginning of June. 
 
 * Tlic nanica markuil with an nstcriak are ttinic nf plants foand also in Britain. 
 
 Icslaad Mott 
 
-tlin latter 
 n tlif ollirr 
 ff. ^•24.),- 
 liinrds thr.r 
 iin cxdcl 
 lurn of our 
 this i» the 
 liinnn'us 
 stiuloiit ; 
 10 Flora 
 fund of 
 is Lop- 
 18 \vritinj;s 
 iiinttcr 
 of a pront 
 me us tliiit 
 utnritHin. 
 rope ]m- 
 ro perfect 
 some re- 
 iiteresting 
 ies of tliis 
 of from 
 resent no 
 y be con- 
 itli-enst, a 
 id near to 
 jthermost 
 tiits Calla 
 laculatum 
 a kind of 
 |ie nxits) ; 
 ;ellulata*. 
 
 Rook I. 
 
 Dr-NMAUK. 
 
 407 
 
 The inferior and woody diHtrirt of Li)i1iiiid lins itH iipjKT liiiiit at Sotnlankylu in Kenican 
 Ijapland, iK'tween Keii(riH and MunoniHku in Tonica, at JiH'kniock in l.iiiea, and atFalitrak, 
 in Unii'iiu Lapland; and it virldn, hesides ihn Spruce Fir, tiie Mcndov Trefiiil, tiie I.VHinm- 
 chia tliyrnillora*, l.ily of tm- Valley*, and White Water I.ily*, whicli jjrow aliundnntly. 
 Some platu.i whicli are peculiarly eiubulpinc be|{iii lo appear, as Tofic?tdia palustrid* and Hor- 
 ratula alpiiia*. 
 
 226 
 
 Spruce Fit. 
 
 Ri'in-(lo«r MoKs. 
 
 The upper woody district is distinguished by the absence of the last-mentioned plants; but 
 the tbrests of npriice still abound. Where the Spruce ceases, in places of warm exposure, 
 the upper limit of this repion is indicated. It.s boundary in Kemean, Tornean, and Pitean 
 Lapland, is more distinctly marked, because the country is flatter, and di^stituto of deep 
 valleys; but in such situations, in Lulea and Umea, the Spruce Fir approache*' nearer to the 
 Alps, and the sides of the mountains are covered with it. There its utmost northfrn limits 
 are found to be at Kyro, near the preat lake of Enare, in laf. 60° north. Here, tix>, is the 
 most northern boundary of many well-known plants, such as Trifoliuni repons*, Festuca 
 rubra*, Rume.x aquaticus*, the Yellow Water Lily*, and several other aquatics. Many 
 nlpine plants commence, as Salix plauca*, extending south to the middle of this region, 
 Salix hastata*, contined to the north, and Bartsia alpina*, with Lychnis alpina*, on the banks 
 of the streams. The culture of barley still succeeds; but scarcely beyond this line. 
 
 The subalpine mountains in this region are very dry and remarkably gravelly and stony ; 
 abounding in that plant which Linnrens has so beautifully described, in his Flora Lamioiiirfi, 
 as the main support of the Rein-deer, and consequently of the Laplander, Lichen Rangife- 
 rinus* (Jiff. 227.), or Rein-deer Moss. Ill could the I^plander subsist without the supplies 
 afforded by that iiseful animal ; it is his solo wealth. Almost the only winter food of this ser- 
 viceable animal is the moss, which the deer are so fond of, that though it is commonly buried 
 at that season under a great depth of snow, yet, by scratching with tlirir feet, and digging 
 with their antlers, they never fail to get at it In short, without this lichen, both the rein- 
 deer and the Laplander must perish. "Thus," adds Linnn'us, "things which are of>"ii 
 deemed the most insignificant and contemptible by ignorant men, are, by the good providence 
 of Go<l, made the means of the greatest blessings to his creatures." Linnteus assures us 
 that this lichen grows so luxuriantly in Lapland, as to be fmnd sometimes a foot in height. 
 
 But as the hills scarcely rise to the limits of perpetual snow, about 200 or 300 feet higher 
 than the woods are found, they are fertile in such plants as flourish in a dry and barren soil , 
 viz., Menzicsia cierulea*, Arbutus alpina*, Juncus trifidus*, Lycopodium alpinum*, Azalea 
 
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 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 pakt ni 
 
 CodbMi. 
 
 procumbeiu,* and, thouf^ luely, Diapensia lapponica. Here the Lichen tortareus (Jig. 228.) 
 noQ or Cudbear, abounds, and is, both here and in Sweden and 
 
 "^ Norway, collected and exported to the dye-manu&cturers. 
 
 WahlenberfT distinguishes by the term " Regio subsylva- 
 tica," or partially wooded region, that where the Scotch 
 Fir grows, but not the Spruce. This is more contracted 
 than the other regions, and more difficult to be defined. It 
 is not unfirequently eight Swedish miles broad in northern 
 Lapland; in Kemea extending to nearly 70° of lat Be- 
 fore the Scotch Fir ceases, the Carex globularis disap- 
 pears, and, in the more northern parts, Prunella vulgaris. 
 Within the Fir region, the beautiful Pedicularis lapponica 
 appears scattered through the woods; Viola bifolia, and 
 Thalictium alpinum* following the course of the streams; Salix lanata,* with its splendid 
 golden catkins, at the margins of marshes and springs, and also Ranunculus lapponicus. 
 The cultivation of barley scarcely succeeds, and the colonists are miserably poor. The 
 Birch comes into leaf at the summer solstice. The lakes and rivers have an elevation of 
 about 1000 feet above the level of the sea. The subalpine region still yields the Birch* 
 (Betida alba), though other trees will not grow. Its upper boundary is marked by the 
 dwarf stature of these, where thev scarcely attain a height of six feet The Aspen* (fojm- 
 lu$ tretntda) and the Bird-cherry (Pruniu Padut) cease before the Birch : the Sorbus Aucu- 
 paria,* or Mountain Ash, extends as &r. The Birch always in Lapland reaches to a much 
 greater elevation and more northern latitude than the Scotch and Spruce Firs. Its limits 
 are more easily determined ; yet, on a geographical map, they are with difficulty expressed, 
 because the Burch ascends to the alpine regions, circumscribes all the mountains, and pene- 
 trates all the lesser valleys: thus it extends almost to lat 71° in Western Finmark, and 
 stops but little short of the North Cape. The dry portion of this region is again the habi- 
 tation of the Lichen rangiferinus, and of Azalea procumbens,* LuzuTa spicata,* and Juncus 
 trifidus.* On the borders of Russia, the Birch as well as the Scotch Fir extend even to 
 the Northern Ocean. 
 
 The lower alpine region, or the Lower Alps, commence where the Birch ceases to exist 
 and where the snow, not of perennial duration, except in oaves and hollows, melts before 
 the middle of July. There the Diapensia lapponica, Silene acaulis,'" and Andromeda hyp- 
 noides are found. The Salix myrsniites'*' and Dwarf Birch still grow erect Nearly the 
 ^^ same vegetation as is met with on the Lower Alps exists 
 
 **" - *i^ • upon the maritime alps of Finmark, to the most northern 
 
 promontory, with this difllerence only, that the steep 
 and precipitous rockd harbour more moisture and snow, 
 and the affinity is greater with the alpine range in the 
 higher mountains, which retain the snow during the whole 
 summer, the partial melting of which creates a moist 
 and even a boggy soil. Here, therefore, are seen the 
 little Dwarf Willow* (Jg. 229.) (Salix herbacea,) Ra- 
 nunculus glacialis and nivalis, Pedicularis hirsuta and 
 flammea, Stellaria biflora, Erigeron uniflorum;* plants 
 eminently alpine, and peculiar to those situations. 
 Beyond these is the region of perpetual snow. Towaras the Norwegian Ocean, another 
 fbrm of the alps presents itself; lofty mountains without any plains, circumscribed with very 
 narrow zones, which Wahlenberg defines as the more elevated sides of the alps, reaching 
 nearly to the limits of perpetual snow, consequently always irrigated with snow-water : 
 they nourish a few, and those marshy, plants. The Ranunculi (Crowfoots) principally 
 abound. 
 
 The lower, or less elevated, sides of the alps, generally destitute of perpetual snow, yield 
 the Dwarf Birch* in the moister spots ; and, on the drier, Andromeda hypnoides, the Alpine 
 Speedwell*, Juncus bifidus*, and the Procumbent Azalea.* 
 
 The bases of the alps are where the Birch grows, but no Pines. Among the Burches, 
 scarcely six feet high, the Purple alpine Saxifrage*, with Saxifraga nivalis and cemua, 
 abound in the moist and precipitous places, and, in those that arc more dry, Aspidium 
 Lonchitis. The lower portion of this zone ai&rds tall birches, such as are found in the more 
 northern regions, only in the inmost recesses of the deep hays, and, beneath them, Aspidium 
 Filix Mas*, Osmunda Struthioptcris, the Blue Alpine SowUiistle*, and the Red Currant* 
 
 The maritime alps include the islands and promontories ; so exposed to the winds that 
 they derive their alpine character more from their peculiar situation than from their eleva- 
 tion above the level of the sea : and so bare are they of trees and shrubs, that even the 
 Juniper will not succeed there. They are almost equally destitute of the more alpine shrubs, 
 such as Andromedas; but they are adorned with succulent alpine plants, such as Soxifhiga 
 oppoeitifolia*, Silene acaulis*, and Dryas octopetala. Near the shore occur some produc- 
 
 Dwarf WUIow. 
 
'^^ 
 
 Book I. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 
 fm 
 
 The Arclie Raiipberry. 
 
 tions of the alps of the south of Europe, such as Eri((cron alpinum'", Sedum villosiim'* and 
 Gentiana involucrato, which in Lapland are found nowhere inland. The Norwegian alpt 
 nourish numerous annual plants; but the dryer ones of Sweden, remote from t)ie sea, are 
 remarkuble for the little alpine shrubs, particularly Azalea lapponica, which scarcely occura 
 in Norway ; Salices alone, such as S. myrsinites*, occupying their place. 
 
 The siihalpinc spots and valleys are marked by tiie presence of the Pine; but the most 
 extended Fir forests are only found at tlie heads of the deep inlets of the sea, in narrow 
 ravines, sheltered by the lotticst mountains. These valleys enjoy a much milder climate 
 than all the rest of Lapland : there are found the Convallaria verticillata*. Campanula lati- 
 folia* and Fragaria vesca*, in abundance , but no alpine plants will grow, except the Starry 
 Saxifrage* {Saxifraga gtcllaris) along the margins of the rills. 
 
 A more interesting account of the vegetation of Lapland, at different elevations, is pub* 
 lished by Sir J. E. Smith, in the Appendix to the Lachesis Lapponica of Linneus. It is 
 translated from the Swedish of Dr. Wahlcnberg ; his " Observations 
 made with a view to determine the height of the Lapland Alpe." 
 (1.) On approaching the Lapponese mountains {Fjiiu), we first 
 reach the line where the Spruce Fir ceases to grow. This tree 
 had previously assumed an unusual appearance ; that of a tall 
 slender pole, covered from the ground with short, drooping, dark 
 branches: a gloomy object in these desolate forests! The Arctic 
 Raspberry* Qig. 2:^0.) (^Ruhus arclicus) had already, before we 
 arrived at this point, ceased to bring its fruit to maturity. With 
 the Spruce we lose the Cinnamon Rose {Rosa cinnamomea*), and 
 the Tv/in-leaved Solomon's Seal (Convallaria Infolia), Sic. ; and 
 the borders of the lakes are stripped of their ornaments of Reeds 
 (Arundo Phragmite^), Lysimachia thyrsiflora*, Galium boreale*, 
 and Carex globularis. Here is the true station of the Arctic Colts- 
 foot {Thustlago nivea). The last beaver-houses are seen in the 
 rivulets ; and no pike nor perch is to be found in the lakes higher 
 up. The boundary of the Spruce Fir is 3200 feet below the line 
 of perpetual snow, and the meun temperature 37° of Fahrenheit. 
 
 (2.) Scotch Firs* {Pinus syhestris) are still found, but not near 
 so tall as in the lower country. Their stems here arc low, and their 
 branches widely extended. Here are seen the last of Jjodum pa- 
 lustre*, Salix pentandra*, Veronica serpyllifolia*, &c. The bogs have already a very sterile 
 appearance. Near the utmost boundary of the Scotch Fir grows Phaca alpina. Higher up, 
 hardly any bears are to be met with ; and the fruit of the Bilberry* does not ripen well. 
 The Gwiniad and Grayling, two species of the Salmon tribe, soon aller disappear from the 
 lakes. The upper limit of this zone, at which the Scotch Firs cease, is 2800 feet below the 
 line of perpetual snow, and the mean temperature about 36° Fahrenheit. A little short of 
 this point, or about 3000 feet before we come to perpetual snow. Barley will not ripen ; but 
 email farms, the occupiers of which live by grazing and fishing, are met with as far as 400 
 feet higher ; for instance, Naimaka in Enontekis, and so far also potatoes and turnips grow 
 largo enough to be worth cultivating. 
 
 (3.) Beyond this, the dwarf and stunted forests consist only of Birch.* Its short, thick 
 stem, and stiff, widely-spreading, knotty branches, seem prepared to resist the strong winds 
 from the Alps : its lively light green hue is delightful to the eye, but evinces a weakness 
 of vegetation. The birch forests soon become so low, that they may be entirely commanded 
 from the smallest eminence. Their uppermost boundary, where the tallest of them do not 
 equal the height of a man, is 2000 feet below the line of perpetual snow. This zone is 
 therefore much wider than the preceding. Lon? before its termination, the Alder* {Alntu 
 incana), the Bird-cherry* {Primus Padns), and the Aspen {Popnlus tremula*), were no 
 more to bo seen. A little before the Birch ceases, we miss the Mountain Ash*, which for 
 some time had not presented us with any fruit; the Arctic Bramble* {Rubus arcticus) was 
 already likewise barren; the Ling* {Erica vulgaris), Aconitum Lycoctonum, &.c. Where 
 the birch forest becomes thinner, the reflection of the heat from the sides of tlie mountains 
 is the strongest. Here, in many spots, we find the vegetation of Sonchus alpinus*. Strut!)!- 
 opteris, and Aconitum Lycoctonum remarkably luxuriant The dryer spots now become 
 covered with the Iceland Moss* {Lichen rangiferinus) : Tussilago ftigida and Pedicularis 
 sceptrum-carolinum extend to the utmost boundary of the Birch. Thus far only the Char 
 (Salmo alpinus) is found in the lakes, and higher up all fishing ceases. 
 
 (4.) All mountains above this limit are called Pjall (alps). Near rivulets, and on the 
 margin of bogs only, is found a little brushwood, consisting of Salix glauca*, whose gray 
 hue affords but little ornnment to the landscape. The lower country is covered with the 
 dark-lookinsj Dwarf Bircli* {Betula nana), which still retains its upright position. A few 
 Juniper bushes*, and some plants of Salix hastata*, are found scattered about. Every hill 
 is covered witli Arbutus alpina*, variegated with Andromeda Cffirulea*, and the Wintergreen* 
 VouL 40 
 
 < 
 
 A 
 
^, 
 
 ( a ^ 
 
 I ! 
 
 470 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part 111, 
 
 {Trientalis curopaa). Tlie more boggy ground is decorated with Andromeda polifoliai* in 
 its greatest beauty, and Pcdicularia lapponica. On tiie sides of the mountains, where the 
 reflected heat bears most power, grow Veronica alpina*, Viola biflora*, Pteris crispe*, and 
 Angelica archangel ica.* This zone extends within 14(t0 feet of tlie line of perpetual snow. 
 The glutton {Muslela Oulo) goes ro higher than tiiis. The berries of the Cloudberry 
 {Rubtis ChanuBmorui) still ripen here, but not at a greater elevation. 
 
 (5.) Now no more brushwood is to be seen. The white Salix lanata* is not above two 
 feet high, even about the rivulets, and Salix myrsinites* is of still humbler growth. The 
 Dwarf Birch* occupies the dry spots, and creeps entirely upon the ground. The hills are 
 clothed with the rather brown than green Azalea procumbens*, and A. lapponica, which 
 give this zone its most peculiar feature. Verdant spots between the precipices, where the 
 sun has the greatest power, produce Lychnis apetala*, Erigeron uniflorum*, Astragalus 
 leontinus and montanus, with Ophrya alpina. In boggy places, Aira alpina*, Carex ustu- 
 lata*, and Vaccinium uliginosum'" are observable. The only berries, however, which ripen 
 at this degree of elevation are those of the Crowberry* {Empetrwn nigrum) ; but these are 
 twice as large as what grow in the woodlands, and tetter flavoured. The upper boundary 
 of this zone is 800 feet below the line of perpetual snow. The Laplanders scarcely ever 
 nx their tents higher up, as the pasture for their reindeer ceases a very little way above 
 this point ITie mean temperature is about 34° Fahrenheit. 
 
 (6.) Next come the snowy Alps, where are patches of snow that never melt. The 
 bare places between still produce a few dark shrubby plants, such as the Crowberry*, des- 
 titute, however of fruit; Andromeda tetragona and hvpnoides, and Diapensia lapponica. 
 Green precipices, exposed to tlie sun, arc decorated with the vivid azure tints of Gentiana 
 tenella and nivalis*, and Campanula uniflora, accompanied by the yellow Draba alpina. 
 Colder and marshy situations, where there is no reflected heat, produce Pedicularis hirsuta, 
 and Dryos octopetala.* This zone reaches to within 200 feet of the limits of perpetual and 
 almost uninterrupted snow. 
 
 (7.) Beyond it, the eternal snows begin to cover the ground, and we soon arrive at a point 
 where only a few dark spots are here and there to be seen. This takes place on the alps 
 of Quickjock at the elevation of 4100 feet above the sea ; but nearer the highest ridge, and 
 particularly on the Norway side of that ridge, at 3100 feet. Some few plants with succulent 
 leaves are thinly scattered over the spongy brown surface of the earth, where the reflected 
 heat is strongest, quite up to the line of uninterrupted snow : tliese are Saxifraga stellaris*, 
 rivularis*, and oppositifolia* ; Ranunculus nivalis and glacialis ; Rumex digynus*, Juncus 
 arcnatus*, and Silene acaulis. The mean temperature, at the boundary of perpetual snow, 
 is 32i° of Fahreniieit. 
 
 (8.) Above the line of perpetual snow, the cold is occasionally so much tempered, that a 
 few plants of Ranunculus glacialis, and other similar ones, may now and then be found in 
 the clefts of some dark rock rising through the snow. This happens even to the height of 
 500 feet above that line. Farther up, the snow is very rarely moistened, though some um- 
 bilicated Lichens (Gyrophora:), Sic. still occur in the crevices of perpendicular rocks, even 
 2000 feet above the line of never-melting snow. These are the extremes of vegetation, 
 where the mean temperature seems to be 30° Fahrenheit. The Snow Bunting {Emberixa 
 nivalis) is the only living being that visits this elevate? spot. 
 
 ScBSECT. 3. — Zoology. 
 The native Zoology, in conjunction with that of Norway, has been ably illustrated by the 
 celebrated Danish naturalist Miiller, and shows that the f&una of those kingdoms is much 
 richer than tlieir northern and ungenial climate would lead us to imagine. The total num- 
 ber of land quadrupeds, including the domestic species, is forty-one. Among these we find 
 the lynx, the glutton, the beaver, the leming, and the flying squirrel ; together with four 
 of the largest deer inhabiting Europe ; namely, the elk, the stag, the rein-deer, and the 
 fiillow-deer. 
 
 The Elk {Cervua Alces) {Jig. 231.) of Europe is not the same with tlie Moose-deer of Ame- 
 rica : it is found in Europe between latitude 53° and 
 65° : in size it is higher than a horse ; and, to support 
 tlie enormous weight of its horns, sometimes nearly 
 fifty pounds, its neck is short, thick, and very strong. 
 Its movements are rather heavy : it does not gallop, but 
 ambles along, the joints cracking so much at every 
 step, that the sound is heard to some distance. During 
 winter it chiefly resides in hilly woods; but in summer 
 it frequents swamps and the borders of lakes; oflen 
 going deep into the water, to escape the stings of gnats, 
 &c., and to feed without stooping. Witli its enonnous 
 horns it turns <lown brandies of trees, to feed upon the 
 bark, witii great dexterity ; and these are also used as 
 shovels, to g:et at pasture when covered with snow. 
 The young are so simple and fearless, that they will 
 
 v&y%^/^ ^ 
 
 
 
 TtwElk. 
 
 ^t 
 

 \ 
 
 . The 
 "*^ des- 
 
 BookL 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 471 
 
 The Mocking Juj. 
 
 suffer themselves to be taken by the hand. An unusually large oik, killed in Sweden, ia 
 said to have weiglicd 1800 lbs. These animals do not now appear to be employed in any 
 domestic office. 
 
 The Wolverine, or Glutton, is one of those animals whoM history has long been shrouded 
 in fiction and romance. It is only now that its true habits have been given to the world, oy 
 that enterprising traveller, Dr. Richardson. The Wolverine of America, generally consi- 
 dered the same with the European Glutton, feeds chiefly upon beasts that have been acci- 
 dentally killed ; but it will hunt smaller animals, as meadow-niicc, marmots, Sic. and occa- 
 sionally attack disabled animals of a larger size. In its gait it resembles the bear ; and, 
 although not fleet, is very industrious. Mr. Graham observes, that it does more damage to 
 the small fur trade than all the other rapacious animals conjointly ; as it will follow the 
 martin-hunter's path round a line of traps extending sixty miles, and render the whole 
 unserviceable, merely to get at the baits. Yet it flies from the face of man, and may be 
 killed with a stick. Its total length is not more than two feet and a half. 
 The Birds, according to Miiller, amount to 232 species : the greater part of these are 
 
 common to tlie northern countries of Europe ; but the 
 Mocking Jay {Corvus infaitstns Lin.) {fig. 232.), and 
 the Nutcracker {Nucifraga caryocatactes) are unknown 
 in Britain and more southern latitudes : the bill of the 
 latter is shaped much like that of a woodpecker, and ia 
 said to be used for breaking the shells of nuts : whence 
 its name. The species of fish, from the maritime nature 
 of the region, are numerous. 
 
 Domestic animals. It appears that the breeds called 
 tlie lesser and greater Danish Dogs are much more com- 
 mon in other countries than in thot from which they 
 have been named. The horses and cattle are of very 
 large-sized breeds, generally called the Holstein. The greatest number of oxen seem to be 
 bred in Jutland : they arc fattened, during summer, in the rich marshes of Holstein, and 
 driven, in the autumn, to Hamburg. 
 
 Sect. III. — Historical Geography. 
 
 During the early period of the middle ages, the swarms of pirates sent fortli by Denmark 
 spread desolation and terror to the remotest extremities of Europe. Canute king of Den- 
 mark even ascended the English throne in 1017. Denmark, at the same time, carried on 
 frequent wars against tiie contiguous districts of Gennany and Pofand, and oflcn held sway 
 over large portions of them. But her most brilliant era was the reign of Margaret of Wal» 
 demar, sumamed the Semiramis of the North, who, by her courage, popularity, and address, 
 succeeded in effecting the union of Calmar, which placed on her head, and on that of her 
 nephew Eric, the crown of the three northern kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. 
 
 The decline of Denmark began in the thirteenth century, under the violent and tyranni- 
 cal reign of Christian I. The sanguinary course by which he sought to punish an insurrec- 
 tion of the Swedes roused all the dormant spirit of that brave people, who found a deliverer 
 in Gustavus Vaso, and were Anally freed from the Danish yoke. During the two following 
 centuries, Sweden, led to victory by a succession of heroic monarchs, rose to the highest 
 pitch of military glory ; while Denmark, always defeated, was stripped of many of her most 
 important territories, and sunk into the rank of a secondary state. Still she successfully 
 cultivated maritime commerce and shipping, and obtained some valuable possessions in the 
 East and West Indies. 
 
 In the great crisis produced by the conquests of Napoleon, Denmark was thrown into an 
 unfortunate predicament. Placed, as it were, at the point of collision between France and 
 Russia, she could with difliculty escape being crusiied between them. Circumstances of 
 peculiar hardsliip threw her into the arms of Prance, to whose cause she adhered, and at the 
 great contest which ended in the downfall of Napoleon, she became a victim. First, she 
 was deprived of Norway, that it might be ceded to Sweden, and that Russia migiit retain 
 Finland. Denmark received in return Swedish Pomerania as an inadequate compensation. 
 Next, she was required to exchange Pomerania for Iiauenburg, a territory of still inferior 
 extent and value ; but, as it borders on Sleswick and Holstein, it has rendered her dominion 
 more compact, and extended her frontier to the Elbe, so that she is perhaps rather a gainer 
 by tiie exchange. 
 
 Sect. IV. — Productive Industry. 
 
 Tlie agriculture of Denmark is conducted under considerable disadvantages both of cli- 
 mate and soil. The climate, though not subject to severe frost or intense cold, is chill and 
 damp ; and the land consists in a great measure of sand and marsh. Every part of the king- 
 dom, however, ia capable of some cultivation, and occasional tracts of luxuriant fertility 
 occur. Such are the islands of Zealand Laaland, and Falstcr ; ond, in a still greater degree, 
 
 H 
 
T%- 
 
 -HI 
 
 ^ 
 
 % 4 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part 10. 
 
 '1^- 
 
 ^f the waFCoast of Sleswick and Holstnin ; for tho interior is arid an<I windv. TIio industry 
 ™f of the peasant in Denmark Proper Buffers many aevrtro cliccks ; ho has been but recently 
 emancipated from personal bondage, and is still subjected to many feudal usages. Life- 
 leases, under which the payment is made in produce or pergonal services, are common. The 
 proprietors are generally embarrassed, and unable to expend much on the improvement of 
 their lands. The farmers of Holstein and Sleswick carry on tho process of cultivation with 
 ^at skill and activity. The chill moisture of the climate is less tavourable to tiie cultiva- 
 tion of wheat than of barley, rye, and oats ; all of which afford a large surplus for exporta- 
 tion. The rearing of cattle is also an e.xtensive branch of industry, though too litllc atten- 
 tion has been paid to the improvement of the breeds, unless on the west coast of Sleswick, 
 on whose moist and rich meadows is produced what bears a high reputation under the name 
 of " Hamburg beef." Over all Denmark, the produce of the dairy forms the basis of a large 
 export trade. 
 
 The manu&cturea of Denmark are extremely rude, and consist chiefly in working up the 
 flax and wool of the country in a coarse form for domestic use. A great proportion also of 
 the wool is exported. Government have employed ^eat efforts to raise Denmark to the 
 rank of a manu&cturing country ; and some fabrics m the diflferent kinds of cloth, brandy, 
 ' migar-refining, dtc., liave, under its patronage, been set on foot in the large towns ; but these 
 are all languishing, and with difficulty support foreign competition. 
 
 The commerce of Denmark is in a more active state than the other branches of industry ; 
 though it is still not such as to give her a prominent place among the powers of Europe. 
 The basis consists in the exportation of its raw produce. The grain exported from Jutland 
 and the islands, at an average of seven years to 1827, amounted to 29,000 quarters of wheat ; 
 141,000 quarters of rye ; 190,000 quarters of barley ; 43,000 quarters of oats. The rye 
 was chiefly exported to Norway, to be used as bread-corn, and the barley to be employed in 
 distillation. The value of these articles amounted, in 1825, to $6,300,000. That of butter 
 and cheese exported was, in the same year, |ll,300,000. Holstein and Sleswick, called the 
 duchies, exported at an average also of seven years, 78,000 quarters of wheat ; 55,000 of 
 rye ; 75,000 of barley ; 1.30,0(W of oats. The value of butter, cheese, and solted meat, is 
 still greater. Denmark, from its situation between the northern and middle states, has a 
 considerable carrying trade of the bulky articles produced by the former ; and has also a 
 good deal of ship-building. Both the whale and herring fisheries arc likewise carried on to 
 some extent 
 
 Sect. V. — Political Geography. 
 
 The constitution of Denmark, originally founded on the basis of the most complete feudal 
 independence, to the extent of rendering the monarchv itself elective, underwent a com- 
 plete change in 1660, when Frederick III. had the oddfss to obtain an act by which the 
 crown was declared hereditary, and himself invested witli supreme and absolute power. 
 The sway of the Danish princes has, however, been exceedingly mild and popular, and their 
 despotic power exerted in a manner beneficial to the people, as it limited the oppressive 
 rights exercised by the nobles. These, however, continue to be extremely obnoxious ; 
 and it is only within a very few years that the body of tlie people were emancipated from 
 a state of personal slavery. The nobles are few in number, consisting only of one duke, 
 nineteen counts, and twelve barons. The king himself presides at the supreme national 
 tribunal. 
 
 The revenue amountstofrom about 1(7,500,000 to 1^,000,000. There is a nominal debt of 
 975,000,000 ; but the interest paid upon it is small. 
 
 The military and naval establishments are on a scale suited to a greater country Uian 
 what remains of Denmark. The army is kept up to nearly 40,000 regular troops and 60,000 
 militia. The navy has not recovered from the severe shock which it received during the 
 last war : at present it consists of six ships of the line, six frigates, and four corvettes, besides 
 smaller vessels. The sailors being all registered, no difficulty is ever found in manning the 
 navy. 
 
 Smct.YI.— Civil and Social State. 
 
 The population of the Danish dominions in 1832, amounted to 2,049,000; of which 
 1,540,000 were in its ancient domain of the islands Jutland and Sleswick ; 404,000 in Hol- 
 stein; 40,000 in Lauenburg ; 51,000 in Iceland ; 14,000 in Greenland and the Faroe Islands.* 
 
 National character. The Danes are generally quiet, tranquil, and industrious. The 
 inhabitants of the towns, who are chiefly engaged in trade, have a great share of the patient, 
 ihrilty, and persevering habits of the Dutch. The pcosantry, poor and oppressed, arc begin- 
 ning, however, to raise their heads ; and the nobles, no longer addicted to those rude and 
 
 * The Danish nilnnio are OhriolianiiborK and nthor fitatinnfi in Guinea, with 44,000 inh.ibilnnt9 ; Snnitt C'lux, 
 8t. Thomas, and St.Jnhn in the Weft Indies, with 47,000; and Tranquebarand nictorieiinntbcCuiomandelc 
 in the East Indies, with UO.OUO.— Aa. Ed. 
 
 ■<y. 
 
'♦ 
 
 Book I. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 478 
 
 vhich 
 Hol- 
 inds.* 
 The 
 tient, 
 •egin- 
 e and 
 
 I Ciux, 
 
 Icout, 
 
 daring pursuits which rendered them once so formidable, live much in the stylo of opulent 
 proprietors in other European countries. 
 
 The Lutheran religion was early and zealously adopted in Denmark, to the extent, indeed, 
 of granting toleration to no other ; but the liberal principles now diffUsed throughout Europe, 
 have mode their way fully into that country. Science was at one era somcwliat brilliantly 
 patronised in Denmark. The cbservatory at Orienbaum was the theatre of many of the 
 most important modem observations; and Tycho Brahe ranks as one of ttio fittliera of 
 modern astronomy. (Elenschlager and other writers have introduced a school of poetry and 
 dramatic literature, founded upon that of the modem German. The government has 
 bestowed a laudable attention on the general education of iu people, and has even passed n 
 law, requiring every child, of a certain age, to be sent to school. The schools, on the plan 
 of mutual instruction, amounted, in 1829, to 2500, and more were in progress ; there are also 
 3000 grammar and parish srhools. 
 
 Sect, VII. — Local Geography, 
 The local divisions of continental Denmark present little variety in consequence of the 
 uniformity of its surftice, and the small number of considerable cities. Its divisions are Zev 
 land and the other islands ; Jutland, Sleswick, Holstein, LAUcnburg ; with the remote terri- 
 tories of Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands. 
 
 Zealand is a flat, fertile, and extensive island, separated from Funen by the Great Belt, 
 and f5rom Sweden by the Sound. Including the capital, and chief seats of trade, it forms the 
 most important part of the Danish dominions. 
 Copenhagen, (Jg. 233.), (in Danish, Kiobenhafo, or the " merchant port,") the capital 
 
 of Denmark, is situated on the east 
 coast of Zealand, with the island 
 of Amak oppposite to it, and seve 
 ral little lakes in it« vicinity. Its 
 walls enclose a circuit of five miles, 
 a great part of which, however, is 
 covered with open spaces, and with 
 the harbour and docks. The houses, 
 with a few exceptions, are built of 
 brick, plastered over, and painted 
 in different colours. The number 
 of inhabitants is about 115,000; 
 the houses dre lotly, and contain 
 many fiimilies in each. The city 
 is divided into three ports; the old town, which contains the greater part of the population; 
 the new town, in which are all the finest edifices; and the port, or Christian's Haven. In 
 the midst of the principal square is the bronze statue of Frederick V., weighing 45,000 Ibe. 
 This square, with the adjoining one called the King's Mark Place, surrounded by the palace 
 of Charlottcnborg, the theatre, the principal hotel, and other stately buildings, forms the 
 handsomest part of Copenhagen. The cathedral was destroyed during the bomWdment by 
 the English, and is left in ruins ; but the Frue Kirke is an elegant Grecian edifice, 215 feet 
 by 180, with a Doric portico, and for which Thorwaldsen is preparing statues of the apostles 
 and evangelists. The palace of Rosenborg, though now unoccupied, contains an extraor- 
 dinary display of jewels, precious stones, and porcelain. The collections in science and art 
 ore equal to those of the greatest capitals. The king has a library of 400,000 volumes, with 
 numerous manuscripts illustrative of^the history and literature of the North, as well as those 
 brought by Niebuhr from the East; an extensive museum of northern antiquities: a gallery 
 of pictures, comprising some fine specimens of the greatest masters, and a numerous collec* 
 tion of engravings. The University of Copenhagen, a highly respectable institution, has a 
 valuable library of about 100,000 volumes, and an excellent collection of northern manu- 
 scripts. The arsenal is said to equal that of Venice in beauty, and to surpass it in extent. 
 The mint throws off 200 pieces in a minute. 
 
 The other towns in Zealand and the islands are of comparatively small magnitude. Ros- 
 child, the ancient capital of Denmark, which contained once thirty convents and thirty 
 churches, is now remarkable only for its Gothic cathedral, in whose vaults arc deposited the 
 remains of the kings of Denmark. Several of the monuments are fine. Elsinore, with its 
 castle of Cronborg, is important from its situation on the Sound, which being commanded 
 by the castle, the government is enabled to levy what are called the Sound dues. The pas- 
 sage to Helsinborg, in Sweden, may be made in half an hour. Elsinore, from its favourable 
 situation and good roadstead, carries on a considerable commerce, and contains, among its 
 inhabitants, many British, Jews, and even Mahometans. It has a handsome cathedral, with 
 (»me fine tombs. Population 7000. At Cronborg is shown the chamber in which the 
 unfortunate Matilda was confined. This castle commands a noble view over the sea, the 
 Vol. I. 40* 3K 
 
 f 
 
 CopenbM'B. 
 
 !.!R 
 
'••■• t^ ^JT 
 
 ' % 
 
 < 
 
 474 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Pabt in. 
 
 iilandg, and the oppoaite coant of Sweden. The torracn from which these are viewed 
 recalls to the En^'lish reader the first scenes of Hamlet, tlic tradition of whose story is still 
 prevalent here. Soroe, in the interior, surrounded by a tine country, has a noble academy ; 
 and contains the toinlw of Eric, Canute, and other princes. Odensee, tiie capital of Funen, 
 has a collen^c, and is riithcr a thriving town, with manufactures of woollen and soap. Nye> 
 bor^, in Funcn, and Cori<oer in Zealand, derive some im|x>rtancc from their situation on the 
 passage of the Great Belt; and Middelfurth, in the former island, from the passage of the 
 Little Belt 
 
 The towns of Jutland are of small interest, and have been little observed, with the excep* 
 tion of those which lie on the high rood from Hamburg to Copenhagen. Aalborg, near the 
 northern extreft^ity, is the seat ofone of the four bishoprics; and, being situated on a narrow 
 arm of the 8eA,'wit,h a good harbour, carries on some trade. Aarhuus, on the eastern coast, 
 is the seat of another bishopric ; and, being in tlie midst of a fertile country, exports some 
 grain. Population, 5,000. Colding derives some importance from its vicinity to the passage 
 of the Little Bolt. Wiborg and Ripen are also deserving of mention. 
 
 In Sleswick, the city of that name is agreeable, though irregularly built. Its cathedral, 
 with numerous monuments of ancient dukes, is viewed with interest. Flemsborg, on a deep 
 and winding hanf, or bay, with an excellent harbour, possesses a much greater commercial 
 importance, while it carries on the communication with the Baltic: it has 15,000 inhabitants. 
 Tonningcii, on tiic otiier side, near the mouth of the Eyder, communicates with the coun- 
 tries situated round the Gorman Ocean ; and, by the canal of Holstein, it has now a water 
 communication with the Baltic. 
 
 Holstein, the most southern province of Denmark, ranks as a part of the German empire, 
 to which it once belonged, and gives to the king of Denmark a vote in the diet. Reaching 
 to the Elbe, and being more in tlie commercial circle, it has a considerably brisker trade than 
 the northern or peninsular territory. Altona, a few miles below Hamburg, is a repetition of 
 that city on a smaller scale ; having 25,000 inhabitants, busily employed in the commerce 
 of the Elbe, in shi|>-huilding, and in several manufactures. Gluckstajilt, about twenty miles 
 lower, though inferior in extent, is a handsome and regular town, with considerable naval , 
 establishments. Kiel, on the eastern or Baltic coast, has an excellent harbour, and derives 
 importance from its situation at the extremity of the canal which connects the eastern and 
 western seas. It contains an university. Lauenburg, a level tract, intersected with several 
 small lakes, thougli it rounds the Dnnisli borders, does not possess much importance, either 
 in itself or its little capital, with 3,(XK) inhabitants. 
 
 Iceland, an appendage of the Danish crown, unimportant in a political view, but interest- 
 ing from its physiiui and moral aspect, is situated in the Northern Ocean, on the border of 
 the arctic circle, i.nd at the farthest verge of the civilized world. It is a liirge island, 220 
 miles in length, and 210 in breadth; containing about 40,000 square miles. Iceland belongs, 
 by its situation, to the polar world ; and the mountain chains, from 3000 to 6000 feet high, 
 with which it is everywhere intersected, give it a still more severe and stern character. 
 Barley is the only grain that can be raised, and this only in patches ; cabbages, and a few 
 other imported vegetables, may be produced, but Iw no means in perfection. The dependence 
 of the inhabitants is chiefly upon the abundance of flsh which the surrounding seas oifbrd ; so 
 that the interior, comprising about half of the island, is a desert of the most dreary character. 
 The mountain phenomena of Iceland are very striking. According to Glieman, the 
 jokuls, or hills covered with ice, rise to the following heights : Oerefe, 6240 feet ; Snafell, 
 
 4572; Findfiill, 5368; Hecia, 5210; Eya- 
 flail Oester, 5794. All these mountains 
 are, at the same time, glaciers capped 
 with ice which never melts; but these 
 glaciers consist not, like those of Switzer- 
 land, of great masses sloping down from 
 upper regions of the mountains to the val- 
 leys ; they are the snows of winter melted 
 and frozen where they fall. Beneath this 
 mantle of ice and snow burns a perpetual 
 fire, which in every part of the island 
 bursts forth in the most strange and fear- 
 ful phenomena. Hecla (Jig. 234.), with its flaming volcano, is the most celebrated ; but its 
 eruptions, of which six have occurred in the course of a century, are at present suspended. 
 There are six other volconoes, which, in the course of a century, have emitted twenty 
 eruptions. 
 
 The Geysers form a phenomena strikingly characteristic of Iceland, and rank with the 
 most extraordinary that are produced on any port of the globe. They consist of fountains, 
 which throw up boiling water, spray, and vapour, to a great height into the air. The erup- 
 tions are not continuous, but announce their approach by a sound like that of subterraneous 
 
 Hecla. 
 
' V 
 
 ■€■ 
 
 Book I. 
 
 DENAfARK. 
 
 476 
 
 with the 
 luntains, 
 e erup- 
 raneoua 
 
 Ciretfct Opyger. 
 
 tliundcr; immediately after whicli, a column of water, acconipnMJcil with prodigious volumes 
 
 of steam, burKtu forth, and rui«hi-H up to the neifflit of titly, 
 sixty, ninety, or even a hundred an<l titly feet. The water 
 soon ceases ; but the spray and vapour continue to play in 
 the air for several hours, and, when illuminated by the sun, 
 produce the most brilliant rainbows. The largest stones, 
 when thrown into tlie orifice, are instantly propslled to an 
 amazing height, and remaining otlen tor some minutes 
 within the influence of the steam, rise and fall in singular 
 alternation. Stones thrown into the fountain have the 
 remarkable effect of acting as a stimulus to the enip- 
 tion, and causing it to burst from a state of tranquillity. 
 The basin of the Great Geyser (Jig, 235.), is of an oval 
 form, with diameters of finy-eight and sixty-four feet. 
 Every spot around the Geysers is covered witli varic^ 
 ted and beautiful petrifactions. Leaves, grass, rushes, 
 are converted into white stone, preserving entire every 
 fibre. 
 
 The Sulphur Mountains, with their caldrons of boilmg 
 mud, present another phenomenon which the traveller be- 
 holds with the utmost astonishment These consist chiefly of clay, covered with a crust, 
 which is hot to the touch, and of sulphur, from almost every part of which, gas and steam 
 are perpetually escaping. Sometimes a loud noise guides the traveller to a spot where cal- 
 
 drons of black boiling mud (Jig. 
 238 ^^ 236.), largely impregnated with 
 
 this mineral substance, are throw- 
 ing up, at short intervals, their 
 eruptions. Tliat on the Krabla, 
 observed by Mr. Henderson, had a 
 diameter equal to that of the Great 
 Geyser, and rose to the height of 
 thirty feet. The situation of the 
 spectator here is not only awful, but 
 even dangerous; standmg, as Sir 
 George Mackenzie observes, " on a 
 support which feebly sustains him, 
 over an abyss where Are and brim- 
 .. . stone are in dreadful and incessant 
 
 Caldroa of BoUmi Mud. action " 
 
 The civil and social state of Iceland presents features no less interesting. It was dis- 
 covered about the year 840, by Nadod, a Danish pire.i.3. After its settlement it became a 
 little independent republic ; and the arts and literature, driven before the tide of barbarism, 
 which then overwhelmed the rest of Europe, took reftige in this remote and frozen clime. 
 Iceland had its divines, its annalists, its poets, and v.-as for some time the most enlightened 
 country then perhaps existing in the world. SuV; :t^d first to Norway, in 1261, and after- 
 wards to Denmark, it lost the spirit and ene.;. >(* an independent republic. Yet the 
 difiusion of knowledge, even among the lowest c^ -r<, which took place during its pros- 
 perous period, still exists in a degree not paralleleu in the most enlightened of other 
 nations. Men who seek, amid the storms of the surrounding ocean, a scanty provision 
 for their families, possess an acquaintance with the classical writings of antiquity, and 
 a sense of their beauty. The traveller finds the guide whom he has hired able to hold a 
 conversation with him in Lutin, and on his arrival at his miserable place of rest for the night, 
 is addressed witii fluency and elegance in the same language. " The instruction of his chil- 
 dren," says Dr. Holland, " forms one of the stated occupations of the Icelander ; and while 
 the little hut which he inhabits is almost buried in the snow, and while darkness and deso- 
 lation are spread universally around, the light of an oil-lamp illumines the page from which 
 he reads to his family the lessons of knowledge, religion, and virtue." 
 
 The Faroe Islands compose a group in the Northern Ocean, between 61° 15' and 62° 20' 
 N. lat., to the N.W. of Shetland, which they resemble. The principal are Stromsoe, Osteroe, 
 Suderoe, and Norderoe, with the smaller islands of Nalsoe, Vogoe, and Sandoe. Their only 
 wealth is produced by the rearing of sheep, fishing, and catching the numerous birds which 
 cluster round the rocks. With the surplus of these articles tliey supply their deficiency of 
 grain. Thorsharn, on Stromsoe, is the only place tliat can be called a town. 
 
 *•*. 
 
*<ttr. 
 
 |- 
 
 wr 
 
 'if 
 
 • * 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE UROGRAPHY 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 
 
 PABTin 
 
 SwiOM and Nobwav, now united into ono kinf^dom, form an pxtpnaivf) regrion, atretchinff 
 from the utmoat verge of the temperate xunc tar h'to the tVozcn range of the arctic circle. 
 Alonf; the north ana west itrotch the wide vhoroa of the Frozen Ocean, m fkr as yet known. 
 The Bouth-wost point of the kinfjfdom borders on the North Sea or German Ocean. • The 
 Baltic and the Gulf of Bothnia encloHO it on the south and onHt; so that it formH an immense 
 peninsula. The isthmus by which it is joined to Russia is above 200 miles broad, but lo 
 closely baned by mountains and frosen plains, that the kingdom is nearly inaccessible, 
 except by sea. 
 
 SiOT. I. — Oeneral Outline and Aipeet. 
 
 This kinffdom is of vast extent Its lenf^th, from the extreme point of Scania to the Nortli 
 Cape, is 1C60 miles. Its breadth, from the extreme points of tlie provinces of Stockholm 
 on the east, and Bergen on the west, will little exceed 360 miles. Its area is 207,000 square 
 miles. Of this large territory, scarcely a half can be considered as belonging to the civi- 
 Hzed world. The Laplander, who derives his whole subitistence from the rein-deer, can 
 hardly be included within the pale of civilized society. Even tlie southern districts have a 
 rugged and repulsive aspect, when compared to almost any other European state. Forests 
 of tall and gloomy pine stretch over the plains, or hang on the sides of the mountains ; the 
 groimd for hve months in the year is buried under snow ; cultivation appears only in scat- 
 tered patches, and was long c^uite insufficient to furnish bread to the inhabitants. 
 
 The mountains consist chiefly of tho dark and lofty chain of the Dofrines, which were 
 for ages a barrier between the two separate and hostile states of Sweden and Norway, but 
 are now included within the united kingdom. It commences near Oottenburg, on a low 
 scale, and becomes much more elevated in passing through Norway, where some of its pin 
 nacles exceed 8000 feet Chains of secondary elevation run through Lapland ; but, in 
 approaching the North Cape, they again rise as high as before, and fkce the polar seas with 
 ciifis of prmligioua magnitude. 
 
 The nvers are numerous, Sweden being a country profusely watered ; but, as they rise in 
 the Dofrines, and traverse the divided breadth of the peninsula, they seldom attain any 
 material length of course. The largest is the Dahl, which crosses Dafecarlia, and ftJls into 
 the sea at Geffle, after a course of 260 miles. The most important as to navigation are those 
 which form the outlet to the lakes, particularly the Gotha, reaching from the lake Wener 
 to Gottcnburg. The Glomme and the Dramme are pretty considerable rivers, running 
 from north to south, and down which considerable quantities of timber are floated. Lapland 
 pours a number of large streams into the head of tho Gulf of Bothnia ; but these are 
 usually chained in ice, and at no time can be subservient to the purposes of agriculture or 
 navigation. 
 
 Lakes form the grand depository of the surplus waters of Sweden. The Wener bears 
 almost the character of an mland sea, and the completion of the canal of Trdlhfttta, by 
 enabling its coasts to communicate by the Gotha with Gottenburg, has given them almost 
 the full advantages of a maritime site. The Wetter, though equal in length, covers not 
 nearlv so great an extent of ground. Mftler, or Malar, is a narrow, winding loch, or, more 
 strictly, a oay, running sixty miles into the interior from Stockholm, to whose environs its 
 variegated and rocky shores give a beautiful wildness. Small lakes, enclosed between hills, 
 are of very frequent occurrence, both in Norway and Sweden. 
 
 Scot. II. — Natural Geography. 
 ■ ' SuBSKCT. 1. — Geology. 
 
 (1.) Geolooy of Sweden. — I. Primitive rocks. Granite occurs in the mountains of 
 J&mtland, in Herjeadalen, in Lulea Lappmark, in Pitea Lappmark. It occurs also in the 
 plains, without any covering of other rocks, as in Upland, Wcstmanland, Sudermanland, and 
 a part of East and West Gothland. It passes into gneiss and syenite. Gneiss occurs in 
 many places in Sudermanland, East Gothland, inc., with beds of copper and iron ore. Mica 
 slate aoounds not only in the principal, but also in the subordinate chains, and contains the 
 greater number of the metalliferous beds met with in Sweden. It often alternates with vast 
 beds of primitive limestone, quartz, &.c. In the high mountain ridges, the strata of this 
 rock are generally disposed at an angle of 45°; while in the subordinate chains they aie 
 vertical. In many places it abounds in garnets, when it is known under the name noorka, 
 or murkstein, the garnet rock of geologists. Clay slate occurs sparingly : talc slate, in 
 several quorters, occurs in considerable abundance. Porphyry occurs only in Sraaland, 
 where the basis is a quartzy homstone (hallejlinta) with embedded crystals of felspar, and 
 grains of quartz. Primitive limestone occurs generally in the secondary mountain chains. 
 
 'liv 
 
t'. 
 
 ^' 
 
 DookL 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 
 
 4T7 
 
 but snlilom in tho noighbourhuod of tlio ccntriil chniiiH. It i* mixed up with iiornblende 
 tromolitu, quartz, Borptmtinv, ifaniet, ma^nutic ironHtonc, and mica. It ia odon iiivtallifonmii, 
 coiitainint; ffnlena, copper, aiid iron pyritoH. Hcrppntino, with the exception of nuuncii in 
 Rome mntalliforuuR beds, 8oldom occun pure : it w ntton mixed witli limniitono, when it 
 occurM in primitive limostono. Quartz ri>ck occtirs eitlipr pure, and in whole mountuini, m 
 in Dahlxlund, Hnmland, and many other plucen; or it altonmtoH with mica MJute, oh in Dahln- 
 land, and qIho in tiio metallifurouii bedi of I'entborK and Klacka. Tlin limovtono of Dane- 
 mora contains mica iilate. It also occum in veins in Kranito and mica Hlat(!, &c. Porphyri- 
 tic quartz, n {granite rock, with embedded gminn and cryHtala of fubpar, occurs in Hmuland, 
 Tomea LAppmark, &c. Primilive trap. Of this interestinp[ irroup of rocks, tlie foliowinif 
 kinds are met with; viz. hornblende rock, hornblende witli felspar, and hornblende with 
 mica. 
 
 II. 7Van«i7(on rocki. Congflomerate and sandstuno, which, in some ploces, are covered 
 with transition limestone, occur in Jftmtland, Tomea Ijappmark, An^ermanland, Dalccarlia, 
 SchOnen, islands in the Lake Wetter, East and West Gothland, Nerika, Dularnia. Transi- 
 tion porphyry : in tho parish of Elfdal, in Dalarnia. The basis is of the nature of hom- 
 ■tone. It rests upon transition sandstone, and is covered by syenite, porphyry, and transition 
 ffreenstono. Greywack . slate lies upon sandstone, and is covered by transition limestone. 
 It sometimes cnntainc: ( jal, and Uien passes into a kind of shale. It also contains fossil 
 remains of marine animals. Transition limestone occurs in Gothland, (Eland, SchOncn, 
 East and West Gothland, Nerika, Dalarnia, and Jiimtland. In the re^^ular succession, it lies 
 immediately upon alum slate, but in Gothland directly upon sandstone. It is seldom covered 
 oy other rocks, excepting in West Gothland, where it is covered by clay slate and green- 
 stone. It contains many diflercnt petrifactions, as orthoceratites, ammonites, anomites, ochi- 
 nitea, cornllites, and entrochites. Its colour is commonly gray, or bluish gray, and reddish 
 brown, often varied with veins of a green colour. Transition trap is tho youngest rock of 
 
 ho transition class in Sweden. In Elfclal it rests upon porphyry; upon transition clny slate 
 and alum slate in Kennekulle, Billengen, the Hunno and Hallebcrgc, and others, in West 
 Gothland. 
 
 III. Secondary rocki. The mountain chain around Helsingborg, in Schdncn, is composed 
 of secondary sandstone. It contains beds of slate clay, bitummous shale, and black bitumi- 
 nous coal. This sandstone, which belongs to the black bituminous coal formation, is covered 
 with other secondary deposits, as limestone, the age of which is not well known. The only 
 one of these newer secondary deposits, tho gcognostical history of which has been mode 
 out, is Chalk. This intorestmg formation occurs at Limhamii, near to Malma It encloses 
 balls of common flint, and, at its lower part, posses into a more solid chalk and secondary 
 limestone. 
 
 IV. Tertiary rocks. The tertiary deposits seem to occur in some points of the land not 
 far distant from tho sea-coast ; but they have not been carefully explored. 
 
 V. Alluvial rocks. Many tracts more or less deeply covered with gravel, sand, and clay, 
 occur in Sweden. 
 
 Mines. The mines of Sweden have been long celebrated all over the world, and have 
 been frequently described by travellers. Oold and silver mines. The Adelfora mine, which 
 formerly yielded thirty or forty marks of gold annually, now furnishes only three or four ; 
 those of Fahlun, where copper predominates, return annually four marks of gold and fitly 
 marks of silver. The silver mme of Sahla, which, during the reign of Queen Christina, 
 yielded annually 20,000 marks of silver, does not at present afford annually more than 2000 
 or 3000 marks. Copper mines. The most considerable copper mines arc those of Fahlun, 
 which is also known under tho name of Kopparberff. The mines of Atwidabcrg, in East 
 Gothland, furnish about a sixth part of all the copper which the Swedes obtain annually from 
 mines ; those of Fahlun yield more than the half of the copper raised in Sweden. The ore 
 at Fahlun is copper pyrites, disposed in an immense irregular-shoped mass, in mica slate: 
 10,200 quintals of copper are yielded by it annually. Iron mines. Tho greatest iron mines 
 are those in the province of Upland : of tiiose the most important are those of Skebo, of 
 (Esterby, not far from Donernora, of Gimo, of Ronaes. Iron is mined as far north as Gell- 
 vara, which is 200 leagues to the north of Stockholm. The island of Uto, on the east coast 
 of Upland, also affords a considerable quantity of iron. The whole mines aflbrd annually 
 1,800,000 quintals of iron. Cobalt mines. The principal mines of this metal arc those of 
 Tunaberg, near to Nykfiping, and nt Awed, in East Gothland. These mines afford excel- 
 lent cobalt, but the quantity is not great. Coal mines. Coal mines have been worked for 
 some time in Scania, two leagues from Hclsinborg, and are affonling a considerable return. 
 Sulphur and vitriol. The pyritical minerals of Dylta afford annually 10.50 quintals of sul- 
 phur, and those of Fahlun about 100 quintals of the same substance. Tho vitriolic waters 
 of Fahlun afford annually about 600 quintals of green vitriol, or sulphate of iron, and a small 
 quantity of blue vitriol, or sulphate of copper, ilium. The annual produce of alum is 
 about 42,600 quintals. Quarries. Sweden possesses, besides its regular mines, olso valua- 
 ole quarries of granite, porphyry, and marble. The porphyry quarries of Elfdal are the 
 
 *•- 
 
 '•:^! * 
 
MAP OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 
 
 Fio. 337 
 
M. 
 
 10. 337 
 
 ■n 
 
 BdOBi 
 
 SWTBDEN AND NORWAY 
 
 470 
 
 •M 
 
 in 
 
 HI 
 
 -M 
 
 larirmt nml mntit celebrated in Europe. Nearly all the fine moilum work* in |«>rphyry arc 
 in thu norpiiyry nf RllUal. 
 
 (3.) UKOMKiv or NnitWAT and I.ArtAND. — I. Primilivn ritekt. TIipno wild but highly 
 intereiitin)( coiintrio* are principally compoeed of primitivn niui tmniiitior. nickii ; Mconiliiry 
 rockii occur but mrnly, nnd nlltiviiildnpniiita are not lo abundant m in niiiny othur Iniauxtcn- 
 ■ivo roKlonH. Ornntle \n a rarn mck in Norway and I^plnnd, and iniiy \ro con«idorod one 
 of thn iGiMt abundant roc kN in Scandinavia. The granite tVonunntly ii|)|Hiara in vuina tra> 
 verMing tho primitivn utrntitlnl rockH, or running mrallol with bedioriitrrita; and noinetimca 
 it can bo mhmi Mprrad ovor tho mirfkco of mica alate, aa at Forvig, or irro(;ularly aiwociati'd 
 with cluy Hinto and diallago mck, aa in tlie ialand of Magcroo, Unrin mum* to bo by tiir 
 tho moMt fVoqucnt nnd abundant rock in Hcandinavia, all tno othnr primitivu rockn anpoaring 
 to be in aomo dngroo lubordinntn to it. Mir.a ilate roata upon nnd Bltnrniiti>ii with tlio gnoiiw, 
 but ia fhr iVom ixting ao (fcnomlly diatributcd aa that rock. Vlny iliittt nUmg with the mien 
 ■Into ia not of fVo<pi»>nl occurrrnco. Quartz rock, variout hornblendi' ri>ck», und limetlone, 
 occur in bmla aubordinatn to thn gnniaa and mica alato. Oabhro, or dialla^c rork, uno of tiio 
 moat hnautiftil of tho older rocka, occura in great quantity, connected witli clay alnte, in tho 
 inland nf M nirerno, and othnr pnrta of Norway. 
 
 II. Traimtion rocki, Thia claaa containa, boaidea greywacke, nhim tlntr, nnd limeitone 
 (which containa much tromolite), ami other rocks well known to mineraloi;itita na inombcra 
 of thia claaa, the following : — 1. Granite, which aometimea containa hornblende. 2. Syenite, 
 which containa a bcautiflil iMhradnric variety of common fehpar, and nuninroiia cryatala of 
 the gem named zircon. 8. Porphyry, and, aaaociated with it, various trap rocka allied to 
 baaaR and amygdaloid. 
 
 III. Secondary rock*. The groat primitive land of Scandinavia continuca onward to the 
 extreme northern point of Norway ; but in thia high latitude aome now formntions make 
 their appcarnnco among the older. The aandatone mmrtz of Alten hua been known ainco 
 the publication of tho travela of Von Buch. On the Eaat, towards tho Russian dominiona, 
 there ia a conaiderable tract which difTora more fVom tho primitive fornmtiuna timn the aund- 
 Btone quartz of Alten does. Sandstone and conglomerate extend acroaa tlio subjacent gnoisa 
 in a horizontal position. These rocks probably Mong to the old red nandttone. 
 
 IV. Alluvial rocki. Old alluvium occurs on the const, and in tho interior in many of the 
 valleys, and the new everywhere in greater or loss quantity. 
 
 Imnet. The only itilver tninen in Norway are those of KAngsbcrg, situated in mica slate, 
 which formerly afforded rich returns, but of late have yielded no profit. Tho ffold mine of 
 Eldswold, and the mines of lead and st/ver in Jarlsberg, have been hut frcbly worked. The 
 .opper mine» are principally situate<l in the northern division of tho kingdmii. The most 
 onsidcrable, near luDraaa, were discovered in 1644. They have afforded conHidernble quan- 
 ities of copper : in 1805, the annual return was 7800 (|uintal8 of copper. Tlio other mines 
 of copper are from 15 to 20 leagues of Drontheim, at Quiknc, I.irkken, SellKx;, nnd in the dis- 
 trict of Christiania, at Frederic ksgave or Foledal. The principal iron minis are those of Aren> 
 dal end Krageroe, in southern Norway. The mine of I*urwig, near tho town of that name, 
 
 IRTH PART. 
 
 ynat 
 LtbabiJ* 
 -. JjifflmorTanl 
 
 JAIisniiianl 
 Jukiby 
 Abnpiihui 
 9. Pviviukantft 
 
 10. Kiiutnkeino 
 
 11. KnlliunuiM 
 13. Finland 
 
 13. OriHtfin 
 
 14. Anki'nn 
 Mi, Kurravaart 
 IB. RaiiivatI 
 
 17. Bnp|»ro 
 
 18. Hiianvn 
 10. Oellivaia 
 SO. Ilipni 
 
 81. (iiilrkjdck 
 S*i. Rtintiviiro 
 Zl. Salldaien 
 34. IjonM 
 3.5. eiipflM 
 
 36. Snfatwi 
 
 37. 8llb<>^ek 
 24. Rinilijaur 
 3D. yValmat 
 
 30. Liilna 
 
 31. Oras 
 
 33. SopijanM 
 
 33. Pulla 
 
 STRaJalaKengia 
 
 3.V Pello 
 
 30. Uppor Tainca 
 
 37. Turnea 
 
 38. Kalix 
 30 Kum 
 «>.Harada 
 41. Tvan 
 
 RrfertMu to tKe Map of Sweden and Noruay, 
 
 ^ 
 
 JukroMle 
 Lrokwia 
 Raika 
 
 nutelo 
 
 naddodelt 
 
 Foldereld 
 
 Htram 
 
 OidorncM 
 
 Hnnitad 
 
 Tl.lfi 
 
 74. St 
 
 Moiiniot 
 
 iTi 
 
 ndanuker 
 ^alligon 
 olinca 
 itrom 
 
 Awie 
 
 Junacic 
 
 Amund 
 
 Nordmalinff 
 
 Patvikcn 
 
 ReMcIa 
 
 Nordinira 
 
 HenKwaiid 
 
 Fora 
 
 I. Ditanuad 
 Mariaibv 
 Hemdal 
 pronlhalm 
 
 eg, Leimvia 
 
 go. flaibarc 
 
 M. Ilavna 
 
 BOirrH PART. 
 I. Bundiwall 
 9. Rraeka 
 
 fir* 
 
 5. Liniliatli 
 <l.l(wle 
 
 2: to 
 
 9. f«Moe 
 
 10. Opdal 
 
 11. Rbmtdal 
 13. Oraknui 
 
 13. Bnndel* 
 
 14. Slavum 
 
 15. Fonia 
 Ifl. Bofnadal 
 17. 1«nm 
 
 IH. Riniabo 
 19. n«am 
 
 30. nrolle 
 
 31. F.niadal 
 3). Aibrn 
 S3. Hencn 
 34. I.inidal 
 fa. Aibra 
 
 3n. Rndeihamn 
 37. Ilamranfo 
 3H. Oeflo 
 39. Fahlun 
 
 Moa 
 ^lath«n 
 
 ''laa 
 loel 
 
 30. Mora 
 1. Mall 
 
 31. 
 
 ...Junt 
 n. Dunbr 
 33.Gnue1 
 
 I.- 
 
 3R. Kiglvi 
 30. Barf en 
 
 tAarevig 
 Oddan 
 Tuiaunidal 
 Nora 
 
 Chritllania 
 Frirkiande 
 Narrna 
 
 47. Ncirrbarko 
 
 48. Tuna 
 
 49. HeilfnoFa 
 90. Ferneb 
 SI. Lolbta 
 !». Um 
 S3. Waddu 
 S4.Upaal 
 SS. Htuckholm 
 
 MnriafVol 
 ^.nkopini 
 ATeaterai 
 iSe. Orahm 
 m. Hhilipiiad 
 ni. Parlilad 
 63. Hnlmodal 
 
 63. Mnll 
 
 64. Tumberg 
 
 8V Ovamen 
 X Ranland 
 
 67. Bfllaoi* 
 
 68. F.gflriund 
 
 69. Rakke 
 
 70. Chriitianaund 
 
 73. MoklaiM 
 
 74. Arendal 
 
 75. Solids 
 
 Dj, niuc 
 .W. Mar 
 .W. F-ok 
 .18. Wei 
 
 76. HnMrn 
 
 77. Fn»b>ri''knlnd 
 
 78. Fmlirirkihali 
 
 79. Uddevnihi 
 
 80. Wcni-rbdrg 
 81. 1.ldknping 
 83. flkam 
 
 83. Marlniind 
 
 84. Ilaiina 
 HI. Njknping 
 
 86. Norkiipinir 
 
 87. Wnli'rwir.k 
 8H. I.inkiiping 
 
 89. Saby 
 
 90. F.kitHJn 
 
 91. Jonkuping 
 93. Hj() 
 
 93. Orerird 
 
 94, Oan'nrm 
 9.V (j<iii(<nbur( 
 
 07. Halmnlad 
 98. NiMliOiBPk 
 91). Miirliindii 
 
 100. Minrrhuit 
 
 101. Wiibr 
 
 103. Nan 
 
 10.1. Itiimpfkiilla 
 
 104. Calmar 
 \M, RurshMlm 
 100. (.''arlscriitia 
 
 107. Cnilsliamm 
 
 108. I.iilliiilni 
 10!l. LandgCTona 
 
 1 10. Chrlitiandnd 
 Ill.Rnrum 
 113. Faliterbo 
 113. Halmo 
 
 _ Rtvtre. 
 a Tana 
 
 b Alton 
 c Itannena 
 d lyaniMn 
 
 r Mdolvon 
 1 Itoina 
 1 Ciliimmea 
 
 Klar 
 . I'aga 
 [ Miirrint 
 
 I Duhl 
 in IJiimo 
 
 n IVijurunda 
 
 II liiilal 
 
 p Aiinvrmana 
 
 q Umca 
 
 r Windal 
 
 • Pitea 
 
 t I.ulua 
 
 II I.lna 
 
 V K>ilii 
 w 'I'ornea 
 
 X l.iijniii 
 
 T Muonio 
 
 a* lloin 
 b* Stiira 
 c* Ave 
 d» llinea 
 •■* Walgoinaa 
 f* Apiinua 
 u* Knili 
 1* Siori 
 
 Fnemnnd 
 
 MiniteQ 
 
 Malar 
 I* lljelniat 
 m» Wetter 
 n* Wenar 
 o* Bolmco 
 
 
*> 
 
 480 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Pabt m. 
 
 .^ 
 
 affords annually 20,000 quintals of bar-iron and 0000 quintals of cast-iron. The establish- 
 ment of the same kind at Moss affords annually 10,000 quintals of iron in bars and cast 
 The same annual quantity is afforded by the mines of Bmrum, Bolvig, Ulfoss, Eidfoss, Ege- 
 land, Naes, Dikkemarken Possum, and Oudalen. Lastly, the mines of Hassel, Froeland, 
 I^ssoe, and Mostmarken, furnish from 30(K) to 5000 quintals of iron annually. The annual 
 produce of the iron min«s of Norway is estimated by a well-known statistical writer at about 
 150,000 quintals. The mines of cdtalt, which are wovked at Modum and Fossum, are 
 extensive but not deep. In the year 1792 they yielded 2917 quintals of ore. There is a 
 mine of plumbago and black lead at Engledal. The mines of alum, which are worked in 
 t|ic mountain of Egeberg, near to Christiania, afford not only a sufficiency for tlie consump- 
 tion of the Danish states, but also a considerable quantity for exportation. Norway possesses 
 quarries of granite, marble, millstone, whetstone, slate and clay. Granite is exported to 
 Holland ; the marble and other minerals supply the Danish states. 
 
 SuBBEOT. 2. — Botany. 
 The Botany of these countries has been noticed under that of Denmark. 
 
 SvBHEOT. 3. — Zoology. 
 
 The Zoology of Sweden, the native country of the celebrated Linnoius, is so well known 
 to naturalists, by the writings of that great man, that to them the subject is familiar. Nor 
 does it present any thing very different in its general character from that of Denmark. The 
 bleak aii4 inhospitable regions of Norway and Lapland, to which nature has denied the rich 
 and verdant pasturage of Britain, and the consequent abundance of grazing animals, are, 
 however, tlie chief metropolis of the Rein-deer, whose diversified qualities are beautifully 
 adapted for supplying such deficiencies. 
 The Rein-deer (Kangifer Tarandus H. Smith) {fig. 238.) forms the sole riches of the 
 
 Laplander, and its care is almost his only occu- 
 pation. According to the season, he migrates 
 to the sea shore, the plains, or the mountains. 
 The rich oflen possess 2000 head; and the 
 poorer seldom less than 100. The adult male, 
 in a wild state, is even larger than a stag ; but 
 the domesticated races ere somewhat smaller : 
 the sight and scent of these creatures are aston- 
 ishing, and guide them witli wonderful precision 
 through the most dangerous passes and in the 
 darkest stormy nights of an arctic winter. To 
 this sagacity the Laplander trusts his life witli 
 confidence; and accidents rarely happen : they 
 draw his sledge with such amazing rapidity, 
 that in twenty-four hours a pair of Rein-deer have been said to perform a journey of 100 
 miles. In a wild state they are gregarious ; and, when domesticated, evince an excessive 
 attachment to each other. During summer they are much tormented by a species of gad-fly; 
 but the old account of the glutton falling upon them firom a tree, and then devouring them, 
 is now considered fabulous. During life this useful animal supplies its master with lalwur and 
 milk ; and, when dead, every part becomes serviceable, the skin for clothing, and for boots ; 
 the horns to make utensils ; the sinews for thread, and the flesh for food : the intestines are 
 also used ; and the tongue is a well-known article of commerce. 
 Tiie Birds are not numerous, and, with few exceptions, differ not from those of Denmark 
 and the other northern king'doms. The Iceland Falcon [Falco 
 islandictts) (Jig.239.) rarely wnndrrs to more temperate climes; and 
 a gigantic Owl {Strix lapponlca Lin.) is a peculiar inhabitant of 
 the dreary solitudes of La;)lir.d ; to tliesc we moy add two other 
 species; the large JUral Owl, an^ the Great Snowy Owl. These 
 formidable birds prey upon numcnms ptsirmigans and grouse, great 
 numbers of which inhabit the confines of the arctic circle. The 
 Curruca suecica Sw. or Blue-throated Reed Warbler, one of the 
 most elegant birds of Europe, is not peculiar, as its name would im- 
 ply, to Sweden, being common in France and Switzerland. 
 
 The insects of Sweden, during its short summer, are very numer- 
 ous; ond many, enumerated by Acerbi, very beautiful; but, in 
 autumn, nearly the whole country is terribly infested by Musqui- 
 toes, these tormenting little animals being beyond calculation more 
 numerous in high northern latitudes than in the woods of tropical 
 America. 
 
 The Rein-Doer. 
 
 239 
 
 Iceland Falcon 
 
^sr 
 
 BookL 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY 
 
 [enmark 
 
 {Falco 
 
 les; and 
 
 litant of 
 
 |o other 
 
 These 
 
 , great 
 
 The 
 
 of the 
 
 \\ili im- 
 
 Seot. III. — Hittorical Otography " 
 
 The early history of Scandinavia is deeply involved in fable and uncertainty. Ptolemy 
 and Pliny, the best informed of ancient geographers, seem to distinguish it from " Great Ger- 
 many," off the coast of which they represent Busilin, or Baltia, as a large is.and, though not 
 nearly approaching to the real dimensions. The Goths were fi)und in early possession of 
 Sweden, and its southern provinces have been denominated Gothland ; but the question, 
 whether they were the native possessors, or entered it as conquerors, is one wliich can 
 scarcely be now decided. Scandinavia has been called the " storehouse of nations ;" and 
 " the blue-eyed myriads fh>m the Baltic coast" are supposed to have been among the moet 
 numerous of those who spread war and desolation throughout Europe. Dr. Clarke ridicules 
 this idea, as inapplicable to a country of unbroken forests, and a slowly advancing popula- 
 tion, making the first essays of agriculture ; yet, though the population could never be great, 
 the simple and pastoral habits of the people might dispose emigrants to seek subsistence with 
 the sword in happier climates. 
 
 Scandinavia, flrst, by a aeries of formidable expeditions, made a figure in history at the end 
 of the nintjj century. ' Harold Harfager, or the Fair-haired, the first of the great sea-kings 
 of the North, having united the formerly independent districts of Norway under hia sway, 
 undertook triumphant expeditions against Shetland, Orkney, and the Hebrides. For several 
 centuries the Danes and Norwegians held full possession of those islands ; gave a king to 
 England, and formed a permanent establishment in Normandy. The defeat of Haco in Got- 
 land, and of Harold III. in England, during the eleventh century, put an end to this maritime 
 dominion : and tho northern nations, notwithstanding their immense supply of naval stores, 
 have never since attained to more than a secondary rank among the maritime powers. 
 
 The union of the kingdoms of Scandinavia, in 1388, under Margaret, called the Scmiramis 
 of the North, forms a memorable era. Immediately, however, after the death of that able 
 princess, the Swedes began to struggle for independence. But their repeated attempts to 
 establish a separate kingdom were always defeated, till the cruel and tyraimical reign of 
 Christian 11. drove matters to extremity, and brought on a new revolution. 
 
 Gustavus Vasa, in 1520, hoisted agam the national standard in the province of Dalecarlia, 
 and, in three years subsequently, entered Stockholm in triumph. After a long struggle, the 
 Danes were compelled to recognise the independence of Sweden. 
 
 The reign of Gustavus Adolphus formed a glorious era for Sweden. The Protestant reli- 
 gion having been established under Gustavus Vasa, Sweden began to be looked to as its sup- 
 port when assailed by a formidable confederacy. In 1630, Gustavus took the field at the 
 head of only ten thousand Swedes; but around this gallant band rallied all the Protestant 
 powers of Germany. The splendid victory of Breitenfeld humbled the house of Austria, and 
 re-established tlie civil and religious libertiesof the empire. Even after his fall, intlie glori- 
 ous field of Lutzen, his generals continued to wage that desperate war of thirty years, which 
 was necessary to compel the Catholic league finally to renounce its pretensions. Sweden, 
 at the peace, obtained Pomerania, and other important possessions in Germany ; and con- 
 tinued, till the end of the seventeenth century, to exercise a powerful influence on the afibirs 
 of Europe. 
 
 The victories and reverses of Charles XII. threw a wild and romantic lustre around 
 Sweden, which terminated, however, in the loss of her station and greatness. Being de- 
 feated at Pultowa, by the Czar Peter, and driven to seek shelter from the Turks at Bender, 
 he was obi iged to purchase peace by the sacrifice of Livonia, and others of his finest provinces. 
 The influence of Sweden was thenceforth confined within its own barren limits, and it ranked 
 with difficulty as a power of the tecond order. The only remarkable change in the course 
 of the century was produced by the revolutions of 1772 and 1789, when Gustavus III. suc- 
 ceeded in converting the government into an absolute monarchy, though in other respects 
 his reign was advantageous to Sweden. 
 
 The election of Bernadotte, one of Bonaparte's commanders, to fill the throne, left vacant 
 through the rash conduct of the legitimate monarch, made a great change in the relations 
 of Sweden. To conciliate his now subjects, he restored in full plenitude the representative 
 constitution, which had been reduced to a mere shadow. Having joined the confederacy 
 against his fo.mer master, he recaived Norway in compensation for the loss of Finland, and 
 had thus a more compact and defensible territory. The Nor\vegians exclaimed, not without 
 rcagon, against this compulsory transference ; yet Denmark had deprived them of their free 
 constitution, which they now regained, and had in so many respects depressed the country, 
 with the view of concentrating every thing at Copenhagen, that the connection now termi- 
 nated has been considered the bane of Norway. 
 
 Sect. IV. — Political Geography, 
 
 The constitution of Sweden is one of the few in Europe, which has always preserved 
 some portion of that representative system which had been formed in remote ages. Towards 
 the close, indeed, of the last century, it was reduced by Gustavus III. to little more than a. 
 
 Vol. I 41 3L 
 
4B2 
 
 DKSCniPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt III. 
 
 I 
 
 ! ; 
 
 1 ( 
 
 ' \ 
 
 >j^%* 
 
 M 
 
 form. BrrnaddUc, however, an clcctwl inoiiurcli, without, any national claim, was obliged 
 to court Ihp favour of Iho nation, and, witli that view, to re-cstabliah the rights of itH ancient 
 diet. Tliis is now ratlicr nn anticjiic and cumbrous form of logisloturo, consisting of four 
 orders; tJio nobles, the clorgy, the peasants, and the burghers; who sit ond vote in seporatc 
 houses. 
 
 Of these liouses, tlrnt of the nobles consists of about 1200 members ; the head of each 
 fainily lieing, by inheritance, its legal representative. They are divided into three classes : — 
 herra, counts, barons, &c. ; rcddar, knights; and sivena, or gentlemen who, though without 
 any title, have received letters [Kilent of nobility. The house of clergy consists of tlie arch- 
 bishop and all the bishops; while the rest of the cccJRsiastical body is represented by depu- 
 ties. The burghers are chosen by the tow.is, every fVeeman who pays taxes having a vote : 
 they form on iiidependont l)ody, partly, perhaps, because the honour of a scat is not eagerly 
 contested. The peasants do not exactly correspond to our idea of that term: they consist 
 of a body of little proprietors, or lairds, who cultivate their own ground, and who are numer- 
 ous in Sweden. Their allowance of a dollar a day is provided by a subscription among 
 their constituents ; and, in some cases, two or three districts must combine to furnish out one 
 deputy. The nobles have bestirred themselves much to keep down the attempts made by 
 this class to rise in society. Tlioy have procured regulations, according to which no person 
 could sit in the house who allowed himself to be called llrrr (or Mr.),or wlioworeacoatof 
 fine cloth. Notwithstanding all their efforts, however, this house, and tliat of the burghers, 
 are daily increasing in strength. 
 
 In the division of powers, the royal prerogative is ample. The king appoints to all offices 
 civil and military, and he is obliged to convoke the dint only once in five years, and to con- 
 tinue its sittings three months ; but he may make the meetings more frequent, and longer. 
 He has also a negative upon the laws projxised by the diet. In regard to the diet itself, the 
 division rests with a majority of the houses ; but if they be two against two, the balance is 
 struck by tlic committee of state, a body composed of a certain number of members from 
 each. No tax can be levied, or loan obtained, without the consent of tho diet 
 
 The gtorthing of Norway, restored by Bernadotte, is possessed of much higher privileges 
 than tho Swedish diet It assembles more frecjuently, and at its own time, without any con- 
 trol from the king; and it allows to him only a suspensive vvto, obliging him to accept any 
 project which has been three times presented by the storthing. These rights having been 
 once granted, Bernadotte, who found them pressing soinewhat liord against his prerogotive, 
 has in vain made several attciiiiits to abridjie tliem. A highly republican spirit prevails in 
 Norway, and the influence, and almost e.xii-lencc, of the nobles is nearly annihilated. 
 
 The revenue of Sweden arises from a poll-tax ; the produce of the royal demesnes, duties 
 on exports and import", mines and forges, distilled spirits, and some monopolies. Tho whole 
 produce is alwut ■'$.5,000,000 a year, exclusive of lands assigned to soldiers and sailors, and 
 by which these classe.", in time of peace, are chiefly supported. The military force, is at 
 present, — 
 
 Sweden. Nurway. Total. 
 
 Infantry 26,2-21 - - - - 9,642 - - - 35,863 
 
 Cavalry 4,.'i80 - - - - 1,070 - - - 5,6.50 
 
 Artillery - - - - 2,400 - - - - 1,278 - - - 3,678 
 
 Undwehr - - - - a*3,368 - - - - 10,000 - - - 93,368 
 
 The troops are raised by conscription : they only receive pay when on actual service ; re- 
 maining, at other times, in the provinces, where they employ themselves in cultivating lands 
 aseigoed to them for their support. 
 
 Sbct. V. — Productive Industry. \ ' 
 
 Sweden seems doomed by nature to be a poor country. Her most southern districts are 
 beyond the limits of that zone, in which alone the finer and more valunblo kinds of grain, 
 and the richer fruits, come to maturity. Her scanty harvest consists solely of rye, bigg, and 
 oats, scarcely accounted as food in more favoured climates. Scandinavia is described gene- 
 rally as one unbroken boundless forest varied only in its aspect by little patches of cultivated 
 land. 
 
 Agricultural industry till of late had not done much to remedy natural doficioncics. Ac- 
 cording to the valuable statistical detoils collected by Dr. Thomson, the arable land in Swe- 
 den amounts to 1,818,450 English acres, which is only a sixty-second of the entire surface, 
 or, throwing out the Norrland deserts, a thirty-second. Of this, 1,363,000 acres are returned 
 as under ciHtivation. But the average size of a Swedish farm is only twenty-seven and a 
 half; the annual average of grain sown on each farm does not amount to a Winchester 
 bushel ; and the nniuial ])r(Mluee of the whole country was only 5,700,000 spanns, or alwut 
 71,000 quarters. Hence Sweden was obliged to imiwrt grain to a great extent ; and such is 
 the scarcity, that the peasantry oflen grind the bark or even wood of the fir-tree into floui 
 
Part III. 
 
 wan nbligcd 
 
 fitB ancient 
 
 ting of four 
 
 in scparntc 
 
 cad of ciicli 
 B classes : — 
 iigh without 
 of tho arch- 
 ed by depu- 
 ling B vote : 
 not eagerly 
 they consist 
 I are numer- 
 )tion among 
 nish out one 
 pt« made by 
 :h no person 
 iroroacoatof 
 he burghers, 
 
 to all offices 
 , and to con- 
 and longer. 
 ict itself, the 
 ic balance is 
 ombere from 
 
 er privileges 
 lout any con- 
 ) accept any 
 having been 
 ; prerogative, 
 it prevails in 
 ilatcd. 
 
 csnes, duties 
 Tho whole 
 sailors, and 
 ftrrce, is at 
 
 BOOE 1. 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 
 
 488 
 
 service; re- 
 vating lands 
 
 districts are 
 ids of grain, 
 e, bigg, and 
 :ribod gcnc- 
 if cultivated 
 
 ncics. Ac- 
 md in Swe- 
 tire surface, 
 re returned 
 seven and a 
 Winchester 
 ns, or iilwut 
 and such is 
 5 into floui 
 
 a nutriment equally scanty and unwholesome. Tlicse stjitements ore given in 1912 ; since 
 which lime wo fmd it mentioned that agriculture hns made a very rapid progress ; that im- 
 proved processes have been introduced from other countries ; and that, in the most southern 
 provinces, a great extent of moving (and before entirely barren) sand has been rendered solid, 
 and covered with plantations and grain. The consequence has been, that in 1827, Sweden even 
 exported HO.CMK), and, in 1828, 104,000 tons of grain of every description. Every fhrm has a tract 
 of forest of about 1000 acres attached to it, on which cattle are fed : these arc reported as 
 only amounting to 40:i,0()0 horses, 1,475,000 cows, and 1,212,000 sheep. The most valua- 
 ble product of land is tbrmcd by the vofit forests with which nature has covered the whole 
 240 country. The trees over all Scandinavia are 
 
 small, and consist chiefly of the birch, the 
 pine, the spruce and Scotch firs. Wooden in- 
 closures (Jig. 240.) of a peculiar form, are uni- 
 versally employed. The poplar and the willow 
 are also indigenous. The timber of these trees, 
 as well as the tar, pitch, and turpentine, drawn 
 from tliem, forms the chief objects of Scandi- 
 navian exports. Those on the hills of Nor- 
 way are in much demand for masts. Accord- 
 Swe.ii.hMod«ofincioiuF«. jng ^ j^ Hegelstamm, not more than the 
 
 115th part of the surface of Norway is under cultivation, chiefly in oats; a space which 
 might be greatly extended ; yet the annual production is stated at 2,650,000 tons. 
 
 The manufactures of Scandinavia are inconsiderable, unless we should class their mines 
 as such. Even in the common trades the work is lazily and ill performed, and charged at a high 
 rate, which renders this the most expensive country in Europe for those who live luxuriously. 
 It is a curious fact that some great merchants in the western towns send their linen to be 
 washed in London. 
 
 The mines of Sweden are peculiarly rich in important products. Its iron, found chiefly 
 in primitive rocks, is the finest in the world, and is widely diffused. In 1812, there were 
 176 mines; 624 smelting-houses ; 764 forges; producing in all 1,293,411 cwt. of iron. The 
 exportation, in 1821, amounted to 340,000 skippund, ond in 1824 had risen to 373,000, of which 
 345,000 were in burs, and 28,000 in . jdcr forms. There are also some valuable mines in tho 
 southern provinces of Norway. A most extensive deposit of copper occurs in the province 
 of Dalecarlia, particularly at Fahlun. Gold occurs at Adelfors, in. Sweden, to no great 
 amount ; but tho silver mines of Kongsberg, in Norway, arc the richest in Europe. The 
 metal occurs in musses, of which Uiere was once found one weighing 600 lbs. There arc 
 also lead mines of some importance at Scola, and in other parts of Sweden. 
 
 Fishery appears a pursuit peculiarly appropriate to the extensive coasts of Scandinavia. 
 Yet the Swedes are not much addicted to it, probably teciiuse the Baltic during a groat part 
 of the year is frozen. Gottenburg had once a herring fishery, now nearly lost, the shoals 
 having taken another direction. The Norwegian fishery is considerable, though bearing only 
 a small proportion to the almost unlimited opportunities aflbrdcd by its wide seas, and its 
 deep and commodious bays. Its chief theatre is fiir to tlie north, off the Isles of Ix)flbden. 
 The season lasts only for seven or eight weeks in the year, when fishermen crowd thither 
 from nil quarters. Codfish is the chief object : it is cut into pieces, and spread on the rocks 
 to dry, whence it receives the names of stockfish and clipfish. According to Mr. Brooke, the 
 number taken in a year was 700,000, which may be worth nearly $600,000; tliey are sent 
 chiefly to Germany, Spain, and Italy. The roes are also salted and barrelled for exportation 
 also the fish oil to the amount of about 30,000 barrels. 
 
 The commerce of Scandinavia is greater than its unimproved agriculture and total want 
 of manufactures might lead us to suppose. But nature has gifted these bleak regions with 
 an almost inexhaustible store of timber and iron, two of the prime necessaries of human 
 life; the main implements in shi|)-building ond in the construction of houses, nmchincry, and 
 furniture. These articles are indeed also the produce of North America; and Britain, which 
 affords tho best market, has lately sought to favour her colonies in that quarter by a great 
 inequality of duties. Yet tho superior quality of the Scandinavian commodity always .secures 
 it a sale. The entire exports of Norway are estimated by Dr. Clarke at 1,8()0,0(K)/. sterling ; 
 but we believe that this is very much beyond the mark. The commerce of Swecion is not 
 on so great n scale ; her surplus timber being not nearly so ample, though her iron is superior. 
 She hns suffered much injury from the absurd prejudices of the peasantry, who obtained the 
 prohibition of colonial produce, and of almost all foreign articles of consumption ; and though 
 these were regularly imported, and in daily use, the trade was greatly fettered by being 
 carried on only as contraband. In 1828, however, commercial treaties were concluded on a 
 more liberal footing. The total number of merchant vessels belonging to tlie different 
 towns of Sweden, in 1829, was 1178, of the burthen of 61,000 tons. 
 
 ':'! 
 
!l 
 
 II 
 
 tt 
 
 484 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III 
 
 8bct. VI.— dm/ and Social Slate. 
 
 Tho population of Sweden, acconling to the Intcxt coiiHim, inadi) in 18*25, amoiintod to 
 2,771,252 ; of whom 20,409 woro nobles ; 18,U77 occluHiiwticH ; (tt),(i(>4 citi/ciw ; tho rciniiin- 
 dcr boionjjroil to tlm clatw of peawints. Of theiie, I,:it)2,U70 wore nmles, and 1,4JW,282 
 femuloii; 'M*i^>V7;i resided in the country, 281,279 in tho uiticH. This was a rino of 
 im,mi since 1W20.* 
 
 The population of Norway, by a cenBus mode in November 1820, amounted to I,()a0,i:j2 ; 
 of whom 105,021 inhabited cities, 0:)4,414 tho country. This was a rise of 164,062 since 
 1815. 
 
 The national character of the Swedes is usually painted under favourable colours. Their 
 honesty is described as proverbial ; and Dr. Clarke considers the contrast between them and 
 the Russian {leople, in this re8|)cct, as most striking. Highway robbery, Uiouj;h it has been 
 known, is exceedingly rare ; and cliarity boxes, which are otlcn set up on tho public roads, 
 have never been plundered. " The nation," says Mr. James, " has its sinfjularities : tliero 
 exists something; of a reciprocity between the moral and political constitution of Sweden. 
 Rigidly ceremonious, they make their stiff and measured courtesies the essentials rather 
 than the fonns of life ; and seem, in a stranger's eye, a people cold in their nature as tho 
 very snows they dwell u|)on. Their characterisitics, a passive conmffe, not unmixed witli 
 indolence ; a pride not tVee from ignorance ; a disuosition that is not ill-humoured, from hav- 
 ing no humour at all, from indiflerence, from apatny. But a Swede is never in extremes ; 
 even these traits are not deeply markctl ; and if we review the more favourable side of his 
 character, we shall find in him an undaunted spirit of jwrsevernnce, and an honest love of 
 freedom, to which tlie feelings of every one do hoinoge." The same writer mentions a 
 cold-blooded obduracy, connected, perhaps, with a sanguinary turn of mind, displayed in 
 tliose frequent assassinations which have stained tiie pnges of Swedish history. The man- 
 ners of tlie higher ranks, in coiii4e<iucnce, perlm|>H, of jxilitical connexion, have been studi- 
 ously formed on the French model, which dues not accord very happily with the somewhat 
 rude simplicity of the Swedes, wiio find it easier to imitate the frivolity and dissipation of 
 tiiat people, tlian their easy and careless grace. Several habits arc enumerated as preva- 
 lent even among the higher classes in Scandinavia, which seem to negative its pretensions 
 to any high pitcli of refinement. Among these are, spitting even on handsome carpets, blow- 
 ing the nose with the finger.^, imd recording-games on tho table with chalk. 
 
 The religion of Sweden is Lutlierun, ami tho ciiurch Episcopal. This country, which 
 stood long at the head of the great Protestant confederacy, is animated with an ardent zeal 
 for the reformed religion. The Catliolics, till of late, scarcely enjoyetl common toleration, 
 and they are still excludetl from the diet and the higiier offices of state. Tho Swedish people 
 are commended for tlieir regularity in performing the duties of their religion: at tho same 
 time it has been remarked that the dissenters from the established church are much fewer 
 than in other Protestant countries; which has been imputed to the want of any peculiar 
 fervour upon the subject. Tlie wide extent and thin iwpulation of the northern districts 
 must often render the provision for their religious instruction very defective. The diocese 
 of Tornea, in Lapland, is 750 miles in circumference ; and, what is more blameable, the 
 small number of clergy employed arc not required to understand the language of the natives. 
 The income of the largest bishopric in Sweden is about )|5000 a year. 
 
 In science, tlie Swedes, considering their |X)verty and remote situation, have made a very 
 distinguished figure. Gustiivus Adolpiius favoured the interests of literature with a degree 
 of ardour not generally known. Of the spoils of place.s conquered by him, he set a ]>articular 
 value upon broks which he triuiKinitlod to Sweden, in order to form the foundation of several 
 largo libraries. The Swedes cultivated with peculiar ardour botany and mineralogy, which 
 some of their countrymen mainly contributed to raise to the rank of sciences. In botany, the 
 name of Linnsus is yet without a rival ; and Cronstadt and Bergman were in their day little 
 interior, though they now yield to Werner and other great names which have arisen in other 
 countries. Bergman and Scheele made also large contributions to chemistry, which is still 
 ably pursued by Ekeberg, Berzeliiis, and Afzelius. Although history and poetry have been 
 cultivated, they have not produced any writers whoso reputation has spread throughout 
 Europe. From the limited sphere of the Swedish language, few works of science are 
 written in it, or translated uUo it : hence the literati of Sweden are particularly well versed 
 in the languages of foreign nations. One of the subjects in which Sweden may most justly 
 exult is, the general spread of c<lucation among the lower orders, which seems to equal or 
 exceed that which Scotland enjoys ; and to this may probably be in a great measure ascribed 
 tlieir generally meritorious conduct Norway is not nearly so literary a country as Swe<len ; 
 Dr. Clarke even states that there is not in the whole country a single liookscller's shop. 
 This was in a greot measure owing to the jealousy of Denmark, which would not allow an 
 university to be founded even in Christiania, which used to be a rival to that of Copenhagen. 
 
 * The only SwnliKli coUnw i» 01. Uartholoniew in tlie W. Iiuliea, with about OUM iiilmbitanta.— Au. Ed. 
 
 I 
 
 f ! 
 
U<)OK I. 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 
 
 485 
 
 PaktIII 
 
 lountod to 
 10 reinain- 
 
 1,4:W,'J83 
 
 u ritiu uf 
 
 1,(»50,132; 
 1,062 Hinco 
 
 urs. Their 
 [) them and 
 it htts been 
 ublic rottds, 
 itic«: tl\erc 
 of Sweden, 
 itiala ruther 
 turo 88 the 
 iniixed witli 
 d, iroin hav- 
 r» extremes -, 
 e Bide of his 
 meat love of 
 mentions a 
 displayed in 
 . Tiio man- 
 c been studi- 
 le somewhat 
 lissipation of 
 cd as preva- 
 U pretensions 
 mrpcts, blow- 
 
 juntry, whicii 
 
 ],n ardent zeal 
 
 ion toleration, 
 
 odish people 
 
 at the same 
 
 much fewer 
 
 any peculiar 
 
 lern districts 
 
 The diocese 
 
 [lameable, the 
 
 )f tlie natives. 
 
 made a very 
 [with a degree 
 Tt a jmrticular 
 lion of several 
 [ralogy, which 
 [n botany, the 
 heir day little 
 [risen in other 
 which is still 
 try have been 
 " throughout 
 science are 
 ly well versed 
 liy most justly 
 Ins to equal or 
 lisure ascribed 
 ly as Sweden ; 
 seller's shop. 
 , not allow an 
 "Copenhagen. 
 
 Yet Norway can boast of literary nomes; Holherg, Pontoppidan, Valil the botnnist, Tnrftriip, 
 und Snorro Sliirleuoii, the 'I'' iilHtoriaiiH. A vein of Ixild iind ruile (Nx-try is eiillivatrd with 
 peculiiir ardour; and l)r, (.'liirku exliibits a roll of names unknown to 10urop<<, whose claims 
 to distmction appear Ui Ix) sDiiiewhat justitied by a spi'cimr>n given to us by Mr. Wilson. 
 
 Of till! Ieiirni!il establiNlinicnts of Sweden, tlie most eminent is the university of Upsaj, 
 the chief imrse of all the griMit men wiio have distini;iiisli(!d her iilernry records. TIiIh rc^le- 
 bniti'il s«!iit of northf^rn leiiriiing wiw tmmded in 147H, by Steno Stiiro, was enlarged by 
 (lusliivus Vasa and (Justavus Adolpluis, but reached if« iiigliest eminence in tin? lust century, 
 when it was iidorned by I.imueuH, and all tiiu men of science who have Ixien ilistinguisiied 
 as relli'cting glory on Sweden, Since that time its lustre has Imen somewhat diminished, 
 tluiu^iji statements on this subject vary considerably. Tlie professors have sitliiries of aUuit 
 iiiHH) II yeur ; and are left thus ulmost wholly demnident tm tlieir students, who live in priviiti; 
 loilgiiigs. 'i'liey attend what und wiiom tiiey pieuse; anil their exertions are not stimulated 
 or tried by any public exuminiitidiis. The mineralogiciil colh-ction is one of the most com- 
 plete in Kiiropi!; and the library contains riO,(NH) volumes. Its most precious treiisiire is the 
 Uodex Argeutens, a mamiscript of the four Gospels, written in silver characters, and sup- 
 )Hised to (late as fiir back us the Iburth century. The giirdcMi of Linnieus has been neirlected 
 for a liirger one lately founded, but which scarcely corresiKinds to the br>tanical fame of Upsal. 
 The iciyiil library at Stxickholm is still more extensive. It is particularly rich in manuscripts, 
 in siigas, and otJier historical works, and in original drawings by the great iiiasters. This 
 coll(!Cti(iii is open to the public. The Swedisli academy of science's, tbundiMl in IT.'IO, by 
 learned private iiiilividiials, has published aliovu KM) volumes. It is considered one of tbt! 
 most distinguished in Europe, and the greatest men in otlier countries have viewed it as an 
 honour to lie enrolled among its members. In the college of mines arc preserved copious 
 specimens, drawn from a country so rich in metallic pnNhictions. The cabinet of mixlels, 
 jiresentiiig the various mechanical contrivances employed through the diilerent parts of Swe- 
 den, is also considered very interesting. 
 
