IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

>^ Uii |2.2

lU
u

liO

r .

— I'-'* I'-*

>■

Hiotographic

Sciences

Corporation

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. MSM

(716) •72-4503

<<!.

^.>.

'^°^

'^^•

«».

CIHM/ICMH

Microfiche

Series.

CIHIVI/iCiVIH
Collection de
microfiches.

Canadian Institute for Historical MIcroreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductlons historlques

Technical and Bibliographic Notas/Notas tachniquat at bibliographiquas

Tha Instituta ha* attamptad to obtain tha bast
original copy availabia for filming. Faaturas of this
copy which may ba bibliographically uniqua,
which may altar any of tha imagas in tha
raproduction. or which may significantly change
tha usual method of filming, are chackeid below.

□ Coloured covers/
Couverture de couleur

nn Covers damaged/

D
D
D

D
D

Couverture endommagie

Covers restored and/or laminated/
Couverture rastauria et/ou pelliculie

I — I Cover title missing/

Le titre de couverture manque

Coloured maps/

Cartes giographiques en couleur

Coloured inic (i.e. other than blue or black)/
Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire)

Coloured plates and/or illustrations/
Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur

Bound with other material/
Reli6 avac d'autras documents

Tight binding may cause shadows or distortion
along interior margin/

La re liura serr6e peut causer de I'ombre ou de la
distortion la long de la marge intirieure

Blank leaves added during restoration may
appear within the text. Whenever possible, these
have been omitted from filming/
II se peut que certainas pages blanches ajoutfos
lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte,
mais, lorsqua cela Atait possible, ces pages n'ont
pas iti filmAes.

Additional comments:/
Commentairas suppl6mantairas;

L'Institut a microfilm* la meilleur exemplaira
qu'il lui a iti possible de se procurer. Las details
de cet exemplaira qui sont peut-fttre uniques du
point de vue bibiiographique. qui pauvant modifier
una image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger una
modification dans la mithoda normala de filmage
sont indiqu6s ci-dessous.

Thi
to

I I Coloured pages/

D
D

This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/

Ce document est film* au taux da rMuction indiquA ci-dessous.

Pagea da couleur

Pages damaged/
Pages endommagias

Pages restored and/or laminated/
Pages restauries et/ou pellicul^es

Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/
Pages dicolortes, tachat^es ou piqu6as

Pages detached/
Pages ddtachdas

Showthrough/
Transparence

Th«
poi
oil
filn

Orl

bai

the

sioi

othi

first

slor

ori

Fyj Quality of print varies/

Quality inigala de I'impression

Includes supplementary material/
Comprend du mat6rial suppl^mentaira

Only edition available/
Seule Edition disponible

Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata
slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to
ensure the bast possible image/
Las pages totalamant ou partiallement
obscurcias par un feuillet d'errata, une pelure.
etc., ont M film6es d nouveau de fapon d
obtenir la mailleure image possible.

The
sha
TIN
whi

Mai
diffi
enti
begi
righ
reqi
met

10X

14X

18X

22X

26X

30X

12X

16X

20X

24X

28X

32X

Th« copy filmad h«r« has b««n rtproductd thanks
to tha ganarosity of:

Oou(;iat! Library
Quaai- • Univarsity

L'axamplaira filmi fut raproduit grica k la
g4n*roait4 da:

Douglas Library
Quaan's Univarsity

Tha Imagas appaaring hara ara tha bast quality
posslbia consldaring tha condition and laglblllty
of tha original copy and In kaaping with tha
filming contract spaclflcatlons.

Original coplas In prlntad papar covars ara fllmad
baglnning with tha front covar and anding on
tha last paga with a printad or llluatratad Impras-
slon. or tha back covar whan appropriata. All
othar original coplas ara fllmad baglnning on tha
first paga with a printad or llluatratad Impraa-
sion, and anding on tha last paga with a printad
or llluatratad Imprasslon.

Laa imagas sulvantas ont 4tA raprodultas avac la
plus grand soln, compta tanu da la condition at
da la nattat* da l'axamplaira film*, at an
conformity avac las conditions du contrat da
filmaga.

Las axamplalras orlginaux dont la couvartura an
paplar aat imprimte sont flimis an commandant
par la pramiar plat at an tarminant salt par la
darniAra paga qui comporta una amprainta
d'Imprasslon ou d'illustratlon, solt par la sacond
plat, aalon la caa. Toua laa autras axamplalras
origlnaux sont fiimAs an commandant par la
pramlAra paga qui comporta una amprainta
d'impraasion ou d'illustratlon at an tarminant par
la darnlAra paga qui comporta una talla
amprainta.

Tha last racordad frama on aach microficha
shall contain tha symbol «^ (moaning "CON-
TINUED"), or tha symbol y (moaning "END"),
whichavar applias.

Un das symbolas sulvants apparaftra sur la
darnlira imaga da chaqua microficha, salon la
cas: la symbols — »> signifia "A SUIVRE", la
symbols y signifia "FIN".

Maps, platas, charts, ate, may ba fllmad at
diffarant raduction ratios. Thosa too iarga to ba
antlraly included in ona axposura ara fllmad
baglnning in tha uppar iaft hand cornar, laft to
right and top to bottom, as many framas aa
raquirad. Tha following diagrams lllustrata tha
mathod:

Las cartas, planchas, tablaaux, ate, pauvant Atra
filmAs A das taux da reduction diff Grants.
Lorsqua la documant ast trap grand pour Atra
raproduit an un saul cllchA, II ast film* A partir
da I'angia supAriaur gaucha. da gaucha A drolta,
at da haut an bas. an pranant la nombra
d'Imagas nAcassaira. Las diagrammas sulvants
illustrant la mithoda.

32X

;■ f ■ ':

■■■ 2

A
G

THE

ENCYCLOP-ffiDIA

GEOGRAPHY:

COMPRISINO A

COMPLETE DESCRIPTION OP THE EARTH,

PHYSICAL, STTATISnCAL, CIVIL, AND POLITICAL;

EXHIBITING ITS RELATION TO THE HEAVENLY BODIES,

ITS PHYSICAL STRUCTURE,

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF EACH COUNTRY,

AND THE INDUSTRY, OOMHBROE, POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS,

4/ . • AND CIVIL AND SOCIAL STATE

ALL NATIONS.

BY HUGH MURRAY, F.R.S.E.

ASSMTZD IN

ASTRONOMY, See. BY PROF. WALLACE, I BOTANT, Ac BY PROFESSOR HOOKER.
GEOLOGY, &e. BY PROF. JAMESON, I ZOOLOGY, &e. BY W. SWAINSON, ES^

ILLUSTRATED BY EIGHTY-TWO MAPS,
AND ABOUT ELEVEN HUi^DRED OTHER ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD

UTREaENTINO THE HOST REMARKABLE OBnCTS OP NATURC AND ART
IN EVERY REGION OF THE GLOBE,

TOOGTHER WITH A

NEW MAP OF THE UNITED STATES.

,,'#■

REVISED, WITH ADDITIONS,

BY THOMAS G. BRADFORD.

IN THREE VOLUMES.

VOL. I.

PHILADELPHIA:

LEA AND BLANCHARD,

FOR

GEORGE W. GORTON.

1845. • '. --

* 3.

*'.

Gtis.. M? /^^.^^ «/•/

■#

*■

* . ..» ■

■'^%,

.-■■^■-

''^;
^■1^

Entered according to the act of Congress in the year eighteen hundred and tliirly-six, bf

UABEr, LEA, AND BLANCHARD,

In the clerk's office of the district court for the ea<tern district of Pennsylvania.

-r t^t

■4.

*"#;'

STERGOTTPED BY J. FAOAN PHILADELrilll.

PRINTED BY C. SHERMAN AND CO.

•. H''

4 .

f-* .^'

cbr

- \ |B'

PREFACE TO THE ENGUSH EDITION. *

The value and importance of the studr of Geography are w obvious, and indeed
■o universally acknowledged, as to require little illustration. Nothing can be more
interesting to man, or more gratiry his thirst for knowledge, than a survey of the
earth which he inhabits, peopled as it is by beings of the same nature with himself.
To visit and observe foreign climes and regions Is an object of seneral desire, and
forms one of the most enectual means of enlarging and enligntening the human
mind. This wish, however, unless in the case oia lew individuals, can be gratified
only to a very limited extent, and in none can embrace more than a small portion
of the vast variety of interesting objects which the earth comprises. This necessary
defect of personal observation may, however, be in a ^reat measure supplied, by
collecting the reports and narratives of those intelhj^ont individuals who tutve
explored and described its various regions, and forming out of these a general
description of the world and its inhabitants.

Works of this class have always possessed a peculiar attraction. Even in ancient
times, when the extent of the known world, and the information with respect to
the inhabitants and productions of its remoter regions, were comparatively limited,
the geographical descriptions of Herodotus, Strabo, Pomponius Mela, and Pliny,
rank among the most valuable productions of the classic ages. But in modem
times, and particularly in the present age, Geography has acquired a much more
prominent place among the departments of human knowledge. The discovery of
America in the fifteenth century awakened a spirit of enterprise, and a desire to
explore unknown regions, that have continued to gain new strength. During the
last half century more especially, the most civilised nations of Europe have oeen
contending with each other for the glory of discovery ; and there is now scarcely a
shore however remote, or the interior of a continent however barbarous or difficult
of access, which has not been surveyed and described. Materials have thus been
provided for a much more complete, interesting, and authentic description of the
earth, than could have been drawn up at any former period.

The extensive discoveries thus recently made have thrown a wonderfiil light on
the structure and productions of the earth, and afforded large contributions to all
the departments or natural history They have also display^ man in every varied
condition, from the highest refinement of civilised society, to the rudest and most
abject condition of savage life. These representations are not only interesting in
themselves, but throw light on the history of past ages. Communities are still
found exactly similar to some of those described in the earliest records of antiquity.
The tent of the Arab sheik differs little from that which Abraham pitched on the
plains of Mamre ; many of the Tartar tribes are a people exactly similar to those
who roamed in early ages over the plains of Scythia ; and the splendid courts of
Babylon and Persepolis have their representatives in the existing world. We may
thus, in fact, trace back man to an earlier and ruder stage than any represented in
the ancient records ; for these convey only faint and fabulous notions of what
mankind had been at a very early period. But the wilds of America, and the
shores of the Pacific, exhibit the state of savage simplicity, which doubtless existed
in Europe before the light of authentic history had begun to dawn. Hence it is
that Geography, in its present extended range, not only shows man as he actually
exists, but delineates, as it were, the progressive history of the species.

Besides the gratification thus afforded to a liberal curiosity, the knowledge of
even the remotest regions has, through recent events, become an object of the
utmost practical importance. In many of these, colonies have been founded,
political relations formed, and a commercial intercourse with them opened, by th»
civilised nations of Europe, and particularly by Britain. Regions the most distant'
to which a ship can sail form integral portions of her dominion, and have theii
ports crowded with her vessels. There are thousands in tills country who have a
more intimate connection with Calcutta or Sydney, than with towns in their
immediate vicinity. The manufacturer labours to supply the markets of countries,
the very existence of which, fifty years ago, was unknown ; the circumnavigation
of the globe is now an ordinary trading voyage. The knowledge of Geography
has thus become a necessary qualification for the pursuits of conunerce and indus-
try, and for much of the ordinary and current business of life. A great proportion
of the youth of Britain are trained for employments in countries which lie &r
beyond the limits of Europe.

■»<■

* '

.■.^■.

Vi^■•'.

1032792

PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION.

« »

The same causes have, moreover, given to the knowledge of distant countries a
peculiar hold on the domestic and social affections. There are few amongst us
who have not a near relation, perhaps a brother or a child, residing in another
hemisphere. Oceans now separate us from those to whom we are united by the
tenderest ties ; the objects of our affection have their abode on the banks of the
Ganges, or the shores of the Pacific ; and many, whose hearts are knit in the closest
friendship, are divided from each other bv half the earth. In this situation, a
description of the place in which our friend or relative dwells, the objects which
meet his eye, the society in which he mingles, must afford peculiar gratification,
and soothe the mind under this painful separation.

Deeply impressed with a sense of the great extent and difficult execution of a
complete geographical work, the Editor, during nearly ten years in which he has
been engaged upon it, has used the utmost exertion to procure from every quarter
information a'hd aid. He has studiously collected the most recent, authentic, and
accurate accounts of the extent, natural features, population, productions, industry,
political constitution, literature, religion, and social state of the various regions of
the globe, with the leadins details as to their districts and cities. The sciences
connected with the natural history of the earth have, however, attained to such an
extent and importance, that a thorough knowledge of them can only be possessed
by individuals who have specially devoted themselves to one particular branch.
The Editor, therefore, considered it essential to procure the co-operation of writers
who had risen to acknowledged eminence in the departments of Geology and
Mineralogy, Zoology and Botany. He considered that he had fully succeeded,
when Professor Jameson undertook to delineate the geological structure of the

globe, and the distribution of minerals over its surface ; Mr. Swainson to explain
le distribution of animals, and the most remarkable of those found in each particu-
lar region ; and Dr. Hooker to perform the same task in regard to the vegetable
kingdom. Professor Wallace has illustrated the relations of the earth as a planet,
the trigonometrical surveys, the construction of maps, and other subjects connected
with mathematical science. These tasks have been executed in a manner which,
it is hoped, will fully support the high reputation of their respective authors, bi
preparing the sections relating to commerce, the editor derived much assistance
from Mr. M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce, and he is also indebted to that
gentleman for many valuable communications. Various parts relating to remote
countries have been revised by gentlemen recently returned from them.

The Maps, which are so numerous as to form a complete Atlas, have been
executed from drawings by Hall ; and having been carefully revised by the Editor,
they will, it is hoped, be found to be accurate, and to include all the most recent dis-
coveries. Notwithstanding the smallness of the scale, they are illustrated by the
letter-press in a manner which enables them to comprise equal information with
others of much larger dimensions.

The other Wood Engravings are mostly original, or have been carefully selected
from the most faithful representations of the objects described ; and they are exe-
cuted in the best style by the eminent artists whose names appear on the title-page.
They exhibit the most remarkable plants and animals, the chief cities, public buud-
ings, natural curiosities, and picturesque scenery, with the characteristic figures
and costumes of the natives, in the countries described. It is not believed that any
work of this kind is similarly embellished, at least to nearly the same extent.
These representations are by no means introduced for the sake of mere ornament ;
they will be found of the greatest utility, convesing an infinitely better i lea of the
objects than could be derived from the most laboured description.

Notwithstanding all these efforts, it is impossible to lay this volume before the
Public without the painful reflection, that, in a subject involving such an infinite
number and variety of details, many of which are often very difficult to procure,
not a few imperfections and even errors must inevitably occur. M. Balbi, whose
exertions to collect the most recent geographical information are well known, and
to whose labours the present volume is much indebted, candidly observes : — " One
of the greatest obstacles to be surmounted in the composition of an elementary
treatise of Geography is the want of contemporary documents. Geography is
almost necessarily a compound of things which are, with things which have ceased
to be. How can one be informed of all the changes that take place in the course
of a few years, even in the capitals of Europe, still more in those of Asia, Africa,
and America 1 To compose a Geography which should exhibit a complete picture
of the g^obe at a particular period, it would be necessary to have authentic docu-
ments, all of the same date and that a recent one ; which never has been, and
never can be."

■*%■'

>^»

■■■<i-.

t
a
a
h
I

f
n
r
If
a
r
t

Jp:

■>

St\"..jf

r . 'V , .<! ■" ^^^,

1. •^. »•, v-fr

« ■* ' J.' '

,»

r.,(.

e^.

*»

,: *

-•? •

TO TUB

AMERICAN EDITION,

« * ,. f- ••

The object and plan of the Enctolopadia of Gboorapht have
been very fully set forth in the Preface to the English Edition, and
the names of the editor and his collaborators are sufficient vouch-
ers for its value. It is due, however, to the American reader, to
inform him in what respects these volumes differ from the original.
The whole of the English work is here given, with the single ex-
ception, that the description of Great Britain, which occupied
more than one-third of the Book devoted to Europe, and con-
siderably more than the space given to the whole of America, has
been somewhat abridged ; but, it is believed, without the omission
of any thing of importance. The text has been carefully revised
and corrected throughout, and in most cases more recent statis-
tical details have been substituted for those of the original. The
additions to the first volumes are not considerable in amount, but
are generally such as have been required by changes in our know-
ledge or in the condition of things. The Book relating to America
has been enlarged as far as the limits of the work would a i-vw,
principally by the addition of local details ; the condition of the
new American states is too unsettled to render it worth while to
fill much space with accounts of their political relations, which
might be entirely changed before these pages met the eye of the
reader. The Chapter which treats of the United States has been
written anew, the original being extremely imperfect and incorrect,
as all European treatises on the subject are. — Our growth is so
rapid, the increase of our population, wealth, commerce, manufac-
tures, and other industrial resources, so amazing, the creation of

new towns, cities, nay, states, is continually making such a change

1* 5

.^^■

-.%'

•-.*!*.

1^ »».

:«..>■'

^ ADTBRTIBBMBNT TO THE AmRICAN EDITION.

in the face of things, public works are conceived, planned, and
executed on so great a scale and with such promptitude, that it is
not at all surprising that a distant writer should be entirely baffled
in his attempts to describe the country as it is. The Zoological
section has alone been retained, but it has been much enlarged,
chiefly from a later work of Mr. Swainson's ; and some general
remarks upon the shells of the United States have been added.
For the account of the Gbolooy of our country, the reader is
indebted to Prof. Rogers, of the University of Pennsylvania. The
Botanical section has also been prepared by a gentleman of high
reputation in the scientific world. The Editor is painfully sensible
of the imperfection of the other parts of this Chapter, but he trusts
that the difficulties of the subject will obtain for him the indulgence
of the reader.

PBn.ADn.PHiA, October IK, 1886.

•Ji:

■ W

iJ»"'

, •>

*■."

'M*^^

:.x

»«v %

>• .v ■

"■ » *

*^ ' /u* -

^ %

v..

CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

•tlPAOl TO THl INOUSH IDinON M

rBWAOa BY THI AMCBIOAN IDITOB v

amoDucmoN t

PART I.
nsTOBT or oaooiuraT.

BOOKL

ANonm QKMBAMr

CHAP. L

ItbKiw Md Mtmlelu a«o|raphr

',\

Pa'riafrte* Ant. • ■
11. KiofdooiorfiiMl.

IIL OoBiiMm of 1>i«

IV. Tin Woild MconUoi to Um HikNWi.

~.f 1. nnhlih

■^ % Opbii

8.TlMlllM

4. HmIw tnil IMan

5. OouBtriM on Um Eupbratea

•. Oof, MifOf, ud tiM NorU

.rvtie

"»>• »:■ 4

CHAT. II.

AnetratVajrifMof IHieovtnr U

I. Olraima«Tl(alton of AMea nndtrNaatao U

U. VoyateofBataipM M

III. VojraiaofHanno IB

IV. Voyaf* of Eudoiui M

V. Vojrafa of PytlMai n

VL Voyace of Neatebui M

VII. r«riplafortlwBnrtlinaa8«a 87

CHAP. nL

Graak Oaotrapiqr befbf* Atoxander 30

I. GMiraphjr of Honar 30

II. Poetical Oaonapiqr 31

ni. Bebool of Mllalu »

IV. Oeopapby of Harodotoa S3

1. Baio|w of Herodotna 34

9, Alia of Harodolua 34

1 Aflrieaof Heiodotua 30

OHAP. IV.
Pint Alexandrian School. Eratoatbenea and BIrabo 37

I. Expedition of Alexander 37

II. Expedition of Selaucna SB

UL Brataatbenea 38

IV. Hlppaithna 30

V. Tbe world aeeordingto Eratoatbenea and Btrabo SO

L Europe 40

a. Aala 43

3. Aftiea 43

OHAP. V.

Boaaaa Gaomphy 43

I. Mela7T:...V.. 48

n. Pliny 48

ni. Iltnerarle»— Peutiniarian Table 40

r;r /

CHAP. VI.

Beeond Alexandrian Bebool 81

I. Mariana of Tl'n 81

n. Ptolemy n

I. Europe 83

B Aala 80

3. AMea 80

BOOKIL
OBoaBATBT Of m mssu
OHAP. L

Arabian Oaocrapby .

I. Oaneral flytiem .

II. Aria

III. AMea

'■^J

.00
.01

OHAP. n.
European Oeorapby dnrini Iba Dark Afaa OS

CHAP. in.
OaopapUcal Knowledfa derived ftom tbe Oiuaadat. 04

CHAP. IV.
Tartar Oaograpby as

OHAP.V.

Venetian Geo|rapby oi

BOOK ni.

MomnN aioaBAPiiT.

CHAP. I.

Diaeevwy of America and the Eaat Indlaa 00

CHAP. IL
Early Byatam of Modem Oeograpby n

CHAP. in.
Modem Aatronomleal Oeograpby 7|

CHAP. IV.
Modem Critical OcofTaphy n

ri»AP. V.
Modem DeaeriptlTe and Butiitical Oeograpby 73

CHAP. VI.
Modem Geography of Alia 74

CHAP. VIL
Modern Oeograpby of Aftlea f|

CHAP. vin.

Modem Oeograpby of America 70

OHAP. n.
Modem Geography of the Aualial Baaa and Uanda. 77

» 4

•«»

PART II.

PRIHOIPtKS or OBOORAPHT.

BOOK L

AonoNoiaoAi. mmomit.

cahx. I.

Oaaeral View of tbe PhenonMna of tbe HaaTana,
•ppaitat MoUona, fixed Btaia,PlaiMtt,fce. 00

CHAP. II.

Hw HeaTona, at aeen through the TelcKopa 01

CHAP. in.
Approximation to the Pigure and Magnitude of tba

*8!SS."

r^'

VUi OONTIRTt.

CHAP. IV.

llMMn* or Ik* IplMra M

OIIAP. V.
■•Mllon of llM Bun, Moon, and n*n«U oa ibflr

Aim -llMlf Pl|un H

CHAP. VI.

PlitancM •nil Mm "'Xm** <>' ll** HMTtnly BodlM. ■ 17

OHAP. Vli.

liHtilon or lb* Rwth •

CHAP. VIII.
ApfMranl Annual Muiloa or lb* ■an. VkMudo
of Btuoni W

CHAP. IX.

Divlilon nad Maanirt or TloM M

OHAP. X.
Pioper Mellon or tho Mnon. Uir Pbaiaa. Hdlpata
nr llM Bun tad Moon (7

CHAP. XI.

MallOBor llM Plantta round llM Sua MM

CHAP. XII.
Motion nr llw Earth round lb* Bun 110

CHAP. XIII.
Ofblti or the Planet! 113

CHAP. XIV.
CWnau 114

CHAP. XV.

Law or Unlvonal Gravllallon 116

CHAP. XVI.

Plfura and Conitltiitinn or lb« Bartb deduced ttom
the Theory or Oravllatlon

m
m

CHAP. XVIL

TheTMea

CHAP. XVIII.
Oaaeral View or Ibe Bular Byiicm

CHAP. XIX.
Plrinaad Mifnllude or Ibe Earib IM

CHAP. XX.
OeienBlaailoa or Latitude and Lon|llude 147

CHAP. XXL
BapteaHMIloB or Ibe Banb . 117

Metoorolo(r.
Hydraloty...

BOOK II.

aCOLOOIOAL MINOirUM.
OHAP. I.

OHAP. n.

CHAP. IIL

Oeofnoqr m

BOOK III.
OBMMUL rtiNoirLn or •■ooBAniy vnobb m

RBUkTION TO OROANIMO AND UTINO •BINOI.
CHAP. L
Oeofrapbyronildered In relation to Iba Otitribnlloii
orPlante 138

CHAP. II.

Oeoaraphy eonildered In relalloa to the DtftrikMtlaii

of Man and Animali SM

CHAP. in.
Geography oaneldered In relation to Maa ia toetaty lU

PART III.

OEOORAPHV COiraiDBRBD llf RELATION TO THE VARIOUS REOIOlfS OF THE OIX)BI>.

BOOK I.-EUROPE.
CHAP. L

GiKeaiL BoBViT or Eoaora 980

I. Natural Featurae SM

n. Inhabllanu 901

III. Botany 904

IV. Zoology 908

V. Languagaa ■ * JOB

CHAP. II.
Enolard 919

I. Oeographlcal Outline 317

II. Natural Geography 910

III. Illitorical Geography 341

IV. Political Geography 349

V. Productive Induetry 381

VI. Civil and Social State 3S7

VII. Local Geography 3in

1. Southern OiHintlee 364

S. Eaitern Counllei 368

3. Central Countiea 371

4. Northern Countiea 383

5. Wectero Countlee 301

6. Waira 306

CHAP. IIL
ricoTitno 401

I. Geographical Outline 401

II. Natural Oeoiiraphy 403

III. Hiatorlcal Survey 408

IV. Political Conttilution 400

V. Productive Indiiitry 410

VI. Civil and Social Slate 413

VIL Local Oeoi;rnphy 415

1. The I^iowland Countiea 4I.'<

9. The liighlamt Pountiei 4S3

3. The Scottlih Iilande 49B

CHAP. IV.
laiLtmi 433

I. General Outline and Aipect 433

II. Natural GeiiRraphy 433

III. Illitorical Geography 440

IV. Political lionititution 441

V. Productive Induttry 443

VI. Civil and Social State 44n

VII. Local Geography 4S0

CHAP. V.

DlRB/kRK 463

I. General Outline and Aapeet 461

II. Naturul Geography 471

III. Hlitorical Geography 471

IV. Productive Induetry 471

r. Political Geography 473

VL Civil and Social State , 473

VIL Local Oeograpb* » .473

CHAP. VL

BwiDBN AMn NoawAT 476

I. General Outlino and Aapeet 476

II. Natural Geography 476

III. Hialoricai Geography 481

IV. Political Geography 481

V. Productive Induetry 489

VL Civil and Social Stala 484

VII. Local Geography 486

I. Sweden 488

9. Norway 401

X Lapland 4B9

CHAP. VIL

RottABDAini BaiaiDM 4BS

I. General Outline and Atpect 408

If. Natural Geography 408

III. Illitorical Geography 408

IV. Political Geography 809

V. Productive Induitry 103

VI. Civil and Social State SOS

Vn. Local Geography 808

1. Belgium 800

9. Holland 811

CHAP. VIIL

PBAaoa

L General Outline and Aspect ...

II. Natural Oeoaraphy

III. Illitorical Geography

IV. Political Geography

V. Productive liiduilry .

818

819

890

830

839

834

VI. Civil and Social State 840

VIL Local Geography 843

CHAP. IX.
SrAiR SS8

I. General Outline and Aipect 8S8

II. Natural Geography SSO

III. Hiitiirical Geography S68

IV. Political Geography 870

V. Productive Induitry S7I

VL Civil and Social State S79

VIL Local G«>graphy 878

VIIL Republic or Andorra 880

OHAP. X.

PoRTnOAL 800

I. General Outline and Aipect SOO

n. Natural Geography 800

IIL Hlitorical Geography 801

IV. Political Geography 801

V. Productive Induitry ggg

VL Civil and Social State 803

VIL Local Geofraphy 803

- Ti

» *

ct
S

ai
ni
U
ti
ol

K
t\

M
CI

^ I. ^

4-'

ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF GEOGRAPHY.

i f^' "c INTRODUcmON.

OiooBAriiv coniiaU in tho dcicripUon and delineation of tho F^orth. It conaidora that
planet in ronpocl to it* form, ita cunnoxiun with otlior bodiea in the univerae, tho varioua
parta into which it i* divided, tituir relations to each other, and tho objecta with which
each iH roipoctivnly fliicd. (icflt(ra|)hy indowl could not attempt a acientiflc analyaia of
all theio objects, without aockinif tu comprehend within itaelf a complete circle oi acience,
tt viewa only thoir obvioua and viaible chnrectera, and chiefly thuoe featurca which arf>
peculiar to each rnxpectivo coiuitry and roffion on tho fiico of tho globe.

The ifreat iniportonco of thia branch of knowledge muat bo aufflciontly obvioua. It
embmcea a vast voricty uf those objecta which arc moat intereating in themaelvea, and
with which it moat coiionma man to be convenont. It enablea tlie navigator, tlio merchant,
the military commander, to carry on their respective operations. Geography is moreover
eaaential to tlio clear undemtanding of every branch of the history both of man and nature.
The traiiHactioim of bordoriiit; atates ore unintelligible without a knowledge of their relo*
tive cxti'nt and |)osition, and of tlio theatre on which tlie great eyenta of their history are
acted. Ever)' form, both of animal and vegotablu nature, is modified in tho most striking
inaniiur by tho climate or tho country in which it is placed. Still more intimate is its re-
lation with geology and other aciences, which investigate the materials coinpo«ing the
substance and cruat of the earth. None of theao branchea of knowlc<lgo can bo diminctly
undersitoal, or viewed under it8 prujier relation and arrangement, without a previous know
ledge of geography.

Thia important and extcnaive subject aeems to divide itaelf naturally into three parta.

The First Part treats of the "History of Gcoi,'raphy ;" the origin and progress of the
Science ; and the atepe by which man, who seemed fixed by nature in a local and limited
position, has made himaelf acquainted with tlie immense circuit of the globe. This Part
is divided into— I. Ancient Geography ;— II. Geography of the Middle Ages; — III. Modem
Geography.

The Secmid Part comprises the Principles of the Science. These are — I. MathenuUi-
cal: those whicli relate to the form of tlie earth, its movements, its place in the Solar
Syatem, the great circlea by which it is divided, the operations by which it is surveyed,
and tho modes in which its spherical outline can bo represented on the plane surface of a
map. II. Plii/sii'dl : those which treat of the substances which cover the earth's aurfact ,
tho elements which compose and surround it ; rock, eartli, water, air, as they appear under
the varioiiH furm» of mountain, plain, river, aeo, and present all the changing phenomena
of the atinosplicro. III. Geography may be considered in its relation to other objecta and
sciences. 1. To Zoology, or tho distribution of animals over tlie globe. 2. To Botany, or
the diffusion of vcgeUible productions. 3, To the human race, and the various branches
into which it has been formed, considered in relation to numbers, wealth, political union,
social, intellectual, and moral condition.

The Third Part considers Geography in detail, as it applies to the various quarters and
countries into which t!io world is divided, tlie outline and extent of each, its natural fea-
tures, the revolutions througli which it has passed, its political constitution, tho industry
and wealth, the civil and social condition of its inhabitants. The description of each
country will conclu'le with a local and topographical survey of its districts, cities, and
towns.

This Part will divide itself into five general heatis : — I. Europe. II. Asia. III. Afirica.
rV. Australia. V. America.

An Index will be added, which, being extremely copious, and containing references to
all the places montioned in the work, will answer in a great degree the purposes of a Geo-
trraphical Gazetteer.

aFoi. I ,.B

i. -^ i-

■•%^

'*■

PART I.

,if''

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.

The History of Geography may be divided into three books: — ^I. Ancient Geography.
!I. Geography of tlic middle ages. III. Modem Geography.

BOOK I.

* ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.

The Geography of the Ancients may be considered under the heads of, I. Hebrew
and Phcenician Geography ; the princi]»l features of which may be found in the Jewidi
Scriptures. II. Greek Geography, in its early state, before the expedition of Alexuider.
in. The first Alexandrian school formed by Eratosthenes. IV. The Roman school, formed
chiefly by Mela and Pliny. V. The second Alexandrian school, formed by Ptolemy.

* ,, ' CHAPTER I.

HEBBEW AND PHCENICIAN GEOGRAPHY;'

The Sacred Records, in addition to their higher claims on the attention of mankind,
possess the important secondary advantage, that they enable us to trace human existence,
and the forms of society, back to a much earlier period than the information derived firom
any other source. They were long anterior in this respect to the classic story of Greece
and Rome ; tlie faintest light even of whose fabulous history cannot be traced back to the
period when Abraham was driving his flocks over the seats offiiture empire on the Euphrates.
Amonff Abraham's contemporaries wo discern the germ of the great monarchies which
first cnanged the fiice of human affairs. Nimrod, tlie founder of Babylon, almost like an
Iroquois chief, is mainly celebrated for his activity and success in the chase. Modern dis-
covery has indeed made us acquainted with tribes existing in a still ruder form ; but there
is no narrative in which we can trace so distinctly the gradual, yet somewhat rapid, transi-
tion made in these fiivoured regions, fi-om tlie hunting and ])astoral, to the commercial and
agricultural states of society.

Sect. L — The Patriarchal Ages.

In the early patriarchal records we discover first the rich Mesopotamian plain, not yet
covered with cities and harvests, but standing as an open common, over which the sons of
Terah drove unmolested tlieir flocks and herds. In these favourable circumstances, and
surrounded by simple and rural plenty, the flocks and the shepherds multiplied in an extra-
ordinary manner. The heads of the fiimilies became petty princes, and were as such at
once respected and feared. As they went on increasing, the land became " not able to
bear them ;" and the most intimate friends were able to prevent dissension among their
adherents only by an entire though painful separation ; nay, even by striking into routes so
opposite, as to prevent the possibility of a future union. This, however, was rather a
palliation than a cure for the evil ; for, in whatever quarter each directed his course, he
came into contact with other fiimilies. The difficulty was still augmented, when all the
more fertile tracts began to be cultivated by a fixed population, subject to regular govern-
ment The first regions whicli came under these circumstances appear to have been Lower
Egypt and Gerar, on the coast of Philistia, along the Mediterranean. In the latter we find
Isaac attempting to settle and cultivate the ground ; but the king, though evidently afraid
to offend so potent a tribe, insisted, in a determined though courteous manner, upon their
quitting his territory. The family were therefore obliged finally to estiblish themselves
in the vicinity of llohron, collecting the somewhat scanty licrbage which grew amid the
rugged mountains to tlio west of the Dead Sea. It was, therefore, an auspicious change
when they were transported into the Land of Goshen, a rich pastoral district of Egypt.
The circumstances attending the captivity of Joseph enable us already to observe the
activitv of that interior caravan-trade, which afterwards on so great a scale, traversed

►^

-., ff-^'

• ^'.r, "

■'TSRSt.

I Book I.

»^-

* *:

v.^

'■

'.Stsj

HEBREW AND PH(ENICIAN GEOGRAPHY.

Arabia. Two caravans, destined for the supply of Egypt, appear meeting^ each other in
opposite directions ; and that cruel trade, of which men were the object, is already carried
on in the same remorseless manner, and by the same unjust means, by which it hat ever
since been conducted. '^ ir;

Sect. II. — Thr Kingdom of Israel.

The Israelites, after being established in Egypt for more than two centuries, were
led back into vhe promised land, so long the seat of their ancestors. Every thin? there,
since the patriarchal age, had assumed quite a different aspect : it presented walled cities,
and high cultivation, accompanied with that gross superstition and dissolute voluptuousness
which are the too common attendants of early wealth. The guilty inhabitants of Canaan
with their country were delivered into the hwaia of the Israelites ; and the territory being
divided among the ten tribes, gave occasion to a very careful topographical survey ; but
nothing yet occurred to attract the views of the nation beyond these limits, or towards the
world in general. Still less could this take place during the subsequent period, when thev
were forsaken of heaven, and reduced to servitude under the neighbouring nations, it
was under the favoured reign of David that Israel fmally triumphed over all her ene-
mies. That great prince left to Solomon, either as subject or tributary, a territory extend-
mg from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean and the borders of Egypt, forming the most
powerful state then in western Asia. Solomon, by the terror of his father's name, and of
the powerful army transmitted to him, was enabled to preserve the whole of this king-
dom, during a long reign, in peaceful submission. This accomplished prince devoted him-
self to the arts of peace, to the extension of commerce, to the culture of science, and to
the improvement and embellishment of his dominions in every direction. By the alliance
with Hiram, he was enabled to accomplish voyages more remote than had, perhaps, been
ever undertaken under any former sovereign. His alliance, and even his society, were
courted by distant princes ; and the observation of the Jews began to extend over a con-
siderable portion of the globe.

The separation of the kingdoms after the death of Solomon, was a fatal blow to the
greatness of the house of Israel. Their divided power could no longer maintain numer-
ous tributaries in submission, nor was it adequate to distant and extensive enterprises. All
the states beyond the Jordan shnok off the yoke ; the attempts to navigate the Red Sea
were abandoned ; and all distant regions in a great measure lost sight of Their view,
however, was enlarged by unexpected and unwelcome events from another quarter.

The successive invasions of Assyria and Babylon, which terminated in the downfall of
both the kingdoms, forced upon the Israelites a knowledge of the existence of these proud
and powerful empires. At tlie same time, the colossal grandeur of Egypt, the only power
capable of contending with them, was brought into prominent notice. Ample materials
were thus afforded for those lofly and awful images, those pictures of the shaking of the
world and the downfall of nations, which abound in the writings of the prophets during
the regal times. Another and nearer object attracted wonder, and afibrded tiie means of
knowledge respecting regions still more distant This was Tyre, the earliest seat of
commerce, in whose markets were found collected the tin of Britain, the gold of Afirica,
the cotton of India, and, perhaps, the silks of China. This forms so fpiand a feature, and
the descriptions of it tend so much to illustrate early geography, that it must claim some
separate notice.

Sect. III. — Commerce of Tyre.

Tyre, which under Solomon was already great and flourishing, continued to increase
till, with the exception of one of its own colonies, it became the most splendid emporium
of the ancient world. It appears, indeed, truly wonderful that, at this early period of arts
and history, when Rome yet consisted only of a few straw-thatched cottages, merchants in
Tyre should vie with the pomp of kings. So magnificent was the scene, that the prophet,
in annoiincing the divine intention to destroy Tyre, considers it as implying a purpose " to
stain the pride of all glory, and to bring mto contempt all the honourable of the earth."
(/sat. xxiii. 9.) Perhaps, however, commerce in its earlier efforts has a particular ten-
dency to concentrate itself in one point, where alone it finds protection, infbrmatioii, and
regular channels ; while in the advance of society its streams begin to be more widely
dimised.

In the interesting picture of Tyrian commerce drawn by Ezekiel, the foundation of the
intercourse with Damascus and other contiguous districts, is stated to be " the multitude
of the wares of her making ;" that is, it consisted in the exchange of her manufactured
j)roduce for the raw produce of these rich agricultural districts. There is little specifica-
tion of the Tyrian manufactures, but the returns were all made in natural products, of the
first quality which the soils of Judea and of Syria aflbrded; from Judea, the finest wheat,
honey, oils, and balsam ; from Syria, white wool, and the wine of Helbon. No situatior
could be more fortunate than that of Tyre for the formation of a navy, with the magnifi-

's?4

■i!^

HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY.

Past I

cent forests of Lebanon, Scnir, and Bashan, rising; immediately behind. The timbers, it
appears, were constructed of fir; the cedar supplied masts; while the oak was used for
those long and powerful oars, which were then the chief instruments of navigation. The
vessels appear to have been fitted up with a luxury unknown to modern times. The
benches were of the finest cypress wood, inlaid with ivory; the fine linen of Egypt,
adorned even witli embroidery, was spread out in sails. Tyre, like Carthage, appears to
have adopted the policy of employing mercena^ troops, which she drew even from the
mountainous districts of Persia and the upper Euphrates. The immediate guard of the
city, however, was intrusted to its neighbours of Arvad and Gammadin, who, standing
round the walls in brilliant armour, are said to have " made its beauty perfect"

With regud to the distant commerce of Tyre, the quarters to which it was carried on
must become the subject of some discussion, in the course of which we shall introduce the
interesting pnrticolarB given by the prophet

Swrr. rv. — The World according to the Hebrews.

No system of Geography can be traced in the sacred writers, who, occupied with higher
objects, do not even allude to any such as existing among the Hebrews. The ideas of that
people witli regard to tlie structure and boundaries of the earth may, however, be inferred
r from the genealogical chapters (Oen. x., repeated 1 Chron. L), which contain, in fact a
view of the known divisions of the earth, agreeing in some striking particulars with the
records of profane history ; also from the accounts of the commerce of Tyre, and from
various detached notices in the historians and prophets.

The Hebrews obviously never attempted to form any scientific theorv respecting the
structure of the earth. The natural impression, which represents it as a flat sur&ce, with
the heaven as a firmament or curtain spread over it is found universally prevalent Be-
neath was conceived to be a deep pit the abode of darkness and tlie shadow of death. In
one place we find the grand image of tlie earth being hung upon notliing ; but elsewhere,
the pillars of the eartii are repeatedly mentioned ; and sometimes the pillars of heaven.
In short it is evident that every writer caught the idea impressed on his senses and im-
agination by the view of these grand objects, without endeavouring to arrange them into
any regular system. Altliougii, however, the Jews never indulged in speculative geogra-
phy, yet there are copious examples of minute and careful topography for practical pur-
poses. Our object however, is not to mark the divisions of Judea, but to trace the ideas
of the Jews respecting the extent and boundaries of the known world. We shall at the
same time be able to collect all Umt is now to be known of the Phcenician Geography ; for
it is evident that Ezekiel visited Tyre, as Herodotus did Babylon, with the eye of an in-
telligent observer ; and he would doubtless hold intercourse wim the best informed men in
that great school of commerce and navigation. The objects always alluded to, as placed
at the &rthest limits of their knowledge, are Tarshish ; Ophir ; The Isles ; Sheba and
Dedan ; The River ; Gog, Magog, and the north. (Fig. 1.)

SuBSEcr. 1. — Tarshish. '■■-.■.

Tarshish is the name which, in the annals of Jewish and Phcenician navigation, occiurs
most fi^quently, and ranks next to Tyre ; yet nothing has been found more difficult than
to fix thai name to any precise place. The peculiar difficulty is this; that there are two
voyages from Tarshiali : one up the Mediterranean, bringing iron, silver, lead, and tin, the
produce of Spain and Britain (Ezek. xxvii. 12.) ; tlie other up the Red Sea, bringing gold,
ivory, and apes, the produce of tropical Africa (1 Kinffs, x. 22.). How tliese two voyages
can be from the same place, appears at first sight to baffle research.

Various places have been suggested, among which I should not think it necessary to
mention Tarsus, in Cilicia, were it not supported by such names as Volney and Malte
Brun. Except the resemblance of name, it lias not a single feature which can be recon-
ciled to the Tarshish of Scripture. Besides, tlie name Tarsus is evidently of Greek origin
{See Sleph. Byzani. in v. Strabo, 1. 14. Bocharfs Phaleg., and Wetstein's Nov. Test,
vdjf ii. p. .511. and 608.), whereas Tarshish is manifestly of oriental derivation, and is
doubtless of Phcenician origin. Indeed, jMalte Brun admits it to be tenable only on the
clumsy and improbable supposition of there being two places of the name of Tarshish.
Tortessus or Cadiz is certainly more plausible, and agrees with the Mediterranean voyage ;
but the distance is too great, and notice might have been expected to be taken of not a
few intermediate objects, particularly of the Straits of Gibraltar. It is altogether foreign
to the voyage by the Red Sea. This last objection appears also to hold against Carthage,
which, in every other respect, seems preferable to Tartessus, and of which more will be
mid in the sequel.

To solve the problem of the two voyages, llie only attempt so far as I know, has
been in tlie ingenious hypothesis of Gosselin : Tarshish, according to him, signifies the
greet or open sea, as distinguished even from the largest of its inclosed gulfs. The name
may then be applied eiiualiy to the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean ; and the voyage to and

'^.

.4 •

L'oOK I. HEBREW AND PUCENICIAN GEOGRAPHY.

Fiff. 1.— GEOCRAPHICAL SYSTEM OF THE HEBREWS.

W 30 40 iO

-4f

from Tarshish may equally be by the Red Sea or the Mediterranean. But though this
hypothesis be supported by the signitication of an old Hebrew term, and though it solve
the great problem, I think any one, who attentively traces the various occasions on which
Tarshish is mentioned in Scripture, will be satisfied that it has a sense quite different from
the loose and vague one here ascribed to it. Let us only read the following verse : — " But
Jonah rose up to flee into Tarshish from the presence ot^ the Lord, and went down to Joppa,
and he found a ship going to Tarshish ; so he paid the tare thereof, and went down into it,
to go with them into Tarshish from the presence of the Lord." Do not these words una-
vowbly suggest a precise port, to which there was a regular packet, with a fixed rate of
fare T — not a mere vague setting out into the wide and open sea. If the following expres-
' sions can be reconciled to M. Gosselin's hypothesis, it is only by very strained interpretar
tions : — " The kings of Tarshish ; — the merchants of Tarshish ; — pass ye over to Tarshish ; —
Tarshish was thy merchant ; — with silver, &c. they traded in the fairs ; — silver in plates
is brought fi-om Tarsiiish, and gold from Ophir ; — ^the daughter of Tarshisli," &c. In the
genealogical chapters, Tarshish is introduced as one of the sons of Javan. But the other
three sons, and every other name mentioned in these chapters, are the fathers of a country
and nation ; and it would bo quite singular if Tarshish alone should have had only thfi $ea
for his offspring. What a strange idea to call the sea one of the sons of Javan ! Indeed,
this is so glaringly improbable, that M. Gosselin has recourse to the hypothesis of inter-
polation — a supiKwition very unlikely in regard to books held so sacred, and in respect to
these chapters among a people so fond of genealogy, auid altogether a most imsouna prin-
ciple, as applied to the sacred volume. Finally, I think it very evident, from the general
tenour of Hebrew writers, tliat they had no distinct notion of the Mediterranean as an
inclosed sea, tend of an ocean beyond it. The expression, " the sea," used in that vague
and wide sense, will, I apprehend, be always found to signify the Mediterranean, the Red
Sea being designated by that particular term. Thus, there appears to be no motive for
adopting M. Gosselin's hypothesis, except the want of any other by which the problem of
the two voyages can possibly be solved. But if another can be stated, which shall solve
that problem, and at the same time make Tarshish the very place it might be expected to
be, this great question may, perhaps, he con8idere<l as settled in a more satisfactory manner
than heretofore.

That Tarsiiish must be, fimdamentally, Carthage, cannot, I think, admit of a moment's
doubt. Tiie strongest argument is, that if it be not, then that grand emporium of Medi-
terranean trade, the colony of Tyre, tlie place of all others with which Tyre held always
the close:5t intercourse, must never have been named by the prophets, who give such copious

Vol. 1. 2

. i.

HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY.

Part I.

iind detailed accounts of Tyrian commerce. When Ezekiel was enumerating every place,
even the most obscure, with which Tyre held intercourse, can it be supposed that this, the
chief of all others, would have been totally omitted ] But if Tarshieh be Carthage, then
that celebrated city holds exactly the prominent place which, according to every circum-
stance, it ought to have held in relation to Tyre. This general negative argument does
appear to me quite irresistible. The details are equally conformable. Carthage in her
glory monopolized, almost entirely, the commerce of Spain and Britain. She even took
the most violent measures to prevent any maritime power from penetratuig to the west of
Sicily. There appears no trace of the Tyrians ever proceedmg fiirtlier. They found,
apparently, in Carthage, a complete assortment of the commodities of all the countries to
the west, and on the ocean — silver, iron, lead, and tin, which were thus naturally viewed
by the Jews, and perhaps by the Tyrians themselves, as Carthaginian commodities. With
regard to the name, considering that both Tarshish and Carthage arc corruptions of the
original Phcenician term, they Iwive that rude resemblance which might be expected. The
connexion is rendered stronger by Carchedon, the Greek name of Carthage, which forms
a sort of middle term between them.

The voyage from Tarshish by the Red Sea, however, which forms the grand difficulty,
remains yet unaccounted for ; and it can only, I think, be solved in the following manner :
t conceive Uie name of this great African metropolis must have been generally extended
to the whole of the continent of Africa. All the names of the continents, we may observe,
were originally derived from one of their remarkable and frequented districts. The name
of Asia was extended by the Greeks from a tract of that name immediately opposite to
their shore, including Troas, Ionia, and some other of the more eastern districts of Asia
Minor. With the Romans, Africa derived its name from tlic very district now in question,
called always Africa Propria, being the finest on that coast, and including Carthage. It
appears, then, quite natural that a place so very prominent, with which Tyre held such
close and constant intercourse, apparently the only place much frequented by her on the
coast of Africa, should be associated in her conception with the whole continent in which
it was situated. On any other supposition, tlie Jews and Phoenicians must have had no
name for Africa, which is not very probable. It is observable that Tarshish evidently does
not comprehend either Egypt or Upper Ethiopia, which countries, in fact, were never by
tlie ancients considered as decidedly African, that continent, according to their conception,
having the Nile for its eastern boundary. If we admit Tarshish to be Africa, the whole
difficulty respecting the two voyages at once disappears. As the voyage to the northern
coa!<t was by the Mediterranean, so that to the eastern coast was of course by the Red Sea.
It is in favour of this solution that Jerome, in fact, calls the voyage to Tarshish " an Afri-
can voyage." The Jews, unacquainted with intermediate countries, had probably a very
inadequate conception of the distance between these coasts ; at all events, they justly con-
sidered them as parts of the same vast expanse of continent.

SvBSECT. 2. — Ophir.

The name of Ophir, combined, as it always is, with the most precious of metals, and
the most coveted of all commodities, ranks among the distant countries known to the
Jews, almost superior in splendour to Tarshish, though not equal m greatness and com-
mercial importance. The voyages of Solomon to Ophir for gold, form the greatest naval
enterprise in which the kingdom of Jiidea was ever engaged. Yet this name has been
attended with little less difficulty, and produced scarcely less controversy, than that of
Tarshish.

The belief that Ophir was in Arabia has certainly not a little to urge in its favour. In
the genealogical chapters it is always combined with Sheba, or Sabea, which was undoubt-
edly situated at the south-west angle of Arabia. It was from Sheba that gold (doubtless,
tlie gold of Ophir,) was regularly brought to Judea and Phoenicia. Even Bochart, who
tliinks himself obliged to seek in India a more distant Ophir, clumsily compounds the
matter by making another Ophir in Arabia. He is followed by M. Malte Brim. M. Gos-
selin, with his usual zeal to restrict ancient knowledge, insists, that there never was any
Opliir except the Arabian, and places it in the modem interior district of Dofiir. There
appear to me, I confess, viwt improbabilities in this Arabian Ophir. As an interior district,
it must have been nearer, or certainly as near, to Judea as Shebo ; and it appears strange,
that no direct land communication should ever have been opened with it. Let us consider
tlie mighty operations of Solomon ; his utmost efforts combined with those of Hiram ; the
materials of shipbuilding conveyed by land over a vast desert; the most skilful workmen
transported to Ezion Geber ; a fleet composed of large vcs.sels, called ships of Tarshish, at
last formed, and undertaking a series of voyajres, in each of which three years were
employed. What a waste of labour and expenditnrn to obtain a commodity whicli could
have been conveyed across Arabia in two months on the backs of camels ! Yet the repe-
tition of tlie voyaijc shows that the article was, in fact, procured on b«:'tter terms tha!i bv
the usual chunuel. In the voyage from Ophir, also, we find new articles never mentioned

Book L

tt '. ^ ■»

" HEBREW AND PHCENICIAN GEOGRAPHY.

-■■^ii.

in relation to Sheba or Arabia, but charactGristic of equatorm. Africa — ivory, ajies, and
peacocks. Witli regard to the cloee combination in whicli Shcba and Ophir are alwaya
found, it will appear natural enough, when we consider that, unless during the short
expedition of Solomon, Sheba appears to have been the channel by which the gold of
Ophir was transmitted to Judea and Phoenicia. This circumstance might readily lead the
inhabitants of those countries to consider the two as closely connected, though Ophir
might be beyond Sheba, and even be separated from it by seas and territories of consider-
able extent

The hypothesis which places Ophir in India, though supported by great names, appears

?uite untenable. The trade of Ophir bears not the uast resemblance to an Indian trade,
t does not include the fine manulactures and rich spices which India has always iiiniished ;
and its staple is gold, which never, at any time, was an article of export ft<cnn that quarter
of Asia. India has, on the contrary, always demanded a large balance of specie, iwd has
formed a gulf in which the gold of the west has been absorbed. If we reject India, we
shall not certainlv, with some savans, travel as far as Peru in quest of our object, notwith-
standing the slight resemblance of name, and the attempt to eke it out by the expression
" oM of Parvaun," which has some appearance of being synonymous.

The eastern coast of Africa is the quarter to which all the indications appear very clearlv
to point In the voyage to Tarshish by the Red Sea, its name and that of Ophir are al-
ways combined; nay, the voyage, which in the Book of Kings is called the voyage to
Tarshish, in the Chronicles is called the voyage to Ophir; so that it is evident the two are
one and the same voyage ; and, if Tarshish was Africa, Ophir must clearly be in Africa.
There is, however, on mis coast no abundant supply of gold till we reach as &r south as
SofUa ; thus implying an extent of navigation which is certainly somewhat startling. M.
Goeselin particularly urges, that in the time of Alexander there was no longer any know-
ledge of eastern Africa ; and that even the Romans never appear to have penetrated beyond
Cape Delgado. On the other hand, it is to be considered that the alliance of Hiram and
Solomon united advantages which never Existed again in an equal degree. The wealth,
naval skill, and ample materials which those great princes could command were scarcely
equalled, even by the Ptolemies. After the deaUi of Solomon, the kingdom, split into two,
and weakened by continued dissention, abandoned entirely these distant commercial enter-
prises, A solitary attempt to renew the trade was made by Jehoshaphat, but the vessels
prepared ibr that purpose were wrecked in the very mouth of the port of Ezion Geber ;
after which the undertaking was entirely given up. In the calamities which afterwards
befbl Israel and Judah, and the revolutions which subverted the whole political system of
western Asia, it is not wonderful that every trace of this distant intercourse should have
been obliterated ; and that the successors of Alexander should have had to enter on a new
field of discovery. In support of the supposition of So&la, there may also be noticed a
certain resemblance of name ; and the duration of the voyage, stated at three years, would
afibrd very ample time to reach the Zombese, even under all the imperfections of ancient
navigation.

SvBSECT. 3. — The Isles,

The Isles, a term which occurs much in Scripture, might be supposed to describe gene-
rally those portions of the globe which come under this description ; yet a careflil compa-
rison of the different passages in which the word occurs will probably show, that it is used
in a much more precise and determinate sense, and is applied to a wide and connected
range of territory. The whole of the southern coasts of Europe, consisting either of real
islands or of peninsular tracts, appears by the Jews and Phoenicians to have been viewed
as a long range of islands. Besides, the terms mjsoj and insula were, in periods of remote
antiquity, applied loosely to peninsulas as well as islands proper. Among many examples
which might be adduced, one will suffice — Peloponnesus. The isles, relative to Tjrre,
appear to have ranked only second to Tarshish as a source of wealth, and in respect of
close and intimate intercourse. Tyre is called expressly, "a merchant of many isles :"
and the consternation which shook the isles at the sound of her fall ; the dismay of their
kings, who are said to have then cast off their robes, and sat on the ground, — all point out
the extent and importance of this commerce. Tarshish, Elisha, Chittim, and Dodanim
are named in the geneological chapter as the four who divided among them the isles of
the Gentiles; but, though Tarshish is so often named in combination with "the isles"
among the most distant maritime territories, there is never any indication as if it were
itself an island. The combination is probably produced by the extensive possessions and
commerce of the Carthaginians in the western islands and coasts of Europe. These, in-
cluding the southern point of Italy, were, as already observed, probably considered as insu-
lar, and were distinguished by the appellations of the " isles afar off" and " the distant
isles of the sea." The " isle" in particular, which Isaiah mentions in such close connex-
ion with Tarshish, and which the merchants of Sidon, "by passing over the sea, had
replenished," can scarcelyr be anv other than Sicilv. an island almost Carthaginian, and

'■ i

';^

inSTORY OP GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt I.

containinff k many flouriBhing cities. With regard to the isles of Elisha, they ore evidently
Hellas, the Creek name of Greece. The only distinctive characteristic, indeed, Uiat
of furnishing Tyre with the blue and purple dye, docs not recall to us any of the features
under which we have been accustomed to recognize that celebrated region. But Greece
was not yet the seat of arts and arms ; and, had she been so, the Tyrian mercheuits might
■till have viewed her only as she served their purpose. Bochart has collected ample testi-
monies to show that the murox, the shell which yielded those celebrated d^es, was found
in peculiar abundance on the coast of Laconia. Cliittim appears very evidently Cyprur,
and its early capital of CitiuTi The alarm being given thence of the approach of the
king of Babylon, and its beinp^'xinsidcred as tlie natural place of rcfiige for the inhabitants
of Tyre, where yet they would not be fully secure, mark a proximity which belongs to no
other island. The name, indeed, is in one instance given to Greece, and in another to
Italy ; but this seems merely to be, that, as the nesrest known island, its name is some-
times thus vaguely extended to the whole of that territory considered by the Jews as insu-
lar. The attempts of Bochart to find the name of Chittim in Italv have been wholly abor-
tive ; fbr we cannot consider as worthy of notice the observation that it and iMtium, in the
respective Greek and LAtin languages, both signify "to hide." In regard to Dodanini,
convertible into Rodanim(1 and ^ being perpetually interchanged and confounded), though
it is mentioned only once, we seem justified in fixing on Rhodes, already flourishing and
commercial, though not yet become the rival of kings. Bochart seems to go much too far,
when he seeks for it on the Rhone or the Ebro.

' SvBSECT. 4. — Sheha and Dedan,

Of the internal trade of western Asia during tlie early ages, the most extensive and
important was that carried on across Arabia. It consisted, not so much in the productions
of the region itself, as in those of India and Africa, which found their way by tfiis channel
to Judea and Phoanicia.

Sheba, among the Arabian states, holds thfl most prominent place, being undoubtedly
the same with the Sabea or Arabia Felix of the classic writers. Its imports were tlie
precious commodities of gold and incense : the latter anciently in most extensive demand
for the purpose of sacrifice. These articles appear to have been brought to Judeo, not by
any maritime channel, but in crowded caravans. The " companies of Sheba" are mentioned
even in Job. Isaiah speaks of the " multitude of camels ;" and of " all tliey from Sheba."
Yet the incense, it is now certain, must have come chiefly fh>m the opposite African coast of
Berbera ; and the gold, we have some reason to think, must have been derived from a still
more remote part of that continent

The commerce of Dedan rivalled that of Sheba, being carried on from tlie opposite or
eastern coast The mention of " many isles" in combination vvitli Dedan, seems to fix it
to that point at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, which is, in fact, bordered by numerous
islands. One of these, Ormuz, became aflern'ords the scat of a kingdom, which, from a
situation and commerce similar to that of Dedan, derived a splendour which made it the
pride of the East The imports from Dedan — " ivory and precious cloths" — point out the
source of this prosperity. These were the commodities of India, brought to the mouth of
the Persian Gulf, and thence transported across the desert to the western regions. The
caravan trade of Dedan appears to have been most extensive ; insomuch that tlie prophet in
denouncing the judgment upon Arabia, mentions the " travelling companies of Dedonim" as
its most conspicuous feature. In the prophets, Edom and Dedan are almost universally named
together, and the same judgments represented as affecting both. Hence they are usually
considered as parts of the same country, and the ordinary maps include Dedan as a district
of Edom. Even Bochart whose learning showed him that there must be a more distant
Dedan, adopts tlie hackneyed scheme of supposing that there were two Dedans. There is
no occasion for so unskilful a theory to explain the intimate connexion between these two
states. When caravans came across Arabia fiwm the Persian Gulf, it was at Edom or Idumea
that they first touched on the civilized world. A dep6t was thus naturally formed there of
the commodities in which they traded. This traffic raised Idumea and its capital, Petra, to
a high pitch of wealth and imjiortance. So close a connexion necessarily caused Dedan to
be deeply afiected by any calamity which desolated Edom, and rendered her no longer the
channel through which this commerce could flow. But these disasters arc by no means
represented as touching her so closely or so deeply ; and while Edom is represented as utterly
spoiled, and converted into a waste and reproach, the inhabitants of Dedan are merely warned
to " turn back and dwell deep;" (Jer. xlix. 8.) ond the expression, " they of Dedan shall fall
by the sword," is more correctly interpreted in the margin, " they shall fall by the sword
unto Dedan." These circumstances appear to mark, along with an intimate connexion, a
complete distance and separation between these two great Arabian states.

Raamah is mentioned amonjr other nations of Arabia, along with Sheba, as producing the
same articles, but as a much less remarkable country. It appears to be the modern Had
nunuth, neither situated so commodiously as Sheba tor the .African, nor as Dedan for tlio

'll

4 I

Book I.

IIKBREW AND PIICENICIAN GF.OGRArHY.

Indian, friidn. Some of thn bpst-wntcrnd districts probably of the Nedsjed, appear to have
composed thn kitiijdoni of KcJar, cnriciicd by the breeding of numerous sheep and goats,
with which it supplied even Tyre, and rose to 8uch prosperity, as to make it be considered
a mighty catastrophe " when nil the glory of Kcdar shoulci fail."

, ■ * * ■ ''V<

SviMECT. T). — Countries on the Euphrates. " ■

The river (for such is the import of the term) presents itself oa a grand feature of the
landscape after passing across the wide Syrian desert, towards the eastern extremity of the
known world. This name, in ])rctbrence even over the Nile and tlie Jordan, was always
applied to the Euphrates, which, holding so immense a course tJirough kingdoms the most
celebrated in history, was considered as one of the grand boundaries of the eartli. The great
empires and capitals of Assyria and Babylon gave to it a lustre, which was scarcely divided
by the Tigris, whose name was little known to the Jews before tlie captivity. Along this
I'ne of territory EzekicI enumerates a number of cities, Haran, Canneh, Eden, Ashur, &c.,
from which great caravans proceeded to Tyro with cloths and other articles of the most
valuable description. In such early accounts, however, the country from which commodities
last came is seldom distinguished from their original seat I therefore entirely agree with
Dr. Vincent, that they must have been brought by a long overland voyage across Asia ;
that these chests of rich apparel, so carefully bound with cords, came, prol^bly, by interior
caravans from Hindostan, and, perhaps, already from the frontier of China.

Of the countries beyond the Euphrates, only some broken fragments of knowledge appear
to have reached Judea before the captivity. Elam is particularly noticed ; the residence of
a warlike people, occupying the long mountainous tract east of the Tigris. Media and
Persia are also named on a few occasions, but so as to prove that they were only contem-
l)lated in dim and obscure distance. At a vague and uidefinite distance beyond, the ends
of the earth were imagined to exist The early Greeks and, after them, the Arabians, viewed
the habitable earth as an island, surrounded on every side by water. Ptolemy, on the con-
trary, places at every extremity of his map a vague expanse of unknown land. The He-
brews combined in some measure these two views of the subject To the west, the remotest
object for them was the sea, studded witli numerous and distant isles ; but to the east, where
land was seen indefinitely extending, tlioy formed the idea of an inland termination, without
being able to attich to it any prociso limits. Such a boundary was apparently supposed to
exist in various directions, since " all tlio ends of the earth" is an expression frequently
occurring. It was to the eat-t, however, that this idea peculiarly attached itself; and " from
the river to the ends of the earth," is the farthest point to which the figurative kingdom
.•>f the Messiah is made to extend.

SuBSECT. 6. — fHoff, Magog, and the North.

The north quarter is the only part of the circuit of the geographical knowledge of the
.Tows which remoins to be surveyed. It presented features of peculiarly rude and formi-
dable aspect. Ezekiel, in anticipating an approaching inroad, draws the most gloomy feature
of the hordes which it poured forth : Go;.', with all his bands, coming like a storm or a
cloud to cover the land ; Gomer with all his bands; the house of Togarmah, from the north
(piarter : " a great company and a mighty army," directing their course against those nations
which " were at rest, dwelt safely, and had gotten cattle and goods ;" and with the eager
purpose "to take a prey, to carry away tiioir silver and gold, to take a great spoil." This
picture, tlicse hostile and tumultuous crowds, " all riding upon horses," with their wide-
rr)aming and predatory habit:*, has always s\iggested the idea of Scythian invasion; and
the Arabian geographers have placed the castle of Gog and Magog at the remotest extremity
of Tartary. On looking narrowly into tlie matter, however, wo shall find it difficult to
suppose tills inroad to have proceeded from any part of those unbounded plains. The fact
is, we have no occasion to look so far ; for the high table-lands in the interior and north of
Asia Minor, Phrygia, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Paphlagonia, have always presented the
same rude ' pastoral aspect and have bred tribes of migratory shepherds and warriors, very
similar to those of Scythia itself. These tracts, in fact, continue still to pour forth vast bodies
of irregular cavalry, which form the main strenirth of the Turkish armies. Tliis view of
the subject appears complet(>ly fixed by the account of the rommercial intercourse main-
tained by tlinso nations with Tyre. The iirophet mentions Meshech and Tubal, elsewhere
completely identified with Gog, who is called tlicir "chief prince." There never has been
the least doubt ns to the position of these countries in Upper Armenia, and on the southern
Iwrder of Caucasus. There the classical writers mention in the Moschi and the Tibareni.
which are, perhaps, the same names. The imports into Tyre are stated to be "vessels of
brass, and persons of men." This somewhat curious combination is, however, altogotlier
characteristic of the region in (juestion, which was, in ancient time, highly distinguished
for the copio\isness and excellence of its copper and iron, which last is not wholly exclml(?u
by the term used ui the original. The skill with which it was worked into steel by the
Chalybes, a people of this region, caused their name to be generally given to this product.

Vol. I. ?* C

^vl

.-.0-

HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY.

PaktI.

*.»

Even in the present Btate of neglect, the neigtibourliood of Trebiaond rappliei wifh excel-
lent copper all the Lewcr Asia. The other article, also, is but too descriptive. The
expression, "persons of men," marks the trade in slaves, with which it has always been
the liite of Caucasian countries to supply the East Horses and mules are reported as
brought by the " house of Togarmah." Horses have always been a boast of Tartary ; and
nn nilianco has been imagined between this name and that of the Turcomans, who still
furniHh the finest horses. But there was a race called Trogmi, in the upland tracts of
I'aphlogonia, a region celebrated for its horses, and also for its mules, in which last respect
it has a decided advantage over Tartary, to which tliis last breed is a stranger. Thus we
seem justified in finding Gog, with all his rude and terrible appendages, in the northern
extremity indeed of the civilized and classical world of Asia, but still hi distant from those
boundless wastes which composed the ancient Scythia and the modem Tartary.

Javan, which is described as furnishing the same objects of trade with Meshech and
Tubal, but not as having any concern in the desolating invasion of Gog, is, in (act, the
same word with Ion, or Ionia, an extensive appellation, wnich comprehendM all the western
part of the Lesser Asia. The Jews and Phcsnicians, overlooking the long range of narrow
straits which separated it from Europe, not yet recopised as a separate continent, appear
to have extended the name to Thrace, and the interior of continental Greece. Alexander
the Great is in one place called king of Javan. That a similar extension was recognised
in the early ages of Greece itself, appears by the celebrated ancient inscription at the
Isthmus of Corinth. " This is Peloponnesus, not Ionia." The Javan slaves were probably
drawn fix>m Thrace, whose barbarous regions amply supplied the ancient markets with this
cruel species of commodity. ,

CHAPTER IL

ANCIENT VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY.

The early voyages of discovery formed the most important materials ibr those delineations
of the globe whicn were made by the geographical gchools of Greece and Rome in their
more advanced and perfected state. Before proceeding, therefore, to consider the systems
of these schools, it may be proper to toke a survey of the exploratory voyages performed
by ancient navigators. These do not appear very congidcrablc in the eyes of a modem
mariner. There is not one of them, perhaps, which the captain of a tolerably appointed
merchant-vessel would not, in the course of his ordinary business, be ready to undertake.
But in steering along an unexplored coast, in vessels which could scarcely rank above boats,
without the use of the compass, or any correct means of astronomical observation, even
these limited voyages were fraught with peril and adventure. The record of them is,
however, involved in much mystery and controversy. They were not reported to the world
in those regular narratives with which the modem press teems. The ancient narratives
are always meagre, and in many cases we have only fragments of hearsay testimony, col-
lected by careless or prejudiced writers. A learned investigation, therefore, is usually
necessary, to discover along what coast the navigator sailed, to what point of it he reached,
and sometimes whether he ever sailed along any coast. In several cases the most skilfiil
disputants are still divided on questions, which, sunk in the deep abyss of time, must probably
remain for ever undecided. Faint and dubious, however, as are these records, they will
lead us over some of the most interesting problems of antiquity, and will enable us to trace,
in some degree, the infant steps of maritime enterprise.

Sect. I, — Circumnaviffation of Africa under Necho,

To perform tne circuit of the coast of Africa was the favourite object of ancient maritime
"Wterprise, as it continued to be of that of modem times, till the era of its final happy
accomplishment. The manner in which its coasts, beyond the Mediterranean and the Red
Sea, begin to converge, suggested the idea of a peninsula, the circumnavigation of which
might be effected, even by the limited resources of ancient navigation. The wide sphere,
both of knowledge and trade, which such a discovery would open to the enterprising mari-
time nations round the Mediterranean, was sufficiently obvious. The first attempt of this
description originated in a quarter which had usually been accustomed to keep aloof fVom
every ppocics of naval enterprise.

Egypt ho/l long held itelf as a country strictly agricultural ; but .\echo, who, next to
Scsostri.s, raised its military glory to the greatest height appears, like other conquerors,
to have been animated by an active spirit which exerted itself in every direction. Not
possessing fit instrumnats among his own subjects, he engaged some Phoenician .navigators
10 descend tlip Red Sea, find endeavour to find their way back to the Mediterranean, by
the PillarK of Hepcules. The narrative is so very short, that we may easily give it in the
words of Herodotus : " The PhtEflicians, sotting sail from the Red Sea, made their way into
the southern sea ; wlien autwiiu ujiproachcd, they drew their ve.ssels to land, sowed a

> (

■*! V

'^,

AP ^

Book I.

\ft

VOYAGES OP SATASPES AND HANKO.

10>

crop, and waited till it waa gprown, when they reaped it, and agrain put to sea. Havini;
Bpont two years in this manner, in the third year they reached the Pillars of Hercules,
and returned to Egypt, reporting what does not find lielief with me, biit may, perhaps,
with some other person; for they said tliat in passing Afirica they had the sun on their
right hand (i. e. the north). In this manner libya was first known."

The authenticity of this narrative has been in a remarkable degree the object of learned
curiosity, and lias produced a mass of controversy, greater, perhapi, than its short and
vague nature is well able to admit The arguments appear to have been exlJtusted on
the believing side by Rennell, on the sceptical by Goeaelin and Vincent. Formidable as
the achievement was, it does not seem to involve any absolute impossibilito, since the
whole voyage might be performed without losing sight of the shore, or launcning into the
open sea, through which the ancients had no moans of guiding their course; and their
smaller vosscls, keeping close to the shore, might even poeseas some advantage over our
larger ones, obliged to stand out to sea, and encounter the stormy waves of the Atlantic.
Herodotus seems inclined to credit the information, unless, on the ground of one general
statement, which, being the ver^ thing that should have happened, and disbelieved only
through his ignorance, strongly fortifies our inclination to credit the story.

Skt. IL — The Voyage of Satatpet.

The Persian monarchs, after their sway was established over the eastern coasts of the
Mediterranean, found the exploration of Afirica in some degree their peculiar province.
This nation, however, laboured under an aversion and dread of the sea, greater, perhaps,
than that of the other orientals. The only efKirt of theirs on record was one which arose
in a singular and rather casual manner.

Sataspes, a Persian nobleman, having committed a heinous offence, was condemned by
Xerxes to a cruel death. His firiends, however, persuaded the monarch, that by com-
muting this sentence into that of a voyage round Afirica, he would inflict sufferings scarce-
ly less severe, and might render a national benefit. They prevailed, and Sataspes, having
procured in Egypt a vessel and crew, passed the Straits of Gibraltar, and bent his course
southwards. He is represented as havmg beat about for several months, at the end of
which he probably reached the coasts of the Sahara. The view of those firightful and
desolate shores, and of the tempestuous ocean which dashed against them, might well
intimidate a navigator bred in tlie luxurious indolence of the Persian court. Sataspes was
struck with a panic, and measured back his course Ui the straits. Yet, hoping that
tune and the degree in which ho had accomplished his mission might eflkce tlie im-
pression, both of former offence and of present failure, he again presented himself before
Xerxes. In giving an account of his voyage, he merely related, that wherever he landed
he had seen little men wearing a Phoenician dress, who immediately fled into the moun-
tains ; but his people had done them no injury, bevond carrying off the cattle of which
they stood in need. The failure of the ultimate object of the expedition he imputed to
the occurrence of an insurmountable obstacle, the nature of which has not been satisfac-
torily explained. Xerxes, however, accustomed to expect that all nature should be sub-
servient to his will, would listen to no excuse, and ordered the original sentence to be im-
mediately executed.

Sect. III. — Voyage of Hanno.

The Carthaginians, as the greatest maritime and commercial people of antiquity, might
have been expected to make earlier and further progress in the discovery of Afi'ica tlnn
any other nation. In general, however, a veil of deep mystery shrouded all the proceed-
ings of that powerful and aspiring people. It is even asserted that they considered as ex->
clusively theirs the whole Mediterranean west of a line drawn across to Sicily, and that
they captured all the vessels, and put to death the crews, that W'^re found navigating
within these forbidden precincts. The Romans, on the other side, animated by inex-
tinguishable enmity, are said to have industriously destroyed all the records of the
literature and history of their fallen rivals. The only fragment that escaped is the
Periplus of Hanno, which, notwithstanding the scepticism of Dodwell, its editor, the
learned world are now generally agreed in considering as ancient and authentic. This
celebrated document is so short, that we may find space here for a complete translation
of it

" It pleased the Carthaginians that Hanno should sail beyond the Pillars of Hercules,
and should found cities of the Liby-Phoenicians. He set sail, therefore, with a fleet of
sixty vessels, each of which was impelled by fifly oars. They carried with them men and
women to the number of thirty thousand, with provisions and supplies of various kinds.
We sailed two days beyond the straits, and founded a city overlooking an ample plain, and
which we called Thymiatcrium. Thence we proceeded westward to Soloe, a promontory
of Libya, thickly shaded with trees, where we founded a temple to Neptune ; then turning
tnstward for half a day's sail, we came into a lake not far from tfie sea, overgrown with

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.

Past I.

numoronii and high recdii, and on whooo banks olcphiiiitB and a numticr of wild aniinala
were feeding. Having nuiscd this lake in tiio courtio of a day'H nail, wo founded cities on
Uio Bca coast, Coricuni-TeichoH, Gytto, Aero, Moliwsa, and Arambys. Tlion settinj? sail,
wc made our way to tlie groat river IJxus, which flows tVuni Libya. On its bunks the
Lixita-, a pastoral race, ted tlioir flocks ; with whom wo formed tics of friendship, and spent
a short interval. The country abuvo them wm inhabited by itdiotipitablo Ethiopians, tilled
with wild beasts, and traversed by very high mountains, whence the Lixus is said to descend ;
and it was added, that tlieso mountains wore inliabitod bv men dwcllinfi^ in caves, of a
strange appearance, who outran even horses in the chase. Having received mterprcters from
the Lixito!, we proceeded along a desert coast till the middle or the second dav ; when we
sailed one day to the eastward^ and in tl>e recess of a littie bay found a small island. Are
stadia in curcuit We leil iidiabitants there, and named it Ceme. This island, on taking an
account of our course, wo conjectured to bo opposite to Carthage ; for tlie navigation num
Cartilage to the Pillars, and from the Pillars to Ceme, corresponded. Then we came to a
lake through which flows a groat river called Chrctos. That lake contained three islands
greater tlian Come ; by these, in tlie course of a day's navigation, wc reached tlio interior
shore of the lake, where very great mountains impended over it, inhabited by a rough people
dressed in skiu of wild beasts, who by tlirowing stones repelled us, and prevented us iVom
landing. We then sailed into another river, largo and broad, ilill of crocodiles and river
horses. We then returned to Ceme. From Ceme, renewing our course to the south, we
passed for twelve days along a shore, the whole of which was m the possession of the Ethi-
opians, who showed a trembling dread of our aspect, and spoke a language unknown to our
Lixite interpreters. On the lost day, we came to high mountains covered with trees, the
wood of which was odoriferous and variously tinted. Passing round these mountains by a
navigation of two days, we came to an immense opening of the sea, bordered by plains in
which we saw fires of different magnitude glittering at intervals fVom every spot. Having
watered there, we proceeded five days along tlie snore, till wo came to an immense bay,
which the interpreters called the Western Horn. In it was a large island, and m that island
a nit water lake, in which again there was another island. Entering this lake, wc saw in
the day nothing but forest ; but m tlio night there were many fires burning ; and we heard
various sounds of musical instmmcnts, and the cries of numberless human beings. Being
terrified by these objects, and the prophets altiu exhorting us to quit the island, we made otf,
and reached next the fiery region of^Thymiamata, whence torrents of flame poured down
into the sea. Here the heat of the earth was such, that the foot could not tread upon it.
We therefore took our speedy deporturo from this place, and after four days' fiirtlier sail, saw
the earth in the night fiill of flames. There appeared also in the midst of them one lofty
fire greater than the rest, which seemed to much to the very stars ; this, when seen by day-
light, proved to be a very lofty mountain, called tlie chariot of tho gods. Thence by a navi-
gation of three days, having passed these fiery torrents, we came u|xin another bay, called
tiie Southern Horn. In its inmost recess was an island similar to that formerly described,
which contained in like manner a lake with another island, inhabited by a rude description
of people. The females were much more numerous than the males, and hod rough skins :
our interpreters called them Oorilla, Wo pursued but could take none of tho males ; tliey
all escaped to tlio tfip of precipices, which they mounted with cufc, and threw down stones;
wc took three of tho females, but they made such violent strufrfjles, biting and tearing their
captors, that we killed them, and stripped oflTthc skins, which we carried to Carthago : being
out of provisions, we could g6 no flirther."

Such is tlie entire narrative of this most celebrated of the ancient voyages; but it would
be impoi-sible to compris>> \^ ithin the same limits even a sketch of the commentaries to which
it has given rise among tlio learned.

Three leading hypotheses have been formed ; one, that of Hougainville, who conceives
Hanno to have reached the Gulf of Benin ; another, of Major RennoU, who carries his
course only to Sherbro Soimd, a little beyond Sierra liCone ; while M. GoEselin insists
upon termmating it about tlie river of Nun. (^Fif^. 2.) When wc reflect that tiic first
or these courses is upwards of three thousand miles, and the last under seven hundred, an
idea may be fomicd of the extremely vague nature of these data, where all tho names arc
changed, and no one point fixed with such certainty that tho othrrs can rest upon it.

Bougainville contends that his assigned limits do not exceed what may reasonably be
supposed to have been passed over by the most (^kilful nnvijrator of antiquity; in fact,
the period of thirty-eight days is precisely tho time employed by tho squadron sent in
1641 to found the Portuguese fort of Elmina. All tho grand features of man and nature
described by Ilanno are to be found in tropical Africa only; Ethiopians or Negroes;
Gorilla;, who are evidently apes or orang-outangs ; rivers so large as to contain croco-
diles and hippopotami. The great conflagrations of the gniss, and the music and dancing
prolonged through the night, are phenomena which have been observed only in the
negro territories.

Major Rennoir.-j system retains all the arguments by which that of Bougainville is sup

Book 1. VOYAGE OF HANNO.

Fif!.z-M\v ii,i,iysTiivn\(i thi; voyage of lUNNa

II ID 10

Kniliiit

ava«

SitmUo""

f,.»^

c.^

ported, at the same time tliut it avoiils the extravagant supposition of ancient vessels hav-
ing made a course of seventy gcoprriiphical miles in the day. The Gulfs of Bissago and
Sherbro present tliose numerous islands described by Hanno, and not found on any other
part of the coast ; and even their form seems to correspond to the appellation of Horn,
applied by him to these great gulfs. If, "tlien, Hanno's career reached central Africa, there
can be little doubt that Major Rcnnell's hypothesis, or something near it, exliibits his real
progress.

M. Gosselin restricts the voyage within much narrower limits. It was impossible, he
urges, that the course could be otherwise than slow in a voyage of discovery upon on un-
known sea, where the mariner could sail only by daylight, with constant precautions, and
minutely examining every part of the coast. The motions of Hanno were clogged also by
the large and incumbered fleet of which he was the escort. Destitute of the compass, and
without the power of standing out to sea, he could never, it is alleged, have doubled Cape
Bojador, which so long baffled the eftbrts of the Portuguese. With regard to the features
supposed to be exclusively characteristic of tropical Africa, M. Gosselin conceives that
Morocco, yet in no degree civilized or subdued, but in the full possession of rude native
tribes, would bear a much more similar aspect than now to the interior portions of the con-
tinent. The ape tribe and the wild river amphibia might probably fill a region unoccupied
by man, though now, it is supposed, expelled by culture and a more crowded population.
The term Ethiopians hns been applied, not to negroes only, but to all nations of a dark
colour. He conceives, therefore, that Hanno's course could never pass much beyond the
frontier of Morocco, and could liavo reached only a very little further than the estuary of
tlie river of Nun.

To (locide a fniint on which such lonrnod mon so widely disagree, is what we do not
Ibcl vf>ry tbrwiinl to undortiilio ; and really the difficultios appear very great in any view of
llie siilij(!ct. Tlio detail of tlio ixitiitioiia would, on tlic whole, lead us to prefer the most

' nn"

HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY.

Pait I.

limited uporo. Of thoKe (xmitioiM tlio iHlanil of Orno fonn* tlio kry ; and Iho iilontifying of
it with Arifuin i« (<iMM<iiti«l to tli<> Miipiwrt of thn two rciiHitu liyputlu>M'«. Hut IhouKh it i*
evident tluit the whole of Ihu iMxhug uerioil U» Ccmc ia not given, tlie time beinjf oniilt«Mi
during which the Hvo citinii were tiiunilud, yet tlin general tenuur MieaiH hurdlv coniiiiitent
with M> great a way being made along luch u ilittlcult and unknown uliore. 1 he defect w
in lonie degree supplied by an ancient nautical guide of loinn authority, called the Peri-
plMK of Hcylax, in wnieh the wiil from the «lniit!t U) Cerno if given at twelve daya, o period
which Major Kennell adinita to bo wholly inMuttlcient for reat-hmg Argiiin. Ptolemy, indeed,
carries Cerne to almoat a tropical latitude ; but as he kcepa it still north of the Canaries, his
graduation hero is manifestly erroneous, and his authority, on the whole, is in iiivour of n-
taining Cerne witliin tlie hniits of Morocco. The details of Haimo do not appear to be
always very satisikctory ; but porhapa thov might prove more so, did wo possess a more
accurate survey of this coast than has yet been taken. On the whole, then, the great quea-
tion is, whether M. GosMlin's solutions can account for tlio aspect of nature and life being
so dilibront from that of Morocco, and so like that of a negro coaat : perham here, too, some
light might be obtained fixxn a rarefiil observation of the ruder borders of the former empire.

Skct. IV. — Voyagri nf Eudoxvi,

The ambition of noriunning the circuit of Africa, the grand maritime problem of an-
tiquity, was not solely conflnni to princes and states. Even private adventurem, animated
by the ambition of achieving so great an enterprise, and hoping, perhaps, to combinu with
it opportunities of lucrative commerce, are found in the list of tlio explorers of Africa.
KuduxiiM was tlio most memorable of these adventurers, whoso story, however, lias come
down to us through a very clouded medium. In ancient, still more than in modem times,
there existed men whose habit it was to treat with doubt and derision all narratives of dis-
covery that extended beyond the ordinary limits. At the head of this sceptical band stands
Htrabo, one of the greatest f^eogiaphers whose works survive, and who fonns the chief
medium by which these narratives have rea(;hod our time ; a moot unfortunate circumstance
to the fkme of tlieso early discovcren. However, in many instances, nature herself has
stood forth as their vindicator ; and our moro cxtenchid knowledge has enabled us to detect
the fallacy of the arguments by which SStnibo hus endeavoured to refute them. This is not
jxirticularly tlin case with regard to Eudoxus; but really, in Strabo's notices respecting the
adventurous lite of the bold navigator, wo cannot see any thing which tends to controvert
tlio general btjiief of antiquity, that he had inado repeated and spirited attempts to explore
the unknown coasts of the African continent.

According to the narratives of Htrabo, Eudoxus was a native of Cyzicus, sent on a miaaion
to Alexandria, then the great scat of maritime enterprise and geographical knowledge.
His ardent mind was strongly imbued with the spirit which reigned there; and he oflered
himself to Ptolemy Evergctes, t'><(i rsiiiniing king, as a zealous instrument to be employed in
any expedition having these objects in view. There was, at first, some talk of ascending
the Nile, and endeavouring to reach its unknown sources ; but their views received a new
direction from the arrival of a person who was, or professed to be, a native of India,
escaped alone from tlie wreck of his vessel near the foot of the Arabian Gulf. Ptolemy im-
mediately fitted out a naval armament, witli which Eudoxus proceeded on this destination.
He appears to have made a proHperous voyage, and to have returned with a cargo of aroma-
tics and precious stones, which last hod eitlicr been washed down by tlie rivers, or dug out in
a concrete state. It is scarcely probable, however, that Eudoxus ever reached tlie real shores
of India, or went beyond the southeni shore of Arabia, and, at fiirthest, the Persian Gulf.
Of this wealth, Evcrgetes appears to have plundered him ; which Strobo insinuates was in
resentment of ijoine dishonest conduct on his own |>art. We cannot, in these days, attempt
to judge between the two parties. However, Evergetes dying, his widow Cleopatra took
Eudoxus a^ain into favour, and sent him on a fresh voyage. He was now driven by unfii-
vourable winds to the coaat of Ethiopia, where he was wefl received by the inhabitants, and
:;arried on some advantageous trade. His return to Alexandria was again unfortunate.
Cleopatra was dead ; and her son, who succeeded, treated him as ill as Evcrgetes hod done.
Eudoxus brought with him, however, one trophy from the extremity of his voyage — tho
prow of a vessel, said to have come frvm the westward as a portion of a wreck, and on
which was sculptured the figure of a horse. This prow being exhibited by Eudoxus on the
harbour, some mariners frtim Cadiz declared it to be the very tbnn peculiar to a species of
Inrjre vessel which went from that port for purposes partly of trade, and partly of fishing,
to the ctrnst of Mauritania, Eudoxus listened with enthusiastic credulity, and detcniiin^
now to reiioiinco tlie deceitfiil patronage of coiirta, and to fit out a new expedition from the
commerciul city of Ciuliz. He proceeded thither by way of Mansilia anil other maritime
stations, whore he loudly proclaimed his hopes, and invited all who were nnimatcd with any
jipirit of piiterpriso to accompany liini. He accordinifly succeeded in ecjuipping an expedition
on a considerable, and even magnificent sca'.i'. Ho had one ship and two large boats, on
board of whirl, he curried, not only goods and provisions, but artisans, medical men, and even

BUUK I.

VOYAOK OF PYTIIEAS.

pUyrm on iniiiiral iiiHtruniontii. A irKW ^o ^v, and IUIlhI, prubtbly, with oxtrava^tnt hopm,
woru ill tlttod to oiu'iiiiiitcr tlm ImnlMiiiM of .\ 'Vicaii diiicovury. Thny touk fright at the
iwr>ll ut' thu opim NKa, tliMiiKh winch KuiI(/xih wub iiixiuun to conduct thorn, ami iiwintofl,
acconlinif to thn uaiml timid Hyittttiii, on biniig brougiu iWM to th)' Hhore. Thii l»d tu thu
(liMuitur wliicli KiiduxuN had t'orim><>ii: tlw ithi|M w»re straiuli ^ bikI tho carffu with difficulty
Mvod. Thu iiMMit valunlilo articlnit wiirv ilioii p«it on boiml ooe tcgKit-'l of alightrr coiwtruc-
tion, and ho pruMvcuttHl tho voyngu till ' " camo to a ritop nf people wh<y aiipearntl tu him t4>
iipoak the wiiiie lanffungo with thumi whom ' had met on '\i>^ opposite siioro ot' tho coiiti*
neiit. Conceiving niiiiwdf to huvo tliiw ami iin«^l tho objfct <if \m voyage, ho returned,
and endeavoured to procure tho Iwrbaric aid of Borrhiit<, king of Mauribdiin ; but, Nuapocting
that monarch of a treochoroua duiiign ugainat him, he. a^^'lm lN>took himatdf to Hpdji). Hero
he Nuccoodod in equipping a fVoah expedition, conNistiiig of one largo voMel fitted |i>f tho
open Boa, and another oi iiiiallcr diiiiuiirtioiia for exploring t'lo t'oant. Here, unfortunately,
the narrative brcaka off) referring tu thu Hpuniarda and Uaditonianit, an likely to know more ;
but a« nothing more ia atated on any authority, wo four tliat thia loat cxp^lition mvat have
had an untbrtiinato iwue. Huch ia thu narrative given by Htrabo, upon infbrnia(j(
aioatic character, poaaeiwod of ticienco and talent, and devotod with Much anient zeal to tho
cauae of diacovery. Eudoxua cunnot bo mode reaponsiblo for tho fnblca which antimiitv haa
put into Ilia mouth. Ho ia roprefluntod by some aa having actually made tho circuit or Airica ;
by othora aa having come to onu niition tlint waa dumb, and another whoao mouth waa entirely
closed, and which received food through nn orifice in the noHC. But nono of thcae fiibloa
aro found in the report of Eudoxua himsolf, aa coming through tho medium of Btrebo hia
enemy.

Sbctt. V. — Voyage of Pylheai.

The voyage of Pythcaa, tho Maaailian navigator, is of peculiar interoat, oa it ia tho only
one descriDod in any detail, having Europe, and uiirticularly tho Britiah lalea, for ita object.
It comea to ua, however, atill moru deeply tinged by tho Hainc dim and diacolourod medium
through which that of Eiiduxua Iiom puHsod. It is known almoMt Hololy by the hoatilo quo-
tationa of tho aceptical Strabo, adduced tor tho purpose of proving I'ythcaa to bo "a liar
of the first magnitude." Yet, tho naturo of tho grounda on which thia concluaion ia modo
to reat, ia auch aa to place in the clc!iroHt light Strobo'a own ignorance, and tho superior
information of Pytheoti. This last will lieconie more conspicuous, if wo aiippoec, as seems
probable, that tho errors of tho geographer wero transmitted to him from Massilia itself; in
which cose, Pytheas being found posscHKcd of knowlc<igo of which his countrymen were
destitute, thero appears no mode in which he could have obtained it, except the actual per-
formance of tho voyages.

Tho following are statements on which Strabo rests his refutation of Pytheas. That navi-
gator stated, that the dalbiurn Promonlorium, tho extremity of Brctagno, pointed to tlie
west, while Strabo affirms it to be perfectly notorious that its direction was to tho north.
This lost strange idea waa connected with what wo shall find to bo the general error of this
Kcliool, which allowed to Franco a southern coast only, and not a western one. Again,
Pytheas represented Britain as having one of its sides much longer than five hundred miles,
wlinreas, his adversary maintains this to bo tho dimensions of its longest side, which, accord-
ing to him, is that opposite to and seen from the shores of Gaul. Finally, Pytheas asserts
that hia Ultima Thule was farther north than Ireland ; whereas, all wcll-infbrmcd persons,
knowing Ireland to bo tour hundred miles north f^om Britain, and scarcely habitable on ac-
count of tho cold, considered it as forming on that side the extreme boundary of the in-
habited earth. Thus far it is necessary only to nuinc the charges against Pytheas, to make
him shine conspicuous above his enemies.

There are other statements, it must be confessed, which appear at first sight a little start-
ling. Pytheas describes tlio longest side of Britain not only as more thon five hundred miles
in length, but as exceeding two thousand. It is to be observed, however, that while Strabo
described Britain as a triangle, having ita longest side opposite to Gaul, Pytheas conceived
it to have only two sides', one of which, consequently, rcnciwl from the Liand's End, or tho
Lizard Point, to tho extremity of Scotland. If we consider this vast extent of coast, with
so many winding shores and deep bayw, all the sinuosities of which an ancient navigator waa
obliged to follow, the estimate will oppoar not very extravagant. Again Pytheas described
the coast of Kent as several days' sail from that of Gaul. But tho term by which Straixi
designates Gaul, is KBXrtxij (Celtica); and it appoiirs fVom Cajsar, tliat Ccltica formed only
one of the three parts into which Gaul was divided, and was bounded on the east by the
Seine. Pytheas probably used the tonn in tliis restricted and more proper sense ; when tho
distance assigned became r<lrictly rorrect. Ho moreover described tho coast of Spain as
iiihiibited by Gallic niitions; it would even soom. timt hn considered tiio Calbiuin Promon-
torium as Spanish. Here he was clearly in the wrong; but the error will probably bo

rnSTORY OF GEOGRAl'IIV.

Part I,

'Sy

found to Imve rested not in liis obsorviitions and Hints, but in mixiiiij tlicni with an errone-
ous tlioory prevalent at Massilia, ncconlinfj to wliicii, Fmnco had not a wcstcrii coast, nor
one facinij the Atlantic; hucIi a const belonn^i'il to Spain only. Under thin impression,
Pythcas, so loiip an he sailed aionfr tise western toist of Gaul, and till he came to that
opposite to Britain, would naturally imajfiiic tiiat he was sailiufr nlonjf the coast of Spain.

Stmbo at la.st traces Pytlieas to Tliule, and "iier utmost isles," when he does, certainly,
present a narrative ussuininj; somewhat ot' a fabulous aspect. Tiie most daring' na\ ijrator,
as he approached the dreary boundaries of cartii and ocean, and saw only the liijrii billows
of the Nortii Sea doshinj,' apiinst a rocky and misty shore, mi{fht become liable to .some
sinister impressions. Pytlieas, it seems, said, t!mt beyond Thulo there commenced what
was neither earth, sea, nor air, but a confused blending of all the three, similar to the sub-
stance called pulmo mnrinus (a species of medusa connnon on our shores). He added, that
this substance was the basis of the universe, and that in it, air, eartli, and sky hinif; as it
were suspended. If we place ourselves in the situation of Pytlieas, seeinff before him the
northern sea, overhun|^ by tliick and ploomy mists, shrouded in twilight, and darkened by
tempest, we may sui>pose liini very easily persuaded, that what he beheld was a confused
blending of all the elements, not very dissimilar even to that thick viscid anhnal substance
to which it was compared. Nor can we feel much wonder, if, after this long and difficult
navigation through so many perils, he should lend somewhat of a ready ear to a report
which represented him to have reached that farthest boundary of nature, beyond which it
was no longer possible tor mortal sail to penetrate. Another report of Pytheas was, that
at Thule the phenomenon took place which belongs only to tJie polar circle, — a summer of
one long day, and a winter of one long night. Antiquity is somewhat full of rumours of
this phenomenon, which science had pointed out as likely "to take i)lace at a certain latitude ;
and there was a general disposition in those who had made any progress northwards to an-
ticipate the term. Considering the loose way in which rumour then spread, it may easily
be supposed, that the partisans of this idea might support it by an exaggerated representa-
tion of the real statements of Pytheas. One of these (Geminius) merely reports him as
saying that the nights appeared to him to last only for two or three hours, a statement
which at midsummer would be quite correct. Indeed, we have been assured by persons
who have resided in the Shetland islands, that at that season there was scarcely any sen-
sible term of darkness. A foreigner, then, visiting the islands, might very readily imagine
he had arrived at that point on the globe where the summer was one uninternipted day.

The theories, which would make Thule any other place than Shetland, seem not to
require much discussion, though there are not wanting learned partisans in iiivour of each.
Iceland would imply too great an extent of open sea tor an ancient navigator ; and the
period of five days' sail from the continent would be very inadequate. Some Scandinavian
writers have claimed Thule as belonging to their own region ; Rudbeck for Sweden ; Saxo
Grammaticus, and SchaMining for the Norwegian Tellemach ; Malte Brun for Jutland.
These theories seem sufficiently refuted by the single consideration, that Pytheas invariably
considered Thule as British, and expressly calls it the " farthest of the Britains." But
Jutland or tiie Baltic he could iiave only reached by a long navigation along the coasts of
Germany, which could never have been performnd without the clear perception of having
left far behind him every thing belonging to Britain.

Sect. VI. — The Voijage of yetrrchus.

Alexander the Great was animated beyond, jjorhaps, any other ancient monarch or sage,
with an ardent noal for discovery His expedition became almost as much one of explora-
tion as of conquest. Its course was in general hy land, and through the interior of the
continent ; but his mind was not less deeply fixed uixin commerce and maritime discovery.
On reaching, therefore, the kinks of the Indus, and being obliged by the mutiny of his
troops to fix there the teniiiuation of his career, ho was seized with a desire to explore the
lower course of that river, and allerwiirds the southern coasts of Asia; a long range com-
pletely unknown to the Greeks. The prospects of this voyage, however, were such as to
apjKil the most enterprising of his naval officers. The perils of tempest and slii|)wrock on
this wide and unknown ocean, with tiiase of being driven uiwn a barbarous and d'\sert
coast, appenred almost to i)riTlud(! the hope of reaching by this long circuit tlw^ destined
station of the army on the bunks of the Euphrates. The inferior officers variously excused
themselves from so heavy a task ; and the onteriiriso appeared ready to fail f!ir lack of instru-
ments, when Nearchus, the admiral of the fleet, came forward and proffered liis own ser-
vices. Alexander iinwilliiiirly committed this task to an officer so high in rank, and his
intimate friend ; but the eurni-stness of Nearchus, and the backwardness of all tiie others,
left him at leiiglii no alternative.

The vov.igo down the Imlns v.ns brilliant. Alexumler conveyed his army in a crowded
fleet of two tiiousHU'l vessels. Tiie sound of tlie luiiiiherless ours, echoed by the .■ urround-
intr W(X)ds, iw t'l 'v tloati'J down this iiiijestic stre:iui, excited the admiring g;izi' of the
natives. Ale.v'.ai.r even accompanied U'n adminil down the U'jlta of the Iiidu-, and took

^■

■^?

Book I.

VOYAGE OP OTARCIIUS.

a view of the ocean, after which lie returned, to lead liis army by a moat perilous and diffi-
cult route through Gedrosia and Karamania to Babylon.
Nearchus now began his arduous naval route {Fig. 3.),after the usual antique preparation

Fig. 3.— MAP OF THE VOYAGE OF NEARCHUS.

50 56 eo 69

I III ' '

-SO

of sacrifices and games. At the mouth of the river appeared a most formidable obstacle , a
rock barring the passage, and against which the waves broke with fiiry. This was sur-
mounted by cutting a canal across tiio softest port of the rock, through which the vessels
were able to piiss at fall tide. He then passed the sandy island of Krokali (Corachie,)
and Mount Eirus (Cape Monze,) when, being now in tlie open ocean, a series of gales
began, so heavy and continued, as obliged hun to seek the shelter of an excellent harbour
formed by an island called Bibacta. The crews here landed, threw up an entrenchment
to defend themselves against the natives, and remained for twenty-three days, subsisting
chiefly on shell-fish. The wind having abated, they set sail, and came to a coast where
water, of which they appear to have needed almost daily supplies, was only to be got by
going several miles up into the country. They then passed between a range of rocks, so
close to each other, that the oars struck against them on each side. After sailing a con-
siderable space, partly in a narrow channel between a wooded island and the shore, they
came to the river Arabius (the modem Pooralee). It gave name to a numerous people,
inhabiting all the territory between this river and the Indus. On the other side was the
coast of the Orita;. In proceeding, however, Nearchus met with a dreadful tempest, in
which three of his vessels perished, though the crews were saved by swimming, and he
with difficulty brought his shattered vessels to the coast. Here he found Leonntus, whom
Alexander had detached to open a communication with him, which he obtained only by
very hard fighting. Nearclius here spent some time in refitting his shattered vessels, and
exchanged those of his crew who had proved themselves less efficient, for fresh men out
of the Greek army. Having laid in com for ten days, they sailed with a prosperous wind,
and reached the rapid stream of Tomcrus (the modern Wudd). Here tlic natives, six
hundred strong, were drawn up to oppose tlieir landing; a barbarous race, armed with
lances six cubits long, pointed not witli iron, but with wood hardened in tlie fire. Near-
chus caused a band of his light troops to swim on shore, and to make no movement till
they wore drawn up in a triple line, then suddenly to raise a general shout, and pour in
clouds of darts and missiles. This sudden attack, tlieir shouts, and the glitter of their
armour, produced instant and total rout on tlie part of the natives. They are described as
presenting an aspect almost incredibly savage, being covered in a great measure with hair,
and having long nails like the claws of wild beasts. Their dress consisted in the skins of
animals and of large fishes.

The expedition now steering out to sea, and takuig a southerly course, observed pheno-
mena belonging to the midsummer of the tropic, tlic novelty of which struck them with
surprise. When the sun was in tlic meridian no shadow was projected, and when there
came to be a little sliadow, it declined to the southward. Stars, which were wont to be seen
liigh in the hoavcn-!, were now little above the horizon. At Bagaziri (Capo Arnibiih) they
left the rciast of tiic Orita^ and entered that of tiio Iclitliyopliagi, or fisli-eaters, a food which
is said to ha\'o so remarkably abounded, that even the flesh of the cattle savoured of fish,
from their making it, like sea-birds, their daily food. The people were hospitable, but could
give only lislips ;ni(l iroats. It was not till the Greeks had sailed a considerable distance that
ut Ikniii thm- iimnil stiino palms, giirdcns, and verdure, .\fter passing Cophantn- (Guadel,)

Vol. 1. ■ a 1)

fflSTORY OP GEOGRAPHY.

Past I

where they obtained a supply of fine water, and Cyzia (Gwutter) on a desert and rocky
shore, they came to a small town on a hill a little inland (probably Churbar,) where it
appeared probable that a supply of grain might be obtained. To possess himself of this,
Nearchus had recourse to measures tliat harmonized much more with the character of a buc-
caneering freebooter, than with that of an officer of the first prince in the world. The
people met him in the most kindly manner, and presented to him roasted fish and other vic-
tuals. Meeting their friendly advances, he expressed a wish to visit their city, and being
cordially admitted, his first step was to take military occupation of it, and command the
natives to lay open to him all their stores of grain. The poor citizens at first flew to arms,
but having no means of effectual resistance, were obliged to yield. It proved, however,
that they had little except dried fish reduced to powder, and Nearchus could get only a very
small stock of grain. In sailing now along an almost desert coast, the stock of provisions
became excessively scanty; and they obtained only a poor supply by landing and cutting off*
the leaves of wild palm-trees. The pressure became so extreme, and was so impatiently
borne by the crews, that Nearchus did not think it safe to land at night, lest they should all
take ffight into tJie interior. In one place he found a paltry village, all the inhabitants of
which fled ; but the Greeks found seven camels, which they killed and eagerly devoured.
The same distress continued to press upon them so long as they sailed along the coast of the
" fish-eaters." Notwithstanding this name, few of them were fishers, or had even boats.
They procured this food by immense nets, sometimes a quarter of a mile long, formed out
of the fibrous bark of the pilm tree. These they placed at high tide across the mouth of
little bays, so that when the waters receded, the nets retained all the fish which had been
carried up with the tide. The houses of the rich were built with the bones of whales cast
ashore, those of the poor with the back-bones of smaller fishes. Nearchus descried a number
of whales, whose presence was at first made sensible only by tlie quantity of water thrown
up into the air, and tossed as in a whirlpool, a spectacle which struck the sailors with terror,
and made the oars drop ffvm their hands. The commander, however, on being informed of
the cause, made his crews raise the loudest possible sound by shouts, trumpets, and dashing
of oars, which at once kept up their own spirits, and was supposed to induce these monsters
of the deep to replunge into their abysses.

The coak of Caramania was next reached by Nearchus, afler passing the fabulous abode
of a Persian Circe, who, according to report, was accustomed to seduce the navigator by
voluptuous pleasures, and then convert him into a fish. Nearchus now found his distresses
nearly at an end, as tlie soil was tolerably productive in grain and fruits, and there was plenty
of good water. After passing Capes Jask and Bombareek, they came in view of a huge pro-
montory, stretching far into the sea, called Cape Maceta (Mussendoon), and forming the
entrance of the Persian Gulf. The great body of the sailors, and even Onesicrotus, an officer
high in command, weary of tliis long navigation, earnestly proposed to land, and march on foot
to Babylon. Nearchus justly and strongly insisted that this was in no degree to fiilfil the
intention of Alexander, whose injunction it was, to survey every coast, every harbour, and
every bay, between India and the Euphrates ; and that besides they incurred great hazard of
being involved in those arid and bummg deserts, ot which Arabia in a great lueasure con-
sists. This wise opinion prevailed, and in ascending the Persian Gulf they found, for tlie
most part, a fertile and beautiful coast. In the delightful country at the mouth of the river
Anamis (the modem Minab) they landed, and began to refresh themselves after so many
hardships. Nay, a party having proceeded to some distance into the interior, met, with tears
of surprise and joy, a man in a Greek dress, and speaking the Greek language. This proved
to be a soldier who had straggled from the army of Alexander, which he reported to be at a
distance of only five days' journey. On receiving this intelligence, Nearchus caused the
ships to be drawn on shore, a rampart to be formed round them, and the crews to take rest
and refreshment, while he and Archias set out alone for the camp. On their arrival they
presented an aspect so haggard, pale, and squalid, that the pertins they met did not know
them, but on being told their name, hastened to carry the first tidings to Alexander. They
added (a hasty conclusion formed fVom appearances,) that the fleet and the army had per-
ished. Alexander received Nearchus with a kindness mingled with sorrow, and after the
first salutations, began to ask particulars of the catastrophe of his favourite armament ; but
when Nearchus replied, "O king! thy ships and men ore safe," the conqnoror burst into a
flood of tears, and swore by Jupiter Ammon, that he derived more pleasure from this event
than from the entire conquest of Asia.

The rest of the navigation of Nearchus, when he had with some difficulty regained the fleet,
was easy, care being taken that he should find on the coast every kind of supply. They
passed the barren and desert rock of Organa, afterwards fo celebrnted under tlie name o(
Orrnuz, the large and fertile Oariicta (the modem Kishme). Soon at\er they (iiiitted the
coast of Caramania and entered that of Persia proper (tim moflerii Fars,) which they follow-
ed till its termination at the river Arosis (the modern Endinn Tub,) which appeared to them
llie largest they had seen since thi^y had loft the Indus. They wore now in Susiana, and
soon reached the mouth of the Tigris, where the vovagc terminated.

Book I.

PERIPLUa OP THE ERYTHRKAN SEA.

The circumnavigation of Arabia, and the o[)cning of a cuminunication between the Red
Sea and the Persian Gulf, formed to Alexander an object of ahnost equal ambition. He
accordingly appears to have sent expeditions dovvn botii seas, in tlio hope of accomplishing
this object. Those, however, who went from Persia were never able to double that formidable
promontory (the Mussendoon) which Nearchus had passed at tlie entrance of the gulf; while
those who went from Egypt, after making a certain progress, were always obliged to return
for want of water. The narrator chose to conclude with inferring, that such an achieve-
ment must be beyond human skill or power, otherwise the daring curiosity of Alexander
would certainly have accomplished it. He reinforces this argument by observing, that as
caravans which crossed Arabia were able to travel only during the night and in the day
were unable to bear the intense heat of the sun, it was unreasonable to suppose that a region
still farther to the south should be at all habitable.

Sect. VII. — Periplm of the Erythrean Sea.

The complete establishment of the dominion of Rome produced a long period of compara-
tive peace. The encouragement of industry and commerce never formed i»rt of the policy
of that powerful empire ; but the demand for luxuries of every description in its overgrown
capital, where the wealth of the world was collected, and to procure which the remotest
extremities of the earth and sea were ransacked, powerfully stimulated mercantile enterprise.
Alexandria continued still the great nautical school, by whose mariners the obstacles which
in the time of Alexander had been deemed insurmountable were completely overcome.
Regular voyages were established across to India, and for a considerable extent along the
eastern coast of Africa. The course of this commercial voyage is related by Arrian, not
the historian of Alexander, but a merchant of Alexandria ; and though not so much a voya^
of discovery as a coasting guide, it is founded, probably, upon personal observation, and will
enable us to complete the survey of the great naval routes of the ancient world.

The voyage down the west coast of the Red Sea began with Berenice, founded by the
Ptolemies, and the site of which, afler being long sought for in vain, seems to have been
nearly fixed by Belzoni. The coast on the African side was wild, and occupied only by a
few rude huts of barbarous Nubians. The small port called Ptoleraais Theron was the
only place where refreshments could be obtained. At length, the navigator came to Aduli,
a great emporium, whose site Mr. Salt seems to have ascertained in the vicinity of Arkeeko.
Here was a profusion of excellent ivory, collected and sent down from Axum, the metropo-
lis, about eight days' journey in the interior. In return for this single staple of Ethiopia
was exchanged that variety of showy colours, suited to a rude taste , pottery and glass
vessels, the manufacture of Diospolis ; brass for vessels and ornaments, iron for pointing
lances, arms, and cutting instruments. Some fine cloths, and ornaments of gold and silver,
were brought as presents or tribute to tlie king. Farther down, apparently in the Gulf of
Zeyla, was the kingdom of Zoskalcs, a prince who is described in glowing terms os adorned
with every virtue, and eminently skilled in Grecian literature ; but these seeds of civiliza-
tion, if they ever existed, did not ripen in so ungenial a climate. The coast now turns
eastward to the Indian Ocean.

A view of the passage down the opposite or eastern coast of the Red Sea must now be
taken. Navigators do not seem to have ventured across the breadth of that sea from Berenice,
but went by Myos Hormus, along the mouth of the Gulf of Suez, touching at Leuke Kome,
the fair village, which formed the port of the great commercial capital of Petra. The coast
downwards was most unfavourable to navigation, " full of danger, without harbours, beset
with rocks, everywhere full of horror;" and such the whole of the Red Sea is described to
be by modern navigators. If a vessel was driven too near the shore, it was immediately
plundered by the barbarous inhabitants, and all who survived carried into slavery. At lengtn
they came to the Burnt Island, which seems to be Gebel Tor, on the coast of Yemen, where
they found a fine country and a friendly people. The emporium of this coast wos Moosa,
near the modern Mocha, said to be inhabited by a race skilled in maritime afluirs. The
imports were of the same description as at Aduli, but of finer quality, including a
considerable quantity of dye-stuffs. The exports were myrrh, gum, alabaster (no mention
yet of coffee). They then proceeded downwards, and passed the straits now called Bab el
Maiulel.

The southern coast of Arabia formed the next object of navigation. Ocelis (the modem
Giiella) was a good harbour, though with little trade ; but Arabia Felix, which seems to
have boon near the site of Aden, had been a most flourisliing port, forming a depot in which
(lie merchants of Alexandria found all the commodities of India. It had lately, however,
been destroyed by the Romans. In coasting along Arabia, they found Kane (the modem
Macculla) ; the Gulf of Sachalites, in which is found the modern Sahar ; and Syagros, de-
scribed as the largest promontory in the world, usually supposed to be Ras el Had, but
which Vincent appears clearly to fix in the much more westerly position of Cape Fartash.
This region is described as yielding a considerable quantity of incense, but as extremely
moist and unhcaltliy. They now passed Mosca (Morebat), Asichone (Hasec), the islands

of Zenobius (Curia Muria) 'f'''''''' ^^ <^^OGRAPHY. , '

«erial«fo;coXVcT
^ne coaet of India (fin- a\„ "" """^vn to be destitufn n7

iich name he _^- ^— ^^"""i-fs-CoAH-rA^ .. ' '" *"«

™ 7»

*l^

-•#■,

freat river «XThr k"?°."*'' <"" 'f-e
designates the fc ^T't^ '^^ he
as entering the sea hv«>. represented
one of ^■hihtZlThJe\?r'^'' P^'^
18 Situated a olacp PnTi„ i i,"'"' on wiiich
»wricum. subject to thi»^^P°^'™ B^^"

of Minn^gtt^'Shkh L?-'T'' '".'^'^oPo'^^^
Scythian citv Tl.« if '« described as a

tached to th J-parT of iS "'^ ^7'^^^ '^^
suggested by Te rud,. n ^''°",''' ""'y ^^
of tSe people, aSd cnrnK^i*"^' banners
cumstance^f 1?'bpT!"?^,"''"» »he cir-
Parthian empire noinf^^ "'A'^^^ « the
belonging to wh;tTnnr' *'*?"agara as«,

ta of the Indus LS « V-" '^*^'' ^''o »*-

chants were obSL'^-"'''^ Themer-

pra. and to neSat'^ fi-oup to Minna- '»

himself After En' thfr *^ P""'=o

£?tors found suSvelV/"''""', "'^^'-

Emn(Cutch) and of ft.„ ^ "'^ ^'f« of's

The narrator here rSPf•'^ (^--oacJO.

of ever^ kind S ;& "''' ''';^'^^^^

heset, shallows, conSn^^f S^"'*^ "^e..

and difficult entrances hn? T^'' "'^'^"^^

extraordinary owasiol) •^'^''^ ^"' ^he

tide; in co/senuenee S wv"!!"'' °^ ""=

rienced navigaCften Ll if ' ""-^^P"-.^

either sunk or driven on 2 ^'^^ ^^^'"^^

Iv.when they wire °ailt ''• ^«1"ent-

sniooth water, a sound tlf '" Perfectly

ad vancinff arA, v • ? . ^^ ''"ard as of an ^— =».

onwith"inrco";h:rn"'''*''?"''^'''d Z T .,

emporium, at which w^L ? ""?'""" <^o"M secure thp v«» 7 t, '' ™

deur of K^ ''"•^^ J°""iey south from 1,'° ^"^^ ""terior capitals wL'""''' ""'' <^na"y,

of thelttter r\co"'"V ^'-^^^^^^^

no«^ Dowlatab^d! m S""" '" ^''tanahon ho r!f^™ "^^'^^ "^e «"£' h„T ,'? ^'■""-

M Jccordmg to the usual

'*■

r I.

I to
red

its
tes.
tlio

the

. * f '

••■ %<

Book I.

PERIPLUS OF THE ERYTIJREAN SEA.

course of Indian tmdo, stood foremost " mucli money," a little cloth, and a little wine ; but
a considerable quantity of metals and toys, brass, lead, tin, glass, coral, stibium for painting
the eyes, orpiment, and cinnabar. There is mucJi appcaranco tliat Nelkunda was the far-
thest point to which the Greek navigators actually p<3netrated, and that they found there a
supply of the commodities produced in the more eastern regions.

All beyond Nelkunda is faint and tinctured with fiible. vVe recognise, however, Comar
>' (Cape Comorin), Taprobane (Ceylon), and its great pearl-fishery. The Coromandcl coast
is nearly a blank, till we arrive at Masalin, which, with the great abundance of its cotton
cloths, speaks clearly Masulipatan. In proceeding northwards, navigators came to a strange
I ^ and Imrbarous people, with visages sometimes of enormous length, at others resembling
those of horses, and some eating human flesh : an exaggerated picture of the fierce preda-
tory races who occupy the mountain and jungle tracts of Orissa. A i rian describes accurately,
however, the direction to the east which tlie coast of the ocean takes, before it receives the
mighty flood of the Ganges. At its niouth there was then, it seems, a great emporium
bearing the name, which no city now does, of the river itself. The staple was " superla-
tively fine cotton clotlis, called Gaiigetic," and which still exist in the superb fabrics of
Dacca and Mooi'shedabad.

In the regions beyond Ganges the author of the Periplus gropes almost in total darkness.
Mention is made of an island, tlie fiirthest part of the world to the east, and which is richly
stored with the most precious productions of the countries that lie on the shore of the Red
Sea. This cannot seemingly be any other than Sumatra, though erroneously placed near
the Ganges. The only ulterior position is Tliinrn, a great interior city, situated opposite to
Pontus and the Caspian Sea, and near to where the Polus McEotis flows into the ocean. This
strange site we shall afterwards find reason to consider as a combination of some actual
rumours with the theory formed by the first Alexandrian school respecting the form and
dimensions of the continent of Asia. There seems some reason, however, to conclude with
Dr. Vincent, that this Thine, whence caravans came by way of Bactria to Barygaza, must
have obscurely indicated Uie capital of China. Nor can we be easily persuaded that in
the malabalhrum, though most usually applied to betel-leaf, some confused idea of tea is not
involved. Its being so strictly characteristic of China, and being brought by persons of a

Fig. 5 — Periplus— African Coast.

broad forehead, .short body, and flat nose,
features decidedly Mongol and Chinese,
seem all in favour of this supposition, and
inconsistent with that which would make
it merely betel-leaf, a pro<luct of Indostan ;
though there is doubtless a great and mani-
fest confusion between the two substances.
We must now look back to the Straits
of Bab-el-Mandel, and follow our author
along the African coast. {Fiff. 5.) From
those straits vessels proceeded eastward
along the shore opposite to Arabia, the
modern Berbera. Its ports, Avalites, Mo-
syllum, Mundos, Daphnon, and others,
cannot be, easily identified on a coast, with
respect to wiiich wo have scarcely any
modern data. The imports were nearly
the same as at Adulis ; the exports were
myrrh, frankincense, a species of cinna-
mon called casia, some other aromatics,
slaves, and a little ivory. At length they
doubled the promontory of Aromata (Guar-
dafui), when they came to a coast .stretch-
ing to the southward and facinir the Indian
-10 Ocean. Here was a port, the scat of a
considerable.' trade, but by no means secure ;
however, when tlic north wind began to
blow with dancrerous violence, the vessels
found shelter in the neighbouring promon-
tory and port of Tabai. Proceeding on-
wards, they found Oiwne, Apokapa the
less and greater, Nicon, Scriipion, seven
successive rivers, with anchorages at the
mouth of cncli. Soon allor, nt the distance
of about tiirce hundred stjulia from the
continent, there occurred a low wooded is-
land, bearui!]; the very expanded name of

"'♦(■

■fM^- — ^»*.-

.L*,'

-m

T*»«.

HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY.

4'.

Pabt I.

Eitenediom-tnenouthegias, which other writers wisely contract into Mcnuthias. It contained
no wild animals, but abounded in fish, particularly tortoises, which tho inhabitants were very
diligent in catching. Two days' voyage fartlier brought them to Rhapta, a promontory and
port, and the scut of a great trade. Beyond this point, the ocean was not yet explored; but
It tunicd to the west and south, and was supposed to continue in that direction till it joined
tiie Atlantic. The exports from this coast were ivory in great abundance, but not equal in
•luality to that of Aduli ; tortoise-shell, superior to every other except that of India; and a
number of valuable slaves, chiefly destined for the Egyptian market The territory was
governed by a number of petty kings, all owning the supremacy of Mopharites, who was
himself tributary to Moosa, by the vessels of which great commercial state the trade of this
coast waa almost entirely carried on.

The extent of coast thus described by the author of the Periplus has been the subject of
considerable controversy. Dr. Vincent fixes Rhapta, its farthest point, at Quiloa, thus
allowing a navigation of upwards of fitlecn hundred miles ; while tlie rigl'l scepticism of
M. Gossclin, placing it at Brava near the mouth of the Doaro, allows a goiod deal less than
lialf that distance. Dr. Vincent here, however, appears to carry the question triumphantly,
by means of his seven mouths of rivers, of which M. Gosselin admits that no trace can be
found within his limits. They are clearly presented by the estuaries of the Quillimanci,
on which ore the important lurbours of Patte, Melinda, and Mombaza. But we cannot, with
Dr. Vincent, pass by Pemba and Zanzibar, to find in the little island of Monfia the Menu-
thias of Arrian. Zanzibar, from its size and its proximity to the coast, appears a feature
which it was impossible to overlook, and its position is in much better bearing with the
seven estuaries previously passed. The next cape m;ist then be Rhapta, and this will be
that opposite to which is situated the small group of the Hinagie Islands. Beyond it fbr
a considerable distance the coast runs in the direction of south-west, which does not at all
admit the placing Rhapta beyond Quiloa, nor, indeed, on any other poit of the coast till
after we pass Mosambiquc.

CHAPTER III.

GREEK GEOQRAPHY BEFORE ALEXANDER.

Greece is regarded by all civilized nations as their instructress in the sciences, many of
the most brilliant of which she carried to the utmost perfbction. In that of geography,
however, little progress was made until the ibrmation of the Greek kingdom in Egypt
under the Ptolemies. Neither extensive commerce nor distant conquest characterised the
Grecian states, otlierwise so illustrious fbr all the arts of peace and war. It was not till
the conquering career of Alexander, that the survey of the Greeks was extended over the
wide circuit of the ancient world. Engaged before that era in the glorious defensive war
against Persia, and the contests with each other for pre-eminence, they confined their views
very much within the limits of Greece and its neighbouring coasts and islands.

The first traces of Greek geography are found among its poets, whose brilliant fancy has
spread its lustre over all the regions with which Greece ever held intercourse. Homer
took the lead, and his high authority gave to the geography of the Greeks a poetical cast,
which they transmitted to the nations whom they taught, and of which the traces are not
entirely obliterated.

Sect. I. — Geography of Home~.

It is in Homer that we find the first trace of the widely-prevalent idea, that the earth is a
flat circle, begirt on every side by the ocean. This was indeed a natural idea in a region so
entirely insular and peninsular, nowhere presenting, like Judea, a vast tract stretching so
far as to give the idea of immeasurable distance. The circulor shape was suggested by that
of the visible horizon ; and until science demonstrated the globular form of our planet, the
very natural opinion prevailed that the earth was a flat circle, with the vault of heaven above,
darkness, and the abode of departed souls beneath.

Homer, like Hesiod and the ancient poets generally, delights in topographical detail, and
scarcely allows a city or natural object to pains without applying to it some characteristic
epithet. It was only, however, within a very limited range that he could give these distinct
and animated notices. The Greek islands, beautifiil and fertile spots, which seem to have
been the first cradle of European civilization, were the central point from which his know-
ledge emanated. He knew well, and had probably visited, on one side Peloponnesus, Attico,
and the regions immediately adjoining ; on the other, the western coast of Asia Minor, and
the banks of the beautifiil rivers by which it is watered. Perhaps scarcely any other tract
on the globe presents within the same compass such a variety of grand and beautiful objects
to rouse the imagination. Beyond this circuit the world of Homer was soon involved in
mysterious obscurity. Some grand and distant features, discernible through the gloom, were
exaggerated and distorted by ignorance and superstition. Thebes, tlie mighty capital of

■««♦

"*''

h...-

:■ M

I
i

''•rV

'**

»-*V

'■•^

Book I

GEOGRAPHY OF HOMER.

Egypt, when that kingdom was in its greatest glory, is celebrated ibr its hundred gatei, and
the hosts of warriors which they sent forth to battle. Beyond lay the Ethiopians, deemed
the remotest of men, dwelling on the farthest verge of the earth, and to whoso distant
confines Jupiter repaired to hold an annual festival. In the western part of the same conti-
nent the stupendous ridges of Atlas had excited in Grecian fancy the imacc of a gigantic
deified being, to whom was intrusted the support of the heavens. Even fiirUicr to the west,
the exploits and wanderings of tlic great Grecian demigod had conveyed a tradition of the
strait leading into the ocean, and of the rocks on each side, celebrated under the denomination
of the Pillars of Hercules. On the east, Colchoe was distinguished by its early woulth and
commerce ; it was considered a city on the ocean, with which, therefore, the Black Sea
must have been confounded ; and being supposed to contain the palace of the Sun, where
during the night he gave rest to his coursers, and whence in the morning he drove his
chariot to its diurnal career, Colchos must have been regarded by Homer as placed on the
most eastern verge of the earth. On the north, Rhodope, under the name ot theRiphsan
Mountains, was considered a chain of indefinite extent, closing in the northern limits of the
world. The poet, however, had heard a vague report of the Scythians, under the description
of a people subsisting on mares' milk. The vessels which conveyed the Grecian army to
Troy were evidently little better than large boats ; and all distant voyages, or those in which
land was lost night of, were considered as fraught with the extrcmest peril. A navigation
to Africa or to Sicily took place only through tempest, terminating usually in shipwreck ;
and a return from these shores was esteemed almost miraculous. In regard to Sicily, indeed.
Homer has largely communicated his ideas, having made it the theatre of the woes and
wanderings of the hero of the Odyssey. Making every allowance for poetical license, we see
evident traces of the terrified and excited state of mind in the navigators who returned from
these diorea Monsters of strange form and magnitude, who watched for the destruction of
the mariner, and even fed upon his quivering lunhs ; delusive syrens, who lured but to destroy ;
imprisonment under the transformed shape of wild beasts ; these, probably, are only a highly-
coloured repetition of the terrific rumours brought by the few whose bark had been wailed
to those as yet savage coasts.

Sect. II. — Poetical Geography.

An ideal and poetical character was communicated to the science of ^reography itself by
the fables with which Homer thus tinged his narrative. This tendency indeed did not rest
solely upon Homeric uifluence, but proceeded from certain secret workings of the human
heart There exist in man ideas and wishes for which, in the sphere of his actual existence,
he can find no corresponding objects ; these he creates for hunself in tliat dim boundary
which separates the known from the unknown world. There involuntarily arises in his
breast a longing afler a more exalted state of existence than the world before him presents —
bright scenes, which he seeks but never finds in the circuit of realities. In a newly-discovered
region, however, which possesses any share of beauty, imagination soon heightens the colours
of nature, till they appear to fulfil its fond anticipations. Such were those brilliant spots
celebrated by the poets under the title of the Gardens of the Hesperides — the Fortunate
Islands — the Isles of the Blest — for which, when knowledge had dispelled the first illusion,
and brought them down to the ordinaiy level, a place was still found in some more distan;
extremity of the globe. Northern Africa, as it stretched westward, was peculiarly adapted,
by its striking and brilliant contrasts, to excite these illusions. The first site of the Hesperian
gardens was at tlie frontier of Cyrene, where they are described by Scylax as forming a
luxuriant grove, in which the lotus and the palm were mingled with the finest trees of
Europe. Other and more western sites were successively found, both for them and the
Fortunate Islands, which last were finally fixed, probably on very imperfect observation, at
the Canaries. Those islands have not altogether lost the appellation ; and they are painted
by Ho-ace in glowing colours as a refii^e still lefl for mortals from that troubled and imper-
fect existence which they experience in every other quarter of the globe. Independent,
however, of this bright and romantic enjoyment, there are other objects of fond desire to the
human heart In this agitated world it sighs afler peace — a scene of profound repose, exempt
from the tumults of passion and the corrosion of care. Such a scene, indeed, would never
fulfil the hopes thus formed ; yet these hopes spring from a natural illusion, to flatter wliich
Grecian poetry conjured up a fabled race, the Hyperboreans, seated in the recesses of the
North, and sheltered by vast mountains from the rage of the elements. They wore repre-
sented as exempted from all ills, physical and moral, the change of seasons, sickness, and
even from death. The original seat assigned to them was behind the Riphiean Mountaiuf,
which seem to have been originally Rhodope, the northern boundary of the Homeric world.
The Greeks having soon acquired knowledge sufficient to ascertain that no such people was
there to be found, sought them next on the bonks of the Danube; but every thing there was
remote from that tranquil aspect under which the poets had painted the Hyperborean world.
Some traditions carry them westward; but their seat was finolly fixed in that northern
extremity of Asiatic Russia which the ancients never explored. They even carried with

» *

tft

^ PI

W.ffi

i*V

IsR *

,M-

»2

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part 1.

them tho Ripluvan Mouiitiins, whicli became thus an idcol chain, delineated in modern mapa
as exteiidinff aloiij» tlio extreme frontier of Kuropo. Impressions of gloomy darkness, and
oven of tho teriniiiation of existence, are, in other moods of the human mind, associated with
images of distance and obscurity. These intluencos gave birth to the Cimmerians, a people
who dwelt in poriKJtiial darkness, and were never illumined by the chcorfiil rays of tho sun.
Thi;ir fiivourlte seat was on the straits at tho mouth of the peninsula of Taurida, the farthest
jviint, probably, of which rumour had spoken in the |xx;ticHl iigcs, and which was called tho
Cimmoriuu Bospliorus. It was prolKibly from similitude of name that tliey wore atlerwards
confounded with the people called Cimbri. Tho learned, however, have found traces of
Cinmicrians in the extremities both of the east and tho west; and the idea of the earth as
terminated by a I)oundary of darkness, being founded on natural impressions, has very gone-
rnlly prevailed. Park mentions it as the reigning belief among tho Mandingos at this day;
iind the world, in tho system of tho Arabian geographers, was enclased by a sea of darkness.
Otiior fubulotis creations, siiringing from those of Homer, continued long to hold a place in
gpogr.ii)hy. The one-eyed Cyclops apiKJars under the name of Arimaspian on tho frontier
of India, and in the remotest extremity of Africa. The Pigmies multiplied etill more exten-
sively ; they had seats on the Strymon, tlie Hebrus, in India, and the north of Europe.
Acconiiiig to Stnibo they were spread over the whole southern border of the earth; and this
represpiitiilion even induced Banicr to suspect that, on that side, they have been confounded
with the monkeys.

Sect. III.— School of Miletus

The astronomical schools of i\Iilctua and Samoa appear, so far at leost as there is any
precise record, to have made the first attempts to form geography into a system, and to apply
to it the ligiits derived from astronomy. These and other cities of Asia Minor rank high
among the early seats of commerce, and tliey established colonies in various quarters of the
Mediterranean and the Euxine. While they continued independent they were very wealthy
and prosperous and the sciences were cultivated with ardour and success. To a commercial
peo|)le practical mathematics, and especially those branches subservient to geography and
navigation, iiitist have peculiarly recommended themselves. Thales, Anaximander, Anaxi-
nionos, and Pythtigoras, are celebrated by tlioir countrymen as the inventors of all tlie pro
cesses by which tlie phenomena of the globe arc calculated. The gnomon or sundial, fiir
ascertaining the progress of the sun from tropic to tropic, and finally the latitude of particu-
lar places, the division of the year into 365 days, and into tour seasons, are represented as
Imving originated in this school. It appears doubtfiil, however, whether these discoveries
were due to their own exertions or borrowed firom the Egyptians and Chaldeans, whoso fiune,
amid the dim traditions of antiquity, stands pre-eminent for astronomical otecrvation.

Tho first rude mode of forming a division of the earth was into climutes, determined
1)V tho spoeins of animals and plants produced in each. Thus the negro, the rhinoceros, the
elephant, wore considered as characteristic of the torrid zone. 'J'his very loose method gave
place to another, formed by observing at each place the length of the longest and shortest
days. This could only be done with accuracy by a gnomon or dial, erected on a horizontal
plane, and sliowing, by the length or sliortness of its shadow, the elevation of the siin above
the horizon. There is much reason to think that this simple instrument was employed by
the Egyptians, especially in the operation, which they undoubtedly performed, of adding five
days and a (piartpr to 360, the number originally supposed to form a complete year. It has
even been imacined by some, that the pyramids, those enormous structures by which this
people I'xrited ;he astonishment of the world, were only huge sundials; and though it might
doubtless bn extravagant to conclude this to have been their sole object, yet it really appears
that, being placed in tho direct position of the cardinal jwints, they are jiertbctly fitted for
being thus employed. Rut, though it is clear that Thales and his disciples had largely drawn
from these early sources, they probably made considerable additions to tho information thence
derived. Two books, one on the tropic, and tho otiier on the equinoxes, are reported to
have been written by Tliales himself. The degree of knowledge thus attained enabled him
to discover the error of tho vulijar in supposing the o-irtli to be a plane surface; but he could
not roach tho precise idea of its globular form. .Am viiuamlor viewed it as a cylinder; some
rompared its form to tliac of a boat; others to tli.it of a lotly mountain. The details of the
Pythagorean cn-niography have not re.iched us; but the fiict that they placed the sun in the
centre of the system, with the earth moving round it, indicates at tliat infimt era attainments
which were lost during many ayes, and only recovered at a tar more advanced stage of
nioilcrn science.

Tho map must, as soon as goo.Tiphy was cultivr.tod, have occurred as the best and
most perspicuous form of nmbodyincr its results, Anaximander is tho first who is reported to
have constructed a map of the world, eiribrncing that limited sphere of objects which were
then coinpreliPiidoil under that form. Rut tlie most celol)ratod production of this nature was
that emjdoyod by .\ristagoras, the prince of Miletus, to induce Cleomones, the Spartan king
to undertake the cou<iuest of Persia. lie entered, it is said, the presence of that monarch,

*■ k.

»"♦

' ■■*-'
> ■

. 1

i-..- _.

. .t

Book 1.

GEOGRAPHY OF HERODOTUS.

huldin^ in liis hand a tablet of brasH, on whicli wore inscribed " tlie whole circuit of the earth,
the Bea, and nil tlio rivers." Under this )»mpous description, howovor, was probably included
little more tliun a route from tlio Ionian soa to Sunn, which was specially pointed to as that
by which the >Spartan prince might lead liis victorious troops to the Persian capital. Even
of tills linn, rPHpecting which lie woa so deeply interested, the siiort detail of Hcrodot'is
shows liiiii to jxjssess by no means complete information. Beyond Cilicia his descriptions are
very indistinct. Mu has omitted Media altonrcther, and has given to Armenia quite an undue
extension.

The continental Greeks, during the era of their greatest power, did not cultivate
systematic geography, nor indeed any sciences dependent upon mathematical principles,
with niucli activity ; indeed, they did not even keep them up to the state in which they had
., . been received from the Ionian cities. One solitary observation of latitude is recorded as

*?**■' having been made at Athens, by Meton and Eudemon, 432 years A. C. The different states,

in the course of their extensive wars, must have acquired a great portion of that topographi-
cal knowledge which is indispensable for military operations. Engrossed by these internal
objects, their attention was little directed to the general system of Uie world. One individual
*'*'•' alone, by extensive travels and diligent enquiries, procured an ample accession to the science
of history and of historical geography.

Sect. IV. — Geography of Herodotus. * n . • s»

The system of geonaphy included in the great historical work of Herodotus is as
complete as could be tormed from the materials witliin his reach. It comprises a general
summary of all that he could learn respecting the human race, and the regions which they
inhabited. His information was obtained not solely or chiefly from books, but mostly by
f\ travelling, the only mode in which at that era geographical knowledge could be effectually

■'^i collected. He assures us that ho had visited Persia, Assyria, Egypt, Thrace, Scythia, and

j_ all tlie distant regions which he describes. He viewed them, however, only aa tracts of ter-
< ritory, tlie abode of men, and did not attempt to combine them into any system of the earth ;

' nor did he possess, or, at least, apply any of the mathematical or astronomical principles of

the Milesian school. He even derides some of its conclusions ; as that of /the earth being
round and encompossod by the ocean. His strange statement, that the sun in India was ver-
tical in the morning instead of at midday, is evidently a misunderstood report of what he had
•% been informed respecting the diflTerencc of time in the difTcrcnt parts of the earth's circum-

ference. His knowledge, however, such as it is, consisting of plain (nets, untinctured with
theory, is botli solid and extensive.

The division of the earth into tiiree quarters, or continents, was by this time completely
formed. Sea, or at least water, seems to have been the prinoiplc of separation, though not
required to be altogether complete. Setting out from Europe, ii'r the origin of Which appel-
lation we have nothing but the fable of Europo, the Greeks seem to have named the other
continents from the districts immediately beyond the intervening sea. Homer already men-
tions the name of Asia as applied to a large and fine tract on tlio coast of Ionia. Thence it
spread through the spacious peninsula of which it forms part, and which Europeans con-
tinue to call Asia Minor ; but soon passing these limits, it was vaguely extended through the
boundless regions of the East, till it finally embraced entirely the largest of the three conti-
nents. On the other side, directly to the south, the Greeks first landed on the coast of Libya ;
and the name of Ijibya was by them applied to the entire continent. With the Romans, on
, the contrary, wiiose position and political relations attached them entirely to the district

of Afirica proper, in which Cartilage is situated, the name of Africa soon prevailed over
every other.

These grand divisions of the oncient world were already known to Herodotus; but he
has astonished I'^iiropean readers in an extraordinary degree by the assertion, that Europe is
longer and of greater extent than Asia and Africa united. The severe judgment of M.
Gosselin pronounces such an assertion, made in the midst of the nations which carried on
the most extensive navigation, to bo a proof that they had not formed the least idea of the
distance which their vessels sailed along the Mediterranean. Before pronouncing so severe
a sentence, we must consider attentively what, in the conception of Herodotus, was Europe,
and what was Asia. He mentions two boundaries : one formed by the Black Sea and the
Don, which, though it does not form a very appropriate boundary of a continent, continues
still to prevail, being connected with the Northern Ocean by the mountain chain of the
Urals. But in the other, which is that preferred by Hcrmlotus, the Black Sea is continued
"^ by the Caspian ; the boundary line being carried along the north of that sea, and tlicnco
indefinitely eastward. Taking Europe in this sense, wo find it in the west co-extended with
the opposite coast of Africa, which the ancients necessarily considered as marking the lenglli
of that continent, wliile, in the east, however far Asia might he prolonged, Europe was still
regarded as co-extensive. With regard to the boundaries of Africa, too, there was an
extreme want of precision. Our limit of tlie Isthmus of Suez is certainly the most accurate ;

Vol. I. E

fV'.;

f^}

HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY.

Past I.

^'-

but tho ancicntii, who could not readily admit tlio notion of a continent boundo<l by any thinjr
but water attached thein»olveg more to tlio Nile, and did not weH know whetlior to consider
F^fypt as Asiatic or African.

Si'DSKOT. 1. — The Europe of Herodotus.

ScytiiJa was tho oxtremity of Europe, beyond Greece, with which Herodotug appoara
to Juivi! beoii moHt familiar, and which, m fact, ho knew better tlian almost any other ancient
writer. 'I'hiH iinmo, which became ultimately Asiatic, was restricted by him to tho tractn
that now form the Bouthcm provinces of tho Russian empire. These repfions were tlmn,
and in a p-cat measure still are, possessed by the same description of rude Nomadic and
paxtoral people, who have always occuniod tlio central plains of Asia. The attention of the
liiatoriiia was npecially called t») thcin by the rash and daring expedition of Darius into u
rcffion secured by its natural barriers, and the wandering; and untamed character of its
people, a^iinst every form of reffulor subjection. Darius, crosninjf tho Hellespont, marched
alonj; the southern shore of the Euxino, reached tho bunks of tho Voljfa, and after the fruit-
lees lalwur of erecting there several (brtrcsHes, returned by a morn inland route, in which
Major Reimell even supposes him to have passed the site of Little Novogorod. The know-
ledge acnuire<l by this expedition, however, did not enable Herodotus to avoid great errors
in the delineation of European Scytliia. Ho imbibed a most exaggerated idea of the dimen-
sions of tho Palus Mtrotin, which ho calls the "mother of tho Euxino." This appears to
have arisen chiefly from the false orienting of tlio side which faces Russia, and which is
made to stretch almost duo north, instead of west, while tho sea itself is represented as
forming the eastern boundary of tliat great space of four hundred miles square, within which
Herodotus comprises Scythia. The southern boundarjr was fbnned by the Euxine, and tho
other two by the land, so that he does not connect it in any shape with tho Northern
Ocean.

Tho details of this extensive region are given by Herodotus with considerable accu-
racy. Of its rivers, after tho Danube, which ho ranks second to the Nile, ho mentions the
Tyres or Dniester, the Hypanin, or Bog (and even describes the close approach of these
rivers to each otlier in tlie upper part of their course), tlio great channel of tho Borystlienes,
or Dnieper, and the Tanais or Don. Between the lii.st ho mentions several streams, the
Panticupes, Hypacyris, and Gcrrhus, which not being recognized by modem geography.
Major Renncll supposes to bo creeks or branches of the greater rivers.

Milesian colonies had, by the active enterprise of that commercial people, been
already formed even on those rude shon^s. One, called the port of the Borystlienes, is
described as the centre of the trade of Scythia. On tho Imiiks of this great river dwelt a
people, bearing the run! character of the plonghin/r Scythian.n, who renouncing the almost
universal <iabits of thiMr race, raised crops of grain in tliis fertile district, wli'ch still
(iimishes to the ports of Taganrog and Odessa those supplies, which render t' u 'i the
granary of the Mediterranean. Tho Milesians had also a colony established at th>> mouth
of the Danube.

The northern interior countries of Europe, which lay bevond the limits of tho Scythia
explored by the expedition of Darius, were covered for Hrro<lotus with a veil of dim obscu-
rity. On tho Scytliian frontier, along the heads of tlie Dniester and Borystlienes, he repre-
sents several niitions ; the Mclanchlcni, " men clothed' in black ;" the Androphagi, " men
raters ;" tlie Neuri, " once a year converted into foxes," These Greek nimes, and partly
f ibulous attributes, .show tlie very imperfect noture of the notices collected on the subject
The regions beyond the Danube are expressly stated to be occupied by nations to him
unknown. Two precious commodities, tlie amber from the coast of Prussia, and the tin of
the Cassiterides, under which lost name a vague idea of the British Islands seems to be
included, communicated the knowledge, that there was a great ocean in the north, but
without tho means of ascertaining its extent and limits. On the east, however, as already
observed, he hail attached to Europe a vast (extent of territory which has been entirely
severed from it in subsequent systems. The cxptinse of northern and even middle Asia,
which the ancients afterwards called Scytliin, and which forms tlio modem Tartary, inha-
bited by races exactly similar to the Scythians already descriliod, Appeared to Herodotus
decidedly European. It was bounded by the Phasis, the Caspian, the Anil (not distinctly
recognized), and tlio J.ixartes. The Mussagota;, cclebnitcd for their contest with Cyrus,
gave name with Heroilotiis to all the wandering triiies in this eastern p.art of Europe; but
they were afterwards merged into the prevailing appellation of Scythion.s.

SiiBSECT. 2. Asia of Ilerodolus. ,^

Asia, according to tlie conception of it formed by Hero<lotus, will appear, from what has
been said, to inclmle only a small portion of tho vast continent to whicli we assign that
name. On tlie north it Imd the same seas and rivers just enuiiierated as the Ixiundaries of
eastern Europe ; to the east it tenninaled with India ; while even to the south, a large por-
tion of the desert tracts of .Arabia were not yet believed to exist. When this great historian

H %

..■-. ■ -.-.» ■ ^•

Book L

ASIA OF HERODOTUS.

1 repre-
men
partly
ibject.
to him
tin of
to be
th, but
llrcady
itirely
Asia,
inlm-
lodotus
tinctly
"lyruB,
but

a.t hoB
In that
ries of
re por-
Itorian

wrote, all tho various kinfifdoms and petty titatcH, ink) which, in the infhncy of the world,
A«ia had been partitioned, were abtK)rliL'd into onu vut ompiro. The PeriiianN claimed Asia
OH their own, and hod diHtributed it into twenty-four HatrnpieH, which have been illustrated
in a very learned manner by Major Rennnll. They includciid, with the exception of the
northern part, which ho conHidcrcd an Euroiican, all of AHia that wan known to tiie Greeks,
In collectinff therefore firom Major Kenncd'H invc8ti{^ution tho following table of those
sutrapii-M, wo exhibit not only the outline of tliat gtent empire, but, with tlio somewhat
dubiouri exception of a small part of Greece, the whole of the civilized world, Tho tribute
paid in talents of silver will exhibit their relative wealth and importance.

TADLR OP TIIE DIVIBIOM OF ABIA INTO BATRAPIE&

Innii). Mnnnniii), Tarin, ^.nlia, I.yclH, PiinpliyllK (IIib wot and louth coail of Atln Minor)

Myiiiii, l.yilia, *r. (llic ni'»U'rn iiitrrlnr)

I'lirytin, i'ii|ililnKniiia, Cn |>iinilucia, Ilc. (llio north rnniit and the K'aal inteiior table'land of Ada Minor)

Cilinn (incliiitinit part of Syria, ami ri'ai'liliiii to tho Kiiphratca)

Phronlcia, Palcotinc. anil Cyiirux (which furnlahi-il hIiki a Ihinl part of Hie naval force of the emplri)

Eifvpt, incliiiUnii I'vrenc anil narra(hnir of tho tribiitu paiil In grain]

HnhylDM nnil Anayrla, inrliiiling Syria, anil furnlahing alio 300 eunuchi

BiiHiaua, nr Southern Pemia.

Mi'iliu, (Northern Pomia)

The Canpiana, PiralcB, Panliinathi, anil Darltm (IhaCnipian provinces of Pania)

Tho MatlenI, Saiplroi, &c. (Ailcrliljan and the Armenian province!)

Armnnia.

The Mnaynoici, TibarenI, Moichi, let. (the Wettrrn Caucaiua, Oeorfia, Mingrelia, aa ftr aa Trebi-

ronil)

Thi- Sagartinna, Saraincana, he. (Si<i»tnn, Caromanio, Lar, and other territories along the Indian

Ocean, and the eaitrrn part of tho Peraian Rulf)

Tho Pnrthiana, Choaamiana, Bogdiana, and Ariana (Klioraaan, Herat, Candahar)

Tho Oanilaril, the Dadicn, Ilc. (Margiana, the country on the Murghab, between Khoraaan and the

Oxua

Bnctria (Balk)

The Snru! and Caaplca)(Kasligar, Famer, and other tracts of mounlainoui country about the head of

tho Oliia)

Tho I'ariranii and Elhiopianaof Aain (Mckran, including, perhaps, Caubul, and the Delta of the

Indua)

India, the largeat of all. being 300 talents in gold, which amounts in ailver to

400
800

300
SOO
360
1400
lUOO
300
4S0
900
900
«J0

300

000
300

170
360

S50

400
4060

Some tracts of this vast empire, not formed into regular satrapies, were privileged to
furnish only presents, or gifts, under an appearance of voluntary homage. Among these
were ranked the Persians proper, inhabiting the modern Fars, who obtained this distinction
as the conquering people by whom the empire was originally founded. The Southern
Arabians, and the Ethiopians above Egypt, derived the same immunity from the difficult
acces,-. to those rude regions in which they dwelt. The Southern Arabians are said to have
propitiated the favour of the great king by the present of a thousand talent's of incense. The
Colchians, ond tho occupants of the neighbouring heights of Caucasus, were also numbered
among the " givers of gifts ;" while the inhabitants of the northern parts of that great range,
secure in their mountain fastnesses, are said to have cared very little about the miglity ruler
of Persia.

These delineations of Asia display, upon the whole, a surprising accuracy nnd extent of
knowledge ; yet several remarkable errors occur with regard to points of which the investi-
gation does not appear very difficult. Thus the breadth of Asia Minor was reduced almost
a half; that between Babylon and the capital of Egypt was underrated at least a fourth ;
and the country between the Black Sea and the Caspian was placed in the same meridian
with the Persian Gulf, while it is really four degrees to tho westward. These errors are
the more remarkable, as the distances, instead of being in excfss, according to almost every
other ancient example, fall short of the truth. The early travellers exaggerated every space
over which they actually passed; but it sometimes happened that two points were ap-
proached from different quarters, and then united to each other by a hypothetical line, which,
as men usually undervalue what they know nothing of, was made generally too small. It
would not Appear that any regular route had been fonnotl acra«8 the high and rugged table-
land in the interior of Asia Minor from Cilicia to Trcbisond. These two points, being
approached respectively along the southern and northern coasts of the peninsula, might bo
supposed nearer to each other than they really were. Egypt was approached through Syria
and Palestine, and Babylon by descending the Euphrates; but tho direct line between them
lying across the Arabian desert, was scarcely known or frequented, and therefore became
an ideal lino in tlie view of Herodotus. Tho line from Armenia to the Persian Gulf was
of course measured along the Euphrates, tlie general course of which was south ; and as
the ancients oriented all their lines to a cardinal point, they overlooked the gradual but
constant bend which that river takes to the eastward.

The ideas of Herodotus concerning the extent of Asia, even including all that portion
of it which he assigned to Europe, could not fail to be defective. He knew nothing of
India beyond the Ganges, Thibet, China, Eastern Tartary, or Siberia, more than half the
superficial extent of the continent. Even his notions concerning India were most imper-

HISTORY OF OEOORAPHY.

P*«T T.

tbct. Ho ilcHorihoH it oh lioiinilcd nn tlii' oiint by Htinil, Htrctcliin^ iiitn nii unknown nnd
mcuKurclcw dcNrrt, Frnni tliirt Htntcninit it clcnriy iipiMvirM tliiit IiIm lii<liu cciiniirpliiMKliMl
merely tho wnitnrn (xirt wiitcrcil by tlio Induri anil it* tlvt* tribiitflrirx; li« know nolliin^ ol'
ita widcmt nnd richrst rrjfionH, tho Onn|;<'tic provincoH, Dollii, ncnifnl, niul tho I)<Tciin ;
\htge iiortiuHN were ulno cut olT tVuin the Moiitliorn coMtH uf AHin, which wrro itiippoxtid to
bo woHhcd bv an ocoun nulled tho Rod or F.rytlironn Hon, without any diitinctiun of ttin
Pcnian Gult, aiid vory little of that which wo now call tho Rod Hoa.

SvMBOT, 3. — i^rtca of Herodolui.

In hid inquirioH rmtpcctinff AtVica, Ilorodotuit npponrH to hovo boon rqunlly dilifrnnt ai
concorning' tho other rojfions of tho pflobo; but oh hn never procooded U'yond F'tfypf, nnd
U tho formidable hnrriers which nntiirc oppiMca to him who nttoinplH to penetmto tho irito-
rior had Injon vory imperfectly overcome, much in what he collecterl iH otiicurod with my».
tery or perplexed with conjecture.

Eoypt is described with (^rcut accuracy, and under aome features which no lonj^er exist;
for the Tanitic and Peluxiac branchoH of the Nile, of which little more than the chnnnelu
can now bo traced, wore then in tbll flow. It appears, however, that conMidernhlo contusion
prevailed respoctinj} tho quarter of tho world to which Kj^nt wos to bo adjudge* As
water formed tho basis of tho division into continents, tho sanuy isthmus of 8uez, believed
to be broader than it really was, appeared very ill-flttcd to fonn such a limit. The Nile,
therefore, in the opinion of all tho Greeks, was tho boundary of the continents: all to the
east was Arabia ; all to the west Libya ; but a difficulty here arose in flxinf^ tho lot of K^pt
itself Tho Greeks, it appears, considered nothings as Egypt beyond tho Delta ; but this
opinion is ridiculed by Herodotus, who observes, that in that case there must formerly havo
been no Egypt at all, since this its lower branch was evidentlv produced by tho gradual
alluvial depositions of the Nile, Ho contends reasonably, that all tho banks of tho Nile as
fkr up as Elephanta,, which was inhabited by Eiryptians, was clearly Egypt. Ho accuses
tho Greeks of referring tho Delta, or their Egypt, neither to Asia nor Libya. If wo rightly
understand his own idea, it is tlmt the niiddlo or Scbcnnytic branch was tho proper point
of division between those continents.

In tracing the ^Jilo above Egypt, Herodotus states a lino of two months' journey partly
along tho banks, partly in b<wts which were dragged by ropes along tho current through
tho rocky channel. At tho end of this journey tney came to Meroe, the capital of Ethiopiu
above Egvpt, an ancient and celebrated kingdom, whoso monu.r.ents were viewed with
almost religious veneration, and whose monarchs had repeatedly conquered h^'ypt and
founded dynasties. Two moiitlis' journey farther was tho country of the Egyptian exiles,
a numerous body, who, having revolted from Psammotirus, sought tho protection of tho
king of Ethiopia, and were cantoned bv him in this remote district, which may bo Sonnaar,
or rather, perhaps, tho branch of the mhr-el-Abiad opixisito to it ; for Herodotus shows his
knowledge of this lust stream by observing tlmt it comes from tho west.

The long tract of desert to the west of Egypt is also described by Hero<lotus in some
detail, though apparently only from hearsay. Fho most conspicuous objects hero are the
oa.<ies, particularly that which contains the ancient and venerated templo of .Tupiter Ammon,
and which has been identified with the modern Siwali, To the west he gives tho names
of a i-uccession of wandering and pastoral tribes, such as still roam over those arid and sandy
regions, deriving from the soil only the produce of the dato-trce. Many of thorn stand
charged with morals peculiarly shameless and dissolute, the fcniiiles indulging openly in
the most irregular conduct, nnd making even a Ixjust of the tuimber of their paramours.
Probably there may be scandal mixed in those very evil reports of the African ladies. An
exception tx) this rude pastoral rliaractor existed on tho coast of Cyronaica, where tho
Greeks established flourishing polonies, which could b<' approached, however, only by tlio
dangerous route of the Syrlis or (luicksand, proverbial in ancient times as the scene of dis-
astrous shipwreck.

The Nasjimones, the most westerly as well as the most numerous of tho wandering
tribes, in general drove their herds along the sea-const, but in sununer repaired to tho Oasis
of itigila (Augila) to collect tho dates produced in that district. A tribe among this people
were called the Psylli, or devourers of serpent-s; and in fiict iippenr to have had a ))oculiur
iwwer of charming those noxir.us reptiles with which their deserts alKiund. Within their
borders, on the side of Cyrcno, whore verdure first began to adorn tho waste, Herodotus
has fixed the fabled site of the He.-;perian gardens.

The Garumantcs, to the south-west of Augila, and tho Nasamoncs, arc represented by
our historian as inhabitants of a region infested by wild boasts, and of a timid character,
flying the view and intercour,'<o of other men, destitute of amis, nnd unacquainted with war.
These characters do not apply to the people of modern Fezznn, which, however, is undoubt-
edly tho tract pointed out. To the north-west wore tho (lindanes (the mo<lern Gudamis),
among whom the license of public morals had risen to a greater height, than among all tho
wandering tribes of Libya. Still proceeding north-west, the traveller came to the lake Tri-

if-

BunK I.

THK KXI'KDITION OP AI.KXANDKH.

Itho Oasis

lis people

pcculiiir

jliin their

^ntnd by
llmractcr,
Ivith war.
lundonbt-
riudiimis),
Ip all the

lake Tri-

tonin, <'(>l('l)rnl('(l in nnrioni (Mf ii<! tlii< birf li-plnrc of MinrrvM, who, ncoonlin;? to ono liwMid,
wn>i N|>ritriif tVoiii Ni'ptiino nnd flc nymph of Ihi- hiki-. Thin hikf liirinH thn wuMtt'rn limit
i)t' thi> liin^f riin;.'<> nt' noniiidu' trihnii. Ik'yoiid it, lliTodotiH (rivcM um the Miixy'N, who ciiU
livati'd till' (.'riiiu\d. Ho had now ri-nrhod that tine raiijfi' ot'tiTritory lirlnn^jiinf fo Ciirthajff,
Ktri'trhlM',' aloM(^ thii nxwf, writi-n^l nnd rnrirht'il hy ntrrnniH tVoin Ihii Athin, It in very
ri'tnarkiilili', hownvrr, that hi> bixinld piKM hv entindy that uug\\iy anri rcdnbrated KtutP,
whii li was not only thn \m<<{ |h .wortlll in Atripa, hut wan iilwi tl'o rcritni of indiinlry and
riiiriiiii'rco with rocprct to tli*^ icicnt world. .Major Konmdl han iinH|N<('tc(| that tliin arowi

f'r a national I'l'idinir of oiiin on acroiitit of tlit'ir allianro with tim IVrKlnnx; hnl whrn

wo conxidcr that no miidi t(<(dni_ hn« prcvcntod tlio Inlh'Ht acTount tVoin hoini; jjivcii ol' thf
l't'r-'ian-< thoniHtdvfn, it can prarcoly 1h> mippoMcd that the h(>inif inrrely tVicnilM to tho Per-
HiiinN would cxrhido ho (jri'at a pi'opic iVoin Imm notico. It Honuix roally very dilH( nil to
ronjci'fnrn liifi motive, unleHw, aerordini; to the Hn)ffjeHtion of a learniMl t'rienil, we Hiip|H)(.o tliat
HercKlotns, writinjjf nlnifwt entirely tn ilhiHtratiMvliat waa oliHcure, or connnunicate know-
ledjje on [viintn renpeetin)? whieh ttu* world were in ignorance, ini(;lit think it HU|)erMnoiiH to
doHcribe what muct have been well known to the bulk of hiri readers, for the name reason
that hn has ffiven no reifidar desoription of (ireere. In reference to the trani>nrtionN of this
pooolo with other nntioni, he tjiken re()eated occasion to mention thoni, no that the oinisMion
conid not arise from absolnte ij,'noninco.

Atlas and fh> doBert bonier behind it next onpajfo the attention of onr historian; b tract
renrhinj; as fur as the utraits, which he mils the hiqli fnrvhrml of Africa. He describes
.Atlas as a lonff and lolly ranpe, wliotin lii)r|iest pinnacles arc wrapped in perpetnal rhaids
and he asoribes to the natives the oripin of the belief adopted by the Greeks, which made
it the pillar of heaven. Even in this extreme Iniundary of the continent, ho mcntifais some
pccnliarities that really exist : — the enormous size and formidable rharacter of the serpent
tribe; oxen with lar(?o nnd crooked horns; houses of salt whirh would melt away it'a sinjflo
shower were to interrupt the continued drouffht. When he bejjins, however, to speak of
people with horses' heads, and others without heads at all, it is time to fake our leave ;
thou(;li some learned writers suppose this to be a mere oxajffforateil description of some
animals of the desert. Wo must still follow him, however, to the western creist beyond the
straits, where the rnrthnfjinians, ho was informed, carried on trad«> witii the natives in a
peculiar manner. The prties did not see each other, but after a sijifiial made by smoke, (me
laid down his nrofler, went away, and left room for the other to do the seme ; when the first
came, and eitlicr accepted or rejected the barirnin, till the terms wore adjusted. Tluire
have been re|)ort8 in various quarters of this mo(m of traffic, hut all, wo suspect, exnjfgerated
representations of the timid manner in which civilized traders make their approachi^s to
those savaije people who possessed any valuable commodities. The priMluct soujrht \hhiu
this shore was jjold ; anil, as it does not exist in any latitude north of the Hone),'al, Major
Reimell concliidea that the trade of Carthatre extended to that distant river. A sceptic
mipht surmise tliat the pold was brouL.'ht across the desert to the coast of Barbary ; yet,
considerinrf the formidable character of this desert, it seems doubtful if at so early a period
a comnorcial route across itc(Hild have been opened.

The interior of Africa could not fail deeply to attract the curiosity of llorodotus. The
part already noticed as described by him forms only a belt along its northern coast, and
mcludes none of the vast inland tracts. On this subject, however, ho has only one talc to
tell. Several Nasamoniun youths of distinction, seisied with that desire to penetrate the
continent which has prevailed throuirhout all ages, departed on an expedition to the south-
ward. They traversed three successive bolts; first, the cultivated, or at least verdant and
inhabited tract alonfj tiie sea-shore ; then, another occupied only by wild beasts ; and, lastly,
n refjion arid and desolate. Here, while pluckinpf fruits, they were surprised by some
men of small stature, who carried them by the way of very great lakes, to a city inhabilsd
bv black inhabitants, and situated on a large river flowing from west to east. This river
iterodotus, Naturally enough, judges to W the Nile. Major Rennell conceives it to bo pro-
bably the river of Tombuctoo, wliich Riiropcan.s call the Niger; but we think, since the
late discoveries, there can scarcely be any hesitation in fixing it as the Ycou, the river
which rolls through Bornou, while the Tchad may be identified with tlio great lakes
along which the expedition was conducted.

CHAPTER IV.

FIRST .M.EXANDniAN SCHOOL—ERAToaTlIENES AND BTRABO.

Rkct. I. — The Expedilion of Alexander,

The geography of the Greeks became little more than a topographical delineation of
military routes, litler the intestine wars in which they were involved caused them to lose
eiglit of the more distant rcLMons of the earth. Reside}--, as they never cultivated mathe-

VOL. I. ' *

it'J

HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt I.

matical science with any care or to any extent, tliey Imd not the power of arranging
even these limited materials into a KyKtematic form.

The expedition of Alexander gave a much greater degree of expansion to the human mind.
That monarch transferred the scut of war into the Persian empire, and carried his victorious
arms into the remotest regions of the East. Whatever might be the faults ancl follies with
which his career was stained, it cannot be denied that an enlightened curiosity animated
all his proceedings. Wherever he went, he was accompanied by skilful surveyors, Diogne-
tus and Boiton, wlio measured the length and direction of every route over which the
army passed. Alexander himself carefully inspected these itineraries, employed all prac-
ticable means for obtaining the best materials, and his letters are even quoted by Pliny as
authorities for many geographical statements. These itineraries are said to have been
afterwards published by Bteton, under the title of " the Marches of Alexander." From the
defective state of the science, however, which that prince could not remedy, all these
materials were necessarily imperfect They could include nothing beyond mechanical
measurement, nor is there any record, throughout this long career, of a single attempt to
fix the position of any spot by celestial oteervation. Imperfect as they were, however,
these documents did not the less form a completely new era in geographical science. After
the death of Alexander, they passed through the hands of Scleucus into those of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, who spared no efforts to render Alexandria the greatest seat of learning and
science in the ancient world ; and among the sciences there cultivated, geography and
astronomy held the most distinguished place.

The progress of Alexander led him at first through Syria, Egypt and Persia, but did not
bring the Greeks to the knowledge of any countries, of whose existence and limits they
were not already fully apprised. But after he began the pursuit of Eessus, who had carried
off Darius into Bactriana, his march became a sort of exploratory route. In his vain pur-
suit of the Scythian armies he reached the banks of tlie Jaxartes, though he did not fully
trace the course either of that river or of the Oxus. On his way thence to India, he had
to penetrate the narrow passes overhung by the snowy ramparts of the Hindoo Coosh, and,
with much difficulty and many hardships to his troops, learned to appreciate the magnitude
of that great inland barrier of Asia. In India, Alexander could not penetrate beyond the
region watered by the five rivers. Yet he did not consider it as the boundary of the
earth ; he learned the existence and beauty of the fine regions on the Ganges, whither he
in vain attempted to persuade his fatigued and refractory troops to follow him. He consoled
himself by conveying his army in pomp down the Indus, to view the entrance of that great
stream into the ocean, and with instructions, as we have already seen, to trace the shores
of Asia round the Persian Gulf. He himself, upon very bad information, undertook to lead
back his army through Gedrosia and Caramania, the greater part of which he found, as
modem travellers have done, to be a desert of the most dreary and formidable character, in
which his army was with difficulty saved from total destruction.

Sect. II. — Expedition of Seleucus.
Seleucus, on the partition of the empire of Alexander, succeeded to the dominion of
Syria and the East. Neither that prince nor his successors were either learned or patrons of
learning; but as the owner of extensive dominions, and aiming at farther conquest, he
cherished tlie natural wish to be acquainted with what he possessed or hoped to obtain. Ho
employed his admiral, Patrocles, to make a survey of the Caspian Sea, which had not
entered into tlie line of Alexander's route; but the information gained by this voyage must,
as we shall see, have been far from complete. It would also seem as if he had employed the
same admiral in an attempt to circumnavigate Asia; but the assertion which obtained credit
in that age, tliat he had sailed round from India to the Ciispian, sufficiently attests the failure
of the enterprise. Seleucus, also, finding, probably, that the inroad of Alexander into India
had been of very transient result, undertook a military expedition, the details of which are
little kno\vn, and which enabled him to establish no permanent footing in the country ; but
he collected some further materials for the geographer, and the record of his marches appears
to have been of imjwrtant service to Pliny. He sent also an embassy under Megasthenes
to Palibothra, capital of the great Indian kingdom situated on the Ganges, from which the
ancients derived a more accurate knowledge of these eastern parts of the world than they
liad previously possessed.

SErr. III. — Eratosthenes.
Eratosthenes at length succeeded in reducing geography to a system under the patronage
of the Ptolemies, whicli gave him access to all the materials colloctpd by Alexander, his
generals, and successors, and to the immense mass of docunients assembled in the Alexan-
drian library. The astronomical observations made in this school were now sufficient to
prove the globular form of t\w earth. Eratosthenes, proceeding u|)on tiiis principle, made it
his study to adjust to it all llie known features of the globe. He did not, however, attend
to the gnmd original division.s of the equator, tlie pole, or even tlie tropics. The line which

nironape

nder, his

Alcxan-

Scient to

\, inado it

attend

no wliici'

Book I. WORLD ACCORDING TO ERATOSTHENES AND STRABO. 39

formed the basis of his geograpliy, and generally of that of the Alexandrian school, wa« a
parallel drawn across the Mediterranean, and thence prolonged through Asia. It waa
formed in a very rough manner, upon no actual observation, and comprising all leading
positions which came nearly though not strictly within its sphere. It was called generally, the
parallel of Rhodes. The most westerly point was the Sacred Cape of Iberia (Cape St Vin-
cent), after which followed the " Strait of the Pillars" (of Hercules). The next point waa
tiic Strait of Sicily, erroneously considered to be under the same meridian with Rome and
Carthage. Then came Rhodes, the centre of the line. Issus, celebrated as the site of the
victory of Alexander, was with little dilFiculty brought within the limit Next followed the
somewhat doubtful position of tlie Caspian gates, and the line was extended along the chain
of Mount Taurus, supposed to divide Asia into two parts, till it terminated at the remote
city of Tliina?, situated on the eastern ocean. This entire length of the habitable world, aa
it was called, amounted to about 70,000 stadia, or, according to his estimate, one hundred
degrees, not quite a third of tlie circuit of the globe.

In determining a meridian to exhibit liis breadth of the habitable world, Eratosthenes
laboured under still greater difficulties. On the extreme south was " the limit of the habitable
earth;" for, accordmg to this school, a certain tract around the equator was, from the
excess of heat, unfit for human habi' ition. The uninhabitable zone was supposed to extend
8,300 stadia, or about twelve degrees to the north of the equator. Under the next parallel
were included the " Isle of the Exiles," in or near Sennoar ; the cinnamon-bearing region,
which appears to be Berbera, and Taproban, or Ceylon. Next comes Meroe, the capital of
Ethiopia, which was supposed, though with great error, to correspond as to latitude with
the southern extremity of India : thence descending the Nile the geographer marks the
jelebrated position of Syene, which was concluded to be immediately under the tropic,
iiince there was a well, in the depth of which at noon-day, at the precise time of the vernal
equinox, the disk of the sun \.as seen reflected entire. The observation was very nearly
correct Next came Alexandria, of which, as the centre of all these observations, the
position aa to latitude was very closely approximated. Then followed Rhodes in the centre
of the great parallel already described as exhibiting the length of the habitable globe.
Continuing northward, though not upon the same lino, were found the Hellespont, Byzan-
tium, the mouth of the Borysthenes, and passing over the vast obscurely-known tracts of
Germany, Gaul, and Britain, tlic farthest Thulc, which, on the report of Pytheas, Eratos-
thenes regarded as the extreme northern boundary of the earth. As the same authority
placed Thule under the Arctic circle, or at sixty-six degrees of latitude, the interval be-
tween that position and the limit of the habitable earth on the side of the equator amounted
to about fifty-four degrees, or according to his estimate 38,000 stadia, which formed thus
the supposed breadth firom north to south of the habitable earth.

Sect. IV. — Hipparchus.
Hipparchus, carrying still farther the system adopted by Eratosthenes, subjected the
whole science of geography to astronomical principles. His labours in numbering the stars,
and arranging them according to their place in the heavens, were such as appeared mar-
vellous to the ancients, and are esteemed by Pliny aa achievements that would have been
nrduous even for a god. In this career, however, he had been preceded by Timocharis and
Aristillus, wlio, more than a century before, had made some observations whicii paved the
way for the present extended discoveries. Hipparchus appears to have first conceived the
idea of transferring the observed latitudes find longitudes of the stars to their correspond-
ing places on the eartli's surface, thus fixing the latter with a precision which no itinerary
measurements could ever attain. He made a considerable number of observations of lati-
tude, in addition to the very few previously existing, and he pointed out the mode in which
(he longitudes might be ascertained by observing the eclipses of the sun and moon. It does
not appear to what extent he carried the diflicult operations requisite for this investigation ;
bu' he is said to have calculated the eclipses for six hundred years, including the moments
of their appearance at different places ; a performance which seems to indicate a know-
ledge of their astronomical position. Thus Hipparchus distinctly perceived all tiie prin-
ciples upon which an accurate system of geography might be founded, and made some
progress in their application; but tiiese important principles, like others which wore beyond
the comprehension of the age in which they were made, remained for a long time dormant
or misapplied, and were not brought into full practical opplication until a much more
advanced period in the progress of science.

Sect. V. — The world accordinff to Eratosthenes aitd Stralo.
The application to the different parts of the earth's surface of the principles according
to which the globe was to bo delinnatcd, formed a task still more arduous tiiaii that of the
first estnblislmioiit of those ])riiiriplos. Tho longitudes and latitudes of the ancients are
both erroneous; more cspocially the longitudes, to wliicli astronomical observation waa
never verv cxt?nsivcly apulicd ; lionco it is not wonderful that tlie errors should be great;

'.' «

TSM

mSTORY OP GEOGRArilY.

Part I.

but the regular and rapid manner in which they accnmulato appears very surprisinx
They begin from the Sacred Cape of Iberia (Cape St. Vincent), which the aiicienU mane
their first meridian, and continue regularly increasing as we proceed eastward. To the
Pillars of Hercules were assigned more than two dcgree.s beyond the trutli; to Alo.xandria,
nearly seven ; to Issus, ten ; to the Caspian gates, fourteen ; to Pattalena, or tiie Delta of
the Indus, twenty-three ; to the mouth of tlio Ganges, nearly twenty-seven. We have
already had occasion to observe, and the remark is found in the best ancient geographers,
that merchants and travellers of that age gave an exaggerated report of all the distances
over which they passed. The windings of the route, the hardships and obstacles encoun--
tared by them, the desire to magnify their own achievements, all concurred in inducing
them to view and present this particular tlirough an amplified medium. All the ituicraries
continued along the line upon which Eratosthenes measured his length of the habitable
globe being tlms unduly extended, the degrees calculated out of mem were of course
equally in excess ; and this excess became always the greater in proportion to the length
to which the line was protracted beyond its commencement at the Sacred Cape. The lati-
tude of the principal places in and round the Mediterranean is in general not far from the
truth, probably because it was determined by such rude observations as were within the
compass of Greek science at that early period.

In tracing the outline of the known world, and especially of the continents, geographers
still proceeded amid obscurity and doubt This school had laid down tlie fiindaraental prin-
ciple of a great circumambient ocean, embracing the entire circuit of the three continents.
This idea, mherited from Homer, was doubtless supported by facts to a considerable extent ;
but its application to the world in general, and especially to the nprthern shores of Europe
and Asia, was manifestly hypothetical, Eratosthenes, in comparing the magnitude of his
known world, even under its eroggerated dimensions, with the general circumference of
the earth, became sensible that only a third part of this last was filled up. He indulges in
conjecture as to the contents of this vast unknown region, which, he observes, might either
be supposed to consist of one great ocean, the whole of which he denominates the Atlantic,
or of lands and islands which might be discovered in sailing to the westward. With a
degree of caution, however, not very common in that age, he declines to give any decisive
opinion on this question. — The system of Eratosthenes may now be considered in regard to
Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Sdbsect. 1. — Europe. (Fig. 6.)

The imperfection of ancient geography is often conspicuous with respect to countries
which were very near and familiar. In regard to the very centre of the Mediterranean,
Eratosthenes conmiitted a capital error. Following the propensity to include all the lead-
ing positions under some one line to which they approximate, he placed in the same me-
ridian Rome, the Sicilian strait (that of Messina), and Carthage. The mistake with regard
to the first and last of these points did not much exceed a degree ; but the middle point is
nearly four degrees east from Rome, and five from Carthage. Such an error could not fail
to produce others. M. Gossolin shows that it has led to a signal mistake respecting the
position of Sicily, as the geographer, in order to retain its relative position towanls Carthage,
necessarily represented its greatest length as from north to south, instead of from east to
west. The promontory of Lilyboenm, facing Carthage, became the southern instead of
the western extremity of Sicily ; while Cape Pachynum, instead of the southern, became
the eastern. Sicily being thus projected so unreasonably towaitis the south, Carthage also
was made to recede too far in the same direction; and the coast leading thither from the
straits of Gibraltar was supposed to bend to the south instead of the north. The same
erroneous process, placing Sicily too far west, enlarged beyond measure the eastern basin
of tlie Mediterranean comprehended between it and Asia Minor. This deformity became
still more serious from another application, to Alexandria and Rhodes, of the system of
placing leading points under the same meridian. As the former error had made Sicily too
fer west, this mode Rhodes too far cast, and rendered the sea between these islands too
large by at least a half.

Strabo, ever alive to the faults of his predecessors, detected the mistake of Eratos-
thenes with respect to the relotive positions of Rome and Carthage. He has been fer,
however, from rectifying all the wrwig positions established by his predecessor. He haa

1. OfldM
3. C'aipe

3. Carthavo Nova

4. Narbo

5. Manilla
fl. Aniipolir
7. Ocnuu
a Luna

0, Populonium
}f. Cu3>a

11. noma

K. 0«lia

IS. (,'irceii

14. PiiieoK

I.*!. Nenpuli^

1A. Pnmtlonia

17. Velia

IR I.nui

K. IlitipoBiuin

of Europe according

to Eratotlhentn.

90. Rhpfriiim

SS). Pnla

il I'iccr

21. Hrjtlaoiam

7)0. K[)i<lnunia

fjurnmna

n. Thutii

.11. KindHmnQi

f Durmj

21. 'I'arenlDin

'.fi. ApoJIunia

* Tttaua
n Anan

^. Hriinduaium

15. flipiiB

Rivert

i Roofia

%. I'eanum

a Alhi*

j IhRriia
1i Khndaoua
1 Varui

W. Ancnna
«. Aiimiouni

b Rhnnoa

G Bcquana

•r .,

'■. .-*.

Fio. 6. EUROPE ACCORDING TO ERATOSTHENES.

M A Jl E

A TLANTlCVia

^ k

Vol. I.

ill;

^■t

.^.

mmm

HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY.

PartL

left untouched the false orienting of Sicily, and all the errorn dependent upon it. Botli ho
and Eratosthenes describe Italy aa extending from north to south, which, allowing for the
early tendency to orient nil lines towards a cardinal point, may be taken us a pretty fail
representation. M. Gosselin hoii undertaken to show tliat sucli a tlircction would be incon-
sistent with the other data given by these geographers, in confbrmity to which Italy must
stretcli from east to west. Consideruig, however, the imperfect state of geograpiiical deli-
neation at that puriotl, it f^eems going too far to follow each error into all its conscquenceB,
or to suppose that all the views given can be brought into complete harmony.

The outline of the central and northern countries of Europe drawn by these geogra^
phcrs is excessively vague. Strabo indeed makes some approach to accuracy in comparing
the Spanish peninsula to a " hide spread out," or to a parallelogram. Various countries
were by the ancients denominated from a fancied resemblance to some object in nature, nor
are examples wanting in modern times. But the eastern side of this figure is formed by
the Pyrenees, which are thus made to extend from north to south, to form the western
boundary of Gaul, and to be parallel to the Rhine. Hence arises the greatest of all these
errors ; for Gaul is allowed to have on the ocean only one coast, which is that looking to
the north, and every whore opposite to Britain. Strabo treats with derision the report of
Pytlicas, that the Calbium promontorium, the extreme point of Brittany, looked to the west,
and he represents vessels as sailing to Britain as readily from the mouth of the Loire and
Graronne as from tliat of tlie Rhine and the Seine. Great as these errors arc, we shall easily
trace their origin in considering the sources whence the Greeks derived their information
respecting these extremities of Europe. Whatever may have been the case with regard to
the Carthaginians, it is evident that neither Greeks nor Romans ever navigated its exterior
seas. Pytlieas alone performed that daring voyage ; but having no witnesses to bring in
support of his relation, it was denounced as fabulous, in common with others made by early
discoverers. The regular channel of communication was Marseilles. The merchanthse of
Britain being brouglit across the British channel to the mouths of the Rhine and the Seine,
was conveyed up lliose rivers, and by land carriage to that great emporium of Gaul. Hence
the geography of Gaul and Britain, in that age, was ruled entirely by Massilian ideas.
From the causes stated, the Massilians had no communication with Britain unless by the
northern coast of Gaul, and by routes directed from .'^oulh to north tiirough that country.
Reasoning only from what they knew, they might soon arrive nt the conclusion, that Gaul
had only a nortiiern coast, and might apply to it the wlioie of the erroneous system now
described. The result of this system was, that the Casisitoridcs, Islands of Tin, in which
term the Scilly islands were evidently blended with Cornwall, were made to approach to
Spain, and came to bo considered as much Spanish as British. So prevalent was this idea,
that even afterwards, when the conquests of Rome had made known the wide separation
between the two countries, tlie Cassiterides are found in some maps still attached to Spain,
and at a little distance from Cape Ortegal.

Britain, under this system, was represented as a triangle, of which the base, or
longest side, was that along the channel and opposite to Gaul. As the coast, after passing
the two extremities of this line, begins on one side to bend inward towards the Bristol
Channel, and on the other to the Thames, navigators then probably considered it as continu-
ing in these directions till it came to a point, far short of its real termination. lerne, or
Hibemia, (Ireland) appears in dim obscurity. It is said to be situated four hundred miles
north from the centre of Britain, under a climate so excessively cold that there could not
possibly 1)0 any inhabited country nearer to the pole. If the four hundred miles be measured
from the centre of the southern coast, and allowance be made for false orienting, it will not
be found so very wide of the truth. Tlie rest of the description was probably made out by
confused ideas of Scotland, and particularly the bleak mountainous tracts in the north.
Eratosthenes, indeed, hius derived from Pytheas a knowledge of the far northern limit of
Thule, and of its appendant islands, stretching towards the Arctic sea ; but, as the proud
scepticism of Strabo rejected this statement, he was thrown back upon the more imperfect
information aflbrded by tlie merchants of Marseilles.

The eastern shores of northern Europe occasioned still more emlmrrnssmciit to the
Greeks. They had, in general, the idea of this continent having tlie sea for its boundary ;
but this seems mainly to rest upon the general vague belief of a circumambient oooan, and
an understanding that Germany had on the north a maritime boundary, indicated by the
amber brought from the shores of the Baltic. Here, too, Pytheas, either by personal
investigation or by careful inquiry, had collected some particulars which if Strabo had not
disdained, he would not have been left in such total darkness. After proceeding fir along
the German coast, that navigator, it is said, came to a great gulf (evidently the Baltic). He
found Basilia, a very large i.-land, the same which Pliny calls Baltia ; being, in fact, the
peninsula of Scandinavia, which, until it was circumnavigiited, must have been regarded by
navigators ns nil island. Then, it is said, he came to the Tanais, wliich appears, no dnuht,
a very startling assertion; but we must remember that, in this sehixil, the circumambient
ocean was supposed to liave a coast only a little north of the Euxine and the Caspian, and

Book I.

ROMAN GEOGRAPHY.

the

to communicate with theso seas or {julfe (an they were supposed to he) by narrow straits,
one of which was the Tanais, and the nioutli of one of tiio great Baltic rivers might very
easily be imagined to form the terininutlon of thia strait.

SuBSECT. 2. — Asia. {Fig. 7. pnge 44.)

The limits assigned to Asia, already too small, were contracted by the geographers of the
Alexandrian school, notwitlistanding the additional sources of information which they pos-
sessed respecting that continent. This error arose partly from their theory of a surround-
ing ocoon, and partly from their neglect of tlie important information obtained by Herodo-
tus respecting the countries along the heads of the Euxine and Caspian. The expedition
of Alexander, indeed, and the embassy of Megasthenes, made them acquainted with the
fJnngps, rolling eastward through the fine plain of Upper Hindostan. Seeing it pursue
this direction to the utmost limit of the then known world, they were led to conclude that
its course continued eastward, and that it fell into the eastern ocean, which formed, on that
side, the boundary of the continent. Connecting this with the Caspian, the only northern
Asiatic sea known to them, they drew a Una from one to the other, by which they excluded
nearly two-thirds the extent of Asia ; the Birman empire, China, tlie greater part of Tar-
tary, and the whole of Siberia. On the shore of the eastern ocean was placed ThinK, evi-
dently known only by vague rumour, and which they fixed at the extremity of the line
measuring the length of the habitable globe. What may be the import of this mysterious
name, and whether it be the capital of Siam or of China, is a discussion which will be bet-
ter reserved until we come to the more precise notices of Ptolemy. One other grand
feature was known to this school; the cape of the Coliaci or Cape Comorin; but conceiving
the coast of Coromandel to follow the line of the Ganges, and, consequently, to verge to-
wards the west, they made it several degrees more easterly than even ThinE.

Asia within and Asia beyond Taurus were made the grand divisions of tliat continent.
That great mountain chain arising in Asia Minor was supposed to be prolonged by those
of the Elburz, of Khorasan, and of Hindoo Coosh, which, m fact, there is much reason to
believe, may form a chain nowhere wholly interrupted. Within Taurus were all the fertile,
populous, and splendid kingdoms and countries of Asia; Syria, Assyria, Babylon, Persia,
Susiana, Ionia, Cilicia; beyond, were the ruder tracts of Scythia, Boctria, Sogdiana; and
more westerly, the Caucasian territory, and the part of Asia Minor situated along the shore
of the Black Sea.

SuDSECT. 3. — Africa.

In regard to Africa, the knowledge of these geographers, though accurate in some re-
spects, was extremely limited. They believed its boundary to be the sea ; but this correct
judgment proceeded rather from a casual coincidence with their theory of an encircling
ocean, than from any actual knowledge ; since Strabo rejected even the possibility of cir-
cumnavigation. This scepticism was founded upon the hypothesis of an uninhabitable tor-
rid zone, which formed an essential part of the reigning system at this period. It is a be-
lief manifestly Atrican, founded on the observation of those vast and burning deserts, which
extend indefinitely beyond the narrow inhabited stripe bordering on the Mediterranean.
The Nile, then, being still considered as the eastern boundary, Africa became a sort of
right-angled triangle, of which the two smaller sides were formed by that river and the
Mediterranean, while the hypotenuse, or largest side, was the unexplored shore. It was
•(ton the Nile that Eratosthenes measured the habitable world of Africa ; yet he does not
trace that river so high as Herodotus, his details reaching only between three and four
hundred miles above Meroe. In these details, however, he is very accurate : on the east-
ern side, he represents it as receiving two great rivers, the Astapus and the Astaboras, the
former of which flows from lakes in the south, and, when swelled by the summer rains,
forms almost the main body of the Nile. He describes also the bend which the river makes
in its passage through Nubia. Tiie source, being imagined to exist in regions rendered in-
accessible by extreme heat, could not be considcuod as within the reach of discovery. The
idea, however, still prevailed, that it came from the west, and Strabo even mentions a re-
port, that its source was in the remote region of Mauritania, south of the Atlas. This is
the only statement made by geographers of this school, which can be considered as indi-
cating any idea of the existence of the Niger.

CHAPTER V.

ROMAN GEOGKAPHV.

The Roman geographers attained no proficiency in the mathematical branch of the
science. M. Gosselin does not even hesitate to a.ssert, tiiat they remained always strangers
to ifs very flrr^t elenients. They made no attempt, therefore, to combine their materials into
one harmonious system, or to fix their positions with that strict accuracy, which astronomi-

*• 'W I P'

ff 'S

THE WORLD ACCORDING TO ERATOSTHENES.

^ ,

Fio. 7

,r.''

'Itt

1.7

DooK 1.

ROMAN GEOGRAPHY.— MELA.

cal obsorvation alone can reach. Yet no notion omployed greater diligence in the opera-
lions of practical survey. This wu«, iiuleed, absolutely requisite, witli a view to that in-
ci>9nant warlure in which thoy were cngiigod ; they could not conqner tho world without
oreviously surveying it. Their geographical researches were, however, held strictly sub-
servient to this ambitious design.

Itineraries were thus the only form in which the results of Roman investigation
were presented. Vegetius informs us that when war was to be carried into any country,
tlie first cure was to procure a complete set of routes, and place them in the hands of tho
general. These itineraries, it is observed, ought, if ]iof)sible, to contain, not merely tlie inter-
vals, in paces and Roman miles, between one place and onother, but the (juality of the roads,
the surrounding objects, mountains and rivers, delineated with the utmost possible precision.
They were not only to be noted, but painted, that the commanders might not know merely,
but see betbre tlicir eyes, tlie route by which they were to proceed. The Romans became
thus the surveyors as well as tho conquerors of the world ; and every new war in which
they engaged, every new conquest which their arms acliieved, produced a fresli accumula-
tion of materials for the use of tho geographer. Even after a country was subdued, tho
necessity of accurate 8ur\'ey did not cease. The empire was long held in a state of mere
military occupation ; camps formed at proper distances were connected bjr those excellent
and durable roads, many of which remain to this day. An accurate acquaintance with the
position and intervals of these camps, and tlie nature of the intervening territory, was essen-
tial to tlie maintenance of their dominion over the vast extent of their conquered countries.
No sooner, tlieretbre, had Julius Cfesar seated himself on the undisputed throne of the empire,
than he caused a senates consultum to be passed for a general measurement of the Roman
world. This task, it is said, was intrusted to " the most prudent men, adorned with every
endowment of philosophy." The east was assigned to Zenodoxus, the west to Theodotus,
and the soutli to Polycletus. In the course of twenty-five years, as we are informed by
iEthicus, tlie whole was completed. Julius CBsar, however, did not long survive the com-
mencement of this great work, which the civil wars probably suspended. It was apparently
resumed and completed under the reign of Augustus and the ministry of his son-in-law
Agrippa, to w'hom it appears, from Pliny, to have been afterwards ascribed. The exact prin-
ciples upon which this grand measurement was conducted have nowhere been stated. The
reform of tho calendar, effected by Ctesor, seems to point out that some elements of astro-
nomy existed among those with whom he consulted.

Rome, in tlie most flourishing era of its literature, produced two eminent g'iographers,
Mela and Pliny.

Sect. I. — Mela.

The personal history of this eminent geographer is a subject respecting which
scarcely any particulars have transpired. From the allusions, however, in his own writings,
to the conquest of Britain by Claudius as a recent event, made in those flattering terms
which only a contemporary would have employed, it would appear that his work was written
under the reign of that inglorious prince, and is, consequently, anterior to that of Pliny.

Mela, in forming his system, does not appear to have possessed those extensive mea-
surements and itineraries, which were probably deposited in the imperial archives. Faith-
ful, however, to the object of his treatise, " do situ orbis," he discovers very considerable
anxiety to determine the position of tlie globe, and trace with accuracy its general outlines.
He adopts the general principles of the school of Eratosthenes, incorporating into it the new
features which had been onorded by Roman conquest. He does not appear, however, to
have compreliendcd their idea of the globular form of the earth, nor is he very perspicuous
in any thing that he says upon that subject. lie begins — "All that, whatever it is, to which
■we give the name of tlio world and heaven, is one tiling, and in one circuit embraces itself
and all things;" vague and pompous exprrsfions, to which no determinate idea can be
attached. We find him, however, adopting in its fullest extent the belief of a circumam-
bient ocean ; and when he speaks of "the high earth in this middle part of it," and describes
the sea as going under and washing round it, we nre led to believe, that he viewed the earth
as a sort of cone, or as a high mountain raised by its elevation above the abyss of waters.
Having made a vague division of the world into cast, west, and north, he distributed it into
five zones, two temperate, one torrid, and two frigid. Only the first two were habitable ;

Refrrences to the

Map of the Worltl arcordi

ng to Eratomhenet.

EtIROPA.

'X AmUtis

l.'i. Pixtnla

AFRICA.

10. Bcrenico

1. Matwilia

:i. Rinope

Hi. rahbulhra

]. I.ixiia

11. t<«ene

2. Knnia

4. r.vhnm

2. Oarlhaco

12. Mwr.K,

X Athenm

.S. laitat

Rivtrs.

3. Ptntamats

i:i. Pinlemaii

4. Uyzantium

n. TImpanciu

a Oxui"

4. ryreno
."i. KereniCQ

14. Aduli

7. Ninua

b JaiariM

RiveT$.

S. Su«a

1. Phasis

G. Alexandria

Rivera,

a Rhentii

9. Bnliylon

d F.nphratpR

7. Canopna

a Nilus

b Borypitlienes

; 0. Rhinoeolura

9 I'igria
f ImTiis

8. Pelmmm

b Asia pus
c Aataboras.

c Tanaia

1. /F.lana

0. Arainoe

'2. Gorra

t Uungea

ASIA.

3. Tiru» Imiila

1. Dioscurias

14. Arailuii Insula

" V,

iMtfei

f •■-

!•

*
^

HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY.

rig. &-BYSTUM OF MEI.A.

Pabt '

and that on tlic south was inaccessible to man, on account of the torrid regions intervening.
.\ccor(ling to this system, however, there was on tlwt side another earth, inhabited by people,
whom he calls Antichlhoneg, from their opposite position with respect to that part which we
inhabit. The form and boundaries of tlie known and habitable earth are thus delineated : —
The Mediterranean, with its branches of the Straits, the Euxinc, and the Palus Mceotis ; itii
great tributaries, the Nile and the Tanais ; — these combine, in his conception, to form the
grand line by which the universe is divided. The Mediterranean itself separates Europe^
from Africa ; and these continents are bounded on the east, the former by the Tanais, the
latter by the Nile ; all beyond or to the east of these limits wfts Asia. (.fHff. 8.)

Tn drawing the outline of Asia, Mela adheres very strictly to his Alexandrian models.
He describes it as bounded by an ocean on every side except the western, where it confines
with Africa and Europe. It presents, he says, a iiuge and perpetual front to the eastern
ocean, its shores being occupied by the three farthest known nations, tlie Indians on the
south, the Seres in the middle, and the Scythians on the north ; but the territory of the
Indians and Scythians is rendered in a great measure uninhabitable by the extremes of heat
and cold. The limited extent of his accurate information, however, is appirent fl-om the
representation he gives of this ocean, as flowing directly north from the point of Colis (Cape
Comorin), the Ganges flowing into it, and the Scythians occupying its shores ns far as " the
Caspian Bay." He even inclines to credit the report of an Indian vessel having been driven
round by stress of weather to the coast of Germany. Thus he gave to Asia the same trun-
cated form which it had received from the authors whom he followed; but !'.e certaijily ren-
dered the dimensions of its eastern shore more ample, when he made it to consist, not of Indio
only, but also of Serica and part of Scythia. With regard to the southern shores of Asia,
they were known with sufficient accuracy, ever since the expedition of Alexander, and the
voyage of Nearchus. He calls the Indian ocean the Red Sea, and recognises the Red Sea
of modem geographers only under the name of the Arabian guif j but this is plainly a niert
nominal difference.

1£

in
in
O
th

of
id(
w]
rei
sei
wh
He
opi

AET

Book I.

nOMAN GEOGRAPHY.— MELA.

Itcrvening.
by people,
, which we
fneated :—
[ceotia; it"
o form thi!
tes Europe
anais, the

an models.
Jit confines
|he eastern
ns on the
lory of the
Vea of heat
_ from the
fiolis (Cape
lar as " tho
lecn driver
iHanic trim-
Itainly ren-
]iot of India
iea of Aaia,
ler, and the
\e Red Sea
Inly a mere

Europe, as dewribed by Mela, extends from the Tanais to Cadiz, and, with the exception
of its eastern river-limit, is bounded every where by seai and oceans. Its leading feature
in the Mediterranean, joined to tho Euxme and tlic Palus Ma'otis, which are considered
only as prolongations of that sea ; while the iEgean, tho Ionian, and the Adriatic seas,
form its three great gulfs. The western part he divides into the Tuscan and the Libyan
seas. His delineation of tho exterior coasts marks a great advance of knowledge. He
assigiis to Spain a northern, and to Franco a western coast of great extent, and adds that
tlie Pyrenees, after separating France from Spain, enter tho latter country and penetrate to
its extremity, when tliey face the Atlantic. Hero the whole chain of the Cantabrian motm-
tains is considere<l, by no very strained meaning, aa Pyrenean. In treating of these outer
shores of Europe, and the " huge and infinite sea" on which they border, Mela relates, with
exaggerating wonder, tho phenomena, unknown to a Mediterranean people, of the tides,
" that mighty movement by which the sea alternately advances and rctunis into itself, over-
flowing the lands, driving back mighty rivers, and sweeping away the strongest land
animals." His speculations on the cause are singular; either the world is a great animal
whose breathings excite in its breast these alternate movements ; or it contains deep caves,
into which the waters are alternately absorbed and ejected. He does, however, mention
the theory which supposes them influenced by the moon, and remarks their correspondence
with the movements of that body. In treating of the Cassiterides, or Islands of Tm, which
include, as already observed, the Scilly Islands and Cornwall, he shows considerable per-
plexity, only observing that they are " in Celticis," indicating their close alliance with
Fmnce. In regard to Britain itself, however, he confidently undertakes to give the world
better information, in conseqrence of the victories of " the greatest of princes" over nations
hitherto unsubdued and unknown ; and he certainly makes a great progress beyond the im-
perfect notions of Strabo. He describes Britain as presenting two extensive oblique coasts,
one looking towards France, the other towards Germany ; the two forming a great angle
nearly opposite to the mouth of the Rhine. The coasts then began to bend inwards, and
form a triangle varied with numerous points and angles, and somewhat similar in form to
Sicily. The countrv is described as flat, large, and ihiitfiil, but contrary to what now ob-
tains, more favourable to the support of flocks than of men. The natives were uncultivated,
warlike, and ignorant of wealth ; they were accustomed to paint their bodies, and to ride in
chariots. Above Britain was Juvema (Ireland), nearly equal in size, and of an oblong form,
its soil scarcely fit for the production of grain, but its pastures so luxuriant, that if the
cattle were allowed to feed for more than a short period of the day, they died of repletion.
The relative dimensions assigned to Britain and Ireland would seem to show that the former
was known only in its southern part, yet the writer discovers himself not unacquainted with
the Scottish islands. He mentions thirty Orcades, in which number the Shetland Islands
are probably included.

In proceeding to the east and north, Germany is described by Mela as a region of great
extent, intersected by many rivers, and covered m a great measure with woods and marshes.
The inhabitants were tall and remarkable for courage and strength, continually exercised
in war and hard labour, eating raw flesh, and clothed partly in the haik of trees. Passing
the Vistula, wo enter into Sarmatia, extending to the Danube, rather a vague limit, but the
term is evidently meant to comprehend the greater part of modern Poland. The people
are some stages in barbarism beyond even the Germans, having no cities or even settled
abodes, and carrying their fierceness to sucli a pitch, that hunting and bending the bow
were considered the best accomplishments of their females, no one of whom, the writer
even asserts, could enter the matrimonial state till she had killed her man. On this shore
hs represents the Codanus Sinus, a great bay filled with large and small islands ; nowhere
presenting an expanse resembling a sea, but dispersed and scattered in narrow clionnels
like rivers ; a description very applicable to the entrance of the Baltic and tho Danish
islands. In common with all the ancients, however, Mela appears to have been ignorant of
any thing like a continent on the other side of this great bay.

The outline of Africa, drawn by this geographer, sufficiently shows his limited range of
information. This continent he views as a triangle, the greatest length of which, measured
in his system from the Nile to the Atlantic, is considerably less tlian the length of Europe.
Of this triangle, the Nile forms the base ; and firoro thence tho southern coast, or that of
the Ethiopic ocean, continually approximates to the northern, til!, beyond the Pillars of Her-
cules, it tapers almost to a point. The origin and course of the Nile arc to Mela a subject
of much speculation. One account, esteemed by him as tolerably credible (aliqud credibile)
identifies it with a great Ethiopian river, called in the language of the natives Nuchul ;
which, while all other rivers tend towards the ocean, alone flows eastward to the central
region, and no one knows where it terminates ; a striking coincidence with the actual ob-
servation of the moderns, respecting that celebrated stream denominated the Niger. Else-
where, however, Mela propounds an hypothesis of a much more extraordinary character
He says, that if there be another earth (on the south of the equator), and Antichthones
opposite to us, " it might not be departing too far from the truth" to suppose tliat tlie Nile

I'l ?

Ij r

\ I

HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY.

Part I.

■1 .,

nroso in Umt cnrtli, anil reanhod niir oide of tlio glnho by a clianncl bcnontli tlie ocean.
Tims it would niitiinilly swell diiriiij,' tlio KUinninr Holntico, which, on tlio siilo of tho world
from wliicli it came, was tlio scaHon of winter, nertins and Vincent, however, liivo per-
haps dealt too hiirdly with tho nntlior, in cnilxMlyinff this wild conception into a map, and
pivinj.' it to the vM)rld as the systom of Mela, wlu mentions it merely as a conjecture. Tho
lower part of the course of tho Nile he dencrihes with less accuracy than Strabo, tho two
cimnnids of the Astjipus and Astnlwnw beinjf made branches of the Nile itself, first separat-
ing and then re-unitinp. His ignorance respecting even tho shores of tho Red Sea ia
proved by their being filled with poetical wonders; tho pigmies waging tlieir ancient war
with theVriinos; the pha-nix, after a life of lour hundred years, dying, and reviving from
its ashe.-,. Proceeding to the interior and remoter shores of Ethiopia, lie finds always new
woikIith, sphynxes, birds with horns, flying horses. He refers to the voyages of Hannoand
of EuddxiiH, to w iiom he ascribes a variety of fables, by which the reputation of that navi-
gator hius been much and perhaps unjustly tarnished ; lastly, he comes to the Fortunate
Lilandf, ol" which the soil produces all things spontaneously, and tho fountains are possessed
of miniciiloiia virtues. In short, every tiling that Mela says of Africa beyond the mere
Mediterranean coast betrays a remarkable ignorance of tlie mysteries of that continent.

Sect. II. — Pliny.

Pliny, the most learned of the Roman writers, devotes two books of his extensive work
on natural history to a system of geography. lie appears to have iMssessed a greater store
of authentic materials than any former writer. From his intimate conne.xion with the
imperial tliiiiily, and with many of the most eminent commanders, all the military measure-
ments, as well as the general survey of the Roman empire, were placed at his disposal.
Ho has intnxluced, therefore, a multitude of itinerary details, which are generally very
accurate an<l valuable. But ho employs no astronomical elements, and appears to have
taken no pains to construct a regular system. All the general ideas which we can trace in
his delineation a|)!)ear to be founded on the same basis with those of Mela.

IMiny begins with Europe, which ho considers as by far the most beautiful and fruitful of
the throe quarters of the globe ; anil he applauds the opinion of those who consider it not
merely as a third, but as a half of the whole globe, separated from tho other half by tho
Tanais and tlie Mediterranean. This capital error, however, will not appear so surprising,
when we consider that the regions here compared witli Europe weie Asia terminated by
tho Gnnyes and the Jnxartes, and Africa extending only a few hundred miles inland from
the Mediterranean. Europe had been computed by Agrippa at 3440 miles in length, by
Polybius at only 2440; which last dimension is nearly correct. Pliny discovers a clear
conception of the fi)rin of Spain, drawing the Pyrenees not from south to north, but from
south-east to north-wes-t, and observing that Spain, " where it begins from them, is narrower
than France, aiul even than itself." The petition of Britain in the mup of Europe is very
fairly given ; though, to enumerate Spain, with Franco and Germany, among the countries
to which it is op|K).site, partakes too much of antiquated theories. He states the belief of
Agrippa that Britain was eight hundred miles in length, and three hundred in breadth ; Ire-
land the same in breadth, but shorter by two hundred miles; which is a tolerable estimate,
the last pai ' ictilar excepted. His disposal of the islands around Britain is not a little con-
fused. He mentions the Orkney.s seven .lEmoda}, and thirty Ebudte, but without showing
any precise idea of how they stand. Not only tho Isle of Man, but that of Wight also, is
placed between England and Ireland. He commits also a rcmorkable error when he men-
tions (!Jussiterim or Cattiterim, where tin is produced, as uii island at the distance of six
days' sail from Britain. To the remotest point, Thule, he assigns the uttri'jutes of a region
beneath tho Arctic circle, having only one day and one night in the year; and only a day's
sail from tho Cronium or Concrete Sea. Here, also, ho inentinns reports of oilier islands,
Scandia, Borgos (Bergen), Nerigon, which have intercourse with Thule. These features
evidently belong to the coast of Norway.

In describing the north of Europe, Pliny begins from tlic northern sliores of the Euxinc,
and Palus Ma-otis. The latter receives the Tanais, flowing ti'oin the Uiphiean Mountains,
and forming the lionndary of Europe. Beyond that celebrated and dcmi-ttibnlons range, he
still finds the Hyperboreans, p people screened I'roin every noxious blast, leading a happy
life exempt from old age, sickness, di.-<cord, and grief; till at length, satiated witli felicity,
they throw themselves from a rock into the sea. Tliese fables are, however, qualified with
the sjiving clause, " if we are to believe them," which shows tliat the liiitli of I'liny w.is
nut implicit. Tho shores of the ocean, ho confesses, are " marked by uucert-iinty." On
the authority, however, of Xenophon Lanipsacenus and of Pytlieas, he re|xn-ts liiisilia or
Baltia ns an island of immense magnitude, tlirec dayn' journey from the Scythian cott.st.
I'roceediiig westward, he comes to the Cimbric Chersonese, and op|)osite to it anotiier island.
Scandinavia, of unexplored magnitude, but which was ijy many described as forming quite
another world. Thus Baltia and Scandinavia, approached from diflbrent points, are con-

iRT 1.

[jCCRtl.

worlil
o por-
ip, and
. Tlic
lio two
eparat-
tica is
>nt war
Iff from
yg new
nno and
nt navi-
jrtunate
oflscBsed
lio mere
lont.

ive work
iter gtore
with the
measure-
disposal.
uUy very
J to have
n trace in

fruitful of

lidcr it not

itilf by tho

surprising,

ninated by

[lUind from
lonRth, by

jra a clear

1, but from
8 narrower
ope is very
e countries
e belief of
;>adtlr, Ire-
e estimate,
little con-
[ut showing
(jht also, is
|en he men-
iicc of six
of a region
[,nly a day's
licr islands,
so features

Itho Euxinc,
Mountains,
lis ranjie, he
lin<i a happy
litli felicity,
liiilifird with
If I'liny was
liinty." On
U Ifcisilia or
Ithiiin coast,
lotlier island.
Vininf? quite
(its, are con-

Door I.

ROMAN oeography.-1'i;i:tin(Ji;ri.\n tahlr.

HidpriMJ iiM fu'c) (lisfiiirt iii.-iiilar tprriturioH, llic vii -t oxti'iit of which, howovor, uppears to be
lii'tlor iippri'liriiilcd by IMiny thiiii liy iiiiy ntliiT miriiMit writer.

Asiii, in I'liny, Ih dolincatod iicconliii;,' to tlio (jfiicral irlfiis of Stnilio and Meln, Tlio
('iis|iiiin (ir llyrounian Sea ih a jjulf opi'niiijf into the nnrthcrn or Srytliinn oc"an, which is
ill p )iiiuiiiiiication with that called iSoric or Orifiital. I'liny scoiuh to iiavo liillcr informa-
tion ,'t' till' {jnindijur and woiilth of India tlinn any of his pred^ccsHors. Its inhahitjints and
iN citins tt(>ri) iniium(!rahle, and it wan ri']X)rtr'cl on ffood aiitiiority to form a third of tho
whole World. It enjoyed gentle breo/.es, two siiniincrs, two harvestn, one before, another
atlor the poriodicol winds. HlesHcd with these advantages, this happy people wore never
known to cmiffrate beyond their own territories. Ho descrites the marches of Ale.xander,
iVnm the measurements of Diofjnetiis and Bifiton, and where these fail, ho continues them
by those of Heleucus, and by the embassy of Megasthen'^s, as fur ns the month of the
(innpfos. These itineraries seem very y^ood. In treating of Taprobone, he observes, that
it had been believed by some to 1)0 an opposite continent oi earth, but that the inquiries of
Alexander had clearly proved it to bo an island. His report, however, tiiat tho country of
the Seres was seen from it, implies a most inadequate and erroneous conception of the
eastern coasts of Asia.

The Africa of Pliny does not differ in its general outline from that of Mela. His access,
however, to the archives of the empire, and his acquaintance with some of the Roman
generals, enabled him to give new details as to some of its most interior tracts. The region
of Atlas had boon first penetrated in tho reign of Claudius, by iEdemon, an adherent of
the extinct family of the Ptolemies, who souglit refuge there, Suetonius Pauliiuis, with
whom Pliny had conversed, found it of immense height, covered with snow even in summer;
on one side rising fVorn the sands, rough, horrid, and bare ; on tlie other, covered with thick
groves of unknown species of trees, and sparkling with fountains. An account is given of
a voyage along the western coast, which Polybius had made by order of Scipio. Only the
names of the places and tho distances are given. Tho former coincide in a great measure
with those of Hanno; and if Polybius was right in this coincidence, his report tends much
to confirm M. Gosselin's view of tho limited extent of Hanno's discoveries. In the time of
Vespasinn, another expedit on, under Cornelius Ralbiis, pent;trated into and concprered Gam-
ma (Germa), and Cydamns (Gadamis). Tho Romans here Ixdield with surprise houses built
of salt, and on digging to a small depth, water sprung out of the sand. A number of names
of conqnored places ore here given, which it is dillii'',ilt to recognize; for it seems too hasty
to identify Boin with Bomou.

A theory of the course of tho Niger was formed by Pliny from these materials with con-
siderable pains, but very imperfect success. Its soup"', according to king Juba, existed in
Mauritania, and it is even said to have been found by Suetonius Paulinas after a tew days'
march to the south of the Atlas. Tho Niger springs hero from a lake ; but soon, indignant
at (lowing through sandy and squalid tracts, it passes under ground for several days, and
emerges into another lake of Mauritania. After a circuit, however, of some extent, it again
disappears, and having pursued a .subterranean course of twenty days, re-appears, dividing
Africa from Ethiopia. At last, in its passage through Ethiopia itself, it assumes the charac-
ter of the Nile, first in two channels, Astusapes and Astaboras, enclosing the island of
Meroe, and afterwards uniting to form the entire and proper Nile. This wild and absurd
detail evidently includes the course of several rivers telonging to different and widely re-
mote regions of Africa. It may even be doubted, if any part belongs to what by motlems
has been considered tho Niger. It seems very probable, however, that the middle part,
which divides Africa from Etliiopia, has been suggested by the river of Bomou, or the Yeou,
as it has been called by our recent discoverers.

Sect. III. — Itineraries. — Peutiiifferian Table.

Of the itineraries composed by the masters of the world, and employed by them as nn
instnimcnt in its conquest, some fragments yet remain. Tlie most memorable" is that which
bears the name of Antoninus. It has been ascribed by some to Sevenis, by others to Theo-
dosiuB, and in fiict contains many particulars which could not have been written prior to the
era of tho last sovereigns; but it seems probable that there were .successive editions, with
such amendments and alterations as time suggested. It is a mere skcloton road-book, with
nothing but the names of places and their distance fVom each other. The same may be
said of the Jenis;ilem Itinerary, exhibiting in great detail tho route from Bordeaux to that
holy city.

i'lie Peutingcrian Table (the Italian portion of which is exhibited in FHir. 9. p. 50.) is a
more remarkable monument, and may be considered, probably, as a s])ecimen of the "painted
roads" of the ancinnts. It fijrms a map of the world, constructed, however, on the most
novel and peculiar principles. Its dimensions being twenty feet in length and one in breadth,
nn idea may be formed of the correctness with which the proportion of tho different parts is
exhibited. The iiigh road which traversed the Roman empire in tho general direction of
cast and west vj made the first meridian, and to this every other part is subjected. The ob-

VoL. f, 5 «

h*.. l».

BuuH r.

KKCOND ALKXANDIllAN S<;iIO()K

jortii nlonjj this linn nro iniiiiiti'ly nt\<\ fiiitliriilly cxIiihitfHl ; ,>f thiMn lyipR to Ihn north
miiilli lit' It iiiily H<iiii(> K'''!*'"'! notion riin Im> ronvi'yi'il : iIii'ihi itro M rvpriwoutuil, of "'
nioxt unornioiiNly fxtundiNl in lonKtIi uml rMluci»l in brnoilllt.

CIIAI'TKIl VI.

RKCONI) AI.KXAMIKIAiy XtMOOI..

At.RXANiiRiA by her rontribntionH l^i u<'oi;rn|ihy Nii|i|ilii<il tn « jfrnut rxtcnt tlifi (li'fioioncicH
of tlio Itoiiiiiim, who, iiiiiiil tho NU''ci'NM with which lhi*y culliviituil hiHtory iinil literature,
never iittiiMieil to any eininencn in thii« MiMeni-e. 'I'hiit ciimtal, evvn in lli Hiihject utiite,
retitineil Mlill tho inipiilHit received t'roiii thn I'toleniieH, ami contiiuieil to \m tliii MerontI iu
iiiiii;tiitnile, iiMil the liireiiioxt in leiirniii);, ot' ull in the empire. In lli» Heconil century thern
wiu eHliililiHlitMl, here iind at Tyre, ii f;eii^rnphiciil ncIiooI, [KiHMVMiin); more am|ile ninterinlN
nnd renourneH thim imy thiit hnd liitlii-rto exiHted. To the coniiueMtM imd itineraries nf Alex-
ander were now lulded thoNii of llomo, which, extending; in ii ilili'erent direction, eiiilirnred
many roiintrieN lo tho north nnd to the went, (iaul, llritain, (iermnny, N|min, nnd Muuritn-
nia, reN|N'ctin|{ which tho (iroekN had imNNeiwed only ronfuHed and imp^'rfect notionn. ThuH
n (rrenler (Kirtion of the ^IoImi thnn nt any former |M'riiHl wan now united under one (rovorn-
ment, which, hy a Nttindini; army and n regular NyHlein of lawH, priMorved the whole iu [mace
and order. The terror of tho Roman arnm enabled truvellerH to [)enrtrato with naft'ty oven
beyond tho limits of tho empirn. lANtly, tho unlM)unded luxury of tho ((rent capitnhi, and
aUivo all of imperial Rome, enriched with tho njioilH of tlie t'lolie, fired tho entoriirise of tho
merchant, who lliund hiM way int/) thoKo remoteiit marketH of tho raHtem world, tho rich
cnmmcxIiticH of whicli Imd hiliinrto boon oithcr bruu({ht by cnrnvnuH or found nt intunnediato
fltntionii.

Theno eidar|;ed material* woro connected togethnr hy n much moro nccurato and Hcion-
tific nrrnnf;emeut than had been ndopti-d under tho hcIiooI of EmtoHtheneti. Tho molhod
miffi^oMted hy IlipiNirchiiH of mibjectin;; the whole of (jeojrraphy to otitronomicnl principloH,
and of fixing' the poHition of every H|iot upon tho j;lobo accordiii); to itH lonf^itude ami Inti-
tu<le, wiiH now attempted to \m carrii^l into full eflect. The iittemnt, however, wa.s mado but
in a very rudo inaimor, nnd u[K)n n very narrow biiHia of olwervation. Not only, theroforo,
did it proHent a very im|X!rfect edition of tho new nyHtoni, hut involved errors which caused
it in Homo res[K!ctH lo retroffrado even from tho rudo HtJito to which it hod been brought by
tho formor hcIiooI of Alcxaudrin.

Sk«t. T, — MnrinuK of Tyre.
No Tyrinn Hystcm of jjoogrnphy has come down to uh, notwithstondinff tho noinniercial
OToatnosH of itH people at an early period. Froni the Ilrbrow writers wo hnvo accounts per-
haps of nearly tho whole of tho iliBtont conntricB with which tho Tyrians held intorcourgc ;

NORTH PART.
1. Hlipia
'I Hariluna

3. A()ninrn

4. Bninntio

0. Jnilf ra
n. Raf aitana

7. fabaria

8. Camunto

9. CjOtija

10. Vindnbnlia

11. Tanntica
13. Kmuna

13. Pnia

14. Rilvn
).f. Paritnlin

1ft. Ftin(t?'iiiniaia

17. Aiiuileia

la 0>ilia

IU. Altino

90. Rnaino

Sl.Trldrnta

92. Placenlia

'2.'!, .Aqua' Pnmilanip

'J4. Kliirpntia TuKOium

3.V Hoiia Julia

!M. Riluiiba

i!7. Vcrnna

3R Manilla

Sn. Mutina

:iO, Cma

31. Ailn-lio

39. Biiiionitt

3:1. riuiio

.14. Volainia

It. Aquaa Paiaatii

30. Ravenna

37. Arimino

3H. nianiaca

3W. Conlum cellia

to. Aquaa luari

Keferttice$ lo Ike I'tulingerian 7bWe (pn/fe W).

41. Anonna

a Riibiriim
1 Nrlnrum

31.Tnrento

70. Ourra

49. CHHirn-nnvo

39. Rriniliii

71. Ad llnrraa

43. Aquaa Apulliuaiia

44. Hiili'ln

u Maliina
V Ml«i

IM.Iinalia
34. N«rur<M

79. Iffipinminua
ri. Wiforo Col.

4.-.. Pnl.-nlia

wj'lnala
X 1'umii

M. ."laterni)

74. Ad Aquaa

49. KoalK

47. ('aniplloFirinHnl

rw. Niircria

7.1. Tapnrura

r Niirninum

'n. Oplonlia

7H. Tacapi^

4H. Ad Hum. Pmiura

a Amu

3H. Hi'iii'vi'nto

77. llrtipanid

411. Kiima
.VJ. hiiaiia
.tt. Charlailna
M ('lira Colonla

311. Venuiie

7H. i.ilyhmi

BOimi PART.

40. Ni'apidl

7(t. Aqimi I.abndoa

1. Ad Pniluiiim

41. Cnpuii

HO. Hiriiruaiii

4. 8.^r»iiio

49. Cumaa

HI. Afliiia Mona

.M. Aquia

M. titponte rilariln

K. Capm (^nlonia

3. Ad Praloium

4. Miina Major

43 SyWitt

«9. Mmiuna

44. Aonii*

a. liidHnaa
H. Titlobiirgo

43. Pritlunium Laucria

„ Divert.

M. All Modna

num

a Danubiuri

.'i7. Tlii.lmilo t'ol.

7. Rayuriu
H. Hirlla, run.

4tl. Pip<lTllll

b Ilrlnum

W. 'rhonano

47. K«.>rnio

n Hmvuoi

.W. Sirca-vpria

n. Haliina

4H. Tiinnii Sccdiclno

d Maraum

HO. All Aquaa CaiiiiriR

111. Kpetin
11. limrnna

4<l. Hinucua

(•unt.'ais

.V). Monturnil

f llapaum

liioert.

19. Hirmiuin

.M. Fundia

a Tannn
h Cralor

a DanubiUB

3. Naruit;!

rti. Trrrarinn

h Drinum

4. Tatiriinn

.VI. Fnrfnllnimi

i Hilarum

c Bavum

a. Ad Matrlcum

M. Fidiralcriy

It AvHdium

d Anta

n. Binaiduna

.V'l. Inlnntltn

a Frifido
f Lirpnna

7. Kpitauro

.Ml. f 'nniniii

1 Aufidnnui

i>. Slaneiti

.'>?. Mnrniliiii

in Larinum

a Afnaia

1 M. l.iHun
90. Viminatio

.W. Trea Toljernaa

n Clocnria

h rii'iiKia

.V.I. Ciiriiulia

Bannum

Umaiia

91. nirrrnliu

IU). nnia di.-rni

p Cumari

Padua

I Puala

99. Aulona

ni. Pinna

q NornMm

'it. Oia Cul.

li'J. <'m\!n nova

r Arno

1 Aninio

94. Babrata

63. PreneilB

a Tiboria

m laex

9X. Rrtio

(14. Roma

1 Siifo

n Umbra
Palha

9A. Caulon

IK. Hnilii

u Vultamui

77. Lacenlum

HA. Chanaaine

V Hlmera
w Niranua

p AnneaiK
q Maria

9n. Ciiitra Minervb)

07. Mnxula

91). Vibona Valenlia

HN. Ad Aqiiai

a Auaere

r Tiberia

30. Temn

W. Miiua Clipcia

y Geiin

f.,. M

•'ill

■ ,- ':

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt I.

but if those writers are supposed to have borrowed from tliem their ideas respecting,' the
general structure and boundaries of the earth, gcograpiiy among tlie early Phoenicians will
not appear to have passed ita infancy. As Tyre, however, even under the Roman empire,
remained still the seat of an extensive commerce, some of her intelligent citizens availed
themselves of the lights afibrded by the learning of Alexandria, and applied them to the
illustration of those subjects on which the greatness and prosj)erily of their city depended.
If the merchants of Tyre had notliing left of that proud rule, and tliose nionoiwlizing profits,
which enabled tliem to rival the pomp of princes, their commercial relations probably ex-
tended over a wider surface of tlie globe than ever. Thejr seem to liave been en^ged
in that vast caravan route which was opened firom Byzantium across tlie whole interior
of Asia, conductmg the merchants by a journey of ten or eleven months to tlie Chinese
frontier, whence they brought silk, the staple product of that great country. Collect-
ing these enlarged materials, Marinus, a native of Tyre, sought to apply to them the
astronomical principles of Hipparchus, and tlius to arrange geography into a new and more
accurate form.

The works of Marinus have perished, and are known to us only by tlie references and
extracts of Ptolemy ; but these are sufficient to show that his system partook lorgely of the
imperfection of a first eflbrt. Aware that the degree of longitude diminished as it receded
from the equator, he "et did not attempt to express this difference by representing the meri-
dians with curved lines approaching each other, although this had been already shown by
Hipparchus to be the proper course. He made them parallel to each otlier, not at the equa-
torial distance, but at that which belonged to them at the meridion of Rhodes. Thus in the
part of tlie glube which came into his immediate observation he avoided any material error ;
but the meridians, adjusted only to this latitude, became too near each other as tliey were
carried southward, and too distant as they went northward. He fell into a still more per-
nicious error in adopting the geodesic measurement of Posidonius, according to which the
circumference of the earth was made to consist of only 180,000 stadia, and consecjucntly the
degree to contain only 500 stadia. This short degree, being calculated out of the e,\agge-
rated itineraries upon which the maps of those days were constructed, enormously amplified
all the dimensions of the globe. Marinus appears also to have admitted with excessive cre-
dulity the extravagant reports of the merchants who had penetrated across the vast moun-
tain and desert tracts in the east of Asia. The rugged and difficult character of the region,
the circuitous route which they w 're frequently obliged to follow, and the obstacles often
encountered from the rude inhabitants, caused this journey to occupy a much longer time
tlian tliose performed through districts better known ; and time, as alrea<ly observed, was the
element out of which tlie ancients were chiefly accustomed to calculate space. Ptolemy
also accuses the mercliants of vain-gloriou* propensities, which led tliem to magnify beyond
truth the extent and vastness of the regions which they traversed. Hence the great line
upon wiiich Marinus measured the length of the habitable globe, instewl of one hundred and
twenty-nine degrees given to it in the measurement of Eratosthenes, is swelled out to
two hundred and twenty-five degrees, not much less than two-thirds of the globe ; whereas
tlio actual length, placing Thinm even at the eastern extremity of China, is not much more
than one tliird. The exaggeration is enormous chiefly with respect to the country beyond
India, which is made to comprise one hundred degress. This being probably a new route
opened through the Himaleh, and across the vast deserts of Eastern Tartary, had been
affected by all the sources of amplification in a remarkable degree.

Sect. II. — Ptolemy.
Ptolemy, tlie la.st and greatest of the geographers of antiquity, and equally illustrious as
an astronomer, instituted a complete reform of the science, and undertook to purify it from
all the flilae elements with which it hud been alloyed. The principles, in fact, which he
adopted were strictly correct; tor though, as an ustroncjmcr, his theory of the universe was
subfituntinlly fiilse, yet, in admitting the globular fonn of the earth and the revolution of the
hea\'enly bodies, lie admitted all the elements which were requisite for the Ic^s lofty .siiherc
of earthly dclinpatinii. He n.lopted tlie system of Hipparchus in its utmost extent, subject-
ing e\pry f-pot on the known globe to ostrononiical data, and constructing his tablets, never
accordiiiLT to itiiiemry dlHtiince, but according to the supposed latitude and longitude of oacii
place, lie siiw and corrected tlio error of Marinus in making tiie degrees of longitude c>\\m\
under every hititiule. Thus, though Ptolemy did not actually intro<luce any now principle
into gpogrnphy, he was the first who combined together all the sound views of his prede-
cessors, and formed out of them a just and harmonious delineation. Yet he was far from
reaciiinir liis aim offormhig a perf'-ct sy.steni. Ho still retjiined the erroneous ineaFurcnient
of the degree fiirmed liy Posidonius, and of which Marinus liiid made so uiitiirtunato a use.
Hence, while lie t'eit the extravagance of the distances a.ssignod by his predecessor, in con-
sequence of the adoption of the degree of 500 stadia, he extricated himself but partiiilly
from the same error. All his longitudes, extended along the length of the known world,
present a similar accumulation of f.'rrors, onli' somewhat diminished in amount. These

daj'f

show

the

eonti

his

Runij

;t-'-H

Book I.

PTOLEMY— EUROPE.

If; the -^i
la will
•mpire,
iivailed
to the
jended.
profits,
ibly ex-
mgaged
interior
Chinese
CoUect-
liem the
ind more

noes and
ly of the
t receded
the meri-
shown by
the equtt-
[lus in the
rial error ;
tliey were
more per-
which the
juently the
le exagge-
y amplified
jessive cre-
vast moun-
the region,
Uicles often
longer time
cd, was the

Ptolemy
nify beyond
great line
lundrcd and
;lled out to
e; whereas
much more
[itry beyond
new route

had been

Uustrious as
irify it IVom
which he
inverse was
ution of the
lofty sphere
p.'nt, subjcct-
abley, never
lule of each
gitude e(iuiil
>w principle
r his predo-
kvns far from
icasuroniont
unate a use.

Issor, in con-
liut partially
liiown world,
lunt. These

errors, beginning from Cape St. Vincent, constantly increase till, in India, they amount to
^. upwards of forty degrees. M. Gosselin ha.s even accused him of an error wliich, as lie jiwtly

observes, would mark a strange departure from overy principle, and a neglect of what ought
♦ to be the first care of a geograpiier. This consists in giving to his degrees of latitude ii
different dimension from that of the degrees of longitude, an<l retaining, with regard to the
former, Eratosthenes's standard of 7(KJ sbidiiu I suspect, iiowever, that M. Gosselin has
been somewhat precipitate in advancing so serious a eliarge against the first geographer of
antiquity. Tlie ground on which he pmceods seems to be, that while Ptolemy has changed
materially all tlie longitudes of Eratosthenes, the latitudes along the groat line continue
unaltered and generally correct. The real cause of this, however, appears to be, that the
latitudes of Rhodes and several other leading points of this great line were determined by
observations which, though not perfect, at least approached to the truth, while the loniritudes
were calculated merely out of the itineraries. This central line, therefore, bisecting the
breadth of the iinown world, was fi.xed upon sound data, and the errors could accumulate
only to the north and sontli of it. In fact, wo shall find that they did accumulate as rapidly
as in the longitudes, when tlie sphere of observation was passctl, which was bounded by
Syene on the south, Marseilles and Byzantium on the north. The mouth of the Seine is
placed one degree too far north ; that of the Rhine, nearly two degrees ; that of the Elbe,
more than two degrees ; York is three degrees ; and the farther accumulation is only pre-
vented by that singular conformation which we shall find given by Ptolemy to the northern
part of Britain. To the south, again, Axum is placed thJee degrees too far south ; Cape
Aromata (Guardaflii), nearly six degrees ; and from tliat point tlie errors continually become
greater. Thus it appears, that as soon as Ptolemy quits the sphere of observation, his lati-
tudes are calculated exactly as his longitudes, out of itineraries, and exhibit the same accu-
mulation of errors.

The manuscripts of Ptolemy arc clearly shown by M. Gosselin to have reached us
in a very imperfect state. In collating with care the difTerent editions, that learned writer
has found a ^eater number of variations than in those of almost any other ancient writer.
These variations were of coiurse very likely to occur in copying cyphers where there was
no connexion of sense to check the copyist. The manuscripts and the maps appear to liave
been copied by different hands, holding no communication with each other ; and accordingly
these two parts of the same work do not, in many instances, correspond. Lastly, tiie work
of Ptolemy appears, for several centuries, to have been carried about as a guide by mariners
and travellers, who, wherever they found any feature which did not agree with their obser-
vations, altered tlie writing or the map accordingly. This process appears in the numerous
variations of the Latin copies with regard to the western part of the Mediterranean, and of
tlie Greek with regard to the eastern. Tlie alterations thus made would often, and indeed,
most generally, be improvements; but tlie great discrepancies which they introduced into
the different copies, must have greatly bewildered the public.

In delineating the geographical system of Ptolemy, we can only consider the general
outline, which is pretty nmch the same in all the editions. Ptolemy begins with rejecting
the tiieory of his predecessors, from Homer to Stralio downwards, who represent the whole
eartli as enclosed by a circumambient ocean. Mercantile caravans, especially in tlie east
of Asia, had now proceeded considerably beyond the line of coast which, according to tlie
last school, liad marked the eastern bounding ocean. They had passed that line without
reaching the distant corresponding one by whicli the Pacific and Arctic seas were actually
drawn around tliis vast continent. The eastern Atlantic, and tlie Northern Oceans were,
therefore, efliiced from the delineation of Asia, and an indefinite expanse of terra incognita
(unknown land) was substituted as the boundary of the world. This proceeding must
certainly be considered as more precise and pliilosophical than the gratuitous theoretical
one for which it was substituted. Men, however, seldom know exactly where to stop :
Ptolemy, having once formed the idea of a Ixiunding terra incognita, extended it round
nearly the entire circuit oftiic known world. All the reports of tlie circumnavigation of
Africa were rejected; tliat contirient was re])rescnted as stretching indefinitely south, and
it was even carried round to join the east of Asia, and form the Erytlirean or Iiuliun sea
into a vast basin. Thus the wliolo system and structure of these two continents underwent,
in the hands of Ptolemy, a. complete transmutation.

SuBSECT. 1. Europe. {Fifr. 10.)
In regard to all the remoter boundaries of Europe, Ptoleiny displays an advancement
in knowledge, truly wonderful, considrring the short period which had elapsed since the
days of Strabo. The fiicts wiiich wo have stated under the head of Roman geography
sliow the vast additional mass of intiinnation dorived from the conquests of Ca'sar, and from
tlie iinperiiil surveys. This hnvinij lieen incorporated info the writinirs of Mela and Pliny, a
century bo fore the age of Ptohniiy. would eiisily, thrnugh these and other channels, roach
his knowlodgo. It is not surprising that the rriide delineation of the exterior coasts of
Europe under the Stnilionic system should liave been iiiaterially amended; that Spain

^■li

IJfe,

THE WORLD ACCORDING TO PTOLEMY.

Fia. la

■^

Book L

PTOLEMY— EUROPE.

should have now a soutliern, and Gaul (. western coaat; and that the Bay of Biscay should
appear clearly under the appellations ci't)<e Cantabrian Ocean and the Aquitanian 8ea. In
regard to Britain, also, or, at least, England, a groat reform had been effected. Its coast,
after passing tlie promontory of Kent, bends inward toward the estuary of the Thames,
called here Idumanus. Still more decided, on the opposite side, is the " Sabrina estuarium"
(the estuary of the Severn), a very appropriate appellation for the Bristol Channel. The
projection of Wales, and its entire outline, appears then drawn in a very unexceptionable
manner. With regard to Ireland, Ptolemy has not been able wholly to shako off the errone-
ous impressions of the first Alexandrian school, according to which that country lay to the
north of Britain. He makes it west, indeed, but at the some time greatly too mr north, its
southern coast being on a line with that of Lancashire, or, at least, with the north-western
point of Wales. The consequence is, that the island of Mona (Man) is placed off the south-
eastern point of Ireland, not far firom Wexford. Having pointed out this great error, we
must add, that the whole form and circuit of Ireland is given with a correctness which ap-
pears very surprising, when contrasted with so great a mistake as to its relative position.
Again, the eastern coast of England proceeds correctly till it reaches the vicinity of York,
when an aberration takes place of the most extraordinary nature. The rest of the English
coast, with the whole of that of Scotland, instead of ranging from north to south, runs from
west to cast The eastern coast becomes thus the southern, the western becomes the
northern ; and the coast of Germany appears opposite and parallel throughout its whole
extent The most northerly extremity of Britain is thus fixed at a point which Mr. Pinker-
ton supposed to be the Mull of Galloway, but which seems more probably to be some point
near Port Patrick, which might be supiKjsed the most westerly, for the west is here the
north. It is part of this arrangement, that the iBbuda; (Hebrides) are placed in the Deuca-
ledonian Ocean, which washes the western coast of Scotland, made herp the northern ; and
the Orkneys are in the same ocean ; for, instead of following the line of the main land, they
are placed, as '■•''• sd, they ought to be, nortli, becoming thus at right angles to that line.

To accoun' tor =» strangely distorted form of northern Britain, M. Gosselin has formed
a very ingenit- r . The southern extremity of the island being in lat 52° N., and

Thule, the re ■.■ c remity, in 63°, Ptolemy could not, within these limits, find space

for that vast ex, i> -r coast, which tlie itineraries represented to him as belonging to
Britain, To make out this space ho had no alternative but to give to the northerr. part the
form it actually bears in his maps, and under which the latitude is augmented only by the
breadth of Scotland, a much smaller dimension than the length. The question, however, is,
by what circumstance Ptolemy was checked in his latitude of Thule, and why he should
not have driven it out to the north as far as his itineraries seemed to require. We at one
time thought it possible that tiiis grand boundary point might have been fixed by some rude
observation which was not applied to the intermediate points. But it appears very improba-
ble, that any expedition which should have made an observation of latitude at Shetland,
should not have done the same in the southern and much more accessible parts of Britain.
I rather incline to adopt the following solution. We have seen, that in the ideas of the
Roman navigators, Thule was in a great measure separated from Britain, and attached to
the east of Germany, or rather to Scandinavia; whether its existence was made known to
them by Scandinavian navigators, or whether a part of the coast of Norway was actually
fixed upon by them instead of Shetland for this most northern limit of the earth. This idea,
which attached Thule to Scandinavia, appears to have been combined in Ptolemy's mind
with tliat of Pytheas, who made it the remotest extremity of Britain. Such a combination
could be accomplished only by stretching Scotland across the German ocean in that strange
direction.

The details of Scotland, if we pass over this radical error, are given in a manner much
more tolerable than could have been expected in o country unsubdued by the Romans, and
with their imperfect navigution. Thule, in Ptolemy, is not a -iluster of islands, like those
of Shetland, but onu large island, upwards of a hundred miles in length : this circumstance
more and more strengthens tlio suspicion that Norway, to a considerable extent entered
into the idea attached to tliat celebrated name.

Reference! to Ow

Map nfihe WorU

according to Ptolemy.

EunopA.

5. Sinnpn

11). naraoura

A Pntyltmoliu

5. Cvrene
fl. Alvxandria

1. (yurtlmgu Nova

3. Amiaui

30. noaynga

n .l«xftrt«'M

S. Mnisilia

4. Iiwua

SI. B»raliiB

f (Echardca

7. Hernopulu

3. (tcnua

.*>. Klana

22. Taenia

g Rnutiaus
ASeniH

8. .lyene

4. Rfinm

6. Ziiaram

9:l. Hatmiia

0. Piiilomaia

S. Allienm

7. Mum

24. ( 'Htisnra

i Ganiiei

10. Mermi

6. Brzuntium

fl. Werro
(1 Tcrcdnri

9.5. Thinm

j Indua

11. Adulii

5fi. Aspillira

Rittcrt.

10. nahylon

VI. Timiaia

Taprobana Inauta.

Rivera

a Rhciiui

II. Ninut

2H. Simla

a Gange§

a Stachir

b Chcuinn*

H. DioBcuriaa

m. nai.ina

b I>Hratui

c Tnnnii

n. Oniinra

30. 8eiB

LIBYA VEL AFRICA

c Nigir

>l Rhn

14. Sii«a

1. Nigim

dCif

c UorysthoncK

I.V Pflrtionnlis

Rirer*.

'}. Rira

5 Nilui

Itl. Hunlni

a fliipliraien

3. rarlhago

1 Antapus
f Aaiaboras

ASIA.

17. Piitalri

h TijriH

4. Phycui

I. EphesiiJi

16. Palibulhrj

C 1>XU<

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part 1.

! I

; U

Under the licads of great Germany and of Sammtin, Ptolemy lias jriven nil tlie knowledge
he had acquired of the north ond east of Eiirtpe, wliicli was not incoiiBidernblo. The line
■jf the German coast is very well formed, and tiio Anmrii\is or Ems, tiie Visurgis or Weser,
the Aibis or Elbe, the Vedra or Odor, and tlie Visula or Vistula, appear in regular sncccs-
sion, and almost under their modern names. Jutland appears as the Cimbric Cliersonese,
and the soutlicrn coast of the Baltic is carried on very correctly ; but, in regard to Scandi-
navia, he fails entirely. Evidently ignorant that the Biiltic is an enclosed gulf, ho calls it
" the Sarmatic Ocean," and places in it fbur islands. Three of those, close to tlii^ Cimbric
Chersonese, are clearly recognised in the islands of Denmiirk; but the other, of grciiter
extent, farther to the east and opposite to the mouth of the Vistula, is probably part of Swe-
den, and perhaps Gothland. It is clear, that navigators had not then rounded Jutland, and
passed through the Skagerrack or Cattegat, otherwise tliey must have noticed these straita,
and the great extent of continent opposite the Cimbric Chersone.-o. The Alocciau islands,
however, situated off the northern extremity of Jutland, must have been suggested by some
part of the Norwegian coast, as there are no islands in that quarter. The more northern
part of the Norwegian coast was probably, as already observed, identified with Thule.

The coast of Sarmatia is described by Ptolemy on passing the Vistula, and he truces with
accuracy the great bend which it takes northward to the gulf of Riga. Four rivers are
giveli, which cannot be recognised by their names, but which M. Gosselin conceives to be
the Pregel, the Niemen, the Windau, and the Dwina. Beyond this he places " tlie end of
the sea of the known land," and immediately commences that boundary of (irra incognita
which he carries around the whole of Asia.

In regard to the south of European Russia, Ptolemy recovers much of the knowledge
which had been wholly or partially lost under Stnibo. He appears indeed to have gone back
in a great measure to Herodotus, whom he imitates in giving most nnreasonabl(> extension
to the Palus Mieotis. There is little room for complaint as to the Tanais, the Boryslhencs,
and the other great rivers which fall into the Euxine. In this remote and wild extremity
of Europe, however, he has found a place for certain poetical and historical fictions, which
experience had banished from better known quarters, but which could not find a place here
with any propriety; — the grove of Diana, the race-course of Achilles, the altars of C-esar
and of Alexander ; neither of whom ever carried their arms into this part of the ancient
Scythia.

In tracing the Mediterranean, Ptolemy improves considerably upon the labours of his pre-
decessors. Sicily, in particular, is much better constructed, and the straits of Messina ore
placed nearly in their true latitude. He still, however, merits deep reproach for the utterly
barbarous form which he has given to Italy, that ruling country, winch must of all others
have appeared to him the most interesting, and for which he must have possessed the most
ample materials. Yet Italy, with the exception of a slight bend at its extremity, is oriented
almost entirely east and west, having tlie Adriatic for its northern, and tiie Tyrrhenian for
its southern boundary. I cannot find any account of an error so strange, except by supposing
that Ptolemy must have been led into it by one of those itinerary ma])s which, like the
Peutingerian, made everything sul)servient to the direction of the Roman high road, and
drew it in a straight line from one extremity to the other. It is easy to siipjiose that he
might not comprehend the very odd principle upon which this map was constructed, and
might conceive that being made with regard to Italy, a country so near, and so completely
within reach, it might be implicitly relied on. This suspicion is strengthened when we
find, after passing Dyrnichiuni, the port of embarkation for Greece, this being the direction
of the great road of the empire, that the coast of Italy suddenly resumes its just form, and
the peninsula of Campania makes oven too abrupt a bond to the south.

SmsECT. 2. — Asia.
In regard of Asia also, important discoveries had been mrtde pince the time of Eratos-
tliencs. Immense territories, included by that geographer within the domain of the
ocean, were known to Ptolemy as occupied by the wandering hordes of Scythia, or by the
peaceful and industrious nation of the Sores or Ciiinese. This advantage might be partly
due to the military itineraries, especially that of Trajan in his victorious expedition into
Parthia. The grand source, however, evidently was that bold spirit of commercial enter-
prise, to which an impulse was given by the vai^t consumption of Rome, when the wealth of
tlie world centred in that mighty ami voluptuous capital. The East was tiie region mainly
resorted to for the supjily of the boundless wants which arose in that artificial ami luxurious
ebite of society. The merchants soon learned to trace routes, both by land and sea, much
longer and more adventurous than had been achieved by their predecessors at, any tornier
period. Under the narrative entitlod"tho Pcriplusof the Erythrean Sea," we liave lidlowcd
tirj maritime career by which the merchants of Alexandria were led to the cn:i;-t of .Mala-
bar. Whether, in the time of Ptolemy, thr^ (Jre(>k iiavif:nt<irs had acttialiy procei-deil tiirtlier,
it may be dilFunilt. to say with certainty. He has cirtainly, however obtained a considera-
ble accessi;)ii of knowli'ilge with reganl to this eastern extremity of the known world. He

Book I.

PTOLEMY— ASIA.

f Eratos-
II of the
or by the
U) partly
ition into
■cial pnter-
wcaltli of
ion mainly
luxurious
-('!!, inucli
uiy tornier
vc foUowctl
of Miilti-
■a furtlicr,
,MiisiiU;ra-
ssorld. He

goes fur beyoi"] t!>» raonth of tlic Ganges, at which wc have olisorved the termination of
all precise knowledge in the author of the Periplus. After delineating a coast, with a
succession of ports which it is difficult to identify, he comes to a grand feature, wliich he
calls " tlio Golden Cliersonese," formed by three great estuaries discharging their waters
into the sea. These phenomena are actually presented by the mouths of the Irrawaddy at
tiie sonthcm extremity of Pegu. This is followed by an extensive feature, the Magnus
Sinus, or Great Bay, penetrating far inland, and receiving some considerable rivers. The
jfulf of Malacca is not nearly so largo or so deep as this Magnus Sinus; but its mouth
Coing very broad, and its shores very winding, it is not very improbable that, in the eyes of
ancient and unskilful navi \tors, it might assume this exaggerated form and dimension.
Beyond the Magnus Sin\ the coast, in continuity with its eastern shore, stretches due
routli to tiio farthest known extremity of the world. On tliis coast tiie leading features are
Tiiino!, a great interior metropolis, and Cattigara, its sea-port at the mouth of the river Cotiaris.
This coast, it should seem, can only be that of Malacca and the Isthmus of Kraw, which
runs exactly in the direction here assigned by Ptolemy. Gosselin identifies Thinse with
Tenasserin ; but there seems more reason for acceding to Dr. Vincent's opinion that it ia
Siam. This exposition, which is supported by Vossius, Gosselin, and Vincent, appears to me
undoubtedly preferable to the more general one supported by the authority of d'Anville,
which makes the coast of the Sinie extend along the gulf of Siam and tlie sea of China.
Such a line would involve Ptolemy in the strange and incredible blunder of making a coast
face the east wliich really feces the west Sumatra, indeed, is so land-locked that it might
easily enough have been taken for a part of the continent, and have been called the Golden
Chersonese. But it seems inconceivable how the straits of Malacca and of Sunda, so im-
portant and so critical to navigators, and by one or the other of which they must have
entered the eea of China, could have been overlooked. On this supposition, indeed, the
coasts are swelled very fer beyond tlieir due dimensions ; but we have oftc^n remarked how
enormously this is apt to be the case, in regard to routes, and above all coasts which are
traversed for the first time, and by inexperienced navigators. Ptolemy, as we liavo seen,
after retrenching the eastern itineraries of Marinns one half, left them still greatly too large ;
and he does not mention any similar retrenchment in regard to the coasts. If, on the other
hand, those of Ptolemy extend to the Chinese sea and to China, then, contrary to every
ancient example, he must have immensely underrated the extent of these imperfectly dis-
covered tracts ; an error wjiicii would be contrary to all precedent : — this, however, does not
imply that there may not, within tliis line of positive knowledge, have been a confused
blending of features that lay in reality beyond.

The increased knowledge of Ptolemy respecting the eastern part of the Asiatic continent was
chiefly derived, as we have already remarked, firom the great caravan wiiicli proceeded from
Byzantium, having the country of Serica for its ultimate destination. This caravan, having
traversed Asia Minor, crossed the Euphrates at Hierapolis, and journeyed through Media,
by way of Ecbatana (Hamadan), to Hecatompylos (Daumghaun), the capital of Partliia. It
then advanced north to Hyrcania (Horkan or Jorjan), thence south, to take in the fine
province of Aria (Herat). It now again turned north, to include the capital of Marglana
(Moru Rood), thence due east to Bactria (Balk), which then formed, as at present, the main
centre of the commerce of interior Asia. The caravan now quitted the easy and level tract
through which its route had hitherto led, and began to ascend that vast and rugged mountain
world which fills the eastern interior of Asia. Alter accomplishing the steep iiscent of the
Monies Comedorum, which seems to be the chain of the Beloor, it reached a station called
the " Stono Tower," which there is nothing to identify i.e,xcept that the direction towards it
is north-east, and it may be either I.adauk or Yarcund, the great modem emporium of this
part of the East. From the Stone Tower to the frontier of Serica, Marinus, on the authority
of the merchants, reported a journey of seven months, which Ptolemy considers as monstrous
and incredible, though ho admits tiiat the road is exposed to the greatest liardships and difl[i-
culties. The question, what is the country described by Ptolemy and his contemporaries as
Serica, is the most curious in the ancient geography of Asin. The earliest modern opinion
identified Serica with northern China, while tiie country if the SinK composed tiie southern
part. D'Anville, however, wiio transported the Sina: into the coast of Cambodia, carried
westward also the Seres into the country of the Igours, or Eygurs, including in their terri-
tory only the small projecting portion of the Chinese province of Shensec. Mr. Pinkerton
places it still fiirther west, in Little Bucharia. M. Gosselin, followed generally by the
present French school, contends that Scrinagur, in the north of Hindostin, is the real Sera
metropolis of Ptolemy. I can see no reason for altering the grounds on which I concluded
formerly, and endeavoured to prove, Serica to bo simply China. (See EiUnburg Phil. Trans.
vol. viii. On the ancient Geogrnpliy of Central and Eastern Asia.) All the natives of India
whom Ptolemy saw assured him that the Sores lay beyond tlie Sinm, and China is beyond
Siam. The Sinai (Siam) had to the north Scythia beyond Imaus, which rmintry had Srrica
on tlio oast. Sprica is described as traversed by two great rivers, flowing eastwiiril, as the
Himng-h- nnd Yang-t.-e-kiang actually do. Soricii, according to Ptolemy's graduation, was

Vol,. I. II

HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY.

Past I.

ii!l

•, i

fourteen hundred miles from north to south, and eleven hundred from east to west, a very
close approiicii to the dimensions of modern China. Herica, tlieii, in form, extent, peogra-
phical features, and relations to the neighbouring countries, exactly corresponds to the mo-
dem China. Not less conformable is the report given of the national character, Tlie Seres
are represented as frugal, quiet, sedate, and tranquil beyond all other nations; as of all
others the most unwarlike, and the most averse to the use of arms; as shinming, with the
most studious care, the society and intercourse of strangers, and scarcely ever allowing
them to enter their territory ; as carrying on trade at a fixed frontier station only, and under
•he strictest precautions; as selling their own commodities without receiving the commo-
dities of other nations in return. Silk waa the staple of Serica, and it is of China. Witli
regard to M. Gossclin's Indian theory, it must now, we suppose, be on all hands given up,
since Thibet and Northern India, instead of being connected bv the valley of the Ganges,
have been found separated by the unbroken continuity of the loftiest ridge of the Iliininaleh,
which can be penetrated only by a few most perilous and tremendous passes.

Respecting Ilindostan, and its limitary regions, the details given by Ptolemy include a
great mass of sound information. In some important particulars, indeed, his map is decidedly
superior to those possessed by the moderns, previous to the late important accessions to their
knowledge. He describes the Ganges rising, as it really docs, on the southern side of the
Himmaleh, and in the outer limits of Ilindostan, while, prior to the mission sent by Col.
Colebrooke, in 1806, its origin, and a considerable part of its early course, were supposed to
be in Little Thibet. The mission to Caubul first found that all the great western rivers
emptied themselves by one channel into the Indus, as they had been represented hy Ptolemy,
while modern maps had exhibited them entering by two great separate chiinncls. The
same mission discovered two very considerable rivers, western tributaries of the Indus,
the Kauraeh and the Suaut, of which no trace had yet appeared in modern delineation ;
but, on turning to Ptolemy, we find them accurately traced under the names of the Coo and
the Suoste. Thus we find him delineating with success geographical features in the most
secret recesses of Asia, which remained unknown till lately to tlie best-informed of modem
geographers.

The site of Palibotlira is one main point in which, after much discussion, geographers
have in vain endeavoured to form an unanimous opinion. It was found by Mcgiisthenes the
proud capital of the Gangetic kingdom, and the greatest city of all India. Yet modern
geographers have not been able to agree within several hundred miles upon this marked
and celebrated position. Arrian states that it is situated at the junction of the Ganges with
the Erranaboiis, the third river of India as to magnitude, being surpassed only by the Ganges
and the Indus. This scale of magnitude suggests the Jumna, and at the confluenee of the
Jumna with the Ganges actually stands Allahabad, a city of great magnitude and high anti-
quity, which is even revered by the Hindoos as the " king of holy cities." Upon this general
idea D'Anville and, after him, Robertson, have considered Allahabad as occupying the site
of Palibothra. On examination, however, this is found in contradiction to the most jxjsitive
statements of Pliny and Ptolemy. Pliny, in express words, states Palilxithra to be 425 miles
distant fram the junction of these two rivers. Ptolemy makes the distance somewhat greater
still. In considering Allahabad, then, as Palibothra, we abandon altogether the authority of
these two great geographers, a step in which we should be very little justified, either by a
reference to thi'ir general character, or by our knowledge of their remarkable accuracy with
regard to the other features of central and northern India. Their account of Palibothra, too,
is given upon the authority of Greek ambassadors, who actually visited that capital. The
river next in magnitude is the Gogra or Sarayu. But the junction of this river with the
Ganges is not nearly so far from that of the Jumna as the above statements v.-ould require.
Besides, Ptolemy actually gives us tlie Sarabus (Sarayu), with its junction ii\ the due relative
position to that of the Jumna, but Palibothra much fiirther down. Major Rennel has made
choice of Patna, and considers the junction of the Soane, at present thirty miles above that
city, as having taken place formerly by a different and nearer channel. This theory stands
on much higher ground than the other; yet it by no means closely corresponds with the
ancient data. Pliny mentions both the Sonus and the Erranalwas as quite distinct tributaries
of the Ganges, and he places the city considerably farther down than Patna is. Ptolemy,
also, in giving the junction of the Soa and the Ganges, places Palibotlira more than two
hundred miles below. Major Rennell's theory, then, brings us considoral)ly short of the
point at which this great capital ought to be situated.

Another point which appeared to ine to unite the name and position of Palibothra has
been mentioned {Discoveries in Asia, v. i. p. 491.), and, without being inclined very confi-
dently to dogmatize, it still appears to me to combine better the difierent rpf|nisili's than
any other yet named. The name of BoffUponr may be considered identical \\itli I'aliboor;
for, in transferring Indian terms into our characters, P and B, O and A, are always used
promiscuously; and the termination attached by the Romans is evidently ncrording to their
system of harnionizing foreign sounds with their own. A name is of little cnn.sequence
when it is not !iccom|ianied wit'' a corresjwnding position ; but here this appears to couicide

i '!

■w

Hook I.

PTOLEMY— AFRICA.

b»

>tlirii lias
ry confi-
ics than
'iiliboor;
xys used
'to their
pqiienco
coijic'ide

nearly, though not indeed quite exactly, with Pliny, He makes Palibothra 4'V) miles from
the junction of the Ganges and Jumna, and 6(M) from Gauge, a capital ttituuteJ ut the mouth
of the former. Boglipoor, however, iuHteud of being only two-fifllis of tlio distance between
these two points, is about^ exactly midway. Tlie space lower down the river, being less

' I most easterly
place assigned

position of Bogli-
poor. Near it the Ganges receives tiie Coosy, or river of Nepaul, certainly not the third
m India as ti magnitude ; but the ambassadors might not have very precise means of os-
certaininj^ the relative dimensions of the Indian rivers. There is, therefore, a great weight
of evidence, as to name and position, in favour of the theory here proposed. I must confesii,
iiowevcr, that I find no description of any monuments, such as might be expected to mark
the ancient site of so splendid a capital. Indian structures, however, are not usually
composed of materials sufficiently solid to resist the ravages of sixteen centuries. If the
local data could at all have allowed us to fix upon tlie thrice ancient and holy Benares, its
character would have given it at once a pre-emiuence ; but this is impossible. Ra-
jemahl, suggested, is not very distant from Boglipoor; but besides losing the coin-
cidence of name, it agrees less than the other position with the statements both of Ptolemy
and Pliny.

SuBSECT. 3. — Africa.

In the delineation of Africa, Ptolemy, himself an African, had obvious advantages. Ac-
cordingly his delineations of ceveral of tlie most interior features have, as in the case of
southern India, proved to be more accurate than those given by modern geographers down
to a very recent period. The course of tlie Nile, up to its highest probable source in the
central range of the mountains of the Moon, has been justified by recent inquiry, in oppo-
sition to the Portuguese missionaries, who drew it. from the mountains and lakes of Abys-
sinia. This original fountain-head has not yet \ .1 traced by the daring foot of the modern
traveller ; but the description given to Brown, of its descent from the great mountain chain
south of Darfoor, corresponds very exactly with Ptolemy, making allowance only for his
erroneous graduation. With equal fidelity, lie delineates the Astaboras, or Atbara, the As-
tapus, or river of Abyssinia, successively fiillinff into it from the east. He has, indeed, made
Meroe an island, enclosed by brandies of the Nile ; but modern discovery has shown it to
be so very nearly insular, in consequence of the great bend taken to the south, that the
error cannot be considered excessive.

In regard to central Africa, Ptolemy had not equal advantages, on account of the dis-
tance, kjcause no track had yet been formed across the vast ocean of desert which inter-
vened. It appears to me a matter of some difficulty to ascertain the precise extent of hia
knowledge as to this region. M. Gossclin lias not hesitated to assert, that he knew nothing
of Africa south of the desert, and tliat all the features which he has assigned to interior
Libya, and the course of the Niger, belong in fact to Fezzan and that region behind the
Atlas which we call the B'led-el-Jereedc, or Land of Dates. This opinion certainly receives
much countenance when we find the Garamantes and the Garamantica vallis placed on thu
same line with the Niger, the lake of Nigritia, and the other leading central features. I
still, however, think it probable that Ptolemy might, by way of tlie Upper Nile, have ob-
tained intelligence respecting a portion at least of tliese vast regions, the approach to which
by way of Dongola and Sennaar was not obstructed by any very insurmountable barriers.
Besides the agreement of several names, as Gaua, Tagana, Panagro, the general picture
of this region as one of lakes, rivers, and mountains, agrees much better with the interior
tiian with the arid tract between Atlas and the desert. My suspicion tiiercfore is, that Ptol-
emy, unacquainted with any route across the great desert, was not aware of the wide in-
terval between the features to the nortli and those to the south of it, and linked them to-
gether in his description as contiguous and connected. As his knowledge of central Africa
w:is thus obtained only in a westerly course from the Nile, it was not likely to extend be-
yond the eastern part of the vast brea/lth between the Nile and the ocean. The Mons Man-
drus, his mo.st western feature, with a great river flowing from it into tlie lake of Nigritia,
may pcriinps be recognized in the miglity range of the mountains of Mandara and the river
Shary flowing from them into the lake or sea of tlie Tchad. About this quarter I should
conceive the knowledge w!iich reached Ptolemy by inland channels probably terminated ;
and llie Atlantic coast, known to exist by the voyages of Ilanno, Scylax, and Polybius, was
united to those objects by a merely hypotlietical construction. In regard to the course of
the Niger, it is difficult to say very precisely what were Ptolemy's views, and we only per-
ceive that he made it an inland river, neither flowing into the Atlantic, nor by the Nile into
the Mediterranean.

Respecting tliis gretrt central region of Africa, however, Ptolemy had obtained some no-
tices from whicii he might have estimated itp- magnitude. Two Roman expeditions had
been reported to him, one made by Septimius Flaccus from Garama, and the other by Julius

■A ;i

m
m

S-?

I- ' Mil

r' ■("' •■ map*

,* *•

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY,

Pa»tI.

Matornug from tho coast of Cyrcnc. Tho former in three, and the latter in four month*,
had penetrated into tlic country of the Ethiopians. Ptolemy expresses himself very scepti-
cal lis to tho possible length of tliis marcli ; nevertheless he loys down the conntry of
Agisynibu as tliat furthest region of intc^rior Etiiiopia into which these commnnders had
ponotratcd. Agis}'mba wo suspect to ho Agndoz ; at leust as tho march comprehends no
rivers or lakes, it cannot well have reached the lino of the Nifjer. Nevertlieless Ptolemy
places it considerably to the south of Nigritiu ; which is doubtless in fiivour of the limited
ext'mt which M. Gossclin allows to his information. But we may observe that, supposing
Ptolemy to have formed, in the manner above supiKwcd, his idea of tho plain of tho Niger
as little removed to the south of Fczzan, ho must, in protracting marches of throe or four
months, necessarily have carried the lino much farther to tho south.

In regard to the western coasts of Africa, Ptolemy's delineation is not very luminous, but
appears on the whole to favour M. Gosselin's views respecting tho extent of Hanno's voy-
age and of the knowledge of the ancients. He does indeed present two rivers, the Daradus
and the Stochir, flowing on a line witli tho plain of Nigritio. But I have no idea that
Ptolemy could have any precise information reaching across tho entire breadth of the con-
tinent, and conceive, as already hinted, that the coast and interior were hero hypothctically
united. As Ptolemy placed the plain of tho Niger much too fkr north, he might make
these rivers on a line with it, without identifying them with the Senegal and Gambia.
His position of the Fortunate Islands (Canaries) opposite to their mouths, and south of
Cemc, is not at all in favour of tho opinion which carries these last features deep into cen-
tral Africa.

On the eastern coast of Africa, Ptolemy adds to the line described by the author of the
Periplus a coast extending from the promontory of Rhaptum to that of Prasum. At this
point the coast, hitherto running Bouth-west, changes to soutli-east. No details are given
of this coast, which is described as rough and difficult to navigate. We can neither, with
M. Goeselin, lunit Prasum to Brava, nor with Vincent carry it so far as Mosambique. There
is no part of the coast to which the direction assigned to it belongs, except from Quiloa
to Cape Delgado; and if Rhaptum be at or near Quiloa, tho latter, allowing for some exag-
geration of distance on a coast so little known, will be the promontory Prasum. Five de-
ffrees east and three degrees south of this promontory is the island of Mcnuthios. The
Mcnouthesias of the Periplus appeared pretty plainly to bo one of tho smaller islands near
the African coast, and probably Zanzibar ; but none of these could be the Menuthias of
Ptolemy, which is manifestly Aiodagoscar.

BOOK II.

GEOGRAPHY OF THE MIDDLE AGES.

Undek the " geography of the middle ages " may be comprehended that of the Arabian or
Saracen nations, during the period when science was successfully cultivated among them ;
and the geographical ideas prevalent in Europe, during that long darkness which preceded
the revival of learning, and the commencement of maritime discovery.

- CHAPTER I.

ARABIAN GEOGRAPHY.

The Arabs wore for some time the most learned of nations. As the mantle of science
dropped from the sagos of Greece and Rome, it fell upon this wild and strange race, sprung
fhjm the bosom of bigotry and barbarism. The fanatic hordes, who, under the guidance of
their fiilse prophet, rushed from the heart of Arabia, at first owned no law but the Koran ond
the sword. When they had conquered half tlie world, however, and founded splendid capi-
tals on the banks of the Euphrates and the Guadalquivir, there arose a race of humane and
polished princes, who studiously sought to reluraine the ailmost extinguished lamp of science.
Almamoun above all, in the ninth century, may rank among the most distinguished of its
patrons who have ever filled a tlirone.

Geography among the Arabian states, appears to have been studied with greater ardour
than at any other place or country, except at Alexandria. It employed the pens of several
of their most eminent writers ; Masudi and Ebn Haukal in the ninth and tenth centuries j
Abulfoda and Edrisi in the twelfth and thirteenth ; to whom may be added the respectable
names of Ibn-al-Vardi, Bakoui, and Schoabeddin. Although none of their works Jiavo be-
come at all familiar to the European reader, yet learned men have translated jwrtions, which

J.
4.
s.
n.

s.
«. .

10. '
!1. ,

(2. ,

■%'

ART 1.

lonthii,
Bcepti-
ntry of
■rs had
t-nds no
•tolcmy
limited
pposing
3 Niger
I or four

lous, but
io'b voy-
Daradus
(lea that
the con-
heticully
ht make
Gambia.
Bouth of
into cen-

lor of the
At this
ire given
ther, with
je. There
)m Quiloa
)me exag-
Five de-
lias. The
lands near
muthias of

• 1^

Arabian or
long them;
h preceded

of science
ace, sprung
Etuidance ot

Koran and
lendid capi-
humane and

of science,
ished of its

cater ardour
18 of several
h centuries ;
rospectoble
ks liavc be-
•tions, whicli

Book II.

ARABIAN GEOGRAPIIV.

not only convey a general idea of their system, but have enabled gcom-aphcrs to delineate
Nome districts of the globe wb >:h otiiorwiso would have long remained unknown.

i 1 Sect. I. — Qeneral System, Fiff.W. ^.

The mathematical sciences, and above all astronomy, wore among the most fovourito pur-
suits of the covirt of Bagdad ; and the ample resources which they afl'onlod were applied
with considerable care to tlie improvement of geography. In 833, tiie calipli Almamoun en-
deavoured, l)y observations of latitude made at Kufa, and at a point in tiio desert of Pal-
myra, Ijo measure the circumference of the globe. In all the countries subject to the Maho-
medan arms, numerous observations are recorded which, though not always rigorously cor-
rect, appear at least to have been real, and not merely calculated out of itineraries, like those
of the Alexandrian gecjgranhers. The tables of Abulfcda, of Ulug Beg, and of Nuzir Eil-
din, edited by Gra;vius, anil republished by Hudson, alford miterials that are still useful for
the construction of the maps of interior Asia.

Fig. ll.-MAr OP TIIR WORLD TAKEN FROM AN ARARIAN MANIJBCRIFT OF AL EDRISI, IN TIIE

UODLEIAN LIBRARY.

Mnuntnina of Uie 15
Mi>i>nun(l SourcuB Iti
of tho Nilo 17

BL'rtiiira (kingdom 18
of AJfl)

Al-Zunt[(/an7iiebar) 19.

Hcliilii (Snfnlu)

Al-Wttk VVnk

Scrrniieeb (t'liylun)

Al-Comor (Xliuiu-
!in»ciir)

A-I)ll!|

AlVcman (Arnbia

Felix)
Ti'hnma
Al-lli-jii7. (ArabiaT

Dranrlu)
Al-Shujnr (SoKor)
AI-linnma{Yimania)
Al-Habp0h (Klbiupiii,

AliyMinia)

Vol. I

AI Nuha(NuI)ia) rtl
AI Tigdiien 3:

AI-Hi-jah
Al-aaiieed ((Tpper 3;

C(iypt, S(ii(1)
Aloiihal-what (Oa- :\3.

Gowas

Kaiiuii

itolHd Al-Iomlum

Hulail Mufratlfi

IIaIiuI Ni-manch

At-Multtini.Sitihiijcli

Cnniii {Karooaiit

KurtMic)
NnKroliinfl
AI-SoHs Xijia
Al-Mu«hnili AI

Amkftm (Mosrob 4.'*.

Iliu VV(Mt) 4ti.

•M.
35.

rw.

:w.

40.
41.
41
4X
44

Afieokei'a (ATripa)
llola.U-lGcrid(I)ute

Cmmtry)
Sphiirt'(',Henmnfik(nr

Dyst'rtnf Hcniiike)
Mi^fltir (r.KVpl)
Al-8bain fHynn)
Al-lrak (Puraian

cmiiiru)
Fnt8(Por!»iii Proper)
Kirriiun (Canniniia)
Altiiziih
Miiuhan

AI-Hiinila(Scin()i)
Al-Hind (India)
Al-Seeii (China)
Khnrnsan
AI-ltoharuB
AzRihijan (Mcdis)
Klmwarizra

Al-Slinsh

KhirktH'E

Al-Sefur

Al-'I'ibut (Tibet)

Al-Nufuz Izz

Kurjisoa (Goorgia)

Kt'ymak

Kultusa

l7zea

A/kush

TurkcBh

Ittirab

Hut^har (Hulgnria)

Al-Miitenah

Yiijooj (G..S)

Mnjoiij (MuKop)

Asiatic (IluBSta)

Bpjot-rut

AI Alinan

66. Al-Kliuiiziis Khosra

/CaHpian Sea)

67. Tirkoa (Turkey)
nn. Albfiian(Alhuma)
til>. Miikodunoeab (Ma-

ccfionia)
TO. Baltic Sea
71. Jenubda (probably

Sweden)
73. Gerinania(Gormany)
7X OonniBTk
71. Alrnngpenh (France)
T.*!, Felttwiuh (Norway)
"S. Unrtoa nr ISurtenou

(Britnin)
77. rorplca,Sardinia.&c.
7H. Italy

7i). Ashicerimiah (part ol
tipaiQ,Q.Andaluiia)

'hi

i : I

I J

J I

J 1 '

HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY.

P*«T I.

Many countrico, hitherto unknown awl liarbaroim, wore explored, and in sonio de^co
civilizeil, by the Moslem armij. Tho«o on tlie Oxus iind the JuxiirtoH, the AHJutic Scythui of
the ancients, and occupied then only liy Nomiulic hordoH, were covered l>y tiicin with (^eot
and flourishinp cities. Among thews Bamarcand became aftcrwiinls tiie capital of an empire
that extender over half of Axia. At tjio opiK)Nite extremity, Mauritania, wiiich had been
regardod by the Romans aa almoHt beyond tlio limits of social existetiee, lincame a flourishing
kingdom, and possessed in Fez an eminent school of learning. Even beyoml the limits ot
the Mahomedan world, missions were sent to explore the remotest limits of the east and
west. One i'lterestinjf result of these has been conmiunicated ui the relation of two Maho-
medan travellers, Wahad and Abuzaid, who in the ninth century penetrated into China; and
gave a description of that country ; which, though only recently known to us by the transla-
tion of Renaudot, must have licen Uie earliest ever conununicoted to the nations of the west.
From Lisbon, also, the brothers Almagrurim sailed, endeavouring to anticipate the discoveries
of Columbus, by exploring unlmown countries beyond " the sea of durkiiess." For ten tvr
eleven days they steered westward ; but seeing a storm approachinjj, the light faint, and tlie
sea tempestuous, they <lreaded having come to tlie dark boundaries of the earth. They turned
therefore waith, sailed twelve days in that direction, imd came to an island, which they called
Ganam, or the island of birds ; but the flesh of these binls was too bitter to be eaten. They
Bailed on twelve days fartlier, and came to another island, the kinjj of which assured them
that their pursuit wos vain: that his father had sent an experlition for tlie same purpose; but
that, after a month's sail, the light had wholly failed, and Uiey had been obliged to return. The
adventurers, therefore, mode their way back to the coast of Africa, which they reached in
three days. The bearings stated seem to point out Madeira and the Canaries as the two
islands visited in tliis expedition.

In regard to the general outline of the earth, the Arabs seem to have closely adhered to
ancient theories. They revived the early impression of an ocean, which, like a zone, encom-
passed the whole earth. This, according to a natural feeling, was characterized as the " Sea
of Darkness," an appellation most usually given to the Atlantic ; but the northern sea of
Europe and Asia, inspiring still more mysterious and gloomy idea.s, is called the " Sea of
pitchy Darkness." Edrisi has even imagined tlie land as doating in the sea, and only part
appearing above, like an egg in a basin of water. At the same time he divides it into seven
seas, fancifiilly appropriated to the seven climates into which the earth was divided. Ac
cording to these climates, he describes the earth beginning at the western and proceeding to
the eastern extremity ; an ill-judged arrangement, which, by a mechanical section, separates
portions of territory the most intimately connected. The knowledge of the Arabs was sub-
jected to another and a voluntary limitation. They studiously desisted from nil inquiry
respecting those blinded nations, whose minds had never been illumined by the light of the
Koran. Ibn Ilaukal even makes it a subject of glory, tliat he had found nothing worthy of
remark among nations who could not be viewed without horror by men who had any innate
principles of virtue, wisdom, or religion. Those views of the subject greatly restricted their
means of knowledge in respect to Europe, and rendered it of little value, unless with regard
to those two continents, which their arms had rendered to a great extent Mahomedan,

Sect. II, — Asia,

The Asia of the Arabs comprised a wider range than had belonged to that continent under
any former system. China is distinctly marked, partly under the appellation of Seen, ond
partly under that of Catliay ; the former term appearing to comprehend India beyond tlic
Ganges. Lamery, productive in camphor, gold, ivory, and dye-woods, appears by these
products to be Sumatra, and mention is even made of Al Djavah. The countries on the
Oxus and Jaxartes having become the seat of an extended Moslem empire, of which Samar-
cand was the capital, Tartary, both ca-stem and western, was, for the first time, delineated
with tolerable accuracy ; many of tlie leading ptxsitions, in this hitherto inaccessible part of
the continent, were even fixed by astronomical observation ; and some positive though tiiint
and indistinct notice appears to have been received respecting the people situated along the
shores of the Northern Ocean. Unfortunately the main objects of curiosity and inquiry were
Gog and Magog, The authentic application of these names has been observed under the
Hebrew system as belonging to a devastating race from the shores of the Euxine and Caspian,
Oriental mncy had transformed them into two enormous giants, who had erected an impreg
liable castle on the borders of Scythia. The eflforts made by the court of Bagdad in pursuit
of this chimera were very extraortlinary. The first expedition woe undertaken with the
hope of finding it somewhere on the shores of the Caspian ; but a.s their conquests soon
embraced the whole of that region, without the slightest trace of this tremendous castle, the
more southern country of Bokhara was the next object of search. When that also had been
surveyed in vain, the court wua involved in much perplexity, and scarcely knew to what
ulterior region their view was to be directed. At length one of the caliphs di&patched a
mission, with strict injunctions on no account to return without having discovered the castle
of Gog. The envoys, according to Edrisi's report, proceeded first along the shores of the

TUtou. n.

IN EUROPE DURING THE DARK AGES.

nt under
cen, and
rond Uie
by these
on the
Somnr-
■lineatod
part of
igh faint
long the
iry wore
nder the
Caspian,
imprcfj ■
\ pursuit
with the
fcsts soon
jitlc.tlie
hod been
I to what
atched u
hie castle
bs of the

Ciiflpiiin, then through a vart extent of desert, probably the country of t!i« Kirghisfi, when
tliey arrived at a atuiicndous range of mountaing, which must have been tlie Altai. IIiTC
they (lid nrtuiilly finu or protend to find immothing whicli they concluded to be the castle of
(log and Magog. Perhaps they reached Home of thoao ancient monuments which have been
found alonp tlilH range, and gladly etnbraced thiH pretext to rid thomMclvcH of so troubloHomu
a coinmiKMioii. The picture they drew of it wan certainly very highly colour<'d, according
to Oriental tante. Tl'o walls were of iron cemented with brass, and a gate fitly cubits high
was 8<!curod by bolts and bars of enormous magnitude. The minds of the Arabs were thus
set at rest, and in all the future delineations of Asia this mighty castin was seen towering at
its fiirtlicft extremity.