 The fine arts in Sweden have Injen cultivated amidst considerable difficulties. The opera 
 is conducted with splendour and taste; Itcrgell, as a sculptor, has Uten ranked second to 
 Canova, and even culled the Michael Angelo of the North. Breda in portrait, and Fuleraiifz 
 in landscape, enjoy reputation. 
 
 The habitations of Scandinavia are very simple and uniform. "Having," says Dr. Clarke, 
 "once figured to the imagination a number of low red houses, of a single story, and each 
 covered with turf and weeds, a picture is pre.soiited of the oppidan scenery of Sw(!deii." 
 The hou.ses, howev<!r, ore well finished within, and elegantly furnished ; and by means of 
 stoves, double windows, and close doors, they ure kept comfortably warm, even during the 
 iiiost rigorous winter. Swedes have even complained that they suH'ered much more from 
 cold in Iionilon than in their native city. 
 
 The drt>ss is described by Dr. Clarke as oiiually uniform with the habitations. " A skull- 
 cap, fitting close to the crown, edged with a little stiff lace, the hair being drawn as tight 
 and straight as possible beneath the cap from all parts of the head, as if to start from the 
 roots; add to this, a handkerchief thrown over the cap when they go out; a jacket; short 
 petticoat; stockings of coloured or wliite wo(dlen; and high-heeled shoes:" this is the 
 
 general costume of the Swedish women. Mr. Wilson thus 
 (le.scril)(!S the dress of the representatives of that class of 
 |iea.«ants: — " White worsted stockings, half-lxmts extend- 
 ing above the calf of the leg, yellow leather small-clothes 
 with knee-buckles, a short brown coat and waistcoat, and 
 a plain handkerchief tied round their neck.'-." The an- 
 nexed cut (Jiff. 241.) may give an idea of the attire and 
 aspect of the Norwegian peasantry. In winti.-r these gar- 
 ments must he reinforced to the utmost ability of the 
 wearer, as a fence against the excess of the cold. The 
 peasantry wenr a sheepskin cloak, with the wool towards 
 the bo<ly, and close fur caps. Dr. Clarke mentions as a 
 travelling dress, thick yarn stockings covered by stout lea- 
 ther boots, and over these again boots made of the hides 
 of rein-deer, with the hair on the outside, and doubly lined 
 with sheepskin covered with black wool. The people wear, 
 besides, fiir caps on the head, bearskin pelissps over the 
 body, besides several flannel waistcoats, and on the hands, gloves of sheepskin covered by 
 double gloves of fur and wool. Yet these accumulated guards are insufficient to ])revent 
 the feeling of the most inttmso cold, which, in those not duly fenced against it, soinetimes 
 produces ileatli, and fre<iuently a frost-bitten limb, 
 
 41* 
 
 Nctrwoffian PimBnntg. 
 
 Ita.— Am.Ed. 
 
.f*^< 
 
 486 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt III 
 
 Seot. VII. — Local Oeography, 
 
 This section naturally divides itself into three subordinnte parts : — 1, Sweden ; 2. Norway • 
 and 8. Lapland ; which, tliough accounted partly Swedish and partly Norwegian, has a dis- 
 tinct character of its own. 
 
 SvBSECT. 1. — Sweden. 
 
 Sweden is formed into three great divisions : Svcaland, or Sweden Proper ; Gotaland, or 
 Gothland ; and Nordland, or Norrland. In the following statistical table, the extent and 
 arable produce are from materials collected in 1812, since which time cultivation has been 
 greatly extended ; but the population is from the census of 1825. 
 
 Mrdtand. 
 
 Norrholtcii 
 
 VuaterbuttoiiK ■ • • 
 Venter Norrland ■ 
 Jaiiilland 
 
 Sutdm. 
 
 Stockholm 
 
 U|Mala 
 
 VentoroB 
 
 Nykiipiiig 
 
 Orchro 
 
 Carlxtnilt 
 
 8torR Kappnrberg. 
 Oeflcbnrg 
 
 aolUand. 
 
 Linkcipiiig 
 
 Calinnr 
 
 Jonki'ining 
 
 Kronoherg 
 
 niekiiigu 
 
 SkaraMrg 
 
 Eirtbnrg 
 
 Rottcnbnrg ... . 
 
 Ilalniatactt 
 
 Clirisliaiiitadt ■ 
 
 MnlinnhiiB 
 
 Gothland 
 
 Stockholm city.. 
 Total. 
 
 Anbis QiDund, 
 Tunnbnd*. 
 (IS^acn.) 
 
 8,a« 
 
 I0,S3U 
 98,780 
 10,7!0 
 
 S3,110 
 
 71,410 
 
 84,3m 
 U,S1S 
 M.UIl 
 48,333 
 fB,473 
 .11,347 
 38,3U7 
 
 473,916 
 
 104, 
 
 tiU, 
 53, 
 37 
 31 
 
 143, 
 73, 
 43, 
 43, 
 8U, 
 
 233, 
 30, 
 
 ,061 
 131 
 
 684 
 
 .ma 
 
 ,71J 
 
 1«3 
 1,808 
 
 ,458 
 l,U83 
 
 341 
 t,«09 
 i,064 
 
 Beinc lo tha 
 wlwltu I 
 
 3,1S1 
 
 1,403 
 
 390 
 
 917 
 
 »1S 
 
 13 
 
 27 
 24 
 36 
 43 
 139 
 140 
 
 45 
 
 31 
 34 
 
 40 
 48 
 27 
 13 
 37 
 23 
 33 
 13 
 4 
 20 
 
 938,734 
 
 1,454,760 
 
 30 
 
 Nunilicr of 
 
 VUBU, 
 
 533 
 
 694 
 
 1,563 
 
 U4S 
 
 3,734 
 
 4,056 
 3,548 
 2,853 
 3,376 
 2,T74 
 1.708 
 1,703 
 2,080 
 
 33,006 
 
 5,458 
 3,347 
 
 3,<.I05 
 2,Kr7 
 1,089 
 4.804 
 4,309 
 3,783 
 3,H2iJ 
 3.003 
 4,0:<3 
 1,098 
 
 39,487 
 
 05,309 
 
 Oneraliv 
 rarnien 
 
 din 
 rarnien. 
 
 22,824 
 3:1,870 
 30,813 
 20,381 
 
 103,787 
 
 58,049 
 48,657 
 49,INI3 
 59,791 
 01,730 
 92,592 
 79.313 
 50,034 
 
 499.809 
 
 Qriin pmduced 
 
 In npinm. 
 (140111 buibel.) 
 
 37,570 
 56,576 
 103„»9 
 48,348 
 
 345,098 
 
 316,987 
 285,350 
 311,100 
 235,006 
 198,379 
 377,514 
 240,781 
 153,996 
 
 2,009,017 
 
 94,194 
 83,404 
 76.115 
 56,010 
 31,533 
 89,910 
 103,715 
 66,409 
 47.485 
 70,331 
 95,6:f7 
 17,560 
 
 840,363 
 
 1,443,858 
 
 300,044 
 330,£66 
 33.1,:)46 
 175,239 
 139,143 
 435,864 
 334.382 
 315,757 
 167,130 
 306,037 
 548,334 
 83,523 
 
 3,204,184 
 
 5,703,835 
 
 Fopublion. 
 
 40,634 
 44,911 
 73,237 
 30,133 
 
 195,894 
 
 103,095 
 81.897 
 88,618 
 106,793 
 109,254 
 163,372 
 139,388 
 90,736 
 
 879,153 
 
 182,280 
 160,720 
 13!i,990 
 109,709 
 
 85,314 
 159,614 
 187,021 
 146,691 
 
 85,657 
 145,.180 
 193,199 
 
 :i8,151 
 
 1,635,633 
 79,473 
 
 3,771,353 
 
 Sweden Proper occupies the centre of the kingdom, and includes the capital, and the 
 great mining districts. It consists of an immense plain, covered by almost boundless forests, 
 intermixed with patches of cultivation ; only a few hills of moderate height breaking its 
 vost uniformity. Three great lakes, like inland seas, the Wener, the Wetter, and the Malar, 
 form almost a continuous chain across its centre. Besides these, there is an immense num- 
 ber of smaller lakes, especially towards the north, communicating by river channels with 
 the greater. These lakes do not display the grandeur which belongs to those of Switzer- 
 land ; but their wide and winding shores, broken with rocks, and fringed witli a profusion of 
 wood, present many romantic scenes. 
 
 The division into provinces, of Sweden Proper, as well as of Gothland, as given in the 
 preceding table, was made recently by government, and is the only one upon which statisti- 
 cal details have been collected. But there is another and earlier division, which remains 
 still fixed in the Swedish mind; and corresponds, in foct, both to the aspect of nature and to 
 the peculiarities in the people. These are Sudcrmanland, the province which contains the 
 capital, and is situated on the south side of the hike Malar; Upland, a high territory on the 
 northern side of that lake; Westmanlnnd, to the west of Upland ; Nerike, a beautiful little 
 rpffion, completely enclosed between the three gront lakes; Warmolnnd, to the north of the 
 Wener, covered with a multitude of little lakes; and, lastly, Dnlccarlia, called also Dalarne, 
 or the Plains, a province which, of all others, presents the most striking and peculiar fea- 
 turpiJ. It is, above all, distinguished by the energetic character of its peasantry, whose 
 exertions at one time reared the fallen monarchy, and who continue to form its most power- 
 ful (lefonce. They still hold as a maxim, that one Dalecarlian i.s eijual to two of any otlier 
 Swedes. Their diet is poor in the extreme, consi.sting in a groat measure of bark-bread : 
 ypt their health .Tiid vigour do not sulfer; and a number of tliom, who were quartered as 
 tixwps iit Stoc.'kh )lin, were airected with fevers in consequence of the repletion caused by 
 
Pabt hi 
 
 I. Norway • 
 , haa a dia- 
 
 lotaland, or 
 extent and 
 n has been 
 
 FopuUlioii. 
 
 40,034 
 44,911 
 72,237 
 3»,13a 
 
 105,804 
 
 103,005 
 81,807 
 88,618 
 100,703 
 100,254 
 103,372 
 120,388 
 00,730 
 
 870,153 
 
 182,280 
 100,730 
 130,900 
 102,700 
 
 85,314 
 159,014 
 187,031 
 140,691 
 
 85,057 
 145,380 
 192,100 
 
 :I8,151 
 
 1,025,032 
 79,473 
 
 3,771,352 
 
 lital, and the 
 idless forests, 
 
 brcnking its 
 nd the Malar, 
 iincnse num- 
 
 hannels with 
 of Switzer- 
 
 profusion of 
 
 given in the 
 
 ■hich statisti- 
 
 hich remains 
 
 nature and to 
 
 contains the 
 
 rritory on the 
 
 cautit'ul little 
 
 north of the 
 
 also Dalarne, 
 
 peculiar fca- 
 
 antry, whose 
 
 most power- 
 
 of any other 
 
 f bark-bread : 
 
 quartered aa 
 
 )n caused by 
 
 Book I. 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 
 
 487 
 
 Btockbolm 
 
 eating whcaten bread. The memory of the great Gustavus Vasa, tlio founder of the Swe- 
 dish monarchy, is cherished in this pruvincu with the utmost warmth ; and many memorials 
 of him arc preserved in different places. 
 Stockholm (Jig. 242.), with which wo shall commence our details, is finely situated, at the 
 
 junction of the extensive and beau- 
 **2 tiful lake of Malar, or Mftler, with 
 
 the sea. It stands partly on some 
 small islands, and two peninsulas, 
 presenting a view as beautiful and 
 divorsified as imagination con con- 
 ceive. Innumerable craggy rocks 
 rise from the water, partly covered 
 with houses, and partly planted 
 with wood; while vessels of all 
 forms and descriptions are seen passing to and fro. White edifices, consisting of public and 
 private palaces, churches, and other buildings, rising fiom an expanse of waters, produce an 
 effect of incom]>arable grandeur. When the lake and sea are frozen, they are covered with 
 sledges of all kinds, and exhibit one of the gayest scenes imaginable. If external appear- 
 ance were alone to be relied on, Stockliolm might be deemed tlie most magnificent city in 
 the world. This impression is not sustained by any beauty or convenience in the interior. 
 Except the great square of Norden Malm, the streets, though of very considerable length, 
 are neither broad nor handsome. There is no foot pavement; the houses are lolly, all white- 
 washed, and the shops arc extremely poor. The different families reside in separate floors 
 or stories, one above another, the ground-floors being usually occupied as shops. The royal 
 palace, however, begun by Charles XI., and fmishcd by Gustavus III., may vie with any 
 structure of the kind in Europe. It is in the Grecian style, quadrangular, four stories high, 
 built of brick only, but faced with stone-coloured cement. Its situation, facing the quay, 
 and commanding a view of all parts of the city, adds greatly to its beauty. It contains 
 some fine specimens of sculptiire and painting, curiosities connected with Swedish history, 
 and a range of small apartments embellished by Gustavus III. in a fanciful manner. This 
 palace, with the finest buildings of the city, stands on one of the islands. The kings of 
 Sweden have in the country other palaces : tiiat of Drottningholm is a handsome stuccoed 
 building, roofed with copper, and having side wings ; but the gardens are barbarously laid 
 out in the old fashion, with trees and hedges clipped into funciful shapes. 
 
 Nykflping is the only tract of Sweden Pro])er which is south of the lakes. The town of 
 that name, though small, has an air of magnificence. The houses arc of wood painted 
 yellow. 
 
 The provincesof Westeros, Orebro, and Cnrlstadt, along the north side of the lakes, reach 
 across the kingdom. Enkdping, on a branch of the Malar, is the first town which occurs 
 westward from Stockholm, but it is not of great consequence. Westeras, on the same lake, 
 has more commercial importance, as a link between the ca|)itul and the northern and western 
 provinces. There is only one principal street, about two miles in length ; the houses are 
 only of one story, and often roofed with turf. It is the see of the richest bishopric in Swe- 
 den. The cathedral is a simple edifice ; but one of the most elegant in Sweden, adorned 
 with a very elegant porpliyry monument erected to Eric IV., who died by poison in 1577. 
 Next comes Kdpmg, small and poor ; but celebrated as having been the residence of Schcele. 
 It lies at the extreme interior point of the Malar. Quitting that lake, and proceeding soutli- 
 west, we come to Arboga, a beautiful little town on a river which fulls into that lake, and 
 ne-ir a canal which connects it with the lake Hjelmar. A steam-packet, established by an 
 Englishman, now enables it to couimunicate with the capital. Nearly due west is Orebro, 
 a more considerable town, and the occasional place of meeting for the Swedish diet It ia 
 reckoned tiie fifth town in Sweden, containing about 4()0() people, and the streets are broad 
 and spacious, though the liousos, as elsewhere in Sweden, are low, and of painted wood. 
 The stadtiius, or governor's residence, which includes also tiio prison, is a huge shapeless 
 edifice. The churcli, which forms also the place of meeting for the diet, is an ancient struc- 
 ture, originally Gothic, and built of stone, but patched with brick, and in various styles. 
 Procecdinij wcstwnril, we enter Carlstudt, or, as anciently called, Warmeland, a region 
 entirely of mines, foroats, and likelots, and bounded on tlie south by the extended shores of 
 the Wener lake. CarK-tadt is situated near the jroint where this lake receives the (31ara, a 
 considerable river, wliicii traverses these wooded regions, and down wliich inmiense (luanti- 
 ties of timber are floated ; advantage for this purpose being taken of tlie floods to which i 
 is occasionally subject. One company from Gottenburg has saw-mills, at which are annually 
 cut upwards of 50,(KK) planks. Carlstadt is a place of Irom 20(X) to 8000 people, presenting 
 the ordinary aspect of Swedish towns. It collects the vast produce of the mines and 
 forests of Warnieland, and transmits them across the Wener to Wenersberg, whence 
 they find tli(Mr way to Gottoriburg. Considerably in the interior is Philipstodt, in thn 
 very licart of the iron uiino:«, by wjiicli it is supported. 
 
 r 
 
 if-' 
 
 Ml 
 
 t 
 
 I 
 
I 
 
 I i 
 
 hi 
 
 if 
 
 -> 
 
 488 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAl'lIV. 
 
 Part III 
 
 The most reinarkablo are those of 
 
 Pcnbcn Mine. 
 
 Porabcrg (Jig. 2't3.)i a few niiloa to thu cn.»l 
 ward. They arc thirteen in nuinlier, ilii^ 
 into a mountain entirely coniiMtHcd of voins 
 and beds of iron ore. ])r, Clarke, alter 
 having', in the couise of ten ycart*' travel, 
 inHpected many of lliu principal workw of 
 thiH kind in didercnt countries, declaroH, that 
 he had never lieheld any thin;,' equal to this 
 for (;nuideur u^ eH'ect, and tor the trcnicn* 
 dously Btrikin^r circumstances under which 
 liunian laliour ih hero perturined. In the 
 wide and open abyss suddenly appeared n 
 vast proupcct of yawninn; caverns and prodi- 
 frious machinery, hnnicnsc buckets, sus- 
 pended by nittlinj; chains, were iwssing up 
 and down; ladders were scalinjr all the in- 
 ward precipices; upon whicli the work- 
 people, reduced by their distance to pifrmics, 
 were ascendiii<; and descending. The clank- 
 injf of cliain.«, the p^roanin^ of the pumps, 
 the hallixiinj,' of the miners, the creaking 
 of the bl(x;ks and wheels, the tram|)ling of 
 horses, the bt^ating of the hammers, and the 
 loud and frecpient subterraneous thunder 
 from the blastinjr of the rocks by gun|K>wder, 
 
 in the midst of all this scene of excavation and vapour, produced an effect that no stranger 
 could witness unmoved. 
 
 Dalecarlia, or Daknie, e.xtonds to the north-east of Warmeland. It is covered with an 
 extraordinary prolusion of mosses and fungi, so that it is termed by Dr. Clarke the suprentc 
 court of the cryptogamin. We have already remarked the peculiar character of the people, 
 who preserve entire the dress, habits, and tlie daring energy of the ancient Swedes. The 
 most important branch of prodiuitive industry oonsi.-tts in the mines, piirticularly the great 
 copper mine at Fahlun (Jlf[. 244.). It is imniediaUdy adjoining to the town, and consists of 
 
 an enormous conical mass with the top 
 downwanls. The Iwttom of the cone, be- 
 ing the top of the mine, was the first 
 worked; and the galleries being made 
 through it without due precaution, the 
 whole fell in, producing an immense open 
 crater which .still remains. Regular stair- 
 cases of easy descent traverser this im- 
 mense crater or biisin, from its outer lip 
 to the lowermost [wint, whence arise vast 
 volumes of smoke and vnjKJur, giving it 
 the appearance, on a greater scale, ot" the 
 Neapolitan Solliitra. It is divided into no 
 less than 1200 shares or sections, among 
 which tlio ore is divided immediately on 
 being brought up, and it is then smelted 
 on a small scale by the difiennit indivi- 
 duals. The ore is not rich. In 1000, this 
 mine is said to have yielded 8,000,(KM) 
 pounds of copper; in lOiM), .'},r>00,(KH) ; but 
 at pre.sent only 1,120,000 pounds. The workmen have now reachetl the bottom, or the sur- 
 face of the cone, and are still working through the ground, in the fond hope of coming to the 
 top of another cone, reaching downwards. Unless this chimera should be realise<l, the mine, 
 it is said, will, in a few years, cease to be productive. Fahlun is a regularly built but old- 
 fashioned and dirty town, subsisting solely by the mine. It has two churches, one covered 
 with copper, but this has not a handsome appearance, the colour of that metal being converted 
 into a whitish green sixm after exposure to the weather. Near Fahlun is the house where 
 Gnstaviis Vasa lay concealed, the proprietor of which has studied to preserve in its pristine 
 state this asylum of the Swedish king. His chamber, bed, and clothes are still shown; his 
 •shirt of worsted mail fitted similar to tliose made by the Circassians, and his other weapons. 
 Sala, which is proi^rly in Westinanlnnd, may be mentioned here as another mining town 
 on a smaller scale, neat, regular, but ill-pnved. The only importjuit mine is one of galena, 
 which yields 2000 marks of silver, and 32,000 pounds weight of lead. There is also a cop- 
 
 Fahlun Mino. 
 
 i !i 
 
flip', 
 
 ■••*' 
 
 OOOK I. 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 
 
 Upfals. 
 
 por mine, which produccH littlo; and one of iron, wliich ia nut contiidercd worth tho oxpenM 
 of working. 
 
 Upliinii, coinciding nearly with the modern Upsaln, \e an interesting province, extending 
 from a pnrt of the luko to tho river Dal. It is flat, but divcrHificd with numerous little round 
 knolls, which, with the nmnll lakes and the numerous lino forests, render it picturesque. It 
 contains Upsnia, tho seat of tho great northern university, and Danomorii, the most valuable 
 of the iron mines. 
 
 Upsalo, or Upaul (,Jig. 245.), is the place in Sweden most venerable for its antiquity. It 
 
 was long the residence of the kings, 
 245 and has always been tho cliiof scut 
 
 of religion and learning. Even in 
 pagan times it wns the residence of 
 the highpricst of Odin ; and in 1026, 
 Evorinus, a bishop from England, 
 was ploced thero, tor the purpose of 
 converting the natives to Christiani- 
 ty. The cathedral is the largest and 
 nnest ecclesiastical monument in 
 Sweden, a country not eminent for 
 such structures. The exterior is in- 
 deed only of brick, and tlioro is an 
 injudicious mixture of tint Gothic 
 with the Doric towers. Uiit the in- 
 terior is very striking, adorned with a double row of fourteen fluted columns, a magnificent 
 altar, and above all by many monuments of the kings and heroes of Sweden. Particular 
 notice is attracted by that of Gustavus Vasa, and the three Sturcs, successively regents of 
 the kingdom, who, in that station, earned the title of fathers of their country. The shirt of 
 mail of Margoret, the Seminimis of the North, is also kept as a warlike relic. Upsala con- 
 tains also a palace fininded by Gnstnvus Vasa, now half burnt down. It is at present sup- 
 ported solely by the university, of which an account has already been given. It is destitute 
 of all trade or industry. It is thorefbro small, but very regular and neat, having a large 
 square in the centre, where all the streets converge. 
 
 Tho mine of Danemora is situated near the small town of Osterby. Swedish iron is the 
 best in the world, and the iron of Danemora is tho best in Sweden. Dr. Thomson was told 
 at Stiefficld, that cast steel could not be made with any other. Danemora was first wrought 
 as a silver mine, but this was soon exhausted. The iron then began to bo wrought, and soon 
 established the high character it now holds. The great opening is filly fathoms deep, and 
 tho mine has been wrought thirty fothoms lower down. The ore is blasted with gunpowder. 
 At short intervals arc heard tremendous explosions, like the discharge of the heaviest artil- 
 lery, which are echoed through the caverns, and shako the earth like a volcano, v/hilo 
 volumes of smoke burst forth aflcr each crash. From the mouth of the cavern enormous 
 masses of iron are raised up by machinery. The mine belongs to a nimibcr of private indi- 
 viduals, who have erected a steam-engine at an expense of 36,000 rix-dollars. The produce 
 is estimated at 4000 tons. There are twenty-seven other mines in the province of Upsala, 
 
 Gothland, or Gotaland, tlie southern division of the kingdom, forms a large peninsula, with 
 a wide circuit of shores. It enjoys a considerably milder climate, and is the only part of the 
 kingdom where wheat is raised in any considerable quantity. It is here also that the recent 
 improvements in agriculture have been chiefly observable. There is thus more land in cul- 
 tivation, and trees will not grow in tho immediate vicinity of tlie coasts; so that Golhlatid is 
 not so thoroughly covered witii wood, as tho provinces to the north of the lakes. If we 
 except the capital, this division contains almost all the sea-ports and naval arsenals ; and 
 consequently engrosses nearly all the foreign commerce of the kingdom. 
 
 The modern and official divisions of Gotliland have been exhibited in the statistical table. 
 The ancient divisions arc into Eastern and Western Gothland, divided from each other by 
 the long line of tho lake Wetter; Smaland, an extensive but barren tract, to the south of 
 that lake ; and Scania, or Schfinon, the southern peninsular extremity of Sweden, a better 
 peopled, and better cultivated district than any other in the kingdom. 
 
 Eastern Gothland comprises chiefly tho modern provinces of Nykoping and I,.ink6ping. 
 The town of Nykdping is agreeably situated at the extremity of a small bay of the Baltic, 
 and though small has an air of magnificence; but it carries on little or no trade. It is now 
 much outstripped by Norkftping, the largest of all the kiipinffs (i. e. markets), and the fourth 
 town in Sweden. Norkop'mg lies upon the large river Motala, which communicates between 
 tho lake Wetter and tho Baltic, and which is here broken into numerous rocky channels. 
 Tim cliief branch of industry consists in the manufiicture of broadcloth, which is produced so 
 tliip as to sell at twenty-seven shillings per ell, of one yard and throe quarters broad. Tho 
 bipivl of shopp in the iiPi^'iilKiiirhooi! has been considerably improved by tho introduction of 
 lii'Tino'. Tlio town is rpguliirly built, of neat wooden houses. I.inkiiping is another pro. 
 Vot,. I. 3 M 
 
 4- 
 
w 
 
 W 
 
 '"* 
 
 
 h 
 
 ■■i^# 
 
 no 
 
 -u 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 tl^ 
 
 Part III. 
 
 ■4,1 
 
 ;jB 
 
 vincial capital, hiin(!Noinnr in its aspect, thou((h much flmullRr, than NorkAping. Tho 
 C&tliedriil, ri'Imiit four liiimlrcd vcarH ttfuo, in one of the flnuxt uccinsiuatical MtructurcH in tlio 
 kinffdom, and noiir it in a very liandfioiiifl thoatro. 
 
 Tho district ol'Siniklund ha.i tor it« cliinf town Jonkt'tpin);, sitnated at tho oxtreniity of the 
 Wetter, und coniniiiiuiiii); gnnii and beautiful views ovor that imnicnso lake, which has horu 
 a wide border of low Init flnoly wooded rocks. Tho town has been entirely rebuilt sincu 
 170U, when it wus burnt to tho (ground. Though built chietly of wotxt, liku other Swedish 
 towns, it contains niiiny good and couunodious houses, the residence of wealthy inhabitants, 
 who have been attracted by the amenity of the site. A hijfh court of appeal for this part of 
 Sweden is estitliliahnd hero. About tei> miles distant is Tubertr, a longf round-backed hill, 
 composed wholly of one unbroken mass of fine ma^'netic ironstone. It presents such a 
 colossal mass as in Ilausmunn's opinion nuist continue to alFurd a source of riches to tho 
 remotest posterity, '''ho upper bed, 370 feet thick, has been wrought for 850 years. It is 
 merely blasted with (rimpowdcr, when the flraf^ments full to tho bottom, and are conveyed to 
 neighbouring' furnaces. The ore is not very rich, the proportion of pure iron varying from 
 21 to 92 [wr cent. ; but it is very tractable, and tVco fVoin any hurtful ingredients. The hill, 
 tliough only 4U0 feet high, commands an almost boundless view over the vast wooded flats 
 of Smaland. This district contains also a considerable quantity of bo(f iron ore of inferior 
 quality, and some copper mines. 
 
 The sea-coast of Smaland, consisting of tho modem provinces of Calmar and Bieking, is 
 of a naked and unpromising aspect, but contains some havens of importance. Calmar is 
 noted in Swedish history as a strong fortress, and still more because in one of the apartments 
 of its castle was signed tho celebrated treaty which united the three crowns of the north on 
 the heiul of Margaret. Carlscrona is the chief naval arsenal and one of the largest towns in 
 Sweden. It is built on throe small islands connected with each other and with the coast by 
 long wooden bridges, while other islands serve for tho erection of works for the defence of 
 the harlwur. I'liese are s<|uare batteries of stono, well mounted with ordnance, which appear 
 formidable enough, though probably not capable of coping with a ship of tho line. Separate 
 establishments exist for the large vessels, and tor the flotilla ; but one of the most remarkable 
 features consists of the covered docks, partly excavated out of tho vast masses of solid rock. 
 The want of tides in the Baltic is supplied by sluices, which open into the port, and aro 
 emptied again at pleasure. Ciul liamn is a smaller town, romantically situated, like ii cluster 
 of nests, on the tops of clitTs. During war it enjoyed a considerable projwrtion of the neutral 
 trade, which it lias since lost. Christianstadt is a fortress of considerable celebrity, tho cap- 
 ture of which formed the first military achievement of Gustavus Adolphus. Some fragments 
 of the fortifications riMimin, and the approach to them is defended by an extensive swamp 
 which surrounds the place. 
 
 Scania begins here, a flat and fertile peninsula, forming the most southern part of Sweden. 
 There are numerous German residents in Scania, supposed to have sought refuge there 
 during the Protestant persecution in Germany ; and some Scotch farmers have also sought to 
 introduce an improved system of agriculture. In the centre of Scania is Lund, the seat of 
 Uie second university in Sweden, containing 30,000 volumes, a good observatory and botanical 
 garden, and a noble cathedral in the Norman style of architecturi!. JVlalmo, formerly one of 
 Uie Hanseatic towns, is the chief seat of trade. Helsenving and Ystadt, neat little |X)rt8, are 
 the chief places of embarkation for Denmark and Germany. All these towns command 
 magnificent views of tho Sound, enlivened by the crowds of shipping that are continually 
 passing. 
 
 Having turned the southern point of Sweden, we come to the coast of West Gothland, 
 # situated on that great gulf of the German Ocean called the Cattegat. Being the part of the 
 kingdom nearest tn the great states of Europe, it carries on a principal part of the commerce 
 of Sweden. Laholm and Ilalmstadt are ports of some consideration, in the gloomy and 
 heathy province of Halland, but almost the whole of the western commerce of Sweden centres 
 at Gotten burg. 
 
 Gotlenburg is built in the interior of a bay set round with rugged and naked rocks, and 
 the whole country round is sterile and desolate. It is supported by its situation at tho mouth 
 of the Gotha, tlie broadest ond most navigable of the rivers of Sweden, which by means of 
 tho canal of Trolhiitfa afTords a full communication with the great interior lake of Wener, 
 and the opportunity of bringing down those immense stores of wood and iron produced around 
 its shores. The prosperity of Gottenburg was also greatly promoted by the French anti- 
 commercial system, under which this port remained one of the few channels by wliicii British 
 goods could force their way into the Continent. It is a very handsome city, built entirely of 
 stone, the use of wood having been prohibited since the last gnmt conflagration, the second 
 which had occurred in the course of ton years. A magnificent church, lately built, is con- 
 structed, in a great measure, of stone imported from Scotland. The principal street, which 
 is long and wide, has a canal running through it; the others strike off from it at right 
 angles. The principal merciiants are Scotch, who live in a style of great magnificence. 
 
 West Gothland presents still some other striking features. Among these rank foremost 
 
 I < 
 
Part III. 
 
 kpinff. Tho 
 cturcM in tlio 
 
 ■eniity of th« 
 licli nnii licru 
 rebuilt lincu 
 her Hwmlish 
 inliabitanU, 
 r ttiis imrt of 
 ■backed hill, 
 <Rnta audi a 
 riches to tho 
 years. It is 
 i conveyed to 
 varying from 
 U. The hill, 
 woo<led rtata 
 re of inferior 
 
 d Blcking, is 
 . Calmar is 
 c opartmcnts 
 tiie north on 
 l^est towns in 
 I the coast by 
 e defence of 
 which appear 
 10. Separate 
 at renmrkable 
 of solid rock, 
 port, and aro 
 like II cluster 
 of the neutral 
 )rity, the cap- 
 nie fragmenta 
 jiisive swamp 
 
 rt of Sweden, 
 refuge there 
 iIho sought to 
 the seat of 
 and botanical 
 ■merly one of 
 ttle jjorts, are 
 vns command 
 e continually 
 
 est Gothland, 
 lie part of the 
 lie commerce 
 gloomy and 
 vcden centres 
 
 ed rocks, and 
 at tho mouth 
 by means of 
 :o of Wener, 
 (lured iiround 
 Frnnch atiti- 
 uliicli British 
 It entirely of 
 1, the second 
 built, is con- 
 street, which 
 m it at right 
 lificonce. 
 ank foremost 
 
 Boot I. 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORW.VV. 
 
 41)1 
 
 the cataracts and canal of TrolhUtta. Above the fiirmor tho river is a mile broad ; but being 
 Rontlned Uitween two lolly rookn, it pours down its wutera with priKligioiia tl)rce. The de- 
 Hcent, howf^ver, is only a hundred feet in the course of two miles, iimkuig tliUH u rapid rathur 
 than a fall ; the water ruHhiiig along with inconceivable rapidity, lioiliug up, and covcre<l 
 with fiMiui. Tho noise is prodigious, and clouds of vapour are thrown ui). Theso caturacta 
 opposed a complete obHtruclioii to the navigation of tho (lotha, which the kings of Sweden 
 ox|ien<led immense sums in endeavouring to overcome; but their works were too impurfuct 
 to resist the impi'tuoHity of the current. At length, in 171W, the enterprise was taken up 
 bv a company of private merchants, who in seven years brought it to a happy completion. 
 The canal is twenty-tiiur feet wide, and eight feet deep. It extends only two miles; but 
 being cut through a granite rock, sometimes to tho depth of one hundred and tllly toot, it 
 proved a work of very great laUiur. Wonerborg, at the junction of the (Jotha with the 
 Wener, is the channel by which tho products of the interior are brought down tho river; 
 yet it does not derive fVom this trade much prosperity or importance. Uddevulla and Stron- 
 atadt, are small sea-ports, with somo trade and flshery, but they have sutl'ercd since the 
 lierriiigs deserted the coast. Skaru and Fahlkoping are places of somo conse<iuenco in the 
 interior of West Gothland. 
 
 Norrland forms a third division, which, if considered oa including Lapland (and it is so 
 considered politically), would be much more extensive than all tho rest of tho kingdom put 
 together. It is, however, our intention to reserve for a particular section tho vast and 
 peculiar region known under tho name of Lapland. Norrland, in a restricted sense, com- 
 prises the liiur provinces named in tho table, but is better known under tho divisions of 
 Jamtland, .\ngermanland, Mcdelpad, and Helsingland. Jamtland, where it Itordcrs on 
 Norway, includes some of tho highest mountains, several of them r\nna to 6(N)0 or 7()U0 
 feet. The rest of Norrland is flat, and tho climate moist and variable, like that of Jamt- 
 land, but colder. Wheat scarcely ripens beyond Sundswall ; near to tlio northern border, 
 barley and ryo ripen with ditficulty. Almost the only fruits arc cherries and gooseberries. 
 Tho land under cultivation did not, in IHI'2, exceed 52,(X)0 acres, which is, in projiortion to 
 the whole, only as 1 to 915, Yet the people are industrious ; and Von Buch observed a greater 
 air of prosperity here than in the rest of the kingdom. The woods which cover almost the 
 whole country, are infested by numerous herds of wolves. Of the entire {lopulation, amounting 
 to 159,1(N), only tiUlH live in the towns, which of course must be very unimportant. Sunds- 
 wall and Ileriiosand are, however, sea-ports of some little consequence, as is Umca; but this 
 last properly belongs to Iiapland. 
 
 SuBBECT. 2. — Norway. 
 This extensive portion of the Swedish monarchy, recently, by compolsion, but in all like- 
 lihood permanently, united, comprises a very long line of maritime territory, facing the 
 boundless expanse of the Northern Ocean. Throughout its whole length, m an oblique 
 line parallel to the sea, runs the chain of tho Dotrines, presenting many lx)ld and lofty 
 summits covered with perpetual snow. Sneehatta, the highest, is 8100 feet. These moun- 
 tains throw out numerous chains, sloping downwards to the sea, which form romantic valleys 
 and deep and winding bays. Norway produces some corn, not nearly sufficient, however, 
 tor its own consumption ; but exports large quantities of timber and tish, receiving, in return, 
 those commodities of which it stands most in need. 
 
 The southern Norwegian provinces of Aggerhuus, Christiania, and Christiansund, include 
 a considerably greater proportion of level territory than the others. They have the great 
 range of mountains to the north and west, and are not separated trom Sweden by these 
 natural barriers. Through these provinces flow southward into the bay of Christiania the 
 Drammen and the Glommen, the two greatest rivers of tho North, and bring with them an 
 
 immense quantity of timber, which 
 246 is cut into deals, and exported to all 
 
 parts of Europe. Tho export of iron 
 IS also considerable. 
 
 Christiania, (fif{. 246.), capital 
 of all this district, with a |)opulation 
 of 20,,581, now ranks as the capital 
 cf tho whole kingdom. It is situated 
 at the head of a long interior Imy or 
 fiord, and enjoys a situation which 
 Von Buch considers as altogether 
 wonderful. The bay, its islands, 
 tho crowds of sails spread among 
 them, with the view of majestic hills 
 rising over hills in the distance, appeared to him equalled only on the lake of Geneva, wliich, 
 however, has not the vessels and islands. Christiania is chiefly supported by the trade in 
 deals I and those cut in its saw-mills are considered, by the traders in this article, to be 
 
 Chriftiania. 
 
403 
 
 DESCRirnVK (iKOGIlAl'llY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 I ♦ 
 
 iiin 
 
 H > 
 
 11 
 
 ■uporior to all othori. Homo nf it* mnrchniiU, |Nirticiiliirly tint Ankt-rii, iimintnin tlio Ntato 
 of pritic('i4, iiihI uro cdimiilfiriNl (•qiml m woiiltli niul lilMTiil vh'wh to uny in Kiiriipo. Olirir 
 tiaiiia (■umi'i* intiru iiilo (uiiituct than ll<'r((i'ii witli tlin ninro mlvanci'd coiiiitrit'ii nl' Kiiropc, 
 tml liAH mliipti'ti itliiKiiit i-xt'liixivt'ly till' iiiipriivciiicntMuliM'li (llhtinKiiiHJi tlu'in. 'I'lii' liiiililinfR 
 bro ri>){iilar, iinii niiwtly ot'ittoni'; no tliiit in tliii L'oiirM' nt' 'J(H) yi'iirn, wliili^ ntliiT H<:utuiiiuf 
 vian townH liitvo Ix-vn riMNuitnilly ri'duonil toni<lii>)<,('liriiitiiiniii Iiiih HiiHi'ml only xli^ht injury 
 (Wini flro. Hinco tlio union witli Hwfden, it ImM rt'OMvcij lui uiiivKrHity, with tsvo prufuHiiur*, 
 who hiivo inotloruto iiiooiiu'M, nlii<>||y ilcrivixl iVoni ((rain. 
 
 Thcro iiro othor Imvt'iin of iwniu iinprtniico in lliix wiuthcrn Irnct of Norway. On Uie 
 wevturn ciNiHt of ('hriiitianiu ttonl, thn two, lirH|;(Mia'H niiil HlrniiiMH>, iinitti in forming what 
 b called l)riinuii<?ii, at thti iiiuiith of the; iiii|Nirtant rivrr of lliiit iiunio. ToiiHlicr^, nt the 
 bottom of tliu Miiiiu lido, iii a town of Roinu anuient ri'Ifhrity, hut now n ffi*n\ di'itl decayed. 
 On the oantorn vide of the Manio bny in Maui, watered h^ a Mtreain, tiirninft twenty Miw-inillt, 
 by which lUi iininonne i|uantity of dealit are pre|)iired tor exportation. FrcderiekMliall, an 
 ancient and atill important tVonticr town, i* beautifully Mitiutlcd in an interior hiiy, wiiidin(( 
 
 aniiintt lumintiiini. Nenr it iH the tttroiiK 
 847 fortreHH of I'Vcderiekntadt, the wene of tho 
 
 deoth of (.'harh'd Xll. The inwm of tho 
 Hwinitund (./iic, 'JI7.), on th(- iuunediatu 
 tVontier, preHentn one of the iiuiHt romantic 
 and picturi'M|ue HeeneM in Sciiiiiiinuvia. 
 ChriNtiuiiMund, tho moHt Houthern provinco 
 of Norway, haw a cn|)ital of the Mime name, 
 tho fourth town in the kiii|;^doni, which, 
 fhim itii Hituntion on the Skaj^errack, ia 
 viflited for Hlielter and HU|>plieH hy nurno- 
 nnm vcs.scIk enterin); and leavinjf tho 
 Baltic. Tho interior fVom Christiania, 
 Bmimmirttty. tlioiijfh It inehideH Iledeniarken, and other 
 
 ItiTgo paatoral valloyH, and thouffh iU communicationH arc facilitated hv tho lurj^c lake of 
 Miooen, doos not contain a ainirio town. That of Hammer attoHts itH (urnicr ma|;niflccnco, 
 by tlio remaina of a palacn, ana of Hcveral churchcH now restored. Tho whole ot thiu terri- 
 tory Ih hemmed in on tho west and north by thn gifrantic rangCH of the Doverfield and 
 Fillcticld, which separate it from Drontheim and Derfren. 
 
 Tho province of Bergen is rude, rocky, and niountaiiion)<, consiHtinff of the nlopo down- 
 
 wnnis to the sea of tlu; hij^heHt part 
 of tho Dofrino ran|;c. The town of 
 Btirgen, (.A/if. 248.), at tho head of a 
 lon)j interior buy, was fonnerly ac- 
 counted the capital, and contains a 
 population of 18,511. Its commerce, 
 which is considerable, is founded on 
 tho exportation, Iohh of tho produce 
 of the country behind it, than of tho 
 northern fishery at Dairodcn, of which 
 the produce is brouGrht to Bergen by 
 _^ numerous barks. Its merchants hud 
 
 *"■ lonjqr the monopoly of this, and still 
 
 retain much the greatest share. They are chiefly Dutch, and send a vessel weekly to 
 Amsterdam for a supply of the prardcn stuffs which their own soil docs not yield. Bergen 
 is built of large masses of wooden houses, amid rocks, and has suffered severely by fire. 
 Tho provinco of Drontheim, to tho north of Bergen and Christiania, and separated from 
 
 them by vast mountains, cor- 
 responds in latitude with tho 
 Swedish Jamtland. Tho capital 
 ^Jiff. 249.), of tho same name, 
 ia situated on tho shore of a 
 winding fiord, but subsists less 
 by foreign commerce than by 
 the internal communication be- 
 tween numerous valleys and 
 districts to which it forma a cen- 
 tral point of union. Of these 
 volleys, that of the GuWal is the 
 most extensive and bcautifiil, 
 and singularly celebrated in Swedish story and tradition. Here, it is lioosted, dwelt tho 
 mighty Haco, tho noble and wise Olaf Tryggvason. The society of Drontheim is always 
 
 Drontheim. 
 
Part 111. 
 
 iniii tilt) Htato 
 •ii|X'. V.htur 
 'H (if Kiimpa, 
 riif liiiiMingii 
 iiT Hcuiuliiw 
 xliijlit injury 
 ivu |irutl'itiiur(, 
 
 ny. On Ihu 
 lornunK what 
 itlxT^, »t tlio 
 liMil ilccuyotl, 
 ity wiw-inillt, 
 'rickHliitll, on 
 biiy, winding 
 JM tlio Htronif 
 < nct'Mo of tlio 
 
 ' jIUHM l)t' tho 
 
 i(! iiiiiiKMliatu 
 iiDHt romantic 
 
 Scitndiiiuviu. 
 icrn provinco 
 o Hniiic name, 
 idoin, which, 
 kii(;c<rrack, \» 
 k'H by numc* 
 
 loiiviii); tho 
 Christ iania, 
 [Pii, and other 
 liir((c lake uf 
 inuifniflccnce, 
 ! of this terri- 
 lovcrficld and 
 
 f dlope down- 
 hiifhcHt part 
 The town of 
 tiio liood of n 
 fonnerly ac- 
 id contains a 
 iH coiimicrce, 
 H tiiundud on 
 tlio produce 
 I than uf the 
 Icii, of wiiich 
 to IJorfjen by 
 lorc'huntii had 
 :his, and still 
 cl weekly to 
 eld. Bergen 
 by fire, 
 pa rated from 
 lUMtains, cor- 
 ido with tho 
 Tho capital 
 same name, 
 Bhorc of a 
 mibsists less 
 rcc than by 
 unication bc- 
 valleys and 
 t forms a ccn- 
 Of these 
 Oiildnl is the 
 ml beautiful, 
 1, dwelt the 
 im is ttlway.f 
 
 Book I. 
 
 RWFOKN AND NORWAV. 
 
 400 
 
 i 
 
 h)*ld forth ({'■> r<>promnt!n|( umlnr thn hnppimt liuht, the iffnuitm Nnrwi'ffian rhnmrtor; it* 
 warmth ofku: liie^^, ami irmcrouM himpitAlity. Ur. t'lurlic prniM'it chietiy ito truly Norw(<- 
 fian iiiiii|iJ>rity ; biif Von liiich ciiintiilcrN it hn miirknl by nuiri' rcHiied taNte, iiiori* irrai'oful 
 anil attriii-tjvt- mannrm, tlm'i tin -Krii'ty of <'liriiitiania. In no tliiitrict of Norway m thi'ro 
 Haiti to III- mvU i l°<'*'liii^ ol i«iI>m ikui mid public npirit. Droiithciiii i« built wholly of wifid, 
 and hn» in i'oii.«i>>|ii''i)'''' btt'ii i'cvimi 'fni'o burnt to the i;r<>*>iid; yxt tlinhoiiwitari' iiiiiidMonii', 
 and on. I'K'iited with ra«i<: There m M 'pncioui) ^Inco, built wholly of iIiIn mnlerial, and 
 partaking' iio|M'rti.>ctiiiii. i^rontbrim iilmi coiilniliH the reniainii of a cathi'dnil, the lur|{i'Ht 
 ediHcn in ih, <'i>i)ii(ry, ami to whii li the whole impulatioa of llie North came onrit in pil> 
 IfrimaDfo. Tho ciif rronH arc very lM>aiitifiil, with numeroiii coiintry-iieatH, and lolly iinuw- 
 crowned hilla in the (jiriluiice. OhrintiaiMiind is al--"' a aiiioll »ea-port ami liitliiii(r town in 
 thia province. 
 
 Beyond Dmntheim commencPH Norrland, a diHtrict rather than a province, the name 
 boin(( vaguely applied to all the north of Hcandinavia. Ileliitivoly to Norway, it w marked 
 by an increaMingr inteniity of cold ; the mouiitiiins, oven at 9(N)0 feet UigU, beiii)( capiN'd with 
 p«r|wtual Hiiow, and vawt tablo-plaiitN or fleldH reiiminliiK covered with it duriii;( the whole 
 ■ummer. Ornin, even of the coarxeHt dencription*, riptMi* only in a few ilivoured xiMitu, Thu 
 apruco Hr i^rradually dioapiiearM, and «heltor ii noceHMary to allow tho Hcolch lir and the 
 birch to Mnrini; up. The climate, however, Im anmewhat milder than that of ri'uiono under 
 the name latitudo on the Baltic; vo that, while the port* of Htockholm and ('iirUcroiia are 
 ahut durin(( xoveral monthii of tho year, thnwo of Norrland remain continually o|)«>n. Yet 
 in thiN dreary re^fion occurH a huHy iicene of human action and cxiitenre. The luinioroiifi 
 iaIaiMis, and the deep bayo iM'tween them and the land, atTord Hpotn to which nlioiils of IihIi 
 come fhim the farthest depths of tho North Hea to deputtit their ipawn. During the wlioli* 
 year, the herring atlbnlii a rejifiilar occupation tn tho Norrland boatman; but from Kc^briiary 
 to April, the hIkkiIh, miKratin^ tVoin thniire, and tVom all tho surroundin); conntj*, crowd to 
 tho Iiotroden Islands, the central seat of the northern fishery. These islands tbriii n chniii 
 mrallel to the land, and separated by narrow channels throu(;h which the tides of tlie 
 Northern Ocean rush with tremendous rapidity. The sea flows as in the most rapid rivers, and 
 tho name of stream is employed ; — Malstrlkni, tho fiimoua whirlpool, Grimi<triini, Hiiiidsf rftin, 
 which, when the tide is high, produce the efli'ct of a init^hty cataract. Waves are seen 
 Btni^ll[liii(( ajfainst waves, toweruif; alotl, or wheeling; about in whirl|Kiols; the dashin;'; and 
 roarinfr of which arc heard many miles out at sea. The produce oi' tho fishery, which has 
 been rendered much more abundant by tho intruluction of larj^o nets insteud of hooks, is 
 convoyed to Berxcn in a great number of little bnrks. Tho Danish jrovernment endeavoured 
 to form at Htromsoo a commercial de|)<)t for the produce of Norrland ; but in this bleak situa- 
 tion it has not flourished, Tho Kussians come with numerous veKscls fVom Archangel, 
 bringing meal and provisions, which they give in exchange for the fish caught. 
 
 SuiMKOT. n. — Lapland, 
 The vast region of Lapland is divided from the rest of Scandinavia b^ a line drawn across 
 it nearly coinciding with tho Polar Cjrcle, so as to render it almost entirely an arctic region. 
 It consists partly of great chains of mountains, some of which are 400() feet high, while 
 other extensive trocts are level. Through these roll tho Tornoa, the Lulea, the I'itea, and 
 other rivers of long course, and navigable for the few boats which have any occasion to jmss 
 
 along them. The Laplanders are a peculiar race, 
 /*■>> '-iao short, stout, brown, with black hair, pointed chin, 
 
 f nWX y^ ond eyes rendered weak by exposure to tho smoke 
 
 ^ ^^ '■ — ' and snow. They are divided into the mountain 
 
 or wandering Iioplanders, and those who dwell in 
 what arc called villages; but Kaiitokcino, which 
 forms a sort of Ijapland capital, when visited by 
 Acerbi, was found to contain not more than four 
 tiitnilies and a priest. The swirt-tJwtcd rein-fleer, 
 which they tram to draw them in slcdijes over tho 
 snow, form their riches; the flesh and milk of 
 these animals compose their fixxl, and the skins 
 their furniture. The tents of the I.aplanderH 
 (.fin. 250.) ore formed by six beams of wmxl 
 meeting nearly nt top, covered with cloth, a flap 
 of which, left between two of the beams, serves 
 as tho door. The floor is spread with rein-deer 
 skins, having the hair upwards, and which thus 
 serve for either lying or sitting, the tent being too 
 low to stand hi, except in one place. A stone 
 (Vame is made in the middle, for the fire ; and there is a hole at the top, to which the smoke 
 Vot. I. 42 
 
 r 
 
 250 
 
 ri?" 
 
 ' w 
 
 'I 
 
 1 . 
 
 f (' 
 
 MounUin Laplander'! Toni. 
 
404 
 
 nESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 pAHTin. 
 
 i 
 
 Laplaodera TraTellinf. 
 
 must find its wby ; but this it does not effect till it has thickly imprejinated the whole 
 tent with its fumes ; which, however, nrc valued as affording a protection in winter a^inat 
 the cold, and in summer against the iswarms of musquitoes with which, during a period of 
 short and extreme heat, the air is infested. The herds of rein-deer vary from 300 to up- 
 wards of 1000, according to the wealth of the possessor. All day they wander over 
 the hills, nnd in the evening ore driven, not without some occasional resistance, into an en- 
 closed park, where tliey are milked. Each yields only about a tea-cupful of milk; but rich, 
 aromntie, and of cxijuisitn taste. Linnoius mentions nineteen farms in which milk is pre- 
 pared for iJiod ; but cleanliness does not preside over their cookery ; and the use of the hand, 
 without knife or fork, to carry every thing to the mouth, and of the tongue to lick the dishes, 
 prevents an European from joining these meals with any relish. The liaplanders travel 
 
 from place to place, and move 
 ^1 As:. tiieir families, usually at the be 
 
 ginning of winter and summer, 
 in sledges made in tlie fonn of a 
 boat, and drawn by rein-deer 
 (fig. 251.). These animals are 
 tamed and trained with con- 
 siderable difficulty, and they are 
 sometimes restive ; but, in gene- 
 ral, they bound over hill and 
 dale with surprising celerity. 
 The natives have also a species 
 of snow-shoe ; not a broad flat board, like that of America, but somewhat in the form of a 
 Bkate, with which they glide rapidly along the surface of deep snow, and even up and down 
 
 the steep sides of the hills (jig. 252.), 
 Their dress is carefully contrived for 
 the purposes of warmth. The under 
 part, or shirt, is composed of sheep's 
 skin with the wool inwards ; while the 
 exterior coat is formed by the skin of 
 the rein-deer, or some other animal, 
 having the fur outwards. They add 
 fur gloves, and a woollen pointed red 
 cap (Jg. 253.). 
 
 The entire population of Lapland, 
 spread over asurfaceofl5() miles square, 
 is stated by Dr. Thomson not to exceed 
 60,000, or one inhabitant to every three 
 square miles. Even this scanty mea- 
 sure is supported only on the sea- 
 coasts by a supply of fish. The parish 
 of Kautokeino, in the interior, extending 200 miles in length and 96 in breadth, was re- 
 ported to Acerbi as containing not more than ninety families, of whom twelve only are 
 fixed. The I^planders arc a harmless race, among whom great crimes are unknown. Only 
 one murder has been heard of in twenty years ; and the absence of theft is proved by that 
 of bars, bolts, and other safeguards. They do not show that open hospitality and warmth 
 
 Laplander deaceixlinf ■ Bnow-Flake. 
 
 Laplundcr with Maiie Dmn. 
 
 Mountain Laplander. 
 
 of heart, for which rude nations are so often celebrated. They arc cold, shy, mistrustful, 
 and difficult to treat with, at least unless tobacco or brandy he broujrht in ns mediators. They 
 were formerly very superstitious ; and the I/iiplaml witches were famous for their empire 
 over the winds, which they enclosed in bags, and sold to the mariner. TIk; magic dnii. 
 
M 
 
 " rr 
 
 Part in. 
 
 he whole 
 IT as^ainst 
 period of 
 iOO to up- 
 wler over 
 ito an en- 
 
 but rich, 
 Ik is pre- 
 the hand, 
 ;he dishes, 
 Drs travel 
 and move 
 at the be 
 1 summer, 
 3 form of a 
 
 rein-deer 
 nimals are 
 with con- 
 id they are 
 it, in gene- 
 r hill and 
 r celerity. 
 
 a species 
 e form of a 
 p and down 
 
 (jig. 25a.). 
 
 intrived for 
 Tlie under 
 
 1 of sheep's 
 ; while the 
 the skin of 
 her animal, 
 
 They add 
 pointed red 
 
 if Lapland, 
 liles square, 
 it to exceed 
 lovery three 
 iciinty mca- 
 (n the sea- 
 The parish 
 fth, was re- 
 re only are 
 iown. Only 
 ,'ed by that 
 ind warmth 
 
 listnistful, 
 Itors. They 
 leir empire 
 liagic Uru<. 
 
 Book I. 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM 
 
 405 
 
 255 
 
 {Jig. 254.) and die enchanted cliain (Jig. 255.) arc still in occasional use. Yet the liaplandcrs 
 have been converted to Christianity, and are attentive to its duties, coming 
 often from vast distances to attend divine service, though the instructions arc 
 conveyed to them only through the broken medium of un interpreter. 
 
 The sea-coast of Lapland presents a continuation of the snnie bold and rocky 
 features which distinguish that of Norway. Here, too, the fishery is carried ou 
 with activity. It is chiefly in the hands of a Finnish race, called Quans, who 
 liave pushed across Lapland, and exert an activity unknc . ,; to the natives of 
 that region. The Russians from Archangel, also, not only bring their meal to 
 exchange for fish, but carry on the fishery themselves to a great extent. In 
 July and August they cover with their small three-masted vessels all the fiords 
 and sounds, and throw out lines that are sometimes two miles long, and contain 
 600 or 700 hooks ; so that their vessels are filled with tlic utmost rapidity. The 
 government has founded, on the large island of Qualoe, tiic town of Hammcrfest, 
 the most northern in the world, and destined as a rival to Archangel ; but the 
 settlement has never taken root in this ungenial climate, and continues also, 
 with one exception, to be the smallest that exists. On the other .side of the 
 North Cape, on the extreme frontier, the fort of Wardhuus, defended by twenty 
 men, forms the only barrier to prevent the Russians from taking possession of 
 the whole country. Mageroe, the most northerly of the islands, consists of 
 steep rocks rising perpendicularly from the sea, and ascended as if by stairs. In 
 a rocky recess stands Kielvig, with four or five fiimilies, on a level spot, barely 
 Magk Cham, affording a site for the houses, and exposed to the perpetual war of tiie elements. 
 The tempests here rage with such fury, that it is often impossible to leave the house without 
 danger of being blown into the sea. At the northern point of this island is formed by the 
 North Cape the grand boundary of the European continent, facing the depths of the Polar 
 Ocean. It consists of an enormous mass of naked rock, parted by the action of the waves 
 into pyramidal cliffs, down which large fragments are continually falling. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 
 
 Ttre Netherlands, comprising now the two kingdoms of Holland and Belgium, form a 
 maritime territory, which, situated almost in the centre between the noitli and tlie south of 
 Europe, and penetrated by the Rhine and its tributaries, possesses great natural advantages 
 for industry and commerce. It has, accordingly, from a very early period of modern history, 
 ranked as one of the most prosperous and flourishing parts of Europe. Tlie union of the 
 Batavian and Belgic Netherlands into one kingdom, though in fact only a renewal of that 
 which subsisted at a former period, was suddenly terminated, in 1830, by a revolution of the 
 Belgians. The separate existence, however, of Holland and Belgium being yet recent, and 
 the statistical information respecting them having for a number of years been collected with 
 reference always to the entire Netherlands, they will be still treated most advantageously 
 in combination. It may be sufficient to observe, that, since the revolution of 1830, Belgium 
 has been erected into a separate monarchy, through the mediation of the five great powers 
 of Europe ; and the crown, with their consent, has been conferred on prince Leopold, formerly 
 of Saxe-Coburg. 
 
 Sect. I. — General Outline and Aspect. 
 
 Holland and Belgium may be regarded as a large corner or segment cut off from France 
 and Giermany, which form round it a species of irregular arc. Arbitrary line?, drawn con- 
 formably to treaties, mark all except its maritime boundaries ; for, though several of the 
 greatest rivers of Europe cross its territory, none of them have any limitary cliaracicT. The 
 maritime boundary, which, like the inland, extends from north-east to south-west, is the 
 North Sea, or German Ocean, which is formed here into a species of largo gulf by the oppo- 
 site coa.st of part of the English Channel. Holland is also penetrated by the deep inlet of 
 the Zuyder Zee. The whole territory extends between 49° 30' o-d 53° 34' N. lat., and 
 2° 30' and 7° 12' E. long. ; making about 280 miles in length, am. 220 miles in breadth. 
 The entire extent, according to the best calculations, amounts to 24,870 square miles, or 
 1.5,900,000 English acres. 
 
 In respect to surface, this country includes the lowest portion of tlie great low land of 
 the European continent. The northern parts, composirig the new kingdom of Holland, are 
 mostly below the level to which the bordering sea rises during high tides or swells. Hence 
 originated an imminent danger of inundation, till the Dutch constructed tho.=e mighty dikes. 
 by which the sea is excluded, and which form so extraordinary a monument of their industry. 
 Holland is humorously described by Butler as a country that draws fifty feet of water." 
 The Belgic provinces are also flat, but not lower than the surface of the sea, nor much exposed 
 
 m 
 
 '■v\ 
 
 !:■''! 
 
 
 t 
 
 ■I 
 
 , I 
 
 J. 
 
 1,; 
 
 M 
 
 i 
 
 
 (,!■: 
 
 k 
 
 ; f 
 
 ■^ 
 if.* 
 
 ! if 
 
m^ 
 
 MAP OF HOLLAND AND BELuIUM. 
 
 Fio 8sa 
 
 II 
 
 11 
 
Book I. 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM 
 
 407 
 
 to river inundation. In the south-eastern district of Liege and Nomur, branches of the 
 Rhenish mountains render the surface irregular, and sometimes hilly, particularly in the 
 tract fanning part rf the ancient forest of Ardennes. 
 
 Several rivers, which rank among the greatest in Europe, and are derived from distant 
 sources, pass through this territory; ond, separating into numerous channels, form broad 
 estuaries at their entrance into the ocean. They all unite in the channel of the majestic 
 Rhine ; yet, by a singular fortune, this great name is not retained by the moin branch of the 
 river, which, in turning to the westward, receives the name of Waal, and afterwards that 
 of its important tributary the Maese, under which designation it flows into the sea below 
 Rotterdam. The Yssel, another considerable branch, runs northward into the Zuyder Zee ; 
 while the name of Rhine is retained by another, comparatively a rivulet, which passes 
 through the provinces of Gueldres and Utrecht The Maese or Meuse is the only great 
 river which has the larger part of its course through the Netherlands, traversing the mterior 
 of Belgium from south to north. Its main tributaries, the Sambre on the west, and the 
 Roer on the east, have only a portion of their course through Belgium. The Scheldt has 
 not nearly so long a course ; but this river, and its tributaries, the Lys, the Dyle, the Dender, 
 and the Neethe, water the most improved districts, and visit the greatest cities of Belgium. 
 When united under their main branch, they form a broad navigable channel, opening into 
 an estuary, which affords to Antwerp the means of carrying on an extensive maritime com- 
 merce. 
 
 Referenctt to the Map of Holland and Bdgium. 
 
 HOLLAND. 
 
 I. FriesluHtL 
 1. PnHiena 
 S. Huitenpost 
 
 3. DobKum 
 
 4. Leuwardon 
 
 5. St. Jacob 
 
 6. Franoker 
 
 7. Harlingen 
 B. Knrnwurt 
 9. Biilttward 
 
 10. Workum 
 n. Ilindelupen 
 1*2. Stavui'un 
 i;i. Sloipn 
 
 14. Kuinder 
 
 15. Trrkappcl 
 
 16. nrouw 
 
 17. SchiiDt 
 
 18. Noiirdwplde 
 It). lltiQritcr ZwanR 
 20. DuiikGiliiiuk 
 
 U. Groningen. 
 31. Mariim 
 3*i. (■ryp«kerke 
 %<. Knlikamp 
 24. Uikert 
 2.*). liMpperium 
 
 26. PiMfiyl 
 
 27. Winschotcn 
 ^. Fort Bourtange 
 2!>. Ter Apel 
 
 30. Ti'rMaarech 
 ai.Kolhiim 
 
 'Ai. Gronini^en 
 
 III. Drenthe. 
 3.1. Riion 
 
 31, Gaitcron 
 lis. Aisen 
 
 36. Smildi 
 
 37. Dievprhurg 
 
 ■ :t8. VVesU'rliorg 
 
 39. Odi>nni 
 
 40. Soliooneboek 
 
 41. Kdovnnien 
 4'i. Kdincii 
 
 43. Mcppcl 
 
 IV. Overussel. 
 
 44. i^teenwyk 
 4.'i. RIookzyl 
 
 46. Votli'nhnvnn 
 
 47. B^tarirvldis 
 4H. Kainpen 
 49. HiittHm 
 51). /wall 
 
 ^]. Oonemuiden 
 H'i. Ornmpn 
 .5;). HaTileiiberg 
 m. Doll Main 
 .•J.*. Almelo 
 .5ti. Ootmnrsiim 
 .v. nidenznal 
 .W. Gnicliedo 
 .W. Delden 
 60. llaa.\borgen 
 ni.Cnor 
 H2. RrMen 
 63. Ilolten 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 (M. WeMP« 
 
 65. Iluyno 
 
 76. Deventer 
 
 V. dueliUrland. 
 
 66. Elburg 
 
 67. Poiihula 
 
 68. Harderwyk 
 119. Leuvenum 
 
 70. Nrkerk 
 
 72. Rarnevold 
 
 73. Koolvyk 
 
 74. Apclduum 
 
 75. Vaaicn 
 
 77. /utphen 
 
 78. l..ochem 
 
 79. Hcirkulo 
 
 80. Ruorlo 
 
 81. Biodevort 
 
 83. Heerenberg 
 Kl. Dduiichem 
 
 84. Dowburg 
 85.DeWni!ilHoer 
 
 86. Arnht>iin 
 
 87. HuiMMi 
 
 88. Herveld 
 
 89. Wageningon 
 go.Thiel 
 
 91. Kuilenburg 
 
 VI. UtrecU 
 
 93. Wyk 
 
 03. Venendaal 
 
 94. laselitetn 
 m. Montlaort 
 lie. Ultecht 
 
 97. Nieuwprsluifl 
 
 98. Naarden 
 
 71. Ainerefoort 
 
 VU.JforlhHol- 
 
 land. 
 99. AniPterdam 
 
 100. Do Kodg 
 
 101. Monnikendam 
 
 103. Punnorend 
 111.3. Fdam 
 
 104. Huorn 
 1ir>. Knkhuiien 
 ion. Medenblick 
 
 1117. Kolhnrn 
 
 1118. The Hnldar 
 
 109. Calandsoog 
 111). Poiton 
 in.Rrnek 
 
 113. Alkinaar 
 
 113. Egniundaan 
 
 Zoe 
 
 114. Revonryk 
 lj.l Zandvoort 
 
 116. Haarlem 
 
 VUI. South Hol- 
 land, 
 
 117. Lime 
 
 118. Leimuden 
 
 110. Lpyden 
 
 130. The Hague 
 
 131. ftravpzande 
 133. Wiliveen 
 133. Gouda 
 
 134. Sclioonhoven 
 
 135. Lnedam 
 
 136. Gorcuiu 
 
 137. Rottordam 
 
 138. Chailoi 
 
 139. Sireen 
 
 1:I0. Helvoetsluys 
 131. Goeree 
 
 IX. Zealand. 
 133. Zieriktes 
 
 133. Ooei 
 
 134. Veere 
 
 13.5. Middleburg 
 im. Sluyi 
 137. Biervliut 
 i:w. Alol 
 
 139. Hultt 
 
 140. Tholon 
 
 141. Steenbcrgen 
 
 186. N. Anwen 
 
 187. Mortch 
 
 188. F.ttelbruck 
 
 189. Diekiich 
 100. Gchtenach 
 191. Grerenma- 
 
 cheten 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 I. ^^ntieerp. 
 
 1. Arendonck 
 
 2. Tiirnhuut 
 
 3. Minderhnut 
 
 4. <>orinft 
 
 a. OiiBl Mails 
 
 6. Sant Vliet 
 
 7. Fort Lillii 
 
 8. Fort St. Pbilip 
 
 9. Antwerp 
 snnoi 
 
 10. nergenhout 
 
 11. Berchein 
 IX JtrorthOrnliant. 13. Boom 
 
 143. BbrgenopKooin 13. Mechlin 
 14.3. Ruzendaal 14. Lier 
 
 144. WilliamBtad 15. Voidoneken 
 
 16. Herenlhali 
 
 17. Gestnl 
 
 18. Lomtnol 
 
 145. Breda 
 
 146. Ohnam 
 
 147. Tilburg 
 
 148. Gei'rtruidonberg 
 
 149. Heusdon It. /.I'mJurjr. 
 1.50. Bommel 19. Heiek Teren 
 
 151. Fori St. Andtiea 20. Pcor 
 
 152. Grave 31. Hamont 
 153 Vechel 23. Maaeyck 
 1.54. Bdia le Due 3:1. Aaoh 
 
 56. Haiiiine_ 
 
 57. Burcht Town 
 
 and Fort 
 
 58. Tetn de Flandrea 
 
 59. Doe I 
 
 60. Gnvekle 
 
 61. St. Laurens 
 
 V. fTeit ftanders. 
 
 63. Cuooko 
 Ua. Blankenburg 
 
 64. Brugoa 
 
 65. Ostond 
 1)6. Nieuport 
 
 67. Thorout 
 
 68. Dixmuidc. 
 
 69. Loo 
 
 70. Rouatbrugge 
 
 71. Pmioringhe 
 73. Warnelon 
 
 73. Yptoa 
 
 74. Menin 
 7.5. Courtray 
 
 76. RouBselaorc 
 
 77. Thiolt 
 
 1.5.5. HouvpI 
 1.56. RciibpI 
 l.'i7. l.iiika Gcatet 
 158. I-^rzel 
 1.59. Leende 
 
 160. Aaten 
 
 161. Helmont 
 Iftl WantDT 
 
 163. Verliiigbeck 
 
 X. /.imburg. 
 
 164. Veltpn 
 
 165. Polorworlh 
 
 166. Vonio 
 
 167. Helden 
 
 168. Mpyel 
 160. Weett 
 
 170. Ruremrindo 
 
 171. Wepapn 
 
 173. Oinliei'ck 
 in. RuililiiP 
 
 174. Mneatricht 
 
 175. Gulpen 
 
 XI. Tjuzemiurg. 
 
 176. Wie. Warn- 
 
 nach 
 
 177. Clervaux 
 
 178. Vianden 
 
 179. Gachdorf 
 
 180. Martelnngo 
 Wl.NidprPallen 
 IHij. Luxemburg 
 
 183. Fjich 
 
 184. Friaann 
 
 185. Canach 
 
 VI. Hainaull. 
 
 78. Pottea 
 
 79. Depret 
 
 80. Temp Leuve 
 
 81. Tournay 
 
 82. Fontenoy 
 
 83. Peru vela 
 
 84. Ouivrain 
 
 85. Sara 
 
 34. Reckem 86. Mona 
 
 35. Hoaielt 87. Lena 
 28. Hil»en 88. Ath 
 
 37. Tongroa 89. Eiighien 
 
 38. Manahoven 90. Roeulx 
 
 91. Goaaeliea 
 III. ."foul* Brabant. 93. Charleroi 
 30. Tirlemont 93. Merbet lo 
 
 30. Incourt Chnliaii 
 
 31. Miiualier 94. noaumuiit 
 :!3. Nivelica 9.5. KaiiRRo 
 3.3. La Bollo Alliance 96. ^himay 
 .34. Halle 
 
 ;«. Walprloo 
 
 36. Briiaaela 
 
 37. Vianden 
 
 38. Tiouvnin 
 
 39. Haerleii 
 
 40. Diiat 
 
 41. Aerachot 
 43. Ecliiae 
 
 43. Donderzecl 
 
 44. Aaclia 
 
 VII. JVaniir. 
 
 97. Marienbourg 
 
 98. Pbilipvillo 
 
 99. Ligny 
 100. Thil Raudian 
 
 101. Graux 
 
 102. Namur 
 10^1. Gembloiix 
 104. Eghezco 
 Ia5. Andonnoa 
 106. Nattore 
 
 IV. Eait flandcn. 107. Pesauulx 
 4.5. Aloat 108. Dinant 
 
 40. Ninovo 109. Jambeline 
 
 47. Grammont 110. Beau Rains 
 
 48. Parieke 111. Gedinne 
 
 49. Oudenarde 
 
 50. TjCPUwprKhom 
 
 42* 
 
 51. Dcncnock 
 .12. Deinao 
 .5.3. Ghent 
 
 54. Weteren 
 
 55. Caleken 
 
 Vlll. I.ieet. 
 113. St. Hubert 
 
 113. Beauaainte 
 
 114. Marchfl 
 lis. Mucoui> 
 
 116. Grand Menil 
 
 117. Tohogne 
 lia Mierati 
 119. Huy 
 
 130. Neuvill* 
 
 131, Omal 
 133. Landen 
 
 133. FIcmalle 
 
 134. Liege 
 125. Viae 
 
 136. Limburg 
 
 137. Heron 
 
 138. Baufayt 
 
 129. Spa 
 
 130. Solvaatre 
 
 131. DouBame 
 
 132. Stavclot 
 i:)3. Theasion 
 i:U. Vieil Salm 
 
 IX. Luztmturt 
 
 135. Traillea 
 i:i6. Haetogne 
 
 137. Neuville 
 
 138. Thau de Bo- 
 
 logna 
 13D. Arlun 
 
 140. Virion 
 
 141. Ueile Fontaine 
 
 142. Perenaart 
 
 143. Bouillon 
 
 144. Orchimool 
 
 145. Anioy 
 
 146. Rpcogne 
 
 147. NoufChalaau 
 
 Riveri. 
 a Schuyten 
 b Honrn 
 c Kuinder 
 d Reeat 
 e Dinkel 
 f Vcchl 
 
 USSil" 
 
 i Chipbeech 
 t Rprkel 
 k Rhine 
 I Waa. 
 m Meuae 
 n Great Aa 
 Donimel 
 p Mcrk 
 <1 Spholdt 
 r Vpctlee 
 a Lya 
 t Scnne 
 d Haine 
 v Sambre 
 wDyle 
 X Dormer 
 y Littin Lcihea 
 z Great LeCnea 
 a* Ourl 
 b» Our 
 c* Sure 
 d* Scmoy 
 e* Leaao 
 f» Alaotle 
 t* Hoaelle 
 
 ( I 
 
 'fliW 
 
 8N 
 
 
 HI 
 
4gs 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part HI. 
 
 |i » 
 
 i! I 
 
 The only considerable lake in Holland is Haerlom-Mcor, a wide shallow expnse ; which, 
 however, was of great service to the Dutch during their grand struggle for independence, 
 by giving them the means of laying the surrounding country under water." There are several 
 smaller mkea of the same ciiaracter in Friesland. 
 
 Sect. II. — Natural Geography. 
 SiiBHECT. 1, — Geology, 
 
 The higher parts of this country are composed o( strata of transition slates and quartzes 
 more or less inclining to sandstone, generally directed from N. E. to S. W., and traversed 
 by numerous veins of quartz. These slates are clay slate, whet slate or hone, drawing slate 
 or Mack chalk. Resting uiwn the transition rocks occur various secondary deposits. The 
 first formation is the old red sandstone, upon which rests the mountain limestone. Asso- 
 ciated with these rocks are various slate clays, and beds of anthracite or glance coal. Mines 
 of brown iron ore, or hydrate of iron, and of red iron ore, or o.\ide of iron, occur among 
 these rocks. A great field of the coal formation, resting upon this mountain limestone, 
 extends from Aix-la-Chapelle to Douay. The coal formation in this tract of country forms 
 a series of irregular basins, of which the most considerable are thase of Lidge and Cliarleroi, 
 which nrf! separated from each other by a small ridge of limestone. The chief rocks of 
 these coal-basins are sandstone, slate, clay ironstone, and coal. The most important coal 
 mines are those in the neighbourhood of Mens and Charleroi ; but the mines of Jiioge are 
 remarkable on account of the difficulties the miners meet with in their workings ; the number 
 of beds of coal being reckoned as high as eighty-three by M. Dumont. From Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle by Maestricht and Brussels, tlie country is composed of chalk, with occasional displays 
 of green sand, gault and Shanklin sand, rising from under it. 
 
 The tritonian or lower tertiary rocks form in the Netherlands a very considerable Kasin, 
 in which is situated the city of Brussels. It is composed principally of sands, ferriferous 
 sandstones, white sandstones, flint, limestone, and clayey marl. These tertiary deposits are 
 observed more or less deeply covered with diluvium ; and at the mouths of the Scheldt, 
 Meuse, and Rhine, there are vast deposits of river nlluvium, whicli alluvium forms also the 
 islands of Zealand, and the greater part of Holland. 
 
 SuBSECT. 2. — Botany. 
 
 The Botany of this country is noticed under that of Germany. 
 
 SuBSECT. 3. — Zoology. 
 
 The Native Zoology otTors nothing peculiar. Tlic Dutch horses (_Jig. 257.) arc only valu- 
 
 257 
 
 
 Dutch Iloreo. 
 
 able for draught: those of Friesland, Berg, and the 
 country of Julicrs, are the best; but their feet are gene- 
 rally large, they eat much, and have little endurance. 
 This race appears to have been derived from Den- 
 mark, and to have produced the Ilolstein, which was 
 the parent of the old unimproved English breeds of 
 horses. The Flemish sheep arc of a breed common to 
 France and the Netherlands, being in general horn- 
 less, high on the legs, and derived from an intermix- 
 ture with the Barbary long-legged sheep. The Dutch 
 oxen are cf an immense size, sometimes weighing 2000 
 pounds. 
 
 Skct. III. — Historical Geography. 
 
 The Netherlands formed, in ancient times, the princiiwl part of Gallia Belgica. The 
 Bolgir wore the rudest, tlio bravest, and the fiercest of the three nations of Gaul. A despe- 
 rate struggle was maintained before they yielded to the genius of Ctesar, and the superior 
 discipline of the Roman armies. At length the country within the Rhine was reduced to 
 the condition of a Roman province; but the Batavi the ancient Hollanders, united them- 
 selvps to Rome rather as allies than subjects. 
 
 During the middle ages the Netherlands passed through a series of vicissitudes. So early 
 as the era of Clinrlernagne, they had acquired distinction in the pursuits of industry ; and 
 some of their fabrics wore sent by tliat monarch to the caliph Haroun Alraschid, as speci- 
 mens of the arts and indn.«try of Europe. When tlie empire of Charlemagne fell to pieces, 
 these states were divided into a number of separate principalities, all successively united, by 
 marriage contract or inheritances, under the sway of the house of Burgundy. It was at this 
 time that the Flom'^li provinces rose to the highest pitch of manufacturing and commercial 
 ■prosperity. Tlioy received nil the raw materials of France and England, coimtrics then 
 rude and ngricnlfunil. and returned them in a manufiictured state. Ghent alone is said to 
 have emnloved 40.000 looms ; though this is most probably much exaggerated. Bruges first, 
 
Part 111. 
 
 use ; which, 
 lependence, 
 I are several 
 
 nd quartzfs 
 nd traversed 
 rawing slate 
 posits. The 
 itone. Asso- 
 
 coal Mines 
 occur among 
 lin limestone, 
 ;ountry forms 
 nd Cliarlcroi, 
 hief rocks of 
 tnportant coal 
 
 of Liege arc 
 ! ; the number 
 n Aix-la-Cha- 
 iional displays 
 
 derablo basin, 
 ids, ferriferous 
 :y deposits are 
 fthe Scheldt, 
 forms also the 
 
 
 are only valu- 
 
 Berg, and the 
 
 [ feet are gene- 
 
 [tie endurance. 
 
 •d from Den- 
 
 [in, which was 
 
 llish breeds of 
 
 jcd common to 
 
 [general horn- 
 
 an intermix- 
 
 The Dutch 
 
 eighing 2000 
 
 iBelgica. The 
 
 |aul. A dcspe- 
 
 id the superior 
 
 livas reduced to 
 
 tmitcd them- 
 
 hdcs. So early 
 1 industry ; and 
 Irhiil, as spcri- 
 
 ■ foil to pieces, 
 Ivcly united, by 
 1 It was at this 
 Ind commercial 
 
 biuntrics then 
 lone is said to 
 Bruges first. 
 
 Book 1. 
 
 HOLLAND AND BEI/3TUM. 
 
 499 
 
 and then Antwerp, formed tlie grand dep6t for the commerce of the norfhcm and middle 
 states of Europe. 
 
 The house of Austria, by the intermarriage of Kluximilian L and Mary, the heiress of 
 Burgundy, succeeded to the rich dowry of the Seventeen Provinces. They formed one of 
 tlie chief sources of the power of Charles V., who transmitted them, with Spain and liis 
 Italian dominions, to his son Philip II. 
 
 The Reformation was early introduced into the Netherlands, and had a most powerful 
 influence upon their destiny. Being suited to the sober and thinking habits of a manufac- 
 turing population, it was soon embraced by a majority of the people, who were thus placed 
 in direct collision with the fierce and gloomy bigotry of Philip II. The Inquisition being 
 introduced, in its most unrelenting severity, with a view to the suppression of the new doc- 
 trine, drove the people into open rebellion ; and a contest of fifty years' duration arose, the 
 most fierce, bloody, and important in its consequences, of all those to which difiercnces of 
 religion have given rise. The duke of Alva, who boasted that, during his government in 
 tlie Iiow Countries, 18,000 persons had peHshed on the scaffold, was, however, unable to 
 subdue the independent spirit and determined enmity to Spanish dominion which he had been 
 instrumental in kindling. The more moderate conduct of his successors, and, above all, of 
 Ale.vmder Farnese, succeeded in re-establishing the Spanish sway over the Belgic provinces 
 which were not defended by any natural barriers. Even the Dutch were reduced to the 
 disastrous necessity of opening their dikes, and allowing a great part of their territory to be 
 inundated. Their cfturage and perseverance, however, the great talent of the first two 
 princes of the house of Orange, and the aid afforded by Elizabeth, enabled them finally to 
 achieve their independence. The union of Utrecht, when they constituted themselves 
 into an independent state, by the title of the Seven United Provinces, was concluded 
 in 1.597. 
 
 From this period the destiny of the United Provinces, called more commonly by the name 
 of Holland, tlie chief province among them, was entirely different from that of Belgium. 
 They speedily attracted many of the manufactures, and all the commerce, which hod raised 
 the Flemish cities to prosperity. The Dutch conquered from Portugal, at that time under 
 the dominion of Spain, the finest of her possessions in the Jkst Indies ; obtained a temporary 
 footing in Brazil ; and rendered Amsterdam the centre of a flourishing trade with India : 
 they carried on the fisheries, especially those of herrings, upon an unprecedented scale; and 
 became the first maritime people in the world. The commercial greatness of Holland pre- 
 sents so remarkable a phenomenon, that we cannot forbear availing ourselves of some part 
 of that luminous illustration of it, which has been aflbrded by the researches of Mr. M'Cul- 
 loch. That able writer observes : — 
 
 " Between the years 1651 and 1672, when the territories of the republic were invaded by 
 the French, the commerce of Holland seems to have reached its greatest height. De Witt 
 estimates its increase from the treaty with Spain, concluded at Munster in 1643, to 1669, at 
 fully a half. He adds, that, during the war with Holland, Spain lost the greatest part of 
 her naval power ; that since the peace, the Dutch had obtained most of the trade to that 
 country, which had been previously carried on by the Hanscatic merchants and the English ; 
 that almost all the coasting trade of Spain was carried on by Dutch shipping ; that Spain 
 had even been forced to hire Dutch ships to sail to her American possessions ; and that so 
 great was the exportation of goods from Holland to Spain, that all the merchandise brought 
 from the Spanish West Indies was not sufficient to make returns for them. 
 
 "At this period, indeed, the Dutch engrossed, not by means of any artificial monopoly, but 
 by the greater number of their ships, and their superior skill and economy in all that regarded 
 navigation, almost the whole carrying trade of Europe. The value of the goods exported 
 from France in Dutch bottoms, towards the middle of the seventeenth century, exceeded 
 40,000,000 livres ; and the commerce of England with the Low Countries was, for a very 
 long period, almost entirely carried on in them. 
 
 " The business of marine insurance was largely and successfully prosecuted at Amster- 
 dam ; and the ordinances published in l.'VJl, VbdS, and 1.570, contain the most judicious regu- 
 lations for the settlement of such disputes as might arise in conducting this difficult but 
 highly useful business. It is singular, however, notwithstanding the sagacity of the Dutch, 
 and their desire to strengthen industrious habits, that they should have prohibited insurance 
 upon lives. It was reserved for England to show the advantages that might be derived from 
 this beautifiil application of the science of probabilities. 
 
 " In 1690, Sir William Petty estimated the .shipping of Europe at about 2,000,000 tons, 
 which he supposed to be distributed as follows: — viz. England, 500,000 ; France, 100,000; 
 Hamburg, Denmark, Sweden, and Dantzic, 250,000 ; Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 2-50,000 
 that of the Seven United Provinces amounting, according to him, to 900,000 tons, or to nearly 
 one half of the whole tonnage of Europe ! No great dependence can, of course, be placed 
 upon these estimates; but tlie probability is, that, had tliey been more accurate, the 
 pre(X)nderance in flavour of Holland would have been greater than it appears to be; for 
 the official returns to tiie circulars addressed in 1701 by the commissioners of customs 
 
 i 
 
 ^y 
 
 I'll 
 
 lU 
 
 Hi 
 
 Mi 
 
 
 nr 
 
 l#.,.i S' 111 
 
 ff r rw 
 
 m 
 
 1 
 
 ;■: I- 
 
 (, 
 
 m 
 
 \t 
 
 ■.*!■ 
 
 
 •i 
 
soo 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE (iEOO RAIM I V. 
 
 Part IIL 
 
 I ■ 
 
 Mil 
 
 '1 
 
 i 
 .1 
 
 ; 'li' 
 
 to the officers at the difTercnt ports, hIiow that the whole mcrctintilc navy of Enirhiiul 
 amounted at that pi^riod to only 'iOl/^VM tona, carryin;; 27,U)0 nicii. (,Miicphtriion'» An- 
 nah qf Commrrce, anno 1701.) 
 
 " It may, therefore, be fairly concluded, that, during the seventeenth century the foreign 
 commerce and navigation of Holland was greater than that of all Europe besides ; and yet 
 the cotuitry which was the seat of this vast commerce had no native produce to ex|)<)rt, nor 
 even a piece of timber fit for ship-building. All hud been the fruit of industry, ecunumy, 
 and a fortunate combination of circumstances. 
 
 " Holland owed tliia vast commerce to a variety of causes : partly to her j)eculiar situa- 
 tion, the industry and economy of her iidmbitants, the comparatively liberal and enlightened 
 svstem of civil as well as of commercial p)licy adopted by the republic ; and partly also to 
 the wars and disturbances that prevailed m most European countries in the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries, and prevented them from emulating the successful career of the 
 Dutch. 
 
 " Many dissertations have been written to account fi)r the decline of the commerce of 
 Holland. But, if we mistake not, its leading causes may be classed under two prominent 
 heads, viz. first, the natural growth of commerce and navigation in other countries ; and 
 second, the weight of taxation ot home. During the period when the republic rose to great 
 eminence as a commercial state, England, France, and Spain, distracted by civil and reli- 
 gious dissensions, or engrossed wholly by schemes of foreign conquest, were unable to apply 
 their energies to tiie cultivation of commerce, or to withstand the co(ppetition of so indus- 
 trious a people as the Dutch. They, therefore, were under the necessity of allowing the 
 greater part of their foreign, and even of their coasting trade, to be carried on in Dutch 
 }ttoms, and under the superintendence of Dutch fiictors. But after the accession of Louis 
 XIV. and the ascendency of Cromwell had put an end to internal commotions in France and 
 England, the energies ot these two great nations began to be directed to pursuits of which 
 the Dutch had hitherto enjoyed almost a monopoly. It was not to be supposed that, when 
 tranquillity and a regular system of government had been established in Franco and Eng- 
 land, their active and enterprising inhabitants would submit to see one of their most valu- 
 able branches of industry in the hands of foreigners. The Dutch ceased to be tlie carriers 
 of Europe, without any fault of their own. Their performance of that function necessarily 
 terminated as soon as other nations became possessed of a mercantile marine, and were able 
 to do for themselves what had previously been done for them by their neighbours. 
 
 " Whatever, therefore, might have been the condition of Holland in other respects, the 
 natural advance of rival nations must inevitably have stripped her of a large portion of the 
 commerce she once posscbsed. But the progress of decline seems to have been considerably 
 accelerated, or rather, perhaps, the eflorts to arrest it were rendere<l inciTectual, by the 
 extremely heavy taxation to which she was subjected, occasioned by the unavoidable expenses 
 incurred in the revolutionary struggle wilii Spain, and the subsequent wars with France 
 and England. The necessities of the state led to the imposition of taxes on corn, on flour 
 when it was ground at the mill, and on bread when it came from the oven; on butter, and 
 fish, and fruit ; on income and legacies ; the sale of houses ; and, in short, almost every 
 article eitlier of necessity or convenience. Sir William Temple mentions that in his time 
 — and taxes were greatly increased afterwards — one fish sauce was in common use, which 
 directly paid no fewer than thirty different duties of excise ; and it was o common saying at 
 Amsterdam, that every dish of fish brought to the table was paid for once to the fisherman, 
 and xto; times to the state. 
 
 "In consequence princiiMilly of the oppressiveness of Inxition, but jmrtly, too, of the 
 excessive accumulation of capital tliat ha<l taken place while the Dutch engrossed the carry- 
 ing' trade of Europe, profits in Holland were reduced towards the middle of the seventeenth 
 century, and have ever since continued extremely low. This circumstance would of itself 
 Iiave sapped the foundations of her commercial greatness. Her capitalists, who could hardly 
 expect to clear more than two or three per cent, if not profit by any sort of undcrtakinjj 
 carried on at home, were tempted to vest their capital in other countries, and to speculate 
 in loans to foreign governments. There are the best reasons for 'liinking that the Dutch 
 were, until very lately, the largest creditors of any nation in Europe. It is impossible, 
 indeed, to form any accurate estimate of what the sums owing them by foreigners previously 
 to the late French war, or at present, may amount »o ; !.i.' there can be :,o (lotd)t that at the 
 former period the amount was immense, and that iL - -'.:ll very considerable. M. Demeunicr 
 {Dictionnaire de VEconomie Politique, tome iii. p. 720.) states the amount of capital lent 
 by the Dutch to foreign governments, exclusive of tlie large sums lent to Fronco during tlio 
 American war, at srxf.nty-three millions sterling. According to the author of the Rieiicsse 
 de la Hollande (ii. p. 292.), the sums lent to Franco and England only, previously to 1778, 
 amounted to 1,.500,0()0 livres tournois, or sixty millions sterling. And besides tliese, vast 
 sums were lent to private individuals in foreign countries, both regularly as loans at interest, 
 and in the sliape of goods advanced at long credits. So great was the difficulty of finding 
 an advantageous investment for money in Holland, tliat Sir William Temple mentions, that 
 
 I \3 
 
 
I'ABrTlL 
 
 ' Kiijjlund 
 non's Aii- 
 
 Ihc foreign 
 <; anil yet 
 exiM)rt, nor 
 , ncononiyi 
 
 lulinr situa- 
 anlishtennd 
 irtly alHO to 
 ttcenth and 
 irocr of the 
 
 lommerce of 
 
 ■0 prominent 
 
 untries; and 
 
 rose to great 
 
 vil and reli- 
 able to apply 
 
 I of so indus- 
 
 allowing tho 
 
 on in Dutch 
 
 ision of Louis 
 
 in France and 
 
 luitB of whicli 
 
 3d that, when 
 
 incc and Eng- 
 
 icir most valu- 
 
 be tlie carriers 
 
 ion necessarily 
 
 and were able 
 
 lurs. 
 
 jr respects, the 
 portion of the 
 
 in considerably 
 
 fectual, by the 
 
 idable expenses 
 with Franco 
 
 „ corn, on flour 
 
 jon butter, and 
 , almost every 
 lat in his time 
 ion use, which 
 imon saying at 
 the fisherman, 
 
 lly, too, of the 
 Ijsscd the carry- 
 [hc seventeenth 
 [would of itself 
 Vo could hardly 
 [of undcrtakinj? 
 [nd to speculate 
 Itliat the Diitcli 
 is impossible, 
 [ners previously 
 3nht tliat at tiie 
 M. Demeimicr 
 of capital lent 
 Ince during the 
 y tlie Rkhesse 
 Jriously to 1778, 
 [ides tlic3e, vast 
 „ins at interest, 
 pity of finding 
 [mentions, that 
 
 Book I. 
 
 HOLLAND AND IJEIX5IUM. 
 
 601 
 
 tiip payment of any part of the national debt wan luikeil uiKin by the crnditnrs as an evil of 
 the (irht niugnituile. ' 'I'hey receive it,' says lie, ' with toarn, not knowing how to diH|M.«o of 
 it to intcreht with nuch safety and ease.' 
 
 " Aiiiiini; the siilKirdiimtc causes which rontributed to tho (Jecline of Dutch conuncrce, or 
 wliii'h have, nl all events, prevented its growtli, wo may reckon tlie circimistanco of the 
 coinincrco wilii India liaving lieen suhjcctr'd to the Imminels of iiiono|)oly. Do Witt 
 expresses his lirm cunviction, that the alHilition of the East India ('(im|Miny wonhi have 
 added very greatly to lh<i trade with the V.mt; and no doubt can now reniani in tho mind 
 of any out; that hucIi would have \x'.n\ the case. The interference of the adminislnition in 
 regiiliiting the mode in which some of the most imiKirtant hriinches of indutitry should be 
 carried on, seems also to have lieeii exceedingly injurious. Every proceeding with reH|)ect 
 to the herring fishery, fJir exiiuiple, was regulated by the orders ot government, carried into 
 cfii'ct under tho iiis|X'ct.i()n ol" offirc'rs appointed for that purpose. Somk! of these regulations 
 were exceedingly vexnlious. The period when tho fishery might hegin was fixed at five 
 iniimteH past twidve o'clock of the night of the '2-lth of June! and the master and pilot of 
 every vessel leaving Holland for tho fishery wore obliged to make oath that they would 
 respect the regulation. Tito species of salt to be made use of in curing difl'ereiit wjrts of 
 herrings was also fixed by law; and there were endless regulations with respect to the size 
 of the barrels, the number and thicknesH of the staves of which they were to be made;, 
 the gutting and packing of the herring; the branding of tlie barrels, &c. &c. {Hisloire drr 
 Pfciirs, tjr. danK les Mirs du Nord, torn. i. chap. '24.) These regulations were intended 
 to secure to the Hollanders that superiority which they had early attained in the fishi;ry, and 
 to prevent the reputation of their herrings from being injured by the bad faith of individuals. 
 But their real effect was precisely the reverse of this. By tying up the fishers to a system 
 of routine, they prevented them from making any improvements; while tho facility of coun- 
 terfeiting the public marks opened a nuich wider door to fraud, than would have been opened 
 had government wisely declined interfering in the matter. 
 
 "in despite, however, of the East India monopoly, and the regulations now diiscribcd, the 
 commercial policy of Holland has been more liberal than that of any other nation. And in 
 consecpience, a country not more extensive than Wales, and naturally not more fertile, con- 
 quered indeed, in a great measure from the sea, has accumulated a population of upwards 
 of two millions; has maintained wars of unexampled duration with the most powerful mon- 
 archies; and, besides laying out immense sums in works of utility and ornament at home, 
 has been enabled to lend hundreds of millions to foreigners." 
 
 The French revolution produced a movement so great, and with which Holland was in 
 such close contact, that it acted [wwerfiilly upon her political destinies. The revolutionary 
 armies, after having defeated those of all the allied powers on the plains of Belgium, advanc- 
 ed into Holland; where, meeting with support from a (lowerfiji internal party, they had no 
 difficulty in subverting the dynasty of the house of Orange. In its stead was formed the 
 Bataviiin republic, virtually tinited to, and ruled by, the republican government of Franco. 
 A vigorous attempt, made in 1799, by Britain and Russia, to re-establish the old order of 
 things, was baffled ; and no sooner had Napcdeon been made emperor of France, than he 
 bestowed Holland, formed into a kingdom, on his brother liOiiis. This prince, of a mild 
 and amiable temper, was disposed to promote the welfare of the Dutch; but he was allowed 
 only to act as viceroy to his brother, and was obliged to assist in forwarding those measures 
 by which Napoh'on, in the vain hope of ruining Britiin, endeavoured hermetically to seal all 
 the ports of the Continent against foreign commerce. This system was most distressing to 
 all countries subjected to it ; but to Holland it was peculiarly ruinous : that maritime com- 
 merce on which her whole greatness had rested, received a blow from which, perhaps, it will 
 never recover. 
 
 The kingdom of the Netherlands grow out of tho measures adopted by that great coalition 
 which, after a long scries of triumphs, totally overthrow the colossal fabric that had been 
 raised by the genius of Napoleon and the bravery of the French. After its fall, Austria 
 might have advanced a claim to the Netherlands, so long a portion of her extended dominion. 
 Being, however, so remote, and so much detached from her other territories, it was likely 
 to prove a dependency inconvenient and difficult to defend. She therefore consented to 
 accept indemnification in another quarter, and to allow Belgium, with Holland, to be formed 
 into a representative kingdom, under the house of Orange; believing it might servo as a 
 l)arrier against any future encroachment of France. The kingdom of the Netherlands, thus 
 formed, was divided into two distinct parts, Holland and Belgium; but the latter, differing 
 in religion, language, and manners, was always discontented at this union, and considered 
 itself as a subject state. Inspired by the example of France in 183(), the people rose in 
 arms, and, after a short but desperate struggle, succeeded, with the ultimate consent of the 
 great powers, in forming themselves into a separate kingdom, under the name of Belgium. 
 It comprises the provinces of South Brabant, East and West Flanders, Antwerp, Hainault, 
 Namur, Liege, the greater part of Limburg, and a small part of Luxemburg. Holland, 
 
 i ! 
 
 ■ \i 
 
 H-. '■'■ 
 
!i 
 
 < 
 
 MB 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Part Ilf. 
 
 oesidcB tho ten United Provinucii, has nciirly all Luxemburg', and a small part of Limburg, 
 containinff, however, Maeatricht, its largest town. 
 
 Sbot. IV. — Political Qeography. 
 
 A limited monarchy was the constitution established for the now kinjfdom of tho Nether- 
 lands, and continued, with some modifiuations in Belgium, in both the parts into which it has 
 been separated. 
 
 Tho legislative power in Holland is vested in the States-Gcneml ; a popular assembly, 
 modified, however, somewhat differently from those either of Britain or France. Each pro- 
 vince, as under the ancient Dutch system, has an assembly of its own, which regulates local 
 aflaiij, and has even the power of imposing local taxes. It cannot, however, injure com- 
 merce by imposing heavier duties on the produce of other provinces than its own. The 
 members of these provincial assemblies are chosen by electoral colleges formed in every 
 great town ; not by public meeting, or open election ; but by the police officerH going from 
 liouse to house, and collecting billets signed and sealed. The members of the second 
 chamber of the States-General are chosen for three years, one-third of the number being 
 annually renewed. Tho upper chamber does not consist of hereditary nobles, but of a 
 council of from forty to sixty, named by the king for life. [The Belgian chambers are both 
 elective ; the Senate or upper house being chosen for the term of eight, and the Represent- 
 ative cliamber for that of tour years. — Am. Ed.] 
 
 The revenue of tho kingdom of the Netherlands amounted to about l|'35,(K)0,000, raised 
 by tho usual expedients of land-tax, excise, customs, stamps, post-office, and by a tax on 
 patents. T'hese are re(|uire(l to be taken out by all persons exercising trades or professions ; 
 and partake of the character of an income tax, inasmuch as their magnitude is determined 
 by the extent of tho sales made by the parties during the preceding year. 
 
 Pnxlucc of the prioclinl briDchM of the lld?efiua of Iba Natheriirvb. 
 In Flonm. 
 
 Wrect Taxet 
 
 Stilnfn, Reftifilmion, ke. 
 
 Import and Elport > 
 
 Du'iw mil EiciM J 
 
 Warranty on UolJ and Silver 
 
 Pm'. . . ■ 
 
 Lotteiy of the NetherUnds > • • 
 
 l^terv rf DruHeU 
 
 High ttootla 
 
 ISI6. 
 
 2->J«3,700 
 
 I'>.3l6.2e6 
 
 22,I1T,9!)I) 
 
 131,786 
 
 1,066.308 
 
 l.47.'>,l>47 
 l,M6,080 
 
 t<l,e72,8l3 
 
 u,50i,go2 
 
 31,121,(66 
 
 IS8,9(>I 
 
 ■ ,9KM76 
 
 5IM,4«S 
 
 1,018, W7 
 
 l,IOe,HO 
 
 rriDCipal l>ranchM of the Expendihlreofthe NetlierlanJa. 
 In fioriiM. 
 
 Kinx'i KouwIioUl 
 
 (Ireit OlfiiT, n( State 
 
 ForriKn Affiirs • .-• 
 
 Jui'ice 
 
 laterior and Walcrstaat* 
 
 HelijionYcafcpt tlie Catliolic 
 
 Catholic helUion 
 
 Eiliication, Arts, Commerce, and Ciiloniea - 
 
 Finaneea 
 
 Navy 
 
 Army 
 
 1616. 
 
 >,eoo,(xio 
 
 MIU,R33 
 fia7.83s 
 3,391. SI I 
 7,245,910 
 l,2»l,2t>l 
 I,3J%I76 
 3.f94,73e 
 
 23,314.342 
 6,554,531 
 
 27,128,374 
 
 2,100,000 
 1,061,430 
 768,969 
 2,191,049 
 6,l»,249 
 1,327,311 
 1,6:11,413 I 
 73,01911 
 
 3!l,707,5<i2 
 6,582,M] 
 
 I8,444,53£ 
 
 The total average annual produce of the revenue, during this period, was 88,044,152 
 florins. 
 
 The article finances means chiefly the interest of the public debt. This amoimted, in 
 1826, to upwards of four per cent on a capital of 832,334,500 florins. The debt was 
 almost wholly contracted by the Dutch, principally during their protracted and glorious 
 struggle for independence, and partly during the period that Holland was connected with 
 France. 
 
 The total annual average expenditure, during the above-mentioned years, was 98,106,820 
 florins. 
 
 [It has been settled that Holland should assume six-thirteenths of the Netherlandish debt, 
 and Belgium the remaining seven ; but the latter has not hitherto paid any part of the 
 interest. The expenditure of the Dutch kingdom in 1833 was 49,385,849 florins, exclusive 
 of 44,01M),000 for extraordinaries on account of the war esbiblishments. The former sum 
 includes the interest on the whole debt, amounting to 21,021,484 florins. 
 
 The expenditure of Belgium was 73,000,000 francs, comprising no charges on the debt ; 
 but nearly three-fifths of this simi was absorbed by the military, which it has been necessary 
 to keep on the war establishment. — Am. Ed.] 
 
 The military force of the kingdom of the Netherlands was in a somewhat large propor- 
 tion to its resources. This was supposed to be rendered necessary by the proximity of so 
 great a power as France, whose attack, or at least whose dictation, there might be room to 
 apprehend. The army, before the late changes, amounted to about 62,0(H) men. The 
 Belgic provinces, having been long the principal theatre of hostility Iwtwoen France and 
 Austria, were guarded by a line of strong fortresses. These had been allowed to fall some- 
 what into decay ; but the allies, having brought their contest with France to a triumphant 
 conclusion, deterinine<l to strengthen them ns a barrier against the future encroachments of 
 tliat (jower ; and tho largo contril)utions levied upon her were, in n great measure, employed 
 in restoring tlie fortresses to Iheir original condition. Sovoral of those, however, by 
 an agreement made between tho French and Englisii governments, have been recently 
 dismantled. Both |x)w ers have kept up large forces since tlie revolution ; but will soon re- 
 
 * Till! expi'iiHt^s orcnnalK, ililicsi, and iiavicatinn in ||;cniTtil. 
 
 t "fho cliargos fiir eilucation are now incluileil umltT the Itontl of " .ntcrior." 
 
pabt ni. 
 
 if Limburg, 
 
 tho Netlier- 
 vliich it has 
 
 ir oBsenibly, 
 Eacli pro- 
 rulatcs local 
 injure corn- 
 own. The 
 led in every 
 1 Roinj? fironi 
 ' the second 
 imber being 
 es, but of a 
 )er9 are both 
 B Reprosent- 
 
 0,000, raised 
 
 I by a tax on 
 
 professions ; 
 
 i determined 
 
 letlierlanJa. 
 
 a 88,044,152 
 
 amounted, in 
 
 i'he debt was 
 
 and glorious 
 
 nnected with 
 
 as 98,106,820 
 
 rlandish debt, 
 part of the 
 
 ins, exclusive 
 former sum 
 
 on the debt ; 
 jen necessary 
 
 large propor- 
 oximity of so 
 it be room to 
 men. The 
 
 France and 
 
 to fall some- 
 a triumphant 
 oachmcnts of 
 ire, employed 
 
 however, by 
 )een recently 
 
 will soon re- 
 
 T V» 
 
 '»^ 
 
 ■K ,^ * 
 
 Book L 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 
 
 803 
 
 duce them to a regular peace establishment, of which it is impossible at present to give any 
 account. 
 
 In nuvul afluirs, Holland, no longer tho maritime rival but the close ally of Britain, made 
 only fuint attempts to raise her iiuvy tVom the low statu to which it was reduced by the 
 disasters of the rcvolutionarv war. 
 
 [It consists, at present, ot six ships of the line, sixteen large class and seven small clau 
 frigates, thirty corvettes and brigs, four steam vessels, and about eighty armed barks, of five 
 guns, for the defence of the interior waters. — Am. Ed.] 
 
 The foreign possessions of Holland, atler being entirely wrested fh>m her during the war, 
 were, with tiie exception of Ceylon, tlie Cape of Good Hope, Demerara, and Berbice, restored 
 in 1814. In the Ekst Indies, she possesses the Moluccas, the extensive and fertile island of 
 Java, with settlements on Sumatra, Celebes, and Borneo; and some factories on the caojst 
 of Malabar and Coromandel. In Africa, she rctainn El Mina, and other factories on the Gold 
 Coast. Her West India colonics are not, and never were, very considerable, unless as com- 
 mercial dep6t8. Both tlio navy and the colonial possessions, in the separation of the two 
 kingdoms, remain witli Holland. 
 
 Sect. V. — Prodtictive Indmlry. 
 
 There is no country, perhaps, which in proportion to its extent and original resources, 
 produces so great an amount of valuable and useful commodities as Holland and Belgium. 
 
 The agriculture of the Belgic provinces, though, contrary to the usual course, it was founded 
 upon their manufactures and connnerce, being exempted from the vici-ssitudes which befell 
 them, continues to form the most ample source of wealth. The whole territory of Flanders 
 is cultivated like a garden, A great proportion consisted originally of harsh, barren sands, 
 producing nothing but heuth and fir; yet by tho application of manure these were gradually 
 reclaimed, and brought into their present state of high fertility, Tho culture of artificial 
 grasses, and especially of clover, is the characteristic process of Flemish husbandry, which 
 it has taught to the rest of Europe. The care of the Flemish farmers in collecting manure 
 was early conspicuous, and as naturally grew out of the use of artificial grosses, and conse- 
 quent stall-feeding. The use of liquid manure, collected in large reservoirs, is common to 
 this country with China, and not known in any other part of Europe, except, perhaps 
 Norway. Turf ashes, especially those imported from Holland, are in high estimation, 
 and are said to produce an almost magical effect on the vegetation of clover. In general, 
 the Flemish agriculture is conducted on a careful, economical, antique practice; the ftrmers 
 not having adopted many modern improvements in the arrangements of husbandry, such as 
 the crossing of the breeds of cattle, and the use of machinery, which have been adopted in 
 England with such happy efl!ect. But this system of agriculture, after supplying the most 
 dense population in Europe with the standard productions of the soil, yields several articles, 
 such as madder, rape, clover, and mustard-seeds, hops, &c., for exportation. 
 
 The objects of culture in the Dutch provinces, in consequence of their humid climate, 
 and of the demand for animal food for the great cities, are almost entirely connected with 
 pasturage. Holland is as it were one great meadow, intersected by canals, and traversed 
 by rows and groups of trees. The cattle ore stalled in the winter, and fed on hay, turnips, 
 &c. ; but in summer they are kept constantly grazing in the open air. The produce 
 of the dairy has been brought to such a state of improvement as to be an object of export- 
 ation ; Dutch butter enjoys a high reputation, and the cheese is in good repute over aU Europe. 
 
 Horticulture, which elsewhere is only a recreation, has in tho Netherlands attained such 
 importance, as to become a national object. Besides amply supplying its own markets with 
 culinary vegetables, Holland exports them in large quantities to Norway, and otiier districts, 
 where the growth is prevented by the rigorous climate. Ornamental gardening has been 
 cultivated with peculiar ardour, especially in its floral department. When the tulipo-mania 
 reigned in Holland, it was carried to such an excess, that lots of 120 tulip-roots sold, in 1637, 
 for 100,000 florins ; and particular specimens have brought from 8,000 to 10,000. In point 
 of fact, however, tiiese roots formed a kind of imaginary currency, or medium for a sys- 
 tematised species of gambling. They were never actually transferred from one individual 
 toanotlier; but were a sort of stock whose whole value was derived from caprice. The 
 government at length put down this species of gambling, and the prices of tulips fell to their 
 natural level. — Careful cncpiiries carried on by the government of the Netherlands are con- 
 .siderod as having proved that the agricultural capital of the whole country amounted to 
 10,.TJ.5,000,000 francs. The following estimate was made of the growth and produce : — 
 
 llectir.-?. Value in rnnrt. 
 
 VVlKMlt MO.tXM) 154,01)0,1)00 
 
 Rye 700,000 leH,00(UH)0 
 
 BiickHhent 200,000 K,(MK),(X)0 
 
 Rarli-y a?0,UOO f l.OOOJHH) 
 
 Pulso... 110,000 ^HCMWDOO 
 
 Potatot-a i;il,000 41,000,000 
 
 HecUrM. 
 
 Orrhnrds 54,000 
 
 Vei,'tlnlilc9 02,000 
 
 Ileinp n ml finx 210,000 
 
 M.Kliler 30,000 
 
 (.'uttiK mill animals 
 
 Oau 300,000. 
 
 iM,aOO,000 
 
 • ; I 
 
 ■}■.; 
 
.■jrlr 
 
 I, 1 
 
 jil 
 
 
 804 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 PartIII 
 
 Manufhcturini; industry is tho branch in wliich tlio Belgic nrovincps fnrmorly mnnt 
 excelled, and in wliicli ttioir docny has been most conHpiciionH, Throo centuries npo, tho 
 linens and wooUcna of Ghent, Ijouvain, Uruaspls, and Mechlin, clothed tlie hii'iier raiiltH in 
 all the Burrunndincr countries. Since that time, tho tiitirics of Franco and Knffinnd, liavc 
 attained sucli an ustonisliitij; HUj)eriority, and uro at once ho cheap, and ho wcjII adapted to 
 the taste of the a^'c, that the Ijow Country manufacturers can witli diffiruUy maintain their 
 fffound oven in internal consumption. In cottons, especially, they arc uuile uiuilile to with- 
 stand British competition. Tiiero are still, however, somo finu linen hihrics, laces, lawns, 
 cambrics, in which the manullicturers of Mechlin, DrussolK, &.c. continue unrivalled, and 
 which, though so much siijicrseded by muslin and Nottinijliam lace, still enjoy a certain 
 demand throughout Europe. Tho tini^ lanes have boon sohlfor seventy or eighty Napoleons 
 a yard. Tho Flemish breweries nro also very extensive. 
 
 Tho manufacturing industry of Holland is not on so great a scale as her commcrco. Tho 
 pottery ware of Dolft has 1 wt most of its ancient reputation, and even in Holland is super- 
 seded by the earthenware of England. Tho spirit called gin, geneva, or hoUands, is pro- 
 duced at Schiedam, Amsterdam, and other towns, of an excellence which is universally 
 acknowledged. The refining of sugar, and tho manufacture of snuff, are continued on a 
 great scale, chiefly in Amsterdam and Rotterdam, and the making of tobacco-pipes at Goudu 
 IS said to employ 5000 persons. Silk, leather, and woollens, are still manufactured, though 
 not to such an extent as formerly, nor much with a view to exportation. Tho general value 
 of Dutch ami Belgian manufactures hos been estimate<l as follows: — Iron, 40,000,000 francs; 
 copper, 5,000,000; woollens, 80,000,000; linens, 95,000,000; lace, 25,(X10,000; cottons, 
 60,000,000; refined sugar, 14,000,000; salt,10,0(K),000; spi.ii (,40,000,000; beer, 110,0(K),0(K» ; 
 tobacco, 28,000,000 ; oil, ;«),0(M),()00 ; soap, 10,0(H),0C0; ho.Uwr, 28,000,(K)0; earthenware, 
 4,000,000 ; bricks, 0,000,000 ; books, 15,000,000 ; bleaching. 10,000,000 ; dyeing, 10,000,000 ; 
 paper, 8,000,000 : in all, 675,000,000 francs. 
 
 The commerce of the Netherlands has declined, both absolutely and relatively, but in a 
 less remarkable degree. Tho causes have appeared in tho hiscorical survey. The total sus- 
 pension of all maritime intercourse with other countries during the subjection of Holland to 
 France, and the conquest of tho Dutch colonies by England, rendered it necessary, as it 
 were, to begin every thing afresh at the restoration of peace in 1815. But the large capi- 
 tals in the hands of tho Dutch merchants, their commodious situation in the cei\tre of the 
 most improved states of Europe, tho recovery of some of the most valuoblo of their foreign 
 poescssions, and tho considerable surplus of native commodities which their country affords 
 for exportation, secured for them, as soti.i as tho ports were open, a considerable trade. Since 
 tho peace, it has been continually iuta .sing; and, previously to the late revolution, was 
 more equally distributed than before ain.)ng the Belgic a« well as the Dutch porta. Holland 
 exports, of its own produce, butter, cheese, geneva, tobacco-pipes ; of the produce of its 
 fishery, herrings, stockfish, whalebone, whale oil ; from its foreign possessions, cofToo, sugar, 
 rum, cotton wool, cloves, nutmegs, mace, pepper ; with linens, wool, and various articles 
 from Germany and tho Baltic. Belgium exports madder, vegetable oils, lace, lawn, and fine 
 linen. 
 
 There are no official returns of imports and exports published ; but a very able writer in 
 the Foreign Quarterly Review, to whose researches wo have been much indebted, has 
 given from original sources the following account of the importation of the principal articles 
 of merchandise into the Netherland ports during the year 1827 : — 
 
 Cofll'O, bull's 
 
 Ditto, tniis 
 
 Sui(Ar, riM'fltrt 
 
 Ditto, nints 
 
 Ditto, ton.« 
 
 Tolmcco of Aniorico, tons. 
 
 Rico, bnlcs 
 
 Ditto, tons 
 
 Cotton, balM 
 
 Indigo, chests 
 
 Ditto, sproiins 
 
 Ten, quarter chpsta 
 
 Skins, )»icccs 
 
 Popper, hftlcfl 
 
 Wheat, lasts 
 
 Rye, ditto 
 
 Rarley. ditto 
 
 Potash of RiiKsia, pnds*. .. 
 r.inseed Oil ofdo. do — 
 
 Tallow of ditto do 
 
 Hemp of ditto do — 
 
 Amsterdam. Roltenlom. Antwerp. Middleburg 
 
 2,67fl 
 117 
 
 111 
 8. 
 
 13, 
 
 o 
 
 iS! 
 
 IS, 
 
 1, 
 
 s, 
 
 12, 
 
 ,n.TO 
 
 ,003 
 
 ino 
 
 ,(•27 
 
 fun 
 
 ,205 
 ,!1F0 
 412 
 ,flfl2 
 
 liO 
 128 
 121 
 ,271 
 
 31 
 
 :4'H 
 
 S78 
 ,5«3 
 
 ,24r) 
 
 i,41fl 
 ,110 
 
 07,.')!»7 
 1,079 
 7,50S 
 S.145 
 3.H2:i 
 
 i:i,!t34 
 
 i;i,8!12 
 .1,301 
 
 1!I,(K)7 
 
 47B 
 
 RH 
 
 ft.527 
 
 34,.'>01 
 .5,247 
 1,002 
 5,130 
 1,412 
 
 34,7U1 
 
 fXi 
 4,.55.'5 
 
 370,102 
 
 3,53!l 
 
 50,3.10 
 
 .Kins') 
 
 4,02H 
 
 1,331 
 
 l(l,.^'i!• 
 
 14,!a5 
 
 ■J2,a'Ki 
 
 i.3:b 
 
 on 
 
 1,407 
 
 215,W4 
 
 21,847 
 
 90 
 
 06 
 
 106,030 
 
 1,191 
 
 t-',372 
 
 70 
 2,009 
 
 152 
 
 4,300 
 
 * .\ Kuiisiun weight of 36 lbs. 
 
 % 
 
 WM 
 
^ 
 
 Pabt III 
 
 crly modl 
 
 s iiRo, the 
 • riiiikn in 
 Innil, Imvo 
 iiiliiptcd to 
 itiiiii tlipir 
 Ic to with- 
 ;t!S, liiwn», 
 mllotl, iind 
 a cprtttin 
 Nnpolcona 
 
 jrce. The 
 J is s«i)cr- 
 
 ,nili<, in pro 
 imivcrsan.v 
 imied on a 
 es lit Goiulti 
 red, though 
 jiiornl vuluo 
 ,()00 francs; 
 M); cottons, 
 10,0(K),0()0i 
 iirtlicnwarc, 
 10,000,000; 
 
 ely, but in a 
 'he total 8US- 
 f Holland to 
 cssary, as it 
 3 large cani- 
 :entre of the 
 their foreign 
 luntry affords 
 ;rado. Since 
 olution, was 
 ts. Holl:ind 
 •odiice of its 
 jnffcc, sugar, 
 Ions articles 
 ,wn, and fine 
 
 Ible writer in 
 ndcbted, has 
 cipal articles 
 
 i 
 
 Book I 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM 
 
 OOB 
 
 :»« 
 
 The herring flnhory, which once formed so ample a pource of Dutch wealtli, O'n '^'h in 
 this rciprct its importance has boon greatly exaggerated,) was uhnost annihilated dvn mot fJio 
 war; and the ground having since been occupied by neighbours and rivals, Hoihtml hasbcpti 
 able to recover only a small portion. Instead of l.Vx) herring busses, hi 181S !<iio sent out 
 only iitK). Not more than sixty ships go annually to the wlmle* and rod tisherie:< ; and, 
 during the lute war, the Knglish undertixik the task of supplying their own niurkots with 
 fresh ilsh ; in which business, however, the Dutch still employ aliont fi(MN) bontn. 
 
 For other couunercial particulars, M, de Cloet states, that on an averuL'e of twenty years, 
 between 1775 and 1705, the nrmber of vessels enterc<l inwards in all the Dutch [xirts was 
 4140, and outwards the same ; making a total of 82S0 a year. The entries inwards, in 
 \f^J2, for Amstenlam, Rotterdam, and Antwerp, were 4051 ; which, adding 500 (ijr llar- 
 lin^en and Dort, liecomes 4551. The number outwards for the same three |H)rts was 4015, 
 which we may, with a similar addition, call 4,545; making a total of UOOO ships. In 1827, 
 the number entered inwards was ,5203, outwards 454S, making 9761 altogether. Taking 
 the average number, liowever, at 10,000 (instead of 0751), so as to cover the; trifling trade 
 of Ostend and Nieuport, and valuing each cargo, with M. do Cloet, at 40,000 francs, a sum 
 moderate enough, the amount of the trade by sea will be •100,(MK),OflO fi-nncn. The trade by 
 land with France and Germany, which, in 1814, was estimated at 15'J,000,()00 francs, may 
 now be takon at 100,(KK),000 ; so that, if the calculations be at all correct, the annual value 
 of the foreign commerce of the Netherlands is altogether alwut 560,000,000 francs. 
 
 MincH. The south-eastern provinces in the noighbourluxxl of Mens, Charleroi, and Liege, 
 are said to contain ;150 mines of coal, employing 20,000 men ; but this niiiiilier, wo shouhj 
 think, must be a goal deal exaggerated. Turf is the fuel chiefly used, especially in Hol- 
 land. There are also in the southern district ironworks, supposed by Mr. Jacob to yield 
 about 1000 tons. Clay suited for the manufacture of porcelain is found in Holland, and 
 there ore stone quarries in the south. 
 
 Canah form one of the most remarkable features in the economical amnrTcments of IIol- 
 land, and a leading source of her prosperity. From the structure of the country, these arc 
 formed with peculiar facility, and it is everywhere intersected with them; every town, 
 every village, being connected by canals of greater or less dimensions. They run through 
 the streets of the cities, enabling vessels to load and unload under the eye of the merchant. 
 When frozen, they serve as highways, on which the Dutch females, heavily laden, convey 
 themselves along on skates witli surprising rapidity. In general, from the flatness of the 
 country, and the abundance of water, canals may be made without much exertion of art or 
 skill. There is an exception, however, in the canal of Pannerden, constructed with the 
 view of draining off the superfluous water of the Uhine, by which a great extent fif ground 
 was converted into a marsh. It is two miles long, and 200 feet below the level of the sea, 
 the waters being received into three different sets of sluices. It is considered a master- 
 niece, and completely answered its object. Another, on a most magnificent .scale, connect- 
 ing Amsterdam with the Holder, was commenced in 1819, and finished in 182.5, at an 
 expense of 10,000,000 florins. It is 50 miles long, 125 feet wide at the surface, 38 feet 
 wide at the bottom, and 21 feet deep. It is calculated to admit shifw of war of 46 guns, and 
 merchantmen of 1000 tons burden. It was constructed '•> avoid the troublesome navigation 
 to and from Amsterdam through the Zuyder Zee, and the necessity of lightening large ves- 
 sels before crossing the Pampus. 
 
 The canals in Belgium are spacious and commodious, connecting all the great cities, 
 though not nearly in equal number, nor uniting every village, as in Holland. 
 
 Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State. 
 
 The population of the kingdom of the Netherlands, though not comparable, as to absolute 
 amount, with that of any of the great states, is superior to them all in one highly important 
 particular, that the country contains a greater density of population on the same surface 
 than any other in Europe, or perhaps in the world. This, m the Belgic provinces at least, 
 is the more remarkable, as they are inhabited, not by a manufacturing population, drawing 
 subsistence from agricultural countries, but by a population subsisting exclusively on the 
 produce of the land itself. The census of 1816 gave a total population of 5,491,945 : 
 2,476,159 for the northern provinces ; 3,249,841 for those of Belgium ; and 22.5,945 for the 
 duchy of Luxemburg. This gives an aggregate average density of about 212 to the square 
 mile; but the rate rises much higher in certain provinces. Throughout Belgium the pro- 
 portion is 296 to the square mile ; in the province of East Flanders, however, it is as high 
 as 560. In the United Netherlands the average density is only 180 per square mile ; and in 
 Luxemburg, which has much of a German character, it is as low as 66. The census of 
 1 925 gives a population of 6,013,.578 ; and some further augmentation has taken place since.f 
 
 • fin iwn. only onn ship nalfed to tho whnlo.fliihpry from Holland, which in 1680 had out WO ships manned by 
 1 1,000 sailors, cngaixcd in that branrh uf industry.— Am. Eoj 
 
 tfThc population of tliR two kingdoms in li<33, was 0,536,000, of which 3,791,000 belonged to Deli;ium, and 
 3 74.'!,000 to Holland.— An. Ed.J 
 
 Vol I. 48 ^O 
 
 It'^l 
 
 1,1 
 
 ' k 
 
 ' M ll. 
 
 t ^ 
 
im 
 
 m'»(;Rii>'rivK gkogiiaimiy. 
 
 Part HI. 
 
 The fcjllowinir ilct.iili willi ruapcct to tlio iKiiiiilatinii of tlio Nctlii'tlnnilN nrr nxtractcd flrom 
 th« piiblk'iitioiiit (if M. QuulL'let, onu of llio ulilekt ■tatiiticul writrni of liiu ('untinunt :— 
 
 Table of the Miwtmrnt qfihe Population in llnllaml and Belgium for Ten Yean, 
 
 fMfflMM 
 
 Zenliirul 
 
 (iiielilt'riiwicl,. .. 
 Niirtli llrulKiiit . 
 Norlh Miilhiiiil . 
 Hoiilli iloliaml. 
 
 Ulnicht 
 
 F'rieiliwiil 
 
 Ovt'rj'Mi'l 
 
 (troiiiiiui'ti ,, .. 
 
 Dmilhit 
 
 iJmliiirH 
 
 Li^KO 
 
 Nkmiir 
 
 LiKPiiiliiirR .. . 
 
 Ilainniill 
 
 8()Ulli HnilMtiit . 
 Koul [•'luiiili'm . . 
 Wiitt Kliinitvn. 
 Antw(>r|> 
 
 Ull, 
 
 T MM. 
 
 lit, KM 
 
 SiH,(W 
 3'.H,()H7 
 
 1()7,W7 
 17fi,SM 
 
 wsan 
 
 13ft.M9 
 
 8N7,fil3 
 35H,IH& 
 l(H,«H) 
 
 ai;»,.M*7 
 
 4HH,.'Htt 
 
 5lfi,:!8» 
 !WI,.V«ft 
 
 itw.S'.ni 
 
 ;«fi,fii7 
 w;i,uin 
 
 117,10ft 
 
 itio,9;r7 
 
 IStVtM.'k 
 
 a;i,:)i'>h 
 aai.ioi 
 
 189,3U3 
 SW,0IO 
 ftl)'>,iyu 
 
 ■IWi.lflft 
 
 t)H7.»;7 
 w'i:i.Hv>o 
 
 383,078 
 
 a,434J)08 I 0.013,478 
 
 ■Into 
 
 SA,331 
 U«),Ml!i 
 1(N),W>3 
 119,714 
 ltU,74l 
 41.038 
 
 cft,M'>a 
 
 fil,UAl 
 
 M.)n3 
 
 lt),7«3 
 
 101,781 
 
 1I3.0!U 
 
 0N,(1W 
 
 0!t.iM9 
 
 183,198 
 
 inu.i8i 
 
 818,8,10 
 
 ioi,i:u 
 
 101,471 
 8,OI&.040 
 
 4<,4ae 
 
 .W,8|8 
 
 f>'J,flo7 
 181.78ft 
 143,Ha() 
 8V.U88 
 38,81 U 
 
 :i7.n'j 
 
 DO,,"!:!!) 
 
 y,a'i8 I 
 
 70,64U I 
 88,fiU8 
 34,134 , 
 
 Msm I 
 
 118,889 
 119,109 
 1('>8,8.'M 
 141,310 
 70,f.«3 
 
 l,481,fifl(ri 
 
 Mutta«K 
 
 „,«. 
 
 1(),fV4ft 
 
 n 
 
 i9,3:n 
 
 13 
 
 80,:i80 
 
 1 
 
 34,789 
 
 8«t9 
 
 3'I,M8 
 
 148 
 
 8,988 
 
 30 
 
 i.v:w7 
 
 40 
 
 ll,fi89 
 
 13 
 
 11,498 
 
 37 
 
 3,9ft4 
 
 3 
 
 a8.9tlO 
 
 ft 
 
 8-l,;i87 
 
 34 
 
 18,ft98 
 
 8 
 
 18,740 
 
 1 
 
 39.ft91 
 
 37 
 
 30.483 
 
 ft 
 
 43,180 
 
 
 
 37.883 
 
 fl 
 
 83,07ft 
 
 ii 
 
 430,847 
 
 flOS 
 
 Tho births and mnrrinpfos in tho Notlicrlnnds aro proportioniillv rnoro niunorouN, wiiilo tho 
 deaths nro alioiit c(iiml to thoso of Franco, ond oxcoo<l thoHo ot (irciit Britain in tlio ratio 
 of three to two. The account stands thus : — 
 
 NflllMrlAudik rnnce. QrMt Britain 
 ino liirlhn to 9.ra7 Inliiihllanti ,1, liM .1„1,14 
 
 iiMi iicni iw a.iiHi 4,nm ,t,7H0 
 
 lOU iiinrrinKOi 13,130 13,4IH) VX'Xa 
 
 There has been a vi^ry matorinl iiicroaso in tlio hoiiithinosH of tiiu people of the Nether- 
 lands, and pnrtioiilitrly of Holland, diirin); tho lost thirty or forty yearn. 
 
 Tho provision for the siipiKirt of the poor of the Nt'llierlnnds is pretty niiiplo, ond it is 
 applied with ^reiit economy and skill ; tbrminp, indeed, nn imimrtant brmirh of tlin public 
 administnition. The fbllowinfr table, compiled fVoin authentic sources, by M. Qnetelet, 
 cannot fuil of bcin<{ interesting: — 
 
 Charitable Inttitutionn of the Netherlands 
 
 Nilura o( iMlluliw. 
 
 Adminiitmtioiia fur relieving Iho I'oornt home 
 
 Comminnioii!! for (llHlrihiiling Fowl, &c 
 
 8ocinli<>fi or Mnlpriml Chanty 
 
 lIuRpilnlH 
 
 Kunds Ibi Militarv Sorvice 
 
 Royal Iliwpital of Meaino* 
 
 Pimr St'liiMilii 
 
 Workhoiwro of Chnrity 
 
 DepolH of Mi'iulii'ily 
 
 Socieliex of lloncnc'encc for the Coloniei.... 
 Eilabliahincnui for the Denf and Dumb 
 
 Niimtirr of 
 
 iMlilUtiODI, 
 
 Monis dn PiM6. 
 SavinRB llnnkg.. 
 
 Tolali. 
 
 9,189 
 
 3C 
 
 4 
 
 784 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 885 
 
 34 
 
 8 
 
 6,888 
 184 
 90 
 
 IndiviiliuU 
 ritliDvtd. 
 
 74.').0.V2 
 
 2a.05f. 
 
 1,448 
 
 41,178 
 
 8,?77 
 
 lAC 
 
 147,890 
 
 r..l(i9 
 
 2.,')98 
 
 8,.'i.'>3 
 
 839 
 
 977,610 
 
 "i8,'03s" 
 
 or Riii>r. 
 
 9,448,740 
 88,484 
 13,493 
 
 4,091,1.')7 
 
 iio.ma 
 
 8.'l,290 
 817,176 
 4(Mi,7(M 
 2i9,.''iH7 
 353..'i89 
 
 41,991 
 
 11,(M9.036 
 4,a(l8,0f>H 
 8,771,608 
 
 K~|wnM for 
 lACt) liMllvldutl. 
 
 rioHni. 
 
 7.31 
 
 3.73 
 
 9.38 
 
 99.37 
 
 48.73 
 
 149.:iO 
 
 l.(>7 
 6.').92 
 
 HH.:n 
 
 41.33 
 175.70 
 
 Avcmgo 11.30 
 
 Avcmgol93.93 
 
 The niitional character of tlio Dutch has been lonjf moulded into the form nuturnl to (i 
 highly commercial people ; solid, steady, quiet, liilioriou.x, eiigerly intent on tlie nreiimiiktion of 
 wealth, which tliey .seek ruther by economy, steadinetiH, and perseverance, than by speculation. 
 They curry the virtue of cleanliness to an extreme. Outward decorum of manners, at least, 
 is better observed than amonsr the neighbourin},' continental niitioiis. Yet tho Kpiii houses 
 in the great towns, where the most respectable citizens used to mingle with persons entirely 
 destitute of cliiiracter, presented in this respect a strange anomaly. Hut at jiri'-^ent those 
 can hardly be said to exist; and are frc(piented only by the very dreirs of the iKipuluce. A 
 traveller in Holliitid will rarely meet with a drunken person; or witli a iimn, woman, or 
 child, ill nigs. F.very class of people seems comfortable, the result of their great frugality 
 and unwearied industry. Were a young sturdy beggar discovered teasing passengers for 
 
 * III Wt'it FlanUiira, fur the ilauKhtcm u( auldii-rs iuvuliilvil or killed in ■vrviru 
 
Part HI. 
 
 uctud fVom 
 i-ni :— 
 
 DWnrrM. 
 
 rr 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 sou 
 
 14H 
 30 
 4« 
 13 
 
 37 
 
 a 
 
 A 
 S4 
 
 H 
 1 
 87 
 b 
 
 6 
 
 a 
 
 i«, wliilo the 
 in tho ratio 
 
 OmI BrluLn 
 . .:i.M4 
 
 . ,.V7H0 
 
 ■ the Nether- 
 
 )lo, nnd it is 
 f tlin public 
 M. Quotolet, 
 
 K-penw for 
 lach Individual. 
 
 riorlni. 
 
 7.31 
 
 3.73 
 
 9.32 
 
 99.37 
 
 4fi.73 
 
 149.;)0 
 
 1.07 
 f)ft.92 
 HH.37 
 41.33 
 176.70 
 
 AvcrnRO 11.301 
 Avpmgcl53^j 
 
 luitiiral to » 
 eunuiltttion of 
 y speculation. 
 
 iirrs, nt least, 
 xpicl llOllSCH 
 
 sons entirely 
 pri'sinit these 
 jxipuliico. A 
 n, woninn, or 
 ■(>;\t frii^fiilijy 
 iissensTPis tor 
 
 V 
 
 Boob I. 
 
 HOLI^NO AND nEIXllUM. 
 
 0O7 
 
 Kim*, hn Would inntRntly liti iM>nl lo tlio worklmuHe ; wlirro, il" lio rcfiiKil to p<>rfiirni lil« allot- 
 Ind tank, lio would b<' roni|M>lli'd to ouve IiIiumiiII' iVoni drowninu liy workuii; nt tlii' pump! 
 ilolliind i'l, atiil iilwiiyN hnx Imm-u, « country of »hort credit, Itnnkruptry m rure, Notwith- 
 •tamliiiu: the inviiitinn of thn French in Him, anti llm c(inM<«|ueut interruption to nil wirtM of 
 l)U)<ine'«x, the iNiiikrupleieN Wont not com|mrntivplv ho nutnerouH a» in Kni^lnnil in ordinnry 
 yeiirs. The lleljfic, provinccN, lim)f xuhjected to n forniifn yoke, nnd ni ronHtnnt inlerroumo 
 with li>rei)rni'rM, semn to have hint in n ^roat nioaiiuro thii ori((i>iiil FIvmlNh chnrncter, und to 
 preHPiit iKi very dintinctivn iVnturen. 
 
 It in not very ensy, tVoni the dilVerenccM of their judioiol orqfnnizntion, to roin|Kire the Htnto 
 of crime in diH'erent countricM. In tluM rcRpnct, however, the NelherlniidM would hnve 
 nothin);to fenr iVom acompariMm with Frnncu and England. In llollnnd, thn |x>lico i» ox- 
 collent, und rul)b<>ripN very rnre, 
 
 Tho prevuilini; religion of llollnnd in Culvinimn, while that of nelKium in nlnioht exclu- 
 •ivcly (.uthnlic; a ditrerenco which contrilintcd not a little tii tluit rcHited diHiike entortuined 
 by tho inhnhitnntK of the Intler to thoiio of tho former. The Dutch hnve the honour of 
 \HSinif the Hrnt |)eople who eotabliHhed a HVHtcm of unrcxtmined tolerntion. Kven popery, 
 iiotwithHtnndin}; thn uroundx vvliieh the nation had to dread and liiito it, wnii nllownd to be 
 proloMxed with tho utmodt fVee<loui. Thn (government allowK mlurie«, of a ((renter or loH 
 amount, to the clerjry of every )N3rKunRion, only mnkin)/ tluwe of thn I'reMliyterinn ininiatem 
 hijifher tlinn thoothen. The liitter retnin, IxiRiJei), tho iild pnrinh churchen, and the excluHivo 
 privik';.'e of mmji helln. They uniount to nhout l(HN), and are all (mid nnd np|Miintml by 
 (fovernnii'Mt, whieh, however, respectM the wiHheH of tho lendintr purixhionerH. Their oularica 
 are very nuMlernte; .'MNM) floriuH m the grent citieu; 800 to 1000, with hon.so nnd (;lelio, in 
 thn country. They are dividml into nuKlernte and liiKh Cnlvinixtic jmrtien; the foriui^r, which 
 are wiid to he the inowt numerous, hnviii); the command of thn univen<ity of Utrecht, while 
 tliat of Iit'ydcn iti attncheil to thn opjKMito intercHt. There uro almut lUNI or 4(10 Catholic 
 con|frpf;uti(mi<, in (renenil very Nninll. The .\rmoniant) or RemonxtrnntH, who orifrinntcd in 
 Holland, hnve only nliout torty or Hfly ministers; but their tenetH nre preached in ninny of 
 tho presbyterinn churcheH, 'The Aniibnptistii, cnllo<l here Mennonist*, have alMiut 1(K) con- 
 frreprntiiins, r(iiii|HiHed of miiny opulent nnd res|)cctahle ineinlmrs. The LntheninM have lifly 
 or sixty cimrches; and tho French I'roteHtanta nhout thirty, [By the liudcct of 18U3, 
 1,3H0,0(M) llerins were voted fiir the snpiMirt of the I'rotestunt worHliip, and 400,(K)0 tor tlie 
 Catholic, — Am, K»,] 
 
 In Belpiiirii, the Catholic rlorjfy have shown a very rooted spirit of intolerance, with tho 
 bishop of (ilieiit nt their head, nnd vehemently objected to the indulgent treatment of the 
 other nects, Tho binhop wus imprisoned for two yonrn by Napoleon, on nceount of his 
 obfltinncy in tlii-i particular. Tho ^rcnt possesHions of the ehiireh, liownver, have been for- 
 feited, nnd tho clcrjfy receive very mcHlornto sulnrien from povornment. The monasteries 
 have iiccn rooteil out, and genenilly nlno tho nunneries, though thut of Ghent still retains 
 all its |)omp. [There is nn archbishop of Mechlin with a salary of 21,(KH) francs, nnd tho 
 five bishops hnve ench 14,700 francs a yenr. Those, with 04 vicnrs general nnd canons, 
 246 curates, and 4,288 inferior officers, (brm the body of tho Catholic clerpy. There are 
 only about TrfMH) Protestunts in Belgium, with 10 ministers, clerks, Sic, who are paid by 
 government, — Am. Ed.] 
 
 Learning in the Netherlands no longer boasts such names as Erasmus, Grotius, and Boer- 
 liaavo ; but the in.stitutians for its diffusion continuo to be very ample, Holland retoins its 
 two famous luiivcrsities of Leydon nnd Utrecht, The former, which, undnr Boorhaave, had 
 once tho roputntion of the first meilicnl school in Europe, is still highly respcctablo. The 
 professor.', who are twenty-one in number, receive salaries of 3000 florins, mde|)on(lnnt of 
 foes; and this being a better income than any of the ecclesiosticnl livings, tho university 
 draws from the church its most Icurnod members. The medical education, however, can- 
 not he completed unless nt Amstcrdnm, which aflfbrds tho advantage of hospitals and other 
 occommndntions peculiar to n largo city. The university of Utrecht is not so considerable 
 as that of Leydon ; and that of Groningen is still inferior. In 1833, the number of students 
 was, in Leyden fi8-l ; in Utrecht 470 ; in Groningen, 284. 
 
 Tho universities of Belgium, of which the most celebrated were Gliont and I/iuvnin, were 
 partially stripped of their ample endowmcits, first by Joseph II., nnd then by the French, 
 who in tlieir riwrn substituted lyceums, which are now continued nearly on tho same footing, 
 under the name of colleijes. Only tho languages, and some general liranchos, nre taught; 
 education fiir professional pur|)oscs being received in separate appropriate seminaries, Ghent 
 and Brussels have tlie hifrliest reputation ; but thn salary of professors in tho fnrmcr does not 
 exceed I.'jOO francs, Tho three uni'^ersities of Louvain, Liege, nnd Ghent hnve lately 
 been restored ; and in 1827 the first was nttendcd by 678 students ; the second by ."iOO ; and 
 the third by 404 students. Besides athenn'ums, which are only colleges on a smaller scale, 
 Holland has primary schools in every village, by which the benefita of education are com- 
 municatod to the lowest ranks, Belgium ia at present very deficient in institutions for 
 
 I, 
 
 (■ t! 
 
 m 
 
 . Mi 
 
 
S06 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Paet in. 
 
 popular education.* But at an average of the Netherlands, the proportion of children at 
 school to the entire population, in 1827, was as high as 1 to 9.5 ; a proportion not exceeded 
 in any European country, with the exception, perhaps, of Prussia. 
 
 The fine arts were cultivated with zeal and success in both parts of the Netherlands. 
 Wealthy merchants liberally patronised the arts of design; and the gentry and landholders 
 being induced by the constant wars, of which the Low Countries were the theatre, to live 
 much in towns, acquired more refined tastes than could have been formed in a country resi- 
 dence. Antwerp, during its prosperity, became, in some measure, a Belgic Athens. Yet 
 the Flemish and Dutch painters never attained that grandeur of design, and tiiat pure and 
 classic taste, which were formed in Italy, by the study of the antique, and the refined taste 
 of its nobles. The Flemish school, under its great masters Rubens and Vandyke, displayed, 
 however, may excellences in a degree not inferior to any otlier in modern times ; splendour 
 of colouring, grandeur of composition, and force of expression. The Dutch school has been 
 eminently successful in a lower sphere. Under Rembrandt and his disciples, subjects of 
 common life and vulgar humour were treated with a native force, which, being aided by 
 brilliant effects of light and shade, have rendered this school exceedingly popular, though it 
 has failed in all attempts at high and heroic delineation. The landscape painters have 
 seldom employed their pencils upon the grand scenery delineated by Claude and Poussin ; 
 but Berghem, Cuyp, Ruysdael, Hobbiraa, Vandevelde, and others, have represented, in the 
 most natural and pleasing colours, the pastoral scenery of their country ; its meadows, its 
 woods, and the banks of its seas and rivers. 
 
 Amusement is far from being a primary object with the Dutch. They have most of the 
 diversions of the neighbouring nations, Uiough they do not follow them with much ardour. 
 A great portion of their time is passed in smoking ; the Dutchman having seldom the pipe 
 out of his mouth. The rivers and canals passing through the streets, afford the opportunity 
 of fishing fl"om the windows. The great Flemish kermes, or feirs, though no longer sub- 
 servient to commerce, exist still as festivals, at which there is a great display of humour 
 and character, such as we find happily illustrated in the works of the Flemish painters. 
 There seems nothing peculiar in the Dutch style of cookery. The peasantry both of Holland 
 and Flanders have their peculiar local costume ; as the huge breeches of the men, and the 
 short jacket of the females; but the higher classes dress in the French or German style. 
 
 Sect. VII. — Local Geography. 
 The following, according to recent official statements, are the extent and population of 
 Belgium and Holland, respectively : 
 
 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Rxlf-Dt in 
 Hectans. 
 
 lH>nulati'<n in 
 Dec. IIS7. 
 
 I 
 Principal TowBi. ! 
 
 1 
 
 South Brabant. 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 E.191 Flanders . 
 West Flanders 
 
 Hainault 
 
 Naniur 
 
 :H8,000 499,728 
 38.3,000 3.38,294 
 282,000 708,705 
 316,000 .17.'inn7 
 
 Brussels 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Ghent 
 
 Bruges 
 
 Mods 
 
 Namur 
 
 Liepe 
 
 Tongrca 
 
 HOL 
 < Rotterdam . . 
 JDort 
 
 Amsterdam . 
 
 Alkmaar ... 
 
 Middlehurg . 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 Bois le Due . 
 
 Nimeguen .. 
 
 Assen 
 
 lA'Uwardcn . 
 
 Deventor . . . 
 
 Groningcn .. 
 
 Maestricht . . 
 Luxemburg . 
 
 . 72,800 
 
 . 0.'),000 Mechlin 
 
 .. 81,941 St. Nicholas. . 
 
 . 36.000 Ostend 
 
 . 18,400 
 
 . 15,100 Vcrviers 
 
 . 45,30C 
 . 4,000 
 
 LAND. 
 
 Louvain 
 
 .. 16,000 
 .. 10,980 
 
 18,580 
 
 15,150 
 3,000 
 
 29,049 
 10,568 
 9,016 
 
 372,000 
 347,025 
 288,000 
 460,000 
 
 567,300 
 
 194,845 
 347,625 
 328,2.14 
 
 
 . . 4.'* 144 T,PvHpn 
 
 Limburg 
 
 Holland, South 
 
 Holland, North 
 
 Zealand 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 North Brabant 
 Guelderland . .. 
 
 Drenthe 
 
 Friesland 
 
 Overyssul 
 
 Oroningen .... 
 Limburg, 
 
 part nf 
 
 Luxemburg. . . . 
 
 2,676,000 
 
 3,560,538 
 
 
 387,000 
 
 245,000 
 
 158,000 
 133.000 
 501,000 
 509,000 
 336,000 
 963,000 
 328,000 
 204,000 
 
 uncer 
 
 650,000 
 
 453,818 
 
 391,586 
 
 133,932 
 123,213 
 3.33,551 
 393,.196 
 59,915 
 300,333 
 165,936 
 153,082 
 
 tain. 
 
 308,655 
 
 18 400 Delft 
 
 . . 13 2Wi Gouda 
 
 an, 000 Haarlem 
 
 8 4:J5 Hoorn 
 
 . 18,453 Zaaiidam 
 
 .. 8,155 
 . . 6,380 
 
 . 9,.395 
 
 . 13,000 Bcrgen-op-Zoom 
 
 . 10,050 
 
 . 20,800 Flushing 
 
 34,087 Amersfoort . . 
 
 13.340 Breda 
 
 12,780 Arnheim 
 
 1,100 
 . 18,380 
 . 0,530 
 . 38,851 
 
 31,000 
 
 10,350 
 
 3,854,000 
 3,676,000 
 
 3,606,000 
 3,560,538 
 
 6,330,000 
 
 6,166,354 
 
 * [In 1833 there were 5,329 primary schools in Belgium, with 370,996 pupils, beside 1,318 in the Alhenmimt, and 
 I 788 in the universities. Annual expense. 743,300 francs.— An. Eo.j 
 
Part in. 
 
 )f children at 
 not exceeded 
 
 1 Netherlanda. 
 d landholders 
 leatro, to live 
 L country resi- 
 Atiiens. Yet 
 Juit pure and 
 
 refined taste 
 ke, displayed, 
 es; splendour 
 ;hool has been 
 IS, subjects of 
 eing aided by 
 jlar, though it 
 
 painters nave 
 I and Pousein ; 
 sentcd, in the 
 
 meadows, its 
 
 e most of the 
 1 much ardour. 
 Bldom the pipe 
 he opportunity 
 no longer sub- 
 ilay of humour 
 mish painters. 
 Kith of Holland 
 men, and the 
 rman style. 
 
 population of 
 
 18,580 
 
 15,1S0 
 3,000 
 
 29,045 
 
 10,S68 
 
 tim 9,010 
 
 ■op-Zoom 
 
 ! AthcnBumt,anil 
 
 Book I. 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 
 SuBSECT. 1. — Belgium. 
 
 500 
 
 358 
 
 BriuKiU. 
 
 South Brabant, which nearly coincides with what was formerly the Austrian part of that 
 large province, forms a rich plain in the heart of Belgium, and is tiie seat of the finest manu- 
 (kctures carried on in that country. 
 
 Brussels (Jig. 358.) is the capital of Belgium. Considered as such, it is small, yet it is 
 one of tiie gayest and most elegant cities of Europe. Its situation is fine, in a valley watered 
 
 by the Sonne and the canal to 
 Antwerp. The Alice Verte, con- 
 sisting of tliree rows of trees bor- 
 dering the canal, makes a beauti- 
 ful approach. Tiie market-place 
 and the park are the two great 
 ornaments of Brussels. The former 
 is of great extent, and surrounded 
 by the town hall, one of the most 
 elegant Gothic structures in Eu- 
 rope, adorned with a tower, 348 
 feet high, and by the old halls of 
 the diflferent corporations. The park forms an extensive range of pleasure ground, inter- 
 spersed with rows of lofty trees, and pleasing lawns, ornamented with fountains and statues ; 
 and it is surrounded by all the most spacious and sumptuous edifices. The church and chapel 
 of St Gudule are also distinguished for the elegance of their ornaments. Brussels has an 
 academy of painting, attended by 400 or 500 students ; and in the palace there is a library 
 of 12,000 volumes, and a small but valuable collection of paintings. It was on the plains of 
 Brabant, near the little villages of Quatre Bras, St. Jean, La Belle Alliance, and Waterloo 
 a few leagues from Brussels, that the fate of Europe was decided in 1815. 
 
 Another ancient and important city is Malines, or Mechlin (now in tiie province of Ant- 
 werp), still retaining traces of the prosperity derived from the lace bearing its name, which 
 is considered the strongest, though not the finest, made in the Netherlands. Another branch 
 of industry consists in the making of excellent brown beer. The houses are ancient, and 
 very spacious, often constructed in a curious and grotesque manner, and most nicely white- 
 washed. The tower of the cathedral is highly finished, and rises to the height of 348 feet. 
 The other churches contain many of the masterpieces of Rubens and Vandyke. Lou vain is 
 equally fallen from the period when its extensive cloth manufacturesand its university, one 
 of the first in Europe, gave it a population of 150,000. It is a large ill-built town, whoso 
 bulky walls, seven miles in circumference, are now falling to decay. Its Catholic university, 
 an attendance on which was once required as a qualification for holding any oflice under the 
 Austrian government, perished in the French revolution, and was replaced by what could 
 only be called a lyceum ; but the ancient institution has since been restored. The town hall, 
 enriched by numerous carved figures, and the collegiate church, whose spire, before its fall, 
 at the beginning of the seventeentli century, rose to the height of 500 feet, are the chief 
 ornaments of Louvain, 
 
 Antwerp (Jig. 359.), formerly the port of Brabant, has now a province, to which it gives 
 its name. This territory is situated along the Lower Sciieldt, and is covered to a great 
 
 extent with pleasure-grounds and 
 359 A houses, erected by the rich mer- 
 
 chants during the period when 
 Antwerp was in its glory. That 
 city, down to the close of the fif- 
 teenth century, was almost witli- 
 out a rival amon{.r the commercial 
 states of Europe. In the great 
 struggle which then arose, Ant- 
 werp embraced with ardour the 
 reformed cause, in support of 
 which it suffered the most dread- 
 ful calamities. In 1.576 it was 
 Backed by the Spaniards ; and being afterwards wrested from tiicm, surrendered on favour- 
 able terms, after being besieged for more than a year, to the Prince of Parma. Subjected 
 to the bigoted and tyrannic sway of Spain, and oppressed by the active rivalry of Holland, it 
 lost all its commerce, and presented the mere shadow of its former greatness. Its renewed 
 prosperity dates from its occupation by the French. Bonaparte made it one of liis grand 
 .aval arsenals, and erected immense works, in the vain hope of creating a fleet which might 
 rival that of Great Britain. Since the peace, Antwerp, having been placed on an equal 
 footing with the ports of Hollanrl, has availed itself of the advantages of its situation, and 
 retrained a considerable commerce. Having a ready navigation into tlie interior, and com 
 
 43* 
 
 Antwerp. 
 
 1;! ; 
 
 
 :''! 
 
 1." 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 "•II 
 
 I .1 
 
 'Jji' 
 
 ^ 
 
 m 
 
 ik I 
 
510 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 ' .',■(!■ 
 
 municatinpf by canals with the principal seats of manufacture, it is destined by nature to be 
 the cliicf emporium of Belgium. In 182S there entered its port 955 vessels. Antwerp is 
 still a noble city, containing numerous stately buildings, both private and public, which 
 include some of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture existing. The cathedral, which 
 occupied 1(H) years in building, is celebrated over Europe. It is 500 feet long, 230 wide, 
 and ;i00 high. The spire is 466 feet high, of extreme beauty, and from its summit i.s obtained 
 n mngninccnt view of the windings of the Scheldt, with thedistunt towers of Ghent, Malines, 
 and Bredii. The interior is atlorned with the greatest masterpieces of Rubens and Vandyke, 
 wiiich, alVcr licing carried olf to Paris, have been again restored. Numerous fine specimens 
 of the Flemish school arc found in the other churches, as well as in private mansions. Ant- 
 werp liiis always lieon the centre of Flemish art; the birth-place of Rubens, Vandyke, Jor- 
 daens, Tenlers, and all its greatest masters. Zealous patronage is still bestowed upon the 
 art; an aciidoiny is supported, at which 400 or 500 students are almost gratuitously taught: 
 annual prizes are given, and crowns placed on the heads of the successful candidates. This 
 encoumgcmont ha.s called forth some respectable talents, tliough none, as yet, to rival the 
 feme of the old masters. 
 
 East Flanders is chiefly an inland district, and is the part of Belgium in which culture has 
 been carried to the highest perfection. It displays an aspect of uniform luxuriant fertility, 
 resulting altogether from the application of art and capital. Even in journeying along the 
 road, tlie traveller finds the wheels of his carriage sinking in tlie sand, while beyond the 
 hedge on each side, the soil consists of the richest black mould. The most fertile district is 
 called the Waes, or St. Nicholas. 
 
 Ghent, even hi its fallen state, is still one of the noblest of the old cities of Europe. That 
 vast circuit of walls which, according to the boast of Charles V., could contain all Paris 
 within them, may still be traced. It is built on twenty-seven islands, most of them bordered 
 by magnificent ([uays, and connected by three hundred bridges. The streets, with a few 
 e.\ccption.s, are spacious and handsome, and there are many fine old churches; but the great 
 cathedral does not display the architectural grandeur of that of Antwerp, though the interior 
 is rich in the extreme, adorned with numerous pillars of white marble. This and the other 
 churches, as well as the academy, contain numerous paintings by the old Flemish masters. 
 Ghent, though it can no longer send its 40,000 weavers into the field, is still one of the most 
 manufacturing cities of Belgium. Prior to the revolution, its staple was sorted lace; but 
 since the great improvements in the cotton manufacture, several large fabrics have been 
 established at Ghent. The society is good, this being a favourite residence of the old 
 Flemish nobles, and now frequented by a considerable number of English families. 
 
 The other towns in East Flanders are Dendermonde, a small but strong place, which has 
 stood repeated sieges ; Alo«t, on the eastern frontier ; St. Nicholas and Tokerem, two large 
 villages, of more than 11,000 inhabitants each, in the centre of the Waes, flourishing by 
 means of corn-markets and of some considerable manufactures. Sas-van-Ghent is the centre 
 of the sluices on the canal to the Scheldt, by which the whole country can be laid under 
 water. Hubt is a strongly fortified little town. 
 
 West Flanders is a continuation of the same richly cultivated plain which has now been 
 described ; yet, being partly mixed with sand and marsh, and exposed to the blighting influ- 
 ence of fogs and sea breezes, it does not di.splay altogether the luxuriant aspect of the Pays 
 de Waes. It has no place comparable to Ghent, yet it comprises an extraordinary number 
 of ancient cities, which still retain a portion of their former prosperity. 
 
 Bruges, formerly the residence of the counts of Flanders, and one of the factories of the 
 Hanseatic league, was the greatest commercial city in the Low Countries, and perhaps in 
 the north of Europe, till it was first surpassed by Antwerp, and then, from the same causes, 
 shared its fall. Its situation in the midst of so fertile a country, and its communications by 
 spacious canals with the sea and witli the interior, still secure to it a considerable trade. 
 Bruges has the character of an old town, the streets being narrow, ond the houses lofty. 
 The town hall is its most conspicuous edifice, and it is adorned also with many noble churches, 
 containing some of the finest works of tlie great Flemish painters. The invention of paint- 
 ing in oil has been ascribed to this city. 
 
 Ostond is an ancient town, early celebrated for its fortifications. The siege by Spinola, 
 which began in 1601, and lasted two years, was one of the most memorable in modern his- 
 tory ; and upon its issue the destiny of the Low Countries was considered to depend. But 
 though it ultimately fell, the exhaustion of the Spanish army, and the time which had been 
 afforded to Hiilland for collecting her energies, prevented its capture from having the ruinous 
 effects anticipated. Under Austrian sway, Ostend, which has one of the few good harbours 
 in Flanders, became the chief theatre of the limited trade of the Belgic provinces. Napo- 
 leon restored its fortifications, which were still further strengthened by the allies. It has 
 not now above a third of its former population, but still carries on a brisk intercourse witls 
 England, and has almost the apjioarance of an English town. In 1828, 574 vessels entered 
 its port. 
 
 Other large fortified places, celebrated in the military annals of Europe, arc found in West 
 
iinih 
 
 Hi 
 
 Paet III. 
 
 iture to be 
 Vntwcrp is 
 )lic, which 
 Iriil, which 
 230 wide, 
 is obtained 
 It, Malincs, 
 1 Vandyke, 
 ! specimens 
 ions. Ant- 
 ndyke, Jor- 
 ■d upon the 
 isly taught: 
 Eites. This 
 ,0 rival the 
 
 I culture has 
 mt fertility, 
 ir along the 
 beyond the 
 le district is 
 
 urope. That 
 in all Paris 
 »m bordered 
 , with a few 
 ut the great 
 the interior 
 nd the other 
 lish masters. 
 B of the most 
 id lace; but 
 3 have been 
 e of the old 
 
 ,68. 
 
 ;, which has 
 n, two large 
 ourishing by 
 is the centre 
 e laid under 
 
 IS now been 
 rliting influ- 
 of the Pays 
 lary number 
 
 lories of the 
 perhaps in 
 ame causes, 
 Inications by 
 rable trade, 
 ouses lofty. 
 lie churches, 
 lion of paint- 
 
 I by Hpinola, 
 Iniodcrn his- 
 ppend. But 
 jh had been 
 : the ruinous 
 harbours 
 :es. Napo- 
 lies. It has 
 Icourse witi> 
 sels entered 
 
 iind in West 
 
 Book I. 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 
 
 511 
 
 Flanders. Courtray, Ypres, and Menin have the usual character of Flemish towns. They 
 are large, rather well built, with handsome churches and town halls; fiillcn from their 
 ancient prosperity, yet retaining considerable manufactures of linen and beer; and having, in 
 the long course of the Low Country wars, been repeatedly taken and retaken. Courtray is 
 noted for the very fine flax grown in its neighbourhood. Oudenarde, the scene of one of 
 Marlborough's victories, Dixmuidc, and Furnes, present the same characters on a smaller 
 scale. Nieuport is rather a noted fishing and trading town, surrounded by sluices, by means 
 of which the country can be inundated. 
 
 Hainault, to the oast of Flanders and the south of Brabant, presents a long range of miii- 
 tarv ft-ontier to the once hostile border of France. It is watered by the ujjpor cournns of the 
 Scheldt and the Sambre ; and, instead of presenting the same dead level witli Flanders, is 
 varied by gentle undulations, still highly cultivated, yet not witli the same extreme care or 
 ample expenditure. In this province are rich mines of coal, a mineral not tbund in any 
 other part of the Low Countries ; and though Hainault never formed any of the great seats 
 of manufiicture, it is by no means deficient in this branch of industry. 
 
 Mens, Toumay, and Charleroi are the chief towns of Hainault. The description given 
 of the secondary cities of Flanders may apply to them. Mens, called once Honnonia, is very 
 ancient ; it is well built, but appears often almost buried under the smoke of the steam- 
 engines employed in working the neighbouring coalmines. It has a very extensive found- 
 ling hospital. Toumay, a fine large, dd city, with a handsome cathedral, has stood many 
 sieges. Charleroi, besides its military reputation, has that of making very fine nulls, with 
 which it supplies all Belgium. In front of Mens is Gemappe, and eight miles east of Char- 
 leroi is Fleurus, both celebrated for signal victories gained by the Frencli during tlie revolu- 
 tionary war. The large and strong cities of Conde and Valenciennes are now annexed to 
 France. 
 
 Namur, to the east of Hainault, presents a striking variety finm the tame and flat surfiice 
 which covers the greater part of the Low Countries. Consisting of the valley of the Meuse, 
 which traverses the whole province from north to south, it contains numerous rugged emi- 
 nences, which give to it a varied and picturesque character. The banks of the river, from 
 Namur to Li^ge, overhung by wooded rocks, and opening into deep valleys, abound in the 
 most romantic scenes. 
 
 Among the cities, Namur is one of the most ancient in the Low Countries, its origin being 
 traced to the time of the ancient Germans. It lies in a beautiful valley bordered by higli 
 mountains, at the confluence of the Sambre and Meuse. The castle, on a high rock, was 
 formerly considered almost impregnable, and stood many sieges, till Joseph II. dismantled, 
 and the French afterwards almost demolished it. The cathedral aiid the Jesuits' church 
 are fine edifices, and, unlike the other churches of the Low Countries, of Grecian architec- 
 ture. Namur has in its neighbourhood extensive iron mines, which employ many of the 
 inhabitants; the manufactures of the city consist in working up this metal into firo-arms, 
 cutlery, &c. Ascending the Meuse towards the French frontier, we come to tlie small forti- 
 fied towns of Dinant and Charlemont. 
 
 The provinces of Li^ge and Limburg, which are much intermingled with each other, 
 form the eastern frontier of Belgium. They run from north to south along the Mouse, front- 
 ing Germany, and are, indeed, half German. On the banks of the Mouse, and in some par- 
 ticular districts, the territory is broken and rocky ; but most of it consists of an extonde<l 
 and highly cultivated plain. The eastern district is distinguished by the peculiar richness 
 of its pastures, which produce butter and cheese of great value. Its manufactures, also, 
 especially those of fine woollens, are very flourishing. 
 
 Of the cities in these two provinces, Liege, once the seat of a sovereign bishop, is ancient 
 and large, but upon the whole ill built and gloomy ; and though some of its buildings are 
 large, they do not display the taste conspicuous in other Belgic cities. The church of St. 
 Paul is, however, admired, as was that of St. Ijimbert, till it was destroyed during the revo- 
 lution. Liege has a manufacture of fine woollen cloths, which sell at a higli price. Tlio 
 town of Limburg, now included in Li^ge, has lost much of its population and industry; and 
 a great part of its precincts is in ruins. Spa, situated amid romantic rocks, is one of the 
 most celebrated watering places in Europe. The resort, though much diminished, is still 
 considerable, and composed of persons of distinguished rank. The inlmbitants work the 
 beechwood, which grows in the neighbourhood, into a variety of toys, for which they find a 
 ready sale among the visiters. St. Tron and "Tongres are ancient towns, the firmer having 
 a celebrated Benedictine abbey. Eupen, like Vcrviers, has flourishing manufucturos of cloth. 
 Herve is the chief market for the Limburg cheese, which goes by its name. Stavelot is 
 noted for its leatlier. 
 
 SuBSECT. 2. — Holland. 
 
 The province of Holland is of paramount importance, including all the great cities and 
 
 frincipal scats of commerce; so that its name was most usually given to the whole republic, 
 t forms a long narrow strip, almost everywhere enclosed and penetrated bv water ; on one 
 
 M'\ 
 
 if 
 
 
 
 J * . 
 
 
 - 1 :.' 
 I r. ■: 
 
 
512 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 \i 
 
 f 
 
 •My 
 
 side it is washeJ by tlio Nortii Sea ; on tlie othci, by the Zuyder Zee; in its centre it haa 
 .he largo lake called llaarlem-Meeri while the Rhine and the Lech intersect its numerous 
 channels. The whole country is so low, that it is habitable only by means of enormous 
 dikes, which exclude the sea : when these give way, the waters rush in, and inundate the 
 whole territory. The country forms, in fact, one vast well-watered meadow scarcely any 
 where subjected to the plough, though extensive gardens are cultivated, both for use and 
 ornament. But the chief products are cattle, butter, and cheese, for the supply of the popu- 
 lation of the cities, and for export. 
 
 Amsterdam (Jig. 360.), the capital of the province and kingdom of Holland, is situated at 
 the point of confluence of the river Amstel with the Y, an arm of the Zuyder Zee. It was 
 ggQ I a considerable town in the 
 
 fourteenth century ; but it was 
 not until the sixteenth cen- 
 *ury, when the persecutions 
 of the Spaniards in Belgium 
 proved fatal to the trade and 
 ''S^^^gx^l^i-.lE^^^BWaB lWEZ ^waMBjrHlllMrai^Ki navigation of Antwerp and the 
 
 southern provinces, that Am- 
 sterdam attained to the dis- 
 tinction which she enjoyed 
 till about the middle of the last 
 AmateidBm. century, of being the first 
 
 commercial city of Europe. It is but justice, however, to state that her extraordinary pro- 
 gress depended as much, or more, on the liberal and enlightened policy of her rulers, as on 
 external events. Every individual, whatever might be his country or his religion, was 
 received with open arms at Amsterdam ; and acquired, by means of a trifling payment, the 
 right of citizensiiip, and the enjoyment of all the privileges of a native. All the public insti- 
 tutions wore calculated to promote commerce ; and at a time when trade and industry in 
 other countries were oppressed by prohibitions, in Holland they were comparatively free. 
 When innst ))ros])erous, Amsterdam is supposed to have contained about 240,000 inhabitants; 
 but at present tlio population is not supposed to exceed 200,000. Being built in a marsh, the 
 foundations of the city are laid on piles; and it is a common complaint that a house costs 
 as much below as above ground. The three principal streets are parallel to each other, and 
 are not easily to be matched for length, breadth, and the magnificence of the houses; many 
 of which, though anti(iue, are splendid, and are kept in the best possible repair. The city 
 is intersected by an immense number of canals, communicating by draw-bridges, and having 
 sluices for the purpose of regulating the level of the water : these canals are for the most 
 part bordered by fine trees. The expenses incurred in keeping the sluices in order, and in 
 clearing the canals and port of mud, are very heavy. The matchless industry and perse- 
 verance of this wonderful people, are in nothmg so signally displayed as in their works and 
 contrivances for conquering the difficulties incident to their situation, and making the waters, 
 
 which threaten to overwhelm them, con- 
 361 tribute to their comfort The stadt- 
 
 house (Jig. 361.), now the royal palace, 
 is the finest building in the city ; and is, 
 indeed, one of the noblest anywhere to 
 be met with : it is of large dimensions, 
 and is adorned with pillars, and with 
 sculptures emblematical of commerce 
 and navigation. Above 13,000 piles 
 are said to have been employed in form- 
 ing its foundation. The harbour is in- 
 convenient, large ships being obliged to 
 lighten before they can pass the Pam- 
 pus or bar at the mouth of the Y, and the navigation of the Zuyder Zee is also diflicult. To 
 remedy these inconveniences, the large canal to the Holder, already alluded to, has been 
 constructed. The trade of Amsterdam has increased considerably within the last few ^ oars; 
 and about 2200 ships now annually clear out for foreign countries. None of the water from 
 the canals is made use of for culinary purposes; the town being supplied with fresh water, 
 convoyed in carts from the Vecht, alxjut five or six miles distant ; but most of the houses 
 Imvo cisterns, \\liore the rain-water is collected. There is o national museum of pictures, 
 which contains many fine specimens of the Dutch school. The various prisons and houses 
 of rorrcction and industry at Amsterdam are said to be managed on more approved princi- 
 ples tliiin siimilar .'nstitutions in most parts of Europe. The police is excellent; crimes rare ; 
 and no beggars to be seen in the streets. The inhabitants seem vigorous and healthy ; but 
 the mortality, though materially diminished within the last tliirty or forty years, is still greater 
 
 Stailt-Houao, Annsterdani. 
 
 t% 
 
"ART ni. 
 
 re it has 
 lumerous 
 jnormous 
 idttte the 
 rcely any 
 ' use and 
 the popu- 
 
 ituated at 
 >. It was 
 n in the 
 but it was 
 enth cen- 
 rsecutions 
 I Belgium 
 trade and 
 ■rp and the 
 that Am- 
 
 the dis- 
 e enjoyed 
 > of the last 
 : the first 
 iinary pro 
 ilers, as on 
 ligion, was 
 yinent, the 
 lublic insti- 
 industrv in 
 itively free, 
 inhabitants; 
 , marsh, the 
 house costs 
 h other, and 
 uses; many 
 , The city 
 
 1 and having 
 for the iiioet 
 rder, and in 
 
 and perse- 
 works and 
 the waters, 
 tliem, con- 
 The stadt;- 
 oya) palace, 
 :ity ; and is, 
 iny where to 
 dimensions, 
 and with 
 commerce 
 3,r)00 piles 
 yed in form- 
 rbour is in- 
 , obliged to 
 IS the Pam- 
 ifficult. To 
 to, has been 
 few _, oars ; 
 water from 
 fresh water, 
 the houses 
 of pictures, 
 and houses 
 )vcd princi- 
 rimcs rare ; 
 ealthy; but 
 still greater 
 
 Book I. 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 
 
 fil8 
 
 than in most Eurojjoan cities ; a consequence, probably, of the humidity of the climate, and 
 of the effluvia arising, in summer, from the canals. 
 
 Rotterdam (Jff. 302.), the second city in Holland, is more conveniently situated for com- 
 merce than Amsterdam, having a readier access to the sea ; and the Maese on wiiich it is 
 situated, being so very deep as to admit vessels of the largest draught of water to lie close 
 
 Rolterdani. 
 
 Butua of Eraimiu. 
 
 ui the quays. Its commerce is rapidly increasing. Its principal exports are geneva and 
 madder ; and it carries on the busmess of sugar-refining on a large scale. It has all the 
 characteristics of a Dutch town ; being neat, clean, uniform ; the houses high, and built of 
 
 very small bricks. The canals inter- 
 ""* — - secting it are numerous, deep, and, 
 
 unless in a few of iHd most crowded 
 streets, connected by draw-bridges. 
 R jtterdam boasts of being the birth- 
 place of Erasmus; to perpetuate 
 whoso memory, she iius erected a 
 handsome statue {fg. 363.). 
 
 The Hague (Jff. 364.), though 
 ranking only as a village, is, in fact, 
 one of the handsomest cities in Eu- 
 rope. The streets and squares are well built, bordered with fine walks and avenues of trees. 
 Neither the old nor the new palace can boast of any splendid architecture ; but the former 
 is large, and contains some valuable collections. An avenue of two miles leads to the neat 
 fishing town of Scheveling, whence the dealers are daily seen bringing their commodities 
 
 The Flague. 
 
 365 
 
 Leyden. 
 
 in little carts drawn by large dogs. 
 Leyden {fig. 365.) is a fine old city, 
 situated in the heart of the Rhine- 
 land, where this ancient bed of the 
 river is cut into an infinity of canals, 
 which render this the richest mea- 
 dow land of Holland. The beer, 
 the butter, and the bread of this dis- 
 trict are hold in ttio highest estima- 
 tion. Leyden, during the war with 
 Spain, was the most important city 
 in Holland, and on the t vent of its 
 siege the fate of that country was 
 supposed to depend. The Spaniards, 
 by a lengthened and strict blockade, 
 reduced it to the last extremity ; while the Dutch could muster no force adequate to its 
 relief. It was then that they formed the magnanimous resolution of breaking down their 
 (likes, and admitting the ocean. It was some time before the fiill effect was produced ; but 
 at length, impelled by a violent wind, the sea rushed in, overwhelmed all the works of the 
 besiegers, and forced them to a precipitate flight. The little fleet of boats which had been 
 jireparod for the relief of Leyden, immediately sailed over tlie newly formed expanse, and 
 triunipiiantly entered the city. The Prince of Orange offered to Leyden tlic option of two 
 l)en('lits, — an immunity from taxes for a certain period, or tiie foundation of a university in 
 the city. The citizens crowned their former glory by choosing the latter alternative, and 
 a university was accordingly founded, which speedily became one of the most eminent Hcliools 
 in Europe ; and, thoiigli much injured by the numerous rivals which have since sprung up,, 
 it continues to iniiintnin a high reputation, particularly as a classical school. Leyden is still 
 a liaiulsonie and flourishing town ; carries on the woollen manufacture with success, though 
 on a diminished scale; and is a great market for butter and cheese. Haarlem (Jig. 366.) is 
 another city of ancient importance. In the great struggle for independence, it stood a 
 Vol. I. 3 P 
 
 I 
 
 m 
 
 . , .li:! 
 
 
 i'i 
 
 
 
 '■ 
 
 1 ■ :•■ 
 
 
 ; ' ■'■•■■ 
 
 
 • '• -JB" 
 
j 
 
 14 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 '!1 
 
 267 
 
 mcmorablo sicgo of seven months; when it surrendered upon honourable terms, wliicli woie 
 basely violuted by the Duke of Alva. Haarlem is still spacious mid flourii-liiMg:, and excels 
 peculiarly in tiic blcachin(^ of linen and cambric, which it portbrms for uU the iu-iglil)ourin^r 
 
 provinces. The matchless 
 and brilliant whiteness of the 
 Haarlem linos has been im- 
 puted to a peculiar quality in 
 the water, but is more pro- 
 bablj the result of the ex- 
 treme skill of the inhabitants, 
 acquired by long practice. 
 Flowers arc principally raised 
 for sale in the vicinity of Haar- 
 lem. Delfl, an ancient gloomy 
 "»"''""'• town, was formerly celebrated 
 
 for the manu&cture of the ware which bears its name ; but this, as already observed, has 
 been almos: entirely supplanted by English earthenware. Dort or Dordrecht, enclosed by 
 branches of '.ho Maese, was the ancient capital of Holland, while the main conunorcc of that 
 country cor.tiiuud to centre in this its most natural quarter. It still rot^iiiis very considera- 
 ble traces of this early imiwrtance. The town-hall and great church arc inagniticent struc- 
 tures. There is a considerable trade in goods coming down the Rhine, particularly floats of 
 timber, so largo that one of them has been valued at 350,0(K) florins. Gouda is a large 
 flourishin;; village, in a rich country, and carries on an extensive manufactory of tobacco- 
 pipes. It is celebrated for the excellence of its cheese. 
 
 North Holland forms a considerable peninsula, almost entirely encircled by the Zuyder 
 Zee and the North Sea, and Ijordercd by sand-hills of Bome elevation ; but the interior is 
 covered with rich pastures, on which are fed large herds of cattle. The ancient and not 
 ungraceful costumes (fff. 207.) of the Dutch peasantry arc preserved with greater exact- 
 ness in this sequestered part of Holland, 
 than in any otlior; and the fishery, for 
 which their situation is peculiarly adapted, 
 is carried on with great activity. Alk- 
 maar is an agreeable town, with a yreat 
 traffic in butter and chee.se, and a manu- 
 facture of nets. The most important 
 places in North Holland are the Hi^ldei- 
 and the Texel, two grand naval .sti.tions; 
 the one a stron,fj fort, commanding tlic 
 entrance of the Zuyder Z<,'e; tlic otiicran 
 island oppf)sito, in which the Dutch fleets 
 us(!d to rendezvous, from tlio facility it 
 afforded for their getting to sea. Along the coast of the Zuyder Zoo are tlie considerable 
 towns of I loom and Enkhuison, and the smaller ones of Edam and I'urmorend. 
 
 Zealand is a region more conii)lotely enclo.sed by, and sunk below, the level of the water, 
 timn any otlier part of the United Provinces. It consists of nine islands, formed and envi- 
 roned by branches of the Marse and the Scheldt, as, passing from the state of rivers into fritlis, 
 they unite with the ocean. Tlie mariner, in approacliing, sees only points of the spires 
 peeping above the innnonse dikes which defend them from inundation. The soil is moist 
 and rich, peculiarly adapted to the cultivation of madder. Tlie damp air, however, and the 
 exhalations from the wati-rs, render thef^e islands imheaithy, and even fatal to foreigners, as 
 was dreadfully experienced by the British troops while (piartored at Walchoren ; but the 
 natives do not experience the .same pernicious elll'Cts. Jliddlehiirg is a eonsiderable city, 
 '.vith a to\vn-ha!l and several clinrclies, which atllird fine specimens of Gothic nrcliitccture. 
 Flushing is an eminent nava! station, and has a ciinsiderablo tradi; and fishery. The island 
 of Schowen has Zlerikzeo, the ancient capital of the counts of Zealand; and South Beve- 
 land has Goes, or Terijoes, with a consideralde trade in siilt. 
 
 Utrecht, a more inland province thin Holland, forms a continuation of the same tract of 
 fiat meadow land, interspersed uitli gardens and country residences. Utrecht, the capital, 
 is a remarkably ajireeable city, and hcmix a little elevated, the view from its ramparts and the 
 top of its cnthedral over the vast plains and broad waters of Holland is extensive and de- 
 lightful. The Romans called it Ulpii Trajectum, as conunanding an important passage over 
 the Rhine; and in the middle aijes it was held by the warlike bishops of Utrecht. In this 
 city was concluded the treaty of conf 'deration, in l.")97, by which the United Provinces 
 were constituted, and also the celebrated treaty of 171.'), which terminated the long war of 
 the Spanish succession. Amersfoort, pleasantly situated on the Ems, and noted as the 
 birth-place of Barncvoldt, has considerable fabrics of dimity and bombazeen, and cxtensivn 
 
 Ptanantry in Mulland. 
 
Part III. 
 
 hicli wciP 
 and excels 
 ijrlibonrin^' 
 
 matchlfsH 
 ncBS of tlU! 
 .s bocii iin- 
 r (luality in 
 
 more pro- 
 of the ex- 
 inlmbitauts, 
 g practice, 
 ipally raised 
 lity of Ilaar- 
 icnt gloomy 
 y celebrated 
 bservcd, lias 
 enclosed by 
 ii.Tcc of that 
 •y conHidora- 
 iticent struc- 
 xrly floats of 
 a is a large 
 ^ of tobaccQ- 
 
 r the Zuyder 
 ic interior is 
 ient and not 
 reater cxact- 
 t of Holland, 
 ! fishery, for 
 iurly adapted, 
 ;tivity, Alk- 
 , wllii a jiroat 
 , and a nitmu- 
 )st iniportunt 
 [e the Holder 
 nviil sli.tions; 
 iniandiiiir the 
 the otlii-ran 
 Dutch fleets 
 the facility it 
 conaidcrablo 
 
 f the water, 
 nod and cnvi- 
 ers into fritiis, 
 of the spires 
 soil is inoir^t 
 ever, and the 
 
 )rei<,'ners, as 
 
 en ; but the 
 iderablc city, 
 
 rchiteeture. 
 Tlio island 
 
 South Beve- 
 
 Roou T. 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 
 
 U6 
 
 s;une tract of 
 it, the capital, 
 [iparts and the 
 nsivo and de- 
 
 passaije over 
 Rcht. In this 
 ted Provinces 
 e lonff war of 
 
 noted as the 
 and cxtensivfi 
 
 bleaching grounds. Naorden, a small town, forms the key of all tlie water communications 
 of Holland. 
 
 North Bralmnt, comprising that which was the Dutch part of the province, is a flat, sandy, 
 marshy tract, not distinguished by either the natural fertility or manufacturing industry so 
 conspicuous in the rest of Flolland and Belgium. Forming, however, the barrier by which 
 the Dutch maintained their independence, it contains several of the strongest fortresses in 
 Kiirope, which have indtx^d the reputation of being almost impregnable. Breda is one of 
 t!io most conspicuous. Alter Prince Maurice of Nassau took it by surprise, in 1.090, ila 
 tbrtifications were greatly e.vtrnded, and the surrounding country, being intersected by 
 rivers and marshoi?, can be laid under water. It is an agreeable city, commanding from the 
 ramparts a fine view, and both its church and its town-hall are admired Gothic edifices, 
 IJois lu Due, or Herzogenbosch, on the Domrael, so named from an old hanting-wood of the 
 Dukes of Brabant, is a large town, and iMiually strong. It is so intersected by canals, that 
 eighty bridges are required to cross them; in winter the place is entirely surrounded by 
 water, and can be approached only in boats. Bergcn-op-Zoom, flirther to the west, is similar 
 as to strength, and was esteemed tlie masterpiece of the celebrated Cohom. The disastrouM 
 attack made upon it by the British in the last war is well remembered. 
 
 The outer provinces of Guclderland, Friesland, Overyssel, Drenthe, and Groninffcn, 
 which lie between the Zuyder Zee and tlie Ems, are ratlier appendages than integral portions 
 of Holland, and form by their situation part of the great level plain of northern Germany. 
 The country is similar to Holland, however, in its aspect and the general state of cultiva- 
 tion, though a somewhat greater proportion of the land is employed in the raising of grain. 
 Friesland, has a ver^ fine breed of horses and horned cattle ; and the linen manufacture 
 flourishes to a considerable extent. In these provinces, particularly in Guelderland and 
 Overyssel, there is a large extent of sandy and marshy ground, which is not forced into cul- 
 tivation with the same minute care, as in the central provinces. Much benefit, however, is 
 expected from the pauper colonies lately established there. 
 
 The towns of this region are pretty numerous and considerable, though none are of the 
 first class. Nimcguen, in Guelderland, is ancient, strong, and handsome, commanding a 
 noble view over tlie Rhine. Zutphen is an old imperial city, dreadfully pillaged in 1-572 by 
 the Duke of Alva. It has a magnificent church ; and the fens around it have been so com- 
 pletely drained, as to render the air no longer unwholesome. Arnheim is a large and beau- 
 tiful town, at the foot of the hills of Veluwe, and forming a great thoroughfare into Ger- 
 many. Deventer, in Overyssel, is an ancient member of the Hanseatic league, and has a 
 venerable catliedral. Zwoll, on the Ysscl, is strong, large, and well built. Asson, though 
 capital of the new province of Drenthe, is only a village. In Friesland, Leuwarden, on 
 the Ee, is a largo and populous town, in a country surrounded and intersected with canals, 
 which enable it to communicate with the sea, and to carry on a considerable trade. Cam- 
 pen, an ancient Hanse town, has lost its importance, the harbour being now choked up. 
 Harliiigon, Franeker, Dokkum, Bolswaru, are ports on the Zuyder Zee, and manufacturing 
 places of some importance. Groningen, capital of the provinces of th same name, is the 
 most important of all the towns east of the Zuyder Zee. It is well b It, and adorned with 
 noble edifices ; and its university was once distinguished among D' ii seminaries. Large 
 vessels can ascend the Iluiise from the Zuyder Zee. 
 
 Luxemburg, an extensive province, though political revolutions attached it to the Nether- 
 lands, and now to Holland, forms part of Germany, entitling the king to a vote in tlie Ger- 
 manic diet. Its character is every way in decided contrast to the rest of Holland and Bel- 
 gium. Instead of a dead, rich flat, traversed by navigable stream.* and canals, Luxemburg 
 presents almost throughout high mountains and woods, formhig scenes of savage grandeur, 
 similar, though on a smaller scale, to those of Switzerland. The country is destitute of 
 water communications, is imperfectly cultivated, and does not contain a population of more 
 than sixty-six to the square mile. Its breeds of cattle and sheep are of smal. size; but, as 
 usual in mountain pa.stures, of delicate Pv/our. The horses arc active and hardy ; and the 
 tract which borders on the Moselle pi!->duces valuable wine. 
 
 The cities and towns are by no means on the same scale as those in the rest of tlio king- 
 dom. Luxemburg, the capital, situated on two rocks, whose steep .sides form a glacis, while 
 the river Else, at their feet, serves as a wet ditch, is one of the strongest fortresses in 
 Europe. The horse and cattle markets are considerable. Theux has in its neighbourhooil 
 mines of a beautiful black marble. Macstricht, the principal town of Limburg, has, along 
 with all the part of that province east of the Meuse, been assigned to Holland It is large, 
 handsome, and well fortified. Ruremonde and Venlo, also neat towns of some strength, arc 
 included in the same district. 
 
 m. 
 
 I ::,'■ 
 
 ; '; I; 
 
 
 
 il 
 
 ■ . !■■ Hi 
 
 k ■ ;• ' 
 )i ■ . ■ , ■ 
 
 ■I ■.'■■■ ■ 
 
 ! (, 
 
 mih 
 
 
MAP OF FRANCE— WBVT past. 
 
 Fio. St». 
 
 1!^ 
 
 , ii. , I 
 
 1 \ 
 
 It 
 
 ri :■'!!! i 
 
 *':^ 
 
 ,!>:! 
 
 
 -I' 
 
 'if' 
 
 EofltabMil' 
 
 S I<on(itudc W«st 4 from Oratawleh 
 
 i longitude East 
 
Fia. 200. 
 
 iT 
 
 * \. 
 
 
 '.8 
 
 N E 
 
 111/. '5'Vv < 
 
 I Lonfiluile IHitX 
 
 Fitt. 269. 
 
 MAP OF FRANCE— EAwr paet. 
 
 517 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 ' E<it f fiom Greeiiwlcli I 
 
 44 
 
 
 ■ i 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 1 ; 
 i , 
 
 1 ' .!! 
 
 1 1 
 
 ' 'I VI..' . . 
 
 ■.'<"t>' ;■ fll 
 
'H ^ n4 
 
 .(J 
 
 I 
 
 41S 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 pAiTin, 
 
 PH^ii 
 
 
 
 CHAPTER VllL 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 Francr ia 1 ffreat and powcrfbl kingdom, placi><l, oh it worn, in the centre of the civi- 
 -lized world, and for several conturiea di>itin(;iii8hcd by the conspicuouB part which it hao 
 acted on the theatre of Europe. Its i)opiiliition, military power, reiitral situation, vast re- 
 sources, and active industry, render it peculiarly duserving of an attentive survey. 
 
 Referencet to the Map of France — IVVrt Pari. 
 
 NOllTII PART. m. 
 
 Pif 
 
 Pnivincp nf 
 
 ABTDIfl. 
 
 IltpartmtKt of 
 
 I. Hirait ijrCalail. 
 
 (t'udaOulau.) 
 
 I. r'alair 
 
 3. Iliiuliiiiiic 
 J. Hanu*r 
 
 4. Muntruuil 
 
 'rovincp of 
 
 'icARDY. 
 
 Jiepartment of 
 
 II. Hiininie. 
 
 .1. Cictir 
 
 li. Ru» 
 
 7. HI. Vallery 
 
 K .\bhevillu 
 
 U. Airainei 
 
 Province ofthfl 
 
 I. OP KBANCE. 
 
 Departnentt. 
 
 III. Cue 
 
 IV. Sviiie anil One. 
 1U. Gianilvillera 
 ll.tii.rinir 
 
 Jj. Meulon 
 
 13. jtainhuuillct 
 
 14. Ilouilan 
 
 15. Mantua 
 
 Prnvincf. of 
 NOKMANny. 
 /)rpartments. 
 V. tiiiwer Heine 
 VI. Euro 
 VI!. Orne 
 VIII. C«,va(loa 
 IX. The Channel. 
 (La .Munchc.) 
 
 16. Vemon 
 
 17. Ancleloya 
 IH. (Journay 
 19. Neufchtttel 
 -iO. Hlnngii 
 ■i\. Eu 
 
 '.ti. Dieitpfl 
 
 ■a. Si. Valery 
 
 41. Fecamp 
 
 ^£>. Havre do Grace 
 
 ■m. R.ilb«c 
 
 tVveioi 
 Rouen 
 W. Elbiruf 
 'M. I.iiuviera 
 'M. Kriitnne 
 '.H, Punt Aiidcmer 
 ;n. Punt r Eveque 
 :M. Liiieiix 
 ai. Caen 
 '3C., Sayeux 
 
 37. Iiiiny 
 
 38. 8U Ln 
 
 39. (Tarentiin 
 
 40. Valniinei 
 
 41. niirllHUt 
 43. Chi'rliDUrg 
 4:i. I .t!8 Pioiix 
 41. Diirnevillo 
 4."». I 'reaiice 
 411. Cdiitaiicei 
 47. (iruiiville 
 4H. Villodieu 
 4!l. Viro 
 
 M. Thi.riany 
 ."il. Si.fttirmnin 
 ii. Piint d'Ouilly 
 .'>'1. Fuluue 
 M. Areentan 
 M. Giico 
 5«. Orliec 
 57. Ilernay 
 .18. RukIi ■ 
 50. Kvreux 
 
 , Ij Aiilo 
 fl:i, MiiriBRne 
 04. Ilek'iniu 
 m. Alonrun 
 lit). Dunil'iiinl 
 117. Tinnhi lirny 
 AH. Miiituin 
 lU). Avraiichci 
 70. Ponlurion 
 
 Provincfl of 
 
 brei'agne. 
 
 Vtpvrlmtnts. 
 X. Ill* and Vi- 
 
 laino 
 XI. North Cnait 
 XII. Finiiii'iri) 
 
 XIII. Moth.lwn 
 
 XIV. Luwor Loire 
 
 71. Anirain 
 74. St. Mulo 
 
 73. Dinan 
 
 74. Su Urieux 
 
 75. Ouingamp 
 7A. Painipoi 
 
 77. I.annion 
 
 78. Bella lie 
 7^1. Morlaix 
 
 80. Lannilii 
 
 81. Breal 
 
 82. Landemeau 
 Kl. Chnleaulln 
 84. Andjeniu 
 KV Qiiiinper 
 8H. Unimperle 
 
 87. Gourin 
 
 88. Cnrhnix 
 
 89. Roalruui^n 
 110. Uzcl 
 
 01. Loudeuc 
 
 113. Bruona 
 03. Montfort 
 U4. Iledo 
 95. Roimon 
 911. St. Auliin 
 
 97. Foufi-refi 
 
 98. Vilre 
 
 99. La Guerche 
 100. Chateaubriant 
 iOI. Oervin 
 
 |IK2. f ^arentuiro 
 10:1. Rrtlon 
 
 104. Mulotroit 
 
 105. Plocrmcl 
 100. Band 
 
 107. Poiilivy 
 
 108. Hi'nni'iKin 
 lUil. L'Oricnl 
 
 1 10. Vannes 
 
 111. Roche-Bernard 
 
 112. Niizay 
 
 1 1:1. Ancenit 
 
 114. Nantei 
 il5. Siivenay 
 
 1 10. Guerrande 
 
 117. Paimbffluf 
 
 118. BourKneur 
 
 119. Clinon 
 
 Province of 
 AN,IOU. 
 
 Department of 
 
 Pepartment:!. 
 XVI. Mayenne 
 XVII. SaiUiii. 
 
 139. Craon 
 
 130. Chateau Gun- 
 
 tier 
 
 131. Sable 
 i:«. La Fleche 
 133. Chateau do 
 
 Loir 
 1.14. Si.Calnii 
 135. Id Nana 
 
 i:w. Viiiiui 
 
 1:17. Laval 
 Kt8. Joviino 
 130. Mayenno 
 
 140. Ebriin 
 
 141. Pret en Pail 
 143. Frenay 
 
 143. MaiiD-ii 
 
 144. La Ferie Ber- 
 
 nard 
 
 145. MoDtmirail 
 
 XXV. Vendeo. 
 
 184. Ln Riu'he 
 
 Poaay 
 
 185. Chniollcraull 
 I8n. Louilun 
 
 187. MuMConlour 
 
 188. Thuuam 
 1K1. Breiaure 
 100. Chaiillon lur 
 
 Sevre 
 
 191. Pouiange 
 
 103. Muiituimi 
 
 IWI. Beaiivoir 
 
 IM. Bi. (}illei lur 
 Vie 
 
 rnVSableid'Olonne 
 
 I9A. Tiilmonl 
 
 197. Bourbon-Ven- 
 dee 
 
 Ite. Lucon 
 
 199 Fonlcnny 
 
 300. rMiaiaiKiiernyo 
 
 301. Piirlheimy 
 303. Vivoiine 
 301. Poiliiira 
 301. St. Savin 
 30.'i. Mttiitmorillon 
 
 33. ITierche 
 
 34. i'reiinac 
 ;|5. Tulle 
 30. Turenne 
 37. Doniunac 
 
 Province of 
 UIJIRNNE. 
 
 Depa 
 /[. Li 
 II. Ti 
 
 artmnli, 
 
 lOt 
 
 Pmvinro of 
 
 ORLEANA1S. 
 
 Dcparttntntt, 
 
 XVIII. Euro at.d 
 Loir 
 
 XIX. Loiret 
 
 XX. Loir and Cher. jj„ M„„.,,„ 
 148. Rrou 311. Sauie 
 
 147. Nugent lo Ro- 
 
 trou 
 
 3lM. L'Ulu Juiitdain 40; M„|*c 
 
 am and Ga 
 roniui 
 VIII. Lot and Ga- 
 ronne 
 IX. Donlovno 
 X. Bordeaux 
 ;iH. Thivlere 
 :i9. Noniron 
 
 40. Ilrantoine 
 
 41. Peiiiueux 
 43. Maruuil 
 
 43. Hibernc 
 
 44. Muridan 
 
 45. Libuurnn 
 
 46. Couliui 
 
 47. Blaye 
 
 48. Bourg 
 
 IOI. Air* 
 
 103 Mont de Marmn 
 
 111:1. HI. Sever 
 
 104. Monfurl 
 
 IILV Dux 
 
 1011. St. Vincent 
 
 107. reyrehorade 
 
 \t*<. St. F.>pru 
 
 109. Itnyoiiim 
 
 110. 81. Jean Pled dn 
 
 Purl 
 
 111. Mauloun 
 113 nierun 
 
 113. Navnrreini 
 
 114. OMhii 
 
 115. <iarlin 
 
 116. Pau 
 
 117. Arudl 
 liaNoi 
 
 Province of 
 
 BEARN AND 
 
 FOIX. 
 