Skct. ni. — Africa.
In regard to AtVica, the wide-extended settlements of the Arabs afforded them new sources
of inibrmatiun. The Mediterranean coast, indeed, as fiiras Numidia, had been fully explored
by the ancients, and hod even formed a more intimate part of their political system than it
has done of that of the moderns. By the Arabs, however, who had established here a suc-
cession of kingdoms, it was described in greater detail than over ; and as the most wentt-m
of those kingdoms was the flourishing one of Morocco, tliis region, comprising the nearly
unknown tracU of ancient Mauritania, formed an almost entirely now ac<iuisition to know-
lodffo. But their grandest achievement consisted in forming a road across the Great Desert,
and in colonising a considerable part of the central regions of Africa. They here tuunded a
series of powerful kingdoms : Ghana, the modern Kano ; Tocrur, which we conceive to be
Sackatoo ; Kuku and Kaugn, which recent travellers have found in and near the modem
region called Bornou. They described tliose countries as situated on the Nile of the Ne-
groes, which, contrary to ancient opinions, they represented as rising indeed from the same
fountain with theNde; but as flowing westward across all Africa, and falling into the
Atlantic ocean or sea of darkness. At its mouth they placed the island of Ulil, \vnence salt
was conveyed to all the Negro territories, which were entirely destitute of that necessary
of life. This view of the subject, though erroneous, was naturally suggested by the course
of tho rivers within the region with which they were alone intimately acquainted ; but we
reserve this discussion for a separate chapter, when we propose to give a succinct view of
tho successive theories respecting this great African river. We shall at present only
observe, that, as Tocrur is described to be only eighteen days' journey ♦rom the ocean, it is
plain that the knowledge of tho Arabs did not extend to Tombuctoo ; that they know nothing
of the Senegal or Gambia, or the countries upon these rivers ; and that the ocean into which
they represented the Nile of the Negroes as falling was either a hypothetical feature alto-
gether, or was at least hypothetically connected with all that they knew of tlie eastern tracts
of interior Africa.

CHAPTER II.

EUROPEAN GEOGRAPHY DURING THE DARK AGES.

Even the imperfect knowledge possessed by the ancient geographers became involved in
the general progress of that intellectual darkness, which ensued on the decline of the Roman
empire. Europe, overwhelmed with a deluge of barbarism, no longer cultivated art or
science ; and the rude states into which it was divided had only a vague idea of each other's
situation. The advance of this darkness may be observed in an anonyniniis work, published
at Ravenna in the eighth century. The writer presents only confused fragments of the
information contained in Ptolemy and Pliny. The coast of India, indeed, the mercantile
route to which appears to have been kept open, is still delineated with some degree of cor-
rectness. But the whole interior of Aisia, from China to Uactriana, is included under the
name of " Seric India :" the Caspian re-appears as a gulf of tho Nortliern Ocean ; in short,
all these distant regions are viewed, in tho manner natural to ignorance, as a dim and inde-
finite expanse, the features of which were all confusedly blended with each other.

The monasteries during the dark ages afforded an asylum for all that remained of ancient
knowledge ; in them the manuscripts of many of the classic writers wore Btill preserved,
though little consulted. The reading aloud of histories, and descriptions of noighlxHiring,
and even of distant countries, formed a mode of beguiling' the tedious hours ; but these being
recorded under the title of " Wonders of the World," and crowded with the most extrava-
gant fables, served rather for the amusement of the fire-side, than for any real instruction.

The missions undertaken for the conversion of the northern pagans wore tho principal
channel by which any geographical knowledge was convoyed. The missionnrio.s did not, at
this time, attempt to pass the limits ot Europe ; but directed their efforts towards the con-
version of the Slavonic tribes, who occupied Poland, Prussia and Livonia. Other appears
even to have penetrated through the interior of Russia to the White Sea ; he undertook also
an extensive voyage along the coasts of Norway. The Anglo-Saxon Wilfrid, named by the
pope the apostle of the Germans, appears to have been the person who transmitted the most

¥:

.-I

I im

Mrt;

fl'

> Ml

Sitt

HISTORY OP fJKOORAPHV.

■I*

PabtI

ftill (li'tnilH rt'liitivo tiit the (lutniU of
tlicir iiiiHHJoii havo not Ix'nn prcuprvvd. AlthonKlii liowiiviT, thn nionkii llnii did HonK'thinf;
to illustrnti- tlic j(''"({"'l'''y "'" I'liiropo, tlieru in Hiiflicifnt I'vidunco that thoy lulHiurrd, in
many in^tunci-H, under tho jfronw^Hl i^noriinKo; komio of tlioni knew not eviMi the ca))ital of
tlicir own country, or tlin citii'H nt-nrcNt to tlii'ir own.

'J"he ifriMil inoniirrlm niiulo homip otlortu to rcHcuo tlio iijfo from tlii» ntnto of prnfonnd i(nio-
ranci'. 'I'lit! two iiluflriouH nionnrclip, ('liiirli-niajrno iind Alfred, distin^fniHlicd tlK'niwlvoi
by tlii'lr t'liduavonrH to proniolu ^•'"(ri'opliy : tlio Ibrmor con»truct(:d a nilvcr taldn of lar)(o
dunonHJiinH, on wliii-li whh d<'linpiili'<l tho wlioln world ho fiir iim known to him ; untortnniitcly
tlio miitcriiiirt wirn too cowtly, und tlio nilvor world wim wxm inclti-d down lo cupply the
nPccxHitii'y of r)iic n|' itu kintfdoniH. Alfn-d pro<liircd a more vuliiublu nioiiunient in ii (lfi«rri|i-
tioii of tlio north (f Kuropi-, from tlio host niaforiiils which coiilil bo then ctdlcctcd, nml which
ft)nns ofili tlip Im-sI record of the peo/jriiphical knowlcdj{0 of that n(fn. Under the direction
of Willinm tin? (.'ompieror wan dravvn up that important docnnicnt called Doonmday Book, in
which the populati hi, the culture, and the taxcH paid by cuch diHtrict, aro ('xhihitcd hi the
jp-eate.Ht detail. A ^limilar aurvey of nomnark wa.-* made in tho thirteenth century, by its
Boverei<^n VValdein ir II.; and of tho Mark of Brandenburg, in tho fourteenth century, by tho
cniperor Charles IV.

The Dnwn and Norwoffians, the Northmen bh they were called, while under their mighty
iea-kin<;s they spread desolation over the maritime diNtricfn of Europe, nercMsarily ac(|uirod
a very extenaive kiii)\\1edpc of its sens and coasts. Such knowledge, though nowhere formed
into any regular system, may 1h! traced in the sagas, or metrical historicH in which they
celebrate the gallant exploits of their countrymen. Th('y were, of course, familiar with all
tho countries bordering on tho Baltic. They knew by conquest Orkney, Hhetland, the He-
brides, anil the western coast of Ireland. Their fleets reached even the shores of Italy and
Sicily. Towards the north, they established colonies in Iceland and fireenland. But the
most iniiHirtant ili-rovery of the Northmen was, undoubtedly, America, if their claim to tho
merit of that discovery shall bo admitted to lie made gixxl. In the lieginning of the eleventh
ccnlnry, Thorwald and Leif, two natives of Iceland, having sailed fiir to the -Hiuth-we.-'t, came
to a I'oiintry wliirli appeared to them, doubtless by comparison, to he mild and ngreeahlo ;
the natives were of dwarfish stature, and maintained with them sometimes a hostile, but
ottener a friendly intercourse. Finding that the rivers abounded with fish, and that the finest
furs could be procured, they and their countrymen repeated their visits; and in 1211, Bishop
F>ic is said to have re|)aired thither with the view of converting the natives. The name
given to tho reirion is Vinland, from the i'/He.<t growing in it; a feature which certainly
occurs to us aa very foreign to this part of the world; but, in fact, wild vines arc found
growing in all the most northerly districts of America. It is highly probable that tho conti-
nent was not rearlied by tho Icolandic adventurers, and that Vinlund was nicruly a southerly
district of Greenland.

CHAPTER m.

OKOCIlAPItlCAL KXOVVLEDCE DEUIVKD FROM THE CRUSADES.

The crusades tormed a scries of events which roused the European mind from its local and
limited range, und directed its ken into the regions of another continent. The high-wrought
enthusiasm which impelled Europe to pour itself, os it were, in one mass on tho eastern
world, however blind might have been the zeal which inspired it, was, on the whole, highly
beneficial : it drove back the tide of Saracen and Turkish conquest, which might have swal-
lowed up the whole West, and involved it in tho same gloom of barbarism and superstition
that pervaded the East. Above all, the cniHiides had a powerful influence in dispelling the
mental darkness in which the western regions were involved, and in projmring that light of
science and intelligence which was so soon to dawn upon them. The attention of Europe
wos thus directed to these interesting and meiiiorable regions, known hitherto only by tne
meagre re|X)rt of some occasional pilgrims. Not only the Holy 1-and, with the kingiloins of
Jorusttleiu and Edessa, founded by the victorious cru.«derH, but the extensive domains
belonging to the Saracen and Turkish empires, became objects of inquiry; search was now
made in thn writings of the ancient geograpliers, anil perhaps some lights were derived even
from the .\raliian writers. Samido compiled a ma)) of tho world, annexed to Hjngar's
"Gesta Dei per Francos," (fff. 12.) in which the ideas formed out of the crusading expedi-
tions arc fully cxeuiplified: Jerusalem is jilnced in the centre of the world, ns the iNiiiit to
which every other object is to be referred; tho earth is made a circle suriouiided by tho
ocean, the shore.-i of which are represented ns everywhere nearly ccpiidisfant from that
spiritual capital, the site of which is, indeed, remarkable tor its relation to the three conti-
nents, Asia, Kuro|)e, and Africa. Persia ritands in its pro|K'r jdace ; but India, mwler the
modifications of Greater and Lesser, is confiisedly rejieated at ditlerent |K)iiits. while the
river Indu:i is muntiuncd in the text as the eastern boundary of Asia. To tho north, the

cast
wlii(
pian
feati
the I
Euro
thouj
toget

Til
quart)

anciei
and di
turies
Tartn

Gengi
over I
most :
Asia,
and pe
ments
prossil)
was 811

Vo7,.

;Si

Bom n.

KNOW LKDT.E FROM TFrR CUUSADES.

ng. IS-HANUDOU MAP OF THE WORUi.

«'

I ,.l

r I

> it

i local an^
h-wrouRht
lio eastern
)lc, higUlv
iiiive swal-
uporiitition

at lidht of
of Europe
inly by tne
nRiloins of
■0 (lomivina
111 was now
Irivcd cvon
l() Bonsftr's
linjr oxpodi-
Ihc |M)iiit to
li(l(i\ by tho
from tliiit
Itlirrc conti-
T, yiuilor the
k while the
le north, the

castlo of Gog and Mogop, an Arabian feature, crowns a vast ranpe of mountains, withiii
wiiich it is Httid that tho Tartars had been imprisoned by Alexander the Great. The Cbji-
pian appears, with tho bordorintf countries of Gcorjfia, Hyrcania, ond Albania ; but these
features stand nearly at the northern boundary of the Imbitable earth. Africa has a sea to
the south, stated, however, to bo inaccessible, on account of the intensity of tho heat. The
European countries stand in their dun place, not even exccptinff Russia and Scandinavia ;
though some overiiglits are observable in tho manner in which the two are connected
together.

CHAPTER IV.

TARTAR OEOORAPIIY.

The revolutiotia of tho north of Asia next attracted llie eyes of Europeans to the distant
quarters of tho world. Tho roaming tenants of those boundless wilds, l.'.-rifn under the
ancient name of Scythia, and the modern one of Tartary, have at various . riods conquered
and desolated tho civilized world of Asia. Tlie offspring of Tartar hi is .--dt for many cen-
turies on tl\o tlirones of Pekin, of Delhi, of Ispahan, and of Constantinople : but, of the
Tartar rulers, none ever raised so terrible a niinie, or established so wiae un empire, as
Gengis or Zingi.s; originally an individual chief of the Mongiil8,ho attained the general sway
over that warlike race, and led them as coraiuorors froi.i empire to empire. His first and
most signal exploit was tlic couijuest of China; liaving thence crossed the wliolo breadth of
Asia, ho died on the phoresoftlie Caspian. Ilissuccossor.-" pressed on westward,overran Russia,
and penetrated tlirongh Poland into Ilungnry and Silesia; their approach, their rapid move-
ments, and the e.\agi;erated reports of their ravages, stnirk tho nations of Europe with inex-
pressible terror; this was greatly heightened by tho prevailing ignorance of geography, which
was sucli thai none know when they might arrive, or where they might bo encounteretl. The

Vor,. I. 0* L

? fl'J

1.;;^-

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part I.

Danes wore thus dotorrcd one season even from going t») tlio lierring-fisliery, on the coast of
Scotland. Tlie Tartars defeated and killed the Dnke of Silesia ; but a general muster of
the Gerniun chivalry lioing made to oppose them, they retreated into the interior of Poland,
and even fnrther to tlie ea.'st, leaving only a numerous vanguard ; but it was susiwctcd that
they were only mustering their strengtli, agam to invade Europe, in more dreadful and
destructive array.

Embassy, at this crisis, was deemed the expedient most likely to appnisc the fury of these
dreaded invaders. According to the ideas of the age, the pope appeared the most respectable
character, in whose name a mission could be undertaken, and monks tiie mewt fitting ambas-
sadors. Tlio choice was injudicious : these envoys, ignorant of the political relations of
countries, of the usages of society, and the mode of treating with mankind, obtained no
respect in the eyes of the fierce conquerors of Asia. They returned without fulfilling any
obiect of their mission ; and if Europe was not again exposed to this barbarous inundation, it
owed its safety only to the division of the immense empire of Kaptchak, and the dissension!)
among its princes. These ambassadors, however, traversed a large portion of the continent,
Uetbre unknown to Europeans. One mission, indeed, under Ascelin, which mec the Monguls
on the frontier of Persia, does not communicate any geographical information; but the
journey of Carpini, and after liim of Rubruquis, (Jig. 13.). led Ihem through the north of

Fig. 13.— MAP OF THE JOURNEY OF RUBRUQUIS.

Russia, along the shores of the Black Sea, and the Caspian, and thence into the very heart
of the immense plains of interior Asia, where thoy found the great Tartar capital of Kara-
koruin, the chief seat of the posterity of Zingis. Here the masters of the world, while
embassies and presents were w.iitiiig them from all the courts of southern Asia, were living
in the rudest Scythian fashion, feeding scantily on iiorse-flcsh and mares' milk, roving about
in tents, destitute of arts, and occupied only witii war and plunder. The Tartars, however,
treated with a proud disdain all other nations, over whom they lield themselves as commis-
sioned by Iieaven to rule, while they paid the most abject submission to their own Khan, re-
vering him as the appointed representative of the doity on earth.

Karakoruin was tbund scarcely entitled to the name of city, being little larger than one
of the suburbs of Paris, and its most sumptuous edifices scarcely suitable to a European
country town. The situation of this capital of so great an empire has been a subject of some
controversy. D'Anvilh; places it at a point to the north of China, ne.ir the eastern limit of
the great desert of Sliamo or Cobi, while Fischer fixes it on the Orclion, one of the rivers
which unho in (i)rming the Selingha. I have elsewhere endeavoured to show (Discoveries
in Asia, F.) that both these positions must be about a thousand miles to. the eastward of the
real site. It is true tliat upwards of four months was occupied in pa.ssiiig from the western
frontier of Russia to this capital; and the missionaries complniuof the grievous rajudity with
wliirli they were conveyed. They estimate the daily riite as equal to the distance from Paris
to Orleans, or about seventy miles; and this time iind route would doubtless bo sufficient to
carry them to the most eastern extremity of the cuntinent. But whenever they give us the
time ttctiiiilly employed in tnivelling between known |X)ints, a rate is found which does not
even approach to the alxwe. Two months nre spent by Ciir|)ini in travelling from the Dniei)er
to the Volira, and by RnbriHjuis *rnm the Daniibu to the Don, " riding |>ost as the Tartars
do;" yet neither of these spaces exceeds in direct distance six hundred miles. Tiicn from
the Volga to the Unil, which may be two hundred and fifty miles, we have twelve days;
while the journey fi'.in the Ural to the inland sen of Balkash, or Palcafi, occupied aliove
forty-three days. Tli.is down to that ix):iit it re(;uired four months to travel not (piite eighteen
hundred miles. From the BilkiUih to Karakoruin, the journey was performed in three weeks.

of
of
nd,
Imt
iml

ese
ible
jas-

of
. no
any
ti, it
ions
lent,
gills

the
hof

1 one
bpcan
yome
lit of
livers
Icriea
the
fetcrn
I with
I'aris
ntto
ttie
1 not
lopfr
Irtiirt!
Ifrom
lays;
llmve
Iteen
I'cks.

Book II.

VENETIAN GEOGRAPHY.

Is it possible to suppose that they could in that time have travelled fifteen hundred mucs, the
space wiiicli would be necessary to enable Uiem to reach the Karakorum either of D'Anville
or of Fischer ! They could not have passed the great table plain of Soongaria, compared by
the OrieiitJil histories to a groat sea of verdure, and consequently of all others the best fitted
to foriii the central encampment of tiiis great pastoral and military empire. All the geo-
graphical indications given by Rubruquis agree witli this position; and disagree wholly with
Ilie oilier two. He says all the rivers observed by him flowed to the westward, which is true
as fiir iio Soongaria, but directly contrary to wiiat takes place in the other pasitions, botli of
whicli are even placed upon rivers that flow to the eastward. China is said to lie to the
south-ciiht, as it does from Soongaria; but from the two other positions it would be directly
south. The Kirghises are said to lie to the north, and the Baschkirs to the west; but these,
according to the ordinary site, would liavc been at a distance quite immense, and could have
had no relations with Karakorum. The hypothesis which places that city in Mongolia is
founded upon the latter having been the original seat of Zingis ; but Rubruquis expressly
states, that this arrangement had now ceased, and that Tartaria was " the chief and royal
city." Such a change was, indeed, almost necessary to ftn empire which was to embrace at
once the East and the West ; to hold China in one hand, and Russia in the other.

CHAPTER V,

VENETIAN GEOGRAPHY.

The republics of Italy, and above all that of Venice, were the states in which the spirit of
commerce and inquiry, after being long dormant, revived with the most brilliant lustre.
The commerce which they carried on was one which connected them with the most distant
regions : they traded in the jewels, the spices, and the fine cloths of India, a country situated
at a distance really vast, and which then appeared almost immeasurable. It was not by
Venetians, however, or by any Europeans, that the vast intervening space was traversed.
They found the Indian commodities in the ports of the Mediterranean or the Black Sea, to
which tliey were brought by the Arabs up the Red Sea, or by the interior caravans across
central Asia. It was impossible, however, that they could see these precious end profitable
commodities continuing to enter their ports, without feeling some curiosity as to the splendid
and beautiful regions whence they came ; and, in that age of enterprise, it was likely that
some would be impelled to brave even the obstacles presented by this vast unknown space,
occupied by people of a hostile and bigoted fiiitli. The Abbe Zurla has collected notices of
a considerable number who, actuated by this spirit of discovery, penetrated to a considerable
depth into the interior of Asia. But the feme of all tlicse is eclipsed by one, whose travels
extended fer beyond the rest, and who has always ranked among the greatest of discoverers
of any age.

Marco Polo was a noble Venetian, whose family, like many others of the same rank, was
engaged in extensive commerce. His uncles, Maffeo and Nicole, had visited Tartary, and
afterwards China, though without leaving any narrative of their observations. The pope,
however, being apprized of their discoveries, sent out an ecclesiastical mission, accompanied
by the young Marco Polo, then only nineteen. They spent twenty-four years in traversing
the most remote regions of Asia. The result of their religious mission is not stated ; but they
returned laden with precious jewels, with which tliey dazzled the eyes of their countrymen,
by whom they were not at first recognised. Marco being afterwards made prisoner by the
Genoese, was persuaded to amuse the hours of confinement by dictating a narrative of his
travels, which was read with avidity, and soon translateil into all the European languages.
He has suffered like many other eminent travellers, under those injurious suspicions which
arise in the minds of persons unwilling to believe any event or object which goes beyond
the sphere of tlieir ordinary experience. His name even fiimislied the nickname given to a
personage introduced into the comedies of the age, to recite every species of e.xtravugant
fable. But modem information has verified in all its most es.sontial points the narrative of
Marco Polo, leaving only a slight tincture of that credulity which was characteristic of the
age, and is confined to what was told him by otiiers of countries which he did not himself
visit. Ho appears to have first proceeded along the northern shore of Asia Minor, then the
seat of a flourishing Turkish dynasty. He passed throii'rh Armenia, along the lofty ridges
of Ararat, and descending the Kuphratos through Curdistaii ranio to Bagdad, no longer the
capital of the caliphate, but still a flourishing and civilized city under its Tartar ronquerors.
He visited the groat commercial capital of Orniuz, and tlmnce proceeded eastward throupli
the southern part of Persia by Kermn'i and Kiibboes, across tlie great salt desert. At length
he reachefl Balkh, which, though st'i! a considerable emporium of central Asia, presented
only in its ruined temples and spacious squares the vestiges of \Xs ancient grandeur. Then
passing along the borders of Cashniire and the mountain tract of Balashan (Badakshan), cele-
brated for its mines of rubies, lie nscrndcd to tJie elevated plain of Pamere, forming the sum-
mit of that cross branch of the Hinimaleli called the Beloor. On this, which appeared to hiiu

1 1

\'; '

,-!".;

i r'

mSTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt 1.

the highest ground in the world, he felt tliat difficulty in rcrspiration, and in producing com-
bustion, which is peculiar to the most elevated mountain sites. He atlerwards reached the
lar^e Tartar cities of Yarkund and Cashgar, and entered on that great eastern table-land
which, before and since, has formed the Terra Incognita of Asia. He then entered Northern
China, which he calls Cathay, and visited its capital Cambalu, his description of which strik-
ingly coincides with that of the modem Pekin. He atlerwards visited Mangi or Southern
China, and found in its capital, Quinsai, a scene eclipsing all that he had beheld cither in
Europe or in the East It is described as a most immense, and, from its splendour and the
beauty of its situation, almost a magic city. In fact Hongtchooibo, which corresponds with
Quinsai, though it has long ceased to be the capital of China, is still a very large city, very
charmingly situated. From China, Marco Polo passed tlirough the Indian Archipelago, hear-
ing only of Great Java, but visiting Sumatra, which he calls Little Java. He touched at
the coasts both of Malabar and Coromandel, and learned many particulars respecting India
and its people, which have since been confirmed by modem observation. He returned by
the Red Sea to Europe.

A map of the worlo on a large scale, (Jig. 14.) by Fra Mauro, which is preserved at Venice,
and of which a highly finished copy exists in the British Museum, exhibits a view of the
geographical ideas ibrmcd by the Venetians, founded upon the information derived from tlieir
Asiatic travellers, and prior to the discovery of America.

Fig. 14. — Map or tub Wobld by Fra Mavro.

1. Buira

2. Difur

3. Fundan

4. Maruchu

5. Bienc
fl. Mncha
7. Thui
a Thale

9. Stilunfur
1C Pellirondi
II. Ilweneia
IS. T'lrrailli

13. Deli

14. Avi

S Chsracan

29.

Zanlavo

43. Bnpolcro Uncain

e Nilo

fi. Charaiaii

Hire

41. fainargaiu

1 Kufratn

17. Mlhen

31.

Baleh

4.^. Nngra

fc l"i«ri«
li Indua

ti. Moiinan

32.

Tangui

4G. Moacliftvia

9. Biachone

33.

Chansay

47. I'ormia

i Mandua

SU Bclfetoii

34.

NanKin

4H. Nuvuaradu

j Ganvea

iti. Canilar

35.

Uimnzu
Cambalu

4'.i. Kiga

k Uuian

1 Mam Ureunto

*i3. Thrmchain

!iO. Praia.

iO. lIuLiluuia
34. Minciputamia

■.r.

Arctidiiara

m Ainu

3H.

Silan

Rineri, Lake: ie.

n P(ilr*anchin

tU. Artha Noo

3U.

Olraf

a Oalla

MareBttiKhu

!». Tiphilii

40.

Chatajo

b Xebe

p Edit

37. Armenia

41.

BMenach

c Avaai

q Tanai

W. Spalma

Sepultun

b Abtvi

r Oanubio.

n 1.

mice,
f the
their

BooKin.

MODERN GEOGIL*rprY.

' A- BOOK III.

MODERNr-prw.-.r.
GB«o„.r„vwa,„owtoa.umo ^^OGRAPHY. .' '

prehended within her domahf aIk "*'T '^P«"=*' "nd worlds before ., l
nont astronomers. skilfbrSts'^S^Fh '^e Italian states p^uM""^" ^«'« ^ be con-
by land conveyance, am] thlT' ■ ■ ^'^y navigators thpirV» ^? "^most exclusively Pmi
or even attemjt to foUoVtut n'.'""!'"" °*""'« '"terSet of P. r""°" ^"^ "•'"ly S^"
coasts of Europe, and eLdallv X-V;^'"?5 '^^^ioiuZverf %V ^7'^'^ "otorSX^

discovery, conquest, and coL^^r^'-P"-"^ ^'"^ "*• t^e a^e emLSed°i^ Sl^S

cba

CHAPTER I

The progress of di'I^rvrvT.r.r'"'''''^ ''"'" ™^ '=^''' ^"'Es.
astonishinelyraDid- n„^ 7^" *be globe, when th» a .

<ar as Virginia. In the next tlo^nr^h P'"'""' ^rritSry "f thelfn^i''S!P'*="'' discovered
guese navigators, began the ]o„„ 2l "■• ^ ^'^''' 'he Cor?erSs „ ,. "^^ ®'^'"'' P^°bably as
they saiiod along tht coa^t of f T i"^'" ^"''i* of a pas^^p i™ '',*l"ng family of Portu-
which they seen? to haTmltat„'lT%r'^ '^'^^^^^S^^^^^Mir^^^''^'^^^--
them unbippily perished. hmTrZ "j" t^" ^^^ween Africa fndi^.''^-^^'''^^'^ ^h
coast of Brazil, which he clahntd fnV D f '' '',*''*'"«'' for Indk strnct ^"'^™a; but two of
P«rt of Terra Firma, and Sna ZFuT'^"^' ^'""'?° ^t^ucTLZ^^T'^^^y °» »b«
ot Brazil ; services which ohta inf A <• , • ""^^ "lade two extpn«iv„ ^''^'' along a great

gulf of Mexico, In Kill ivr ^ ' "^ound a great n»rt «♦• .u^ • ^ "'* "ame to the whnU
boundless expanse oflh^ fe??!"^^' "°-'5 tt Srowtthr "''. ST *''« ""^^^ of tt
prompted Cortez and Pizarrr?^ f ^'^?"- '^''^^e discovwTefnff "? of Panama, beheld the

^vith a handful of darfn7fo^oteTtfe '" '\''' -'ventumus "„" ±11;"^ ^'P"'^- which
Mexico and Pern P. 5 ,"'.*'^^~ tney subverted Hm -, » "^"'"ary career- in wfifoi,

Siam and Pegu; and even „f ,*'''* «nd Uie Spice iS , '^'^"' ^fr'™, of Ara-

joalousy of tlfat ^wer wa s^TP't' '"."'"*'' *be S of C,fca T^l*''" existence^f
be presence of {he emjeror and f '""^V *'"' I'ortuguese emZ^ ^ ^^^ characteristic
boards and larrre eves shn'.U ' . t """"'ate was issued th!^^ Z^^ ""' ndmittrd into
coverie., the fTranJ achiovSn f ^ '^^ ''''^""^ of the cele'stS « ""^ °^ ""' "i^" with long
and western discovery an „f/ ^'* '•^""''■"'■<'' of cL^t^'^L^y -^/f^^' "" "'ese d"f
of the globe, whic" d'.ough Ll^'"^. "P*'" ^° ^he wondSevTs If^*" *•>? .'*"??''« of easto n
mankin,! contrary tn\JrtlinKr "nf'^ '-" *''" '^«t~erfs"emeT?o;h' '''^' ^^""^t"-
, Magellan, in ir,2(), Mndertr!?tT • ^''" ^""''^s- ° ""^ &onpraIity of

/ 11

•^j

70 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Pabt 1.

CHAPTER H.

EARLY BVBTF.M OF MODERN GEOcnAPIlY.

The systematic arrangement of the immense rcjfions thus discovered, tlieir adjustment to
each otl\er, and to the mass of knowledge previously ]X)S£C8sed, was a task as yet beyond the
resources of modem geography. It was to Venice tliat the results of discovery were still
referred to be arranged and systematised ; but the Venetian geographers, however skilful,
laboured under many diflRculties. The navigators seldom furnished them with any celestial
observations, or even accurate survey.?; for which, indeed, science had as yet provided no
suitable instruments : they gave only rude delineations, on which the geographer was obliged
to trace his uncertain way ; most of the countries formerly known were touched at new
pomts, and recognised under new names ; and tlie continents, being made to contain both the
olil and the new features, were swelled to a preposterous magnitude. The east of Asia
WHS obliged to contain at once tlie Serica of Ptolemy, the Mangi and Cathay of Marco Polo,
and the Ciiina of tlie Portuguese, all as f-parate empires. The relative site of the two
continents of Asia and America, the presentation of the west coast of the one to the cast
coast of the otiicr, was of course the problem which they had the fewest means of solving.
In a series of Venetian map?, preserved in the king's library, the two continents are de-
scribed througiiout tlieir whole extent as either united or separated only by the narrow Strait
of Anian : the former delineation is retained even in a map by Bertclli, dated 1571 ; and in
one by Cimertinus (1560), Cathay is placed upon the Gulf of Mexico. The expedition
of Magellan, it might be suppose*!, would already have opened their eyes to the extent of that
vast ocean which here intervened : but Magellan scarcely penetrated into tlie northern
Pacific; and his ill-understood course was probably supposed to reach direct from Cape
Horn to the Moluccas, which did not interfere with the hypothesis of the two continents
meeting each other in a diflerent latitude. The breadth of America, like all unknown
spaces, was vastly exaggerated in the early maps; while eastern Asia, by the procc.-s above
pointed out, was tripled ui all dimensions, and thus made to cover an ample portion of the
Pacific.

Sebastian Munster, in 1572, produced a delineation of the world, which is cleared of
some of the grossest mistakes, and which very tolerably delineates the general outline of the
earth. He commits, however, ,• very discreditable mistake, in tjiking Ptolemy for his guide
ill regard to Scotland, and consequently representing that country as extending from west to
east; a blunder the more singular, as his forms of Scandinavia and Ireland are liable to little
exception. Singular flights of fancy are found in the works of these early geographers.
Munster undertakes to describe, not only the surface of the earth, but also its interior : this
i.s stated to be occupied by hell, a huge cavern two or tliree thousand German miles in length
and breadth, and "capable of holding many millions of damned souls." Its existence was
proved by the spirits which, in the depth of mineral cuvcrns, as he had been assured by Cor-
nelius Agrippa, often killed instantly a great number of men. The inflammatory gases,
which are still frequently producing such disasters, afibrd certainly no unplausible ground
for that strange conclusion.

Ortelius, in the commencement of the sixteenth century, exhibits a remarkable im-
provement in geography. In his maps, all the parts of the globe begin to assume their real
form and dimensions ; America and Asia are ^\ idely separated, the expanse of the South Sea
interposing between them. The south pole is invested with a Terra Avstralis Incognita ;
whicl), as it relates to New Holland, is said to rest on the autliority of Marco Polo and Bar-
thema, and in regard to the West, on that of Magellan. Terra del Fiieffo is made a por-
tion of this Austral continent ; while in lat. 41° S., and long. 10° west of Ferro, is Protnon-
torium Terrts Australis. There is a Terra Septentrionalis Incognita, nearly as extensive,
and seeming to include Nova Zembla. Greenland, however, exists distinct from it. In the
interior of Asia, the Caspian, under the appellation of Mer de Bachu, presents the same form
and dimensions as in Ptolemy, and receives all the rivers falling really into the Aral, the
exi.«tence of which seems not to be suspected by this geographer.

Mercator advanced considerably farther, particulnrly by siiowing tlie imperfections of
Ptolemy, and the mjudicious manner in which the Jelineatior.s given by him had been mixed
with tliosp furnished by modern authority. Mer.-.ator retiiins the .Austral continent, includ-
ing in it Terra del Fiiego. The lakes of Canai.a appear for the first time in his maps, as a
hoa of tresli water^ the termination of which is unknown. In Africa, .Abyssinia, enormously
amplified, is made the principal and almost sole feature; it extends soutliwiinl to the vicinity
of the Ciipe, romprehending Mosiimbiriue, and bordering on CaflrarlH : tlie Nile rises only
"bout ton degrees north of the Cape, and consequently traverses all Africa from south to north.
iVitli respect to the extreme northern regions, this very learned man has indulged in some
extnioriiinary (lights of iniii!.'inatinii. The ocean resumes, as in Homer, the character of o
river, and is seen riisliintj by tmir mouths into the Polar (Julf, to lie absorbed, it is said, into
the tiowels of the i>artli. On one of the river brunches are placed pigmies, scarcely four

n
I;
ti
n
P

e
w
c'.
w
ol
fi:

ol
m
re
lit
ih

nsive,
tn the

ifomi
the

ns of
nixed
Iclud-
aa a
lously
ymity
lonly
lorth.
■some
' of 8
into
four

fioOK UI.

MODERN ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.

feet high ; a notion Buirjrosted, perhaps, by the diminutive stature of the Laplanders and Sa-
inoyedfM : on another is phic<;d u Mort of northern paradise, wliile the Pole iteelf, a black and
immenao rock, towers to u prodigious height.

From the timu of Mercalor modern geography made rapid and continued progress, till it
attained the state approaching towards perfection, in which it now exists : tliis will appear,
when we consider it as astronomical, critical, or statistical ; and when we view it in its rela-
tion to tlie dilferent quarters of the globe.

CHAPTER UI.

MODERN ASTIIONOMICAL OEOGRAPHY

The astronomical geogrophy of the Greeks rested on a basis exceedingly narrow. It was
only at Alexandria, Syene, Rhodes, and a few other leading points, that observations of lati-
tude appear to have been mode witlj a tolerable approach to accuracy ; all the otlicrs seem to
have been only extended froni rude itineraries. With regard to the longitudes, altliough the
mode of calculating tiiem by means of eclipses appears to have been understood, only one or
two actual observations of this nature are recorded ; nor does it seem to have exerted any
important influence on geography in general. The Arabs made much greater progress in
this department; but, through the separation produced by religious antipathy, their works
were scarcely at all known in P^urope at the period of the revival of letters. At that time,
the pompous display of latitudes and longitudes made by Ptolemy, venerable as it hod become
from its antiquity, commanded universal assent.

Modern observations have gradually shown the magnitude of Ptolemi's errors. The first
great shock to his authority was given by the latitude of Constantinople, v'hich Amurath III.
caused to be taken in 1574, when it ))rovod to bo two degrees lower than ancient authorities
had assigned : the idea of such a ditfercnco, however, was treated with derision by some
European geographers, till it was confirmed, in 1638, by Greaves, who had been sent to the
East by Archbishop Laud. Even then, many, rather than renounce the authority of Ptolemy,
believed tiiat a change had taken place in tiie position of the earth ; but this notion became
no longer tenable to any extent when Alexandria and other points were found very nearly
to coincide with ancient observation. But tlie groat alarm as to the unsoundness of ancient
graduation was given in 1635, when M. de Peiresc caused an eclipse of the moon to be
observed at Marseilles and at Aleppo ; and the difierenco of longitude, instead of 45° as it
had l:cen represented, was found to bo only about 30° : such an enormous error, in a dimen-
sion which ought of all others to have been most exactly ascertained, shook altogether the
blind confidence hitherto reposed in the longitudes of Ptolemy. It was at last perceived,
that an entire reform of his graduations must be effected, before geography could rest on any
secure basis. Numerous observations upon eclipses now began to be made ; but it was then
discovered, that this only known mode of ascertaining tiic longitude was attended with many
imperfections. In the observation of fifty-six eclipses, collected by Ricciolus, there were
no two, observed in tlie same two places by the same men, which exhibited the same quantity
of longitude : even the same ecl'ps'^ gave different results, when observed at its four critical
periods. As it was found impossible to guard against errors amounting even to three or
four degrees, on opinion became prevalent, in tlie middle of the seventeenth century, that unless
for very great distances, even itinerary measures would give the result with greater accu-
racy ; yet Galileo, in 1610, had already pointed out a source of more accurate knowledge :
he had in that year discovered three of the satellites of Jupiter, and in his Nuncius Sidereus,
pointed out the use to which they miglit be applied. As his hints did not meet with the
attention tlicy merited, lie communicated them more fully, in 1631, to Philip II. of Spain ;
but that bigoted prince was unable to estimate their importance. Galileo met with a more
tavourahlc reception from the Dutch, who sent Hortensius and Bleau to Florence, to commu-
nicate with Jiini on the subject. Tliey found that great man involved in the storm of
jwrsccution which tlie ignorant bigotry of the Romish church had raised against him : he
was thrown into prison ; and, after having asked pardon on his knees, for asserting that the
earth moved round tlie sun, obtained only a mitigation of his confinement. This discovery
was therof()rc of little use till 1668, when Cassini published his tables of the revolutions and
clipses of these satellites ; and tiiree years afterwards, he and Picard made joint observations
at Piiris, and in the observatories of Tycho Bralie at Copenhagen, by which tlie longitude
of these two importiint points, which had been tlic subject of long controversy, was finally
fixed.

The French government now took the most active measures for extending geographical
observation. Two academicians, Picard and I)e la Hire, were employed to construct a new
map of Franco upon astronomical principles. In this operation they almost everywhere
reduced the previous dimensions, wliieh h-id been tbundod upon itinerary measures, and were
liable to tlioir usuiil excess: they took ofl' a whole dt.'gree from the western coast between
Britanv and Gascoiiy, and half a ilegree from the coa.sts of Ijanguedoc and Provence; so that

4'-

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY

Past I.

on their return, Louis XIV. facetiously roproncliod tiicin with having robbed hini of a part
of his kingdom. Other academicians were employed to determine the longitude of Goree
on the coast of Africa, and of Guadaloupo and Martinico in the West Indies; and M. Cha-
zelles was sent up the Levant on a similar mission. E.xpeditions on a much grander scale
were dispatched, under Alappcrtuis to the Arctic circle, and Condamino to the eiiuator.
The primary object of these was to determine the figure of the earth by the application of
the pendulum; but the opixjrtunity was taken of making various observations of longitude
and latitude, in regions which had been formerly delineated only by processes of the meet
vague description.

In the operation of determining the position of places on the globe, importniit improve-
ments have been made since the above criw. Although there can be no more accurate mode
of detennining the longitude, thon by the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, these ore of too
unfrequent occurrence to answer the practical purposes roqiiiretl. Observations of the transits
of Mercury and Venus over the sun, of the occultations of the fixed stars, and of what are
called lunar distances ; processes, the nature of which will bo fiilly explained in the following
book, have been employed with success. Nay, to such perfection have chronometers been
brought, that, by showmg the difference of time between known and unknown points, they
serve many of the ordinary purposes of navigation. The voyages undertaken by Capt Cook,
under the auspices of George III., afforded the means not onlj^ of exploring many islands and
regions of the Pacific and Polar sens, but of throwing much light upon the general structure
of the earth. The expeditions of Capt. Parry, and the nautical surveys executed under the
direction of the British government by Flinders, King, Owen, and other officers, have gone
far to fix the outlines of the great continents. The trigonometrical surveys of France and
England, executed within the last thirty years, have almost completed tlie delineation of
tliose countries. Still tliis branch of geography remains very imperfect

CHAPTER IV.

MODERN CRITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Thb application of a sound criticism to geographical materials cannot be discerned in the
rude and infant stages of the science. There is no branch in which the inquirer is so likely
to be misled by fiilse and fabulous rumours. Tlio persons from whom ho must draw his
in.ormation, — the navigator, t!ie merchant, the traveller, — make observations often only in a
rough and superficial manner, and are swayed in their reports by fancy or vanity. The results
of their own observation, or the authentic relations of well-informed persons, are confounded
with the most vague rumours which float among the vulgar. Hence almost all the early
systems have a portion of truth, mingled with many ideal and fabulous creations. The human
mind imwillingly owns its ignorance even to itself. The geographer was reluctant to stop
short at the point where his authentic information ceased. Having to delineate a kingdom
or a continent, he filled up the really unknown parts from vague rumour, or a fanciful pro-
longation of those that were known. Whatever object had once foimd a place was copied
mechanically without any inquiry, tmtil modem maps and descriptions became crowded with
objects, for Uie position of which no reason could be assigned.

Strabo, among the ancient geographers, was alone endowed with a critical spirit : but not
having a sufliciently ample stock of materials, he exercised his judgment with a blind severity,
which appears to have done injustice to several individuals whose exertions in the infiint
cause or discovery were highly meritorious. This extreme of scepticism, opposite to that
of credulity, has indeed thrown unjustly into shade the merits of some of tlio most eminent
discoverers, both ancient and modem. It is only by the collation of numerous authorities,
accumulated by time and extended intercourse, that the just medium can be observed, and
an equitable sentence pronounced on the report^ of each party.

D'Anville, in the eighteenth century, possessed of ample materials, endued with indefa-
tigable patience and sound judgment, undertook to revise the whole system, upon which the
world and its regions had boon hitherto delineated. The maps of the aire wore still rnvered
with many obsolete and many fanciful particulars; and largo portions of tlm world, con-
cerning which absolutely nothmg was known, were filled with imaginary citits nnd coimtries.
D'Anville subjected every geographical feature to the strictest revision, and c.vpunged
without mercy those which rested on no positive and actual authority. 'I'lic world, imder
his hands, assumed a new, and in some respects, a less flattering aspect. INIaps, wiiich had
before boon amply and regularly covered, now exhibifod vast and unsornily hl.iiilis, which,
amid the boiisted learning of this age. implied a mortifying confession of itrnoriiiico. It was
in]|KPSsil)lo, however, to deny, that this was the soimd system upon wiiicii to proceed.
Oociirrapliy rested at last upon sure bases, and prociv-dod in u regular coiirso of iuijiroveiiient.

Jlajor Rennell, with a skill and siiiracity not inlrrjor to that of D'Anville, arnniged and
illustrated tlie mass of important materials collected respecting India and Africa ; and. though

Book III.

MODERN DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

not
Irity,
lifiint
jthat
Incnl
Ities,

and

Icon-

ulditional contributions of vast importance have in some ilcfprec superseded his actual delinea-
tion, his example has intro(Uiced a still preatcr precision into the mode of troatinj? the subject.
The comparison of ancient and modern geography, and the tracing of tiie infant steps of
early discovery, conntitutu an iuterestiMg field of inquiry, which lias been much cultivated
during the present age. Vonsius, Bochart, and other learned scholarsofthesoventeenth cen-
tury, had exercised much diligence in tiiese researches ; but they were not always guided
by tiie soundest judgment, nor were tiiey sufficiently acquainted with the objects actually
existing, to be able to recognise them under the early descriptions. Rennell, Vincent, and
Mannert, seemed to have carried this research nearly as far as it can go, though without
being able to dispel that impenetrable darkness in which some questions arc still involved.
Gosselin has applied to the science an extent of investigation, and a critical acumen, which,
perhaps, none of his predecessors have equalled ; but animated by too Strabonic a spirit, and
seeking to subvert all the bases on which ancient geography had before rested, he has in
many instances ratlier given lustre to bold and ingenious paradoxes, than made solid addi-
tions to the science.

CHAPTER V.

MODERN DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The mere outline of the globe, its continents and countries, the leading features of moun-
tains, rivers, and cities, their distance and position witli respect to each other, constitute all
that in the very strictest sense can bo called geogrephy. But tlie mind cannot pass these in
review, without feeling its interest excited, in even a superior degree, by ether objects, for
which thosd only serve as the basis. The productions of the cartli, whether natural or arti-
ficial ; the treasures hid in its bosom ; the animals which roam or are bred on its surface ;
above all, the men by whom each region is peopled, — their manners, laws, industry, com-
merce, the revolutions through which they have pas%d, — these possess the strongest claim
on our attention, and are of an importance superior to that of the mere geometricol outline.

The ancients did not occupy themselves with much more than the simple and fundamental
bases of the science. The delineation of these formed alone an arduous task, which the
geographer was required to accomplish before he could attend to the accessary and orna-
mental parts. Eratosthenes does not appear to have extended his research beyond those
branches which were connected with astronomy. The work of Ptolemy forms a mere naked
tabular list of positions, rarely enlivened by any historical or descriptive notices. Pliny does
not go much farther. Strabo alone has enriched his work with numerous anecdotes and de-
scriptions whicii, though not given on any complete or systematic principle, constitute a
great portion of its value.

Early modem writers confined themselves, like the ancient geographers, to mere outlines.
All the first treatises were formed on the model of Ptolemy ; D'Anville, the head of the
French school, applied himself solely to the boundaries and positions of countries, which he
fixed with a precision before unknown, but without directing much attention to their physical
and social relations.

Statistics, the science which treats of kingdoms and states in their relations of population,
wealth, productions, commerce, and public force, is, as a separate branch of knowledge, only
of recent origin. From the first it had a natural alliance with geography. Busching may
be considered us the father of sUitistical geography : his vast research, strict fidelity, and
access to the best sources, enabled him, in his description of Europe, to assemble a mass of
infijrmation unequalled by any of his predecessors. He has arranged it, however, nearly in
the same mechanical manner in which they had drawn the mathematical outlines of the
globe. His writings, instead of convoying to the mind striking general views, are loaded
with minute and burdensome details, which can bo usefiil only as matter of reference, and
would therefore have most properly appeared in the form of a dictionary. His successors have
been numerous, a!nd their labours are of similar character and value. Brnns, with regard to
Africa, and Ebcling to Asia, continued the series. The great geographical work recently
completed by Ilassel, Cannabich, Gaspari, and Gutsmuth, in twenty-five octavo volumes, each
equal to three or four of ordinary size, comprises, probably, the largest mass of statistical
information ever assembled into one work.

The English compilations of Bowen, Guthrie, Salmon, and others of the same school were,
perhaps, the first works which embraced nearly all tiie objects that can give interest to a
system of geography; and though indiflcrently executed, and devoid of any charms of style^
they ac(iuired a very extensive popularity. Mr. Pinkerton has executed a work on the same
plan, in a su|)prior manner, adding notices of the difl^erent branches of natural history, and
of the diffemnt languages of nations. M. Malte-Brun, by his acquaintance with the eastern
and northern literature of Eluropo, and by an animated and interesting style, has produced a
work in some respects superior. M. Rilbi has distinguished himself by the industry with
which he has collected geographical facts.

We shall now take a view of modern discovery in the remoter quarters of the globe.
Vol. I. 7 ■ K

r#»

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER VI.

MODERN GBOORArilY OC ASIA.

Past I.

Asia was the firet continent wliicli attracted the ottention of Europeans, and tlie journeys
of all the early travellers. The enterprise of the Venetians penetrated into womo of the
wide and perilous tracts of its interior, which tlie boldest of more modern travellers liavo in
vain essayed to reach. Since the passage of the Cape, the career of discovery has been
ciiiefly maritime. We liavc seen liow rapidly the Portuguese fleets explored all the south-
ern coasts and islands. Tlio eastern shores beyond Japan, as thoy presented nothing tempt-
ing to conuiiorcial avidity, wore left to be examined by expeditions having science and curi-
osity for their object. This task was efi'eoted by Cook, Perouse, Broughton, and Krusenstern.
Jesso, which had figured as a large continental tract, stretching between Asia and America,
was reduced by tliem to its insular form and dimensions, and its separation from Saghalicn
established ; the range of the Kurile islands was also traced ; but some questions respecting
tliis very remote and irregular coast remain yet to be solved. Along its northern boundary,
beset by tlie almost perpetual ices of the polar sea, the progress of navigation was slow and
laborious. The English and Dutcli, tlio chief maritime states, made extraordinary eflbrtb
and braved fearful disasters, in the hopeless attempt to effect by this route a nearer passogo
♦o India ; but though they penetrated beyond Nova Zemblu, they never could pass the formi-
dable promontory of Severovostochnoi, the most northern point of the Asiatic continent. The
Russians now claimed for tliemselves the task of advancing farther. They had most rapidly
discovered, and conquered the whole south and centre of Siberia, and reached the eastern
ocean at Ochotzk ; but the fVozen bounds of the north for some tune defied their investiga-
tion. Proceeding in little bnrks, however, they worked their way from promontory to pro-
montory. Bchring and Tchirikoff, early in the last century, sailed through tlie Northern
Pacific, discovered the American coast, and the straits, bearing the name of the former, which
divide Asia from America. Deschnew and Shalaurof, by rounding the Asiatic side of this
Cape, and discovering the coast stretching away to the westward, were supposed to liave es-
tablished the fact of the entire separation of the two continents. There still remained a
portion of coast on the side of Asm, which, it was alleged, might, by an immense circuit,
have connected the two together ; but the late voyage of Baron Wrangle seom.s to have re-
moved every ground on whicli such conjecture could rest, and to have established beyond
doubt or dispute, the existence of Asia and America as continents altogether distinct.

Respecting the interior of Asia, the British obtained much additional information from
India, after they became undisputed masters of that region. Tliis information was in many
respects only a revival of ancient knowledge. The mountain boundary of India was traced,
and found to rise to a height teforo unsuspected. Tlie sources and early courses of the
Ganges and the Indus, were found in quarters quite different from those which modern
geography had long assigned to them. The mountain territories of Cabul and Candahar,
the vast .sandy plains of Mekran, were illustrated by the missions of Elphinstone and Pottin-
ger ; while Turner and Moorcroft penetrated into the high interior table-land of Thibet.
Recent and authentic information has al.so been furnished by Burnes respecting Bochara and
Samarcand, those celebrated capitals of the early masters of Asia : but there remains still a
great central Terra Incognita, respecting which our information rests chiefly upon the desul-
tory and somewhat clouded reports of Marco Polo, and the meagre narrative of Goez ; thougli
iome important and more precise information has recently been aiTordcd by the researches of
Humboldt and Klaproth.

CHAPTER VH.

MODERN GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA.

Africa, more than any other quarter of the globe, has defied the research, and humbled the
pride, of motlern inquiry. After accurate surveys had been made of tlie remotest oceans and
shores, this continent, placed almost in view of Europe, still baffled every attempt to pene-
trate the mighty secrets which it held in its bosom. Tliis vast and unbroken region enclosed
by huge expanses of desert, and occupied by barbarous and predatory tribe.s for a long
period proved fatal to every daring mortal who attempted to penetrate into its depths. The
Portuguese, however, at an early period, made very extraordinary exertions, impelled by tlie
odd chimera of Prester John, a Christian prince, whom they expc'cted to find in tlio interior.
With this view they explored Abyssinia, of which they vastly exaggerated the dimensions,
making it extend even to llii' Cape, in the vicinity of which, according to their idea, the
Nile took its origin. In thfir progress also along the western coast, thoy sent repeated em-
bassies into the interior, to discover, if pwsible, the alxxle of Prestor Jolin; and tiiougli that
favourite object always eluded their search, they apjiear to have reached on one o<'cu.sion as
fiir OS Timbuctoo, and learned at Benin some particuhrs respecting tlie great interior king-
dom of Ogane or Ghana.

-*.

Book III.

MODERN GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA.

lied the
uns and
pene-
iicloscd
la long
The
I by the
litprior.
Insionf,
len, the
ImI cin-
li that
fiion as
king-

Tho preiit interior river called by Ptolemy the Niger, was the object wliich from the first
excited the chief intcreiit in respect to the African interior. All tlio curly Euroixian navi-
gatora, on coining to the two broad eBtimries of the Senegal ond Gainbiu, concluded thnt one
or both formed the termination of the long courac which the Niger had been described as
taking across the entire breadth of Africa. For several centuries the Knrofii.'un nations,
intent ojily on the trade in slaves, merely touched at different pointd of the const, to which
tiiose unhappy victims were brougiit down by large caravans. In the beginning of the
seventeenth century, however, tiio French and English having rcs])octivcly settled on the
Senegal and Gambia, wore tempted, by the rejiort and view of the gold brougiit from the
interior, to push up these rivers and endeavour to reach Tiinbuctoo. They had nut ascended
tlir, when tliey became sensible that the extraordinary magnitude and distant origin ascribed
to both waa altogether chimerical. They were traced so near to their sources as to be
little more than rivulets ; yet still the explorers were far from Tiinbuctoo, and from the
great central plain, through wiiich the main course of the Niger was understood to flow.
At the same time, notices were transmitted to the French geographers Delislc and D'Anville,
which led them to infer that there was in that region another and greater river, which
flowed eastward towards the interior, and of which they were unable to learn the termina-
tion. Vet this delineation of these great geographers had been in a great measure lost
sight of, even among their own countrymen.

The information obtained by the African Association at first tended to confirm this impres-
sion. The persons who hod crossed the Niger at the most eastern part of the central Afri-
can plain, described it to Mr. Lucas as flowing westward : but these conflicting statements
were silenced by tlie first expedition of Mr. Park, who at Sego behold it a broad and majes-
tic stream, flowing through the plain of Bambarra from west to east, and directing its course
into the depths of interior Africa. From tliat time, the termination of tlie Niger became
the grand problem which the science and the enterprise of the age were exerted to solve.
A boundless field was open to conjecture. By one theory, the Niger was lost in some great
inland seas or lakes of the interior ; by anotlier, it bent to the south and west, and reached
the Atlantic either in the Gulf of Benin, or by the estuary of the Congo ; lastly, it rolled to
the eastward, till, under the name of the Abiad, or Wliite River, it became the principal
head of the Nile of Egypt. At last, by the persevering exertions of the British govern-
ment, an expedition fairly succeeded in penetrating into the hitliorto unknown interior of
Africa, and m tlirowing a wonderful addition of light upon its structure. This mission, how-
ever, broke up the gnmd question. They discovered, flowing through the great African
plain, not one river in one direction, but several in different directions ; all of which, it
appears, have been considered at dillerent times, and under difl'creiit circumstances, as the
Niger. These rivers are four: — 1. The Senegal, considered by the Arabians and modern
Europeans as the embouchure by which the Niger entered the ocean. 2. The Joliba, which
ever since it wos visited, and its course ascertained, by Park, has been fixed in the mind of
Europeans as the only Niger ; though probably not known to any of the ancient geographers
who used tliat term. 3. The Quarrama, or river of Zinnio, first discovered by the late
mission, flowing from east to west, and falling into the Joliba or QuoUa. This is evidently
the Arabian Nile of the negroes, on or near which are situated all their great cities — Ghana,
now known under the name of Cano ; Bcrissa, under that of Bcrshee ; Tocrur, as I appre-
hend, under that of Sackatoo. 4. The Yeou, flowing eastward into the great lake of Bornou,
and which appears to have been the western Nile of Herodotus, visited by the Nasamonian
adventurers fVom Tripoli. The mission also ascertained the site of the kingdom of Bornou,
which had been very erroneously placed ; they discovered the fertile kingdom of Loggun,
perhaps the Cauga of Edrisi, and the great mountain region of Mandara, which appears to
lie the Mons Mandrus of Ptolemy. The subsequent expedition of Clapperton from the
Gulf of Benin showed the connexion between the Atlantic coast and the interior, and com-
pleted the diagonal section made across the greatest breadth of the African continent. It
allowed also the continuity of large ond populous kingdoms extending in this direction :
Eyeo, tlie Gago of Leo and the early geographers; Zegzeg, wuth its large capital Zoria;
Nyffe, tiio most industrious of the African states ; Boussa, Koolfu, and other flourishing
cities. The Niger of Pork was here seen holding a southerly direction towards the Gulf
of Benin; but it was reserved for Lander finally to solve the grand problem by tracing the
Niger down to its termination in the Gulf of Benin. This discover}-, with that of its numer-
ous tributaries, opens to commerce the prospect of being able to penetrate into the most
interior and finest regions of the African continent.

Among partial but important contributions to the knowledge of Africa, may be mentioned
tlio observations of Bruce and Salt in Abyssinia; those of Brown in Durfiir; of Waddington
and Caillniid in the upper part of tlia Nile; and, lastly, of Lichtenstein, Campbell, and
Burchcll, upon tlie countries wliich lie in the interior northward from tlio Cape of Good
Hope. Yet a vast field still remains for future difcovory. In particular, all the southern
interior, from the equator nearly to the Cape, has scarcely been the subject even of rumour.
The sources of the Nile, after the search of so many ages, are yet unexplored ; as well as

A'i\

^'i

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.

Paht 1.

Ihftt wide rnndo of territory wliirli iiitervenon bcUvcrn it nml the series of rivers wliirh wo
have jtiMt noticed us Bssumiiis: the iiuiiie of i\i(ror. The (•(nitiiiiiity uiiil striiKtiiro also of
that vast chiiin of inouiitjiiiis, whieli, nccordinff to rereiit tnivcllers, iipiH-iirs to cnms Africa
ut its (jrentcst breadth, mul gives rise to so (nuny iiiigiity ►frettiiis.iiavoyet by iiomeansbeen
completely traced.

CHAPTER Vni.

MODERN OEOOUAI'liy OF AMKHICA.

Th« discovery of America, as formerly observed, was made in tiio first instance with
extraordinary rupiditv. The tliirat for gold and the spirit of adventure urged niition after
nation to explore '.,3 consts, and |)enetrate its interior. Within twenty years was formed
a fliU and tolerably precise outline of the whole eastern coast, from the nioulh of Hudson's
Bay to the Straitu of Magellan. The conquest of Cortez, of Pizarro, and of their im-
mediate successors, soon conveyed a pretty accurate idea of tlic western coast of South
America, of Mexico, and even of the peninsula of California. But the northern regions,
Btretcliing into the ices of the Pole, presented barriers of a formidable description, which
long baffled tiic utmost efforts of navigators. America on this side resisted for a longer
time the attempts to complete its delineation than any other continent.

To explore the north-western coast seems to have been an undertaking properly belong-
ing to Spain, the possessor of all the vast and opulent regions which extend along the
Pacific. Recent notices have shown that they did not neglect tliat inquiry, for Cortez and
several of the other viceroys sent expeditions along this coast, to which they gave the name
of New-Mexico. The Spaniards, however, as usual, shrouded in deep mystery even these
limited discoveries, and were long able to prevent the other nations of Europe from visiting
tiiis coast, the moat remote and inaccessible of any in the circuit of the globe. Europeans,
therefore, were not aware of the vast breadth to which this ccmtinent expanded towards the
north. They rather supposed that, like South America, it narrowed to a point or cape,
upon passing which the navigator wm'ld enter upon the expanse of the Pacific, and might
bear down upon Japan, China, and the Eii*t Indies. The commercial nations therefore,
made vigorous and almost ceaseless clK)rts to turn this point, and effect, as tlicy imagined, a
nearer and more direct route into the eastern st^as.

The English took the lead in this important career. Under the reign of Queen Eliza-
l)eth, Frobisher and Davis made each three HUcocs.«ivo voyages. One discovered tlie
entrance into Hudson's Bay, the other fiiuiui the nntranco into the great sea wliieh bears
the name of Baffin's Bay ; but, partly urrohted by Mie well known obstructions to which
these seas are liable, partly divertc^d by a cliimcriciil search after gold, they could not pene-
trate beyond the numerous islands and inlut.^ by which these entrances are besot. Hudson,
in 1610, steered a bolder course, and cntert'il the vast bay, which has received its appella-
tion from that groat navigsitor, wiio there unfortunately terminated his adventurous career.
The treachery of a ferocious and mutinous rrew exi)oi-ed him on these frozen and desolate
shores, where he miserably perished. Sir Thomas Button followe<l in 1612, and finding
himself in the middle of this capacious Iwsin, imagined himself already in the Pacific, and
stood full sail to the westward. To his utter (U.-imay he came to the long continuous line
of shore which forms the western Iwundary of Hudsdn's Bay. He expressed his disappoint-
ment by giving to the coast the name of "Hope chcclovl." Bylot and Baffin, who followed
three years after, were stopped by the ice at SoutIian»pton Island. Baffin, however, made
afterwards a more impf)rtant voyage, in which he completely rounded the shores of that
great sea which bears his name, and which, appearing to him to be inclosed on all sides by
land, has been denominated Baffin's Riy. The error involved in this appellation deterred
subsequent navigators from any further attempt ; for Baffin, in passing the great opening
of Lancaster sound, had concluded it to be merely a gulf From that period the English
navigators, though they ceased not to view this object with ardour, hoped to flilfil it only by
the channel of Hudson s Bay. In 1631, two vessels were sent thither under Fox and James.
The latter, entangled in some of the southern bays, returned after dreadful sulferings from
the cold of tlie winter; but the former, (piaintly calling hitiiself North-west Fox, explored a
part of that great opening called Sir Thomas Roe's Welcome, which appeared now to afford
almost the only hope of a passage; but he stopped short at a point which ho termed "Fox's
farthest." Under Charles II. a company was formed for the purpose of settlement and
commerce in Hudson's Bay, and engaged to makf the most strenuous exertions to discover
western passage; but it is believed that the only exertions really moile by the Company
ended to prevent any such discovery. Middletoti, an officer in their service, was sent out
in 1741, sailed up the Welcome, and believed himself tf) have discovered that the head of
that channel was completely closed. He was strongly charged with having roeeived a high
bribe from the Hutlson's Bay Company to stifle the discover}-, and Moor and i^iiiith were
sent out in the following year with the most sanguine hopes; but when they returned with

DOOK III.

TlIE AUSTRAL SEAS AND ISLANDS.

opening

English

; only by

": James.

ligs Irom

Kplored a

I to afford

I " Fox's

lent and

Idiscover

'()rn|)any

|sont out

I load of

a high

Ih weir

k wilh

out having e(foctnd any thing, tiio puhjic Pxpeotations wero greatly ahate<l. Tt became the
general impreHHion that America, on thim side, formed a musM uf iinuroken land, and that the
long Bought pasmgo had no exiHteiice.

New viewH of Iho extent and form of the northern extrumitifiR of America were opened
by the dincov(<ries of (^Jook, corroborated by thone of nomo other Englisii navigators in the
Nortiiem Pacific. It a|>p«'ttred that America there stretched away tn tiie iiorth-weKt, till it
reached a breadth equal to one-fourth port of the circumferenee of tiie globe. Cook ])eno-
trutcd, indeed, through the strait which lK)und8 the continent and separates it tVom Asia ; hut
the coast appeared there extending indefinitely north ; and it l)ecame a general impression
that America formed a huge unbroken mass of land approaching tiie I'ole, and perlmpa
reaching tliat ultimate |xiint of the globe. This belief received a sudden shock from
Ileariie's voyage down the Copper Mine River, and his discovery of the sea into which it
fell, in a latitude not liigher than that of the north of Hudson's Bay. Soon afVer, Sir
Alexander Mackenzie traced also to the sea another river twenty degrees farther west.
Tiiero was now a strong jirenumption that a sea Ixnindcd the whole of America to the north,
and that there really wiw such a passage ntt hud been fo long sought, and might be found,
were it not too closely barred by ice and tempest. The British administration, animated
with an active and laudable zeal in tlio cause of discovery, determined tliot no ixjssiblo effort
should be omitted by which this imixirtant and long agitated question might be brought to a
final decision.

A series of exploratory voyages was now begun. Capt. Ross, in 1918, made the circuit
of Baflin's Bay, and returned with the belief that no optining existed : Lieut. Parry, second
in command, formed a different judgincnt, and having satisfied the Admiralty aa to hia
grounds of belief, was sent out with the command of a new expedition. In this memorable
voyage, Capt. Parry penetrated through Ivincastcr Sound, wliich he found to widen gradually,
until it opened into the expanse of the Polar Sea. lie did not touch on any part of the
American coast, but found parallel to it a chain of large islands; and his progress through
these was arrested, not by land, but by straits and channels encumbered with ice. In con-
sideration of these obstacles, his next attempt was made through Hudson's Buy, by the yet
imperfectly explored channel of the Welcome. Struggling througli various obstacles, ho
readied at length a point considerably beyond that where Middleton ha<l stopped, and
found a strait opening from Hudson's Bjiy into the Polar Sea. This strait was, however, so
norrow, and so completely blocked with ice, that there appeared no room to hope that it
would ever aflbrd an open passage. Capt. Parry was therefore again sent out in his first
direction; but he made no material addition to his former discoveries. Meantime a land
journey, under Capt. Franklin, following in the footsteps of Ilearnc, reached the sea, and
discovered a considerable extent of the hitherto unknown northern coast of the American
continent. A tolerably clear glimpse was thus obtained of its extent and boundaries ; and
the zealous eflbrts of government wero employed to verify the whole by actual survey. A
second expedition under Capt. Franklin extended this survey over three-fourtlis of this
boundary coast, and reached beyond the 140th degree of hmgitude. Meantime an expedi-
tion, under Captain Beechy, sent to meet Captain PVanklin from the westward, passed the
ley Cape of Cook, and arrived at neorly 150° W. longitude ; between which point and
Captain Franklin's farthest limit there intervene<l only 7°, or 150 miles.

The belief was hence entertained, that the whole coast extended in a line not vanring
much from the 70th degree of latitude ; but tlic important expedition which Captain Rosa
has just achieved through so many difliculties, proves the existence of a large peninsula,
extending as far north as 74° N. latitude. It remains still probable that a naval passage
may exist farther north, in the line of Captoin Parry's first voyage. But the encumbering
ice is so thick, and so wedged into various straits end channels, that probably no vessel will
ever be able even once to work its way through ; and certainly a ship could never set out
with any assurance of thus finding its way from the .\tlantic into the Pacific. Britain has,
however, reaped an ample share of glory in contributing so essentially to delineate the
boundaries and dimensions of this great and important continent.

CHAPTER IX.

MODERN GEOGRAPHY OF TIi.. AL'STRAh SEAa AND ISLANDS.

More than lialf the surface of the globe, including long groups of islands and vast
expanses of ocean, remained unexplored, even after regular naval routes had been formed
round the Capo of Good Hope, and Cape Horn; yet there soon arose the belief of an Austral
continent, as extensive and as abounding in wealt'i as that which had been discovered by
Columbus. An ideal balance was fancied, which It was supposed must exist between the
lands of the northern and those of tiie Bouthcrn hemispheres; and the more disproportionate
tlie extent of sea which existed in the known parts of the latter, the greater it was sup-
posed must be the mass of southern continent which was to establish this ideal, imaginary

i 48

I'JJ

IIM

«l

HISTORY OF 0KO<JRAl'IIY.

Paut I. IkwK III.

bnlnnco. In all the onrly mn|w, n \\\\\fn continoiitiil ninH* r'ncirclp* the Antnrctin tmlp, ami
prrHontH to lli<! (jrcitt kccuii ii (-iintiiiiiouN rirciiit of Mliorc ri'iicliinjr rtmiid the (tIoIh): tho
iiIk)Vi! iiniilo/iics wiTc ilmilttlcsM iiidiMJ liy iliMovcrirH iiiiulo <m ffrciit irifiiilHr Iriii'tH of tlio
Simtli Sell, Ml pnrtiiil tliiit tht>y might be niiittiikcti t(>r |iroriioiittirinH, or imrtuiim of u i^rcat
niiitiH of Aiitarrtir l.'iiul.

Till' l'orfiii,'iiL'si', HI l(iii;j III" iiioct Mkiiriil mill iiifropid niivijfntorH of tlip vxTiiii, npp<'iir lo
hnvc livi'ii tli(< tlr^t w lio threw iiiiy li}r|it u|Hin iIiIh titUi ami iiiont miioto |xirtioii of iIk- ciirth ;
ill Irnn than twi'iify yciirs alh'r their imssnift' of the Capo tlioy hiul riMclu'il thr iiiomI oxtroinc
iHlniKJ!) of thn Orii'iitiil Arcliipola^o, iiicliiiliii); Java mid tho MoiiiccaH, mid np|H<iir ovt'ii to
have ohwrvod mhuo |)nrt« of tlip c<Kist r)f Now (iiiiiiiMi. Tlu'rc iiro no ri'vordn of thnir hiiving
priK'podpd tiirtlior; but iimpM huvc boon liinnd in tlio DritiHli Miixoiiin, niid other collections,
which rxliiliit iiii cxtcnHivi! iiiiid to thu niuth of Javn, under tho titio of bivii Major, on
wliicli occur n number of iiniin>H, wmie of them I'ortuKUCHO : ono of these iimpn, iHirtly
translated into French, has the " VttU'. dv» llrrlM^rii" a. iiaino somewliiit curioiiHly coinciiU
ing with Botany lluy. Noiio of these discoverien, however, liavo been uinUiiiied in any
known narration.

The SiMiiiiardu also, durinfj their early and advnnturoiiH career, made streniiouH cfl'orln to
explore Uio soitlhern snaM: Majrcllan, u.s already observed, by hiH firnt circumnaviiration of
the (flobe, ett'ected a grand utep in );eo(;rapliicul dincovery. Alvaro Mcndanii, in iriflH,
Bailed iVum Lima, and, allcr croxHinfr tiio breadth of thu I'aciHc, iliHCovercd a j;roup of larffc
maritime landfi, to which, fVom a chiinnrical rcfercnco to Ophir, he save the name of
" Islands of Solomon :" they appear to bo part of that great Rroiip which Ibrnw tho outer
range of AustraiaMia. Mendana Het out on a Bocond voyage, and reachetl tho wimo quarter,
but, by Koniu liitulity, could not again find the inlandn tbrmcrly discovered. Qiiiroa made a
btill more important expedition ; ho pawed through tho l>(dynciiimi group ; and Sagittaria,
one of tho islanda dincovcred by him, appearn clearly identiticd with Otaheito ; ho ter-
minated hin Voyage, like Mendana, among the exterior ialandB of AustralaBia ; and with
him expired the spirit of Spanish cntcrpriMe.

Tlio Dutch, when tliey had expelled the I'ortuguoHC from Java and tlie Spice Ivlandp, and
hul established in them the centre of their Indian dominion, were placed in such clocie
proximity with New Ilidlnnd, that it was scarcely |)oHsihlo tor a great maritime nation to
avoid extending their search to that region. Van Dienien, the Dutch governor of India
about tho middle of the seventeenth century, greatly promoted this object, and sent succesaive
vessels to explore the coast of New Holland, llertog, ('arpenter, Nuytz, and Ulaming
niaile very extensive obscrvationB on tiio northern and western shores, but found them so
dreary and unpromising, that no settlement of any description was over attempted. Abel
Tasman, however, went b<'yoiid his predecessors; he ri^ached the southern extremity of this
great mass of land, to which he gave the name of Van Diemen, without discovering it to be
an island : he then sailed across, surveyed tho western coast of New /calaiid, and returned
home by the Friendly Islands. This important range of discovery was not followed up ; it
reftited, however, tho delineation by which New Holland had been made part of the imagined
Austral continent. In the newly arranged charts, that continent still remained, but with
its position shifted farther to the south, and New Zealand probably contributing to form part
of Its fancied outline.

The English nation, by the voyages of several navigators, and particularly of Cook, secured
the glory of fully explormg the depths of the great Pacific. The previous voyages of Byron,
Wallis, and Carteret had already mode known some of the interesting groups of islands
with which its vast surface is studded. Cook fully traced the great chains of the Society
Islands, and of the Friendly Islands ; he discovered and surveyed tho eastern coasts of New
Holland and Van Diemen's Ijund. He settled the form and relations of New Zealand, New
Caledonia, and the otlier great Australasian lands and islands. This side he passed thrice the
Antarctic circle, and ranging along the yet unvisite<l bonlers of tho southern polo, solved, by
refuting, the famous modern hypotiicsis of an Austral continent. Ho navigated also through
the northern Pacific, observed carefully the group of the Sandwich Islands, and establishe<l,
in the mamicr before pointed out, the relation between the continents of Asia and America.
Many eminent navigators, among the French, 1-a Perouse, Marchand, D'Entrecasteaux ;
among the Russians, Kotzebue and Krusenstern ; among the English, Vancouver and Beechey,
followed ; and, though the grand prizes of discovery had been carried ofT, found still some
gleanings in so vast a field. The circumnavigation of tho globe has ended in becoming a
mere trailing voyage, which conveys neither name nor glory to him by whom it is nchioved.
Captain Wcddell, however, has lately, in New South Shetland, finind a tract of land situated
nearer to the Antarctic pole than any previously supposed to exist

New Holland, much the most extensive of the lands belonging to tho southern hemisphere,
and rendered doubly interesting by its recent relations with Europe, has formed the theatre
of late southern discoveries. Bass, in an open boat, found tlie strait which bears his
name, separating New Holland from Van Diemen's land, and making the latter a separate
island. Baudin and Flinders, cunteni(X)raneou8ly employed by the French and Englisl

III.

c, secured
I of Byron,
jf islands
Society
of Ni'W
ind, New
khrice the
)lved, by
throiijjii
:jiblislip<l,
lAmorica.
^nsteaux ;
iBeechoy,
kill Bome
|comin<; n
ncliieved,
|l situated

fiisphcre,

theatre

cars his

I separate

Englisl

Past IT.

PRINCIPLES OP GKOWRAPIIY.

nntioiiN, innde a cnntinunuN Murvey of tlio vnnt circuit of itn coiwtii, which had Ih-ch Ixiforc
ti>uuh)!il only nt piirtiiil \Mnt». At a lutiT poriud, Frcyciiu't iiiiulo hoiiid ndditioiiiil i)l»«>rva-
tionii; and kiin{ Ibuiid hIUI u xroiit cxtriil of north Mn<I norlh-wcHli'rn cihimI to Hiirvry fur the
Hrnt tiiiie, .More recently, the dincovery of 8wan River and itit HJiores pnuniHi'M to redeem
the ri'proucli of »torility which had been uttttched to the whole wcHtern I'miHt of lliJM conti-
nent ; the interior on the eaMern side aU), thouKh .xuardtui by Hteep and loOy barrierH, hiin
b<'en penetrated to a considerable depth, and found to contain extiMmive pliiinH traverM'd by
lar(;e rivern. Htill the explored traut« form only a uniuU pro|iurliuii of litu viut nurfacu ul'
thin louthcrn continent.

PART II.
PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Amono the various branches of human knowlodiro there is so intimnto a connexion, that
no science can bo truly said to be independent of all others. Some, indee<l, may bo re^^ardcd
as primary, because, to a certain extent, they have had an independent existence, and be-
cause other sciences have sprunfr from them. Huch, for example, are arithmetic and
geometry, the prolific parents of oil the branches of modern mathcmaticH. Other sciences,
again, are connecte<l by collateral relationship, in respect of their aflbrding mutual aid : and
in this manner all the branches of human knowledge depend one on another, each repaying
the advantages which it has received.

The subject of this treatise, (JEOoRAPinr, which in common with other sciences owes its
origin tt) the wants of man, joined with his inherent desire of knowledge, has arrived at its
present state of improvement by the aid of several sciences, and of a very great number of
the arts which are the fruit ot human ingenuity. It is more particularly indebted to the
mathematical sciences, either directly, as Aimishing rules and methods by which the mog-
nitude of the earth, its figure, and the position of the different parts of it.s surface, moy be
determined ; or indirectly, inasmuch as it has been improved by astronomy, navigation, and
other sciences which owe their perfection to the matnematics. To tlie arts it.s obligations
are innumerable : for every step of progress which has been mailo in the construction and
management of ships, in the fabrication of mathematical, optical, and nautical instruments,
and in the collateral arts on which those depend, has contributed to the advancement of
geographical knowledge.

The doctrines of geography strongly support, and have a close affinity with, those of
astronomy. It is only by the application of this latter science that we have been able to
discover the true figure of the earth, and its magnitude : and some of the most important
divisions of the earth's surface are marked out by astronomical phenomena. On tlie other
hand, an exact knowledge of the figure and magnitude of the earth is of the highest import-
ance in th A explication of the more recondite doctrines of astronomy. Hence, while the
doctrines of astronomy involve the principles of geography, it holds equally true that the
principles of geography can only bo understood by a due application of some of tho more
simple theories of astronomy.

The science of geology has, if possible, a still more intimate connexion with the descrip-
tion of the earth. While astronomy delineates the form and movements of that planet, and
its relation to otlier bodies in the universe, geology describes the materials which compose
its surface, and the order in which they are arranged, with the composition and phenomena
of the surrounding atmosphere. The various inequalities into which it is formed, the Aif>-
tinction of land and sea, with their origin and effects, come all within the sphere of this
important science.

The organized and living beings which cover the surface of our planet, form a most in-
teresting feature in its delineation. For the support and nourishment of these, tho whole
of its vast structure was originally destined. In taking a survey of this interesting range
of objects, we may begin with plants ; then ascend to animals ; and, lastly, to man, who
holds tlio chief rank in the constitution of this lower world.

Three divisions, comprehending each a separate book, will, on the grounds now stated.
comprehend the Principles of Geography : these are — I. Astronomical Principles. II. Geo-
logical principles. III. Geography considered in relation to the organized living and rationa ,
natures which cover the surmce of the earth.

.ii:]

lA:

f^m

>•

'\ ^:4^-

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

PabtII.

BOOK I.

ASTRONOMICAL PRINCIPLES.

CHAPTER I,

GENERAL VIEW OF THE PHENOMENA OF THE HEAVENS, APPARENT MOTIONS, FIXED

8TAR3, PLANETS, ic.

The succession of day and niglit brings under our observation the sun, the moon, and an
innumerable multitude of luminous bodies, which appear like points on the concave surface
of the heavens. Of these the sun and the moon are tlie most remarkable. The sui at all
times presents to us a circular disc : the disc of the noon is also at certain periods circular,
but she undergoes a succession of changes in the appearances of her luminous part, which
are denominated phases. With regard to the distances of the sun and moon from tliis earth,
we are certain that they are very remote ; for we observe that their apparent magnitude is
not sensibly affected by any change in our l(>cal position. We may with probability suppose
the star? to be bodies of the same nature witl» tlie sun and moon, appearing smaller only
because they are at a greater distance.

The apparent motion of the heavens from east to west about a fixed point in the nv^rthern
quarter of the sky, as seen in thi:i country, is a phenomenon quite familiar to every one. Tf
we change our position on the earth by going always south, this fixed point appears to de-
scend, and at last it sinks below the horizon : but we now perceive that there is another
fixed point in the southern region of the heavens, exactly opposite to the former, about
whicii tlie diurnal motion is also in like manner performed. These two points are the north
and SOUTH, or the arctio and antarctic poles of the heavens.

From wliat we see on the earth's surface, we learn by experience that the real and ap-
parent motions of bodies may he very different. An observer in a vessel carried along by
tlie current of a river, will feel disposed to believe himself at rest; and then, if he were to
judge from appearances, he would suppose that trees and fixed objects on the banks were
in motion, because of the apparent change in their relative positions. Hence we may infer,
that we cannot judge immediately respecting the absolute motions of the heavenly bodies
from tlieir apparent motions. It has only been by a series of nice observations, and the appli-
cation of the doctrines of mathematics, that the former have with absolute certainty been
deduced from the latter.

The general plienoniena of the apparent motions have, however, been discovered by the
ordinary observation of mankind from the remotest ages. To a spectator in any place of
the earth, tlie whole system of the celestial bodies appears as if placed on the surfiice of a
concave sphere, the centre of wliich is the place where ho stands ; and this sphere appears
to revolve daily on an ideal line whicli passes through the poles of the heavens, and is called
the AXIS of the world. Although tlie supposition tliat the celestial bodies are all situated in
the surface of a sphere, of which the eye is the centre, be perfectly consiste]|| with the
appearance of the heavens, it is easy to understand that tiiis may be a consequence of their
immense distances. To an observer standing on an extensive plain, objects very remote
around hiin, though at unequal distances, would appear in the circumference of a circle
having his eye in the centre.

Besides the diurnal motion of tlie heavenly bodies, which is common to them all, we dis-
cover that some of them have peculiar motions by which they chanffe their apparent places
in respect of one another. Thus we see the moon in the course of^ about a montli describe
a circle quite round the heavens from west to east. The sun also appears to cfiange his
position daily, and to go round the heavens from west to east in a year. It is in consequence
of this peculiar motion of the sun, that we find diflbrent stars at different seasons of the
year set immediately after him, or rise immediately before him; and that the appearance of
the heavens through the course of the year is continually changing.

From the remotest antiquity ^'ve stArs hail been observixl to change their position ; and in
modem times five others have been discovered. These " wandering stars " have bee.i appro-
priately denominated planets ; and, generally speaking, they can be seen at all times, except
when their feeble light is rendered insensible by the effulgence of the sun. The planets
have received particular names, and are distinguished by iwrticular characters; these are
Mercury ?, Venus ?, Mars X, Vesta g, Juno *, Ceres ?, Pallas ■$, Jupiter U, Saturn ';,
Uranus 'i*.

Tliprc are otlir r luminous IkxHps having a proper motion, which arc seen flir a short time
and atlerwiirds disippoar. Their existence, iiowover, is permanent. They are distinguished
from tlip phincts iiy their being visible only for a siiort peritK], and also by a train of light
proceeding from tliem on one side, fiirming a iiiil ; tlicso bodies are called comets. Tliei*
number is not known, but it appears to be very considerable.

„i:.i

Book I.

»!.„„ .> i'""iti8, and comfita fho, ..

All the heavenlv bodip, u,i,i i, .l- afterwards find fuJlv

science in investigatin" he r^i ? ', ""'' ''3' employinff all tho' r^ "■'"='"S^ ""'' measunW

CHAPTER II.
From the mscovJyZ"het^T ""' '^"^ '"'"°"''" "^"^ tklescope

est are reckoned to be of th; fi' .'" P™.'^>Ph arriinged under svl'"- ,^^° ^^rs visible
to the sixt!, marrnitude T? ' "'«8'"tu<Io, the next in hrlh '""^«'""^e^« The briZ

combining tlH,.priS;t of J LCsr"""'''"''"^ "^ '"'« Sr "ha t "f^tm r ^f^'^"''' "^"d ^on
In maps of the heavens and op .T"?'!""^^ ""ingeinent with^ . "I"!'"'' ftcilitated by
'n each constellation are t"ke,f> ^^■"^'' ^'"^ constellatb " , f ,,'"r''^°1°^"''«'e]lations.
de^ees of bri„.htness. ''''"'^^'^ "'"' '"« letters of the Si ^^1^'"'''^"'' "'« «^-^rs
rhe use of the telescope has ^m... ■ '^ according to their

fund when obse^ed'^,^;„,,fe«^the .tars wlSchJ'un da" vS''"^ ^'^^^ 'hLfa^e'

»" iple stars ^-ere observed bv Sir Un-'"''^ ??="• ^ "nS another SpJn ^u ""T'^^ °^ two.

'V t'lejonit lalwurs of his son an^'L-^^i""^"! Hcrechcl, and the n,>mh T ^T^'""^ °^ t''e«e
/n some of then, the smafl Xrs 1 .Ti.r""'^'* ^'°""'' "'^o S e &;; ^^ '«^''" "'"onsed
Thus a Herculis is doub e ^ ' , different m bri.W,tness an 1 in n ^^tronomer Struvo
'•omposed of four stars thro'n ''f '"Sfer of the stars i" roc ,n "'°,f°'°"'- "f tl.eir li,r ,t'
""•^qnal, the lar<.,"t a Si? "■' ""'' ""^ red: y AmSo n '" '"' '''"''• ' ^-yrnV^
^'n?le stars evid<fn Iv ,^lff ', '''"''■' t'^e «'"alle.t a 'k.Ti " "'.'"■'■^'^ "*' t"<' stars verv

>^ii

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part II,

blended together produces tlie luminous appearance. In a portion of the Galaxy, about
filleen degrees in lengtii, and two in breadth, Dr. Herschcl found no fewer tlian fitly thousand
stars large enough to be distinctly counted. The number of nebulce is very considerable.
Herschol discovered two thousand ; before his time only one hundred and three wore known.

Continued observation has shown that the fixed stars are not altoffether exempt from
iJutnge. Several stars mentioned by the ancient astronomers are no longer visible, while
."omn are now seen by the naked eye which are not in the ancient catalogues. Some stars
hiive f\i(ldi'nly appeared, and atler having been seen for a short time have ceased to be visi-
ble. In 1575 a new star appeared in Cassiopeia's Chair ; and in 1604 another appeared in
Sprpent;irius. These stJirs did not change their places : but having gradually increased in
brilliancy, until they exceeded Venus or Jupiter in brightness, and were even seen in the
(luy-tinie, they diminished in the same gradual manner, and in a few months entirely disap-
pt'urod. Sonic stars are observed to have periodical changes of brightness. Of this descrip-
tion is Algol, or|3 Persei: when brightest it is of the second, and when least bright of- the
♦burth magnitude. It goes tlirough all its changes of lustre in four dayf^, twenty-one hours.
Other stars like (3 in the Whale, have gradually increased in brilliancy; or, like 6 in the
Great Bear, have continually diminished in brightness.

The fixed stars, when viewed tlirough the telescope, appear like luminous points on the
concave surlace of the heavens ; but tlie planets are found to exhibit the appearance of discs
of greater or less diameter. Mercury and Venus accompany the sun, appearing at one time
on the east, and at another time on tlie west of that luminary, and never receding from him
beyond a certain distance. Tiio other planets recede from the sun to all nossiblo angular
distances. Connected with tiiis circumstance i.s a distinction which it is i.o<,iul to make of
inferior planets and superior planets ; the Ibriner appellation being applied to Mercury and
Venus, and the latter to the remaining planets.

Mercury and Venus, as they o.<cillate about the sun, exhibit all the phases of the moon.
From liaving the a])pearancc of a crescent, they gradually assume that of tlie lialf-moon.
The illuminated part of the disc increasing, they become gibbous, and at last present a com-
plete circular disc, like the full moon. From this state of illumination they again pass
through the same appearances in an inverted cmlor, until they disappear altogether. Some-
times these planets are seen like black sixjls in tlio sun; tlav appearances urc called tran-
sits of the planets over the sun's disc. They are rare, but \v!ien observed, particularly the
transit of Venus, they give the best means of determining the .niagnitudc of the solar system.
In all the phases of Mercury and Venus the convexity of the illuminated portion of the disc
is turned towards the sun.

The discs of the otlier planets are always nearly circular. Mars, however, in certain posi-
titms with regard to t!ie sun, asi-iimes a gibbtjus appearance ; but he never becomes cornicu-
lar like Venus. He has no satellite. As viewed from t)ie earth, he is known by his red
and fiery appearance. Dr. llerschel observed that the polar regions of Mars, after having
been turned from the sun, appeared brighter than the rest of the planetary disc ; just as if
these regions had in the absence of the sun's heat been covered with snow.

Certain .spots appear on the di.'^cs of the sun and th(; four planets Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn, wiien they are viewed through the telescope, and are distinguished from other parts
of the discs by the colour or intensity of their light. Similar spots are seen on fliii moon
with the naked eye. Jupiter has also his disc marked with several parallel belts or stripes,
which stretch across it. They are subject to considerable variation with regard to number,
brcadtii, and dist^ince from each other. Mercury is too much immorsed in tlie solar rays;
Vesta, Ceres, Juno, and I'aD'is, are too small ; and Uranus is too distant to allow points of
unequal brilliaiiry to be observed on their surt'ace. The spots uixin the sun are very varia-
able in their miiiil)er, position, and magnitude. Often they are numerous, and of great exten'.
Each of them, in general, consists of a dark .space, or iiinhra, surrounded by a pennmlirn,
or fiiintcr shade, beyond which is a border of light more brilliant tiian the re.st of the sun's
di.-T. Somotiiiie.-i, thoujrli seldom, the sun has been without .spots for several yt;ars; this was
the case from 1(570 to lOS-'l. Tlio dark nucleus of tiie spot is seen to form and disappear
;iiiiidst the greatiT brilliancy that siirround.s it. .After the nucleus ceases to be soen, the
umbra eontinues visible fir some time : the place where it at length disappears becomes
like Iho other parts of the .solar surface, unless it be succeeded, which is sometimes the case,
by a luminous spot. Umbra; of great extent have, with few exceptions, a nucleus in their
iTiitre ; but smiill uinbnn arc oftnn seen witlioiit it.

Tlio sdliir .spots are never stationary, but are seen to move slowly over the sun's disc fron<
en'f to west. Tlirir p;itli.s across tlie di.-c, when iiccurntely traced, are finiud to be rectili
tiral in the beginning of June, an<l in the beginning of Decnuibcr; but in the intermediatt
sea.sons they an; Ibuiid to be elliptic. Hctweeu Juiic> anil December the convexity of the
path is towards tlio upper part of the disc, and between December and June it is' towards
t.'ie lower part.

The planet Jupiter, when viewed through the telescope, appears to be attended by four
email stars, ranged nearly in a i^tniiglit line, which are seen sometinie.s on the same side,

iter, and
or parts
moon
stripes,
lumber,
ir rays ;
lints of
variii-
cxten^.
umhra,
sun's
us was
ippear
in, the
[comes
case,
their

fron>
potih
hiliatt
If tiie
Ivanls

fo\ir
I side,

Book I.

FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH.

and at other tiiK s on opposite sides of the planet. These small stars occasionally poaii
between us and Jupiter, and then they are tbund to project shadows wliich are seen to tra-
verse iiis disc. On tile other hand, they are often immersed in the shadow of Jupiter, and
exhibit tiic phenomenon called an eclipse. The planets Saturn and Uranus are also simi-
larly attended, the former by seven, and the latter by six, little stars. These accompanying
stars are calh^d satellites, and also secondary planets, in contradistinction to the others,
which are called primary.

Saturn is distinguished from all the othc" planets, in being surrounded by a circular ring
concentric with itself. When first exan ined by the telescope, this planet was almost
always seen between two small luminous bodies of an irregular form, which seemed to be
attaclied to it, and which, as they suggested the idea of handles, were denominated ans<e.
Sometimes tlio ansa) disappeared, and then Saturn appeared round like the other planets.
By tracing witli care these singular appearances, and combining them with the positions of
Satuvu relatively to tlie sun and the earth, Huygens at last discovered that they are pro-
duced by a ring which encompasses the body of the planet, and which is everywhere sepa-
rated from it. Being seen obliquely, the rmg appears of an oval or elliptic form. Before
the time of Herschel the ring of Saturn was supposed to be single ; but this distinguislieo
astronomer discovered that it is double : so that two rings concentric, and in the same plane,
constitute what was formerly supposed to be a single ririg. The ring, which is very thin, is
inclined to tlie plane of the ecliptic. It revolves from west to east in lO"" 39' 54". Its
breadth is nearly equal to its distance from Saturn ; that is, about one third of the diameter
of the planet. The interval between the rings is very little ; yet Dr. Herschel saw a star
through it. The inner ring is somewhat broader than the outer.

CHAPTER III.

APPROXIMATION TO THE FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OP THE EARTH.

The true figure and e.xact magnitude of the earth are elements of the highest importance
in geography. Their determination, however, has required the aid of astronomy in its most
improved state ; yet it is necessary, to- the explanation of the general doctrines of astronomy,
that we should, in the outset, know nearly its figure and magnitude : wo shall afterwards
explain by what means the first conceptions have been corrected, and its true figure and
magnitude found. Having now pointed out, generally, the phenomena of the heavens —
taking into view the more remarkable discoveries made by aid of tlie telescope — we are next
to consider the causes and mutual dependence of these phenomena. The first step towards
obtaining an explication of the motions of the heavenly bodies, is to form some notion of tlie
figure and magnitude of the earth which we iniiabit, and from which all the celestial phe-
nomena are observed. To a person placed in an elevated situation in an open country,
where the view is unconfined on all sides, tiic earth appears an extended plane, with the
concave sphere of the heavens resting upon it, — the horizon being the common boundary.
This appearance is, however, altogether illusory.

The earth is a round body, and is isolated in space. This is sufBcicntly established by
the following facts : —

1. To an observer who travels from north to south the nocturnal heavens appear conti
nually to change their a.spect. The stars, indeed, retain the same relative position in
respect of each otiier, and the points on which the heavens appear to revolve remain
unchanged ; but the angle, wliich the axis of their motion forms with the horizon, continually
decreases ; so that stars which, at the place from which he set out, appeared to roach their
greatest elevation to the south of the point directly over his head, now that he has changed
his position, appear, when iiigliest, on the north of that point. This clearly indicates that
his path oh the earth's surfiice has not been a straight lino, but a curve of which the con-
vexity is turned towards the sky.

2. The convexity of the earth is quite apparent to a spectator in a ship receding from tin;
shore. At first low objects disappear ; then those more elevated; and at la.'^t the highest
points of the land sink in the horizon, on account of the direct visual ray being broken by
the interposed curved surface of the ocean. In like manner, when two ships approach each
other, the navigators in each see at first the upper part of the rigging of the otiier vessel,
the hull being still invisible: as the di.sUinco becomes less the body of each vessel conies
gradually into view. The reverse happens if the distance botwocii the vessels is incrcasiiiL'.
From these appearances it is evident, that a straight lino joining any two points of tin'
eorth's surfaces paa.ses within the IkkIv of the earth.

3. That the horizon of the sea, which, to the eye, terminates its surface, is only an appa-
rent limit in reference to the position of the observer, is evident from the fact, that if we
•idvance towards it we find it recede ; and, at the same time, we still imagine ourselves
placed in the centre of nn extended plane, bounded by the line in which the heavens and

.fi'

1*^-^

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part II.

eartn appear to meet. This is what tlic navigator uniformly experiences ; wliilc, to an
observer on the shore, his vessel appears to sink below the horizon ; and by continuing to
sail in the same direction, he will at last arrive at the same port from whi^h he set out, —
having tiius circumnavigated the earth. This enterprise has, it is well kr ■ in numerous
instances, been accomplished by navigators, who have left the shores of F ' ■ o and returned
home, some by sailing always towards the west, and others by holding an easterly course.
This great experiment demonstrates that the sea and land have a curved surface which
returns into itself, so that no part of it is touched by the heavens.

There r.re other phenomena which prove that the earth, if not an exact sphere, is at least
nearly of that figure. The various appe, ranees of the moon, in the course of her revolution
round the earth, show that she is an opaque body, and is visible only by the reflected light
of the sun. The earth being also an opaque body, must project a shadow in a direction
opposite to the sun. It will atlerwaids be shown that the moon, when full, must sometimes
pass through this shadow. In this case, when the moon begins to penetrate, or is about to
leave, the shadow, the greater part of the disc is still illuminated by the sun ; and it is
found tliat this luminous part is always of the form of a crescent, having its concave side
bounded by an arch of a circle. The section of the earth's shadow, shown by its projection
on the moon, is, therefore, as to sense, circular, — a proof that the earth is a sphere, or nearly
of a spherical figure ; whence we may conclude that there is a point within the earth which
is its centre.

That the earth is a round body, is thus completely proved by experience and observation j
yet, when this doctrine is pre-^nted to the mind for the first time, there is some difficulty
in believing that the earth is balanced, as it were, on its centre, without any visible sup-
port ; while all things at rest on its suriface require to be supported. We must, however,
consider tliat the bodies which we see tall towards the centre of the earth are mere atoms
in comparison to the earth itself; and that, although their tendercy to its centre is another
fact established by experience, yet it does not thence fijllow that the earth itself should move
towards one point of space rather than towards another. A little reflection will show tliat
there is no inconsistency in supposing the earth, an immense mass, to bo at rest, and all
things to be retained on its surface by some force analogous to tliat by wliich a i)icce of iron
is drawn towards a magnet. This is roiilly the fact ; and a consequence of it is, that on
opposite sides of the earth its iniiabitiints stand in opjwsite directions, with their feet towards
each other, for which reason they are called Antipodes ; and every country has its own
Antipodes.

The knowledge of the true figure and magnitude of the earth is of the greatest importance
in geography, and on tliis account we shall treat of them in a particular manner. In the
mean time, as a near approximation to tlie trutii, the earth may be considered as differing
but little from a sphere, 7916 miles in diameter, and consequently nearly 24,870 miles in
circumference. In geometry, t'ln circumierenco of every circle is supposed to be divided
into 360 equal parts, called dogrees ; and each of these into fiO equal parts, called minutes,
and so on. A degree, therefore, of any circle on the eartli's surface, whose centre is the
same with that of tiie earth, \v ill be rather more than 69 miles ; and a minute of a degree
will be about Ij^ mile.

CHAPTER IV.

DOCTRINE OF T1!E PPHERE.

The motions of the celestial bodies being in appearance all performed on a sphere, of
which the eye of the spectator is the centre; with a view to describe the nature of these
motions, it has been found nxpedieni to suppose cf^rtain circles to 1x2 traced on this sphere,
to which, also, the positions of the heavenly boiiins in space are roCerrod.

The distance of tlie fixed stars is immensely great in respect of the earth's semi-diameter;
for it is found that, when viewed from any two jjoints of tlic earth's surface, they have the
very same relative (Xjsition. mil the same apparent distances, at a given instant of time.
Hence it follows, that the appciiriince of the heavens, and the imgular distonces of the fixed
stars, will be, as to sense, the same, whether thoy be viewed from the centie of the earth,
or from a point on its surfiice. We may, therefore, conceive the axis of the diurnal revo-
lution to pass through the centre of the cartli, which will be also the centre of the celestial
sphere.

DEFSNITIONS.

A groat circle of the sphere is that whoso plane passes through its centre ; and all others
are called small circles.

A circle of the celestial sjihere, whose phine passes through the earth's centre, and i«
perpendicular to the axis, is called the Ecjuaiok. TIi(> lino in which tliLs plane meets tin.,
earth's surface is called the Eiulvtor of the f irt'!, or the Eiivinoctial.

Book I.

flmoTnm Jnt - t .

''^ " ''"'^™' '«te bo the centre of „ «<

.--^'^^T^'^*^ onrti, „ . , '^o'ncide with tfwT -^' *""^'»

cle, ^/'osediamete/sEA'"; .^?'^- thou the c !

fho circles which tfm .. ^',"' "'^ £/tt«/«r

;'""-'m revolution are nn'"'"' t''"''''^^ by the

'-;, «"c|i is the circle tiCt' '° "'« ^"J"'-

,^ circle, v.'hosp ,>i ^ """""etor is A R

P«l««. is called the £"" '"'««-« through L

F" the MEHrniANof all tho ni^ ""'V'''"'« ^ call-

t passes. Thus PRp^ f ^n""^?^'' ^^''i<'''

jn the heavens. Th/r^uJu "meridian circle

« mdefinite. ""^ "'""ber oC these circles

iownZitgXl IT. P"'"' "»^h a ;g« of water at ret "^ f 'ToT' ^^"^P'^'"^
the Zenith and N!;"''i'^^^KTioAL,wml'r'^'=''''^P'-oduc,.l ind'efinW ^""^ "> the

semidiameter v!k ^'''^'"'■•*i- Horizov 0„ ,. *''° "^''"r, the former k „.,'^? '^ 'I'so called
'^-viwn.se of the hi ""■"™ "^ «»>' Phce ton.h ., ""' " ^^''" "early

'•"^'^"n- The m^Wdian "; ''^ "'« Proportie ' • T T"'''''
""« '« PornondicuT ''..'" «'"'-.« verti^:, l-.'LfP'"^''*":

are -.A ""'^,"' '"r exninp
•- -III porpendicnhir tn f , - ••".-'^- i^ircie /.ON ',., „ '■ "-v I'lace are called V..„

" """'''^-^'— id,an,a„dit..,l,

'hni

1 jpS

l\ VM

■' 1

^V.if;

^ ■'

"ifS

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Past a

have cqiml altitudes when it is at equal distanuea from tlio meridian ; tliat is, when ito eastern
and western azimuths arc equal.

SuppciFO a meridian to pass through a star, then the arc intercepted between tlie star
and the equator is called the Declination of tlie star. Thus P Hip beinff a meridian that
passes through tlie star S, and meets tlie equator in K, the arc S K is the declination of the
star.

If the meridian circle pass through the zenith of any place, the arc intercepted between
the zenith and the equator is called the Latitude of that place. Thus Z being the zenith of
any place, and E K Q the equator, the latitude of the place is the arc Z E.

Assuming the meridian circle that passes through the zenith of any particular place as the
First Meridian, the arc of the equator intercepted between tlie first meridian and the meri-
dian circle passing through the zenith of any other place, is called tlie IjONoitvde of that
place. It is usual, in this country, to reckon the longitude of places from the meridian circle
that passes through the zeinUi of the Observatory at Greenwich.

Because the arcs Z R, the distance of the zenith from the horizon, and P E, the distance
of the pole from the equator, ore each one-fourth of the circumference of a circle or a
quadrnnt, they are equal, and consequently, leaving out the common arc PZ, the arcs ZE
and P R are equal. Hence it appears that P R, the distance of the pole from the horizon of
any plnco, cul'ed the elevation or uUitndc of tlie pole, is equal to the latitude of that place.

^ m

CHAPTER V.

Uii- '.VTIOa 0«' the sun, moon, and planets on their AXEa THEIR FIGURE.

Vrou '.!ip liienomena of the spots which, by aid of the telescope, are visible on his disc,
\\t; urn le(' ti- conclude that tho sun revolves from west to cast on an axis, in about twenty-
^:ve lis v.- iii'l n li.ilf. Though these spots are subject to many variations, they are suffi-
c\f>nth 1.(1 . wT^nt ij enable us to discover that they have regular motions across the disc,
exoft'3 the .-m-ii lui iiust belong to corresponding points on the surface of the sun, supjxaing
him ai'tu.illy o have a motion of rotation from west to east on an axis nearly perpendicular
to ti, nliiue of the path or ordit, which, in virtue of his apparent motion, he describes
round i' heavens in the course of a year. When a spot is first discovered on the eastern
edge of the disc, it appears like a fine line: as it approaches the centre of the disc its
breadth i.icreases ; as it advances towards the western edge the breadth again diminishes,
until the spot at length entirely rtisanpears. The same spot is sometimes again observed,
after fourteen days, on the ciist side ol the disc ; but more frequently the spot is dissolved,
and is no more seen. By curcfiil observation of the time occupied by a spot in crossing
the disc, taking also into account the proper motion of tlie sun from west to east during
that period, the tiu" of the sun's rotation on his axis is found to be about twenty-five and a
half days.

That the moon, and the plii, is Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Satuni, have each a
motion of rotation from west to east, on an axis inclined to the plane of the sun's orbit, is
inferred in like manner from the spots that are seen to traverse their discs. The moon pre-
sents always nearly the same side to the earth ; and must, therefore, revolve on her axis in
the same time in which she is carried round the heavens by her apparent motion, namely, in
27 d 7 D, 4^ , Mercury revolves in 24 '■ 5 ■" ; Venus in 23 '' :j(t "' ; Mars in V± '' 39 "> ; Jupiter in
9'' r-iC)'"; Saturn in lO"" 29"". In the remaining planets no appearances h.iVL' been discovered
which enable us to ascertain whether or not tliey revolve on axes; though, from analogy, it
is hiijhly probable that they do.

Witli regard to the figure of the sun and of those planets which are known to revolve on
axes, we may conclude that they are nearly spherical ; because no other but a spherical body
can, when revolving on an axis in the manr o of thr ■ lanets (with the exception of the
mcxjii), present in every positio.i the appearan e -*' a eiiculiir disc. The spherical figure of
the moon, and, indeed, of the other planets whir!> exhibit phases, ni.Ty hi; inferred from the
tiiet, that the concavity of the crescent which th. v from time to time lii.splay is boun(Ie<l by
an elliptic lin". The planet Urnims always presents a disr that is nearly circular, and it lia.i
not been ascertained that he revolves on an axis; hut it i.s very improbable, when wc con
sider how very irregular his motions among tin- fixed stars appenr when seen from the eartli,
that he should k(>ep the same side alway- turned towards us. Ilis apparent motion is some-
times direct, that is from west tn east, .sometimes retr.ijrrade, or ui ;he eoiitrarv direction ; .so
that to present ronstantly fiie iipju'rinince of a cir"iiliir dise, flu- |)lMMet would re(|uire, wore
it not spherical, to have iiinfions in f)pprisite riri^rlinns about trie sanie axis. The same rea
soning will apply to the remaining plnrifts. We may conclude, tlieretl ro, tl.\t the sun,
inioii, and planets, are b(jdies nearly spliorical.

in
III

si
n;
fb

Ivc on

rbody

of the

lire of

ni the

0(1 by

it 1ms

con

eartli,

some-

)n ; so

were

rea

sun.

Book L

DISTANCES, ETC. OP THE HEAVENLY BODIES.

., CHAPTER VI.

BISTANCES AND MAGNITUDES OP THE HEAVENLY BODIES.

DiSTAN'oEs of the fixed stars. From wlmtcvcr point of the earth's surface we observe the
fixed stara, they always appear to preserve the very same relative positions. We may hence
conclude thut these bodies are situated at immeasurable distances from the earth ; and that
though tu us who inhabit it the dimensions of the earth appear very ^cat, they are insensi-
ble when compared with these immense distances. The earth is in reality but as a point in
space. But though the fixed stars r.ro vastly too remote to admit of their distances being
determined, we have reason to believe that they are placed at very different degrees of
remoteness. They shine with very various degrees of brilliancy ; multitudes are not visible
without tho aid of the telescope, and it muy rea-sonably be supposed that many more have
not yet been discovered by tho most powerful instrumenta which have been directed to the
heavens.

The distances of the fixed stars being unknown, we can only form conjectures from
hypothesis and analogy respecting tlieir true magnitudes. When viewed through tho best
telescopes, they have no apimrent diameter, but appear like points in the heavens.

Mode of determining the distance of the sun, moon, and planets. In reference to the
sphere of the fixed stars, then,tlie eartli is to be regarded as a point. To a spectator, at the
sun, moon, and planets, however, it would present a disc subtending an angle of greater or
less magnitude, and, even when smallest, nilmitting of measurement. This angle can be
determined by an observer on the earth's surface ; and as wo know the true magnitude of the
earth, it affords us the means of estimating the distances of these bodies. Let O o (Jig. 16) be
the places of two observers under tho same meridian, but very distant firom each other. Let P
be a planet in tho meridian of those jilaces, and let some fixed star which comes to the meri-
dian at the same time with the planet, be seen by tlie observers at O and o, in the directions
O S, o s. Join O P, o P, and produce O P, to meet o s in A. Then, because O S, o s, are
parallel (tho distance of the star S bninfr regarded as infinite), tlie angles O A o, A O S are
equal ; and, because O P o is the exterior angle of the triangle o A P, it is equal to the sum
of the two interior and opposite angles A o P, o A P. Wiiereforo tho angle O P o is equal
to tho sum of tho angles A o P, P O S ; that is, tho angle subtended at the planet by tho
chord of the terrestrial arc intercepted between the points of observation, is equal to the sum
of the apparent distances of the planet from tho star, provided the planet is seen (as we have
here supposed) on opposite sides of llin star liy the two observers. If the star is seen on the
same side by both, the angle at the planet will then be equal to the difference of the appa-
rent distances.

If the observers are so situated that P O, P o (Jig. 17) are tangents to the circle O E o at the
points O and o, the angle O P o will be the angle subtended by the disc of the earth at the planet.

But if P O, P o are not tangents, draw P O' and P 6 tangents to the circle O E o, and from
C the centre draw C O', C « to tiio points of contjict: draw also tlio vortical lines C Z and
C 7.' tlirough () and o tlie places of the obs(>rvcrs, and produce P O, P o to meet C O', C d
in B and IX Now, for the sun and planets the an<rlc O P » is very small, and oven for the
moon it is not very considerable. 'I'lic distance P C may therefore bo regarded, in every
case, as mm h greater than C O', nr C 6. Ilcnco the lines C O', C B, C D may without sen-
sible error lie considered as proportional to the angles C P 0', C P B, C P I) ; sfi that we
nave Z C P O' : / C P O = C (J' : C B and Z C P : Z C P o = C O' : CD; where-
fore Z C P O' : Z C P O + Z C P » or Z O 1' « =: C O' : C B + C D But the anglers

'irnii

I ! J'

1-1

I-

^i' I

*ti 'if.- ,

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part II.

at B and D are very nearly rij^lit iingli:--<i mul tliorutorp, to rudiiix C O', we Imvo C B =

Sin. C O B = Sin. P O '/; and C IJ = Sin. C o I) = Sin. P o '/': lloncc wo obtain

ZCPO': ZOPo = (CO:CB+ C D=--)Rml.: Sin. P O v, -f- Sin. P o Z' : And 'i Z

Riul.

C P O' or / C P d = 2 Z O P o X 5^-ir,. .> jI «— »- v- '

Sin. P O Z + Sin. P o Z

If tho planet be on the same side of tlio zpiiitli to both olwerv-ers, then the difference,
instead ot the sum of the sines of titc zenith di^tanccR, miiHt bo ttikon tor thi> donominator.
Expressing the above formula in wonls, wo give tho followinf^ .siniplo riilo : — Divide the arc,
{expressed in parlt of the radius,) which measures the observed angle at the plaurl, liu the
sum of the sines of the zenith distijnces of the planet, if it is between the zeniths of the
two observers ; or by the difference of these sines if the planet is on the same side of the
zenith to both observers ; and twice the result will 6f the arc, expressed in parts of the
radius, that measures the angle subtended at the planet by the disc of the earth.

Since small angles, tliat require for their measurement only tho use of the micrometer,
con be determined with much more accuracy than large angles retiuiring tho whole telescope
to be moved, it is best to employ, in finding the angle O P o a star which is near the planet ;
a small error in taking the zenith distances of tlic planet will produce no sensible error in
the result

Another method of determining this angle, is by obserA-ations on the transit of Venu.s over
the disc of the sun ; a phenomenon in which the planet is seen like a dark spot on the disc ;
but the method now explained is sufficient for our present purpose.

Tho following arc the angles subtended by the earth's disc at the tun, moon, and planets.
when the earth is nearest to each :

Sceondf. 8c<onil».

Angle at the Sun = 17 Anglo at Uranus = 1

Mercury = 28 Vesta "^

Venus =62 Juno

Mars =42 "• . Ceres

Jupiter = 4 Pallas

Saturn = 2 Moon ' =2" 2'

To determine, now, the distance of the sun or moon, or of a planet : — Tn tho right angled

triiinglf P O C we have given the angle P equal to
half the angle subtended by the earth's disc at tho
body wliftso distance is to bo fijund ; also O C the
earth's semi-diameter: therrfore 'lie distance P C
may bo determined by the proportion Sin. P : Rad.=
C O : P C. Since tho angle P is small, its sine
must be nearly equal to the arc whicli moasurcs it.
Observing therctbre that the arc to whicli tho radius
is equal, expressed in seconds, is 2(1020.'")" we have
Z P (in seconds) : 2(K)2G.J = C O : PC. Hence

Whence wo derive the followin'' nilc : — Divide the constant

PC = 2CO X

206265
2P

number 2(X)205 by the number of seconds in the angle subtended by the rarlh'n disc as seen
from the body whose distance is tn be determined ; mulliply the ri.\ult by the diameter of
the earth, and the product is the distance refjiiiicd. In the case of the sun ; assuming the

20(326.5
diameter of the earth as unity, we have the distance equal to "—-- — or 121S;} diameters of

the earth. In like manner, Uiking 4", 2", 1" for the angles subtended by the earth's disc at
Jupiter, Sotuni, and Uranus, tho distances of those planets from tlif! earth, wlien least, will
be oliVif), 1031:52, 20G2(;.j diametors of the onrtli respectively. The moan distance of the
moon is nl)oiit si,xty scmi-diniiu'tcrs of the earth.

Tiie apparent dianietor of any one of the heavenly bodies, is the nimiher of seconds in the
measure of the angle under which its circular disc is .seen by a spectator ujKjn the earth.
When measured by a inirrometer, the apparent diameters of tho sun, moon, and planets are
found to be, when greatest, as follows :

Hni-oiiils. Spriiiiila.

Diameter of tho Sun = 1923 Diameter of Jupiter — 46

Mercury = 12 Saturn — IS

Venus =61 Unmus := 4

Mars = 18 Moon — 2020

Tho four remaining planrtf. according to the most careful obserx'ations, appear to subtend

only a small part of a s(>cond.

Now, for deducing the real diameters from the np])arent, we have this rule: — As the

apparent diameter of the earth, {or the seconds in the angle which ils disc subtends,) as

4;=.

II.

"^.i

Booa I.

ROTATION OF THE EARTH.

Been from the planet, i» to t.«e apparent diameter o/ ihn planet as teen from the earth, st
it thi: true dinmetrr of the earth to the true diameter of the planet.
Calling; tiiR diameter of the earin unity, or 8(N)0 miles in round numbers, we obtain,

Uisinnlsra of

Diameter of the Sun =

Ihe Garth.

111.4.')4

—

Miln.

882,000 nearly

Mercury =

0.308

3,140 —

Venus =

0.0

7,200 —

Mars =

0.617

4,100 —

Jupiter =

10.860

87,000 —

Saturn =

9.982

70,068 —

Uranus =

4.332

34,500 —

Moon =

0.273

2,160 —

As the sun, moon, and planets are spherical bodies, Iheir magnitudes compared witli the
magnitude of the earth, may be found upon the principle that similar solids arc to one
another as the cubes of their similar dimensions ; so that as the cube cf the diameter of the
earth is to the cube of the diameter of the sun, moon, or a planet, so is the magnitude of
tlie former to the magnitude of the latter.
Assuming the magnitude of the earth as unity :

The magnitude of the Sun = 1384472.000 '

Mercury = .063

Venus

.927

Mars

.139

Jupiter

1280.900

Saturn

993.000

Uranus

80.490

Moon

.020

Having now ascertained the distances and magnitudes of the heavenly bodies, we proceed
to inquire whether the diurnal motion which we observe in them be a real or only an ap-
parent motion ; and whether the earth is the centre to which the proper motion of any of
them is to be referred.

(IS seen

<t(r of

ning the

letcrs of

s disc at
iist, will
of the

Is in the
earth,
nets are

pubtend

-As the
tills,) as

CHAPTER VII.

ROTATION OF THE EARTH.

The diurnal motion of the heavenly bodies suggests the existence of some cause, under .,
the influence of which they either perform or appear to perform a revolution from east to
west round the axis of the celestial sphere in the space ot a day and a night. Now, there
are two suppositions, on either of which tlie diurnal motion may be explained. We may
suppose the heavens to be carried round the earth, while the latter remains immoveable in
the centre ; or we may suppose the heavens to be at rest, and the earth to revolve on an
axis in an opposite direction ; that i.*, from west to east. To which of these hyjiotheses tlie
preference is due, will be evident if we consider that the heavenly bodies are independent
one of another, and are placed at very different distances from the earth ; that variations in
the apparent diameters of the planets indicate great changes in their distances, while the
comets traverse the heavens in all directions; so that it is difficult to conceive that one and
the same cause should impress on all these bodies a common motion of rotation.

Since the earth is a globe of alwut 8000 miles diameter, it is small when compared with
the immense mass of the sun. Were the centres of the sun and earth brought into coinci-
dence, the former body would fill the orbit of the moon and extend as far again beyond it.
Besides, the sun is distant from us about twelve thousand diameters of the earth ; so that to
revolve round the heavens in the interval of twenty-four hours, he must move at the im-
mense velocity of about twcnty-nve millions of miles in an hour. It is therefore more
reasonable to suppose the earth to iiavo a motion of rotation on an axis, than to suppose the
sun, a body so distant and of such immense magnitude, to move with the vast rapidity that
would be requisite to carry him round the heavens in so short an interval. With regard to
the fixed stars, we may reason in the same manner with still greater force : for the velocity
necoptary to carry the sun round in twenty-four hours is really insensible when compared
with thi' rapidity with which the ii.xed stars must move to accomplish a like revolution. In
order to account for the diurnal motion of the heavens on the hypothesis that the earth is
at rest, it must he supposed that the sun, moon, and stars have tiieir velocities so adapted
to their respective distances, that all of them com[)lcte tiieir revo'utions round the earth
in exactly the same numlier of seconds. Such an adaptation among innumerable indepen-
dent botlies, placed at such a variety of distances, it is impossible to admit.

There are other phenomena of the heawns which serve still farther to confirm the con-
elusion, that the diurnal motion of the hciivenly bodies is not a real motion. Every difficulty,

Vol. I. 8* M

-' V

\41ffl

■t

•S 1

_s U^Hf

if. .

'-■'

1* ■

IBk

'■■■'.'

~ w^

li.

PRINCIPLES Ov GEOGRAPHY.

Part II.

however difiupponrs, if wu Hiippotic tlio earth to have a motion of mtntion on an iixIh from
west to caHt. Ciiiricd round with a velocity cunimun to all tlio olijrctB whicii gurround iw
on the enrthV Hiirfuco, we are in a situation similar to tiiat of a Hpnctator placed in a vcsmd
in motion. ,\t, thn first careloss i;lanco ho iiiiagiiirH liiniHolf nt rc^t, whili* the HJinri', ml
all the ohji'utrt which iio scoh, unconnected with the vcsiicl, appciir to bo in motion, liy
reflecting, however, on the extent of the RJiore, on the mapiitude of the ninuntaiiin, i.'ij
otiier ohjoclH on land, when comiinred with the vowel from which he observes (horn, he free*
hin mind from thin momentary illuHion, and becomes convinced that the motion of thoHC
objects is only apparent, and that it is produced by the real motion of the vohhoI. The
nmltitude of Hturs scattered over the heavenii are, with retspect to us, what the shore and
the objects u|X)n it are with regard to the Bi)ertator ])hicod in the vessel : nnd by the same
considerations, by which his first impressions are so corrected that ho becomes assured of
the reality of his motion, we are led to the conclusion that the rotation of the earth on an
axis produces the apparent diurnal motion of the heavens.

An arj;iiment tor the rotation of the earth may also be drawn firom analogy. Several of
tlie planets are known to have a motion on an axis similar to that which we have supposed
to belong to the earth. Jupiter, for example, which is miiny times greater than the earth,
revolves on his axis from west to east in less than half a day; and to an observer on his
surtace, tlie iieavcns would appear to revolve round that planet in the same manner as wo
see them revolve round the earth, but in about half the time. This motion of tiie heavens
in reference to a spectator on the planet Jupiter would, however, be only apparent ; and
hence we may reasonably conclude, that the case is the same in reference to a spectator on
tlie earth.

Lastly, if the earth is actually in motion, there will be generated a cvntrifusrnl force, or
a tendency to throw off objects from its surface, which must diminish the torco of gravity,
particularly at the eciuator, where the motion is most rapid. Now, by observations mode
with the pendulum, this diminution of the force of gravity has been found to e.vist. The
same cause affects also the figure of the earth, which has been found to be flattened some-
what at the points of rotation, and elevated at the e(iuatorial regions. The same is ob.-;orved
to be the figure of Jupiter, — a circumstance wliicli greatly strengthens the argument drawn
from analogy. The evidence which iius now been adduced leaves no doubt respecting the
earth's motion of rotation ; and tlms we are enabled to ascertain the true place which the
globe that we inhabit holds in the \miver.se.

The points in which the axis of rotation meets the surface are called the poles of the
eaith; and it is evident that the nxis, if produced, must pass through the ))oles of the
iicavens.

CHAPTER Vin.

APPARENT ANNUAL MOTION OP THE SVfi. VICISSITUDE OP SEASONS.

While the sun participn.tes in the diurnal motion of the heavens, he also apjiears to move
eastward among the fixed sfjirs. This motioi. it will be of importance now to trace out,
and to explain the change of seasons to which it gives rise. If we observe each day of the
year thj meridian altitude of tlie sun, and note the time which elapses between his passage
over the meridian and the passage of any particular star, we shall have the apparent motion
of the sun in the direction of the meridian, and of the circles parallel to tlio e(|uator in
which lie appears daily to be carried by the diurnal motion of the heavens. Tlio result of
the composition of these two motions will give the true motion for each day. In this manner
it has been found that the sun moves in a path or orbit which cuts the equator in two oppo-
site points, and makes with it an angle equal to 23° 28' jiccrly.

The name of eclintic is given to the circle which tlie pluno of this orbit marks out on the
sphere of the heavens. It passes through twelve constellations, which are culled the
TWELVE SIGNS. Tliis has given rise to the division of the ecliptic into twelve equal parts,
called SIGNS, each containing, of course, 30°. The twelve signs are coiituinod in a zone of
the starry heaven.", called the Zodiac. The names of thorc constellations, with '.lie charac-
ters by which they are usually denoted, are as follow: — AriesT, Taurus b, (ieniini IT, Cancer
2E, IjCo il. Virgo "I, Libra ===, Scorpio HI., Sagittarius /, Ciipriconuis V5, Aquarius 'Xc, Pisces >;•

The vioLssitiide of seasons arises from the combination of the apparent iiiotidn of the sun
m the ecliptic with his apparent diiirnul motion. When tlie suii is in cither of the points
in whicii the ecliptic intersects the equator, he do.=i';;Ml)os the equator on tliat duy in virtue
of his diurnal motion; and as by the properties of tlio sphere this circle is divided into two
equal parts by the iiorizon, at whatever point of lli" oartii's surface the sjiectator is situated,
the d.ay is then o(iuiil to the night over nil tlie globe.

The points of intersection of equator and ecliptic are called the Equlnoctiai, Points.
The first point of tlie av^n Arks is supposed to coincide with the point of the vernal equinox ;
and from that jwint the signs of the ecliptic are reckoned : the first point of the sign Libra

Book I.

VICISHITUDE OP HBASONS.

It nn tlie
lied the
111 parts,
Izoiie of
Icharac-
IC'ancer

f-cps y{,

llic Sim

points

virtue

bto two

tiiated,

fOINTS.

liinox ;
\ Libra

will tlicroforo coincido with tlio )K)int uf tliu uututmuil miuiiiox. Ah the min, when ho IcavcH
till! [Miint of tli(> vorriiil G(|iiiiiux advancoM in tlii! ecliptic, hi.s iiioriiliaii allitudu iiliovo our
liori/.iiri daily mcrcuHi'M, ami a largor |>urtiun ot'tlic paiiilld which hf daily dcscribcw bocoiiicii
viHiliji'. lloiico arises a gradual incrcai!u in the le!ii;tii of the day in all countries to the
north (if the equat4)r; until the mm haviii); reached IiIh ^n-eatest altitude, the day ai'ipiireii itti
(rreiiteNt lenjrth, and bef^ins to Hhurten. Ah the variationx of the altitude on each ^idu of the
pointH ut which it is (greatest are iiiHcnsiblo, the eun, if wc attend only to his altitude, uppoar»i
»<t-iti{)iiary, and the day continiiGri, for Bonic time, very nearly of the same lenjrtli. Tho point
of llio ecliptic at which the maximum taknti place is theri'iiiie ilciiouiinated the |)oint of the
HiiMMKK SoijrricE. Tho sun, having; reached this point, now returns towards the eipiator,
which he crosseH at tho point of the autunnial ccjuinox. His meridian altitude gradually
diminishes until it reaches tlie minimum at the point of the VVintkii SoLsneE. ^'he day,
which has been ^rradually shortenmi^ from tho sninmor Bolsticc, is then the shortest in the
year, mid for some time does not sensibly lengtlicn. The sun, however, agaui jrraduully
a|){iroachcs the equator, and reachoH it at tiic vernal equinox.

Such is the constant pro^fresa of the sun in the heavens, and such the succession of tlie
sensoiis of the year. Tho Spring is the time comprised between the vernal or spring equinox,
which tails about tiic '21st of March, and the summer solstice, which happens about the 21st
of June : the interval between thn solstice and the autumnal e(iuinox, which liills about the
"2nd of September is the Summer: the time between the autumnal eciuinox and tho winter
solstice, which occurs atiout tho 22d of December, is the Autumn: and, lastly, tlie Winter
is tlio time that elapses between tho winter Rolstico and the spring equinox.

Tho two circles parallel to the cipiator, which the sun describes on the longest and
shortest days, arc called, one the summer or northern Tropic, and tlie other the winter or
southern 1 ropic. They are also respectively denominated the tropic of Cancer and tlie
tropic of Capricorn, in reference to the points in which they touch the ecliptic.

The ])rescnco of the sun aliove tho horizon being the cause of heat, and tho temperature
increasing as tho altitude increases, it might be inferred that the temperature should bo the
same in summer as in spring, and in winter as in autumn ; because the altitudes of the sun
in these seasons exactly corretoond. But it is to be observed that the temperature is not an
instantaneous effect of the sun's presence ; hut is the result of the continued action of his
rays. On this account it is not greatest on the day when the altitude is greatest, but some
time between the summer solstice and autumnal equi"')X. In like manner, tho greatest cold
of winter does not occur on the shortest day, but some time between the winter solstice and
the spring equinox.

With regard both to temperature and tho length of tlie day, great difl'erences arise from
the different elevations of tho polo above the horizon, as we proceed from the et|uator
towards either of the poles. The horizon of an observer at the equator passes through the
poles, and by the geometrical properties of the sphere it divides the equator and all tlie circles,
parallel to it into two equal parts. It also cuts them at right angles ; and hence the position
of the celestial sphere, in reference to the horizon of an observer at the equator, is called the
RioiiT position of the sphere. In whatever point of the ecliptic the sun is situated, his
diurnal course is therefore at right angles to the horizon, and one half of it is in the visible
hemisphere, and the other half in the invisible ; hence, at the equator, the day is at all
seasons equal to the ni<^it.

When the sun is in either of tho equinoctial points, he passes through the zenith at
mid-day. When he is in either of the solstitial points his meridian altitude is the least, and
is equal to tho complement of the inclination of the ecliptic to the equator. In these two
positions of the sun tho shadows of objects fall, at mid-day, in opposite directions, — a pheno-
menon which at no season occurs in our climate, where the solar shadows are at mid-day
always directed towards the north : there are, then, properly speaking, two summers and
two winters in the year at the equator. The same thing takes place in all the countries
where the elevation of tho pole above tho horizon is less than the obliquity of tho ecliptic.
In every country beyond this region there is only one summer and one winter in the year,
with the intervening seasons of spring and autumn: tho sun is never in the zenith: the
length of the longest day increases, and that of the shortest day diminishes, as wo advance
towards either of tho poles ; and when we liave reached such a position, that the zenith is
distant from the pole by an arc of the meridian equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic, the
sun docs not set at the summer solstice, nor rise at the winter solstice.

The polar circles. About eacii of the poles of the celestial sphere, suppose a circle to be
described distant from it by an arc equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic ; these tw^o circles
are called the Polar Circlks. In the region of the earth situated around either of its
poles, at every point whose zenith lines within the jxilar circle, the time of the sun's presence
above the horizon and of his absence below it, at certain seasons, exceeds twenty-four hours :
it increases as wo approach the iwle, and may amount to days or even to months. Thus,
when the sun's declination north, increasing, becomes equal to the distance of the zenith of
.iny place in the northern polar region from the north \Kilc of the heavens, he ceases to set

1 1 1,'

= m

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

1.1

1.25

WIZI 1121
Ut Hi |2.2

£ ri^ |2£
warn

m
Kteu

Photogiaphk)

^Sdaices

CorporEition

13 WIST MAIN STREET

WIUTER.N.Y. 14S80

(716)872-4503

,*!.

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY.

Past II.

at that place, and continues above Uie horizon until he has reached the same declination in
returning towards the equator. From timt time the sun rises and sets in the course of
twenty-four hours, until the sun's declinatiun south becomes equal to the distance of the
zenith iVom the pole, and then he ceases to rise and continues below the horizon tL" he has
again acquired the same declination in returning northward.

At the pole, the equator coincides with the horizon, and all the circles parallel to tlip
equator are also parallel to the horizon. This is called the Paraixel position of the sphere.
To an observer, placed at the pole, the heavenly bodies would appear to move round, either
in the horizon or parallel to it Hence the sun is constantly above the horizon when he is
on the same side of the equator with the pole, and constantly below it when on the other
side ; so that at either of the poles of the earth there is only one day and one night in the
year.

At any point on the earth's surface, between the equator and either of the poles, the
equator and the circles parallel to it, are oblique to the horizon. This is called the Obuque
position of the sphere ; and by the geometrical properties of the sphere, the horizon, in this
position, divides all the circles panulel to the equator into two unequal parts ; hence arises
the inequality of the days and nights at all places between the equator and either pole. In
thia country, for example, in summer, when the sun is on the north side of the equator, the
larger portion of his diurnal course liies in the visible hemisphere, and the less in die invisible,
■0 that the day is longer than the night The reverse is the case in the winter when the
■un is on the south side of the equator.

If two places are situated on opposite sides of the equator, the spring and summer of the
one will, it is evident, correspond to the autumn and winter of the other.

With regard to the temperature, it is higher in the equatorial regions than in any other
part of the earth, because there the action of the sun's rays is most direct To every point
of tlie earth's surface, whose zenith lies between the tropics, the sun is vertical twice in the
year ; so that his rays, acting perpendicularly, produce their greatest effect In the polar
regions the temperature is lowest, in consequence of the obliquity with which the sun's rays
fkll on the earth's surfkce, and the great length of the winter night In the countries situated
between the equatorial region and the two polar regions, there prevails a medium tempera-
ture, increasing as the zenith approaches the nearer of the two tropics, and diminishing as
it approaches the nearer of the polar circles.
A division of the earth's surfkce into five zones has been suggested by this difference of

temperature fh>m the equator towards either pole.
In the adjoining figure let P p represent the earth's
axis, P £ p Q, a meridian, and E Q the equatorial
diameter. Let E C Q be the representation of a
circle on tlie earth's surface equally distant fVom
the poles, which will therefore be the equator:
and F G H, fg h circles on the earth's surface
parallel to the equator, and at the distance of about
23i degrees ; on each side of it, and A B D, a 6 d
circles round the poles P, p, and at the same dis-
tance of 2.3i degrees.

At the times of the year when the sun is in the
tropic of Cancer, he will, in his apparent revolu-
tion, be vertical to all places on tlie circle F G H ;
and when he is in the tropic of Capricorn, he will
be vertical to the circle/^ h. The space on the
earth's surface between these circles is the Torrid
Zone.

When the sun is in the southern tropic he will not be seen anywhere in the space bounded
by the circle A B D. This is, therefore, the northern Frigid Zone : and when he is in the
northern tropic there is a like tract bounded by the circle abd, round the south pole, where
he will then be invisible. This is the southern Frigid Zone. The two tracts between the
torrid zone and the frigid zones are the temperate zones.

Another division of the earth into zones was used by the ancient geographers, founded on
the different lengths of the longest day, as we proceed fhim the equator towards either of
the poles. These zones were denominated Climates, and were each of such a breadth, that
the longest day at the boundary nearer tlie pole exceeded the longest day at tlie boundary
nearer the equator by some certain space of time, as half an hour or an hour. Within the
polar circle, the climates were supposed of such a breadth as to make the longest day at the
opposite sides differ by a month.

The points in which the equator and ecliptic intersect each other are not immoveable, but
appear, with respect to the fixed stars, to recede towards the west at the rate of SOttj"
nearly, annually, or about 1° in 72 years. This motion is called the Precession of the
Equinoxes. When the constellations of the zodiac were first delineated by the ancient

19 A^^

'^^-~I111__

^-_J11^^^

liC E

Z^Q

)cl'

Z^^

v»..

BooeL

VICISSITUDE OF SEASONS.

is in the
revolu-

FGH;
he will
on the
Torrid

jided on
Ither of
Ith, that
lundary
lin the
' at the

lie, but
JSOA"
lof the

Indent

Mtronomers, the middle of the sign Ariel was at the point of tlio vernal equinox, from which
it is now distant more than 58° towards the east In consequence of the precession of the
equinoxes, the time in which the sun moves fh>m the vernal equinox to tlie vernal equinox
again, is less than the time in which he moves from any star to the same stor a^in ; — the
point of the vernal equinox moving westward, so as to meet the sun, and thus anticipate the
time of his crossing the equator in the preceding year.

The intervals of time which separate the equinoxes or the solstices are unequal. Almost
eight days more elapse from the spring to the autumnal equinox, than from the latter to the
former. We may therefore conclude, that the motion of the sun is not uniform. From
precise and multiplied observations, it has been ascertained that his motion is most rapid at
a point of the ecliptic situated near the winter solsticial point, and slowest at the opposite
point towards the summer solstice. At the former point the sun describes daily 1° 1' 10",
at the latter only 57' IIJ^". The distance of the sun from the earth is also variable. This
is proved by variations observed in his apparent diameter, which increases and diminishes at
tiie some tune with his angular velocity, but not in the same ratio. The angular velocities
at any two instants of time ore, to one another, as the squares of the apparent diameters.

If V and v' be the angular velocities of the sun, or his daily advances in the ecliptic at any
two seasons of the year, and d and d' his apparent diameters at the same time, then v : v' ^=
«r:d".

To diminish the apparent motion of the sun, it would be sufficient to suppose that body
removed to a greater distance from the earth, without altering his true angular velocity.
But if the diminution of his motion depended entirely on this cause, the apparent velocity
would diminish in the same ratio with the apparent diameter. Since it diminishes, however,
08 the square of the diameter, there must necessarily be an actual diminution of the
velocity of the sun while he recedes to a greater distance from the earth.

His distance being reciprocally as his apparent diameter, if D and D' be his distances at
the two seasons when his diameters are d and d', we have » : w' = D" : D" ; and »D* = v'D".
Hence it appears, that from the combined effect of the two causes influencing the sun's
apparent motions, — namely, the diminution of his velocity and the increase of his distance, —
his daily angular motion diminishes as the square of his distance increases ; so that the pro-
duct of the Eojare of the distance by the velocity is a constant quantity.

Let us imagine a straight line to join the centres of the sun and of the earth. This line
is usually called the Radivs Vector. It is not difficult to prove that the small sector, or
the area which the Radius Vector traces in a day, in consequence of the sun's motion, is
proportional to the product of the square of this radius by the sun's daily motion, that is, to
V D*. This area is therefore constant ; and the whole area, described by the Radius Vector,
setting out from a fixed radius, increases as the number of days reckoned from the epoch
when the sun was at the fixed radius.

Since vD* = »'D'*, we have D' = 'D-,/1. Assuming, therefore, any Ime whatever for D,.

and finding, by observation, the sun's angular velocity for every day of the year, the value
of D' for each day may be found.

Thus we shall be able to trace a curve lino representing the orbit of the sun. This curve
is ibund to be not exactly circular, but a little elongated in the direction of the straight line
passing through the centre of the earth, and joining the points in the orbit at which the sun
IS at its greatest and least distances. The resemblance of this curve to an ellipse having
given rise to a comparison between them, their identity has been discovered. Hence we
conclude, that the apparent solar orbit is an ellipse having the centre of the earth in one
of its foci.

The solar ellipse is not much different from a circle ; for its eccentricity, which, from the
geometrical projierties of the ellipse, is equal to holf the diffijrence of the sun's greatest and
least distances from the earth, is a quantity which bears but a very small proportion to the
distance of the sun. It appears, from observation, that there is a small diminution of the
eccentricity, — so small, indeed, as scarcely to be perceptible in a century.

The position of the greater axis of the solar ellipse is not constantly the same. Its
extremities have an annual motion eastward, in reference to the fixed stars, of about 12" in
the direction of the sun's motion.

The obliquity of the sun's orbit, or of the ecliptic to the equator, is also subject to change,
and appears to have been continually diminishing from the remotest date of astronomical
observation. Its present rate of diminution may te stated at nearly 49" in a century.

The apparent elliptic motion of the sun does not represent, with perfect exactness, the
results of modern observation. The great precision now attained in the art of observing
has made known to us small inequalities, the laws of which it would have been almost
impossible to determine by mere observation. These laws can be investigated only after
the physical cause has been discovered upon which the phenomena depend.

' rr

.1"

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER IX.

DIVISION AND MEASURE OP TIME.

PabtII.

The notion of (imc is suggested by tl»e succession of phenomena in the universe. When
two events exactly correspond in all ineir circumstances, they are conceived to occupy
equal portions of time. The descent of a heavy body to the earth, for example, from a
given height, if repeated under precisely similar circumstances, will in every case be per-
formed in the same interval of time. Suppose then that a number of heavy bodies fell to
the ground one after another from the same height,— the descent of the second and of each
succeeding body commencing at the instant in which the body that preceded it had reached
the ground ; the whole time occupied by the fall of these bodies will be divided into equal
portions, one of which may be assumed as the mcnsuring unit of time. The vibrations of
a pendulum, performed under precisely the same circumstances, are employed for estimating
the smaller portions of time : the larger portions are determined by tlie motions of the sun ;
from which arise the vicissitude of day and night, and the changt) of seasons.

The Day, in civil life, is the time that elap$<es between the rising and setting of the sun ;
and the Night the time between his setting and rising. The AerrRONOMicAi. or Solah Day,
on the other hand, comprehends the whole period of tlie sun's diurnal revolution, and is
reckoned trom the time of his passing any particular meridian, to the time of his returning
to the same meridian. The pendulum usually employed is of such a length as to divide the
mean astronomical day into 24X00X60=86400 equal parts called lecondt; 60 of these
parts make a minute ; 60 minutes make an hour ; and 24 hours complete the day.

As the apparent motion of the sun carries him eastward among the fixed stars, the time
that elapses between his passing the meridian, and his returning to it again, is longer than
llie time that intervenes between two successive passages (called transits) of any particular
star. This latter period is the exact time of the earth's revolution on its axis, and is called
a SiDEHEAL day : it is about 23'' 56" 4' in length.

The motion of the earth on its axis being perfectly uniform, the length of the sidereal day
is always the same. This is not, however, the cose with respect to the astronomical or solar
day, which is ulTected by the unequable motion of the sun, and by the obliquity of the ecliptic.
At the summer solstice, towards which the sun's motion in the ecliptic is slowest, the solar
day is more nearly equal to the sidereal day than at the winter solstice, when the sun's motion
is quickest.

With regard to the effect of the obliquity of the ecliptic in reference to the length of the
solar day, it is to be observed, that, by the geometrical properties of the sphere, equal portions
of any circle, whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of revolution, pass over the meridian
in equal times ; but if the plane of a circle is oblique to the axis, the arcs that pass over the
meridian in equal times are not equal. Hence, if the sun moved uniformly in the equator,
the solar day would be always of the same length : but as he moves in the ecliptic, whose
plane is oblique to the axis, even if he did proceed with a uniform motion, the equal area
which he daily described would pass over the meridian in unequal times ; so that the solar
day would be longer or shorter according to the sun's place in the ecliptic.

The motion of the shadow on a sun-dial marks out time as measured by the sun's motion
in the ecliptic : but if the sun moved uniformly in the equator at such a rate as to complete
the annual circuit of the heavens, in the same time as he does by his actual motion in the
ecliptic, time measured by his motion would then correspond with that of a well-regulated
clock.

The difference between the time shown by the sun-dial, and that shown by the clock, is
sailed the E<iuation of Time. The part of this equation which depends on the obliquity of
the ecliptic, vanishes at the equinoxes and at the solstices ; because at these seasons the sun
comes to the meridian at the same moment as ho would do if he moved in the equator.

Prom the vernal equinox till the summer solstice, and from the autumnal equinox till the
winter solstice, the time as shown by the sun-dial is in advance of that indicated by the
clock; because then the sun's distance from the first point of Ane#, and first point of Libra,
passes sooner over the meridian than the equal arc upon the equator, which the sun would
have described had he moved in that circle.

Again, the hour shown by the sun-dial is behind that shown by the clock, from the summer
and winter solstices, till the autumnal and vernal equinoxes ; because at these two seasons
the distance of the sun from the first point of Aries, and from the first point of Libra, re-
quires longer time to pass over the meridian, than the equal arc tipon the equator.

The port of the equation of time which arises from the unequable motion of the sun, will
vanish when ho is at his greatest and least distances from the earth ; because he is in these
two points of his orbit at the same instants of time as he would be if he moved uniformly
with his mean velocity ; that is, with a rate of motion by which he would describe equally
the ecliptic in the same time in which he describes it by his unequable motion.

The dial, during the time when the sun is moving from the point of his greatest, to the
point of his least distance from the earth, is faster than the clock; bccnuso the sun is then

\ ••

Book I.

DIVISION AND MEASURE OF TIME.

at no instant so far advanced in his orbit, as he would have been if he had been moving uni-
formly with his mean velocity. The reverse is the case while the sun is moving from the
point of his least to that of his greatest distance. Time measured by the dial is called
APPARENT time ; that shown by a well-regulated clock is called true time. The eflect of
the obliquity of the ecliptic, and that of the sun's unequable motion,.in rendering the dial
fbister or slower than the clock, sometimes combine with and at other times counteract each
other. The amount of each is given in the two fdlowing tables for every fifth day of the
vear ; and by taking the sum or difference, according as the obliquity of the ecliptic and
ihe sun's unequable motion produce similar or opposite effects, a table may be formed of
Jie equation of^ time.

Tabk showing the Part of the Equation qf Time that arises from the Obliquity of

the Ecliptic.

Dial Filter.

Dial Blower.

Dial Falter.

Dial Slower.

March - -

June • •

Beptember

December-

July • • •

October

April . .

January -

Auguit- -

November-

Mty- • •

February •

September

December -

June • •

March . .

Table showing the Part <f the Eqtiation of Time that arises from the Inequality of the

Sun^s Motion.

Jtill the
Iby the
l^&ra,
1 would

liramer
leasons
fa, re-
will
I these
Ibrmly
finally

,tht
I then

Dial Falter than Oock.

Dial Slower than Clock.

July • •

October •

December •

March • .

.*»

January •

April - .

Auguit. -

November.

February .

May. . .

September

December •

March • ■

June • •

15 7

3:1

20 , 7

I»

35 7

The difference between the apparent and the true time, is very observable about the
season when the day is lengthening or shortening with most rapidity. It is a common
remark, that when the day is shortening, the change is more observable in the evening than
in the morning; but that the reverse is the case when the day is lengthening. This arises
from the clock being before or after the sun. Thus, in the end of October, the dial is
upwards of sixteen minutes faster than the clock; so that the time of sun-rise, and tlie time
of sun-set, will each, as indicated by the clock, appear earlier by 16 minutes, than as indicated
by the motion of the solar shadow. Hence tiie instant of noon, as shown by the clock,
appears not to divide equally the time during which the sun is above the horizon : the time
from sun-rise till noon, appears longer than from noon till sun-set. Again, about the middle
of February, the dial is about 15 minutes slower than the clock; so that the time of sun-rise
and the time of sun-set will each, as indicated by the clock, be later by 15 minutes than as
indicated by the dial ; and the time from sun-rise till noon, as shown by the clock, will
appear shorter than the time from noon till sun-set.

4 i;l

fy^i.t

'iU

i(!

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY.

Paut n.

Aa the return of the frnn to the meridian marks out the day, so hia return to the same
equinox murks out another pnrlion qf time of much importance to bo determined with
accuracy ; namely, the Year. Thin period comprehends tlie seasons which divide it into
four parts. Within tliis period also, the moon jroes twelve times througli all her phases,
which occupy the space of nearly twenty-nine and a half days : hence the year has been
divided into twelve months, three of which arc allotted to each season. By accurate obser-
vation it is found, that the time which elapses between the instant at which the sun paaaes
the vernal cquiiio-x, and the period of his return to it, is 365'' 5'' 48" 48*. Tliis period is
called the Tropical year. It is found to be shorter than the interval between two successive
returns of the sun to the same star by 20"' 20'. This last-mentioned period is called the
Sidereal year, and consists of 305'' 6'' 9"' 11'.

In order to mnkc sucli a distribution of time as is accommodated to the purposes of liffe,
it is necessary so to adjust the reckoning of the solar revolution to the length of the mean
solur day, that the beginning of the year may coincide with the beginning of the day, and
the seasons may always recur in the same months. If the solar revolution consisted of an
exact number of days, there would be no difficulty ; but as it includes a fraction of a day,
it is evident that one year cannot be mode equal to one revolution, without incurring the
inconvenience of making the year commence at a different point of time from the beginning
of the day. But though one year cannot be made equal to one revolution, a certain number
of years may be made equal to a like number of revolutions.

Julius Cvsar introduced the first near approximation to accuracy on this subject, in the
4.5th year before the commencement of the Christian era. The Romans had before that
time estimated the year according to the course of the moon, in imitation of the Greeks ;
dividing it into twelve months, which consisted in all of 354 days; but as an odd number
was thought the more fortunate, one day was added which made the year consist of 355
days. To make the lunar year correspond witli the course of the sun, on which depends
the vicissitude of seasons, an intercalary month was inserted every other year, between the
23d and 24th day of February. The intercalation of this month was left to the discretion
of tlie priests, who, from interested motives, inserted often more or fewer than the proper
number of days, so as to make the year longer or shorter, according as it suited their own
purposes. This caused the montlis to be transposed from their stated seasons, the winter
months being carried back into autumn, and the autumnal months into summer. When Julius
Cajsar became master of the state, he resolved to put an end to this disorder, by abolishing
the use of intercalations which had been the source of it ; and for that purpose, by the
assistance of Sosipcnes, a celebrated astronomer of Alexandria, he adjusted the year to the
course of the sun, and assigned to the respective months the number of days which they
still contain. That matters might proceed with regularity from the beginning of the ensuing
January, he made the current year, which was called the last year of confusion, consist of
fifteen months, or 445 days.

The Julian year is founded upon the supposition that the solar revolution is exactly
365* 6\ For three successive years the six hours are omitted ; but in the fourth year an
additional day is inserted in the month of February, which makes the four years correspond
with four solar revolutions. This fourth year, consisting of 366 day», is called Bissextile
or Leap year. But as the true length of the solar revolution is not 365'' &", but only
365* 5^ 48™ 48', the Julian year is too long by ll" 12' ; so that before a new year begins,
the sun has passed the point of the ecliptic where the preceding year began. The error
thence arising is, however, so small, that it was long before it was observed. The Julian
Calendar was introduced into the church at the time of the Council of Nice, in the year 325
of the Christian era ; and the vernal equinox was at that time fixed to the 2lBt of March.
In the year 1582, however, it was found that the vernol equinox fell, not on the 2l8t of
March, but on the 11th of that month ; so that the Julian year had fiillen about ten days
behind the sun. If this erroneous reckoning had been continued, the seasons would have
entirely changed their places. // wag there/ore resolved to reform the calendar, which was
done by Pope Gregory XIII., and the first step was to correct the loss of the ten days, by
counting the day after the 4th of October, not tiie 5th, but the 15th day of the month. The
error in the Julian year reckoning, being about eleven minutes yearly, amounts to nearly
three days in four centuries. Hence to prevent its accumulr tion in future, it was agreed to
suppress three intercalary days in the course of four hundred years, by considering the last
of three succeasive centuries common, instead of leap years. The years in which the inter-
calary days are omitted are 1700, 1800, 1900: and, in general, the last year of every century
not divisible by four, is reckoned a common year, which in the Julian account is bissextile.
The degree of accuracy thus attained is very considerable ; for taking the annual error at llj
minutes, in four centuries, it will amount to 4480 minutes, or to 3' 2'' 40'". Of this error,
the fractional part, 2'' 40"', is all that remains uncorrected ; and this error will require the
lapse of 3600 years before it amounts to a day. .

Other modes of intercalation. If tlie tropical year were 36.5'' 5'' 49'^ 12", the Gregorian
intercalation would be norfuctly exact. Accurate observation proves, however, that the year

Boos L

DIVISION AND MEASURE OP TIME.

IS shorter by about 2'! seconds. If scientific principles had been strictly followed, they would
have p(>intu(l out other modes of intercalation still more accurate, though perhaps not more
convcniniit, than tliat which lias been adopted. The determination of the methods of inter-
calation best suited to make the computations in the calendar correspond as nearly as possible
with the rnal motions of the sun, requires all the integer numbers to be found, which most
nearly e.\pros9 the ratio of .V 48'" 48' to a day. These numbers are easily determined by the
method of continued fraction*. In the Gregorian calendar, 97 days are intercalated in the
course of 400 years; but it would be much more exact to intercalate 109 days in the course
of 4.'}0 years. If the troiMcal yeor were precisely 385'' 6'' 48'" 48', this intercalation would, in-
deed, bo quite accurate : for 5" 48" 48", multiplied by 450, give exactly 109 days.

The reformation of the calendar, or the change from the Old Style to the New Styi.e,
did no. take place in Enffland, till the year 1752, at which time it was established by an
act of parliament. The alteration was ordered to be made on the 2'! nf September; and as
rho error of the Julian reckoning now amounted to 11 days, the 3d was to be counted the
I4tn of September.

Correspondence between the days of the teeek and month. As the common year consists
of 52 weeks and one day, it is evident that the beginning and end of each common year will
fall on tlie same day of the week. In a scries of years, therefore, if no leap years occurred,
the first day of each month would, year after year, be one day farther advanced in the week,
till, in the course of seven years, the same days of the month would return to the same days
of the week. But since leap year contains 52 weeks ond 2 days, and occurs every fourth
year, it follows that the days of the week cannot correspond to the same days of the month,
till after the lapse of four times seven or twenty-eight years. This period is called the
Cycle of the Sun. When this period is completed, the sun's place in the ecliptic returns
to the same signs and degrees on the same months and days, so as not to differ a degree in
a century ; and the leap years, as well as the common years, begin the same course over
again with respect to the days of the week on which the days of the month fall. The year
of our Saviour's birth, according to the vulgar era, was the ninth year of the solar cycle :
hence, to find the current year of that cycle, we must add nine to the given year of the
Christian era, and divide the sum by twenty-eight ; the quotient will be the number of cycles
which have been completed since the birth of Christ, and the remainder will be the current
year of the prQsent cycle. Thus, for the year 1829, the cycle of the sun is found to be 18.
The first .seven letters of the alphabet have been employed to mark the several days of the
week. As one of those seven letters must necessarily stand against Sunday, it is printed in
the calendar in a capital form, and called the Dominical Letter : Uio other six letters are
inserted in a difieront character, to denote the other six days of the week. When January
begins on Sunday, A is the Dominical letter for that year : but because the next year begins
on Monday, the Sunday will of course fall on the seventh day, to which is annexed the
seventh letter G, which will therefore be the Dominical letter for all that year : and as the
third year will begin on Tuesday, Sunday will fiill on the sixth day, so that F will be the
Dominical letter pr that year, and so on. Hence it is evident tliat tlie Dominical letters
will succeed each other in a retrograde order, viz. G, F, E, D, C, B, A. As the days of the
week correspond to the same days of the month only once in twenty-eight years, it follows
that it is only after the lapse of the same period, that tlie series of Dominical letters can
proceed in the same order in reference to the days of the month. Every leap year has two
Dominical letters; one answering from the beginning of January till the end of February;
the other being the letter immediately preceding, answering for the remainder of the year.
The Dominical letter may be found for any year of any century by the following rule :
divide the centuries by 4, and take twice what remains from 6: then add together this last
remaiiuler, the odd years above the even centuries, and the fourth part of these odd years,
neglecting the remainder if any : divide the sum by 7, and the excess of 7 above the
'emainder is the number answering to the letter required. Thus, for the year 1830, the
Dominical letter is C. For the centuries 18 divided by 4 leave 2 ; and twice this remainder
taken from 6 also leaves 2 ; by adding to which the odd number of years 30, and their fourth
part 7, we obtain 39 : this sum divided by 7 leaves the remainder 4, which taken from 7
leaves 3, answering to C, the third letter of tlie alphabet.

CHAPTER X.

PROPER MOTION OP THE MOON. HER PHASES. ECLIPSES OF THE SUN AND MOON.

The moon, next to the sun, is the most interesting to us of all the heavenly bodies. Her
phases, or that scries of changes in her figure and illumination which she undergoes in the
course of about a month, are one of the most striking of the celestial phenomena; and presen
n division of time so remarkable that it has been the first in use among all nations.

The moon has an apimrent motion among the fixed stars similar to that of the sun, bu.
Vol. L N

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt R.

hii

much more rapid ; it carries her caiitward at the rate of nciirly 13° lOJ', at an average, in
'H liuurs. Wlien this motion m accuniteljr traced out, it is found, tliat the moon dcRcribes
round tho earth, in 2T' 7" 43", a path or orbit inclined to the ecliptic at an angle of nearly
.^'^ 0'. Tho line in which tho plane of tho orbit cuts the plane or tho ecliptic is called the
Ijnb or THB NoDis. The point in which the moon crosses the ecliptic when ascending
to the north, is called tlio asoendino node ; and the opposite point, in which she crosses it
wlinn deeceudinff to the south, is called the descgndino node.

Tho figure of tlie lunar orbit is determined in the same manner as that of the solar, by
obRcrving the changes in the apparent diameter of the moon, and comparing these with the
variations in her angular velocity. It is thus found, that the moon's orbit, like that of the
Kuii, is in appearance an ellipse, having tho centre of the earth in one of the foci, and that
(lie nulius vector, or the line joining the centres of the earth and moon, describes areas pro-
portional to tho times. Neither tlie line of the nodes nor the greater axis of the lunar orbit
is fixed. The former has a slow retrograde motion, by which it makes an entire revolution
in something more than 18 J years ; the latter has a progressive motion, by which it com-
pletes a revolution in something less than 9 years. The elliptic orbit is liable, indeed, to so
many changes, that tho full investigation of the lunar motion has been found one of the most
difficult problems in astronomy. At the same time it is one of the most usefii^'as connected
with the finding of the longitude of places on the surface of the earth. Accordingly, the
eiforts of astronomers have been assiduously directed to the perfecting of the lunar theory ;
and by employing the resources of modem science, and combining these with continued and
accurate observation, their labours have been crowned with wonderful success.
The phases of the moon depend on her position with regard to the sun. Let E be the

earth, M the moon revolving in her orbit
round the earth, E S the direction of the sun,
and let us suppose all the solar rays which
illuminate the moon to proceed in straight lines
parallel to S E. The moon is an opaque body
like the earth, and is visible only in conse-
quence of reflecting the light of the sun. When
she comes to the meridian, therefore, about tlie
mme time with the sun, that is, when she is at
M, she must bo invisible, on account of the
unenlightened side being turned towards us.
It is then s.aid to be new moon : and, in refer-
ence to her position with regard to the sun, the
moon is said to be in conjunction. Again,
when the moon comes to the meridian about
midnight, that is, when she is at m, she is said
to be in opposition, and in that position she
presents an entire circular disc; because the
whole of the enlightened side is then turned
towards the earth. It is then said to be full
moon. At any point of her orbit, between the
points of conjunction and opposition, the moon
turns more or less of her enlightened side towards the earth, occording to her angular dis-
tance Irom the sun, and presents exactly the same appearances as an opaque spherical body,
of which one side is illuminated, would exhibit, if viewed from a distance, and in the same
positions in which tho moon is seen from the earth. After the conjunction, as soon as she
lias emerged sufficiently from the solar rays, she is seen in the western sky, after sunset, in
the form of a Crescent, as at M', having the convex side turned towards the sun, and the
poncave bounded by an elliptic line. On every succeeding night the luminous part increases,
while the elliptic boundary continually approaches to a straight line. On the seventh night
from the time of new moon, the moon reaches tiie position M", where her distance from the
sun is 90°: she is then said to be in her first Quadrature, and exhibits tho appearance of
HALF moon ; that is, the disc is a semicircle. The enlightened part still continuing to
increase on the same side, tlie rectilineal boundary of the semicircular disc passes again
into an elliptic line, and the moon becomes oibbovs, as at M'": on all sides the disc is con-
vex, though it docs not become entirely fiill orbed until she reaches tiie point of opposition,
at m, about the end of seven days from the time of half moon. From tho instant of opposi-
tion the moon begins to return to the sun on the wostom side ; and in her progress towards
the conjunction she goes throuch the same series of changes in an inverted order, becoming
first gibbous, as at m' ; then haif moon at ttie time when she reaches the position m", her
second quadrature ; then a crescent, as at m'", which, continually diminishing, at last dis-
appears altogether. Thus, on the supposition tliat the moon is an opaque body and nearly
-spherica), and that she revolves in an orbit round the earth, the phenomena of her phases
ure easily explained.

Boob I.

PHASES OF THE MOON.

Strictly Bpeaking, tlie moon is not exactly 00 donees distant fVom tho sun when ahe pro*

■enta Uio appuarance of half moon. This phaais
occurs at tho momunt when tho moon ia in such a
position that two straight lines drawn from her
centre, — the one to the centre of the earth, tho
other to tho centre of the sim, — form a right angle.
By observing, therefore, the moon's distance mini
tlie sun, at the instant when the boundary between
tho enlightened and dark part exactly bisects tho
lunar disc, we should have in the right^ngled tri-

anglo S M F tlie angle at F ; and hence, since the

Hide F M is also known, S F, the distance of tho sun may bo determined. This was the
first method employed for flnding the sun's distance from the earth ; but, from the nicety of
the observations required, it cannot bo expected to lead to any very satisfactory result

To a spectator un tlic moon the earth must evidently exhibit a series of changes similar
to the lunar phases as seen from the earth. At the time of conjunction the moon is on the
illuminated side of tho earth, so that the earth must then appear, as seen from the moon,
an entire circular disc. Again, at the time of opposition, the moon is on the dark side of
the earth ; so that the earth must then be invisible. When tho moon is seen as a crescent,
the earth will appear gibbous ; and when the moon appears gibbous, the earth will bo seen
as a crescent.

The fact of tlie earth appearing to a spectator on the moon an entire luminous disc, at
the time of the moon's conjunction with the sun, furnishes an explanation of a phenomenon
with which every one is fomiliar. In clear weather, when the moon is three or four days
old, her whole body is visible. The horns of tho enlightened crescent appear to project
beyond the old moon as if they were part of a sphere of considerably larger diameter than
the unenlightened part. Now, the port of the moon not directly illuminated by the sun is
seen by tho light reflected from the eartli. The appearance of a lucid bow, connecting the
horns of the crescent, is produced by the circumstance of the eastern edge of the moon's
disc being more luminous tlian the adjacent regions towards the centre. Witli regard to
the enlightened crescent appearing a portion of a larger sphere, this is an optical deception,
and furnishes a remarkable proof that of two objects of equal magnitude, but of different
degrees of brightness, tho brighter appears larger.

A lunation or lunar month is formed by the time that elapses between one new moon
and another. It consists of 29'' 12' 44°" 3* nearly ; and therefore exceeds tlie period of her
mean sidereal revolution, which is 27" 7* 43°' 11^'. This excess arises from tho proper
motion of the sun in the ecliptic ; for it ia evident that the period in which the moon goes
through all her phases must be equal to the time required to describe 360°, with an angular
velocity equal to the difference between angular velocities of moon and sun.

Cycle of the moon. In 19 Julian solar years there are 23.'> lunations, and about one
hour and a half more. Hence, alter 19 years, the conjunctions, oppositions, and other
aspects of tlie moon recur on the same days of the month, and only about an hour and a
half sooner. This period is accordingly called the Cycle of the Moon, and has been
found of so much use in adjusting the lunar to the solar year, in order to know the time of
new and full moon, and to determine the time of Easter, and other moveable feasts, that tl'>:
numbers of it have been called Golden Numbers. The year of our Saviour's birth, accoi I
ing to the vulgar era, was the first year of the lunar cycle : hence, to find the golden
number, or the current year of that cycle, we must add one to the yeor of Christ for which
the golden number is requured, and divide the sum by 19 : the quotient will be the number
of cycles which have elapsed since the birth of Christ, ond the remainder will be the golden
iinmber or current yeor of the cycle.

The epact is the difference between the solar and lunar periods at the end of each year,
or the moon's age on the first of January. Since the Julian solar year is 365'' 6\ and the
lunar year, or twelve lunations, 3.54'' 8'' 48" 36', if we suppose new moon to have happened
on the first of January, so that the epact for that year is 0, it follows that the epact for the
next succeeding year will be 10'' Ql"" 11" 24", or nearly 11 days. For the third yeor, the
epact will be nearly 22 days. For the fourth year it will be 3S days, or (rejecting 30 days
for a complete lunation) 3 days, and so oa

The annexed table contains the golden num-
bers with the corresponding enacts adapted
to the Gregorian calendar, till the year 1900.
The epact for each month of the year is, in
like manner, the moon's age on the first day
of the month, supposing new moon to have
happened on the first of January.

GoMm
Nujiibera.

Epacti.

OoMtn
Nuniben.

Cpactl.

r.olJni
.Numbtn.

Epuli.

vm.

XV.

II.

IX.

XVI.

III.

XVII.

IV.

XI.

XVIII.

XII.

XIX.

VI.

XIII.

VII.

XIV.

!i3

i 1'!

!l't

I' —

leo

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY.

pax-c n.

ii;

The eptcta for the montha of the common and leap year aro ait followa :—

Jin.

Feb.

Mar.

May.

Junn.

July.

Aug.

Bon.

Oct.

Nov,

Deo.

Common year

«,

«.

«,

Leap ynt

«,

10.

It is evident that the moun'a age will be tuund by adding to(^thcr the opact of tho year,
the epect of the month, and the day of the month, rejecting tliirty if tho auiii amount to tliat
number. Thua, if it ia required to And the moon'8 af^o on tho 11th November ISItO; by
adding 1 to 1620 and dividing by 19, wo obtain a rcmamder 6, which is Uio golden number
for the year 1829. Now, against VI. in the table, wo find !25 tor the cpact ot the year, and
9 ia the epact for November: hence 25 + 9+11 — 30 = 15, which ia Uie moon's age ; ao
that the moon ia flill on that day.

The lunar cycle of 19 years, though remarkably simple, ia however far from being accu-
tate. Nineteen yeara contain about an hour and a half more than 235 lunations ; so tliat at
the termination of that period the moon has odvanced about an hour and a half in tho next
lunation. This error amounta to a day in tho course of 16 cycles, or about 300 years. But,
to compenaate this ezcesa, the epacta may be advanced one day every 300 years, and in
thia manner the lunar and solar periods will bo made to agree. In consequence of her
apparent motion eastward, the moon ia about 48 minutes later oiler every diurnal revolution
of coming to the meridian. Aa 48 minutea ia equal to * of an hour, an approximation ia
made to Uie time of her southing, by multiplying her age by 4, and dividing Ly 5. Thia
gives tho time, nearly, before or after noon, according aa the moon is post tlie opposition or
coniunctioa

The time of her rising and setting ia affected by the aame cause. In one part of the
orbit, however, thia ia in a great measure counteracted hy the smallncss of tho angle which
the orbit makes with the horizon. For facilitating tho illustration of this phenomenon, let
ua auppoae the moon to move in the ecliptic, from which slie never deviates much more
than 5°. By turning round the celestial globe, it will be seen that the ecliptic makes with
the horizon very different angles, aa the pointa of their intersection vary, If the first point
vf Aries be broujght to coincide with tho east point of the liorizon, the angle wliich the
ecliptic makes with the horizon is equal to tiiu difference of the obliquity of tho ecliptic and
the complement of the latitude : but if the first point oi Libra be brought into coincidence
with the east point, the angle between the ecliptic and the horizon is equal to the sum of
the obliquity und the complement of the latitude. When the moon is in Pitces or Aries,
her motion m her orbit will therefore produce a considerable change, each succeeding night,
on the distance between the east and the point of rising, but the time of rising will not be
much afibcted, The reverse will be the case when the moon ia in Virgo or Libra. Hence
it ia obvious that in every lunation, at a certain time, tlie moon must rise nearly at the some
hour for several days togetlicr. This phenomenon, however, for tlie most part, passes unob-
served ; but in the harvest season it attractii attention, as being tlien much more coniipicuous
than at anv other time of tlic year. In the autumnal months the moon is full in tlie signs
Pisces and Aries, (the sun being at that season m the opposite signs Virgo and JAbra,) and
on that account rises an entire orb (or nearly so) for about a week, almost at the time of
sunset, thus alTording a supply of li^ht very beneficial to the husbandman, in gathering in
the iruita of the earth. This lunation has accordingly been distinguished by the name of
the BAKvnr moon.

The inclination of the moon's orbit to the ecliptic, makes the harvest moon rise, more or
leas, nearly at the same time that she would if she moved in the ecliptic, according to the
poeition of the line of the nodes. If we suppose the ascending node to be in Aries, the
moon's orbit makes with the horizon an angle upwards of 5° less than the angle which the
ecliptic makes with it, and consequently the harvest moon will rise more nearly at the same
time than if the moon had been in the ecliptic. In a little less than 9J years, however, the
line of the nodes will have made half a revolution, and the descending node will be in Aries.
The moon's orbit will then make with tlie horizon an angle more than 5° greater than that
which the ecliptic makes with it ; and, consequently, the harvest moon will not rise so nearly
at the same time as if tlic moon had been in the ecliptic.

The quantity of moonlight which we emoy in winter is much greater than in summer.
As the moon is always on the same side of tho heavens witli the sun, at the time of new
pioon, and on the opposite side at the time of full moon ; it is evident that at midsummer the
moon, when seen as a crescent, will rise at a point of tlic horizon to the north of east, and
set at a point to the north of west, and will be seen high in the heavens when she passes
tlie meridian. As she approaches full moon, however, she will rise farther and farther to the
aouth of east, will appear low in the heavens when on the meridian, and will set farther and
&rther to the south of west. The reverse takes place at mid-winter : the moon is low
when seen as a crescent, and rises higher and higher in the heavens as she approaches full
moon. She also rises to the south of east when a crescent, and sets to the south of west ;
but, when full, rises and sets to the north of these points. Thus the great quantitv of moon-
light during the long nights of winter arises from the moon being full in tlie northern eigm

Book I.

PHASES OF THE MOON

to the
erand
is low
es full
west ;
moon-
. signn

of the pr.liptic, and is analogous to that of MiinHhino in tho long days of lummcr. As wn
approach tliu pole, the mmntity nf moonlit;lit in wiritor bccmnos still morn rctnarkahin ; luiil
at tht< iKilu itHclt', nt mi«l-winter, thn nioondoos nut set liirtitlcun days toj^ethor, nainoly, frum
tiie tirHt to tho last quarter.

TliP liiimr (line is (livorsitind with a (frcnt viirioty of npots, which aro miito permanent, bn(
dlller very coiwidorubiy tVom each other in doKTees <>t bri)rhtness. TlieHO inp(|uiilitii3S of
ilhiminntion aro visiUo to tho naked eye. Hinco the discovery of tho telescope tin y have
entfajfod the porticiilnr attention of Heveral nstronomers, by whom llioir relative |x>Niti()iiH
have been careftilly ancertained, and laid down in maps of the lunar surface. From iin
attentive examination of the li|rhts and shades seen on tho moon's disc, it has boon inferred
that her surface is very irref^ular, being diversified by lolly mountains, prceipitnus r(H-l(M,Hn(l
deep caverns. The existence of these irrcf^ularitics of surface is strikin|;ly evitlent from the
serrated appearance of the line which separates tho enlijrhtnned firom the dark (lart of the
moon, and by a variety of briji^ht detached spots, almost always visible on tho dark part and
near the line of separation between liirht and darkness. These bright spots aro the tops of
mountains illuminated by the sun, while his rays have not yet reached tho bottom of the
intervening; valleys. Tho dark spots of the moon are smooth, and apparently level, while
the luminous parts are elevated regions, which either rise into high mountains or sink into
deep and immense cavities. The (general smoothness of the dark spots naturally led to the
conclusion that they were collections of water ; but moro careful observation has made it
appear that the line which separates the enlightened from the dark part of tho moon is not
smooth and regular, even when it passes over a dark spot ; so that there is no reason to sup-
pose tliat there is any largo collection of water in the moon : and this conclusion is 8trcn|)rth-
ened by the constant serenity of her appearance, which seems undisturbed bv any of those
atmospherical phenomena which arise on our globe fhmi the existenco of water. The
mountainous scenery of the moon, and more especially the immense caverns with which her
surface is broken, bear little analogy to what we see on the surface of the earth. The
resemblance may, however, be conceived to be considerably increased if all the waters of
the earth were removed, and tho beds of the ocean, seas, and lakes were led dry with all
the inequalities of their surfaces exposed to view. The earth would then be diversified, not
only with the rocks and mountains now seen upon its surface, but likewise with deep caverns
of immense extent, and having detached mountains and rocks rising fiom the bottom, similar
to the cavities discovered in the moon. From certain light spots which have sometimes
been seen on the dark prt of the moon, at such a distance from the enlightened portion
that they could not arise from the light of the sun, astronomers have inferred the existence
of volcanoes in the moon. Dr. Herschel, in particular, two or three difTorcnt times, observed
such spots.
Tho height of a lunar mountain may be measured by the following method. Let D A R

be a section of the moon made by a plane passing
through O, the eye of an observer on the earth, M the
summit of a mountain situated in the dark part of the
lunar disc, and S the sun. It is evident that this plane
will be perpendicular to the line which joins the horns
: of the moon. Let D A be the arch of the circle
J) A F, which passes ovev ihe visible portion of the
enlightened hemisphere. Whenever the point M bo-
comes visible to a spectator at O, it must be illumi-
nated by a ray of the sun S A M, which will be a
tangent to the circle D A F at the point A, and there-
fore at right angles to the diameter A F. Produce
O M to meet the diameter D E in m, and draw A r
and A n parallel to D E and M m ; also produce E D to meet S M in C. Because DAE
is a section of that hemisphere of the moon which is turned towards the earth, the visual
ray O M m is perpendicular to D E : hence the angles wi M C, M C m are together equal
to two right angles. But because C A is perpendicular to A B, the angles ABC and A C B
(or M C »n) are also together equal to two right angles : whence it is evident that the angle
m M C is equal to A B C ; and that tho triangles A M r, A B n are similar. We have,

therefore. An: AB = Ar: AM. Hence A M = r •

Now, A r is the projection of A M on the lunar disc, and will be found by measuring,
with the micrometer, m a direction perpendicular to a line joining the horns of the moon.

An
the distance of the illuminated summit M from the enlightened disc at A ; also ips" Sin.

^ A B C, radius being unity, the angle A B C is equal to S M m the moon's distance or

A r

!; '

1'^

1 ^]

elongation from Uie sun

wherefore we obtain A M
9*

Sin. elongation

I a given quantity.

^ v^

I if

PRINCII>I£8 OF GEOGRAPHY.

Past II.

Next, lot A O II bo a noction of tlin inunn modn by it plonn pamiini; n\(mg tim tanir<'nt A M,
and tlirouffli thn contro K : draw M K G ; then, by a wuU-kiiown
proiMTtv of tlio circle, A M' - O M X M il = M H X ((} II + II M).
or, II AI binng much «nmllor than G II, wu have A M ^ = M II X G II,

A M'
and M H = qjt nearly. Now, A M and G II aro both given ; there-
fore II M, the hoiglit of the mountain above the general aurtiico, may
be dotcrminod.

Suppow, for example, that when tlio a|>|Mront diameter of tlio
moon iH 31' 15", and nor okinaation (Vom the lun 03° &7i', the dii-
tance between Uie onlishtoneJ part of her dine, and the tiimmit of a
mountain aituatmi in the dark part of it ia found to be 4lVi And let
it bo required thence to detcrmmo tho height of the mountain.

The diameter of the moon ia about 2180 .niloH; hence 31' 15" or 1875": 4U" = 2160:

Ar = 48-25

48*25, which ia the number of mileii in 41^" on tho lunar dine ; ao that wo have
miloH,

Affain, tho Nat Sin. of the elongation 08° 57J = "0076 } therefore A M = Sin elonga tion

~ 0076

= 48-30 milos.

Lastly. The height = AJ!!'
' OH

(48-36)-^
" 2180

= 107 mile.

Thus the height of the lunar mountain in question ia found to bo about a mile. The
principle now explained is correct in theory ; but witli regard to the results obtained iVom
tho practical application of it, a greater diflbronce of opinion exists than might have been
expected. These results are, however, highly curious and interesting.

itfoon*« motion round the earth. The moon's surface, when viewed through a telescope,
ia so strongly characterised by tho spots visible upon it, as to leave no doubt of ita bemg
always tho same. From this the intereiico ia obvious, since wc are certain from tho moon's
motion round the earth, that she must revolve on an axis nearly perpendicular to tlie plane
of her orbit in tho same time that she revolves about tho earth, namely in 27^ days nearly.
Her rotation on her axis is equable ; but this is not the case with her motion in her orbit,
which is periodically variable : and hence there are parts of the eastern and western edges
of tho moon which are seen occasionally. This appcaninco ia ciillod the libration or tub
HooN IN LONGITUDE. It is entirely optical, and argues no inequality in tlie moon's motion
on her axis.

The moon's axis of rotation is not altogether perpendicular to the plane of her orbit, but
inclined to it at an angle of 88° 20' 40". In consequence of this position of her axis her
poles are alternately visible, and a small portion of tho polar regions; this phenomenon is
called the libration or the moon in latitude.

The diurnal libration of the moon is another optical appearance arising from tho moon
being viowed from the surface instead of the centre of the eartli. At rising, a part of the
western edge is seen, which is invisible at setting; and, at setting, a part of tho eastern
edge is seen, which is invisible at rising.

The explication of the lunar phases leads to that of Eclipses — those occasional obscura-
tions of the sun and moon which have, in ages of ignorance, been objects of superstitious
terror to mankind, and at all times objects of curiosity to the philosopher. At the time of
new moon, the moon is upon the same side of tho heavens with tlie sun, but, fur the most
part, passes either above or below the solar disc without obscuring any part of it. This
arises from her orbit being inclined to the ecliptic : for it is evident that if the planes of the
orbit and ecliptic coincided, tho centres of the sun, moon, and earth would, at every nev
moon, bo in the same straight line ; so that the moon would bo seen to pass over tho sun's
disc, and the sun would appear to bo totally or partially eclipsed, according to the position
of an inhabitant upon the earth's surface. Again, at the time of fiill moon, tho moon is on
the opposite side of the heavens from tho sun ; and therefore she is on the same side of the
heavens with the shadow, which the earth, as an oparpic body, projects into space. In most
cases, however, the moon passes above or Mov/ this conical shadow; so that she is not
deprived of tlie sun's niys. But if the plane of tho orbit coincided with that of the ecliptic,
the centres of tho sun, moon, and earth would evidently 1)0 in the same straight line at every
full moon as well as at ovory new mixin : the mnon would thorpfnro fiill into tho earth's
shadow, iiiid would be eclipsed to all the inhabitants on that side of the earth which is turned
towards tlio moon nt the time.

Though the inclination of tho lunar orbit to tlic ecliptic prevents tho occurrence at every
now and full moon of these phenomena, there aro certain distances from the nodes of the
moon's orbit, called ecliptic limits, within which, if the moon is situated at the time of
now or full moon, there will be a solar or lunar eclipse.

i^y •'#.

* *

Bom I.

ECUPBE8.

loe

uarth s
i turned

To illuatnto thft Kenoral phonomnnn of lunar eclipaci. IjBi A D, D E be Mctiom of the
fun tnd oarth, by a planu iwrpeiidiculur to tlio planu of llio ecliptic. Dnw A V, B V touchin((

the circlet A B, D B on the corri'spondinif Bidoe in E and D, and meeting each other in V :
alio draw D O, A H, tiiuchinK tlieflo circlci on tho oppuwitn Hidoa in M onu N. Then, if wc
auppoao tho figuro A B H O to revolve about tlio lino C F, which joins the centre* of the
circle*, BH an axiii, tlio cone (generated by the lino E V represonta the ihadow which tho
earth projects into space ; and iVom every pint of that conical shadow tho livht of the sun
is entirely excluded. The spaces between E V, M O, and between D V, N If, will receive
the light of a part of tlie sun ; and hoiice tho space round tlie shadow, which ia generated by
tho motion of tho lines O M, E V, is called tho pbnviibra.

Join C E. It in evident that the angle E V F is equal to the difference of the angles
A E C, E C F. But A E C is tho angle under which tho sun's semidiametcr is seen mm
the earth ; and E C F is the angle under which the earth's semidiametcr is seen fVom the
Hun. Both of thoHO angles being hiM)wn, their diflcrence E V F is a given angle. Now, in
the right ang1e<l triangle E V F wo have given the angle at V, and tlie side E F, which in
the earth's semidiaineter : hence F V, tho height of the earth's shadow, may be determined.
The height of tiie shadow varies fi-nm 'ilU to 2ii0 seniidiamctnrs of tho earth.

Again, lot F O be the distance of tho motjn fl-om tho cnrth : draw K O L perpendicular
to P V, and join F I* The angle L F O, under which the somidiameter of tho section of
the earth's shadow is seen from tho earth, is equal to the ditrorenco of tlio angles, F L E,
F V L. But F L E is the angle under which tho somidiameter of the earth is seen fVom the
moon, and F V L is, as has been shown, equal to tho difl'erenco lietween tho angle under
which the sun's scniidiaroetor is seen from tho earth, and tlio anglo under which the earth's
seniidianietor is seen from tlie sun: hence, to find tlie angle under which the section of tho
earth's shadow through which tho moon passes in a lunar eclijise is seen IVom tho earth,
we must add together tlie two angles under which the semidiametcr of tho earth appears
when seen firuin the sun and moon, and fVom the sum subtract the sun's apparent semi-
diameter, the remainder is tho angle required. The angle L F O, when greatest, is about
46': but the inclination of the lunar orbit to tho ecliptic is upward of fi''. and to this distance
the moon may recede from the ecliptic. It is evident, therefore, that an eclips«< itf the moon
can tako place only when she is near her nodes.

Let tho cwcle A H B be tho section of tho earth's shadow at tho moon; A B a portion
af the ecliptic, and D F a portion of the moon's orbit near the ascending node. Draw C (i
fVom the centre of the shadow, (which must be the noint of the ecliptic directly opposite the
sun,) perpendicular to A B, and let it meet D F in U ; thon G is the point of opposition at
which tho moon will be 180 degrees of the ecliptic distant from the sun. Now, in moving

from D to G, the moon must enter the earth's shadow,
and will therefore be eclipsed. The beginning of the
eclipse will bo the moment that she enters on the shadow
at K : the middle of the eclipse will be the moment when
her centre reaches the point E, the extremity of the per-
pendicular drawn from C to D F; and the end of the
eclipso will be tho moment when she leaves the shadow
at the point L The portion of the moon's disc that is
obscured will depend on tlie distance between E and C,
which will vanish when tlie point of the opposition coin-
cides with tho node. It is evident that Iind the eclipso
happened on the other side of tho node, tho opposite edge of the moon would have been
immersed in the shadow.

In eclipses there are various degrees of immersion. When this is entire, it is soid to be
total; when only a part of the moon is immersed, the eclipse is said to be partial; and
when the centre of the moon passes througii tho centre of the shadow, the eclipse is said
to be r«n/r«/ and /ofol. The breadth of the shadow at the moon is about three times her
diameter, so that in the cat<c of a total central eclipse, the moon may be entirely obscured
for nearly two hours.

:i:

•I'! .i-

^"^

I />

104

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part II

Tho time when eclipses shall httppeii may be computed from the luws which regulate the
motiurii of tho Hun aim moon. This computution requires astronomical tablc.«, and is per-
ftirmeil with considerable labour. But it may be observed that in 22;) lunations, or 18 years
10 duys (or 11 days according as tbur or five leup years occur in tlie interim), 7 houM
4<) inllititeB, tho moon returns to tlie same position nearly with regard to the sun, and the
luniir nodes, and therefore the eclipses, will return nearly in the same order and circum-
Nlitncis, 'J'iiis is tiiought to be the period called tlie Clialdcan Saros, being used by the
( 'hitldeaiiH in predicting eclipses.

When it is known that a lunar eclipse is to happen, it is easy to compute its general cir-
MiiimtJincee. The distance of the moon from the ecliptic at opposition, the time of opposi-
tliin, the angles under which tlie eartli's semidiumetcr is seen at the sun and moon, qlso tlie
lippiifont diameters of these two hur'naries, are known from tlie tables. In the right angled
frliin^io CEO we have given C G, and the angle G C E, which is equal to the inclination
•A' the in(xtn's orbit to the ecliptic, nearly ; lience we find C E and E G. From C E and
< J F, tlio HUm of tiio semidiameters of the section of tlie earth's shadow and the moon, we
(Iml E F, which is equal to E D; thence D G, G F become known. We can compute from
tllo tabloa tho angular motion of the moon in her orbit relatively to the sun, the latter body
beliijf Wjpposed at rest. Her motion relatively to the opposite point C is evidently the same :
liondo we can determine the time of describing D G and G F; that is, the time that elapses
bfltweon tho bcginnmg of the eclipse and the opposition, and between the opposition and
thti end of tho eclipse. But the time of the opposition is known, therefore the times of the
t)«tf Itinittg and end of the eclipse will also be known.

For cfltimntin^ the quantity of on eclipse, the diameter of the solar or lunar disc is con-
ceived to be divided into twelve equal paris called dioith ; and according to the number of
thow parts which are obscured, so many digits are said to be eclipsed.
Lit It be Btipposed that the edge of the moon's disc just touches the edge of the section

of the eartli's shadow at P, and that at the same time
the diameters of the moon and shadow are each at the
maximum, and we shall find the ecliptic limit for lunar
eclipses. Produce E D and B A to meet in N : then
N C is the limit of the distance of the node from the
opposition at which an eclipse can happen. Since the
line in wliich tiie centre of the moon moves (whicli for
a short distance may be considered as a straight line)
must be supposed parallel to tho tangent to the circle
A P B at the point P, the angle at E is a right angle.
The angle N, is the inclination of the lunar orbit to the
eellptle ! also C E is equal to the sum of the semidiameters of the moon and shadow.
]{@IIC0 iVom tho spherical triangle C E N, C N may be determined; and is found to be
Hlxitit lU", UnlesB wiien the node and the point of opposition, which are both liable
U> cuntiniinl change of position, come within this distance, there cannot possibly be a
iuiiitr (^cllpKe.

('it'".i1ation of longitude. The penumbra makes it very difficult to observe, with pre-
finltm, tho beginning or end of a hmar eclipse; so that though these periods may be em-
plitvod fur determining the longitude of places on tlie earth, no great degree of accuracy is
U) m cxpcvhn], The best method is to note t!ie time of the arrival of the boundary of the
fihttdtiw tit the different ipots on tlie lunar surface, which may be considered as so many
dilfrffnt observations.

Tlio tfiooti seldom disappears entirely in lunar eclipses, but is seen of a dusky red colour :
«'Vt'n tho iipofs on the lunar surface may be distinguislied through the shade. This effect is
to hp (tltrihtited to a portion of the sun's light, whicli enters the conical shsulow in conse-
qiiflifo of iK^ing refracted by tho atmosphere of the earth. The nature and effects of atmos-
|ill"flfnl reffnrtion will afterwards be explained.

J'Vli|W« of tho Pini. With regnrd to the general phenomena of solar eclipses, we may
'»e((ill with remarking, that when the sun's light is intercepted by the moon, so that at any
plltcn (III the enrth's surface he becomes partly or wholly invisible, properly speaking, it is
ftn I'flipjio nf lliHt portion of the earth on which the moon's shadow or penumbra tails.

Till' i>eini"nngIo at tho vertex of the moon's shadow is determined in a similar manner
f« tllNt nn which the semi-angle at Uie vertex of the earth's shadow was found. It is equal
to tho difll'reiico of tho angles under which the semi-<liameters of the sun and moon would
l»n piocn, if onrh of these bodies were viewed from the other at the time of their conjunc-
tion ; flhil will thorofore not be very fur from being equal to the apparent semi-dinmotor nf
tllo WIIM ttf> pvrn from tho eurth. Computing, then, tlin longfli of tho conical shiulow of the
moon, Wo pIiiiII find it viiry from about fi(l^ to Twi semi-dianicters of tho earth. Tlio length
of llio |i|iii(lnw (it tho time m tho ronjnnction miiy tlierofbre at one time exceed, null at
(Hiollii'f tiim- (lill short of the moon's distance from the earth, which varies from (i-l to .")0
•*Pftli'illiiiiii'lor9, In the former case, if tho conjunction happen when the moon is witliin a

Book I.

ECLIPSES.

105

certain diBtancc of the node, the lunar shadow will reach tlic eartli, and a section of it will
traverse a portion of the earth's surface, producing, wherever it falls, a total eclipse of the
sun.

Whenjvcr tlie penumbra falls, the sun will appear partially eclipsed ; more or fewer
digits being eclipsed according as the place is less or more removed from the shadow,
Beyond the penumbra tiie sun is not eclipsed at all. The section of the lunar shadow is so
near tlie vortex, tiiat, even wiien greatest, the portion of the eartli's s'lrface which it covers
is not very extensive, being only about 180 miles in diameter : the penumbra, however
extends over a considerable part of that hemisphere of the earth which is turned towards
tlie sun. A total eclipse in any place cannot exceed 7' 58". If tlie vertex of the lunar
shadow just reaches the surface, tlie total eclipse then produced will be instantaneous.

When the vertex of the lunar shadow foils short of the earth's surfoce, at no place will
there be a total eclipse : but at places near the' axis of the cone, there will be seen an
ANNULAR eclipse ; that is, the central parts of the sun's disc will be obscured, but a bright
ring will be left, visible round the dark body of tlie moon. Thus let A B, C I) be sections
of the sun and moon and V the vertex of the lunar

colour :
fToct is
conse-
atmos-

'e may
at any

it is

lanner
equal
•oulil
njunc-
tor of
nf tlif
cngth
ii(i iit
to TiO
Ithin a

shadow which is supposed not to reach the earth. Produce F V the axis of the shadow to
meet the surface of the earth in E. From E draw E C G, E D H tangents to the moon,
and intersecting the sun's disc in G and H. The circle of which the line joinmg G H is
the diameter, marks out the portion of the sun that is hid by the body of the moon from an
observer at E, and the annulus, of which the breadth is A G, will be visible.

The general circumstances of a solar eclipse may be represented by projection ; and a
map may be constructed to show the progress of the shadow over the surface of the earth.
The most simple projection is that which supposes the observer to be placed in the sun, and
to see the path which any place on the earth's surface describes in consequence of the
diurnal nio*.ion projected into an e'.lipse on the plane of the earth's disc, while the path of
the moon's sliadow is projected into a straight line on the same disc. The geometrical con-
struction thus obtained is sufficiently accurate for the prediction of eclipses.

The circumstances of a solar eclipse may, however, be computed with considerable accu-
racy. Thus, find for the given place, from the tables, the time of the conjunction of the
sun and moon. The position of the lieavenly bodies in reference to the ecliptic is deter-
mined by latitude and longitude, in the same manner as the position of a place on the sur-
face of the earth in reference to the equator. Find, then, for the time of the conjunction,
the latitude and longitude of the moon, and apply to them the small change produced by
the spectator being placed on the surface instead of the centre of the earth ; a change
whicli depends on the angle which the earth's .=omidiameter subtends at the sun and moon
at the time : this will give us the apparent latitude and longitude of the moon as seen on
the concave surface of the heavens. Compute from these and the longitude of the sun,
that is, his distance from the first point of Aries, tlie apparent distance of the centres of the
sun and moon at the instant of conjunction ; whence we may nearly conclude tiie time of
the beginning and ending of tiie eclipse, by taking into account the apparent horary motion
of the moon in latitude and longitude at tiie time of conjunction, computed from the tables.
About the conjectured time of the beginning of tiie eclipse, compute two or three opparent
latitudes and longitudes of the moon, and thence, combined with the longitude of the sun,
the apparent distances of the centres. From these results the time may be computed by
proportion when the apparent distance of the centres is equal to the sum of the apparent
semi-diameters, that is, the time of the beginning of the eclipse.

The magnitude also of the eclipse at any time may be thus determined : let S E {fg. 28.)
be the computed apparent diflbrcncc of longitude of the centres S, M, of the sun and moon, and
M E the computed apparent latitude of the moon. In the right-angled triangle M E S, we
have therefore given the two sides to find the hypothenuse M S, which, being known, we
obtain m n the eclipsed part of the sun : for m n—S w+M n — M S.

The eclintic limits of the sun may be determined in the following manner: lot S and M
(29— ;^^>'. 1.; be the sun and moon, seen from E the centre of the earth at the moment of con-
junction ; that is, when their centres arc in the same circle S B perpendicular to the ecliptic.
Lot the aiisrlo « E b, formed by tangents drawn from E to the adjacent edges of tiie solar
and lunar discs, be equal to the greatest' difference between the true place B and apparent

Vol. I O

<'|l

•U;: M

111!

7)f »

109

principij:s of geography.

Paet n.

ill* "

place m of tlie moon, which can arise from her being viewed from the surface instead of tlie
centre of the earth. It is not difficult to see that this difference will be greatest when the
moon is in the horizon, and that its effect will be to depress her altitude. The distance of
the sun is so great, that wo may at present consider his true and apparent place as coinci-
dent. Suppose now an observer on tlie eartli's surface at A, whoso horizon is at right angles
to S B, to have the moon in his horizon at the moment of conjunction ; it is evident tiiat to
him the two discs would appear to be in contact: but to an observer on any other point of
the earth's surface, the discs would appear asunder. In the moment of conjunction, tliere-
fore, the penumbra must have just touched the earth at the point A ; and when the centres
of the sun and moon approach nearest to each other before or after tlic conjunction, it will
spread over a very small portion of the earth's surface near A, so as to produce barely an
ucli]iBe. Hence the distance of the sun from the node at the time of conjunction will be
the solar ecliptic limit, nearly. In the right-angled spherical triangle S m N (_Jig, 2.) let
N S be a ]x)rtion of the ecliptic, and N »n a portion of tlie moon's orbit, N being tiie node, and
let the perpendicular S m be equal to S m in^^. 1. The arc N S is the ecliptic limit required :
and to find it, we have given tiio angle at N equal to the inclination of tiie moon's orbit to the
ecliptic, and S m equal to the sum of the apparent diuiiicters of the sun and moon together
with the angle 6 E a, which is e(iual to B M »n or A M E, the angle subtended by the semi-
diamotor of the earth's disc as seen from the moon. The angle N and the perpendicular
S tn being known, the base N S is easily determined. The three quantities to the sum of
which S m is e(iual, are variable in their values. Taking for S m the sum of the semi-
diameters of the solar and lunar disc, and of the disc of the earth as seen from the moon
when tiiey are greatest, we find S N equal to 17° 12' nearly. But if S m be made equal
to the sum of the semidiameters when they are least, S N is found to be nearly equal to
16° 19'. Within tlie former of these limits an eclipse of the sun may happen, within the
latter it must happen.

If the moon's apparent diameter be greater than or equal to that of the sun, the eclipse
will be total wherever the lunar shadow Bills. But if the sun's apparent diameter be greater
than that of the moon, the eclipse will be annular within the lunar shadow.

Number of eclipses. The ecliptic limits of the sun taken on each side of the node, give
an arc of the ecliptic exceeding 30°, so that the sun will be more than a month in passing
through these limits. Hence there must be two eclipses of the sun every year. Since the
ecliptic limits of the moon, however, taken on each side give an arc only of about 2.3°, and
since through this portion of the ecliptic the sun passes in less than a month, there may be
no eclipse of the moon in the course of a year.

When a total and central eclipse of the moon happens, there may be an eclipse of the
sun at tlio preceding and following conjunctions, because between new and full moons the
sun describes only about 1.5 degrees of the ecliptic, so that each conjunction may happen
within tiie solar ecliptic limits. The snr j may take place at the opposite node: there may
therefore ho six eclipses in the coiir.se of a year. The retrogradation of the node at the
rate of 20° yearly renders it possible, when the first eclipse of the year luipp(>na early in
January, that another eclipse of the sun may occur in the end of the year. On the whole,
there may bo seven eclipses in the course of one year; live of tlio sun, and two of the moon:
and there never can be fewer than two, but though more s-olar eclipses hiippm than lunar,
there are fewer of the former visible than of the latter; beciiuse a lunar t'cli])si' is visible at
every place on the earth which is turned towards the moon diirin;^ its contiiiuiinne ; hut in
a solar eclipse the sun continues visible at all places over wliicli tin; penuinlira docs not pass.
The greatest (lossiblo duration of the annular appcaraiiro of a solar ncli|)S(' is 12 ' 21", and
the greatest possible time during which the sun can be wholly obscun^d is 7"' .")8'.

Ah the l)eginning and end of a solar eclipse can be observed with considenible ncruracy,
they are usefiil for determining the longitude, though the method which they furnish is
complex and laborious.

i i

■ wr

Part 11.

Book I.

ECLIPSES.

I9t

lead oftlte
I when the
liiitance of
> as coinci-
ight angles
lent that to
ler point of
lion, there-
the centres
lion, it will
e barely an
lion will be
[Jig. 2.) let
10 node, and
litrecjuired:
1 orbit to the
3on together
by the semi-
orpendicular
) the sum of
of the semi-
m the moon
made equal
irly equal to
within the

the eclipse
• be greater

node, give
in passing
Since the
lout 23°, and
here may be

clipsc of the
ill moons the

may Iiappen
there may

node at the
pens early in

II the whole,

of tlin moon :
11 tlian lunar,
is vit^iWe at

inco ; but in

oi's not pass.

12 ' 21", and

iKTuracy,
ev furnish ia

Effects of atmospherical refraction and parallax. In the preceding' explanation of solar
eclipses wc have had occasion to refer to the etfects of atmospherical refraction; also
to the diU'orence between the apparent places of the sun and moon, called their parallax,
produced from tiieir being viewed from the surface instead of the centre of the earth.
Before leaving this subject, we shall state a little more fully the ofl'ects arising from these
causes.

Atmospherical refraction. The earth is surrounded on all sides by an aeriform elastic
fluid, which is called the atmosphere. This fluid possesses weight, and is compressible ;
and hence the parts near the surface of the earth are more dense than those above them, on
account of the greater superincumbent pressure which they sustain. The same thing holds
true of every stratum when compared, m reference to density, with that immediately below
it; so that from the surface upwards the density gradually diminishes, at a few miles' eleva-
tion becomes very small, and at some point may be considered as altogether evanescent.
Now, it is a well known principle, that if a ray of light, after passing through one medium
(air, for instance), enters another (say water) of a difl^erent density, in a direction not per-
pendicular to its surface, it is bent out of its course towards the perpendicular to tiie surface on
which the ray is incident, if the second medium is the denser of the two; hut from that per-
pendicular if the second medium is the rarer. In passing through the atmosphere, tiieretore,
a ray of light will be continually deflected from the rectilineal into a curvilineal path ; be-
cause at every point of its course it is entering a medium of a greater density. The ray is
said to be refracted ; and as the tangent draws from tlie eye to the curve which it describes
is the direction in which celestial objects appear, it follows, that refraction renders the appa-
rent altitude of all tlie heavenly holies greater than the true. Hence Uiey often appear
above the horizon when they are actually below it.

The deviation of the refracted ray from its original course increases with the angle of
incidence, and vanishes when the direction of the ray is perpendicular to the surface of the
second medium. Hence atmospherical refraction is greatest when the object is in the
horizon, where it may be about 84' : at 45° altitude, it is about 57^" : in tlic zenith it
vanishes.

Whatever alters the density of the atmosphere must affect also its refractive power. In
all accurate observations, therefore, the state of the barometer and thermometer must be
taken into account. At the same zenith distances, the quantity of refraction varies nearly
as the height of the barometer, supposing the temperature to remain the same. The effect
of a variation in the temperature is to diminish the (juantity of refraction about ^jfth part for
every increase of one degree in the height of the thermometer.

In passing through the atmosphere light is reflected as well as refracted. The reflective
power of tlie atmosphere produces the splendour of day by diffusing light in every direction.
Combined with its refractive power, it causes that faint light called twilight, which is per-
ceived before sunrise and after sunset ; — ^beginning in the morning in our latitude, and end-
ing in the evening, when the sun's depression below the horizon is about 18°. Various
other phenomena are to be attributed to the same cause : the red and orange colour of the
morning and evening clouds ; the ruddy appearance of all the heavenly bodies when near
the horizon ; the blue colour of the sky ; and the bright azure of the distant mountains, are
all the effects of tlie refiractive powers of the atmosphere.

Refraction is also the cause of the oval appearance of the sun and moon when near the
horizon. The diameter of the disc that is parallel to the horizon remains unaffected in its
apparent lennrth, because both extremitio.i are equally refracted ; but the diameter perpen-
dicular to the horizon is shortened by about jtii of its length, because the lower edge of the
dLsc, being nearer the horizon, is refracted nearly five minutes more than the upper.

The great ■ apparent magnitude of the sun and moon when in the horizon is another
remarkable phenomenon whicli we may here notice. Tliis illusion, which is altogether
optical, is usually accounted for on tiiis principle, that we form an erroneous judgment
respecting the distances of these bodies when they are in the liorizon, compared with their
distances when they have attained a considerable elevation. When we see the moon, for
example, in the heavens at a considerable altitude, we intuitively suppose her nearer than
when she is in tlie horizon ; because, in the latter case, we see a multitude of objects, —
many of thorn at great distances, and the moon beyond tliem all ; but, in the former case,
we have no intervening objects by which to form an estimate of her distance. The angle
under whicli she is sepn being nearly the same, we infer a greater magnitude when wo
imagine tlio distance greatest, that is, when the moon is in tiie iiorizon. Sucli is the error
into wliicii we, in this instance, fall, in tiie rapid judgments of the mind respecting magni-
tude and distance connected with vision. The more deliberate conclusion on this subject
drawn by reason is, tliat the moon must indeed be at a greater distance from an observer on
the earth, wlion she is in his horizon, than when she is in or near his zenith ; but that, how-
over tiio eye may be doeoivcd, her apparent diameter must, when exactly measured, be found
leas. This is accordingly the case ; for, when accurately measured with the micrometer,

:-t

rill

i ■

I'v

.- '^

f^M

'■;

HI'
!

■,^

108

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY.

Part II.

I; «.

the iriiwn's apparent diameter, when she is in the horizon, ia actually found to be less than
when she has attained a considerable altitude.

Parallax. We have formerly sliown that, in comparison with the distances of the fixed
stars, the earth is but as a point in the universe ; so tliat tlicir positions in the heavens appear
the same when viewed from the earth's surface, as they would if they wore viewed from
its centre. This, however, is not the case with regard to the sun, moon, and planets. At
each of these bodies the earth presents a disc of an appreciable magnitude: and, on the
other hand, tlieir positions among the fixed stars, when viewed from difiercnt points of the
surface of the earth, vary, and are diflferent from what they would be were they seen from
the centre of the earth.

Let A B E (Jig. 30.) be the earth, C its centre, and M, M", M' (a heavenly body, for
example) the moon in the sensible horizon, the zenith, and
any intermediate position. The true places of tlie moon in
these positions, as seen from the centre C, and referred to the
starry heavens, will be m, m", m! ; and their apparent places,
as seen from B, will be n, m", n'. It is evident, that in the
zenith the true and apparent places coincide, so that there is
no parallax. In the horizon the parallax is greatest: it is
measured by the arc m n, and is equal to the an^le B M C,
under which the semidiameter of the earth's disc appears
when viewed from the moon. At the intermediate position
M' the parallax is measured by the arc m' n' ; it is less than
in the horizon, and decreases as the body ascends until it
vanishes when the body reaches the zenith. From the horizon
to the zenith, parallax diminishes the apparent altitude of a
body ; but as the altitude increases, this diminution becomes less and less. Its effect, there-
fore, is contrary to that of refraction, which always increases tlie apparent altitude of a body.

CHAPTER XI.

MOTION OF THE PLANETS ROUND THE SUN.

The phenomena of the motions of tlie other planets differ from those of the moon, which,
as we have shown, are all easily accounted for, on the supposition tliat the moon revolves
round the carth'in an elliptic orbit, subject to various changes ; whicli ore confined, how-
ever, within certain limits. The attempts which the ancient astronomers made to explain
the celestial phenomena, by supposing the earth to be the centre of the universe, introduced
a system, the ptolgmaio, which was received for about 1500 years, as affording tlie true
explanation of tlie planetary motions ; but which tiie progress of scientific discovery has
proved to be absurd. Ptolemy, an astronomer of Egypt, who flourished about 140 years
after the Christian era, supposed the planets to revolve about the eorth in the following
order ; viz. the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. Beyond the region
of the planets he placed the sphere of the fixed stars. While he thus accounted for the
proper motions of tiie planets from west to east, he conceived the whole to be carried round
the earth by a diurnal motion, in the opposite direction, in twenty-four lionrs. Tlie irregu-
larities of the planetary motions, — these being sometimes direct, at other times retrograde ;
sometimes swift, and at other times slow, — were imagined by him to arise from cacli planet
moving in a small circle, called an epicycle, whose centre was carried round a larger
circle, called the deferent, having the earth placed a little to the one side of its centre.
The motions in these circles he imagined to be produced by the revolution of transparent
globes ; eacli planet being supposed to be attached to a globe, which carried it round in its
epicycle ; and this globe again supposed to be contained in the shell of another globe of
sufficient thickness to receive it within its solid substance, and to allow it to revolve on its
own centre, at the same time that it was carried in the deferent round the earth.

Setting aside the obvious objections to this theory, arising from the extravagance of the
suppositions, as well as the awkwardness and complication of the machinery which it em-
plovs, an insuperable difficulty remains; viz. that the whole system is entirely hypothetical,
and offers no proof of the existence of the agents to which it attributes such mighiy effects.
It is not surprising, therefore, that instead of being confirmed by subsequent discoveries, it
fell to the ground as soon as the true method of investigating the laws of nature was under-
stood and adopted.

Of the planets, two. Mercury and Venus, always accompany the sun, never receding from
him beyond certoin limits : the rest are seen at oil possible angular distances from the sun. Let
us, then, fix upon Venus as the most conspicuous of the two wliich accompany the sun, and
upon Mars as one of the most conspicuous among tiiose whirh lecede to oil angular distances
from him; and by trocing out the opparent motions of tliese planets, let us endeavour to
ascertain the centre olwut wliicli thoy revolve.

Part II.

e less than

of the fixed
vens appear
•iewed from
(lanets. At
and, on the
loints of the
y seen from

ily body, for
' zenith, and
the moon in
ferred to the
irent places,
that in the
that there is
eatest: it is
n^\e B M C,
disc appears
iate position
, is less than
;ndB until it
n the horizon
altitude of a
effect, there-
de of a body.

moon, which,

oon revolves

bnfined, how-

ie to explain

introduced

ing tlie true

iscovery has

140 years

followiniy

the region

nted for the

rried round

Tlie irregu-

retrograde ;

each planet

nd a larger

its centre.

transparent

round in its

ler globe of

volve on its

ranee of the
liich it em-
ypothetical,
hiy effects,
scoveries, it
was under-
ceding from
lie sun. Let
lie sun, and
ar distance.s
ndeavour to

Book I.

MOTION OF THE PLANETS ROUND THE SUN,

100

When the planet Venus is near the sun, siie is invisible ; bat a lion she has emerged
sufficiently from his rays, she is seen in the twilight of the morning or evening, accordmg
as she is to tlie west or east of tlie sun. In the former case slic is the murninu stah ; in the
latter, the evknino star. Wlien she begins to be seen in the evening, site is found to be
receding from the sun towards the east, and thus disengaging herself more and lucre from
his rays. Having readied her greatest angular distance, or elongation, which is from 45°
to 48°, she begins again to approach him, and continues to do so till her angular distance is
about 28°. During all this time her motion is direct, that is, in the order of the signs ; but
now she becomes stationary, and in a short tune she is seen moving in a direction contrary
to the order of the signs, and has thus acquired a retrograde motion ; but still she continues
to approach the sun, until in a short time she is lost in his light. Afler being iiivisible for
about six weeks, she is again seen ; but now in the morning to the west of the sun, emerging
from the solar rays. Her motion is still retrograde ; but when she has reached about 28°
distance from the sun, she again becomes stationary ; and in a. short tune resumes a direct
motion, receding from him iifght alter night, until her angular distance exceeds Ao°. She
then returns to the sun ; is for a time lost in his rays ; and at lengtli is seen in the evening
to the east of the sun, to repeat the some round of phenomena. While Venus thus appears
to have on oscillatory motion to the east and west of the sun, she is found, when viewed
through a telescope, to present phases exactly similar to those of the moon, the illuminated
portion being always turned towards the sun. VVc may hence infer that Venus is an opaque
body, and shines in consequence of reflecting the solar light. At the same time her apparent
diameter also varies, its variations having an evident relation to the position of the planet
with regard to the sun. The diameter appears least when the planet is about to be immersed
in the rays of tlie sun in the morning, or immecliately after her emerging from them in the
evening. On the other hand, it appears greatest when she is about to be lost in the solar
rays in the evening, or when she emerges from them in the morning. Such is a general
view of the apparent motion of Venus ; and by attending to the phenomena which she ex-
hibits, we are led to the conclusion that she revolves round the sun. When in the morning
she begins to disengage herself from the solar rays, she is seen to rise before the sun in tlie
form of a crescent; and it is tiien that her diameter appears greatest. At that time, therefore,
she must be nearer to us than the sun is, and not tar from being in conjunction with him.
Her crescent increases, and her diameter diminishes, as she recedes from the sun : when she
has reached her greatest elongation and returns again towards him, she continues to discover
to us more and more of her linlightened liemisphere, her diameter all the time diminishing,
until she is lost, in the morning, in the sun's rays. At the instant of her disappearing,
Venus is seen as a full disc ; and at tiie same time her diameter is least. Hence we may
witii certainty infer, that she is then at a greater distance from us than the sun, and agaui
nearly in conjunction with him. After having remained for some time invisible, she re-
appears in the evening to tlie east of tlie sun ; and in receding from and returning towards
him exhibits, in an inverted order, the same phenomena, in reference to the changes in her
disc and apparent diameter, which she had presented when seen in the morning, on the west
of the sun : her enlightened hemisphere turns more and more from us, and her apparent
diameter continually increases, until she again disappears, or is seen as a black spot traversing
tlie disc of the sun.

From these phenomena only one inference can be drawn ; viz. tliat Venus revolves in an
orbit, near the centra of which the sun is placed. This conclusion, which rests on the firm
basis of observation, leads to a natural and simple explanation of all the peculiarities of her
motion.

The planet Mars, the next to be considered, appears to be carried round the earth by a
motion which is. subject to greot ineciualitics. When he begins to be seen in the morning
emerging from the solar rays, his motion is direct, and at its greatest rapidity; but it gradu-
ally diminishes until the planet's angular distance from the sun is about 137°. At that time
it changes into a retrograde motion, whose rapidity increases till the moment that tlie planet
comes into opposition with the sun, or is on the meridian at midnight. It is then at its
greatest rate, and presently begins to decrease, continuing to do so till the planet becomes
stationary wlien at the angular distance of about 137° from the sun. The motion now
returns to its direct state, after having been retrograde for about seventy-three days ; and
in that period the planet describes an arc of retrogradation of about 16°. Mars continues
to approach the sun, until he becomes immersed in his rays in the evening. These pheno-
mena are repeated at every opjwsition of the planet, with considerable differences, however,
in reference to the duration and extent of tlio retrogradations. At different points of his
course round the iieavens, the apparent dianieter of Mars is very different: it varies from
about 13.3" to 20.1". It is greatest wlien tiie planet is in opposition to tlie sun.

The phenomena now described can be satisfactorily explained in no other way but by sup-
posing Mars to revolve round the sun. As he recedes from tiie sun to all jxissible angular
distances, the earth must be situated within his orbit; but the increase of his apparent
iiameter as he approaches his opposition, and its decrease when he approaches the sun, show

Vol. I. 10

■Hi

110

PRINCIPLES OF 'iEOGRAPHY.

Pabt IL

that Iho (.';irt)i is not the centre of his motion. Before he reaches the point of opposition,
hia motion, from beinfj^ direct, Iiccomea retrograde; after the opposition it resumes its direct
state, wiiou the planet is at the same distance from the sim, at which he was situated wlien
tlie motion became retrograde ; and it is at the moment of conjunction that this last motion
is most rapid. Now, all these circumstances evidently indicate that tlie apparent motion of
Mars is the result of two combined mot iunc, which alternately conspire with and oppose eacli
other, and of which one depends on the apparent motion of the sun. As we have found
that Venus revolves round the sun, and accompanies him in his apparent annual motion
round tlio earth, we are led by analogy to extend the same law to Mars, and to conclude that
he al»!o revolves in an orbit round the sim.

Tiic disc of Mars changes its figure, and becomes sensibly oval, according to his position
relatively to the sun: hence we may conclude that Mars is an opaque body, and derives his
light from the sim.

Tiic .same reasoning being applicable in the case of the other planets, we may extend to
all of them the conclusion which we have now established in reference to Venus and Mars,
— namely, tliat tliey are opaque bodies, and revolve about the sun in orbits nearly circular ;
while that luminary of the system either describes or appears to describe an orbit about the
earth in the course of a year. This general law, which aflbrds a simple aild complete expli-
cation of the planetary motions, receives additional confirmation from the piienomena of the
satellites of Jupiter and the ring of Saturn; for these phenomena prove directly that Jupiter
and Saturn revolve about the sun in nearly circular orbits.

CHAPTER XII.

.MOTION OF THE EARTH ROUND THE SUN.

The conclusion to which we have now been led, — that all the planets describe orbits that
have the sun near to their centre, — naturally suggests the question, whether the earth itself
is not subject to the same law, and therefore to be ranked among the planets which revolve
round the sun. With regard to the celestial motions, every appearance would remain the
same to us, whether the earth described an orbit round the sun, or the sun with his accom-
panying planets revolved round the earth. To which of these hypotheses the preference is
due will appear from the following considerations: —

The immense masses of the sun and of several of the planets, combined with their great
distances from the earth, render it much more simple to suppose that the earth describes an
orbit round the sun, than that the whole planetary system revolves round the earth. What
an inconceivable rapidity of motion is it necessary to a&sign to Saturn, almost ten times
more distant from us than the sun, or to Uranus, at about double the distance of Saturn, in
order that these planets may complete a revolution round the earth in a year, at the same
time that they revolve about the sun ! It is a law which is found to pervade the planetary
system, that the less body revolves about the greater body which is in its neighbourhood ;
and by supposing the earth, in conformity with this law, to revolve about the sun, which in
magnitude greatly exceeds all the planets taken together, we avoid all the complication and
rapidity of motion which follow from the supposition of the eartlj being at rest.

The analogy which subsists between tlie earth and the planets confirms the hypothesis of
the earth being carried round the sun by a motion of translation : Jupiter, for example, is
known to have a revolution on his own axis, and to be attended by four satellites. In these
particulars the earth resembles that planet, having also a revolution on its own axis, and
being attended by one satellite, the moon. An observer placed on Jupiter would be led
from appearances to imagine that the planetary system revolved round him, in like manner
ns an inhabitant of the earth supposes himself placed at the centre of the celestial notions :
and the greater magnitude of Jupiter woulil give to such a conclusion, when drawn by an
observer placed on that planet, a greater resemblance to tlie truth than it would have when
drawn by an inhabitant of the earth. With such a close analogy in these respects before
our eyes, may we not naturally conclude that it extends still farther ; and that as Jupiter
revolves in an orbit round the sun, the earth must also have a similar motion 1

Let us imagine ourselves to be placed on the surface of the sun, and from that position to
observe the earth and the planets. All these bodies would appear to move from west to cast ;
the planets would be found free from all that complication in tlioir motion to which they
apj)ear subject when viewed from the earth; and the motion of liie earth itself would in
every circumstance correspond with that of the planets. The more distant a planet is fiom
the sun, the longer is the time which it requires to perform its revolution round him ; but
throughout the planetary system tliis remarkable law prevails, connecting the periodic times
with the distances, — the squares of the former are proportional to the cubes of the latter.
If we compute, by this principle, what should bo the time of revolution of a planet situated
at the distance of the earth from the sun, wo find the result correspond exactly with the
sidereal year ; tlms, the earth's distance from the sun being assumed as unity, the distance of

t
a
li
hi
M

hi
ec
w
ha
ca
eq
mi

ac
rat
ble
ren
at]
i

10,0(

axis

direc

tityr

evide

FEl

face I

tion c

If 1

angle

tion o

fwssib

of A J

Fisg

In the

round

the po

will bi

greate

throug

Pabt IL

pposition,
its dirnct
led wlien
st motion
motion of
pose caclj
ive found
al motion
elude that

is position
lerives his

extend to
and Mars,
r circular;
about the
ilctc expli-
ena of the
hat Jupiter

Book I.

MOTION OP THE EARTH ROUND THE SUN.

! orbits that
]arth itself
lich revolve
remain the
1 his accom-
reference is

I their great

describes an

th. What

It ten times

Saturn, in

t the same

planetary

hbourhood ;

which in

ication and

^pothesis of
[example, i?
In these
axis, and
£uld bo led
Ike manner
lal notions :
1-awn by an
I have when
[ects before
I as Jupiter

[ position to
test to east ;
Ivhich they
Tf would in

[net is fiom
him; but

liodic times

Ithe latter.

let situated
' with the

[distance of

Mars is known to be 1 '523693: his periodic time is G80'0706 days. Hence we have
fr62693) :>:!>:: (68«-97efl)«: (365-250)3. The periodic time of a planet, at the same
distance from tlio sun as the earth is, should therefore be 305'25G days, wliich is the length
of the sidereal year. This result leaves no doubt that the motion which the earth would
bo seen to have, if it wore viewed from the sun, arises from the same causes, and is regu-
lated by the same laws as the motions of the planets : hence wo may conclude that it is no
less real.

The motion of the earth in an orbit round the sun, which the preceding considerations
render so highly probable, is directly proved by the phenomena of the tiberralion of light.
It was long supposed that light was propagated from the sun and otlier luminous bodies
instantaneously ; but modem observations have proved that this hypothesis is erroneous, and
that light, like all other projectiles, occupies a certain time in passing from one point of space
to another. The fact that light has a progressive motion was first discovered by Roemer,
a celebrated Danish astronomer, from observations made on the eclipses which the satel-
lites of Jupiter undergo when they fall into his shadow. He found that these eclipses
happened sometimes sooner and sometimes later than the time deduced from the tables of
their motions ; the observation being before or after the computed time, according as tht
earth was nearer to or farther from Jupiter than the mean distance. Repeated observations
have proved, that when the earth is between the sun and Jupiter, his satellites are seen
eclipsed about 8| minutes sooner than tiiey should be according to the tables; but that
when the earth is on the opposite side of the sun from Jupiter, the eclipses of his satellites
happen about 8^ minutes later than the time shown by the tables. The only conclusion that
can be drawn from these facts is, that light occupies about 16 J minutes in traversing a space
equal to the diameter of the earth's orbit, which is upwards of 190 millions of miles ; it
must therefore move at the enormous rate of nearly 210,000 miles in a second.

Now, if the earth is really in motion, it must be moving at the rate of about 20 miles in
a second, in order to accomplish its revolution round the sun in the course of a year. Tliis
rate of motion, although small when compared with the velocity of light, bears to it a sensi-
ble proportion ; so that an evident consequence of the earth's motion will be, that the apivi-
rent places of the heavenly bodies will not be the same as they would be if the earth were
at rest.

Suppose A B to be a portion of the earth's orbit, S a fixed star, and S A the direction
rif light proceeding from the star to the earth at A. It is evident that if the earth were at

rest at A, a telescope presented in the direction A S would
receive the light of the star, which, proceeding along the axis
of the telescope, would reach the eye at A, and sliow the
star in its true position. But if the earth be supposed to
move from A towards B with a velocity that bears a sensible
proportion to the velocity of light, the ray S A, which enters
^E the telescope at C, cannot reach the eye, but must, in conse-
quence of the motion, be lost against the interior of the tube.
In order that the light from the star may reach the eye when
carried forward by the earth's motion, the telescope must
have such an inclination to A B, that S F being supposed a
ray parallel to S A, and meeting the axis of the telescope in
D, A F may have to F D the same ratio as the earlli's veloci-
ty in its orbit has to the velocity of light ; that is, of 1 to
10,000 nearly. In this position of the telescope, the light entering at D will pass along the
axis as it moves from A to F, and will reach the eye at F ; but the star will be seen in the
direction, not of F S, but of F E : so that its apparent place differs from its true by a qiuoi-
tity measured by the angle S F E or A D F. The angle D F E is the aberration which will
evidently be towards that part of the heavens to which the earth is moving. Let the axis
F E be supposed to be produced to the starry heavens : it will trace out on tiie convex sur-
face a circle, if the star S is in the pole of the ecliptic ; but an ellipse in every other posi-
tion of the star. The true place of the star is the centre of the circle or ellipse.

If the star be in the pole of the ecliptic, the angle D A F may be considered as a right
angle; for the line joining the star and the earth will always be perpendicular to the direc-
tion of the earth's motion. In this case, therefore, the angle A D F will be the greatest
possible ; for the ratio of sin. A D F to sin. D A F is constant, being the same with tlie ratio
of A F to F D, or of 1 to 10,000 nearly : so that sin. A D F is greatest, and therefore A D
F is greatest when sin. D A F is the greatest possible ; that is, when D A F is a right angle.
In the case of any other star the greater axis of the ellipse which it appears to describe
round its true place as a centre will be equal to the diameter of the circle which a star in
the pole of the ecliptic would appear to describe about the pole as a centre: for the ellipse
will be the orthographic projection of a circle equal to that described alwut the pole, the
greater axis being the diameter, which is perpendicular to a circle of the sphere passing
through the star and the pole of the ecliptic, and at right angles to the cnliptin. When the

i'liM'

i:-i

,i^;nl

It! ^'W

112

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Pa«t 11.

?iii . !-

star ia in tho ecliptic, it will appear to describe an arch equal to the greater axis of the
ellipse (lesoribcd by a star not in tho ecliptic, or to the diameter of the circle of aberration
thot would 1)0 described by a star in the pole of the ecliptic.

When nnsflo D A F is a right angle, we huvo D F : F A : : rod : sin. £ A D P ; that is,
10,0(M) : 1 : : 1 : (XlOl = sine of greatest aberration, which will therefore bo 20" nearly.
'I'lu! nberration of a planet will depend on its own motion as well as on that of the eartn.
If tlic motion of the planet were etjual and parallel to that of the earth, no aberration would
tjikc plucc. Tlio aberration of a planet may be found by first considering tiio effect of the
motion of the earth on the apparent place, and then the aberration arising from the planet's
own motion.

Huch are the effects which, if the- earth have actually a motion of translation tl.at carries
it in an orbit round tho sun, must arise from that motion combined with the progressive
motion of light. To obtain, therefore, decisive proof of the earth's annual motion, it is only
necessary to ascertain by accurate observation the existence of these phenomena.

The true system of the world, which supposes the Hun to be at rest in the centre, and the
onrth and planets to revolve round him, while the moon revolves about the earth, and the
diurnal motioti of tlie heavens arises from tho motion of the earth on its axis, was taught by
several of t!ie ancient philosophers, and particularly by Pythagoras. It was also held by
Archimedes; but after him it was neglected, and even forjjotten for many ages, until at
length, in the beginning of tlic sixteenth century, it was revived and improved by Coperni-
cus, from whom it took the name of the Copbrnicaji System. Notwithstanding the beauty
and simplicity which distinguished this theory, it was at first coldly received or utterly
rejected. Tyciio Brahe, an illustrious Dane, was among its adversaries. He regarded the
doctrine of the earth's motion as untenable, without abandoning the testimony of Scripture :
hence he was led to imagine another system, which boars his name ; in which the sun, with
all tho planets and comets revolving round him, is supposed to perform a revolution about
the earth in a solar year, while at tlie same time all the heavenly bodies are supposed to be
carried round tlic earth from east to west in twenty-four liours.

The only apparent difficulty connected with the Copemican system arises from tlie fact, that
tlie earth's axis is always pointed to the same star, and that the stars preserve always the same
relative positions ; though by the annual motion of tho earth, a spectator on its surface views
them at any two instants of time separated by the period of about six months, from two
points nearly 200,000,000 miles asunder. During tlio seventeenth century tiie supporters
of the Copcrnican system laboured to remove this objection, by detecting a change in the
(wsition of the fixed stars.

The minute and accurate observations instituted for this purpose led, in tlie end, to the
imi)ortant discovery made by the celebrated Dr. Bradley, that the very effects which we
have shown, must result from the annual motion of the earth combined with the progressive
motion of light. He found that each star describes, round its true place as a centre, a small
ellipse of which the greater axis is about 40" ; and that this ellipse approaches to a circle
or to a straight line, which are its limits, according as the star is situated towards the pole
of the ecliptic, or towards the ecliptic itself No parallax ia observable in the fixed stars
arising from the earth's annual motion ; and hence it must be inferred that their distance
is so great, that even the diameter of tho eartli's orbit is to be regarded as a point in the
universe.

From an attentive consideration of the celestial motions, we are therefore led to reject
as crrorfmis the notions which appearances at first suggest respecting the system of the
world. Instead of the globe which we inhabit being at rest in the centre of the universe,
it is a planet in motion about its own axis and about the sun. In regarding it under this
aspect, we find all tlie celestial phenomena explained in the most simple manner, the laws
of tlic motions of the heavenly bodies appear uniform, and every analogy subsisting among
tliom is preserved unbroken. Like Jupiter, Saturn, and Urnnus, the earth is accompanied
by a sateilite; it revolves on its own axis as Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and perhaps all
the planets; like them it receives light from the sun; and to complete the analogy, it
revolves about tlio sun in tlie same direction, and according to the same laws. By following
out the results arising from tiie earth's motion being combined with the real motions of the
planets and of light, we find all the phenomena of the heavens flow, as necessary conse-
quences, from one great principle. Thus the motion of the eartii acquires all the certainty
of which a physical truth is susceptible.

The vicissitudes of seasons arise, as we have already explained, from the obliquity of the
ecliptic to the equator. The ecliptic, which we have hitiierto considered cs the path of the
sun round tiie earth, we have now proved to be the orbit of the earth round the sun. The
axis of the eartli's diurnal motion is inclined to the plane of its orbit at an angle of aliuut
6(5'' .'32', and remains, as the eartli revolves round the sun, nearly parallel to itself. Hence
tlie circle which the sun appears to trace in the heavens in the course of a year forms with
the equator an angle of about 23' 28'. This produces the differences in the distributior <f
tiie solar I'flit and heat wliich we observe throughout tlie seasons of the year.

I t

OookI.

ORBITS OP THE PLANETS

to reject

Im of the

I universe,

Tinder this

the laws

[ig amonff

pmpaniea

firhaps all

Jialofry, it

IfoUowing

IS of the

Iry conse-

Icertainty

jty of the

Ith of the

Tin. The

1 of aliout

Hence

Irms with

kutior »f

The parullcliBni of tlie earth is not absolute ; for tlie axis is found to have n slow motion
of revolution from cast to west round a line passing; tlirouf;li the centre of the eartli, and
pcr])endiculur to the ecliptic ; its revolution bcinff completed in the period of 25,745 years.
In consequence of this motion the poles in the sphere of the starry heavens depcribo each a
circle round the polo of the ecliptic, at the distance of 23° 28' nearly ; and tlio two point*
in which the terrestrial equator, when produced to the starry heavens, cuts the ecliptic, shift
to the westward, at the rate of about 50^ seconds yearly, which causes the precession of the
equinoxes. A small inequality has been observed in the precession of tlie equinoxes, and in
the mean obliquity of the ecliptic, which arises from a slifirht motion in the earth's axis,
whereby its inclination to the ecliptic is not always exactly the same, but varies backwards
and forwards some seconds. This is called the nutation of the earth's axis, and was discovered
by Dr. Bradley while employed in verifying his theory of aberration. The period of the
changes of this inequality is nearly nine years.

CHAPTER Xin.

ORDira OF THE rLANETS.

To an observer placed on the sun, all the planets would appear to trace on the concave
surface circular paths, cutting each other at various angles, but all comprehended within a
certain zone of the heavens of some degrees in breadth. The angle which the plane of the
orbit of a planet makes with the ecliptic is called the inclination of that orbit; and the line
of their intersection is called the line op the nodes. If a planet be observed twice in the
same node, the node being supposed to have in the mean time remained stationary, the posi-
tion of the lino of the nodes can be determined, and also the distance of the planets from
the sun at the times of observation.

Let a superior planet be observed in its node N from the earth at E, {Fig. 32), and after the
planet has mode an entire revolution let the earth be at E'. Then, from the time and the theory
of the earth's motion, E E' is given, and the andes S E E', S E' E. But the angles SEN,
S E' N are known by observation ; therefore, in tne triangle E E' N, the angles E E' N, E' E N,
and the base E E' are given ; and hence the sides N E and E' N may be found. Wherefore
from either of the triangles S E N, S E' N the distance S N is determined ; also the angle
ESN, which ascertains the position of the node as seen from the sun.

From observations of this kind, mode at times considerably distant from each other, it
found that the nodes of each planet have a slow retrograde motion.

Again, the distance of a planet from the sun, and its place as seen from the sun, may be
determined from observations made at the time of its opposition to the sun.

(Fiff, 33). Let E be the earth, S the sun, P the planet, O its place reduced to the eclip-
tic, S N the line of the nodes passing through the sun. Since the planet is in its opposi-
tion, the points S. E, O are in the same straight line. The angle E S N is known by the last
problem, which determines the position of the line of the nodes ; therefore the arcli O N in
the heavens, which measures it, is also given. The angle P N O ie equal to the inclination
of the planet's orbit to the ecliptic, ant^ is therefore given; also the angle P O N is a right
angle. Hence in the spherical triangle P N O, the perpendicular P O and the hypotenuse
P N may be found. Now tlie arc P O is the measure of the angle P S O, and P N is the
measure of P S N ; therefore these two angles are given. In the rectilineal triangle P S E,
the exterior nngle PEG can be determined by observation ; the angle P S E or P S O is
given, and tlio base E S is known by tlie theory of the earth's motion ; whence P S, the
distance of tlie planet from the sun, mav be computed.

Vol. I. 10* P

:t^

ii'

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt II.

Orbil of a ptanet. Sinco the an((lo P S N is also known, tho lino P R io f^ivon in poRi-
tion as well oa in umgnitudc. If many opponilionii of u plunot arc thui olwrrvrd, anil it the
radii obtnincHl be laid down, the lino cimnoctinfr tticir rxtrcnic points will roproNc-nt tho orbit
of the pluiint. In this manner it in found that the orbitx of all tho planets are ellipxcB, having
the 8un in their common focus; and that the anf^ular niotions of a planet round the sun are
invenwly as tho sijuarca of itx diatanco from tho sim : so that the sectors dcxcribcd by the
roilius vector urc proportional to tho times. This exactly corresponds with what was proved
refipcctiii); tho apiNircnt motion of tho sun in tho ecliptic, and therefore tho motion of the
earth is re^^ulutcd by the same law.

The nliiiiuts which move immediately round the sun are called primary, their satellites
lire called hgcondary planbtb. Thus, the moon is a secondary planet to tho earth. In
considcriiii; the lunar motion, wo found that tho moon describes round the earth an elliptic
orbit, and that the radius vector describes equal areas in equal times. The same holds of
the satcllitpx of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus; so that the same principle runs through the
raotiona of all the bodies of the planetary system.

When the mean distances of the planets are compared, and also their periodical times, it
is found that the squares of the periodic times are as the cubes of the distances.

The great general facta which have now been pointed out respecting tho orbits of the
planets, and their motions in these orbits, were first discovered by Kepler, after ho had
employed immense labour and ingenuity in the research, and are usually called Kepler'h
LAWa. It may be proper to bring them under one point of view : —

I. The primary planets all revolve in elliptic orbits round the sun, which occupies one of
the foci ot the ellipse; the plane of the orbit passing through tho centre of the sun.

n. The radius vector describes equal areas m equal times.

III. The squares of the times of revolution in the planetary bodies are aa the cube* of
their distances from the Bun.

CHAPTER XIV.

COMETS.

The fixed stars and the planets are always visible when not obscured by the superior
light of the Kun ; but the class of bodies called comets are seen only when they are in that
part of their several paths which lies nearest to the sun : at all other times they move through
regions of space tar beyond the reach of our vision, even when assisted by the most powerful
telescopes. The motions of the comets are, like those of the planets, performed in elliptic
orbits according to Kepler's laws; but, unlike the planetary orbits, the ellipses which the
comets describe are extremely elongated : so tliut the small portion of their orbits through
which we have an opportunity of tracing them coincides very nearly with a parabola, the
curve of which is the limit of the ellipse when its greater axis is indefinitely increased.
The inclination of the orbits of the comets is very vorious; some move in planes almost
coincident with the ecliptic, and others in planes nearly perpendicular to it They move
also in very different directions ; tho motion of some being direct, and of others retrograde.

The comets differ widely from the planets in their appearance, as well as in the figure
and position of their orbits. When a comet is first seen, it is usually surrounded by a famtly
luminous vapour, which becomes more bright ns the comet approaches the sun, and at lengm
shoots out into a long luminous and transparent train, very much resembling a streamer, and
extending in a dirortion opposite to the sun. The dense part of the comet, which both to
the naked eye, ami when viewed through a telescope, resembles much the planetary bodies,
is called the nucleus ; the faintly luminous vapour by which it is surrounded is called the
coma ; and the long luminous train proceeding from the comet in an opposite direction from
the sun is called the tail. Between the nucleus and the coma lies a part fainter than the
former, but brighter than the latter, and in which the nucleus appears involved : this is called
the head of the comet.

The length of the tail is very various. Sometimes it extends only a few degrees ; in
other cases it has been found to reach over more than a fourth part of the heavens. If a
comet docs nf)t come very near the sun, the coma docs not shoot into a tail, but retains the
appearance of a nebulosity round the comet during the whole period of its being visible.
The tail poinotimes consists of two or more diverging streams of light, and is always so
transparent tiiat tlie smallest stars are seen through it without any sensible diminution of
their brilliancy.

Nature of comet*. In ages of ignorance, comets have always, from their extraordinary
appearance, been sources of superstitious terror to mankind. This fear has been di8sipat«d
by the light of science, which has shown that the appearances of comets are regulated by
the same laws as other celestial phenomena. We are still, however, almost entirely igno-
rant of the nature of these bodies, though a great many hypotheses have been formed con-
cerning them. They were considered by some of the ancients, and particularly by Aristotle,

Book I.

COMETS.

liti

M nccidontnl firrfl or motoora (^^norotml in tlio atmoaphoro of tlio oarth ; but thii opinion \»
ohvioiisly frrouiuilesit. If tlioy were connucteii with tlio oartli or ilH ntino«plior(% llioy would
piirtuko i)r' tlie diurnal motion on tiio n.xi.i, and could not thorotbro a|)|M!iir to liuvo it diurnni
i)-voliitli)ii in tlii> hRuvonx ulonff with tho other colustial bodit'g, Ili.'HidcH, ttii'ir hnviiiK no
diiirniil piirullnx provR* that they aro at a i^rcat diatanco tVom the earth ; while the fact of
tiii'ir iippiirciit motion being atTocted by tho annual motion of tho earth iliowa that they aro
litiiutod in tiio planetary re^iona. OlMervation has demonstrated that, like tho pluniitu, they
uru periiinncnt bcMlieH, and, in all prolnbility, derive their light flroni the aun.

From the small portion of the orbit of any comet which wu have an opportunity of observ-
ing, we cannot ascertain with Bufllcicnt accuracy Uie elements necciwary for ifetermining
tliR period of itri return ; but suppouing that their orbits are not diiiturbed by any cuiisc in
thoiie diKtiint rcirioim of npacn throiiirh which the greater portion of tho puths of cometM lie,
it is evident that by accurately observing all tho comets that come witnin view, and care-
fully recording tho reHults, in tlin course of ages tho return of many comets may bo detected
and their |ioriu<lic times ascerUiinod. Ilcnco the greater axis of tlie orbit of each may be
determined by Kepler's third law ; and tho comet's Toast distance from the sun being found
by observation, tho less axis will also become known. In this manner the periodic time of
some comets has been found, and thoir return predicted.

The first and most remarkable instance is that of Dr. Halley, who, by comparing his
observations on the comet of 1082, with those of Kepler on the comet of 1607, and those of
Apian on tho comet of 1531, found reason to conclude, fhim tlie agreement of the circum-
stances of each, that what had been considered three distinct comets were only ro-appear-
anees of tho same comet after a period of about 76 years. In all the three cases the dis-
'tanco of the comet from the sun when nearest to him was almost the same ; the position of
the comet in tho heavens at the time of its nearest approach to the sun likewise corre-
sponded ; as did also the inclination of the orbit, the place of the nodes, and the variableness
of tho motion, as being direct or retrograde.

These coincidences rendered the identity of the comet almost absolutely certain. Hence
Halley predicted its return in the end of 1758 or the beginning of 1759. It appeared about
the end of December 1758, and made its noarest approach to the sun on tho 13th of March
1759, differing not many days from the time expected. Again it made its appearance, as
prediclrij, at the completion of its periwi, toward the end of August, 18;).5.

Though there con be no doubt of the identity of tho comet of 1531, 1(J<)7, 1082, 1759, and
1835, tho appearances were considerably different. In 1531 the comet was of a bright
gold colour ; in 16U7, it was dark and livid ; it was bright again in 1682 ; and obscure in
1759.

The mean distance of this comet from the sun is about eighteen times that of tho earth ;
but in consequence of the great eccentricity of its orbit, its distance, when at tlie farther
extremity of its greater axis, is nearly double that of Uranus, the most distant of the planets.
When nearest to tho sun, its distance from him ia about rgth parts of the earth s mean
distance.

A very remarkable comet was seen in the end of 1680 and beginning of 1681. Its tail
extended 70°, and was very brilliant. This comet, of all those which h^ve been observed,
I'pproacI ' s nearest to the sun. Descending with immense velocity in a path almost per-
pendicular to his surface, it proceeded until its distance from his centre was only about
540,000 inili'E. Sir Isaac Newton computed that, in consequence of so near an approach
to the sun, it must have received a heat 2000 times greater than that of iron almost going
into fusion ; und that if it was equal in magnitude to our earth, and cooled in the same man-
ner as terrestrial bodies, its heat would not be expended in less than 50,000 years.

Three observations on comets are recorded in history, agreeing in remarkable circum-
stances with the comet of 1680 :— one in the 44th year before Christ ; another in the con-
sulate of Lampadius ond Orestes, about the year of Christ 531 ; ond the third in the reign
of Henry I. of^ England, in tho year 1106. These dates are nearly at equal distances of
time, namely, 575 years ; which is also tlie period between 1106 and 1681. Hence Dr.
Halley conjectured that these might bo successive appearances of one and the same comet,
revolving about the sun in the period of about 575 years. If this conjecture is well
founded, tliis comet may be expected again, after finishing the same period, about the year
2255.

A comet remarkable for its beauty appeared in 1811. The tail of this comet was com-
|K>sed of two diverging streams of faint light, slightly coloured, which mode an angle of
from 15° to 20°, ana sometimes much more, and were bent outwards. The space between
was comparatively obscure. When at its greatest length, the tail subtended an angle cf at
least 16° ; and was then computed to extend about 23,000,000 miles in length.

Besides Dr. Hal ley's comet there are two others whose returns have been observed, and
tho elements of their orbits determined, with such certainty, as to enable astronomers to
predict their re-appearance. One of these was recognised for the first time in 1819 as a
Dcriodic comet. Encke, a Gerinun astronomer, has determined the time of its revolution

1=1

i'i
■'I

1,1,
■■!'.■

V' ';

• •*1

■A

>frte:

l:i

118

PRINCIPLRS OP OKOORAPIIY,

Paiit II

^r.

''h

1 !'

■ i

' ,

!i: 11

H [I "'1

■

•li)

tbniit tlio Kiiit to lii< tliroo ypiim iind thri^* niniitliN ii>'iirly. TIik ntlicr wnx lni<t Hi>i<n in IH'hf,
ItH p<<rin(li(; tinio wiw ilclcrininoU by Uiula, u UdIk-iiiiiiii iiNlronoiMcr, in Im> nix yonrH und
tliriM! qimrtcra, Alto|;uthor, then, Uinro ore only tlirco comctji ulitwu iM'riixlH ari< I'lTbiiiily
known.

Dangtr from ecmtt: Aa tho comsU travemo the plancUry rojfion* in nil (Iirp^tir)|l^ it in
noturni to inquire whether thcrn xn not a poiwilillily timt miiiio onn of tliitin iiiiiy ii|)|irfioi'li
ho near to thn rnrth m ^cotly to diiturb itji motion, or by »n antiml coiitiirt to |iro<lii('o \\\o
moHt ilisnutroiiH i<l1<>ctji. Upon this Huliject tlinro in no ronHonnbIn i^ronnd lor fear. If it id
not ubdoluteiy iinpoMiblo that n comet may como in cont^ict with the cnrth, the probnbililin*
ai^ainnt mich nn event hiippeninf|[ ore aH millionii to one. Amon|f bcxIieH wi Hmull in com<
pariwui with tho imuienHe Hpnce m whirh they move; and moving with nil volocitieii, nnd
in orbitH that are inclined in all dircctinnit, and are of nil diinrniiionH, how Hiimll miiit be
tho probability that any twoKhull como in contact! Hmull, however, an thin prolmbility in
tor any ono ago, if wo tako into account a long aoricit of agOH, thu probability may be greatly
increaaod.

If wo iuppom tho earth actually to rcrcivo inch a Hhock, it iaoaay to imagine the calami-
toua coniequencei which must tblfow, Tiio axis and motion of rotation being changed, tho
watora of tho ocean would leave their ancient poaition, and wouhl bo precipitated toward*
the new equator. A great part of tho huiniin raco, and of tho lower animali), would be
drowned by this univeraal deluge, or doHtmycd bv tho violent aliock improHHed on the ter-
restrial globe. Whole apccica of animalii might bo annihilated. All the monumenta of
human induNtry and invention would bo overthrown. In hiicIi a catastrophe we fin<l, too, a
cause adequate to account for the ocean having overflowed lotly mountains, on which it has
left incontestable evidence of ita presence ; and to explain how the animals and plants of
tho south may have existed in tJio clintatea of tlio north, where we find tho remains and im-
preniona of them. lastly, such an event accounts for tho reccntneas of the modem world,
tho monuments of which go back scarcely 30(MI years. The human race, reduced to a small
number of individuals, and to the moat miHorablo condition, would for a long time be mainly
occupied in providing for their preservation, amidst tho wreck which surrounded them, and
would lose all remembrance of arta and sciences; and when, by the progress of civilization,
they at length became scnsiblo of the want of these, they would find it necessary to roccm-
mence, as if man had boon newly placed upon tlio earth.

It seems imjKwsible to contemplate the picture of calamity hero drawn, without being
fbrcibly utruck with this singular coincidence ; — that if wo suppose the period of the comet
of IfiW (which in that year made a considerably near approach to the earth's orbit) to be
575j years; and count back, from tho year 1080, sovon revolutions, or a jieriod of 4028
years, we reach tho year 2349 before Christ, — tho year of the deluge, as fix(!d by chrono-
logers.

If we tako into consideration tlie great velocity with which the comets move in approach
ing to and receding iVom the sun, it is evident that the mere approximation of a comet to
the terrestrial orbit, tootdd he productive of little or no effect. Accordingty, though a
comet is said to have eclipsed the moon, in which case it must have been very near tlie
earth, no sensible effect was produced.

CHAPTER XV.

LAW OF UNIVERSAL QRAVITATION.

Having now taken a brief view of the planetary motions, and pointed out generally thei
laws, we may next inquire whether from thepo any general principle can be deduced to
which the motions regulated by them may be referred as to their cause.

The motions of the heavenly bodies have been variously accounted for. We have already
adverted to the rude mechanism of deferent and epicyclic spheres, by which some of the
ancient philosophers attempted to explain tho celestial motions. This doctrine originated
with Eudoxus and Callipus. But a more sensible attempt was made by Cleanthcs, another
philosopher of Greece, who, from observing that bodies are easily carried round by whirl-
pools or vortices of water, imagined that tho celestial spaces are filled with an ethereal
fluid, which is in continual motion round the earth, and that it carried the sun and planets
round with it. Though this hypothesis affords no real explanation of the phenomena, it was
revived in modem times, and maintained by two of the most eminent mathematicians and
philosophers in Europe, namely, by Des Cartes and Ijoibnitz, and for a long time met with
general acquiescence. But a much nearer approximation to right conceptions on this sub-

iect was made by many philosophers, both of ancient and modern times, who supposed thiil
19 planets were deflected from uniform rectilineal motions, by forces similar to what wo
Observe in the motions of magnetical and electrical IkkUoh, or in the motion of common heavy
bodies; where one body seems to influence the motion of another at a distance from it, with-
-it any intervening impulsion. Ferniut was tho first who suggested tliat file weight of a

Ive already
Vne of the
|originated

8, another

by whirl-
ethereal

lid planets
f na, it waH
licians and

[ met with
tiiia siib-

OHCd till) I

what w(!
pion heavy

it, witli-
eiffht of a

IIOM I.

I^W OF UNIVKUHAI, GRAVITATION.

117

b«ly in the mm of Iho triidrnriea of enth portido . •' matter in the body to every pnrticli* of
the I'lirtli. Ki'pliT niiidi' iiniitlicr ii|)pri>xiniikliiin tn i|i« tin'h when he ''nid, that it' there wem
two ImmIich pliiL-i'd out lit' III"' ri'iich nt' all exti'riial ti>rcoH, niul Hi p'-rlei ' IiIktIv I" iimve, they
would .iiiiiriNii'li eiieh other witli vi'lueitirn iiivirMly pf ^portinnal i,, 'li' >> <|uantitii'M of miiltrr ■
when hi! iiHHrrti'il that the eiirth uiiil the iiio'ii iiiiitiinlly H'tnu-t each othef, mH'I are prrveii'eti
iVoin iiiei'iiii); hy llieir revolution round tli, " <''>ii)iiion diiirr 'f attniotion , xnil when he
ntlrilxiteil the lideH to the nttnictive iiilhienci ,. 'lie imkhi m Ik iipi/>g up the watern idiiiU!-
iliately under her.

Hut Dr. Ilooke innile the miMt preciite Kiirmiiin to MlJa purpose. At a iiie* (in? of the
Itiyul Society, Ma^ SI, KMW, he exprehwd hiinnelf in (li. tollowinif nuinmr: — "Iv'iH
e.xplain a Nyotcni ot the world very illMerent iVuiii any yet reeeiveil, and it in tiiunded on the
tlirou tidlowing proponilionn :

" 1. That all the heavenly boilie)i have not only ■ Kiravitation of their ptirta to their own
proper centred, hut that they aUo mutually attract each other within their npheres of fiction.

'*'i. That all boilieH haviu;;a Himple motion will continue to movo inaiitraiuht lino unlew)
continually deflectetl tVmn it, by immo extraneous ibrcu cauain(( thoni to duHcribo a circle, an
ollipao, or Home other curve,

":i. That tliii attraction ia ao much the (greater aa the iNxlica are nearer. Am to the pro-
portion in which theKO forcea diminivli hy an iiicreawe of dintanre, I own I have not yet din-
covered it, althou);!) I have made Hinie experimenta to that pur|KMiG. I leave thia to othcra
wh'> have time and knowledge autlicient tor the tank."

Tlie truly philoNophical viewa ntated in tlieNo proiKmiliona relatively to the celeatial motiona
wore illu.--tmted by a very pretty experiment, which llooko had nonie time before exhibited
to tho S<xMety. A ball, auapended by a loni; thread fVoiii the ceiling, waa made to awin^
round another liall laid on a table inmieilintely below the point of MnHpenaion. When the
imnulao );iven to tho |R>uilulum waa very nicely adjuated to ita deviation iVniii the |M<rpendi-
I'ular, it deHcrilied a |M'riect circle round the Imll on tho table; hut when the impulco was
very great or very little, it ilenerilieil an elliiwe bavin); tho other ball in its centre. Tho
force, nmlcr tho influence of which thia circular or elliptic motion waa prmlueeil, Ilooko
ahowed to ho a deflecting? tiirce, pro|iortioiial to tho diatancc t'rom the other bull. But he
added, that althi)u;;li thia illustrated the planetary motiona in aome dejrree, yet it wnH not
(uitablo to their cane ; fertile planeta ileHcribc ellipaeH, having tho xiin not in their centre
but in their fiicua, ao that they are not retuim^d in their orbita by a force pro|iortiiinal to tho
distance fVom tho aun.

Thus wo aeo that certain pointa of reaeniblance between the motiona of the planets and
tho motiona of magni'ta and heavy bixliea, had attracted the attention of miiny philoHopherH;
but these obacrvera failed to deduce from the principlea which they ho dimly perceived any
satiefactory concluaion.

At length tho jioworful gcniua of Sir laaoc Newton was directed to the aubject, and by
Ilia penetrating sagacity the law of iMiiversal gravitation was brought fully into view, ond
Bucceaafully applied to explain the celestial phenomena. He hail ^tired from Cambridge to
the country on account of tho plague, ond while walking in his garden he waa led to meditate
on the planetary motions, and on the nature of that central force which retains the planets
in their orbits. The thought happily occurred to him that the aamc force, or aome modifica-
tion of tho same force, which caiiaca a heavy Ixaly to descend to tho earth, might extend to
tho moon, and might retain that body in ita orbit by deflecting it from the rectilineal path.
However plausible thia conjecture might appear, the mind of Newton waa too deeply imbued
with tho true spirit of philosophy to adopt it as the groundwork of h theory, unless it conld
be shown by calculation to Iw coincident with fact. But before it could be brought to thi?
test, it was necessary that lie should fbrin some conditional hypothesis reapecting the modi-
fication of the force as tho distance increased, and also that he ahoiild know nearly the
magnitude of the earth. The hypothesis which he assumed with regard to the modification
of the force according to the increase of the distance was correct ; namely, that the force
decreases as the square of the distance increusea. But ho made a fiilse cstimatinn of the bulk
of the earth ; so that his calculations showed that his conjecture did not agree with the phe-
nomenon : he accordingly abandoned it. A few years afterwards ho was induced, however.
to renew his calculations, having in tho interval obtained more correct data, in consequence
of tho measurement of a degree in France by Picard. The attempt now succeeded ; and it
ia said that, os his calculations drew to a close, ho became so agitated that he was obliged to
request a frionil to finish them. His former conjecture waa found to agree with the pheno-
mena with tho utmost precision; and in exploring tho grand scene which was now laid open
before him, he was led to an explanation of the system of tho world, consisting simply in an
accurate narration of facts, and such an arrangement of them as showed their mutual depen-
dence, and, at the same time, their reference to one great fact of which they were all neces-
sary consequences.

We are now to explain briefly tho tlieory of gravitation ; but our account of it must of
course be very limited.

4 !

■■ ' f^

.•*

ilA

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Paht II.

Hi Ki

Thf'f'. In nn ptionomonon in nature more familiar to us than motion ; and although it be

5r<'(itly (Iiv('r=i(ic(l according to the causes by which it is produced, yet all motions are sub-
wl tn till" tliri'p fl)llowiiiff Taws: —

Ixt I.*w. Mvrry luxly continues in a state of rest, or of uniform rectilinear motion, unlesB
lll)i'(^ti<d l)y fiiiiiin iiirrhanicnl tbrce.

'Al li*w. Kvpry change of motion is proportional to the force impressed, and is made in
tlio ilift'Clidll III' that force.

'M li*w, Kvfry action is accompanied by an equal and contrary re-action.

It In a I'liiiPwiiKMice of the first two laws, that if a body or particle of matter bo subjected
fit tilt* wiinc titiio to the action of two moving forces, each of which would separately cause
it U> di^cfilip Ihn side of a parallelogram uniformly in a given time, the body will describe
tlu' illMifiiiinl iinitorinly in the same time. By these very simple laws, the result of e.\pc-
rii'lM't', ittiil by the (irinciples of geometry, Newton established the sublime doctrines of tlie
|>l»ii(tti(fy tiKitions,

It will nut be expected that we should enter at any considerable length into the recondite
dwtriiM'N (if physical astronomy. This subject requires for its full discussion ample space,
11(1(1 (ill tho fcpdiirct's of jie higher mathematics : the more elements of geometry, however,
are milllt'ieiit to indicate generally some of the fundamentiil principles. Let us suppose that

S (Jig. 34.) is a fixed point,

---E,

fiM

and that a iMxly moves in
the direction A B witli an
uniform velocity, at such a
rate, that if not disturbed
by any external cause, it
would move from B to 6 in
.r^'b a second of time. Let us
; also supiwse that when the
body' arrives at B, it re-
ceives an impulse in the
direction B S, and of such
intensity, that, if acting
alone, it would cause the
body to move uniformly
from B to H in a second.
Complete the parallelo-
gram H B 6 C, and draw

the (liitKOiml 11 C ; the impulse at B, combined with the tendency to continue its motion in
lll(} 11(11) U h, will cause the body to move along the diagonal B C; so that at the end of a
»(*('(»nl It Will nrtually be at the point C ; and if no external cause acted on the body, by the
llN. Iitw, it Would continue to move uniformly ever afler in the direction B C c ; so that in
llie liuxt H'Coild it would'doscribe a line C c, equal to B C. But now suppose that the body,
wIlt'H lit 0, receives a second impulse in the direction C S, by which it would be carried
lillitlifliily iVniii C to I in a second: then, completing the parallelogram D I C c, the actual
pidli til' tilt! ImkIv will be the diagonal C D, which will be uniformly described in a second;
iMiil H'lllltliBturbtMl, tho motion would be continued uniformly in the straight line C D <t, the
(lifttndt'n 1) (/ (lt!Bcribcd in the ne.xt second being equal to C D. A third impulse at D, in the
ilir«utitiii 1) N, such os would carry the body unilbrmly from D to K in a second of time,
Wwiltl) wlit'ii combined with the tendency to move in the direction D d, pnxluce a motion
bIuiijI I) K, the diagonal of the parallelogram E K D rf, and a fourth impulse in the direction
l'( H, Wiiiild, when combined with the motion in the direction E c, produce a motion along
tllB tliduoiml E P, and so on. In this way, by successive instantaneous impulses, a body may
bti (iiiultt to depcribe tho path A B C D E F, &c., which will bo all in one plane.

HilH!it the linos A H, B b are equal, the triangles A S B, B S /< are equal ; but because
< ' // In iMifiillfl to H U, the triangle B S 6 is equal to the triangle B S C ; therefore the trian-
1(1(1 II H (J in ofiual to A S B. In like manner, it may be proved that C S D is equal to B
H (;, (Kill 1) H H to C H D, and so on : thus it appears tliat the triangles A S B, B S C, C S D,
I) H E, iVc. lire nil equal. If we suppose a straight line to be drawn from the moving body to
tlitt lUi'il jKilnl H, niid to be continually carried along with it, it is evident that this lino will
IKINN over or gfiK'rato the equal areas A S B, B S C, C S D, D S E, &c. in equal intervals
of tiliiM 1 il in also evident that the shorter the interval between the impulses communi-
rnUnl to tilt! inoving body, the greater will be the number of sides of the figure formed hy
lilt* tliiimnmlB of the parallelograms, and the nearer will the line composed of these
(ll(t(((i(iiilN itpptoiich to a curve. If we suppose, therefore, that tho body is urged towards P
by K Ibfco lu'tiiig, not at intervals, Init incessantly, the body will move in that curve to
wlihdi, UN its limit, the line, composed of the diagonals continually approaches, while the
litlti (Iruwii fhim tho movmg body A S, or radius vector, will continue to describe areas pro
(idttitjiial to the times.

BookL

♦»

LAW OP UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.

The force which urges the body towards S, is called a centripetal force. If the action
of that force were to cease, tlie body would proceed in a straight line, — a tangent to its
curvilinear path. The tendency of the body to proceed in the direction of the tangent, is
called its centrifvoal force.

Prom the important conclusion to which we have now been led, wo may infer, conversely
that if a bmly revolve in a curvilinear path about a point, and if the radius vector drawn
from that point describe round it areas proportional to the times, the body is deflected from
the rectilineal path by a force directed to that point Now, this is exactly the case of the
planets, both primary and secondary. The former describe curvilinear orbits round the sun
and, according to the second of Kepler's laws, the nulius vector describes areas proportionul
to the times. Hence we may infer, that each is retained in its orbit by a centripetal force
directed towards the sun ; and that this force is counteracted by a centrifxigal force genera-
ted by tlio planet's motion in its orbit. In like manner, each secondary planet revolves
about its primary, the areas described by the radius vector following the same law ; so that
the secondary must be acted upon by a centripetal force directed towards tlie primary
planet.

The next thing to be determined is the law of the centripetal force when a body moves
in an elliptic orbit, the force being directed towards one of the foci. First, let us suppose a
body to revolve in the circumference of a circle ADC {fig. 35.), about any point S, as Uie
centre of its motion, and let us inquire into the law of the centripetal force in that case.
^ 35 Draw the chord A S C, and let A D be so small an arc, that

it may be considered coincident with its chord. Draw D E
parallel to the tangent A B, and join C D. Then A D will
measure the velocity of the body m its orbit at the point A,
and A E the space over which the centripetal force directed
towards S, if acting alone, would cause the body to move in
the time in which it moves from A to D. Put v to denote the
velocity, and / the centripetal force. Since the triangles A
DC, A E D, are equiangular and similar, we have A C ;
A D=A D : A E ; that is,

AC ; » = B ;/: therefbre/=^
Next, let A P B (fig. 36.) be the elliptic orbit of a planet>
S the focus in which the sun is placed, A the point at which
the planet is at its greatest distance from the sun, and P any other point in its orbit. Join
P S ; draw the tangent P D, and draw S D perpendicular to P D. Let v and v' denote the
velocities of the planet at A and P respectively ; and c and c' the chords of the equicurve
circles at A and P which pass through the point S, and let /be the deflecting force at A,
and /' the deflecting force at P. Then from what we have proved respecting a baly
moving in the circumference of a circle round any point F as the centre of its motion, we
have/;/' = ~ : ^ = d'c' : «''c. But since the small arcs which represent the velocities
at A and P must be supposed to be described in equal times, the corresponding areas described

by the radius vector will also be equal. Hence it is not
difficult to see that t)XAS = r'XSD, and v : v' =
S D : a A. We obtain, therefore, /: /'= S D' X r':
S A' X c. Draw P E perpendicular to the tangent
P D, meeting the axis in E, and draw E G perpendicular
to P E, and E H perpendicular to P G. From the pro-
JA. perties of the ellipse, P H is equal to half the principal
parameter, and consequently to half of c, the chord of the
circle, of equal curvature at A, which passes through S.
Also P G is half of c', the chord of the cciuicurve circl(>
at P, which passes through S. Therefore,

/:/'=:2SD'' X PG:2SA' X PH. -

= S D' X P G : S A' X P II.
Now, from the similar triangles G P E, E P II, we have GP:PE = PE:PH; honce
G P : P II = G P' : P E'. But the triangles G P E, PSD being also simihir, G P' : P E"
= P S' : S D'; therefore, G P : P H = P S' : S D'; and P S'XP II = S IVxG P: nnd
since it was shown that/:/'= S D^'X P G : S A'X P II, wherefore/: /'=P S'x P H : R A'
X P H ; or leaving the common factor P H out of the two consequents we have
/:/'=PS' : SA^
Thus we have arrived at this important conclusion ; that the force by which the planets
evolve round the sun in elliptical orbits, the sun being in one of the foci, and the radius
vector describing areas proportional to the times, is always inversely as the squares of the
distances.

l-'lj

'■'r

' !

:i^

,'M

'•;•

I )'

1 ■*'

■ jsl'i

,ll

r • ,

i^-'

■ ', 1

1 •!'■

|. '^^ '

f|l

120

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part II.

There remains yet another point to be determined rcspcctinjj the forces which retain the
different planets in their orbits; namely, whether there is any analogy letween them
From Kepler's third law, we know that the squares of the periodical times of any two
of the planets are proportional to the ctibcs of their mean distances from the sun. This law
is independent of tlie eccentricities of the orbits ; and the same relation would subsist
between the moon distances and tlie periodic times, though the eccentricities were to
become infinitely small ; or, what is the same thing, the orbits were to become circles. Let
us then suppose tlie planets to move with uniform velocities in circular orbits, having the
sun in the centre. This supposition differs very little from the truth. Put v, v' to denote
the velocities of two of the planets, r, r' the radii of their orbits, /, t' their periodic times,
and/,/' tiie forces by which they are retained in their orbits. From what we have already
shown respecting a body moving in a circle round any point as the centre of its motion, we
iiave/= ^ and/' =p, therefore/:/' =^ : ^. But since the circumferences of circlee
are to one another as their radii, and the velocity or the space passed over by the planet in
the unit of time is equal to the circumference of its orbit, divided by the periodic time
expressed in that unit, it is evident that v : v'=-y- :— : hence — : ~=i-^ : -jr, ; or,

ili uB ^ li'2 r ^ r[ I , I ,<

smcc t' : <'-=r' : r'\ - : -:^=-r : -n=-

^ _^j . ^,,_^ . ^,— , . r". Wherefore we obtain/:/'
=r" : r".

This result shows that the forces which, acting on two planets, would cause them
to describe circular orbits, agreeing with Kepler's third law, are inversely as the squares
of the distances. Hence we may infer the sameness of the force which retains the planets
in their respective orbiU ; since it varies from orbit to orbit, according to the very same law
which regulates its intensity at different distances in the same orbit. This conclusion is
fully cstablislicd by the fact, that the force which acts upon the comets during their descent
to the sun, varies exactly according to the law whicli we have now assigned as the law of
the planetary force. The comet of 1759, which was predicted by Dr. Halloy, came from
regions fjir boycnd the most distant of the known planets, and approached nearer to the
sun than Venus ; and when it arrived at the same distance from the sun as any of the
])lanets, its deflection from the rectilineal course by the action of the centripetal force, was
tlie very same as that of the planet. We may, therefore, conclude, that it is one and the
same force which deflects all the planets as well as the comets.

From what has now been shown, it is evident that if all the planets were placed at
the same distance from the sun, they would all be deflected equally by the centripetal force
independently of the quantity of matter in each. Hence it follows that, at equal distances,
the centripetal force must act equally on every particle of matter of which the planets arc
composed ; so that if one planet contain exactly double the quantity of matter that another
planet contains, and if both are placed at exactly the same distance from the sun, the former
will receive a double impulse. We may infer, therefore, that another lau of the force
which retains the planets in their orbits is, that, at equal distances, it is proportional tc
the mass on which it acts ; and tliat if two bodies act on the same particle of matter, the
forces which they exert are proportional In their masses. The force may be supposed to
be produced cither by a cause residing in tlie hotly which is placed in the centre of motion,
or by a cause residing in the revolving body. In the former point of view, it is called a
force of ATTRACTION ; in the latter, a force of gravitation. The truth is, however, that the
cause of this force is absolutely unknown. We see only the effects produced, and from these
wo investigate t)ic laws which connect them with each other, and the general principles on
which they depend.

Thus, from the facts discovered by Kepler respecting the planetary motion, we
have shown tliat each planet has a tendency towards the sun, in consequence of which
from a state of rest it would move towards him, acquir.ng at every instant an increase of
velocity according to a fixed and determinate ntlc or law whicli applies alike to all the
plaiietw. This tendency, if not counteracted, would bring the matter of tiie sun and planets
mfo one mass. Tliis, however, is prevented from taking place, in consequence of an impulse
having been ori^nnally communicated to each planet, giving it a constant tendency to move
in a Btraight line with on uniform velocity. The effecti arising from these two tendencies
are so odjustcd, as to produce elliptic orbity. But the law whicli regulates the effects arising
from the tendency of the planets towards the .snn remaining the same, such a velocity
might have bci>n Cdnimnnicatcd to each planet, by the original impulse wliirh gave it its
ti'iidi ncy to move uniformly in a straight line, as would have produced piirabolic or liyper-
liolic orbits. In a circular orbit, if tlie centre of motion coincide v.itli the centre of the
orbit, the velocity of a planet is uniform, and of such rapidity as at every point to produce a
tendency to move in a tangent to the orbit, exactly sufficient to coiinterbaliinci the tendency
to mov(! towards the centre of the orbit. If the orbit be elliptical, and one of the foci
the centre of motion, the motion of the ))lanot is variable, and its tendency to move uni-
formly in a tangent to the orbit sometimes exceeds, and at other times fa.ls short of, that

•-X

UOOK I.

LAW OP UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.

121

cncies
irising
:>Iocity

it its
hypor-

" the
luce a
idency
foci

which would be necessary to cause it to revolve in a circle at the same diBtonce from the
centre of motion.

Let A D B E be the elliptic orbit of a planet revolving about the sun, which is supposed
to be placed in the focus S. Suppose the planet to set out from A in the direction A P,
A being the |)oint of its greatest distance from the sun. At A tlie direction of the planet's
motion is at riglit angles to the radius vector, and if the velocity were such as to produce
a tendency to move in the direction of tiie tangent A G, exactly equivalent to the tendency
of the planet to move towards the sun, the planet would revolve in a circle of which S is
the centre, and S A the radius. But tlie velocity being supposed less, the path of the
planet will fall within the circle, and the angle S P H contained between tlie radius vector
and the tangent P H, which shows the direction of the planet's motion, changes from a right
angle to an acute angle. The tendency of the planet towards the sun is now exerted partly

in accelerating its velocity in its orbit, and partly in-
curvating its path. While the planet describes the
quadrant A P D, its velocity is always less than that
which would produce a circular motion ; until it is at
the point D, and then the velocity is precisely what
would be sufficient for a circular motion about S, if its
A. direction were perpendicular to the radius vector : the
direction, however, being oblique, the planet is brought
still nearer to S. The tendency towards the sun is, in
a great measure, still exerted in accelerating the motion,
and as soon as the planet passes D, its velocity becomes
greater than what might produce a circular motion
about S. The angle S D K is, therefore, the least angle
which the ndius vect«r makes with the direction of the planet's motion, and from the moment
when the planet passes the point D, that angle begins to increase ; and the effect of this is
to cause the tendency of the planet towards the sun to be principally exerted in incurvating
the orbit. Its influence in accelerating the planet's motion, though it still exists, is gradually
diminished, until the planet arrives at the point B, where it ceases altogether, in consequence
of the radius vector being at right angles to the tangent B L.

As the velocity of the planet at B is greater than what is sufficient to produce a motion in
a circle of which the radius is S B, the path of the planet falls wholly without that circle;
and consequently, it is now receding from the sun. The angle which the radius vector
makes with the direction of its motion becoming obtuse, the tendency of the planet towards
the sun is now partly employed in retarding its motion, so that its velocity is diminished.
The angle contained between the radius vector and the direction of the planet's motion
increases while the planet is moving from B to E, and decreases from E to A, when it be-
comes a right angle, as it had formerly decreased from A to D, and increased from D to B.
The velocity of tlie planet in its orbit must, therefore, decrease from B to A, as it had for-
merly increased from A to B ; at the point E it will be equal to what it was at D, and from
E to A, the influence of the planet's tendency towards the sun to diminish its velocity will
become less and less, until when the planet has arrived at A, it will cease altogether. The
velocity is then the same as at first, and the motion goes on in this way for ever.

Whatever has now been deduced from Kepler's Laws respecting the orbits of the pri-
mary planets, and the law of the force by which they are described, will apply equally to
tlie orbits of the secondary planets : for in each of these little systems, there is the same
analogy between the periodic times and the distances, which takes place in the general
system; the figure of the orbits is also elliptic, and the areas described by the radius vector
is proportional to the times. Wo may legitimately conclude, therefore, that the satellites
revolving about any planrt, are retained in their orbits by a force inversely proportional to
the sqnares of their distances from their primary planet ; so that all the celestial motions
are produced by forces regulated by this general law.

The force that keeps the Moon in her orbit is, then, the attraction of the earth, or her gra-
vitation towards the earth. But wo find that the earth attracts all the bodies near its surftce
by a force wliich is proportional to tlie mass of the body attracted. Whatever be the weight
of a body, it falls to the earth from the same height in the same time, and with the same
velocity. Thus, if the resistance of the atmosphere be removed, it is found by experiment
that the lightest feather falls to the earth, from a given height, in the very same time, and
with the very same velocity, as a stone, however groat its weight. Let us inquire whether
the force which retains the moon in its orbit may not be identified with this attractive force
which causes the descent of heavy bodies to the surface of the earth.

We may without great error supiiose the lunar orbit to be circular, and its scmidiameter
to be equal to sixty semidiameters of the earth. Let it be represented by the circle C M A,
the earth being supposed to be placed at the centre E ; and let M C be the small portioa
VOL.L 11 Q

129

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY.

Past Ii.

of the orbit which the moon describes in a second of time.
Draw M B a tangent to tlie orbit at M : draw also C D paral-
lel to M B, and C B parallel to MA, the diameter of the orbit.
The arch M C may be regarded as coincident with its chord ;
therefore, joining A C, it is evident that in the right angled
triangle A C M we have AM: M C=M C : M D. Hence,
since A M and M C are known, M D or B C, the deflection
of tlie moon from the tangent in a second, by the attraction of
the earth, may be found.

The moon describes her orbit round the earth in about STj
T" 43™ or 2,360,580 seconds ; the circumference of her orbit is
about 60 times the circumference of the enrth, that is, if we
reckon 69j English miles to a degree, 7,926,336,000 feet ;
therefore the length of the arc M C, which the moon describes
in a second, will be found nearly equal to 33o8 feet. Again, A M, the diameter of the
nHMn's orbit, is about 2,52i),031,140 feet. Hence we obtain M D equal to 00447 feet nearly.
This small iVactional part of a foot is the space which a body, placed at the distance of the
moon, and falling from a state of rest by the action of the force which retains the raoon in
her orbit, would pass over in the first second of time. Observing, now, that this force increa«es
na the squares of tlie distances decrease, we may determine the space which a body at the sur-
face of the earth (or at the distance of one semidinnieter from the earth's centre), and felling
from a state of rest, would pass over in tlie first second of time, if urged by the same force.
For, since the moon's distance from the earth is equal to about sixty times the semidiameter
of the earth, we have 1*: 60'=00447: the space required, which is found to be 16'09 feet.
Now, this is exactly the space which a body, falling from rest by its own weight, is found
by experiment to pass over in the first second of time. Hence we may infer, that the moon
is retained in its orbit by the very same force which produces pressure in a body supported,
or causes a body when unsupported to fall to the ground.

Though the attraction of the earth on bodies near its surface is only a particular case of
a general principle, which produces all the planetary motions, the eflbcts are, to appearance,
considerably modified. At all the heights to wliich wo are able to ascend above the general
surface of the earth, or to which we can project a body, the force of gravity acts, as to sense,
uniformly: it also acts in the direction of straight lines, perpendicular to the horizon, and
tlierefore parallel to one another, for the greatest range that can be given to a projectile.
Hence the phenomena, which depend on the force diminishing in intensity, as the S(iuare
of the distance increases, and on its emanating in the direction of straight lines drawn to
the centre of the attracting sphere, become imperceptible. In consequence of the compa-
ratively small velocity with which hr.man power can project a body, its path always meets
the earth, and its motion terminates. But if the whole matter of the earth were collected
into a point at the centre, a liody projected from a point 4000 miles distant from the centre,
and with such a velocity as human power can communicate, would be acted upon by the
same forces, with a bo<ly similarly projected from the surface of the narth. But on the sup-
position now miido, the body would meet with no obsticle, but would approach within a cer-
tain distance of the centre, and would then recede from it until it reached another limit,
when it would again approach, and go on in this manner, approaching and receding alter-
nately, for ever. The path of the body would be an el'ipse, resembling in fig\ire the orbit
3f a comet. The extreme portions of the path would, as to sense, be portions of a parabola.
Hence it is usually laid down as a law regulating the motion of projectiles, that if a heavy
body be projected in a straiirhl line, not perpendicular to the lutriznn, it wilt describe a
parabola situated in the vertical plane passing through that straight line, and having its
axis perpendicular to the horizon. Tiiis physical truth was first discovered by Galileo.

The force of gravity near the surface of the earth being uniform in its action, it is found
that the motion wiiich it produces corresponds in all its circumstances with that which
matheriiatical reasoning shows should result from the action of a constant force. The spaces
through which the body falls are proportional to the squares nf the times, and the velocity
is proportional to the time during which the body has been falling.

From tiio third law of Kepler, it is not difficult to sec that the periodic time of a planet
in its orbit is determined entirely by the mean distance, that is, half the transverse axis;
and is not at all uflt'cteil by the increase or do<Tensn of the ciiiijiigntn ax's. By supposing,
then, the conjugate axis to bo continually diminished, wo are led to this roiirlusion, that the
time in whicii a Ixxly would descend to the sun, if allowed to fall from a state of rest at any
distance from him, is e(iua.l to half the time of nvolutlon in an ellijisc the semitransverse
axis of wliich is half of that distance. I,rt T be the time of ri'volutioii of ii planet at any
distance, and t the time of revolution at half that distance; then, by tiio third law of Kepler,

T T

T*: t': 2': 1'; hence we have t = T/V and J< = ^/^. But It is the time in which a body
would fall from the distance corresponding to T. Hence the lime in which a planet would

'\T^ ■•

Book I.

LAW OP UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.

123

planet
axis:
liposiiifr,

lint thn
:t at any
insvcrso
t at any

Kepler,

1 a body
•t would

fall to the sun by the action of the centripetal force m equal to the periodic time divided
hy y/'^^ ; or (what amounts to thn eamo thing) to the periodic time multiplied by 0"176776,
the reciprocal of the square root of 32. By this general rule, the times in which tlie dif-
ferent planets would reach tlie sun, if the action of their centrifugal force entirely ceased
at the moment when they are at their mean distances, arc as follow :

°5U'

Dayp. Hrs.