 307. 1'ivray 
 308. Melle 
 3U). Nioit 
 
 XIV. Upper Pyre 
 
 nee* 
 XV. Article 
 llO.TarliM 
 130. Arielln* 
 181. Lux 
 .52. La.Teludu Buch 133. Bngnorc* 
 .VI. Le'Barp 13.'). Sairunculin 
 
 •50. Lei|)urro 
 51. Caiitelnau 
 
 I4R. Allien 
 140. Dteiix 
 l.V>. Maintcnon 
 15l.rharlrea 
 153. Boniioval 
 LW Toury 
 
 1.54. Arlenay 
 
 1.55. I^bnleaudiin 
 156. Monilnubleau 
 1.57. Vondoieo 
 158. nioia 
 
 1.59. Melun 
 lliO. Orlcani 
 161. CoSHon 
 i&l. Chamliord 
 Ityl. Roinoranlin 
 
 164. Sl.Aiiinan 
 
 165. Chauinunt 
 
 Province of 
 
 TOURAINE. 
 
 DeparttneHt of 
 
 XXI. Imlre aiiu 
 
 Loire. 
 
 106. Chateau Rng- 
 
 nault 
 
 167. Tovra 
 
 168. Stivigne 
 160. Langeaia 
 170. Chinnn 
 m.Lallaye 
 173. Monibaxon 
 
 173. I.Achea 
 
 174. Reauliuu 
 
 Province of 
 
 BRKRI. 
 
 Drvnrtment of 
 
 XXII. Iiidre. 
 
 XV. Mayoniw and 1''5. Chaiillon »ur 
 
 fiO. ivry 
 Bl. Verr 
 
 erneuil 
 
 Loire. 
 
 130. Beaupreau 
 
 131. i;hollel 
 133. Chalonne 
 12:1. Vihim 
 124. S.'inniur 
 125 Bauirc 
 1-26. AiiKcni 
 137. Intfrande 
 128. Sugrc 
 
 Province of 
 
 MAINE AND 
 
 PERCH E. 
 
 Indre 
 
 176. l.evroux 
 
 177. Valencoy 
 
 178. Valan 
 
 179. Chaleauronx 
 
 180. L* Chatro 
 
 181. Affrcnton 
 
 182. St. Benoit 
 
 183. Le Ulanc 
 
 Province of 
 
 POITOU. 
 
 Departments. 
 
 XXIir Vienna 
 
 XXIV. Two Sevrei 
 
 SOUTH PAll'l. 
 
 Province of 
 BAINTONGK 
 AND AUNI8. 
 Department of 
 
 I. LowerCharunto. 
 1. Marana 
 
 3. La Rochelle 
 3. Itochefort 
 I. St. Jean d'An- 
 »ely 
 
 5. Sninlea 
 
 6. Marennea 
 
 7. Royan 
 
 8. Poni 
 
 9. Jonzuc 
 
 10. Mirtiiiibeau 
 
 II. Munlieu 
 
 Province of 
 
 ANGOUMOIS. 
 
 Department of 
 
 II. Charento 
 
 13. Aiibeterre 
 
 13. Borbezieux 
 
 14. (.-ognuc 
 1.5. Angouteme 
 
 16. La Rochefou- 
 
 cauld 
 
 17. Manilo 
 
 18. Ruflec 
 
 19 Uunfulcn* 
 
 Province* of 
 
 MARCHE AND 
 
 LIMOUSIN. 
 
 Departments. 
 
 III. Upper Vienno 
 
 IV. Coriuxo 
 V. Creuao. 
 
 20. li'illnc 
 SI. Ln Dnrnt 
 
 32. SdUlerraino 
 3:1. (ioi'ri;t 
 
 34. Boiirganeilf 
 
 35. Kyiiionliara 
 
 36. St. Leonard 
 27. LiinogcH 
 38. St. Jdiiicn 
 3<l. Rnciiecliouart 
 30. C'linlua 
 ai.St.Yrieix 
 
 33. Pierre BulBero 
 
 .54. Cailrea 
 .55. Bordeaux 
 511. Creon 
 .57. Lilteolln 
 .58. Mnrmarido 
 .59. (Taitilloncz 
 
 60. Beraerao 
 
 61. La Lindp 
 63. Miremont 
 
 63. Surlnl 
 
 64. Oomme 
 6.5. Catui 
 
 66. (iourdnn 
 
 67. Marlel 
 
 68. St. Cere 
 
 69. Figeac 
 
 70. Concula 
 7I.St. Antonin 
 
 72. Cahori 
 
 73. Cttuuado 
 
 74. Moniauban 
 7.5, Verdun 
 
 76. ('aitelaarasin 
 
 77. MoImic 
 
 78. 5Ioncuq 
 
 79. Fiiniel 
 
 80. Villuneuve- 
 
 d'Agcn 
 
 81. A gen 
 
 82. Nerao 
 Kt. I'aiit'l-Gcloux 
 
 84. Bazni 
 
 85, Caplieux 
 
 Province of 
 GAHCONY. 
 1>epartmtntt. 
 XI, Landea 
 XII, Luwei Py- 
 
 renecB 
 XIII. Rcri. 
 
 86. Sore 
 
 87. Murat 
 
 88. Miioizfin 
 
 89. La Boiiliere 
 00. Rmiucfort 
 91. Eiiuze 
 93. Ivuiidom 
 
 93. Irfjcuinro 
 
 94. Fleiiranco 
 {)5. Igle en Ji urdain 
 116. Luinbvx 
 97. Auch 
 
 08. Miranda 
 
 09, Vic Ferenzac 
 100, Nugaio 
 
 134. Baunerea du 
 
 Luc bun 
 12,5, St.Giroiii 
 
 136, Taraacun 
 
 137, Ax 
 
 138, Puix 
 130. Paniiets 
 
 Province of 
 LANGUEDOC 
 Departmentt. 
 XVI. Upper Ga- 
 ronne 
 XVII, Tarn, 
 
 130. Caitelnaudaty 
 
 131. Villefranche 
 1.13. Lavaur 
 1:0. St. Bulpicc 
 134. Grenaile 
 1:1.5. Tuuluube 
 i:i6. St, Lya 
 
 137. Murot 
 
 138. Rieuz 
 
 139. Cazerei 
 
 140. St.Gaudcna 
 
 141. St. Beat 
 
 Rivers. 
 a Seine 
 b Dive* 
 c Oure 
 d Vira 
 e OuRt 
 f Vilnino 
 f Lfiire 
 h Mayenne 
 i Sartbe 
 
 i Loire 
 Beaiivron 
 I Le Clier 
 mlndro 
 n Creuso 
 
 Vienne 
 
 p Cbareote 
 q Dfoniie 
 r lalo 
 
 a Dordogne 
 t Veiore 
 u Lot 
 V Garonne 
 w Aveyrop 
 X Tarn 
 jr Adour 
 
 1 GsvedaPau 
 
 \ 
 
Paitih. 
 
 •e of the civi- 
 which it han 
 ition, vost re- 
 vey. 
 
 m. Aire „ 
 (K MimlcleMitranii 
 IKt. Hi. Snvi't 
 (M. Monfurl 
 
 m. I lux 
 
 ml. Si. Vinrfnt 
 U7. riyiiihiiiaJe 
 tie. Hi. tUpnl 
 UtI. lUymmii , , 
 lU. Bl. Jcnn Piml dn 
 
 Pcirl 
 II. Mnuloun 
 ll-j Olurun 
 III). Nnvnrreini 
 
 114. Oriliii 
 
 115. (inilin 
 IIH. Pau 
 117. Aiuill 
 liaNu 
 
 Prnvinro of 
 IIEARN AND 
 
 FOIX. 
 nnartmentl. 
 XIV. Upper Pyta 
 
 IIHM 
 
 XV. Ariicoe 
 lig.TmliM 
 1!». Ar|i!il<« 
 I'il. I.iit 
 I'M. BngmirM . 
 l!2.'l. BAirunculin 
 Vii. Ilauni'rin du 
 
 Lui'hiin 
 I'i.'i. Bl.Ciroim 
 l*i. 'I'uiucun 
 vn. An 
 VW. Foiii 
 131). Paniieis 
 
 Province of 
 
 LANOUK.nOC 
 pepnrlmmti. 
 
 XVI. Upp«r Ga- 
 ronne 
 XVII. Tarn, 
 ino. Caitelnaudn; 
 131. Villul'rancho 
 
 K. Iiavaur 
 
 :i3. 8i. Suluinc 
 
 34. (ircnaile 
 
 m. Touluiike 
 .:«). St. Lya 
 
 T7. Murot 
 inx. Riiiuz 
 
 139. Cal^rra 
 
 140. Si. Gnudcns 
 Ul. St. Beat 
 
 Rivers. 
 n f*Rino 
 b Ili<ea 
 r, Oure 
 d Vire 
 e Ouat 
 r Vilnine 
 
 Klioire 
 Mayiinne 
 Baiihe 
 
 iLuiro 
 Heaiivron 
 1 l« Cliet 
 mlndro 
 n CrouBO 
 
 Vienne 
 
 p (.'harenlo 
 q n^uiiiie 
 7 klo 
 a Pordoitne 
 
 1 Veiore 
 
 U liUt 
 
 V (laronne 
 w Aveyron 
 X Tarn 
 y Adout _ 
 aOBvedaPau 
 
 Boor I. 
 
 PRANCE. 
 
 SIO 
 
 Sbot. J.—Oeneral Outline and Atpcrt. 
 Franco w bounJod m Iho North liy tiin Cimnnul, wliicli »cparate» it fVom EiiBland, onU 
 
 Nnitrii PART. 
 
 IViivinctt (if 
 ri.ANDKItri. 
 
 1. Vhii North. 
 1. Muiili<]iii{o 
 3. Avt-ani*4 
 
 3. Ijiirxirrcy 
 
 4. IjiiCulttnu 
 
 5. (.'nmbriii 
 
 0. Viilonviuiinci 
 7. Dduiiy 
 H Hi. Ainand 
 '.I. I.llle 
 lU. Httznbroiick 
 
 II.ClllHll 
 
 \i. Dunkirk 
 
 13. Gravulinci. 
 
 Prnvinro of 
 
 AnttiiH. 
 
 Ihnarlineni. nj the 
 It. Blrnil ofCillali. 
 
 14. Ardrfii 
 1,1. St. Unior 
 lA. Aire 
 
 17. Pauauemborg 
 
 19.' 9lM 
 ao. Boltiiino 
 91. Arriia 
 .M. Uapuumo. 
 
 Provinco iif 
 
 PICAIIUV. 
 
 Deptirlmrnt of 
 
 III. Bummo. 
 
 n. Douleni 
 
 34. Ainleni 
 
 35. Pi>roniio 
 
 36. kiiye 
 
 37. Mnnldidior 
 88. Puix. 
 
 Prnvinro of 
 
 TIIR ISI.K OP 
 
 FRA.NCi;. 
 
 Oepiiritiients. 
 
 IV. Oino 
 
 V. Hiiino 
 
 VI, Hi'lnoiindOi«u 
 VII. Si'liio uiid 
 
 Miirne 
 V^lll. Aiiiio. 
 80. Hrptoi ■' 
 l¥}. lien' .tia 
 31. CIp .nont 
 '13. Noynn 
 3^1. Cntnpicgntt 
 34. IVciuy 
 :». Hnnlfa 
 
 36. Muru 
 
 37. Pontnifo 
 :». Bt. Uoiiii 
 3tf. liOZiirchiia 
 
 40. llitntniiirtin 
 
 41. Meiiiix 
 
 43. I'nnltiinfniur 
 4't. MarniltiH 
 
 44. 1*0 1 ii 
 
 45. Sceaux 
 4fi. Voraailica 
 47. (^)rbl■il 
 4H. P.lfliiipoB 
 
 49. Mi'liin 
 
 50. PonliiinebI(!iiu 
 .11. Ncinoiira 
 
 53. MMnleriinu Fault 
 
 Vonna 
 .1't. Rosny 
 
 54. Prtivina 
 
 la. ChotiMiu Tliicry 
 .16 I.n Fi'riii Miloii 
 
 .'•". VililTH CollTCH 
 
 .'irt. Boirtuniii 
 .W. Lnon 
 
 m. 1,11 PiTo 
 
 til. Bt. (luuntin 
 m. (iui<« 
 fill. Bij.4nniio 
 64. Vt^rvina. 
 
 Prnvinro of 
 CIIAMPACNE. 
 
 DcpnrtiufnU. 
 IX. AriiolinL'8 
 X. .Mlirno 
 XI. Anlie 
 Xll. U[)pcr Miirne 
 
 m. Ilnrrny 
 fiS. Clinrlriilli' 
 
 67. Mt'zicrtja 
 
 68. SliIiio 
 
 •sa. lirand Pri.- 
 
 70. Viiuniota 
 
 71. Altitny 
 7'^ Ratliul 
 7;i. Ail'eld 
 74. RlieiinB 
 
 7.5. < ourtaiunn 
 
 76. Vnlmy 
 
 77. Hi. Mnnohuuil 
 
 Kfferrnifi lo Ihe Map nf Franrr tjM ParU 
 
 XX. Iloub. 
 AAI. Jurii. 
 tVI. Liirn 
 
 IM. I.IIAt'lltl 
 
 ItVt. Juiwy 
 ir.l(.Vowml 
 IM. rimmiititio 
 IM. Dttinpiurrn 
 l.Vi. (J my 
 
 in), ii) 
 
 KM. Hniinin 
 tfW. M.iniboliard 
 Ita Hi. hypiilktu 
 
 7H. ('Iialiiii« 
 1\K r.pernay 
 HO. Oiirrdntii 
 HI. MnMimirnil 
 PJ. Huxnnno 
 
 H4.V.try.u,Marno|a?:j.:J.«'i'J^J' 
 
 go. Raiuiiru . . |,i7. n„„„a)n 
 IIH. (tuiniii.'y 
 lilil. Ilnie 
 
 170. Pidinny 
 
 171. Hnlin« 
 
 173. Rocli'-Jcan 
 1711. Nmiivo 
 
 174. IJJuirevaux 
 
 H7. Aruiitur Atilio 
 W. Miirailly 
 8U. Nofintaur 
 
 Memo 
 no. Troy,,i 
 01. f-haourctt 
 03. liar Bur Buino 
 IVI. riairvaux 
 t.'4. Har .ur A 
 115. Mnnii, 
 
 06. yuaiy 
 
 07. Jninvdlu 
 
 IH. ('hriiiinont 
 
 110. Aubeiiva 
 
 3:13. Hnncorto 
 3:1-]. Viornin 
 3:1.5 Hour«(« 
 'm. l^haiiKiunriif 
 3.17. C'haluau Mail- 
 Irinl 
 
 3:19. II lot 
 
 340. BaiiCttrf uaa. 
 
 Prnvinro nf 
 
 MVKR.NAIH. 
 
 Itfnnrttiifiit of 
 
 XXVIII. Niuvit'. 
 
 311. Nevora 
 
 343. I.a Chutilo 
 34:1. I.'oana 
 
 344. Clamery 
 
 345. riiainplemi 
 3111. t'oiliiaiiv 
 
 347. 1'haiiiauChlnnn 
 
 348. Muulina on Gil- 
 
 bert 
 
 349. Dorir.0 
 
 43. Rinm 
 4J. 'I'lllara. 
 
 vinne nf 
 NNAIH. 
 
 175. LnnaieBaulnlt'r '"00. 81. Pierre lo 
 
 .,undu 
 
 .'76. Durtali 
 ri;.Ht. Claude. 
 
 Mualicr. 
 
 IJIQ. linntfreB 
 ! j. fliyln " 
 103. Ilourbnnne lea 
 
 101. fiiy III Hillot 
 
 Uiiin* 
 
 103. Bourmnnt. 
 
 Provinpn ni' 
 I.ORRAIXK. 
 i>eparltnfnt.i. 
 XMI. VoiKos 
 XIV. Mrurlhe 
 XV. Mi'UM 
 XVI. Muaeilc. 
 
 104. Biiincvllli, 
 
 105. IMoinbiiroB 
 
 106. KpinnI 
 
 107. Runiirumont 
 lOH. (ierardiiiiir 
 
 I '19. Bt. nil! 
 no. Rinilioivillor 
 111. MiriTnuri 
 113. Ni!iifrhnli"Ul 
 
 113. tiondrornurt 
 
 114. Itiir lo Dim 
 11.5. VaiiriMileuiii 
 
 116. Cnniincrcy 
 
 117. Toulon 
 
 118. Nancy 
 
 119. Lunovillo 
 
 130. H'inn 
 
 131. S'lrnbnum 
 
 Proviiire of 
 
 IIOKRIIONNAIH. 
 
 Itrimrtmntl of 
 
 XXIX. AlliiT 
 
 331. Boiirbnn-l'Ar- 
 
 ehamliault 
 3.53. Moulina 
 *i^hi. Dnnjon 
 '354. Varonnea 
 '3.55. I,a PuIIbw) 
 
 Provincu of 
 BlJRtJUNDV. 
 
 DepartiiirntM. 
 
 XXII. Aln 
 XXIIl. Baonoaiiil 
 
 Loire 
 XXIV.l'oied'Or 
 
 XXV. Yonne. 
 
 178. Nanlun . . 
 
 1711. Fiiriiloi'Ei^luBc'v]'!- I'liinot 
 180. Heywel 3.57. Gnnnat 
 
 IMI. Mi.|li,y .- - - 
 
 IH3. Poiifin 
 I8:i. Mouni l,uel 
 184, Trfvoux 
 IK5. t'liiilunioiit 
 
 186. Ilnum 
 
 187. Macon 
 
 188. Port du Vuux 
 I8'.(. riuny 
 190. Boniur en Bri- 
 
 nlinoiit 
 lOI.ChlirnlifB 
 
 193. Iloiirbun Lniiiy 4. Auziinco 
 193. 5I.Bt. X'lncenl 5. AnhiuHon 
 
 3.58. Bt. Pourcain 
 'J.59. lli'Tiiiaon 
 '3tiO. Muiit Lucoo. 
 
 SOUTH PART. 
 
 Prnvioi f 
 
 MARCH 1;. 
 heparlnii'nt uf 
 I. Cruiliu. 
 I. llouBiinc 
 '3. .InrlifiL'e 
 3. Clianiho 
 
 l94. rournuB 
 l!t5. Rnmonny 
 
 196. i^nnhnoR 
 
 197. t'huloniiu 
 
 198. ChHlnns 
 190 Niilay 
 300. Monii'ciilB 
 31)1. Aiitun 
 A)3. Siiuliuu 
 
 I'W. nialcaii H:ilin« 30:1, Ariniy lo Puc 
 
 133. Nomony '.ill. Monuiio 
 Ii!4. Oiirzo gtrt. Ni-.ii. 
 
 135. FroooB 'jotl, Dijnn 
 
 136. at. Miiiii'l '307. I. am Td 
 
 137. ViiubiTnun '2i|H. Si'innr 
 
 138. Verilun 'Ml. Aviilon 
 
 139. Varonnca sJIO. «'onl mgo lea 
 l.jO. K,«lain , Viocea 
 Ul. Moolniiidy ml. Auxorro 
 t»i. Loiinny iji'i. ViTiniinton 
 VXl llricy 313. RnviuruB 
 
 134. Moll 314. Mnnlbard 
 35' I ''"1"",".° '■"■''• I'»i»n>'ux 
 
 136. Si. AvoM . ijifl. t'Imlillmi nur 
 1.17. Harri-xuunnneB Boino 
 
 138. Bilchu. 317. Tonnerrc 
 
 Province of 2'fi' St. Flnrcoiin 
 
 AI^SM'P, 319. Jnijny _ 
 
 Dcmrtmenli. 220' VillcncuvolMr- 34. Villo t'onlul, 
 XVII. Lower Hbino,,, chovequu 
 
 ™"vv" ':r^!^' »i- '■'™ «"' Vunne 
 !•!■•■ yyi'H»ernl)ure o.j;). Si.Julicn. 
 
 I'rnvinro of 
 ORLEANAIS 
 
 6 Pellolin 
 
 7. Cuurline. 
 
 Provincp nf 
 
 LIMOU.si.V. 
 
 Department uj 
 
 II. Corrozo. 
 
 8. irBBel 
 
 9. Burl 
 
 10. Kgleton.. 
 
 Province of 
 
 GIJIEWE. 
 
 iiepartuiftit nf 
 
 III. Aveyron. 
 
 11. Fiffeac 
 13. Livikinnc 
 
 13. Villolrnniho 
 
 14. Bt. Sernin 
 1.5. Bt. Aliiimo 
 
 16. HI. Rnnie 
 
 17. Milhiiu 
 
 18. Rndct 
 
 19. Bt'verac 
 30. Br. Ceniez 
 SI.Guiollo 
 33. Knirnicnoa 
 33. F.fipalinn 
 
 LVt')' 
 
 lUuartmiinlM. 
 Vj. Loire 
 Vli. Rhone. 
 
 44. L'llopiml 
 
 45. Piicudii'rii 
 
 46. Roiinne 
 
 47. Aiitiicpeniu 
 
 48. 'I'hizy 
 
 49. yillelruncho 
 ,50. f.yon. 
 51. Uerori 
 53. Muntbriion 
 .5). Hl.R„inl.i,rt 
 .54. Hi. KlipiiiM, 
 .55. Bt.t'linmnnd 
 
 50. Uiiijnaw. 
 
 Province of 
 DAIIPIIINY 
 Dtpnriments uf 
 VIII. Iw're 
 IX, I'.PPir AlpB 
 X. Drume. 
 ,57. Vienno 
 .58, Peilge 
 ,50. f 'ote 81. Aitdre 
 Oil. Honrfrniii 
 61. ('reniii-n 
 IN. La Tour ilu Pin 
 63. Voiron 
 (M Si.Barrnux 
 6.5. tirennble 
 611. Miirrellin 
 
 67. Ln Mure 
 
 68. Hour)- irOyLina 
 
 69. Briani-nii 
 
 70. Monldtiiiiihiti 
 
 71. St. Iloniiol 
 TJ. Die 
 
 73. Beaufort 
 
 74. St.. loan do Roi 
 
 75. Uero 
 
 76. Hi. Vnllicr 
 
 77. Vnirnco 
 
 78. ( 'rent 
 
 79. Monlelimiirl 
 
 80. NiopB 
 
 81. Lnrxu 
 83. Ariiencon 
 
 83, Gap 
 
 84. Knihrun. 
 
 Priiviitceor 
 LA.NGI'EIKlO. 
 hnmrlm.nti. 
 \y Giiril 
 
 Avi ■ n',V'i-°rXoir« 
 
 XX, Tarn 
 XXI. Aude. 
 r.K. AigueB-mortea 
 l'j:i. Biiinmierea 
 
 134. Niaioea 
 -,1,5 trie. 
 
 140. Iliii!urn.tu 
 
 141. Boiiuuinen 
 143. BaveriiL' 
 
 143. BirHKlnirg 
 
 144. Mnlthi'ini 
 
 145. Bchi'iRtiit 
 1411. Si. Marie nux 
 
 Mini',1 
 147. Cdniiir 
 U". Ncuf liriawh 
 I49. NlnDiiiinit'n 
 l.M). Al'iiirih 
 15l.l'h'itin 
 1.53. tJiroiniipny. 
 Prnvinri- nf 
 FRANCIir,- 
 
 ("DVTK. 
 
 l>epnrttHfvtt. 
 
 XIX, rjipft Huuni' 
 
 iiejf'irtmmt of 
 
 XXVI. Loirel. 
 334- C''ourlpnny 
 'J-.'5, Chiilillon 
 S-Jfl. Monlnrsia 
 337. llnvne 
 
 ti*. I'llliivi.'ra 
 O-ilt. t'onilireux 
 230. Bully 
 ?ll.(iien. 
 
 Province of 
 
 BKRRI, 
 
 Jtn'orlntrnt nf 
 
 XXVII. Cher. 
 333. Aul/igny 
 
 Provinco nf 
 AUVERGNK. 
 /tenortmnit.t. 
 IV. (^antiil 
 V. Dome. 
 25. MonnI Saivy 
 36. Maura 
 27. Anrillnc 
 
 Province of 
 
 PROVENCE. 
 
 Itfpiirtmnits, 
 
 XI. VnuctiiHe 
 
 Xll. Irfiwer AlpB 
 
 XIII. Vnr 
 
 XIV. MonibBufthc 
 Rhone. 
 
 K5. Barcelonnctto 
 HI. (^ohniira 
 
 87. Digno 
 
 88. Biileron 
 
 89. Farcal(|iiict 
 
 90. Bnult 
 
 91. Vaiaon 
 93. Ornnge 
 93. t'nrpentraa 
 91. Avignon 
 
 95. Orgon 
 
 96. Cavnillon 
 
 97. Lan.ueDe 
 
 98. Am 
 !I9. Manosiiuo 
 
 100. Lea Mees 
 11)1 Ricx 
 103, Cnalellnno 
 
 103. Entreviiui 
 
 104. St. Aiilmn 
 III.5. Venre 
 IIMi. Antibea 
 107. nraaae 
 
 3?^. Chinidea Aifjiiw lOH. Dracuiitniin 
 
 3il. Hi. Flour 
 :itl. Maaainc 
 31 Mural 
 
 33. Mniiri.tc 
 ■X.\. Hcisnca 
 
 34. R.,ii,:e 
 .35. Iwnire 
 '.^\. Ainbert 
 
 37. Billom 
 
 38. Clirmont 
 ;!!l. Rnchefnit 
 
 411. I'ont Gibaud 
 41 MiMitaigit 
 
 IIKI. Frcjns 
 no. fit.Tiopez 
 
 111. Le Luc 
 
 112. Mierc* 
 
 113. llriL'nnlln 
 
 114. Si.Maximi 
 11.5. Tnuinn 
 
 I Hi. I.u Ciolut 
 
 117. Miirseilloa 
 
 118. A IX 
 
 ll!i. Mnrtiguca 
 130. Salon 
 1'3I. Arli'S 
 
 136. I'oiil 81. Eapril 
 VII. Ilarjnc 
 138 Alala 
 1'39. Gpiiiiilhac 
 1:10, Vdlefiirt 
 1:11. L'ArgeiiUoiv 
 i;l3. Vivie™ 
 133. Auhenu 
 1:M. Privaa 
 1!I5. Tnurnnn 
 i:t6. Annonay 
 I;i7, Hr. Agrpv* 
 
 138. Ywingeaul 
 
 139. Si. lulien do 
 
 «V ip 
 
 140. Le . u» 
 
 141. Riioud 
 143. Luiiueae 
 
 143. (•hofvd'^Ap 
 
 144. .loviila 
 14,5, Laitgo)in« 
 
 146. Miirvpjula 
 
 147. Munile 
 
 148. Canourgue 
 
 149. Floiae 
 1.50. Muyriieia 
 15l.t.eVi«an 
 1.53. Anduie 
 
 1.53. Gangca 
 
 1.54. Monlpoliei 
 
 1.55. Rnhiruo 
 
 1.56. Ppzcnaa 
 
 1.57. Lodeve 
 I.V^. Itedarrieui 
 
 159. La Cauno 
 
 160. Alby 
 
 161. Caalrea 
 
 163. Piiia LaurunB 
 lliil. Mazainot 
 1IV4. St. Puna 
 16.5. Hi'ziurt 
 
 166. Narbunna 
 
 167. tJimnoB 
 16H. (^urcawonne 
 1H9, Pi. Pupoul 
 
 170. Fanjeaux 
 
 171. Alpt 
 173. Hoiinme 
 
 173. Uuillan 
 
 174. LaGraiaw 
 
 Province of 
 
 ROII8BILLON 
 
 Jtepartmenl of 
 
 XXlf. EnnlcrnPy- 
 
 reneea. 
 
 175. nivesaltea 
 
 176. Prades 
 
 177. Mt. Louia 
 
 178. Praia de Molo 
 
 179. Cerct 
 
 180. Pcrpignan. 
 
 Rivers. 
 a Rhine 
 b Moaello 
 c Meu«e 
 d Aiflne 
 
 F.iicaul or Schcldi 
 1' Bnmmo 
 
 KOirn 
 Marno 
 i Seine 
 j Aubo 
 k Serain 
 
 1 Yonne 
 m Itnire 
 n Allier 
 
 n Le Cher 
 p Loi 
 q Tarn 
 r .Audo 
 H Rhone 
 t Duiancc 
 u 1^ re 
 v A in 
 w S'lone 
 X vlittnon 
 y Douba 
 7. Loue. 
 
 » «t 
 
 ill; 
 
 i- ! ! 
 
 I 
 
 ; A.4 
 
!m 
 
 DKSC'RIl'TIVK (ilK Hill AIM IV. 
 
 I'Aur III. 
 
 by piirt of flic front iiT of tlio NctlicrlaiulM, On thu i",\*\ it m Ixnindi-i! liy Orriniiny, Irom 
 which it JH iliviilpti liy th<i Ithiiic, iiml by Hwitzurleiml iiiiil Italy, whii'ii lir on the other xiilii 
 ofthu inlKlity iNirrii.T of tlio .\I|ih. Hh southern liinitu iiro llm .MriiitiTnini'iin iiml the linniil 
 ifthinuH lllU'd by thi- I'yronfos, on tlio othor riiilu uf which oxtoniln iIk.' S|>iiriihh |ii'iiiiiFulu. 
 On Iho wi'r-t iM tlip Alliintlv, iiiiii nmro CHjHH-iiilly thiit \ist ;riilt' calli'il tin' liny of IliM-ay. 
 Thp NoiithiTii I'xtroniify, on thn lino of tlm I'yri'iii'i')-, fallH in I'J ' IIO' N. hit. tho northfrn 
 bcyonil Dunkirk in 51° 1(1', iiiakiii}r in li'iiu'tli oiirlit anil ii halt' ili'mrrooH of latitiiih-. 'I'ho 
 breadth may ho from H'^ 'JO' I). Ion;;., to ■{" -W VV. lonif. niukiii!,'' Ihirtoon ili'jrrocH of lonjfi- 
 tlldo. 'I'IiIh will )(ivo iliinonHioiiH nearly Hi|iiiire of T)!)*) iniltN from north to xoiith, anil •W) 
 IVoin oast to we!(t. The NiijH;rllcial extent iHulH>iif.205,(KH)Eii({liiili iJi|uuro iiiihM, oriomowhut 
 above i:i(MNM),INIl) ucreN. 
 
 Tho Hurfiico of tliiij very oxteiiHivo territory in in ;,'eneral level, altlioU''h il iMirderi', anil 
 ia (Microiichoil iijion hy tho greuiest inoiintain riuiKi'H of Kuropo. The .\(|m rover tho full 
 half of itHoimtern tVontier, and tlii'ir hninchcH extending into Paiiphiny and I'roveiiee, render 
 them very rufrijod iind romantic i ^j(iollH. Tho Pyrenees, which rank wcoiid anions the 
 chains of'^tho (.'ontinent, niiit'o nlonjj tlni uoiilliprn lH>rder, and cover with their branclie« 
 Rousfiillon and Ouncony. On the eadt, whoro Franco reaeheH to tho Itliine, an; the Viw^th 
 and other elmin.s of nuxlernte hoi^ht, parallel to that river. The only rantfo excliinively French, 
 18 that of Auverjjno, in tho centre of tho kir.jjdom, wliioh not only iiicliide.t all that province 
 whoro it riscH to tho heij;ht of r)<K)() or tMHK) fei.'t, but BtrctcliiM by a winding' line iilon^ the 
 loft bank of the Allier to I.an;riiedoc, imrallel to the coast of the Meiliterrunean, where it Ih 
 called tho Cevonnos. But hy tiir tho greater part of Fmnci>, including the whole north and 
 tho whole west, iaono widely extended plain, which yields in very hij^h perfection all the 
 fruits and pnxlucta of the temperate zone. 
 
 Tho rivers of Franco, thoiiirh not of tho tirat maj^nitnde, arc noble ond comtnndioiifi. 
 Traversing almost every part of tho kiiifriloin, they afllinl ample means of internal navipition ; 
 and tho broad plains which bonier on them yield tho most luxuriant harvests, Tho Ixiiro, 
 which is tho princiiiol, rises in the south, on thelwrdersof I'rovonce, and (lows for some time 
 nearly north, parallel to tho conrso of the Rhone and the SnAne, thoniLrh in an op(xisito direc- 
 tion. Near Nevers it receives the Allier, which in n parallel and nearly equal stream has 
 hitherto accompanied it; it now praduolly bends round into a westerly course, which it fol- 
 lows llirouKh the plain < of Orleanais nnil Toiiraine, the {fonleii of Franco, till after a course 
 of T(K) miles, it falls invo the sea a little below the great coininercial city of Nantes. Tho 
 Rhone is not at first a I'lench river : it rises in the heart of .Switzerlanil, amid the eternal 
 snows and glaciers of the Grimsel and the Shreckhorn, and ndls its earliest course beneath 
 tho mighty mountain walls of St. Gotlmrd, Monte Rosa, and the Simulon. It now expands 
 into the Lenian lake, from whence it emerg(>s near Geneva, where it soon enters France, 
 and rolls direct towanls Lyons. At that great city, it receives the Saiine, bringing down an 
 ainplo stream from tho Vosgo.s, swelled by that ot the Doubs from tho Jurn. The Rhone, 
 now following the direction of its tributary, turns directly south, and, after a rapid course 
 through Dauphiny and Provence, i-nters the Meditorraneun by several mouths. In this course, 
 tho Alps f rnnsmit it to tho Isere, and tho classical Btreain of the Durance : its entire length 
 may bo 5(H) miles. Tho Seine, though of iiilerior magnitude, claims distinction as flowing 
 by tho metropolis: it rises on the frontier of Burgundy, and runs almost due north till it 
 receives the parallel and nearly equal Aube, when their united waters flow west ond north- 
 west. Before reaching Paris, it receives from the south the Yonne, and from tho north, 
 almost under the walls of the capital, its greatest tributary, the Marne. At Paris it is navi- 
 gable for vessels of consideruhlo burden. Beyond Paris, the Seine makes some e.xtensivo 
 windings, and is augmented from the north by the waters of the Oise bringing those of the 
 Aisne. It then poRscs the fine an. flourishing city of Rouen, and, spreading into an estuary, 
 joins the English Channel at the ancient [lort of Havre. The Garonno has a course of still 
 less extent, though its broad navigable stream, flowing through a magnificent plain, the most 
 productive in valuable wino of any in France, gives it a high commercial hiiportanco. It 
 rises near the eastern Pyrenees, and flows northward to Toulouse, where it assumes a steady 
 north-west course, during which, swelled from the nort.'' by »be Aveyron, tho Lot, and tho 
 Dordogne, and passing the great haven of Bordeaux, it becomes an e^fuary, capable of re- 
 ceiving tho largest vessels. Tho Rhino is to France only a limitary rivor for somewhat 
 above 100 miles ; but its great tributaries, tho Moselle and the Mouse, rise and have most 
 of their early course within its territory. The important Belgic river, the Scheldt, also rises 
 within the French territory. 
 
 France has no lakes, which, in a general view, seem worthy of mention. 
 
 Sect. II.— Natural Gro/rraphy. 
 
 SUBSECT. \. Geolo/ry. 
 
 Primitive ami transition dhlrirts. In France there are six districts where the older 
 ocks, or those of the primitive and transition classes, prevail ; viz. Western Normandy, with 
 
 
mv 
 
 I'Aur III. 
 
 nimiiy, fruiii 
 (• oitiiT Hulo 
 III till' lirmiil 
 
 I |M'lllll.-lllll. 
 I u( IlirCliy. 
 
 h<i iiurtlii'rii 
 
 illlllf. 'I'lll! 
 
 'I'M lit' l)iii|;i- 
 nil, 1111(1 %*)() 
 iirxoiniiwhut 
 
 Ixinlorn, iiiul 
 IVIT lilt) full 
 ■(•iicp, roiuler 
 I luiiiiiiK the 
 fir l>riiiicliufi 
 ) the Vo<<){c» 
 Vfly French, 
 lliiit province 
 iiii' iilon({ the 
 1, where it !« 
 iile north iind 
 !Ctiun uU the 
 
 coimnodimis. 
 il niivijfiition; 
 The Loire, 
 for Home time 
 ip(xisite (lirec- 
 nl stroHtii has 
 , which it tbl- 
 iitlor a course 
 Vatites. Tlio 
 il the elerniil 
 ourso benenth 
 now expomls 
 ntorrt Frniicc, 
 ping down an 
 Tlie Rhone, 
 rapid course 
 In this course, 
 entire length 
 ion as flowinp; 
 le north till it 
 Dst and north- 
 om the north, 
 iris it is navi- 
 iiiio extensive 
 nr those of the 
 to an estuary, 
 lurso of still 
 ilain, the most 
 iportancc. It 
 uines a steady 
 Lot, and tho 
 :npable of re- 
 for somewhat 
 id have nioet 
 Idt, also rises 
 
 Sooil. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 flSI 
 
 ere the older 
 rmandy, witl. 
 
 Britnny and .Anjou ; tho northern Hid«t of tho Pyrcnepn; tlie deportin»<nti' ofthn Tinwer Alpg, 
 lIpiK'r Aliw, ami |>art of tho Im'^rn ; Contral rraiici', or tin- talilr-land of France ; central 
 part of till' VoH^i'i ; mid the Ardcnm^N. 
 
 (1.) Wififrn Nnrmamly, llritiiny, and Anjoti. In tluN ri'ifion tho rockn arc [wrlly N«<jh 
 tiiniiiii, iMirtly IMiiloiiian : thn Neptunian ntnita am ((<><'>>''*i uiira iihite, rliiy Niati', un-y* 
 wai'ki', ipiiirtz rix:k, and linieMtone; tho Plutonian rockit are /xrariite, Nyenite, K>'<'''UMt<inOt 
 and |Hirpliyry. 
 
 (','.) Sorllirrn niilr nf Ihr I'l/rrnrei. On tho French iido of tho I'yrenoo* tho centml 
 riK'kH are uf primitive tiiriiiutinn, and cnnniHt of mica nliite, clay nliite, liuicHtniie, or marble; 
 ri'jioNiii;; ii|Nin thcne, and tiiiiiiiii); the ((feat body of tb>' raii^^e, uro rockH of the trunsilioii 
 cla/'i; vi'/., clay tilate, (frey wacko, and 'traimitioii liniUMton.'. 
 
 (;j.) DfparlmrntK < if I hi: Imwit and Upper Alpi, and part of hirr. In thiHinouiitainouii 
 roKion there are mat;iiiMceiit illiiplayR of many of thu inoi'o intorcgtinf; tbriiiationM of tho 
 primitive and tran^itinn classeo. 
 
 (4.) Central laldr-lund or pliiliaii of h\ance, 'I'lio centre of France is ocrupietl by a 
 vai<t table-land or |>lati>au of old rucks, in (;oneral Granite, which form.-i tlie inouiitairM of 
 RurKundy, tho LimoUHJn, Aveyron, Anleche, and tlio Covcnncii. It is iiKire than ei^rhty 
 leoffueH in breadth from tho lii'i(r|iin of Limo);pa; but in proccodiiiif towardn the moiiiIi, it(;rn- 
 dually lliins off, and ti'rminnti'H in a (wint which connecta it with the Mi)nta;,Mie Noiro. 
 This latter ^niup of old rocks fornia a kind of iH'niiisula, which is scpimited from the 
 Pyrenees, by a liiii((itii(iiiial basin of secondary unil tertiary furniations. I'lie acclivities of 
 this central granitic table-land, and sonio of itn hollows, are covered more or less densely 
 with newer rocks of various descriptions. Resides these, there occurs on its eastern part a 
 splendid display of vidcanic rocks. Thn primitive and transition rocks of this table-land aro 
 tlio following; viz. j;ranite, (lorphyry, talc slate, serjientine, (rnoiss, clay slute, (freywacke, 
 and limestone. ' 
 
 (5.) Central part of the Votffm. Tho oldest rocks in this ranjfe of mountains, and which 
 nro said to belonjf to the transition class, are the followinjf : jrranite, syenite, hornblende 
 rocks, greenstone, red (|uartziforous porphyry, aii!,'itic porphyry, dolomite, diallajje rock, 
 Dcrpentine, talc slate, clay slate, ({reywacke, with anthracite, granular and compact marble 
 or limestone. 
 
 (6.) Ardennes. That part of this range of mountainaincludwl within the limitsofl'Vance, 
 which lielongs to the older part of tho geopnostical series, is composed of various clay slates, 
 with greywacke, all of which seem to behmff to thn transition class. 
 
 Secondary districts. The lower and flatter parts of Fnincn which extend from thn primi- 
 tivo and transition districts, ore composed of secondary and tertiary de|Misits, more or les.^ 
 covered with alluvial matters; and in some quarters interminfrled with volciinic rocks. Tlio 
 secondary formations arc arranged in the same order, and exhibit s'lmibir relations with 
 tliose already dcscrilied in our account of Hritain. The mountain limestone and coal fonna- 
 tions form, when contrasted with their abundance in Rritain, but a small portion of tho siir- 
 fece of Franco; while the new red sandstones, with the series of the .Iiira limestone, in- 
 eluding tho oolites, form great tracts of country. Chalk, or uppermost rock of the secondary 
 series, occurs in vast abundance, forming two basins, the one the northern, extending in 
 length from the northern oxtreinitv of Artois to tho southern limit of Touraine, and in breadth 
 from Havre de Grace to near Rar lo Due. Tho northern side of tho southern Imsin extends 
 from Rochefort to Cahors, and tho southern side ranges along tho northern face of the 
 Pyrenees. 
 
 Tertiary districts. Franco is remarkable on account of tho great extent of its tertiary 
 deposits ; of these the following may be considered as the principal ones : — 1. That of which 
 Paris forms tho central point; which extends towards the north as high as I.aon, and south- 
 ward to Rlois; while it stretches across from Pontoiso on the west to Epornny on the east. 
 2. The great southern deposit, which extends from tho south side of the river Girnnde to the 
 south bank of tho river Adour. 3. The south-eastern de|K)sit, which covers part of the De- 
 partments of Ileraiilf, Gard, Mouths of the Rhone, Var, and Vaucliise. 4. The deposit in 
 the valley of the river Allicr, and that in tho upper part of tho course of the I/iire. 5. The 
 great deposit in the course of the Rhine and Sa6ne, extending from about Valence to Dijon. 
 0. 7'he tract along the Rhine, extending from Basle to tho neiglibourhoal of Carlsrhue. 
 
 Volcanic districts. True volcanic rocks occur in France only in the great central table- 
 land or plateau ; in the Departments of Loire, Upper Loire, Cantal, and I'uy de D6nie. Tho 
 volcanic rocks aro basalt ond basalt tufla; trachyte with its tiifl'a; and lava, with its tiiffas, 
 scoria", &c. The newest of these rocks are tho lavas; while tlie basalt and trachytes appear 
 of more ancient date, although still not very old, as wo find them breaking tlirough rocks 
 of the tertiary class. 
 
 Alluvial districts. Alluvia of every description occur in France. Diluvium or the old 
 alluvium fiirms extensive tracts in many quarters of the kingdom, where it contains remains 
 of extant species of animals, of which tho most characteristic are those belonging to the 
 order pachyderma, as the elephant, rliinoceros, &c. Diluvium is also found in caves along 
 
 Vol. I. 44* ao 
 
 wv 
 
 .1: .■■ \ 
 
<U3 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part III. 
 
 Ml I 
 
 ^\vf. 
 
 with bones of extinct animals, particularly of the carnivorous frenera; and rents and Assures 
 in strata ore soinotiincs filled up with a diluvium also containing remains of extinct animals, 
 of which the most characteristic are the small herbivora. Bone caves and bone breccia 
 occur at St. Aiitonin and St. Julien near Montpelier; at Billargues, Vcndargues, and Peze- 
 naB-Henuilt ; at Aiiduze and St. liippolytc, in Gard ; at Aix, in the department of the 
 Moutiis of the Rhone ; at Villefranche and Laurajruais, in the Upper Garonne ; and at Per- 
 pignun, in the Eastern Pyrenees. This diluvium is covered, to a greater or less depth, with 
 the various well-known kinds of modern alluvium and of vegetable soils. 
 
 Mines and Quarries. 
 
 Coal mines. Coal of various descriptions, as gliAicc, bituminous, and brown coal, are 
 mined in the following departments in Prance, affording annually but a small return for so 
 vast u country : — Allier, Aveyron, Moutiis of the Rhone, Calvados, Gard, Herault, Isere, 
 Uppor Ijoiro, Lower Loire, Mayenne and Loire, Moselle, Nievre, North, Pas do Calais, Puy 
 de Dome, Upper Rhine, liower Rhine, Lower Sadne, and Tarn. 
 
 Iron mines. Iron mines, some of tiiem of considerable importance, occur in tiie following 
 departments: — Ardennes, Charente, Cher, C6te d'Or, Dordogne, Doubs, Eure, Eure and 
 Loir, Forets, Indre, Indre and Loire Isere, Jura, liOwer Loire, Upper Marne, Moselle, 
 Nievre, North, Orne, Upper Rhine, Lower Rhine, Upper Sa6ne, Sadne and Loire, and Vosges 
 
 Minej of silver and lead. The principal lead mines and silver mines are tlic following :— 
 
 Minfw of QiiinUIi or Ixad Marcs ot Silver 
 
 FinistiTro Poii llaucn alxmt 8,(100 law 
 
 Dilto IIiiHlgoRt 3,000 II 00 
 
 Lo/.Sre Villefort 18.000 laX) 
 
 IsOru Vifiine 1,300 — 
 
 Copper wines. These are situated in the following departments : — Upper Alps, Rhone, 
 Rhine and Moselle. 
 
 Mines of matiffunese. This metal is mined at Romanechc and St, Micaud, in the depart- 
 ment of the Siirine and Loire ; at Suquet in Dordogne ; in the mountain of Tholey in Mo- 
 selle; at La»r'ine, near Saint Dier, in the Vosges; and at Saint Jean de Gardonenque in 
 the Cevcnnes. 
 
 Mines of untim-^ny. Antimony occurs in the provinces of Charente, Upper Loire, La 
 Vendee, Cantiil, Alli(?r, Gard, and Puy de Ddme. 
 
 Mines of vitriol and alum. The principal mines of sulphate of iron or vitriol are those 
 of Saint Julien de Vujgargue, near Alais, which furnishes annually ;i(),0(H) quintals; and 
 that of BecquGt und of Goincourt, near Beauvais, whicii in some years affords ir),()00 quin- 
 ■ tals ; that of Ural, in the department of Aisne, and of Gersdorf, in tlie department of Jjower 
 Rhine. There are celebrated manufactories of alum at Montpelier, and at Javelle near 
 Paris. Some considerable beds of rock-salt have been discovered at Vic, in tiie department 
 of Meurtlie. One of these is upwards of fourteen yards thick, and another has not as yet 
 been cut tiirough. Although cobalt, arsenic, nickel, and tin also occur in France, no consi- 
 derable mines of those minerals have been established. 
 
 Quarries. The most extensive quarries are those of marble, building-stone, slate, gyp- 
 sum, millstone, and flint. Different kinds of marble are raised at Givet, BralMincon, Mens, 
 Namur, Boulogne sur Mer, Caen, Troyes, Montbar, Cosne, Tournus, Narbonne, Aix. Mar- 
 seilles, Tarb, and in many valleys in the Pyrenees. There are quarries of excellent building- 
 stone in tlie departments of La Manche, Calvados, Moselle, Cote d'Or, Yonne, Oisc, Seine, 
 Jioire, Dordogne, ind in many departments in the snntii. Vast slate quarries are worked in 
 the departments of La Manche, Mouse, Ardennes, Maine and Loire, and at the fcxit of the 
 Pyrenees. In many other places, and particularly in Champagne, &c., tiiere are quarries 
 and pits of clay for brick and tile-making. The gypsum of the neighbourliooil of Paris, the 
 chalk of tlie departments of Marne and Seine, the talc named chalk of Uriani;nn, the mill- 
 stone or bHhr-.sto)ie of Ferte sous Jouarre, are objects of considerable commercial importance. 
 The departments of Yonne, Cher, and Lower Charente, supply all France and different 
 foreign nations with gun-flints. Among tlie clays mot with in France, tiiat of Forges les 
 Eaux, was formerly in great repute in Holland for the manufacture of pipes; the clay or 
 earth of Belbujuf, near Rouen, is considered an excellent material in the purifying of sugar; 
 and the potters' clay of the vicinity of Beauvais and Montereau, and tiie jxircelaiii earth or 
 kao-lin of Saint Yrieix, near Limoges, are higiily esteemed. 
 
 SuBSE<rr. 2. — Botany. 
 Having devoted already so great a portion of our space to preliminary remarks upon vege- 
 table geography on its more extended scale, and to tiiiit of Great Brilain in particular, we 
 must content ourselves with a more limited account of the plants of other cniintricH, other- 
 wise we should greatly overstep the Iwunds proscribed to us by the nature of the present 
 work. Following the plan here adopted for the arrangement of tiie ditrorent countries, 
 France comes next under our notice ; and a more interesting field for the irengrnphical bota- 
 nist does not exist in Europe ; not only because of its extent and vast variety of surface, the 
 
 

 Part III. 
 
 i and fissures 
 inct animala, 
 bone breccia 
 !8, and Peze- 
 Lment of the 
 ; and at Per- 
 s depth, with 
 
 pwn coal, are 
 return for so 
 ierault, Isere, 
 e Calais, Puy 
 
 tlie following 
 re, Eure and 
 rne. Moselle, 
 , and Voages 
 following: — 
 
 ilarcB of Silver 
 
 ..1200 
 
 ..IIUO 
 
 .law 
 
 Alps, Rhone, 
 
 in the depart- 
 fholcy in Mo- 
 irdonenque in 
 
 ipcr Loire, La 
 
 triol arc those 
 quintals ; and 
 s ir»,()00 quin- 
 iipiit of Ijower 
 [ Javelle near 
 le department 
 has not as yet 
 ncc, no const- 
 
 lie, slate, gyp- 
 Ixincon, Mons, 
 no, Aix, Mar- 
 llent building- 
 , Oise, Seine, 
 nre worked in 
 ho f(X)t of the 
 i are quarries 
 I of Paris, the 
 ifoii, the mill- 
 il importance, 
 and different 
 of Forges les 
 ; tlm clay or 
 ing of sugar; 
 elain earth or 
 
 ks upon \ogc- 
 particular, we 
 intrios', othor- 
 )f the present 
 -nt countries, 
 rnpliica! bota- 
 f Kurface, the 
 
 BooxL 
 
 PRANCE. 
 
 529 
 
 preat height of its mountains, and its geological structure ; but because, by the labours of 
 ito naturalist!), especially Lamarck and De CandoUe, the vcgi-tiiblo productions of Franco 
 have been better e.xplored tliun those of almost any other country in liio world. All that we 
 can do here, however, is to notice in general those that are the most interesting, from their 
 utility, their beauty, or some circumstances connected with their history; or as showing how 
 vegetable forms or groups are situated, in regard to their distribution, upon the surface of 
 the eartii. 
 
 France, extending, aa it does, from lat. 42° 30' to 51° N., or nearly to the latitude of 
 London, and from 9° east longitude, to 5° west, is bou.ided liy the Mediterranean, and tiie 
 great chain of the Pyrenees on the soutii ; by the Atlantic on the west ; by the British 
 Channel and the Netherlands on tiie north ; and on the east by Suvoy, Switzerland, and Ger- 
 many, which form, for its entire length, a vast mountain barrier. Such an alpine region 
 cannot fail to exert a manifest influence on the vegetation of a country ; not only because 
 of its own peculiar productions, depending in part on their elevation, and in port on their 
 soil and geological structure, but by tlieir exposure even at the same elevation, on two oppo- 
 site sides ; tliat of the south will bo found to exhibit very different vegetable forms from that 
 of the north ; and sucli mountains often exercise a more powerful influence in limiting the 
 surrounding vegetation, than even seas and rivers. 
 
 Lanmrck and De Candolle, in a very interesting Botanical Map which accompanies their 
 Flore FranqaiHe, 3d edit, have divided France into five regions : — 
 
 (L) The region of maritime plants, which of course extends everywhere along the coast, 
 from C^tond to Bayonne on tlio north and west, and from Perpignan to Oueillo on the Sledi- 
 terranean ; together with the Salines of Dieuze and Chateau Salins near Nancy, and those 
 of Durkheim and Frankensthal near Mayence in the interior. Thus we find that a vegeta/- 
 tion similar to that of the sea-shore exists in the interior, whenever that interior yields 
 a sufficient quantity of marine salt. All the maritime plants of the north of France, accord- 
 ing to M. de Candolle (and they have the greatest affinity with those of England), ore 
 equally found in the south; but the reverse does not hold good; for a very large proportion 
 of the French Mediterranean plants of tiie sea-shore grow very sparingly, if at all, u|)on the 
 shores of the Ocean, principally indeed on the coast of Gascony, and reach no higher than 
 the mouth of the Loire, or at most to the middle of Britany. 
 
 (2.) The refrion of motmtain and alpine plants. When the French, by their conquests, 
 included the I'yrenees, the Alps, and Savoy within the range of the floras of their own 
 country, this region constituted the very richest of any flora in Europe; for it included a 
 country, not only of considerable extent, but mountains, and in very southern latitudes, many 
 of whoso crests rise greatly beyond the line of perpetual snow. As France is now limited, 
 the mountains of the Vosges near Strasburg, and of the Cevennes, and those of Auvergne, 
 whose origin is volcanic, exhibit its most alpine scenery : omong the latter, the Puy de Sasi, 
 one of the Monts d'Or, rises to an elevation of 6300 feet obove the level of the sea. The 
 Plonib du Cantal is estimated at 62(X), and the Puy de D6me at 5000 foet. If the summits 
 of the Pyrenees and of the Jura be considered as forming the natural barrier of Prance, as 
 constituting her line of separation from the adjacent territories, she will still jiossess on 
 (!xceedingly rich alpine flora in the northern side of the former and the western side of the 
 latter mountains. But the line of demarcation of this region is nevertheless not so distinctly 
 marked as in the preceding region. The valleys exposed to the sun often participate in the 
 vegetation of the southern provinces, while the cooler valleys exhibit a growth wliJch has 
 more in common with the vast plain in the north and centre of France. However, it is 
 undeniable that these some districts do contain a very considerable number of plants which 
 are peculiar to them, and found on almost all the more elevated mountains of Franco; for 
 whatever differences the chain of the Vosges and the Jura may present from those of Au- 
 vergne, the Cevennes, ond the Pyrenees in the south, it is allowed that the at-pect of their 
 vegetation oflers considerable traits of similarity, and tiiat the greater part of the mountain 
 plants are alike found on the different chains. 
 
 (3.) A third region, and a very important and interesting one, is that of the Mediterranean 
 pZa/if.s.'tliis, of course, is bounded on the south by the Mediterranean Sen, and stretches 
 inland (ill you come to the foot of the mountains, or following the course of the Rhone, 
 extending north aa far as Montelimart on that river ; or it may be said to occupy or constitute 
 the grei t basin of the mouth of the Rhone. 
 
 (4.) A vast region is occupied by the plains, whase vegetation is very uniform. This 
 comprises more than one-half of France, and especially all tiie plain country situated to the 
 north of tin; chains of mountains. Many of thesi; plants are found in other regions already 
 indiouted ; but it wants the species which are peculiar to e;ich of those respectively. 
 
 (5.) and lastly — MM. Lamarck and Do Candolle indicate an intermediate region, which 
 includes plants partaking of the nature of the plains of tlm north ond the provinces of the 
 south. Tliis occupies a large portion of the south-west of France, and some districts up the 
 valley of the Rhone between Montelimart and Lyons. 
 
 The map just alluded to has these different regions represented in different colours, and 
 
 n 
 
 ■ r 
 ( 
 
 I t 
 
 !. ^ 
 
 * il 
 
 r \ 
 
DM 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOC.RAPllY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 ' Ji 
 
 ia attended wiUi this advanto^^o, that, by the Blifrhtnst iiinpoction, a prcnnral idea i» conveyed 
 of the prcvailin^f nature of vegetation in any given diHtrict. We Hee that the plants of the 
 ■outliern provinces reticmblo more those of Uie north as you advance by the west side of 
 Franco tliiin by the ea.st; that the floras of Mans on tlio Imrder of Normandy, und of Nantca 
 upon the Loire, in lut 47" and 48°, scarcely ditTer from tiiui^e of Dax and Agon, between lat, 
 43° und 44° ; whilst on the cast side of France, the pnKluctions of Dijon and Strani)nrg vary 
 considerably from tiiose of Montpelicr and Aix, Hiliiated at nearly similar relative distances 
 from each other. All this is accounted for on the principle:^ we iiave alr(!ady laid down, 
 namely, that the stations of plants are mainly influenced by temperature; and tiiat the mean 
 temperature of a place is greatly <letermined by distance from the e(|uat(>r, and elevation 
 above the level of the bob. According to M. de Candolle, an altitude of 4(H) feet above the 
 level of the sea affectn the temperature nearly to the same extent as a degree of latitude 
 nearer to the north in the eastern hemisphere. 
 
 By comparing the wcHtern provinces of France with the eastern, we see that the surface 
 of the former is but little raised above the level of the sea ; for, even ut a considerable 
 distance from the coast, the hills scarcely exceed !)(K) feet; whilst, on the other hand, upon 
 the western side, in the midst of a mountainous region, the plain has generally an elevation 
 of from liMKI to 1000 feet. This height diminishes, it is true, on the Belgian frontier; but 
 there the temperature is sensibly affected by the second cause adduced, namely, the distance 
 from the equator. Thus, there is notliing but what is conformable to physical laws, in the 
 southern plants having a greater resemblance to those of the north uiwn the west, than on 
 the east side of France. 
 
 But even where the mean temperature is the same, the distribution of plants between 
 these two parts of France may yet bo very different, on account of the different degrees of 
 temperature at particular seasons of the year. We have already stated that, tlie latitudes 
 being the same, maritime countries enjoy a more equal temperature than districts removed 
 from the sea ; in other words, that tlio summers are less warm, the winters less cold : thus, 
 the provinces of the west of France, which are all maritime, experience this degree of uni- 
 formity ; which cannot take place in tlie east, being fur from the sea, and in the vicinity of 
 the mountains. 
 
 Plants now, in what concerns climate, may be divided into two classes: those which 
 suffer from a severe winter cold, but which, during summer, do not require an excess "' 
 heat ; and those which can endure great severity of cold in winter, but, during sumn ' 
 require a great proportion of heat. In the first class, M. de Candolle places all tiiose tree: 
 which, without being resinous, preserve their leaves, and consequently their sup, through the 
 winter; in fact, the greater proportion of the trees of the south being found, whether 
 indigenous or naturalised, towards the north in the maritime provinces ; such as the Live 
 Oak, the Cork Tr»5e, the Kcrmes Oak, the Strawberry Tree (,Arbutus), the Bay, the Fig, 
 
 TheOliTe. 
 
 The Vine. 
 
 the Phillyrea, &.c. On the other hand, in the second class, that is to say, among such as 
 can brave a great degree of cold, and do so because the movement of the sap is interrupted 
 
Part HI. 
 
 Ih convpye«l 
 lanta of the 
 vcBt side of 
 J of NantcB 
 jiawucn lat. 
 nAnirg vary 
 vv dJHtanccs 
 f luid down, 
 lit tlio mean 
 lid elevation 
 et ubovo the 
 2 of latitude 
 
 t the surface 
 considerable 
 r hand, upon 
 an elevation 
 frontier; but 
 tiie distance 
 laws, in the 
 rest, than on 
 
 ints between 
 it degroeB of 
 the latitudes 
 riots removed 
 »8 cold : thus, 
 legrce of uni- 
 hc vicinity of 
 
 those wV.icli 
 an excess. "♦ 
 ring sumiT^ 
 all tliose treei 
 ), through the 
 iind, wliether 
 ;h as the Live 
 
 Bay, the Fig, 
 
 Book I. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 525 
 
 nong such as 
 lis interrupted 
 
 272 
 
 by the ikll of the folia{^, in the Vine, &c., and those that avoid cold because the planto, or 
 \l leaat their stems, are annual, such os Maize. It may be readily supposed tliat the indi- 
 viduals belonging to the second class will flourish better, and become more easily naturalised 
 on the cast than on the west coast of France. 
 
 Ijot UH applv this law to a peculiarity in regard to the cultivation of those moxt precious 
 Vfc/^clable productions of Franco, naniciv, llie Olive (Jiff. 270.), the Maize, and the Vine 
 (jEjf. 271.). Mr. Arthur Youn|r, during his travels in France, paid great attention to agri- 
 culture and tlie mode of cultivation adopted there, and published a map of the countrv, in 
 which he ropro.sontcd, by three nearly parallel linos, the northern limits of the three plants 
 just alluded to, the Olive, the Maize, and tiie Vine. It excited the surprise of miiny, that 
 the lines should ascend most to the north on the east side of the country, or, in other words, 
 that the plants in (|Ucgtion should grow farther north in the eastern than in the western 
 districts; directly the reverse of what takes place in regard tc the aboriginal native pro<luc- 
 tions of the soil. This apparent contradiction is reconcile*! by the twofold cotnpariNon of the 
 physical nature of the east and west of Fnince, and of the character of the plants cultivated, 
 oa conipanid with the wild species. 
 
 The nature of the cultivated productions in question forms a striking feature, which can- 
 not fail to arrest the attention of a traveller while journeying through the districts thus 
 appropriated, and forcibly to exhibit their agricultural riches. In the extreme south of 
 Prance, between a line drawn from Narbonne, in lat. 43° N. and in the meridian of I'aris, 
 to a little below Grenoble, he will find the plains, parched and dry as they naturally arc, 
 rendered still more mi-liinclioly by the lurid green or the olivc-grovea. Between that line 
 and another drawn from the mouth of the Garonne rather below 46°, to nour Strasbiirg, in 
 the north-west, he will observe, together with the vino, which is by no means wanting in 
 all the southern provinces, fields whiirn the gigantic maize (Jiff. 272.) takes the place of 
 
 what wo Msuully term bread-corn; again, between it and a 
 line extending from the mouth of the Loire to the Riiine, 
 imssing at about an e(|uni diistiincc between the Mcnso and 
 the Moselle, he will find, interniingb-d with vineyards, 
 fertile fields of corn, wheat (^jjr. 27.'3.), oats, nnd barley; 
 whilst, nortli of tiiat line, there exists a most perfect simi- 
 larity in agriculture witli that which prevails throughout 
 the greater part of England. Fruit trees of all the kinds 
 that arc grown in Britain, here attain a much greater degree 
 of perfection than in that country, because of the increased 
 heat of the summers. 
 
 Thus, in what concerns a great portion of the territory 
 of France, its vegetable productions 'much resemble those 
 of the southern (larts of Great Britain. 
 
 It is not, perhaps, generally known that that most uscfiil 
 root, the Potato, was cultivated in almost every part of 
 Europe before its value was appreciated, and its culture 
 became general, near the capital of Franco. To England 
 is due the credit of first growing it upon a large; scale. 
 Upon the Continent it was introduced between the years 
 1714 and 1724 into Swabia, Alsace, and the Palatinate ; 
 and in 1730 to the vicinity of Berne. In 1774, potatoes 
 were known on the mountains of the Cevennes, where they 
 now constitute a main portion of the food of the people : but 
 it is principally to the famous M. Parmentier that France 
 owes the general use of potatoes. The following anecdote 
 may give some idea of the n.ssiduity with which this philanthropic individual laliourcd to 
 generalise their culture; it is well attested that ho farmed some spots of ground in the 
 vicinity of Paris for this sole purpose, though the prejudice against potatoes was then so 
 strong, that few of the poor persons to whom he offered 'the rtHDts would accept of tliem. 
 However, M. Parmentier soon suspected that people occasionally stole his [x)tatoes to eat 
 them : he was well pleased at this, and continued to plant what he hoped would Ik; purloined, 
 rightly concluding that the experience of the thieves would contribute to diminish the 
 established preju<lice. A*ler much trouble ond many years, he had succeeded in proiiagatinjr 
 potatoes in several situations, when the dreadful scarcity, the consequence and effwt of the 
 revolutionary disturbances, suddenly rendered their cultivation universal ; and now they 
 form so constant an article of food, that the common people generally believe them to be 
 aboriginal natives of the country. 
 
 The mountains of France exhibit the British alpine plants, with many others that are 
 iicculiar to themselves, and which they possess in common with the higher Alps of S witzer- 
 rind. Savoy, Germany, and the Pyrenees. 
 Of the mtermediatc region, as De Candolle terms it, a great portion lying in the aouth- 
 
 The Maira. 
 
 
 5 I 
 
 HI 
 
Ill 
 
 1:1 
 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pabt III. 
 
 west of France, embracoa a country called the Landes, where the shepherd-peasantry 
 whether walking, or at rest during the day, live upon stilte {xcangues, in the langua||;e o! 
 
 Whcit, Onti, and Bailer. 
 
 the country): this custom gives them the opportunity of viewing the land around in search 
 cif their sheep, for a great extent, of wading through the numerous shallow lakes of water ; 
 
 and by these means it is said they can tra- 
 verse triple the space of ground they could 
 do by the ordinary mode of walking; when 
 they stop, they support themselves by a long 
 stick behind. In this same district a vast 
 extent of flat Innd near the ocean, and ex- 
 tending from Bayonne in the south to the 
 Tf'tc do Buch in the norfli, and for a dis- 
 tance of from four to twelve leagues inland, 
 is occupied by forests of Pine {I'invs mart- 
 lima) {fir. 274.) : tiicse are called Pigna- 
 dus, and tiicy give a remarkable feature to 
 the Iflndes, in conjunction with the habits 
 cif the people ami their dress, the latter 
 consisting entirely of sheep-skins with the 
 hair outwards, little different in outward 
 appearance from the flocks which it is the 
 great object of their lives to tend. The 
 ropinoiis substances of the pine are extract- 
 eii in immense quantities; in doing whicli, 
 one man takes care of liOOO trees. The 
 Country being so dry, these pignadas are 
 liable to alarming conflagrations; one of 
 them that took place in 1803, continued 
 burning for two months. The mo<le adopt- 
 ed for extinguishing tliem is ren)arkuble : 
 when one part of the forest is in flames, it 
 is customary to set fire to another spot, at 
 a greater or less distance, according to the 
 magnitude of the evil ; a current of air 
 soon takes place between the burning 
 masses, which drives the conflagration 
 from 'oth sides on the intermediate trees ; 
 these are shortly consumed, the fire dies 
 out for want of fuel, and the rest of the forest is preserved. 
 
 But tlie Mediterranean region, wiiich we have already mentioned, and whose vegetation 
 partakes of what is found to characteiize tiie whole shores of that vast inland sea, has many 
 plants so diflt.'rcnt from those of tlie rest of France, tiiat it would be unpardonable did we not 
 particularise some of tliem. 
 
 Almost everywhere in tliis region, the soil is described as consisting of the secondary 
 iimestone of the Jura, extending to the very brmk of the sea, forming arid coasts, often 
 utterly destitute of vegetation, or clothed with Wild Olives and the Aleppo Pine iPinus 
 
 Tire Pine. 
 
Paht III. 
 
 peasantry 
 nguage o! 
 
 
 
 GuOK I. 
 
 PRANCE. 
 
 097 
 
 . .1 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 nd in search 
 [es of water ; 
 they can tra- 
 11(1 they could 
 Hiking ; when 
 lives by a long 
 listrict a vast 
 cean, and ex- 
 south to the 
 and for a dis- 
 eaftues inland, 
 (_Pin%is mari- 
 cnlled Pigna- 
 d)lc feature to 
 ith the habits 
 ^ss, the latter 
 [skins with the 
 ]it in outward 
 -liich it is the 
 :o tend. Tlie 
 [le arc extract- 
 doing which. 
 I trees. The 
 pifinadas arc 
 itions; one of 
 J03, continued 
 [le mode adopt- 
 ]s reniiirkable : 
 is in flames, it 
 iiiotlier spot, at 
 ;cording to the 
 urrent of air 
 the burning 
 conflagration 
 ^nediate trees; 
 the fire dies 
 
 lose vegetation 
 I sea, has many 
 kble did we not 
 
 I the secondary 
 coasts, often 
 Pine (Ptnus 
 
 "^f' 
 
 halepentis), with Evergreen Oak, Pistachio-Nut, Myrtles, and numerous species of Cistus. 
 Here, too, is found one species of Palm, the Chamairops humilis {Palmetto or Dwarf Palm) ; 
 but it grows principally in the environs of Nice. At the opposite extremity of the Medi- 
 terranean region, namely, about Roussillon and Provence, and there only in the hotter parts, 
 are seen the Indian Fig {Cactus Tuna), and the American Aloe {Agave amcrirana) : the intro- 
 duction of those is duo to the Spaniards, who brouglit them to Europe fi-oui the Now World, 
 Schouw regards the Mediterranean shores in general as tlic kingdom of tli(( Curyophyllon; 
 and linbiata;; tliis latter family especially abounds in the south of Fruuci', and particuliirly 
 the genera I'hiomis, Teucrium, Thymus, Lavandula, and others, remarkable flir th(iir ari>- 
 matic qualities. Li the same places, and always on very stony ground, the elegant Coris 
 monspelicnsis excels the heaths of Britain in beauty. The mnlbcrry is cullivatcd through- 
 out this territory ; and among other useful fruits, the Fig, the Jujube, the I'onie^'ranate, tiio 
 Date, and the Pistachio, all arrive at great perfection. The Orange can i-carccly be stiid to 
 be cultivated without shelter in any part of France. It is grown, however, and somewhat 
 extensively, at tlie Isles d'Hieres, and in the vicinity of Nice, that happy climate which is 
 probably unequalled by any part of Europe. Corn, which is but a secondary article of cul- 
 ture, ripens at a very early period ; so much so that it is not unfrequent to carry barley which 
 lias been reaped on the coast into the mountains, where the seed is sown, and a second crop 
 is produced the same year. Many plants may be here enumerated which this country pos- 
 sesses in common with Greece and Italy, and even the Spanish peninsula, and which seem 
 to accompany the Olive. Mirbel has drawn up the following list of woody kinds, which 
 inhabit these province.^ : — Pinus Pinaster, and Pinea, Junipcrus phoenicea and Oxyccdrus, 
 Quercus Ilex, Suber and coccifera, Celtis australis, Ficus Carica, Osyris allia, Laurus nobilis, 
 Fraxinus Ornus, Phillyrca latitblia and angustifolia, Jasniinum fructicans, Vitex Agnus- 
 castus, Nerium Oleander, Diosnyros Ijotos, Styrax officinale. Arbutus Uncdo, Viburnum 
 Tinus, Tamarix gallica and africana, Myrtus communis, Punica Granatum, Philadelphus 
 coronarius, Crata3gus Azarolus, Mespilus pyracantha, Ceratonia siliqua, Cercis Sili(iuastrum, 
 Rhus Cotinus and Coriaria; Pi..5tacia Lentiscus, Tcrebinthus, and vera; Rhamnus Alatcr- 
 nus, oleoides, and infectoria; Zizyphus vulgaris, Paiiunis australis, Capparis spinosa, Melia 
 Azedarach, Acer monspessulanum, &c. 
 
 Hitherto the attention of naturalists in the study of vegetable geography has been direct- 
 ed to those plants that grow upon the surface of the earth : Humboldt alone, in Iiis Carte 
 Oeographique des Plantes, has indicated the station of some subterranean Funjii, and in a 
 275 general way has marked tlie ocean a* 
 
 the habitat of Ulva; and Fiici {Jig. 
 275.). It remained for M. d'( )rl)igny 
 tc describe to a certain extent at least, 
 the Zones ami Bands inhahilod !)y thi.- 
 marine Alga; (Sea-Wnod.s). This he 
 accomplished upon the coasts in the 
 Gulf of Gascony, and particularly on 
 the shores of La Voiidi'C and the Lower 
 Charente, partly by diving to consider- 
 able depths in the sea, an<l partly by 
 means of drag-nets fixed to graduated 
 cords; and the results of his observa- 
 tions are given in tlin Mi'moirrs ilu 
 Mufium iPIIistnire Nalitrdle, vol. vi. 
 With extracts from this, as wo shall 
 scarcely have again the opportunity tif 
 touching on this beautiful and interest- 
 ing tribe of plants, we slialt conclude 
 tliis sketch, already too much extended, of the vegetable geography of France. Muritini'; 
 plants, says M. d'Orbigny, grow in the most opposite temperatures: every country, every 
 latitude, and every situation possessing some which are peculiar to itself. Still, cliinat" 
 and temperature appear almost alike to many of these producfions, which are found by 
 voyagers in every diflcrent ocean, while othcTs require particular spots and climes : soiiio 
 few preferring the fnonths of rivers, and the brackish waters of salt inarslies, where tin' 
 bitterness of the sea is modified by the admixture of fresh water, and in such situations 
 attaining to an enormous size, as Ulva lactuca var. altissima, while to the greater numbrr 
 iif these plants, fresh water proves absolutely destructive. 
 
 As for those kinds which grow indiflferently everywhere in the sea, they seem to be 
 increased without any attachment to solid bodies, as Fucus natans, &c. Banks of great 
 t.'xtent formed by this plant, are often found within the tropics of such dimensions as to 
 retard the progress of navigation. Some individuals among these groups may freipiontly be 
 seen which bear the appearance of having been originally fixed to rockVthoir flattened, 
 disc-like stem yet retaining a portion of such substance. There seiMns to be ground for the 
 eupposition that, though these sea-weeds are capable of living and growing in the water, 
 
 Ulvffi and Fuci. 
 
 if- i 
 
 < I. 
 
 V 
 
^ 
 
 528 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Part III. 
 
 unattoclici] to any boH, yet that they must primarily spring from some solid body, as no young 
 plants of tiiis kind are ever found between the tropics. 
 
 Sonic of the Algo! prefer the southern sides of rocks, others affect an eastern, western, or 
 northern exposure ; but they chaniro their position according to tlie difference of latitude : 
 those which arc foimd on the southern side in cold climates, being generally seen on the 
 northern in the warm or temperate regions. Certain species live near the surface, and close 
 to the sea-beach : others, at various deffrees of depths : the first would seem to enjoy the 
 regular exposure to light and heat which they experience during the turnings of the tide ; 
 the secon<l, on the contrary, shun the influences of the atmosphere ; and, growing and fructi- 
 fying in depths where the light can scarcely ever penetrate, they bear, without receiving 
 any injury, both the enormous column of water which constantly presses upon them, and the 
 severe cold which exists in those regions. There are even parasitical Alga, which grow 
 indifferently upon all the others, and some which only affect peculiar species. 
 
 Many sea-weeds prefer such spots as are exposed to the fury of the waves and the action 
 of the currents, where they are perpetually floating in an agitated medium: others dwell 
 in the hollows of rocks, or in marine gulfs, where the water is generally calm. The lapse 
 of a few days put.s a period to the existence of some kinds, whilst the tempests of successive 
 winters full to destroy others. The general as) ect is apt to change in several individuals, 
 so that, were it not for more stable characters, derivable from their fructification, texture, &.c. 
 they might be mistaken for novel species. 
 
 A number of the more delicate marine plants are quickly destroyed by a removal from 
 tJieir native place of growth ; but the greater proportion, being coriaceous, and insoluble in 
 salt water, live for a length of time in different situations ; and it is not uncommon to find, 
 upon our own shores, the Algte of the most distant regions, which have troversed the ocean, 
 and yet remain unchanged in their general appearance. We must thence necessarily infer that 
 it is not all the Alg<B that are found in any country that may be said to belong to that country. 
 
 The proportions of marine plants are as variable as those of terrestrial ones. Some are 
 barely discoverable with the highest magnifiers; while others rise from the various depths 
 of the miglity ocean, and, tbrming at its surface an angle of greater or less acutcness accord- 
 ing to the force and velocity of the cunents and the tides, then suflbr their long summits to 
 float on the waves, and receive the benign influences of atmospheric light and heat. During 
 the great equinoctial floods, the sea oflen forsakes, periodically, certain rocks, which ore 
 only uncovered at such times. If, during that interval, the sun shines forth, or the north 
 wind blows, many of the minute and delicate Alga, thus exposed, dry up and die; while 
 others, though equally circumstanced, revive immediately upon the return of the genial fluid. 
 
 A certain proportion of marine plants are natives of the French seas, while we must refer 
 the accession of many species to the force of the winds, waves, and currents, especially to 
 that which generally goes under the name of Chtlf Strenm, and is called by the French the 
 Mexican Current. Almost all the northern Alga grow in the Gulf of Gascony. It is not 
 so with those from the Mediterranean and Southern Ocean ; a very small number of them 
 are there soon in a living state, and their almost northern limit never exceeds the mouth of 
 the Loire, or at farthest the rock of Morbihan. Independently of the influence of tem- 
 perature, this circumstance may be attributed in a measure to the current, which, generally 
 setting in on these shores from north to south, brings the seeds and plants themselves of 
 northern seas to these rocks, while those of southern growth are wafled by the same current 
 to Africa and the Atlantic. 
 
 But few are the kinds of sea-weed which prefer any peculiar spot, or show a predilection 
 for one substance above another whereon to fix. Deriving no nutriment from their roots or 
 points of attachment, they need nothing farther than a temporary support; thus, they cling 
 indiscriminately to any solid marine body, equally to granitic and calcareous rocks, to floating 
 or sunken pieces of wood, to the bones of terrestrial or marine animals, to shells, polypi, &c. 
 
 jVotwithstnnding that many highly respectable naturalists have averred that tiie growth 
 of these plants proceeds with most vigour on such and such substances, on some or other 
 peculiar rock, in the vicinity of rivers, or in the opon sea ; it has been fully ascertained, by 
 a great number of observations, that marine weeds do grow witli equal vigour, though 
 planted upon rocks or substances of very different natures ; and that, if we except some few 
 llvw, which affect brackish water, those which vegetate in situations where fresh water 
 mingles with the salt, are generally bleached, produce little or no fructification, have a thin 
 and weak texture, and contain but little soda. The qualities requisite for the different uses 
 of which I shall treat hereafter, are only found united in such sea-weeds as grow in pure 
 sea-water, where they have found a spot which is sufliciontly tenacious to fix them in that 
 zone of habitation which they prefer. 
 
 Some kinds certainly prefer sand or mud ; but then their roots become elongated, and 
 strike deep, till they meet with some stone or shell or other body which may serve them as 
 a point of attachment, and offer the requisite degree of resistance. 
 
 If the nature of the bottom appears indifferent, in a great measure to maritime plants ; it 
 is not so with the level which they select in the ocean, or with the distance of their birth- 
 place from the surface. Every species of maritime vegetable appears to affect, to as great 
 
iRT III. 
 
 young 
 
 stem, or 
 atitude : 
 n on tho 
 ind close 
 njoy the 
 Ihe tide ; 
 id fructi- 
 ■eceiving 
 , and the 
 lich grow 
 
 he action 
 lers dwell 
 rhe lapse 
 mccessive 
 idividuals, 
 xture, &c. 
 
 loval from 
 
 [Soluble in 
 
 ion to find, 
 
 the ocean, 
 
 y infer that 
 
 at country. 
 Some are 
 
 ious depths 
 
 less accord- 
 summits to 
 
 3at. During 
 
 I, which are 
 
 or the north 
 (lie ; while 
 
 genial fluid. 
 
 3 must refer 
 wcialiy to 
 i'rench the 
 It is not 
 ber of them 
 le mouth of 
 nee of tern- 
 I, generally 
 emselves of 
 iimo current 
 
 predilection 
 heir roots or 
 , they cling 
 I, to floating 
 polypi, &c. 
 tlie growth 
 )me or other 
 lertaincd, by 
 'our, though 
 pt some few 
 freBh water 
 have a thin 
 iffprent uses 
 ;row in pure 
 [them in that 
 
 bn^ated, and 
 frve tlicm as 
 
 |e plants; it 
 their birth- 
 , to as great 
 
 Rook I. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 .WO 
 
 «n pxtont us Ihu terrestrial kinds, certain zonos or regions of diflbrcnt depths in tlio sea: 
 pluci.'s wlicri! llio siiporincunibcnt wciglit of wntcr, and tho relative proportion of lijrht and 
 caloric iiro iidaiitivl to its peculiar organs. Tiicse individuals wliich are found towards the 
 cenii'c of tlif'ir prnpor zone contain all the elements requisite f()r tiioir iicrfcctdcvolopoment, 
 and genornlly hIioW an active state of vegetation; tiiuy are vigorous, tlicy fructify at the 
 season suitiible to tiicir degree of immersion, while those which grow at tlie extreme limit, 
 or out of llio jjounds, of this same zone, prove languisiiing, fructify imperfectly, are always 
 covered with marine animals wiiicli destroy them, and live but a sliort time in comparison 
 with tlieir well-situated congeners. The seeds which escape from those plants woulJ appear, 
 by their various specific weights, to gain an equilibrium equivalent to the colunm of water 
 which they displace, or, in oilier words, to float in that peculiar zone which tlie future Alga 
 would prefer to inhabit. Those wliich become developed either above or below it, arc ine- 
 vitably driven from tlieir spot of nature or of election, by the agitation in the waves at the 
 vicinity of tlit; counts. 
 
 Ijower down tlinn a hunrlred feet from the surface of the sea, (taking a medium between 
 the liiirli iiiiil low tides,) it is rare to find living sea-weeds in tho Gulf of Gascony, and even 
 these uro iittiKMii'd to portions of rock severed from more elevated rocks, and before long 
 they inevitably pi-'rish. 
 
 It may lie observed that the lower we investigate the sea, the fewer will the number of 
 plants appoiir, and the more numerous tho polypi. For instance, below forty feet from the 
 surface of tin; uiitur, liut very few UlvtB are found; beyond sixty feet, no living Ceramium ; 
 and after having descended to the depth of a hundred feet, not a Fucus is to be seen, and 
 tlie vec-'fable kingdom wholly ends. 
 
 1st jne, extending from one foot above the medium height of the sea to twenty feet 
 below, is inhabited by Ulva compressa van ji; U. intostinalis, ventricosa, Lactuca var. a; 
 Fucus pygmiEUs,ampliibius, &c. 
 
 2d Zone, from five feet below the medium height to thirty feet : — Ulva articulata, Nostoc, 
 bullaia, fistulosa, Lactuca var. 3, imibilicalia, lancoolata, purpurea, Linza, contortii, serrata, 
 dichotoma, crispa, pavonia, atoinaria (!); Fucus vcsiculosus, spiralis, ceranoidcs, serratus, 
 cuniiliculatus, coespitosus, laceratus, hybridus, longissimus, pinnatifidus, viridis, arbuscula, 
 fiistigiatus, tenuissimus (Oi confcrvoidcs ; Ceramium spongiosum, rupcstre, Mertensii, poni- 
 cillatum, fucoides, nodulosum, gracile, linuni; Zostera marina and mediterranea ; Diatoma 
 rigiduni, flocculosum, &c. 
 
 .'{(1 Zone, from fifteen to thirty-five feet below the medium surface. . Ulva ocellata, pal- 
 niatn,lingulata,polypodioides,caulescens; Fucus longifructu3,lumbricalis,bifurcatus,ericoides, 
 barbatus, abrotunitolius, vermicularis, norvogiciis, oMusus, asparagoides, Wiggiiii, verrucosus, 
 helmintliocortos ; Ceramium simplicifolium, cnsuarina, cancellatum, coccineum, incurvum, 
 elongatum, polymorphum, forcipatuji, filum, capillare, glomeratum, elegans, &c. 
 
 4th Zone, from twenty to forty feet below the medium surfiice : — Ulva Phyllitis, saccha- 
 rina, digituta, bulbosa, ciliata, edulis; Fucus nodosus, uvarius, furcatus, ciliatus, alatus, 
 plocamium, plumosus, comeus, gigartinus, acnleatus, plicatiis ; Ceramium verticillatum, 
 equisctifolium, sericeum, scoparium, &c. 
 
 5th Zone, from thirty to sixty tect : — Fucus siliquosus var. a, purpurascens, ligulatus, 
 pistillutns; Ceramium coccineum, ajgagropilum, ttc. 
 
 Cth Zonp, from tiirty to u hundred feet : — The flattened Fuci ; F. siliquosus var. (3, loreus, 
 sanguineus, iibrosus, coronopifolius, &c., and Ulva tomentosa, which is, in fact, a polypus. 
 
 SunsECT. 3. — Zoology. 
 
 The zoolocry of France assimilates less to that of central than of southern Europe. Not- 
 . withstanding the narrowness of its separation from Great Britain, it possesses many animals 
 unknown as natives, or even as visiters, of that island. With regard to quadrupeds, this 
 circumstance is not surprising ; for any channel of the sea, however narrow, forms an insur- 
 mountable obstacle to the wanderings or migration of purely terrestrial species: while 
 others, of a semiaquatic nature are too small and feehle to eflect the passage. These con- 
 siderations, however, are insufficient to explain the limilc<l 
 range of the smaller birds, hitherto found only upon the 
 Continent. The distribution of insects is dependent, in a 
 great degree, upon that of plants; and the numbers of both 
 common in France, but unknown in Britain, arc nearly 
 proportionate ; on the calculation tliat has been made of 
 six species of insects to one of plants. 
 
 Among the wild (piadriipeds of France is the wolf (^i^r. 
 276.), which is still not uncommon in the womled and 
 mountainous districts: when pressed by liungor, it de- 
 scends to the farms, and even attacks the inhabitants. 
 The beaver is said still to exist in the southern parts, 
 and probably tho wild boar may not be wholly extirpated 
 Vol. I. 4.5 3 a 
 
 ir 
 
 
 I 
 
 ■ m 
 
 
 The Wolf 
 
5:30 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGIIAPIIY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 I i 
 
 iv. ; 
 
 from tlio oxistinjf forcstH. Ui'iirs wcro onco common, wliilo three or finir of the smaller quad- 
 riipcilB iippoar peculiiir to France. 
 
 Si;vonil intcrestiiif,' ami buaiitirul birdsi, unknown or bnt mrely met with in Britain, an- 
 here; not uncommon ; such as the wood-chat (^Jiff. 277.), shrike {Luniu» rufus T.) the gross- 
 beak or iiinvfincii, the bliio-throated warbler, and several others of the same family. In 
 short, from tiio connection of this country with the centnil and sontiiern kingdoms of Europe, 
 the ornithologist might probably disrovor in France more than tlirec-tburths of all the conti- 
 iicntul birds. 
 
 The marine praluctions of thopc provinces bordering 
 on the Channel, as may be pxpcctcd, do not offer any 
 marked diflbrence from those of the ilritish coasts ; but 
 on the warm shores of Nice and Marseilles the natu- 
 ralist meets with numerous productions, indicative of 
 the rich stores of the Moditorranoan Sea. The ento- 
 mology of these southern provinces, in like manner, 
 presents us with many of those more striking inssocts, 
 which properly belong to the fauna of Italy. The beau- 
 tiful Papilio Poilalirim (Jiff. 278.) so rare in England 
 that its existence there is still doubted, is here a common 
 insect. France has long stood foremost in promoting and illustrating the study of nature ; 
 nnd a society comprising some of her most able zoologists is at this moment engaged in 
 publishing a Fauna Oallica. An able and indefatigable naturalist, M. Risso, has particu- 
 uularly illustrated the fishes and Crustacea of Nice. It was near this place that one of the 
 278 -. . . 
 
 279 i 
 
 The Wood-fhiit. 
 
 Mitta ZoMla. 
 
 Papilio PodaliriuB, 
 
 rarest and most beautiful shells of Europe, the Mitra zotiata (Jiff. 279.) was fished up by 
 the anchor of a vessel ; only one specimen is known to exist in collections. 
 
 Among the domestic animals, tlic French horsps are not very excellent; yet those used 
 in the public stages are t^trong, active, and compactly made; nor have their masters copied 
 the ridiculous and biirbarous custom of disfiguring these animals, by cutting oft' their tails 
 or ears. The stjillions of England are much prized, and have been judiciously used to im- 
 prove the native breeds. 
 
 The oxen are of two races; the one called hnvfo dr haul cru are of a middle or small 
 size, with a fierce lixjk, thick hide, nnd coarse hair; they are principally bred in the moun- 
 tainous provinces of Gascony, Auvcrgnc, &c. The others are called hcevfs de nature, and 
 arc larger, with a mild aspect, thin hide, nnd soft hair: they fatten ea.«ily, and belong to the 
 plains. 
 
 The native breeds of sheep, not in themsolvcs good, have been of Into sedulously and 
 successfully improved. The Flemish breed, common both to Fmnco nnd the Netherlands, 
 is generally hornless, with long legs, nnd is derived from an intorinixturo with those of 
 Barbary. The Snloffnot are mastly without horns, and the wool is curled only at the ends. 
 The Ihrichnnnc are likewise iiornless, but are known by their long neck : the face is covered 
 with \V(K)I ; that on the iKxIy being tine, white, close, short, and curled. The Rovusillonne 
 IS derived from the merino race; nnd has very fine wool, the filaments of the piles being 
 twisted spirally. Lastly, the Ardrnnnise. is horned, and bears a very tine fleece: this breed 
 liki'wiso extends over part of the Netlinrlands. (Ham. Smith.) 
 
 A large nnd elegant variety of the Domestic Cat is very common in some parts of France ; 
 it is nearly double the size of the common cat, nnd is bearded much in the same manner aa 
 the lynx. 
 
 Sect. III. — Ilisloricnl Geoffraphy. 
 The Gauls, the ancient inhabitants of France, and the chief among the Celtic nations, 
 vvcre an active, powerful, and ambitious people. Their emigrant hordes repeatedly crossed 
 .he Aljw, possessed the wholf north of Italy, once sacked the imperial city, and even pene- 
 trated into Greece and Asia Minor. Both .Switzerland and Belgium were then included na 
 ,iart of Gaul. The people, though .still barbarous, had made some steps toward civilisation. 
 
Part III. 
 
 allcrquad- 
 
 Jritain, aro 
 I tlic grosH- 
 iiniily. I" 
 of Eiiropn, 
 i the conti- 
 
 9 bordering 
 it offer any 
 coasts; but 
 3 the natii- 
 itlioativc of 
 
 The ento- 
 
 ,ke manner, 
 
 ;ing inspcts, 
 
 The beau- 
 
 in England 
 •0 a common 
 f of nature ; 
 
 engaged in 
 has particu- 
 it one of the 
 
 fished up by 
 
 those used 
 
 lasters copied 
 
 their tails 
 
 used to im- 
 
 off 1 
 
 (lie or small 
 in the rnoun- 
 
 nnture, and 
 belong to the 
 
 ■Klulously and 
 Netherlands, 
 ith those of 
 at the ends, 
 iicc is covered 
 Roiixsillonne 
 10 piles being 
 ce : this breed 
 
 rts of France ; 
 me manner as 
 
 !;;cUic nations, 
 atedly crossed 
 id oven pene- 
 pn included aa 
 rd civilisation. 
 
 Book I. 
 
 PRANCE. 
 
 m 
 
 The nobles and Druids enjoyed high power and influence, and had reduced the body of tho 
 nation almost to a Htate of vaHsalagc. They combated with obstinacy, and made a long 
 resistance to tiie progress uf the Roman arms; but being opposed to (/tcsar, the greatest 
 iif the Roman captains, after a war of twenty years, they were entirely and permanently 
 wibjrcted. 
 
 The conversion of Gaul into a Roman province, though it humbled the chiefs and quelled 
 the MHirtiul spirit of tho people, was attended with many beneficial changes. Peace was 
 I'stablishcd; cultivation and industry promoted; Roman and oven Greek literature intro- 
 liuced ; and tlie people finally converted to the Christian faith. 
 
 The irruption of the Teutonic tribes, on the declino of tiie Roman empire, was early felt 
 in Gaul, where the Goths, the Ilcruli, the Burgnndians, and tlio confederacy called tho 
 Franks, overwhelmed and ravaged the whole kingdom, and drove the Celtic population and 
 language into its remote and moiuitainuus corners. From amid a chaos of convulsions, the 
 vigorous hand of Clovis established the undisputed supremacy of tho Franks, and founded tho 
 monarchy of France. 
 
 The reign of Cimrlemagne, son and successor to Pepin, who from mayor of the palace had 
 occupied the throne, formed the most brilliant period m French history. That eminent and 
 powerful prince not only placed on his head tho iron crown of Lombardy, but reduced to his 
 dominion, after a long and obstinate resistance, the intractable tribes of Germa.iy, who had 
 defied the utmost efforts of the Roman eagle. Ho penetrated also into Spain; but the fierce 
 encounter of the Saracens, and the disastrous adv^ture of Roncesvalles on his return, com- 
 pletely stopped l;is career in that direction. Charlemagne, though himself illiterate, made 
 some efToris to rekindle the dec''.iing light of tcience and letters in Euri/pe. 
 
 The contests among the successors of Charlomogne were attended with the most violent 
 and bloody convulsions, and with cont'iual changes in the position of the three great king- 
 doms which composed liis empire. At ic.:'''h it fell entirely to pieces. Germany rctaine<l 
 the title of empire, and the claim to the domii..'''n cf Italy ; and in France the Carlovingian 
 dynasty, or that of Charlemagne, having become e«;:i''t un<''"' I^iuis Outremer, the throne 
 was seized by the Capets, the most powrtiil among the noble French families. 
 
 Hugh Capet, having in 987 assumed the title of king, the real power attached to which 
 had already been exercised by his fiitliei , Hugh the Great, founded the present dynasty. Tho 
 administration, however, was long marked by a strong feudal character, and a high spirit of 
 independence among the great iiobleg, of whum the counts of Provence and Britany, and the 
 dukes of Burgimdy, ranked altogether as separate and often hostile princes. Tho feudal nge 
 of France was also marked by chivalric ard eventful wars with England, which long held 
 several of the finest provinces, end wlioso king, Henry V., was crowned at Paris; but from 
 that seemingly approaching downfall, the monaroiij-, through the romantic exploits of the 
 Maid of Orleans, suddenly revived, and became moi o mighty thon before. 
 
 The establishment of monarchical power in its plenitude was chiefly efTected by the pro- 
 found and insidious policy of Louis XI., favoured by the circumstances of the upo. All 
 France was united under the sway of tho kings, who were thus enabled to form grt.'nt armies, 
 which, under Charles VIII. and Ixjuis XII., overran nearly the whole of Italy. But it was 
 under the gay and enterprising reign of Francis I. that its energies were fully developed. 
 It thon, however, came into collision with tho house of Austria, whoso extensive possessions 
 in Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Italy, wielded by a powerful hand, secured to it 
 during this period a decided, though not overwhelming, ascendant. 
 
 The civil wars arising out of the persecution of the Protestants agitated Franco for a very 
 long time, and produced scenes of the most bloody and calamitous description. They lasted 
 tor a. hundred years ; for the popular reign of Henry IV. could scarcely be considered as more 
 than a truce. At length Richelieu, by the reduction of Roclielle, terminated the long strug- 
 gle of the Protestants for religious libertv, which in France alone, of all the countries where 
 it was maintained upon a great scale, had this fatal issue. At tho same time, this daring 
 and despotic minister finally crushed the pow^r and pretensions of the nobles, and formecl 
 France into a simple monarchy. 
 
 The reign of Ijouis XIV., during which a single hand wielded all the energies called 
 forth during the prior struggles, exhibited France more powerful tlian she had been since 
 Ciiarlemagne. The house of Austria, now divided into the German and Spanish branches, 
 of which the latter luul l)Pcome weak and inert, was humbled by repeated blows, which at 
 length almost thrcatciR'd li"r existence. France seemed advancing in the career of iniiver- 
 sal monarchy, when tiie interposition of England and the victories of Marlborouffh turned 
 the tide of success, and rendered the last days of Louis humiliating and disastrous. The 
 final issue, howevc^r, by which a Bourb(m was placed on the throne of Spain, and tho consc 
 (juent family alliance, gave to France an increased weight, especially in tho maritime con- 
 cerns of Europe. 
 
 The French revolution was an event attended with awfiil and mighty vicissitudes, so fresh 
 '.n the memory of the world, that it would be quite superfluous to attempt to enumerate them. 
 .\;ior tearing up France by the roots, and holding all Europe in chains; after exhibiting 
 
 
 '■I 
 
 ■' V ■ 
 
L 
 
 R33 
 
 Dn.SCaiPTIVR GKOr.FlAI'lIV. 
 