Mercury in 15 13

VcnuH 3il 17

The Earth 04 13

Mnrs 121 10

Ceres 2!I7

Pallaa 301 4

Jiinn

Veata aoj

Jupiter 7CS

Saturn inoi

Genrfiium Sidus 5425

The Moon would fill! to the Earth in.. 4

ttn.
10

111

The principle in tlie Newtonian philosophy, that the effecta produced by the attraction
of a body depend very much upon the quantity of matter which it contains, fiimishes the
means of resolving a problem which at first sight may appear of such difficulty as to tran-
scend the powers of the human mind ; namely, to determine the quantity of matter in the
sun and planets. Let f and f denote the forces by which two bodies revolve in circular
orbits round two central bodies, of which the masses are denoted by m and m'. Let r and
r be the radii of the orbits, and t and t' the periodic times. From what we have already
proved with regard to a force tliat retains a body in a circular orbit, we have

t r' mm' m m' r r

f . fi — — . — Bu^ yfiQ },ave al8o/:/'= — : — : therefore, — : — = — : — : and

(2 ra rJ r-t Tt r*! II fl

ra r' S

consequently, m : m' = — : —

Thus it appears tliat the masses of matter in the bodies which compose the solar system
are directly as the cubes of the mean distances of any bodies which revolve round them,
and inversely as the squares of the times in which the revolutions are performed. By
means of this principle, the masses of the sun and of the planets which have satellites may
be compared with one another. With regard to the planets which have no satellites, the
quantity of matter contained in them can only be guessed from the effects they produce on
the motions of the other planets. The quantity of matter in the moon can, however, be
determined with greater certainty, by comparing together the influence of the sun and moon
in producing the tides and the precession of the equinoxes. Hence we learn, that the mat-
ter in the moon is about Vir of the matter in the earth.

The following table exhibits the masses of the planets, that of the sun being considered
as unity :

TABLE.

Mercury
Venus
The Earth
Mars

292S5T(r

Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus

If we add together the numbers given in this table, it will be found that the whole matter
in all the planets is not one-six-hundredth part of the matter in the sun.

Knowing the masses of tlie planets and their diameters, we can determine the force of
gravity at their surfaces ; for, supposing them to be spherical bodies, and to have no rotation
on their axes, the forces with which a hotly placed on their surfaces gravitates to them will
be proportional to their masses, divided by the squares of their diameters.

From the masses of Jupiter and the earth, Ija Place calculates that if we suppose them
to liave no rotation, a body which at the earth's equator weighs one pound would, if carried
to the equator of Jupiter, weigh 2..'jn9 pounds, supposing the weights to be measured by
the pressures exerted in the two situations. If the centrifiigal force produced by the rota-
tion of the planets be taken into account, however, this weight must be diminished by about
one-ninth part. The same body would wei:rh utout 27.6.') pounds at tlie surface of the sun.
Hence it follows that a heavy body would there descend about 425 feet in the first second
of time.

We have hitherto attended chiefly to the action of the central body upon that which
revolves round it; but, in reality, the action is mutual. The planets attract the sun in the
same manner as the sun attracts tlie planets ; and the same action and re-aotion have place
among the primary planets and their satellites. Indeed, the gravitation of all the great
bodies of the system towards one another, appears only to bo a consequence of a similar
action between every particle of matter nnd every other particle of matter. This great
fao.t, to which nil the celestial phenomena are ultimately to be referred — Ihtit the particles
of matter mutually attract each other hy a force varying inversely as the squares of the
distances — is commonly called the principle of Universal Gravitation.

The mutual attraction of the bodies composing the planetary system gives rise to a train
of consequences which it has required the utmost efforts of human ingenuity to unfold.
We have already remarked that the planetary motions are liable to a variety of irregula.i-

1, if!-«K

Ssi'J'

hlliilifi

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY

Past II

ties with which accurate observation has made us acquainted. Now, here we see tlie cause
to which all these irrefirularitics are to be referred. If the sun were fi.xed immovable in the
centre, and only one planet revolving round him, then the path of that planet would be an
ellipse, from which there would not be tlie least deviation ; and that focus which is the
centre of motion would coincide with the centre of the sim, supposing that body to be
spherical and composed of matter of uniform density. But since the planet attracts the siu<
as well as the sun attracts tlie planet, with a force directly proportional to tlie mass and
inversely proportional to tlie square of the distance, it follows that the sun must also move
in an elliptic orbit round that point of which the condition is in no way disturbed by the
mutual action of the revolving bodies, namely, their centre of gravity. It is with this
point that tlie focus of tlic orbit of the planet, and that of the solar orbit, would coincide,
and about which the radius vector of each would describe areas proportional to the times.
In reference to this point also, the squares of the periodic times would be proportional to the
cubes of the distances.

If we suppose two or more planets to revolve about the sun, it is evident that the motions
of all would be disturbed by their mutual gravitation. The immense magnitude of the
sun compared with that of any of the planets, or of all the planets taken together, might,
however, give to his attraction such a preponderance as would preserve all the planetary
orbits nearly elliptical ; while his own orbit would become a more complicated curve, but
auch as to mmish a centrifugal force in respect of each planet, just able to counterbalance
the gravitation towards it. The centre of gravity of the whole system would be a point to
which all their motions are to be referred. Now this is actually the case of the planetary
system. Accurate observation proves that the sun is not at rest in the centre, though his
motion is very small. His centre is never distant from the centre of gravity of the system
80 much as his own diameter ; and hence tlio orbit which he describes must be very incon-
siderable, when compared with the orbits of the planets. With regard to those planets
which are accompanied by satellites, it is not the centre of tlie primary which traces the
elliptic orbit round the sun, but the conimou centre of gravity of the primary planet and
secondary planets which revolve round it.

Tlie perturbations which the mutual attraction of the planets produce in each other's mo-
tions are divided into two classes. The one class affect the figure and position of the elliptic
orbits, and increase with extreme slowness : these are called secular inequalities. The
other class depend on the mutual situation of tlie different planets, and acquire the same
amount whenever the same relative positions occur : these are called periodic inequalities.
Both these classes of inequalities have been demonstrated to be periodical; that is, they
increase only to a certain extent, and tlien decrease. Amidst all the changes which arise
from the mutual actions of the heavenly bodies, there aie two things which remain perpetu-
ally tlie same ; namely, the greater axis of the orbit wliich the planet describes, and its
periodic time. Thus the permanency of the planetary system is secured.

To subject to calculation the perturbations of the system, requires the solution of tlie
following problem : three bodies of given magnitude.^, as the sun, the earth, and the moon,
being projected into space witli given velocities, and in given directions, and attracting each
other according to a given law, namely, inversely as the s<iuares of their distances from each
ether, and directly as their masses ; it is required to determine the nature of the curve, tliat
one of them, as the moon, describes about one of the other two, ns the earth. This is the
celebrated problem of the three bodies, stated in all its generality, but under this af.pect
its solution is beyond the reach of the most refined methods of analysis wiiich the mathe-
matical sciences in their present state furnish. In its application to the purposes of physical
astronomy, there are certain conditions wliich render the problem less difficult: viz. I.
That the sun greatly exceeds in magnitude tlie other two Ixxlics, and is nearly at rest. 2.
Its distance from the earth and moon is so great, that it may iie considered the same for both.
This condition duh, however, in reference to tiio action of the primary planets on one
another, a circumstance which augments tlie difficulty of investigating the perturbations
arising from their mutual gravitation. 3. The planetary orbits are nearly elliptical, and
the aberrations from the ellipses in reference to each, are all that is required. Even with
these limitations the problem is sufficiently difficult, and has engaged the attention, and
exercised the skill of the most celebrated mathematicians of modern times.

The general view which wo have now given of the planetary disturbances is all that our
present object requires. We shall only, therefore, farther advert to tlio explanation which
the theory of graviti.tion affords of the figure of the eartli, and of the tides.

CHAPTER XVI.

FIGiniE AND CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH DEDUCED FROM THE THEORY OF GRAVITATION

In the beginning (Chap. III.) wo proved that the earth must be nearly spherical, in ordei
to account for the general phenomena which we constantly observe. As soon, however,

-K T

DOOK I.

HGURE OF THE EARTH.

IJfa.

that our
on which

llTATION

in ordei
■however,

as the Koncral lam of frravitation was discovered, it was a neccBsary consequence tliat the
cartli cimld nut bo a purlcct Bphere, but must rnliier be an oblate spheroid fattened at tlio
polos, ami swoUod out at the tnpiator, and tliiti intbrenco is independent of all actual rnrasuro
nieiit, but niiiy be contirmed by obncrvulion, and in fact has been bo, as will be afterward!"
fully proved. This deviation from the spiierical figure is to bo attributed to the influence
of till' coutrifu;;al force, arisiu^r from the earth's diurnal rotation, in diminishing the force ot
gravity from the pole towards the eciuator, where the centrifujjal force, in reference to the
Burliice, is the {,'reatest possible. This tendency which every particle of matter in the earth
liiis to Hy ort' in the direction of a tanj^cnt to the circle in which the particle is carried (>y
the I'lirtli's motion of rotation would bo increased if that motion were to be accelerated :
and may be conceived to be increased to such power as not only to overcome the force of
gravity, but also the force by which the particles adhere to one another, and so to cause Uie
earth to separate into fragments. Suppose a small satellite to revolve round tlio earth close
to its surface at the equator ; its periodic time may be deduced from that of the moon, on
the principle that the squares of their periodic times would be to one anotlier as the cubes
of their distances. For we have (since the moon's distance is alxjut sixty times the semi-
diameter of the earth, and the time of her periodic revolution 80343 minutes),

60': l'=39343': sq. of the periodic time of the satellite.
Hence we obtain the periodic time nearly equal to 84j minutes. If the earth revolved
about its axis in 84.; minutes while such a satellite described a circular orbit close to its
suitiice, the satellite would theretbrt: appear to be at rest on the surface, but would not in
the least degree press upon it, because the force of gravity would be exactly counterbalanced
by the centrifugal force produced by the motion of the satellite in its orbit. Now, all the
objects on the surface at the equator would be in the very same circumstances with the
satellite; for they actually describe circles in consequence of the earth's motion, and if the
earth revolved in 845 minutes, their centrifugal force would become exactly equal to the
force of gravity ; so tJiat they would no longer have weight. If the earth's motion of rota-
tion became still more rapid, they would fly off from the surface.

At the equator a body describes a circle of which the circumference is about 132,105,(j0()
feet in 23'' 56"' nearly : it must therefore describe an arc of about 1528 feet in a second
of time. From what we have shown already respecting central forces, it is evident that, by
dividing the square of this arc by the diameter of the earth, we shall find the deflection
from the tangent in a second, which will be the measure of the centrifugal force. This
deflection amounts to about {^f, of an inch, or j% of 16,3 feet, the space tlirough which a
body would liill in a second by the force of apparent gravity. The centrifugal force at the
equator is therefore the 5' j part of the sensible weight of a botly, or ^Ji, pait of its real
weight. SupiKise, then, a body, when weighed at the equator by a spring-steel yard, to be
fbiind capable of drawing out the spring to the division 288 : if that body were weighed at
the pole, where the centrifugal force vanishes, it would draw out the spring to the
division 289.

It admits of being demonstrated that, proceeding from the equator where the centrifugal
fi)ree is the greatest toward either pole, where it vanishes, the increase 0/ gravity in different
liititvdes is as the square of the sine of the latitude.

Such being the nature of the forces that act upon every particle of matter of which the
earth is com])Oped, the determination of its figure from physical principles involves tlie
solution of the two following problems : —

1. What is the law according to which a particle will gravitate towards a solid of a
given form and constitution, the particle being supposed situated either within or without
the solid!

2. What figure will a mass of matter, either wholly or partly fluid, assume in conse-
quence of the joint efl'ect of the attraction of its particles (that attraction varying inversely
ns the squares of their distances), and a centrifugal force arising from the rotation of the
mass about an axisi Both these problems involve a great degree of difficulty; and the
second is even more intricate than the first, in consequence of the reciprocal relations
subsisting between the figure of the attracting Ixxly and the law of gravitation at its surfoce,
whii'li renders a knowledge of the one necessary to the determination of the other.
Assiiniiiig that an homogeneous fluid of the same mean density with the earth has the
figure of an oblate spheroid, and revolves on its axis in 23" 50"' 4" of solar time, it would be
in quilihrio, if the axis of revolution were to the equatorial diameter in the projwrtion of
22!) to 230. This is the figure which Newton ascribed to the earth; and tliough the
assumption which he made of such a figure was certain'y gratuitous, the result of his inves-
tigation is almost the same as later writers have obtained by a more rigorous as well as
direct mode of reasoning than that which he employed. Again, it has been demonstrated by
La IM.ici-', liiiit a fluid iind homogeneous mass, of the moan density of the earth, cannot
remain in eiiiiilibrium ami jxjssess at the same time an elliptic figure, if the time of its
rotiition be less than 2'' 2.")'" 17'. If the time of revolution exceed this, there may always be
two elliptic spheroids, ami not more, in ^vhich the equilibrium mav be maintained. In the

11*

' h'vi.

■:ill.|

■^

186

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY.

Pa«t n.

■.•.'(

case of the moss revolving in 2!$'' !ytt'" 4', tho one spheroid is tlmt which lias already been
mentioned; the other is one in which tiie polar diameter in to the equatorial in the ratio of
I to 6H1. The extreme flatncfn of this spheroid must render the force of {frivity ot thi;
equator almost nothing ; the tluid, tiicrcfore, would be so easily dissi|)atcd that this equilibrium
can scarcely be regarded as stable.

Another conclusion on this subject, dcducc<l by Clairault, is, that if the fluid mass supposed
to revolve on its axis, instead of being homogeneous, be composed of strata which increase
in density towards the centre, hi order to remain in equilibrium, it must still possess the figure
of an elliptic spheroid, but tho o')late"r?'« will bo diminished.

The oblateness of the earth at its poles ib a phenomenon which the measurements that
have been made of arcs of the meridian have (placed beyond all doubt; but there is still an
uncertainty as to the exact quantity of the compression. The results obtained, however,
render it highly probable that it is less than ^^g, which Newton, proceeding on the supposition
of a unifonn density, assigned for the compression. Hence we may conclude, that if the
earth is a spheroid of equilibrium, it is denser in the interior than at its surface. This
inference has been verified by very accurate experiments made by the late Dr. Maskelyne
on the sides of the mountain Schehallien, in Perthshire. The object was to determine the
derangement of the plummet by the vicinity of this loflyand solid mountain; and the results,
obtained from observation made at two stations on the south and north sides of it, showed
tliat tlie plummet deviated from the direction of gravity towards tho mountain more than
7' '. The quantity of this change of direction gives tho ratio of the attraction of the mountain
to tliat of die whole earth, or to the force of gravity, equal to tlie ratio cf 1 to 17804. But
the bulk and figure of the mountain being also obtained by a trigonometrical survey, its mean
density was found to be to the mean density of the earth nearly as 5 to 9. Thus it appears
that the mean density of the earth is not much less than double the density of the rocks
which compose tlie mountain Schehallien; and these, again, seem considerably more dense
than the mean of those which form the exterior crust of the earth.

It may appear an objection to this mode of reasoning concerning the figure of the earth,
that it is not evident how a centrifugal force should produce the same effect on a solid body,
like the earth, that it does upon a fluid mass. But the fact that the earth has made an
approximation to the spheroid of equililrriiim, is an indication that either the entire mass
wos originally fluid, from whatever cause ; or tlie repeated waste and reconsolidation of the
parts near the surface hos gmdually produced the spheroidal figure. In either of these
modes the power of cohesion, which in the solid body resists the effects of the centrifugal
force, may have been overcome. However irregular a body, whose surface is composed of
land and water, may be in its primitive form ; by the process of constant waste, the more
prominent parts are gradually worn down, and the matter which composed them is deposited
in the lower parts which are occupied by the water : here it acquires a horizontal stratifica-
tion; and having, by certain mineral operations, under the transforming hand of nature, been
consolidated into stone, the water being removed, it may again form a part of the solid crust
of the earth. In this manner the primitive irregular form will gradually disappear, and the
surface in the course of ages acquire a position at right angles to the direction of gravity;
so that, by the action of the centrifugal force, there will be a constant approximation made
to the spheroid of equilibrium. The irregular distribution of the heterogeneous materials
which compose this terraqueous globe may, perhaps, prevent the coincidence from ever
being complete.

It admits of being demonstrated, that if tiie earth were a perfect sphere, and composed of
matter of uniibrm density at equal distances from its centre, the action of the solar and
lunar attraction upon it would be the same os if the whole terraqueous mass we'e condensed
into a point at the centre. Hence the position of its axis would not, in that case, be in the
least degree affected by its gravitation towards the sun and moon, but would remain parallel
to itself while the earth performed its annual revolution. In consequence of the spheroidal
figure, however, the earth may be considered as composed of a sphere of which the radius is
half the polar axis, and of a quantity of redundant matter, which is distributed over it in
such a manner as to swell out the equatorial regioas. The action of the solar and lunar
attraction on this redundant matter produci.-- the precession of tlie equinoxes and the nutation
of the earth's axis. The complete explanation of these phenomena affords one of the linji-
piest illustrations of tlie Newtonian doctrine of attraction ; but requires at the same time
'he aid of some of the most abstruse theories both in pure mathematics and mechanics.

'i»;:

CHAPTER XVII.

THE TIDES.

The clternate rise and fall of tho surface of the .sea, or it flux and reflux, known by the
name of the tides, is a phenomnnon which hns nttracted the attention of mankind from tho
earliest periodH. Herodotu^i and Diodorus Siculu.i take notice of the daily flux and reflux

Book I.

•1

THE TIDES.

of tho waters of tijo Rod Sea or Arabian Gulf, tho latter historian describing it as a great
and rapid tide ; but neither of these writers forms any conjecture respecting its cause. Ob-
servation must soon have shown, that this periodical ebbinji; and flowing of the waters of tho
ocean had an intimate connexion with the position of tho sun and moon in tho heavens ; and,
accordingly, we Und that Plinv not only describes the phenomena of tides, but expressly
attributes them to the action oi^ these luminaries,

It was not, however, until Newton applied the principle of universal gravitation to explain
these phenomena that tho theory of the tides was fully understood. The weight of a body
on the surface of the earth arises from the tendency which the particles composing it have
to the centre (or to a point near the centre), in obedience to the law of gravity. But as
every object on the earth's surface gravitates towards tho sun and moon, as well as towards
tho earth, it follows that the solar and lunar attraction must affect tlie weight of terrestrial
objects. Upon solid bodies, between the particles of which adhesive force is powerful, no
discernible effects are produced by this attraction. But the case is altogether different with
regard to the waters of the ocean, the component particles of which yield to the slightest
impulse ; so that any alteration in their weight that does not equally affect the whole must
be followed immediately by a motion of the parts of the fluid mass, which will continue
until, by a new arrangement of t^ie particles, the equilibrium is restored.

To see what must be the general effect, arising from the action of the sun, if tho whole
surface of the globe were covered with water ; let A C B O (Jig. 39.) be the watery sphere, S the

40 O.

I by tho

om tho

reflux

sun, and E the centre of the earth. Let the gravitation of the central particle E to the sun
be represented by the line E S, and the gravitation of any other particle M by the line
M S D. Let the force M D be resolved into two forces, M H equal and parallel to E S, and
M G. The force M H does not in the least degree affect the gravitation of the particle M
towards the centre E ; and M G is, tiicrefore, the only disturbing force. If S M be pro-
duced to moot the circle A C B O in the point m, the action of the sun on a particle situated
at m is less than its action on the central particle E ; so that if m d represent the gravita-
tion of tho particle m towards the sun, the point il will fall on the opposite side of S from
the point D ; and the force m d being resolved into two forces, m h equal and parallel to E S,
and Jie disturbing force m ff, it is evident that tiio tendency of the force m g' is to diminish
the gravity of the particle jn, in like manner as the force M G diminishes the gravity of the
particle M. When the point M coincides with A, the angle E S M is the angle under
which the semidiameter of the earth is soon from tlie sun ; therefore E S M can never ex-
ceed 8j" : whence, in determining the direction and quantity of the disturbing force from
the geometrical relations of the linns, we may consider tlie lines D G, S L, and D M as
coincident, and M L may be taken for tlie disturbing force. Again, the difference between

. 1

■ i''

' (

' 1

*l:3i

'A\

rh>^

i->

138

PRINCIPLES OF GECHiKAl'IIY.

PmtII.

B M nnd S K \n (jrentP.-t wlirn tlio (Kiiut M idincitlrn with C Df O. But if wo coiwider

llmt C K, tlic (lifToronco bctwomi S I] itiiil S M wliuii (jfiitt'st, is (nily hUjuI , ,', „ jxirt of

8 E, it ia ovidi'iif. tliiit wo roniiiiit lint ii very mnull i-rror in mipiniMiii;,' S M, S iN, and t) E

in cvory position piiiiiil. Now, Hinco S E nnd DTVI roprt'sciit tlio f^mvitiition of tlio piirti-

cles E and M towards tho sun rositcctivuly, wu liuvc H E : J) M — S M^ : H E'; tiion-lbrp,

8N»
•inco a E and S N may bo considered wpmi, I) M = ^j^j^. Dut S N = 8 M + M N, there-

fore S N' - S M' + 3 S M' X M N + « S M X M N^ + M N\ Tlio (juaiitity M N in so
Dmall, compared witli S M, tiiat Uio two lust ternw of tliia cxprcHsion lor 8 N' may bo ne-

HN'
gloctcd : we have, therefore, S N' = S AP + 3 S M' X M N, and y-^a = S M + 3 M N .

wherefore, also, D M = S M + 3 M N ; nnd taking S M IVom each, wo find S D = 3 M N.
Now, since G 1) may be considered oeuul to L S + S I), ami E S ia by constrnction equal
to G D, it is evident that ES=LS4-SD, or tukinjr L S from eacii, E L = 8 1). Hence
E L = 3 M N, and the dittturbin^r force for any point M ia determined both in direction and
magnitude.

Suppose now that A C B O (fii^. 40.) is tho terraqueous glojc, E S a lino directed to tho
sun, and A E B a section by that circle which sopanitos tho enlig'htcncd from the dark
hemisphere. IjCt M bo any particle on or within tho mass. Throujfh the point M draw a
strniffht lino M N perpendicular to tho piano A E B, nnd in E S tiiko E L, rqunl to 3 M N :
join L M; then L M represents tho direction and intensity of tho diKtiirbin;,' force which
tho sun exerts on tho particle M. Let tho force L M be resolved into two forces, one, M E,
directed towards thv' centre of t!ic earth, nnd tho other, M R, tending; from tho plane A E B
towards the sun. Suppose the same construction to be made for every point of the sphere,
tho whole being supposed covered with water, it is evident that the forces rnprosented by
M E will balance one another, nnd therefore need not bo considered. But the force repre-
sented by M R will diminish tho gravity of every particle M, reckoned in tho direction of
a line perpendicular to tho plane of that great circle of tho earth which separates the illi'-
minatcd from the dark hemisphere. Tho force thus diminishing tho gravity will bo propor-
tional to tJireo times tiio distance of the particle from the same piano ; for R M is equal to
Ii E or 3 M N. Every particle in any column M N being thus acted on by a force whicii
evidently tends to destroy the e(iuilibrium of tlio fluid mass, the water in that column can-
not remain at rest. Its equilibrium may bo restored, however, by tin; addition of n small
[xwtion M m, which, by restoring the weight of the column, enables it to resist tho pressure
(if the odjacent columns. A similar addition may be made to cnch column, perpendicular
to the plane A E B: and the result will be that, from being sphoricnl, the figure of the globn
will be changed into that of an oblong elliptical spheroid, having its axis directed towards
the sun, and its poles in those points of the surface which have the sun .>! the zenith and
nadir.

Let tho figure into which the watery sphere would be transformed by the solar iiction be
represented by the ellipse acbo {Jiff. 41.) : the points o nnd c are the polos of the spheroid ;
nnd at these points the waters are highest above the sphere A C B O of equal capacity, while
all round the circumference B E A tne waters are below their natural level. By calculation
it is found that the differenco between E c and E n is about twenty-four and a half inches ;
80 that the deviation from the spherical figure is not great.

The figure which the watery spheroid assumes must be in a slight degree influenced by
the spheroidal figure of the earth ; but the deviation from the spherical figure is so small,
that its effect in changing the spheroidal figure of the waters on the surface of the earth
must be quite inconsiderable. If the earth were at rest, the watery spheroid would acquire
that form which would produce an equilibrium among all its particles. This, however, can
never happen under the actual circumstances of the case, because some time must elapse
before an accelerating force can produce a finite change in the disposition of tho waters;
but, by the motion of the earth on its axis, tiie disturbing force is every instant applied to a
different part of the surface, .so that the jjosition of equilibrium can never actually be attain-
ed. Such, then, is the general efl*ect which the solar action would produce if the whole
globe were fluid, or a spherical nucleus covered with a fluid of o«jual density. To explain
9io phenomena of the tides, however, it is indispensably necessary to take into account the
action of the moon.

It is witli the moon that tho tides are principally connected ; ami the sun's influence is
known only by its increasing or diminishing the effects of her nicre powerful action. This
greater influence of the mcxm in producing the tides arises from her vicinity to the earth,
when compared with tlie sun, her distance being only about jiU part of his. It must be
carefully kept in view, that it is not tho more action of the sun and moon that produces the
tides in the ocean, but the iiirqiialiticii in the action of each : and the gravitation of tho
waters of the ocean to the moon is much more uno(|ual than their gravitation to the sim.
Whatnvpr has been proved with regard to tho influence of the sun in producing tides in the

•^hi

Book I.

THE TIDES.

lonced by

Iso small,

khe earth

1(1 ocquire

Icvnr, can

|st elapse

waters ;

plied to u

be attuin-

lie \s'liole

explain

count the

lucncc is
Iji. This
bic earth,
Imust be
luces the
In of the
1 tlie sun.
es in tlio

130

nr.ean \* cqimlly npplical)lo to the rnnon. The water* will Ihj acciimulnted iinmudiatoly
under her, and cm the opposite nido of the (jlolie, pruducin;^ a Hpheroid (rf'tho anmo kind with
Ih'it wliii^h we have nhown mUHt bo produced by tiie luieipial action of the Hun, but more
elon;X'i'"'' ■> "'"' t'li^ spiieroid, directed toward the moon, will follow her in her apparent
daily r(!VohiUon nlnHit tiio earth. In consoiiuence of thin siniultaneoutf jfravitation towards
iKith huuiivirie.'', the ocean iiuist aMsuino a tljiurn diti'eront from Intth of theno spheroids;
which will i)econio blended and undiBtinj{uiHliabli>, The reHultin(» fi;,'uro rcsemljles each of
the spheroids in bein^f ulonjfateil, and its moat chn'ated [Mirts nro tbimd to follow the more
powerful of the distnrbinjrlKxlies, namely, the inoim, in her apparent diurnal revolution about
lilt! earth, \V(> may, without sonsiblo error, suppose that the chango produced in any part
of the ocean by tlio combined actien of the sun and moon, is the sum or the difference of the
clianRca which they would have pro<luced if actin;; separately.

Wo have already remarked that the rapid motion of the waters, in conacquenco of the
diurnal motion, prevents them from ever assuminj; the figure which would bo rcnuisito for
the equilibrium of the tbrces actinir on thcni; so that tln'y ascillate continually, alternately
approachinij to that figure and receding from it. The motion thus communicated to thorn
is one not of transfenmce, but of undulation, one part rising and another sinking, unless
when from want of depth of water the balance between the adjacent columns is destroyed.
We may, therefore, regard the two elevations prcxluccsd in the ocean by the inequalities in
the solar and lunar actions as two vast waves which follow the moon in her apparent diurnal
motion. The lino joining the tops of these two waves is not directed to the moon, as would
bo the case if the earth and moon were at rest, but is directed to a point about 30° to the
eastward of the moon. This arises from the inirlia of the water, wliich causes it, when
oncn put in motion, to continue to rise for a time after the impulse communicated has ceased.
If we consider the tides relatively to the whole surfiico of the globe, tliere is a meridian, there-
fore, about ;M)° eastward of the moon whore it is always man wateu, both in the hemisphere
where the moon is, and the opposite hemisphere. On the west side of the meridian the tide
'^ftowinir, and on the east side of it the tide is ehhinn. On the meridian which is at right
iinglos to the former, it is everywhere low water. If wo suppose, tlion, the sun and moon
to bo in the equator, and an observer to be situated on the surface of the water under the
equator; when the moon has risen 30° above his horizon, the state of the tide to that observer
will be low water. As the mocm advances towards his zenith, the tide will flow ; ami when
she has reached a point about 30^ to the westward of his zenith, the summit of the wave will
roach him, and then the state of the tide will bo high water. As the moon approaches the
western horizon, tli3 observer will see the water gradually subside as it hod formerly risen;
and when she has descended WP below the horizon, it is again low water. As the moon
eoniiniies her course below the horizon, the waters again gradually rise by the approach of
the other wave until its simimit arrives at tlie observer, and again produces high water;
when tlie moon has passed the opposite meridian, and reached a [loint 30" beyond it, tho tide
again begins to ebb as tho wave rolls on, and the same phenomena are repeated in the same
order. Thuji, in tho space of time in which the moon performs her diurnal revolution, which
may be called a liuiar day, and consi.«ts of nearly 24'' .50", there occur two tides of flood and
two of ebb. The time between one higli water to tho next is alwut 12'' 25"", and the instant
of low water is nearly but not e.\actly the middle of this interval, the tide in general taking
about nine or ten minutes more in ebbing than in flowing.

Sprinif anil neap Hilen. As the magnitude of tlie two waves wliich produce the rise and
tall of the tide depends on the action of the sim as well as on tliat of the moon, it is evident
that tho height to which the water rises and tails must be affected by the relative position
of the two luminaries. At new moon and full moon the actions of the sun and moon arc
combined, but at tlio quadratures they counteract each other. In tho foiTner case, the two
spheroids produced by the solar and lunar actions have their axes coincident or nearly so ;
in the latter, their axes are at right anghis to each other. Ilcnco, at new and full moon the
(l(X)d tide will rise higher, and tho ebb tide will sink lower, than usual. The reverse of this
will happen when the moon is in either of her quadratures: the flood tide will not rise so
high as usual, nor will the ebb tide sink so low. This is exactly coincident witli experience ;
and we hero perceive tho cause of what are called spring tides and neap tides. About
flio time of full moon and change the tides rise higher than when the moon presents any
other phasi.J. The liighest tide does not happen, howevor, tho first after tiie opposition or
conjunction, though tlio disturbing force.? are then united, but some time after; and the
cause of this is the same which prevents tho time of high water of any one tide coinciding
with the time of the moon being on that meridian under which tho tide happens ; namely,
the inertia of the water, or that tendency which all matter has to retain its state whether
of rest or motion. At Brest, whore an accurate register was kept of the phenomena of tho
tides about the beginning of the last century, it was found that tiie highest tide happened
about a day and a half after the new and full moon. If tho time of high water coincide with
the very time of conjunction or opposition, the third high water after that is the highest of all.
This is called le spri.no tide. From this period the tides gradually decrease, until the third

Vol. I. a

;:■ \\ I

U -^

lao

PRINCIPLES OP OF.OORAPHY.

Part II.

' If

I .!i

hijrli wiitrr (iftf'f llio miii>ir« (|iiii(lnitiirr, wliicli Iri tlic IowphI of nil, mid in riillcd tlii' nv,\r
Tim;. Hut liiiviiid riMrlii-cl tlwir iitrmwt ilHpri'HMidfi, tin- tiilrn iijriiin iiicri'iim' until llw orniN
roiK'i' (if tin' next Hpriii); tiili'; nml ko tin ci>ntiiiiiiilly, Tlii' liijflior the lidn (irtlooil rini'ti, tlio
lower III" cbl) ti<l(< utMiiTiilly HJiiki* on timt ihiy. Tlic total mnjftiitiKlci'ifthit tide m (>Htiiiintnd
by tim dilli'D'tifp lii'iwfi'ii h'ufh nnd low wntcr. At UrcHt tliu nii'daitn HpriiiK lido in about
1!) li'i't, mid tlio iiii'diiiiii iii'iip lido ulioiit II tret,

lltf'irt iiiiliffimil himinphvrin. I.of hh iioxt Kiippocn tlio min nnil moon to lio Nitiintod in
fjni' of tlio tropirit; tlio two wuvoh riiinod in llio iK-ciin by llioir itrtionH on oitixwito mIiIo!* of
llio (fliilio will now roll iilonjj nndor llin IropicH. If nii ofiwrvor \w pinrcd on tlio Kiirliiru of
tlio uiilor, nnd iindrr tlio Hnrni< tropic in which tlin Knn nnd mkhhi uro xiliiiilcd, ho will Htill
SCO two tidoM of Hood iinil twoofolih; liiittlioy will not corn'H|)ond in nil tlioir cirnnnHttinrof,
OH they did on tho forinor Hiipixwilion. Tlio dopth of tlio hi|;li water prcMliirod by tlio wavo
Kituntod in thn winio lioinLsphoro with tho iiuxwi, will ovidontly bo ffronfor tliiiii lliiit of the
high wator prodiirod by the wiivo which roIlM nionj; iindrr tho otlii-r tropic in llu! uppoxitc
hemisphoro from tho nuKin ; fiir tho olmorvcr will hoc tho vory Honiinit of tho ono wavo, and
only tho Nlopinff Hide of llio ollior. To nn olworvor Hitiialod under tho tropic on llie opiMwito
Hide of tho cqimtor from tho .sun nnd mcKin, tlio cnHo would bo revorscd; nnd if ho were bo
fnr removed from tho oqiintor ns to be «ituntod under tho (xilnr circle, no port of tho wavo
accumulntod in tho snmo hcmiitphoro with tho moon would reach him; ho tliiit hn would
SCO only ono tide of fl(wd nnd ono tide of ebb daily pnjduced by tho motion of tho other
wnve.

This also is conNixtcnt with what we know reH|M'ctinn' tho t'uhn from olwervntion, All the
phcnomeim iiro found to ho modified by tho liitiludo of the place of obgervatioii; nnd some
phenomena iiro found to occur in hijjh latitudoH, whirh .ire not nt nil Been when the place
of observation in under tho efpintur. In particiilnr when tho mcnm nnd the obeervcr nro on
the snmo side of thn equator, that fide in which tho moon is nliovo tho horizon is (frcater
than the other tido of tho mime dny which hnppons when tho moon is below thn horizon.
Tho contrary takes place when the moon nnd Ihc obnerver nro on oppoHito sides of tho
nqnntor: in this latter ruse, if tho iwliir diKlnnco of tlio observer bo erpial to llio moon's
doclinntion, ho will see but ono tidi! m the diiy, conliimin;; to flow for twelve hours and to
ebb for twelve hours. Wo hnvc supposed tor siiiiplirily the f^nn nnd moon lo he in the equa-
tor, or in one of tho tropics; but it is evident thiit this can seldom be tho case. Tho two
luminaries nro cnimble of an intinito viirinly of positions in Tn'renco to eiich oilier, iis well
as in reference to nny piirticiihir point of tho e:irth's siirfhce. The phenomena with regard
to particular places must, therelore, hr> endh'ssly diversified ; but by trariii!.'' the gonoral
features, tho priiicij)leH become apparent upon which all the phenomena deiiend.

The inthienco of the sun and moon in priHlncin<j tides in tlio ocean will eviilenlly be aug-
mented when these bfvlios are nearer to tho e;irt!i, and diminished when their <listunccs are
increiisod. from Ibis ciimo it nrisp.j, that wlieii tho nuion is in that part of her orbit where
she approaches nearest to the earth, tho siirin.? tido which happens at that time is the highest,
and the next spring tide is Hie smallest; because the moon is then nearly at her greatest
distance from the earth. This makes a ditrcrence of 2,' feet from the mean height of the
spring tido at IJrest; and consequently of double that quantity, or 5J feet, between the
greatest spring tide and the least. The neap tide which happens between these two very
unc(pial spring tides is regular, because tho tnonu is then nearly at her mean distance, Tho
reverse of this takes place when the mo<in is at her mean distance nt tho time of Ihc change:
the spring tide is regular, but the two neap tides difTi-r considerably in height. Tho incrcnsod
distance of the sun is tho reason why the si>riiig fides in our summer arc not so great as in
our winter. At the menu intensitii^s of the disturbing forces, tho sun tends to raise tho
WBters about '2-1\ inches, nnd the moon nlxiut 5S. Ili-nco tho spring tido should be about
.')8 f 21i=H'2i inches, nnd the neap tide about r)8—24^—\Y.ii inches.

Varintionx ruiisid by ronlimiit.i, isliniih, tfr. \V(! have hitherto supposed the two
wnt'os which produce the phenomena of the tides to meet with no interruption in their pro-
gress round the worlil. This is, however, t'lr from being the case ; they are interrupted by
(•(inlinenfs nnd islands, and mny be propidleil or retarded by the action of the wind; their
velocHv and direction mny also be changed by irregularities in tlie bed of the ocean: so that,
to explain nil tlie phenomena nt any particular place, tho etfect of local circumstances,
which is often great, must be taken into the account. Tho great Pacific Ocean is, perliaps,
the only part of the torrnfiueoiis globe in which all the fi)rces liav(; rooiri to operate. But
the wavt^ which they f<>rm must, in ndling westward, encounter the coasts of Asia and New
Holland, with the interjacent islands ; and amidst these olistncles it imist force its way to the
Indian Ocean. Its figure will thus tir' changed, and the phenomena of the tides, which it
produces, yiowerfully modified. « On its eastern sido the I'acific is Iwunded by a vast stretch
of coast, extending without interruption from Cape Horn to Bohring's Straits. This barrier
prevents all supply from the eastward fiir making up the watery spheroid, nnd must be
equally effectual in arresting f!ie progress of the wafers nccumulnted to the eastward of the
American continent. So far as wo have information respecting the tides in the Pacific

Book!.

THE TIDES.

181

(IciMiii, Ihoy nppoar t(> \m vnrjr unliki; tlm Furopt'sn Men, until wo rcnch about 40° or AO"
vvi'Ht iVoin till! coniit of AiiiPncu. In the nci((lilHHirli(i<)(l <it' tlint coiinl, wnriMtlv any tidn
iH'cnrM wlit'ii till) niiHin Ih beluw tlio horizon. F.vimi hi tlni iniiliili! of llio i'acitic Ocean tliP
tidc'M urn very kmiiiII, liiit at tint Miiiin tinio very rii|{ulitr.

Ah a ({ri'iit extent of i-urfico jh ni-ci>Hwry in nriii'r timt tlio una uliouiil l)0 ncnHibiy atfcctnU
liy till' iiii'i|iiiililii>H in tlii' nctii.nMof tin' nun unil nKx)n, thn liilm wIik-Ii urn exixiricncrd in
niirriiw hi'iih, unci on ><liiiri>s t? reniovi'd tVoni tlm main InNly of tlio dceuiii urn nut priNlui.'iid
in tliiMn NcuH, liiit arc \vitv'~ ru|iu);utnd tVoin llin f;ri'»t diurnal iindulntiiini and tnovin(( with
niiii'h li'NH vi'lcK'ity, 'I'lii' u< h wliioh vixit tlin roiiNtM of Kn^liind, iniiHt, in a grnnt incniiiiro,
lit' Hiipiilinil tViini the iicruiiiulution of wntor in tlio Indinn uiid Ktliiopin Ocean, fVoni tlio eant-
wiird, iind liy wlint is tirmiprlit or kept hack IVoin the Hniitli Sen. The undiilntinnH will lio
ililUisi'd IIS prix^eudin^r iVnin u cullectinii coiniiitf round tlio('n|H' of (iinnI Hope, nnd round
Ciipe lliirii. ('onniHtently with tlii.s Niip|Nmitioii, it in found tImt hixh wutor, which (x:ciirii at
the Cuiie of (iood Hope nt new and nil! moon alniut tliroo o'olrM^k, In later and Inter a< wo
priH'eed northward iiloiijf tlio conxt of AtVicu; later and Inter Htill oh wo follow it alonj; tho
wenteni countH of Hpuin uiul Fraiic)', until we reach the mouth of tho KnitliMli Channel. The
wiive now dividi'M itself into three lirunclu'H; one part naimin;; up Nt. (Icorjjo'H Channel,
iiiiother iiroceediii)f northwurd aloni; tho wuHtern coawt ot Irelnnd, and tho third piuisin); up
the Kii(jlinh Clmniicl, between the Uritiiih nnd French ciwBtd. Tho two branchcH that pro.
I'oed uhrng tho euHt mid vvoNt Hiiieii of Ireland unite and form one tii\go or wave, which con
tiniies iiN prof^reHH alonf; tho woHtern coastM nnd iilandN of Hcoflund, and tlicn diffliiOM itaelt'
PiiHtwnrd townrdH Norway nnd Denmark, nnd circlin)'' round the ontitcni eooals of Britain,
I'oiiieH Kouthvvnrd through tho German Ocean, until it renchcs Dover, where it meofs tho
linincli which puhnoh up tho EngliHli Channel. It Ih to be remarked, however, that this tido
which comcH up the channel in not tho Humo with that which meets it from tho north, but ia
a whole tide curlier if not two, um appears from tho diet of the spring; tido at Ryo being a
tide eiirlier thiin tho spring tido at the Noro; it even seeniN two tides eorlior, for it nppenm
tho gno as otleii as tho other. By trnciiig the hour of high water fVom the Lizard up St
fieorge's Channel, nnd along the west coofts of Scotland, it nppoars that tho two tides which
[).uM along tlio east and west sides of Ireland nnd unite into oik; wave to tho north of it,
travel round Brit^iin in iilwut tweiify-eiglit hours, in which time the primitive tide hns gone
round tho whole circumference of the earth, nnd nenrly VS degrees more. By nttending
also to the successive hours of high water ulong the western consts of Africa and Europe,
it appears that the wave, which divides into flireo branches nt the mouth of tho English
Chufincl, takes up nearly two days, or between four and five tides, in travelling thither tVom
tho Capo of Good Hope. A si4iiilar progretis of tho some high water tVon '.he southward is
observed nlong the cnstern shores of South America ; but beyond Brazil .:nd Surinam tho
Atlantic Ocean is sufficiently extensive to contribute greatly to fho formation of tho regular
spheroid ; so that tho effect of this high wutor from tho soiithword, being blended with tho
tide raised in the Atlantic itself, beconu.'s insensible. In nn ocenn of such a breadth from
east to west ns the Atlantic, tho water can rise on the one shore only by descending on the
other. In the middle, therefore, it will ret^iin nearly the nieiin height between its elevations
on tho two op|)osito coasts ; this appears to he the reason why the tides nro small in islands
that are very far distant from the shores.

Tho reflection of the tido from shore to shore is a great cause of irregularity in the tides.
The coasts may be so situated that tho time in which the undulation thut constitutes the
tide would of itself vibrate backward and forward fVom shore to shore, may bo so exactly
uccommodnted to the recurring action of tho moon thnt tho succeeding impulses, being
always added to tho natural undulation, iniiy raise it to a height altogether disproixirtioncd
to what tho action of the moon can produce in the open sen, where the undulation ditFuses
itself to a vast distance.

The inequalities which umloubfedly obtain in the bottom of the ocean afTect the tides, by
changing the direction of the waters; nlso their velocity either absolutely or in respect of
particular places. They may also influence the height by causing the tido to rush with
increasing velocity towards a particular [Xjiiit, where tho wuters iiiiust at Icu^'th bo suddenly
cliecked, nnd therefore be iiccuiimlated in an extrnordinnry degree: this npiteiirs to bo the
cause of the astonishingly high tides which occur in the Bay of Fiindy. Tiie hi!;h wiitcirof
the Atlantic Ocean at St, Helena does not exceed four or five feet; but, setting in nbliquelv
on the coast of North America, it seems to range along that coast in a channel or bed,
gradually narrowing till it is stopped in tho Bay of Fiindy, where the accumulation of tho
waters becomes treiiiondous. The tide approaches with a prodigious noise in ono vast wave,
that is seen many niilos off", and the waters rise to tlio height of more than seventy feet in
the gulf of Cumberland basin; the rapidity of tho waters is so great as to overUiko animals
feeding on the shores.

In consccpiencc of the lonnfth of time required for a tide to propagate itself up a great
river, one or two succeeding tides may reach tho mouth of the river before tho first tide has
anived at the highest point to which it ranges up the stream. The second tide will also

.-C-'l.

<:;i

liU

PRINCIPLES OP GEOC^RAPHY.

Part II.

:?i ;.

hlivo nrnpngatcd itself bo far up the river, by tiie time tliat the tliinl tide reaches tlio moiitli ;
iilitl tfius lliore may be three coexistent high waterw in the river. The two iiiturveninff low
Wfttt'fs in the ocean will also produce two corresponding low waters in tiie river: these
uhniifi'iH ill tlio deptii of the gtreani arc produced by tiio high waters which arrive at its
tnitlitii checking its velocity, and the low waters accelerating it. To cause high water at
iiliv particular point, it is by no means necessary tiiat the water should be raised to tiiat level
Itirtlio way from that jwint to the mouth of the river. Before sucii an accumulation could
Inko place, in many instances, places fartlier down tiie stream would be inundated. At many
plavc'g tliiit uro far from the sea, the stream at the moment of high water is down the river,
and MtuietimoB it is considerable. At Quebec, the current in the St. Lawrence runs at the
rntti of not less than three miles per hour : this is a clear proof that the water is not heaped
up, for there can be no stream without a declivity. The phenomenon termed the bobe of a
fivor, which occurs chiefly in large rivers that have a wide outlet, and where the greatest
tide* ttfo experienced, arises from the waters accumulated in the gulf or outlet by one tide
liot being, in such circumstances, discharged before the approach of the ensuing tide.
TliOBO accumulated waters encounter, therefore, the waters of the ocean flowing in an op-
p«Mito direction; so that the re-action of the conflicting waves produces an elevation of the
Wtttof Ihr above tlio natural level. The surge formed in this manner rolls up the river with
IrreHistiblo force, overwhelming every thing which it encounters ; until, exhausted by the
fdoiitanco which it has to overcome, it at length sinks into a feeble undulation. The vio-
lonoe and elevation with which tiie boie nirfies along in some rivers is almost incredible : at
Ihct mouth of the Severn the flood comes up in one head about ten feet in height ; but in the
grcttt riverB of America, and particularly in the Amazon, it becomes a rolling mountain of
wtttor, which is said to attain the height of 180 feet.

tit confined seas of small extent, such as the Caspian, the Euxine, the Baltic, and the
Iffont lakes of North America, the tides must necessarily be almost insensible ; the dis-
tlirbing forces in such situations have not room to act to any extent : the greatest height to
wlllcli the waters of the Caspian can rise above their level on the shore, in consequence of
It Hphoroidal shape being given to them by the lunar action, does not exceed seven inches ;
mi nccumulation which a slight breeze of wind is sufficient to counteract. Even in cases
whore a confined sea is connected with the ocean by a narrow channel, no sensible tide can
Iwppen J for the tide in the ocean cannot diffiise itself through the contracted inlet during
tlio ppricnl tliat elapses between two consecutive tides.

Tlio Mediterranean is a confined sea of consideriible extent; and the tides there might be
VOry nensible if the effects of the solar and lunar actions were not diminished by its distance
frirtil the equator. As the moon approaches the meridian of the eastern part of the Medi-
turrnnean, there is a considerable elevation of the waters on the Syrian coast, and a con-
«lilnfHlilo depression at Gib altar. In the middle of the length the water is at the mean
liolfflit ; in the Atlantic Ocean, an open and extensive surface of water, the regular spheroid-
nl form is nearly attained, and the water stands considerably higher on the outside of the
fitfrtlfj* than on the inside ; it is nearly low water within, while it is about one third or one
liulf flood without. Notwithstanding this accumulation, the communication is too narrow
l4i (illow the tide of the ocean to diffiise itself in a regular manner into the basin of the
Mediterranean. As the moon moves westwardj toward Gibraltar, the water will begin to
riw), but slowly, within the straits, while without it is flowing very rapidly. The accu-
mulntioii within increases with the progress of tlio moon westward, until it reaches high
Wntiir ; but by this time the tide has been ebbing for some hours without the straits. It will
now be Iriw water on the coast of Syria; and during all this time the water at the middle
llOtWfen the eastern and western extremities will "ot have sensibly altered its depth.

The tiingular currents which prevail in the Straits of Gibraltar appear in a great measure
cxiilnincd by these peculiarities with regard to the tidc.f in the Mediterranean Sea and
Atliitltic Ocean. Changes of tide, always diflbront and frequently quite opposite, are
oliwirvod on the east and west sides of the narrow neck which connects the rock wivh Spain ;
ftlld the genenil tenor of those clinnges has a very groat analogy witli wliat has now been
di^irfibeil.

It in a fact which strikes the attention, upon the most cursory observation of the pheno-
tiU'tift of the tides, that they fall later every day. This variation in the interval of the tides
in called the pniMiNo or largino of the tides, acconliug as we refer them to lunar or sfdar
timi', If we suppose the sun and moon to be in the equator, and the watery spheroid to
ntfaili hiflrintnnrmir'if the form suited to its equilibrium, then the lino joining the summits
of the two waves produced in the ocean by tlieir combined actions will always be directed to
i |Wlnt pitiuitnd between their centres; except in the case of the sun and moon being in con-
jlini^tion or opposition, when it will he directed towards their centres. The following table,
PHJCiiliilc'd on the above supposition, and for the mean distances of the sun and moon from
tho piirtli, exhibits the minutes of solar time that tlie moment of high water precedes or fol-
lows llif moon's southing, corresjxinding to every tenth degree of the moon's elongation (east
ward) from tho sun or from the point opposite to' the sun. It shows also the hour and minutt-

>■

Book I.

THE TIDES.

1S3

of the day, nearly, when it is high water ; and the height of the tide, supposuig the height
of a spriiij; tide to be 1000: —

S Moon's Elongation
S at southing.

Tinio of High Water.

HL'ijiht

of
Tide.

Time of High Water.

Q
O

S|
« S

Befnro
Miion's
southing.

Ant'rnonn
or Midnight,

Ancriioon
or Midnight.

After
Moon's
soutliing.

Min.

Ho. Min.

1000

087
040
887
80(1
715
tilO
518
453
429

Ho. Min.

Min.

Deg.

10
SO
30
40
50
60
70

lU
22
3U
40
45

Jilt
35

21:1^

1 28^
3
8 35
3 13i

3 snj

4 Ji

13
11 31
11 2
10 31
10
U 25
H 4Ci
R 01
7 5
U

40i

. m

160
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90

If we note the exact time of high water of spring tide for any harbour, and the exact
position of the sun and moon at that time, we can easily make a table of the monthly scries
for tliat port, by noticing the difference of that time from tlie table, and making the some
(liflbrence for every succeeding phasis of the tide.

night be
distance

Medi-

1 a con-
le moan
iphcroid-
|e of the

or one
nanow
of the
!gin to
10 accu-
les high
It will
middle

li.

incasnre
Sea and
lite, ore
h Spain ;
)W been

pheno-
Iho tides
I or sf)liiv
Icroid tvi
Umnnits
Irctcd to
r in con-
Jg table,
on from
Is or fol-
In (east
I minuti-

CHAPTER XVni.

GENERAL VIEW OP THE SOLAR SYSTEM.

Ten stars, among the countless number with which, in a clear night, the heavens appeal
so resplendent, have been proved, by the observations and reasonings of which we have now
given a brief outline, to oe planets revolving about the sun, and deriving their light from
him. Tlie earth which wo inhabit has been proved to have a similar motion, and to belong
to the siime class of IxMlies. Several of these primary planets are accompanied by sateiiitcs;
and the whole are preserved in theii' respective orbits by a centripetal combined with a
centrifugal force. Thus there subsist among tliese bodies relations which are regarded as
uniting them in one system, having the sun in the centre; and which is tlierefore called the

80LAlt SYSTEM.

In regard to the other planets, as we have employed the obvious analogy subsisting
between them and our earth, in proving its annual and diurnal motion ; so, on the other
hand, I'rom the same grounds, it seems reasonable to conclude that, like the earth, they arc
designed and fitted by Infinite Wisdom fur the accommo<lation of inhabitants, and that in
all probability millions of beings are placed u[)on tiieni. Thougli our observations in relation
to the subserviency of the arrangements of nature to the enjoyment of sentient beings is
confined to this narrow scene ; yet, seeing this small portion of the universe crowded witli
e.vamples of utility, why sliould we imagine that Divine Goodness has not tliroughout the
system in like manner diffused its bounty 1 As our knowledge of the celestial phenomena
is extended, the probability becomes proportionably stronger that the other planets are stored
with inhabitants who share in the blessings of rntional and sentient existence. Their rota
tion, tlicir atmospheres, of which the telescope lias enabled us to detect the existence, and
the changes which we see going on in tliese atmospheres, so mucii resemble what we expe-
rience on the earth, that no man who clearly conceives them can divest his mind of the
thought that this is not tiio only part of the system where the Creator lias displayed his
bounty by giving existence to sentient beings. There is nothing that forbids us to suppose
that in each of the other planets there is the same inexhaustible store of sulwrdinate
contrivances that we see here for living creatures in every situation, possessing appropriate
forms, desires, and abilities. Before abandoning such an opinion, there may surely V
expected, from those wlio require us to do so, some goo<l reason for its rejection.

In regard to the fi.ved stars, as the sun, if viewed from a sufficient distance, would be
diminished into a linniiious point, v.'hile the planets that revolve round him would become
invisible; so, on the cither hnnd, it is highly probable that each fixed star is itself a sun, and
the centre of a partieuiiir system, being surrounded witli a certain number of planets and
comets, wliicli, at ditli'rent distances and in different periods, perform their revolutions
around it.

There npperirs .■stroiiir reason to suppose tlmt the sun, with hin accompanying planets, hall
a mntioti amnvfr /.'.'• find .•■liirs, round a centre. From a comparison of ancient and modern

Vor,. [. ' !'>'

:■:' itt

.: l!

:i:

Hii

134

PRINCIPIJIS OF GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt II.

observations, it appears tlmt while tlie stars in one quarter of the heavens are receding from
each otiier, those in the opposite region are griulually approaching. Dr. Herschel has
found that these motions of tlie star.-* are nearly in the direction that would result from a
motion of the sun towards the constellation of Hercules. It is the opinion of Lalandc that
there is a kind of equilibrium among all the systems of the universe, and that they liave a
periodic circulation about their common centre of gravity.

TABULAR VIEW OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM.

I. SECONDARY PLANETS.

1. The Moom.

Revolutiona.

r n. H. M. a.

; Synodical 29 12 44 2.9

' AiinmnlUtic 27 13 IH 37.4

! Biilereal 27 7 43 11.5

I Trniiical 27 7 43 4.7

I Nodical 27 5 S 30.0

Inclination nf Orbit to ( .. a, ahi a
planeof Ecliptic... i ^ ° *' "
Oreatpr svini-axis of Orbit — 1.0000(10
Eccentricity = .054844

Seinidiamcler nf Terrettrial Equator
Moon'a mean distance => 59.96435.

in milci ~ 237000.
Moon's mean diameter — 21G0 miles.
Her volume — ^ of volume of the Earth

Her ninas =

' of mass of the Earth.

Hur density » j-^ — .615 of density of the Earth.
Her light is ^^th of the light of the Sun.

2. Satellites of Jupiter.

3. Satellites or Saturn.

4. Satellites uf Uranus.

Sidereal
Revolution.

Mean distance

in sainidiame-

ter>*()fjupiter*8

Equator.

3
3
4

D. n. M.
1 18 28
3 13 14
7 8 43
IS IG 32

6.049

9.623

15.350

26.098

•£

Mean distance

Sidereal

in scmidiame-

Revolution.

tcrs of Saturn's

■2

Equator.

D. H. M.

22 38

.3.351

1 6 .53

4.300

1 21 18

5.284

2 17 45

6.81!l

4 12 45

9..'(24

15 22 41

22.081

79 7 55

64.359

■ ■■■-!

Mean distance

Sidcical

in seniidiamt-

Rcvokition.

lers of I'ra-

»1

nus's Equator.

D. H. M.

5 21 25

13.120

8 16 m

17.028

10 23 4

19.845

13 10 SO

22.753

38 1 48

45.507

107 16 40

91.008

n. PRIMARY PLANETS AND SUN.

FUiuKi.

SUetal Period.

Mran
Disunce.

Ecwntricily.

MeaDl.Dn{itude.
Jan 1, IWI.

IjoTX. I'erhclioii.
Jan.!, 1K)I.

Inclio.urOrbil.
Jan. 1, irei.

Lone. Nodea.
Jan. 1,1801.

Mein DaUr
MoUon in Orbit.

/ II

* II

o 1 II

' II

O / "

87.9«)2.iH)

0.3fi70!'RI

.205'iUM

166 48.6

74 21 46.9

7 9.1

45 67 30.9

4 5 32.6

Venus . . .

?i4.1007«i9

0.72W1I6

.ooei«o:4

II 31 3

12!) 43 53.1

3 23 28.3

74 54 129

1 36 7.8

Earth . . .

36>.lf>Klel2

1.0000000

.01679357

100 3!l 10.J

99 30 60

69 8.3

Mm. . . .

69«.97Pli43«

l.r,236iS3

.ora307no

64 22 55..i

332 23 56 6

1 51 6.2

48 3.5

31 86.7

Vnia . . .

1325.7431

2.387*700

.OH913000

■27« 30 0.4

r219 23 44.4

r 7 S 90

riio 13 l«.2

16 17.9

i,sw.6eon

a.OfiSOODO

.25781*0

§1200 16 19.1
»Sl23 16 11.9

S 53 33 46.0
2il47 7 3I..T

S 13 4 9.7
S 1 10 37 26.2

ia J 171 7 40.4
g 1 fO 41 24.0

13 32.9

rem . . .

1681.3931

2.76724-.0

.07843900

> 12 60.9

Pal 1.11 . . .

I6W53S8

2.7:2|i8«0

.24I64I<00

. 108 24 57.9

.121 7 4.3

.34 34 5i.O

(.172 30 26.8

12 48.4

43.1-2.'.»tai2

5.2027760

.04X16210

112 l.'>23.0

13 P 3<.6

1 IS 51.3

98 26 18.9

4 69.3

.^(urn . . .

I07.W.JI9SI74

9..'^:W7f«l

.056l«»0

135 20 6.5

89 9 20.8

2 29 35.7

111 56 37.4

1 0.«

Crauut . . .

30686. 8120829«

10.1H-23ilOO

.Moergss

177 48 23.0

167 31 16.1

4C28.4

72 59 36.3

42.4

Planets
nnd
Sun.

True
Diameter.

Volume.

Mass.

Density.

(Irnvi.

Sidcrcnl Ro-
tation.

Tnclinption of Axis
to Ajifl of Ecliptic.

LiRht

and

Heat.

h. m. s.

o ' "

Mercury

0.398

L'lj-imriT

■ •

1.0324 5 28

not known

6.680

Venus

0.975

0.927

IffSSTT

- .

0.9823 21 7

not exactly known

1.911

Earth

1.000

35T5T?

3.9320

1.00

23 ' 27 50.5

1.000

Mars

OMl

0.139

23t:«32ff

. .

.33

24 39 21

30 19 10.8

0.431 '

Jupiter

10.860

1280.900

Til'^ff-7

.9924

2.72

9 55 .50

3 5 30.0

0.037

Saturn

9.982

• 995.0(M)

flJ|l5

.mw

1.01

10 29 17

31 19

0.011

Uranus

4..T:}2

80.490

T?5rB

LIOOO

. .

unknown

not known

0.0031

Sun

111.4.>t

1384472.0(M)

l.(MMH)

27.{)025 12

7 30

iMoon

.0275

.000 0^,00 f nil '2.41 W"^

0.1027 7 43

1 30 10.8

1.000

^^.

4 S 92.8

1 36 7.ti
59 8J
31 36.T
16 n.9

13 31.9
, 12 60.9
12 48.4
4 69.3
2 0.6
42.4

UgM
lllltl

Iliat.

6.680

1.911

1.000

0.431

0.0371

0.011

0.003

1 1.000

Book L FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OP THE EARTH. 18B

CIIAl'TER XIX.

FIGURE AND M.^GNITUDE OF THE EARTH.

VVb have sufficiently establisheil the impuitant proposition that the earth is a round body ;
and liave inferred from the figure of its simdow, as seen on the moon's disc in lunar eclipses,
that it must be a sphere, or at least that it approaches to that figure. The hypothesis of ita
being exactly spherical is sufficient to explain, in a satisfactory manner, the general appear-
ance of the heavens, a.<! seen from difTerent points of its surface; and before the true doctrine
of motion and the law of gravitation, which connects the most remote bodies in tlic universe,
were discovered, a sphere was considered to be an exact representation of ita shape, and the
ingenuity of mathematicians was exerted to discover its magnitude.

The determination of the magnitude of the earth might appear, to one altogether ignorant
of mathematical science, as a problem of insuperable difficulty, and, indeed, as too sublime to
be resolved by a human being. If, however, we suppose the earth an exact sphere, the
theory of the solution is by no means difficult ; it is within the bounds of elementary geome-
try, and has been known from the earliest ages : but the case is very difTerent with the
practice. In the actual resolution, instruments of the greatest nicety are required ; and to

ftroduco these, the ingenuity of man has been tasked to the utmost during the last two
lundred years ; besides, the application of them demands, in addition to liie principles of
geometry, some of the most refined tiieories in physics : so that, on the whole, lew problems
present a more ample field for the exertion of the mind of man, or have more extensively
called fortii the assistance of arts and sciences.
It is now about two thousand years since Eratosthenes attempted to resolve this important
problem. He knew that on the day of the summer solstice
the sun illuminated the bottom of a well at Syene. At the
same instant he observed at Alexandria that the sun was 7°
12' from the zenith : and it was supposed that Syene was due
south from that place, and therefore tliat both were under the
same meridian. Let C (Jig. 42.) be the earth's centre, A
Alexandria, Z its zenith in tlie heavens, B Syene, and S the
sun at the instant when it illuminated tiie bottom of tlie well,
and consequently was in tlie zenith of that place. The angu-
lar measure of the celestial arc Z S, or the corresponding ter-
restrial arc A B, is the angle Z C S at tiie earth's centre.
Eratostlienes observed the angle Z A S, which by the element*
of geometry, is less than tiie former by the angle A S C.
However, tnis difference is so small, that it may be altogether
neglected in the present case ; and thus the angle A C B will
bo nearly 7° 12', that is, one fiftieth part of 360° ; and conse-
quently the arc A B of the terrestrial meridian one fiftieth of
ttie earth's circumference. The distance between Alexandria and Syene had been deter-
mined to be 5000 stadia. Hence it immediately followed that the earth's circumference was
2r)0,000 stadia. As it could not be supposed that this result was very accurate, Eratos-
thenes reckoned the circumference to be 252,000 stadia, which give in round numbers 700
stadia to the length of a degree.

The geometrical principle here employed was quite correct, and indeed was the same
which is used at this time ; but the data were very inaccurate and uncertain, for Syene,
instead of being exactly south from Alexandria, lies considerably to the east; and it may
well be supposed that the assigned distance between Alexandria and Syene was not an
accurate measurement, but merely a rude approximation. It is impossible, however, now to
determine how near Eratostlienes came to the truth, for want of a knowledge of the exact
length of the stadium by which the distance was reckoned.

The principles by which Eratosthenes was directed in his measurement of the earth
appear to have been afterwards employed by Posidonius. This astronomer had remarked,
that at RIkxIos the stiir Canopus was just visible in the horizon, but never rose alwve it ;
while at Alexandria it attii inod an altitude of 7-J°, or j jth part of the circumference of a great
circle. The direct distance between tiioso two places, wliich were supposed to be on the
same meridian, was iifcoiiiited to he .')000 stadia; and therefore, according to this observa-
tion, the circumferciici- should have been 240,000: but here the uncertainty of a distance
reckoned by a sea-voyage, not to speak of other causes of error, renders the conclusion of
no value.

About tlio ynar 800 of the Christian era, the caliph Almaman directed that his astro-
iioinors should inc:i.'<uro a degree of the innridiau in the plains of Meso|)otamifi. The method
which tlii'y oiiiployod was suscoptiblf of greater accuracy than that of the Greeks. They
divided tliernselvcs into two parties: aftrr oljscrviiig the altitude of the polo, one went
directly north and the other south, measuring as they proceeded, and taking from time to

'.;;':?

■ • ii *

* l!

[<•'

■

- u

111

186

PRmCII'IJIS OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part II

time the altitude of tlio polo, until ciicli jwrty Imd chiinijro:! its latitude by a dcffreo. Thus
the nioasurc of two dotfrccs was olitainod ; but, at tin; present tiiiif, our iirnorunci! of tlio
fixact loufjth of tiic unit of inoasure rcndci-s nil their labour useless to us, even if (what is
very unlikely) its accuracy niifjht iiavo been relied on. It ajipcnrs, however, that their

litude

Ics

than that of the astronomer of

estimation of the earth'
Alexandria.

The method of Eratosthenes was practised in modern limes, first by Fernel, a Flemish
physician. He travelled from Paris towards Amiens, whidi places arc nearly under the
same meridian, until he had passed over a defjree of latitude ; and, by a contrivance attached
to the wheel of his carriaffo, he ascertained the muid)er of revolutions it made in that dis-
tance. In this way he found the lenrrth of the defrroc- to Ik; 57,070 Frencli toises.

The same dnirrce was afterwards measured by La faille, and found to be .57,074 toises.
The near nnrreement of Pernors result with this last, obtained by a more accurate and
scientific process, is very remarkable.

The Dutch astronomer Snellius was the first who attempted to resolve this most inter-
esting and difficult problem in practical jjeometry with those scientific aids which its import-
ance required. In the year 1(!17 he published his Eniloslhenes Batuvus, in which ho ha»
detailed the whole process. The extreme points of his meridional arc are terminated in the
parallels of Alcmaor, in lat. ry2° 40J', and Bergen-op-Zoom, lat. 51° 29', the arc between
them beinjj 1° 11 J'. He fonned a series of triangles between these places alonfj the earth'n
surface, and determined (as well as the imperfect instruments of the time enabled him to
determine) their angles; and by several ba.se lines, actually measured, he found their sides.
He reduced the (xwitions of his stations to the meridian ; and he concluded that a degree of
the meridian was 28,500 perches, which were equivalent to 55,1(K) toises of that period ;
which, however, were rather longer than the toise as it is now estimated. The error of
Snellius appears to have been about 2000 toises on the length of a degree, of which 19(M)
may have arisen from the error in measuring the celestial arc, and the rest from the imper-
fection of his geodetical measurements. Snellius measured his original base over again,
and corrected his concluaioii : he died, however, before he could publi.sh the result. Cassini
made certain correction.s in his calculations, by which the length of the degree came out
56,075 toi.-es; and Muschenbroek, by an e.vamination of Snellius's jiapers, found that the
degree ought to have been reckoned 57,033 toises.

Richard Norwood made a remarkable approximation to the true length of a degree in
1635, by apparently inadeciuato moans. He measured the distance between London and
York, observing the bearings as he proceeded, and reducing all to the direction of the
meridian and the horizontal plane. He determined the difference of latitude to be 2° 28' ; and
from the whole distance he determined the degree to be 367,17() feet English, or 57,800 toises.

As far as pure mathematical theory was contorned, the metiiod of Snellius was excellent;
the chief imperfection was in his instruments: but an immens(! improvement was made by
Picard, in the application of the telescope and the micrometer to the measurement of
angles; and, with the assistance of instruuients constructed on tlie new principle, this astro-
nomer, by tlie direction of the French Academy, began tiio measurement of an arc of the
meridian, taking for its extremities the parallels of Sourdon near Amiens, and Malvoisine.
His general manner of conducting the proce.ss was the same as that of Snellius. He con-
nected the extreme parallels by a series of triangles, the sides of which were determined
from a base of 5003 toises, measured twice with great care at one extremity of the series.
There was a base of verilication of 3002 toi.ses measured at the other extremity. The
horizontal angles were measured by a quadrant of thirty-eight inches' radius; and the
celestial arc, which was about V 12', by a sector ten feet in radius. He concluded the
length of a degree to h(> 57,060 toises.

This was the first measurement in which confldeneo could be placed. It is true there
wore several elements wanting in the determination of the celestial arc, owing to the imper-
fect state of astronomicnl seienre nt that time; but, by a fortunate compensation, the errors
thence arising corrected each otlier. Tliismeasuroment of Picard wasof sor.'ice to Newton,
in verifying his happy thought of the law of universal gravitation.

The measurement begun by Picard was continued northward to Dunkirk by La Hire ,
and in the opposite direction, as ftr as Pcrpignan, by the second Cassini, who published the
whole in 1718, in a work on the magnitude and figure of tiio earth.

The labour of the French astrr)nomer3 determined the magnitude of the earth with a
degree of accuracy sufl^cient for the general purposes of geography; but science was now
proceeding with rapid strides, and a new question was agitated, — Is the earth an o.vact
sphere, as had been hitherto supjio.sod ! or, if it bo not a sphere, what is its true figure?

Huygens and Newton had establisheil the doctrine of the centrifiigal force of biMlies
revolving in circles ; and from this it was justly inferred that the earth, in c/)nsequence of
its rotation on an axis, ine.-t necessarily deviate from a spherical figure, and assume tiiat of
an oblate s|)lieroid; tint is, n sulid geueriti^d l)y the revolution of an ellipse on its 'esser
axis, the extremities of whi' 'i in this case were the polo.s.

• 11

no there
It' impor-
l^c errors-

iNowton,

1, a Hire,
Ishod thi;

li with a
Ivvas now
Ln exact
111 re !
Tit' bodies
licnee ot"
that of
Its 'esser

Book I.

FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OP THE EARTH.

137

Tliis opinion received support from some astronomical observations made by Riciier, who
was sent l)y tiic Academy of ycionces, in 1672, to Cayenne. He tiierc found that his clock,
whicii liad been regulated to nuian time at I'aris, went slower by a sensible quantity. This
interesting observation showed that the weight of the pendulum was less at the ei^uatorthan
it had been at Furis; and hence the increase of the force of gravity in proceeding from tlie
o(iiiator towards the iwle, as shown theoretically by Newton, was completely established ;
and consequently also the oblatenesa of the earth at the poles, and its elevation at the equator,
which arc tiic confjequence of this diminution.

If the earth were a perfect sphere, then all the degrees
of the terrestrial meridian from the equator to the pole
would be c(\ua.\ in length. But this will by no means be
the case if tiie eartli be a spheroid. For, supiwsiug the
earth to be an oblate spheroid {Jig. 43.), of which the
lesser axis is P P', that diameter of tlie earth which
passes through P P' the poles. Let E Q. be any equa-
torial diameter, and E P Q P' a section of the earth,
through tlie axis P P', which will therefore be a terres-
trial meridian. Because the direction of gravity is always
in a line perpendicular to the eartli's surface ; at tlie
poles and equator, the direction of gravity will pass
through the centre. It will be otherwise, however, at any jwint, D, between the equator
mid jxiles; fur, by the nature of the ellipse, a line, 1) F, drawn perpendicular to the curve
iit D will pass on one side of the centre. Now let us suppose that li F, H F, are two straight
linos perpendicular to the earth's, surface at D arJ H, which meet in P, and contain an
angle D F H, of one degree; also let G K, L K, be other two lines perpendicular to the
earth's surface at points nearer the jiole ; and suppose these also to contoin an angle G K L,
of one degree. The elliptic arc D H, because of its smollness, may lie considered as an arc
of a circle of which D P or H F is the radius ; and similarly the elliptic arc G L may be
considered as an arc of a circle whose radius is G K or L K. The curvature of tlie ellipse
is greatest at E, the extremity of the greater axis, and gradually decreases to P, the
extremity of the lesser axis, where it is least Hence the arc D H will be more incurvated
than G F ; and since the angles at F and K are equal, eacii being one degree, the almost
equal lines G K, L K, will be greater than tlie almost equal lines D H, H F ; and the arc
G L must tlioreibrc be greater than tlie arc D H. Thus, if the earth is an oblate spheroid,
a degree of the terrestrial meridian will, by actual measurement, be found to be least at tlie
equator; and the degrees will gradually increase as we proceed towards either pole.

It is manifest tliat the case would be just the reverse if the earth were an oblong .spheroid,
generated by the rotation of an ellipse on its greater axis E Q. Hence the important question,
What is the figure of the terrestrial meridian ] may be resolved by measuring arcs of the
meridian in diHcrcnt latitudes.

None of Uie measurements before that begun by Picard were made with such accuracy
as to enable inatliematicians to resolve the ([ucstion. But it was then supjxjsed that this
had been performed with such care as to afford the necessary datii. Sucii, however, appears
not to iiave been the case. The degrees actually measured were found to be unequal;
but, instead of increasing in going from south to north, the reverse was supposed to be the
tact ; and had this been really true, the polar axis would have been greater than the equa-
torial, — a conclusion quite in opposition to that derivable from the doctrine of centrifugal
force.

To determine this most important question, the Academy of Sciences resolved that degrees
of the meridian should be ineaf>ured in various latitudes which niiglit diflcr as much im
possible ; and it was determined that one party should be sent to the neighbourhood of the
equator, and another to tlie polar circle. Two scientific expeditions were accordingly
undertaken. Maiipertuis, Clairaut, Coiniis, Lenionnier, and Outhier, went to Lapland, where
the Swedish astronomer Celsius joined them ; and there they measured an arc of hfly-seven
minutes of a degree, from which I hoy concluded that a degree under the polar circle, viz. in
lat. 66° 20', was 57,419 toisos, that is, about 349 toises greater than that of Paris. This
degree has been since remoasurcd with great care by Svanberg and other Swedish mathe-
maticians, who found it to be .'}7,1!)6 toises. This is 223 toises less tlian the determination
of the French academicans ; but it is certainly more correct

The other party, composed of (lodiii, Bouguijr, and La Condamine, performed a similar
but more extensive operation in Peru. After ten years' labour, they, with the assistance of
two Spanish officers, Don Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa, accomplished the measuremeni
of an arc of about 3° 7'. From this they concluded that the length of a degree was r)6,758
toises, which was shorter than the French degree by 302 toisos. Those measuronients set
the question completely at rest. There could no longer be any doubt that tlio polar diame-
ter of tlie earth was shorter than the equatorial.
The measurement of different degrees has been since performed many times in dilforent
Vol. I. 12* S

«Y

138

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part II,

Wmi

»i .. I

ii li ''. '

countries ; as apain in Franco, and also at the Cupe of Good Hopn, by T,a Ctiillo ; in Italy, by
Mairo, UohcovIcIi, and Beccaria; in Pennsylvania, by Mason ana Dixon; in Hini;,mry, by
Lifsjriini^; in India, by Lanibton.

Tlicro linve lieen, in ad<lition to these, two admeasurements of arcs of the meridian which
deserve piirticidur notice, on account of their e-dent, the excellence of the instruments
omploycil, and the skill with which the operations iiave been conducted. We nro indebted
to the spirit of refortn and improvement which spruni; out of the French revolution t()r one
of these, and to the liberal and enlifjhtened views of the Enjj^lish government lor the other.

The {Treat diversity in the units of a measure is an evil which lias been lonji; felt and com-
plained of in every commeicial cotnitry. The French Constitutional Assembly took up this
most important subject in the year 1790 ; and, at the suffgestion of Talleyrand, it was decreed,
tliat the king' should request his Britannic majesty to engoge the parliament of England to
concur with the National Assembly in fixing a natural unit of weights and measures; that,
under the auspicos of the two nations, commissioners of the Academy of Sciences, and an
equal nund)cr of member? of the Royal Society of liondon, should determine the length of
the pendulum in i: e latitude of 45°, or other preferable latitude, and from this deduce an
invariable standard for all weights and measures.

The Academy named a commission, composed of Borda, Lagrange, Laplace, Monge, and
Condoroi.'t, who gave a rcjwrt, which is printed in the Memoirs of the Academy for 1788.
Three difl'ercnt fundamental units were suggested in their report The first is the pendulum
which beats seconds in u given parallel. That of 45° was thought preferable to any other,
because there the pendulum is a mean among all those which beat seconds in the dillerent
latitudes between the equator and the pole. They observed, however, that the pendulum
contains a heterogeneous element, namely, time ; and an arbitrary element, viz. the division
of the day into 86,400 seconds. They, therefore, considered it to be less proper as a standard
unit of lineal measure, than another which they regarded as unexcepi ionable. This is the
length of a quadrant of the meridian, a linear magnitude of the saii kind as the thing to
be determined, and therefore more natural than tiie pendulum, whicii avolved the considera-
tion of time. There is yet another linear unit, namely, the circumference of the earth's
equator. But this is not better known than the elliptic meridian ; nor does it admit of being
determined with so much precision. On the whole, therefore, it wos recommcnd(>d that the
quadrant of the meridian should be taken as the primary unit, and that its ten-millionth part
(a lineal space about SOVi Engli.«h inches) should be the ordinary unit for the measurements
which occur in the affairs of life. This was named a metre.

Although in the beginning it had been proposec' to invite the English philosophers to assist
in establishing a standard unit, yet, as the object to be attained could be accomplished per-
fectly by the French mathematicians, without any foreign aid, it was reconinnmded to
commence immediately the measurement of the arc of the meridian between Dunkirk and
Barcelona, an extent of nearly 9J degrees. The operations necessary for this labour were,
1. To determine the difTerenco of latitude between Dunkirk and Barcelona; and, in general,
to make such astronomical observations on the whole line as might be thought useful. 2. To
measure again the bases which had served for the measurement of the degree made at Paris,
and the construction of the map of France. 3. To verify by new observations the series of
triangles which had formerly been employed for the measurement of the meridian, and to
prolong them to Barcelona. 4. To make, at the 45th degree, such observations as might
determine the number of vibrations which a pendulum equal in length to one ten-millionth
part of tlie meridian would make in a day, in a vacnttm at the level of the son, nnd at the
temperature of molting ice, in order that, this number being once known, the tm'Ire might be
determined at any time by the length of the pendulum. In this way the advantages of the
two methods of forming a standard would be united. 5. To verify by new experiments the
specific gravity of pure water in a vacuum, and at the temperature of water just beginning
to freeze. 6. And lastly. To reduce all tlic old mea.«ures of every kind employed in com-
merce to the new standards.

To accomplish these object.s, it was recommended that six distinct comniissini.nrs should
bo appointed. This was done by a decree of the National Assembly, dated 2fith March,
1791 ; only it was thought to be bettor to commit the astronomical and geodetical observa-
tions to a single commission. Immediately directions were given for the construction of the
necessary instruments. Lenoir, a celebrated French artist, was em])loyed to make repeating
circles, long rules of platina (or the measurement of the bases, and a shorter rule ; also, balls
of ])latina and gold for the pendulum observations.

.About the middle of the year 1792, Cassini and Borda began a series of experiments on
the pendulum; and, in the following year, Ijavoisier was engaged in experiments on the
expansion of metals. And alxiut the same time Merliain began his operations i;)r tiic deter-
miuation of the portion of the meridian between Rodez and Barcelona, an extent of 170,000
tnises. Delaiiibre liad undertaken the portion of the arc between Dunkirk and Rodez,
;W,fl(H) toiscs in extent. Thin, however, had been twice measured before; and for this
rea.son the labour was expect; 1 to bo less than was requisite for the other portion, which

AHT II.

tiily.hy
rury, by

n which
ruments
indebted

tor one

other,
md coin-
; up this
decreed,
ijjliind to
cs; that,
^, and tin
length of
educe un

ongc, and

for 1788.
pendulum
any other,
a dilTerent
peniUilum
le division
a standard
^his is the
le tiling to

considera-
thc earth's
lit of being
c<(l that the
Uionth part
asurements

■rs to assist
..ishcd per-
dniended to
.inkirk and
.hour were,
in general,
fill. 2. To
le at Paris,
„ series of
ian, and to
aa might
n-millionth
and at the
■c iniglit be
[res of the
mcnts the
beginning
cd in com-

lers should

ith March,

lal observa-

Ition of the

repeating

also, balls

Iriments on
nts on the
i the deter-
|(.f 170.000
Ind Roilcz,
la for this
lion, which

Book T.

FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH.

ISO

was entirely new. Besides the privations and liardships, the ordinary accompaniments, of a
•iervico wliich requires those who iKjrforin it to live in elevated situations, with little siulter,
witli few of the comforts to whicli tiiey have been accustomed, and exjMwod to tiio vicissi-
tudes of iieat and cold, and tiic influence of the nocturnal dews, they had to encounter iiie
perils arising from a disorganized state of society. Mechain was stopped in the iielghbour-
liood of Paris; but wlien he pursued his labours at u distance Irom the capital, lie met
with no tiirtiier interruption ; while Delambre, in the north of France, was otlen exposed
to tiie most imminent danger. In the heat of the French revolution, the people were
jealous of what they did not understand ; and the astronomers were at once exiKjsed to the
machinations of their enemies at Paris, and to the brutality of the ignorant jicasants in the
provinces.

In the course of their operations they measured two bases, on the accurate determination
of which the utility of all their labours was to depend. One base, of 607.5.9 toises, was
measured by Delambre at Molun ; and the other, of 6006.2478 toises, at Perpignan. The
distance between them was 860,330 toises, nlwut 436 English miles. They were connected
by a chain of triangles, the sides and angles of which were all known ; so tliat the length
of one base being known, that of the other might be found by computation. It is a remark-
able fact, that when the base of Perpignan was interred by calculation irom that of Mclun,
tlie result was found to be only ten or eleven inches less than that obtained by actual mea-
surement. This striking agreement afibrds a strong presumptive proof of the accuracy with
which the operations had been conducted.

The determination of the latitudes of the two extremities of the arc was also a matter
of the utmost importance. The pains wliich the astronomers took to arrive at true results
are almost incredible. Delambre made 800 observations to ascertain the true latitude of the
Dunkirk extremity ; and a corresponding degree of attention was bestowed on different
intermediate points.

This most imjiortant undertaking vms at last, oftcr seven years' labour, brought to a con-
clusion in the year 1799. Although the result was, in its first application, to be directed to
the establishment of a standard unit of lineal measure for the French nation, yet the advan-
tages which may be deduced from it extended mucli farther, and were available to every
nation enlightened by science. For this rca.son, the states living in peace with France had
been invited to send eminent mathematicians and astronomers to assist in a rigorous exami-
nation of every step of the operation. The astronomical and geodetical observations, in
particular, were subjected to the examination of Tralles, the deputy of the Helvetian republic;
Van Swindell, tiie Batavian deputy ; and the two French philosophers Laplace and Lcgendre.
They entered into all the details of the measurement of the bases ; and they examined the
three angles of every triangle, and determined their values. The calculations were then
separately performed by four different persons — Tralles, Van Swinden, Legendre, and De-
lambre ; and this last astronomer calculated the length of the meridian by mur different and
independent methotls ; and a report was made to the National Institute at Paris, in June
1799, in the name of the Class of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, on the Measure of
the Meridian of France, and its Results.

The general fact, that the degrees of the meridian increase as we recede from the equator
towards the pole, was again fully confirmed ; so that the oblateness of the earth in the
direction of the polar axis is a truth now placed beyond all controversy. Notwithstanding,
however, the almost incredible care with which the operations were conducted, the exact
quantity of this compression was still letl in some uncertainty. The limits between which
the true measure of the oblateness is contained are, however, narrower ; and it is likely
that the problem. What is flic exact proportion of the polar to the equatorial axis 1 does
not, from its nature, admit of a nearer approximation to the truth than has been already
obtained.

If we could suppose the measurements of lines and angles to bo perfectly correct, it
would follow, that although on the whole, taking considerable intervals, the length of arcs
of the meridian corresponding to equal celestial arcs go on increasing from south to north,
yet the law of the increase is irregular, and not that which ought to result from an exact
elliptic meridian. The result of the measurement will be seen in the following table ; —

1 Latitudes.

Intervals.

Intervals in
Toises.

Length of a
Degree.

Mean
Latitude.

Arc of one
Second.

. o ' "
Dunkirk . 51 S 9.20
r.in(lii.'oa 4S 50 49 :j7
Kvnin ' 4ti 10 42.54
c;nrrnssono ^ 43 12 54 ;)()
Montjoiiy 41 21 44.'.H5

f "

2 11 lO.m
2 40 0.83
2 57 48.24

1 51 0.34

124944.8
15'.K9.3.1
ltiCH4ti.7
105199.0

Toises.
S-OPn.liS
570ti9.31
5(1977.80
5G94G.B8

O ' "

49 .W 29.30
47 30 45.91
44 41 4H.37
42 17 19.00

Toises
1.1.8,59283
15.M2588
1.V827107
15.H18508

!;■•!.

•ill

r^:^

.•ifii

t-i !

IMI

^n I

140

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt II.

From this table \vc see that tlie Icnijlli of a dogrco in tlio four iiioiin latitudes goes on in-
creasing. Also, from tiia column of moan littituilos, iiiul Hint of tlin length of a dogrne, it
appears that n diminution of '2° 25' 4!}".39 in the first mean latitude corresponds to u
diminution of 13.13 toises in the tcrrowtrinl meridian: this givM 5.5 toises to a degree.
Again, that a farther diminution of 2° -IS' ■')7 ".5t prorhice.s a diinimition of 01.51 toises,
which is at the rate of 32.4 toises to a degree. Ijistly, that a third diminution of 2° 84'
28".T7 gives a diminution of 31.17 toises, which is at tlio rate of alKiut 12.9 toises to n
degree. These changes of 5.5, 32.4, and 31.17 toises in the length of a degree in going
southward evidently do not follow a regular law, siieli as should result from a continuous
increase of curvature. Wo may, therefore, reasonably suppose that all the observations
have not been equally perfect, or tliat, in addition to unavoidable errors in tiio estimation of
lines and angles, some disturbing cause must have operated : probably, an inequality of
density, in the density of the strata over whicli the measurement was performed, may have
had great influence in producing the irregularity.

The small discrepancies in the results of the observations must produce corresponding
uncertainty in the determination of the great objects to be attained. On the whole, how-
ever, it was concluded that the length of the terrestrial meridian between the pole and the
equator was 5,130,740 toises ; and hence the metre, or ten-millionth part of the meridian,
was .513074 of a toise, wliich is 443.29598<i lines.

Another most important result, deduciblc from these observations, was the ratio of the
polar axis of the earth to the equatorial axis. This must partake of the uncertainty of the
data by which it is to be determined. We may, however, assume, without sensible error,
that tlie equatorial axis is to the polar as 334 to 333. The difference, therefore, of the
semi-axes, compared w'ith the equatorial radius, will be one part in 334. The fractionjij —
that is, the difference of the semi-axes divided by the equatorial radius, — is called the com'
pression of the earth at the ])oles.

The astronomer Mechain hod contemplated the extension of the measurement of the
meridian beyond the limit at first proposed ; but he did not live to carry his views into execu-
tion. However, the undertaking was resumed, after a cessation of three years, by Biot and
Arago, French astronomers, with whom were associated MM. Chaix and Rodriguez, Span-
iards, all eminently distinguished for their talent and devotedness to the object to be ac-
complished. By their exertions, a train of triangles was carried southward from the jwint
where Mechain and Delambre hod stopped, to Formcntera, a small island near Ivica, in the
Mediterranean. This is the southern limit of a most interesting labour: but, if ever
European civilization extends into Africa, the measurement may be extended to Cape de
Gata, and thence across the Mediterranean to the coast of Africa, and continued to the city
of Algiers, which is nearly in the meridian of Paris; so tliat in time the .southern extremity
may be actually carried to the summit of Mount Atlas.

The other measurement of a considerable portion of the earth, to which we have alluded,
was begun under the auspices aiid at the expense of the British government as long ago as
the year 1784. At that time a memoir, drawn up by Cassini de Thary, was presented to
the minister (Mr. Fox) by tlie French ambassador. It stated the advantages which would
accrue to geography and astronomy by determining tlie difference of longitude between the
observatories of Greenwich and Paris, by means of a series of triangles from the former to
Dunkirk, to which place the meridian of Paris had previously been extended. The proposal
was communicated to the Royal Society ; and having been approved of, tlie execution was
Committed to general Roy. The first step was to measure a base, from the length of wliich
the sides of all the triangles might be inferred ; and a line rather more than five miles in
length was traced out on Hounslow Heath, and measured with the most scrupulous care.
It may at first sight appear a very simple matter to measure a straight line on the ground ;
but if the utmost exactness is required, the operation must be performed with instruments
constructed with the greatest ingenuity, and the application of much physical knowledge,
(lenerally all solid bodies expand by heat, and contract by cold ; and, moreover, some change
their dimensions by moisture and dryness. To counteract or to estimate precisely these
changes, so as to allow for them in the final result, is a matter of great difficulty, and only
to be accomplished by infinite care and perseverance.

The measurement of the base was first undertaken with deal rods, twenty feet in length.
These, however, were found to be much affected by the changes in the atmosphere from
moisture to dryness : they were therefore laid aside ; and instead of them glass rods, of th""
bame length in frameS; were employed. This substance was chosen, from a belief that it
was less affected by changes of temperature than the metals. The measurement, which
had been begu i about the middle of Juno, was completed in the end of October; and it was
ibiind that the base measured exactly 27404.08 feet, or 5.19 miles.

The work in the field was not carried f irthor at that time : it was, liowover, resumed m
1787. A theodolite of greater dimensions than had ever been employei' in geodetical opera-
tions was constructed by the celebrated artist Rarnsden. Tlio series of observations was
lie^n at the base in the beginning of August, by General Roy, assisted by Isaac Dalby, an

]4«

Ill length.

here from
:l9, of th-
ef that it

•nt, which
nd itwius

•sumeil m

ical operii-

^Ttions WHS

JDalby, an

Rook I.

FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OP THE EARTH

J41

pxooUcnt matlicmatician, and most vonicioiis nstronuniiciil observer. After mntinuinfj to a
ccrtJiin lonjjtii, it wns jiiilj;ed to be e.\|)i;dieiit to breuk otV, iiiiii proceed with tlie instriunoiits
to Dover. A series of obsurvulionti wub tiiero nmdo, in coiijunclion witii the I'Vench nciidc-
iniciiins Cnssini, Mecliuin, und lieffoiidro, by wlucli tin! triiin},'ulati<in between I'aris and
DiMil<irk lniji;iit bo coniii;cted with tiiat between Dover and Greenwich. As a check on the
oporutions, u l>aso of veriticalion \vun al.so measured on llonniey .Marsh; and in this, instead
of the (flass rods, ii steel chain, con.structed Ibr the purpose by Ranisdoii, was ein|)h)yc(l ; it
having been found by o.vpurienco that tliere was no sen.siHo ditrcrence in iM)int of accuracy
between tiiis and the ffhiss rods, while the chain manifestly was more convenient. Allor-
wurds, when the two basea wore coimocted by calculating the sides of the trianirh^s, it waa
found that Uie measured base diflered from its computed value by only twenty-eight inches,
although Romney Marsh is more than si.xty miles from Ilounslow Heatli. 'J ho junction of
the observatories of (Jreenwich and Paris, by a series of triangles, waH completed in 1788,
and an account of the oi>»!rations conmmnicated to the Royal Society ; but the death of Gene-
ral Roy again suspended the survey until the year 1701.

At this time, by the exertions of the Duke of Richmond, ftlastor-general of the Ordnance,
the survey was resumed with great vigour. A now theodolite, and various other instrument!?,
in addition to those formerly employed, were liberally supplied, and placed under the
direction of Captain (afterwards Colonel) Mudgc of the Royal Artillery, ond Mr. Dalby.
Ueginning their labours by a re-measurement of the base on Ilounslow Heath with steel
chains, they found the difference between this and the former, in which gloss rods were
employed, to be no more than two inches and three quarters. They also meosurod another
base of verification, 3G574.4 feet in length, on Salisbury Plain. When tliis was connected
by a chaui of triangle.s with the base on Ilounslow Heath, and its length computed, the
result did not differ more than an inch from the actual measurement ; a convincing proof of
the accuracy with which all the operations had been conducted.

Although an accurate survey of the island was the main object for which all this labour
was undertaken, yet, as its complete accomplishment rciiuires a knowledge of ttie figure and
dimensions of the earth, no opportunity of solving this grand problem is to ho neglected. The
44 t^vo stations of Boachy Head in Sussex, and Dunnose in the Isle of
Wight, are visible from each other, and nwrc tlian sixly-tbur miles
asimder, nearly in a direction from east to west: their exact distance
was found by the geodetical operations to be 339397 tbot. The azi-
muth, or bearing of the line between them with respect to the meri-
dian, also the latitude of Beachy Head, were determined by astro-
nomical observations. From these data tlio length of a degree per-
pendicular to the meridian was computed ; and this, compared with
the length of a meridional degree in the sumo latitude, gave the pro-
portion of the ijolar to the equatorial axis.

The result tlius obtained, however, differed consideriibly from that
obtained by meridional degrees. It has been found impossible to ex-
plain the wantof ogroement in a satisfactory way ; and, for this reason.
It has been thought better to rest the solution of the problem entirely
on the measurement of degrees of the meridian in different lati-
tudes, which, on the whole, give results more consistent with one
another.

Without noticing in detail all the steps by which the survey has
advanced, we shall next advert to the measurement of on arc of the
meridian between Dunnose, in the Isle of Wight, and Cliflon, near
Doncaster ; the f«)rmer in lat. 50° 37' 5", and the latter in 53° 27' 30".
To accomidish this, the ingenuity of the artist Ramsden was again
exercised in the construction of an instrument, a zenith sector, for
finding the latitude of the difl'erent points of the arc : this was almost
the last work of a man to whose genius astronomy and geography are
highly ind(.'bted ; and it was superior to any thing of the kind ever
before constructed.
To give the reader a distinct notion of this most important operation, we here present a
sketch (Jig. 44.) of the series of triangles, twenty-two in number, which connect the extreme
points together with the angles contained by "the straight lines which join the difterent
stations, and the length of their sides. The numbers marked on the diagram indicate the
names of the stations, by referring to the following table. The northern extremity of tlie
base, Beacon Hill, or Clifton, is marked No. 3. ; and the southern extremity, Dunnose, is 23
The names of the intermediate points may be seen in the tabic.

:&t

K a (

I 3

119

lliH:

'li

!ii

PRINCIPLES OP GEOORAPIIV.

Part

Nil. of
TriuiiKli't.

Nnmoaof gtntiona.

Anitli'n riirrcrlcil
fur Cnlculiitiiiii.

Oinlnnce.

Fuul.

niiiMT Mill (W

Di'iiii Hill I UI\

' 6 ' "

in u 'H.n

4H 4 :i 1.7.1
M 4:i <.7S

From DiinnoM tn

lllltMiir llill

140580.4

IKMWi.a

HiiiiiioM' (ii;i)

oDtMiii Hitl

Di'iiii Mill H)

lliit'ir Mill <»)

Jlilllicliro IW)

tW W 47
4H '*< 40

00 ti ;i3

Ocnii (lil) from

IliitNnr II iM

isniss.!

1350H4.0

IHlllirlnrn

lliitii'r Mill ......tei)

lliiiil llunil 'JK)

HI :ii \\.!i
m irt 34.'ri

80 IS SI.'W

lliitacr Hill froin

Hiiiil Ik.nil

7Bfl05.7
14H03I.0

Hiiihclt'rii 10)

Hinhi-liTO

HlKholiTii (Ill)

Miiiil Hi'ttil i'mS

:m 4U 15

Kl 30 14

III 5:i 31

Hilthrlcrp friiiii

llni/Mlirit llpntli

143il52.tl
lti(KI732

nnii«Jint lli.nih jlH)

Hind fiend

lliiL'»liiit Moalh (IH)

Mi.'lirli'in Ill)

Niirtlclil (Hi)

.Vi 32 'i.y-a

411 10 17.75
1/^ 17 17

NiifHt'ld iVorii

10.53SI.9
130374.

Hidliclpro

Wiiitii lli>r.(ul|i'l (17)

MichrliTu HI)

IViifflHd (Ifi)

(13 7 53.5
Ii3 IH 17
S3 33 40.5

VVIiili! Ilurnu Hill tymii
IViiHii.ld

130557.7
10HSII3.I

HIgliclnrc

Wliiii' Morse Hill (17)

;iH 4H 13.J
Hi 4 15
K 7 .T-2.5

Mrill frnin

Wliilt! Hurae Hill

140603.3

U2805.3

Hrill 1.5)

Niilficid

Itrill 15)

VVhilu IIiirsG Hill 17)

Stniv on Ihi- Wi.'IJ U)

SO 14 45
M 45 43.5
fi4 50 33.5

Stnw ftiim

Whito ilnrae Hill

1343i;5.6
140.^(1.3

Ilrill

lltill 0.1'

Hinwnn Iho Weld (M)

KiMVPlI (1.1)

33 34 43.35
00 .50 5 5
m 20 12.85

Epwoll friiiii

gtow

7M138.8
12H140

Drill

10.

llriii 1 151

34 23 57 5
PS 17.5
«0 33 45

Arbiiry Kill from

p:io!ia4

1465;)0

Kpwcll 13)

ArhiiryHill (13)

nrlll

11.

Arlmrv Mill (Vl)

Hit 57 5.5
54 4.5 lri.35
35 17 3ti.3.5

Corloy frnin

117403

MlltW.S

Kpwcll i;i)

C'l.rliy 11)

Epwi'll

The distanco of Biitser Hill (22.) from Dunnosc, 140580.4 fret, had been previously found,
by a series of triangles connectinjj these stations with the bases measured on Hounslow
Heath and Salisbury Plain ; but, for i^rcatcr security against error, a new ba.'ie of 26342.7
feet was measured on Mistcrton Carr, in the northern part of Lincolnshire. From this the
sides of the triangles proceeding from the north to the south were computed, as exhibited
in the remainder of the table.

No. nf
Triangleii.

Nnm(>s n( Statinna.

Angles corrected
for Cnlculnlion.

Diatancc.

Feet.

IS.

BiMirnn Mill /3

1 1'

20 47 30
(iO 17 13
flP .55 27

Beacon Hill f^nm

fi4 401.7
73321.0

NorilicMil of Itnac jl'

Smith nnd of Dnso (S

South end of Bniie

13.

Bcncoii Hill (3)

34 44 43
74 40 .5(1
70 38 22

Gringley from

North cud of Base

Beacon Hill

443,18.2
75008.0

North end of Base (l)

Grincley (4)

14.

Di'ncmi Hill (3)

Orimlpy (4)

South end of Bane (3)

13 57 33
51 11 5
114 51 S3

Grindley from

Beacon Hill

75008.2

03327.2
1.50384.8

15.

1 '■allicrai^ilxc 5)

Bnriron Hill 3l

18 40 :<8
13^ !• 1«
23 10 B

HeatherHeilKo from

Beacon Hill

OrinRley

Grinelpy 1)

16.

flnttnn Aflhllpld i A

78 47 1
54 52 35

46 20 24

Siitlcn Ashtield from

Oringley

ffenthprsedffe

130399.7
115339.9

Heathcrsodgo 5)

Grincley (4

17.

Orpit (7

Henthcrnciige (5

Sutton Ashflcld (fi)

80 28 57
39 8 38
00 33 25

Orpit from

HenthersedfTR

Hiitton Ashfteld

101fi(!0 3
7;i«!0.0

18.

Ifollan Hill (8^

44 43 31

113 40 7
21 37 23

llollna Hill from

38375.3
95075 1

Sutton Ashflcid fl)

Orpit 7)

Orpit

1 19.

Pardon Hill (10)

HollnnHill (8)

Orpit (7)

42 58 5ft
74 53 37

fi2 H 24

Bardon Mill from

llollan Hill

134454.7

13.5«I5.3

Orpit

SO.

Cnstlo Bin? (0)

BnrilonHill '10)

Orpit (7)

,M 32 43
08 24 3
56 3 14

CastJo Rintf from

1.53335.2
130717.8

Bardon ilill

21.

Corlcy (11)

("nslln Rin? (»)

Bnrdnn Hill (10)

ArhuryHill flS)

Corley (11)

Bnrdoii Hill (10)

72 33 40
47 M 42
.59 32 32

Corloy from

Hnrrton Hill

10(13,57.3
133530.7

Castle Ring

SS.

34 14 33
107 20 14
38 25 13

Arhiiry Hill from

Bardon Hill

180420.0
117457.1

Corley

DookI.

FIGURE AND \fAGNITUDE OP THE EARTH.

149

iini'i

H43.%.2
pSOfiS.O

b50ti8.2

ir.n;Ki.9

Plfiti0 3

;:i>^.u

P5fl7».3

b44547

llU7RH_
lira57.3

i43r>.n

117457.1

Prom the Inst trinni^lu tho diNtiincc between Corlcy aii<l Arliury Hill ooineB i
foot. Tlii.H result Ims been tbiiml from tho biwo on Mitilertoii Ciirr: but tho sii

lout 117457.1

Biinii' ilJMtance,

deilucod from tho ba§cH on Hounxlow Hcuth and HuliHbury IMuin, cither of which ih more than
inOmileadixtiint from Miiitcrt(m (3arr, was found to bo 117,403 feet, only wix teet dilfereut. Here
wo have a rcmiirkablo proof of tho e.xtremo accuracy with which the operatioiiH havo been
condiu'tcd; no that, from whatever cause any uncertainty in the condusiou H()uy;lit may
proceed, it can hardly bo found cither in tho want of perfection in the instruments, or ot
eare in those who used them.

Ty olMorvationii on tho polo star, tho exact bearing of Butser Hill from Dunnoso (that is,
tho uziruuth or angle which tho lino joining them makes with the meridian,) was tinind :

Hy these data, and by tho known lengths of tho siuca of tho trianjries, tlie ])ortions
of tho meridian intercepted by perpendiculars on it tVom the stations was obtained.

Their

and by like observations Uio bearing of tho station at Gringloy from Clitlon was determin-

I'y P .
sum gave 1,0!M},337 feet for tho meridional distance en tho surface of tho earth, between
Dunnoso and Clitlon. Moreover, by tho zenith sector, t)ie arc of tho celestial meridian
between them was found to be 2' 50' 23" .38, or 2.«mS of difference of latitude. Tho
length of the measured arc of the meridian, viz. 1,030,3^7 feet, divided by this number,
gives 304,933 feet, or fl()82 fathoms for the length of a degree ir, iho iwrallel midway
between Dunnoso and Cliflon, which is 50° 2' 20".

In tho same way that the length of a degree, at tho miSdlo point between Cliflon and
Dunnoso, was determined, the length of degrees at other intermcdioto points was finmd. Tho
latitude of the station at Arbury Hill was carcfliUy observed with tho sector. Tho latitude
of Greenwich was well known; and that of Blenheim, an observatory belonging to the
Duke of Marlborough, had been determined from five years' observations. Tho two observa-
tories were assumed as stations, in addition to those in tho meridional chain of triangles,
and their position in respect of the others was found.

By comparing the celestial with the terrestrial arcs, tho lengtli of degrees in various
parallels was determined, as in the following table : —

Arl)iiry Hill and Clifton....

nienlieim and Clifton

Rrcunwich and Clifton. ...

Diinnosn and Clifton

Arbury Hill and Greenwi' h
Diinnnsa and Arbury Hill..

niiMihciin and Oiinnoie

Dunnoao and Greenwich ..

Latitiido (if Middle
Poi nt.

5.7
19.8

4.1
1H.2

18. a

54.3

SUP 50'

52 38

!H 28

52 2

51
51
51
51

Fatlioms.

Ii0,7n9
00,794
liO.WO
(ifl.SI9
l'l).H(!4
1.0,890
119,884

Tills table presents a singular deviation from the common rule ; for, in.stoad of the degrees
increasing as we proceed from north to south, they appear to decrease, as if the earth were
an oblong instead of an oblato spheroid. Tho oblatenoss of tho earth at tho poles Is, how-
ever, a fact so well established by more extensive measurements, that wo inu.-'t suppose
either that some error has been committed in the observations, — a thing, however, not
probable; or else, what is more probable, that by inequality in the density of the strata,
producing a local attraction, the plumb-line of the sector has suffered a deflection at some
of the stations.

Notwithstanding the discrepancy of tho results of the measurements in this particular
arc, the length of a degree at the middle station (viz. lat. 52° 2' 20") agrees very well with
the measurements of the meridian in Franco and other places. ln(lcod, tlie mcasuremenbi
of the small arcs of the meridian in other countries nave presented similar anomalies,
although in general not so remarkable. It is, therefore, only by comparison of the measures
of e.xtensive arcs at considerable intervals that we can arrive at certain conclusions. The
British survey has now been extended from the southern parts of tho island to Unst, the
northernmost of the Shetland Islands. At present the engineer officers who carried it on
are employed in the survey of Ireland; but wo may expect that at no remote period they
will resume the British survey, and supply the observations still wanting. Wlion this is
done, and the complete triangulation is published, it will then appear how far local attrac-
tion may have disturbed the plummet in pa.ssing over the variety of rocks throughout thi;
island.

Although the compression of tho earth bo small, yet an exact knowledge of its quantity
is of great importance, because of the deductions which are to be made from it. It has
been explained, that the direction of a plumb-line is always perpemliciilar to the enrth'
surface ; therefore, and because of the continual change of curvature of tlie meridian in
going fVom north to south, the direction of gravity can only pass through the earth's centre
at the poles and equator. Thus it appears that there is a necessary connexion between the
form of the earth and terrestrial gravity ; so that the small variations in the latter, which
are owing to the deviations from the exact spherical figure, being known, that deviation
itself may be determined.

■ ' i 1

I'RINCIl'I.IiS OF UE(XJUAl'liY.

PaatU.

i;< S i

If llii> (Mirtli wcrii uplicrioal ami Iuuiiokimioub, Hip iiitriicticm of its mw* 11(101) iliflbront
jKiiiitM iif it.-i t-iirtlici', or till' liiri'i! wliirli MilicitN ovi'ry |Hirticli< iif mutter at tin ■iiirliica
ttiwanlH till' ci'iitrf, woiilil In; fvorywlicri) tlm Hiimo. liiit tliu ulliptii; Icirm priKliii'im a Hiimll
ili'viiiliiiii from tliiK (Miimlity, wliicli iiuTi'uwfH in jrninj,' Iroiii tlio (M|iiiitiir towunlH the piiloH,
;m till' !<i|iiiiri' of tlic KJiii! cif tilt! latilmlu; iiiul tliw wtiuhi lin triin i^vi'ii if tlio fiirtli wuri^ ill
rest: tiiil, bv ItH rinoliition iiIhiiiI its xiiurtiT axi.s tlii>rii in priMluci'il 11 i'('iitriliii;ul force,
wliicli ticlH III II ilirLTtiiiii |H?r|M>iiiliciilar to thai axiii, and tlifrctiiro (liiiiiniHiu'H tlm t'orco of
;|ravity mu.-t of all ut tlio tMjiiator, JM-caiiHo llii>ro tlm two lori'iix net in coiilriiry tliri'ctionM.
At till! |Hili' ilM direction iM puriiondiciilur to tlm diruction of jjriivity, and prixliicc* no elU'ct.

Ily the iiiiilc'd opi!ration of tlioHU two ciiuhuh, in H"Wi( '^'"" •■''" •''I""'"'" ti>warili( tlio ix)1(!h,
Ih prodiiceil a variation in thu do^ruo of ipiickiH'rin of do^cent of u heavy iKidy, which incruuMOH
an tlm square of the nine of the latitude.

'I'he o:-cillatioiiH of a (ivnduliiiii iifliird a niinplo nieanM of veriiyin(( this llict, The incroano
of wcii,'lit ill II heavy body, — that i;^, the force of gravity in procnedinjy from l\v eipmtor to
till! jNiles, — will be indicated by n diiiiiniitioii of the tiiiiu in which un invariable pemluliini
perforiiiH II \ ibriition. Accordiiijfly the [xiMdiiluin Iiuh been enijiloyed to deterniinu the liguro
of the eiirtli ; and the reHiiIlii obtained have been found to accord |)crfcctly with the gco-
deticul nieasiiroiiientij which we Iwvu duHcribt'd,

The Hritiuli and French poverninontH Imvc both intitituted obnervations on tho pendulum.
The latter, on tho recomniendution of the Academy of Scieucee, directed that the intenHity
of the firee of (gravity nIioiiIiI bo determined at dinbreiit pointH of the arc of tha meridian
between Dunkirk and Formenteni; and committed tho labour to MM. Diot, Ara^o, Muthieu,
lioiivard, and ('iiaix : Kubseciiiently, liiot extended bin obHerviitionti to tho northern nxtromity
of the Uriti.sh islands. Tlicse operations were be{(mi in the year ltt07. At a somcwhul
Inter period the British govorninent, with tho aHHistanco of tlie Royal Society, employed
Captain Knter, nn eminent observer and rix|H>rimenter, in tho same labour; and a!so KonI
Captain Sabine, a Dritish artillery otHcer, with invariablu pendulums, to tho eniiator on tho
one liaiiil, and the hi;;liest ncces.^ible latitudes of the north(!rn hemisphcro on tlie other. It
was expected that, by thus mulUplyinjf tho pliices of oliHorvution, ♦he combination of results
would de.stroy the irregular intliiencos of local <lensity, and j;ive tlm true variations of the
tl)rce of gravity, which are owini; to the earth's ellipticity. From 1, mean of all the obser-
vaf 'oiia made by the British und French txpcrinicnters, it was lound 'hut tho compression or
ell.ulicily of tho earth was about jj'j 1 of jai-iis Laplace had previously concluded, frwn
the combined meusurementii of terrestrial degrees and pendulum experiments, and the lunar
ineipialities dependent on tho fiirure of the earth, that the sumo ini|)ortant element was
,„«'., J. There is a ditl'ercnco between the two conclusions ; but, on tlie whole, all tho results
which have been obtained are comprehended within limits which may bo deemed moderate,
considering the dilliculty of tho inquiry.

The following tables exhibit numorical values of tlio magnitudes of tho degrees of lutitudo
and longitude, and their proportioi\ to each other.

The first is from a valuable collection of lUMtronomical tables and formula! by F. Daii.v,
Ksq., President of tho Astronomical Hocicty of I»ndon. It shows tho length of a degree
of latitude and longitude on tho earth's surfkce, assuming the compression to bo .,,',„, toge-
ther with the length of the pendulum beating seconds there, supposing tho compression to
bu ;|'., the measures at the equator being considered ns unity; also the increa.se in tlio
number of vibrations of an invariable pendulum beating seconds at the equator on procooeling
towards the pole. This merely shows the relative values of tho (piantities thercrti stated.

'J'lio second and third tables are from Mendoza'h Tables for Navigation and Nautical
Astronomy. And the fourth is from tlio very valuable Introduction to Practical Astronomy
by Dr. Pearson, where it is statcl to be computed from a Formula given by Licut.-Col.
I«imbton ill tho Asiatic Researches, vol. xii.

The tables arc constructed from dillbrcnt values of the earth's compression nt the poles.
'I'lie uncort;iinty of this important element, in all questions of geography and astronomy, is
un inconvenience which cannot yet be got rid of.

In Tables II. and III., the dimensions of tlie degrees of latitude and longitude arc given
ill minutes of tho equator. To change these into feet or fathoms, we must know tho number
of Ihem ill 11 degree of the equator.

.\ecording to I'iii.s.saiit and Svanberg, the equatorial degree, or 60 geographical miles, is
ii0,^17 fathoms.

(Jagiioli has a-ssumcd = 00,893 fatlioms.

liiuut.-Col. Liimbton reckoned it to bo 00,8.57 fathoms,

(jeneral Miidgc concluded it to be 00,81.5 fathoms.

.Mr. lliiily, a.-' an »r, 'im|)animuMt to his table ('I'liblo I.), assumes the eijuaforial diameter
of the eiirth to bo 71)"i-I iiiile.s, and the (xjlar ~ 7910 miles. A degree of longitude at the
c<iuutor will, on this sup|)osilion, be 09.1.'> miles, = 00,Hj2 lallioms, = 36.5,110 feet: so one
second of time, or fiilecii seconds of a degree of longitude, will bo 1521 feet.

Tabic IV. gives the measure of each degri!!; of hititinle anil longitude in futlioms.

OOOK I.

Ficriir. AND MA(JMri:i)K of THK KAKTIl.
T*II.R I.

14ft

no poles,
inoray, is

Ire given
1 number

Imiles, is

tiumcter
at the
BO one

Cuinpruwion

— :l(l«i

Cumproiwion = ;,,',,.

Ul.

Dufri iir

llt'fri r

i.riii[tii (if iiiii

InrrinM iif

l^iiniiliiclH.

l.*lltll<)ll.

I'ltllllllllMII.

VHirmliiiia,

1 01)1)0(1

1.000000

I.OOOOO

II
0.0

0.!)!)l>;ia

1.000070

l.oooot

1.77

,!)H|!)0

LOOO-lOl

1.00010

7.09

t:s

.!lli(il4

l.OOOliO!)

1.00030

15.00

.IIIDIXi

1.001108

i.oooi;;)

97J94

.!)()(iHj

1.001 7m;j

l.OOODO

41,59

:i(i

.8fi(i75

l.l)():j|!lO

1.00135

58,91

.H!>()05

l.oo:<-jH4

1.00177

70,60

.70710

l.()()41U5

1.00993

!)G,91

.7089H

1.004<)!)9

1.0090!)

110.49

.01104

1.0().W,8

1.00310

130.64

..'>7Ih:.

l.OOfiK!)!)

1.00309

156.95

,M)IUU

1.007487

1.00404

174.03

.4'.>:n7

1.008'JOO

1.00443

191.90

.34;)0'J

1.008815

1,00470

90.5.61

jasiitio

1.001)315

1.00503

917Ji5

.17121

l.OO'JKH'J

1.00593

995.89

.08704

l.on!)ll07

1.00535

931,08

.ooooo

1.00<J!)83

1,00539

939.85

Taili II.

The Mcusure of a Degree of Ix)ngituilc, on each Parallel of Latitude in Minutes of tli" '

Pur,

Equator, on the Sphere and Spheroid. Compression = j^).

Di^iirmi (in lli«

Di'liroo iin Ihit

Par,

•if

Di'Kri'non tin-

Drorep on tho
njilitirold.

Pnr

Dl'LTIMOIltllO

Di'uree on tho

Lnt.

HplllTO

Bjilii'riild.

1.III.

Hphiri'.

Lnt.

Hplicru.

Hpheruid,

/
60,000

51,969

.59.009

1
30.000

30.070

.'i9,991

.59.991

51,430

51.473

29.089

99.1.58

59.963

59,964

50.883

50,927

98.168

38JJ37

59.918

59,918

50.320

50,367

97.939

37.307

59,8;i4

.59,855

49.742

49.791

96.309

26.369

59,773

59.773

49,149

49,199

25,357

95.422

59,671

59.673

48..541

48,593

34,404

24.468

59.553

59.556

47.918

47.972

93.444

23.506

59.416

59.420

47,281

47.336

22.476

22.537

59.961

59JJ66

46.029

46.686

91.503

31J62

59,088

59,094

45.903

46,092

20,521

20.578

5S.898

59.904

45.283

43.343

19..534

19.589

58.689

58.697

44„'->89

44.651

18,541

18.593

58.463

58,471

43,881

43.945

17.542

17.592

58.218

58,228

43.160

43.225

16.538

16,586

57.956

57.963

42,426

42.493

15.529

15,574

57.676

57,689

41.680

41.747

14.515

14,558

57,378

57.394

40.920

40,988

13.497

13,.537

57,063

57080

40.148

40,217

re.475

12,512

56,731

56.750

39,364

39,434

7!»

11.449

11,483

56.382

56,402

38,567

38,638

10.419

10,450

50.015

56.037

37,759

37,831

9.386

9,414

55.631

55.665

36.940

37,011

8.350

8,376

55,230

55.257

36.109

36.181

7,312

7,335

.').1,H!3

54,841

35,267

35,3.39

6.272

6.292

51.378

54,409

34,415

34.487

5,229

5,246

53,928

53.960

33,5.52

33,634

4,185

4,193

5,3.460

53.4!)5

32,678

32.750

3,140

3,149

53,997

5.3.013

31,795

31.866

2,094

2,100

5:i,477

52,002

30.902

30.973

1.047

1.050

51,963

52,002

30.000

30.070

0.000

Vol. I.

i>|i

li ;>

'!;(

■ III

146

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Table III.

Part 11

Tllf Measures of diflcront Arcs of tlio Meridian in tlic Spliuroid from tlic Equator to tlie Pole;
mill ulflo the resiicctivo Degrees of Latitude in Minutes of the Equator. C'oni|irc8-

■ :13T-

n.iioo

SIMWrt

I lii.asT

llH.t*?

umsiH

aiiH.iJO

:«7.7H4

4l7.4ai

477.0SB

5:Hi.l'illll

III

61ir..343

(iss.tnw)

ISl

71S.«41

III

77.'i.!Klt)

KM.II.'io

I<!I4,II1H

III

ll,'-.4.SHfl

lOKI.IIiW

107;i.tKW

II33.:R.'I

1 Mil 014

IV.W,711

<li

i;ii'j.4i4

«;i

lArivii

•li

u:iiH4i

lli

)4»I.5U3

«rt

IS5I.S07

«r

10)1.030

II17(I.7K)

«t

17:10.838

;hi

I71KI.;MH

50.028
5!).(a!l

5U.(i:io

.5!l.«31
.■ill.tiS-J
5!).(i34
S'.l(i;)(i

S9.(i:w

S'.I.IMI
5D.r><i4
59.047

sn.CiSi

5U.I>55
5!l.li.1<J
59.1)03
50.068
50.073
50.079
59.085

59.001

50.007
50.703
5!I.7I0
59.717
S9.?i4
5».7;K
50.7:w
30.747
50.755
59.704

40
41
42
43
44
45
40
47
48
49

50
51
52
5:(
54

58
50
00

1700.302
1H5U.074
1!K)9.M5
1<M>9.044
2029.442
20rt».249
3140.005
2208.KI1
2ao:).72<J
3328.570

3388.424
3448.287
25CK100
2508.043
2027.0.30
2687.K)8
2747.750
2807.672
2867.0a3
2927.W4

3987.405
3047 45.5
310; i25
3107.4(M
3227.:t03
3287.301
.■«47.:t08
;M07.414
3407.4:10

:«27.47:t

3587.515

59.772
59.781
59.789
50.798
59.807
50.810
50.820
50.835
S0.844

59.854

59.803
59..='73
59.883
50.893
.VJ.90a
59.012
59.022
.'•0.931
50.941

50.051

59.000
59 070
59.97'.t
50.08!!
50.008
00.007

00.010

(lO.IW.'i
CO 034
10.042

«0
01
03
63
04
05
00
07
08
09

3587.515
;i647.S(i*i
3707.025
3707.0!W
:1827.707
3887.849
3047.0:iO
4UU8.030
40(J8.140
4128.251

70
71
72
73
74
75
70
77
78
79

81
82
K)
84
85
80
87

89
•10

4188.3<'>8
4348.402
4:108.022
4:108.757
442H.808
4489.044
454!l. 105
40O'.l.:i5O
4liOO.S10
4720.074

4780.841
48iiO.OI3
4010.180
4970.:)(i2
50:)0.541
5000722
5150.'.I04
.Kl 1.088
5271.273
5;i:l 1.458
5:101.044

00.051
0O.0.VJ
00.007
00.075
00.082
00.090
00.097
00.104
00.111

00.117

00.124
00130
00.135
00.141
00.140
00.151
00.155
00.100
00.164

00.107

00.171
00.174
00.170
00.179
t».181
00.182
60.184
00.183
00185
00.180

Table IV.

Tllo Measure of eacli ncfrroc

of Latitude and of a Degree of Longitude in each Parallel of

Latitude from the Equator to eitlier Pole. Comprtssio.i -r^l^.

I'nf.

tlrgien nf

DPEfcp of

Par.

Decree of

Degree of

Par.

Decree of

Depree of

iif

l.ntiliidp in

L(int(itu(ln iti

I.ntittiile ill

LoiiBiiiiile in

Latitutle in

Lnncitiiile in

Ml.

Fnlliipiiiii.

rallKims.

Lat.

Fathiiiiis.

Fat hums.

Lat.

Fallinms.

FalhiiniB.
30503.5

004.18.0

C0R'i7.1

60007.4

5274(i.9

00906.6

Ii04.'>».8

(•.fl,■^7.a

00010.5

.5-2210.0

00915.7

211378.2

(m459.8

00820.2

00025.8

51ii,57.2

C(HI24.5

2804:1.8

00400.3

007T4.2

0003.5.2

51088.0

(i3

0003:1.1

27700.0

(,0101.5

00700.8

00r>44.8

50,504.5

(.4

(;fl!.'41.4

20748.8

r,(Mo:i2

O0<i27.0

006.54.5

4y!H)4.0

0(K'40.0

25788.7

00405.1

(iO,W..8

:io

00f>04.4

4021HI.2

(ifl

00057.5

24820.7

004075

ooiiri.4

00074.3

4H(Mi0.3

00!h:5.3

23845.0

00170 1

00208.0

:i8

riOO.«4.4

48015.0

f,0072.7

22801.0

00173 2

00112.0

:t9

00004.0

47:13.5 2

60070.8

21871.7

00471! 5

KtO.V.l

00704.8

40082.4

00980.7

20874.8

1^11^0 3

5074O.I

r)07i3i

4.5!I04.2

00003.4

I087I.4

00l-<|.3

59.';:ij.0

00723.4

43'02.0

00!I00.7

18801.8

t:i

r.(H8H.7

,1!1307.1

4:i

007:l.'J.8

4437(!.0

7:1

01003.7

178404

i.oto:i.4

5!MI*'i0.li

00740.3

43840.2

0101 1.5

10823,4

00 lOH 4

.W?.!!!.:!

00750.7

43io:t.o

010IO8

15700.3

(;o.-,o:t8

58314.1

00707.2

42:l4(i.O

01(«.0

14708.2

0(l.-ill!i.4

38214.2

f.0777.0

4I.'-.77.3

6I()'.'0.7

137:12.6

Ofl.-il5.4

.'■.7«!Hi.(i

00788.0

40705.1

01031.2

12003.7

00.521.0

57501.4

00708.4

40(K)0.5

7!l

610;l5.3

11648.9

flO.VJ8.2

5T208.8

,50

f,0F08.7

:)'I103.3

01030.1

10(^)1.4

oo.'-.n.i.o

30>38.0

00810.0

38:174.3

010425

0,M0.7

«i

Ii0.'i42.0

.WSl.O

i;082<>2

37.74:1.7

01045.0

8407,0

a;i

oir,io4

.'it;(M7.2

0U8;t>l.3

;i(;7fli.4

01048.3

7440.0

'11

co.v.rn

5.'i02,'i,8

(,0,-40.3

:i.5847.8

01ll,'.07

0:11-20

r,o.-iiii,8

.55187.3

00^10.3

.34083.1

mtm.i

5:121,4

00.172

54732.4

.50

(WL-iOO.O

34107.0

8(i

010,'H.3

42,50.1

o(r.''i.2

542(10.0

00878.7

^:^J■JI5

010,5.5.0

3195.5

r.o.T--o,7

5:i772.4

,58

0088>!.2

32:fr>,5

610,50,3

3130.9

W1.J08.1

5:1207.8

r*897.3

31419.4

Oia57.I

10030

JUL

r4l0O7.4

52740.0

00000.0

;t0503.5

61057.2

0000.0

<£k

l>i«71.4
hHHil.H
B7r-4t>.4

ir.K::-.4

||47li*'-2

ia7:tt.6
i'.>iin27

ntl4H.9

Book I. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. W

(ja^ V CHAPTER XX. .

DETERMINATION OF LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE.

There are throe important problems in geof^pliy which require ibr their Bolution the
doctrines of astronomy. The first requires to find the direction of the meridian at any point
of tiic eiirtira surface ; the second, to find tlie latitude of an> place ; and the third, to find
the longitude.

Problem I. — To determine the Meridian, or to draw a Meridian Liiir.

This problem, like many others in practical astronomy, admits of a comparatively easy
solution, if no great degree of accuracy is required ; but to obtain a very accurate result,
much care, and instruments of the most perfect construction, are indispensable.

The general principle of the solution is tiie fact, that the celestial bodies which do not
sensibly change their declination in the course of a day, have the same apparent altitude at
equal mtervals of time before and afler passing the meridian : also, that their altitude is
greatest or least when in the plane of the meridian ; that is, when t.''ey are due south or due
north.

About the time of the summer and winter solstice, the sun changes his declination very
little in the course of a day : and hence it happens that the shadow of an upright rod or
gnomon is almost exactly of the same length when the sun is at equal distances from the
meridian. To determine the position of the meridian, then, let a number of coi'centric
circles be described on a horizontal plane, and let a wire or rod be placed dire* tly over
tlieir common centre, and perpendicular to the plane; and, the sun shining on the plane, let
the two points in which the extremity of the shadow of the wire crosses each circle be
exactly noted. Then, through any point of the plane which is at equal distances, from each
pair of"^ intersections draw a straight lino through the centre of the circle; and this will be
in the plane of the meridian, or will be a meridian line. It is easy to see that one circle,
and one pair of intersections of the path of the extremity of the shadow and the circle,
would be sufficient ; but several circles will fulfil the object with greater accuracy and
more certainty ; because a mean position of the meridian line may be (bund among all the
results ; and beeides, one of a pair, or both, may be lost by clouds intercepting the light of
the sun.

The imperfection of this method of finding the meridian arises from the indistinctness of
the termination of the shadow of the upright wire, and from the change of the sun's decli-
nation between the observations. There is, however, another as simple and exact as can
be expected, without the assistance of a telescope. It is known tiiat the pole star and the
star Alioth, or e of the Great Bear, pass the meridian within about nine minutes of each
other. If, therefore, ve suspend two plummets by threads to the ends of a rod whicii turns
horizontally on a pivot, and by muving the rod, keep the two plumb-lines exactly between
the eye and Alioth when near the meridian, then, at the moment when the pole star i.s also
seen along the two plumb-lines, the two stars and the plumb-lines will be all nearly in the
plane of the meridian. To keep the plumb-lines steady in the vertical plane, the plummets
mny hang in vessels filled with water.

If we could determine the position of a star when its altitude is greatest or least, we
would then have a point of the heavens in the plane of the meridian : but that position cannot
be found with certainty, because the change of altitude is imperceptible to a sensible distance
on each side of tiie meridian.

The exact determination of the meridian requires the aid of the telescope, a well-regulated
clock, and an instrument for determining the altitude of the sun or a star: lladley's sextant,
or a reflecting Circle, are the proper instruments for this purpose. By the sextant we can
determine two instants of time when the star has the same altitude ; the clock will give the
interval of time between them: and half this interval will be tiie time lietween each obser-
vation and the passage of the star over the meridian. If we next day note the time I)y the
clock when the star again attains that altitude, and add to that time the above-mentioned
half interval, we fliall have the time by the clock when the star will be on the meridian.
If at tliat instiint a telescope, moveable in a vertical plane, be directed to the star, so that in
passing the meridian the star may be in the axis of the telescope, tiie position of the plane
of tlie meridian will lie obtained : and if the telescope lie fixed to a horizontal axis which is
perpendicular to that plane, it will liavo a vertical motion in the plane of the meridian, and
will be what is ciilled a transit instrument. By this instrument the exact instant when
any celestial phcnonionon is on the meridian is known. It is, therefore, one of the most
essential instruments in an observatory.

In a variable climate, it may happen tliat the obscri'ations necessary to determine the
meridian may be interrupted by cloudy weather. This, however, is on inconvenience to
whicii all astronomical observations arc liable. It must also be observed, that a single set
of observations will not give so perfect a result as a considerable number of sets, from
which a mean may be deduced.

<ii

h^l

l:i'

; -.1

; ;

..1

' 1^

: .1- ;'

,1 *' I

148 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Past U.

If the celestial object change its position otlierwise than by the diurnal motions of the
earth, as liappens whcii it is tlie sun, still tlie problem may bo resolved, as has been explained,
by making allowance for the change of position, by applying the principles of spherical trigo-
nometry to the laws of the motion.

Pboblem n. — To determine the Latitude.

In treating of the doctrine of the sphere, it has been already shown that the distance of
the pole of the world (that is, tlie point of the heavens about which all the stars turn) from
the horizon of any place is equal to its latitude. Now, in the course of twenty-four hours,
every star passes the meridian twice, at equal distances from the pole, and on opposite sides
of it When the star passes the meridian below the pole, — that is, between tlie pole and
the horizon, — its altitude is the least possible ; and when it crosses the meridian above the
pole, or between the pole and the south part of the horizon, its distance from the north point
of the horizon will be the greatest possible. If, therefore, with a suitable instrument, (a
quadrant for instance,) we take the star's altitude when it is least, and also when it is greatest,
and correct these for refraction, it is manifest that half their sum will be the latitude of the
place where the observations were made.

We have supposed the star to pass the meridian between the pole and the zenith, and then
its greatest altitude will be its distance from the north point of the horizon : but it may pass
to we south of the zenith, and then its altitude, reckoned from the south, must be subtracted
from 180° to get its distance from the north pouit of the horizon ; and half the sum of the
two distances, as before, will be the latitude.

Any one star that never sets, the pole star for instance, will serve to determine the latitude :
but it will be proper, if circumstances allow, to observe various stars, and the mean of all
the observations may be expected to be more correct than a single pair.

If, instead of the greatest and least altitudes of a star, its greatest and least distances from
the zenith be found, then half their sum will be the complemenl of the latitude ; that is, the
difference between the latitude and ninety degrees.

For example, by observations made on the pole star at the Dublin Observatory, found

that

Its greatest zenitli distance, corrected for refraction, was - • • 38° 19 .» .11

Least 34 53 49.55

The sum 73 13 32.66

Half the sum, or co-latitude of the observatory 36 36 46 . 33

The latitude 53 23 13.67

When the latitude of one place is known, the latitude of another place may be found by
observing with a quadrant, or other suitable instrument, the zenith distances of any star at
both places. The difference of these zenith distances, when corrected for refraction, will bo
the difference of latitude of the two places.

Thus, for example, to determine the difference between the latitudes of Greenwich Ob-
servatory and Dunnose in the Isle of Wight, it was found that

At Dunnose the z. d. of |J Draconis was ..-...-..l°50' 5".24
And at Greenwich 58 33.13

Difference of latitude 51 32.11

The latitude of Greenwich was known to be 51 28 30 .05

The latitude of Dunnose is 50 3 7 8^39

The navigator has daily occasion to determine his latitude at sea. For this purpose, he
finds the sun's zenith distance, or its altitude at noon, by Iladley's sextant. The Nautical
Almanac gives him the sun's declination, or distance from the equator at the time he makes
his observation: the sum or difference of these is his latitude, according as the ship and the
sun are on the same or opposite sides of the equator.

Ex. On July 24, 1783, at a place in lonj^itude 54° (3' SB") west of Greenwich, the alti-
tude of the sun's lower limb, when cleared from refraction and parallax, was observed by a
sextant to be 59° 15' 30". By the Nautical Almanac, the sun's semidiameter wns 15' 48",
and his declination at the time of noon in that longitude 19° 51' N. The calculation for
the latitude will stand thus :—

Altitude of the sun's lower limb 59° l.'j' 30"

Add sun's semidiameter --.. ......... 15 48

Subtract altitude of sun's centre ........... 59 31 ig

From - 90

To sun's zenith distance -------•■--.-. .30 28 42

Add sun's declination -..••.-.•..... -1951 q

The latitude of the place is-...-. 50 19 42

found

.24

•.05
^.39

fpose, he
ifuutical

\c makes
i find the

I the alti-
Ivcd by a

ll5'48",
lation for

'"'\

Book I.

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE.

The navigator cannot always obtain an observation of the sun or a star when on the me-
ridian, lie may, however, be able to observe two latitudes out of tlie meridian, and the
interval of time between tiiem. V'ith these data, and the aid of spherical trigonometry and
tlio Nautical Almanac, he may find hi,, latitude by rules given by writers on navigation and
atitrnnoiiiy. It is, in general, by one or otiier of these methods that the roconlod latitudes
of all pliices have been obtained, and arranged in a table for the use of tlie geographer and
navigator.

PaoBLEH III. — To determine the Long-itude.

The interval of time between two successive passages of the sun over the meridian of any
place is twenty-four hours. If, therefore, we suppose a number of meridians to be drawn
ut eipial intervals, — that is, to form successively with eacli other equal angles at the poles, —
then, in the course of twenty-four hours, each of these meridians (supposing their planes
produced) will pass through the sun. Therefore twenty-four hours of mean solar time will
correspond to 36() degrees of longitude ; for the whole scale of longitude must be containe<l
between the eastern and western sides of the meridian at the same place. At places situated
on the meridian opposite that on which the sun was at 0'', or, in civil reckoning, at 12 at
noon, the time would be 12\ or 12 at night ; and 12' would correspond to 180 degrees of
longitude. At places situated on the meridian at right angles to the former, tlie time would
be 6'' or IS"", or, in civil reckoning, six in the mornmg or six in the evening ; and, accord-
ingly, six hours and eighteen hours of mean solar time will correspond to 90° or 270° of
longitude ; and so on for intermediate meridians.

The selection of a meridian, from which the longitude is to be reckoned, is entirely arbi-
trary. The English take the meridian passing through Greenwich Observatory for the Jirst
meridian, and reckon its longitude to be 0° or 0". The first meridian of the PVencli is that
which passes through the observatory of Paris. An interval of O™ 21' elapses between the
passages of the sun over the meridians of Paris and Greenwich : the longitude of Paris
Observatory =■ therefore, by English geographers, accounted to be 9° 21' east in time; or
in degrees, 2° : ' ?.^".

Since it ir v ir ill places on the meridian of Greenwich from pole to pole at tlie same
instant, it '■ i n hour past noon, or l', at all places on the meridian 15° to the east of

that of Gree.- ■■ . ' , and two liours past noon, or 2*, at all places on the meridian S0° enst
from that of Greenwich; and so on. On the other hand, it will want an hour to noon, or
will he 11', at all places on the meridian 15° west from that of Greenwich; and it will be
two hours before noon, or lO"*, at places on the meridian 30° west from that of Greenwich ;
and so on, reckoning an hour, or sixty minutes of time, to correspond to fifteen degrees, and
four minutes of time to one (legree.

Since it appears that all places on the same meridian have noon, or any assumed hour,
at the same instant, and that the instiint of noon is different at places on different meridians, —
being earlier or later on meridians having west longitude, according as they are nearer tc
or farther from the first meridian, and the reverse on meridians having cast longitude ; aiid
moreover, that the difference between the time of noon on two meridians is proportional to
the diffbroricc of their longitude, and therefore a measure of that difference; it follows that
if, knowing the hour of the day iit any ))lace, wo can at the same instant by any means know
the hour at a place on any other meridian, then we can determine the difference of longitude
between the meridians : for it will be the difference between the times of the day, as esti-
mated on the two meridians, reckoned in hours, minutes, &c. ; and this may be converted
into degrees, minutes, and seconds, by reckoning fifteen degrees to an hour, and proportionally
for minutes and seconds of time.

The practical methods of determining the longitude are the following : —

1. By a Chronometer or Time-keeper.

Let tis suppose ♦hat a traveller departs from any place, (St. Paul's, London, for example,)
and carries with him a watch regulated to mean solar time, and which indicates 12'' at the
instant of mean noon at Ixindon : then, supposing the watch to go with perfect regularity,
if ho go to I'Miiiburnfli, and compare the estimated solar time there witli that sliown by his
watch, ho will find that they differ by twelves minutes twenty-one seconds ; so that when it is
12'' lit I'/linhurgh Oliservatory, it will be 12'' 12'' 21' by his watch. He may therefiire con-
clude, tli:it the difference of longitude between liondon and Edinburgh is 12" 21" west;
nud since St. Paul's is twenty-three seconds of time west from Greenwich, the longitude of
L'.diiihurtrli 01),serviitory is 12'" 44" west, which corresponds to 3° 11'. If, leaving London, he
luid gone to Piiris, he would there have found the rstimated time to be 9'" 44" earlier tlian
that sliowii liy his wiitrh: iience the difference between the meridians of Ixjndon and Paris
is 9 " 44 , .'ind the longitude of Paris (from Gr'enwioh) 9"' 21" east.

In the siiiiic w.iy the nnviiiiitur at se.i niiiy determine his Inniritude bj' n gno<l chronometer.
He ciiii ill IvrMiiie tlie Imur cf tiie (l;iv hv the sun's altitude, and the principles of fpherical

13 *

i|^

"',f,

150

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY.

Part II.

trigonometry. Or ho may take equal altitudes, noting the times; the middle point of time
between tlieiu will be the instiint of noon, as shown hy the watch: he must, however, make
a correction tor tlic change of the sun'w declination, and the distance run by the ship in the
interval. Sup|X)8ing now the chronometer to have been set to the true time at the port from
whence he sailed, and to have gone uniformly with a small known daily acceleration oi
retardation, called its rate ; this correction being applied, he will have the time at the jwrt
corre.sponding to his observed time of noon, and their difference will be the longitude of the
ship eastwanl or westward from the meridian whence she sailed.

The longitude of any point on the earth, either at sea or on land, may be determined by
a good chronometer; in the latter case, however, the jolting it must suffer by carriage will
disturb its motion, and render the result sought uncertain. At sea, the mode of transport is
not so liable to sudden jerks ; and, therefore, the chronometer may be expected to go with
more regularity. If several be employed, considerable accuracy may be obtained. The
Board of Admiralty sent ten or twelve chronometers from Greenwich to Falmouth, and
thence in a vessel to Madeira, and in this way determined the longitude of Funchal from a
mean of their results.

The &cility of this mode of determining the longitude makes perfection in the construc-
tion of chronometers an object of high importance in a maritime nation like Britain. It was,
therefore, for many years encouraged by acts of parliament offering high rewards for pre-
scribed degrees of excellence. These, however, are now repealed ; but the government has
not lost sight of this important subject.

2. The Longitude by Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites.

If a celestial phenomenon can be seen at the same absolute instant of time in two dif-
ferent places of tlie earth, this appearance gives the means of determining the difference of
their longitudes ; for if the phenomenon be seen at both places, and the times, according to
their reckoning, be noted, it is manifest that their difference will be the difference of longi-
tude, in time, of the two places.

Now the eclipses of Jupiter's moons are phenomena of this kind. They may be seen,
almost at the same instant, everywhere in the hemisphere in which Jupiter is visible: and
such is the perfection of astronomy, that the times at whicli they will happen can be pre-
dicted with considerable accuracy. These are computed according to Greenwich time, and
published, olong with variouy other matters, in the Nautical Almanac, several years before
they happen, for the benefit of travellers. This method of finding the longitude can, how-
ever, only be applied on land ; for at sea the rolling of the ship makes it next to impossible
to direct a telescope so steadily to Jupiter as to view the eclipse of a satellite.

Example. — Suppose an immersion of the first satellite should be observed at the Cape
of Good Hope, April 16, 1805, at 18" 25"" 35' mean time ; the predicted time given by the
Ephemeris being 12'' 12'" 2' at Greenwich. Here the difference is P 13"° 33"; whence the
longitude of the Cape should be 18° 23' 15" east of Greenwich.

In this example, the observed time at the Cape is compared with the computed time of
the eclipse at Greenwich. If, instead of this, the observed time ot Greenwich had been
used, greater accuracy might have been expected.

This method is easy, and therefore much practised ; but it is liable to unccrtointy : for
two observers in the same room, but using different telescopes, will sometimes differ in noting
the time of an eclipse of the first satellite by as much as fifteen or twenty seconds. Delam-
bre thinks that the time of an eclipse of the fourth satellite may be doubtful to the amount
of four minutes.

3. Longitude by an Eclipse of the Moon.

An eclipse of the motjn has exactly the same appearance, at the same instant, wherever
seen ; but it is impossible to bo quite sure, by observation, of the exact time of their begin-
ning or end, because of the penumbra whicli bounds the earth's shadow. The results to be
obtained from them are therefore uncertain, to perhaps two minutes of time ; and therefore
only to be regarded as approximations to the truth.

Exumptf:. An eclipse of the moon was observed Aug. 28. 1729, by the astronomer Cas-
sini at Paris, and by Mr. Stephenson at Barbad(x>s.
At Paris, Imm. ) - 12'' 19"' 13*
At Barbadoes, Imm. > 8 11

Emer.
Emer.

13"
9

.59"'
51

4 8 13

4 8

By the mean of f lie two, the difference of longitude is 4" 8"' 6'"5 ; that is, Barbadoes is
62" r30" west of Paris.

linty: for

r in noting

Dekm-

ke amount

I wherever
Icir bcgin-
lults to be
1 there forft

bmer Cas-

tbadocs is

Book I.

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE.

4. Longitude by Lunar Distances, or by Occultations of Stars by the Moon,

The moon is, of all the celestial bodies, the most convenient fur determining the longi>
tudo, because of the greater qu.ckness of her apparent motion among the stars. She makes
the complete circuit of the heavens in 27'' 7'' 43'" 4'.7 (this is her mean sidereal revolu-
tion) : therefore she changes her place among the stars more than half a degree, or her own
apparent diameter, in an hour ; so that in two minutes of time she passes over one minute
of a degree. This, or even its half, is quite a measurable quantity by a good sextant

By the tiieory of the moon's motion, her place among the stars is known at any time
that is, knowing the time of the day at Greenwich, the place of the moon is known ; and,
on the other hand, kn ving the place of the moon, the time at Greenwich is known. The
Nautical Almanac giv the distance of the moon's centre from the sun, and some of the
brighter stars, os it would be seen from the earth's centre, for every third hour of the doy,
Greenwich time. If, therefore, the Almanoe show that the moon, considered as seen from
the earth's centre, will be 10° from a certain fixed star at six o'clock in the evening at
Greenwich ; and we make an observation at a distant place, and find tliat the moon's dis-
tance from the same star, reduced by computation to what it would be if seen at tlie earth's
centre, is 10°, we immediately conclude that at tliat instant it is six o'clock at Greenwich.
Thus the moon, with the brighter fixed stars near her path, serve the purpose of a chroncw
meter.

To determine the longitude in this way, one observer measures the moon's distance from
the sun or a bright star (one of those in the Ephemeris) ; another observer ot the same time
finds the altitudes of the moon and star ; and a third should observe the exact time by a
chronometer or good watch at which the observations were made. These observations,
corrected for refraction, give data for finding what would be the apparent place of the moon
in the heavens, if it could be seen fixim the centre of the earth at that time. The Nautical
Almanac enables the observer to find the hour at Greenwich, when the position of the moon
in the heavens was such as he observed it, and the interval between the Greenwich time
and his own gives him his longitude.

This method of finding the longitude is commonly practised in the service of the East
India Company, and in the navy. By it the longitude may be generally known to within
twenty miles, and very often much nearer. This, although less accurate (hun the latitude,
is yet an invaluable acquisition to the navigator. A striking proof how much it may be
depended on has been given by a distinguished navigator (Capt. Basil Hall, R. N.). After
a voyage of 8000 miles, occupying eighty-nine days, he arrived olf Rio de Janeiro, having
passed through the Pacific Ocean, rounded Cape Horn, and crossed the South Atlantic,
without making any land. When within a week's sail of Rio, he set about determining,
by lunar observations, the ship's course and place at a determinate moment ; and having
found this, within from five to ten miles, he trusted to the ordinary and more compendious
way of finding his position, such as is used in short trips, for the remainder of his voyage.
When he arrived within fifteen or twenty miles of the coast (according to his estimation),
he hove to at four in the morning, waiting for day-break. He then proceeded, altho'igh the
weather was hazy ; but about eight it become so foggy that he did not like to stand in
farther. The tog sudden'y cleared ofl^, and then he had tlie satisfaction to see the Great
Sugar-loaf Rock, which stands on one side of the harbour, so nearly right a-head, that he
liad not to alter his course above a jwint in order to hit the entrance of Rio.

Occultations of stars by the moon serve exactly the same purpose as a distance of the
moon from a star : these, however, are not so generally observed at sea as on hind. They
^ive llie distance of the moon from the star with almost perfect accuracy, and therefore are
an excellent method of determining the longitude. When an occultation has been observed,
wo can, by the lunar tables or the Nautical Almanac, which is a species of lunar and solar
tables, compute the distance between the centre of the moon and star as it would appear at
the cartii's centre at the moment the occultation was observed, provided we know the lon-
gitude of tiio place where the observation was made : but tjiis longitude is the very thing
\vc want; theretbre we Ciinnot proceed by a direct process. However, we may know the
longitude nearly by some oilier means ; an eclipse of one of Jupiter's satellites, for exam-
ple. Willi this, as if it were the true longitude, we may calculate the apparent distance
between the star and centre of the moon reduced to the earth's centre at tlie time the occul-
tation was seer If the longitude had lieen correctly assumed, tliis would have been exactly
tlie moon's .scniidiameter; but it will difl'er more or less, according to the magnitude of the
error wo have made in the lussuined longitude. There will, however, be such a determi-
nate connexion between the error of the longitude and the difli'erence between the moon's
semidiuineter mid computed distance of the star and moon's centre, that the one will be dedu-
cible from tlie otlior by calculation. In this way, then, the error may be estimated, and a
nearer apiiroxiiuation to the longitude obtained; and a repetition of the proces.:: will give a
still more correct result.

Iti

IS!
'J

i|)i

■;! kii

il. ^

Uft

PRINCIPLES t)F GEOGRAPHY.

.;t!fe

Pabt XL

5. Longitude hy the Transit of the Moon over the Meridian.

Let T be the time by the clock when tlio mfioii i« obsorvod on the meridian of nny place,
t the time of transit of a known fixed star, 24 + x tlio interval brtwoon two Hiiccessivo
transits of the same star: then 24 + x iT - t :: 3fl()° : difference of right ascension of the
moon and star at the instant the moon was on the meridian ; to which adding the known
right ascension of the star, the right ascension (A) of tiic moon when on tiio meridian is
detennine<l. Now the moon's right ascension when on the meridian of Greenwich is given
m the Nantical Almanac for every day of the year, from whence the daily increment of licr
right ascension may be determined : let, therefore, a be the moon's right ascension when on
the meridian of Greenwich, E the increment of right ascension in the time between two
successive transits over the same meridian; then, considering the change of right ascension
as uniform,

E : o - A : : 360° : the required longitude.

■ . - • ,*

6. Longitude hy Siffnah.

The most accurate way of determining "small diifcrences of longitude is by signals made
on the earth's surface. A rocket fired from an elevated spot on a clear ni^ht may be seen
distinctly with a telescope at the distance of twenty or thirty miles: therefore, by observing
the times at which the same explosion is seen at two places, the difference of longitudT of
the places may be found.

The same method will apply to places at any distance, if they be connected by a chain
of stations sufficiently near to each other to admit of a rocket to be seen from every two
adjoining stations. The difference of longituds between Greenwich and Paris was deter-
mmed iu 1825 in this wny. Rockets were exploded at Wrotlmm, ond seen simultaneously
at Greenwich and Fairlight Down: also at Iji Canche on the French coast, which were
seen at Fairlight and Lignicrs ; and at Mont Javoult, which were observed at Ligniera and
Paris.

In the same way the difference of longitude between Geneva and Milan has been deter-
mined by signals made by illumination on the t.ops of intermediate mountains.

The mtensely brilliant light which Licutonant Urummond, of the Royal Engineers, has
proposed for light-houses, and which is produced by placing a ball of lime, about the size of
a pea, in a flame supported by oxygen gas, may be emidoyed in determining differences of
longitude. We believe that, in favourable weather, this light exhibited on the top of Ben
Lomond may be seen at the sjime time at Edinburgh and in Ireland : indeed, we know that
it has actually been seen in the north of Ireland. Here, then, we have the means of deter
mining with great exactness tlie diflerence between the longitude of Uublin and Edinburgh.

7. Longitude by Triangulation.
The trigonometrical survey of Britain has determined the longitude of all the principal
points on the coast, as well as the mountains and cities in the interior, particularly in Eng-
land. At present the survey is suspended in Britain, but is going on in Ireland. When
this is completed, the British survey will doubtless be restmied, and the geography of the
northern part of the island made as perfect in its minute details as the southern, which,
from its proximity to the continent, is more necessary to be known in preparing plans of
national defence.

CHAPTER XXI.

nKPRESEXTATION OP THE EARTH.

The most natural and correct representation which can be given of the geographical divi-
sions of the earth's surface is that which is made on a sphere or globe. In this way the
different countries may bo truly delineated, so as to exhibit jierfoctly to the eye their relative
position, their magnitude, and boundaries; and hy such a representation of the earth, all the
problems in geography may bo resolved with elegance and fiicility.

But although the surti'.ce of a solid having the exact figure of the earth, or differing but
little fi-oiri it, affords in theory the most complete and the only perfect representation of any
considerable tract of country, yet there is a limit in practice to this precious advantage. A
globe of a moderate size serves very well to give a distinct notion of tiie figure, the magni-
tude, the position, and general features of the great continents and islands: but tlic largest
globe flint can conveniently be constructed is insufficient for minute details; and then We
must have rncoiirse to the more simple, although less perfect, representations of ^^APS.

It is imix)ssililo to represent on a plane a large extent of the earti.'s surface, so that the
distances of places in the plane map shall have to each otliei" precisely the same proportion
as their distances on the gloljc. To obviate this (lilliciilty, gengmphers have had rocoursf
to different methods of representing portions of the globe on a plane.

■Ji'- 1

hRT

y place,
icessivo
1 of the
I known
ridian is
is given
It of her
tvhen on
ccn two
scenBion

als made
be seen '
)bserving
xitud'' of

y a chain
ivcry two
:aG deter-
taneously
lich were
rnier3 and

een deter-

ncers, has
he size of
■fences of
top of Ben
know that
I of deter
Winburgh.

principal

in Eng-

When

>hy of the

rn, which,

plans of

lical divi-
s way the
ir relative
Lh, all the

ering but
m of any
tta^e. A
|io magni-
!■ largest
then we

lAPS.

that the

|)roportion

rocoursf

f^'

Book L

REPRESENTATION OP THE EARTlt K,«

153

By one method the countries are represented by tlio rules of perspective, as they wonid
appear to an eye tiiat should view them on the surface of a sphere from a given point The
ditibreiit positions which may bo aiisuiiiod for tlie point from whicii the sphere is viewed give
rise to (liflercnt projections, whicii all answer very well when the surface to be represented
is of small extent, and the point of view, or projecting point, is nearly over its centre.
However, when the surface is of great extent, a whole hemisphere for instance, those places
which 1 ie near the border of the projection are in them all much distorted.

According to another method, the spiierical surface to be represented is supposed to be a
cone whose vertex is somewhere in the polar axis produced, and its curved surfaco either
touches tlie sphere at tiie middle parallel of the map, or falls within the sphere at tlio mid-
dle parallel, and without it at tiie extreme parallels. The surface of the cone is then sup-
posed to be extended into a plane. This way of constructing maps is called tlie method of
development.

There are other mathematical hypotheses according to which maps are delineated, and
one in particular by which marine charts are constructed. In this, tlie parallels of latitude
and circles of longitude are all represented by straight lines (that is, a line making always
the same angle with the meridian), and the course of a ship sailing always on the same
rhomb is also a straight line. A representation of the earth in this way is commonly
called Mercator's chart, although the invention is due to an English mathematician, Edward
Wright. Charts of this construction are of great importance in navigation.

I. CONSTRUCTION OF MAPS DY PROJECTION.

There are two projections of the sphere by which portions of its surface may be truly
delineated by the rules of perspective : the c iooraphic and the stergooraphio. In each,
the plane on which the projection is made is called the plane of projection.

1. orthographic PROJECTION.

To project any point in space orthograpb'r.ally on a plane, a perpendicular is to be drawn
from the point on the plane and the bottom of the perpendicular ; that is, the point in which
it meets the plane is the orthographic projection of the point.

The orthographic projection of a line of anv kind on a plane is found by supposing per-
pendiculars to be drawn from every point in the line, and that line on the plane wliich passes
through the bottom of all the perpendiculars in the orthographic projection of tlie proposed
line.

It is easy to see that the orthographic projection of a straight line must be a straight line,
because the perpendiculars drawn from every point in it to the plane of projection will all
lie in a plane, and the common section of two planes is a straight line. It is also apparent
that the projection of a rectilineal figure will be a rectilineal figure.

If a circle be parallel to the plane of projection, its orthographic projection or representa-
tion will be a circle: for the perpendiculars supposed to be drawn from every point in the
circle to the plane of projection will all be on the curve surface of a cylinder, and they may
be considered as constituting tliat surfiice. The circle and its projection will be tlie top and
Iwttom of the cylinder ; and since they are parallel, they will be alike and equal.

If the plane in which a circle lies be perpendicular to the plane of projection, its projec-
tion will manifestly be a straight line, which will be equal in length to the diameter; and
the projection of any arc reckoned from the extremities of the diameter will be projected
into its versed sine ; also the complement of the arc, or what it wonts of ninety degrees, will
bo projected into its sine.

But if a circle be in a plane which is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the plane of
projection, then its projection will neither be a circle nor a straight line ; it will be an oval
figure. The boimding line will be in ellipse, a curve formed by cutting a cylinder by a
plane oblique to its axis ; and it is al^o one of the conic sections.

An exact notion may lie formpd c'' the orthographic projection of any line or figure by
holding it in the light of tlie suti, and observing its shadow formed on a plane which is per-
jinndicular to the directiuu r: the solar rays. The rays which pass close to the figure are
the perpendiculars to the plane, and the shadow is the projection of the figure.

The plans and sections by whicii artificers execute different constructions are no other
than orthographic projections of the things to be constructed ; with these all workmen are
familiar.

The orthographic projection of any object, — tlie terrestrial glebe, for example, — with nil
its circles, and the continents and islands on its surface, is nearly the representation or pic-
ture which an artist would delineate on a plane surface, if he meant to represent the globe
at a great distance from the eye ; and it is exactly the appearance which tlie globe would
have, supposing an eye could view it at an infinite distance.

From the nature of tliis projection, it appears that the orthographic representation of half
the surfiice of tiie globe will show nearly the true figure and proportions of rnuntrics about
the middle ; that is, directly opiiosito to the supposed position of the eve : but, tow ards the

Vol. I. U

I m

i'iv

S I

■

!;:■»

■1 j

.' i

■i ■

154

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part II.

Hi'it

ilJ!

pxtremitics of the map, tho frrapliic representations of places will imperfectly exhibit their
true figure and position. For thin reason it is seldom employed in geography, although its
use ia tTO(|Ucnt in astronomy.

(A.) To project the Sphere orthographically on the PlaM of the Eipiator.

About any point, C, as a centre (_Jig. 45), with any radius, C A, describe a circle B A 00

to represent the equator. Draw two diameters,
45 AC 180, B C 00, perpendicular to each other :

these will be the projections of meridians distant
90° from each other, and C will be the projection
of the pole.

Divide each quadrant mto six equal parts, and
let A 15, 15 30 be two of these ; draw diameters
through 15 and 30, and these will be the projec-
tions of meridians 15° ond 30° from A C 180; and,
' in this way, meridians dividing the ecjuator into
twenty-four equal parts may be represented. Of
these, any one, C A, may be assumed as the first
meridian.

To project the parallels of latitude: divide A B,
one of the quadrants, into nine e(|ual parts ; let 80,
70, 60 be the throe of these points of division ad-
joining to B: draw perpendiculnrs thim these, and
all the other points on the radius A C meeting it
in 80, 70, 60, &c. About C as a centre at tlie distances C 80, C 70, C CO, &c. describe
circles, and these will be the projections of parallels of latitude at the distance of ten
degrees.

The polar circles and tropics may be tbund by laying off an arc of 23^° from A towards
B, and from B towards A, and drawing perpendiculars from the points thus dcfemiined on
C A, circles described alwut C, through the bottoms of the perpendiculars, will be the pro-
jections of the polar circle and tro|)i(:. In this way, the projection may bo completed.

It is easy to see that the regions within the polur circle may be roproscnted by this pro-
jection so as to give a tolerable notion of tlioir position and magnitude, judging by the eye;
but that the appearance of the cciuatorial regions will be altogether distorted.

(B.) To project the Sphere orthographically on the Plane of the Meridian.
Describe any circle, N E S Q (Jig. 46.), to represent tho meridian, and draw two diame-
ters, E C Q, N C S, perpendicular to each other;
the former may be taken as the projection of the
equator, and then the latter will represent a meri-
dian 90° from tho meridian N E S.

To represent other meridians : divide a quadrant

S E into six ('([ual parts, ns at 15, 30, &c. ; from

^^ these points of division draw perpendiculars 15 «,

10 30 6, &c. on E a DescrilK? ellipses N « S, N 6 S,

-iy having a common transverse axis N S, and the lines
C a, C 6, &c. t()r their semiconjugate axes; and
these will be tho projections of meridians which pass
through every fitlecnth degree of the e(iUtttor. Or,
by dividing E S into nine equal parts, tliey may be
made to pass tlirougli every tenth degree.

For the parallels of latitude : divide the quadrants
E N, N Q each into nine equal [wrts at 10, 20, 30,
&c. ; join tho corresponding numbers by straight
lines, and these will be the projections of porallels of latitude at distances of 10°, 20°, 30°,
&c. from the eiiuator. The tropics and polar circles are to bo drawn in the same way ; the
former at 23i° on each side of the equator, and the latter 2J}i° from the jxiles.

In this projection, the polar regions, and all places near the meridian N E S Q, are very
much distorted in appearance to the eye : it is only towards the centre that there is any con-
siderable resemblance of a projected portion of the earth's surface to its appearance on a
globe.

2. BTEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION.

In the stereographic projection, the eye is sujiposed to be situated at a point in the surface
of the sphere, and the plane on which the projection is to be made is the plane of that great
circle, which is everywhere 90° distant from the position of the eye : hence it nuist be evi-

Ei '^ii

M''

Paut II. M

quadrant

c. ; from

liars 15 «,

S, N 6 S,

the lines

lixes; untl

[vhich p;is8

itor. Or,

jy may be

I quadrants

^0, 20, ao,

straiffht

' 20°, ao°,

|\vay ; the

are very
any con-
lance on a

lie surface
Ithat great
Ist be evi-

Book I.

rei»i.EkSentatu)n of the earth.

155

dent that tlio eye can sec only llie innidc or concave Kurlitce; howcvrr, wo niny sup|>nse the
sphere to iio traimpureiit, and its various circles, and the isluniis, coiitiiicntH, iSLc. drlineated
on its siu'tiice to ho seen through it. If we now conccive'a line to be drawn IVuim the eye
to any jjoint on the concave siirliice, the point in which that line cuts the plane of projection
will be the projection of the point on the spherical surfiice.

To illustrate wimt has been said, let E A (> B CA/j-. 47.) bo a great circle of the sphere

p If r s a plane passing through its centre, and perpen-
dicular to the plane of the great circle; let C E bo a
diameter of the sphere perpendicular to the plane; then
assuming p q r s as the plane of projection, E, one end
of that diameter, may bo taken as the place of the eye
or projecting point. If, now, straight lines E A, E B,
EC, ED, &.C. bo drawn to A, B, C, I), any points on
the Burfiice of the sphere, the points a, b, c, </, &c. in
which tlie.se lines meet the plane p r, will be the pro-
jections of the corresponding points on the surface of
the sphere. Let A 1) B be any circle of the sphere :
conceive a straight line to be drawn from E, the place
of the eye, to D, any point in tiie circundcrence. If D,
the end of this line, be now carried round llie circle,
supposing it always to pass through the fixed point E, the line will generate the surface of
a cone whose base is the circle, and vertex the place of the eye; and t'.e curve line adb,
which is tiie coirimon section of the plane p r, and the surface of the oone will be the pro-
jection of the circle.
It will now be sufficiently obvious,

1. TluU every circle which pusses throuffh the eye will he projected into or repreit, ''d
by a straiffht line on the plane of projection.

2. That every circle whose plane is parallel to the plane of the circle will b'; projected
into a circle.

These two properties hold true wherever the eye be situated. The assumptioi.. however,
that it is in the surliice of the sphere gives rise to geometrical properties which are peculiar
to this proj(!ction, and which by their simplicity and elegance give it great value.

One geometrical property is this: whatever be the position of tlie circle ADB (or base
of the cone) on the surface of tlie sphere, the portion of the cone between the projecting
point E and the plane of projection p r is always similar to the whole cone. If the plane
of the base be parallel to the plane of projection, the truth of this proposition is obviout ;
but writers on geometry prove, tiuit when it is oblique, still the cones whose bases are ADB
and adb, and common vertex E, are similar ; only tiioy have contrary positions. From the
similarity of the whole cone to the part cut off, it follows that,

3. In the atereoirraphical projection of the sphere, the representation of any circle that
does not pass through the eye will always be a circle.

There is another proposition demonstrated by writers on spherical geometry which is of
groat imiwrtaiice in tliis projection ; viz. if two straight linos be drawn from any point on
the surface of the sphere to touch it in that point, their representation on the plane of pro-
jection will contain an angle exactly equal to the angle contained by the lines themselves.
Since straight lines touching the surface of a sphere at any point may be regarded as tan-
gents to any circles of the sphere passing tlirough that point, we have this otiier remarkable
property : —

4. The angle made on the surface of the sphere by two circles which cut each other, and
the angle made by circles which are their representations, are in all cases equal.

This projection is extremely convenient in practice, because a circle may be easily de-
scribed when three points in its circumference are given, or when two points and its radius
are known ; also, the projierty of lines making angles at their intersection on the surface of
the sphere etpinl to tliose formed by their projections, is of great value in tlie representation
of the surface of tiio sphere of a plane, jloreover, the contraction of the map towards the
extremities of an liemisphere is not so great as in tlie orthographical projection ; on all these
accounts, the stereographical projection deserves a preference.

Supposing K to be the projecting point, or place of the eye, and pr the plane of projection,
lot C bo the point of the sphere opposite to E, and therefore 90° everywhere from the circle,
which is tlie common section of the sphere and plane of projection ; it is evident that any
arc, A C, of a great circle passing through C and E will be projected into a straight line a c;
now this line is manifestly the tangent of the angle A E C to the radius E c, and the measure
of this angle is half the arc A C.

5. Hence it follows, that if a great circle pass through the projecting point, any arc of
that circle, reckoned from the opposite point of the sphere, is projected into a straight line
nassi'ng through the centre, and equal to the tangent of that arc.

fe.

I* ■'!

S p. '

166

PRINCIPLES OF GKOGRAPIIY.

Part II.

(A) To projvct the Sphere ttereoffruphiiiilly on Ihv Plum of the Ei/tuilor.

Deicribe a circio, A 1) |) (Jiff, 48.), to rcpreHoiit tlu- equator, and ilriiw iiiiy ilminetpr

A C D mill a riuliua C 1) m'r|H.'iiiliculitr to A I>.
Hiip|X)Min^r now timttlic iMirnllolsoflatitmlo tocvery
tfiitii (Icffrco are to lie roprcscntcd in the inuj),
divide A i), a quadnint of the circle, li.iu iiineeqiiiil
imrts, nH at the (luiiits 10, '^0, 'M, &c. and dniw
Htruight lineH from the points of diviHion to U, the
extremity of the diameter A C I), nieetiii); the
riidiug n C in tlin iioints 10, 30, IJO, «Stc. Then,
nliout the centre C describe circles to pits!i throu^jfli
the points 10, 20, 130, &.c., and tliese will rcprofHnit
the parallels of 10, 20, 30, Sic. dc);recs of lati-
tude. In this way, all the parallels of latitude nmy
be found, as also the tropic and polar circio, hy lay-
ing off arcs of 83,}° and 665° from H towards A.

Next divide the circumference of the circio into
into 2i eipinl parts, and draw radii from tlio centre

.o the points of division,
one hour.

These will represent the incridians which differ in longitude by

quadrantal arcs, N Q, into nine equal parts, an at 10, 20, 30, &c., and di
lines from S to the points of division, meeting C Q in 1, 2, 3, &c. Then, a i

(B) To project the Sphere itrreographically on the Plane of a Meridian.
Describe any circle N Q S E (Jig. 49.), to represent the meridian on which the projection

is to be made ; which should be so chosen as to include
nearly one of the continents, — the eastern, for in-
stance : this will be accomplished if N E S be the
meridian 20° west from London. Draw the diameter
N C S, which will represent the meridian tiiat
passes through the projecting point, and therefore is
perpendicular to the plane of projection. Then N
will represent the north, and S the south pole ; draw
jQ another diameter, E C Q, which will represent the
equator.

Since, by the nature of the projection, all the
meridians will be represented by circles which pass
through the poles N, S, it will be sufficient if we
determine the points in which they cut the equator :
we shall suppose the meridians to pass through every
tenth degree of longitude : tiic points v.'horo tlioy cut
the equator will be found by dividing one ot the

drawing straight
. circle described
through the points N 1 S will represent the meridian which cuts the equator 10° from Q,
and a circle through N 2 S will be the meridian that cuts the equator 20° from Q. The
remaining meridians N 3 S, &c. will be determined exactly in the same way ; and it appears
firom the construction, that the centres of the circles will be in the diameter E tj and its
prolongation, and their distances from the centre will be the tangents of 10°, 20°, &c. : viz.
the inclination of the circles to the plane of the primitive ; also, that their radii will be the
secants of the same inclinations.

To describe the parallels of latitude, divide the four quadrants each into nine etpial parts,
as at 80, 70, 60, &c., and draw straight lines from E, one end of the diameter E Q, to the
points of division, meeting N S in 8, 7, 6, &c. Then circles described through 80, 8, 80 ;
70, 7, 70, &c., will represent the parallels of 80°, 70°, &c. The centres of all the circles
will be in the line N S, and distant from it by the secants of the distances of the parallels
from the pole : also, the radii will bo the tangents of the same distances. The polar circles
and tropics being described by the same rules at the distances 23^° and 661° from the poles,
the projection will be completed.

(C.) To project the Sphere stereographically on the Plane of the Horizon for a given

Latitude.

In this projection, the eye is supposed to be in the nadir of the place for which the pro-
jection is made.

On C (Jig. 50.) and C (Jig. HI.) as centres with any radius, describe circles \V .\ E S,
W'N'E'S', of which//?-. .50. is to be the primitive or horizon ; the oihcr,, fig. 51., is to serve
for determining the position of the circles to be described on _fig. 50. Draw the diameters
N S, W E, N'S', W'H' in both circles [icrpcndicular to one another ; then N S in Jig. .')0. wil:
be tlie projection of the meridian, and W E tlic projection of the circle passing through

mil parts,
Q, to the

80, 8, 80 ;

the circles
parallels

)lar circles
the poles,

• a given
;h the pro-

through

DOOK I.

REPRESENTATION OF THE KARTII.

\57

the caHt and west poiiitH of the horizon and the /.cnitli, — that is, tho prime vertical j N will
ho the north |X)iiit of tho horizon, H tho oouth, and E urul W the caut and west points.

81 3

jL_40

T^x^v^o

'in X'-Vv

/ \ '''

•"''' \^'

/ yc.''''

/ ^.v'--;'-^^'

y^ V.-Y"

IV 41';':^^'-"- C

"y^ \ x^

X" ^4(1

\ y^^'

\ /

\X Q

"■'-- \ /

.'t\.

'~^,\ /

.'^....™::-^

^Zd

Make tho arc NT', or tho angle N' C P', fig. 51., equal to the latitude of the place; joiri
W'P' cutting C N' in P; make C P in *^. 50. equal to C P mfig. 51., and P,/^'. 50., will
ho the projection of the north pole. Draw the diameter E Q, fig. 51., perpendicular to
P' C;(' ; jom W'Q' meeting C S' in Q'. Take C Q, fig. 50., equal to C U', fig. 51. ; de-
Hcribe a circle through tho points W, Q, E, and the arc W Q E will represent the equator.
Next, to project the parallels of latitude, — for example, those which are 4(P and 20° from
the polo, — from P', fig. 51., take P' 40 and P' 40, each arcs of 40' on opposite sides of P' ;
also, P' 20, P' 20, arcs of 20°. Join W 40, W'40, meeting C N' in m and n ; also W 20,
W 20, meeting C N' in r and ». In N C S, fig. 50., take C m, C ?i, r, C if, equal to C w,
C n, C r, C lyfig. 51. ; describe circles on mn,r s as diameters, and these will be projections
of parallels of latitude at the distances of 40° and 20° from the pole. In this way may all
tiie parallels, also the tropics and jwlar circle, be projected.

To project the meridian : in fig. 51. draw S' B perpendicular to N' S', meeting P' p
produced in B; take C A, fig. 50., equal to S' B, fig. 51., and through A draw a perpen-
dicular to C A. Let us suppose that the meridians are to mako with each other angles of
15° : at P, in the lino P A, draw P 15 and P 15 on each side of P A, making angles with
it of 1.5° ; and, in like manner, P 30, P 30, making angles of 30°, and so on to angles of
75°. On A, as a centre, describe a circle to pass through P ; this will pass througii W and
E, and will be the projection of the six o'clock hour circle in the heavens, or that meridian
on the globe that is perpendicular to the meridian of the place for which the projection is
made. On the points 15, 15 describe ores a P o', a P a' to pass through P, and meet the
|)rojection of the horizon in a, a' ; a, a' ; and in like manner on 30, 30 os centres describe
the arcs h V h', b P b\ &c, all passing througii P : these will be the projections of meridians
on the terrestrial sphere, or of hour circles on tlie celestial sphere. In this way, the pro-
jection may be completed.

3. GLOBULAR PROJECTION.

In the orthographic projection, equal portions of the earth's spherical surface are repre-
sented by unequal plane surfaces; and the deviation from equality in the surface to be
represented, and its plane representation, increases from the centre to the circumference of
the projection.

The same is tnio of the stereographic projection, but with this difference, that the dis-
tortion in the representation of the figure of any portion of the spherical siirfiices proceeds
in a contrary direction : in the former case, the degrees of longitude and latitude are gra-
dually contracted from the centre to the circumference ; but in the latter, they are enlarged.

In the stereographic projection, tlie projecting ptiint, or point of view, is the pole of the
circle on which the projection is made ; and in tho orthographic, it may be supposed in the
axis, and at a very great, or rathe, indefinitely great, distance. It is this change of position
of the point of view that protluces the change in the direction in wiiich the degrees of lati-
tude or longitude are contracted. Hence it maybe supixisod, that, by taking a point of view
at some finite distance greater than the radius of the spliere, a perspective representition will
be obtained, in which the degrees in the representation will be nearly ciiual, and the deviation
from equality in the representation of equal portions of the spherical surface in some mea-
sure corrected.

Vol. I. 14

■: M

;'M

yL^_ i '

■" li

jj '-^f^^-H

\l»

PRINCIPLES or (JKOfJRAPIIY.

Part I)

Ix't A I) H (^fif(. .V2.) Ih" ti wH-tion of tho iplierc
by a pliinn (mHHinn; tliroii);)! K, tlin |xiirit of virvv,
nntl (' tliii ci'iilns 'Iruw tlio (Imiiii'tnr / I) to |Nii<k
tliriiiiiih K, mill ilruw A (' It |i)'r|H>iiili(:ular to 1> K.
Hiiioi tlin wliiilo i|im(lriiMt A F Im to bo prfijcrtcd
into Ihi* rHiliiiri A (', if it lio jKiMMiblit to inako bn
rcproHi'iitiitionNoriHiiml ixirtionit of it mmrly (iipml,
itM biiivi'N A K iiiiil K V limy Im! h.-'kiiiiiciI iix r<'pr>>-
Ht'iitiMl by A II mill il C, ImlvuH of llii; rniliUH:
tlicrutiirc, II lino ilrnwn from K to K niimt liiiu'ct
tbc riuiiim in II. 'I'Iiih ilutormincK I) b], the iHm-
tana' nf Ihc projnHiiiff poini, tn he viiuul li> K G,
a ptrpvnilicvlar from tin: miildli; nf tlir nuudrant.
To provn tbis (jCDinctrical pro|)otiitinii, draw A V
nmi K C iiitnrHcctintf in I, and join II I. Tbcn A
1=1 F nnd A 1 : I F : : A II : 11 C ; tbfiroforo II I
IM iNiriiilol to C F : ln-ncn, K I : I C : : K II : II E : :
G C : C E. Now, K l=F (} mid I C=(J C ; tborr-
foro F G : G C : : G C : C E : bunco F (JC E=:(i
C«==K G'=F G-G D; tbiroforu E=G I), iinil,
tnkiiif; iiwiiy tliR liiiit C I) commoii to butli, D E ia
oqiml tn C G or U) K G.
linnet! it npponrs tlint Ibo diBtanco D E in tbti Bine of 45''; and thorcforo noiiriv 71 of
"iicb jiarts us llif nuliiw C A contains KH). Tbin projection wiw first snjofeHtod by Al. DoIh-
liiri<, mill is now cotniiiiiiily callod tlio Globubir projection. If we 8up[H)so tbo (lundrant A
F divided into ton equal purts, tben tbe projections of tbe arcs of 0°, reckoning from F to A,
will be as in tbia table, in wbicli tbc radius C A is supposed to be 10.

Arc.

Kt'prciienmtiiin.

Arc.

Ri'prcaciilntlnn.

(K>..

110

.Wl

413..

.MO

1.017

tf ..

.9H

M ..

(Kl

1.0'JO

JH ..

K\ ..

7'J

1.013

S7 ..

1.004

M ..

«1

.11117

3B ...

1.013

fl ..

.UM

N 80

, 1 I

Prom tliis t<iblo it appears, that the appro.xiinntion to equality in the projection of equal arc8
of a circle perpendicular to tbe plane of i)rojnetion is considerable.

According to tbe principles of perspectivis in tbis projection the circles of tbo sphere will
lie represented by ellipses; and they navo been so dolincatcd in two hemispheres, projected,
drawn, and beautifully engraved by Mr. Joseph Lowry, of liondon. He has placed London
at the centre of tbe northern hemisphere, and instead of .707, Dolahire's distance of tho
projecting point, be has made it .88 of the radius.

In general, however, tbe projection is made on a meridian, and the circleB of tbo sphero
are represented by circles, and without any regard to the distance of a point of view. .\lst),
the dfgroes of longitude on tbe equator, and of latitude on a meridian, are made all equal.
With tiiese simplijications, the meridians and parallels on a hemisphere of the earth's sur-
face may be represented by the following construction : —

Let us suppose the parallels of latitude to be traced through every tenth degree, and that
tlie meridians are to be an hour from each otiier.

Describe a circle, E N Q S (Jg. T^\\ for the
representation of the meridian. Draw the diame-
ters E Q, N S perpendicular to each other ; one, E
Q, to represent the oquntor, and the other, N S, the
meridian, which is 00° from that on which the pro-
jection is mode ; N being the north, and S the south
pole.
Divide the quadrants E N, Q N, and the radius
iQ C N, each into nine equal parts ; let N 80, 80 70,
&c. be the etjual divisions of the quadrants, and N c,
c rf, &c. the equal divisions of the radius : describe
a circle through the three points 80, c, 80, and it
will be the representation of tbe parallel of 80° of
latitude ; in like manner a circle described tlirougli
the points 70, d, 70 will represent tbe pariillel of
70° ; the remaining parallels, tbe tropics and polur
circles, on Ix)tb sides of E Q, the equator, are to be
found in the same manner.

, and that

for the
|c diame-

one, E
|NS, the

the pro-
Ithc south

Ihe radius

)0, 80 70,

i and N c,

describe

lO, and it

y 80= fif

tliroufrli

linillel of

iind poluf

lare to be

Book 1.

REI'RKHRNTATION OP TlIK KARTIl.

ItiO

Next for thn mpridlann: divide the rndii C K, C Q eiirh into n\x cnnnl pnrtu nt the point*
a, A, 6ir„ : di<i«'rilM> (.■iri-li'M thniu^li the |K>inlN N ri S, N h H, Hic. nnd tliexe will lie the repre-
NrntutioiiM ot' tlif iiieridinMN, luiy one of whicli, in luvinif down the |Mwiitioni< ot' placid hy
their Istitudu and hingitiide, iiiity Iw amiunied nil tho flrMt meridinn.

II. I'ONarilllCJTIUIil OV mam DV nRVRM)PBMItNT,

Tho throe tnethodn ot" pnijectinn whicli have lM>en oxplnined lire nwinlly employed in
the repreHentiilion of a lieniiMpnere, hut are wldoin u«ed in delinentiiiK Ihe );i'o|friipliicitl
t'enturi'N of ii ninjflu country. For thoM!, tho method of drvrUtprmint iH roininonly eni-
ploved.

A iM'rfect ifeotfraphical repro^entntion of a country Bhonld tepre»ent nil ItM imrta in jiint
proportion, nnd uTiould exhihit itn true tiKure, ThiH \n e.xactly done on the npliere; but it
can only bo nearly nccoin|>liiihed on a piano nurtkco.

The puriKweH of civil government reiiuire ninpH that (fivo tho true figure and dinienNionfl
of territory. Military aHiiirit reipiiro mucIi iih frjvo correct diHtnncex; nnd nnvl);iition deinnmlR
tlie exact oearinff ot one place from another. Ordinary innjw t\ilHI npproxiiimti'ly the two
tirst purpose*. Tho laiit ih completely wtixtied by a niup of a peculiar contitructlon, called
MerentDr'N chart; but thJH in not iimnediately iippficnble to tlio other purpiweH.

It i* a known property of u cone tliiit it* curve siirfnco can be expnnded in*' < .i plane ;
honco any tijfuro delineated on it can always bo exhibited cxnctly in all its diincDf* onn on a

filane Murface. Now, a part of tho iiurtkco of a gpliere contained between two pninllclN of
atitude, not very remote, will not differ much tVoni tho Hurikce of a tVuKtum of a cone thn^
touches the Hphere in tho parallel midway between them ; and thJH will nUo he true if it
{Wtia aloni;^ the chord, or if it \\asa partly within und partly without tho Hphere, cutting,' it be-
tween the middle nnd extreme parallelR: in each caso the lenf^th of tlie Mniit Hide of tho
frustunt must be supposed cipial to the lenf^th of tho meridian between the extreme paral-
lels. On this principle, diflbrcnt constructiona havo been givon for representing the surfhcc
of a sphere on a plane.

1. Conical Devflnpemenl,

Let P A Q (Jig. 54.) bo a section of tlio meridian, P Q tho axis, C thn centre, E C the
radius of the oipiator, B D any arc of tho meridian, and A tho middle point between D ani'
D: draw tho tangent A O, meeting the axis in O. Suppose now the plane fiifuie O A E
to rovolvo about tho axis P Q ; tho semicircle P A Q will generate a sphere, nnd tlus taniGfcnt
O A will generato tho surface of a cone which touches tho sphere in A. Tho points I), A, D
will generate tho parallels of latitude B 6, A II a, D </, of which tho middle parallel A II a
will be a section of^tho cone perpendicular to its axis.
Take H any point in tho parallel A H a; draw P II to its centre, and join II O. Con-

, coivc now the cone to be expnnded into n

comes, by develnpement, O' A' IT. The
expansion of A II, the arc of the parallel
of latitude on the sphere, whoso radius is
P II, the cosine of the hititiido, will now
become A' H', on are of a circle whose
radius is A' O' = A O, the cotangent of
the latitude of the parallel.
In 0' A' take A' B' nm; v P', each
L^ equal to A B or A D, and ' ' '.tic radii
C B', C D' describe arcs B m, D' n.
II ' The plane figure B' m n D' may now be
taken as nearly equal to tlif spliericol sur-
II face bounded by meridif- p.is'i'jntT through
A and H, and the pr.Aions of the paral-
lels B 6, A a inter ..'Cil between them:
and any tract Pi' country delineated on the
sphere may be nearly shown by a delinea-
tion on the plane ; the approximation be-
ing 'i.o more accurate as the breadth of
tho spherical zone is less.
Let the middle latitude E A and tho angle A P H, or brendth in longitude of tho sphori-
cnl surface, be supposed given, to determine the radius C A' and the nngle C A' H
Because the middle latitude is known, its cotangent O H is given in parts of the radius by
the trigonometrical tables, or it may be expressed in minutes of latitude, by considering that
tialf the circumference (to radius = 1) is 3.1416; therefore, the radius in minutes will be
expressed. eOXim

-3-1416 = 3437.r.

/ /£ \

Ai / — Iff

^Vn 1^ — P "^^'v

mi \T^ Vt

K" ""c "A

:> ii

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY.

Part II

Hence O' A', llic nulius of the middle parallel in the developeraent, will be expressed in
minutes of latitude by

3437.7' X cot. middle lat.

Next, tn find the angle A' O' H'. The arc A H on the sphere and the arc A' H' on the
piano boiiig equal ; by the principles of geometry, the angle A F H will be to the angle
A' O' II' 08 A' O' to A F: now, A' O' = A O is the cotangent of the middle latitude, and
A V ia its cosine, and the cotangent is to the cosine as radius to the sine ; therefore, putting
L to denote the degrees of longitude between two meridians on the spiiere, the angle A' O' H ,
contained by the straight lines which represent them in the developement, will ba in degrees

L X Sine middle lat.
The angle O', and the lines O' A', A' B', A' D', in the developement, are now known ; it
rornains only to divide B' D', the representation of the arc of the meridian, and B' m, D' n,
llio parallels of latitude, into equal parts to form scales of latitude and longitude : then,
circles described about O' as a centre, through the proper divisions of B' D', will form the
parallels of latitude ; and straight lines drawn joining corresponding degrees on the extreme
parallels D' w, D' n, will represent the meridians on the map ; which is now ready for the
delineation of tiie geographical features of the tract it is to represent This is the way in
which the common maps are constructed.

Example. Let it be required to construct a map to comprehend the British islands,
which extend from 50° to about 61° of north latitude, and from 2° east toll°west, about 13°
of longitude. Tiie middle latitude is 55° 30', of which the cotangent in the tables is .68728
ond sme = .82413. From these data, O' A', the radius of the middle parallel, is
3487.7 X .08728 = 2362' .7 : the length of the arc B D ia 11° = 660' ; therefore. A' B' =
A' D', its half, is 330, and hence

O B = 2362.7 X 330 = 2692'.7
O A = 2362.7 — 330 = 2032.7.

The number of degrees of longitude (L) in this case is 13° ; therefore, angle A' O' H'
= 13=' X .82413 = 10° 42.

Knowing now the radii O' B', O' D', and the angle O', we can find the arcs B' m,J)'n;
or wo can find tiieir chords.

Thus we have,

chord of arc B' m = 2 O B Sin. * O' = 375' .6.
chord of arc D' n = 2 O D Sin. I O' = 502' .1.

We have now obtained the chords of 13° of longitude on the extreme parallels, and the
ninridians which form their extremities in minutes of a degree of the meridian; also the
rndii of the parallels of latitude: with these, the intelligent student of geography will find
iio difficulty in constructing a map of Britain.

2. Murdoch's Conical Developement,

There have been various modifications of the conical developement : of these, one was
ffivcn by tlio Rev. Patrick Murdoch, in the Lond. Phil. Trans. 1758. Let M denote the are
of the meridian which is to be represented in a map: he proposed to make O' A', the radius
of the middle parallel, equal to

chord of arc M

i;^M — ^ ^°*- "''^- '"*•

the cotangent being supposed expressed by the radius of the sphere. The remainder of the
piiiistrncfion is the same as the ordinary conical projection.

By Murdoch's method, the surface of the developement is exactly equal to the spherical
piirtnco which it represents, and the cone passes through pwints of the meridian between the
middle latitudes and the extremities of the projected arc, its side being parallel to the tangent
at the middle latitude.

3. De Lisle't Conical Developement.

The astronomer Do Lisle employed the conical projection in constructing a general chart
of the Rtission empire, which extended from 40° to 70° of north latitude. lie, however,
fiipposcd tlio cone to enter the sphere fo as to cut it in two parallels midway between the
tuean and nxlrpiue parallels: these, in the developement, had the same dimensions as the
cnrrespondiiitf circles of the sphere, and its whole extent differed but little from that of the
tract it was meant to represent; because the excess at the two extremities of the chart was
compi/nsoted, at lea.st in part, by the opposite error in the middle.

4. Euler's Method.
Euler wn? also occupied with this projection: but he sulisiituted for the determination of

riirallels which should be common with the sphere, that of the point of concourse of straight
ineR .vliicli roprpsent the meridians, and of the angle which they make when tney contain
one (iPLTci' iif lomritiule. Ilin calculations rest on the following conditions : — 1. That the
errors an- cqinl at the northern and southern extremities of the inao. 2. That tliey are

Booi

also (

of CO

of lat

t;,

parall
which
dicnla
the di
the c(
just at
spondi

by mixi
project!
particul
instancf

Ther(
5(

extend fr
Let us
from wlii
the spher
minutes,
Let O
AD, BE
and C tJie
centre of
By the
this, to ra(

Having
be found I
parallel.

350
40

:i(i

parallel on

degrees of

Vot.L

Ition of
Jtraight
nontaiii
|l\at the
liey are

Book I.

'«!}'

REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH.

161

also equal to the greatest of those towards ita middle. Hence he concluded that the point
of concourse of the meridians should be situated beyond tlie polo by a quantity equal to 5P
of latitude, and tliat the angle of two consecutive meridians should be 48° 44'.

5. Flamsteed's Projection.

TI Enjrlish astronomer Flamstoed, in constructing his celestial atlas, developed all the
parallciH of latitude on the sphere into straight lines, and also one of the meridians; viz. that
which passes through the middle of the chart : then the parallels, which are all perpen-
dicular to that meridian, are exactly of the same length as on the glohe, and consequently
the degrees of longitude on the parallels will be shown in their just proportion, that is, as
the cosines of the latitude. If, now, the parallels on the map be divided into equal parts,
just as the parallels on the globe are, by the meridians, curve lines traced through corre-
sponding points of division will represent tiie meridians.

The adjoining figure (Jig. 55.) exhibits a sketch of a map of
this construction.

According to Flamsteed's method, any distance on the map in
the direction of the parallels is everywhere equal to the corre-
sponding distance on the globe ; but the configuration of places
near the extremities is considerably distorted by the obliquity of
the meridians to the parallels, so that tlie spherical quadrilaterals,
the sides of which cross at right angles, are in the map represented
by raixtilineal trapeziums, of which the angles are very unequal. Flamsteed employed this
projection in representing the positions of the stari. ; but it is also employed in geography,
particularly in delineating countries which extend on both sides of tlie equator : Africa, tor
instance.

6. Modification of Flamsteed's Projection.
There is a modification of Flamsteed's projection {fig. 56.), which has been extensively

North.

///

TY^^

//n

1 \\\

aJJ L

\ \\\

, \ I >_ ''

South.

employed, and which deserves particular attention, bec.use it
correcti, in part, the defect of tlie obliquity of the meridians.
This substitutes arcs of concentric circles for the straight lines,
which he proposed to represent the parallels of latitude. The
common centre of the circles is in a straight line drawn
through the middle of the map as an axis, and which repre-
sents a meridian ; ond its position in the axis ought to be such,
that the obliquity of the angles made at the intersection of the
curves which represent the meridians, and the circles which
represent tlie parallels, should be as little as possible.

The position of the centre is so assumed, that the radius of
the middle parallel of latitude is equal to its cotangent ; and
in this the modified projection of Flamsteed agrees witli the
g ordinary conical projection.

To exemplify this'constniction, let it be proposed to describe
the parallels and meridians for a map of Europe, which shall
extend from 35° north latitude to 70°.

Let us, as before, assume a minute of a degree of latitude for the unit of the scale
from which the measures of tlie lines are to be taken. Therefore, as before, the radius of
the sphere, of which a portion of the spherical surface is to be represented, will be 3437.7
minutes.

Let O A C B (fig. 56.) be assumed as the axis or middle meridian of the map ; and let
A D, B E be tiie lialves of the part of the extreme parallels of latitude to be represented,
anu C the point in which the middle parallel (52° 30') cuts the axis ; also, let O be the
centre of the circles, arcs of which are to represent the parallels.

By the nature of the projection, O C must be taken equal to the cotangent of 52° 30' ;
this, to radius = 1, is .76733, and to a radius expressed by minutes, we have

O C = .76733 X 3437.7 = 2637'.8.
Having found OC, the radius of the middle parallel, the radius of any other parallel may
be found by adding or subtracting its distance in minutes of the nioridian from the middle
parallel. Thus we find the radii of parallels differing by 5°, as in the annexed table : —

Next, we must find the points in which some one meri-
dian cuts all the parallels. We shall suppose it to be 30°
of longitude from O C, the axis of the map.

From the nature of tlie developement, the arc of longi-
tude on any parallel in the map is equal to the arc of the
parallel on the sjihere which it represents. 'This has to an arc of the same number of
degrees of the meridian the proportion oi the cosine of tlie latitude of the parallel to th«
VouL 14* V

I-.in.llel.

R>ii:u>.

Panllsl.

R.i.iiui.

350

;lli^7.'^

24f<7.H

:i:k^7.h

iiO

iW.f

4.'i

mir-T.H

(i5

1HH7.K

STrt.S

lSfl7.«

1, I

!'.

•I

¥
h

J\ '

b'i!

■■'■il

162

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

PartII.

radius. Therefore, an arc of 30° = 1800' on a parallel whose latitude is L will be in
minutes,

1800 X cosine L.
By this formula, the lengths of the arcs may be easily computed by a table of logarithmic
sines; but, for a practical construction, it will be more convenient to ha!,e the chords of the
arcs. Now, in arcs not exceeding 30°, the arc diminished by a fraction whose numerator ia
the cube of the arc, and denominator 24 times the square of the radius, is very near equal
to the chord ; that is, a being put for any arc, and r its radius,

chord o=fl — 22~ nearly.

From this formula, the chords may easily be deduced from the arcs.
As an example, let the arc of 30° of longitude, and its, chord on the parallel 35°, be
required. For facility of calculation, we shall use logarithms.

Calculation of Arc.

Calculation of Log. of iMr«.

Lomrilhmi-

Log&rithmi.
Radius of arc 087.8 3.50077

CoBine 350 9.913;W

Arc a=>i1474' 5. 3 IfiWil

Log. of square of radius 7.13354

Si 1.38021

From loff of riibo of arc 9 5(1589

Logarithm 34rS 8.51375

Subtract Log. 24ra 8,51375

Differ, of arc and chord 9' .8 099214

ftr. o( Ul.

Am.

Chonl of Arc.

1474.5

1404.7

1378.9

1.3lin.4

1272.8

12«3.8

1157.0

1148.7

1032.4

lOiM.O

900.0

893.0

700.7

755.5

015.0

011.8

Thus, by an easy logarithmic calculation, we have found the arc
to be 1474'.5, and its excess above the chord to be 9'.8. There-
fore, the chord is 14G4'.7 of the meridian. By a like process,
we have found the arcs of 30° of longitude, and their chords
on the parallels to every fifth degree, as in this table.

Having now found the chord of 30° of longitude on the paral-
lel of 35° to be 1404'.7 of the meridian, we must, with com-
passes, place that distance taken from a scale of minutes from
B to E, and to e; and the points E, e will be in the representations of meridians 30° of lon-
gitude from the axis on each side. In tiie same way, the intersections of these meridians
with the other parallels arc found. Curve lines E D, e fZ must now be traced through all
the intersections, and these will be the meridians on the map.

The intersections of the intermediate meridians with the parallels may be found by divid-
ing each parallel into thirty equal parts, from the axis botii ways ; and as many meridian
lines may bo exhibited as may be tlioug.:t, necessary. In tlio figure here given, they are
traced to every tenth degree.

If the map is to extend furtlier than 30° on each side of its middle meridian, the divisions
of the parallels may bo repeated on each, and meridians drawn.

This construction of a map is memorable, because it was adopted by the general depdt of
war of France, alwut the year 1803, as the groundwork of a system of geographical charts
which should exhibit tlie French original territory, as well as the additions which had been
made, and were expected to be made, by conquest or negotiation.

Devdopement of the Curve Surface nfa Cyliiidcr.

The mariner, in navigating a ship between remote noints on the globe, directs his course
by the compass ; steering as nearly as possible always m tiie same direction, supposing there
are no obsticles to prevent him. If tlie place from which lie sets out, and that of his des-
tination, be due north and south from each other, the ship's patii will evidently be a great
circle, viz. the meridian piit^slng through tlicm. If, iigain, tliey iiave the same latitude, he
must sail on a parallel of hv iide ; that i.s, his course must be due oast or west. But if the
places differ both in latitude and longitu-!i', llion it becomes a rpiestion, what is the nature
of the line on tlic globe along which a sliip must sail, with her head always in the same
direction, as indicated by the compass, so as to pass from one to the other?

The lino in (piostion, wlucli is called a rhumb line or loxmlromir, linr, has manifestly this
property, — it cuts all llir meridians on the fflohi: at the same aniilc. By this property, a
ship sailing alone it will move always in tlio same direction, ns shown by a compa.»s: but it
will not be a great circle ; for the oijuator is tlin only great cirrle that cuts all the meridians
at the .same angle; and hence it appears that the lino on tlie globe by which a ship passes
from one ]dace to another is never the shortest [wssible, except when they arc on the same
meridian, or on the equator.

Supposing a navigatnr had a perfect delineation of the earth on a sphere, it is by no means
evident how he should (ind the course he ought to steer to reach ii remote port. By due con-
Bidcration, however, he would sec that the i)ath must be a spiral. It would also be repre-

iU' Ii!

Ifcstly this
Iropwrty, a
but. it
InxTulians
Blip passes
the same

I nn moan*
■ (iue con-
I be repre-

BookII.

REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH.

16.3

sented by a spiral curve on a map, formed by tl"" developement of a cone ; but navigators
required charts before the theory of such curve-, was inderstood ; therefore at that period his
art must have been imperfect.

Tlie wants of the niivigator, accordinfjly, gave rise to the construction of n chart, in which
the meridians and parallels were straight lines ; and in this the developement of the curve
surface of a cylinder was employed. Let us conceive that a zone of tiie earth's surface, of
no great extent in latitude, is inscribed in or circumscribed about a right cylinder, whose
axis coincides with that of the globe: the planes of the meridians will cut the curve surface
of the cylinder in straight lines, parallel to the axis; and the planes of the parallels will cut
it in sections perpendicular to the axis, wiiich will be circles equal to the base of the cylin-
der. But in supposing the surface of the cylinder developed into a plane, these circles will
oecome straight lines, perpendicular to the meridians. This developement has received the
name of the plane chart : its invention is attributed to Henry, son of John, king of Por-
tugal. This kind of chart has nothing but its simplicity to recommend it ; for the degrees
of longitude have, indeed, their just proportion to the degrees of latitude in the parallel com-
mon to the cylinder and sphere, but in no other parallel.

In the developement of a cylinder circumscribing the whole sphere, the area of any zone
in the sphere is exactly equal to that of its representation in the chart ; and indeed the same
equality may be observed in all cases, by a proper assumption of a parallel of latitude as the
base of the cylinder. The developement, however, has this great fault, — the degrees of
longitude always err in excess towards the north and in defect towards the south of the mean
parallel, which is assumed as the base of the cylinder.

There is a construction, described in books of navigation under the name of a plane chart,
the principle of which is somewhat diflerent from that just described. In the seaman's plane
chart the meridians are parallel straight lines, and so also are the parallels of latitude ; and
both are so laid down that a degree of latitude and a degree of longitude are equal in all
latitudes. It may easily be conceived how incompetent such a representation must be to the
purposes of navigation or geography.

Mercator''s Chart,

The utter inadequacy of the old plane charts to the wants of geography and navigation
induced ingenious men to consider whether a chart might not be so constructed as to repre-
sent the meridians and parallels by straight lines, and at tlie same time readily show the true
bearings of places from one another. The first that gave a true solution — at least an
approximate one — of this important problem was Gerard Mercator, who was born at
Ruremond, in Upper Guelderland, in the year 1512, and published a chart in 1556, wherein
the rhumbs, which on the globe are spirals, were represented by straight lines, as in tlie
plane chart; and so aliso were the meridians and parallels. It is not known by what prin-
ciple Mercator constructed his chart ; it has been supposed that he observed on a globe fur-
nished with rhumbs what meridians the rhumbs passed in each degree of latitude : it is cer-
tain ho did not know the true principles of tlie construction ; for these were first found by
Edward Wright, of Cains College, in Cambridge, who communicated his discovery to his
friend Tliomas Blundeville, with a short tabic, showing the correct distances of the parallels
of latitude from the equator, which was published in 1594 by Blundeville, among his Exer-
ciser. The truth of the divisions of Mercator's chart was then tried by the numbers given
by Wright, and they were found to be inaccurate ; hence it appears that Mercator did not
understand the principles of the map bearing his name, and that this important invention is
due to Wright, who explained it himself, in his treatise entitled The Correction of certain
Errors in Navigation, published 1599, but written many years before.

Although Wright's numbers were sufficiently correct for all nautical purposes, and might
be carried to any degree of accuracy, yet, in the progress of mathematical science, an im-
provement Was made in his theory. Napier's invention of logaritiims had proved an inesti-
mable advantage to navigation and geography, by shortening calculations : this, howovpr,
was not the only advantage that the navigator derived from the invention ; for, about tlie year
1645, Henry Bond showed that the division of the meridian in Wright's chart was altogether
analogous to the logarithmic tangents of lialf the complements of tlio latitudes, and might
be expressed by them. He seems to have fiiund this by chance : such accidental discoveries
are, iiowevcr, never made but by men of genius. He could not demonstrate his important
theorem. At last .Tame.* Gregory proved its trutii in his Exercitationes Geomclric<B, pub-
lished in IflfiR. The con-struction of tiie clinrt was now made perfect.

The invention of Mercator's chart,, one of tiie most important in the 16th century, affords
a notable instance of the slowness witli which men adopt improvements in science. Although
designed for tiie use of sailors, it was at first by no means generally used by them. William
Biirrough, a celebrated navigator, who had entered ( n his profession at the age of fifteen,
and risen by his merit to the rank of controller of Queen Elizabeth's navy, objected to its
isefiihicss. He said — " By Mercator's augmenting his degrees of latitude towards the poles,
the samo is more fit for such to behold as study in cosmograuhv, bv reading authors upon the

m^^'i

^hI I

^4 mm

lli' : '

li;

iBSSl

■ll'J '.' '

lu-fl

hi- 1

^li

ill

Is**'

184

MERCATOR'S CHART.

Book I.

REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH.

165

land, than to be used in navifration at tlie sea." It is curious to observe that logarithms, the
other grand auxiliary of nttvigation, met with a like reception from the German mathema-
ticians that were somewhat advanced in years.

Mercator's chnrt may be produced hy dcvelopcmcnt, as follows: — Conceive that a sphere
with the meridians and parallels and countries delineated on it, is inclosed in a hollow cyl-
inder, and that the axis of the sphere coincides with that of the cylinder. Imagine now that
tlin sphere i.s expanded in its dimensions, just as a soap-bubble is produced by blowing air into
it, or as a bladder would swell in all directions by inflation, the parts always stretching uni-
formly ; the meridians will lengtlien in the same proportion as the parallels, till every point
of tin expanding spherical surface comns into contact with the concave surface of the cyl-
inder : the meridians will at last become straight lines, and the parallels, circles on that
surface ; the former in the direction of its length, and the latter parallel to its base, which
is the equator. Suppose now the surface of the cylinder to be cut open along one of the
meridians, and spread into a plane ; the surface thus produced will be Mercator's chart.

Mercator's chart is constructed, then, on the following geometrical principles : — 1. The
meridians are parallel straight lines at equal distances, for equal differences of longitude;
and the parallels of latitude are also straight lines, perpendicular to the meridians. 2. Sup-
posing a meridian on the globe be divided into minutes of a degree; one of these, at any
parallel of latitude, will be to a minute of longitude taken on that parallel in the proportion
of the radius of the cq— iVir to the radius of the parallel, which is the cosine of the latitude ;
that is, as the secant ol ..he latitude to radius. Now the same holds true in the chart; that
is, a minute of the meridian, at any parallel, has to a minute of longi' jde in that parallel the
proportion of the secant of the latitude of the parallel to radius.

By the first of these properties a minute of longitude in the map it, represented by a line
of the same length in every parallel ; therefore, by the second the minutes of the meridian
will be represented by lines which ^ on increasing from the equator towards the poles.
From this it follows that, if a minute on the equator be taken as the unit of a scale, and that
unit be considered as the radius of a circle, then the representation of a minute of the
meridian, at any latitude, will be expressed by the number in the trigonometrical tables
which is the secant of that latitude. Thus it appears that, while the degrees of longitude
on the equator form a scale of which the divisions are all equal in the map, the degrees of
latitude marked on a meridian form a scale of which the divisions go on increasing from the
equator towards both jwles, each being the sum of the secants of all the minutes in the
degree.

The numbers which result from the addition of the secants of 1 minute, 2 minutes, and so
on to the last minute of any arc of the meridian, reckoned from the equator, arc given in
books on navigation. They form the table of meridional parts, and serve tor laying down
the position of any place in the chart. The addition of the secants is, however, only an
approximation to the true length of the enlarged meridian in the chart; but it is sufficiently
near the truth for nautical or geographical purposes. In strictness, also, it must be considered
that the earth is not a sphere, hut a spheroid, and on that account allowance ought to be
made for its compression at the jwles. The following short table shows the length of the
enlarged meridian, both on the sphere and the spheroid, to every fifth degree of latitude.
The compression is assumed to be '^j.

Lat.

S
1U
15
20
25
30
Xi
40
45

Mnridinnal PnrtB.

Lat.

Meriilional Parts.

Splicre.

Splicrdid.

Sphere.

Spheroid.

0.00

300.38

00307

flIfl.-tIi

1225.14

1540.00

lHH8,:t8

•2244.20

2li22.(iU

3020.04

fl.OO

208.37
5!«l.fll

flo.'i.as

1217.110
I.'ill.l7 i

1H77.!KI
22:12.00

3ii08.:t5 1

:WI4.41

503
55

05
70
75
80
85
90

3474.47

30ti7 07
4527..37
5178.81
S005.03
0970.34
8375.29
10704.02
Infinite.

3457.39
30.50.57
4500.41
5159.03
5045.S1
6951.07
83.'i2.24
10741.75
Infinite. '

To construct Mercator's chart (Jis!: 57.), draw two straight lines W E, N S at right
angles to each other, intersecting in C ; of these W E is to represent the equator, and N S
a nipriiliiin, in the middle of the chart: from any convenient scale lay nff equal parts along
the equator, from C both wayj^, to represent degrees of longitude, and each of which should,
if thorp ho room, contain 60 subdivisions for minutes.

.Assuming the equator ns a scale of minutps, lay off from C, north and south on the middle
inpridi'iM, the nnmbor of minutes in the Piilanred meridian, corresponding to each degree of
hititiidp as shown hy a table of nieridioniil parts, of which that just given is an abridgement

Driiw straiclit lines tiirough every titlh or every tenth degree of the equator and divided
meridian, nml pprppndiciilar to them. The pprppndiculars to the equator will be meridiatu,
and till! linos parallpl to it jmrallds ofhililude.

' \:\

ii^ > I

vy\

1^.

166

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY.
Fio. 57.

PartIT.

20
C

100

120

140

160

16U

140

120

100

To put any place in its proper position on the chart, assume some one meridian for the
first, and lay off from its intersection with the equator, and along it in the proper direction,
tlie longitude of the place in minutes; draw a line through the point thus found perpen-
dicular to tiie equator: this will be the meridian of the place.

On this meridian lay off the latitude, as shown by the table of meridional parts; and the
point thus determined will be the true position of the place in the chart.

To find the bearing of one point from another, or course in which a ship tught to sail in
passing from one to the other, draw a straight lino joining the two points, and the angle
which that line makes with the meridians is the course or bearing.

Thus, if L bo the Lizard Point on the chart, and M the east end of the Island of Madeira,
draw L I parallel to the meridian N S, and the angle I L M will be the course on v/hich a
ship ought to steer from the Lizard to reach Madeira.

The course may be found by a trigonometrical calculation, by considering that the meri-
dional difference of latitude of the two places (as given by the table of meridional parts),
and the difference of longitude in minutes, are the sides of a right-angled triangle, of which
the line joining the places is the hypotenuse, and the course one of the acute angles, viz.
that made by the meridian and line joining the places.

Again, tiie distance of the places, measured on the rliumb line passing through them,
may also be found by trigonometry. It is the hyiwtenuso of a right-angled triangle, of
which the proper difference of latitude (not the meridional difference) is one side, and the
course the adjacent angle.

These properties of the ciiart apply alike to the bearings and distances of all places on
the globe measured on rhumb lines. The bearing and distances of Ijondon, Edinburgh, and
Dublin, for instance, fi-om each, may bo found in this way from a table of meridional part.**
and their known latitudes and longitudes.

It is evident that Mercator's cliart does not serve well to show the figure of the countries
on the globe, nor their relative magnitudes. These are purposes, however, which it is not
intended to serve ; but it does serve perfectly the purposes for which it was first constructed,
and which, before its invention, were a desideratum in geography.

PahtH.

dian for the
:r direction,
und perpen-

ts ; and the

ht to sail in
d the angle

of Madeira,
Ion which a

It the meri-
|onal parts),
le, of which
|angles, viz.

DUgrh them,
trianjile, of
tide, and the

ll places on
liburgh, and
((lioniil parts

lie countries
Ich it is not
Constructed,

THE HEMISPHERES.

^if :

■' 'Wl

■■*

fiV -ii.

.i)il i

SCIENCE OF GLOCillAl'HY. Pabt II.

BOOK II

GEOLOGICAL PUINCIPLES.

Geuiaksv is thnt brancli of iiiitiirnl liititury wiiicli trciits of tlie tttinosplicir, the watcro of
tlio iijlolio, find of the inoiiiitain-rockH of wliicli tin- earth is cuiii|x>8L'(1. No (lo|MrtiiirMt of
natural history nlKmri'x tti„h. in iin|H)rtant futlB and iiitorestinff eonchiHions; and tiicri^tbro
wo nhall hiy before our rendois a short view, Int, Of tlio natural hititory of the atnionpherc,
or mrlrornlnffy ; 2illy, Of the natural history of the waters of the globe, or hyilrulngy ; nnd,
!3<lly, Of tlio solid matcriald of which liie cu'rth is coui)H)6cd, or geognosy.

CHAPTER I.

METEOROLOOV.

This beautiful dnpiirtmcnt of science mukc^a us ac(|uaintcd with all the properties and
relations of the atmosphre which surrounds our planet. Althougli in general but littlo
studied by {feolojjists, a knowled);o of it is, novcrtheloss, most useful in a geological point of
view, of which the details wo shall now lay before our readers will atford ani|)lc proof.

Sect. I. — Pressure, Height, Form, and Trmperature of the Atmosphere.

The air in which wo breathe, with tlie clouds and vapours floating in it, surroiindstho
earth on all sides to nn unknown height, and forms a moveable envelope denominated the
atmosphere. The human species, and other land animals, being thus entirely immersed in
this fluid, may with some propriety bo said to inhabit an ocean as really as the fishes which
live in the great deep. But the latter have tlio advantage in being able to mount up,
remain, or descend at pleasure in ihoir element: whereas, without some additional aid, we
must content ourselves with the more humble allotment of remaining on the bottom of our
ocean. The winged tribes, doubtles.s, have the power of ascending to great heights ; still
they can never roach the summit. There is nothing more essential to the existence or
health of man himself, or of the various inl'erior animals and vegetables which live on our
globe, than the air or atmosphere ; nor ha.s any agent a greater share in the innumerable
changes wliicli are daily tjikiiig place in tho inanimate materials cominising our planet. It
is not wonderful, then, that the composition and properties of the atmosphere should have
so otlcn excited inquiry. To give an account of these, and of their relations to other
bodies, particularly to the various substjincos which arc difl'used in the atmi Milierc, and
really or apparently deposited from it, constitutes the; science of meteorology. Whilst
engaging in this task, so fur as our limits permit, it will be fully as instructive, and scarcely
more tedious, occasionally to introduce a very lirief sketch of the mode in which some of tlie
leading facts were first discovered • but there is reason to think that a few of the more obvi-
ous properties of air have been known, as it were instinctively, from the remotest antiijuity.

That air is a body or substance possessing the essential properties of matter, appears
from the resistance which it offers to the occujKition of its place by other bodies. Thus, if
an apparently empty glass jar be first inverted, and then immersed in a vessel of water, that
liquid will only enter a very little way into the jar, the rest being occupied by the air. This
fumijiar experiment shows that air is a Ixxly, by its resisting the entry of the water. At the
same time it shows the air to be an elasti , or compressible substance, otherwise it should
have completely excluded the water. Thai it is a fluid is evident from the ease with which
bodies move in it, from its pressing e(|ually in every direction, and passing with great fiicility
through extremely minute openings.

The ancients mutt have been aware of these properties, or at least of some of their
practical applications, otherwise they could not ha\e constructed their powerful air-guns,
nor availed themselves of the principle of tlie diving-b(!ll : for, in those early nges, the
adventurers who dived in search of pearls, &c. were accustomed to hold large p<its or kettles
inverted on their heads. The air which these open vessels contained both excluded the
water, and for a short time supported respiration ; thus forming diving-bells in a portable
shape. The ancients likewise, in some of their meclianical contrivances, availed theuisolves
of that property of air by which it expands with lie:it nnd conlrncts with cold. It was on
this principle tliat, in more modem tim(>s, Sancforio ((Ptistructed the air thermometer.

Weight and pressure are properties of the air lis of nil other baiies: it presses on the
earth's surliice, and on every other bfKly with which it roiiies into contact. This was con-
jectured even by the ancients. But the en'fCtH wliii ii are now known to result tVoin tne
weight nnd elasticity of the air were (()r a Imiir time iiscrihed to a ]»rineiple culled nature's
horror of a vacniiin. Sci latr' as the beginning of the sin'cnteenth century, it was generally
believed, that tlie ascent of water in pumps was owing to this principle, and tiiat by means

of their
liir-i:mis
Icrop, the
Irkcttlrs
Idod the
Iportablc

>lTlpelvCK

1 was on

on the
Las con-
toin tne
Iniiture't?
I'ncriilh'
L- means

Book II.

METEOROLOGY.

IGO

of miction fliiiiia might bo miscd to any iieidit whiitcver. But Galileo, tlioufrh still inclinin};
to the old opinion, remarked that water diclnot rise in a common pump nnleiis the sucker oi
bucket reached within 34 feet of it« hurliice in the well. Hence ho was forced to conjec-
ture, that not the [wwer of Muction, but the prcsHure of the atmosphere on the Burfiico of tho
well, was the cause of the water's ascent; that acolunm of water 34 feet high was acoun-
teriK)iso to one of air on an ecpial base, but reaching; to the top of the atmosphere ; and that,
for this reason, water could not follow the sucker any farther,

Torricelli, n disciple of Galileo, profited by this hint. It occurred to him that the sanio
tbrcc which supported water to the boijjht of 34 feet would sustain a column of any other
(luid which weijfhed as much on an equal base; and thcretbro mercury, lieing 13.0 tunes as
heavy as water, should only bo suspended to the heijrjit of 20 or 30 inches. Accordingly,
he took a glass tube from three to lour feet long, and closed at one end ; this he filled with
mercury ; then, stopping its mouth with his finger, he inverted the tube, and on re-opening
its mouth in a vessel of quicksilver the result verified his expectation. The mercury,
obeying the laws of hydrostatics, descended in the tube till the vertical column was about
30 inciies above the level of the cistern, leaving the remaining space at the top empty or
nearly a vacuum. Hence he inferred that it was only the weight or pressure of the
atmosphere on the mercury in the cistern, which balancetl the column in the tube. This
is usually called the Toricellian experiment, and is tiio foundation of tlie barometer.

The mean pressure is everywhere the same at the level of the sea, and p(iu;il to about
14j lbs. on the sciuare inch. It becomes less as the place is elevated alxive the sea, and
greater if below its level. The pressure of the atniospherc, as measured by the mercurial
column, varies somewhat at every place on the earth s surface. Generally speaking, its
variations are greatest in the temperate zones, decreasing towards the equator and poles.
The annual range rarely exceeds half an inch in the torrid zone. It is olwut two inches at
London, and the same at St. Petersburg, but rather less at Melville Island. It nowliere
exceeds 3^ inches. The annual range is more considerable at the level of the sea than on
mountain? ; and under the same latitude it is less, as the height of the place above the sea
is greater. The barometer has a tendency to rise from 4 P. M. to 10 P. M. ; to fall from
10 P. M. to 4 A. M. ; to rise from 4 A. M. to 10 A. M. ; and again to fall from 10 A. M. to
4 P. M. Different authors, however, dift'er a little both as to the hours and the nniouiit of
the diurnal variation, which appears to be greater i s the latitude is lower. The barometer
is likewise elevated a little at the quarters of the niTon, and depressed at the new and fbll.
The range of this instrument is greater in winter than in summer.

The barometer ranges higher in proportion as tiio weather is more serene and settled ;
calm weather, with a tendency to rain, depresses it ; high winds have a similar effect. In
extra-tropical climates, a fall in the barometer, with a change or rise of wind, is usually
followed by rain.

The law which regulates the elasticity of the air formed the next important stc^p, after the
discovery of the pressure. Boyle in England, and Mariottc in France, discovered, much
about the same time, that the temperature being the same, the pressure or elastic force of
air is directly as its density, or inversely as the space it occupies. This law, though received
as correct at the time of its discovery, continued to be suspected till within those few years.
Rut Dulong and Petit have recently examined it through a wide range of temperature ;
Professor Oersted has tried it under a great variety of pressures ; and within the limits of
their experiments it was found to hold good.

The variable capacity for heat forms another property of air of no less importance, but
which seems to have been little known or attended to till towards the end of the last cen-
tury. VVhen air undergoes a change of volume, it at the same time changes its capacity for
heat ; becoming hotter by compression, and colder by rarefaction. The want of ac<niaintance
with this circumstance led Newton, and many others after him, into the mistake of con-
cluding, that the particles of elastic fluids repel each other with forces inversely as their
central dist^mces; which cannot be the case if the capacity be affected, no matter in what
manner or degree, by a change of density. But very extensive experiments, made by some
of the most eminent scientific men in France, and repeated in England, are favourable to the
idea that the particles of air observe the same law as magnetism and electricity, repelling
each other with forces inversely as tiie squares of their distances.

There is a gradation of density in the air. Being, as already stated, a compressible body,
It is obvious that the lower parts of the atmosphere, by sustaining tlic greater weiglit or
pressure of the air above them, must be so much the more condensed ; and therefiirp. as we
ascend in the atmosphere, the density will continually diminish. Accordingly, it may bo
shown fi-om tiio principles already laid down, that were the temperature nnd the force of
gravity uniform at all heights atx)ve thi- oartli's surface, the densities of the strata would
decrease in geometrical progression for altitudes taken in arithmeticiil progrnssion, so as
nearly to halve the density for every 3..') miles of ascent. But, independently of a trifling
change in the force of gravity, this is not exactly the law of nature; for it is tbund that the
temperature generally decreases as we go upward, and tliut not according to any fixed law

Vol. I. 15 " W

ITO

PRINCIPLES OF GFAXiRAPIIY.

Part 11.

Ilencc U»c rolnlion betwcon the dcn^iity und iilliliMli^ in not of a ntciiily clmrnrlor» and can
only bo ol»tainc«l in nny purtirulur cuhc I'roin ohHcrviii^f tlic prrsHuro, tem|M'r»liin^ uml liypriv
metrir sUilo of the iiir. Tliis Ih n roscnrcli to wliicli many cniinont nii-n Imvo liiriiod tlieir
attrntioii ; and th'^ir HticcotiHivo latMHirH huvo 1<m1 to the titrnnition of convt*iiirnt rulcH, by
which til'.' hrif^rhttf of tnoinitiuns can bo uhtaimnl to a ('onMidoruhlo drgroo of uecurucy, and
with jrrcat llicility, t>y inoaii.s of the Uironiet«ir, Sin,

Tho ii#M^r[it fin<i form 'f the atmoHphorc are objnrlH of intrroHt. With nn nniform torn-
nerafun-, tho hiw of IJoyh; would involve tho notion that itH hoij,'ht in infinitt! ; hut thin in an
idea whirh lian Ncarcc^Iy any HupporterH, and is jjenerally Indii'ved to bo inroiM|)atiblo with
tho liiWH of motion. Dr. WolhiHton, whono opinion in ontitlod to (jroat doforrnoo, inain-
tainn Ihiit the atmoHphcro nuiHt torniinato at tlic hoij^ht wlioro the ropulHivo tlirce Ijctwoon
xiti partirh'H ('(inals their tendency to gravitate towunlw tho earth. The law of jjravity may
bo adinittod » . known, but the Hamo can hardly bt> at!irniod of the law whicii roLMilutOH tho
repiilHivo tI»roo, h) lon^ aH tf»e teniporaturo at ^rrcai hoiffhts in unknown ; and thin circuni-
Htance I(>av<'H the Inmndary umlctormined. A doubt of a more RoriouH nature, however,
atldchcs \u thiH npoculation, on the ground that we are totally ignorant with what materialH
the air miiy ho mixo<l at great olevationH. The atmoHphcrc in generally KUpponod to be
high* r at tho ccpiator than at the poles ; but we have neither data Tor computing tho heights,
nt)r the pro|K>rtion in which thoy ditlbr: so that the oblate splieroidal figure which souiO give
to tho atmosphoro can bo couHidered an little cIho than an ingenious conjecture.

Tlie tomporaturo of tho atmoHphero has great influence on most meteorological phono*
inena; but it is oxcoedingly variable, and can as yol be determined only by actual obHorva-
tion on tho npot. Nothing would tend to throw greater light on many of the unroHolvcd
qucHtions iu moloorology, than a ready mmle of co..;puting witli certainty the temperature
which ohtaiufi at any iiiHtant in a |)oint of the atmobphnro remote from tlio cont^ict of Uio
earth's surtiiro, and at any i)ouit on tlic surface remote from the observer: l»ut these are
likely to continue desiderata. Tho very little that is known of tho temperature of air remote
from the eartirs surface has W^vn derived from a few aeronautic excursions, particularly the
ascontof Al. Gay-Lussac to the height of 761)0 yards.

The heat of the air in on*' shajK^ or another is no doubt greatly derived from the sun,
either innn<»diatoly, by intorctpting tho solar rayn, or indirectly, from itii contact with the
cartli's r^urtiico, which i.s more or less hratnd according as it is turned more or less towards
the sun : hut whether heat, in return, U» projected tVom the earth or its atmosphere towards
other refrioUH of space, is a disputed question. Professor Leslie maintains that heat, which
is not aecoinpanied with or rather is not in tho state of light, cannot [Miss through a vacuum,
and, of course, that it cannot pass tho boundary of the atmosphere. If so, it would follow
that the atmosphere docs not continually draw otf heat from the earth, but may oflener be
tho warmor of the two. Many philosophers, however, are of a diflerent opinion, among
whom WIS tho ingf»nious Dr. Wells, with most of those who embraced his thoctry of dew.
Those allege, that heat is couHtaritly projected from tho earth and atmosphorc towards tho
boundless regions of sjmco. Obs( rvation shows, that much heat pa?ses upward from the
earth's surface, especially when the air k clear. In tliis way, tho stratum of air in contact
with tln^ surface is C(xded more thrm tliat which is somewhat higher. It is probable that
there exists a naturil tendency in tho atmosphere, as in most other bodies, towards un uni-
form temperature throughout its whole height ; and since currents in its upper regions usually
:!ome from a warmor quarter, und tho lower currents from a colder, there is u|Km the whole,
independently of aeronautic observations, some groimd tor 8upf>osing tliat the decrease of
temporal lire on ascending in the atmosphere should be slower than the law of capacity as
increased by dilatation requires.

Tlie follow ing list of temperatures, chiefly observed at stations employed in the barome-
trical measurements of heights, is taken from M. Ramomrs work on that subject. Only a
few of these measurements embrace the whole lieights of the mountains on which they
were made, and the first case is of a different cla^s. We Iiave reduced the temperatures to
Fahrenheit's scale : —

Oif-I.uMar'B Hr^nl ....

C'hlmh-KUn

Moiil aian.'

pillo

rir<lr Tfiiftlffi!

M'ini Hlan>'. Chimouiiir .

Flij« ..

Muiit iVMii. Tirbr*

(^>l itn rirHhl

HrMHIi-

Picdu Mill), Tartwi

Piltii

Pttin

Ditin

nuin

IMIln

hi'tn

KIO
B4M

S34fl
1174

M 7
7II,S
714

It.fl

Bl.S

Ttb

74 J

fi5 I*

ft" e

Tfl U

77.0

Temp.
al tup.

14.9

?y 1

W 8
'JO. I

4T.t

aa.H

Sl).8
44 4

W.l

r<3

I 47.6
40.0
M)7

I 4(1. H

■ auT

{ 40 I
41 I

rir rt'ftrp, TaiI>M ,

ricdii Mnniilin

Plcdti Mill), Btni:'^

Dtilo

I)lHi>

Dttln

Pllln

Ditto

nitio

Ditto

Puy (1^ |k<mr, Clt-rmoDt .,

Dillfl.

Dilln

ntlln

Dill'K

Ilrctkt ilii Hainen-*, TartMl
l'L>n( it'i Itrrirr*, Orrmont
La BarrtKur, CIrrrouBt ...

Yif.l*
Mt7

n4i

IN)9

79 3
Bt-.l
CO I
71 1
:i)3

naa
tun

04.0

fSK.O
M.1

70 a

640
(U.A

7ne

V].Z

bit

».A

74. ft

ftl.R
97. «
«1.6
4A,4

44.fl
49.4
41.4
67.0
AI.4
M.)
69.4
74 1
46.4
M.0
Tl.t

mp.

T*mp.

hot.

ftl top.

•

ftl.R

r.«

Sl.ft

1 1

41.4

4«.lt

Ii3

nrt

U.t

44.6

tto

«,4

ii.i

41.4

Hi 3

H.9

61.4

i^.S

ba.i

tt fl

All. 4

1*1

4fi.4

■J'ib

M.S

74.a

1 ,...

OOOK II.

METKOUOLOGY.

Hnlghl in

Kiiuli'li
I'uut.

KiliiBtcirinI 7.nni'
nruiiilut.U3|(ilUO.

Tfin|«.'fnti' 7.1)110 1
rromlnl. 41'^ to47''|

Miiuii
Tniiip.

Ulllfcr.
eiico.

MiiOii
Temp.

mice.

IKIIKI
IISC7
197IM
ISlKiJ

81. .1
71.J
tlAI
S7.7
44.11
34.7

, 10.;l
1 ti.l
! 7.4

i:i 1

' u.u

S3.fl
4I.U
.'11.11 1
'.£1.4

, 12.11
11.4

Thin tablo bIiow*, in a vory strikiiiK iniiimtr, witli how little ccrtninty the ilocrcMO of
t<!m|K!mtiiru can liu UHtiiiiutt'il t'roiii thii iiicrt-ii.su of height; iiiui Imw- iiiiHtcnd}' tlio rulu of
(lijcruiiso iH otlcii lit till) Huino plucn. M. ilutiiuiid, howuver, Im8 colluctud some ciised which
are titill luoru iliHcorduiit.

Tho jirccitlinK '"''''" eontiiinH the tein|)urttturi>H of the air ot diffcrniit hui)flittt for ono or a
few parliciiiiir iiwtuiitx; hut wo shuU now udd a lahte from Huron llumMdt nf Ihi- mrun
leinjicniliirrg of devatcd giluatinitu, aa deduced from neverai yearn olworvatious. The
do|{riR'i4 are those of Fahruiihiiit'ci fualu.

Fruin thiH tuble it appcan*, that, in tho moan state of tho atmosphere, tho tcinporaturo

does not dccroatio uniformly for u unitiirni accent.
At the equator, tlio thurtiioineter failH 1(P in tho
first KKK) yanls of ascent, or alwut 1° li)r :U(> foot.
In tiie next l(KH) yards, it is only 1° (or rfiA feet •
but in the third and Iburtii stages there is a re-
markable acceleration, which huvin); attained its
maximum rate, is diminished a^ain in tho fltlh
stuffo to Homuwhat less tiian it was in tlio first, or
to 1° in 'MO foet. The mean rate in tho varia-
tion of temperature, throuffiiout tlio whole hei(;ht
of lijtMW feet, at tho limit of perpetual snow, is 1°
for every 341 foet. Tho smaller rate of decreaso in tho second and third sta^'es is ascribcu
by Ilumhtjidt to the large dense clouds which aro suspended in this region, and which, he
alleges, have tho triple effect of absorbing tho sun's rays, forming rain, and intercepting
tho radiation of heat from the earth. In tho temperate zone, the uecreaso is at tl.o rate of
1° for arili feet, during the first UKM) yards of ascent. But throughout tho whole height of
9587 feet, to tho limit of perpetual snow, where tho mean temperature is 38,4°, tho decreaso
is 1° tor iJ17 foet, or almost 1° for 10() yards. As already remarked, observations made in
the free regions of the atmos])hero have not yet been so numerous as to warrant any certain
conclusion regarding the teiiiperature ; but, so far as such observations go, they do not diflbr
very widely ^om the mean of those observed on the sides and summits of mountains. But
generally in the temperato zone, a difference of lOflO yards in height will produce a dilTorence
of 12° of tempernture ; and so on in proportion for smaller heights. In higher regions, the
difference between tho heats of day and night, summer and wiiitir, seem to be loss than at
the level of the sea ; though from this there are some exceptions. Extensive tablo-Iands
arc usually warmer than insulated peaks of tho same height. Humboldt calculates that, in
the temperate zone, an ascent of 110 yards diminishes tho temperature as much as an addi-
tional degree of latitude.

Temperature of air in mines. Having thus noticed tho lower temperatures which obtain
in more elevated situations, wo shall now give some account of the increased temperature
which generally prevails in air occupying deep caverns and mines. There can be no doubt
;is to such facts, but the source of tho heat is still a subject of controversy. There are some
mines intensely cold; and as these were first observed, the explanation oflfered was, that
till! colder portions of air had, by their greater weijjiit, descended into the mines : but this
solution entirely vanished when it was known that mines are generally hot. The heat of
the workmen, their fires and lights, have been stated as sources of heat ; as likewise the
ciiemical action of air and water on the minerals. Some again allege that a high tempera-
ture obtains in the interior of our globe, and consequently that the heat will always be
greater as we penetrate fartlicr. However, it is found that on boring into the solid strata in
tho bottom of warm mines, and letting down a thermometer, the temperature, so fiir from
increasing, comes short of that in the mine. This sufficiently proves that, whatever be the
sources of heat, some of them at least must operate in or be situated about the mine itself.
That a higlr temperature obtains in the interior, is in many instances evident from the
streams of hot water and vapour which i.ssue from fissures in the strata : but in many warm
mines nothing of this is observable. Profesoor Leslie, Dr. Forbes, and aflerwards Mr. Mat-
thew Miller, have suggested the heat evolved by a current of air, while it undergoes an
increase of pressure in descending into the mine. The first two of these philosophers did
not deem this an adequate source of heat ; and Mr. Miller seems to entertain similar doubts.
But from what is now known of the great heat evolved by the compression of air, there can
be little room to question that this furnishes a considerable supply, wherever there is a suf-
ficient current of air. Thus, if air at the temperature of 02° P. have its density suddenly
increased by the 170th part, the temperature will be raised 1° ; supposing no heat to be lost
on the sides of tho shafl. This would give 1° for a descent of 170 feet, which is still short
of the rate at which the temperature is observed to increase in British mines; but when
added to the heat caused by the presence of the workmen and horses, their lights, blas'ing
of rocks, fires, &c. together with some increase of temperature belonging to the deeper
strata, there does not seem any mystery in the heat of some, although probably not of all,
mines. Those mines, again, in which there is almost no circulation of air, and which pre-

'■]:•

v,;h

SCIENCE OP OKOORAIMIY.

Paht II

nenta wi<lp iiioutli to n clcornky, rimy Imvo tlirir li-finwr itiiro rt'diiiM'd tiy radmlinn lii-iii
iipwiinlH, ill tlin wiinu wiiy tlint plniitN iiro stiirvcil uitti cold liy \h;\u^ Urn imu'li hludti'n.'d
tVoin tlir> wind whili' tliey nro <>x|Kmi'd to ii clciir hl<y.

An immonM collection of tkutN (ind nbpiTvutiniiH rclutint; to tliix itulij''''t may )»• Min in
tlio 7V'in«fic(tonj i^ the Uvoloaiciil Snrirlij of ('nriiwull, mid in tlii> lirxt nuiiiliiT of tlm
Kdin. Phil. Journal. From the luttiT wu ('xtract tlm llillowinjj Huiiiinury of Mr. UiiUI'i*
obaurvations, miulo in tho dnepeiit cuil-niincH in (iri'iit. Uritiiiii: —

IVnIiir IK ili^plli nf 444 fci'l 01° f

Air III p-aiMiMli'iMli M

I'err) Main Callitry, MrlhumbtrlimJ,

Air III tlm ■iirtarii i^ V

A KprtiiK 'It Miirfficr* 411

IViiipr at depth a( v/n IWal IK)

Air m •■INI' dcjilh 113

Air Hlilc|illi ol'iwrout (Ml

IfurUiiftm Collitri, Cumitrltni.

Air at the iiirrarp M

A uprliiK at niirl'iire 4H

Wnter ut dvpth uflHO diet 00

Water SIM Diet beneath tlie iiirfkce ofthe Iriih
B«a 60

7tom OoUlify, County <if UurUm.
Water «l iurfaca 4D

y\lr at tile riirHire 49

Wilier nt niirfiiie 4U

Air III duplli c<r IND' feet beiow tlm luvid nf tho
•en, and iiiiiiiediiituly under tlm In.'d iif tlm

river Tyiii' 70

Witter III •iinm depth 68

lleru Leilif!'! Iiynrunietcr Indiriilml ilrynuM . . . .H3

Jamnt CtlUtry, Onrnty rf Durham.

Air nl the mirfliCD 40)

Water ul mirlHCH 411

Air lit iluplh cirHH-i fc>et 70

Wiilir at aanit' depth 68

The engino pit of Jarrow is tho deepest perpendicular uhafl in Dritain, being OflO feet to
the foot ofthe pumps, where the temperature of tho air wan 04°.

KUUnfwcTlh (MU4rf, Mrlhumitrhiid.

Air at lurftice 4A0 K

Water at iiirnirn 411

Air «l bottom of ihaft 7tlO feel deep 31

Air at depth of INK) (but, and a niilu and half from
bottom ofdowii-cait pit 70

Water at iiiotl dl>tant fori'lieud and ISiOU fuvt

below Kiirrare 74° P

Air nt mime de|ith 77

At thin depth, ilistilliHl water boiled at UI3

When at aurfuce U boilud at SlO-.t

The temperature of aprin^rg and caverns, in many places, coincidoa with the mean annual
tempcraturo of tho air : but Hinnboldt alle^rcs that, in latituileu above 4r)°, the mean heut of
s])ring;8 and caves exceeds that of tho atmosphere. As connected with this subject, Mr.
Fcr^ruson, of Raith, had four largo thennoinetors sunk in his garden, to tho respective depths
of 1, 2, 4, and 8 feet, in lat. 56° 10', and 50 foot above tho sea. The stents and scales rose
above ground, and indicated the follow in<r monthly mean temperatures:

January..,
February . .

March

April

May

Juno

July

AuRuat. ■ ..
September.
October. . . .
November .
December. .

1810,

1 Foot.

33.00

33.7

3S.0

39.7

40.0

SI.O

S4.0

SOD

SI.O

47.0

40.R

3S.7

i Feet. 4 Feet, i H Feet.

Meanofthe Year I 43.B

3(1.30

.111.0

311.7

38.4

43.3

5J.3

M.H

SI.3

411.3

43.8

400

44.1

4fl.;o
:ni.o

SII.O
41.4
43.4
47.1
30.4
30.11
Sl.fl
411.7
4r>..'l
43.0

43.1

43.00

4-i.O

4i.3

43.H

44.0

4.1.H

47.7

4!). 4

30.0

40.0

43.11

411.0

40.8

1817.

I Foot.

33.r.o

37.n

3114
4.V0
4IIH
31 1
33.'J
33.4
93.0
43.7
41.0
33.0

44.U

a Feet.

:w.7o

40.0
WM
44.4
44.7
411.4
33.0
33.0
32.7
40.4
44.7
40.8

43,0

4 Feet.

40.53

41.11

41.7

4i2.ll

44.0

47.0

31.4

320

53.0

411.4

47.0

44.11

40,12

a Feet.

43.10

42.7
42.3
42.U
44.2
47.H
411.0
;'i0.0
.10.7
411.8
47.11
4U.4

4*1.0

Hod the thermometers been sunk considerably deeper, they might have been expected to
have indicated 47° 7', which is the constant temperature of a neighbouring' spring issuing
from a trap rock.

The local temperature or climate of a country depends very much upon its distance from
the equator, and its height above the level of the sea : but the nature of tho surface, tho
proportion of humidity, the distance of the sea, of lakes, of mountains, of arid or frozen
plains, and perhaps, also, the internal heat ofthe earth, have each their share in tho fertility
or salubrity of a country. The decrease of lieat as we recede from the equator follows dif-
ferent laws in tho two hemispheres, being greater in tho
southern than in the northern, and is also affected by the
longitude. On tho west of Europe, the cold increases less
with the latitude than in any other quarter. Under meri-
dians which arc 00° cither cast or west of Ix)ndon, the
increase of cold, as we go northward, is more rapid than in
England. According to Humboldt, continents and largo
islands are warmer on their western sides than on the eastern.
The annexed table shows the mean temperatures of western

Lat.

Old
World.

New
World.

Diflr.

81.50

81.30

77.lt

77.1)

70.7

67.1

3.0

03.3

.34.8

«.o

30.11

38.3

13.0

41.0

23.0

11)0

:i3.o

0.0

33.0

Europe and North America continued to tho equator.

BuoK II,

MKTK(m()I,COY.

173

4«i

W
.70
.08

iMitlicriiml lincH lirivn Ixx'ii cin)Hiik>rf<l lut uiiMuiiiriii)^ thu iioat nii<l cold of llio rnrtli. Tliu
rlinmti' (if KaHfrrn AmIii i-dirii'H nt'nrrr to lliiit nf Kiixtorii AiniTini tliiiti ot' \V»»ti'ni Kiirupc,
Tliiirt tliii liililiiilcH (if NiipU'H, I'fkmif, mill l'liiliulfl|)hiii urn r<'i«;MTtivi'ly 41°, 40", iiiul 4<P,
whilHt tlii'ir iiK'uii ti!tiiiH>riitiirui« iir« Ilil.M'', M.h'^, imil ri:i,4''. Much <liir<>rtitice* uri) ri'iiilcrnl
iiioro nciiHiblo wlioii \vi! ciiniDtct tlin plnri-N linvin}( thu mnio iiicnn tfinpomtiiri^ liy liiu>ii
whicli lliiiiiMilt il<>iiiiiiiiniit<'K iMollM'ririiil lincx. 'I'Iiiin, tho iwHhrriiiul liiin nlTiO^ F. trnvi<r><i'H
thn liititucli! of 4:1' ill KiiniiM', hut iIcnci'IkIh to Int. 'M' in Aiiic>ri<'ii ; the iKntlicniiiil lim- i>t'
41° F. iNiHscH t'ri)iii lilt. (HI'' ill Kiirii|M' !•> lut, 4^"" in America: hut Hiiii'i- ilic wt'otmi ctxi.-t
(if Niirtli AiiD'rica is wnriiicr (liiiii tlic i'ii:«tiTii, tli<> iNotlK'niial linrn, b<'iii)f triirixl niuiiil Uio
iiortlii'rn lioiiiiHph<!r«<, woiiM liiivu coiinnvo HUiniiiit« ut tliu Haul Mo of Initli uorlilM, iiiid cuii-
V(>x nt tlio wmt.

Tlio (litlnrfiici! Ix'twfoii tlin iiionn tcinpcrntiiro of wuinnirr nnd wiiiltT in nnthiiif; «t tlio
equator, anil incronmiH cuntiiuiully witli tlin liititiiilc. But tlio rxtri'irio (liUvri'iirn of thu
Nonwiim id conipciriitivi'ly hmiuU in VVi'Htcrn KiiroiM-, anil (^reiit when' tliii nwmn niiinml tciii-
licratiiro in low, uh on tlii> oust ronMn of Axia iiiiil Atncrica. If \Vi> ilrnw a lino in a north-
cant dirnction iVoin lloriloiiiix to WarHaw, and coiitiiiuo it to the Wolj»«, in lat. !VP, then
all placoa niidor this line, at the Nunin idovation, will have nearly the winie Humnier ti'iniHTU-
ture of »I9° or 70° F. The lineM of equal winter temperature decline in an opponite direr-
tion. Thus n Htrai^rht lino drawn tVoni t^linliur);h to Milan, almwt nt riirlit aii^luM to the
tbnner lino, would (mihs over places which, if equally elevatctl, would have nearly the oaiiie
winter temperature of 37° or :W° F.

Tlio oxtromoH of temperature are experienced chiofly in largo inland IriictH, and littlo felt
in mnall i.slandH romolo from continentH. In the United HtatoH inteiiNO cold in felt when the
wind blown tVom the frozen regions round lIuilHon'M Day. From Miow-clad mountains, gMAn
of cold wind, called mow whulii, ruHli down nnd cixil the adjacent plaiiiM. Tho heat acoii-
miilatCH to an iuitQniHhin;r dejjreo when the wind iMsses over cxtonwive de^erts of burnin)|r
Hand, which aro said, in mme inxtancoH in Africa, to bo heated to the Niilin^ point. This
fino Hand, or rathor dust, HomctiineH rixen in tho air and ohHCuroH it like 11 tii^r, eominunicnting
to it an intolemblo heat. In arctic countries the temperatiirn m very iiiiirh regulated by
tho freezing of tho water and the melting of tho ice; by tho frco/.inL' of the water great
quantities of heat are given out which iniHlornto tho severity of the winterV cold, nnd thus
save from doHtniction tho arctic land aniinuls, and plnntH; while in Kiiniiner, the inteiiHity
of tho heat, produced by tho long continuance of the sun above the horizon, is moderated by
tho abstraction of a considoriible |)ortion of tlmt heat by tho water during the melting of the
ice. Had tho arctic regionn been entirely of land, neither plants nor animals could have
existed in them : for during summer, owing to the Bun remaining akive tho horizon tor
months, an elevation of atmospheric temperature would have Ix'on proiluced fatal to nnimaU
and plants ; nnd in winter, tho long darkness nnd intense cold would have proved equally
fatal to animated k'ings. The cold of the icy regions of tho north has been alleged to
reach, by currents of air, southern latitudes, and thus to lower their temperature.

Baron Humboldt has added more to our knowledge of the distribution of temperatiiro over
tho glolm than any other who had laboured in tho same boundless field of research. The
table on the following page contains his gonenil summary, to which is added Melville
Island. The temperatures have licen reduced to FahrenhiMt's scale, and the longitudes are
reckoned from Greenwich. An asterisk is prefixed to those places whose temperatures
have been most accurately dotcrmined, and in general by meanH of 8000 observations.

In treating on tho mean annual tempcr.iture which obtains nt diflerent places, it is cus-
tomary to give ft taldc which makes the teinpnrature depend entirely on tho latitude. But
observation shows, that tho temperature is usually higher nt the same latitude in the old
world than in the new, nnd in north latitude than in south ; and, as was already mentioned,
it differs in tho same continent nnderdiffercnt meridians. So that more than one table would
be required tor each quarter of tho globe ; or else one very extensive table, involving the
longitude aa well as latitude, which is tho ease with Humboldt's table, so far as it goes.

As tho earth and its atmos|)hero are continually receiving heat from tlie sun, it is plain
that their mean annual temperature must ho continually on tho increase, if no heat be
thrown off by them into surrounding space. Professor Leslie accordingly alleges, tlmt the
increase of tempornture is at the rate of aliout 1° in 80 years. This would help to explain
.some of the changes of climule which seem to have been gradually taking place during
successive ages in manv places, and particularly in tlie west of Europe. But the late cele-
brated Marquis de In Place has endeavoured to show, from astronomical observations, that
tho mean temperature of the earth has undi:rgoiio no sensible change during tho last two
thousand years. His arguments, however, arc not free from objection.

Sect. II. — Effvct ofClimutr on Plants and Animals.
Tho geographical distribution of plants and animals appears to be chiefly regulated by the
temperature of the atnuisphere. Each has generally a particular climate in which it thrives
best, aiid beyond certain limits it ceases to exist. Since an increnee of height has an effect

h'. ■■!

^#"" ,.

^. .,,

f-i i

174

SCIRNCR OP fiKOORAI'HY.

Part 11.

3
is

f^^ 111

N.imM of KacM.

IMi'Mlli* Inliiiiil . . . ,

Niiiii

'I'm iiiii'kics

Iliw|iir<> di' Si. (,'ii-
llinnl

NiMlll t'niio

MM.-,.

'I'liii'ii

*St. I*i>lrn*hiirfj; . , , .

liniiiilu'im

IMiwiiw

Aim

*l>nl

'Si,),kh.ilin

(J.i.'IWT

I'liriNiiiunii

"("ninclll 111 IViwoii
Ih'1-k

'|«'nliii|nMi

•Ki'iiiliil

Kiilkliiiiil IsliiniJN .. .
•I'niuiic

lillMlllm'll

•Ziiruli

*ri|Mil>iir!;li

Wainiiw

('din'

DnWiii

Ili-riic

I il'IICVII

Miiiiln'im

\ipmm

Tl.'rmoiil

•Hn.iii

'itnilirlilKi", MiiHx. . .

r,in<

IxMllllllI

niiiiliirK

Ainslinliim

MrtiHvt'Is

•rrmi'lvor

I'liilnilolpliln

Ni'w Yiirk

rini'iniiiili

Si. Main

!\iititr,<

IV'kuiji

Mlinn

Ilonlcniix

I.M.

CiS

'til :iii

71 II

I'li'i

lilt .'ill

.'i'.t rni

T).'! tri
I'll)

f) JC,
17

!.>< .'1(1

■ii :ui
.'ii

.v: m;

:w .w

ID to

:!<) 1

•18 H'l

■17 i:t

:('.• M

(4.'> t'H

■It fK)

PiwlUrtn.

i,"iie.

O I

110 IHw.

C.l'.'Ow.
•-Nl 17 K.

H >z:\ K.

V.'i Wt c.
ii') a> K.
V.1I lI'iK

mi I'.iK.

10 'i'i K.

:t7:(v!K.

:i8k.
:ir.

(Iw
481!

:I4e.
X> K.

4li W'

M»\v
a-ti:.
Mi:.

•■tiK.

10 w

•: K.
:io K.

I'.lw.
*•. K.

8r.
\!8 K.

*J* K.

Mnrsrillrs. . .
MoiiIiH'llirr .

Hdlllc

'rnilliili

\iini;nsaki ..
•Nnlclic-/. .. ..

Piinrlml
Alulrra .

in 17

. 1:1 :tr.

■11 .'):i

. i:) 7

:vi i.'i

;ti 31

:w :t7

»! 18

•Cnim :t0 2

•Vomrruz I'.i II

if'IMliivnim W:t 10

" I'Cimmim 10 '>7

3 ftK.

19 Ik.
71 7w.

a Wk.

II r.w.
■^ r>o K.

■t •.^.! K.

7:> 10 vv.

73 .Wh,

8l'J7w.

'i l\v.

i:w\v
iir.\>7K.

•J 1 1 K.
OSIw.

ri a-' K.

3 .'.2 K.

la a7 K.

r> M K.

f-X.t.V.K.

•11 aiH.
ir.rnnv.

3 Ik.

30 18 k
if. l\v.
8ai3w.
(Wi l.^w.

II«M.

Kool

13.'iO

ri3<.N)

II
II
II

'.(711

(I
(I
II

3oiin

•I

i:k-,

13.V1
l.'rtt

1871'

IIISO

.t3a
■laii

laro
■tin

«MO

"ll

(I
II

.Mil

3<J0

(I
180

Irini.r.
mtviUi'

— a.iiii

i ai'.. I'j

a('i.'.iri

30.38

3a.iio

3:).0H

33.ai'i
38.; 'I
3'.i.'.ia

10.10

4i;.a8

ia.08
■ia.ai"i

4171

4a.80

4a.'.i8

4.M',8
4Ci.'J'.'

4r..'.>i

4'.).4('.
IC.'II

47.81
17 84
48..W
48.'.ia
4'.l.lll

•i'.i.a8
4y.as

.'iOI8
,'iO.,'>l

WI.IK)
M.liH

fio.ni'.

.M.08

.'•.o.3r.
.'Hi.rii
5i.r.a
r)i..«o
.'1I.80
;>XK

.'i3.78
.')3.78
,M.M

.'ll. r.8

.'il.Sh

ri."..7Ci

.Vi.t8

.v.i.oo

.'i'.».3t'i
CiO.ll

(ia.oi'i

("0..«(l
f.4.7Ci

ri8.M

(•I'J.'.IH

7a.3a
77.7?

78.08
81.8*1

Mt-Ait rrni|itrAlui« of

—31 .33

- Ol'.ll
0.l",8

18.3a
a3.7a

11.84

la.'ja
n.iM'i
a3.7a

10.78

ao.84

21.'.t8

a.'L.v.!

11.18

128.78

a8.fi8
30.74
30.8I'.

3',i.r)ri

31.4C.
30.38
a'.l.liC.

38.r,f,

a8.7C.

3a.3r.
3'.i.ao
3a.(iii

34.70

38.80

:ta.7a
34. .'12

33.'.1M
33.08
38 iV,

:\'XM

.•18. IS
3C1.8C.

3r..(';8

3lVr8
3'.18

a'.i.8i
3a.iiii
laaci

40.4('

aivi'j

3Ci.3a
42.08

4.'i..'iO

41.01'
4:1 81".
■18.,38
3'.'.:W
48.,'-i('

f.4.40

f.i.aa
:.8.4r.

71.'.lfi

7i.ei

80.a4

4a.()8

41.18
4r>14

4l'i..'i8
47.l"iri
44.21
48.20
4l"i.4ll
47.^18
fill.lKl

47 :to

48.'.I2
■I7.(il'.
4'.MV|

r.i.ai;
rui.M

M 08
47i';ii
41128
48..''iii
48."ir.

M.oa
r^iai

.'■1,118

:ii.i4

.'ii.ai'i
:>4 14
fia.ic.

M..'.0

.V. ;ni
.Vi.ia

.')Ci.l8

rc.Vi

fiClVi
ri7.74

i"iii.8ii 7.').iia

.'C.. v., 82. Ill

(W.48i7y.iri

rA81i72.'i<)

Cift.iifrPd.at

73..SS 8.').10
77. W 81. so
78.118 8.3.30
83.nf. 82.04!

Slim,
incr.

33.78

18.:;8

.'ll.Wi

44.<)(-i
43.31
r>7.7 1
.'1 1 8li
l'.2.0(i
I'll. -.'4
111
I'll. 88

r.0 ao

I'll 88

ri8.oo
iia.CiO

riH.ir.
iia.i'io

.'■||'i.84

ri3.oi'.

(.8.110
('.4.71'
CtOl

riR.'.^
('1II.O8

('.3.32
.ML.'il
MM
Cil.in
I'u.IO
(•,lt2('.

(•.■1.40
()..'i2
■0.70
(''■I .'■18
Ii3.14
I'.KH
('..'■i HI
I'.Ci 211

ri7.a8
3.111

lUCi
2.8C.

Cirioa

(•8..'il

8a..w
73.01

70.Sf.

72..'iO
7.'-).74
7.''i.20

MrAirrriiipfnluirnf

Aiiltinm.

Wirn.rx
Miirdli.

('■■l.liM
Molilll.

- 3.81

39.08

— 3ri.ri2

33.11

.'■1I.81I

-11.20

a7.32

^ ll,f.8

-I ir..(i8

31.8a

4().22

3a.(i8

4(i..'i8

22.10

3.''i.ll('i

ili.fia

7.70

33.41

('i2.i;o

11.18

38.l',(',

liriiiii

8 CO

■1(1.10

(ii.in

I9r)8

38.30

70.rrJ

n.oK

40.li4

—

12.80

ri2.42

22.4ri

13.1fi

i'kUM

22.82

■lli.Ot

73.10

13.81

41.18

('i('i.7t

28.41

■ia.118

r)9.3('i

30.20

4R38

('iri.CiH

27.14

4i'.aa

.'18.10

31.88

48.1C1

.'>.').7ri

37.10

rm.i8

48.74

I'lC.IW

aiu'ii'i

48.112

CilVliCi

2C..78

■18 fil'i

.'ill.3(')

38,3(1

■lll.4'i

70 34

27.14

r)0.3('i

fi4.;i8

a9.48

riium

Cil.U'i

.■i.'..4a

4ii.8a

07.28

3ll..'i0

noiKi

ri('i.,'ii',

31.1f,

49.82

(•■8.72

33.44

rKi.ri4

7o.:ia

aiil'iO

rii.ari

I'lCi.ao

28.04

f.2.34

71. CO

27,78

■111 82

72.81'i

'J1I.8I

f>144

fti.30

31',. 14

rio.i8

Cil.lO

37.7C1

fiO'.K)

l'.1.7i'.

37,7l'i

.'iica

iiCi.iia

35,12

.M.IW

Ii7,28

3.''ir.0

.'■>4 3a

r,908

32.90

rn'i -18

77,00

32.72

.'">4,.'Ki

80.70

2,'i.3l

Til. 811

74.30

30.'J(I

:>.'..7(i

CiCi.ita

41.74

.vi :>H

70..'i2

39.(R!

fit 3a

8i.:t8

24.1.2

f)('..8t

71.1'it',

31'.. 14

S('i.3(l

73.114

4I.IH)

fi0.08

Tir.1'1

44.42

CiOlW

78.1 IK

42(18

('ia.78

77.(10

42.2.'.

I'vl.lO

77,(MI

4('..40

I'll. 22

8i'. ltd

37.10

fii'i.iia

79,7(1

4i'..m

72.32

7.'>,.'i(*i

r,i.04

7a.:io

82.711

('0.08

714a

8.'-i,82

.')(•. 12

78.1'a

8I,8('i

71 (W

78,98

83,81

f,9.98

80.21

81.38 ,

79Ifi

tlio
tlic ,
im (I
nml :
III It, (

*' i

'7:

'jy.t'it')

•JIV7H

•.is.:io

Ti.W
U'.t.lH

:tr..tu
:hi..V'
:ii.ici

ll'.Ml

!2H.(ll

'J7.7H
'J'.I.HI

:;r..n
:t7.7ti
:n.7f.

H&. 12

:ir)f.(t
;!'j.'.Hi

'jr..;M

■11.71

;i',i.<K.'
:ir..i4

•ll.(H)

•lt.l'.>
.IC..40

ic.io

4f..'.M

rvi.()4

(•,0.08 1

71 (If.
f.«.98
7016

Book IT.

METROROLOOY.

I7r>

on cliiniito in Minio rrsppcts Nimiliir t<i iin iiirn-iiHc of Intiliulr, it. hns boon cnintiioiily mip-
(HtHcil t,lml, tlicri' iirn prn|)crly no pliiiilH nrciiliiir to liiuli liil.ituili'H, Iwcuiw! biicIi imiy l«' riiin(!il
oil llio iiKiiiiitnlnH iiiidrr tin: ('(|iintor, wliii-li cnilmicc evory variety of climate) li(!twrt'ti tlie-ir
siiiiiiiiit iinil Ikikc, at iciiHt in w) fnr iih tctimnriifiin! iw (Mnicornnl. In |)oint of iilinoKplicri?
prcHKiirc, liowcvcr, tlio two Hitimtioim dillpr cHHcntiiilly ; iinil Boiiif niitiinilislH iiili'jrc, timl
prrssiirc w of viliil iiniM)rliilic(> to tlir (rrowtli of pliiiitK I'rofcHMir Kolicri'iiii'r in fif npinioii
tliiit till! iliiiiiiiiitivi' Hi/p orpliiiitH, in cliwiitcd HitiiatioiiH, dc|M'iiilH more dm IIic iliiiiiiiiitlnti of
pri'swiro tliiin of IcmixTiitiin!. To iiHCcrlain tliiH, lir put rcpiiil (piiintilicH nl' Imilcy mid
moint earth into two equal ri^oeiverH: tlio air in tli(! one had a preHKiirc ol" 14 iiiehew ofniiT-
ciiry, mid the olli(;rf)<(; ^erniiiiiition roiiimenenil in tiotli at the hhiiii' time, mid the h-aveH
Jmd the mum! ^ft'"" •'»'• At the end of fifteen diiyH, the Hhootw in the rarefied iiir wen; iS
iiiclieH IdiiK, mid in tiio otiier tVdni 1) to 10. The firHt were expatuh'd miil Kof), mid wet on
tlie mirtiiee, especially towards their extreniitioH ; the ot.hern were firm, rolled ronml the stem,
and nearly dry. fn .';onin reHpectw, this n.-eordH with wliiit lliimlHildt observed of the treeH
on the Aiidt-'N, that water tniiiKpireH from them ev<:n in the driert weather. Thit mcli expe-
riments are inconchiHive, iihIi-hh there were wime contrivance employed to renew the eonlined
air f'r('(]uently. Independently of prenwire, the Imrley in Iho conueiiHed air had the uho of
four times tim quantity of air in the other vesHel.

I'lantH are most iiimierous, and exhibit the fjniatcBt variety of Bpccies, and the most luxu-
riant ffri'Wth, within the tnipics, beyond which they gradually diminish. In the arctic
rejrion.s, and in the north of Russia, the ve};etnblo kingdom Iuih dwindled to almost imthing.
The lines which limit the jrrowth of certnin plants depend (m the averape summer fempern-
liire, lor plants which reqiiiri- a Ion;? luid iiMKlerntc heat; on the temperature of the wiirmiot
month, for those which recpiire a short but great heat; and on the tcimperatiire of the cnldeBt
month, for those which cannot hear cold. The trans]iareiicy of the air is also of innxirtiinco
to many idants; but our limits will not admit of enlanriuff, and thfirefore we shall confine
ourselves to a short account of the cliniates of cultivated plants. The plant.'iin, which is a
primary article of finxl in tropical America, Te<piircH a t.empisratiire from 8'2° to T>i° F.,
which occurs between lat. 0° and 87": but, in iho iMpiinoctial zone (hit. ((° to 10°), its fruit
dtKis not ripen at a greater altitude than !KUK) feijt. The sugar-cane has nearly ilie siime
range, but Ih cultivated, though with loss advantage, in the old world to Int. 'M\° W, wherc!
the nieiin temperature is iiliout »i7°. The severity of the North American winter iirevents
the cultivation of the sugar-cane beyond lat. .'n°; but it succeeds at an altitude of r)7f)0 feet
on the t^ttile-land of Mexico. The fiivouritc climate of the cotton pliiiit lies hetween lat. 0°
and 'M°\ but it succeeds with a mean mimmer beat of 75° or 7!)'^ F., if that of winter do
not descend below !10° or 38°. In America, it is cultivated at hit. 1)7° ; in Kiirope, at hit. 40° ;
and in Aslracan, at lat. 40°. The dote (lalm thrives best hetween Int. 2!i° and .').")"; but,
when sheltered from the north wind, it is cultivated on the nliores of Italy to Inf. 44°. The
citron has nearly the snme lange, but is cultivated at Nice, at altitudes of 400 li'ef. This
tree, with the sweet orange, grows in liouisiana to lat. !10°, but beyoiid that it is injured by
the cold. 'I'lie olive ranges in Euroiio between lat. 110° and 44° .V; it succeeds wherever,
with a mean annual temperature from 66° to 58° V„ that of summer is not below 71°, nor
that of the coldest month below 42 ', which excludes all North Americi lieyoiiil Int. 'M'\
The favourite climate of the vino in the old world is tie'ween bit, ;tO°and 4H"; hut it thrives
wherever the mean tem]ierature is from 62° to 47.5°, provided that of winter is not lielow
33°, nor summer under t(6" or 68°. Such is the case on the shores of Eurojie to hit. 47°.
and in the interior to lat. 50°, but only to lat. 40° in North Ariieric;i. The rirrulia or com-
mon grain, as wheat, rye, barley, and oatu, thrive where the mean annual lem[ierntiire
descends to 28° F., provided that of summer rise to .')2° or 53°. In l,a|)lmid, barley
ripens wherever the mean temperatnro of sumnuir rises to 47° or 4*^°. The r.iiiid growth
of' Imrley and oats adapts them to tlie short summers of the north; they are fijiiiid as high
as lat. ()'t,J° in Lapland, along with the jiotato. In some ])arts of enstern RiiH!-i;i, no grain
is found beyond hit. ()()°. Wheiit, which is a precarious crop, ai.d little ciiltiviited heyoiid
lat, 58" in western Europe, yields gncxl returns in this part of the temperate zone, when
the mean heat, while the grain is on the ground, is 55°; but if no more than 40°, none of
the rrmilia come to maturity. These species of gniin are cultivated ;it a liiMght of 3500
feet on the .Alps, in lat. 46°. Rnrley and oats succeed nt double 'hat height on Caiicani.-,
and at almost a triple height on the Andes, along with wheat mid rye. In the \ve.«t of
Europe, iniiize has the same range as the vine, hut reiiclies liiithrr north on the cui^t. In its
native American soil, it forms the chief article of fixid, from the river I'jiita to the hil<r'-: of
Canada. Requiring a short bnt warm seas;in of four months, it is well .'^iiitid to the eiiriiati'
of the New World up to the latitude of 45°. The oak ceases at lat. 03° in Nnr\\My, nt
()0° or 01° in Finland, and at 57° in the government of Perm. The piniis silveslris, or Scots
fir, grows to a height of 60 feet in l.apland, at lat 70°, i.nd 8.50 li'et iiIkivo the level of the
sea : there the birch is found at double that elevation. In eastern Russia, the larch, pine,
bircli, and mountain-nsb, disappear about lat. 68°; ond, nt Hudson's Bay, all trees cease
about lat. 60°.

176

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY.

pabt n

Sbct. III. — Composition of the Atmosphere. — Aqueous Meteors.

Regarding the composition of the atmospiierc, abundantly vague and fanciful notionsi
prevailed lor many ages. The ancients considered air as one of the four simple olements,
of which they supposed all other bodies to be compounded. These were earth, air, fire, and
water, l^ow far the opinion was correct, which made fire an element, is a question on
which nothing i^: yet known; but the researches of modern chemistry have shown tiiat the
other three are all ccmiiwund bodies. The chief, and perhaps the only essential, component
substances iti the atmosphere, are the two gases called oxygen and azote ; its other ingre-
dients, occurring only in small and variable quantities, are rather to be considered as foreign
bodies. The analysis of air is a difficult problem. Many cliemists have found it to consist
of 21 iKirts by voluiiic of oxygen to 79 of nzote; and this proportion is sensibly the same
whether the air be from the polar or tropical regions, from the level of the sea or a mountain
top, from the most healthy or insalubrious countries. But Dr. Prout, guided by the laws of
definite proportions, alleges, that if the two gases of which air principally consists be really
combined, tlioy ought to be 20 oxygen to 80 azote; and it must be allowed that similar
conjectures of the same eminent chemist iiave been verified regarding the composition of
other bodies, which Imd apparently deviated farther from tlie atomic system.

The investigation of the comixincnt parts of the atmosphere did not keep pace with that
of its mechanical properties. i3oyle, however, and his cotemporaries, put it beyond doubt
that it contiinod an elastic fluid and water in the state of vapour. They also conjectured
that it contained various other substances, which rose from the earth .. ihe form of vapours,
and often altered its properties, rendering it noxious or fatal. Since the discovery of car-
bonic acid by Dr. Black, it has been ascertained that this elastic fluid always constitutes a
part, though a very minute one, of the atmosphere.

VVith respect to moisture, or the state in which water exists in air, two opinions have
been formed : 1. Water may be dissolved in air, in the same manner as salt is held in solu-
tion by water; 2. It may be mi.\ed with air in the stiito of steam or vapour, after having
been converted into vapour. The first of these was hinted at by Dr. Ilooke, and afterwards
])roposed by Dr. 1 [alley. It has been adopted by many others in succession, among whom
is Professor Leslie ; and it cannot bo denied that many of the phenomena agree with tliat
theory. The second opinion seems to have originated with Mr. Deluc ; but it is to Mr.
Dalton and M. Gay Lussac that we arc indebted for subjecting tliis theory to the test of
experiment.

Evaporation from the waters on the surface of the earth is undoubtedly the source whence
the moisture which exists in air is derived. Accordingly we find tliat water exposed to the
air suffers a gradual diminution of bulk, till it entirely disappears. It is then said, in com-
mon language, to have dried up, or to have evaporated. Under an exhausted receiver, water
diminishes even mori- rapidly than in the open air. Were this owing to solution, tha very
reverse ought to follow; because, in place of ,'apour being caused by the presence of air, it
goes on mor(! rapidly in its absence. By comparing a set of experiments made at fJeneva,
with a similar set on the Col-du-Geant, I0,95() feet higher, Saussure found that, supposing
the temperature and dryness of the air the same at both places, ihe evaporation at the upper
would be to that at tlie lowei nearly as 7 to 3; so that a diminution of about one third in
the density of the air more than doubled the rate of evaporation. It is well known, that
cold is always generated during spontaneous evajroration ; that is to say, that water, as it
disappears, carries off a quantity of heat. Dr. Black has rendered it probable, that the
quantity of heat wliicii disappeai ■ during spontaneous evaporation i" ns great as that which
is required to form water into steam. A wet body is always cooled by exposure to dry air,
owing to the evaporation from its surflice. Hence, in warm countries, liquors are cooled by
wrapping wet clotlis round the bottles and exposing them to the air. M. Saussure observed,
that the evaporation from the surfiice of melting snow caused it to freeze again, when the
temperature of the air was 4° or fi" above the freezing point. The simplest nuKle of illus-
trating the cooling inniiciicc of eva|K)ration, is to cover the ball of a thermometer with wet
cloth and expose it to the air, wiicn it will be found to indicate a greater cr less degree of
cold. This, it is true, does not take ])lace if the air be very damp, because tlien^ is tiien no
ova|X)ration. Wind tends to promote evaporation, both by connnuuieating its heat to the
collier evaporating surface, and also by sweeping away the va|M)ur as it is formed. On the
contrary, thi re is scarcely any evaporation in perfectly still air, unless some substance be
present which absorbs the vaix)ur as it forms.

On this principle. Professor Lesli(> cdutrived on elegant mode of pnxlucing ice in any cli-
mate. A rup u ith water is ])!aeed within the receiver of an air-puinp, alonsr w iih some
substance uliich absurbs the vapour. Tlie rate of eva[wration is then increased in an aston-
ishing degrei, hy I'xhausting the air from the receiver; and the [)ortion of the water which
is converted into va|Kjur abstracts so much iieiit from the remainder, that the latter is .speed-
ily converted into ice.

Dew is a remarkable product of atmospheric moisture. The quantity of atiueous vapour

Ii iiny cli-
Jii!i some
Inn iiston-
li-r whicli
1 is spood-

lis vnjicmr

Book II.

METEOROLOGY.

tttiidi Cijn exist m , nivcn fipaco, as a cubic fnot, is pretty frencrally hnlieved to be the same,
whollicr tiling be ii.r present in the space, or iicithiiiir but the vapour alone. The quantity
is always (<•«■/. par.) the same at the same temperature, but it is <;reater as the temperature
is hii^ber; ami therefore, supposing the space to be saturated witii vapour at a particular
tomi)oriiture, a portion of this will return into drops of water whenever the temperature
falls. It is on this principle that a cold body, such as a Iwtt' • of liquor, being carried into a
warm moist a))artment, becomes bedewed on the outside, till, perhaps, the water trickles
down its sides; the contact of the cold surface chills the air, which in return deposits a por-
tion of its moisture. Now this is similar to the mode in which moisture is insensibly depo-
sited troni the atmosphere on Ixidies at the eurth's surface, and which is known by the name
of (/tl/^ All bodies, placed in still air and exposed to the aspect of a clear sky, are found to
liecomo colder than they would be if some screen or awning were interposed between them
and tlie sky. In such circumstances, bodies often become mucli colder than the surrounding
air, w hich, if sufficiently moist, deposits on them a portion of its moisture or dew. When
the temperature is low, the ilew is frozen, and forms hoar frost.

The radiation of heat also deserves notice. About the commencement of the present
century, Professor Leslie discovered that bodies possess very different powers of radiating
heat ; and that this depends on the nature and condition of their surfaces. Metals possess
this quality in a degree inferior to vitreous bodies, and it is diminished in all of them by
jKilishing the surface. Most fibrous and filamentous vegetable substances are good radiators,
as are likewise bodies in general which are bad conductors or bad reflectors of heat. Now
the degrees of cooling, wliich difl'erent bodies undergo when exposed together to the aspect
of the sky, is observed to follow the same order as that of their radiating powers ; and, of
course, the order in which they begin to acquire dew, as also the quantity acquired; is regu-
lated by a similar law, as will be seen from what follows.

For the investigation of the causes of dew we are chiefly indebted to the late ingenious
Dr. Wells. The ancients maintained, that dew appears only on calm and clear nights. Dr.
Wells found that, in opposite circumstances, very little is ever deposited, and that little only
when the clouds are very high. Dew never occurs in nights both cloudy and windy ; and
if in the course of the night, the weather, from being serene, sli(i\ild become dark and stormy,
dew which had been deposited will disappear. In calm \M'ather, more dew will appear if
the sky be partially covered with clouds, than if it were (juito clear. It often happens, that
even before sunset, dew begins to adhere to grass in spots which are sheltered from both sun
and wind ; for, in clear weather, such spots sufter much from the chilling aspect of the sky,
and may often continue to accpiire dew during the whole night, and tor some time after sun-
rise. The quantity of dew depends on the nioistness of the air, being greater after rain than
atler long-continued dry weather. It is more abundant, in Europe, with southerly and west-
erly winds, than with those which blow from the opposite points. The reason of this seems
to be the direction of the sea rendering the wind moist; for, in Egypt,. dew rarely occurs
unless the wind come from the sea. But with a southerly wind, which has passed along the
flrxids of the Nile, dew is usually observed in the Delta five or six days betbrc the inimda-
tion. Atler a long perio<l of drought, Dr. Wells exposed to the clear sky, 28 minutes before
sunset in a calm evening, known weights of wool and swan-down, upon a smooth, unpainted,
dry fir table about 3 feet in height, and which liad been placed an hour before in the sun-
shine in a large grass field. At 12 minutes after sunset the wool was 14° colder than the
air, but had gained no weight. The swan-down was 13° colder than the nir, but had got no
additional weight; nor was it any heavier at the end of 20 minutes longer, but it had then
become 14J° colder than the air ; whilst the grass was 15° colder than the air 4 feet above
ground. — From these, and many similar experiments. Dr. Wells concluded that bodies be-
come colder than the neightouring air liefm-c they are dcnvcd. — Ho bent a sheet of pa.ste-
board into the form of a penthouse, making the angle of flexure 9()°, and leaving both ends
open. This was placed one evening, with its ridge uppermost, upon a grass-plat, and, as
nearly as couhl be guessed, in the direction of the v.ind. On the middle of the spot of grass
sheltered by the roof, was placed 10 grains of wool, and an ecpial quantity on a sjiot of the
grass fully exposed to the sky. In the morning, the first 10 grains were only 2 grains
heavier, whilst the other had gained 16. The wool does not here acquire moisture from the
grass by capillary attraction, for the same efl'ect happens if it be placed in a saucer; nor is it
iiy hygronietric attraction, for in a cloudy night, wool placed on an elevated board scarcely
gained any weight.

The (|uantity of dew varies according to circumstances. When wool ir placed upon a bad
commctor of heat, as a deal board, a few feet from the ground, it will become colder and
acqu re more dew than if laid on the grass. At the windward end of the board, it is less
bedewed than at the sheltered end; because, in the former case, the wnid keeps up tlio
ti'mperature nearer to that of the atmosphere. Rough and porous surfaces, as shavings of
wood, straw, cS.c., take more dew than smooth and .solid IxMlies, Raw silk and line cotton
collect more than even wool. Glass, being a goo<l radiator of heat, is nnich more cpiickly
"oated with dew than bright metals, which, indeed, receive it more readily than many other

Vol,. I. X

lit'] I
■i.l

:) >1

■■r (

»!