 Part III 
 
 durin(( twenty ynars tlic viciHsitudiJii of rnpublicaiiii-iii, total nimrrliy, and pure desipotiem ; nt 
 lonfftli, by a nii(;lity rc-actioi., it tcrminatud ncnrly iit the point from wliicli it comitinncnd. 
 France, liowovor, obtiiinod chcckn on lliu iirbilrnry (Kiwcr o( lior nionarcliH, wliicli, notwitli- 
 ■tandih); their opiKwition, she rendered more iinii more etTectivc!. At Icn^'th Chiirh'.s X., 
 Imviii^r rashly attempted to break tiimii^'h all the liinitH |)la(;ed on his authority, watt driven 
 from hiH throne, which was tilled by lA.uiH-l'liili|)pe, head of the collateral line of Orleans, 
 under the tit'o of Kinj; of the French. 
 
 Swrr. IV, — Political OfO/rraphy. 
 The political constitution of France, prior to the Revolution, woh almost purely despotic. 
 The privileges of the nobles consisted ne'irly altogether in unjust exemntions from taxation, 
 and in corvees, or inicjuitous and oppressive claims u|x)n the labour of the peasantry. The 
 only very salutary limit to the royal autliority consisted in the parliaments, hereditary bodies, 
 by whom the laws were very fairly an<l linnourably adminiHtered ; and the parliament of 
 Paris had even the im|)ortaiit privilege of registering every new tax before it could become 
 legal. The exorbitant iH)Wcrs vested in the si/Vereign being however inconsistent with the 
 growth of national intelligt>nco and the augmented force of the tiern Hat, a collision took 
 place, the iiio'tt terrible on record, wliicli ended in the tem|X)rary subversion of the throne. 
 VVhen the Bourbons were restored by foreign victories, they felt, and were warned, that 
 Prance could no longer bo governed by the former absolute system ; a!id they bestowed by 
 charter n representative government formed on the admired model of England. The nobles 
 and parliaments, however, bad been entirely «wnpt away in the late convulsions, and left no 
 hereditary aristocracy out of which an upper house could be composed. A Chamber of Peers 
 was tbrmed, by the royal appointment, of a boily of individuals, many distinguished rather 
 by talents and influence than by birth ; and in the number were included some of the most 
 distinguished of Napoleon's g(!neral8. Pensions were assigned to support the dignity of the 
 Peers, which was at first hereditary, but by a recent enactment is to continue only for life 
 The Chamber of Deputies, corresjKindin'g to the House of Con)mons, is chosen by electors 
 united in cortiim bodies called electoral colleges. These include all persons poying a certain 
 amount of direct taxes; whicli limits the right of voting to the iniddlingclass, and to an entire 
 number throughout France scarcely exceeding 13(),0(K). 'l'h'.> number of Deputies is 430. 
 The functions of the French chambers are high. Their annual vote grants uU the supplies of 
 the year, and the expenditure of the jireceding one is submitted to their rigorous examina- 
 tion. No toxes can be imposcil, or loans contracted for, without their concurrence. Their 
 debates are regularly made public, and an arrangement is enacted by law for the convenience 
 of the reporters, ^'et the chambers want some of the ftiiictions of a British parlioment. 
 They cannot fix the amount of the army, unless by limiting the funds to be employed in its 
 maintenance; nor can Micy call in question the engageinentis held by government with 
 foreign powers, unh^ss by witliholr'ing the funds necessary to fulfil them. The liberty of 
 the press was prnfes.«edly granted by the charter • but there has been much fluctuation in its 
 exercise; it was even repeatedly made subject to a censorship: even since the last great 
 change, its freedom has not been established on as ample a basis as in Britain. 
 
 The administration of justice in France, which, before the Revolution, was still more com- 
 plicated than in England, has been simplified in a very remarkable degree. The National 
 Assembly early opplied themselves to form o now scries of codes, which might supersede 
 those vast and voluminous records in which the law was formerly contained. They pro- 
 jected five codes, respectively referring to civil law, civil procedure, commerce, criminal 
 law, and penal infliction. These were conip!(!ted under Bonaparte, who gave to the whole 
 the name of Code Napolion : it is comprised in a moderate volume, sold for a few francs 
 All the ancient parliaments and seigniorial authorities lieing .swept away, a new system of 
 jurii«liciinn has been formed. Of the judicial authorities, the lowest cla.ss are the juffcs tie 
 paix, w jio iiinount to nearly :J()00. They have salaries of 8(K) to 100() francs, and decide 
 finally on all cases where the (|nestioii at is.sue <loes not exceed fifty francs. Immediately 
 nt)ov(! them are the tribunals tie prciniirf insliinct; before wliom all (juestions and charges 
 come in the first instance, and who judge finally respecting any property not exceeding l(MK) 
 francs. There are 360 of these courts, and the judges are supposc(l little short of 3(HM). 
 To tiiem are attached the tribunal of correctional police, which has cognizance of all minor 
 ofTonco-s. Above these rank the cows rtiyulm, sometimes called ct)urs irttppd, because an 
 appeal lies to them from the inferior courts. They are twenty-seven in number, attached 
 to the chief cities in the kingduin. They consist, in ixjpulniis towns, of twenty, tlii't}', and 
 in Paris of fitly members; who, in that case, are divideil into several chambers. Attached 
 to them are the coiirs d'tissisr, or, as we would call them, jury courts, to wliicli all criminal 
 cases of importance are referred by the coiirs royalrs. A French jury consists of twr've, 
 and a simple majority decides. From the decisions of the cours royales an appeal lies totne 
 co:irt of cassation, the highest tribunal, which also exercises a general jurisdiction over the 
 other judicial bodies. All the judges are appt mted by the crown, but hold their offices for 
 Iii\ 
 
'ART III 
 
 KitiHin ; nt 
 iiiiirnced. 
 , notwith- 
 hiirli's X., 
 
 k'UHlllivUIl 
 
 if Orluaiw, 
 
 y despotic, 
 m toxiitioii, 
 ntxy. The 
 tary bodies, 
 •1 lament of 
 uUl become 
 nt with the 
 oUision took 
 
 the throne, 
 iinrneil, that 
 bestowed by 
 
 The nobles 
 1, and left no 
 iber of Peers 
 ishcd rather 
 ! of the most 
 lignity of the 
 
 only for life 
 >n by electors 
 rinj; a certain 
 id to an entire 
 ipnticrt if 430. 
 Iiu supplioi^ of 
 rous cxoniina- 
 rence. Their 
 le convenience 
 |h parlioment. 
 mployed in its 
 eminent with 
 The liberty of 
 ictnation in its 
 
 the last great 
 
 itill more com- 
 Thc National 
 ight supersede 
 id. They pro- 
 ercc, criminal 
 J to the whole 
 • a few frnnc?. 
 new svsteni of 
 3 the jiigen tff 
 cs, nnd decide 
 Immediately 
 s ami charges 
 ixcccding 10(H) 
 short of 3(HM). 
 pe of nil minor 
 ifl, because an 
 Inher, attached 
 
 lity, th'-ty. «"'! 
 
 trs. -Mtnched 
 Icli all criminal 
 lists of twr've, 
 Ipeal lies to tnc 
 liction over the 
 [their offices for 
 
 
 Book I. 
 
 FRAXCR. 
 
 ma 
 
 [The foUowinpf tables from official dnciimeiit!* fnntain important data illustrotivo not low 
 
 of the moral liihtury of timnkiiid, than of the Htiito <i\' society in Prance. 
 
 I. HlHlL'iiieiil iif llii< \iiiiib«r of PertDiii rhat|t>»l wiili (.'riiiiiiinl (Xli'iuTH Iniorv lliii Cciiirl* of AmIiw, In parli yvdf, 
 
 fViini l&in III IKM. 
 
 Crimeit nffainnt the Pfrion. 
 AiiniiiKl lliit Hlaii' himI ruhiir lllllci'rii . 
 
 Miinli'i' nnci MiiMnluiiuhli'r 
 
 I'nrrlrlilu 
 
 Inrniitieiilo 
 
 ('iitliiiv niiri W'Miiiilliig 
 
 A»iniilta iipoii VVniiiiiii . ... 
 
 " riiilMrrri 
 
 PiTjiiry mill Siihiiriialiiin iif Porjury . 
 
 Hiiiiimy 
 
 Olliur Crliiici 
 
 le*. 
 
 ItW). 
 
 Toult . 
 
 Crimea againtl Property^ 
 
 OnlliliiK 
 
 FiiriiiTv nf ('iiiiiniiiiinl Piiperi . . 
 
 OlliiT F(ir(iiT|i'« 
 
 Kiililvry iiMil Tli(.n in rhnrrho . . 
 
 " nn lliifliwnya. 
 
 " " tiy ni)ini'8tic« . 
 
 Oilier kinilii nf Rnlilii'ry 
 
 Frnilulcnt llnnkrii|ilcy 
 
 Incenilinrinin 
 
 Oilier Crinii'8 
 
 Tulali . 
 
 General Tiitnlt 7.:t»l 
 
 ftm 
 
 IS 
 
 (HI 
 
 a:ii 
 
 1«7 
 147 
 tt 
 
 n 
 
 !ri 
 l,M4 
 
 17H 
 
 .ViH 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 4.^) 
 
 1H4 
 
 i:iii 
 11 
 
 if<:io. 
 
 4IIII 
 4 
 
 imi 
 
 \M\ 
 1117 
 71 
 
 ,vi 
 
 IKII. 
 
 WW 
 
 I'ilM 
 
 1.1 
 
 S<l 
 
 :i4(i 
 lis 
 iii:i 
 n 
 
 3 
 54 
 
 IKW. 
 LOHK 
 
 mi 
 !i:l 
 
 wn 
 i:il 
 III 
 
 IIM 
 
 II 
 
 83 
 
 1.7(1 1 LIMUI I 11.0411 3,ii44 
 
 :t:i-j 
 IJ 
 IM 
 1.31.1 
 3,34.5 
 (i3 
 CH 
 175 
 
 4S 
 |i|| 
 
 47 
 |:IA 
 
 l.niii 
 
 3,3C0 
 P4 
 I3H 
 177 
 
 .1,,V<3 .1,3tKI 
 
 7.373 I ti.lNiS 7,(KHi H,3:i' 
 
 103 
 73 
 
 :xii 
 ',1.1 
 13:1 
 
 tl3!> 
 
 3.4HI 
 
 (.7 
 
 Vti 
 
 314 
 
 5.5U0 
 
 HI 
 
 337 
 
 3,1 
 
 IIM 
 
 II.W 
 
 3,:W3 
 
 "<• 
 
 Hill 
 
 343 
 
 S,5U3 
 
 II. autemcnt showing Iho Degree 
 
 of Inslrnclinn of Pcrxmn rhnneil with Crimen liefc 
 cncli year, flrom IMW to 1K13. 
 
 rn the Coiirts nf A^Ar.c, in 
 
 Ycu. 
 
 
 Unable 10 read or wrile. 
 
 
 AtU In rmil or wrilt< imperreelly. 1 
 
 Crlnin a(.iiml 
 I'enona. 
 
 Criniei .inainkt 
 I^roiicrly. 
 
 TtM 
 
 ACCUK^I, 
 
 4,liill 
 4.. 133 
 4,3I!I 
 
 4,iino 
 
 4,740 
 
 Afquillwl, 
 I.litlll 
 
 1.(1,14 
 I,I14'< 
 l,l^f3 
 
 Convicted. 
 3.(i27 
 
 3,1-37 
 3,(ili5 
 3,tM3 
 3,Hl(i 
 
 Criniriruniniil 
 I'ertoim. 
 
 Crimes affiinit 
 l'n»i«r'y. 
 
 T.ilal 
 Arnmn). 
 
 l,H3ll 
 3,047 
 3.450 
 
 Aniulllud. 
 
 7IS 
 
 71-7 
 
 71 111 
 
 I.(IIM) 
 
 l.lli3 
 
 Convicted, 
 
 1.H3 
 l.liO 
 
 Ml' II 
 
 i.m: 
 
 1, 3114 
 5,-04 
 
 d writing, 
 
 41 
 
 H 
 47 
 58 
 115 
 
 1838 
 
 ireit 
 
 1H30 
 1H31 
 1H3S 
 
 i.onn 
 
 I,flil3 
 
 nnn 
 
 1,144 
 
 1,333 
 
 3,l.'i7 
 
 3,4(;n 
 3,:«^i 
 3,4,'.ll 
 3,4 Ifi 
 
 ,103 
 4!HI 
 
 4(i5 
 StiC 
 (^50 
 
 l.,t,13 
 1.451 
 
 i.:iiii 
 
 1.470 . 
 MiOll 
 
 ■ Tolal in 
 Five yean. 
 
 ipas 
 irai 
 
 ! l.KIl 
 lf33 
 
 3,539 
 
 313 
 1H3 
 174 
 
 a:M 
 
 3il3 
 
 10,818 
 Able 10 rev 
 
 ,VI5 
 
 544 
 
 514 
 
 533 
 
 5(<3 
 
 23,:i57 
 and write \ 
 7N) 
 73!1 
 
 liW 
 7ii7 
 775 
 
 H,730 
 
 rell. 
 
 Mi 
 335 
 330 
 4'2(i 
 373 
 
 "i,r.i(r 
 
 13,0;)7 
 
 438 
 4(14 
 
 ;i5i' 
 
 341 
 403 
 
 1,043 
 
 8,884 
 Rcceiveil a dq 
 30 
 4(i 
 37 
 !W 
 100 
 
 7,950 
 
 Tee rf Inilructio 
 1-3 
 131 
 ti3 
 ii3 
 88 
 
 10,134 
 
 n Incnd nie 
 118 
 170 
 I3!l 
 l',IO 
 257 
 
 4,430 
 
 re rcadinif n 
 
 •7 
 
 80 
 83 
 1.13 
 11.3 
 
 , Tiitai in 
 ■ rive yean. 
 
 1,100 
 
 s,ia« 
 
 3,730 
 
 38U 
 
 478 ' 804 
 
 543 
 
 :K3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . J» A» 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 .M. Kl>.{ 
 
 Financial xt/Klem. Durinpr the period of the Revolution, France sh(Kik off the heavy 
 burden of debt which had been a innin iustrmnont in brin;jin;r on that catastrophe. Yet the 
 amount of taxes had not e.xfcedod ")50,(KK),000 livre.s, and the nation was crushed rather by 
 the arbitrary and injndicinus mixlcs of levying: the inipo,st.«, than by their actual amount. 
 Napoleon, to support his continual wars, laid on larije additional tn.vos, chiefly in the fiinn of 
 land assessment, and contrncted,a debt of 3,000,000,000 francs. This was aupmentod by the 
 events of 1H1.5, and the occupation of the French territory by the allied armies at the expense 
 of France. The debt is now expressed in the form of rentes or nnnnities, which in the 
 bndpet of 1830 amounted to 249,41)0,000 livrcs : this, with other funds tor which govern- 
 ment were responsible, was considered as representing a capital of 4,988,738,000 francs. 
 
 The statement of receipt and expenditure for the year 1830 is as follows: — 
 
 HECEII'T. Fnnm. 
 
 Direct T.ixcfi, . .licfly nn l.nnil 3!l0.3f.5,Hl!l 
 
 Regi.4trnlinii Stump:), iiiiil D<ininins 187.335,03^ 
 
 r'lialninliiiiiBi'.i mill Snlt 151.331,103 
 
 Liiliior^. Siiiiilrv Diitien. Tnlpucro mtil Citin- 
 
 ■iMH il,.r . . . ■. 1!13.0.-'1„183 
 
 Post Ollin- 33. IW1,03() 
 
 Fnlls nf Tiinlier 24,0(10.0(17 
 
 Hall-works I.iOO.OOO 
 
 Gnniinij-h'ttisei^ 4,33H,f^H.H 
 
 Roviil Lottery 10,043,7!10 
 
 roiniiee 141,3-<l 
 
 Siiiiilry proci'i.ilK ]I.,1S5.4lrt 
 
 E.ttrnonlinnrv rifoiirrea 48.403.341 
 
 Deiluclions oh IlecelpH 35.I10 0.000 
 
 "<if3.n44,00(i 
 
 45'' 
 
 EXrENniTrRE. Fnnc«. 
 
 Civil List 37.li(i(i,(i(ii'i 
 
 CliiiniliiT of Peers 711!l,(i!i'.t 
 
 nuinilier of Deputies liOO.OOO 
 
 I.nition of llonotir 3 iLViSOO 
 
 Sinking Fnnil 4l,lil'5,0.-i0 
 
 Dellt 3^il.3,)i;,r.(lH 
 
 .liisiice l(i..'iiiil.(i-«> 
 
 Fnreit'n AITnirs 8,77f'.(llHI 
 
 l(i'li..'init mill Piililic Instruction 38.'.ili|..'ilM) 
 
 Inlirinr 13li,133.»ll'i 
 
 Wiir 333,3C.3.M7 
 
 Marine 38.,W7,474 
 
 Fiimiice 33.877.1(17 
 
 .Ailnii'iistrntion i.' Revenue 13fl.073,;i5l 
 
 Repiiyineiita ^ 40.300,808 
 
 l,fll'>47288.445 
 
 I i 
 
 I' ' I' 
 
 fe4| 
 
 ■A ■ f' . 
 
 ■M 
 
NM 
 
 nnscnii'TivK (jnociiApiiY. 
 
 Part III 
 
 i-4 
 
 si 
 
 Jin 
 
 m' 
 
 TliP iirmy of Fr.iiicn is no l(m<;fr tlmt v«»t uiid icrrililn iim^t!*, wliicli for ho many ycari" 
 
 hi'lil the wlinli- (if tiiii'iitiil MiiruiH- 111 ihriill. 'I'ln- i.-vciitH nf l"^!'* Imvinjf jinivril loo 
 
 cliMirly lln^ ull!ii'liiiM'iit. nf tin: iilil triiii|M tii tlirir liiriin'r iii:i>tiT, tlicy wcriMifiirly nil <li«- 
 liiiiiili'il, mill tlii'lr |il:ii'i> NU|i|)Iii'(l liy I'n.'xii I'liii.si.'riptinii. 'I'lin irdvi'miiii'iil Iiiin thr |Ki\vi'r ut' 
 li'vyiii^t (l(MKHI iiirii ill thi! yciir. Ily ii ri'ijiiliitloii, liroiiiliiiii; ntill tliti ri'|Hil)lii:iiii spirit, ono- 
 thin! Ill' llic iiHiciTH iiiiixt lie riiisDil Irmii tlii! rtuikt. '('lie army in tin: ytiir Ki'i wuh on n 
 vury liiriiiiiliilili' liNiiin^;. It iiinoiintod in nil, iiii'liKlniK l<»,();il( olKcnr^, luul :i7Ht rliililmn of 
 wolilicrH, to Ill.HUI men. Ot'tlitiHO, tlio iiilimtry i-oiwihIhiJ ot"l».')(»ri olliccrs iiiiil 'J(l^t,l tl iiimi; 
 tli(> raviilry of'^-MO otliuur!! and 51,335 mun; the urtillury ol' lllN) otHcnrri mid :)'J,5U1 inon, 
 bcfiidcN (fi'iidiiriiu'ric, ()ii)(iiio«rH, &.c. 
 
 Tim Fn-ncli riiivv, wliicli, in 17W1, iiiiioiintnd to Mcvfinty-t'onr nail nl' tlit> line and sixty-two 
 trijfiitei', l(wt Imir mirin;^ tliu wiir ; and those wliicli reninined, jiaviinj never ventnn.'d for 
 iiiuiiy yeiirrt to Htir out of port, lost uU tlieir ox|)erieii(;ii and elHcieiu'y. At present, it coimiHtH 
 of r»5 Nlii|iH of the line, (Mi frigates, iU) corvettes, KKI niniilier vohmoIh, 17 ulenm-veHMelH, 
 niiiiifronf* iirnied traiispurti*. Sic, Tho French navy in now in a hijfli Dtato of etticiuncy, and 
 in riipidly increiiHin;^. 
 
 Sect. V. — Proiliiclivv Imliiatry, 
 
 Franco, with repard to iiileriiul ocoiioniy, ia ono of tlio richest and most flourishing coun- 
 tries in tho world. In point of iiiduHlry she ruiikit third atler Ilritain and tint Netherlanils , 
 while tilie jiossesseH n greater extent and more natural advantages than either of those grvul 
 seats of commerce iiiKlmamilitctiire. 
 
 Agriculture is the most lloiirisliing hriiiich, yet is not in so advanced a state as in (treat 
 rtritain. It has gained greatly liy tho French revolution, in consetpienee of the abolition of 
 feudal rights, coraffn, unil fillies. Tlio groat jios.sessioiis of the nohility were their broken 
 up, and iliiring the grand emigration, tho farmers, or neigliboiiring little proprietors and 
 capitalists-, were able to piirchiiso at u very cheap rate (xirtions cjf the forfeited domains. It 
 hits becoiiii' a rage in France for every one to possess a little spot of hind; and the division 
 of a man's property among his children, which the law enforces, tends to split it periH'tually 
 more and more into minute portions. Travellers have o\en observed three or tour pro- 
 prietors obliged to join in keeping a common plough. In vineyards and other garden cul- 
 tures, wiiere nice care and ililigenee are cliielly recpiisite, this minute partition sueniH 
 advantageous. Chaptiil even calculates, that a small vineyard cultiviited by the proprii-tor's 
 own hand will yield double the (luaiitity of that which is leii.-ed out by a largo proprietor. 
 But in corn lands, where a considerable capital, good machinery, strong and well-fed cattle 
 are nece.-sary, the cultivation is thus kept down to a much lower standard than it would 
 otherwise reach. Tho little o<rcupants, also, are by no means prompt in discovering any 
 improved processes, or in adopting tbo.so discovered elsewhere. Artificial grasses, and the 
 rototion of crops which they fiicilitate, are by no menus nn'iierally diffiisod; and an old 
 vicious circle, of wheat, oats, and fiillow, is still very irei'eraliy adhered to. In sliort, all 
 operations on a groat scale, and requiring a ceiisidoraliie outlay, are deticient in Franco. 
 M. Dupin, in a discourse on the ell'ccts of public instruction, in the introduction to hi.i normal 
 course of lectures on geometry, has drawn n striking contrast between northern and southern 
 Franco. Although the former |)roiliiccs ni.'ither tiie olive, the vine, nor any of the finer 
 fruits, yot it pays of taxes r27,fl30,(HK) francs on a surfiicc of 18,fl9(),0(H) hectares; while the 
 south pays only 12"),41(M'*'<^ francs ii|)on ;i4,*^(),()0() hectare.s. Even in the south, the dis- 
 tricts least fiivoured by nature are lx)th the most enlightened and the most industrious; the 
 high Alp.-', tho liiffh Pyrenees, and the deportments immediately adjoining to them. 
 
 Grain, notwithstanding tho imperfection in its cultivation, is produced with such diligence 
 as to yield enough in ordinary years to supply tho extensive population of Franco with food. 
 The only exception is in |)art of its southern coast, which, when permitted, draws a supply 
 from Odessa. Franco is not distinguishod for any very superior quality of grain, nor is it an 
 exporting country. It seems to have attended les." than most other countries of Bnropo to 
 tho culture of potatoes, which are still planted only in ganlens, along borders, or in tracts 
 unlit for grain. Maize is mixed with wheat in the southern departments. Chaptal has 
 given the following statement, i:alculated on an average of twelve years, from 1800 to 1812, 
 of the entire products of this branch of French agriculture: — 
 
 ll'*''tolilr«. 
 \Vlii!at 31,.VKI.2l)n 
 
 nvi.' ao.i'Ki.Kii 
 
 Mnizp «.:i(h',:)lil 
 
 IliickHhriit 8,40'.),473 
 
 IWtDlitrcf. 
 
 Bnrliv !•.• .Wi.ma 
 
 PiiIiiIoi'< l'.i.HK).741 
 
 yiicii :i'.>,iK',ii.. 5S7 
 
 llUI.'.l'lli.U'il 
 
 A more recent estimato, in a memoir read to the Siwiety of Statistics in 1880, makes tho 
 aveniiro pnMJiico of the vears 182.') to IH28 amount to flOj-VjIMMK) hectolitres of wheat; 
 114.7:W,(KM» of other grains; 40,2;H"<'<' "f potatoes and chestnuts. 
 
 Wine ranks next in iin|K>rtaiii;e to ;iriiiu, aiirl forms a most valuable part of French 
 industry. The wines of France, though not so strong as those of more southern climates. 
 
 \W 
 
Part III 
 
 miliy yniirK 
 jinivrd tixi 
 irly nil ill*- 
 !• imwcr <>r 
 sl)iril, oil'"- 
 
 \'> WIIH oil II 
 rlilldriMl of 
 
 »,IU iiii'ii, 
 
 1(1 Bixty-two 
 f(!ntiirt!il lor 
 
 t, it COllw'lHtll 
 
 (•am-vi!rtHt'l«, 
 licit'iicy, ami 
 
 rishiiigr CO""- 
 \rlliorliiml!< . 
 f tliOHO yitval 
 
 ,e as in llreat 
 it! atolition of 
 thou- broken 
 oorinlors anil 
 , (lomuinH. It 
 1 the (liviHion 
 it iH)r|)i'tuiilly 
 e or tour pro- 
 ■r ynnliMi cul- 
 iirtit'ioii sL'tmiH 
 lu! prtii'rinlor's 
 rgo propritUor. 
 ivfll-l'ctl cuttle 
 than it woulil 
 iscovorinj; any 
 rassos, and tlic 
 d; and an old 
 In short, all 
 (•nt in Franco. 
 u to iii-i normal 
 •n and Houthe rn 
 .ny of tiio finer 
 ires ; while the 
 south, the dis- 
 Khistrioua; the 
 Iheni. 
 
 such diligence 
 unce with food, 
 draws a supply 
 ain, nor is it an 
 s of Enropo to 
 or.-i, or in tracts 
 : Chaptal has 
 n 180(» to 1812. 
 
 S7(i,r.os 
 
 HIO,741 
 (Hili,W7 
 
 18:^0, makes the 
 itres of wheat; 
 
 part of French 
 utiicrn climatef. 
 
 Rook I. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 &3A 
 
 f «A 
 
 are grnorally arrountod tlirt mont deiiciitii in ihn world. Thnne of DiirKundy and rhampA)fno 
 am without a rival, if we exci^pt a f.nv rare H|Hieiiii(inH of Tokay. The winenof the (iaronne 
 do not riiiiti quite m high ; liiit, from their light, Hafe, and agreeahle (|iiiiliti<>H, are drunk more 
 friK.ly, and exported on a larger Heah-. The tlnest and MtrongeNt of thcae wines nre eultivatod 
 chiefly to supply the consumption of Britain and the other northern niitions. The intiTior 
 consutnptioii of Franco eonHi.-<tH ehielly of the light wines, dnmk at talile, nearly as our heor. 
 
 Two eliilN)rate nMenipts have t 'i miide to estimate llui produce of the Frerieh vineyards; 
 
 one hy (Ihiiptal, in his "Oeiieral Treatise on French Industry," and the other in the ri'|H)rt 
 of a counnlttee of the (JhamlsT of I'eers, pp'ser.ted in Ih'>.\ |)y tlii< |)uc de l)od(<aiiville. 
 They diHi>r pretty coiisiilerahly. Chaptul sup|Hises that l,(i:)l,(NN) hectiirvs are employed in 
 producing wine to the average annual amount of :<.'),.')<NMHNI hectolitres. The tahle, how- 
 ever, giviMi hv the duke, of the produce of (.'ach department dtsm not exceed :n,().'MI,(IO() 
 hectolitres. The ditlerenct; as to value is still more remarkable. ("Iiaptal, alter leaving out 
 a sixth, as made into brandy, estimates the remainder at 078,(HN),iKNMrancs: he Hupjioseri 
 that there are HIMMMNI worth each v2(K)tVaMcs; l,<HNMNM) worth TKI; gradually descendmfr 
 till he Comes to 1II,.'>(MMMH) worth only TJ francs. iKsleauvillo dis-s nut bring thn amount 
 to more than 4H(I,(MMMKN>. The higiiest average value he a igns to Iho wines of any 
 department is to those of the Oise (clia. pagno), !W) fVancs; those of the Marne, Yoime, and 
 (.Vtte d'Or (burgundy), 'iO to a4 ; of tin (Jiroiide, and Lot, am' iaronnn (claret), 11) to 21 ; 
 the rest (him 17 to U. His estimnte, lit ■ iver, si i>ms too low; hince M. Dupin (I'Vircc* I'ro- 
 ductiven, i\i\ ilf lit Fraiin) calculates th • value, .•iccorili'.^' to the tax paid to government, 
 at .'Vt;!.l.'».''i,07H tVancs. The brandy into which one-sixi:h cif the above produce iH made, is, 
 like the wine, the finest in tiie world, and a gram, tuple .'French trade, ('hajilal estimates 
 thn value distilled at 40,(NM),U()() francs. M. Miipin states the quantity at4<iU 17 hectolitres; 
 that of other spirits at IKMKM). He Cillculate^ also 8,S6H,' • 'j hoctolitr ' ♦" cider, ind 2 IW.'),022 
 hectolitres of strong l)«?cr. 
 
 Live stock does not form the most approved part of French husbt ■,: y. Chaptal eon^•i(lor.^ 
 tlittt the animals are tix) few, whether tiir culture, for use, or f'li '.n production of manure; 
 and also that the measures taken to improve tlio hreed have been very partial id defective. 
 The niimlMJr of horses, includii.g mules, in 1827, WB' ■..'" i,(HMt. Itt tliese 1 ;., reckoned 
 that !)(M>,(M)0 were employed in riding, posting, the (tilu . v, &c. The sto^k lequires to be 
 kept up by an imiKirtation, wliich in 1800 to 1812 w is vul, d at ;i,.5'll.(MK) francs annuii:'v, 
 but according to M. Scnac had risen, in 1822 to H2i<, to 7,.'')'M),(MK1. In return, there is - 
 extensive breeding of mules on tlw! I'vrenean frontier, and tliev are exported to Spain to ilir 
 value of 1,40(MHH> francs. France had in 1812, 2M.(MMt hu'lls. l,7(»l,(MHt oxen, :i,001),0(l() 
 cows, 8.5(),000 heifers. The imjiortution at that time iiin'unted lo only 2,!lti(MMH» tVaiics, but 
 in 182.'> it was 7,680,()0(). The exiKirtation is, however, ■•oiisiilenible. Sheep arc a species 
 of stm-k very considerable in amount, |)articiilarly in the ilepartnients bordering on the Alps 
 and Pyrenees, in those which cnmpo.so iho rnnimtain d's'rict of Auvergno, and on the pastoral 
 banks of the Eiire and the Cher. The nninbor of .itieep in 1812 was 7(l(l,;ilO mcrinoe, 
 H,.')78,00() mixed, and ;10,843,(KK) native or unimproved. The first introduction of merinos 
 was in consequence of the treaty of Haslo, wliich stipuluteil that 40(M) of these highly prized 
 animals should pass into France. An experience of thirty years has shown that the breed 
 might bo preserved and oxtendiid in full perfection; but the above statement will show that 
 the diffusion of it is, as yet, very partial. Pure merinos are valued at thirty francs, mixed 
 at twelve francs, and native sheep at only five francs. The number of swine in Franco is 
 estimated by Baibi, in 182(1, at 4,(IOO,Ofl(). The ass is considered by M. Senuc to he, from 
 the poverty of his owners, in an ''most hopeless state of degradation; and the fowls, the 
 bees, and the pigeons to demand u t'.i' )ugnly improved system of rearing. Chaptal has 
 pot attempted to estimate the wi.;:-' . ••pocics, but has guessed their entire value at about 
 ."Jl.WHMKlO francs. 
 
 Among the materials of manufacture, tlie most important is silk, which was at first intro- 
 duced near Tours, but was soon Pund to be well suited only to the most southern districis. 
 The amount, according to C'l .;>';al, is alwut 11,400,000 lbs., and the value l."),44(),00() francs; 
 but this is only about two-f '■ hs of the quantity consumed in the manufactures, so that a large 
 importation is necesrary ii '.ni Ijombardy. Hemp and flax are cultivated universally, but 
 always on a small seme, every fiirmer having hi.i little patch for domestic use. It is diffi- 
 cult to estimate these ; but Choptal guesses the volue of hemp at 30,000,(K)0 francs, and flax 
 at 20,000,000 frrnics. Vegetable oils are proiluceil to the supposed extent of 1,300,000 quin- 
 tals, wortii about 75,000,000 francs ; yet so great is the quantity consumed in domestic 
 use, and in the different, manufactures, that they are imported to the value of nearly twenty- 
 five millions. 
 
 There are certain tropical and colonial productions which it was the eager wish of Napo- 
 leon that France should cultivate, in order that she might be independent of commerce. 
 One of his favourite projects was the culture of the beet-root, for the extraction of sugar, 
 an article of consumption with which Europeans can least dispense. The admission of colo- 
 nial and foreign eiigar?, under reasonable duties, after the overthrow of the continental sys- 
 
 r ■ I 
 
^ 
 
 b36 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 tern, gave a severe clieck to this spurious branch of industry. To prevent its decline, hcnvy 
 additional duties were laid on colonial and foreign supirs in 1810 and li^22; and, in conse- 
 quence of this encouragement, the production ot beet-root suijar lias been rapidly incroasintr 
 during the last five years, and is now supposed to amount to alnjut 80(K) tons, or w,0(iO,(K)0 Uis. 
 The art has boon a good deal improved ; and it is supiwsed by many thnt it will, nt no dis- 
 tant period, be so much ainelionited tlmt tlic beet-growers will be able to withstand the 
 competition of the West India planters under the same duties: but any such expectation 
 aeeins to us to be quite visionary. The entire consumption of sugar in Franc(! amounts, at 
 present, inclusive of that from the beet-root, to about 7'2,()0O tons a year ; being not much 
 more than a third part of the consumption of Great Britain and Ireland, which amounts to 
 about 100,000 tons. Tobacco, after the removal of the rdfrie or royal monopoly, rose to 
 !50,000,0001bs. ; but since the restoration of the regie in 1812, it has fallen to .'J,0(K>,000. 
 
 Woo<l is an important article, especially in a country which is nearly destitute of any 
 other fiiel. Chaptal estimated the woodlands at 7,072,000 hectares (about 17,.'i00,000 acres); 
 but according to a more recent memorial in 1824, by M. Ilerbin de Halle, sub-administrator 
 of the fbresU, it is only 0,.'i21,000 hectares (about 1/1,000,{KM) acres). Of this, 1,122,000 
 hectares belong to the sUite, 1,896,0(K) to the communes, 6.5,969 to the crown, 192,000 to 
 princes of the royal fiimily, and .%243,(KK) to private individuals. Woods thus occupy a little 
 more than an eighth part of the soil. The greatest proportion exists in the departments 
 bordering on the Alps and the Pyrenees, and along the Rhine, the Moselle, the Sadne, the 
 Marne, and other eastern rivers. Chaptal estimates the value of the annual cuttings at 
 about 141,000,000 francs ; but if this bo reduced according to M. de Halle's estimate, it will 
 give only 130,000,000. Fruit trees are also of importance, especially chestnuts, cultivated 
 on a large scale in several provinces, and valued by Chaptal at aliout 10,000,000 francs. 
 He estimates the fruit growing open in orchards at 22,500,000 francs, and that on walls, or 
 in rows as single trees, at 68,7iJ0,()00. lie is afraid tliat tliis last will be thouglit too low; 
 we should rather apprehend an opixjsitc error in this instance, as well as in thnt of reckoning 
 the herbs which grow in 328,000 hectares of garden ground, at 200,000,(KK) francs. 
 
 On the whole, Chaptal calculates that in the .')2,()0(),000 hectares of which France con- 
 sists, twenty-three arc arable; ten woods, vines, fruit-trees; seven pasturage; the rest 
 waters, roads, buildings, waste. Ho makes the annual average produce of an aero 28 francs. 
 By this and other estimates, the annual territorial produce comes to about l,o(K),000,000 
 francs. The entire agricultural capital ho cstiniatos at 37,.500,000,000 francs. M. Dupin, 
 in 1827, reckons the territorial revenue at 1,626,000,000 francs. 
 
 The manufactures of France, though they do not present the immense results of those of 
 England, are considerably more productive than those of almost any other nation. Colbert, 
 the celebrated minister of I/)uis XIV., finding this branch in a very depressed state, com- 
 pared with its prosperous condition in some neighlxiuring countries, bestowed on it almost 
 an exclusive attention. Chaptal calculates, that during the Revolution it made still greater 
 progress than agriculture. He regards a.s almost miraculous the advance mnde in the cotton 
 and other fabrics. The miracle, however, wa."! wrought solely by the rigid exclusion of 
 British goods; and amid all the boasted proofs of French ingenuity, he is obliged to confess, 
 that when, as minister of the interior, he sought eagerly the means of introducing new 
 manufactures, he could find no effectual expedient, except that of alluring F.nirlish manu- 
 facturers into France, and of copying their processes. However, these prohibitions, which 
 have been continued to a great extent under the royal system, have in fact forced a number 
 of manufactures which could not otherwise have withstood British com])etition. 
 
 Silk has been long one of the most prominent objects of French mnnutiicfnro. Even the 
 revocation of the edict of Nantes, though it drove many of the most industrious citizens out 
 of the kingdom, lofl that branch of industry still very flourishing. It sufl'ered more from the 
 dre.adfiil calamities which MhW Lyons, its chief seat, during the height of the revolutionary 
 mania. The lij.fKK) establishments that existed in 1788 for the matmfacture of silk, were 
 reduced in 18(K) to ,3.500; but amounted, in 1831, to alxiut 1.5,000, employing above 21,000 
 workmen. It is chiefly in cloths that this city excels all others, both as to the brilliancy of 
 the dyes, and the richness and beauty of the stuffs. Nismes excels in taffetas, mixed silk 
 and cotton stufls, piuzes, and crapes; Tours in fiirniture stuffs; Avignon in siitins, levan- 
 tines, &c. The Cevennes are famous for bonnets, while almost all the silk ribands are fiibri- 
 cated in the department of the I/iire. The entire value of the manufiicture is estimated at 
 125,000,000 franas, of which 30,000,000 is exported. 
 
 The woollen manufiicture is still more extensive and valuable than thnt of silk. The 
 woollens of France are either very coarse or very fine ; the former are established chiefly in 
 the hilly trncts of the >outlieru iKmler, where the sheep yield nbuudanco of coarse wool, anil 
 the shepherils spend the leisure of winter in workiiur it up info serges, friezes, nnd similar 
 stuffs. On the oflier hand, at Sedan, Lonviers, Abbeville, are mniiutiu'tiired liner cloths 
 thanany of those of Britain, though the latter produces a tnuch larger quantity of grnid and sub- 
 Btantial cloth. AlthmiL'h France pnnluces 84,(KKt.(K)01bs. of wool, she yet iiniturts to the 
 value of 12,000,(KK) or ll,(M)0,(KK) of francs : Chaptal estimates the wliole uiunanufactured 
 
liOOK I. 
 
 PRANCE. 
 
 ar 
 
 :fatc, corn- 
 it almost 
 
 grenter 
 10 cotton 
 usion of 
 
 confess, 
 
 mjr new 
 
 mar.u- 
 
 is, which 
 
 number 
 
 Even the 
 izpns out 
 ' from the 
 Intionary 
 silk, wore 
 
 21,000 
 liancy of 
 ixml silk 
 
 l(?viin- 
 nre fiibri- 
 imated at 
 
 ilk. Tho 
 I'tiiofly in 
 W(X)1, ami 
 1(1 similar 
 or cloths 
 I and sub- 
 ts to thn 
 iifactured 
 
 wool at »3,000,(K)0 francs, and tlio finished work at 238,000,000, of which tlie exports 
 nmount V> alxwt 25,000,000. 
 
 The iiiakin<r of linen is as widely scattered ns the culture of hemp and flax. The coarse 
 cloths aii> chiefly fabricated by the pcasuntry, each out of the produce of liis own little patch 
 of land. There arc, however, large manufactures of plain useful cloth in Normandy ann 
 Dauphint', tlie latter from heinp ; and groat <iuantities of sailcloth are made in the maritime 
 countries. In the departments along tho Belgic border there are extensive fabrics of lawns, 
 cambrics, and lace ; which la.st, though not of equal reputation with that of Urussels and 
 Mechlin, forms yet an important object of trade. We may reckon tho raw material of hemp 
 at 37,0(K),000 francs ; the finished manufacture at nearly 110,500,000 ; flax, raw material, 
 20,0(M),(HH), tlie finished fabric, 75,000,000. The exportation is about 37,500,000, olmost 
 wholly of the finest kinds of the manufiicture. 
 
 The cotton manufacture was established in France during the continental system ; and 
 has been prop[)od up since the restoration of the Bourbons by the prohibition of im|X)rtation 
 from abroad. In 1810 the imports of raw cotton amounted to above 25,000,000 lbs., and 
 during the next ten years they wi^re more than doubled. But the high price of machinery 
 in France, tlie ncarcity of coal, and the want of skill on the part of the workmen, seem to 
 oppose almost ii suporable obstacles to the further progress of the manufacture. It is at pre 
 Bent in a very depressed state, and the following account shows that it has been nearly sta- 
 tionary during the last ten years : — 
 
 Imports of Cotton Wool into France. 
 
 Iba. 
 
 1888 (il,75H,300 
 
 18Sa .'iO,!l.53,.'SOO 
 
 m» T.wjs.aoo 
 
 I8M fil.aTlfiOO 
 
 ias» : .... 96,052,200 
 
 1827 87,185,100 
 
 1828. 01 ,839,000 
 
 1H29 72 ,««!» ,000 
 
 18:K) H4„s2S.000 
 
 1831 05,517,000 
 
 [In 1834, it again rose to 279,674 Imlcs, or about 73,250,000 lbs. ; and in 183.5, to 314,350 
 bales, or about 94,000,000 lbs.— Am. Eu.] 
 
 Of the secondary objects of manufacture, that of leatlier is perhaps the most extensive, 
 though not peculiarly French. It is supposed that in France the annual product amounts to 
 857,000 cow-hides; 110,000 horse-hidos, and 2,032,000 calf-skins. There are 31,000 shoe- 
 makers in Paris, who make upwards of eight millions of pairs of shoes yearly, not only for 
 the city itself, but the provinces, and even foreign countries. Chaptal reckons the whole 
 produce of tanning, currying, shoemaking, and all processes connected with leather, at 
 ]43,000,()00 francs. Hard soap was formerly supplied by Morseilles to ail France and the 
 colonies, but its produce of 22.5,000 quintals is now reduced by a third; owing piirtly to the 
 reduction of the colonial demand, and partly to the more general difTusion of tiio manufacture. 
 It is thought still to amount to 30,000,000 francs. Starch, including hair-powder, may amount 
 to 18,000,000 pounds. There are sundry little matters of jewellery, trinkets, furniture, per- 
 fumery, scented waters, volatile salts, which elsewhere are only petty trades, but which taste 
 and fashion in France raise to the dignity of manufactures, tlie whole produce of which is 
 reckoned at upwards of 100,000.000 francs. Crystal, glass, and pottery arc branches in 
 which the French have recently made great progress; and, from being dependent on 
 foreigners for these articles, are now able to export them. The first two branches are esti- 
 mated at 21,000,000 ; porcelain made at Sevres and other places, at 5,000,000 ; iwttery in 
 imitation of English, a little more; coarse pottery for the lower ranks, l."),000,(MM). 
 
 Mineral kingdom. France yields in abundance the most solid and useful of all metals, 
 iron. There are alwut 400 forges in tho king<loni, chiefly in the Pyroncan and .\lpine de- 
 partments, and along the heads of the Marnc, the Moselle, and the Sa6ne. 
 
 The produce which M. Chaptal reckoned only 81,000,000 kilogrammes, had, according to 
 M. Dupin, risen in 1825 to 101,0(K»,000 (alxiut 161,000 tons), the value of which would be 
 about 7.5,000,000 francs. Chaptil supposed the workmanship bestowed even on the smaller 
 quantity prmlucod in iii.s time siifTiriont to raise the value to 200,000,000 francs. Nearly all 
 the copper and lead employed in IVaiice is imiiorted from abroad. Salt is extracted on the 
 southern coast from sea- water ova|)oratod by the heat of the sun, and in the north from 
 brine-springs artificially ovoixirafml. During the period when salt, relieved from the old 
 oppressive mi)nn]K)ly, \vas lofl eiitiroly free, its production and use rose to the extraordinary 
 height of upwards of 20 millions of quintals. Since the re-establishinont of tiio t'lx, it has 
 fallen to not luite two millions; upon which there is paid a duty of 45,0(X),(K10 francs. This 
 astonishing diminution seems chiefly owing to the disuse of it in anrictiltnro; a circiiinstance 
 liowevcr very injurious to that hrniich of industry. Other mineral iirodncts, witli their sup- 
 posed value, are, alum, 2,5(KI,000; saltpetre, 3,000,0(K); nitric acid, 6,0()0,()0(> ; muriatic 
 acid, 2.50,0{M). 
 
 The total value of the products of tho mines and manufiicturos of France is ostiniated at 
 2,00t^ 000,000 francs. The particulars are about 4.50 millions of home raw materials; 225 
 millions of foreign raw materials; 900 millions of workmanship ; 225 millions of general ox- 
 
 Vol. I. 3 S 
 
 fin'': 
 
 ?..il 
 
 t' 
 
 ;>;h, 
 
 > ;:■' 
 
 
 Ii." . 
 
 if I 
 
538 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PabtIII 
 
 pense, as implements, repairs, lijfhting, interest of fixed capital ; 200 millions for the profit 
 of the munufaeturcr. 
 
 The commerce of France, while all the other branches of industry were thus advancing, 
 has perceptibly declined. It was reduced, indeed, to a state of temporary annihilation by 
 the violent [xilicy of Napoleon, who absolutely lined the coast with troops, timt not a single 
 vessel might enter. Thus all the commercial ties of France were broken, every channel 
 closed by which slie was accustomed to exchange her commodities with those of foreign 
 countries. Indeed, the anti-commercial spirit stems to have become rooted in the mind of 
 the nation ; and when we find even the enlightened mind of Chaptal extolling the prohibi- 
 tory system, and considering every thing as a source of loss to France wiiich she imports 
 from abroad, there can appear little prospect of any amendment That writer considers the 
 year 1789 as the most flourishing period of French commerce; when the exports amounted 
 JO 18,a(Kt,()(KW. sterling, and the imporU to 26,500,000/. This extraordinary excess of 
 imports, tt result, according to old ideas, considered so disastrous, he explains by observing, 
 that the imixirts include ten millions firom the colonies, while the exports thither were only 
 four, and also two millions and a half in gold and silver. Whether this explanation be sound 
 or otherwise, we have no idea that there could be any permanent or extensive difference be- 
 tween the two branches. Chaptal has, with grief, declined to give any record of the feeble 
 efibrts at revival ujade by the French commerce. Since the appearance of Chaptal's work, 
 however, it has cDnsiderably improved. In 1827, the import trade was carried out by 3350 
 vessels, under the French flag, tonnage 353,000, value of cargoes 230,140,000 fi-ancs; and 
 by 4439 foreign vessels, tonnage 474,0(K), value of cargoes 136,041,000 francs. There were, 
 besides, imported by land, goods to the value of 199,621,000 francs; making the imjwrta in 
 all, 56.5,802,()(H) frnncs. 
 
 In the same year the export trade was carried on by 3522 French vessels, tonnage 
 346,000, value of cargoes 23.5,120,000 irancs; and 4141 foreign vessels, tonnage also 
 346,000, value of cargoes 167,728,000 francs. The exports by land amounted to 156,767,000 
 francs ; making in all, 559,615,()(K) francs. 
 
 The following was the value of the leading articles of import and export : — 
 
 IMFORTS. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Haw hiilcs 8,700,000 
 
 Wools 11,140,000 
 
 Feathers l,.W0.00O 
 
 Silks 32,270,000 
 
 Tallow 2.500,0(10 
 
 FfHitB to plant 1,220,000 
 
 Tobacco 7,650,000 
 
 VcKotahle juices 2,270,000 
 
 Oils, noi for fooil 31,430,000 
 
 Medic 2,130,000 
 
 Wooil 17,0110,000 
 
 , ornamental 2.000,000 
 
 Hemp 4,210,000 
 
 Flax 56,000 
 
 Cotton 51 ,010.000 
 
 Gems 8,200,000 
 
 Sulphur 1,200,000 
 
 Coal 8,080,000 
 
 Cnsl-iron 1,170,00() 
 
 Copper 0,110,000 
 
 Tin 2,130,000 
 
 P.itash 3,420,000 
 
 Indigo 14.880,000 
 
 Horses 3,3<iO,000 
 
 Sheep 6,400 000 
 
 Horned cattle 9,520.000 
 
 Butter l,!HiO,0flO 
 
 Ejus 3,830,000 
 
 Grain 7,150.000 
 
 Cheese 3,140.000 
 
 Fruits 1(1,200.000 
 
 8u|jar 3(1,000,000 
 
 Coffee 10,000,000 j 
 
 Strawhnts 4.,'>.5O.O0fl i 
 
 Mnen, orhenipi<liitr«, 1,5.880.000 
 
 Mercery 2,170,000 i 
 
 Mercantile navy. In 1827, the mercantile navy of France consisted of 14,530 vessels, 
 of tlie burden of 700,000 tons. Of these there belonged to— 
 
 E.\F0RT8. 
 
 Dvestuffi 8,300,000 
 
 Gt-ni.t 3,120,006 
 
 Horses 1,200,000 
 
 Mnles 4,840,000 
 
 Sheep 1,420,000 
 
 Horned cattle 2,530,000 
 
 Reflnedsuijar 4,550,000 
 
 Wine, ordinary 41,510,0(H) 
 
 , liqueurs 5,730,000 
 
 Brandies 32,970.000 
 
 Straw-hats 2,0(10,000 
 
 Porcelain 3,(180,000 
 
 Glass 2,(500,000 
 
 French books .3,140,000 
 
 Paper 3,000,000 
 
 Perfumery 5,300,000 
 
 Cloths, wool 20,920.000 
 
 , silk OO.HtJO.OOO 
 
 , ribands 24,380,000 
 
 , crtton 4(1,020,000 
 
 . linen 17,370,000 
 
 Cambric and lawn 10,580,000 
 
 PlaqutS 3,170,000 
 
 Clock and watch-work 4,240,000 
 
 Tnhletterio 3,700,000 
 
 Mercery • 0,880,000 
 
 Mode,. 2.300,000 
 
 Made clothes 0,480,000 
 
 Parisian articles 5,600,000 
 
 Stiipi. Tom. 
 
 Bordeaux 431 77,000 
 
 Marseilles 711 (15,000 
 
 Havre 359 62,000 
 
 Ship,. 
 
 Nantes 537 . 
 
 Rnuen 2.'>4 . 
 
 Dunkirk 230. 
 
 Tnni. 
 
 .,5n,iH)n 
 
 .28,00(1 
 .17,500 
 
 Tlie interior commerce must lie very extcnsivi^. tliiiiigli it is diflicult to psti ite its amount, 
 as, notwithstanding ronsidrrnblo n/lvantacres for iiiiviirntiDn, the bulk of it •urriod on by 
 land. The old inodinm of/«n-.v ha.-; been not only prc-'crved, but greatly c- 'i'"d. .M. nottin, 
 uix)n documents fdininlKMl by the minister of tlio interior. calciilatcH tliiit '' ic are 26,31''i 
 
8,300,000 
 3,130,006 
 1,290,000 
 4,840.000 
 
 i,4ao,uou 
 2,sa«,ouo 
 
 4,550.000 
 41,S10,0II<I 
 5,720,000 
 22,970,000 
 2,0(10,000 
 3,(i80,000 
 2,000,000 
 3,140,000 
 
 :i,Dr)U,ooo 
 
 5,300,000 
 
 .. 20,920,000 
 
 !IO,HtJO,0(X) 
 
 . . 24,380,000 
 
 .. 4I>,020,000 
 
 .. 17,370,000 
 
 .. 10,580,000 
 
 3,170,000 
 
 4,240,000 
 
 3,7i)0.(X)0 
 
 0,880,000 
 
 2,300,000 
 
 0,480,000 
 
 5,600,00)) 
 
 Tom. 
 .W.dOfl 
 28,00(1 
 17,500 
 
 Book I. PRANCE. 63U 
 
 fairs in Franco Some of these arc Iield on the frontier of a province or kingdom, others 
 round a {.'f'- ciiti.jdral or noted place of pilgrimage; some at the foot of high mountains on 
 the meltiii;- of Uw snows, whicii imve kept tiie inhabitants imprisoned for several months. 
 Sometimes thoy open vvilli burlosiiue representations, as processions of giants, of flyin<' 
 dragons, or monstrous fishes. Tiie fair of Longchamp.", held in spring at Paris, those ot 
 Benucaire in Languedoc, and of Guibray in Normandy, are the most extensive. 
 
 'J'he canals of France were long entirely undertaken by the government, wliich carried 
 on those »vorks with some spirit. The earliest was the Canal of Briaro, to unite the Seine 
 and the Loire. It is about 38 miles long, 4 feet deep, has 40 locks, and cost 1,0(»0,0()0 
 francs. Tiie canal of Languedoc is on a much greater scale, and was considered in its day 
 a stupendous undertaking. It was intended to unite the Mediterranean with the Atlantic, 
 and is 170 miles long, 0^ feet deep, with 100 locks. The cost was 32,000,000 francs, which 
 would have been, at least, doubled Iiad the work been executed in the present day. It wan 
 considered the largest canal in Europe, till it was eclipsed by the Caledonian, which is three 
 times as deep, and admits ships of war ; whereas the canal of Ijanguedoc has afforded a 
 mere inland navigation, along which pass 1900 vessels of 100 to 120 tons ; but it has not, 
 for the most common merchant-vessels, superseded the necessity of going round by the 
 Straits of Gibraltar. The Canal of the Centre, joining the Saone and the Loire by a line 
 of 70 miles, was completed in 1793, at an expense of 10,000,000 francs; but only 5 feet 
 deep. The Canal of Picardy, from the Oise towards Lille, remarkable for its long tunnel 
 near St. Quintin, was completed in 1810, at an expense of 10,600,000 francs. Still, France, 
 in this grand national improvement, remained far behind England, which, by M. Dupin's es- 
 timate, made a few years ago, had more than four and a half times as much canalization in 
 proportion to its surface. Very recently, however, France has displayed an extraordinary 
 activity in planning, and a considerable diligence in executing, designs of this nature. This 
 too has been displayed not by government only, but by private associations, asking only aid 
 and advances from the-state. Independent of the finished works above stated, twelve great 
 new canals are in progress. These are, — 1. The Canal Monsieur, joining the Rhine and 
 the Rhone by the Sa6ne and the Doubs ; length 180 miles. 2. Of Burgundy, joining the 
 Sadne to the Loire by the Yonnc, 14.5 miles. 3. Of Angouleme, making the Somme navi« 
 gable to Amiens. 4. A lateral canal along the Loire, to avoid the difficulties of its naviga- 
 tion, from Dijon to Briaro, 120 miles. 5. From Nantes to Brest, with a view of provisioning 
 the ports of Britany, 220 miles. 6. Of Ille et Ranee, joining Nantes to Brest and St. Malo. 
 7. Of Nivernais, joining the Yonne to the LSlre. 8. Of the Duke of Berri, joining the Cher 
 to the Upper I«ire. 9. Ardennes. 10. Blanet. 11. Aries. 12. Oise. Several canals, on 
 a still more magnificent scale, have been recently contemplated, an'd what tlic Froncli call 
 the studies of them are even far advanced ; but no part of the works has yet been com- 
 menced. Doubts are even entertained if they will repay the immense expense required for 
 their completion. The principal of these nro, — 1. A maritime canal from Paris to the sea, 
 avoiding the circuitous navigation of the Seine, and admitting ships of large burden to that 
 capital. Tiio estimate is 150,000,000 francs, and 1,500,000 francs for a harlrour at Paris. 
 2. A canal from Paris to Strasburg ; which would become, as it were, the French Grand 
 Trunk, and migiit easily be extended to the Danube. The length would exceed 300 miles. 
 1. The Pyrenonn Canal, from Toulouse to Bayonne, forming a more direct communication 
 from sea to sea than at present. Length, 210 miles. 
 
 The roads of France, at least the high roads, have been chiefly supported by government. 
 They are broader, more spacious, more direct, and on the whole of grander aspect, than the 
 Englisli roads ; but the^ have not been kept in such good condition for travelling. Roads 
 have been mode and repaired rather for political and military purposes, from solicitation and 
 favour, than for objects of real utility. The system seems to have been, to neglect them as 
 long as possible, till the clamour of the district became irresistible, and then to give them a 
 thorough repair ; to which Dupin justly prefers the system of keeping roads constantly in a 
 good state by small repairs as the necessity arises. The French roads, however, have been 
 greatly improved since 1810, and the maintenance of a great proportion of them ha.s been 
 undertaken by the departments ; so that they are now divided into royal and departmental. 
 The royal roads, in 1828, extended 8631 leagues, and there was expended on them 
 199,000,000 francs; but this was chiefly on repairing and extending different parts of them. 
 It was thus divided : — 
 
 Fnnct. 
 
 To innintain 4205 leagues, cost "•^''•59!! 
 
 Ti) rciHiir 31li« ditto 01,051,000 
 
 To rompleto 814 ilitto 43,403.tH)0 
 
 Tooiion 440 ilitto 34,9(14,000 
 
 Works of art 50,0%,lifl0 
 
 l«9,4fi3,(K)0 
 
 The departmental roads, in 1828, extended 7704 leagues, of which 6040 had been 
 opened, and to complete the remaining 1604 would require an expenditure of 112,000,0il0 
 francs. 
 
 MJ 
 
 ■?i. 
 
 ' .1; 
 
540 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 Tliere are several rail-roads in France, but of no great extent ; the principal arc that of 
 Andrezicux and Roanne, 50 niilea in length; that of St. Eticnne and the Loire, 15 miles; 
 and that of St. Etienne and Lyons, 45 miles. 
 
 Of the bridges of Franco several are handsome, as tiiose over the Loire at Orleans, 
 Tours, and Nantes ; over tiie Seine at Paris, Neuilly, and Rouen ; over the Rhone and 
 Sa6nc at Lyons; and over the Garonne at Bordeaux. Bridges of su.4pension have been con- 
 .-tructed at Paris in front of the Hotel des Invalides, and over the Rhone, between Tain and 
 Tournon. These operations have been entirely in the hands of government. 
 
 Sect. VI. — CtDi7 and Social State. 
 
 The population of France, wiiich in 1790, by tiie enquiries of Necker, appeared to be 
 24,800,000, was found by the census of 1791 to amount to 26,363,000 ; by that of 1817, U) 
 upwards of 29,000,0(K); and by that of 1820-21, to 30,616,000, including Corsica and the 
 army. According to the royal ordonnance of March 15th, 1827, it amounted to 31,851,546. 
 There were in that year 965,634 births ; of which 898,329 were legitimate, and 67,;)05 ille- 
 gitimate. The births consisted of 498,187 boys, and 467,447 girls. The marriages were 
 229,613, the deaths 772,428. At an average the proportion of nmle births in France to female 
 births is as 16 to 15; the marriages are to (he population as 1 to 1133; the births are to the 
 marriages nearly as 4 to 1 ; and to the population as 1 to 31.53 ; the deaths are to the popu- 
 lation as 1 to 39.4. The extraordinary improvement since 1780 in the condition of the people 
 is obvious from the fact that at the last-mentioned period the deaths were to the whole popu- 
 lation as 1 to 30.2 : so that while, in 1780, one individual died annually out of every 30 
 individuals, in 1832 one only died out of about SO.* 
 
 The French national character has very marked features, and has been the object of 
 mingled admiration and contempt to the neighbouring nations. In the eyes of Frenchmen, 
 especially of the old school, la bdli; France is the centre of all that is refined and polished 
 in human existence, and whatever lies beyond its sphere is marked with a deep taint of bar- 
 barism ; while their rougher neighbours brand them as artificial, effeminate, and fantastic. 
 The art of living in society seems certainly carried to greater perfection than in any other 
 country ; and the manners are characterised by a peculiar gaiety, amenity, and courtesy. 
 The polish of the higher ranks seems to have descended even to the lowest circles. "The 
 man who breaks stones upon the road takes off his hut to the woman that leads her cow in a 
 string ; the tinker and the shoeblack whip off their hats to each other." A certain openness 
 and kindness of disposition is certainly evinc^ in the custom of whole families, wiih married 
 sons and daughters, continuing to dwell under the paternal roof The Frenchman lives as 
 it were in public : his house, for a part of the day, is open to a largo circle of acquaintance. 
 He enjoys society without expense and ceremony. He resorts habitually to the tlieatre, 
 spectacles, and scenes of public amusement. In more serious points of view, the French 
 possess estimable qualities. Intoxication is a vice confined to the lowest ranks ; and swear- 
 ing is repelled at least as a mark of barbarism. The Frencli are ingenious, acute, active, and 
 intelligent. If they have not what can strictly be called patriotism, they have at least ii 
 very strong national feeling. To exalt the glory and promote the influence of France, is the 
 prevailing impulse which actuates the mind of almost every Frenchman. It is, however, 
 alleged, tliat there is a want of that sterling principle, that openness and integrity, which 
 forms the boast of the Engliish character. Dis-simulation and insincerity pccm widely dif- 
 fused through the intercourse of the higher circles. Tiic honesty of the lower classes is, 
 however, remarkable; and the system of higgling inshojw, is a consequence of the contracted 
 state of commerce. The deportment of the female sex, liowever embellished by tournure, 
 and the graces, does not accord with our ideas of social anil domestic proi)riely. The young 
 ladies are strictly watched, and held in almost monastic seclusion; but the era of marriage 
 is the sigpiil, if not of positive irregularity, at least of a syetem of regular flirtation, which 
 we cannot reconcile to the conjugal and matronly ciiaractor. It is probable, however, that 
 the impression of the general dissoluteness of French manners has been chiefly derived 
 from the opulent circles of the capital; while, as a late writer has observed, Paris and the 
 piC'inces form entirely separate worlds. Among tlie peasantry, and even among the trading 
 class in the cities, there appears to be much that is respectable and amiable. The great 
 activity and prominent station of the female sex are everywhere conspicuous: they are seen 
 manofring the shops, carrying on great manufactories, and joining in the hardest toils of the 
 loom and the field. It is not at all uncommon upon a farm to see the master sowing, liis< 
 wife guiding the plougli, and a fine girl filling the dung-cart. Such avocations divest the 
 fair sex in the provinces of any great portion of Iicauty. Indee<l, the gay hilarity of the 
 French character does not seem quite so universal as is generally supposed. Travellers in 
 the south, from Arthur Young to those of later date, complain rather of a singular gravity 
 and taciturnity. Mr. Matthews remarks in his " Diary of an Invalid," that a very con- 
 
 [* The population in 1833 was 33,500,UOO.— Am. Go.;] 
 
* 
 
 BdOK I. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 &11 
 
 sidetablc clmnge of manners has taken place since tlie Revolution. All the distinctions ot 
 rank have been cut down like the old trees of the forest, and the new generation, like tin.' 
 coppice, are uU on a lovel. " You will seek in vain," lie says, "for that hijrli-bred polish of 
 manners, which has been so much boasted as peculiar to Uie huul-lon of France. A re- 
 publican spirit prevail.-', and shows itself in an independent roughness of manner, savouring 
 of sans-culottisiu." 
 
 The Uoiiian Catholic lias been the ruling religion in France, ever since the fatal issue of 
 the long struggle for religioiis liberty. Previously to the Revolution, however, a general 
 Bcepticism pervaded all the well-informed classes, lH)th as to the Catholic tenets, and as to 
 religion in general. This was doubtless one great cause both of the Revolution and of many 
 of the fatal and disastrous aspects which it assumed. A furious anti-religious fanaticism 
 reigned ; all fonn of public worship was suspended, and even prohibited; the churches were 
 rifled and defaced in a barbarous manner. At this time the vast domains of the church, by 
 which so many dignitaries and so many convents were supported in splendour, were voted 
 tlie property of the nation, and sold at a low price to supply its necessities. Napoleon had 
 the merit of re-establishing religious worship, and on a very liberal footing; an allowance 
 being miule for the support of the Protestant clergy, proportioned to the number who still 
 hold that faith, and who amount to about 1,5(K),(KHI. As all the former funds however had 
 disappeared, the establishment is sup|)ortcd out of the public revenue, and is frugal, and even 
 scanty, both as to numbers and salary. In 1H31, there were four cardinals, ten archbishops, 
 and sixty-six bishops. After the intermediate classes of vicars and canons come the cures, 
 or parish priests, amounting to 3000, with incomes of 1000 or 1500 francs ; but the chief 
 labour devolves upon 23,(X)0 desserviins, or acting curates, who starve upon 400 or (500 
 francs a year with the addition f "only some small fees. The whole church expenditure, in 
 ISiia, amounted to 1,575,000 liv 's, but in 1832 was reduced by a third ; and the church 
 has been in a somewhat unsettlec. state. The Bourbons were supposed to aim at restoring 
 it to all its former power, splendour, and privilege; a course viewed with extreme jealousy 
 by the republican party. The high church party endeavoured to remedy the deficiency of 
 the establisb.ment by sending sound missionaries who were listened to by the people with 
 enthusiastic delight. The author of " Four Years in France" mentions one who in depart- 
 ing from a city had his cassock torn oft" his back, and cut into pieces to be distributed as 
 relics. The liberals deride them as ignorant fanatics ; but some travellers who cannot bo 
 charged with superstition, report them as displaying a good deal of natural elotpience, and 
 that their doctrmes appeared really very edifying, since many persons who had been guilty 
 of thefls, even at remote periods, were induced by them to come forward and make confession 
 and restitution. 
 
 The intellectual character of the French has been brilliant, and since the age of Louis 
 XIV. has had a powerful influence, in matters of taste, on the general literature of Europe : 
 that prince, ambitious of glory in every form, extended a munificent patronage to letters and 
 arts. The French Academy, though its endowments were not very splendid, and though 
 intrigue often influenced its admissions, gave a fixed and high place in society to men of 
 letters ; who, amid all the frivolity of French character, were received even among the highest 
 ranks with a distinction not accorded to them in any other modern country. The aim of 
 Ijouis to make the French a sort of universal language was in a great measure successful ; 
 it became the established dialect at all the courts, and the chief medium by which the different 
 nations communicated with each other. The departments in which the writers of that age 
 excelled, were chiefly pulpit eloquence, poetry of a light and satirical character, and the 
 drama in a somewhat fettered and artificial form. The writers of the following age took a 
 Iwlder and more varied flight, and sought to turn the opinion of mankind into new channels 
 upon all subjects. Thewitand variedtalentof Voltaire, tlie eloquence of Buftbn and Rousseau, 
 the comprehensive views of Montesquieu, and the science of D'Alenibort, gave a new turn 
 to the ideas of the thinking world throughout Europe. These writers, with their successors 
 of the same school, had a powerful influence in bringing on this revolution, in tlin ruins of 
 which several of them were buried. Learning was for some time almost extinguished in 
 France; but as soon as the revolutionary frenzy abated, the National Assembly constituted 
 a new body called the National Institute, round which, under the changed appellations of 
 Imperial and Royal, all the highest names in science have since continued to rally. The 
 French during this period did not .shine in poetry or general literature; but in iivitiioinatici-, 
 physics, and chemistry, the labours of Ijavoisier, Laplace, Lalunde, Chaptal, and a niinilicr 
 of others, have, notwithstanding the ]K)werful rivalry on the other side of the Channel, raised 
 them (icrlmps to the very first place. Recently Franco has produced some very eminent 
 historians, and popular ixiets of a peculiar character ; there has been also a remarkable exten- 
 sion of the habits of reading. The periodical sheets printed were in 1814 only 45,000 ; in 
 1826, they were 144,000. The most solid and useful branches also arc those which have 
 most increased, as appears from the following table, fonned by M. Dupin : — 
 Vol. I. 46 
 
 i. 
 
 I, 
 
 h 
 
.'42 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pari ftl. 
 
 
 No, »r ShMti [Tinted. ' 
 
 
 No. of sliMts printed. 
 
 1H14. lt<<JU. 
 
 *U,(m 1,44.1,(100 
 77a,(XHI l.WI'.MHH) 
 
 i;i,;«-j,n(io •j7,7«4,(KHt 
 
 1I1,>.'-.'C.,(I()0 4li,.>-M,l)(lfl 
 ;l,l.(HI,()(HI 1 7,li!IU.(IU() 
 
 1 '• 
 
 mt. 
 
 IC'JIp. 1 
 
 
 1.:174,(KKI 
 
 a.^i^iKN) 
 
 7.W,(HKI 
 l.lItU.MIt) 
 
 an.aiH.cHK) 
 iH,r,«,'i.o(i«i 1 
 
 I'illilMHKI 1 
 
 ;),(i:«,(i(H) 
 
 •.MKI7,tKKI 
 
 
 
 S»0|.MIC.>^< 
 
 rililiimiphv 
 
 llclli'K Li'Urei) 
 
 IliKliiry, Trnviln, Su; 
 
 VnricticH, Ahnniiriry, fee 
 
 ' I'oliUiiil Krniinliiv 
 
 L. : 
 
 Tlio litoriiry nnd i^cientific collections of Paris ure the most splondid in Europe : tlie royiil 
 libniry cDiilaiiis S(MMMK) pi .ited volumes, KHMHHt inaniiecripts, r)(MH) voiiinies ofciijfravings, 
 iinil 1,1)(H1,()0(> liistorieal (locuiiioiits. There iiro sixteen other libraries in Paris, contiiiniiig 
 8(K),0()0 viiliimcs. The Museum of Natural Ili.'itory and the Jardin des Plantes are equally 
 copious in tlieir re.-ipective departments. All these are opened to the public in the most 
 liber.il niiiimcr. The provincial collections are also respectable, though they do not equal 
 those of the minor princes of Germany ; and Fmnce is, on the whole, less rich in this speciea 
 of treasure. 
 
 Amonjr the establishments for public educ^ition in France, the universities, whicli are 
 twenty-si.\ in number, hold the first rank. That of Paris is perhaps the most celebrated in 
 Europe, and \v;is, even in the dark ages, the grand theatre of those dialectic combats, which 
 then usurped the lionours of science. Thougii destroyed during the fury of the Revolution, 
 it has been re-established on a great scale, and with a larger appointment of professors than 
 ony other in Europe; it attracts students from every part of the kingdom, as none of tho 
 rest enjoy equal repute, and indeed bear at present only the name of academics. The Lycees, 
 now called royal colleges, are an institution of Napoleon ; the expense of board and educa- 
 tion is from 350 to 750 francs a year ; but they enjoy a very unwarrantable monopoly of the 
 right to teach Latin; they were attended, in 1825, by 10,000 pupils. Primary schools 
 intended for tlio general instruction of the people amounted in 1825 to 22,900, and were 
 attended by 110,000 scholars. Lancosterian schools have since been introtluced, and 
 amounted in 1820 to 8(K), attended by 80,000 scholars. M. Dupin remarks striking local 
 difTcrcnces in this respect. In the north, 13,0tXt,0(K) of inhabitants send to school 740,000 
 children ; while in the south, 18,0(K),000 send only 375,000 : even in the south, the propor- 
 tion is largest in the districts least favoured by nature, the Upper Alps and the Upper 
 Pyrenees; while in Touraine, emphatically called the garden of France, it is only one in 
 220. All these establishments are under the patrtmage and control of the government, which 
 grants annually alwut .'S.OO' ^(KIO francs for tticir support.* 
 
 The fine arts were zealously promoted by tho regent duke of Orleans, and by I^ouis XIV. ; 
 and though they never reached the splendour of the Italian or even of the Flemish schools, 
 yet they could boa.st several masters of the first class; the Poussins and Claude I-orraine, 
 having fixed their residence and even found their scenery in Italy, became half Italian. Le 
 Brun and Le Sueur were the chief artists decidedly French : of whom the former enjoyed 
 the favour of tho king, and the chief direction of the great works ; but the latter has been 
 pronounced by posterity to be his superior. After this the French school sunk greatly, and 
 was employed in delineating only the artificial forms of court society ; but within the last 
 thirty years a new school has sprung up, in which David, Gerard, Guerin, Girodet, and their 
 followers have sought, not witliout success, to imitate the highest classical models. The 
 French school has produced a series of very eminent engravers ; and the names of Desnoyers, 
 Bervic, and Massard still support its reputation, though it no longer surpasses, or perhaps 
 equals, those of England and Italy. Tho French galleries of art have passed through 
 many vicissitudes: before the revolution they were certainly the first out of Italy. During 
 that convulsion, all the collections of the princes and nobles were put up to sale; the entire 
 Orleans collection was carried to England ; tho Crozat went to Russia ; various minor col- 
 lections shared the same f itc. When the French, however, over-ran Italy and the Nether- 
 lands, they were seized with the desire of enriching Paris with treasures of art, and carried 
 off whatever could be removed from among the masterpieces of the Flemi.'^li and Italian 
 mas'ters, and of ancient sculpture. Thus was assembled in the Iiouvre a display of all that 
 is most brilliant in art, such as nothing before existing in the world could have rivalled. But 
 
 *[Il iipppiirs from nfflrini (loci.in(!nls, tlint in 18X1 lhi> iitiiiil.nr of rhililrtin Iwtweoii Ihi! ni!t?s of two nnil six 
 ycurji, WHS 2,744..'ii4, of w Iumii ahoiit SUO.(HH) iiltiniiliii iitfaiil frlmols ; of tiiosc liclwieii six anil fifteen yi'tirn, tliorc 
 wort! 4.(IH7,2til, of wliit^li 2,44!),T2.5 iiltniiilfil tlir primary uliooln ; anil of pfrenns iihovo fiflni'ii, tliiire were 2a,IHifi,170, 
 of wfiiini H.MS.H.W coulil nnillier rciiil nor write ;— so tliat lliore were niiirly 1(1.4(10,000 persons ahove the ate of 
 two years, who roceiveil no instruction at all. The same papers Rivo the following slatcinonts of tho iKhaolil 
 ^.visting, on.! of the nuinher rei|iiircil to educate the whole population : — 
 
 Infant Schools 1,000 actual nnnibcr. 40,000 rei|iiircil number. 
 
 Priniaryilo TO,4C>7 " .M.'JtH 
 
 PeiualB WorkinRcIo ],000 " 20,000 " 
 
 Adiiltilo 2,31)1 " 54,840 
 
 Totals 34,S 
 
 160,124 
 
 Ah. Ed.] 
 
ttl. 
 
 ItS'M. 
 
 An. Ed.] 
 
 Book I. 
 
 PRANCE. 
 
 54H 
 
 a dire reverse awaited the nation. The allied armieH who conquered nt Wntorlno, and thence 
 advanced to f)ccupy Paris, determined to exact full restitution of all this brilliant lM«)ty. The 
 Venus, Apollo, and Transfijruration were sent off for Rome ; the Descent t'rorn the CroHs for 
 Antwerp; and nnmborlo;<8 other masterpieces were restored to their ancient posHossora. The 
 unseemly gnpn thus left were filled up by native productions and otiiers taken from the 
 palaces ; and the gallery presents a coup dail almost as brilliant as ever ; the intrinsic value, 
 however, is vastly diminished ; though since the purchase of the Borghosc collection it still 
 comprises some of the finest specimens of ancient sculpture. 
 
 The houses in France under the former regime presented a "Treat variety ; for wliile the 
 mansions of the nobles displayed a profuse splendour and luxury, and might be characteri.soil 
 as palaces, those of the body of the people, compared with the English, were very deficient 
 in neatness and comfort; the rooms being dark, the passages stragglinjr, tlie floors of stone, 
 the doors and windows by no means well finished. The palaces, however, can no longer 
 be maintained as such by their impoverished owners; and all the fine old cliatcaus throughout 
 France are converte<l into barracks, prisons, or manufactories. On the other hand, tlie habita- 
 tions of the peasantry, as well as their general condition, appear to be sensibly improved. 
 
 Amusement used to form as it were the life of a Frenchman, and was sought for in every 
 various and possible shape ; but since the Revolution a very great change has taken place in 
 tliis respect. Paris still claims to be, as it were, the centre of gaiety to the civilized world. 
 The Parisians go from home in search of amusement much more than their neighbours ; almost 
 all their leisure is spent in places of public resort, which are open on terms tliat render them 
 accessible to all classes. DM>icing is an exercise peculiarly French, in which, as to agility, 
 and perhaps grace, they excel most nations. Much of their time is also spent in the open 
 air ; and the extensive ranges of gardens in Paris are provided with every recreation suited 
 to the tastes of its citizens. Although many improprieties doubtless mingle with these enter- 
 tainments, especially in Paris, there is less of intoxication, turbulence, or quarrelling, than 
 in the amusements of the lower orders in England : so far, even as concerns the public places, 
 there are fewer open violations of decorum. 
 
 Dress is a particular in which the French long claimed, and were allowed to give the law 
 to the rest of Europe. Paris has been for ages the grand tuafrasin des modes. In that 
 capital seems to have originated the system which is termed fashion, and which consists in 
 the continual change, according to a prescribed model, of the form and construction of every 
 part of the human attire. Such light and constant changes, however, while they indicate 
 an inordinate attention to the object, seem as inconsistent with the formation of a pure and 
 elegant taste, as the immutable costumes of our ancestors and of the East. The empire of 
 Paris seems considerably shaken by the extinction of its brilliant societies, and its long separa- 
 tion by war from the other countries ; but its influence remains still very considerable in this 
 department. 
 
 In the preparation of food, the French equally boast of a refinement and recherche supe- 
 rior to that of the other European nations. Instead of plain joints presented in their natural 
 form, French cookery delights in what arc called made dishes, stews, fi-icassccs, and ragofits, 
 which retain few traces of the original material. On the merits of this system various opin- 
 ions have been entertained ; but at present the fashion of this cookery out of France is on 
 the decline, and the time seems past when it was considered a matter of state that the tables 
 of the great should be covered with French dishes. 
 
 Sect. VII. — Local Geography. 
 
 The local divisions of France, prior to the Revolution, were provinces, thirty-two in num- 
 ber, most of which had formed independent states, and even little kingdoms, when they were 
 merged into the mass of the French monarchy. The National Assembly, however, super- 
 eeded this division by one much more minute, into departments ; which has been retained by 
 the Bourbons, and is the basis of all administrative operations. It is indeed very convenient, 
 being founded upon natural divisions of rivers and mountains: all the departments are toler- 
 ably equal as to magnitude, ond each has its seat of administration nearly in the centre. All 
 the exclusive privileges and restraints upon internal communication, wliich were attached 
 to the arrangement into provinces, have been happily removed. Yet these divisions must 
 still be kept in view, not only because they are necessary for the imderstandiiig of history, 
 but because they remain rooted in the mind of the nation, and often mark strikin^r difl'crences 
 of race, of manners, and even of language. It would not consist witli our limits, or be 
 interesting to readers out of France, to enter into a detailed description of each department; 
 hut the following tables will exhibit a very comprehensive view of their respective statis- 
 tical details. The first exhibits the departments in their relation to the ancient provinces, 
 their extent according to the report of the commission of the Cadastre, their population 
 according to the census of 1827, and their chief cities and towns. The square French league 
 may be reduced to the square English mile by multiplying by P, or more closely, 7.84. 
 
 The following table exhibits both the provinces and the departments as nearly as possible in 
 their relation to each other, with their extent in square leagues, and the population of the capi- 
 tal and principal towns according to the estimate formed by the French government in 1827 • 
 
 t ! 
 
 i|i^ 
 
 H [' 
 
j^ % 
 
 544 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 I 
 
 I ITuliiicciaiHl l)f|>inuttlili. 
 
 iPlnnilcrn.. . Nnrd 
 
 Artiiii.... 
 PIcartly... 
 
 N'liriiiaiiily 
 
 U\i> nr 
 FraiicB . . . 
 
 Clininpngiic 
 
 laorrninc . . 
 Aliiacu 
 
 I'n* (l(! Ciiliilii . 
 
 HnllllllO 
 
 I.iiwtr Bi^liii).. 
 
 Cnlvaclni 
 
 Mniicho 
 
 Drue 
 
 Ktirt; 
 
 ' 8('IM0 
 
 Si-iiiu uikI C>i«n 
 
 OiKI! 
 
 8<'liic' mill MariiH 
 . iWtiw 
 
 Mnriio 
 
 ArliMiiiva.... 
 
 Aiilitt 
 
 L'ppnr IMariie 
 
 MriHn 
 
 Mnni'llo I:i;)il 
 
 Britany — 
 
 Mnlnn ninl \ 
 PiTdiu... ( 
 
 Anjim 
 
 Touraino. . 
 
 Orliiunn 
 
 ,.„! 
 
 IVrri . 
 
 Nivcrnaid . 
 
 Oiirfunily 
 
 PrancI 
 ciimtu 
 
 ■I 
 
 IP. s 
 
 Itu ...1 
 
 Mciirlliii. 
 Vn^ifl'fl 
 
 t'lipiT Rhllll!.... 
 
 LiiniT Ithiiii^ , .. 
 lllf anil Viliiiiii.'. 
 CVitpii ilii Niinl. .. 
 
 riiiiHlcrrn 
 
 Morhilinii 
 
 hiiwiT Ijiiiri,'. .. . 
 
 jMnviMwid 
 
 Sarilii! 
 
 MaiiiunnilLiiiru 
 Iiiiln* anil I.t>lru. 
 
 I.iiiri'l 
 
 Klin* anil Loire . 
 Lniriinil f|ii;r... 
 
 Iiiilni 
 
 ChlT 
 
 \ir>vri! 
 
 Ymtiiii. 
 
 rnic il'Or 
 
 Ain 
 
 • 595 
 
 Hpprr Saiinn SJIIU 
 
 Itiiibs ,27(1 
 
 Jura '254 
 
 MarrliP.I.i- S 
 mouHiii . . i 
 
 AiiniH.Saiii' > 
 toiiKi.'. An- \ 
 irniiinuis . . > 
 
 Aiivorgne . 
 Lynnnaix. . 
 
 Dauphiiiy.' 
 
 Ouienne ..■■!, 
 BonrhnnnaiH 
 
 Viinili'n 341 
 
 Two Suvriw o<Kj 
 
 Vinnni) iut) 
 
 f'roii7.o 
 
 Upper Vii.'iino 
 Cnrrfzc 
 
 WIS 
 
 f'harnnto 'apo 
 
 I.nwrr Cliarcntc J3(I7 
 
 Piiy ilo Drum.' 
 Canial 
 
 I Rhnnu 
 
 [.oiro 
 
 htirc 
 
 Upjicr Alps .. 
 
 Driiinn 
 
 l>()rili)iiiie .... 
 
 Oiriinilo 
 
 I.iU ani*Garonn<;!'24'i 
 
 l^>)>uUliuo. 
 
 ,:n!i 
 i,;i7;i 
 
 40!l 
 274 
 141 
 
 a:t4 
 4'.>n 
 
 27.'i 
 
 47li 
 .'il 
 
 Oancnny 
 anilllvain 
 
 Foil 
 
 Riiunajllo'i . 
 
 I.angui'ili)c.' 
 
 ProvRncc . • ■ 
 Coreica .... 
 
 Lot 
 
 .Aviyron 
 
 Tarn and Oa- 
 
 ronno 
 
 Alliir 
 
 l.aniln» 4.V1 
 
 fJi'rs 312 
 
 L'ppnr PyriMiPi'S . ^Xi 
 
 I/)«tr PyrcnecB. 3Hi 
 
 .Arric'sr '287 
 
 KastiTii Pyri'ni'Pii aa? 
 FppiT Ganinno .3311 
 
 .Ktli 
 200 
 :il,? 
 3(13 
 
 1.W 
 
 Anil. 
 
 Tnrn 
 
 Hi'nmit 
 
 Onril 
 
 Lnzi^re 
 
 Upper TiOirc 
 Ariliif he .... 
 
 IjiwiT Aliw 27.5 
 
 MiiiitliK nf Ihn ' 
 
 Rlinni' 
 
 Var |:ifiP 
 
 V'aiicluse 187 
 
 tJnraica ! 
 
 IHJ2.II4H 
 
 04H,IIUU 
 
 M\, 
 
 (iHH, 
 
 smi, 
 (ill 
 4:14 
 
 421 
 1,1113, 
 4411, 
 3K'), 
 3IH, 
 4H1I, 
 IK.-! 
 2X1 
 341 
 244 
 
 :«w, 
 
 41)11, 
 4U3, 
 
 3711, 
 4UH 
 
 5:u, 
 
 5.'>3, 
 iV'l 
 MH 
 427, 
 4.'i7 
 a.M 
 4411,, 
 
 4.'lM. 
 
 '.fKI, 
 104, 
 277, 
 'J30, 
 
 •j;i7,i 
 
 24H,^ 
 'J7l,i 
 
 :m2 
 
 37(1,! 
 
 Cllln uul Tnn ni, wllh Ihclr h>|mlalliin ia 11117. 
 
 Mllii (Nt.H'iU 
 
 Arra> 3'j,17:i 
 
 ,2M2 Anilcna 42 
 
 ,'JtiA'ltiMinn IHI 
 
 ,(l,1«;('n«n 3H 
 
 ,'J(HISt.I.i H 
 
 Al«n(im 14 
 
 Kvrnix II 
 
 Pnria RPU 
 
 ,H71 Vi'mnilliia..., 311 
 
 I'i4.lli'nnvaiii 12 
 
 'JUUl.Mi'liin 7, 
 
 ..'MiUll.aiin 7, 
 
 .IM.'ill'liiiliini) 12 
 
 ,l)'24 AliiziCrnii 4, 
 
 . iWjTriiyp" • 
 .w!3t'liBnniiint. 
 ,33n;iliir la Due . 
 
 ,();w 
 .Kltl 
 741 
 ,4117 
 ,453 
 .IW 
 
 ,M.11 
 
 ,454 
 ,(l!lfl 
 
 ;iM 
 
 5111 
 
 ,1174 
 
 M«U... 
 
 Nitiiiy 
 Kpinal . ., 
 I'lilinar... 
 
 HtrHKlniru 
 
 Konni*]* 2!). 
 
 Ht. Brii'iix .... 
 
 Uniiiipiir 10 
 
 VaimfB II, 
 
 NanlnK 71, 
 
 Laval l.y 
 
 Li' Mann II) 
 
 Amji'm 2)), 
 
 ,lii().Tiiiir» 2n 
 
 .'.►JH Oleaim 40, 
 
 ,7H2('liarlri.' 13, 
 
 Bli.iB 11, 
 
 (,'hiilnaiiruiix . 10, 
 
 HoiirKiia Ill, 
 
 Nuvors 13 
 
 ,.. . Aiixprro 1'.' 
 
 ,!l4:i'Dijim 23, 
 
 ,77(1 Marnn 10, 
 
 IlnnrK-eii- ( „ 
 BreaBC 
 
 I Diiiiny 
 
 ^Dunkirk ... 
 
 j Ihinlniina.. . 
 
 ) Ht. Oiiiur . . . 
 Ahlwvlllu .... 
 
 Havro 
 
 Hayi'ti X 
 
 I'licrltunrs .... 
 Ariti'nlaii . . . 
 
 I,i>iivicrH 
 
 Hri'aitx 
 
 tlnin|H.>H 
 
 Coinpi^Kiif! . . . 
 Foiilahii'lilcau 
 Ht.Quontin ■ . 
 
 Hhriina 
 
 Beilan 
 
 III.HHI 
 
 '24,517 
 
 111,314 
 
 lt),01ll 
 
 11),.V.'0 
 
 2I.(«4I) 
 
 III.INH) 
 
 17,(HUI 
 
 IM)44 
 
 11,242 
 
 1,521) 
 
 7.Wi7 
 
 7,3(;a 
 7400 
 
 17,(1(11 
 12,«0H 
 
 Vajuiiciiiuni'i. 
 Cam bra I . . . 
 Calata 
 
 fll.Quenthi , 
 
 I)lpp|)« 
 
 Fulalaii 
 
 C'dUtancva. . 
 
 11(,H4I 
 17,031 
 
 tl,l<54 
 
 13,351 
 17,077 
 10,303 
 0,032 
 
 Bl. Dunia 3,731 
 
 McaiK. . 
 BniManiiB 
 Kpornay 
 Itucrny . . , 
 
 Langrea. 
 
 Thionvilln 
 LuMi'ville . 
 HI. Dill .... 
 
 Iti'fiirl 
 
 Havcrne. .. 
 St. Main... 
 Diiianl.... 
 
 llri'Hl 
 
 L'Orient . . , 
 
 7,1«1 
 
 Vcrilun 
 
 5,H21 
 U„m Toul 
 
 7,339 
 
 4,803 
 
 4,W3 Weiaaeinburg. 
 . !),H38 
 
 7,175 
 
 2tl,nSS MorlBix 
 
 15.310 
 
 7,8.1(1 
 7,4KI 
 
 a,OHO 
 
 3,300 
 
 0,f>« 
 7,507 
 
 6,140 
 
 0,761 
 
 Mayonno 0,700 
 
 Haumur . .. 
 CliL-rann . . . 
 Miintargia. 
 
 Dri'iix 
 
 V'ljniliiini! . 
 iHHiiudnii.. 
 
 Si'na . . , 
 B< mur . 
 Aiitua . 
 
 341,023 J ■•■;iV«-;. I H,..24 
 
 327.041 VpmiiiI 3.252 
 
 'iVI,312lll<'i'anroii .... 2H,7!i5 
 310,2821 Liins \v Sanlnier 7,H(i4 
 
 Rray 
 
 Pdhtarlitr. 
 
 :H2,KJ(1 BfiiirlH)r..Vcnil6c 3,129 
 
 1 Fnntnnay 
 k' Cniiiti.' 
 
 2PS,2fin|Niort l.'5,7!)0 
 
 2i>7,(170 Piiitiera 2I..V12 t'hdtcllcrault . 
 
 2.'i2,!l.32 
 27fi.351 
 
 284,882 
 
 3.53.(i,'>3 
 4'24,147 
 
 Ruiirpt 3,44H 
 
 LiningcB 3.'i,l>12 
 
 Tulle 8,479 
 
 .VUI, 
 'J(i2, 
 
 4 Hi, 
 
 3iin, 
 fl'i'i 
 
 I'.'S. 
 285, 
 4(!4, 
 
 5:t8, 
 xm, 
 
 2H), 
 350, 
 
 Anemilpino. 
 Kni'liille ... 
 
 15,300 CoRnac. . . 
 11,073 Saintoa .. 
 
 10,314 
 4,406 
 
 n,«s3 
 
 0,247 
 0,80.1 
 11,2-23 
 
 8,085 
 4,'220 
 11,1130 Chfiloiii 
 
 V,203 
 4,549 
 
 7,493 
 
 0,241 
 
 3,017 
 10,:iao Rnchcfort 
 
 nieriiinnl 30.010 Rinm 12,730 Thicra . 
 
 Anrilluc Il,.'i7« St. Flour 0,040 
 
 ■™!H':Ki"'|™.*'-«'''..v™x 2,452 
 
 ' Monthrisnn .. S.hW St. Eliennc. .. 30,015 
 
 Orenohlc .. . '22,149 Vionno 13,780 
 
 (lap 7,013 Einhriin 2,300 
 
 Vnlenro 10,283 Monti'limnr . . 7,.'>8!l 
 
 Pi'rieiiHMx.... 8,.'■>8,^ Bergeriic 8,413 
 
 IWirdeanx .... m,M» 
 
 Alien 11,!I71 Villenenvc ... 9,405 
 
 Cahora 12,413 
 
 Rlioilez 7,747 VillolVanche. . 9,521 
 
 I 
 
 580 Miintnulian 
 
 13,909 
 11,613 
 
 2n.4(iO Moissar 10,115 
 
 215, 
 '2113, 
 3(17, 
 
 ,30111 
 ,(10 ll 
 ,()5!l 
 
 412.4lin 
 
 247 
 Ml 
 4(17, 
 
 2113, 
 327, 
 ll'm. 
 
 ai7, 
 
 138, 
 285, 
 328, 
 1.33, 
 
 Monlina M,.3'25 
 
 M.mt lie M.ir.inn 3,(188 
 
 Aiich 10,814 
 
 Tarhes 8,712 
 
 Pan 11,701 
 
 Foix 
 
 IVrpisnan. . 
 
 TlHlloilSI'. . . 
 
 Carra^sonne 
 
 Alhy 
 
 Montpi'linr , 
 
 \ismis 
 
 Mende 
 
 I.<>PnvcnVolay 14,998 
 
 Privns 4.109 
 
 Diane 3,n,'i3 
 
 Dax. 
 
 Bnunrroc . . 
 
 ) llavonnp . 
 
 Oletiin . . . 
 
 4,9.W 
 13,3.17 
 .53.319 
 
 17,773 
 in,!t93 
 33,842 
 39,0118 
 .5,44. 
 
 Xartinnne . 
 (^iisitrrs . .. 
 IJi'zirra. .. . 
 Ainis 
 
 5,045 
 
 7.037 
 
 13,498 Orlhoa . 
 (i,423 
 
 10,097 
 
 15,(103 
 
 10,315 Soiinn . 
 
 10,252 
 
 Arce'iliSre 
 Pii-liron. .. 
 
 .■?2fi,302|Marseilli'8.... 11.5,943 Aix. 
 
 311,fln.5|To»lnli.. 
 233,048 Avignnn . 
 183,079' A jarrio . 
 
 2 797 
 23,132 Aries. 
 
 30.171 Driii;Mii.'nan 
 
 31,180 Oraiii;c 
 
 7,0,58 Ilastin 
 
 8,010 nrniise 
 
 8,804 Cariientraa . 
 9,527 
 
 0,834 
 
 9,843 
 
 19,808 
 
 12,7iri 
 9,7S»I 
 
^ 
 
 ^ -tA 
 
 UOOIL 1. 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 MT) 
 
 -\ 
 
 1U,H41 
 
 H,M4 
 
 13,331 
 
 17,(177 
 
 lu.aoa 
 
 0,034 
 
 3,731 
 
 7,KW 
 7,4Kt 
 S.OHO 
 3,300 
 
 O.PM 
 7,307 
 
 w 
 
 13,000 
 11,613 
 
 0,834 
 
 .. . 19.868 
 12.71f 
 
 ....... ' <'xliibiU a conipiirative view of the state of culture and pro- 
 
 duction Ml tlio (litferonl dopurtmontH of Franco. Tlio amounts of ymin. cattle and woolare 
 turnisluMl by (.lmi)tal. TJio wine \^ drawn from tlu? report proHi-nled to tiio pcorM by tlio Due 
 w ^/*'''^'';;JV'•^*^ ^^^ ^^»« '"rcHtri from the memorial of the Bub-odministrator, M. llerbin do 
 llalle. Iho entire annual amount of land revenue is derived from an estimate of the aver- 
 a(jo produce of the arpent in each deportment, (bunded upon the Cadastre or ireneral survey 
 ot the kingdom. It is furnished by Chaptui : — o / 
 
 DeptftnitnU. 
 
 Ain 
 Avam 
 
 Altiar 
 
 Alja, I |'|«r 
 
 —— Ijjwi'r 
 
 Anlecbt 
 
 Arileiiim 
 
 Arrirn 
 
 Aulio 
 
 AuUu 
 
 Aveymn 
 
 Bobchn Ju Rliouu ■ 
 
 CilvidfH 
 
 CAnul 
 
 Cbiraiiti! 
 
 — Lower 
 
 Cher • 
 
 Oirme . • > • 
 
 Cole.|*Or 
 Col.-i du Nt>ra 
 Crruie 
 UorJitiriia • 
 
 ItouU 
 
 Uroaia 
 
 Eur« 
 
 Eura and Loir • 
 
 Flnliterre 
 
 GiH 
 
 Uinuine, Uj'iier 
 
 Oen- - 
 
 OirtHKie 
 
 lleniilt 
 
 lleUHl Vilaiiie 
 
 Indre 
 
 Imlre uhl l.r>ira 
 
 here 
 
 Jun 
 
 l^ihlei 
 
 Lnir nnil Cher 
 
 Loire 
 
 Loire, I'pp. 
 
 — \jtwvr 
 
 Ijiirct 
 
 Lfit 
 
 L/it <od QATonne 
 
 Lonre 
 
 IVUinn .wtA Ixire 
 
 Manche 
 
 Mama 
 
 ——Upper 
 
 Mayenne 
 
 Meunhe 
 
 MauM 
 
 Morliihnn 
 
 Mnwllo 
 
 NIevni 
 
 Nonl 
 
 Obe 
 
 Ome- 
 
 Paj« de CiUI: 
 
 Piiy dr D-i 
 
 PyreiittrB, I/iw 
 I'piwr 
 Kutern 
 
 Rhine, U 
 
 Rhone 
 
 Sacne, I'pper 
 
 Stone aiul Loire 
 
 Surilie 
 
 Mvine 
 
 — — J^wer ' • 
 
 Seine iml Mame 
 
 Seine anil Ulie 
 
 Sevrw, TvTO 
 
 Sonune 
 
 Tarn 
 
 Tnrn and Garonne 
 
 Var 
 
 Vaticlnse 
 
 VemJtte 
 
 Vieniir 
 
 V.\>\w 
 
 \nagii 
 Yonne 
 
 The Isle of France, now divided into several departments, claims priority of notice as con- 
 taining^ the capital. It is not, strictly speaking, an island ; but being situated near the junc- 
 tion of the Oise, the Mame, the Aisne, and the Seine, is intersected by very numerous rivei 
 channels. It is in general level, fertile, and highly cultivated ; and beneath the surface are 
 quarries of gypsum so copious, that the substance is commonly designated " plaster of Paris."' 
 
 Vol. I. 46* 3 T 
 
 "U 
 
 *'' 
 
 
 m-A 
 
i>IU 
 
 DKSCniPTIVi: GKOr.UAl'IIV 
 
 Part III. 
 
 I'liri*, fho mpitril (if Fnirico, Ims mIsi> nindp prctonxifmH to ho conHulorPil nn tim (jenrrnl 
 capitiil lit' till? rivili.'.i'il world. liOiiilon rini, in liirt, iilcmn dii-puti- itw rlaiiii, Immiij morn 
 I'XIiMisivc, iMiirc wenltliy, iitnl the Hi-nt iif ii iniiili inori' oxtcndrd roinincrrc ; ycf llir ri'iitrnl 
 Rittmticiii nt' l'nri(<, tho [H'ciiliiir n(triictii)ns rondrriiiK it the crowded rottort of nlriin^"'r><, niid 
 iti( lirillimit iind |Milislii'd wii'icty, (<.->|H'ciiiily under tlin old monnrcliy, (,mv(' to this city ii (fnyer 
 nepoet, mid rendered it a more ronnpiLMioiis object in the eyon of Kiirope. I'lirin id not only 
 |e.i-i {K>|iul(iii.s lliiiii LoiKJiin, lint in propoilion to itH (xipnlation if coverH leHH ^jroiind. It (iirins 
 nil linlli liinliM III" tlie Seine an rlli|we of aliont tour rnileN in length and three in lireiidtli. 
 'I'hi' |iriiieipiil streets are lonir, narrow, bordered by hi^'h holl-lr•^<, whi(di, like those of Kilin- 
 liiir'rh, lire enrli iieen|iied by Hovcnil families. The streeiN of dliopM are rintiier eiiciiiiihereil 
 l>y till' exhibition of the nierchatidinn in front of the doorn, ii pnietiee only tnh'riiled in tho 
 iiin>l (ih.M'ure (li-'trietH of Uritish ritieH. Paris thilM prewenlH j;er)eriilly a more irloeniy and 
 confuted anpect than I/indon ; nor lioa it any itrnctnro whieh can nmfeh the ^Tiiidi'iir of Ht. 
 I'»ur.<, or perhapH the bonuty of VVestminntor Abbey ; yot some of itn (jnarterrt emitain lonjj 
 ranjje.s of snpcrb and xtately cdificofl, whicli Ijondon cnnnot rival. The |Niluees nf Paris, in 
 porticnlar, far excel tlioso of tho rival metropolis. Tho mo.^t distirii,MiiMhed is tin- l.onvre, 
 fmishod with tho utmoHt splendour in tho stylo that distinfjuished the 111,'eof hinis XIV. Its 
 front, 5*25 ti'ot lonp, \h a model of Hymmotry, tho oflbct of which is only injiireil by the want 
 rf s|)nro boforo it. The liOuvro is not now occnpied ns a palace, lint as a ^frinid de[H)t of tho 
 objects of taste ond ort. The gallery, whica is more than a iiiiarlor of a mile line.', and the 
 walls of which are entirely crowded with paintinps that are still line, tiirms a nia^/niticent 
 coup (/'n-j/. The hall of gtatucs is still adorned with sonie of the fmest specimens of uiicient 
 
 sculpture. The Tuileries, which IB 
 the present royal residence, was be- 
 pun at nn earlier period than tho 
 l/iuvre, and carried on at successive 
 times; whence it exhibits varied and 
 sometimes (liscoriliiiit featiireiJ, but is 
 on the whole a noble and venorublc 
 edifice, surrounded with fino pir- 
 dens and avenms. The palace of tho 
 Lu.\pnd)ourjr (./iV. 2''(l.), on the south 
 of Paris, and the Palais lliurbon on 
 the west, are edifices of preiit tiuste 
 and beauty. The tiirmer, now strip- 
 ped of the famous series of pnintinps 
 
 'I'ho I-.iiK('tiibourK. 
 
 Paliiit Koynl. 
 
 ncavy and massive, but the interior is richly 
 
 by Rub«'n», which hns bonn trnnsferro<i to the J/oiivre pallery, afliinls in one [iiirt a place of 
 assembly for the Chamber of Peers, ond in another a|)artment"s fiir the exhibition of paintinga 
 by living artists ; while the Palais Bourbon is in part occupied by the rhamber of Deputies. 
 
 The Palais Royal (,AV- 2^1.) is no longer 
 exclusivoly n palace, but is in part leased 
 out to sundry persons, fiir [mr|>iiseM partly 
 of biisinesjs, but much rnon of pleasure; 
 it is tilled with shops, cnn'ec-houses, tav- 
 erns, gaming-tables, and every form of 
 gaiety and di.ssi|mtion which can find flC- 
 ceptaiice in such a city, .\otrc Panio, the 
 ancient cathedral of Paris, is somewlint 
 . lecorated. The modern church of St. (lonc- 
 vievc, called during the Revolution tlio Pantheon, was highlv extolled during its erection 
 as destined to eel ipHo botli St. Peter's and St. Paul's; and sm'h was the expectation enter 
 taincd in France, till, tho scalfolding being remnved and the front thrown open, its inferi- 
 28*2 orily beciiine iippnreiit : however, it is 
 
 still an edifice ofa high class (^ijf. 282.) 
 St. Sutpice is also a modern structure. 
 Poris has no fine streets, nor am of those 
 ample sqllal•(^s which are so great an or- 
 nament of London. It lioa.-;ts, however, 
 of itn pU'rrs, which, without hnving the 
 regular form or dimensions nf 11 scpiarc, 
 command iidmir.ilion by tlie ranges of 
 noble buildings tlint siirrouml flieni. In 
 partictilnr, the Plurr Louis Qiiinzc, 
 standing in a central situation among tho 
 '^'""•''' »' Si. Genoviovo. palttccs, presents one of the most bril- 
 
 liant pomta of view to be found in any city. This capital possesses also great advantages in 
 
 Ik] 
 
I'AIIT III. 
 
 Iin i,'mi<'rnl 
 MMii:r innrp 
 llic ociitrnl 
 inji'Tx, mill 
 :ity II (?ny<'f 
 in tml only 
 (1. It liiriiiH 
 in liriNidtli. 
 ISC of Kiliri- 
 i-n<iiiiili<'rt'<l 
 •iitcil in tlio 
 irliiuiiiy mill 
 iidiMir ot'Ht. 
 [•iii\tiiiii lon^; 
 i,f I'lirin, ill 
 till' l.ciuvrp, 
 li.- XIV. Its 
 liy till" wmit 
 
 (ll|HH<lf llio 
 
 iiiii.s "'"1 ^ho 
 niii^rniticent 
 MS lit' line iont 
 iort, svliii'h is 
 iicc, wax 1)0- 
 iixl tlimi tho 
 lit siifcnHsivo 
 itsviiricd iinjl 
 "itiirciJ, but, is 
 inil vfiicruble 
 itli full) gM- 
 ■ piilni'cnt'thc 
 ),(m tli(!Houth 
 is HimrlHiii on 
 of pn'ut tutile 
 (T, iinw strip- 
 's of imintinjrs 
 urt 11 plarc of 
 1 (if piiintinga 
 of Drputics. 
 ) is nn longer 
 in part leased 
 rixiHt'H partly 
 of (ilciisure : 
 lousrs, tav- 
 pry form of 
 Clin find Be- 
 lt rn Diinio, the 
 is Fomewlmt 
 of St. (^n'-ne- 
 its erection 
 ctulion etiter 
 icn, its inferi- 
 . Aviver, it is 
 nss (;?,«•• 282.) 
 rn structure, 
 ir iiii\ of those 
 I) (jrciit an or- 
 [i.<1s, however, 
 it hnviuc the 
 iif 11 s(iuiire, 
 u' rmifres of 
 mil tlii'iii. In 
 ,oi(/.<i Qiiinzc, 
 ion iimonp tho 
 the iiio^^t bril- 
 udvantages in 
 
 BookT. 
 
 PRANCE. 
 
 Ml 
 
 the wide (irnniiinnteil open Hpacca which lie in thi; very heart of the city. The noiilevanlH, 
 the ancient rinipart <il {•iiri.-i, when it wim cireiiMiMcrihed within ii inuch n.irrower cuinpamt, 
 are now runverteil into ii walk adorned with rows of trees, and filled with lllinieroiu exhi- 
 bitors and vi'iiders of every thing tliiit can conduce to public iiinusenient. The gardens of 
 the Tiiileries, iind tiu! enibelliMhed \\\mt called iho Chumpn IUij*fei, are also open to the 
 public. 
 
 The stiitistics of I'aris havi; been cnrofully illuslnled in a HorioH of interesting wurkfl by 
 tlie ('ouut de (Muibnil. The population, in IHTil, ninoiinted to 7l.'),(Ktfl, but has now risen to 
 H!MU:»1. The blrtlis, in the three yivirs ended IM-JI, iiveraged U-J,7(H); the deallwlW.WHO; 
 leaving thus U(MK) us the annual excess of hirtlis. A third of all the births were illegiti- 
 male, and of th'-He only a thir.l were acknowledged by the mreiita. 'I'lio still-born children 
 were iiveniged IMd.'i. The average of iiiarriageH in the three years was about (MKH). In 
 the three years T-\'i died of sinali-|)iix, and only one child out of twenty-five was vaccinated. 
 The violent deaths averiiged ■:{.">(», half of whom wero married persons, and tho most com- 
 mon cause was domestic chagrin, Drowning wiw tho most frequent miMie: 170 personn 
 were drowned aiiniially by accident. The consumption of I'nris consisted, in 1H2U, of 
 70,«W0 oxen; Hll'j cows; 7t,7.-)!) calves; nOl.lMH sheep. The taxes paiil in I'aris amount 
 to llO.fHMMMM) francs. House-rent amountH to H(),(K)0,(K)0 fVnncs. Tho niimbor of houses, 
 in H'jl, was ti7,(MH>, with an average of thirty-four doorH and windows in each. 'J'he loans 
 maile on pledges by the eharitabin establishment called the Mnnt tie I'iiti nmniuit to 
 10,r»()(MHMt traiics. upon l.CKMMKM) articles, of which 14,5(K),0(K) arc redeemed. There nro 
 fourteen hospitals for the sick, and eight hmpiris for tho infirm. Tho former received 
 annually 42,.')(Kt, of whom almut 4(»,(KX) went out cured; tho latter \H,H^. Tho annual 
 ex|)ense is alxmt 7,(MM),(MK) francs. There is besides nn olllce of charity in each of tho 
 twelve tirrnnilisfi:mrnf, tho aids of which aro adniinister(!d by "sisters of charity," who 
 divide the |)oor among themselves, make regular lists of them, and pay tVequent visits. 
 They make an annual collecliim in their district, tho produce of which is transmitted to tho 
 office. Tho annual distributions made by tho offices of charity amount to l.^WMKIO tVanca 
 in monoy; 747,0(M» quartern loaves; 270,0(10 lbs. meat; 10,(KK) ells of cloth, &c. Tho 
 manufactures of Paris are considerable. Tho principal are of works in polil and silver, 
 which employ 7000 or H(HMt workmen, and yield a value, according to .M. Dupiu, above 
 12r»,(K)0,(KtO francs. There are manutiietured also, by i>0(H) workmen, 80,000 gold and 40,(KK» 
 silver watches, v ith ir),(MK) clocks, which may bo worth 10,000,(KM1 francs. Hngar refinery 
 is also supposed 'o produce •J0,(KM),(KKHb8., worth .'12,000,000 francs. Eighty jirinting-officos 
 employ 6()0 presses and IMMM) workmen, and use annually 2H0,(KK) reams of paper; supposed 
 value S,7.")0,000 francs, Of the various articles above enumerated, there are e.xported to the 
 value of nearly .'jO.OOO.OlH) fnincs, Paris is visited by 12,(MM) or 1:),0(H) Imts, of which KKH) 
 are from the lower Heine, and the rest from the upper. Twenty are steam-boats, Tho city 
 has 10(K) boats of its own. 
 
 Tho environs of Paris are not covered with those numerous villas and country residences 
 which have been constructed to gratify tho rural taste of the citizens of I/indon. Immedi- 
 ately beyond the gates they present a flat open corn country. They aro chiefly marked by 
 the royal palaces; superb fabrics, tho works of successive kings, and on which millions have 
 been expended. The most elak>rato and most splendid is Versailles (Jig. 283,), It was 
 
 283 
 
 Ctiatoati Bl Vertaillei, 
 
 begun by Louis XIII. who found it little more than a village ; but its chief ornaments are 
 due to 1/iuis XIV,, who, during twelve years, expended immense sums in surrounding it 
 with every kind of mognificcnce. The front is highly elegant, built of polished stone, and 
 approached by throe great avenues. The inferior consists of spacious apartments embel- 
 lished in til" most costly manner, and many parts of them, and of tbn staircases, aro covered 
 with frescoes executed by eminent French painters. The interior and the gardens are filled 
 with crowds of statues, partly antique and partly the work of Prencli sculptors. Water 
 was nf first deficient ; but it has been conveyed in such abundance as to be Lavished in fiin- 
 cifiil and fantastic fiiritis, — fountains, jets d'eaii, cascades, with which Versailles is more pro- 
 fusely embellished than any other roynl residence. The two palaces, called tiie Great and 
 Little Trianon, aro in the vicinity, and are celebrated, particularly tho last, for gardens laid 
 out in the English style, Tho long residence of the court at Versailles assembled round it 
 a splendid city formed by the courtiers and great nobles, who considered it necessary to have 
 
 ™*' 
 
548 
 
 DKS( FUl'TIVK OIK )( iUAlM I V. 
 
 Paiit III 
 
 kt leiut II iiiiinitidti tlii'ri). Hiiinu the tru^ir McriivN of (>rtolM>r, 1*^0, tlio [uilncn Iiiin novel 
 been iiiliiil)iU><l i th(iii){li tin* UtxirUmH, nl)i>r tli<Mr ri'turri, ulut'i'il it in ropiiir. Ili'iiro IIip 
 lily lioM ili'dimnl in |K>|mliiti()n, uiiil tlii' latu iimnHiiiii^ ol' llii* nnlilrh iirt' in ii i;rriit iiii'UHiin' 
 ocrupii'd by F'.i»(rli"li roMidontH, St. Cliniil, limr or llvi' iiiili'n iIibIhiiI I'loni I'lirin, Ih iNirtiuii- 
 'arly mlniirvd lor it>< i^ardiMiH and t'xtitnxivp vviiixIh, iin i>x('iir"ion to wliirli tiirniH n |Ni|iulur 
 JkinuHonKMit, (iM|N!ciiiliy on t'cNliv al duyH, It whh tlii> tiiVDiirito rfHidoncr of Nii|H)lt>on, wIkmo 
 .'ourt wuH tliuncii cuIIimI iIik cuhmi't of Ht. Cloud. Foiitiiint'liliHti iH tho huntiti^-iwut of tlio 
 uiunurcliy, Ihmhu mirroundoil liy a forvHt of nitnrty IMMHN) ni;r)'>«. Tlio imliic)', iMiilt liy miiu> 
 coMivti nioiiarcnii, from Friincio I. to I<i)uiii XV., w rliiffly noted for itH lonf; and nuincrouH 
 ffallnriuH. Aniun^ tliu fow townii in thin country, Mouux Ih diiitin(riiiHlH>d not only liy the 
 bcantifiil choir ut* itM catliudral, but by huvinff bnen tlip m>t> of Ihi; cidpbriitvil UiwHuct, wliouc 
 tomb it contuinn. Mnliin w a coPMidcmblo, but ill-built and (flooniy, old town. 
 
 Tho northurii deiwrtinonlH, conipritiin)f tin; provincoH of French Flandem, I'icnrilv, and 
 Normandy, comjinMo to({other an uxtonHive plain, thu richont, niotit HoiiriMhintTi anil niont 
 highly ntiltivatod in the kint;dom. Thu tiirmii, though of vnriuUM ni-ic, am generally larger 
 ♦.ban in Ihn rest of France; tho improved Kngliiih pnxrcHHeH aro gaining ground, and tlio 
 introduction of urtificial graHM«?i) hiw in a great measure supplanted the routine of wheat, 
 otttM, and fallow. TIiIh region is alHo tlio chief seat of nianufiictureH. Those nrovitices have 
 pHxIiiued niiinv men of dixtinguiHlied talent, and knowliMlgti in very generally dillhHod in 
 them. Tho FlcMiiingg retain their national ehamcter, diittinct from that of the French ; 
 heavy, phlegmatic, iiiduHtrioui, addicted to pretty cIoho drinking an<l long riiHtiu foHtivalti. 
 Tho Normaii Htill pnrlakc* the adventurous spirit of his toreHitliorN ; ho Iovch expeditions 
 and journeyH, readily cngagua in any enterpriiie, and eagerly piimueM it. 
 
 The cities throughout allthiH part of France are largo and flourishing. Tho«o of French 
 Flanders, or the Nord, rank among tho strongest fortresses in Kiiropo, and aro tho bulwarks 
 of the monarchy. Lille [lorhaps holds among these the very first place, being considereil 
 tho master-piece of Vauban. It was reducjHlby Marlborough only after a long bliM-kade, 
 and is considered in any other way almost irnpregna))ll^ It is also well and regularly built, 
 and the Km; Royalr is a very splendid street. Lille has also a very considerublo variety 
 both of manufacturing and commercial industry, with institutions both for literature and the 
 arts. Douay is an ancient and strong town on the Hcar|M', and enjoys some celebrity as a 
 seat of rather anti(|uatc<l and scholastic learning. Its university consists of three colleges, 
 now united, one of which is called tho English college, and is resorted to from all the tlirei,' 
 kingdoms on a place of ('atholic education. ('!iiid)mi is a very ancient and celebrated city, 
 the copital of the Nervii in ('n'sur's time, and afterwards of tho kingdom of the Franks. 
 Hero was concluded, in ir)i)7, the league of Cainbrai, which caiiseil tho downfall of Venice ; 
 and it was tho scene of other imimrtant diplomatic transactions; but pcrha|>8 the name is 
 best known from i\a having formed the archieiiiHCo|>al sec of Fenelon. It ranks still us a 
 
 fortress ot the first class, and was one of those held 
 by tho army of (x;cupution, after the peace of Paris, 
 in 1815. Valenciennes is another ancient bulwark 
 of tho kingdom, which yielded to the allies in 1703, 
 after a long siege ; but they did not derive any advan- 
 tage from their success. It has sonio fine mnnutlic- 
 tures of lace, gauze, and cambric. 
 
 In Picardy and the part of the Isle of Franco lior- 
 dering on it, there arc several large and flourishing 
 cities. Amiens has long been celebrated for its manu- 
 facture of coarse woollens, as serges, plush, velvets 
 for furniture, and corpets; also coarse linens. Here 
 was concluded the peace of 1801, between Britain 
 and France. Its cathedral {ftff. 284.) is one of the 
 most spacious and most highly ornamented in France 
 or in FiUrope. Abbeville i.s celebrated as one of the 
 few seats of tho manufacture of very fine woollen 
 cloth, which Bur|)asses even the English ; it deals most 
 extensively in sailcloth, sheeting, and other coarse 
 fabrics from hemp and flax. St. Quentin, the scono 
 of tho great victory of Philip II., enjoys a more hum- 
 ble and useful distinction as one of the most Ihrivin" 
 manufacturing places of France. Its manufacture's 
 consist in lawns, cambrics and still more of late in the spinning and weaving of cotton ; all 
 which employ in the town and neighbourhood upwards of 50,(K)0 persons. The citizens ot 
 St. Quentm display an enterprise and an activity in pushing every new and promising branch 
 of industry, which are not usual in France. A canal is here cut from tho Oise to that of 
 Douay, remarkable for its extensive tunnels. Laon is an ancient town, with a stately cathe- 
 dral. Soissons ia distinguished in French history, and its bishop had, second to that of 
 
 284 
 
 .■.'.■Ht<T 
 
 Amieni Cntheilral. 
 
PAH! Ill 
 
 liim n<!vet 
 Ifiici! Ilie 
 t iiii'UHurt' 
 Ih jMirlicu- 
 II )N)pular 
 oil, wlitmo 
 
 *Mlt lit" tho 
 
 ill liy N«o> 
 
 niiiiii'rou* 
 
 iiily by llie 
 
 not, wliwH* 
 
 ciirily, iiikI 
 , una moKt 
 iilly liiriier 
 11(1, iiiul tlio 
 
 D l)f Wlll'ftt, 
 
 viiid"* liiivo 
 
 (litlbKOli ill 
 
 Ik- Frriicli; 
 
 tie fcBtivals. 
 
 cxpoilitions 
 
 <o of Pre ncli 
 
 ho l)ulwarl<» 
 
 ft conMitlcTPd 
 
 \g W(K'kii(lc, 
 
 (iiliirly built, 
 
 ruble viiriety 
 
 ituro imd the 
 
 r.olcbrity as a 
 
 iree colleges, 
 ttll tho throi; 
 
 lobriitnd city, 
 
 :' the Franks. 
 
 .11 of Venice; 
 
 the naiiio is 
 
 nkH Htill nti a 
 
 of those held 
 BBce of Paris, 
 lent bulwark 
 lUicB in 1793, 
 vo any advan- 
 fine manufac- 
 
 ,r Franco kir- 
 iid floiiriHliin;; 
 1 for its miinu- 
 plush, vfUotiJ 
 linenH. Here 
 ,ween Britain 
 ia one of the 
 ited in Franco 
 as one of the 
 fine woollen 
 it deals most 
 other coarsf 
 [itin, the sccun 
 . a more huni- 
 iiiost thriviiii.' 
 manufactures 
 of colton ; all 
 'he citizens ot 
 imisinp branch 
 lisc to that of 
 stately cathe- 
 tnd to that of 
 
 Dock I. 
 
 rilANCE. 
 
 MO 
 
 i*iiliiiii llarliiiur. 
 
 Rlii'iinH, till' riiflit of rrowninir llie V'lw^ nf Friiiirc. Ii doc» not now prcHOiil any Htrikintf 
 feutiiriM. II<'iiiiviiIh ix tlirivinif and iinliiMlriouK. 
 
 'Phi' |KirlH of I'lciirdy iiiiil Fri'iich Flniuli'r^^ if iilwi vory ili'Horvinj; nf notiro. Dunkirk, 
 biMn^f Ihi' only chh' whu-h ii|iiinn into tin- Nortli Sou, wiir< iiuviiyH cnn^iiiorocl uf (front iin]i.irf- 
 
 anoo. IaiiiIh \IV, liuviiii; dolliiitivoly olitiunoii this pliico m ItMl'.', iniido it >)' llio 
 
 iitriiiii.'o>l liarli<iiir-< iii Kiirnpi'. It tiomi iMTuino mi iiMniiyiiijr In llriti^h tnido, thiit mU iiitii;;(^ 
 wnH liikon iif till' triiiiii|iliH nf tho wnr ol' siiooosnioii, In riM|iiiro, nt tho troiily nf Dtn rlit, itM 
 ctitiro iloiiKililioii. Ily I'liiiii-i mid nihor iiioiiiis, tho Fronoh rmilrivoil nKviiy tn roplm ■■ it in 
 an oll'oriivo htiilo; liiit h) HiiciT^Mivo troiitioH, tho dotiinhtliin of tho tliriilioatinii.'t mi tho nIiIo 
 of tho hoii will* ii>;iiiii mill mriiiii stipiiiatod, till tlio oiromiiHtiiiicoH of llii' poiioo nf 17*^:1 nlilinoil 
 FiiiKJiiiiil til oouHo tVoiii I'X.iotiiiir It, From that tinio Dunkirk booiinio tho main ooiitro nf Uio 
 priviilooriii;; nyi-loiii. It ban iiUo a ciiiiHiilorublo share nf tisbory iiiiil nf tho llaltio trado. A 
 moiiiDrablu ora in itn hi-tory was iln sioj^e by the Uritisli in \^\)'^. Thoy wore oninpi'llod 
 abruptly to riiiHO it, and tlii" tliriiiod tlio cnminoncomont of a Inii;^ hitIoh nf rovornos niist iine<l 
 by Hio alliod iirmH. Dunkirk liiis a kikhI liarNiur in llio coiitro n( tlio city, otiioroil by a 
 canal of a mile and a liiilf; it in ratlior well built, but tiir want nf Hpriiit;^ 'Ix' inliiibltaniM iiro 
 nbli)(od to iiso rain-wator. The noi^rjihourini; torritnry is low and iiiarrliy, mily proi.orved 
 from the inimdatinn of tho soa by a rid^'o nf dowiH, and niily riilliviitod by moaiiH nf iiuiiiiT- 
 OUH drainin;^ canals. Calais is woll known us tho imiiit of oommiiiilcatliai with Kn^'bind, 
 which no lonif held it as the key of Franco, oven atlor hor aims at the out in- miKpioMt of 
 
 that mmiarohy had consod. At prosonf, 
 
 it is uhiotly siipimrtod by tlio packet 
 
 interconrso, its inditVoroiit barlmiir (,li,if. 
 
 2Hr».) iiiilUtinjf it. for any cnminorro on 
 
 a (Treat scale. Calais is in a vory flat 
 
 country, intorsootod by canals, by u liich 
 
 it mi(;ht be even innndatod. nniilnj;no 
 
 has more maritime iniimrtanco; tliiaiiih 
 
 its port, cliokod with sand, will no Iniiiror 
 
 receive vessels of any size, uiili'.''s at 
 
 high tide. It has In.-t altnirotlur the 
 
 forced cnnserpioiiro (rjvoii In it liy I ho 
 
 construction nf tlio (.'rniid llnlilla, di's- 
 
 lined to siiIkIiio the llritisii oiiipiro, but 
 
 now alMindoned to rot. Its proximity, however, to the roast lias rondoroil it a i;roat ri.urt 
 
 of Fii','litfh familio.-;, who inhabit it to tho amount of several thousands. The fi.-.iioi-y uf 
 
 herriii;,', niackorel, &c, varies in value from i,(MK),()0(> to 'i,(KK),(KK> francs. 
 
 The cities of Normandy are larjjer and iimro im|mrtant than those already described, 
 
 Koiion is one of tho noblest in France, Its iiianu- 
 factnres are, perhaps, the most oiiforprisinfr and iiidiis- 
 Irioiis in tlio kingdom, and fmm tbeir viriiiity to F.iij;. 
 land have had peculiar lacilities in l)orrowin(j her pro- 
 oosses. The main staple is cotton-spinnin(r and weav- 
 mg, which are supposed to occupy two-thirds of tho 
 .V),(K)() workmen, and so to eonstituto tho same pro- 
 portion of the two millions sterlinj; of manutiictured 
 giKxls annually produced. The catiiednil (.^y. "2H0.), 
 commenced by William tho Coiupioror, v/as cniisidered 
 one of the finest specimens of ecclesiastical nrchitoc- 
 ture in Franco, till the late disaster, which overthrow 
 a preat part of it. The streets are excessively narrow 
 and dirty, thou(jh tlinse ndjoininsr to the Heine aro 
 a{rreeable. That river was Iniij; crossed only by a 
 pont(K)n, composed of nineteen larfjo barges, sfron;.^ly 
 moored to(;ether by iron chains; but as this had many 
 inconveniences, a handsome slonc bridge has been 
 lately substituted. At Elbumf, near Rouen, is a manu- 
 factory of fine cloth, almost equal to that of Ixmviers. 
 Caen is a very ancient city, of jjreat historical name 
 the favourite residence of VVilliam the Conciueror, aiw". 
 the frequent head-quarters of the En^rlish armies. It 
 is still a considerable place, rather unusually woll built for a French town, onntaininir a 
 handsome castle, tho onlv romaininfT part of its fortificiiliniis, and some fine njd olmrches. 
 Its maniifatturos are numerous, but none of them vory eminent, except, that of lace, which 
 fjivos employment to about 20,000 females in this place ami the iieiLrhbourhnHl. It is of 
 tome oiiiinoiieo as a sent nf literature, jravc birth tn Malhorbe and lluot, and has a university 
 of coiLsiiloralde ropntalioii, which, tliouKh suppressed durinff the Revolution, has been restored 
 
 Itouon Catholral. 
 
 M 
 
 ,=,, 
 

 4^0 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PiuiT ni 
 
 in ftill lustre. Havre, at the nioiitli of the Seine, is tiie port of Paris, and one of the most 
 active seats of French coniinotce. Tiie custom duties, in 1824, amounted to somewhat above 
 a million sterling, and its trade lias since been greatly augmented. The chief fabric of the 
 town and noightourhood is that of printed cottons. It is a gloomy town, the streets narrow, 
 and the houses often built of a framework of wood filled up with mortar. Dieppe, St. Valery, 
 Fecamp, and Ilonfleur are very active stations for fishing ; which is not, however, carried on 
 with the same energy and adventure as before the Revolution. The immense efibrts made 
 to render Cherbourg a naval station of the first rank, have proved nearly abortive. The 
 French government, after the peace of 1783, began to erect a scries of cones, with the view 
 of breaking ti.e force of tiie waves; but these were overwhelmed, and retain no vestige of 
 their original form : tliey lie under water, a shapeless ruin, which Bonaparte in vain attempted 
 to make the foundation of u regular breakwater. After two millions had been spent in this 
 undertaking, he employed other five millions in forming an interior basin and a wet dock; 
 but all these mighty works remain unfinished. 
 
 Britany forms a peninsula distinguished by many marked features from the rest of France : 
 its rude surface, composed in a great measure of forests, marshes, and heaths, enabled it not 
 only to preserve a large portion of its original Celtic population, but to give shelter to fugi- 
 tives from Britain, whence it received its name. After being long a separate duchy, it was 
 united to France by the marriage of its heiress with Louis XII. It retained, however, down 
 to tiie era of the Revolution, its feudal states, which assembled every two years. The Bag 
 Breton is a Celtic dialect. The people are very numerous and very poor. The country is 
 divided into small properties or farms, seldom exceeding twelve acres, cultivated by the 
 manual labour of the occupants, according to anticjuated and unskilful processes, to which 
 they adiiere with tlie most fixed determination. The peasantry reside in small huts, gloomy, 
 dark, and damp; they are strongly attached to their homes; ignorant and superstitious, but 
 at the same time frank, brave, hospitable, constant in their friendships, and faithful to their 
 word. They are stubborn and hardy, and those on the coast make bold sailors. 
 
 Of the cities of Britany, Rennes, the ancient capital of tiie Rhedones, is the first in dignity, 
 and was the place of meeting for the states, the discontinuance of which has diminished its 
 importajjee. It is still rather a fine and handsome city, having been regularly rebuilt since 
 a great fire in 1720 ; and its cathedral of St. Peter is adorned with lofty towers. Tliere is 
 a library of 30,000 volumes, a fine botanic garden, a museum of natural history, and extensive 
 collections in Uie fine arts. It carries on some trade by the river Vilaine, which admits 
 barges of considerable size. Vannes, the ancient capital of the Veneti, is a mucli smaller 
 and poorer town, though its vicinity to the sea gives it some commorco and fishery. Morlaix 
 and Quimpcr are rather good towns in ttie western departments : but the finest city in 
 Britany is undoubtedly Nantes, which seems almost to belong to the rich provinces on the 
 Loire ; it is situiited on a hill above that river, twenty-seven miles from its mouth, and has 
 the advantage of delightful walks an<l environs. Its situation, at the mouth of the greatest 
 river in France, is very favourable to commerce, which was carried on to a vast extent, till 
 ruined by the disastrous influence of Napoleon's continental system ; but Nantes is begin- 
 ning again to rear its head. The West India trade and the cod fishery were the most 
 extensive branches. Much ship-building is carried on for the merchant service, and vessels 
 of 1000 tons are occasionally built. Its manufactures are various, and were fbnnerly exten- 
 sive, especially sugar refinery, cotton, woollen, and linen cloths, and earthenware. It is 
 connected with the opposite side of the river by a noble bridge, wliicli, uniting five different 
 islands, extends in its entire length more than two miles. In its construction Nantes exhibits 
 the usual faults of old cities ; the most agreeable parts are the suburbs, and the islands are 
 thickly planted with trees and houses. 
 
 Brest, on the western coast of Britany, is the chief naval station of France on the ocean, 
 as Tonlon is on the Mediterranean. It was srlected for this purpose in 1031 by Cardinal 
 Richelieu, in consideration of its harbour, which is secure from every wind, and of a spacious 
 roadstead, affording anchorage to .500 ships of wtir. From Brest issued the fleet wiiich was 
 totally defeated, in 1798, by Lord Hows ; and during the wliole of the subsecpicnt war 
 between England and France, this port, with the navy which it contained, was held in 
 almost constant blockade. The works of Brest are very strong, and the attempt made in 
 1694 to carry tlieiu by storm, was repulsed witli considerable di-saster. Tlie town, though 
 modern, having been built in haste, and with a sole view to utility, is crowded and dirty ; but 
 within the last lialf-century there has been built a handsr:nn suburb, called La Recouvrance. 
 Brest, hesiflos its naval importance, carries on a considerable fishery. 
 
 Tliere are otiier maritime stations of considerable magnitude in Britany. L'O: lent has 
 been made a depot for naval stores, and strongly fortified ; it derived much" importance fi-om 
 being the almost exclusive seat of the commerce of the East Iiiilia Cnnifjaiiy; but since that 
 trade iias been nearly annihilated, this (wrt has greatly declined. St. Malo contains r. race 
 of bold and hardy mariners, actively employed in the Newfoundland iind other fisheries ; and 
 who, in time of war, exercised briskly the trade of privateering. Morlaix carries on a con- 
 
I1^ 
 
 ■r 
 
 'abtIII 
 
 he most 
 iat above 
 ic of the 
 ) narrow, 
 t. Valery, 
 arricd on 
 irts made 
 vc. The 
 the view 
 ,'estige of 
 ittempted 
 int in this 
 ,vet dock; 
 
 if France : 
 Died it not 
 er to fugi- 
 hy, it waa 
 ;ver, down 
 TiieBaa 
 country is 
 ted by the 
 3, to which 
 ts, gloomy, 
 titious, but 
 ill to their 
 
 in dignity, 
 ninislied its 
 ebuilt since 
 . Tiiere is 
 id extensive 
 iiich admits 
 uch smaller 
 ry. Morlaix 
 lest city in 
 ices on the 
 ith, and has 
 the greatest 
 extent, till 
 les is bcgin- 
 •0 the most 
 and vessels 
 [lorly exten- 
 Aarc. It is 
 ,vc difterent 
 itos exhibits 
 islands are 
 
 |i the ocean, 
 [by Cardinal 
 y a spacious 
 which was 
 |e(iucnt war 
 Ivas held in 
 ipt made in 
 Uvn, though 
 Id dirty ; but 
 Ipcouvrance. 
 
 L'Oricnt has 
 Irtaiico from 
 lit since that 
 Itains r. race 
 Ihories ; and 
 les on a con- 
 
 ■«, 
 
 BookL 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 861 
 
 eiderabic trade with the north of Europe. Quimper, though ranking above Brest, as capital 
 of tlie department of Finisterre, is now only an old town of little importance. 
 
 The provinces on the Loire, in its courcio trom cast to west, comprehending Orleanais, 
 Touraino, Anjou, to which may be added those of Maine and Perche, adjoining on the 
 north, are the most central and perhaps tiie richest in tiie kingdom. A great part, indeed, 
 especially of Anjou and Maine, is covered with those wide wastes, overgrown with brush- 
 wood and heath, which occupy so much of the French soil. But the banks of the Loire 
 around Orleans arc generally considered the garden of France ; tlicy consist of unbounded 
 plains, tlirougii which the niognilicent Loire winds its stately course, and which are 
 variegated with rich meadows, vineyards, gardens, and forests. On this theatre were acted 
 many of tlie greatest events in the liistory of the monarchy, particularly its rise from 
 the apparent peril of total subjection, through the inspiruig iiiHucnce of Joan the Maid of 
 Orleans. 
 
 The cities of this region are celebrated and magnificent. Orleans, in former times, 
 ranked almost as a second capital: though it exhibits tlie usual characters of antiquity, it is 
 a superb and beautiful city. A very fine stone bridge of nine arches opens to the rue royale, 
 spacious and handsome, which extends to the fine square in the centre ; here is plui„-Kl a 
 statue of Joan, the sculpture of which is not altogether so elegant as might be desired. The 
 cathedral is a very fine edifice, the choir of which was raised by Henry IV. From its steeple 
 is an almost unbounded view over the magnificent i)lain of the Ixiire. Situated in the centre 
 of France, and dividing as it were the Ixjwcr fi:om the Upper Loire, Orleans enjoys a great 
 transit trade. Blois is almost equal to Orleans in historical celebrity ; its ancient edifices, 
 placed on a hill above the Loire, have a most commanding appearance. The castle, on a 
 rock overhanging the river, is an immense and lofty pile, full of windows of aW shapes and 
 sizes, balconies, galleries, buttresses, and "a strange incongruous assemblage of buildings 
 destined for ornament in peace and defence in war." All the parts are little ; but the whole 
 is so vast as to be almost sublime. In this edifice the states-general once assembled. The 
 glory of Blois has now entirely passed away : ita streets are narrow, gloomy, and dismally 
 dirty. Tours, equally ancient, is now much more flourishing; its plain is pre-eminent, even 
 among the other districts on the banks of the Loire. The i^iik manufacture, first introduced 
 here, lias been in a great measure transferred to Lyons, but it still employs 7000 or 800O 
 persons. Happily for the beauty of the city, a great part of it was consiinu'd .5(( years ago, 
 and occasion was taken to build a new street, running its wiiolc length, of fine hewn stone, 
 broad, and on an elegant design ; it is, perhaps, the finest in Franco. It is connected 
 with a bridj|:e of 14 archer, which till of laic was considered eipmlly unrivalled ; and also 
 with a fine promenade bordered with trees. The nictroixjiitan church was almost entirely 
 demolished during the revolutionary excesses ; only two of its lofty spires remain. The 
 beauty and abundance of the country around Tours have attracted such numbers of English 
 residents, that Mrs. Carey was asked on tlio road what great convulsion was agitating Eng- 
 land, that her people were flying from it in such crowds. Saumur, onc:e highly flourishing 
 and industrious, lost two-thirds of its population by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. 
 Angers is a large, old, steep, ill-built town, but has a considerable trade ; its monuments 
 have been dreadfully shattered during the llevolution. Lc Mans, capital of Maine, on the 
 Sarthe, is very old, but large and clean, with a spacious market-place and some considerable 
 manufactures. 
 
 The provinces between the Loire and the Garonne, Poitou, Borri, Limousin, and the 
 Marclie, are of diversified and somewhat peculiar aspect: they present none of those bound- 
 less plains which characterise France north of the lioire ; they are everywhere traversed by 
 valleys and ridges of hills, never rising into mountains, but giving to the country a broken and 
 variegated aspect. This, according to the nature of the soil, is sometimes rude and dreary, 
 Bometimos gay and smiling. Mr. Young ranks the Limousin as the most beautifiil district 
 in all France, such is the ,ariety of hills, dales, streams and 'voods which compfjse its 
 landscape. Airs. Carey describes Marclie, beyond Argenton, as singularly pastoral ; the 
 hills covered with sheep, goats, kids, and lambs, the last of which at evening come down 
 bleating, and are received iiitu the houses. I'oitou, a jiart of which is so tatnlly celebrated 
 under its new name of La Venilee, is a rough country, a great part of which is covered 
 with a forest called the Bocage. ."Vll these districts are more productive of cattle than of 
 grain, though tliey arc ciiltivuted by a simple peasantry with hanliliood and vigour, hut quite 
 in the antuiue style, and with a strong ttntijiathy to all modern improvements. In I'oitou, 
 the projirietors, btjiiig small, anil residing much on their estates, excited tinidal feelings and 
 attachments, that were extinct in the rest of France ; hence the formidable war wliich they 
 waged single-handed in delence of the ancient regime. 
 
 The cities in this range of provinces, tlioiiirli ancient, are neither large, nor distinguished 
 by much industry. Poitiers is of hijjii antiquity, and presents some interesting P.oman re- 
 mains; in modern limes it is distiiiL'iiished by the signal victury gained here by the Black 
 Prince. The cilv is of great extent, Imlcenipri.-es many empty spaces and gardens. Limoges 
 iK an ill-built town, with many houses of tiiiili'i-, roofed •■villi tiles, and prujccting caves, but 
 
 111 
 
 I- 
 
 I! 
 fiil 
 
 ir^ 
 
T^ 
 
 888 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 there nre several handsome squares and fountains, and tlie pnblic walks command a beautiful 
 view of the Vienno flowing down a charminif valley. Its cathedral, said to have been built 
 by the English during their temiwrary pon.scssion of this part of Frante, f^Mlfcri'd much (hiring 
 the revolution, and has only one tower lell .standing. Bourges, the uneiont Biturgiu', is very 
 ill-bnilt, but adorned with a flue calhcilral, and distinguished for its univernity, and as tlie 
 birtii-place of IJourdaloue, and of the Jesuit, Fatlier d'Orleans. Chfttcanrou.x is gloomy, but 
 has a largo woollen manutiicture. 
 
 Tiie two departments of tlie Charente, watered by the fine river of that name, form ii 
 region diflereiit in ciitiraeter from tiioso now de.>-cril)ed ; level, and e.'ctremely ti-rtile, though 
 in some [mrts marshy and uniu^allhfiil. A great part of the produce of its rieii vineyards is 
 at Cogniie converted into brandy, which bears an unrivalled reputation, tiiough, pn balily, 
 the name is applied with a fraudulent hititude to inferior liquors. The yellow tinge so 
 generally given to brandy is the conseipience of a local cu.-.tom at Cognac. Saintes is 
 ancient oven as a French city. An ample theatre, an aqueduct, and a triumphal arch of 
 white marble, attest its ancient importance as a Roman city ; and the cathedral i.-i said to 
 belong to the age of Charlemagne. But the most conspicuous features of the ("hareiite are 
 Rochelle and Ilochefort. The t!)rmer is renowned as the grand and last bulwark of the 
 Protestant cause; and its reduction, (}llected by the almost incredible ellbrts of (Cardinal 
 Richelieu, tLxod the downtall of v ' and religious liberty in France. Though no longer a 
 haven of the first magnitude, its colonial trade, prior at least to the late war, was very con- 
 siderable. The town is handsome, with broad .streets, many of the lious((s built on arcades', 
 with shops beneath as in Chest(;r. Rochefort has little trade, but is one of the principal 
 French naval stations. It has a secure harbour, with very siife an<l extensive docks. 
 Being one of the few towns in France that are not nmch more than a century and a half 
 old, it is built on a regular plan, with broad open streets. Angoulfime, in the interior, 
 stands on a r(x;k in the centr(; of a charming valley, through which winds the .«ilver 
 stream of the Charente. It is a clean well-built town, liaving a cathedral with fivt! cupolas, 
 and displaying other marks of liistorical importance. There is a large iiiaimfacturo of 
 jjaper. 
 
 Guicnne is a most important province, which lor several ages formed an appanage of the 
 English crown. It consists of a magnificiMit and highly cultivated plain, watered by the 
 Garonne, whose broail stream here resend)les an iirm of the sea, and by its ample tributaries, 
 the Tarn, the I,ot, and the Dordogr.e. It is distinguished by various rich productions, but 
 more especially liy the wines bearing the name of claret, whirh, though not(piite so rich and 
 highly flavoured as some, are so light and agreeable that a greater cpiantity is drunk at the 
 tables of the opulent, than of any other. M. Fra.ik, in a late work pid)lished at Bordeaux, 
 estimates *he entire produce of claret at 12r)0,()00 tuns. The wines of the tiinns Ijaffitte and 
 Chftteau-Margaux are the most esteemed ; but nuich is sold under these names which has 
 no title to them. 
 Bordeaux (^ff. 287.), near the mouth of the Garonne, is one of the grandest emporia in 
 
 France, and, indeed, in Europe, 
 287 Situat(;d at the mouth of the 
 
 (iaromie, which here allows the 
 largest vessels !,o ascend to its 
 port, it exiKirta all the viiluablo 
 produce of this great southern 
 idaiii, of which the wines are 
 said to anieimt to KXMHKt, and 
 brandy to"J(),()(l() pipes ;imuially. 
 It is engaged also in colonial 
 trade-, and in the cod and whale 
 fisheries. Recent travellers re- 
 mark a irreBterdis|hiiy of wealth 
 and pros|)erity in this tlrui in 
 any other of the French com- 
 mensal cities. Every thing is 
 on a grand scale, and buildings are in progres-'s which, when finished, w ill leave it without a 
 rival in France. The theatre, designed atler that of Milan, is considered ;■ nioilel of archi- 
 tectural beauty. Many of the ecclesia.stieal striictuios wen? ti)unded by the English. A 
 very republican spirit is said to prevail at Bonleau.v. 
 
 The other towns of Guieiiue are not of the first niiignitnde. Montnidian emhniced with 
 anloiir the l'n)lestant cause, and had a distiriixuished university, which was snp|iressei|, when 
 the pliice wiis taken in KiVJO, by I,ouis XIII., luid the forlilicatious nzed. This seminiirv, 
 however, was restdn'cl by .Xapdleon in I'll!'. Moaliulian is well-built, of painted brick, 
 with wide and cleim ,-treets; anil an elevated walk, which cninmandsa most extensive view, 
 reaching to the I'yrenees, Agen is a very dirly ill-lmilt town, but liimous tiir tin.' phuns 
 raised in its viciiiity. ('aliors has soini- thriving niaun!"ictiu-e.--, and its vicinity produces the 
 
 llorilraiix. 
 
Ill 
 
 Book I. 
 
 PRANCE, 
 
 ■o'.diiial 
 mill whale 
 ivi'lli-r.s rc- 
 y (if wealth 
 118 tliMii in 
 Mich rom- 
 ■ry Ihiiijj; is 
 without ii 
 ■1 (if iirchi- 
 1-1 ish. A 
 
 iin'il willl 
 
 :;-('li, Whrll 
 
 sciniimry, 
 itcil lirick, 
 sivi' view, 
 till' iilmiw 
 rtxluo.'s the 
 
 vtn de Gravp, which is held in high estimation. Rhodez, on the Avcyron, ia a gloomy old 
 town, but the scut of a distinguished bishopric, 
 
 GasciHiy is a largo province, extending to the Pyrenees, and consisting chiefly of a wido 
 level surfiice, of penuliur character, called the lande.s. These are plains of sand, in some 
 places loose and blowing, but mostly covered with pine trees, sometimes affording pasturage 
 for sheep, and more rarely detached tracts fit for cultivation. The Gascons, long an inde- 
 pendent people under their dukes, are a peculiar race, fiery, ardent, impctuouti, and prover- 
 bially addicted to Imasting; hence the term gasconade. Bayonne, though not vnry largo, ia 
 one of tde strongest and i)rcttiest towns in France, Situated at the broad mouth of the 
 \dour, it has a considerable traffic in exporting the timber of the Pyrenees and the Lundes, 
 and sends also vessels to the cod and whale fisheries, Mont de Mursan, the capital of the 
 liandcs, is hut a small and poor place. 
 
 The I'yronean departments comprehend some interesting features; Beam, the little ori- 
 ginal principality of Henry IV,, which he governed with ptemal kindness; and Roussillon, 
 which uti(l(!rwont several revolutions, alternately belonging to Prance and to Spain, botbrc 
 it was tinally annexed to the former. Young gives a delightful view of the stJitc of tliis 
 mountain district. It is divided into a number of small properties, which are well enclosml, 
 well cultivated, each cointbrtable cottage being surrounded by its garden well stocked with 
 fruit trees ; the inhabitants snugly dressed, like Highlanders, in red caps. The siilKlivision 
 of property, though great, seems not to have gone so far as to lead to nii-sery. I'au is a con- 
 siderable town, in a romantic situation, and celebrated as the birth-place of Henry IV., 
 whoso cradle is still shown in the ancient palace, now converted into a prison. It makes a 
 good deal of linen, and is noted for its excellent hams, which are exported from Bayonne, 
 Tarbos, capital of the upper Pyrenees, and Biigncres, with its mineral hot springs, a place 
 of crowded and fashionable resort, are delightfully situated, affording an approach to the fine 
 valleys of the highest Pyrenees. The slopes of the neighbouring mountains are richly cul- 
 tivated, and often well enclosed. Roussillon is Spanish as to language and customs ; but the 
 magnificent roads effected in defiance of natural obstacles, and the thriving indiistrj of the 
 peoido, mark the influence of a more active and enlightened government,. The extensive 
 tiirtifications of Perpignan render it a harrier of the kingdom. It is gloomy and ill-built, 
 but has some manufactures. 
 
 Langueiloc, the ancient (iallia Xarhoncnsis, aiul a(\erwards the domain of the counts ot 
 Toulouse, is the pride of France in r(!gard to climate, soil, and scenery. The nir along its 
 coasts is generally considered the most salubrious in Europe. The plains of J.anguedoc are 
 celebrated; yet they arc encroached uik)m not only by the Pyrenees on the east, hut by the 
 Cevennos, which form their constant northern boundary, and in many places rediui' them to 
 a breadth of a few miles. But on the line from Beziers by Montpelier to Nisnirs, the plain 
 i'-. of much greater breadth, and displays a luxuriant fertility scarcely rivalled in any other 
 part even of this happy region. Every thing flourishes here, even what is most strictly 
 denied to other provinces; not only grain and the vine, but the silk-worm and the olive. 
 
 The cities of Ijanguedoc arc not of the very first magnitude ; hut they are handsome and 
 linely situated ; and they ])resent stime interesting Roman monuments. Toulouse covers a 
 great extent of ground, but it has suffered in consecinence of the discontinuance of its par- 
 liament, which was one of the mo.st important in France. The cathedral is viry larLi'e, but 
 not very beautiful ; and many of the churches wore destroyed during the Revolution. There 
 is an university attended by l.'MX) students, and two large libraries open to the public. 
 Castres is a well-built, industrious, large town, the birth-place of llapin and Mailaiiie Dacier. 
 Carca.s.sonne still retains some of the bastions and towers of tlio castle on its hil! ; hut this 
 •ancient (luiirter is almost deserted in favour of tlie neat ploa.sant town built beneath. Beziers 
 is ugly and dirty, but has a hand.some cathedral, and is important from its site on th'! canal 
 of Langnedoc. Narhonne, though celebrated as a Roman capital, presents few monuments 
 of that people; these are said to have been taken down at the building of the walls. Mont- 
 pclior enjoys an unrivalled finui! for its niilrl and salubrious air; but late travellers have 
 declared them.selves unable to discover on what that renown is fi.)undcd. It is subject to 
 alternations of heat and cold; cloth pelisses must bo worn the whole winter, and fires can- 
 not bo discontinued till May. It is, however, an agreeable rosideiite; the public walk com- 
 mands a view over the ,M(!diterranean and the surrounding country, scareejv equalled in 
 Euro[)c: there is a llourisbiiig medical school, with good practitioners, and a library of 40,000 
 volumes. ;\Iontp(dier is not nnitii inly well-built; but it presents a noble Roman a(|ue(luct, 
 a fine cathedral, and other public buildings. Nismcs is one of the greatest and most fonr- 
 ishing cities in the south of France. The silk manutiicture, as already noticed, flourishes 
 there to a great exteul. More than half the inhabitants are Protestant, who, ,is may be well 
 remembereil, were, on the restoration of the Bourlmns, exposed to violent outragi-s on tho 
 part of their ("atholic. tillow-citi/.ens; hut these disorders were disavowed by the French 
 court, and havi; ci-ased. The city is ill-hiiilt, ill-paved, ill laid out; but there is a fine bou- 
 levard bordered with trees; and it is particularly illustrious tor the magnillccnce of its Ro- 
 man monuments. The amphitheatre is nearlv entire, and, though rather smaller than that 
 
 Vol. I. 47 3 U 
 
 it I 
 
 Hi 
 
M4 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 Punt du Gard. 
 
 of Verona, from its massive gri* ' and the enormous stones of wliicli it is constructed, 
 suggests tlio idea of an iniperisi. .c fabric. But the edifice called the Maison ctirrie, sup- 
 posed to have been a temple of Augustus, is that which has excited the admiration of all 
 
 travellers, from its extreme elojjunce 
 •% and graceful proportion.", wliich rcn 
 
 der It almost a perfect model of 
 , .. architectural beauty. It remains 
 
 after so many ages quite entire, " as 
 if savage and saint had boon alike 
 awed by its suporlative beauty." 
 Near Nismcs is the Pont du Gard 
 (Jig. 288.), an ancient bridge, or 
 rather aqueduct, forming one of the 
 most remarkable monuments now 
 extant of Roman grandeur. 
 Provence is one of the most celebrated and interesting of the French provinces, first, as 
 the earliest seat of wealth, civilisation, and poetry ; next, as containing the ecclesiastical 
 capitil, Avignon, near whicii is Vaucluse, the favourite residence of Petrarch ; lastly, as 
 including 'I'oulon and MarsiMlles, the greatest naval and the greatest commercial city in the 
 kingdom. The classic stream of the Durance, though it cro.>^ses the wliole region from its 
 kipine boundary to the Rhone, and too often overflows its banks, does not preserve tiie exten- 
 sive trucl.s covered with rude calcareous hills from tlie evils of aridity. Altliough, there- 
 fore, the pr(xhict.s of this province are various, and many of them fine, it does not yield com 
 sufficient lijr its own consumption, nor can it boast of extensive manufactures, but depends 
 chiefly upon rommcrcf. 
 
 Tiie cities of Provence rank, in all respects, among the greatest and most interesting of 
 ihe kingdom. .\ix is not the largest, but is reckoned tiie cajjital, and was formerly the seat 
 of tlie parliaments of Provence. Its name is contracted from that of A(|ua! Soxtiie, given to 
 it by the Roniiins from the copious warm baths, in whose vicinity numerous medals and 
 inscriptions have been discovered. It is pleasant, airy, well built, in a fine plain ciieircled 
 by lolh mountiiins. The conrs is very beautiful, formed liy two rows of trees, with hot 
 fountains bubbling up, at which women are seen washing clothes. (Jreafer celebrity attaches 
 to ihe niijie of .Avignon, for some time an ecclesiastical capital, and still more illustrious by 
 association with the names of Laura and Petrarch. It is finely situated on the Rhone, with 
 many handsome houses; but the streets are crowded ami ill-|)aved. In the centre rises an 
 msulated rock, separated l)y the river from a range of liills on the other side, and in which 
 are the remains of the pu! ce of the popes, now converted into barracks and prisons. The 
 cathedral had acciunulnted immense wealth in f'ilver and other oflerings, of all which it was 
 rifled at the Revolution; an event more fatal to Avignon than to any other city, except 
 Lyon.s. .Vviirnon is surrounded by a wall built only fur fiscal purposes, an<l the Rhone is 
 crossed by a handsonu; bridgi^ built by St. Benezct in the twelfth century from the protluce 
 of alms, and which yields 50,000 francs of annual toll. It would bo i)rotiine tiir a traveller 
 
 to leave Aviynon without visiting 
 289 . . J-- . . . B 
 
 the tomb of Laura in the church 
 of the Franciscans, and making an 
 excursion to the beautiful fountain 
 of Vaucluse (^fii^, 28!).), the scene 
 of inspiration to Petrarch. Aries 
 was, in early times, one of the most 
 important cities in the south of 
 France; under th(> Romans it was 
 the seat of the prii'lorian prefect; 
 in the ninth century it was the 
 capital of a separate kiug<lom, and 
 afterwards the seat of an archbi- 
 shop, and of thirteen successive councils. It is still a largi' city, and presents tlie vestiges 
 of a Roman amplii*''eatre (of which the interior area is now built upon), once capalde of 
 containing :f(l,(MH) |)er.sons. Taraseon is still a flourishing place, aljove which rises the 
 ancient casthi of the counts of ProveniM', now converted into a prison. On the opposite 
 bank of the Rhone is Bcancaire, distiuiruished llir its great annual tiiir, at wbii !i are still 
 sold grKids iif various descriptions to the value of about 7,.'')IMt,(M)() francs. Digne and I'ar- 
 pentras are of smne im|H)rt'inee as capitals of districts. 
 
 Marseilles and Toulon, the two ^nvat s(!Ulhern havens, form now the most iiuportant fea- 
 tures of I'ri/vence. The connnerci;il fime of Miirsi'illes dat'>s fnim early autiij'iily, when 
 it was a (ireek (olony, and cirrieij cin almost all llic coinmeree of (iiuil. In moilern times 
 it has been the chief centre of I lie trade to the Levant; and though its ])rii.-pi'rity sull'ered 
 tt total erIipM; under the regime of Naiwloon. it has since regained much of its ft rrnci 
 
 Fountain uf Vuuclusc. 
 
Book 1. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 555 
 
 splendour. The harbour is Bpacioua and secure, but it ia somewhat narrow at tlie entrance, 
 and shallow. It ia bordered by extensive quay.s of hewn st(ine, with spacious wareiiouses; 
 and is hllud with all tiie shipping peculiar to the Mediterranean, among which are galleys, 
 and beautiful pleasure-boats with silk awnings; it is crowded with all the nations of that 
 sea, Greeks, Turks, Jews, Spaniards, Italians, and loaded with the produce of Asia and Africa. 
 (t is compared by a late writer to Liverpool : the districts round the port are a nucleus of 
 trade and dirt; but in the exterior, the streets are handsome, airy, and well built. Among 
 other lino public buildings is the hotel de vilk, with its magnificent marble titaircnso. Tlie 
 vours is formed by two rows of line trees bordered by handsome houses, and the central 
 walk is crowded like a tiiir. The iioighb')uring plain is finely cultivated, but is bounded by 
 bold and rugged mountains that rise above the range of vegetation. Toulon, though not a 
 seat of couuncrce, is the chief naval station of Prance on the Mediterranean. It has two 
 ports, tiie old and the new : the latter alone receives ships of war, and is bordered by most 
 extensive arsenals, in which 5000 men are constantly employed. This port can contain 200 
 sail of the line; nnd without is a very spacious and well-sheltered roadstead. It is defended 
 by two strong Ions, w liich, however, were occupied in 1793 by the British, who, at 'he end 
 of the year, wore obliged to evacuate the place. This was the first occasion on which Bona- 
 parte's military talents became conspicuous. Toulon is a clean, pleasant town, refreshed by 
 streams of water, running through the streets. The adjacent country is wild and romantic, 
 and interspersed with some cultivated valleys. 
 
 Dauphiny is a region completely alpine, the two depart- 
 ments of the Upper and Lower Mps occupying the greater 
 part of its surface. The ' ountains are chiefly calcareous, 
 and broken Into the nuat picturesque, peculiar, and ro- 
 mantic forms. Young even considers the scenery of Dau- 
 phiny, particularly along the Isere, as surpassing that of 
 any other part of the Alps. In one of the most awful re- 
 cesses of tliese rocks and wilds, at a distance from all the 
 smiling scenes of earth, St. Brimo erected tlio monastery 
 of file Chartreuse (,Jig: '"'H).), of which Gray has drawn 
 so sublime and imimsing a picture. There are other scenes 
 emphatically termed liie wonders of Dauphiny ; as tiie 
 burning fbimtaiii, I he grottoes of Sassenagp, &.c. Although 
 this part of the kingdom cannot be considered as productive, 
 yet great numbers of cattle and 'sheep are reared on its 
 high slopes by a simple raco of men resembling the mountaineers of Switzerland ; and eve., 
 the silk-worm is bred in its lower valleys. 
 
 The cities do not require very particular notice. Grenoble is a considerable place, not ill 
 built, with a library of 00,000 volumes, and some otiier literary establishments. It took a 
 conspicuous part in promoting the commencement of tlie Revolution, and was also the first 
 town that opened its gates to Napoleon on his return from Ellia. Gap is a pretty large but 
 poor old town, in a deep hollow, amid iiarren mountains. Vienne is a Roman city, and 
 presents a temple, with several other intere.sting remains of that people. It has also a fine 
 modern cathedral with a very lolf.y spire. Valence has a military school, at which Bonaparte 
 was educated. Near Tain is produced the celebrated wine called Hermitage. 
 
 The liyonnais is a small territory, penetrated by branches of the Alps, in some places 
 rough and stony, in others finely diversified with hill and dale. Its chief interest, however, 
 centres in the great city which is its capital. 
 
 Lyons (Jig. 291.) is generally con- 
 sidere i u. liie second city in France, 
 and as foremost in regard to com- 
 merce and industry. It is on the 
 whole a nMo city. The quays along 
 the Rhone are superb ; the hdtel de 
 ville is held fo be second only to 
 that of Amsterdam; the cathedral is 
 highly ornamented in the florid 
 Gothic style ; and the squares, espe- 
 cially the Place dr ndlecour, with 
 its fountains and statues, are nowhere surpassed. On the other hand, the old streets are 
 narrow, bordered by lolly and gloomy walls, and divided by a muddy stream. To turn int(j 
 them from the quays has been compared to entering subterraneous passages, watered by the 
 sluices of Cocytus. Lyons suffered dreadfully under the sway of the jarobins, who made it a 
 chi(;f thoattc f those atrocities that rendered them the horror of mankind. To say nothing 
 of the mu.-s^:icri i pcrpetnted under the a|)pellation (iffiisillinl's and noijadm, they studiously 
 broke in picrcis all the manutUcturing machinery, while with barbarous hands they defaced 
 all the ornaments of the city, filled up the fountains, broke the statues in pieces, and 
 
 Grande Chnrlrtiuse. 
 
 Lyons. 
 
 1 
 
 ■t 
 
 M 
 
MO 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGUAPIiV. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 
 dcmuIiHhcd the whole of the cnthcc! 'iil except the wiiUs. Her citizonti hiivo nmdc dili(roiit 
 cflbrts to restore her prosperity, ami not without Hiicceas; still tiio vvniit of cupital uiid the 
 Bta(rimtion of tnuie are serioiix olwtriictioiiH, mid cuiiso the evils of ]K)verty iiinonfj u lurgc 
 population to be severely felt. The Lyoiinose have the proixjiisities usiiully observed in 
 inaniitacturing pliices: they dislike the Bourbons, and the eight of an Englishman is worm- 
 wood to them. 
 
 Auvergno, to the west of tiie Lyonnais, is the only mountainous and pastoral tract which 
 Franco bus peculinrly its own. It consists of a continuous raiifje of mountiiiiiH wliicli have 
 evidently been in a state of volcanic action, the country beiu'; covered with lava, and the 
 houses built of it. From an elevated and extensive phiin rises the jrreiit Puy de Dt^me, 
 nearly TjOOO feet high, with about sixty attendant monntains, called in the country the 
 giantess and her children. The country isdiversitied with many rugged and precipitous rocks, 
 having castles and even towns built on them. Yet Auvcrgne is not a barren country. The 
 Puys are mostly covered with herbage, and liavc large level plains. The nativ(^s are labo- 
 rious, and rear large herds of cattle, which are almost wild ; they are even saiil to beat off 
 the wolf, the low of the animal attacked summoning all the rest to its assistance ; but, in 
 return, they cannot Iks milked unless the calf bi; on the other side. The people are lioin(.dy, 
 and very republican; they form themselves into a number of societies, of wliicli the princi- 
 ple is a common table, attended however by the men only. In winter they take up their 
 abode under the same roof with the cattle which occupy each end, and by their heat save 
 fuel which is scarce. Clermont is a considerable town, perched on the top of a hill, and 
 built of lava. It is e.\treniely dirty, and Mr. Young compares several of its streets to chan- 
 nels cut in a dunghill ; however, the mountain brei'zes purify tlm air. Tlie cathedral, which 
 was fine, was nearly destroyed during the Revolution. In the surrounding country are many 
 curious caverns, petrifying wells, warm springs, cascades, &.c. Aurillac also, Iliom, and 
 -__ Thiers are elevated towns, com- 
 
 *°^ ^ '^ manding striking views of the rocks 
 
 and cones of this remarkable chain. 
 Towards Puy en Velay, which na- 
 turally belongs to Auvergne, the 
 rocks become still more steep and 
 romantic; and among the castles seat- 
 ed in them, Mr. Young especially 
 distinguishes that of Poligniic (Jiff. 
 SiW.), the (brm and x\\r of which 
 appears to him so strikinj;, as to 
 
 of magic influence, to rise before the mind. St. Michael's cliurch, in the centre nf llie town 
 of Puy itself, stands on the topof a very striking, almost precipitous rock, of tower-like t()rm. 
 
 Burgundy and Champagne, with tiie small ailjoiiiing provinces of (lourluiiinais and Niver- 
 nais, form a vast plain extending north of the provinces last described. Burgundy, however, 
 is traversed by branches from the Vosges, tbniiing hilly tracts of moderate elevation. This 
 is the great country of wine, producing the liiiest in Franre, iinii, with very few exceptions, 
 in the whole world. The surface of the wine-di.strict is chietly n-d sandstone rock, with 
 very little soil. The vineyards are cultivated liy small projirietors, who do not usually hold 
 
 more than twenty or thirty arpents. It costs !)(lfl francs to 
 plant an urpcMit in vines, and 30 annual ly to keep it in repair. 
 Three years elapse before it yields any wiiu", and six before 
 it yiehis good wine. Common vineyards sell iit ir>(H) francs 
 an acre; and there are some that s<'ll so liiiili as 1(I,(KK). 
 The precarioiisness of the crop, however, and tiie want of 
 capital, render this branch of industry a poor employment; 
 and the cultivators of Burgundy are the lea.st flourishing of 
 any in France. Few new vineyards are now laid down ; 
 though the ea|)it;il invested in the old ones is a suflicient 
 reason for keeping tliem up. 
 
 Of the chief towns, the tirst in dignity is Rheims, a no- 
 ble and ancient city, the ecclesiastical capital of France, 
 where the kings were crowned and anointed. The cathe- 
 dral (fff. 29;<.) has been considered the most splendid spe- 
 cimen of Gothic architecture existing, though some of its 
 ornaments are not in the purest taste. The Hotel do Ville 
 is also fine; and the street's, unlike what is usual in old 
 towns, are broad, stmight, and well built. Rhoinui is still 
 the chief mart of that favourite wine culled champagne, 
 and from llu'iiee the coiinoisi<eurs of Paris take care to pro- 
 cure their supi)lii;s. Troyes, once nelebrated for its great 
 
 uatbedral at Rhcinu. 
 
 
Book I. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 567 
 
 fiiirH, and noted an havinjr given its name to the Troy weight, ranks as napitnl of Clmmpngno, 
 and is Ktill a large and tlourisiiing town on llio Sniiio. Clifilonu siir Mamn iw al^o considera- 
 ble, and, liy ii souniinfjly capricious choice, is the capital of the department of the Marno, 
 instead of UheirnH. Mczieres and Sedan are strong frontier towns ; tlio latter cclebialcd for 
 its manufacture of fine woollen cloth, as widl as for one of arms. Rocroy is only distin- 
 guislied for the signal victory of 1043, which firbt established the superiority of the 
 French arms. In Burgundy, Dijon (/^. 294.), with its numerous and lotly spires, prnsent* 
 a noblo appearance to the approaching traveller; but it has lost much of its ancient impor- 
 
 Dijon. 
 
 tancc. Its churches, now too numerous for the place in its reduced state, were dreadfully 
 dcfiiced and mutilated during the Revolution : one has been converted into a market for fish, 
 another into one for com. The streets, however, are wide and clean. Dijon Ims a distin- 
 guished university, and can boast of giving birtii to Bossuet, Buffim, and Oebillon. Autun 
 attracts notice by a temple and other remains, whicli indicate its importuncc as a Roman 
 city, also by a fine modern cathedral (Jig. 2!).').) Auxorre still flourishes by t!ie e.xcelhmt 
 
 295 
 
 wine produced in its neighlxjurhood, and is iidorn- 
 ed with a cathedral and several lolty spires. 
 Chfilons sur Saono is agofxl country town. Hens, 
 the see of an archbishop, and formerly the seat 
 of several councils, prot^cnts still some noble 
 monuments in decay. Moulins, eai)ital of the 
 rich plain of the Hourhoiinuis, though not hand- 
 some, is busy and cheerful, having a considrrable 
 traffic upon the Seine. Nevens, in Nivcrnais, is 
 finely situated on the Loire, but is an ill-built aTirl 
 dirty town. 
 
 Autun Cuthudrnl. 
 
 The provinces of Iiorrainc, Franche-comte, and Alsace are less an integral part of France 
 tJian a series of appendages obtained by conquest chiefly during the reign of Louis XIV. 
 They remain Ptill m many points connected with (Jermany. They are watered by the 
 Meuso and the Moselle, tributaries of the Rhine; they are traversed liy the chain of the 
 Vosgcs, connected with the Swiss Alps and the Black Forest ; their surface is rude and 
 irregular; their wines havi; the same agreeable acid (luiility as the Rhenish. Even yet 
 Alsace, both as to language and manners, is altogether German. 
 
 The cities are, — Nancy, capital of the dukes of Lorraine, ;i race of gallant and accom- 
 plished princes. It is said to be the most elegant city in France, especially the new town, 
 built in the sixteenth century. The gates appear almost like triumphal arches; the public 
 buildings are numerous; the place rnyah' and the adjoining area are superb. The place is 
 lighted in the FiUglish manner. Metz is a larger town, and now more important, being one 
 of the strongest of tli(^ French fortresses. It is nearly enclosed by the Moselle and the 
 Seille, and entered by successive drawbridges. The usual complement of its garrison is 
 10,(KK) men. Metz is celebrated fi)r its long and triumphant defence under tire Duke of 
 Guise against the army of Charles V. Ft is still a flourishing town, with numerous manu- 
 factures, and contains a library of 00,00() volumes. Luneville was for some time the resi- 
 dence of Stanislaus, the ex-king of Ptdand, who considerably embellished it; and it was the 
 scene of Bonaparte's first triumphant treaty in 1801. It is now rather a poor place, having 
 few mannfiictnres. Anotlier strong fortress is Verdun, a name fimiiliar to Englisli car.?, as the 
 scene of the iletcntion o*' their coimtrymrii in I'^OM. Il is well situated on the Mchsp. Salins 
 flourishijs by means of the salt extracted from the brine-springs, which arc fomid also in 
 other parts of this territory. Besaneon, in Franche-comte, was a city of the German empire 
 till the treaty of Westphalia, when it was coded (o the Spaniards, from whom it was wrested 
 by liouis XIV. It is a large and industrious place, particularly distinguished by a manuflic- 
 ture of clocks and wntclios, intnxluced towards the I'lul of the last century, and employing 
 about 1800 persons. It has also valuable scientitic and literary cstaMishmeiits. Dole is 
 likewise a very ancif-nl town, once the capital of Franche-comle. Vesoul and Ijona le Saul- 
 
 itU 
 
.VM 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE (JEOdllAPIlY. 
 
 Paet III. 
 
 iiier arn pretty good towns, ftn<l capitnlH of (IcpitrtmrntH. In iipproaching Switzerland, t]>e 
 country becomes elevated, and the towns occupy pictiircsquo niton. Ornans lies in a deep 
 ilell, skirted by green rocky liilln, like Matlock. Ponturlier BtaiidH on a height having u utrong 
 castle which guards tlic passage into Switzerland. Nantiia is placed in a nook bolwecn two 
 
 206 
 
 enormous mountains. On crofwing the Vofge.-! appears 
 the rich iiud Iruitlid plain ot" Aisnce, more highly cul- 
 tivated thun uny other part of the kingdom I'xcept 
 French Flandern. Hero Colmar, Ilagueniiu, Savenie, 
 Wuisemberg, are agreeably situated and riither tliriving 
 towns. But by thr the moht im|«)rtant pliiee in this 
 part of Franco i.s Stms-biirg {^ff. ^90.). It was early 
 celebmteil as an iin|K'rial city, enjoying extensivo 
 privileges, and enriched by the navigation of the 
 khino. Its prosperity was still farther i)roiiioted in 
 consequence of the zeal witli which, along with the 
 rest of Alsace, it embraced the reformed d(x,'trine8, 
 Strasburg and Alsace suffered a severe misfortune, by 
 being, in 1689, subjected to PVance by ]/)ui8 XIV. 
 Yet tlie city retained privileges beyond any other in 
 France, and continued to be (listinguishcd both by 
 wealth and intelligence. Its schools were considered 
 second only to those of Paris, till the Revolution, when 
 they were severely injured, and have not yet been fully 
 restored. Strasburg, however, has still valuable institutions, both literary and economical, 
 and is one of the greate»t and most flourishing cities of France. Its ancient importance is 
 attested by its cathedral or minster, one of the most splendid existing monuments of the 
 Gothic. Its tower, 470 feet high, is said to be the most elevated structure in the world, with 
 the exception of the Great Pyamid of Egypt. 
 
 \ CHAPTER IX. 
 
 81'AIN. 
 
 Spain forms the principal part of a very extensive peninsula; the most southern, and also 
 'Jie most wosforn, portion of Europe. It is only connected by an isthmus alwut n hundred 
 niles broad, traversed liy the I'yronees, a chain holding the second rank among the moun- 
 ains of Europe. Spain is thus almost insulated from the rest of the continent. 
 
 Sect. I. — (ieneral (hilline and Aspect. 
 
 The boundaries of tiic Peninsula in general are, on the north, the Bay of Biscay , on the 
 west, the .Atlantic ; but this coast for more than half its extent is occupied by PorlugiiJ, 
 whoso interior frontier forms to that e;itont the western boundary of Spain. The mo.st south- 
 ern point near Gibraltar is only separated by a narrow strait from tiie opposite shore of Africa. 
 Eastward from this strait is the Mediterranean, along whicli the coast wmds in a north- 
 easterly direction, gradually receding from Africa, and facing at a great interval the western 
 coast of Italy. From its termination, the Pyrenees stretch across to the Bay of Biscay, and 
 form the lofly limit between Spain and France. 
 
 The extent of Spain, north and south, is, from Tarifa Point in the straits, in 36° N. lati- 
 tude, to Capo OrtegftI in Galicia, 43° 46'; about 540 English miles. From east to west, the 
 extreme points of the penini^ula arc Cape Creus, in Catalonia, 3° 17' E. longitude, and Cape 
 La Roca, 9^ 30' VV. longitude ; implying twelve and three (|uartcrs degrees, which, in this 
 latitude, amounts to about 5G0 miles. Thus the Peninsula forms almost a square; allowance 
 being made for the irregularity of its outline ; and, the entire extent of Portugal being taken 
 ofF, Spain is reckoned to contain 183,600 square miles. 
 
 The surfiice of Spain is strikingly irregular. It is traversed by long and lolly ranges of 
 mountains, having plains of vast extent between them and the sea. These mountains may 
 be considered as p<irt of the great range which crosses Europe from the Black Sea to the 
 Atlantic. Tiie Pyrenees common to Franco and Spain, form a long continuous lino of lofly 
 summits, the most central and elevated,* of which is Mont Perdu near the source of tlie 
 Cinca, whicli the accurate measurements have fixed at upwards of 11,160 feet. Towards 
 the sea, on both sides, the moiuitains sink into a more moderate elevation, and the barrier 
 between the two kingdoms is less formidable. This great chai'^ -hoots lower branches into 
 
 * fTlic liiglicsl point of the Pyrenees is no\.- known to be La.MiilodotIa, J1.424 fcft in licifiht. Tlie liijihcBt peali 
 nf the Hii^rra Ncvaila, callnl the Cerro dc Miillmcen, is gtill more elevated, being 11,6G0 feot above tlie 
 sea.— Am. Ed.] 
 
m 
 
 OOOE I. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 SAO 
 
 ranges of 
 
 intjiins may 
 
 Sen to tho 
 
 iiio of lofty 
 
 iirce of tlm 
 
 Towards 
 
 the barrier 
 anches into 
 
 _• hiijhest peak 
 ot above tlie 
 
 Catalonia and Navarro, prosonting also some Htriking inHulatcd pcakn, anion;; wliii^li tliut of 
 MoiitHorriit in tho most coiisniciiousi. From tho western extremity of tho I'yreiieoo, u grout 
 chain, which has hoen called tho Iberian, reaches almost duo «outh, forininj,' tho lioimdary 
 of the fijie phiinR of Aragon and Valencia. All tho other ran);ea run from ou.tt to W(?«t. Tho 
 Cantiiliri;in is nearly a continuation of tho PyronceH : it Htrctches across tho whole north of 
 Hp'iin, Cdveriiiir the provinces of Asturins and Oalicio, and leaving only a narrow and rugged 
 plain along tho si'a-eoaHf. Parallel to this, on Uio opposite side of a vast plain through which 
 tho IJuero Hows, i.s another transverse range, bcarmg in its highest points thi; names of 
 Guadarnmia and Honiosierra, and enclosing with its rugged and romantic clills tho elevated 
 palaces of San Ildel'onso and the Rscurial. On tho opiKjsite side of the Tagus and of tho 
 plain of Madrid is another parallel chain, the Sierra of Toledo. It borders tlie wide elevated 
 plain of la Mancha; on tho southern boundary of which is the more celebrated chain of 
 Sierra Morona, tho lofty barrier of tho rich plums of Andalusia. Beyond these rises another 
 longitudinal chain, of a peculiarly bold and lofty character, called the Sierra Nevada, from 
 the snow which perpetually covers many of its summits; between which and the Mediter- 
 ranean only a narrow though beautiful plain intervenes. These long and lofty ranges, as 
 observed already, are separated by very extended plains, which, in the interior, arc of great 
 elevation, and even Madrid is 3170 feet atwve the sea: the plains along tho Mediterranean, 
 and almost on a level with it, display a profuse fertility, and abound in all tho choicest fruits 
 of a southern climate. 
 
 The rivers of Spain form as important and celebrated a feature as its mountains. The 
 Tagus and the Duero, rising in tho Iberian chain, on the frontiers of Aragon, roll along the 
 two grand central plains, receiving numerous though not very large tributaries from the 
 mountains by which they are bordered. Unfortunately for Spain, they teruiinato in the 
 Bomewlmt hostile realm of Portugal, and are scarcely navigable alwvo its frontier ; so that 
 tho commercial benefits arising from them are of little importance. Tho Guadiana belongs 
 to La Mnnctia, and on its approach to Portugal forms the boundary of the two kingdoms ; 
 but tho high tract through which it flows is only distinguished for its rich pastures, and does 
 not render ita port of Ayamonte a place of any importance. Beyond the Sierra Morona, the 
 Guadahiuivir waters tho plain of Andalusia, and has on its banks the noble cities of Cordova 
 and Seville ; while Cadiz, not far from its mouth, forms the chief emporium of Siwin. 
 Though its navigation is now much impeded, and practicable for largo vessels only to Seville, 
 it is the only river in Spain of much commercial importiince. The Ebro, which derives 
 from its position a greater historical celebrity than any other, rising in the Cantalirian moun- 
 tains, nearly crosses the breadth of north-eastern Spain, ond separates Catalonia and Ara- 
 gon from tho extensive regions of the interior. Its banks at present afford few matorials for 
 trade, except a largo quantity of timber. The Guadalaviar and Xucar in Valencia, and the 
 Mino in Galicia, are also rivers of some magnitude. 
 
 Tho mountiiins of Spain enclose no lakes, their waters finding a ready issue along the 
 vast plains on which they border. 
 
 Sect. II. — Natural Geography. 
 SiiBSECT. 1. — Geology. 
 
 The principal mountain chains in Spain difTer not only in their external aspect, but also 
 in their internal composition : they appear more as difTercnt individuals than as members of 
 a single system. They have this in common with one another, that their nucleus consists, 
 in whole or m jMirt, of primitive and transition rocks; but not only the species, but also fiie 
 relations of these, vary in the different chains. A great body of granite, which seli' )m 
 reaches the highest points of the country, and contains subordinate beds of gneiss a'ld otiior 
 primitive rocks, ranges through the Pyrenees properly so called. It is surrounded by a pro- 
 dominating mass of crystalline slate and of transition rocks, among which tho most ohundant 
 are clay sluto and limestone. On the contrary, on the v/c^-tern continuation, in tiio Biscayan 
 mountains, the older rocks are not widely distributed, and appear first in Galicia, at the 
 western extremity of the northern mountain chain, where, according to Humboldt, grap'.e, 
 accompanied by crystalline slates, appears again, and in great extent. The principal iii js 
 of the mountain ciiain which separates Old from New Castile is comiX)srd of gneiss ai.d 
 granite. In the chain of mountains extending between tho Tagus and the Guadiana, accord- 
 ng to Link, the principal rock is granite. The long ridge of the Sierra Morona contains 
 principally transition rocks; granite breaks out on its southern foot towards the Guadalquivir, 
 This rock, so frequent in the Iberian peninsula, appears to be wanting in tho highest .soutlicrn 
 chain. The middle mountain ridges consist of mica slate, abounding in gnrnets, which, in 
 the ridges lying before them, passes into less crystalline mica slate, chlorite slate, and clay 
 slate, wliich sometimes enclose beds, at times of vast magnitude, of compact limestone, 
 marble, dolomite, and serpentine. On the south coast, newer transition slate and grcywackc 
 slate, with beds of flinty slate, lie here and there on the older slate. The basis or funda- 
 mental part of the rock of Gibraltar is of these rocks. 
 
660 
 
 MAP OP SPAIN AND PORTUOAL. 
 -» ^ '^ « P 
 
 Fro. 997 
 
OOUK 1. 
 
 SPAIN 
 
 
 
 "8 
 I 
 
 Tilt' htriirturi' of tlm cliaiii.^ of inniiiitaiim rorri'mxiiulii in jjonornl witli ttioir chief dirontion. 
 Not only tlir iiltcriiiitioii of tho ilitfiTi'Mt rockn, lint also tlir direction of tlio Htnitn, uro con- 
 fiirni.iblo with iho direction of tho chainM: honce, in tho (fnmtpr part of Spain, tin' princi|ml 
 
 diroction of Hie nhity rocks is ft 8.VV. to N.K., or W.S.VV. to K.N.K. Hut the inclina- 
 
 tion of the strata varica. In tho I'yreni'C!*, proporly ho callod, the din of tho strata ia con- 
 fornialili! wjih tho two ncclivitioH of Ihn ran({<'. In Ihn Htinuwiorni and (iiiadarninui ran|;uH, 
 tho prin<!ipal mass of i^nciriH dip.s S.K. 'owardu tho ({ranito \y\ng iM'foro it. In tho Sierra 
 Morona, tho prodoinlnatin^ dip of the Hiaty ntriifa in towards the N.W., so that tlio^ appear 
 to rest on tho granite which breaks from under thoni. In tho Hierra Nevada, tho diu of tho 
 itrata is cnntorinaldo with tho two acclivities of the chain. It is worthy of remark now tho 
 curvature of tho nouth coast of Spain obeys tho diroction of tho stratn, and how the formation 
 of tho tiir-projortinif soulhorn point of tho land al.-io stands in connection with the direction 
 of tho strata. At tho tlxit of tho njck of (libraltar, tho olaty strata run nearly north and 
 loutli with a rnpid dip towards tho cast. Tho Out of Gibralttir is thoroforo nt-arly at right 
 anglos to tho diroction of tho strata. Tho rocky wall between the Mediterranean and 
 Atlantic Souh, hy thin direction of tho strata, must have opposed tho ftron|{i'st resistance to 
 tho currents. TIk; primitive and transition rocks, in very ditforent jdacos, are rich in ores. 
 Tho present mines are confined |irin(Mpal!y to tho Houth-west and fiouth-oast parts of Spain. 
 Tho mighty load-fjlanco veins of Linares occur in granite; tho colossiil deposit of lead- 
 glance ill tho Sierra do Gador, which affimled, in the year Ifi'iS, fiWVMK) cwt. of lead, is 
 distributed in nm>si - (putzon), in a limcstono which may be referred to the oldest transition 
 rocks, and the rich mercury mines ot' Ahnadcn aro contained in clay slate. Tho secondary 
 rocks also assist in forming tho princi(ial Spanish mountain chains, but in a different manner. 
 They ascend to a great height on tho Spanish side of tho Pyrenees; oven some of tho 
 highest sunmiitN aro of secondary rocks, Tho western continuation of tho Pyrenoan chain 
 consists, in tho Biscmyan provinces, principally of secondary rocks; and it is proliablo that 
 the lofty limestone mountain ridges which .-leparato Asturiaa from Leon aro a continuation 
 of the Biscayan secondary formation. On both sides of Somosiorra the primitive rocks are 
 
 NORTH PART. 
 
 Giilient. 
 1. f^iimnnniiii 
 '■i. (^unintiit 
 
 4. F.Tr.l 
 .%. Miirft 
 
 n. ijiiitit 
 
 7. Im (•ikiii 
 H. H'tn'mKo 
 !<. Vi|o 
 
 10. T"jr 
 
 11. Kiliitilnvin 
 Vi. Aliutiiili-v 
 \X Orunse 
 M. iM Kua. 
 
 IS. lllllllD 
 
 lU. Oviudii 
 17. nijiiii 
 \H. Riviiflnrdlln 
 11). IjuncH. 
 
 Aeon. 
 SO. AiuilardeCam- 
 
 ptM 
 31. llHrrora 
 K. Hnlilniiit 
 21. Alinan/a 
 
 54. l.non 
 
 55. Ailnrsa 
 SA. Hail .liisio 
 27. \,n Mt'ZQuiia 
 *>1. Corvijal 
 
 -II. MHyiirKa 
 jHJ. AnusRit 
 31. Piilenc;ia 
 %. Villaconsncia 
 XI. Vallailolid 
 M. Tonli^aiflal 
 
 IW. ToTO 
 
 ;W. Xamitra 
 M7. PuRnttMgituca 
 3H, Halfunaiira 
 .111. Malilhi 
 
 40. Ciudiid Roilrigii 
 
 41. CeappflDHa 
 i'i. IN'nnranita 
 411. IMoilinn (Ii!l 
 
 Campo. 
 nid Cslile. 
 44. Arfvalo 
 4.'>. Ilonillu 
 4fi. R^pin.ir 
 47. Hcsitvia 
 4H. Pednxu 
 4<). Cueila 
 M, T.Rrnii 
 .^1. Frcsnitlo 
 !>'i. Rarrnna 
 .'i:i. Aiiiiazan 
 .■M Bulla 
 5.5. Amedn 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 ."^1. Liiffrono 
 .'»7. \iiitirii 
 .>. I'riu. 
 .VJ. Miii'vioiica 
 r<e. niiruDi 
 tU. I'nlflnxiii^ln 
 fit* Ailun 
 m Varicaf 
 HI. Hanianiler 
 Ul. Urduiia. 
 lUacau, 
 
 aa. niiiiiit 
 
 tiH. Iliiba 
 tr7. Tulnia 
 *H B>. Siihuiiun 
 (i!l. Viilncia. 
 
 A'rtrarrff. 
 70. rmnpfluim 
 71.Tiidil«. 
 
 7i. V.irdun 
 711. Jtica 
 
 74. Aiiwa 
 
 7.'V. Illlciir-a 
 
 76. HiiriiKoaia 
 
 77. linritifna 
 
 75. C'alutayud 
 71). I.iicii 
 
 St). Monialban 
 Pl.Tiiruol 
 I'J. Biiniiin 
 Kl. Ixar 
 M. Pina 
 
 Cdta/oRia. 
 H.V Urida 
 H6. Halaguer 
 H7. Ornaina 
 m. Urne" 
 HI). Fisiioraa 
 111. Cardiina 
 111. ni-riina 
 l^j. IliiTcidnna 
 li;l. Turranuna 
 IM. rorvtfra 
 )!.'>. Kipital 
 IKl. Fhx 
 1)7. Turloia 
 
 SOin-H PART. 
 
 F.stremndura' 
 
 1. I,a Cliva 
 
 2. Plnennlia 
 n. (iiiliatoa 
 4. Citria 
 
 .5. Alcuntiira 
 
 ♦;. r»pt'rc8 
 
 7. Kl Tersoiero 
 
 H. Badajiis 
 
 n. Oliva 
 II). Xercz 
 11. Llorena 
 13. Majacslla 
 
 Rrfermcet to the Map ff Spain and Pnrtu/tal. 
 
 II. Moiida 
 
 14. Artidi'rR 
 
 15. 'I'nixilln 
 
 III. Almuraz. 
 
 JiTew Ciintilr. 
 17. (tiMidalupo 
 IH. Azutan 
 II). Oriipeiia 
 91). Tnlavora dn la 
 Royna 
 
 21. Toludo 
 
 22. ( 'iivdcra 
 2:1. F.I Prado 
 24. Mcwtiilea 
 2.V Mmlriil 
 211. F.I F.sruri.il 
 ST. Kl Parcli) 
 
 2H, (fuailalaxara 
 
 21). Aronjuiiz 
 
 :«). l.aMoladollul 
 
 miiflt 
 31. Secadiin 
 '12. Cunavara 
 33. Vnliabludo del 
 
 Rill 
 .14. Ilimilmia 
 3.1. Friat 
 3(1. Cucnca 
 .17. 1,n Parra 
 3H. yniriila 
 !ll). Uequoiia 
 
 40. Tiiejar 
 
 41. Aitemill 
 
 42. Forcali 
 
 43. Moriilla 
 
 44. Ziirita 
 4.'i. Pfiilj'cnla 
 
 45. Ft d(' Sal 
 47. Oropt'sa 
 4H. Alrncdixnr 
 41). Miirvii'dro 
 .10. Valiincia 
 
 51. Alcira 
 
 52. F. lipe 
 .W I),,nia 
 M. Xizana 
 55. Alicante 
 
 Murtia, 
 5(1. Ral'nt 
 .57. Cartliaiiona 
 ,W. Almazarrun 
 .51). I'.iiaiia 
 fill. Mitrcia 
 «1. r.bpgin 
 m. Ilellin 
 B3. Vi'liinnira 
 IV4. riunihilla 
 fi5. Ayna 
 ne. Chiclana 
 
 I.a Mnitcha, 
 117. .*^. l.orpiica 
 IW, Alniaitrit 
 (111. Ciuilud Rial 
 
 70. Mailridi'jofl 
 
 71. M iliiiriin 
 Ti. lii-liornia 
 
 ^tiidfUutia. 
 
 73. Ilrmi'car 
 
 74. Aiidiijar 
 7.5. Kinarei 
 7(1. Ilaeza 
 77. Ilucacar 
 
 75. Ahliii 
 71I.Oiillar 
 H) Jiidnr 
 HI. Mnnaitcriu 
 H2. .Iiicn 
 Kl. Mniilllla 
 H-U lliljalan<;o 
 K5. ri.tilova 
 Hi. Oniina 
 H7. ('armuna 
 m. Ei-ija 
 Pfi. Araccna 
 SM). Axlarcnilar 
 
 01. Alinendro 
 
 02. Ayamonto 
 >X\. Iliielva 
 ni. Sevilln 
 1.5. S. Lucar 
 
 !«;. Rola 
 117. CiMlli 
 W. Xcret 
 
 00. Tarifa 
 
 100. Gibraltar. 
 Granada. 
 
 101. (itiorln 
 
 102. Miirb..lla 
 
 103. Ronda 
 
 104. Antiqucia 
 IM. Malnita 
 IIIA. Vi'li'ii ^Iniaea 
 107. I.a Hnrradura 
 
 105. Motril 
 109. Granada 
 no. Aura 
 
 111. AInifrIa 
 
 112. Piirrhpna 
 
 113. Mujacar. 
 
 PORTITOAI.. 
 
 1. F.ntrf Doiiro c 
 
 Minho. 
 
 1. Viuna 
 
 2. Rraga 
 :i. Amaranlo 
 
 4. Oporto. 
 
 II. Tras 09 Monies. 
 
 5. ('azabranca 
 (i. Rraitanza 
 
 7. Miranda de Vita 
 
 N. Aldoa 
 9. Minindi'lla. 
 III. /trim. 
 
 10. AlmiMtla 
 
 1 1 . Tjamrffo 
 
 12. Ali>nrral 
 
 13. Villamiva 
 
 14. Fcira 
 
 15. Avciri^ 
 in. (\iinibia 
 17. Vijou 
 
 IH. Trai)C(iflo 
 11). (iiinrda 
 90. Riilviitiorrn 
 21. <?HBtiillo Rrnncu 
 92. lil.'irdiuil 
 
 23. Abianlra. 
 
 IV. VMrcmadura. 
 
 24. Arena 
 95. P.iitii 
 9(1. 1.1'irla 
 27. ^anlnrcm 
 9H. Ohidiia 
 
 20. Villafranca 
 311. Pcnnventti 
 31.riniia 
 :12. l.i!tbiin 
 
 33. Almada 
 
 34. Si'iubal nr 6t. 
 
 i;be» 
 
 35. Atcaccrdo. 
 
 V. JiUmteio. 
 30. Porta legre 
 37. F.lvni 
 
 '^. Olivonoat 
 30. Poviia 
 
 40. Scrpa 
 
 41. Ileja 
 
 42. Oiirigua 
 
 43. Mulidri 
 
 44. H. Andra 
 4.5. Villa Nova 
 
 46. Serdao. 
 
 VI. Mgnrre. 
 
 47. Pcyja 
 4H. l.nitoa 
 411. AUMifrira 
 
 SO. Caatro Marino. 
 nirert nf Spain, 
 a Tambre 
 h t!lla 
 r Minho 
 d Sil 
 e Navia 
 f Nalon 
 
 K Heaaya 
 
 Khro 
 DuranKo 
 
 } Aragon 
 
 Oallaita 
 <-"inca 
 
 t Otinaaa ii iriUiiii llie t-puiib linilta. 
 
 in Ribagorxano 
 
 n Hi-itrn 
 
 o MiiRa 
 
 p Tiir 
 
 n litohrnflat 
 
 r Francnli 
 
 H Mnriin 
 
 t Xltnca 
 
 11 Iluiiro 
 
 V .Arlanza 
 
 w Arlanzon 
 
 X Piitii'rga 
 
 y Tarrion 
 
 t E«la 
 
 a* Orviopn 
 
 b* Torinci 
 
 r* Toa 
 
 d* 7i>zcre 
 
 e* I'agua 
 
 f* Albcrch« 
 
 B* Fmma 
 
 ii* llrnurei 
 
 i* Tiotar 
 
 j* Huadiana 
 
 V* aiial 
 
 I* Tinto 
 
 in*fiuadal(ituvir 
 
 n* Jandula 
 
 u* (luadalimar 
 
 p* (lUadix 
 
 q* Cfiaiiela 
 
 r* Xucar 
 
 a* Cobrifll 
 
 t* Guadalaviar 
 
 11* S«(ura 
 
 V* IiorcA 
 
 w* Guadajut 
 
 X* Genii 
 
 y* Guadiaro. 
 