■^■-r-'-'

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part II.

tKxIioa. This circumstance has tjiven rise to the strango i(h;a that metaJH absorb dew, though
thuy bo the most compact bodies known. If wo cwvt a piece of ghv ■ oartially with bright
tin-toil, or ^'ilver loaf, tlie imcovercd portion of the gloss quickly b^ i cold by radiation,

on cx|K)snre to a clear nocturnal sky, and acquires moisturr;; w .., begirming on thaie
parts most remote frt.m the metal, gradually approaches it. Thus, also, if wo coat a part of
ihc outside of a window-pane with tin-foil m a clour night, then moisture will be dojwsitcd
inside, on every part but that opposite to the metal ; but if the metal be inside, then the
nutside of the coated part of the jjane will be sooner and more copiously bedewed. In tlio
lirst oise, the tin-foil prevents the glitss under it from dissipating its lu'ut, and tiiereforo it
ran receive no dew; in the second case, the tin-foil prevents the part of the glass which it
coats from receiving the calorific influence of the !fi):irtn)ent, and hence it is sixiner cooled
oil the outside than the rest of the pane. When the night, after having boon clear, becomes
cloudy, though there be no change with respect to calmne.«s, a rise in the temperature of the
glii;:s always ensues. In clear nights the temperature always falls, but, unless the air be
siitticiently moist, dew does not necessarily follow ; from which it is evident, that the cold
cannot bo the etTect of dew. For a more particular account of these interesting phenomena,
we must refer the reader to Dr. Wells's elegant Esuay on Dexo.

Clouds. The various forms of clouds were first successfully attempted to be arranged
under a few general modifications by Mr. Luke Howard, and published in the 16th and 17th
vols, of the Philosoph. Magazine. The modifications of clouds is a term used to express the
structure or manner of aggregation, in which the influence of certain constant laws is suf-
ficiently evident amidst the endless subordinate diversities resulting from occasional causes.
Hence the principal modifications are as distinguishable from each other, as a tree from a
hill, or the latter from a lake; although clouds, in the same modificntion, compared with
each other, have often only the common resemblance which exists among trees, hills, and
lakes, taken generally.

There are three simple and distinct modifications, which are thus named and defined by
Mr. Howard: —

(1.) Cirrus. A cloud resembling a lock of hair or a feather. Parallel, flexous, or diverg-
ing fibres, unlimited in their extent or direction.

(2.) Cumulus. A cloud which increases from above in dense convex or conical heaps.

(;J.) Stratus. An extended continuous level sheet of cloud, increasing from beneath.

There are two modifications which appenr to be of an intcrmediiitc nature: these are —

(4.) Cirro-cumHlus. A connected system of small roundish clouds, in close order or
contact.

(">.) (Vrro-strnlns. A horizont-.l or slightly inclined sheet, attenuated at its circumference,
concave downward, r undulated. Groups or p;ifches have tliese characters.

There are two modifications which exhibit a compound stnicture, viz.: —

((].) (:umuln-.<itni,lus. A cloud in which the structure of the cumulus is mixed with that
nf thii rirro-slralus or cirrn-rumulus. The cumulus flattened at top, and overhanging its
1)3 so.

(7.) Mimbus. A dense cloiirl spreading out into a crown of cirrus, and piissing beneath
into a shower.

Regiinliiig the mode in which clouds arc suspended in the air, philosophers are not agreed.
About the commencement of the lust century, if wa'^ supposed that the aqueous particles of
clouds were in the form of liollow slinlls, specilically lighter than the air in which they float.
Rut as no evidence or probiiliility CDuld bi> adrluced in fiivour of this theory, it has given
place to other speculations ; -md, at oresent, iii;my consider the suspension of clouds as nn
electrical phenomenon. On attentively observin<r the forms of clouds, it will be found that
they have a tendency to ns-iMTie one or other of the seven distinct modifications above men-
tioned ; the pectiliiir charactiTs of which mav be discovered in all the endless configurations
exhiliited liv cjnnds under difl'cr'Mit cirrumst:incn-;. It niay be (iliserved llirthcr, that the
most indefinite and shapeiess miLsses of clouds, if attentively watched, will sooner or later
show a tendency to assumt^ the form of some of these mollifications; a circumstance which
sliows not only their distinct nature, but al.^ii proves that there are some geiierMl causes, as
yet undiscovered, why a(|U( ous vapour, suspended in the air, sho'ild assumi; certain dilir-able
and constant modifications.

A more minute description of the formntion and changes of the clouds, and of the
pro;rnostics of the werither to be deduced from their peculiar appearances, shall now be
attempted.

The cirrus or curl-cloud* may he distinguished from every other by the lightness of its
nature, its (Ihrous structure, and the great and perpetually changing variety of figures which
it presents to th" eye. It is gi'nerallv the iiiost (devated of clouds, occupying the higher
regions of the atmos[>here. As this cloud, under dilVerent circumstances, presents consider-

•Tliia, mid x\\o nttiiT ailililidnil tPriiiH whirli tiill'tw. have Ivvu proposi'd as Kiiylish n.iiiies hy Dr. TtioniBX
Korstpr.

RT 11.

though

bright
liation,
1 thoso
part, of
^posited
lun the

In thn
pfore it
ivhich it
r cooled
becomes
re of the
e air be
the cold
;nomena,

arranged
and 17th
press the
A's is suf-
al causes,
ce from a
inred with
hills, and

iefmed by

or diverg-

l heaps,
jnealh.
psc are —
io order or

umference,

d with that
lianging its

ng beneath

|not agreed.
KirticlcR of
tlipy float.
It has given
louds as nn
fo\md that
tibnvc men-
ifiSTurations
ir,"thnt the
or or later
knco whicli
ll cniisos. as
lin lie finable

Innil of the
now bi>

■tiu'ss of its
liiroa which
jfho higher
Its consider-

BooK II.

METEOROLOGY.

179

Ly Dr. ThoniBi

abl<! varieties of appearances, it will be jiroper to consider these separately, with reference
to the particular kind of wcatlier in wliich they prevail. After a continuance of clear fine
weather, a wliitisli line of cloud may often be observed at a great height, like a white
thread stretched across the sky, the ends seeming lost in each horizon : this is often the first
indication of a ciiange to wet weather. To this line of cirrus, others are added laterally,
and souicliiiios, as it were, propagated from the sides of the line in an oblique or transverse
direction ; the whole iiaving the appearance of net-work. At other times the lines become
gradually denser; descend lower in the atmosphere; and, uniting witii others below, pro-
duce rain without o.xtiibiting the above-montioned transverse reticulations. The above-
described varieties of cloud, though composed of straight lines, are ranged under the general
head of ciirus, from tiieir resemblance to this cloud when it appears under ci ived and con-
torted forms. The comnid cirrii/t, popularly known under the nsjne of the grey mare's tail,
is the proper cirrus. It somewliat resembles a distended lock of white hair, or a bunch of
combed wool, and from this it got the name comoid. It usually occurs in variable weather,
and is reckoned a precursor of wind and ruin. In changeable weather it varies considerably
in a low hours; but when the fibres have a constant direction to the same point of the com-
pass for any considerable time, a gale of wind generally springs up from that quarter.
During warm changeable weather, when there are light breezes of wind, long and obliquely
descending bands of cirrus are often observed in the air, and sometimes seem to connect
distant clouds. Frequently, by means of the interposition of these cirri between a cumulus
and some other cloud, as, for instance, cirro-stratus, the cumulo-stratus, and ultimately the
nimbus or rain-cloud, is formed. The cirrus, when attentively examined, is found to be in
constant motion, not merely chang.ng its form, but often exldbiting an internal commotion
in the substance of the cloud, especially in the larger end of it. Every particle seems alive
and in motion, while the whole mass scarcely changes its place. This motion, on a minute
examination, often appears to consist of the fibres which compose l;ie cirrus, gentiy waving
to and from each other; froiiuently, however, it seems like minute specks all in commotion.
This takes place more firequently in those large and lofty cirri, with rounded heads and
long pointed tails, so coiimion in dry winds during summer and autumn.

The formation of the cumuhis is best viewed in fine settled weather, about sunrise
or a little after. Small specks of cloud are seen here and there in the atmosphere. These
seem to be the result of small gatherings of the stratus or evening mist, which rising in the
morning grows into small masses of cloud, whilst thn rest of the sky becomes clearer. About
sunrise these clouds increase; two or more of them unite, till a lorge cloud be formed, which,
assuming a cumulated nnd irregularly hemispherical shape, has received the name ofciimvhts
or slacki'ii-cloud. This i.- ".-iperly the cloud of day, as it usually subsides in the evoninp;
by retracing the steps of its Ibrmution in the morning. It separates into small fragments
and evaporates, giving place to the stratus or fiill-cloud, which is therefore styled the cloud
of night.

Some varieties in the forms of the cumulus deserve particular notice, as they are sup-
posed to be connected with electrical phenomena. The hemispherical form is more perfect
in fine than in changeable weiithcr. When such well-formed ciunuj^i prevail during many
successive days, the weatlier is settled, and the electrometer pretty feteady in its indications.
They are wliitish coloured, and when op|K)sed to the sun reflect a silvery light. Cunuili
whicii occur during intervals between showers are more fleecy, and variable in form and
colour. Sometimes tliry are blackish, and may at any time increase till they obscure the
sky, or assume the fiirm of the twain-cloud or cumulo-stratus.

The stratus or fall-cloud comprehends fogs, and all thoso creeping mists which, towards
evening, fill the valleys, and disappear in the morning. The cmnuli which have prevailed
during a hot summer's day decrease towards evening, and hy degrees there is formed a
white mist near the ground, increasing in density till midnight or even till morning, and
generally disappearing aller sunrise, [n autimm, this cloud sometimes lasts lonj er in the
morning. In winter it becomes still nion; dense, and sometimes continues a wlm •• liay or
many successive day.s. A remarkable instance of this occurred in .January, 1814. >chen a
dense fog provaileil tor about a fortui<rht, extending over a great part of the south a. i west
of England. It was particularly felt at l.ondon, where tlie stagnation and subsidein'C of
the smok<! more than doubled the dismal visitation. The stratiis is often jxisitivt^ly electrified,
and its component parts ilo not wet loaves or oth' r substances connected with the eartli.
On this, however, it may bo remarked that dry liolios, wliich continue warmer than the fog,
must remain dry on the ordinary principles of evaporation. The stratus may be distin-
guisiied from some varieties of cirro-stratus which re.^omble it, by the circumstimce that the
latter wets every object it alights on.

The cirro-cumulus or sotider-cloud is ."iuhioct to some vari.itions in the size and figure
of the orbicular ma.ssos of which it is composed, and in their distances from each other.
About the time of thunder storms, the component part-, are denser in their structure, rounder
in their form, and closer tojirothcr than usual. Thi3 tias l«en frequently noticed by jwois as

'l iP

i!r

.^. I

Itl.

ISO

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAl'IIV.

PabtII

a progfiiostic of tliunder and tcin|H>stuoii8 weatlier. In rainy cliangcable woatlier, this cloud
has a li{,'ht fleecy texture, and is very irreffular in tiio Ibnn of its component [Kirtw; so tliatit
then approachea to Hio form of tlio cirro-stratiiH. Sometimes, indeed, it Lonsists of iwheciilte,
so Bniall and litfht colonrod us to be scarcely discernible. In fnio summer weather, the cirro-
cumulus is neither so dense as the stormy variety, nor so light as tiie one last (lcscril)cd ; itH
parts vary in size, and in tiieir proximity. During line dry weather witli light breezes, small
detachmentu of cirro-cumulus rapidly form and subside, which do not lie in one plane ; but
their arrangement is commonly horizontal. The cirro-cumulus sometimes commences in the
clear sky. At other times tiie cirrus, tlie cirro-strntus, or some other cloud, changes into
cirro-cuimilns, and vice vcmd. In summer, tliia cloud forebodes heat: in winter, the break-
ing up of frost, and mild wet weatlier.

The cirro-stratus is remarkable for its shallowness, compared with ita horizontal extent;
80 tlin.t when any otiier cloud assume.^ this form, it seldom fails to end in a cirro-stratus.
This cloud is constantly changing its form, and gradually subsiding ; hence it has been
called the wane-doud. There are many varieties in its Hgure; sometimes it is disposed
in waving bars or streaks, varying almost infinitely in size and sliapc. A flat horizontal
clo'id, consisting of such streaks, frequently occurs during changeable summer weather; its
bars are generally confused in the middle, but more distin<;t towards the edges. A variety
ot this Evrl constitutes what is called the mackerel-back sky. It is ollen very high in tlie
atmornheic, n: is proved from its still appearing high wlien viewed from the top of a lofly
Piouotain. The cumulus, on the contrary, may be seen on a level with, or even lower than,
th'^ observer. The cirro-stratus often appears in the form of a long plain streak, tai)ering
>v/n'cis >)i.- extremities. Sometimes sucii a figure seems to alight on the cumulo-stratus ;
futid, )• . \L jse cases, the density of the latter inci eases in proportion as the former alternately
app "irs and evaporates again on its summits. The usual result is the formation ot' the
nin 'ins, and a fall of rain. Another principal variety of the cirro-stmtus consists of sii\all
c ws of little clouds, curved in a peculiar maimer : it is called the cymoid cirro-stratus, and
', 'i sur-j indication of approaching storms. The last variety of this cloud which we shall
now notlt >. is that large and shallow veil of cloud which covers a large portion of the sky,
pfir'ituliirly towards night, and through whicli tiie sun and mixni are indistinctly seen.
Tho.se peculiar refruclioiis of the light of these luminaries, called halos and mock suns,
ucually app«;ar in tliis clou<l. These are the most certain signs, yet known, of approaching
rain or snow.

The cumiilo-siratus or twain-cloud is a stage towards the production of rain, ond is fro-
iiucntly formed in the following manner: — The c;;miiliis which usually passes along in the
wind, seems retarded in its progress, grows (l('ii.--er, spreads out laterally till it overhangs
the base in dark an<l irregular jirotuberanees. This change often takes place in all the
cumuli which are near to each other; their bases unite, whilst the superstructure remains
asunder, r"sing up like so many iiiountain summit.-', or mnssps of rocks. The cumulo-sfniti,
in which .mil showfis and thunder .storms occur, look extremely black and menacing before
the rain commence Sometimes the eunuilo-stratus evaporates, or changes again to tamulus,
Imt it oftener ends m the nimbus and rain.

The nimbus remains to be described ; a cloud whicli always precedes the fiill of rain,
snow, or hail. Any of the others idiovo described may increase so much as to oliscure the
sky, without ending in rain, hetoro which the peculiar characteristic of the rain-cloud may
always be distinguishiMi, Tho best way of obtaining a clear idea of the formation of the
nimbus or rain-cloud is to observe a distant shrvver in profile, from its first formation to its
fill in rain. Tho cumulns seems first arrested in its progrci=t' : ^licn a cirrus or cirro-.stratiis
may appear 'o alight on the top of it. The change to cumulo-stratus then goes on rapidly ;
and this cloud, increasing in dens, y, assumes that black and threatening aspect which i,-^ a
known indication of rnln. This hlackne.ss is sroin clinngod for a more gray obscurity; find
tiiis is the criterion of the nctiinl (orination of rain drops, which now liegin ^) tall, while a
cirriform crown of fiiiies extend- .Vom t! r upper jwitsof tho clouds, and small ciimnli
enter into the under jiart. .\tV', t.u" shower has spent itself the different modifications
appear again in their .several sti!ii.;.is: the cirrus, the cirri)-stratiis, or perhaps the cirro-
cumulus, ap|»ear in the ii])per regi Ills ot the air; wliile tlii- remaining piTt of the broken
nuiihus assumes the tniin of llocI;y I'ir.iiili, and sails aloKg in the lower current of wind. The
reappearance of large riininlo-strati inilL^iites a return of the rain. In showery weatlier, tiie
alternate formation luid (iestriiffinn of rain-.-loiids goes on rapidly, ami is attended by the
other inodifications in siu'ce.ssion, as above described. From its connexion with local
showers, the iiiiiibiis is distinguished almost exclusively by bearing in its broad field of sable
the 111 nours of the rii.idm'.i.

Rain. The<iries of rain have been timnded on the alxwe observations. Since, as already
mentioiii'i. ii greater (|uantity <>f moisture can exist in a giv o spiic'^ as the temnerature is
higher, it is plain that there is a certain temperature at winch air containing some moisture,
will just be saturated, and which is called the point of deposition, or the dewing point ; ffir,

Hook II.

if WETEOUOIOGY

^■i"f ■ ■■tro mostly on tl.";., ".,"V""r'7' ""■^" "'<' ■-im>'n,Nv'i' '"''•' ,^"''l''''''' ''y the

■ 1« '"^^•'''""'^^'••'^■•-■'^"''-". table, show.^

s.^^

liM

I J'I'l! II

.,' I

'%i<il,

Iff ' J I

162

SCIENCE OF GEOCJRAPIIY.

Part II.

the menn moiidily iind (iniiiml quuiititioa of rain wliicli Imvu fallen at several placen, beinff
the average for imi!iy years : —

Jnniinry.. .
Fi'liniiiry . .

Miirch

April

May

Jrinc

July

Aiiuust . . .
Heptcmber
(October . .
Nnvciiilior
Ucc'uiiilicr

V 4

Inch.

3.:iiu

2.0!tH

sunt

2H:i5
■iMS
;i.tl!l7

:).(i(i5

:i.!hW

n.stw

3G.140

Inch.

a. 177

1.H47

152;)

3.IU4

a..'i73

■Mm
;).:iii

3.1154
3.T.'4

:un

3.28H

34.I1H

9 n

*:••

Inch.
2.1W
1.1)52
1.322
2.07rt
2.llri

3.UUII
2.435
2.2*1
3.0711
2.(i34
2.SI>M

i 2

5a I «a

Inch.
3.41)1
S.IIUS
1.753
S.1H0
2.4I)(I
2.512
4.110
45H1
3751
4.151
3 775
3.1)55

27.U04 ' 3U.714

Inch.
S.2ii!i
5.1'.><l
3.151
2.UHII
3.4HO
2.722
4.il.V.)
5.0X1
4.H74
5.4311
4.7H5
ti.OlM

53.IM4

Jr.

Inch.
3.li'.)5
2.H:t7
2.11)4
2.017
2.5«rt
2.1174
\\>iM
3.1im

4.350

4.143

3.174

3.142

sii.oia

_51f_

Inch.
1.5115
1741
MM
«.ll71t
1.1)41
1.343
2.303
2.7411
l.t)17
2.2117

i!rK)4
i.ipfi

2i.3;n

?><

«>

o-a

Inch.

I'r. Inch.

Fr. Inch.

1.41)4

1.22rt

2.477

l.'i'.0

1.2:t2

1.71I0

1.172

l.lliO

1.1127

1271)

1.IK5

2.I)MI

1.1)3(1

1.7117

2.1131

i.rw

1.11117

2.5()2

2.44H

l.i-OO

i.ma

1.H07

l.WKI

2347

1.H42

1.550

4 140

2.0112

1.7HI

4.741

2.'.'22

1.7!0

4.1B7

1.7311

l.liOO

2.3117

20.(18U

laiHlt ; 33.1177

The depth of rain, accordincf to Humboldt, at the latitudes of 0°, 10°, '15°, and 0()°, is,
respectively, 90, 80, 29, and 17 inclies. In the torrid zone, a small thick rain falls almost
every day on that side of the e(iuator where the sun is ; but it generally intermits during the
nigiit. In many places, there are two wet and two dry sea.sons in the year ; and in some
regions, from the effect ef the mountiiins and peculiar winds, places under the same iwrallel
have tlioir wet and dry seasons at opposite pericxhs. Tiioiigh the ainiual deptii of rain be
greatest toward the e(iuator, the number of rainy days increases with the latitude.

A(iucous meteors, so essential to vegetation, have their salutary effi^cts modified by the
chemical quuUlirs of the moisture in the atmosphere. The salt rain and dew of the vicinity
of the Caspian Sea, owing to the vapnirs which arc (exhaled from tlio soil, jirobably contribute
to tliose saline efflorescences which are said to lie gradually overspreading the once fertile
Boil of Persia. The salt fogs in tlie west of Jutland are very injurious to the foliage of
trees, without being hurtful to the grass. Rain has also been known to be impregnated with
sulphur, and with various substances approaching to that of animal and vegetable matters.
Some of these communicate to tiie rain a peculiar colour, as that of blood, &,c. On the
other iiiind, togs occur in which little or no moisture is present: sucli are called dry fogs ;
and are supiwsed to bo the vapours and ashes i>jected by volcanoes, and diffused in the
atmosphere by the winds. Their occurring about the time of great eruptions strengthens
this conjecture.

lllacifrs. Ice and snow absorb a large portion of heat during liquefaction, which they
give out again on freezing; for, in the ordinary process of nature, water does not cool below
;W° r. till the whole be frozen; nor docs its temperature rise above that jioint, while in
contact with Ici? or snow, — that is, till the whole be melted. Tiiis property has an important
effect on the temperature of snowy districts. It retards and often prevents tiie occurrence
of e.xtromo cold, and it opposes a sudden rise of temperature above the freezing point. The
cold in the at'.iosphere, as was formerly stated, continually increases with the elevation ;
and, at a certain height, depending on the climate or latitude, perpetual frost prevails.
Where the earth's surface attains this heiglit, it is, with the exception of some steep or ver-
tical cliffs, continually covered with .«now. The snow acquires new additions from time to
time ; for, though it may melt slowly from the heat of the ground on wiiich it rests, yet it
suffers little decay externally, ('xccpt what the air carries off by evaporation. The wamifh
of the .solar rays may soften it a little, but this only tends to its farther coasolidation. Masses
of this sort are called glaciers. By accumulating in the manner just mentioned, they often
become top-heavy, or a(,'([iiire such an enoriiious weight as to break their hold, or crush theii
lowiT jiarts, which are besides liable to be undermined by the w'armth of the mountain on
wliici) they rest. Ilenco it not uufrecmcutly hai)pens, that huge masses of ice or coiiglo-
merat'd snow slide or roll down tliii sides of mount liiis, transporting, iicrliaps, large .stones or
rngiiK'iils of rock-! til uliirh they had aillicrfd, or wliieli iiiul lieeii .separated from their bods
by till' agi'iicy of the weather. Detached glai'iers otlon de.sceml into districts having a
mean teniiierature coiisidcnibly above the midting point of snow. Hut so great is the heat
consiiMied in lii|ri'tying such huge iiin.sses, that years may elapse before they entirely dis-
appi'.ir; ami iliiriiii;- liiat interval others descend; and so on continually. So that the limit
of perpetual .~iiow may be tiiunil in a climate where little snow falls from the clouds. When
glaciers di'.-coiiil into the sea, and particularly whi'n detaclwil and lloiting, they are termed
icrhi nrs.

'i'lie siiow-liue, or lowi'r limit in iiiountains rnvereil with perpetual snow, de.scends in
winter ami rises again in summer. Uml'T the equator, this change is scarcely percejjtib't

IRT 11.

I, ho'mft

1.1 00°, is,
lUa almost
luring the
id in Bome
le imrallel
of rain be

fieil bjr the
he vicinity

contribute
jnco fertile

foliage of
:natcd with
)le matters.

. On the

dry fogs i
isnil in the
ilreiigthens

ll'SCIMllls ill

liceptib't

Rook II.

METEOROLOGY.

183

Imt it ini;rfiases with the hititiulc, and in high latitudes the gnow-lino has a great range. Tlio
(lirectiou of tlu; prevuili.ig winilr*, with inuiiy ciicuuwtancos tcK) ninuerous to bo detailed, huH
each itH clU'Ct. The Bnow-lltii; '\s lower on tlie sides of Mumntiiinx turned from the mm, than
on acclivities whicli receive hl^ rays more perpendicular to their surfiicos. Hence it huppenH,
that one side of a mountain may bo covered with perpetual wiow, whilst at the same height
on the (ipixjsite side it is in a state of cultivation. The snow-line, therefore, de])en(ts so
nmch on localities, that no general rule can be given for computing; its altitude. Though
oflen employed for estimating tiio heights of mountains, it is a most fallacious criterion.

Humboldt gives the followmg heights of perpetual snow in dilTerent parts of the world : —
Andes of Quito (lat. 1° to 1° 30'), 24(K) toises. Volcano of Purace (lat. 2° 18), 2420 toiscs.
Tolima flat. 4° 40'), 2:180 toises. Nevados of Mexico (lat. 19°), 23.'J0 toises. Hinmldva
(lat. ai°), northern side, 1950 toises; southern side, 2605 toises. Summit of Sierra Nevada,
Grenada (lat. 'M° 10), 1780 toises. Caucasus (lat. 42° to 4^1°), 1650 toiscs Pyrenees (lat.
42° 5' to 4:i°), 1400 toises. Swiss Alps (lat. 46°), 1370 toises. Carpathian mountains
(49° 10'), 1330 toises. Norway (lut. 01° to 67°), 850 to 600 toises; and (laU 70° to 71° 30')
550 to 366 toises.

Colour of the Atmosphere. That the air has a blue colour, 1ms been conjectured because
a distant landscape appears of that cast, which, however, is greatly diminished by a good
telescope. Newton ascribed this phenomenon to the greater refrangibility of the blue rays ;
and some consider it the etfect of vapour. The appearance of the sky, when viewed from
a iiigh mountain, is of a deep blue, approaching to black. But this must be in some way
illusory ; because the upper atmusphure is highly transparent, as the heavenly bodies shine
with increased splendour.

Sect. TV. — Luininous Meteors.

Tlie refraction and reflection of light by air produce a remarkable phenomenon. While
the rays of light move in a medium of uniform density and composition, they are straight;
but when tliey pass obli(iucly into a medium of a difl'erent density, they are bent or refracted
toward the denser medium. Tlie rays of light, therefore, whil.st coming through the atmo-
sphere from tlie heavenly bodies, are always entering into a denser and denser stratum of
air, and are consequently bent down towards the eartii. The dilfercnt rays suffer different
degrees of refraction, according to tlieir colour. Tliut of red is the least, then orange,
yellow, green, light blue, indigo, and violet. All solid bodies have the property of reflecting
light; and it is probable that all bodies whatever reflect light in a greater or less degree.
The clouds and air possess this property. The rays which are the most refrangible, arc
also the most easily reflected. NV'lien the sky shines with a fine azure hue, it is by means
of the more reflexible rays, which are first reflected from the earth, and afterwards returned
by the atmosphere. The refraction and reflection of light enable it to diffuse itself over
tlie atmosi)here, illuminating our hemisphere for a considerable time after the sun has gone
down and before helms arisen, producing the morning and evening twilight.

The rainbow is a circular unage of the sun, variously coloured, and produced thus : —
The solar rays, by entering the drops of falling rain, are refracted to their farther surfaces,
and thence, by one or more reflections, transmitted to the eye. But on escaping from the
drop, they undergo a second refraction, by which the rays are separated into their difl'erent
colours; and in this state are exhibited to an eye properly placed to receive them. The
rainbow is never seen but when rain is falling, and the sun and bow are always on opposite
sides of the observer.

Tlio halo is a broad circle of a variable diameter, sometimes white, but more commonly
exhibiting a faint representation of the colours of the rainbow. It appears in a thin cloud,
or in a haze, around the .sun and moon's disc.

The corona is a circular space, full of mild whitish light, around the moon's disc. It
soniefinics passes into a yellowish or brownish colour towards the edges. Tliis and the halo
are ]K)pularly known by the name o^ burrs ; and the latter is accounted a prognostic of rain,
especially when its diameter is large.

Parhelia or iiwck-suns arc images which appear sometimes above and .sometimes below
the disc of the true sun. They arc supposed to be seated in the points of intersection of
different liiilos, and to derive tlieir brightness from the union of several reflections. Parhelia
are soinotinies surrounded by a whitish border, sometimes by the colours of the rainbow.
They are rarely quite circular, and some have luminous trains, as has likewise tiio sun him-
self, when near tlio horizon, in the vicinity of Hudson's Bay. It is there, und in sinular
cold toggy situatioiiH, tluit parhelia are usually seen.

M(x-k-nioons or jiaraselena' are of less frequent occurrence than parhelia, but they are
generally us<,'ribiMl to a similar cause.

Luriiinoiis shadows or glories are reniarkalile phendmena, ir. which a spectator sees his
.sliiulow projected on a cloud with a luiiiiiums ring, sometimes coloured like the rainbow,
(encircling his head. 'J'lic spi"ctator, in such cas(;s, must either be on an elevation, or the
rloud niusi be verv low. Tlic siinilow is usuallv of an eiioviiious size.

i?S

i: '

I'll

It M

i '('t

■;■■.!
: i

SCIENCK OP GE(XJRAI'HY.

Part 11

Lonminff is the tnnii iisnd by KailcirM to ('xl)^l■.^.^ ii niriiniK i)|itic,il ilnci'ptidM, liy which
objocts como into view, thoii|rh mntcrially iiltiTiMJ im to tlii'lr n-ul xitimtioii or iMwition. Thr
Preiicli (••.ill it iniragr, iiiiil the ItiiiiiiiiH fuia mnrffiinii. It ollfii hii|i|i<ns ut mm, th.ii a dis-
tant Hbip iipponrH tiK if |)aiiiteil in the fky, pcrhu|iH iri an inviTicd |Hi!'itioii, mid n-it su|>{uirt('(l
by the water. Sunkun n cltH nnd windM apponr iix if mined alune tin' Mirlim'. 'i'li" -J.u'deH
lun^r tioarclied in viiin tor un illuHury i.slnnd of tliiM Hort, wliieli llii>y kiw from a di'<tiiiife, iin
if plueed between tim ImIrh of Aland and the eoust of Uphiiid. 'I'lie >liippiiiy iiml hi.i'.ilinirn
on the shore of Nai)lo» have, troin Mes«inii, HoinetiuieN appeared lloatiriir inverted in llie air.
In 179H, the Frenrii coaHt appeared diMtinetly raim'd alxive the sea, llir an hour, as viewed
firom the oppovitn shore of Suhho.x. 'J'o the French, whilst inarching in tiio K(ryptian deserts,
the sandy plain covered in the distance \n a diMise va()<)iir pnwented the illusive iiiiriifu of a
vast lake, towards which thoy hastened, Imt could never roach it,

The aurora borealis, or northern li)flit, is ii remarkable luminous phenomenon v\hich
occurs durinff night, and nioht commonly in clear or frosty weather. It is iinkiiowii in h)W
latitudes, and becomes more frequent as wo recede from the eipjutor. But it is lionlitful if
its maximum either as to frccpiency or brilliancy bo at the [nde; tor in the late norlii polar
expeditions it was seen to the south of the olwerver, wliercan at preater distances from the
pole it appears to the north or n little tf) the west of north of tlie spectator. It is usually of
a reddish colour, inclininfr to yellow, and sends out frequent coruscations of pah* lisfht,
which seem to arise from the horizon in pyramidal nndnlatin); foriri.s, and kIukiIs with i^reat
velocity towards the zenith. Some maintain that a whizzing noise acconqmnies tliis phono-
inenon, hut this is not very well ascertained. Tlie lijrht appears sometimes remarkably red,
ns was the case in many parts of Eiiro[)e, Doc. 5, 17J37. The aurora borealis freipiently
appears in the fonn of a luminnus arch, chiefly in the sprinff, and in the autumn of a dry
season. The arch is partly bright and partly dark, but penerally transparent. This kind of
meteor is almost constant during? the lonjf winter niffhts, in hiph latitudes. Tlie "merry
dancers," as it is called in Shetland, afford the inhabitants ffreat relief amid the jjliHim of
their lonjy dreary nights. They commonly appear at twilight near the horizon, of a dun
yellow, and sometimes continue so for several hours, without nifrfion ; alliTwards they break
mto streams of a stronger light, passing into columns nnd innunierahle difl'erent shapes.
During this, the colour vnriej from all the tints of yellow to the most obscure russet, e.xhi-
biting the most beautiful appearance. In the northern parts of Sweden and Lapland, the
aurora borealis is singularly beautiful, and nftords to travellers a very fine light during the
whole night. In Hud.son's Bay it ditfiises a variegated splendour sometimes e<iual to that
of the full moon. Similar lights were observed by Dr. Forster towards the south pole, but
they were much feebler than in ihe nortliern hemisphere. The cause of such phenomena is
unknown. Some nscfibc thoiii to electricity and magnetism.

The electricity of tlin atmosphere is very impert'cctly understood. In storms, the cloiuls
usually exhibit trie vitreous or |K)sitive electricity. In summer, when the earth is drv', and
the day warm and serene, tlio electricity of the air increases from sunrise to noon ; in which
state it continues for an hour or two, and again diminishes, till the dew ap]K!ar. It revives
towards midnight, and again decreases till it become insensible.

The phenomena of thunder are so '..ell known, as to require no description; but no satis-
factory explanation has yet been discovered, except that it is intimately connected with elec-
tricity, which being itself in a great 'neasurc among the incofrnitii, leaves us still in the
dark. Thunder is more frequent as we approach the equator, and decreases as the latitude
increases, being totally unknown in the arctic regions. It is a very rare phenomenon in
intensely cold weather, and seldom occurs during night in Ihe temperate zones. It is
usually attended by heavy showers of hail or sleet, nnd le.'^s frequently by rain. The distance
of thunder may be estimated, by allowing IKH) feet fiir each second which elapses between
seeing the flash ot lightning and honang thi> rejtort. It is seldom heard at a greater dis-
tance than two miles, and only does mischief when vrry near.

St. Filrno's fire is a faint light which seems to adh.re to the points of bodies carried swiflly
through the air. It appears on the tops of ship mastJ, nnd at the points of spears and other
warlike instruments when in motion. It is generally believed to be an accumulation of
electric matter, A single flame of this sort was called by the ancients IMena. When
seen in pairs, thoy were called Cantor and I'ollvx.

Fire-balls arc those luminous bodies which appear usually at a gre:it height above the
earth, and were on that account long known by the tcnn mrtror, which is now npidied to
many other aerial phenomena. They present a very imposing appearance, and are seen of
an immense size, sometimes red, but oftener of a vivid dazzling white. They traverse the
atmosphere with amazing velocity. This, and their great height, have been inferred from
their being seen from various distant places almost at the same instant. Sometimes they
burst in pieces, or discharge torrents of flames, with a detonation making both the air and
earth to tremble. Some of these balls descend like lightning, break through the ri«>*s of
buildings, destroy animals, and shutter vessels at sea; in .short, tli(>y an; oflen attendeil witli
all the disastrous cfl^'cts of thunder and lightning, with which they are occasionally acroiri-

I.) » '. i

Book II.

MKTEOROLOGY.

18B

1(1 swiftly
Inil other
J at inn of
Wlien

IIkivo tlio

Ipplicd to

■ M^on ot"

[crt^c the

Irr-d from

liirs thi\v

|e air and

r(in*s of

Illicit witli

ly atTOill-

panifd. Hoiiin consider tlicsn IotIIh to lie ^(rimt iiiamicM of electric matter, pnming from ono
place U> tuiother. Utlicra HiipiMMO tlieni to be tlie mine with the iierolitn«.

AcrolitcH, (ir meteoric ulnneH, have Iroqiiently deNcended iVotn the atincwphere Iroin the
remotest anliipiity, llotli the ahovo opiniunH may be in no tiir correct; Inrunie the tlre-bullii
exhibit very dill'eri'nt ap|>eiiranceH. I'hiloHopiierM are very nnich divided re^mnlinjf the ori-
j(in of nieleiiric utonen. Hom(! imagine them to !»■ I'jected I'roni volcanocH on the earth'n cur-
tiice; oIIkth from volcunoeH on the moon. A tiiinl claHS maintain, that they are (lentinited
by the ('(iiiiiiiuation and condeniiation of their coin|M)nent parts, previouKly dilliined in the
atnl<)^<plll're m the KaseouH form. (HherH allegro, that they are detached stomas inovinj,'
throiiiLrii the bonnrllcss rej^ions of H|)ace, and which caHiially conio into contact with onr
planet. All tbest' are little else than conjecture, althoufrh their liimmtion in the attnosphere
IS tiie most plausible. A numcruus list of the moot authentic falls of such Ixxlies in (riven
in Phil. M<iff. vol. Ixvii.

Falling .ttars are very ordinary phenomena everywhere, but still they belonfj to a class
which is not well understood. Near the place of their apparent descent, a fci'tid gelatinous
substance has freijuenfly been fiainil, of a whitish yellow colour.*

The zodiacal lifjlit is u luminous appearance, seen after sunset, or before sunrise, some-
what similar to the milky way, but of a tliintcr lipht, in the figure of an inverted cone or
]iyrainid, with it« base towards the sun. Ita axis is variously inclined to the horizon, and
makes an anj;'le of nearly 7° with the plane of the ecliptic. The earliest distinct account
of it was given by Cassini in IfiWl; but this niTords no ground for suppof-iiig that it had not
existed or been seim prior to that date : it is always observable, when the sky is clear, in the
torrid zone ; but is more rarely to be found us wo recede from the equator. The season
most favourable llir observing it is about the beginning of March: it is much brighter in
some years than others, and was particularly brilliant at Paris, 16th February, 1760. The
zodiacal light lies in the plono of the sun's equator, and is therefore supposed by some to bo
connected with his rotation,

Sbctt. \.— Winds.

Winds are currents of air occasioned by the disturbance of the equilibrium of tlio atmo-
sphere by the unequal distribution of heot. The general tendency, in such circumstances,
is for the heavier columns to di.splace the lighter ; iiiid for the air at the earth's surface to move
from the jKiles toward the equator: in consequence of the rotation of the earth on its axis,
another motion is combined with the currents just described. The air, which is constantly
moving from points where the earth's motion on its axis is slower to those where it is
quicker, cannot have precisely the same motion eastward with the part of tlie r^iirface over
which it is jjassing, and therefore must, relatively to that surface, acquire a motion some-
what westerly. The two currents, therefore, from the opposite hemisiiheres, will, on meet-
ing, about the e(iuator, destroy that part of each other's motion which is in the direction of
the meridian, leaving nothing but their united motion towards the west. Such is the cause
of the trade-wind, as proposed and rejected by Dr. Hallcy : it was shortly after revived by
Iladley, and is pretty generally received. The ti'ade-wind (with certain cxce])tions) blows
constantly from the oast, between the latitudes of 30° N. and 3(t° S. ; it declines somewhat
from due east, towards the parallel to which the sun is vertical at different seasons of the
year. The only supply for the air constantly abstracted from the higher latitudes must bo
made by a counter current, in the upper regions of the atmosphere, carrying back the air
from the eciuator to the poles. In a zone of variable breadth, within the region of trade-
winds, calms and rains prevail, caused prolmbly by the mingling and ascending of the oppo-
site currenls. High lands change or interrupt the course of the trade-winds: thus, under
the lee of tlie African shore, calms and variable winds prevail near the Capo Vcrd islands,
while an eddy, or counter current of air from the south-west, is generated under the coast
of Guinea. The lofty birrier of the Andes shelters the sea on the Peruvian shores from
the trade-winds, which are net felt till a ship has sailed eighty leagues westward ; but the
intervening space is occupied by a wind from the south. In the Indian ocean, the trade-
wind is curiously modified by the surrounding land : the southern trade-wind blows regularly
from the cast and south-east, from 10° to 23° south latitude ; but between 10° south and the
equator norfli-west winds prevail from October to April, and south-cast the rest of the year;
while north of the equator, the wind is south-west in summer, and north-east in winter :
these are called mnnsno7is, but are not fully understood.

As to the ])arts of the globe that lie beyond the region of trade-winds, calms prevail pretty
generally over a narrow space ; beyond which, the region of variable winds extends probably
to the poles. Mr. Forster ob.erves, that beyond the tropics the west winds aie most common.
He also supjiosi's that east winds have an ascendency within the antartic circle. According
to Robins, a westerly wind almost constantly prevails about latitude G0° S. in the Pacific

h '

♦ PrnfcsBor Hr.nnili'rt. of llrcsliiii, lias |mhliah«il « curious Trcatine on Falling Stars, to wliicli nu may direct the
attention of our readers. ,,

Vol. I. Ifl* Y

<^,

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

■^ 1^ 112.2

HI
i

141
US

2.0

:■

|I.25||||U p

►

^^*>-

*^.'!>'*

Hiotographic

Sciences

Corporation

33 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTRR.N.Y. 14580

(716) S72-4S03

•s^

^j'^\

^ «*>

186

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY.

PabtIL

Ocean. In Hudson's Bav, westerly winds prevail during three fourths of the year, as also
in Kamt^hatka. At Melville island, the north and north-west winds prevail : on account of
these winds, the Atlantic may be crossed eastward in about half the time of returning
westward.

Sea and land breezes arise from the same general principle which chiefly occasions the
trade-winds: during the day, when the sun renders the surfiice of the land warmer tiian that
of the sea, the warmer rarefied air of the land ascends, being buoyed up and displaced by
the heavier air rushing firom the sea, and thus forming the sea breeze ; but the reverse often
happens during the night, when the surface of the land becomes colder than the sea, and
occasions a wind from the land, or a Umd breeze. Winds of this sort are more fVequent
about islands and small peninsulas than in other situations ; but they are not confined to any
particular latitude.

A variety of local winds have also been observed. The etesiati, which is a northerly or
north-easterly wind, prevails very much in summer all over Europe. Pliny describes it as
blowing regularly m Italy for forty days after the summer solstice. It is supposed to be a
part of the great lower current moving towards the equator. Another northern wind, which
often continues about a month in February and March, is called the omithian wind, because
some birds of passage then make their appearance in the south of Europe. A squall, or
sudden gust of wind, is common in many places ; and when its impetuosity is sufncient to
bear along trees, buildings, &c., it is called a hurricane; such winds have frequently a
whirling motion, and are accompanied with torrents of rain or hail, and even thunder ; these
are sometimes called (orruulof* .* they are principally confined to the torrid zone. The sirocco
is a hot southern wind, known on the shores of the Mediterranean ; when it reaches Naples
and Sicily, it is ven moist and relaxing to the human frame. Some warm climates are
occasionally visited by excessive hot pestilential winds, generally firom the south, and known
under a great variety of names in different quarters, ^ch are the kamsin of Ei>ypt, the
simoom or samiel of Arabia and the Desert The deleterious effects, which frequently cut
off whole hordes or caravans, are sometimes ascribed to the predominance of one of the
component gases of the air, or to a mixture of nitrous gas, &c. ; but this is not well ascer-
tained. The very arid state of the air, bearing along vast quantities of burning sand and
dust, must of itself be very prejudicial to animal life. The harmattan is a warm, dry, east
wind, which occurs in Guinea, and is also of an unwholesome description.

The velocity of the wind varies from nothing up to 100 miles in an hour ; but the maximum
is variously stated by different authors. According to Smeaton, a gentle breeze moves
between 4 and 5 miles per hour, and has a force of about 2 ounces on a foot ; a brisk pleasant
gale moves from 10 to 15 miles, with a force of 12 ounces ; a high wind, 30 to 35 miles,
with a fiiroe of 5 or 8 pounds ; a hurricane, bearing along trees, houses, &c. has a velocity
of 100 miles, and a force of 49 pounds on the square foot.

The force of the wind is nearly as tlie square of the velocity multiplied by tlie density of
the air. Some interesting experiments are described by Colonel Beaufoy, Annah PkU.
vol. viiL p. 64.

The atmosphere is the vehicle of sound, and we shall close this brief sketch by noticing
this property. Till lately, the velocity of sound used to be greatly over-rated. Prom the
experiments of Dr. Moll, in the plains of Utrecht, in 1823, it appears, that the mean velocity
of sound is nearly 1100 feet per second; but it varies a litde with the temperature and
humidity of the air. See PAt2. 7Van«. for 1824.

,^»-'
•^

CHAPTER n.

HTDROLOOT.

This branch of natural history makes us acquainted with the various properties and rela-
tions of the waters of the globe. Any definition of water is unnecessary ; but mankind must
have remarked, at a very early period, that the waters distributed over the globe differ con-
siderably in their fitness for drinking, for preparing food, and for other domestic purposes.
These differences are occasioned by the foreign bodies which this liquid holds in a state of
solution or suspension ; for water is capable of dissolving a greater number of substances
than any other fluid. Hence it is scaroely ever found native in a state of absolute purity:
in some cases, the quantity of foreign matter is so minute, as to have little influence on the
taste or other properties ; but in other instances they are so abundant, as to render it unfit
for common use, or even noxious ; while at other times it is medicinal, &c., according to Uie
nature of the substances with which it is impregnated. Native water, free from colour, is
almost never poisonous, especially if it be at the same time tasteless ; but if blue from cop-
per, green from iron, or brown from vegetable iinpregnation, it is unfit for the use of man.
Water performs the most important functions in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, ami
enters largely into their composition-, as a constituent part.

BookII.

HYDROLOGY.

187

Heiu

The substance of water presents itself under three different forms of ajrgre^tion. If
under sufficient pressure, it is liquid at all temperatures above 82'^, so far as is known. It is
densest at the temperature of 40°. When cooled down to 32°, it ordinarily assumes the
solid form of ice ; but if great care be taken to avoid agitation, it may be cooled almost to
zero, without freezing. Congelation commences in the form of prismatic crystals, crossing
each other at angles of 60° or 120°, and the temperature, however low before, instantly
rises to 32°. Dunng this process, the mass expands with a prodigious force, the volume
suddenly increasing about a ninth part. Glass bottles filled with water, and properly stopped,
are burst during its congelation, and the same has happened to a strong bomb-shelL Water
passes into vapour at all temperatures, and under any pressure ; when the <!la8ticity of the
vapour equals or exceeds the incumbent pressure, the process proceeds with violence, and is
called boiling. Under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere, this takes place at about
212° of Fahrenheit's scale ; but the boiling temperature varies with the pressure : hence,
water boils at a lower temperature on a mountain top, and at a higher in a deep pit

The relations of water to heat are very remarkable. With the exception of hydrogen
OS, it absorbs more heat in warming, and parts with more in cooling, than other bodies do.
lence, large bodies of water have a powerful influence in checking or retarding sudden
alterations of temperature in the surrounding air. Ice, in melting, absorbs as much heat as
would raise its temperature 140°, and gives out the like quantity again in freezing, — a pro*
perty that enables it to resist or retard sudden alterations of temperature in cold climates, in
a more remarkable degree than the other ; which, however, exerts its influence in the torrid
and temperate as wellas in the frigid zone. Lastly, water, in assuming the elastic form,
absorbs heat sufficient to raise its temperature 1000°, and parts with as much during re-coiH
densing into water; so that water possesses an almost boundless influence in tempering
climate.

Water, as to its composition, was long ranked among the simple elements; but the
researches of modem chemistry have ascertained that it is a compound of 88.0 of oxygen,
and 11.1 of hydrogen ; or' its composition by volume and weight may be thus stated : one
volume of oxygen combined with two of hydrogen, or eight parts by weight of oxygen, with
one of hydrogen. It is composed and decompwed, during many of the operations of nature,
and its chemical agency is almost universal It is an ingredient in most bodies which
appear under the crystalline form.

Sect. I. — The Ocean,

The ocean is the origin and fountain of all the other waters which occnr, in whatever
form, on the face of the globe. According to some naturalists, it forms the remains of the
menstruum or chaotic fluid, in which all solid bodies were originally held in a state of solu-
tion, and fVom which they have been precipitated or crystallized, m short, brought to their
present state, during the countless ages which these processes are supposed to have occupied,
anterior to the creation of man : be this as it may, we are certain, that it is from the vapours
exhaled by the ocean that the atmosphere is furnished with sufficient moisture to support and
reftesh the organized beings which inhabit the earth. All nature languishes when the
atmosphere withholds its rain and dews; plants fade and droop; animals foel their strength
failing ; even man himself, breathing nothing but dust, can with difficulty procure shelter
from the sultry heat by which his frame is parched and overpowered. The ocean is the
grand thoroughfare of commerce, forming a medium of communication between the most
distant and otherwise inaccessible portions of the earth. It consists of one continuous fluid,
spread round the land, and probably extending from pole to pole. All the gulfs, all the
inland seas, form only portions detached, but not entirely separated, from that universal sea,
denominated the oceaa Geographers roundly estimate the ocean and its branches to occupy
three fourths of the entire surfkce of the globe. But to ascertain the exact proportion
between the land and water will afford them ample employment for ages to come, though
every day adds to the stock of information already acquired.

The ocean is variously subdivided by different authors : it may be conveniently divided
into five great basins.

The Pacific, so named from its comparative tranquillity, and often called also the Great
South Sea, separates Asia from America. It is the largest of the basins, and somewhat
exceeds the entire surface of diy land. Its greatest extent, fVom east to west, is about 3700
leagues, and breadth 2700. It is bounded on the east by the western and north-west shores
of America, and on the west by the eastern coasts of Asia : on the western side, and between
the tropics, its surfece is studded with innumerable groups of islands, all remarkably small ;
and consisting generally of coral reefs, rising up like a wall from unknown depths, and
emerging but a very little above the sea. These islonds are the works of innumerable
minute insects, whose incessant labours are thus gradually forming new lands in the bosom
of the ocean. On the western side, it communicates with the inland seas of Japan and
Okotsk, the Yellow and Chinese seas ; and on the eastern side, it has the inlets of California
and Queen Charlotte's Sound. The small isles of the Pacific, scattered over the torrid zone.

'<;?

|--

-«•

i ''^

188

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY.

Part 11.

have their temporature so moderated by the ocean as to enjoy t!io most delightful climate ia
the world.

The second basin, or Atliintic Oceiin, is UHunlly divided into the North Atlantic, und the
South Atlantic, or Ethiopic Ocean. The Atlantic is boiuuled on the east by Europe and
Africa ; and on the west, by America : that part of it between Eiiniiic and North America
is fVe<iuently called the Western Ocean. The Atlantic basin extends from 7((° N. to 35'
and 50° S. latitude; but it is only about lialf the size of the I'ucilic Oceau. The length is
about 2800 leagues, but the breadth, which is very unequal, varies from 600 to 1800. The
South Atlantic contains few islands of any size, and no inlets of consequence ; but the North
Atlantic abounds in large islands, and in deep and numerous inland seas, which penetrate
far on each side into both the old and new worlds, and have fitted it for the most extensive
commerce on tlie globe. On its eastern shores it receives few large rivers except the
Niger; but on the west it raceives the Plata, Orinoco, Amazons, and Mississippi, — the
largest rivers on the face of the earth.

The third basin is the Indian Ocean, which washes the shores of the south-cast coasts of
Africa and the south of Asia. It is bounded on the cast by the Indian islands. New Holland,
and New Zealand : its length and breadth are each about 1500 leagues : it contains many
islands, the two large bays of Bengal and Oman, with the deep inlets of the Persian Gulf
and Red Sea. The halt-yearly winds called monsoons prevail in its northern parts.

Tlie fourth basin is the Arctic Ocean, an immense circular basin, surrounding the North
Pole, and communicating with the Pacific and Atlantic by two channels; tlie one separating
America from Europe, the other America firom Asia. Few points of the coasts of^ Europe
and Asia, which occupy a full half of the circumscribing circle, extend much beyond the
70t.h parallel ; and it is doubtful if the other boundaries, consisting of the northern coosta
of America and Old Greenland, reach nearer the Pole ; so that tlie mean diameter of this
basin may be taken at 800 leagues. Its interior or central parts ore little known : several
islands are scattered over its southern extremities, the largest of which is Old Greenland,
whose northern limit is unknown ; the others are Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, the Isles of
New Siberia, those lately discovered by Captain Parry, and several towards Baffin's Bay.
The White Sea, on the north coast of Europe, is the only deep gulf connected with this
basin, which is of any importance to navigation.

The fiflh basin is the Antarctic, which is still less known than the preceding : it joins
the Pacific in the latitude of 50° S., and the Indian Ocean in that of 40°. Floating ice
occurs in every part of it; lint it is very abundant within the parallel of 60°. It was long
supposed, that a large continent of land and fixed ice occnpied the greater part within the
antarctic circle. In 1819, Captain Smith discovered land lying between the longitudes of
65° and 66° W., and beginning at the latitude of 62°. Mr. Weddell has since examined
tliia quarter nearer the Pole, which he believes to be free from fixed ice.

Of the inland seas, the Mediterranean is the largest and most important : it is deserving
of notice on various accounts, and in |mrticular as having been the scene of by far the
greater number of the nautical adventures of antiquity. It is the " Great Sea" of the Sacred
Writings, though we find it there spoken of under other names. Its greatest length, flrom
east to west, is about 2350 miles ; and the breadth, which is sometimes small, is at the
greatest 650. It is bounded on the south by Africa, on the east by Asia, and on the north by
Europe. It communicates on the west with the Atlantic by the Straits of Gibraltar, and
with the Black Sea by the Dardanelles Strait on the east. It has many islands, gulfs, and
bays, with a very deep inlet on the north called the Adriatic Sea, or Gulf of Venice. The
Black Sea is connected with the Sea of Azof; but these containing only brackish water,
and being so for inland, have more of the character of lakes than branches of the ocean.
Proceeding still farther eastward, we come to the Caspian Sea, which is abundantly salt, and
of great dimensions ; but being wholly uncoimected with the ocean, will be aflerwards
spoken of under the character of a lake.

The Baltic is pretty much allied to the Black Sea, in having only brackish waters, which
are sometimes wholly frozen over for several months in winter, and the ice so strong, that
armies have been marched across. The Baltic communicates with the German Sea by the
strait called the Catte^t: its greatest length is 1200 miles. The North Sea, or German
Ocean, is bounded by Britain and the Orkneys on the west, and the continent of Europe oa
the east ; and reaches from the Straits of Dover to the Shetland Islands, where it joins the
Nortiiem Ocean. On the west of the Atlantic are the Gulfs of Mexico and St. liawrence,
and Hudson's and Baffin's Bays; butwc must now proceed to treat of the different properties
and relations of the ocean, so far aa our limits will permit

The usual colour which sea water exhibits is a bluish green, of various shades. Some
mauitaui, that this is its true and proper colour ; others, that it is an optical illusion, occa-
sioned by the greater refrangibility of the blue rays of light, — opinions which may both be
true to a certain extent. The ocean seems often to assume various other colours ; some of
them no doubt real, but as oflen illusory. Among the more general sources of deception,
may be reckoned the a6]K!ct of the sky : tlius, an apparently dark-coloured sea is a commor

I?'

Europe on

I joins the

iwrence,

broperties

Is. Some

|ion, occa-

both be

some of

Hcccption,

, commop

BookII.

HYDROLOGY.

189

prognostic of on approaching storm ; not tliot tlie water thon is really blacker than usual,
but because the dark colour of the cloudH indistinctly seen in, or reflected from the waves, is
mistaken for the colour of the sea itself. VVImtover other colour the sky happens to wear
1)08 a greater or less influence on the appearance of the ocopji ; thus red clouds seem to tinge
it red, &c. On some occasions, the edges of the waves, by refracting tlie solar beanw like a
priam, exiiibit all tiie diflerent colours of the rainbow, which is still more nearly imitated by
the refraction of the rays in the spray. Not unfrequcntly, an indistinct image of the neigh-
bouring coast reflected from the ruffled surface is mistaken for the colour of tlie water.

The variety of colours in the sea may probably arise from animal and vegetable matters
diffused through the waters in a putrescent state, and communicating various tints. The
yellow and bright green shades seem to be owing to living marine vegetables, which grow
at the bottom, stretch their fibres through the water, or spread over the surface ; and it ia
supposed that the colour of innumerable minute animals is often confounded with that of the
sea. Near the shore, and especially towanls the mouths of rivers, the diffusion of mud and
other earthy matters caimot fail to affect the colour of the sea : where it is shallow or very
transparent, the colour of the bottom is frequently mistaken for that of the water.

The colour of the Greenland Sea, according to Mr. Scoresby, varies from ultramarine blue
to olive-green, and from the most pure transparency to great opacity. These appearances,
he thinks, are not transitory, but permonent ; not depending on the state of the weather,
but on the quality of the water. Hudson, in 1607, noticed these changes, and observed that
the sea was blue where there was ice, and green where it was open. This, however, was
only accidental. Phipps does not mention tlie green water ; it forms, perhaps, one-fourth of
the Greenland Sea, between the latitudes of 74° and 80° ; often it constitutes long bands or
currents, lying north and south, or N. E. and S. W. Mr. Scoresby sometimes passed through
stripes of pale green, olive-green, and transparent blue, in the course of ten minutes. The
fooa of the whale occurs chiefly in the green water, and there the fishers look for them.
Whales are more easily taken in the opaque green woter than in the transparent blue, be-
cause they do not readily see their enemies through the former. On examining the differently-
coloured poa waters, Mr. Scoresby found various substances and animalcules, especially in the
olive-green water. The number of meduste was immense : they were about one-fourth of
an inch asunder. Hence a cubic foot would contain 110,.'J92. From these, and many similar
observations, Mr. Scoresby concludes, that the Arctic Sea owes its colour to animalcule^:, and
that they occasion the opacity of the olive-green water. The blue water contains few ani-
malcules, and is uncommonly transparent. The surface of the Mediterranean sometimes
appears of a purple tint. In the Gulf of Guinea, the sea is sometimes white ; and around
the Maldive islands, black.

The transparency of the sea may in many places he very great, without such property
being readily noticed. Thus, where the water is sufficiently deep to be dark at the bottom,
it may seem quite opaque, unless some fish or other object happen to come within view.
Agitation of the surface will likewise tend to conceal the transparency. In general, the
sea is more transparent as we recede from the shore, and in cold climates than in hot ; owing
perhaps, to the smaller quantity of organic matter difldised in the waters of high latitudes.
Prom this, however, there are exceptions ; as in the opacity of the Arctic Sea just noticed,
and in the case of the Caribbean Sea, which is often remarkably transparent. Admiral
Milne observed the bottom at a depth of 150 feet in the Caribbean Sea. Authors are not
agreed to what depth the solar rays penetrate ; and indeed we have every reason to suppose
that this must depend upon and be as various as the transparency. Some limit the penetra-
tion to a depth of 100 yards ; while others more than double that quantity. The light
should surely penetrate to at least double the depth to which an observer can see from the
surface.

The temperature of the sea hos probably a tendency to follow the mean temperature of
the climate; but many powerfiil causes must interfere and modify it. Thus, between the
tropics, the mean temperature of the surface of the ocean is about 80°, and generally ranges
between 77° and 84°. Beyond the tropics, it begins to decrease, but without observing any
strict connexion with the latitude ; because, on account of the great specific heat of water,
powerfiil currents cannot fiiil partially to preserve, for some time, the temperature of the

filaco from which they come. Hence, currents from the torrid zone, on passing into higher
atitudes, raise the temperature of the sea above what usually belongs to such parallels ; the
reverse holds of cold icy currents from the orctic regions. The teiniicrature of the ocean is
much more steady than that of the superincumbent air, and has likewise a smaller annual
range : unless where very shallow, it hos scarcely any diurnal range.

The temperature of the sea on desccndin? below the surface generally decreases, but not
according to any uniform or known law. Thus, at a depth of five fiithoms, it is sometimes
1° colder, while in other instances it requires 100 fathoms for 1°. Sometimes the cold
attains its maximum at a depth of 100 fathoms, and sometimes it requires 400 or .500 fathoms.
According to an experiment related by Capt. Sabine, the temperature of the Caribbean Sea
was 4.5.5° at a depth of 1000 fathoms, while its surfiice was 83°. But the enormous pre»>

U in

=*>''& I

.00

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY.

PaxtIL

sure lit the bottom probably comprcsBcd tlie boll of the thermometer, and kept the apparent
temperature 45.5° above the truth. In the Arctic Sea, however, the temperature increases
with the depth. Mr. Scoresby, who first ascertained this, found an increase of 6.6° and 8°
nt the respective depths of I2(> and 73() futhonw; Capt. Parry, 6° at 240 fathoms; Capt
Sabine, 7.5° at 680 futhoms; Lieut. Beechy, 10° at 700 fathoms; and Mr. Fislier, 9.6° at a
depth (it' 188 futiioms. Thus, tlie rate of increase of temperature in the Arctic Sea has as
incoiii^tiint a connexion with the depth as the decrease in the temperate and torrid zones.
Sea water freezes about 28°; after which, the ice has been olwerved to cool down to
— ar)° ; but we cannot thence infer, that a lower temperature does not occur in the polar
reffioiis.

Tim phosphorescence of the sea is a common but very remarkable phenomenon, concern-
ing till! cause of which authors are not agreed. But most probably, as Newton conjectured,
it proceed.s from a variety of causes. Since his time, it has engaged the attention of many
eminent pliilosopiiers. The appearance of these lights is by no means uniform. Sometimes
a vessel, in tniversing the ocean, seems to mark out n track of fire ; while each stroke of an
oar emits a light, sometimes brilliant and dazzling, at other times tranquil and pearly. These
lights lire grouped in endless variety. Perhaps, at one time, innumerable shining points
float on the surface, and tlien unite into one extensive sheet of light At another time, the
spectator fancies he sees large sparkling figures, like animals in pursuit of each otiier, inces-
santly vanishing and re-appearing. Such light) have been ascribed to luminous animals,
and to the phosphorescence of^emiputrescent matter diffused in the ocean. It is well known,
that various fishes and other marine animals emit light, which does not in every instance
appear to be voluntary, or to depend on the vital principle, as, in some of them, it continues,
and p<;rhaps increases, atler death : but motion seems to be either a principal cause, or at
least an exciting one ; for this light more rarely occurs, and is much fainter, in still water,
whilst it becomes more and more brilliant as the motion increases. It is also more abundant
immediately before and during storms. In vol. v. p. SOS. of the Edin. Phil. Jour., Dr.
Francis Buchanan has given a very interesting account of an extraordinary shining of the
sea, which he observed, JHst July, 17a% in longitude 61° 25' E,, latitude 6° 32' N. " About
a quarter past seven p. m.," says he, " the sea was observed to be remarkably white. The
sky was everywhere clear, except xiund the horizon, where, for about 15°, it was covered
with a dark haze, as is usual in sui ' latitudes. The whiteness gradually increased till past
eight. The sea was then as high-coloured as milk, not unlike tlie milky way, the luminous
appearance very much resembling the brighter stars in that constellation. It continued in
this state till past midnight, and only disappeared as daylight advanced. The whiteness
prevented >is from being able to see either the break or the swell of the sea, although botli
were considerable, as we knew from the motion of the ship and the noise. There was much
light upon deck, as we could discern all the ropes much more distinctly than usual. We
drew several buckets of water, in which, even when at rest there appeared a great number
of luminous bodies. The bulk of them did not appear to be more than one quarter of an
inch in length, and nearly as much in breadth. Some, however, were one inch and a half
long, and of the same breadth as the others. These were seer, to move in the same manner
as a worm does in water. When taken up on the finger, they retained their shining faculty
even when dry. When brought near a candle, their light disappeared ; but, by minute
attention, an extremely fine white filament could be observed and lifted upon tlie point of a
pin. It was of a uniform shining colour and form, and about the thickness of a spider'd
thread. In a gallon of water there might be about 400 of these animals emitting light.
The water itself, when in the bucket had a natural appearance. The atmosphere was
seemingly free from fog. The stars were bright and there was no moonlight The night
before, the same appearance was observed at ten p. m. ; it lasted only 20 minutes ; but as I
was below, I did not hear of it till it was over." — " "The animalcules which occasion the
unusual luminousness of the sea emit light only when strongly agitated, and hence appear
close by the sides of the ship, or when any larger fish passes swiftly, or when a bucket of
water is drawn and suddenly poured out" — " In the year 1805, on returning from St Helena
to England, a little north from the equinoctial line, and near the coast of Africa, I had an
opportunity of seeing a still more splendid appearance of the luminous animalcules. Soon
afier dark in the evening, it being nearly calm, we saw numerous lights at a distance, like
the lamps of a great city. The lights gradually approached the frigate, and on reaching us
appeared to arise from a great many large fishes (albicores) sporting in the water, and agi-
tating the animalcules, so as to excite their luminous powers."

The depth of the sea is a question on which our information is very imperfect, and there
is little likelihood that much accurate information will ever be obtained on the subject so
fiir as regards the wide ocean. According to the speculations of the late celebrated Mar-
quis Laplace, the depth of the ocean is comparatively small, and nearly uniform. If, how-
ever, it be recollected that the bottom of tlie sea is still a part of the earth's sur&ce, and by
much the greater part too, one would be apt to ask, why that larger part of the surface
should be more level than what appears as dry land 1 "The soundings which have been made

??•

nd there
ubject, 80
fed Mar-
1 If, how-
, and by
surface
ben made

Book II.

HYDROLOGY.

191

in the ocean are quite inadequate to decide the question. They, however, oflcn uidlcate great
inequalities in the depth ; but how far hollows may have been filled with dibri», or asperi-
ties worn down, it is not easy to say ; though it is more likely that the Hummits of moun-
tains exposed to the alternate or combined actions of air and moisture suffer a more rapid
abrasion thiin those which are wholly under water. In general, the slope of the adjacent
shore is continued downward for a good way under water ; that is, the sea is usually shallow
where tlie shore is flat, while its depth increases rapidly by the side of a cliff or steep moun-
tain. It is therefore probable, that some islands, though very small, may be the tops of
sub-marine mountains as large, pcrhap, as the highest which occur on the earth's surface.
In many instances, no bottom has been found; but this might proceed either from the
shortness of the line, or from its being borne aside by rapid currents. We have already
mentioned a sounding of 6000 feet in the Caribbean sea; but Lord Mulgrave's line of 4080
feet did not reach the bottom of the Northern Ocean. In the entrance of the German or
North Sea, at the Straits of Dover, the central depth is 20 fbthoni^. Tiiis extensive basin
bontains various shallows and sand-banks; yet, generally speaking, the deptii increases in
going northward, and near to Bergen in Norway it amounts to 190 fethoms. A very inter-
esting account of the bed of the German Sea is given by Mr. Stevenson, Edin. Phil. Jour,
iii. 42. ; aad in the third volume of the Memoirs of the Wemerian Society.

The level of the open sea is believed, generally speaking, to be everywhere the same ;
or to form a portion of the surfiice of an oblate spheroid, to which the surface of the
land approaches with less accuracy. Some gulfs and inland seas appear to deviate in
some measure from the general rule. This is more particularly the case where the com-
munication of such seas with the ocean is narrow ; and there are a few other exceptions."'
When the general motion of the ocean or of the trade-winds is directed into the mouth of
an inland sea, it has a tendency to raise its level above that of the ocean. On this account
it is that the Arabian Gulf or Red Sea is higher than the ocean, and still higher than
the Mediterranean, which, from the opposite action of the wind and the great evapora-
tion, is supposed to be a little below the general level.f Some gulfs and mland seas, as
the Baltic and Black Sea, rise in spring, from the copious influx of river water, and are
lowered in summer by evaporation and the efflux at their mouths. Of late years, there has
been considerable discussion regarding the subsidence of tlie Baltic below the level it had
formerly maintained. Whilst some support this opinion, and venture to explain the cause
of the subsidence, others deny the fact altogether. The trade-winds and general westward
motion of the ocean force the water into the Gulf of Mexico, so as to maintain a higher
level there than on the western coast of the Isthmus of Darien.J The consequence of this
accumulation of water is, that it generates a current moving northwards; and which, after
various windings through the Atlantic, at length reaches the western shores of Europe, as
will be more particularly noticed hereafter. Some naturalists allege, that the debris, or
alluvial matters daily abraded by the action of the weather on the surface of the land, and
swept into the ocean by the rain and rivers, must, at length, raise the level of the ocean till
it cover the whole globe, and restore the reign of ancient chaos. Unless there be some
compensating process, which either makes up for the exhausted materials, or gradually ele-
vates the entire continents above the water, it is not very easy to guess at an alternative.
A compensating power is situated deep in the crust of the earth.

The taste of sea water is disagreeable and bitter, at least when taken from the surface or
near the shore ; but when drawn from great depths, its taste is only saline. It would there-
fore seem that the bitterness is owing_ to the greater abundance of animal and vegetable
matter near the surface. Man, in a civilized state, cannot make use of sea water as drink ;
yet it is said that the inhabitants of Easter Island, in the Pacific Ocean, make it their
usual beverage. Some of the lower animals occasionally travel far to drink sea water.
Sheep are very fond of licking the dry salt ; and so are horses and cattle. With them it is
a cure for various complaints. Several attempts have been made to render sea water pota-
ble, or to free it from salt Distillation is the most effectual ; but the expense of fuel is a
serious objection to this method at sea, and, after all, it does not divest it of all its bitterness.
Thus, in the midst of water, mariners are frequently in danger of dying of thirst, when
they run short of fresh water. Sea ice, when melted, aflbrds nearly fresh water ; but being
devoid of air, its taste is not very agreeable, though it would be highly prized in time of
need. A temporary, and in some degree an imaginary, relief may be obtained, by holdin<^
salt water in the mouth.

The saline contents of the waters of the wide ocean do not, so far as experience has gone,
vary much in different latitudes and under different meridians, although we ought to find
the sea fresher in the spaces occupied by the internal limits of the trade-wind, and also in
those tracts of the ocean where calms and a high temperature prevail, as on the west coast

* BIrabo says the level of the Gulf of Corinth i!> higher than that of the Gulf of Cenchreee,
t yUt Maclarcn on the level of the Red Sea, in the Edinburgh Philoimphical Journal.
( The mean height of the Fecifie above the Atlantic i> eaid to be 153 feet.

41' I

^■^

'm'

•mmL-

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY.

PamtII.

Black Bes 1.01418

While B(« 1.01001

Biillic l.OlSin

Lake Oiirmia, in Persia 1.16507

DumI 8ea 1.11100

of Africa. The moan is about 3.5 per cent, in tbo weif^ht of the water; but the MtltnesB i«
more or loss atfcctod by cunrents and iitornis. It is diuiiniiihed at the surrace during heavy
rainH, and by the discharge of rivors; but incroaHed by evaporation, which carries off the
water froHh, and leaves tlio salt behind : hence there in often little consistency in detached
observation!*. From a great variety of experimental, Dr. Marcot concludes : 1. That the
Southern Ocean contains more salt than the Northern, in the ratio of l.()201 to 1.02757.
3. Tiiat the mean spcciflc gravity of sea water near the equator is l.()2777, intermediate
, >^ l)etweon those of the northern and southern hemispheres. 3. That there is no notable dif-
i^^ ference in sea water under different meridians. 4. That there is no satisfkctor^ evidence
tliat the sea at great depths is more salt than at the surface. 5, That the sea, ui general,
contains mure salt where it ia deepest and most remote from land ; and that its saltness is
always diminished in the vicinity of large masses of ice. 6. That small inland seas, though
communicating with the ocean, are mucli less salt Uian the open ocean. 7. That tlio Medi-
terranean contains rather larger proportions of salt than the ocean. This last is explained
from tlie fact, tliat a pretty strong current ftom the Atlantic always flows inward at the
mouth of the Mediterranean, to supply, aa was supposed, the water which escaped by
evaporiition, and left its salt behind. So great, however, is the influx, that this inland sea
ouglit to hiivo become perfect brine, or perhaps to have deposited beds of salt, if there were
MO efflux ; and accordingly it is maintained tliat tliere is an outward current at the bottom,
very dcc|), which carries off this excess of salt, and prevents its deposition in the vast hol-
lows in tiie bottom. The water drawn up tVom this lower current is Salter, in a small de-
gree, than at the surface.

The following are the mean specific gravities of tlie waters of different seas, according
to Dr. Marcet'a experiments : —

Arctic Oci-an 1.02084

Ncirthrrn Hptniiiplicre 1.02858)

SniitliKrn llomisplicre 1.02f«!

Yellow fl.li 1.02««1

Mmlilcrrniioan 1.02030

Snit nf Mnrmnra I.OIUIS

The saltness of inland seas is subject to many varieties. In the entrance to the Black
Sea, the wntcr is much saltcr at the bottom than the surface. To account for this, it is said
that an under current enters from the Mediterranean. It is well known that there is an
outward current at the surface, which brings with it the less salt water of the Black Sea.
The saltness of inland seas is often affected by the direction and strength of the wind, either
forcing in, or retarding the entrance of, water from the ocean. Accordingly, from the expe-
riments of Wilcke, it appears that the saltness of the Baltic is increased by a west wind, and
still more so by a north-west wind ; but it undergoes a diminution when the wind is fh>m
the east Thus, the specific gravities are, for a

Wind at W 1.0087 I Ptorm at W 1.0118

DiltontN.W 1.0098 | Wind at E l.OOW

Hence, the proportion of salt in the Baltic depends in no small degree on the different winds;
a proof that tiic salt is not only derived from the neighbouring ocean, but that storms have a
much greater effect on it than has been commonly supposed.

The constituent parts of sea water have been an object of examination to many chemists,
and various sets of experiments made to determine them. The late Dr. Murray of Edin-
burgh was of opinion that there were various sources of fallacy in analysing sea water; and
that different modes of operating on the same water gave very different results. Two
reasons are assigned for this ; viz. that some of the different mlta mutually decompose each
other in the process, and that a part is lost altogether by evaporation, especially if the tem-
perature be high. According to this eminent chemist, 10,000 parts of water from tlie Frith
of Forth, which is not sensibly different from that of the ocean, contain 220 parts of common
salt, 33 of sulphate of sodo, 42 of muriate of magnesia, and 8 of muriate of lime. On
analysing sea water from N. latitude 25° 30', W. longitude 32° 30', Dr. Marcct made the
numbers respectively 266, 47, 52, and 12. According to Bladh, the saltness is greater about
the tropics than at the equator. Dr. Trail maintains the contrary ; and also that the salt-
ness increases with the depth.

Ice is formed on the sea, though its saltness enables it to resist the process of congelation
at tlie ordinary freezing point of fresh water. This quality does not withstand the rigour
of the Arctic regions, where the temperature of the air has been observed so low as 55° F.
Sea Wiitrr freezes about 28°, but the temperature varies a little with the saltness. — It is a
curious circumstance, that sea water parts with its salt in freezing. Hence compact trans-
parent s''ii ico affords fresh water on being melted. When, however, the ice is of a loose
Dr celhilur texture, its pores sometimes contain liquid brine ; and therefore, on being melted,
it affi)r(l.-! bruckish water. It is supposed to be the affinity between the water and suit which
retnnis llic (.■oiinelation of sea water ; because the greater the saltness, the lower is the
fineziiijr teinprratiire. Detached masses of ice are occasionally met with, floating in the
ocean ut so low a parallel ef latitude as 40° in botli hemispheres ; having been conveyed

xjhemiBts,
1 of Edin-
ktcr; and
Two
! each
Ithe tern-
Itlie Frith
j" common
Ime. On
Inoide the
Iter about
\ the salt-

n<Tclation
he rigour
L 55° F.
[.—It is a
let trans-
|f a loose

• melted,
lit which
Icr is the
Ip in the

Iconveyed

A--

Book II

HYDROLOGY.

thither by cnrrnnls from tlio polar regions.* At tho parallel of 50° they are more abundant;
and there it is common, in wmtor, to sec tlic shiJlow I'dffcs of tho iea covered with ice. At
00° N. latitude, tiie g\i\fy and inland sens are frequently tVozon over their wholo surfliee.
As we proceed toward tlio poles, the ice Imcotnes more and more abundant, and of larffor
dimensions, till nt length wo come to fidd» of ice, and icebergs or moiuituins of ice. The
process of conj;elatioii conmionces at tho »\irfiico of the sea, with the formation of slender
prismatic crystals resembling wet snow : this the seamen call tludge. Tho mirfaco is at
tirst rough ; but, by the union of the crystals and the accumulation of the sludge, tho surface
becomes smootii and forms a continued sheet, which is next broken, by the agitation of the
water, into fragments of about three inches diameter; these again coalesco into a continued
sheet of u stronger texture, which is in its turn broken as before, but into larver fragment!
called pancake ice. Where the water is free fVom all asitation, the congelation goes on
more regularly, and some allege more rapidly. During 24 nours of keen frost, the ice fre-
quently attains a thickness of from two to three inches, and is soon fit for walking on : it is
then called hay ice. When tho thickness is about a foot, it is called light ice ; and when
three feet thick, heavy ice. Tlio term feld is given to a sheet of ice so extensive that its
farther end cannot be seen from a mast-head. Very large loosened pieces, whose boundaries
may be seen readily, are culled Jloes. Fragments of thick ice floating together are called
brash ice. Floating ice of any sort, sutRcicntly loose to allow a vessel to pass through, is
called open or drift ice. Indeed, there is no end to the terms which seamen apply to dif^rent
sorts of ice. The sudden disruption of extensive fields is sometimes produced by that power-
ful tendency to undulation of the surface, communicated by the motions of the adjoining
liquid surfiicc of the ocean during a continued storm, which is denominated a ground swell.
The ice, when thin, merely yields ; but, if thick and little flexible, it is broken with tre-
mendous noise. A very interesting account of such a phenomenon is given by a party of
missionaries who passed along tho coast of Labrador in sledges drawn by dogs. They nar-
rowly escaped destruction ; but were near enouj^h to witness all its grandeur. " The mis-
sionaries met a sledge with Efwiuimnux turning in from the sea, who threw out some hint^
that it might be us well for them to return. Afler some time, their own Estiuimaux hinted
that there was a ground swell under the ice. It was then scarcely perceptible, except on
lying down and applying the car close to tho ice, when a hollow disagreeable grating noise
was heard ascendmg from the abyss. As the motion of the sea under tho ice hacTgrown
more perceptible, they became alarmed, luid began to think it prudent to keep close to the
shore. Tho ice also had fissures in many places, some of which formed chasms of one or
two feet ; but as these arc not uncommon even in its best state, and tho dogs easily leap
over them, they are frightful only to strangers. As tlie wind rose to a storm, the swell had
now increased so much that its effects on t)ic ice were extraordinary, and really alarming.
The sledges, insteod of gliding smoothly along as on an even surface, sometimes ran wiUi
violence after the dogs, and sometimes seemed with difficulty to ascend a rising hill. Noises,
too, were now distinctly heard in many directions, like the report of cannon, from the burst-
ing of tlie ico at a distance. Alarmed by tliese irightfiil phenomena, our travellers drove
with all haste towards the sliorc ; and us tliey approached it, the prospect before them was
tremendous. The ice, having burst loose from the rocks, was tossed to and fro, and broken
in a thousand pieces against the precipices with a dreadful noise ; which, added to the raging
of the sea, the roaring of tho wind, and the driving of the snow, so completely overpowered
them as almost to deprive them of the use botli of their eyes and ears. To make the land
was now tho only resource that remained ; but it was with the utmost difficulty that the
frightened dogs could be driven forward ; and as the whole body of tlie ice frequently sunk
below the summits of tlic rocks, and tlien rose above them, the only tunc for landing was the
moment it gained the level of the coast, — a circumstance which rendered the attempt
extremely nice and hazardous. Both sledges, however, succeeded in gaining the shore, and
were drawn up on' the beach, though not without great difficulty. Scarcely had they reached
it, when that part of tlie ice from which they had just escaped burst asunder, and the water,
rushing up from beneath, instantly precipitated it into the ocean. In a moment, as if by
signal, the whole mass of ice for several miles along the const, and extending as far as the
eye could reach, began to break and to be overwhelmed with the waves. The spectacle was
awfully grand. Tlie immense fields of ice rising out of the ocean, clashing against one
another, and then plunging into tho deep with a violence which no language can describe,
and a noise like the discharge of a thousand cannon, was a sight which must have struck the.
most unrodocting mind with solemn awe. The brethren were overwhelmed with amaze-
ment nt Ihnir miraculous escape; and even the pagan Esquimaux expressed gratitude to
God lor their deliverance. "t

Tho term icvUrg i.s applied to huge masses of ice resembling mountains, whether resting
on the land or lloating on tlie sea. The latter part appear to be sometimes formed in the

li;Jr ■'

i. n

* Horahiireh inriilniiH iccbprgii having been mot with in Sonlli lat.35° M)', nidWest long. 17° 50'. — PkiLMig.
f Brnwn'H History uf Die Propagation of Christianity, vol. ii. p. 17

Vol, I. 17 Z

IIM

SCIKNCE OP GEOGRAIMIV.

PabtII,

•CK itxoir, by tlin accumiilation of ico and riiow ; at other timoH In ho fVn((tnont« of lond icci-
ber^rNor)r|ncicni, which have b«3cn pilinj; upon tho i<horo till quite overgrown, nnil ultimately
IimIomi fliid launched into tho ocean by their own weight. MoMeii of thiH imrt abound in
Uifl'iii'n lliiy, where Iheyaro RomotimeH two miles lonir, ami half or one third an bnmd. They
are hriHtletl with variouo Roircs, risinjir, perhaps, 1(N) feet above the surfiice, and doHcf^ndiii);
li'ilf iiH much below it. When compact ico flouts in water, the port under tho Nurthct^ in
iiliout nine times ns groat os that alxivo it; and hence the icebergs may sometimoH denceud
fi) n j;rc:it depth, thouf^h they should be fiir from consisting of very comiMict ico. Icpber),'rt
of (in even surface, rising 00 feet abovu the sen, and having on area of five or six sipiari!
Miilo", lire very common. Thono of East Greenland are of inferior size, and they aro still
sniollor around Spit/.bergcn, where some of enormous dimensions occur on shore. The
reason which Mr. Sroresby aNsigns for this is, that, owing to the shallowncfs of tho water
into which tho huge moiwuH are precipitatc<l, they are all shattered against tho liottom into
a thouHand pieces before they are fairly launchml into deep water. " On an excurBion to one
of the Seven Icebergs, in July 1818," says Mr. Scoresby, " I was particularly fortuiioto in
witncswing one of the grandest effects which these polar glaciers ever present. A strong
north-westerly swell, having for some hours been beating on tho shore, hod loosened a num-
ber of fragments attacheil to tho iceberg, and vorious iKiaps of broken ico denoted recent
shoots of the seaward odgo. As wo rowed towards it, with a view of proceeding close to
its base, I observed a few little pieces fall from the top; and while my cyo whs Hxed upon
the place, an immense column, probably 50 feet smiaro and 150 feet high, began to leave
the parent ico at the top; and leaning majestically forward, with an accelerated velocity
fell with an awful crash mto the sea. The water into which it plunged was converted into
an appearance of vapour or smoke, like that from a furious cannona<lin^. Tho noise was
equal to that of thunder, which it nearly resembled. Tho column which fell was nearly
square, and in magnitude resembled a church, It broke into a thousand pieces. This cir-
cumstance was a happy caution ; for wo might have inadvertently gone to the very base of
tho icy cliff, fVom which masses of considerable magnitude were continiiolly falling." A
huge ina.ss of this sort which fcdl on a RuH,'<ian ship, broke the fore and main masts, xprung
the bowsprit, and flung the ship over with siich violence that a piece of ordnance was thrown
overboard from under tho half-dock, niid the captain and some of the crew were projected in
fJio same manner. Tho captain, however, CBcapcd unhurt ; but tho mate and two others
were killed, and many were wounded.

Icnberg.s variously affect navigation. They are often highly useful by protecting naviga-
tors from gales, as well as from the concussions of drift ice, which moves more quickly when
acted on by the wind than tho inaswy iceberg. To the latter, ships are scjmetimes moored,
hut not without danger; for these floating masses aro sometimes so nicely balanced as to be
easily overturned, should they happen to calcli the Imttoin of tho sea. The concussion pro-
duced in this way sometimes detaches large firagmcnts; and sometimes the iceberg rolls
forward, to tho imminent danger of the ves.sel, though perhaps 100 yards distant, — so great
are tho waves and whirls caii.sod by such an occurrence. Many dangers and discourage-
ments attend the navigation of tho polar seas : but ttie recent attempts to discover a north-
west passage through the Arctic Sou have rendered tho ice a subject of considerable interest.
Theso attempts have not yet been crowned with success: but difl'eront navigators have
brought such (lifferent«accounts of the state of tho ice, that it is probably vofy changeable
and very difficult to examine. It is not qtiite agreed that any navigator has been within 6°
of tiic North Polo ; although some accounts pretend to a still nearer approach. Captain
Parry, in his last voyage, reached to 82° 45' N. lat. The failure of Captain Cook's attempt
to pt<netratc to tho South Pole gave rise to an idea, which has been pretty generally enter-
tained since his time, tliat tho South Pole is surrounded with fixed ico to the distance of 18°
or 19° ; and a more recent Russian expedition gave .still worse hopes, as they could not get
heyond the latitude of 70° S. Mr. Woddoll, however, has since reached 255 miles nearer
the pole, and mot with no such obstruction: this enterprising navigator contends strenuously
tliat the South Pole must be free from ice, and might be reached by sea. Some of his argu-
ments aro rather plausible ; but tho question is involved in so many uncertainties, that nothing
less tliO/n actual trial con decide it.

The expansion and contraction of ice has important effects. Though water undergoes a
<rreat expansion in the act of freezing, yet ice obeys the ordinary law of solids, — that of
expanding' by heat and contracting by cold. Tiie effect, therefore, of intense cold is to con-
tract ice, which, if of largo dimensions, or fixed all around, has no alternative but to rend
wlicro it is contracting most. This is ofl<m attended with a tremendous reiM)rt. On tho
contrary, a rise of temperature may not only bring tlie parts to meet again, but often makes
them lap over, or burst up with great violence.*

The motion of the waters of the ocean is almost perpetual ; and it is believed, that without

* TIiP iiinst nntiitfnctnry urcnnnt if the [Hilar ico ia that of Scnrcghy, first puhliMietl in the Memoirs or Ibe Wei
neuan Natural Hiatury Society

mTlI.

id icft-
nntely
ind in
TJipy
mid ill);
thci^ w
occond
pboriJH
Hciimrit
ro Btill
. The
D water
om into
1 to one
iiiato in
i Htrong
a num-
1 recent
close to
cd upon
to leave
velocity
rted into
oiue was
18 nearly
TliiB cir-
y base of
img." A
ts, sprung
08 thrown
•ojccted in
wo others

[i(f navipa-
ickly when
>s moored,
m1 as to be

j
il

Iderpfoes a
I— that of
1 is to con-
lit to rend
On the
|en makes

at without

|arilieW«i

Boob II.

MBTEOttOLOOY.

19ft

this provision in the economy of nature the Hoa, in place oftnmporlng and purifying the air,
would both hncome putrid and exhale noxinuM vaimurH.

Wnve». The motions which firMt present themsnlvpH to our notice nro the partial and
iiltr>rnate rising and tailing of the surl'aco, known by tho name of undulations or woven. This
«>rt of motion is caused by the wind, which, bydiBlod|fing or depressing a certain portion of
tlio wiitnrs, has destroyed tho equilibrium or lovol, which they naturally endeavour to recover,
Waves in'iy bo cumparod to tho reciprocation of water in a syphon or bent tube. It was in
this way that Newton deduced tho velocity of waves, and tho time required to an undulation.
If water ascend and doscenil altornatoly m tho legs of a bent tube, and a pendulum bo con-
Ntnictcd whose length liotweon tho |viint of suspension and centre of oscillation is e(|ual t.i
half tho length of the water in tho tube, then this fluid will ascend and descend during eiicli
oscillation of tho pendulum. Hence the velocity of tho waves is as the square roots of their
breadths ; the breadth being the di.stanco between the tops of the ridges. In tho same way,
it may be shown that tho apparent progressive motions or waves through spaces equal to their
breadths are perfonnod in tno times in which pendulums oscillate whoso lengths are equal to
those breiulths. I lenco waves, whose breadth is 39j inches, will seem to pass over that sparo
in ono second. Waves are scarcely over without progressive motion ; but the real progrens
of tho surface of the water is generally small, compared to tlio apparent motion of the
waves; as is easily prove<l from any floating body which does not rise above tho surfiice so
ns to bo hurried forward by tho wind. Waves are distinguished into natural and accidentnl.
Tho natural arc proportional to the strength of tho wind producing them: — the accidontiil
are occasioned by repercussion of tho wind from hills and bold coasts, and by tho dashini;
of the waves on rocks and shoals. Divers, it is ssid. And tho waters perfectly still at the
depth of thirty yards, during the greatest tempest. But this can only be known of some
sheltered spots ; for when do divers descend in an open sea during a tempest 1 Waves are
always seen rolling towards the shore ; but an obstacle op|X)sed to them becomes tho centre
of a new series wnich spreads in circles. Ono sot of waves, however, may not interfere
with the motion of another, and they may mutually cross without interruption. Sometimes
the ordinary oscillations are combined with a distant swell, called tho bore, which rises
impetuous after certain intervals. Breakers, or waves which break against some obstaclo,
when formed over a great extent of shore, are distinguished by the name ofmtrf. The surf
is greatest in those parts of tho ocean where the wind blows always nearly in the same
:lirection.

Currents. There are two permanent and general sorts of currents in tho ocean, wliich
aro supposed to originate in two great movements, — that of tho tropical waters westward
round the globe, and that of the pcdar waters towards tho equator. But it is plain that the
latter, or polar currents, imply the existence of a Ihiril set, moving in the opposite direc-
tion; otherwise the waftrs at the poles would soon be exhausted, together with the ice from
which they are partly derived. It is well known that the rain, fog, or snow, which foils in
the polar regions, could never supply any perceptible current towanls the equator. The
movement of the tropical waters westward is ascribed to tho agency of the trade winds,
which, blowing constantly from the east, must impress their motion on the sea to a certain
extent But tlie 'resulting current is necessarily modified by the position of the great conti-
nents. This grand westerly motion prevails generally between 30° P. and 30° N. latitude.
According to Humboldt, its mean velocity is from nine to ten miles a-day. In the Atlantic
it separates into two branches, ono of which forms the well-known Gulf Stream. This
branch flows northward, through the middle of the Atlantic, till it reaches the Cape Verd
Islands : it then turns west, passe'; through tho Caribbean Sen, and the strait between Cuba
and Yucatan, winds round the Mexican Gulf, and rushes out by the Bahama Channel; then
spreading out to a greater breadth, it sweeps along the shores of the United States to New-
foundland. At this point it is deflected south-eastward by a southerly current from Baffin's
Bay, and piisaing tlio Azores and Canary Isles, returns in a groat measure into itself, and
repeats its circumgyration. The waters of the North Atlantic, between tho latitudes of 11°
and 43°, thus form a continued whirlpool, completing a circuit of 3800 leagues in about 31
months. Its velocity is greater as the depth and breadth aro less. Its breadth is 51
leagues in the Bahama Channel, and velocity from three to five miles an hour. In its
retrograde course from longitude 50° to the Azores the bremhh is 160 leagues, and velocity
from seven to eight miles a-day. An insulated expanse of almost motionless water, 140
leagues in breadth, occupies the interior of tho circuit. This grand current sends off one
branch near Newfoundland, which proceeds north-eastward, and sometimes deposits tropical
fniits on the shores of the British isles and Norway. In ITTQ, Dr. Franklin traced this
current, by means of its high temperature, quite across the Atlantic ; and, since his time,
it has been more closely traced, especially by Captain Sabine. A second branch, escaping
at the Azores, enters the Straits of Gibraltar, and forms the upper and middle current which
prevails in that strait Another branch of the great tropical current sets along the coast of
Brazil, and at length passes tlirough the Straits of Magellan. In the Pacific Ocean the
waters have a general westward motion from the coast of Peru, which must he partly sup»

HCIKNCE OF aEOORAPIlV.

Past II.

pliod bv the lut-montionml ciirrunt after iloulilintf Cbin3 Hum. The cnrrpnt fVuin the
coRMt ur I'oru M luiiM |)orceptil)l<!, till it vnUin tliu Indiutt (kcan ; wlirn, Htri'iiKthcntvd by tlin
iiiirthcrly currontii thorn, it fluwH nioiitf the cuturn cimat of AtVica, atiil (loiiliiox Ihu ('a|)« iii'
(i<Niil Hupo, in a rapid utrcuin, \M) niiietf bruud, and from 7° to 8^ wariiKT thiiii tho cunti-
KUuuH Hcu. A current fruin the H<iuth I'olu tetii along the wont Mf of Nuw Ilollniid into
llio Day of Bengal : it m mipixMod that other portionit of tho gcnurul |)oliir ciirrtMit dvtioct
tho great weiterly current northward, atlor it Iiom paaaed theiouthurn proniontorioH of Africo
and Aaiorica. In the Northern l)coun, in the ipoco compriHod betwoi-n Ort'cnlund and tlin
coostti of Britain and Norwiiy, and between I^abrador and HpitzbvrgiMi, a. gri^ut body of
watera, acted on by three or four latenil currentit, in luppoaed to perform a M.-rDotual circuit.
Theao watera receive their iuipulne eoHtward Oom a branch of the Oulf Htroam, which
nuMoa fVom Newfoundland ulong tiie north-woitt cooatii of Scotland and Norway, At tho
North Capo in Lapland, a great weaterly current tVuni Nova Zoinbla tnrni tho watera north-
westward along both aidea of Hpitzlicrgun. Beyond thit) iHland, being met by a current iVom
the pole, they turn aouth-wcutward, and paaa along the cuant of (irennland to Daviij'a Htraita,
where they are deflected tiuiithward by a fourth current from Duflin'H Bay ; and having re-
turned to Newfoundland, reconmience thnir revolution. Thua two great whirlpoolH, con-
nected with one another, touch at the Bank of Newfoundland, which Mccina to bo a bar cant
up by their conflicting watera ; and revolving inHippoMite dircctiona, occupy four-flflha of tlic
North Atlantic. The aniall current which euU trom the Bay of Biacay acroaa the mouth
of the English Channel, and through St. George'a Channel, Ih moat probably a branch of tho
Gulf Stream which had come oflT at the Azorea. Wore other parta of the ocean oa minutely
examined aa the North Atlantic, it ia to bo expected that other great vortices would be
diacoverod.

Local or temporary currents are produced bv winds, the discharge of rivers, tho melting
af ice, &G. In general, currents which do not duaucnd to a great depth are liable to change
with the winda, (nrticularly when they blow for a long time with oqual force, oa the men-
aooiu do. These winds give by turns entirely opiweite directions to the currents which pre-
vail from the Maldivia Inlands to Arabia and Zungucbar. When the supply of fVcsh water
in an inland sea falls short of what in carried utT by evaporation, itx level will have a tend-
ency to fall below that of the ocean; and hence tho water will flow into it from the ocean.
But, as formerly noticed, a continual influx of salt water, to be concentrated by evaporation,
must have a tendency to render such inland hch italter than the ocean ; and the saltcr water
being the heavier, naturally endeavours to keep under the lighter, which enters from tho
ocean. In this way, it forms an outward current in the bottom of the entrance. Such is
Haid to be the cose witli the Mediterranean, as was first hinted b^ Dr. Hudson in 1724. The
reverse of all this takes plaoo where the iiupply of fresh water m an inland sea exceeds the
evaporation, as is the case with the Baltic, tiie Black Sea, and the Sea of Azof. In these
the outward fresher current is uppermost, while the heavier saltcr current enters below.
Since the mean quantity of salt brought in must equal what is carried out, if no permanent
change take place in the saltncss of tho inland sea, it follows that the Salter current is the
rimaller of tho two. However, the weather sometinios produces temporaty exceptions to this
general rule. The current which flows into the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar
sots along the shores of Africa and Egypt to Syria, where it turns north-westward ; and,
joined by the current from the Diirdanclles, it makes the circuit of the Adriatic, then of the
coasts of Tuscany, France and Spain, and ultimately returns to the Straits, In the Cattegat,
a northern current proceeds from the Baltic along the coasts of Sweden ; and anotlier, a
southern current, enters into the Baltic along the coasts of Jutland. In the German Sea,
u north current sets from the Straits of Dover along the continental shore, while a south
current comes from the Orkneys along the British coast

Whirlpools or eddies are produced by the meeting of currents which come in difierent
directions. These, by encountering in a narrow passage, turn, as it were, about a centre,
which is sometimes spiral, till they unite or one of them escapes. The most celebrated
whirlpools are the Euripus near the coast of Negropont, the UharybdiH in the Straits of
Sicily, and the Malstrocm on the northern coast of Norway. Such eddies sometimes aug-
inent their force by means of two contrary high tides, or by the action of the winds. In
certain states of the tide, some of tiiem cease altogether ; but they do not fail to make up for
this afterwards. Their danger to navigation is well known ; but is, perhaps, inferior to the
dread which they inspire. They draw vcs-sols along, and dash thnin against the rocks, or
engulf them in the eddies. The wrecks, perhaps, do not appear till some time afterwards ;
or, indeed, they may never be seen at all, Tliis has given rise to the notion that these vortices
have no bottom. The phenomena and dread of whirlpools have aflbrded excellent matter
tor marvellous fables, both to the ancient poets and more modern writers.

The tides form a remarkable phenomenon, consisting in the alternate rise and fall of
the surface of the sea twice in the course of a lunar day, or at a mean rate every 12" 25°
14". The instant of low water is nearly, but not exactly, in the middle of tlie interval
between two liigli waters. Tho tide generally takes nine or ten minutes longer in ebbin;;

■ m

V-

below,
rinancnt

is the

to this
ibraltav
rd; and,
n of the
attegat,
lothcr, a
lan Soa,

a Hiiuth

different
I centre,
jlebratcd
Itraits of
TICS au";-
iiidf. In
ke up for
or to the
rocks, or
orwards ;
\ vortices
it matter

Id fall of
12" 25°
interval

I in ebbinp.

Book II.

v^ht

IIYDFIOI/KJV.

than flowinif. At the now ami fUll moon tho tidri attain tlie irrrateiit height, and thn in.
trrviil iM'twcni (wii lii;r|| watem in limut, vie. Vi' UY" '.^4'. At the minrtrrH of the moon the
tidcHiiri' the h-nnt, and the inturvulH tho Krentiitt, viz. Vi'' 'M)" 7*. I'he time of hi|;h water
IN moHily rcvuhtted hy Iho nmon ; and in (jencrul, in the open mta, in from two to thre*- lurtirx
allrr thiit plunct jiiinm-n the nieridiun, either uliuvo or under the horizon. On the NhorcN of
\urili' ciiiiliiiiMitN, and where tliere itru NhaHoWH ami otntniction*, Kroat irref^ularitieN tiikc
phicf III thiNreN|N'rt; and when theNo exceed Nix himrit, it may »eem iin if tho hijrh wnt< r
jircfi'di'd the iikioii'n imHMaKe over the meridian. TiiouKh tho tideH neem to be regulated
chierty liy the iiiiH)n, they appenr iiImi in a certain dojjree to bo under the inlhience of tlio
mill. ThiiN, at the Hvzi){ieH, when the nuii iind moon come to the meridian to|;ether, the
tiih'i", I'Vi^ry thiiijf else conxich'red, are the hiifhrnt At the qiiarterN, when the Hiin atnl
moon are IN)° drntant, thn tideH are leant. The former aro called tho upriiiff, the latter the
. tifiip tiileN, The lii|{heHt of the nprinif tideH in not that immediately atVer the new or full
nvH)ii ; hut In hi }(enenil tho third, and in wime caaoa tho fourth. The lowent of tho nenp
tiden iM-ciirH much about the name time ntler the qimrteri. Tho total mnpiitiide of the tide
in eHtiinateil by the diflbrence between tho hoiffhta of hif|h and low water. The hi^lier the
flood tide rlHex, tho lower tho ebb tide ({omirally «inka on the mmo diiy. At Brent, thn
medium Nprini; tide in about 19 feet, and the mean neap tide about 0. On other parts of
the count of Prance oppoHJte to England, the wateni, lieing confincil, rine to a (jreat hei|;ht,
and do so on liotli »ideN of tho Channel, At St. Male it is tVoni45toft()ft>et. Nearly im hlRJi
tidoH occur at AnnapollH Royal, in Nova Hcotiii. It in the obNtruction which the land pr^'-
Rents to the niotioiiH of tho waterH wliicli occaHJonii tiden of any conNenuence at all : were
tho (flohe entirely covered with water, the tideo would be very insiijniticant. ThuR, m the
I'acilic Ocean, tlio tiprin|; tide amnuntH only to Ti f<>et, and the neap to from 2 to 2.!S f(>et.
On the other hand, a free coimnunicatiun with tho ocean is indinpenHahie, to proilure a hiph
tide. ThuH, in inland Hean, the tiden aro very triflin)f, bccaueio the luminarieH act nearly
equally over the whole surface at the same time.

The height of thn tide increaaeH oa the eun or moon is nearer the earth, but in a higher
ratio. The riHO of the tides is likewise preater when the sun or moon is in the eiiiiator, and
less aH they decline from it When tho observer and thn moon are on the same Me of the
C(iuator, tho tide which happens when the moon ia above the horizon \a greater thnn when
she is liclow it. Tho reverse occurs when the observer and tho moon are on oppowite pidcti
of the eijiiator. If the tides be considered relatively to the whole globe and to the open Ken.
it appears thut there isa meridian alxiut IM)" eastward of tlie moon, where it is always high
water, both in the hemisphere where the moon is and in the opposite. On the we,it cide o!"
this circle the tide is flowing; on the cast it is ebbing; and on the meridian, whicli is iit
right angles to the same, it is everywhere low water. These meridian circles move west-
ward, keeping nearly at the same distance from tho m(X)n : onlv approaching nearer to her
when new or full, and withdrawing at the quarters. In high latitudes tho tides are \'ery
inconsiderable. It is prolmble that at the poles there are no diurnal tides ; but there is i-iaw
ground tor thinking that the water will rise higher at tho pole to which the luminaries are
at any time nearest, than at tho opposite.

Ti„. r..o..( wave which f illows tho moon as aliove described, and constitutes the tide, is
to be considered as an undulation or reciprocation of the waters of the ocean ; in which
tJiere is, excent when it passes over shallows or approaches thn shore, very little progressive
motion. In all this wo ore as yet overlooking the operation of local causes, winds, currents,
&.C., liy which these general laws are mmlilied, overruled, or even reversed. Most people
find little ditficulty in conceiving how the waters should rise on tho side of tho globe which
is n(!.\t the nuxm ; but there can scarcely be a harder task than bringing many to aeo why
the. waU'TR xhoiild at the name lime rise on the side which is turned from the moon. We
must, however, confine ourselves to a very brief and palpable explanation. The force by
which the moon draws any particle of our glolw towards her is greater when it is nearer to
ner, and less when more remote. The force, therefore, with which the moon attracts tho
particles on the side nearest her ia greater than the average force which she exerts on the
whol(> globe. These particles, therefore, rise or endeavour tf^ come near the moon. On the
other hand, the force by which the moon draws the particles which are farthest from her
Doing less than the average force, these particles endeavour to recede from the nuxjn, and in
80 doing they also recede from the earth's centre ; that is, they rise higher than the general
level. The action of the sun is similar to that of the moon ; but his being almost four
liundred times as distant, greatly diminishes his effect. At the new and full moon the
luminaries act together. an<l (iroduce sprinff tides. The highest of all are a little after the
autunmal, and before the vernal, equinox ; and the least spring tides occur a little after the
solstices. At the <iuarters of tho moon her action is opposed by tliat of the sun, and there-
fore itifip tiiles !ire the result.

Tho time of liiirh water deserves consideration. The precedin? is suflicient to show that
lliei)lioMninena (iftiie tiih^s an; etlects that miirht l)eexp«'cted from thn principle of attrarlion
or ii'r:ivit.atioii; l)iil since liie waters iiccessirily occupy some time in moving from one

lee

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY,

Pabt IL

I'll

ill!! I

place to another, this is tlic reason why the high water occurs, not when the moon is on tiie
meridian, but from two to tliree lioiirs uftorwards. /or the same reason, wlien the sun is
before or west of the moon, he hastens the rise of the tide ; and when behind her, he retards
it. Considerable extent of surface is necessary, in order that the sea should be sensibly .
affected by the action of the sun and moon ; for it is only by the inequalitv of such action
on different parts ofthe mass of waters that their level is disturbed. In imrrow seas, and
on bhores far from the main body of the water, the tides are not caused by the direct action
of the sun and moon, but are waves propagated from the great diurnal undulation. Of thi;^
the tides on tlie coast of Britain, and in the German sea, are remarkable examples. The
high water transmitted from the tide in the Atlantic reaches Ushant between three and four
hours atler the moon has passed the meridian, and its ridge stretches north-west, so as to fall
a little south of the coast of Ireland. This wave soon after divides itself into three branches ;
one passing up the British Channel, another ranging along the west side of Ireland and
Scotland, and tiie third entering the Irish Channel. The first of these flows at the rate of
about TiO mil(!s an hour, so as to pass through the Straits of Dover, and to reach the Nore
about midnight at the time of spring tide. The second being in a more open sea, moves
more rapidly, reaching the north of Ireland by six p. m. ; about nine it has got to the Ork-
neys, and forms a wave or ridge btretching due north ; at twelve the summit of the same
wave extends from the coast of Buchan eastward tc the Naze of Norway ; and in twelve
hours more it passes southward through the German Sea and reaches the Nore, where it
meets the morning tide that lotl the mouth of the Channel only eight Iiours before. Thus,
these two tides travel round Britain in 28 hours ; in which time the primitive tide has gone
quite round the globe, and nearly 45 degrees more. Various curious anomalies are observed
in the tides of particular places : such as their ceasing altogether for a day or two, at a
certain age of the moon ; while at other times they become considerable, though perhaps
occurring only once a day It is said that on some coasts there is never more than one
tide in the course of a lunar day, which is probably owing to some oversight : but it may bo
shown from theory, that if the observer's distance from the pole be equal to the moon's
declination, he will see but one tide in tl^e day. Small tides occur six times a day on the
shore of the Isle of Negropont.*

Tlie agency of the tides is probably very extensive in many of the operations of nature,
and in particular in those which regard geology. The late Professor Robison suggested how
experiments might be made to determine the mean density of the globe, from the temporary
cliange which is undoubtedly caused on the directio:-. of gravity by the great body of water
brougiit to Annapolis Royal, and then withdrawn by the stream tides.

Sect. II. — Springs,

Springs are composed of the waters issuing from crevices in the earth. Of such there
are great varieties. Some of the principal distinctions, independently of the qualities of
their waters, are, — temporary springs, which only flow during a certain season of the year ;
perennial, which always run ; intvrmiitinfr, which alternately run and cease, either wholly
or in part, at short intervals; periodical, which flow and ebb regularly at particular periods;
spouting, which issue with considerable force, forming, perhaps, a jet of water. The mag-
nitude of springs passes through every gradation, from being scarcely perceptible, to con-
siderable rivulets. They have, likewiise, a wide range of temperature; but necessarily
limited between the freezing and boiling points. It is most usual for springs which are
large, and which appear to is^'ue from a considerable depth, to have nearly the mean tempe-
rature of the place ; and in some instances the temperature is remarkably steady, — not the
slightest variation being perceptible in the course of the year. Hence apparently, or rela-
tively to the air, they are colder in summer and hotter in winter. It is, no doubt, this con-
trast which has given rise to the popular notion, that good springs are really colder in sum-
mer and hotter in winter. Nothing is more common than to see a well smoking during
intense frost, which shows nothing of the kind during warm weather; but it does not require
a really high temperature to exhibit such an appearance, but only a temperature not so low-
as that of the air. The most that any spring keeps within the range of both seasons, is to
remain always at one temperature. The greater number of the smaller springs, however,
becoino a little wo'-mcr in summer and colder in winter; particularly those which come
along for a considerable way at a small depth under ground. By so doing, they participate
ill the temperature of the surface, which varies with the season : but all springs preserve a
greater warmtli than the mean temperature of winter ; and, excepting the thermal or hot
tiprinirs, tjicy do not reach the mean heat of summer.

Hot springs are tliose which preserve a heat above the mean temperature of the place.
Such iLs are merely tepid are common in most countries, especially in mines. Those having
II c<)ni<i(lorul)ly higlier tempt^rature are less frc(iucntly met with, and mostly in volcanic dis-
tricts ; but some of tlicm reach the boiling point, or are actually boiling and spouting forth

* Vide Bteveii«i>n°« nruat work nn llic Bell-Rock I.iKlit-liousR, Tor nbBervntionB on Tides in the Britiah Man

'1'

BooeIL

HYDROLOGY.

109

br in sum-

i the place,
lose having
Llcanic dis-
futing forth

litiali aaal

with great violence, which indicates tlieir having had a still higher temperature before get-
ting vent The most remarkable are tiie hot springs of Iceland, some of which are con-
sidered among the greatest wonders of the world. They are believed to be more abundant
in Iceland tlian in any other country. But the interest which the number and variety of
these hot springs excites in a person who never saw any thing similar, is quickly lost in the
feelings which are roused on beholding the magnificent and tremendous explosions of the
Geysers, as they are called. Besides the principal fountains, there is a great number of
boiling springs, cavities full of hot water, and several from which steam issues. There are
also some places full of boiling mud of gray and red colours. The silicious depositions of
the waters of the Great Geyser have formed for it a basin 56 feet in diameter in one direction,
and 46 in the other ; a projection from one side causing it to deviate from the perfect circle.
In the centre of this boisin is a cylindrical pit or shan 10 feet in diameter. Through this
the hot water rises gradually, filling it and the basin, after wliich it runs over in small quan-
tities. At intervals of some hours, when the basin is full, explosions are heard from below,
like the report of distant cannon, and at tlie same time a tremulous motion of the ground is
felt all around the basin : immediately the water rises in a mass from the pit, and sinking
again, causes the water in the basin to be agitated and to overflow : another and a stronger
propulsion follows, and clouds of vapour ascend. At length, strong explosions 'take place,
and, large quantities of steam escaping, the water is thrown to a height of from 30 to 00
feet, and even to 200 or 300 feet. The steam, coming into contact with the cold air of that
climate, is condensed into thick clouds, which are tossed and rolled with great rapidity ; the
whole forming a very singular and magnificent exhibition. After continuing for some time,
tliO explosions cease, when the basin and pit are found empty. Bursts of steam sometimes
take place, when the water is rising, without any warning by subterraneous noise. These
phenomena seem to be occasioned by steam finding its way from below into cavities, where
part of it is condensed into water, which water is at length forced out by the action of the
steam under high pressure. The New Geyser is somewhat smaller tlian the other. There
are many hot springs of less note in Iceland ; but perhaps the most curious of the whole is
the Tunguhver. Among a great number of boiling springs are two cavities, within a yard
of each otlier, fi-om which the water spouts alternately : while fironi one the water is tlirown
about ten feet high in a narrow jet, the other cavity is full of water boiling violently. This
jet continues about four minutes, and then subsides ; when the water from the other imme-
diately rises, in a thicker column, to the height of three or four feet. This continues about
three minutes ; when it sinks and the other rises, and so on alternately.

The natural jets of water, called spouting springs, only difler from the rest in comir
down sonie oloee canal from a fouLlainon a higher level. Being thus closely confined, they
burst forth in consequence of the pressure, in the same manner as the artificial spouting foun-
tains do.*

Intermitting fountains have sometimes been viewed by the multitude as of a miraculous
nature. One at Como, in Italy, rises and falls every hour: another at Colmars, in
Provence, rises eight times as often. At Fronzanches, in Languedoc, one has a period of
24 hours 15 minutes. England aflbrds many examples of such springs; particularly those
on the sea coast, whose waters rise and fall witli the pressure of the tides. The town of
Tideswell, in Derbyshire, is named from a noted fountain of this sort which once flowed
there, but has now ceased to observe its tides. The principles on which intermitting springs
depend are attempted to be explained in every popular treatise on hydrostatics and
hydraulics.f

Various have been the opinions of philosophers concerning the origin of springs. Some
suppose tliat sea water is convoyed through subterraneous ducta or canals to the places
where the springs flow out of tlie earth : but in this way fresh-water springs could not be
produced ; because sea water cannot be freed from its salt by filtration. It is, besides, dif-
ficult to conceive how tiie water should filter vpwards. In order to overcome these objec-
tions, recourse has been had to subterranean heat, by which the water is conceived to rise
upwards in vajwur through certain fissures and cavities of the mountains where it is col-
lected, and issues forth, as we see, in springs. Others vory the iiypothesis a little, by saying
that the sea water is raised tlirough tiie mountains by capillary action ; but here we ought
still to liave salt springs ; and it has been further objected that a current cannot be produced
by capillary action.

Tlio most prol)ablo theory is that proposed by Dr. Ilalley, who maintained that springs
arc nothing iiioro than ii part of tlie water which fills on higher ground filtrating through,
and nflorwards issuing forth at a lower level. This, it is true, does not at first sight appea
to account for the permanent flow of springs during dry weather. To complete the theory
it is supixisod that the water at fii-st collects in large subterranean cavities, from which it
afterwards filtrates slowly, and passps towards the springs. The disposition of the rocks in

■» 'i't

* Vide Ed. Nkw riiil. Journal, vol. ix. for oliscrvations on apouting upringa and Artesian ivells.
t Vide Ed. NVvv Pliil. Journal, vol. viii. for an account of intermitting springs.

^^■^\

» . .,!*•

*«:

■JOO

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPIIV.

pAiir U.

strata contributes much to the collecting of the waters under the surfiice, ami conveyir.g
them without waste, as if in clowi pipes, till they ure united in fountain!^, lukos, rivers
dtc. Dr. Halley showed that the evaporation from the sea alone is a sufficient supply for
all the waters that the rivers carry into it. His calculation was founded on a very complex
view of the subject, and liable to several objections. Buifon took a more Hinii>lo view of
.the matter, by selecting one of those lakes that send out no strenm to the ocean, and show-
ing that tlio probable evaporation from the suriuce of the lake is equal to all the water car-
ried into it.

The thcorj' of hot springs is deserving of consideration. It has been ascertained that the
greater number of warm and hot springs occur in volcanic countries — wliere volcanoes for-
merly burnt or are still in a state of activity ; and of those that do not occur in volcanic dis-
tricts, some arc associated with trap and granite rocks, to which most geologists assign an
igneous origin. Hence it is inferred that they owe their temperature to the same cause or
causes as gave rise to volcanic and ignigenous rocks. That the heat of such springs is
oilen connected with volcanic action cannot admit of doubt; for, from the Geyser of Iceland,
the transition is almost unintenupted to the hot springs in the dormant volcano of the
island of Ischia, and from thence to those connected witii the process which formerly took
place in the now extinct volcanoes of Hungary and Auvergne. The hot and warm springs
of Bath and Bristol, however, occur in a limestone country wherr 10 igneous rocks are visi-
ble ; but these may be under the limcs^tone. This opinion is fui .her countenanced by the
fact that many of tlie hot springs met with in primitive, and also in secondary, formations,
occur in spots where the strata afipear to have been disturbed by igneous agency. Of this
there is a striking example at the hot springs of Carlsbad in Bohemia ; the hot springs of
Clifton issue from a limestone which appears, at an early period, to have been disturbed by
igneoi'i action : the hot springs of Pfefl'ers, in tlie Grisons, gush from a ravine from 400 to
654 feet in depth, and so perpendicular that the provisions required for the inmates of tlie
bath are lowered from ropes attached to the summit of the cliff, and so narrow that the rocks
in some places touch overhead, and nowhere, perhaps, are more than 30 feet apart. The
most obvious explanation of such a phenomenon is to be found in some convulsion of nature,
such as that caused by an earthquake, or the sudden elevation of a large tract of country.
The other hot springs in Switzerland appear in circumstances for the most part similar.
Those of Weissenburg, in tlie canton of Berne, rise out of a gorge of the same kind ns that
of Pfeflers : those of Ijouechi appear at the foot of the mural precipice of the Gemini : whilst
the spring of Baden, in tlie canton of Argovia, from which the only remaining one, that of
Schinzatii, is not far removed, lies near the [wint where, in consequence of the two moun-
tains of Staflelegg and Lagern having been severed asunder by .some great convulsion, the
waters of the Rhine and of the other rivers, — which appear to have once constituted a single
lake extending from Coiro in the Grisons to tliis mountain ridge, including the lakes of
Zurich and of Wallenstailt, with the intermediate country, — in one continuous sheet of
water, flowed off by the channel now taken by one of the rivers, the Limmat alone. Thus
the Rhine, says Dr. Daub<Miy, may be supposed to owe its original direction to tiie event
which produced one hot spring, and its present course to that which occasioned another.

Some springs apparently emit inflammable matter; for when a light is applied, it seems
to take Are like ardent spirits. But it is not so much the water that is inflammable, as some
gas which it exhales, or bituminous matter floating on ila surface.

Springs in the sea. Powerfiil springs are occasionally met with boiling up in the bottom
of the sea, so as, in some instances, to rise above the surtiice. From some of them naviga-
tors can draw up fresh water fit for taking on board as store. The natives, in certain places,
know where to dive under the surface of the sea for fresh water ; which, perliaps, may be
the only source whence they could obtain it.

Mineral waters, and the quantity of matter they deposit. Springs in their course through
strata convoy along with them portions of the strata, not only from higher to lower situa-
tions, but also from below npwards. They contain salts, earths, acids, metals, and inflam-
mable matters, of very varied nature: the variety depending sometimes on the nature of the
strata through which they pass ; at other times, as in those that rise upwavds in \-olcanic
districts, on igneous agency. Holfman remarks, that when warm and hot springs, and
those richly impregnated with mineral matters, occur in countries at a distance from active
and extinct volcanoes, we observe the strata from which they issue to be much deranged,
thus intimating that formerly earthquakes and other igneous agencies were ut work in the
district* where these springs now flow. The quantity of mineral water brought from the
interior of the earth by springs is very great; whether that matter is ab.Kliactcil from tiio
stratT traversed by the springs, or is brought by them from a great depth, iis in volcanic
countries. Blven some ciilcan-ous springs in Britain deposit annually vast quantities of cal-
careous tuffii and ealcanviiis sinter. In the neighboHrlioo<l of Edinburgh there are great
calcare{,ns deposits from calcareous sjirings that flow through limestone rocks ; and appear-
ances of the same description abound around all the calcareous springs in Enu'land. Near
to Clermont, in France, some calcareous springs, rising througli toc\i.AO^ granite and g%ieiss.

•*•

W'^'l\

" rr^ ^

Book IL

HYDROLOGY.

»1

have formed a mound or iiilt 240 feet high. Many of tlie great edifices in Rome are huilt
of calcareous deposits from calcareous springs. The hot springs of Carlsbad annually deposit
much calcareous tufTu and sinter. Other springs, as the hot springs in Iceland and in the
Azores, dc|iosit unnuully great quantities of silica. Salt springs also bring from the Ulterior
of the earth, and spread over tlieir vicinity, much salt, which salt may be derived from the
saline clays and salt beds through which they pass; in other instances the salt may come
from a grciit depth as an igneous production.

Chemical nature of spring waters. The water of springs, when very pure, is named
foft ; if iujprbgnated wiUi calcareous suits, hard ; and if impregnated with various mineral
matters, mineral. It was long believed tltat hard water was unfit for brewing and diitilla-
tion ; and hence soil water was often procured for these operations, at great expense ; but it
is now found that water which owes its hardness to lime is the most proper of all tor tlie
fermentation of worts. A time will, however, be necessary to remove the popular prejudice
in favour of soft water. We have, in the Table on the following page, given a view of the
composition of the most celebrated mineral springs.

According to some chemists, the salts found by chemical analysis in springs are considered
as existing in the waters ; the lute Dr. Murray considers the compound existing before con-
centration of the water as, in all cases, the most soluble salts that can be formed out of the
ingredients present. But, ui reality, so far from our having determined in any given case
the nature of the existing combinations between tlie ingredients, we are ignorant even of
any method by which such knowledge is attainable. If, says Berzelius, tlie physician
inquires of the chemist, what the proportion these salts bear to each other in any given case
may be, the latter must reply, that this is a question as to which we are at present entirely
in the dark ; as tlie proportion depends not only on the quantity of acids and bases present,
which admits being ascertained, but also on the relative force of affinity subsisting iJetween
tlie one and the other, for determining which we have as yet no data whatever.

Sect. III. — Lakes.

A lake is a body of water which does not communicate with the ocean. Independently
of the qualities of their waters, lakes are distinguished into several sorts : — 1. Those which
receive streams of water, and have an outlet, are tlie class of lakes best known. It is rare
for a lake to give rise to more than one river, which oflcn bears the name of the principal
stream whicii flows into the lake, though tlie two rivers may differ materially in every
respect. 2. Those which receive streams of water, and often great rivers, without having
any visible outlet. This class is less numerous than the former, and is confined to warm
climates ; but the largest of all lakes, the Caspian Sea, belongs to it. 3. Those whicli
receive no running water, but have an outlet, — circumstances which imply that such lakes
are fed with springs from beneath, or with small imperceptible streams from the adjacent
land. 4. Those which receive no running water, and have no visible outlet. Lakes of this
class, exclusive of marshes, are for the most part small, and merit little attention. Without
regarding the foregoing distinctions, some writers subtlivide lakes into two kinds, according
to the general character of the surface in which their basins ore situated : viz. those which
are formed in deep hollows between the ridges or at the foot of mountains, and fed by
springs or torrents ; and tliosc whicii are formed in low and level countries for want of a
general declivity, or dammed up by a mere accumulation of alluvial matter.

Subterranean lakes form a class of lakes diflering remarkably from all the preceding, and
are bodies of water contained in cavities quite covered over by earthy strata. It is only
when such cavities are laid open by earthquakes, by the falling asunder of mountains, by the
action of the weather or of rivers, by the operations of mining, or when the roof falls in,
that their situation becomes known. But they are probably very numerous, though perhaps
often of small size. It is not easy to account for the permanent and uniform flow of many
springs on any otiior supiMsitioii. Some of them appear to give rise to rivers, while others
are known to receive very considerable streams which lose themselves in the interior. Such
are the numerous cavities of the Julian Alps. It is to similar reservoirs that wo must attri-
bute the periodical disappearance of certain lakes situated above ground. There are some
caverns in Norway which affonl a passa^je to rapid currents of woter, as appears from the
sound heard through their roofs. It is natural to suppose that many strcnins, finding no
readier outlet, flow into subterranean cavities, are absorbed by the earth, or discharge them-
selves under ground into the sea. In this way may be explained the origin of those springs
of fresh water that are to be seen spouting up even in the midst of the waves of the ocean.
The waters thrown up by volcanoes, the sudden and terrible inundation of mines, the number
of rivers which disappear, the mountains w-hich are suddenly engulfed in tlic bosom of new
lakes, — all these facts leave no doubt of the existence of extensive subterranoan cavities
containing largo bodies of water. Tlie digging of wells has supplied a fact still more inter-
esting to pliysical geography. It oppears that there are lakes, or ratlier sheets of water,
which extend under ground to considerable distJinces. In digging wells near Aire, in the
province of Artoin, tliey always come to a cluvey bed ; which being pierced, the water gushes

Vol. L ' 2 A

; ;»

tpt!''

HI";

Tmi

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY.

PutT n.

TABLE OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE MOST CELEBRATED MINERAL SPRINGS. &c

am iiii

Cold.!

Cold;
Cold.
Cold.
Cold.

Cold.

2SSS|

|:;i

: I :

1 ; : :

o . . .

: :::5

i : : :"
J: : ; =

? :

■8

i;::

o . . .

: e» o5

: wto :

10.1
24.2
15.3
35.5

u . . .

\t %

1 ;

■ ■ -OOIN -Ui

: : ; o o : : 00

! : , (N m . . IN

1 \

00 toot-:
eoo'^fws

5§ :;i;§3S

S25

.US

r^oqqco
o r»t- m

■8
1
1

1 : i :

: : :

2 •

1 :«i :

:2 5

3»

\ \

j:s ;

•O

: «o

31 n

. <OI^

QO(N.H g

a • • •«

:3 •

; ao -ICO c

•s ...

5 : : :

■s

I.ooc

:«1

> o

.q •«

: u5 :o

o
=5

«CO 00 Tf

e? uo .

q«5 . .

5;2 : i

'• '•

■^ "? :
(N 00 :

I— «

25!

C>. . ^ iJO U"

to ; c5oc

tou? uj

n O CO

' : :

> . .

> .

• o .

:« :
! so ;

. CO

«5

15
1
u

: «-■<#

i-« •

. o . •

: 1' : :

: : :

to oio CO t-
eo rt « rt

o •

eo : :

: : : :

-toooc
to m o> c

O qo

"§ : :-

> too .

i dod :

1-^ f^

^ ; !

: : : :

■ '^ • •

8949

8950

8933

25320

138240

103643

8940

92160

58309

103643

14600

7291

75KI1

. c* ffi4
! ^%%

15360
58309
58309
5830!)
58309

"^o^

«-,«»

Bergmann

Ditto

Klanroth

Schmesser ....
Garnet

Ditto

Babington ....
Fourcroy

Fothergill

Vauquelin ....
Murray

Babington

Marcet

John

.2
Phi

t
t

«7

f Seltzer

Pyruiont

Acidulous. ' Spa

Carlsbad

Chultt'nham ....
Plonibieres ....
Dunblane

e :

Se2

2
n

>
"(3

QQ .

i
^

<!,

9
O.

•w
1

5
a

may be
no outlet,
wliicli are
ire concer
surface; a

Bi'SH

♦:

2SS

Book II.

HYDROLOGY.

203

forth in largo bubblcei, and forms pomiuneiit t>priiiga. In tliu coimlry of Mtxlena, \yo And
every wliere, iit the doptli of twenty yards, u bod of clay live Itiot thick; wliich being pierced,
the water t<|x>iit8 up with considerable force — indicating that it i.s connected with a reservoir
which stjinds at o higher level. There is a district in the interior of Algiers, where the
inhabitants, after digging to a depth of about 200 fathoms, invariably come to nater, wliich
flows up in such abundance that they call it tlie subterranean sea.

Lakes wliich receive niucli water, but have no outlet, were believed necessarily to com-
municate with tlie ocean by some subterraneous channel. The great distance of some of
them troin the ocean seemed to stand in the way of such an explanation ; and doubts might
still have remained, were it not for the discoveiy of the remarkable fact, that home of the
principal lakes of this description have their surfaces far d(!pressed below the level of the
ocean. Thus the surface of the Caspian Sea, which i.s the largest known lake, and without
an outlet, was found by Engelhardt and Parrot to be 334 feet beneath the level of the Black
Sea. A similar depression has been iscertuincd of the level of the tiimous Bead Sea, in
Judea, which is also a lake without an outlet. Its surface is below that of the Mediterra-
nean in its neighbourhood, and consequently still farther below the higher level of the Red
Sea. The true explanation as to the consumption of the waters of such lakes seems to bo,
tliat it is carried off by evaporation. The climates in which the two last-mentioned are
situated accord well with this supposition. The level of these lakes, liowever, varies with
the weather, and with the abundance or scarcity of the waters discharged into them by rivers
at particular seasons of the year. The variation in the licight of the Caspian Sea is from
four to cigiit feet ; but the level, at a particular jioint of its shore, must be aft'ected by the
direction of the wind, and probably by a very trifling tide. When tiio banks of lakes are
very porous, they cannot fail, during very dry weatlier, to absorb a large (wrtion of the water,
and to throw it off by evaporation.

The depth of great lakes has been seldom ascertained with much exactness. The gene-
ral depth of the Caspian Sea is from 60 to 70 fathoms ; but this increases towards the south
end to such a degree, that no bottom can be found with a lino of 880 fathoms. In lakes, as
in the ocean, the slope of the bank is continued downward tor a considerable way below the
water; that is, deep lakes are to be found in mountainous districts, and shallow niurshy ones
in flatter countries. The depth of liOch Ness, in the Highlands of Scotland, is in some
places 130 fathoms, which is tour times the mean depth of the German Soa; and its JKittom
IS actually 30 fiithoms below the deepest part of that sea, between the hititiidos of Dover
and Inverness.* The Lake of Geneva attains the still greater depth of 161 llitlioms. Many
other lakes are known to be excee<lingly deep, without the amount being ascertained. Seve-
ral have passed for ages as bottomless; but this opinion now obtains little credit. It is more
probable, that most lakes are daily getting more shallow, from being tilled up with mud or
debris.

The temperature of tlie surface of lakes depends on the climate and sca.-on ; but at the
bottom of deep lakes it undergoes little or no change throughout the year, and approaches
to that which corresponds to the maximum density of water, which different writers estimate
variously, from 39" F. to 42.5° ; but 40° is most commonly received. In Loch Catrine and
liOch Lomond, the temperature, at all depths below 40 fathoms, is 41°; but the mean for
the climate is 47°. The deep lakes of Tliun and Zug, in Switzerland, have a temperature
of 42° at the depth of 15 brasses. Thun was 41.5° at the depth of lOo brasses, while the
surface was 60° ; and Zug, 41° at 38 brasses, with surface 58°. The bottom of the Lake of
Geneva has a temperature of 42° : that of tiie I^ago Sabatino at Rome is 44.5°, at a depth
of 80 fathoms. Tepid springs may, in some cases, keep up the temperature, when they
occur at the bottom of lakes. From what wo mentioned of the Caribbean Sen, it docs not
appear that the climate has much influence ; and yet most powerful springs of fresh water
are known to boil up in its shallower parts. Such springs probably approach to the moan
temperature of the climate; or, perhaps, those who contend for an increiuse of heat with the
depth of the solid strata would claim for them a higher temperature. Deep lakes almost
never freeze, except in a very cold climate ; because the whole body of water must cool
below 40° before congelation could commence. Accordingly, neitiier Ixicli Ness nor its
elfliient river of the same name are ever frozen over.

The qualities of the waters of lakes are various, according to the nature of the substances
with which they may be mixed or contaminated. The principal distinctions, in this ro.^pect.
are fresh, saline, and alkaline. I^akes which receive much fresh water, and have a copious
efflux, are almost always fresh ; but those which lose much of their water by evaporation
may be slightly saline, especially if the neighlwuring soil abouiid in salt. When lakes have
no outlet, they are invariably saline. To account for this, two reasons have been given,
which are quite compatible with each other. The one is, that salt lakes having no outlet
ore concentrated [lortions of the waters of the deluge, retained by the hollows of the earth's
surface; and that nil other lakes were originally such, and saline; but those have had their

* Vidu SteveiiBon, Wurncrian McmoirB, niiil Etiinburgli Pliil. Journal.

1\ 111*

r. ' .;;;

^§wm

204

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAI IIY.

Part II

salt washed out and carried to the ocean, wliich are travereod by rivers or otiier fresh water
The other opinion is, that the salt in lokes has come from Bpriiigs, or been washed from the
soil of tlie adjacent country by means of the rain nnd rivers : for such laites are most abun-
dant where the soil contahis saline matter; and where lakes only lose water by evHiwration,
the vapour goes off fresh and leaves the salt bciiind. The Dead Sea is the saltest of all
known lakes, and appears to have been so lor upwards of 4(HM) years ; for in the book of
Genesis it is called, by way of distinction, the " Salt Sea," even at a time when the adjacent
plain was as noted for fortdity as it is now for barrenness. The waters of this lake are in a
state of saturation, containing about eight times as much salt as those of the ocean. The
salt must be accumulating in beds at its bottom ; for the river Jordan, which is brackish,
necessarily carries in more. Masses of bitumen frequently float on the surface, and seem
to rise from the bottom of the lake. The same thing occurs in other Asiatic lake?, some of
which are impregnated with borax. In tlio island of Trinidad, there is a lake which pro-
duces an enonnous quantity of bitumen fit for naval purposes.

Some lakes are both saline and alkaline, as is the case with a series of lakes in Jjower
Egypt These are called the Natron Lakes, from their abounding in soda, which is tliere
called trona and natron, the nitre of the Sacred Writings.

Lakes appear to have been much more numerous at a former period than at present, and
to have occupied a large proportion of the surface of the land. Traces of their existence
occur everywhere. Many of them have been filled up with debris, and become level plains
traversed by a river ; some have been drained by the gradual deepening of their outlets ; or
both causes have often operated together. Others have got vent through cracks caused by
earthquakes, or by the subsiding of a part of the basin. The kingdom of Hungary is sup-
posed to have been originally the basin of a lake ; and some go so far as to allege the same
of the Mediterranean Sea. Geological phenomena also show that new lakes arise, and old
ones disa])pear, during those great risings and sinkings of the land which have taken place
during former periods, and even now are not without example.

*rhere are several modes in which now lakes may be formed. In hot tropical climates,
many large lakes are formed during the rainy season, and entirely disappear on a change of
weather ; but such hardly deserve the name, being rather land-floods, though they would be
permanent lakes in a colder country. We have already mentioned the formation of a visible
or open lake from the felling in of the roof of a subterranean one. When a mountain falls
asunder, it often happens that it stops up a neighbouring river and valley, and forms a lake.
But the water of a river obstructed in this manner will always overflow, and can scarcely
tail to regain its former level, either by wearing away a cut for itself above, or by under-
mining the ruins beneath. Shallow marshy lakes are frequently formed by the surplus
waters of rivers detained on flat ground by an accumulation of mud. Ice and snow some-
times accumulate in narrow passes between mountains, so ns to obstruct and make the water
stagnant, and form a temporary lake, increasing perhaps for years, till at length the pressure
of the water is augmented to such a degree as to burst the icy barrier. The consequences
are sometimes dreadful. So great a discharge of water and ice, precipitated from the
mountains, tears up not only alluvial substances, but frequently portions of rocks, which are
scattered over the plain below. Thus villages and fertile fields are almost instantly con-
verted into deep hollows and heaps of rubbish. These cavities perhaps continue filled with
water, forming small lakes.

There are certain lakes which disappear and re-appear periodically, without regard to
the rainy season. Such are supposed to be filled and emptied in a manner similar to the
cavities of intermitting springs, or to communicate with some subterranean lake wliich
undergoes such periodical changes. That any lakes, remote from the sea, should communi-
cate with it under ground, so as to rise and fall with the tide, is very improbable. In
Portugal there is a small lake near Boja, which emits a loud noise on the approach of a
storm. Other lakes appear agitated by the disengagement of gas. Near Boleslaw, in
Bohemia, a lake of unfethomable depth sometimes emits blasts of wind which raise up
pieces of ice. Some of the Scottish lakes, and the Wetter in Sweden, experience violent
agitations even during serene weather. A coincidence of dates has given ground for believ-
ing that these agitations are connected with earthquakes in distant countries.

Sect. FV. — Rivers.

The origin and progress of rivers have been compared by Pliny to the life of man. " Its
beginnings are insignificant, and its infancy is frivolous; it plays among the flowers of a
meadow, it waters a garden, or turns a little mill. Gathering strength, in its youth it
becomes wild and impetuous. Impatient of the restraints which it still meets with in the
hollows among the mountains, it is restless and fretful ; quick in its turning, nnd unsteady
in its course. Now it is a roaring cataract, tearing up and overturning whatever opposes
its progress, and it shoots headlong down from a rock ; then it becomes a sullen nnd gloomy
pool, buried in the bottom of a glen. Recovering breath by repose, it ngniii diislics nlontr,
till, tired of uproar and mischief, it quits all that it has swept along, and leaves the oppnin<.^

regard to
ilar to the
kc which
communi-
bable. In
Iroach of a
lleslaw, in
raise up
Ice violent
Iforbeliev-

fcan. "Its
Iwers of a
y youtli it
titli in the
1 unsteady
hi opposes
lid ploomy
lii'S aloriL'i
lo opcnin^^

nooK II.

HYDROLOGY.

206

of the valley strewed witli the rejected waste. Now quitting its retirement, it comes abroad
into the world, journeying with more prudence and discretion, tiirough cultivated fitdds,
yielding to circumstancca, and winding round what would trouble it tooverwheliri or remove.
It posses tiirough the populous cities, and ull the busy haunts of man, temlering its services
on every side, and becomes the support and ornament of tlie country. Increa.sed by
numerous alliances, and advanced in its course, it becomes grave and stately in itti motions,
loves peace and quiet, and ih majestic silence rolls on its miglity waters till it is laid to rest
in the vast abyss." The sun and tiio host of heaven have, in all ages nnd nations, been
objects of sincere worship. Next to them, the rivers seem to have ttttri'cted the grateful
aclcnowledgcmenta of the inhabitants of the neighbouring countries. They liave every-
where been considered a sort of tutelar deities, and each little district, every retired
valley, had its river god, who was preferred to the others. The expostulation of Naainan
the Syrian, who was offended with the prophet for enjoining him to wash in tlie river
Jordan, was the natural effusion of tiiis attachment. " Wliat (said he), are not Abana and
Pharpar, rivers of Dama.scus, more excellent tlian all the waters of Judea] Miglit I not
wash in them and be clean 1 so he went away wroth." In those countries particularly
where the labours of the husbandman and shepherd depended on what took place in a far
distant country by the fulling of periodical rains, or the melting of the collected snows, the
Nile, the Ganges, the Indus, were tlie sensible agents of nature in procuring to tlie inhabit-
ants of their fertile banks all their abundance, and they bscume objects of gratefiil adoration.
Their sources were sought for even by conquering princes, and wlien found were worshipped
with the most affectionate devotion. These rivers preserve to this day the fond adoration of
the inhabitants of the countries through which they pass, and their waters are still held sacred.

The terra river is applied to any lorge current of water which is not in the ocean or its
branches, and which may discharge itself into the ocean, into lakes, marshes, or into other
rivers ; for the waters ot some rivers never reach the ocean ; as is tiie case with the Wolga,
the Jordan, and others, which discharge themselves into salt lakes, having usually th(! name
of seas. Wlien the atmosphere supplies a country witli more water than it has an opportu-
nity of carrying off again by evaporation, the surplus either penetrates through tlu,' surface
or collects into small streams, which, afterwards uniting and receiving the water of springs,
gradually form larger and larger currents, wiiich, if allowed to proceed increasinjr, !it length
become rivers. Some rivers proceed from lakes or marshes, but none come immediately from
the sea. They invariably occupy the lowest parts of the districts from which their waters
are derived, and these districts are called their basins. The Imsins are usually lM)unded by
high lands, and sometimes by mountains. They form natural divisions in physical geography.
Those of tlie Rhone, Garonne, Loire, Seine, and part of the basin of the Rhine, comprehend
the greatest part of France. In some cases, the boundaries of basins are not well defined ;
as where the surface becomes flat or marshy. This is the casc! between the basins of the
Amazon and Orinoco, which are connected by a natural and navigable communication. In
Europe, the sources of the Dwina, of the Niemen, and of the Borysthcnos, are nearly united
in a marshy plain. It is evident that the deep ravines through which rivers flow could not
in many instances be the work of the rivers themselves ; because the margins of such ravines
are often higher than other places of the district, through which the rivers ought to have
flowed before such vr.lleys were cut, as some fancy, out of solid rock. A more rational
explanation is, that a crack or rent, — the effect of some earthquake or subsidence, — had
taken place ; and that the water, getting through such rent, had gradually widened it by the
attrition of its sand and gravel : the still more corroding action of the weather would mate-
rially assist in widening the upper part of the ravine. Many rivers appear to have been at
first a scries of lakes and cataracts alternately, through which the water was conveyed from
higher to lower ground. The bottoms of these lakes are gradually filled up with debris,
the outlets are by degrees deepened, or the basins rent through as above described. The
lakes at length become dry plains, traversed by the river; the cataracts, clefts or deep
ravines ; and the river acquires, upon the whole, a pretty uniform descent. There arc traces
of these changes everywhere : the parallel roads of Lochaber, ns they are called, seem to be
nothing else than the horizontal shelves with which lakes are usually siirroiindod. From
these it appears that the valleys of Glen Glnoy, Glen Roy, and Glen Six-an, have formerly
been the basins of lakes, which are now cut through an(l emptied. Throe distinct basins
are observed in the course of the Rhine : first, that of the Lsiko of Constance ; the second
reaches from Ba.sle to Bingen ; and tlio third from tliis to the sea. They are separated from
each other by rocky straits. In many cases, the suhsidciioe of the water, at successive sUiges,
can ho traced from one level to another, by mreins of the difl'oront horizontal siiclves still
visible on the sides of the valleys. Sir Thomas Lauder reinnrked this, in the ahovf nimod
glens in the Highlands of Scotland. In the valley of the Rhino, Professor Pl.iytair distin-
guished four or five such terraces, at the successive heights of twenty, thirty, or tin-ty fi't'l
alove one another. The same thing occurs on the banks in the great chain of North .\morican
lakes which are not yet empty.

The larger rivers are, their fall or declivity is generally so much the smaller. The reason

Vol. I. 18

111

! 1

■'fl

-'■(•,

"l!:;:i

|||1|!P"

206

SCIENCE OP (lEOGRAPHY.

Part II.

of this is, that largfi rivers nncessarily occupy tlin lowest parts of the country; an J also, that
there are no materials of which Iwds of rivers are ordinarily formed, that could hav(! resiHtcd
the action of a jjrent river, having a rapid tall, during the lapse of ages. In the last 20('
leagues of the Amazons, the fall is only 10.5 feet ; and in the 30(X) miles above that, the
mean fill is only five inches per mile. The Seine, between Valvins and Sevres, has a fall
of nlwiit i)..") inches per mile. The Ijoirc, between Briairo and Orleans, has only one foot in
]:<,.%(!. Between the Himalaya chain and the hoh, the Ganges has only four inches jier mile.
'I'ho (Mitirn fall of the Wolga is 9-'J7 PVench feet, or five inches per mile. Notwithstanding
the rnpiiiity of the Rhine, it has only a fall of four feet per mile between Schaffliauscn and
Stnishurg; and of two feet between that and Sclienckonschontz. Sometimes a river falling
into another with great rapidity, and at an acute angle, will nt the time of flood force the
hitter to flow back for a short way. Such is sometimes the eflect of the Arve on the Rhone,
which is fiirced back into the Lake of Geneva.

The bnre is a phenomenon which occurs on some great rivers, which enter the sea with
ponsidcrnbly velocity, and experience a sudden check or obstruction from the flow of the tide :
the consequence is, that an enormous wave, known by the term 6orc, and various other names,
is generated and sent backward or up the river with great velocity, to the no small danger
nf the navigation. The principle on which this phenomenon depends is nearly allied to that
if the hydraulic ram : at the spring tides, it appears of a correspondingly greater magnitude.
In the Amazons, the lieight of this wave is estimated at 180 feet

Rivers are subject to inundation. In the Sacred Writings, some allusions are made to the
jvertlowings of the Nile; but those of the Jordan are distinctly mentioned, as covering all
the banks during harvest, and expelling the lions which lurked in the thickets, so as to
drive them infuriated through the country. Modern travellers, however, assert that this
river does not now overflow ; and they allege as a reason, that its channel is become deep
enough to hold tlie floods. It is as likely that the banks have been raised by the de|X)8ition
of mud and tlie growth of vegetables : perhaps the fall of snow and rain upon Mount Leba-
non, from which the floods came, is not so abundant since its forests of cedars were cut
down ; Ibr some travellers arc of opinion that this river must, from the accounts of the an-
ficnts, have been formerly of much greater magnitude, at all seasons of the yeai , than it
now ap|K!ars to be.

The excessive rains which fall in tropical regions, during a certain season of the year,
•<c<'.isioii the inundation or overflowing of the rivers which originate in the torrid zone.
I'hc following Ls nearly the general rulo for the rainy reason ; viz., that periodical rains
n-(>rywhcre prevail from the equator to the parallel of latitude over which the sun is
vprticul. Humboldt mentions as another pretty correct and still more general rule, apply-
ing likewise to the frigid zone, that the season of floods falls within fi)ur months of midsum-
mer. The floods of rivers originating in high latitudes proceed principally from the melt-
ing of the ice and snow on the mountains, by means of the summer's heat. Such floods are
violent, but of short duration, and occur in the four months preceding the summer solstice.
Some of these rivers have two, or perhaps three, successive floods, corresponding to the
seasons of tlmw in the low ground, on the sides of mountains, and on their summits.

The ancients were quite aware that some rivers derived their floods from the sources we
have just mentioned ; but the overflowings of the Nile, in a country remote from Iwth rain
and snow, excited their surprise. The mystery was, however, dispelled, when once it was
known that tlie Nile principally draws its waters from the tropical regions, where the exces-
sive peritxlical rains cause other rivers to overflow. The Nile begins to swell in June, and
contii.ues to do so till the middle of August, when it has reached its maximum lieight of
from 24 to 28 feet. With the exception of a few elevated spots, and some of the higlier
accumulations of alluvia) matter, on the margin of the river, the whole of the Delta and the
long valley of Egypt ie then covered with water. The rising of the Ganges, which is partly
owing to the melting of snow and partly to the rainy season, commences in April, nnil, like
the Nile, attains its maximum of about 31 or 32 feet in the middle of August. Tropical
rivers which move parallel to the equator spread their waters pretty uniformly over the 1om»
ground : such is the case with the Orinoco and the Senegal. In rivers which descend from
great elevations, or move at right angles to the equator, the action of the tropical rains is
extremely une()ual ; for the surplus water only overflows the low and flat districts. This is
exactly what happens with the Nile : but it is sufficient here to mention the general princi-
ples ; as the inundations of particular rivers will be described along with their respective
countries.

Waterfalls, or cascades and cataracts, are often formed by rivers in descending from pri
mitive mountains into secondary countries. Compact durable rocks are requisite for pro
ducing a permanent eflect of this kind : such are the cataracts of the Nile, of the GangeSi
and various other rivers. Some cataracts, like those of Tunguska, in Siberia, have gradu-
ally lost their elevation by the wearing away of the rocks, and have now only a rapid de-
scent. According to Humboldt, the height of the groat cataract of the Rio de Bogota, in
South America, long estimated at liJOO feet, is about 800 feet ; that of Staubbach is about

"»■

Book II.

HYDROLOGY.

307

000 feet. The small river Ache, in Bavaria, which rises in the cavern of tlin jflacior of
Mount Tnurnri, runs throu|;h tho volley of Anhenthal, and, after reaching the Gulf of Tau-
rcn, throws itnelf over an olevotion of "2000 feet. It has five ifrcat falln; tho lawt of which
•brnis a niowt inafrnificent arch of waters, which is resolved into spray before it reaciics the
f(round. The noise of tho waters is so terrible, that it is hoard at the distuncc of more thon
a league; anil the current of air produced by the descent of the water is so vioU.'iit, that it
drives Imck those who attempt to odvanco towards tho pulf: it is necessary, therefore, to
approiicli it by walking backwards. The full of Garispa m India is KKH) foot. One of tho
most considerable known falls takes place on tho river Niagara, whicli connects I.nkes Erie
and Ontario. The river here, just before the full, is divided by Goat Island into two prts :
tho one, 6(K) feet broad, falls to the depth of 150 feet ; while the other, 3.'» yards brouci, fulls
164 feet in perpendicular height In Scotland the most considerable falls are those on the
river Clyde, near Lanark, where the river is precipitated down three successive precipices
of red sandstone. In tho upper fall, that of Bonnilon, the whole river throws itself over n
precipice !M) feet high: lower down, M Corra Linn, it is precipitated from a height of P4
feet The lowest fall, that of Slonebyreg, consists of three stages, being broken by two pro-
jecting rocks ; its fall is 80 feet In tho course of tho river Foyers, on the side of I/)ch
Ness, there are two falls ; the upper fall is 40 feet high, tho lower 90 feet. In the miner-
alogical report of Lapland, presented to the Swedish government, the discovery of a great
waterfall in the river Lulea is particularly mentioned. It is said to be one eighth of a mile
broad, and to fall 400 feet; if the mile be German, as is most likely (equal to four and a half
English miles), the breadth exceeds half an English mile.

rces we
)th rain
it was
excesi-
uie, and
ight of
higlier
and the
is \mrtly
nil, like
topical
the low
I ml from
rains is
This is
princi-
tpectivc

torn pri
[for pro

Ganges,

jradu*

lapid de-

Igota, in

lib about

CHAPTER HI.

OGOaNOSY.

This branch of natural history makes us acquainted with the structure, materials, relative
position, and mode of formation, of the great mineral masses of which tho crust of tlie
earth is composed.

In conveymg to our readers a short view of this important subject, we shall adopt the
following arrangement : —

I. Describe the physiognomy of the earth's surface.

II. Give an account of the action of water and air on that surfocc.

III. Give an account of the action of volcanoes and earthquakes on the earth's surface.

IV. Describe the different structures observable in the solid moss of the globe.

v. Define and describe the different classes and species of rocks of which the crust of tiio
earth is composed.

Sect. I. — Physiognomy of the Earth's surface.

Dry land. The dry land, or the land above the level of the sea, is arranged into masses
of various magnitudes and forms. It is not equally distributed ; for a much larger portion
of it occurs to the north than to the south of the equator ; and the difference in this respect
is so great, that the southern half of the globe is principally water, while the northern is
chiefly land. About the middle of the last century, it was asserted that a great contment
must exist towards the south pole, in order to counterbalance the mass of land in the north-
em hemisphere ; but by the voyages of Cook and Bellinghausen, and particularly the late enter-
prise of Weddel, it has been shown that in high southern latitudes, in place of a continent,
there are but a few groups of islands. The absence of a continent near the south pole does
not itself prove that there is less land there than in the north, since it is possible that the
land in general may be only rather more depressed in the south, and consequently the ocean
is spread more ■ extensively over the surface of the earth in that quarter. Tho dry land
is arranged into two grand divisions named worlds, viz. the Old World and the Neto
World. The Old World, in the eastern hemisphere, extends from S. W. to N. E., and
comprehends the three continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Nrw World, in the
western hemisphere, extends from N. to S., and is composed of two continents, viz. North
and South America.

The general direction of the land in the two worlds is different In America, it is from
N. to S. : in the Old World, it is S. W. to N. E: and, if we omit Africa, it is almost parallel
with the equator. The longest straight line that can bo drawn on the Old World com-
mences on the western coast of Africa, from about Capo Verd, and extends to Behring'
Strait, on the north-east coast of Asia: it is about 11,000 miles in length. A similar linp
traced along the New World from the Strait of Terra del Fuego to the northern shore of
North America measures nearly 9000 miles.

"The Old and New Worlds have the following features in common : northern ond southern
halves, connecting isthmuses, a peninsula on the one side, and a group of islands on the
other. This arrangement will appear evident fi^m the following details.

! m

906

SriKNCK OK (}KO(!RAI'IIY.

I'aht II.

Tho olil world inny Ut conHidcii'il ah ciiiniMiNi'il of two i;ri<at lialvrH: tlin nno, llio wi<Mtorn«
iiicliiili'H Kiiro|M» iiiiil AlVU'ii; tlio olln«r, tlu« ciiHti'm, Anm anil Ni-w llolliiiiil. In tlm wontorn
liiilt', tint two coiitinrntx, vi/.. Kiimpo luiil AlVifii, aro connrcti'il to|;i'tlii'r liy tlio iNlluuuH of
Sill'/, mill liavo (III tlii< oiii) hiiiiil tlu< JHlanilMiirtlii- Mt'iiitrrraiittan, ami on tliti oilier tho pon-
iiiMiilii of Ariiliiii. Ill tho oitHtorn hall', tlio two (■oiilinonlH ul' Axia anil Now llollund uro, to
n ri-rtiiiii oxti'iit, I'oliiii'iUoil to^rcthcr hy tho iHlaiiilM of Java, Siinintni, il'r. ; ami in (Voiit of
this lintkiu isllimiiii is I'lijiiia and other iNlands, and on tho other Hide the |N>nin!'iilii of India,
'riie New World in eoniiNiseil of two ha1vt>ii, a northorn and ii Moiitherii : thi-He aro connected
(iiirelher liy the ii^thinuti of Darieii; and on tlio front aro Hitnuted tho WoHt India iHhindH, and
lii'hinil tile peniiiNula of ('iilifurnia, ^

Another };eiier:il feature in tho ^roneral diNtriliiitioii of tho dry land, Ih tho tn)M)rin|f of nil
the irreat |ieniiisiilaH to the miulh. Thin, li>r exainplo, In the cane with tho continent of Africa,
with Arahia, liidiii. South Aiiiericii, Scandinavia, S|Niiii, Italy, (iruece, Coroa, AliiHhka, Knm<
tchatka, ('alilorniii, Florida, and (ireenhtnd.

llewiileH the Old and New VVorlilH, u» aliove doticrilM>d, thero (x:cur, disporBcd thronifh tho
ix-eaii, niitiieroiirt NMiallor niusoe.s of land, tbrniiii); inlandri of varioim iimffnitudcH and tiiruiH.
Those i>liinilH situated near to the continontM aro coiiMiderod an h<donKin)f to them. Thux
the Dritish isles Mon)r to Kiirope, thotie of Ja|>an tu Asia, tho West India iHlnndH to
Aiiierioii, imd Maihiffasear to Africa, Hut huHides these there are other inland.^ and ^roupH
of ishinils, situated at a diHtanco from continents, and which cannot bo referred to any of tho

tireoHlinir divisions, hut to tho ocoans in which tliuy occur; as, tiir p.xainple, tliu Sandwich
HlamlH, in tho North Pacific Ocean.

SuRNKcr. I. — liifqimlitieii of the Sitrfucv nf thr Dry Iinnd.

Tim snrlace of the land exhihits (jreat variety in as|)ect, tiiriniii},'' iiinuntaiim, hills, viilloyH,
mill plains. The most j;eneriil of these features are what ;;eo{;rii pliers term hi^h laud and
low Idiul. llifth himh aro lolly, uneven, and widely extended miiHses of land : thus, tho
iiioiiiitainoiis tnii-t of country cxtendin;,' from the Na/e of Norway to the North (/'apo is n
liiijh land. Liup Imuh are widely extended low and flat coinitries: thus, tho northern (iiirt
of Kiiince, the Netherlands, llollund, imrt of fierniany, and Silesia; Poland, and l']uro|toan
llussiii form what may he called the jrreat Knro|H'aii low Iniul. Wo Hhall first explain the
structure of hifjii land, and next that of low liiiiil.

(1.) Sirurliirc of liiifh limit. In a \i\g\\ land, the centml [wirts aro gouorally tho most
rufrijed anil lorty, while the exterior districts, those which lionler on the low land, aro lower,
and less riii.'fred. The centml part is named nlpinv, the lower and tho exterior part hilly.
The alpine part of a liipfh land is coni|)osed of a central and lolly chain of monntaiiiH, named
the rrntriil, or hifrli mnuiiliiin chain, towards which there tend a (Toatcr or lesser number
of hitrrnl or princi;>al ; and from these iiirain SHhonliniitr chains. 'I'lio high mountain chain
forms the walir-shrd {divnrtia aqiiaruni) of the district; and tho hollows that traverse the
up|>er part of this chain aro named pa»»rs (roh.) On pasisinpf from one side to another of
tho alpine land, we do not always travel throni;h a pas.s or col, but somotimes across a com-
paratively Mat tract, many loaH;uns in extent; such arc namp<l table-liind». In crossing
from Norway to Sweden, wc pass in somo parts across a table-land ; also in tnivellinp from
Vera Cruz by Mexico to Acapulco. Tho inclined planes on which tho latenil, or principal
and sulwrdinate, chains aro distributed nro named the mdivitins of tho hii^h land. Tho
hollows that si-i'iirato thcso chain.s from each other are named vnllcys: those valleys lioiinded
by principal ciiains nro namwl principal valleys, nw\ sometimes truntvemt; valln/a ; while
the valleys between subordinate chains are named milmrdinutc valleys. Tho hilly or lower
part of the ''isrh land is coni|Ki8ed of comoaratively low and less rusjifcd chains, called chains
of hills, \\\i\J\ are irregularly grouped, lieing entirely without a central or hipjli mountain
chain. The valleys in this hilly land are shorter, less steep, and not so ruffged as in tho
more central or alpine part of the high land.

(2.) Stnirtiire of low land. Low land is formed principally of extensive plains, li«t.le
elevated alH)ve the level c*' tho soa, in which we occasionally observe fjentle risiii;.'s and
undulations of the surface, that ollen extend to .i considerable distance, and sometimes form
the limits between neijjhbourinff rivers. Now niid then conical and table-shaped hills rise
np sinijly and suddenly in a low country, as is the case with volcanic and iffneous hills, The
plains of the low land an- characteri.sed by the presence of pjirliciiliir hollows or concavities,
which are named rivrr-coiirses or rivrr-viiHcys ; because in those rivers flow. In such hol-
lows we ilistiiisriiish the bed of the river, and the holm or haiiu^h land ; further we observe
the /ii'n-A and low \mnks of tho river, and the ravines or small valleys, that traverse tho hiph
bank and terminate in tho low tank. There is still another kind of hollow met with in the
low land ; it is that in which lakes, {fenerally shallow, are contained.

Coast.i. The marjjin of the dry land, where it meets ).lio waters of the ocean, has received
the general name of con**. It varies in its aspect. Sometimes it is low and shelvinpr, and
then the neicrhbonrinfj gea is shallow to a considerabli! distance; at otl>er times it is steep,
lolly, and ni<.'!jed, and then the sea is deep. In many parts of Great Hritain, and on the

DOOK II.

GEOGNOSY.

auu

Lna, li'tlP

linK" ""''
no's torn*
|hi\l« rise
lis. Tin'
liruvitiop,
\w\\ liol-
. observo
I tlio high
1th in tlie

I rpccivcil

jrinjT, and

is steeP)

Id on the

rontiiii'iit, ns in IlDllnnd, tlio coaitt In lnw unil Hnndy, nnd the iiniul '\» ocrnaiunully blown into
hillH.

('iivi:<. Tlii'.ii' iin; nivilii'H nl" KrctitiT or Ii'hm rxli'iij, wliidi nrti (•illicr opnn ti> diiy, ■« in
llip cisi' (if till' iiiii^.niilid'nt ciivrM in tin; 1h1i< of FnIii, iIiomo in Arriin, liiimo nriir Wi'myxn un
the fill t ii|' I'Mc'^liiro, &r., wln-n llicy iiro nnnicd vxlirnnl or o/k'/i ravit ; or they iirii nioro
or h'MM fonri'iili'd in tho interior of tin; tdcMh in which thoy lire conliiiiird, iih Maclran'H Ciivi!
in thi' I di' of hi(;|r, und nmny cuiich in tlio linicMtono of DorliyHhiru : Hnch uru nuniud inlirnal
ciivrg.

HuwiMrr. 2. — Inequaliliei iif Ihf Sur/ari! of the Suhmarint: ImhuI,

Th(< iNittnni of tlin wn, likn thit mirtiico of tlio dry land, vnricN in form. In Homo mm
thori' iHM'ur llatx iind |diiinH rnn^in|i( to n conHidoriildn oxtont, und near to tiin mirfltcn id' tho
WRtcr, liinnintf what iiro riilhul nhmih ; in other euMOH, pliiiiiH, of Kreiit ('xlent, occur ihie|dy
neiited, or iniirh h<>low tiic Nnrfacu of the Men, which iiro iU>noniinated ilivp tubmnriiw plaini.
'rhoNo Huhm.'irine piiiinn, like tlin pliiinn on tlio dry land, Nonii!tinie.i contain IioIIowh of con-
Hiderablo extent, nnd of i^'reat depth; the <l(«op IioIIowh nnder the Hea off tlui c<Mi«t of Scot-
limd, known under the name of Sfimtroif pita, are of tliJH deHcriptioii. The wa bottom iH
HometiineH hiUij ; thuHo IuIIh vary in form nnd iiinf^nitiido, and arc either deeply neated, or
rino »lH>ve the Hiirfaco of tho water, forniinf; rockH or iNlandx. In tropical wcaN, tho iNittom,
when not very dnei>, ItocomoH enoruwted with coral; which coral Honietinios riMos to tho wur-
'Cnct^, and then formn vnrul nhouh, coral rirfg, or coral iiilfs. If tho lN)ttoni in very ducp,
bnt KouiU u|) tVoin 1m>1ow hillN whone HinniiiitN an; not far bc'low the level of tho ocean, those
in tropical scad uIho Iwcoino covered with coral.

Hbct. 11. — Ffffrcin of Waltr and thn Atmosphere on the Surface of the Lanil,

Water is a very nctivo agent in altorinf; and varionwly niodifyin^r the Hiirfiicn of tho earth,
nnd itH enerfjy is increased when it carries along with it mechanical matter, as sand, jjravol.
Sic, anil particularly when aided by tho gnawinj,' influence of the iitmospliere. Through
these agents tho whole snrliire of the dry land is kept more or less in a slat^' of motion, by
their breaking up thn strata, and removing with greater or less rapidity, the broken rocky
matter" fVom point to i)oint, and ollen into lakes nnd tho ooa.

Water acts mechanically and chemically: it acts mcchunicuUy when it removcH \wc\. of
tho soil or broken rocky matter over which it passes, or corrmles tho channel in which it
flows, or the reservoirs in which it is contained ; it also acts nu'clianically, when, on being
iinbilM'd by rocks, it increases their weight, nnd thus favours their rending, blipping, and
overturning; and, lastly, it actjf niechanieally, when, by its freezing in finsures, it breaks up
moimtain innsses nnd rocks. It acts chi'iniralli/, when it dissolves ixirticnlar mineral sub-
stances, as rm-k-salt, out of the rocks through which it percolates.

SuiMECT. 1. — Mechanical lUstroying Effects of Water.

(1.) Rivulets and Rivers. Running waters, in their conrso from the higher to the
lower parts of a country, carry along with them the debris already ])re|)ared by the action
of the weather on exposed rocks, and also more or less considerahlo ]Kirtions of the strata
of the basin in wiiich tlioy flow. The ([uantity of abraded matter depends in a great degree
on tho quantity of sand or gravel the river carries along with it ; it being a fact, that running
water, when i)uro, acts but feebly on com])iict strata, and displays its sciK)i)iiig or excavating
|Kiwer only when carrying ahaig with it sand, gravel, nnd such other matters, which com-
nninicate to it a mechanical destroying action. As the velocity of tho river diminishes,
its carrying jiower diminishes; and frequently, long before it has reached the marsh, lake,
or the sea into which it disemliogues itself, it carries only slime and slcech, leaving the
gravels and larger solid masses in higher parts of its course. The transporting power of
water is nmch greater than many aro aware of: it is strikingly shown by the enormous
quantities of rubbisli, and great blocks of stone, which are swept along by ri\ iilets when in
the state of flixxl or swollen. This transporting power is materially assisted by flio diminished
specific gravity of the rocks when hnmerseil in the water, by which their weight is often
diminished one-third, and even one-half. The transporting of heavy stones by water in
situations whore ice occurs is assisted by tho ice which adheres to them, and which dimin-
ishes the specific gravity of tho mass.

(2.) Lakes. Around the margins of many lakes we ol)serve a beach, formed of tho fi'ag-
inents of tho neighliouring strata, broken ofT in pnrt by the waters of t!ie lake. Tho bursting
of lakes also occasions great changes in the neighbouring country, which changes are of a
mechanical destroying nature.

(3.) Ocean. The waters of tho ocean exercise a powerful destroying ofTcct on coasts.
If tlie coasts are Iwld and rugged, they are violently assaulted by tho waves of the ocean ;
the crags and cliffs split and tumble down, in frightful and irregular succession. The perfo-
rated rocli, tho Diireholm, on the west coast of Shetland ; the perforated rocks described by
Captain Cook near New Zealand ; the stalks, holms, and skerries on the coasts of Shetland,.

Vol. I. 18* 2B

i\\\

ii-^

ttf"'

■i

m scrKNCR OP awMiHAPHY. Pa«t n.

Srotliiml, Bwl Norway, arc oft'citii of flm ilcHtroyiiix imwur of tho wnven of flic moiin, con-
jdiiii'il Willi till' Kimwmix actuiii ot'llm wnitlii'r. On iliiim) riH'ky ohihIh wIktp llii' Htriitii iiro
of uiii"<iiml linnlmwM, tli(> nottrr iKirtioiiH, uml nWt |Mirt of llio niirrdiiiMlinj; ImrdtT iimitu, nrn
ruiiKivi'il liy llio nction of tlii> wavi-*; anil limn ura-rai'rt lire toriiiiMl,

Tim wiitiTH of llm orciiii tirtcn iiIiki raiw I'.ri'iiiltlil riivii(;i'H in low roiintrifd i'.v|K)hp(I to
llii'ir tiiry. Itollitnd tlmiiiilirH iniiny Htrikini; i>xiuii|>I<>n of itn ili'viidtatiiiK power, In llie
yi'iir l-'*i» tlio wntofN nt' the ori-tin, ii)j;itittpil by ii violent teiii|)«'Hf, iniinilaleil the eoiintry j
ilie Uliiiie, HWollen lit the time hv e.vtraordiniiry (IihxIh, ami retiiineil iit a ((reat heifflit, |Mirlly
by till' wiitem of tlio ixtean, miif partly by the wiiwl blowin({ in ii contrary ilireelion to ita
coiirne, Kprend over the neiylilHHiriii;,' eoiiiitry : but, the tein|M!Ht luiviiii,' nuddeidy Htibnided,
the lnt'hly nlevtttwl waterM retired, with unrli velocity and forco ns to carry with them ii
ciiiiiiiderafdo |iortion of the noil, and letl in it» idiiro the mm nosv named tho '/.iii^ilrr Sin.
Ill the year I'Wl, a ffreat inundation wibniorKed the Kouthern part of the province ot llullnnd,
drowned (l<),(NHI porwiiiN, and on retirin(( formed the Hifn-lluoK.

The action of tho Hen on the mibmnrine land in alwi worthy of notice. Stovcnnon spcnkH
of nitritntiona of tho »ca reacliinf^ to a depth of iipwardn of 2(K) feet ; ntntint; that, at a con-
niileruble depth the power of the ocean in m conNiderablo nn to break rocka in piecea, und
throw them npon tho coasts in iiiaHMei), of varioiw ai/es and forma. Thiia ho aaya, " mimeroua
proot'a of tho a«ia boinjf diatiirbed to n coiiaidprHble depth liave alao la'currod ainc(! the erec-
tion of tho Bell-Rock lii^rlit-hoiixe, Hitiiated u|Hin a annkcn rock in tho aea, twelve milea ofl'
Arbroath, in FortUrahire. S<iino ilrift-slonvii of lar^o dirnenaiona, nieaaurin^r npwarda of
thirty cubic foct, or more than two tona wnijjht, have, during atorma, been often thrown upon
the rock from the deep water. Theae larjje lionhler-sfonta are ao familiar to the light-
lionae koepora at tliia atiUion, iia to bo by thorn tenned travellera,* On the couat of the muin
land of Shetlnml, particularly on the weat coaat, wo have obaerveil many atriking diaplaya
of tho power of tho waves in moviiiflf enormona ninaaea of rocka.

The currents that traverse tho neean, like rivera on the dry land, probably acoop out beda
for thomaolvoa, and carry awiiv, und often to distant placea, frtcnt ijuantitiea of abraded
matter. Tho pulf atreain, and other brunchca of tlio (jreiit etpiinoi'tial current, may oct
powert'nlly inthia way; and flie piime mny he the caao with the currents in other aciia,
nnd thiMi< that enter mcditerrunnaii acna and wind round them, oa tho Baltic and Medi-
terranean.

(4.) Arlion of wairr hy its own wrifrfit. Water by ita own weiRht contribntea very much
to the deirrndation of the siirliiee of the fflolie, Sometimea great nuiaaea of rock, particu-
larly thoae of a RolV and ixiroua nature, imbibe much water, by which their weight ia in-
creased, and tlina occasions breakinij nnd rending, and slipping of ^la8^e8 often of enormona
magnitude. Clay beds wnnetimes heconin soft from the jiercolutidn of rain or anow water
from the superincumbent strata. When this takes place the superincumbent beds loso their
anpport, ami if the clay and superiiiiposed rocks ure inclined at a conaideriible angle, the
rwks in vast masses separate, and slide down into the lower part of the country. The fall
of the Rosabcrg, in Hwitzerland, in September 1H()2, may be mentioned aa an e.vamplo of
this phenomenon. This mountain (Rosabers) is fillKl feet high, nnd lies opjwsito to tho
Rigiberg, which rises 0182 fed ataive the level of the aea. Tho Rosaberg ia com[)oaed of
molasse, with beda of clay, and nil inclined at an angle of 45° to .W. It is aaid that the
clay in some of the beds was much softened by the percolating water, nnd the thick aupcr-
incnmbent bods of molasse, in this way losing their supiairt, were aeparated from the inclmcd
and sort surface nndornoatli, nnd slid into tiie valley below. This avnlnnche of dcbria nnd
mnd overwhelmed several villages, nnd destroyed from 800 to 000 persons. In the year
1714, the west aide of the Diablereta, in tho Valais, separated, and in ita ccairsc downwards
covered the neighlKiuring country with its ruins for two miles in length nnd breadth ; the
immense l)l<K;ks of stones and heaps of rnbbish interrupted the course of the rivers, and
lakes were thus formed. In the venr 101-". the once considerable town of I'leurs, in the
Grisons, with the neighliotiring village of Rchehuio, were overwhelmed W a vast niaaa
of rock, which had imbibed nuich water, and seixiratcd from the south side of tho mountain
-of Corto.

(5.) Effectx of the frnziiiir of wittvr. In those regions of the earth where tho freezing
and thawing of water tikes place, tho expansive uml destroying nction of ice ia often dis-
played on n grand scale. In tho history of northern countries we meet with many accounts
of the noiaes nnd rendiiigs of rocks, occasioned hy the expansion of water during its freezing
in tho fltsiires of rocks. Terrible disa.sfers take pliee in nlpino countries by the bursting
nnd tall of great masses of rock, split by the freezing of the water in rents.

(().) Drslroi/inff pffirls of irp twil snow. Water in the form of ice causes considerable
changes on the snrfiice of the earth. Thus, when floated along in great innsses by rivers, it
breaks up their bank.s nnd thus ntlbrds them an opportunity of ileva.stating the lower country ;
and the ma.ssos are ofl»n so great, that enormous heaps of'^the strntA are thereby torn oft' and
carried to a distance. When sea ice is drifted against tho clifl's and precipices on the coast,
the breaking and destruction it occasions sometimes almost pass belief. For tho breaking

' vi • v:

r!.i!i S,-.r. IT/

II.

notm II.

GKOONOflY.

til

I, roll-
U\ II ro
w, iiri'

wril til
III till'
luiiiry 1
, (mrlly

\ to it*
l)lliull'>l<

tlli'lll 11
Vr S'fl.
lollnnti,

\ fipriik«
il It con-
cex, mwl

lUllHTOUM

llio cri'c-
iiiilci oft"
wariln of
)wn III""'
;lio UrIiI-
thi'»n<"'*
K di»l)liiy«

» out bt'ds
uf abrulfil
t, nmy "ct
jtlicr will".
ami Mcdi-

vrry niucli

:k, iinrticii-

•itjlil in ill-

f I'liormoiiii

^iiow water

loHO tlii'ir

uncle, the

Tlic full

'Xiiniiilo of

site to the
)iiHK»eil of
id that the
lick supcr-
.hc inclined
dolirirt tinil
[u thp ycnr
downwards
rciidth; the
riverx, nnd
'iirs, in the

Vlist 1111188

mountain

Iho freczint?
Ih oilen dis-
^ly iicoountti
litri fteczinij
Ihc hursting

lonsideraUo
lliy rivers, it
Icr country ;
Itoruoft'and
In the coast,
lie breakuig

up mid inovini; of InrKo nuuiMHi of nick, oii>' of ihc moiit pi verfuT engine* employed by
nature uro the irlncirrH. TheN*' iiiiihueH nl' riin|{ritli 'I WBter aii<l !<iui\v, 'n their coiirtndown-
wnril, piiNh iH'liirii them eiioriiiiiiiM i|ii(intitii'n of brofcu'M fieky matter, which fiiriil gtetA
MioiiiiiU, niiiiiud nioriuno.

HuMMrr. 'i. — t'himwal ilrxh 'i/iiiu l\ffirt$ nf Waitf.
AtliioNiiliorin water eiilrrii into thu lUNiire!* of rockn in 'i pure Ntate, hut inMiea ftiflh "Ifiiin
more or leHN iinureKiiatod with iiiiiierul iiiiitterN of viiriiKiH kiiuN nliraih'd tVom the strata
through which they |nihii. The nioNt uhiiiidant HiilMitiinco hriJii)(ht out in thin way tVoin tho
interior of the criiHl of the earth i* lime, which iM de|KiHito<l iVom t.hcsft rHlcarcoim water* in
tho l!irm of tullH. Many of the excavatioim in hmeHtono are (mrtly owinj; tu thjii df^stroyinpr
otil'ct of water. Sprint; watern, in puHHin^ throu|;h hed* of tfy|Niiim and rock wit, diMwdvn
a |x)rtioii of them, and in thin way HomutimeH occiiMion uunaiderable chanj;oii in the interior
and even thu Nurliice of the cartli, liy tho Nii|wrincumbunt ■trata yloldinn (*^'^' ^'i" holhiwM
formed by tho removal of the Halt and (fy|Mum.

HiiBKKrr, \\.—\ffchanirul fitrming FJfce.U i\f Wattr.

(1.) tWminff vffvrU of titrinif*. HprinK* briiiif from tho interior of the oarth muddy
matter of variuun iteMcriptionH ; and in thu coiirHo ol time, if the HprinffH aro RpoutinK-nprini^ii,
liillockH and hillH of coiiNideruble nmKnitiidn are thiiH formo<l.

('2.) liukiH. When lake* aro tilled up, or are eniiitie<l, we And the wpacc formerly occin
iod liy tiiem covered, to a ffreater or leiwi denlli, with tho alluvial matter broii(;ht into them
ly tho river* tliat How into them. When liiKe* humt tlioir barrier*, at different time*, they
leave on their *ide* a »erie* of natural terrace* or platfonn*, of which wo have a *plendiil
example in (ilen Koy. In Olcn Roy theHO terrace* are known under the namo of Pnrallrl
Rnath of Ulfu Roy ; liecaiiae *omo have fancied they were not natural arrangement*, but
work* of art, — riNul* tortned by tho ancient inhabitant*.

(:),) Riven. When river* aro in a Htato of fltNxl they nflen overflow their bank*, and
cover tho nei};hbourin)f country with their woter*. Thus the Oiuijjch, near if* mouth, in tho
rainy *oaM<)ri overflow* the country to tiie breadth of one hundred mile*, and to tho depth of
nearly twelve fectj and the Indii*, during it* period of inundation, extends thirty or forty
mile* ft-om it* bank*. Thi* fltHxl water carrie* with il muddy and other matter*, and dcpoHit*
them u|K)n tho land. Oenird say* that the annual fliKid* of the Nile hail raised the surface
of UpjH'r K({ypt about six feet four inche*, Eii|;li*h moamire, wince the commencement of'
the CliriHtian era, or four inches in a century. In other countrie* extensive depo*it«,
extendinif aloiiff the «iiies of river*, are fonned by the overflowiiiff of their water*. VVhero
river* enter lake* and the aea, they form triiinKular piece* of lanil named drltas, fVom their
resoiiiblance in form to tho trianJ(umr-^llapell Greek letter A. These deltji* ore more strongly
marked in lake* than in nearly inchxtcil hoiih, a* tlie IMediterrancan ; and in these sea* than
in tho ocean, where the deposition* are much interrupted by current*. The most fiimou*
in history of these delta* is that of tho Nile. This delta ha* been considerably enlarf^ed
since tlie time of Herodotus, but not to the extent stated by many writers. At no pjeat
distance from tho shore of tlie delta tho depth of tho Mediterranean is about seventy-two
feet, and fiirtiier out tho sea suddenly deepen* to 20<K) feet, — a depth very probably beyond
reach of the delta, and which may lie conjectured to bo tho orijrinal depth of this part of
tlie Mediterranean aea. The deltas of the other river* that flow into the Mediterranean,
as the Rhone and tho Po, exhibit phenomena similar to those observed in the delta of Effypt ;
and by their considerable extent, oiid annual prowth, furnisli ample proof* of the forminjj
power of rivers, and of tho resemblance of alluvial matter* to strata of an older date. The
great sea-<leltu8, or those formed where rivers flow info the ocniin, are sometime* on a great
scale, as is tho ciise with the Ganges, of which a most interesting account ha* been given
by Reiinel and some other writers. A full description of this tiiagnificciit delta, as also of
the vast deposite* at the mouths of tho Mis»is.sippi, Orinoco, and other great rivers, will bo
given in the Ixidy of this work. At present, however, we may remark, that the quantity of
matter carried into tho sea by all tho river* on the globe i* very great, and fully as consider-
able us that stated by some author*, who have been held as exaggerating the amount of this
earthy matter carried from the dry land to the shores of the ocean. Tho alluvial matter
brought down by rivcr* not only forms great tract* of land at their mouths, but also, through
the ogency of currents, ii««iBfed by tlie waves of the iKean, gives rise to extensive tracts of
low and flat land, which extend along the coast*.

Downs. When the sea-coast i* low, and the bottom consists of sand, the waves push
this sand toward* the shore, where, at every reflux of the tide, it becomes partially dried,
and the winds, which oflen blow from the sea, drill up some portions of it upon tho beach.
By this forming action of the ocean, sandy flats and ilownK, or ranges of sond-hills, are
formed along tho coast. When this sand is moved about by tho wind, it forms what is called
ilig sand-flood. Westward from the mouth of the river Findhorn, in Morayshire, a district
consisting of upwards of ten square miles of land, which, owing to its fertility, was once

i , I

SI3

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY.

Part U.

III'.

named the Granary of Moray, has boon depopulated, and rendered utterly unproductive by
the sand-flood. This barren waste may be cliaracterised as liilly ; tlic accumulatiuns of sand
composing tliese liills freijuently varyinj,' in tlieir heigiit, and liitowir'o in tlicir situations.
The sand hills of Barry, at tlio mouth of tiie Tay, composed of blown sand, are from 200
to 300 feet high. Belnelvic links, in Aberdccnsiure, and tiie extensive sandy tracu in tiio
Shetland and Western Islands, are of the same description. These blowing sands some-
times block up the mouths of rivers and rivulets : thus, many years ago, the mouth of tlio
river Findhorn in Moray having become blocked up with blowing sand, it cut out for itself
its present channel, which conducts it by a more direct course to the sea. In consequence
of this, the old town of Findhorn had changed its situation irom the cast to the west side of
the river, and its site has since been covered by the sea. The lake at Strathbeg, which
covers a square mile of country, on the coast of Aberdeenshire, about ten miles north from
Peterhead, was formed about 170 years ago, by the ciioking up by blowing sand of a small ^
stream that fell into the sea. These barriers sometimes give way, when tlie tract is again,
for a time, covered by the sea; a new barrier again rises, and the sea is excluded a second
time. These operations, on a great scale, would aiford alternation of productions of the land
and of the sea. The sands of the African deserts may be sea sands, or land sands, or botii
together. Dr. Oudnoy, Major Denham, and Captain Clapperton have abided to our knowledge
of the blowing sands of the African deserts. The coloured engraving of the sand-hills of
tlie African desert in Denham, Oudney, and Clapperton's Narrative, is a striking and in-
teresting representation of the form of the moving sand-hills of Africa.

Sand banks. The bed of the German Ocean supports many accumulations of sand,
called sand-banks. One of these extends fiwm the Frith of Forth, in a north-easterly
direction, to a distance of 110 miles, while another, the Dogger Bank, extends, north and
south, for upwards of 350 miles. The average height of these submarine sand-banks is
estimated at about seventy-eight feet : the whole surface of the various shoals in this sea
laid down in charts, according to Stevenson, is equal to about one-fifth of the whole area of
the German Ocean, or about one-third of the whole extent of England and Scotland. These
banks are composed of quartz sand, varying in the size of the grain, from coarse to fine,
which is abundantly mixed with broken shells and fragments or corals. These banks are
conjectured to owe their origin to the action of currents and the tides.

SuBSECT. 4. — Chemical forming Effects of Water.

(1.) Springs. Many spring waters, after dissolving, by means of the superabundant
carbonic acid with which they are impregnateii, calcareous matter abraded from limestone
rocks, or rocks contairing lime, allow the carbonate of lime to crystallize, in consequence of
the escape of the acid, and in this way form depositions of calc-sinter, or calcareous alaba.ster,
on the roofs, sides, and floors of caves; or fill up fissures in rocks, and form veins; or wlien
flowmg over the surface of rocks, form, if the surface is horizontal, horizontal beds — it
inclined, inclined beds — of calcareous sinter and calcareous tuflu. These beds sometimes
extend very far, and with a thickness of 200 or 300 feet The water of such springs, when
collected into hollows so as to form lakes, often deiwsits vast quantities of calcareous sinters
and tuffos; and hence sucli lakes, when emptied, present extensive calcareous dejiosits.
The travertine employed at Rome for building is a lake or spring calcareous deposit of
sinter and tufla ; and the town of Guancavelica in South America is built of a compact cal-
careous tuffa from the calcareous springs in the neiglilwurhood. In the mountain limestone
districts in England, also in tlie lias districts both in England and Scotland, the roofs, walls,
and floors of caves are often elegantly ornamented by numerous varieties of calcareous
sinter. In Persia, as mentioned by Sir John Malcolm, there are great deposits of a very fine
calc sinter, whicli is extensively employed for ornamental purposes ; and in tlie marshes of
the great plain of the vast circular valley of Hungary, according to Beudant, there is a
constant deposition of horizontal strata of calcareous tuflu and sinter, which are so hard as
to be used for building, all tlu; houses of Czlca being constructed of these minerals. Thf
|)ea-stono, a beautiful calcareous carbonate, is formed in very considerable abundance from
the waters of calcareous hot springs, as those at Carlsbad in Bohemia. As these calcareous
springs often flow into rivers, and the.so rivers terminate in the sea, it is evident that in this
way a vast quantity of carbonate of lime must reach the o<;can where it will be deposited in
the various forms of sinter, luffa, and limestone. The Geysers, or hot springs of Iceland,
and those of St. Michael's in the Azore.s, deposit on the dry land vast quantities of siliceous
.sinter. This siliceous mineral, which is sometimes like o|)al, although generally pure, is
not always so, being occasionally intermixed with other earths, and thus giving rise to par-
ticular mineral substances. Such springs also pour their waters into the ocean, and even
rise from the bottom of the sea sometimes a considerable way upwards, or even jot above the
surface level of the sea, all the time throwing out much water impregnated with silica,
which is deposited on the submarine land in various forms and states, depending on a variety
Df circumstances, which our limits prevent our noticing.

(2.) Lakes. Having already noticed the calcareous depositions from the waters of

Sect.

eby
Banil
ions.
•200
I the
loine-
if the
itself
acnce
iile of
which
I from
1 ginaU ,.
againt
second
[w land
or both
wledge
•hills of
and in-

3f sand,
•easterly
jrth and
banks is

this sea
e area of
1. These
e tx) fine,
banks an:

;rabundant
limestone
lequence of
[alabaster,
; or when
il beds— it
.sometimes
ings, when
lous sinters
Is dejHJsits.
deposit of
impact cal-
1 limestone
[oofs, walls,
calcareous
a very fine
marshes of
there is a
so hard as
irals. The
lance from
calcareous
ithat in thif'
leposited in
of Iceland,
of siliceous
tlly pure, i'^
rise to par-
ti, and even
pt alwve t\ic
with silicn,
m a variety

waters of

Book II.

GEOGNOSY.

SIS

some lakes, we may now mention some other dejjoaits that appear to owe their origin ic
lakes. The lx)g iron-ore, or liydro-pliosphato of iron, is often found in such situations as to
sliow tliat it has been deposited from the waters of lakes ; and in pome countries it is col-
lected from the sides and bottoms of lakes once in a certoin number of years; thus allowing
tliat it is still forming in such situations. In salt lakes considerable depositions of salt take
place; and wiien such collections of wafer dry up, or are drained off, the sides and bottoms
of the liollows are found incrusted with salt, wliicli is sometimes disjMiscd in bods alternately
witii buds of clay.

(8.) Marine incruflatinns. Collections of perfect and broken sea-shells and nf corals are
sometimes found agglutinated by calcareous, clayey, or ferruginous matters, forming banks
or bods of considerable extent. Beds of tliis kind, particularly those formed of shells, are
met with in many parts of the coasts of this island. In other coimtries, as in the West
Indies, a solid conglomerate of shells and corals lines a considerable extent of coast on
several of the islands. The human skeleton from the island of Guiulaloupo, in the British
Aluseum, is imbedded in a rock of this description.

SuBSECT. 5. — Effects of the Atmosphere, tj-c.

Effects of the atmosphere. The air and moisture of tlie atmosphere effect great clianges
on the rocks at the surface of the earth. They eitlier simply disintegrate the rock, or not
only break it down, but also occasion a change in its chemical constitution. Sandstone, and
other rocks of the same general description, oflen yield very readily to the weather; their
basis or ground is washed away, and the quartz, mica, and otlier particles remain in the form
of sand and grovel. When trap veins intersect strata, it frequently happens that the softer
parts of the rock are destroyed, while the harder trap appears rising several feet or yards
above the neiglibouring surface, and crossing the country like walls ; hence, in Scotland,
they are named tbjkes. The variously shaped summits of mountains and hills owe much
of their form to the destroying influence of the weather. Some caves, as certain open caves
in sandstones and limestones, are also formed by the destroying powers of tiie atmosphere.
The various changes in tlie form of rocks, by which they assume columnar, globular, tabular,
and indeterminate angular forms, and fall into scales, crusts, layers, g-ravrls, and saiuls, are,
to a certiin extent, effects of the destroying powers of the atmosphere. Valleys owe much
of their form and extent to the destroying influence of the atmosphere. Their sides and
summits, everywhere exposed to its action, become covered with debris; and in this way
valleys experience greater changes than are produced on their bottom by the passage of
the river, and on its sides by the rushing of the torrent. The chemical destroyinff etTects
are to be tracul to the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and to the vast (piantities of the
same matter which rise from the interior of the enrtii : this acid dissolves lime, abstracts
alkaline matters from granite and other similar rocks, and by combining with iron, converts
that universally distributed substance into a s-oluble carbonate. The oxygen of tiio atmo-
sphere also, by its action on the iron and other constituents of rocks, assists in breaking
them down.

Effects of electricity on rocks. Electricity, as a chemical agent, may be considered not
only as directly producing an infinity of changes, but also as influencing almost all that take
place. There are not two substances on the surface of the globe that are not in different
electrical relations to each other; and chemical attraction itself seems to be a peculiar form
of the exhibition of electric attraction : and whenever the atmosphere, or water, or any part
of the surface of the earth, gains accunuilated electricity of a difl'erent kind from tlie con-
tiguous surfaces, the tendency of this electricity is to produce new arrangements of the
parts of those surfaces. Thus, a positively electrified cloud, acting even at a great distance
on a moistened stone, tends to attract its oxygenous, or acidiform, or acid ingredients; and
a negatively electrified cloud has the same effect uiwn its earthj', alkaline, or metallic mat-
ter; and the silent and slow operation of electricity is much more important in the economy
of nature than its grand and impressive operation in lightning and thunder.

Sect. III. — On Volcanoes, and the Chanires thry produce on the Land and the Bottom of

the Sea.
The agents whicli the globe conceals in its interior, and whose existence is manifested at
its surfiiee, are made known to us by the phenomena of volcano(s and earthquakes. We
shall first describe these jihenomena, and afterwards add some observations on their causes.

SimsECT. 1. — Distributintt of Volcanoes.

Volennoes, as is well known, are openings in the crust of the earth, whence there issue
from time to time jets of iMiriiing substances and currents of melted matters whicli bear the
name n\' hinis. These openinirs are generally on the summit of isolated mountains; tiiey
have the f^inn of a fiituirl, and take tlie name of craters.

Position if volriinoes. Volcanoes occur in all quarters of the globe, and are often d'»
'.ributed in a linear direction.

m
T

I: i

i ii.
ii a!,

I'm

'Vl

4! I

' k";*

,jt»'

214

SCIENCK OF r.KO(JRAPIIV.

Part IF.

Dislrilintion. — Etiropo coiilains l)nt low Ixirnin^ voIciiiuhh, On llin coimt of Sicily, wi'
Hoe A']Umi rixiiifjf iiku u cuIossum to ii hcijrlit of 1(),H7() IOii;;liNli fbot On liio opiKwiii! uoaHt
of Iliily Nvn liiivn V'cHuviuH, wliiirh iI(m\m not uttuin more tliiui tlio third of this ulfviilion, viz.
iVXti l('('l. Iti'twcuii thcui, in the l.ipiiri iHlandn, wo liiiil the Hiniill volcimo of Hlroiiiholi,
uiiil tiio voh'iiiiiirs of Vuloano and Viiluunollo, wiiich Htill Hrn(lk(^ Tin' ixhuidH of the Aiclii-
pohijTd, at Milo and Kantoriiio, contiiin nionntaiiiH whicii, dnrin^r an rarly hiHtoric porioil, pro-
(hiccd torribh* i};nciMis pliononiena. Icohind in tin; north, in tlie midst of snow ant. Farther to tin; nortli, in the desolate and dreary Jan Maven's Islaiiil, extendinfr
between nortli latitnde 70" 40' mid 71° H', is the volcano of Ksk Alount, which rises to u
hoijjht of ir)(K) feet nliovo the Noa-l>eauli in Janu!'<on'H Hay. Tlift continent of /l(tin, as Itir
ns IS known at present, exhibits but few volcanoes. Wo can scarcely reckon three or lour
un itii wt>stern shores, or on tin; od^es of the (Jasniaii : there arc none in ibt northern part :
Hutnt' but va|r)iely known exist in Central Asia: in the east, the peninsula of Kamtschatka
contains live or six; but in the islands which surround this continent their number is j^reat.
The islands on thecoastof /\/ric«, suclias Iknirbon, Madapiscar, the (.'ape de Verd Islands, the
Canaries, and the Azores, also coutuin several volcanotw. In Amirini, if we except those of
the West India islands, we observe the jj reater jiart of them on the rid^e of that jrreat Cordil-
lera, which, like an immense wall or lolVy terrace, Ixirders the weHt<>rn part of that conti-
nent. They are remarkable not only on account of their iHwition, but also tiir their colossal
form, the nature of the ma.sses of which they are com|Kised, and the materials they throw
out. Torrents of tire rarely issue from them, but stn-anis of water and mud are of treijuent
occurrence: the total number of American volcanoes is iilHiut eifrhty-six; tln^y are placed as
it were in {jroups. The kinj^doni of (luatemala presi'iits alwiit twenty ; iii M(!xico there are
si.v, in the number of which is the Joriillo, ho well known from the account of Ilumlioldt.
But it is in Peru that the (greatest (Kcur: there are seven in that country, of which we shall
luenlion I'iehincha, nearly 15,9:11 feet hifjh ; Cotopaxi, wicli ri.scs to the heifjlit of 18,807
feet; and Antisana, which attiiins a height of ID.llUi i'eet. On a roufjh estimate, we state
the number of buruiiifr volcanoes includiiifr solliitjiras at :)()!<; of these 1!)-1 are in islands,
ond the other 109 are on the continents : tlu! most distant from the sea an; those of Aiin'rica
and .\sia ; in I'eru there are volcanoes thirty leaijues from the sea; and that of Poixicntepell
near Mexico, which, however, is now only a smoking volciino, is fitly-six leiii,'nes; and th(;y
occur in the very centre of Asia. The circnmstaiice of the most active volcanoes beiu<:f situ-
ated in the vicinity of the sea, is a fact worthy of beinj,' recollected ; it becomes still moro
so when we obs(>rve, that there are submarin<! volcanoes burning in the midst of tlu? waters.
The islands, and the phenomena which they have lieen observed to produce, at Santorino,
on the coast of Iceland, in the Azores, &c., leave no doubt respi^ctini; tlieir existence.

Independently of volcanoes in a stjite of activity, the interior of our continents ('oninins a
prcat number of fxtinrt vokanor.i, but which still present their oriffinal form, or incontes-
table remains of that form : perhaps no country contains moro numerous and splendid displays
of them than France; there are moro than a hundred in Auverffiie, Vivarais, and Cevennes.
They are conical niountain.s, composed of laviw, scoria^, and volcanic ashi-s heaiHid uiwii tjacli
other ; many of f hem present a crater, whicli has retained its form in a ffreiiter or less defrrcn ;
and sometimes there are seen as it were issuing from their bases lavas which extend to a
ilistjince of several thousand yards, and which have perfectly jin'scrved the form of cnr-
rmts : the matter of which they are composiMl resembles that of lava trap. VVe may fur-
ther remark, that volcanoes ore never or scarcely ever isolated ; they are collected into
irroups. This is the case willi the American volcanoes; those of Asm, and the* different
Archipeliijjoes are similarly situated : in Eiiropi!, the Greek islands and soethorn Italy i)re-
seiit distinct fjroups. Sometimes volcanoes ar^ arranged one after the oilier in the same
line, as is tlie ciisc in South America, and in the extinct volcanoes in the neighbourhood of
the Puy de Dome.

Si'iwF.rr. 2. — Phrnomena and Throry of Vnlcannrs.

Volcanoes do not incessantly t>mit flames, nor do lavas constantly flow from them ; they
remain tor ages in a state of inactivity. Vesuvius was extinct from time immemorial, when,
awakening t'nim its slnmlier, it suddenly rekindled, in the reign of Titus, and buried the
cities of I'ompeii, Ilerculaneum, and Staliiie under its ashes. It became quiet again at the
end of the fiHeenth century; and in l(i:l(), when it resumed its action, its summit wr.s inlia-
liited, and (hovered with W(xh1. The inhubitaiits of Catania regarded as fables the accounts
of history respecting eruptions of .Etna, till the perio<l when their city was ravaged, and in
part destroyed, by the lire.-! of that volc'uio.

Siibterrancmi noises, and the appearance or increase of smoke, which issues from the
crater, are generally the I'lrst symptoms of volcanic action. Presently the noi.se becomes
louder, the earth treiiibles, it experieuc(!s shocks, and every thing pr(x;laim3 that it is in
labour. The smoke increases, thickens, and becomes charged w^ith ashes. When the air is
traui|iiil, the >iiiol<e is seen rising, under tin' torin ol' an immen.se column, to a very great

tII.

f, we

COtt»*

1, viz..

\iTlii-

I, l>r«>-
,, ,,r.-;

jflil ut

•s U> u
, ua liir
or tour
n jmrt:
scliiilka

X (rrullt.

,i(Ih, llic

lllOMC of

t Ciirilil-

it CDllti-

colofwil
;.y throw
troiiuciit
|)laci!il us
llitsrt! are
luiiilwUlt.
1 vv(' HhiiU
of lH,H(n

\vo Htatc
ill islands,
,(• Anuirii'tt
l>iiitali'l>ull
; and tlioy

still more

1„. wiiUirH.

Saiitorino,

Mice,
couuiiis a

ir incontcs-

|li(\ (lisplnya
CfWfunoH.
\H)on «!icli
iss (lojrrcR ■)
■xtonil to tt

[nil of cnr-
,, may fur-
lectctl into
lie- (ViiTercnt
]i Italy pre-
ri the same
lurhooil of

Ihcni; they
[)rial, when,
1 buried tlie
Lpraiii lit the
It wr.s inha-
lie accounts
Igcd, and in

_^., from the

■se l)i'conie!i

Tliat it is i"

l>n the air is

L very great

Book II.

(JECJGNOSV.

215

hoij^lif,. There, fMidin^r itholf in a mnT ntniiiNphere, it cnuwH to rise ; its upper part dilatinjr,
torniH iiK It W(!ri! an e.\|)aniieil Hilininit, placed iiprin a lenfrlliened Nhal).. 'I'lie chxiil, with Uie
hU|i|><)rtiii<r eohinin, in liivoiirahie cireuMibtnlice.s, haH the li^riire of an iiiiiiienHe iiinbrellu, or
of tlie llaliiin piM(>, lo which i'liny the i'lider conipan^d that of tlie eruption of Vemivins in
A. 1). "0, and which was accurately represiinlt^l in OcUAh'.t, 18*22. At other times tlie snioko
disperses in the air: it there tonus thick and vast clouds whicii oliscuro tho day, and covci
tlie surroundin;,' country with darkness, 'J'huse ccdiiiiuis and chiuds are ollcn travi.Tsed by
cnornioiiH jcXn of re<i-hot sand, resendilin^j llaiM(!s, and rising to extruordinary heights. Home-
times Ihi'V are trav(!rsed l)y llashiis of li{r|itnin^r, un<i <jn ail sides loud explosionH are
heard. 'I hen then' are projected ri;d-hot stimes and niasH4^s in fusion. They issue from the
volcano with a noise which is fre(|uently vi^y loud. 'J'hey ris*; into the air, spreadin^r out in
their ]>rofrress, and liill around the month of tlie volcano under the (i)rni of showers of ashuH,
ficorin', or stxnies. The shocks and (piakinj,'s of the (Ground continue and increase in violence.
in lh(! midst of these convulsions, and on these accessions, the m<'lte<l matter which filled
the suhterruuean furnaces, alre.'uly carried into the mountain, is raist-d up by elastic fluidfl;
it ascends to the crater, iills it up, and passiuf; over the least elevateil part of this enormous
cavity, spreads out ujion the tliinks of the volcano. It then dcsc(;nds, sometimes vary (|uickly ;
Hometimes, and more liecpiently, as a majestic river, (piielly rolled ulon^ its peaceliil waters.
Very frt'tpiently, when the lava rises, the walls which contain it beintf unable to resist its
inunense pressun; or its heat, (rive way and hurst asunder. It rushes forth like an imp<!tuuuR
torrent throiifjh this new aptirture; rivers and torrents of fire make their way t<i the fixjt of
the mountain ; tlu^y s|iri!ad out u|Km the nei;r|||K)iirinjr p^round, carryiufr alon(<^ or huryin^r all
that they (ind in their way, hreakiu},' down or overthrowing,' every oi)stacle that op|)oses their
patisu^e. In tlit; midst of torrents of fire, enormous currents of water and nnid sometirncH
issue from v'olcanoo.^, and delujjes falling!; from the atmosphere increase the ravafjes, lay
waste fields which lavas had spared, and carry dei-'olation into places which hud ulrea<ly
thought themselves liappy in haviiijr escaped the scoiir^i's of the eruption. Mitphitie gases
and noxious exhalations sometimes arise, particularly in low situations; they destroy animals
and blast vejjetation, and thus complete the scene of mi.sery and di'solation.

Afler the emission of llie lavas tlu; (Mirth seems freed of tb(! evil whicli agitated it, the
carth(|uakes cease, the cxplosioii.s and ejections diminish tiir Hime time, and the volcanc
enjoys a moment of rest: hut i>reHonlly a new accession takes place, reproducing in a still
more terrible manner the same ))h(Miomena ; and this slate of tilings continiK-s during a
variahle periwl of time. At length the crisis cea-se's, and the volcano finally resumes its
original traiKjuillity.

Having premised this general account of volcanic action, we shall next treat of the huI)-
stanc(!s ejected or projected into the atmosjihere by volcanoes, and the lavas which they
pour onU

n. Ejected Mailers.

These arc, 1. Smoke. 2. Ashes, !J, Sands, 4. Scoriij;. 5. Volcanic bombs, 0. Unal-
tered Masses ?

(1,) Smoke. Tho enormous ctdumns of smoke which are seen issuing from the crater,
sometimes with extraordinary rapidity, are chiefly composed of atpieous vapour. This vapour
is generally charged with gaseous siilistances, and particularly with hydrogen gas, sometimes
also with carlKinic acid. Sulphurous ncid and muriatic acid an; also given out. TIk; .smoke
is gray or white; sometimes als(} brownish black, or fuliginous, and then the smell is not
unlike that of asphaltum, or mineral (litcli. It oflen contains a great quantity of volcanic
ashes.

(2.) Aslus. The.sc ashes, which appear to Ix; nothing else than the substances of the lava
reduced to a state of minute mechanical division, are fiirmed of flocculent and extremely
minute particles of a gray colour, and forming a paste with water. They are always mixed
with a greater or less «iuantity of sand, which gives them tho blackish colour which they
sometimes exhibit. The torrents of gas and va|)our which issue from the craters carry
these ashes along witli them, bearing them into the atmosphere, where they form vast
clouds, sometimes so dens(! as to cever the surrounding country with darkness. During the
eruption of ITecla in 170(5, clouds of this kind pnHluccd such a degree of darkness that at
Glaiimba, which is more than (itly l(>,igues distant from the inountain, people could only find
tlieir way by groping. During ilie eriiptioii of Vesuvius in 1794, at TasertLi, fiiur leagues
distant, peciple could only wiiik by the light of torches. On iIk! 1st of jNliiy, 1812, a clouil
of volcimie ashes and .sand, coming from a volcano in the island of St. Vincent, crjvered th
whole of Harbadoes, spreading over it so intensi^ a darkness, that at mid-day, in the open air
one could not (lerceive the trees or other objeets near bini, or even a white Irindliercliicf
plaee(l at the distance of six inches from tlie eye. The distance to whicli these volcanic
ashes are carried by the winds is truly astonishing. Barliadoes is najre than twenty leagues
from St. Vincent's, and lleela is filly liMiL'ues from Oliiundia. I'rocojiius relates, that in 472
the ashes of Vesuvius were carried as far u.s Constantinople ; that is to .«ay, to a distance of

-•fy

216

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPIIV.

Part II.

250 Icajrues. These showers of nslics proiluco, in llic countries wlicrc tliey fiill, uartiiy
beds, often of great thickness, whicli, on being licaped up and penetrated by water, form
some kind of volcanic tuffa.

(3.) Volcanic sands. Tliese are small particles of lavas which have been ejected into tlie
air in the form of drops, and there harden. Tiiey are notjiiiig but very (small sized scorim,
or fragmonta of onlinary scorin\ Tiiey arc, nioroovcr, mingled with numerous small crys-
tals of augite and felspar, or with fragments of these crystals. Tiie (luantity of these sands
which volcanoes eject is immense. Tiiey form tiie greater part of the ejections, and of tlie
mass of many volcanic mountains, of Alinn. for exuniplu, according to M. Dolomiou. The
tincst mingle with tlie ashes, and form ])art of the clouds already mentioned. Otiu^rs, accu-
mulating in too great quantity to be sustained upon tlie acclivities of tlie mountain, slide
down and spread out at its base. In the eruption of Vesuvius of 1822, a current of sand of
this description, still red-hot, was taken at a distance f!)r a torrent of lava.

(4.) Scoria. The gases which come from the depths of the volcano, passing through
the moss of melted lava with great force and velocity, carry off some parts of that viscid
matter, and bear them along with them into the atmosphere. They are there furtiicr divided,
in consequence of the resistance which the air opposes to them ; and, in cooling, they assume
the intumesced and slaggy appearance which the scorisu of forges so frc(iuently have.

(5.) Volcanic bombs. When the matter of lavas is projected in a soil state, as is most
commonly the case, it sometimes on cooling in the air assumes the form of drops, tears, or
elongated spheroids, to which the name of volcanic bombs is given. They abound in the
extinct volcanoes of Auvergne.

(6.) Unaltered ejected masses. Volcanoes sometimes eject stones, many of which boar
no marks of common fusion. These, by some, are considered as fragments of rocks, which
form the walls of internal cavities, and which may have been torn off and projected by some
current of elastic fluids; others, again, maintiiin that they are fragments of rocks, which
have been formed by igneous solution and crystallization. Fragments of these dubious
masses are found in great numbers on the Monte Somma. There they arc of granular
limestone, containing mica, and many other minerals besides.

Projectile power of volcanoes. Did our space allow of it, it would be interesting to
inquire what is the intensity of that force which throws such quantities of matter to so great
a height. We can only remark, that the greatest velocity in the case of ^Etna and Vesuvius
was found to be equal to that of a cannon-ball at the moment when it issues from a cannon,
the velocity being from four to five hundred yards per second. The gigantic Cotopaxi pro-
jected a piece of rock about an Iiundred cubic yards in magnitude to the distance of three
leagues.

b. Lavas.

Eruptions of lavas. When we have an opportunity of seeing the liquid lava in the
crater, it resembles the melted matter in our funiaces, and appears as it were Iwiling with
greater or less violence. .lets of the melted matter are thrown up from the liquid sur-
face, through the agency of elastic fluids. It is by these elastic fluids that the lava is raised
upwards in the crater. When the mountain is high, as Teneriffe or JEtna, these fluids are
not sufficiently powerfiil to raise the lava to tlie summit, or rather the sides of the mountain
are not sufficiently strong to resist the weight and force of the long and iieavy column of
lava ; it therefore presses or melts the walls whicli surround it, and thus forms an opening,
through which it issues with great rapidity. When, on the contrary, the mountains arc
comparatively low, as Vesuvius for example, the lava reaches the mouth of tliR crater and
flows over its lijis, and from tlienco downwards along the acclivities of the mountain. On
reaching the bottom they divide into several branches, according to the nature and slope of
the ground over which they flow. The currents or streams of lava vary much in regard to
the velocity with whicli tlioy move. This velocity deiiends upon the slope of the ground
upon which it flows, as well as upon the quantity and visridity of the lava. At Vesuvius,
M. de la Torre saw currents jiassing over a space of about 800 yards in an hour. Sir
William Hamilton observed one which traversed 1800 yards in the same time. The eruption
of 1776 presented another, which moved more than 2000 yards in 14 minutes. Hurlik
observed, during the eruption of 180.5, a torrent flow from the summit to the siw-sliore, a
distance, in a straight line, ot' about 7000 yards. Those we have mentioned, however, are
extraordinary velocities ; f(>r in general lavas move slowly. Those of jEtna, flowing uptiii
an inclined plane, are considered quick when they traverse a space of 400 yards in an hour.
In flat grounds they sometimes occupy whole days in advancing a few yards.

The slowness with which la\as cotd is not less remarkable than that with which they
move. If tlieir siirfiiee is quickly cooled and consolidated, the case is different with the
interior; the heat cnnrentnitcs there, and is retained fijr whole year.s. Currents are
mentioned which were llouiiig ten yr.irs after emerging from the crater, and lavas were seen
smoking in A\U\a twenty yciirs iiller mm cniptidii.

Tlie heat of li(|uiii lava is ni'rirly tli;il of liquid trap, a^ greenstone or l)a.salt. The

Book II.

GEOGNOSY

217

linfT upon
\ un hour.

li\cii ttipy
I with the
Vents ate
Ivere seen

Lit. The

particular temperatures ore given by Dr. Kennedy, Sir James Hall, and Professor
Jameson.

Tlie ma^jnitudo of lava currents varies much. The largest current wiiich has ever
issued from Vesuvius \va.s about 14,000 yards long; tliat of the eruption of 1805 waa
8000; that of 1704 was in length 4200 yards, in breadth from 100 to 4(K) yards, and in
depth from eight to ton yards; tliat wiiich issued from ^Etna in 1787 was four times
larger ; and Doloniieu relates tliat that volcano furnished one more than ten leagues in length.
But the largest current known is that which in Iceland, in 1783, covered an extent of
twenty leagues in length by four in breadth.

Tliese currents, by being superinduced on each other, and having interposed between them
other products of eruptions, as sand, ashes, and scoria-, form a series of inclined beds that
give rise to the cone of the mountain. In short, the cone is composed of a series of con-
centric layers or coats of lava, scoriiB, &c. ; the outgoings of which are sometimes well seen
in natural sections in the mountain.

c. Different Kinds of Eruptions.

Watery and muddy eruptions. In the accounts of volcanic eruptions, mention is often
made of torrents of water and mud vomited forth by volcanoes. Many of these watery and
muddy eruptions are external actions, as is the case with those mentioned as having taken
place in Vesuvius, yEtna, and Hecla ; others are internal, as those of Quito.

(1.) External aqueous anil muddy eruptions. These are owing to great rains, which
frequently take place by the condensation of the great volumes of aqueous vapour that rise
from the craters during volcanic action. This rain, on mixing witli tiie ashes and sands,
forms currents, more or less charged with earthy matters, which descend on tiie sides of tiie
mountain, spread themselves at its base, and sometimes to a distance in the low country.
The melting of bodies of snow by the lavas also occasions great floods of water and mud.
Of this a striking instance is related as having taken place on Mount JEina in 1735, where,
by the sudden melting of a great body of snow by a stream of liquid lava, a terril)le inunda-
tion was produced, which devastated the sides of the mountain for eight miles in length, and
afterwards covered the lower parts of ./Etna, together with the plains near tlie sea, with great
deposits of sand, ashes, scorim, and fVagments of lava. Similar floods of ashes and sand arc
mentioned by authors as taking place in Iceland and in America, where the summits reach
above the snow line.

(2.) Internal aqueous and muddy eruptions. These waters also frecpiontly make their
way into tlio mountain by infiltration. They there collect in particular reservoirs; and at
the period of explosion, or when tlie mountain happens to split in consequence of some shock,
tlicy issue forth, and cover the neighbouring countries. During the earthquake wiiich over-
turned Lima in 1746, four volcanoes opened at Lucanos and in the mountains of Cfnicepcion,
and occasioned a frightful inundation. The mountains of Quito sometimes present tiic same
phenomena: but it is tliere accompanied with extraordinary circumstances. The enormous
cones of Cotopaxi, Pichincha, Tunguragua, &c., are but in some measure tlie summits of the
volcanoes to wiiich they belong, and whose acclivities are probably encased in tiio great mass
of the Andca. No true lavas, within the memory of man, have been vomited forth by these
volcanoes ; yet Humboldt saw consolidated lava currents on Sanguay, and even on Antisana.
It miglit be said, says Humboldt, that the volcanic agents, which seldom have force sufficient
to raise the column of lava to the summit of ^Etna and of tiie Peak of Teneritt'e, would still
less be able to raise it in volcanoes of nearly double the height. In ^tna and Tencriffe, the
lava may force an opening at the lower part of tho mountains, and thus burst out ; but this
could not happen in volcanoes whose sides are strengthened, to a height of nearly 3000
yards, by tho whole breadth of the Cordilleras. These volcanoes confine themselves to the
emission of ashes, scorim, and pumice. They also vomit immense quantities of water and
mud, but much more frequently by openings which take place on the sides of the cone than
by the craters. These muddy waters form, as it were, great lakes in the difll'rcnt cavities
which these enormous mountains contain. They issue from these cavities, as wo have said,
when a communication is opened with the exterior. Thus, in 1698, the volcano of Cargu-
arazo, which is in tho neighbourhood of Chimborazo, and perhaps forms a part of it, broke
down, and covered with mud eighteen square leagues of country. Similar muddy waters
are still conUiined in jMirts of the same country, which are of volcanic origin, l)ut which no
longer present any indication of fire; and they are equally vomitnl forth during great
commotions of the ground. In Peru and Quito it is not by fire and currents of burning mat-
ters that the volcanoes commit their ravages, but by the water and enormous streams of
mud. This substance is mud which is at first of a soft consistence, soon hardens, and bears
the name oi" nutya. It presents two curious ])lienomona. Sometimes, as in the inoya which
inundated the country of Pilielo, and which destroyed the village of that name during the
earthquake of 1797, it contains a combustible matter, which renders it blackish and soiling,
and which exists in so large a i|uantity in it that the inhabitants make use of this nioya as a
kind of fiiol. Frequently the same muddy waters, issuing from subterranean caverns, carry

Vol. I. 19 2C

i R

■

v U

r
■ i

T ■

218

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY.

Part II.

witli thom a ffrcnt quantity of small flshcB. These fislios are u species of pimrlodrs (P.
cycloiniin). Most of thcin ure not more thun four inches lonff. Their number is sometimes
m jrriMit tlint diseases are occasioned in the country by their i>ntrefaction. They arc the
same as those which live in the brooks of the country. What, then, lias intruiuccd them
into tho^(' siil)t(>ri-aiioan lakes! It would appear that there are some conummications i)otween
the upper and lower level of these lakes and thi;'" surface of the ground; hut what could have
raised lliepi from the level of this surface to the summit of the volcanoes, lor they sometimes
issue from the crater! It is very difficult to give any exjilanation of this. From all that
has been said alH)ve, it does not appear that the mud which issues from these volciinoes comes
from the subterranean caverns where the volcanic fires have their focus, and prepare the
matter of lava.

Air tiNil mud volcanoes. In some countries we obsorvo issuini; from the pround jots im-
pelled by leases and charfred with earth, which, on beinnf de|)ositcd in the form of mud, in
the noiirhlKiurluKxl of und chiefly around the apertures which have vomited them, form cones,
which represent on a vi-ry small scale volconic cones, and which are theretbre named air
vnlcdiwrs. One of the most remarkable of these is that of Macalouba in Sicily. It consists
of a hill of dried nuid about IfK) feet high. Its upper part, which is 2(M)() feet in circum-
ference, presents a nuiltitude of small cones of which the larirest are not atxive a yard in
diameter. They have a small crut(!r full of soft clay, which is every instant traversed by
larfjc bubbles of {jus, which burst with an explo<lin}T noise, aTid scatter the clay aroimtl.
Some of these explosions have been seen throwinff jets of mud to the heiijht ot 16() feet.
In the neighliourhood of Modena there are many of these small nmd volcanoes, where they
arc called sahrs on account of the saltness of the water they scatter alwuf . Tlie gas which
occasions the phenomena is hydrogen gas charged with petroleum and carbonic acid. Similar
mud volcanoes occur in the Crimea, Java, Trinidad, and America.

d. Periods of Aclivilij of Volcanoes, and the Theory of their Formation.

Periods of aclivily of volcanoes. The periods of activity of volcanoes are hut transitory
and of short duration. They arc followed by years, and even ages, of rest. Ilnmboldt is
of opinion that the frequency of eruptions seems to be in the inverse ratio of the size of the
volcano. The smallest of them, Stromboli, is continually throwing up volcanic matter; the
eruptions of Vesuvius are less frequent, there having been but eighteen recorded since 1701;
those of yEtna are iiuich rarer; those of the Peak of Tenpritfe still more so; and the colossal
summits of Cotopaxi and Tunguragua scarcelj' exhibit one in the course of a hundred years.
To periods of activity there sometimes succeed jjoriods of repose. The crater is filled up
and becomes cov<;red with f5)rests. These burning furnaces, whence torrents of fire have
issued, become the reservoirs of subterranean lakes, whose waters are peopled with fishes,
and in elevated situations the sides and summits of the mo\mtain9 become covered with snow
and ice. But most commonly the state of rest is not complete; the- crater remains open,
and there is exhale<l from it a greater or less quantity of vapours, which attack the masses
that lie in their way. Sometimes they produce different saline and metallic incrustations.
Volcanic districts in which, however, no eruption has taken place since the commencement
of our history, and in which the volcanic cones are nearly effaced, still betray by their vajiours
and exhalations the tire which formerly ravaged them, and which is not yet extinct. Such
are the Phleffrcun Fields, on the coast of Puzzoli, in the kingdom of Naples,

Cause of volcanoes. This is an obscure subject. A conjecture, hazarded many years ago,
may be stated. There being no decided proof of a central heat, in the commoiily received
sense, it may Ik; assumed that the matter of lavas is seated deep in the crust of the earth, in
spaces of greater or less extent, from whence it is sent up from time to time among tho
previously existing stratJi, by tho agency of elastic fluids.

Sect. IV. — Earthquakes.

On earthquakes, and the changes they produce on the eartVs svrfacf. Werner distin-
guishes two kinds of earthquakes. Some, he says, appear to bo connected with n particular
volcano, and to have their focus in the same region as it. They are only felt to the distat.je
of a few leagues around, and their paroxysms are almost always connected with those of
the volcano. Others, which appear tu have their focus at a much greater deptli, and whoso
effects are niurli greater, are propagated to inunense distances with inrrodible celerity, and
are felt almost at the same time at points thousands of miles rlistnnt from each other. "So;r'
of the latter however approach the former, and are still connected with volcanic phenor, ■in.
Tims, during the earthquake which overturned Lima in 174f),and which was one oC the most
terrible that has been recorded, four volcanoes opened in one night, -"ui! the agitation of tho
earth ceased.

rnirirsiiHty of rartlKjvnkes. If in the more violent we include the slighter agitations
of the earth's snrfiice in particular places, earthquakes may be said to be universal or general,
and we may affirm that no considerable country is entirely exempted from them. Sandy
deserts ami fertile region,", primitive, secondary, and tertiary hills, extensive plains, and even

11.

^noT (listin-
I particular
lip (liHtai.CP
111 thoso of
Iniul wliose
llpTity, and
Ipr. So:r'
llipnov, 'in.
1(4" tho most
Ition of the

;\ (jit at ions
lor nrpiipral,
■in. " Sandy
Is, and even

4r'

Book II.

GEOGNOSY.

210

rnnrshy districta but little olovatod ulwvc tin; level of the sen, uffiird no protection airainst
ti. -se destruutivu phunoiiieim, which are equally prevalent in cold, in ifnipemte, and in tropical
climuteH. Tliey are, however, jjenerally considered more freiiucnt nt'iir to coasts; thuSi
Syria, the coasts and islands of Asia, America, the European coasts of the Mediterranean,
and Iceland, are mast subject to them; while the plains of Africa, Asia, and the North of
Europe are least cxixtsed. Viewinjj tlie whole earth, and including every slijjhterugitjition,
carthquukes appear to he oxceedin^'ly numerous, and it may ho maintained that not a week
passes in which the earth's surface in some place or other is not more or less aj^itatert. Tlic
fjreat number of concussions observed in civilized countries, and the tiict that some districts
are constantly agitated by them, entitle us to draw the conclusioti. Their return in the
places most subject to them, and in the places where they are less frequent, is not regulated
by any precise |)eriod of time. Their appearance is not connected with any particular season
of the year or state of the atmosphere, and they take place by day as well as by night.

Phv.iwmenu of Earlhiuakm. The phenomena peculiar to earthquakes are in themselves
sutficiently simple. They consist in tremblings and oscillations of the earth's surface, called
shocks; extending over greater or smaller tracts of country, and frequently following a par-
ticular direction. The shocks appear at first chiefly as perpendicular heavings; then as
horizontal undulations or oscillations; lastly, in some instances, there is a violent agitation:
the motion is more or le.ss rotatory. If to these we add the rending, slipping, rising and
sinking of the ground, the violent agitations of the sea, lakes, rivers, and springs; consist-
ing, in springs, in their drying up or bursting forth with great violence ; in lakes, rivers, and
the ocean, in their fiiUing and rising, and rushing backwards and forwards, owing to the
sinking and rising of the land, we obtain un enumeration of the princii>al phenomena. As
the subject is very interesting, we shall view it somewhat in detail, and under the following
heads : — 1. Shocks, 'i. Extent of earthquakes. 3. Duration of shocks. 4. Magnitude of
rents formed, and the phenomena connected with them, 5. Elevation and subsidence of the
land. 6. Agitations in the sea. 7. Notice of particular earthquakes.

(1.) Shocks. The slighter shocks of an earthquake, consisting of perpendicular heavings
and horizontal undulations, commonly produce rents in houses, moving light objects in them,
as articles of furniture. Persons unacquainted with the phenomenon, or who do not per-
ceive it from tlic subterraneous noise resembling thunder which accompanies it, feel un-
steady while in their beds, but particularly when sitting, and believe themselves seized with
a sudden giddiness. The shocks proceed gradually to be more violent, and then they are
very easily perceived even by the inexperienced. Then the most substantial buildings are
shattered to |)ieces, and the inhabitants buried beneath their ruins : while buildings of a lighter
coa.struction are only rent, and very slender reed huts are least of all exposed to destruction.
In some cases the fracturing, or as it were trituration, surpas-ses description. Ilence, for
the plainest reasons, it is most dangerous to remain in houses or inhabited places ; but even
the fields and mountains themselves afford no perfect security, inasmuch as the fields fre-
quently in some places open into fissures, and are rent asunder ; while mountains are not
only rent, but slide down into the valleys, dam up rivers, form lakes, and cause inundations.
Although the desolation produced by these convulsions exceeds all description, this is much
more the case with the rotatory motions ; a species of motion, however, the existence of
which has been denied by some geologists. In proof of it, however, it may be mentioned,
that during the earthquake of Catania, whose general direction was from S. E. to N. W.,
many sUitucs were turned round, and a largo mass of rock was turned 2ij° from South to
East. But the rotatory motion was more strikingly exemplified in the earthquake at Val-
paraiso, on the 19th November, 1822, by which many houses were turned round, and three
palm-trees were found twisted round one another like willows. These rotatory motions of
masses of rock are particularly interesting when viewed in connexion with the pheno-
mena of faults or shifls among strata in non-volcanic districts. It is only tlie slighter earth-
quakes that pass by with a single shock; in most of them more shocks follow at short inter-
vals, and for the most part the number is proportioned to the violence of the concussion.
The first shock is sometimes the most powerful, but the second is as often, if not oftener,
ecjually violent. Further, the concussions arc also repeated atlor longer intervals, as the
eartiiquakes in Syria, that sometimes continue fiir a number of months, with longer or shorter
intermissions ; but the first catastroplie is generally the most violent and destructive.

(2.) Kxtcnt of earthquakes. It is tlie agitation of the sea that points out the great extent
of the tracts of land convulsed by earthquake.*. In this respect, the earthquake at Lisbon,
in 17.V), wa.s the most remarkable and most violent that over visited Europe. In conse-
quence of it, by tiic concussion on the bottom, or momentary rising or upheaving of the sub-
marine land, the sea overfl."i\ved the coasts of Sweden, England, and Spain, and of the
isl.'iniis of Antigua, Barbanoos, and Martinicpie in America. In Barbadoes the tide, which
rises only 28 inches, rose 20 feet in the bay of Carlisle, and the water appeared as black as
ink, owing probably to bituminous matter thrown up from the bed of the ocean. On the 1st
of November, when the concussion was most violent, the wafer at Guadaloupe retreated
twice, and on its return rose in the channel of the island to a height of from 10 to 12 feet.

fii
m

r.lHil

imM

illil!

- 1

'W»

^» •*

220

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAI'llY.

Part II.

Similar appearances were witnessed at Martinique. A wave of the sea, 00 feet high, over-
flowed a part of the city of Cadiz ; and the lakes of Switzerland, sncli as Geneva, were ob-
served to be in commotion six hours after the first shock. It is also remarkable tliat a(;ita-
tions were noticed in lake Ontario, in October, 175.'). Durinff the earthquake at Lima, ir)86,
a wave of the sea rose 84 feet high in the harbour of Calliio, During tlio eartlKjuakes in
Calabria in 179t3, the sea not only overflowed the coast and drowned many people, but was
in general so much agitated that the guns on shipboard sprung from the deck to u height of
several inches.

(3.) Slippinff of Utountaiiu. Besides the common operations of earti«iuakes already
mentioned, others occur that do not immediately succeed the concussions, and therefore
happen less frequently. To these belong tlie sliding down of parts of mountains, as at
Dobratch in 1345, and the fulling together of two mountains in Jamaica in lOtVi, by which
the bed of a river was dammed up. In the latter place, a part of a mountain slid down and
covered many plantations ; the city of Port Royal sunk to the depth of eight fathoms ; and
a plain of 1000 acres fell in, with all the buildings upon it.

(4.) Duration of ahockt. Single shocks frc()uently succeed one another very rapidly, and
often ofter greater or smaller intervals of time ; they are occasionally single, frequently very
numerous ; and in volcanic districts, shocks sometimes happen after a lapse of months or
years, are tlien followed by longer or shorter intervals, and even periods of 10 or 100
years. In regard to this, it is remarkable that since the earthquake which in 1204 shook
Antioch, Damascus, and Tripoli, Syria was spared till the latter half of the seventeenth
century, although no region of the earth suflt'rs more from these destructive phenomena
tlian that country. It is, in short, difficult to define the duration of a single shock. It is
undoubtedly brief in general ; and in slighter shocks, witnessed by tranquil spectators and
consequently observed with greater attention, it is not longer than a few seconds. In the
greater convulsions, for instance at Lima, Caraccas, Calabria, Catania, Zante, Antioch, &c.
tiie time is reckoned from fifty seconds to one minute and five seconds, or indefinitely from
a few minutes to a few seconds. When we consider how exceedingly distracted the atten-
tion is when the shock is first perceived, that the duration cannot be measured by means of
a watch, but by supposition, and that by such a m(Kle of computation we are in the habit of
reckoning time much longer than it really is, we may with great probability conclude that
the duration of a single shock does not go beyond a few seconds, and wc may aflirm that,
at the most, it rarely exceeds half a minute.

(.5.) Magnitude of rents formed by earthquakes. These vary from a few feet to many
fathoms in extent They have either a direction which is nearly straight or more or less
winding, or they run in all directions from a centre. During the terrible Calabrinn earth-
quakes of 1783, rents were formed of great dimensions ; in the territory of San Fili there
was formed a rent half a mile long, two feet and a half broad, and twenty-five feet deep ; in
the district of Plaisano, a rent, of nearly a mile in length, one hundred and five font broad,
and thirty feet deep opened ; and in the same district two gulfs arose, one at CerzuUi, three
quarters of a mile long, one hundred and fifty feet broad, and about one hundred feet deep ;
and another, nearly a quarter of a mile long, about thirty feet broad, and two hundred and
twenty-five feet deep. Ulloa relates that in the earthquake of 1746, in Peru, a rent took
place, which was two miles and a half long, and four or five feet wide. These rents some-
times close again ; thus, in the year 1692, in the island of Jamaica, during an earthquake,
the ground heaved like a boiling sea, and was traversed by numerous rents, two or three
hundred of which were often seen at a time opening and closing rapidly again.

(6.) Elevation and subsidence of land during earthquakes. It is evident that, if the
land is fractured and then traversed with vast rents by earthquakes, that portion of the
land will in some places sink and in others rise, and this not once but several times in the
ftime place. In the year 1772, during an eruption of one of the loftiest mountains in Java,
the ground began to sink, and a great part of the volcano, and part of the neighbouring
country, estimated to be fifteen miles long and six miles broad, was swallowed up. During
the earthquake at Lisbon in 17.'i.'>, a new quay entirely di8ai)peared ; thousands of the in-
habitants had taken shelter on it, in be out of the reach of the tottering and fiiUing build-
ings, wiien suddenly the quay sunk down with its thousands of human beings, and not one
of their dead bodies ever floated to the surfiice. In the year 1692, during an earthquake in
Jamaica, a tract of land about a thousand acres in extent sank down in less than a minute,
and the sea immediately took its place. On the north side of the island several large tracts
with their whole population were swallowed up, and a lake appeared in their place covering
above a thousand acres. Numerous examples of the upraising of the land by earthquakes
might be given ; we shall enumerate a few of them. On the 19th of November, 1822, a
most dreadful earthquake visited the coast of Chili ; the shock was felt at the same time
throughout a space of one thousand two hundred miles from north to south. When the
country around Valparaiso was examined on the morning after tiie shock, it was foimd that
the entire line of coast, for the distance of more tiiau a hundred miles, was raised above its
foimVr leVei. Tiie area over which tliis u))raising took place was estimated at one hundred

»^^

OOOK II.

GEOGNOSV.

221

IIT II.

over-
re ob-

11)1 iUi-

,i.m

.kes in
it was
ight of

ilrcady
ci'otbre
■1, as lit
' which
iwn and
m; and

dly, and
itly very
onths or
or 10()
)4 shook
cntnenth
enomena
k. It is
itors and
. In the
ioch, &c.
itely from
the atten-
means of
e habit of
elude that
iffirm that,

ct to many

ore or less

■ian earth-
Fili there

•t deep ; in
feot broad,

siiUi, three
feet deep ;
indred and
_ vent took
[Cuts somc-
arthquake,
]o or three

Ihat, if the
lion of tlic
Jncs in tiic
lis in Java,
Ighbourinn;
V Durin<:
lof the in-
ling build-
W not one
fchquake in
1 a minute,
krgc tracts
|c coverinfr
Trtiiquakes

]pr, 1822, a
janie timo
JvVlicn the
Ifound that
ll atove it^
Ic hundred

tliousand square miles : tiie rise upon tlie const was from two to four foot ; at the distance of
u mile inland, it was estimated from live to seven ftet. On the iHth of Marcii in the year
17W), ut 8t. Maria di Niscomi, some miles troni 'J'crranuovo, near tlie noulh const of Sicily,
u loud subterranean noise was heard under the town just mentioned, and the day ailcr oarth-
quakes were tblt; then the ground gradually sunk down for a circumference ol three Italian
miles, during seven shocks, and in one (jlace to a depth of thirty feet ; us the subsidence was
unequal, rents were formed, some of which were so wide that they could not be leaped over :
this gradual sinking continued to the end of the month, About the middle of this period
an opening took place in the subsiding land, aliout tliTeo feet in diameter; througli these
continued to flow, for tliree hours, a stream of nuid, which covered a space sixty t(?<'t long
and thirty feet broad ; the mud was saltish and composed of chalky marl and a viscid clay,
with fragments of crystalline limestone ; it smelt of sulphur and petroleum. On tlie lOlh
June, 1819, at Cutch in Bombay, a violent carth()uake took place, during which, indopenilent
of otiier changes, the eastern and almost abandoned channel of the Indus was much altered :
this estuary was, before the earthquake, fordable at Luckput, being only a foot deep wiicn
the tide was at ebb, at flood tide never more than six feet ; but it was deepened at the fort of
Luckput, alter the earthquake, to more than eighteen feet nt low water, showing that a con-
siderable depression had taken place. The channel of the river Runn was so much sunli
that, instead of being dry as before, during that period of the year, it was no longer fordablo
except at one place ; and it is remarked by Captain Macmurdoch, — and the observation is of
high geological import, as connected with the formation of valleys, of river districts, &c. —
"should the water continue throughout the year, we may perhaps see an inland navigation
along the northern shore of Cutch ; which, from stone anchors, &,c. still to be seen, and the
tradition of the country, I lielieve to have existed at some former period." Sindree, a small
mud fort and village belonging to the Cutch government, situated where the Runn joins
the Indus, was overflowed at the time of the shock. The people escaped with difficulty,
and the tops of the houses and walls are now alone seen above water. In the year 179(),
in the Caraccas, during an earthquake, a portion of granite soil sunk, and left a lake 80()
yards in diameter, and from eighty to an hundred feet deep; it was a part of the forest of
Aripao which sunk, and the trees remained green for several months under water.

(7.) Affilations of the i>ea. We have already noticed, in a general way, the agitations
observed in the sea during earthquakes; we shall now add some particulars illustrative of
these motions. During the Lisbon earthquake of 175.5, the sea rose along the coast of
Spain ; and at Cadiz it advanced in the form of vast waves sixty feet high. At Lisbon
about sixty thousand persons perished. The sea first retired, and laid the bar dry ; it then
rushed in, rising upwards of fifty feet a1x)ve its ordinary level. At Kinsale, in Ireland, the
sea rushed into the harbour, and invaded the land. At Tangier, in Africa, it rose and fell
eighteen times on the coast At Funchal, in Madeira, it rose fifteen feet above high-water
mark ; although the tide, which ebbs and flows there seven feet, was then half ebb. Even
ships at sea, a considerable distance from land, felt, in the midst of these convulsive motions,
as if hurried across a ridge of rocks. This took place, to a distance of 100 or 270 nautical
miles from the coast, during the earthquake at Lisbon in 1816. During the Lisbon earth-
quake of 1755, the shock was felt at sea, on the deck of a ship to the west of Lisbon, and
produced nearly the same feeling as on land. At San Lucar, the captain of the Nancy
frigate felt his ship so violently agitated that he thought he had struck on the ground ; but,
on heaving the lead, found lie was in deep water. Captain Clark, from Derina, in N. lat.
36° 2-1', between nine and ten in the morning, had his ship shaken as if she had struck
upon a rock, so that the seams of the deck opened. Dr. Shaw relates, that in 1724, being
on lioard the Gazello, an Algerine ship of 50 guns, they felt such violent shocks, one after
another, as if the weight of twenty or thirty tons had been let fall from a ijood height on
the ballast. Schouten, speaking of an earthquake which happened in the Moluccas, says,
that the mountains were shaken, ii nd ships that wore at anchor in thirty or forty fathoms'
water were jerked as if they had run ashore, or come foul of rocks, Le Genii says, " that
ships at sea and at anchor suffer, during earthquakes, such violent agitations that they seem
to be falling asunder; their ginis break kw.so, and their masts spring."

(8.) Notices of jmrticuhir Earthqitalics. A full account of all the principal earthquakes
that are known would much exceed uur limits ; wo shall, therefore, select only a few of the
more interesting.

No part of Europe is more visited by onrthqunkos than Italy and the neighbouring
islands. The first earthquake particularly worthy of notice was that which, in the year
63, destroyed Herculancuni and Pompeii. Since that period they have frciiuently visited
Italy and Sicily, but much snldomer from A. D. fi.'j to the twelfth century, than from that
period till modern times, that is, till tlie eighteenth and nineteenth crnturies. Of these
we shall describe one of the most recent in Calabria, and another of still later date in
Sicily.

Earthquake of 1783. The earthquake that so much nficcted Calabria, and destroyed the
city of Messina, ra:;ed at unequal periods from tiic 5th of February till the 28th of March,

19*

;ifi M

I,:! IP:

I'i.

lO;^

ml i\

399

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt II.

178H. Acconlinff to Sorcin, its principal Htvit wbh tlio smiill town of Oppido in the neish-
biiurliotKJ (if Atniiiionto, ii snnw-covoroil p<'iik of tliu Apminiiii.'ij. From tliis point, mya Sir
Williiiiii Iliimilton, nMuiid to a (liHtniict! of twenty-five iniicH, comprehendB the surtace of
country which sufl'erod most, and whore all the towns and villajfCH wcni destroyed. If we
dPKcribo the circle with a radius of neventy-two iriiles, it will includo the whole country
whicli was in iiny wny allbcted by the enrlhciuiike. The first shock, on the 6th February,
ill two niiniitcM threw down the preatcsl purt of the houses in all the cities, towns, and
vilbiifes fVoni tlin western acclivities of tiu! ApiMUiinus, in Calubriu Ultra, to Messina in
Sicily, iiiid convulsed the whole surface of the country. Another shock, which tofik pluco
on the "^.'jtli of Miirch, was nearly e(|ually violent. The jfranito chain which extends
throuj^h Calabria from imrth to south was but slightly agitated, the princi|)al shocks being
propagated with a wave-like motion tlirouffh the tertiary sands, sand-stones, and clays, from
west to east. It was remarked that the violence of the shock was greatest at the line of
junction of the f^ninito iiiid tertiary rooks, occasioned probably by the interruption of tho
undulatory movement of the poller strata by tho harder granite. Tho granite range also
prevented the passage of the shocks to the countries on the opposite Bide of the niountain-
rnnge. Alxiut iJlKI towns anil villages were dcatroyod, more than one hundred hills slid
down, fell together, (lanmied up rivers, and formed lakes: numerous rents, often of vast
magnitude, were formed; many subsidences and also upraisings of the ground took place;
and tho general features of the country were so much changed that they could scarcely be
recognised. Thus, in a very short space of time, the whole country was as much changed
as if it had been exposed to common influences for many thousand years. The total num-
ber of human beings that perished was estimated at 100,(100, and it was difficult to find even
distant relations to succeed to tho prtmerty of some families,

Earthniiahi: of Lisbon in 17.55. In no part of southern Europe has so tremendous aii
earthquake occurred as that which began on the Ist of November, 1753. On the morning
of that day, at thirty-five minutes after nine, without the least worning, except a noise liku
thunder heard under ground, a most dreadful earthquake shook, by short but quick vibra-
tions, the foundations of Lisbon, so that ninny of the principal edifices fell to the ground lii
an instant : then, with a scarcely perceptible pause, the nature of the motion changed, now
resembling that of a wngon driven violently over rough stones, which laid in ruins almost
every house, church, convent, and public building, with an incredible destruction of the
people. It continued in all about six minutes. At the moment of its beginning, some per-
sons on tho Tagus, near a mile from the city, heard their boat make a noise as if it had run
aground, tliough then in deep water, and saw at the same time houses falling on both sides
of the river. Four or five minutes after, the boat made the like noise, caused by another
shock, which brought down more houses. The bed of the Tagus was in many places raised
to its surfrice. Ships wore driven from their anchors, and jostled toget k with great vio-
lence ; and the masters did not know if they were afloat or aground. Tlu large quay called
Caes dti Prada, was overturned, crowded with people, and sunk to an unfatliomable depth
in the water, not so much as one body afterwards ajipearing. The bar was seen dry from
shore to shore ; then suddenly the sea, like a mountain, came rolling in, and alwut Belem
castle the water rose fifty feet almost in an instant ; and had it not been for the great bay
opposite tho city, which received and spread the great flux, the lower part must have been
under water. As it was, it came up to the houses, and drove the inhabitants to the hills.
About noon, there was another shock, when the walls of several houses which were yet
standing were seen to open from top to bottom more than a quarter of a yard, but closed
again so exactly as to leave scarce any mark of injury. It is remarked, that on the Ist of
November, 17.56, being the anniversary of tho fatal tragedy of this unhappy city, another
shock gave the inhabitants so terrible an alarm that they were preparing for their flight into
the country, but wore prevented by several regiments of horse placed all around by the
king's orders. Many of the largest mountains in Portugal during the great earthquake were
shaken as it were to their foundation, and many of them opened at their summits, split, and
rent, and huge masses of them were cast down into the subjacent volleys. The same dread-
ful visitation was experienced at Oporto. We are told that at about forty minutes past nine
in the morning, the sky being serene, was heard a dreadful hollow noise like thunder or the
rattling of coaches over rugged stones at a distance; and almost at the same instant was
felt a severe slioch of an earthquake, which lasted six or seven minutes, during which every
thing shook and rattled. It rent several churches. In the streets the earth was seen to
heave under the people's feet, as if in labour. The river was also amazingly affected ; for
in the space of a minute or two, it rose and fell five or six feet, and continued to do so for
four hours. The river Douro was observed to burst open in some parts, and discharge vast
quantities of air ; and the agitation was so great in the sea, beyond the bar, that it was ima-
gined the air got vent there also.

On the fatal day of the great earthquake of Lisbon, at Ayamonte, near where the Gua-
diana falls into the bay of Cadiz, a little before ten o'clock, immediately on a rushing noise
being heard, a terrible earthquake was felt, which during fourteen or fifteen minutes damaged

I the Gua-
ling noise
I damaged

Book II.

GEOGNOSY.

alnifwt nil tho Imililinirs. In littlo mure than half an hour after, tho M>a and river, with all
their canaN, overllowoa their bdiindH with great violunco, laying under water all tliu conxta
of the iiilnnils adjacent to the city and \ta neighbourhood, flowing into tho ntrei^lH. The
water roHu three timet), after it liiul ax many times tiulMiidcd. One of the HwelU wax at tho
time of ohh. The water came on in voMt black niountaiuH, white with fuum at the top, and
demolished more than lialf of tho town at tho bar called I)e Canala. Tiio earlii was
observed to open in several places, and from tho apertures (lowc<l vast (juiintilieH of water.

At Cadiz, m tho same monung, some minutes after nine, tho whole town was ^Imken
with a violiMit earthquake, which lasted about ftvo minutes. The water in the cisterns
under ground rolled backwards and forwards. At ten minutes after eleven, a wave wiut
seen coming from sea, eight miles oft*, at least sixty feet higher than umuiiI. It dai^hed
against tlie west part of tho city ; at lost it camo upon the walls, beat in tlm breast-work,
and carried pieces of eight or ten tons weight forty or fifty yards from the wall. When tlio
wave was gone, some parts that are deep at low water were left quite dry, tor the water
returned there witli the same violence as it came. On the same eventful morning (libraltur
wiiH agitated by an earthquake. It lasted about two minutes. The ffuns on the battery
wvrr. Keen to rine, other* to sink, the earth having an iindulalinff motion. Alust iMioplc
wero seized with giddiness and sickness, and some fell down, oUiers were stupefied, tliough
many that were walking or riding felt no motion, but wero sick. The sea rose six feet
every fifteen minutes, and fell so low that boats and all tho small craft near the shore wero
left aground, as were numbers of fish. Ships in tlie bay seemed as if they hud struck on
rocks. The flux and reflux lasted till six next morning, having decreased gradually from
two in the afternoon.

This earth(iuakc excited much attention, from the incredibly great extent at which slighter
contemporary shocks wero experienced. They extended from Greenland and Iceland to
Norway, Sweden, Germany, Britain, Switzerland, Prance, Simin, Morocco, Salee, Fez,
Teutan, and even to the West Indies and the lake Ontario in North America.

However dreadful many of the earthquakes of Europe were, they bear no comparison
with those which have desolate<l many parts of Asia. Passing over those which were
observed in the islands, on the eastern continent, and in the environs of the Caspian Sea,
our attention is particularly drawn towards Syria, on account of tho ravages it has frequently
experienced.

Gibbon, in the forty-third chapter of his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, gives the
following account of the earthquake that took place at Antioch in A. D. 520. May 3(t.
"The near approach of a comet may injure or destroy the globe which we inhabit; but the
changes on its surfoce have been hitherto produced by the action of volcanoes and earth-
quakes. The nature of the soil may indicate the countries most exposed to these formidable
concussions, since they are caused by subterraneous fires, and such fires arc kindled by tho
union and fermentation of iron and sulphur. But their times and efTects appear to lie beyond
the reach of human curiosity, and the philosopher will discreetly abstain from the prediction
of earthquakes, till he has counted tho drops of water that silently filtrate on tho iufliun-
mable mmeral, and measured tlie caverns which increase by resistance tho explosion of the
imprisoned air. Without assigning the cause, history will distinguish the periods in wiiieh
these calomitous events have been rare or frequent, and will observe, that this fever of the
earth raged with uncommon violence during the reign of Justinian. Each year is marked
by the repetition of earthquakes, of such duration, that Constantinople has been shaken
above forty doys ; of such extent, that the shock haa been communicated to the whole sur-
face of the globe, or at least of the Roman empire. An impilsivc or vibratory motion was
felt : enormous chasms were opened, huge and heavy bodies were discharged into the air,
the sea alternately advanced and retreated beyond its ordinary bounds, and a mountain was
torn from Libanus, and cast into tho waves, where it protected, as a mole, the new harbour
of Botrys, in Phtenicia. The stroke that agitates an ant-hill, may crush the insect myriads
in the dust; yet truth must extort a confession, that man has industriously laboured lor his
own destruction. The institution of great cities, which include a nation within tiic limits
of a wall, almost realizes the wish of Caligula, that the Roman people had but one neck.
7\oo hundred and fifty thousand persons arc said to have perished in tho eartliquake of
Antioch, whose domestic multitudes were swelled by the conflux of strangers to the festival
of the Ascension. The loss of Berytus was of smaller account, but of much greater value.
That city, on the coast of Phmnicia, was illustrated by the study of the civil law, wliicii
opened the surest road to wealth and dignity : the schools of Berytus wero filled with the
rising spirits of the age, and many a youth was lost in the earthquake who might have lived
to be the scourge or the guardian of his country. In these disasters, tho architect becomes
the enemy of mankind. The hut of a savage, or the tent of an Arab, may be thrown down
without injury to the inhabitants ; and the Peruvians ha<l reason to deride the folly of tlieir
Spanish conquerors, who with so much cost and labour erecte<l their own sepulchres. The
rich marbles of a patrician are dashed on his own head ; a whole people is buried under the
ruins of public and private edifices, and the conflagration is kindled and propagated by ti»e

%:A

■;IM|'

|'»i

:lli!:i

BCIENCE OF tJK(X;HAPHY.

PabtU.

1 (

inmniii'rablo flrnx wliich mo iicumKury tt)r llio mibitiiiti'iicn uiul iimmit'urturnH of a jfront city,
liiNtiMiil of the iiiiitiml Mytnimtliy wliicli niijflit comt'ort atxl nofii^i llii' diMtniNxcil, iFicy ilruiul*
l\illy cxpcrii'Mi'f (lie vioi'H iinil |HiHHl(>im wliirli iini ri'lciiHcil I'riuii tin- li'iir ot'|HiniHliim'iil: tha
tiilti'riiiir liiiii.-i''H iiri' |iillii(;i>il by intrriiiil iiviiri('i>; rcvciiKP I'liiltriici'H tlir iiiiiirji'iit, unil hi'IccU
dm victlin; iiml tlii< ciirtli otii'ii kwiiIIdU)! tlin nHHiiNHiii or tlic rnviHiicr in tln' ruiihiiiiiiiiiitiun
of tlinr criiiii'H, SujM'rMtitioii involvrn tlir« prcKcMl (lunger witli iiivixilili' tcrnirH; iiriil if tlio
iiiiiix''' "f ili'iiili iniiy foiiii'tiiiicx l)(! Hul)H)>rvi)'iit to tliu virtiin ur rrpciitiinci' ul' jmiIimiIiiiiIh, an
nlVriifliti'tl j)ci)|)li' JM nioro toruilily iiiuvimI to nx|)«(ct tlio fiid of tlin worl<l, or foilcpnciiti! with
HorviN' lioiniii,'"' the wrath of an avfriginj/ Doily." In 1109 Hin((ln Hhcnikn i:oiitiiiui'.l tor four
iMoiilhM; iiiid in I'Hn aiuitlicr ('nrthi|iiitKi> ili-ntroyed many cilioH, fiilfd np the viilicyH of
(.I'hiiiiiiM, mill r<hiitti'r<Hi till' IxiHiiltic diMtrit-tii of Hiiiirun, ho thiit, acrordiii)^ to tlio i'.\pri'Ntiiuii
tlicii ciiri'i'iit, '/ wiif nil litii/^^ir p^uiiiHilr to nay, llvrr. flood ihin ur Ihiit cily. A drcadlUl
piirtlKpiiiki' t'Kik pliic<> ill IIW; tlii> Nliook» coiitimicd tor u'lx nioiitiiH. At tlu' lirxt xhoc'k the
ritii's nf Aiitincli, IJiiIIm'c, Acri', 'rrijMdi, &c. wero laid ia ruiiiM, and nO.CMN) pcrwiiiH kiliod.
Tlio iimrc ri'ci'iit oiirtli(piuki', of l^tW, JiiHfed still lunger, and coiiiniittcd drt'iidful ruvii((ci.
On the Ilttli nf Aii(;iist, in one liorriblts niulit, Alomn), Aiitioch, Diiin, (IcKHcr, indeed every
Hin;;le villiij;i' iind eottajfo witliin the paHliiilic of Alepixi, wan, within ton or twelvu xecondiii
ronipli'tely di'-itroyed, and converted into a heap of nibbiuli : m> letM than '.'0,(MM) |mjoii1o IudI
their livcH, and innny iiioro wore mutilated; a very grout nuinWr, cuimidorini; tlio low
population of these placex.

Africa is very little known, and we nro thoreforo ignorant of any cnrthqimkeH in ita
interior, where they may oceur ax IVoqiiently na in other places. The southern extremity of
this rontiiient is rarely vii<ited by slijrht Nliocks, but they iiro more mimerniis in the north,
where, in .Miircli, lf<VJ5, they did considorablo dama);i> to Aljjiers and Blida, On the contrary,
Amrririi, particularly in the southern [kitU, is inferior to no (lurtuf tlio world for the mu^niitudo,
iiuiiiber, iind duration of its eartluiiiaki's. We shall now mention a few of the jjreiitesl
recorded by uiitiiralisfs. To these belonj; the oarth(|uiike of 1740, which, within live iiiiiiuteti,
destroyed the ifreiiter piirt of Lima; Callao was inundated; and of 4(I0() persons, *20() only
psciijM'd, Till' destruction of New Andalusia, on the 81st of October, 17(KI, was 0(|iially
lerrinlc. The shucks extended over Cumaim, Caniccas, Miiriicaibo, the shores of the ('asiinar,
the Metii, llie Orinoco, and Ventures; and the >rraiiito districts in tlio mission of Kncaranada
were iilsd sli ikeii by their violence. An oarthipuike, in 1707, destroyed a jyreat partof I'erii.
It proceeded I'njin the volcano Tiinjjuratfua, continued witii slijfht shocks during; tlio whole
of Febniiiry iind March, ond returned on the irnh of Apiil, with increased violence. Many
places were lilb'd up by the siiniiuits of itiountuiiis tumbling; down; niudily water flowed t'roiii
the volciino; and, spreading over the country, became atlerwards an iniUiratcd crust of clay.
The eiitiri' number of persons who pi^rished on this occasion was 10,(HK). No carthcpuike
coiilil well be more destructive to any place than that which destroyed the Caraccas in 1812,
and of which Humboldt has given an excellent description. The Caraccas was thought
secure (III nceonnt of its primitive mountains, although in 1041, 1703, and 1778, violent
eartlKpiakes were experienced, and a slighter shock in 1802. Humboldt, from actual inspec-
tion, hiid no doubt but this country, from lieing in a volcanic region, must Ik; liable to such
disasters. In December, 1811, various shocks wore felt; on the 12th of March, 1812, the
city of Cnracctts was destroyed. The sky was clear, and in Venezuela, there had not been
a drop of rain for five months: there was no (brewurning prognostic, for the tirst shock at
seven ininufes past four in the aflernoon came on unexpectedly, and set the bells a ringing.
This was immediately succeeded by a second shock, which caused a waving and rolling
motion in the earth, then a subterraneous rumbling noise wns heard, and there was a third
shock, in wliicli the motion was perpendicular, and sometimes rolling horizontally, with a
violence wliicli nothing could withstand. The people, in place of flying directly to the
open liclds. flocked in crowds to the churches, where arrangements liad been made fiir a
prm^ession ; ami the multitudes assembled there wore buried beneath the ruins. Two churches
l.TO feet liiirh, and supported by columns of from twelve to filleen feet in diameter, fell in a
mass of riil)bish, and were for the most part ground into dust. The Caserne cl Qiinrtel
vanished almost entirely, and a regiment of soldiers stationed there, and about to join the
procession, disappeared at the same time along with it; a few individimls only escaped ; nino-
tentlis iif tlio city were completely destroyed, and most of the houses that remained were
rendered iiniiiliabitable; the number of people killed was reckoned at nearly 1(),(MHI, without
includiMi; t'n-^o who iierished afterwards from bruises and want of sustenance. The clouds
of dii.-t liavm;,' fillen, were succeeded by a serene night, which formed a frightful contrast
with llie de-tniction on the earth, and with the dead IxMlies lying scattered among the ruins.
The duratiiiii of each particular shock was reckoned by some 50 seconds, by others 1 minute
12 seconds. These shocks extended over the provinces of Venezuela, Varinas, INIarocaibo
and into lli>' mountains in the interior. La Oiuiyra, Mayrpiatia, Iji Vegn, St. Felipe and
Merida, uere almost entirely destroyed. In La Guayra and St. Felipe the numl)er of persons
killed was about 5000. On the 5th of April another violent eurthquakc took place, during

v^^

I in ill
inily of
3 north,
)nlriiry,
rnituiie,
|{ri!iileMt
niiiulos,
>00 oi>ly
cinwUy
('iiMinar,
caraniiiliv
; tif I'l'rn.
Im wliok'
•. Miiny
iwed from
it. ofdiiy.
irthciutiko
in IHl'i,
thought
l-t, violent
111 inspcc-
o to Huch
|l812, the
not been
shock at
. ringing.
[A rollinn
,iH a third
y, with a
hy to the
lade for a
churches
, fell in a
[l Qunrtel
join the
m'I ; ninc-
ned were
I, without
lie clouda
rontrast
the ruins.
jl minute
iiracaibo
•lipe and
(f persons
I, during

Dootll.

0K(K1N()HY.

92r)

whioh nnormoiDi IVn;rn«'HfK \vnr« dctnrlicil fVoni thn nunintiiiiin. It wu mid tlmt the moun-
tain Hilla limt tVoiii .K*) to U(M) foot of iIm height liy xinkintf.

<:ati»r i\f t'lirlhipiakrn. — The ori|{inal hy|iutheMiH, whicli nltrilmtcd volcanic eruptiotiN ami
enrtliqtinki'H In the ()|H'riition of ciintrul tire, whn at lirKt attacked chieHy liy Stnki'ly, wiui,
tVoMi the phi'noiiii'iui iif two earthipmkeit olwerved nt Itondon on the ftli Fi'hniury, and Hth
of Mnivh, 171(1, ciMlwi'viiured to prove that they were caUMed hy a highly ovrrcliarged
Htate of (he eli'i'tric fl' il, Andrew liena alHrtiiH, that they urn Hudden expIoitionM, I'liii.ied
by giiM in the intcruu >( the earth, which he helieveit wouhl Imi liiund then* incloHed ii>
reoervoirH of Kiilphiir and bitumen. D<<ccariii, an in known, endeavoured to attribuli^ to elec-
tricity every tiling that had any pMlxilde utilnity for it; hence he lielieved that an uccuiiiu*
lation of it m the cruxt of the earth produced concumionH with the clondti, and then exhibited
the appearance (if oarth(|uiikeN, lluniboldt found it to bo a prevail itig opinion in America
that carthiiuakeH are idectrieal phenomena ; but ubacrven, tliat tluH nuiHt bo excuied by
reiiMon of the partiality entertained for Franklin. The invention of the Voltaic pile, and
the olworvatiou of itH wingular oporationis induced many philoMpherM, at leant tho«e nuturaliMtf
who were norfuctly intimate with tho nature of this) rGiimrkabio appratna, to couHider the
whole cartii an a column er pile of thin deiicription, or that it containH an apparatus of this
deicription in itM interior. These fancies, however, load to nothing satisfactory. Where
then can wo seek tor the cause or caiises of oarthquakcs? Tho subject is entirely hypothe-
tical, as wo have no means of reaching tho seat of these remarkable phenomena. The
theory of the eartlupiako is the same astTiatof tho volcano. The agitations may be imxluccd
by the motions of the li()uid and gasooui matter at a. great depth in the cru*t (^ the earth
endeavouring to f grape.

Snr. V. — Account (\fthe different Structures oh»ervable in the Cnut of the Earth.

Before the time of Werner, little had been accomplif' tnl in rejford to the determination
of tho structures that occur in the crust of tho earth. Somo maintained that everywhere
irregularity prevailed, and that it was in vain to look for order or rcgiilarity in tho coarse
rocky masxes of which mountains, hills, and plains are composed. Werner, however, on
flfeiieral groundc, assumed that if determinate structures and arrangements occurred in tlie
vegetable and uniiiial kingdoniH, the same must be the case in the mineral kingdom, not
only in simple minerals, but also in the great and more generally distributed masses of
which the crust of tho earth is principally composed. His investigations fully confirmed
tho truth of this opinion, for minerals he found as well characterised as plants and animals
and the following details will show tlmt there exists aniun^ mountain rocks, or those groa
masses of which the crust of tho earth is composed, a beautiful series of structure, from that
of hand-specimens to tho general arrangements of the great rock formations. Wo shall
consider tnese structures in tho tbllowing order, beginning with the smallest and terminating
with tlio greatest.

Sunsirr. — Different Structures,

1. Structure of mountain rocks in hand-specimens.

3. Structure of strata and beds,

3. Structure of formations.

4. Arrangements of formations in regard to each other.

5. Structure of veins.

(1.) Structure of mountain rochs. The kinds of structure occurring in mountain rocks
are tho following: — 1. Compact. 2. Slaty. H. Granular. 4. Porphyritic. 5. Amygda-
loidal. 6. Conglomerated. In the compart structure, tho mass is uniform, without slaty
or any other arrangement, and when broken exhibits various fractures as earthy, splintery,
conchoidal, oven, &ic. Common compact quartz is an example of this kind of structure.
In tho slnlt) .itrnrturc the rocks split readily into thin layers or slates, as in common roofing
slate. Rocks having tho granular sirurlure are composed of granular concretions or
imperfect crystals, as in primitive limestone or statuary marble. In the pwpht/rilic .structure
there is a basis or ground with imbedded crystals, generally of felspar or (luartz, or both,
as in porphyry: in tlie amygdnloidul structure tliere is also a basis orgrounil ; but here the
Imiso does not contain imbedded crystals, but amygdaloidnl cavities, whicli are cither nearly
empty, half filled, or completely filled with minerals. The rock named amygdaloid
exhibits this kind of structure. Ijistly, the conglomeratrd structure is that wliicli we
observe in the rock named conglomerate, which is composed of fragments imbedded in a
basis or ground.

(2.) Structure of strata and beds. When a mountain or hill is composed of tabular
masses of the same kind of rock, as of sandstone, that extend throughout the hill, it is said to
be stratified, and the individual tabular masses are named strata, as in fg. 58. If among
these strata there occur tabular masses of a different rock, the masses are named beds: a. fig

Vol. I. a D

li m

< . f

£26

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY.

pabt n.

69. represents a bed of limestone iu tljo cliff of stratified Bandstonc. These strata and beds

vary in positio7i ; sometimes they are flat or horizontal, or they are more or less inclined until
they become vertical, or are set on their edges. They also vary in the point of the compass
towards which they arc inclined, or dip ; but it is worthy of remark that the dip is always
at riffht angles to the range or direction of the strata; and that if the dip is given, we know
the direction : but a knowledge of the direction will not give us the dip. Their direction
also varies. The position of strata is determined by a well-known instrument, the clinometer,
which is a compass with an attached quadrant. When we e.\amiue the structure of indi-
vidual strata and beds, several varieties may be discovered : thus, in some beds, the rock is
arranged in columns, as in basalt ; in others, the arrangement is in tables, as in porphyry ;
or in balls, as in granite and greenstone.

(3.) Structure of formation*. The idea of formations was first clearly brought out by
Werner. To his views on this most important subject we con trace tlie new character of
geology, and the great progress made in geognosy within these Inst tliirty years. But this
IS not the place for discussing the subject All those rocks which appear to have been formed
ai the same time, and in tlie same or similar circumstances, and which agree in position,
structure, mass, petrifactions, imbedded minerals, &c. are said to belong to the same formation.
These formations are divided into simple and compound. Simple formations are those prin-
cipally composed of one rock ; compound formations, of more than one species of rock :
granite is an example of a simple formation ; the first secondary sandstone, or the great
coal formation, of a compound formation, because it contains several rocks; viz. sandstone,
slate, limestone, coal, and ironstone.

(4.) Arrangement of formations in re/fard to each other. When two formations occur
together, and the one rests upon the other, the subjacent formation is named the fundamen-
tal rock, and that which covers or lies upon the other, the superincumbent. The line where
the two rocks or formations meet is called the line of separation or line of junction. In
j^g. 59. a is the fundamental rock, and 6 the superimposed rook, and c c the line of junction.

When the strata of the s\ii)erimposed formation is parallel with the strata of tin? fundamental
or subjacent rock, the stratification is said to be conformable, aejig. 60 where a formation a,

we shall say of limestone, rests on b, of sandstone. If the strata of the superimposed
formation are disposed as at c, fg. 61., they are said to be unconformable. Laustly, if the

Virata lie over tlie ends of the strata of the fundamental rock, as at b, in ^fig. 59., they arc said

% s

ift.

Book 1L GEOGNOSY. 287

to be unconformable and overlying. If the strata rest on the fundamental rock, as represented

in Jig. 62., they are said to bo saMle-shaped ; if ns represented 'mfig. 63., they are said to

be mantle-shaped i if disposed in a boson-shaped hollow, as in Jig. 64., they are said to be

hasonrshaped ; if in a lengthened or trough-like hollow, aa in^^. 65., thev are said to be

trough-shaped. Li a mountain or natural section of Neptunian or aquatic rocks, as limestone,
sandstone, slate, &c., the undermost or lowest-lying strata are considered to be the oldest :
therefore, on ascending a mountain, as that in^^. 66., from atob, we pass from the newer

to the older rocks; but if from c to 6, from the older to the newer. Formations were
formerly more continuous than at present, portions only remaining of extensive deposits.
The remaining portions occupying different situations have received particular names, ac-
cording to the situations in which they occur. When in patches on tlie summits of hills, as
represented at a a a in Jig. 67., they are called mountain-caps. When in hollows, as at 6 6,
they are named upjillings.

(5.) Structure of Veins. These arc tabular masses that intersect the strata and beds of
the mountain or tract in which they occur. The tabular masses of trap or whinstone veins
that cut across the strata of Great Britain are there popularly known under the name of
ivhin dykes. Veins, like strata, vary in position, being sometimes vertical, at other times
not much inclined to the horizon ; their direction, inclination, and dip are determined in the
same manner as in strata. These intersecting masses vary in breadth from an incli or less
to many Mhoms ; in length, from a few inches to several miles ; and in depth, from a few
inches to an unknown and vast depth. Veins appear to have been originally open rents or
fissures traversing the strata, which have been filled by an afler-process witli the mineral
matters they now contain. This being the case, we naturally expect to find the strata on

■ 'ffi^

■! ^■<'-:(

228

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY.

Part II.

the walls of veins exhibiting the same phenomena as occur in the walls of rents. When
rents cut across strata, they sometimes, as in Jig. 68., at a, b, produce no derangement ;

while, in other cases, the strata on the opposite sides of the rent do not correspond, owinc^
to the strata on one side sinking down, as represented in Jig. 69. : this derangement is call-
ed a shiji, flip, or fault.

Such, then, are the different structures observable in tlic great masses of whicli the crust
of the earth is composed. We next proceed to give —

Sect. VI. — An Account of the different Classes and Species of Rocks of which the Crust

of the Earth is composed.

It was at one time a general opinion that the formations of which the crust of the eartli
is composed were destitute of all regularity in distribution and in individual characterii.
Lehman, a German miner, was early convinced of a certain degree of order in their arrange-
ment; and in his well-known work, first stated their division into Primitive and Secondary ;
under the first including those destitute of fossil organic remains, while under the other he
arranged all those containing petrifactions or fossil organic remains. The first, he said,
were generally in highly inclined strata, the other in horizontal strata. Werner first dis-
tinctly characterised these two classes of rocks, and added to them other two classes, viz.
the Transition and Local, or what are now called the Tertiary. The whole rocks, from
the oldest to the newest, were arranged by Werner under the following names and in the
following order : — 1. Primitive. 2. Transition. 3. Secondary. 4. Local, the Tertiary of
the presen* geology. 5. Alluvial. 6. Volcanic. This arrangement, more or less modifieil,
still remains, being adopted by the principal geologists in Europe and America.

Primitive rocks. The rocks of this class lie under those of the succeeding classes. Coun-
tries in which they predominate are in general more rugged and lolly than those composed
of rocks of the other classes; fiirther, their cliflB are more extensive, their valleys narrower
and deeper, and more uneven, than those in secondary countries. The strata of primitive
mountains are very frequently highly inclined ; a circumstance which contributes in an
especial manner to the increase of the ruggedness and inequalities of the surface of primi-
tive regions. The primitive strata in many countries maintain a wonderful uniformity of
direction. Thus, in Scotland the general direction of the strata of primitive mountains is
from N. E. to S. W. ; and the some is nearly the case in the vast alpine regions of Norway,
and in many of the lofly and widely extended primitive lands of other parts of Europe. The
rocks of which primitive mountains and plains are composed are throughout of a crystalline
nature, and present such characters as intimate their formation from a state of solution.
These characters arc the intermixture of the concretions of which they are composed at
their line of junction, their mutual penetration of each other, their considerable lustre, pure
colours, and translucency. Thus, in granite the concretions of felspar, quartz, and mica are
joined together without ony basis or ground ; and at their line of juncture are either closely
attached together, or are intennixed ; and frequently branches of the one concretion shoot
into the other, tims occasioning a mutual interlacement, as is observed in bodies that have
been formed simultaneously and fi-om a state of solution. These characters show that the
concretions of granite (and the same applies to the concretions of limestone, gneiss, micH
slate, and other rocks of the primitive cla.ss,) are of a crystalline nature, and have been
formed at the same time. The strata are so arranged as to show that they are crystalline
formations. Primitive rocks contain no organic remains, hence arc inferred to have been
formed before onimals and vegetables were called into existence. Primitive rocks abound

UlT II.

When
cment ;

Book II.

GEOGNOSY.

220

d, owing
it is call-

the crust

I the Crust

,f the earth
character?.
Bir arrangc-
Secondary ;
fhe other he
3t, he said,
>r first dis-
jlasses, viz.
I rocks, from
and in tlie
'ertiary of
modified.

very much in metalliferous minerals, and hitherto no metol has been met with which does
not occur, either exclusively or occasionally, in this class of rocks. Tin, wolfram, lead, cop-
per, iron, cobalt, zinc, iimntfanese, arsenic, and mercury, occur either disseminated, in beds
and veins, or imbedded in various rocks of tliis class, and many primitive distxicta are char-
acterised by the metalliferous deposits they contain.

Tiie most beautiful of all productions ot the mineral kingdom, the gems, occur in great
variety in primitive rocks. Nothinfr can be more beautiful than the drussy cavities met with
in primitive mountains, whose walls are lined with pure and variously tinted and crystallized
topaz, beryl, rock crystal, fluor spar, and calcareous spar; the gneiss, granite, and mica
slate, with their imbedded crystals and grains of sapphire, chrysolite, and garnet; and tlie
vehis in granite, clay slate, and other primitive rocks, with their emeralds, axinites, and
spinel rubies, afford to the mineralogist highly interesting combinations.

Species of primitive rocks. — The following are tlie species of rocks that form the primi-
tive parts of the crust of the earth : — 1. Granite. 2. Syenite. 3. Protogine. 4. Trap.
5. Serpentine. 6. Porpliyry. 7. Gneiss, 8. Mica slate. 9. Clay slate. 10. Quartz rock.
11. Limestone.

Of these rocks one set, consisting of certain granites, with trap, gneiss, mica slate, clay
slate, quartz rock, and limestone, are said to be of Neptunian origin, that is, have been de-
posited from a liquid, probably water ; the other set, including certain granites, with syenite,
porphyry, protogine, serpentine and diallage rock, are named Plutonic or igneous, it being
probable that they have been formed from a state of igneous solution. We shall describe
first tiie Neptunian, and next the Plutonian primitive rocks.

SuBSECT. 1. — Neptunian Primitive Rocks,

(1.) Granite is a granular compound of felspar, quartz, and mica. It occurs in beds and
in imbedded masses, and also in included veins in gneiss, mica slate, and clay slate. From
its intimate connexion with these rocks, it is inferred to be a Neptunian deposit.

(2.) 7Vfl/>. Under this name we include all those granular primitive rocks in which
hornblende is the sole or predominant constituent part These rocks sometimes ajjpear
arranged like the steps of a stair ; hence the name trap, from the Swedish word trappa, a
stair.

(3.) Gneiss is a granular slaty compound of felspar, mica, and quartz.

(4.) Mica slate is a slaty compound of mica and quartz. Talc shte and micaceous talc
rocks may be arranged under this head.

(iji.) Clay slate is a slaty rock, frequently entirely composed of minute scales of mica.

(6.) Quartz rock. This rock is almost entirely composed of quartz, either in granular
concretions or in the compact form; and grains of fclspar and scales of mica not unfrequently
occur in it When the felspar increases in (piantity, the compound at length passes into
granite. When the scales of mica increase and the felspar disappears, mica slate is formed.

(7.) Limestone. This rock has generally a white or gray colour, is composed of shining
granular concretions, and is more or less translucent It frequently contains scales of mica
and grains of quartz, seldom or never grains and crystals of felspar.

SuBSECT. 2. — Plutonian or Iffnigenous Primitive Rocks.

(1.) Granite. The structure and composition of this granite is in general the same as
that of the Neptunian kind already noticed. It differs from it in occurring in vast and often
widely extended masses, which form the central parts of mountain groups, and appear to
have come from below after the deposition of the Neptunian rocks that rest upon them.
The highly inclined position of the primitive strata is considered to have been occasioned by
this granite, with its syenites and porphyries.

(2.) Syenite is a compound of felspar, hornblende, and quartz : in short it is a granite in
which the mica is replaced by hornblende. Some of the primitive traps belong to this head.

(3.) Porphyry is a rock with a felspar basis, including grains and crystals of felspar and
quartz, and s<imetimes scales of mica. This porphyry is a mere modification of granite.

(4.) Protogine is a granular compound of felspar, quartz, and chlorite. It differs from
granite in the mica being replaced by chlorite.

(f>.) Serpentine is a simple green-coloured rock, with a compact fracture, feeble trans-
luccncy on the edges, which yields readily to the knife, and feels greasy.

(6.) Diallage rock is a compound of felspar and diallage. It belongs probably to the
primitive trap series.

Sect. VII. — Transition Rocks.

The rocks of this class, in the reg\ilar succession, rest immediately upon those of the
primitive class. Most of the rocks are distinctly stratified, and the strata are frequently
vortical, and, like those of the primitive class, exhibit the same general direction through-
out iiTCut tracts of country. Some of the deposits are of a chemical, others of a mechanical
nature : limestone is an example of a chcmic-al, groywacke of a mechanical deposit They

Vol.. I. 20

.^11

1 i!

■ I

• i *

030

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt H.

arc (listin^'uishcd from primilivu rocliH by tlio proscnco uf fuatiil or^jiinic remains, and the
poHitivc characters are drawn from the occurrcuco of corluin (i)ssil crustacnous animals,
sholls, and corals. _ Tlio extensive dc|)osit8 of limestone, particularly nf tlic viiriefjateil kinds
so hijfhly prized for ornamental pur|)o^es, which they contain; tlu! line granites and por-
phyries which they uUbrd ; and the ores of lead and copper distributtMl anions them, arc
priMifs of their importance in tlic arts. In this class there arc also Neptunian and Plutonian
rocks. The Neptunian are the followuig, viz. 1. Groywacke. 2. Transition cluy slate, a.
Gneiss and mica slate. 4. Quartz rock. 0. Red sandstone. 6. Limestone. 7. Glance coal.
The Plutonian arc, 1. Granite. 2. Syenite. 3. Porphyry. 4. Trap. 5. Serpentine.

SvnsEOT. 1, — Neptunian Tranrition Rocks.

(I.) Greywacke is a conglomerated rock, having a basis of clay slate, in which fragments
of various primitive rocks, as clay slate, quartz rock, &c. occur imbedded. When tlie
imbedded fragments become very small, and the quantity of the basis increases, the rock
uciiuircs a slaty fracture, and is named greywacke slate.

(2.) Transition clai/ slate. This is tlie rock known under the name roofing slate. It
soinotimcs contains trilobitcs.

(3.) Gneiss and mica slate. These have the same general aspect as the varieties met
with in primitive regions.

(4.) (Quartz rock. This rock very much resembles the kinds met with in primitive moun-
tains.

(.5.) Limestone. It frequently occurs with less lustre and translucency than primitive
jiniesloncs, and often exhibits in the same bed various tints and shades of beautiful colours.
It is frequently traversed by veins of calcareous si)ar. Some varieties are conglomerated,
forming the hrecciated marble of artists ; and others contain fossil shells and corals, and also
the characteristic trilobite.

(6.) Glance coal, or Anthracite. Beds of this coal, known by its metallic lustre, and
burning without flame or smoke, are met with in transition districts.

Si)B8EnT. 2. — Plutonian TVansition Rocks.

(1.) Granite. This rock does not differ inatorially from that of the primitive period. It is
principally distinguished by its being intermingled with greywacke and other transition rocks.

(2.) Syenite. This rock, which bus the same mineralogical characters with tlie primi-
tive varieties, very generally contains crystals of spheno.

(3.) Porphyry. This porphyry has sometimes a basis of felspar, sometimes of clay stone,
und as usual contains imbedded grains nnd crystals of felspar. It occurs either alone, or
associated with syenite and trap, forming mountains, and even ranges of mountains.

(1.) 'Prop. In this as in the ])rimitive trap, the sole or predominating mineral is horn
blende. It passes into syenite

(5.) Serpentine. This rock does not differ materially from the primitive rock of the
.sime name : geognostically it is distinguished from it by its altcnmting with, and sometimes
traversing in the form of veins, greywacke and other characteristic transition rocks.

Sect. VIII. — Secondary Rocks.
This very interesting class of rocks rests, in the regular succession, immediately upon
those of the transition ciass. Much of the mineral matter of which they are composed
appears to have been deposited from a state of mechanical suspension, a circumstance which
may be considered as distinguishing them, in some measure, from the transition class, where
chemical deposits prevail over those of a mechanical nature. They abound in fossil organic
remains, and it is here that for the first time we meet with remains of vertebrated animals,
as lacertct and other species of the same general description. Coal, which occurs but in
small quantity in transition deposits, is profusely distributed among secondary formations.
Of ores, by far the most abundant, and at the same time most important in an economical
view, are those of iron and lead: of these the iron (it is the common clay ironstone, the
aluminous carbonate of iron,) is the most abundant and most widely distributed. In tliis, as
ill the preceding class, there are Neptunian and Plutonian rocks. The Neptunian rocks are
the following: — 1. Sandstone. 2. Slate. 3. Limestone. 4. Gypsum. 5. Coal. The
I'lutonian are, 1. Granite. 2. Porphyry. 3. Trap.

SuBSECT. 1. — Neptunian Secondary Rocks.

In the primitive and transition classes geologists have not hitherto observed any very
determinate arrangement among the Neptunian deposits; whereas in tlie present class a
detcrniinatn order has lieeii discovered throughout the whole series. In our sketch we
shall follow tlio order of succi's.sion, beginning with the oldest, und finishing our account
witl". a description of the newest l()rmation. The whole Neptunian series is divided into
formations of sumlstone an<i formations of limestone ; the other members of the series, as the
slate, gypsum, coiil, nnd ironstone, occurring subordinate to these.

First secondary formal inn ; or the old red sundslonr. This formation is a sandstone of 8

T :>■ 1

'ART 11.

and the
aiiiiimlfl,
oil kinila
mill por-
tion, urc
•lutoniaii
slate. ^•
nee coul.

Vogments
Vhen tlio
, the rock

slate. It

'ieticB mot

live rnoun-

i primitive
fui colours.
;lomerated,
is, and also

lustre, and

period. It is
sition rocke.
h Uie primi-

[f clay stone,
,er alone, or
tins.
ra\ is horn

Irock of the
sometimes

!ks.

any very
lent class a
T sketch we
lur account
livided into
tries, as the

kdstone of a

.f.

Book XL GEOGNOSY. SU

red colour, and, bfinff tho oldest of the snndHtonoH, is named the old red >and»tonc. It is
composed of iHirticios of qiiiirtz, witli iiccaHidriiil Hcalcs of mica and fragments of felspar,
held tojr(!ihnr by an iroii-Hliot basin or fjroiiiid. HometinicH it in ORsuciated with a conglome-
rate uiailo up of fniijineiits of trauHition and priinitivo rocks.

Second xecnnilary formation, or mountain limriilonc, or mrtalliforous limestone, or car-
boniferoH.H limestone of ffcMilojjistH. 'J'his doixwit rcHts, (jcniorally conformably, sometimes
also uncoiiformably, on the old red Kandstoue. It is diNtiiictly Htratiticd, and the strata
arc fre(iiicntly more or less inclined. \U colours are generally gray; tlie fracture is
compact. .Sometimes it has a graimlar foliated structure, particularly where it occurs in
contact with tnip rocks. Some varieties, viz. those named lucullite, have a black colour.
It contains fossil organic remains of animals of various descriptioiiH. Of these the most
characteristic are genera of the trilobite tribe.

Third secondary formation ; or the second seeondarij sandstone, or the great coal forma-
tion. This very important deposit is a compound formation, therefore consists of different
rocks. Of these rocks the predominating one is sandstone. The rocks of the formation
are the following: — 1. Sandstone. 2. Slate. 3. Clay. 4. Limestone. 5. Coal. 0. Iron-
stone. 1. Sandstone. Tlie general colours are white and gray ; sometimes also it is reddish,
and then it much resembles the old red sandstone. Some varieties are entirely com-
posed of particles of quartz, held togetlier by a very inconsiderable basis or ground ; otiiers
contain, besides quartz, also felspar and mica-, those are by some geologists named arkose.
It frequently contains coaly matter, und casts and impressions of plants. — 2. Slate. Of the
slate there are two kinds, named slate clay and bituminous shale, both of which are mere
modifications of clay with the slaty structure. These also contain fossil organic remains. —
3. Clay. This is compact clay without the slaty structure, and from its use in the arts is
named fire clay. — 4. Limestone. This limestone very much rcsond)le8 the mountain lime-
stone which lies below the coal ; but hitherto no trilobites iiave been found in it It altcrnales
in beds with the other rocks of tliis formation. Some gt^olngists refer it to the mountain
limestone, and consequently that limoslono to the coal formation; an opinion which may be
correct — 5. Coal. The coal in this formation occurs in beds that alternate with tlie slates,
sandstone, and limestones. The coal is bitumin<>t;s or black coal. — 0. Ironstone. This iron-
stone is the wnimon gray clay ironstone of niinoralogirits. It is an aluminous carlxmato of
iron, and is the species of ironstone which affords most of the iron manufactunul iii (Jreat
Britain. It occurs in beds or imbedded, and most freciuontly in Ihi! slate of this liinnution.

Fourth secondary formation ; the second si condary limextonr ; tUa tnagne.iian and idpiw
limestone of authors. This formation, in the regular succession, rests immediately upon
the coal formation. It contains several varieties of liinoslone. One of these, which fre-
quently occupies the lowest part of the deposit, has a brownish black colour, a thick slaty
fracture, and emits an animal bituminous smell, and is named bituminous marl slate.
Another variety has a yellowish gray, or even at times an ochre yellow colour, with a
compact or small granular foliated structure, with a low degree of lustre, and is named
magnesian limestone. Another variety has a brownish or yellowish colour, is sometimes
compact, sometimes granular or cavernous, impregnated with sparry iron, forms the upper
part of the deposit, and is called calcaire ferrifere. When this variety becomes chorged
with bitumen and cavernous, it is named by German miners rauchwacke. It abounds
in the fossil shell named Produetus aculeatus. This formation does not abotmd in fossil
organic remains. No true ferns, but fossil fuci and iostera, occur in it. Remains of
the monitor, and it is said also of tiio crocodile, have liccn met with in it. Fishes of the
genus chietodon and of other tribes, and numerous remains of shells and corals, occur more
or less fre(juently in different varieties of the limestone. The trilobite tribe, so abundant in
the transition period, and also in the first secondary limestone, occur liere along with ortho-
ceratiles. It is the species named trilobites bituminous. Entrochi and pentacrini of great
size also occur in it. The shells are not distributed througlioiit the whole mass of the beds,
but rather occur hi particular parts. The following arc the shells; —

Orthoceratites, \eTy rare. Encrinns racemosiis.

Ammonites gibbosus. I'roductus rugosus.

Terebralida paradoxa. Mytilus roslrntus.

Terebratula elongata. Tcrehratula ovata, lacunosa, trigonella.

Spirifer alatns.

Fifth secondary formation ; the third secondary sandstone, or variegated sandstone, or
new red sandstone. In this formation, liesidos the sandstone, there are, when the deposit
is complete, also beds of marl, with gypsum i:nd rock-salt. The inferior part of tliis form-
ation is a red coloured sandstime conglomerate, which rarely contains subordinate beds of
dolomite, but no fossil orgiinic remains. .Mmve this reiw)ses what may be called the middle
part of the deposit, which is the variegated sandstone, so nanied because it sometimes
e.xliibits diffl'rent colours, princi|villy rod, with yellow and gray blotches. It is composed
iif fine grain- of qunrtz, witli a jitth' mica, and sometimes felspar, held together by a base

If^" i;

ii' I

t;;

232

SCIKNCK OF GEOGllAl'IIV.

I'AKT II.

of ferrii}jinous cluy. It coiitnlntt lint low orj^iiiic roimiiii!*, |iriiici|)iilly i>f vi'ffohililcH. The
upper purl of llio ilt'ixwit is )j;iMit'riilly coiiiiKiscd of lifils of ii cliiyi'y marl, iilwiiyM inoro or
lusM sliity, iind ^rt>iiurally ulteriiiUiii^ in llio lowor )>iirt witli ImmIh of tlit> slMllltltolu^ U>*
colours iiro roil, j,miy, iiiul yellow; tidinotiiuo!) it in viiriepitfil in the HiimiMiiiimier as thti
sdiulsfoiio with which it allcniiiti-s. It cuiitaiiis xiiUinliiialc licds of fiyjiKiim, and riirk-iiiill,
and souiotinies iilao bods of ilolomilt'. It contains littoral shells and hones of siiiiriim animals.

Sixlk mrimdiinj formal ion ; the .s7(i7/ liiiic.iloiir, or mimrliii kalkslihi. 'I'his niterestiii^r
ile|K)sit, in the rojfular succession, rests ininic'diat<;ly on the varit^fjuted or new red sandstone
ti)nnution. This limestone is of a ffray, yellow, or reddish tint of c(dmir. — It is conipact,
hut tlie fracture surthces e.xhihit numerous shiuini; liicets from animal llissil remains. IkMJH
of marl, which are souietunes (K>litic, alternate with it. It otVen aliuunds in well preserved
!(issil shells; hence the nanu* shell limestone. It sometimes contains /i,'^)iKi/m an<l rock-mill.
It contains l)csides numerous s|K'cies of tiwsil shells, ollen very well preserved, lH>nes of (,'reat
saurian animals, and impressions of fuci and ti-rns. Corals and echinites are rare, but
entrochiles arc sonictiincs so ahuiuUuit that in some |>arl.s of (iermany it is nanuul trocliital
limestone (trochiten kalk). The encrinites liliiliirmis, very common in this formation, is
cons.rereil to bo characteristic of it. Of the tbssil shells, the Atnmonitcn nodniius and Avicultt
nociar.s are considered as characteristic of the shell Innt^stone.

Seventh stconJnryJ'ormiilwn ; the third secondary sandstone, red f^round, mnrnen iriseef,
Keuper. This depotiit is princi|)a!ly com|x)s(Hl of sandstone, marls, and dulomiti\s with mil
and ffifftsum. It liaa been divided into the following liinr {frou|>s: — 1. Keu|K!r salt and
{fypsum. 2. Inferior keu|)er, \\. Variegated marls. 4. Up|)or or superior keuper. — The
xall and ffi/psum, with their marls and beds of saline clay, tlie most im|X)rtant members of
this formation in an economical )X)int of view, (X'cupy the lowest ])iirt of tlie series. 8cv»'ml
e.xtonsivo salt-mines occupy this situation. — The inferior keuper, that which rests on tlie
<ry|)suni and salt, is a sandstone which is red in the up|)er strata, but {rradually |iasses into
);ruy in tlio lower. This sandstone sometimes alternates with marls, slate clay, anci dolomites,
and contains ImxIs of pyjisum and coal. The slate clay ont4iiiis bivalve shells, a s|x;cic8 of
Ophiura, and several species of Euuisetum, Filiccs, ai ilso some Cticuduce<e. — Tlie vnrie-
littlvd marls (marnesirisees), restmij upon the inferior keu|)er, exhibit alternate stri])es of
whi'e, green, violet, red, };•■•''>'' '""' blue; they nre Renenilly comimct or slaty, and soft.
They eonfain few or no orffanic remain.s, very little {ryiwum, and no rock-salt. — 'i'hc upper
kniprr is sandstone of a ^'ray, yellow, or variegated colour. It is eoiii|iose(l principally of
irniiiis of ipmrt/, jjenenilly but loosely held tofjether, so that the mass can fre(piently be
pressed into i;niins between tlie tini;rers. Contains some traces of coal, and a few tbssil shells
:ind impressions of plants.

Kiifhth secondary formation, or /mirth secondary limestone, contains the lias and oolite
liinesloncs and Jura limestone of authors. This, which is one of th(> most e.vtensive and
impdrtant of the secondary tiirmations, n.ay Iw dividwl into the followiiiff members; pro-
ceedinir, as usual, from below upwards: — 1. Lias. 2. Oolite. <i. O.xford clay. 4. ('oral raff.
.">. Kimmeridjre clay. 6. I'ortlaiul (xtlito.

(1.) Lias. Lias is a provincial name applic<l to limestone shales, and marl stones, and
s<ime sandstones that (x;ciir alongf with them. The marls are sometimes very bituminons,
and contain beds of lignite or b.own coal, and also fiiesil shells, and occasionally beds of
<ryi)8um. The tbssil vegetables of the lias are lignites, fossil wood, sometimes siliceouB
impressions of ferns, cycadacea', and fnci. The animal remains are numerous and interest-
ing. It is in this dejiosit that Iwnes and skeletons of extinct tribes of saurian animals are
met with ; such as the genera fcensaiiriis, ichlhyosaiinis, and pl< siosaurus. DilVerent species
of Jishcs and of crabs also occur. The lias contains un immense quantity of fossil shells, of
which the predominating one is the (iryphtrn arciiata ; hence the marl stones or limestones
of the lias have been named grj-phite limestones. Besides, the following may also be
mentioned as characteristic fossils, viz. Ammonites Hiiclandii, Plagiostoma ffifrantca,
Beleinnitfs paxillosu.s, and Belemnites digitalis.

(2.) (Mile. The oolite is divided into inferior oolite and great oolite. Inferior oolite.
This is a limestone coni[H)sed of round granular concretions, resembling the roe of fishes;
hence the name oolite, or roestone, given to it. It is associat(.'d with compact limestones
and marls, and sometimes it abounds in fossil organic remains. It contains, as at Brora in
Sutherland, Ix'ds of coal. The I'otisil vegetables, which are numerous and ofl(!n well pre-
served, are of the fern and cycas tribes. It also contains bones and skeletons of greot
e.Ttent, saurian animals, also tortoises and crabs. Species of the tribe echinus, which makes
its first app<'un\nce in the eighth secondary formation, are not iinonmmoii ; the crinoid fiunily
has also representatives here, .-■■ii also have sevenil genera of the coral tribe. The charac-
teristic tiissil shells of the inferior rnilite are the lUkmnitis aalensis and liel. siilciiliis. —
Great oolite. This is a thick de[X)sit, com]x>sed chielly of an oolitic limestone. It rontains
beds of iloiomite, and .soinetiines rests uix)n lie<ls offiiflirs' i iirtli. Resting n|)oii this (udite
is the Bradford clay ; next t]\o forest inar/dr, to which beimiirs the lilhoirriiplnc limestones
of Ravuria. This forest marble, which includos also the Stonesjield slate, contains remains

'•' ^''Twiw 'it ^ n m^j l'

Hook II. ^

(.•>.; fimmeridge clau Th' i ""'^'''y «xam nod ^lypem are mut win,

(2.) »<,„ft. TheffrcPnsan,? ,« r •. . ■ — "t-nst.c of this lower^een

mmnifv^^r'^r"""""^- The lower Dart^T''"*^*«^««'«*- ^' ^""tams a^.

shells aro very ..uinorons s^'j! °' "° °"""- vcrtebmted TnS i ''"' P°"°fn«fo,l with

al«o cords of vario,,., kLk^'""' °'^""' ff<'"«ra cW„n, a^U^^t^,;:";'" '*• ''''^^ «-S

C4.) r,,„ ..„,, ,,„. , ^^,,^^^, J ». ..re ...ot w.h. and

20* °^" """'*=''™-^"'^tter,,,.I,.,v,nd.s„nd

■ 1

234

SCIKNCK OF ClROfiRAl'lIY.

Part H.

Ill I!

Ill •'

tt in khIVt tliitu clirtlk, iiiiil luwiircls the Ihwit pint, of lli(> miiH.-t tlio rlay prnloiiiiimlt'H, iiml
hIiiIv I'liiy iii.nl is timiiil. Wln'ii tin- hiiiiiI |>n'(l(iiiiiimlrH, ii liHwcly iifffjrc/ruic jrmyiMh hiiiiiI-
Htoiii' N ruiNii'il. No llmts iH'ciir ill lliis tiillact'iiiis clmlk, their pliifo Immii^j tiikni liy clicrt.
FiwNil vi'f,'(>t!ilili<H, even lifiiiilc, urn lluind in it. KoMHiln iirr imwt aliiiiiiliiiit in the Inwor part
ot'tliis iIi'|k>.mI. 'I'Iic fliii'l'an- hiliinnihii, iiiiimoniUH, naiilitiltn, hiimidn, hiirnlUin, turri-
liirs, irliiiiiliK, Willi imiilripiirrii luul rnrrinilrg.

(;■».) 'riic iijipirnmiit is tlif chalk properly «<> I'alU'il, of wliicli there are two principal
kimlf. VIZ. llie »/7ifT or (iul>. or coinnioii ulialk, whieli alHUiiiil.-i in llintn in IkmIs, veins, and
iinliedcli'd nias.-ieM; and tlie lower or hard idiiilk, in whieli Dint is inortf rarely met with,
'riu'w chalks also eontiiin iron pyrites and i-aleareons s|>ar. 'I'lu! fimsils are vrrUliTtr. and
triih i>f I'tKhi's ; nunierons vchinilvx m\A tvrrhrtiliilUrn ix-cnr tlironjjhonl the whole niiiHa;
and In the de«H'iidin<; onler, ummnniUH and brhmuitm lirist niako their appearance in the
lower iKirt of the chalk.

HuiHKDT. 'i. — I'lutonian ur Ifcncniu Scconilartj Hoekt.

Ifiuiium rorks app<<ar, at dilVeri'nt deterniiiinte periiMis, to have hroken in anionj; thu
Neptunian roek.s of this elasit, and also to have forced np thron^rji them older HHrks of variuuH
do.srriplions, toriniii); monntains, mountain ranges, and groups of niountuiii.M. The iirnoous
rix'k.M are jNirphyry, and sonu'tinius also granite and syenite.

Swrr. IX.—Tertiari/ Itwkn.
iivrnwr. 1. — Nrptuiiian Tcrlinry litwks.

TliP rocks of this class were first pointed ont by Werner; but it was not until the pulili-
cotion of liu- excellent work of I'nvier and Itrun^niart on the fjeolojjy of I'aris, that their
iliilMirtaiice wius ftdt and acknowledp'd by ffeolojjists. In the rt'^nliir HUCcc.«sion they rest
iniineilialidy u|Hin the chalk or uppermost memlH<r of liie .secondary class. Allliou^r|| t,|m
rocks are iiH>ser in texture than those of the .H<<condarv cla.ss, yet amoni; them beds cK'cnr
o<piallv compact with tht;:^e of the secondary class, 'l^hey aUnnid in tossil remaiiiH of the
animai and vi'fretjibh; kinmhuiis; alth(iiiy:li many .species iire dilVeront from the pre.^i-nt oneH,
many of the >renera are tlie same. 'J'lie lollowiiuj np; tlie Neptunian rocks in the order of
their occurrenct-, tVoiii lielow upwards: 1. Plastic clay. 2. ('alcairtf ^rossier, or I,4indon
clay. •'!. (ivpsiim with Imnes. •!. Superior marine sandstones and snnds, siiiidslone of I'Vm-
tninelileau. 5. Upper fresh-water formation.

(1.) Pliiiilie cliiij. This clay is freipiently divided into two beds by a bed of snnd; the
upper lied is more or h^ss mi.xed with tlie sand, the lower bed is pure, kneads completely witli
water, and is infusible in the |)orcelain furnace. The up|>cr bed abounds in fossil remains;
the lower bed contains none. J< I and brown coiil, which are fossilised remains o( dicotyle-
donous and iiionocotyledonous plants occur, in it. Remains of the palm trilic are very
freipieiit ; hut ferns have not been met with. Jiisirtu well preserved in amber are also met
with. 'I'he tossil shells are partly fresh-water, jMirtly marine, whicli ure sometimes separjite,
sometimes nii.\od toffcther.

(2.) Calcuire grossirr, or a cerites of French authors, tho London clay of English
peoloifistis. This dcix)sit is sometiniea seimrated from the plastic chiy by n bi;d of sand,
wliich occasioniUly contains pure and solid sandstone, but lu; petrifactions. Kestiiiff u|ioii
this sand is a bed of .shelly limestone, alM>undin<; in fjreeii coloured {Trains of silicate of
iron, and which sometimes passes into a kind of sand; it is in this limestone that the niim-
mulite shells are so abundant, and which are mi.\ed with corals and numerous shells in a
liigh slate of preservation. Immediately alxive this lies the great bod of true calciiirc
grossior. It is so comimct, that in tho Paris basin, where it abounds, it is used extensively
as a buildinof-stone. It is the common buildinjr-stonc in Paris. It contains marine shells
well preserveil, an<I al.so remains of plants. In some districts it is divided into two beds
by an interixwed bed ofliffnite or brown coal, which is intermixed with fresh-w;iter shells.
It is interestinff to notice, that here a limestone alxiunding in marine shells is separated
into two beds by an interposed mass of coal, filled witli tresli-watcr shells. Around liOndon
there is a ifreat de[X)sit of clay abomidinji in the same shells as occur in the c:ilcaire fjrossier;
thence, for this and other reasons, it is considered as tho eciuivalent of the Paris calcaire
prossier. Tho uppermost part of this tbnnation consists of sand, hornstone, and sandstone,
with nlternatinij bods of limestone. It somotimcs abounds in crritcs.

(M.) (ii/i>siim ipilh bones. This deposit may be considered as consistinj^ of three stages ;
a lower, a middle, and an upi>or. The hirer part, or that which rests immediately upon
the caicaire nrrassior, consists of ijray and white limestoi'e, inore or less compact, penetrated
in all directions by silica. This silica, when it finds its way into cavities in the limestone,
lines tiiem with chalcedony or with cpKirtz crystals. It contains species of tlie fresh-water
peneni I.i/mnru am\ Plauorbis. The inidillc part is com|X>sed of gypsum which alternates
with layers of marl. Tt is in this gyiisum that remains of tho genera Pala-olhiriinii, Anaplo-

Bo«K ir.

0KO0\()sv.

Iwo principiil

Ih, VtMIIH, lirill

ly riict with.
vvrlilinr. and
wliolo nmn8;
iraiiuu in tho

I iinion); tlic
:kHorvitriuuH
'J'iiu i^iiouus

il till! imhli.
«, timt thoir
uii llioy roHt
UtlKiiiifli t.lm
!)im1h ocoiir
iiiiiiH of tlio

ll(V('llt OIllW,

tlin order of
I or h)iid(m
toni! of Fon-

f sfind; tho
pli'tcly with
<ii rciniiins ;
o( dicotyle-
w an; very
iro also mot
es soparate,

of Enfjlish
0(1 of wuid,
L'stinir upon
silicate of
t th(> ?j«;n-
^^ll<'ll(^ in a
ii; cnlcairo
'xtonsivcly
rino sliells

two bods
iter shells.

1 Hoparatod
lid Ijondon
f <jroHKier ;
ris calcaire
»and8tunc,

on .Kfafjes ;
Jitoly upon
[lonotrated
limestone,
•csh-watcr
nltnrnatca
I, Anaplo-

ll/(0.

II '■"''tHJivosv

elv
(il-

It f .rth,..r clmractoriHod' by t . m ;^::^"'"";> ''/f''' A/<^ /W.L r/h ^ ''T ''"""•"*"

It . f rth,..r charactoriHod b-

"f-^ir iwiar 7a^;'''"-'"''"'t '-'''^i^rS^^^ «"«!'-.^'^':;;;:::! s:^;-

sigipsiiiiiisi

Un.lor thin hea,l wo include M.n "''^■- -^—'^"«"'«' /iot-A*.

" ;.;-i'tr?r^ R^^ =-« ■«-, ™,„ ^

Those are rocky maases whieh ''"'' "^Z'" ^"''^'""c «oc/l,.

Dim n,I iiMfi r ""'y ™ve sfreamerl ti, ., .^ country where tho,

'^1

330

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY,

Pabt II.

BOOK III.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY UNDER ITS RELATION TO
ORGANIZED AND LIVING BEINGS.

In considering tho extensive ran(;o of subjects which this b(x)k embraces, wc have arranged
them as they successively rise above the scale of inanimate nature.

The first chapter treats of geography, in its relation to botany, or to tho distribution of
plants over tho surface of tho globe.

The second chapter considers it in its relation to zoology, or the distribution of animals,
including man viewed simply as to his physical condition.

The third chapter views geography in reference to human society, to man in his political,
moral, and social condition.

CHAPTER L

GEOGRAPHY CONSIDERBD IN RELATION TO THE DISTRIBUTION OP PLANTS.

In proportion as our knowledge increases relative to any of the sciences, we find a more
intimate relation anii connexion between them. Formerly geography was only studied as it
regarded the surface of the earth itself, its figure, the constitution of the several regions and
countries, their boundaries, &c. ; and botany has had too many votaries who devoted their atten-
tion almost exclusively to determining the generic and specific names of plants, neglecting the
more beautiful and philosophical parts of the science. Of late years, indeed, our systems of
geography have, in some instances, contained a meagre catalogue of the vegetable produc-
tions ot the diflerent regions, but nothing that could give the least information with respect
to the laws of their general distribution : and now that some of the most able naturalists and
philosophers of our nay have, by their labours, thrown new light upon this interesting sub-
ject, we should feel that our work would ill merit the character which we hope it may obtain
with the public, were we to omit a notice of it. At the same time, the limits of our publica-
tion will permit us to give only a sketch of what indeed must be considered as still in its
infancy ; and those who have most devoted their attention to botanical geography will most
readily join with Mirbel in declaring that " we are even yet far from having arrived at that
period when it will be possible to write a good history of this subject. What ws do
know of climates and of vegetation, is little, in comparison with what we have yet to learn ;
and hence it would be rash in us to form an estimate of what we do not know by what we
are already acquainted with. The surest way is to confine ourselves to collecting and
arranging facts, leaving, to those who muy follow us, the charge of discovering and de-
veloping the theory."

To exhibit tho present state of botanical science, we shall endeavour to put together the
more interesting facts, collected principally from the writings of our most authentic travel-
lers and naturalists; and, devoting this memoir to vegetable geography in its more en-
larged and general sense, shall afterwards, in the different countries, under the head of
botany, point out some of the most striking and important productions of their respective
regions. As the nature of the present work docs not permit us to enter minutely into the
subject in all its bearings, we shall give a popular view of it, as little encumbered as possible
with technical terms.

That certain vegetables are confined to certain districts or limits, depending in a great
measure, but by no means altogether, upon soil and climate, must be familiar to the most
careless inquirer into the works of nature. In regard to climate, the two extremes are re-
presented by the country within the tropics, and that which approaches the poles. In the
one, nature exhibits herself in her most lovely and her most magnifif ent and exuberant form,
and the earth is covered with vegetables which indicate a never-ending summer; whilst in
the others a brief summer, a few days of freedom from frost and snow, call into existence a
thinly scattered vegetation of small and stunted flowering plants, which scarcely rise above
the mosses and lichens that surround them ; and the intermediate zones will be found to be
occupied by other racs, gradually, however, increasing in difierence as they approach to
one or other of these extremities. The same gradation exists, we know, upon a lofty moun-
tain, situated within the tropics. At its base may be seen those plants which are peculiar
to the tropics ; and the beauty, the grandeur and perpetual verdure will gradually diminish
in the ascent, until a soil and climate be found on the higher summits similar in respect to
climate and productions to those in the vicinity of tho poles.

In regard to climate and vegetable productions, our globe has been aptly compared, in it.=
two hemispheres, to two immense mountains, ])lacod base to base, tne circumference ol

Book III.

IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY.

287

a great
lie moet
are re-
in the
nt form,
bilst in
itence a
e above
id to be
•oach to
f moun-
iculiar
iminieh
Ispect to

in itp
cnco ol

whicii nt tiio fuot \» cnnRtitiitcd by the equator, and the two polci roprcttrnt the minimits,
crownotl with perp* timl (fluciorB.

That ahnotit cvnry country poescHHOs a vogctatioii peculiar to ifHolt', in also well known ; and
this is iNirticuIurly the case with countricH whuse natural bciunilurloii nrc tbriiii'd i)y moun-
tains, sens, or deserts, even in the same or dilTernnt degroos of latitude. F.nroix! rxhibils a
widely difljerent class of plonts from that part of North America whicli lies iuunrdiatoly op-
posite to it. The botany of Southern Africa has little or no rescmbiunco 1o that of Iho same
parallclH in South America, or to that of New Holland. In Great Britain, snine plautM are
confined to the eastern and some to the western side of the island. !n Scotland, the Tut'
sane and the hlv nf Man Cabbage are never foimd but on the western side of the rountry,
and the same is the case with the pale Butteruort (Pinffuicula Lusitanica), Imth in Knjrland
and Scotland. Nature has constituted the barrier, for by art they may be cultivated as well
on one as the other side of the island.

Botanical geography is constituted by cor.oidering plants in relation to their habitation,
region, or the country m which they grow, and 'n regard to their locality or particular ilation,
ana forming a collection of facts, deduced fron these circumstances, from which general
laws may be derived: nor is this a science desiitute of advantages; such, we mean, as are
immediately manifest; for there are few, in the present ugc, who will be disposed to deny
that the study of the works of nature, like every tiling that cai> nxnlt and renne the mind,
is highly deserving of our attention. Vegetable geography is intimately connected with hor-
ticulture. Our gardens will be better stocked with vegetables and fruits, our forests with
trees, our fields with corn, and our pastures with grasses, in proportion to our knowledge of
the relation of plants with the e.xterior elements. Nay, Schouw has justly observed, that a
good chart of the distribution of the vegetable forms over any given country will afford a far
more correct idea of the productive strength of that country than many statistical tables.
The systematic botanist may thence derive benefit ; for by it he will be better able to deter-
mine whether certain kinds of plants are species or varieties ; he will consider that a dif^
ferent local situation produces different efTects upon them ; that those growing in wet places
are less hairy or downy than those growing in dry ; that at great elevations plants ore more
dwarf in their stature, with fewer leaves, but with larger and more brilliant flowers than
those found at lesser heights. The station, too, of certain plants, or groups of plants, fre-
quently lead to a discovery of characters diverse from other individuals of other countries
with which tiny had been a&sociated. Thus the Canadian Strawberry and the Canadian
chickweed Wintergreen (Trientalis), though long confounded with the European Strawber-
ry and Trientalis, are found to be quite distinct. The regions, too, and the limits of those
regions, of very important medicinal H'ugs, are determined by vegetable geography.

Sect. I. — Progress of Botanical Geography.
This branch of science had been, hov'"ver, for a long time, wholly neglected. Linna}us,
indeed, with whom originated so many improvements in botany, besides what related to sys-
tematic arrangement, was the first writer who gave stations for plants, as ho called them, or
rather habitations, or frequently both combined, and this plon has been followed by every suc-
ceeding systematic botanist. Yet although these stations or habitations are frequently con-
sulted in the geographical arrangement of plants, they arc too vague and uncertain to be
generally depended upon ; and they must be employed with caution. De Saussure, who so
assiduously studied vegetable physiology, was particularly attentive, on that account, to the
elevation at which plants grow above the level of the sea ; and appears to have been the
first to ascertain that elevation barometrically. Mr. Young, the celebrated agriculturist, in
his Travels upon the Continent, determined with considerable accuracy the northern boun-
daries of several of the most important cultivated plants, the Olive, the Vine, and the
Maize ; whilst Soulavie, in the south of France, has characterised the limits of them, and
of the Orange and Chestnut. These, and other authors of less note, prepared the way,
during the last century, for the more important labours of the present, when the .study has
begun to rank as a science. Stromeyer described, to a certain extent, the boundaries of the
vegetable kingdom, in a work entitled "A Specimen of the History of Vegetable Geogra-
phy," Gottingen, 1800. The work of Kielmann, entitled " A Dissertation concerning Vege-
tation in the Alpine Regions," Tubingen, 1804, was followed by that of Treviranus, named
" Biologic," which seems to \ie the first wherein attention was paid to the distribution of
plants according to their natural families; the hitter author dividing the globe into regions
or distinct Floras ; and De Candolle, about the same time, partitioned France into regions in
the same way, and wrote on the influence of height upon vegetation. To the celebrated
Humboldt, however, we are indebted for the most valuable writings on vegetable geography,
which have first given it the true character of a science. His " Essai siir la Gt'ographie
des Plantes," in 1807, and his beautiful " Tableaux de la Nature," contained his first ideas
on the subject; while his celebrated "Prolegomena de distributione geographica Planta-
'iim secundum cceli temperiem et allitudinem montium," forming the introductory chapter
'o the botanical part of his travels; his invaluable "Memoir on Isothermal Lines and the

vi>,

. ,!•: »

flu J

.?!.:

^..11

988

aCIKNCK OF fJK(K;RAPlIY,

Part II.

IHiitrihutinn nf tlnil over the dlohr, |)til)liNli<>(l in tlic MpinoirfH (l'Arcii«iI, nnil trniiNlntiHl
iiitii lirinvritcr'H mid JiiiiicwiirH I'liiloNopliicnl Jdiirniil, vol, iii. ; totfftlicr witli liin Inter work
oil tlid Hiibjoct, " \ru> KiuiuirifH into Ihr l,iiw» which ore ohnrrvrd in Ihe I)i»trilmlinn nj
\'if(i lohlf Forinii," likfwiiin itwcrtcil in (Iki Kdiii. Phil. Joiiriml, vol. vi., iniiy Im' (•ouHiiir 'cd
UH till' inoHt iiii|mrtuiit diKst>rtiitionrt on ii coiiipri'lii'iiHivc hciiIi' ti:iit. Iinvo yot n|i|i<>iiri'il. In tlio
nifiin tiiiic', otiior oiniii'Mit iiiilnritliMt.H, liy tlioir wt'ji-dirrctcd InlKHirH, rontriitiiti'd iiiiitrriiilly
til t'.\t(>iid till! NciiMico: NViilileiilHTff, liir cxiiiiiiilo, in liiM lulmiriililo Flora lidp/ionifii, iiiul in
tliiit lit' 11 iNirtioii (if Mwit/.criiind, iind of the ('iir|mtliiiLn Alpn; whilft Von Iliicli, in liiH 7V«-
rils in .Xorwiiij, dotiiiloil nmny curious liicts n'MpoctinK the diHtrihution of vexetiiblcM in that
cliniiite, mid iiUi in his int(>r<'stin({ Voyuffr to the danarifg, nmdo in cunipiiny with I'ro
ti'.-isor Smith. Mr. U. Drown Iiiih iiiililinht'd iiiciiioirH which riink uinoiifr tlm iiioHt viilnublo
thiit hiivt! n()i)fiirud on thin nnlijcct. We p:irticiiliirly iillndo to his " Itrmarku, (hoffniphical
iind Sijftrmiilir, on Ihr ItoUimj of Trrrii AiiKlriilis, 1H14," und " OhKrrviitioiiK on Ihv Iter-
biirinin colli cti'd hij I'rofnmor ('hrint. Smith, in the vicinity of i\e (Smffo, \hln." I)r.
Schoiiw coinpiird, iii IH'24, an iidmiriiblo luMtory of tho Hcinticp, of which Home |>ortioiiM have
btMMi translated into DruwHtur'H nnd Jiiineson's Journal!). TliiH vuluiiblo work in accompa-
nied by iin Atlii8 of several iiiiipn of the worhl; ciicli exliibitincr the geo(;rapliicni extent of
cprtiiin tribes or fiiniilies of vpfjotnblos, iudicut(.>d by dilTeront colours; so that we ."ee, at oii«
viinv, u|)on a i)!>in of the world, the countries in which those pliintu nro found, their liounda-
ries, nnd their coin(>arativo abundance, indicated by the greater or lens depth of colour em-
ployed. Do CiindoUc, in the " Nouveau IHctiimtuiire tics Scirncr» NatHrfllm," has given
an admirable rrsume of these writorti, and huii added much important originul information.
A somewhat similar plan is odojrted by M. Drongniurt in the " Dictionnuire Cla»»ique
<rHiiitoire Natnrclle. Mr. Allan Cunningham, both in Mr. Biirron Field'* " Memoirs of
New South Walm" and in the second volume of " Captain King'* Survry of the Inter-
tropical Coasts of Australia," has furnished some excellent remarks upon tho distribution
of vegctiibles, especially of the less fre(iiu'nted ])arts of New Holland. The " Mimoiris du
Museum iPIIisloire Ntiturille" contain some iniportnnt paix^rs on this subject, particularly
that of Mirbel, " Sur la Uio^raphic des Conifcren," a trilio of plants valuable for its eco-
nomicul uses; and his " Recherc.hts sur la Distribution Oiograpliiquc des Vegetaux pha-
nirogames dans fancicn Monde, depuis rEquatrur ji.squau P6lc Arctiquv : aiid, lastly,
wo shall name a useful little manual, entitled u " Leclur". un the Geography of Plants," by
Mr. J. Barton.

Sbct. II. — On the lt\fluence of the Elements on Plants.
In regarding tho limits to which certain plants arc circumscribed upon tho surface of the
globe, we shall see that it is with them as with the mighty ocean ; they arc equally subject
to that fiat of the Almighty, " Thus far shall thou go. nnd no fartlier." The Palms, the
Treo-Ferns, tho parasitical (Jrchideo', are ever confined io the tropics; the Cruciferous and
Umbelliferous plants almost exclusively to the temperate regions ; while tho Coniferous
plants, and many of the Amentaceous tribes flourish in those of tho north ; and since these
are all aflbcted by physical agents, we must consider, before proceeding any farther, the
influcncc.'i which the elements or exterior agents exercise upon plants. These M. do Can-
doUe considers to be Heat, Light, Moisture, Soil, Atmosphere,

Si)B8ECT. I. — On the Influence of Heat.
Hc't is the most obvious nnd iwwerfiil agent in aflecting the existence nnd growth of
plants : and of this we have continual experience before our oyes. In winter all vegetation
is at a stand, and we can only cultivate those plonts which are i.i a continued state of
vegetation, by artificio.1 heat. Plants are nourished either by water alone, or by substances
dissolved or suspended in the water. Hence vegetation is arrested when the temperature
is below the freezing point; for the water, becoming solid, cannot enter the vegetable
tissue. Again, as in the great deserts of many countries, the heat may be so great thnt the
earth is dried up, and cannot part with its nutritive properties. These effects, liowover, ,1
is but reasonable to suppose, are more remarkable iipin the surface of the earth than nt a
considerable depth : hence it happens that trees which have long tap-roots resist both the
extremes of temperature better than those whose roots are nearer to tne surface ; their fibres
penetrate into a soil, whoso temperature is greater in winter than that of the outer air, so
that the fluids imbibed keep the interior of largo trees, as has been ascertained by experi-
ment, at a degree of heat pretty neorly the same os that indicated by a thermometer placed
nt tlie roots of such trees. Hence, the greater tho thickness of the stem or branch, and the
greater the number of layers interposed between the fith (the softest part being the moisleist
and the r^ost susceptible of cold) and the exterior air, the better are they able to resist the
severity ot ihe cold. It is a well-known fact that a shrub or tree ns it grows older becomes
more hnrdoned ngainst frost. Do Candollo relates that at Montpellicr the Pride of India
(Melia Azedarach) when young is destroyed by a moderate degree of cold ; but tliat when

ciei

DttOK III.

IN ITH RKI-ATION TO BOTANY.

330

rowth of
bgotation
Btate of
ubstanccB
Lperature
|C}][o table
that the
vever, It.
limn at a
Iboth the
leir fibres
pr air, so
expcri-
[t placed
, and the
I moisiest
jpsist tiie
I becomes
ff India
lat when

it nttninrt a inoro advani'i'd ii[(n, it will ondiiri*i in thf (fiinli'ii iit Ornova, np intPtmity of
atmonplipro fmir liiiii's hh hi-vitu an that wliicli killiMJ tlii> yoiiriK plant in llio wiiith of h'rniicc,

.Atfaiii, ill prii|Nirti(iii uh the (<iit<>rior laytTH aro di'privi^l of nap or wuti'ry lliiiil, iiiid fiirtlHo«l
liy a di'|K>HJt of rarlion and ri'HiiioiiH iiiattrr, tlio iiioro iN)W(<rthlly thoy withstand Iho cold.
Lvt'ry t;ardriic'r and (Miltivali>r ih acipiaintud with the fact (hat in cold ami wot NiiiimiofM
whiMi tho Niii) aiicl lioat liavo Ih'<-ii iiiitiiMlciiMit to pnxliico ^otxl liark iiiion tho now .tJUHitH of
till) tViiit-trci'-i, tlioy an; liulih' to ho alfoetod liy a very iiiiMlrratn tVont in tlin imihiiIii;; viiitor.
Sitcciiliiit pliinlii iiiui Miiiwritltflriltmimt jiliiiilii,'in K<'ni'ral, which have no diKtiin't '.mrk,
are highly NiiHcoptlblo of colil ; whilst tlio llirrh, which Ih fnnuod around with iiiiiiii'ioiii)
layori* of olil and dry Ixirk, and the Fir, whofit liark iilmiindH with rcHin, ondiiro an iiitoi.m)
dpRfco of it without injury. ,\t Fort Kntorprini", in North America, lat. dl" ;10", l)r,
RichanlHon liaM BMCcrtainud that the Hanktinn Pine (I'inuH liiuikitiana), tlin inhitr, tho rtil,
and lilai'k Spruce, tho tmall-frniled Ijiirrh, and other Aiiiontacormn trocK, hour a di'j'reo of
cold oiiiial to 44" below zero of Fahrcnhoit ; and in Hilioria, Int. ♦W 28", thocnmmo/i Larch,
tho Sihirian Stone I'iiii; tho Aider, Rirrh, and Juniw-r, &c. attain their (frniitUNt itizu, nrid
uro not aifcctod by the oxtremoHt cold of that Hovoro cliniato.

Powerful mimmor heats are capable of caunini; trees and Hlirnbri to endure the moxt tryinp
offeetH of cold in tho ensuinj; winter, as wo finiT in innnincrablo inHtanccs; and vivu virti,
Hoiico, in Oroat Britain, so many vcffctahles, tVuit-trecs in particular, for want of a suflR-
ciently [Hiworfiil sun in summer, are affected by our comparatively moderate fronts in winter j
whilst ujion continenti) in tho same dnjfreo of latitude tho same trees arrive at the highest
(le((reo of perfection. Kvon in the climate of Paris the Pistucia tree and tho Olvandrr will
not boar tho winter. Yet tho winters there are mild in coinparison with those which prevail
in the envinms of Pekinff, where tho Oleander was found by Lord Macartney to remain
abroad tho whole year; and at Casbin in Persia, whore Chardin assures us that the Pistacia
nuts, produced in tho open air, aro larger than those of Syria. On tho other hand, the
hoat of these two countries in summer is infinitely ^eater than that at Paris; the summer
temperature of Peking especially nearly eiiiials that of Cairo, and siiriMHses that of Alpriors.
For tho same reason, too, tho \Veepinf( Willow liocomes a largo tree in Finfrland ; while in
tScotlund, whore tho winters are at leist as mild, but where tho summer afii'rds much less
warmth, this beautiflil tree can only bo cultivated in highly favoured situations, and even
there its vegetation is exceedingly languid : its young snoots, not ripened by tho summer
sun, are destroyed even by a slight frost

Ilence tho influence of temperature upon the geography of plants !-■» pointi^d out by M.
de Candollo under three points of view:— 1. The mean temperature of tho year. 2. The
extreme of temperature, whether in regard to cold or heat. 3. The distribution of tempera-
ture in tho different months of the year.

The mean temperature, that point which it has for a long time been the great object to
ascertain, is in reality what is of tho least importance in regard to the geography of plants.
In a general view, it may be usefiil to take it into consideration ; but the mean teni|)erature
is often determined by circumstances so widely different, that the consequences and the
analogies to be deduced from them relative to vegetables would be very erroneous.

By attending to the extreme points of temperature, results more limited, hut fur more
exact, are to he obtained. Thus, every locality which, though at only short intervals, affords
a degree of cold or heat of certain int^onBity, cannot but produce plants which are capable
of supporting those extreme degrees. When, however, these widely different temperatures
recur at very long intervals, man may cultivate in such a country a vegctablo which cannot
exist in a wild state; either because, when destroyed by tho rigour of the season, ho restores
it by seeds or by plants derived from a more temperate country ; or because he shelters it
from the inclemency of the air ; or, becauso he is satisfied with the product of the plant,
although it should not bring its seeds to perfection. And thus it is that, in the south of
Europe, the Vine, Olive, and Oranpre trees often vegetate exceedingly well for all the pur-
poses for which they are required, though, if left to themselves, they could not propagate
themselves, nor sustain the winter. Thus we see a wide difference in the geography of
plants, between those in a state of nature, and those individuals whose growth is artificially
encouraged by man.

This, indeed, is a subject closely connected with the acclimatation of plant*, or the
power which man is supposed to exert over them in inuring them by degrees to a climate
not originally natural to them. This power is, however, denied by very able vegetable
physiologists. Mirbel, in particular, declares that ho has known many species indeed
whose wants have been, to ii certain degree, artificially supplied • but not one whose con-
stitution has been changed. "If," he says, "from time to time, exotics mingle themselves
with our indigenous tribes, propagate as they do, and even dispute the very possession of the
soil with tho native inhabitants ; this, assuredly, is not the work of man, but it is the
climate which dispenses this faculty of naturalization." ("Cultivators, however, maintain that
seedlings from Myrtles, which had ripened their finiit in Pevonshire in the open nir, are
better able to endure the cold of the climate than those seeds perfected by artificial heat, or

if'.

VI' 1

}V 'M

I M

240

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY.

Part II.

that havo como from the warmer parU of Europe. It is true, the power of so acclimatinpr
itself already exislB in the vejjetable ; but it ia man that calls it into action, for naturally the
myrtle would never extend itself to these latitudes. Nay, something of the same kind
M. Mirbel himself allows, where he says, " When we consider that the Vine is cultivated
in tiie plains of Hindostan and Arabia, between the 13tl» and 15th parallels ; that it is cul-
tivated on the banks of the Rhino and Maine, in lat. 51° ; in Thibet, at an elevation above
the level of the sea of from 9,0(X) to nearly 11,000 feet, under the 32d degree of latitude;
what astonislies and interests us the most is, not that the vine inhabits countries so remote
I'roin one another, or that it grows at so great an elevation above the sea, but that it possesses
in so eminent a degree the property of accommodating itself to d\ff^erent climates ; a pro-
perty, indeed, much more restricted in a great number of vegetables, which extend firom the
equator to the tropics on both sides, without ever crossing them ; for notwithstanding the
greater distance between the 23d degree of south latitude and the I33d degree of north lati-
tude, the climatic differences are much less from one tropic to the other than from the plains
of Hindostan to the banks of the Maine."

Tlie distribution of heat at different months of the year is what we shall find to be of
♦,ho most importance in regard to vegetable geography. Some climates are eminently uni-
form ; a certain mean temperature is produced by a mild winter and a moderate degree of
warmth in summer. This is frequently the case on the sea-coasts, because the extremes of
heat are continually modified by the sea ; tiiat vast reservoir of nearly equal temperature,
which therefore imparts heat in winter and cold in summer, and enables even tropical plants
to subsist in some situations of the temperate zone. Such ore the western shores of Europe
and America, and p. great portion of the southern hemisphere. A similar mean temperature
may indeed be produced by a combination of very severe winters and very hot summers, as
in the great continents compared with islands, or tlie shores of those continents ; or the
eastern side of continents as compared with the western ; or the northern with the southern
hemisphere ; but these two climates, as may be expected, will produce a very different
vegetation.

Annual plants, which require heat during the summer to ripen their seeds, and which
[mss the winter, so to say, in torpidity, in the state of grain, indifferent to the intensity of
cold,* abound most in those regions where the extremes are the greatest ; whilst the peren-
nial plants, which can better dispense with the maturing of their seeds, and which are
injured by the severities of winter, affect the temperate climates. Of these, again, those
kinds which have deciduous leaves accommodate tliemselves best to unequal temperatures ;
whilst the individuals en which the foliage remains, or evergreens, give the preference to
districts where the temperature is more constantly equal.

Mirbel reckons that there are about 150 or 160 natural groups or families of plants in the
Old World, types of all which exist in the tropical parts of it. Beyond these limits, a great
number become gradually extinct. In the 48th degree of latitude, scarcely one half of
that number appear ; in the 65th, not 40 ; and but 17 in the vicinity of the polar regions.
He further estnnates, that within the tropics the proportion of woody species, trees and shrubs,
emials, if it does not exceed, that of herbaceous, annual, biennial, and perennial plants.
The relative number of the woody species to the herbaceous, annual, biennial, and perennial,
fiecreases from the equator to the poles ; but, as an equivalent, the proportion of perennial
to annual or biennial plants goes on increasing. Near the extreme limits of vegetation
these are, at least, as twenty to one.

We must, however, by no means conclude that the same elevation in corresponding
degrees of latitude is necessarily suited to the vegetation of the same plants. A number of
circumstances may exist to modify the degree of heat at the same elevation. In Switzer-
land, for example, the elevation of the valley of Untersee is the same as that of (iestein ;
yet the tliermometer, in 1822-3, fell only to 6° below zero in the former spot; whereas
at Gestein it foil to 10i°, and ot Berne to 16°, The depth of tlie valleys influences
vegetation ; the deeper they are, the more intense is the cold on the summits of the
surrounding mountains. Thus, the pine does not thrive on the Bragel, at a height of 5100
feet; whereas it succeeds perfectly, ot the same elevation, on the Rhetian Alps, the valleys
of the Linth, the Muotta, and Kloen being deeper than those of the latter districts. In like
manner, in tiie vnlley of the Davos, agricultural produce is certain in places much more
elevated tli;\n tlio riornese valleys, because the latter are deeper. The warm winds from
Italy havo n porcoptible power over the vegetation of the contiguous jmrts of Switzerland ;
hut the degrees nf that influence depend upon circumstances. In the valley of the Inn,
Imrley and flax are cultivated with success at an elevation of more than 5400 foet ; whereas
at I.aret, in the valley of Davos, though the height is only 4900 feet, no grain will thrive.
Yet, these valleys are alike in most respects, and are surroui.dcd by mountains of simila-
altitudes; they are both sheltered from the north-east wind; their soil is of the same nature;

•St'cds blind, in t'cmriil, rnrninliril with I't'W nriinn.'< wliirli nbuiiiiil in mnistnre, are in a dcarre in»''nsihlc to
rlic pxlrunii's i)f hint nml rold ; wiinnro it Hr:K('ii lliat, in rcinvfjiny llu in from one country to anotliur, they paM
ilircingh a variuty i>r olininti' uninjnrcil. '

ants in the

1, a {fTeftt

half of

regions.

ind shrubs,

plants.

perennial,

perennial

egelation

responding
niimber of
Switzer-
Gestein ;
whereas
influences
lits of the
lit of 5100
the valleys
... In like
n\ich more
vinds from
itzerlond ;
if the Tnn,
; whereas
;ill thrive,
of eimila-
110 nature ;

iiift^iiaiWe to
litr, they pR'l

Book III.

IN ITS RELATION To BOTANY

241

hut in the valley of tlic Inn, the warm winds from Italy arc intercepted only by a single
chain of mountains, whereas two chains lie between Italy and the valley of Davos: and,
besides, the latter being of smaller extent than the former, it admits of tlio reception of less
solar heat. In tlie Oborland of Berne, an increase in height of 2000 feet diinini^iies the
crop one third.*

SvDSGCT. 2. — On the Influence of Light.

The inlhicnce of the solar light upon vegetation De CandoUe corsiders to be as imf jrtant
as that of temperature ; and although it acts less powerfully upon the geographical distri-
bution of plants, it nevortlieless merits a particular notice.

Light is that agent whicli oi»erates in producing tlie greatest number of phenomena in
vegetable life. It determines, in a great measure, tiie absorption ; for plants imbibe less
humidity during the niglit and in darkness. It completely influences the watery exhalations
of the green parts of plants ; for these parts do not exhale during the night or in obscurity,
whilst these exhalations are very considerable during the day, and especially under the
direct influence of the rays of the sun. The light aflects, in most cases, the decomposition
of the carbonic acid ; and consequently the deposition of carbon in vegetables, their sub-
stance and tlieir growth, the intensity of their sensible properties, and the direction of many
organs. It is the principal, and perhaps tlic only, cause of tliose singular movements known
by the name of the sleep of nlanls ; and, lastly, during tlie absence of light the green parts
absorb a certain quantity ot oxygen gas. Although these difierent causes afi'ect all vege-
tables, yet tiiey are not affected in the same degree.

liigiit is more equally distributed tlian heat upon the surface of the globe ; but its mode
of diffusion induces some very important consequences. In the countries situated under the
eipiator, an intense light, since it acts more perpendicularly, influences vegetables nearly
equally, during twelve hours each day, throughout the whole year. In prr^wrtion as we
recede from the equator and approach the poles, the intensity of the more oblique rays gra-
dually diminisiics; but in regard to the distribution of these rays, tlie light is completely
wanting during the winter, when the absence of vegetation indeed renders it nearly useless
to plants ; ami it is continued during almost the whole period of vegetation, in such a man-
ner that its Icngtiicned influence compensates wholly or in part for its want of intensity.
Thus we see that, independently of what concerns the temperature, plants which lose their
leaves can belter exist in northern countries, and that those whose vegetation is continued
have need of the southern regions. And another beautiful and just remark is made by De
CttudoUe, in reference to the distribution of light; namely, that those plants whose foliage
and flowers maintain habitually and constantly the same position, can live in northern cli-
mates, where the light is almost continued in summer; whilst it is in the regions of the
south that we find, as might naturally be expected, those species whicii are remarkable for
the alternate closing and expanding, or sleeping and waking, of their flowers, a motion
which has an intimate connexion with the alternation of days and nights. Thus we see
why it is found so difficult in our country to cultivate many of tlie tropical vegetables, or, at
any rate, to brin^ them to perfection. M. de Humboldt has proved that it is less owing to
the absence of heat tlian to tlie want of sufficient solar light that the Vine does not ripen
its fruit beneatii tiie foggy skies of Normandy ; and M. Mirbel has satisfied himself that the
uninterrupted action of the sun's rnys, during a great number of days, is the cause of the
astonishingly rapid developement of alpine plants in high northern regions.! Dr. Richard-
son, too, states that the sugar-boilers in the Canadian forests observe that tiie flow of sap in
the Suffar Maple (Negundo fraxinifolium) is not so immediately influenced by a high mean
temperature as by tiie power of the direct rays of the sun. The greatest quantity of sap is
collected wlien a smart frost during night is succeeded by a warm sunshiny day. Again,
Humboldt assures us, that in all places where the moan temperature is below 62° 6', the
revival of nature takes place in spring in that month whose mean temperature reaches 42°
8', or 4Q° 4'. At Cumberland Ilouse, Dr. Richardson found vernation to begin in May,

• We limy hurc iniintinn a nirious fact of vogniiilion restiric upon a hasis of icn. The glacier of Roccosecco,
which foriii!* one of the hfanrhi^s of tli«.' Rerneria, has on its suiniiiit a valh?y tilted witli ice ; aiiit on tills the ava-
lanches have lironsht down inasscs of earth. This earth prodnces a number of alpino plants, that nlHirrt ahun-
ilaiit and nourishing; food to the Ancks of tlie inhabitants of Saniadeii. Tliia fingiilar pasture has been used ever
since the year I5.1li.

t " Vet'etaliles." says M. Mirhcl, in his FJtmtns de Phij.^ologic ffgttah, " wlien Kecluded IVoni the light, send out
lone, thin, and whitish shoots; ll]"ir substance bccnnicH lax, and without ftrniness; in fact, they are bleached.
Tilt; operation of the Inniinoiis iH'ains on these orsaniscd bodies consifsts chiefly in sepnratiiiK the constituent
partH of water and carbonic miil, which they contain, and in disen|!ai;iii|>thc oxyeen of the latter. The carbonic
aeid, with the hyiiroyen and oxiijeu of the water, produce those jjunis, resins, and oils, which flow in the vessels
and which fill tlie cells. These juices nourish the inenibrnnes. anil lirini; Iheni into the ligneous state ; a result
whicli becomes more marked a^ the )jj:ht is strnncest and its action most protracted. Darkness and light produce,
thi!refore, diametrically oppi'siie edects on vegetation. Darkness, by keeping up the softness of tlie vegetable
parts, favours their increas-' in length : light, by ministering to their nourishment, consolidates them, and arrests
their growth. Hence it follows that a line state of vegetation, such as unites in just pro)Kirtions size anil strength,
must ilepend, in a measure, on the nicely halauceil alternation of day and night. Now, the liy|)erhorenn plants
«pring up at a period when I he sun is constantly above the horizon, and the light which incessantly acts upon
tlieni coutirms and perfects them before they have time to attain a censiderablc degruc of length. 7*heir vegetOr
lion is active, but suuii over ; they are robust, but sniall.'

Vol. I 21 2 P

^l=ii|l

im\

vi^

' ,(■'•

l¥:

242

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY,

Part II.

when tlie mean temperature was only 49°, nearly 3° below that which Baron Humboldt
consitlnrod necessary fur the evolution of deciduous leaves; but he atlds, "the influence of
the direct rays of the sun u,as at this time very great, and the hifjh temperature of the last
decade of the month compensated for the first." We can imitate tiie native climes of many
of the delicate exotics, as far as regards temperature; and in summer, wiien tiie days are
long, we see them flourish almost as if they were in tiieir natural situations ; but in « inter
they languish, and often die, especially the more tender species, such as the Hettysaruni
fryrnn.i, and the humble plant (Slimosa pudica). It is evident that they want that distribu-
tion of light which is most congenial to them.

Plant*, then, are arranged in their different localities, according to the certain quantity of
light which they may require. All those with very watery leaves, which evaporate much,
which are of a succulent nature, which, having few pores or organs of evaporation, need a
stimulus to determine their action, all which have a tissue abounding in carbon, or which
contain very resinous or oily juices, or which offer a great extent of green surface, require
much light, and are generally found in exposed places ; the rest, according as they are more
or less distinguished by these properties, exi.st either under the slight shadow of bushes, or
beneath the more powerful Fheltcr of hedges and walls, or of forests ; or, as is the case with
many Fungi, in caves and darkness. These lost are, indeed, destitute of any green colour;
but Mosses, Ferns, and even some evergreens, such as the Ivtj, flourish best beneath the
shade of dense forests, if the trees of those forests have deciduous leaves ; and in situations
where plants that vegetate only during the summer could scarcely live.

The subject, however, of the action of light upon vegetation, has not yet received the
attention which it deserves. Many more observations and experiments are required before
we can employ it with certainty in connexion with botanical geography.

SvBSECT. 3. — On the Influence of Moisture.

Water being the vehicle by means of which nourishment is conveyed into the plant, and,
indeed, itself yielding a large proportion or even the whole of the nutriment of many ve-
getables, it follows that tiiis clement is not only of the highest importance in vegetable
economy, but one of the causes which affects most powerfully tlie geographical distribution
of plants upon the surface of the globe.

Those vegetables, in partiimlar, necessarily absorb a great quantity of water, which have
a large and spongy cellular tissue; those wliich possess broadly expanded soft leaves, fur-
nished with a great number of cortical pores ; those having few or no hairs on their surface ;
those whose growth is very rapid, which deposit but little oily or resinous matter ; those of
which the texture is not subject to ba changed or cornipted by humidity; those, in fine,
whose roots are very numerous, generally need to absorb much moisture, and cannot live
but in places where they find naturally a largo proportion of it. On the other hand, those
plants which are of a firm and compact cellular tissue, which have small or rigid leaves,
i'urnished with very few pores, wliich are abundantly clothed with hairs, of which the
growth is slow, and wiiich deposit, during the progress of their vegetation, much oily or
resinous matter ; tliase whoso cciluliir tissue is liable to be changed and decayed by too much
moisture, and of which the roob* are not numerous, require little water, and prefer, for their
natural situation, dry pl:icps. Great differences, however, are produced, according to the
nature of the water tliat is absorbed ; the less it is charged with the nutritive principle, the
more necessary is it that the vegetable shall absorb, in a given time, enough to suffice for its
support. Again, the more the water abounds with substances which alter its fluidity or
transparency, and which, inasmuch as fhcy are solid particles, tend to obstruct the orifices
of tiie pores, or to impede absorption by their viscosity, tlie less do such vegetables imbibe in
a given time.

The very nature even of those substances dissolved or suspended in the water has a great
influence upon the topographical distribution or the locality of plants. The matters so dis-
solved are, 1. Cirboiiic acid. 2. Atmospheric air. '\. Animal and vogctal)le substances. 4.
Alkaline principles or earths. Those plants wlioso cellular tissue is found to contain much
<arbon, such as trees producing hard wcxxl, avoid, more than others, the vicinity of waters
whicli are extremely pure, and which contain but little carbonic acid gas. Plants which
exhibit much azote in their chemical composition, such as the Critciftrnus Plants and the
Fungi, seek tho«o spots where there is much animal matter in solution. Tlio.se, again, which
present, when chemically analyzed, a considerable quantity of certain earthy substances,
such as silica* in the Monocolylrdnnous Plants, gypsum in the Lrguminosa;, &c. will re-
quire it in a greater or less proixirtion in the soil where they grow; and if it does not exist
there naturally, the agriculturist must supply it artificially ; and those species which yield,

• ThidBilirn.wi' know, ,ilimiiiil» in tin: crnssi':", na well risin nlliTmonorniyli'ilmMMin planti ; nnd M. ilnCnnilnlle
olwprvps. tlint it if in rnwvi\w.mv nf iis i\isli'nri' in tlie LTiissfs, &c ;inili)f the rdniparntivi' Inilissoliihilily wiiicli
is Ihn ro*nlt, thnl it in proferrril by nininst nil nntioii'! r.f the vnrM fnr a ri>verin;r tn ilu-ir hnnsr-s. The («?np|p
(if the Norlli thiia employ straw liir that pnrimsc, nn Ihn same princi[)le that Ihusc I'f llip tropics use the leaves of
Die palma.

if"

111

Book IIL

IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY.

243

[has a great

Iters so dic-

jtjnccK. 4.

Iitain nmcli

of wntcrs

lints whicli

(s will the

iiin, whicli

iubstanccp,

Ic. will re-

]s not oxist

fiich yield,

1. (In Canilollc
[iliility wliiili

I the leaves of

when burned, a more abundant 'portion of alkaline substances than usual, can only flourish
or even live where these matters abound. The specien whicii have need of carbonate of
soda will only grow successful]/ near the sea or saline lakes or springs. Thus the different
property of tlie substances dissolved in the water is evidently one of the many causes which
determine the stations of the vegetable species.

SvBSECT. 4. — Chi the Influence of the Soil.

The influence of soil M. de Candolle considers as perhaps more complicated than that of
the preceding agents. He reduces it to the following heads : —

(1.) The soil serves as a means of support to vegetables, and consequently its consistence
or tenacity ought to possess, in tliis point of view, a peculiar fitness for sustaining, in a
greater or less degree, plants cvliibiting very various foqjis. Thus, soils composed of blow-
ing sand can only serve as a support to vegetables which are of very humble stature and
prostrate growth, so that the winds may not overturn them ; or to trees, furnished with very
deep and branching roots, which may attach them into this moveable matrix. The contrary
holds good in regard to very compact soils. Small-rooted plants may thus be firmly enough
fixed, and they may subsist ; but the very large roots are incapable of penetrating into soils
that are very tenacious. The two extremes of these soils present an equally sterile vege-
tation. Sands whicli are not sufficiently stationary (as those very remarkable ones on the
northern shores of the Moray Frith), water which is subject to very rapid currents, clay of
an extremely compact nature, or rocks of great hardness, are equally unfriendly to the
growth of plants.

(2.) The chemical nature of the earths or stones of whicli the soil is composed, affects
the choice of vegetables, as regirds their flourishing in such situations. But this subject,
simple as it appears at first sight, is in reality very complicated. For the difl'erent earths
act upon vegetation by pliysical circumstances ; as, for example, according as they absorb
the surrounding water with more or less fiicility, retain it with more or less force, or part
with 't r^orc or less easily. Now, tlie celebrated Kirwan ascertained by a comparative
anal .'.-IS ■ enrths which were reckoned excellent for the growth of wheat in various coun-
tries, 'fii,' -y .'ontain more silica if the climate is more subject to rain, more alumine if
the r 1 I ;)c ne case; in short, that the soil, to be good for any given vegetable, ought
to have ; n ■ cr of absorbing more moisture in a dry climate, less in an humid atmosphere :
whence it is plain that in different localities the same species of vegetable may be found in
diifcrent soils.

(3.) Every kind of rock has a certain degree of tenacity, and a certain disposition to
decomiKJse or become pulverized : whence results the greater or less fiicility of particular
soils to be forme<l either of sand or gravel, and to be composed of fragments of a nearly
determined form and size. Certain vegetables, from causes which we sholl presently indicate,
will prefer such or such of this sand or gravel ; bi'V the peculiar nature of the soil does not
act here immediately; thus, when we find cnlcaicous rocks which decompose like argilla-
ceous schist, the same species of vegetation is observed. These two considerations are
particularly applicable to lichens.

(4.) Rocks, according to their colour or their nature, are more susceptible of being heated
by the direct rays of the sun ; and consequently they may, in some degree, modify the
temperature of a given place ; and influence also, tliough slightly, the choice of plants
capable of succeeding upon them.

But, independently of all these physical causes, it may be asked, whether the chemical
nature of rocks has any eflTect upon vegetables 1 It is generally considered to be so ; hut it
must be allowed that this action has been frequently very much exaggerated. Bory de St.
Vincent, indeed, has assured us that calamine, or native carbonate of zinc, in the vicinity of
Aix-la-Chapelle, is always indicated, to a certainty, by particular plants ; and the fact is
confirmed by a little work, since piiblishml, oallod A Jiora of the Enviro.ns of Spa. The
yellow heartsease, a small variety of tlie cotnmon eye.briffht (Euphrasia ofliicinaliM), the while
Campion (Sileno inflata), a Santlwort (Arcnaria), a shrubby Lichen, a species of Bromiis
(Brome-grass), constitute this poor but constant vegetation. These, however, no doubt,
grow in greater abundance and perfection in other soils: the wonder is that they do not
altogether perish hero; for even the gallinaceous binls, -vhich oat gravel to triturate their
food, (lie from swallowing fragments of calamine. It must be remarked, in reality, that plants
do not often live upon pure rook, hut ninmig the decomposed matter of that rock ; that the
rocks, even thoiigli very (•irnmiFrribed, often present very different natures ; that vegetable
mould i.s not only formed by the rocks which inimediately surround it, but also by the
udmixture of earthy substances carried by the waters, and transported by the winds, or by
the remains of animals and vegetables which have before existed there. Hence it will be
inderstoixl how the vegetable earths differ much less in themselves, than the rorks which
produce them or serve to support them; and that the greater numher of plants yield, in most
situations, the alimentary earths which are necessary for them. Indeed, after various
botanical journeys made through France, M. de Candolle has found nearly the same plants

i\.

.!.!d

•*,'■»

244

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY,

Part II.

i'i «i'

vagutating spontaneously in almost all the different rocky substances. It has been said that
the Box (Buxus senipcrvirens) grows only in calcureous soila, and it certainly prct'ors them ;
but it is found abundantly in the argillaceous calcareous schistose rocks of the_ Pyrenees;
and it is even seen among the granite of Britany and upon the volcanic parts of Auvergne.
The Chestnut has been said to avoid a calcareous country ; but there are beautiful chestnuts
on both sides of tlio Lake of Geneva, at the foot of the calcareous mountains of Jura and
Chablais.

Pure magnesia, M. Carradori has found, by chemical experiment, acta ns a poison on most
plants : yet M. Dunal, in visiting a portion of the environs of Lunel, where the soil presents
a great quantity of almost pure magnesia, found there the same plants as in the surrounding
calcareous soil, and the roots flourishing in the clefts of this magnesian rock. Thus we must
be careful not to attach too much importance to the nature of the earth, which is tlrequently
acted upon by causes purely physical. • '

SuBSEOT. 5. — Atmospheric Influence.

The atmosphere, taken in its pure state, we know to be composed, at all times, of the
same proportions of ozofe and oxygen; and in such cases we may suppose its action to be
similar upon all vegetables. But tlie atmosphere also is of different degrees of transparency
or density ; it holds in solution other matters or substances, which mix with it in certain
places, and render it more or less suitable to certain species of plants. In mines, for instance,
the quantity of carbonic acid gas, or of hydrogen, may be so great as to preclude vegeta-
tion altogether : or to allow only of the growth of such individuals as are very strong and
vigorous, or particularly absorbent of these substances. Then, too, the air charged with
saline emanations from the sea injures some plants, and on the other hand encourages the
developement of such as require carbonate of soda ; as may be seen in the valleys of the
south of Europe, where maritime plants affording soda may be cultivated at a considerable
distance from the ocean, provided that they lie open towards tlie sea, and are exposed to the
winds that blow from it

Wc cultivate in our inland gardens, languidly and but for a year or two, many of the
maritime plants, such as the Lithospermum. The Nitraria Schoberi is improved by em-
ploying salt where it is grown. Many of the Statices may be, however, easily cultivated,
and one of them, the common Thrift (S. Armeria) even succeeds in crowded towns, whence;
its English name; yet its native country is either on the shores of the sea or .in salt marshes,
or upon the summits of the highest mountains.

The most general influence, however, exercisetl by the atmosphere, is its power of con-
taining and parting witli moisture, or its hygroscopic action. The atmosphere is habitually
charged with moisture ; sometimes in such a manner as to be invisible, and then only ascer-
tainable by the hygrometer; at other times visible in a state of vapour or dew ; and we find
that vegetables m general succeed better in a climate where, at a given degree of tem-
perature, the air is moderately moist, than in another where it is either too much saturated
with moisture or too dry. This is a circumstance which cannot well be imitated in the cul-
tivation of plants in the open air: but in our stoves, and especially by the aid of steam, the
various degrees of humidity necessary to a vigorous vegetation may be produced to the
greatest nicety.

The agitation or movement of the air by winds and other causes exercises some power
o\'er vegetation; but we are too little acipiainted with this subject to be able to deduce any
I>articular theory from it.

Of all the atmospheric influences, the most difficult to reduce to its proper value is that of
density ; or, what is the same thing, the influence of height or elevation above the level of
the sea. This M. de Candolle has made the subject of a memoir in the volume of the Soci-
ety of Arcueil, and we shall here give his general ideas upon it.

In proportion as we are elevated in the air, the temperature as well as the moisture con-
tinues to diminish ; a circumstanoe which appears to depend upon this, that the rare air has
more capacity for lieat than dense air. The fiicts that go to prove that the diminution of
the temperature upon high mountains is one of the causes which most oflect the distribution
of vegetables, are the following : —

(I.) The natural situation of each plant at a determined elevation above the level of the
sea is so nmcli the greater in pro(K)rtion as the country is nearer the equator, and lest in
more temperate regions ; that is to say, the fiirther we recede from the equator, the greater
influence has the exposure upon the temperature.

(2.) In temperate climates, as France, for instance, those pl.ints which are but little affect-
ed by temix!rature, and which grow in all its latitudes, are found also at all those elevations
where tlie earth is not covered by eternal snows ; from the level of the sea to the summits
of the mountains. M. de Candolle has detected about 700 examples of this law; the com-
num Heath, tlie Juniper, the Birch, &c. grown indifferently at the level of the sea, and at
a height of 10,000 feet

(3.) If plants which, according to their nature, avoid either too high or too low a degree oV

Book III.

IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY.

evcl of tlio
and lcB» in
the greater

littln affcct-
; elevations
lie summits
1 ; the com-
Isen, and at

, degree o»

temperature, yet gmw at different latitudes, wo may observe thiit it is at heigiits where the
elluct of elevation may coinixMisale that of latituiic ; tlnia the native plant* of tlie nurtheni
plains will bo seen to jjfrow upon tlie mountains of tlio south.

(4.) Plants which are cultivated uiwn a larjfe scale are guided by laws whicli entirely
correspond with the preceding ; those which are cultivated in various latitudes will grow
indiHorently at various hcij^htH; tho.se wiiich are only found at certain latitudes will extend
no iiirther than to proportional elevations. The polator., wliich succeoils so well in our
plains, is cultivated in I'eru at an elevation of 10,(KK) foot above tlie level of the sea : the
olu'e, which nowiiero passes 44° nortli latitude, will not grow at a height exceeding 125(1
feet.

(5.) The elevation above the level of tlie sea, wlien wo compare the temperaturo of the
seasons, establisl h effects very analogous to those which result from the distance from tlie
equator ; so tliat ..ere is the more analogy between the results on vegetation in the two
cases. Inproportion us we rise in a direct line, it follows, from tiie lessened density of the
air, that the intenseness of the solar light continues to increase ; this effect is re|)resent-
ed in the lino of distances from the equator, because the perpetuity of light during the
continuance of vegetation is so inucli the greater in proixirtion as the latitude is more
elevated.

(6.) In proportion to tiie greater lieight upon the mountains, so will the hygrometer bo seen
to indicate a less degree of liumidity ; tiie same general eH'ect takes place as we recede from
the equator towards the poles.

On mountains, covered with perpetual snow, where the plants are constantly moistened
with water in a freezing state, those species, to wiiich a warm temperature is unfriendly,
will live at inferior heights to those which they brave in the same latitude, wlien they are
not watered from those cold sources.

It would appear therefore, from all these considerations, that the situation or fixed locality
of plants at certain heights depends mainly on the fill of the temperature attributable to
that elevation. Now, the only purely theoretical point of view, says M. de Candollo, accord-
ing to which we can comprehend how tho rarefaction of the air bears in itself a direct influ-
ence upon vegetation, is this ; that plants require to absorb a greater or less degree of oxy-
gen gas in their green or their coloured parts. It cannot be doubted that there is a certain
point of elevation where the atmospiiere becomes Ux) much rarefied to supply tlie wants of
plants; but wiiere this is the case the mountains are always clothed with snow. M. de
Humboldt, too, inclines to think that the pressure of the air rnay act in encouraging niid in-
creasing the quantity of cvajwration. But wc must say that direct experiment is still want-
ing to confirm these opinions (and this is perhaps unattainable in the present state of
science), in order that we rnay ibrm a conclusive judgment on their value.

Sect. III. — Station and Habitation of Plants.

The station and habitation of plants must next engage a portion of our attention. They
are both important: the former implies their situation as regarding local circumstances, and
tlie action of physical causes upon vegetables; tiie latter implies the goographicol position.
When we say thot such a plant is found in marshe.-j, on the sea-siiore, in woods, or upon
mountains, in England, in France, in North America; by the maishos, shore, woods, or
mountain.?, we mean what we hero term the station ; and by England, Franco, or North
America, the habitation: such is tlio sense, at least, in which we shall hero use the terms;
for in systematic botanical writings the meaning is by no means always thus restricted.

The seeds of plant", by varied and beautiful means, are icidely dispersed by the liberal
hand of nature ; whilst some, however, fall upon barren ground, or a soil unfit for the nature
of that particular vegetable, others take root in situations, both with regard to the earth
and surrounding medium, which are in harmony with their growth, and produce, "some
thirty, some sixty, and some an hundred-fold." There are, again, tribes which, under these
circumstances, increase so pro<ligiously that they destroy vegetables of a less vigorous
growth, and, to the exclusion of others, appropriate to themselves a great extent of tho surface
of the earth. Such are termed by Humboldt social plants. In this way, and notwithstand-
ing the extreme poverty of the soil, the Seaside Sedrre (Carcx arenaria), the npri/rht Sea
Lymegruss (Elymus arenarius), and the Sea-reed or Marram* (Arundo arenaria), occupy a
protligious surface of tho sandy shores of Great Britain, almost to the exclusion of otlior
vegetation ; their long, creeping, and entangled rcxjts serving to bind the sands together, and
thus foiming a barrier to the encroachments of the sea. Thus it is with the heoths in the
eame country, where the sterile moors are purple witli tho blossoms of the heath.

The flowers of tho Gentians cover, as with a carpet of the most brilliant ultramarine
blue, the sides of tin; alpine hills in Switzerland and tho south of Europe. In England the
fields are too often rod with Poppies, and lh(> mar.-hcs are whitonoil with the "snowy beard"
of the Coltonirrass, and the pastures with the blossoms of the Cardarnine pratensis, so that

• Thf Ci'ltic nniiip ^r tlii-" pl;int is Mnraim. A villnTP iipim the siM cnnat of Norfolk is ii.'iiii(<<l Marliam, fropi
llio err-!it nt)iiiulii:id' in uhirli llio Aruniic armaria (.ToH-s in its viriiiil)'.

^■i''^i

246

SCIENCK OF GEOGRAPHY,

Pakt II.

ifi''

m..

tlicy appear at a distance as if covered witli linen laid out for bleaching, whence arises the
vulffar English name* of the latter plant. Some of these plantjt thus living in society are
continually striving with their neighbours, till tlie strongest oblJiin tiie victory. Many low
perennial and herbaceous vcg(!tables are over[x)wered by a colony of taller shrubs ; such as
the Whin or Fitrze and the Broom: and these in their turns must (x;casionally give place
to trees and shrubs of a larger and stronger growth. Mr. Brown has, however, noticed a
curious fact in regard to the Field Erynffo (Eryngium campestre,) and the Starthisth
(Centiiuroa Calcitrapa), which cover much cultivated ground upon the continent; viz. that
these two engrossers are never mixed together indiscriminately, but that each forms groups
of imrtial masses, placed at certain distances from their rivals.

On the other hand, there arc plants, which, from the circumstance of their not increasing
nuich by root, or bearing few seeds, or such seeds as from their liglit and volatile nature arc
much dispersed, and which arc not particular in their choice of soil, do net form groups, but
lie scattered {Plantes eparses, Cffrenees, or rares, of the French).

The former kind, or " social plants," are those which it will be most important for us to
con.'iider in relation to Botanical Geography.

The stations of plants being thus, as we have already mentioned, liable to the influence
of physical agents, it becomes necessary to define them by terms which are calculated at
once to point out the places and the circumstances in which they grow. This, however, is
n tiisk of no small difficulty ; for, vvitliout swelling the list to an unmeasurableleii-jth, it will
be impossible to define the various local situations of plants. There are many situations
which produce only one or two kinds : for example, the snow, in the highest arctic regions
to wliich travellers have attiiined, has been found to nourish and to bring to the greatest per-
fection that highly curious vegetable, tjic Red Snow (Protococcus nivalis). The truffle
(Tuber cibariuni) is found entirely hid beneath the surface of the earth. Some fuiiffi are
detected upon the dead horns and hoofs of animals (no plant exists upon living bodies-t), and
upon dead chrysalides; and both /un/fi and mosses grow on the dung of animals. Paper
nourishes the minute Conferva dvmlroidea : the glass of window.^, and the glass table of the
microscope, if laid by in a moist state for a certain lengtli of time, produce the Cmiferva
feriestralis. VVine-casks in damp cellars give birth to the Racodinm cellare ; and Dutrochet
has detected living vegetables in lyfutleira wine and in Goulard water, (a solution of Saturn).
Those, however, and many others that might be noticed, niay be numbered among the extra-
ordinary stations, and they principally affect cryptogamic vegetables. In a popular view of
the subject, though we cannot altogether omit the notice of such minute yet curious vege-
table productions, we shall mainly direct our attention to the more conspicuous plants ; and
they may be thus divided. 1. Murilime or saline plants. Tiiese are terrestrial, but grow-
ing upon the borders of the ocean or near salt lakes ; as the Saltworts (Salsola;) and GlasS'
worts (Salicornia;), &c. Ilonce these plants abound in the interior of Africa and the Rus-
sian dominions, where there are saltpans, as well as on the shores. 2. Marine Plants.
This tril)c is indeed mostly cryptogamic, and comprises the Alffte, Fuci, Ulvee, &c. The
phtenogamous, or ])crfect marine plants, are the Sea-wracks (Ruppia and Zostera), and a
few others allied to them. 3. Aquatic plants. Growing in fresh water. Both stagnant
pools and running streams in various situations, abound in plants. Some are entirely sub-
merged, but in tills case, with tlie rare exception of the little Awlwort (Subularia aqoatica),
the flowers rise to the surface of the water for the purpose of fructification.^ 4. Marsh or
swamp plants. 5. Meadow and pasture plants. 6. Field plants. This tribe often includes
.such as, introduced with tiie grain sown in those districts are equally placed there by the
hand of man. 7. Rock plants, which may include the natives of very stony spots, and such
as grow upon walls. Walls, although artificial structures, are knowit to produce many plants
in greater perfection than natural rock; yet we must not supiwse that any vegetable is
exclusively confined to tliis habitat. The Jlolosteum umhellatum and Draha muralis may
he cited as examples of this trilie in England ; and amongst mosses, the Grimmia pulvinata,
Torlula murali-i, &c. 8. Sand Plants. 9. Plants of dry moors, where heaths (Erica;)
abound. 10. Plants which attach themselves to the vicinity of places inhabited by man.
Such are the Dock, Nettle,. &c. ; these species follow everywhere the human footsteps, even

• /.ndij's Smock. Siirli iiliinis woro in nldpii lime iledicatRil to Our I.ndy thi! Virgin Mary.

t Minnw. iiidfiMl. hnsn Iribfof plants «hifh ho i"«IIh *' PtaJitte F.pizoir,'" aftaehedtoUt^iuf^ nnimnh. TInrs. hftsnys.
fVrr nnfintlior .^lir<r nr*? all.irtif^il Id wlialeR, Miussola, and Ijarrinrlf-J. Ilia in this pum Iht* plants inanifi'stly adlit'rc
III a iliiiil portion iif the animal ; like Ihnap viiKrtaliles wliich exist upon the nuti}r aiiddead part of the hark orireea

1 Ravinond certainly nhservod, in (he Pyrenees, a species of Croir/oo/, the Water Crntr/oof (Ranunciiliis aqua-
litis,) prodiicinB its tloiver and fruit wholly under water; Inn upon a closer investigation of the phenomi'iinn, he
found Mint in these cases the calyx encloseil a eloliule of air. with which this ini|iortant function of fertilizntinii
was perforined. Th-' curious af|iintir. VnUUnrria Hpirath, has a still more wonderful contrivance for hrinijinf; the
male .'ind female llmvers in contact. The plant is cliiecioiis. Tin,' female flower is atlnehed to the parent plant
hv means of a ver\' 10112 stnlk. spirally tv\isterl like a corkscrew, so that when it is in perfection, it rises to tile
surface bvthe nntwisiinc of Ihe sialic. The male flowers, upon a separate plant, are almost si'ssile, honie on a
very short straight si, 'in. which never could reach Hie surface without deiachinitthenisi'lves from the plant. This
they do at Ihe proper season ; they float upon the top of the water alon-j w ith the female flowers, pcatter their
polieii. and die. Tli' fenmie hlo».soms on the contrary. Iiy the spiral twistini; of tln'ir stalk«. retire, and riiM-n
their seeds under wulir.

Book III.

IN ITS RELATION TO BOT.VNY.

hinis. hft Rays,
Iri'stly ndlicro
|h;irk fiftreen
nciiliii> nqiia-
linniiMion, ho
Ifcrtili/ntiim
Ilirinu'iMgthr'
li;iri'nt pl.iiil
1 rifca to thr
J hiirnn on n
Iplant. Tins
JnttliT tlmir
le, and ri|ten

to the lints and cubins of tho liigliest mountains ; encouraged, perhapa by the presence of
unimal substances, and tlic azuto which in sucii BubstiinccH in known to abound, 11. Fore*'
plants, consisting of Huch trees as live in society. 12. Plants of the hedges, as are many
climbing plants, tho Himeysnckle, tho Traveller's joy, tho Bryony, &.c. 13. Subterranean
plmUs. Those that live in mines and caves, and which, though tolerably numerous and ini-
[wrtant, are yet mostly cryptogamous. One species, a fungus, yields a pale phosphoric light
of considerable intensity. 14. Alpine or mountain plants, for it is very ditlicult to draw tho
limit, and indeed they will depend much upon latitude. A plant which grows upon a hill ot
inconsiderable elevation in Norway, Lapland, and Iceland, will of course inhabit the loilicst
Alps of the south of Europe. Again, upon mountains that have no perpetual snow lying on
them, alpine plants will be found much higher than on such as have continued streams of
cold snow-water descending, which affect the state of the atmosphere at much lower regions.
l."). Parasitic plants, such iis the Misseltoe, the various species of Loranthus, &c., and the
most wonderful of all vegetable productions, the Rafflesia Arnoldii : these, as their name
implies, derive nourishment from a living portion of the vegetable to which they attach
themselves. This is the case, too, with many Fungi which subsist upon the living foliage
of plants ; some exclusively on tho upper, others as invariably on the lower side of these
leaves ; and, lastly, the name of 16. Pseudo-parasites has been given to a very extensive
tribe, which subsists upon the decayed portions of the trunk or branches of the trees to
which they are attached, as many of the Lichens, Mosses, &c. ; or which are simply attach-
ed by the surface of their roots to tropical trees, obtaining no nourishment from them, but
from the surrounding element. Among this number may be reckoned that numerous and
singular family of the Orchidca, called, from their nature and property, " air plants."
Greatly as this list might be swelled, we shall find that even here there is a gradation and
an approximation of one tribe to anoth , but these are amply sufficient for our purpose.

We have been able to account in some measure for tho stations of plants, affected as these
are by local circumstances; but the study of the succeeding part, which refers to their habi-
tations, considered in their most extensive sciile, for instance, as belonging to certain regions
or countries, we shall find to be mur'-. more difficult; and we must freciuently be content to
study and to admire the amazing variety of vegetable forms which the beneficent hand of
nature has scattered over the different parts ot' our world, without being able to account for
these important phenomena. In Now Holland we find almot^t exclusively, all the species
of Banksia, Goodenia, and Epacris, and tho curious Acacia, without leaves, but with peti-
oles so much enlarged as to assume the shape and perform the functions of leaves. At the
Cape of Good Hope, the Fi<^ Marigolds (Mesembryantheniu), the Stapplitc, the numerous
kinds of Ixia, Gladiolus, Pelargonium, and Protea aliound. The Auranliacea; the family
of plants to which the Orange and Lemon belong, aro of Asiatic origin ; as the Camellia
and Thea are of Chinese. Those curious plants, the Mutisia^, the various species of Fuch-
sia, the Cinchona: or medicinal harks, the Cacti, aro all peculiar to South America. If a
few of them are found in other countries, tuch circumstances aro of very rare occurrence,
and do not overturn the general laws for the exclusive existence of many plants in certain
countries. There are in the temperate parts of Europe one species of Ixia, one of Gladio-
lus, and in the north of Africa and south of Europe a few kinds of Fig Marigold. Within
the tropics the genera of plants throughout Asia, Africa, and Amrrica, are similar, but rare-
ly arc the species the same. This rule nearly holds good on the op))osite continents in tem-
perate climates. We find the Oriental Plane (Platanus orientalis) in the old world, and
the Occidental Plane (P. occidentalis) in tho new. Even in the two hemispheres, in simi-
lar parallels of latitude, the genera of plants have a great affinity : tho southern extremity
of the great continent of America has many in common with tho north of Europe ; and the
plants of the latter region, transported thither, succeed extremely well.

To what extent plants migrate, unaided by man, it is not easy to say ; but that such mi-
gration is going on, by various means and causes, cannot be questioned. Islands which lie
near to continents, .nnd which evidently appear at one period to have been joined with them,
as England for example, altiioiii^'h they may contain a vegetation similar to that of the neigli-
Iwuring continental shores, have always a smaller number of species; and this can only be
accounted for by liie .aterruption which straits or soas occasion to the progress of the seeds.

Tho Field Eryngo (Eryngium eampestre), to which we have already alluded, the Venus's
looking-glii.''s (Campanula Speculum), and many other plants of France and Germany, seem
to stop at the lino tbrmed by the sea; yet these, and many other vegetables of France, reach
a limit upon the same continent more northern than any part of England.

The migration of plants may bo reckoned to be facilitated by the following causes. 1. Th
sea and its currents, tmt to a very limited extent; for if tho seed bo of such a nat'-re tha
tho water penetrates its iiitogumr'nis anil ronclios the embryo, life is destroyed. Yet to such
a distance arc tliey carried by this medium, tliiit uixin tho coiists of Britain, of Iceland, and
Norway, tho seeds of tlio West Indies aro frequently cast, and it is said sometimes even in
a fit state lor vegetation. 2. liivrrs, by tho rontinunl movement of tlieir water.-i, convey
many plants to a considerable distance from their original place of growth; and the banks

'■ fi

1 ■■si

»!

1 i

m ■,

ii .1-

248

SCIENCE OF (JE(J0RAI'1IV,

rAiiT II.

of streams are (fcncriilly udorned witli u vrj^otiUidii of ii iiHirc? varied kind tliiiii tin' districts
rcmoto from them. TIiuh, too, tlie dillurcnt tiprcics of Saxifrii^<' mid oIIut iil|)iiii! jiliiiitti
are, in niuuntuinoua rojiioiis, broiifrlit down from llm lii(flii'r bitiuitioiis, uik' llourisli in the
valleyd. I). Winds, wliifli wiitl the li;,'lit, wiiiffnd, and imppont! hi'imIh lo iiiinniiNc distance!',
and by nieaiiB of which thi'y iiro \vi(U'ly dispersed. 4. Aiiiinulii, wiiich, in wiMiih'riiijj' from
place to place, often carry on tlieir coatH those seeds wliicli have hooked hn^tU's, tVe. 5.
Birds, which, swullowiii^; lierries and other Iriiifs, pass thi; teeds in a perleet stale, and, it
is even said, soinctimeH Ix^ter fitted for ^crmiiiiition tiian before. In this manner the seeds
are often de|)ositcd in the places necessary lor tlieir {rrowth, and to wliicii tiiey coiihl not
otlierwiso have reached ; of wiiioli a tiiiniliar instance is found in the Missidlt>i\

Man is however the most active a;,'ent in the dispersion of plants, and we iimst not over-
look tlio important conBeciucnccs of his influence. Sometimes, indeed, the causes are acci-
dental, but more frequently intentional. 'I'he shipwreck of a vessel on the island of (liiernsey,
having some bulbs on board from the Cape of Clixxl Hope, caused a plant to propa^'ate in tli«
sanda upon the shores of that mild climate, to which has been since given tliu name of Ama-
ryllis Samiensis or Quernsey Lily, and a branch of trade of some importance is carried on
in the sale of this very root. At lluenoa Ayres, a species of ilr<jcAo<e (Cynara Carduii-
culus) has increased so much by seeds im|x>rte<l from Euro|)e, that Mr. Head, in his amusing
"Sketches of a Journey across tli" l'ani|)us," Sic. tells us that "there are three rrvrions of
vegetation between Buenos Ayre.s and tlie base of the Cordilleras ; a .siKico of IHH) miles :
the first of which is covered, tor 180 miles, with clover and thistles. This region," the
author continues, "varies with the seasons of the year in a most extraordinary manner. In
winter, the leaves of the thistles* are large and luxuriant, and the whole surfiice of the
country has the rough appearance of a turnip field. The clover in this season is extremely
rich and strong; and the sight of the wild cattle grazing in full liberty on such pasture is
very beautiftil. In spring the clover ha.s vanisiied, the leaves of the thistles have e.xteiidcd
along the ground, and the country still looks like a rough crop of turnips. In less than n
month tlio change is most extraordinary; the whole region becomes a luxuriant wooil of
'•normous thistles, which have suddenly shot up to a height of ton or eleven feet, and are ail in
Hill bloom. The road or path is hemmed in on Nifh sides; the view is completely obstnictcii ;
not an animal is to be seen; and the stems of the thistles are so close to each other, and so
strong, that, independent of the prickles with which they are armed, they form an impene-
trable barrier. The sudden growth of these plants is quite astonishing ; and thonjrli it
would be on unusual misfortune in military history, yet it is really possible that an invadinjr'
iinny, unacquainted with this country, might bo imprisoned by tluwe thistles betbro it iiad
time to escape from them. The summer is not over before the scene undergoes aiiotlier
rapid change: the thistles suddenly lose their sap and verdure, their heads dri«)P, the leavi's
shrink and fade, the stems become black and dead; and they remain rattling with the
breeze, one against another, until the violence of the pampero or hurricane levels them with
llie ground, when they rapidly decomjKJse and disappear, the clover rushes up, and the sccno
is again verdant."

The strong-scented Everlasting (Elichrysuin foctidum), a native of the Cape of Oo<k1 Hope,
has ibund a soil and climate ecjually suited to its growth on the shores of Brest, where it
covers a great portion of the sands, to the exclusion of the almriginal natives of the soil.
Wheat is supposed to be indigenous to Barbary. The p<it<iloe, first finind in Soiitli Anierica,
is now cultivated all over the world. liici; from .Asia, is grown to an immense extent in
America, &c. ; these, and many other plants similarly circumstanced, which wc could men-
tion, together with those that adorn our gardens, often owe tlieir wide diffusion to having
escaped into uncultivated places, and become to u certain degree naturalised there.

But there are limits to migration, for some of which wo can account, and for others wo
cannot. Even many garden plants, which, escaping by accident, or designedly placed in
uncultivated sjwf.s so as to appear wild, have only for a time maintained a languid existence,
and then have disappeared altogether. Thus we know that the beautiful (tmliandla (fi.'ii-
tiana acaiilis) cannot have a title to a place in the British Flora, nor can some; others, wliirli
are more outcasts from gardens. Some plants arc wholly confined to particular s|)ots, and
can be found nowhere else. The Tree-Pink (Dianthiis arboreus) grows still on tiie single
rock in the island of Crete, where Prosper Alpinus first detected it; and the Dnuldc Cocou-
nut of the isle Praslin, one of the little group of islands called the Seychelles, notwith-
standing the annual migration of its nuts for many thousands of miles, has never established
itself in any other place. Nature has planted the cnrnmon Thrift (Statice Arnieria), the
Scurvy Grasses (Cochlearia nnglica and danica), and the Rosi-ronl (Rhodiola rosea), in
rocky and stony places, upon shores and on the tops of the highest moimtains; yet tliese
plants are never found in any intermediate places.

The vlsihli oh.ilach's to the iiiiifralion of plants arc —

(I.) The ura, which, tlioiifili wo have intnjdiiced it as a means of extending ti.e Iiabitatioiw

♦ Fnirii npiTiiiii'ns ril mir ltiTli:iri:liri \y liiivc ii<rcrl'irnoil Hint Wualliisllt is Ihr Carilixm {i'\t\:\r:i ('.■iriliinrillii!').
introdticeil no douNt rniin V.:n>-\f ii>- a:i .irliclc if Hiol, li-it iimv L'r.iH'iiin wild, U8uk>Fii, niiil prniiriciiis.

•J'l
of

fe'"

ll f

9"^

TIopp,
wliprn it
tin- soil.
Anicricii,
'xtt'iit in
)iil(l incn-
ti) Imving

itliprs we
|)l;icp(l in
xistcnrp,
//(/ (fion-
rs, wliirli
|«)ts, and
10 siiii;lo
e Cocoii-
nnt.witli-
talilislind
■riii), tlie
Dsca), in
I'ot these

l)itati<MH

LltMUMlllt9),

Book III.

IN ITS REI.ATION TO BOTANY.

24U

of plants, lit yot a far greater inipcdimont, by tlio injury it docs to the sco(1h, nml tiio diffi-
culty of liicii hoini^ convoyed to distant countries in a Mulficicntly .;liort time to prevent the
natural dentil of tlio wnod. It iniiBt bo obiierved, too, that the (froutor number of Hooda have
a Hpccilic pravily hoiivif.T than tliiit of wutcr when in a livinjf state, Tlie VouMe Cocoa-
nut, w'leii t'oiind lloiitinjr, Ims always hwt iti; vegetative property. TJio livinjj nut is im-
mensely hoiivy, iind would inevitably tiiiik.

(li.) I)ri/ nml Imraiiiff ilesfrlg. These, in spite of their oases, which have been happily
assimilated to llio ish^s of tin; ocean, piovo a |)owerful ol>stacle to tlio transjMirt of nj(;ds.
'J'lius, those districts of Africa which are separated from one another by the scorching Hi.nds
of Sahara exhibit a groat dissimilarity in their vegetation. The plants of Morocco and the
iiortliern parts of Africa have little rcsonibhinco to the indigenous growth of Senegul ; whilst
the uiiinity of the vegetables brouglil by Caillaud from Upner Egypt to those collected by
I'alisot do Beauvois in Owarc and Benin would in itself lead to the conclusion that no very
great and continued deserts intervene between these far distant countries.

(3.) Mountain ranges. The barriers which these present would almost bo insurmountable,
were it not for the defiles which hero and there occur, fonning passages for men and ani-
rnals, as well as for plants. Thus, the plants on the Italian side of the Alps are (piito dill'or-
ent from those on the Switzerland side ; tlioso of the Spanish Pyrenees from those of the
French Pyrenees; and it was a subject of peculiar regret to the enterprising Dniniinoiid,
when he readied the summits of the Rocky Mountains in North America, that his coniiiiis-
aion did not allow liim to |)enetrato farther into the western side of that great continent,
where he found, every stop ho took, a vegetation very different from what had been presentocl
to him by the eastern side.

A knowledge of the Natural Orders of plants is in no dopartmc; of botany so important
as in treating of their geographical distribution. The system of Linneeus, or the Artificial
.\rrangement, does not, as we know, regard the habits and atfinitics of vegpu.'>'ef . but simply
and beautifully points out to us, by certain characters, the means of arriving Hi. 'ho know-
ledge of any given species. The natural method, which owes so much to tho lalh,.-»s of
.lussieii, Decandollc and Brown, has a higher object in view, that of grouping frlants togetlier
according to their natural affinities ; and by such an arrangement we are oflrn led to other
and very important results. The primary divisions of the Natural Method are, first, acotv-
i.EDoNKR, or plants which have no cotyledons to tlie seed : these are synonymous to the
('ryptogamia, and include the Mosses, Lichens, Sea-weeds, Punffi, Ferns, &c. , secondly,
MONofiOTYi.KDONEs ; tlioso wliosc scods littvo onc cotyledon, such as the Grasses, Idliareous
I'Idiits, the Rushes, Sedges, tho Palms, <Sj;c. ; and, thirdly, nicorvLEDONEs, or tho ])lunta
'.vliieli have two or rarely more cotyledons to the seed, such a.s our Shrubs and Trees, and
'■!'ry many Herbacenus Plants. Eacli of these possesses external characters which, though
imt very easily defined in words, yet cannot fail to strike the observer who devotes hisalt'-n-
lion, even for a little while, to tho subject; and wo find that, in a great proportion of
instances, they have not only a peculiar station, but that their geographical distribution is
different.

Tho AcoTYLEDONous plants increase in number in proportion to the other great classes, as
\vc recede from the equator to tho poles ; with the exception, however, of the Ferns. Tho
latter abound more within the tropics than anywhere else: not, however, so much in open
plains OS in the sheltered, moist, and hilly countries; so that their maximum is in the moun-
tainous part of the tropics. The island of Martinique atlbrdcd to the Abbe Plumicr a rich
and abundant harvest of ferns ; and some isles of small extent aro said to have one-third of
their vegetation composed of this kind of plants.

Among the monocotyledosoiis Plants, the Palms are exclusively confined to the tropics :
rhe JAliacenus plants abound there and in the warm zones ; the three fiimilies of Urasses,
Sedffes (Cyperacco-), and Rushes (Junci), present some important differences in regard to s
comparison with tho pha-nogainous or flowering plants. The disparity between these latter
and the grasses is not great in each of tho zones ; whilst the two other families, the Cype-
racea: and Jnnci, diminish near tho equator and increase towards the north. Nevertheless,
there are exceptions to this rule ; for the grasses aro very rare upon the coasts of Greenland.
In what we have now said, wo allude to the grasses, &c. in a wild state ; having no refer-
ence to those regions whore so many of the grass tribe, as the Wheat, Barley, Oat, Maize,
Rye, Rice, &c., aro found simply in a stite of cultivation.

The DicoTVLEDONous plants aro the most extensively distributed, and wo must ofTer some
further remarks upon them. Tho Compound or Syngenesious plants (Compo.sitffi), as every
one knows, form a very extensive natural family. They are diffiised throughout the whole
earth, but thoy are most abundant in the temperate and tropical climates. Fewer, however,
of them aro found in the warm regions of equinoctial America than in the sub-alpine and
temperate districts of the same country. At the Congo and Sierra Leone in Africa, in tho
East Indies and New Holland, they exist in comparatively smaller numbers than in other
regions situated in similar parallels, but which afford situations more congenial to their

Vol. 1. 2G

,s. to,

Si*

•if

Kit

•ii

m
m

M'.,ii

(■ i

:*;■
^*i:

ir:

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY,

paht n.

growth. Aijiiin, in tlio fVozrn zone, in Knmtfichati<n hihI Lnpliinil, fho rolntivo proijortion of
pliinbt of tiiis tlimiiy in oiic-imif \vhh timn in the tfiiiprriitc rliinatr'H.

Tlio Iifffiiminowi ylmilK (to wliicli the I'cu, tho Bi'un, At. iK'lonjf, ami wicli nn bciir popi-
lionnccdiis /lnwcrs,) aUiiiml mo.it in tho eqiiinoctiiil rcifioiis; tlicy diininifih pfrmiiiiilly in each
lunnisphcrc in tllvcrifiny from tin; ('([tiiitor, except indfcil in ccrtiiin conntriPM where iVirticu-
lur jiciic'ivi, h)' the nniitiplicity of their Bpncies, jriv<! a peculiar featiiro to tho vejf(^t«tion, a»
in Hiherii anil tho vast provincea of RusHia, where bo many Anlragali or Bittcr-vetchrs aro
tunnd.

Mr. I'.riiwn hiw judicioualy separated the natural order of Ruhiacfte into two (.'roups:
those w ilh verticillato leaves and no Htipulcs (the Stellatte of Linno!u»), to which hclonjf tho
(ttmgrni-tinii ((Jaliuni), MaiUler (Uubia), &c., and which are almost peculiar to tho temperate
zonen; iiml the true Ruhutcriv, with oppotiito pairH of leaven, and two opposite istipulcs
(which are in fact abortive leaves, and thus show their affinity with the Stflf<il<v), to which
belong' tiie real medicinal barhs (or Cinchona'), ami son\e otiier nearly related pluntfl pos-
sessinif similar virtues: those hitter are almost wholly confined to the equinoctial rc|;ionB.

The two well-known and extensive natural families, the I'mMliJermm and Cnicifrroux
planln, aro very rare in the tropics, if we except the mountains. 1 hey abound in the south
of Europe, and especially about tho valley or basin of the Mediterranean.

Sbot. IV. — View of lintanical Regions.

To divide tho globe into botanical rejrions or districts will not be difficult, seeing that cer-
tain eduntries possess a peculiar vegetation, ond that numerous impediments prevent emi-
gration ; seeing, too, that certain forms or tribes are incompatible with certain climates.
M. Do C^aiidollo has constituted twenty of those regions ; but although each is, to a certain
degree, peculiar in its vegetable productions, it would rc(|uire more space than we ran devote
to such a subject to characterise them. Wo must, therefore, content ourselves with giving
a bare list. 1. Hyperhnrcan region. This district includes tho northern extremity of Asia,
Europe, and America; and gradually merges into the following. 2. European region;
comprising all Euro|)o, except the part bordering upon the (xilo, and tho southern districts
approaching the Mediterranean. To the east it extends to the Altaic mountains. 3. Sibe-
riiin region, comprehending the great plains of Siberia and Tartary. 4. Mfililerranran
region; comprising all tho ba.«in of this great inland sea; that is, Africa on this side the
Sahara, and tliat part of Europe which is sheltered from the north by a more or less conti-
nued range of mountains. 5. Oriental region ; thus called relatively to southern Europe,
and containing the countries bordering u|)on the Black and Caspian Seas. 0. India, with
its archipelago. 7. China, (.^ochinchina, and Japan. 8. New Holland. 9. The Cape of
Good Hope, or southern extremity of Africa, beyond tho tropics. 10. Abyssinia, Nubia, and
the Moz,imbi<]uo Coast (imperfectly known). 11. Eqninnclial Africa ; viz. the neighbour-
hood of tho (-^ongo, the Senegal, and Niger. 12. The Canary Isles. ID. Tlw United
Stales of .\orth America. 14. The Western and Tempertfle (Joasts of North America.
ir). The West Indian Isles. 10. Mexico. 17. Tropi-al South America. 18. Chili. 19.
Southern Brazil and Buenos Ayres. 20. The Straits of Magellan.

Many of the productions of those regions will be considered somewhat at large in other
parts of this work; and we shall conclude our introductory sketch of Botanical Geography
by a notice of Professor Schouw's Phyto-Geographics or General Botanical Division of the
Globe. This is illustrated by a map, which accoinimnies this memoir. Unlike M. Do Can-
dolle. Professor Schouw characterises tho regions by the most remarkable feature of theii
vegetation, adopting commonly used geographical terms only where he conceives that a cer-
tain division of the eartii ought to constitute a distinct region, but is not sufficiently Jccquainted
with its productions to determine and define their forms. He makes tho characteristic fea-
ture of his regions to depend on these fiicts : first, that at least one-half of tho species should
be peculiar to that region; secondly, that at least a quarter of the genera sliould belong
exclusively to it, or at least have there a decided maximum, so that their species in other
districts might merely be considered as their representatives; and, thirdlj', that individual
families of plants be either peculiar to the region, or e!.-e have their maxima there ; never-
theless, when this last characteristic is wanting, while tho differonce in genera and species
is very considerable, it may yet bo admitted as a region.

Professor Schouw in this manner reckons twenty-two regions : —

(1.) Reixion of Saxifrages and Mos,if:s, or tho Alpine Arctic Flora. — This corresponds
with De Candollo's first region, and comprehends all the roiintries within the polar circle;
namely, Ijipland, the north part of Rus>ia and Siberia, Kniiitsehatka, Russian America, part
of British Anioricn, Greenland, and Iceland; hut I'rofessor Schouw adds to it, with much
propriety, part of the Scottish and Scandinavian mountains, as llir as they tail within the
alpine region, as also the mouotains in the southern and central parts of Europe, inasmuch
us they are related to the alpine reirions. It is characterised by the abundance of mosses
and lichens, the presence of tlie Saxifrages, Geiilians, Chickwecd tribe (Alsincie). Sedges,
and Willoios; an entire absence of tropical familic*, a considerable decrease of the peculiar

Book III.

IN ITS RKLATION TO BOTANY

251

Cormn of the tumpcruto zorin; by tlio forfnUi of Iterch or fir, or olno tfM> total want of trco»;
tlio scarcity of uniiiiiilH, iiiiil tlit< provitleiicu of cuvspitonu plitntM, wliosn lilo-'HniiiH uic lar^c in
pro|itirlliin, and ^riMu^riilly of ii piilo colour.

I^i.) ItiKionoJ' the VinhelliJ'erons und (,'nififrrniiH plnnin. — Tliin Irilic tMkrs in tlic wliolc
ol' Europe, oxci'ul what b«'lon(((t to tlie pn'W'diri); division, I'rotn tlio Pyii'inc.-', tin- iiioniituinn
of tlio Niulli of I'Vuiico, of Switzorliiud, und tliu north oftiruocc, tlif Krciicr piirt ol' Silirrin,
und tho toiinlry about Mount Cuucuhuh. Hchouw hiw clmrneteri/od it liy iho tnirifirouii
and iiinlitltiftrmis plimtx, bncuiwo thuy form a latyn'.r ixirtion of tliu totiil nnpiliTr llrin iiny
otlior kindM, and bc'cuuHU it may thus bo host Hopiirntod from the voj,"'tation of North Atncrica
ill thu Nam<! pariiUul. It m nut ttaiiily distin(;uiHhud fruni tliu next ri jrion : but it may Ik; Huid
of it, thai Fuiiffi abound more, that tlio Ronuccous family nnd thu CVouj/(«)/.«(Uaninu'iilacon!)»
tho AiiiriitaccdiiK und Conifvrous tribus (I'incs), form rutlior a larpo projiortioii ; that it hoars
u ruHombliincu to many of the pidar fnriiiH, CKpucially in thu ubundunco of itN SviJ^m (Cypo-
rucou.'); Ihut itM muudows arc niofit flouriHliing, and that almost all thu tree's nro (Icciduouti in
winter. In tho northern part of thiu rojfion, thu Cidwracctc (u tribe of the CcimiHwitB! or
Hyn);onuriionM pluntH, including tho Eiuliw, Li:tluce, Dandelion, &.C.) much prevail; while
in itrt soulhern division, or in northern Awio, the Cynarovephul(B (Artichoke and Thistle
tribus), tojretliur with the Uuttcr-vetchet (Astragali), und Siil'ue plants (Sea-worts and Glusd-
worts), seem to have their maximum.

(3.) UefrUm of the Labiate flowers and CaryophylletB (to which the Pink, the Ciitclfly,
the Suiidworts, &.c. belong); or the Mvditerraneun Flora. — This is bounded on the north by
the Pyrenees, tho Alp.s of Switzerland and of the south of France, and the north of Greece,
and thus includiM the three peninsulas of southern Europe, namely, Smin, Italy, and Orcece;
on the east by Asia Minor and its islands; on the south it takes in Egypt and all the north
of Africa us fur us the deserts; and, lastly, it includes the Canary Islands, Madeira, and tho
Azores. It is marked especially by the two families atiove mentioned, which are much rarer
both to tho north and south of the countries just enumerated, and in tho corres|K)nding
parallels in North America. The Co7npnsiltf, tlie Stellata (Goosigrass, Maddrr, &c.), and
the rougli-leaved plants {Asperij'oUai), are here in considerable numbers, as well as in the
similar latitudes. A few tropical plants, or individuals allied to them, now appear; one or
two Palms, the Laurels, the Arum tribe, the Terrhinthacea: (Pistacia, &c.), .some trojiicttl
grussti.s und true Cyperacca. Nifrhtshadrn (Solaneie), Lefriiminous plants, tlii; Mallow and
Nettle tribes, and the Spurffcs (KupliorbiuceaO, increase; Everifrci ns are numerous; vege-
tation never entirely ceases, but verdant inoadows arc more rare. This region may bo sub-
divided into provinces: of the Cisti, Spain and Portugal; of the iSn^t,'-*; and SeaMiuts, the
south of France, Italy, and Sicily; of the shrubby Itiihiata;, the Levant, Greece, Asia Minor,
and the southern part of the Cuucusiun country; andof //oi(»f/'f7i»(Semperviva), the Canary
Isles, probably also tho Azores, Madeira, and tho north-west coast of Africa. Many Sem-
pcrviva;, some succulent plants. Spurges nnd Caralitf, characterise especially this province.

(4.) The Japanese region. — The eastern temperate part of the old continent, namely,
Japan, the north of China, and Chinese Tartury, probably forms a peculiar region ; but we are
too little acquainted with the botany of these countries to admit it with certainty, and still
less are we able to define correctly the characteristics of its Flora. Of tho ft58 generu found
in Japan, 270 occur in Eerope and the north of Africa, and about the same number in North
America; so that its Flora seems to occupy a middle place between those of tho old and new
worlds. Its vegetation, indeed, approaches more to tho tropical than to the European ; for
we meet with the Cycas family, the Scitamineet! (to which belong the Ginger, Cardammn,
&,c.), the Bananas, the Palms, the Anonm or Custard-applrs, and the Sapindacete ; so that
there is a considerable affinity, as might bo expected from its situation, to the flora of India.
The families of the Buckthorns (Rliamni) and Honeysuckles are (bund in a relatively con-
siderable miinbcr, nnd they exhibit some ptculiar genera; thus, perhaps, this region might
be correctly termed that of the Rhamni and the Cuprifoliacece.

(.5.) Region of the Asters and Solidagns (Michaelmas-daisies and golden-rods.) — The
eastern part of North America, with the exception cf such as belongs to tho first or arctic
district, comprehends without doubt two regions; for amongst 417 genera in Walter's Flora
of Carolina, 117 are wanting in Barton's Flora of Philadelphia. The northern divisions of
the United States have, indeed, but few genera which do not occur also in the southern ; but
this only shows that a similar relation exist., here to what takes place between tho north and
south of Europe. The southern region will include Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi,
liouisiana, and Carolina; the northern contains tho other states of North America. What
cha'ucterisos this region is (be.sides the number ofspecios of the genera A.s/er and Solidago),
the gnnit variety of (Daks and Firs ; the very few Crurifrrcp and llmheUiferte, Cichoracea
and Cynuroci phalw ; the total ab.senco of the genus Erica, and the presence of more nume-
rous s|>ecics of the allied family of Vaccinium (Whortleberries) than are to be met with in
Kurono.

(0.) Region of Magnolia'. — This, which comprises the southern parts of North America,
is separated troin the preceding region by the number of tropical forms which here appeal

u':'

: :^i m

;

■Mi!

SCIKNCK OP (IKiMJllAI'HY,

Paht II

and wliidi

t tlifiniiRlve* iiioro lri'<|iin[itly tliiiii on tlin f<iiiiilar|>nrnll('l!t'tlii' cilil ciiiitinont
(hiu'Ii, t(ir liitit<iiici>, itM tlio Nriliimintfr, Cijfwliir, .\iit>n<iri<r, Najtiniliiiiii, Milimlnmea,
Carli, ikv.) Frniii tiko old wurld, U»>, in i'(irri'M|Niiiiliii^ liititudi'M, it iri xtill tlirtlicr dmtiii-
ffuisliiHl by II (iinitlliT priiportioii oC hatiialir iiii.l ('nnjujjlii/lli ir ; iiiid liy Imviu^r iimri' Iituh of
Driiiid-iiliiiiiii;r loliiti;*) and HpltMidiil hliiHMrnin, (tlic Slnifiioliiin, tlic Tidi/t Irvr, thi.' Ilnrie'
ckestniil, 6ic,) iind with iiinniiind lt>avi'!< (tlin (ilnliliirliiir, liiilniiiw, Araciu , &('.)

(7.) Hi'giim i>f Ihr ('acli, l'vpinr», iind Mi Itinttiiniin ; ii very fxti'iinivi' n%'i(iii, incliitlinf;
the lower dislriclM of Mfxieo, (iiiiitciiiiiln, llio NVcitt Indii'i', New (ircninla, Vi'iiczuolii,
Ciniunii, unj IVru, perlmpii hIho, u |utrt of Hiii/.il ; in iiliort, all iiitortro|iieiil Aiiu'i-k m, TIiu
tlireo tiiiMiliea liuro inuntioncd iip|K<iir piMMiliiirly to clmrnctoriHo tliciiu couiitriiri ; l()r tlin lint
buloiiKH oxuliiHividy to Anirricii, and of tlic other two tlieru I'xiHt ('oiii|)urutively lew mM'cicH
out ul tlit'Ho (liMlriclM. I'dliim, tlio Itnliiarrn; the Solaiiva; (in wliicli are ehiNHed the i\if(hl-
nhiidrn uiid I'otatoe), tliu rmiffh-Uiiwil nliiiiln (l)iirn|,niieii>), tlio Pamiion-Jliiwi m ut\il Cnmpo-
•tVcr, arc hero very coininon. It may iidinit of nt-veral pruvinceH, an that of the i'Vrna and
Orcliulfm (in the VVeHt India iidaiulH); of tlio I'olins (the continent of South America.)
Drazil (iii^rht cortiiinly to conHtitute a peculiar provinco, if indeed it lie not a iliHiinct roKiun;
and llu> worliH of 8pix and Marliiiri, St. Ililaire, the I'riiicodi! Neuwied, Ac, will noon etiablo
us to cliHracteriBO itH voffetalile loriiiH. Tho .yftltislimnc and I'liliiu ap|M-ar to helonif to the
more iiiiiiierous iimuiteii of tluH re^fion.

(8.) i<*x*"" '{/"'Af f'inrA«Hct to their altitude) of South America ehould
form a dintinct re^fion from that laxt mentioned, as they ditler coiiitideralily from the low
landH; and the name now pro[M)8ed seems to be cliiiractorihtic of their vej;etation, at leuist of
Peru and New Grenada, thoii^^h certainly not of Mexico, where the species of (,'i)icA(»«a are
wantiiifr.

(9.) Krgion of EKcalloni<e, Vaccinia (Whortleberries), and Winterte (Winter's Barks).
— These, accordinjf to Hnmlnddt, occupy the hi^rhest parts of South America. Benides tho
plants inentiiincd, there bi'loiifj to this ro|j[ion many H|)ecies of I^thilin, Onilian, Slijmer-
toorl (Calceolaria), Sai(c, several Euro|H'an genera of OramirK, lirainr, Fesluca and I'ou,
the CichoracinF, as Jfi/vocharis and Ajtur^in ; as well as the more strictly sneakiiij; aljiine
plants (.S'(ix{/r«ic«», VV/ji7/ou)-<crrt»»c», Sundworln, and Srilffi^,) Perhaps aUu those ])arts
of tho hijfh lands where the s|)ecies of Oak and Fir Houri.sh beloiiff to the same refjion, thou(;ii
in all proliability they constitute a peculiar nrovince.

(lit.) Chilian TCffion. — It appears that ('liili should form a distinct region ; fur amonj^st
the (f'nera which appear there, not one half are fiiund in the low districts of South America.
Its character, perhaps, most resembles that of the mountainous country in its Slippirwortii,
Escalhmicp, Wiinmaiinio', Ha-a, neUflowim, and liuddlra ; but yet tli(? dilference is
scarcely siilUcient to constitute it a province. The Flora of this country appears to be essen-
tially distinct from that of New Holland, the C'ape, and New Zealand; though an approach
to them is observable in Ctoodtnia, Araiiciiria (('hilian pine,) the I'rolia family, Gunniru,
and Ancixlnim.

(II.) Ri'ifion of arhoresccnt Cnmj)osila; (syngcnesious plants with tren-liko stems.) —
This takes in Buenos Ay res, and in jfenernl the eastern side of the temperate part of South
America. It has t)een already renmrkod, that the Flora of this district of tho world agrees
to a considerable degree with that of Europe ; amongst 109 genera, 70 are likewise Euroijoan,
and 85 in the north temperate zone. On tho other hand, it dili'ers considerably from the
Floras of tho Cape and of New Holland, for the I'roteag, the Myrtle tribe, and tho Mimosas
are either wholly wanting, or are seen but sparingly; and there are no Epacrida; Ikathii,
Iridr<v, Mfntmhryanthrma, or ISiraninms. Nor can it be compared with tho Flora of the
north-west coast of America; for amongst 180 goneni mentioned, only M5 are found in Chili.
The characti'ristics of this region seem to lie in the great number of Arborescent Syni(<'nt:si(B,
(particularly of the sub-family Boopidio"), which, however, do not excluBively appertain l^)
it, but are also seen at the Cape.

(12.) Antarctic rcffion. — This includes the countries near the Straits of Magellan. There
is a considerable affinity between the vegetation here and wluit is seen in the north temperate
zone ; for, amongst 82 known genera from thence, there are 59 of them which have species
in the northern hemisphere. The arctic [jolar forms also appear, such as Sedffcs (Carices),
Saxifrages, Gentians, Arbutus, and Primroses. Some resemblance to the highlands of
South America and to Chili is olso shown in tho Slipperworts, Ourisia, Baa, Bolax, Win-
tera, Esrallonia ; to the Cape, in the genera Gladiolus, Witsenia, Gunnera, Ancistrum,
Oxalis ; and to Now Holland, in Proteacta; and Mniarum,

(13.) Rcffion of New Zealand. — This well deserves to t)c characterised as a separate
region, although its vegetation bo a mixture of what prevails on the nearest continents, as
South America, Southern Africa, ami New Holland. It has, in common with Sotith Ame-
rica, Ancistrum, Wrinmannia, Wiutrra ; with Southern Africa, the Fig Marigolds, Gna-
phidium Xerauthema (Everlastings), Trlragnnia (tho fiiinous Now Zealand Spinach), Wood-
torrel, and Passerina; and' with New Holland, the Epacris, Melaleuca, Mi/oporum; with

DooK II

both th

l)ulli to

loriilis,

(H.)

Ilollilllii

Staikh

I'rotrai-

genera

IHainu

Brown,

rosembi

(15.)
tho soul
peculiar
Imj recoj
two mm
is hero I
found in
pimiic.
thojiO pe
ceti-, I'll

(1«.)
vogetati
mixftire
rican tro
or they
two thii
Indies.

^i^

Book III.

IN ITS IIKLATION TO HoTANY.

bi>th till! Irtttcr, till! tUiiiilicit of /V»/<(/('''<i' mill li<nliiiri(f : hiiiiii> i<|ircii'M iiImi iiri> rDiniiiou
butll to NrW lliilliiiiil uilil Villi jliriiii'il'x liillil, l!>r limtiiliri' Miiiiiriiiii liijliinim, Snitiiiliin tit.
Inrulin, (iruliitiia monlitna ; tint lirHt iiImi ii iiulivr of tlif HtriiilN nt' Mii|{i'llnii.

(14.) Ufffion iijr.piiiriiliH iinil Hinulyiili : i.oni|ir<'lii'iiiliii)( tlii' li'ni|M'nili' piirtH of New
IltilUiiil, loKJftliiT with Vuii l>it!iiiiMi'i4 Ijiiiil, — 'I'lii* rcffiiin Im vi'ry iiiiirkcil. Tin' tinnilii'M of
Slarlilimiiicti: anil Tnmaiiilrra: iiri- niiito |ir>'iiliiir to Now ilolliuiil, tlir r./imriilur iiinrly ho,
I'rolciitrn; Anicia, Ajihylltr, uiul llit'Kri'atcr nimiber oftlio .Wyrf/«'liiiiiily (''Hpcriiiily nl'tlio
tfi'iiiTil I'liviilypliin, 1,1 fititupirmiim, MiUiUucii) : tli" Slylidrtr, Uinlimin, ('inimriiii'ir,
J)io»initr, Hi^immto it rniiii otlicr ri^uions. Tim tropical [Hirt of Ninv llolliiiul, iiri'unlinif to
Drown, I'ltn iiiinlly Ix' nniliil to tliiH, liiit iiiiir't Imi nitlicr a |iarticular r(>(riiiii, wlnnf Flum
rDHoiiiliiiiH tliiit of Iniiiii, or risn a provinri) of tliiit latter rc|fion.

(ir».) Ufffioii of l-'iff-Miirigiilih (Mrwiiiliryantlminii) nnil Staprlian. — TIiIh i-oniprclinndi
till! Hiiiitiicrn cxtri'iiiily of Alricii, liic Flora of which Ih iliMtiiiiriiiHlii-il by u lii(,'li ilc^rro of
pociilinrity. Uy tliofuniiliri* PrnUncviF, Itmlinrrtr, Polyifiiltr. (NlilkwortM), IHnnninr, it may
DO ri'coKniiicil Iroiii inoNt otlmrH, nxcrpt Now llollanil, nnil (Voni thin it Im ili!<tin);iiiHlii>il liy tlio
two niiiiiorouM Kfiwra Mrsi mhri/iiiilhtiiiiim ami Slmtrlin, anil liy tlio timiily Erirrir, which
18 lioro iiioro aminilant tiiaii miywhoro >'Imi\ Furthor cliaractoriHticM of tliix ri't;iiiii may bn
fimiiil in tlio muiiy Iriilitr, (iiruniir, ()xaliilr<r, ami tlio i-xtrcmely largo projxirtion of t'tmi'
poiilir. On tlio other liaml, then) oxiMt in thin liintrict, an in Now Hollanil, Init 'cry Hparin^ly,
tlio-ic pi'culiar tbrnia of tlio northi-rn toiiiiM-rato zones, tho Cruc\fera,Runum luvva;, liuiO'
Cf<i; I'liilitiliftra', Caryophylka:

(10.) Urtfion ojf WrHlirii Africa. — Wo am only acquaintcil with Guinna aid Conff". the
vojfotatioii of which, as we havo alroady roiiiarknd, ponHi-ssos but finv peculiar tii's, iinil is a
niixtiiri! of tho Floras of Asia anil Atiiorica, thoiiffh nioHt roHi'mblinjj tho fornior. Tho ' 'uc-
rican tropical farnilicN of Cacti, I'rppcru, Palm*, Viiniiionfliiwcrii, iiro oither ubHoiit nitiroly,
or thi'V occur in small niiinborH. Lcguminnme arc nmro numorous than in Ainini 'a. Aliovo
two thiril.i of till! t'onora ami Homu of tho (ipouics of (Juinoa arc foiinil uIno in tho Fast
IndicH. On tho otlior hand, this rogion iipproximatos to Ainoricn, in jKWHcs.sinfr inmiy Rn-
biacrn; iw also in tho gonrra Schwrnkia, lUain (ii piiliii), I'uiilliiiia, yfttlpi^hiit, iiiid Hovrral
iiion; which arc wanting in A.-<ia, and in Hovural niMJcicH which it lmn in cdiiiiiioii with Amu-
rica. ,\ coiisidoriihlo proportion of UranscH and Sctlgis (Cyporacon;), with tho prcnliar gon .■
AilaiiHoiiia (tho Baobab, which in tho largo«t known tree in tlio world), belong to Iho cli r-
nctoristicH of this country. Tlin interior of Africa is unknown to uh.

(17.) Ucf(iim (f FMstrrn Africa. — Of tho coast of this side of Africa and tho adjnccnt
islands our know lodge is iniporfect. We are tolerably aci|uaintod with the i.-<laii(!s of Hour-
Ixiii and France; of Madagascar we know but little; and of the oast coast itself scarcely
unythiiig, The Flora of tlio two first-named islands has a considerable respinblunce to thu*
of India. Amongst 'J\h) known genera, llKl of them (cipial to two thirds) are found also in
India; and of tho species, not a few aro likewise Indian; many of these, however, may liavo
Ih'I'h introduced by tho constant intercourse that takes place between these two parts of tl<(i
globe. The gvnvra Euifunia, Ficim (tig), Vrlica (nettle), Kuphorhia (simrge). Ihilynarn, ,
I'anicum, Andri>])nfrnn, Sida, Pandauus (scrow-pine), Dnicernn (ilrugon-wrKid), <'nnyza
are very numerous in species, us aro tho same genera in India. In fmis, these islamlB aro
pi!Ciiliarly rich. Again, their flora diflt'rs considerably from the South African; an analogy
existing, however, in their (HLssessing single reprosentiitivesof the f'ii|)o genera F.rica, Ixia,
(iladiotus, Bhria, Mvsvinttrynnthnnuin, Scriphium, and several arborescent Syiifiriu'siec,
Still losa is tho uflinity to the extra -tropical jmrta of New Ilidland. The similarity la
stronger to tho tropical portion of that country, of which the flora also approaches that of
India. Single genera are all that it seems to pos.sess in common with An^ricp ; for instance,
Mdicncca, Ritiziu, Dodono'a, Dichondrii. The following are, perlia,.. .i-culiar to this
ri.'gion, Latania, Ilubcrtia, Poupartia, Tristrmma, Fiii)iilia,C<trdyUn- , nia, Firnalia,

Luhinia, ami others. Tho flora of Madagascar seems very |>eculiar. It agrees with the
islands lost mentioned ; and several genera are seen nowhere else than in them and Mada-
gascar ; for example, Danais, Ambora, Ihmdiryn, Dnfniirra, Didymom /".t, Snuicra ; several
species also are common to both; as Didymiimrlen MiuUignxcr ■' -ms, Dannin fraprann,
Cinchona \frn-inda. Still, among the 101 known genera fri> Madagascar,")'! only are
tinind in the Isles of Franco and Bourbon ; so that there n.'gl ..' gcHKl grounds tiir forming^
a separate region of the first; unless, perlia|>s, the east cimst of Africa should come nnder
the same. With New Holland and the Cape, Madagascar lias prolmbly still less in common
than the two other i-slamls.

(18.) Scitamiiivnn rvifion (of tile Tiirinrrir, Zcdnnry, Ctirdamtiin, Indiati-slini, &c.), or
the Indian Flora. — To this appertain Iiiiiia, east and west of" the riaiines, together with the
islands between India and New Ihdbiiid; perhaps, also, that division of New llolbind whi h
falls within the tropics. The Scilainincai are here in far greater numbers Ihnn in America;
also, though to a less degree, the Lririiminoinr, Ciirurbilaccfr, Tiliacrtr. The previously
mentioned South American fonns are rare, or else wanting. This region tihoiild be- seiNtratcd

Vol. I. 22

I I

■ '.,1

Tg,

954

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY,

Part II.

into several provinces; but as yet we know too little to undertake such a division with any
deij^reo of certainty.

(19.) The Indian highlands ought to form one or perhaps two regions, their vegetation
being very dissimilar to that of the lowlands: in the middle region, Melastomtc, Orchide<c,
and Filicrs, appear to prevail ; in the higher, the vegetation is more like the European and
Nortii Asiatic, and proliably the Japanese : these districts perhaps constitute one region with
tlje w iiolo of Central Asia ; but of all these countries we shall know much more when the
Flora of India by Roxburgh and Wallich is completed.

(tiO.) The Flora of the South of China and of Cochinchina partly resembles that of India,
especially in regard to families ; but still Loureiro's Flora contains a great many peculiar
genera. It is true tliat perliaps the number of these genera might be reduced; but even
then, the vegetation of this tract will probably prove sufficiently peculiar to constitute a
distinct region.

(21.) The region of the Cassia and Mimosa:, which prevail particularly in Arabia and
Persia, seems likewise to have a good right to be separated from India, as it is already
sufficiently distinct from the Mediterranean region (No. 3.) ; for, of 281 genera mentioned
by For.sk:il, 109 only are found in the south of Europe. It is more proboble that the Flora
of Nubia and part of Central Africa appertains to this region. Abyssinia perhaps forms a
distinct region, its elevated parts possessing such a different climate.

(22.) The islands in the South Sea wliicli lie witliin the tropics form perhaps a separate
region ; though witli but a slender degree of peculiarity. Among 214 genera, 173 are
found in India ; most of the remainder are in common with America ; for instance, Chio-
cncca, Weinmannia. Gnajacttm. Of the ppecies which exist equally in them and Asia, are
Zapania nodijlora, Kyllingia monocephala, Fimbristylis dichotoma, Toumefartia argentea,
Plumbago zeylanira, Morinda umhellata, Sophora tomentosa. In common with America,
I)od(m<ca viscosa, Sapindus saponaria (soap-berry) : with both Rhizophora Mangle (man-
grove tree) : it has also some in common witii New Holland, as Daphne indica (a species
of Spurge Laurel), Peculiar families, or such as have there a decided maximum, can
scarcely be cited ; tiiough, on the other hand, most of the species are peculiar. The Bread-
fruit is among the characteristics of these islands ; though this tree is not confined to the
South Seas.

Tlie limit of the present es.say does not allow of the intended introduction of the geo-
graphical situation of many of the more useful and important plants, which Professor Schouw
has so ably delineated ; such as tliat of the Beech, the Vine, the Fir tribes, the Heaths,
Corn, and such fruits or vegetables as are employed as bread : the Palms, the Proteaca,
which form so remarkably striking a feature in the Cape of Good Hope and in New Holland ;
the CompositeB, which are perhaps more universally diffused than any other kind of plant;
the Crucifer<e, to which the Cabbage, Turnip, Mustard, Scurvy-grass, &c. appertain ;
and the leguminous tribes, whose seeds (as the Pea ond Bean) are so valuable for man,
and whoso foliage, as the Lupine and Trefoil, &c. affords most of the nourishment to cattle.
We must endeavour to incorporate these with the vegetation of the various regions where
they are found in the greatest abundance.

Doo

Plai
thei

(•it)ii
!r:in
).iwi
Imv(
r.'iii
but,
(if n
.si;v«

CHAPTER II.

GKOGRAPHY CONSIDEHED IN RELATION TO THE DISTRIBUTION OP MAN AND ANIMALS.

The geographic distribution of animated beings is a branch of natural history which only
of late years lias engaged the attention of philosophers. The celebrated Blumcnbach was
the first, we believe, who generalized the numerous iacts connected with the physiology of
man, and proved that all the varieties may be referred to certain types of form, equally
distinct in their physical structure and in their geographic distribution. But whether from
prejudice, or from the varied and comprehensive sphere of zoology, which renders the subject
too vast for the power of any one mind, certain it is that animal geography has been almost
neglected. Isolated details, relative to particular coimtrief, classes, or families, have been suc-
cessfully investigated ; but no one has yet attempted to generalize these materials, and use them
towards the discovery of tlie laws of creation. An attempt to ascertain the range of par-
ticular species simply within a fcrtain district or kingdom, is merely an inquiry into their
local distribution ; but if our views are extended beyond such confines, and we embrace a
large portion of the globe, tracing the relations of it^ animals, with those of the remaining
portions, it is then only that we enter upon the comprehensive subject of geographic dis-
tribution.

The inquiries relative to physical distribution, when directed to the animal world, assume
a higher importonce than those, however interesting, which regard plants: for not only do
animals appear incalculably more numerous than vegetables, but their natural range, depen-
dent in a multiplicity of concurrent causes, appears to be much more distinctly marked.

Hook III.

IN ITS RELATION TO MAN.

ZbT)

assume
. only do
!, depen-
marked.

Plants, indoivl, in a groat dcprrep, are stationary beings; but nature has wisely provida. for
tlieir rciiKival and dispersion to tlie most distant regions, by the diversified structure or tena-
ciiius vitality with which the seeds of numerous families are endowed ; liencc they become
!r:ins|>(nto(l by various natnnil causes to distant shores, and, without any assistance from
l.iiiiiaii aid, take root, flourisli, and increase, in lands far distant from those which appear to
!i 1 vc lii'nn their native regions. It is otherwise with animals : they may, it is true, be
rcin()V(!(l from tiieir birth-nlaco, and even become domesticated and naturalized elsewhere;
hut, with tiie exception ot those which seem to have been originally destined for the service
of man, such naturalization ia only effected by artificial means, and by slow degrees, through
several generations. If such transported animals be left to themselves, or rather to the
natural resources for supporting life peculiar to their new abode, they almost invariably pine
and die. Again, plants, from being mferior to animals in the complexity of tlieir structure,
are, perhaps, necessarily dependent on fewer causes for retaining the vital energy; their
dispersion is, consequently, upon the whole, much more extensive. It may be mentioned,
in support of this remark, that out of 600 plants discovered in tropical Africa by Professor
Smith, one-twelfth have been ascertained, by Robert Brown, to be natives also of India and
South America. Now, if either the vertebrated or invertebrated animals, not aquatic, of
Western Africa, were compared in a similar way with those of the parallel latitudes in
America and India, the proportion collectively would hardly amount to one in a hundred :
indeed, with regard to the vertebrated orders, it is very questionable whether even one spe-
cies is truly indigenous to tropical Africa and to America; so totally different are the zoolo-
gical features of these continents, even at their nearest approximation : and yet, in the
above number of plants, no less than twenty-two species are enumerated, as common to equi-
noctial Africa, India, and America. These facts, while they strengthen the belief that
zoology is a more fiivourable field than botany for discovering the laws of natural distribu-
tion, lead US to consider the modes by which such inquiries are most beneficially prosecuted.

Sect. I. — Modes of investigating the Subject.

The powerful effect produced on animals by temperature, food, and locality, are known to
all : whether as regards the range of any particular species, or the numbers of which it may
be composed. The effect of these agencies is indeed so great, that some writers have looked
upon them as primary causes, and have imagined that by such laws alone has nature regu-
lated the distribution of the whole animal creation. Very many instances, no doubt, from
among the diversities of animal structure, may be urged in support of this theorj' ; but how
far it can be reconciled with other and more general facts, which will bo apparent on a
wider view of the subject, we shall hereafter mvestigate. It is clear that, by whatever
laws Nature may have been guided, numerous exceptions will be found, proportionate to the
vast and almost infinite variety she has displayed in her productions. There is, perhaps, no
theory professing to explain the laws of Nature, whether on animal distribution or natural
affinities, which the wit of man could possibly devise, that might not be supported with great
plausibility, by certain facta, presented by those radiating threads of connexion, and Uioso
apparent deviations from her general laws, which are everywhere apparent : yet these will
frequently be opposed to other facts ; and thus it becomes necessary, before determining on
which side the preponderance of evidence Ilea, that we take as wide a survey of the general
distribution of animals as the existing state of knowledge will admit. To set out with the
belief that the laws of geographic distribution are fully ascertained, and that nothing remains
but to make ourselves acquainted with the rttnge of individual species, is a doctrine which
can only be compared to those principles of classification insisted upon by the methodists of
the last age in natural history, who considered that all the generic groups had been discovered,
and that future naturalists had nothing left but to appropriate to them the newly discovered
species, in the best manner they could.

Towards the discovery of the natural geography of animals there is, however, another
mode of investigation, analogous to what we now pursue, in searching after the true series
of their affinities : this is, to lay aside all preconceived theories, and to begin with considerinpr
the primary causes of geographic distribution to be, what in truth tliey really arc, totally
unknown. We are thus compelled to take a general survey of all the existing animals yd
discovered, and now dispersed over the globe ; and, from the facts so elicited, endeavour to
attain such general inferences as are supported by a preponderance of evidence, furnished
by nature herself. By the first method, as it has been truly said, wo make nature bend to
our own arbitrary theories; while by the secind wo humbly endeavour to receive her
instructions; striving to obtain a glimpse of that stupendous plan which can never be fiilly
undcrstcml by fallible and imperfect mortals.

The geographic distribution of man is connected in our survey with that of animals ; not
so much in compliance with the popular notion, by which the noblest work of God is classed
as a genus next to the brute, but because we may fhirly presume, from the great diversity

iii- 1

IP; 5!

! ' »f

'>'.:\-

"'^-^.f

250

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY,

PaktII.

observed nmong the human species, tliiit ttieir variation nnd dispersion is regulated by some

feneral plan ; and that such plan may bo analoirous to tliat wliich is apparent in the distri-
ution of animals. It may be urged, indeed, that sucli a remarkable coincidence, if proved,
miglit tend to sanction the modern theory of classing man and brutes together ; but the only
legitimate construction which we think could be fairly drawn from sdch a fact would be,
that there is but one plan of geographic distribution and of creation throughout nature.

Against classing man with quadrupeds we must enter our decided protest. And here we
cannot refrain from expressing regret that a naturalist of no ordinary talent has rrcently
adopted this degrading theory, m apparent opposition to hin former most just and philosophic
views of the subject. He admits " the greatness of the gulf between man and the orang
outang ;" yet, because they possess certain analogies of physical structure, is it a necessary
conclusion that they form one group] (Linn. Traru. xvi. 1. p. 22.) This, at least, was not
tlie opinion (as this philosopher candidly admits) of either Aristotle or Ray, whom he justly
considers the two greatest zoologists that have ever existed. It has been argued that the
natural pride of philosophy withheld such men from classing themselves with brutes ; but
we arc more disposed to think they were influenced by higher considerations. However
this may be, there is an innate repugnance, or rather a disgust and abhorrence, in every
human mind, enlightened or illiterate, against the admission of such a relationship. Reve-
lation everywhere places man, even in his fallen state, in absolute contrast and contradiction
with " the beasts that perish." It is not merely a feeling of pride ; it is an innate loathing,
engrafted in our nature, apparently for the very purpose of teaching us how immeasurably
far wc are removed from the brutes that have no understanding. Man has fallen, miserably
fallen, but this is from the corruption of that pure spirit with which he was created : his
form was tlion, as it is now ; nor are we to suppose that man, as he came fiishioned by hie
Creator, without sin, was clothed in a different form to that which he now, in a sinful state,
exhibits. Are we then to place such a being in a zoological circle, surrounded with apes
and baboons ? or are material and immaterial natures so closely allied, that they may be
classed together!

Tliere is another argument against including man in the zoological circle, furni.shed by
tlie very theory upon wiiicii that iiypothesis is built. If the circular system i.* part of the
system of nature, which at this time of day is perfectly demonstrable, every being has two
alHnities : by the one, it is connected to that which precedes it ; by the other, to that by
which it is succeeded. Now, before we can bring man witliin the circle of the Quadruma-
na, on the strength of his affinity (wiiether near or remote) to the ornng outang, we must
show to wiiat cla&s of animals lie is connected on tlie other hand. Wiiat then are our dou-
ble affinities in tlie vertebrate circled We may be allied distantly, perhaps, to Simia. But
where is the second affinity! If this cannot be pointed out, tlie whole theory, in our esti-
mation, falls to the ground, since the presi'^ied type of the animal kingdom contradicts the
laws by which creation is supposed to be /eguiated ; man exhibiting a single affinity, and
the rest of organised matter a double one. Take him frmn the animal circle, — place him
between matter and spirit ; — and his double affinities become at once apparent.

A general sketch of the physical peculiarities of man in all his variations will first claim
our attention ; the regions inhabited by the different races, and the affinities by which they
appear connected, will also be briefly noticed. This part of our subject will be conducted
on a somewhat different plan from that which we shall pursue in the sequel. The profound
researches of Blumenbach and Cuvier, and the acute and patient investigations of Lawrence
and Pritchard, have all conspired to produce nearly the same general conclusions on those
points to which wo shall particularly draw the reader's attention. These conclusions, more-
over, demand our fullest confidence, from being founded on as rigid analysis as the nature
of the subject will admit. Hence, we have no need, in this place, of entering into details,
or of pursuing the same mode of invi'jitigation to which we shall have recourse when sub-
sequently treating of animal distribution.

Sbct TI. — Varieties of the Human Race.

The varieties of the human race, according In the ojiiiiion of the greatest comparative
anatomist, may all be included under three priin:iry divisions, between which, in their typi-
cal e.vamples, a very marked difference is observed. Those M. Cuvier has termed, 1. the
fair or Caucasian variety; 2. the yellow or Montrolian; 3. the black or Ethiopian.

The eliissifination proposed by the celebrated Blumenbach. although apparently different,
is but a modification of that promulgated by Baron (!Juvier. The former considers the Ethio.
pian type as .livisible into tliree, 1. the American ; 2. the Negro; and II. the Malay, Tlie latter
indicates tliesi! additional races, but considers their peculiarities as less prominent than those
of the two former ; ho does not therefore admit them among the primary divisions of the
human race. Without, at present, offering any opinion U|Kin this question, we shall first
take a rapid survey of the peculiarities, physical and moral, of all these groups.

■^:

,-^..

Book III.

IN ITS RELATION TO MAN.

8517

(1) The Caucasian race (Jig. 70.) is typically characterised by a white skin ; red cheeka;

copious, soft, flowing hair, generally curled or waving; ample beard; small, oval, and
straight face, with tlie features very distinct ; expanded forehead ; large and elevated crani-
um ; narrow nose ; and small moutli.

The moral feelings and intellectual powers of this race have been developed in the highest
degree of perfection which human nature has ever exhibited. The Caucasian has given
birth to the most civilized nations, both in ancient and modem times, and has always exer-
cised dominion over tiie rest of mankind, when not opposed by a vast superiority of physical
strength. The mighty nations of antiquity, and the no less resistless powers concentrated
in molern Europe, evince the superiority of this race in all that ennobles the immaterial
part of man, and all that renders him formidable to his fellow-creatures ; while every age
witnesses a progressive but a surprising advance in all those qualities which indicate intel-
lectual endowment.

The original scat of the Caucasian race is supposed, as the name implies, to have been
that lofty chain of mountains between the Black and Caspian Seas. This supposition, as
Jjawrence observes, is in uni.son with all that can be traced of the original abode of our first
parents ; and is further confirmed by the natives of these regions being, to this day, the most
beautifully formed of all the ir'iabitants of the earth. From the Caucasian Alps different
branches of this race diverge in every direction, as from a common centre ; the peculiarities
of each being modified, altered, and finally lost, in proportion as they recede from the ori-
ginal seat of their tribe.

Of the branches of the Caucasian race, the most powerful is the Pelasgic, which spreads
o^er the greater part of Europe and Western Asia at its most northern limits, while it blends
with the Jlongolian race by means of the Fins and Laplanders. From this branch sprang
the powerful nations of Greece and Rome, which have been succeeded by the mighty king-
doms of modern Europe. Tiie next is tlie Syrian, which takes a southerly direction ; and
includes that portion of Asia formerly inhabited by the Assyrians, Chaldeans, and the ancient
Egyptians. The Indian branch, by some thought to be the same with the Pelasgic, passes
to the East, and loses itself among tlie inferior casts of Hindostan. A fourth branch is the
Scythian or Tartaric, which spread over the more northern parts of Asia ; and gave birth to
those wandering and ruthless hordes who, by the physical power of numbers, devastated and
fmally overthrew the polished empires of Greece and Rome. The wandering and pastoral
habits of this tribe have conspired to preserve their peculiarities unmixed with those of the
neighbouring nations; except, indeed, in Lesser Tartary, whore this branch of the Caucasian
race loses itself in the Mongolian.

(2.) The Mongolian variety (Jig. 71.) has these characteristics : — The skin, instead of

white or fair, is olive yellow ; the hair thin, coarse, and straight ; little or no beard ; broad
flattened face, witii the features running together ; small and low forehead ; s<]uare-shaped
croniuni; wide and small nose; very oblique eyes; and thick lips. Stature interior to the
Caucasian. In this race the moral and intellectual energies have been developed in an inferior
degree. Tradition, indeed, has assigned to the most powerful nation, the Chinese, a high
degree of civilization, at a period when Europe was in a state of barbarism. Yet there are
many circumstances which throw considerable suspicion on this fact : and even if it be allowed,
a stronger proof could not possibly be produced to show the limited intellectual powers of tliis
Vol. I. 22* 2H

!t,i

i^'B

fjllj

258

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY,

Part II,

race ; for while tlie European Caucasian nations have advanced from rude savages to bccunie
masters of the world, the Cliinese, after reaching a certain state of civilization, liave remain-
ed stationary, in every respect, through a long series of ages. Solit^iry e.vceptions cannot
invnlidati^ the fact; and while we know that, not only in our own times, but so tiir back as
history informs us, neither the sciences, the inventions, nor tiie improvements of the last
three centuries have changed the Mongolian nations from what they then were, we can conio
to no other conclusion tbim that they are nationally incapacitated from further improve-
ment. Cuvier supposes that the origin of the Mongolian race may have been in the moun-
tains of Altai'. Prom tlicnco it has spread over the whole of central and northern Asia,
where it is lost among the Esquimaux on the one hand, and the Caucasian Tartars on the
other. It further extends to the Eastern Ocean, and includes the Japanese, the Coicans,
and a large [xirtion of the Siberians. Its limits to the south appear to extend no
farther than to that part of Ilindostan north of the Ganges, while the Mongolian fea-
tures only predominate over those of the Indo-Caucasian in the lower casts of the Eastern
Peninsula.

The origin of the Esquimaux and other polaric nations found on the most northern limits
of Europe and America, has given rise to great diversity of opinion. Arguments of nearly
equal weight, but of opposite tendency, have been employed to show, on the one hand, that
the Esquimaux belong to the American variety ; and on the other, to prove their structure
more in unison with that of the Mongolian. The latter opinion has been supported by Mr.
Lawrence ; and although we consider the weight of argument to be on this side, it appears
not at all improbable that both these suppositions are in part correct We have Ixiforc
observed, that the characters of each race become less and less a))parent, the farther they
arc removed from their particular type. The proximity of the northern regions of Asia to
those of America, renders it highly probable either that their respective inhabitants mingled
their races at a remote period, or that the northern Mongolians, whose civilization is sup-
posed to be of so great antiquity, were the first to emigrate, and peoi)le the northern regions
of America. At all events, it appears certain that the Esquimaux nations unite in themselves
many of the characters of two distinct races ; and the only theory by which wc can recon-
cile these doubts on their true origin, is that of supposing them to form the link of connex-
ion between the Mongolian and that race which spreads over the remaining jwrtion of the
new world. Tl . brief notice we have now taken of the two most powerful races or varie-
ties of the human form is sufficient to show their marked superiority over all others, whether
as regards the symmetry or beauty of their physical structure, or the still more striking
developoment of their moral jwwers. Hence they both become typical, although in ditferent
degrees, of that jwrfeotion which the Creator has bestowed upon man, in this his probatory
stain of existence.

The third i)rimary division or leading variety of the human race, according to the views
of the illustrious Cuvier, is the negro or Ethiopian. This, again, presents three variations,
considered by Cuvier as secondary, and by Blumenbach as primary. Although these varia-
tions are not so great as those l)etween either the Caucasian, the Mongolian, or the African
(the letter being considered the type of the Ethiopian variety), still they are sufficiently im-
portant to merit a particular pnecification under distinct names; and they are accordingly
termed the American, the Ethiopian, and the Malay varieties.

In the American variety iJia. 72.) the skin is dark, and more or less red ■ the hair black,

05''^^; A

straight, and strong, with the beard small ; fiice and skull very similar to the Mongolian,
but the former not so flattened ; eyes stmk ; foreliead low ; the noso and other features being
somewhat projecting. The moral and intellectual character of this race is in unison with
the great diffi.Tenco it presents in outward form from the Caucasian. Likn the Mongolian,
it has remained stationary; but stopped at a point very much below that to which the
Asiatics have reai^hed. The ancient and now extinct empires of Mexico and tii(! Incas
may he cotisidtrerl analogous to those of Cliina and India, exhibiting the highest \mnt of
civilization to wliich the two races have ever reached; but farther than this the comparison
ronnot be carried. Arts, sciences, and all those intellectual endowments which have fol-

Paht II.

Book m.

IN ITS RELATION TO MAN.

259

lowed the progress of the Caucasian race, and to a certain extent belong also to the Asiatics,
appear to have made little or no progress among tlie Americans, even m the gorgeous court
nf Montezuma. When that monarch despatched messengers to bring him an account of the
first Spaniards who landed on his territories, so ignorant were the Mexicans of figures or
of writing, that their report was made in complicated hieroglyphics, mixed with rude figures
of the horses and persons of these unknown invaders. Their idolatrous worship enjoined
no moral duties, like tliose of the superstition of Fo; and its rites were celebrated by human
sacrifioes of such a revolting nature as to bo wortliy only of demons. It deserves attention,
that while the central portion of America presented in its original inhabitants such a de-
graded picture of the human mind, the northern nations of the new world, partaking more
of the Mongolian aspect, evinced a higher degree of intellect. It is true they were only
wandering tribes of hunters, yet they appear to have had a full belief in the existence of
one " Great Spirit," and in a blissful immortality for themselves. The American race,
blending with the Mongolian to the north, spreads over the whole of the new world ; but
whether any traces of this type exist beyond these limits, is a question which has not hitherto
been investigated.
In tlie Ethiopian variety (fig. 73.), the skin is black ; hair short, black, and woolly ; skulJ

compressed on the sides, and elongated towards the front ; forehead low, narrow, ard slant-
ing ; cheekbones very prominent ; jaws projecting, so as to render the upper front teeth
oblique; eyes prominent; nose broad and flat; lips (especially the upper one) particularly
thick. The African or Ethiopian race has ever remainetl in a rude and comparatively bar-
barous state. Their cities are but congregations of huts; their laws, the despotic whim of
the reigning chief. Incessantly occupied in war or in tlie chase, they seek not to perpetuate
their ideas. They have no written language, nor even a code of hieroglyphics. Abundantly
supplied by nature with every necessary of life, they have retained their character un-
chanwfid, after centuries of intercourse with thu most enlightened nations. DifTerent branches
of this type spread over the whole of the African continent, excepting those parts bordering
ihe north and east of the Great Desert, which are occupied by the Caucasian Syrians, and
wiiere all traces of the npijro formation disappear.
Tlio Malay variety {fig. 74.) varies in the colour of the skin from a light tawny to a deep

-(■

brown, approaching to black ; hair black, more or less curled, and abundant ; head rather
narrow; bones of the fiice large and prominent; nose full and broad towards the tip. Under
this variety, observes Mr. LaATence, are included races of men very difterent in organiza-
tion and qualities. They nevertheless present certain general points of resemblance, which
forbid tiicir association with either of the foregoing varieties. Under this head are, there-
fore, included the inhabitants of Malacca, of Sumatra, and of the innumerable islands of the
Indian Archipelago and the groat Pacific Ocean. Most of these tribes are stated to speak
the Malay language, which may be traced, in the various ramifications of this diversifie<l
race, from Madagascar to Easter Island. Their moral character is no less various than their

260

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY,

Pakt II

if
jl
ft .

outward funn. In such as, by the colour of their Bkin and their woolly hair, show a general
approximation to the African type, the mental powers are little developed. Their language,
however, is stated to be peculiar, and they appear to have a copious bushy beard. (IjOW-
rence, 489.) Branches of this division of the Malay race spread over the great islands ot'
Sumatra, Borneo, and Andaman ; and they appear also to occupy the Molucca and Philippine
Islands. They are described as living in the same state of wild and savage barbarity as do
the Bushmen of Southern Africa, and such other branches of the Ethiopian variety as appear
the lowest in the scale of form and intellect. There is, however, u lighter-coloured and
superior race, inhabiting some of tlie Indian islands, where an oval countenance, longer hair,
and finer form, evince a much greater affinity with the Indo-Caucasian type on one side,
and a strong analogy to the New Zealanders and Pacific tribes on the other. Proceeding
along the same insular chain, we meet with " negro-like men " having curly hair, in the
immense island of New Guinea, and in those south-western groups denominated New Ire-
land, New Hebrides, and New Caledonia. The natives of tlie vast continent of New Hol-
land show strong indications of the same origin, and of the same untameable barbarism ;
yet their features are described as not unpleasant, their skin is rather copper-coloured than
black, and their hair either curling or straight. The natives of the interior liave been
described aa somewhat more civilized, and as speaking a language different fi-om that used
on the codst In the neighbouring island of Nevv Zealand a considerable change from tlie
black Malayan tribes takes place. The superior castes of these islanders in their persons
are tall, active, and well made ; their skin is brown, and their long black hair is sometimes
straight, sometimes curling. A degree of intellect, superior to all the tribes we have
enumerated, accompanies these personal advantages. Retaining many of the barbarous
customs of their neighbours, the New Zealanders have, nevertheless, made some progress
in the arts of life smce their intercourse with Europeans : they believe in a Supreme Being,
and in a happy immortality ; and evince, in various ways, a desire to improve their condition.
The natives of the Friendly Islands have the dark complexion of the New Zealanders, but are
a much superior race. They are of the ordinary European stature, though some are above
six feet high; their colour is a deep brown, verging in the better classes on a light olive;
their features, like those of the Now Zealanders, are various, approximating in some respects
to them, and also to the true Europeans. Their progress in civilization and in intellectual
developement is considerable ; as a pnxif of which, it is mentioned that they have terms to
express numbers up to 100,000. The Otaheitians have long been celebrated for their per-
sonal beauty : the lower orders, indeed, are of tlio same brown tint so generally prevalent
in the Friendly Islands, but in those of a superior caste this is gradually lost, until we find
in the higher ranks a skin nearly white, or at least but slightly tinged with brown; and
although the usual colour of their hair is black, yet it is of a tine texture, and frequent
instances occur in which it is brown, flaxen, and even red. Their persons are well made,
their features sometimes even beautiful, and a blush may be readily observed on the check
of the women. The harmony of their language, and their simple though refined mannor.<i,
have been universally remarked. These nationnl characteristics extend to the Society
Islands. Lastly, The nativi.-s of tiie Marquesos have been described as the finest race in the
Southern Ocean: "in form they are, perhaps, the finest in the world." Their skin is
naturally " very fair," and the colour of tlicir hair exliibits all the varied shades, (excepting
red), which are found in the difieront tribes of the Caucasian race.

Sect. III. — (hi the Caimes of these Varieties.

The following questions naturally arise fi-om considering these characteristics of the most
prominent varieties of the human race ; founded as they are on the concurrent testimony of
travellers, and generalised by the most eminent physiologists : — 1. Whether these races, so
dissimilar in their typical peculiarities, have originally proceeded from one, or from distinct
stocks? 2. Are they so strongly m'^rked as not to present many and great deviations'! and,
3. To what causes are they to be attributed ]

In regard to the origin of the human race, there have not been wanting those, who,
disbelieving the evidences of the Mosaic history, have attempted to establish the hypothesis
that these races have each sprung from different stocks ; or, that they are, in fact, so many
species. Now, this, at the host, is but an assumption perfectly gratuitous; not only because
every record from which it could receive any support is expressly opposed to it, but because
it is in direct violation of a primary and universal law of nature : a law by which the lowest
being of the animal creation shrinks instinctively from intermixing its species with that of
another. It has, moreover, been fully ascertained that, however great the variations of the
human form may be, such variations amon^r different breeds of the same species of animal
are even greater. Unless, therefore, it can be proved that the laws of nature with respect
to man and animals are ccintradictory, we shall, by attaching the least weight to the alwve
theory, openly violate every principle of philosophic reasoning, as well as renounce all belief
in revealed religion. On this head the Mosaic records are clear and explicit; nnd however
the bceptic may deny their inspiration, he cannot bring forward, on his side, any testimony

•»*'

i'f \

Pabt II

a general
language,

1. (/ifltC-

islands of
Philippine
.rily as do
as appear
oured and
nger hair,
one side,
•roceeding
lir, in the
1 New Ire-
New Hol-
barbarism ;
Burcd than
)iave been
(1 that used
[c from the
leir persons
1 Bometimcs
s we have
• barbarous
ne progress
eme Being,
ir condition,
lers, but are
le are above
light olive ;
ime respects
intellectual
ave terms to
)r their per-
lly prevalent
mtil we find
brown; and
ind frequent
J well made,
m the cheek
led manners,
the Society
It race in tho
Iheir skin is
(excepting

of the most
[testimony of
lese races, so
[from distinct
Jations'! and,

p, those, who,
le hypothesis
fiict, so many
lonly because
1 but because
th the lowest
[with that of
litions of the
Irs of animal
1 with respect
Vo the above
Jice nil belief
land however
Iny testimony

DooK m.

IN ITS RELATION TO MAN.

261

of such remote antiquity, or of such generally admitted credibility. As to the second quet-
tion, it must not be understood that, iu arranging tho varieties uf man uiv.ler a certain num-
ber of divisions, and assigning to each a peculiar ciiaructer, there does not occur many and
very remarkable exceptions in each. So much, indeed, is this tho case, that there arc not
wanting instances of native African tribes having the light skin of Europeans, Caucasians
combinmg tho Mongolian witli the Malay structure, Americans resembling whites, and Afri-
cans with the copper-coloured skin of tho American; nay, even in the sumo island or \m-
vince, a groat diversity Inith in language and in physical structure, is sometimes apparent, unii
this between tribes Iwrdering close upon each other; so that, witli tho exception of a com-
paratively small portion of each principal race, we find so much diversify in the rcniainiufr
or aberrant branches — the typiciil peculiarities become so modified, altered, or evanescent,
that it is totally impossible to draw an absolute line of demarcation between them.

This point has frequently been adverted to by a well-known physiologist, who says. " there
is no circumstance, whether of corporeal structure or of mental endowment, which does not
pass by imperceptible gradations into the opposite character, rendering all those dictinctions
merely relative, and reducing them to differences in degree. It is concluded, tlierefbre, that
every arrangement of these varieties must be in a great meas\ire arbitrary." (Lawrence^ x
Led. p. 472.) Yet, admitting this variation to the fullest extent, it caimut alter the correct-
ness of the principle on which these distinctions are founded. Whatever might have been
formerly thought as to the nature of terms employed by naturalists to designate the parlic\i-
lar groups of animals, it is now generally admitted that, throughout nature, there are no
isolating distinctions, save such as separate species. The characters of every zoological
group, of whatever magnitude or denomination, are subject to exceptions equally mimerouf.
The typical peculiarities may, indeed, be prominent; but in pro|)ortion to the number of
objects which are embraced under any definition, will be the diversity of those imperceptible
gradations, those threads of connexion, which shoot out in all directions, and unite not only
genera and orders, but the primary kingdoms of the animal and the vegetable worlds. It
is, therefore, irrelevant to argue that, because those divisions are liable to mnncrous excep-
tions, and are not always uniform and constant, they arc either artificial or objectionable :
for as we find that all natural groups, both in the animal and vegetable worlds, are suhjcct
to tho same variations, they are therefore liable to the suinc objections. In sliort, if such
reasoning is valid, the distinction between plants and animals can no longer bo niainlainod ;
for it is to this day unsettled at what point the peculiarities of one are lost, and those of the
other assumed.

The causes that may have led to these variations in the human species, form the only
question of a general nature remaining to he discussed. It has been argued by some writers,
that particular climates, food, and modes of life, have gradually operated, through a succes-
sion of ages, to produce these effects on the colour, stature, and intellect of different nation.".
But, however greatly these causes may aft'ect individuals, or even to a certain extent a whole
people, they entirely fail when bro\ight to solve our present question ; were it otherwise, the
same causes would naturally have the same effect on all the iniiabitants of a particular
region ; but such, as is well known, is far from being the case. The negro, under a tropical
sun, is black; while an Indian of Para, in the same degree of latitude, is reddish brown. No
race produces men more athletic, or more finely formed, than arc witnessed among the Gold
Coast negroes ; yet they inhabit, proverbially, some of the most pestilential districts of Africa.
On the other hand, the New Ilollanders, and the Soutli African Bushmen, living in a salu-
brious climate, are described as lean, s<iualid, and with an appearance scarcely human. It
is therefore obvious, that neither the physical nor the moral condition of man can be so
affected by climate, or other external agencies, as to produce any great or permanent varia-
tion in his forjn. Indeed, when we consider that such agencies have not produced any
physical change in any one nation, within the memory or tho records of man, we are tempted
to believe that in a general point of view, their influence has boon very slight ; otherwise,
there is no mason to doubt but that the same natural causes which operated at one period
of time, would still continue to do so at another ; and that we siiould find the descendants
of Europeans long since settled in the New World, and in Southern Africa, beginning to
assume the red tinge of tho American, or the black skin of the Ethiopian. Still lo.=s can it
be supposed that this departure from one common standard has been effected by civilization,
a consequent devolopcment of tlie mental faculties, or even by diversified mo<les of 1 ife. Man,
in remote ages, must have lived pretty nearly the .same life in every region; whether as
shepherds, hunters, or tillers of the field, their food, habits and modes of life, must have been
simple and regular. Whence comes it, then, that nations wiiich still retain a great portion
of what may bo conceived their primitive simplicity, do nut exliibit a corresponding resem-
blance in physical structure 1 If food, raiment, and moral improvement have ."uch a powerful
effect in modifying the human frame, it would naturally follow that tribes living nearly in a
state of nature would all show a close approximation to one common type; that they would,
in siiort. rotiiiii iiioro of tiio lineaments and characters which must have belonged to our first
IMtronts, than if they )i;ul deviated from their primitive simplicity; yet the very revers'" of

-1:

i<' :-l;'

k!J

{•^

262

SCIENCK OF GEOGIlAI'Hy,

Part II.

£' '\

this is the fiict. Tlio apparent iibori^jinort of every nution arc flioso in wliicli tlio leading;
chariictors ot'tlioir own Iribu arc most conspicuous; and wliicli c.xliihit tliostron(fe«t contruHl
to those of ollinrs. It is only wlii'n tlioy iiavo nuicln sonio projf ross in tlio arts of lifo, wiien
conquest ur comniorue lias li;il to a iniiun with otiier races, that tlie national cliaracteristicH,
both personal and mental, give way, and bcffin cither to blend or tobi; lost in other imxlitica-
tions. These reasons, did they more inimediatnly conourn the piir|>oses of tliis essay, nii|{ht
be niucli enlarjjed uiwn, more particularly as they have been ottered by some (h'setveilly
eminent writers as a satisfactory dilution of the question we are now diseussinjf. Vet, allow-
ing' to all these causes the full ott'ect they are known to have protluced, we nuist yet confess
they appear to us totally inade(|uate to explain the origin of the races of man. A writiM'
intimately versed on this subject luw well observed, that '* external agencies, whether phy-
sical or moral, will not account for the bodily and mental differences which cliaractcrise tin-
several tribes of mankind." {Lawrence's Lectures, p. 431.) We liave, in short, now lirou^'ht
the inquiry to a point where human reason is baffled : there is neither history nor tradition to
guide us in a research which carries us back to the obscurity of ages ; to that remote period
when the earth, for a second time, was again peopled, if not by a single pair, yet by the lltret;
sons of a single family.

We are now to view the question in another light. It has been generally admitted, oven
by those who reject the Mosaic testimony, that the diversity in the human structure can in
no way bo accounted for by any known combination of naturitl causes : arc we, thert'lbrc
to suppose, in a quc^stion which concerns the most perfect earthly being made by Oiniii[Hi-
tenco, that nothing .iiiprrnatHnil is to enter ! that causes which cflect tlie developemeiit nut
only of the material but of the spiritual essence of man, have been left to chance ! Is it. not
more reasonable to conclude, that, tor purposes unknown to us, a supornaturnl agency was
employed ? and tiiat the immediate descendants of the sons of Noah wore as distinctly nwrl;-
ed m their outward form as they were in their moral character ! The sacred writings, it is
true, are not written to answer philosophic in(|uiries. Those who, in tlie pre,<ciit age, Iimvc
been the most profound investigators of nature, discover in every part of creation a symbolic
relationship; a mysterious system of types and symbols, which extends from the most com-
plex to the most simple of organized beings: and when we know, lor instance, that oven the
colours of a bird or an insect have a direct reference to such a system, and are eiiiployod as
typical in.lications of its station in nature, can it be supposed that such a system does not
extend to man ? That this will not, in the present infancy of our inqnirios, admit of such
direct and unanswerable proof as amounts to mathematical demonstration, wo do not attempt
to deny ; but that such a supposition is in harmony with that perfection which belongs to
the works of Omnipotence, every reasonable ptirson must admit. Nor are there wanting
circumstances which give some degree of sanction to this belief The curse pronounced
upon Canaan as the son of Ham has unquestionably been fulhllod. Learned commentators
agree in considering that central Africa was peopled by his descendants, and the.se have been
for ages, and still continue to be, " a servant of servants," to their more favoured brethren.
Even their own despotic governments render the subjects but slaves. In them the human
form i.s most debased, tlie divinity of mind least developed. They still exhibit those leading
resemblances which rendered Cain a type of Canaan: with few exceptions, they are, to this
day, but " wanderers and vagatwnd.s" on the earth. The blessings pronounced on the two
remaining sons of Noah, it has been well observed, are of a very different nature : Sliem was
more peculiarly favoured than his brother; from his race not only the great ]mtriarchs who
typified Christ, bnt even Christ himself, descended. The peculiarity of the Jewish polity,
which preserved the physical peculiarities of their race pure and unmixed through successive
generations, leaves us in no doubt that they belong to the Caucasian type, in which, both
in structure and intellect, a marked superiority over all the nations of the earth has been
universally admitted. The early descendants of Japheth, as is plainly intimated by Moses,
were eminently warlike. All writers agree in considering that from the Mongolian race
descended those vast and overpowering hordes of barbaric warriors who, at remote periods
of time, conquered all Asia, and devastated Europe under Attila, Zingis Khan, and Tamer-
lane. " It is remarkable," says Dr. Scott, " that the first king of whom we read in authentic
history, is Nimrod, the mighty hunter." The same learned writer mentions that there is
some ground for believing that the greatest part of Asia (now peopled by the Mongolian race)
de.'ceiidcd from Japheth. The popidation of Asia has been frequently mentioned as in an
e(pial ratio to the superiority of its size over Europe, or rather of those countries over which
the Caucasian variety has spread. Thus, in every sense, it appears, that the promise to
Xoali's fir.<t soil, "G(xl shall enlarge Japheth, and Canaan shall be his servant," has literally
and figuratively been fulfilled.

That the three sons of Noah overspread and peopled the whole earth, is so expressly
staterl in Scripture, that, if wo had not to argue against those who unfortunately disbelieve
such eviileiiei', wi> miirht here stop: let us, however, inquire how far the truth of this decla-
ration is s'lhstuitiatod by other considerations. Enough has been said to show that there is a
curious, if not a rcrinrkilili', analogy between the predictions of Noah, on the future descend

Part II.

Book III.

IN ITS RELATION TO MAN.

263

ants of his three sons, nnd the ac'iml state of tlioso mcoa which arc ffencrally Biippnscd to
hnve Hprmifj from thpin. It miiy hi^ro bo offiiiii rciimriioii, thiit alttiou(;h, to render the
Hiibject more cloar, we have uJoptuil the <)uirmry arrunj^nmcnt of Blumcnluch, yet that
Ciivier and other learned phyHiohp(,'istH are of opinion that the nrimarw varieticH of tlio human
form are more projierly but thrve ; namely, Caucasian, the Mon(;olian, and the Ethiopian.
This numlicr corrcspondH with tliat of Noah's houh : atwipninpi therefore, the Mongolian race to
Juphcth, and the Ethiopian to Ham, the Cauciisian, the noblest race, will belonjj to Shem
the third son of Noah, himself descended from Scth tho third son of Adam. That the
primary distinctions of tho human varieties aro but thrre, has been further maintained by the
erudite Fritchard, who, while ho rejects tho nomenclature both of BlumcnliaRh and Cuvier,
as implying absolute divisions, arran^res tho Icadinfr varieties of the human skull under throe
sections, dift'erinfr from those of Cuvier only by name. That the three sons of Noah, who
were to " replenish the earth," and on whose propeny very opposite destinies were pro-
nounced, should privo birth to different races, is wiiat mi^rht reasonably be coniccturcd. But
that the observations of those who do, and of those who do not believe the Mosaic history
should tend to confirm its truth, by pointin>T out in what respect these three races do actually
ditfer, both physically and morally, is, to say the least, a singular coincidence. It amounts,
in short, to presumptive evidence that a mysterious, but a very beautiftil analojfy pervades
throughout ; and teaches us to look beyond natural causes, in attempting to account for
etfcctd apparently interwoven in the plans of Omnipotence.

To reconcile the different theories regarding the numlwr of primary variations in the
human form is our next object. The greatest authorities on this subject are Blumenbach
and Jjawronce, Cuvier and I'ritchird. 'J'he first two, as already observed, maintain that the
primary divisions are five ; while tiio latter, with more she" of reason, contend that there
are but three, although they readily admit the distinctions rssigned to the other two. In
what manner, therefore, can these opposite theories be recoi ciled ! To do this, we must
revert to a third and very remarkable one, which, although u I'as hitherto been solely di-
rected to the animal kingdom, will yet be found to exercise a v.^ry imrortant influence on
tho present question : wo allude to the circular theory of Macl^.ay. It is the opinion of
this learned naturalist that every groui» of organised beings div'des itself, as it were, into
two branches of affinities, which finally uniting again at their >pposite extremities, form a
circle; and that this disposition of affinities holds good, not or ly in every group, of what-
ever magnitude or denomination, but throughout the animal a v\ tho vegetable world. It
has been further shown that as such a circular arrangement of beings cannot, of necessity,
present any absolute or isolated divisions, (tor it could not then ue continuous nnd circular),
yet, that there may be traced, in each circle, five deviations or varieties of structure ; which,
however conspicuous in their typical examples, are blended and lost the nearer they approx-
imate to each other. Now, so tiir as regards the affinities of animals, this circular theory
lias been demonstrated ; but it long remained a matter of doubt what number of primary
divisions every group contained. Mr. MacLeay considers there are five ; and this accords
with Blumenbach's arrangement of the human species. M. Cuvier, and Dr. Pritchard, as
we have before stated, limit tho leading varieties of man to three. In our arrangement of
the order Insessores (North. Zoology, vol. ii.), one of the most comprehensive divisions in
ornithology, we have shown that the primary divisions of every natural group are only three ;
nno of which, by forming a circle of its own, includes three of those pointed out by Mr.
MacLcay, — thus making the number five. Now, this theory, on the natural divisions of
birds, rests upon no speculative assumption ; it is founded on the most rigorous and minute
analysis, and has thus been capable of mathematic demonstration. The question, whether
this theory is applicable to one part only of the animal creation, or whether there is pre-
sumptive evidence to conclude that it pervades all nature, has been discussed at some
length in the " Introductory Observations on the Natural System," prefixed to the same
work. . In some respects the trinary and the quinary theory of divisions may be thought
virtually the same ; and so far as regards our present subject, considered abstractly, this
observation may be true. We can analyze a group of insects, of birds, or of other animals,
hut how aro we to analyze the different modifications of man I The thing is utterly impos-
sible. Now, as every true theory must rest upon analysis, our present views on this
subject would be purely speculative, did they not so strikingly and wonderfully coincide
with those in other departments of nature, into which we can prosecute minute re.search,
and attain logical demonstration. Besides, by supposing tliat there; axe five principal varia-
tions in man, e.'ch etpiiiUy important with the pther, we entirely destroy the beatitifiil
analogy betweer. those variations and the sacred writings. But without entoring farther
upon this (|uestion, it will be sufficient for our pio.«eiit pur))ose to repeat, that, in regard to
man, the views of Blumenbach and Cuvier are virtually the same ; for if, with the fi)rmer,
we reckon five, there will he two groups more conispicuoiisly typical of perfection, nnd three
others, which, however distinct in many respects, jjossess spvenil characters in common. If,
on the other hand, we follow Cuvier and Pritchard. and restrict the number to three, we have
the Caucasian and the Mongolian as the two principal groups, while there is a third, typi-

'IJ

h;;

i) tl

•J<V

.M4

SCTENCK OF GEOGRAPHY,

Part II

4r'

(•ally roprcHcnttul inJi-cd liy tlu< Kthiopiiin, Imt htiU so divnrHifintl iw to wimit at'a thrfclblu
ilivisinn, into llii> Auiorinin, the AlViciin, iiiid tin- Miiiiiy varictioB.

'I'll It the variation of mini Ii.ih licoii rojruliiti'd hy Hiiniliir Iiiwh to tiioso which hiivn licrn
tnii'i'd throiiifhoKt nnturo, is) ii roiifUiHioii Hii|ip(irtiMl by stronjf and prosiiinptivp rvidnnce ;
Iniwn bith Croiii thi! Hurrcd writini'H, iind froui infcrencoH in z<N)l(i(;ieiil Hcii'ncn, which no
nut' h;iH vi-nturrd to dinputo. In n»tnbliBhinj; this point, I liuvo studionfiy conlinod niysolf
tdsiicli tlirtii, connected with tho pliyxifiil hiistory of iiinn, ns rcHt on hifrli nnd indiMpiifable
iiiitlu'rity. On a Mibjoct so viist nnd intrirnto, illuNtrntod by tho united liilMinrs of the most
acute philosopherH now livinp, little that is new could bo said, and that little iniifht have
been Huspected of being brought forward to favour a particular theory. In the prncedin};
nketch ot tho principal diirerencos in man, wo have, therefore, merely condensed tlie obner-
vations and facts detailed in tho writingn of Bluincnbach, Cuvier, Pritchnrd, I^iwrence, and
Humner ; rather wishing, that, whatever inferences aro drawn from such sourcen, the iiictM
themselve:. should rest on testimonies of so much weight.

The order in which these races are here placed leads us to otiier considerations, Blumon-
bach is of opinion that the American form is intermediate between tho Caucasian and Mon-
golian; but wo have failed to discover any assigned reason for such a disposition, wliirli
also seems at varianco with tho progression of dcrelopement. Tiie geographical HJtuation
of tho two continents, as wo have before observed, renders it highly probable timt flic
American variety is more immediately connected with the Mongolian ; ond the simple liirt.
that tho Esquimaux have been by somo considered as of Asiatic origin, while by others thr'y
are thouglit to exhibit more of the American type, is, perhaps, the strongest proof of their
intimate relationship to both. Neither does the American race exhibit any direct affinity
to the Caucasian ; while, on the contrary, both their physical structure and mental developo-
ment seem to place them in close approximation to tno Africans. For these and sul).<e(|ueiit
reasons, we have felt no hesitation m adopting the series intimated in the Rrifiir Animal.
Wo must now advert to another peculiarity in this arrangement, which renders itH Hiniili-
tude to tho zoological scries still more remarkable. This is tho progressive series of uffinitirs,
resulting from placing the five leading varieties in the order in which they have been hero
noticed. The Caucasian and the Mongolian races present tho highest degree of civiliza-
tion, although in very diffl'rent degrees when compared with each other: the regions they
respectively inhabit, in liki' manner, npproximntf! so closely as not to be divided by water.
Yet tho confignration of tlx so races is so remarkable, that they cannot bo mistaken or con-
tbnnded. In the third race, comprehending the American, the Malay, nnd the Ethiopian,
very marked deviations from the typical endowments of the two former are manifest. This
inferiority is first shown in the American, whoso outward form and moral capacity is never-
theless superior to the African. Yet, ns nattin^ in the animal kingdom is ever prone to
retrace her steps, and \n return again to her orijrinal typo ; so we oKserve that, after exhibit-
ing, in some of the African hordes, tho lowest debasement of tho human form, and tlie least
eiipacity for mental improvement, she begins, as Blumenbach observes, in the diversified
races of the Malay variety, to show a progressive but a very marked inclination to return
through them to the Coucasian type. So strong, indeed, does this appear in many tribes of
tho South Rca Islanders, not only in the beauty of their forms, but in the advance they are
continually making towar^ls intellectual improvement, that every voyager, who has visited
their shores, concurs in likening them to Europeans.

The inferences to be drawn from this circular disposition are important, if merely con-
sidered in relation to those systems, which, by presupposing a lineal scale in creation, would
place the negro in immediate contact with the monkey. Now, without laying any stress
upon that primary characteristic of man, a reasoning, thinking, and immaterial soul, of
which the Ixidy is but a temporary receptacle, we must, before we consent to this hypothesis,
got over difficulties which appear insurmountable. That tho Ethiopian holds the lowest station
among the vorieties of his species, is fully gn nted; but that this admission implies un
affinity to tho ape, does by no means follow. Tliero may be an approximation: but it is
necessary, before we decide on the dr/rree of such approximation, that we should examine
the relative affinity which tho Ethiopian bears to the Cauca.«ian. For if it should appear
that the difference between tho most perfect and the most imperfect of the human rates is
unquestionably leas than l)etween the latter nnd the brutes; or, in other words, that the
similarities between the negro nnd the Caucasian are decidedly greater f.hiin those between
the negro and the ape; we must admit that this latter approximation is tfx) slight to be
termed an affinity. If, on the other hand, we consider man only as a material being, ho
stands so far removed from brutes — tho interval lietween him and them i.s so great — that it
would be a violation of natural ailinities, ami certainly an insult on his better nature, to class
him in the same system. To arrive at ; just conclnsitm on this subject, we must not look so
much to any one point of comparison, or to mere anntomiral analogii!S, but bring the di.s-
linguishing characters of each into direct comparistm. Does tlin negro, it may then be asked,
itvinro a deficiency of those i|nalities which lit'loiii; to the Caiicasinnsl we nihide not to the
natural atrcctions, for these nre, in some (Ifjrrfo, fomnioii to brutes; l)nt in solf-orivation,

I ■!

Book III.

IN ITS RELATION TO MAN.

S6S

pst statifin

niplit's un

but it ia

pxnrnine

1(1 iippear

riiics is

tliiif fhf

betwpfln

irrht to ho

lioing-. ho

-tiiiit it

R, to rlasH

ot look w

the (lis-

bc asked,

not to the

Drivation,

rompiiHMion, and linroir lovo of their country. Are thny incajwiWo of learninff European
nrtH, or of iiivciitinj.' olherH Huitahlt! to tiioir wuntu or habitH ! To deny tliom mirli qiinlitica
would 1m> prcpnstcrouH ; they po^noHH tln^ jfiTinx of othorrt infinitely niphor, which, under
fiivourahlo cireiiiristaiires, Imvo produced exiMrt urtiganH, Bkill\il phyHJciunx, piouH divinen,
and nIeaKiiii,' (Mietc "I protest eH|M'cially," oltHBrves Mr. I Jiwroncc, " ftj^iiuNt the opinion
whicli either deniew to the Atricims tlio enjovnient of reaHon, or ascriliew to tho whoh' race
propnnsities which would de;;rad(,' thcrn even Indow tho level of the brute. It can he proved
inoMt clearly, that theru is no circuuintance of b(¥lily Htructuro no peculiar tij the ue^ro, a«
not to he found also iti other far diHttiiit imtiouH; no character whicli d(x*H not run into thoNu
of other races, hy lis iiiseiisihle ifrulations as tliOHO which connect together all the varieties
of mankind." (p. 4viM.) To pursue this comiMiriBon (hrllior Ih needlewH; and to ask whether
the leant inilieation of hiicIi |)f)\verH hiiH over l)ecn ninnifeoted by the quadrumanons annnulri
would be ridiciiloiiH. The learned and eIo(iuent Bishop Hunincr fiircibly oIimtvl's, "Thero
i« nothing philosophical in tho comparison of a being |)osHesHcd of improvublo reason witli
one that ih ;roverned by natural instinct, because thero is no just affinity between the talents
which are coinjmred." (Recorrf/i of Creation, vol, i, p. ij.3.) Wo consider this urjfument as
conclusive. To class man, lheref!)re, in tho same zoological division with apes, merely
because lx)th have n hyoid Ixine, is, to our apprehension, as glaring a violation of natural
affinities as to arrange liiita with birds, because Doth Hy in the air, and possess a crest to their
sternum. So far, indeed, iVom considering man as tho typo of a zoological order of brutes,
wo cannot allow that ho oven belongs to the same system in which they are arranged. It
may bo, that tho deviations of his structure are regulated by those laws which govern the
universe ; yet, nevortheless, hy his nobler qualities (which in fact are his truo distinctions)
ho belongs to a hiplier order of beings: that ho is, in short, a link between matter and
spirit; that he carries this evidence, through revelation, within himself; and will heroafler
bo most assuredly rewarded or punished, according as he suffers hia spiritual or his earthly
nature to prcpondorato.

Seer. IV. — On '.he Oeographic Dutribution of Animah.

The geographic distribution of animals over the globe, ia tho next subject of inquiry. In
tho general outline of tho variations in man whicli has hccn given above, wo liave deemed
it more im[Kirtant to sock after general results than to enter upon minute details, Our atten-
tion has been (i.\ed, not so much on those ramifications which shoot out near the extremities
of every branch, and become too indistinct for clear elucidation, but rather to the leading
branches themselves, on the nature of which there has been little diversity of opinion.

In the inquiry regarding tho geographic distribution of animals, on which v,e now enter,
tho same mode will be adopted, but with this diff'erence, that whereas we have hitherto
drawn our inl'ereii(;es solely from the facts and general opinions of otlirTs, wo shall now put
aside all theories lieretotbre promulgated on the distribution of animals, and merely depend
on simple fiicts for tho support of those inferences which thoy may appear to sanction. Wo
shall first briefly notice those principles which have been applied to elucidate the phenoinena
of animal distribution, and then in(iuire how far they appear conducive to that end,

, That climate, temperature, s<iil, and food, exercise a paramount influence on the distribu-
tion of animals, has been generally believed; and on this assumption naturalists have divided
the world into climates, zones, or provinces regulated by degrees of longitude or latitude.
Such has been tho favourite theory not only of physiologists, but of profosse<l naturalists,
whose knowledge of details might have furnished them with insuperable objections against
such views. Thus, t\\e. celebrated entomologist Fabricius conceived that the insect world
could be naturally divided into eight climates : one of which is made to comprehend all those
mountains, in every part of the world, whose summits ore covered by eternal snow. It is,
therefore, not surprising that M. Latreille should consider such a theory as altogether vague
in some. respects, and arbitrary in others. But will not the latter objection be equally appli-
cable to the distribution which this eminent naturalist has himself proposed for this part of
the creation ! At least, such is the ofilnion of one fully competent to judge tho que.stion.
"A chart of animal geography," says Mr. Kirby, "which is divided into climates of 24° of
longitude and 12° of latitude, wears upf)n its face the stamp of an artificial and orbitrory
systom, rothcr than of one according with nature." On much the same principles another
theory has been built, by which the earth is divided into seven zoological provinces, or zones,
mainly dependent on the respective degrees of latitude they occupy. Now, so far as regards
one of these provinces — that comprehended within the arctic circle — this view of the subject,
at first sight, appears perfectly just : for thero is not only a strong analogy between the groups
of animals inhabiting such parts of the two continents as enter into this circle, but there is also
an absolute attinity between them ; inasmuch as the arctic regions contain not only genera,
but numerous species, common to both continents. This theory, however, loses all its force
when applied to such divisions as are made to include the tropical regions of Africa, Ame-
rica, and Asia, in one province, and the southern extremities of America and Africa in
another. The zoologist immediately perceives that the only relation which these countries

Vol. I. 23 21

■'i

''■ .'<!

HriKNCK OF r,E()(.llAIMIY,

Part 11.

Iwnr til iMirh (itlicr in tlmir nriliii.il |inNliii'tiiiiiis in piin-ly nnnloirirnl ; Miil wo nro t'lim nim-
pnllnd 111 r''lm.|iiihli ii'tliniry wliicli iipiM'nrii ri)rr<H:t mily in mii' [mint ol" vii'w. TIhho mid
otlitT li'-i" riniiii'iit wriU-rH ii))|icMr tii liiivi' crml in llu- v<'ry (Ipiinilalinn nt' tlii'ir inrtluMl*.

Tlicy II -I ' UN ({riiiitcd, whiil liii.t iii'vcr yet Ihtii pnivi'il, tlmt ti'iiipi-niliiri' rxiTrisi-H it pri-

iriiiry inlliuMici' on iuiiimiiI (li.<*triliiitioii. Vvi<ri> sucli lliii (-iim>, it woiilil niitiiriilly liillow lluit
till' iiiiiiiiiU III Niicli partN III' Aiiitiricu, AIVIlm, uiiiI Ahwi, a.s nri' pliicril iii riirri'H|Kitiilin('
(li'ijri'i'H 111' lalitiiili', wtiulil liii nearly (if Hiiiiiliir npt'cirH; or, at ii'iist, nf lln' Hami' niituriii
^'iHit'M. Vrt Hiu'li, uM wt> HJiiill hcriMtlor hIiiiw, is not t)ii< fact lii'twin tlio iiniiiiilH ot'
lliodi! ri 'riiiiw tlirni in, imlt't'il, in viTy nmny inKtanci'.t, ii slronif liinilniify : kiicIi, tiir iiiMtuncr,
ni in ap; iri'iil bi't kvrt'n llif Trorhiliiltr ot" tlio Now NVorlil, tin' Cinni/riilir of Asia anil AtVira,
ami till' \h U'ntluiHiiltt of the AuMtruliiin iMliimlH. Such, :i;.min, in fiiiit ht'twi>iin tlio 'ri)nc:iin»
ofAnii'i'ii'ii {fif(. 75. <i), uiul ilio liornbillH of AHia (_/iV. 7.'>, h). Vt't not oni- Hprcir* of tlinso
75 birds (K;cnr in any two of tlicsi! coiintrioH. Nfvortbi'loimft

cannot bi; di'nii'il, that tlio tcmpornturt! und eiinfi).'nralion of
a country oxcrciBCH n iKivvi-rliil inlliicncu on Ilio ilintribntion
of animaJM, lint tlu'cc clfoctH nri' of a KPcondnry imliiro, iind
totully fail when cniiiloycil to clncidato iIiohp tfcnrraj princi-

plcii which apuciir to ri'jjnlatu the wholo Hyslcin of aniniiil
■ SncI .. .. -

|K»u4eHH riiiicli \V)'i(;lit, when wo dcBCPnd to details aim

(.'•-oyraphy. Such atfoncioH, howevor, may be witt'l

ly allowed
\\» and in-
vr-Htijfato till' liical Fauna of any particulnr country or diH-
trii-t. It huH Imm'ii obHcrvnl by tiic colebratcd lliiniliolilt, and
confirmed by an authority of nearly ecpial weiffht, thai, with
rcffftrd to certain lrib(>9 of inscctd, their (reo;i;raphical distribution doen not appear to dejiend
solt'ly on the deyren of heat or humidity to which they are exposed, or on the pirlicular
Mituiitioii lliry inliabit; "but rather on local circuniHtnnces, tlmt aredillicult tocliaracferiHe."
This opinion is in unison with IIk^ whole tenor of the tiicts to which we shall hereiitler
lulverl. W'e must, thereliire, iii;ree willi Mr. Kirby, and consider that the distrilmfioii, nut
only ol' instcli, but of animals in jjeneral, is "fixed by the will of the Creator, rntlier limn
corlaiiily re)L.'iilated by any isnllierinal lines." {Introthictum to Enlomolvpy, vol, iv. p. 'Nl.)
The ili>triliulioii ot' animals, in nmne.xion with that of the human race, remaiiis lo be
considered. From what has been already Htafed, there appears stronrj reason to believe, that
the viirialiiiiis in the structure of man and of animals are rejjuliitod by similar laws; and
this supiH)sitiim will receive coiisiderabln weiyht, slinuld it appear, U|mn investiiration.
that those divisions of our (ilobe which have been apportioned to the ditferent varieties of
mail, are e.pmlly characterised by certain peculiarities in their animal tribes, Now, to
establish ilie iriiih of such a theory, it is necessary to waive all pcncral abstract reasoninjf,
and to draw deductions from known facts. And it is e(pially obvious that, if such liicts am
to be ciijlected from the whole animal kinffdom, this essay must W extondeil to sevpral
vnlnmi.'s, even admitting; that our materials were sulViciontly extcnsivn for such a purpose.
But the truth is, that tho daUi for such a comprehensive investitrntion are so few, so meagre,
und so iiusatistiictory when compared with the diversify and vastnpss of the subjpct, that thpy
sink iuiii iiisi^fiiiticanco. Nor will this appear surprising, if wo consider the astonishing number
of animals that have been already described by natnralist.s, or arc known to exist in cabinets ;
setting aside llie hosts of species yet unknown, which, in many departments, may possibly
amount to double or treble the number we are acquainted with. Yet, as details of some
sort must be gone into, it becomes absolutely necessary to select for such a purpose some
one department of nature ; oiid the result which might follow, we may tiiirly presume,
would III- in unison with those that would attend the investigation of other divisions of the
animal world, could they be investigated upon tho same principles. Nature, in all her
operations, is uniform: and it cannot be supposed that the distribution of quadrupeds, birds,
insects, or reptiles, would each be rpgulated by different laws.

In choosing, therefore, from the animal kingdom some one order of beings for particular
investigation, it might bo thought that the distribution of ipiadrupcds would present the best
field of inquiry. It possibly might, did not their investigation involve certain points of con-
troversy connected with geology, which, however important, are not so intinmtely connected
with our present object as to render their discussion necessary in this place. The division
of reptiles is subject to the same objection, and is not sutRcienfiy extensive for our purpose.
The annulose animals, on tho other hand, are so iinmeroim that they appear to hafHo our
inquiries; nor can we hope, while yet in the infancy of geographic natural history, to do
more than has boon already done by the genius of I.atreille, Birds alone remain. It has,
indeed, been argiierl, that no very certain results can attend the study of their distribution;
because, from [Kissessing the powers of locomotion, and the instinct of migration, in a high
degree, they appear more widely dispersed than any other class of jiiiimals. How fiir this
may be true Ins never, indeed, been made apparent; yet, allowing the assertion its full
weight, wu iiiiy safely conclude, tlmt if, under these di.sadvantnges, any defmite notions
•}f geographic di.-^tributiou can be gathered from tho study of such volatile beings, the

p*«T n.

DwiK Ml.

IN ITH RI'J.ATIO.V TO AN'IMAI.S.

•jn7

ri^MiiltH wiiiilil lie iniitcriully Htri'ii^tlii'iiiil If liiiiinl to liiirtiiniii/.i' with wliiit In nlrcfiilv known
Dtk thiMliNlrilMitiiiii of otln'r cinli'rx nf iiiiiiimiIn, wliicli, t'nitn llicir iiliy^ical ruiihtnn Uin, urn
li'MH rii|iiili|i' i)t' t'xtcinliin; llii'lr K<'i)|{ra|)lii(' riiiiifi'. It in li(>r<', Ihuvcvit, lll'^(•^^!•ilr)■ in iirmiHr,

tliiit ill iliin, UN ill iill iitiiiT liriiiii'lit'H iit' iiiituriil liiHtory, tln' ii iiiiIn uiuI rrl.itioiih nt' trn-

vollcrc, lint ill llii'iilNclvi'il ZoiilinfiHlH, iiillHt 111" rcc'uivPil with Krcul callliiPll. I'iiiir(|iiii.titiMl
with tJKwt' nii'c ilihtiiu'tiiiiiH iii"iii wliich imt only thn iliiriTi'iicfH of H|>l■(•i(•^', hiil nl' ^jt-iicrii
mill tlllllllil'^ an- now known to iIi>|n>iiiI, they |ir>r|M'tiiiilly coiilrnilirt, by ii linHty ii{i|ilii'atioii
lit' well-known iiiiniiiH, wiiniMit' tiif^ iiionI nrknowluilKril trntliH in Hiiinial >;i'oi;ra|)liy. Nor
raw tin- liu'l.-t lU'tuiloil in thiM'oin|iiiiiti<inH ofniorM Mcifiitilic wriltTH li«(nlwayHilf|ii'iiili'c| iiiion.
Thii voliiiiiiiioii<i workn of ii iiioHt iiuliiHtrioiis hikI zimiIouh (iriiitliiilo|;ii4t of the !.iiiiiii'aM niIiihiI
uIioiiikI with tiiiHtiikt'8 of tliiH niilnrn; wlKTrrin not only HiN'cicH lint ),M'nrru nrc Mini tu in-
hiiliit noiintrirH wlicrn tlu'y liuvn nuvnr Ihtii foniul oxccpt in tlio ViiKiic iinil crronooUB
niirriitivc of tnivcllrrH. It Ih (he iniNliirtniui of tliomi who coiniiiain ntruiiiKt the multiplicity,
mill ro);ret tlio adoption, of iiiinIitii ilivisioiiH, that liy m) diiiii^ tht'y ilrbur tlll'l||^<•'lv^H I'rom
utiidyin^jf till- variiitioiiM of pliyMical Htriicturi', iiiul nn^lrct tin' miiin duo to ciilarjfi'i! coticop-
tionH of /.iMilo^iritl Ncii'iici'. It i.n ncci'NMiry to make tlicNn nlliiHioiiH, that tho rL>adi>r may be
iipprJHi'd of our iidontion, in tluH pliicc, of tlio ))rincipiil niixlRrn ((iMir'ru; and our ri'ji'ction ot
iiiuny uf thu lociililiuH errdiiuou.sly );ivon to cnrtuin Npociim in tlin (rciiurul hittlurioH uf birdit.

1. Thr dauraiiiiH nr Eurojiran I'riwinrr.
The ornitlinlo(jirnl fi'iiturrx of tlin CaiiciiHinn riuiffo, or of tho rrfflotm ovrr wliich the
Cmit'iiHian viiriuty of thu liiinmn Hprcii'H in Mtid to Im iliMtrihnti'd, will firnt claim nnr iitten-
tion. It luiH Im'cii ulri'iidy nIiowii that tluM rnnifo conipriHOM hiicIi portion of Africa iih lies
north of till! (ircat Dcxcrt, nearly tho wliido of Kuropi-, and a conMidoraMc extent of WcMtnrn
AhIii. Tim ornithidoifv of tho coiintricH iKirderinff uiMin this re^'ion him been Imt partially
iiiviwtitiated ; yet Hiithcient in known to show that it presentH a mixture of tliosi f\wc'uia
which have their ciiief nietro|i(iliM in other coiiiitrieH. It hiifi Imen thonjrht that tlie aninmU
of tho urctic circle iiro no peculinr, ii» to jiiMtity iw in considering' that reifion in tlie light
■jf tt dititiiict /.ooloffical province. The objectionH ii|rainMt this idcii have already been nlliidcd
to; and tlK-y beconio morn foriMblo when wc discover, that on calculatin;,' the niiiiibcr of
liirdn, Uilh terrcHtrial nnil uipiatie, which iM-ciir within tho arctic circle, they do not amount
U) more than twenty-two; and that inoMt of these, dnrin<r tho (rreateiit ixirtion of the year,
are I'onnd in the more northern parts of nrit4iiii atid Aniorica. They probiibly occur in Hiiiii-
lur latitudes on the Asiatic continent; lint on this point our information is defective.

The Mwiimnin),' birds are known to |ii»sesH a very wide range; but this is less extensivo,
perhaps, than is generally iiiiajfined. Tho number of species found on the shores of Kiiropo
and Northern Africa, iiulependently of tlioso more peculiar to the arctic circle, is sixty.
Of these, two alone have been discovered in tho four quarters of tho jjlobo; three are com-
inon to Europe, Asia, and America; one to Europe, Asia, and Southom Africa; and twenty-
seven to Europe and Northern America: thus leaving fwonty-seven (or nearly one-half tho
number of European natatorial Fi)ecios) as peculiar to this zoological division of the world.

Among the firallatores, or wailors, some particular species arc so widely dispersed as to
suggest tho idea that tho geographic range of this order is oven wider than that of the
Natatnrcn ; and this, generally s|)eaking, may l)e true. Of tho sixty-five sfiecios descrilied
as natives of Europe, thirtoen only occur in America, and two only can be reckoned arctic
birds, although several others occasionally frequent those regions. Of the remainder, four
70 occur in Asia; two in Asia and Africa; finir in Asia and

America ; seven in Asia, Africa, and America ; and the Whim-
brel (,fifr. 76.) {IVumenius Phcppwi) is said to bo the same in
all the five divisions of the globe. It is conseipiently among
tho wading birds that wo find thoso whaso range is most exten-
sive ; yet, on a general calculation, the number of species pecu-
liar to Europe is considerably greater than those of tho Nata-

^ ..,_ „_j^s^^ lorps ; the former being as one to two, the latter nearly as one

^^••""•^^■^'UiJi -.of^^; to four. It thus appears, that, even among birds of the most
'"^'' vagrant habits, the ornithology of Europe is characterised by a

Th« Wliimiini. decided superiority in the number of it« own peculiar species.

The rapacious birds, next to tho aquatic orders, are tlmtight to bo tho most widely distri-
buted ; ])nrticiilarly the nocturnal species. It is very remarkable, that out of thirteen dif-
ferent owls inhabiting Europe, five only are peculiar to this continent; and two of these
more particularly froqiiont the arctic regions. Of tho rest, five occur in America, two in
Southern Africa, and ono both in Asia and America. The F(ilrnnid<r, or diurnal birds of
pti-y, ill regard to their species, have a more restricted distribution ; yet, of these, the eagles
enjoy no 'uconsiderahle range. Out of eight discovered in Europe, ono is more properly
arctic, tlirei have been found in several jiarts of Africa, and one occurs in America; leaving
three only to Kiirope. It is singular that those ra])nciou8 birds which, from the peculiar
structure of thei.' wings, have been supnosed to i.'tijoy the greatest powers of flight among

Jt ^i 1 «

i -M

= ^''iH

268

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY,

Part II.

4»:

The Great Biii.t>rd,

Europe and Western Asia.

their congeners, are those most restricted in their goojrrnphic limits. Tiiis is proved by the
fiicf, that out of eight genuine falcons occurring in Europe and Northern Africa, two only
have been discovered in America. It has, however, recently been stated that the Falco
percgrinus of Australia is identically the same as that of Europe : neither docs Southern
Africa, we believe, possess a single European species, or not one of tliose inhabiting the
nortiiorn extremity of that peninsula; the Monto^vnrd of i,c Vaillant, long confounded
with the European Kestril, being a decidedly distinct species. UiK)n the whole, tlie distri-
bution of the forty-four species of European Ruplnris will stand thus: three arc Arctic,
eleven are found also in America, two in Asia and Africa, and one in Asia and America;
leaving twenty-seven, or more than one-half, peculiar to European ornitliology.

The Gallinaceous genera are few ; and their wide dispersion
is decidedly against the theory, that all birds with heavy bodies
and short wings are more limittid in their geographic range than
other terrestrial tribes. This argument has been ingeniously
used to account fbr tlie very restricted limits within which many
of tlio Indian panxjts have been found ; one or two species being
frequently confined to a particular island. Ornithologists, how-
ever, need not be told tliat the wings of the Psillacida are pecu-
liarly adapted fbr strong and vigorous flight; and those who havo
seen these birds in their native regions cannot fuil to have re-
marketl that their flight is peculiarly rapid ; many genera, in
this respect, passing through the air with the celerity of the
hawk. The wide dispersion of the Gallinaceous order is very
evident The range of the great bustard (_Jig. 77.) extends from
one extremity of temperate Europe to the confines of Asia ; and
the ([uail, remarkable for its heavy body and short wings, per-
forms two annual migrations, from and to Northern Africa, over
We consider very few of the European Gallinaceous birds as
truly arctic ; for nearly all the species appear to occur us plentifully beyond those regions
as within them. Many of the meridional European birds, as ITpupa Epops, Oriolus galbula,
Coraceos garrulus, &,c., might with equal justice be chussed as peculiarly ciiaracleristic of
Central or Southern Africa. It nevertheless appears that, even among tiio Gnllinucoo'.
fourteen out of twenty-seven liave their principal seat in Etirop(>. The remainder are thus
apportioned: five extend to Western Asia, five to the confines of tlie great African desert,
two are dispersed in Central Asia and Africii. while two only occur in North America.

The Fissircstriil birds, lypi<'iilly ropresonted by the swallow,

k ^ ^^ are, of all the insectivorous tribes, most cons])icuous for their

\-^-\x-^ j^^^^ powers of flight. With Imt one exception, the European King-

"AA^ ^Kr! f- fisher {Alc(<lo vnrnpivii, fig. 78), they arc all migratory: hence

we find that most of the species occur beyond the limits of the

European Fauna. The proportion of those which appear confined

to Europe and Northern Africa is as one to three.

The small Granivorous birds not only present a great diversity
in their species, but a considerable preponderance in their nu-
merical amount. Forty-one are included in the European list ;
two of which, at certain seasons, frequent the polar regions in
great numbers, but are nevertheless abundant in all the northern
latitudes ; seven inhabit North America, and three extend both
to Asia and Africa ; so that Europe may be considered the metropolis of nearly thirty pecu-
liar species.

The Scansorial birds are few ; yet eight out of the fifteen recorded as European are
unknown in other regions. It is among the Inseclivorons and soft-billed birds that we must
look for the principal ornithological features of any particular region. The immense family
of Iluiiiiniiig-birds in the New World, and of Mt'lMpliagidm, or Honey-suckers, in the Aus-
tralian islands, would alone be sufficient to mark these regions with a distinct zoological
character. To what cause we are to attribute the fact that these birds, by n,i means deficiwl
in the power of flight (wliich, indeed, in many of tliem is considerably developed,) should
nevertheless be so strictly confined within certain geographic limits, remains unexplair»!d.
We can only in this place illustrate the fact. Of eighty-five species belonging to the I m-
neean genera of Turdus, Sylvia, Parus, and Muscicapa, eighty-two are strictly Europ«Hn.
In this number we of course include those which migrate, at certain .seasons, to Nortl>-;ni
Africa and Western Asia; for these regions, it must be always remembered, come wi>«iir.
the zoological province we are now treating of; yet, if we deduct the number of those w)«ich
have actually been dett!Cted in jiarts biijoiid the shores of the Mediterranean on one i^de,
and Western Asia on the other, they will nniount only to ten; leaving seventy-two i*« a
marked peculiarity in tlio ornithology of Europe, lii liirther proof of the liniitcd rangr «)''
these fiimilies, it may bo remarked, that thr.'o only out of eighly-five have beini delccti. vn

European KingfishRr.

'^^'

!if

i'art n.

Book III.

IN ITS RELATION TO ANIMALS.

269

America ; and that tlie identity of one of tiiese (Parus atricapillus L.) with nn European
tpecies (Parus palustris L.) is very questionable.

The Omnivorous birds, as tlie Sturnidm, Corvidie, &,c., are the last requirin-r notice. A
few of these appear widely dispersed ; but upon the whole, severnl species, and oven peculiar
genera, are lett to characterise this portion of the world. We may state their rumber at
twenty-one : tiiirteen of which, or more than one half, habitually reside in Europe , four occu'
in Northern and Central Africa ; one (Pastor roseus T.) inhabits botli the table-land of Asia
and the deserts of Central Africa ; and three have been found in Ame-ica.

These details, tedious perhaps to tlie general reader, but interesting to the man of science,
it becomes necessary to dwell upon, before any valid deductions can be drawn from the
facts they exhibit. In this difficult and somewhat laborious investigation we have been
much assisted by the writings of Wilson, Temminck, and IjC Vaillant ; but more than all by
the liberality which llirows the magnificent collections of the French Museum open to the
use of all scientific inquirers, whatever their object or their nation may be.* It cannot,
iiowever, be supposed that, even with greater sources of information, some inaccuracies
may not have occurred. Such calculations, in short, from their very nature, can never
be perfect; because they are founded upon present knowledge, and that is perpetually
extending. The most that can be done is to make as near an approximation to the truth as
circumstances will admit; and having done this, (i»e resultmay be entitled to some degree of
confidence.

As a general recapitulation of the European birds, wo may state the total number, exclu-
sive of a few which occasionally appear at remote intervals as stragglers, at 388. Of these,
thirty-one are more peculiar to the arctic regions of Europe, America, and probably of Asia ;
the proportion being as one to thirteen. Sixty-eight (forty being aquatic) occur also in tem-
perate America; nine are dispersed over four divisions of the globe, to neither of which can
they be particularly appropriated ; and either one (Numenius Phcepus) or two extend to
Australia. With Uieso deductions, the number will thus be reduced to about 28(1. If from
these we abstract such others as may possihbjhaxc a partial range beyond the limits nlready
defined, the number may be farther reduced to about 250; so that, even with this allowance,
nearly two tliirds of the birds of Europe, Northern Africa, and VVestern Asia may safely be
considered ns zoologically characteristic of those countries.

Another character in European ornithology deserves attention. This regards the s-upcrior
number of generic types which it exhibits, in proportion to the number of species. Those
genera amount to 108, omitting those which have not been generally adopted, or which, from
the modifications of form being but slight, should more properly be teniied sections. Tlie
projiortion which these genera bear to the number of species (estimated before at 3S8)
amounts to more than two to seven ; or, in other words, does not give se^'en birds to two
genera. It is further remarkable, that most of these exhibit in their structure the p;rcatcnt
perfection of those orders or families to wliich they respectively belong ; and which groups
are denominated by naturalists typical. True it is that such genera are widely dispersed ;
but in no division of the world do they appear so numerous, in proportion to the species, iis
in Europe. This remark not only applies to the typical genera, but is frequently applicable
to the number of species tliey respectively contain. One instance may suffice. The noble
falcons, or those to whom tho generic name of Falco is now restricted, are generally con-
sidered the most typical group of their family : of these, the Kestril (fg. 79.) and five others

have their metropolis in Europe and Northern Afi'ica. The
whole of North America has hitherto produced but four. Le
Vaillant enumerates the same number from Southern and Cen-
tral Africa. Those of Centri.l Asia are not known ; but only
two have been recently described as peculiar to the vast re-
gions of Australia. Now, if we merely look at these respective
numbers, the diH'erence does not appear very remarkable ; but
when the great inferiority between the Caucasian regions and
those of America, Afi'ica, an' Australia, in point of extent, is
taken into the account, it will be immediately seen that the
proportion of these eminently typical species in the European
regions is particularly great. Among the typical groups of
the wading and swimming birds this is still more apparent; so tiiat, if we endeavour to
define what is the most ^striking feature in the ornithology of this zof>logical province, none
is so remarkable as tlie number of purely typical groups. This peculiarity will be more
apparent on looking further into tlio matter. The total number of birds tlirouifhout the
world, existing in museums or clearly described in authentic works, may he osliinated at
6(K)0. Tlioso have been arranged under about M80 genera ; but as several of tiiesc genera
will comprise more than oni; sul)-gcnua, we will put down 4(X) as a nearer approximation to

* Wi' liavt! Iiwii officwllii iiiliirniPil tliat, liy tlio Inws of tlif' /.nnlngiral Piiciotv nf I.nnilrm. no iiiii' rim rorcivo
|K!riiii>'!>i»ii to niiikfi iiw ol' iheir Miikimiiii, lor )!«i"'''al friiiilitic imrpoai'i', who is not a mcinbcr.

23*

The Koitril.

r A

Jill

I'M

1 ^ ' , I V

' 'J

f*,'-

•270

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY,

Part II.

I .

corrcclnosa: this would leave rather more tlian fourteen species to each generic group
wiiile, it" the oniitholonry of Europe and Northern Africa is alone considered, the proportion
is no more than one to three ; and even tiiis will he further diminished wiien those geo-
prapliic groups among the Fringillida: and Syhuida, which are decidedly peculiar to this
portion of the glohe, are irivnstigated and defined. Now, it is very singular that, in speak-
ing of the leading varieties of tiie Caucasian race, a writer, whose testimony is no mean
authority, ohserves, " that the tribes among the Caucas ans arc more numerous than in any
other." And again — " Whether wc consider the several nations or the individuals in each,
bodily difl'crenees are much more numerous in the iiighly civilized Caucasir ty than in

either of the other divisions of mankind." (^Lawrence, p. 442. 47.J.) Wlii 'lance over

tlie list of thoi^o .nations generally sup|X)sed to have sprung from this tyji-, ive arc struck
with the justice of those observations. It is the more remarkable, as the regions they occupy
are disproiwrtionahly small, when compared with those peopled by the Mongolian and Ethi-
opian races. That there are instances wherein typical forms of higher groups than genera
do not occur within the European range, is a circumstance which will not materially affect
the question. Thus the only European bird belonging to the Teniiirosiris of M. Cuvier
is the European Hoopoe ( Ujmpa Epops), which is certainly not a typical example ; but this,
so far as tribes arc concerned, is the only exceptioi to the rule. It is curious, also, that this
exception shoidd occur in that division which comprises the smallest and weakest of birds.
If we (It^scend to tiirnilies, there is scarcely one pre-eminently \ ical of its own perfection
which is not European. A further objection may possibly be urged, that, although such
forms are indeed abundant in this Fauna, they are nevertheless found in nearly every other
part of the world ; and cannot, therefore, be looked upon as characterising Europe more than
any other country: but this will not be a just conclusion, unless it is first shown that
the pro[X)rtion of such types to the total number of European species is not decidedly
prfatcr than in any other region. Now the facts we have already stated prove this
b(\viind doubt.

Tliose residts, obtained from unquestionable data, arc so important to our present inquiry,
that their hasty notice would not have been sufficient. The materials for illustrating the
crnitholoiry of Europe are naturally more numerous than can be expected for other portions
of the glolie ; tind it became very desirable to ascertain how far the ornithology of those
regi<ins. occupied by the Caucasian race, presented a peculiarity of character sulliciently
strong to show a mutual relation.ship with tlie geographic distribution of this variety of man.
We are, I think, sufficiently authorised to consider that both are in unison. At least, there
are so many singular points of analogy, as to render it highly probable that there exists an
intimate relationship lictween the dis.tributicm of one race of mankind and one of the prin-
cipal geographic divisions of birds.

How far this view nf European orni 'lohigy would be Iwrne out by an extended investiga-
tion of other orders of animals, it is itniiossihie to say. Yet even if our present limits would
permit the inquiry, we should have to rely mon^ upon theory than facts. Many of the
quadrupeds of Euro|)c have long been slowly but crtainly disapi'caring, in proportion as
culture and civilizatic.n have advanced ; and any conclusions drawn from those which std!
remain in a wild state would be open to great objections, particularly as the question nmst
necessarily i.mbraco the nature of those no longer existing, but whose bones occur in a fossil
state throughout Europe. We think it may fairly h(! presumed that, in all those convulsions
which have agit'ited our globe, birds have suffered less than any other vertcbratoti animals.
Their fossil remains are few, and f>r rare occurrenci; ; while extensive deposits of bones and
skeletons, belonging to quadrupeds, reptiles, and fish, occur more or less abundantly in
almost every region, and attest the wide destruction to which such animals were exposed.
It naturally follows that, in tracing the distriliution of the feathered creation, wo are lell
unshackled by geological controversy.

The few observations on the Ichthyology, ]''ntomology, and Conchology of the IMcditer-
ran^an we shall hereafter make, in conjunction with thosi; of Britain, will be found in unison
with those features in the geographic distribution of birds we have already traced; and will
equally evince the propric!ty of including the whole under one zoological division. This
we propose to name tiie European. Such a designation is, indeed, somewhat objectionable,
inasmuch a.s it embraces not only Europe, hut Northern Africa and Western Asia ; yet it
will, perhaps, convey more definite ideas than if the name were adopted from the particular
race of men belonging to these regions.

2. The Moii£;olinn nr Asiatic Prnvmce,
The birds of the .Monjolian range will he now adverted to. The ty|)ical nations of this
variety of man occupy tlie remaining [xirtion of the vast continent of Asia; while their
characteristic peculiarities appear blended witli the Malays in the more eastern islands of
the Indian ,in;liipelatrii. The ornithology of such a vast proportion of .Asia is as varied as
it is remarkable ; but the very imperfect nature of the materials liitherto furnished for it:J
elucidation, renders it impossible for us to give those satisfactory data which have beer

•■?»

Part II.

iLTic group
n proportion
n lliosc gco-
•uliar to this
it, in speak-
in no mean
; tlinn in any
uuIh in each,
■ty than in
'lance over
,0 are struck
1 tlioy occupy
ian and Ethi-
than genera
orially affect
sf M. Cuvier
pie; but this,
also, that this
kost of birds.
,vn perfection
Ithough such
y every other
ipc more than
t sliown that
[lot deciJedly
:d prove this

esent inquiry,
hislrating the
other |X)rtions
ulogy iif those
ir sullicicntly
aricty of man.
At least, there
;horp exists an
10 of the prin-

ided investiga-

it limits would

Many of the

proportion as

)se which still

question must

ccur in a fossil

)sc convulsions

iratcd animals.

ts of bones and

abundantly in

were exposed.

)n, we are li'tV

jf the Meditcr-
found in uiii.-ion
raced; and will
division. This
it object iunable,
■rn Asia ; yet it
n tlu! particular

Book III.

IN ITS RELATION TO AiMMALS.

271

nations of this
lia; wiiile their
stern islands of
;i is lis varied as
iiniisiied for its
iiich have beer

furnished by v. riters on the birds of Europe. Naturalists look forward with tlie greatest
interest to tliu speedy termination of the zoological researches of General llardwicke, as
likely to supply these deficiencies. The vast stores of knowledge which a long residence
in the East, and an ardent passion for natural history, have plated at the command of this
naturalist, render him peculiarly qualified for such an undertaking.

For our present purpose, minute detail is not, however, essential. Whatever doubts might
at first have arisen on the propriety of considering Europe as the centre of an ornithological
province, there can bo none with respect to Asia. It is in these regions tliiit the chief scat
of tlie typical Gallinaceui is placed; they abound in China, Thibet, the Indian Peninsula,
and even extend to those islands which t re considered the confines of the Jlongolian race.

The larger species, arranged in tlie genera
I'avo and Polypleclron, appear to charac-
terise the more elevated and central parts
of the continent ; while those of tlio genus
Gallus are more numerous in Sumatra,
Java, and the adjacent " nds. The phea-
sants of China and Thibew lorm a no less
striking feature in Asiatic ornithology ; five
species of magnificent plumage are pecu-
Tho Silver PhcoBant. Hav: one of thesc, the elegant Silver Phea-

sant (Nycfhemcrus argtntatus) (Jiff. 80.) has been long domesticated in our aviaries. Three
other superb species represent a group {Ijophophorus Tern.), discovered only upon the con-
tinent. The whole of these Gallinaceous genera arc totally unknown in Africa, Australia,
or in the New World. When to these we add the Ilornbills (Buceridcr), the Sun-birds
(Cinnyrifia;), the short-legged Thrushes (G. Brachypus), the short-tailed Tl. rushes {Pitia),
certain groups among the Psittaciden, and many others totally unknown in Europe, Northern
Africa, and Western Asia, yet abounding in the Mongolian nations, no further details appear
necessary to mark the ornithological peculiarities of Asia, as distinct from those of Europe.

From the Asiatic islands it would, perhaps, be more natural if we proceeded at once to
notice the Malay or Australian range, as it is here that the Faunas of those divisions of tlie
globe evidently meet. But as this would interfere with the order observed in the early
portion of this essay, wc shall pass from the northern regions of Asia to those of the New
World ; particularly as both present a mixed race of men, probably originating from the
Asiatic continent.

3. The American Province.
We proceed to a rapid sketch of American ornithology. It has already been shown that,
excepting the Natatorial birds, there are fewer species common alike to Northern America
and to Europe tiin.n might, perhaps, have been supposed ; yet, were the proportion nmch
greater, the circumstance would only prove that nature knows no abrupt distinction. It is
not to tlie rcTiotc ramifications which she employs to connect her chain of operations that
our attention is to be fixed ; for they are too subtile to bo unravelled by beings with facul-
ties so limited. But as soon as she quits the.se inexplicable mazes, and again displays her-
self in a new but decided form, we may hope to gain soine acquainUince with her laws.
It IS not, therefore, from either extremity of the New World that we must form our opinion
on its zoological peculiarities. The ornithology of the Northern latitudes is evidently
blended with that of Europe, and in all probability many of these species exist in Northern
Asia; those of the more southern parts of America, beyond the Rio do la Plata and Para-
guay, arc nearly unknown. It is only within the last few years that the provinces, elcvateil
on the Mexican Cordilleras, and now constituting a great repuh'''^, have bc(m opened to the
naturalist; and although, as yet, but superficially explored, there is perhaps no region in the
New World which promises to yield more interesting fiicts, as connected with the animal
geography of that hemisphere. Even the configuration of the continent, at the junction of
its two great divisions, is typical of this distribution. It appear? as if nature, elevated as
on a throne upon this vast table-land, 7200 feet above the level of the sea, had dinpensed
her forms to the right hand and to the left, retaining immediately around her a typical
representation of every group. To the nortli she has given innum(?rable flocks of slender-
billed insectivorous birds (Sylvirol(r, &c.), which annually depart to breed in those more
temperate climes. These are accompanied by particular species of I'^lycatcher.s, TIniislie.s
Pigeons and Ilangnests {Ictcrimi); the two latter in such countless numbers as to darken
the air. To Southern America has been more particularly assigned the Macaws, Toucans,
Scansorial Creepers (Dcnilrncnlaptes), Ant Thrushes (Mynlhrrina), Ground Doves ((.'ha-
mtepfJiii), Tanagers ( Tn?rr/^r(i), Trogons, Fruit-caters (Am/jf/jWa-), and the numerous an.i
splendid race of numming-birds. Yet of all these groups, save one (AmjuiiiJa'), typical
examples are concentrated on the table-lund of Mexico. Thesi?, moreover, are accompa-
nied by .some peculiar forms, not yet discovered in either portion of America, and by
species among the natatorial tribes liitlicrto found only in the more northern latitudes.

IJH

t\:

ilrq

iff

•H

•Tft

272

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY,

Part n.

1*5

1^-

'»«f-V

The typical Gallinaceous birds begin to show themselves adjoining the equator, nearly
in the same parallel of latitude OS they occur in A ' 'hey belong, however,
81 to distinct und peculiar types ; as the genera ^ > ;; b'^'k, Crax, Penelope,

Ourax, Phosphea, Ortalida, and Opisthocomus. . nose find tlicir represent-
atives, for the most part, in the ancient, continents, but not one species has
been detected beyond the New World. The foregoing remark applies to
tlie two great divisions of the Simi<B, or Monkeys, so accurately illustrated
by those distinguished naturalists, MM. Cuvier and Geoflroy St. Hilaire.

The Melliplmgous groups of Ar'erica, at the head of which shine the
splendid fiiniily of Iluniming-birds (Jig. 81.), form the chief peculiarity of
its ornithology ; other races, scarcely less beautiful, occur in Africa, Asia,
and Australia : yet the natural genera are totally distinct. The number
of species, and the variety of forms, among tlie frugivorous birds is another
striking feature in the productions of tlie New World. Under this term
HumminB Bir<i. ^^^ ^^^^^ include the richly coloured Chatterers {Ampelida Sw.) and
Manakins (Piprinm Sw.); togctiier with the whole family of Tanagers (TanusniuB),
Hongnosts (Ictcrince), and Parrots (Psittacidte). The first four belong solely to this conti-
nent, which more than any other abounds in vast forests of lotly trees, affording a perpetual
and countless vari.'cy of fruits and berries, adapted to nourish all the families of hard and soft-
billed frugivorous bird.s. If we turn to the other orders of vertebrated animals, the Mollusca,
Annulosa, or Radiuta;, oacii und all conspire to stamp certain peculiar features on the
zoology of the New World, and to mark it as a distinct zoological empire.

4. The Ethiopian or African Province.

The chief seat of the Ethiopian variety of our species is central Africa; while most writers
agree in thinking that its northern limits do not pass the Great Desert. The pestilential
ntmosphnre of tropical Africa has been an insuperable bar to the researches of Europeans ;
and all the ideas that can bo formed on the zoology of such regions must bo gathered fVom
the partial gleanings made by travellers on tlie shores of Senegal and of Sierra Leone. The
ornithological productions received from these districts evince a total dissimilarity from those
of Northern Africa, but intimately accord, both in species and genern, with the ornitholcgy
of the south : to this, however, there ara several exceptions. The Plantain-eaters {Muso-
phii^i(l<r), and the bristle-nocked Thrushes {Trichophorus Tern.), are among the groups
hitherto found only towards Sierra Leone. The Guinea Fowl, as its name implies, is most
nbundiint in the interior of that country, where three species have boon discovered. The
common Boe-eai r, and the Golden Oriole are the only species among the land birds of
Western Africa that occur in the European range; and these extend southward to the Cape
of Gooil Hope. Tiie whole extent of Africa south of the desert exhibits, in short, a marked
diflbronce in its ornithological groups and species from these belonging to Europe, Northern
Africa, and \Vestern Asia. The comparatively few exceptions of birds common to Europ«
and the Cajio cannot diminish the general force of this remark, but merely shows that a few
exceptions must never be taken as the groundwork of any particular theory. It is to one of
the greatest ornithologists that France, or indeed any other nation, has produced, that W6
are ind(!btpd for the most porfect account of South African ornithology yet published ; but it
must over be regretted that this portion of iu. le Vaiilant's labours terminated abruptly ;
leaving the Gallinaceous, Wading, and Swimming orders to be completed by some other,
who, with equal enterprise and jbservation, should visit the same regions, and record their
mannois with the same veracity.

Between the ornithology of Africa and of America there is, within the same parallels of
latitude, a very strong analogy, although (in the sense in which we apply the term) there is
none of afliiiity. We know not, in short, a single jjercliing bird common to both continents;
although III ilie rapacious order, which among terrestrial birds are well known to have nearly
the widest range, two or three specie*-- occur which 'ikewiso inhabit both extremities ol
Africa no loss than North America.

The other vertebrated animals, and the insects of Southern Africa, furnish similar results.
On examining the large collection of insects formed by Mr. TJurchell, in the territories of the
Cape of fi<xHi Hope, wo could nut discover one out of many hundreds which was to be found
in a nnicli more considerable collection brought bv \is from South America, although many
gonoric "roups, particularly among tlio T,e;)i(ioptera, appeari'd common to both contineiUs.

Bet ween tin' launas of Africa and America the dilferei.ct? is umiuosfioniibly strilung; yet
there are several points of connexion between the ornithology of Africa, Asia, and Aus-
tralia ; and these appear not merely in generic groups, hut even in species. The Drongo
Sh'-ikes f(I. r.il'iHiis), till' l,arva-eaters (G. Cddepyria), the typical Fly-catchers (G. M«,v-
rip.'tii, C), the ('nli-enters ((i. ffiilri/nn), the Grakli's (fjiimprnloiiis), the African Snxicolip,
the two ffrouns of tropical Fiiichi-.. 'Eslrrldu Aiiiiiilina Sw.), are all genera common to these
tiiree regidiis,- tf) neither of which, in a geographic clivision, ciiii they be exclusively
assigned. But we need not dwell tiirther on such resoniblances, which, after alt, are but s(

Ai
(h
V,
th
th

811
hit

of
(In

Part II.

jr, nearly
, however,
Penelope,
represent-
pccies has
applies to
illustrated
Hilaire.
shine the
!uliarity of
frica, Asia,
'he number
! is another
■r this term
i Sw.) and
anaffrtn<e),
) this conti-
a perpetual
ird and soft-
e Mollusca,
iires on the

most writers
pestilential
' Europeans ;
nthered ftom
:.eono. The
y from those
3 ornitholcgy
iters {Muso-
T the groups
^lics, is most
)vcred. The
land birds of
i to the Cape
ort, a marked
jpe, Northern
ion to Europe
ws that a few
it is to one of
iced, that W6
lishcd ; but it
ited abruptly ;
y some other,
id record their

le parallels of
term) tliere is
ith continents ;
to have nearly
extremities ol

gimilar results.
;rr'.torios of the
^ras to i)i; found
although many
1 continents,
y strikiri!^; yet
Asia, and .\us-
Tlio Drongo

iiprs (Cr. Mii^-
ricnn Haxicolff,
omiuon to these

be exclusively
r all, are but s(

Book HI.

IN ITS RELATION TO ANIMALS.

5873

many points of connexion between geographic divisions, sufficiently distinct in tlieir more
proniinoiit cliaractcrs.

5. The Malay or Australian Province.

Tiie regions peopled by the Malay tribes is the lust zoological division requiring elucida-
tion. VVe liave already adverted to tlic groat diversity of tribes comprised under this variety
of the human race, and the little autlientic information yet collected concerning their origin
or history. The z(X)logical results, however, are more definite.

On looking to the Indian Archipelago, as to that region wliere physiologists concur in
thinking tiiat tlic Malayan form is first apparent, we nro told that several of these islands
are pei-plod by two different races of men (^Lawrence, p. 489. and Cuvier, p. 187.) ; the one
frequently confined to the inland tracts, while the otiier people the maritime districts : their
respective origins, liowever, are so little known, that it is still a matter of doubt which has
usurped the territories of the other. (Marsden's Sumatra, 326, 3"7.) We confine these
remarks to Sumatra and Java ; for with regard to the vast islands of Borneo, Celebes, and
those smaller groups to the eastward, we know little or nothing of their productions or of
their people.

That the istlimus of Malacca and tlie adjacent islands exhibit the first indications of a
peculiar race of people, is a fact ujxin which all writers appear to agree ; and that we here
begin to discern the indications of a new zoological region is equally certain : yet it would
be altogetlier rash, with our present limited intbrmation, to hazard any theory which would
respectively assign to these islands a definite character in its inhabitants or productions.
But the zoology of Java and Sumatra have been of late so zealously and ably investigated
not only by two distinguished British naturalists,* but by otiiersf sent from France, that we
sliall in this place attempt to draw some results from their labours. The ornithology of these
islands, with some few peculiarities, differs in no very decided manner from that of southern
India, In both, the Gallinaceous genera, when they occur, a. a the same, although some ol
tlie Javanese species differ. Of the more typical Siiirnidee, common to the Old World, but
as yet unknown to the Australian or Oceanic islands, no less than tliree inhabit Java. To
these groups must be added, Parus, Silla, Bneco, Cursorius, Clareola, Buceros, Oriolus,
Brachypus, and many other genera characteristic of the ancient
continents. The number of typical Scansorial birds within th'
narrow limits of these two islands is truly remarkable. Eight
species of Pints are descrii)ed by Dr. Horsfiekl, and four or five
otliors ; one, the Malacoloplius Concrctuy, Sw. {Jiff. 82.), of a
remarkably small size, liave been sent to Franco by M. Diard.
Tlie total absence of tliis family throughout the wliole Australian
range, is a circumstance in itself sufficiently strong to place the
ornitliology of Java and Sumatra beyond sucli limits ; to which,
nevertheless, it approximates very closely.
The birds of Java and Sumatra, whicli indicfito an approximation to the Australian
province belong to certain genera common to both regions; but unknown in Africa or
India: those are. Pitta, Ccntropuf, Ocyplrrus, Prinra, Pogardus, Cralrropus, Dacelo,
&c. In the Suctorial birds (tlie Tenuiroslres of M. Cuvier,) we find in Java an evident
departure from the typical form of Cimiyris tcjwurds the Mdlipliufrida of Australia,
in the genus Dicaum; four of the known sjiecies being Javaue.se, and tluee Austra-
lian. What little is yet known of the birds of New Guinea, and its surrounding islands,
exhibits a still greater deviation from the ornithological features of India. These enchant-
ing regions, long the fairy-l aid of naturalists, remained n(;arly unknown until visited by
learned Frenchmen, to one of whom has been assigned the distinguished honour of giving
to the world the fruits of their scientific and imjiortaiit discoveries.| It is in these islands
that the Melliphagous genera begin to be developed in the most novel forms, and the most
sumptuous plumage. The grand Promrrnps of New Guinea can only be likened to the
Australian Pliluris. Several typical McUiphaffidir. are in M. Lesson's ollertions. To
these we can now add two species of genuine Philcdimx (Cuvior), and two of the genus
Vanga. The group of which the Mtisciccpa carinala (S\v.)5 is the type, displays itself in
three new and beautiful bird;-', accurately de.'^cribcd and figuroil by M. Lesson. The stay of
the French naturalists on the coast of New Guinea was comparatively short, and their
gleanings of its ornithology could not, from necessity, be otherwise than scanty ; yet it is
surprising that, among the birds thus procured, so large a proportion should belong to groups
hitherto supposed peculiar to Now Holland. It is clear, therefore, in a natural arrangement
of ornithological geography, that the islands of New Guinea may bo safely brought into that
division which includes New Holland, Now Zealand, and their dependencies: this distribu-

Malnco]uplm5 (^oncretus.

• Sir Slnmlunl Raffli !« nnil Dr. Flnrsriclil.
t M. Lesson, V<i) ugu aulour dii Munde.

Vol. I.

t MM, A, Duviivircl ami Diard.
§ Zooliigii .il IlluBlrntions, vol, iii. pi. 117. Zool. Jouni i. p. 306

i :i i

^!^^

?r4

SCIP:XCE of tJKOr.RAPIIY,

Part II,

■|

.Alrniirn f^iipprln.

lion lias, indeciJ, been generully adopted by gcograplior?, merely from the relative positions
of these islands.

On the zoology of New Holland it is .scarcely ncccBsary, in this place, to expatiate. All
natiirali.sls concur in viewing this insular continent ns the chief metropolis of a peculiar cre-
ation of animals; whose limitd on one side we have already traced, and whose range on the
other extends over the innumerable islands scattered in the great Pacific Ocean. The Munura

Sujwrba (Jifr. 83.) is the most remarkable gal-
linaceous bird of this range. The Australian
province is thus in fiill accordance with the dis-
tribution assigned to the Malay variety of our
I species : its connexion with Asiatic zoology is
unquestionable; but we have no means of judg-
ing into which of the three remaining divisions
it blends, at its opposite extremity. Of the birds
peculiar to those remote clusters cf islands atl-
joining the north-west coast of America we are
completely ignorant ; nor ore our materials
sufficient to furnish even a plausible conjecture
ii; the subject. Whether the Australian province, at its northern limits unites again with
the Asiatic, the American, or the European, must therotbre be left to future discovery.

^V" have now completed a general survey of the distribution of birds over the globe. The
"n ,1 { wc have st .ted sliow the propriety of arranging the whole inidcr five great divisions or
provinces, which may be distinguished is Iho European, the Asiatic, the American, the
African, and the AustrJian : each of these corres(K)iMls, with little variation, to the geogra-
phic distribution assigned by authors to the dift'orent races of man. Wo must, therelbre, now
adrpt one out of the two following conclusions: either that there is just and sufficient
gi"i liiid for believing tliat the distribution of man and animals in general has been regulated
'r;,- ■■ c same laws; or, that man and bird.s have been distributed alike, and all other animals
differently. To us, at least, the latter conclusion ap|)oars highly improbable ; not only as being
unsupported by the least shadow of eviilence, but as opposed to that harmony in creation,
which is more apparent the more it is viewed in all its relations.

Sect. V. — General Summary of the Subject,

In offering these elucidations of a subject so vast in itself, and so important in all its
bearings, it will be readily perceived that two different relations between animal groups are
alluded lu; one v.'O have considered us of affinity, the other of analogy ; and as the truth or
fallacy of these views will mainly depend on the justness of these distinctions, a few obser-
vations upon thoiii o])pear necessary. Naturalists, in general, have considered those resem-
blances whicli exist botwoun certain groups placed in different regions, but in the same
parallels of 1 ''ulo, as indicating affinities; and on this supposition, as before stited, have
framed theorir .ly which animal geography has been divided into zones or provinces, limited
more or loss by certain degrees of latitude. It nuist be confessed that, upon a superficial
view, there are many circunistjinces which appear to justify such a theory. Confining our
attention to that department of nature which we have throughout selected, we shall partly
recapitulate our former observations.

Tlie arctic regions, in one sen.-e, may be considered an ornithological zone ; for not only
the same groups, but the same species arc Inmd in such jj.irts of Europe, America, and pro-
bably Asia, as enter within its limits. But admitting this to the full extent, let us ask if
these regions — !)y the numlit", \aricty, and peculiarity ot' tlujir animals, are entitled to hold
a primary rank witii the great geographic groups already mentionnd ! Is there to be met
with among the arctic binls numerous species which are not distributed far beyond such
limits'! Are there any gen r o or siil feneric groujis which do U'lt occur even towards the
central parts of Europe, Asi;', ; I'.l .\ii,.; ica ! Tiio.sc i|uestions which uuist bo answered in
the negiitive, sufficiently pro/i thiil thi; arctic regi m.-; vo not possess tiu^ characteristics of a
primary division; they mu.s; iither he hviked Ui^-i' ii, a [wint of junction, where the orni-
tliology of the three northern o ,<tinent.s Mends and n.innonizcs together.

The tropical regions of the Ol.l :ind tiio Now Worlds have likewise been united in one
province. How widely the ornithology of these countries really differs, has been already
explained. True it is, that in numerous instances one group typifies another, ns in the ca.se
of thr Aiiiericaii llurii:iiing-binls (7V(«7iJ/((/rt') being ro|ir(vcnted in the Old World by the
Sun-birils (('/;u((/r/V/rtO; and such ndatioiiship, in one .sense, is certiinly an affinity, inas-
mucli as in tin' natural system tiiey ap|)<'ar to tullow one another; but if we admit such a
deLrn-r of affiriity to ho a sulVicient guide to a distributing of birds, we iruist also do the same
with regard to the variilics of nnn, sini. ! both app.^ar dispers.il upon tlm same plan. The
red Indian of .\merica as certainly represents tlie black negro of Africa as the latter does
the sooty inh:iliit.ant of New CJuinea; yet no one would think of cla.ssing them in the !;.ame
jace, merely because they inhabited countries under similar degrees of latitude. The dis-

T;'*T -

Part II.

vc positions

itiiito. All
ociiliiir cre-
[iiigp on the
'liH Moniira
irkablf! (jal-

AuKtraliun
with tliedis-
iripty of our
c zoology is
sans of judg-
ing divisions

Of tho birds
f islands atl-
?rica we are
ir materials
conjecture
s ajTam with
lovcry.
ijlobo. The

divisions or
nerican, the

tho geogra-
lerefore, now
nd Kiifficient
en regulated
)ther animals
only as being

in creation,

mt in nil its
lal groups are
s the truth or
, a few obser-
thosc rescm-
t in tlie same
3 stated, have
incet--, limited
1 a s'lperficial
Confining our
e shall partly

; for not only
irica, and pro-
;, let us asit if
ntitltMl to hold
?ro to be met
r beyond such
-n towards tho
!0 answered in
iictoristics of a
'here tlie orni-

united in one
s been already

ns in llie ease

World by tiie
I alfuiity, inaa-
j admit such a
so do tho same
[ii(^ plan. The

the latter does
nil in the s,ame
ude. The die-

DOOK til.

IN ITS RELATION TO MAN L\ SOCIETY.

275

persion of particular groups and of their spccie.s upon the whole, is more in a longitudinal
than in a latitudinal direction. This is exemplified in a remarkable manner by the migra-
tory birds, whicli invarialily proceed from north to south, or from south to north. It would,
indeed, appear, that if animal distribution is to be regulated by geographic degrees, as accu-
rate notions miglit result from making the divisions of longitude as of latitude : both, how-
ever, would be clearly artificial.

These parallel relations of analogy, whicli everywhere present themselves in the animal
kingdom, nevertliolcss deserve our greatest attention, as fraught with peculiar interest to
the reflecting mind. There are throughout nature so many immediate and remote relations,
so many unexplained ties of connexion, that the most careful of her students are perpetually
misled in attempting to trace her footsteps. In ordinary cases, the admirable distinction
tlmt'has been drawn between affinity and analogy {Hor. Ent.) is, perhaps, the test liiat can
be given ; yet instances might be named, in which even this is totally inadequate to the end
proponed. Natural relations are so complicated, tlmt series of affinities apparently incon-
testable, will frequently, upon rigid analysis, turn out completely erroneous; proving no
more than that nature, however diversified, presents so many points of general resemblance
and of connexion, that partial harmony will result even from a false combination of parts.
Let us not therefore conclude, as is now too generally done, that by synthesis alone we can
exhibit the true affinities of nature ; that we may henceforward, without hesitation, assign
to each of her productions its true station in the scale of teing ; that we have suddenly,
and as if by magic, got full possession of that mighty secret which at once explains her
laws, and cxjxjunds all that lias perplexed the wise and confounded the learned, since science
first dawned uiwn man. Tiiat the circular system is the nearest approach yet made to the
true disposition which pervades nature, — a system which, from the perfections of its Creator,
must be replete with order and beauty surpassing our utmost comprehension, — is indisputable,
because none other has attempted to explain the relations of parts and the unity of the
whole ; but farther than this its pretensions must not be carried : it still involves questions
of great weight, since by one theory tho numter of its primary divisions is stated to be five,
while by another, founded on much more extensive analysis, it is maintained to bo three.
The searcher after truth will give to these his patient investigation, his cool and unpreju-
diced judgment: he may then hope to make one step nearer to truth; for science, in all
ages, has ever remained most stationary when the advocates of any system have been In()^'•
prejudiced.

It is with these qualifications that the views here taken on the distribution of man and
animals arc given to tho render. It has been our desire to trace a connexion, and a unity
of plan, in both, and to simplify a subject hitherto involved m much intricacy. How far
this object may have been attained, it is not for us to determine ; but ho who draws proofe
of a Divine Creator from the harmony and design apparent in his works, has surely not writ-
ten in vain.

CHAPTER III.

GEOGRAPHY CONSIDERED IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY.

Man, when considered not os a mere animal, but as a teing endowed with thought, reason,
and contrivance, capable of social intercourse and union, must be regarded as the moHt con-
spicuous object in the delineation of the globe. These attributes raise him to the first rank
in this lower world; and in every region occupied and improved by him, the communities
which he has formed become the most prominent characteristic ; all other beings are there
subordinate and subservient to him. The description therefore which, hi the succeeding part
of the work, will be given of tho different regions of the globe, must be chiefly employed in
delineating the aspects which man, as an active and social being, presents. At present,
however, it would be premature to enter into tho numerous details wiiich this sulijcct
embraces. We can do little more than indicate the following general heads, under wliich
it will be treated : — 1. Historical Geography. 2. Political Constitution of the different coun-
tries. 3. Productive Industry. 4. Civil and Social State of Man. 5. lAiigiiages.

Sect. I. — Historical Geography.

A survey of tho history of man is neces.sary for enabling us accurately to understand,
and duly to estimate his present condition. Not only inanimate nature, but even the animal
and vegetable kingdoms, if left to themselves, would remain constantly in the same situation :
tho ciiangcs a:id modifications undergone by them have been produced entirely by man's
interposition. That improved an(i civilized form under wiiich he now appears, is llio result
of a continmid succession of changes, which have teen taking place from the earliest periods
of authentic history. /Ml the revolutions, teth of ancient and modern times, liavo had a
grciter or less influence in producing the presp'-.t moral, political, and social condition of man
in the more improved quarters of the globe.

#1^^

4 'li

.wg'

ffW

*5,

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY,
SuBSKCT. 1.— Ancient Ilittory,

PartU.

Ancient history is generally conHidcrcd as coniprelicndinj,' the period wliich claptiod from
the earliest authentic records, and particularly from the rise of the jfreat inonurciiicH, to the
downfall of the Roman empire. The various Ibrnia which govcrninciit and Kociuty uasuined
during that long period, though they were instrumental in prcimring thoHU which huvo exist-
ed in the modern world, did nut bear any exact resemblance to them. Through tiio cun(|uest
of Rome by the barbarous nations, with which the first of these eras closed, almost every
connexion between them was cut off, except those of record and tradition.

The rise of the great monarchies, Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon, constitutes the first grand
epoch in ancient history. It nearly coincides with that of the great connncrcial republics,
Tyre and Carthage. Human society, which had before existed in a very rude and imperfect
sliape, began to assume a regular, orderly, and oven splendid character. All the arts which
contribute to man's support and accommodation were carried to a considerable degree of
improvement; and the toundation was laid of those intellectual attainments, which were to
constitute his highest honour. Alphabetic writing was invented and widely diffused ; the
arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture, made a considerable progress ; there were even
formed some elements of science and philosophy. During this periml, too, while the world
generally was buried in the darkest superstition, a divine revelation, preparatory for another
more perfect, having been first communicated to tlie patriarchs, was more formally disclosed
to the legislator of the Jewish nation.

The Persian empire embraced a wider extent of the globe than any that had previously
existed, and comprehended those countries which had been most remarkable as the seats of
improvement and civilization. Although, however, it thus became instrumental in linking
distant nations together, it bore chiefly the character of empty and barbarous pomp, and does
not appear to have produced any material advance in knowledge and improvement.

The rise of the Grecian States formed, perhaps, the proudest era in the history of the
human race. The constitutions then formed afforded a degree of |)olitical liberty, and a
dovelopement of the higher energies of the human mind, which could not be attained in
extensive empires, subjected to the arbitrary rule of a single individual. The military
exploits of the Grecian people, by which they baffled the force of almost the wliole known
world united under the sway of Persia, were the most splendid that had hitherto illustrated
the annals of mankind. Genius was exerted with nearly unrivalled jwwer in every depart-
ment ; the historic pa.go unfolded its utmost degree of energy and beauty ; and many sub-
lime lessons of morality were taught by the Grecian snges. The lino arts, poetry, painting,
and architecture, reached an eminence which they have scarcely since regained, and in each
the purest models were loft for fiiture imitation. After Greece had long maintained a glorious
defensive war against Persia, her arms were directed to conquest. Tiie reign and triumphs
of Alexander, while they subverted her admired forms of civil polity, diffused tier language,
her arts, her knowledge, over a wide extent of the eastern world, and thus spreatl a circle
of civilization, the traces of wliich have never been wholly obliterated.

The dominion of Rfjme, which succeeded and overpowered that of Greece, extended over
a still greater variety of countries and people, than had been compreheruled under any for-
mer empire. Her character, at first stern and austere, was gradually softened ; and on
arriving at her highest pinnanlc of wealth and power, slie made at the same time an unri-
valled display of the jxMnp and refinement of polished life. She emulated, without fully
equalling, what was m<wt brilliant ui the arts and intellectual attainments of Greece. But
the most signal service which Rome rendered to the cause of civilization, was by extending
its empire over wide regions in northern and western Europe, which hwl jireviously been the
seat of almost complete barbarism ; though they now form the most enlightened and im-
proveil portion of the globe.

SuftsECT. 3. — Modern History.

The downfall of the Roman Empire, which marked the commencement of modern his-
tory, formed one of the most remarkable and disastrous eras in the destiny of the Aorld.
During the fourth and fifth centuries, a succession of barbarous hordes from Germany,
Scandinavia, Russia, and even the remotest extremities of northern Asia, iX)urod in upon
civilized Europe, and exterminated or reduced to bondage the greater part of its people.
All the arts and sciences, which had shed such a lustre on the Greek and Roman name,
disappeared, leaving only some imperfect remnants, which were preserved in the depth ot'
monasteries. The empire was partitioned into a number of disorderly little kingdoms, gra-
dually merged into a few great monarchies, which, m their general outline, have eontinued
to the present day. 'J'his era was also distinguished, in the East, by the intriKluctioii of tlie
religion of Mohammed, and the rise of the Saracen power, which undertook, by force of
arms, to diffuse that religion over the world. I*s armed votaries overran a great part of
Asia, Africa, and even of Europe, and continue s'ill to maintain a powerfiil influence over
the destinies of the human species. For some tiiii?, the states formctl under this system pre

PahtIL

n<>oK III.

IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY.

277

uDMcd from
lues, to the
ity assumed
I have exist-
h(! comiucst
Iniodt every

first grand
al republics,
iiJ imperfect

arts which
Ic degree of
hicli were to
iliffused; tlio
ro were even
ilc the world
y for another
ally disclosed

ad previously
s the seats of
ital in linking
amp, and does
iicnt.

history of tho
liberty, and a
be attained in
The military
. whole known
;rto illustrated

1 every depart-
iind many sub-
)Otry, painting,
ed, ami in eacli
lined a glorious
II and triumphs
. her language,
sprcoil a circle

, extended over
vmdnr any for-
flcned; and on
c time an unri-
I, without fully
r Greece. But
lis by extending
viously been the
htened and im-

of modern his-

iiy of the world.

from Germany.

poured in upon

rt (if its people.

. Roman name,

in the depth of

kingdoms, gra-

luive routinuod

lr(Kluc;tio\i of tlie

took, by force of

, a great part ot

il influence over

r this system pre

sented a Bomcwhat nnlightened aspect, and even revived the expiring lamp of icience; but
tho Himl issue of Moi'.mii asr(m(inncy has Ik'imi, toditfuHO through the world, ignorance, des-
potism, Imrharism, and every principio hosrije to human miprovemciit.

'J'he tl.'udai syi-tem was e. ibliwiicd grachially among the bari)iirinis states formed out of
llie (h»inemb(;re(l portions of the Koman empire. The king, or chief, distributed the terri-
tory among liis nobhisor Ibllowors, Hubject only to tho condition of military service. These
nobles, possessing almost uncontrolled jurisdictiim within their own limits, holding at their
liisitosal the services of numerous vassals, took adviintJige of every interval of wenknesn in
the reign of the sovereign, and rendered his power little more than nominal. They reduced
tlie body of the people to a state of comparative slavery, waged numerous private wars with
each other, and practised various robberies and extortions. During this turbulent erii, all
retined arts and pursuits languLshcd, while, on the basis of ignorance, superstition erected an
absolute and tyrannical dominion. The institutions of chivalry, however, which were then
formed and gradually improved, introduced a sense of honour, and a dignity and rofmement
of manners, which have beneficially intluenced modern society. This perio<l was also
marked by tho piratical inroails of the Scandinavians or Northmen, who ravaged all the
coasts of Europe, and obtained at least a temporary possessicm of considerable districts and
even kingdoms. It was morked, lastly, by those memorable expeditions into the East,
called tho crusades, which, though attended with groat e.vtravagance, and occasioning much
disaster and bloodshed, tended, on tho whole, towards the improvement of European i)olipy
and social life.

Tho subversion of tho feudal power, accompanied by the revival of knowledge, arts, and
industry, formed a most memorable era in the history of mankind. This change, which
had been for several ages silently iJreiMiring, was carried into complete effect during the fif-
teenth and sixteenth centuries. The turbulent rule of the great nobles was then broken
down, and was succeeded by several extensive but mildly administered monarchies, along
with some free and commercial republics, and in one instance a limited constitutional mon-
archy. The reformation of religion eminently distinguished this periocl ; but being opposed
by the violent intolerance of the Catholic church, it gave rise to a series of dreadful anri
sanguinary struggles. A general activity prevailed throughout the whole sphere of humnn
exertion. The revival of learning, the invention of printinir, the extension of innritime
enterprise, leading to the discovery of new regions, and of new routes to those tbrmorly
known, rendered the age peculiarly eventful and interesting. It derived, however, a some-
what disa.strous character from the ostablislimont of the Turkish empire in the East, by
which tho throne of tho Greek emperors at Constantinople was finally subverted, and very
serious alarms spread through the whole body of tho European nations.

The mixlern system of (xdity followed, as the result of the great changes which had
taken place in the preceding period. During tli(! seventeenth and eigliteenth cenfuries, when
it prevailed, civilization made very remarkable advances. The manners of social life became
more polished and refined. The arts and sciences were carried nearer to perfection, and
more widely diffused through the groat htnly of mankind. Amicable relations, before un-
known, were established between the difterent nations of Europe ; fixed laws were agreed
uptm for regulating their intercourst- ; and war, when it did occur, was carried on with
greatly diminished ferocity. The system of colonization in the other quarters of tiie globe
was also carried to a vast extent, particularly in America; and though its first establishment
was attended with many circumstances of injustice and tyranny, it had tho effect of bringing
those (juarters of the world into a more improved and civilized condition.

The era of political revolution, which commenced towards the end of tho eighteenth cen-
tury, being that which is still in progress, cannot be characterised in so decided a manner.
The formation of the great monarchies had delivered Europe from the turbulent sway of the
feudal chiellains ; yet the almost absolute power with which the sovereign was then invested,
was fouiid productive of many evils. The hereditary nobles, exchanging their rural scats
for a residence in the groat capitils, and indulging in eajie and luxury, lost all influence over
the Ixjily of the people. The difliision of intelligence and wealth through the middling and,
in some degree, even the lower ranks, was followed by a demand, on their part, to be ad-
mitted to some share in tho administration of public afliiirs. This spirit, after fermenting
for some time, and being <liffus('d by the exertions of many di.stinguislied writers, produced
the French revolution, and the extraordinary series of events which have thence arisen.
That gretit crisis did not merely agitato tho interior of France, but by exposing it to fiireign
interference, and then impelling its own rulers to schemes of conquest, it changed for some
time, in an extraordinary m-iimer, tho aspect of all Europe. Then, however, by a grand
re-action, France was driven back within her original boundaries, and the political relations
of tho Continent were re-established nearly on their former footing. Considerable agita-
tions, however, still prevail in the interior of different kingdoms, and their political constitu-
tions have suffered, and arc likely to suffer, material altcr-itions.

Vol. I. 24

;i¥>

i'i

! I

Mi
III

91t

I'RINCIPLKS OP (JKOOHAl'IIY,

Past II.

Skit. I[. — Vnlilkal CniiKliiiitinn.

The political constitutioii iimlor wliicli unv coiniimnity milMintH, forinit a mi<>t important
cleinuiit in iti) social cunditiun. liinng imuully ustiiblihliiul witliin curtain livul Ixtixiduriug,
and acconi|)uniud witli a iiiinilurily in nmniiorii, religion, uiid otiier ulmruclerii'tii; i:ircuin-
atanccH, it ih the leudin)f a({cnt in conHtitutin^; a cmiiilry ur htato. In diMtriLaliii|f, thuioloro,
the four qiiurturH of tlio ((lubu into thoir Hinullur portionx, tho )(uo);rn|>li)'r utum chi<*lly uoliti-
cat divinionti. IIu findi) Htutcn which liavo niadu any profirfHi* in civilization nrranKud uito
kinKdoniH, entpiruH, and rcimblicd. 'I'ho clomuntH of political (wwor uppuar to conaiat of
nionarcliy, ari»touracy, uiul duinocrucy ; whilo th» public functions, to uo exuiciHud withui
any btutc, ore tlic exucutivo, loKiMlativu, and Judicial,

A kingdom in a state of conBidurablo though not vaut extent, governed by a siiiglo person,
aa France, Spain, PruiiKiu. Tlie subiectti are usually united bv a similarity of language and
manners, anu pervaded by a national spirit. The power of tlio sovereign is commonly cx<
tensive, though controlled in Mume instances by national assemblies; and there is almost
always a body of nobles possessed of high privileges an<l immunities.

An empire generally consists of a number of detached kingdoms, which have been united
by conipiust under one head, us the Turkish, Persian, and Chinese, Being thus formed of
an aggregation of ditibrent stiites, empires are usually of very great extent ; and as military
force has been the instrument of tlicir combination, the sovereigns exercise almost always an
unlimited authority. The dillerent members having been brought into union by force only,
rarely feel united by any national tie, and remain very dissimilar in manners, religion, and
social institutions.

Republics consist of states which own the supremacy of no king or sovereign, but are
governed by a senate, an assembly of the people, or by Iwth conjoined. Though these govern-
ments have acted a conspicuous part in the history of tlie world, they have been generally
of small extent, consisting, in many instances, of not more than a single city, with a
limited circle of territory. Where this form of government has been diffused over a great
surface of country, it has consisted usually of a number of states, Joined in u federal union.
This is remarkably the case with the United States of America, where such a government
has been introduced on a scale of greater magnitude than in any other quarter of the globe.

Alonarcliy, among tlic rlcmcnts which compose the |M)litical system, holds the most con-
spicuous place, und is the most generally prevalent. In some coses, the power of the
monarch is who'ly or very nearly absolute. In a majority of instances, however, it is moro
or less controlled by the intlueiice of certain powerful and privileged bodies. In somi; con-
stitutions tlie power of the monarch is combined with that of aristocratic and |iopuli<i bodies,
which share witli I lie sovereign all the higher functions of government. These are called
limited monarchies, und are well adapted (or the preservation of a great |)eople in u state of
peace and pros(H;rity. This form of government, after being for a long time confined to
Britain, is now spreading, though with some difficulty and confusion, over the rest of Kuropo.

Aristocracy, or tlie power vested in a distinguished and privileged class, is found existing
much less frequently as a distinct and decided form of government, than as an element com-
bined with monarchy and denioc racy. Venice, perhaps, oflbrded almost the only example
in which aristocracy subsisted for a series of ages pure and unmixed. In monarchies, the
aristocracy consist of a body of nobility, possessing various gradations of personal and
hereditary titles and rights; while in a republic it is formed into a deliberative body, or
senate, exerciring or sharing the powers of the stote. In mixed monarchies, both thesis
privileges are usually held by the nobles.

Democracy is liie name given to the government in which the sovereignty resides in the
great body of the citizens. They exercise it, either in a general assembly of the whole
nation, or by means of persons elected, during a certain period, to act for the body of their
constituents. The former was the mode usual among the ancient republics ; the latter is
more prevalent in modern times, and is alone compatible with the great extent of territory
occupied by the leading repul)lic8 of the present day. Popular government has been very
generally combined in a greater or less degree with aristocracy, though there seldom fails to
he an almost incessant opposition between the two parlies.

The legislative, among the different functions of the body jwlitic, is justly considered
supreme ; it establishes the laws and regulations, according to which all public affairs are to
be adiiiiniiitered, and to which the persons exercising the other functions are bound to con-
form. Countries in which the legislative as well as the executive power is exercised by one
man, form absolute inonarcliie:>, where every thing depends upon the arbitrary will of that
single individual. A purdy aristocratic logislaturo is commonly felt to bi; severe and oppres-
sive by the great Iwiiy of the people. A government cannot be considered as free, unless
the Viirioiis classes of wliicli tlie nation is composed have a voice in hfgislative arrangements.
Those political systems, however, in which the laws are enacted by the whole Ixxly of the
Bsseinbled people, are fitted only fiir a single city with a territory of limited extent. Of
such a nature and scale were the ancient republics of Greece, and also that of Rome, during

Part IT.

.it important
I UiuiiiJurios,
iwiic I'.ircum-
\g, tlioriiloro,
dw'Ay vxiliti-
irran({i3ij ii'to
to consist of
rcisud within

aiiijjlo pergoii,
lttii){uui?o und
coiiiinonly ex-
ere i» almost

re been united
liUH formed of
md as military
iiost always an
by force only,
), religion, and

reijifn, but are
I tliesc fjovern-
jeen generally

city, wiili a
f!d over a great

1 federal union.
1 a government
sr of tlit3 globe,
s the most con-
! power of tlie
ever, it is more

In somt; con-
]iopuliM bodies,
hesc are called
)io in a state of
me confined to
! rest of Europe.
i founil existing
in element com-
e only example
monarchies, the
of personal and
erative body, or
shies, both these

ty resides in the
i)ly of the whole
,he bmly of tlieir
ics ; tlie latter is
[tent of territory
it has been very
re seldom fails to

UHtly considered
lilic affairs are to
ir(! bound to con-
exercised by one
Irary will of that

vote and opprea-
hI as free, unless
ve arrangements,
vliole iKKly of the

,od extent. Of
t of Home, during

Book III.

IN ITH RELATION TO MAN IN SOCUrrY.

a7'J

llio earlier pfnodH of her history. But wlien the whole of a great [d'oplo are convened into
u*m pliice, tlifv furin ii ui'to tiiMiiiltiiary crowil, inciiimlilc of any regular or effectual exer-
rise iif li'giHliitivi! functions. Tins diHiiiivantiigi has, among iiiihIitu nation.", been Htuiliously
reinedieil by tiie reprt'Hontative Hyntcin, unilcr wliich the iulmbititlitH of each different dii»-
trint elect lui imiividnal imilerNtfMxl to |k)mxch tluMr confidence, wlio exuniies in their Rtead
the Icgisliitive function. U|xjm this IhimIs liave been found'(!d tliom- constitutions that have
been considered as exhibiting tli(> most pcrft'ct forms of civil |)<)lily.

Tlie juilicial power provides for the .security of ptirson and property niiiong all ranks of
individuals composing the [Kditical b<Mly, and Ibriiis thus one of the arraiigeineuts most esaon-
tial te genrral prosperity ami wcll-bt'ing. The institutions for this puriMise vary greatly in
different nations and stages of society. Among very rude tribes, the individual has only hia
own strength and that ot his kindred to aid in repelling aggression. As society advanccH,
tiie adiiiiiiistratliiii of justice between iiiun and man becomes a li'ading object of public con-
cern. Ill the earlier forms of jxility, however, the executive and legislative functions are
usuiilly blended ; the monarch, or his dejmty, sits on the tribunal of judgment, and the forms
of procedure ore exceedingly simple. The parties appear, and plead thcnr. cause vivdvoce;
while the judge decides itnuiiptly and on the spot. In the further progress of improvement,
it is discovered that this branch of j)ublic economy cannot bo duly executed, without being
entirely separated from the legislative and judicial departments, and made independent of
them. Hence arise the different orders, judges, lawyers, ond agents, by whom the different
stages of prnnedun! are conducted ; written and voluminous codes of law are formed, with
the view of providing for every particular case. Yet the expense and delay consequent
upon these complicatiKl arrangements sonietimes cause the society to look back with regret
on the t<iiiiplo and expeditious machinery employed by their rude ancestors.

Other important particulars nn; comprehended in the political state of o society : — the
titles nf nihility, and the badges of himour and distinction among individuals; the military
and naviil force employed in the defence of a country ; the demvnts wliicli compose it; and
the manner in which these are arranged and dirocteif. The same subject cmbraceB also the
revenue, its amount, the sources whciico it is derived, and the manner in which it is levied
and expended. , ,

Sect. III. — Proditrtive Induntry.

The industry of a nation is employed in producing the necrssarit's, the conveniences, the
ornaments, and the luxuries of lite — all that is comprehended under the name of wealth. It
forms thus one of the most ini|X)rtant constituents of their prosperity and well-being.

The sources of national wealth are usually divided into three; agriculture, manufactures,
and commerce : each of these is divisible into several distinct branches, nor can the cata-
logue be completed without including the two occupations of mining and fishing.

Agriculture, including the moans of procuring every part of the produce of land, or what,
land boars on its surface, is unquestionably the grand source of human subsistence and
BCComnio<lation. Hence chiefly are derived the materials used in manufacture ; the objects,
in the exchange of which commerce consists. The modes in wliich support and the means
of enjoyment arc obtained from land may be divided into three; hunting, pasturage, and
tillage, which last being the only form in which labour is employed upon the ground itself,
is more specially considered as agriculture. The collection of the spontaneous fruits of the
earth, being confined to a few tribes in the lowest stage of improvement, scarcely requires
to be taken into consideration.

Hunting, or the chase of wild animals, to obtain their flesh as food, and their skins an
raiment, is the earliest and rudest mode of procuring human support. This employment
re(iuiros art and contrivance as well as bold adventure; but is usually accompanied with rudo
and turbulent habits, and, combined with tliem, constitutes what is called the savage state.
As ciilturc advances, and the greater proportion of the soil is devoted to the plough, or to
the support of tame animals, its range is greatly limited, and in a high slate of cultivation
becomes little more than tlie amusement of the opulent. The chase of the fur-bearing ani-
mals, however, still affords one of the most valuable materials of commerce.

Pasturage, or the deriving of subsistence fi-oin herds and flocks, tamed and trained so as
to be subservient to the use of man, forms a more improved and comfortable occupation than
hunting. Peculiar habits of life usually distinguish nations subsisting sohily by pasturage.
They are often destitute of any li.\od abodes, moving from place to place in large bands or
enc.iiiipiuents, living within tlieir tents in patriarchal simplicity, but towards other nations
practisiinr on a great scale war and robbery. These habits constitute what is called the bar
barous state, still ['..-evn-lcnt among the Arabs, Tartars, and other nations occupying an exten
give portion of the earth's siirlace.

Tillage, or the culture of the soil by the jiroccsses of ploughing or sowing, is employed,
by all the more improved nations, as the most cllicacious means of drawing siibsisteiice from
the earth. In proportion to the general improvement which any people have attained, ia
usually the ekill ami diligence with which this mast important art is practi.^ed. The cora-

''I

iM4

•:M'i

n i

[, I

^ 4

■ m

, ',■

^!tl

't\fi

iii

- i (lis

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

ki y^ 12.5

■so ^^" B^B

*^ 1^ 12.2

u Mm

2.0

|l.2 5 |U III 1.6

Photographic

Sciences

Corporation

33 WEST MAIN STRin

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580

(716)872-4503

^ >»/'^q\

^ ^.

mmm

€

986

PMNCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY,

Part III.

munity which derives its chief subsistence from the culture of the soil, merits generally, to
a ffreat extent, the character of civilized. Some of the oriental people, as the Hindoo and
Chinese, practise this important art with an indefatigable industry applied to every available
portion of their soil, which is scarcely to be paralleled elsewhere ; but in Europe, and espe-
cially in Britain, the use of machinery, the skilful rotation of crops, and various improved
processes, render the same measure of industry much more productive. The objects of
culture vary exceedingly, and for the most part accoidinj> to the varieties of soil and cli-
mate. Grain, the mam staff of human subsistence, forms everywhere the most extensive
and important object of tillage. Climate chiefly determines the grain cultivated ip any
particular region. In the tropical countries it is rice ; in the best part of the tempcratu
K)ne, wheat and barley ; in the colder tracts, oats and rye. Of luxuries, wine and oil are
the most grateful, and in the most general demand; tiiey have their almost exclusive
growth in the wanner tracts of the temperate zone. The delicate fruits, from which they
are produced, do not flourish in tlie excessively luxuriant soil of the tropics. There, how-
ever, the fragrant aromatic plants, and those filled with rich and saccharine juices, produce
valuable substances, which are eagerly sought after by the natives of less genial climates.

FiaheiT, by which subsistence and wealth are derived from the waters, forms a peculiar
branch of industry, which flourishes in every stage of society. Even the rudest savages,
wherever their situation admits, conjoin it with hunting, as a means of aflbrding an imme-
diate supply to their wants. They practise it often with a great degree of diligence and
contrivance; but the progress of industry leads to various processes for extending and
improving this branch. By the operations of salting and drying, fish is rendered fit to be
conveyed as merchandise to the most distant countries. Some of the great maritime nations
send large fleets into remote seas, where they find situations favourable to this pui'suit. The
whale, die cod, and the herring fisheries have, in this manner, been raised to the rank of
great national concerns.

Mining, or the extraction of valuable substances from beneath the surface of the earth,
can be extensively pnictised only in a somewhat advanced state of human industry. Yet
nature has lodged in these dark repositories objects the most essentially conducive to the use
and com^t oi man, and others which afford his most brilliant ornaments. Here are found
the bright and attractive metals of gold and silver; there the solidly useful ores of iron and
copper; here glitter the diamond, the ruby, and the amethyst; there e.xtend vast beds of
coal, lime, and freestone. Gold, the most precious of the metals, is often the most easily
accessible ; but we can scarcely give the name of mining to the operation by which the
savage merely collects its grains in the sands of the rivers, or even extracts it by pounding,
when mechanically combined with other substances. But metalti, in general, when lodged
in the bowels of the earth, exist in the form of ore, intimately and even chemically united
with other materials, from which they can be separated only by smelting, refining, and other
elaborate and even scientific processes. From the toilsome nature of these operations, and
from the gloomy depths in which they ore conducted, it is often difficult to procure a supply
of workmen ; hence slaves and individuals condemned for crimes have been employe<l to a
later period in this than in most other species of labour. Whatever skill may be employed
in mining, it is necessarily a local occupation, nature having irregularly and almost capri-
ciously distributed its objects over the different regions of the globe. Even the experiments
made to discover whether metals are lodged in any particular spot, are often attended with
considerable cost, and even peril.

Manufactures may be regarded as a process by which man creates, as it were, a value
for himself. He cannot, indeed, make any new substance; he can seldom even alter
essentially the quality of that which is furnished to him ; but he can altogether change its
character and quality, can convert a rude and shapeless substance into one eminently con-
ducive to benefit, convenience, or ornament. The excrescence shorn from an animal, the
pod hanging from a shrub, objects in themselves neither useful nor beautiful, are converted
into commodious and magnificent robes, adorned with the most brilliant tints. Almost
every natural product requires to undergo some change before it is fitted for the use of
civilized man. Grain must undergo the process of grinding and baking; the juice of the
vine, that of fermentation ; even animal food, that of cooking. But the name of manufac-
ture is not given to these processes, nor to any which do not, to a material extent, increase
the value of the substances on which they are employed. The various articles of clothing
form the principal objects of manufacture; next to which rank stufls for furniture, metallic
implements, and utensils. Manufacturing skill and industry, carried to a certain extent,
mark, beyond almost any other circumstance, the advance of a people in orts and civiliza^
tion. The savage usually employs unalterecl the substances with which nature fiirni.hos
him. He feeds on the flesh of^ tlie animals which ho has killed in the chase; he clothes
himself in their skins ; he consumes in their crude ptite the roots and herbs which tlie earth
spontaneously aflbrds. Even the nations which subsist by pfifiturago, and have made, per-
haps, a certain progress in agriculture, thoutrh they have usually acquired a desire for articles
of fine monufiicture, prefer to obtain them from more industrious neighbours, in exchange for

m consil
North
made,
observatl
be peoplT

A natl
often e\
viduals ;|
and anof
and refij
absence |

Vol,

Boomin.