 Itivrrt of Portugai 
 
 a I.iina 
 
 b Tumags 
 
 c. Hnlinr 
 
 d Voupa 
 
 e Mondego 
 
 e* Tagua 
 
 f *.'o« 
 
 RZezoro 
 lainra 
 i Raldo 
 j Guadiana. 
 BALEARIC 
 ISLANDS. 
 . Itua. 
 1. Ivica 
 
 _ Majorca. 
 3. Palma 
 
 3. Boiler 
 
 4. St. Lorenzo. 
 
 Minorea. 
 .5. Mahon 
 6. Ciudadela. 
 
 3V 
 
 Hi 
 
 ii 
 
IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 m lift 
 
 ta fiii |Z2 
 
 L25 iyi_u 1^ 
 
 lU 
 
 6" 
 
 -IS" 
 
 Hiotographic 
 
 Sciences 
 
 Corporation 
 
 23 WEST MAIN STREET 
 
 WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SM 
 
 (716)872-4503 
 
 

 
 
S62 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 skirted by those of the secondary class ; but they are far from the middle and higher parts 
 )f the mountain chain. When we follow the road from Madrid to Andalusia, wc meet with 
 secondary rocks near the transition clay slate of the passes of the Sierra Morcna ; but we 
 must descend very low on the south side before we meet with similar rocks. The high 
 mountains of Jaen are formed of secondary rocks. In the northern vorgcbirf^e of the Sierra 
 Nevada, between Granada and Guadiz, there are secondary deposits, whicii are not, how- 
 ever, so considerable and extensive as to reach to the high ridges. Also in the vicinity of 
 Malaga new secondary rocks lie on the loot of older mountain masses; and the ridges of 
 secondary rocks exten<l from the hills of Ronda towards the southern extremity of Spain. 
 The wonderful isolated rock of Gibraltar is also principally composed of now secondary rock. 
 The distribution of the rock is not confined to the immediate vicinity of the Mgher moun- 
 tain chains, but it extends from the one to the other, rises or &lls in the intermediate spaces, 
 and forms in this way the widely extended high table-land. 
 
 The most important of the Spanish secondary rocks arc the following ; viz., variegated 
 sandstone and marl, gryphite limestone, and the white limestone or Jura limestone. The 
 first of these exhibits the same relations as in Britain, where it is known under the name of 
 new red sandstone and red marl. The shell limestone, which, in Germany, is enclosed 
 between Werner's variegated sandstone and the younger marl formations, is wanting in 
 Spain, as is also the case in England. The sandstone and marl is rich in gypsum and masses 
 of rock salt. At Vallecas, near Madrid, and in some other places, there rests upon it, in 
 single beds, that rare deposit consisting o( meerschaum, with nests of siliceous minerals. It 
 is to this formation, which occurs widely spread over the high table-lands of Old and New 
 Castile, that these countries owe the reddiah-brown colour of their soil, and the tiresome 
 uniformity of their surface. The lias formation is widely distributed in the northern pro- 
 vinces of Spain. It appears to reach a considerable height on the Spanish side of the Pyrenees. 
 In the Biscayan provinces it exhibits the same characters as the gryphite limestone of the 
 Weser. and is so widely distributed that nearly all the older rocks are covered by it. Here 
 it is remarkably prolific in an excellent iron ore. The immense mass of sparry iron ore, con- 
 verted by decomposition into brown and red iron ores of Sommorostro, near Bilboa, and which 
 probably forms the ironstone hills mentioned by Pliny in the 34th book of his Natural Hit- 
 tory, belongs to this formation. Probably also the vast beds of coal in the Asturias are sub- 
 ordinate to it. The white Jura limestone, which is one of the most widely distributed for- 
 mations, is also of great geognostical importance in Spain. It forms, in most places, the 
 immediate cover of the variefjated sandstone and marl, and occurs in the north, and also in 
 the south of Spain, in single ridges and great mountain masses. This formation is exhibited 
 in its most characteristic forms in the narrow pass of Pancorbo in Old Castile, in the lacerated 
 mountains of Jaen, and the isolated rocky wall of Gibraltar. Wherever it occurs, its presence 
 is announced by the yellowish-brown colour of the soil with which it is covered. 
 
 Some members also of the ch:ilk formation occur in Spain. The sandstone of the rocky 
 ridge of the southern coast, between Cadiz and Gibraltar, and the limestone in the district 
 of Los Barios, bring to our recollection the rocks of the Saxon Switzerland. The first 
 agrees with the Gorman quador-sandstein, the latter with the Saxon planer limestone, an 
 equivalent for impure chalk. 
 
 Tertiary deposits occur in different parts of Spain. In the south, particularly near the 
 sea-coast, there is a deposit, filled with marine organic remains, in which calcareous sand 
 and pebbles occur, partly in a loose mass, and partly more or less firmly compacted by means 
 of calcareous cement. Judging from the included petrifactions, among whicli are beds of 
 oyster-shells, this deposit, on which Cadiz stands, and which, in some places, rises into hil- 
 locks and low hills, belongs to the upper tertiary sea-water formation. Probably the ter- 
 tiary deposit mentioned by Brongniart as occurring in the neighbourhood of Barcelona 
 belongs to the same deposit. That fresh-water limestone occurs in Spain has been sufiiciently 
 proved by the observations of Baron Pernssac. The deposit very much resembles that so 
 generally disfrilmtnd in Germany, and is found in different parts of Spain, both in the inte- 
 rior and on the coast, and at different heights. The calcareous breccia, generally with a 
 rcrru^inous basis, which occurs principally in the south-west, where it is widely distributed, 
 belonfrs to the latest of the antediluvian deposits. It not only inerusts limestone rocks of 
 different formations innro or loss thickly, but also fills up rents and fissures in them: thus it 
 abounds among the calcareous rocks of Gibraltar, where it sometimes contains bones of quod- 
 riipeds no longer met with there. The formation of the breccia is ascribed to a catastrophe 
 vhich affected different parts of the coast of the Mediterranean sea. Aa Professor Haus- 
 niann, to whom we owe the preceding details, had not an opporttinity of travelling in Mur- 
 ria, he was not able to confirm or reject the accounts of Spanish geologists, who maintain 
 that it contains true volcanic rocks. The occurrence of other rocks, which are conjectured 
 to have come from below, has been noticed in but few places. Characteristic basalt occurs 
 in Catalonia. The porphyritic and basaltic-looking rocks extending fi-om Cabo de Gata, and 
 firom Aviln. on tlie north side of the Guadarrama range, are still problematical. Hypersthrne 
 rock has been found by Profijssor Garcia in the vicinity of Salinas de Poza, in Old Castile, 
 
Part III. 
 
 ^her parts 
 meet with 
 a ; but we 
 The high 
 the Sierra 
 not, how- 
 vicinity of 
 I ridges of 
 J of Spain, 
 ndary rock, 
 fher moun- 
 iate spaces, 
 
 variegated 
 tone. The 
 the name of 
 is enclosed 
 wanting in 
 and masses 
 I upon it, in 
 linerals. It 
 Id and New 
 ihe tiresome 
 orthem pro- 
 10 Pyrenees. 
 stone of the 
 jy it. Here 
 ron ore, con- 
 a, and which 
 Natural Hit- 
 irias are sub- 
 stributed for- 
 it places, the 
 1, and also in 
 1 is exhibited 
 the lacerated 
 , its presence 
 I. 
 
 of the rocky 
 n the district 
 1. The first 
 limestone, an 
 
 arly near the 
 ciiroous sand 
 tod by means 
 li are beds of 
 iso8 into hil- 
 )ably the ter- 
 of Barcelona 
 Ml sufRciently 
 nblcs that so 
 in the inte- 
 lerally with a 
 y distributed, 
 tone rocks of 
 Jiem : thus it 
 ones of quad- 
 a catastrophe 
 ■ofessor Haus- 
 !lling in Mur- 
 who maintain 
 e conjectured 
 basalt occurs 
 de Gata, and 
 Hypersthpnc 
 » Old Castile, 
 
 Book I. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 S68 
 
 in contact with Jura limestone. Professor Hausmann found, in the mountams of Jaen, near 
 to variegated marl containing masses of gypsum, rocks of greenstone. Col. Silvettop 
 describes tertiary deposits in Granada. 
 
 It may not be improper, from Professor Hausmann, to point out tlic influence of soil and 
 climate on the other departments of nature, as also on the peculiarities and occupations of 
 man. A glance at the whole nature of Spain discovers a threefold principal difference. 
 The northern zone, which extends to the £bro, diflfers entirely in its characters from the 
 middle zone ; and this again is completely different from the southern zone, which is bounded 
 on the north by the Sierra Morena, and a part of the Ostrandes. The northern zone, which 
 includes Galicia, Asturios, the Biscayan provinces, Navarre, the northern part of Aragon, 
 and Catalonia, is a widely extended mountainous and hilly country. The snow-fields and 
 glaciers of the Pyrenees on the one side ; and on the other the north and north-west winds, 
 have a marked influence in lowering the temperature of the atmosphere, and in increasing 
 the supply of water. The increased humidity is favourable for vegetation, which, on the 
 whole, very much resembles that of the south of France ; and the variety of rocks contain- 
 ing lime, clay, and sand, and also their frequent alternations, operate beneficially on the soil. 
 The soil everywhere invites to cultivation, and the Catalonians and Biscayans are active 
 cultivators of the ground. The middle part of Spain, to which belongs Old and New Castile, 
 a part of Aragon, Leon, and Estremadura, is not so fkvourably circumstanced. In general, 
 we rarely meet with either beauty or variety of aspect. The extensive and lofty table-lands, 
 destitute of trees, are dull and tiresome ; their uniform and monotonous surface, formed by 
 vast deposits of horizontally disposed secondary strata, is swept across by the wind, and burnt 
 up by the sun's rays. Whichever way the eye turns, it meets with scarcely any thing but 
 wretchedly cultivated cornfields and desert heaths of cistus. Seldom, in general, more in 
 the southern than in the northern districts, plantations of olive-trees afl[ord a meagre shelter, 
 and vary the scenery, although in an inconsiderable degree. Nothing, certainly, bos so 
 great an influence on these properties of nature, with which many of the peculiarities and 
 modes of life of man harmonise, than the high situation of the widely extended table-lands, 
 and the uniformity of the rock which forms the support of the soil. It is owing principally 
 to the horizontal stratification, and the v/ant of water, that the great Spanish table-lands are 
 80 widely extended, and so little intersected by deep valleys. The rivers, in most cases, 
 carry but little water in comparison with the magnitude of the land, and the number of con- 
 siderable mountain chains ; and it is further surprising how insignificant the waters of most 
 of the Spanish mountain groups are, even when the qualities of the rocks favour the forma- 
 tion of springs. The causes of this great deficiency of water are principally the great dry- 
 ness of the atmosphere, the inconsiderable cover of snow on the mountains, and its short 
 continuance ; the absence of forests, and the want of great moors on the heights, and the 
 comparatively inconsiderable breadth of the mountain ranges. The southern and south- 
 western part of Spain, which comprehends Andalusia, witii Granada and Murcia, is very 
 different from that just described. On the opposite side of tlie Sierra Morena the whole 
 land has a more- southern and foreign aspect, a breathing of that African nature, which an- 
 nounces itself not only by the world of plants, but also by the animal world, and man him- 
 self The great diflTerence of climate is produced by the southern situation, the exposure of 
 the acclivity on the south and south-west to the African winds, and the strong reflection of 
 the solar rays from the lofty, naked mountain walls. The mountain ranges are more closely 
 aggregated, the valleys more deeply cut : there is no room for very extensive table-lands, 
 and the more limited ones that occur, as those of Granada, ar^ more amply supplied with 
 water than those in the middle of Spain. Alon^ with this arrangement, there is greater 
 difference among the rocks, and also of their position. The south of Spain, tlierefore, pos- 
 sesses not only a much higher temperature, one fit for the orange and the palm, but also a 
 more varied and a more favourable soil for cultivation. But these relations would have acted 
 more beneficially if the air had been more humid, and moisture had been everywhere more 
 abundant. The deficiency of moisture is the principal cause not only of tlie striking moa- 
 greness of phenogamous vegetation, on most of the mountain acclivities, but also of the 
 remarkable paucity of lichens and mosses on the mountains on the coast; and in connection 
 with this is the fact, that the weathering of the rocks, and the reforming of the original sur- 
 face of the mountains, assume there a somewhat different course from what is observed in 
 places which are moister, and provided with a more powerful vegetation. 
 
 SuBSECT. 2. — Botany. 
 
 " Oh! Christ I it is a Knodly sight to see 
 ' What Ilnavcn hath done Tor this delicious land I 
 
 . What fruits of fVaKrance blush on every tree 1 
 
 What (jnodly prnR)>ects o'er the hills expand ! 
 (But man would mar them with an impious hand). 
 
 " European Spain," says M. dc Humboldt, " situated in latitudes under which Palm trees 
 ( Phcenix dactylifera and Chamarops humilis) grow upon the plains, presents the majestic 
 spectacle of a chain of mountains, the tops of which shoot up into the region of everlasting 
 
 iil 
 
MM 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part JIL 
 
 ■now. By a levelling survey executed with the greatest care, it has been OBcertained tliat 
 in the Sierra Nevada of Granada, the Pico de Vcleta rises about 11,365 English feet, and 
 the Mulhacen 11,660 English feet, above the level of the ocean. None of the mountains 
 of the Pyrenees are of so great a height ; for Mont Perdu, the loftiest of the Spanish Pyre- 
 nees is only 11,168 feet, and the highest of the French Pyrenees only 1722 fathoms. The 
 peak of Mulhacen, in the Sierra Nevada of Granada, wants only 76 fathoms of being as 
 high as the Peak of Teneriife. Yet even this summit, if situated in the same latitude as 
 the town of Mexico, would not be perpetually covered with snow : for the never-melting 
 snows begin under the equator at 2460 fathoms; under the twentieth degree of latitude at 
 2350 fathoms; under the forty-fiflh, at 1300 fathoms; and under the sixty-second, at 900 
 fitthoms." 
 
 Thus circumstanced in regard to climate, and the elevation of its mountains, how greatly 
 is it to be regretted that no country in Europe has been so little investigated in regard to its 
 botanical pn^uctiona ! Enough, however, is known for our purpose, which may be collected 
 from the different travels in, and accounts of, Spain and Portugal, and from the Recherches 
 sur la Dittribution Oeographique des Vegelaux Phanerogatnes dans PAncien Monde, 
 already alluded to, by M. de Mirbel. This author considers the whole of this peninsula, 
 with the exception of the northern part of Spain, which forms the shores of the Gulf of 
 Gascony, and which belongs to the temperate zone, as entering into the transition zone. If, 
 therefore, its vegetation has any affinity with that of France, it is only where its mountainous 
 parts, especially the Pyrenees, resemble the mountains of France, and its warm districts arc 
 like the extreme south of France. In East Valencia and Murcia, in the south of Andalusia 
 and the Algarves, in Western Alemtejo and South Estremadura, the rich and varied vege- 
 tation calls to mind the fertile plains of Syria. In Andalusia, fVoets are unknown, and the 
 snow, if it ever falls, melts the moment it touches the soil : so that it is iiot surprising that, 
 in the cultivated parts, the Spaniards, long famous for their voyages, should have introduced 
 many vegetables from remote parts of the world ; thus giving a perfectly tropical appear- 
 ance to ^e country. 
 
 The Erythrina Corallodendron, or Coral tree, with its brilliant scarlet blossoms, the 
 Schinus MoUe, with its gracefully pinnated foliage, and the Phytolacca dioica, are intro- 
 duced, with many other plants, from South America. Even the bananas are common to the 
 south of the Guadalquivir ; as are also the Cayenne Pepper ; and, in gardens, the Convolvu- 
 lus Batatas, or Sweet Potato. Everywhere about tlie rural habitations of the Spanish pea- 
 santry, the Date, the Orange (,fig. 298.), the Lemon, the Olive, the Pomegranate, the Fig 
 
 The Oram*. 
 
 The Fit 
 
 ijig. 299.), and the Mulberry, flourish nearly as well as in the native soil. Link notices the 
 trees growing about Lisbon ; " they are chiefly," he says, " Olive and Orange trees, Cypress, 
 Judas trees : Elms and Poplars appear too. But of Oaks, Beeches, and Lime, there are 
 none, and very few Willows ; so that one may instantly perceive how different is the char- 
 acter of a Lisbon view from that of Germany." The Orange is the most striking of these : 
 for there are many plantations in quintas, where they form compact groves, and also scat- 
 tered in open spots. These trees require much artificial watering, and they are propagated 
 by seed, and afterwards by grafting upon those seedling trees. In December and January 
 the fruit begins to turn yellow ; and at the end of January and in February, before they oro 
 ripe and sweet, they are gathered for exportation. Towards the end of March and April, 
 the oranges are very go(5, but they are not in perfection till enrly in May. In July and 
 August, Uiey are scarce, and over-ripe. At the end of April and May, the new flowers ap- 
 pear, the fragrance of which extends far and wide, and at this time the quantity of glittering 
 fhiit embosomed amid the dark foliage, " like golden lamps in a green night," relieved stiU 
 
 Alid 
 
PartIIL 
 
 tained tliat 
 h feet, and 
 
 mountains 
 inish Pyre- 
 loms. The 
 )f being as 
 
 latitude as 
 ver-melting 
 • latitude at 
 jond, at 900 
 
 how greatly 
 regard to its 
 be collected 
 
 Recherches 
 ;tcrt Monde, 
 B peninsula, 
 
 the Gulf of 
 an zone. If, 
 mountainous 
 
 districte are 
 of Andalusia 
 varied vege- 
 own, and the 
 rprising that, 
 fe introduced 
 pical appear- 
 
 bloBsoms, the 
 xa, are intro- 
 ommon to the 
 the Convolvu- 
 . Spanish pea- 
 mate, the Fig 
 
 Book T. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 565 
 
 link notices the 
 trees. Cypress, 
 ,ime, there are 
 int is the char- 
 iking of these : 
 and also scat- 
 are propagated 
 cr and January 
 before they an? 
 arch and April, 
 f. In July and 
 lew flowers ap- 
 ity of glittering 
 " relieved still 
 
 more by the snowy blossoms, presents an object which continually excites new admiration, 
 though it is one of daily occurrence. One single tree frequently bears 1500 oranges, and 
 examples are not wantmg of their bearing 2000, and sometimes, though rarely, 2iK)0. In 
 the provinces, they sell for half a farthing apiece. Pigs are exported largely n-om the city 
 of Faro; lliey are the most important produce of the Algarve, and are brought down by the 
 country people to ttio merchants in immense quantities. They are thrown in heaps in a 
 building prepared for the purpose, where a syrup flows from them, which is used to advan- 
 tage in making brandy. They are then spread to dry in the sun, in an open situation, wlien- 
 they are left for a few days, in proportion to the heat of the weather ; after whicli they are 
 packed into small baskets made of the leaves of the Fan Palm, and exprted. " Greece anil 
 the Algarves," M. Link observes, " are the only countries where capritication is practised ; 
 for in the latter country are some varieties of Figs, and those very excellent, that fall to the 
 ground immature, unless punctured by gnats." Two ideas prevail respecting tlie effect of 
 this operation; the general opinion being, that the little insect, on entering the Fig, (which 
 is known by botanists to be a fleshy receptacle, including many, and often only barren 
 flowers,) carries with it, from other figs that it has visited, and from which it comes loaded, 
 the farina necessary for fertilisation : while others maintain, and among them M. Link, that 
 tlie puncture caused by tiie insect gives a firesh stimulus and a new movement to the sap or 
 juices of the fruit, thereby not only preventing the fell of the fruit, but rendering it sweeter 
 and better flavoured ; and it is ccrtam that many of our common fruits, when pierced by in- 
 sects, acquire the sweetest flavour. The ancients perfected the figs in the Archipelago by 
 means of an insect, a species of Cynips (C. Ficus). In Algarve, besides the cultivated kind, 
 another wild sort is grown ; in which the insects abound. These trees are recalled Fijos de 
 tora ; and branches of them are, at the proper season, broken offj and suspended over those 
 intended to be fertilised, when the little animals come forth, alight upon the fruits, puncture 
 them, and aid their ripening. 
 Formidable fences are made of the Cactus Tuna {fi/r. 300.), and the Agave americana, 
 QQQ or American aloe. The former is often mixed with the Pome- 
 
 granate, but of itself it constitutes a hedge almost impervious to 
 cattle. In Portuguese it is called, on account of its prickle^<, 
 Fijo do inferno : the flowers are yellow and the fruit esculent ; 
 the latter is by no means unpalatable, and is regularly sold in 
 Lisbon. Of the Agave americana we have already spoken, and 
 shall, therefore, simply mention here, that its leaves undergo a 
 process by which a valuable thread is e.xtracted, known in Por- 
 tugal by the name of Filn da piln. The largest and most per- 
 fect leaves are cut ofl^, laid upon a board, and scraped with a 
 square iron bar, which is held in both hands, until all the juices 
 and pulp are pressed out ; the nerves only remaining, wlicn 
 these are found easily separable into tlireads. Whore pasturage 
 is scarce, as in Algarve, the cattle eat the foliage of this plant, 
 if cut into til in transverse slices. 
 
 In La Mancha grows the Esparto grele (Slipa tenacissima), 
 of which cords are made, and the foliage is sent in large quan- 
 tities into Portugal for this purpose. To prevent the careless 
 destruction of these valuable plants, penalties are inflicted on 
 CtictiMTum. (j„y person who ventures to gather them before the month 
 
 of May, when they are in perfection. 
 The Carob tree {fig. 301.) Link reckons the most beautiful of European trees. It attains 
 3QJ a considerable height, forming, with its large evergreen pinnated 
 
 foliage, a head of considorablf. dimensions, and yielding a welcome 
 shade. Among the foliage hang down the numerous long po«is, 
 which, when ripe, are used as fodder for cattle, especially the 
 mules, and as meat for swine, though inferior to the acorns of the 
 Evergreen Ook. Before the expulsion of the Moors, the Sugar 
 Cane was cultivated to a considerable extent, and lately it has been 
 re-introduced, at San Lucar, into a garden " d'acchmation," to- 
 gether with Coffee, Indigo, and Gum Arabic. A vast extent of 
 country is covered by the Chamsrops humilis {Dwarf Palm or 
 Palmetto), growing in waste places. This vegetation, in part ex- 
 otic, follows the coasts of the Spanish peninsula, to the east and to 
 the west. It is difflised in all its luxury in the delicious territory 
 of Valencia, where the agriculture of the Moors is still held in 
 respect. With the sjwcics already named, are here cultivated the 
 Aloi; perfoliata. Yucca aloifolia. Cassia tomentosa, Mclia Azeda- 
 CtrobTree. ^^^^^^ iiKuiy kinds of Mimosa, Annonn, &c. In the environs of 
 
 AHcant, the Date harvest is very abundant. This Palm there gro\vs in liirge plantations. 
 Vol. I, 48 
 
.♦ 
 
 ,■." ••' 
 
 %'■<*- ^ 
 
 M 
 
 S66 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 and often attains tho liei^rlu of 120 feet. It reaches alon^ the entire coaBt, to the 40th de- 
 mrce, and perhaps hi{,'lu!r. Tlio Affuvo abounds in the environs of Tarragona, in tho 4l8t 
 degree ; and tho Olive continues to tho sliore of Franco. 
 
 In frcncrnl, the vegetation of the cost of the Peninsula differs little from that of the other 
 shores of the Mediterranean. The coasts of the Ocean, on tho west, arc less hot, according 
 to M. Bory do St Vincent, than corresponding latitudes on tlio east sides ; so that the south- 
 ern vegetation docs not extend so far to the north. Bo this as it nuiy, the Date, the Lemon, 
 tlie Orange, abound in Algarve and Alemtejo. The Orange grows plentifully in the cnvi* 
 rons of Oporto, in 41° ; and the Olive extends to 42°. A great number of American plants, 
 the seeds having been probably brought in ballast, are mingled, and, as it were, confounded, 
 with indigenous species. Upon the whole, however, tlie vegetation may be considered as 
 having more in common with that of the Atlantic than with the coasts of the Mediterra- 
 nean. Link thus pictures Uie climate of Portugal, and its effects upon vegetation : — " A 
 heat, equal to 06° of Fahrenheit, is not uncommon in this country ; and, from comparative 
 observations, it appears that the climate is warmer here than in Brazil, though tho heat does 
 not continue near so long. From Midsummer-day to the middle of September, rain is ex- 
 tremely uncommon, and even in the beginning of that montli very scanty ; the drought oflen 
 continues much longer. Immediately afler the first rains, follow the autumnal flowers, this 
 Meadow Saffron (Colchica, two species but little known) ; Saffron (Crocus aalivui) ; the 
 Autumnal Snowdrop {Leucojum aulumnale) ; thb sweet-smelling Ranunculus bullatus, and 
 many others. These appear in the higher lands around Cintra, where the rains arc earlier 
 than in the low parts near Lisbon. Immediately afler the autumnal flowers, come the 
 spring plants, owing to which the interval between spring and autumn is scarcely percep- 
 tible. In October tlie young grass springs up, and the new leaves shoot out, rendering it 
 the pleasantest month of the year. In November and December fall heavy rains, with fre- 
 quent storms. Days of perpetual silent rain are ver^ rare, for in general it comes down in 
 torrents. The brooks round Lisbon, which it was a little while before easy to step over, and 
 which wholly disap|>ear in summer, now rush like torrents down the hills. This swelling 
 of the streams renders travelling difKcult at tliat season, and would retard the operations of 
 war as much in winter as tlic drougiit in summer. In January, cokl, clear weather oflen 
 prevails, but becomes milder in February, which is generally a very pleasant month." 
 
 The most common vegetables of the plains of Spain are the Cork tree 0?^. 302.), the 
 Ilex, and Kermes Oak (^g. 303.), the Bay tree, the Myrtle, the Philyrea media and angus- 
 302 _^ ^1^ 303 
 
 Xermca OHk. 
 Cork Tt«*. 
 
 tifolia, Juniperus Sabina, Celtis australis,PistaciaTerebinthus and Lcntiscus; Rhamnus Ala- 
 temus, and many other species of this genus ; Viburnum Tinus, Osyris alba, Paliurus aus- 
 tralis, the Strawberry tree, tiie common and shrubby Jessamines, the Caper plant, and a great 
 number of Cisti {Jig. 3-M ) with other shrubs, whose foliage is of an evergreen and coriace- 
 ous nature. Immense plains arc clothed with Lygeum Spartum, and the running streams 
 arc bordered with Uupleurum spinosum and Nerium Oleander. 
 
 But it has been justly remarked, that no country in Europe presents a more sorrowful 
 aspect than the interior of the Peninsula. " No man, perhaps, saving a botanist," says Link, 
 "could travel witli any pleasure in the barren tracts of Old Castile; but this pursuit can 
 render travelling both instructive and interesting, even in these njjparently sterile wastes. 
 Wiicre forests hiivc existed tlu^re, tli(!y have yieldod to the stroke of the axe ; and the naked 
 soil remains witiiout any culture. Vast chains of mountains spread out in all directions, and 
 between them are extended the Parameras, more or less elevated plains, frequently as naked 
 as the steppes of Siberia." M. Bory estimates at fi"om 1800 to 2000 feet the elevation of the 
 Paramera which divides the sources of the Douro and the Ebro. In tlie valleys formed by 
 these rivers and tlieir tributary streams, a vegetation of great beauty is found, partaking of 
 
Part 111. 
 
 10 40th de- 
 in tlio 4l8t 
 
 )f the other 
 , according 
 , the south- 
 Lho Lemon, 
 » the cnvi- 
 ican plants, 
 lonfbunded, 
 tnBidercd aa 
 
 Meditcrra- 
 ition:— "A 
 joniparative 
 10 heat does 
 
 rain is ex- 
 •ought often 
 flowers, the 
 iliviu); the 
 ullatus, and 
 3 are earlier 
 s, come the 
 cely percep- 
 rendering it 
 ns, with fre- 
 mes down in 
 ;ep over, and 
 Ilia swelling 
 )peration8 of 
 weather often 
 onth." 
 
 f . 302.), the 
 a and angus- 
 
 303 
 
 ^ 
 
 Ihamnus Ala- 
 Paliurus aus- 
 it, and a great 
 I and coriace- 
 ming streams 
 
 ore sorrowful 
 t," says Link, 
 s pursuit can 
 sterile wastes, 
 ind the naked 
 lircctions, and 
 ;ntly as naked 
 evation of the 
 sys Ibrraed by 
 partaking of 
 
 Book!. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 607 
 
 tliat in the more temperate climates of the north. Here are seen small fields of MaiEC, and 
 even of Rye and Barley, more rarely of Wheat, surrounded by lofty Oaks, Chestnuts, and 
 Poplars, every tree supporting a Vine, which spreads over it and not unirequently reaches 
 to the very summit of the highest Oaks. 
 
 •^ 
 
 Ciitui. 
 
 CiMaUiiH. 
 
 The great mass of the forests which have escaped destruction are mostly formed of Ever- 
 
 S'een Oaks ; among which, besides the other species already enumerated, are found the 
 uercus Ballotii, oigilopifolia, faginca, prasina, crenato, rotunditblia, humilia, &.c. The latter 
 does not exceed six inches in height. In the valleys and on the mountains also, grow Tilia 
 europica {platyphyllos ?), Fagus syl/atica, Costanea vesca (Jig. ;5((5.), Tiixus baccata, Pinus 
 sylvestris, Fraxinus, Ornus, &c. The commonest forest tree on the plains of the temperate 
 zone, namely tiie Oak {(iue.rcug Itobur), inhabits the soutliorn slope of the Pyrenees. It is 
 said that tliis tree occurs also in some ports of the Peninsula. 
 
 The vegetation which prevails on the lofty mountains in tlie interior of Spain is almost 
 wholly unknown to us. M. llaiiiond has made some interestiiii^ obsurvations on that of the 
 Pic du Midi, one of the highest of the Pyrenees; and has compared the plants of its most 
 elevated summit, estimated at about 10,000 feet, with that of Melville Island, as described 
 by Mr. R. Brown. The similarity is very striking. 
 
 81'HMIT OF THE riC DU HIOI 
 
 Cryptogamia. 
 
 Fiiiilli 
 
 Lirbt'iiH 51 
 
 Ili'imlicn- 1 
 
 Mf!.""." 6 
 
 fV'riiK 4 
 
 -02 
 Phanogamou$. 
 
 { 'vlwrncov 3 
 
 (tranHUH 7 
 
 Jiiiici U 
 
 P()IyK«nen? 1 
 
 I'Innlayiiicm I 
 
 I'liiiiibauiiiPiR 1 
 
 l.y«imqchiic A 
 
 I'ecticulariniu 3 
 
 IiabiatiB 1 
 
 Scrniiliulnriiiie 1 
 
 Bi>ragiiiciE 1 
 
 (■eiitinncm 3 
 
 CninpaiiiilncciE 1 
 
 CichnrHcnm 3 
 
 CoryiiiliifprB! 10 
 
 RiibiuceiF 8 
 
 PnimvpracpiD 1 
 
 Criinifcim 
 
 (^^aryophyllcu! 6 
 
 Ficoiihfic 4 
 
 Baxifragcm 4 
 
 RnnacoiK 4 
 
 L<!friiinino!MC 4 
 
 Ameiitacvi! 1 
 
 — 71 
 
 HF.LVIM.E ISLAND. 
 
 Cryplogamia. 
 
 FiiDKi 9 
 
 I.icli(!iia IS 
 
 Ilepatice S 
 
 MiHWca 30 
 
 Feriia 
 
 -49 
 Phemogamou*. 
 
 CypcraceiB 4 
 
 OraBses 14 
 
 Junci it 
 
 Polygonee 3 
 
 Scrophularins- 
 Ericcic 
 
 CampniiulacetF.. 
 
 Cichnran'ffi 
 
 Corymbirerte ... 
 
 Raniinciilnccn 
 
 Papavcracpffi 
 
 Crurircrfe 
 
 Carynphylleie 5 
 
 BaxilVaEca! 10 
 
 nosncpn; 4 
 
 I^^<;uii)iiM>fiiC S 
 
 Aineiit aces 1 
 
 -« 
 
 m 
 
I 
 
 H" 
 
 m 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Part UI 
 
 I finind on the i 
 
 Europetn Bea-EtUr. 
 
 Of theie, eigfht of the Molvillo hiandi lichen$ and one of its motte 
 mit of the Pic du Midi ; five otheru of the lichens, and one of iU two hepatka, and hix of itr 
 motaes, f^row on the crag* of the peak, or in ita immediate vicinity. 
 
 SuBaEOT. 3. — Zoology, 
 The native zoology haa been so little inv08ti(rated, that nothing beyond a meagre list could 
 be fUmiahed of indigenous animals. In the mountains of AHtnrins the Ibex is not uncommon, 
 and the Alpine Squirrel (Sciurug ulpinut) is only ibund in tiic Pyrenees. In tlie soutliern 
 parts, bordering on the African shore, a few species of wurblurw have recently b<;en found, 
 which are us yet unknown to tlic rest of Europe. Tin; Euro|)oan Beo-eater (Jiff. aWJ.) fre- 
 30g qucntri the vicinity of (iibrulUr in largo tlocks during 
 
 tne season of migration. 
 
 Among the domesticated animals, the horse and sheep 
 of Spain deserve particular notice, as having been long 
 celebrated throughout Europe. The best horses are 
 
 generally about four feet six or eight inches high ; they 
 ave all the fire, docility, grace, and action of the 
 beautiful Arabians of Barbary (generally called Durbs), 
 and there can bo no doubt of these noble animals having 
 been introduced by the Moors, and crossed with the 
 native breed : those of Andalusia, Granada, and Estre- 
 madura arc tlie most distinguislied. At Xeres are found 
 two perfectly distinct races; the one, which possesses the fine qualities above mentioned, is 
 still preserved in all its purity at tiie Chartreux. The otlier race is larger, stronger, less 
 elegant, and used for common purposes. Latterly but little cure has been bestowed in keep- 
 ingup the more noble breed, so that fine horses are not so common in Spain as formerly. 
 
 The mule, in so mountainous a country, is particularly useful, and, with the ass, is prin- 
 cipally Used for conveying goods in the interior ; the bree<l8 of the latter are very fine, and 
 are hardly excelled by those of Egypt Spain is still famous for its merino race of ahecp 
 (Jig. 307.). The flocks are kept constantly travelling during the greater part of the sum- 
 mer, but are carefully pent up in winter. This race, subdivided into breeds, is extended 
 
 over the greater part of Spain; but those of Cavage, and 
 Negrale, are the best. A third breed, the Souan, appears 
 more hardy, and passes the winter in Estreinadura, Anda- 
 lusia, and New Castile : these three constitute the 'Pranaku- 
 mante, or travelling race, to distinguish thorn from the 
 Estantes, or those of a somewhat inferior brood, who do not 
 migrate. The best fleeces ore those which upiiear almost 
 black on their surface, caused by the dust adhering to the 
 peculiar greasy pile; for it is invariably found that such 
 fleeces are of the purest white beneath. Tlie merinos, dis- 
 persed by George III. over England, have incalculably im- 
 proved the native races. By great care and expense on the part of the native graziers, this 
 valuable race has likewise been introduced in the distant regions of Australia with 0(iual 
 success. There is a very large breed of oxen in the country round Salamanca ; but the 
 cattle of Spain have been much neglected ; the nioimtaineers deriving all their milk and 
 butter from goats. The spaniel appears to be n brood of dogs originating from this country; 
 and the Spanish pointer is considered to have a greater acuteness of scent than that of 
 Britain. 
 
 Sbot. IIL — Historical Geography. 
 
 The earliest inhabitants of Spain, like those of Gaul and Britain, were of the Celtic race, 
 and from the river Ebro (Ibcrus) were calle<1 Coltiberi. The whole country was by the 
 Greeks called Iberia, and sometimes, from its western position, Hesperia. The people, like 
 those of the rest of Europe, were divided into a number of small tribes, hardy and warlike, 
 who often showed a peculiar attachment to national independence, and obstinacy in its 
 defence. 
 
 The Carthaginians wore the first civilised people who occupied Spain, which, for several 
 centuries, was considered as theirs. They founded colonies on the most advantageous points, 
 worked its rich silver mines, and easily allured many of ita brave but poor inhabitants into 
 their mercenary armies; they were far, however, from having thoroughly aubilued the Pen- 
 insula, the people of which, on the rise of the Roman power, endeavoured by its alliance to 
 emancipate themselves from the Punic yoke. The siege ond fiill of Saguntiim seemed to 
 have extinguislu'd these hopes, and to have secured tiie ascendency of Carthage; but the 
 events which miirlced the close of the second Punic war completely humbled that proud 
 republic, and put an end to its dominion over Spain. 
 
 The Romans, by the capture of Numantia in n. c. IM, established tlioir supremacy over 
 Spam, undisputed by any other nation ; but the complete subjugation of its inhabitants was 
 a long and arduous task, to which the utinoet exertions of Cwaar and his lieutenants wcr«> 
 
^y^ 
 
 Book I. SPAIN. OOP 
 
 not flilly adequate. Spain, however, was at lenpfth ro(luce<l to a province, divided bjr Augus- 
 tus into t)iror> parti< : — Tarraconenais, the north and cost ; Bictica, tho soutli ; and Lusitiuiia, 
 Portugal. Tho Spaniards cvun becamo civilised and pcaceublo subjects; so tliat when 
 Rome, sinking; under its own weight, was unable to defend them, they could not resume 
 their early indepondonco, hut fell a prey to the Vandals, Goths, and other barbarous hordes 
 that poure<l in from the north of Europe. 
 
 The Goths, in this terrible struprgle, finally prevailed ; and in 418 a Gotiiic dynasty was 
 iUlly cstabliHhcd over Spain. These barbarous invaders ap|)ear here, as elsewhere, to have 
 expelled or extirpated the native people, whose features and language are recognised only 
 in some of the higher mountain districts. After a sway of three centuries, the Goths were 
 destined to yield to a new people, coming from a remote quarter. 
 
 The Arabs, rendered invincible by fanaticism, had over-run all the north of Africa, and 
 established a powerful kingdom in Fez. The vengeance of Count Julian invited them over, 
 and opened the way for them ; their immense host covered the plains of Andalusia ; Roderick, 
 the Gothic king, was totally defeated. The invaders then over-ran the whole kingdom, with 
 the exception of some mountain recesses, in which a remnant of the Gothic chiefs found 
 shelter ; they even passed the Pyrenees, and seemed about to over-run all western Europe. 
 But Charles Martel met them on tho plains of Aquitaine ; and, after a dreadful battle of tliree 
 days, they were signally overthrown, and never again attempted to pass tho Spanish frontier. 
 Meantime Don I'euiyo, and other chiefs of the Gothic race, again raised the national standard 
 in the mountains of tho Asturias : then commenced a contest of 700 years, distinguished by 
 numerous heroic achievements and memorable events, which gave to the Spanish character 
 that romantic and adventurous cost which it has never wholly lost. The Arabs or Moors 
 still retained the finest provinces, and the courts of Cordova and Granada were the most 
 splendid ond polished in Europe. The Spaniards, however, under a succession of able chiefs 
 and particularly of their great hero the Cid, gained ground : new kingdoms were successive!} 
 founded ; which all merging into those of Castile and Aragon, comprehended the whole ot 
 Spain, except the extreme southern kingdom of Granada.* 
 
 Spain was again formed into one great kingdom by the union of the crowns of Castile and 
 Aragon, under Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1474, and by the final overthrow and expulsion of 
 the Moors. From this period commences the most brilliant era of her annals. The dis- 
 covery of America, the conquest of the golden regions of Mexico and Peru, and of other 
 dominions so extensive as to make it a plausible boast that the sun never set on them, threw 
 an almost unrivalled lustre around the Spanish crown. Under Charles V. and Philip II., 
 Spain continued the most powerful kingdom, and her armies the most formidable, of any in 
 Europe. Tho throne derived even an addition of apparent lustre from the subversion of the 
 popular part of the government, and the conversion of a body of grandees, once the proudest 
 in Europe, to the condition of humble vassals. 
 
 The decline of Spain, though its causes had begun to operate, did not become perceptible 
 till after the death of Philip II. A gloomy indolence and degrading superstition now marked 
 her councils ; her armies were vanquished by the French under Conde and Turenne ; she 
 lost her place and rank in Europe. The trade with her vast colonies, fettered by absurd 
 restrictions, became profitoble only to the industrious nations which supplied its materials. 
 The war of the succession drew notice towards this country, and called forth some displays 
 of national energy ; but the Bourbon dynasty, which it pl^^ -od on the throne, soon relapsed 
 into the characteristic indolence, and Spain became little r > ■> 'han a dependency of France. 
 We know not whether to designate as an era, the train ot' tr-markable events which have 
 
 *Th« Arab! in Spain, like the Snxnnii in Ensland, ostablisliod a laMins niemnrial of llieir dominion by engran. 
 inc thoir own langiiacc on (lint nf tlin country which they fiubdueil. Ot this, the topo^iraphy of the Peninsula 
 exhibits innuninrahic instaricei. Tho names of rivers, mountains, towns, and places, were either totally or par- 
 tially chanjiod. by the virtorinus invailors ; and after the expulsion of their descenilanis, those names were per. 
 petuated, thoneli with nitcrntions in sonie instances as arbitrary as those which were made in the ancient 
 topogrnpliy of the country: thus, the Roman station, Paz ^ufr»sta, was transformed by the Arabs into Batalio^ 
 and onnrwanis by the Hpaninrils into Badcjoi; Cte.iarJtugmla, by an abbreviation less violent, liecamo Saragoeaa, 
 and Emerila ^u/rusti was contracted into Mtrida. 
 
 The Arnhic term Mfilina fcity) survives in two eminent instances nmnn)» the titles of tho Spanish nobility: 
 Medina Selim (the city of Si'jiin) is recoifiiised in tlie dukedom ot Mu'lina-Celi ; and the colony probably called New 
 Sidnn, is that of Medinn-Siionia. From the generic term guad, a river, and vtlei or vded, a landed estate or diatrict, 
 many names may be explained which at first view appear capricious and arbitrary : — 
 
 Ex, fiuad.al-aviar Tlic white river. 
 
 Guad-nl-(|uivir The great river. 
 
 Giiad-aMiigiara, now Ciiadalaxara The river of rocks. 
 
 Vein and Vrled are otten conjoined with proper names, Felet Malaga, feled Vlid. now Valladolid : thus, Navarre 
 and Leon, their confines never havinn l«en occupied by the Arabs, were called liy them Vrled ^Arrourn, tho land 
 of the Romans. Oezira was n|iplii'd inilifli'reiitly to on island or a peninsula ; hence Jllgf.ira. Aldea means what 
 ia cnmpi<:hendcd under the Eiiftlish term a /arm. It is nf common occurrence in itinernrios. as .^Mra rfe/ Aid, 
 Jildta Oallega, Aldeaa de Fansso. From chntara, a bridf^e, we account for the emphatic name Alt'intnra. Cali'ntOt 
 a castle, enters more! or less prominently into the composition of various names; as Cnl'ni Jlnat, the castle of 
 Ayat, i-i now Cnlntayud; Cali'nl Hahah, the castle of Rnhah, is now Calatrava ; At Caltlal. simply the cnstle, ia 
 now Mealtt. JIhmar, a word of fVeqiieiit oociirn^nco in Spanish topojiraphy, is a fortified liniiBe or small castle ; 
 Almeria is an nlwervatory. See Description of Spain, by Oerif Alhenris, in the translation of Don Jos* Antonio 
 Condi>, wlio,>ii' Itislrrii ofllie Domination of Ike Jlraha in Spain is esteemed one of the most masterly works tliat 
 have appeared in the present age. 
 
 Vol. I. 48* 3W 
 
 ?5r- 
 
STO 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOORAIMIY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 occurred bclwenn 18C8 and 1822. Tho Spaninrds cxcitnd tho mlmirntion nnd astoniHlimonl 
 of Europti by tlioii diiriiiff dolinncn of tho |)nwor bcnoiith which tho ffroatcst Bovnri'ijfns had 
 been rmliiccd to tho rank of viiRHalx. Thnir HubH(<i|iiniit cxploiti* did not alti>|rcthor corre- 
 spond to thiM h(<ifMinin|(. S^lill, thoir rcHistiincn, cnnRidorcd aH that of a pcnpln, wuii, on the 
 whole, obNtiniitR uiid iflorioua; it even appnnrod that tboro hid been formed a bixly nttnchod 
 to popular trovRrniiiiMit, and eager to rodruHd the political griovancos uiidnr which Hpain 
 laboured. Ultimately, however, the eagemeas with which tho majority of the nation acqui- 
 esced in thn tiyatem of abnolute power, rc-edtablii>lie<l by foreign mtnrfcrenco, tarnitihed ita 
 honour, and reduced it again to that imbecile and degraded state in which it hod existed for 
 several ccnturiea ■ > . ' 
 
 ■^ SioT. IV. — Political Qeoffraphy. 
 
 The constitution of Spain, ever since the downfall of her liberties under Charles V., has 
 been tho most despotic of any in Europe, excopt Russia and Turkey. Tho Cortes, that 
 powerful assembly, whose privdegcs were greater than those of any other European repre- 
 sentative body, have since that period been rarely assembled, and then only partially, on 
 occasions of mere form. The only two bodies whiuli possess any influence, are the council 
 of state and the co(mcil of Castile ; but as these are entirely under tho appointment and 
 direction of tho monarch, they form little more of a check upon absolute power, than the 
 Turkish divan. 
 
 Two attempts to restore a rcpresontativo form of government have lately been made, 
 under circumstances which must bo familiar to our readers. Unluckily, the loading or liberal 
 party were hurried, on this occasion, into an opposite extreme ; adopting tho system of uni- 
 versal suflVage, forming themselves into one house, nnd allowing only a temporary veto to 
 the monarch. This system, which excluded the nobles and clergy, the most wealthy and 
 influential bodies, was from the first decidedly unpopular; and Ferdinand found it easy, first 
 without, and afterwards with, foreign aid, to subvert it, and to re-cstublish in full plenitude 
 t. the despotic sway exercised by his predecessors, 
 
 [The Cortes were convoked anew in 1834, with some modifications of their ancient orga- 
 nization. The Ixxly now consists of two houses; that of proccrosor poors, composed in port 
 of hereditary members, in part of members nomed by the king for life, and the procuradores 
 or deputies, elected by colleges of electors, who are chosen by the principal citizens. The 
 Cortes have extensive legislative powers, but their existence and authority have emanated from 
 the royal will. — Am. Ed.] 
 
 The grandees and other privileged orders in Spain are distinguished for thoir pride beyond 
 any others in Europe. Even Charles V. was baffled in his attempt to retrench the right 
 of wearing the hat in tho royal presence. The Spanish nobles impair their fJ)rtunes less by 
 extravagance than those of the same rank elsewhere ; and as they intermarry only with each 
 other, the number of titles or ftoM, as they are called, continually accumulates upon single 
 heads. The diikos of Mcdina-Celi, of Alba, of Infantado, of San Estevan, of Ossuna, and 
 some others, hold possessions truly immense, covering whole provinces. They are adminis- 
 tered, indeed, in the worst possible manner, being kept in their own hands, managed by 
 tribes of factors or intendants, of whom some nobles keep 300; so that it is truly astonishing 
 that they should sometimes yield |l25,000 or #40,000 a year. As these grandees, however, 
 live not on their estates, but in the cities, in secluded pomp, they have lost all their feudal 
 influence, and the ties which united them with tlie greater bo«ly of the people. The hidalffon, 
 claiming nobility by descent from the members of great families, are much more numerous, 
 and form, in some provinces, a largo proportion of tho inhabitants. They are often reduced 
 to great poverty ; in which they display that union of pride and indolence which has been 
 supposed characteristic of the Spaniard. Mr. White mentions a species of illustrious birth 
 quite peculiar to this country, consisting in a pure Christian descent, without any mixture 
 of Jewish or Moorish blood, which last is supposed to produce so deep a stain, that no time 
 can efface it. The clergy, moreover, exercise a paramount influence over the minds par- 
 ticularly of tho lower orders, and have been the main-spring in all the movements, good or 
 bad, which for a long time past have taken place in the Peninsula. 
 
 The revenue of Spain, though levied with little regard to the comfort and well-being of 
 the subject, has never risen to any great amount. Yet she is the only power which ever 
 derived any from her colonies; as the qninta, or royal fifth of the mines of Mexico and Peru, 
 after every deduction, brought home considerable treasure; but this source of wealth is now 
 withdrawn. The other taxes were the most ruinous to industry and trnde ever contrived 
 by any government. The alcavala, or impost upon each transference of commodities from 
 one hand to another, seems expressly destined to impose fetters upon commerce ; whilo the 
 royal monopolies of salt, Icmd, powder, tobacco, nnd other articles in general use, have the 
 usual pernicious ofTecLs. Combined with those prohibitory clnnsos, by which Spain endea- 
 voured without success to prevent her indu.strious neighlxiurs from s\ipplying the wants of 
 Ivor American colonies, they gave rise to a vast contraband, carried on in almost open defiance 
 of government. Hence the taxation of Spain, though highly oppressive to the nation, yields 
 
 % 
 
?ART III. 
 
 iniHiimcnt 
 !i|;ii!t had 
 i(!r corrc- 
 IJ4, on the 
 r altnchod 
 lich Hpain 
 :iun ncqui- 
 niHiiod it! 
 •xistod for 
 
 lo8 v., haa 
 nrtes, that 
 innn repre- 
 trtinlly, on 
 ho council 
 tmcnt and 
 r, than the 
 
 )ecn made, 
 f^ or liberal 
 torn of uni- 
 ury veto to 
 wealthy and 
 t easy, first 
 1 plenitude 
 
 icicnt orga- 
 yscA ill part 
 ri)curadores 
 7.ons. The 
 anutcd from 
 
 >ride beyond 
 li tiio right 
 lines less by 
 ly with each 
 upon single 
 ')iisuna, and 
 iro adminis- 
 inanagcd by 
 iistoniahing 
 39, however, 
 their feudal 
 ho hidalffos, 
 fi numerous, 
 [Ion roduccd 
 ch has been 
 strious birth 
 iny mixture 
 tliat no time 
 minds par- 
 (nts, good or 
 
 pll-l)ping of 
 which ever 
 CD iind Peru, 
 iiltii is now 
 cr rnntrivcd 
 iiKlitics from 
 1 ; wiiile tlie 
 HP, have the 
 4paiii pndoa- 
 ;ho wants of 
 )ppn defiance 
 lation, yields 
 
 Book I. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 671 
 
 very littlo to thn crown ; Iwinj,' in a great ineaHiiru ahwirbnd by tim suptmrt of liip individuals 
 nmployoil in itH coilfiction, who are wiiil tu aiiiotint to lU.ftTiO. Aitliiuigh, tliiTciurc, lii(> vntiro 
 sum tnkoii I'roiii the pcDpIc has Immmi HU!<pocted not to fall short of r2,0UU,IKM)/. Ktrriing, the 
 receipt liy govtTiiiiKUit iii iH'iH did not cxcoimI 0,))H(MMN)/. The expenditure in that year 
 was tor I lie armv, '-.'.(ttCMMMM. ; navy, 400,(KKM. ; marine, lAlV^M. : iiiHtico, 11"),(H)0/. ; statu, 
 1(N^,(NNI/. ; royal iiiiiischold, r)(>'i,(MN)/. At the huiiiu time, S(iain is hurdened with u debt of 
 160,IMH(,(HKM. stpriiiig, of which the revenue would bo wholly inailequato to defray the inte- 
 rest, had not more tiian half consisted of the rot/al iifl/m, which do not bear any. Under the 
 constitutional government a (^oiiHidorablo addition of debt was incurred, which, however, 
 Ferdinand VII. cleared off by refusing to acknowledge it; while he himself ineffectually 
 attempted to raise a loan to any amount. 
 
 The navy, at the commencement of the late war, was at least respcctoble, ond a furmi- 
 dablo auxiliary to France. Tli<.> tiitiil days of St. Vincent and Trafiilgar, and the tVuitleia 
 expeditions to South America, reduced it to a feeble state. In 1620 it consisted often ships 
 of the line, sixteen frigates, and thirty smaller vessels. 
 
 The army of Hpain, which under Charles V. and Philip waa the bravest and most formi- 
 dable in Europe, has tor a century and a half enabled her to rank very low among military 
 nations. It is, however, at present the best organised part of her ebtablishnient. According 
 to the author of " A Year in SfNtin," it consists of 2.5,(MH) royal guards, and •'>.'),0(K) troops 
 of the line and provincial militia, which, being commanded by experienced officers, formed 
 during a period of protracted warfare, possess a considerable degree of efficiency; and their 
 discontent being an object of dread, every effort is made to pay them regularly. The royalist 
 volunteers, amounting to about 300,000 men, formed a band of anned fanatics almost entirely 
 under the command of the priests and monks, and seeking in their favour to lord it both over 
 king and people. 
 
 Sect. V. — Productive Industry. 
 
 In respect to industry and wealth, Spain, which had every opportunity within and without 
 of becoming the foremost nation of Kurope, is, in fact, the poorest and the most uncultivated. 
 The insecurity of property, and the multiplied restraints imposed by an unenlightened govern- 
 ment, appear to bo the main causes which have paralyzed all branches of industry. The 
 furious bigotry of its monarchs, in particular, led to the most suicidal acts against the public 
 weal. At the commencement of the fifloenth century, the country contained a numerous 
 population of Jews and Moors, who formed its most industrious and wealthy inhabitants, and 
 rendered it the most flourishing kingdom in Europe. The .Tews, unless in the alternative of 
 feigned conversion, were expelled from the kingdom by Ferdinand .and Isabella, the Moora 
 by Philip III. Although it appears to be upon exaggerated estimates that Spain has ever 
 been supposed to have previously contained 20,000,(HIO of people, yet it cannot be doubted 
 that the emigration of mercantile communities, with their capital and machinery, must have 
 struck deeply at the root of the national prosperity. 
 
 Spanish agriculture, it must be confessed, has some obstacles to struggle against. The 
 territory, as we have had occasion to observe, is traversed in every direction by chains of 
 rugged, and often barren, mountains. Yet these elevated provinces being the seats of com 
 parative liberty and industry, are on the whole the best cultivated and the most populous 
 The great extent and continuity of these chains certainly present serious difficulties to the 
 transport of grain. When government were bringing a supply from Old Castile to the capital, 
 it was found that .30,000 beasts of burden were necessary to carry 2000 quarters. Another 
 great impediment to effective agriculture consists in the habit, partly oriental, partly formed 
 during a long internal warfare, which leads the farmers to crowd into towns, and thus live 
 often at many miles* distance from the fields which they cultivate. In many cases they 
 merely pitch tlieir tents during seed-time and harvest, and at other seasons pay only occa- 
 sional visits. They are also very poor, destitute of capital, and oppressed by the burden of 
 tithes and other exactions. 
 
 The grain produced in Spain is of admirable quality ; the wheat of Andalusia bearing 
 a price of ten or fifteen per cent, higher than that of any foreign wheat brought to the mar- 
 kets of Cadiz. But a deplorable defect appears, when it is stated that Spain, a country 
 purely agricultural, does not grow com for her own use, but makes a regular importation. 
 This, however, according to fi)urgoing, amounts only to 2,000,000 fanegas or 400,000 quar- 
 ters ; a small proportion of the entire consumption, which may be estimoted at 12,000,000 
 of quorters. The agriculture of Spain, however, produces three valuable articles ; wool, wine, 
 and barilla. 
 
 The wool of the merino is of almost unrivalled fineness, though dearly purchased by the 
 system upon which it is protluced. Vast flocks, amounting to 20,000, IBO.IXX), or even 60,000, 
 belong to the grandees, convents, and dignitaries of Spain. After being pastured, during 
 summer, on the sides of the mountains of Leon and Old Castile, they descend, in winter, 
 chiefly to the plains of Estremadura. According to the rules of the powerful society of the 
 mesla, composed of the above high members, they must pass freely, and be allowed, on pay- 
 
 ! 
 
 i I 
 
 i! I 
 
 (I 
 
DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. 
 
 Past III 
 
 mont of a vnr^ inadoqiiato rent, to paaturo iiprtn all tlio uiinnciaMed lumln, wliicli fitriii lliis 
 bulk of tliiHMi in Hpsin. Tho entire numU'r of Nhiu'it in all i)it<M) wumli^rinK Hockii in ruckonod 
 at n,(NM>,(HN); unil Uiere aru u ({rvat niniitM>r which riiiuniii Htntiunsry, iimi inijoy nriviloifaa 
 noarly ainiilur. The annual ahtiarinK tuki>H plucu on a utvnl M^alo, and with inucli cuiobra* 
 tion; and the wool w carotUlly unrtud into thrro kindii, acrnrdin(( tu tho pitrt of thu liody 
 fVom which it ia taken. 
 
 The winea of Mpuin are pmducod on the flno piaina of tho louthern provincca. The 
 moat important ia tho Xorra or Nherry, which huH coinn into audi (^tuinrul umi with the 
 Englinh nation. Mr. Jacob rcckonn that 4(MH)() pi|M>a art) priHiiiccd in thn ulain of Xnrea ; 
 of which 15,(NI0 are exported, altnoat tiiu wiiuln to En^fliind. Aruund Muliiua ia inado 
 wine atill more valiiud, thoujrh not in hucIi (|iiantity ; which, u hen whit<<, ia culled muun- 
 tain, when red, lent (tinto;. The northern und central pivvincea yield wine only of 
 inferior value. 
 
 Barilla, tho flneat known apocioa of aahoa, and hivbly uacfbl in ^lasa-makinff, bleaching, 
 
 'and other pnxiOHaoa, is procured bv burnint; variuuM apecica of aaluio and uroiimtic planla 
 
 in the provincoa of Murcia and Vnlnncin, and ia ono of tho few articlea which otiuir nation* 
 
 can nowhero olae procure of equally f^ood quality, 8ilk and oil, in tho Mediterranean pro- 
 
 fincea, arc only limited by the want of culture or demand. 
 
 Tho manufiicturca of Spain liave been of little importance aince tho expulaion of the 
 Moora. That induatrioua poople intruluced the ailk manufacture; a branch entirely auited 
 to a country where the material In produced in tho greatctit perfection ; but it ia now gene- 
 rally decayed, unloaa in Valencia, where it waM Huppoacd lately to employ iVM) people. 
 The bladoa of Toledo were once (itmoua over Eiiro|)e, and tho city haa atill a royal manii* 
 fkctory of aworda, though of little importancn. Tho Hpaninh government liua devoted rather 
 an oxtmordinary attention to manufacturcH, but iiiifortiinatcly ncekH to promote them by the 
 king becoming nimaelf the producer. Ho haa catabliHiicd a great factory of broadcloth at 
 Gui^alaxani, which, having flno materials nt hand, ii* rather thriving. Yet Spain doca not 
 nipply heraelf with fine cloth. Other royal worka arc those <if porcelain, at San Udefonao; 
 paper, in Segovia ; carda and tapestry at Madrid : all rather for ahow than uno. 
 
 Commerce, for which Spain seemeti to havo monopoliaed the most extensive materiala, 
 haa long been in a state at least oa low and deprosacd aa any other branch. It has suflbred 
 •evercly, indeed, fVom the immense importance attached to it by tho government, which 
 actually cniahed it to pieces in the atte...pt to prevent any portion fVom escaping. To ab- 
 sorb within their own circle tiie entire trooxures of Mexico and Peru, was tiiu iirst policy 
 of tho Siianish sovereigns. Tho gold and Nilvor of thoso regions were to be brought exclu- 
 sively to Spain, never to be taken out of it, and only the prcxluco and nmnufucturcH of that 
 country to be sent in exchange. By a aod fatality, the commerce of the loionicH waa car- 
 ried on almost entirety by French and English nierclmiits ; nearly all the goods exported 
 thither wero foreign; and Spain, of all her neighbours, wns tho most destitute of tho wealth 
 accruing ftom this trade. These colonics, with the exception of Cuba and tiie Philippines, 
 tre now gone, and with them the greatness of Cadiz, which, by the absurd monopoly granted 
 to her, became one of the principal emporia of Europe. The trade of Spain consista now 
 in tho export of wines, firuits, brandies, wool, silk raw and manufactured, lead, quicksilver, 
 barilla, and a few other articles, whicli, according to a very imperfect document, issued by 
 the Spanish government, amounted in 1B26 to about l,r)84,0()0{. Of this, 4t41,000/. was 
 stated to be to the colonies. Her imports consist of sugar, cocoa, salt fish, spices, wood, 
 rice, butter and cheese, hides, cotton wool, and almost every species of manufactured com- 
 modity. Thejr are stated for the same year at about 3,267,(K)0/., of which 7'24,0U(M. was 
 fh>m the colonies. 
 
 Internal communication is a particular in which Spain actually labours under natural dia- 
 advantages, from tho obstructed navigation of its rivers, and ite long and steep chains of 
 mountains. These obstacles the government has endeavoured to surmount by vast but ill- 
 executed projects of improvement. They had conceived the plan of a grand canal, which, 
 passing through Asturias, Old Castile, and Aragon, might join the Mediterranean with the 
 Bay of Biscay. Of this mighty undertaking, only two small portions exist ; the canal of 
 Aragon, running parallel to the Ebro from Sarogossa, and that of Old Castile along the 
 Pistierga and Carrion by Placencia ; but as neither of tiiem makes any approach to tho sea, 
 their benefit is very limited. The main roads maintained by government between Madrid 
 and the other great cities are good, and the mails well conducted ; but most of the other 
 communications are mere tracks worn by the feet of mules, which are chiefly employed in 
 the conveyance of goods. 
 
 Snrr. VI. — Civil and Social State. 
 
 The population of Spain, according to a census made in 1708, amounte<l to 10,851,000. 
 It was generally understood, however, tliat the jealousy of the people, ond all the obstacles 
 usually encountored in such undertakings, operated to a peculiar extent in diminishing the 
 
Part III 
 
 !li fiiriii lhi< 
 iiiri'cknnod 
 I nrivili'ifCN 
 icli colobn- 
 of tliu Ixxly 
 
 nccH. The 
 au with the 
 1 of Xnro« i 
 ira in made 
 illed m»M»- 
 iiu only of 
 
 , blcacliin((i 
 lutiu planUi 
 thar natioiM 
 'ruiioan pro- 
 
 Uion of tho 
 liroly suited 
 » now gene- 
 IKK) peuple. 
 royal iiianii- 
 voted rather 
 tlioin by the 
 rniiilcloth at 
 ain does not 
 .n Ildefbnao; 
 
 o inatcriale, 
 liu) Huifered 
 mcnt, which 
 ng. To ab- 
 u first policy 
 DUfjlit exclu- 
 urcH of that 
 iea wafl car- 
 xls exported 
 f the wealth 
 Philippinei, 
 poly granted 
 onsists now 
 quicksilver, 
 It, itwucd by 
 41,(K)0/. was 
 ipiccs, wood, 
 ictured com- 
 24,0U0I. was 
 
 natural dis- 
 'p chains of 
 vast but ill- 
 anal, which, 
 Ran with the 
 he canal of 
 le along the 
 h to the sea, 
 ,vcnn Madrid 
 of the other 
 employed in 
 
 10,351,000. 
 the obstoclea 
 linishing the 
 
 Booil. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 678 
 
 anuiunt. The cenmu, in 17H7-^, gave tmly 10,aflH,(K)J», of which lfW,(100 wore cliiirch* 
 inmi ; ami uniong thc»o, (n,(MN) wrni ninnki*, and :N,.')(|iO nuiw. Thurti were 4H0,()00 hi- 
 dulguN; :(.|,(MNI niurclmiitit 1 MMNM) nmnuliiclun'ri*-, ini,(NK) artiianai 1NI7,(NNI |N<ii«ant«; 
 WHMNNI iliiy-lulxiiiritrM; tHMNNI douit'ittic laalu vvrvnntK. A cunmw waa undertaken in 1N*J(), 
 whicli wuM nut iiiily oinipictud, but carried lo far a« to prove tliut tho numtier of inhabituntM 
 niUHt Ihi connidi riilily grcuttT ttian tho above: it i» eiitunutml by Minanoat i:),7!)VS,00U ; by 
 llaMtol nt i:i,U.'^:MNH). 
 
 Till! national character of tho Hfiuniurd in marked by striking featurcn. The genuine 
 H|Ninianl ii« grave, proud, advontumuii, romantic, honourable, and generous. It has been 
 insinuated that this in the Hpnniard of the lixteonlh century, of whom tho Hunniant of tho 
 
 ftresent day is only, as it were, the shadow, Hut though the higher ranks nave certainly 
 ust the original Htump, and becoiiiu ftivolous and 4tisHi|)iited, tho body of the people, and 
 es|>eciully the |N!UMiintry, form a very fine race. Even among tho foniier, the lute troubles 
 bn>uglit llirward signal displays of lieroism, though, as too ollen happens in such cases. 
 e(pially linxe (<xamptes of trenrhery. In ttie virtue and wisdom of tlie liest Himniardn, there 
 is apt to 1)0 MJinuthing ii|)<!cuiutivn and theoreticul, not applicable to the practinil purposes 
 of life ; u want of the wisdom of oction. !i< proH|icrous circumstances they readily give 
 way to siipinoiiess and false cimfldcnce ; but in sudden and overwhelming vicisxitudcH, 
 which sink the spirit of others, their latent energies are roused, and they display unexpected 
 and surprising resonrces. Altlinugh nssasiiination, which was once the reproach of Hnain, 
 is greatly diminislie<l, yet a promi>titude to light and to shed blood, characteristic of all na- 
 tions imperfectly civilised, is still prevalent It is accompanied with a readiness to rise in 
 tumultuary insurrections, and an unwillingness to submit to the restraints of discipline. 
 Tho jealousy which was wont to dwell so deep and dark in the mind of tho Hpanish hus- 
 band, has licim siijierseded by a general laxity of morals. Tho custom is said to prevail, that 
 every inarriiid lady should have a citrtrjo or gallant, corresponding to the Italian cici$bto; 
 and though the usage may not bo so decidedly criminal as it appears to strangers, it is cer- 
 tainly inconsistent with those habits and feelings which form the felicity of the matrimonial 
 state. Ill this singular relation, fixed rules are obscrveil, and a certain fidelity is exacted ; 
 the jealousy of tho husband is assumed by the cnrtrjn ; and the lady who changes, at least 
 with any frequency, this object of attachment, loses riute in the eyes of the public. 
 
 The religious state of Hpain need only bu mentioned to suggest the dark and gloomy fea- 
 tures by which it is marked. That bigotry and sii|wrstition which the Romixh lliith con- 
 tracted during ages of darkness, and which in all other countries is so much iilmted, retains 
 nearly its full force in Spain. The Inquisition, that fVightful tribunal, the disgrace of modem 
 Europe, which hero held its central seat, kept alive its fires against all who exercised their 
 reason on a subject connected with the national faith. The order 'of Jesuits, who have been 
 callixl the militia of the Romish church, originated also in this country. The Inquisition 
 perished in the late struggle; yet a numerous body still call aloud tor its re-establishment; 
 and the most liberal rulers, whom the revolution raised to power, durst not attempt any ap- 
 proach to toleration, or to trench upon the " Catholic religion one and indivisible." This 
 spirit of bigotry and superstition is deeply difl'used through the nation, who, if they no longer 
 demand that heretics shall be committed to the flames, never doubt at least of the future 
 tortures to which they arc destined. All the childish and absurd customs which marked its 
 
 firevalcnce during the dark ages, are preserved nearly unaltered ; the processions and ex- 
 libitions, in whicn tho events of sacred history are represented, often in a fkmiliar and ludi- 
 crous manner ; the endless festivals, which impoverish tho nation, and iavoor its natural 
 indolence; and the zeal of multitudes, who are induced by mistaken piety to withdraw 
 themselves from their families and the world. Mr. Blanco White has given a striking 
 account of the artifices by which the young female ia led to make the irrevocable sacrifice ; 
 the respect and importance attached to her during the period of noviciate ; the ceremonies, 
 which resemble those of marriage, even the name of bride being given to her; and the dis- 
 grace attached to a retractation. Yet it appears evident, fi^om the same author, that this 
 profession is oflen deeply sincere; that it aids in producing that strong moral feeling which 
 prevails throughout the nation; that many are even tormented by minute conscientious 
 scruples ; and that, with such persons, absolution, founded on false pretensions to penitence, 
 is considered us aggravating the guilt. At the same time, there is a conibinatic.n of deep 
 devotion and dissolute conduct, which not only rapidly succeed each other, but actually co- 
 exist, in a manner never seen in any Protestant society. It may be observed, that amitf this 
 thick darkness which covers the nation, a bcxly of men has lately arisen, of active and en- 
 quiring minds, who have discerned the orrors of the national creed, anil huvo passed to tho 
 opposite extreme. They are comparatively few in number, however ; and, as already ob- 
 served, even in their greatest triumph, although they considerably reduced the conventual 
 establishments of Spain, they never durst attempt to introduce the toleration of any form of 
 worship different from the Catholic. 
 Spanish literature, during the era of the national glory, supported itself at least on b 
 
t '1 
 
 • ,f 
 
 74 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Past ID. 
 
 level with that of any other nation in Europe. Spain hod, as it were, a literature to itself, 
 scarcely any of ihe productions of which, if we except the inimitable satire of Cervantes, 
 became familiar to the reft of Europe. During the middle age, she was rich in chivalric 
 romance, the titsto for which, however, was banisiicd by the appearance of Don Quixote, a 
 cliango which some lament, us having led to the decline of the national spirit. The poetry 
 of Spain, ruusnil by po many vicissitudes of internal revolution and transmarine triumph, 
 took a somewhat lolly flight. The Araucana of Ercilla, celebrating her conquests in the 
 New World, is named together, though not on a level, with the best modern epics. Gar- 
 cilasso do la Vega, Villegas, Mendoza, and others, chiefly officers in the army of Charles V,, 
 introduced a stj-le formed on the Italian model ; and, having the advantage of a noble and 
 sonorous language, worked up their verses to the highest polish. But it is in the drama, 
 that the Spaniards have been chiefly distinguished. Lope de Vega and Calderon, indeed, 
 construct their plots with an entire disregard of the unities, filled with extravagant incidents, 
 and strained and artificial sentiments. But they display an inexhaustible fertility of inven- 
 tion, and often strong traits of character ; so that, though they never could be transferred 
 entire to any other stage, they furnished useful hmts both to the French and English dra- 
 matists. Mariana's History of Spain ranks among classical productions ; while Herrera and 
 Solis, though of inferior merit, have produced valuable histories of the Spanish transactions 
 in the New World. To Don Antonio de Solis, the Spaniards are willing to ascribe that in- 
 imitable satire on human character and manners, Gil Bias, which must, they say, have been 
 written by a Spaniard and a courtier. As such, he might rejoice that it had amply fulfilled 
 his intentions without compromising his security, and could very well afford to dispense with 
 the fame which redounded to its reputed author, Le Sage. These writers belong to the 
 classic age of f'pain, which nearly expired with the seventeenth century ; but of late, the 
 intellectual spirit which has spread so actively throughout Europe, has penetrated into 
 Spain, and made vigorous struggles against the night of ignorance and prejudice in which 
 that country was involved. Campomanes, Ustariz, Jovellanos, and Arguelles, have endea- 
 voured to trace the causes which have paralysed Spanish industry, and to discover tlie means 
 of reviving it ; Feyjod has done much to rouse a spirit of reflection ; Yriarte, Isla, and Me- 
 lendez Valdez, have produced agreeable miscellaneous writings ; and Moratin has adopted a 
 more regular drama, formed on the French model. There are extensive public libraries ; 
 one, the royal library in Madrid, consisting of 130,000 volumes, with valuable manuscripts, 
 and a rich collection of medals ; and others in the great provincial towns ; but the preva- 
 lence of monkish legends, and the prohibition of many of the most important standard works, 
 greatly limit their value. The universities arc numerous, and thut of Salamanca once per- 
 haps the most celebrated in Europe ; but education being conducted upon obsolete and scho- 
 lastic principles, and impregnated with the national bigotry, they have long ceased to attract 
 students from any place out of Spain. Some of the younger members were supposed to 
 have embraced novel ideas in regard to religion and government ; whence they have become 
 objects of jealousy to the government, which will probably be little anxious to rescue them 
 from that decay into which they were thrown by the events of the revolution. 
 
 The fine arts, especially painting, could boast in Spain of a dis- 
 tinguished Echool, marked by features strikingly national and 
 original. It is characterised by depth, force, great truth of nature, 
 and a warm expression of devotional feeling. Murillo, Ribeim 
 (self-named Spagnoletto), and Velasquez, are those alone whose 
 works are difiused throughout Europe ; but by those who have 
 visited Spain, Cano, Juanes, Ribalta, and Morales are mentioned 
 in terms of equal praise. The Escurial and other royal palaces 
 are likewise adorned by some of the finest pieces of Raphael, 
 Titian, and Rubens. This taste seems to have declined with 
 that of literature ; and Townshend observed that the nobles set 
 little value on the magnificent collections with which their 
 palaces were adorned. Of late the efforts to revive painting 
 have been considerable, but without producing any artists of much 
 celebrity. The Spaniards are fond of music, but delight rather 
 in detached airs for the serenade and ball, than in that higher 
 class in which the Italians and Germans excel. The guitar (Jig. 808.) as an accompaniment 
 for song, and the castanets for the national dance, arc characteristic Spanish instruments. 
 
 The Spaniards have favourite and peculiar diversions. They are most passionately 
 attached to tlie bull-fight : a large space is enclosed, sometimes the great square of the city, 
 around which the people sit as in an amphitheatre. The bull, being introduced, is first 
 attacked by the picadores, or horsemen armed with spears; a desperate conflict ensues; the 
 horse is fi-equently killed or overturned with his rider, when persons on foot run in, and 
 distract the animal, by holding up different kinds of coloured stuffs. He is next attacked by 
 banderilleros, or footmen armed with arrows ; and not only their skill, but their dexterity in 
 
 The Ouitu. 
 
■,« 
 
 y,., 
 
 Book I. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 575 
 
 809 
 
 escape, are the subjects of admiration : at last, when the animal is completely covered witf. 
 
 wounds, the matador or slayer appears, and closes 
 the scene. Tumultuous applause or liJBi^ing from the 
 populace accompanies every part of this savage per- 
 formance, according to the respective merits of the 
 bull or his assailants. The comparative excellence 
 of different raatodores becomes otlcn a party question, 
 and the suMect of keenly agitated discussion in tlie 
 circles of Madrid. Wounds frequently, and dcatli 
 sometimes, are the result to the actors in tliis exhi- 
 bition, for whose benefit a priest with holy water is 
 in regular attendance. Not less is the fondness fur 
 the dance, particularly under its national forms of 
 the fandango (Jig. 3(}0.), the bolero, and the guan- 
 acko, performed with the Castanet in the hands ; and 
 The Fandanio. tj,g ^y/Q former especially consisting chiefly in move- 
 
 ments expressive of passion, but so little consonant to the rules of decorum, that the indul 
 gcnce shown to these amusements by the church cannot but be regarded as a matter of sur- 
 prise. > 
 
 The dress of the Spaniards is antique, and varies much accordmg to the different provinces ; 
 that of the ladies consists chiefly of a petticoat and a large mantilla or veil, coveruig the 
 upper part of the person. The grandees, and the opulent in general, display a profusion of 
 jewels ; the dress of the men is slight, and closely fitted to the body, with the exception of 
 a loose cloak thrown over the whole. The minister, Squillace, under Charles III,, having 
 conceived that these cloaks, by concealing the person, served as a cover to deeds of violence, 
 stationed persons at the comers of the streets, who seized the passengers, and forcibly cut 
 down this part of their dress to the legal dimensions ; but this measure raised so violent and 
 general a clamour, that the king was forced to appease it by the sacrifice of the minister 
 who had attempted such an obnoxious curtailment. 
 
 Both in eating and drinking the Spaniards are temperate ; the only noted national dish is 
 the oUa podrida, in which various meats, vegetables, and herbs are mixed together in a 
 manner which even foreigners admit to be palatable. The pleasures of society are chiefly 
 sought at tertulias or evening parties, where only slight refreshment is presented ; but 
 refrescos or dinner parties are given on a large scale upon very special occasions. 
 
 Sect. VII. — Local Geography. 
 
 Of the divisions of Spain, the most prominent is into kingdoms or principalities, each of 
 which, at some period of its eventful history, enjoyed an independent existence, though they 
 are now merged into one monarchy. More recently the country has been split into a number 
 of smaller departments or jurisdictions ; but the original distinction into kingdoms, being 
 founded upon natural limits, and maintained by feelings and impressions derived from former 
 independence, is still the most interesting. The kingdoms are New Castile, Estremadura, 
 Old Castile, Leon, Galicia, Asturias, Biscay, Navarre, Catalonia, Aragon, Valencia, Murcia, 
 Granada, and Andalusia. 
 
 The following table exhibits the divisions and subdivisions of Spain, with the extent and 
 population of each, according to Hassel : — 
 
 1 
 
 (Madrid 
 Toledo 
 Guadaiaxara . 
 Cucnca 
 La Mancha ■ . 
 
 Estremadura 
 
 Burgos 
 
 I Boria 
 
 ' I SeRovia 
 
 Avila 
 
 I.ean 
 
 Palencia 
 
 Toro 
 
 Valladolid ... 
 
 Zamnra 
 
 Salamanca. .. 
 
 Old Castile 
 
 Leon . 
 
 Squire 
 
 LeacuM. 
 
 110 
 
 TM 
 1C3 
 »4S 
 
 ai 
 
 II99 
 643 
 341 
 
 2no 
 
 SIS 
 493 
 145 
 
 va 
 
 871 
 133 
 471 
 
 PftputatioD. 
 
 am.ooo 
 
 485,000 
 153,000 
 303,000 
 257,000 
 S5(i,000 
 013,000 
 267,000 
 331,000 
 153,000 
 311,000 
 i l.'S3,000 
 { 136,000 
 343,000 
 93,000 
 373,000 
 
 Asturias 
 
 Galicia 
 
 Catalonia 
 
 Navarre 
 
 ( Biscay 
 
 Biscay < Guipuscoa . 
 
 f Alava 
 
 Aragon 
 
 Valencia 
 
 Murcin 
 
 Granada 
 
 ( Seville 
 
 Andalusia,. .< Jaen 
 
 ( Cordova . . . 
 
 Square 
 Lciiguet. 
 
 Populition. 
 
 30R3 
 
 1330 
 
 IU03 
 
 205 
 
 Kl'l 
 
 5i 
 
 902 
 
 12,322 
 
 643 
 
 659 
 
 F05 
 
 7.52 
 
 26« 
 
 348 
 
 5(i5,000 , 
 
 l.SfS.OOO 1 
 
 1,11I>.0(HI 
 
 2W<,000 
 
 145.(100 I 
 
 1.36,00(1 I 
 
 93,000 
 
 R5<i,000 I 
 
 1,255,000 i 
 
 493,0(MI I 
 
 1,097,000 i 
 
 970,000 I 
 
 377.000 
 
 325,000 
 
 With New Castile, the central and metropolitan province, we commence our survey : it 
 consists chiefly of an extensive plain enclosed between two of the long parallel mountain 
 ranges, the Sierra de Guadarrama and the Sierra de Toledo. Along this plain, and parallel 
 to both ranges, the Tagus flows in a deep rocky bed. Beyond tiie Sierra do Toledo, the 
 district of La Mancha, which we incliide also in New Castile, extends to a third paralle 
 mountain range, the Sierra Morena, dividing it from Andalusia and the southern provinces 
 
 ii 
 
 I 
 
 '.rg 
 
576 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 PartUI. 
 
 The plain of Castile Proper ia elevated and naked ; and being thus exposed to the sun's 
 direct rayn, presents a bare and parched appearance. It includes, however, fertile valleys, 
 producing^ wine, oil, grain, and fruits of various kinds; but the inhabitants are extremely 
 deficient in every species of industry. 
 
 Madrid (Jtcf. 310.), the capital of Castile, and of "all the Spains," stands on several low 
 hills on the iininen^c Custilian plain, which on Uie north appears bounded by the high distant 
 range of the Guodarrama, but on every otlier side has no visible termination. A small rivulet, 
 the Manzanares, flows post the city, and foils into the Tagiis, Madrid is a superb but some 
 
 810 
 
 Madrid. 
 
 what gloomy capital ; the houses ore high, well built of good stone, not de&ced by smoke ; 
 the streets are well paved, and have broEid footpaths. The main street of Alcala, long, 
 spacious, and bordered on each side by a row of princely houses, attracts particular admira- 
 tion. The Prado, a wide public walk, bordered by trees, and connected with gardens all open 
 to the public, is equally conducive to ornament and pleasure. There are many public foun- 
 tains, supplied w ith pure, light, and salubrious water, filtered through beds of gravel and 
 sand, from a distance of seven or eight leagues. The gates built by Charles III. are uncom- 
 monly beautiful, particularly that of Alcala; but in a miserable wall which might be battered 
 down by a tliree-pounder in half an hour. The royal palace, built by Philip V., is a spacious 
 and magnificent structure, though the ta.ste displayed in it is a subject of controversy. It 
 contains numerous fine paintings, which do not equal, however, those of the Escurial. The 
 Retire, with its fine gardens, was defaced by the French, who made it a military post; an 
 extensive and costly menagerie is now forming within its precincts. The museum of sta- 
 tuary and painting, a new and elegant building, has recently been enriched with some of the 
 finest pictures from the royal palaces. The cabinet of natural history, supported by the 
 government, is also a handsome structure, and its contents valuable. The environs of Madrid 
 are not remarkable for beauty ; they are much broken into hills and hollows ; so that, of the 
 200 villages situated in them, only three or four can be seen at once. Population, 201,000. 
 
 Toledo, even in its present decay, excites an interest equal or superior to Madrid. Once 
 the proud capital of Spain, it has a commanding site on a lofty rock, almost insulated by the 
 Tagus. A position so strong rendered it a grand national bulwark during the long ages of 
 internal warfare, but occasioned its desertion during peace, when it was felt as extremely 
 inconvenient, the streets being so steep that a carriage can scarcely drive safely through 
 them. Its manufactures of wool and silk, which are said once to have employed nearly 
 40,000 men, have disappeared ; and government has in vain attempted to revive that of 
 swords, of which those formerly manufacture<l at Toledo were valued above all others. Its 
 population of 200,000 has been reduced to 25,000 ; and it presents a mere mass of narrow, 
 deserted, winding, and dirty streets. Toledo, however, still exhibits two grand monuments ; 
 the Alcazar or palace, and the cathedral. The former is a noble and extensive pile, in a 
 pure style of architecture, and the granite columns of the Corintiiian order which adorn the 
 inner court ore particularly admired. The grand staircase and spacious gallery, no longer 
 crowded with guards and courtiers, are now dirty, deserted, and silent. The edifice, though 
 neglected and decaying, still wears a stately and imposing aspect; "and its handsome front, 
 immense quodrangle, and elegant colonnade, declare it to have been the pride and ornament 
 of a happier period." The cathedral is also one of the grandest edifices in the Peninsula. 
 It was originally a mosque, built in a grand style ; but its simplicity has been much impaired 
 by tasteless additions, and by the profusion of gilding, relics, and statues, witli which its 
 interior has been filled. It retained its wealtli and splendour, however, till the late war, 
 when its treasures became the prey of the invader, and its six hundred ecclesiastics were 
 dispersed, leaving only a few to perform the sacred fimctions. 
 
 Two other considerable towns in New Castile are Guadalaxara, to the east of Madrid, 
 where the government has established a manufacture of fine cloth on a great scale ; it is of 
 course an ill-conducted and unprofitable concern ; yet it supports the population of 12,000 
 
Book I. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 &77 
 
 or 14,000 in a de<,'rcc of comfort not usual in Spanish towns : and further cost, Cuenfa, tho 
 capital of a mountain district of the same name, interposed between Valencia and the 
 plain of Castile. It is a small ancient city, distinguished by a cathedral and some other 
 moimments. 
 
 La Miincha, sometimes reckoned a separate province, is the most southern part of Castile 
 from which it is separated by tlie Sierra de Toledo. It is an immense table-plain, inter ' 
 scctcd by diflcrcnl ridges of low hills and rocks, without a tree except a few uwarf evci- 
 grcen oaks ; or an enclosure, except mud walls round the villages. All this vast tract of 
 open country is cultivated, and produces corn or vines : its wine, especially tliat of Val de 
 Peuas, enjoys a high repute. Its name, however, is chiefly familiar to the public as havinff 
 given un appellation to the celebrated hero of Cervantes. The names of Don Quixote ana 
 Sancho Panza are familiar to the district ; and the dress of the peasantry presents still an 
 exact model of that of the doughty squire. There are a number of large villages ; and Ciu- 
 dad Real, the capital, is well built in a fine plain, though it has lost much of its former pros- 
 perity. Almagro and Ocaiia arc also pretty considerable towns. 
 
 Estremadura forms a continuation to the west of the same plain as New Castile, traversed 
 like it by the Tagus, and bounded by the same ranges of mountains. It is a fine, wide, 
 wild province, diversified by rugged moimtains, deep valleys, and almost boundless plains. 
 The depopulation generally complained of in Spain seems more remarkable here than m any 
 other province ; and vast tracts may be passed without seeing a human habitation. This 
 seems chiefly owing to the pernicious laws of the Mesta, which assign it almost entirely for 
 the occupation of the merino flocks, when they descend from the mountains of Leon. Estre- 
 madura, therefore, forms a vast pastoral district ; only a small proportion of its surface being 
 necessary to furnish grain for its scattered population. Yet the Romans made it one of the 
 chief seats of their dominion ; and no part of the Peninsula exhibits more striking works 
 and monuments of that great people. The Estremenos also retain much of the antique 
 Spanish aspect nnd character : and no province, during the late crisis, made more striking dis- 
 plays of patriotic energy. 
 
 The cities are no longer considerable. Badajos, the capital, a strange corruption of the 
 Roman name Pax Augusta, is a considerable and strong town, but much shattered by the 
 successive sieges it sustained in the late war from Soult and Wellington. Merida, the 
 ancient capital of Lusitania, excites more interest, from the striking remains which it pre- 
 sents of Roman magnificence. The amphitheatre, baths, a lofty triumphal arch, three votive 
 altars, and a handsome stone bridge, are all mogniflcent monuments, and in wonderful pre- 
 servation. Truxillo, an old city, of small extent, was the birth-place of Pizarro, whose 
 splendid mansion is still to be seen, adorned with barbarous trophies of his conquest Alma- 
 raz is distinguished chiefly by the very noble modem bridge adjoining to it. Talavera de 
 la Reyna, once splendid but now decayed, has acquired recent lustre from being the theatre 
 of one of the greatest battles fought during the peninsular war. In the extensive plain 
 north of the Tagus are the two pleasant little cities of Corio and Placencia ; the latter of 
 which was the scene of the singular monastic retirement of Ciiarles V. In the mountains 
 separating this part of the province from Leon is a rocky region, of the most savage and 
 desolate character, called Batuecos. 
 
 Old Castile is situated on the opposite side of the chain of mountains which forms the 
 northern boundary of New Castile. It presents a high variegated table-land, separated on 
 the north by the Cantabrian chain from Asturios. Some parts are rugged ; but it is, upon 
 the whole, a fertile wnll-watered region, traversed by the Duero m its early course. 
 There are many tracts of rich pasturage, and others equally fitted for the growth of com. 
 It is, however, one of the provinces in which the marks of decay are most striking. The 
 capitals are neglected and ruinous ; large portions are left uncultivated ; and of the fine 
 manufactures of clofli from the merino wool, only a remnant is now supported by the aid of 
 government. Castilian pride and indolence have fixed here their old and central seat: the 
 hidalgos belonging to Old Castile amount to 146,000, a much larger proportion than in any 
 otlier province. 
 
 Burgos, the once magnificent capital of the kinra of Castile, and the highest in rank of 
 any city in tlio kingdom, is dwindled into a poor place, not containing above 10,000 inhabit- 
 ants. Amid its gloomy and decayed oL'sets, however, towers the cathedral, one of the finest 
 specimens of Gotiiic architecture existiv./ in Europe, and the form of which bears a con- 
 sulorable resemblance to that of York minster. The strong ancient castle, which had fallen 
 into decay, wacs so fur ro-e.stablished by the French, that it successfully stood a long siege 
 from the Duke of Woliington. 
 
 Of the other towns of Old Castile, Segovia presents some interesting monuments of 
 Roman and Moorish grandeur. Its aqueduct (Jig. 311.), of 159 arches, neorly half a mile- 
 long, and in one place 94 feet high, is a stupendous Roman work, ranked by Swinburne 
 above the Pont du Card. The .\lcazar, or royal castle, was erected by the Moors on a 
 rock overlooking a wide range of country. After it came into the possession of the Cliria- 
 
 Vol. I. 40 aX 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 !M 
 
fpl 
 
 im 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part HI. 
 
 Eieurial. 
 
 tiniis, it was omployod aa a stale prison, and is now a military school. Five cciiturics nm, 
 Segovia hiul very extensive manufactures of fine cloth; but these, notwithsUmdinff the 
 jj^ ., , honour of hnvinp the king ihr a pnrt- 
 
 •W*. ' Adii ner, have dwiniilod to a very siiinll 
 
 amount. Population 15,00((. Avila, 
 capital of a small province of the 
 same name, is a city of ancient dis- 
 tinction; and its ninssy walls, its 
 towers, its Alcazar, and the dnino of 
 the old cathedral, render it iinposinff 
 at a distance ; but it is in a state of 
 wretched desertion. The attempt to 
 establish manufactures of cloth and 
 cotton has not been succcssfiil. Soria, 
 near the site of the ancient Numantia, 
 Anucduet oi 8ci..i.. ^j, y,^ ^j^^j ^^„,j ^f ^^^^ jj^p^o, near 
 
 its source, is a tolerable country town, capital of one of the smaller provinces into which 
 Old Castile has been subdivided. 
 The palaces of the Escurial (,fiff. 312.) and San Ildefonso are striking objects in Old Cas- 
 tile. The " royal monastery " of the 
 Escurial was founded by Philip II. on a 
 plan entirely congenial to his gloomy 
 mind. It unites the characters of a 
 palace and a convent ; and has the form 
 of a gridiron, the instrument of the 
 martyrdom of St. I/)renzo, to whom it 
 is dedicated. Attached to it is the Pan- 
 theon, a classic and Foinovvhat profane 
 structure, in which, however, are in- 
 terred nil the crowned kings and queens 
 of Spain since Charles V. The wealth 
 of the Spanish monaruhs has been con- 
 tinually employed in adding new ornaments to this favourite residence, which is considered 
 by the nation as the eighth wonder of the world ; and largo volumes have been filled with 
 descriptions of it. The church and the great altar have scarcely a rival for magnificence 
 and grandeur of effect. The library is not extensive, but contains manuscripts, especially 
 Anibic, that are of great value. The collection of paintings, it is probable, yields only to 
 that wliich covers tlie walls of the Vatican. Hesides select pnxhu'tions oF Murillo and 
 other niasters of the Spmiish school, it contnins poveral of the greatest works of Raphael, 
 Titian, and others of the first Italian masters. The environs are wild and naked in the 
 extreme, without .shelter from the cold blasts of winter, or the intenst; heats of summer. 
 On the opposite declivity of tlio same moimtaius, looking towards the north, San Ildefonso, 
 without any pretensions to eipitil magnificence, is finely surrounded by woods, gardens, and 
 beautifiil jets d'eau. Aranjuez stands in quite a different situation, on the lowest plain of 
 Castile, at the junction of tlie Tagiis and the Xarama. It is chiefly admired for its mag- 
 nificent woods and gardens; the former carried in long and spacious avenues, the latter con- 
 taining in profiision the finest native and exotic plants. 
 
 Ijeon fiirms a continuation of the plain of Old Castile, along the lower course of the 
 Ducro, and bounded by th(^ same ranges of mountains. For several centuries it was the 
 seat of a kingdom, comprising the chief Christian power in Spain, until it was united to that 
 of Castile. It is almost entirely within the domain of the 7n(slii, and thus devoted princi- 
 pally to iwstumge. The consequent depopulation has been very great; insomuch that, 
 according to Townshend, the bishopric of Siilanmnca, which once coiitiiiiu'd 748 townships, 
 is now reduced to li;33. The vast extent of open plain which Coriiis the centre of this pro- 
 vince has been foiuid highly fiivonrahle to an invader who possessed superior cavalry ; such 
 as the Moors once, and more bitterly the French. 
 
 The cities of Leon are nhnosf solely interesting from the traces whicli they present of 
 ancient grnmleur. Leon itself, by its highly ornamented cathedral, its nine convents, and 
 its ancient palace, testifies the remote periotl when it was the seat of royalty; but a hetero- 
 geneous assemblage of dirty streets filled with beggars, splendid ehnrehes, and half-ruined 
 fiimily mansions, are all that it now presents. Salamanca, by its university, has acquired a 
 much greater fame. This seminar}', one of the fir.-^t in Europe, was founded in 1200, and 
 extended during the same century by Alfonso the Wise, celebrated for the progress which 
 astronomy made imder his auspices. From the medical knowledge of Avicenmi, Averrot;s, 
 and other Arabian sages, it derived a character superior to those of the other monkish univer- 
 sities durins' the middle ages. Sniamanca, however, remained stationary in the fi)nrteenth 
 century; aud, while .'^ound scieiu- was spreading through the rest of Europe, continued t(i 
 
Part III. 
 
 itiirics ngo, 
 imlin{( tni! 
 
 for a part- 
 vrry siiinll 
 I). Avila, 
 icn of thn 
 incicnt dis- 
 
 wuIIh, its 
 lie clonic of 
 it iinposinf' 
 I a stjito of 
 
 utteiiipt to 
 
 cloth and 
 
 still. Soria, 
 
 t Niimantitt, 
 
 [Juero, noar 
 
 into which 
 
 in 01(1 Cus- 
 ■y" of the 
 ilip II. on a 
 his gloomy 
 aclcra of a 
 las the form 
 lont of the 
 to whom it 
 is the Pan- 
 hat profane 
 ^cr, are in- 
 I nnil quocna 
 Tlic wealth 
 IS been con- 
 is considered 
 ti filled with 
 lagnificence 
 I, especially 
 elds only to 
 Murillo and 
 of Raphael, 
 liked in the 
 of summer. 
 Ill Ildefonso, 
 rardens, and 
 'est plain of 
 for its mag- 
 e latter con- 
 
 nirso of the 
 it was the 
 
 iiited to that 
 
 otcd princi- 
 imuch that, 
 
 S townships, 
 of this pro- 
 valry; such 
 
 y present of 
 [luvpiits, and 
 )ut a hetero- 
 
 lialf-ruincd 
 ! acquired a 
 in 1200, and 
 
 i^rpss which 
 II, Avcrrot'S, 
 iki.sli iinivcr- 
 o fiiurteeutli 
 continued to 
 
 OOOK I. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 679 
 
 occupy itfl students with dogmatic theology, and with tlic worship of Aristotle and Aquinas. 
 Its studcnl.s, once reckoned .it 10,000, have been reduced to less than 20(K). Halamanca is 
 crowded with sacred edifices, to Rid . h which, all the four comers of the world have been 
 made to contribute ; and on days of liigh festival the display of silver and precious stones 
 was altogether dazzling. The cathedra] and principal square are very magnificent, but the 
 streets arc narrow and gloomy. Captain Shcrer, in 18IH, found Salamanca quite a deserted 
 city ; only a few of the old professors and youthful students still lingered in the colleges, or 
 paced the spacious aisles of the elegant cathc<lral. Of the latter, some, as appears fi-om 
 ^Ir. White, notwithstanding the antiquated courso of instruction, hod adopted modern and 
 liberal ideas, and in the late crisis obeyed the call of their country and of liberty. The 
 French having mailo Salamanca a military position, a great part of the place was levelled 
 or Imttered down ; and subsequent events have not liccn favourable to its restoration. We 
 mu.-it not, however, dismiss Salamanca without noticing the new lustre it has derived from 
 giving name to one of the most splendid of Wellington's victories. 
 