IN ITS RELATION TO MAN AND SOCIETY.

281

their own rudo produce. The eastern empires, for the consumption of their courts and great
men, produce a few articles of exquisite fineness and beauty by mere manual labour, with-
out any capital or any machinery at all costly or complicated. It is among European nations,
that the two principles, the division of labour and large capital employed in the constraction
of the most ingenious machines, have enabled the manuikcturer to produce fabrics which, .
for abundance, elegance, and cheapness, have surpassed those of every other age or nation,
and have found their way into all the markets of the fflobe.

Commerce, the third grand source of national wealu, does not even aim at producing any
new article, or altering the texture or quality of that in which it truffles. It merely con>
veys it from a place in which it is superabundant, to another in which it is wanted. This
sometimes confers an exchangeable value on that which previously had none ; in every case,
where judiciously exercised, it very considerably enhanced the value attached to the article
which it conveys Irom one place to another.

The home and the foreigii trade form the two great branches into which commerce is
divided. The former, in consequence of each of its transactions being on a smaller scale,
and affording little scope for brilliant adventure and splendid speculation, attracts, in general,
less notice, and is considered of inferior political importance ; yet it is proved by Smith to
be by much the most extensive, as well as the most conducive to national prosperity. Its
basis consists in the exchange between the country and the town, of the grain, cattle, and
other raw produce of the one, for the varied commodities framed by the manufitcturing in-
dustry of the other, or, in countries of great extent, of the raw or manufiictured productions
of one section for those of another. lume trade is either coasting or inland, the former, .
where practicable, being preferred for bulky commodities, or those to be conveyed between
distant parts of a kingdom ; much of the interior commerce also passes along rivers and
canals. Foreign trade has no limits but those of the habitable globe; and, for reasons simi-
lar to those just hinted at in another case, the more distant branches are considered generally
as the most brilliant and important ; while, in fact, the trade with the countries most closely
contiguous, from its quicker returns, ranks highest in real amount and value. Unfortunately,
it has been hitherto much fettered by the jealousy and rivalry between neighbouring nations,
which make each imagine the prosperity of another to be gained at its expense, and every
commodity received from them, to be so much abstracted from its own wealth. Although
this illiberal system has somewhat abated, yet the consequence still is, that intercourse with
distant colonial possessions is more sure and steady than with any power entirely foreign.
The extensive capitals now possessed by some European powers, especially Britain, enable
them to carry on the moit extensive commerce with countries situated at the greatest di»-
tance, and even at the opposite extremity of the globe. In the interior, also, of the great
continents, there is a foreign trade by land, carried on by caravans, which are bo numerous
as to resemble armies, and proceed to an immense distance.

The instruments employed in conducting and &cilitatmg commerce, and which are chiefly
shipping, roads, and canals, form the most important part of what is called the fixed capital
of a country. Under the head of roads, the invention of railways, though yet only in its '■
infiuicy, promises to facilitate, in a remarkable manner, the interior commimications of the
countries in which it is employed.

Skct. IV. — Civil and Social Condition of Man.

The population, or the number of individuals, of whom any community is composed, forms,
if not the most important, at least the most prominent circumstance in its social condition,
and one on which its magnitude, and its place in the scale of nations, intimately depend. ,-
The ancient statesmen cjnsidered the increase of the numbers of a people as one of the most
important of national objects, with a view both to its prosperity in peace, and its strength in
war. Some politicians of the present doy take a different view of the subject, maintaining
that population in all circumstances of tolerable peace and prosperity easily keeps itself on
a level with the means of subsistence, has even a tendency to rise higher, and by its super- .
abundance to produce a distressing degree of national poverty : they have suggested schemes
for checking the progress of population.

The actual amount of the population in any particular period or country, has been involved
in considerable uncertainty. It is only in modem Europe, and in the United States of b
North America, and there very recently, that general or careful enumerations have been r
made. But in all the other quarters of the globe, tlie estimates are formed upon very vague .
observation, founded on the density with which, on a superficial view, the districts appear to
be peopled,

A national character is found to pervade every community. The particulars have been
often exaggerated, fancifully delineated, and rashly and indiscriminately applied to indi-
viduals ; but to a certain extent such a variation mak be always traced between one people
and another. The grand distinction, founded upon tne progress of arts, letters, knowledge,
and refinement, is into savage, barbarous, and civilized : the first being marked by the total
absence of these improvements; the second, by the possession of them in only an imperfect

Vol. I. 24* 2L

288

PBINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY,

Pabt n.

and progressive degree ; the third, by their having arrived at a certain maturity. The savage
state prevails among the natives of America, and tlie islanders of the South Sea ; the former,
however, being now in a great measure supplanted by Euroiwan colonists. I'he barbaroua
state is general throughout Africa, and extends over a great part of Asia. The civilized state
is found in the great empires of Eastern Asia, and in a higher degree, as well as under dif-
ferent chiuucters, among the nations of Europe, and tiieir widely-spread colonies. In these
last, too, civilization appears to continue in a progressive and advancing state, while over the
rest of the world it is nearly stationary.

The religion professed by any people is a remarkable and most important feature in their
social condition. Religious opinions do not come directly under the cognizance of the
geographer ; but he is (»lled upon to mark this, as a particular in which nations strikingly
differ from each other. The inhabitants of the earth may, in rerard to religion, be divided
into three great classes, — Christian, Mahomedon, and Pagan. The first, as to numerical
amount, does not exceed the second, and still iiills short of the third ; but the nations pro-
fessing it, have acquired such an ascendency in arts, social improvement, and political
power, while their colonics have filled, and are multiplying over ail the lately savage and
unoccupied portions of the globe, that in all probability this faith will, in a few generations,
be more widely diffiised than any other. Tlie Mahomedan nations, though in numbers they
perhaps equal the last mentioned, and though tliey occupy a large proportion of the most
fertile regions of the globe, are yet sunk into such a state of slaveiy and degradation, and
80 decidedly surpassed by the Christian people, tliat their sway is not likely to endure above
two or three centuries. Of the Pagan religions, much the most numerous, and the only
civilized, professors, are those attached to the kindred creeds of Brahma and Boodh, estab-
lished, the one over the greater part of Hindoetan ; the other in China, and other continental
kingdoms, and insular territories of Eastern Asia. From their peculiar habits, and the
immutable nature of their institutions, they are likely to adhere to these systems with
greater pertinacity than the votaries of superstition in Africa, the South Sea, and other
quarters, where the train of belief and observance, however fantastic, is of a slighter and
looser texture.

The progress of knowledge forms a most conspicuous chapter in the history of the human
species: it follows generally that train of civilization which we have already delineated. In
surveying difierent communities, various particulars connected with this subject are highly
deserving of the attention of the geographer. Among these we may mention the most
eminent philosophers, men of science, and authors who have flourished in any nation, — tlie
institutions formed for the promotion and advancement of science, — the degree in which
knowledge is ditTused throughout the community, — the establishments formed for public and
private educatioa

The fine arts, — which are intimately connected with the more elevated and intellectual
port of man's nature, and of which the successful cultivation confers glory on a people, and
polishes and improves their manners, — merit to be considered similarly, and under the same
general heads, as their intellectual attainments.

There ore various points of minor importance, M'hich yet are distinctive and characteristic
of a people, and excite thus a just and natural curiosity. Such are the amusements in which
they chiefly delight, the peculiar costume in which they are attired, the species of food on
which they subsist, and the liquor by which they are exliilaratcd, as well as tlie mode in
which these articles are prepared for their use. .-, ' >.

Skot. V. — The Langw^et of the World.

On the subjects now enumerated, it has been judged sufllcient to indicate their nature,
and the light under which they will be treated, reserving the details for the succeeding part
of the work, when they come to be considered successively in reference to the various regions
of the globe. But there is one subject into which it will be expedient, even at the present
stage, to enter more particularly.

Language is one of the strongest characteristics by which nations are distinguished from
each other ; at the same time the dialects spoken by different communities, even when most
widely dissimilar, display in many cases relations and alliances indicative ol^ a common origin.
There exist over the world classes of languages, each of which comprehends the speech of
numerous people, and forms a tie between them, marking early relations and connexions.
Language thus acquires a character especially geographical, illustrating the origin and fami-
lies of nations, and the connexions between different countries. It will then be advantageous
to consider, in a large and comprehf nsivc view, first, the languages spoken generally over
the globe, and then those which prevail in its different quarters.

The languages by which the nations of the earth are distinguished, and from w hich are
derived tlio names, not only of its princ^l features, natural and artificial, but of its different
regions, and of the placet contained in them, constitute an important department of geo-
graphy. When we contemplate those names in maps, a little reflection suffices to convince
us that most of them are to be regarded, not as mere arbitrary or fortuitous appellations, but

Book III.

IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY.

u terms of definite meaning, or as significant memorials of the people by whom they were
imposed ; and, in tracing thoae of ancient origin through the mutations they have undergone,
we are compelled to summon history to the aid of geography, for the purposes of cxplammtf
them with reference to the great events which have, from time to time, altered the political,
civil, and social condition of the nations composing the great family of mankind. Thus,
without adverting to tlie rise, growth, and extinction of kmgdoms and empires in Asia, we
may observe, tliat the series of revolutions which ended in the overthrow of the Roman
empire, and the foundation of the existing system of Europe on its ruins, is in nothing more
remarkable tlian in the change which it contributed to produce in the greater part of the
world, through the migration of nations ; a change so absolute, that it has served to mark
the distinction between ancient and modern history, ancient and modem geography, and
ancient and modem languages. Of this change the geographer, equally with the historian,
is at every step of his investigations reminded. France, for instance, commemorates in her
modern name that branch of the Germanic fiimily of nations who prevailed in Oaul ; vet
ahe retains, not less in her topographical vocabulary than in her language generally,
unequivocal traces of Roman dommion ; and we recognise, though strangely curtailed, the
imperial appellations Augustodunum and Aureliana, in Autun and Orleans. Italy and
S{Hiin, preserving semblance of their ancient names, exhibit similar instances of disfigure-
ment in those of^rticular places : Forum Julii and Casar-Augusta survive in Frinli and
Saragosm ; but the Trasimene suggests a less classic reminiscence as the lake of Perugia ;
nor can the Betis and the Durias be recognised under the more sonorous names, the Gua-
dalquivir and the Guadalaviar (the great river and the white river), conferred on them by
the Arab conquerors of Sp&in. Apptsllatives, also derived from languages little known,
whether ancient or modem, are liable to mutilation from the varying orthography of travel-
lers ; and we can no longer wonder at the confUsion caused by voyagers in this particular,
when we call to mind the difference not only between foreign and vernacular names, but
between their written and oral expression ; as when a German spells his native country
Deutschland, and pronounces it Teytshland; or a Persian writes for Persia Iran, and pro-
nounces it Eeratin. But the different idioms of the human race claim our attention from
(kr higher considerations than the mere naming of places or of countries ; for geography,
considered as an auxiliary to what has been emphatically called " the proper study of man-
kind," is principally valuable as combining, with a description of the earth, a view of the
different branches of the great human family by whom such vast portions of it have been
" replenished and subdued."

Ethnography is the term \vhich has been employed to designate this branch of geographi-
cal science. It distinguishes nations by their languages, and professes to class them in kmg-
doms, families, genera, speciep and varieties; but this systematic arrangement is as. yet ftr
from being completed. Of the numerous languages that are or have been spoken on the e&rth,
many are so imperfectly known that it is difficult to determine to what family they belong.
For this and other reasons it has been deemed expedient by a modem writer, who appears to
have collated the labours of his predecessors on the subject,* to adopt a geographical arrange-
ment, and consider languages in their relation to the five great divisions of the globe; the
Asiatic, the European, the African, the Oceanic, and the American. It is obvious, how-
ever, that the ethnographical and geographical limits of a nation and its language may be
widely different; the Spanish and the British, for instance, extend ethnographically to the
remotest regions of both the Indies. Adopting this arrangement, not only as most convenient
in regard to a branch of knowledge still in its infancy, but as most suitable to a geographi-
cal treatise, we shall proceed, without pausing to discuss the merits of any particular theory,
to oflTer, in this and subsequent parts of the present work, such a succinct view of the known
languages of mankind as its just proportions will allow.

The distribution of languages into Shemitic, Hamitic, and Japhetic, according to the
scriptural account, seems however entitled to some notice, as being well warranted in rela-
tion to the early languages of the world, if we can reconcile our thoughts to an affinity of
languages after their confusion, and the consequent dispersion of the human race. It has
been placed in a striking point of view by the able author of the " History of Maritime
and Inland Discovery," in Dr. Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopadia ; and a brief sketch of his
observations may be useful as an introduction to an account of languages more strictly
geographical.

On reference to the sacred records, we find that in the order in which the generations of
the sons of Noah are given, Japheth takes precedence of Ham and Shem, and is called the
elder. This the learned writer we are now citing has not noticed ; he has taken the names
in the order which long and universal usage has sanctioned.

" The family of Shem," he observes, " comprised the pastoral nations which were spread
over the plains between the Euphrates and the shores of the Mediterranean, from Ararat to
Arabia. The Hebrews themselves were of this stock ; and the resemblance of their Ian-

* Beibi, Atlas Ethnographique du Globe. Parin, VdH.

384

PWNCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY,

Pakt n.

gyutge with the Aramean, or ancient Syrian, and with Arabic, sufficicntlv proves the iden-
tity in race of what are called the Shemitic nations. There is no difficulty in oiwigning to
each of the sons of Shorn his proper situation. Elam founded the kin(j^om of Elymeis ;
Assur, that of Assyria; and Aram, the kingdom of Aramcu or Syria, a name Mtill clearly
preserved in that of Armenia. From Arphaxad were descended the Hebrews tliomselvos,
and the various tribes of Arabia ; and this close affinity of origin waN always manifust in the
lanffuage and in the intimate correspondence of the two nations. Some of tlie names given
by Moses to the children of Shem are still used in Arabia as local designations : thus there
is still in that country a district called Havilah ; and Uzal, the name given to Sana by the
sacred historian, is not quite extinct.

" The descendants of Ham," continues this learned writer, " constituted the most civilized
and industrious nations of the Mosaic age. The sons of that patriarch were Cush, Mhraim,
Phut, and Canaan. The naine of Ham is identical with Cham or Chamia, by which Egypt
has in all ages been called by its native inhabitants ; and Miter or Mitraim is the name by
which the same country, or more probably the Delta, is still known by the Turks and Ara-
bians." [We may add, that it is the name by which, in the original Hebrew, Egypt is called
in the admonition that precedes the decalogue.] " The land of Phut appears to signify Libya
in general ; and the name Cush, though sometimes used vaguely, is obviously applied to the
southern and eastern parts of Arabia. The names of Saba, Sabtah, Ra^ah, and Sheba,
children of Cush, have long survived in the geography of Arabia. The posterity of Canaan
rivalled the children of Mizraim in the early splendour of arts and cultivation. Though the
Canaanites, properly speaking, and the Phoenicians, were separated from each other by
Mount Carmel, yet, as tlie same spirit of industry animated both, they may in a general
sense be considered as one people. The Phoenicians possessed the knowledge of the Egyp-
tians, free from superstitious reluctance to venture upon the soa. Their local position
naturally engaged them in commercial enterprise. Their chief cities, Tyre and Sidon, had
reached the highest point of commercial opulence, when the first dawn of social polity was
only commencmg in Greece."

To Japheth, " the Japetus of the Greeks," this writer concurs with others in ascribing
the superiority over the sons of Noah, if not in the number of his descendants, in the extent
of their possessions. All the Indo-Teutonic nations, stretching without interruption firom
the extremity of Western Europe, through the peninsula of India, to the isle of Ceylon, he
considers as belonging to this common ancestor. The Turkish nation also, occupying the
elevated countries of central Asia, boasts the same descent. Their own traditions accent
with the Mosaic history; and indeed the affinities of language, which arc still evident among
all the nations of the Japhethian family, fully confirm the relation of the sacred writer ; yet
the meaning assigned to the patriarch s name in the Sanscrit language, Yapati, " lord of
the earth," tells for nothing unless we can suppose the name Japheth to be thence derived.

To Gomer, the eldest of Japhetli's sons, is ascribed, on the authority of Joscphus, the
distinction of being ancestor of the Celts. Magog may have been the founder of some
Scythian nation. Madai is recognised as the ancestor of the Mcdes. The posterity of Ja van
and Tubal, and Meshech and Tiros, may be traced from Ararat, always called Masis by its
inhabitants, througli Phrygia into Europe. Tubal and Meshech left their names to the
Tibareni and Moschi, Armenian tribes, whose early emigrations appear to have extended
mto Moesia. In lite manner tiie Thracians may have owed their origin to Tiras.

That the progeny of Japheth peopled Europe, seems apparent on another ground, which
we shall explain, after mentioning the remaining branches of his posterity. Ashkenaz, the
son of Gomer, is thought to be that Ascanius whose name so frequently occurs in the ancient
topography of Phrygia, and from whom, probably, the Euxinc, at first the Axine, Sea derived
its appellation. " In To^rmah," observes this writer, " we see the proper ancestor of the
Armenian nation, and it is even asserted by the Turks."

" Javan was the Ion of the Greeks, the father of the lonians. In the names of his sons
we find fresh proofs of the consistency of the Mosaic history. In Elishah we see the origin
of Ellis or Hellas. The name of Tarshish is supposed, with little foundation, to refer to
Tarsus in Cilicia. Kittim is said to mean Cyprus ; and Dodanim, or Rodanim, is understood
to apply to the island Rhodes." Here we may remark, that the sacred text contains a most
important record relative to the descendants of Japheth : " By these were the isles of the
Gentiles divided in their lands, every one after his tongue after their /amt{tes, in their
nations." Now, if the Oriental latitude of expression be allowed in this instance, the isles
of the Gentiles must include not only the isui» of the Mediterranean and other European
seas, but the peninsulas of Asia Minor, of Greece, of Italy, and of Spain.

To the Phoenicians must be partly ascribed the discovery of those territories collectively
called " The isles of the Gentiles," and the earliest intercourse with them. Unfortunately
those early navigators have left no records of tlieir discoveries ; and the little wo know of
their enterprises is derived from Scripture, and from the scattered notices of the Greek and
Latin authors. Tliey were, as elsewhere oliserved, the pilots of Solomon's fleet ; and as often
as the fleets of Egypt arc mentioned by ancient historians, we find them manned and guide<)

yet

BooRni.

IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETy.

i286

by PhcBniciana, Their commercial enterprises had contributed to augment the wealth of
that kinij^dom, which had attained a hi^h degree of social order and economy seven hundred
years before the Greeks became acquainted with the use of money. The numerous tolonies
which they planted along the shores of the Euxino, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic,
beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, attest the extent of their early voyages. Those of Utico,
Carthage, and Gades, or Cadiz, were founded between twelve and eight hundrod years
bofbre the Christian e*u ; but the seas of the west were probably explored for ages before
settlements were formed at such a distance from the parent state. Their geogrnphical
knowledge, even in the febulous times of Greece, probablv embraced as large a portion of
the earth as that of the Romans in the time of Augustus ; but, with the caution charnclcristic
of a mercantile people, they forbore to communicate that knowledge to the rest of mankind.
The silence of these descendants of Ham leaves us in uncertainty as to the progress of those
of Japheth in peopling the continent, the peninsulas, and the isles of Europe. In still deeper
mystery is involved the descent of the negro tribes of Africa from the father of Canaan.
Having thus briefly characterized the Sheniitic, Hamitii, and Japhetic races, we leave to
the consideration of the curious the tlieories that have been fnitnud upon them in respect to
the different idioms of mankind, and revert to the geographical arrangement which we pro-
poM to adopt

Separating all the known languages of the globe into five grand divisions, we name them
the Asiatic, the European, the African, the Oceanic, and the American, according to the
part of the world in which they are spoken. Then tracing, according to the best authori-
ties, the several languages by their affinities, we class those which appear to be sister idioms
in one group, assigning to it a distinctive name ; as the Mongolian mmily, the Celtic family,
or the Sanscrit family, conformably, in most cases, to tlie name of the principal people of
each of those families. But here a difficulty arises fVom the variance between geographic
and ethnographic limits. Several nations included in one of these groups have dwelt from
time immemorial at once in Asia, Africa, and Europe ; others in regions partly European,
partly Asiatic : to which part of the world then must the family be assigned to which those
nations belong ! Two reasons influence the decision ; the historical importance of the people,
and its mass, or relative number, as may be better understood from one or two examples.

That the Chaldeans, the Assyrians, the Arabs, the Hebrews, and other nations of the
great Shemitic family, were from the earliest times inhabitants of Western Asia, we know
from the writings of Moses, with which tlie results of the most eminent philologers and
mathematicians wonderfully agree. These nations, therefore, belong unquestionably to
Asia ; and the comparison of the Gheez and Amharic vocabularies having demonstrated an
indisputable affinity between them and the people of Abyssinia, who speak the idioms com-
prehended in the branch called Abyssinian, the languages of the latter also are classed in
the Asiatic branch, though in all epochs, even anterior to historical tradition, those nations
have dwelt in Africa.

The great mass of the Malay people occupies almost all the isles of the Indian Archi-
pelago, those of Polynesia, and some of Australia. Hence we regard the Malay family
as Oceanic, and class all the people characterized by this idiom as belonging to that great
ethnographical group. Thus, besides the Malays of the peninsula of Malacca, whose settle-
ment in the extremity of Asia is of no remote date, this division includes the Si Delia or
Formosans of Asia, and the Madecasses of the African isle Madagascar.

The Uralian nations belong equally to Europe and Asia ; because, from the little we
know of them, they have inhabited, time out of mind, the north-east and east of Europe,
and the north-west and west of Asia. Following the demarcation prescribed by M. Malte
Brun, we find that the great mass of the Uralian or Finnish nations belongs to Europe. Wo
therefore regard the Finnish family as European, and class among them all the ancient and
modern nations who, from striking analogies in their respective idioms, seem to belong to
them.

The Esquimaux have from time immemorial extended over all the north of the New
World ; while the sedentary Tchutchhis, who speak a language evidently related to the
idioms of those American tribes, occupy only the extreme nortli-cast of Asia. The Tchutch-
his we therefore consider as American colonies, ond, following the precedent of Balbi,
re-unite them as such to the other nations of America who form the family of the Es-
quimaux.

Under a perfect ethnographical arrangement, the languages of the Indo-Germanic nations,
extending from Ceylon and the Ganges to the extreme west of Europe, and even to Ice-
land, would form, not a single family, but rather an ethnographic kingdom divided into six
families.

In subsequent parts of this work, the languages of the earth will be considered as divided
into five principal branches ; the European, the Asiatic, the African, the American, and
the Oceanic.

T'f^

ll'

MAP OF EUROPE— WBR pakt.

Fia. 84.

t'> lUlKlUHWl

• Id J
*3

toifiiailt t WM

^4:

Fia. 80. *

MAP OF EUROPK— nurr past.

987

La^ilule Eail ia fnm Oimwicb Jt

.* '■

'$•'..

DESCRIFTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PART III.

« Past Of.

■^

GEOGRAPHV CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE VARIOUS REGIONS

OP THE GLOBE.

In the second part of thia work, tho princi^es of ffco|propliy havo been treated of lui
tnunilud upon a (general aurvey of the ^lobo. The mo8t cxtoniivo portion of our task itill
renminH. We must delineate tho leadinjf objects of nature, art, and human life, aa they
appear Mucceaiiively in eacli diflbrent region into whicli tho earth ia divided.

Five gtoBit general divisions of the earth are now uaually rccoffnized : — 1. Europe, 2.
Aaio. '.i. Atirica. 4. America. 5. The extensive and numerous islands of tho South Sea,
to which tile PVench give the name of Oceania, tho Enf^lish those of Australasia and Poly-
iieaia, to which wo may add the islands of the Polar Sea. Each of these will form the wb-
ject of a separate book.

BOOK L
EUROPE.

Europe ia tlie smallest in extent of the four great continenta, and yet we may pronounce
it the moHt important of all the divisions of tho globe. Asia, indeed, was tlie cradle of
civilization and knowledge; but her empires soon became, and havo over since continued
<<tationnry ; while Europe has carried tlie sciences, arts, and refinement, with almost unin

ENGLAND.

I, lliirhani

5. Miruoih
». ('arlialo

4. Ki ndiil

5. Y.irk

fi, Mnnchonlcr
7, I.incolii
8. 1'hi-iler

II. im. AiiHpn

10. t'ltnliiinn

11. Llandiiir
W. Wnri'oitir
I'l. (iloiici>Hifr
14. IVtvrlMiriiUKh
IV Niirwirh

IR. I'ainliridin
17. riinioibury
la. piivFr
111. I.uniltin
'iO. Mnnrheiter
«l. HriMol
U-i. PiHiIo
t£). KxeMr

SCOTLANO.
1. Thunii
% Ulvptn'iBa
:i. BiinfT

4. Aberdeen
.1. Penh

6. Kdinliurgh

7. Selkirk

8. Ayr

JREtiANIl.

1. l.ondiindurry

5. 8lif (>

3. Galwar

4. Limerick

5. Ork

6. Woxfiird
T. n<ildin

C. llriiiheda

9. Beinist

NORWAY.

1. Ralldillnil

3. SelneH

:!. Rys Vniid

4. PirviiB

.'i. Ilrnritnpim
(1. Roir.adnl

7 Fiiide

8 Ardiit

9 Lni'riK
10 HiTjun
It.Ti.nihil
li. P'ftvftniTpr
n. ('hrialinnpiiiul
14. Tdiwlierit

iy Kunrrlferg
in. Oiiid'
17. C^hriiitiania
la Faaldberi

W. Tonninnr
IM. FiederiokalMll

8W£DEN.

1. Turn*
9. Taiijo
;i. hideii
4. Otturaand
.1. Hundawkll

6. IJoda

7. Tara

8. Sam*

9. Iludikavall
10. Swlerhamn
n. Iluiby

13. Salii

13. Orebro

14. C«rlibad
l.t. Ovllki

16. NykupilK

17. tiinkopin*

18. JnnkupiiK

19. nnltsnburt
SO. T'llkanberf
31. Malmo

93. ChriJiianitad
93. Kalmai
34. Emin

DENMARK.

1. Aallmri
9. VVibucf
:i. Veita

4. Ripon

5. Bleawiek
A. Kiel

7. Cupenhateii

ICELAND.
1. Holar
9.BeaK!ate(l
3. Sand rail

PRITSSIA.
1. Colberf
3. Siamard

3. Sietiin

4. Berlin

5. Frankfort
fl. Powfi

7. Gneana
H. I.iaaa
9. Brealau

10. GluU

11. Hniian

12. Tiir»au

13. MafdebUK

AUSTRIA.
1. nimutz
3. Briinn

3. Tabnr

4. Praiu*

5. Pilaen

Referencei to the Map of Europe. — Weil Part

43. Anilllac

44. Pri

m. Chi

n. Llnti

7. Krema

8. Prnburi

0. Vienna
ID. Sopron
ll.nrali
13. Bruek

13. Villaeh

14. Saltxburf
IX Hall

in. priien
17. Milan
la Manlua

10. Padua
90. Venie*
21. Balluno
93. Rimini
93. Laybaeh
34. A If am
as. CarlaUdt
SI 7.Vf
37. Spalatro

ITALY.

1. Genoa

2. Turin .

3. Aleaaandria

4. Parma

5. Bnlntna

6. Florence

7. I.oahorn

8. Orbotello

0. Rome
1U. Neiiuno

11. Naplaa
13. Policaitro

13. Tarnnto

14. Bilonlo

15. Foafia

16. Peacara

17. Ancona

18. Peaaro

GERMANY.

1. Straiaiind
3. Ilnmburf

3. Bremrn

4. OManbun
.5. Oannburg

6. Hanover

7. Brunawick
H. raaael

9 Pnlda

10. Oirnialadt

11. Wiirma
13. Miillirunn

13. Freybilrg

14. ITIm

l.V Aui>liur«
ID. Munich
17. Nuremburt
IN. Ilof

19. Leipxii
SO. UrcHlen

SWITZERLAND.

I. I'onaiance
9. Buriie
3, Uene«a

WEST PRUSSIA,
I. Miinaier
9. Woaol

. (Tlevca

44. Privaa

jambarrjr
46. Grenoble

47. nil
48.Kri

4. C'<i|a>ne

5. r!iibb-nli
0. Pruym

IJiane.
. J>raiuinon
4|i. Toulon

50. Aviinon

51. Nil

HiamcB

NGTIIERLANDB.

i. Amaterdam
. Raiiordam

3. An:werp

J. Ghent
. Bruiaela

1. Luxemburc

FRANCE

1. Calaia
9. Amiena
a 8i. auintin

4. Houen

5. Evreux
0. Caen
7.SI. I.O

8. Si. BrieDX

9. Breit

10. Quimper

11. Vanaea
13. Rennea

13. Alencnn

14. <7hartrpa

15. Paria

16. Stiiaaona

17. MaU

18. Siraabnrg
10. Epinal
90. Chiiumnnt
31. <7hntillon
22. Tr.iyoa
93. nrlenna
34. Tiiura
3.5. Antren
96. Nanlea

37. I.n Ruche

38. Poiiiera

39. Gui-ret

30. Mnulina

31. Lnna
.13. Ijyona
3:1. INIncon
34. Clermont
3.T Periaaux
311. Bordeaux
37. Dn«
:«. Piiu

39. Tiiulouaa

40. Albr

41. Rralex
49. Acen

n. Aal
7. 1«
8.0«
O.La

SPAIN.
I. Ferrol
9, Santiago

3. Vim

4. Ortmae
•V LuKO
6. Aaliirca

tieofi
fiado
.. ..anea

10. Bantnnder

11. Bitboa
19. Pampeluna
J3. Viltoria
14. Rurfoa
l.V Palencia

16. Znmiira

17. Salamanca

18. Ciudad Rodriio

19. Avila

30. Senovia

31. Soria

33. Tudela
3:1. Hucam

34. Air»

2.1. Harealona

20. Tarragoaa

97. I^erida

98. Peniacola

99. Sarnf oaaa

30. Teruel

31. Ulrilla

33. Gnadaxara
3:1. Huein
31. Toh-dq
3,1. Madrid
3il. PUcontia
.T7.Truxill'i
38, Badaiiix
3!) Mnura

40. Zarra

41. Cordova
49. Andiifnr

4:), Ciiidad Real
44, Torrenuuva
4.1. Alvacele

46. Ville de Canal

47. Miirviedro

48. V^iloncia
4!l. Villencia
.K). Airuenle
,11. Murcia
.12. Vera
.1:1. Bnza
54. Graoada

,1.1. Almeria
SO, Malait

57, Ecija

58, Carmon
M. Iluebia

60, Aivilla

61. Gibraltar
03. Cadix

PORTUGAL.
I. Molaaco
Sj. Bwf •n»»

3. Almeida

4. Oporto

5. Aveyro
D. Guarda

7. Coimbit

8. Leria

9. Liabnn

10. Obido*

11. AbranlM
13.Evora '-'■■

13. Alvilo

14. Oiirique
1.1. Laxoa
16. Faro.

RivtnandlaJm.
a Dal, R.
b Moiaen, L.
Wrner, L.
d Wetter, U,
» Odor, It.
f Ellie, ft,
g Wi'acr, R.
h Rhine. R,

. Mcuaf, R.
j S'iiie, R.
k Luiia, R.
I Gariinne,ll.
m Dnuro, K.
n THiiua, R.
u Gunninna, R.
p Giiadnlouivir, R
q Ebrn, R.
r Rhone. R.
a Geneva, L. nf
t Conaiance, L. a
U Pn, R.
V Drave, R.
w Danube, R.

CORSICA.

1. C.irte

3. Porlu Vecchio

SARDINIA.
1. Haaaari
3. Orimarni
3. Cnnliari

SICILY.

1. Miwea
3. Palermo

3. Sciacca

4. Syracuae

. „»ussi

1. Enare

3. Voronez
i- Pano
S. PaHlxa

1% &°«

J Ton

\l- Kpu

ar kiikaia

34. Tavailteh

43..

43. Staroiabisc
40. Mezene
47. Labavko

Vol. I.

,R.

.
t.

,R.

,K.

., R. .
a, L. of
ince, L. o-

•V

ICA.

Vxcchlo
MNIA.

!1LY.

Bool I.

EUROPE.

temipted pragtf'M, to tlio comparatively elevatod iitato at which they havo now tniVMJ. All
th« brancliun of imluHtry aro conducted with o Mkill and to an extent unattaincd in anv other
part of tlio uurth. Kuropean voaiiol* carry on the coininerco of tiio moat distant regiona.
The niiiitury and political influonco of Uiiro|j<i in now of a magnitude witli which the rooit
powerful und populous nmpiroa of the other contuii'Uta can no lonvcr be compared. European
colonisti) hiivu now peopled, and aro more and more peopling, all the formerly lavage and
unoccupied (luartom of the earth ; and, with the exception of iome atrongholdi of ancient
and impfrfvct civilization, the whole world ia, through tlieir influence, rapidly becoming
civilised and European.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL SURVEY Or EUROPE.

EvROPi is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, and on the weit by the Atlantic.
On the south, the grand inlet of the Mediterranean divides it from Afirica ; and the Grecian
Archipelago, with its subordinate branch, connected only by a narrow atraitt the Euxine
or Black Sea, divides it fVom a groat part of Asia. Between the nortb-east extremity of tlte
Black Sea and tlio Northern Ocean is an interval of 1400 or 1500 miles of land, forming
the eastern boundary of Europe. Hod this been known to the ancients, they would perhaps
havo identiAed Europe with Asia ; but the separation ia now too deeply marked, ana ia de-
fined by too many characters, moral and political, ever to be altered. The absence of sea,
the natural and most obvioua boundary of a continent, haa somewhat embarraaaed modem
geographers; for oven a river limit is hero wanting. The chain of the Urals, running from

i Jul

5. Goija
A. Arjop
7. tiulei
R. PilH
9. Uircki

10. r,i>nii

11. Uimi
l3.Hai
13. Up

Rtfermct* to Ihe Map tf £urap<. — EaA Part.

SWEDEN

Allannard
.. Jukaa Jervl
X Gellivara

4. or Kalii

5. Gogan

6. Arjoploi

i|r«ii«lo
>iiniii(«n
mn
Hania
- . Upaal
U. Stockholm

RUSSIA.
I. Gnara
a. Kola

3. Voroiwxkaya

4. Panoi

5. Pnliiia

6. Oumbs

7. Ekotlrovikaro

8. Kandalikava
HOilankrla

Kamitraik
Rotamemi
_ rornek

IS. u1eabor(

18. Knat NoTolok

17. Kuunia

18. Viio

19. AiMoiara
JiD. Sotkanio
91. Kajana
Sa. Braki-ttod
in. Rarlflbir
S4. Pio Piqarvi
!». Pinlla .
90. fcibalira
97. Puc-nala

SH. llllOVMT

99. Waia

30. rhriitineatad

31. Bioimborg
39. Abo

33. Kilkala

34. Tavanohui
:». Bnrgo

3«. Vrhort

37. St. PolAriburt

38. Oloneti

39. PetroiHvndHk

40. Povlfloetx

41. VniovHkaya
it. ()ne««

43. Arnnangel

44. Routt

45. Siaroiabiacho
4A. Mezeno

47. t.abnvka
4fl. Nikilza
49. Ouia

Voi^I.

M. OfiiHilka
M. Golovu
S9. Bichemaia
K). Uorovtkaf a
M. Miiuiioijikara
K. Pineaa

Vofkouakri ,
BhMtilzcirakoi
H. Chalr,h«lakii;a
ISO. Karahakiivika
flO. Makaoovtka
61. Krawoboak
IB. Met«rnkava
n.'t. Yarnniik
04. Oual SiHilik
0.V Kai
on. Tchrnlin
H7. Sniikarnak
W. Vilionaku«
in. Ortova

s?;

IIH.
"I .

iia
iiu.

190.'

7U. Obira

-- GaiihkoTa
79. Miahamnvak
T.\. Ivoiovaka
74. Akaanlnrakoo
7.1. Valikouatoni

76. VIelak

77. Pudo*
7H. viiaira
79. Biiiliiiarak
83. KiriloT
Hl.Volocd*
83. Tolnia

83. Tchuehloma

84. KolochW
8.1. Nikobli

86. Bergioviln

87. Koielnilch

88. ainbiidakuv

89. Viaika

90. Nolinak

91. Glaxov
93. Ochanak
0:1. Perm
04. Oia

91. Kra'ahainiuk

Oil. Bink

1)7. Siirnpoul

98. KlabflUita

91). Malmiah
ino. K'iz:tna
lUI. Hviajik
iO-i. Kniinodemi-

aniik
103 Ynranik
lUt. ViiilniiKa
IM. Viirimvin
1116. Semanov
107. Inrevotz Povol-

akon
in». Knilrnm
lO*). JnrnilHV
no. Rlbiiiak
III Pimchon
119. OMiiijna
113. TikviD

114. Yamburt
■15. Narva

leval

>«rpi

.Ilia

«ci»arod
.... ^nWal
191. Oiiiihkai
199. Biiinvilchl

193. Viahnei Volo-

tobiikl

194. Oiiditrh
19.1 Pnlrovik
136. Kovriiv

197. Nizncf Noy-

icorod
198 ifiuinik
199. Sinblrak
i;iO. Bingilal
131. Siiian
139. Kanader

133. Ardiitov

134. Potchinki

135. Nuruvichat

136. Temnikuv

137. Murom
118. Sudoiila

139. Kaamor

140. Moaoow

IM.

155.1

156.-

141. Pnkov
149. Tier
14.3. Mnjaiik
144. Ziiblaoy
14.1. Bicliix

146. Velikie Luki

147. Cholm

148. l>akoy

149. Oalror
l.in. I.uiixin
151. Valk
159. C<'n*i>
1.W Ri/ia

liiau

.iliau

_. lemol

157. a«veni»ani
1.18. Vileika
1.10. nriaaa
IIH). Pnlotzk
161. Wiiepak
169. Velii

163. Smnlenik

164. Domgobui
1AV Kalouta
168. Kaliimna

167. Tnola

168. Kiazane

169. Kniluv

170. TiimboY

171. Tchambar
m. Ponaa .

173. Pntriivak

174. Volak

175. SaraliiT

176. Balaahav

177. Nuvokhopack

17V. yoranci
)8a Pbain
irn. hivnl
189. Krapiyna
IH3.HDlehaf
Jral
kirai
(oakivl

Joihilaw

188. hot alehav
180. Sloiiiik
"oriaeT

Irn'na
,1 Grodno

198. Rawa

197. Vldara

198. Lublin

199. Miai^lrieU
900. Rnat Ulor
90!. BieFik
»1. kobrin
903. Pinak
90«. Viaolik
9U1. Oyroutch
9M. Moiir

7. Chnlmlieh

"1. Tehfrniiiov

"T.Hw"

ielttlia

909. N

910. Rihk
9ll.pouml
919. Kourak

913. Oakol

914. VolouiU
91.1. Bobror
aiO. Paylonk
917. Zaiovikaya
9ta Kamiahin
919. ijoliniknya
99U Taarilxin
391. Tilkha
399. Koalin
393. Shealibalotch-

kaya
994. Tcherkuk
99.1. Donelik

998. Iziuna
997. Charkoy
!K8. Poltava

999. NoTomoakoTak
ZW. Kroment
931. Zolninnoiha

939. Kozelelz
3:13. Kiev
9:14. Padomiat
9:15. Jiiomir
9:!6. Rovno
9:17. Kameli
338. Ralta
930. Gaiain

940. Tchork

911. Nnvomirtorod
349. Olviopol

AU8TSIA.

1. Treuiaen
9. Schemnia
3. Ep«rl«i

ibraenn

yBoL

10. Pel;

11. St. Maria
liBaeea .

13. Belitradr

14. Temcawar

15. Arad

16. Bihar

17. Ciauaenbort

18. Carlaburt

19. Herraanaladt
SO.KuU

91. Tamopi
99. Siry,

33. Sember

34. ].ember(
9.1. gandeex

96. Sendomia*

97. Cracow

TURKEY
1. Jaaay
9. Biirlal

3. Aairad

4. Garaia

5. Ibraila
«. Sil'Mria

7. Bukaraal

8. Slatina
D.CratoT«

o*n>_

lopla
iiaa

,p1!r.

raava
icopoll
humla
luriM
lidleh

loiMaaUoopIt
... -todoflo
98. Adrianoph
"" Cavalla
rhillPPoU
labar
>to1l>

lalonioa

34. BcttUri

GREECE.

9. Butrinto
X Jannina
f Aim
5. Lepanto
' TripolHai

Bnarf and Lata

b Meiene, R.
e Pitchova, R.
d Kama, K,
• Viaika. R.
f Volia. R.
I Oka. R.
h Don, R. ,
i Poneli, 1

fpoiepar,
Dniealer, .
Pruth, £.
m Panuba, R.
n Viatult, R,
o Niemen. R.
p Dwina, R.
q Tchadakoe, L.
r Ihnen, L.
a Ladoga, L.
t Onega, L.
u Pnruveai, L.
y Bfgo, u.
wVigo.L.
X Top. L.
y Imandra, L,
X Enaie. L>

DRRCRIPTIVE OEOGRAPIIY.

Part III.

.**"!►•.

111!

north to miith, fnrnm no itnpnrtAnt n fontiiro, that it hox b(>oii tnknn oh thn gnnil liM af
liiviRiiin ; nnd in prolriictnd ti> thr Bltick Hon by mean* nf contiimoim pnrtiunH of tlie gmi
rivpiK Kiima, Vfilffti, niul IVm.

Th" limn of thig rotitiriont \n »ing\i\M]y broknn nnd vnrinil. Whiln A«in, AlVirn, and the
•wo AmnricAH nro nnrh furinnd into a vnxt inlnnd cxpnniie, Eiirnpo m Kplit into mnny dirtinrt
portiiinn; pl•ninl<t)ln^ Inrpfn inlumlN, and kinj^domx, with rxti'ndnd nnd windinj; conhtD. Thi»
form irinoH chiefly out of it« inland w-a*, which ponotrato farther, and iirc morn dunply
ombaycd, than thofw of any other part of the g]o\iii. Niimnroni pilfii, ncnrcrly ncconilary
n ninjfnifiido nnd imiHirtiinco, bninoh out IVom tlicm. Tho Mpditormnonn, which fornin,
M it wcrr', a littlo ocpim, Hcpnrntinn' Europe, AiiiB, and Aflrica, i» connected with tho Atlantic
only liy thn celobrntnd KtmiUt of iSibralUr, twenty miloa in breadth. Itn jfrtMit cncioMd
oriincheH of the Adriatic and the Dlack Sea penetrate, and render maritime, M)ine of the
moHt inland diMtriots of tho continent. In the north, the Baltic, with its grpnt pulfii of
Bothnia and Finland, is neither indeed bo oxtenHivc nor ao accoiwiblo ; but it ii of the highoHt
commercial value, oa aflbrdintr a channel by which the rude ncco8Kiiieii, tho nictala and
woods of thn north, may be exchanged for tho wines, tho silks, and other luxuries of tho
south. Tho British ihles, by their varied confipiration, enclose bowccn thcmiinlvcs and tlio
opposite continent several important seas and channels. We may odd, that tho mountains
and tho plains of Europe do not display those immcnxo unbroken groups, or those level and
almost endless expanses, which give so vast and monotonous a characttir to the interior
regions of Asia and Aft'ica. In general thev arc separated into smaller portions, and are
happily and commodiously interchanged. Thev have kept Europe divided into a number of
separate nations, holding easy intercourse. Probably, tiiis relative position tios been one
great cause of that intellectual activity, and those vifforous exertions in all liberal and in-
genious arts, which have raised this part of tho globe to so high a pro-eminence. Tho
immense inlnnd plains of Russia nnd Poland, presenting an aspect wholly Asiatic, remained,
even after the civilization and improvement or nil western Europe, sunk in tho deepest bar-
barism, flxun which they are but slowly and with difficulty emerging.

Sect. I. — Natural Fenlvrei.

The Bcrfkce of Europe, as wo have observed, is very diversified. Its mountains do not
reach that stupendous lieight, nnr stretch in such unbroken chain«, as those of Asia and
America: nevertheless, wo mny trace pretty distinctly two highlands, tho northern and
southern, and an intermediate lowland. I'ho Nouthcrn highland comprises tho most elevated
\nountainB of tho continent, thn Alpn and the Pyrenees, connected together by the low chain
of the Cevennes. Inferior branches fVom tho Pyrnnens extend through tho Spanish penin-
sula; while from tho Alps branch forth the Apennines, which range through all Italy,
and spread their lower slopes over thn greater [xirt of southern Germany. The extremity
of the Julian Alps, and the mnuntains of Dulmntia, connect tho range with the great
Turkish chains of Ilnimus and llhodopc ; parallel to which, though with a lurgo group
intervening, stretches the circuit of the Carpathian mountains. North of this, the great
European lowland comprises tho largest part of France, tho south of England, the
Netherlands, Northern Germnny, all Poland, and tho greater port of Russia. In tho
extreme north of Europe tlio mountainous character again prevails. The Dol'rincs roach
throuffh Scandinavia; while the nortli of England and neorly all Scotland is covered with
mountains of secondary magnitude. Of all tho European mountains the Alps are by much
the highest, and perhaps mny rank fourth to the Himalaya, tho Andes, and Caucasus, among
the mountain chains ot tho globo. Mont Blanc and Monte Roea exceed 15,(K)0 feet above
the sea. Tho luimnrous other summits of this chain exemplify all tho descending grades of
elevation. The Apennines vary from 3(K)0 to 6000 feet; but il'^tnn, at their utini>st extremi-
ty, is nearly 11,000. The mo.«t olevnted of tho Pyrenees risi-s somewhat above that height.
The Spanish summits arc in general of the level of tho Apennine, except tho Guadarrama,
which exceeds 8000 feet, and the Sierra Nevada, which equals the Pyrenees. The Thmcian
chains have not yet been subjected to survey ; but they doubtless exceed those of Greece,
which ascend to 6000 or 7000 feet, Tho Dofrines, notwithstanding their snowy and terrible
luipect, are not of first-rate elevation. The great Norwegian chain does not quite reach
JXKM) feet ; Ben Nevis is only 4;}00 feet ; nnil none of tlie English mountains roach that
altitude.

Tlio rivor.'i of Europe nro numerous, but none of them of the very first magnitude.
The two largest flow tiirough tho great eastern plain, a semi-Asiatic region, and terminate
in distant and interior sens, where they contribute little to commercial intercourse. The
Volga, which alone can come into rivalry with the great rivers of Asia, passes the Asiatic
limit, where it spreads into the great interior expanse of thn Caspian. The Black Sea absorbs
the other rivers from thn creat plain of Russia nnd Poland : it receives nlso tho noble stream
of tho Danube, whirli helongn indeed to the central region of Europe ; but directing its
lower course thrnugji barbarous nnd uncultivated regions, and terminating in this distant
feceptacle, it conduces only in a secondary degree to the distribution of wealth and plenty

Thei
of the I
some di(
been ins
some, te

Boot I.

BUROPE.

9U1

thinuKh tlin rontinnnt. Wortom Eurnpo ia tno much broken intn lepnrnto portioiu, and
oroHMxl hy hiffli mnuntain Iwrriorii, to allow to iu rivnni a longth of nmro than tWtm 4iD0 to
60() milm; anil thny hnvn iimially thiir ontiro coumc throuirh a aingln country, — the Rhin^.
tho RItio, mill tlin (Mcr, tliroiivli flormanv; tho lioiro, tho Khono, and tlin (lanmno, thruuf^h
Franco , Iho I'd tliriiii|{h Italy ; tho Kbns thu IXiiiro, tho Tii|{ua, aiul tho Guadahiuivir,
thn)ii;{li Hinin. Tho northorn rivoni of Oritain anil Hciimlinavia, rniitriclail tu a atill nar-
rownr flxlil, m>liloin accomplish an \oni/( a courao oa 9(M) iniloa. Yut, thou|;h Ruropo dooa
not prnHiMit tho gnml river* which diatim^iiiah tho greater continonta, it ia on tho whole
happily and cotniiinitiuiiMly watnroil. AlinuMt ovory part of it oiiioya the benefit of river
coininunication , it iit neither ovcrapread by tho droarv awainiM ot America, nor the aandy
doaorta which roniler uniuh:ibitiiblo ao i^roat a part of Aaia and AtVica.

The lakca of Ruropo aro iminoroua, chiufly onvloaoil within itn mountain rogiona; but fow
of them nrn of auHicinnt mik|fnitudc to rank aa inland acaa. Thoao alono entitled to thia
diatiiiitioti are the Lndoffa and the Ono({a, which, forming a aort of continuation of the Gulf
if Finland, and bcinff nituated in bleak and fVoson roginna, miniator very little to internal
intorcourHo. (^nlnnd is covered with limilar lakea. Tho Wener and Wetter of Sweden
rank next in maffnitmle, and, aurrounde<l by imninnao woixla and ircn minea, poaaeaa conHid-
orablo beauty and value. Hwitzorland, with it4 Italian bortlor, ia the chief lake-region of
Europe; ita watorn, particularly thuao of Geneva and Lucerne, cncloacd between the loflicat
anowy pinnaclcii of the Alps, preaont acenea of grandeur and beauty altnoat unrivalled ; but
they are not on auch a acalo or ao aituatod aa to afTord any important inland navigation.
Those of England and Ireland aro merely "imall picturoaquo fcaturea. Those of Scotland
are larger and more numeroua ; and a chain of them, having been connected by a broad
canal, waa cxpecto«l to form a great naval route acruaa the island.

Tho European soil ia diatinffuishcd fur procluctions, perhaps surpaasing in value thow
of any other ijiinrter of tho glubr. It does not, indeed, |i08m!«H that brilliant luxuriance of
vegetation which adorns tho equatorial regions of AhIq nnd America. But com and wine,
the most substantial and most agreeable iirticica of human diet, are nowhere produced on ao
groat a acale or in such high perfection. Grain, of one description or another, ia raised over
ita whole surface, excepting in the extreme nortit ; wines throughout all ita southern king-
doms. In hemp, flax, and wool, those staple materials of clothing, Europe ia equally pre-
eminent. Silk, another valuable commodity, it produces copiously, though not ao aa to bo
independent of supplies from India and China. Cotton is the only grout material which the
immense manufactures of Europe derive almost entirely from foreign regions. If we except
the horse and the cuinul, for which Awia is renowned, Europe contains tno most valuable ns
well as tho most numerous breeds of domestic animals. Its northern f(>reat8 produce the
finest timber in tho world, with tho exception of the teak ; and its iron, the most useful nf
metals, surpasses that of the rest of the world: but all tho more precious substances, goll.
silver, pearls, jewels, exist in an extent ao limited as scarcely to ti deserving of mention.
The cultivation of the soil is carried on with much greater diligence than in any countricH
exccpl in the south-east of Asia, while in science, skill, and the extent of capital employeil
upon it, European agriculture is quite unrivalled.

In manufacturing industry, this quarter of tho world has, within these fow eentnriea, far
surpassed all tho others of the globe. Asia, indeed, has long Ixnstcd somo fabrics of extra-
ordinary beauty, — silks, muslins, carpets, and porcelain, — which aro not yet altogether equal-
led : but the looms and workshops of Europe now yield a variety of fine and beautiful fnbrics,
in such proflision, and at so cheap a rate, as to place them within the reach of iilmost
every class of society. This continent thus clothes all tho young nations which have
issued from her own Imsom, and which fill nearly two entire quarters of the habitable earth.

Commerce, on so great a scale as to connect together the distant quarters of the world,
can hardly be said to exist out of Europe. European vessels arc found in the utmost boundw
of Asia and America, in the snowy regions of cither pole, and crowding tho ports of the
Austral continent. There is not now a place on earth, however remote, affording any flcoi>e
for tho employment of commercial capital, which is not immediately filled with the same
promptitude as if it had been situated in the heart of Europe. The ships of that continent
exceed thoej of all the others in number and dimensions : they arc also tho most skilfully
constructed, and navigated by the only seamen who are qualified to ofuide a vessel across the
great oceans. All these observations are liable to one exception : the new American states
are beginning to form a commercial and maritime system, modelled on that of Europe — a
system which may one day surpass the original.

Sect. II. — Inhabttantn.

The population of Europe, though more closely calculated than that of any other quarter
of the globe, is yet far from being ascertained on data that are very precise. In regard to
some districts, and in particular tn the whole of the Turkish empire, no census has ever
been instituted ; in others, the computation is founded only on the number of houses : and in
some, ten, twenty, and thirty years have elapsed since any was attempted.*
~" * Sec the Tabic It iilM cloae of thii book.

'■VkH

:rf : ,,,. ^...Vn— ■»Ml«M.«».~l^^

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

The people of Europe are divided chiefly into three ^eat races, which differ, to a very
mtrked dej^ree, in language, political situation, and habits of life. These are the Sclavonic,
the Teutonic, and a third which Hassel calls the Romish, as occupying the chief of those
countries which once composed the Western Empire.

The Sclavonic races cover the greater extent of Europe, since they occupy the whole of
the eastern plain bordering on Asia. The people have a resemblance to thane of that
continent; and were considered almost as beyond the social and political pale of Europe, till
within the last half century. They have now forcibly thrust themselves into the European
srstem, and rank among its most influential members. The Sclavonic people consist of
about twenty-five millions of Russians, ten millions of Poles, Lithuanians, and Letts, and
about ten millions of other races, known under the namen of Windes, Tcheches, Slawakes,
Croats, Morlauihians, which have found their way into eastern Germany, Hungary, and Illy<-
ria. Without wishing to consider intellectual and moral qualities as necessarily belonging
to any particular race exclusively, we may notice it as a ract, that the Sclavonians are, in
both respects, less improved than otiier Europeans. They have only some infant forms of
art and literature, which have sprung up from the imitation of those of the eastern nations.
They are generally subjected to abmlute monarchy, and the greater part of them are only
beginning to emerge from the degrading condition of personal slavery. All the habits of
life which connect them with polished society have been recently and studiously imported
from the west, and are still intermingled with deep remnants of barbarism. The majority
profess that superstitious form of Christianity acknowledged by the Greek church. Yet they
are a brave, enterprising, and persevering race, and have established themselves as a ruling
and conquering people, m reference to all the contiguous nations of Europe and Asia.

The Teutonic race occupies generally the centre and north of Europe ; besides Germany,
their original seat, they have filled the greater part of Scandinavia, the Netherlands, and
Great Britain, and may be reckoned at upwards of fifty millions. Under the limitatic.:s
above stated, we may describe the Teutonic people generally as brave, hardy, intelligent,
and industrious, though somewhat blunt and unpoli^ed. All the sciences, and even the
arts, both useful and ornamental, have been carried among them to the highest perfection ;
yet they are accused of wanting some of the graces and agremens which embellish the
courts and fashionable circles of the south, by whom they are treated as semi-barbarians. A
great majority of the Teutonic nations are Protestants ; and that profession is in a great
measure confined to them, and to the nations in the other parts of the world who have sprung
from them.

The race called Romish, which comprehends the modem inhabitants of France, Italy, and
Spain, has only a very imperfect claim to that title. The Teutonic nations, in conquering
these countries, poured into them a vast muss of their own population : but Roman manner
and the Roman bnguage had taken such deep root in countries which once constituted the
main body of the western empire, that the latter forms still the chief basis of the dialects
Hpoken in this part of Europe. The Romish were the most early civilized of the modem
nations. They have carried the polish of manners and the cultivation of the elegant arts
to a higher pitcli than any other known nation. In solid energy and intelligence, they
scarcely equal tlie Teutonic nations. The Roman Catholic is tlie raling religion in all these
countries, and has among them her metropolitan seat.

Certain interesting and antique races inhabit the rude and mountainous extremities of
Europe. The Celts were the most numerous people, and at a period of high antiquity, the
possessors of all western Europe. Subdued and disarmed by the Romans, they rapidly declined
when the falling empire could no longer protect them, and became the helpless victims of
tliat mighty torrent of barbarous invasion which poured in from the remotest extremities
of Europe and Asia. At this dreadful period they sought or found a refuge, partly in Ire- _
land and the Highlands of Scotland, where they exist under the name of Gael ; partly in
Wales and Britany, where they are called Cymri ; and partly in the north of Spain, where
they are termed Basques. Having retained their condition unaltered during so many ages,
they cherish a fond attachment to antiquity, and trace their pedigree higher than any of the
Romish or Teutonic nobles. They have a traditional poetry celebrating the exploits of their
ancestors, to which tliey are fondly attached ; but in general they have, in the rapid pro-
gress made by the more modern races, been lefl somewhat behind ; though individual emi-
grants have raised themselves to eminence in every department. Hassel calculates the
Gael at 3,720,000, which, from the last census of Ireland, must be much too low ; the
Cymri at 1,610,000 ; the Basques at 630,000. The Oreeks, once the most illustrious of all
the races, no longer plant their colonies along the shores of the Mediterranean, but still
occupy their old seats, and are spread through difleront parts of the Turkish empire. De-
pressed by two thousand years of slavery, they had ceased to display those high attributes
which excited the admiration of mankind ; but the prospects of independence which they
have now opened for themselves, afford some hope that they may regain their place in the
scale of nations. Their number may be about 2,100,000. The Jetcs, that singularly inte-
resting people, are spread through all Europe, b<it especially the eastern countries, Poland,

lities of
lity, the
leclined
ctims of
remities
in Ire-,
wrtly in
whore
ny ages,
y of the
of their
ipid pro-
aal emi-
ates the
ow; the
us of all
but still
._. Dc-
ttributes
ich they
:e in the
irly inte-
I, Pokni),

re.

Book I.

EUROPE.

S»3

Russia, and Turkey. They are supposed rather to exceed 2,000,000. The Gipaiet, in aii
humbler sphere, are strangely scattered over all Europe to the supposed number of 340,000;
a wild, roaming, dcmi-savage race, of unknown origin, but probably Asiatic rather than
Egyptian.

Several Asiatic nations have penetrated by conquest or migration into the east of Europe.
These are chiefly Tartars, whom Hassel estimates at 3,250,')()0 heads. The most prominent
branch is that of the Turks, the ruling people in the Ottoman empire, though they form in
a few districts only a majority of the population. It seems doubtful, however, if all the
Tartars who wander over the southern steppes of Russia can be considered as Asiatic in their
origin. Ttie Magyars, who, to the number of 3,000,000, prevail in Hungary and Transyl-
vania, appear to be also Asiatic, or at least to have sprung from that most eastern border of
European Russia, which can scarcely be distinguished from Asia.

Tlie religion of Europe is almost entirely monotheistic. A mere handful of pagans, the
Samoiedes, are found in its north-eastern extremity, on the shores of the Icy Sea. Europe
is almost entirely Christian ; and the small population of Mahomedans who have found their
way into it consist of Asiatic races, Turks and Tartars. The Jews, however generally dif-
fused, have nowhere a national church, nor are they in any nation fully identified with the
body of the people. The Christians of Europe are divided into tliree great churches, the
Greek, the Latin or Roman Catholic, and the Protestant

The Greek or Eastern church, which was that of the Constantinopolitan empire, was
severed from the Latin by the great schism in the ninth century, caused by some abstruse
questions respecting the nature and person of Christ It is still professed by the modern
Greeks, is the established religion of Russia, and has votaries in Hungary and all its append-
ant territories. Hassel reckons its numbers at 32,000,000 ; Malte-Brun at 50,000,000 — a
strange discrepancy. We should think the former much nearer the truth, though perhaps
somewhat under it This religion having been long prevalent among unenlightened and
degraded nations, has become encumbereKl with empty pomp and childish ceremonies ; and
many of its clergy are ill-informed and of irregular lives.

Tne Roman Catholic religion, which reigned so long with supreme sway over Europe,
embraces still a numerical majority of its people. In Italy, Spain, France, and the dominions
Df the house of Austria, it is dommant and almo-st exclusive. It still holds attached to it
1 large portion of the smaller states of Germany, and of the Cantons of Switzerland. The
greater part of Ireland and of Russian Poland continue attached to it, without regard to the
opposite systems supported by the state. Tliat intolerance which gave birth to so many
struggles in attempting to extirpate the Protestant fiiith, has been greatly mitigated, and,
except in Italy and Spain, all professions enjoy an almost complete toleration. Tlie number
of Faman Catholics seems lO be fairly estimated at between 90,000,000 and 100,000,000.
The absolute authority of the Pope in matters of faith and worship, auricular confession, the
prohibition of tlie Scriptures in the vulgar tongue, and a splendid ritual colculated to dazzle
the eyes of the multitude, form the peculiar characters of the Roman Catliolic system. The
monstrous pretensions once advanceil to excommunicate and depose kings, and to grant indul-
gences to commit crime, seem now to be generally withdrawn.

Tlie Protestant or Reformed religion raised its standard early in the fifteenth century, and
made most rapid progress, especially in the north of Europe. It sought to purge Christianity
from the superstitious observances which ha<l enveloped it during many ages of darkness ; to
introduce a more spiritual and simple form of worship ; to break up the institutions devoted
to celibacy ; to deny human authority in matters of doctrine, and rest it solely on the found-
ation of Scripture, It had to maintain a dreadful struggle against the Romish see, which
armed in its cause all the great monarchs of Europe ; and in France and Bohemia, after
taking deep root, it was nearly extirpated. It has been finally established, however, in Great
Britain, in the Netherlands, the north of Germany, and tlie Scandinavian peninsula. Not-
withstanding its numerical inferiority, it now ranks among its votaries the most powerful, the
most opulent and the most intelligent nations of Europe and tlie globe. Its rejection of
human authority, and direct appeal to the Scriptures, have caused it to be split into numerous
sects and divisions. The most prominent is into Lutherans and Calvinists ; tlie Luthcraas
retaining still many of the Romish rites and doctrines, to which, in every point, the Calvinists
place themselves in the most decided opposition. The Englisli church may be considered a
sort of medium between the two, inclming nearer to tiie Lutheran. In the Protestant
countries, numerous smaller sects have asserted the right of private judgment, on which the
Refbrnintion was founded. Among these are tiie Anabaptists, chiefly in Germany, the Neth-
erlands, and England, whom Hassel perhaps underrates at 240,0(K) ; Methodists and Quakers
in Britain, estimated at I9(),(K)0 ; the Moravian brethren in Germany, 40,000. The Unita-
rians have an established church in Transylvania, comprising 40,000 souls, and are difliised,
openly or secretly, through tlie other European countries, especially Britain.

In learning, nrt Kcionce, all th** piirsiiits which dcvclope the intellectual nature of man,
wiiich refine and pnlirirn liis idens, Europe has fur surpassed every other continent The
enioiros of Southern and Eai-tcrn Asia alone liiive an ancient traditional literature, of which

85*

'HT*'

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

the remains are yet preserved. But, besides being now in a very decayed state, it never
included any autiientic history, sound pliilosophy, or accurate knowledge of nature. An
extravagant though sometimes ]X)ctical mytiiology, proverbial maxims of wisdom, and a
poetry replete with bold and hyperbolical images, compoHe almost its entire circle. The
science of Europe has been employed with equal success in exploring tiie most distant regions
of the universe, and in improving tlie condition of man in society. Astronomy, which else-
where is a mere mass of superstition and wild conjecture, has here not onlv delineated witli
perfect precision the situation and movements of the heavenly bodies, but has disclosed
numberless systems of worlds, of which without her aid the existence could never have
been suspected. Chemistry, which was formerly a mere collection of empirical receipts and
chimeras, is become a mighty science, which analyses the meet secret operations of nature,
and discovers important, and before unknown, substances. A similarly sound and compre-
1,^, hcnsive character marks her attainments in physical science, and in every branch of natural

',i\ ,., history. In regard to poetic fancy, although some natural flights may be found among the

rudest tribes, and though the Orientals possess a peculiar vein of learned and studied orna-
ment, it is in Europe, during either ancient or modem times, that the polished and classic
models of poetical composition have been exclusively produced.

The invention of printing, and tlie consequent general diflusion of information among all

classes, are features especially European. By their means, in its enlightened countries, the

essential branches of knowledge are now placed within the reach of the humblest classes,

^ and even tlie highest branches are not absolutely beyond tlieir attainment. The endowments

* for tlie support of learning are very extensive, founded in a great measure during the middle

ages, and bearing some stamp of the then infant state of literature ; but they are now adapting

i*f themselves to modern improvements. The extensive and extending institutions for the

T^ instruction of the lower orders have produced a general diflusion of intelligence, to which

in the other parts of the world, if we except America, there is nothing analogous.

The political state of Europe is also peculiarly fortunate. Elsewhere, with rare exceptions,
u turbulent anarchy prevails, or vast empires are subjected to the absolute sway of a single
despot. It is in this continent only that the secret has been found of establishing a regular
and constitutional liberty, in whicli the extremes of tyranny and licentiousness are equally
avoided. Even the absolute monarcliies arc generally administered with mildness, according
to legal forms, and afford to the bulk of the people a tolerable security of person and pro-
perty. The European states have also establisheil among themselves a balance of power,
wiiich sets bounds to the encroachments of any particular state, and has repeatedly rescued
the whole continent from the imminent danger of universal subjugation. The military and
naval [wwer has been raised to a height, to which none of the other continents can offer any
effectual resistance. A great proportion of them has now been conquered, occupied, or
colonised by Europe; and if the whole is not reduced under this condition, it is only through
distance and extensive deserts that many great countries still preserve their independence.
The geology of Europe will be more odvantageously treated of under its respective
countries.

Sect. III. — Botany.

The botany of Europe presents some general characters, which it may be important to
notice. In the preliminary observations, we have given a very general and rapid sketch of
the vegetable geography of the globe, taken in its more enlarged sense. We must now
survey it in its subordinate divisions; and the plan which we have prescribed to our-
selves, is, in the first instance, under the great principal divisions of the eartli, to mention
the more striking vegetable features ; and then, under each respective country, to give a
more particular statement of the plants belonging to it which deserve notice, either from
their extreme abundance, their rarity, their peculiar properties and qualities, or some circum-
stance of general interest.

The nature of the present publication only allowing us to consider, in a very general
way, tlie vegetable productions as connected witli their geographical distribution, we can-
not devote much space to what concerns the primary divisions. The artificial boundaries
of Europe, especially to the east and to the south, are of that nature that many of what
might otherwise be ranked among its more striking botanical features arc gradually blended
into those of Asia on the one hand, and of the north of Africa on the other. Liocal circum
stances, as we have already seen, affect the presence or absence of certain plants, to an extent
more than equal to that of any artificial geographical arrangement. Temperature, which
has so powerful an efl'pct upon them, varies in a regular progression upon a lofty mountain ;
;* but it is not so in nil situations, and with the same regulr.rity, especially on tlie great conti-

nents-, upon the plains and low grounds. "Sometimes," says the elixnicnt Mirbel, "a chain
of mountains f()rms a barrier against the freezing winds of the north,* and receives and

* T» oTti? ppnt. iTi (he rutrnrnr' iin»th nf Pwpdni), ftirinir Ihc Ken, nrii! hnrkfil hy liifly hilH, otiven h;ivfi siirnROtletl
in Ihn (i|hmi nir, unci ripviiecl llinir fruit ; while, nl thn (liil.incR of fix Sninliiih iiiilo nnrtliwaril, Uio inhabiunli
clothi' thcinsrlvrs with TiirB in the v.intcr. to |irol>!ct thunimlVM Trom the suverity of tho cold.

! f '1

[y general

we can-

Bundaries

ly of what

lly blended
»1 circum
I an extent

lire, which

linountain;

|r«;nt conti-
' tt chain

Iceives and

Ive »\icce(>cleil
iiihabitanli

Book UI.

EUROPE.

206

rcfVacts upon the plants the heat which it dcriveH from the nolar rays; somctinios a parching
Hirocco fruin the south raisen the temperature ; in some places, the winters are tempered by
the proximity to the aea ; whilst at other times all these causes combined, produce a climate
BO mild, that, to Judge of its geographical position only by the indication of the thermometer,
wo should suppose its latitude to be much nearer the tropics than it actually is. Again,
continued plains of vast extent, exactly on a level with the sea, are of rare occurrence; and
if there be but an elevation of 1000 or 1100 feet, it suffices to proiUico a considerable reduc-
tion of temperature. This, in its turn, obtains an influence over the vegetable creation ; it
changes the line of the progress of plants in their migration ; it arrests them, and limits their
boundaries. Sometimes the northern species procc^ southward towards the tropics; some-
limes those of the south migrate northwards ; and sometimes groups belonging to both of these

tribes exchange countries, passing one an-
other ; each about to establish colonics in privi-
leged stations, in the midst of a vegetable popu-
lation to which they are no less strangers bv
their physiognomy than by their temperament

We shall here confine, as much as pos-
sible, our observations to a table, by M. Mir-
bel, of the pha-nogamous (or flowering) plants
of Europe ; to which have been adlled, for
reasons already alluded to, part of those of
Asia and of Northern Africa. He divides
the northern hemisphere into imaginary belts
or zones ; the equatorial, the transition tem-
perate, the temperate, the transition frozen,
and the frozen zones. The temperate transi-
tion, where European vegetation commences,
is limited, to the north, by the disappearance
of the Olive ; the temperate zone by the ces-
sation of the Oak; and the frozen transition
by that of the Fir {Piniis sylvestris) in the
west, and of the Spruce (P. Aides) in the
east. The frozen zone is divided into two
bands; the lowrr or muthern, and the upper
or northern. Both are entirely destitute of
trees ; but in the frst band are many shrubs
and suflhiticoso plants :* whilst in the second
scarcely any thing is foimd but small herba-
ceous plants ; and these cease where the Ime
of perpetual snow commences.f Here, too,
another im|K>rtant fact must be considered, —
that, in the frozen or arctic regions, almost
exactly the same flora is exhibited in Europe,
Asia, and America.

In the extent of country to which the following table is more peculiarly applicable, the
Owarf Palm (Chamarops humilUi), and the Date Tree {Phcenix dactylifera), (fifr. 86.), are
■he plants that have the nearest approximation to a tro|>ical vegetation, and which are, of

course, the most southern. The plant which is found the
nearest to the pole, and which, there is every reason to
believe, ascends to it, is the Palmella nivalis (Hooker),
Red Snow (Jiff. 87.) of arctic navigators, belonging to
the Cryptogamic fiimily, and which will be more especially
noticed hereafter. In speaking of vegetat'on, however,
generally, and except tiio contrary is otherwise expressed,
the Cryptogamic plants ore not taken into account; partly
because wc are at present but imperfectly acquainted
with their extent or limits, and partly because they are not
fled s»now. of such general interest.

*ThR nhriiliby or siiflViitiRose plants nf the smithrrn hninl of tlin frozen none, lire fifteen willows : ihe Dwarf
nirrh {Betula Banol, the lliiiiible Iliiili (B. iiumila), the White Birch (JJ. alba)—lh\s Inst ia only found on tha
southern roasts ofOreoiilauil ; the Hoary llirch (H. infiino), the Juniper (.luniiicruH rommitni.i^ the Trailing; Azale
{A. proeHmlirna), the Blue Meniiesia (.W. rcfrulm). the IMum r"!"""^' ami f, lalifolivm, the Lapland Diapensia,
the DowMV Whiirtlclierry (Fii«ii?ii<m puk«.ircn.<\ the Marsh Whortli'herry (V. uligitioium), the Ueil (Cowberry (K
Vilis I<l,rn\ th ■■ I'ranlicrry (r. Oiycotro* , the (ilnucoiis Kiihnia, eiuht speries of llhoiloilenilron, thc> Alpine Arbu-
tus, the Crow iierry, the Common Heath, the Bhriihliy Pnteiililla, ami the Rowan Fir (Pyrui aucnpnria), on the
nuuthern shores of Greenland.

t Almost the only shriihhv plants of the northern band nf the tVo/.en zone, are the little Arctic Willow (8>/ii
foUtrii), the reticulated Willow (S. rctitulatB), and the I'oursideU Androuieila (.4 tetrcjona).

Boranui.

Data Trca. Dwarf Pa'm

■'4

■61 i

290

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.
COMPARATIVE TABLE

Part ID.

'.rv

ttt the phenogamout reitetatlon of n part of the Tsmperale TVaniitim Zmt (Palealine, Syria, Asia IMiiior, tat
tbe Caiicaiian regloiia; a portion of the north of Africu and llm inutli of Europe being comprised in tliia zone);
of the TTimptrati Zone (Central Euri>|H! as far as tliu UrnI Mniinlains and th« Ciispiuii S<!a. and parts of Tartarv
bordering upon that ten) ; of the 'rrannilian Frmcii Zone (Nurlliern Europii, Silmria, and Kniiitscliiilka) ; and all
the Frmen Zone (Polar Rufions) of the Old and Now World. Extracted from M. MirlHil'a table, in tliu Mem. iu
Museum d'HM. Jfat. de Parit. !

^^m

> of Ritanl rsMlllM.

llM«>MttM, TnfclMt, ud ArntM. AlOldau...

OrwM, UnmlacM.

Mc«« CfparartM,

Knttn, lUMlVMt,

BMb«,JuMcai,

Watai^plaRUlm, AMimwaM.

AnmnM, Aa|«ra«tM

Cfltohkuna, Colcblr«MM

Ulin, UllaeMt,

Iftrrlipus, IfarclMcw

Ittl,IrMrM

Orrbta. UrobUvM

rra|«bll.HrdmitaarMcM

^Mdwrad. Naiftin,

ralow, PafMW. ..
PlMcCoairene,.

Elni^ VIoMMWi.

MetlW, Vrtkcw.

Bartn, BupkorUarvM*
rthmrt, AHitoloehiM,

Bn hekibori). KiMfMw

■aodtl-wood, B«KlalaccM ,

DapliDa, TbymrtoM^ .<

tMitrt, UnrlPM*. «

Buckwhrat. roincoMM, ,

Oooarfont, Cktmtfoimt,

Amraatb. AnwmDlhmM. ,

Ptanlaltt PlutaftniiM,

Thrift, rtiitntavKwWs

Mwtii, NrrlartMM «

Olobwtarta, OMMltreM,

ttimnmtt frlmttlHWM,. ,

Bullarvort, LantlbiilarlVP*

Plfwort, BriofhulariMK),

Mi|bl«b«d«. BnlaaM*.

0«alUa. OrRliMf^a

Bwatlowwiirt, AporynfM,.

AruUina, Acaaibarrftr,

PnlPinoaliiin. PiilitmanlanMs,

Mndwfwd. CoBvolruUrcaa

fioraf», Boriflnn*,

UMalc. UhiMM

VvrrtlM, Verbcume, ,

JMmlMs JwiniBTM. '

Hniba, Kriclorar

KbodndeadroM, BbiNlomMW,

Vxmf. KbtBtMW,

BrtUowers, CsrapMvlMcw.

CardtiHt-llowcra. LobcllMn^ ,..,

CuBpiiuRd, BrnalbaraM

Tnwia, DipaarMT

VakriaM. ValeriaiMM.

Madden. ftaUarcar

H cuifraucklaa, raprirnlUcrM

VmbtlHfrroDa. Draballifena,

Baikrra|«% HaiirrMrWi

Punlaaea, Purlularrae

Kwwrto, ParoarctUae

HoaarlMka. CraM'ilcat,

Cvrruiak BtbMiae.

PMrklf Pcara, Opuntlacew,

rif-llart|oUa, ricotdew, ..»

OmiTda, CDCurbtlarM*.

Wllkmhrrta. OuffnrlM.

MrnlM. Mrrtsm*

Lrlkntm. Batieailar. .

RMff, RoMirrae, ,

l>fumiBaiia pluila, t^fluminoaaak- •

Bumacba, Tcrfblulharaae

BurkthoriM. Hbamneari

Cterlarla. CnnanM,

Bua, B itarrar

WoodmrrrK Oia>ldPa>>,

Babama, RaUamiorar

Oenmumi, (irfaniKiiM'

ViD4M, Ampeliilrv

Aardararh. Mrliarrar,

HoraKhratniil. Ilippucaatanraa, ...

Hapk, Aicrinnv,

HI. John'* Wort, Hrp^riciDv**', .. .

Oraa|«, Atiranltarrae

Llnd«M, TtliM>eae,

Matbiw. MalTarrw

riai, Ltiirar

Plaka, CarropbrllfBi?

Vrankfnla. Prmiikriiiat.-ea*!

Mllkwnria, Pulyyakar

■n »«'a. Drnai'r»-#sr

V.MrK Viote^

Onm riatsa, riitlavar

C'aptr, Capparidraf

rriii'irrriHia plaala, rriKlferM^. ......

I'atnltnrf. Fumaria*,

P^WT' Pap-tvcrartw

W^lrrtily. Nr(n[>ha»anart

Brrtitrrf. BrrtMrrtiliar

Moniid^il, Mi>iili|»-iiitPap

BanuarulLiB, ftanuorulat-eaa,

o.oin

•.Ml

«.tja

• OM

•.0«
0.001

•.ou
ooai

• OM

o.ooe
•.oil

0.001

0004
0.011
0001
0.001
0.011
0.0«
0.001

o.oot

O.OOf
0.011
0.001
O.OOT
0.006

oon

0.007
0.001
OOM
OOlS
0000

aoDi

0.00ft
0091
OOM

O.MI

o.m

oniQ

0.000
0.01 4
0.001

o.oto

OQOS
0.001
0.001
0.000
OJMl

0.001

ooei

0.001

o.ooi

OOM
0.1 10
0.003
0.003

1.004

• 00ft

O.Oii]
0.040
0001
0.002

O.OOI

• Olfl
004

aiHia

G.tWS
OOM
0001
001

O.Ott

t
u

8
IftO

ite

t.OOl

O.Oll
0.009

o.oos

0.01ft
O.OOI
0.009
0.000

0.001
0.008

0.011
O.OSl
O.COl

e.ooft

0.001
0.0014
0.003
0.007
0.000
0.011

0.014
•.lU

O.OOf)
0.001

ooie

0.U06
OOIA

roil

O.OOI
0.0U3
0.000
O.Odl

1.04t

0.011
0.000
1.001

0.001
I.IU

o.oot

0.0M
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.0)1

o!ooi

0.000
0.000

0.0)1
OOM
O.MS
OUM
OOlO
001

0104
006
0.003
O.OiO
l.OOft
0.O3O
0.014
0003
0.001
•.OOT
O.0U3

0.003
O.OfiO
0073

O.OOI

aooa

O.OftO

o.ow

0.007
0001
O.OOI
0.001

O.OM

fill

«.0M

o.ow

0.(IH

0.(01

o.gn

o.oot

UDT
0.ub9

J_«l.

iitu

0.009

u.uw

wc
23

]

ceo

are

thrc

limj

The

» the

•flchc

Lap]

Copt

the V

and i

the p

Euro|

the a

Amer

are ej

very 1

ofNoi

States

Europt

fu] nat

tenth :

Europe

Scho

ports ol

1. Tl

Labiati

Amcric

classed

2. Of

• Tb|a aoUIaiT Car lua ta lalrodoted (ma

4. Not a
immense ti
tleborries (

5. Both

tni
ne);
Uty

(iRll

it,4»

I'M

■ U4

Ill7

BookUI. . EUROPK ''-i 297

In the temperate tranBition zone, out of 6103 epeciee, 1202 have been ascertained to be
woody, and 6808 herbaceous ; and of these latter 9861 are known to have perennial, and
2373 annual or biennial roots.

In the temperate zone, out if 3982 species, there are ^1 '.voody, and 3(f2!i herbaceous ;
of which 2010 arc understood to have perennial, and 944 annual or biennial roots.

In the frozen tiansition zone, out of 2129 species, are 103 woody plants, and 1030 herba-
ceous ; of which 511 are supposed to have perennial, and 363 annual or biennial roots.

In the frozen zone, of the 438 species, 46 are woody, and 392 herbaceous ; of which 371
are estimated to have perennial roots, and only 15 annual or biennial roots.

We have already stated that in the frozen or polar region the vegetation is very similar
^ throughout the north of Europe, Asia, and America ; which mav in part arise from its

\ limited oxtciit, and from the continents approaching comparatively so near to each other.
^ There must necessarily, too, be a greater equality of temperature than in the other zones ;
V. the vegetation everywhere appearing nearly upon a level with the sea. In Greenland,
^houw estimates that there is hardly one-sixth of the plants that are not equally found in
Lapland. Of tlie genera of Greenland only two are not found in I^pland (Streplopus and
Ck^tis), and both occnr in North America. We shall, by-and-by, notice how analogous is
the vegetation discovered during Captain Parry's arctic voyages to that both of the European
and American continents, in corresponding latitudes. Even in Kamtschatka, one half of
the plants found by Wormskiold arc European ; and of the genera only eight or ten are not
European ; and they are North American. But, as we proceed from the Arctic Regions to
the south, wo find the vegetation gradually becoming more and more dissimilar between
America and Europe ; except, indeed, when the high mountains in the respective countries
are examined, and then the resemblance again appears. Pursh, whose flora comprises, to a
very limited extent, the plants of the arctic or sub-arctic regions, or of the lofty mountains
of North America, but is principally confined to Canada, and to those districts of the United
States whose latitude corresponds pretty nearly with that of the more temperate parts of the
European continent, has about one-seventh of his species only European ; and if the doubt-
ful natives, those probably introduced from the Old World, be taken into account, only one-
tenth: out of 716 genera of North American plants, 480, or two-thirds, also occur in
Europe, or in Northern Africa.

Schouw estimates the most striking disparities between the vegetation of the western
parts of the Old World, and the eastern parts of the New, to be as follows : —

1. The Cruciform (Jig. 88. a) and Umbelliferotu families (6) : those of the Pinks (c) and
Labiate flowers (jf) arc much the most numerous on the old continent. The first, in North
America, mny be estimated at oV, in Europe at about ^; and the otlier families may be
classed in the following proportions : —

Nonh Amertca. Fruce. Deanurk.

, . Umbelliferous - 3V tt 21

Pink Family jV Vs Ti

Labiate flowers ----- jV ■51 iV

2. Of the family with Compound flowers {Composita:), the groups of the Endives (<•)
Ci^ffi. gg (Cichoraceoi), and of the Arti-

"-^ -~ / chokf.s and Thistles {Cynaro-

cephala), are more abundant
in Europe; whilst, on the
other hand. North America
possesses such a number of spe-
cies of Michaelmas Daisy {As-
ter), and Golden Rod {Solida-
go), that they constitute one-
___ third of the compound flowers

)>i!^^^ V CBH^'tiHiMiiS^ ISL^Ob ^jSkll^ °^ ^^ country, forming a
.^Kl^W^Mb. Ikl^wflBw^^ !/■» Jrrv SSffifUnJli^. striking feature in the vegeta-
tion of the United States, and

_3. I carrying the preponderance in

^\3^ ''^. ^^J^JL^J^tKSIiflif^^^j^ [S^SXS^s^ favour of North America.
'l^^%^(^^^|^^^^g/^^10^^g', 3- I'he family of Bellflow-
'^<^^]|^^g^^ro^^^^^^fe^8,jy;^^^r ers(/)('Cflwpanti/flccg;)aboimd

"*'" of the Cardinal Flowers (Lo-

d ^^ beliacetE), in thg New.

4. Not a single species of Heath (g) is found in the new continent ; while, in the old,
immense tracts are covered with them ; but their places are taken in America by the Whor-
tleberries ( Vaccinia).

5. Both in North America and in Europe, the forests are constituted by the families of
Vol. 2N

296

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PartUI

the Conc-I)earin>; (,Con\fertB) und Amentaceous (_Amentace<e) trees ; but in America they fiir
exceed those of Curope in respect to the number of spccios.

6. In North America we tind the typce or representatives of many tropical families;

as, for cximple, of tiie Cactuses, Scitamineous plants, the Han;o {Cycadetc), the Custard

Apples {Aniwiwcea), the Sapindaceous, and the Melastomuce.ous plants: those are wholly

t wantiiiij; in Kiniilur latitudes in the Old World ; and in regard to many olliers, which are

•i^ common to both countries, such as the Palms, Laurels, Swallowworts (Asclepiadem),

J, Sumachs, Cassias, and Mimosas, they are more abundant, and generally reach a higher

northern Iiititude, in North America than in the Old World. In Europe, again, there are

fewer arborescent plants ; for, according to Humboldt, while North America has 137 trees

whose trunks reach the height of 30 feet and upwards, Europe possesses only 45 of that

character.

Siberia, Iwunded as it is on the side of Europe by the Ural Mountains, differs from the
latter country in a much less degree ; and it is mostly in North American genera that this
jt^ difference lies; aa in the presence of the genus Phlox, Mitella, Claytonia, &c. and in the

predomintinne of the tribes of Michaelmas Daisy {Aster), Golden Rod {Solidatro), Meadow-
Sweet {Spircptt), and especially of the Milkvetches {Astragalus) and Wormwoods {Arte-
misia), as well as (on account of the numerous saline lakes) the Goospfoots und Saltworts.

In the soulliern hemisphere, the vegetation is very dift'erent from that of Europe in the
corresponding degrees of latitude. In Southern Africa, Thunberg enumerates 118 species
which arc analogous to those of Europe ; which would probably be found considerably to
exceed the truth, if the species were accurately examined. Mr. Brown assures us that the
Alpine Catstail Grass {Phleum Alpinum) and the Moonwort Fern {Botrychium lunaria)
exist in the Banksinn herbarium, which were gathered in the extreme parts of South Ame-
rica : and the same accurate writer observed 45 European phoinogamous plants in Terra
Australis, of which 23 are dicotyledonous and 21 monocotyledonous, and 121 acotyledonous
or Cryptogamia; namely, 2 of the Fern family, 25 Mosses, 14 Hepaticm, 38 Lichens, 10
Fungi, 12 Alga;.* The very general distribution of plants of this class over the surface of
the globe, we have before, indeed, hod occasion to notice.

Sect. IV. — Zoology.

The zoological features of Europe, although sufficiently important to render this continent
a primary division of geographic natural history, are neither so extensive nor so varied as
those of more genial regions. We have already shown the propriety of including within
this range the southern parts of Africa bordering the Great Desert; while the western
provinces of Asia appear to partake both of the European and the Oriental zoology. It
might be imagined that such a division, including countries suffering by the extremes of
cold and boat, would present animals of the most diversified nature : but such is by no means
the case, at least to any great extent. The chief seat of this zoological province appears
to be on the southern side of Central Europe, towards the Alps, or those countries lying
between the latitudes of 40° and .50° N. ; as within these parallels the greatest proportionate
number of species appear to be found. It may, however, be more natural to consider this
zoological region as presenting three minor divisions: 1. The arctic ; 2. The central ; and,
3. The southern.

The arctic division will include Greenland, the islands of Spitzbergen and Iceland, and a
considerable part of Norway, Sweden, and Northern Russia. The central division may be
said to commence towards the northern limits of Scotland, and to reach the shores of North-
ern Italy ; or, more properly, to about the 45th degree of north latitude. The southern
range includes the whole of the Mediterranean countries. Northern Africa, and Asia Minor.

The animals more particularly belonging to the arctic circle are few in species. Those
dreary and inhospitable regions afford but little sustenance to ruminating quadrupeds, or to
insectivorous land birds ; while the intense cold is as inimical to vegetation as to the pro-
duction of insects. Yet these undisturbed solitudes are instinctively chosen by multitudes
of marine animals, as secure retreats from the interruption of man, for breeding and pro-
viding tor their young. The polar seas abound with innumerable water-fowl ; they congre-
gate and build among the rocks, whose surface they almost cover by their numbers.

Of the Herring, {fg. 89.) Pennant was among the first naturalists who believed that

the countless myriads which annually visit the northern
shores of Europe, migrated from the Arctic Ocean.
, The account given by this elo(iuent writer is so inte-
resting, that we shall repeat it nearly in his own
words: — "The great winter rendezvous of the herring
is within the arctic circle. There they continue for
many months, in order to recruit themselves afler the fatigue of spawning ; the seas within
that space swarming with insect food in a degree fnr greater than in our wnrniiir latitudes.
Thus renovated, this mighty army begins to put itself in motion in the spring. They appear

*nr Ihn 1<<| Hcnt)loclonou8 plaiita it may b» obicrvcd, lliat all, cici'iit one, liin Mnri«ili'a r|uuilrjr»li:i, am found
in Uruat Bniaiii.

nrititli Hnrrinf.

Book I.

EUROPE.

200

Ptarmigan.

off the Shetland Isles in April and Mny : tiieso are only the forerunners of the prand divi-
bion, which comes in June ; and their appcurnnce is marked by certain si^^ntt, and hy the
numbers of birds which follow' to prey Ujwn them: but when the main body ttppro;i(;!iO!<, its
breadtl) and its depth are sucli as to alter the appearance of the vory occiin. It is divided
into distinct columns, of five or six miles in length, and three or four in breadth ; and they
drive the water before them with a kind of rippling. Sometimes they sink for ten or lifleen
minutes, then rise again to the surface, and, m bright weather, reflect a variety of splendid
colours, like a field of the most precious gems."

The zoology of arctic Europe has received much less attention than that of Northern
America ; we must, therefore, be somewhat concise on this head. Among the few original
writers who have treated on the fauna of arctic Europe, the learned and acute Otlio Fabri-
ciuB, many years a resident in those dreary regions, deservedly ranks foremost. He enumer-
ates thirty-two species of Mammalia as natives of Greenland, nine of whicii belong to the
genera ot Walrus and Seal {Trichecus and Phoca), and fifteen to the cetaceous order; thus

leaving but eight species of terrestrial quadrupedx, a propor-
tion at once explained by the wild and desolate nature of these
regions. The number of birds, comprehending such as are
occasional visiters, amounts to fifty-two. Seven of these are
rapacious, and five are referable to the families of Warblers
and Finciies (Sy/vi(i</(r and Fringillid<c); the remainder, with
the solitary exception of the Ptarmigan {fig. 00.), or Lago-
pus mvlus, belong to the wading and swimming orders, to
whose nourishment and increase the arctic solitudes are par-
ticularly congenial. Nevertheless:, by far the greater number
of these birds occur abundantly in more southern latitudes ;
and many extend their flight to the warm shores of tiie Me-
diterranean. Those species, in fact, which habitually live
within the arctic circle, as if by preference, are remarkably few, and offer no good founda-
tion to ground a belief that these regions constitute one of the primary groups in animal
geoffraphy.

The zoology of Central Europe may be said to commence towards the fiOth degree of
northern latitude, where a sensible change in tiie number and species of animals may be
perceived ; vegetation assumes a marked and decisive character ; and those animals which
depend for thoir support both on the produce of the earth and on the insect world are greatly
increased, at once in number and in species. Vegetables fiirnish nutrition to insects, and
seeds to birds: the former, again, become the prey of the latter; and thus
the supplies of nature are nicely and accurately balanced, with a just
regard to the preservation of all her creatures. The dark pine forests of
Norway, Sweden, and Lnpland are the most northern boimdaries of the
Woodpeckers; one of which (Ap/firnn» triductylus Sw.) is remnrkable
for having but three toes to its feet (Jig. 91.), and is more peculiarly a
native of these high latitudes. The insectivorous and omnivorous tribes
begin, also, to be common; while the wading and natatorial birds diminish
in numbers, though not in species ; for as they congregate at certain seasons
in the polar seas, so during winter they disperse themselves on the shores
of Great Britain and the Continent. We have no very precise informa-
tion as to the extreme northern range of those birds whoso chief metropo-
lis is in Central Europe ; and we are still deficient in a Fauna Scotica.
Most of the Arctic birds occur on the northern shores of Scotland, the islands of Orkney
and Shetland, and on the coasts of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. Miiller, in his Zoologio
Danica, enumerates 57 species of Mammalia, and 131 of birds, as natives of that kingdom.
Among the former, 3 only are marine, and 14 are Cetacets: while the land birds amount to
87, exclusive of 26 belonging to the rapacious genera of Eagles, Falcons, and Owls. On
comparing these numbers with those of the Greenland fauna, we observe, on the one hand,
a considerable diminution of marine Mammalia, and a very large addition to the list of
terrestrial birds ; this latter circumstance is easily accounted for, — they are not formed to
endure extreme cold ; and being dependent upon insects and seeds for their support, their
dispersion is naturally limited by the facilities afforded by nature for supporting life. Pro-
ceeding to those countries which lie towards the centre of Europe, there is a gradual aug
mentation of animal life : we may even trace this change in the local distribution of the
animals peculiar to the British islands. Many species, in every department of zoology, are
common in the southern and western counties of England, which are totally unknown in the
northern counties and in Scotland. Even among the domesticated races, a greater develope-
ment of structure under a more genial climate is apparent in the horse, the sheep, and the ox
of Britain, whon compared to those of the i.slands and mountains of Scotland ; while among
birds the gallinaceous genera, which, in the former climates, breed and live at all seasons in
the open air, are roare(l and preserved with Jifiiculty in countries farther north ; of these tho
peacock and Guinea fowl mav be cited as examples.

Thne.toed Wood^scker.

||M

III

•

[i«i

iffi

•«'

. .1*1

1»

100

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part IU.

Brown Earopcen Bmr.

The Bouthem part of central Europe is, then, the field best cnlculated for studying the
peculiarities of European zoology. Commencing with the existing (|uudrupt<(lt>, we may
remurl{, tliat while two species alone appear to inlmbit the 6old regions of Denmark, there
are thirteen described as natives of France and the adjacent kinffdoms, seven of wiiicii have
been enumerated among British quadrupeds. The great wliitn Bcur, whicli is perhiipa more
July an arctic animal than any other, disappears on the southern shores of the Polar Sea,
and is replaced in temperate Europe by the common brown species. Of this genus tiicre are,
ccording to Cuvier, but two recent species belonging to Europe, the brown (_Jig. if2.) and the
black bear. Others imagine, with some show of reason, that
there are more ; as the varieties from the first are very remark-
I able. The second is the black bear of Europe, diflcring from
that of America in many important [wints of structure : only
one living example appears to have been seen and dissected ;
and this, having died in confinement, afiTorded no clue to a
knowledge of its haunts or manners.

The VVolf and the Fox, under different varieties or species,
appear generally distributed over Europe : to these we must add
the Lynx and the Wild Cat, as the onljr true rapacious or car-
nivorous animals that have been appropriated to this division of
the globe. The Lynx, once common in central Europe, is now
only known in some parts of Spain, the Apennines, and in the northern kingdoms. The
wild cat is still said to be a native of Britain, and is spread over other kingdoms on the Con-
tinent A recent author includes among the " extinct animals" of Britain tiic liysna and
tiger whose bones have been found in the caves of Kirkdale, as forming part of the modern
geographic distribution of animals. This hypothesis lies open to many and great objections.
If such formidable and terrific carnivorous animals have existed in Europe since the last
revolution of our globe, what others constituted their prey 1 Their food being flesh alone*
what were the other races of quadrupeds destined by nature to furnish them with subsistence 1
These questions must be first considered, before we can assent to an opinion so confidently
advanced. Whatever might have been the character of European zoology before the deluge,
certain it is, that in its present state it exhibits that harmony and consistency which peculi-
arly marks a wise provision for all created things. As the number of European Mammalia
is so disproportionably small, when compared with those of Asia, Africa, and America, so arc
the species which are to keep their own class under subjection feeble and few ; and tliis law
is not only apparent among quadrupeds, but is equally observable in every other division of
animals. Now, aa buds are much more numerous, we find that in addition to the natural
enemies in their own class, there is a group of quadnipcds more particularly destructive to
tlie feathered tribes. These are the MusIcUb, or Weasels; few perhaps in species, but im-
portant in their numbers, and in their powers of destruction. No less than eight species
mhabit different parts of Europe. Like the monkeys of the tropics, many of them climb
trees and suck eggs; and by thus destroying birds in every stage of life, from the egg to the
adult, are peculiany adapted to prevent an undue increase of numbers.

On the granivorous quadrupetls it may be observed, that although the woods of Europe are
deficient in that variety of pulpy fruits so abundant in tropical countries, and upon which the
numerous monkeys, bats, and other animals of those regions principally live, yet there is a
03 great diversity of nuts and grain. Hence we find a propor-

tionate number of small quadrupeds, whose subsistence en-
tirely depends upon these boimtiful supplies of nature:
under this head may be enumerated the Hedgehog, Squirrel,
and the various Mice, of which seven species belong to
Europe. The Beaver (Jig. 93.) is found in the vicinity of
the Rhone, the Danube, the Rhine, and other of the larger
European rivers. If naturalists are correct in considering
this to be identical with the American beaver, it is one of
tlie very few instances of the same species of animal inhab-
B«a»et. iting the temperate parts of the old and new continents.

The black bear of Europe was long confounded with that of America; and a similar differ-
ence may possibly exist between the beavers of the two continenta.

The different species of Mice, &c., now arranged under many genera, form an important
part of European zoology ; as will appear from the following list, furnished by Mr. Grifiitli
'rom the valuable Mammalogie of M. Desmarest : —

Arvicnia amphibiuB Water Rat.

arvalia Field Moiiso.

— — — Ailviia FiilvntiR riiltrt.

ortientorati^nsiii Htranbiirfr ditto.

Genryclm» Norve):icu8 Thn Leiiiniiiig,

ti'rrcstriii Land ditto.

MuB sylvatiriig Fiold Mouse.

^— campcBtris Plain ditto.

MiiB muKuliia Hoiisn Moimr.

nii?88ariiiH Ilarv»!t ditto.

iiiiiiiitiiB Riiinll ditto.

niirariiiR Sntnic ditto.

Boririiiiis Sliri'W-liko ditto.

dichriiriiH Pnrtyoolmircd Rat.

iHlandicua Iceland ditto.

•'^

» Tli
fan

oac

tog

spe

plel

norl

in t

Alp

Rtan

rupe

tict

ofC

taint

appe

exist

vario

some

tingu

althoi

the e,

Fr(

numb

being

anima

the re

Hamil

Full

Bcatteret

Then

are we a

towards i

't8 centn

tildes. 1

a defence

the middl

of the At

Oriole, in

but becon;

In the 1

of Spain, ]

bordering

On the ,

saidjasthi

we genera

such as tht

the Medite

Vol. I.

I the
may
there
have
more
r Sea,
re are,
nd the
II, tliat
;mark-
g from
i: only
iccled ;
le to a

speciei),

iU8t add

I or car-

rision of

, is now

8. The

the Con-

ffina and

> modern

jjectionB.

3 the last

sh alonci '

gistence 1

luftdcntly

ic deluge,

ch peculi-

\fammalia

ica, so are

id this law
ivieion of
lir natural
iructive to
_ but im-
lit species
lem climb
igg to the

Europe arc
which the
there is a
_ propor-
stcnce en-
' nature:
, Squirrel,
belong to
vicinity of
the larger
onsidering
^ is one of
nal inhab-
lontinento.
^ilar diflfer-

I important
Ir. (Jriffitli

lilitto.
led Rat.

■^■•

BooeI.

EUROPE.

aoi

The Ilamstors, remarkable for their cheek pouches, and lielonging to the snmo natural
family as tlie mice, have their chief metroiKilit) in Siberia; yet one species {CHcrluii vuU
ffaria) extends to central and nortiiern Eurupu. Tlio Marmots (Arclomyn Marmnttii, Bo.
bac) are likewise nucivorous, and occur on Uie mountains of central and norttiern Europe,
together with the Spermophilua cUillug, or Soulisk of the Germans. Of tlie I lure, four
species are European, the snowy, the common, the calling, and the rabbit ; and these com-
plete tiie list of European Glireg.

Among ruminating quadrupeds, the Elk and Reindeer are well-known inhabitants of the
northern countries ; the latter giving place to the Fallow-deer, the Stag, and the Roebuck,
in the midland parts of Europe. In the lofly mountains and inaccessible precipices of the
Alps and Pyrenees, the Chamois, Yzard, and Ibex still live in partial security, notwith-
standing the daring intrepidity of their hunters. The Musmon is another European quad-
ruped deserving particular notice, as being generally considered the origin of all our domes-
tic breeds of sheep. It appears still to exist in a state of nature among the high mountains
of Corsica and Sardinia; and although now extirpated upon the continent, is well ascer-
tained to have formerly been common in the mountains of Asturia in Spain. Lastly, it
appears incontestable that the ox, one of Uie most valuable of nature's gifts to man, originally
existed in a wild state over the whole of Europe, but whether as a distinct species or mere
variety is still uncertain. The white ox of Scotland is a peculiar breed, still preserved in
some few parks of the nobility, and will be noticed hereafter. But a much larger race, dis-
tinguished by Hamilton Smith under the name of the Fossil Urus {Griff. Cuv. iv. 414.),
although, probably, in existence long after the invasion of Cojsar, is now only known, like
the elk of Ireland, by its gi^ntic bones.

From this brief enumeration of the European quadrupeds it will be perceived that their
numbers are too few, and tlieir original dispersion too obscure, to allow of any correct notions
being formed as to their natural distribution. With regard to the origin of our domestic
animals, and the several races, breeds, or varieties that have apparently sprung from them,
the reader must be referred to the writings of F. Cuvier, and the extensive resenrches of
Hamilton Smith, whose acquaintance with the order of ruminating animals, more particu-
larly, is, perhaps, superior to that of any other living zoologist.

The ornithological features of the zoological province to which Europe belonn^s, have
already claimed our attention. We shall, therefore, now merely notice a few circumstances
connected with the ornithology of central Europe. On the highest
summits of the Alps, and in the vast forests which clothe their sides
in Hungary, Switzerland, and the Tyrol, are found nil the four spe-
cies of European Vultures : only one of these, Vtiltur fnlvus (Jig,
94.), appears to have a range in countries farther north ; yet all are
distributed over the southern kingdoms, and two are again met with
on the northern lunits of Africa and western Asia. The Iceland or
gyr Falcon, long supposed to bo peculiar to the high northern lati-
tudes, is now considered the same with the Falco candicans of the
northern parts of Germany. The wide geogmphic range of the
rapacious order has already been odverted to ; nor do we find any
species besides the Vultures which serve to mark the ornithology
of central Europe. The forests of Germany, Austria, Switzerland,
and France appear to contain all the European Woodpeckers, which,
notwithstanding their wide dispersion, are but thinly and partially
scattered in the northern and southern kingdoms.

The range of the small insectivorous birds, or warbV.rs, requires much investigation ; nor
are we at this moment aware of any species in Germany which does not occur in Prance or
towards northern Italy. The few gallinaceous birds of Europe are nearly all found towards
its centre, although the different species of grouse seem to affect the more northern lati-
tudes. The warm covering of feathers which protects their feet, is peculiarly adapted as
a defence from the intense cold of the polar regions. The Bustards, on the contrary, occupy
the middle regions of Europe, and extend latitudinally fl-om the confines of Asia to the shores
of the Atlantic. The Bee-eater (Merops apiaster), the Roller, the Hoopoe, and the Golden
Oriole, in their annual migrations from Africa, visit all the central parts of the Continent,
but become progressively scarce as we advance northward.

In the third portion of the European range, we comprehend the south of France, the whole
of Spain, Italy, and Turkey, together with the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean Sea
bordering Asia Minor, and Northern Africa.

On the geographic range of the quadrupeds more peculiar to those countries, little ran be
said ; as the materials to be gathered from the relations of travellers unacquainted with zoolopy
are generally most imperfect. There is no evidence of the great northern ruminatinrj animals,
such as the Elk and the Reindeer, being found wild in any of the countries which border
the Mediterranean Sea, although a small species, probably the fallow deer or the roebuck,
Vol. I. 26

Folvoui Vullun.

.MrT.

8USI

DESCRIPTIVE GEOTiRAPIIY.

Pamt ni.

in rcprowntnd m still to lie met with in thn oxtonHJvo fiiroHts nf Calabria. The Porcupine,
now wild in IhiiM) countrim, in supposed, (but with a slicrht nlinw of reason,) to have been
intnxliicod rtoni AtVira; but for what purpose we are unuilbrnii'd. Thn Huffalo is domesti-
ciUcmI ill (Jrocpn luid Turkey, and somcpiirtsof southern Italy ; where it is sometinics, though
rarely, iHi'd for draujfht.

Tin' (irnitliolojry of the rountries bordering upon the Mediterranean presents many
mteri'stin;,' peculiarities. The vultures, which are seldom found northward of the Alps,
(tccur niciro ireiiunntly as thn climate becomes wanner. This tribe appears to follow the
cours(- of the Apennines iti Italy, and of the higher mountains of Spam and Greece, from
whence they extend their ranjfo to Asia Minor and northern Africa. The Imperial Eagle
{Fako imperialin Tern.) is chiefly found in southern Europ«), while the Gohlen Eagle is
iiuich more numerous in the colder latitudes. The gigantic (Vwls of the polar regions are
hero unknown ; but two or three homed spccipfi, of diminutive size, follow the migratory
troops of smaller birds in their annual journeys across the Mediterranean. Two of these
small owls have not yet been described. In the extensive family of the warblers, ' many
appear ])eculiar to Italy, Spain, Sicily, luid Sardinia ; and in the latter Mand there has recently
~ been discovered a second species of European Btarl ing ( Sturnu*

unicolor Tem.) (Jig. OTy) The grouse of northern Europe are
rarely, if ever, seen. But two species of bustard {Olis Tetrao
and Ilmtbara) seldom met with farther north, are common in
Spain, Italy, and Turkey. Hero also we first meet with the
African and Asiatic genera Cur»oriu» and Hemipodiui ; birds
which delight in the dry and arid plains of those continents,
where they run with amazingswiflncBS. The rocky and un-
cultivated wastes of Spain, Turkey, and Asia Minor, furnish
two species of rock grouse (Plerocles) long confounded with
Biurnui Unicflior. that northern genus, of which it is the representative in warm

climates. The beautiful Wall-creeper, with its bright rosy wings, although rare in other
parts of Europe, is not uncommon in Italy ; while the Golden Oriole, the Bee-eater, the
Hoopoe, and the Roller, four of the most beautiful Etiropean binls, are so abundant in the two
Sicilies during the spring and autumnal migrations, that they may occasionally be seen hang-
ing in the poulterers' shops of Naples and Palermo. The union of the African, European,
and Asiatic ornithology on the coasts of the Mediterranean is further apparent among the
water-birds. The Pelican, the Spoon-bill, and the Flamingo, are still to be met with in these
countries ; although, from their large size attracting tlie sportsmen, they arc never seen in
anv considerable numbers.

Die European reptiles are too few to afford any material illustration of animal diatribution.
The mo.st remarkable forms and the greatest numerical proportion occur in southern Europe,
particularly in Italy and Greece, and the islands of Sicily and Malta : some of these, as the
Gecko, or house lizards of Naples and Sicily, belong to genera not met with farther north,
but common on the opposite shores of Africa and Asia Minor.

The fish and other marine animals of the Spanish and Portuguese coasts bordering on the
Atlantic have not been well investigated, and our slight acquaintance with them is insufficient
to give us uny correct idea of tiieir nature ; but on entering the Mediterranean, we find, at
Gihriiltar, many of those peculiar to much more southern latitudes. Spain and Portugal
nimuit be said, like England, France, or Holland, to have national fisheries ; but no sooner
do we pass Gibraltar, than these natural sources of prosperity and plenty are agoin opened
to the industry and support of man. The enormous shoals of Anchovies, (Jig. 96.) annually

employ, in their capture and preparation, a great number
of persons: ond the exportation of this highly flavoured
little fish, to all parts of the world, creates an important
branch of permoncnt commerce. The Herring apd, we
believe, the Pilchard, are not unknown in the fish-mar-
kets of Sicily and Malta; but, notwithstanding their
abundance in northern Europe, tJicy are scarce in the Mediterranean, and never seen in any
considerable numbers. The tunny fishery is peculiar to Sicily, although there is very little
doubt that the some fish frequents the shores ond islands of the Peloponnesus ; yet the tota'
disregard of the Turks to all sources of national wealth blinds them to this, and to every
other advantage which Nature has placed within their grasp. The Ichthyology of southern
Europe is certainly of a more marked and peculiar character than any other department of
European zoology. Of nearly 1.% species observed in the Mediterranean Sea, not more
than one-third belonged to the Ichthyology of Great Britain and northern Europe.

The Turtle of the Mediterranean is that described by authors under the name of Testudo
carella : writers have uniformly copied each other in asserting that this ia the same as the
Loggerhead Turtle of the West Indies ; and that its flesh is coarse, rank, oily, and not

;^gSg*(sis.i

AnehOTT.

a
On cor

rin.

ipine,

occn

mcBti-

liough

many

Alpe,
)W ino
<, from

Eagle
agle ia
onB are
igrntory
)f these
s, many
recently
dturnwi
irope ore
, Tetrao
nnmon in
with the
u$ ; birds
mtincnts,
f and nn-
)r, furnish
jded with
B in worm
> in other
■eater, the
; in the two
seen hang-

Enropean,
among the
ith in these
vcr seen in

listribution.
;rii Europe,
icse, as the
ther north,

ring on the
insufficient
we find, at
id Portugal
t no Booner
jtiin opened
}.) annually
•eat number
ly flavoured
n important
ng and, we
le fish-mar-
nding their
seen in any
8 very little
^et the tota'
nd to every
of southern
lartment of
la, not more

of Tettudo
jimc as the
fily, and not

Book I.

edible.

EUROPE.

.4v

8(n

Lo«(mI>miI Tattlt.

Tho acc iracy of both these atatcmentii may bn nucstioncd. Whutcvcr may be the
qualition of the Woat Indian Ixigffcrhead, wo know, flom
personal experience, that the flcidi of thu Me<litcrranoan
species ia delicioua. V\'o were once lH<cnlniod off tho iHle
of Elba, and in one morning captured a tiutficient number ot
^^ small turtle to supply tlio cabin tublo (Jir u week. They
'^ mode exquisite soup; and although one of tlio cuiiipuny wai<
ill, it aroHO fl-om repletion. Wn omitted to draw and dcKcribo
tho animal, from a Dclief that it was the llawk'n-bill Turtle,
tho only species described as inhabiting the Mediterranean;
the figure given by Gottwold (.fig- 97.) has been considered,
by Dr. Shaw, aa representing the Tvitudo carettu.
Of European insects, a bare enumeration of the gcneru would alono fill a vuluiiio; and in
tho half-artitlcial, half-natural, arrangement in which our entomological syttteiiiH at this
moment remain, it is impossible to form any precise idea oven on the natural distribution of
tlio families. As we approach the provinces of southern Italy and tho Pclu|)onncijUs, we
And many genera which more properly characterise Western Asia and Africa ; while, in
99 Sicily and Malta, the geodephacous groups, particularly the

Linneean Carabii, are diminishoa; apparently in species, but
certainly in numbers. It is in these countries that tiio Ants,
those universal scavengers of nature in tropical countries, begin
to appear in almost every situation, and to perform tlioHo otTices
which in more temperate regions have been uMbigned to the
Gendephaga, Brachelylra, and Necrnphagu among coleopter-
ous insects. Most of the northern Butterflies {Papilioncs Sw.)
Cienpatrt'i Buiierflf. gjQ common even in Sicily, whore, notwithstanding a dissimilar

vegetation and a more heated atmosphere, we find only three or four species unknown to
the British fauna : among these, the Gonepteryx Cleopatra {fig. 08.) or Cleopatra's Butter-
fly, much resembles a British species, but has the middle of the anterior wings of a rich
orange.
The Radiated animals of tho Mediterranean are particularly numerous ; the many liar-
• hours, coves, and sub-immersed rocks, sheltered from tlioso violent
commotions which agitate the mighty Atlantic, afford them secure
protection, and contribute to their rapid increase. Their investiga-
tion, hitherto much neglected, offers a wide ticid fur the discoveries
of naturalists who can study them in their native seas. Numerous
; species of Sea Anemone, or animal flowers, unfold themselves in
the crevices of the rocks; one of these {fig. 09.), ornamented witii
rich purple, is particularly common on all tho shores of Sicily.

The tubular and cellular polypes, whoso habitations arc termed
corals and corallines, are generally abund-
ant in warm latitudes. Among tliese a
vast number of species occurs on the '
shores of Sicily, Italy, and the Greek
Aiiiinni Fiiitvcn. islands, which do not inhabit the British

coasts. Sicily, for many ages, has been celebrated for its fisheries
of the true red coral {fig. 100.); and it still affords employment at
certain seasons to many fishermen : but the produce of the old
grounds of late years has materially diminished, through want of
care and duo preservation. The Bay of Naples likewise produces
this beautiful substance, but the pieces usually found are small, and
in no groat abundance.
The Molluscous animals or shell-fish of southern Europe are in
101 great variety ; and are much prized by

all classes, as general articles of food. It is no uncommon thing

to see from twelve to fifteen diflerent sorts of shell-fish, none of

a small size, exposed in the principal market at Naples; and we

have been assured that double this number are not unfrequcntly

served at the tables of the higher ecclesiastics and nobility of

Tarentum during Lent, that city being higlily celebrated tor its

slicll-tish. The Solen atrigilatus {fig. 1()1.) is abundant sit

Siiicn stritiiuiiis. Naples, and considered most delicate food.

On comparing the conchology of the Mediterranean with that of Britain, there does not

appear so much difference as at first might have been imagined ; nor are we aware of more

than three or four genera in those southern latitudes of which examples have not been found

in the British seas. Yet, on descending to species, the difference is much greater. Perhaps

Kcd Coral.

k'lM

i«taidlfai

I ill
5''

iRi.

804

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PAmxin.

two-thirdM or throo-flfthii oflho Mcditcrruiionn hIioIIh havo brnn fi)iiii<l in thn Chnnnnl, and on
tlio wnntorn or other cnaiiU (if BriUiii. Tho rcmaininif portion imlionti! BBtrotijf ullinity with
tlio coiiciiolofry nf India and tlio Ui<d Hon on ono hand, nnd that of Africa, townrdn Menogal,
on tho otht-r. Tlio (luviptilo iipecio* are nio«t numrroiia in central Europe, whero tho hwt
ofmnniiier iM Ii-ms calculated to dry up thoMO Rnmll poola ami siiallow Ktreanm, in which moat
of tiieKO univnlvo inolluKa delight to dwell. Tha fluviatilo bivalven nro few ; but aro of
Hiiecios wh ch Honin [mculiar to tho Europ«!an range. Independently of thoao common alik*
to Hritnin and the Continent, thcro aro other* in Franco and tho miuth of Enron*! (Jg. 108).
Uiiw littnrnU» (n) and the true V. balava (.6) aro common in tho Heine | and wo have recoivoi]
another Nhell from near Gibraltar, which wo miapoct to bo a now ipocica, intemiodiato be
I^'^ -^^ii^^m. b .^Mkw tweon tho latter and ovalui ; wo name it

proviiiionally Vnio inlermediui (r, c),
'I'iio Cephalopoda, or cuttle-nih of

tho

Mediterranean, thouifh not of many apccioi,
arc Dometimeii fuimd in prodiginua numberi,
and fre<|uently vrow to an enonnouM hIzo.
Tho zoolofry of tho Black and Caspian Sou
ia very little known.

Tho phosphorexccnco of tho Mediterra-
nean ia at timcH ho brilliant, that it cxcitea
tho admiration of all vovagera; it therefore

rj ,11 J deacrvca to be particularly mentioned. Thia

Rivnr iiivaivn stM-iii. phenomenon, ia cntiroly produced by various

marine nnimnlH. Hpix, tho Bavarian naturaliat and traveller, in his poaanfro down the Modi*
terrancan, cauaod aevoral buckets to be filled with thia luminoua water; and tho followin);
results attended hia experiments : —

Th'iao luminoua animalcula odhcrcd to whatever waa wetted with the water, and continued
to ehinc thereon ; tho buckcta, when ahakon, appoarinjr full of luminoua particlea. Tho
water, examined by a inicroacopc, waa filled with little bodies, aomo roundiiili, acme oblon)r,
nnil f^enerally almiit the aizo of a poppy-accd ; each of theac had, at one end, a i<mall navel-
likn opcninjr, encircled by from six to nine delicate filamcnta which float within tho bladder,
and witli which tho animal aeoma to attach itaclf to other bodies, and to aoizo ita nourish-
nicnt. In tho inside of these bladdcra tlioro were many other Rmall'Harker points, crowded
toi^cthor on ono side, or here and there aomo larger onea, which might be either tho remains
of smiillr>r animals which they hod awallowed, or their own spawn. These globular anitnal-
pula (which Spix considers to be of the nature of MctluHo;) have been named by I'eron and
Lechcnault Arcthuaa pelagka, and by Savigny Noctiluca miliaru. They swim in greater
or loss numbers at nignt, but in tlie sunshine they appear to tho naked eye like little drops
of grease. When put into a vessel they soon dio and fiill to tho bottom ; when they come
near together, they appear involuntarily to attach each other, so that they form whole groupa.
The aame phenomenon is aomctimoa observed in tho day-time, when the aky ia dark, which
rarely happens : as these animals aro seldom found in water taken up in the day-time, it ia
probable they then sink to the deptha of tho ocean, and only return near the aurfacc towards
night {Sptx, Trav.)

Other luminoua bodies resemble balla oa large oa a nut ; and every wave atriking a ship,
when filled with these animals, lights up all surrounding objects. Bcsidoa thcae, there are
aomctimca inaulatcd luminous bladders, like fiery balls, a foot in diameter, which rise singly
above the water ; and the striking of two waves together produces a shallow bluish atreak
of light, resembling tho reflection of lightning on the water. {Spix, TVav. i. 44. 47.)

The quadrupeds of Europe, according to tho most recent distribution of the species (jOriff.
Cull.), under tho modern aiviaiona, compriao about ninety species, arranged under the fol-
lowing genera and sub-genera. To these rauat be added the fish-quadrupeds, or Cetacee,
chiefly inhabiting the high northern latitudes : —

Snn . .

Lom . . .

. . 1

Mtohh . . ,

. .9

Mymle . .

full . . .

. . 1

m'h ....

. . ■

ainoliihiil ... 2

T.l|« . .

yr : : :

. .*

CricMu . .

. .1

Rnrntus .... 1

l'r.J» . .

. . 1

nerblUw . .

. . 1

Va^MKIlin ... 13

Mela . .

i.yii . . .

. . 1

A>paU<. . .

. . 1

Uulo. . .
rnlnriui .

C>i«<r . . .
Anrlcnta . .

. . 1
. . 4

Sriunjf . . .

. .1

Krioucui . . . . S

M«nn . .

Gwrrchn . .

. . 1

rtUDin;! . .

. . 1

llj«rii. .

I.rpiu . .

Ujiomya .

Onrtif . .

ADIIInp« .
Riipricapim

Capn . .

0,li . .

Tvava . . . .

Mwim.
Phom . . . .
TrlrhflOM , , .
(Xarla . . . .
MirauDgi. . . .

The genera of European birds, in reference to our former remarks on the geographic dis-
tribution of animals, deserves particular attention. Those marked * ore typical of fiimilica or
sub-families; thoaef include sub-genera, or subordinate variotions of structure to which we
shall not attach a distinct patronymic name ; cither because the higher pfroups have not been
aufticiently analysed, or because these subordinate forms have been mistaken for genera.
Decided stragglers arc excluded ; other genera, of uncertain rank, are not marked. The
typical genera of tho wading birds have not yet been ascertained.

Tlio
extinct, i
in Bolgiii
2. Ancien
Proper,
of Ireland
Cambrian
and now ^
three prim
od fKiin til
since nlwn
tlio C,l/o-.
de.scon<l(int
Arinorica.

^lllir.

a iihip,
jicte are
^0 singly
|h streak

Is (Oriff-
the fol-
>tacete,

. . I

Iphic d'lB-
Imilies or
vhich wc
I not been
genera,
bd. The

Door I.

• VnllMf 4i^l

H<ll>>'i> *>ii<.

iairr

• r«l'"

jtlnw
tMrU

fniiriirtm.

SipHmuUui
lllruii'lii
Cyuwlu) //i.

• AInil"

EURors.

• MtlM-ICAUl

• u •

• Mtnila any.
( inctiii

• OricliM
•miu'.iU
Vrfihre* .^'r.
I'tHonlntn >l«.

• miiloniaU Xi«
t CiimiAi ■••*.

• t!i,l(l< l.m.

• t l^na /.M.
Accitnlitr vmA.

HiKlktai ( Ml>.

• »l>>urill> /.III.
t Anthw *<rA.

• HmubKllli (rU.

• * Al4gd»

• IKliWrTH
•CwlwIM

t rVrlit«>tl«ffMf

• fyrrtiiiU Cu«.

• llHiriHN

• t Pw..r n -n.
N<Kirrt(« ■».!,

• t CervtM

Ir^filut (. iw.

tk>ii<lr<>i->>pu* .t'wi
AiHrrixw .<(U'.
I [ir]r«t|>llliH Hw,

• NilU Alt*.

• (■rliu tin.
TU|iM,tr'4iui
TroKl'NlytM

; • rtwpa ;.«fi.

l-«n>u'' ^'•l''

I •r«4uii.U t, .

* t Sitl&Jkii* i.tak

• Wr.lis /.in.

II.-. w., f.

(if'i-

~h\U

i>h<cfti> li'f riM £.ifk
Tinuiut Lm,
I NuuianliM *na.

I t T>lainii VmM.

' llMiiri>in>«irM

< StwhMlvt CMIh

Mh.lih.i..*

Kxltu«
Cnct Sl»4;

ri%llimila«r)*,

Tifhy In. mm /J.
tilriiwitti /W.
I Irtniri, /-
V«irlliw Mr,*.
t( MrhlrliM /tn.

I lllmMtopw VrH,

' • y AiMr

• f Amm

• t Mirfw

t Cum.*

(nlvHibu*
t I'ru

MtTNtiill \\L

• AtP«
Milioiii///.
|h«|iiirii« /If.

• I'vlKariiH J^iMl.

• Slum. L.

•L. ., /..
(.Mint /U.
I'nf.lUtU /,.
l*t«wwJlaf*

Skct. v. — Languages,

Europo, con«ulcro<l in repfard to its lanfj^aufOM, coniprulieiulH tho whole globe, Uiruii^h those
imnioiiHti culonif38 which liuvo buuii fuiinduiT by tho natioan of thin cuntuient in ovory othor
quarter or* tho worhl.

Tho European lun^uaffOH, ancient and modern, fonn nix tlunitieti: — 1. Tho family of tho
Pierian lanj^uajfes; ii. That of tho (UUic lanffuai^OH; !J. That of tho Thraco-Pdangic or
Grtvcii-Latin hnifjfuagcs; 4. Tlio family uf tho Germanic lan^ua^fOH; 5. That of the NWa-
vonic languaKCd; 0, Tho family of tliu Vralian languages, conununly callud tho FinnUk or
Chudir,

SUMECT. 1.

Tho Iberian or IkMiiio fhmily Ima boon ilividnd into tho two following branciirs : — 1,
Ancient liin^fungog long extinct, under which nrn classed tho idioms spoken by tho Ik-riani
in the (rreatcr [mrt ot tlio Spanish peninsula, in southern Gnul, and in some piirts of Italy
and its three i^ruat iHhimis. 2. Anciiuit hin{;un|;es still living ; of which thn only one remain-
injy is tho Etcuarn or Batquc, formerly sjiokcn in a largo portion of Spain niul of southern
Oaul, and now spokon only by tho VuKconf^iulos or ttaixiwn in tho Spanish provinces of
Biscay and Navurro, ond in some parts of tho south of Friincp. Tlio DnHijues are tlio
doscondanta of tho ancient Vascones. Their hinguagc, which resembles no othor European
idiom, though it has adopted several Latin and somo German words, appears to have a certain
affinity to tho Shomitic languages, and, in its conjugations, some analogy to tho langugcs of
America.

SvMECT. 2.

Tho Celtic family exhibits, like tho Basque, two branches: — 1. Ancient lan/'im^'os long
extinct, among which aro clussed tho idioms si)uken by tho numerous Celtic nations in Gaul,
in Belgium, in tho British Isles, in parts of Germany, Italy, and also Galatia in Asia Minor.
2. Ancient languages still livimr, of which tliero aro two: 1. Tho Gallic, Gnrlic or Celtic
Proper, spoken in different dialects by tho descendonts of the true Celts, in a liirge portion
of Ireland, in tiie itighlands of Scotland, in tho Hebrides, and in tho Isle of Mun. 2. The
Cambrian or Cclto-Belgic, formerly spoken by the Cymri or Belgie in Belgium acid Britain,
and now confined to a part of Englund and Franco. In this language are distinguished
three principal dialects: tho Wvhh, siyjken iiiul written by the peojilo of that name descend-
ed fniin the ancient Britons; tho Cnrnish, formerly spoken throughout Cornwall, but extinct
since alwut the middle of tho last century ; nnd the Bas-Bretoii, culled also by French writers
tho CtilD-lireton, s|)okon in tho part of Franco formerly called I/jwer Brotague, by the
descendants of those British fugitives who, in the fiflh. century, sought roAigo and settled in
Arinorica. The Ban-Breton has many sub-dialects and varieties.

SCBSECT. 3.

The numerous family of tho Grnjco-Latin languages may be divided into four branches :
I. The nii/rian ; II. The Etruscan ; III. The Hellenic ; IV. The Italic, including the Latin,
the Romaic or Roniaiio-Rustic, the nKxIcrn Italian, tho French, tho Spanish or Ciistilinn, the
I'orf'iguese, and tho Valaciue or Wallachian.

I. 'i'lie Tliraco-Illyriiui branch includes all those Thracian nnd Illyrian nations once seated
in Asia Minor west of the river Halys, nnd in Europe all over its eastern portion, from Nori-
cum, occupied hy Celtic tribes, to tho mouths of tho Donube and the Dnieper, and even
beyond. Of those nations, long extinct, or confounded with others, the principal were tin;
Phrygians, the Trojans, tho Bithynians, the Lydians, the Carians, the Lycians, the Cinunerii,
the Tauri, the Tlirueians properly so called, the Ma?si, the Goto?, the MaccdonianF, the
ancient Illyrians, among whom wero the Dalmati nnd tlie Istri, the Pannonians or Pieones,
the Veiipti, and tho Siculi. In this branch, according to M. Maltc-Brun, rnay be not impro-
perly placed —

The Albanian, sjwken in Albania and otlicr countries by tho Skipatar, named Arnnuts by

Vol,. L 26* 20

(,i?

■■^-

- ■ ■* s^-SXSt9

sMir

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

the Turk?, and generally known under the name of Albanians. They form the principal
impiilation of Albania, aiui are scattered throughout European Turkey, especially in Rou-
melia, liiilgaria, and Macedonia; others on the Slavonic military confines of the Austrian
oin|)ire, and others in various j)art3 of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. This Scyp, or
Albanian language, according to M. Malte-Brun, appears to be fornicd of one-third of ancient
(Jreck, especially the jfJolic dialect, one-third Latin, and one-third of an idiom not yet ascer-
tained, probably the lllyrian. The Albanians have three different alphabets: one sacred or
hieratic, now fallen into disuse ; another, the Greek alphabet ; a tliird, the modern Italian or
litttin.

II. The Etruscan, (wo are here reminded of the Osci and Heterosci, quasi Elrusci ?)
spoken by the Etrurians, called also Tyrrhenians by the Greeks. This nation, according tc
some, appears to have been a mixture of Rhietian Celts with the Aborigines of Italy. The
Etruscan alphabet was the same with the primitive alphabet of the Greeks ; it had sixteen
letters, niul was written from right to lefl.

III. The Pelasgo-Hellenic, including the idioms in ancient times spoken by the famous
Pelusgi and Hellenes, long since incorporated with other nations. The people of early
origin who may with probability be classed under tliis branch are, the Pelasgi, the Lelegcs,
and other tribes enumerated by ancient geographers among the population of Greece and its
isles, especially the Gra>ci, originally a small community of Thessaly, but remarkable for
having given name to the whole of that celebrated nation, whose language wos —

The Hellenic, or ancient Greek, formerly spoken in Greece and its dependencies, and
at a later period in a great part of Sicily, Lower Italy, Asia Minor, Egypt, and its dependen-
cies, in part of Gallia Narboncnsis, and in other districts bordering on the Mediterranean.

During the Macedonian empire the Hellenic wos spoken at all the courts of the descend-
ants of Alexander, and by persons of distinction in all the countries subject to the Macedo-
nians. In a subsequent age, it was studied by all the most distinguished subjects of the
Roman empire, and was the prevailing idiom in the East until the fall of Constantinople, at
which period it was studied witii reneweu ardour in the West. In this language, 270 years
befbrc Christ, was written the famous version of the Hebrew Scriptures called the Septua-
gint ; in this language also was the Gospel promulgated by the Apostles ; and it thus became
tor ever sacred. It appears not the least wonderful among the dispensations of Providence,
that the light of Christianity should have been originally diffused under the most powerful
empire and in the most cultivated language of the ancient world, and that it should prevail
notwithstanding the power of the one, and the learning and philo.sophy for which the other
was .so proudly distinguished. The literature of the Groek.«, comprehending some of the
finest productions of the human mind, i.^, perhaps, the richest in the world, and presents an
unparalleled series of eminent writer.?, extending from the age of Homer to the middle of
■iho fitlecnth century. The language is one of the most flexible, harmonious, and copious
t.!iat have ever existed; its grammatical forms are almost identical with those of the Latin,
to the formation of which it has greatly contributed, but in many essential points it is
.«tipprior, and especially in '.he unlimited tiiculty of making as many compounds as can bo
ri'quKed. M. Malte-IJrun distinguishes in tlic ancient Greek two ditlerent idioms: — 1. The
jtrimithf Hrllniic, which he subdivides into three principal dialects — the Arcadian, the
'rijessalian, with the ancient Macedonian, and the 0<]notrian, transported into Italy and min-
L'li'd with file Latin; '2. The Hellenic of the historical times, divided into four principal
ilialocfs and several varieties.

Tiie RoiMRic, or the modern Greek, spoken by the Greeks of our own times, especially
in the Morea, in Livadia, Tliessaly, the isle of Candia, the Archipelago, part of Albania,
-Macedonia, Kounielri, Thrace, Asia Minor, Cyprus, and by the Greeks established in Wal-
iaciiia, Moldavia, Syria, and Egypt. The Romaic is also spoken by the inhabitants of the
Ionian Isles, by considerable numbers of Greeks in the Austrian and Russian empires, and
some hiiiidrcd of Mainotes in Corsica, near Ajarrio. It is dividnil into two principal dialects,
t!ie Romanic and tiie yKolo-Dorian, each inchuliiig various sub-dialects.

IV. Tiie Italic branch, so called, as including the languages of the aborigines of Itoly,
nliich form the sti.-in of the modern idioms comprised in this branch. Those nbnnffiiirx
were, the Ruganoi, the Atisonrs, the Lucani, the Briitti, the Piceni, tlie Marsi, the Latini
the Sal)ille^. and the Samnites, From a mixture of the three last idioms, primarily with
the oriirin.il Hellenic, afterwards with the old ^Tlolian and ancient Doric, was formed, as M.
Miilte-Urun inclines to think, the hingiirige spoken by the Romans, and called the I^itin
Inniriinire. The Inngiiages included in that brniirli are, —

'i'lic I.iitiii, which was tiie written and current language of the higher classes in Italy
and flirnuglidut the Roman empire. It was very ilifferent from the linffun jthheiaor ruslini,
s|)oki'ii in the rural districts of the peninsula, and by the lower clii.sses in S|)ain, (Jaiil, and
the other provinres. Its grammatical forms are similar to the Greek, though less perfect.
I.itin literature, formed on that of Greece, is very rich in all branches of knov\ledge, and,
t^'getlier with the Greek, is tiie source from which flows the literature of the malerii nations
cf Europe. Il.s most brilliant epoch was the Augustan age. In this language St. Jerome

Part III.

he principnl
iiilly in Rou-
the Austrian
'hiB Scyp, or
ril of ancient
lot yet uscer-
ne sacred or
jm Italian or

isi Etrusci ?)

according' tc

f Italy. The

t had sixteen

by the famous
loplc of eai-ly
, tlie Lelegcs,
Srcoce and its
•emarkable for

:fct

jndencies, and
I its dependen-
diterranean.
if the descend-
to the Macedo-
Bubjccts of the
nstantinople, at
lage, 270 years
ted the Septua-
it thus became
of Providence,
most powerful
t shoi'.ld prevail
which the other
ijr some of the
and presents lin
the middle of
ms, and copious
?e of the Latin,
:ial points it is
unds as can bo
dioms:— 1. The
Arcadian, the
o Italy and min-
o four principal

imes, especially
part of Albania,
iblishod in Wal-
liabitants of the
an empires, and
rincipiil dialects,

iri^ines of Italy,

M)^f. nbOfifriHfS

(ursi, till! Latini
, primarily wit!
1^ fiirmcd, as M.
ciiUcd the Ijitin

classes in Italy
liheia or rnstica,
Spain, (5niil, and
niRh loss perfect.

knowledjio, and,
e modern nations
r\iagc St. Jerome

K-

Book I.

EUROPE.

307

wrote the Vulgate, or Latin translation of the Bible which is used in tlie Romish church.
The overthrow of the Roman empire in the fifth century gave birtii to a corrupt Latin,
mingled witii a great number of barbarous words, and named low Latin, which, until the
fourteenth, was, almost exclusively, the written language tliroughout the West. In the two
succeeding centuries, Ijitin literature again flourished, especially in Italy ; but it was only
to contribute to tiie improvement of modem languages, which being diligently and success-
fiiUy cultivated, the Latin was restricted to works of erudition alone. Its phraseology has
had a marked influence on tliat of the most polite nations of Europe. It is now a dead lan-
guage, except in Poland and Hungary, where some educated persons speak it in ordinary
life with considerable purity, and with the continental pronunciation, of course almost unin-
telligible to English travellers, who cannot or will not relinquish the Saxon diphthongal
sounds of the vowels A, I, and U, the chief causes of their embarrassment. Lotin is no
longer employed except in tlie Catholic liturgy, in medicine, in the diplomacy of the court
of Rome, and partially in the literature of all the civilized nations of Europe. The alpiia-
bet, of twenty-three letters, having been improved in its characters by the Italians and
French, is used by all the people of Europe, except the Greeks, the Russians, and some
other nations who have particular alphabets. This same Latin alphabet, with the Gothic
forms it assumed under the pen of the writers of the middle ages, is used by the Germans
and Danes, and by the Bohemians, and other Slavonic nations; and, according to some
authors, its capital letters, truncated and squared to facilitate the inscription of them in wootl
or stone, constitute the Runic alphabet, formerly used in the north of Europe.

The Romana, or Romana Rusticu, spoken in the brightest ages of Rome by the lower
classes in tiie south of the empire, excepting Greece, and some other counties. After various
modilications more or less considerable, it appears still to subsist among the vulgar dialects
spoken throughout a great part of Spain, France, Switzerland, and some districts of Italy.
The chief of tliose dialects, according to M. Champollion Figeac, are the following, classed
with reference to those four regions : — In Spain, Sardinia, ana the Balearic Isles, the Catalan,
the Valencian, the Majorcan. In PVonce, the Languedocian, the Provencal, the Dauphinois,
the Lyonnais, the Auvorgnat, the Limousin, and the Gascon. In Switzerland, tlie Romanic,
or Celto-Romanic, (frecjuently called Romance, Khurwelsii, and Rhietish,) the Volaisan in
the Valais. In the states of the king of Sardinia are spoken the Savoisian ; and the Vaudo'.'i
in the vales of Lucerne, Perosa, and part of Piedmont. To these might b<3 added tin
jargon called lingua Franca, in which Catalan, Limousin, Sicilian, and Arabic are the princi-
pal ingredients. The Romance literature is also called that of the Troubadours. From tlic
mixture of this language with the diflerent Germanic, Slavonic, and other idioms, were
formed, in the tenth century, the following languoges : —

The Italian, spoken by the Italians in almost all Italy, in the isles geographically connected
with that peninsula, and in various Alpine territories; also frequent in Dalmatia and the ish;
of Tino; very common at Constantinople, and in several mercantile towns of the Ottoman
empire. The toritten language, which is nowhere generally spoken, is common with all
well-educated Italians, and differs considerably from the vulgar tongue, whicli is sulxliviilwl
into a great number of dialects. The principal of these are, the Piedmontese and Genoese ;
the Milanese, or Iximbard proper ; the Low Ijombard ; the Bolognese, the Bergamase ; the
Venetian, the Friulian, the Tyrolean, the vulgar Tuscan; the Roman; (he Sabine and
Abruzzan; the Calabrian and Apulian; the Tarentine; tlie Neapolitan; the Sicilian, and
the Sardinian.

The French language, spoken by the French almost throughout the north of France ; by
the Walloons and Flemings in various Netherlandish provinces ; by the Swiss, in several of
their cantons ; by the people of Jersey and Guernsey ; also in some parts of the Austrian
and Russian empires, and of the Prussian monarchy ; by the French colonists in Asia, Africa,
and America. The following are the principal dialects : — the Picard, the Flemish, tlie Nor-
man, the Walloon or Roimchi, tlio vulsrar French, the Breton French, the Champenois, the
Lorraine, the Burgnndian, the Franchr-Comte, the Neufchatelain, the OrUannois, tlip
Angevin, and the Manceau. To these might, perhaps, be added the jargon spoken by the
negroes and Creoles m the French West Indies.

The Spanish or Castilian language, spoken by the Spaniards in the greater part of i-'piiin,
and, with some variation and admixture, by their descendants in Oceania, Africa, and America ;
also by the numerous Spanish Jews established in the Ottoman empire, and in other states
of Europe, and of Nortli Africa ; in the isle of Trinidad belonging to the crown of Great
Britain ; in some parts of Florida and I^ouisiana ; and in the eastern part of Hispaniola or
St. Domingo. This language is also common to all the inhabitants of the towns of Spain
where the Basque and Romance languages are spoken. The written and polished language
is almost identical in its grommatical forms with the Romance and the Portuguese ; and
differs little from the Italian ; it is very rich and harmonious, notwithstanding some guttural
and aspirate sounds taken from the Arabic, from which it iins liorrowed many words. It is
singular to remark, that the German is characterised by similar gutturals or aspirates. The
reigns of tlie emperor Charles V. and of his son Philip II. were the golden ago of Spanish

lA'.

hii

i ■(

h^iif

■ i

■y^w-

309 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III.

literature ; afler which it fell into decay, but partially revived under tlio Bourbon kinga
Philip V. and Charles III. Of the dialects, which differ little from each other, tlie following
are the principal : — the dialect of Toledo ; that of Ldon and the Aslurias ; the Andalusian ;
the Murcian; the Gulician, or Gallcgo; and tlie Transatlantic, spoken in America; where,
next to the English, the Spanish languaj^e is mpokcn by the greatest number of inhabitants.

The Portuguese language, spoken by tlie Portuguese in Portugal and the Azores, and,
with some difterences, by the Portuguese Jews settled in Hamburg, Amsterdam, the Tyrol,
and other parts of Europe, Asia, and Airica ; also by the descendants of tlie Portuguese in
tlieir Asiatic, African, Oceanic, and American colonies. The Portuguese is as rich and
concise as its sister languages; it hos borrowed some words from the Arabic and the French;
to the French it seems indebted for the soft sound of g, and for the nasal syllables ; it ia
sonorous, sotl, and unimpeded by the aspirates and gutturals of the Spanish ; but the fre-
quency of hiatus, and of the modem nasal ao, equisonant with the French am or an, injure
the harmony of tlie language. Its origin, like that of the Spanish, is dated in tlie eleventh
century ; and it had attaine<l its maturity in the sixteenth. The Portuguese literature,
which Camoens illustrated with one of the finest epics in existence, is as varied and rich as
the Spanbh, though less known. It revived in the memorable reign of Joseph. The
language may be said to exhibit no differences of dialect ; tlicro arc only varieties : those
which differ most from the written language are, the Minho, Algarve, and Azores varieties
in Europe; the Brazilian in America; those of Congo and Mozambique in Africa; and of
Goa and Macao in Asia. Some, however, regard as a dialect of the Portuguese, the jargon
called lingua geral, spoken along the east and west coasts of Africa, also along the coasts of
Ceylon and the Indian peninsula. In Africa, as well as in Asia, it presents the phenomenon
offered by the lingua Franca in the Mediterranean, and attests the power formerly held
by the Portuguese in those regions.

The Valac or Wallachian, spoken by the Rumanje or Roumouni, better known as Valacs,
a people apparently descended from the ancient Roman colonists settled in Dacia and Thrace,
and the Slavonic and other nations dwelling there. Its literature is very meagre. Among
its numerous dialects the more remarkable are the Roumounic or Valac proper, spoken in
Wallacliia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia ; the Hungarian Valac, the Macedo- Valac, and tlie
Kutzo- Valac, spoken in various sub^lialects, in several parts of European Turkey, south of
the Danube. . - ,

SUBSECT. 4.

The family of the Germanic languages next claims our notice. Without entering into
the history of the Germanic nations, which rivals in importance that of the Graeco- Latin, we
may class these different idioms, according to M. Malte-Brun's theory, in four branches;
the Teutonic, the Saxon or Cimbric, the Scandinavian or Normanno-Gothic, and the Anglo-
Britannic.

The Teutonic branch, wliicli comprises the idioms of the various ancient nations and
tribes recognised as German by the Roman historians and writers ; as the Bastarne, tlie
Suevi, the Marcomanni, the Hcrmonduri, and the Franci, (iresonts the following idioms : —

The ancient higii German (alt hoch Deutscb), formerly sjiokcn in different dialects
throughout South Germany, Switzerlniui, Alsace, Hesse, Thuringia, Wetteravia, and a
great part of the countries once subjected to the Franks. It has been extinct for several
centuries : its three prhicipal dialects wrre, the Francic, and the Aiemnnnic, which are of
contemporary origin, and contain the most ancient productions of that language, and the
.Middle High German, wliich succeeded tliem. The Francic or Tudesc was tlie language
of the Franks: it was spoken at the court of the Merovingian and Carlovingian sovereigns,
until ("liarles the Bold ; after whose rnign it gave way to the old French in France, but
continued to be the court langungi; in Germany until the times of the Ilolienstaul'en. The
Middle High German is tiio language in which were composed the numerous works of the
Suabian, Bavarian, Austrian, and Swiss writers, and several other authors in Middle and Lower
Germany, from the eleventh to tlie fifloonth centuries. Its finest productions arc dated in
the period of the Hoiienstaufen, from 11M6 to 1254, called also the Minnemingfr, the
trouveurs and troubadours of Germany. The Nibelimgen-lied, the finest epic in this lan-
guage, is supposed by Winter to liave lieeu (-(imposed in ItiiM), by Conrad of Wiirtzburg.

The German, called also niu hncli Dpiitfch, in which distinction must be made between
the written and the spoken language. Tlie latter is divided into a great number of very
diflbront dialects, subdivided into several sub-dialects and varieties. The written language
is nowhere spoken by the people : it was formed at the period wiicn Luther, rejei^ting the
Middle High and the Middle fjow (irrmaii, adopted in preference fii(> diiile(;t of Misnia or
Meissen, which had begun to be written much later. This Misniun dialect, aidy employed
by that great man and his numerous followers, sfK)n became, as the language of Ixxiks and
of gocKl society, commou to all well-educated Germans, and also ranked as the learned lan-
guage of the north and great part of the east of Europe. Tiie literature of Germany, in
regard to the qualify of its productions, rivals those of France and England, and surooasea

T»?'

Part IIL

•bon kings
3 following
iiidalusian ;
ca; wUerc,
ihabiUinta.
.zorcs, and,
, the Tyrol,
ttui^iese in
08 ricli and
the French;
llables; it is
but the fre-
er on, injure
Uie eleventh
se literature,
I and rich aa
[oseph. The
irieties: those
lores varieties
frica; and of
ISC, the jargon
[J the coasts ot
e phenomenon
formerly held

own as Valacs,
:ia and Tlirace,
■agrc. Among
(jper, spoken in
Valac, and the
'urkey, south of

ut entering mto
Jraeco-Latin, we
■^four branches;
;, and the AngJo-

ent nations and
lie Bastarnffi, tlie
wing idioms ; —
iffercnt dialects
jtteravia, and a
itinct for several
kc, which are ot
Inguagc, and the
IS the language
icrian sovereigns,
.in France, but
[pnstauten. The
aus works of the
[iddie and I^wcr
MA arc dated in
\inneitiini;<'r, the
.pic in this lan-
I'WVirtzburg.
L made between
number of very
Lvritton language
pr, re'iccting tlie
pet of M'""'"^ "'
•t, iiltly cuiployed
ipe of iHXiks and
the learned lan-
^ of Germany, m
lid, and suroassea

Book I.

EUROPE.

309

tliem in abundance. The German is the richest in words of any language in Europe ; and
thif< dJHtinction it owes to the great number of its monosyllabic root", witii which it creates
new terms ad itifiniluin, by derivation and comjxjsition. It.« principal dialects nre, ttie Swiss;
the Rhenish; the Danubian, with its four sub-dialects', tlie Bavariiiii, the Tyroleiin, Austrian,
and Uoliemo-Hungaro-Silesian ; and the Frunconian, or Mittel-Deutsch. To these, on the
autliority of Adelung, wo may add two others, remarkable for the strange admi.xture of words
totally foreign; these are, the German Jewish; and tlie Rothwelsh, t^poken by the Jenish
or Jaunrr, who are generally rejwrted to be thieves and vagabonds. It contains a multitude
of terms and expressions quite dillerent from German.

The Saxon, or Cimbric, which comprises the idioms anciently spoken by the Cimbri ; also
by the Angli, who, with the Jutes and Saxons, afterwards made so great a figure in northern
history ; the Bmcteri and Chauci, the Menapi, the Tungri, the Butavi, tlie Frisones, and
other nations of less note, the ancient Saxons, and probably the Longobardi. This branch
includes the four following idioms : —

The ancient low German {alt nieder Deutsch), called also the ancient Saxon, after the
people who spoke it. This language, now extinct, was current throughout Ijower Germany
and the Netherlands, except in the countries occupied by the Frisones and the Angli. About
the commencement of the seventeenth century it wholly ceased to be written. Its principal
dialects are, the Saxon proper, or idiom of Lower Saxony ; the Eastern Saxon, spoken in
various sub-dialects in Prussia, and the Wcstphalian, or Western Saxon.

The Frisic, formerly spoken along the coast, from the Rhine to the Elbe, by the Frisones,
and their allies the Chauci, the ancestors of the present Frisians, who are now far from
numerous, and speak a language very diflerent from the ancient Frisic, being mixed with
other idioms. Its three principal dialects are, the Batavian Frisic, the Westphalian Frisic,
and the North Frisic, or Cimbric.

The Netherlandish, or modern Batavian, hos two principol dialects, the Flemish, and the
Hollandish, or, as it is commonly called in this country, the Dutch. The Flemish is s;M)kcn
in the southern provinces of the kingdom of the Netherlands, excepting those wlicrc (!ur-
man and French are spoken. It was the written and oral language of the sevontern pro-
vinces once subject to the Counts of Burgundy. After their extinction, and undrr tlio
Spanish rule, the Flemish idiom gradually gave way in the north to the Dutcli, in the s.,iitli
to the French language. The Dutch is ppokcn in different varieties in the seven i)r()viiicos
of the North, and in some bordering districts of the South : with certain chnngos and
admixtures it is also spoken, or at least understood, in the various settlements founded liy
the Dutch in Africa, Oceania, and America, and in several places in Ceylon, India, mid '■.ho
peninsula of Malacca; in South Africa; at the Cape of Hope; and on the American con-
tinent in Guiana. Some descendants of Dutcli settlors also in the United States retain their
native language. It was only in the sixteenth century that this vulgar idiom of the pro-
vince of lloiland, in some degree polished ond improved, became the national language of
the Dutch. It is a riixture of ancient Francic, Frisic, and low German.

Tiie Scandinavian, or Normanno-Gothic, comprises the idioms formerly spoken by the
Jutes, the Goths or Guto", and other less considerable nations of pure Gothic race. There
are five different idioms in this branch : —

The Mffiso-Gotiiic, formerly spoken by the Gotlis established in Mcesia. According to
Grimm, this is the richest of the Germanic languages in grammatical forms: it has not less
than fifteen declensions, with 120 rases, and sixteen conjugations. The Mceso-Gotiiic has
been dead many centuries. Its most ancient productions are, the fiimous Codex Argenteiis
of Upsal ; and otlier li-agtneuts of the translation of the Bililo, made between the years ;160
and :isO, by Bishop Ulphilas. The Ma'so-Gotlis appear to have been the first to embrace
Christianity of all those nations who overthrew the Roman empire.

The Norinannic, called by Grimm the AIt-\ordisch. It is the language of the Edda, of
the Vohispa, and other poems of uncertain date, and was generally spoken throughout Scan-
dinavia in the eighth, nintii, and tenth centuries.

The Norwegian, ancient Norwegian, Norrrena tunga, not to be confounded with tlio
mixlcrn Norwegian or Norsk, which is only a dialect of the Danish. Its principal dialects
are, the Icelandic, the Norwegian proper, the Dalska, or Western Dalecarlian, the Jiinit-
landish, and the Norse, spoken in the Shetland Isles.

The Swedish (Svrnski), spoken by the Swedes throughout the greater part of the Swed-
isli monarchy ; also in the principal towns of Finland and the isle of Runoe, in the Russian
empire. It has two principal dialects, the Swedish, and the modern Gothic, subdivided into
several suh-dialects and varieties.

The Danish, spoken l)y the Danes in Denmark, and in their Asiatic, African, and Ame-
rican sctth'inor.ls; also liy the higher classes in the Feriie I<les, ond in Iceland. It lias two
nrinripal dialects, each having several sub-dialerts and varieties: the Dntiish proper, which
includes the insular Dnnisti. the anrieiit siilwlialert of Rornholm, the modern Norwegian,
and the idiom of Scania. The Jiillanilish, or modern Jutic, including the Nornianno-Jutic,
the Dnno-Jiitic, and the Anfflo-Jtitic.

■I'''"

■ A t: i

t.i»'

ifi^''"" ■!-f!*f*tfl|

jar- :>

#■

310

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part HI.

.•rfv

li !ll

Ki* !■

The Anglo- Britannic (not to be conrounded with tiie Brituh, which is Welsh), comprises
only two idioms.

The Anglo-Saxon, formed by a mixture of tlie idioms spoken by the Angli, the Saxons,
and tlie Jutes, who, invited by the Britons against the Picts, finally toolt possession of the
country, wiiore their language was successively preserved in three dialects, until the eighth
century. During the invoiiions and tem|X>rary ascendency of the Danes, it was so moditied
us to become Dano-Saxmt, or rather this may be called a dialect of the Anglo-Saxon. For
several centuries this language has been totally dead.

The English, spoken in England, in the east and south-east of Scotland, in part of Ireland
and of Wales ; in the Shetland Isles, in the isles of Jersey and Guernsey, in the British
colonies of Asia, Oceania, Africfi, and America. It is the national language of the United
States of America. It is also cultivated and spoken by a great number of persons of differ*
cnt nations in all parts of the world on account of its literary, political, and commercial
importance : the two latter considerations render it very current ui the kingdom of Hanover,
in the Ionian Isles and Malta, in Portugal and Brazil, and in the republic of Hayti. The
English language is a mixture of the Anglo-Saxon and the Neustrian French or Franco
Norman, with some Celtic words, and a tew of ancient British origin. It has imported
largely from the Greek and Latin, as knowledge and culture advanced in the nation. If the
number of words in the language be taken at thirty-eight thousand, those of Saxon or north-
ern origin will be found limited to about eight thousand, the rest being principally Greek
and Latin derivatives. Copious and energetic, the English language is tlie simplest and
most monosyllabic of all European idioms ; and it is that also of which the pronunciation
differs most from the orthography. It did not become the language of the state until the
reign of Edward III., since which time it has rapidly improved. Towards the commence-
ment of the seventeentli century may be dated its regular developement, and in the begin-
ning of the eighteenth it took its fi.\ed and invariable form. The English language occupies
one of the most eminent places in European literature ; it is comparable with any of them
in elegance, and perhaps, surpasses them all in energy. It is no less graceful than concise ;
its poetry is at once manly and harmonious; and, like that of the cognate languages of the
north, is admirably adapted to depict the sublimities of nature and pourtray the stronger pas-
sions: aw the language of political and parliamentary eloquence, it is without a rival. Of
the number of its dialects it might be difficult to speak with precision: foreign philologers
distinguish four as the principal : — the English proper ; the Northumbrian English, called
also Dano-English from the great number of Danish words retained in it, and spoken in
various sub-dialects in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cumberland, and Westmoreland : the Scottish
01 Anglo-Scandinavian, including i\\o Lowland Scottish, vi\\h the Border language ; and
lastly the Ultra-European English, prevalent in the English colonies and in the United
States. It has been observed that the English language is spoken by the greatest number
of the irdiabitants of the New World.

SUBSECT. 5.

The family of the Slavonic languages is widely diffused. From the neighboiu-hood of
Udina in Italy, from Silliiin in the Tyrol, and from the centre of Germany to the remotest
extremities of Europe and of Asia, and even to the north-west coast of America, are nations
of Slavonic origin to be found ; the tract of country over which they hold sway amounting
to about a si.vth part of the habitable surface of the globe. These nations exhibit almost all
the varieties of the human race, botli physical and moral, if not from the most exalted, at
least to the most degraded.

The Slavonic languages, so far as is at present known, may be regarded as forming
three branches : — 1. The Russo-Illyrian. 2. The Bohemo-Polish. 3. The Wendo-Lithu-
anian.

(1.) The Russo-Illvrian is so called from its chief people, the Russians, and from the
general appellation Illyrian given to most of the nations who speak Servian or Create. The
languages comprised in this branch are : —

The Slavonic, Servian, Serbe, or Illyriun, called also by some authors Rulcna, siwken in
different dialects by the more southern Slavi, generally denominated Illyrians. They dwell
in the Austrian and Ottoman empires, excepting a small number, settled a.s colonists in south
RiiAsia. The dialects dilfi'ring most frr»n eacli other, and from the ancient Slavonic, are
the Sirvian or Sirblin, with various sub-dialects ; tiio Italiano- Slavonic, .spoken on the
coiist of Dalmatia ; the Uxkokc, s|x)kcn by the wandering tribes in Scrvia, Bosnia, Dalmatia,
Croatiii, Maritime Hmignry, and Curniola. It is mixed with many Turkish words. Lastly,
the Hiilifarian, sixikiMi in Buliraria, in the Ottoman empire.

Tlie Russian, Ruski, or modern Russian, spoken throughout the Russian empire by the
Russians, who are tin,' ruling nation; also sjwken in a great partof Gallicia and port of Hun-
gary in the Austrian empire. Since the reign of the Czar Peter, when the Slavvenski was
abandoned for the Ruski, it became the language of literature and of business throughout
Russia. It has the tbilowing dialects, which dilU'rlittlL" from each other, the Valiki-Rttski

mans-
be add
Slavi
tated f

i4-viftf.

Book I.

EUROPE.

811

in.

ixons,
)f the
iiglitli
xlitied
For

rcland
British
United
'differ-
mercial
anover,
. The
Franco-
nnported
, If the
)r north-
y Greek
)lest and
inciation
mtil the
mmonce-
le begin-
occupies
r of them
I concise ;
res of the
jnger pas-
ival. Of
ihilo\o<;ers
ish, calletl
[spoken in
e Scoltish

lage;

and

J\e United
number

lurhood of
remotest
ire nations
amountuig
almost all
exalted, at

IS forming
ndo-Litliu-

from the
roate. The

siK)kcn in
?hey dwell
i\s in south
ivonic, arc
on on the
, Dalmatia,
Is. Lastly,

pire by the

artof llun-

Ivenski was

Ithroufrhou*

or Russian of Great Ruattia; the Malo-Iluski, or Russian of Little Russia; the Suzdalian;
tlie Olonetzian, and the Rusniac.

The Croate, spoken by the Croatcs or Khorliatos, who dcliglit to call it the Blyrian.

The Wendo or Winde, s))okcn by several Slavonic nations sulycct to the Austrian
empire, and known by different names in the countries tiiey inhabit. In the Wende
appear to be distuiguisiied three principal dialects, the Carniolan, the Carintliian, and the
Styrian.

(2.) The B0HEM0-POLI8H, named from its two principal nations, the Boliemians and the
Poles. The languages belonging to this branch are the Bohemian or Chekhe, including the
Bohemian proper, and certain idioms, bearing the character of principal dialects, and spoken
in the Austrian empire.

The Bohemian proper, or Chekhe, is spoken in several very different sub-dialects by the
Chekiies or Czecks, better known by the appellation of Bohemians. The dialect of Prague
is the most elegant and pure. Tlie others are the Slowac, the Hannac, the Slraniac, the
Passekarsk, the Sallashac, and tiic Szotac.

The Polish is spoken by the Poles, called in the middle ages, Lechen or Liachy. They
form more than three-fourtlis of the population of the present Russian kingdom of Poland,
almost the whole population of tiie province of Cracow, and of the western part of Gallicio,
in the empire of Austria. They also form three-fourtJis of the population of the grand
duchy of Posen, two-thirds of that of West-Prussia, and part of that of Silesia. The Polish
is also the national language of the nobility and part of tiie commonalty in all the countries
formerly belonging to the kingdom of Poland, and is spoken by thousands of colonists in
Russia. Its prmcipal dialects are those of Great Poland, of Little Poland, of West Prussia,
of Mazovia, of Polish Silesia, of the Geralys or highlandcrs, belonging to part of the Carpa-
thians in Gallicia. The preference given in Poland to the Latin, long retarded the progress
of this national language.

The Serbe or Sorabe, spoken until the fourteenth century by the Serbes, or Sserske. It
lias two dialects ; the Upper Lusatian, and the Lower Lusatian.

(3.) The Wendo-IjIthuanian, called also the Germano-Slavonic. Tliis branch comprises
the following idioms : —

The Wend, spoken until tlie fourteenth century in different dialects tliroughout the
north of Germany, from Holstein to Pomerania, by various nations, as the Wogriaiis, the
Pnlaben, the Wilzians, the Obotrites, the Ruffians, and the Pomeranians. Since the
fourteenth century it has been extinct, with the exception of the Linonish, improperly
called the Polabish dialect, which subsisted in some districts, until the latter half of the
eighteenth.

The Prucze or ancient Prussian, formerly spoken in eleven very different dialects, by the
tribes forming the powerful nation of the Pruczi, dwelling between the Vistula and tlie Pre-
gel. It is almost entirely extinct.

The Lithuanian or Littauish, formerly spoken by those powerful nations the Lithuanians
and Kriwitschi, and now current only among the common people ; as the higher classes
speak Polish, with Russian or German, according to their different countries. Its principal
dialects have been thus classed : — The Lithuanian proper, the Samogilian, the Kriwitsh,
and the Prusso-Lithuanian.

The Lelte, Lettwa, Lettonian, or Lettish, spoken by the IjCtts or Lcttons, forming the
bulk of the population in the government of Mitta, a larire pnrt of that of Riga, a small por-
tion of that o*" Witcpsk in Russia, and of the province of Eiist Prussia. It has five principal
dialects, subdivided into a multitude of very different sub-dialects. The former, accorduig
to Mr. Watson, are, tlie Lette proper ; the Seingallian or Sengallish ; the Lclto-Livonian
or Lirflnndish ; the Seclian, s]X)ken by the Secies in Courland : the Wende by the Wendes,
in the north-east of that duchy, particularly in the neighbourhood of Windau. This language
abounds witli Gorman phrases and expressions.

Tlift Slavonic nations employ five different alphabets : — 1. The Cyrilian, invented by St.
Cyril in 80."i, called also tlic Servian or Ruthenian. 2. Tiie (ilagolitir, Slavonic, Krtiko-
witza, or Divinira, called also that of St. .Toroine. 3. The Russian alphabet of the Czar
Peter, which is the Cyrilian modified by that emperor: it lias tliirty-fivc letters, and is in
use throughout the Russian empire. 4. The Sorabes, Bohemians, and Slavo-Silesians use
the Gcrnitm alpiinbet or character. .'5. The other Slavonic nations, as tlic Poles, Lithua-
nians, Lottcs and WpikIps, use the Latin or Roman letters. To those five alphabets may
he added the Runic M^rnil, the Grook al])lial)ot, adopted, according to Karamsin, by those
Slavi wiio, in the eighth century, .•settled in Peloponnesus; and lantly, the Bulgarian, iini
tated from tlie Glagolitic, and used by the Bulgarians.

SUBSECT. 0.

The fiimily of the Uralian languafros, also called the Finnish or Cliudic, completes the
cthnogriiphie division of Europe.
From the north-west coast of Norway to the long chain of the Urals, and beyond tliose

"Ml '

- ivj

;-1i'iii

fMnmsmami

:»; :\

M '

812

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

.\ mountains to near the Yenisei in tlie centre of Siberia, in another direction from the Leitha
gtO- to tiie Scrot, and from tlie Carputhiann to the Diinube, nations of Uralian race live among

■r * other nations, and retain the niiinners, liabits, aiid laiiguajre of their furefatiiers. In n)arl{ing

the gradations among the people composing tliin liimily, wo may consider the Ilinigarians
and the Ostiaks as exhibiting the two e.xtremes in a moral as well as physical respect, not-
withstanding the great affinity of their respective languages.

The Uralian fiimily includes (bur brandies, according to Klaproth ; but some languages
not included in them may be separately considered as a fifth.

The Finnish, or Germanised P'innish branch, includes the four following languages : —
(1.) The Finnish proper, or Sumenkieli, spoken by the Suomi, better known as the Fins
, or Finlanders. Its principal dialects are, the Finlandish, the Tawastian, the Carelian or

Kyriala, the Olonetzian, and the VVatailaiset

The Esthonian spoken by the Estlionians or Estlien, whoso ancestors were formidable

Eirates, and who now form the most numerous part of the population of the government ot
Leval, and of the circles of Pernau and Dorpat in tliat of Riga. Its two principal dialects
^ are that of Reval and that of Dorp.t

^* ;' The Liapponian, spoken by the Shames, better known as the Lappons or Laplanders, inha-

biting the northern extremity of Europe, partly under the monarchy of the Swedes, and
partly under the Russian empire. Tliis language, which is said to have more affinity witii
the Hungarian than with the Finnioii, has a groat number of very different dialects, which
have been classed under tlie Liippn-Norweffian, tiie Lappo-Swedish (western and eastern),
the Lappn-Russ, epokp.n in tlie circle of Kola, in the government of Archangel. Through
the beneficent care of the Swedish government, at the close of the last and tlie beginning
of the present century, the Laplanders have been reclaimed from idolatry, and have begun
to enjoy the blessings of Christianity and civilization.

The Livonian, spokeii formerly by the Lives or Liven, who gradually abandoned this
idiom for the Lettish, in consequence of which it is become nearly extinct.

(2.) The Wolgaic brancii includes the languages spoken along the Wolga and its tributa-
ries. They liave a strong admixture of Turkish, and may rank under two classes, the Che-
remisse and the Morduino, including as dialects the Mokshau and the Ersan.

(3.) The Permian branch includes two languages, the Permiun proper, spoken by the
Korni or Permians, and tiio Syrencs or Syranos ; and the Wotieqtic, spoken by the Udi or
VVotiaks scattered among tlic governments of Wiatka, Oremburg, and Kasan. They are all
Christians, and the most industrious people of Uralian race in the Russian empire, except
tlie Fins and pcrliaps the Estlionians.

(4.) The Hungarian brancli includes the following languages: —
i Tiic Hungarian or Magyar, spoken by the Magyars or Iluiigarians. They form about a

third of the population of Hungary, aiu! alinost a fourth of that of Traasylvania ; several
thousands also of this people are settled in the Rukowine in Gallicia, and about Ibrty thou-
sand in Moldavia, under the Turkish sway. The Hungarian, according to Czaplovicz, has
four principal dialects: — 1. The Paloczen. 2. The dialect of the .W(/,i; //«rs beyond the
Danube. M. That of the Magyars of the Theiss ; and 4. That of the Szeklrr, living in
j Transylvania, in the Bukowine, and in Moldavia. Tlie Hungarian language is very harmo-

nious; and is mixed with many foreign words, especially Slavonic, German, and Latin.

The Wogoulo, spoken by the Mansi or Miuiskum, more known as the Woguls, an<l called

• Wogoulitshe by the Russians. They are alinost all Christians, and live principally aa
hunters and fishermen, scattered over the govorninent of Saratow, in the high valleys of the
Ural, in that of Perm, and in that of Tobolsk, between Kourjan and Bercsow. Klaproth
distinguishes in it four dialects, that of Chiasow, those of Werchoturia, and Cherdin, and
that of Bercsow in the government of Tobolsk.

Tlie Ostiak, or Obi-Ostiak, which is not to be confounded with the Yenisei family. The
As-jachs or Ostiaks of the Obi, who speak this language, are mostly Christians; some are
still idolaters. The principal dialects are those of licresow, Lumpokol, Wass-i-giin, and
Narym. Under the branch still uncertain are ranked the Hunniuc, the Awur, the Oulga'

* 'ian, and the Chazar.

CHAPTER II.

ENGLAND,

The British islands, placed nonrly in the north-western angle of Europe, coinni. n ! ,~5cu-
liar udvantages, no less tor natural strength in war, than as an emporium of t. ; .mi-rce in
peace: on the southern side, they arc almost in contact with France, Holland, and Gcrinan}',
for ages tlie most enlighti'invl anil flourishing coiiiifrins of the civilized world; on tlie fasf,
' a wide expanse <if sea si'parales them from the bleak region of Scandinavia; on the west,
they ov(!rlook the Atlantic Ocean, whose limit in another hemisphere is the coast of Ameri-
ca; vvliile, ill the extreme north tiiey may be almost said to face the unexplored expanse of
the Polar Sea. Exclusive of the nortliern insular appendages, they may lie considered as

< :

Vol.

in.

Fio. 103.

MAP OP THE BRITISH ISLES,

313

uLout a
several

jrty tliou-
,icz, lias
))((/ the
living in

;ry harmo-
ilin.

and called
ipiilly aa

leys of the
Klaproth
.'rdin, and

lily. TIk'

some are

i-friin, and

] , ?cu-
Mucfce in
Germany,
tlie east,
tl„. west,
, of Amcri-
jxpinise of
isiderod as

t«

■J.

Vol. I.

6 LDogitwIe West i from Qnenwicb 2

1 .!!')'

if:..,

^..■^ ■!*

■atni I ■'•■■'

''■V'ftrt

• »

314

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part HI.

Rituatcd between the fiftieth and fifty-ninth degrees of north latitude, and between the
oecond dcfrroo of east and the tenth of west longitude. They are gcogrupliically divided
into two iiilunda of unequal magnitude, Great Britain and Ireland : Britain, again, is divided
into two unequal parts : England, which, including Wales, contains 57,0(30 square miles ;
and Scotlunil, which contains 30,500. Tlie tlirce, though united into one kingdom, respec-
tively cxitibit peculiarities which characterise them as distinct countries. It will, therefore,
be ro«|ui.site to describe each separately, commencing with England, the seat of empire and
legislation. The chapter which treats of England will afford the proper plnce for many
details, particularly of a political nature, which arc alike applicable to the two sister
countries.

Refertnctn to the Map of the lirilish Itland$.

Ti :il

ENGLAND

1. AlnwiLk
U. Rolhbuiy
X Mnrpelh
4. Ilrilio

Wl.

W),
Ul.

.V Newi'Mlio

6. lexlilni

»:<,

7. BilliiiKhrtin
S. 'nilwlii

94.

lis.

\t, Cocktirmoulh

10. Efiroiiinnt

>c.

1 1. Rnvuiiftlttu
W. Ulvrnlun

!W,

09,

\X Krmlul

(10.
Ul.

U. Kuiwick

IS. Pnnrith

I»,

IB. AuulBbir
7. Alimone

a".

ot.

B. Darliniclun

!«.

ILporhiiin
W. Buml.irland

INt.
07.

21. Siockton

IIH,

iM. Hiokolry

00.

Zi, (iuiilwniuch

10,

!M. Whitby

II.

'Hi. Piekerinii

•X. Think

i:i.

in. Norih Allorton

14.

<«. Uwei

1.5,

'UK Ripon

Hi,

:in. KeiiHil

HI. .itnciister

18.

■H. CJnrmang

lU.

:«. I'uulicm

iW,

:I4. nrniiriiril

■n.

US. Skiplon

'M. Knaroaborough

IK.

:W. Irfcils

I'fl,

V>. York

134,

*W. Nhw Malton

I'iS,

4(). Ililliiigion

136.

41, 9cnrl>nroui?h

1'^,

42. GtL'at Diiffield

liM.

4:<. HiirnMa

129,

44. Hi'diin

r.io.

43. Kiiiinton on Hull

III. Barlon

31.

47. nrimsby

48. Ravcndale

.12,

3,1,

49. SnIlfli'iM

:i4.

SO. Thedlclhoipe

35,

m. Rnttun

36.

Si. Mford

i:n.

5.1, larncaette

i:w.

.M, Lincoln

39.

.V>. (iainiborouih

40,

.W, Aihby

41.

57, Doncniler

42,

.58, Sheffield

43.

59, Poniofract

44.

no. Manchnttcr

1.5,

fli, Prtiion

40.

fri. Liverpool

47.

SI. Cheater

48,

64, Ncwcnitle

49,

as, .Newport
n6, Siafli)rd

1.50,

.51.

f17, Riirion

.52.

(W, Perhy

.53.

in. Aihbourn

51.

7U, Cheslertield

,5.5.

71. Miin«flold

l.'iO.

7i Alfruton

1.57.

7:1, Noiiiniiimm

1.58,

74. Mellon Mowuray I.SU,

75, (iranlhani

lliO.

76, Newark

161.

77, Slenford

1(K,

7a Ppalding

lli3.

79, Lynn Roiii
R), Wells

164,
16),

81. <,'romRr

166.

9%. Yarmouth

167.

R3. RccclM

Iffl.

B4, Harloilon

169,

H.5, Norwich

170,

H6, Recpham

171,

Eaal Dereham
Dim

Theirord
Ely
March

PelerboruUfh
. Oundle
Hiamrtird
Harburuugh
Leicivter
. Tovenlry
Tamworth
Lichfield
. Rirminehjm
Hridguiiorth
SItrowgbury
Plynlinimun
Ludlow
Tenbury
I.puminglor
llrotnrord
Tewkeibury
WorcMlor
Alceaiet
Warwick
Kveaham
Towceator
Northampton
Wellingborough
Thrapiton
lliintingdnn
lledr<inl
Cambridgo
Mildenhnll
Bury Bt. Ed

mund'a
Framlingham
Aldborough
Ipawich
Sudbury
Harwich
Colchcater
Coggeahall
Royiton
Biinup's Stort'

ford

Hertford
St. Albana
Ayletbury
Winiluw
Bijckinghain
Wooditock
Burfurd
Cfloucesler
Hereford
Koaa
(Jotford
Briilol
Melkiham
Malmeibury
Cirencc ' r
Swindon
llungcrford
Kennel
Abingdon
Ojford
Wallingford
Thame
Windaor
Uxbridge
Kingiton
C'rnydnn
GreeiiHirh
Londiin
(Jhelmaford
Maldon
Maidstone
Canterbury
Mnmalo
Kamigate
Dover
Rye

Haalinn
Seaford
Rattle

East Grinatead
Reigate

172, Honham

173, Briahlon

174, Arundel

175, Pulboniugh

176, (iuildford

177, Rodalming

178, Pelworih
ITX Cliichrater

180, Porlimoulh

181, H"Ulhainptan

182, Whiichurch
IKI. Andover
IHI. Sniubury

185, Lyminglon

186. I'uule

187. Shafteiburr

188, Baih
181). tTxbridge

190. Wt'llt

191. Glaalonbury

192. llcheator

193. Tauninn

194. Porloek

195. South Bam-

iiapio
196 Bideford

197. Torringlun

198. Launceiton

199. Bodmin
2110. Si. Agnea
201. Penzance
2112. Falmouth
203, Tregony
201, Tavialock
21^5. Plymoulh
2116. Modbiiry

207, Durlinouth

208. Aihburton

209, Chumleigh

210. Tivertou
211.Eieh)r

212. Sidmoulh

213. Honimn

214. Lyme Regie

21 5. Dorcheater
210. Weymouth

Rivera,

a Tyne
b Teei
c Derwent
d Swule
e Wharfa
f Aire

RDon
Trent
i Ouse
J Thamea
k Avon
1 Severn
in Dee

WALES.

1. Flint

2. Si. Aaaph

3. Uonbigh

4. .Aberconway

5. Bangor

6. Benumaria

7. Holyhead

8. Caernarvon

9. I.Ian Haiarn

10. Si, Mary'a

11. Harlech

12. Bala

13. Corwen

14. Mfmlgomery
1,5, Diiiaainowa

16. Tnwyn

17. AlK'ryatwitli

18. Rhainrier

19. Bault

20. Tregnrron

21. LlnnlH>»r

22. Cardigan

23. Newport

24. Fi«:ard

25. St. David'i

26. Pembroke

27. Caennarthen

28. Cwyrgryg

50. Brc'^.m

30, Monmouth

31, Uake

32, 1'heptlow

33, Nuw'Mirt

34. Cardiir
:i3, Laiidair
30. Llantriiacnl
37. Swansea

Rivert.
a Towey
b Tievy
c Dee

SCOTLAND

1. Durneai

2. Tongue

3. Reay

4. Thurao

5. Wick

6. Dunbeath

7. Helmadale
c. Dornoch
9. Tain

10, Portinleik

11, llllnpuol

12, Poolew

13, Torridon

14, Loch l^irron

15, Dingwall

16, Beauly

17, loverneaa

18, Graniown

19, Nairn

20, Elgin

21, Inveraven

22, Cullen

23, Banff

24, Huntley

25, Turroff

26, Fiaaeraburih

27, Peterhead

28, Nuwhurgh

29, Aberdeen

30, Sionehavcn

31, Bervie

32, Tulloch

33, Braemar

34, Fort Auguitua

35, Glencig

36, Araaaig

37, Appin

:i8. Fort William

39. Perth

40. Dunkeld

41. Blair Athol

42. Brechin

43. Montrose

44. Forfar
4.5. Arbroath

46, Dundee

47. St. Andrews

48. Anatruther

49, Kinross

.50, Inverkcithing

51. Clackmannan

52. Muihill
5,1. Slirling
.54. Inverary
55, Oban

.56, Diimbnrlon
.57. Grei-nock
.58. Paialey
.59, Irviiw

60. Hamilton

61. Glasgow
63, Falkirk
6.3. Linlithgow
1)4, Whitlium

65, Peebles

66, Edinburgh

67, Haddington

68. North Berwick

69, Dunbar

70, Berwick

71. Kekoe
Ti. Jedburgh

73. Hawick

74, Aahkirk
7.5, Bjggiir
70. Moffat

77, Sanquhar

78, Lanark

79. Kilmarnock

80, Ayr

81, (iirvan

82. Ballintrae

83. Stranraer

84. Port Patrick
83. Wigton

86, Kircudbright

87, Now Galloway

88, Monihivu

89, Dumfries

90, Langholm
Ul, Annan

Rivert.
a Spey
b Don
c Deo
dTay
o Clyde
f Ken
g Nith
h Annan
i Tweed

IRELAND.

1. Belfast

2. Antrim

3. Lame

4. Glenarm

5. Ballycaslle

6. Rallymoney

7. Cnleraine

8. Tubbermute

9. Strabane

10. Londonderry

11. White Castle
13. Raphoe

13. Lifford

14. Leticrkenny

15. Killybeis

10. Donegal

17, llallybofy

18, Omagh

19, Pomcroy

20, Clogher

21, Dungannon

22, Armagh

23, jurgan

24, Donughadce

25, Porlaferry

26, Downpairick

27, .Strevoy

28, Ncwry

29, Dundalk

30, Moiiaghan

31, Cavan
33. Cnllahill
:t3, K.nriiakillen
:U. Churchill

35. Sligo

36. Drumoirn

37. Bnllyinoro

38. Citliioiiey

39. Rrillina
411, Kilbla

41, Biillyglasa

42, Cliigaiin

43, Ni'wport

44, Wealport
4,5, Konior
41). Ilallinrolio

47. (^Batte Barr

48, Kilcolmaii

49, Tuam

50. Elphin

51, Roscommon

.52. Leilrim

.53. Longford

.54, Moyiinliy

.55. Carrickmacrou

.50. Donleer

.57. Diogheda

58. Ilalhriggan

59. llulilin

60. Screen

61. Trim

62. ,>liivriouth
at. IViitia

64, Tullamore

65, Mullingar

66, Aihlono

67, Eyrecourt

68, Ballyforan

69, Newion Bellow

70, I.iiughrea

71, Ornmure

72, Oogiiiera

73, Galway

74, Cort

7.5. Innialymon

76, Kilrush

77, Clare

78, Eiinis

79. Limerick

80. Porlumn

81. Nenagh
K. Kllliiloe
K<, Tliurles
84. Kuaorea
K5, Durrow

86, Alh

87, Kildare

88, Catlow

89, Tullow

90, Biillinglaas

91, Bh>8siiigluu

92, Togher

93, Wicklow

94, Gorey

9.5, Ballycanoe
06. Enniacorlhy

97. Wesfuid

98. Felhaid

99. Waterford
100. Thomas Town
nil. Kilkenny

102, CariickonSuirn

103, Clonmol

104. Ballyporecn

105. Tiptierary

106, Killmullock

107. Aakeyion

108. Ballylongfurd

109, Tralen
no CnaileFord

111, Killainey

112, Kenmare

113, v''(iallctown

114, Biiiilry

115, ('nalletown

116, Kiusalo

117, Crk

118, Killady

1 19, Torlijteola

120, Mitllnw

121, R;illirormuck

122, Kildorery
12:1, l.iamore
124, ViMigliall
1'iS, Dungarvan
126. Tramoro

Rivtrt.

n 11:10

h Ciirtingford
e lloyne
d Harrow
e Note
f Siiiro

Rlllackwatei
Shannon
i Buck.

Rivers.

riiillngfuTa
oyne
t'lrruw
kiire
Miini

hliickwatei
Rtmnnun
Buck.

Book L

ENGLAND.

315

Sect. I. — Oencrul Outline and Aspect.

England is bounded on the soutli by tho Eiiglitih CImnnol, iiitprposod between its coast
and tlial of Franco; on tlio east by tlio Gennan Sea, on tlio north by Scotland, from which
it is sopariitfd by tho Tweed, the Cheviot hillH, and the Frith of Sol way ; on tho woHt by the
Irish Sea and St. George's Channel : the promontory of the Lanil's-End, forming its south-
western extremity, faces the vast expanse of the Atlantic.

The greatest dimension of England is from south to north, between tho Lizard Point,
49° 58' N., and Berwick on Tweed, 55° 45' N. ; four hundred miles in length. Tiie points
of extreme breadth are the Lund's-End (^g. 104.), in 5° 41' \V.,and Lowestoffe, in 1°44' E.,

forming a space of about 280 mil's. There
is no point, however, where a line of this
extent can be carried across the island, and
the northern part does not on an average
exceed one hundred miles in breadth.

The surface of England is of a diversifi-
ed character ; the eastern districts are in
general level, and there arc several direc-
tions in which hundreds of miles may be
travelled without seeing a hill. Along the
western side of the island are large tracts,
not only hilly, but sometimes rising even to
mountain grandeur. Such are the counties
of Cumberland and Westmoreland, the bleak ridge of Ingleborough, extending like a spine
through tlie north of England: of the same character are Derbyshire, the whole principality
of Wales, and a great part of Devon and Cornwall. These tracts exhibit all tho varieties of
mountain scenery: in Cumberland, encircling little plains filled with beautiful lakes; in
Wales, enclosing narrow valleys through which the rapid mountain stream dashes ; in Der-

LindVEnd.

References to the Map of England. — North Fart.

.NORTH SEIIIKS.
1. KHrwirk

3. Molilniin
X \\,'\f,m\

4. \, rhiirl'on
r>. Alnwiuk

0. VVhitlinghnni
7. IJdwayturd
H. F.lsdun
U. Rcithhuty

10. Warkwutih

11. Morpeih
n. Ilivthe
i:t. Clifton

14. Siamrtirdlmm

15. Kirk Harlu
IH. Hatliiiillun
IV. Ri>llin)innti)
IH. Hutii'rshuugh
It). Shillburn

311. KonnrI
31. Kewrastle
'J^l. Iiunglown
'H. Rrarnplon
•U. Ilallwhiitic
'i.'i. Simonbiiin
•Hi. Hexham
•••7. Hickloy
28. NuwcBBtlB
'.tt. .North Sliirlils
:U). Tynpmniith
:il. Houlh Sliit'lJd
'.^i. Sunderland
:<:i. Shuiton
:U. Durliiini.
:i.'). ('hcstcr-leSlrect
.lit. I.nnchcstcr
:I7. VVultiiniiliuni
'X'. Hianliiipu
:19. Aciun

40. .Mdsliinn

41. *'rnfe!tj:ill

4'i. Kirk Oswald
4:1. 1.aionby
44. Hiiltdii
Vi. Tarliflle
4B. Oricin
47. Wiiitiin
4H. Ahbeyholmo
i\i. Maryport
.W. Wurkiniiion
.'il. rockerinduiti
fit. Iroby
.'1:1. Ki'swick
.54. Matierdalo
.W. IVmilh
.5fi. Clifton
57. Aimloliy
.W. Milljurn
,50. nroouli
6U. aiackiiolin

Middleton

Bflglostnn

Harnard <?H8tIo

Hiaindrop

VVi-8l Auckland

Bishop Auck-
land

Sedtfefiuld

Hartlepool

Seaton Carow

Gnighrougb

Whitby

Btokeilcy

Raunton

Yarm

Darlington

Croll

Rokeby

Roweri

Reeih

Kirkby Stephen

Orion

Mardale

Amblciiilo

St-atbwaite

Whitehaven

Kgreriiotit

Ravrnglass

Whitheck

IJtvergion

Hawkshoad

Kendal

Fawcott

Millthorpe

Sedbcrgh

Hawea

Ankrigg

Miildlulmm

Richmond

<*ntterick

Hcrlkle

Rnrneiton

Thitsk

North Allerton

lli'lmalev

Kirby Mnorside

Snainion

Cloughttin

Srarhurongh

Filey ,

llunmanby

llridlington

Kilhnm

nrillicld

Sledmero
Wintrintibam

Now Malton

(larrnhy

Stillenham

t'oxwold

Euaingwold

121. Aldburouch
It^i. KnarosUirough
12:1. Ripon
VH. iMtmham
V2^. Whernsido
1% Grauinatun
l'/7. Arnclilfe
128. Settle
I3». Indeton
IJO. Kirkby Long-
dale
Itll. Hornby
1:13. Lancagtor
i;t;f. Oargtung
1:14. Slaidbiirn
ia5. Clithoroe
ItW. L'nine
i:n. PMythorne
1.18. Bkiptun
130. ThurcroM

140. Olley

141. llarewood

142. Ripl.y
14:1. Weiherby
144. Tndcagter
W^. Cawoud
14B. York

147. Porklington

148. Middletnn

149. Market Wcigh-

ton
l.'iO. Meverlry
l.^l. Rrandgburton
152. Horngea
15:1. Aldborough
VA. Hedon
155. Pattrington

SOtJTH SERIES.

1. Poullon

2. RIackpoul
:i. KIrkham

4. Predion

5. Ohotley

fi. niaekburn
7. Iturntey
H. Halifax
9. Koiiihley

10. nradrnril

11. Oow^bnry

12. Wakefield

13. Leeds

14. Poniefract
1.5. Snaiih

IK. Selby

17. Howdon

18. Riirlun

19. Snuth Covo

20. Hull

21. Uarton

22. Oriiniby

2:1. Ravendalo

24. Caigtor

2.5. Rlanhird Bridge

20. Kiitun

27. lirunihy •

28. Crowie

29. Thome
RO. DuncBiter
.11. Iludgwonh

32. Barnegley

33. Penigtune

34. Huddergfield
;i5. Meltham

36. Aghton-under-

Line
.17. Manchegter
:h Rochdale
:I9. Rury

40. Bolton

41. Iieigh

42. Wigan
4:1. Ornigkirk

44, Forniby

45. Liverpool
40. Pregcol

47. Newton

48. Warrington

49. Knuigiiird
,50, Atlringham
51. Slockport
,52. Digley

53. Chniiel in tho

Frith
.54. Tidegwoll
.5.5, Cagtleton
.50. Sheineld
,57. Dronlield
.58. Rolherham
,59, Worksop
m. RIyth
61. Retl'ord
02, Oaingborouah
fU. Willouuhtun

64. Wrnehy

65. Market Rosen
<iO. I.MUth

07. Salilleet
68. ."Jution
09. A I ford

70. Biirgh

71. VVaiiifleet

72. SSpil.by

73. Horn('ii.<;Ilo

74. Tnttershall

75. n-.iiig1on
70. Naveiiby
ii. Lincoln

78. Thornev

79. TuxI'urd

80. Newark

81. Mangfield

82. Rolgover

83. L'lii'gKirlield

84. All'reton
8.5, Mat lock

86. Wirkgworth

87. Wingtcr

88. Buxton

89. Lognur
90. 1..veke

91. Horton

92. MaccleiifiRld

93. Conglotun

94. Talk

95. Nanlwich

96. Middlewieh

97. Northwich

98. Tarportey

99. C'begter
100. Hidt

nil, Wrexham
102, Mold
10:1. Flint
104. Ruthin
10.5. Denbigh
100, St. Asaph

107. Aberiieley

108. Aberconway

109. Llanrwst

110 Penire Vnelai
lll.Treniadoc

112. Bangor

113. Beaumaris

114. Amlwch

11,5. Llanerchymedd
116 Holyhead
1 17. I'aernarvon

118. Bwich Mawr

119. Pwllheli

120. Crickieth

121. Harlech

122. ,\rrennip

123. Llanuwch-

Uwyn

124. Bala
12.5. (,'nrvGn
120. Tilangollen

127. KlleBniere

128. Wem

129. Whitchurch
1:10. Mnl|i:is
131. Druylon
i:H. rcclcshall
1:1:1. Ptnno

i:i4. Newrrtfttle-un-

der- Line
13.5, Rurslem
i:i6. Cheadle
137. Ulio.xetcr

1,38, Aabborna
i:«l. Derby

140. Bi^per

141. Nottingham

142. Biilteslbnl

143. tirantbam

144. ^lealbrd
14,5. Folkinghnm
140. Doiiningtuu

147. Boston

148. Bnrnliam

Market
140. Cagtle Riging
150. Fakenliam
ISI.NcwWalsing-

ham
1.52. Holt
1,5,3, Crumer
154. N. Waliham

ISLE OF MAN

1. Ramsey

2. Peel

3. Douglas

4. Caslletown

RiverB,
a Till
b Aln
c CcHiuet
d Wensbeck
e Blyth
f Tvne

KWear
Tecs
■ F.Hk
J Rye
k Dorwent

1 Ouse
in Swale
n Hro

o Wharf
p Air
q Calder
r Don
B Rother
t Dcrwent
u Dove
V Trent
w Ankbolm
X Wiiham
y Cnnwoy

2 t'lwyd
a* Dee

b* Weaver
c* Mersey
d» Rihblu
e* Lunc
f * Derwent
g» Eden

•^»

-i;,)

lit

'»♦

MAP OP ENGLAND— NORTH.

Fio. 105

;#^

€

818

DESCRIl'TIVK OROGRAPHY.

Pa>t ni

liVMhirc, pniKonJinff rocky nconiTy in nvrry picliin-Hiiiii) innl firitnBtic Mlmpo; wliilo in Devon-
Mliirn low liroad sIi'i'jm oviTsliiirtoNV wiili< itiiil liriiiitil'iil viiIoh.

Willi one iMti'<'|>ti(iii, till- riioHt iin|i(>rtiiiit rivi-rn of Kii(r|iini| trivrw tlin lircndtli of tho
kiti;(iloni : rininif niiion)f llii> woxtcrn liillii, utiil tlowiiijf towiinl tlio (mtiiihii OriMiii, they do
not Dttiiiii tliiit ltm;(tli of I'Diirno which tlitt r.xtciit nf iIh t)>rrilory in iitiothcr ilircction wonlil
liiivR ii(liniti*>(l. 'riioiiirli ili'licii'Mt, howovcr, in niii|[;nitii(l<>, tlii>y urn nuiiicroiiH, coiiHriudioiiii,
nnil vaiinli!)' ; (lowing tliroii|{h lirunil vuIoh anil \viil('-''|>riMiilin;^ jilaiiiM.

The 'riinnii'.", thmi^rli not tlii> lon)r('Mt, ilfHrrvcK to bn rankcilaM thu flrnt of HritiHh rivnrii.
It ori;;iiuiti<ii tVoin u number uf rivulutM on tho burdorM of Wiltii ami ISIouccntorHliiro, which,

Kiferrncei to the .Wa/i uf F.nnUinil. — South I'arl,

.NoiiTH Hi:imw.

j. TnllifbiMil

3. IHnaariMWiliIy

4. Ilonilrii

A. I.lHnCyllitl

fl. I'llnl

7. Llniit'tur

H. Hhriiwalillir

It. (Hwii.lrx

10. Vvallin«i(in
M. Nii»jii>ri

n. rfiiinitrk

M. l.irhHillil

l.'i. AblHirallfijinl";

III. HllTlllll

17. .Atliliy lie la

y.ulirh
\A Knliiwiirih
11*. UMiBlilinrniiu'li
ill. MtMint Honi'l
•Jl. MnlidiiMoivliriiy
'.'■.•. Oniilmm
■i:i. ( 'oil.y
-.'1. lliMini
*.'•>. Hiamrnrl
•Jli. Murlici Diii'iiinj
*,*T. rniwIiiMil
•i''. Hpnliliiil
VI. Hi'llipuni
:<ll. Wialiinch

:ii. lnliiiuiiMi

'M. I.ynn Kt'niii
:'"I. .N'.wlliirniuh
:M. Iillrliiiiii
:C>. Hw'iirtmm
r.fi. Kimi Oft'ihuni
n*. Finiiahiirn
:h. \vl»li!iiii
!l!l. .S'lirwicli
4i> \Vrii«lMm

11. YnriiMMiih
4; l..i>v,..t„i'i

rl. Ilorrlpi

M. I.MiM.in

4.'i. Itiiiiitny

411. llHrlmiiil

47. .Nhw lluckins-

hiiin
■H. VVyiiifinHtmm
I'l. Ilinirhiiin
'Jl. Wniiiii
'il. Ka.«> llaiiiiii
.V.'. 'I'tii'tliira
X\. Ilrnndon
.%4 MdiIiwuIiI
.'i.^. Ildwnhnin
:«. K.ly
.'i*. M.ircli
.V. Kamicr
.'i!i. Tliiirnpi'
IHI. I'ftorbiirniirh
III. NorniAi) Criim
fi'. Ouiull.'
IVI. Knrkiniehitm
('■-I. ('[iiiiiiKhdin
\Vi. I<flirt'nter
m. .Mniki't Ilnrbo-

rixigb
117. liiittprwiirth

fin, llliirklir

I'd. Niinoiiinn
711. .^ItirrrttiiiiQ
71. 'I minvnitli
7-.>. Ciiluhill
7:i S.iliuii CuUm«lil
74. WnUiiM
7.'i. IllTininnliftin
7fJ. Wiilvor'iiiiniilon
77. Itrtilffi'niirlli
7-^ HroHi-ky
7>.i. Mcirh Wcnlork
HI. IIinIiop'h CiiKtlo
HI. MniilKiitnnry
H2. Nowinwn
HI Ijlanfiiir
w-1. Mafhynllclh
8A. Tuwyn

Hit.

mi.
Ill,
w.
m.
(It

IkV
INI.

117.
IK.

mi.

IINI.
Mil.
Ilh.>.
Iii:i.

1114.

m
\m.

1117.
I IIH.

r,«:

111.

Ill
ii:i

IM.

n^.
11(1.

117.

ii«.
nil.
I'W.

i-.'i.
i«.
vi\.

I'J4.

i«

i-.ti,
I'.T.
ft-)
I'.ii.
l:m.
i:ii.
1.19.

i:i:i.
i:m.
v.a.

IM.

i:n.
i:w.

1311.
140,

141.
U'i.

I4:i.

144.

14.'i.

147.
14H.

14!l.
1.1(1.
Ml.

Ma.

1.VI.
l.M.
155.

l.W.
157.

IIW.
I.V.I.
IIUI
Kit.
IIW
Id'l.
1114.
IIIV
I IVI.
107.
IBH.
IIB.

Abt'ryHivvith
.MH'rIkiwyii
HuilMy V><»lth
|JiimhII..|'ii
Khiiy.iilriiiwy
litiiitib'Hli'y
Nhw KiiilM'ir
Kniuhlnil

I'lllDM

Liiilhiw
Cli'iiliury .Miir

tlmi*r
jl.;wilVy

iildHriiliiintnr
(itMirliriitKit

IltlrlrHuwni
lriiiilH|[ri>\ii
llritiUVK-h
llt'htcy HI ,'\rit«ii
Warwirk
Cuvcnlry

i.i<amiiiiitun
laviniiy
{luliy
Koihwi-ll
N<MlhniTi|ilon
Kpiiiwiittf
ThraiiFttitil
Kiiiiliolinn
Hi. Nnii'i

llllMlMltflluil

Hi. Ivm

WilluiHlDim
\i.wiiiiirki!i
I.liitii Itiirion
lliiry Hi. IM-
inuiliri
Htiiw Maikut

Iiwuitb
Mm
'y"

l)f>br>n'inm
Winiilli'M
Prninlinitbnm
S.iiilbwi>ld
Diinwicb
HiLxiiiiinilbnin
AlilboriiiiKb
VViHxIbriilig
ItMwirb
nH<ll(!itfti
WhaiHitlil

niiib-ahill

NVirilliitin

Ii?ivfiibiim

Sudbury

Haverhill

LIniiiii

f*ninliridBe

(Nixlntl

Royiton

PillllMI

B"dfiird
0\mr
Ncwiuirl PaK-

FiMiny Simif"ril

Tiiwrealrr

RilRkiniihiim

Urnckli-y

lliinilbiiry

Kineliin

HltiiiRinn upun

Hiiiiir
Putiipdpn
SlraU'urd un

.\ von
Alfpnipr
KvnMhnin
WiirrpHler
Pi-r-hnr«
rpiciii
Tji'ftbury
llniinyitrd
T.<!iilniMiili:r
W«dily
llirdiird
Thruxton
Har

1711. Tulirarib
171. X,l».w„o
I7'i. Biiilllh
I7;l. I.iinililln*
Ijl. 'rrt'iiaiiin
17.1 1.1 miMcur
17)1. Ni'w Ciuilo

Kiiilyii
177. ('[irdikiin
7H. N<"*piirl

JTit, pi. i)»vi.r. ,

IHI. Millord
I**!. Prinbriika
IKI Tenby
IHI. Narborih
IKV Hi. I'li'ai'a
iH(l. Ijanvflrimrh
iH7. r'aiTnmrlht'il
W. l.niulubii]
IHI*. |.aniiaili>n
lUO. Laiidiivniy
llll. Triru«llii
Wt. lUrrm
lli:t. Cnrkhowi'll
int. AbiMiavi'iiiiy
IIH. Hi. Wuuiianri
imi. KiiH
I!I7. Miirbi'ldonn
1!H. Newunl
lim. (iliiuriuH'r
am. Tiiwki'Kbiiry
'.111. Clii'lh'iilinnl
•»H Niirlbiinrb
■MS. Hinw In iho

WnId
301. Miwliin in Ibn

Mnriili
>»». Charbiiry
VIA. WoiKl.liirk
3117. flcditiKiun
Slf. tliruiiiir
<Mt. Winilow

910. Ayltiliiiry

911. VVuiMliivor
919. Ivlnihiio

913. I^eifhliin lluz-

tard

914. Lulun

915. Sievennae
9m. Riild.H'k
917. Iliillliikl nialiop
9IH. Ilt'rtrnrd
3IU. Iliahiip'i Slnil-

ford
990. nunmuw
a-il.Thaated
292. Ilralnirre
99:1. (.'tiffpaball

994. Ilnl Ill

995. Culfhi'aiiT
'tX, Harwich
997. St. Oayih
■tit. Bradwi'll
99ft. RiK-hf.ird
9:HI. Maldiin
9*11. Chelmarord

939. Inaiitt^Mliinu
9.13. Hiirndiin
9:14. Rmnforil
9:15. C'hippinil Ollinr

916. Rppinii
9117. Knd.-ld
9nH. Si. Alban'a
9'm. WallWrd

940. BerkhnmiMluad

941. AiiiiTchiiin
91.'. Mnrli.w
913. Wiillinnl'.iril
941. Oxri.id
9 l.'i, Alijnuiliiti
•-'4li. WanlHKn

917. Whilni'y
9|H. llurfdid
9 m. U'chiade
9.')0. Cirfniwater
9.'il. Miiliiieahury
9.59. Wiiliim uiidiT

Edfe

9.53. MiiirhmlmiiiP'

lull
9.V4. Hiiiiiid
9.V1. Iliirkflay
9.'in. illaikiiiy
9.H. Miiiiniiiuili
•IV.i'tk

9.'»ll. Chi'paldW
900. Nvwpnrt
9(11 Nlnilliyr Tyilvil
9119. l.liiiilMiiBiint
9ii:l. i.lniidair
9(14. (*iiwbndtf6
WIV l'rl«
9lkl. NViilh
9(17. Alit>riiant
9'IH, I'lininrilylala
91H1. Kiilwi'lly
970. Punriru

WIl'TII Hr.RIKH.
I. Thnrnbiiry
9. OiippiiiK nud-

hiirv
3 nriatiil
4. Wriiitfinn
.5. I'i'iitliird
n. .MimhtlBld
7. Iliiiilfnrd
H. ( 'hipiivnbani
•I. Cnlnii

10. Wiiilim Bnawt

11. Miirlbiiriiiiith
19. Miiniii'rrord

13. (.I'iMTinlirilu

14. K. llaliiy
1.5. HiMd^K

III. Wiikinihnm
17. ^lNidf<iin6ad
IH. Windaiir
I'.l. I'xlirldiia

90. Kiiiailu

91. Kwill
9*2. (.'rnydiin
91. I.imhIiiii
94. VViMilwirh
9,5. (irHVpadiid
9A. Rncbiiatfr
97. C'lialhaiii
f^. HheuriH'aa
9*.!. Fiivi-rabnm
.'Ml. ( niiU'ibiiry
31. Martfnli)

39. Haiulwich
3:1, Hull

34, Duvur
Xt. Hyihu
3«. Wyn
37. Aahf.ird
3H, Bmiirileii
;i*.l l.t'nham

40. Miiitlahilio

41. Wrolhnm
49. Tiiiibridne
43. Sfvi-nnaka
41. VVcslorlmm
45. I'^firiiiaload
411. Ilifiiuli!

47. ItiirKiiitf
4a Itu.li'y
4'.l. (iiiildliiril
.50. (fiidiitmiiiff
51. Ahnn

59. Oililiaiii

.51. H;iainualiike
,54. Ni'wbury
55. Whiicliurch
.Vi. .Aiidiivtif
,57. l.uilxcraliull
.5H, Arnculiiiry
511. HliiiiidiHiiifO
00. n.'vin-a
Bl. Trnwbridso
(i9. Wi'Hibury
(H. Baih
fA. Hruton
6.5. Hliiiptiin Mallot

60. Uluiluabury

(17, VV..|la
w. Aabridin
(III, |llai-kl..rd
.0, llridnuwalttr
71. Whaii-hrt
79 Mini'h.'iid

73. I'.irlliK-k

74. (\iiiitM- Mnrhii
.5, IllVaruiiilm

711, llarnaliitiln
77, Appl'doio
7H. Ilidiil'iird
711. Halllaiid
HO. 'rnrrinatnn
HI, Hnllth Multuii
t^i. llnlvi'rifMl
Kt. VVivfliaronilMl
HJ. W. llllKlull
Ki, Taunliin
Hll. liiiniipiirt
H7. Hiimurton
HH. Iirhoicr
H!i. Slilboiii Port
m. Caallo Ciiry
111. Wiiiraiintnn
09 Hhiil'loabury
ICI. Mom

114. Waniiinalcr

115. Ilinduii
IHI, Wiliiin
07. Haliabury
IH lluwiiliill
|l!l. Itiimacy

1(10. Hlorkbiid>n
jbl. VVillrhialur

109. Ilraniilrim
103. I'liltuahulil
KM Midhurat
IU5. Pi'twoilh
llkl. Ilaalflinrra
1117. Ili.iahnin
lOH. Cui'kni'ld
IIKI. I'ckflvlil

110. TiinbridgQ

Wdla
111 Wadhunit
119 (ioudhural

113. Criinbrmiko

114. Applntiiro
11.5. New Riiniiwy
no. l.ydd

117 Hy«

1 |H. VVincholaca

llll. Ilaaiinga

190. Iluiilu

191, ilailaham
199. K. Biiuino

193. Hraliird

194. l.<'Wila

195. Ilriiihton
19(1. N. Shnraham
197. Hieyninn
19H, VVorthlnn
19!l. Arundel
1:10. Cbichoitor
131. llavani

ri9. Fiiri'liiim
VXl Hniiihaniptun
134. Newtown

i;i.5. iVi'wpuTt

1:111 Viiriniiuth
1:17. I.ymlnilun
i:iH. Chrinlrliurch
i:i'.l. Kingwiiud
1411. PooTo
141, WinibnrnMin-

Mtur
149. niandford
143. Ileer RhbIi
141, W.in-bam
145, CiirluCiiKllo
14n, M.'jcuiiibc Itu-

KJi

147. VVefmoiith
14H. Durcheator
1411. (^I'rne Abbai
1.50. Bridport
ISI.LyinoIlcfi)

151. ,5«ininatar
I.VI. t'harii
154. Iloiilian
I,''i5. 1'ldrlon
1,50. Hiilniiiuih

1.57. i;i uih

1,5H. Hilvnrion
I.VI, I olliinipluD
lliti, Crmliion
IHI. Chunileifh
11.9, I 'riH knrnwiill
IIU. (iflkhamplun
Hit. Iliilhirlmih
105 Hhi'i'pwaali
Hkl. Iliilaworlby
107, HirnlliMi
|(IH. Jncolwlow
Hill. Ciiniolluid

170. I.iiniii't'alon

171. Callintfion
179, 'I'uviaiiick

173. Hiaiihird

Hpiiioy

174. Murelun HnmR

lien

175. Ktnii'r
1711. I'lmdli'lih

r/7. Ni'wiiiii Biuhel
17H. Aabtiurtnn
170 Tolnraa
IHO. l)iiriMiuuih
|H|, Kiniabiidice
|H9. Miidliiiry
IH3. Pljinpiiin Eiri
1,-<^I, Plyiiiiiulh
IH5, Hnllnah
IHil. Hi. (iurmant
Ih7. I.iaki'ard
inn. Liioe
l".!. Fowcy
IINI, LoaiwilMol
llll, Hoilniin
I!I9, fit Miiiver
Itl3, Padaiow

1114. Hi. Michanl

1115, (triimpuund
lIHI Trudinr
1117. 'riiirii

llie. Ili'drulh
llHI. Penryn
900. Ilnialon
901 MuraaiuD
909. Hi. 1v«
90.1, Poniaiic*

Rivtrt.

a VViilland

l> Nen

R Old Bedrord

d OldUiw

11 Oiiafl

f Wi'iiion

n ]i«tt
i Thamea
I <!liarwell

K KlMlflOt

1 Wpy
m Molo
n Mt'dwa

Htour
p Kiilher
i| \nm

r Avon
H Kxo

1 Turner
u Taw

V Perrol
w Axe
X Avon
y Haven*
' Tern*
a«Wy«
b* Tatf
c* Toway
d» Toi«
0* Yaiwllh
f • Dovoy

TJlis 1

Book I.

ENOI^AND.

319

, fiirfr*.
I VVulland

I oil! Bedforil
1 olil Ou»
InnM)
1 Wrmon
1 Coin

liCU

J 'I'hsmM,

1 Konn«l

Wey
L Miilo
T Miilwa
Biiiur

t UlllIlM

Aviiii

I'.xo
I Tumor
iTuw
1 Peitot

r Axe

Avun
J Beveiu .

!• Tovnj
l»Toi»,^
I* Yitwitb
> Dovoy

unitinif lit Crickladn, foriH a fitri'itiii which in aUmt nine fi'i't Imiiiil in wiiiniH'r, iiiiil in ciillod
thd 'rliniiin, Ntmr (Vxfnnl it riK-iiivi'H tho (Ihiirwttll iiikI the Ikin, iiw<iiiiiiii)f on iIh iiini^tion
with thn liitti<rriviir t>i('(^'<ri|)<)iiiiil iiiiiiutot'TiiiitKNiM, which Ii:im hi'ci) ithhri'viiiti'd into Thiimcii.
Alter n cciiirNn nlinoKt Nouthwiinl to Knndinif, it wiiiiU northwanl thriiii|rh tlin W(i<kIi>iI viih< of
HiMiloy mill M.'iidiMihoiid, mid lhiinci> by tim CAntidlnti'd hi<ii;htM ut' WiiidMir. lis ronrxii to
Liiiiloii in liy ('hnrtHpy, I|iiiii|itiiii, Twickcnhiiin, and llichiiniiid, nimm;^ tlin iniii^niHront
wihkU mid iNihici'M it" ttnH imnulimt of I'liiulniiil. Nimr 'ritidiiiKton ifn riirrcnt im Nlijr|it|y
nclt'd ii|i<)ii liy till- i>xtfi " II' I'hli iiiid How ol the tide, whicii rinim lii({hpr in iIiih Ihun in iiny
other nviT of Kiimix'. t dividen tIm cii|iititl into two uni<(|iinl |HirtH, hiivinif mi it-i northern
hniik the citioM of I,i»i' n and WeNtininHter, niiil on itx wmtliern the lioriiii^rh of Smithwark.
nidiiw liondon nriilu(> ii im imvi|;abie tiir vcHHolHof lnr(;e hnrtlien ; itx aiiijile i-hmini'l,and the
■imciiiiiH (liK'kH ciiiiiieetcd with it, are thuro conMtantly lliieil witii liireHtM of iminti', and Heeiii
to contain, m it wisre, tiie wealth of the world. It windn ito way to the nceiin Ihnmtrh a
country prenenting few ohjectn of interent, excopt tho viiHt naval OHtahlinhiiientH Hitmited on
the Month hank of tho river. Woolwich clainiH |iarticnlar attention, not only on iici'iiiint of
the royal diK'kyard, and the national de|)At of artillery, but lor itH military acadeiny, uliich
runkH iiM the lirnt in tho enipire. Tho cntuary of tho Medwiiy, o|ienin); into the river from
Kent, alForilM comiiiiMlioiiH mtcH for the naval Htutiong of Chatham and 8hcernesii. 'I'lii- entire
cournn of tho Thanien Ih alwiit iRJO miles.

Tho Trent, with its trihiitary, tho iiorthom Ouho, travcrHCs tho whole midland territory of
Kni^rland, and several of its princi|)al maniitiictiirinif districts, to which it airurdri a cominnni-
cation with tho eastern, and by canals with tho western, ocean. It rises anioiif; the low
Stalfurdshiro hills, and at niirtnn, it becomes navi(»ablo for vessels of moderate si/.e. Ue-
coivinif tho Dove and Derwent, which, after dashing; thrimf;h the rocky rei;enses of Dorby-
shirc, have already subsided into |M<ucofnl streams, it jmssos Nottiiiuhani, and at (iain.ilHiroii^h
becomes navijfabfo for steam-b<Mit8, and other vo8.sels of larjfer burthen. Aller a liirther
course of alKiiit thirty miles, it Hows into tho Ilumber, already rendered a bruud estuary by
tho Ouse, whicli lias collected Iho princi|)al streams of Vorkdliiro. The Ouse, lormed \<y
tho confluence of tho Aire and tho Swalo from tho uplands of the North Ridini.', is ciilise-
quently augmented by tho VVhart'o. Tho Aire, with its tributaries the Calder and Don, ena-
ble it to commuuicato with all tho great nianutiicturiiifr towns of tho West Ridiiiij, iini! tiiD
conlliiencoof tho Derwent iVom tho East RidiiiK renders it eiiual inmaffnitude to the Thame.s.
The Ouse, with its branches, forms one of the most useful and least beautiful of Kinflinh
rivers. It winds a slupfgish course tlirnuirh maniifiicturiiijjr districts and rich anilile fields
without any diversity of scenery. The llumbor, formed by tho junction of the 'i'reiit and
Ouse, resembles an arm of tho sea; and ita trade contributes mainly to tho commercial
prosperity of Hull.

Tlio .Severn is tho only groat stream which runs from north to south for a considerable part
of its course. Rising in \Vales, near the fiwit of Plinliiiimon, it flows throufrli tho vales of
Moiitiroinory ; and, after winding round Shrewsbury, directs its coursi.' to the southward,
thniugli somn of tho richest and most beautiful plains of Kngland, piLssiiii; by the cities nl'
Worcester, Tewkesbury, and Gloucester. In commercial importance it also niiiks hijili,
since it flows through Colcbrook Dale, and other principal seats of the iron triiile; while tho
tracts on its lower course have for ages been distinguished for the manufiicture of fine wool-
lens. Its navigation is not free from obstructions, but much has been done to oliviatr- these
disadvantages, and to connect the Severn by canals with the other groat rivers. In approach-
ing Bristol, it receives the Wye, which, rising in Wales, flows through scenery that renders
it tho most picturesque of English rivers. The Severn then expands into tho estuary of the
Bristol Channel, tho seat of a commerce once second only to that of the metropolis, but now
surpassed by that of Liverpool.

The other rivers of England arc small ; tho Eden, the beautiful river of Cumberland,
forms the Solway ; the Mersey of liiincashire, with its tributary the Irwell, is iiii|)<irt:int, for
the mass of commodities which it conveys from the great tnauufacturiiig districts to Liver-
pool ; the southern Ouse, combines with the William of Lincolnshire in forminjf that broad,
shallow, marshy estuary called tho Wash, through which is exported a consideratde quantity
of grain from tho agricultural districts; tlie Tyne and the Tees in the north of nnirliind art;
the channels of extensive trade; tho Tyne, in particular, which carries down the product
of the vast coal mines of Newcastle.

The lakes of England occur principally in tho counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland,
whicli are denominated the country of the lakes. These, of which Wiiiderinere, the largest,
is only twelve miles long and one broad, have been raised to distinction by the ttiste of tho
ago for picturesque beauty, rather than as geographical features of the eounfry. Their
number, which is considerable, entitles them to notice; and a description of them will accom-
pany that of the districts to which they belong.

Sect. TI. — Natural Qeoirraphy.
This subject will be treated under the heads of Geology, Botany, and Zoology.

'¥

f'i

1 1

■ ■ iifl

i^:* .*i»'*t...-)«»v,>^iiw.

sua

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY,

Part III.

SuBSECT. 1. — Oeology of England.

While in Scotland tlie prevailing formations belong to the primitive and transition classes,
in England tlic deposits tliat most abound arc t)ic secondary, tertiary, and alluviiil. Ilcncc
it is that Scotland appears lofly and rugged, when contrasted with the hilly, Hat, and low
land of England. To enable our readers to form a general conception of tim geognostical
structure of England, we siiall consider the mineral formations in the following order : — I.
Primitive and Transition. 11. Secondary. III. Tertiary. IV. Alluvial.

I. Primitive and Transition. These rocks are principally confined to the more moun
tainous parts of England, and appear most abundantly, in Cumberland ond some neiglibouring
counties ; in Wales ; and in Cornwall and Devon.

(1.) Cumberland district. This district is bounded to the west and the south by the Irish
Sea and Morecombe Bay ; towards tlie north it descends into the plain of the new red sand-
stone, within tlie basin of the Eden ; and on the east it is bounde<i by the central carbonifer-
ous chain of the north. Within these limits there are two sets of rocks, viz. Plutonian and
Neptunian ; the more central parts being Plutonian, and the others Neptunian. The order
in whicli they occur, is as follows : —

1. Granite and Syenite. They form the geognostical axis of all this region, and extend
from the centre of the Skiddaw range to tlie neighbourhood of Egremont. There is a fine
display of the granite in the bed of the Calden, where it is intersected by veins of quartz,
and contains, besides other minerals, molybdena, tungsten, wolfram, and phosphate of lime.

2. A scries of crystalline slaty deposits, forming the centre of the Skiddaw region, extend-
ing across Cromac lake, and by the foot of Ennerdale, as far as Denthill, is composed of
gneiss, mica slate, hornblende slate, and cliiastolite slate. In some parts of Skiddaw and
Saddleback the curious mineral named chiastolite occurs: veins of quartz and galena occui*
in Thornthwaite, Newlands, Ix)wes water, and other places; a copper-mine was formerly
worked in Newlands. The salt springs of Borrowdale issue from these rocks.

3. Deposit of clay slate.

4. An enormous fonnation of a green felspathose slate, intimately associated with porphyry,
likn that of Snowdonia in Wales, and the Needle's Eye in Scotland. The fiimous graphite
or bliick-lead mine of Borrowdale is situated in the upper end of the valley of that name,
where the grapliite occurs in irregular veins associated with calc spar, brown spar, and
quartz. The graphite is in nests in these veins, and the veins are contained in a Plutonian
rock, viz. felspar porphyry, which is in some places amygdaloidal. Some nests of graphite
liave atTordcd 3000i. wortli of that mineral.

5. Greywacke, with subordinate beds of limestone enclosing organic remains. A gryphma
i'.nil turritell- occur near to Kirby-Lonsdale ; a pecten, plagiostoma, trigonia, and patella
near to Keswick. On the north side of the geognostical axis the Neptunian formotions are
repeated, with the exception of the greywacke series, which is probably buried under the
old red sandstone and mountain limestone ; and on this northern side, notwithstanding its
less extensive devolopcment, tliere is a group of mountains, almost entirely composed of
didUage rnrk, and other minerals; of which, it is said, no trace occurs in the south. These
occupy the place of the green felspar slate and porphyry series of No. 3. of Wales, after-
wards to be noticed ; and seem to be in the precise place of the serpentine of the Lizard in
Cornwall. Further, there is on the west side of Cumberland another formation of granite
and syenite, which underlies, traverses, and overlies the clay slate, No. 3., and is considered
tlie great centre of elevation of the region. It never overlies, it is said, the mica slate,
chiastolite slate, &c. ; but is probably connected with veins of syenite, and other detached
masses of crystalline rock, which ao not belong to the ordinary rocks of Kuporposition. A
range of transition limestone extending from Mellam in Cumberland to the neighbourhood
of Wa.sdalo Head in Westmoreland, nearly across the wliole region we are now describing,
is finally cut off by a protruding mass of granite, newer than the limestone.

(2.) Wales, including the Isle of Anglesca. The Neptunian and Plutonian rocks in this
extensive district are arranged as follows : — 1st, Granite rising among the clay slate strata in
the Isle of Anglnsea. 2dly, A group of slaty rocks consisting of mica slate, chlorite slate, and
quartz rock. These appear upheaved by the subjacent granite. They occur in the Isle of
Anglesca. In this island are tlio great Mona marble and Paris copper mines, in which the
ore is coinninn copper pyrites. The Mona marble, a beautiful compound of marble and ser-
pcii'inc, occurs among tliesc rocks, 3dly, A great group containing a very large proportion
of felspathose rncks and porphyries. Of those the district of Snowdonia is probably tiio
lowest portidn. Some of the slates of the Snowdon range contain organic remains, princi-
pn.Uy of shells, some of which appear rcfiirablo to the genus Producta. 4tlily, A vast
deposit of clay .slate, ."jthly, GreywiLcke, which fJirnis the uppermost or newest member of
the gmat serins of deposits. Ciinnn(;tod witli these series are great bods of limestone.
Fossil organic remains are met with in this series, and iniich more abundantly than in tlie
deeper-seated siiitcs. Cnrols of various kinds, crinoid animal shells, and rrvstacra occur
among thciso rocks, in a fos.-;il state. Of full, llic remain* of bones, teeth, and the defensive

HI.

iSSUS,

Icncc
1 low
stical
: :— I.

moun
)uring

e Irish
I sand-
jonifcr-
an and
e order

extend
is a fine
' quartz,
f lime,
extend-
poscd of
[daw and
na ocelli
formerly

porpliyry.
1 trrapliite
hat name,

Book I.

ENGLAND.

1
it

321

spar,

and

I'lutonian
)f graphite

^ crryphiea

ind patella

lations are

1 under the

[landing its
)mpoaed of

Ith. These

[ales, after-

lAzard in

of granite

considered

mica slate,

;r detached

position. A

[ghbourhood

describing,

locks in this
late strata in
Vc slate, and
L the Isle of
In which the
Tble and ser-
le proportion
Irohably the
lains, princi-
Ihly, A vast
I. member ot
If limestone.
\ than in the
Isfnffrt occur
Iho defensive

fin-bones named ichthyndornUies, are met with. In the lists of organic remains of these slates
we find extinct genera, and genera that still exist ; and, judging from the nature of the
remains, wo infer that some of the animals were inhabitants of deep, others of sliallow, seas.
The organic remains in greywacke rocks are rare, and form a very small proportion to the
extent of the rock.

(3.) Cornwall and Devon. In this district of England the rocks of the primitive class
are arranged in tlie following order : — 1st, Oranite. There are four great projecting masses
of granite rising through the bounding slaty strata: they send arms or veins among the
Neptunian strata, and have upraised and variously modified them. Tlie granite is traversed
by contemporaneous veins of granite, and also encloses contemporaneous masses and v^'ns
of a compound of quartz and schorl, named schorl-rock. It is also traveried by veins of
porphyry, called elvan. 2dly, Resting upon, or adjacent to, the granite there is a vast deposit
of clay slate, named, in the county, killas. It abound." in ores, hence is sometimes named
metalliferous slate. Where in the vicinity of granite, there is interposed gneiss or mica
slate, or both ; and in many parts it contains subordinate beds of greenstone, felspathose
slate, &c. 3dly, Apparently above the preceding slates there occurs, in two places, a form-
ation of serpentine, whic*-, in the Lizard, contains diallage rock, talc slate, hornblende
slate, and mica slate, and appears to occur below the greywacke. 4thly, Oreyieacke. This,
which appears to form a great mass, is the uppermost and newest member of the stratified
series. It contains considerable beds of limestone, including various organic remains.

Mines in Cornwall and Devon. Cornwall and Devonshire present three principal mining
districts. The part of Cornwall situated in the vicinity ^nd to the southward of Truro, the
neighbourhood of St. Austle, and the neighbourhood of Tavistock. The first of these dis-
tricts is the most important of the three, fi-om the number and richne.ss of its mines, in which
copper, tin, and lead are obtained. The ores of copper, which are principally copper pyrites
and gray copper, form regular veins, having a direction nearly from E. to W. in the rock
named killas ; and sometimes in the granite which projects amongst the slaty strata. The
tin occurs principally in veins, which, like the preceding, traverse the killas and granite.
They have also, very often, a direction nearly from E. to W. ; they have a different inclina-
tion from that of the copper veins, which mterscct and interrupt them, and which are,
consequently, newer. The tin also occurs in contemporaneous masses and veins, and dis-
seminated through the granite. Some veins afford, at the same time, copper and tin ; but
most of them produce only one of these metals in any quantity. There are also in Cornwall
cross vein.i, that intersect the veins botli of copper and tin ; these contain argentiferous galena,
native silver, and ores of silver. Near to Tavistock there are veins of copper, tin, and lead.
Mines of antimony occur at Huel Boys in Devonshire, and at Saltash in Cornwall. The tin
and copper ores of Cornwall arc accompanied with arsenical pyrites, which is turned to profit
by manufacturing oxide of arsenic from it.

II. Seconilary Rocks. The rocks of this class form the largest portion of the surface of
England, and the districts composed of them are generally flat or hilly ; never assuming
the mountainous character, unless where the old red sandstone or mountain lunestone appears.
We shall now describe the different formations in the order in which they occur, beginning
with the deeper-seated or oldest (the old red sandstone), and finishing our view with an
account of the newest, or chalk.

(1.) Old ml sandstone. This sandstone, which is distinguished from those newer in the
series by its greater hardness and red colour, occurs in greatest abundance in Herefordshire
and Brecknockshire. Smaller portions cccur in the Cumberland district, tlie Isle of Man
and the Isle of Anglesea.

(2.) Mountain limestone, metalliferous limistone, or carboniferous limestone. This rock
is generally grey coloured ; sometimes, however, it exhibits various tints when it is worked
as an inferior kind of marble. Its fracture is compact, lustre glimmering, and opaque or
translucent on the edges. Its structure is sometimes oolitic, as is the case in tlie vicinity of
Bristol, Veins of calcareous spar frequently traverse it, and occasionally contribute to the
beauty of the varieties used as marble. Sometimes remains of the encrinus are so abundant
in it, that it is named encrinal limestone. Its name carboniferous is from its somotimea
occurring along with coal, as that of metalliferous from its, in some districts, abounding in
ores. It alxHinds in organic remains of various genera of corals, radiaria, and shells ; also
some genera of Crustacea a.m\ fishes. Tliose bear a strong reseniblancc to the fossils of the
transition limestone in the greywacke districts. Derbyshire, Nortiiumberland, and Cumber-
land aftbrd fine displays of this formation.

Mines in mountain limestone. The mountain limestone forms several mountuinous dis-
tricts in England and Wales; in which there arc three districts rich in lead mines. The
first of these comprehends the upper parts of the valleys of the Tync, the Wear, and tlie
Tees, in the counties of Cumberland, Durham, and York. Its principal mines arc .situated
near Aldston Moor in Cumberland. The veins of sulphurct of lead or galena, which form
the principal oliject of the works, traverse alternately hods of limestone and sandstone. They,
are remarkable, from the circumstance that they suddenly become thinner and jworer on

Vol. I 2(1

'.. ■ m

wtii

-"■'"■-'■^iihiiiiiii

»22

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

I 1

oassing from the limestone into the sandstone; an iirrang-emcnl probably connected with
Bonie uloctro-magnetic action. Tlicro is also a copjjer mine S. W. of Aldston Moor. The
ore is common yellow copper pyrites, which is associated with galena in a vein of great
extent, and which does not neem to belong to the same formation a.«! the other veins in this
county. The iron mines of Ulverston are in this district. The ore is red hematite, which
traverses the limestone in tiie form of veins ; some of which are said to be 30 yards wide.
Near Whitehaven great masses of reniform hematite alternate with red beds of mountain
limestone. The second mctallife.roun district is situated in the northern part of Derbyshire,
and tiio contiguous jmrtsof the neighbouring counties. The districts called Peak and Kings-
tieltl are the richest in ore. Tiie blende, associated with the lead, is worked as an ore, and
zinc is obtained from it. A vein of copper pyrites occurs at Ecton in Staffordshire, on the
borders of Derbyshire. The Derbyshire vems have been long famous on account of the
beautit'ul minerals they produce, especially J?uor spart, and also from the interruption which
the metalliferous veins experience on meeting with trap rocks, called loadstone, which occurs
alternately witli the limestone. The third metalliferous district is situated in Flintshire
and Denbighshire, which form the N. E. part of Wales. It is the most productive next to
Aldston Moor. Besides lead, it furnishes also calamine or true ore of zinc. The mines are
situated partly in the mountain limestone, partly in various rocks of older formation. To
the S. W. of this district there are also lead mines in Shropshire : like the preceding, they
occur partly in mountain limestone and partly in older rocks. They yield a great annual
return of lead. Some mines of galeno and of calamine are mentioned as occurring in the
Mendip hills to the south of Bristol ; but they appear to be now aimndoned. Many beautiful
and interesting minerals are met with in these mines. Of the vein stones, quartz, in Corn-
wall, is the most abundant ; while it is fluor spar and calcareous spar in Derbyshire ; in
Yorkshire heavy spar or sulphate of barytes; and in Cumberland, heavy spar and fluor spar.
(,").) Coal formation. This, which is the most important of the secondary deposits, follows
in the regular succession the mountain limestone, on which it therefore rests. The lower
beds of this deposit sometimes alternate with the upper strata of the mountain limestone.
The rocks of which it is composed are shale, sandstone, clay ironstone, induratfd clay, and
coal, alternating in various ways witli each other. The shale, sandstone.^, ironstones, and
clays contain numerous fossil remains of extinct species of plants, rarely of animals, the
animal remains occurring principally in tlic limestone. No country of the same size in the
world affords so much coal as England, end nowhere has its natural and economical history
been so well examined as in this island. Messrs. Cony beare and Phillipe arrange the different
coal districts in the following manner : —

1. Coal district north of the Trent, or grand Penine chain. — 1. Northumberland and
Durham. 2. North of Yorkshire. 3. South York, Nottingham, and Derby. 4. South of
Derby. 5. North Staff()rd. fi. South Iioncashire. 7. North Lancashire. 8. Cumberland
and Whitehaven. 9. Foot of Crossfell.

2. Central coal district. — 1. Ashby de la Zouch. 2. Warwickshire. 3. South Stafford
(>r Dudley. 4. Indications near the Lickey hill, &c.

3. Western coal district, divided into, 1. North Western or North Welsh. — 1. Isle of
Anglesea. 2. Flintshire.

4. Middle western or Shropshire. — 1. Plain of Shrewsbury. 2. Colebrook-dale. 3. The
Clce hills and South Shropshire. 4. Near the Abberley hill.

T). South Western. — 1. South Wales. 2. Forest of Dean. 3. South Gloucester and
Somerset

These different districts ore accurately described in Conybcarc and Phillips's Geology of
Enffland and Wal-es.

Changes of the conl frldx from the British Channel to the Tweed. The great coal fields
in England experience a great change of stnicturo in their range from the Bristol Channel
to the valley of the Tweed : these changes we shall now enumerate, using the view given
by Sedgwick. In tlie various coal basins on the Bristol Channel, tlio limestone strata are
developed only in the lower, and the coal licds in the upper, part of the series ; and the
two members arc separated by nearly unproductive deposits of millstone-grit and sliale
The arrangement in Derbysliire is nearly tiie same; there, however, the millstone-grit is
more varied, and is of very great thickness, and subordinate to the groat dc|)osit of shale,
and, hero and there, \ery thick mas.«e3 of a peculiar argillaceous sandstone, disposed in a
tnlndar manner. On the re-appoariinee of the carboniferous limestone, nt the biiRO of the
Yorkshire chain, wc ftill find the same L'enernl iiiinlogies of structure; enormous deposits
of iiinestone firm the lowest part, and tlii! coiil fields tlio highest part of the whole series;
and. ns in the former instance?, we al.-o find the inillstone-grit occupying an intermediate
position. The millstnne-grit. however, becomes a very complex deposit, with several
piibordinafe beds of coal ; and is sninrnted from the jrreat inferior calcareous group (the scat
limestone), not merely liy the ;'r '.it sliale a'ld sliale-liinestone, ns in DerbysliLre, but hy a
still more complex dep.isit, in some place.s not less than KKK) feel, thick ; in which five
groups of limestone strata alternate with great mosses of sandstone and shale, aliound in

Part 111.

inccted with
1 Moor. The
vein of great
veins in this
matite, which
10 yards wide.
la of mountain
of Dcrhyshire,
■ak and Kings-
BB an ore, and
rdshire, on the
account of the
irruption which
e, which occurs
d in Flintshire
luctive next to

The mines are
formation. To
preceding, they
I a great annual
ccurring in the

Many beautiful
quartz, in Corn-
i Derbyshire ; in
ir and fluor spar.
J deposits, follows
ists. The lower
mtain limestone.
luratfd clay, and
!, ironstones, and
y of animals, the
, same size in the
conomical history
range tlie different

rthumberland and

•by. 4. South of

8. Cumberland

3. South Stafford

Velsh.—\. Isle of

•ook-dale. 3. The

h Gloucester and

illips's Geology nf

10 great coal fields
le Bristol Channel
ng tho view given
nestoiio strata are
he series ; and tho
ine-grii and shale
le millstone-grit is
at dcpsit of shale,
tone, disposed in a
at the buso of the

enormous deposits
_i" the whole scries ;
ig an intermediate
wnit, with several

ons groiip (the scai
)orl)VKliije, but by a

lick'; in which five

id shale, aliound in

Book I.

ENGLAND.

impressions of coal plants, and three or four thin beds of good coal extensively worked for
'iornestic use.

In tho range of the carboniferous chain from Stainmoor, through the ridge of Crossfell to
the confines of Northumberland, we imve a repetition of the same general phenomena. On
its eastern flanks, and superior to all its component groups, is the coal field of Durham.
Under the coal field, we have, in a regular descending order, the millstone-grit, the alterna-
tions of limestone and coal measures nearly identical with tlioee of the Yorkshire chain,
and at the base of all is the great scar limestone. The scar limestone begins, however, to
be subdivided by thick masses of sandstone and carbonaceous shale, of which we had hardly
a trace in Yorkshire ; and gradually passes into a complex deposit, not distinguishable from
the next superior division of the series. Along with this gradual change is a great devel-
opement of the inferior coal beds alternating with the limestone ; some of which on the
north-eastern skirts of Cumberland, are three or four feet in thickness, and are now worked
for domestic use.

The alternating beds of sandstone and shale expand more and more as we advance
towards the north, at the expense of all the calcareous groups, which gradually thin off and
cease to produce any impress on the features of the country. And thus it is, that the lowest
portion of the whole carboniferous system, from Bewcastle Forest, along the skirts of the
Cheviot Hills, to the valley of the Tweed, has hardly a single feature in common with the
inferior part of the Yorkshire chain ; but, on the contrary, has almost all the most ordinary
external characters of a coal formation. Corresponding to this change, is also a gradual
thickening of carbonaceous matter in some of the lower groups. Many coal works have
been opened upon this line ; and near the right bank of the Tweed (almopt on a parallel
with the great scar limestone) is a coal field, with five or six good seams, some of which are
pretty extensively worked. The beds of sandstone, shale, and limestone, forming tlie base
m the carboniferous system in the basin of the Tweed, are often deeply tinged with oxide of
iron ; and have been compared sometimes with the new, sometimes with uie old, red sand-
stone: to the new red sandstone they have no relations; "and I would rather compare
them," says Sedgwick, "especially as the old red sandstone of the north of England seldom
exist but as a conglomerate, and is seen in that form on tlie flanks of the Cheviot Hills, with
the red beds of mountain limestone and sandstone, which, both in Cumberland and Lan-
cashire, sometimes form the base of the whole carboniferous series."

These coal fields are traversed and variously deranged by great faults; interesting
descriptions of which, particularly those in the northern fields, have been published by
Messrs. Phillips and Sedgwick.

The coal strata, or metals as they are sometimes called, arc in some parts of England
affected by Plutonian trap rocks, hut in a very inferior degree to what takes plnce in Scot-
land. The principal trap rock k greenstone, which appears in the form of overlyinir masses,
OS at Clee Hill and at Dudley ; in the form of intersecting tabular masses or dikes (veins),
as in Northumberland and Durham. Sometimes the trap mass has been forced between the
strata, when it has the character of « bed, or these bed-like masses may be .some of the rocks
of the coal formation softened and recrystallised in situ by hent from below. The great
lehin sill of Northumberland, and the toodstonc beds of Derbyshire, are examples of these
trap beds. The strata near the trap frequently appear changed, the clays hardened, the
limestone rendered crystalline and magnesian, the coal charred, and the sandstone hardened,
&c. ; and these strata are either moved fi-om their original position, or are unchanged.

Although rather foreign to our subject, we may, as an illustration of the importance of
the coal formation to England, mention the quantity of iron manufactured, and of coal con-
sumed, in the carboniferous district of Wales. The quantity of iron, according to Mr.
Forster, aimually manuihcturcd in Wales, has been calculated at 270,000 tons. Of this
quantity a proportion of about three-fourths is made into bars, and one-fourth sold as pigs and
castings. The quantity of coal required for its manuflicture on tlie average of the whole,
including that used by engines, workmen, &c. will be about ."ij tons for each ton of iron ;
the annual consumption of coal by the ironworks will, therefore, be about 1,.500,000 tons.
The quantity used in the smelting of copper ore imported into Wales from Cornwall, in
the manufacture of tin-plate, forging of iron for various purposes, and for domestic uses,
may be calculated at 350,000, which makes altogether the annual consumption in Wales,
1,850,000 tons.

(4.) Magnesian limestone formation. The upper part of the coal formation has some-
times a red colour with an arenaceous and conglomerated cliaracter. Above or resting upon
it we have the magnesian limestone deposit. This deposit extends through Yorkshire and
Durham^ Its lower part is said to be separated from the coal formation by a deposit of sand
and sandstone, with occasional rod marl ond gypsum. The magnesian limestone itself con-
sists in its lower part of a bitutninous marl slate, abounding in fossil fishes of the genus
Palaothrissum ; the middle and upper parts being a yellowish small granulor or glimmer-
ing magnesian limestone. The organic character of this limestone approaches nearly to

324

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III

that of t^ie mountain limestone already described. It contaiuij Products, which, however
do not occur higher in the series ; also Spir\fcr<e, a tribe found as high as the oolite.

(5.) Varicffuted or new red sandstone, with the red variegated marl deposit . As the
shell limestone is wanting in England, the variegated sandstone and the red and variegated
marls come together, and moy here, therefore, be viewed as one fonnation. They rest
immediately upon the mogncsian limestone, but of the two sets the marl appears in general
to be the uppermost or newest. The sandstone is of a looser texture than tiiat of the old
red sandstone deposit, has a red or variegated colour, and the strata are generally horizontal.
The marls arc red or variegated in colour. In these sandstones and marls, beds and great
masses or nodules of gypsum occur, as in Derbysliire, Staffordshire, &c. All the salt mines
in England are situated in this deposit. At Northwich there is an extensive deposit of solid
rock salt, forming two beds, together not less than 60 feet in thickness. These beds are
supposed to form large insulated masses of this mineral, extending in length about a mile
and a half, and in breadth about 18(K) yards. The salt works at Droitwich in Worcester-
shire are also in this red marl deposit. Iron-sand and iserine are said to occur in this sand-
stone on the banks of the Mersey opposite Liverpool ; and in other places sulphuret of cop-
per, gray oxide of cobalt, and black oxide of manganese occur in the sandstone or its marls.
It forms Uie surface of vast tracts extending with little interruption from the northern bank
of the Tees in Durham to the southern coast of Devonshire. We find a tract in the great
plain in the centre of England of about 80 miles in length and sixty in breadth, principally
covered with tliis deposit ; several islands of the older rocks, however, rising, in various
places, through it. These are, 1st, the syenite, greenstone, and slate district of Charnwood
forest in Leicestershire ; 2dly, the coal district surrounding Ashby de la Zouch in the same
county ; connected with which are several patches of the carboniferous magnesian lime-
stone, and a patch of millstone-grit at Stanton-bridge on the Trent ; 3dly, the coal-field of
Warwickshire ; 4thly, the coal-field in the south of Staffordshire, with the transition lime-
stone on which it rests; 5thly, the lower and northern range of the Lickey hill, near Broms-
grove in Worcestershire, which exhibits strata, probably of transition quartz rock. Some
trap rocks occur in this formation at Upton Pyne, a village five miles nortli of Exeter, and
at other points near that town.

(6.) Lias and oolite formation. This great fonnation occupies a zone having nearly 30
miles in average breadth, extending across the island from Yorkshire on the north-east, to
Devonshire on the south-west It is eminently remarkable on account of the number and
variety of fossil organic remains whicii it contains, and its wide distribution not only in
England, but also in many other parts of the world. In this fonnation, at Stonesfield, the
first or earliest remains of mammiferous animals were found. Crocodiles and many vast
and strangely organised reptiles occur in this deposit, with a vast variety of shells, many
radiaria, una also corals. Fisiies are also met with in a fossil state, but by no means so fre-
quently as reptiles. Fossil plants of various tribes also occur, and tlius add to the organic
variety of this remarkable formation : they belong to the Alga, Emisetacca, Filices, Cy'
cadets, Conifera, and Lilia. Beds of coal, generally of an indinerent quality, occur in
different parts of the country in this deposit.

(7.) Wealden clay and Purbeck stone. This formation, which lies immediately upon
the oolite, consists of limestones, sands, and clay.s abounding in fossil organic remains,
principally of terrestrial and fresh-water plants and animals, marine species being rare. In
the lower part of this formation, in tlie neighbourhood of Weymouth, there is a bed of black
earth, called tlie dirt bed, containing, in a silicified state, long prostrate trunks of coniferous
trees, and stems of Cycadeoidea. These trunks lie partly sunk into the deep black eartli,
like fiillen trees on the surface of a peat bog, and partly covered by tlie incumbent Purbeck
limestone. Many tnmks of trees also remain erect, with their roots attached to the black
soil in which they grew, and their upper jmrt in the limestone ; and show that the .^uiiace of
the subjacent Portland stone was for some time dry land, and covered with a forest ; and
probably in a climate such as admits the growth of tiie modem Zamia and Cycnn, remains
of these genera being found here. This forest has been s-'brnerged ; first, beneath the fresh
waters of a lake or estuary, in which were deposited tlie Purbeck bods, and sands and clays
of tlie Wealden formation (amounting together to nearly 1000 feet), and subsequently
beneath the salt water of on ocean of sufficient depth to accumulate all the great marine
formations of green sand and ciialk that rest upon it.

(8.) Chalk formatinn with green sand. This great deposit consists principally of chalk,
with less extensive subjacent beds of green sand and tuffiiccous chalk. It stretches, with
little interruption, from Flamlwroiigh Head on the coast of Yorkshire, to near Sidmouth on
the coast of Devonshire ; forming a range of hills often of some hundred feet high, and of
which the most precipitous face is generally on the nortii-wcst side. From this long range
several ranges sliiwt toward the east and soutli-east. Chalk does not often bear the charac-
ter of a level or flat country ; but, on the contrary, is subject to perpetual undulation of sur-
face, tJio liills being remarkable for their smooth rounded outline, and the deep hollows and
indentatiuiiB on their sides.

759 /;.,
■'rom thJ
ihosc /ii[
•cry bol
''"0' fe J
"|<J sj)ccr
f'" frequJ
cloy, nfi
known s
cocoa-mj
fcrrdo ]
"'o sea.-)
ff'oenishi
fjochi nnJ
Pre.'^hwaJ
"y the prj
supposed
Paris. T
of fnigme,
'ooth of al
marly bed!
pne/iydpnif
%' the iij

"1 (lio lowJ

have hoeiil

"^ .vo!),mii

Vol. I.

■*

ever

B the
gated
y rest
moral
lie cW
lontiil.
great
mine*
)f solid
ids are
a mile
rcester-
18 eand-
of cop-
s marls,
irn bank
,e great
incipally
y various
larnwood
the same
ian lime-
il-field ol
tion lime-
■ar Broms-
;1{. Some
xeter, and

nearly 30
rth-east, to
mmber and
not only in
tesfieW, the

many vast
lells, many

eans so fte-

the organic

'ilices, Cy-
occur m

iiitely upon
lie remains,
ngrare. In
bed of black
>f coniferous
black eartli,
;nt Purbeck
to the black
ic 3Uiface of
.forest; and
ens, remains
nth the fresh
ids and clays
subsequently
great marine

illy of chalk,

[retches, witli

1 Sidmouth on

I high, andol

Is long rang"

It the charac-

tlation of sur-

|p hollows and

Book I.

ENGLAND.

3a5

The upper part of this formation, through a great imrt of England, ia characterised by
the presence of common gun-flint, arranged in thin beds or in variously-gjiaped masrios, dis-
posed more or less in parallel lines. In the lower part of the formation the flints beconiu
Jess and less abundant, and at length entirely disappear. 'This arrangement, however, is not
nlway.s to be observed, for in some places the lower chalk abounds in flints. In the chalk
formation, the upper and middle parts are of clialk, while the lower and under are of sands,
sandstones, and clays. The upper part may be considered an original dciwsit, the matter
derived from the interior of the earth ; the lower of a mechanical and alluvial nature.
Chalk abounds in fossil remains of animals, and also contains fossilised plants. Corals in great
variety, radiated animals, particularly cchinites, are in vast numbers ; shells of all the grand
divisions and in great variety add to the zoological interest of the formation, which isfurthei
heightened by llie fossil crabs, (ii<hes, and reptiles, occasionally met with in it. The plants
are Conferva, Fuci, Zosttree, Cycadea, with dicotyledonous woo<l perforated by some
boring animal. The formation, as it occurs in England, appears to have b<}en variously
elevated and depressed at different times by some subterrnnean actions ; but, aa far as we
know, it does not anywhere occur in contact with trap or other Plutonian rocks.

III. Tertiary rocks Hitherto, in England, these deposits have been found only in what
are called the London basin and the Isle of Wight basin ; two spaces conjectured formerly
to have had the basin shape, but now more or less filled with tertiary rocks; an opinion,
however, which the late observations of Professor Buckland have shown to be less plausible
than has been generally believed. Tim boundary of the first of these supposed basins may
be stated, generally, as a line running from the inner edge of the chalk, south of Flam-
borough Head, in Yorkshire, nearly south, till it crosses the Wash, then south-west to the
upper part of the valley of the river Kennet, near Hungerford, in Wiltshire ; and thence
trending south-east to the south of tl;3 Thames, and the north-west angle of the Isle of
Thanet: in all these directions the boundary line is formed by the chalk liills; on tivt east
side, the boundary is the coast of the German Ocean. The boundaries of the Isle of Wight
basin may be stated as follows :— on the north, a few miles south of Winchester ; on the
south, a little north of Carisbrook in the Isle of Wight; on the east, Brighton ; and on the
west, Dorchester. It is everywhere circumscribed by clialk hills, excepting whe-e broken
in by the channel between the Isle of Wight and the main land. The difftrent members
of tlie tertiary series met with in England, are named Plastic clay, London clay, Bairshot
sands, the Freshwater formations of tho Lsle of Wight, and the Crag.—,Plastic clay. This
deposit consists of a plastic clay with gravel beds, alternating with beds of sand (sometimes
in a state of sandstone) and clay. Its organic remains are principally marine shells, with
layers of lignite or brown coal. — London clay. This is a bluish or blackish clay, sometimes
so much impregnated with carbonate of lime as to form a kind of compact marl. Layers or
noilules of septjiria (a calcareous concretion) frequently occur in it. It is the great clayey
ileposit on which I/jndon is built. It has been bored to a depth of 700 feet, without rouch-
'iiig its bottom. The highest point it attains is the summit of High Beach in Essex, being
759 feet above the sea. It abounds in fossil organic remains from the animal as well as
from tho vegetable kingdom. Crocodiles, turtles, fishes, and crabs have been observed ; but
vhese are few in number compared with the host of fossil shells. These shells are often
.•ery beautifully preserved, frequently retaining the appearance of recent species. There are
very few genera of recent shells which have not some representative in this formation, but
the siwcific character is usually diflerent; on the other hand, but few of the extinct genera,
so frecjueiit in the older formations, occur in this. The Isle of Sheppey, formed of London
clay, afliirds a vast variety of fossil fruits and seeds, very few of which agree with any
known seed-vessels ; many of them are conjectured to belong to tropical plants, some to the
cocoa-nut and spice trites. Fragments of wootl pierced by a shell animal, resembling the
Teredo navalis, are met with; a fact which shows that the wood may have floated about in
the sca,.-^ Hair shot satids. These rest upon the London clay ; they consist of stiiid, with
greenish-coloured clay, variously coloured marls, containing grains of grenn sf.nd, and fossil
trtxihi and pcctinites. — Freshwater formations of the Isle of Wight and Hampshire. The
Freshwater strata of the Isle of Wight are divided into two deposits by a rock characterised
ny the presence of marine remains, and named the nppir marine formation, from being a
supposed equivalent to the sands which intervene between the two freshwater deposits of
Paris. The lower freshwater deposit of Binstead, near Ryde, consists of a limestone formed
of fragments of freshwater shells, white shell marl, siliceous limestone, and snnd. One
tooth of an Anaplotherium and two teeth of a Palaotherittm have been found in the lower
marly beds of the quarries at Binstead. In the same quarriop several rolled fragments of
pachydprmatous animals, and tho jaw of an animal allied to the mn^k-deer tribe. In Col well
Bay tlio upper part of thi.s deposit contains a mixture of freshwater and marine bIioUs. — The
upper marine formation. This deposit of calcareous beds aimunds with freshwater shells
in the lower part, but in the upper part we find marine shells; hence it is conjectured to
liave been formed in an estuary. — Vpp''rfreshwat(r formation. This consists principally
of vellowish wliite marls. The orcjanic reiiiiiins are either freshwater or land. The geo-

Vol. I. -^^

■\-¥

: \-t\

828 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part in.

logical history of tlio tertiary dcnositfl in England Iihh not yet been placed in direct con-
nexion with tiiat of similar dcpositti on the continent of Europe. No trap or granite rocka
have hitherto been met witii in England in any way connected with tlie tertiary strata.

IV. Alluvial rocks. Nearly tlie wiiole of England k more or loss covered with alluvium,
or debris of previously existing rocks : tlius it occurs on mountain ridges, and on the sides
and bottoms of valleys ; it is spread over plains, fills up, wholly or partially, fissures in rocks,
and caves, and caverns, and forms beaches and otlier accumulations of greater or lesser
extent on the sea coast. It varies in age, from the oldest called diluvium, which stands in
immediate connexion with the crag or upper tertiary deposit, to the newest, tliose terming
at present tlirough the agency of the atmosphere, springs, lakes, rivers, and the waves and
currents of the ocean. It encloses numerous remains of plants and animals, either more or
less mineralized, or simply bleached : those of the oldest deposits appear to be of animals,
and sometimes of plants, which are cpparently extinct ; while the newer enclose remains
only of living animal and vegetable species. Although our limits do not allow ua to enter
into 'ntttils on thia very important and curious department of geology, we may remark, that
the churacters and modes of distribution of these alluvia arc, m many instances, intimately
connected with risings and depressions of the land ; and consequently with apparent sinking
and rising of the waters of the ocean, and the violent agitations sometimes induced in the
great mass of the ocean, and also in lakes, by changes in the level of the solid parts of tlie
globe.

^j. . SuBSECT. 2. — Botany,

The botany of the different parts of the British empire is so similar, that we propose to
treat under one head that of England, Scotland, Ireland, and their adjacent islands.

Extending tlirough eleven degrees of latitude, Great Britain includes a considerable vari-
ety op climate, but everywhere, more or less tempered by the surrounding ocean ; so that,
in no part of the island, except on the mountains, or ' irh table-lands, can the temperature
be compared to similar latitudes, upon the European uich less upon the American conti-
nent Yet, from its proximity to the former, the veguiution is, with few exceptions, similar
to that of tlie adjacent districts of Europe. Although in consequence of the un&vourable
summers, the frequent obscurity of the sun, the damp and foggy atmosphere, it is not pos-
sible, without artificial heat and protection, to bring many ofthc fruits of more favoured
climates to perfection; yet the mildness of the winter renders it easy to introduce and to
naturalise plants of much more southern latitudes : so that the gardens, parks, shrubberies,
and even forests, are adorned with the most varied vegetation, producing the most beautiful
flowers, or the most valued timbers.

On the extreme southern coast of England and Ireland, the native vegetables of the
warmer temperate zone are successfully grown in the open air, and come to considerable
perfection. In the south of Devonshire, the orange and lemon trees are loaded with fruit
of the finest kind, trained, indeed, to a wall, but without protection, or only provided with it
during a very short portion of the winter months ; the Lemon-scented Vervain (Lippia
citriodora, formerly called Verbena triphylla, becomes quite a tree, without any artificial
protection ; the American Agave, the creeping Cereus, the Prickly Pear, myrtles from the
south of Europe ; the Tea, Camellias and other Chinese and Japanese plants, thrive well in
the open air, as well as the Magnolias, and many other trees, from the southern states of
North America, whose native latitudes lie many degrees nearer to the tropics.

The only two floras of Great Britain, which are so complete as to demand particular atten-
tion, are Sir J. E. Smith's English Flora, ond Gray's Arrangement of British Plants ; the
former classed according to the Linnmun system, extending, however, only to the end of the
class Polygamia, and the first order of the class Cryptoganiia Filices. Gray's Flora includes
the whole of the British vegetables, arranged according to the natural method, and is the
only one tliat approaches, however deficient it may still be, to any thing like a catalogue of
our present state of knowledge of the Cryptogamia. Among the Pha;noganiou8 plants,
however, Mr. Gray has included a great number that are only known in a state of cultiva-
tion, as has been done by De Candollc, in Iiis Flore Francaise, and many other continental
botanists. Wo have, therefore, deemed it convenient tnus to give a list of tlie plants,
according to each of these authors; and the increased number in the columns of species,
according to Mr. Groy, will be thus easily accounted for.

♦ Draw
tTh.. 1

Ml ih(? n

t'nptnin
ill thosd ;
were prcv

? llri

Tin.

t con-
) rocks
a.

uvium,
e sided
1 rocka,
: lesser
:amls in
forming
ives anil
more or
animalsi
remaina
to enter
ark, that
jtimntely
t sinking
>d in the
rts of tlie

propose to

rablc vari-
n ; so that,
jmperature
ican conti-
jns, similar
nfiivourable
t is not pos-
re favoured
diice and to
shrubberies,
)st beautiful

ibles of the
•onsiderable
\A with fruit
ided with it
lain {Lippia
[ny artificial
[es from the
irive well in
im states of

licular atten-
IPlants; the
lo end of the
\ora includes
R, and is the
[catalogue of
nous plants,
[e of cultiva-
continental
Uie plants,
is of species.

Book I.

ENGLAND.

327

A LiiT of the Number of Spccici of Dritlih Plants, arranged according to the Cla«*ci and principal Fomiliea to
which they belong; exiiibiling the relative |iropurti<iii wliich those latter bear to the whole uf the rcipectiva
Claaaei.*

Nam^ nf the Natural
Familiea.

Fungi

Algo

Lichenea

HepaticB, ny Hoolier..

Muxi, by Hooker

Filicet

ACOTTLEDONM

Oraniinen

CyperaceaB

Juncen and Rcatiaeec . . .

Glumaccie

Orchidcn

Monocotyledonca ciBteroi

MOHOCOTTLEDOXaa ■ . .

Cunifem

Amentacea

Eupliorbiacen

Scrophul. and Orobanches
Labiato and Vcrbens. ■ .

Boragineie

Ericineae and Fyrolec ■ .

Canipanulaceie

Composite

RubiaceiB

UmbelliCcra

Rosaces!

Leguminoaai

Malvacen

Cnryophylleee

Crucireroe

Ranuncniacea

Dicotyledoncs cetera . . .
D1COTVLSDONE8

It must be remarked, that in Cyperaceen, Juncea, Salix, Saxifraga, Rosa, Rnhus, and
some others, tlie species are not formed on the same rules as in Smith's English Flora ;
and therefore, before drawing a parallel between these orders in Scotland, and in the whole
of Britain, a considerable number of species ought to be added. To make this comparison,
then, about twenty species may be added to the Monocotyledoncs, and about fifty (say forty-
seven), to the Uicolyledonous plants, making tliese two, 280 and 870 ; whence tlie Monoco-
tyledones of Scotland are to the wliole of those in the British dominions as one to one and a
quarter, or as four to five ; and the Dicotyledoncs as eight to eleven.

Ireland possesses a flora which partakes of the nature of those of England and Scotland.
A list of the phoinogamous plants has been recently published by Mr. J. T. Mackay, of the
Dublin College Botanic Garden. It exhibits a much poorer vegetation tlian its sister island,
including only 934 species; of which tiiere are, 41 Filices; 211 Monocotyledoncs, and 682
Dicotylcdones. So that the proportion of Filices to Pha?no{ramou8 plants is as 1 to 2I4 ;
Monocotyledoncs to Phojnogamous plants, 1 to 4| ; Dicotylcdones to Phoinogamous plants,
1 to I5. The proportion of Irish ISIonocotylodones to British Monocotyledoncs (according
to tlie species of Smith) is as 1 to 1 5, or as 3 to 5 : of Irish Dicotylcdones, 1 to 1 fj, or as 3 to 5.

♦ Drawn up by O. A. W. Arnott, Esq. of Riliiiburijh.

tTho prnportinna in the Cryptocaniin \v\\\ ho foiinil probnhly nmrh more rnrrrrt f()r Srotlnnd than Ihofie (riven
in lh(! ltriti:*h tahU* nro Tor tlio \vlii>li> nf Britain ; nwini; (o tlie resnnrrhcs niailn in Hint tribe hy Dr. Grcville, and
('aptnin (.'nrmirhacl ; particularly by the latter in the Ftinifi and Al}zu* ; the iljscoveries of that ^eiitteinnn nione
in those Iwii jiniiips. in one shiall ilistrirt (.VppiiO in the west liiehlninl.H iifSi^otland, amount to more speci'is than
were previously described as inhabiting the whole of the British douiiniuiis.

■»■ !'

?rf

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGUAI'lIV.

Part III

Few, indeed, of tlio species of plnnts now uiiimior.iti'il iis niitivc.i of Eiijfliinif, Kcotlnnd,
and Ireland, und tlio udjucent isleto, cun bo conHidored as i-xckiwivcly l)cloiii;itii; to tliOHe
countries. For tliougii tliere are rnuny whicii ure not referred to as t-pncies in the works of
other aiitiiors, yet thny are, for tiie most jxirt, anionij such timiilifs as nro nut well under-
Btood, and nliout wliicij there will always exibt a dillbrence of opinion ; us ainoiifj tlio Grasses,
Willows, Brambles, &c.

Many plants reach their northern limits in the south of Englnnd and Ireland. We must
particularly mention the Strawberry Tree {Arbntu* IJniilo, Jig. 107.). which forms so
chorming a feature in that most beautiful of all scenery, the Lake of Killarney. Some have,
indeed, supposed that it was introduced into Ireland by the monks of Mucrusa Abbey, at

108

Sbawbernr Tim.

Cornith llealh.

Ciliitad Hettb.

some very remote period. Its appearance is, Iiowever, altogether that of an aboriginal native,
coming to a great size,* perfecting its bright scarlet berries, which are disseminated over the
rocks and islands in every direction. The Erica vagans, or Cornish Heath (Jig. 108. a), is
found nowhere in Britain except Cornwall ; and the same may be said of the newly-disco-
vered E. ciliaris (6), and the following, of great beauty or rarity : Lobelia Dorlmanna,
Pkyleuma orbicularis and P. spicata, Sibthorpia europaa and Isnardiu pahistris, are quite
southern plants in the British dominions.

The Wiitcr-Soldier {Stratiotes aloides) ; the Water Violet {Hottnnia palitstris) ; the small
Maidenhair Grass {Briza minor) ; the Sweet Violet ( Viola odorala) ; several Mulleins ; the
Primrose-peerless (AarmsMs ;joericMs and biflorus); the common Snake's Head {Fritillaria
tneleogris) ; the Agrostis setacca, the Star of Bethlehem {Ornithogulum pijrcnaicim); the
two spocies of Squill (Scilla autumnalis and bifolia) ; the Mountain Spiderwort [Antheri-
cum xerolinmn); the Solomon's Seal (jCanvallaria polygonalum); and Sweet Sedge (ylcorus
Calmnns) ; the Yellow-wort {Chlora perfoliata) ; the Mezereum (Daphne Mezirettm) ; tlie
Flowering Rush (Bulomvs umbellatus) ; the Yellow Marsh Saxifrage (Saxifraga Hircuhts) ;
though on the Continent a very arctic plant, the Clove Pink (^Dianthus caryophylhis) ; and
D. prolifer; several Catchflys (Silene); Euphorbias, Cistuses, Anemones, the Traveller's
Joy (Clematis Vitalba); the GroHnd Pine (AjugaChama:pitys); the Woo<l-Sago ( 7'cucnttm
Scorndonia) ; the crested and field Cow-wheat ( Helampyrxtm cristalvm and arvense) ; some
Orobanches, the Vella annua, Draba aizoides, and Iberis ama.Ti, some Fumitories (Fximaria
solida, liitca, and parvijlora') ; the yellow and crimson Vetchlings (Lathyrus Aphaca and
Nissolia) ; tlie Vicia hybrida, lievigata, and bithynica, Hippocrcpis comosa ; Orchis ]Morio,t
pyramidalis, ustulata, fusca, militaris, tephrosanthos, hircina; Aceras anthropophora, Her-
minium monorchis; all the species of Opfirys, Epipactis rubra, Malaxis Loeselii ; the beau-
tiful and rare Lady's Slipper (Cypriperftum Calccobis); the Birthwort (Aristolochia Clema-
tills') ; the Roman Nettle ( Urtica pilulifera) ; the Xanthium strumarinm and Amaranthus
Blitum; the Spanish Chestnut Tree (Fagus caslanea); and Misseltoe (Viscum album);
the Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) ; and White Poplar (Popnlus canescens) : these
are some among the most striking of the British plants, which do not reach the middle of
the kingdom, and fail below the south of Scotland.

The most interesting of the Scottish plants are, principally, such whose types are found
on the continent of Europe, in high northern latitudes, or in the extreme arctic regions of
both Asia and America; such as Veronica fruticulosn, saxatilis, and alpina, several alpine
grasses, and other glumaceous plants; such as Phlcum alpinum and Alopncurns alpinus.
Eriophornm alpinum ; Juncus castancus, arcticiis, and biglumis ; and Luzula nrcticn, Primula
scotica (Jig. 109. a), the Myosotis alpestris (d), Azalea procumbens, (lentianii nivalis (c)
Sibbaldia procumbens, Convallaria verticilhita, Epilo'Dlum alpinum, Arbutus alpina, Pyrola
uniflora (b), Saxifraga nivalis and rivularis, Stellaria scKpigera (the latter is exclusively

* Mr. Mackay iiirnsiirfMl n trunk vf tluB fini! rvorirri'iMi troc on R*hi^Ii lijlund, iioarly o|ipo»itu O'Siilliviiirti Caji-
cadc, nliicli, in IHI5, wiis tl^ rent in Kirlli. nt n t'niit rriiiu thi' l'MujiiI.

t On tlin antliortty (•{ I.iL'lttfoot, in<I<M^il, tliiK plnnt, an alMiinliinttv foiinrt in England, is fiveii as u native nf
£>colland ; biit no living buliiiiit!t, tliut I iim aware of, lias I'ver wen it tlietc.

Voul.

I 'i;

r HI

tlnn('.,
thowo
rks ut"

rasses,

I' mvist
rnis BO
Imve,
ibey, at

ml native,
d over the
108. a), ia
wly-di'ico-
orlmonna,
I, are quite

; the small
lleins; the
Pritilli'i''"
icim); the
t [Antheri-
pp (Acorus

Hirciilus);
,)llus); and
Traveller's

\nse); some
{Fvmaria
iphaca and
fhis Morio,t
phora, ller-
; the bcau-
hia Clema-
Amnranthus
7« album);
lens), these
e middle of

Ifs are found
regions of

Loral alpine
|rns nlpinus.
■en, Primula
1 nivalis (c)

liina, Pyrola

T exclusively

B,i\livim'« Cos-
las II n»i»ve of

Book I. . ENGLAND. 326

British), Aronaria rubella and fastigiata. the Chcrleria sodoides. Lychnis Viscaria and alplna,
Spergula Haginoideg, Potontilla oixicn, Nuphar Kalmiana, Ranunculus alpestris, Ajupa pyra-
inidttliB, Cardiunino bcllidiflora, Orobus niger. Astragalus nralensis and campestris, Eriareron

lUU

b mm^. . sj^ 110

a, ScollMi Primrow. t, Rock Scorpion Oram, a, TrHM-Loaved Cinqueroil.

e, Single-Flowered Water-Green, d, Smnli Alpine Gentian. b, Jointed Pipewort.

alpinum, Corallorliiza innata, Achilliea tomentosa, Goodyera repena ; the most alpine Carices
and Salices, and the Dwarf Birch (Betula nana).

There are two plants whicli deserve particular notice, as natives of Great Britain, and
found nowhere else .'n Europe ; but these are a,nrain met with in North America ; the one is
Potentilla tridentata (Jig. 110. a) abundant in arctic America and upon the Rocky and White
Mountains, the other tlie Eriocaulon septangulare (jUff. 110. 6). This latter genus is mostly
tropical, or a native of tiie warm temperate zones in America, the East Indies, and Australia.
The only exceptions to tliis rule are the Eriocaulon pellucidum of Michaux, and tiie plant in
question; the former being found in North America as high as Canada; and, upon exanii-
nation, the two species prove identical. In these instances, the Eriocaulon and the Poten-
tilla seem to have overcome many obstacles in their migration, and to have reached their
eastern boimdary. The Eriocaulon is confined to a few lakes in the Hebrides, where we
have been surprised in the month of September at the liigh temperature of the water, which
probably never freezes ; and in some spots in the south and west of Ireland : tlie Potentilla
is only found on one hill in Angusshire.

It is wortliy of remark, that the genus Pedicularis, which is so numerous in species, in
the eastern and southern parts of Europe, almost wholly disappears in Britain; for, notwith-
standing the vast numbers of it which arc found in Siberia, the South of Russia, Switzer-
land, extending even to the Pyrenees, and Germany, Great Britain possesses but two,
which are equally abundant upon the Continent ; and although almost wholly an alpine
genus, the British mountains possess not one really alpine species. It would appear that the
climate is peculiarly unsuited to their nurture: for in North America, in the same and espe-
cially in still higher northern latitudes, they again become abundant.

Ireland exhibits a few striking peculiarities m some of its vegetable productions. Besides
the Strawberry tree {Arbutus unedo) already mentioned, it can boast of Pinguicula grandi-
flora (Jig. 111. a), a beautiful flower, native of PYance and the Pyrenees ; Menziesia poll-

111

■' .! I!

W'^]

HI f

VouL

a. Large-flowered BuUerwort.
d, Naked-italked Vcllow Puppy.

b, Irish Mcnziesin.
r, Marih Ludum.

28*

c, Kidner-Ieaved Suirraec

•W 111

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part in.

I , 1

, I'nio Maidwn-IUir.

, tfliiiri-ilyli-il Ilri«ili)-Fcrn.

folia (h), n »iiH'i;i('M liolonffinff to llio Inttor country nnd to Spnin, nnd t'oiiml in n wilii Htato in
no otlior purls of the world ; it ia, too, a inoBt lovely one : iiImo St. PiitrickV (.'abl)af{n {Saxi-
jfrafra uin/irnsn) nnd the Ixindoii I'rido (.S. Ueum, c) and their varieties, which are scarcely
known tci exist but in Hwit/.erlaml and the PyreneeM; Areiiaria ciliiita, a unlive of tho
mountaitiH (ni llie continent of Europe; and to tliest; raritiex iiave lately been added by Pro-
fessor (iii'Mecke, the Yellow Poppy {Pupavfr nudicaiiU, (/), and the Ledum |mluHtro (r,)
both of llu'ui peculiarly arctic productions, and plentiful on the northern extremity of Ame-
rica and (Jreeulaiid; and with Uiese wo must be permitted to number, thouijh Cryptotramic
-s^Jf plants, the TrichoiimiieH brevisetum {^ff, ny. l,\ which

Bcarccly jjfrows nnyw here else in the world but in Ma-
deira and in Yorkshire (if it be not '.low extinct in the
latter habitat), the Adiantuni Capillus Veneris (rt), whoso
only locality in the nritixli dominions w the west of Ire-
land, and one spot in Wales, but which is frequent in
the south of Europe, nnd even in the tropical parts of
America; and two mosses, Hookcria latevirons, and
Dnltonin splanchnoides, entirely peculiar to Ireland.

That country also possesses lliree remarkable voge-
tjible productions, now pretty generally distrilmtcd in
gardens and shrubberies tliroughout the kingdom, and
universolly known by the names of the Irish Broom,
Irish Furze, and Irish Yew. The former we believe to
be the Spartium patens of Linnieus, a Spanish species,
with very hairy pods; and it is, probably, not wild in
that country. The Irish Furze has an appearance very
different from that of the European or J)warf Furzes
(_Ulcx tiiropaiis and namm), having very erect short branches, and closely placed spines;
.so that the whole plant has a remarkably dense and compact habit, appearing almost as if

it were kept close clipped with shears. It blossoms rarely,
but we have seen both flowers and soed-vessols, which do
not differ in any material point from those of Ule.\ nanus.
In some gardens it is called U. curopams var. strictus; but
Mr. Mttckny considers it to be quite a distinct species, and
hn has called it, in his "Catalogue of the Indigenous Plants
of Ireland," Ule.\ strictus. Still, the only stations for this
plant are in the Marquess of Londonderry's park and shrub-
beries, at Mount Stew art, county of Down, where there are
sonie very largo bushes; but whence it came, no one can
tell. This would, however, be a very valuable plant to the
agriculturist ; for, it has been plontcd (it increases readily
by cuttings) in dry hilly pastures in the north of Scotland,
and in the early spring throws up an abundant crop of suc-
culent shoots, which are greedily eaten by sheep, when there
is little or no grass to support them.

The third Irish botanical curiosity is the Irish Yew (Jig,
113), Florence-Court Yew, as it is called in that country,
from its being first di.*covered at Florence Court, the seat of
Lord Enniskillen. Mr. Mackay does not consider it to be
wild ; but Mr. Hervey, in the Agricultural Magazine, for
October, 1828, says, that it is an undoubted native, and plen-
tiful in tlie neigljbourhixxl of Antrim, where there are trees
at least a century old. It is distinguished by its upright
branches, which give the whole plant somewhat the habit of
a Cypress; by the leaves growing, not in a distichous man-
ner, but from all sides of the stem : the drupe or berry, too,
is of a different form from that of the common Yew.
The trees that are aboriginal natives of Britain are the Oak (two species); the Elm (five
species); the Boccli, the Ash, the Maple, Sycamore, Hornbeam, Limo (throe species) ; the
Spanish Chestnut (!) ; the Alder, Birch, Poplar (four species) ; nnd the Scotch Fir ; to which
may be addnl the Mountain Ash, which ir some parts of Scotland attains to a great size.
Of these, then, the Oak, the Beech, Birch, and Scotch Fir, live in society, forming vast,
forests, almost to the exclusion of otlier trees. The finest forests of Oak and Beech are
to be seen in tliu southern parts of England ; the latter flourishing, in an extraordinary
degree, in tlie chalk and deep clay soils of Sussex and some of the neighbouring counties.
In Scotland, the oak, though there may be some exceptions, generally forms copse v'oods,
and is mostly confined to the valleys. Its northern limit is scarcely within the British domi-

Iriih Vow

• ^ t-

* r

iter Ut

Btato in

! (Srtxi-

scarcoly

. of tho

by Pro-

iHlro (r,)

of Amc-

|)togiiniic

!»), which

t in Ma-

ct in the

a), whoso

!8t of Ire-

cqucnt in
porta of

rnns, and

eland.

ible vcgo-

rilmtcd in

i(rdoin, and

sIj Broom,

! believe to

isli BpecicB,

lot wild in

iruncc very

^■urf Furzos

ccd spines;

diuost as it

Boins rarely,

i», which do

Ulcx nanus.

<tricUw; but

species, and

enous Plants

ions for this

k and shrub-
ire there are
, no one can
plant to the
jases readily
of Scotland,
crop of BUC-
I, when there

Lh Yew (Jig.
that country,
tt, the seat of
[idcr it to be
Ifriifrtztn'' for
hvo, and plen-
Icro arc trees
[y its upright
It the habit of
Miclious nmn-
for berry, too,
J Yew.

Itlie Elm (five
Ispccies) ; the
JFir ; to which
1 a jrreat size,
forming vast
Jnd Boecli are
[extraordinary
Ting counties,
[copse V'oods,
I British aomi-

BooK 1.

ENGLAND.

sai

Scotch Fir.

nioiiB. It extends to lot 00", on tlie continent in Russia, and 64° in Norway; and if in Scot-
land oukN ure not found in th(! extreme north, it is rather owing to want of slicltcr and of
suitable Hoil, timn to any otiier circuitiHtiince.
The Pine, {Pimm Syhi:stris,Jig. 114.) constitutes noble forests among the nmuntainoua

districts of North Britain, liiling tho valipys,
and ascending, probably, to the height of '2.')0U
feet upon tho hills, among the norlliern (irani-
pians, and exhibiting individual s]x>ciinens of
great size and beauty.

Of the fruit trees which are successfully cul-
tivated in the o|)en air, tlio number is limited.
In tho south, exclusively, or, perhaps, as far as
tho centre of the kingdom, imder favourable
cii'cumstances, the Vino, the Fig, the Quince,
the Mulberry, Chestnut, Wolruit, and Medlar
may bo advantageously planted. Tho Apple,
Peai, the Plum nf various kinds, the Peach,
Nectariii"; and Apricot; all, according to soil,
exposure, and other local circumstances, ripen
their fruit in the open air, if afforded the protec-
tion of a wall, as nigh north as Inverness, and
some of the most hardy ones much higher ; but
the want of sun must ever be a hindrance to the
thorough perfecting of good fruit in tho north of Scotland.

Of the various kmds of Com, which are used as food for man or cattle, Wheat, Barley,
Bere, Bigg, Oats, and Rye are the universal crops ; and these all succeed in situations
not too much elevated above the level of the sea, as far to the northward as Ifivcrness,
beyond which the wheat becomes a very uncertain crop; and even considerably south of
Inverness, to tho north of the Forth and Clyde, in lat. 66°, the cultivation ot wheat is
almost wholly confined to tho eastern side ot the country, the west being tho district for
posture.

In regard to ihe height at which certain plants will grow above the level of the sea, the
southern and midland parts of Great Britam do not contain mountains upon a sufficiently
lofty scale to render their investigation particularly interesting. The northern parts of
England pos.jess mountains of upwards of 3000 feet ; and as Winch's " Essay on the Geo-
graphical distribution of Plants througho' , the Counties of Northumberland, Cumberland, and
Durliam," of which tho lat. .55° may bt considered the medium, embraces a very great pro-
tion of this very country, which, from its situation, may, in point of cUmate, be considered as
intermediote between the more northern and southern floras of Great Britain, we select
from his work what concerns the more valuable and more striking vegetable productions.

The Oak, in lat. .55°, attains a large size ui the valleys ; it ascends tho hills, but gradu-
ally becomes of stunted growth in Weardale and Teesdule, to the elevation of 16()0 and
1700 feet.

The Common Elm ( Ulmus CumpcMris) is not indigenous north of the Tees ; its place
being taken by the Wych Elm {if. montana), which skirts the mountains at a height of
2000 feet.

The Beech and Aspen flourish beautifully in the low sheltered spots, but do not climb
the hills to equal heights with the oak. The White and Black Poplars (Populus alba
and niffra) are doubtful natives of the north of England, as of Scotland ; tiiough the White
Poplar is remarkable for withstanding the north-easterly winds, which are so destructive to
vegetation in the counties of Northumberland and Durham. The Lime, (Tilia Europaa),
the Ciiestnut {Castanea vesca), and tho Hornbeam (Carpinus Betulus), stand in tho same
predicament.

Holly trees are among the chief ornaments of the woods in Durham, Northumberland,
and Cumberland, as is the Yew (Taxus Baccala). The Birch {Bctula alba) is not ibund
on the mountains at a greater elevation than the Sycamore (Acer Pseudo-platanus), which
ill the sulmlplnc regions seems to be as vigorous, and to attain as great a size as it does
near the sea-coast. The Mountain Ash {Pyrus aucuparia) is found on the hills ; the White
Beam {Pyrus Arid) may be traced from the High-Force of the river Tees to the coast ;
the Alder {Alnus glutinosa) and the Guelder Rose ( Vibxtmum Opulus) accompany the
streams ; and the Hazel, Black Cherry {Prunus Cerasus), Bird Cherry (Prumis Padus),
tlie Spindle-tree {Enonymus europtcus), the Raspberry (Riibus idaus), and the common
Elder, {Sambucus nigra), are found in all the woods from the sea-shore to those situated on
an elevation of 1600 feet : but the common Muple {Acer campestris) occurs only in. the
hedges, in some parts of the flat country.

Tlic Ash tree {Praxinus fxrrhior), the White Thorn {Mespilus Oxyacantha), the Crab
tree, or Wild Apple {Pyrus Miilus), and Black Tliorn (Primus spinosa), abound throughout

!' *

DEaCRlITIVR OROC.riAPlIV.

I'ART in.

■* ■

■A ♦

f ]

■ ?f I:

tho diatrirt in (luoHlion. Tho Riillncc (I'riniiin iimililin) it* ran' ; mid tlin riiim-lri'i' (l'ninn»
diimvilini), I'ciir {I'ynm cnmmitiiii), Ucd ciirriiiil {ItihiB riihniiii), tin- lliTlirrry {llirtirriii
vulMtiris), iiiul (icmsclKTry (Ki/xo (Inmsiilitriii), iIidiihL of Iri'iiiH'iit tici'iirrrm-i', iiiipiiir not
tu bt> uriKiiial niitiviti ol'tlio Moil. Hut tlii! Itiwrk Ciirriint {UHhh j»lr<r,im), tin! Ai ul .Mdiiii-
tain ('iirruiit (RUhm ipieatum), Alpini- ('iirriiiit {liilim iiljiiiniin), IHiic k Ciirniiit {Uilnn ni-
fSruin), and I'rivot (Liffutlrum vittffarv), iiro indijfciiDiiM, mid imt iinrrt'i|iiriil.

'J'lio Fur/.u {Ulcx funinaut,) attjiiiiH to mi cIcviiliDri nf "JOdO l'(!ot in wiiiic'fili'rcd npotx,
nccoinpiinicd l)y tiie llriuiildn. Jimi|M'r niiiy Iw; triiccd fnm the cmiHt to llic lii'lylit cif I.*"!*!*!
fet't. TIh! tMi)iidlM<rry (.Ruhim Vhnmamnrun), the HciirlM'rry (IrAii/iM Vva I'mi), iind Smid
Wiiliiw {Salijc iirrnaria), iitliiin tlio wiino cli'viition ; wiiilt^ tlio DwiirC Willow {Suli.r hir-
bacea), but witliout itji uniiiiI attcndiint tho Kctiriiliitcd Willow (S. ritiiiilala), roiiclic*
to tlio tup!) of t)io lortit'Bt moiintiiinH, iipwnrdH ot'.M(l(M> foot nl)ovo tlic lovol of tlio moii.

Cuurw) OnuiHOH, Sodgcd, and UuhIiom Uki oUrn cover llio wot in(K)rii with a Kcunty md
olmoHt UHoleiB) vojjetiition. To tho affriciiltiirint tho difToroni Iloatlw uro Hcarceiy nioro
accoptahio; but tlicv uro uiiqucHtioimbly anion); tho most boiiutil\il of the nittivo plniitx, iiml
their iibundanco and tho voMt oxtoiit uf );roiiiid which ihov clotho, jfivo ii (Kjculiiir oharactor
to very many parts of Grout Britain, OHpocially in tho North. In llio di.«trictH in (pioHtioii,
tho common Heather (0<//una vKJ/ifari*)! the Fir-lcavod I loath (LViVm Ciinn'a), mid tho
CroHH-louvod Uoath (Erica Telrulix), tho latter, however, lean tVaKrmit, and preferring nioint
situutioiiH, floiiriidi in various situntionH, iVoin l(NN) In ;<(MM) feet above tlie level of tho Kon,
but never in calcarfX)U8 noil, which circuinstanco oeooHionH the strikinjj difforonco lM>twocn
tlio hcatlis of Durham and Nortlmuiborland, and tho Yorknliiro Woldx aH they aro called,
where tho substratum is chalk.

The most considerable elevation to which tho cultivation of wheat extends in tho north
of England. does not exceed l(KK) feet above tho level of tho sea. Oafs fjrow at nearly
double that lioinrht; but in unfavourable years tho sheaves may often lie seen wtamlinpimnonjf
tlie snow, which not uncommonly covers the tops of the mountains in October, and is never
later in fallin)|f than tho middle of Novcmb<!r. Tho limits of Hnrley nnd Rye iiro between
those of wheat and oats ; but Bij^p, a more hardy kind of fjrain than either of the tormer, is
no louf^er cultivated. Turnips, though of small siso, and I'otatoes, grow at the wiiiie heiifht
as Ottts. On tho soil of tho moors being ploughed for the first time, and lime applied. White
Clover ( Trifolium repfns) coinci.' up in abundance.

ScBSECT. 3. — Zoology of Great Britain.
Tho Zoofo/j-y of tho United Empire mij^lit be treated of under tho three kingdoms of which
it is com|K)sed, wore our materials sufficiently ample to mark tho peculiarities of eiicli. Hut
although every year witnesses an accession of new npecies to the British fauna, no attempt lios
yet been made to generalise these discoveries, with reference to the geographic range of groups
or species. The zoology of Ireland has been sadly neglecteil, and wo are still .vithout a
Fauna Scotica. We must therefore consider the natural history of Britain in the aggregate;
noticing such species as more particularly belong to tho northern ami the southern extre-
mities.

Of Quadruped.'^, the most recent catalogue contains sixty living species, including the
whale tribe; besides those which progressive civilisation, and tho eil'erts of the chase, have
now extirpated from the islands. Nine species of Bats have been detected, four of which
'<avo as yet boon found only in the southern and western counties; two belong to the division
of horse-shoe bats, so named, from their nostrils being furnished with a complicated nieiiihrane,
like a horse-shoo; an apiicndago which is probably intended to act as a sucker to assist tho
animal in retaining its prey. Tho Vesportilio murinus, or common bat, has been so fiir
tamed as to take flies out of its master's hand, carefully throwing aside the wings, The
woods and heaths still shelter the Hedgehog (_/f^. ll.'j.), a harmless and a motit useful animal
in destroying snails, slugs, and worms; but persecuted by the
vulgar for a long list of imaginary and nonsensical properties.
Those prejudices have been extended to the Mole, whosi; liitlc
hillocks form the best top-dressing, as a sensible fiirmer once
assured us, to poor lands, that can possibly lie given : their soft
fnr has long been mixed with that of the Beaver, in the making
of hats. Allied to the Mole, in general conformation, are tho
Shrew Mice, of which two species arc natives, the common and
tho Water Shrew {Sorex aranviix and fodiens) ; Iwth these
appear to be widely distributed. Of true Mice there are three
di.*»nct sorts: the Common or House Mouse, the Field Mouse, and tho Harvest Mouse; the
lattei' being as destructive to the farmer as the first is to the housewife. The Brown and
the Black R.it infest dwellings, and aro equally injurions: tho latter is known by the tail
being longer than the body; whereas, in the Brown Rat, both these pirts are eipinl. The
pretty little normoiiso (.yft/oxus avdlunarius), like the Squirrel and JerlKja, eats its fixid in
an erect attitude, sitting on its haunches, and using its forefeet as hands. The Water Itat

HeilKchoK.

sIlUIIIl

'AHT ni<

{I'riinui
l\,rl»ri»
\\w:\y IU)l

„; Miiiiii-

■rod snotH,

,t of ir)0(i

, iiiitl Siiiul
Sillir liir-
i), roiiclies

Hciiiity a'ul
reply ii>"f"
plniitH, and
r ohiiriicter
in tuii'Htioii,
«■). nnd Uiu
nrrini* nmii*t
of the »<!ni
ico l«<tween
r nru cnllwl,

in tlio north
w lit nciirly
udiiijtamonR
and iH never
lire liotween
ihe former, is
. Hiiu\e \ieiuht
pphed, White

loms of which
of piich. But
in iiltenipt iiaa
in),'e of firoupa
ft ill .vitlioiit a

lutiiern extrc-

Jincliidini; the
le chuwe, liave
Ifonr of which
Ito the division
led nieiiibrane,
\r to iissist the
{s been so fiir
winiTM. The
useful animal
lecuteil by the
:(U propcrtieB.

J(', wIloNi; l.liiO

I. fiiriner once
Ion : tlieir soil
lin the nmkinff
[ntion, lire the
common and
; lioth tliesi!
liero are thrci;
Lt Mouse ; tiie
1)0 Brown and
Ivn by the tail
\ (M|unl. The
tats its food in
[he Water Rat

Book I.

KN(H,AN1).

aaa

mid Shiirt-talli'd MoiiHe of Pi'iiimnl (now pijiccil in thi' ^i'Iiii.h AniiDhi) iK'ciir in T'liiijhiiiil ;
nut tliii liiriiirr iH nluliMl not lo have liei ii louiid in llm tiortliern iflniicU; the l:itter i» a imomI
dcftriictivo litllo aiiiniai mi ({iirdiiiH, where it ^riiliH up mi'i'iIx, |Hirlic:uliirly ni"!", ju--t alter
tliey liave he^uii to i^triniiiali!, A few years liack, the dhort-ludid luoiise ^udtlriily iippearcMl
in iinineiiHe iiuuiht'rH in the New Forect, and iiotwithxtundjii); every artillie eiiiployrd to
Htoji their rava^en, tliey di'Htroyed many tiioiisandii uf yonii){ trei'», and devastated whuiu
tcreH of voiui); plantations.

TIki ihiilfiir IS a nocturnal fiH'der, sleeping' in its hole diiriii(( the day, yet, when atlarked,
is remarkalilv ipink in its motions, and Mii'eestttiil in its defeiict). If uiidisturlH-d, it is h.<riii-
less and iiiolli'iiMve, chielly siibsistin;; u|i<in veMriaaliles, althoiit;h it will likewise devour trie's
and shifts. The Olltr has become much lens freipient tliun torinerly ; it was euire I'luisiiiered
as u beaHt of chase, as old ifaiiie-lxMiks inentioii otter hounds jiarlicnlarly truini'd t'or himtinir
this animal. It feuds entirely upon fish, which it dives uller with ^reat celerity ; and, unless
pressod by extreme liun){ur, invariably leaves the tail extremity nntonclied, 'I'Ik; lejrii are
very short; and the t^M.'s [w'\\\fi connected to){etiiur by a nionibrune, giwn to the animal tlio
[WW er of Nwimniinff very rapidly.

Tiio rapacious or carnivorous ipiadrupeds of Britain arc very few, and from their small
«izu tix) iiisi)rniii(.vtnt to inlliet imu'h piTsunal injury n|)on man. The Uiar and the \Vii{f'
have lonjT been extinct in Uriliiin, oiid the Fox iui(,'lit liavi? shiirtMl the name Hite, liail it not
been preserved im a beast of the cluwu since the extirpiiti.m of more formidable >ramo.
Pennant mentions three vari(<ties of this animal fouiiit in Wales and other mountainous parta
of Britain: — 1. Tho Milf(ri, or (ireybomid Fox, is the lar>;est, tallest, and iMitdest, and ia
distin^ruisbed by a white tuj( or tip to the tail. '2. The MastiH'Fox, which i.s less, but more
8tron){ly built. .'). The Curgi, or Cur Fox, of n still smaller size, ami having; the tip of thu
tail black. (Wri/. Zool. i. 87.) The varieties do not ap|)uar, however, to have fallen under
the actual observation of subsoouent naturalists.

Tlu! Ferret tribe coinprehcnds the I'olecat, Weasel, Stoat or Ermine, the Common Marten,
and the I'iiic Mart(<n.

The I'olecat {I'litoriun vnlguris Cuv.), called al'io tho Fitchia, Fitchew, or Foumart,
mcotiureLi, with tiio tail, iilHiut twenty-three inches. Its fetid smell is proverbial. Alfliounh
included in the list of British quadrupeds, it appears, according to Striibo, to liavo been
uiiptrted from the north of Africa. Like all it.s conjjeners, its habits are san;ruinary ; lor it
will destroy and suck the blood of many victims, befiiro it attempts to carry oil" their liodies.
Tho well-known Ferri.'t is considered only a variety of this species. The Weasel is much
smaller, and althoiiirh repulsive from its (nlour, is yet an elefjant-shaiM'd animal. It feeds on
mice and small birds, but will occasionally attack animals of a much larfjer size. Few
persons suspect that tho skins they see nailed ajjaiiust farm out-houses freijuently belimjf to
an animal wiiose fur, in another state, tbrms a most cle(,miit and expensive ornament to
female dres.s. This animal, despised in one state, and valued in another; is the Stoat
(Jig. llfi.), the iH;st of the farmer, and tho destroyer of his poultry. In the teinporiitu and
llfl 117

.Sioiil. Pinii Mnrtcn.

•outhcrn parts of Europe, its fur is yellowish-brown uliovc, and pale yellow beneath ; yet
■M soon as' its {{cographic range enters on tho more northern countries, ns Russia, Norway,
and Siberia, these colours vanish, leavinjr tiio fur of a pure white in every part but the tail,
which is tipped with deep black ; and in this state tho skin is called ermine. In Scotland
the animal, durinjr winter, is fre(iiiently found in an intermediate stuifo of summer and win-
ter clotliiiifr. Although small, it will attack large rats, and has licen known to pursue a
young hare by tho scent.

The Common or Beech Marten (.V. Fagnrum Ray) seems to prefer dwelling near habita-
tions, choosing tho shelter of out-houses and t'lrin-buildings, as convenient retreats for carry-
■tig on its depredations among poultry, of which it is a great devourcr; it also breeds
occasionally in the hollows of trees.

Tho Pino Marten {M. AbirtumRiyy,Jig. 117.) is rather larger, and is further distingnishod
from the last in having the throat and breast yellow, histe.id of white. It is wild and solitary;
shunning mankind ; and only dwells in thick womls and forests, princiiwilly those composed
of pines. It climbs with great fucility ; preys ajHrn birds and their eggs, and also upon
bquurela ; the female generally making use of Uie nest of one of her victima for the rearing

1 ' I'

' -i!

'f. ' b

f k

iii

1!^

" \

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

of her own young. The skin of this is much more prized than that jf the common Marten,
and appears to have been formerly, at least in Scotland, a lucrative article of commerce.

The Wild Cut closes our list of these small but ferocious indigenous animals. Its mannem
are similar to those of the lynx, and Mr. Pennant justly calls it the British tiger. In its
savage stale it appears to be much larger tlian the ordinary domestic cat ; and the teeth and
claws, for the size of the animal, are tremendous. It is still found, although rarely, in the
mountainous and woody partii of Great Britain. Formerly they appear to have been mcih
more numeroiis, and to have been considered a beast of chase. The best authorities agree
in considering this species, common to the forests of Europe, as the origin of our domestic
breed, the usual varieties of which are well known. Another, which seems peculiar to
Cornwull, is witliout any visible tail, and is stated to be an hereditary variety. {Cuv. ii. 489.)

To enumerate the varieties of the Dog now domesticated in Britain would be tedious,
particularly after the luminous manner in which this subject has been treated by Pennant
{Brit. Zool. i. 70.). Britain has been famous for her dogs from remote antiquity. Ihe British
mastiffs were held in such estimation by tlie Romans, that their emperors appointed an officer
in the island, with the name of Procurctor Cynegii, whose business was to transmit thence
such as would prove equal to the ferocious combats of the amphitheatre. Strabo also men-
tions that the mastiffs of Britain were in great repute, being trained for war, and used by
the Gauls in their battles.

The Bloodhound, during the troubled periods of English history, was in high estimation,
and much used to track the footsteps of robbers and marauders ; but the breed is now extinct.
A remarkable variety of the Greyhound, more peculiar to Ireland (hence called the Irish
Greyhound or Wolf I)og), is nearly lost, a few couples alone having been preserved in one
of the parks in that island. The Terrier is the best house guard ; while the Shepherd, the
Water, and the Newfoundland dogs are probably the most sagacious.

Of ruminating animals now existing in a state of nature, there are but three; the Stag or
Red Deer, the Fallow Deer, and the Roebuck. It would appear, however, that the first two
are not indigenous to these islands. Mr. Pennant writes — "We have two varieties of fallow
deer, which are said to be of foreign origin : these were introduced by King James I. out of
Norway, which he visited for his mtended b'ide, Anne of Denmark. He first brought some
iuto Scotland, and from thence transported them to his chases of Enfield and Epping, to be
near his palace of Theobald's." The only memorial of this palace is probably preserved in
tiio name of The 'lald's Road. M. Cuvicr, indeed, expresses a doubt whether the stag was
originally European; but Major Hamilton Smith, with much better reason, considers the
Fallow Deer {Cervtis Dama) as indigenous to Europe ; adding, that it is still found wild
from Sweden to Gibraltar, and from Ireland to Constantinople. The Stag {Cervus Elaphug)
seems to be unquestioned as an indigenous species; and although the wild breed is yearly
duninishing in numbers, it is still found in Gloucestershire, the north-west part of Devon,
and in some of the remote districts of Scotland. Pennant, by some unaccountable mistake,
has placed the Stag and the Fallow Deer as varieties of one species.

The Roebuck (Cervus capreolus Ham. Smitli) is much less than the two preceding, and
is, indeed, the smallest of European deer. It is remarkably graceful and active, habitually
preferring the sides of elevated woods or forests. As he leaves a strong scent, nature has
given him peculiar sagacity to perplex his pursuers : he begins, after a forward dash, bv
doubling over his track, to mislead the hounds, and then by some great bounds he springs
forward to a cover, where he lies down to let the chase pass. The roebuck is now become
very scarce in Britain, and was equally so in Scotland, but we are told it has re-appeared of
late years in Fifeshire, in consequence of the increased plantations. {Brit. An. p. 26.)

The Ox is the only remaining animal of this order which claims a place among the
indigenous quadrupeds. We have before observed, that in remote ages, a gigantic race of
oxen was numerous throughout Europe ; and that, although now extinct, there is reason to
Iwlieve that the colossal species mentioned by Ciesar, as existing in his time, was cf this
race, now only known by its fossil bones. Those remains lie scattered through the whole
of temperate Europe, in the same strata with the lost species of Elephant but that the race
was preserved to a much later period is proved by similar bones occurring in more recent
formations, as in peat mosses, drained lakes, marshes, and beds of sand. The wild races,
of inferior size, belonging to this species, may probably, as Major Smith observes, even now
exist in Asia. However this may be, it appears certain that the real Urus was found wild
in the Vosges mountains, and in the forests of Ardennes and Germany; while its existence
in England is incontestably proved by Fitz-Steplien, vho speaks of the Uri silvestres, which
in his time (that is, alxiut 11.50) infested the great forests — round I/)ndon !

The only existing breed of wild oxen now known, is the white Urus, or Urus grnficns of
Ham. Smith. Its skull agrees with the fossil breed in being " square from the orbits to
Ihe occipital crest, .somewhat hollow at the forehead, and the horns showing a peculiar rise
fiom their root, at the side of the above crest, upwards, and then bending outwards, then
iorwanl and inward : no domestic race shows this turn." The true Urus was further di»

Book I.

ENGLAND.

336

Wild Scotliib Ox.

tinguished by a mane, which iB still observed about two inches lon^, in old bulls of the Scot-
'■"^ tish race (^g'. 118.). When this breed was exterminated

from the opNBn forests is not known ; but it was confined
to parks long before tlie Refonnation. The colour is en-
tirely white, with the muzzle wholly black. Tiieir man-
ners are singular : upon perceiving a stranger, they gallop
wildly in a circle round him, stop and gaze, toss their
heads, and show signs of defiance ; this is repented seve-
ral times, each circle being made smaller, lill they ap-
preach sufficiently near to make an effective charge. The
cows conceal their young eight or ten days: and when
one of the herd is wounded or enfeebled, the others gore
it to death. The breed is still preserved at Chill ingham
Castle, near Berwick-upon-Tweed, Wollaston in Notting-
ham, Gisbume in Craven, Limchall in Cheshire, and at Chartley in Staffordshire.

The domestic 0» (Bos Taurus), considered by some as a variety, and by otliers as a dis-
tinct species from the last, is supposed by Hamilton Smith to have been first domesticated
by the Caucasian nations of western Asia. It is stated to have fourteen ribs, whereas tliose
of the B. Urus are but twelve ; a distinction sufficiently important to sanction the belief of
a specific difference. Whether or not this parent of our domestic races ever existed in these
islands in a state of nature, is very doubtful. The various breeds for which Britain has long
been Justly celebrated will be noticed under the head of domestic animals.

The marine and cetaceous mammalia are few, and are not very generally dispersed. Two
species of seal have been noticed by Pennant. The Piked Whales {Baltcnoptera musculus
and boops), the Razor-back Whale, and several others of the great norther" i cetacea, wander
near the Hebrides and Orkney islands, and occasionally visit the shores ol Northumberland
and Yorkshire. The Porpoise and the Grampus have a wider range, and large shoals roam
unmolested near all the coasts.

Exterminated native animals. In every country the increase of civilization and agricul-
ture is marked by the progressive diminution and final extirpation of the larger quadrupeds,
particularly of such as are injurious to man. Among those which history clearly informs us
were once living in Britain, the most remarkable are the Bear, the Wolf, the Beaver, and
tlie wild Boar. To the writings of Pennant and Hamilton Smith we are indebted for the
following notes on these lost inhabitants of our forests.

It appears that Bears, in the time of Plutarch, were transported from Britain to Rome
where they were much admired. They appear to have been extinct in Britain long before
Queen Elizabeth's time.

Wolves. It seems to have been a vulgar error that the wolf was extirpated in Britain
by tlie salutary edicts of King Edgar, who accepted their tongues and heads as tribute, or as
a commutation for certain crimes; for in the reign of Edward I. these animals had again
increased to such a degree, that officers were appointed to promote their destruction, and
lands were held by hunting and destroying them. Wolves infested Ireland many centuries
after their extinction in England ; some having been killed so late as 1710. In Scotland,
the last on record was destroyed in 1680.

The Beaver was still an inhabitant of the Welsh rivers in 1188, as is attested, according
to Pennant, by Giraldus Cambrensis ; but even at that remote period they must have con-
siderably diminished, as the historian only mentions their being found on tlie river Teivi.
Local names of other waters in the principality attest their existence in other places. Fossil
remains of this species are stated to have been found in beds of marl, under peat moss in
Berkshire ; and similar bones have occurred in Perthshire and Berwickshire.

The Wild Boar, from which have sprung the domestic breeds of swine, must be reckoned
among indigenous quadrupeds, although now extinct in Britain. Willium the Conqueror
punished those who killed the Wild Boar, the Stag and the Roebuck, by the loss of their
eyes. Fitz-Stephen affirms that the vast forest, which in his time stood on the north sideiSf
London, was the retreat of Stags, Fallow Deer, Wild Boars and Bulls. At a more recent
period, Charles the First turned out Wild Boars in the New Forest ; but they were destroyed
duruig the civil wars.

Fossil quadrupeds. The splendid discoveries that have resulted from the investigations
of Buckland, Mantell, Conybeare, and other eminent geologists, have opened a field of re-
search, which in Britain had long been overlooked or neglected. Without entering into the
question whether tliese fossil remains belong to animals which did or did not at some period
inhabit the spots wherein their bones have been found, it is sufficient to confine ourselves to
simple facts. The remains of the cave bear of Dr. Buckland occur in several caverns, and
are sufficient to prove the living animal must have equalled a horse in size. The Kirkdale
and Plymouth caves abound with the bones of an extinct liya>na, somewhat resenililing in
its osteology tliat now existing in South Africa ; with these have been found the bones of n
tiger, which must have been as large as the Bengal species. The tusks, teeth, and other

"%,

descriptive: geography.

Part HI.

i ■

The long-hornod Ox.

(rogments of an extinct .species of elephant, totally different from tliose now in existence,
119 __ have been detected in marl clay, &c. joined with tliose of two
other gigantic quadrupedfl, a rliinoceros and hippopotamus; while
the jaw of a Qiarsupial animal, unknown among the existing
race of beings, has been found in the Stoncafield slate quarries
(Jff. 119.)

Domestic tpiadrupeds. No nation, perhaps, has been more
Jow of Mnr'upmi Aiiitnni. BoHcitous to improvo their originally poor breeds of domesti-
cated quadnipeds than the British ; and hence their present superiority over most of those
on the Continent. Under this liead we commence with the ruminating animals, as the ox,
the sheep, and the goat, e>o essential in supplying food and clothing to man ; while the horse,
tlie ass, and the dog assist Iiim in his labour, or protect his property.

The principal breeds of oxen more peculiar to Great Britain have been arranged by Major
Hamilton Smith under nine divisions. Of these, three belong to England, three to Scotland,
two to Wales, and one to Guernsey.
The long-horned or Lancaster breed (Jig. 120.), as the name implies, is remarkable for

long horns; they have firm thick hides, long close hair,
large hoofs, and give in proportion less milk, but more
cream. They are of various colours, but are in general
finched, that is, with a white streak above the spine,
and a white spot inside the houghs. The improved
Leicester is a slight variety, originally bred near Co-
ventry.

The short-horned breed includes those that are named
the Holderness, Tecswater, Yorkshire, Durham, and
Northumberland. This has been the most improved,
producing usually twenty-four quarts of milk per day,
and three firkins of butter per season. Their colour varies, but is generally red and white
mixed ; called by the graziers flocked.

The middle-horned includes the Devon, Hereford, and Sussex breeds : they are active,
hardy, and much esteemed for draught : but altliough they fatten early, do not milk so well
as tlip last, The pure Dcvons are of a high red colour, without spots, a light dun ring
round the eye, fine m bone, clear nock, thin ftced, and tlie tail set on high : the north Devon
is most esteemed for eating. The Sussex and Hereford are larger, the ox weighing from 60
to 100 stone.
The Scottish breeds may be arranged under the Polled, the Highland, and the Pifeshire.
The Polled Galloway is tiie most esteemed : it is straight in tlio back, the hair soft, the
colour black or dark brindled, and the size not large. They travel well, and reach the
Ijondon markets witliout deterioration. The Suffolk Dun is a variety of this race. The
Highland race includes several varieties, the most valuable ones being the West Highland,
Argyle, or Skye, and the Kyloe from the Hebridea The Norlands is anotlier variety, with
coarse hides, long legs, and of a narrow make. The Orkney or Shetland are very diminu-
tive : an ox weighing about 60 lbs. a quarter, and a cow 40 lbs.' Their colours are various,
and their shapes bad ; but they give an abundance of excellent milk, and fatten rapidly.
The Fifcsliire appears an improved breed of the Highlands, crossed witli tlie Cambridge-
shire ; they arc black, spotted witli gray ; tiie horns small, white, and very erect : a variety
occurs in Aberdecn.shire.

The Welsh liave two breeds : the first is large, dark brown, with some white ; tlie legs
long and slender; tlie horns wliite, and turned upwards: those, next to the Devon, are the
best in yoke, and are a cross of the long-horned : tiie second is lower, well formed, black
with little wliite, and are good milkers. The Alderney or Guernsey race is proverbially
email : their colour is mostly yellow or light red ; marked with white about tiie face and
limbs, and witli crumpled Iiorns The true breed is known by being yellow within tlie ears,
and at the root of tiie tail and ita tuft.

Respecting draught Oxen, we cannot refrain from here inserting an excellent and judi-
cious remark of Pennant. " It is now," observes this sensible writer, " generally allowed,
that, in many ca-sen, oxen arc more profitable in tiie draught than horses : tlieir food, harness,
ond slices being clicaper ; and should they be lamed or grow old, an old working beast will
be as good meat, and fatten as wpII, as a young one;." {Brit. Znol. i. 2**.)

The Sheep is scarcely inferior in utility to the ox: and the breeds now cultivated in
Britain, tiikiiig all tiioir qualities into consideration, are perhaps tlio most viiluablo in the
world. It is a curious fact, that tiie famed Merino sheep of Spain originated from tlic Eng-
li.^li breed, sent to tliat country by Edward IV. as a present to King Jolin of Arragon. (Wrt^.
Chron. p. 2iHi.) Major II. Sniitli estimates tlie present annual value of wool HJiorii in Eng
land, at five millions sterling.

Tlie British slionp, according to Mr. Culley, may be arranged under fourteen different
breeds, and some otiicrs might also be enumerated. These may be classed under two prin-

pabt ni.

existence,
lioscof two
Linus; while
he existing
ite quarries

been more
of domesti-
ost of those
g, as the ox,
le the horse,

[cd by Major
to Scotland,

markable for
ig close hair,
ilk, but more
re in general
ve the spine,
'he improved
red near Co-
hat are named
Durham, and
est improved,
milk per day,
red and white

.ey are active,
)t milk BO well
light dun ring
)C north Devon
ighing from 60

the Pifeshire.

jc! hair soft, the

[and reach the

Ills race. The

. est Highland,

■r varietjr, with

e very diminu-

irs are various,

fatten rapidly.

the Cambridge-

[rcct : a variety

vhite; the legs
Devon, are the
[l formed, black
is proverbially
It the face and
Ivithin the ears,

lollcnt and judi-
Vmlly allowed,
[r food, harness,
rking beast will

Iv cultivated in
1 valunblc in the
from tho Eng-
lArrnjron. {Bak.
1)1 Kliorii in Eng

Inrtccn different
1 under two prin-

DooK I.

ENGLAND.

337

oipaj divisions; those derived from the ancient race being fiimishcd with horns, while tlio
others in general have none.

Of the liorncd breeds, th' most ancient is the biack-faced {fff. 121.), still met with in
some licnthy parts of Yorkshirr and tho adjacent northern counties : tlie wool is coarse and
shaggy. The Norfolk and Suffolk sjieep, also, have the horns large and spiral, with the face
black, but the wool is short and fine : they have a voracious appetite, and a restless dispo-
sition. In the Dorset the fiice is no longer black, but botli sexes are usually homed. This
breed is remarkable for producing lambs at almost every season, and is therefore highly valu-
able for supplying the London markets with house lamb. The Wiltshire is a much larger
variety, having no wool on the belly. The Hertfordshire is a fine productive variety, with
short tails. The Exmoor comes from Devonshire : it is small, the wool long, and the face and
legs white. Scotland furnishes three breeds of horned sheep; the Dun-faced, the Siietland,
and the Hebridean.

Tha Black-Faced Sheep.

The Herefurd Sheep.

ths 1

The

;eg;.
and a

The hornless race may be divided into nine breeds. The Lincoln has long wool and a
white face: in the Tecswater the wool is shorter and lighter, and tlie legs longer. The
Dishley, or new Leicester, is distinguished by a clean head, ond the excellency of its flesh.
Tlie Devonshire Nets, like the three preceding, are long-wooUed ; tiiev have white feces and
legs, tliick necks, short legs, and large bones. The short-woolled hornless breeds are the
follr ., ■ ■ ; — The Hereford (fig. 122.) have very fine wool, wliich grows close to their eyes,
,u *'ace being white : tho fitore sheep of this country are called CoUings or Rylands.
' -wn, principally cultivated on the chalky downs of Sussex, have the face and
■'n i are highly esteemed for the table. The Cheviot have the head bare and clean,
...lutimes spotted v/itli gray or dun ; the fleece is very short and fine. The Hin'-
wicke is peculiar to the rocky districts of Cumberland, and is speckled en the face and legs.
The Goat, which in some parts of Italy supplies the only milk and butter known to the
inhabitants, is of little utility in a country abounding in sheep and o.xen. But to the Welsh
inountaincer.s it is a valuable animal : the suet will make excellent candles ; the meat is
little inferior to venison, and those who have habitually feasted upon mountain kid, know
how superior its flavour is to lamb.

The Horses of Britain, improved as they have been by the most sedulous care, ne.xt to
tlie Arabian, are the finest in the world. Tlic British breeds, originally but ill adapted for
the saddle, have progressively improved; ond the crossing of the indigcnou.a kind with those
of other countries has pnxluced four principal classes of horses, — the Racer, the Hunter, the
Roadster, and the Dray Horse; to these may be added the Poney, one of the original breeds.
The Ornithology of Great Britain, ofter the general observations already made on that of
Europe, will be hero but briefly dwelt upon. The native birds may be arranged under throe
natural divisions: — 1. the rapacious; 2. the perching; and 3. the walking, running an<l
swinnning orders.

Tho rapacious birds, as in all otlier countries, are the smallest in number, but the most
formidable in strength. Among these the Golden Eagle {Aquila chrysailon, fig. 123.) is the
12;j largest known in the British islands: tliis noble bird

weighs twelve pounds, and is still fbund among the
higliest of the Welsh and Cumberland mountains ; it is
said also to breed in Orkney. The Erne or Sea Eagle
is somewhat smaller, and is principally confined to the
maritime rocks of Wales and North Britain. The Fal-
con tribe is more numerous in species ; but tiie destruc-
tion to which they are doomed by game preservers has
long been diminishing their numbers : some species are
GoUou Eojie. almost extirpated, and nearly all are now become rare.

Tiio Osprey (I'andion ITaluctus), or Fishing Eagle, is now seldom met with. The two
species of I lenharrie (Cirrus cyanent and cinrrascens) were first discriminatpd by ]Montagu.
Tlio Owls am similar to those of the Continent, but the great Snowy Owl has only of late
years been dntncted in the north of Scotland as a native bird. The Eagle or great horned
Owl is of tlii> same size; the former hunting by day, the latter by night. The Bam oi
White Owl is Imown to every former, and appears to be distributed over the whole habi
table glolx*.
Vol. I. 28 2 S

■>i-

■'"... Ji

i^u- pi

■.ikf

338

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part 111.

The toothed-bill or perching birds (Dentirostres Sw.) are those fiimished witli a notch to
thnir bill, by which their food is held iirm before it is swallowed. Some are formed to climb,
others to hop on the ground, and a few catch their food (like the swallows) upon the win^.
Tiicy are united to the rapacious order by the shrikes or butcher-birds, so called from their
>>ing(ilar custom of impaling insects and small birds upon the tlioms round their nests. Three
Kpecies of these birtls are known in Britain. The melody of the Blackbird and Song-thrush
ne(\l not be eulogised; and during spring and summer the woods and hedges are enlivened
by numbers of warblers, or small insectivorous birds, which visit them in the breeding season :
uinong which the Nightingale is most conspicuous. Large flocks of Finches, and similar
linnl-billed birds, feast, in winter, upon the red berries of the black and white thorn; while
Crows, Starlings, and Fieldfares devour prodigious quantities of slugs, worms, and other
animals noxious to the farmer. The Woodpeckers, Creepers, and Titmice prey only upon
those insects prejudicial to trees ; the Swallows, during summer, join with the warblers in
Keeping within due bounds the myriads of insects, which would otiierwise increase to an
ulanning extent

The entire-billed birds {Curtipedes Sw.) are those which have no notch at the end of their
bill, and never seek their food among trees : they are united to the former by the Pigeons,
and comprise the gallinaceous, wading, and swimming tribes. Among the first Britain pos-
sesses the Partridge, Grouse, and Quail, but more particularly the Great Bustard, the largest
of the European gallinacea: its weight is about 25 lbs., and its flesh excellent. To enume-
rate the wading and swimming birds would far exceed our limits : they visit the coasts prin-
cipally in winter, and depart in spring.
The exterminated birds are very few; for although some, as the Egret (Jis. 124.) and the
Crane, are no longer common in Britain, yet individuals are some-
times met with, showing that man and not nature has scared them
from their hereditary range. Perhaps the only extirpated species
is the cock of the wood,orcapercaillie grouse (TctraolVo^aZ/usL.),
a noble bird of game, weighing near thirteen pounds; once com-
mon in the fir forests of Scotland, but which has not been seen, it
is said, since 1760.

Of domesticated birds the Pheasant originally came from Asia
Minor; the Guinea Hen from Africa; the Peacock and Fowl from
India: and the Turkey from America.

The fishes, both marine and freshwater, are numerous: most are
edible, and many highly esteemed. Whale, and other cetacea, arc
mostly confined to the northern shores: but those of the west art
famous for the herring and pilchard fisheries. The John Doree is
as remarkable for its grotesque form as for its exquisite flavour.
The Tiirbot, Cod, Sole, &,c. are well known. The chief river fish
are the Salmon, Trout, and Char; and these are principally fbr-
nished by the northern counties. The salmon fisheries are highly important, and have long
engaged the attention of the legislature: the eggs of one fish will often exceed 15,000.
The Cliar is con!iiied to the lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland ; those of Windermere
are the best, and when potted become a great delicacy. The Herring and Sprat supply the
poor, during winter, with a wliolesome dish ; while the citizens of London consider another
f^pecies, called the White Bait, as possessing a peculiarly line flavour. The Anchovy is not
unknown in some of our estuaries; and even the Flying-*'^h has occasionally wandered to
the Welsh coast.

The reptiles of Britain, known in a living state, are very few. Besides the Warty Eft
{L'ircrta palustris Lin., Jiff. 12.^.) there are two other water lizards, and probably as many
125 126

Egret.

VViirtr Efi. Cumfflon Viper.

.-|i(cics inhabiting the land. Of the Frog and Toad two sorts of each occur. The snakes
iniil thi' blind-worm are harmless; the Common Viper (fff. 126.) being the only venomous
r(>|)tili' : yft this species varies so much in its colours, that naturalists have described it under
Kpvi ral names. The Great or Gigantic Frog of Pennant is only a variety of the common
-.oad.

Extinct rrptik.i. The researches of geoloirists have brought to light the remains nf such
(.'igantic and extraordinary reptiles, that, but for such indiibitnlilo prwfs, their existence
tniglit Ite thought fibiilous. At the head of llifse wi< nrny place the Mr(ralosaiirns, rosem
Wiuf both a lizard anil a crocodile, wlio'^p piubible length was near 40 feet! The Ichthyo

muddy bi
plants ;
shady sti
Native
are the p
raon in n
British

<;V

BOOE I.

ENGLAND.

iiaurus, uniting the cliaractera of a lizard with the snout of a dolpliin, the teeth of a croco-
dile, the fins of a turtle, aod the vertebrte of a fisti, ia scarcely less wonderful. The Plesio-
Baurua is still more extraordinary ; for with the fins of a turtle, it had the head of a lizard, and
a long neck, formed like the body of a serpent. Lastly, the remains of several distinct
species of crocodiles have been discovered in similar strata. All these attest the existence,
lit some unknown period, of a stupendous race of aquatic monsters, which have long been
swept away from tlio existing animal creation.

Among the radiated animals, vast shoals of transparent Medusm wander about the coast
during summer, and are frequently by a sudden change of wind cast up on the beach in
great numbers. But the deep recesses of the ocean frequently give to the nets of the
fisherman animals still more singular. The Black Line Worm, or Sea Long Worm (Lm-
n«M« longits, lu Sow., Jf^. 127.), whose mouth is hardljr a quarter of an inch wide, is said,
by the fisiiermun, to measure twelve fathoms in length : it is soft, and so fragile, that the
entire animal seems not yet to have been procured.

Black line Warm.

Mir-bloaom Coral.

Ellis was the first to make known the true nature of those plant-like productions generally
termed corallines. Of Corals, the British seas afford few native species ; the largest and
most elegant is the May-blossom coral {Caryophyllia ramea), (Jig. 128.), common in tho
Mediterranean, and occasionally found upon the Cornish coast : it is cinnamon-coloured ; and
retains, for many years, a slight scent, like that of hawthorn.

The Conchology of Britain, in the number and interest of its species, compensates for its
deficiency in large or richly coloured objects. The beautiful varieties of Per'.en opercti-
laris are, nevertheless, frequently variegated with the most lovely tints of yellow, orange,
pink, and deep red ; they also afford a nutritious food to the lower classes. The most cele-
brated edible shell-fish is the oyster, well known and highly prized by the luxurious Romans ;
and every one is acquainted with the superior excellency of those from Colchester and
Milton. Fluviatile shells, in a country so humid and watered as Britain, are more abundant
than towards the south nf Europe. Most of the rivers produce Unio pictorum (Jiff. 129. a),
and Unio ovatus (6) : Cyclas cornea (rf) is generally found in the same situations. The ponds
and stagnant waters are frequently covered with Lymneus palustris (e), ovatus (jf), and
Planorbis comeus (Z) ; while the large Duck-mussel {Anodon anatinus) (c) burrows in the

129 I -

Unio Mariwiliicra.

Fluviatile Bhclli.

muddy bottom, A little fragile shell, Succinea amphibia (/), crawls ujion ruslies and aquatic
plants; and Physa fontinalis (A), Ancylus lacustris (t), and Planorbis vortex (k) prefer clear
shady streams and ditches overhung with wood.

Native pearls were reckoned by the Romans among the productions of Britain. They
are the produce of a fluviatile bivalve shell, the Unio margaritifera, (Jig. 130.), still com-
mon in many of the nortliern counties ; but it was on tlie btuiks of the Welsh rivers that the
British pearl fishery was chiefly carried on.

f *i

340

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

i I

,,w2^ j*V.. Considerinff the nature of the climate, it may excite surpriae, that more than
10,(K)0 diflerent species have actually been found to inhabit Britain. Yet the bee may ho
reckoned the only insect whose services are immediately and obviousW beneficial to man.
Ainong the butterflies, are many of great beauty; while Eurymus Eurodomo, or the Clouded
Sulphur (fg. 131.), 18 considered one of the rarest British insects.

Clouded Sulphur

Red Grouse.

Scotland. The zoolo<ry of Scotland exhibits many arctic animals as common inlmbitantR,
which are only known as rare visitants to the western shores of England ; in other respects,
it does not materially differ from that of South Britain. The northern ii^lands give shelter
to innumerable wild fowl, and to many peculiar land birds, as the Ptarmi^n and the Golden
Eagle. The great horned or Eagle Owl, is found to breed in Orkney. The Highlands are
famous for an abundance of Grouse, the red species {Lagopus sroticus, fig, 132.) being the
only bird peculiar to Great Britain.

The domestic animals are of a small size ; in other respects, they are highly valuable.
The polled or honiless cattle, with the Highland and the Fifeshire, have already been noticed.
The Kyloe breed are so named, because m their progress to the south from the Hebrides,
they cross the kyloes or ferries in the main land and Western Islands. {Ham. Smith.)
The same writer considers that the sheep of this kingdom spring from three principal breeds :
tlie first is generally named dun-fiiced sheep ; they are a small, homed race, said to have
been originally imported from Denmark or Norway, and are still found, with slight varia-
tions, in the North of Scotland and the isles. In Kincardineshire, this breed is known by
its yellow face and legs, and by the dishevelled texture of its fleece, which is in part coarse,
and in part remarkably fine wool ; its flesh also is delicate and highly flavoured. The Shet-
land breed carry a very fine wool, in three different successions yearly, two of which resem-
ble long hair more than wool, and are called Fors and Scudda. The wool is of various
colours. The Ilebridiun sheep is the smallest animal of its kind ; its horns are usually short
and straight, the face and legs white, the tail very short, and the W(X)1 of different colours.

The Highland Ponies and Shetland Ponies (fig. 133.), notwithstanding their diminutive
size, are greatly esteemed for their activity and strength.

133 134

Highland Pony. Soottah Grejhound.

Among the numerous breeds of dogs, there appear to be three more particularly found in
Scotland: the true Shepherd's Dog, or Colly, is still preserved, unmixed, in many of the
sheep districts: the Shetland Hound, approuchos in character to the Greenland Dog; while
the Scottish Greyhound (.fig. 134.), common in the Highlands, is possessed of great sagacity,
strength, and swiflness.

The Zoology of Irclnnd lias boon much neglected ; nor are we prepared to show what
Mculiarities belong to its natural history. The Irish Wolf Dog, called also the Irish Grtjy-
liound, has generally been thought peculiar to this island ; but others consider it the sanie
breed as the French mittin (Ciinis laninrius L.) It is a noble animal, standing near four
feet in height, and seems to have been mainly instrumental in clearing the country of the
numerous wolves which once over-ran it. The cattle and sheep arc inferior to tliose ol'
Britain. Yet Ireland exiwrts va.st quantities of salted provisions, besides the supplies fiir-
nifthed to the navy and shipping interests. The remains of the Fossil Elk (fig. 135.) are of
frequent occurrence in beds of shell marl, beneath peat. Its antlers measure from the
extreme tip of each, no less than ten feet ten inches, and from the tip of the right horn tc

LET

IH.

ira than
may lie
to man.
CloudfJ

habitants,
: respects,
ve shelter
he Golden
hlands are
being the

y valuable,
en noticed.
I Hebrides,
m. Smith.)
pal breeds :
mid to have
light varia-
I known by
part coarse,

The Shet-
ihich rescm-
j of various
isually short
ent colours.

diminutive

irly found in

[iiiany of the.

Dog; wliil«

|eat saf^city,

, show what
J Irish Grey-
fit tlie same
]ig near four
luntry of the
4 to those of
Isupplics fur-
1 135.) are of
lire froui tlie
liglit horn tc

UOOK I.

ENGLAND.

341

its root, five feet two inches. Remains of tlie same animal have been also found in England,
and u very perfect specimen in tiie Isle of Man. Tiie Irish sliores furnish the concliologist
with several native shells, seldom seen on the British coasts, particularly the Isocardia cor,
or Heart Cockle (Jg. 136.).

, FowllElk.

Iletn Cackle.

Sect. III. — Historical Oeography.

Britain was originally peopled from Gaul, by inhabitants of the Celtic race. For a long
time it appears to have bt'cn noticed only as a country supplying; tin ; a rare and useful metal,
not then found in any other part of Europe, or in Western Asia. To obtain this valuable
mineral, the coasts of Britain were at an early period sought by the ships of various mer-
cantile states, especially the Carthaginians ; and the tin of Tarshish, mentioned by Ezekiel,
was doubtless brougtit from the mines of ('ornwall.

Britain was invmled by the Romans, about filly-five years before the Christian era. Of
the thirty tribes of barbarians amo' »vliom the country was then divided, the most consid-
erable were tlie BelgnJ in the west, the Brigantcs in the north, the Silures in South Wales,
tlie Iceni in Norfolk and Suffolk, and the Cantii, who occupied Kent and part of Middlesex.
The latter had made some progress in agriculture and the arts of civilized life; but tlie
other inhabitants derived tiicir sul.distciice from flocks and herds, clothed themselves in skins,
and painted their bodies. The precarious authority of the chiefs derived support from thi-
influence e.vercised by the Druids, in one of the most terriiile forms of superstition tliatevor
enslaved the human iniml. Besides the ordinary implements of wor, they had armed chariots,
wiiich thoy maimged with surprising dexterity; and tlicy were united in a species of polili-
cal confedoniry, of which Cassivelaunus wos the Iicad. They could not, however prcvciit
the landiiifr of Julins ('ipsir. but that conqueror was prevented by more urgent aft'airs fruisi
prosecutinir an enterprise of which the difficulties were not likely to be componhuted l.y its
t'lory. In the reign of Claudius the hardihofid of Carnctacus, and tlie heroic desperation ot"
Boadicea, failed of exciting an effectual resistance to tlie disciplined legions of Rome, whose
victorious progress was continued during the reiu'ii of Nero. In that of Domitian, the Ro-
man dominion was extended by the wisdom and valour of Agricola, who defeated tlie Cale-
donians under Galgacus, at the foot of the Grampians ; and the only part of the island which
remained unsubdued was the region which lies north of that natural rampart.

The Britons now subjected to the Roman empire were compelled to cultivate the habits
and arts of peace : but when that empire, weakened, distracted, and verging to its decline!,
was compelled to withdraw its protection from its distant provinces, the Scots and Picts,
emerging from their mountain fastnesses, then broke in, and committed dreadfiil devastations
among their unwarliko neighbours. The Romans had recourse to the expedient of frontier
walls; first, one between the Forth and Clyde, called the Wall of Antonine, and afterwards
a similar rampart between the Tyne and Solway, called tiie Wall of Severus. About the
middle of the fifth century, the Roman forces were finally withdrawn, and the Briton."
were left to depend entirely on their own resources.

The Saxons wore called in as allies, about forty years after the dissolution of the Roman
government. These hardy adventurers, originating from the north of Germany, and occupy-
ing the line of coast from Jie mouth of the Rh'ne to .Jutland, hail long infested by their
piracies the neitrhb-'iring parts of Britain and Gaul. Thoy eagerly accepted an invitation
to a country so superior to their own. In the year V)0, 16(K) men under Ilengist and Horsa,
arrived in Britain, and obtained an easy victory over the Scots and Picts. The success of
the two brothers attracted numerous bands of their countrymen; and in the course of a cen
ttiry, colonies arrived from the mouths of the Ell)e, the Weser, and the Rhine, chiefl)
comjitised of three valiant trilics, the Jutrn, the Old Saxons, and the Angles. From iillies,
they becaino fiinnidahle enemies to the Britons; whom, afler a long and sanguinary struggle
of one huiiilrod and fitly years, thoy compelled to retire into Wales and Cornwall.

Thus was established the Heptarchy, or Sevou Saxon Kingdoms in Britain: viz. 1. Kent,
2. Sussex, including Surrey ; tl Eas-t Englas, including Norfolk, SnlToIk, the Isle of Ely, and
'Cambridgeshire; 4. Wesscx, including all tiie southern counties trtnn Ik'rkshire toCornwall ;
5. Nortlniiiilii'riand, inclnilin!r all tlie nortliprii counties of England, ;nd tlie southern coun-
ties of Scotland to t!ii> I'Yith of Forth; 6. Essex, including Essex, Middlesex, -ind part of

tiki'

It- ^

I.- t

;■' ivi

DESCRirTIVE GEOGRAPHY,

Part III.

HcrtforJsiiiro ; 7. Mcrcryc, or Mnrcia, tliu largest ilivitfion, includin{; the midland district*
of Eiifrland to the coiitines of VViilua.

About the ynur 8()0 thoHc email Htutea wore united into one kingfdoin, uniler the name of
Kiiiflunil, by Egbert, king of VVestiox. The Anglo-Siixon dynasty derived its uliief lustro
Irnni AUml, one of the wisest and most virtuous inonarchs that have appeared in any age or
country. He delivered his country from the thraldom of the Danes; but in the course of
the ensuing century, however, they regained the ascendency; and in 1017, Canute, kin#(
of Denmark and Norway, added England to his dominions. It was held successively by his
sons, Harold and Hardicanute; but on the death of the latter, it waa restored to the Saxon
dynasty, and Edward the Confessor ascended the throne.

The conquest by William of Normandy, in 1006, overthrow for a time tlie liberties of the
(leople of EnelanJ. Claiming the crown by virtue of a pretended grant from Edward th(!
Confessor, and acquiring it by victory over Harold II., himself an usurper, to the prejudice
of Ekl^rar Atheling, the rightful heir, ho maintained by tyranny a dominion gained by fraud
and violence. One of the consequences of the acquisition of the English crown by William
was to convey to the kings his successors certain claims on the French territory, which led
to long, expensive, and sanguinary wars.

Henry the Second, surnamcd Plantagenet, son of Geoflry of Anjou, who married Matilda,
daughter of Henry I., in the right of his father, was master of Anjou and Touraine; in that
of his mother, of Normandy and Maine; in that of his wife, of Guicnnc, Poitou, Saintonge,
Auvergne, Perigord, Angoumois, and the Limousin. To these states he atlcrwards annexed
that ot Brctagne. The possession of provinces composing above one-third of the French
monarchy, and superior in opulence to the rest of the territory, rendered this vassal more
powerful than his liege lord, and contributed to provoke that rivalry which for ages existed
between England and France. Henry the Second acquired the sovereignty of Irclimd ;
Edward tlie First annexed Wales to his dominions, and for a time subjugated Scotland.
The contending claims of the houses of York and Iioncaster for the crown of England, after
n civil war of nearly sixty years, were adjusted by the marriage of Henry the Seventh with
Elizubctli, daughter of Edward the Fourth. Among the memorable events that occurred
under the Plantogenots, may be noticed the signature of Magna Charto, extorted by the
Imrons from King John; the rise of the House of Commons in the reign of Henry tiie Third;
and tlie reformation of the church, commenced by John Wicklifle, in 1369.

Tlie reign of Henry the Seventh was signalized by the overthrow of the feudal sway, and
by tlic introduction of the modern system of polity. The emancipation of the kingdom trom
papal dominion was effected by his successor. In tlie reign of Elizabeth, the most strenuous
exertions were made to strengtlien the maritime power of England, and extend her com-
mercial intercourse. The result of these measures was to raise the nation to a very pros-
perous and flourishing condition, and to overturn the lawless domination of the nobles,
substituting for it, however, an autliority almost absolute on the part of the sovereign.

The union of the two crowns on the accession of James the Sixth of Scotland to the throne
of England, terminated those animosities which had proved alike injurious to both countries.
Tiie despotic conduct of Charles the First led to a struggle in which he lost both his crown
!ind his life. In the interregnum wliich ensued under the Commonwealth, the vigilant,
energetic, end decisive policy of Oliver Cromwell exercised a commanding influence over
every cabinet in Europe. Charles the Second suftered England to lose the ascendency
wliich .she had attained, and the infatuated conduct of James Uie Second led to the revolu-
tion of l(i88, from which epoch to the present time, the industry, commerce, and wealth of
<irivit Britain, rapidly rose to a height unparalleled in any other nation, ancient or modern;
lint lior political power sustained various fluctuations. She acquired in the East and in the
West two empires, each far more extensive tlian her own territory. That in the East she
rotJiins and is rontinually extending ; that in tlio West, having become independent, is hei
rival in commerce, and manifests a disposition to dispute, at no distant period, her maritime
supremacy. Among the memorable transactions and events of this period may be ranked
the union with Scotland in 1707 ; that with Ireland in 1801 ; tlie Scottish rebellions in 1715
imd 1745 ; the Irish rebellion in 179H ; and a scries of wars with France, occurring at
intervals rarely exceeding eight or ten years. The contests arising from the French
revolution were distinguished by the most brilliant naval achievements, and afterwards by
.successes which raised the military glory of England to a level with her maritime renown,
rendering her influence paramount among the states of Europe.

Sect. IV. — Political Geography.
Tiio constitution of Great Britain centres in the laws by which the country is governed,
and in the union of powers by which the laws are made and the government is administered.
Tlio Irfrisliitive power is vested in the Parliament, consisting of the Kino, an hereditary
■iovereign ; the I/)Rns, an hereditary aristocracy ; and the Hovsr of Commons, consisting of
iimmbers chosen by the |)eop!o from among themselves, and theretorc said to represent tho
commons of the realm. The exrculice p<wer is entrusted to the kinL'.

! , V- ■ .'t

Part HI.

1 (llatricU

3 name of
lief lu«tro
my age or
course of
imte, kinj?
trcly by Ilia
the Saxon

rties of thu
Wward the;
B prejiidicc
cd by fraud
l)y William
, which led

led Matilda,
ine ; in that

Saintongc,
.rds annexed
the French
vassal more
ages existed

of Ireland ;
;d Scotland,
ngland, after
teventh with
hat occurred
orted by the
ry the Third ;

lal sway, and
tingdom from
ost strenuous
jnd her com-
) a very pros-
f the nobles,
ereign.
to the throne
ath countries.
3th his crown
the vigilant,
ifluence over
„ ascendency
to the revolu-
nd wealth of
[jt or modern ;
ast and in tho
the East she
endent, is hei
her maritime
lay bo ranked
illions in 171.'J
occurring at
,. the French
afterwards by
itime renown.

is governed,
1 administered.

an hereditary
I, consisting of

represent tho

Book I. ENGLAND. 843

Of the three « Jites of tho realm thus coiniHwing the legislature, tJie King is the liigjiost:
he is tiie head or chief of the parliament: aiul except in extrenio case-s a [Kirlianicnl cannot
be held unless convoked by him, nor can it except by him be disM)lved or prorogued. His
assent is requisite to give the tbrce of law to any incasure proposed by either of tho two
houses, and agreed upon by them. I'ropositiona of laws, or bill* aa they are technically
called, may be brought forward in either house ; all money bills must take their origin in tlie
House of Commons; but only in one instance con the king initiate an act of parliament, and
that is, an act of grace, for the pardon of persons after a rebellion, or tor tho reh^ase of insol-
vent debtors.

The King is not supposed to hold his throne by divine right, or in virtue of any indefea-
sible hereditary claim. The nation, by its supreme council, has dictated certain rules of
exclusion with regard to the succession, of which the most important is, that tho sovereign
shall maintain tho Protestant reformed religion, and, cither at his coronation or on tho first
day of the first parliament, shall repeat and subscribe the declaration against popery. On
the death or demise of the king, his heir becomes instantly invested with the kingly office
and regal power.

By a constitutional fiction accordant with the feudal policy, all lands are held mediately or
immediately from tho crown. Thus the king is entitled to all lands left by the subsiding of
the sea ; and estates may revert to him by escheat, ft'om the commission of crime by tneir
possessors. He is sovereign in ull seas and great rivers ; he alone has a prerogative to erect
beacons and lighthouses; he is entitled to all royal mines of ^old and silver, and is entrusted
with the coinage. All persons born in his dominions ore his subjects, and owe to him an
allegiance which they can neither renounce nor transfer to an" foreign prince. He is su-
preme head of the church within his dominions; and as pat-i . paramount of all tho benefices
in England, he has a right to present to all dignities and iienefices of the advowson of arch-
bishoprics and bishoprics during the vacancy of thoir respective Be>.' He is the fountain of
justice, and has an undoubted prerogative in creating officers of suUe, ; 'nisters, judges, and
other functionaries. To him, as parrnn jmtriee, belongs the ciirc of all wi.^ are unable tn
take care of themselves; he has an original right to superintend the disposal of c!-"''ti.:..,
and in all such cases the application is to the Court of Chancery. Ho has, in certain caso;^,
the high prerogative of pardoning, and likewise that of is.suing spctial proclamations fi)r tho
prevention of offences. The power of making war or peace is lodged singly in the king. He
IS held to be incapable of doing wrong, and if an unlawful act be dont, the minister instru-
mental in that act is alone obnoxious to punishment. By virtue of his prerogative the kin^
may make grants and letters patent, conferring various rights and priv'lcgcs. I^astly, tiio
king cannot be attainted, and is never a minor; though when the crow.i has devolved to u
very young heir, it has been thought prudent to appoint a regent, or council of regency.
Tho same expedient has been adopted when, by reason of grievous illness, the exercise of
the royal functions has been interrupted.

All supplies granted by parliament are given to the king ; but of these the largest pro-
portion belongs to the public or its creditors; that which pertains to the king in his distinct
capacity, called the Civil List, is the provision for the support of the honour and dignity of
the crown. On the commencement of the reign of William IV., the civil list was entirely
new-modelled, being limited to the personal expenses of the sovereign, and the maintenance
of his state ; while the branches of administration hitherto defrayed out of it were charged
upon the Consolidated Fund, The sum of 510,00(M. was granted, under the following
heads : —

Privy purse. King's, £60,000

Queen's, .50,000

Maintenance of royal establishment, ..--... 171,000

Salaries in the departments of Chamberlain, Steward, Master of the horse,

home secret service, &c. -.--....------- 154,000

Pensions,- - 75,000

£510,000
Thus the royal prerogative is counterbalanced by the control which the representatives
of the people in parliament exercise over the public purse. Tho king has the prerogative
of commanding arniies and equipping fleets; but without the concurrence of his parliament
he cannot maintain thein. Ho can confer appointments to offices ; but without his parlia-
ment he cannot pay the salaries. He can declare war; but without the aid of parliament
he cannot carry it on. He has the exclusive right of assembling parliaments; but by law
he must a."!semble a parliament every three years. Though head of the church, he cannot
alter tho established religion, or call individuals to account for their religious opinions. He
cannot create any new office inconsistent with the constitution or prejudicial to tlio subject.
He has the privilege of coining money ; but he cannot alter the standard. He has the power
of pardoninsr offenders ; but ho cannot exempt them from making compensation to the injured
parties. Even with the military power he is not absolute, since it is declared in the Bill of

:s;

U44

DEHCRIl'TIVE CJE(XiUAI'llV.

I'AKT III.

Rights tliBt II Hlniuliiijf army witliout ilii; cotmunt (ifixirliamt'iit i» illopil. Tlio kiiiij liimwlf
cannot In? arriiij^inMl ; but ii" uny nbiise of (Kjwer bo cuiniailtcil, iIidki' who worn citlier the.
ndvUiTH or the inslriimontJ) ot" tlio iiioaMiire may bo iiii|K!ai:'ioil iinil trii.'d bofon- Iho Kouho ot"
Lorils ; in wbicb caav it in of no avail to pleud tiio kin);'8 coiiiiiinnd, or to prtHliicc IiIh purduii.
A (liawjlution of [Nirlianiunt ilocs not ubutu an iuipouclimcnt, ncith(^r cun tlio royal uiithority
intor]K)rio to Htay or snsi>L'n(l its coufHU. Other roHtraint« on tlie prtiroKut'vo i^xist in tlio
uncontrolled freudoin of HiM'ech in parliuincnt, ucciired by the Bill ot Uit'hts mid in tlip iin-
{lortunt provisions by which, durinjr the ruign of Ouorjfo 111., the indopondcncu of rho judfji'i*
wiiH cfitiiblishod.

The Ilonao of Lords in composed of the lords spiritual and toriiporal of Eiijjliuid ; sixteiMi
tLMnporal peers of Scotland ; one archbishop, three bishops, and twenty-eight t('tn|ioral peers
of Ireland. The roll of the lords spiritual and tcni|H)ral forming the llouse of I'eers, in the

session of 18i)d, exhibits 420 lords, including the Cutholic peers of England,
distinguished : —

Tliey are thil-s

Rnval diikfii 4

AKlibiHhiipii . . ' " ■ 3

DiikiM with Biiglith lltica SI

MarqucKwa 10

Earlii loa

ViMriiitntH. IH

niiihi>|i!< 'J7

Ramus IHI

Pouri nf Hcntland .
of IrfcUnil. . ■

Tc.lnl.

The Ix)rda Spiritual are, for Eiiiflaiid, t wo archbishops and twenty-four bisliops ; and for
Ireland, one archbishop and tiree bishops; the English hold their »r;at» for lite, the Irish by
rotation. The archbisho|)s rank above all dukes except the princes of the blood ; the bishops
next below viscounts.

The Ijords Temporal are not limited in number, it l)cing the prerogative of the king to
raise to the peerage any of his subjects whuni he thinks deserving, They consist of dukes,
marquesses, carls, viscounts, and barons. The sixteen peers of ScotLand are, by the articles
of union, elected by tho peers of that country from among themselves: the election is
renewed for every parliament. The Peers of Ireland are, as established by the act of union,
tour lords spiritual sitting by rotation of sessions, and twenty-eight lords temporal elected for
life by tho peers of Ireland. As a supreme court of judicature, the House of Lords exercises
jurisdiction in civil causes u|Hjn apiwals or writs of error from tho inferior courts ; and in
criminal questions, when brought before them, by presentment of the House of Coinnions, in
the form of an impeachment.

All members of jNirliament have the privilege for themselves and their menlul servants of
being fri'c^d from arrests or imprisonment for debt or trespass ; but not from arrests for treason,
ll'lony, or breach of tho jjoace. The poors have other privileyis peculiar to thoMiselves. In
all cases of treason, felony, or misprision of felony, a nobleman is tried by his i)eers; but in
inisdemcanonrs, he is tried like a commoner. In judicial proceedings, a peer gives his ver-
dict not upon oath, but u]x>n his honour; ho answers also to bills in cliaiicery upon his honour;
but when examined as a witness in the inferior courts or in the high court of parliament,
either in civil or criminal cases, he must be sworn. Slander against a peer subjects the
offender to very lieavy punishment, being ffranilcd by the law with llio term satu<'aluin mag-
nalum. Every peer, by licen.se from the king, may make a proxy to vote for him in his
absence, <t privilege which cannot be held by a member of the lower house. All bills which
may a.Tect the rights of the peerage, are, by the custom of ])arlianient, to originate in the
House of Peers, ond to suffer no changes or amendments in the lower house.

The House of Commons, as a distinct branch of the legislature, is the peculiar boast of
the British constitution. In the earliest times of which any record exists in English history,
tliere appear to have been assemblies of the nation, convciked to deliberate on occasions nf
great emergency ; but it was not until (A. D. 1266) atlor the overthrow of Simon Montfort,
earl of Leicester, that the people were regularly summoned by tho king to send represent-
atives to tho great council of Mie nation. The crown, little upprehonsivo of the formidable
character which tho House of Commons was artcrwnnls to assume, liivoured nil the sti'jw of
its early progress, hoping by those means to coutiter|xiiso the overbearing sway of the great
iKirons, and at the same time to obtain supplies of money from the growing wealth of tho
people. Tho decline of the feudal system had for some time fiivoured such a course of policy.
Baronies escheated by forfeiture or for want of issue had been subdivided ; hence arone a
class of men called minor barons, holding by knight's service ; and these being too numerous
and too poor to be all called to iMirliament, and to rank with the greater barons, were allowed
to sit by representatives. Of Uieso knights, each shirr was summoned to send two; writs
to that effect being addressed to the sheriffs of the several counties. The Cinipie Ports
probably alwut the same period sent their barons, and tlie cities and boroughs their l>Hrg<sscs.
In early times these representatives appear to have considered attendance in parliament as
M hardship rutiier than an advantage. It was expensive, ""d, from the iin[M'rfect jiolice then
established, olleii insecure; and tho summons, being always the prelinle to a demand for
money, was by no means welcome. With the granting of supplies, howeviT, was neces-
sarily C(iiiiliiiii«l the right of petition, of staling grievances, and demanding giinranlees; and
Uiesc could not, by a tovoreign pressed by various exigencies, bo always denied.

mr HI.

liimB«!lf
lier Uin
louao of

purdon.
lUlliority
I ill till)

llip im-

; sixtrci)
iiiil peers
r8, ill tlio
, are thiw

1 ~m

j; and for
o Irish liy
ho bifthopii

10 kinff to
; of dukes',
ho articles
election is
;t of union,
elected for
K exercises
rts; and in
uinniuns, in

servants of
for treason,
iselvcs. In
.{■rs ; but in
vcs his vcr-
his honour ;
))iLrl lament,
subjects the
\iilum mag-
liiin in his
bills which
linatc in the

iur boast of
[lish history,
occasions of
m Moiitfort,
rcpresent-
forniidiible
[tiie f^tep of
|)f the frrcat
[oalth of the
se of policy,
luce urose a
,. nuinerotis
-ere allowed
two; writs
iiuine Ports
|r/<i<rA'-f.'i»f!!.
lirliiimonl as
police then
(liMTiand for
was ncces-
Lnlccs; and

Book I. ENGLAND. n4fi

The election of the Commons never rested on any principle of nniversnl or nvcn gonon)
MiflVaKe, excepting' perhaps that of knights liir each yiiirc, As the kings, however, could
only attain their obiecls by assembling the niont powerful and iiiHuential of the peujilc, they
endeavoured to make an ecpml distribution of the riglit of election, so ftir, at least, as related
to property and inttuenco, at the time when such a meusuru was adapted to countervail tlio
)irepon<k'ninee of the lurons. In atlcr-tiiiies, when seats in parliament ciiiiie to be uppre-
'^iiiti'd us conferring a desirable privilege, and as constituting a |)oworful churk on the pro
nigative of the monarch, it would huvi; been irregular to have allowed to the king an Drbi>
trary selection ; and all parties adhered to the rights conferred on tlinm by early gill or long
usage This |)ermanence of the elective frunchiHC, amidst the local changes that ensued in
the course of ages, gave rise to some very striking anomalies. Manchester, Leeds, and
i^uveral other towns, which within the last century have become the commercial capitals of
the kingdom, did not send a single repn^sentativo ; while places once im|)ortant, but now
dwindled into insigniticancc, returned each two members. Cornwall, at a period when the
rest of the kingdom was (loor and rude, enjoyed an abundant source of opulence in its tin
mines, and retained a number of chartered boroughs, beyond all proportion greater than those
of any other county. Ttie places holding the right 'a election were in many instances so
small, that what is called the patronage of them was easily acquired; and that patronage of
rourso involved the advantage of nominating one or both candidates for the reprcKentation.
These were called close boroughs, or, more reproachfully, rotten boroughs. Another anomaly
ronsiste«l in a number of what were called treasury boroughs, the nomination of which rested
with the administration. With the view of remedying these defects, the Reform Bill wus
l>assed, in 1892, atler long discussion and opposition. By this bill iifVy-six of the smallest
boroughs were entirely disfranchised, ond thirty were reduced from two members to one,
while Weymouth and Alelcombe Regis were reduced from four to two ; a reduction was thii.s
made of 144 members. In the room of these, twenty-two large places, — Manchester, Uir-
muigham, Leeds, ShetHcld, Greenwich, Sunderland, Devonport, Wolverhampton, Bolton,
Blackburn, Bradford, Brighton, Halifax, Macclesfield, Oldham, Stockport, Stoke-u|)(m-Trent,
Stroud, and four districts of the metropolis, viz. Marylebone, Tinsbury, Tower Hamlets,
and Ijambeth, — received each the right of electing two members ; while twenty smaller
towns, — Ashton-under-Line, Bury, Chatham, Cheltenham, Dudley, Prome, Gateshead, IIiiil-
liersfield, Kidderminster, Kendal, Rochdale, Sulford, South >-iliieMs, Tynemouth, Wakefield,
Wal.sall, Warrington, Whitby, Whitehaven, and Merthyr Tydvil, — acquired the right of
nominating one member each. At the same time twenty-seven counties acquired the power
of sending each two additional members, and seven that of sending one additional member.

The representation of Great Britain now stands as follows ; —

English mombors <br counties 143

iiiiivcrsiticii 4

cities and buroughs 324

471

Welsh members for counties 15

cities and buniughi 14

Scotch members fur counties 30

cities and boroughs 23

Irish members for counties 64

university 2

L'ilies and boroughs 39

105

Making in all 658

The qualifications requisite for a member of the House of Commons, in respect to pro-
perty, are th.ose : — A person to bo eligible as a member for a county must have a freehold or
copyhold, or must have been mortgagee in possession at least seven years, of a clear estate
of the value of 600/. per annum ; and to be eligible for a city, borough, or other place,
except the universities, of the value of liOOl, per annum. The person so qualified is also to
be of mature ago, and must take the oatlis imposed as indispensable to a member of the
legislature. Among the persons who cannot sit in the House of Commons are judges, cler-
gymen, persons holding certain offices under the crown, and persons having pensions under
tne crown during pleasure or for any term of years; sherifli of counties, and mayors and
bailitfs of boroughs, are ineligible in their respective jurisdictions; but a sheriff of one
county is eligible as knight for another.

The qualifications required in electors differ, as they relate to counties or to boroughs. In
the election of county members every member must have a freehold of the clour yearly
value of forty shillings, over and above all rents and charges payable out of and in respe^'-.t
of the same, and must have been in the actual possession of it for twelve calendar months,
unless it came to him within that time by descent, ma.-riage settlement, devise, or promotion
to a benefice in the church, or to an office. To tliese freeliolders the new bill has added all

Vol. I. 2T

i: '

Mil!

ilJ

■:- !J

•N

»46

nKSCRH'TIVR CJKOfiUAPlIY.

Past III.

'i:

pcnoiiM lioltlini; pmjx^rty t<> tlio miiotint of ten [KnimlM on copyholil, nr nii Icimn of not leu
than lixty ytmrN; luul iiIm) tlitxH! <x.-ciipyin(f IiiiiiIh or ttMiciiiuiita titr any pitriixi, at a rent of
not IcttM tliiin CAU. por aiiniiin.

Tim <iimlillcutiiiiii of elcctorH for ritiog and iHirou^'liN wpri>, prnviinix to tlii< proMont act,
nxtruiiii'ly viiriiiim. Thn rij^lit of voting; in dilK-rnit plitrcM nmiilod variously in tin* tV(<«)-
holdorv, tlio coriMinitionis tlm hnri^iiKo tonantM, ami Homi'tiiucH in tlio wlioln Ixxly of roiiiricnt
liouM'liiildi'rM. riiit ni^w act, howovor, ndmitM imly tliu Miinpio ipialiflcution of occMipyin|i( a
lnmHi' riiliul ut ni)t Ii<mm than KM. pt'r nnnnm, Tliimp, liowcvcr, who wcrn (Vj-i-nion nndfr the
tormcr NyHttmi nro iitill entitliMl to vnti-, althun);h not putu<OHMf>d of tliu 10/. ipialiticiition,
providnl tlioy roHidn within the lK)rr)U);h.

The iiiikIo of prococdinj; to un cipction for a county and for a horonprh in nearly tlio aainf.
On a (liHHohition of parlimnvnt, writx, pununnt to a warrant from the kinjf, arc iNHiit'd iindor
the ^reiil mml, addreiwed tu the Hherini) of countieM, directing; them to Huiniiion the people to
elect two kni^htM liir each county, and one or two huTgcuium for ennh honni(;h. To Niipply a
vnciincy while (Nirliairicnt is Hittiiif;, the wiirntnt tiir the writ proceodx from the IIoiimo of
(\)iniiiuns. A certain day utler, the date or tfilf of the writ irt fixed tor the election to com-
mence ; and on that day the candidate or candidiitcii are put in nomination, at the nlaco
iip|)()inted, in the preHenc(! of the rctnrninff otHeer. In a county election, the Hhrriff or
the iinder-Hheritf in the roturnin); officer; in a city or horoiiirh, the mayor or Imilitf. If there
Im? rival cundidnteH put in nomination, the returninjf officer rallB on the voters for a decinion
by a hIiow of the hiindx, after which the friend of any candidate, if diiuuitiHlled, may demand
a |H)ll. The poll waH tiirmorly taken at only one place, nnd ini)(ht last for Htleen diiyM; hut
under the new uct, the citioH and connticn arc divided into diHtricts with tie|)arate iMxithn, or
pollinjj-plncoH, iippnipriated to each. The poll in allowed to continue only tor two days,
which must Im) tniccenNive, luid it niunt clone at four o'clock in the atlern<x)n of the Kccond
day. Poll clerks attend, to record the names of the votern, and their accuracy Ih watchml
by iiiHpectora nouiinnted on each side. The roturninjf officer who presideK muHt, if required,
oblif^c the candidates to xwoar to their nualiHcations. At the close of the election, or
on the followinj; day, the returnin); officer (leclares the namos of the personn who have the
majority of voles; and, iinlcHs a scrutiny be deniand(!d, he forthwith makes his return.

The duration of a Parliament has, for more tliiin a century, Ix-en extended to the term of
seven years, t'rom that of three, to which it was liirmerly limited. The kin>f, however, has
the power of dissolving |)arliament at any time; he can also prorof^uo it at any time nnd tiir
any periixl ; nnd, as such proropntion concludes the session, it puts an end to nil hills or other
proceedinjfs depenilin); in either house, which must in the next session bo again instituted,
as if they had never liccn U^gun. Either house, or Ixitli houses, may adjourn of their own
accord, anil, at their meeting again, may take up the bills and other proceedings in the state
of advancement in which they were left. A session of parliament usually commences in
January or February, and continues until Juno or July.

At the commencement of every session committees of the whole house aro appointed; one
called the Committee of Supply, to consider the amount recpiired by the crown for the ser-
vice of the army, navy, ordnance, and other departments ; nnd the other the Committee of
Way» nnd Means, to devise mcxles of raising, by (axes or loans, the sums which the liouso
have j^Tanted. In this committee of ways nnd means, the chancellor of the exche(|iier, in
an exjiosition technically called the Rudprri, demonstrates to the house in detail that ttu;
sums voted are sutficient to justify the committee in imposing such taxes, or sanctioning
such loans, as are then recommended. When the two committees are closed, the House of
Commons pass a bill in which the grants made in the committee of ways nnd means are
recapitulated, and directed to lie applied to the services voted by the committee of supply,
specifying the jxirticular sums granted for each service.

Parliament have the sole right of making, altering, and amending all the laws of tlie
kingdom, and by their authority olone can taxes be imposed or levied. An annual vote of
the House of C'Ommons is requisite to maintain the land and sea forces at the degree of
strength which is every year fixed and determined upon. By these and other privileges,
the annual meeting of parliament is secured without any express stipulation to that eftect.
By withholding these annual votes they may testify liieir disapproliation of the measures of
government, and even compel it to change its ministers; indeed, the principle has now
become indisputable, that the minister who cannot rely on a majority of votes in parliament
is disabled from conducting the affiiirs of the nation.

The Privy (council is composed of persons, ap|iointed by the king, who aro bound by oath
to advise their sovereign to the l)estof their judgment with all the fidelity and secrecy which
their station prescribes. The king with the advice of his privy council pubhshus proclama-
tions binding on the subject; but they are to bo consonant to, and in execution of, the laws
of the land. The jiower of the council is, to inquire into all otTences against the govern-
ment, and to commit the oflenders to safe custrxly for trial in some of the courts of law; but
persons so committed are entitled to flieir hnheas eorpiis as much as if they had been com-
mitted by an ordinary justice of the peace. The privy council is a court of appeal in plant-

'1^

Boor I.

ENGLAND.

847

ation iinil niliniriilty cnunrn, whii'li nrixo out dt' lint jtiriMlictioti of tlio kiiit;ili)tii, nn oImu in
CBHOK of i<lniti:y niKi liiimcy. Wlmii <|iii>iitionH nrUo Ix'twci'ii two i'dIomk-h riwiM't'titiK the
uxltMit ot" tlicir <-liitrti!r, " Mr kinu in rmiuril" rxftcutcn ori|;iniil jiiriHilictinn in tlinni, on thn
prinoi|ili>H of li'(Hlit| mivi)ri>i|fiity ; Iim uIihi dctormitioM, on th<! hhimo |)rinci|ilc, tlir valiilitv of
claiiiiH to uii JHliinil or proviiiuu IoiiiiiIimI iiikhi (;riuit tVom tlio kini; or hiu iiiiccbtorH. Rut Irum
all tlio iloiiiiiiioim of thu crown oxri>|itinK Urniir Hritnin ami In'liiiiil,an ii/i/W/dfr; jiirJMliction,
in the limt rcHort, in voxtivd in tlin jrrivy eoiiitcil. Thn jiiiliciiil tiiitliority Im cxcruixeil in a
coniinittiMt of tlio wholu privy couiirjl, who himr itlli!|{iitioni« luiil piootx, nnil niiiku tli«!ir
rp|iort tu Am majmlij in rouiioiI, by wliotn iuilffinont is finally given. Tho diiNolution of the
privy roiincil dt>|M<n(lii on tlio plniiHiir)) of tho king, who iniiy nt hiv own (ilNcrclion illHchari^e
any ini'iiib4!r, or tho wholn of tliiMii, anil ap|H>int anothor cuuncil. It conllnuuH hIx inonthM
ullcr tilt! iluinlRO of tho crown, iiiiIiihh Noonor detorminc«l by tho HUCccHwir. Any nuturuU
born Hiiliji'ct uf Kn^land Ih cn|>ahlo of iHiintf a nioinlior of tho privy council, tukin(( tho pruiier
ootlw Hir Hociirity of tho Kovornincnt and tost for flio iincurity of tho church, A privy coun-
icllur, if ho bu only it privuto i^vntliMiiun, in Htyli.'d rif(hl honmtrable, and takoN precedence
of all knl(;liti*, baronets, and tho younffor Miim of all buroiw and viMcouiitit.

A cnbinnt council in not, Htriclly Hpoakinif, rccoxniicd by tho conflitulion, but by UHa^e
it ix r(<);iiril('d iih a iKidy Mnlcctcd by tho Hovi'rni((n to conduct the busii.i'M of tlio state; and
till' iniMiilicrs comp<Min}r it am liolcl to Iw tho ro.>i|wnNible adviserM of thr -rowi., Tho cabinut
couiirll imiiiilly coiiMiHtM of thoxo niiniMtPrH of atato who oxorciHo the nv» iniportnnt fund' <nii
of iho oxocutivo authority ; their number and Boloction depend only on ilie kiiij" s ple-wuro;
and each niombor rei-eivoM a HUiniiionH for every uttendniice. Thoii{;li this bu' '. us co- •!.i-
tiitinj? what Ih oHHontially the ffowrnmrnt, bo coinponod princi|mlly of officerii ol ntato; yet
a privy counsellor Heleeted by the kin{f as a membor of his cabiiiot couiici' may hold ; ' i»eat
an Huch, without acceptinf; any particular office. Tho offlcera of ittato are thoBO enuMcratod
in tho following lists: —

Qffittn >/ Stalt forming Ihi Cnbintt.

Firit I.iiril of 1)10 Treaiury. Hi^cri'inry o( Htaf for Cnlnniei and War.

Liird Cliiuicc'lliir. ('Iiiiii)'c'lli>r <ir Itic l'1xi'li>'i|iii'r.

Ijiiril I'rivy B«al. Firal l.ijril iif lliu Adiiiirnlty,

Pn'milc^iit of Ihn Coiincll. ' MualiTuc'iiMrnl nl' thu OriiiinnrB.

Hvrruliiry (if Kliilo I'nr tlio llnmR Dopartiiiont. Hnxlili'iit nl' tli<' Iliuiril iif ('(iiitrdl.

Hcrrt'liiry (if Htiili.' Air Ihn Fnri'lKii Dfpartmi'iil. C'liuiirt'llor i>r the Diiiliy of I.nix'aitrr.

Iiiird riiniiilM'rlnin
Lnril Hlcrwnril.
IVtiiKliT c>r thn lloric.
H«cri:tiiry nt Wiir.
TrcoHuriT of thn Navy.
Prcildeiit iif ihii Hnnril of Trade
Paymaater iif ihu I'uruo.

Lord LirMiliinant of Ireland.
Iiord Chancellor,
(.'inninaniler of the Forcnii.
Chief Secrotiiry.

Offlitn i/ male not oflhiCahliirl.

Vii'i'-I'roiiidi'nt of tho Board of Trade.

FnKliiiiKli'r.noni'ral.

I.iciitiMiunt-Gniiiral of Iho Orilnanrn,

Firnt roiiiinliaioiior of tho Land Revvniie.

Altnrnoy-nonoral,

Bollcltor-aeiioral.

trelani,

VircTrcnaiirrr.

AltunioyOHiioral.

BollcltorOeiioral.

That officer of state who holds the appointment of First Lord of the Treasury, is by
eminence tho minister. In tho event of a change of minJHtry, tlie person who is directed
by the kin^r to form another, receives an implied offer of that hiji;h office, and is generally
placed ot the head of tho administration. The first lonl of the treasury, that is, tho first of
the five lords commissioners for executing the office of lord high treasurer, possesses most
of the |)owcrs formerly held by the lord high treasurer, and is . i. "t'ines, though not in-
variably, chancellor and under treasurer of the exchequer. Th . • .uio applicable to the
general purposes of the state is, with a trifling exception, deriveil <;iitirely from taxes. In
tho course of the lust century it increased to an amount unpiirallelcd in the history of any
other country ; but in consequence of the wars in which Great Britain wos engaged with
little intermission until tho year 1815, it did not keep pac^ with the expenditure, and an
enormous debt was gradually contracted, the interest on ■' Ijich occasioned a correspondent
incrimsu of taxation.

Since 1817, a deduction has been made of about »iiiy millions from the principal of the
debt, and about Jive millions from the annual charge on its account. This diminution has
been principally effected by taking advantage of the fall in the rate of interest since tho
peace, and offering to pay off the holdeit' of different stocks, unless they consented to accept
a reduced payment.

The systetn of funding by which tho debt has been rendered national, rests on the prin-
ciple of assigning for the amount of a loan, an equivalent amount of nominal capital, bearing
interest charged on tho national revenue in half-yearly payments called dividends, or of
temiinHble annuities also payable half-yearly. Annuities granted for an indefinite perio<l
are called rcdrrmablc rfrft^ being redeemable at the option of government when at par;
those jrrantod for a limited period are called irredef-mnldr debt ; they exist only for a certain
number of years, and a portion of the capital is annually nb.sorlied in the interest. The

v»

348

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt UI.

funds are respectively designated according to tlic rate per cent, they bear; and tlm slurc
which a public creditor holds in any of them, being trii.nsferable by sale under the name of
slock, they constitute a kind of circulating capital.

The rate of interest grunted on certani portions of the national debt, thougli nominally
lower than that of five per cent, allowed by law, bus been rendered advantageous to tlie
lender by being charged on a larger amount of nominal capital than the sum iwrrowed.
jjoans liave been mode in funds at four and five per ccnl., but the greater purt has been
made in a fund bearing tliree per cent, interest on the nominal capital, and commonly called
the three per cent, consolidated annuities. Tlie prices of these and other annuities consti-
tuting the redeemable debt are rated according to the money value of one hundred pounds
on such stock ; terminable annuities according to the number of years' purchase which they
are supposed to be worth.

Particular taxes were, at an early period of the funding system, appropriated to defray
the interest of different descriptions of debt ; but in the year 1786, the whole were collected
into one fund, called the Consolidated Fund. The particular branches of rcveiuie included
in it were the custotns (with the exception of a certain amount applicable to other public
services), the excise, the stamps, the land and assessed taxes, and the post-office. To this
fund are applicable moneys arising from other resources, specified in the annual accounts.

The following statement sliows the progress of the national debt, from the Revolution to
the present time: —

Diibta at the RRVoliition in 1680

£.Tcc9s nf ilcbt cnntr.icted during the reign of William III. nlmve debt
paid off.

Debt at tlie acccuion of Queen Anne, in 1703 —

Debt at the acceuion of George I. in 1714

Debt at the accruion of George II. in 1737

Debt at the peace uf Farii, in 1703

Debt at the commencement of the American nar in 1775

Debt at the conclusion of the American war in 17f4

Debt at the commencement of tlio French war in 17!I3

Debt contracted iluring Uie French wur

Principal.
£

15,730,4.19

lutereal.

I«,S94,70i
54,145,3113
52,092,238

138,805,430

128,583,835

249,f51,028

3!i,85,'i

],071,0S7
1,310,942
3,351,358
2,217..'i51
4,852,051

4,471,.'i7I

Total funded and unfunded debt. 5lh Jiinunry, 1817, when the Eni;li!<h and
Irish Kxchequern were coiitiolidated .'

239,3.'i0,148
008,1)32,329

848.282,477

9,451 ,7?J

9,208,495
34,(145,971

33,854,400

A sinking fund for the gradual reduction of tlio debt had been formed by Sir Robert Wul-
pole in 1716, but hod been so fl-equently encroached upon, that in the course of half a cen-
tury, it had not extinguished above fifleen millions. Its revival formed part of tiie financial
arrangements of Pitt in 1786. Out of the aggregate of the taxes applicable to the consoli-
dated fund, government then pledged itself, that one million annually should be paid to the
commissioners for the reduction of the national debt. To this annual million were added tho
amount of government annuities as they successively expired, and the interest of sucli stock
as was annually redeemed. In 1792, Pitt obtained an act of parliament, declaring, that
besides a provision for the interest of any loan that might be thcncerorward contracted, taxes
.should be imposed for a sinking fund of one per cent, on the capital stock created by it,
which should be exclusively employed in tiie li(iuidation of such particular loan; and tliatno
relief should be afforded to the public from the taxes wliich constituted the one por cent,
sinking fund, until a sum ot capital stock, equal in amount to that created by tiio loan, had
been purchased by it. That being accompli-shod, botli tlie interest and the sinking fiind were
to be applicable to the public service. It was calculated that, under the most uiifiivourablc
circumstances, each loan would be redeemed in forty-five years from the periwl when it wns
contracted. Tlie provisions in this act, and in the former act of 1786, were altered by sub-
sequent enactments ; but, by an act passed in 1813, those alterations were rescinded; and
it was provided first, that, as a sum equal to the debt of 1786, and bearing an intc^n^st nearly
equal to the interest of that debt, was tiion vested in the hands of the commissioners, the
debt of 1786 sliould bo doclared disclmrgod as soon ns the interest of tlie delit redeemed
should become fully equal to that debt ; the sums appropriated to it.s interest and sinking
fund applied tn the cliarge of future loans, and no new ta.ves imposed for interest nnd sinking
ftind of those loans, till the same should nmtiiint to a sum ecpial to the interest of tint con-
sidered as released. Secondly, tiiat. insfoii'l of applyiuff the one per cent, sinkin:.' fund on
each loan to the separate disdiarj'e of thul loan, the whole funds of that kind iiuitod should

-f- .-•

'■*;

Book I.

'4'
ENGLAND.

%..

'M9

be applied to the discimrg'c of the first contracted loan, and successively to the redemption
of all the loanB contracted since 1792 ; tlie whole sinking fund created in 1786, or subse-
quently, bein^ continued for the redemption of all debts then existing or to be created. The
system established by this act continued until Marcii, 1823, when an act of parliament was
passed, directing that on tlie 5th of April of that year, all payments out of the consolidated
t'und to the commissioners for the reduction of the national debt should cease, all stock in
their names be cancelled, and that in future the annual sum of five millions shall be payable
quarterly to the commissioners, and set apart tor the reduction of the debt, not to be infrmged
upon until the accumulation of this sum shall amount to one hundredth part of the debt then
existing: at present, however, the sinking fund is declared to be the excess of income over
expenditure, whatever that may be. In 1830 it amounted to 2,792,707i. 14». Old.

On the consolidated fund are likewise charged the annuities for forty-five years, created
in the year 1822, for the purpose of apportionmg the burden occasioned by the military and
naval pensions and civil 8uperannuatit>ns (collectively called the Dead Weight), amounting
to 5,000,000?., into equal annual payments. The original intention was to contract with
parties wlio might be willing to engage to pay into the exchequer within forty-five years tlie
sum wanted, for a fixed amount of annuity for forty-five years; but no capitalists being found
to accept these terms, it was agreed, instead of assigning the fixed annuities to any corporate
bo<ly, or to private individuals, that they should be vested, namely, 2,800,000/. terminable at
the end of forty-five years, ard charged upon the consolidated fund, in trustees appointed by
parliament ; payable at the exchequer half yearly (viz. October 10. and April 5.), and to
cease in April, 1867. In March, 1823, a portion was sold to the Bank of England by the
trustees, on condition that the bank should undertake the payments to bo made in pursuance
of the act, from tlie 5th of January, 1823, to the 5tli of January, 1868, upon tlie transfer to
the bank of an annuity of 585,740/., to commence firom the 5th of April, and to continue for
the term of forty-five years. The total amount of payments undertaken to be made by the
bank in consideration of the said annuity is 13,089,419/.

Besides the funded debt, there is generally a considerable amount in exchequer bills,
navy bills, and ordnance bills, denominated the unfunded or floating debt. Excheciuer bills
are issued in consequence of acts of parliament, for obtaining part of the money required for
public service. They are sometimes granted on the credit of supplies for the current year,
and the produce of the annual taxes is in this way often anticipated. Sometimes they are
charged on the supplies of the following year; and in time of war, a large sum to be tlius
raised is generally authorised by a vote of credit previous to the rising of parliament. New
exchequer bills are often issued in discharge of former ones ; and it has frequently been found
necessary to fund them, by granting capital in some of the stocks on certiiin terms, to kucIi
holders as are willing to accept them. Exchequer bills are issued for 1(K)/., 5(>'3/., l(MM)/.,
and upwards, but none for less than 100/. ; and they bear interest at two-pen';e a day tor
every 100/. After being in circulation they are received in payment of ta.xes or other debts
due to government, and sometimes they are paid ofl" pursuant to previous notice by advertise-
ment. The daily transactions between the bank and the exchequer are chiefly carried on
by bills of 1000/. each, which are deposited by the bank in the exchequer, to the amount of
the suras received by them on account of government ; they remain in the exchequer as
pledges or securities, of course bearing interest until the advances on which the bank first
received them are paid oft'.*

Number of persons deriving incomes from the funds. It appears fi-om the regular
returns, that in 1830 (and the number has not sensibly varied since), 274,823 dividend
warrants were issued to persons deriving incomes from the fiinds. The number of persons
dependent ujwn the funds for support is, however, much greater than appears upon the face
of this account: for the dividends upon the funded property belonging to public establish-
ments, are paid upon single warrants, as if they were due to so many private individuals.

The customs and excise fonn the two main branches in the collection of the revenue; the
former relating to goods imported, the latter to those produced and manufactured within the
country. Among the accomiiKxlations to trade, establisilind by Mr. Pitt, is the bonding
system, by which the goods of merchants are warehoused under the joint custody of the
proprietor and of government ; payment of' duty not being demanded until a sale is efltcted.
This has been also extended to British spirits.

Tlie navy is the force on wiiich Great Britain mainly relies for maintaining her own
independence and her ascendency over foreign nations. By it slie has acquired the sover-
eignty of the sea.s, and the advantuges, wliich that sovereignty confers, of securing her pos-
sessions in the most distant (luartcrs of the globe, of protecting her commerce, and sustaining
the exertions of her armies during war. During the mast active period of the las^t maritime
war, the number of seamen in employment amounted to 140,(K)() ; and there were in com-
mission 100 sail of the line and 150 frigates, with 30,000 marines. The estimate tor 1831

14 ]

lit

Vol. I.

-eoc Stntisticnl Tahlon, nt cud ofChiip. tV.

■sr

'' 1' I

'«

350

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt in.

comprehended 22,000 seamen and 10,0tH) marines. The pay of these men amounts to
1,081,000/. ; their BubHistence, to fl03,(KK)/. ; wliich, witli the cost of stores, and allowance
for wear and tear, raised the regnlnr current expense to nearly 2,000,000/. The building
and repair of vessels, the charges of the dock-yards, pay of ofticers connected with the navy,
and a variety of other items, amounted to about an equal sum. These charges, with
1,088,000/. in half pay and pensions, mode up the sum of 4,657,000/. as the entire navy
estimate for the year 1831.

The military ti)rcc of the nation, at the close of the French wars, amoui.ted to 200,000
regular troops, cxcliiHive of about 100,000 emljodied militia, a large amount of local militia
and volunteers, to which might also be added a number of regiments employed in the terri-
torips of the Ea-st India Company, and in ita pay. After the peace of 1815 a rapid reduction
of tlie military establishment was effected. The militia were disembodied; the regular force
was reduced, and in 1835 the estimates were for 81,271 men, independent of 19,720 employed
in India, and paid out of tlie land revenue of that country. The charge for these forces was
5,784,808/. ; but about half of this simi consisted of half-pay, retired allowances, pensions,
and other charges consequent on the former immense establishment

The laws of England, established during ten centuries of legislation, constitute the most
extensive system of jurisprudence ever constructed. The municipal law is divided into two
kinds, the unwritten or common law ; and the written or statute law. The common law
derives its force from immemorial usage ; and its evidences exist in the records of the seve-
ral courts of justice, as well as in books of reports and judicial decisions. It includes not
only the system by which the ordinary courts of justice are guided and directed ; but certain
portions of the ancient civil and canon laws which are used in the ecclesiastical courts, the
military courts, the court of admiralty, and the courts of the two universities. The written
laws are tiiose made by the king, lords, and commons, in parliament assembled ; they are
judicially called Statutes, and are either declaratory of the common law, or remedial of
some of its defects. The statutes are also distinguished as either general or special, public
or private.

The high court of parliament, independently of its legislative functions, is the supreme
court of judicature in the kingdom. The House of Lords exercise jurisdiction in civil
causes, upon appeals or writs of error from the inferior courts, and in criminal questions,
when brought before them by presentment of the, House of Commons, in the form of an
impeachment.

The high Court of Chancery, in which presides the Lord High Chancellor, has two dis-
tinct tribunals: the one ordinary, being a court of common law; the other extmordinary,
being a court of equity. From the ordinory or legal court issue all original writs that pass
the great seal, all commissions of charitable uses ; as also of bankruptcy, idiotcy, and lunacy ;
tor such writs it is always open to ■ iie subject In the extraordinary court or court of equity,
the chancellor exercises a most extensive jurisdiction, determining causes beyond the reach
of the ordinary tribunals, and others in which reason and justice require that the rigorous
application of tiie rules of common law should be mitigated. These decisions emanate from
tlie judgment of tlie lord chancellor alone. An assistant judge, called Vice-chancellor of
England, has power to hear and determine all causes depending in the court ; all his decrees
are valid and effectual, subject however, to reversal by the lord chancellor, and not to be
enrolled until signed by him ; nor are they to discharge, reverse, or alter any decree of the
lord chancellor or of the Master of the Rolls. The Master of the Rolls, who ranks next to
him in dignity, and holds his office for life, acts in a judicial capacity as assistant to the lord
chancellor, and also hears and determines causes on certain appointed days ; but his orders
and decrees cannot be enrolled until signe<l by the lord chancellor, who has the power to
discharge or alter them. The masters in ciiancery are twelve in number, including the
Master of the Rolls, who is their chief, and alw) including the Accountant-Gcneral. They
arc assistants and associates of the lord chancellor and the master of the rolls, nnd sit with
them in court by tu' s, two at a time. In 1820 the projxjrty of suitors in chancery amounted
to more than 40,0(M(,()00/. The masters make up their accounts with the Acccuntant-
gencral, and pay into the Bank of England all moneys remaining in their hands, to be place<l
to his account He merely keeps the account witli the bank, the governor and company
being answerable for such moneys.

The Court of King's Bench is the supreme court of common law in the kingdom, and
takes cognisance both of criminal and civil causes: the former in what is called the crown
side or crown office ; the latter in the jilca siili- of the court. It is also n court of appeal,
into which may be removed, by writ of error, detcrininntions of all the courts of record in
England. The court consisits of a chief justice, and f hreo pui*ne judges.

The Court of Common Pleas takes cogiiisance of all civil actions dpp«inding lK.'tweon sub-
ject and subject Many questions, however, may, by legal contrivoncet., be bruught info
this or into the Court of King's- Bencii at tlic option of the parties. The Court of Common
Pleas consists of a chief justice, and three puisne judges.

Book I.

ENGLAND.

351

voon 8ub-
iifiht into
Common

The Court of Exchequer has jurisdiction both in law and erjuity. In it are tried all ques-
tions relating to the revenue, and, by fict- jn.? of law, various civil aclions and personal suits.
The judges are four; a chief baron ar 1 three! puisne barons.

Trial by jury, an institution coeval ..'ith the origin of the constitution, and justly valued
by the people as the bulwark of their liberties, is employed in all cases between the crown
and the subject, in all criminal cases, and in all those for which damages are awarded. The
jury in England consists of twelve persons, whose verdict must be delivered by their fore-
man as unanimous, or, in the technical phrase, as agreed upon.

Courts of Assize and Nisi Prius are auxiliaries to the superior courts at Westminster fur
tlie trial of causes in every county in England, twice a year in most counties, once a year
in others. The counties are comprised in six circuits: 1st, the Home Circuit; 2d, the Mid-
land ; 3d, the Norfolk ; 4th, the Oxford ; 5th, the Northern ; and 6th, the Western Circuit.
These circuits are supplied by the twelve judges, two being appointed to each. In these
courts, the senior or superior judge generally sits on the crown side for the trial of criminals,
and the junior or inferior judge on the ni$i prius side, for the decision of cases of property.

A Court of General Quarter Sessions of tne Peace, held in every county once in every
quarter of a year is the most important of the minor tribunals. Its jurisdiction extends to
all felonies and trespasses ; but capital felonies are usually remitted to the assize.s. The
sheriff's toum is also a court of record, held twice a year at some place within the county.
The court -leet or view of frank-pledge is a court of record held once a year, within a par-
ticular hundred, lordship, or manor, before the steward of the leet. It is the King's court
granted by charter to the lords of those hundreds or manors. In aid of these, and other
institutions tending to the maintenance of order and tranquillity throughout the country,
subordinate magistrates are appointed in each county, under the name of justices of the
peace. They hold special commissions from the king, and are empowered to suppress riots
and affrays, to take aecurities for the peace, and to commit felons and inferior criminals.
Their jurisdiction is enforced by constables and other subordinate officers.

Sect. V. — Productive Industry.

The productive industry of England, at this moment, far surpasses that of any other
country, either ancient or modern. Her fabrics clothe the most distant nations; her vessels
traverse alike the polar and equatorial seas. The downfall of the feudal power; the civil
and social advantages which the people acquired under the last Henries ; and, above all, the
spirit of enterprise diffused among them under Elizabeth, gave a great impulse to commerce,
and industry. It was not, however, till the era of the Revolution, that the nation entered
upon that grand career of prosperity, in which she has ever since proceeded with accelo-
"ited activity.

Agriculture, as the greatest and most essential source of human wealth and comfort, must
Always claim pre-eminence over the other branches of human industry. For two or three
centuries the English tenantry have been an independent and substantial race. Such had
been the progress of agriculture, that, even in the middle of the last century, England had
become a regular grain-exporting country. Still, fifty years ago, the practice of this
important art was comparatively cumbrous, costly, and unproductive. Since tliat time,
nobles and statesmen have vied with each other in their zeal for the promotion of agricul-
ture. Prizes, exhibitions, and other institutions calculated to excite a spirit of improvement,
have been established on a great scale. Even royal patronage was extended to this most
useful of arts, and a board was formed under public auspices for its promotion. An extraor-
dinary impulse was also given by the scarcity at the close of the eighteenth century ; when
the continental ports were closed, and grain rose to an unprecedented price, from wliich it
has since been reduced, indeed, but not to its former rate. The old routine system was,
after that crisis, broken up, and every exertion made to augment the products of the soil.
Commons were enclosed, marshes drained, grasses of the most useful species cultivated, and
every process that multiplied experiments had proved to be advantageous, introduced. Par-
ticular attention was bestowed in improving the breed of cattle and sheep ; and for the
accomplishment of this purpose, the best species were imported from abroad. At the same
time, economical farming was greatly studied ; the disproportionate number of horses and
oxen was reduced ; and machinery, particularly the threshing-machine, came into general
use. Thus a great augmentation took place in the produce of the soil ; still greater in the
profit of the farmers, and much the greatest in the rent of the landlord, which, in many
instances, was more than tripled. The reduced prices, however, which have ultimately
been the result of tliis augmented production, have, at last, rendered it difficult to suppor
the great advance in this last particular.

Tlie natural fertility of England is not equal to that of the countries in the south of
Europe. Her pastures, however, are richer; and her soil is capable of yielding all the
valuable kinds of grain in abundance, and of good, if not superior quality. Those natural
advantages, improved by her extraordinary industry, raise tiie agricultural products of Eng-
land to a mucii greater amount than those of any other country in Europe.

M''.i

i>.h

352

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part IH.

The surface of England is tliirty-sevon millions of acres. About half a million is occu-
pied by roads ; and if we also make ollowanco for waters, natural and artificial, &c,, we may
probably have to deduct two millions from the part which forms the proper subject of agri-
culture. Of this, half is under the plougfh, and half devoted to pasturage; upwards of- tlirec
millions arc in wheat; about three millions in oats and beans, and between two and three
millions in barley. About 30{),(M)0 cwt. of hops, of the value of jC 200,000, and 4,400,000
gallons of cider, arc annually produced.

The manufactures of Britain, still more than even the immense products of her agricul-
ture, have astonishc I the world, and raised her to a decided superiority over all other nations.
This distinction clio has attained, not so much by their extreme fineness; for, as to this
particular, France c.vcols not only in silks and cambrics, but even in woollens; and British
porcelain does not oipial that of Dresden. But she stands unrivalled in the immensity of
useful and valuable products, calculated for the consumption of the great body of mankmd;
and above all in the stupendous exertions made in contriving and constructing the machinery
by which they are produced.

The woollen manuf.. ture is the old staple of the country. As soon as England began to
exercise any kind of industry, her first aim was to manufacture her own wools, instead of
leaving this openition in the hands of the Flemings. The fobric began in Kent and Sus-
sex ; but swn spread, and fixed itself in the interior districts ; that of coarse woollens in the
West Riding of YorkHhire, and that of the finer cloths in Gloucestershire and Wiltshire. In
1800, tiie total value of the fabrics was 20,00(),000/., of which not much less than half was
exported. In the course of the century it has continued increasing, though not with the
same rapidity as some other fabrics. The quantity exported has not, however, been aug-
mented in proportion. In 1802, it exceedeil 7,000,OOOJ. ; but in 1832 was only 5,240,000/.
This manufacture, however, depending chiefly upon home consumption, is less liable to vicis-
situde than those which have their principal market in foreign countries.

The wool is partly produced in Britain, partly drawn from abroad. English wool is
ilividc'l into long and short. The former was long considered as exclusively adapted to
worsted slufT:;; but the recent improvements in machinery have enabled the manufacturer to
jinvliice these stufls almost equally well from shorter wool. The short wool is fitted for
clolli and hats; but all that is produced in England is of secondary fineness. Eflbrts were
niiide, about the close of the last century, to introduce the merino breed from Spsiin, and not
without success; hut the flesh being bad, the farmers gave it up, and, devoting themselves
to the improvement of the carcase, have allowed the wool even to degenerate, though the
increased quantity is supposed to indemnify them. The best short wool is that of Sussex
(Southdown) and Norfolk; the best long wool that of Lincoln. The number of short- woolled
sheep throughout England, in 1828, amounted to about 14,8r)0,0(X1, that of long-woolled tc
4,150,000; and the produce was 204,000 packs of long, and 120,000 packs of short wool ;
to whicii might be added 09,000 jiacks of lamb's wool, and 9000 for Wales ; making in all
463,(M)0. The defect of English wool renders it necessary to import a large quantity from
abroad. The fleece chiefly valued is that of the merino, long confined to Spain : and Spanish
wool, in the early part of this century, was introduced to the extent of 6,000,000 lbs. annu-
aliy, but in 1827 it fell short of 4,000,000 lbs., and in 1832 did not exceed 2,026,000 lbs. It
has been supplanted by the wool of Saxony, and other parts of northern Germany, where the
merino breed has been introduced and propagated with the greatest success. The importa-
tion from Germany, which in 1810 was only 778,000 lbs., was in 1830 so high as 26,073,000 lbs.,
though in 18:32 only 19,832,000 lbs. : Ntw Holland and Van Diemen's Land in that year
furnished 2,377,000 lbs. of very fine wool ; and the supply is increasing. The entire im-
port amounted in 18:30 and 18531 to about 32,000,000 lbs. ; in 1832 to only 2«.140,()00 lbs.

The annual value of the wix)llen manufacture appears to he about 20,000,000/. sterlinqr,
and the persons employed between 400,000, and 500,000. There were exported, in 18132,
390,661 pieces of cloth; 23,453 pieces napped coatings, duffels, &c. ; 40,984 pieces of ker-
seymeres ; 34,874 pieces baize ; 1,800,714 stufTs or worsted ; 2,3(34,750 yards flanpcls ;
1,681,840 yards blanketing; 690,042 yards carpetinc, &c. There were exported also
4,1!39,000 lbs. of British wool, and 2,204,000 lbs. woollen yarn.

The cotton manufacture n of much more recent introduction, and for a long period the
progress of this branch of '.ndustry was slow. In 1760, the value of the fabric was only
20(),000/. In 1707, .lames ?iargreaves, a common Lancasliire weaver, invented the spinning
jenny, by which at first 8, and fin;illy 120 spindles were moved by a single spinner. Ilar-
groaves became exposed to the persecution of the working people employiMl in this operation ;
was obliged to flee t/j Nottingliam ; .•mil died in poverty. Richard .\rkwright, a liarbcr of
Nottingham, invont(!(l the wntcr-twist, or " perpetual twist," spinning frame, in whicli the
whole process was performed by the machine, .and the workmen h:id only to s^upply the material
and watch its progress. Samuel Crompton, in 1775, produced the machine called the mule,
a combination of the two preceding, which it soon superseded liotli in the finer and more
valuable articles.

That macliinory should weave as well as spin, was necessarj- to consummate the triumpi"

Book I.

ENGLAND.

)lled tc
wool ;
in all
y from
■misli
iinnu-
Ibs. It
ere the
niporta-

00()11)H.,

lat year
tire ini-

Ibs.
itorlii'?,
in 1832,
of kor-
anjiols ;
ted also

riod the
•as only
ipinning
liar-
eration ;
irlicr of
lich the
iiatcrial
10 mule,
id more

triumpl"

of art. This waa accomplishod by tlie Rev. Mr. Cartwright, a clergyman of Kent, who in-
vented a machine by which cloth waa woven ; but the first trial was unsuccessful as to profit,
and an impression long prevailed that cottons could be woven cheaper by the hand. Within
the last few years, however, the system of power-loom weaving has been adopted to an im^
inense extent ; it is estimated that there are in Britain 80,000, absorbing 10,000,000/. of fixed
and ij,0(K),(KH)?. of floating capital, employing 160,000 operatives, and working up 124,800,000
pounds of cotton.

The steam-engine, the moving power, tlie greatest of all these discoveries, remains to be
mentioned. Machines moved by horses and water, originally employed in manufacturing
and other processes, were cumbrous, expensive, and often unmanageable. The steam-engine,
brought to perfection by Watt, became at once the moving power of all this machinery, and
the principal cause to which its vast results may be attributed.

The cotton wool imported into Britain, which in 1781 little exceeded 5,000,000 lbs., rose
in 1809, to 93,000,000; in 1817, to 126,000.000; and in 1832, to 288,000,000. The finest
is that called Sea Island, a name given to what is grown on the coast of Georgia and Caro-
lina. The bowed Georgia, produced in the interior, is not of equal value. Next to the Sea
Island rank the West India and Brazil. Of the quantity imported in 1831, there came
from the United States, 219,333,000 lbs. ; from Brazil, 31,695,000; from the East Indies,
25,805,000; from the West Indies, 2,401,000; and from Eg;ypt, 7,714,000 lbs. The con-
sumption of printed cottons has diminished in England, silk being preferred as an ornamental
dress, and the use of cotton, printed or dyed previously t6 weaving, having become preva-
lent. The demand abroad, however, is still extensive, so that the amount of pieces printed
is about 4,500,(KK), giving employment to 100,000 persons.

The produce of the cotton manufacture is 34,000,000/. annu .lly. Of this 18,000,000/. is
paid in wages to 800,000 persons employed in its different brai hes ; and allowing for those
who are dependent upon them, and for the subsidiary employmt.its, it afibrds subsistence to
not much fewer than 1,400,000 people. The value of cotton manufactures exported in 1831
was 13,282,000/.; of twist and yarn, 3,975,000/. They were chiefly of the following
descriptions: — Calicoes, cambric muslins, dimities, &c., 299,597,000 yards; lace, gauze-net
and crape, 48,164,000 yards; cotton and linen, mixed, 1,668,000 yards; velvets and vel-
veteens, 404,000 yards ; counterpanes and quilts, number, 23,000 ; hosiery, shawls, handker-
chiefs, &.C., ."^SfltOOO dozen ; tapes, bobbins, &.C., 99,000 dozen ; thread, 1,105,000 lbs. ; twirt
and yarn, 48,098,000 lbs.

The working in metals is also one of the branches in which England has attained to a
most decided pre-eminence. About the middle of the sixteenth century it rose to the rank
of a staple; and within the last half century it has greatly increased in importance. Shef-
field, perhaps the original seat of the trade in England, is still distinguished for the most
solid and useful articles, knives, grates, and their appendages, agricultural implements, &.C.;
while Birmingham adds to these utensils a variety of small articles, ornaments, and toys,
which, though minute in detail, amount to a vast value in the aggregate. Each of these
two great cities forms, as it were, the centre of a large circle of population, all employed in
the same manner. The number of persons employed in the product and manufacture of
metals is estimated at 350,000, and the entire produce at 17,000,000/. The export of hard-
ware and cutlery in 1831 amounted to 16,799 tons, value 1,620,000/.; in 1832, it was 15,294
tons ; value, 1,433,000/.

The silk manufacture was of late origin in England ; but it was considerably improved by
tlie revocation of the edict of Nantes, which drove a number of French weavers into that
country. It is established in a quarter of the metropolis, called Spitalfields, where it em-
ploys about 25,000 men : at Macclesfield, Manchester, Coventry, and in other parts of the
country, the number occupied in it may amount to 40,000. The entire value of the manu-
facture was estimated some years ago at 4,000,00l«. , and may now, probably, be between
."1,000,000/. and 6,000,000/. Notwithstanding the removal of the prohibitory duties on the
importation of foreign silks, the British manufacture has maintained its ground, and gone on
increasing. The importation of raw and thrown silk in 1832 was 4,224,000 lbs. : of which
1,814,000 lbs. were from the East Indies and China; 1,006,000 lbs. from France; 564,000 lbs.
from Italy ; and 458,000 lbs. from Turkey. The exports amounted in 1832 to 525,000/.,
chiefly to North America and the West Indies.

In the manufacture of earthenware and porcelain, England has of late made vast ad-
vances, and brought its various products to a high degree of beauty and elegance. Burslem
in Staflbrdshire had, for centuries, been noted for its fabrication of a coarse kind of ware ;
but it was reserved for Mr. Wedgwoml to carry this art to perfection by a combination of
elegance and cheapness. Fine white clay from the south-western counties, and ground flint,
are the chief materials of this celebrated ware, which hears the name of its inventor. The
white ware of Derby and the porcelain of Worcester, tiiough on a smaller scale, are still
finer productions. The latter is composed of a mixture of 13 different materials, and each
cup passes through 23 hands. Earthenware pavs no duty, so that its amount cannot be olfi-

VoL. I. 30* 2U

.'■^nj^-

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Past III.

<!•

cially ascertained ; the cj port, however, has diminished from nearly 700,000/. in 181.5-16,
to only 490,000/. in 1832.

Hitlns arc imported from all quarters of the world ; the entire quantity in 1824 was
300,0(K) cwt., value 700,(K)0/. In IS.'JO only 225,000 cwt. were imported. In that year the
hides tanned or otherwise manufactured amounted to 40,800,000 lbs., value .3,900,(K)0/. ; and
ua the value of tiie finished article is supposed to bo tliree times that of the material, this
value will amount to nearly 12,000,000/. The shoes made in England arc estimated at
6,8(K),000/. and the whole manufacture employs about 250,000 persons.

Beer, glass, soap, and candles are branches of production which employ a large capital
and numerous workmen, and yield a yearly amount of great value. In London the quantity
of malt liquor annually brewed is 1,700,000 barrels, of which 38,000 are exported. This is
chiefly porter, a liquor peculiarly appropriate to Ix)ndon, and for which she is famous through-
out tlie world. In all England, therfi were brewed, in 1829, about 7,400,000 borrels, of the
value of upwards of 22,(K)0,000/. ; without including 1,500,000 barrels of table-beer. Can-
dles, — In 1829, the manufacture amounted to 110,(100,000 lbs., which would make a value
of 3,208,000/. Soap. — The manufacture, in 1829, was 100,000,000 lbs. which would
amount to 3,17.5,000/.

The linen manufacture is that in which England is most deficient ; for though she is sup-
posed to produce the value of 1,000,000/. a year, this does not supersede the necessity of
large imports from Scotland and Ireland. Of late, the elegant manufacture of lace has
been carried to great perfection by means of bobbinet frames. By this manufiicture a value
of 160,000/. in silk and Sea Island cotton is wrought into lace, estimated at 1,890,000/. and
employing 208,000 persons. Distilled litjuors or spirifg, too, though they produce a revenue
of 2,000,000/., are neither equal in quality nor amount to those of the sister countries of
Scotland and Ireland, whose produce, if it had not been excluded by national jealousy, would
probably by this time have driven thot of England out of the market. The quantity distilled
in 1831 and 1832 averaged 7,:350,000 gallons.

Mines form one of the most copious sources of the wealth of England. The useful metals
and minerals, those which afford the instruments of manufacture and are subservient to the
daily purpo.ses of life, are now drawn from the earth more copiously there than in any other
country. Her most valuable metals are iron, copper, and tin ; her principal minerals are
ccal and salt.

Iron, the material of so important a class of manufacture, abounds in England, particularly
in Wales, Staffordshire, and Derbyshire. While it was supposed, however, that the blast
furnaces could be composed only of charcoal, the limited supply of wood depressed the pro-
duce, and in the middle of the last century, the iron made in England from fifty new fur-
naces did not exceed 17,000 tons. It was then found, however, that, furnaces filled with
coke might be heated to the same degree as those of charcoal, and the inexhaustible supply
of coal might he employed in bringing the iron mines into value. Hence, the increased
production has been astonishingly rapid. In 1796, it amounted to 12.5,000 tons; in 1806, to
2.50,000 tons; in 18,'10, it was 680,000 tons, worth 5,100,000/. ; and which the additional
labour of forming it into bar iron may raise to 6,300,000/. The export amounted in 1832 to
about 1.50,000 tons, worth 1,120,000/. It is exported chiefly in the forms of bar iron, to the
amount of 74,024 tons ; bolt and rod iron, 6938 ; pig iron, 17,566 ; cast iron, 12,495 ; hoops,
9417; nails, 4347, &c.

Copper, also, has risen to importance in the course of the la.st half century. It is found chiefly
in Cornwall, to the amount, in 18.32, of 11,947 tons, and is carried thence to Swansea, to be
smelted with the coal of North Wales, which itself produced 1320 tons of copper. The
total produce is 14,440 tons, which, at 90/. per ton, will be 1,300,410/.

Tin, tt rare and peculiar metal, is found only in Cornwall and part of Devon. So early
was it known, that we find the British Islands first recognized by its name, and it is enu-
merated among the articles with which the Carthaginians supplied the markets of Tyre.
As Cornwall, with the exception of the Indian island of Banca, is the only tract known to
produce tin in large quantities, there is a considerable export to most countries of Europe,
particulfirlv France and Italy. The annual produce of the mines amounts to 83,000 cwt. ;
of the value of 115,000/.

Lead is found in Cumberland, Derbyshire, and Northumberland, to the supposed amount
of about 16,000 tons annually ; which, at 20/. per ton, will be worth 320,000/. In 1833, the
British lead exported was 13,898 tons.

Coal, the most valuable of all the mineral subs-tances from which Britain derives hor pros-
perity, exists in almost inexhaustible quantities in the counties of Northumberland, Derby,
and Stafford, and in that of Glamorgan in South Wales. It fuses the metals, produces the
steam which sets the machinery in motion, and is, indeed, instrumental in bringing almost
every substance into a nsefiil and merchantable form. By superseding also the neces-
sity of extensive plantations fiir fuel, it enables a much greater proportion of the soil to be
devoted to cultivation. The Northumberland and Durham field has been estimated at 732
'sqaare miles, the South Wales field is 1200 ; which, allowing for the average depth, will.

UOOE I.

ENGLAND.

355

it 18 calculated, be sufRcicnt to supply all England for 1700 or 2000 years. At all events, it
seems certain that she is secure for many centuries against any deficiency. The quantity
shipped from Durham and Northumberland is stated at 3,300,000 tons ; and the whole em-
ployed as fuel, and in the manufactories and mines throughout England (adding 700,000
exported to Ireland), at not less than 15,500,000 tons. The mines on the Tyne employed
8491 persons underground, and 3403 above ; those on the Wear, about three-fourths of this
number : the conveyance of these coastwise employs 1400 vessels and 1.5,000 men ; while,
in London, 7i)00 whippers, lighter-men, factors, agents, &c. are engaged in landing and
distributing it. Taking into view the whole of Great Britain, Mr. M'CuUoch considers that
the coal trade will give occupation to not less than 100,000 persons. In 1829, the total
quantity shipped was 0,22'1,125 tons ; of which, 5,014,132 were sent coastwise ; 840,246, to
Ireland ; 128,803, to the British colonies : 356,410, to foreign countries.

Of salt, Britain possesses an immense supply. The finest and most valuable kind is tiic
rock salt, drawn from mines and from brine springs in the county of Chester. The salt is
refined by being boiled along with the brine of the springs, and is then called white salt.
The annual prwluce is 15,0(M),000 bushels, of which about 10,000,000 are exported, chiefly
to North America, the Netherlands, and Russia.

The commerce of Britain, like her manufacturing industry, is now completely without a
rival. The exports of Britain consist almost wholly of her manufactured produce. Cotton
takes the precedence of all others. In 1830, the quantity exported, including twist and
yarn, was valued at about 15,000,000?. sterling ; being two-fifths of the whole exportation.
They are sent to every country, but most especially to those from which the raw material is
imported. The United States take an immense quantity ; the West Indies and Brazil im-
port largely ; the market in the independent states of South America is daily enlarging, and
they make their way in increasing quantities even into the East Indies. In Europe, Portu-
gal and Italy are extensive markets; and though studiously excluded from Spain, large con-
signments are sent to Gibraltar, evidently with a view to clandestine introduction. Germany
takes a great quantity both of manufactured goods, and of yarn and twist for her own manu-
factories. The woollen manufacture has a diflierent and less extensive range. The United
States, the greatest market, take three-eighths of the whole ; afler which rank the East In-
dies, Russia, Portugal, and Germany. The wrought metals find a great variety of markets.
Of bar iron, 7000 tons, and copper 50,000 tons, go to the East Indies. Ireland takes 7000
tons of bar, 700 of cast, and 2300 of wrought iron. The West Indies take largely both
iron and copper.*

Among the imports, a large portion consists of raw materials, brought in vast quantities to
bo manufactured, in many instances for the use of the regions from which they come. Under
the head of manufactures, we have enumerated the principal of these articles, and the
countries from whence imported. They are chiefly cotton, wool, silk, and hides ; to which
may be added, bark, ashes, and barilla ; cochineal, indigo, madder, and other dyeing stuffs.
Although grain and provisions arc now produced in sufficient quantity fbr internal consump-
tion, there is much want of the raw produce of uncultivated land. Under this head a promi-
nent rank may be assigned to timber and naval stores. Fir and oak timber, and staves, are
brought chiefly fi-oni North America ; masts, deals, and deal ends, from Norway and Russia ;
oak plank from Prussia.

The import trade of consumption is, afler all, the most extensive : it consists chiefly in
obtaining from southern regions, and those warmed by tropical suns, the accommodations and
luxuries which cannot be matured under a less genial sky. Wine would have been intro-
duced to a very great extent, had not its exclusion been made a prime object of fiscal regu-
lation. This, however, has been so potently applied, that the use of wine has not increased
in any proportion to the general wealth of the nation ; and it has been forced from the near-
est and best wines of FrMJce, to the less palatable produce of Spain and Portugal. Brandy,
also, still accounted the finest of spirituous liquors, forces itself, to a certain extent, into the
circle of imports. But the saccharine and aromatic products of the tropical plains form tlio
basis of an immense commerce, which even the adherents of the mercantile system cherish,
under the idea that much of it is carried on witli English colonies. The leading articles are
sugar, tea, coffee, tobacco, and spices. Notwithstanding the immense cotton manufacture
of Britain, the piece goods of India, by tlieir peculiar e.vcellonce, still find their way into
the country.

The shipping by which so extensive a trade is carried on, must necessarily be very exten-
sive. In 1663 it was only 95,000 tons. It rose in 1701 to 273,000 ; in 1751, to 609,000 ;
in 1792, to 1,186,000. The vessels belonging to the British empire at the end of 1834, were
25.05>5, of 2,716,000 tons, and navigated by 168,061 men. The entries and clearances for
the coasting troJdc, in 1832, amounted each to 8,500,000 tons. Besides these, in the same
year, 4546 foreign vessels, comprising 639,979 tons, and navigated by 35,399 men, entered
the ports of Great Britain.*

It?

*a«e Blatiitical Tablet, at end of Chap. IV.

. *

366

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt UI.

The fiahericB do not seom to have been so much cultivated in Britain, as Uio hardy enter-
priie of the nalion might liave led us to expect. The wliale iisliery was considered su valu-
able, both for its products, and as a nursery fur seamen, tliut, till 1824, a bounty was granted
in proportion to tlie tonnage of the vessels employed. They have found their way to tlie
antarctic polar sea, ui search of ui oil which, tliough not superior for burning, is better
adapted to the purposes of manufacture, tlian that urawn from the arctic regions. This
fishery, witliin tlie last twelve years, has considerably diminished both in amount and in the
value of its products, owing to the use of gas, the greater cheapness of rape-oil for manu-
tacture, and also to a larger part of the trade being engrossed by Scotland. In 1820 there
sailed from England only 41 vessels, of 13,760 tons burden ; which brought in 4912 tuns of
oil, and 269 tons of whalebone. The following year was still more deficient, owing to the
disasters encountered by the vessels engaged in the fishery.

Of the fisheries in tlie British seas, that of Herrings, the most important, belongs almost
entirely to Scotland. Next to tliis ranks that of Pilchards, on tlic coast of Cornwall and
part of Devon. The fish is found there in such immense shoals, that it forms the chief food
of the people duruig the greater part of the year, and is also largely salted for exportation.
The value annually taken is reckoned at 50,0001. or 00,0001.

The interior navigation of England is justly regarded as one of the prime sources of her
prosperity. Till the middle of last century, the making of canals did not enter into the
system of English economy. In 1755 was formed the Sankey canal, a line of twelve miles,
to supply Liverpool with coal from the pits at St. Helen's. The example then set by the
Duke of Bridgowater gave a general impulse to the nation. Since that tune, upwards of
30,000,0002. sterling have been expended in this object. Twenty-one canals have been car-
ried across the cenUal chain of hills, by processes in which no cost has been spared ; all the
resources of art and genius have been employed ; every obstacle, however formidable, which
nature could present, has been vanquished. By locks, and by inclined planes, the vessels
are conveyed up and down the most rugged steeps ; they are even carried across navigable
rivers by bridges. When other means fail, the engineer has cut through the heart of rocks
and hills a subterraneous passage. Of these tunnels, as they ore called, tliere are said to be
forty-eight, the entire length of which is at least forty miles.

The Duke of Bridgewatcr formed the plan of openuig a communication between !Man-
chester and his extensive coal-mines, at Worsley, The obstacles were so great, both from
nature and art, that the attempt must have proved abortive, had he not been seconded by the
genius of Brindley, who, from a common millwright, raised tiimself to be the first engineer
of the age. The canal was curried through vast excavations, made partly in the interior of
the mine itself; it was led by aqueducts over a succession of public roads, and over the river
Irwcll by a magnificent bridge, which left space for vessels with their sails spread to pass
beneath. By deep cuttings, and by artificial mounds, in some places supported upon piles,
a level of upwards of fifty miles waa completed. The Duke expended, in tliis undertaking,
his whole fortune, amounting to 350,000{. ; and its failure would have left him destitute :
but, as it immediately enabled him to reduce the price of coal in Manchester to one half, the
trade in a short time yielded twenty per cent, upon his outlay, and rapidly produced an
immense income.

The Grand Trunk Canal, an undertaking on a still greater scale, formed under the
imtronage of the Marquess of StaflTord, by a course of ninety miles through StafiTordshire,
connects the Trent with tlic Mersey, Liverpool witli Hull, and the eastern with tlie western
coasts. It gave animation to the trade of all the districts through which it passed, particu-
larly that of the Potteries, and served as a basis for various canals and railways branching
from it. From a point near the commencement of the Grand Trunk, the Ellesmcrc canal
has branched fiir into Wales, and conveys to Liverpool the mineral and agricultural produce
of that principalitv. FVom its eastern termination, large branches have been extended to
Derby, to Nottingham, to Grantham, and otlier considerable towns.

The Leeds and Liverpool Canal, by a more northerly lino of one hundred and twenty
miles, connects the Mersey with the Aire, a tributary ot the Ousc, and thus enables Liver-
pool and Hull to communicate by another line across the great cloth-nmnufacturing districts.
An important branch of this canal is carried to Ijancoster, and on to Kendal.

From the vicinity of London the Grand Junction, at an expense of two millions, was car-
ried by a line of ninety miles to the neighbourhood of Coventry. Near Daventry, the Grand
Union strikes off, and joins the Grand Trunk, thus securing for London an inland communi-
cation with Liverpool, and with all the great manufacturing cities of the West. A great
system of canals was formed round Birmingham, of which one result was to connect the
Grand Trunk with the Severn, and thus to form a connexion between all the four great
rivers of England, and all its commercial and manufacturing cities. A canal hod already
been formed from Coventry to Oxford. That of tlie Thames and Severn joined these two
main rivers at the highest navigable point of the former. The Gloucester and Berkeley is
a latcrnl canal to the Severn, by means of which Gloucester is connected with the Bristol
Channel by a direct line. The principal canals to the south of the Thames are the Kennet

'A«T 111.

iy cntor-
i 8u valu-
8 granted
'uy to tlie
18 better
riB. This
inJ in the
fur inanu-
820 there
l2 tuns of
ing to the

g9 almoBt
nwall and
chief food
Kportation.

ces of her
ir into the
elve inilea,
set by the
jpwards of
e been car-
ed ; all the
ible, which
the vessels
a navigable
lit of rocks
e said to be

ween Man-

t, both from

ided by the

st engineer

interior of

ler the river

oad to pass

upon piles,

nuertaking,

destitute :

ne half, the

roduced an

under the
fordahire,
he western
3d, particu-
brancliiug
lorc canal
Iral produce
Wtcnded to

Ind twenty
[bles Liver-
\g districts.

■s, was car-
I, the Grand
I communi-
A great
eonnect the
Tfour great
lad already
these two
Berkeley is
fthc Bristol
Ithe Kennet

Book I.

ENGLAND.

307

and Avon canal, and the Berks and Wilts canal, tlirough which a conimimication is formed
from the Thainos near Abingdon to the cities of Bath and Bristol. The total length of canal;)
in Great Britain, excluding those under five miles, is WHl miles.

Railways form another contrivance, by which the conveyance of goods is wonderfully
facilitated, by causing the wheels to roll over a smooth surface of iron. Railvvuys were at
first used only on a small scale, chiefly in tlio coal-tnincs round Newcastle, fijr conveying
the mineral from the interior to the surhice, and thence to the place of shipping ; uiul it is
reckoned that round that city there is an extent of about three lumdred mileH of tlicso rail-
ways. They were gradually employed on a greater scale, particularly in Wales, where the
county of Glamorgan has one twenty-five miles long, ond in all two huiulrnd miles of riiil-
way. The railwoy between Manchester and Liverpool extends thirty-one miles, and is car-
ried over sixty-three bridges, thirty of which, pass over the turnpike road, and one over the
river Irwell. The entire cost was about 82(),(K)0i. ; but the intercourse has been so exten-
sive as to atibrd an ample remuneration. The Cromford and High Peak railway is carried
over the high mountainous district of Derbyshire, connecting the two canals which bear
these names. Its length is thirty-three miles, carried over fifty bridges, and rising to a level
of 992 feet above the Cromford canal. The entire expense has not exceeded 180,01KW.

The common high roads of the kingdom are also an object of high importance to trade and
general intercourse. Half a century ago most of them appear to have been in a miserable
state, but they are now, perhaps, the best in the world, chiefly through the application of the
turnpike system, under which they are made and repaired by tolls levied upon the travellers,
and administered by county trustees. There are a few cases where roads are to be carried
through poor provinces, or form grand lines of national communication, in which government
judges it expedient to assist, or even to undertake the entire construction of them. In 1823,
the turnpike roads extended in all to 24,51)1 miles in length. The amount of tolls was
1,214,(KKM., burdened with a debt of 5,20O,000Z.

Bridges, in a country intersected by numerous and oflen broad rivers, necessarily attracted
a great share of attention ; and the ingenuity and wealth of England have been employed
in making extensive improvements in this branch of architecture. Southwark Bridge is the
most complete of any yet formed of iron. This species of bridge has the advantage of being
lighter, and of requiring much fewer arches than those of stone. A still more daring form
137 has been given to this material by

bridges of suspension, formed by
iron chains stretched across, and
supported by fixed points on each
side. This construction, on a cer-
tain scale, has existed in China
from the earliest ages. The Ame-
ricans were the first to adopt it of
Mfnai Bridge. any western nation. The greatest

undertaking of this kind yet executed istlie Menai Bridge (Jifr. 137.),over the strait which
separates Wales from Anglesea. Arches of masonry on each side, at the distance of five
hundred and sixty feet, are united by a bridge of suspension, composed cf iron chains.

Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State.
The population of England in former times was imperfectly known, being calculated only
from very vague surveys and estimates. In 1377 the results of a poll-tax were given as
2,300,0(K) ; but from the many evasions to which such a census would give rise, that number
was probably below the truth. In the reign of Elizabeth, during the alarm of a menaced
Spanish invasion in 1575, a pretty careful survey was made, the result of which gave 4,.'500,000.
At the time of the Revolution, the increase appeared to be about a million.* From the com-
mencement of the present century decennial enumerations have been made, of which the
following are the results: —

ISOl.

Increue

perctiut.

Popiililioii,
1811.

Incnme
percciir.

FoiHihtioD,

per cent.

I'oiHiIatinn,
1»J1.

8,331,434
541, .MO
470„W8

14}

«,551,»«

011,788
040,500

17}

11,201,437
717,43d
310,300

10
12

13,0ft8.:a8
H)5,2.10
277,017

^g|()4

Total

i),343,578

27}

10,804,170

34}

12,2118,175

2a i 14,180,51)1

• PopKlalion of the British Empire and Colonia.

r.ri'iit nrimin and Ireland 24,3M,8M

Noilli Americun Colonies 1,;!(HM)00

Wi.silii.lia " HXl.ntW

African " M.inin

Asiatic •• l,(KM»,ni)0

Australian " li.i.OOO

Kast India Company 123,000,000

Total 150,800,834 ,

TAh. Ed.]

T- I

358

DESCRIl'TIVR GEOGRAPHY.

Part IK

Proportion of deaths, marriaf(ri, cjr. to the pojmlation. — Ainon^r llio farts that attCHttlie
improved condition ol'Uic people uf England Hince 1770, the uxtruordinury diminution in the
rato ot'inurtahty is onuot'thu IcoNt i<(|uivocui. In 17H(), thn (it<ntiiN in Enftlund and VVttlHH
amounted to about 1 in 40 of liiu population ; in 17f)0, to about 1 in 'l.'i ; in IHll, to 1 in 52 ;
and at un average of tiio five years undinf; witli 18130, 1 in 54. The improvement haH boon
iwrticiilarly conspicuous in tlio {U^reat townH ; and is to bo ascribed to tliu more comlortuble
HJtuation of uil classes, the (rrcatcr attention (uid to cleanliness, &.c. The proportion of
inarrioffes to the |M)pulation has recently declined. In 1760, there was 1 mnrrin({e for every
110 individuals; in 1780, 1 in 118. During the five years ending; with INIO, it was as 1
to 12*.!; and dnriiiff the live years cndinj; with 1830, it was as 1 to 120. But this decrease
is to be oiicribcd wlioUy to the greater prevalence of moral restraint, tlio proportion of ille-
g'itimate births not having increased. The number of births to a marriage in England in
about 4. Consumption is the most fatal disease.

The national character of the English exhibits some very bold and marked features. Of
tl.eso thc! most conspicuous is that love of liberty which pervades all cla-sses. The liberty
ti)r which the English have successfully contended, includes the right of thinking, saying,
writing, and doing most things which opinion may dictate, and inclination prompt. The
knowledge that the highest omces and dignities in the state are accessible to all, redoubles
their activity, and encouraj^es them to perseverance. It is but little more than a century
since they began to be distinguished as a manufacturing and commercial people, yet they
have already outstripped other European nations in mechanical ingenuity, in industry, and in
inercuntilo enterprise. The enormous increase of capital, and the substitution of machinery
for human labour in most of their manufactures, seem likely at no distant period topralucea
total change in the condition of British society. Much of its tone is given by the landed
gentry ; a numerous bo<ly, whose estates, though generally considerable, are not enormous :
while, on the Continent, landed property is usually in one or other of two extremes; either
divided into minute portions, or partitioned into a few princely domains. The English gentry,
unlike their continental neighbours, reside during the greater jmrt of the year at their coun-
try-seats; appearing in London and at court only for a few months in the spring. In this
clas.s, uiid indeed among the English in general, an uncontrolled temper, elevated by the
feeling of independence, often impels individuals into extremes both of go<xl and evil. No-
where exists a purer spirit of patriotism ; nowhere break forth more violent excesses of
faction. In no country of Euro|)c, |)erha|)s, are there so many men who act steadily upon

{)rinciplo; yet in noru; exists, at tiie same time, so large a proportion of individuals living in
labitual and open violation of all principle, and frequently in contempt of legal ordinances.
IJomestic life is cultivated by the English more sedulously than by any of the continental
nations ; thc sanctity of marriage is more carefully guarded ; and chastity in the female sex
more strictly observed. In its minor features, the English character has undergone various
changes. The vices of drinking and swearing, once so prevalent, are happily no longer
fashionable. Horse-racing, hunting, and rural sports, are carried to excess by some of the
country gentlemen ; and the more barbarous practice of boxing still has cultivators. Per-
haps the most estimable quality of the English is their love of justice ; the source of all
honourable dealin;; among thc higher cla-sses, and of what is emphatically caWed fair play,
in the transaction- of humbler life. The principle, that a man's word should be his bond, la
acted upon most rigorously where the greatest interests are at stake ; as on its observance
more than on that of any law that has been or can be devised, the commercial and financial
prosperity of the country depends. The English are the most provident people in thc world.
RIore than a million of individuals are members of friendly societies, and the deposits in
savings banks exceed 13,(MXt,(MK)?. The great extension of life insurance affords another
proof of this laudable disposition. The English also deserve to be called a humane people,
zealoii.s, both from feeling and from principle, for the promotion of every thing that tends to
the welfare of their fellow-creatures. Crime in England has undergone a considerable
change. Highway robbery, so prevalent towards the beginning and middle of last century,
is now nearly unknown, and all sorts of crimes and violence have been materially lessened.
On the oilier hand, there has been a very rapid increase, particularly within tlio last twenty
years, of crimes against prop»!rty. A material change has recently been ellected in tlie
criminal law of England, by the abolition of on immense number of capital puiushmeiita

Prnision for the Poor. A riipii|iiil«iir.v riitn Imf I" i!ii levicil on all kinds of tixed prnperty, fir thi' mippnrt of nil
iinpntctit, iHtnr, iiitti liiM'riiptoycil pt-rmtriH, ever t^iiirc llin riMKii nf Klixiiht'tli. In 17UU the rates ainounteil to iibimt
l.ubo.flOU/ . nnil, notwithi'laiiiliiiv llii' iiicria^e of pnpuliitiiin anil tnxntiiiii in the inli'rvnl, tlii'y witi' litlle morn
than 'J.IKKI.UOIV al ilir iliw iif tlii' American war. In I71>5 »'vpral ill-ciinaiilcreil I'lianiii'S wpri' nindc in thi' nimle
(>r urnniini! ri'ln-t', aiitl thr pr-rtiiim prauticit ol' rkinir out watics by (-nntrihutiniis tVnni the rati.'tt was tlMin aliu>
ailMpiril. Friiin lhi» piTiml. il.iwn tii tin' li'rniinati'iM uf Ilic' lali' Fniirh war, thi? pniKri'Ks (if Ilie rales was very
rapid, sn that tin v anicmiiled in !l,:)jiMKIti/ in llu) year Ii^l7-H. They have Riiire been ndnred, bnt they still

a iiiteil in 1KII-:I\! tn r'..'>li:i.U(lll/. 'I'm- iiliiises arisine nut nf the practice nf payirii! wairvs nut of rates are nut

ihliiTf nt in the syKiern. 'I'hey wer t:raned upnn it eto lati' as 17*15, ami niav, and it i^ to be hoped will, be en-

lipelv ri ved. A nl'nrui of iln^ son unulil nf itself lake nearly a third part from the rates. [By the act of Hth

Aiiiiijst, IKI4. uhieli provides fnr the eppninlnient nf three pniT lawcominiMiiiners, with power to make rules and
feifulatinns for the iriana^ement of the pour and the administration of the poor laws, these abuses have beel
ref iniii'd.— Am. Ed.J

!'l

Book L

ENGLAND.

3&e

liippnrt of nil
lite<l ti> nbnut
htlle ninrc
■ in tUr inmlt
jviii» then HUt>
lli'S wiia viTV
till tliry iitill
Irutca uro not
1l will, be I'li-
Tie Dct (if 14th
Lkn rules and
Es have beei

The English arc, in ({enoral, a people nuberly rnli(;ioug, tliuu^li tho nation, among ita other
excesscrt, huH proMontoil Htrikin^ (lixnlityB uf ititululity ami tunuticism. Tho Church of Eng-
land wuN cutabliMhod in the roi)(n ot Qiiocn Elizabeth, uhi-ii thii rnfimnation wan completed
which had boon bc((uii in that of llonry VIII. It '\a an inti-}rnil pitrt of the constitution, hav-
ing for ita head the kinj;, who, Oii heud of the church, numinatits to vacant bialiopnca and
certain other prcfurinuntis coiiHtitutcs ur rcxtraina cccloaiaHtical juriiidictionH, inflicUi occlo-
■iastical censures, and decides in the last resort in all ccclcsiaHticul causes, an appeal lying
liltimately to him in chancery, IVum the sentence of every ecclesiastical judgo, In respect
to ita church government, England is primarily divided into two provinces or archbishoprics,
Canterbury and York, Each province contains various diiwescs or scats of Butfragan bishops,
Canterbury including twenty-one, and Yurk three, besides the bishopric of Sodor and Man,
which was annexed to it by Henry VIII. Every diocese ia divided into archdnaconriea,
of which the whole number amounts to sixty, each archdeaconry^ into rural deaneries, which
are the circuita of the archdeacon's and rural dean's jurisdiction; and each deanery into
parishes, towns or villages, townships, and hamlets. The principal church of each see ia
appropriately called the cathedral church ; it ia possessed by a spiritual body curiwrato, called
a aean and chapter, who are tho council of the bishop, but derive their cor))orate capacity
tVom the crown. Chapters are usually composed of canons and prebendaries ; the mainte-
nance or stipend of a canon aa well iia of a prebendary being a prebend. Prebendaries are
distinguished into simple and dignitary. A simple prebendary hoa no cure, and nothing but
his revenue for his support ; a digiiitied prebendary has always a jurisdiction annexed, which
is gained by prescription. The archdeacon haa authority in the bishop's absence to hold
visitations, and under the bishop to examine clerks previous to ordination, and also before
institution and induction. He hiia also power to excommunicate, to impose penances, and
to reform irregularities and abuses among the clergy, and has charge of the pariah churches
within the diocese. Below the archdeacon and tho ecclesiastics composing the chapter, no
member of the Church of England is t>iititled to tho appellation of dignitary. The inferior
orders constitiito what is called the parochial clergy. The principal person of a parochial
church is entitled either rector or vicar, that title, which is really more appropriate and
honourable, having become corrupted by vulgar misuse. The revenues of tlie church of
England are very e?:tensive ; ond considering tho different offices and gradations of ita mem-
bers, very variously distributed. The rental subject to tithe has been stated, in returns made
to parliament, at 2U,000,U(K){. Besides the tenth of this amount, that is to say, the tithe,
the clergy have other funds, which are supposed to raise their entire income to upwards of
3,t)0(),00(W. The Episcopal revenues are of vorious amounts ; that of the see of Durham w
estimated at i3(),0(H)/. per annum, and is usually considered the largest The lowest, that of
Ijimdafl*, till Is short of 30002. The prebends enjoyed by canons and prebendaries are some
of them very ample ; those which exceed lOOtW. a year are called golden prebends. Those
dignitaries are also compcteflt to hold livings as rectors and vicars. The salaries of curates
were forinoriy in many coses extremely small; but, by a legislative provision and by flinda
allotted out of the public revenue, most of them have been augmented in proportion to the
value of tho benefice and its population ; 80/. a year is the lowest stipend, and, if tho living
be worth 4002. per annum, the bishop may allow the curate of such living 1002. a year,
whatever be its population.

In her intellectual character, England may be justly considered aa standing proudly
eminent. Bacon, Boyle, Locke, Newton, Davy, with a long train of coadjutors, have dis-
closed to mankind perhaps a greater sum of important truths than the philosophers of any
other country. Strong, clear, sound sense appears to be tlie quality peculiarly English ;
and her reasoners ■.vero the first to explode those scholastic subtleties which, having usurped
the name of philosophy, so long reigned in the schools. It w'as their merit to discover and
establish true philosophy, and apply it to objects of real interest and utility.

In works of imagination, the genius of the English is bold, original, and vigorous. In the
drama, Shakspearo stands unrivalled among ancient and nio<lern poets, by his profound and
extensive knowledge of mankind, his boundless range of observation throughout all nature,
his exquisite play of fancy, and his irresistible power in every province of thought and feel-
ing, the sublime and the pathetic, the terrible and the humorous. In epic poetry, Milton
is acknowledged by common consent to stand first among the modems. Spenser and Dryden
are alike eminent, the one for sweetness, the other for versatility; while in correctness of
taste, and the polished harmony of numbers. Pope has no rival among the poets of any
modern nation.

In historical writing, England has many illustrious names, among which that of Gibbon
deserves an honourable place. In oratory, some of her statesmen have acquired great
renown, tliough tlio general taste both in the senate and at the bar seems to delight rather
in plain sense and in cogency of argument, tiian in those elaborate, ornate, and declamatory
flights by wliicli the groat speakers of antiquity acted on the imagination and passions of
their hearnfiJ.
The institutions for public education in England are extensive and splendidly endowed.

11': I.!

* •

aao

DKSCUII'TIVK (JK0(JI{AI'I1V.

I>ABT III.

Tho two iinivi^riiitifM of Oxford niui Cumhriilpi' urn not only tlu! wmlthior Imt ilio iiioHt
(Uiciont in Kuri'|)o. Tlicy rnjiiy iiimm^f otlier iirivilnjft-M tliiit of rt'tiiriiiii;^ I'lU'li two iiii>iiili{irii
to piirliiinioiit, uiiil of huliliiiif courtit tor thn ilocinioii of cniiNi'x it) wliicli tiii<iiilH'r>« of thpir
own Uiily iirt( inti;ri'ntod. Tlii-y were of r»;i'l('HriiNtii! ori^riii ; hut tliry liiivd Ion;,' U'oii run-
niduruii lis liiy coriionitiotiii. Tli'Mr rrwtiirccK liavo Ihuti iiiit^tiiciitctl liy tlio iiiiiiiilin'tn-o of
Kovurtti^'iiH, mill III o|iiili'iit itiiliviilimlri. Tiii! pNliililiNJiiiiiMitH riiin|HiMin^ tlu'iii iiri> (liHliii);iiiMho<l
into fill li>(;uH iitiil liiillii; tlm |iitti>r li(-itiu; acaili'iiiical liuiirti'- not iiu'or|)orMlt>il or I'liilowcd,
tlioti|;h thoy hnvu had cotmiiji'nihli) iMMiciiictiuiiM, wliidi urn ili.-[H'iiNn(l to tiio HtmirtitH in i'xhi>
bitiiiiw liniitt'il til a Htiitod |X"riiMl. C)xtiiril Iiiih nitirli'cii coIIi'^tch iiiiiI (Ivii Imlis; ('iiiiiliriilufo
liiiH tliirtuiMi coll<>);('M iind limr IiiiIIh, wliioli liint, Imwi'vor, jiohni'hh tlii' muih! privilc^'CH m tno
liiriiH'r. Each univpfiiity im nmlur tlif ;;ovrrniiii'iit of a rlmticnllnr, liijfh Htiiwiiril, vice-
cliniirullor, mid otiior otficrrH ; tlio porwitis who prciiido ovit tho ditliTont cHt^ililit^liiiiiMitH an
nioatora, wnrdons, rt'ctora, priiici|)iilM, or provoxta, Ix'iir tlio pnicral dcnuiiiinatioti of IiciuIh of
colicfi^CK, and vacli I'ulli'^ii has u niitnbtir of fi'lloWMhips to which lar^o I'nioluiiiuntH mid rniiy
duticM are attnchod. Thoy pogMCHH qImo nxtrnnivo patrona(;o in church livin^'H, mid u luitnbor
o4' cxIiibitiotiH or gcholar8lii|>M. 'I'hi'tio, tliou((h ol conxidenihlu vahio, iiro nut Hiip|iiniod ode-
quato to dffmy tho ex|N!nH(i of a rcHidonro at n iniivornity, whicii, at tho hiwi-st, in calcu-
lated to atiioiitit to irHW. a your. On the bookH of each iinivcrHity aro the nunii's of many
mciiiborH who httVd lonff coiiKcd to rPHiih;; but, •■xclusivo of tlii<Hr, the iuiiiiIht actually row-
dent ut Oxford may bo stjitpil at lUMN), and thoHo at ('nnibrid^p anioinit to coriHidoriibly inoro,
Students, accordinj^ to tlinr proficiency in learning, are entitled to tho dejjrecu of Imchelor
and niiMter of art», bachelor and doctor in divinity, and bachelor and doctor in tiie facultioR
of pliyBic and law. The time required by the HtatnfoH to be occupied in fludy before each
«tudont can be iiualificd for takinf; those degrees in three yean for a bachelor, iiiul almut four
years more (or a master of arts ; seven years after that he may commence bachelor of divinity,
and then five years more entitle him to take the degree of doctor in divinity. In law, a
student may commenco bachelor after six years', and in physic after five years' standing.
Only one year's attendance and tho hearing of a single course of lectures arc required as
prepiiratory tiir entering into holy orders, the lownes.'i of the inferior church livin^rs, and tho
expense ot residence, rendering it difficult to exact morn fVom the greater niiinb<'r of can-
didates for ordination. The qualifications tor a bishop include tho degree of doctoi- in divinity.

The n?xlo of instruction is by private tutors, who teach cloasical literature and tho
mathematics, the latter branch of study being particularly cultivated at Cambridge. The
public exntninntions are conducted with great diligence, and excite emulation. The lucra-
tive fellowships may sometime.M tempt their possesMors to indulge in luxurious ease; but to
those who are s«^riously diufxised to study, they afibrd facilities for research hardly attainablo
in any other spliure.

Two educational establishinonts, tho Ix)ndon University and King's College have boon
recently instituted in I/indon.

Of the public scliools of Kngland, tlio most distinguished are those of Westminster, Eton,
Winchester, and Harrow. Although originally founded as charity-schools, yet being now
appropriated to the education of boys of the first families, the habits formed in them are
very expensive. Greek and I^tin are almost exclusively taught there by masters eminently
qualified; and Englishmen of education generally excel in tho knowledge of both languages.

For boys of the middle rank, and thoso destined for commercial pursuits, there are numer-
ous private academies.

Colleges for the particular study of law and equity have long been established in the
mctro|K)lis, under the names of inns of court and itms of chancery. The principal of these
aro the Middle and Inner Temple, Lincoln's Inn, and Gray's Inn. n<>foro any person can
be admitted to practise as an advocate, he nnist be regularly entered in, ond be a member
of, one of the inns of court for five years, and must have kept his commons in such inn,
twelve terms. In favour of those who have taken a degree of master of arts or bachelor of
laws at an English university, tlireo years are sufficient to be a member of tho iim. Afler
complying with these conditions, and paying the regular fees, the student may be culled to
the bar without having been required to make any public demonstration of his proficiency or
ability.

Of primary schools for the great liody of tho people, there fiirmerly existed a considerable
number; but the deficiency of them, at present, is greatly to be deplored. The metropiilis,
indeed, contains several, of which the most considerable is Christ-church Hospital or the
Blue-coat School, in which ab<iut 1100 children are maintainetl and educated. The number
of charitable foundations in different jiarts of tho country amounts to 3,898, yielding an
income of fir},3!>')/. Of these, however, many give also board and lodging, so that their
advantages can extend to only a small number; others have been neglected, and left exposed
to those abuses to which old establishments are generally liable. So greatly was the in-
fluence of these institutions on tlie great liody of the lower orders diminishcMl, that within
Uie List 30 years the larger projwrtion of labouring people were unable to read. The evils

BOUK I.

ENGr.AND

set

It llipir
kxposrtl
Itlio in-
witliin
he evils

itriNin;; t'ri)iii wnnt (ifriliiciitiiui niiuiiiff tlioin liiivu, lit l(<n|{tli> l>i'<'ii itninfrlv I'olt ; and very
(rri'iit I'xcrlioiH Imvi! Im-cii iiiiiili<, rhu'lVy liy thu iNMinvulimci! <il'|iriviit(i iiiiliviiliiuU, tn roiiu-tly

lUO (Ipll'Ct.

Of tlin H('if>ntirtc inKtiliitii'iiN of Kni^laml tlin tbromiMit Im "tlio Itoyiil Hurii'ty of l,<milon
tor improving,' Nnliiml Kiiou IciIko." In itM iiifuncy it owiil miik-Ii to tlin {iroti't'tiuii of Olivur
(.'roiMWi'll ; mill liiiviiitf Miirvj^ I'll ^'"' ('oiiiiiioiiwi-nltli, wiin iiiror|)<imli'il by rnyitl clwirtiT, in
l(MK), Till' Sij(!ii'iy |ml)liHh iiii iiiiiiiial vuliiiiiu uiiilur tint niiiiio of I'liilimiiiiliiriil 'l'riin$tir-
turn* 'I'lif Soi'ii'ty of Antii|iiiirii'H tritci'ii itx ori)(iii to tlio rclifii of (Iihm'ii Kli/,iilH<tli, liut
wuM not iiii'iir|i<>ratiiil until IH'JI. It Iiiim )inliliHlii!il n M)rinitof volniupiiniititli'il ArilnroloffM,
Hovi'riil iiriMiti' iHucii.'tii'H liiivn bci-n I'ornii^il for tlio nnltivittion of particiiliir liriinclii'M of
knowloil}(i', hy lilt! union of imlivMlnaU i|iHtini;niHlu>ii for tlii'ir iittainmontx in or ili'votiori to
tlioHi' liriiiiclii'M. Ik'MJili'it tlii'HO and otlicr in.-«titutioiiN in tlin nu'troiMiliH, iiiiuit of tlio (fri'at
jlrovilll;^^l towns, uh MiinclicMtiT, Hriwiol, Dfrliy, LivcriNxil, nnd Nowcnutli', liiivn formed
litoriiry iiiiil |iliilo>io|iliirul MKtiotJi's, which havu iniulu houiu iiii|i(irtii!itcontribiitionK to hcIlmico
and litiTiitiiro in ilioir 'rrtiiiNuctuiiiH,

Tlie |)rimn|>iil public libriirniH Imvo owed tlioirori(;iii to tlioMpirit nifd cntorprino uf private
individuiiln; tliu liodloimi Library at Oxford wiih tho bciiuuHt of Sir ThoiniiH liiHlli'y, nrnl
VIM enrirlii'd by HiicceMsivo ilonatiunM. Tho Uritinh Muhi'iiiii di'rivPil its firHt tri-riHiiroM tVotn
tho L-olli'ctiiiiiiJof Sir Robert Cotton and Sir llann SIiniiio; biithiiHac(|uirod, tliroii;;li piirnliiitio
by piirliiuiiiMit, tho HarliMiin mid LiinMlownu MSS,, tho librarios of Major I']il\vardM and Dr.
liurnoy, ami sovi-nil valuiiblii cidloctiotw of coinn and niincnilN. It Iuih also bi.'cn enrii-hed
by tho enliro collection of (Joorno III., proHonted to tin- n.'ition by hw nuecoHwir. With
tfuji acc(wnioii, till! library, which previously couHinted of ri'MHK) voluines, has been aug-
mented by one-liulf. The Muiicum in alw) very rich in specimcnH of natural liiNtory, par-
ticularly of niini'raIo)(Y.

IntititutioiiH of a hif{nly UHoful cliaracter have Npruni; from the gcnnnil desire of knowleilge
which marks the prenent uge. Their object in to coinmunicuto know!od(»o to tho coniiner-
cial classes, as well as to persons who have not opjMirtunitics for a regular course of study,
and the chief means cmpiovod tor this purpose are a library, a reading-rooni, and courses of
lectures. Of these establishmonts are tho Royal Institution, tho liondon Institution, &c.;
and all the (rroat cities and towns have now tlicir public libraries.

Of the Fine Arts, that of painting has been greatly neirlccted in Enjrland. Portrait
paintin;;, iniicod, always met with encouragement; yet Vandyke, the leader in this brnnrh of
art, wa.s a liiroigiier. It was only toward the close of tho last century that Reynolds formed
a style ilociilt'dly Knglish, and of distinguished excellence.

The Roy;il .Academy, under the iioini'iliati! patronage of the king, consists of fijrty arti.sts,
including the president, while a nuiubiT of otiiers are attached in expectancy ns assix'iatei).
There are lour profosstirs, viz, of painting, of arcliitectur(>, ofanatoniv, and of pi'rs|)ectivo,
who annually read public lectures on tho subjects of their several (lonartinents. To the
schools of this academy free admission is given to all students properly qimlilied for receiv-
ing instruction, and there is an annual exhibition of paintings, sculpture, and architectural
designs, to which all artists may send their works for admission, if approved by the commit*
tee appointed to judge them. The splendid collection of paintings formed by the regtut
duke of Orleans was imported entire, and tho greater part of it now embellishes the gallery
of the Marquess of Staflbrd. Tho nobles of Italy, olso, on tho devastation of that country
were obliged to strip their palaces of these valued ornaments, and to dispose of them at
low rates to English speculators. From those sources were tbrined tho Xlrosvenor, the An-
gerstein, and many otiii-r private collections. On the death of Mr, Angerstein, in 18'24, his
collection was purchased by pailianient, and made the Iwisis of a national gallery, which has
since received considerable additions both by purchase and bequest.

In tho other departments of the fine arts, nmsie, sculpture, and architecture, the English
have bei'u tlir excelled by the continental nations; in engraving, they have produced some
distinguished names.

The publishing and selling of IxKiks (brm one of tho prmeipal branches of her productive
industry. Periodical literature has a very extensive circulation. In the metropolis nearly
sixty magazines and reviews are published, of which the monthly value has been estimated
at 60()(W. Another important characteristic of tho national spirit may be remarke<l in the
immense circulation of newspipers, notwithstanding a heavy stamp-duty. There are in
London eight daily morning pap(;rs, anil five daily evening papers; seven papers published
thrice a week; and upwards of forty weekly papers. Of the latter species of newspaper,
every provincial city has two or three, and every town of consequence has one. The num-
ber of stamps issued for the Nondon newspaiicrs in IRIW was 21,4;}2,882. Tho produce of
the duty in tliit year was AWA'Af,

The tiivoiirite aiiiiisonipnts of the En^^lish arc those which combine the advantages of air
and exerciso. The staj,fe, though eminently rich in dramas, and supplieil with actors of high
talent, is not the habitual resort of the jieople. In former times hunting was almost the
sole busiiii.'ss of life aiauuK the EnglLsh squires; and though their tastes arc now much

VoKi. " *= 31 av

,*«..

..k

,^-'

902

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt m

varied, this original pastime, in ail its forms, continuos to be eagerly followed. By the
nobility and gentry, horse-racing is supported with equal ardour, and no country rivals Eng-
land in the liigh excellence to which she lias brought the breed of animals employed in this
diversion. The races of Doncaster, of York, and atove all of Newmarket, are attended by the
most distinguished persons in the country for rank and opulence; and other race-courses
attract great multitudes of miscellaneous spectators. Among, tlie common people boxing
matches present a similar occasion of laying wagers. Bull-baiting was pUt down only by
statute. Of the national outrdoor games, those ot cricket and tennis deserve especial com-
mendation, from their tendency to enliven the spirits and invigorate the frame.

In their habits and modes of ordinary life, the English may be called a domestic people,
especially when compared with the French. In common with other northern nations, the
English retain a taste for fermented or distilled liquors, which, however, has been in a
great measure corrected and subdued among the higher and middle classes. Beer and porter
constitute the staple drink of the great body of the people ; but malt spirit of a cheap and
very pernicious kind is consumed in great quantities by the lowest orders, especially in the
metropolis, where it is rapidly accelerating their degeneracy. Among the middle classes
the wines of Spain, Portugal and Madeira are in general use ; but the cellars of the rich
are stored with the choicest products of the French vineyards. Convivial excess, so long the
reproach of the English, has become comparatively rare.

Sect. VII. — Local Geography. ■ '■

England and Wales are divided into counties or sliires. Wales, until the time of Ed-
ward I., was an independent principality, but is now an appendent territory, of very inferior
magnitude. It has still, however, its own courts of judicature, and retains some national
peculiarities. The number of counties in England is forty, and in Wales twelve; making in
all fifty-two. The following statistical table, gives a general view of the extent, popula-
tion, employment, and wealth of each county : —

Income

in 1814-15, arising Oom

CoUBtlBt.

10/. ard
U|twards.

RcDlal

or llOUKS.

ti>n,
Ibll.

Lind.

Tradt.

OfliMS.

Halo,

Cities ud Towai.

Bedford

Berk!

430
744

723
3,713

13.019
83,573

95,383
145,389

304,370
719,889

94,790
399,703

1,481
3,317

90,994
129,333

Bedford

5 ?"»''!»«

W'.mlsor

Newbury —

0,939

15,595

7,103

5,939

Back!

748

1,894

35,055

140,529

603,872

232.981

1,998

158,483

Biickingliam .
Avle.sbiiry . ..

3,610
3,021

Cunbridfte....

086

2,045

49,781

143,955

705,371

239,087

5,109

115,103

Cninbridge . . .

Ely

30,917
0,180

Cheater (o) ■ • •

1,017

l.TfM

93,854

334,410

1,114.937

380,309

4,307

30,608

144,102

( Chenlcr

1 Maccli'shiild .

31,363
23,129

Cornwall

1,407

2.853

48,117

303,440

932,358

330,113

3,233

77,086

121,202

1 l.nuncefttoii. .
FalniiMith —

2,231
4,760

Cumberland . .

1,497

3,400

42,040

109,081

737.438

179,752

3.447,40,297

58,830

Cnrliwlc

Wliitrhnveii .

20,000:
11,393

Derby (»)....
Devon

Dorset

1,077

2.488

1.129

3,287
12,397

3,031

45,033
237,000

57,868

237,170
494,108

159,352

883,370
1,934,912

720,203

310,583
754,444

341,034

3,908
9,471

4,002

43,000 108,303
33,800'350,713

104,822

Dtrliy

< K.xeter

\ I'lyiiiiiiitli

( Dcvoiiport . . .
( Wevinoiith . ■
f Poil'lf.

2;i,637
■.7,9;i2
40,631
34.883
7,6.53i
(..439!
4,075

( 8lierhoriic . . .

Durham (c) . . .

1,040

4,200

09,471

353,837

88.5,.'ieO

353,031

3,771

52,300 100,.M0J^-|j-, Id.-:

10,133
17,0<i0

EmoiW

1,535

6,284

139,800

317,333

1,584,108

003,935

8,030

52,248

t ColclieMer ...

320,Wl|< Harwich

( RnfTrnn WMv
I Glourosier . . .

16,167

4.297

II 4.763

11.9;i:i

Gtsuceater (<).

1,123

9,080

251,974

380.SKM 1,315,733

307,243

2.«» ;«'>.^'«;^^^^,.;.•^v:

59,074
3,780

Hereford

Herlfiird

Huntingdon . .

«7I
002
US

1.794

3,490

945

30,4i4
70.299
10,791

110,970
143.341
53,149

()20.15fl

•wi.ia?

325,094

01,851

202,989

08,401

2.790
4.319
4,130

70,000
115.09-J
50,0il2

f Cirencester ..

llcreftird

Ilurlfnrd

Ilinilliit!d!
C t'niiterbiiiv ■ ■

S.l'-H)
lO.ofi
5.iM7
3,'i67
13,649

Kent (/)... .

1,402

10,129

.T47,110

479,155

1,087,442

1,086,228

19,342

399,081!

J Di'ptrnril mid
i Greeinvirli.

44.348

f Muidstoiie . ..

13,387

(«; Nantwich - - 4.886 I M GulnhenA ■
lb) Chocilc'ifiold ■ .'1,77.1 lliohnp VVoar-
Malluck - - - 3,36;i I niouih

15,177 BlDcklon - - 7.703 1 (f) Chi'llenliam E2,!M2

South ShieWi 9,074 Htn.iiil - - 8.607

14,462 1 M) Chelnniurd 5,435 (/) Koi:he8lcr 9,891

Deal 7.208

Miirunte - - 10,339
liamxuto ■ 7,9(15

6,059
15,595
7,103
5,059
3,610
5,031
90,017
0,180
31,363
2:1,129
3,331
4.7(»
20,000 :
. 11,393
. 2;),827
. .7,932
. 40,(i51
. 34.883
. 7,6,55 1
. li,4S9!
. 4,075
. 10,135
. 17,0(KI
. 111,1(17
. 4,2!I7
ilden 4.763
ll.!i:i3
511,074
5,71-t)
5.120
I0.2W
5.24
:i,2li7
13,(149
ind
cli.. '(4.34«
i5,3B7

7,268
I(),:t39
7,9tlS

Book I.

ENGLAND.
TABLE— continued.

^:>

Income in 1814-15, arising flrom

Countld.

l(V. uij
U)jwardfl.

Renhl

18311

Lud,

Tndii.

OOcei.

iutn.

CKIn ud Toira.

( Manchester. .

189,812

Lamashiro (a)

1.806

38,406

795,833

1,336,854

3,139,013

2,292,079

39,030

413,530

1 Liverpool. .. .
J Lancaster . . •

165,175
12,613

Leicester (») . .
Lincoln

816
2,787

3,357
4,036

63,748
78,694

197,003
317,344

951,908
3,096,611

319,607
373,071

5,827
6,550

153,594
338,053

(Wigan

Leicester —

( Lincoln

< Boston

( Stamford —

20,774
39,308
11,843
11,340

5,837

Middlesex....

297

116,270

5,143,340

1,358,541

5,763,373

15,255,245

1,174,865

779,125

Pan of London and 1

Monmouth • . •

516

1,088

31,572

98,130

208,981

102,571

437

0,300

32,089

Monmouth . .

4,916

Norfolk (£)...

2,013

5,333

97,007

390,054

1,516,051

533,010

16,505

338,807

) Norwich

( Yarmoiitli . . .

61,116
21,115

Northamp-
ton

Northum-
berland (d)

065
1,809

3,337
6,140

40,327
120,424

170,276
2«J,912

947,578
1,291,413

185,301
430.404

1,421
5,763

59,900

173,018
88,035

Niirthompton
Peterborough
NewcSBlle . . .
Berwick

15,351
5,55,.

42,360
8,920

Nottingham . .

774

3,597

71,396

335,330

751,626

314,501

2,073

106,707

Nottingham .

50,080
U,SS7

Oxford

Rutland

743
200

3,638
841

61,860
4,631

151,720
19,385

700.800
138,316

312,809
30,938

4,815
799

151,235
13,872

Oxford

Shrewsbury..

20,649
23,492

Salop

1,403

3,402

63,091

232,503

1,083,701

279,932

4,861

38,905

99,605

JWenlock ....

17,435

5,298

Somerset (e) . .

Southamp. )
ton 1

Stafford (/)...
Suffolk

1,540
1,533
1,196
1,566

16,508
9,363
6,133
3,573

512,909
198,331
108,507
01,909

403,008
314,313
410,485
306,304

3,308,733
1,340,547
1,200,3'24
1,151,304

1,329,365
923,713
536,720
453,484

13,887
10,751
10,626
11,973

30,100
8,700
48,000

309,506
339,123

171,578
299,064

( Ludlow

t Bath

\ llridgewnter .
f 1'aiiiiton ....
I Southampton

< Portsmouth. .
( Winchester..
I Statford

< Newcastle . . .

<Uc'incld

i Ipswich

< Dury St. Ed-

(mind's ....

5,353

38,003

7,897

11,139

19,134

50,309

8,713

6,956

8,193

6,499

30,201

11,436

Surrey

811

33,865

064,438

486,330

1,589,701

1,564,532

21,023

321,304

Soiithwnrk . .
Ruilill'ord

91,501
3,916

Sussex (g)-..>
Warwick (A)..

1,461
084

6,818
9,308

202,837
100,603

373,328
336,968

919,350
1,269,756

372,058
609,309

4,610
12,900

10,950

289,051
192,303

ilrighton

< I.ew.s

( Chichester . . .
i Birtiiiogham.

< Coventry ....
1 Warwick....

40,634

8,590

8,370

148,986

27,070
9,109

Westniorc- )
land i

7S2

1,030

31,120

55,041

299.582

52,575

1,184

32,044

Kendal

10,015

Wilts

Worcester (() .

1,283
674

3,622
4,873

68,577
100,836

239,181 1,215,619
211,350 820,030

370,070
373.303

6,981
1,137

3,100
3,800

220,931
97,178

Salisbury. .. .

Worcester . .

I York

9,876
18.610
28,454

York(t)

6,013

20,189

^15,539

1,371,396 4,700,424

1,719,886

"4,416

03,300

s«-»2eilHulL:;::::;

123,393
36,393

N. Wales.

( Sheffield

59,111

Anglcsca

403

220

4,080

48,335

94,766

3,998

19,190

j Btmiitnaris. .
} Holyhead . . .

3,497
4,382

Caernar- )

yon (/)....
Denbigh (n)..
FlintCn^

775

538

7,982

65,753

131,212

30.641

320

23,440

Caernarvon .

7,649

856
176
293
60S

4(iO

14,411

3,.I75

4,578
7,971

7,509

9(19

8,:t63

83.167
(10 013

312,576
I?"; IIS

19.677

11.060

7,201

18,748

22,783
13,727
30,320

305

795
68

■m

SCO

282

5,301

\'i,m

.....

41.13<l
25,513
16,700
38,065

20,928
20,085
37,957

Denbigh ....
Holywell . . .
Dolgeliy ....
Welshpool..

Brecknock . ■
Cnrdigiin . . .
Caermarllien

3,788
8,969
4,087
5.255

5,036
3,795
9,955

Merioneth

Montgomery .
S. Wales.

35,(J0!li 112,510
06,485 313,083

47 763 161 ORO

Cardigan (o) . .
Caerniarthen .

720
936

74
570

64,780
100,(155

140.816
382,091

Glamor- j

....| 1,713

31,368

126,012

372,fira

103,203

3,149

55,900

42,301

Swansea . . .

13,694

Pembroke (?) .
.Radnor

740
174

12,701
2,202

81,424
24.051

220.241
101,95(1

45.348
3.4-.'(l

1,531
40

28,308
15,298

Pembroke . .
Radnor

6,511
1,989

u) Bolton - -
Siilfcird

41,195

Burr - - -

1.5,086

(/) Wolverhnmp-

4(1,780

Cborlejr - -

9,'i»2

lon - - -

24,7:H

Rochdale - -

35,7:i.'i

Profcol - -

5.035

Bilslon . -

14.492

PreKton - - -

31,112

(b) Lonifhbo-
rnuffh - -

(iOlliwimgs -

10097

Oldham - -

32 381

10,800

Rve - ■

(A) Leiiminirtoii

3,715

Ptlkin8(on

1I,(I0()
7.004

13,376

6,209

Croni(i(on

(</) TyiiPmou(h

10.182

KrixKvortll -

3.697

Rlnckliiin)

27,(191

Nnrdi Shields

6 744

(il nudli'y ■ -

2:i.043

Tox(e(h Pntk

24.007

llexhiiiii - -

6,042

Ki.ldi'MninsliT

14.981

Chorltnn Itow

2(l,.Vt9

Mnrpotll - -

3.1-90

lltinilirid.'-e •

6.14H

Warrington -

16.018

(f) Wells - -

0,049

Kvcslmtn

3,991

Drnilwich -
(*) Wliiiby -
Scarbnrough
Beverley - -
DoiicuBter -
lludilribfield
llnlit'tix -
Bradford - -
KHrnsley - -
llipon - -
ron(olrac(

2,4871
11.725

8.:(i()

8.3(h!
10,801
I9!«:t5
1.5,382
23233
1(1.330
■>.08(1
4,832

{D Bnnror -
(Wi) Wrt'xlmm

Llio)f!ol|fn -
(»)Miild - -

Fliel - - -
(o) Ab<'rv8twi(h
(;)) Merlliyr Tyd

vil - - - 32.083

Cnrdiff - - 0.187
(vllUvirfurd wot 3,915

Tenby - - 3,138

4,751

5,483

3,s:io

8.086
9.216
4.128

;fM

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

pAiir 111.

distrilnitod nmler the following subsec-
S. Midlimd counties; 4. Norihern coun-

The topographical details of England mny bo di
tinns: — 1. Southern counties; 2. Eastern counties; 3
ties ; 5. Western counties.

SuBSECT. 1. — Southern Coiinlif's.

Under this head, Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Bcrksliiro, Iliimpi'liiro, Wiltshire, and Dorset, the
counties south of the Thames, and along the Channel, will bo comprehended. Tliis fine
district is, in general, of a level character; but is traversed, however, by - vfs of low hills,
or downs, which give to it a varied and picturesijue aspect, Cirilk is niiniint ftaturo

in its soil; and, on the coast, forms those bold clifl's, which cli.iriictoris .-jiitliprn bound-

ary of Britain. Many tracts are under high cultivation, yieldinc, in perfection, the usual
agricultural products, with others of great value, peculiar to tliis district; parfioulurly hops,
in Kent, and part of Sussex and Surrey. A prominent feature consists of large e.xpansos of
downs, composed of chalky soil, scarcely fit for tlie plough, but pastured by vast flocks of sheep.
Kent, the largest and finest of these couni ^, holds u conspicuous place in llnglish annals.
The men of Kent have been noted as mrace peculiarly stout, hard)', and courageous. In
the west are extensive wealds, presenting still many finely wooded riistrict.s ; also large marshy
tracts, interspersed, however, with dry cultivatec portions, in wliich the best grain in the king-
dom is raised. The interior around Maidstone and Cantcrliury forms almost a continued
garden, supplying fruits for the markets of London ; and abo >. .dl, hops, that essential ingre-
dient in the staple beverage of the English nation.

Canterbury, the chief place in Kent, is one of the most ancient and venerable of the English
cities. It is the ecclesiastical metropolis of the kingdom, the residence of its primate ; who,
as such, places the crown on the sovereign's head, and ranks next in dignity to tiie royal

family. Its cathedral {fiff. 138.) is of early
origin and of vast extent ; while revered through
the Catholic world as the shrine of the mur-
dered Beckot, il was visited by crowds of pil-
grims, and enriched with ofTerintrs; but of these
treasures it was stripped by Henry VIII. Can-
terbury is built ill the form of a cross, and in-
ter.-:ected by branches of the Stoiir. Manufac-
tures of cloth, silk, and cotton were early in-
gi'9 troiluced, and still subsist, though they cannot
i!^ l)ear a comparison with those of the great towns
" of file interior and of tiie norfli.

Maidstone and Tiinbridsre are among the
agreeable inland towns in Kent. The former,
of great antiquity, has one of the most elegant parochial churches in the kingi'om. It is
the chief market for hops; and has some nrimifactures, particularly of paper. Tunbridge
Wells, situated five or six miles from the town of Tnnbridge, have long been a place of
public resort. The springs arc considered efficucious in cases of debility and certain chronic
disorders. The town hiis also a thriving manufacture of Tunbridge ware, consisting of
various wooden ornaments, snutr-boxes, children's toys, &ic.

But the chief places of Kent are maritinu', the most ancient being those called the
Cinque Purls. At an early period, they were considered the most imporJant stations for the
defence of the kingdom, and were iKiund to furnish and ecpiip fifly-seven vessels, each
manned with twenty-one sailors; in return for which, their citizens held the rank of barons,
and sent two members to parliament from each port. Their greatness is now departed, and
some of tlieir harbours have been filled up by sand.

The Kentish Cinque Ports are Dover, Sandwich, Hythe, and Romney. The first is still
a place of considerable note. The spacious castle on a commanding eminence, the white
and towering cliffs, present to the approaching mariner an imposing spectacle. As the main
channel of communication with France, it maintains twenty-seven packets in constant ser-
vice. Romney and Hythe are of little maritime importance. Sandwich on the east ^oast,

yields in importance to iLs nominal de-
pendencies. Deal, Margate, and Rams-
gate. Deal derives its prosperity from
the vicinity of tliat fine ancliorage, the
Downs, where the outward-lmuiid fleets
of England usually remain (lira certain
period, when fliey olitain supplies and
refresliini'iits from Deal. Margate ie
crowdi'd, though not fashionabli' ; and
the estahiishment of steain-packets al-
lows daily intercourse with the metro-
polis. It likewisi; carries on some trade

Caiitorbury Cathedral.

>■

PAiir 111.

I<)\vin<f siibscc
Noriliern coun-

and Dorset, the
led. This fine
'PS of low hills,
niiiiiiiit foaturo
jiithorn hound-
ction, the usual
rticul;irly hops,
pfo expanses of
flocks of sheep.
l';nj,'lish annals,
ourapeous. In
so large marshy
■ain in the king-
)st a continued
essential ingre-

G of the English
! primate ; who,
ity to the royal
)8.) is of early
revered through
ne of the mur-
' crowds of pil-
gs ; hut of these
nry Vlil. Can-
a cross, and in-
,our. Manufac-
were early in^
igh they cannot
|tho groat towns

among the

The former,

;innf('o:n. It is

Tunbridge

!en n place of

certain chronic

consisting of

lose called the
statmus for the

vessels, each
riiiik ol' barons,

departed, and

le first is still
ncp, the white
As the main
constant ser-
tho east toast,
Us nominal de-
to, and Rams-
irospnrity fi-om
ncliorago, the
iiiund fleets
n tlir n certain
siii)|)li('s and
.Mnrgote jg
iiimildc; and
iii-i);u'kets al-
ilh the mftro-
011 SOUK' trade

Book I.

ENGLAND.

365

Greenwich llDspital.

with the Baltic, and supplies the metropolif) with grain and fish. Having risen within the
lust half century, it is built willi regularity, and contains twelve marble baths, into which
the sea-water is admitted for those who prefer that mode of bathing. Ramsgate, situated
on the isle of Thanet, possesses the advantage of a smooth and extensive beach. Conside-
rable improvements have been made in the harbour at the expense of government, with the
view to its yielding protection to vessels naviguliug lliis coast, where the dangerous shoals
of the Goodwin Sands have often p'oved fatal.

Deptford, Woolwich, Cliatham, ai d Sheerncss, are grand establishments for the construc-
tion of ships of war. Deptford con ,ains also the Victualling OflUce. Woolwich is the de-
p6t of artillery, and the theatre of all the operations connected with its construction and
preparation. Here is also the Royal Military Academy, m which an hundred young men of
respectable family are trained in all the branches of knowledge necessary for the engineer-
ing department ; and v>lio, after a strict examination, are appointed to commissions in the
service. Cliatham is the grand magazine of naval stores. Tlie rope-ho. is 1128 feet long,
in whicli cables 101 fathoms in length, and upwards of two feet in circumference, are con-
structed. Twenty forges are constantly employed in the fabrication of anchors, some of
which are five tons in weight. This imixtrtaut )x)st, with the exception of Portsmouth, ia
now the strongest in Britain. Sheerness, on the Isle of Sheppey, is a smaller station,
chiefly employed in the repair of shattered vessels.
Greenwich, about two miles below Depllbrd, is celebrated for its superb hospital (^fig. 140.)

for disabled and superannuated ma-
riners. Tills edifice wus begun by
Charles II., on a design of Inigo
Jones, as a royal palace. It remained
unfinished, until the reign of Wil-
liiiin III., when it wan converted
into a naval hospital. It was en-
laiged by the addition of three wings,
enriched by donations, and by a tax
of 0'/. a month from every seaman,
and it now sujiports IKHM) boarders,
and pays pensions to .5100 in dif-
ferent ([uarters of the kingdom. In
Greenwich park .stands the cele-
brated observatory, furnished witli the best instruments that can be obtained for perfecting
astronomical observations. The recorded observations of Flainstued, of Ilallcy, of Bradley,
and of Maskelyne, rank amomf tiiu mo.st important contributions to astronomical science.

At Grave.send, near the niouili of tlio Thames, the ves.sels employed in fijreign commerce,
IhjUi in going up and down, must stop :i.nd undergo an examination. Rochester, with an
ancient cathedral, contains in its vicinity nuinorous scats, among which may be particularly
noted Cobham Hall. Lee I'riory is also remaikablc for its works of art; and Knowle Park-
forms a magnificent structure of great extent.

Sussex extends about Ibrty miles along the Ciiannel. It is covered to the extent of
170,000 or 180,000 acres with noble oaks whicii are sought tor the use of the royal navy.
The Sussex sheep are peculiarly valued both li>r mutton and wool.

The capital is Chichester, an ancient little city with a cathedral. Winchclsca, Rye, and
Hastings are Cinque Ports, which have lost their ancient importmcc ; but Ilasting.s, from
its fine views of land and sea, attracts numerous visitants during the summer, Brighton, the
gayest of all the southern watering-places, from being a large fisiiing village, rapidly rose to
be an elegant town. Its e-xtensive lawn called the Steyne, sloping tovv'ards the .=ca, forms
an agreeable promenade. The Pavilion, or palace built by George IV,, and the chain pier
are among the objects of note.

The rough downs and bleak lieailis of Surrey contrasted with its numerous fine parks
and wooded districts, give to its seeni^ry a striking and picturesiiue character. Southwark
IS in Surrey ; but it is too entirely a p;irt of I/indon to bo treated separately from the rest of
that capital. Along the southern bank of the Thames ure Ko'v, with its palace and fine
gardens, containing plants from every ([uarter of the world; Richmond and its hill, which
commands a magnificent view of the Thames winding among wooded parks and palaces.
Camberwell, (^lapham, and other villages in the vicinity of the capital, are entin'ly composed
of the villas of opulent citizens, and the skiIs are nuiuerous. At St. Anne's Hill, a beautiful
villa on the Thame.-, Fox pas.s('d the latter years of his life in literary retirement

Berkshire contains extensive sheep pastures; and a great expanse of its enstevn liordev is
occupied by forests; yet more than half its extent consists of fine arable land. The slseej)
fair of Ilsley is the most considerable in the kingdom, the animal number sold averaging twe
hundred and filly thousand. The hogs also of this county are in high repute. Bi rKshire is
remarkable for its manutiictures of copper, which is brought from Swansea to tlie annual
extent of six hundred to ui" thousand tons.

u t il

J >

rs? I

■i^'

■^

JV*t-

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY,

Part III

Reading, the capital of Berkshire, la remarkable in histur^' -« several parliaments were
held there, and a sie^e was sustained during the civil war. 11 enjoys some prosperity,

through the export ot the produce of the fertile surrounding -ict

Wmdsor, from tlie beauty of its site, on an eminence near the Thames, and tlie magnifi-
cence of its royal castle (Jig. 141.), forms a commanding feature in the prospect for many

Windnr Caatle.

miles around. William I. constructed hero a fortress of considerable size ; but tlic whole
structure was rc-modellcd by Edward III. Since it ceased to be important as a place of
strength, it has been occupied as a palace ; and is the only one, in fact, suifcible to the dignity
of the monarch. The noble torraco walk 1870 feet in length, commands a finely varied
and extensive prospect. George III. completely repaired St. George's chapel, anil partly
restored the north front of the upper ward; but in consequence of his illness, the improve-
ments were suspended for eleven years. George IV. resumed them on a scale commensurate
with the importance of so venerable an edifice ; and large sums of money were voted by
parliament for this national purpose. The royal apartments contain an extensive collection
of paintings, among which are some fine portraits by Vandyke, and some historical pictures
by Guido, Correggio, Carlo Dolci, and Leonardo da Vinci. The chapel of St. George is
considered one of tho finest spncimens of the oriiiimentcd Gothic in the kingdom. The choir
in particular is if admirable workmanship, and adorned with banners of knights of the garter
ranged on each side. It includes also the imnhs of many of the English princes, particularly
their late ninjcsties, and the Princess Charlotte ; and some of its windows are painted after
the designs of Reynolds. To the south of the palace extend Windsor Great Park, and
Windsor Forest, grand features, first formed by William the Conqueror. Even after the
considerable al)ridgninnt that has t.iken place, the domain is still fitly-si.x miles in circum-
ference, containing witiiin its range some noble timber. Parts of it were devoted by George
til. to his fiivourite pursuit ofoxpcrimentTl farming.

The other towns of Berksliire are small ; at Newbury, two obstinate battles were fought
in 1643 and Ifi'M. Maidenhead (formerly Jlainluthe), on the Thames, is beautifully encircled
with villas.

Hampshire contains extensive remains of those grand forests which once overspread so
great a part of England. The principal is the New Forest, bordering on the Channel and
the bay of Southampton. From this tnict of about 9*2,36.5 acres, William the Conqueror
drove out the inlinbitants, and demolished t ic parish churches, that the royal sports might be
carried on undisturted. The forests of Box, Holt, .Mice, &c., containing upwards of 30,000
iirres, boloni"' iilso to the crown. Tlie wo<id is chiefly nnk and beech; the former with a
short thick trunk and strong crooked branches, rendering it of excellent service as knee-
timber for the navy, while the masts and acorns feed hogs of vast size, weighing sometimes
eight hundred pounds, and pralucing the best bacon in the kingdom.

Winchester is one of the most ancient and venerable cities in England. During part of
the Saxon periofi, it was the metropolis. It had atone time upwards of ninety churches and
chapels, with colleges and monasteries attached to ''lem. Being frequented on accomit cf
its fairs, and chosen as one of the staples for wool, it became at one period the seat of a very
extensive commerce. After the Norman conquest, when Ijondon became the royal residence,
'he decline of Winchester commenced, and was accelerated by the removal of the wool
trade; but aliovo all by the dissolution of the monasteries, in tiio time of Henry VIII. It
now owes its importance to its rank as an episcopal city, and a eoimty town in which assizes
are .'lold alternately with Southampton. Its vonerahln cathednil (fifr, 142.) has been the
work of succi'ssivo ages. It was 'Lyrdccl luider the Saxon kings, enlarged by William of
Wykeliam under Eflward III., and completed by Bishop Fox, in the sixteenth century, when

PART ni

menu were
prosperity,

lie magnifi-
zt for many

Book I.

ENGLAND.

367

at the whole
s a place of
a tlie dignity
finely varied
I, !uid partly
the improve-
ommensuratc
'ere voted hy
JVC collection
rical pictures
St. George is

The choir
of tiie garter
, particularly
painted after
it Park, and

1 after the
>s in circum-
;d by George

were fought
illy encircled

Iverspread so
(channel and
)e Conqueror
irts might hn
•ds of 30,000
)rmer with a
ace as knee-
\g sometimes

liring part of
Tlmrchcs and
account cf
I'at of a very
h\ rosidoncc,
lof the wool
Iry VIII. It
lliich assizes
Ins been the
IWilliaTi of
Intury, whpo

extensive additions were made to it in the highly ornamented and pointed English style;

of which several of the specimens liore iire-
served are reckoned the finest in the kins'-
dom. The college, or rather school, founded
by Bishop Wykolmni is al.so a magnificCiit
edifice, and is one of the four great classical
schools to which the (listinguished youth ol
England resort. Southampton now surpasses
Winchester, and is a flourishing town, at the
head of the bay called Southampton Water.
It carries on a considerable trade with the
south of Europe, and regular packets sail
from it to Havre de Grace.

Winchater Calhednil.

Portsmouth is the grand arsenal for equipping the powerful navies of Great Britain. The
harbour is formed by a considerable bay, with a commodious entrance, perfectly landlocked,
and sheltered from every wind, affording secure anchorage all round ; and capable from its
dimensions of containing tiie whole British navy. The Isle of Wight forms at its eastern
extremity tlie safe and magnificent road of Spithead, the principal rendezvous of the national
fleets. The place has been strengthened by fortifications, till it has become the strongest
and most finished fortress in the empire, and is considered absolutely impregnable. Porte-
mouth itself is situated on an island about fourteen miles in circumftjrence, separated from
the land only by a narrow hannel. The suburb of Portsea, on the same island, begun only
a century ago, has now outgrown the original town, and contains the principal dockyards.
Here are carried on, upon a gigantic scale, all the operations subservient to building, equip-
ping, and refitting ships, and supplying the navy. The sea-wall of the dockyards extends
nearly three quarters of a mile, and encloses an area of one hundred acres: the forge, where
anchors of huge dimensions are formed; the ropery, above a thousand feet long; the spacious
dry docks , the endless range of warehouses ; the gun-wharf, the armoury, are objects which
astonish by their immensity.

Cliristchurch is noted for a fine ancient church ; Bcaulieu for the ruins of its venera .e
abbey ; Andover, Basingstoke, and Romsey are considerable towns.

The Isle of Wight is about twenty-three miles m length, and thirteen in breadth ; divided
by a channel of only a few miles from the coast, on which are the bays of Portsmouth and
Southampton. It is traversed by a ridge of chalky downs, in which are fed about forty
thousand fino-woolir '. sheep of the Dorsetshire breed. On the north are luxuriivnt meadows
supporting valuable breeds of horses and cattle; while on ihe south are fine arable plains,
yielding grain much beyond the consumption of the island. The island is celebrated for its
striking ami peculiar scenery ; the grand views of land and sea enjoyed from its high open
downs; the deep and dark ravines of its southern shore, and the Iwld romantic cliffs which
it there presents to the expanse of the English Channel. One of the most conspicuous
features is the range of coast called the Undercliff. This district presents the appearance
of a series of gigantic steps rising from the shore, to the summit of the great perpendicular
wall. The chines, or chasms, with torrents bursting through them, are also characteristic
features.

The western part of the Isle presents tlie rugged and pointe<l clifls, called the Needles,
and a range of magnificent white clifTs, rising perpendicularly to the height of 500 or 600
feet. These precipices are inhabited by gulls and puffins, the eggs of which are taken by
the islander, suspended in a liasket, which is fixed by a rope to the summit. Tlie eastern
shore presents the Culver Cliffs, a range of precipices which, in grandeur and ruggedness,
are not surpassed by any otlier on the island.

The castle of Carisbrook is an ancient edifice, in which Charles I. was for some time
imprisoned. The towns, Newport, Yarmouth, Cowes, and Ryde, are small.

Dorset consists of open chalky downs, fit only for sheep, wiiich are here of a breed callcil
the Southdown {Jig. 143.), peculiarly fine both as to carcase and
wool. The fleece is very short and fine ; tiie mutton fine in the
grain, and of an excellent flavour. The number of sheep is estimated
at 800,000, producing 2,790,000 pounds of wool. The islands of
Purbcck and Portland are valuable for tlic production of fine free-
stone.

Dorj-etsliire has no remarkable towns. Dorchester, the capital ;
Pot)le, with an excellent harbour ; and Weymouth, finely situated
for a bathing-place, are the principal.
Wiltshire is a fine county; the chalk hills here terminating, form
the tabie-land, termed Salisbury Plain ; a nalii J, undulating surface, whicli affords pn^turage
for sheep. The northern part of Wiltshire watered by the Thames, is chiefly underwood
and pasture, and suppoita a valuable breed o." cattle, from whose milk is made the excellent

Soutlidnwn Sheep

II '}

•w

366

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

iS'l

cheese l)ciiring tlie name of tlio province. Wiltsliire is a maniifiicturinff county. The pro-
dnce is of the finest description ; suporfino broadcloth, korsryinorcs, and fancy articles ; tine
flannels at Salisbury, and at Wilton the carpets which bear its nuine.

Salisbury, the capital, is a handsome and well-built town. The streets arc spacious and
regular, crossing each other at right angles, and kept clean by streams of water, from the

river Avon. The pride of Salisbury is its
catlicdral (Jig. 144.) completed in 1258,
which is considered the most elegant and
finished Gothic structure in the kingdom.
It has also the loflicst spire, rising to the
height of four hundred and ten feet.

Wiltshire has a number of thriving little
towns, in which fine woollen manufiicturea
are carried on with activity: Devizes,
Marlborough, Cliippenham, Malmsbury,
Warminster, Wilton, &c. Most of them
are adorned with fine old churches.

Stonehenge (Jiff. 145.), in Salisbury
Plain, a remarkable monumentof antiquity,
is supposed to bo the remnant of a temple
of the Druids. " It consists," says Mr.
Sullivan, "of the remains of two circular
and two oval ranges, having one common
centre. The outer circle is one hundred
and eight feet in diameter, and in its per-
fection consisted of thirty upright stones. The upright stones are from eighteen to twenty
feet high, from si.K to seven broad, and about three feet thick ; and being placed at the

mMt

.tj:,---^^

Saliubury Cnthedral.

145

distance of three feet and a half
from each otlier, are joined at
the top by imiKjsts or stones laid
across. The inner circle is
somewhat more than eight feet
from the inside of the outward
one, and consisted originally of
forty smaller stones ; of which

f^lnnehen^e.

only eleven are standing." In the interior of all are two oval ranges, supposed to be the prin
cipal part of tlio work, composing the cell or adytum. The stones that Ibrm it are stupen-
dou-s some of them measuring thirty feet in height. The wliole number is computed to have
btien originnlly une hundred and forty.

^ • county is iulnrned with so many fine seals as Wiltshire. Wilton House contains the
finest private collection of ancient .•^culi)turc in tiie kingdom. Corshiun House and Longford
Castle contain celebrated collections of pictures. Wnrdour Castle is distinguished for its
grand terrace; Stourhead for the romantic beauty of the grounds: Longleat is a superb seat.

SuBSEeT. 2. — The Eastern (Umnlies.

Under this title are comprehended the counties of Esse.v, Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge,
Huntingdon, ami Lincoln. The surtacn of this division is flat and unvaried. Its sluggish
strenms unite in the shallow marshy estuary of the Wi:sl! : a great proportion of its waters,
however, never reach that receptacle; but, spreading and stagnating over the land, form the
Fens, a tract vlu'ch is not "nprotluctive to the husbandman, but sends forth po'-filential
vapours, sidyi'cting the inhabiuuts to attacks of fever and ague. The district eontiiins wide
portions of gooil arable land, which are well cultivated liy skilful farmers with largo capitals;
and is noted for its breeds of n ttle, ai' ' for the products of butter and cheese.

Es.sex, sit'iatpd along the nuth oi n(! Thame.', i.--, pnrhaps, the richest of tiie English
counties. It is diversified h}- t'cntle undulations, whirl' do not interrupt tl'.e eareful culture
given to its rieii alluvial soil, 'ts wlieaf, with thj' of Kent, is reckoned Ihr best in Eng-
land ; but the districts near the iMetropolis are chielly in pasture, or artificial griiss, for sup-
plying- eiilvos tu rh(> I/)ndon marki'i, or fiir (Iittening the cattle brought up from the north.

Che1nis!i)rd, flio county town, is a smiill regularly built place, with a handsome town-hall,
rololwstnr, the .".iicii'nt Cani('lc;.;;nniin, <'"ulains a strong castle, said to have been founded
bv the Romans, It is supporteil by a manuficl:ire of baize, and by the oyster fishery,
llarv.-irli, a seiport with a di-ep niid spiicions iinrbour, is the place whore tlie government
packets, i'l time of peace, sail Hir Holland ;',nd iJermany. Many villas have been erected in
'his county, in '•(iiisei|Uonce of it-: vicie'ty to the metrojKjlis.

SufKilk is 1 ordered by only a small portion of enstcrn coast. The greater part of it la

'«

Part III.

The pro-
icles; fine

icious and
■, from the
sbury is its
I in 1258,
ilegant and
! kingdom.
Bing to the
feet.

riving little
mufactures
: Devizes,
Malmsbury,
ost of them
dies.

1 Salisbury
of antiquity,
of a temple
," says Mr.
two circular
one common
one huiulrnd
k1 in its pcr-
;mi to twenty
lacod ut the
et and a half
ire joined at
or stones laid
Lcr circle is
lan ci^jjlit feet
tl\o outward
orijjinally of
^s ; of which
be the prin-
it are ftupen-
mted to have

contains the

111(1 TxinL'ford

lished for its

superb seat.

Cambrid|ie,
Its slugtrisli
bf its water?,
jind, form the
pp'-tilputinl
lontain^ wide
lrn;e capitals;

, the Enfflish
Ireful culture
.best in Euir-
■riiss, for su))-
Ithc north.
lie town-h:ill.
leen founded
Ister fis^hery.
1 ffovernmont
In erected in

[part of it is

Book I.

ENGLAND.

30U

capable of fjood cultivation, and is carefully tilled. The county is almost purely agricul-
tural, there being neither trade nor manufactures of any importance.

Among the towns of Suffolk, Ipswich is considerable, thougli its employment is confined
to sending down the Orwell malt and grain, the produce of the county. Bury St. Edmund's,
an iincipiit town, i.^ rendered venerable by some fine old churches. Lowestofl', the most
easterly point of England, is a noted seat of the herring fishery.

Norfolk, though inferior in fertility to the two counties now described, has, by its industry,
rendered itself more flourishing tiian cither. The soil generally is a light sand, scarcely fit,
originally, for any thing but sheep ; beneath, however, is a bed of rich soapy marl, which
the farmers, with great labour, dig out, and spread over the ground. Tlie light sandy loam
tlius formed is peculiarly favourable to the growth of barley, in which grain two-thirds of
the country is laid out. Norfolk has extensive manufactures ; producing various ornamental
fabrics of .silk and worsted. The iwrts carry on a considerable e.xport of grain, and a spirited
fishery.

Norwich is the finest city in the east of England. The chief industry of Norwich, how-
ever, consists in manufactures. Towards the end of the sixteenth century, a large colony
of Flemings settled there, and established the fabric of woollens, which soon reached an
inprecedented height. The light and ornamented forms became the staples ; bombasines,

crapes, fine camblets, and worsted damask. In its
general structure, it has the defects of an old town,
the streets being narrow and winding, though those
recently built are in a more improved style. The
cathedral {fig. 146.), founded in the eleventh cen-
tury, ranks among the finest ecclesiastical edifices in
the kingdom. Its style of architecture is the Saxon,
of that broad and massive character which prevailed
before the intro<luction of the pointed arch and the
light ornamental style. The castle, placed in the
centre, is more ancient still, since antiquaries refer
it to the reign of Canute, Its style is Saxon ; the
keep remains entire.

Yarmouth, by commerce and fishery, has attained
a prosperity almost e(puil to that of Norwich. Situ-
ated at the moutli of the Varc, it is the chief chan-
nel by which the manufactures of that city are
transported to foreign parts. A more important
resource is its herring-fishery, which employs six
tliousand seamen, and produces annually upwards
of fifty thousand barrels;. Its quay, upwards of a
mile long: is said to be second only to that of
Seville. Yarmouth is also much frequented as a watering-place.

Lynn Regis is a flourishing seaport on the Wash, at the mouth of the Ousc, which, with
its tributaries, brings down the agricultural produce of many ricli counties.

Seats. — Norfolk contains several of the most superb seats in England. Ilolkham, built by
Lord Leicester on a design of Inigo Jones, and particularly noted for a gallery room, is richly
adorned with sculpture and paintings, and has also a very extensive library. Ilougliton is a
magnificent seat.

Cambridgeshire presents a considerable variety of surface. Its northern district, called
the Isle of Ely, intersected by the lower channels of the Ouse and the Nnn, exists almost in
an intermediate state between land and .sea. Drainage, however, to a great extent has been
ellected, and many tracts have been converted into fine meadow, or made to yield large
crops of outs, though the danger of inundation can never be wholly averted. The cUissic
stream of the Cam or Granta, in descending to join the Ousc, waters a valley called "the
Dairies," where some good cheeses and long rolls of excellent butter are prepared for the
tables of llii; Cambridge students. Tb.e soutliern and western (districts, encroaclicd upon by
the downs irom the soutli, are only fit tor the pasture of sheep.

The capital of Cambridge is the seat of one of the two great universities. There are
thirteen colleges and four hall:*, in which the masters, tutors, and students, not only teacii
and are taught, but are lodged and boarded. Some of the largest of these endowmiMits are
stated to be for " poor and indigent scholars ;" but are filled with the sons of opiilent fiuiuliftf,
wlio cannot live there but at a very considerable expense. Yet the resort continues to
increase, and 'uhe existinir colleges are insufficient to contain the applicants, who wmA otlen
wait several years previously to admission. These cidlegos are large, and generally fine
And handsome buildings; yet they do not prinluco the saiwe noble and imposinji; eflbct as
tlioss in the sister university. There are, however, two structures such as its rival cannot
Vol. I. 2 W

Norwich Cathedral.

.■: fj

V \\

370

match.

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III

117

Tho first of tliesc is tho chapel of KinjT's Collofro, (ftff. 117.), built botwoon tlio

reigiiB of llonry VI. iind Henry V'lll. Its
interior hns bcnn en 1 led miitrblesH; tho roof
is of the niopt perfect workrnnns^hip, nmi its
8up[)ort without pillarH iiiia been viewed nH
»n arcliitoctural inyHtory. But the most
strikinjf clmractnrihtic is tlic . prodijriouH
blaze of pninteil pbiHH, on ench side, I'roni
twelve briiliiintly tinted window.>< filly feet
hiffh, {.'ivinpr to the fiihric tho iii)i)earaiico of
boingr walleil with painted glum. The other
is Trinity Colleffp, particularly admired for
its libmry, two hundred feet lonfr, dosipneri
by Sir Cliristopher Wren, and porhap.s the
moHt clepant library-room in tlie kinjrdom.

King's College Chapul.

The hall is also the largest in Cambridge; and the roof i.s ornamented with fine specimens
of old wood-work. Its chapel is marked by a beautiful simplicity, and contains Roubiliac's
statue of Sir Isaac Newton, supposed the best resemblance thnt exists of that great man.

The principal library contains lOO.CMK) volumes, many of which are scarce and valuable.
Trinity college, in its ornamental hall, has 40,0(M). Earl Fitzwilliam, from his seat near
Richmond, presented lately a hondsome library, some line picture!', and a large collection of
engravings. Tho botanic garden is inferior to none in the kingdom, except those of Kew
and Liverpool. The collection of valuable manuscripts and antiquities is likewise extensive.
Since the university was adorned by the inmiortal name of Newton, mathematics and natural
philosophy have been the ruling pur^'uit'^; and, notwitlistiinding tho lustre reflected on it by
Milton, as well as byBentleyand Porson, it has loft to 0.\ford the foremost place in classical
knowle<lpe.

At Newmarket, horsn-rarinff has rhosen its most fiivonrito ground. This town lios amid
bleak hills, that have, however, a sufficient extent of level heath to make the finest course
in tho kingdom. It consi.sts of one long street, cliiefly filled with inn.'J and coftbe-hoiises for
tho reception of the sporting world, who crowd tliitlicM- in the appropriate seasons, which are
April, July, and October. The hustle is then immense. "Trains of horses," siiys Dr.
^piker, "were led up and down the streets. E.xceljent eqiiipagc.«, gigs, curricles, landaus,
.lew past us and past each other with the suifbiess of an arrow. Horses wore prancing
ibout with their riders; jockeys were carrying bridles tD and fro: in short, all was life and
aiistle." The course is covered with turf, whence the pursuit of horse-racing itself is usu-
ally designate<l Ike turf. Close to tlie goiil is drawn on rollers a small wooden house, in
which sit.s the judirp, usually nn experienced groom, who decides which is the winner. The
stand is an open rai.sed house tor hidies and other curious spectat<irs; but men of real busi-
ness crowd round tho betting jmst, iminediatcly behind the judge, where they remain closely
wedged together, "and nothiiiir is hoanl but the continual cry of twenty, thirty, forty, two
hundred pounds on such a horse."

The small city of Ely rises like an island amidst the surrounding fens, and displays n
magnificent cathedral. Wishe.ich, a thriving town on a navigable branch of the Ouse,
combines a prosperous trade with some spirit of literary encpiiry.

Huntingdonshire lies to the eastward of Cambridge; the two are governed by the same
slierifT, chosen alternately in each. Huntingdon is entirely agricultural ; the pastures are
peculiarly rich, and adapt it t()r producing the (imious Stilton cheese. Huntingdon, the
."ounty town, though small, has an antique and rosprctable appearance. St. Ives is a large
village on the Otisc.

Lincolnshire occui)ies the eristern coast from the Wash to the Humber. The southern
•erritory, called, from that circiimstnnce. "Holland," comprises more than half of the Hed-
lord level, or fbn country, anil is natunilly an almost continuous swamp; but a great extent
of it has now been drained, and pro<liices fine pa.sttire land, and excellent crops of oats. The
rearing of live ."tock forms the chief occupation; and Lincoln has breeds of every descrip-
tion tliii', are held in high estimation. The sheep, which amount to upwards of 2,000,0(M),
pn)diice the lonp wool, which, from the length of its staple, is chiefly fitted for, worsted,
baize, and other thbrics. Rabbits, almost inniimenible, are bred in the upper districts; and
The unreclnimed fens, during the wet season, swarm with teal, ducks, geese, and aquatic
game of every form and description, with which London and many other parts of England
are chiefly supplied from this county. Maniifiictiires have entirely deserted it; even its
own wool, since tlie late inventions in inaciiinery, is no longer spun or carded within itself.
The Trent, during nil its course tlirough this county, is navigable for largo vessels, and
artificial channels unite its streams, particularly the Foss Hyke, between tho Witham and
the Trent. Forei^jn cominercn, however, is much limited by tho increasing sand-banks, by
which the coasts and harbours are obstructei'

Part 111

t botwoon tliu .
,nry VIII. Its
•\\cm; the roof
mnship, nnd itn
men viewed ns
But the most
;hc . pro(li{ru)iw
nicli side, I'rom
idows tirty feet

ii])l)eiirmico of
iiiHH. The oilier
rly udmired for

lon<r, designed
nd perhaps the
n the kinfrdoni.
I line specimenf
aina Iloubilinc's
it great man.
:o and vahiablo.
Ti his sent nenr
•go collection of
it those of Kew
ewise extensive,
atics and natural
eilocted on it by
^lacc in classical

8 town lies ajiiid
he finest course
coftbc-houscs for
lasons, which are
orses," siiys Dr.
urriclcs, landaus,
a wore prancing
all was life and
ing itself is usu-
voalen house, in
he winner. The
len of real busi-
ly remain closely
thirty, forty, two

and displays a
ch of the Ouse,

ned by the same
the pastures are
Huntingdon, the
Ives is a largo

Tlio southern
half of the Bed-
xt a great extent
ropsofoats. The
of every descrip-
rds of 2,0()(»,00(»,
tted for ^worsted,
ler districts; and
■ese, and aquatic
parts of England
rted it; oven its
[led within itself,
.rge vessels, and
the Witham and
ig sand-banks, by

DooK I. EXOI^^ND. vn

The citv of Lincoln was, during tiic middle ages, one of the most conspicuous and splen-
did capitals of ErTland. The cathedral (J^f. UK) htill holds the first rank oinong religious
148 ,1,1 edifices. I'Vum a distance its three towers

appear cons|)icuous ; two of them 180, and

one y(M), feet high, and ornamented with

various pillars and tracery ; and as the

f^th 1 structure stands on a hill, in the midst of

-i.. ,-i;"J>\iii.'- 3i rr"'TrT-; g'-'^''''^<*¥»&iL. * **"' surrounding flat, it has the most

''^^^i^^^i^'>^iS^i^^ ^WA' M'i.-,^v ■^■.H^. '■•. conunanding site in the county. When

" ■ ^^!!\^^OB^^^WKmnj Sll^ 'fn'^i plundered by Henry Vlll., it was found

C^^^jAJJO^^HH9KfflHt>-r|i^^, to contain nu extraordinary treasure, iu

gold and silver, i)earls, diamonds, and
other precious stones. Lincoln, supported
only by its county trade, and by the re-
f^ maming opulence of the cathedral, now
holds a moderate rank among provincial
Lincoln Cuthudtai. towHH. Its fitly churchcs are reduced to

eleven ; and the fragments of the others are dispersed throughout the town, many ordinary
houses being adorned with Gothic arches, doorways, and windows.

Boston, on the Witham, carries on the trade of Holland, or southern Lincolnshire. It
exports the grain, and aflbrds a great market for cattle ; and has thus doubled its population.
A fine Gothic church attests the early prosperity of Boston.

SuBSGCT. 3. — Central Cotinties.

Under this term we comprehend that part of the interior which ia bounded on tlie south
and south-west by the two divisions already described ; on the north and north-west by York-
shire and Lancashire ; and on the west by the counties of Salop, Worcester, and Gloucester.

In a description of this portion of the country, Ix>noon claims a distinct and .separate
notice. As the metropolis of the united kingdom, it is the seat of legislation, jurisprudence,
and govornmont; the principal residence of the sovereign, at which affairs of state are
transacted, and relations maintained with foreign courts; the centre of all important opera-
tions whether of commerce or finance, and of correspondence with (!very quarter of the globe.
London, iu its comprehensive sense, includes the city and liberties of liondon, the city of
Westminster ond its liberties, the borough of Southwark, and the parishes and precincts
contiguous to those three component parts of the metro])olis. Its extent, from Poplar in
the east to Belgrave-squaro in the west, is nearly eight miles; its breadth, from Islington
in the north to Walworth in the south, exceeds five miles. The circumference, allowing for
inequalities, is computed at thirty miles. The buildings, streets, squares, and other spaces.
including that taken up by the river Thames, winding from the eastern to the western
extremity, about seven miles on an average breadth of a quarter of a mile, occupy an area
of eighteen scpiaro miles.

By a more convenient topographical arrangement, London has been divided into six grand
portions: 1st, the City, which may bo tornied the central division ; 2d, the western division,
including Westminster ; 3d, the north-west division, including the district north of Oxford-
street and west of Tottonham-court-road, — those two last mentioned divisions constitute the
west-end of the town ; 4th, the northern division, comprising the whole district north of
Ilolborn and the City from Tr ttenham-court-road on the west to Shored itch and Kingsland-
road on the east, including St. Pancras, Somors-town, Pentonville, Islington, Hoxton, and
Kingsland ; 5th, the eastern division, including the whole district east of the city and of
Shoreditch ; 6tli, the southern division, comprising the borough of Southwark, and the
nia.ss of buildings extending from Rothorhitlie to Vauxhall, and rnnging southward for more
tiian two miles. The divisions north and smitlinf the Thames communicate by five bridges,
— London Bridge, Southwark Bridge, Blackfriars, Waterloo, and Westminster bridges.
The port of London extends from London Bridge to Deptford, a distance of about four
miles, with an average breadth of from four hundred to five hundred yards. Its divisions
are the Upper, Middle, and Lower Pcwis, and the space between Limehouse and Deptford.
Connected with it are certain spacious docks, which will be hereafter noticed.

The population of London, according to the returns in 1831 of the census in 1830, is thus

stated : —

Persons

City of I/>nilcn within tlii' walls. ST.liil.'i

witlumt lln' wnlls(incliiiling llie Iniisof Court) ii7,*T8

BoronBh of Southwark (U.-Wl

t^ity of WoRtnii nster iMKJ.lWO

PnrishKS within tlie billn of mortality 76I,34«

.\(IJ8cnnt iiarielien not within thi> bills 3U3,S(i7

Total 1,474,009

l^ll

'■! ?

•»

DESCRIPTIVE OEOGRAPIIV.

Part III.

Tho north divinion of London, an viowcil from llie inoet contrnl niiil olovstod [xiint, rinon
i;cnt)y iVoiri the ThainrH, nnd *>xt«nd8 to tlit! foot of ti riin^c of liillx on wliirli are Hitiiiiti'd
tlin villn^'eri of Ilatnpsteiid uiid lli|;h)(uti>. ( >ii tlio uii-it iind wi-sl iiro ft^rtili* plitinn cxti'iulin^j
lit l(!iiHt twenty mile*, nnd vviUorud by the windintf iind gently flowing Tliiunus. On tho
wnith, tho dixtant view in iHiiindi'd l)y tlio liijjh ffrmimlfi of Uiclinmnd, Wiinhh-don, E|)NMn,
NofwikhI, and Blacklienth, tcrminiitin); in tho liorizon by Loith Hill, Uoxl. il, and tho lloi-
Kuto unil VVrothiiin llillrt, Shooter'M Hill in ii con«|)iciiouM objuct to tho ciiMtward ; and, in a
more northerly direction, imrts of Eppin)^ Forost und other wooded uplu'iils u.' Ehhcx.

So nirly an the reign of Nero, London liad become a plucc of considerublo Imftlc, an upiwars
fVom Tiicilus, the earliest of tho Roman hintorianii who mentions it by name. Tho RuuianH
fortific<l it with a wall, und made it one of their urincipiil Btations. At tho boffinning of
the third century, it Ih roprestMifi-d uh a great ana wealthy city, and conwidured to be the
metropolis of Britain, In tho end uf the Bixth century, it became tho capital of the EuHt
SaxonH, whoee king, Hcbcrt, ia reputed the founder of the cathedral chnrch dedicated to
8aint Paul, and of tho abbey and abbey church of Westminster. Atlor the union of the
seven kingdomH, Egbert, in 833, held here his first wittena/fvmolr, or coimcil : but London
was not constituted the capital of England until its recovery from tho Danes by Alfred.
William of Normandy, whose interest it wob to conciliate the citizens, though he built the
fortress called the Tower, to keep them in awe, confirmed tho privileges and immunities
which tiicy iiad enjoyed under Edward the Confessor. Notwithstanding several visitations
of fire iiml ])e8tilence, I^ondon continued to increase, especially after the accession of tho
Tudors, when the overthrow of feudal va.<salnge, and the more frequent resort to the capital,
caused an augmentation so rapid as to alarm the government. The dissolution of monas-
teries, of which Ijondon contained so largo a proportion, accelerated this increase, while it
gave an impulse to industry and commerce. In the reigii of Elizabeth, the infiiix of strangers
driven from tho Netherlands, by tho persecutions of the Duko of Alvu, hoiglitened the alarm,
and tlie queen was even induced to issue the absurd decree that no more dwelling-houses
should be built: a prohibition which did not retard the growth of the city. In 10,36, tho
refinements of Pans ami Madrid were emulated in London by tho introduction of hackney
coaches and sedan chairs.

The reign of Charles If. includes tlic most memorable epoch in the history of London,
In 1605, a plague swept away 100,()<)(t persons. In Septemlier, 1606, broke out that grcot
and awful fire which destroyed 4(K( streets, 13,000 houses, and 89 churches. For the re-
building of the city, an admirable plan was presented by Sir Christopher Wren, the archi-
tect: the difficulty of mcMiciling conflicting internstn, allowed it to bo but very partially
adopted. He rebuilt the cathcilral of St. Paul and nicst of the parish churches in tho
Grecian style, and ihn front of Guildhall in tlie original Gothic. Instead of wootl and ;>laster,
the chief iimicrials of the former city, the new buildings were of brick, in the substantial
though heavy style thon in vogue. There were no flagged footpaths ; the streets were ill-
paved : anil as there was no system of drainage by sewers, and no distribution of pure water
by pipes, they were in some places far from endurable. The city, however, gained by the
changr, though with the sacrifice of many interesting memorials of its ancient state, and of
it.s most glorious times.

WoHtniiiisiter, thougli founded in the time of the Saxons, and chosen at an early period as
a royal residence, did not at first keep pane with Jjondon, The abbey nnd its church, founded
by Sohert, wore rebuilt by the architects wlio reared so many splendid fabrics of Gothic
masonry in tho reigns of Henry HI. and Edward I. The celebrated hall was built by William
Rufus in 1097 nnd 100^, and it underwent n thorough repair in that of Richard II. On the
dissohition of monasteries, Henry VIII. converted this religious establishment into a college,
nnd aflerwar(!s into a bishoiffic. Westminster thus became a city, and has ever since re-
tained that rank by courtesy, though it never had but one bishop, having been transferred by
Eldward VI. to tho see of Norwich.

The city of Westminster is comprised in the united parishes of St. Margaret nnd St.
John ; the lil)ertics include seven other piirislies. St. Martin's in the Fields, St, James's, St,
Ann's, St. Clement Dane?, St. Mary's lo Strand. St. George's Hanover S<iuare, and St. Paul's
Covent Garden, with the precinct of the Savoy and that of St. Martin's le Grand. Several
<)f the parishes westward of Temple Bar had each its church and contiguous village, com-
municating with each other by roads and footpaths. The Strand was originally a liigh road
connecting J/)nr1on with Westminster by tho village of Charing. Afler the Re.storation,
the west end of the town rapidly increased ; nnd its inhabitants, affecting superior refinC'
ment of manners, claimed to be considered as a distinct class of things from the industriou.',
merchants east of Temple Rir. I^y degrees, as the vacant ground was built upon, the two
cities and their suburbs were unjtetl ; and at length the distant villages of Mary-le-txme
and St. Pancros became integrftl parts of the metropolis. A splendid (piarter, now occupied
by the most fashionable part of the community, has l)een built to the west of St. James's
Park and the new ])alace. The villages surrounding Ixjndon, formerly at some distance,-

'id

Part III.

IHiiiit, riHP«
arc HitimU'il
UK I'xtiuiliniJ
les. On tlio
I'doii, Kiwiiiii
mil till! Hoi-
ril ; uiul, in n

Ewrtt'X.

fie, iiH upiwars
Tho RoinauH
bcffiimin({ of
ured to be the
il of tho Ettut
I dedicated to
union of the
; but London
ncB by Alfretl.
[h he built tho
nd imniunitieu
cral viBitiitionH
xcasion of the
t to the capital,
ition of monas-
crease, while it
lux of strangers
ened the alarm,
Iwellinu-houBeB
. In 1036, tho
lion of hackney

itory of London.
I out that great
en. For the re-
^Vren, the archi-
iit very partially
churcln-H in the
•ood and iilastcr,
tlie substantial
streets were ill-
m of pure water
, jTiiined by tho
mt slate, and of

. early period as
church, founded
ibrics of Gothic
built by William
fird II. On the
[it into a college,
V ever since re-
U transferred by

largarct and St.
I St. James's, St.
le, and St. I'aul's
llrand. Several
lus village, com-
lally a high road
Ithe Restoration,
T superior retinc-
L the industrious
lit upon, the two
lof Mary-le-bonc
^r, now occupied
fet of St. James's
oino distance,-

BooK I.

KNOLAND.

373

on tho oust. Stepney nnii liimohnuso; on tho isouth, I'ecklmm, ramborwell, Ilri.vtim, Cliip-
hnni ; on the west, fininipton iiml Kni!,'hf»ihriilgc ; on thonnrlli, Hackney, Iloxton, Inhngton,
lligligate and lliimpHtciid, — bring now juimd to the nictropohn by continuivl ningcrt of
Htrci-lH, may tx; considi-rcd ns mtegral [Kirtions of it. The pcipiiiation within a riimii« of
figlit mill's from St. I'liulV, which U all virtually I/nidun, does nut till! short of l,>'(HMNHK

'I'll'' LTiivvfli of Liiidiin, an a (virt, wum iit lirst by no niians rnpiil. In IKfi, beMiilrn bout*
iin<l iitliiT rt:\\\ not rcgiftercil, there belonged to the |)ortof i/milon V!<i<i!>Hlii|N<, of the liiirthen
ot' .'iil.'i.lTl tons; iniinnid by IW.THli men ami Iwys. In the; same vi-iir, the gross ciistoinn
iliity collecti'd in the |K)rt of Ixmilon amoiuited to 0,4:H,w.")U, 'I'he |)ort of Londim liaM
iilri'uily lii'eii (lescrilH>d as extending from (.onilon Bridge to Depftbrd, a diHfiiiu e of lour
tiiili-*; tlie average breadth being tully a qimrter of a mile. Kven these limits were liir
from iitliir(iingailei|iiatn accommmlntion to the shipping; and the example of improvement
exhibited by Liverpixil nt length roused the merchants of Ixtndon to tiirm comimnie.s tlir con-
structing docks, with commodioiiH ([uityB and warehouses. The Wmt Inilia Ihtrks, stretch-
ing across the isthmus forming tlie Isle of Dogs to the Middlesex side of the river, were
o|)i'"eil in 1H()2. They consisted originally of an ini|K)rt and exixirt dock, the tbnner con-
tiiiiiuig aliout 3<t and tho latter about 'J5 acres of water, exclusive of basins. To tlie.se have
recently been added the south dock, fiirmerly tho City ('anal. The wnreliouses at the West
India Docks are of vast extent, and are, in all respi'cts, most comnuHlious. 'I'lie l.iutihn
Diirku, also of very great extent, are situated at Wappiiig. The tobacco warehouse be-
longing to them is tin- largest and tinest building of its kind in the world. It covers a s|mco
of near .'■) acres ! The vaults iimlcrneath the ground are li*\ neres in extent, nnil have
stowage tiir (WI,(HH) |)ipes of wine! There are also the .S7, Kulhiiriiir's Docks, adjoining tho
'J'ower; the /•'««< India Docks, ill Blackwell ; and tho Comvurciiil Docks, on the Surrey
side of till- river,

Southwark, the third great portion of the metropolis, (more commonly called the Ttorituffh,
and as such returning two members to parliament,) is situated on thn south bank of tho
Thames. Tho Borough was governed by its own ImilitTs until Edward VI. granted South-
wark to the city of I<ondon for a sum of money ; after which it beciitne one of the city
wards by the name of Bridge Wiinl Without. It is much freiptented by agricullnrisls from
Kent, Surrey, and Sussex ; and is llin principal hop-m:irkel in the kingdom. Numerous
etrecta in every direction connect it with the surrounding villages ; and by the five magnifi-
cent briilges it communicates with every quarter of Ix)ndon and Westminster.

liondon, is well built, well paved, well lighted, and abundantly supplied with water. For-
eigners who visit it tor tho first time soon discover that utility, not ornament, is the main
characteristic of the town, and that business, not amusement, occupies tho minds of its
inhabitants. The main strei-ts are spacious ; nnd all tho streets have tho advantage of flagged
t!x)t-pavemenl.s on each side. The lifiuses are of brick ; and though in the most populous
streets discoloured by smoke, have by no means a glcximy appearance. The charm of Ixjiiilon,
as a great city, is its variety. Tlifjse who dislike the narrow streets of the city, shady in
summer, and sheltered from cold winds in winter, may delight in the siKicious streets and
squares of the west end ; those who desire to contemplate what Dr. Johnson called " the full
tide of human existence," may visit Cheapside, Fleet Street, or the Strand : Bt^iiil Street is
the resort of gaiety and titshion ; and Regent Street, for architectural efl'ect, is uiie of the
grandest streets in Europe. Great improvements have been made on the north side of the
Strand from Charing Cross to Burleigh Street, by taking down an immense mass of small
nnd old houses, partly in narrow streets and courts, and erecting others of large dimensions
and tbrming wide and handsome streets. Hero also has been erected the elegant and com-
modious structure of I Inngerford
Market. Another improvement is
that of opening a line northward
from Bridge Street, BlacklViars,
through the site of Fleet Market
and across Clerkenwell, to Isling-
ton: it is intended that a parallel
line should extend from Waterloo
Bridge across the Strand, iiast tho
portico of Coveiit Garden Theatre,
and into the northern district of
the metropolis.

St. Paul's Cathedral {ftfr. 149.'),

the masterpiece of Sir Christopher

Wren, is the fine.st specimen of

modern architecture in tho king-

^'- ''»'''''• . dom, and, after St. Peter's at Rome,

inav r:ink as th" tniost ccclesiastiral structure in Christendom; but it is so surrounded with

\oi,. I. 32

IT' (

<l>

1^'

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

1.1

11.25

Ui|21 125

|30 ""^ JIIMH

Wtat.

HioJDgrafJiic

Sciences

Corporation

23 WIST MAIN STRUT

WMSTER.N.Y. UStO

(716) S72-4S03

^.V

374

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt III.

buildings that the beauty of its exterior cannot be appreciated. The style, which is Grecian,

unites grandeur of design with just-
i^ I * » A I 1 1 I ness of proportion. TIjc interior of

St. Paul's is too bare of ornament ;
^^^ but the defect is partly supplied by

"V* r^ Hnan flBrKHIsf marble monuments of various de-

grees of merit.

Westminster Abbejr (Jigr, 150.)
is a noble specimen of Gothic archi-
tecture. The interior is grand in
design and rich in detail, and the
interest which it excites is en-
hanced by the numerous monuments
of kings, warriors, statesmen, plii-
losophers, and poets, which it en-
closes. The cliapel built at tlie
western extremity by Henry VII.
in honour of the blessed Virgin, is

(xothic, and its exterior has been skilfully renovated.

Among the parish churches of the metropolis, that of St. Stephen's, Walbrook, is distin-
guished for the fine proportions and finished elegance of its interior. Tlie stately portico of
St. Martin's, Charing Cross, excites universal admiration ; next to which may rank that of
the new churcii of St. Pancras; the steeple of which is constructed on the model of the Temple
of the Winds at Athens. The other public buildings are too numerous to be described, and
a bare mention of them would give little satisfaction. The principal inns of court, and their
subsidiary inns, are remarkable rather for plainness than magnificence of architecture. The

pile called Somerset House (Jig.
151.) would have a grand effect
if. its eastern wing were com-
pleted; and this desideratum is
partly supplied by tlie buildings
assigned to " King's College, Lon-
don. The Banqueting House at
Whitehall is a memorial of tlie
fine taste of Inigo Jones ; and its
ceiling is decorated with an alle-
gorical painting from the pencil
of Rubens, wliieli is still exposed
to view, though the apartment has
been converted into a chapel.
Westminster Hall, of which the portal has been rebuilt in the original style, is reputed the
longest hall in Europe unsupported by pillars. It is 276 feet long by 70 broad. Within it,
on coronation festivals, 10,000 persons liave dined. On its south side arc enlmuces to the
new law courts, the King's Bench Common Pleas, E.xchequer and Chancery, witli an addi-
tional court for the vice-chancellor. The House of Peers is a spacious and lutty cliamber,
decorated with tapestry representing the defeat of the Spanish armada. The subordinate
apartments and passages are of recent construction and of a dig-
nified elegance. The House of Commons, originally a chapel dedi-
cated to St. Steplien, retains, perhaps, too mucli of tiiat cliaractcr
in its front and side galleries, the seats rising on either hand
beneath them, and tlie s|)eaker's chair exactly in the place where
a pulpit might have stood. The house was altered and enlarged,
to admit the accession of members consequent on the union with
Ireland.* The Bank of England, a building of great extent ; the
Royal Excliange ; the East India House, in L^enhall street ;
the Tower, which has still nn arsenal and a garriJion, being the
depository of the regalia of tlie United Kingdom ; the Trinity
House, and tiie New Mint, both situated on Tower Hill; the
new Post Office, in St. Martin le Grand ; the new Palace in St.
James's Park, &c. deserve mention.

The Monument (Jifc- 152.) is one of the most conspicuous orna-
ments of the metropolis. The pedestal is 42 feet, the shaft of tim
The Monument. column 120 foot, the Cone at the top with the blazing urn of gilt

brass 40 feet, making the total height of tlie iiionuuient 202 feet. It was erected by Sir
Christophor Wren, to commemorate the fire of Ijondon, in 1066.

Somenet House.

1
the
row
the

men

ellip

6in(

men

ties

betw

a5f(

arch

and I

ofth

has ^

has n
fourt(
arch
piece

with
indiv
Th
requii
Brid>j
chose
niagii
Ixjdy
the s(
ranki
forme
militi
can ii
•rront
rntioi

* The Purliamont [fousf.'s wrru Ijiirrit dnvvn in 18:t4,

^■

•*#'

W^ '\

Book I.

ENGLAND.

375

The bridges of London attract attention by their beauty and utility. Until the year 1740,
the only one existing was London Bridge, built in the twelflli century, with arches so nar-
row, unequal, and ill-placed, as to form a sort of breakwater, occasioning' a rapid or fall of
the stream, highly dangerous to boats and barges. The new London Brieve (Jig. 153.) com-

153

t'r-

■m'

Now London Bridge.

menced in 1824, and opened in 1831, has taken its place. The bridge consists of five semi-
elliptical arches ; the centre arch 152 feet span, with a rise above high water mark of 29 feet
6 inches; the two next the centre arch, 140 feet span, rise 27 feet 6 inches; the two abut-
ment arches, 130 feet span, rise 24 feet 6 inches. Tlie length of the bridge from the extremi-
ties of the abutment is 928 feet , witliin the abutments, 782 feet. The roadway is 53 feet
between the parapets; of this width, the footways occupy 9 feet each, and the carriage-way
3.5 feet. Southwark Bridge leads from Queenhithe to Bnnksido, Southwark. Of its three
arclies of cast iron, the central one is 240 feet span ; the others 210 feet each. The piers
and abutments are of stone, the rest of the work iron ; this is the most stupendous bridge
of tliese materials in the world. Blackfriars Bridge, built between the years 1760 and 1769,
has 8 piers and 9 elliptical arches; lengtli 995 feet. Waterloo Bridge (jig. 154.), of granite.

Waterloo Bridge.

has nine arches, each 120 feet span ; the piers are 20 feet thick. Westminster Bridge has
fourteen piers supporting thirteen large and two small arches. The widtli of the middle
arch is 76 feet; that of the two next, 72, that of the last, 52. Waterloo Bridge is the finest
piece of masonry in Europe: the expense exceeded l,000,0()Of. These immense works,
with the exception of London Bridge, have all been accomplished by associations of private
individuals.

The municipal institutions of London have received fram time such modifications as were
requisite to improve them. The city is divided into twcnty-tive wards, the Borough, as
Bridffo Ward Without, making the twenty-sixth. Eacli has for its magistrate an aldermoii
chosen for life : and those persons collectively form the Court of AUlermen. The chief
magistrate, styled Ixird Mayor, is elected annually, fromtlie Court of Aldermen, hy tiie great
body of freemen called the Livery. Tlie Common Council is an elective body reprcscntiii;,'
the several wards. — Those public Ixxlies form a sort of parliament, tiio court of nidernion
rankinir as peers, that of common council as the commons. The military force uf tlio city
formerly cop.sisted of the Train Bands ; but under an act passed in 179-1, two roijimonts of'
militia are rained by ballot, each conpistin? of 2200 men. No troops can enter the cit}', nor
can its own militia depart frcni it, witliout porniission of the lord mayor. His |K)Wor is very
jrrent ; and tliouffh his office lie elpctivo, liis niitliority tloos not cease on the demise or abdi-
cation oftlse Inn;;, aa that of the coinmi.-:sion ollicers does : and in such cases the Lord Mayor

'•«[

■•% "576

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Past m.

of London is said to be tho principal officer of the kingdom. There are two ghcriffB, one for
London and one for Middlesex ; but they make but one officer; and if one of them dies, the
office is at an end until a successor to him is chosen. The next officers in rank arc, the
Recorder, the Chamberlain, and tlie Common Sergeant

The police of tlie metropolis lias not been brought to a very liigli degree of efficiency, but
is continually undergoing improvements. Tiicre are eleven offices : the Mansion House ;
the Guildhall; Bow Street; Queen Square, Westminster; Marlborough Street; High
Street, Mary-le-bone ; Hatton Garden ; Worship Street ; lambeth Street, in Whitechapel ; .
High Street, Sliadwell ; Union Street, Southwark; and Wapping New Stairs,- for offences ),«
connected with the shipping and port. The Bow Street Police Office is wholly under the
direction and management of the Secretary of State for tlie Home Department. All the
magistrates belonging to it are in the commission of the peace for the counties of Middlesex,
Surrey, Kent, and Essex, this being the chief police office of England. Subject to its
authority is the body of foot and horse patrolc by which the roads within ten miles of the
metropolis are watched and guarded during* a considerable part of the night. In another
department of police a most important change has been effected by sul^tituting for the
nightly watch appointed by different parishes without concert or co-operation, a constabu-
lary POLICE FORCE, regularly organized, and subject to officers appointed by the Home
Secretary of State. The men are maintained by rates levied on the different parishes,
and are on duty night atid day, in successive divisions, relieving each other like gendarmes.

The gaols and prisons cannot be passed without notice. The King's Bench prison, in
Southwark, is under the particular authority of the Court of King's Bench. Tlie liberties,
or rules, comprehend an area three miles in circumference, within any part of wJiich debtors
may reside on paying certain fees. The Fleet Prison, chiefly for debtors, is situated on the
east side of Farrinedon Street. Whitecross-street prison was erected in 1817, for the
reception of such deotors as were liable to be confined in the city gaols of Newgate and tlie
Compter. Newgate, a place of confinement for prisoners before and after trial, has been
placed under new regulations through the efforts of benevolent persons anxious to render it
a place of reform. Bridewell, Blackfi-iars, though a prison, is usually ranked among the
hospitals. The Middlesex House of Correction, in Coldbath Fields, has long been the terror
of delinquents, through the double punishment of incarceration and hard labour. The Peni-
tentiary at Milbank is destined for the reception of convicts selected from those sentenced
to transportation or to confinement on board the hulks for a certain term of years. They are
confined here to hard labour lor a shorter term, part of which is remitted if they behave well.
Tothill-fields Bridewell is u large pile of building, finished m 1833. A new Ilouse of Cor-
rection has been erected at Brixton, in Surrey.

The charitable institutions of London would require a volume for their description.
Chelsea and Greenwich hospitals are asylums provided by national gratitude to support the
aged or infirm who have devoted their best days to the service of their country by land and
sea. St Bartholomew's and St Thomas's hospitals are assigned to the maimed and diseased.
Bridewell Hospital to the correction of the idle, and Christ's hospital to the support nnd
education of the young and helpless. For the cure of diseases, and for the relief of acci-
dental injuries, there are various institutions ; such are t!ic Loudon, Middlesex, St. George's,
and Westminster hospitals ; St Bartholomew's, St Thoma.i's, and Guy's, are also celebrated
as schools of surgery ; the hospitals of Bethlehem and St. Luke's are appropriated to in.snnc
patients : there are sixteen medical charities for particular purposes, as the Ophthalmic
Institution, the Small-pox Hospital, the Vaccine Society, &c. ; fourteen lyinif-iii hospitals
and charities; schools for the indigent blind, and for the deaf and dumb; the PliiI;inthroi)ic
and Humane Societies, the Refuge for the Destitute, the Foundling Hospital, the Magdalen
Asylum, the Female Penitentiary, &c. To the class of charitable foundations belong also
the alms-houses of the various city companies.

The most distinguished schools of the metropolis are, Christ's Hospital, the Charter-house,
Westminster, St. Paul's, and Merchant Tailor's scliools. For the acquisition of the higher
branches of knowledge, an important provision has been made in the estnWishment of the
London University, and in that of the institution called King's College, London.

Of the scientific and literary associations of the metropolis, the most considrrable are the
Royal Society, the Society of Antiquaries, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and
Manufactures, the Royal Institution for facilitating the introduction of useful Inventions and
Improvements, the I/indon, and tho Russel Institutions. Tlie College of Physicians, and the
Royal College of Surgeons, decide on the admis-sion of members to pnictise in each of those
professions. For tho cultivation of sciences connected with them, fiiur eminent societies
e.\ist and looturos are esitiiblisliod at various theatres of anatomy and hospitals. Of institu-
tions for ))arf icnlar hranrlies of knowledge, the more eminent are the Liimean, the Geological,
the Horticultural, the fieogrniihirnl, and the Zoolnginil societies. As a niitinniil re)X)sitory
of literature, of antiquities, nnd of objects belonging to natural history, the Briti^ih ]\lusouni
elsewhere dosrribed, is daily rising in public estimation.

London is the prineipul literary cmjKiriuin of tlie kingdom. Almost all books of import

■*■,..

BookL

, ENGLAND.

3T7

import

ance are thcro printed and published ; and thence distributed over the kingdom ; forming a
considerable branch of commerce. The annual value sold is estimated at from 1,000,OUO/.
to 2,(K(0,(KX(/. sterling. Being also the centre of intelligence relative to public aifuirs, the
metropolis gives circulation to a prodigious number of newspapers and periodical journals.
Some of the newspapers circulate upwards of 8000 a day ; and by tlie profit derived from
ttuch extensive sale, and from advertisements, they are enabled to maintain complete and
^ costly establishments for obtaining early political intelligence, and for reporting trials and

parliamentary proceedings. The number of single papers, published annually in London,
as calculated from the stamp returns, exceeds 16,000,000.

The manufactures of the metropolis are too miacellaneoua to be particularised ; indeed,
Iiondon may be called a commercial rather than a manufacturing city. The most consider-
able is the Spitallields silk manufacture, which, however, has for years remained stationar]r,
while that of other parts of the kingdom has been rapidly extending. In household furni-
ture the artisans of liondon take the lead both in the design or fashion of the articles, and
in the excellence of their construction. The same may be said of coaches, carriages, and
harness, of watches, of gold and silver plate, and of jewellery. Of articles of consumption,
the peculiar product of London is porter. In 1823-4, the quantity brewed was 1,168,000
barrels, including a comparatively small quantity of ale ; and almost the whole of which
was produced by eleven great establishments. The distilleries of British spirits are very
extensive.

The foreign trade of London has, since the peace, continued nearly stationary. The vici-
nity of Liverpool to the manufacturing districts, and her more easy and frequent intercourse
with Ireland, give her considerable advantages. But, on the other hand, tlie vast population
of London and of the basin of the Thames, her proximity to the Continent, the immense
wealth and connexions of her merchants, will most probably suffice to ensure her predomi-
nance. The charges on vessels frequenting the Thames, though within tliese few years
veiy heavy, ore now extremely moderate.

The inland trade of London is very extensive, as appears from the number of arrivals by
all the great roads of the metropolis, and by the Regent's Canal, extending from the Thames
to the basin at Poddington, a sort of internal port, communicating with the principal canals
of the kingdom. Sixty-four mail-coaches and a great number of steam-packets maintain a
constant communication between the London General Post-Office and the cities and towns
in Great Britain and Ireland. The regulated speed of the mails is eight miles an hour,
including stoppages.

London is the great money market of the empire. The Bank of England, founded in
1694, has become the greatest bank of circulation and deposit in Europe. Its usual issue
amounts to about 20,000,0001. sterling ; it advances about 10,000,0002. sterling to govern-
ment, and discounts bills to the value of about 3,000,OOOZ. Though some of its privileges
are curtailed by the late act, this is compensated by the regulation which makes its notes a
legal tender. The Stock Exchange is the place where purchases and sales arc effected by
brokers, at a commission of one-eighth per cent, on the amount of stock purchased or sold.
The establishment consists of a certain number of brokers, about thirteen hundred, elected
annually by ballot, and bound in a certain sum to the observance of certain regulations,
which are superintended and enforced by a committee. None but members are admitted on
the stock exchange ; and no stock-broker can, by the regulations, become a dealer, and sub-
ject himself to the opieration of the bankrupt laws. If he becomes a bankrupt, he is desig-
nated a scrivener. The property bought and sold in this market, between the hours of ten
and four, is sometimes enormous. The Insurance Companies are about twenty in number,
of which only three are incorporated by charter. Of other joint-stock companies, for pur-
poses immediately connected with London, the principal are ^e Water and Gas Light Com-
panies.

As the seat of legislation and jurisprudence, London is necessarily the resort of the prin-
cipal persons in the kingdom during the session of parliament, whicii usually continues from
Christmas to midsummer ; and as that period includes three of the four law terms, the afflux
of strangers is increased by those who are interested in any proceedings before the courts.

The town mansions of tlie nobility and ffentry are not so remarkable as their country resi-
dences for architectural beauty ; but some of them are celebrated for their treasures of lite-
rature or art. The grounds of St. James's Park, Hyde Park, and Kensington Gardens,
emphatically called the lungs of Ijondon, and the fine enclosure of the Regent's Park, are
destined for the recreation of the |)ublic.

Middlesex may be regarded as the dairy and garden of London. Its soil is mostly a poor
gravel ; but, by tlie application of iimnure, it is fitted for kitchen gardens to tlie extent of
nearly throe tlioiisaiid acres ; the same extent of fruit gardens, and about half that extent
of nurseries, whence the greater part of England is supplied with choice plants and exotics.
But the largest portion of Middlesex is in grass, partly for the support of 10,(K)0 cow>i,
whicli supply Ii(Mi(lon with milk, and partly tbr furnishing it with hay, that of Middlesex
heiiig s;iid to bo made in a superior manner to any other in the kingdom. Great profits have

\ou L 32 ♦ 2 X

■^

878

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY,

Pakt III.

Himpton Conct

been derivpd from that species of clay which is convertible into brick. Ijarge tracts have
yielded 4(M)()/. an iicre; and after this clayey substance has been pared off, the soil has been
easily restored, by manure, to the uses of agriculture.
Hampton Court (Jig. 155.), built by Cardinal Wolsey, and enlarged by Sir Christopher

Wren, forms one of the largest of the
English palaces. Here are many fine pic-
tures, among which are seven of the car-
toons of Raphael, regarded as the master-
pieces of that renowned painter. Bushy
Park, the seat of William IV. while Duke
of Clarence, is surrounded with magnifi-
cent woods. Chiswick, the villa of the
Duke of Devonshire, ond Osterley Park,
both in this vicinity, contain fine pamtings.
Syon House is the seat of tlio Duke of
Northumberland. But the chief ornaments
of Middlesex are the villas of the wealthy
citizens of London. At Twickenham, bar-
barous hands have demolished Pope's villa. Strawberry Hill is a light fantastic fabric, built
by Horace VValpole. The villas which cover the hills of Ilampstead and Highgato com-
mand beautiful prospects.

Hertford, Bedford, Buckingham, Oxford, Northampton, Leicester, consist generally of a
vast plain, varied by gentle undulations ; the air is healthy and pure ; the agriculturists are
carefiil and laborious. The horses and black cattle of Leicestershire are famous throughout
the kingdom. Bedford and Berks have some fabrics of shawls, straw hats, and bone lace.
Silk and woollen hosiery have found their way into Leicester and Oxford shires, and Coven-
try has for centuries been renowned for its silk manufacture.

Oxford justly claims the first rank among the midland citiea Its university, the most
richly endowed in Europe, and the nursery of so many great men ; the numerous and exten-
sive edifices connected with it, arranged in such a manner as to produce a truly noble effect,
render it one of tlie most interesting places in England. The visiter, as ho passes along
either of the two main streets (Jig. 15(3.), beholds at every step some antique and majestic

structure ; even the houses of pri-
IgQ i«lSii '^' ^''**' individuals, presenting the

' ' I rll r, I ("A^k i aspect of ornamented cottagcsrising

one above the other, have a better
effect than the usual mechanical
lines of street. This beautiful city
is supported almost entirely by the
university, which is of great anti-
quity, and the principal buildings
wiiich now ornament it were built
between the times of Henry VI. and
Elizabetli. Oxford, in the reign of
Charles I., was a place of consider-
able political importance; parlia-
ments were summoned to meet
there, and the king maintained it
long as his last strong-hold. It has
nineteen colleges and four halls, in which reside above three thousand persons, of whom
about a third are maintained out of the funds of the colleges; and many, under the charac-
ter of masters, fellows, and other functionaries, enjoy liberal incomes.

The Bodleian Library is the most extensive in England, after that of the British Museum.
In the spacious quadrangle which contains this library are also the public schools ; a large
gallery of portraits having reference to the university ; the Arundel marbles, and the Pom-
fret statues, wiiich, though much mutilated, present some fine specimens of ancient .sculp-
ture. The Radclifl^e Library is the finest library roc^ii in Oxfiird ; but it labours under a
deficiency of books. Christ-church is an ample and venerable edifice, adorned with some
fine old painted glass. In an adjoining apartment is tiio collection of pictures bequeathed
by Geiu>ral Giiiso, svhich coiitiiins some specimens of unquestioned excellence. New Col-
lege chiipnl attracts admiration by its fine scries of paintings on glass, executed by Jervis,
after the designs of Sir Josliua Reynolds. .Ml-Souls College, Mag<lalcn College, and
Queen's College, display architectural beauties of no common order.

Wixidstock lias a gay aspect; to the interesting features in EnglisI: history and romance
it adds tiio solid benefit of a large manufacture of leather gloves. Biickinghnm and Da-
ventry arc small antique towns. Newport Pagneil, in Bucks, forma a sort of centre of the
lace trade. Bedford carries on some manufactures of this description ; and being situated in

High Street, Oxrord.

«jn^r.

BOOE I.

ENGIJVND.

370

Blanhelm.

II ricli valloy, watered by tlie Oiise, lins a considerable stir in transmittiiifr its produce. The
industry of Dunstable is attested by the straw hats which bear its nitiiic. Ilorttbrd is a
Hmall provincial capital, chieHy remarkable for the college which the Eubt India Company
have founded, for the education of the civil servants whom they send abroad: St. Albans
ia venerable for its antiquitv, and its cathedral. Northampton, a place of considerable name
in EnjrliMh history, a well-built town on the Ncn, with a niarket-placo which has been
reckoned the finest in the kin<;dom, has a manufactory of boots and shoes for exportation,
and of lace. It is a great centre of the inland travelling between Ix>ndon and the north;
and the trade in horses has always been carried on in great fairs at this place. Leicester
is a still more important provincial capital. It is a place of note in Englisli history, and
attests its ancient importance by some fine old churches; but it had fallen into considerable
decay, till it was revived by the prosperity of the surrounding roiintry, chiefly in conse-
quence of the introduction of new breeds of stock into fine pastur , Lcicei«tcr has also a
large fabric of woollen stockings, in which it is only excelled by i\ottiii;;liiiin, and which,
under favourable circumstances, employs seven or eight thousand persons. (Jukliiim, the
capital of Rutlandshire, is a very small town.
The seats of this extensive district, though not so thickly planted as in the southern, are
157 yet numerous. Foremost stands Blen-

heim (Jifr. 157.) that proud monument
of a nation's gratitude to its long un-
rivalled hero. Its exterior displays that
minuteness of detail and general hea-
viness, which characterise the designs
of Vanbrugh : some of the apartments,
however, are of almost unequalled
grandeur; particularly the great holl^jk
fifty-three feet by forty-four, and sixt/'*'
high ; and the library, one hundred and
eighty feet by forty-three. The woods,
also, the lake, and the general disposition of the grounds, are greatly admired. The gallery of

Sictures is one of the very finest in tlie kingdom, containing some of the best works of
Lubens, Vandyke, and Titian. Stowe, the seat of the Duke of Buckingham, is celebrated
as the most elaborate and splendid example of the species of gardening called classical, in
which an attempt is made to present nature herself in an ornamented form. Her own pro-
per ornamente, of wood, water, hill and plain, are heightened by the introduction of tem-
ples, ruins, statues, inscriptions, nnd other objects calculated to excite lofty and poetical
ideas. Modern taste rejects many of these accessories, as breaking in uiwn the idea of
simple nature, to which it seeks to make the nearest possible approach ; yet, a space of four
hundred acres, filled with groves, temples, and meandering streams, must present many
beautiful sites. "The rich landscapes," says Walpole, "occasioned by the multiplicity of
temples and obelisks, and various pictures that present themselves as we shift our situation ;
occasion surprise and pleasure, sometimes recalling Albano's landscapes to (>ur mind, and
oftener to our fancy the idolatrous and luxurious vales of Daphne and Tempe." The house
also is handsome and richly ornamented, and contains some fine paintings. Wobum Abbey,
where the house of Russel, by princely shows and festivals, have thrown a new lustre on
British agriculture, is a magnificent edifice. The stables, experimental farm, and other
appendages of the most useful of arts, excite the admiration of every farmer and even ama-
teur ; nor is this residence deficient in tlie lighter embellishments of painting and statuary.
Althorp, near Northampton, is adorned with many rare and valuable works of art ; but it is
ui London chiefly that Earl Spencer keeps his library, the first in the kingdom. Opposite
to Stamford ia Burleigh, a noble old residence of Cecil, Elizabeth's minister. It contains a
fine library of books and manuscripts ; and the Exeter family have enriched it with a col-
lection of paintiiigs, generally supposed to be the most extensive in England. Near Oak-
ham, is another Burleigh on the hill, once the seat of the gay revels of Buckingham. It
has a noble terrace in front, and contains a good library, with some curious paintings. On
the Iwrder of Leicestershire and Lincolnshire, stands the Duke of Rutland's proud castel-
lated edifice of Belvoir. From a lofty height it overlooks a vast extent of country, includ-
ing the vale of the same name, one of the richest and most beautiful in England. The col-
lection of paintings is of great value.

VVorwick is a noble county. Its woodlands, the remains of the wide ancient forest of
Arden, are still extensive, and a great part lies in fine natural grass. Pasturage predomi-
nates greatly over agriculture, occupying nearly two-thirds.

Warwick, an ancient and well-built town, still preserves a portion of its prosperity by tlie

.manufacture of woollens. Coventry is a large old town, built very irregularly, and many of

' the houses exhibiting tho uncouth architecture of a distant period. Its ecclesiastical monu-

.ments. however, are of imixirtance. St. Michael's is a very liirht and elegant structure,

with a spire rising to three Imndred feet. The fabric of silk, introduced more tlian a cen-

?w^^

■»-

980

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

tury ago by tlio French refUgees, has made a iiio«t rnpul pro^frpps, no that in 1819 it rtnploywl
2810 looinB. In the nmkinjf ol' wutclieH, iilso, tliirt city now riviilw Jxmtlon, I.uuniintfton,
thoujEfii its spa is mentiuncd by Camden, never bcciinie u bC(.Mio of crowded resort, till tho
beginning of tliis century ; yet so creut since that jmriod ban lienn its attnionnn, that it has
lisen from a mere villaffe to bo a flourishinff place. 'J'liere are both hot onil cold bntiis ; and
the waters arc used cither for drinking or bathing. Leamington now possesses, on a hand-
some scale, baths, inns, a theatre, an as-scmbly-room, — all tho accommodation for the sick
and tlie gay. StratfonI, a considerable town on tho Avon, to which tho muse has given a
deathless name, is tho birth-place of Shakspeare ; the poetical pilgrim iicro beholds the
genuine tomb of the poet, and the site of the house chosen by him for his final residence ;
though the house itself a barbarous hand has demolished. Birmingham is in Warwickshire,
but as it is the capital of the iron country, which is almost wholly in Stoflbrdshire, we shall
class it witit the great towns devoted to the working of that material.

There are two castellated scats in this county, Kenilworth and Warwick, both of almost

matchless grandeur ; but the former presents only tho picturesque remains of its pristine

158 state (Jg. 158.). Founded in the

reign of Henry I., it was extended
and adorned by John of Gaunt; and
remained with the princes of the
house of Lancaster till wrested from
them by the triumph of the house of
York. It continued thenceforth a
royal appanage ; and was bestowed
by Elizabeth on her handsome fa-
vourite, Leicester, whose residence
^^ KeoUwortb Cull*. here, and the splendid flBtes and ro-

VV -^ ' '^j^Vnuitic incidents connected with it, have been so happily worked up by the greatest romance
writer of the age. At the close of the civil wars, it was given up wholly by Cromwell to
his soldiers for plunder, and was reduced to the totally fallen state in which it now appears.
The walls were indeed entire, but completely naked and roofless ; and the visiter who stands
at the interior foot of the tower can trace onljr by chimneys, and other slight marks, the
0k > auccessive apartments rising above each other till they are terminated by the dome ot^ the

■i f , sky. Kenilworth exhibiif the feudal age in its total downfall ; but the traveller has only to

proceed a few miles in order to see it entire and in full glory. This is the proud mansion
once inhabited by the king-making Earl of Warwick (Jig. 159.). It was built by the Earl

. of Warwick, who, in the four-

159 HDtt teenth century, distinguished him-

self at the battles of Cresfy and
Poitiers. Edward IV. seized an
opportunity of annexing it to the
crown. It was afterwards bestowed
by King James on Lord Brooke,
who spent a large sum in restoring
it fVom a state of decay ; and tho
late earl repaired it so judiciously,
and made his additions in such
harmony witli the or';<'inal pile,
that he may be considered almost
the creator of the edifice in its
Warwick CuU«. present state. The entrance, cut

through a rock, and opening at once on three of the loftiest towers, has an effect truly
striking. The interior is equally grand and interesting. First is a passage or corridor up-
wards of 300 feet in extent, seen from end to end, and alon^ which the state apartments arc
arranged. The grand hall, 62 feet long, is wainscoted with oak, hung with armour, and
maintained in fiill feudal keeping.

Staffordshire has a somewhat bleak and uninviting aspect ; the farms are smaller, and
improvements less advanced than in the other midland counties, but its mineral stores are
immense. The region of coal is supposed to be about 5(MX)0 acres in extent, and cannot be
exhausted for ages. Besides its economical uses, tliis mineral is the main basis of the works
and manufactures of the county, and of all those in the north-west of England, which, but
for this ample supply of fuel, could never have attained their present astonishing height.
Iron, the most useful of metals, exists in equal abundance ; and since tho discovery that it
could be worked with coke, iron works have been established on an immense scale. Tho
whole district from Wolverhampton to Birmingham may be called a Cyclopean land, whore
furnaces without number are continually pouring out fire and smoke. The clay.^ afford the
material of the pottery, which forms the otiicr great Staflbrdshirc manufacture. It is long
since some coarse vessels were made at Burslcm ; but Mr. Wedgwood raised this fabric tn

Book I.

ENGLAND.

the tiiglicat perfection, and rendered it an object of national importance. Not content witli
the native materialH, lie imported the finest white cluyg and best llintM from the southern
counties; and funned that variety of articles called \Vcd{rwoo<rs ware, applicable to all

fiurixwes of use and ornament, and auperior in some respects to the best porcelain. Hence
las Hprun)7 up a range of villages forming; u dintrict culled the Potteries, of which Buralein
is tlio centre, and which contain about 0(),(MM) inhabitants.
The principal cluster of lurjfo towns in StutTordshire consists of those in the southern

auarter which arc employed in making iron, and manufacturing it into various forms. Of
lis district Birmin^'ham is the capital ; and at the remotest periods iron is mentioned as its
staple, but the grand impulse given was early in the lost century, when John Taylor, the
founder of the wealtJiy family of that name, Matthew Boulton, &iq., and other individuals,
by tlie spirit of their undertakings, and by their liberal patronage of skill and ingenuity in
every line, contributed greatly to the e.stablislimcnt of the manufacturing fame of the town.
Mr. Boulton, having secured the celebrated Mr. Watt, established, in conjunction with him,
at Soho, near Birmingham, their immense manufactory, in which talent, science, capital, ex-
perience, united every thing which could raise hardware articles to perfection. Pre-eminent
above all is ttie steam-engine, which Mr. Watt, its great improver, not only applied to the
use of his works here, but constructed for the rest of England. The copper coinage exe-
cuted at Soho by steam-power for the use of government lias been greatly admired. Under
the impulse of such an examplei the citizens of Birmingham soon produced their standard
articles of a cheapness and excellence which defied all competition. The articles manu-
factured in Birmmghum consist, in a great measure, of such as, individually, appear un-
worthy of being named, yet astonish and dazzle by their magnitude, when half the world is
to be supplied with them ; such as pins, buttons, nails, paper trays, filiifree, and toys. There
are not wanting, however, fabrics of greater magnitude, taken even singly, such as that of
fire-arms, &c. During the last war, the gunsmiths of Birmingham met the demand with
such energy, that, on one occasion, they delivered to government 14,000 ipuskets in a we^|^
Of ponderous machinery, none, perhaps, is more interesting than that of the metal rolling-
mills. Birmingham is commodiously built, with suitable churches and other edifices, but
without any thmg prominent in architecture, or any antique monuments. The town can
boost of enlightened citizens, under whose auspices letters and the arts have been cultivated
with ardour. The institutions for the education of the poor are not, perhaps, surpassed by
any in the kingdom for extent and efficacy. ^

The other great manufacturing towns, almost all in Staffordshire, are Wolverhampton, (/
very populous place, of considerable antiquity, with a fine old church ; but indebted for it.-i
present greatness to the making of locks and keys in a manner superior to any town in the
world. Wednesbury has a fine old Gothic chitrch ; but its main boast at present is, the
making of all tlie hard materials of coach harness in an unrivalled manner. Walsall flour-
ishes by the making of every thing connected with saddlery ; Dudley by its nails : but it
has alx> a castle of some note in history, commanding a view of seven counties.

The nominal capital, Stafford, is yet to be noticed ; an ancient but small town, of neat
appearance, ornamented with the usual county buildings. The Grand Trunk Canal, how-
ever, passing by it, has given an impulse to its industry ; and it carries on a considerable
manufacture of boots and shoes. Ncwcastle-undcr-Line, and Tamworth, are both consider-
able towns on one of the great Tx)ndon roads.

Lichfield is a more elegant and interesting place. Its most prominent object is the ca' u'-
dral, of high antiquity, the finest part of which was built in 1140; some particular portiont^
are equal to any thing of the kind in Britain : such are the portico, richly adorned with
sculpture; the choir; and St. Mary's chapel. The society fixed there by this richly endowed
establishment, together with the neatness of the town, and ita pleasant situation, have
induced many of the gentry in this quarter to make it their residence. These circumstances
have contributed to give to Lichfield that intellectual character which is so conspicuous,
and has mado it almost the literary metro]X)lis of south-western England. The birth and
early education of Johnson and Garrick are alone sufficient to immortalise it. Lichfield
enjoys high privileges as a city, having a district of some extent round it considered a county
of itself.

Derbyshire, in its natural features, is perhaps the most remarkable of ony county of Eng-
land. Except in the lower and southern districts on the Trent, the whole county is traversed
by ranges of rugged and rocky hills, penetrated by vast excavations, and separated by
narrow valleys. Lead is abundant, chiefly in the form of galena. Iron is also worked very
plentifiiUy. This county is also celebrated for the variety and beauty of its calcareous sub-
stances, particularly the kind called Blue John (fluor spar), which, by the skilful application
of a gentle heat, is made to exhibit the most brilliant colours. Lastly, there are numerous
hot springs variously impregnated ; and tlie county contains two of the most remarkable
watering-places in the kingdom, Matlock and Buxton.

In proceeding to Castleton, the traveller passes through the Winyats, or gates of the

J*,

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

Pamt III.

windi, a narrow rood of about a
160

Peak Cavmi, Dnbriblra.

milti in length, botwcnn prrcipicrs a thouMUul foot high,
dark, ruvcvd, and porpcndiculiir. At uio
end of tn» ruad opcnM on ono nido Mam
Tor, or the 8hivcrmtf Muuntiiin, UHMIfcet
hif(h ; on the other tlie Hiffii Ponk crownml
with tlio ruins of a Saxon fortreHH ; and
at ita foot, the wonder of wondcrn, " the
Peak Cavern." (Jg. IflO.) Ti:ia ia a huge
gulf, 42 feet liif^i and 120 long, at the foot
of perpendicular cliifri. The viaitor i«
thence guided through a auccctmion of
dark cavernous apartnienta, and \» lerrie<l
along a subterrancoua river ; above which
the rocka riae so cIobc, that he raUMt lie
flat on his face. At the end of oomcwhat
above 2000 feet the cavern terminatea, or,
at least, becomes no longer posaable.
Elden Hole ia a tisauro near Buxton, which
descends perpendicularly to an unknown depth. A line of 2052 feet hnw been let down
without finding a bottom. Poole's Hole, near Buxton, is chiefly remarkable for the petri-
factions with which it is filled.

On descending into the Low Peak, a milder grandeur presents itaelf. The most rugged chains

vf Derbyshire are interspersed with beautifhl valleys ; but none equals that of Matlock, where

... the banks of the Derwent arc bordered

*"* by extensive woods, interspersed with

the boldest and moat varied forma of
rock. Dovcdale (/^. 161.) is a wilder
scene, where the river Dove ia hem-
med in by perpendicular rocks, of forma
so bold, and covered with such variety
of trees and ahnibs, that this haa some-
times been deemed the most picturcaque
spot in England.

Derby, the capital of this county, on
the Derwent, is handsome and well
built, and has extensive manufactures.
Silk, introduced at the commencement
of the last century, has contiimed to
flourish. Porcelain is also manufac-
tured here; and what is called its white ware is considered almost unrivalled, A consider-
able number of workmen are employed in cutting and polishing marble ; and the Derbythire
spar is foshioned into a variety of beautiful forms.

The watering-places in Derbyshire have the next claim to notice. Matlock contains
mineral spring.", efficacious in consumptive and rheumatic complaints. Buxton, in the High
Peak, surrounded by naked mountaina, attracts a much greater multitude ; and its waters
are considered very powerful in rheumatism, gout, and other diseases. The Duke of Devon-
shire haa here constructed a superb crescent, occupied by inns, shops, ball-rooms, and every
tiling that can contribute to the accommodation and gaiety of the visitanta.

Of acats, Chatsworth haa sometimes been considered the finest in England. It was built
by William first duke of Deyonahire, in 1702 ; and is 191 feet square, of the Ionic order,
richly ornamented both within and without. Keddlcstone House has a fine Doric front, 360
feet long, considered one of the finest nrchitoctural features in England, llardwicke Hall
was long the residence of the unfortunate Mary ; the furniture and the portraits remain, in
many respects, in the same state as during her residence.

Nottingham is watered by the broad stream of the Trent, its tributaries, and numerous
canals. The Vale of Belvoir, to the south-oast, ranks with the richest tracts in tlie island.
The north-western part contains the remnant of the great forest of Sherwood, filmed for the
revelries of the merry outlaw Robin Hood. Being covered, also, in a great measure, with
the ornamented grounds of noblemen of high rank, it is called the " dukeries." The manu-
factures of hosiery in this county, I^eicester and Derby, employ 33,000 frames and 73,000
operatives, producing in cotton 880,000/., worsted 870,000/., silk 241,000/. The lace trade
employs 150,000 embroiderers in tliis county.

Nottingham ia a large town, boldly and picturesquely situated upon the Trent. Its streets
are arranged along tlie face of a hill so steep, that the ground floors of the street behind, in
Kome instances, rise higher than the roofs of those in front. The rocky materials of this hill
are ao sofl and yielding, that they are cut to a great extent into cellars and wareiiouses.
The making of stockings has always been the staple of Nottingham. They are worked f4i

gr^-,^ ■'■■■*

m-~'..

I in

imcrous
island,
for the
e, with
manu-
73,000
e trade

streets
hind, in
this hill
housee.
rked ciii

BomL

-s^» j; ENGLAND. 363

framci, whidi, in the middle of liut century, icarcely exceeded 1200, and at preiicht amount
to 10,(KK). The laco trade recently uhlod w of very ffruat importance. There are stated to
he l!i40 machlnen in the town, and 1070 in the nctiifhoourhcxxi ; and the lace aohl in itM mar>
kct is valui-il nt i:iO,(K)0/. Nottingham has also a ((rent inland tra<le hy the Trent andcanalii
connected with it.

Newark is noted for its castle, and for a pariwh church, said to be the finest in the king-
dom,

Nottinghamshire may boast mmo splendid seal*. Worksop Manor, huilt by the Duke of
Norfolk, contains tine portraits of the Howard fhmily. Cluiiil>er Park is tltted up in a nm^-
niflccnt stylo by the Duke of Newcastle, with a very valuable collection of pictures. Wel-
bcck Abbey, a seat of the Duke of Portland, is noted for its lino stables, Nowsteod Abbey
had been stripped of its fine ftimiture and paintings before it came to the late Lord Byron.

ScBBECT 4, — The Northern Countie$.

The northern counties of England may be described, generally, as reaching fVom the
Humber and the Mersey to tlio isteottisii border. They include the wide extent of }or/lf«A«rr,
divided into throe ridings, and of Lancathire, Durham, Norlhnmherland, Cumbrrland, and
Weitmoreland. The eastern portion ia interspersed with large bleak tracts of mountain,
mo68, and moor. Its ports carry on a thriving trade in conrse, bulky, and useful conmioditics.
The south-western, comprising Ijancoshiro and the west riding of Yorkshire, by the vast pro-
duce of its manufactories, leaves far behind it every other district in the world. The north-
western, or the country of the Iiakos, has a higher dcgreu of picturesque beauty than any
other part of England.

The counties of Northumberland and Durham are hilly and elevated ; and their chief
wealth is subterraneous. A species of coarse coal, mixed with lead, everywhere abounds ;
and the lead is exported to the extent of from five to ten thousand tons. But within tliis
mineral region there is enclosed a smaller one, reaching from the mouth of the Coquet to
the Tees, a length of about fifty miles, and having its greatest breadth of about twenty niilea
upon the Tyne. Within this tract are found iminterruptcd beds of that valuable cool with
which London is whotly supplied, and of which great quantities are either sent to other parts
of the kingdom, or exported.

Newcastle was famed ut an early period in the military annals of England, It formed a
leading point in the wall of Hadrian and in that of Sevcrus, Robert, son of the Conqueror,
built here a castle of immense strength, more than two miles in circuit, which served long
as the main bulwark against Scottish invasion. Scarcely a trace of it now remains ; and
the occupations of Newcastle are entirely changed. Both banks of the river, down to Ty no-
mouth, form an immense wharf, to which, by railways ond steam wagons, coals are conveye<l
from the contiguous pits. In 1830, the quantity exported was 807,513 chaldrons, about
2,300,000 tons. Newcastle carries on very extensive manufactories, particularly tiiat of
gloss. There are thirty-one works on the Tyne, which in some years have produced gloss to
the value of 500,0001. In shipping it is second only to London, having belongmg to it, in 1832,
1077 vessels, of the burthen of 220,784 tons. Foundery, pottery, weaving, are not on a
very great scale. Newcastle is now, on the whole, a well-built town, thoujrli some of the
streets are inconveniently steep : it is highly ornamented by the spire of St. Nicholas, con-
sidered by the best judges as one of the finest specimens of the Gothic. It possesses a lite-
rary society, which has published valuable transactions ; and an antiquarian society, destined
particularly to receive the Roman coins, Sec. which are fVequently dug up on this lino. The
large town of Gateshead, on the opposite side of the river, though placed in Durham, is really
part of Newcastle, and raises its population to 57,000.