 Valhidolid has a great name in history. Charles V. made it his capital, and it continue<l 
 to be the residence of the Spanish court until Philip IV. removed it to Madrid. In these 
 splendid days Vallodolid was supposed, (lerhaps with some exaggeration, to contain 200,000 
 inhabitants, now reduced to a tenth of that number. Yet it covers a very large space of 
 ground ; and tho numberless spires, domes, and turrets of its sacred edifices give it still the 
 appearance of a large metropolis. Its university is attended by 2000 students, and taught 
 by forty-two professors and fifty doctors. After a very marked period of decay, Valladolid 
 experienced lately a considerable revival. Its environs are particularly healthy and 
 agreeable. 
 
 Several other large decayed towns attest the former grandeur of Leon. Zamora and Tore, 
 both on the Diiero, are capitals of two of the small provinces. Benavente is distinguisheii 
 by its castle, which has been described as one of the grandest monuments of the age of 
 chivalry; and 'I'ordesillas was a niyal residence in tho reign of Charles V. Astorga, once 
 capital of the Asturias, and one of the bulwarks of the Peninsula, has lost its strength and 
 magnitude. Palencia is also a small capital, pleasantly situated on the Carrion, having a 
 little inland trade. Ciudad Rodrigo is a national barrier on tho Portuguese frontier, still 
 kept up us a strong fortress, which sustained successive sieges during the peninsular war. 
 
 Galicia, separated by its mountain boundary from IjCon, forms the north-western comer 
 of the Peninsula. It is entirely a highland and alpine region, broken into rugged rocks and 
 narrow passes, though with valleys of groat fertility and of peculiar beauty interspersed. 
 The Gallegos are industrious ; and the country is better peopled than many of the more 
 favoured regions of the Peninsula. They are hardy and enterprising, and often leave this 
 barren territory to seek employment in the cities of Spain and -Portugal, where, like the 
 Scottish highlanders, they act chiefly as porters and servants. The shores and ports of Ga- 
 licia aro celebrated in naval history, forming as it were the outer coasts of Europe, beaten 
 by the waves of a tempestuous ocean, and where fleets from the distant quarters of the 
 globe often made their first appearance in Europe, and mot with hostile fleets on the watch 
 for them. 
 
 The interior towns of Galicia have for their capital, St. Jago do Compostolla, the most 
 celebrated shrine of the Peninsula, supposed to contain the body of St James, its patron. 
 In the chapel dedicated to him is his statue, two feet high, of pure gold, illuminated every 
 night by 2000 wax tapers. Twenty-two other chapels have been enriched by the oflferings 
 of pilgrims from every part of the Peninsula, whose numbers have diminished. Lugo pre- 
 sents tho poor remains of an ancient city surrounded by a wall and towers, once of great 
 strength, but now mouldering into ruin. Orense, a little city, formerly celebrated for its hot 
 springs, and Tuy, a strongly situated fi)rtress, are on the Portuguese frontier. 
 
 Of the seaports of Galicia, Vigo had the greatest reputation, several great naval actions 
 having been fought near it; particularly that of 1702, when the whole fleet of Spanish 
 galleons was sunk or taken by the English. It has one of the finest harlwurs in Spain ; 
 which, however, since Ferrol became the chief naval station, is only employed for a limited 
 coasting trade. Corunna on the Groyne is now the most trading place in the province, and 
 packets sail from it to England and America. It is a steep, dirty, but well-paved town, of 
 no strength, being commanded by the neighbouring height^. Population 2.'<,0()0. Ferrol, 
 since 17.52, has been made tho chief naval station of Spain. Its harbour, Ixisides being onn 
 of the safest and most spacious in Europe, has the advantage of being accessible only by a 
 narrow winding passage which can be rendered almost impassable by a chain of forts. A 
 considerable city has been formed, and very extensive docks and arsenals built; but since 
 the extinction of the Spanish navy, these have of course fallen into considerable neglect. 
 Population 13,000. 
 
 The Asturias form a long narrow strip between the Ray of Biscay and the Cantabrian 
 mountains, which extend along its whole length. It is celebrated in history as the sacred 
 retreat in which tlie hero Pelayo raised again the national standard, after it seemed for ever 
 trampled under foot by the Saracen invaders. Since the fourteenth century the Asturias 
 
600 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 have given the title of prince to the hcira of tho Spaninh tlirone. The province ia approached 
 only by narrow ravincii and passes, through which torrents dasli, and which arc ovcrlmng by 
 steep cliffs and luxuriant woods. There are, however, a number of valleys, and tlie wliole 
 plain of Oviedo is distinguished both tor fruitftilness and beauty. Instead of wine, a good 
 deal of tolerable cider is made and exported : amber, jet, and coal abound, but the last 
 strongly impregnated with sulphur. The Asturians are brave and proud, boasting that tlieir 
 country was never conquered, even by the Romans ; and more than a third part of the popu- 
 lation 18 composed of hidalgos. 
 
 Oviedo, the only lar^e town, has more magnificence than its situation might lead us to 
 expect : the cathedral m particular, long the only shrine secure from the rage of the invader, 
 afforded an asylum to many pious treasures scattered through the Peninsula. These, how- 
 ever, consist chiefly of relics, valuable only to devout and believing eyes. Among them are 
 the rod of Moses, the mantle of Elias, the olive-branch borne alofi m entering Jerusalem ; 
 thorns from the sacred crown ; tlie milk of the blessed Virgin, &c. Oviedo is still a con- 
 siderable town, with a rich bishopric, and many religious houses, of which the principal is a 
 convent of Benedictine nuns. Population 10,(X)0. Gijon, though with a costly and not very 
 complete harbour, carries on all tlie little trade of the province. Avila and Santillana are 
 large villages, giving their name to districts. Santander and Santona are sea-ports of some 
 little consequence, in the district of Montana, on the borders of Biscay. 
 
 Biscay is a small, high, rugged province, on the western slope of the Pyrenees. Streams 
 descending from its numerous heights, combine in forming the channel of the Upper Ebro. 
 The Basques are a peculiar race, preserving the only remnant which revolutions have leil 
 in the Peninsula, of Celtic language and aspect. Under the name of Cantabria, this region 
 presented a barrier even to Roman conquest ; and though the Saracens penetrated through 
 It into the plains of France, it is still boasted that they never could reach the mountains of 
 High Cantabria. The Basques, amid the general slavery of Spain, have still preserved 
 some portion of their original rights. They have a cortcs of their own; and the taxes, levied 
 by provincial authority, are presented to the sovereign in the form of a free gift. Every 
 native Biscayan is an hidalgo or noble, scarcely owning a superiority of birth in the proudest 
 Castilian. With all this they are excessively industrious ; the mountain declivities arc cul- 
 tivated as high as the plough can reach ; and while the finest plains of Castile are nearly a 
 desert, Biscay's rude vales are covered with a numerous population. 
 
 The cities in such a district cannot be large : yet Bilboa, the capital, situated on the 
 Ybaizabal, which admits large vessels up to the town, is one of the most commercial places 
 in Spain, with 15,000 inhabitants. Most of the merino wool from tlic plains of Castile is 
 brought hither for exportation. Biscay Proper contains also Orduna, a neat little city, and 
 numerous villages. Giiipuscoa is another district, lying more to the east, and in closer con- 
 tact with France. Its capital is St. Sebastian, an indifferent port, but a neat, tolerably large 
 city, and so strongly fortified as tu be considered one of the four keys of the kingdom ; the 
 others being Pamplona, Barcelona, and Figueras. Fontarabia, close to the frontier, has a 
 great name in history, but little else is now left. The small village of Irun stands on tlie 
 immediate bank of the Bidassoa, whose broad clear stream, descending from the Pyrenees, 
 forms the boundary between two rival and long hostile nations. More in the interior, and 
 on a lower level, is the district of Alava, having fbr its capital Vittoria, a somewhat well- 
 built modern town, and celebrated as the theatre of the complete victory there gained by the 
 Duke of Wellington over the French army under Joseph Bonaparte, which was thence 
 finally expelled from the Peninsula. 
 
 Navarre is a small province or kingdom, lying immediately beneath the highest and 
 steepest Pyrenees. Eight very difiicult passes penetrate through them into France, but 
 scarcely any one passable for the artillery and train of an army. The principal is that of 
 St. Jean Pied de Port ; on the French side of which is Roncesvalles, or Roncevaux, cele- 
 brated in history, and still more in romance, for the disaster which there befell Charlemagne 
 and his knights. For many centuries it fonned a separate little kingdom connected with 
 France, until Ferdinand the Catholic succeeded in annexing to Spain all the part south of 
 rhe Pyrenees. Navarre retains, however, privileges and customs peculiar to itself, and 'fg 
 jfovemor bears the title of viceroy. The population is active, hardy, uiul brave. The bands 
 of guerrillas under Mina proved the most formidable irregular force with which the Frenc*. 
 had to contend in the Peninsula. Pamplona, or Pampehiiia, the capital, the foundation of 
 which is ascribed to Pompey, is one of the chief bulwarks of the Peninsula, and one of the 
 strongest fortresses in Europe. It was reduced by the Duke of Wellington, and by thi 
 French, in their last invasion, afler a long blockade. There are also Tudela and Calahorra, 
 ittle towns on the Ebro. Pampeluna has 10,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Aragon, south from Navarre, is an extensive province, extending along the greater part 
 of the course of the Ebro; whence it reaches on one side to the Pyrenees, and on the other 
 to the chains which shut in the Castiles and Valencia. A great part of it is rugged and 
 barren ; though other tracts in the central plains, and along the rivers, are very sueceptiblr 
 of culture. Aragop, during the middle ages, was a powerful kingdom, comprismg Catalonio 
 
■•»'■ 
 
 ' I 
 
 ART 111. 
 
 proached 
 rhungby 
 10 whole 
 , a good 
 the lost 
 that their 
 the popu- 
 
 Ottd us to 
 B invader, 
 ese, liow- 
 ; them are 
 orusalem ; 
 ill a con- 
 ncipal is a 
 d not very 
 illana are 
 ts of Borae 
 
 Streams 
 pper Ebro. 
 s have left 
 this region 
 sd through 
 )untain8 of 
 
 preserved 
 ixes, levied 
 ift. Every 
 he proudest 
 ties are cul- 
 ire nearly a 
 
 ated on the 
 rcial places 
 of Castile is 
 tie city, and 
 I closer con- 
 embly large 
 ngdom; the 
 mlier, has a 
 ands on tlie 
 Pyrenees, 
 interior, and 
 ewhat well- 
 ained by the 
 was thence 
 
 highest and 
 France, but 
 »al is that of 
 :evaux, cele- 
 Jharlemagne 
 nected with 
 (art south of 
 tself, and its 
 The bancs 
 . the Frenc*. 
 bundation of 
 d one of tlic 
 and by thi 
 id Calahorra, 
 
 greater part 
 
 on the other 
 
 rugged and 
 
 • suEceptiblr 
 
 ig Catalonia 
 
 BooeI. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 561 
 
 and Valencia, forming the half of Christian Spain, then divided between it and Castile. 
 Even atler tlic union of the crowns under Fcrdmand and Isabella, it still enjoyed its consti- 
 tution and ita cortes, which exercised higher prorogiitivHW, anU kept the p«)wer of the kings 
 uri(l(!r stricter limitations, than any siniilur assembly in Europe. Of IIicko it was dpprivc<l 
 liy thu unliirtuimte isBue of the civil war under Charles V., and more completely by the 
 Bourbon succession, atler Ariigon had cspjuacd tlie cause of CJiarles of Austria. The pca- 
 Kautry of this 'jrovinco are a tine b<j<ly ot men, stout, brave, and honest. Culture and popu- 
 lation lire generally in a backward state; yet the canal of Aragon, conducted parallel tu the 
 coufHo of tjic Ebro, tiiougli it has not yet readied the sea, according to its destination, has 
 given a considerable impulse to the agriculture of the district thro gli which it is led. 
 
 Sarugossa, or Zaragoza, the capital of Aragon, is a large and celebrated city, situated 
 amid a iinu plain, on the banks ot the Ebro and of the canal ot Aragun. From Augustus, 
 who enlarged and improved it, the city was called Coisar-Augusta, corrupted into Saragossa. 
 It is not well built, the streets being narrow and crooked ; but there are several open market- 
 places, and some very splendid religious edifices. The principal is that dedicated to the 
 Virgin, under tlie title of " Our Lady of the Pillar ;" an object of the most profound venera- 
 tion to the citizens, and enriched by offerings from every part of Spain. The church of St. 
 Engracia is also filled with relics and gifts; and each ot the forty convents of Saragossa has 
 its peculiar boast. A stone bridge, and the finest wooden bridge in Europe, are thrown over 
 the Ebro. The university has 2()0U students, but not much literature. Saragossa has earned 
 an immortal name by her heroic resistance against the unprincipled invasion of Nu|ioleon, in 
 1808. Without walls, except an old one of earth, which could not resist for an hour an 
 attack conducted on modern principles ; without army, arms, or artillery, it maintained a long 
 and finally successful conflict with the French, in tlieir first invasion. Afterwards, when 
 assailed by an immense and overwhelming force, the flower of the French armies, without 
 hope of relief, it made a mighty resistance; and it was only by mining operations, blowing 
 up successively house after house, that the French finally became its masters, after having 
 reduced it to a heap of ruins. Population 43,000. 
 
 Aragon has some other small ancient towns, ranking even as cities ; Jaca and Iluesca on 
 tlie northern frontier among the Pyrenees, botli episcopal seats; Daroca and Calatjiyud in 
 the plain bordering on Castile ; the former enclosed with large ruined lbrtitication.s, the latter 
 industrious, and surrounded by a smiling country. 
 
 Catalonia, to the east of Aragon, is one of the finest and most extensive provinces of Spain. 
 It presents a remarkable variety of surfiice, from the steep and rugged heights of the lii^flier 
 Pyrenees, to the elevated valleys of Upper Catalonia, and the luxuriant Uiough not very 
 extensive plains tliut border on the Mediterranean. The Catalans redeem to a great extent 
 the Spanisii national character, uniting with its loftiness and 'enoi^y a spirit and an activity 
 which are elsewhere wanting. They have been always commercial, industrious, and fond 
 of liberty. Atler bearing successively the yoke of the Romans, the Goths, and the .Sara- 
 cens, Ciitalonia was long ruled by counts of French descent, whose posterity extended their 
 sway over Aramn, and finally over the whole Peninsula, in which this principality merged. 
 Tlio CaUilans, however, bore more impatiently than other Spaniards the loss of their privi- 
 leges; and during the war of the succession, on receiving a pledge for their restitution, 
 espoused with extraordinary ardour the cause of the Archduke Charles. Even after its 
 unfortunate issue, when deserted by Britain and all the other powers, they made a last dread- 
 ful struggle, which ended, however, in the loss of all those rights for which they had so 
 nobly contended. In the last two wars, Catalonia acted a most conspicuous part ; maintaining 
 an unremitted resistance to France, notwitlistanding the clo.se vicinity of that kingdom, and 
 in the late constitutional struggle making efibrts, both for and against liberty, much greater 
 than any other province. 
 
 Barcelona is, after the capital, the largest city, and at the same time the most industrious 
 and flourishing, of all Spain, containing 1.50,000 inhabitants. It is situated about the centre 
 of the (.latalonian coast, and draws its subsistence from a fertile and extensive plain Iiehind. 
 It is said to have been originally a Carthaginian town, founded by Ilamilcar Barcas ; but rose 
 to little distinction under the lioniiins, who made Tarraco tiie capital of all eastern Spain. 
 It wiis not<ill the twelfth century tliat Barcelona began to be distinguished tor its conmier- 
 cial spirit. It suflhred severely during successive wars, particularly that of the succession ; 
 but in the course of the last century, the exertions of its patriotic governor, the Marquis of 
 Mina, enabled it to retrieve all its losses, and become more prosperous than ever. The port 
 is artificial, formed by solid and convenient moles, but hua a bar at its entrance, which 
 excludes vessels drawing more than twelve feet of water. It carried on a groat and various 
 traffic; had woollen, silk, and cotton manufactories, all on a considerable scale; about a 
 thousand vessels annually entered its port; and the whole amount of exports wiis reckoned 
 by Lttborde at 1,750,001)1 According to the latest account, however, by the author of "A 
 Year in Spain," the late disasters and misgovernment have caused a great declension in the 
 ahovn branches of manufacture ; and instead of the ranges of tall masts assembled within 
 
 49* 
 
 % 
 
,w 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PabtIII 
 
 its mole, tlinre aro to be seen only a paltry nssoinhlajfc of fishing-boats and feluccas. The 
 ecclesiastical edifices of fiarceloiia are handxoine, uarticiilurly the cathedral, thoufrh not of 
 so ^rand a character as those in aoino other parts ot Spain, The convent of the Dominicans 
 has u singular series of ornaments, tiie sentences of five hundred lierotics decreed by the 
 Inquisition, and under each sentence a representation of the suflerer, whom the demons, in 
 various shapes, are torturing and devournig. The walls of Barcelona are strong, but its 
 chief dependence is upon tlie citadel of Montjuich, which commands it, and is considered 
 almost impregnable, though the Earl of Poterhardugh took it by surprise. At the cltise of 
 the war ol the succession, when Barcelona was besieged by the Duke of Berwick, a terrible 
 and almost fVantic resisi 'nee was mode in the streets, nut by troop, but by priests, students, 
 tradesmen, and even won en : the consequences were terrible. Bonaparte, in 18118, obtained 
 by treachery and threats ti.e cession of this and the other keys of tlie kingdom ; but in the 
 late invasion, its resistance against Moncoy was most gallant 
 
 There arc several other large, ancient, and strong towns in Catalonia. Tarragona, the 
 Roman capital of the east of Spain, has fallen into great comparative decay, and has but 
 12,000 inhabitants. It is situated on a rocky peninsum, and presents many traces of Roman 
 antiquity, as of the palace of Augustus, the amphitheatre, and an extensive aqueduct. More 
 recently, the harbour has been improved, and some new streets built ; and in the war of 
 1808, the fortitications were restored, and tlio city mode a brave defence against Marshal 
 Suchet, who at length carried it by storm, with circumstances of great cruelty. Tortoea is 
 also a considerable and ancient city near the mouth of the Ebro, which is there broad and 
 navigable. It made a distinguished figure during the wars with the Moors, chiefly through 
 the exploits of its heroines, to commemorate whose valour a military order was instituted by 
 Raymond Berenger. Its position on tlie river affords scope for a considerable trade ; and 
 during the lost war its fortifications were restored by the Spaniards. It contains 16,000 
 inhabitants. Between the two last-mentioned cities has arisen, within tiio last half centuiy. 
 Reus, a large, flourishing, industrious town, carrying on various maiuifunturcs, particularly 
 of brandy and leather. Population 25,000. All these are on the const west of Barcelona. 
 To the east the ciiief place is Gerona, a large gloomy town, in a fine situation. It is well 
 fortified; and its resistance, protracted for more than half a year, to the unremitted efibrts 
 of Bonaparte's generals, formed one of the most glorious events of the pcuinsular war, 
 Rosas, a little town, prettily situated in a fine bay, exiwrts cork and other timber. In the 
 interior, Lerida, distinguisheit as a Roman station under the name of Ilorda, is a large and 
 strong town, situated in a most delightful country on the banks of the Segre. A consider- 
 able stand was made here by the patriotic armies during the French invasion. Mequinenza, 
 at the junction of the Segre with the Ebro, is also an important military post. Cervera, the 
 seat of a considerable university, and Igualada, are pretty large interior towns, supported by 
 the produce of the rich vales in which they ore situated. But the most striking feature in 
 all Catalonia is the single, lofly, and precipitous mountain of Montscrrat (Jiff. 313.). It con- 
 sists of a crowd of conicnl hills piled over 
 each other, broken into steep walls of white 
 and variously tinted linie.«tone cliffs, the 
 interstices of which are filled with ever- 
 green and deciduous trees and plants. The 
 Benedictine monastery, an ancient and re- 
 markable structure, stiiiids on a cleft at 
 the top of a high rock, where space is 
 scarcely left for the edifice, while far be- 
 neath roars the Llobregiit. Numerous her- 
 mitages pitched on the top of precipices, 
 or in cavities hewn out of the rock, increase 
 the singular and romantic appearance of 
 the scene. This mountain, in the last war, was converted into nn almost impregnable mili- 
 tary position. On the highest of all the Catalonian vales, which is extensive, and rich in 
 "jrain, stands Urgel, a small episcopal see, and a strong military post, the roads being almost 
 nnpassablo to artillery. 
 
 Valencia, beginning from the border of Catalonia and Aragon, occupie.i an extensive coast 
 running from nnrth to south, and is the first of the southern provinces. The plain ranks as 
 the garden of Spain, and almost of Europe. The fields of corn; tlie yellow green of tht 
 niulherry plantations, the pule hue of the olive; the woods, villages, and convent?, thickly 
 Bcattorod over this great expanse, with numberless slender steeples, present, when united, 
 an inimit.ible landscape. Tho country is finely watered by tlio Xucar, the Guadalaviar, and 
 other rivers, nimiorous though not of long course. A great extent of artificial navigation 
 was formed by the Moors, and is still kept up, though not in a very complete state. The 
 province yields, in abundance, the usual products, com, wine, oil, silk ; with rice enough to 
 supply tlie greater part of Spain, and barilla for exportation. The Valencians are very induB< 
 
 Montaerrat. 
 
I^- 
 
 Booil. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 SSI 
 
 trioiiB, niid of n gay disposition. Colonios from Die soiilii of France, introduced by tho fir»t 
 Christian coiuiiicror, brought with tliom u portion of tho enirit of that nation. 
 
 Valencia, at the mouth of tho Guudulaviiir, ii< one of the lorsfest and niont flourishinff townti 
 of tho kinjjdom. It is of Roman origin, but itH fame dato» from thn eicvonth century, when 
 it was conquered by tlio Cid from tlio Moors, and ruled ati a fief by that greotcst of the Spanish 
 heroes. It was tho scene, however, of o long-continued contest j and its final annexation to 
 Christian Spain did not take place until a century and a half later. The lolly walls and 
 towers of Valencia are now nearly demolished, and in the wor of liberty neither it nor the 
 province made any very consniouous figure. The silk manufacture is one of the nuwt exten- 
 sive in Spain, though checked by nn absurd prohibition against the exportotion of its produce. 
 In a levy during tho late war, exemption was granted to upwards of 3000 silk-weavers, that 
 the trade might not be interrupted. There are also manufactures of woollens and paper. 
 Tho Grau, or port of Valencia, is only an indifferent roadstead, and tho commerce not nearly 
 equal to that of Alicant. The city, though largo and rich, is not handsome ; the streets 
 being narrow and winding, and bordered by high old houses). The churches and convents 
 are of course numerous, and many of them richly ornamented, but none very prominent in 
 architectural beauty. They are adorned, however, with numerous pictures by some of the 
 most eminent Spanish pintcrs, natives of Valencia; Juanes, Ribalta, and others, whose 
 works are unknown in this country, but are admired by those who have visited Spain. The 
 religious festivals of Valencia arc celebrated with a childish ])omp, in some degree disused 
 in other parts even of this country. On these occaaions, all the most memorable events and 
 most illustrious characters in scripture history are represented eitiicr by figures in wicker- 
 work, or by citizens fantastically attired. The exhibitions of this kind, amounting annually 
 to a hundred and fifly, give great occa-sion to idleness and dissipation ; yet the attempts to 
 reduce their number have been hitherto unsuccessful. Population 66,000. 
 
 Alicant, situated at the bottom of a bay on tho soutliern frontier, ranks high as an indus- 
 trious and commercial town. Its prosperity is modern, chiefly owing to the refuge which 
 its lofty castle aflbrded from the dreadful irruptions of tho Barbary corsairs. Even since this 
 danger ceased, Alicant has continued to be a fortified town ; and none of the invading armies 
 in the late war were able to obtain possession of it. About 1000 vessels annually enter its 
 port, and are luden with barilla, raisins, and a small ([uantity of wine and brandy. The 
 import from England consists chiefly of suit-fish, the great article of consumption in Catholic 
 countries. The herring and other fisheries are carried on with considerable activity on this 
 coast. They are encouraged by the government, but with an absurd limitation to a body of 
 enrolled fishermen, amounting to nliout 16,tK)0. Population 2i),(MH). 
 
 Among other important towns may be mentioned Elche and Orihucla, large and flourishing 
 places, in tho very finest part of tho plain of Valencia. Segorbe and I/iria are pleasant 
 mterior townc towards the frontier of Aragon. San Feli|)e, under the name of Xativa, made 
 a distinguished figure in the war of tho succession ; when, after being demolished, it was 
 rebuilt by Philip V. under its present name. Dcnia atid Gandia in the south, and Peaiscola 
 in the north, are sea-ports on a smaller scale. But all those places yield in ancient fame to 
 Murviedro, occupying tho rocky site of the ancient Saguntum, tlie siege of which formed 
 the commencement of the career of Hannibal. The long resistance of this powerful and 
 unfortunate city forms tho first of tho many remarkable sitigcs which have distinguished the 
 Spanish annals, ancient or modern. The Romans restored and made it a great colony, and 
 the Moors erected a range of fortificotions on the summit of the hill; so that its mountain 
 site is now covered with ruins of various dates ana descriptions. Half-way up the eminence, 
 the outline of a theatre capable of containing 9000 persons may still be traced ; and a few 
 ropemiikers plying their trade alone break the silence of this august ruin. Murviedro is a 
 small town still fortified, though the resistance made by it in the last war was not formidable. 
 
 Murcia is a smoll jirovince, partly bounded on the south-cast by the coast, which here 
 changes its direction from southerly to westerly. Its vale is almost without a rival for 
 beayty and fertility, even in Fouthern Europe. Its natural fruitfulness is greatly aided by 
 the numerous canals of irrigation which the Moors drew from the river Segura. These 
 advantages are little improved by the present inhabitants, who are noted as exhibiting, in a 
 peculiar degree, all the blemishes of thn Spanish character ; its pride, its bigotry, and its 
 laziness. Even the sonc and the dance do not inspire gaiety in its vales, as in all the rest 
 of Spain ; almost tho whole time of the people being spent in eating, sleeping, and making 
 cigars. A sullen and vindictive spirit is said to lurk under this outward apathy. Few 
 Murcians have made a figure in literature, in the arts, or in public life. 
 
 Tlie cities of Murcia, if we except its port of Cnrtliiigonn, do not merit particular notice 
 The rapitnl, bearing its name, is an irregular, ill-built, ill-paved large town, with 86,000 
 inhabitants. Thi? <'cclesiastical edifices, however, are very costly, and the front of the 
 cathedral, according to Mr. Townsliend, produces a splendid effect with its sixteen Corinthian 
 columns of marble, and thirty-two images us large as life. The interior does not possess 
 equal elegance, but is chiefly distinguished by tlie proportion of gold, silver, and jewels, not 
 
b84 
 
 DESCRIl'TIVK GEOGRAl'IIV. 
 
 Pakt III 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 Atiimnia. 
 
 to mention tho rclicN, which aro uccduntul by thi! laithfiii n.i of much Hiipcriur vuIid'. I^rca 
 jt a large town, built with some clojjanco, and Hurroiindoii by (in<i pruin(!niidi>H. IVipulatiuii 
 
 4(MHNI. It iiiiii cxttMiHivii tiibricM of tiilk itiid 
 enltfHiln;, which wi're rr>viviiijf, whtMi ii Hin- 
 guliir accident iirrcsttHi their ])r()).'r(!S!<. A 
 H|M.<cidiitivi> individiml hiui ci>lic'cl(!d nl) tho 
 watcrHot'thc iieiifiihoiirhiKxl ImIdimi iiiiiin'riHO 
 rijservoir, whciicu ho diimilii'd fheiii to tho 
 cultiviilDrs fiir purjioBeH ot irriijiitioii ; but this 
 receptacle, not being fully wciired, hurst 
 at one |Kiint, destroyed pnrt of the HiiburbH 
 of lA)rca, doHolated ii great extent of country, 
 and rGiiciicd even Murcia. Totaiiu, n jwpu- 
 lou8 village, is enriched by the co[)io\i8 pro- 
 duction of barilla in ita neighbourhood. Tlie castle of Almanza (Jiff. H14.). pictnre«<iuoiy 
 Mated on a height, is noted om the spot near which, in 1707, was fought the celebrated battle 
 which decided tho Spanish succession in favour of tho house of Bourbon, 
 
 Carthagena, situated in Murcia, though scarcely belonging to it, forms one of the few 
 great Spanish emporia, and contains :i7,0U() inhabitants. Tliis celebrated capital of ancient 
 Spain was founded by Asdrubol ; and when captured by Scipio, in the year of Rome SfiO, 
 was considered one of the most opulent cities in tho world. It was nearlV destroyed by the 
 Vandals, but was restored by I'hilip II., and has ever since continued to flourish. It enjoys 
 one of the finest ports in Europe, consisting of a bay sheltered by high niountjiins from alinoi<t 
 every wind. The staples are the same as at Alicant. Tho revenue, raised by a small though 
 impolitic duty on the export of barilla, amounts to 25,0(M)/. The fishery is also considerable. 
 There ore few Murcian residents, ond the tradt- ia carried on chiefly by English, French, 
 and Italian houses. Tho ftrcots aro wide, and tho houses agrocablo, with terraced roofs, 
 commanding a view of tho sea; but neitlu^r here nor at Alicant are there any structures, 
 even ecclesiastical, at all worthy of noMce. 
 
 Andalusia, taken in its most comprehensive sens(', is the largest of the Spanish provinces, 
 and, we may add, the finest and most remarkable, both as to nature and art. The Guadal- 
 quivir, with numerous and large tributaries, waters its whole extent. Its inoimtains, covered 
 in many places with porpetuiil snow, are tlje lolliest, its valleys tho most fruitful, in Spain. 
 Andalusia, indeed, comprises four celebrated kingdoms; Granada, Seville, Cordova, and 
 Jaen, jind contains great capitals t'oinided by tho conquering Moors, wliich were the seats 
 of science and splendour, when tho greater jinrt of Europe was plimgcd in rudonoss and 
 barbarism. 
 
 Granada, which is sometimes called Upper Andalusia, was tho central seat of Moorish 
 power and magnificence. Even amid the general decline of that power in Spain, Gmnada 
 was still supported by the multitudes who resorted thither from the sulxlued provinces. Its 
 fall, in 1493, wns considered tho most deadly blow which Islamism ever received; and in 
 all tho moscjues prayers aro put up every Friday for its restoration. Granada presents a 
 wonderful combination of all that is most wiM and sublime, with what is most sort and 
 beautiful in natural scenery. South from tho capital rises the Sierra Nevada, covered, as 
 its name imports, with perpetual snow to a groat depth. Mulhacen, the n)ost elcvate<l peak, 
 is 11,660 feet above the sea; while tho line of perpetual snow begins at alwut 10,000 foot. 
 The Alpujarras, a lower range, are cultivated with con.'siderable diligence, by descendants 
 of the Moors, a remnant of whom found refuge here, amid the general proscription of their 
 race and nation. Tho Vega or plain of Granada, watered by numerous streams descending 
 from the high regions, displays nature in her utmost pomp and beauty. 
 
 The city of Granada is in the heart of the Vega, beneath the loftiest heights of the Sierra 
 Neva<la. This city still displays ample monninents to attest the period when it was the 
 groat western capital of the Moslem world. Nothing can exceed tho beauty of its approach. 
 "The rich and jxipulous country well supplied with trees, the clear rivulets descending from 
 the mountains, and artificially contrived to intersect it in every part; tho splendid city 
 extending in a half-moon from tho river, on the gradual ascent of a hill ; tli(> streets rising 
 above each other; the profusion of turrets and gilded cup<ilas; the summit crowned with tho 
 Alhambra; the background composed of tho majestic Sierra Nevarla, with its summit covered 
 with snow ; complete a scene to which no description can do justice." Mr. Jacob, who thus 
 describes the scene, considers it not too much to have travelled two hundred miles of bad 
 road to see it. Tho interior, as in most Spanish and especially Mohammedan cities, docs not 
 correspond to the approach. The streets are narrow, tho walls high and gloomy ; many 
 
 ?uarters are now deserted ; and marks of decay and splendid poverty are eve^where visible, 
 ts population, once comprising 400,000 souls, is now reduced to 80,000. But tlie eye of 
 
[>AHT III 
 
 1'. lAjfca 
 opiilatioi) 
 ' tiilk iiiul 
 iMi a Hin- 
 rriiS.1. A 
 
 m1 (ill the 
 iniiiH'nso 
 •III to tlio 
 I ; but lIuH 
 •(•(1, Imrsl 
 (• HiilmrbH 
 >r country, 
 11, n (lopu- 
 pioiig pro- 
 tiirowpiPiy 
 iteJ bnttlo 
 
 of tlic few 
 of ancient 
 Rome 55(S 
 ycd by the 
 
 It enjoys 
 rom almost 
 inll thouch 
 insideniblo. 
 ih, Froncli, 
 raced roofs, 
 
 structure?, 
 
 1 provinces, 
 'lie Guadal- 
 ins, covered 
 il, in Spain, 
 ordovii, and 
 ■e tlie geata 
 idonoss and 
 
 of Moorish 
 in, (jranada 
 vinces. Its 
 rod ; and in 
 
 presents a 
 )8t sotl and 
 
 covered, as 
 ivntoil peak, 
 1(),(KM) feet 
 ilpscondants 
 ,ion of their 
 
 descending 
 
 jf the Sierra 
 it was the 
 ts approach, 
 londiiiff from 
 plendid city 
 trocts rising 
 led with the 
 imit covered 
 jb, who thus 
 jilea of bad 
 ies, does not 
 ximy; many 
 here visible, 
 tlie eve of 
 
 Book I. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 the ciirioui trovoUcr in aoon attracted towards the Alhnmbra (^flir. HIA,), thr ancient palaeu 
 gjg and fortress of the kings of (Sranada. It i« 
 
 the noblest HiwcimtMi existing of Moorish 
 architecture; and nothing perhaps in Ku- 
 rope, out of Italy and Ornece, can conio into 
 coni|)etitlon with it. The site is fine, rc- 
 semlding that of Windsor, on a hill alwvo 
 the river. Its exterior stnictiirc, however, 
 is the rovrrso of beautiful : a huge heap of 
 ugly buildings liuddled together, without 
 the least seeming intention of tiirniing one 
 habitation; the walls only gravel anupiib- 
 bles daubc<l over with plaster. On entering 
 the threshold, however, the visiter seenm 
 transported into a (iiiry scene. Ho passes 
 through a range of apartments ; the oaths, 
 
 the Court of tho Lions ; Uie Hall of the Abencerrages (Jg. 310.) ; the Golden tioloon, or 
 
 Tli« Alhainbn. 
 
 Hall u( tho Abencoiratei. Gate of tho Sonctuarj of the Koran. 
 
 Hall of the Ambassadors; the Gate of tiie Sanctuary of tho Koran (Jig. 317.) ; the Toivef 
 
 318 
 
 
 rj 
 
 ^ffi 
 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 
 ^M 
 
 ^if^^d 
 
 m 
 
 ffi 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 s 
 
 m 
 
 'm 
 
 
 b^iiiCiMSuO 
 
 nil 
 
 M 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 ,. 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 Mom'.c PaTemeot. 
 
 Voul. 
 
 ay 
 
 1 
 
0A6 
 
 DRflCRII»TIVE nKOORAIMIV. 
 
 Past Hi. 
 
 of the Twn HiHtrrv; with ntlicn), in whicli tho vnri(iiii« rpwMirrrH of Orirntnl (ximp nrn iliii- 
 playiHl, iiliinif with all llmt fiiri nilVokh tlio cyti or tin' hciino in ii itiiltry rliiimtc, 'I'lm coiirtM 
 •n> all |Mivi')l witli iiiurlili', iiml piirrnunili'd witli inurlilo iiillarH, in ii pur*! ntiil iMiniititiil tiiNtii; 
 tnil tlx' wiilU iiriil imvniriiiiit ittii proliiHcly orniiiiu>nt<'(l witli ((ildi'it iirnlH!m|iio iiml iiioHiiin 
 {Jig. !ilH.), till) ciilourM of wliii'li, liy iiii iirt whicli wm'Mim to liiivt' Im'cii loMt with thu MoorN, 
 ■ro na lirilliiiiit lut wlirn they wero lirxt laid on, livi< liiimlri'd ynirN h\f(\. VViitor iM mndo to 
 Miwiit into lli(> uir,or, in Mniooth Nhi'i'tM NirdiTi'd with Howitn, ri'lrcNlu'N tin* interior of tliniiimrt- 
 niontH. Alter Ihi' oxpuNioti of tho MiNifH, ('linrlcH V, limit i>n |Nirt of ilH Hito n now piilncc, 
 the oxli'rniil iiri'liiti'uturu of which wiih Miiinh iiii|M>rior; lint it wn* ni'vor tiniNlicd. 'I'liii 
 (ionoriiliti' iN iiiiothcr MiHirinh p:iliii'i', in ii inoro o|t<vnt<>d and liner Milniition; hut itH interior 
 wpji'ndoiir, Ihuii^h ({roiil, in <|iiltii t'clipw'd by that of itM ni>i|;lili<iur, 'I'lio cuthiMlral, thon((h 
 it iniut yii'ld to tlii'rit' Moorish NtruoturoK, iH yet of ronNidi'rulilc extent and iM'unty. Orannda 
 ii tho m'lit of lino of llii- two hij^h coiirtM of cliancory, and of other trihiinalit of hi^h Jnriadic- 
 tion. It retiiinH a ceriitin projiortion of itit torninr immenmi Milk rnannliirtureN, with wiino of 
 W(xillen iiriil IimiiIht; mid ii vonNiderable iniinlier of iierNonii are employed in extrnctini; tlio 
 nitre with which the iieij^hlNiurin); Moil in copioimly inipre|rniited, 
 
 Mala^ii hiiM in iniNlerii linieii attained n \(tp.alv,t iniiMirtance, and \» reckoned the third iKirt 
 in the kiii;rdoiii, riiiil<iii)r next to IhoNU of ('aili/ and liircelonn. The chief foundation or ita 
 trade ix tin' tine wiiio nilli'd Malii);a or viounUtin, pnxliiced in the ninneroiiH IiIIIh hehiiid it. 
 It iH raisnl at very (rreat ex|>i'n«e, antl only upon the decliviticn which have an exixinnre to 
 thu Mun. The couiilry pruliiceH alHo very tinn raiwinH and other fruitN; and anchovien, caiijifht 
 and cured on the coiihI, have lieen Hold to the annual extent of titMNM) quintalH. Maln(;a in 
 the only f;re»t Spanitih |Hirt of which the exportH hiivn alwayn excemiod the ini|i<irts. Mala|^ 
 Imii B very necnre thoujjh not cxtenMive harbour, formed by artilicial niolen. It lien in a deep 
 bay on u little plain overhuni; by lotly and crojrf^y clitfH, which at a diNtance np|Miar quite 
 naKed, lint on approachiiifr, every crovico in found to be filled with vineii, TliiH nituation 
 rcndorH thu heat very Hevere, and has aided in oxpoHini; the inhubitanta to the deHtructivn 
 ravojfeM of pcHtili-ntiiil fever. The Btreetx are elone, niirn>w, and dirty ; but the cathedral Ih 
 a very noble pile, and eontaiiiii paintin;;H by threat HpaiilHli inuMterH. ro|iulation ri'J.tMN). 
 
 Other very coUHiderahlo towim iwciir in (iraniula. Five leajjuea to tho cant of Mnbiza is 
 Vclez-Malajfa, niont delightfully situated in a plain diverHified by nuineroux (feiitle nill», 
 clothed to the Miniiiiit with vinee, while the plaiiw below wave with luxuriant liiirveHta of 
 finm. Further cai't are the mniill |virtt< <if Motril mid Ahneria; the latter ancient, and cele- 
 brated in the liisfory of the Moorn, under whom it wns highly proHiH'roim and t1ourii)hin{f, 
 Near it is the rock ol FilabrcH, iJ(KM) feet hij;li, composed of a siiifjle block of white marble; 
 and beyond it stretclicfl int<j the Hea the liold and hii^re promontory of Cabo de (lata. (Juadix, 
 Daza, and I'lirclioiin, are convidcrablo interior towns, in the easti'm part of this province, 
 seated in valleys enclosed by the numerous raiifres of liilla which intersect it. Santa Pc, 
 two lea^'iii:.. west of (Sranaifa, is remarkably ex|MiKed to earthquakes, which have uplit itj3 
 cathedral in two, and laid open the cells of one of the convents; yet the citizens still inhabit 
 and keep it in repair. Alhniiia is strikinjjly situated amid a circuit of precipitous rocks, 
 throu);li which dashes a rapid stream. It is freqiienti'd for the sulubrity of its air, and tor 
 its medirinal sprinus and baths. Antefjuera is very ancient; filled with Uomnn and Mcsirish 
 monuments, and still larjie; the adjacent country is very fertile, and di.stiiii,niislied for the 
 variety both of its vegetable and mineral productions. Population 'i(MHM). Honda, {Jifr.'M\).) 
 
 capital of a wide mount^iin district, is sin- 
 gularly situated on a rock with perpendicu- 
 lar clins and broken crags, tliroiiirh a deep 
 fissure in which the river flows, and sur- 
 rounds the city on three sides. It is crossed 
 by a stupendous bridpe 110 feet in diameter, 
 and 2H() feet in heijrht. Stairs of 'Xik) stepp 
 lead down to the river, ond frardena have 
 been formed on some level projectinjf points 
 of the precipice. Tho mountaineers of 
 Ronda are on honest, active, hardy race ; 
 and 80 healthy as to make it o proverb, that " at Ronda a man is a lioy at eighty." Tho 
 vicinity of Gibraltar (rives them preat opportunities for smufplinfr, which they carry on in 
 larfje bands, and in open resistance to povernment, without, however, incnrrinp any impu- 
 tation on their general loyalty. 
 
 Tho kingdom of Seville, west of Granada, is a still finer region, and [lerhaps superior to 
 any other in the Peninsula. Its plains are tho most productive in wine, oil, and fruits; the 
 noble river (luadalquivir conveys its products to the sea; and Seville and Cadiz are, in aomft 
 resi)ects, superior to all other Spanish citica. 
 
 310 
 
 Itoihlfl. 
 
 .Situ 
 
 rem 
 sqi.it 
 
Book I. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 m 
 
 Hdvtllt'- 
 
 S«-vill(' (fig. 330.) M ■itualtxl in tlio iniilit of n lirtiln nnti ili'IluMnil pinin, ami nonr tlin 
 ,|,„. iiioiitli of till! (■iiiiitiili|iilvlr, wliii'li fur- 
 
 ' ■' ' iiirrly iiiliiiitli'il vr>rii'U III' liiruti (iiwi: it 
 
 MiiN II ^rri'iil. city t'riiiii lln* fiirlii'iit intIimI. 
 Ily till! ItiiiniiiiM It wiiM ri'li'liriiti'il unili'r 
 tlii> ii|i|N'lhitiiiM of IIih|niIin: iIh rmitiilu- 
 tion wiiM iiKcrilNMl to I liTciili'M ; iinil, Willi 
 tlin iii'i(;lilNiiiiiii|f coliiiiy ol' lliilicii, it 
 liiriiKiit th(^ ciiiiilul of liii'tii-ii, riiiliT tliu 
 MimrH it lj<>oiiiiii! nil iiiili'|H'iiili'iit kiiiK> 
 ■ioiii; anil if It Ini triii; tliut, mi IIm cii|v 
 tuH) l>V FiTiliimnil tlw ('iilliolic-,4(KMKK) 
 Muors iiiari:li('il out iit hum of itn H'^ivti, 
 it muKt iiulonl Imvo Imm'ii iiii iiiinii'ii8<i city. NutwitlmtiiiulliiK ilu; (li'|Mi|iiiliitiiiti tliiiH ii<:ca- 
 iUiiiiMJ liy liif^otry ami trcni'licry, it mmhi Iicciiiiu! niori' Hplmdiil than ovrr, in ciiiirTiiniMicu <>i 
 bvcoiiiiti); till) I'liiiNiriiiiii of tlin wcultli which flownd in from thn wcKtrrii hciiiiNphcri'. \tt 
 ninniiliii'iiirin); imIiiNtry wax tlit<ii iiIho very tlouriNliinir. liy ii return n»iili< to irnvcriiiiipnt in 
 1(M)1, Seville wit<« Hiiiil to coiitniii KMMMIhilk Iooimh, K>viM(r eiiiployiiii'iit to i:i(),IHK) work- 
 men. It fri'ipiently rereiveil an increiihe uf hplemloiir liy iHicoitiiiiK u royut ri'Miileiice. Hiiir.o 
 till' ulKive peritMl, Hevillo Iihn not only ileclineil with tlie ^rriiiliiiil ilccliiie of Spiiiii, hut hnH 
 Hiitlered tiy till! iilliii(r up of the uhiinnel of tliu (iuiiiliili|uivir, which Iiiih remlereil it nnviKu* 
 bin only for xiimll NhipM, uiiil Iiiih triinHl'erreil to ('iiiliy. the cornnierci! of Amnrlcii. Hevilln in 
 now a Noleiiiii, inert, ^lixjiiiy city, with !)1,IHN) inlmhitiintH. Like iilher Hpanifili plnccN, piir- 
 ticularly thoNii of Mixirixh ori;;in, itH HlreetH iire niirrow, wimliiii;, iiml dirty ; hut it contiiinii 
 loniu Hplenilid public cdiliceH, ForeiiioHt xtiimlM the ciithedral, the InrfrcFt eccJeNiiiMtical 
 Rtriicture in the I'eninHiiln, •I'JO feet hmu within, and :)7!l hronil ; hut the iiiiiHt ntrikin^; fea- 
 ture in itri tower, oriuinnlly erected liv the leiirneil (ielinror (luever, onil iihciI iih oil nliNcrvu- 
 lory, but ruiKcd liy the ('liriMtiiinM to the lieiKlil of IJTiO feel. Muiiy of the couvcntM ulno arc 
 very Hplendid, nml previnuH to the lute inviiNion by the Kreiudi couliiiiied niiiiierous works of 
 tlio irreittest Hpuul^h nrtiMH, of wlioiii Seville waH the chief niirrtc, There wnn, iibovi,' all, a 
 milendid collection of the workH of Mnrillo, the prince of tlicMe artint', nnd a native of 
 Hnville. Of thcHe treuHiireM the city Iiiim been in a ^jri.'al nicnsiire despoiled by the ravii|;eii 
 of the invader; MarHliiil Soult, in particular, had in his coUrction iiuniermiH uiasterpieceH 
 of Murillo, by which Iho (■onvents of Seville were foriuivrly ailurnt'il. Seville has still 'jr>(M) 
 silk liMiinx; and (government inaiiilaiiis a raiiiioii foundery .'ind a tobacco uiaiiuliii^tory. The 
 Exchnn^e and the Murine Acudeniy are ulso hamlsonie edifices. 
 Cadiz (Jiff. 3'il.) in, in an eijual Uejfree with Seville, the lienst of Spain. In the commor- 
 ,.,21 cial aunalM.of tlie world no city ia of 
 
 hi(rher anliiiuity. Tartessiis, occu- 
 pying a silo in ito vicinity, wiih one 
 of the earliest und mot nourishing 
 I'li(junician cidoiiies. Allerward.s Gu- 
 doira, or Uudes, was recojjnisi'd by 
 the Greeks and RomaiiN us one of tho 
 chief European einporia. In modem 
 times, when commerco did not form 
 part of the Kuropoan Hysteiii, Cadiz 
 declined into a si^condary rank; and 
 tho intcrconrso with America was at first nearly mono|H)lified by Si^ville. The circunistancea 
 wliich transferred it from that city to Cadiz look pluce early in the last century, when tho 
 latter rose to bo the chief thcatro of Sjianish commerce. It (.'iijoyed for some time the entire 
 monopoly of the American trade; nnd even when, in 1778, it was thrown open tn tho whole 
 kin$rdom, it had taken such deep root in Cad'z ns to frustnile all competition. In 1784, when 
 the entire iin|)orts from America were 12,r);«»,(K)(W. that city, for its share, had 11,280,000/. ; 
 and of tho w hole ex|Hirls, nmountinff to 4,300,0(KW., it had 3,fl(K(,000/. Notwilhstnndinj 
 severe sbock.s, in consequence of (lolitical revolutions, and the war with England, it always 
 revived, nnd derived a temporary proatness frrni becoming the capital of the cniislitutional 
 government. It received, however, ils mortal blow by the separation of the colonies. The 
 merchants, deprived thus of almost their only employment, have been reduced to the fund^ 
 already accumulated, and have in a great measure retired from the confined situation of 
 Cadiz tj) the pleasant sites and villages which are scattered round the bay. The city is 
 situated on a small neck of land, at the point of the long Isle of Leon. It does not boost any 
 remorkabli! structures, but tho whole is elegantly built in regular squares, and streets with a 
 gcpiare court in tlie centre and an awning over it Population 53,000. 
 
 C«ll«. 
 
 
MS 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 Oibraltar {Jig. J<%.), though no longer Spanish, forms also a strikinnf and imporlJint fen- 
 322 t'lfo in this province. ThiH rock is 
 
 . celebrated from tlie earliest antiquity ns 
 
 one of tlio two " Pillars of Hercules," 
 which fjii.nrded the entrance into the 
 Mediterranean ; thoujrh Mount Calpe, 
 on tiie opfKfcsito side, is considerably 
 loftier. In 1704, Sir Cieorgc Rooke and 
 Sir Cloudesley Shovel carried this for- 
 tress by a cotip de main ; since wisich 
 time Spain has vainly attempted to re- 
 gain possession of it. Her grand effort 
 was towards the c'ose of the American 
 war, when the fleets of France and Spain rode masters of tiie sea. A combined attack was 
 made on the I3th of September, 1782, by the two powers, with fifty sail of the line, 30,000 
 troops, and ten raighty floating batteries, which were expected to demolish all opposed to 
 them. They kept up a tremendous fire from ten in the morning till midnight, at wliicli time 
 smoke and fire were seen rising from the batteries which before next morning were reduced 
 to ashes, with a dreadful destruction of the assailants. No subsequent attempt has been 
 ftiade; nature, in fact, has rendered Gibraltar almost impregnable. The rock is precipitous 
 on all sides, and is connected with the continent only by a narrow neck of marshy ground. 
 The western front alone towards the sea is in any degree accessible; and this is defended 
 by batteries cut in the solid rock, and by other works so extensive and so well planned as to 
 bid defiance to any future effort Gibraltar has one handsome street, the houses of which 
 are built in tho Englisli style, with trees and flowers skilfully planted in scanty fragments of 
 soil. The rest of the town is close, crowded, and dirty, iniuibited liy about 20,0()0 people, 
 chiefly Moors and Jews, the latter of whom have sought refuge hero in great numbers from 
 Spanish bigotry, and have four synagogues. The expense of maintaining Gibraltar is con- 
 siderable : but it forms an important naval station, a depot for the commerce of the Mediter- 
 ranean, and a channel for introducing into Spain great (|uantities of goods, declared contn- 
 band by the jealous policy of that country. 
 
 Among other places of some importance is Tarifa, the most southern point of Spain, and 
 even of Europe, and tiie probable place of tiie landing of Tarik, with tlie Saracen army destined 
 for the conquest of that country. Seated on an almost insulated rock, it is still a fortress of 
 some strength. Algesics, on tlic opposite side of the bay, has grown up as a small rival to 
 Gibraltar; its population consists chiefly of smugglers and adventurers. In the interior is 
 the flourishing and populous town of Xeres, situated in a wide region of vineyards, producing 
 the wine called Sherry, the consumption of wliicli is so generiil in tliis countr)'. Mr. Jacob 
 supposes tlie entire produce to be 40,0(K) pipes, uf which l."),000 are cxiwrted, one half to 
 Britain. Ecija, a large town, was famous as a scene of contest between the Christians and 
 Saracens, and afterwards as the head ([uartcrs of a most formidable band of robbers ; but its 
 walls are now in ruin. Lebrija and Carmona are ancient towns, contiiining Roman monu- 
 ments of considerable grandeur. The districts to the north and west of the Guadalquivir 
 are mountainous and rugged ; though Huelva and Moguer, at the mouth of the Tinto, and 
 Ayamonte, at the mouth of the Guodiana, derive some importance from their eituation, and 
 carry on a little fishery. 
 
 Cordova (Jig. 323.), on the upper part of the course of the Guadalquivir, is another king- 
 dom of Andalusia, deriving its 
 323 chief interest from the celebrated 
 
 capital of the same name. Cor- 
 duba, founded by the Romans, was 
 not only n provincial capit^il, but 
 the seat of an university, which 
 could boast the great names of Se- 
 neca and Lucan. It displayed, 
 however, a fir higher pomp, when, 
 after the Saracen conciuest, it be- 
 came the first capital of the Mo- 
 hammedan empire in Spain. Under Abdelrahman and Almansor, it is represented as con- 
 taining 1600 mosques, and nearly 1,000,000 people. Admitting a certain cxagaforation, its 
 past greatness is clearly attested by the vast and now almost empty circuit enclosed by its 
 walls, in a great measure filled with palm trees and gardens, and by the astonishing remains 
 of its mosque. This vast edifice presents nothinij very striking in its exterior, wiiich is in a 
 great ineasurt; hid by the surrounding streets. Rut when the stranger enters any one of its 
 nineteen gates, he is astonished and bewildered by the endless labyrinth of colinnns which 
 stretch before him in every direction U^ff. 324.). These columns have almost defied the at- 
 temots to number them ; by one writer they have been estimated at 1400, but are generally 
 
 Cordora. 
 
Book I. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 680 
 
 324 
 
 itated as exceeding 400, dividing the mosque into nineteen aisles, and producing a perpetual 
 and surprising change of scone to tlie visiter. Tiio edifice, however, tliougli it astonishes by its 
 
 uumensity, docs not equal in elegance tiiose erected during 
 that more refined age when Granada became the capital. 
 The Christiana have converted it into a church, and erected 
 in the centre a choir of great beauty, but quite out of har- 
 mony with the Saracenic part of tlie structure. Cordova, 
 though its days of splendour are long departed, still enjoys 
 delightful environs, producing a breed of liorsos the finest in 
 Spain, of which a splendid stud was lately U'-.n '>y the go- 
 vernment. There is also some remnant of its once exten- 
 sive manufactures, particularly of that fine species of leather 
 called fi-om it Cordovan. The population is .'jT.OOO. 
 
 Jaen ranks as a fourtii kingdom, though it cannot enter 
 into any rivalry with those already described. Its capital, of 
 the same name, however, though little known, from its de 
 tached situation, is still a large city, the see of a bishop, 
 Andujar is a considerable place, with a very ancient castle, 
 at the entrance of the defiles of the Sierra Morena ; and to 
 the north of it is Bayleii, where the Spaniards gained that 
 signal victory which caused the surrender of Dupont and his 
 army. In the upper part of this tract are the settlements of 
 , . , „ „ , La Carolina, where an expanse of rude mountain waste has, 
 
 Intenor of M»que.. Cordova. ^^ German and other colonisfs, been convo.ted into a pro- 
 ductive territory. 
 
 The Balearic Islands, Majorca, Minorca, and Ivi^a, with the minor ones of Cabrera and 
 Formentera, form an appendage to Spain of some importance and celebrity. The Bolcarian 
 Blingers are celebrated in the military annals of antiquity ; but the islands in general fol- 
 lowed the political fate of Spain. Majorca, the largest, about forty miles in length, and 
 thirty in breadtii, possesses very considerable natural advantages. Several mountain chains, 
 varymg from l.'jOO to 4500 feet high, penetrate its centre, and defend it both from the excess 
 of the heat and the violent action of the sea-breezes. Its summits are somewhat arid, but 
 tlie intervening valleys are thickly clothed with olive trees; and corn and the vine grow 
 luxuriantly, though with imperfect culture, on the plains helow. Oranges and citrons 
 flourish so abundantly in the northern district, that 20,000 niule-lbads of them are cxiwrtcd 
 to France and Catalonia. M. Camba-ssedes values the entire produce of the isle, in 1820, at 
 53,0(JO,(X)0 reals, about $3,000,000. Of this, about 34,000,000 are in grain and pulse, 
 5,000,000 in oil, and 2,.'M)0,000 in wine, 1,.'J00,000 in fruits, 3,000,000 in hops, and 2,000,000 
 in sheep. Palma, the capital of Majorca, is a considerable town, slightly fortified, inhabited 
 chiefly by the nohles, who possess the greater part of the isle, and have rarely suflicient 
 activity or curiosity to visit their estates. In no Spanish city are indolence and superstition 
 more prevalent. There are tiiirty convents, some of which enjoy a revenue of $10,000 a 
 year. Processions and religious festivals, celebrated often with great tumult, form the chief 
 amusements. In these it is customary to deck up figures of Judas, with tablets containing 
 the enumeration of his crimes, among which that of being " chief of the liberals" was 
 lately included ! Population 34,000. 
 
 Minorca is a much smaller island, more barren, covered with bare and rocky mountains, 
 and destitute of any trees at all lofty, the growth being prevented by the violent winds from 
 the sea. But it is distinguished for one of the finest harbours in Europe, Port Mahon, which 
 being strongly fortified, has been a subject of eager contest to the maritime nations. Ilaving 
 been taken by England in the Succession War, it was recovered by the French in 1756, 
 notwithstanding Byng's attemj)! to relieve it. After several other vicissitudes, it remained 
 with Spain. The harbour is extensive, possesses deep water, and is siieltered by hills on 
 each side from every wind. The town has nothing of a Spanish aspect ; the streets being 
 broad, the houses small but nent, the people a stirring and active race, who scarcely allow 
 themselves to be called Spaniards. During the late French war, being protect(;d by the 
 English navy, tiiey made considerable wealth by privateering. Ciuidadella, thoiiQ;li of smaller 
 extent, is the nominal capital, and the residence of the nobility. Ivi<ja. or 1 .za, is a small 
 isle, of rugged surface, which forms one inunenso mountain, shooting i.p into a variety of 
 summits. The island is tlins refreshed by cool breezes and numerous streams, iind yields 
 readily all tlie productions of this climate, particularly figs. In the quarter r;illi'il I„'is Sa- 
 linas, salt is evaporated by the heat of the sim, and exported to the extent of 15,0(K) tons. 
 
 [Sect. VIII. — Republic of Andorra. 
 
 This little republic, with a territory of hardly 200 stpiare miles, and a population of about 
 15,000 souls, has been overlooked by the author of this work. It occupies a valley on the 
 southern side of the Pyrenees, situated between the Maladetta and the Moncal, and lying 
 
 Vol. I. ."iO 
 
500 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Part III 
 
 between Poix in Franco and Urgol in Spain. Beside Andorra, the capital, a town of 2,000 
 inhabibints, it contains five villages, which export iron and timber. It is governed by a 
 Syndic, who presides over the council of the valley, and by two Viguiers, appointed the one 
 by tlie king of France, and the otlxer by the bishop of UrgeL — ^Am. Ed.] 
 
 ^ CHAPTER X. 
 
 ' PORTUGAL. 
 
 PoRTi'OAL has by political causes alone been separated from Spain. There is no physical 
 peculiarity by which the two kingdoms arc distinguished. On the contrary, all the grand 
 natural features of Spain are prolonged into Portugal, and become Portuguese. 
 
 Sect. 1. — General Outline and Aspect, 
 
 The Iwundaries of Portugal are the Atlantic Ocean on the west throughout its whole 
 extent, and also on the south ; on tiie north the Spanish kingdom of Galicia ; and on the 
 east those of Ks^tremadura and Leon. The greatest dimension is from north to south, or 
 from 37° to 42=> 10' north latitude, and it extends from 6° 15' to 9° 30' west longitude. Its 
 eurfoce is 38,800 square miles. 
 
 The mountains of Portugal may be considered as prolongations of those of Spain, chiefly 
 of the chains of Guadarrama and Toledo, and those in the north of Galicia, Those ranges, 
 seldom rising to the first magnitude, cover almost the whole country, leaving between them 
 many picturesque and fertile valleys. There are only two extensive plains, one on the south 
 of the Tagus, and the other between the Mondego and the Douro. 
 
 Tiie rivers of Portugal consist chiefly of the spacious terminations of the greatest streams 
 of Spain in their progress to the ocean. The Douro forms the great maritime emporium of 
 Oporto, and the Tagus that of Lisbon. The Guadiana, also, in its lower course, flows 
 along the eastern frontier of Portugal. The Minho, a much smaller stream, comes down 
 from Galicia ; and the Mondego, alone, is entirely Portuguese, flowing nearly across the 
 breadth of the kingdom. 
 
 Sect. II. — Natural Geography. 
 
 SuBSECT. 1. — Geology. 
 
 This kingdom has the same general gcognostical structure and composition as Spain. The 
 mountainous parts of the country are generally of gneiss, mica slate, and other Neptunian 
 primitive strata, occasionally intermingled with Plutonian rocks of granite and porphyry. 
 Secondary formations of limestone occur in the Sierra d'Estrella, and in the vicinity of Cape 
 St. Vincent, and all around Li.«bon and at Cape St. Vincent the strata are of rocks of the 
 tertiary class, more or less intermingled with trap rocks. 
 
 Mines. It appears tliat the Carthaginians wrought tin mines in this part of the Penin- 
 sula. It is asserted that tiiere were formerly mines of tin stone in the granitic mountains 
 of the neighbourhood of Viseu, in the province of Beira, at the place called Burraco de Stanno. 
 Lead ores were worked in the last century, not far from Mogadouro, on the banks of the 
 Sabour, in the provmce of Tras os Montes, and near Longroiva, on the banks of the Rio 
 Prisco. Near Mogadouro, mines of graphite or plumbago occur. Iron mines also occur in 
 tlie same country, near Felguiera and Torre de Moncorvo. They supply the iron forge of 
 Chapacunha. 'iwo vciy old establishments of the same kind occur in Portuguese Estre- 
 madura, one in tlie district of Thomar, the other in that of Figuero dos Vinhos. They are 
 supplied by mines of red oxide of iron, situated in the frontier of that province and of the 
 province of Beira. There is a deposit of cinnabar at (vouna. The mountains of the neigh- 
 bouriiood of Oiwrto everywhere present indications of copper and of other ores. In Portu- 
 gal, as in Spain, the sands of rivers were washed for the gold they contain; and it is said in 
 this way large quantities of the precious metal were collected. At present there is but one 
 gold mine in Portugal, at a place called Adissa, in the district of StUbes. Its annual pro- 
 duce is trifling : in the year 1815 it vas 41 lbs. of pure gold ; 1816, 18 lbs. ; 1817, 11 lbs. ; 
 1818, 12 lbs. ; 1810, 13 lbs.; 1820, 12 lbs.; and in 1821, 18 lbs. Beds of coal occur atVialonga, 
 to the N. N. E. of Oporto ; and there is a mine of coal at Cabo de Buarcos in the province 
 of Beira. 
 
 SuBSECT. 2, — Botany. 
 The botany of Portugal is included under that of Spain. 
 
 # 
 
 SuBSECT. 3. — Zoology. 
 Tlic zoology cannot be very diflerent from that of Spain ; but no documents have appeared 
 to illustrate eitlier the one or the other. The horses are rather small, and altogether infe- 
 
BOOE 1. 
 
 PORTUGAL 
 
 501 
 
 rior ; but the mules are fine, and nearly equal to those of Spain. Improvement, however 
 is neglected ; nor have the indolent Portuguese profited by crossing their sheep from the 
 merinos of Spain. A long-legged race of av/ine is common to both kingdoms, and furnishes 
 excellent haras. 
 
 Sect. HI. — Historical Geography 
 
 The Carthaginians and Romans who occupied the Peninsula, did not rpcosfnise Portugal 
 as a distinct country. Their Lusitania included a part of Spain, and did not comprise the 
 whole of Portugal : Merida, in Estremaduia, was its capital. Port'igal, like Spain, Kubmittc<l 
 successively to the formidable irruptions of the Goths and of the Aloors. 
 
 The existence of Portugal as a distinct kingdom dates from tlie commoiicomcnt of the 
 twelfth century. At that time, Henry, dukr 'Burgundy, having married thn duuglitur of 
 the duke of Cabtile, obtained as her dowry the ..jrthem part of Portugal, which iiad been 
 rescued from the Moors. The capital, at that time, was Porto or Oporto, wlionco the modern 
 name of the kingdom appears to be derived. His successors gained a series of conquests, 
 and obtained possession of Lisbon and the southern provinces, carrying their conquests to the 
 frontier of Seville. 
 
 The fifteenth century, and the reigns of John and Emanuel, formed the true era of the 
 greatness of Portugal, when it outshone all the other kingdoms of Europe. Confined on 
 Uic land side within narrow limits, it opened for itself a vast career of maritime discovery 
 and conquest. Spain, indeed, shared this pursuit ; but her first acquisitions were made by 
 private individuals, partly foreign, with only faint assistance from the government ; while 
 the Portuguese expeditions were planned, fitted out, and all the resources for them sup. 
 plied by the government. Their flag, at one time, floated victorious over all the eastern 
 seas ; while in the west, by the possession of Brazil, they came into some competition with 
 Spain. 
 
 A disastrous eclipse of the Portuguese monarchy took place in the sixteenth century, in 
 consequence of the rash and romantic expedition undertaken by king Sebastian into Morocco, 
 where he himself and the flower of his troops were cut ofi^. Hereupon Pliilip W. of Spain, 
 a powerful and ambitious prince, raised a claim to the succession, which the superiority of 
 his arms enabled him to secure. Portugal, with all her eastern and western possessions, 
 then became an appanage to the crown of Spain. The connection was every way 
 unfortunate. Not only did she lose her political and civil liberty, but many of her fineht 
 foreign possessions were wrested from her by the Dutch, tlie spirited and active enemies of 
 Philip. 
 
 The restoration of the monarchy, in 1640, was still more sudden than its fall. Tlie deep- 
 rooted indignation of the people was combined into an extensive conspiracy, whicii, having 
 been concealed to the last moment, burst forth at once : the Spaniards were driven out, and 
 the duke of Braganza raised to the throne, under the title of John IV. Yet Portugal did not 
 thus achieve any revival of her ancient glory. The new monarch soon re-established absolute 
 power: a sluggish and indolent cliaracter pervaded all the departments of government : its 
 foreign possessions were lost or neglected ; and Portugal continued a stranger to all the 
 improvements and energies which raised Britain and France to the first place in the system ■ 
 of Europe. Yet, during this period, the elevation of the Bourbons to the Spanisli throne, led 
 to a very intimate alliance between England and Portugal, the natural foe of Spain. It was 
 cemented in 1803, by a commercial treaty, in v.-hich Portugal secured an exclusive market 
 for her wines, while Britain obtained a market for her woollens, and an arrangement by which 
 the gold of Brazil might find its way into her ports. 
 
 The recent convulsions of the Peninsula have been very amply shared by Portugal. 
 Regardless of the neutrality which she had strictly maintained, Bonaparte, by a most unpro- 
 voked aggression, sent Junri,, in 1807, to take possession of Lisbon. The king did not 
 attempt a vain resistance, but sailed for Brazil, and established his court at Rio do Janeiro. 
 The British arms, and the glorious achievements of Wellington, 'hove the French out of this 
 part of the Peninsula, and finallyoutof the whole. Afterwards Portugal imitated the example 
 of Spain in compelling her monarch to grant a representative constitution ; but again, by a 
 counter-revolution, she re-established an absolute monarchy. More recently, on the death 
 of the late king, Don Pedro proclaimed the separation of Brazil from Portugal, ri'scrvingthe 
 former to himself, but granting to the latter a charter, the observance of which was made the 
 condition of holding the throne. 
 
 Sect. FV. — Political Orography. 
 
 Portugal, after the downfall of the feudal system, and especially after hnr subjection to 
 Philip II. became one of the most absolute of European governments. The Manjuisof Pom- 
 bal and one or two more enlightened men found their way into the ministry ; but, in general, 
 measures were as ill conducted as possible, and corruption prevailed in every dc|)arlnient of 
 the state. The course of justice was equally polluted ; and, no adecpiate salaries beinf; 
 allowed to the judges, they were under an almost irresistible temptation to accept bribes. 
 
 
 I ill 
 
 ( 
 
 m 
 
502 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PabtIII 
 
 The pride of the nobles was nearly as great as in Spain, without being accompanied by the 
 same bay sentiments. They are divided into two brunches, tlic litulados and the hidalgos, 
 and have hold the peasantry in a subjection little short of slavery. 
 
 The army of Portugal, prior to the revolution, though composed nominally of 30,000 men, 
 was in a most inefficient state, not tlirough want of physical courage or discipline in the 
 men, but from the incapacity of the officers, and tlie general defects of the military system. 
 Wiicn the French, however, Iiad been driven out of Portugal, an army of 40,000 men was 
 levied, and disciplined by British officers, under the superintendence of Lord Beresford; and 
 thus prepared, the Portuguese acted, during the eventful war which followed, in a manner 
 that would not have disgraced any troops in Europe. The army is still maintained ; and 
 though the new government will not brook British command, yet, under its influence, Por- 
 tuguese officers of merit have been formed. 
 
 The navy, which was never considerable, was carried out with the royal family to Brazil, 
 and has never been restored. 
 
 Sect. V. — Productive Industry. 
 
 The industry and commerce of Portugal, which presented so brilliant an aspect during her 
 era of prosperity, have simk lower tiiun those of almost any other European nation. 
 
 Agriculture did not, until very lately, experience any of the improvements which have be- 
 come general in the rest of Europe. The plough is composed of three pieces of wood 
 awkwardly i)ut together, and imperfectly aided by the clumsy maciiinery of wheels. Though 
 generally very fertile, this country did not produce a third of the grain necessary for tie 
 supply of its inhabitants. Of late some improvement has taken place, especially by the in- 
 tro<hiction of potatoes; and the dependence upon foreign supply has been considerably 
 diminished. The chief object of attention is the vine, which, with the olive and other fruit 
 trees, is cultivated with the utmost diligence in the valleys and on the sides of the hills, in 
 the elevated province of Entro Douro e Minho. Here is produced abundantly the port 
 wine, which forms tiie main basis of Portuguese trade, and finds so copious a market in 
 Britain. The entire produce is estimated at 80,000 pipes. Of white wine Portugal produces 
 about 60,000 pipes; but this is of inferior quality, and chiefly consumed at home. Sheep 
 arc bred on tlie hills, to a pretty large extent; but not so abundantly as in Spain, neither 
 is their wool so fine. 
 
 The manufiicturcs of Portugal scarcely deserve to be named. Little is known beyond the 
 working of their wool for domestic use by each family or neighliourhood ; all their finer 
 fabrics are imported. According to a late observant traveller, ignorance, or at least an im- 
 perfect knowledge of the commonest arts, is conspicuous among tiie Portuguese. Their 
 carpenters arc the most awkward and clumsy artisans that can be imagined, spoiling every 
 thing they attempt ; the wood-work even of good houses being finished in a manner that 
 would scarcely be tolerated in the rudest ages. Their carriages of all kinds, their agricul- 
 tural implements, locks, keys, &c. are ludicrously bad. Working in gold and silver plate 
 forms almost the only exception ; cambrics also are well made in some places ; and a few 
 other local objects might be enumerated. 
 
 Of mines and fisheries, the former is not at all cultivated, though great materials for it 
 are said to exist ; but in the absence of trial this may be only conjecture. Fish of the finest 
 kinds, particularly tunny and sardinias, are caught in considerable quantity for immediate 
 consumption ; but the salt which the kingdom so abundantly produces is not used for pre- 
 serving them ; and a large import of salted fie'; is still necessary to meet the wants of a 
 tJopulation so rigidly Catholic. 
 
 The commerce, which formed the greatness of Portugal, when her porta interchanged tlie 
 products of the East and the West, is now a mere shadow. The loss of her Indian posses- 
 sions, and the separation of Brazil, have reduced her to the common routine of export and 
 import. The staple of the former is port wine, for which the market of England was 
 secured first by favouring duties, and now seemingly by an established predilection. The 
 wine is raised almost solely for the English market, and all of the best quality is bought up 
 by English merchants residing at Oporto. 
 
 Another staple export of Pcrtugal is salt, evaporated by the heat of the sun in the bay 
 of St. Ubes, or Setubal, which seems as if expressly formed for tliat purpose. It is carried 
 off oliiofly by the English, to be employed in curing fish destined for the Portuguese market: 
 the annual amount is estimated at 100,000 tons. There is also a considerable surplus of 
 wool, of which l,()fl(),(K)0 lbs. weight have been imported into England in one year; but as 
 it is not so fine as that of Spain, the duty imposed by the British landholders has greatly 
 checked the importation. In return, Portugal takes grain, salt-fish, and a variety of manu- 
 factures, chiefly from Britain; but as her imports cannot much exceed the exports, she can- 
 not afford a very copious market. 
 
 The internal communioatioiis of Portugal consist of the several noble rivers which tra- 
 verse her territory, and which are navigable throughout. The intercourse by land is ren- 
 dered very difficult by chains of mountains extending in the same direction. Nothing hnn 
 
btUI 
 
 by the 
 dalgos, 
 
 Mi men, 
 in the 
 system. 
 len was 
 )rd ; and 
 manner 
 ed; and 
 ice, Por- 
 
 o Brazil, 
 
 uring her 
 
 liave be- 
 I of wcxxl 
 
 Though 
 ry for the 
 by the in- 
 tisiderably 
 3ther fruit 
 le hills, in 
 f the port 
 market in 
 il produces 
 e. Sheep 
 in, neither 
 
 beyond the 
 their finer 
 east an im- 
 se. Their 
 iling every 
 lanncr that 
 eir agricul- 
 eilver plate 
 and a few 
 
 erials for it 
 •f the finest 
 
 immediate 
 ed for pre- 
 
 wants of a 
 
 hanged tlie 
 lian posses- 
 export and 
 gland was 
 tion. The 
 bought up 
 
 I in the bay 
 It is carried 
 ese market : 
 surplus of 
 lear ; but as 
 Ihaa greatly 
 Tly of manu- 
 |rts, she can- 
 
 which tra- 
 il and is rcn- 
 ilothing has 
 
 BooeI. 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 
 5U3 
 
 been attempted on any important scale, either to improve these advantages, or to amend the 
 defects ; so that travelling is worse in Portugal than in any other European country. 
 
 Sect. VI. — Civil and Social Stale. 
 
 The population of Portugal, according to the last census, which was taken in 1798, amounts 
 to 3,683,000 ; calculating at the somewhat high estimate of five to a family. According to 
 more probable estimates it now amounts to 3,.530,(K)0. Upon a surface of 39,800 square 
 miles, this gives a density of about ninety-one to the square mile, which is remarkable, as 
 exceeding that of Spain nearly in the proportion of three to two. The exemption fi-om the 
 mesla, and the high cultivation of the province of Entrc Douro e Minho, appear to be the 
 redeeming circumstances in her case. 
 
 No nation, as to character, owes less to the opinion of the world, than the Portuguese. 
 They are described as indolent, dissembling, cowardly, destitute of public spirit, and at the 
 same time fierce and deeply revengefiil. In Spain it in said, strip a Spaniard of his virtues, 
 and he becomes a good Portuguese. From a late minute inspection, however, the pea^intry 
 325 ifig. 325.) have been pronounced to be a fine peo- 
 
 ple ; and, on repeated occasions during the late war, 
 they displayed energies not unworthy of their an- 
 cestors, in an age when tiieir glory resounded 
 throughout both hemispheres. Almost all, however, 
 that floats on the surface is base and degenerate. 
 There cannot be a doubt that this may be greatly 
 ascribed to priestcraft, to the stupifying influence of a 
 sluggish and tyrannical government, and to the 
 general corniption which has pervaded all the 
 Branches of administration. 
 
 The established and exclusive religion is the 
 Portaguwe Peuaairy. Catholic, in its extreme and moat degrading excess ; 
 
 and the body of the people are almost entirely under the thraldom of the priesthood. The 
 burning of Jews continued till within the last half-century. Tiie physiognomy of a large pro- 
 portion of the people shows their descent fi'om this hated race, whose tenets many, it is pro- 
 326 bable, still cherish in secret. There are, in Portugal, 
 
 about 550 religious houses, of which 150 are nunneries* 
 {Jiff. 326.). The number of two archbishops and thir- 
 teen bishops is not so disproportionate. 
 
 The literature of Portugal, during the period of its 
 glory, was by no means contemptible. The genius and 
 lateof Camoens spread his name throughout Europe, and 
 entitled him to rank among the few modern epic poets. 
 By the students of Portuguese literature, iiowever, Saa 
 Miranda and Antonio Ferreyra are reckoned scarcely 
 second to him ; and Rodriguez Lobo held the nation long 
 enchanted by the sweetness of his pastorals. At the 
 same time Di Barros, Castanheda, and Faria y Sousa, 
 recorded, in magnificent though somewhat inflated historical narrative, the mighty exploits 
 of their countrymen in the African and Indian seas. The subjection to Spain gradually 
 divested Portuguese literature of its manly and energetic character. The muse of history 
 was silent; poetry assumed the form only of the sonnet, and Gongora infected it wlioUy witli 
 a strain of false and meretricious ornament. The house of Braganza for some time did 
 little for knowledge ; but in the beginning of the last century, the Conde de Ericeyra intro- 
 duced the French literature, and founded a royal academy. In the course of the century, 
 Barros Pereyra, Antonio da Lima, Manuel da Costa, a Brazilian, Correa Grarcas, and Paulino 
 Cabral, a bishop, made not unsuccessful efforts to revive the ancient Portuguese poetry, and 
 to introduce that of Italy. Portugal has two universities. That of Coimbra, foimded at 
 Lisbon in 1290, wan transferred to Coimbra in 1308. It enjoys some celebrity, is divided 
 into eighteen colleges, and is still attended by several hundred students; but the course of 
 study is of that obsolete description which prevailed during the middle ages. A smaller 
 university wos founded at Evora in 1578. 
 
 For the minor particulars of amusement, dress, foo<l,&c., reference may be made to Spain, 
 as Portugal has no peculiarities that are more than provincial. 
 
 Sect. VIL — Local Geograph'j. 
 
 Portugal is divided into the following six provinces, several of which, like those of Spain, 
 in reference to events in their past history, are sometimes called kingdoms : — 
 
 Ftiu and Nun. 
 
 ■r 
 
 1 
 
 * [The rcliuiuiis hoiifps, nioTiaRtcrics. niid nuimerii!!, wvre eiipprcseod in IKM — Am. Ed.] 
 
 Vol. \. ~ 50* 
 
 3Z 
 
 I* 
 I 
 
 :i 
 
«0A 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Past IH. 
 
 r.itnit In 
 EnilUi Aam. 
 
 mnlMH. EntlUi term. rnpiUlloil. FriDclpil Toon, with Iheir PoplUUiai. 
 
 Bitremadura S,4SO,8riO 838,060 Liibnn, 3li(),000; Butiibal, 13,000; Banlarem, 8,000. 
 
 Alemlvjo 5,1148,330 380.480 Elva8,lU,()U() ; Kvora, tl.OUO 
 
 Algarvo l,S3tl,nO() 137,013 Faro, H.UOO ; Tnvirn, ti.UUO. 
 
 Belra 4,<jg4,(iOO l,l'il,S»S Cuimbra, IS.flOU ; Luiiicko, 0,000 ; ViMu, 0.000. 
 
 Entre Doiirn c Minlio l,fl27 040 Wn.oeS Opnrin, 70,IH)0 ; Braga, 14,000 ; Viana, 8,000. 
 
 Traa on Mnntu ■ . . .3,(I07,TU0 318,065 Braganza, 4,000. 
 
 Estremadura occupies a great extent of const, both to the north and south of the Togus, 
 without ever penetrating very deep into the interior. It preoents a rocky, varied, and pic- 
 turesque surface. It is chiefly important, however, as containing Lisbon, the capital. 
 
 Lisbon {Jig. 327.) is situated near the mouth of the Tagus, which may here be ahnost 
 Q27 considered an arm of the sea, since not 
 
 only the tide flows up, but the water ia 
 salt, and the swell oflen tempestuous. 
 The approach to it presents a more 
 magninccnt spectacle than that of per- 
 haps any other city of Europe. Lisbon 
 rises direct from the water, crowning 
 the sides and summits of several hills ; 
 which, according to the Portuguese, arc 
 Luboa. seven in number, like those of Rome. 
 
 The palaces, convents, and churches, 
 which crown this amphitheatre of buildings; the dazzling whiteness of the houses; the 
 light appearance of the windows and balconies ; the tastefiil arrangement of plants, shrubs, 
 and flowers on their roofs and terraces ; the golden orange groves which adorn the suburbs, 
 and the stately specimens of Indian or American botany which are scattered through the 
 scene, produce an effect that cannot be described. The noble harbour, also, crowded witli 
 vessels ; the numerous pilot and fishing-boats, with their large, handsome lateen sails, as- 
 cending or descending the river ; and, nearer the shore, hundreds of small neat boats, with 
 white or painted awnmgs, finely vary tiie scene. The moment, however, that the stranger 
 lands, and enters the place, he finds that he has been imposed upon by a brilliant illusion ; 
 and the gay and glittering city is found to resemble a painted sepulchre. The streets are 
 narrow and ill paved ; the houses gloomy, with here and there a latticed window ; filth and 
 nuisances assault him at every turn. Lisbon does, indeed, appear to be the dirtiest and most 
 noisome city on the face of Uie earth. In passing through tlie streets, a stranger encounters 
 at every turn the most disgusting effluvia. Every species of vermin destined to punisii in- 
 dolence and slovenliness, the mosquito, the scolopendra, and a species of red ant, multiply 
 to an extraordinary degree. Nor is Lisbon found, on inspection, to exhibit that architectural 
 beauty which it proniises on a distant view. It might have been expected, among forty 
 churches and seventy-five convents, built by a superstitious people, that there would have 
 been some signal display of this kind ; but this is not found even in the cathedral. The 
 defect seems partly owing to the mean taste of the Miirquis of Pombal, who ordered them 
 to be all built on a line with the street, to preserve a dull uniformity. Two handsome 
 squares, however, have been fbrmed, the Commercial and tlie Roscio, which are connected 
 by well-built streets ; but the absence of trees, or even shrubs, and the blinding sand that 
 drifts through them, combine to produce a disagreeable effect. liisbon derives an awful 
 interest from t)ie ruins still left of the great earthquake of 1755, the most dreadful catas- 
 trophe which ever befell a modern European city. Six thousand houses were thrown down, 
 30,000 inhabitants killed ; and a conflagration kindled which spread a still wider destruction. 
 TIh3 ruins are the more dismal, as they portend similar disasters, which the earth, still 
 heaving from time to time, perpetually threatens. Meantime, Lisbon di.'^plays one very grand 
 feature ; the aqueduct, to the construction of which, though it conveys the water only half a 
 mile, peculiar obstacles wore presented. It is carried in one place througli a tunnel, and in 
 another over a defile 230 feet deep, by arches, which are said to be the highest in the world. 
 The width of the centre arch is 107 feet. It was built in 17;J8, by Manuel de Maya ; and 
 is of such solidity that it withstood the shock of the great earthquake, which only caused the 
 keystone to sink a few inches. 
 
 The vicinity of Lisbon presents some beautiful sites and palaces. Cintra is tho most 
 striking, consisting of on immense mountain, partly covered with scanty lierbage, partly 
 with broken, huge, and vnrietl piles of rock, elsowliore presenting thick groves of cork, elm, 
 oak, hazel, an-l other trees. It includes many lovely and fanto;. ij /lots ; but the vi';w from 
 it is naked nnd dreary. The town, at the bottom, with its ^.''l Du'.dce, lias nothing remark- 
 able ; but tlie sides are covered with delightful villas, one of which is notorious for the sig- 
 nature of tlic unhappy convention of Ciiitra. Mafra is a royal convent built by John V., in 
 emulation of the Escurial ; but though a stupendous pile, 700 feet square, and containing 
 numberless suites of ill-ftirnished apartments, it ranks far below its model. Only five miles 
 below Lisbon, of whicii it is considered a suburb, is Belem, the site of a palace and a very 
 
ART 
 
 m. 
 
 Book I. 
 
 PORTUGAL 
 
 596 
 
 em, 8,000 
 
 ,0.000. 
 3,000. 
 
 le Togus, 
 , and pic- 
 al. 
 
 be almost 
 since not 
 B water ia 
 fipestuous. 
 ts a more 
 lat of per- 
 e. Lisbon 
 crowning 
 'eral hills ; 
 tguesc, arc 
 « of Rome, 
 churches, 
 lOUses; the 
 its, shrubs, 
 he suburbs, 
 trough the 
 owded witli 
 in sails, as- 
 boats, with 
 ;he stranger 
 int illusion ; 
 I streets are 
 N ; filth and 
 jst and most 
 r encounters 
 to punish in- 
 int, multiply 
 urchitectural 
 among forty 
 would have 
 edral. The 
 rdered them 
 to handsome 
 re connected 
 ng sand that 
 es an awful 
 eadful cataa- 
 hrown down, 
 r destruction, 
 e earth, still 
 e very grand 
 ir only half a 
 unnel, and in 
 in the world, 
 e Maya; and 
 ily caused the 
 
 is tho most 
 rbago, partly 
 
 of cork, elm, 
 he vi;W from 
 hing remark- 
 US for the sig- 
 )y John v., m 
 nd containing 
 nly five miles 
 :e and a very 
 
 magnificent monastery, founded by Emanuel, and in which many of the royal family have 
 been interred. 
 
 There are several other towns of some note in Portuguese Estremadura. St. Ubes or 
 Hctubal lies sixteen miles fi'om Lisbon, on the coast south of the Tagtis, on a lung interior 
 Imy, the waters of which, evaporated by the heat of the sun, leave the excellent bay-salt, 
 one of the national staples. The town is considerable, having been well rebuilt since the 
 earthquake of 1755, when it was almost totally overthrown. The mountain of Ursabida, 
 here extending into the sea, forms a bold and striking promontory, covered with trees and 
 various vegetation. Ascending the Tagus, we come to Santarem, a considerable and ancient 
 town, the Presidium Julium of the Romans. It has an academy of history, established in 
 1747. Hero the great French army, under Massena, remained long posted, unable to pene- 
 trate to Lisbon. Abrantes, higher up, is an important military position, situated on a height 
 whence it commands the passage of the Tagus. Leirio, to the north, is an ancient town, in 
 a most prodtictivc territory, and where a great annual fiiir is held for the supply of the 
 peasantry of the neighbouring country round. At Batalha, is a church {fig. 3^.), and 
 monastery, which, united, form the finest structures in all Portugal. It is 541 feet by 416, 
 and is considered by Mr. Murphy to be one of the noblest existing specimens of the Norman 
 
 Church of Balalba. 
 
 ManMleum of King John. 
 
 Gothic. It is constructed entirely of marble, and the fi-ont appeared to him almost unri- 
 valled in chaste and delicate ornament Among the diflbrent parts, the mausoleum erected 
 in honour of King John, is pre-eminently beautiful {fig. 329.). Vimiero is only a village, 
 but celebrated for the signal victory gained by the British over the army of Junot. Three 
 miles distant is Torres Vedras, a tolerable old town, but chiefly noted as the centre of the 
 grand fortified lines formed by Wellington in 1810, which so completely baffled all the ma- 
 noeuvres by which the French had hoped to reconquer Portugal. 
 
 Alemtejo is an extensive province, comprising the greater part of Portugal south of the 
 Tagus. The interior presents an extensive plain ; but tiie frontier towards Spain is finely 
 diversified with hills, wooded mountains, and deep valleys extremely well watered, and very 
 fertile. It contains some large towns. Evora is situated on an eminence in a fine country, 
 and is of great antiquity. Its origin has even been dated seven centuries before tiie Chris- 
 tian era. It is more clearly ascertained that the Romans made it a municipal town, and 
 adorned it with some of their finest structures. There is a noble aqueduct, of which the 
 piers are nine feet broad, and suppoited by buttresses; also a Temple of Diana built by 
 Sertorius, in which great elegance is displayed. Elvas, on the Spanish firontier, imme- 
 diately facing Badajos, is the strongest fortress in Portugal, and designed as the barrier of 
 the kingdom. The works were constructed under the directions of the celebrated Count 
 Schaumburg-Lippe ; and the fort, bearing his name, is considered a masterpiece of the art. 
 In this neighbourhood ore also Vilia Vi^ioso, a pleasan' town, and a favourite country resi- 
 dence of the Portuguese monarchs, who have here a handsome hunting-park ; and Porta- 
 legre, a handsome little town in a delightful country, with a good cathedral. Southward, 
 in the interior, is Beja, a Roman colony, and subsequently a strong Moorish fortress. After 
 being nearly demolished, it was rebuilt by Alfonso III., and fortified by King Diniz, and is 
 still a considerable town. 
 
 Algarve forms the extreme south of Portugal ; and is a maritime province, bearing in an 
 especial sense, the oppellation of kingdom, since it long remained independent, and waa a 
 celebrated theatre of war between the Moors and the Christians. It is tolerably fertile in 
 wine, firuits, and oil. Faro, the largest town, is also the principal seat of trade, and iias a 
 
806 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PaktIII 
 
 If 
 
 r 
 
 ' 
 
 Coimbia. 
 
 regular packet to Gibraltar. Lagoe and Silves are also old little towns, the former on the 
 Boa-coast, with some shipping. Capo St. Vincent, the extreme point of Algarve, and the 
 most Houtii-westerly of the Peninsula, is celebrated for the signal victory gained by the 
 British fleet over the Spanish, on the 14tli of February, 1797. 
 
 Beira is a very extensive province or kingdom, filling nearly the whole centre of Portu- 
 gal, between the Tagiis and tlie Douro. Its suriiice presents considerable variety ; the in- 
 terior part has the usual mountainous character of Portugal, being traversed by the great 
 chain called the Sierra d'f]strclla. On the sea-coast, however, there are plains of consider- 
 able extent. The province produces plenty of wine, oil, and chestnuts, and has extensive 
 poatures ; but the grain is not sufficient for its consumption. 
 Coimbra {fig, 2&0.\ the capital, is beautifully situated on the declivity of a hill, which 
 
 rises above the Alondego; but the 
 streets, as in other old Portuguese 
 towns, are crowded, dirty, and very 
 steep. In former times a residence 
 of the kings of Portugal, it was 
 strongly fortified, and has stood ob- 
 stinate sieges; but the remains of 
 its walls and towers are no longer 
 sufficient to constitute it a fortress. 
 It has been called the Athens of Por- 
 tugal, from its extensive university, 
 containing eighteen colleges, with 
 forty professors, and about eight hun- 
 dred students. Attached to it is a library of nearly 40,000 volumes, including numerous 
 MSS. ; but the actual value both of these and the printed works does not seem to have been 
 fully investigated. 
 
 Beira has other towns of some importance. Among these is Almeida, the northern barrier 
 of the kingdom and a fortress of consequence, though not possessing the great strength of 
 Elvas. It wos twice taken in the last war, first by the French under Massena, and then by 
 the British under Wellington. Castello Branco, on the southern frontier, notwithstanding 
 its commanding situation, retains little importance. Lamego, near the southern bank of the 
 Douro, is an ancient city, and the cradle of the Portuguese monarchy. Here, in 1143, the 
 states-general for the first time met, recognised tlie fundamental laws, and acknowledged 
 the sovereignty of Alfonso. Viseu, in the centre of the kingdom, is, like Lamego, an epis- 
 copal sec, and has the greatest annual fair in Portugal. 
 
 Entre Douro e Minho forms the maritime part of Portugal, north of the Douro. Though 
 the smallest, it is considered the most valunble, populous, and productive of all the provinces. 
 Its peasantry have done nmch to redeem tlie reproach of torpor and slupfgishness generally 
 urged against their countrymen. This district is entirely covered with mountains, portly 
 rugged and barren, but generally snprnted by fertile and well-watered valleys, cultivated 
 to the utmost possible extent; and which, besides oil, fruit, and flax, are made to produce 
 most copiously the wine called port, for which so ample a market exists in England. 
 
 Oporto, or Porto {fig. 331.), the oncient capital, and still the second city of the kingdom, 
 is situated near the mouth of the Douro on the northern bank, though on the southern are 
 two exteneivo suburbs, supposed to have constituted tlie ancient city. The modem town is 
 
 331 ' V -'.:■ 
 
 Opoito. 
 
 well built, especially when compared with most others in the peninsula. The river ailforda 
 a tolerably secure harbour, without any artificial aid, except an elevated and walled quay, to 
 which the ships' cables may be fastened during the floods. These oflen come down with 
 such force, that, without such a support, the vessels would be inevitably carried out into the 
 
nva. 
 
 on the 
 nd the 
 by the 
 
 PoTtu- 
 
 the in- 
 le ftrcat 
 onsider- 
 [tcnBivo 
 
 1, which 
 but the 
 rtuguese 
 md very 
 esidence 
 , it was 
 stood ob- 
 mnina of 
 10 longer 
 I fortresB. 
 ns of Por- 
 iniversity, 
 gcs, with 
 jight hun- 
 numeroua 
 have been 
 
 3m barrier 
 itrength of 
 nd then by 
 ithstanding 
 mnk of the 
 [1 1143, the 
 [nowledged 
 JO, an epis- 
 
 ). Though 
 s provinces. 
 IS prenerally 
 ains, partly 
 cultivatea 
 to produce 
 uid. 
 
 le kingdom, 
 louthem are 
 lem town is 
 
 Book I. 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 
 sm 
 
 Ma. The chief dependence of Oporto is its trade with England, which remains unimpaired 
 amid the general diminution of that with America. There are about thirty English houses 
 regularly settled here, besides a number of mercliants who pay frecjuent visits to the place. 
 Tiio exportation of port wine, however, on which its trade rests, is generally cramped by 
 the absurd policy of placing it entirely in tlic hands of an exclusive company,* who have 
 adopted the pernicious practice of diluting the produce of the best vineyards with wine of 
 those of an inferior quality, by which the character of the genuine port grievously suffers. 
 
 Bniga, farther north, ranks as the capital of the province ; and, tliough now far outstripi>cd 
 by Oporto, is of much more ancient fame. Under the Romans it was the metropolis of an 
 extensive district, and its former greatness is still attested by numerous antiquities. It has 
 made a distinguished figure in the ecclesiastical history of"^ Portugal, and is the see of an 
 archbisliop, who is primate of the kingdom. Braga is a handsome town ; well built, well 
 paved, the streets spacious and clean. There is some industry, particularly a manufacture 
 of small beaver hats, wliich supplies a great part of the kingdom. The adjacent country is 
 hilly, but populous and pleasant. Valen<;a is n small town, agreeably situated on the Minho, 
 which separates it from Galicia. 
 
 Tras OB Montes, or the province beyond the mountains, is of great extent, occupying the 
 whole interior of Portugal north of the Douro. The Cantabrian chain, after traversing 
 Asturias and Galicia, throws out branches which not only separate the territory fVom the 
 rest of Portugal, but cover almost its whole surface. They leave only deep valleys, through 
 which considerable rivers, too rapid however to be navigable, pour down into the Douro. 
 It is much inferior to Entre Douro e Minho, both in populousness and cultivation; yet a con- 
 siderable quontity of the port wine produced grows on the sides of its hills. The inhabitants 
 are a race of active, hardy, and brave mountaineers. They rose in great force against the 
 French, and have since somewhat less happily distinguished themselves by the ardour with 
 which they fought in tiie cause of absolute power, and in resistance to every form of consti- 
 tutional government. 
 
 The towns are small, and not regularly fortified ; though, from the nature of the country, 
 they form defensible military positions. Braganza is a city of ancient note, and gave the 
 title of Duke to the first nobleman in the kingdom, even before he was raised to the throne, 
 by the appellation of John IV. Tiie kings of Portugal still retain the title of Dukes of 
 Braganza. Chaves, the Aqua: Flavio; of the Romans, still exhibits two baths and a magni- 
 ficent bridge constructed by that people. Chaves gives the title of Marquis to a family, one 
 of whom was the most active opponent of the French during their invasion ; while another 
 has lately been at the head of the anti-constitutional array, of which the head-quarters were 
 always in Tras os Montes. 
 
 * [The Oporto wine company, which enjoyed this monopoly, was abolished in 1834 —Am. Go] 
 
 o river affords 
 ailed quay, to 
 ne down with 
 d out into th« 
 
 END OF THE FIRST VOLUME