A continued range of great commercial towns cluster thick around Newcastle. Near the
mouth of^ the Tyne are North Shields and South Shields, on opposite sides of the river ; the
lotter being in the county of Durham. They carry on with octivity the coal trade, and the
others propr to Newcastle ; particularly ship-building and the making of ropes and sails.
Tynemouth, at the immediate opening of the river into the ocean, displays, on a bold prom-
ontory, a castle, a light-house, and a fine old abbey ; they form a striking and romantic scene,
which contrasts with those immediately above. At the mouth of the Wear, are Sunderland
and Wearmouth, — the one a very great, and the other a considerable port. Their prosperity
is supported by the same great trade of coals, of which in 1832 they sent 600,000 tons to
the port of London, two-thirds of thot which comes down the Tyne. They carry on oLso
the same manufactures, particularly ship-building, in which Sunderland is supposed to exer
a greoter activity than any other place in the kingdom. The bridge there has long been
celebrated : it consists of one arch of iron framework thrown across the river, 2(X) feet span,
and 100 feet high, allowing very large vessels to pass under without lowering their sailti.
" Nothing," says M. Dupin, " can be more striking than this view of the two cities, and the
bridge that unites them ; that majestic arch drawn against the sky, which allows large vessels
to pass under its vault with their sails flying." He afterwards adds, in regard to these ports
generally : " It is an admirable thing, within an extent of coast which a man may walk over

ij
I

8 ft 1

H V 'I

p. S tl

:i64

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PAkTHL

on fixit ill tlirno nr I'tHir houri, tu hco two ^rrat rivora rccoivo 10,0(10 voweli, and lond
tlirin nwny Imiilcil with tlio prmlucu ut' tlirir banki. On tlio raino iiiirrow apace ara lix
fliiuriiiliiii^; lowiu*, coiituinin|{ a pupulntion vX f^ffXl pcrmniii all dovutotl to coinmorco and
iniliiiitry."

niirlinin is liiituliioninly built, tliuii);li on very iinnvcii ffruumi ; Itri vrnnd ornnmont b tho
ciithcilnil, ri'nrcil in tho olovcnth ciMitury, which im pcrimpi unrivalled a« to itM itiluation,
rnn((iii(; uli>n<r tlui Ruinmitof a prccinitoua rock ci((hty fcot hi^h abovu tho Wuiir, which
wiiiiJH nloii;; its liiwo. Thi) dcc of Durham ia the richcat in Knitlnnd ; and tlio cathedral,
lx!8iil(.'ii a lit'iiii, twulvo probimdarieri, and two archdeacons, hoa attached to it about sixty
npirit'inl aorvniita of varioua raiika.

The nuiiibir of amnllur towiia in thoae countica ia atill conaidonible. In Durham, Stock*
ton near tho nioiith of tho Tooa carries on tho trade of that river ; in 1833 it carried n!),000
tona of cuikl to I/iiidon, and has alao the Baltic trade, and tho nuinuikcturo of Miilcloth and
other naval materiala. Hexham, on the Upper Tvno, ia the capital of interior Northumber-
land, and of tho grand ancient acene of border uebato, Morpeth hoa a weekly market for
the cattle brought up ftom Scotland.

102 The aeata are chiefly great iMronial

castlei, at tho head of which ntands Aln<
wick (fig. 102.). This proud keep of the
Porcies covers five acres, and is defend-
od by sixteen towers. An expense of
200,000/. has been incurcd in converting
tho interior fVoin a feudal castle into the
most nplcndid of iiiodern mansions. Wark*
worth Castle, another seat of thu Pcrciea,
rotuiiiH its antique character. I.umley,

_ tho feudal ciistlo of tho Earls of Scar-

Ainwiek CittUe, borough, presents entire its august and

formidable firoiit. Raby Castle, Howick, Lombton Hall, and Bishop Auckland, are lino scats.
Yorkshire is next in order : its eastern division resembles the two counties just described ;
while the western forms part of tho great central seat of English manufacture. The York-
■hiroman has n character of his own, marked by shrewdness, simplicity, good humour, and a
species of drollory ; so tliat tho London comic stage is considered incompleto without one of
his reproHontativcs. The North Riding consists, to a great extent, of moorlands ; the hilli
of which rise ollon to a considcrablo height. Thcso dreary tracts spread ovor the whole
Riding, ao that culturu can exist only in the valleys. The East Riding, which extends to the
Huml)cr, is traversed also by a range of high wolds, which, though rugged, have not been
able to resist the energies of British industry. These Ridings present to the German Ocean
high and nflen precipitous rocks, of which Flamborough Ifead, nearly 500 feet high, forma
one of tiic boldest features in English landscape. The West Riding is composed chiefly of
a wide, flat, fertile plain, traverscid by tho Aire, the Calder, and other navigable rivers, which
convey its profUico to tlie eastern, and, by means of canals, to the westrm sea. In this tract
is placed tho inimcnse manufacturing district of Yorkshire ; in its extreme west is the dis-
trict of Craven, thu most rugged and mountainous of all England ; for here rise Inglcborough,
Wharuside, Pcnnigcnt, each to the height of nearly three thousand feet. There is scarcely
a county in whicii tho spirit of agricultural improvement has been so active as in Yorkshire ;
and vast tracts of waste and common land have been reclaimed und rendered pro<luctive.

Hull, the principal port, is the fourth commercial city in England, only surpassed by Lon-
don, Liverpool, and Bristol. It carries on a most extensive export of goods brought by the
interior system of rivers and canals. It is ihe principal of tho whale-hshcry ports \ though
this brancii has lately declined. During tlie nine years ending with 1818, the average
number of vessels fltted out from Hull for the whale fieihery amounted to .53^ ; while in 1830,
it sent out only 33. In 1832, it owned 557 ships, carrying 68,892 tons, and there entered
its port 1279 vest^ols, of the burden of 192,661 tons. The Old Dock, completed in 1778, the
Humbcr Dock in 1809, and the Junction Dock in 1829, contain a space of twenty-three
acres. Goole, on the Ouse, a little above its junction with the Humber, is beginning to share
with Hull in the exportation of woollens. Though a few years ago a mere village, ond still,
in 1831, containing only 1070 inhabitants, it has two spacious docks, and in 1829 the customs
exceeded 40,000/., and the declared value of exports amounted to 625,000/. GikxIs sent
from Leeds or Wakelield by rivers or canals can be embarked at Goole in tlio cuurso of
twelve hours.

Whitby is a very ancient town, with the remains of a fine abbey built soon after tlio Con-
quest. Its modern importance is derived from large mines of alum. The export of their
produce forms a considemble trade, to which Whitby soon added tho other branches preva-
lent on tills coast, and became second only to Hull.

Scarborough, romantically situated on a promontory lictween two rocks overlooking the
■ea, is tho chief watering-place of tlie nortli of England.

^ '

UooK L

ENGLAND.

asA

■o Con-
If their
Ipreva-

|ig tlie

YiirkCtthrdciI.

Yurk, tlin cnpittil, in t!io flrHt object that Htriknit iih m wu proccml iiitn thn interior of tlie
North onil \Vo«tRi(lin((M. TIiIh ct'lnbnitinl city, thuiiKh «(> miic-h ccIIinukI by Mcvcrai thataro
only of tiwliiy, itiil biMuil.<r xuino tiiiio York <liN|>uto<l with Iintuloii thti
(liMtinction oriH'ing tho ciipitiii of Kii);laiid ; ami whun uhli|{oiltoirivn up tluH claim, continu-
ed the uu<iiiotition<!d inctruiioiii of tliu north, till tho croativu pownm of trade rained up rival*
to it in tho north-went. The hoiiHo« nro hi)(h, and the ntreetn narrow ; ynt, altuKetlicr, York
u a handitoinc, re»|H!Clalile-liK)kiii); old city. It boaxlM one feature of almiMt unrivalled
Iwauty, — ita cathedral. (Jg. 103.) Un tho exterior all the richnuHH and elegance of Gothic

ornament haii been lavished, particularly
upon the wmtern tVont and the hir^u win-
dow in tho eaittcrn. But the interior ia
without a rival in tho empire ; its effect in
altogethor iiublime : itH numerous windows
of painted g\Ma nhed a dim, Holemn, reli-
Ifious light, in accorilanco with the charac-
tor of tho cdiflco. Tho chaptc-liousc is of
xingular elegance and mogniHccuce; and,
though of great extent, haa its roof support-
ed by a single pin. The choir of thin splen-
did edifice suflcred severe injury from a fire
kindlml by the hands of a maniac ; but by
grop.t exertions has been ftiUy repaired. The
remains of tho ruined abbey of St. Mary, and those of several of the twenty-tlirco churchcu
of York, are also deserving notice. There are likewise some elegant modern edifices, par-
ticularly the atiHcmbly room, tho county hall, guildhall, tlie mansion-house, and the museum
of the YorkHhire Philosophical Society. YorTt is still a gay town, visited by many of tho
northern gentry, particularly at the time of its races. It carries on some inland trade by
the Ouse, which ixissea through it.

Doncastcr is much frequented during tho time of i*8 races. Pontofract is surrounded by
a great extent of garden and nursery ground, tho produce of which is sent to a considerable
distance. Scarcely a vestige remams of that immense and powerful keep, covering seven
acrcji, in which Thomas of ijancaster, Richard II„ and many other fallen chiefs amrstntrs-
men, were immured. The parliament, during the civil wars, having taken it utter threo
successive and arduous sieges, caused it to be completely dcmolisliud.

Ijceds J!! the capital of western Yorkshire, and, in a commercial sense, of the whole
county. Although it was of some note oven in early times, its present crcatness is modern,
and of the most rapid growth. The population, which in 177.") was only 17,117, amounted
in 1831 to 13:),303; being thus nearly quintupled. A peculiar activity and spirit of enter-
prise has boon observed among the munulacturera of Leeds : it was, doubtless, greatly
favoured by the vast extent of inland navigation, which seemed to centre hprt% connecting
it with the capital, with both seas, and with tlio counties to the south, fruMi wiiich it derives
inexhaustible supplies of tine coal. The woollen inanutactitre is not carried on wholly in
large towns; tho cloth ia wrought to a certain state of forwardness in the numerous villages,
thence sent into Leeds, where it is purchased and worked up into a saleable state. The
cloths are sold in weekly markets, held in the cloth halls, the most remarkable feature in
Leeds. That for mixed cloths was built in 1758, that for white cloth in 177.5. They form
quadrangular edifices round an open area, and are divided into stands, of which in the first
hall are 1800, and in tho second 1210. Those arc let at a moderate rent to the owners of
the cloth, who, on the rin^^ing of a bell, occupy their stands, and though tho market remains
open only an hour, goods to an immense value are often disposed of. Although the staple
of Jjceds and of Yorkshire be common cloth, yet other bmnches are in some degree include<l,
as sail-clotii, cotton, carpets, and superfine cloths. Mr. Orinkwater states the persons cm-
ployed in the mills for wool at 5290; worsted, 702; flax, 2434 ; cotton, 80; silk, I'id ; in
all, 8664 ; of whom .')318 are males, and 3346 females ; to which may be added 1814 in the
suburb of Ilolbcck. The town of Leeds is mostly well built, with several broad and spa-
rious streets; and the theatre, the new court-house, and the commercial buildinffs, finished
in 1829, are elegant structures. Kirkstall Abbey, three miles distant, presents, in a beauti-
ful situation, the most complete specimen of the architecture of the 12th century that is
extant. Tho people of Leeds have formed a literory and philosophical society, and an insti-
tution for the promotion of the fine arts ; for tho purpose of whicii a very handsome and
commodious edifice has been erected : meritorious exertions have also been made for the
education of the poor.

Of the other towns of the clothing district, whicli cluster round Leeds, ir«A-p/ff7r?, beauti-
fully situated on the Calder, has a cloth market, on a smaller scale, resembling that of Leeds,
and also great grain and cattle markets. Halifax, and the whole district about twenty miles
round it, has been converted from a desert into a populous and prosperous scene, containing
Vol. L 33 2Y

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

altogether 110,000 inhabitants. Its staples are what are properly called stuffs ; shallooiu,
ecTgea, haize, morceii.s, kerseys ; and it has lately embraced a considerable share of tlic cot-
ton manufiicture. Huddcrsticld is also a very thriving town, employed nearly in the same
branches ; and its market hall is supposed, next to that of Leeds, to present the greatest
eiiow of woollens.in the kingdom. Bradford and Keighley are large towns, which carry on
to a groat extent the tnanuiiicture of worsted : besides which, Bradtbrd has great iron found-
-ies in its neighbourliood.

In the southern part of tiiis riding, the manufactures of iron and cutlery take the place of
those of woollen ; and Hoiiri.'^h to such an extent, that they are second only to the great iron
district nround Birmingiium. Sheffield is the capital of this district. It early derived im-
portance from the fabrication ol arms, but it has reached a much higher degree of greatness
since it betook itself to tiie more useful fabrics of knives, forks, razors, suuflers, scissors,
combs, buttons, saws, sickles, and various instruments of hu-sbandry. The art of plating
goods with silver is carried to a vast extent. The silver is soldered upon the copper ; and
the articles are wrought by the hand or stamped. The cutlers of Sheffield keep many hun-
dred patterns of knives, of which some are of the value of seven or eight guineas, contain-
ing twenty-eight blades within the handle ; while others, afl,er passing through a multitude
of different hands, are sold for a penny eacli. The rapid growth of ShefUeld commenced
about the year 1750, when the river Don was rendered navigable to within a few miles of
the town. Since that time its advance has been steady ; new branches having been con-
stantly adding, and the former ones extending. The houses are chiefly modern, and well
built ; and the town makes a tolerable appeai^nce, notwithstanding the smoke of the forges
in which it is involved. The military barracks erected here form an extensive pile of build-
ing. The infirmary is considered equal to any in tlie kingdom ; and great credit is due to
Sheffield for the excellence of the schools which it maintains for the education of the lower
orders. It supports also many public charities; has a literary society, a mechanics' insti-
tute, and a library.

Bamsley produces wire, nails, and other articles, but derives its chief importance from the
linen nianutacturc. Rotherham has a great tbundery for cannon. The first iron bridge was
constructed here at the works of Messrs. Walker ; and they have since executed those of
Sunderland, Staines, and Yarn). Rotherham, being in a fine country, has also a great corn
and cattle market.

The superb seats wliich adorn Yorkshire are so many, tbat to enumerate even the most
distinguished can witli difRculty suit our limits. Castle Howard is a magnificent pile, noted
liir its classical collection of sculpture and painting. Duncombe Park is admired tor the
noble view obtained from the terrace in front, and for the ruins of Rivaulx Abbey, situated
in !i beautiful vale at a little distance; Studley Royal, an almost unrivalled specimen of an
ornamental park, encloses within its precincts, Fountain's Abbey, one of the grandest of
monastic remains, covering several acres. Wentworth House is generally considered the
noblest mansion in the north. The principal front extends upwards of 600 feet, forming a
centre arl two wings, in the middle of which is a fine Corinthian portico.

Ijancashire, situated beyond the hilly border of York West Riding, forms the capital or
central seat of manul'acture for Britain, and even for the world. Its soil and climate are
unfavourable; tiie upland tracts being rocky an 1 barren, and the coast too low and flat, while
tlie moisture from tlie Atlantic is injurious to the growth of the finer kinds of grain. But
coal traverses in large beds the south and south-eastern parts of the county ; and being con-
veyed by short canal lines to all the great towns, affords cheap and abundant fuel for the
steam-engines and other grand manufiicturing apparatus. Canal navigation, which origi-
nated in Lancashire, has been carried to a greater extent there than in any other part of the
kingdom. Besides those smaller canals which connect all t'lf' great thriving towns, it has
tho Lancaster Canal running north and south tlirough ni-^rly ii.-! whole extent, and intc
Westmoreland as fiir as Kendal ; and the still more important \i\,f of the Leeds and Liver-
,poa[ (Janal ; while, in the southern boi-der, the Grand Trunk connects it with London and
the whole centre of England. A most imi)ortant additional r.o:umunication has recently
fxien opened by the railway, elsewhere described, by which Liv;rpool and Manchester, so
tar as respects personal conveyance, are brought ahnast into contact.

Manchester, the centre of British industry, and the manufacturing capital of the empire,
is favourably situated on the Irwell ; though this stream, navigable for barges, scarcely makes
any (igtirc beside the vast artificial line." formed from its waters. Altliough the cotton maiui-
liictHro is now widely ditliiHod throughout England, Manche.-'tcr continues the coiitro of the
trade; receiving and distributing the raw material, collecting the produce wcirked up in
numerous towns and villages, and transmitting it to the various market.-. From the middle
of the last century she has advanced with amazing and accelerated rajjidity ;aiid the system of
inland navigation having afforded copious channels by which the material can be introduced
and the manufactured article exported, every obsf^iclo to thi; absorjrtiou of the whole into
this centre was removed. Its manufacture embraces the finer nuislins and other delicate
fabrics, with the plain and useful forms of diniitie?, fustians, velveteens, checks, sliirtings

Book 1.

ENGLAND.

387

ginghams, diancrs, cambric muslins, figured muslins, cnlicocs for printing, and various fancy
goods. Tlio diiTcrent cotton fabrics generally denominated Manchester goods, are not all
manufactured within the town itself, but in the neighbouring towns and districts ; and, afler
being bleached, and some of them printed, arc sent in a iinislied state to Manchester to be
«old ; the chief market days being Tuesdays and Saturdays. Thus Marseilles quillings,
cambric muslins, calicoes tor printing, bed quilts and counterpanes, checks, fustians, and
shirtings, arc brought in from the surrounding towns and villages. A vast deal of yam is
also spun for exportation. Manchester has extensive establishments for printing and dyeing;
also, for constructing and keeping in repoir Eleam-ongincs, as well as omer machines
employed in manufacture. Even iron founderies are necessary to supply the material?.
Other important branches have recently been added. Manciiester now rivals Macclesfield
and Norwich in the manufacture of silks, and Nottingham in tliat of lace. In 1832, there
wore at work in the townships of Manchester and Salford, 96 cotton mills, 16 silk, 4 woollen
and worsted, and 2 flax mills. The number employed in cotton Victories amounted to
20,.585 ; of whom, 5361 were male and 7035 female adults ; 4286 male and 3903 female
children. The wages paid to them per month were 40,333/., making about 9s. 9rf. of ave-
rage weekly earnings to each individual. There were 7174 mule spinners, earning 15,106i.
per month, averaging 10«. 6d. each per week ; 1497 spinners of a higlier class, earning
?491?. per month, or II. 8s. id. each per week. Pieccrs' scavengers 2944, earning 3287/.
per month, each weekly 5». 6rf. In the power looms, women receive 8s. to 12s. ; men, 13s.
to 16s. lOi. ; dressers, 28s. to 30s. per week. Manchester is not an elegant town ; some
parts of its interior are narrow, crowded, fhll of warehouses and factories in huge masses
The entrances, however, have been mode handsome ; and, in the extremities of the town,
streets of elegant houses have been built for the accommodation of the opulent merchants.
It has one handsome Gothic collegiate church of the fifteenth century, and several more
modern, that are creditable to the taste of the town, as the Exchange, which includes a
news-room and a good library ; the Infirmary (which in one year received above 12,000
patients) ; the Town Hall, which contains one of the most splendid public rooms in Europe ;
and the Royal Institution for the Promotion of the Fine Arts. Tlie prison called the New
Bailey is an immense structure, — the inmates of wiiicli ore classed and provided with
employment to a considerable extent. Manchester is remarkable for its charitable institu-
tions ; hospitals of diflerent kinds ; and schools for the education of the poor. Cheetham's
Hospital, maintaining eighty poor cliildren, has a library of 18,(MK) or 20,000 volumes, con-
taining rare and valuable works. In 1781, a literary and philosophical society was formed
at Mancheste', and produced several valuable volumes of Transactions, enriched by the con-
tributions of Percival, Ferriar, Dalton, Henry, and other eminent gentlemen there resident.
In 1774, the population of the whole parish was 41,000 ; the amount of 142,000 for 1831 by
no means comprehends all that may be considered Manchester. The large towns and vil-
lages which have sprung up within its parish form really its suburbs, and raise the entire
population to 270,000. Of these, the most important are Salford, immediately contiguous,
and now raised to the rank of a borough ; and Chorlton Row, which in 1801 contained 675
inhabitants; in 1831, 20,565.

Huge towns, resembling cities, devoted to the cotton manufacture, are found in every
direction round Manchester. To the north are Blackburn and Bolton ; the former chiefly
employed in the branch of printed calicoes, which are supjiosed to be produced to the annual
value of 2,000,000/. A great advantage is derived from the Leeds and Liverpool Canal
passing close by it. Bolton is a town anciently of some strength, but now supported entirely
by industry. Some of the greatest improvements in the cotton manufacture, have been
made by Arkwright and Crompton, residents in this place. Preston, a flourishing seat of
manufacture, elects two members on a basis of almost universal suflirage. Wigan is a large
town, which adds to those of cotton and linen some manufactures of brass and pewter.
Bury, very near Manchester, besides extensive cotton works, has some of woollen. Oldham
was early a place of some consequence, carrying on a large fubric of hats ; but the intro-
duction of the cotton manufacture has caastxl it to make an astonishing progretss, so that in
thirty years it has nearly trebled its population, and the parish, including Pilkington, Cromp-
ton, and other towns, contains 67,.500 inhabitants. There are here now 65 cotton mills and
140 steam-engines, almost all erected during t'.ie present century.

Some large towns employed in other manuliictures than those of cotton lie on the borders
of Jjancosliirc. Rochdale, near the western point of Yorkshire, and in character a York-
shire town, has for its staple woollen stufla and f^.mnels, of which 8000 pieces arc made
weekly ; filly-sovon steam-engines are employed here, and about 84,000 lbs. of cotton yam
spun in the week. Warrington, on the Mersey, which is navigable tor vessels of eighty
tons from Ijiverjiool, in Henry VIII. 's time wan superior to Manchester; but it is now left
far behind. Its staples of sailcloth and cairsc linens have been c.vchanged tor cotton, to
which it adds glass and pins. Prescot is noted for the making of watch- wheels, springs,
chains, &c. several of which have been invented and improved by its workmen. Near it,
at St. Helen's, is a great manufactory of plate glass, employing 300 persons.

'' u,' I

■'^.

¥■

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY,

Part III

Liverpool, the commercial capital of LAiicoahire, is, if possible, a still grander object, and
far surpassing indeed every other seaport, witii the exception of tiic metropolis. Nothing
can Ini more rcmarlcable titan the contrast of its present state with its humble origin. In
the sixteentli century, it is described as a small place with only a chapel, having no parish
church within four miles. It had then 186 iniiabitants, and two or three ships, whose aggre-
gate tonnage was 223 tons ; and in a petition to Elizabeth, about tho year 1578, it is styled,
" her majesty's poor decayed town ;" it continued gradually to increase during the seven-
teentti century, till, in 1700, it was constituted a parish, and lioil 5000 inhabitants.
Since tiiat time it has advanced with rapid and accelerated steps ; in 1730, it had 12,000 ;
in 1760, 26,000; m 1800, 56,000 inhabitants; but the most rapid growth has been between
1811 and 1821, when it rose from 04,376 to 141,487. The increase to 165,000 in 1831
appears less rapid ; but in fact, the population during this period has overflowed into the
adjacent villages, and swelled them into large towns ; Toxteth-park increased from 2060 in
1801, to 24,067 in 1831 ; West Derby, Kirkdale, Everton, form in fact the suburbs of Liver-
pool, and, added to it, make an amount of 203,000. There must always have been a consi-
derable port at the mouth of the Mersey ; but this estuary, in its natural navigation, could
never come in competition with tlie Ilumber or the Severn. When, however, its disadvan-
tages as a seaport were partly removed, by the formation of docks, — and, much more, when
it became the basis of a canal system reaching eastward to the German Ocean, and soutli-
ward to the Thames, — Liverpool could communicate with an immense interior curcle. It
derived benefit, above all, from the cotton manufacture established, on such an extensive
scale, in the country immediately behmd ; the materials of which were brought to Liverpool
fix)m the opposite side of the Atlantic, and the finished fabric thence exported, partly to the
same quarter. At the same time Liverpool imported, for a great part of England at least,
articles of consumption from America and the West Indies. It found also a most extensive
employment in bringing grain and provisions from Ireland, and returning salt, coals, and pot-
tery. The merchants of Liverpool, meanwhile, were most active in hnproving these cir-
cumstances, particularly by the construction of that immense line of docks, which M. Dupin
has described with such admiration. A dock, or space enclosed all round, and fed with
sluices, in which the vessels while they receive or discharge their cargoes are kept regu-
larly afloat, without being exposed to swell, tide, or current, is an obvious improvement upon
the best natural harbour. The expense, liowever, is great ; and it was not till 1710 that
Liverpool began the first dock in Britain, called the Old Dock, which has recently been filled
up. Twenty years were employed in its completion ; and a still longer time in that of the
next, or the Saltliouse Dock. The others were, however, constructed on a more extensive
scale, and with greater rapidity: — George's (II.) Dock; tho King's Dock, for Greenland
ships and tobacco ; the Queen's Dock, directly for the Baltic and North American trade.
On a still larger scale have been constructed the Prince Regent Dock, opened in 1821, and
the Clarence Dock, in 1830. The Brunswick Dock, fi)r the accommodation of vessels with
cargoes of timber, nearly completes tlie present plan, when the whole area of water in the
docks will exceed 90 acres. In 1832, there belonged to this port 853 registered vessels, of
the burthen of 166,028 tons. Tlie customs paid at the port amounted, in 1765, to 260,000{. ;
in 1810, to 2,675,000Z. ; and in 1832 they had risen to 3,925,062/. The following are the
leading articles of import in the year 1830 : — 792,350 bags of cotton, 510,000 hides, 42,000
hogsheads of sugar, 8000 hogsheads of tobacco, 300,500 barrels of flour, 7800 casks and
7300 barrels and bigs of coflfee, 27,000 casks of palm oil, 900 seroons and 1430 chests of
indigo, 12,000 puncheons of rum, 31,200 bags of rice, 22,500 barrels of American ashes,
42,500 barrels of tar, 51,000 barrels of turpentine, 6200 tons of logwood, 5650 logs of maho-
gany. The dock duties, which in 1800 were only 23,379/., amounted, in 1832, to 170,000/.
In 1832, the ships entered inwards were 10,266, tonnage 1,361,000 ; outwards, 8717 ships,
tonnage 1,218,045. Of this, 610,000 tons were from foreign parts, chiefly the United States
and British America, the rest coasters, of which 386,000 were from Ireland. The value of
agricultural profluce from that country amounted to 4,444,000/.

Liverpool has niunerous lines of packets to all the principal foreign ports. Every month
four sail to New- York, two to Philadelphia, one to Boston, two respectively to Rio Janeiro,
Genoa and Leghorn, and to Lisbon ; one every tlueo weeka to Oporto. The New- York
packets are first-rate vessels containing splendid accommodations for jrasscngers, and the
value of goo<ls conveyed in one of them has been known to exceed 140,000/. Trading ves-
sels also are continually sailing to the above and to all other commercial places throughout
the world. An almost daily communication is maintained by steam packets with Dublin,
Belfast, Glasgow, Whitehaven, and nil porta of any conse(iuence in Ireland, and on the
western coast of England. The solid construction of its docks ; the powerful iron gates by
which they are enclosed ; the long covered ways where the goods may be landed without
injury from the inclemency of the weather ; the immense magazines, some rising to the
height of 12 or 13 stories, — all denote a gigantic industry and a magnificence which spares
no sacrifice to attain objects of public utility. The inhabitants of Liverpool have generally
shown the same spirit in Uieir other arrangements as in those connected with trade. The

Book I.

town is well lighted with gas.

164

ENGLAND. 389

The public building have an elegant and classical cliaractcr,
almost peculiar to Liverpool. The Town-
Hall (Jig. 164), is a fine Grecian edifice,
ornamented with a superb cupola and ap-
propriate statues. The Excliunge forms
behind it an elegant scjuare, in the midst of
which is a sculptural composition by West-
macott, representing Nelson and liis victo-
ries. The new edifice erected for a market
is, perhaps, tlic most spacious and commo-
dious of any employed in tiie kingdom for
that purpose. There are also several ele-
gant modem churches, one formed of cast-
iron. The finest view of Liverpool is
Town Hall, L«eipool obtained from the sea, whore the vast jmight

and extent of the exterior dock wall, the forest of masts above, and the town behind, make
a most imposing appearance. The charitable institutions are administered on a creat scale,
and with activity. Foremost stands the Blind Asylum, the first established in England, which
receives inmates from all parts of the kingdom. The infirmary is in a very spacious and
airy situation; and, among the other institutions common to great towns, the Strangers'
Friends' Society distinguishes itself by its generous exertions. The Englisli mercantile
towns generally show a zeal to combine intellectual pursuits with those of wealth ; but '
none, perhaps so successfully as Jjiverpool,— one of whose merchants, while carrying on an
extensive business, produced works which rank him among the most classical English
writers. Although this example be single, it is connected with a general spirit, which
displays itself in the liberal procedure of several individuals; in the Lyceum and the
Athenffium; two public libraries and literary institutions, supported by subscription ; and in
a botanic garden, which ranks as tlie first that was formed, and at least the third as to
eminence, in the kingdom. Both the Athenffium and the Ixrtanic garden owe their founda-
tion to the public spirit and the munificent example of Mr. R»scoe, who had also the
magnanimity to exert his powerful talents for the abolition of the slave trade, in a town long
devoted to that traffic.

Lancaster, the county town, is handsomely built of a beautiful free-stone ; the Town-lmll

and some other buildings are handsome ;
but the castle {Jig. 165.) forms one of
the grandest monuments of tlio feudal
age. Its vast extent; its commanding
site; the greatness of all its features,
even now, when three of its seven towers
are fallen into ruin; produce the most
powerful impression. If has been con-
verted into a well-arranged i)ripon for
the county. Lancaster, though its river,
the Lune, is not navigable for vessels of
more than 250 tons, possesses 73 sail.
It builds some ships, makes sailcloth,
and manufactures, upon a small scale,
some cotton fabrics. About a mile from
i:, the lancaster Canal is carried over the Lune by a very noble aqueduct bridge.

The counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland, or the countn' of the Lakes, form a Imid
and peculiar region, presenting a striking contrast to those recently surveyed; being enriched
neither by natural wealth, nor by human industry. Wide ranges of high and rocky moun-
tains, enclosing long lakes and narrow vales, affonl scanty s|)ace for the plough. A great
proportion of these fells and moors is absolutely barren ; in the more fiivoured spots the her-
bage is often scanty ; and even the arable tracts are, in general, fit only for the coarser
grain of oats. But the multitude of moiuitains crowded together, their bold, perpendicular,
and ofleu prnjccting forms; the pleajiing tliougii not extensive lakes, and soft pastoral
valleys, wliicii they enclose, render this the most beautiful country of England, and the
fivonvite resort of nil the rulmirers of the piofurpsque and sublime.

Tlircf divisions are distinctly seen in those counties, reaching from north to south. T. A
plain eastward of the mountains, through which the high rosid nms by Kendal and Carlisle
to IjOikIou, II. The mountains and lakes, occupying the larger portion of their surface.
III. .A sea-roast, containing some harbours of importance.

The first piirt consists of a plain, which, tliou^li narrow, is in many places fertile; and
cnntiiins some large towns. In the northern part is " merry Carlisle," long distinguished in
the Ixirdor ann:ils, and the scone of intore.«ting events in the contest of 1745. Carlisle being
a military po-^t of the First consequence, its castle and walls were considered a model oi

33*

Lancnsler Caslle.

390

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt III.

166

strength, according to the ideas of the middle ages ; tlie cathedral is an ancient edifice, still
nearly entire, in the, heavy Saxon style. Carlisle has of late l)cgun to carry on some manu-
fiicture, chiefly cotton ; also woollen, linen, and a few minor articles. A canal connects it
with the Solway, and enables it to employ some shipping. Eastward from Carlisle is the
great debateable line ; and near Brampton is Naworth Castle, that powerful station when;
l-ord William Howard undertook to bridle the license of the border. Yet, however strong,
it tbrms rather a dark border keep, than a display of feudal grandeur. Lord Howard's
apartments, which, with their books, furniture, and armour, remain almost undisturbed, uro
separated by four strong doors from the rest of the castle ; and secret passages lead to every
part, and to the dungeons beneath. Farther south is Kendal, the chief town of Westmore-
land ; a considerable place, with an old manufactory of woollens bearing its name, and
some of cotton and leather. Burton and Kirby Lonsdale are small neat towns on the border
of Lancashire.
The second division comprises the country of the Lakes, forming the peculiar character-
istic of the country, and chiefly distin-
guished by its scenery. Ullswater, {fg.
166.) divided into three reaches. The
mountains are numerous, steep and loft;v,
not broken or impending, but of a bold
and swelling form. The two highest in
the region are Helvellyn, and the sijuare
rocky mass of Stone Cross Pike, rearing
their almost perpendicular forms to an
amazing height above the wooded hills
which cluster round them. Opposite
rises the immense precipitous steep of
Place Fell; and the whole produces a
scene of solemn and simple grandeur. At Patterdale, though the features be grand, the
""■ beautiful predominates. From the

meadows bordering the lake, the nu-
merous glens branching oft', with the
scattered abodes of the shepherds and
oalesmen, present one of the sweetest
of alpine pastoral scenes. Keswick or
Derwentwater {fig. 167.) is of equal
grandeur, but a quite difl'erent aspect.
The mountains preserve no regular
form, but are broken, shattered, im-
pending, shooting into a thousand fan-
tastic shapes ; and though they do not
pro<luce the same grand unity of eflfect, astonish by a continual change of scenery. In

the wooded cliffs and waterfall of Lodore {fig. 168.),
and on the rocks of Borrowdale, nature seems to have
sported her wildest fancies. Yet exquisite beauty is
here mingled with horrors, particularly in the views of
the lake from the south, with Skiddaw behind ; and in
a lovely rural vale, which runs along its northern Ixjr-
der, and is seen to peculiar advantage from the road to

Ulliwat«r.

KMwick IiAko

Ludorc \Vat4jrful).

Windermore Lake.

Ambleside. Windermore {fig. 109.), is of much wider extent; not shut in by mountamous
cliffs, but bordered by wooded and ornamented hills. Around its northern banks, however
is ranged an amphitlieatro of very high mountains, which, with thi^ir varied summits, fonii
a sublime background to all its landscapes. Tiioso are generally i^nind, open, difl'usivo, und
extended. The other lakes, Coniston, Gra.smoro, Butterniere, Cromack, Wastdale, Enuer-

Book I.

ENGLAND

S91

dale, have attractions for the admirers of nature. In tliis district, Iho only places to which
the name of towns could be given are Keswick on Derwentwater, an., ^imbleside on Win-
dermere i and even these are only large villages, supported by the resort of travellers, and
by some persons of distinction wlio are induced to reside there by the beauty of the neigh-
bourhood.

The third division consists of the sea-coast. The most considerable port is Whitehaven,
which has become flourishing in consequence of the immense coal mines found and worked
in its immediate vicinity. Some of them have a depth of 320 yards, supposed to be greater
than any other in the world ; and some extend several miles beneath the sea. The total
quantity worked is estimated at 100,000 chaldrons, chiefly exported to Ireland : besides wliich,
Whitehaven has pushed its trade to Africa, America, and the West Indies ; and carries on
much ship-building.

SvBsECT. 5. — Western Counties,

The western counties form the last di^sion of England Proper, comprising the counties
south of the Mersey, which form the western boundary of England. This extensive line
has scarcely any character which can be said generally to apply to it. We mention Cheshire,
Shropshire, Hereford, and Monmouth, as bordering on Wales, and the last three partaking
somewhat of its rude and romantic character ; Worcester, Gloucester, and Somerset, occu-
pying the fine valley of the Severn, — a region filled with commerce ond cultivation, and
containing several great cities ; lastly, Cornwall and Devon, the extreme comer of England,
but marked by a mild climate, rich mines, and a surface agreeably diversified.

The soil of Cheshire is generally fit for all the purposes of agriculture, particularly in the
valley of the Dee : but the dairy is the branch pursued with peculiar success ; and it pro-
duces the cheese which, bearing tlie name of the country, equals in richness, though not in
delicacy, any other in Britain. There are valuable mines of coal, and some of iron ; but
the mineral substance of which Cheshire chiefly boasts is salt. The pits were discovered
about a century and o li,alf ago, at Northwich, Middlewich, and Nantwich, and have proved
of the highest importance to the nation, at once for internal consumption, for the curing of
fish, and for exportation.

Chester is, perhaps, the city in Britain which bears the most venerable character of
antiquity. The very name implies a Roman camp, the form of which is still preserved in
the direction of its principal streets. The eflect is heightened by the mouldering red stone,
of whicli its most ancient edifices are built. The principal streets have a very peculiar
structure. The lower story, which has been hollowed out of the rock, consists of shops,
above which is a paved way covered by the projecting upjier story ; but the middle part of
the house appears thus retired from tlie open street belaud this species of arcade. The
arrangement is neither very elegant nor very convenient The ca.stle of Chester presents
a very complete specimen of early military architecture ; connected with it is a range of
handsome Grecian buildings, containing tlie barrncki?, county hall, and county gaol. The
cathedral displays considerable grandeur, and has a verj* elegant chapter-house. The im-
provements on the Dee enable vos.sels of 300 tons to come up to Chester, which has 62
vessels, of above 4000 tons; yet its trade with Ireland has been transferred to Livorixwl.

Of the other towns, the most remarkable are those near which the salt mines are situated,
particularly Northwich. There are fourteen pits of rock salt, and between thirty and forty of
brine salt The rock salt is hard and brown ; the pit*, after being dug to a certain deptli,
are excavated horizontally, leaving a iX)rtion of the salt for a roof. They thus tbrm apart-
ments, often of more than an acre in extent; and the reflection of lights fi'om the mineral,
like tliat of numberless precious stones, prmluces a magical effect. Stockport and Maccles-
field have flourished greatly in consequence of the introduction from Lancashire of the
cotton jnunuliicture, to wiiicli Macclesfield adds some branches of that of silk.

Among tlie seats are Eaton Hall, a magnificent Gothic edifice, whicli Earl Grosvenor has
erected at an cxpence, it is said, of 400,000?.

Shropshire, or Salop, consists chiefly of a wide plain watered by the Severn. On its
eastern Iiordnr it shares to a great extent in the mineral wealth of Staffordshire, coal and
iron. These arc carried on in a remarkable rnanner at Colehrook ; a deep-wooded vale on
the Severn, here traversed by the first iron bridge erected in the kingdom. This county is
also interesting to the student of English history; many s|X)ts having been the scenes of
remarkable event.s on which the destinies of the kingdom have depended.

Shrewsbury, the capital, is particularly rich in momorahle recollections. Being the strong-
est fortres.s on the western marches, it became a rendezvous of the royal army, both for
overawing the Welsh, and for northern expeditions; many of the streets are narrow, wind-
ing, and irregular, and the old and new buildings too closely intermingled ; only a small
part of tlie castle remains; St. Mary's church is elegant and entire. The free school,
founded hy Edward VI. and Queen Elizabeth, has produced several eminent teachers and
pupils. Shrewsbury is praised for its house of industry, and for the arrangement of ita
county gaol.

DESCltll'TIVE Gi:OGItAI»IIV.

Part III.

Ludlow, an ancient town, wii.s triM|iioatly tlic rp.-iidcitci? of royalty, and tlin rG<;ii1ur station
of those jwworful officers tlio IjunU Presidents of tiio MurclieH. Tlic cawtie, placed on a
wooded rock overlianging the 'J'erne, was amHidercd one of the stronj^est places in the king-
dom. In its vicinity occurriMl many of tiio most distinguished events in the contest between
the houses of York and I.ancaster. It was altorwards dismantled ; yet nnnained a splendid
private mansion, in wliieh Milton's " Comus" was first performed, iind where Butler wrote a
part of his " Hudibras." It is now entirely rcKjfless and covered with ivy, but still adorns
the town, wliich is well built and pleasantly situated.

Hereford and Monmouth, two deini-Welsh counties, fill the interval from Shropshire south-
wards to the Bristol Channel. Being traversed by the Wye, the most pictures<pie of the
English rivers, they vie in bciuily willi almost any part of the kingdom. The chief industry
is in the rearing of fruit, and the whole country is a» it were covered with orchards: hence
Hereford draws its staple prwluctionof cider and perry, in peculiar abundance and perfection.
The crop is precarious; but in u good year the produce of an acre will be from eighteen to
j-Q twenty-tour hogsheads, sometimes of such fine quality, that it will

sell from the press at 2()/. a hogshead. The western district of
Hereford pro<luces also a larg(! (pmntity of hops, and has one of
the finest breeds of cattle in the kingdom, both fordraugiit and feed-
ing. The breed of slicep, called Ilyeland (Jiff. 170.), besides the
excellence of their flesh, l)ear the very finest wool in the kingdom,
Moimioutli is not so fertile: its chief wealth is mineral, coal being
most abundant; and iron works arc established to such an extent,
Bjreiand Sheep. that they have been known to produce a thousand tons in the week.

Of the towns, Hereford bears venerable marks of antiquity, particularly its cathedral, not-
J.M .>Mrtfc^A> wftfteak withstanding the tall of its principal

^•^ii^uu^ -tniirMmr* tower. Ross, once the residence of
Mr. Kyrle, celebrated by I'ope a.H
"the Man of Ross," is a beautiful
village, considered as a sort of centre
of the picturesque scenes of the Wye.
The towns of ^loninouthshire are
small. The capital has a limited
trade along the Wye; but its situa-
tion, in a delightful country, has
attracted the neighlx)uring gentry.
There are still remains of its once
powerful castle, and of a B(Miedictine
priory. A few miles from Monmouth
IS Tintern Abbey (ffr. 171.), the most
Tinicrn Aiiixy. pictnresque, perhaps, of all the English

monastic remains. This arises, not merely ftom its extent and beauty, although these be
great: but from its roofless and ruined state, whence the walls, both within and witliout,
172 aMai- are overgrown with luxuriant ivy, and de-

'**™™' caying art and nature are blended together.

In another direction is Rugland castle, the
seat of the dukes of Beaufort (Jiff. 173.),
and considered one of the strongest of the
ancient fortresses ; but, atler the gallant de-
fbnce made by the marquess of \Vorcester
for Charles I., "Cromwell," says Gilpin,
"laid his iron liand upon it, and shattered it
to ruins; to which it owes it:^ present |)ic-
turesque form." Ciicpstow, at the month
of the Wye, is a neat town, and carries on
some trade. It is chiefly interesting, how-
,.„„„,,.,. r II .u • L „ <'^^''' *i"°"> ^he remains of its castle, one of

the most strikmg of all the mighty fortresses of Wales. Five or six large towers still re-
main, with the outer walls of a magnificent chapel.

Worcester ami Gloucester occupy the lower valley of the Severn, which there becomes a
river ot the first magnitude. Tliis valley is broad, smnotii, and fertile, yet nowhere dcrene-
rates into a dead unvaried level. Worcester lias, „„ t!,e west, the Malvern Hills, some of
, whose summits rise to the height of nearly lij<t0 feet. Gloucestershire, again, has to the
east the Cotswold Hills, more rugged, though not so elev.ated ; while to the west are the
nigged remains ot the Forest <.f Dean. Worcestershire has, besides, the valley of the I/nver
Avon and ot Lv.jsimm, finned for their beniily and fiTtility. The vales of tliesl> fine counties
tor produce ot every description,— grain, fruits, pasliirau'e, with some preference of
Gloucester is particularly distinguiiihed for its dairies, which produce that

RMland Culle.

are fiitiv

the two latter.

Door I.

ENGLAND.

S9a

Worceiter Cathiidral

rich cheese well known under its name. The best, or double Gloucester, is produced in the
vale of Berkeley, situated along the lowest part of the course of the Severn. Both counties
have flourishing manufactures, though not on the vast scale of the northern districts.
Gloucester, in particular, has a very extensive fabric of fine woollens, corried on through
numberless villages, in what are called " the Bottoms," a range of territory along the lower
part of the Cotswold Hills. Its scarlet and blue woollens arc in particular repute.

Worcester is a considerable and very handsome city, the principal streets being spacious
and regular, with many good houses, and presenting a general air of neatness iinil conitbrt.
It is of high antiquity, the cathedral (Jifr. 173.) having been founded in the 7th century,

tliough the present structure was almost en-
tirely erected in the 13lh and 14th centuries.
It is of great extent, simple and august,
without the rich ornament which distin-
giiishes some others. It contains the tomb
of King John, one of the moxt ancient in
England ; also that of Prince Arthur. Wor-
cester is chiefly noted in history for the
great battle in which Cromwell totally routed
the Scots army, and compelled Charles II,
to quit England as a fugitive. The city has
lost its woollen manufacture; but has still .
one of porcelain, the flnest in the king-
dom. Fifteen difibrcnt materials arc used,
chiefly white granite, and steatite from Corn-
wall ; and every piece passes through twenty-three hands bcRire it is brought to perfection.
Gloves are also made ; and there is a considerable trade up and down the Severn.

Kidderminster is lar^e and flourishing, in consequence of a very extensive manufactory
of carpets. Droitwich is noted for its salt springs. They are covered with a deep stratum
of gypsum : and for a long time the salt was made only fron\ the brine whicli penetrated tliis
bed ; but, about a centuiy ago, it was bored through, when the brine rushed up in vast ijunn-
tities, and a large salt river was found to flow beneath. Thus the salt can now be procured
in any quantity, and supplies a great part of England.

Gloucester is also an ancient and fine city, tliougii not quite so large as Worcester. It
bears, in the arrangement of its streets, the marks of having been a Roman station. It was
formerly also, a place of groat strength. The manner in which it frequently Imflled the
utmost eflbrts of Charles I. was one of the circumstances which contributed iiiotit to the
downfall of the royal cause. The most conspicuous feature at present is the cnthcdral,
built in the Saxon and Norman styles, between the 11th and 13th centuries. The beautiful
lightness of its tower; its cast window, said to be the largest in the kingdom ; and its whis-
pering gallery ; attract peculiar notice. The gaol, built at an expense of 40,(KK)?., afforded
one of the first applications of the beneficent principles of Howard. Pins arc the chief
manufacture of Gloucester ; and, small as the article is, the sale is so great as to rend<!r the
amount it returns considerable. Its trade has been much obstructed by the bad navigation
of the Severn; but since the parallel line of the Berkeley Canal has just been completed, by
which large ships can come up from the Channel, Gloucester is placed almost on a footing
with Bristol.

Cheltenham, by the feme of its waters, and its attractions as a place of fashionable resort,
has become a greater and more crowded place than Gloucester. The waters are at onc^
saline and chalybeate ; and, being thus both tonic and aperient, are efficacious in indiges-
tion, biliary affections, and similar disorders. Cheltenham now ranks second only to Bath,
both as a resort for invalids and a gay rendezvous of the fashionable world.

There are other interesting towns in Gloucestershire. Tewkesbury has in close vicinity
the "Bloody Meadow," on which was fought the great battle which finally crushed the for-
tunes of the house of Ijuncaster. Placed at the junction of the Severn (ind Avon, it is a
venerable old town, contJiining the Abbey church a remnant of tliat grand monastery, of
which the superior, being a mitred abbot, sat in the House of Peers. Cirencester, a town of
great historical name, covers only part of its ancient site, but contains one of the finest parociiial
churches in the kingdom. Stroud is the centre of the woollen manufacture carried on, not
in itself, but in the surrounding valleys, and raising the population of the parish to 42,000.
Bristol we shall consider as belonging to Somerset.

Of the seats the most interesting is Hogley, the grounds of whicii I-iord I.yttnlton adorned
with classic taste. Near it is the interesting spot of the Leasowes, embellished by Shen-
stonc with all the taste of a poet. Berkeley Castle is a grand castellated edifice, almost as
old as the Conquest, and the scene of Edward II.'s death ; retaining still its antique clia-
racter.

Somerset has vales almost as extensive as those of Gloucester, yet it is crossoil by long
ranges of those rufrgrd hills which pervade all the extreme west of England. The most
Vol. I. 2 Z

V: i;;!

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III

easterly arc Iho Mendip Hills, rich in mineral stores; furtlier west are the Qimntock Hills,
while on tliu iMrdors ot Devon lies Exnioor Forest, the most elevated of all tlicwe tracts — ita
higliest point Uunkerry Beacon, being 1668 feet high. The prevailing husbundry is pas-
turage, chielly of rich natural grass ; and, besides a number of cattle sent to the I/indon
markets, the dairy is a great branch of industry. Chedder cheese is considered equal to any
in Eiigliind ; and a great (luantity of what is culled Gloucester is produced in Somerset.
The orchards are extensive, and cider and perry nearly as abundant as in the counties on
the Severn. The Mendip Hills yield excellent coal, lead of fine quality, and culuniine. The
nianutUctures are considerable, both woollen and linen ; the former chietly of the hncr sorts ;
the latter, mostly dosvlas, tickons, and suil-cloth.

Bristol, since wo have attached it to Somerset, must hold the first place. This city
ranked long us second to tlie metropolis in commercial importance ; but in the course of the
last century, it has remained nearly stationary in extent and population, though not in wealth.
In 1736, it had 8(»,(XK) inhabitants; in 1821, 87,771 ; but in 1831, with its suburbs, 104,886.
It has still a very extensive trade, chiefly with Wales, Ireland, and the West Indies. Nor
does its spirit seem abated ; since, in 1800, it completed, at an expense of (>0,000/., a series
of extensive improvements, by which the rivers Avon and Frome were spread out into vost
basins, for the commodious reception of vessels. The manufactures of Bristol are very con-
siderable ; its glass-works are twenty in number ; its brass founderiea the most extensive
in the kingdom; to which it adds shot, pottery, &c. In 1832 there belonged to it 296 ships,
of the burthen of 46,.'J07 tons. The amount of customs, in 1831, was 1,168,978/., chiefly
from duties on VVest India produce ; and there entered its port 2547 vessels, of the bur-
then of C25,0(K) tons. It has still the remains of a magnificent cathedral, and the beau-
tiful church of St Mary Redclitfc, with many interesting monuments. The old interior of
Bristol is ill-built and inconvenient ; but the merchants in the new quarters of the city have
reared .«onie handsome streets and s<juares. Bristol has wells, considered very efiicacious,
especially in consumptive complaints. Visiters chiefly resort to the beautiful village of Clif-
ton, about a mile distant, amid the romantic rocks of St. Vincent. Bristol stands conspicu-
ous for ita beneficent in.stitutions, in which those for education stand prominent. Chat-
terlon, Southey, and Coleridge were natives of Bristol.

The name of Bath (Ji,v. 174.) implies the circumstance to which from the earliest ages it
has owed its importance. The Romans made it one of their principal stations, and built

Bath.

splendid baths, of which the remains have been discovered. Near the nii<!dle of the las;
century, it became very distinguished as a scene of fushiomihio re.sidencr, mid coiitinu-^d
to increase till recently, when its attraction was shared by Cheltenham nml some newer
places of resort. It became the most beautiful, we may nearly say the only beautifiil, city
in England. The houses, built of a fine freestone, while tiiose of almost all the other groat
towns are of brick, have a decidedly superior aspect; and several of the streets, as Great
Pulteney Street, tiie ('rcscent, the Parades, &c., being not only composed of fine houses, but
formed on a regular plan, may vie with the finest in Europe. The city, moreover, rising by
a gentle ascent from the Avon, large portions of it may often be seen at once in the most
advantageous points of view. Tlie pump-room, the assembly-room, and every structure
raised for the sick or the gay, are unequalled in splendour. Bath has a Gothic cathedral
one of the latest IniiU, nnd on a small scale, but the most highly ornamented in the king-
dom ; the chief beauty is in the west front

DOOK I.

ENGLAND.

Other voncrablo and interostinjf citios are found in Sompfsotsliiro. Wells ia chiefly
distinguished by a cathedral (Jg. 176,), which ranks with the llncxt in Enffiiind. The
173 tMM weiitern tVont, built in tlie i:)th ccntur}',

ia one of the moNt splendid tipccimena
exiflting of the li^ht and hliridy orna-
mentea Gothic. In the interior, a chape'
dedicated to the Vir^'in is much admired ;
the rest is iSaxon, and heavy. About two
miles distant is Wookcy Hole, a natural
cavern ; the aperture, at firt^t, merely al-
lows one man to pass ; but it soon opena
into a succession of large apartments,
filled with spars, concretions, petrifac-
Weiii Citiwirai. tions of tlic most fantastic forms. A sub-

terraneous river prevents &rther advance. Glastonbury contains the small remains of the
most extensive monastery in the kingdom ; which, with its various gardens and offices,
covered sixty acres, supported 5()0 monks, and enjoyed a revenue of 2.5,000/. Even the
church attaclied to it rivalled the greatest of the English cathedrals. Bridgcwater and
Tatmton are towns of note in history, which carry on some trade and manufuctiiros. Wel-
lington gives a title to the greatest commander of the age, in whose honour a pillar is there
erected. Fromo is a large and flourishing town, employed in the woollen manufacture.

Devonshire is traversed by ridges of hills, low, broad and flat, which, scon from a heijght,
appear (iften as one uninterrupted plain; but on minuter inspection are found separated by
deep valleys called coomlis, walled in by the steep sides of the hills. This structure pro-
duces many so(|uestered and romantic sites ; it renders, however, many of the roads steep and
circuitou.a, and in some places scarcely passoble. The forest of Dartmoor, an extensive dis-
trict on the west of the county, is of a character peculiarly rugged, broken into fantastic
summits, and the valleys chiefly under wood or lying waste. On the other hand, the Vale
of Exeter, and what are called the Hams, in the southern districts, are distinguished for
fertility, which is rather heightened than injured by the moderate ineipmlitiesof the surface.
Grain, cattle, slioep, jxitatoes, excellent cider, are raised according to the Kituation, and are
all generally gocnl. The cattle are of a very superior breed, botli for feeding and draught.
Devonshire does not rank high as a manufacturing county ; yet woollens arc made to some
extent in Exeter and several other places. Fishing is carried on with spirit and success,
both in the sea and in the rivers ; of which last, the Exe and the Tamar arc the principal.
The Western Canal, joining the two channels, passes chiefly through Devonshire.

Exeter, the capital, is an ancient and pleasantly situated town, near the mouth of the
Exe. In consequence of its advantages fiir education and society, many of the gentry from
different parts of the county have made it their residence. Its manufacture and export of
serges and kerseys have declined, but are still considerable ; the East India Company taking
them to the annual value of 400,0(KW. The catliedral holds a high rank among ecclesiasti-
cal antiquities. Some part of it is traced to the ninth century ; but the greater proportion
belongs to the thirteenth and fourteenth. The painted east window, and the bell of
r2,.'jOO lbs. weight, the gift of Bishop Courtenay, are particularly noticed. Some modern
embellishments have been added.

Plymouth is the most important of the towns of Devonshire, and one of the great naval
arsenals of Britain. The main and central depots lie at Portsmouth and on tlie Thames ;
but it is important that the fleets should have this exterior station, where they may rendez-
vous, and receive their final equipment and supplies before leaving the Channel ; where
also, when exhausted, they may put in and refit. The Plyin and the Tamar, at their junc-
tion,, form an estuary of nearly two miles broad, composing a harbour, or ratlicr a scries of
harlwurs, capable of containing 2000 vessels in a state of perfect security. In that of Ha-
nioaze, on the Tamar, 100 sail of the line may be safely moored. Catwater, the |X)rt at the
mouthof the Plym; and SuttonPool, immediately adjoining the town; are both excellent and
extensive. Plymouth Bay ffarms also an excellent roadstead, though exposed to the heavy
swell which came in from the Atlantic. To remedy this, government undertook tliat stu-

176

! n

Plymouth Breakwater.

p(>ndous work the Breakwater, a mole formed by immense stones heaped upon each other
stretching across the entrance, ar.d at a certain distance from either shore (Jig. 176.). The

806

DESCRIPTIVE QEOGRAPHY.

Part III

estimated oxpenio waa 1,17j(),0()0{. ; and tho quantity of iituno, 'i.OOOiOOO tniiH. It liaa rom-
pletely an8wero<l oxpectation ; anil, in pro|H)rtioii as it Iiiih lulvnncod, Iiiih rondorcd tho
roadHtcod more sociiro. An tho approach wan ol«o rendered iliinj{erou« by the KddyMtono
rocksi, a li((ht-houiio has, atVcr much dilHculty and Hcveral inwucccMsfiil trials, been erected
there by Mr. Sineaton, sniliciontly firm to withittnnd tho ttiriuun awuiultM of tho Atlantic
waves to which it is exposed. Plymouth is now divided into two nearly equal |)art« —
Plymouth and Plymoutli dock, at tho mouth of the Tamar, recently called Dcvonport, and
raised to the dignity of a separate borough. The dook-ynrd is most superb ; iVW() yards in
leni^h, and from lUUO to lOtN) in breadtli. All the establixlunents connectc'd with it, tho
ropery, smithy, saw-pita, mast-houses, as also the victuallin(f departments, are on tho most
extensive scale, yet conducted in tho motit ro(;ular order. Plymouth is not, on tliu whole,
a well-built town : but it contains some handsome edifices ; as tho government-house ; the
theatre, chiefly of cast-iron ; the public library, &c. The charitable institutions are nu-
merous.

Barnstaple is a sort of capital of North Devon, situated on a rich plain, and retaining a
few manufactures. Dartmouth carries on some foreign trade ; while between it and Teign-
mouth is Torbay, whore, sheltered from the heavy gales that blow up the Channel, the
British fleet can ride safely at anchor.

Cornwall is a peninsula of a triangular form, bounded by Devon, and tho sea. The hills
form a bleuk central ridge, terminating in tho rugged und obtuse point called the land's
End. But some of tho narrow volleys wear the aspect of smiling fertility. In some se-
cluded spots the climate is so genial, tliut tiie myrtle and other shrubs peculiar to the south
of Europe flourish in the open air. Cornwall has from the earliest ages been renowned for its
mineral products. These aro principally tin and copper ; it also yields some lead. These
metals occur in the granite chain, extending eastward as far as Dartmoor in Devon ; but at
present the principal mining district is that between the Land's End and St. Austel.
The most celebrated aro the tin mines of Palgooth,* about two miles west of that town : in
these there are no fewer tlian fifty shafts, of which twenty or thirty arc constantly in use.
The principal vein of ore, which is about six feet thick, runs from cast to west, and dipa to
the north with an inclination of about six feet in a fathom. The ore is of the vitreous
kind, but rarely found in crystals; the colour for the most part grayish-brown; the country
of the ore is a gray killas. The water is carried away. Steam power has been substituted
for that of horses in moving the machinery employed for raising, washing, and stamping the
ore ; atler which lost operation it is carried to the smelting-houbc. Tin cannot be sold until
it is assayed and stamped with the duchy seal ; for which purpose meetings are usually held
four times a year. The annual produce is estimated at 20,000 or 25,000 blocks, each block
weighing from 23 to 35 cwt., and valued on the average at ten guineas. Grain tin, which
is obtained from stream ore, is deemed superior in value to the common metiJ, and has been
procurc<l to the amount of 2000 or 2400 blocks annually. The annual produce of copper
IS about 13,000 tons, estimated at 1,300,(KHW. The lead mines arc not much worked. The
tinners are in many respects a distinct body of men; they have a court and porliament of
their own. Tho stannary laws, by which the mines and the operations connected with
them are regulated, do not appear to have undergone any change singe the reign of
Charles II. The mines give employment to about 16,000 men.

The pilchard fishery afibrds another source of wealth to Cornwall. The pilchards appear
annually in vast shoals about the middle of July ; and are taken in large nets of a peculiar
form, called seans, each sean managed by three boats, containing eighteen men. After lying
salted in store for six weeks, tlie fish are packed in hogsheads, so closely that the whole
contents, when turned out, appear in a compact state. The oil expressed fi"om them is so
considerable in quantity as to have become an article of trade. The quantity annually
exported from the Cornish coast may be worth 5O,00OJ. including the receipts for oil. The
number of persons employed in this fishery is about 5000.

The towns of Cornwall are small. Launceston, situated on the Tamar, extends up the
side of a hill, on the summit of which are the remains of a small fortress called Castle Ter-
rible, where a vigorous stand was made to sustain tlie sinking fortunes of Charles I. Truro
is a neat thriving town, the trade of which consists in a considerable export of tin. Penzance,
near the I^and's End, fit)m the mild salubrity of its air, has been found highly beneficial to
persons of delicate constitutions, particularly of a consumptive tendency ; and those who
take up their residence at Penzance, are agreeably surprised by the lovely reenery in its
neighbourhood. Falmouth, the westernmost of the fine harbours on the Channel, is the prin-
cipal packet station for Lisbon, the Mediterranean, and the West Indies.

SuBSECT 5.— Wales,

Wales is a territory which, though united to England by early conquest, still retains the
title of a separate principality, and possesses a national aspect. The verdant and extensive

• Dr. Malon'i Obscrvntions on tlie Woatorii Coiintios.

fT-

BookI.

ENGLAND.

397

|)luinH of wontcni Eiiifluiul lioro i^ivo place to tliu lufly niuiintuin, tlin deep viillcy, tlio ronr-
iiiX turrunt, uiiii tliu tVi)r|iU'ul pmciiiiRn, Wnlcs Iium rivcrti niiil turrciiU svitlumt number,
wliicli ruU tliruii^li iU luoimtuiu valleys, and wIiuhi! UinkM, ailoriunl with vcnltiru and culti-
vutiuii, coinbinu in tliu uumt utrikinK niunnor witli tlio lutly and varied NinniiiitH wliicli tower
abovu tliuni. Tliu IoIUumI niountuinH uru in Nurtli VVuIoh; itH vullcyH uro dci'pcr und
nurrnwor; iind it pruKontx nioro Mtrikinj^ly nil tlio choructuriHtic I'ciitiircd ut' W'tdi^li Hcoiicry.
Ill Huiith VVuluH, on tlio uuutrury, tliu vulluyHiiru broader, nioro t't'rtilc, and t'ullor ut' towiirf
und villiiijcvti ; tlioy utlun uvea ex|)and into widu plaiiiH, Htill encircled by ii niuiintain bound-
ary. A|;rit:ulture, in hucIi u country, luboiim under many dl8adviintu(,'uii, niiil iii carried un
too oflon uiKiii the old MVHtoni ot' intield and ontlield. Munufncturea uro nciirly cimlined to
the article of tlunnel, wliicli Iiub always been a tlibric of the VVoltili, in wliicli tliuy titill excel
their VurkMhire rivnU. It w tu niinintr, however, that the induntry of WaloH liaH been cliietly
attracted, by the proAisiou of niinerul wealth which nature liua lodged in the boweU of itrt
niountuins. The lead of Flint, Cueriiurvon, iind other counticH of North Wnlen, the copp<!r
of Anglesey, and above all, the iron of Ghiiiior^'nn and other counticH in the Uritish Cliannel,
are objects of extensive importance. Coal iu tbiind almowt everywhere, and in employed
cither for domestic puiiXMiCH, or in fusing and refining the niutallic ores.

The Welsh are a Celtic race, the dericendiints of the ancient Dritons, who, in these tnoun-
tain recesses, sought rctuge from the destroying sword of the Saxons, which so completely
dis()ossc8sed them of the low country of England. They could not resist the overwhelming
jiower of Edward I., who annexed Wales to the English crown. In order to hold it in hub-
jection, however, lie was obliged to construct, not only on its fVontier, but in its interior,
castles of immense extent and strength. Yet they did not prevent fonnidoblo insurrections,
in one of which Owen Glcndower maintained himself for years as an independent prince.
Witliin the lust 300 years, the Welsh have been as peaceable aa any otlier subjects of the
empire. They have retained, of their feudal habits, only venial failings. Among these is
national pride, tlirough wliich the genuine Cambrian holds his country and his nation sii|)c-
rior to all others; and regards the Sasna or Saxon as a lower nice of yesterday. With this
is connected, in u liigh degree, the priac of pedigree ; even the humblest Welshman tracing
his origin far above any lowland genealogy. Strong ties of friendship subsist between tliu
landowners and their tenants : manifested, on one side, by indulgence and protecting kind-
ness; on the other, by a prolbund veneration for the representatives of the ancient chictis of
their racL. The Welsh have many 8U])crstition8,mi.\ed with mtich genuine religious feeling.
They are liurdy, active, lively, hospitable, kind-licartcd ; only a little hot ond (lunrrclsoMie.
Their English neighbours complain that they hive not yet attained that pitch of industry
and cleanliness in which the former place their pride.

North Wales comprises the counties of Caernarvon, Merioneth, Montfromcnj, Denbigh,
and Flint, with the island of Anglesey. The characteristic feature of this division consists
in the very elevated chains of mountains which cross it from north to south, facing the Irish

Channel. The chief is Snowdon (Jig,
177,) which raises its head to the lieiglit
of 37(X) feet; yet it is only the most ele-
vated of a crowd of summits, many of
which rear their peaks almost as nigh.
They cover a great part of the county of
Caernarvon, at the northern part of which
they present to the Bay of Beaumaris the
lofty steep of Penmnnmawr, whose broken
fragments threaten to bury him who
travels the difficult path which has been
formed olong its almost perpendicular
sides. Merioneth is chiefly covered with
inferior, but lofty and rugged mountains,
till towards the southern extremity, tlicy tower into Cader Idris, tlic second summit of
Wales. It is everywhere steep, craggy, and precipitous. Lastly, in the heart of Montgomery,
towers tlic huge mass of Plinliniinon, with a crowd of attendant mountains.

The vales which intervene between these heights diversify bleak and barren regions,
otherwise calculated to inspire only impressions of dreary sublimity. The most extensive
is that of Clwyd, in the county of Denbigh, where the mountain chains gradually sink. It
is about' twenty miles in length, and four or five in average breadth; and presents a more
brilliant picture of fertility, heightened, doubtless, by contrast, than almost any other syiot
in Uie island. The narrower vales, however, present more of pictiircK(iuo beauty, particu-
larly that of lilangolen, where tlie Dee, winding through cultivated and pastoral .scenes,
overhung by high rocks and cliffs, presents at every step a varying landscapp. The island
of Anglesey is generally level, and its scenery presents few striking features, except the
rocks of its western shore. It has happened, fortunately for the improvement of this formi-
dable range of territory, tiiat it lies on the highway from London towards Dublin ; and witli
Vol. I 34

SllUWdlllt.

■^

809

DKHCRIPTIVE OEOORAPIIY.

Pmt III

<'iturr)ftr\itii 4'iiiil«.

the view of fiirilitatini; tho intprctmrno brtwocn thn kin^dnniM, |i^)Vfriiiiinnt, nt llii' iiatiunal
expcnw, hiu lurinctl ono of the tincit rouAn in tho world ; iwii(mt( lh<t priiu'ip'il ti'iitiircn ol

which iH thi> iron HiiNiipnNidfi-hrlduc,
fornifil BcniMM thn nriii <il the hcii, cailod
tho Mi'imi (.'himnol. 'I'lic chinf crntro
of l)»' llanrH'i nianiifiiftiiro in in Mimt-
(i'diiiprv iinil Mi'riont'th. The h'nd mint!*
of llolywfdl mid tho ro|)|H>r niinoH of
Ant;lcM'y ))0!ii<)>ni< an iniuortiiiird Mcurco-
ly inferior to Ihimf of Hoiith VVuh!*.

('iiprnnrvon in ii hnndnomr, wull-lmilt
town. It,-i chief orniimiMit \n thi- cuHlu,
(I Htatcly i-diticc ( /f^. 17H.), hiiilt hy Ed-
wnrd I. to curb tlii' npirit of tho nowly
Kiibthiod VVi'lHh. It oncloMPti an urea of
two acres ami a half; the toworn aro of HtiipondmiH ninffnittidn, iind crowm.'d by liijht and
beautiful turret». To tho foiitli of Cacrnnrvon Ih tho Bleon ofrcnl of Snowdon, waoneo a
view of BBtoniihing extent is commanded ; though only to be tieun in thoHo tbrtunate duyo

when the veil of miHt, which usually
wraps it, has been disHipated. On
its declivity ix thn wild nnd rocky
lake of Mnnbieris, with tho ruined
castle of Dollmdnrn overhanging its
bnnkn. Nnirly nt tlio opiKwitu ex-
tremity of tho county in Conway ;
a poor town, but rontiiiniiig the walls
of a Htill more miip'nificent catitlo
(fiff. no.), nlw) erected by Edward
I. Tho interior is in ii hIiUo of totul
ruin; but tlie view, from a little dis-
tance, of ilH eight mighty towers,
ninging along the !<uinmit of a lofty
rock, which overl(K)kM tho Day of
BenunmriH, presents nn image of
Ciinwi)' c«iiie. gnindour which scarcely any other

ciistellotcd Htructurc in tho kingdom can rival. About iriidway lictweon those two castled
sites is Oungor, a pleasant little town, on the high road to Holyhead and Dublin. Here, and

ot Penryn, is a great nhipment of .slates, brought
from the steep sides of the neighbouring mountains.
Merioneth has a few large villages, each enclosed
by a circuit of lofty and almo^^t inaccessible mountains.
dala is 8up|)orte(l by a small manufacture of knit
gloves and stockings, and by the vicinity of tho largest
of the littlo lakes of Wule^, which has clear water
and abounds in fish. Dolgelly, about midway between
Snowdon and Cader Idris {Jff, 18().), is seated in the
very heart of all the grandest scenery of Wales. On
the coast, the castle of Harlech, built also by Edward,
bears marks of groat strength.
Montgomery, though its centre is occupied by tho "huge IMinlimmon," whence branches
shoot out in every direction, is yet, on the whole, of a milder aspect. The town of Mont-
gomery is sniall, pleasantly situated on the declivity of n hill, crowned with the ruins of a
once noble castle. Welshpool is an ill-built straggling town, but has u great market for flan-
nels ; and connniinicates by a canal with Chester and Ellesmore. Near Montgomery is Powis
Castle, which dotes from the twelfth century, and was long one of the proudest fortresses in
Wales: it is still a superb modem seat.

In proceeding to Denbigh and Flint, we come to broader valleys, and hills gradually dimin-
ishing down to the level plain of western England. Denbigh, a pleasant, ancient little
town, is crowned by a castle, sauted on a high rock, looking down to tho valeof (^Iwyd, pro-
verbial for its smiling fertility. In the valley of the Dee, is Wrexham, noted for its fairs, in
which Welsh flnmiel is the staple commodity. But the chief ornament of Denbigh is Llan-
gollen VhIo, on the upper Dee, where the mixture of culture nnd wildnees produces the meet
striking variety of scenery. .Among its leading features are the ruined cnstio of Dinns Bran,
crowning tho steep summit of one of the principal liills; and the reiniiins of tho Abl)ey of
Valle Crucis. This last is situated in a valley connected with that of Iilangollen, enclosed
by lofty mountjiins verdant to the summit, and sprinkled with trees. The edifice has been
in the simplest style of Saxon architecture ; but the situation renders it one of the mwt

DOOK I.

WALES.

800

HolyhMd.

picturi'iiqim iipoti in Rnfflnml. Chirk hu nonr if a cwtln, one of flu- tnoMt pcrllTt of the
mnriy with which VVnIoH in ndoriKMl. Nrar it also is tin fino acnii'duct nf l'iiiit-y-ry»iltp, by
which Mr. Telford \\nn rondiictiHl th« Ellentni-re C*niil dVi >■ tho J)(U', ri»tiii(f oa 18 pii'r»,
10()7 fi'vi in Iimjjth, niul I'M frot alwvo tho lovcl of itw rivrr.

Flint iM rich in lend and other minonil ntoro*. Thu wumty town (if l-lim nnd it* cimtlp,
hovn I'ntircly iiwt tlui iin|iortnncn tln-y [losHCHiM'd when thoy w^rn tho nrisiid ')f Kichard 11, ;
ftnd tho if\i'ry of CanrwyH, thn nnciunt ncono <f mu»icnrttn(( iHifticai c.mU'st, !/«« tnitircly
[HiHHfd iiwiiv. Holywoll, bcHidoH itii cxtnniiive U„ ' -liMc, curries . a works in hriii<H nnd
copimr, nnd even nomo cotton liihricH. More tho mu '"1 well of St. VVirffriile, from which
it (Icrivcrt itH numo, ii* bonpficinlly applied to tfio piir[Hws of indnstry. The ImdI inino of
Mnn-y-l'undnr ia tho moitt oxtnnHivo in tho kingdom, nnd emplcys Ibur vaat sti'iim-< n^liip* in
cloarinK otV the water. Mold in a protty larjfo town, in the eenlro of u rich plniii of the
Damn nunie. St. Asaph attrnctH notice by it* nent cathedral.

Tho Iitlund of Antfloaey in (fononilly a nakoil ond ffIot)niy flat. It wiis niicii'ntly the cnn-
tral scat of druidicaj Huporntition, gtill atteiitod by tho rromlichn, or lnr({e, tint, glom tube's
■upportod by rudo pillars, which aro more numerous hero than in any other pnrt of Bfiliufi..
Ita unpgrtance baa rested almoat entirely upon its copper mines, hut nt Into they hnvc become

unproductive, and tho annual amount is only
ihim 750 to 05U tons. Deautniiris, the capital,
ia a neat little town. Much nioru importance
attaches to HolyhRad, now tho mnin (loint of
communication between Plnf(lnnd and Ireland.
To render it such, government hns conHlriicted
a noblo road from Iiondon across the most ruff(;ed
iMirt of North Wales, nnd also inndo an adinirn-
ble harbour. The neiijlibourin;,' connt is very
bold, and tho promontory, called the Head (Jifj.
181.), consists of immenso mnsses of precipitous
rocks, hollowed into deep caverns. The town itself has been rapidly extended and improved.
South Wales comprises the counties of Radnor, Cardijrnn, Brecknock, Cnerrnnrthcn, Pem-
broke, ami Glamorgan. It presents scenery equally romantic with that of North Wnld,
mingled with a greater degree of softness and cultivation ; and its agricultural and mining
products aro of considerably greater value.

Radnor is composed of bleak ranges of mountains, in some parts almost impassable; the
greater pnrt is only fitted to afford pasture for sheep, the wool of which is valuable. New
Radnor, once u fortified city, is dwindled into a village.

Cardigan includes some of the boldest features of Welsh scenery. Tho domain of Hnf(Hl,
in particular, has been covered with extensive plantations, so happily disposed ns to render
it almost a scene of enchantment. At a few miles' distance is "tho Devil's Bridge;" an
arch thrown over a deep and narrow rocky chasm, overgrown with wood, at tho bottom of
which rolls the Mynach, after rushing down three lofty cascades ; forming alto^jcther the
grandest scene of the kind in the kingdom. The lead mines of Cardiganshire arc extensive,
though tho want of fuel has caused tho working of many of them to be discontinued. Car-
digan is a small old town, which carries on a considerable coasting trade, having nearly 3fl<)
small vessels belonging to it. There is great resort to Abcryetwith, an agreeable bathing
place ; its trade abw is considerablo.

Brecon, or Brecknock, is mountainous and rugged, but has some fertile lands in tho valleys
of the Uske and the Wye. Brecon, an ancient town on the Uskc, amid lotly mountains, hu.s
the remains of a castle, which was once strong, and held by Buckingham, the favourite and
afterwards the victim of Richard III.

Caermarthen includes an ample proportion of bleak and barren hills, intermixed vvit!>
large fertile valleys. There aro abundance of coal, and some iron works on thn (ilnmnrgnn
border. Tho capital, situated on the Towey, which admits to it vessels of 3(10 tons, is one
of the most flourishing and best built towns m Wales.

Pembroke consists of a peninsula branching out between the Irish and British channels ,
it presents merely an undulating surface, rising at most to elevations of 300 cr 300 feet.
Its breed of cattle is in high repute, and its indented coasts contain some of the finest Imr-
bours in Britain. Two Roman roads cross this county, which is also cich in druidicnl and
feudal monuments. The ancient city of Pembroke is strikingly sitiintod on an nlmot-t in-
sulated neck of land on the bay of Milford Haven, the highest part of which presents tlio
vast remains of its castle, one of tlie most magnificent structures of Wales or Entjland.
Tho town contains some ancient churches. The Inrgo bay composing Milford tlnven
forms the most capacious and secure harbour in Britain. Hence government have been
induced, at the new towns of Milford and Haberstone, on its northern shore, to form dock-
yards and establish packets for the south of Ireland. St. David's, the ecclesiastical capital
of South Wales, is now only a large dirty village, adorned, however with venerable ancient
atructurea.

400

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part IIL

Gkmorgiin is the finest county in South Wales, and, ns to wealth, superior to any other
in tlio princij)ulity. Its coast, along the Bristol Channel, and tor some miles inland, is level,
and fertile iii tiie extreme. Thence the ground rises into hills of continually increasing
elevation, till, on the frontier, they rise to the height of upv/ards of 2(KM) feet, and unite
witii the Drocon ciiuins. From these heights descend numerous streams, which, in their
progress to the sou, produce uU the varieties of ravines, wooded vales, fails, and cataracts;
which, with the beauty of the plains below, and the fine views over the Bristol Channel,
render Gluiiiorjrun eciual in picturesque beauty to any other county in Wales. The crops
of every do.--cription of grain are ample; and there are good breeds both of cattle and sheep.
But these objects are trifling, when compared with the mineral treasures of Glamorgan.
It forms tiic centre of a vast field of coal and iron, fironi which branches extend into the
neighbouring counties. Since it was found that iron could be smelted with coke, the work
in^ of this metal has prodigiously increased, and the town of Merthyr Tydvil, near which
it IS must abundant, has grown from a mere village to be the most populous place in Wales.
In conseiiiicnco also of the abundance of fuel, the copper ore dug out in Anglesey, Cornwall,
and Ireland, is brought hither to be smelted and rehued. The plating of iron with tin is
also an extensive occupation. The iron is reduced by rollers to the requisite thinness, and
is then cut by scissors into plates, which ailerwards require little more than simple immer-
sion into the smelted tin. The coal, besides its essential use in these various works, is in
itself a most extensive object of exportation, amounting in some years to 300,000 tons. The
rivers of Glamorgan are very imperfectly navigable; but this defect has been supplied by
industry. From IS'eath, Cardiff, and Swansea, canals reach far into tlie interior ; and their
benefits being extended by railways, a channel has been opened for conveying to the sea the
produce even of the most interior mines. Cardiff ranks ad the county town, but is now much
surpassed by others. Yet it carries on a considerable trade ; having a commodious harbour,
and being connected by a canal with the interior works at Merthyr Tydvil. It is now much
surpassed by Swansea, which has risen to its present importance by immense works in iron
and cop|K!r, and by the exportation of coal ; which is furnished in such abundance, that a
large vessel may enter at one tide and go out loaded at the next. Its pleasant situation on

a fine bay has also made it an extensive re-
sort for sea-bathing, and led to the erection
of many elegant buildings. Swansea has
thus risen into a sort of capital of South
Wales; yet it is not so large as Merthyr
Tydvil has been rendered by the extensive
iron works in and round it. There are near
it seventeen furnaces, in one of which 11,000
tons of pig iron and 12,000 tons of bar iron
are produced annually. Caerphilly, a thriv-
ing little town, with some manufactures,
deserves notice chiefly from the remains of
' its immense castle (fig. 18ii.), which pre-
sent a most stupendous scene of ruins. It
is stated to have been a mile and a quarter
in circumference, and capable of contain-
ing a garrison of 20,000 men. Llandaff, the only nominal city in the county, is only a vil-
lage, tlic seat of tlie least richly endowed bishopric in Wales. The cathedral, however, is
a tine ruin.

The small islands attached to England are unimportant. Man, thirty miles in length by
twelve in breadth, is nearly equidistant from each of the three kingdoms. It comprises a
considerable extent of level territory ; but rises in the interior into high mountains, among
which Snowfell, nearly 2000 feet high, stands conspicuous. Man ranked long as an inde-
pendent sovereignty, held by the Earls of Derby, and is celebrated for the gallant defence
made by the countess of that name for Charlos I. It descended afterwards to the Duke of
Athol, from wlioni the sovereignty was purchased, in 176.3, by the British government, with
a view to the prevention of smuggling, and to the establishment of a free trade. The natives
are a Celtic race. Castletown, the capital, is the neatest town in the island ; and in its
centre, Ciistlc lluslicii, the ancient palace of the kings of Man, rears il« gloomy and majestic
brow. Douglas, however, as being tlie spijt in which the whole trade circulates, is now of
superior iniportjuicc, and has attracted a great number of English settlers.

The Scilly isles, situated at some distance from the western extremity of Cornwall, arc
tenanted by 2(M)0 (xwr inhabitants, who raise a little grain, but depend chiefly ujwn fishing,
pilotage, and the making of kelp.

Jersey, Gucrn.-'cy, and .\lderncy, with Sark, form a group naturally French, and originally
part of the patrimony of the Norman kings, which the naval superiority of England has
enabled her to retain. They enjoy certain privileges and immunities, founded on this dis-
tinction, as laid down by Coke, that, " though [wircel of the dominion of the crown of Eng-

Uacrphilly Cutle.

.■^

Book I.

SCOTLAND

401

land, thoy arc not, nor over were, parcel of the realm of England." TIio climate is mild
and ufTTct-nblD, and the soil generally fertile. Jtney, the finest of the group, is so abundant
in orclmrds, that cider forms the chief object of exportation. St. Ilclier, the capital of Jersey,
is a handsome town.

[•nfjth by
pprises a

among

I an inde-

defcnce

iDuko of

]nt, with

natives
lid in its
jmnjcstic

now of

|val1, arc
1 fishing,

jiginuUy
luiul has
llliis dis-
lof Enu-

Mull of Galluwar.

^ CHAPTER 111.

SCOTLAND

The place which Scotland holds as part of Great Britain, has already been exhibited in
the introduction to the chapter on England. We shall now describe in detail this import-
ant, though secondary, member of the empire.

Sect. I. — Geographical Outline.
Scotland is bounded on the south by England, firom which it is separated by a line drawn
along the Tweed, the Cheviot Hills, and thence to the Solway Frith. On every other side

it ia bounded by the Atlantic, the Northern
and the German oceans. The cngth of
Scotland, from the Mull of Galloway
{Jig. 183.), in about 54° 40' to Dunnet
Head, Caithness, in 58° 40', is 280 miles.
The greatest breadth, from Buchan-Ness to
a point on the opposite shore of Inverness is
130 miles. This breadth varies little in tlie
interval between the friths of Forth and
Moray ; but to the south of the former, the
average breadth scarcely exceeds 100, and
to the north of the Moray Frith, 40 or 50
miles. The entire extent of Scotland is
29,600 square miles.
Scotland, in its general outline, consists of
vwo great and perfectly distinct parts : the Lowlands and the Highlands. The former com-
prehends all Scotland south of the friths of Forth and Clyde; for the pastoral hills of the
southern and western borders, less elevated than the iiortliorn mountains, and inhabited by
a different race, are not considered as forming any tie between these and the Highlands
properly so called. Immediately north of the Clyde, the highland ranges bosrin to tower in
endless succession ; but on the east coast, the Lowlands extend beyond the Forth and north-
ward through the counties of Fife, Forfiir, Kincardine, and Aberdeen ; though these last are
closely encroached upon by the mountain territory. The lowland district also extends
round the northern promontory of Aberdeen, and along the borders of the Murray or Moray
Frith, which contain as level tracts of territory, and enjoy as mild a climate, as any part
of Scotland. This level tract docs not comprehend quite the half of the country; even the
Lothians, and still more the western provinces, are hemmed in by low ridges of bleak table-
lands, covered, in a great measure, with heath and moss. The arable lands are almost
solely comprised in broad flat valleys, chiefly along the friths, called straths or carses.
Several of these are much famed for fertility, a blessing but partially bestowed even on the
best districts of Scotland.

The Highlands, which comprise tiie whole west and centre of northern Scotland, form a
region of very bleak and rugged aspect. A chain of long and lofty ridges extends from
south-west to north-east, not reaching, however, the Gorman Ocean or the Moray Frith, but
leaving between them the level interval of the northern lowland. These mountains usually
dip, almost perpendicularly, into the lakes and seas on which they border ; and even the in-
terior valleys are on so high a level, that in this climate they admit only in scattered patches
the culture of the coarser kinds of grain, particularly oats and bigg. "I'liese mountains, par-
ticularly the great Grampian barrier, which extends across from Ben Lomond to Blair-Athol,
lock in closely with each other, and can be entered only by formidable and easily defended
passes. The consequence has been, that thoy have preserved within their recesses a primi-
tivn people, wlio, in dress, language, and the whole train of tlieir social ideas, differ essen-
tially from the I^iwlanders, nnd have retained antique and striking characteristics, both
physical and moral, that are obliterated in almost every other pn-t of Great Britain.

The Isles comprise the third part of Scotland. On the east, indeed, and even on great
part of the .south-west coast, only a few bold and naked rocks riso perpendicularly from the
ocean. But the western highlands an bordered by tiie Hebrides, an extensive range of
large islands, some of which are separated from the continent by such narrow channels, that
they may almost be considered as forming part of it. Again, tiie northern extremity of
Scotland is prolonged by the two ranges of the Orkney and Shetland islands, in a continu-
ous line witli each other, but at some distance. These islands are rocky and bare, exposed.
Vou L 34* 3 A

I: i:

402

MAP OP SCOTLAND.

Fio. 184

Lii«tti«lt Wat

^^■^.

''"%%

•lo. 184

Book I.

SCOTLAND.

403

^
y

to excessive moisture and the perpetual storms of the Atlantic. The population boars, in
language and features, the marks of a Scandinavian origin ; dating from the period when
the piratical rovers of the north made extensive inroads on the western states of Europe.

Among the Scottish mountains, the most considerable are the Grampians, a name which
is given very generally to all those which cover the surface of tlio Highlands, but applied
more imrticularly to the chain running across the counties of Perth and Argyle, and com-
prising Hen Ijomond, Ben I^edi, Rsn More, Uen Lawers, and otlicrs of tiiat olevated ridge
whicii directly face tho low country of Stii-ling and Perth. Several of tliese mountains
exceed tlio altitude of 4000 feet. Ben Nevis rises to the height of 4315 feet On
the borders of Inverness and Ross-shire, Ben VVyvis, and some others, are of nearly equal
elevation. The soutli of Scotland is also very hilly ; but its heights are seldom more than
tJOOO feet, green and pastoral. The most remarkable are the boundary chain of the Cheviot,
celebrated in the annals of early feud, hunting, and border warfare. The Lowthers, a steep
higli ridge, including valuable lead mines ; tne pastoral hills of Ettrick and Yarrow ; and
Criifnl and Cairnsmuir, in Galloway, form important objects : the lower ranges of the Pent-
land and Lammcrmoor border the Lothians.

The rivers of Scotland are not so much distinguished for their length or magnitude, as
for tlie pastoral scenery tlirough whicii they wind tlieir early course, and for the magnificent
estuaries which tliey form at their junction with the sea.

The Forth rises near the foot of Ben Lomond, flows east towards Stirling, near which it
is swelled by the larger stream of the Teith ; whence, aflcr many windings through the
beautiful plain overlooked by Stirling castle, it opens into the great frith on which the capi-
tal of Scotland is situated.

NORTH PART.

1. Uunnct
3. (JHnnuAhy

3. Freawick

4. Wick

5. Ulbaler

7. ThunS

8. Brachry

9. Hiruthy

10. Fiirr Kirk

11. Riviegill

15. Tongue

I'A, Inch KeHtiloch
M. Liich Eiibull
Mi. nradey

16. Drumacray

17. Bcourie

18. Cnieirem*
m. Iiivor Bavnily
20. lioch Nhvit
Ul. I.cich Baden
^i, Achnahuo
'Si. l.&theran

^4. Bfjrryilalc
iS. Ilolmadalo

26. Clyne

27. Achtntran

28. Dalmor

29. Lairs
:<0. Tullucli
:il. Loich Slim
»1. Aisynt
113. Stoir

M, Dorncy

;i.5. CannahouTlih

:)B. i;ilap(iiil

37. Piirlinlick

38. Bra
:t9. (folspio
40. nornf>ch
4I.Tarliat

42. Oomarty

43. Tain

44. Invertnrdon
m. Kincardine
4fi. Kiidrimiire

47. hen Wyvia

48. Loclibronm

49. Loch Fuir
.V). Tinafidino
HI. Melvng
,S2. F.rridaTe
.U. Gairlorh
54. Luch IVIarce
!iS. Loch Fannich
,50. Loch Luichard
.17. Killearn

.v. Kortroie
.■i!!. Fort Ocorgc
ni. Nairn

01. Forrel

02. F.lgin

03. Rothei

04. Fiiclinbera
fl.%. Oullen
<iO. Mamnch
67. Pottioir

Referencei to the Map of Scotland.

OS. BnnfT
till. Tiirrcff

70. Atwrdour

71. FraKfiburgh
1i. 8trichi?n

Tl. Petcrliond
74. Crudtiii
7.'i. Kllon
70. Rnihie

77. Miildrum

78. (vtiaaliiiond

79. Kinnc'thniont

80. .\chindoro

81. Huntley

82. KinUiiL'oil
H:l. Aberlour
84. (jrantuwn
M. Kdomkille
811. Dyiner

87. (^airinichyle
f¥. luvorneii
89. Daroa
00. Obriachan
OI.Kdinuir
92. Ileauly
03. Mucrich
94. Kilrtacrow
m. Atladale

96, Turridun

97, Vuncbano

98, AuplccroM

99, Kiililan

100. ninn Shiel

101. Afl°arie

102. Diinilrnian

103. I^ich Ni'ci
lot. Bellaluin
10.1. Abiirardcr
lOO. Avipmnro

107. Kincardine

108. Abcmclhy

109. Achpnriiw
no. Sirnlhdon

111. Towiu

112. Cluny

113. Kimore

114. Invtiruiy
ll,*!, Foveran
no, Finlray

117. Old Alierdwn

118. Ni'w Aberdeen
liO, Stonchiivcn

120, Ternan

121, Rino
12i>, Balmoral
123, Braoiniir
12). luck

y2!i. Inverniiliaven
190. Laf!ifan

127. Fort Aiiffn^tuR

128. Loch Garry
199. Loch Luehy

130, CluncB

131. Luch Arkeg
1,32. Rotary
133. Ruddrech
1.34. Loch Morrcy

I3.t, Araiaig
130. Sminasary

137, I.och Shell

138, Cromer

139, Strano

140, Hen Ncvia

141, Fort William

142, Aliernrder

143, Loch Laifgan

144, Ualwhinme
14.'i, ninth

140. Clachay

147, Cluvu

148, Mcniiuir

149. Cruigoiir
l.TO. Glcnburvie
l.^l. Bervic
152. Muntroco
I.i3 Brechin

154. Liinan

155, Oaihlaw

150. Gleiiiila

157. Moulin

158. Blair-Alhol

159. Dalniicnrdoch
100. Shechallion
161, Loch Riinnncli
103. I^nch Kriclit

103, Loch Tr<-ag

104. KinliM'hmore
10>. Corriherich

106. Aryhoulan

107. Bcarnndalu

108. Langall

109. LidcreBilalo

170. Kinlochalino

171. Murven

172. Ardnamurehan

SOUTH PART.
1. Appin
3. Ardchnltan

3. (iliMlCO*'

4. Locli F.iivo

5. KinK*g llouao

6. Fingar

7. Bon Lau'cra

8. Killin

9. I.och Tny

10. Ki-nmoru

11. Aberli'ldy

12. Amubrie

13. Diinkeld
K. Blairgowrie
15, Cupar-Anaus
10, Meigle

17. Arhrimlli

18. Muirdrum

19, Dundee

20, Kihnony

21, ('Opar

22. Ncwhurgh
93. Penh

34, Crieir
9.1. Comrio

36, Loch Earn

37, Craggan

38. Lorh Voil

39. Loch Lochart
:10, Glcnurchay
31, (;hidirk

33, Kilmoru

33, Ardmaddy

34, Craigniih

35, Kilniartin
:I0. Invi-rary
:)7. Strachur

38, Kilmoriah

39, Ben Lomond

40, Lock Kuirino

41, Loch Lubnttig
43, Doune

43. Willinniflown
41, iMiichart
4.'i. Forleviot
40, Kiiirou

47, Falkland

48, Si, Andrew'!

49, Anairutlier
M. Levcn

51. KinKhorn

52. DunfiTmline
.53. (Clackmannan
.54. Airth

rt.'i. Stirling
.SO. llimibrane
57, Milton
.58, Catnptifl
59. Loch l.omond

00. Tarbat

01. Kilmodan

02. Gilphead
0:1. Achahuish

04. Carnmore

05. Killarraw
00. Kilchenzie

07. Southend

08. Camiihelllon

09. Siiddalo

70. Gorton

71. Skipnciia
V->, Ruban

73, Gn-enock

74, Kilbirnie

75, Dumbarton

76, Paisley

77, Renfrew

78, Glangow
7!l. Bolhwcll

80, Airdrie

81, Whitburn

82, Falkirk

83, Lintitheow

84, Borrowpiown-

neis
R5. Kdinbiirgh
80. Dalkeith

87, Mofwelliureh

88, Haildinirton

89, North Berwick

90, Dunbar

91, Scateraw

92, Bunkle

93, Dunw

94, Pailon

95, F.cclea
90, Gordon

97. rhannelkirk

96, Lauder

99, Middleinn

100, Linton

101, Peeblei

102, Carnweth

103, Lanark

104, Hamilton
10.1, Fagleshatn
100, Stewarton
107, Dairy

ItH Irvine
m. Ayr

110. Mauchline

111. Kilmarnock

112. Straihaven

113. Doualas

114. ('rawfunljohn
11.5, Crawford
110, Cultei Fell

117. Galashiels

1 18, Melrose

119, Selkirk

120. Kelso

191, Yetholme

192, Hownam

123, Southdean

124, Jedburgh
12,5, Hawii^k

126. Bedford Green

127. Kirkpatrick

128. Samiuhar

129. Kirkcunnel
i:iO. Ochiltree
131, Dalrymple
i:<2. Giivan
1:I3, llallintrae
134. Balliich
i;i5, Garry

100. Minihive
137, Don^core
i:W. Puniiont

139. Loctimalien

140. VVesterkirk

141. Laiigludm

142. (iretiia Green

143. Annan
M4. Duinfriea
145. racrlaverock
MO. Douglas
14T. Urr

148. Loch Ken

149. Newton Slew-

art
1.50. rraighncli
151, New Luce

1.52. SiranraiT

1.53. Porlnalrick

1.54. Maidenkir
1,5.5, Ardwell

150. Glenluco

1.57, Mochnim

1.58. Wnitchorn
159, Wigton

100, Laiirieiton

101, Kirkcudbright

102, Colvend

Rivers.
a Naver Water
b Thurso Water
e, Oikel
d Orrin
e Nairn
r Find horn

n iJoveran
i Hon
j Dee
k Esk
I T«y
mEarn
n Forth
o Tweed
p Annan
q Nilh
r Ken
• Ayr

Ayr
Clyde

SKYE ISLE.
1. Dig
3. llig

3. Tolnacmeh

4. Bnizort

5. Stein

0. RuBf

7. Bracadale

8. Druinah

9. Gillan

10. Rroadford

11. Kyle

MULL ISLE.

1. Kjininian
S. Tnhormurie

3. Keallun

4. Aros

,5, Aciinacraig

0, (.'ambui

7. Moy

8. Fidden

JURA ISLE.

1, Lenghall

2, Lagg

ISLAY ISLE.

1, SiuKiig

2, Kilchoman

3, Bolsha

4, AKkaig

5, Bowmore
0, Kildnlton
7, Kintra

ARRAN ISLE
1 Oran

2, ('orrio

3, Kilbride

4, Kilmon'

104

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt III

The Clyde rises on the borders of Dumfries-sliirc ; flows for a considerable space through
a wild pastoral valley ; and descends, by a succession of most pictures(iue cascades, into the
lower region of Lanarkshire. Atler passing througli a tract wiiich may be denominated the
Arden of Scotland, it enters Glasgow, becomes a broad stream, and expands into a winding
trith, not so broad as the Forth, but the scene of a much more active trade.

The Tweed rises irom the same chain as the Clyde, and running eastward, waters the
most beautiful and classic of the pastoral districts of Scotland, in whose verse Tweed is the
favourite name. Of similar fame are its tributaries, the Yarrow, the Gala, the Tcviot ;
swelled by whone waters it forms, on reaching Berwick, a capacious harbour.

The Tay rises in the central Highlands, descends into tlie lowlands of Perthshire, and
after winding beautifully round the city of Perth, expands into the Frith of Tay, and forma
the harbour of Dundee.

The Spey has a longer course than any other ; but, rising in the midst of the Perthshire
highlands, and rolling northward tiirough the wild recesses of Attiol and Braemar, its line is
comparatively obscure. The other rivers of Scotland are of subordinate rank ; Uie Dee of
Aberdeen, the Esk of Montrose, the Nitli and Aiman of Dumfries, the Ayr and Irvine
of Ayr.

Lochs form a characteristic feature of Scotland ; many of them are long arms of the sea,
running up into the heart of tiie mountauis. Among these, Loch Lomond is pre-eminent
The traveller admires its vast expanse, its gay and numerous islands, its wooded promon-
tories and bays, and the high mountain barrier at its head. Loch Katrine, in a smaller
compass, presents a singular combination of romantic beauty. Loch Tay, enclosed by the
loftiest of the Grampiaas, presents alpine scenery on the grandest scale ; while at Inverary,
Loch Fyne unites the pomp of art with that of nature. The long chain of Lochs Linnhe,
Lnchy, and Ness, stret^liing diagonally across Scotland, comprises much fine scenery,
and bus afforded &cilitie8 for making a navigable communication between the German and
Atlantic oceans.

Sect. II. — Natural Geography.

This section will contain Geology only, as the Botany and Zoology of Scotland were de-
scribed along with that of Great Britain in general, under the head of England.

SuBSECT. I. — Geology of Scotland.

Scotland may be divided geologically into the following great districts : — 1. Southern ; 2.
Middle ; 3. Northern ; 4. Insular.

(1.) Southern division. This division includes that part of the country bounded on the
south by the northern frontier of England ; and on the north and west, by the comparatively
flat country between the Forth and the Clyde. It is traversed fironi St. Abb's Head on the
east coast to Portpatrick on the west coast by a high land, named tiie great southern high
land of Scotland, in which are situated tlic highest mountains in this division of Scotland.
This lofty range sends out branches in different directions, many of which reach the sea-
coast, while others terminate in the lower and flatter parts of the country that lies around
them. Although abundantly supplied with rivers, the southern division contains but few
lakes, in this respect forming a striking contrast with the middle and northern divisions.
The mountainous regions are composed of transition rocks, while the lower and flatter con-
sist principally of secondary and alluvial formations.

I. Transition rocAs. The predominating rocks of the Neptunian class are greywacke,
with subordinate beds of clay slate, flinty slate, and transition limestone; the Plutonian
species are granite, syenite, porpliyry, serpentine, and trap ; by far the most abundant rock
is the greywacke, in which the principal load-mines in Scotland, those of I.eadhills and
Wanlockhead, are situated. They have been worked from an early jxBriod, and during a
long course of years have yielded to tlie proprietors n very rich return. Of late year.s,
owing to the disturbed state of the world, their prosperity has been interrupted. Copper
ores have been raised in Galloway, but not in considerable quantity ; and the same may be
said of the sulphuret of antimony, formerly mined at Glendinning in Dumfries-shire.

II. Secondary rocks. Scotland is distinguished from England by the smaller number of
Its secondary formations, and tlieir more limited distribution; the southern division contuins
a greater proportion than the middle or northern ; and hence approaches more nearly to
England in a general geognostic point of view. The following secondary forin.itions have
been observed : — 1. Old red sandstone. 2. Mountain limestone. 3. Coal formation. 4. New
red sandstone. 5. Various trap and porphyry rocks.

1. Old red sandstone. This formation skirts the transition chains of mountains lying
immediately upon the greywacke, &c. It is well exposed in the Pentlands, tlic ujjper i)art
of the river district of the river Clyde, in the course of tiie river Tweed, in various points
m Dumfries-shire, &c. In the districts where it occurs, it is frequently quarried as a
building-stone.

2. Mountain limestone. The beds of limestune in the lower part of the coal formation

Door I.

SCOTLAND.

405

fwacke,
[utonian
lanl rock
hills ami
during a
tc years,
Copppr
c may be
e.

umber of

coiAiins

nearly to

ons havn

4. New

ina lying
Ipper part
bus points
fried as a

I formation

in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and tlic beds of iiinrstone upon which the coal formation
rests in other quarters, as in Dunifrics-thirc, belong to tlie niountnin limestone.

3. Coal formation. This important deposit occipies considerable ix)rtions of £n=% Mid,
and West Lothian, and e.vtends westward to Glasgow. It forms extensive tracts in Ayr-
shire ; in DumfricB-shirc ; and in Berwicksliire. Tlic coal mines in the Lothians and around
Glasgow are the most pro<luctive :n Scotland. The annual quantity of coal brouglit into
Glasgow is ."jeiitMO tons ; of whicli 124,000 arc exported. It iimy also be noticed, as con-
nected with coal, that in Glasgow, during twenty-four hours in the winter moiitiis, tlio gas
company make upwards of 500,(HM) cubic feet of gas from coal ; and during tlio .siunc period
in the summer months, about r20,0()(). The pipes extend to more than 100 miles througli
streets. The great iron-works ut Carron arc supplied with tlie ore from which tlie iron is
obtained, from the coalfields of this and the middle division of Scotland. Tiie ore or stone,
which is an argillaceous carbonate of iron, occurs in beds and embedded masses, and princi-
pally in the slate of the coal deposit. The admirable building-stone around Edinburgh and
Glasgow is a sandstone which occurs in beds in the coal formation.

4. New red sandstone. This formation in tlie regular succession rests upon the coal
formation, in which position it is to be seen in the neighbourhood of Cannoby in Dumfries-
shire.

5. Trap and porphyry rocks. These ignigenous masses occur in many parts: they
abound, for instance, all around Edinburgh ; forming part of the Calton Hill, Castle Hill,
Salisbury Craigs, Arthur Seat, the Pentlands, &c. : tlie beautifUl conical hill named North
Berwick I^aw, the Bass Rock, the Isle of May, Traprain Law, are also formed of trap and
porphyry rocks. Renfrewshire and Ayrshire also abound in splendid and interesting displays
of trap and porphyry. In many parts of the country these rocks are used us building-stones,
and the greenstone of the trap series aflbrds an admirable material for road-making. The
splendid causeways and roads around Edinburgh are of greenstone.

III. Alluvial rocks. In various parts of the country there occur deposits of old alluvium,
or what is called diluvium ; and everywhere tlic modern alluvium, or that daily fbrming
meets the eye.

(2.) Middle division. This division of Scotland is bounded to the south by the southern
division ; on the north by the Moray Frith and the great chain of lakes extending irom
Inverness to Fort William and the Linnhc Loch. It is traversed in a north and south-
westerly direction by the Grampian range of mountains, which extends from the Mull of
Cantyre to Stonehaven in Kincardineshire, and to the rocky northern coasts of Aberdeen-
shire and Banffshire. The country in general falls rapidly to the west of this great moun-
tain range, and comparatively gently to the eastward of it: hence the western acclivity is
steep and short, the eastern gentle and long. On the eastern acclivity and the low lands
connected with it are situated the Sidlay, Ociiil, and Cainpsie hills, forming a pretty conti-
nuous range ; and Kellie Law, Ijirgo Law, the Ixunonds, and the Saline Hills in Fifeshire,
forming a less continuous and lower range of hills. Water is abundantly distributed over
this di.strict, in the Ibrm of rivers, lakes, and springs. Lakes, which are so rare in the
southern division, are here abundantly distributed, and exhibit many beautiful and splendid
scenes. Of these lakes the most considerable are the following: Loch Lomond, Jjoch Tay,
IjOcIi Ness, and Loch Awe. Tlie rocks are more varied in this than in the southern divi-
sion ; magnificent displays of primitive, transition, and secondary formations present them-
selves to our attention.

I. Primitive and transition rocks. The Neptunian kinds are granite, gneiss, mica slate,
clay slate, talc slate, chlorite slate, quartz rock, grey wacke, limestone : the Plutonian rocks
are granite, syenite, porphyry, trap, and serpentine. The iS'eptunian rocks generally range
from north-east to south-west ; most freiiuently dip under an angle of about 45° ; and are
variously upheaved, broken, and disturbed by the Plutonian rocks. They arc principally
confined to the Grampian high land and its branches. The most remarkable granite and
syenite districts are Cairngorm, Benachie, Aberdeen, Peterhead, BenCruachan; and Ben
Nevis conjoins along with its slaty Neptunian strata, granite, syenite, and porphyry. In
some quarters the limestone Is raised as marble, as in Glen Tilt ; but more frequently it is
burnt into quicklime. The clay slate quarries of Luss, on the banks of Loch Lomond ; those
of Balarhuli.'^li, in Argyleshire; and the slate quarries in the interior of Aberdeenshire, are
of considerable extent, and employ many workmen. There were formerly lead-mines in the
neighbourhood of Tyiulruni, where the lead glance, or sulphuret of lead, was disposed in
veins in quartz rock and mica slute.

II. Siroiiilary rockn. These are, old red sandstone, mountain limestone, coal formation,
and new red sandstone, and probably the lias formation: these strata are variously inter-
mingled with trap and [wrphyry rocks.

1. Old nd sinulsloiw. This rock, in some parts of the country, as in the vicinity of
Stoiiehavfu and ufar Blair-Gowrio, exhibits iiiugiiificent cliffs of conglomerate. It tJjrms
the prinripiil reck in tlie gfreiit triict of country included between lines drawn from Stonc-
naveii by ni,iir-Gowi-ip, Coiiirie, Cullender, Dumbarton, Stirling, Kinross, Dundee, Arbroath,

•I ;.■

* f1

406

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY,

Part III

Montrose, and Bcrvie. It appears again near InvcrnesH, and on the banks of Loch Ness.
In many localities there are extensive quarries, the sandstone being used as a building-stone,
and as a pavement-stone. The Kinguddie sandstone and the Arbroath pavement-stone, from
old red sandstone localities, are well known.

2. Coal formation. The coal formation in the middle division of Scotland has not been met
with farther nortii than Fifeshire. Tlie counties of Fife, Clackmannan, and Stirling, abound
m coal ; of those counties, Fife is that which contains the greatest fields of this valuable
mineral.

3. New red sandstone occurs apparently in some points on the east coast, and also on the
north coast between CuUen and the Cromarty Frith.

4. Lias formation. Near to Banff there are beds of clay, which, from tlie organic re-
mains contained in them, may turn out to belong to this formation.

5. Plutonian rocks. These arc various traps, as greenstone, amygdaloid, trap tufla, and
basalt; and porphyries, having a hisis of claystone or clinkstone. The famous headland the
Red Head, on the east coast, exhibits a fine display of Plutonian rocks, connected with the
red sandstone. Bervie Head and the vicinity are interesting fit)m their porphyry rocks.
The trap rocks of Montrose are famous on account of the agates they aflbrd. Kinnoul Hill,
at Perth, is coniiwsed of amygdaloid, tuffa, and other rocks of the trap series, and abounds
in agates. The Ochil Hills are principally composed of trap and porphyry; and trap rocks
abound in the Campsie range. The Fifeshire hills, viz. Kellic Law, Largo Law, the cones
of the Iximond, and the Saline Hills, are of trap. These various traps and porphyries have,
OS is generally the case, broken and changed more or less the Neptunian strata with which
they are intermingled.

III. Alluvial rocks. These have the same general characters as those met with in tlie
southern division. In a few districts, however, as near to Peterhead, and in the vicinity of
Banfl*! there are numerous chalk flints. These, by some, are considered as alluvial, an<l
foreign to Scotland ; while others are of opinion that they are remains of the chalk forma-
tion, formerly distributed in some of the tracts where the flints are found.

(3.) Northern division. This division is bounded on the south by the chain of lakes
which forms tlie northern limit of the middle division, and on the north, the east, and the
west, by the ocean. The high land ranges throughout its whole length, from south-west to
north-east. The western acclivity is steep and short ; the eastern comiMratively gently
inclined and long. Rivers, springs, and lakes are numerous. The whole of this division,
nearly, is composed of primitive and transition rocks, the secondary occurring principally
along the cost coast and a small extent of tlie north-west coast.

I. Primitive and transition rocks. The Neptunian species are disposed in strata, that
oflen range from soutli-west to north-east, are of gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, quartz rock,
talc slate, limestone, and greywacke. The Plutonian rocks are less abundant than in the
middle and southern divisions of Scotland; and are granite, syenite, porphyry, and trap.
The only mines are those at Strontian, where the ore is lead glance, or sulphurct of lead,
in veins traversing gneiss. The mineral in which the Strontian earth was first tbund
occurs in these mines, along with other curious minerals, of wliicli the cross-stone is the
most interesting.

II. Secondary rocks. The formations of this class are both Neptunian and Plutonian.
The Neptunian are old red sandstone, new red sandstone, lias, and oolite ; the Plutonian, trap
and porphyry.

1. Old red sandstone. Much of the county of Caithness, pnd some tracts on the east
coast, and a few points on the west, are coinposed of this formation.

2. New red sandstone. The county of Caitiiness affords examples of this deposit, which
is remarkable on account of the beds of fossil Jishes it contains.

3. Lias and oolite. This formation occurs on the east coast of Sutherland. The coal
mines at Brora are situated in this deposit; tne coal is, however, of indifferent quality.

4. The Plutonian rocks are not frequent, ond consist principally of trap and jxirphyry.

III. Alluvial rocks. These exhibit the same characters as in the middle and southern
divisions.

(4.) Insular division. Tliis may lie suKlivided in the following manner: — 1. Fortii
Mauds; 2. Clyde Islands; 3. Hebrides; 4. Orkneys: .5. Shetlands.

(1.) Forth islands. The Bell Rock is of a rod sandstone, having the same characters as
that on the neightiouring coast at Arbroath. The otlier islands are principally composed of
trap rocks, occasion,dly associnti.'d with clinkstune porphyry, and rocks of the coal formation.
(2.) Clyde Islaiiil.^ and the Ciimbrnys are composed of secondary rocks ; the Neptunian rocks
are chiefly old rod sandstone, which is traversed and overlaid by different kinds of trap rocks,
of which there are magnificent displays in these islands^. The southern part of Bute is
almost entirely composed <if rocks of igneous origin, belonging to the trap series ; the mid-
dle, of old red sandstone; the northern of clay slate, mica slate, quartz rock, and trap. Arran
affords highly illu.itrative examples of Neptunian and Plutonian rocks of the primitive and

BookL

SCOTIiAND.

407

the

ita that
rock,
in the
trap,
lead,
found
is the

. Fortli

ctcrs as
)osod of
rmation.
.n rocka
p rocks,
Bute is
;he mid-
Arran
ive and

transition classes, viz. clay slate, mica slate, grey wacke, as Neptunian dcpMits ; and frranite,
as a Plutonian rock. The junctions of the granite, of which there are two formations, with
each other and with the Neptunian slates, are most instructive. Reposing' on these rocka is
a deposit of the old red sandstone, on which rests the coul formation ; and the whole are
covered, more or less completely, with new red sandstone. These Neptunian secondary
rocks are traversed in all directions by Plutonian rocks of tho porphyry and trap scries,
affording an admirable study to tlio geologist. Alluvial deposits occur all round the coast,
and covering, more or less deeply, the bottom and sides of valleys. Both old and new allu-
vium are met with in Arran. The Craig of Ailso, which is 900 feet high, is composed of
secondary syenite, in several cliffs disposed in magnificent columns, and traversed by veins
of secondary greenstone, &.e.

(3.) The Hebrides or Western Islands form two groups ; the one, ranging immediately
along the coast, the Inner Hebridet ; the other, lying beyond, to the westward, the Outer
Hebrideg.

Inner Hebrideg. Gigha, Islo, Jura, Colonsay, Oronsay, Scarba, and tho Slate Isles, are
principally composed of Neptunian primitive and transition strata, havinfr frequently a north-
east and south-west direction ; and variously disposed, from the slightly inclined to the ver-
tical position. The rocks are mica slate, quartz rock, talc slate, chlorite slate, hornblende
slate, clay slate, limestone, and grey wacke. These are traversed by, and intermingled with,
Plutonian rocks of the trap and porphyry series. Tho clay slate is extensively quarried in
the isle of Eisdale, one of tho Slate Islands. In I»la there is a great deposit of limestone,
in which formerly lead-mines were worked. lona, Tiree, and Coll are principally composed
of gneiss, mica slate, quartz rock, hornblende rock, with occasional intermixtures of granite
and syenite, and all traversed, more or loss frequently, by veins of trap rock. Mull, with
the exception of two or three points, which are composed of granite, gneiss, and mica slate
is composed of secondary trap and porphyry rocks, with occasional intermixtures of lias lime-
stones, and lias coals. Tlie usual alluvial deposits appear in different parts of the island.
Slaffa, which is composed of basalt, amygdaloid, and trap tuffa, has been long celebrated on
account of its splendid columnar basaltic cave, the Fingul's (Jave of travellers. Eigff is
principally composed of trap rocks, occasionally intermingled w ith lias limestones. The
Scure Egg is a remarkable columnar ridi»'e of pitchstone porpliyry, presenting the most
splendid display of the natural columnar structure to be met witii anywhere in the British
islands. Canna is entirely composed of secondary trap rocks; and Rum, a wild, rugged,
and hilly island, besides red sandstone, which forms a prominent constituent part, also con-
tains many varieties of trap, some of which are remarkable from their containing agates,
bloodstone, opal, die. Skye, the largest of the Inner Ilcbridf's, exhibits great variety of
scenery and of geological arrangement. The southern part of the island is composed of
primitive and transition rocks, principally of the Neptuni.m series ; namely, mica slate, clay
slate, chlorite slate, hornblende rock, (|uartz rock, grcywacke, and limestone. The middle
part aflbrds magnificent displays of Plutonian rocks, as syenite, porphyry and trap, which
are frequently observed intermixed witii lias limestone, which in many places is seen con-
verted mto marble through the agency of those ignigenous rocks : the northern division of
the island is principally composed of various trap rocks, often abounding in zeolite and other
curious minerals, and mterminglcd with lias limestone and coal. The alluvium here exhibits
its usual characters. Ritsay. The southern and middle parts of this island are of secondary
formation, principally of old red sandstone and lias sandstone ; the northern extremity is of
primitive rocks, principally gneiss. Rona. This island, which appears formerly to have
been a part of Rasay, is entirely of primitive formation, tlie prevailing rock being gneiss,
with subordinate mica slate, quartz rock, hornblende rock, &,c., traversed by splendid veins
of granite.

Outer Hebrides. This group, which lies in a north-east and south-west direction, con-
sists of the following islands ; viz. Lewis, Harris, North Uist, South Uist, and Barra. The
whole range of islands is nearly of primitive formation, and the predominating rocks, which
are gneiss and mica slate, range generally from north-east to south-west. The following
rocks, which are generally subordinate to those just mentioned, viz. quartz rock, clay slate,
chlorite slate, hornblende rock of vaiious kinds, limestone (!), serpentine, with masses and
veins of granite, syenite, and porphyry, present many interesting phenomena.

f4.) Orkney Islands. This group of islands is distiniruislied from allotiicrs that lie around
the coasts of Scotland, by the uniformity of its structure and composition. With the excep-
tion of a small e.^itont of transition rocks near Stromness in the island of Pomona, the largest
of the Orkneys, that island and all tiie others are composed of the old red sandstone, with
some rare appearance of secondary trap.

(5.) tShelland Islands. This very interesting group of islands exhibits great variety in
its geognostical structure and com|)osition. Mainland. With the exception of a band of
old red sandstone extending from the line of Sumburgh Head to Rovey Head, on tlie east
coast tlic ttliolo of this island is formed of primitive rocks. The Neptunian strata are

m'I

>j' '

406

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

ffneiss, with Bubordinato mica slate, clay Blate, quartz rock, limrstone, nnd hornblende rocks;
the Plutonian rocks, which frequently alter and upraiBO the Nrptuninn strata, are pranite,
■yenite, porphyry, greenstone, and cpidotic syenite. Ydl is almost entirely comixjfed ot
gneiss, variously intersected by veins of granite. Unut is compoKod of gneiss, mica slate,
talc slate, chlorite slate, and limestone, which are variously inturmi-xod with sfrpeiitino and
diallago rocks. Hermaness, the most northern point of the British dominions in hiiropc, is
composed of gneiss; while the Land's End of Cornwall, tlie most south-westerly cape of
Britain, is formed of granite. Unst and the neighbouring island of Fetlar abound m chro-
mate of iron. Hydrate of magnesia, grciiatite, precious garnet, and <)th(!r beautiful mmerals,
occur in this island. Fetlar is composed of serpentine as tlie prrdominatm^; rock, with
diallago rock, gneiss, mica slate, chlorite slate, and quartz rock. Whohnj is comptwed of
gneiss. Bressay, Nos», and Mousa arc composed of old red sandstone. Ihirrii and ITmiae
are composed of gneiss and mica slate, with submliimto limestone ; Pnpa Slniir is a moss ot
wrphyry. In Foula the predominating rock is old red sandstone ; at one point there is a
imited display of primitive rocks of granite, gneiss, mica slate, and clay slate.

Sbct. III.— //wtorico/ Survey,
To the Greek and Roman writers, Scotland was not known as a distinct country. Albion,
or Britain, was viewed as one region, parcelled out among a multitude of different tribes.
Agricola first penetrated into that part of Britain, which we now call Scotland. He easily
over-ran the low country, but encountered the most obstinate resistance when he approached
the Caledonians, who appear then to have held all the northern districts. An olwtinate
battle, the precise place or which hos never been ascertained, was fought at the foot of the
Grampians. All the rude valour of Caledonia could not match the skill of Agricola and the
discipline of the Roman legions. The whole open country was abandoned to the invaders,
whose progress, however, was stayed by what they termed the Caledonian forest, under
which they seem to have vaguely comprehended the vast pine woods of Glenniore, and the
steep barrier of the Grampians. Their military occupation, however, is attested by the form-
ation of numerous camps, of which that of
Ardoch, {Jig. ISiJ), ten miles north of Stir-
ling, is the most extensive and complete.
The Romans endeavoured to resist the in-
cursions of tlie natives, by rearingut different
periotls, two walls, one between tlie Forth
and Clyde, and the otiier south of the low
country of Scotland, between the Solway
and the Tyne. The northern tribes, how-
ever, continued their inroads, now chiefly
under the name of Picts, who seem clearly
to have been the same people with the
Caledonians. In the fifth century Britain
was abondoned by the Romans, and over-run
by the Saxons, who occupied the eastern
part of the south of Scotland, as far as the
Forth.

The western part was formed into the
kingdom of Strathcliiyd, It flourished for
about 300 years, and was rendered illustrious
by the name and exploits of Arthur and his
knights, whose power I'roiii .'508 to m^, is
represented by tradition as having been predominant over the south of Scotland and tlie north
of England. The capital and bulwark of this kingdom wos Alcluyd, called afterwards Dun
Briton and Dumbarton, seated on an insulated precipitous rock at the moutli of the Clyde.
The Strathcluyd Britons, closely pressed by their Saxon neighbours, endeavoured to det'cnd
themselves by a lengthened /ossf, of which the traces have lieeu supimsed to remain in the
Catrail or Picts'-work Ditch, drawn across the counties of Selkirk and Roxburgh. Such
feeble defences could not support a sinking monarchy; in 7.57, Alcluyd was taken by the
Saxons, and the kingdom subverted.

The Scots, before this time, iiad come from Ireland, their original seat, which, in the fourth
century, was often called Scotland. Even before the departure of the Romans, tiie Scots,
joined with the Picts, are mcntione<l as the ravagers of defenceless Britain. They appear at
one time to have been driven Irack into Ireland ; but in .503 they again landed in Cantyre,
and during the next four centuries, spread gradually over the kingdom. At length under the
victorious reign of Kenneth, which commenced in 830, they wrested tlie sceptre from Wred
the Pictish king, and established supreme sway over the whole of that country, which, from
Vhem, was ever afterwanls called Scotland.

Ouiip at Ardoch.

Ithe fourth
(lie Scots,
[appear at
1 Cantyre,
(under the
lorn Wred
fich, from

DookI.

SCOTLAND.

409

The Scoto-Saxon era, aH Mr. Chahners calls it, is memorablo rathor for an insensible
•iliange, than for any smldcn revolution. After tlio subversion of the kingdom of Strath-
cluyd, by tliu Snxoiix, that people liad colonized and filled the whole south; and the Scottish
kinjjs, though of Celtic origin, iiaving eKtublisiicd themHelvcs in this more fertile part of their
territories, soon began to imbibe the spirit of its occupants. From this or other causes the
wliolo lowlanils of Scotland is in language and maimers Teutonic, and tho Gael or Celts
were again contiiicd within their mountain boundary.

An era of disputed succession arose out of the contendinjj claims of Bruce and Baliol,
after tlio death of Margaret of Norway. Edward I., availing himself of this dissension,
succeeded in introducing liimsclf under tho character of an arbiter, and having established
Daliol on the throne by an armed interference, sought to rule Scotland as a vassal kingdom.
Tlio result was a struggle, calamitous to Scotland, but which, however, placed in a con-
t:piciious light the energy and heroism of the nation, and brought forwanl the names of
Wallace and Bruce, ever afterwards the foremost in her annals. The result was glorious ;
the concentrated force of the English was finally defeated in a pitched battle at Bannock-
burn ; they were compelled to renounce their ambitious pretensions, and allow the kingdom
to be governed by its native princes.

Under tho turbulent and unfortunate sway of the Stuarts, Scotland continued for several
centuries without any prominent revolution, though with a continual tendency to internal
commotion. This dynasty, from their connexion with the French and English courts, had
acquired the idea of more polished manners, and habits of greater subordination as due from
the nobles. Such views were ill suited to the power and temper of a Douglas, and many
other powerful chieftains, through whose resistance the attempts of tho monarchs were
followed with disaster, and often with violent death. The introduction of the reformed
religion especially, in open opposition to tho court, which granted only a reluctant and pre-
carious toleration, was unfavourable to tho crown, and fatal to a princess whose beauty and
misfortunes have rendered her an object of enthusiasm to the gay and chivalric part of the
Scottish nation.

The union of the crowns, by the accession of James VI. in 1603, to the English throne,
produced a great change, in itself flattering to Scotland, whose race of princes now held
sway over all the three kingdoms. The struggle between presbytery and prelacy gave rise
to a conflict which still powerfully influences the temper and character of the Scots. The
efl'orts of tho presbytcrians, acting under the bond of tlicir League and Covenant, first
enabled the English parliament to rcav its head, and had a great effect in turning tho scale
of contest against the crown. The Scots revolted, however, at tiie excesses of the inde-
pendents, and endeavoured to rear again, on a covenanted basis, tlio fallen crown of the
Stuarts. These bravo but unsuccessful efforts wore ill requited by an embittered persecu-
tion against oil the adherents of presbytery, till the Revolution finally fixed that system as
the established religion of Scotland.

The union of the kingdoms, in 1707, placed Scotland in that political position which she
has ever since maintained; and, by allaying internal contest, and opening a free trade with
the sister kingdom, this union has pro<luccd results highly beneficial, although the devoted
attachment of her mountain tribes to the exiled Stuarts repeatedly impelled them to attempt
to replace that house on the throne ; attempts which, at one critical moment, spread alarm
into the heart of England.

Sect. IV. — Political Constitution.

The political system of Scotland being now almost completely incorporated with that of
England, little is to be added to the statements given under tlie head of the sister kingdom.
A few peculiarities, however, may ho deserving of notice.

The representation allowed to Scotland at the union was somewhat scanty. It consisted,
for the House of Commons, of forty-five members, fifteen from the boroughs, and thirty from
the counties. The members were elected, not by the burgesses, but by the magistrates,
who themselves were appointed chiefly by their predecessors in office ; thus constituting
close boroughs, in which a party having once obtained a majority might keep it in prrpetuiim.
In county elections, the right of voting was attached to the possession of lands iield im-
mediately of the crown, and of the valued rent of 400Z. Scots. But the feudal .fuperiority
which entitled to vote was separable from the actual possession of the property. Tiie original
proprietor, wlio, perhaps, had a number of these votes on his estate, might either sell or
distribute them among his friends, so as to multiply his own elective influence. The free-
holders of Scotland amounted to not quite 3000, of whom a certain number, for the reason
stated, had no actual property in land. The peers of Scotland are represented by sixteen
of their number, elected at the commencement of each parliament. There arc, besides,
upwards of twenty who are British peers, and sit in their personal right.

Vol. L 35 3 B

u
If

i: m

. '-i

•^

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt III

By tho Refonn Kill of 1832, the power of returning membcra to the IIouio of Coi^imoni
is vested in the following cities and burghs : —

Eitinbiirfh .

Mrmbori.
S

Abfriloen ]

Pnhlcy I

nundce }

Omenuck 1

P«rtli 1

Leilh, PiirliilH'llo, Muimlbiiri 1

Kirkwall, WIrk, Duriinch, Uinnwall, Tain, Cromarty 1

Forlrcwii, In verrii'M, Nairn, Furrua 1

Elfin, C'lilli'ii, lluiiir, Invrnry, Kinlnro, Fulerhiiad ' 1

laverlii'rvif, .Mniilriiw, Arbrnnlh, Uri'cliin, Pnrflir 1

Cupar. SI. Au>lrotv'«, AiiHtriithur Rniiiornnil Wmtur, Orall, Kilronny, Pitttnwsan 1

Dyanri, Kirkulily, KiiiKlnirn, RiirnlialancI 1

Inverki'ithiiiK, D'nifi rnilinr'. Kiiiriwa, Queenaforry, Culrnai, Stirling I

RiMifri'W, RijIlii'mliMi, Dumbarton, Kilinarnnck, Port Olaagow f

lladclington. Dniilmr, Nortli llurwick, I.nndnr, Judburgh 1

Iiinlithgow, l.aimrk. Falkirk, Airilrii>, llnniilton 1

Ayr, Irvinn, (Tninpbullton, Inverary, Oban 1

PiimrriiM, 8ani|iinliur, Annan, Ix>climab«n, Kirkcudbright 1

Wigton, Nuwtialluway.Slranraur, Whithorn 1

These members arc returned by the inhabitants paying rent to the vnlue of 10/. and upwards.
The counties continue each to elect a member, except that only one in conjunction is re-
turned by Elfrin and Nairn, one by Ross and Cromarty, and one by Clackmannan and Kin-
ross. The power of voting, too, is attached to tlie possession ot actual property yielding
10/. of yearly rent.

The Judicial administration of Scotland has always continued distinct from that of tlie
sister kin^rdom. The supreme court, or Court of Session, consisted until lately, of fitleon
members, sitting together, and deciding in all civil causes, while six of these constituted a
Justiciary Court for tho trial of criminal cases. The trial by jury was employed only in the
Justiciary Court, and in revenue <|uestions, which are tried before the Court of Exchequer.
But tiie supreme court is now divided into two chambers, one of six and tiie other of seven
members. Trials by jury, in civil coses, have been introduced, and are now carried on, like
others, under the direction of tiie Court of Session. The Court of Exchequer, which con-
sisted of five barons, the Consistory and tho Admiralty Courts have been abolished, and their
jurisdiction transferred to the Court of Session.

The revenue of Scotland has bee.i hitherto collected separately from that of England,
and by separate boards for each branch; hut, under recent regulations, the whol<. has been
placed under the direction of boards resident in London, and the systems have bee. t a great
measure incorporated together. In the year ending 5th January, 1831 —

The Scottish excise was
Customs . - -
Stamps ...
Assessed taxes
Post office ...

SEcn-. V. — Productive Industry.

2,395,490

1,357,000

526,000

292,000

201,000

4,771,490

Scotland has always ranked as a poor country ; and, for a long time, natural obstacles were
enhanced by moral impediments. The Scots showed an aptitude to embark in all schemes
of turbulence ; but indolence, and dislike of plain hard work, might be recognized as a
national chaFactcristic. Since the age arrived, however, when industry came into honour,
and when improved processes were studiously applied to all the useful arts, tiie Scots have
entered with peculiar spirit and intelligence into this new career ; and in its prosecution
have been more succossfiil, in some respects, than their southern neighbours.

The agriculture of Scotland has to contend with obstacles which must be manifest, when
we look at its ruarged aspect, and its vast hills and morasses. Forty years ago, moreover,
the progrps.s of Scotland in this primary art was generally behind that of the rest of the
empire. As soon, however, as the great system of agricultural improvement was adopted
throughout the kingdom, the Scottish farmers not only shared in it, but carried it farther
than those of Eiiffliind. Tlie farmers of the I<othians, of the Carso of Gowrie, ond even of
the district on tho Moray Frith, made ii complete reform in the whole train of agricultural
operations. They brought extensive tracts of common and waste under cultivatiDii, reduced
the number of cattle and improved the breed, cultivated the artificial grasse.«i, dismissed

tain;

silv(

in tl

coal

whif

ate

sels.

field

Book I.

SCOTLAND.

411

■uperfluous hiimls, and adopted tho une of riiachinory, of which tho moHt important, tha
throtihin? ninrhino, was of Scotliah invention. Tho conBoquoncu wan, llmt conHideruble
fortanoD wnro miido by HucccaHfiil thrmcra, and thut renin wore in alinoHt every inHtnnco
trnbled, nnd in mine ciiNPa raiHod to oi^ht or ten timea their former amount. In the moun-
tainoud districts, nlno, a new Hystcm was introduced, which proved more protiUiblo to tho
landlord, 'l'\u; nuinerouH little fnrma hitherto held by tenantx or vuNsalH, were thrown into
extensive Nheep-walka. Considcrablo dejiopnlation, in tho B^rricultural districtti, waa tho
vonaetpiencu ; a. groat proportion of this brave und wartn-hcartcd race were forced to quit
their native (;lcnH, to which they were tbndly attached, and to Heek Rupport, cither in tho
groat munufactiirniK towna, or in Hottlcmentti furnied on tho other Hide ot the Atlantic.

The cultivated lands of Scotland, and the amount of its produce, aflcr all thcBO improve^
nients, are Htill limited. Of the lN,g44,U(M) acres, its computed extent of land, only r),()43,(M)0
aro under regular cultivation, and not more than 1,6()0,UU() imder grain. Of these only
140,0U0 produce wheat, though this is considered tho motit profitable crop, and is raised of
good quality, where the soil and climate admit. Oats, a hardy plant, is the staple produce
of !:)cotIaiid, and the tbod of its rural population : it covers 1,2H(),(N)0 acres. Barley occupioa
28(),(MM) acres, being raised chiefly fur distillation ; but in the higher districts it is the ruder
species called bear or biff. The chief exportable produce consists in cattle and sheep, which
are sent in numbers to the English markets. Tho sheep are not equal to the flno English
breeds, but the mutton of the Grampians and Cheviots is of exquisite flavour.

The maiiufltcturing industry of Scotland has, within the last century, advanced with pro-
digious rupidity, being quite equal, compared with the extent and population of tho country,
to that of England. Woollen, the grand original staple of England, has never obtained more
than a very partial footing in Scotland. Linen, with other products of flax, is the original
staple of Scotland. It was throughout the country a household manufacture, and for house-
hold use. Flax, in almost every family, was diligently spun into yarn, which was then sent
out to be woven ond bleached. The coarser kinds of linen still form the staple of tho eastern
countie!), though Dunfermline excels in fine sheeting and diaper. Tho linen made in Scot-
land was estimated, in 1810, at 26,437,000 yards, value LSfiTj.OOO/. The increase in the
manufacture has .dnce been so great, that in 1831, Dundee alone exported more than
57,000,000 yards ! By far the greater pro|x)rtion of the raw material is imported, very little
hemp or flax being grown eitlicr in Scotland or England ; almost all the former, and more
than half the latter, is brought from Russia, the rest of the flax fVom Holland, Flanders, and
Germany.

The cotton manufacture, though of comparatively recent introduction, has, in Scotland,
no less than in England, risen to be the first in point of magnitude. Glasgow and Paisley
produce fabrics carried to an extreme degree of fineness. The muslin of Paisley is one of
the most delicate fabrics existing. The prmting of cottont), particularly shawls, is also carried
on to a greater proportional extent in Scotland than in England. The total quantity of cotton
wool spun in Scotland in 1832, amounted to 24,500,000 lbs. of the value of about 4,000,000/.

Distillation of spirits fh)m grain has been long a characteristic branch of Scottish industry ;
and in the highland districts, the quality of the article has been carried to very great per-
fection. It has been much cramped by fiscal restrictions, which have, of late, been almost
entirely abolished. In the first seven years of the present century, the quantity paying duty
averaged 2,000,000 gallons ; it then gradually approached to 4,000,000 ; but in 1824, upon
the reduction of the duty, it suddenly increased to above 5,000,000ki and in 1830 it rose to
6,070,000.

Scotland has various other ordinary manufactures, and generally supplies itself with all
the common necessaries of life. The ale of Edinburgh and of some Scottish towns enjoys
reputation even out of Scotland. In 1829, there were brewed in Scotland 110,000 gallons
of strong beer, and 229,000 of table beer. Cilasx is made to the extent of nearly double the
consumption of the country ; the surplus being exported, chiefly to Ireland. Salt, which
does not exist in a mineral form, is largely extracted from sea-water by boiling ; and though
not equal in (juality to English rock salt, nor fit for use in the fisheries, its cheapness recom-
mends it for common culinary purposes. Candles, soop, starch, leather, paper,"are |)ro(Juced
in quantity sufficient for tho supply of the inhabitants. In 1829, the produce was5,731,000 •
lbs. tiillow candles; 12,721,000 lbs. hard soap, and 2,332,000 lbs. soft soap; 812,000 Ibs.l
starch; 0,002,000 ll>s. hides; 7,162,000 lbs. paper. J J^^

The mineral wealth of Scotland is chiefly of an humble and useful description. (Itsmoun-
tains are not metalliferous. In Lanark and Dumfries is a large deposit of load mixed with
silver, which, together with some sumller mines in the Hebrides, is supposed to yield 136,O0OZ.
in the former metal, and 10,000/. in the latter. Ironstone occurs extensively in the upper
coal districts. In 1825, the annual production of pig iron in Scotland was 29,200 tons,
which is not, however, sufliicient to supply the founderies at Carron and elsewhere. Those
at Carron aro considerable, the costing being chiefly of ordnance, grates, and culinary ves-
sels. Coal, lime, and stone, compose the solid mineral wealth of Scotland. The great coal-
field extends in a diagonal line of 100 miles along the friths of Clyde and Forth ; beginning

413

DEHCUIPTIVK OK(MJFlAI'IIY.

I>A>T III.

louUi of llu! lorinor, oml ondinK nortli of tli'- lutti-r. It Ih iintntinwly rich in rcml of prottv
ffuNi i|iiiility, tlioii^li nut f>i|iinl to tlio b«!i<t Kii|{liHli, A Inr^c (|iiiiiitity in oxiiortiMl ti) Iri'Inml.
Liinii Ih ruriilHlii'ii aliinulnrilly, Nith tiir iMiildiii)^ iiiul nmniiri'. FrrfHtoiio, cliit'lly on liolli
«i(lo« of tliii Fortli; Krunilc, in Aliuriloinnliirr ; Hlitto, in tliL- I Icliridcn anil Arnyiuxliiro, atfonl
cxcollcnt niiiti'riiiU for building.

Tiiu lixlicricH torni a conMidcnililc hriincli of indiiKtry in M<Mtiand; tho liprrin(f, rod, nnd
haddock iilKitiml on varioux iNirtx of itH HhorcN. Tho Diiti-h Ion;; niononoJiHcd tho );r<>iit
nortiiern h^rrint; bunk; und, by ii Hii|H'rior iiioih^ of cure, obtiiiiu'd u protoriMii-o in nil ninr-
kotH, Thi) liritirih )(ovcrnniont, howuvor, Iiiih tor Noino tiuii' iii:idi' );ri'iit ivviTtion:* tor tho
proiiiotioii of tho Hcottinh fiHhuriuii; and thori; ImM JH'on n woiidorfid incr'^iiHo in tho i|nantity
caught, und a corr<!ii|i<)ndin|f iinjirovcniont in tho proccHMON of ciiro, Tho t'orincr, which in
1815 wuH oidy KMMNMI barrelo, had riwn in IKU) to :)'.>U,(MIO, of which '^17,(100 wcro o.\|K)rtpd.
In tho Huniu year, 0:i,5()0cwt, of cod W(!ro riirod in u driod Htuto, nnd •'Vt(M)cwt. in pickle;
of tho t!)rnii>r, 'iJMXN) wcro oxpurtod. HnlimiM, taken in nil tho conHidurublo rivcrn, and kept
flrcah by bcinj; |)uckcd in ico, chiutly KiipplioM tho Iiondon inurkot. Tho wlmlu Hulipry ni
Greenland and DaviH'a Straito Jins for Honio tiino been pnMccntnd by Hcotland with increuHed
activity. In tho nine years omlini( in IHIH, tiho nont ut un uveraffu only 40 iihipH: in IHiU),
aho acnt 47 ; tho produce of which was Tifllit tuna of oil. Kelp wiia in extonaivo demand
during the lato war; but the reiioal of tho duty on aatt, and the reduction of tho duty on
barillu, have ruined thia branch ot industry.

The ridutivo foreign coniinorce of tho jirincipul porta of Scotland ia oxhiljited in tho fol-
lowing Table : —

Atwrdcan

DO'IICM

I)ioidi'«

niii*(nw

Ortniemoutli.
Orcenocli

Tunnifo
Inlt^.

«i,ino

ll.lOfl

sii.iHin

41,1(10

■M.wa

Prmlucn 111

inmil^_
X

(V.IXM

23,000
4.11,000

Invcrnera

Irviiiu

I.«llh

Miiiiiriwo

Pi-rth

Purl niimiinw.

TunnnwA
in laiU.

7,300
11,300
H.HOO
34,300
111,100

n.NOO

Proilui'^uf

f'llallimt

In mii9,

£
a,ooo

4.400
ll,N00
44,400

ti.utm

S4t<,flOO

Cummerce, till tho union of tho crowns, and even of tho kingdouin, could scarcely bo con-
flidcrod as cxiating in Scotland ; but it hua aince been cultivated witii grout ardour and enter-
prise. One branch of coniinnrcial intorcourso is that witii her opulent aister kingdom. In
England alio finda a market for cattle, her chief ajrricultural aurulua; tor hor wool, auch aa
it ia ; for her sail-cloth and other coarae fabrics from flu.x and lieniu ; for piirt of her fine
calicoes and mualins, &c. In return, she receives almost all the windlcn cloth, and a groat
part of tho silk consumed by her ; hardware and cutlery of ov(;ry kind ; tea und other East
India goods ; and through thia channel a |>art of all tho foreign luxuries which she requires.
The trado with Ireland ia chieHy supported by tho exchange of coal and iron for oata and
cattle. That with tho Baltic, particularly Runsiu, is very active ; the eastern part of tho
kingdom deriving thence the hemp and flax, which form the material of her st'iplo manu-
facture; alao timber, iron, utid the other bulky and useful stnplea of that trade. Having
few articles of her own witli which tiiis market is not already stocked, the payment is made
chiefly in bullion und colonial produce. Tiio flourishing trade carried on from the west coast
with America and the West Indies, is supported by tho export of cottons, linen, wearing
apparel, and otiicr commoditiea ; and by tlio import of cotton, sugar, rum, and tho various
luxuries of those fertile regions. The Mediterranean trade is not neglected ; and since the
opening of that to India, Greenock has adventured into it witii considerable success.

The roads, which half a century ago were almost impassable, are now, througli all the
Lowlands, little inferior to those of England. After the rebellion of 1745, government con-
structed excellent roads into tlio heart of tlie Highlands as fur as Inverness; and in 1803, a
body of commissioners was appointed by government, for improving tho roods of the north
of Scotland. They proceeded upon tho principle, that half the expense must in every case
be defrayed by the county proprietors, and in eighteen years good roads were formed into
the remotest tracts of Inverness, Skye, Ross, anil even to tho farthest point of Caithness.

Artificial navigation meets with peculiar obstructions from the ruggodness of tho surface,
and hq^cc canals have never become very numerous. The "Great Canal," admits vessels
of considerable size to pass from the Frith of Forth to that of Clyde, and thus unite the Ger-
man and Atlantic oceans. Branches to Glasgow and to the fine coal-field at Monkland have
boon advantageously opened. The Union Canal, completed at an expense of nearly 4(KMHXW.,
connects tho Grout Canal, near its eastern point, with Edinburgh, by a line of thirty miles
through a country very rich in coal and lime. The Caledonian Canal, unitinff the chain of
lakes which crosses Scotland diuffonally through tlie counties of Inverness and Argyle,
allows even shi|)8 of war to pass, from tiie east coast, into tho Atlantic, without pucounter-
ing the perils of tho Pentland Frith and Capo Wrath. It was finished in l>*'2r2, at an
expense of nearly 1,000,000/. sterling, entirely defrayed by government. The gates of the

Part III.

ttl of prott*
il ti) Irclnntl.
lly on l)otli
■Hliiro, ntloril

nn, full nnil
1 tlii« tfri'iit
' ill nil iiinr-
lioiiH tor till'
the «iuiiiitity
icr, wliicli in
'tv, i!X|X)rto(l.
t. in pickle;
crx, (iml kopl
ilo Mwty in
itli incrcMiHrd
ipn: in 18!M),
iriivo doinaml
r the duty on

ed in the fol-

"""

|>riHlui'« of

Ciivtomi
In )*».

•

~ X

9.000

4,400

«,M00

44.4t»

ii.uoo

34H,tW0

arccly bo con-
our and cntcr-
kingiloin. In
wool, such as
irt of licr fine
h, ond a groat
ind other East
I she roquires.
jn for oats an<l
rn part of tho

stiiplo inanu-
•ado. I laving
yincnt is niado
tho west coast
linen, wearing
nd the various

ond since the

1CCC8S.

iroiigii all the
)vcrnment con-
and in 1803, ii
Is of the north
L in every case
!re formed into
f Caithness,
of the surface,
admits vessels
i unite tho Ger-
Monkland have
early 4(K),()00«.,
of thirty miles
fr tho chain of
js and Arsrylc',
lout piioounter-
in If'-'J, at an
ic gates of the

^ -m

Hook I.

BCJOTLAND.

41S

lock* are of iron; tho «x|)«<n>io of oiirli lock wim 1MHMI/. Tli.' liK-k* nf twoiify-llirpo in n?l
eiifiit of which, l'X)kinir down iVmn Un'ti Kil, wlirro it ojm'iw into tho wrnlorn m>n, nro ciillod
liy Miilom llio "Hinir of Ni'iiIijimv'' Tho canal i« l\fly foot tmnil; leniftli twonly-two nilloii,
with forty iniloN uf iako naviii^nliun.

Heot. VI,— f aj/ unil Social Stale.
Of tho impiilntion of Hcuduiid nn OHliiniilo wiih liritt atloniptod in tho yoar ItlVS, whon it
WM coniputod to Im) l,V{t(.">.!*m Tho ri>|)ortii of tho clorgy lor tho "SintiKtionl .Anroiint,"
bolwoon 17IW and 17J)H, guvo 1 .ti,ilKJ; which won rainoil liy tho uovorniiiont oniiiiionitinn
of 1>HI1 to 1,.'>1«),(H)»). 'Hio , utof I«ll gavo 1,K(K'\,(KK»; which wii» niinod liy thiit of
IS'Jl to y,(HKV»''\«>. Ill I'^IU, It vvUM '.J,:«l:t,H4'i.

In imiiit of diHumition, tho Scotn iiro a grave, sorioii*, and roflorting pooplo ; hut hold,
untnrpriding, Bmliitioiis und iinhuod with a (liMi|>-r(N>tod dotorininntion to piirKuo tho ohjccts
of their doHiro, and ropol tlnMo of their aviTsioii, Under thoMo itiipnUoM, tlioy ijiiit, without
much regret, a hnd which alliirilH ti'w opportunities of diiitiiiction, and nook, oithor in the
niotropulis and cominorciitl towns of Kiiglund, or in tho rnontdintant trunHiimrino rogion^ that
wealth and tiime which thoy eagerly covet ; yot, amid this distanct* and tlioMo eager piirsiiitN,
their hop<<H and atlt^ctions reiuaui fi.\od on tho land of their nittivity; and thoy iiHimlly Nook
to spend tho evening of their days in Scotland. The Hoots np|M>nr naturally hmvc>; aiiunlity
which is imrticularly observablo among tho highland trihos, and hy which thoy rendered
theniHolvos toriiiidahio, first under .Montroso, and allerwards in tho rohollion against the hoiiNo
of Hanover. Since thoy wore conciliated hy the wise inoaHiires of I'itt, they have crowded
into the Hritish urmy, anil liirmod boiiio of its Imivrst rogiments. Among the lower cliisMeH,
crimes against tho order of society are of com|Hirativoly niro occurrence, iiiiil ihoro is less
necessity tor capital punishment; tk-ro is also lessof oxtroiiie dissoluteness iinioiig the hitrlii-r
ranks. Among the Scottish females, iu parti>?ular, the ohligatioiis i>f the marriiii;e tio ure
much more soldoiu di-sregarded ; and if the other sex tisi ot>on uhiise the license which pulilic
manners are supposed to allov/, they are at least obliged to olisi'rvo soino oiitwnrd iip|M'iir-
anccs. Tho pride of birth is still prevalent, particularly among the highliuiil cIuum; and it
is accompanied with a general ambition to ri^o aNtvo their original slalinii, and a |iro|ieiisity,
with that view, to spend their miNleratc wealth rather in oiitwiinl show tlian in soliil com-
fort. The sister nations accuse tho Scots as sidtisli, yi-t Sciit:<inen raised to jKiwer Imvo not
shown any backwardness, either in tho general otlices uf humanity, or to proinutu the pros-
perity of their ciaintry and countrymen.

To their religious duties tho Scots [N'oplo have always shown an exemplary iittenlion. In
catholic times, tlio Romish church in Scotland enjoyed more innuenco, and had acipiired a
much greater pri)|)ortion of the national wealth, than in Knglaiid. IJiit they entered u\>on
tho cause of rellirm with an ardent zeal, which left Iwliiiid it that of all their neigldsairs.
After a desperate struggle, on which, for nearly a conlnry, the political destinies of tho king-
dom depended, they obtained their favourite form of presbytery, tho most remote t'rom that
pompous ritual, for which thoy have entertained tho most rooted abhorronco. Tho principle
of presbytery consists in tho complete oimality of all its clerical members, who have each a
separate parish, of which they perform all tho occlosiastical functions. The title of bishop,
so lonjf connected with wealth and power, has been rejected, and that of viuiislrr substi-
tuted. In the management of tho piMir, and some church fimctions, the minister is assisted
by a baly of lay members called rldern, who constitute tho kirk Kmnion. Tho government
of tho church consists in jireshtjieriex fiirmcd by the meeting of the ministers of a certain
district, with lay members from each session, tho lust of whom, however, attend only occa-
sionally. A synod is formed hy the union of several presbyteries; and tho Uewrol Atixfm'
My is com|x>sed of deputii!s, partly clerical and iwrtly lay, from each presbytery arwl Ixirongh.
They meet every year, and an appeal lies to them upon ovory subject; but the laws of tho
chiireh, though propaxod in tho Assembly, can Ix; |xi8sed only by a majority of presbyteries,
after being delmtcd in each. Tho king sends a Commissioner, who is present at tho debates
of tho Assembly, and seems oven to claim a right of conslifnting and dissolving it; hut this
is dcniml by the church itself, which acknowledges no human head, and accounts itself and
the state as powers entirely independent.

The noblos availed themselves of the downtiill of the catholic establishm.int, to appro-
priate nearly the whole of tho immense income with which it had been endowed. They
took at first not only the lands, hut the tithes; and even when oliliged to make a provision
for the presbytorian clergy nut of tho liittor they retained part, vnlii'Ml often at a very low
rate, but subject to l)o called iiixm if needed. Thus tho Scots clergy have onioyod only
such incomes as onaliled them, with strict econnmy, to iniiiiifain their place in the niidillo
rank of society. VV^hen oven this became inipossiblo under the increaseil expense of liviiiij-,
augmentations wore grunted out of the I irnils, or valued tithes; and where these were
exhausted, tho legislature have come forward, and raised tho lowest stipend t" ■".")()/. a year.
No body of clergy have maintained a tiiiror character, or more efficiently performed their
important duties, than those of tho Scottish church.

3.5*

I ''

' IIIIWIITHHMHI

VTJt

414

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt IU.

The dissenters from the Scottish church consist cliiefly of persons zealously attached to
presbytery, and who have seceded because they considered its principles as not maintained
m sufficient purity within the establishment. Tiieir chief complaint is against the system
of patronage oxercised by the landed interest, wiio present generally to the vacant parishes.
Two groat iKidies, into which they were formerly divided on the subject of the burgher oatli,
have, since tlio uliolition of that test, been united into wliat is called the Associate Symd.
A coiisidi'rable proportion, especially of the higher ranks, is attached to episcopacy, either
as it was establislied in Scotland under the Stuarts, or as it now exists in England; indeed,
an union has been recently formed between these once separate branches. None of the
other sects, independents, baptists, methodists, &c. are numerous ; and the Roman catholics
consist chiefly of emiarrants from Ireland, though their form of religion still prevails in some
of the remote highland districts.

Literature, soon after its revival in Europe, was cultivated in Scotland with peculiar
ardour. Even in the age of scholastic pursuits, Duns Scotus and Crichton were pre-emi-
nently famed throughout the Continent. When the sounder taste for classical knowledge
followed, Buchanan acquired the reputation of writing I^atin with groat purity. Letters
were almost entirely suppressed during the subsequent period, marked by a conflict between
a licentious tyranny and an austere religious party, who condemned or despised the exer-
tions of intellect and tiic creations of fancy ; and literature loy dormant till the middle of the
last century, wlien Scotland, with a ciiurch and universities alike poorly endowed, produced
OS illustrious a constellation of writers as had been called forth by the most lavish patronage
in the great European capitals. We shall only mention, in history, Robertson and Hume;
in moral and political philosophy, Hume, Reid, Smith, Ferguson, Kames, Stewart, Brown ;
divinity, Blair, Campbell, Macknight; poetry. Home, Thomson, Beattie, Burns; physical
science, Gregory, Black, Playfair, Leslie. In the present generation, the most popular of
tictitious writing's, and one of the most able periodical works known in modern times, have
issued from the Edinburgh press.

The universities of Scotland have been a powerful instrument in supporting her literary
fame. Though not richly endowed, the fees of well-attended classes afford a liberal income,
and have enabled them to attract the most learned among the clergy ; while, in England, a
wealthy church draws eminent scholars from the universities. The students live generally
in the towns, without any check on their private conduct, or even any obligation to attend-
ance, except what arises from the dread of the refusal of a certificate at the close. The
chief exertion of the professors is bestowed on their lectures, by which they hope to attract
students to their class and seminary. The more diligent combine with them examinations
and exercises, but not on the same systematic and searching plan as in England ; and the
degrees are conferred, in rriny instances, with culpable laxity. A much greater proportion
of the people receive a college education than in England. The church exacts an attend-
ance of eight years ; four for languages and philosophy, and four for divinity : the faculty
of medicine requires also several years ; and the gentry and higher grades of the middle
ranks in general consider an attendance on the elementary classes as an essential part of
education.

The public libraries arc not rich. That belonging to the advocates or barristers of Edin-
burgh contains upwards of 100,000 volumes, among which there are ample materials, both
printed and in manuscript, for elucidating the national history. The university library is
half as large ; and those of Glasgow, King's College Aberdeen, and St. Andrew's, are highly
respectable. Each of these universities con claim a copy of every new work.

Scotland has a native music, simple and pathetic, expressive of rural feelings and emotions,
to which she is fondly attached. Golf and foot-baU are the only amusements that can be
deemed strictly national. Skating, and curlitiff, or the rolling of smooth stones upon the
ice, are also pursued with great ardour during the season that admits of those amusements.
The recreations of the higher ranks are nearly the same as in England. Dancing is prac-
tised with peculiar ardour, especially by the Highlanders, who have favourite national steps
and movements.

The Highlanders retain the remnants of a national costume peculiar to themselves ; the
tartan, a mixture of woollen and linen cloth, adorned with brilliant stripes variously crossing
each other, and marking the distinctions of the clans ; the kilt, or short petticoat, worn by
the men, the hose fastened below the knee, which is left bare ; and the boimet, which in
another shape is also still worn by the shepherds of the border.

In regard to food, t:.e Scots, in general, are temperate. Even the rich attach less import-
ance than their southern neighbours to the gratifications of the palate. The peasantry, pre-
viously to the rise of wages, which took place about thirty years ago, were content with the
hardest faro. Neither wheaten broad nor animal food formed part of their ordinary diet
Oatmeal, not accounted in the south of England an article of food for human beings, was
prepared here under the forms of cakes or porridge, and constituted the chief means of sub-
sistence. To this was occasionally added barley broth, with greens or kail, the chief pro-
duce of their little gardens. The Scots hav« some dishes which they cherish with nationa]

Book I.

SCOTLAND.

415

IS prac-
il steps

38; the
Iroflsing
Vmby

Tiich in

nport-

,pre-

I'lth the

\y diet

was

bf Bub-

bf pro-

Btiona]

enthusiasm, and among which the haggis holds the foremost place. This is a mixture of
oatmeal, fat, liver, and onion, boiled up m the bag which composed the stomach of the ani-
mal. They have, moreover, hotch-potch, and other soups, the merit of which has been
acknowledged by English palates.

Sect. VII. — Local Geography.

The following is a table of the extent, population, and rental in the different counties of
Scotland, derived fh)m agricultural reports and parliamentary returns : —

Aberdeen

Argyle

Ayr

Banff

Berwick

Bute

Caithneaa

Clackmannan.
Dumbarton . ■ .
OumfViea

Edinburgh . . . ■

Elgin

Fife

Forfar

Haddington . . ■

Invernera

Kincardine . . .

Kinroes

Kirkcudbright.

Lanark

Linlithgow

Nairn

Orkney and Shetland

Peebles

Perth

EenfVew

Hon and Cromarty.

Roxburgh

Selkirk

Stirling

Sutherland

Wtgton

l.QfiO

s.isw

1,039

645
442

lai

687

338

1,333

354

473

467

279

4,054

380

83U

042

120

195

1,380

319

2,588

325
3,865

715

383

489

1,754

451i

Acre*

under Cut-

tintioD.

451,000
270,000
325,000

123,000
137,000
29,000
92,000
33,000
54,000
333,000

145,000

131,000

209,000

369,000

139,000
244,000
92,000
27,000
168,000

271,000

57,000
37,000
46,000
24,000
580,000

73,000
170,000

206,000

10,000
195,000
63,000

101,000

Rwlal In
IBI2.

HOOMS

inini.

£
301,000
207,000

369,000

85,000
286,000
20,000
32,000
39,000
63,000
364,000

713,000

66,000

378,000

336,000

213,000
173,000
88,000
34,000
192,000

616,000

91,000
12,000
20,000
60,000
612,000

334,000
111,000

342,000

41.000
207,000
28,000

131,000

37,579
16,059

17,843

8,971
5,803
3.205
5,319
2,145
3,536
13,248

19,077

6,668

18,944

16,813

6,230
17,055
5,894

6,441

47,016

3.303

9,176

1,750

26,718

10,490
13,6.18

6,587

1,081
8,984
4,054

5,819

Forub-
tknln
ISI.

177,651
101,425

145,055

48,604
34.048
14,151
34,529
14,729
33,211
73,770

219,592

34.231

128,839

139,606

36,145
94,797
31,431
9,072
40,599

316,810

23,391

9.354

58,339

10.578

143,894

133,443
74,830

43,663

6,883
72.621
25,518

36,318

Town, with FopukitioD in 1831.

Aberdeen... 58,019

Campbellton 9,473

(Ayr 7,606

I Irvine 5,300

Banff 3,711

Dunse 3,469

Rothesay... 4 819

Thurso 4,670

Clackmannan 4,266

Dumbarton . 3,623

Dumfl-ies ... 11,606

( Edinburgh . 136,303

Dalkeith... 5,386

Elgin 6,1,30

t Cupar 6,493

JKirkaldy... 5.034

Dundee .... 45.:<55

i Forfar 7,949

Haddington . 5.883

Invernees . . . 15,324

Bervie 1,137

Kinross 2,917

Kirkcudbright! 3,511

I Glasgow . . . 302,426

{Lanark .... 7,672

Linlithgow . 4,874

Nairn 3,366

Kirkwall . . . 3.065

Peebles ....*. 2,750

Perth 20,016

i Paisley .... 57,466
j Port Glasgow 5.19^

I Dingwall . . 2,121

j Cromarty . . 3,901

Keiso 4,939

i Hawick.... 4,<I70

Selkirk 2,83:!

Stirling 8,34n

Dornoch 504

I Wigton .... 2.337

i Portpatrick 2,23!)

Pct<!rhea(l . . . 6,698

Inverary 2,133

Kilmarnock . 18,093

Cullen 1,593

Lauder 3,063

Wick 9.850

Alloa 6,3!9

Sanquhar ... 3,268

Leith 25,8,13

.rfu.''scn)urgh 8,961

Fnrri'9 3,895

St. Andrew's S.621

Dunfi'rniline 17.068

Mniitrnse . . . 12,055

Arbroath. . . . 6,660

Dunbar 4,735

Hamilton .

Lerwick . .

Dumhlane .
'^..eiiock. .
Renfrew . .
Tain

Jedburgh .

Falkirk ...
Stranraer .

9,503

2.750

3,228

27,571

3,133

3,078

5,647

12,743
3,321

The

In treating of Scotland in detail, we shall divide it into three constituent parts : — 1.
Lowland counties ; 2. The Highland counties ; 3. The Islands.

SuBSECT. 1. — The Lowland Countiet.

The whole of the south of Scotland, though diversified by elevated ranges of hills, is
always considered as belonging to the Lowlands. It presents, however, three districts of
opposite character: — 1. The agricultural counties along the German Ocean and the Frith
of Forth ; 2. The southern pastoral rounties ; 3. The manufacturing counties of the west.

The agricultural district of soutliem Scotland consists of the counties of Berwick (for-
merly the Merse), of Haddington, Edinburgh, and Linlithgoio (fully as familiar under the
appellations of East, Mid, and West Lothian), and of Stirling, which touches westward on
the highland bor:ndary. Even of this range, the cultivated part is closely hemmed in by
Lammermoor, a low, broad, moorish ridge, which fills all the eastern interior, and has even
a considerable extent along the shore of the German Ocean.

The cultivated part of Berwickshire consists of the Merse, extending chiefly along the
Tweed, and reaching to the sea. Above it is Lauderdale, or the Valley of tlio Lauder,
which is fitted chiefly for grazing, and touches closely on the heaths of Lammermoor. Ber-
wick-upon-Tweed, though its harbour be indiflferent, is the chief channel for exporting the
valuable produce of the Merse, to the annual amount, it is said, of 80,0fH) bolls of grain.
The strong wall and deep ditch, which once defended Berwick, still remain, though neglected ;
and large barracks have been erected. Greenlaw, the seat of coimty business, and Lauder,
tlie only borough, are but small places in the upper district. Dunse, in the agricultural tract,

.■">

416

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

:^-

is the most thrivinij. Coldstream, a large village on the Tweed, ia noted as the scene of
Monk's retirement. In the western part of Berwickshire is Dryburgh Abbey, a fine old
Gothic edifice, in which rest the remains of Scott,

lladdingtonsiiire, or East Lothian, runs along the Frith of Forth, between which and the
range of Ijimnierinoor extends a plain about twenty miles in length and twelve in breadth,
perhaps the largest in Scotland, and all under high cultivation. Edinburgh is chiefly supplied
with wlieat from the market at Haddington, which is considered one of the first in the
country. 'J'he towns ore of secondary importance. Haddington is supported only by the
market and by its court for legal proceedings. Dunbar has a little trade and fishery. Its
ca.'<tle, the ruins of which extend over a promontory of broken rocks, stretching out into the
sea, tiirins a truly grand object. The Btiss, " that sea rock immense," which rises to the height
of 4(M) feet, forms a perpendicular precipice, on which build crowds of that rare species of sea-
fowl called Solan goose. Their young, whose down is of some value, are taken by the
perilous exertions of fishermen, sus]>ended oy ropes from the top of the clifi". There are still
some remains of the fortified prison which was in ancient times reserved for state oflfenders,
and in whirh some of the most eminent covenanters were confined for several years. On
the shore immediately opposite, crowning a perpendicular cliff, appears Tantallon, a strong
castle of the Douglases, now in a ruinous state. Prestonpans, a long dirty village, has some
manufaofures of salt and vitriol.

Mid l/ithinn, or Edinburghshire, is penetrated by a branch of the Lammermoor, and by
the long range of the Pentlands: and, at the distance of a few miles south from Edinburgh,
a generiil high level begins, which is favourable only to the production of oats and barley.
There are no manufactures of any consequence, the county being entirely supported by the
metropolis iind its appendages.

F.diuliurgli, the capital of Scotland (Jig. 188.), is a city of no very high antiquity. T^e
Castle Hill, indeed, whose rocky and precipitous sides support on the summit a level epr^'e

188

Edinbursh.

of some extent, accessible only by a narrow ridge at one point, must always have been of
importance in a military age. It is named in the Pictish annals under the title of Castrum
Puellarum, which is supposed to have originated from the custom of placing the princesses
and ladies of rank to be educated there, as in a place of security. In the tenth century,
mention is first made of the town of Edin ; but David I., in the twelfth century, founded
the abbey and palace of Holy rood; and, under the sway of the Stuarts, Edinburgh became
the capitiil of Scotland. Edinburgh is built upon three ridges, running from east to west,
and separated from each other by deep ravines. The Old Town, which, till the last half
century, formed tlie whole of Edinburgh, is situated on the middle ridge, extending nearly
n mile of gradual descent from the Castle to the palace of Holyroo<l. To secure the protec-
tion nflxirdod by this site, the houses were crowded into the very smallest possible space;
th"y are raised six or seven stories on the side facing the street, which from the acclivity
of the ground, gives to that facing the ravine a height of ten or even fourteen stories. From
this central street, there descend on each side ctosrs or lanes about six feet broiid, and
sinping very aliniplly. The Cowgate, a poor street, inhabited by small tradesmen, extends
along the bottom of the ravine, and terminates in a spacious Grass-market, completing old
Edinburgh. Although it contains many excellent iiouscs, it is now occupied only by tiio infe-
.•ior orders of tradesmen, wiio occupy spacious apartments at very low rents. The wealthy
citizens have migrated to two towns, built on the opjxisite sidet; of the Old Town; one on
the south side, or St. Leonard's Hill, (wcupied by citizens of the middle class, those con-
nected with the university, or such :is arc fimd of retirement; the other, called properly the
New Town, is on the north ; and comiirisos the residence of almost all the opulent and
fashionable classes. Being built on a regular plan, and of fine freestone, it forms one of the
most elegant towns in Britain.

The beauty of Edinburgh is enhanced by its situation : being overlooked on one side by the
eminence of the Castle, and its ancient towers, and on the other by a range of tx)ld hills, the
hifflie-t of wliicli is called .\rthur's Seat. Tht; lowest, the Cnlton Hill, roiuid which walks
of easy access have been formed, commands a fine view of Edinburgh, the Frith of Forth,

Part III.

scene of
a fine old

ch and the
in breadth,
Hy supplied
irst in the
jnly by the
shery. Its
)ut into the
I the height
!cies of sou-
ken by the
ere are still
e offenders,
yciirs. On
OT, a strong
e, has some

Dor, and by
Edinburgh,
and barley,
wted by the

juity. T»>e
level spr^'e

ive been of

of Castrum

princesses

ith century,

iry, founded

gh became

ist to west,

last half

iiig nearly

the protcc-

ible space ;

e acclivity

ins. From

broiid, and

!n, extends

)leting old

)y the infc-
wc^althy

Mde by the

i] hills, the

liich walks

I of Forth,

Book I.

SCOTLAND

417

and its surrounding shores. The general ofibct, rather than that of any particular edifices,
constitutes the merit of Edinburgh. Of antique structures, there is nothing very fine, except
the largo lidspilal lor boys, erected from the funds bequeathed by Georg'j Heriot, the cele-
rated goldsmith. Tlie grout cathedral of St. Giles has been admired almost solely for its
spire, and Ilolyrood Palace, a comparatively modern structure, for its little ancient chapel.
The former h;us been now externiiily rebi-ilt on a very handsome plan, and the latter has
undergone a thorough repair. Four miles south, in a very commanding situation, are the
remains of Queen Alary 's pleasant country palace of Craigmillar. The Register Office, the
new College, and new High School are elegant structures ; but the National Monument, on
the Gallon Ilill, begun on the model of the Parthenon, is stopped for want of funds.

Tiie inhabitants m 1801, including Leith, were 82,560; in 1831, they had increased to
162,ir)fi. The principal support is derived from the law ; the professors of the university,
and private lecturers, &c. constitute a considerable number; and genteel families are
attracted from every part of Scotland by the opportunities of education and agreeable
society. Eklinburgh is a city eminently scientific and literary, and has even become known
under the appellation of the " modern Athens." Connected with these pursuits, an extensive
trade in printing and publishing books is carried on by some enterprising individuals. There
are few manufactures, with the above exception. A great quantity of ale is brewed, which
has attained to a high reputation; and there are in the neighbourhood some considerable
distilleries. Shawls are manufactured equal to any in the empire. There are extensive
banking establishments, both public and private, and considerable fortunes have been made
in that branch of commerce.

The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1581, has risen to great fame, both as an institu-
tion for teaching, and a nursery for eminent men. The medical school, in particular, attracts
students from all the three kingdoms. The annual number of students at the University
exceeds 2000. They are lodged in the town, and are not subject to any personal discipline,
except that of attendance on the lectures. Edinburgh has its Royal Society for physical and
literary researches, its Antiquarian and Horticultural Societies, an Institution for the promo-
tion of the Fine Arts, and an Academy for Painting.

Leith is the port of Edinburgh, and carries on a considerable import trade for the supply of
that capital and all the interior country, for which purpose she carries on a constant inter-
course with London and other jwrts on the eastern coast. Her intercourse with the Baltic
is very extensive ; and that with the West Indies considerable. The harbour of Leith is
not good ; but large sums have been expended in the construction of an extensive range of
docks for the accommodation of its shipping ; and of a pier stretching far into the sea, so as
to enable vessels to enter at all times of the tide, witii a breakwater opposite. The roads,
at the distance of about a mile, afford excellent anchorage. Leith, origmally a collection of
dirty lanes, is now everywhere skirted by excellent streets, and ranges of villas, erected by
the opulent inhabitants tor their private residence. In 1832 there entered its port 334
vessels, tonnage 46,200.

Besides these great towns. Mid Lothian containsonly some large* pleasant villages. Porto-
bello is the principal bathing place of Edinburgh. Musselburgh has a good turf, which has
supplanted Leith sands for the annual Edinburgh races. The valley of the Esk contains
the finest scenery in the I^thians. Roslin chapel, though not on an extensive scale, exhi-
bits some exquisite specimens of Gotiiic sculpture; and the ruins of the castle bear marks
of great strength. All the soutli and west of this county consists of wild, hilly, and pastoral
scenery, in the heart of which is a pleasingly retired spot, chosen by Ramsay as the scene
of his Gentle Shepherd,

Linlithgow or West Ix)thiar consists, in its upper part, of a bleak table-land ; in its
lower, of an extensive, fertile, and highly cultivated plain. It abounds with coal, freestone,
lime, and marl. The Union Canal passes through this county. The towns are small;

.g_ but Linlithgow still retains somewhat

of the aspect of grandeur suited to a
once royal residence. The palace,
{^g. 189.) situated on a hill behind
the town, and overlooking a beautiful
little lake, forms one of the grandest
ancient cdiKccs in the kingdom. There
is also a Gothic church of some beauty.
Stirling, an extensive and beautiful
county, the link between the High-
lands and Lowlands, extends for tliirty-
five miles along the Forth. It encloses several of the richest carses in Scotland ; but the
greater part is hilly and pastoral, while many of the lower grounds consist of fine meadows,
adorned by tlie beautiflil meanderings of the Forth. It even encroaches on the Highlands,
since its western extremity includes Ben Lomond. This county is traversed by the ci'le-
brated Roman wall between the Forth uid Clyde, usually ascribed to Antoninus, though,.
Vol. I. 3 C

Linlitbtow Palace.

!'i

r^-m

1f«

418

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

tis

from tlic account of Tacitus, it would appear to Imvc bcpu first formed by Agricola. It
seems to liave rcacliod from near Duiiibiirton to Carridcu, rather more tiian lliirly-six miles.
Stirlii)"^ is also crossed by llio groat canal Iwtwoon the Forth and Clyde.

The town of Stirling" can boast a situation as noble and connnandin^ as any in Scotland.
Tho view from its castle, which includes entire tlie principal range ot tlic Grampians, Uio
ineaxlows or links through wiiich tiie Forth winds, and a part of thirteen counties, is gener-
ally considered the finest in the country. The main street, likethat of Edinburgh, descends
gradually down the ridge of the hill on which tho castle stands (,Jig. 19().). This 'brtrcss,
190 in feudal limes, was accounted one of the bulwarks

of the kingdom ; and Stirling was the freciucnl
seat of royalty, and the scene of many of the
most memorable and tragic events in Scottish his-
tory. The town owes its present limited pros-
perity chiefly to its carpet manufacture and other
branches of industry. Falkirk is a larger town,
situated in a broad and beautiful carse, througli
which the Forth flows. Tho three great annual
trt/sts exhibit an immense show of highland cattle
and sheep brought up for the supply of tho south-
ern districts. Near Falkirk is Carron, accounted
only a village, but the seat of tlie greatest iron-
Biiriini Caiiie. Works in Scotland, in which, during war, 2000 men

were employed. It particularly excels in grates, and in that species of artillery first cast
here, and hence denominated carronados. Grangemouth, at tho conncctmg point of the
great canal with tho Frith of Forth, derives from this situation a considerable trade.

The next district, including the counties of Roxburgh, Selkirk, Peebles, Dumfries, and
part of Lanark, may most properly bear the appellation of pastoral Scotland. It is covered
with long ranges of hills, from one to two thousand feet high, clothed with pasturage to their
summits. This is tlie region of Scottish poetry. It was amid these scenes that Thomson
ajid Scott caught that inspiration which has rendered their poetry the delight of their country.
Tho chief occupation in thij tract is shcop-farming.

The towns in this tract are generally small and agreeable. Kelso is one of the moi't
beautiful in Scotland, being surrounded by ornamented villas and extensive woods. The
abbey is not without grandeur; and the ruins of the castle of Roxburgh are striking. The
village of Melrose is only distinguished by its abbey (Jiff. 191.), founded by David I., in the

twelfth century, and the finest edifice
ever erected in the south of Scotland.
The profusion of tho ornaments, and
the beauty of the sculptures, which
remain nearly entire, have rendered
it the study of tho painter and the
themn of the ]x>c.\.. Selkirk and Pee-
bles, capitals of their respective little
counties, arc only pleasant villages,
bordering on the great pastoral vales
of Ettrick and Yarrow. Dumfries:, a
well-built, gay-l(X)king city, is a sort
Meiroie Abbey. of southern Scottish capital, and it

has been so distinguished from an early period; but no traces remain elfher of the castle,
or of the monastery in which Gumming fell by the hand of Bruce. The town carries on
some trade by the Nith, which admits ves.sels of one hundred and twenty tons, and it has
two great annual markets for the cattle from the west; but it is chiefly supixirted by tho
gentry who make it their rosidotico. Annan is agreeably situated at the uioutli of the river
of that name. A small spot, famed in tho annals of gallantry, is Gretna Green, close on
the English Iwrder; whither fly many a fond matrimonial pair, tu escape the jealousy of
t)ii rents and guardians; On tho bleak northern boundary is Wanloekli'^id ; and nearly con-
tiguous to it Leadhills, in Ijanarkshirc. Wanlockhead yields annually lead to the amount
of about 15,000 bars, of nine stones each; and Leadhills about 1S,(K)().

Sents. 'J'he Duke of Riiccleiigh has
numerous seat.-i in tiie dlstriet, of wliieli
the chief is DrumtiinrigC:;stle( /lir. 192.),
a nuignifieeiit edifice, on the K'itli, ancl
surrounded byxtensive p:irks and planta-
tions. ,\iiuiiig iiriny others round Kelso, is
Fleurs, the s|)lendid seutof the Roxburgh
fimiily. AI)bot.<tord, from the many addi-
tions made by its illustrious proprietor, has
DramliDric Cuiie. become a striking and picturesque object.

Part III.

fricola. It
^six miles.

1 Scotland,
npiuns, tho
s, is geiuT-
ii, descends
liis *ortruss,
e bulwarks
10 Iretiucnl
any of tho
icottish liis-
mited pros-
e and other
irger town,
se, through
rent annual
hiand cattle
f tho south-
I, accounted
eatest iron-
r, 2000 men
iry first cast
[)oint of the
ado.

imfries, and
[t is covered
rage to their
at Thomson
leir country.

of the mot't
voods. Tlie
iking. The
v'u\ I., in the
inest edifice
of Scotland,
anicnts, and
ires, which
Id rendered
;er and the
k and Pec-
eclive little
nt villages,
Istoral vales
lumfriey, a
is a sort
fital, and it
the castle,
carries on
and it haa
•ted by tlie
if the river
|n, close on
alousy of
jioarly con-
he amount

rlcugh has
y, of whii-h
J.il. 102.),
Nitii, arui
jinil plunta-
1 Kolso, is
[Roxburgh
nany addi-
brietor, has
nue object.

Book I,

SCOTLAND.

The three counties of Ayr, Wigton, and Galloway compose what is called the West of
Scotland. They are chiefly under pa«turc, and tiio cultivators are mainly occupied in the
roaring of cattle. Tlie rango of mountains which separates Ayr and Galloway is almost
as (iloviitcd as any in Scotland ; but the upland coimtry of the latter is, in general, diversi-
fied only with stei'p rocky eminences of two or three iiundrcd feet high. In Ayr, too, though
the suutJKM'n district of Carrick be very mountainous, tho middle one of Kyle has a level
coast ; while C^unningham, the most northerly, consists almost entirely of a fertile plain.
Uotli ciiuntii's, from the boundary line of mountains, are watered by fine rivers; in one, the
Ayr, the i )o()n, and the Irvine ; m the other, the Dee and the Cree. The Ayrshire breed of
horses, called also the Clydesdale, is highly esteemed ; and generally supplies the markets
in the cast of Scotland ; but the little active breed called galloways are now become scarce.
The kine of Ayrshire are valued chiefly for the dairy. The Galloway bullock produces
beef of a peculiar excellence. Tho nortliem division of Ayr participates to a certain extent
in the flourishing manufactures of Lanarkshire. It has immense beds of valuable coal, which
not only serve for the supply of the inhabitants, but are exported to Ireland in such quanti-
ties as to form the chief trade of this county. To facilitate the transport, the Duke of Port-
land has formed a fine harbour at Troon, and has connected it by a rail-road witli Kilmar-
nock.

Ayr, at tho point where the rivers Doon and Ayr fall united into the sea, forms a sort of
capital for the gentry of a considerable part of Scotland. It was the principal scene of some
great historical events in tlie time of Wallace and Bruce ; ond was carefiilly fortified by
Oliver Cromwell ; but the bar at the mouth of the harbour has been unfavourable to its
progress. It exports, however, chiefly to Ireland, a considerable quantity of coal, brought
by railways. The town is irregularly built, but has one handsome principal street. Its
theatre, its academy, and some charitable institutions, arc on a greater scale than the size
of the town mifeht lead us to expect T'ue ports of Troon, Saltcoats, and Ardrossan send
large quantities of coal to Ireland ; whence they receive grain for the supply of the great
interior towns. Saltcoats, which has sprung up within the last century, is also noted for
the manufacture of salt ; and Ardrossan is now a watering-place of increasing resort.
Largs, the celebrated scene of the defeat of Ilaco, the last Danish invader, attracts many
visiters by the extreme beauty of its situation. In the interior of Ayrshire is Kilmarnock,
its largest and most thriving town. The manufacture of various woollen stufTs, and fabrics
of leather ; and latterly branches of tho cotton weaving from Glasgow, place it high in the
list of Scottish manufacturing towns.

Galloway is almost entirely a rural district. Its capitals, Wigton and Kirkcudbright, are
pleasant country towns, and the latter, having a good harbour, has, of late, considerably
increased. Portpatrick, the nearest point of Great Britain Ut the Irish coast, is the main
channel of communication between Scotland and Ireland ; for which purpose an improved
harbour has lately been constructed, and regular packet-boats are established.

The counties of Lanark and Renfrew constitute the valley of the Clyde, the grand thea-
tre of Scottish commerce and industry. Lanarkshire, or Clydesdale, is divided into three
regions, of widely different character ; the upper valley is altogether a rude i)a8toral region
Below Tinto, the banks of the Clyde ossume a softer and gayer character, exhibiting a suc-
cession of gardens and orchards. Below Hamilton comes the flat district around Glasgow,
which supplies that city with inexhaustible stores of excellent coal.

Glasgow is the commercial capital of Scotland, and in population ranks as the third
town in the island. Tradition ascribes its origin and erection into a bishopric to St.
Mungo, in the year 560. Its rapid rise commenced with the union, which opened to it tho
trade with America and the West Indies, hitherto monopolised by the English ports. In 1718,
for the first time, a vessel from the Clyde sailed across the Atlantic. By the middle of the
. century, the merchants of Glasgow imported more than half the entire amount of tobacco
which came into Great Britain ; and to them the French farmers-general chiefly looked for
their supply of this important article.

Their mtercourse also with the West Indies, which had hitherto been very limited, was
now carried on to a vast extent. A still greater source of wealth was opened at home.
Glasirow had, in the course of the century, become a great manufacturing city, employing
her 11. lup'ry on the old staple of linen of the finer descriptions, a.'? cambrics, lawns, gauzes ;
also in the making of stockings and of shoes for exportation ; but its product in these
branches never exceeded 400,000?. But when cotton was pxtcnsively introduced into
Britain, Glasgow devoted herself entirely to this now manufacture. She became the rival
of Manchester ; and, if circumstances did not allow her to obtain so great a share of the
manufacture, she produced some finer fabrics, and was ns prompt in availing herself of
every improved process ; immense fortunes were realized, and an annual value of nearly
4,(X)0,OOOi. sterling produced. Glasgow was one of the first places which adopted the in-
vention of power l(K)ms, and she has now 10,000 of these, and 32,000 worked by the hand.
In 1830, the number oi persons receiving parochial aid was only 5000, not quite one-fortieth
part of the inhabitants, and the sum expended on the poor was only 17,287?., although

•■ I -I

i, i

■4i

V •*•

5?»

120

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRA I'l I V.

Part III.

Glasgow is now the largest town in Great Britain, Loudon and Manchester excepted. Tlie
harbour is at the BrooinieldW, whore tiiere is an extensive iiuay along the Clyde; but ao
great are the obstructions to its navi^mtion, that Glasjrow depends chiutly for imports on
Greenock and Liverpool. In IWIS there entered its p<jrt only 79 vessels, of 8154 tons. Glas-
ffow is a handsome and well-built town. Its original streets of Argyle and Trongate are
broad and spacious ; and several handsome squares have been built within the limits of the
city ; but the fashionable residences are now almost exclusively in the west, where, along u
range of somewhat elevated ground, a number of elegant and spacious streets have been
erected. Gorbals, Calton, Bridgeton, Ilutchesontown, Tradcston, and Anderston, arc the
.™ ' principal suburbs, and form the manufacturing part.

* • ' ■ of the city. The public edifices deserve admiration.

The cathedra! (Jig. 193.), one of the finest in Scot-
land, is a massive structure, with a wooded hill ad-
joining, on the top of which a monument has been
erected to the memory of John Knox. The modern
edifices are also handsome ; the Ijunatic Asylum, the
Assembly-rooms, the Infirmary, the Roman Catholic
chapel, the new Exchange Rcading-iooms, &.c. de-
serve mention. The bridewell is esteemed the most

perfect in Scotland, both in point of construction and

oukow CaUiedtai. management Glasgow ia not a mere commercial

town ; its university, founded in 1450 by Bishop Tumbull, has been adorned by a long suc-
cession of illustrious teachers, of whom Simson, Hutcheson, Reid, Smith, Millar, are sufii-
cient to ensure its celebrity. It is at present attended by 1400 students, and its name stands
as high as at any former period. The library contains 30,000 volumes. The Museum be-
queathed by the late Dr. Hunter, is rich in anatomical preparations, shells, insects, fossils, as
well as in coins and medals. An elegant Grecian edifice has been erected for its reception.
Auxiliary to the University ia the Andersonian Institution, founded with the view of com-
municating to the commercial classes a knowledge of the e' tents of physical science ;
for which purpose it has been found highly efficacious. The toUectiml spirit of the citi-
zens is also proved by three libraries, and a botanic garden, nil supported by public sub-
scription.

Paisley, though in Renfrewshire, may be considered next, in order to connect together tlie
great seats of manufacture. This town anciently derived its distinction from its ecclesias-
tical character. The abbey founded in 1160, was in a great measure demolished at the
period of the Reformation. Several of the windows, however, still aflTord fine specimens oi
the ornamented Gothic ; tmd the nave was left so far entire, that it his since served as a place
of worship. Paisley was a small town until the middle of the last century, when it con-
tained little more than 4000 inhabitants. Soon after, its manufactures, which were already
begun, made most rapid advances. Down to tlie year 1783, they consisted chiefly of linen,
fine thread, gauzes, both of linen and silk, and other delicate and elegant fabrics. On the
introduction of cotton, the manufacturers of Paisley, like those of Glasgow, cultivated this
branch almost exclusively, preferring its most elegant species. Muslin, the finest of all the
productions of the loom, became the staple of Paisley. In 1805, there were 20,500 persona
employed in weaving muslin, the entire pro<luce of whose labours was rated at 1,250,000/.
Since that time, the population having increased one-half, the productive indusfi-y has not,
probably, advanced in a less proportion. By the improved navigation of the Cart and a canal,
this town has communication with the Clyde, and the canal from Glasgow likewise, destined
for Ardrossiin, has been carried as far as Paisley. The county gaol and bridewell form one
of the finest structures of the kind in the kingdom ; the town-hall and several of the churches
are very handsome. Tlio operative weavers of Paisley are equal in intelligence to any class
of the same rank elsewhere ; and this spirit has led to the formation among them of a num-
ber of book societies, reading rooms, and subscription libraries.

Greenock is entirely a commercial and maritime station ; it is the only great western port
of Scotland, but by far the larger proportion of the vcssnln belonir to Glasgow. The prin-
cipal tradt consists in importing the produce of the West Indies, to which is added a very
extensive herring fishery, and a share of the cod fisheries of Newfoundland ond Cape Breton.
The sum of 90,000/. has been lately expende<l in the improvement of the harbour, which
can now contain 500 sail, and a handsome custom-house has been built by government. In
1832 there entered this [wrt 282 vessels, tonnage 78,131. Greenock is not an elegant town ;
but the hills behind it command a noble view of the river, and of the mountains of Argylo
on the opposite coast.

Port Glasgow, about three miles higher than Greenock, and a much smaller port, continues
subservient to Glasgow, receiving such vessels belonging to that city as are too bulky to
ascend the Clyde ; in this capacity, its trade is very considerable. Here was built the first
dock in Scotland, in front of which a spacious quay extends along the Clyde, for the accom-
modation of those vessels which do not require to enter tlie basin. Renfrew, the capital of

I ;

i I

\ li

Part III.

tod. The
e; but so
nporta on
ns, Glaw-
ngatc tire
lits of the
•0, along a
Imve been
n, arc the
uring part,
idmiration.
9t in Scot-
Bd hill ad-
t has been
'he modem
Lsylum, the
in Catholic
ns, &.C. de-
ad the most
niction and
commercial
a long Buc-
ir, are suffi-
lame stands
Museum be-
ts, fossils, aa
la reception,
iew of corn-
eal science ;
t of the citi-
r public sub-
together the
its ecclesias-
iLshed at the
specimens oi
1 as a place
. hen it con-
cro already
iHy of linen,
ics. On the
dtivated this
est of all the
'lOO persons
1,250,000«.
!tiy has not,
and a canal,
ise, destined
ell form one
the churches
to any class
in of a num-

ivestern port
The prin-
dded a very
^npe Breton,
■hour, which
rnment. In
egant town ;
s of Argyle

Irt, continues

\oo bulky to

jilt the first

• the accom-

ke capital of

Booa 1.

SCOThAXD.

481

The

Oolliwoll Coallo.

the county, is an old town, which has not slmred in the prosperity of its neighbours.
■nhabitants, however, rnceivo a little employment from the iimnntiicturers of liliisgow.

The banks of the Clyde above Glasgow, whowe vicinity forms only a smnll purt, howcvor
unportant, of tlie extensive county of Lanark, are still to lie surveyed. First occurs Both-
well (Jig, 194.), one of the principal seatw of tlio Douglascn. Ilore Kdwanl I. placed the

chief garrison, which was intended to hold Scot-
land in Hubjection. It is now a bold and striking
ruin, rising above tiio river banks. A little above
is Bothwell Bridge, so noted lis the disastrous
scene of the rout of the covenanting army. Far-
ther up is Hamilton, a pleasant handsomn town in
a fine country : it is supporlcil by tlio residence of
the family of Hamilton, and by a brunch of the
cotton manufacture. From Hamilton tlio road
leads through a range of orchurdb, niid the. most
beautiful scenery, to I,annrk. This town, llioiigli
bearing the name of the county, is only n large
straggling village; but about a mile distant is
New Lanark, noted for the extensive cotton mnnii-
factory established by the late Mr. Dale, and Intoly conducted by Mr. Owen. Wlintrvi-r
may be thought of the speculative tenets of the latter gentleman, tlie attention |i:iiil to the
behaviour and comforts of those employed presented, certainly, in many respects, a. riKKlcl
worthy of imitation. But Ijmark has a still greater attraction in the falls of the Clyde,
Boniton, Corra, Stonebyres, situated above and telow it, at about two miles' distuiice from
eacii other. Their height does not exceed eighty or ninety feet ; but the mass of water,
with the grandeur of the rocky walls and hanging woods, render them one of the finest
examples of this description of scenery.

The northern liowlands, beyond the Forth, form a belt of alxiut twenty miles in brendtli,
reaching the shores of the Rloray Frith. The coast is generally level and fertile ; but a
great part of the interior is bleak and moorish. This district contains, however, sever:;!
cities and seaports of considerable ningnitude and imixirtance.

Fife was formerly distinguished as the centre of Scottish industry; and one of its cities
forms the ecclesiastical capital of Scotland. All the foreign commerce of the country was
curried on in its ports; and less than two centuries ago its rental amounted to a tenth part
of tiiatof the whole kingdom. Since Scotland has ceased to be ogitated by war, Edinburgh
and the opposite side of the Forth have attracted all these advantages; and the numerous
seajMrts on the northern coast of the Forth, have dwindled into fishing villages. Fife is, in
general, a level count.y, yet diversified by a few hills of considerable elevation, as the
Ixjmond Hills, and Largo Law. A great part of the interior is bleak and unproductive; and
farming is less advanced than in the Lothians ; the spinning and weaving of flax is carried
on chiefly for domestic use, unless at Dunfermline, where there is a large fabric of fine sheet-
ing and diaper. The western coast abounds in coal, and in fine limestone, which is exiwrted
to a very great extent. The county town is Cupar, a place of moderate size, neat, with
eome stir of gaiety. A greater interest attaches to St. Andrew's from its former greatness,

from the remarkable scenes there acted, and
tog \tBt ^'''"" '^'' f'P'cndid edifices, of which frag-

ments still remain. It is seated on a bold
coast, facing a wide bay of the German
Ocean; and has two fine, broad, parallel
_„__, _ , — ,B„^ streets, of which one is now almost deserted.

_^ tfE^f^MBBK^^I^^fb^^-j'cJl'W '^^^ castle and cathedral {fig. 19.5.) have

been demolished ; but a high ;'quarc tower,
and a gable of the chapel of St. Rule, still
attest the elegance of the latter structure.
The university contains a school of theology
and piiilosophy, but iias no ohisses in law
or medicine. Founded under the auspices
of Buchanan, it can boast many eminent
professors and pupils; though, from its almost insulated situation, it docs not attract so great
a concourseas Edinburgh. Kirkaldy has some tbreien trade, and a consideroble linen manu-
facture. Dunfermline, anciently the most flourishing town in Fife, was a place of imjior-
tance, and the frequent residence of royalty. Malccdm Canmore founded here an abbey,
which became one of the richest and most spacior.s in the kingdom ; it has been nearly
demolisiied, yet its ruins evince its former splendour; and part of them has been appropri-
ated as the parish church. On a contiguous spot, the tomb of Bruce was lately discovered.
Dunfermline is distinguished by an extensive manufactory of damask, diaper, and other fine
linen cambrirs, wiiirliennihiy l-")fl<) looms, andyioldan estimated annual produce of 120,000/.
Kinross, the capital of tho county of the same name, is a pleas.".nt little town, chiefly

Andrew's Cathudrat.

V<)i„ 1.

3«

'■'ill,

V ! II

432

DESCRIPTIVE GP:0GRA1'IIY.

Part III.

noted for its situation on the shoros of Loclileven. Tliis is a little lake, of considemblo

bcuuty, liiiviiiir, on un inlund in lis con-

196

:^^^

LocUeven Caailo.

?**^

tro, a castle, (.//^'■. llXS.)i anciently of
^reat Hlruiif;tli, und noted in liiiitory,
even betbro it iicquinnl the roiniuilic
interest derived from llie iniprisoiiinent
of Mary, and her ndvenlnrous esciiiw.
Only a sciimro turreted bnildinj,' and
one of the walls of the clm|)"l now re-
main. On iinother island ore the trace:)
of a very ancient and considerable priory.
Clackmannanshire is a pleasant littlu
county, with a considerable extent of
line carac land, and ;rrcat (inautities of
coal and lime. The town of Clackmannan is distinguished for the beauty of its situation.
Close to it is an ancient tower, built by Robert the Bruce. Alloa, two miles farther down,
is u thriving little place, in whose vicinity are mines of coal, of which about 36,000 tonsaro
annually exported.

Forfar, more usually termed Anirug, is of somewhat rough aspect, the western border
beiu!,' encroached uiwn by lower branches of the Grampians, while the Sidlaw Hills, arangu
of considerable height, traverse the centre. Between thoic is a portion of the ijrcat valley
of Stratlnnore, which is here fertile and beautiful, as is also tiio ])luin between Sidlaw and
tiie coast. Its jirosperily depends chiefly ujion manufactures, commerce, and fishery.

Diuidee, tlie larj^est town in Forlarshiro, ranks fourth in Scotland as to jxipulation and
wealth. It was of early im|)ortancc and strenffth, deriving its origin from Malcolm Canmore,
and it obtained a fatal celebrity through the sieges, by Edward I. ; by the Marquis of Mon-
trose, and by Monk, who gave it up to indiscriminate pillage. Dundee, however, has reco-
vered from these disasters, and is become one of the most flourishing commercial towns in
Scotland. Her staple employment consists in the importation of flax and hemp, and work-
ing them into coarse linens, sailcloth, &c. There have been exjxjrtcd in one year 1(M),713
pieces of Osnaburg, 148,377 of sheeting, 81,754 of sailcloth, with bagging, sacking, dowlas,
and other fabrics, of llie entire value of alx)ut 1,500,(MK)/. ; Ibur-tittiis of which were made
in Dundee itself. Dundee has belonging to her, '270 vessels of 33,(MM) tons; and in a single
year a tonnage of 21"2,0(M( has entered the port. The harbour has been greatly enlarged by
wet docks and other additions ; and a railway opens a communication mto the valley of
Strathmore. The population, exceeding 4.'),()00, shows a remarkable increase since 1821
when it vvas only 30,500. Dundee is agreeably situated on un eminence above the Tay;
the old streets are narrow and steep, but new and handsome ones are built and building in
every direction ; and the vicinity is adorned with elegant villas. There is an academy,
distinguished by the scientific attainments of some of its teachers.

Arbroath carries on upon a smaller scale, the same branches as Dundee; and is adorned
with the ruins of a magnificent abbey. Montrose is prettily situated at the mouth of a

river, bearing, in common with many
othc.s, the name of Esk. Its trade
and industry are considerable ; and it
has a safe harbour. A number of the
neighbouring gentry have been at-
tracted by its agreeable .situation,
which renders it the most fashionable
place in the county. Forfar, the
county town, situated in the valley
of Strathmore, is chiefly supported by
the business of the courts ; there is
also a manufacture of brown linens.
The village of Glammis is distinguished by the ma^ificent castle U{i{- 107.) in its vicinity.
Kincardine ie closely hemmed in by tlie GrampmnB on the west : it contains, however, in

itfl southern di«tiict, the termination of
^™ ' the great vallry of Strathmore, which is

here called the" " How of the Mearns ;"
and forms a tract ecpuilly fertile and de-
lightful. Tlio northern jMirt consists
chiefly of moiint!iir;s and moors of the
most bleak and drorry aspect. The coast
is of great extent, and very bold, pre-
senting in many parts high prL'ci])itous
clifls, covered with innumerable flocks
of sea-birds; on one of those are the
Dunnottar Csiiie. extensive remains of the castle of Dun

OlammU Castlo.

nooK I.

SCOTIJ^ND.

4sa

is adorned
mouth of a
with many
Its trade
ble ; and it
nber of the
been at-
sitiiation,
fashionable
^orfar, the
Ithe valley
jpportcd by
there is
l^vn linens.
1 vicinity,
jwcver, in
lination of
'., which ia
Mearns ;"
lie and de-
It consists
irs of tlie
The coast
|bold, jirc-
)recii)itous
Ible iiocks
are the
of Dun

nottar, (Jiff. IfW.), considored Ibrnierly ua imprcKnablc, where the regalia of llio kingdom
wore at oiin time de|)ositi!d. Sluni^huvon, the county-town, curries on Rome trade, and Imsi a
nianuliicture of hrown linen.

Abonli'i-n is a larjje and important northern county. It has a very considerablu lino of
coast, i)i)Ui (o the ciist and to tlie riortli, and extends, with incroasin(f breadth, far into the
interior. 'I'linre it forms Mar, or Braeniar, a highland district, one of the most clcvati.'d in
the kiii;;d()ui, some of the mountains rising to above 4000 foot, and containing extensive
tbrewts of ancient pines, with large flocks of wild deer, in the deep glena or valleys. From
the h<!i};htr( of liraenmr descend the Deo and the Don, the first of which forms some very
pictnro.s(iue falls in its early course. Even the Lowland districts are in general bleak and
moorish, adapted only to tho cultivation of inferior 8|)ecies of grain, and the rearing of cattle.
The old staple fabric of knittitig worsted stockings has been greatly injured by tho cheap-
ness with which these are now produced elsewhere by tho aid of machinery ; but other
woollen branches, together with those of linen and cotton, the latter to a considerable
extent, have been introduced. The beautiful rock crystals called caitngormg, and also the
topaz and the beryl, arc found in the mountains of Braemar; and tho tine grunito which
abounds near Aberdeen, yields 12,(NK) tons to be annually shipped to Iiondon and elsewhere.
The tishories also constitute a leading occupation. That of salmon in the Don and Dee, and
the wliule-fishery, arc extensive branches ; and from the German Ocean, haddocks, co<l, luig,
turbot, and sliell-fish, are taken in great quantities.

Aberdeen, " the Queen of the North," and the largest city beyond the Forth, is situated
between the Dee and tho Don. Old Aberdeen is situated near tho Don, whose entrance is
obstructed by a natural bar, which renders this harbour inadequate for tho town. Tho mass
of |X)pulation has settled on tho banks of the Dee, the narrow entrance of which opens into
a basm, forming an excellent harlwur. It had, however, a bar at its mouth, liable to con-
tinual increase by tho sand blown from tlio beach which extends along tho coast; a mole of
1200 feet in length has been carried out into the sea, and a channel has been formed, by
which vessels of 700 tons may enter. New Aberdeen is a handsome city, especially the

firincipal street, composed of a long range of new and good houses, built of its fine granite,
ts commerce, manufactures, and fishery are those of tlie county, all tliese branches center-
ing in Ahordeen. This city is now tho principal ship-building port in iJcotland, possessing,
in 1832, S.'V) ships of 41,071 tons burden. The old town has rather the aspect of a village,
if we except the detached houses of the professors of the university, and a range of villas,
the opulent tenants of which have been attracted by tho agreeable situation. It is adorned
by the fine old edifice of King's College, from whicii risosas(iuaro tower, with a light and ele-
gant crown. This seminary was founded in 1494 ; tho salaries are moderate, but the bur-
saries lor poor schools are very extensive. Attiched to it is a library of considerable value.
Marischal College, founded by the Earl Marischal, nearly a century later, is situated in the
heart of New Aberdeen. It is not so well endowed as King's College ; but has an excellent
cabinet of natural philosophy, and a well-furnished observatory.

Peterhead, an improving place, much frequented for sea-bathing and for a mineral water
in its vicinity, has two natural harlxjurs. It sends thirteen ships to the whale fishery, and
carries on that of herrings with considerable spirit. To the south is a range of precipitous
clifl^'s, called the Bullers of Buchan, against which the waves dash with perpetual fury.

Three counties, Banfl', Moray or Elgin, and Nairn, occupy tho southern shore of the Moray
Frith. The interior districts border on the loftiest highlands; but the coast, only diversified
by gentle hills, constitutes the ancient province of IVIoray, wliich the early Scottish writers
describe with admiration as the most fruitful part of Scotland, and as enjoying fifteen days
more of summer than any other district. Its rivers aflbrd ample fisheries of salmon, which
is exported to the computed annual value of 25,000Z. The herring fishery also is prose-
cuted with considerable success.

Elgin is an ancient town, situated on the Lossie, and has a tolerable harbour; but its chief
distinction rests on its catliedral, which, even in ruin, may dispute with Melrose the glory
of being the finest Gothic edifice in Scotland ; in 1568 the privy codncil ordered its leaden
roof to be taken off for tho payment of tiio army, and from that time it gradually decayed.
In a neighlwurinif valley are also the remains of the fine priory of Pluscurdine. Banff is a
somewhat larger and more thriving place, situated at the mouth of the Deveron ; carrying
on some linen manufactures, and a considerable herring fishery. Nairn is a neat little
county town, possessing some industry, and frequented for sea-bathing.

SuBSECT. 2. — The Highland ('aunties.

The Highlands of Scotland comprise somewhat more than half tho surface of the king-
dom. They include the whole region north of the Forth and Clyde, except the belt on the
eastern coast, between the fritlis of Forth and Moray, which has just been described. This
region consists altogether of continuous ranges of lofty mountains, which on the borders,

•j^.

434

DEHCRII'TIVK GKO&RAIMIV.

Part III.

; !

leave between them boimc of the fine aiiJ br(«<l viiUeyM, rnllotl ttrnlhf, but in the interior
only tho deep and often rocky interviilM rnlled f(lriis. They lire ))eopleil by ii ran' totally
diiitiiict from the LowliimlerH. Tliese inoiiiitJiiiici'rs wciir a <•ll^itlmle, nlreuily ib'frriJM'il, (jiiite
peculiar to themselves; they si)eiii< a Celtic dinlert, lieep, stnmjr, iiml (ruttiinil, bearitif,' no
rosendilniiee to tho Teutonic H|xn'ch of the lowlaniU nnil of Kiifjlmid. Tliey iiavi! ever
mnintiiincd that vnloiir, which, under Oiiljjncun, net bonndH to the ciireerof Roninn ronqiioiit,
(iiid preserved their inountiiinH untouelird by tho inviidcr; and they hiive Hiiice been eon-
verted from forinidiiblo toes into crallnot delemb'rH of Ibe rest of the empire. Down to the
year 17'ir), they octcd in elans, icilby ii>-'rodiliiry chiefs, to whom they were entirely devoted,
and who e.xercigod over them ii paternal b it absolute sway. 'I'he spirit of clanship led llieni
to attach themselves strongly to tho hereditary rij.'ht of the Stuarts, of wliieli, under .Mont-
roBP, they gave powerful proofs, which had nearly turned the tide of war in its favour.
Afterwards, in 1745, they suddenly invaded Enjfland ; and, in the abs(>ncc of the army in
Flanders, struck alarm into the dynasty of Iliinovor. Tho issue of timt contest broke
entirely the independence of tho highland chiefs. A number were either broiifrht to tho
scaflbld, or sent into exile ; military roads were made, and forts srect(Hl in the heart of their
territory; they wer" deprived of their feudal privileges; even tho national dress was pro-
hibited, on account of tho recollections it was citlculated to excite. After the first alarms,
however, had subsided, the Rritish povommcnt adopted the plan of conciliation. I'itt con-
ceived tbo idea of tbrming tlic liigliliinders into national regiments, allowing even a limited
use of tho appropriate dress; and they have since ranke<l with tho bravest and nK>st distin-
guished troops in the British army. Out of the forfeited estates and other funds voted by
government, vast stmis have been expended on tho Caledonian Canal, roads, bridges, an<l
other great works for tho !::>prcvi ment of this rude territory. Tho lairih, deprived of their
absolute power, and attracted by the gaieties and luxuries of cities, soon accustomed them-
selves to view their estates only as " material capitals, to be worked according to the great
principles of ))oIitical economy." The multitude of little spots, divided among vassals, in
whose numbers they placed tiicir strength, were thrown into largo shcep-fiirms ; and tho
tenants were driven out to seek a home wherever they could find it. Some migrated to tho
lowland cities, and a great proportion went to America; yot, in consequence of tho advance
of commerce and fisheries, even the highland counties augmented their population during
this period, though not in tho same proportion as the Lowlands. Between 1801 and 1821,
it increased from 434,000 to .')12,0fl0. There is one groat manufiictiire, generally diffused
throughout this region, which tends rather to disturb the peace than to improve the condition
of tho community; this is whiskey, which the people prepare in small stills from their here,
or coarse barley, and give it a flavour suiwrior to any other spirit made in Eiiglaiul or Scot
land.

The Highlands are composed of two great districts, — tho west and the north. The formei
comprehends tho shires of numbarton, Argyle, Bute, and jiart of I'erlh ; the latter embraces
the Counties of Inverness, Ross, Sutherland, &e. The Hebrides, or Western IsK^s, belong
to the counties of Bute, .\rgyle, Ross, and Inverness.

Perth is a noble and extensive county, forming tho link, as it wore, between the I,owlande
and Highlands; in its different parts uniting the beauty and fertility of the one with tht
grandeur of the otlier. The former qualities arc conspicuous in the ctirse of Cowrie ; t
broad sloping plain, on the north bank of the Tay, profusely covered with orchards and cul-
tivated fields. The upper p<art of Strutheam, also, between Perth and Crieff, varied with
gentle hills, cultivated valleys, and the windings of two great rivers, may almost be called
the garden of Scotland. As we proceed to the north and west, the Grampians gradually
swell, a d at length are fi)und occupying tho whole interior of the county, in a line from
north-east to south-west, ond comprehending the mighty summits of Ben Liiwer.s, Bonmore,
Bengloe, Schchallion, Ben V^)irlicll, Benledi, Benvenue"; all from 3(H)0 to upwards of 40<MI
foot high. Within their recesses they enclose the three large lochs, Tay, Earn, and Katrine.
These lakes, varie<l with woods and verdure, exhibit in many piirts scon-'s of great griiiuh'ur
and beauty. In tho lowlands of Perth, agriculture is carried to greot perfection; the high-
land tracts, on the contrary, aro in general fit only for pasturage. They are, however,
covered with the remains of ancient forests, to which the great proprietors have been
making very extensive additions. The towns of Perthshire parlicipatf in the diffrrent
national manufactures : the blonchfields and prinlfields are numerous; but this can in no
view be generally reganlcd as a manufiicturing county.

Perth is well built, and, as to situation, one of tho most beautiful cities in the kingdom.
The view of it from the north, in particular, in tho heart of a finely wooded plain, witli tho
Tay winding round it, and too Hill of Moiicrieff rising ..hove, is almost without a rival in
tho kingdom. Perth might, for a long time, Iw considered the capital of Scotland. It was
the frequent residence of the kings. Parliaments and General Assemblies met there otlener
than in any other place; and, in the civil contests, the jnissession of I»erth was considered
of vital importance by tho contending parties. At present it has declined to a rank decidedly

ii ill'

-5*

I';

■f^.

liOOK I.

SCOTLAND.

425

I .o\vlnnd»
with tlii
owrie ; »

iirnl cul-
ricd with
be called
(jrathmlly
lint! from
■Ron more,
s of 40(H)

Katrine,
ijriiiideur
the liijj;h-

liowever,
live liecn

(liffrrent
:;ati in no

kinjrdom.

\vit!i the

1 rival in

It WHS

|ro iiHiMior

•onsidorod

Idccidcdlv

Frovlncial ; and it.s cummrrce, onco conHidrrable, linn linen alnioflt wholly tramtfurrcd to
)iindco. It liiis linen nnd other niamitiicttirex, whicii jinxhice an annuul value of aliout
V!(NMMK)f. ; while its advantnjrfoiiH Kite, and tlic excellent education afforded bv tho grammar
Hchool and academy, attract a nninlier of the noighbourinj; gentry, and render it gay and
tiifihionable.

The other towns of Perthshire arc small, but distinifuiHhed fur tho (fraud and picturejiquo
Kconory amid which they are situated. Dunkeld, in thiH ro8|M!ct, in generally considered tho
prido of Scotland; tho finely wooded and rocky hills throujfh which tlii^ Tay meanders, with

loe

FallofBruar.

— _ -- , -n-- - -'J -' '

the valleys and glens opening on K\pr\ side, produce
a diversity of landscape scarcely e<|ualled el-iewhere.
Tho lato Duke of Athol, whose spacious ilomaiu.4
cover this oart of Perthshire, was most active in
respect to plantations, since those of Dunkeld alone
cover 11,()00 acres; and tho whole munbcr of trees
planted by the duke amount to ;M),(KH),0()0. A route
of twenty nilee, directly north, passing opposite to
the fine mountain village of Logierait, and through
the bold pss of Killikrankie, leads tn Blair, also part
of the Athol territory, Pud or.'i of tho most picturesque
spots in Scotland. Its striking f^ntures consist in the
lofty mountain Bengloe, the glens of the Tilt and the
Garry, and the picturesque rocky falls of the Bruar
(Jig. 199.). Westward is Loch Rannoch, surrounded
by extensive forests of fir, and overhung by Sche-
hallion, on whose lofty summit Dr. Maskelyne per-
formed some of his operations for tho measurement
of the earth. Out of it flows tho Tumel, a rapid
stream, which forms some romantic cascades. From
tho Tumel, a military road leads to Loch Tay, the largest of the lakes, and surrounded by
the loftiest mountains of Perthshire. Ben Lawers, with a chain of attendant mountains
overhangs it from tho north ; while Benmore shuts it in on tho west ; and perhaps there is
no lake in Britain enclosed by so grand a circuit. Tho sides of tho mountains are somewhat
naked ; but tho gr unds of Taymouth, at tho head of tho loch, fiirm a rich foreirround.

Farther south is he vale of Strathearn, at one end of which, Crieff, a thriving little town,
looks up on tho windings of the river, and the vast mountains from amid which it issues.
Loch Earn, a small lake, is Iwunded on the south by grand ranges of very lofty moun-
tains.

The upper valleys of tho Forth and the i'eith have some very remarkable scenery. On
tho Allan, j« Dumblano; a pleasantly situated little town, with the remains of a fine
cathedral ; Ollender, overhung by Bcnledi, is -\iefly frequented as the key of Ijoch Katrine,
situated about ten miles to the westward, and approached by a narrow road along the small
lakes of Venachoir and Achray. The scenes of beauty and grandeur which adorn the
ea.stern extremity of this lake, the mighty cliffs of Benvenue, the wild woaled glen of the
Trosachs, and the beautiful little island in the centre of the scene, have obtained celebrity
from the muse of Scott. Farther south, the Forth, rising from Ben Lomond, rolls through
a pastoral mountain valley, once the seat of the power and the scene of the adventures of
the outlaw Macgregor. It forms several little lakes, of which Jjocii Ard is the largest and
most beautiful.

Tho county of Inverness is purely highland, presenting range after range of mountains,
of which Ben Nevis, Cairngorm, and several others, are the most elevated in the United
Kingdom. The intervals between them are filled either by long lakes, or by narrow glens,
the level space of which does not usually exceed a mile in breadth. The principal one,
called the Great Caledonian Glen, reaches from Inverness in an obli(pje direction across the
kingdom, filled with an almost unbroken chain of lakes, — Loch Ness, Ijoch Oich, Loch
Jjochy, and Ixich Linnhe; which last opens by the Sound of Mull into the western sea; a
continuity which facilitated tho formation of the Caledonian Canal. In the east, the district
along the upper course of the Sjiey, bearing the name of Strathspey, comprises an unusual
extent of level land. Only about a fortieth part of the county is capable of cultivation ; but
that fortieth, composed of haugh or alluvial land, on the rivers, or the lakes, is extremely
fertile. Tho greatest branch of industry consists in the rearing of black cattle, sheep, and
goats. Game of all kinds abounds, and there are still considerable remains of the great
Caledonian forest, comjwscd chiefly of fir.

Inverness, tho gay capital of the Highlands, is of a very different character from that of

the wild rejrion over which it holds a sort of dominion. Seated on a bay, at the head of the

Moray Frith, it partakes in a great measure of the mild and fertile character of its shores,

iind stands at some little distance from the awfiil ranges of mountains by which it is enclosed.

Vol.. L 36* 3D

t4\--

4*26

DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPMY.

Part HI.

Fall of Ftfin.

AftiT HiifTrrinjf a connidfriitili' (Icrlini- fVoin il« nnrjiMil iiii|Kirtniirp, it Iiiik, williiii tlic lant
thirty yiNirM, iiuurly triiiii'il its cvlrnt iiiul |N)|iiiliiiiciii, In ^fiicnil, ii riiiiHiclmlili* |i<ili«li
of iimnncrM is nhMurvnbMS miil it Iiiin Im'pii rciiiiirkcii tint tlin Kriu;ii!<li liiii);iiii}()) is KimkiMi
in (frciitiT purity timii in niiy dIIht port of S»;iitliiiiil ; ii nrruiiiHtiinou wliirli Iiiin hfon
OHCribi'd III till' rcHiilciu'c nl' r.iiKlir<li iillici'm nllrr tlic Ixittli' of ('iiIIinIcii. Iiimtiii'sh Iiun i
town liciiiNc, iiilirmtiry, iii*ni'iiil)ly-ri«)iriH, ami tlii'iitrr. Miitiiiliictiirt'H ot'liciiip, (Inx, anil tartan
liiivf hccii cMtuliliMlii'il. Tliu viuwK, butli of voa and land, in itii vicinity, uru aliiKMt un*
rivalli'd.
InvoriioNH-Hliirn liaM Hcarcoly uiiothor placn wliicli can iiuikn nuicli prctiMiHiim to tlio naino

even tif a villaj^p. II<'m Ncvin, UMnally conHidcrml
the lollieNt mountain in Scotlnnd and in the
United Kingdom, iH4M7l) feet nlK)ve the level of
thuHca; the view tVoiu the mnnniil iH verv extcn-
hIvc, euibracini; a );n'at |Kirtinn of the llebridcM,
To the eant of l/icli Nchk, the rivulet of Kyern or
Foyer* (yf jr. y(K).), forniHthe (fre tent wnterthll in
Ncutland; the lower or principal liill deitccndH
froni a hei|rht of '212 feet; but the stream is not
very copious).

Arjfyle, commonly called tho Western Hi>{h-
landx, Ih a wide and irregular territory, iitrctch-
ing into lonj; proniontorieH, and indented by deep
arnw of the nea, so oh to form n eoa*"t of very
(frent extent. In (jenoral tho nhore in Ixirdercd
by hi)(li hills, and tho interior covered with ranpfeB
of rupjftHl mountains. Itx industry Ib nlinoHt en-
tirely pastoral ; herds of black cattle and vnBt
flocks of sheep are ted on the sides of it« moun-
tains. The herrinjf of tho west coorft, and especially of Ixk'Ii Fyne, eiijoys u liiurh reputa-
tion. Tho county is chietly tenanted by Campbells, who were wont to riilly round the Mac-
callununore, u desijfnation of their cliieV the Duke of Ariifyle, with all tho ardour of kindred
and national altuchinent.

Dumbarton is mostly .\ part of tho sumo district;
yet it has a lowland stri| exteniliujf iilon^' the north-
ern banks of the Clyde. In the western p:irt are the
(ireat (.'anal, joiniuff the Clyde at Duiii;liiss; and
the wall of Antoninus, calleil by the Seotlisli vulgar
"Graham's dike." The approach to Dundiarton af-
fords (me of the uio.st strikinsj prospects in Scotland;
and its castle (_Jifr. ^01.), the ancient and mighty
hold of the Britons, fowerinff on tlm suiiiniit of u
per|M!ndiculur rock, still maintains its iin|iortance aa
a fortress. Dmnlxirton has a larire miinufactory of
crown glass, which is exported to toreign parts ; and
on the banks of the Levon tliere arc extensive printtields.

Loch Lomond (Jiff. 202.) is celebrated for tho expanse of its waters, and tho many beautiful
^^ ._ islands with which is studded. Fnim its toot,

*"* ''- - bordered by cultivated hilN and oniamented

villas, to its mountain head, there is a con-
tinued transition from beanty to (grandeur,
and at the central |)oint oi' Loss they arc
remarkiibly unitiKl. The ninnerous and
beaulitui islands, and the long wixxled pro-
montories stretching into the water, with
the majestic form of Hen I/imonil in the
background, prcxluco a combination of land-
scape which perha|)s no other sjxjt in Britain
can equal.

On turning tho head of I/)cli I-ong at
Arrochar, the view opens on tho romantic valley of Cilencoe, enclosed between two ranges
of momUains rising almost perpendicularly to an amazing height, and leaving between them
only a narrow vale, through which a rivulet Hows, The vale of (ilenfmgias is then passed,
whast.' high bioping sides covered with innumerable flocks inspire pleasing pastoral imogOB,
and at the termination of which appears the grand estuary of l.f)ch Fyne.
luvcrary, the t. "itul of the Western Highlands, is situated near the head of Loch Fyne.

numbotlon Canlo.

Loch Lomond.

fxtcri-

vuljfnr

mrtoii at-

Sfotlimd i

inijfhty

it of a

mice as

tory of

rts; and

I'nntiful

its foot,

iinonted

a con-

•[inilciir,

tliey arc

•ouH and

Kled pro-

pr, with

in the

of land-

Urituin

Iionp at
ninjrcs

un them
passed,

images,

ih Fyiie.

DooK I.

SCOTLAND.

4*.7

ItM cnviruMN aru not niountaimiUM ; hut itM ni>liin ciiHtli' (Jii(. •JO.'l.), Kiirroiimhid liy vvoml-
ni^ «>d hiiirt and U'uli< Ijiwmk, with tliii lolly

mountaiuK whicli r<liiit in the diHtiinl viitw,
render it a iiiiivnitiri'iit and deli|^litful «|iut,
Tho town IH Hiiiall iiiul neat, \Mtliout any
omployiiieiit, rxrrlit the lierriii); llhliery.
AUiiit ten iiiih'H lit'liw Inverary, tlieCriimn
Canal joiiix l.<i<'li Kyiie to the wesliTii Hea,
and haM iiiaile Licli^ilphiNui a plaee of moiiki
conNeipienee,

Tlie interior and tho Mextern eoaxt of
Arjfyli'Niiire are in many re.siieetH intereit*
inn. I'nrallcl tol/xii l''yne,attheiiiHtancuof
'""""' ''"•""■ ten or twelv iiiih'H, ii" the loiijr line of ImoIi

Awe ; an interior lake, over whoHe head towerN Th'ii Oiiaehan, the loliieht Kniiimit in Arffvlo.
The eaxtle of Kilcliiirn, riNin(( on one of the isiandH, prodiiees a hi).dily pieliireMiiie ellert,
lleyoiiil tliin, l.oeli Ktive, a iiiirrow arm of the nea, HtretitlieH liir into tlie in'erior, Clinihinif
the lii^li ijioimtuinH at the lieail of [loeh Htive, we come to <jleiieoe, which in terriHc
ffraiideiir siirpansert perhupn every other sjxit in (Jrent itritain. 'I'liis etleet in priKlueed liy
itH Ik)IiI iiiid liroken iiiniiiitHiii tiiriiix, its hpiry roel<H, and hlaek preeipireH; at tlie liottom of
which, ill a ilt.-eit ehiisiii or ravine, flown the rivulet of ('oo. I'liid wtream Ih the Cona of
OHniaii, helieveil the tiivoniiti* haunt of that celrlirateil Cnledoiiian hird. Tht! viile Iuih iiIm
a (fliKUny reeollertion attached to it, from the massacre of 1(191. Mmerj^injf from this scene,
the traveller is clieere<l with the piy iispect of I/m-Ii Leven, which preseiitH much pleaitinfr
hi);liland Hceiierv, while the hills mnnd the ferry of Riilacliiilish afford valuable i|iiiirrie8 of
slate. From lialachulish, aloii); the broad expanse of the l.innhe Ixicli with which tho )rreat
Caledonian chain terminates, ),<.\teiids Appin, a beautiful district, diversified with fine woods,
rich iwstiirafje, and more culture than is usual in Arfjylesbire. On the op|H)Nite side of tho
Linnlie 1/ich is a peninsular district called Ardnamiircliaii, separated only by a narrow
sound from tho Islmid of Mull. The district of .Strontiaii contains leiid-mines of sonio value,
CroHsiii); the I,innlie, and passing: l.ismore, a loun', level, and fertile island, we tind Iiorne,
wparated by I/)ch ('reran from Appin, to which it is even siipiTior in beauty and fertility.
Near tho oponin^r of l/ich Ktive into tho soa, tradition pltices Jferei/oniiim, the reiwrted
capital of tlio Picts in the third century ; and near it is found I)iinstairiiaj;e (./?«-. yo-l.), once
o(u , ,, ^M. the scene of Hcottishreifal |)omp,

^ .^ jl» . bffi tr^*''^ nowarnin,crownin;.'aclitl'alonx

'^" ■ ' tho western sea. The loii}; pen-

insula of Cautyre stretclies far
out into the sea, beinjf visible
f>om the Irish coa.st of Antrim.
The Macdonalds, lords of tho
Isles, long held sway over it,
till they were driven out by the
carls of Arjrylo. CamplM>lltown,
''''""•">"'•• •^""•' near its southern cxtren.ity, is

a thrivinpf port, now the largest on this coast, and serving in particular as a general ren-
dezvous tor tho herring fishery.

The three extreme counties. Roes, Cromarty, and Sutherland, form the most remote and
northerly jKirtion of the Highlands, nnd, Caithness excepted, of all the mainland, 'I'lic south-
eastern tiorder of tho friths of Moray, Cromarty, and Dornoch contains some fine land, and
several thriving towns; the rest is a contiiiiie(l range of rock, mountain, heath, f!)ie.sf, and
loch, similar to Inverness, but stilt wilder. The lochs which indent tho westi>rii coast are
largo and numerous, [Mirticuhirly lioch Carron, I,och Terridon, and IxjcIi Hroom ; and they
have generally grand mountain boundaries. Capo Wrath, the north-western point of Scot-
land, is a lolly pyramidal rock, standing in front of a vast range of broken clilFs, and breasting

906

Dun DoniadiUa.

the whole wide expanse of the ocean. On
the northern coast is Loch Eribol, a wide
inlet, bordore<I by limestone rocks, per-
forated by caves of great extent and re-
markable form. Sutherland presents numer-
ous Ditnn, or ancient fiirts of peculiar struc-
ture, of which the most remarkable is Dun
Dornadilla {Ji!>-.''M').), situated on tho lotly
sides of Bon Hope, nut far from Loch
Eribol.

Cromarty, the capital of tho little county
«f the same name, stands at the foot of its

i> r

'A-

428

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt III

own fritli; while Dingwall, the county town of Ross, is s tuatcd at tlic hciid. Cromarty is a
considerable fishing station. On the south side of tlic Oornocii Frith is Tuin, and on the
north is Dornoch, an ancient town, of whuso cuthedrul some part still remains.

Caithness forms the nortii-eastcrn angle of Scotland : it is scarcely a hijrhland county, only
the Paps of Caithness rising to the character of mountains. Its surface is moist, bleak, and
hare, filled with little lakes, and covered with extensive moors. The chief branch of industry
is the herring fishery. Kelp is also made from the sea-weed thrown on its shores. Thurso,
tlic county town, is an improving place, in the midst of a cultivated country. Its bay affords
a safe roadstead, peculiarly valuable for ships, which, in rounding the north of Scotland,
must pnss through the Pentland Frith, rendered dangerous by its violent and rapid currents.
Wick, the grand rendezvous of the herring fishery, owes to this advantage a very rapid
increase. Tiie north-eastern point of Caithness and of Scotland bears the familiar appellation
of John o'Groat's house ; though there is not the vestige of a house to correspond to this
title, which is founded on a mere traditionary story.

SvBSECT. 3. — Scottish Islands.

The islands appendent on Scotland, form one of its most conspicuous features. Though
neither rich nor fertile in proportion to their extent, they exhibit a great variety of bold and
striking scenery, and are peopled by a race whose habits of life and forms of society are
peculiar to themselves. They may be divided into the islands at the mouth of the Clyde;
the Hebrides, or Western Islands; and the Northern Islands, or those of Orkney and
Shetland.

The islands of the Clyde are chiefly Bute and Arran, with the smaller ones of tlie Cum-
brays and Ailsa. Bute is of beautiful aspect, witii a climate accounted the mildest in Scot-
land, and for tliat reason resorted to by invalids; a considerable part of the surface is arable
and well cultivated. Rothsay is a pretty town, much frequented for sea-bathing, and en-
riched by a considerable herring fishery. Arran presents much bold alpine scenery, the
central mountain of Goatfield rising to nearly the height of 3000 feet, while the glen of
Sanox at its base has the highest character of savage and romantic grandeur. Lamlash, the
principal town, possesses an excellent harbour. Ailsa, off tlic Ayrshire coast, is a rock 000
feet high, with lolly basaltic clifTs, formed into columns several hundred feet in height.

The Hebrides, or Western Islands, stretch far into the Atlantic. Their general aspect is
highland, with rude rocks and mountains, deep and dark valleys, large expanses of peat-moss,
hill pastures, and scanty bar ^sts ; the mountains ascend rather in single peaks than in long
ranges; and the rocky cliffs whicli fiice the sea assume, in many places, columnar forms of
jjcculiar grandeur. The climate is moist; yet milder tlian on the mainland. Tlio earliest
inhabitants seem to have been Celtic. About the eleventh century, they were conquered,
together witli Man, by Harold Harfager, and were governed for several centuries by a Nor-
wegian dynasty, after which tliey owned tlie nominal sovereignty of the Scottish kings, but
fell really under the sway of the Macdonalds, lords of the Isle.s. Tiioir territory including a
great part of the west coast of Scotland, formed a considerable power, till it fell partly under
the dominion of the Scottish crown, and was jiartly divided among a number of [wtty cliiefs,
whose feuds deform the subsequent pages of Hebridean history. At present these islands
may be considered as retaining more of highland habits and feelings, than any part of the
mainland.

The Hebrides may be divided into two main ranges. One of them consists of the large
island"- of ^slay. Jura, Mull, and Skye, with several minor attendants, which are nearly
cnntiguuus 'jo the west coast, and separated fi-om it only by narrow straits and sounds ; the
other is composed of North and South Uist, Harris, I«wis, which are considerably out at
sea, and are classed, with no very strict propriety, undei the general appellation of Long
Island.

Islay contains a good deal of level and fertile territory, which induced the lords of the
Isles to make it tiieir residence ; good crops of barley, cats, and even wheat, are raised ; and
the black cattle, which form the main export, arc held in great estimation. Jura is separated
from Islay only by a sound, the opposite sides of which correspond so exactly as to suggest
the idea of their having been disjnhied by some violent shock ; it is one contiimcd tract of
brown and rocky mountain pasture ; all the inhabitants, if collected, would scarcely people
a large village. Scarba consists of a single conical mountain broken into rocky precipices,
and forming a striking object. Between Jura and Scarba is the perilous strait of Corryvrc-
kan, a 'whirlpool noted for shipwreck. Colonsay and Oronsay form one long island, the
cliannel between them being passable at low water. The former has a verdant appearance ;
at Oronsay are the remains of a priory, ranking as the finest in the Highlands next to that
of lona.

Mull is a large, rough, stormy island, with winding and deeply indented shores, separated
by a long narrow sound from the Argyles^liire coast. The shores are almost everywhere
rocky and precipitous ; the two once might y liolds of Duart and Aros crown rocky cliffs on it."
eastern shore. Tiie great keep of the former, with its walls nine feet thick, encloses an area

KnoKl.

SCOTLAND,

42b

eparated
Irywhcre

ItTs on its
I an area

206

loim.

•jf thirty-six feet by twelve. Black cattle, black-faced sheep, celebrated for their delicate mut-
ton, kelp, and herrings, are exported.
StufTo, a large rock, about a mile and a half round, and encircled by cliffs, which nowhere

exceed in height 144 feet, contains the

't^'^---!b!St3^3iR;.r'::^';^Uv'. • ■ ^"^'^ "^ Fingal ijlff.^}.) Almost all

^'jliiiS^mma^^^fmtrifli.ui-. the rocks of the inland arc basaltic and

columnar; but here they uro arrangi'd
80 as to produce the most singular und
magnificent eftect. An opening, sixty-
six feet high and forty-two wide, formed
by perpendicular walls terminated by an
arch at the top, admits into a natural
hall, more than two hundred I'eet long,
and bounded on each side by basaltic
columns rising in regular symmetrical
succession. Two other caves, the Cor-
Finiii'iCave. morants' Cave and the Boat's Cave,

present similar scenes. Of the columnar rocks, which extend over a great part of the
island, many are bent and twisted in a remarkable manner,
lona (Jig. 207), a small island near Staffa, excites the deepest interest by the venerable

ruins which attest, in this secluded
comer, the early existence of re-
ligion and learning, at a time when
the rest of the kingdoni was buried
in baibarisni. St. Cilumba, about
the middle of the sixth century,
founded here a monastery, and
made it a centre wlicrice he en-
deavoured to (lifTuse the light of
Christianity. This religious estab-
lishment was enriched and extend-
ed, and a nunnery was afterwards
instituted under the same auspices.
The Culdecs, or followers of Co-
lumba, appear to have rendered very great services to Britain, and even to the whole North.
Teachers were often drawn from among them for seminaries in England ; and they under-
took missionary expeditions to Norway, and even to Russia. They taught, in a great
measure, the principles of primitive Christianity, rejecting both the vows of celibacy, and
the ceremonies of the Romish church. lona, however, at length became Roman catliolic,
and continued *o flourish till the Reformation, when its monks were dispersed, and its edi-
fices demolislied. The Cfnetery also remains, in which, according to tradition, were buried
forty-eight kings of Scotland, eight of Norway, four of Ireland, and one of France. Al-
lowing the scepticism of Dr. Macculloch as to this magnificent list, it appears confirmed,
from the ornaments on the tombs, that many of the West-Insular cliiefs chose this as a
sacred spot, where their ashes miglil repose. Tiie ruins are extensive. The cathedral is
164 feet long a.id 34 broad ; and near it is a chapel sixty feet long. The style of architecture
is early and rude ; and the sculptures, though pretty numerous, are, with a few exceptions,
grotesque in design and execution.

Skye, the most northerly of this inner chain, is the largest of the group. It is forty-
five miles long; but its shores are so winding, and so penetrated by lochs, that it may be
said to form a cluster of peninsulas. Ranges of rocky mountains, many of them 3000 feet
high, cover almost the entire surface, and the high rocks with which it is everywhere
bordered, display objects of striking and romantic grandeur. In Strathaird, near the
southern point, is the celebrated spar rave ; it is atx)ut 250 feet from the entrance to the
e.xtremity ; but a great part of the passage is gloomy and rocky, and only in its most inte-
rior part do the stalactites begin to branch out into that variety of intricate and brilliant
ornaments which make the cave .so beautiful. The great body of the island is a hilly moor-
land, barren, brown, and rugged ; the peaks being generally from .500 to 1000 feet iiigh ;
but .some points are level and arable. The r.xportation of cattle, witli that of a con.siderable
quantity of kelp, forms the chief trade of the island; large quantities of herrings are also
taken, and cured by fishermen, who carry on this branch of commerce on a small scale. The
property of Skye is almost siiarcd between the family of I/)rd Macdonald who claims descent
from the ancient lords of the Isles, and that of Macleod. Duntulni, the almost ruined seat of
the Macdonalds, and the Macleods' castle of Dunvegnn, a magnificent pile, finmded in the
thirteenth century, arc on the north-west coast. On the east is Rasay, masked by long
lofty cliff^-i of lino sandstone, which have on their tops green and cultivated farms. To the
south-west is Rum, a wild and rugged mass of mountains, surrounded by shores scarcely

{ 'm

■I'

430

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part HI.

accessible, and involved in almost perpetual tempest. On the east of Rum is Egg or Eigg,
which contains several large caves.

Loiifl- Inland is the general name given to the exterior chain of the Hebrides, which con-
sists ol five large and many smaller islands ; so closely contiguous that the whole may be
considered as one island. It is a strange mixture of bogs, rocks, lochs, and sands; its pas-
tures iiru chiefly occupied with cattle destined for tlie markets of the mainland ; and large
quantities of kolp are pro<Iuced, which yield considerable profit.

Li leis is the largest of all the Hebridei', being upwards of eighty miles from north-east
to 8onlh-weKt,and, at some points, more than twenty in breadth. Of its inhabitants, those
occu]iying its most northern point, called the Butt of Lewis, appear to be Danish, the rem-
nant of that colony wlio once ruled the island. The people are industrious in cultivating
tliuir rude soil, and in the fisheries which have rendered Stornoway, the capital of Lewis, u
place of some con.sideration. Harris, a peninsula on tlie southern point of Lewis, consists
of a mass of ru;jged rocks, whicli project in long promontories into the sea, giving to the
shore a very picturestjue aspect. The arable patches are small, and in such inaccessible
sites that tliey can bn cultivated only by the spade. Sheep are more numerous than black
cattle, being better adapted to this rugged surface. North and South Uist, with Benbecula,
exhibit the general aspect of Long Island, of whose length they compose about eighty
miles. The cattle are small, and not exported in very large quantities. The most flourish-
ing branch of industry is kelp, of which ttiey yield annually about 2500 tons. Barra is
distinguished for the industry of its fishermen, who carry their cargoes through the Crinan
canal to the Greenock market. About half a mile from the southern shore is Chisamil, the
castle of the Macleans, now partly in ruin, but of such extent as to have been capabln of
containing 500 men.

St. Kilda is the remotest point of the Hebrides ; small and solitary, far out in the Atlantic,
whose waves da-sh continually against its perpendicular cliffs. It is about three miles long,
girt on all sides by a wall of rock, which at one point is about 1300 feet high ; Conoxhan,

the loftiest hill on the island, being there
hg. soa Map qfthe Orhuf isianii. Cut down perpendicular!]^ from the summit

to the base. " Dizzy heights, from which
the eye looks down over jutting crags ; a
boiling sea below, without a boundary;
dark clifl's beaten by a foaming surge, and
lost in the gloom of involving clouds ; the
mixed contest of rocks, ocean, and sky,"
are the scenes which characterise St.
Kilda. On the top of the rocks is a green
and somewhat fertile surftce, on which are
fed sheep of the Norwegian breed, with
short tails and coarse wool, but whose mut-
ton is delicious ; there are a few cows, and
a little very fine bear is grown. But the
favourite food of the natives is drawn fi^m
the face of the perpendicular cliflfe, which
in fearful and dizzy height overliang their
shores. Suspended by a rope, they step
from point to point, and take the eggs or
young of the solan goose, puffin, cormorant,
petrel, and others of the numerous species
which breed on their sides.

The Orkneys form a group of about
thirty in number; but Pomona or Main-
land contains nearly as much ground as all
the rest put together. Notliing can be
more irregular than their form; the deep
sounds by which they are penetrated, and the narrow straits which separate them from each
other, cause a complete intermixture of land and sea. These etraits are rendered dangerous
by numerous currents and eddies from the two oceans which rush in from opposite sides.

'■',..

■'Li;i

Njilliffh H,u.

,o\* Sur.i.inri.^%,^
Noup Mi.Wm^ N. RonaMaiv Klh. ''i.

"■II,

u.* Sir j;v],^ ', ,

Orrm. \S^^'^ 10. Xi

Hoy Hill, :r.S::V«.<=* „%

s r f n I. A M>

niicss

'^;# W;^*""-'- "*•

^niith KoiialdBbay

'"'K-au.l.y HJ.

(jllllKli Milr, '

Reference to the Map of the Orlney Idand$.

NORTH RON-
ALOSHAY.
I. Holland.

SANDAY.

1. Taninrai
3 Havil
:t. Markirk

4. Crim and Burnen

5. atov*

WESTRAY.
1. Newark
3. Hpuoninv
3. 1'yrawall.

ROWSAY.
1. Suvoikroi
3. Wciltide.

SIl^PINailAY.
1. WallneM

'i. Kiikbuiier
3. Holland.

POMONA nr
MAINLAND.

1. Bt. Andrew'!

3. Bnndijde
X Holm

4. Poplar
3. Oalnip

a^'abo

7. Kirkwall

f>. Pirlh

9. Bcapa
in. Wank
II. Orphir
I?. Chotlron

13. Turniion

14. Rrndnll

15. Wi

oodwick

16. Iluriar

17. Biraa
IS. Marwick
19. KIrknen
90. Holorow
QI.Hnndwick
'ja. Siromncaa.

HOY.
1. Hor

2. Brini

3. Air

4. St. Walby.

SOUTH RON-
ALDSHAY.

1. Cara

2. Kirk

3. Berwick

4. Bruufli.

'.•X"}.

species

about
Main-
id as nil
can be
he deep
)m each
ngerous
e sides.

ibr

< HON-
IHAY.

.Ifr/

Book I.

SCOTLAND.

431

Fig. 21ft itap (ifUe SMrllantl Itlandi.

The Pentland Frith, in particular, between Orkney and the Mainland, is a most formidable
passage. The opposing currents i<eep the channel in a stato of perpetual ebullition, and produce
at several points, violent whirlpc jIs. Orkney is in general low, bleak, boggy, and bare ; thoupfh
its western islands face the Atlantic with some very bold and ragged clitts. About a twelfth
part is cultivated in a rude manner with the plough ; a somewhat larger portion is under
regular pasture; the rest is moor and waste. The cattle, though small, are of a goal
breed ; and about 50,000 sheep, almost in a wild state, roam through the commons. The
fisheries are not extensive ; kelp is the staple commodity for export : it has averaged annu-
ally 2500 tons, employing 3000 men. There is some coarse woollen, and of late there has
been some linen manufacture. As most of the vessels destined for Hudson's Bay and the
whale fishery, and many of those which, from the east coast, sail to all parts of the world,
pass by the north of Scotland, the ports of the Orkneys are frequented, and a market is
afforded for their provisions.

The topographical details of Orkney do not possess any peculiar attraction. Kirkwall,
however, bears marks of the periods when it was a Danish capital, and a residence of the

sovereign Earls of Orkney. There is
a large and massive cathedral, in some
parts very elegantly ornamented ; also
ruins of a king's palace, an earl's castle,
and a bishop^ palace. The town has
of late been considerably extended and
improved, and it has a good natural har-
bour. Stroniness has one of the best
harbours in the kingdom, and is the
favourite resort of vessels which seek
on this coast for shelter and refreshment.
Near Stromncsa is that remarkable
remnant of antiquity the "standing
stones of Stennis,'' which in magnitude
and singular character almost rivals
Stonehenge. Shapinshay, Stronsay,
Rowsay, Eday, Westray, Papa, antl
Sanday, are small islands stretching to
the north-east. Burra and South Ro-
naldshay are towards Caithness; and
to the west the long island of Hoy,
which presents a series of bold and
rugged promontories.

The Zetland or Shetland islands,
called by the natives Hialtland, form
one of the extremities of Europe, en-
circled by the illimitable extent of
the Arctic and Atlantic oceans. Placed
thus far north, and amid so wide a
waste of waters, the climate of Zet-
land is cold, bleak, swept by furious
winds, and deluged by torrents of rain.
The surface is rugged, without being
mountainous; it is everywhere pene-
trated by long lagoons with flat shores,
called voes, by which even the largest
islands are so intersected, that there is
scarcely a spot in them two miles distant from the sea. The extensive mosses, and the
trunks of tree^ dug out of them, prove that a vast expanse was once covered with natural
forests; but these are now totally eradicated, and the violence of the winds and sea-spray
has rendered abortive every attempt to replace them, so that the aspect of the country is
now completely naked, scarcely producing even a shrub. The cwists arc peculiarly steep,
rocky, and bold, the rocks being hollowed into deep caverns, and broken into precipices and
clifls of the most varied forms. The aspect of these shores, against which the waves of the
great surrounding ocean dash with almost perpetual fiiry, is equally grand and terrible. The

SAVI.

..^♦"

_!_

fV/ff.

• ^Sh«»p Cny

Eofliih Mild

-I

Reference to the Map of the Shetland Manda.

UNST.
1. Norwick
U. Veicarth
3. New Kirk.

yELL.
I WiDdhoun

3. Manae

2. niahorry

8. Jafiin

H. Brnk

20. aupnilal.

3. Sandwick

3. Orbuila

0. Bnrlild

l.'i. Iliiigwall

4. Queira.

10. Mclby

IH. Lerwick

BRrSSAY

5. 8uthi!rhuUiQ

11. Miickluro

17. Si. l>aur»

1. (lurilis

MAINLAND.

6. Deal

13. Culawlok

la Murwick

2. Si. Andie\v«

I. Bket

7. Srough

13. Banditcni!

lU Uiittuwu.

4S2

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Paet III.

uutJior of " The Pimte" draws a most lively picture of those " deep and dangerous seas of
the north, their precipices and headlands, many hundred feet in height — their perilous
straits, and currents, and eddies — long sunken reefs of rock, over which the vivid ocean
foams and boils,— dark caverns, to whose extremities neither man nor skiff has ever ven-
tured, — lonely and oflcn uninhofbited isles, and occaeionall}' tlic ruins of ancient northern fast-
nesses, dimly seen by the feeble light of the arctic winter." The dangers of the navigation,
however, are considerably mitigated by the spacious and commodious haven?, formed by the
deep bays and vnrg, or by the sounds and channels, between different islands.

The Shetland Islands contain about 20,000 acres of arable land, and nearly as many of
gootl metulow ; but this comprises little more than a twentieth part of the surface, all the
rest consisting of waste or common, on which the horses, cattle, and sheep are turned out,
to find pastures iis best they may. The horses are of a very small size, with o huge mane,
but active and hardy. The cows are equally diminutive, and give very little milk, but both
the milk and the flesh are of good quality. The sheep ore most numerous of all, being
reckoned at seventy or eighty thousand ; they are stunted, like the other animals, and their
wool is very scnnty ; but some of it is peculiarly fine, affording the material of almost the only
nionufacturc of Shetland, — that of knit hosiery, of a texture close, sotl, and warm. The
greatest branch of Shetland industry, however, is the cod and ling fishery. All the coasts
abound with these fish ; and, within the last few years, a particularly rich and extensive
Iwnk has been discovered to the westward. At the proper season, fleets of boat'^ issue from
all the hays and voes, to the hnaf or deep sea-fishery, wiiich is carried on, not without peril,
at the distance of from twenty to thirty miles fi^m the coast. The fishermen are supplied
l)y tlie Iniidlords with boats and implements, on condition of their delivering to them the fish
at a stipuliited rate; and as their farms are held at will, they are in a state of vassalage
more complete, perhaps, than any other class in the United Kingdom.

The annals of Shetland are Norwegian. These islands, according to the earliest tradition,
were peopled from Norway. In the ninth century they were conquered by Harold Harfa-
ger, or the Fair-haired, the most powerful and formidable of all the sea-kings of the north.
The Norwegian sway extended for several centuries over all the Scottish islands ; but in
tlie Shetlnnds it was undisputed, till the cession of them, along witli tlio.«e of (!)rkney, as
the dowry of a princess of Norway married to James III., in the end of tlie fifteenth century.
Lerwick, the capital, is a thriving village, ill and irregularly built, but improving.

The oiiposite island of Bressay forms Bressay
Sound, one of the finest harbours in the
world, and the rendezvous of all the vessels
destined for the north and the whale fishery
Off Bressay is the Noss {fiff. 210.), a small
high island, with a flat summit, girt on all
sides by perpendicular walls of rock. The
communication with Bressay itself is main-
tained by strong ropes stretched across, along
which a cradle is run, in which the pas-
senger is seatetl. The promontories of Sum-
burgh and Fitfiil Head, at the southern ex-
tremity of tiie Mainland, are also distin-
guished by the boldness of their aspect and
the perils with which they threaten the ma-
riner. The number of the Shetlands has
been variously estimated, according to the gradations of islets and rocks included ; bii.': only
about forty are inhabited. Of these. Yell, and Unst, stretching northwards from the Main-
land, are alone of any magnitude. The last, though the most northerly, is rather the most
fertile of any, and distinguished by its numerous caves. Adjacent to Yell is Fetlar; on the
east of the Mainland are Whalsay and Bressay ; to the west, Burray, Uousa, Frondray, Papa
Stour, Muckle and Little Rooe, all so close as to be little more than peninsulas. Considera-
bly out at sen, Foula, a small rocky islet, faces the Atlantic, with high cliff's covered with
numberless flocks of sea-fowl.

210

NoH Holm, Shelluid.

CHAPTER IV.

IREL.\ND.

iRELANn is a fine extensive island, sifiiated to the west of England, and forming one of
the throe grand [HDrtions of the United Kingdom.

Sect. 1. — General Outline and Aspect.
The greatest dimension of Ireland is from Cape Clear, in .'iP 10', to Malin Head, in 55°
23 N. latitude; making about "JHO m:les. The utmost breadth, if reckoned from the mos'

Book I.

IRELAND

4Sii

• one of

Id, in 55°
1 the mos

easterly point of the county of Down (opposite Bur Island) to Dunmore Head in Kerry, will
be 218 miles; but it is nowhere so broad under the same parallel of latitude. The island,
accordiiifj to Benufbrt, contains more than 30,000 English square miles, or nearly 20,000,000
acres ; but, till the survey be completed, precision on this subject cannot be attained.

The siirliice of Ireland crnnot on the whole be called mountainous; its central districts
comjwsinff one vast plain, wiiich crosses the kingdom from east to west It is, however,
diversified by ranges of mountains, superior in extent, and, with the exception of those of
Wales, equal in elevation, to any in England. Wicklow, ip the vicinity of Dublin, may be
classed as an alpine region. On the borders of Leinster and Munster, the Slieve-Bloom,
the Knockmele Down, and the Galties, form long and lofty ranges, commanding an exten-
sive view over the wide plains that stretch beneath them. All these, however, are much
surpassed by tlie c'treme south-west county of Kerry, which presents a complete chaos of
lofty and rocky si "nits. The most elevated are those which enclose the beautiful and
finely wooded lakes of Killarney, Mangerton and Macgillicuddy's Reeks, the last of which
is considerably more than 3000 feet high. At the opposite or north-eastern extremity of
Ireland, Antrim presents to the Scottish seas a barrier of rocky cliffs, less lofty, hut of a
very liold and peculiar character ; precipitous, and formed into long columnar ranges ; a
phenomenon which the Giant's Causeway exhibits on a greater scale than uay other spot in
the known world. The Moume mountains, a lofty granite range in the south of the county
of Down ; those of Carlingford, which extend into the county of Armagh; with considerable
ranges in Tyrone, Dcrry, and Donegal, may dispute the pre-eminence with those of the
south. In Connaught there arc also some considerable detached mountains, of which Croagh-
patrick in Mayo has heen reckoned by some to exceed even Macgillicuddy's Reeks ; but Ire-
land has no extended tablcv-lands, like those which cover a considerable part of England.
The most elevated part of the Bog of Allen, in that central point where the rivers divide,
is not more than 270 feet above the level of the sea.

The Shannon is without a rival in the three kingdoms. It rises far in the north, from
Lough Allen in the province of Connaught, and has a course of 170 miles, throughout the
whole of which it is more or less navigable, the only obstruction which existed having been
removed. Below liimerick it expands into an estuary about sixty miles in length, by which
the largest vessels have access to that city. Tiie Barrow is also an important river, which
runs southward through the greater part of Leinster, receives from the west the Nore and
the Suire, and finally forms tlie harbour of VVaterford. The Boyne, so celebrated for the
victory gained on its banks; the Foyle, which, after passing Londonderry, forms Lough
Foyle; the Bnnn, which passes through Lough Neogh, and affords a flourishing saimon
fishery ; and the Blackwater, which terminates in the bay and port of Youghal, are also de-
serving of mention. The other rivers are rather numerous than of long course ; but they
almost all terminate in wide estuaries and louffhs, which diffuse through Ireland the means
of water communication, and afford a multiplicity of spacious and secure harbours.

Lakes or loughs are a conspicuous feature in Ireland, where this last name, like the
similar one used in Scotland, is in many instances applied to arms of the sea. Lough Neagh
is the largest lake in the United Kingdom, covering nearly 100,000 acres. Its banks are
flat, tome, and in many places marshy and inundated. Lough Erne, also in Ulster, is
divided into two reaches, the united length of which is about thirty miles, while its circuit
includes a great variety of rich and ornamented scenery. Iiough Foyle, Lough Swilly, and
Belfast Lough, are properly bays. The Shannon forms several lakes, of which Lough Ree
is the principal ; and the whole of its course downwards from Limerick resembles more a
lough or bay than a river, (connaught has several extensive lakes. That of Killarney, in
the soutli, is famed, not for its extent, but for the singular grandeur and beauty of its
shores. A fuller description of tliis and some others now mentioned will be found under the
local section.

Sect. II. — Natural Geography.

The Botany and Zoology of Ireland, having been treated under the head of England, this
section will be confined to Geology.

SuBSECT. 1. — Geology of Ireland,

The geology of this p:irt of the empire is not so well known as that of Great Britain.
Tlio following skoteh will enable our readers to form a general conception of the geognos-
tienl structure of those parts of the island which have been already surveyed ; viz. — 1. North
of Trclanil ; 2. Connaught coal district ; 3. East of Ireland ; 4. South, and part of the west
of Ireland.

(1.) yorthoflrtland. Thisdistrict.limttcd by Dundalk Bay on the south-east, and by Lough
Foyle on the north-west, is marked by three distinct systems or groups of mountains, one of
wliich occupies the more southern counties , while the more northern are divided between
the two others.

1st system. The Moume mountains. — ^The Moume mountains form a well-deflned
Vol. I. 8T 3 E

484

MAP OP IRELAND.

Fio. 211

UOfttallr Wen 8 Irma Orernwich

BooeI.

IRELAND.

435

group, extending from Dundrum Bay to Carlingford Bay, in the southern extremity of Down.
Slieve Donard is the highest summit of this group, and rises about 2654 feet above the level
of the sea. The north-west of the main group, tiic Fathom Hill, Sliove Girkcn, or the
Newry mountains, and Slieve (iullen, are situated in the south-east of Armagh ; and the
Rnvcnsdale and Carlingford mountains, in the north of Louth, may be considered aa its ap-
pendages. Granite, wliich is the prevailing rock of these niouiitaiiis, contains beautiful
■ rock crystals, also felspar and mica crystals, topaz and beryl. To the north of the Moume
mountains Slieve Croob, composed of syenite, and Slieve Anitiky, nf hornblende rock, form
an elevated tract, dependent upon, but placed at some distance thui), the main group. Horn-
blende rock, greenstone, and porphyry are said to be abundant on the skirts of this granite dis-
trict. The Plutonian granite and syenite hills rise through strata of transition rocks, which
are greywacke, greywacke slate, transition clay slate, and transition limestone. The Plu-
tonian rocks bear but a small proportion in superficial extent to those of the transition class,
the latter advancing west and north into Cavan, and to Belfast Ix)Ugh and the peninsula of
Ards. The points of tlie coast of Scotland, directly opposite the peninsula of Ards, present in
the neighbourhood of Portpatrick, and through the great alpine band which traverses the
south of Scotland, and terminates on the east coast of St Abb's Head, the same transition
rocks. Hence it is probable that the great southern high land of Scotland was formerly
joined with the transition hills of the Moume mountain group by a ridge of land extending
across the Channel from Scotland to Ireland. In this district, there are some patches of
mountain limestone and of old red sandstone.

2d system. Primitive chain of Londonderry. — This mountain group rises at the distance
of about 30 miles to the north-north-west of the external chains of the first sj^stem, including
the counties of liOndonderry and Donegal. One of the iiighest points in this district is Sawell,
said to be 22.57 feet above the level of the sea. This great tract of country is principally
comiK>sed of mica slate, with various .bordinate beds, as limestone, quartz, &c. On the
eastern bank of the Roe, these mica siato hills and mountains are succeeded by a range of
secondary hills covered by a great platform of secondary trap, and forming a part of the
third system of hills, afterwards to be described. These newer rocks repose upon and con-

lieferencet to the Map of Inland.

NORTH PART.
I. Newtonglfini
3. Ballycnstle

3. CloiJKh

4. Raaharkan
.5. Italtymnn/
G. Coleraino

7. Garva;Th

8. <iiBnt'a Sconce

9. Ilallrkelly

10. Muff

11. Rallynally
U. Malm

13. Cam

14. nuinroot
1.1. Oinakill
m. Raihmullin
17. rioiiyhock

15. Dungloti
19. Convoy

50. Htranoilan
21. Rmihop

3-2. Ijoiiilondcrry
83. I.iffor.l
•U. StraUane
2.5. daily

36. Maghen

37. flwatlerntEh
'». Krlb

2!>. Glenarm
'.n. Ilaltycorry
31. rarrickfeTgua
.33. Crumlia
33. Antrim
.M. Kiiri(talfi(own
3.1. .Mnneymore

36. (;7ook8tt)Wn

37. FrodRrickBtown

38. Newton Stewart
3(1. Heaebrll

40. Tlori Bridge

41. Ardrca
43. Tillen

43. Killybegi

44. Inver

45. Ponesal

40. Hiill);8hnnnon
47. Garridiui
4a Churchill
40. ('aiuldy

aa. KpsIi

51. OniHgh
53. Ghicrterny
13. HallyEawley
."M. tlLickWiilcr
.1.1. Ilunennnon
50. Kingiinilll

57. MiiM

58. Heirait
S). Holywooil

60. Donaghadco
01. (iray Abbey
63. I'orlarerry
6:1. Downpatricic
04. Killinchy
6.1. Ilillnhorough

66. Dundruni

67. Raihf'riland

68. tiouihbrick-

land
60. Lurgan
7U. Armagh
71. Newtown Ha-

milion
73. Mnnachan

73. Augher

74. Clogher

75. Five Mile

Town

76. Donough

77. Liinaakea

78. Ralluwhill
70. Enniikillcn
80. liargay
Sl.Siridock
83. Slieo

83. Dunatra
W. Bonro
K1. Killala

86. Baltiglan

87. Inver

88. CIngan

89. Ballina

90. Fo.xr(ird

91. Swineford
93. llalcarra
93. Ballymule
04. Ijeitrim

95. Balltngmo;e

06. BelturtK.t

97. CavaR

98 n-.,n

99. T.idlyhav
Ifld. Cantlfl Blaney
101. Jnnedboro
103. Newry
UI3. Narrnw Water
1114. Kilkeel
10.1. rurltrtirfiird

106. nundnik

107. l.oulh
1118. Lnrgiin
109. CloBhcr
no. l.adyrnth
111. Nobbcr
113. Moynally

113. Ballyborough

114. Stradone

115. Bally Jamcadu
lie. Roeaduir

117. JamoRtown

118. Elpbm

119. Carrick on

Shannon

120. Tulsk

131. Ballyhadirecn
133. Ballihaunli

133. Kilkelly

134. Kilcolman

135. Boartree

136. Ballinvary
127. Newport
138. Cnttlebar
129. Weatport
l:i0. Killery
131. Claggan
1.33. Bunowen

133. Cong

134. Ballinrnbe
131. Hollymnunt
136. Kilmainmore
i:l7. Blenwoll
138. Dunmore
1.39. Glanamnddy

140. Balliniober

141. Ruacoinmon
143. Tarmnnbarry

143. l.ungford

144. Krnagb
14.1. Ed«9Worlli«-

town

146. Johnstown

147. Miillingar

148. rionmellon

149. Trim

1.10. !)unimcrhill
MI.Navan
152. Skryne

1.13. Drogheda

1.14. Naut
155. Bworda

SOUTH PART.
1. Kilkerran
3. Inverun

3. Sunna

4. Killamecn

5. Rnlway

6. Ilmidrord

7. Reldare

8. Aihcnry

9. Monivia

10. Tuam

11. CnMle Blackney

12. Bnllinofitoe

13. Bailiniimnrfl

14. Knockroughry

15. Athlone

16. Mayatown

17. Mont a Grenogue

18. Ballimore

19. Pbilipalown

20. Tyrrel'a Paaa

31. Ballydemot

32. Longwood

33. Cluncuny

34. riane

35. Maynooth
26. Ralnalh
37. Rathcoole
9a Dublin
30. Killuiibbin
30. Innixkerry
3I.Wicklow
33. Donard

33. BIcaaingtun

34. Naaa

3.1. Old Kilcullcn
no. Kihiare

37. Portarlington

38. Mounlmclick

39. Birr

40. Bangher

41. Eyre Court
43. Poitumna

43. Augbrim

44. I.oughrca
4.1. Carnamart

46. Rorl

47. Killany

48. KillO-nora

49. Innialymon

50. Pnnia

51. Clare

53. Talla
.1.3. Scarriff

54. Killalue

55. Nenagh
.16. Burreaakan
.17. Roacrea
.18. Raihdowny
.10. Ballynakilf

60. Maryborough

61. Alhv
63. Carfow

63. Sirnlford

64. Bnltinslnsa
6.1. Ralbvillo

66. Tinchely

67. Ralhdium
88. Ark low

69. Gorer

70. Ferns

71. Cloneirnll
73. Burria

73. Old I^ighlm

74. Kilkenny

75. Urlingford

76. Kill?naulo

77. Burri^leagh

78. Toomevara

79. Silver Mine

80. Newport

81. liinierick

83. Bridiretown

8:1 Six Mile Bridge

84. Pnrndiso
8,1. Clanderlagh

86. Kilruib

87. Dunbegs

88. Ballyhi'igh

89. Lixnaw

90. Millilreet

91. Ballylongford
03. Liilowcl)

93. Abbyroale

94. Glynn

95. Ardngh

96. Aakeaton

97. Kiddneh
if. Hrures

99. Patrick's Well

100. Brufl

101. t^ullen
103. Tipperary

103. Cappagh

104. Golifen Bridge
10.1. Cashol

106. Felhard

107. Ballypatrick

108. Knocktopher

109. Innibtioge
no. Thomnsion

111. Now Ross

112. Enniacortby

113. Killane

114. Ballrmarlin

115. Tagnmon

116. Wexford

117. Ituncornuck

118. (Nonmines

119. Wbitocborch

120. Walerrord

131. Kilmacow

132. Kilmacthomas

133. Clonmel

134. Ballynamult
125. Cabir

136. Rallyporecn

137. Arailin

138. Kilwnrib
129. Ballyhooly
riO. n.incrailo
131. Mallow
133. l.iscarrol
1'I3. Newmarket
1.14. Ciis bland

135. Abbey Odoine

136. Tralee
137. 1.ispote
138. Dingle
i;«. Cahir
140. Aghart
MLGIanliagh
143. Milltown

143. Kenmare

144. Killnrncy

145. Sbinaeh

146. Mill Street

147. Mactomp

148. Cork

149. Fennoy
1.10. Ratcormuck
l51 . Ijismore
1.12. Dungarvan

153. Agliah

154. Voughal
15.1. Cloyne

156. Carlisle Fort

157. Passage

158. Camden Fort

159. Kinsnle

160. Innisbannon

161. IncbigeelHgb

162. Dunmanaway
16.3. Glengart

164. Gariiilah

165. Rantry

166. DunmanuB

167. Baltimore

168. Skibbereen
169. 1.oap

170. Timoloague

Kirert. te.
a Foyle, R.
b Rann, R.
c Mayola, R.
d Newry Canal

Bnyoe, R.
f l.ifTey. R.
g Slaney, R.
h Bairow, R.
i Nore, R.

i Siiirn. R.

k Blackwatcr, R

1 Lee. R.

m Bandoii. R.
n Flesk, R.
o Shannon. R.
p Carnamarl, R.
q Moyop. R.
r Suck, R.
a Moy, R.
t Deel, R. „
u Munreei R.

i 'i

ii!i

486

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt hi.

]

111

ceal tlio mica alato in tlie enfltorn part of Dcrry, but the mica slate again emerges from
beneatii this covering, atlcr an interval uf about 30 miles, on the north-east coubt ut Antrim,
and rises into hills, which break down abruptly towards the coast between Tor I'oint and
Cushondcn Buy. The mica slute rocks on this part of the Irisih coubt may bo considered a
continuation ot those that occur on the oppoHilo coast of Scotland at the Mull of Cuntyro,
or, on a more general view, aa u continuation of the great Grampian range, which may, in
this way, be said to extend from the north-east coast of Scotland to the western shores of -
Ireland, on the coasts of Uunegal. In the eastern part of Tyrone, which intervenes
between the transition mountains and the mica slate mountains, a coal Ibrmation occurs
associated with that kind of limestone which is usuall> found below coal in Great Britain.
The position of this coalfield otfers another analogy witli Scotland, where tlie space between
the southern and northern mountains is principally occupied by rocka of the coal formation.

3d system of mountains. The Trap group. — This group mav be described as separated
into two chains, bounding on the east and west the trough or valley through which tlie river
Bann flows from liough Neagh to the ocean. The eastern chain lies in the county of An-
trim, being comprehended between thu valley of the Bann and the North channel. It pre-
sents an abrupt declivity towards the sea, falling with a gentle slope towards the west, in
which direction the beds composing its mass incline. Knock-lead, in the northern extremity
of the chain, is the highest summit : it rises 1820 feet above the level of the sea ; but the
basis of this hill is occupied to the height of 600 feet by primitive mica slate rock, leaving
only lf^20 feet for the thickness of the secondary strata peculiar to this system. Diris Hill,
near the southern extremity of the chain, is wholly composed of secondary strata, and
attains an elevation of 1475 feet. The western port of the chain included between the
Roe and the Bann forms the exact counterpart of the former ; but the strata here dip nearly
in a contrary direction, viz. towards the north-east ; the fall of the hills being gradually in
this direction, while they front the west and south with abrupt and precipitous cliffs. Crag-
noshoack, at the southern extremity, rises 1864 feet above the sea, and is the highest sum-
mit of the group. The geological nature of this third system is very different from that of
the two former ; all the principal formations belonging to the secondary class of rocks.
These rocks are partly Plutonian and partly Neptunian. The Neptunian rocks are gene-
rally covered with an enormour mass of secondary trap, which appears to attain its greatest
thickness on the nortli ; the trap cap of Beny-Avenagh, the most nortliern summit of the
western chain, measuring more than 900 feet : the average depth of this superimposed moss
may therefore be estimated at 545 feet, and its superficial extent at 800 square miles. The
trap rocks are greenstone, basalt, amygdaloid, wacke, and red bole ; occasionally associated
with them, forming isolated tmctj, as in tlie Sandybrea district, there are porphyries of dif-
ferent kinds, as pitchstonc and [)earl-stone porphyries. The amygdaloid and also some of
the other rocks of this scries contain calc spar and white calceduny, semiopal, fV;lspar, and
steatite, or serpentine. Tlie ba^^alt contains olivine. Iron pyrites is a mineral frequently
disseminated in the greenstone. Wood coal occurs in seams varying from two inches to
four or five feet in thickness, altcmatmg with trap rocks, near Ballentoy ; also in the cliffs
of Fortnoffer on the east of the Giant's Causoway, at Killymoris near the centre of the trap
area, and at Portmaoc, and other places on the eastern shore of Lough Neagh.

Veins of trap. Trap veins exhibit many interesting phenomena, particularly in their pas-
sage through chalk, which they sometimes convert into a kind of marble. Thoy traverse
not only the Neptunian strata, us chalk, lias, and coal formation, but also trap itself. The
most interesting and splendid displays of tlie trap rocks occur at the Giant's Causeway and
Fairhead, so well known to travellers ; and the cliffs of Kenbaan exhibit very interesting
displays of the commingling of the trap and chalk.

Underneath and sometimes intermingled with this vast mass of trap are the following
Neptunian formations : — Chalk, which is frequently very compact, and sometimes, as where
in immediate contact with the Plutonian rocks, changed into a granular limestone resem-
bling marble : the average thickness does not amount to more than 200 feet. Underneath
the chalk occurs the deposit known under the name mulatto stone, tlic green sand of Eng-
lish geologists, lying upon the lias limestone. Underneath the lias occur beds of red and
variegated marl, variegated sandstone with gypsum, and from these issue salt springs.
These four formations, which, together with the trap, form the whole mass of the hills
belonging to the third system, cannot bo estimated as possessing a less average thickness
than from 800 to UKK) feet. The whole system appears at the north-eastern and south-
western extremities to repose upon the coal formation and its accompanying rocks, and
tliese on the transition or primitive rocks.* Coul occurs in Tyrone, at Coal Island and Dun-
gannon, and in Antrim, near Ballycastle. Of these, the collieries at Ballycastle, which
occupy an extent of not loss than one English mile along the coatit, arc the most considerable.
They have been long wrought, and were once in a more prosperous state than at present, aa

* Patches of old nd tandtlmt occur on the eut coaal between Ballygelly and Olenarm Bajr ; and alio on tb*
jame coail to the southward of Gcrron Point.

Part UI.

loTUCB from
ot Antrim,
r I'uint anil
unitiilcrcd a
uf Cuntyre,
ch may, ill
n slioruit of

intorvenea
ition occurs
eat Britain,
ico between
1 formation.
\B separated
ch Uie river
unty of An-
lel. It pre-
tlie west, in
rn extremity
tea,; but the
vck, leaving

Diria Hill,
' strata, and
between the
re dip nearly
gradually in
cliffs. Crag-
liighcst sum-
from that of
ass of rocks.
:ks are genc-
n its greatest
ummit of the
imposed mass
f miles. The
Uy associated
hyries of dif-
also some of

felspar, and
•al frequently
wo inches to

ill the cliffa
re of the trap

r in their pas-
'hey traverse
itself. The
lauscway and
y interesting

the following
les, as where
stone resem-
Underneatli
iand of Eng-
\s of red and
salt sprin/^s.
of the hills
ige thickness
n and south-
ig rocks, and
ind and Dun-
:astle, which
Iconsiderable.
it present, as

I and tlM on tb*

Book I.

FREIjKND.

4S7

they used formerly to send from 10,(KX) to IS.CMK) tons of coal to tlic market ycurly ; whcroa*
now tlic quantity cxp rted docs not amount to more timn KA\0 or 'MM tons. Tlic coal of
those districts is ali.iost entirely what Bergcr culls slate coiil. In one of tlio works, liow-
cvrr, in Cwil Island, u bod of ciiiino! coal, six fo(>t thick, is saiil to have bi'ru wniiiglit.

Tlie luoHt rcniarkttblo miiionilH of the alluvial kind tbuiid in this part of Ireland are the
fossil woods of lA>ugh Noagli, a shnol of water I'M tint alnivo llio level of tlio sea, ulxjul
nineteen miles f^ix tiirlonffs long from N. VV. to H. E., and liirty-five feet deep at its centre.
The wood is silicilied, and in some Bpccimcns one extremity will bo petritied, wiiile the other
remains in a ligneous state. The oak, the holly, and thu ha/.cl ajipeur to have been the
trees tliiia affected. It occurs in alluvium in the neighbourhood of the lake.

Qi.) Connaughl Coal Dislricl. This district occupies a pt)rtion of the counties )f Roe-
common, tSligo, and Leitrim, in the province of Connaught, and part of the county Cavan in
the province of Ulster. liough Allen, situated near the head of tlie river Shannon, tbrms a
basin in the centre of the district.

A range of primary mountains, varying in breadth from three miles to a quarter of a mile,
extends from Poxforu in the county of Slayo, to Colooiiey in tho county of Sligo, and ter-
minates two miles to the north-east of Manor-Hamilton, which may be viewed as the base
on which the newer formation of this part of Ireland rests. This range of country is prin-
cipally composed of mica slate, with some subordinate rocks. Bcnbo Mountain, near Manor-
Hamilton, 1403 feet above the sea, may be cited us exhibiting an interesting display of the
various primitive rocks. Tho summit, and about 8(K) feet immediately below it, are com-
posed of a fine granular granite : the granite is covered on both siiles of the mountain with
gneiss, dipping in tho direction of its declivity at an angle of 5()°. At the base of the
mountain, mica slate, with garnets, hornblende rock and hornblende slate, are seen. Large
blocks of beautiful syenite, also of serpentine with embedded garne'j, were found in u stream
at the base of the mountain near Lurganboy. The western si' ; of Bcnbo is traversed by a
vein of copper pyrites, which was formerly wrought, but apparently to no great extent.
Veins of iron pyrites also occur there.

Resting upon these old rocks in many places, wo observe tlie first or oi^ 'cd sandstone
formation. A tract of this sandstone extends in Roscommon from west to east, li.-ii Dcrry-
naslicve to Cashcarrigans, and in greatest breadth in a southerly and northerly direuiiuu,
from Leitrim to the neighbourhood of Drumshambo. Resting uikjii this sandstone, Ibrtning
the base of the coal district, and encircling it, is the mountain or carbimiferous limesUme.
This limestone exhibits the usual character of the formations. The coal formation rests
Mi)on the limestone, nnd is the uppermost or newest of tho secondary deposits met with in
this part of Ireland. The external aspect of this coal district is described ns being hilly
and dreary, and as extending in greatest h.-ngth in a north and south direction, from Down
Mountain to Kodduo, about sixteen miles, and in greotcst breadth from the hi'ls aliove Swud-
linbar to Killargy, sixteen miles. The area of the whole coal country witiiin the edge of
the limestone is about 114,000 Irish acres; exclnsive of Slieve Russcl, which is Jotuchcd
from the great district by the limestone valley of Swadlinbar. The rocks which forn; the
coral series in the Connaughl coal district are similar to those met with in otlier coalfields.
Besides coal, which is tiie black hitumiiwus species, the formation contains sandstone flag,
slate clay, bituminous slate, clay ironstone, and fire clay. Some kinds of the coal afford in
the 100 parts, 71.42 carbon, 23.37 bitumen, and 5.21 gray ashes. Iron-works. The beds
of clay ironstone that occur in all parts of the Connaught coal district appear, at an early
period, to have attracted the attention of miners ; and works, on a small scale, called
bloomeries, were carried on in various parts of the adjoining country, as long as any wood
remained to supply them with clmrcoal, but they have since been given up.

(3.) East of Ireland. This district extends nearly 100 miles from north to south, and
between sixty and ninety miles from east to west, comprehending about a third part of the
island. It is bounded on the east by the Irir.h Channel, on the south and west by the moun-
tains which confine tho Siiire and the Shannon, and on the north by the clay slate hills of
Louth and the mountain limestone hills of Meath, the cluy slato hills of Cavan and the
mountain limestone of Longford, and by a lino produced from thence to the bay of Galway.
In the landscape of Ireland there is one very remarkable feature, which cannot fail to strike
every observer ; in traversing most parts of the island, we meet with ranges und groups of
bold mountainous and hilly tracts, in some degree isolated, while tho interval between thorn
is generally occupied by a surface that appears nearly level, when viewed on the great scale,
but which is found, on a nearer view, to present a gently waved outline: a considerable
expansion of the plain occupies tho central counties of Ireland, and extends across the island
from Ilnblin Bay on the east, to fJalway Bay on tho we.»t; and in general, where a similar
plain surflice occurs, the immediately subjacent rock is mountain limestone; to the abuiid
ance of which mineral, next to tho mild temperature and general moisture of the climate,
tho soil of Ireland is prokilily more indebted ibr its superior fertility than to any other cause

In this di.-trict niounl liiiuiis am! hilly tracts arise alwve the surface of the limestone plain
on the east, tlic siuitli, the west, the centre, ami the north. The eastern chain extends from

37*

I in

438

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt ni.

the north side of Dublin Bay to tlio coiifliinnco of lliu Hiirrow with tho Smro on the bouUi.
The hiffhcst point i8 Lu|;imiiuiliii, which ia :M)70 t'uct iilmvo low-wutor-niurk in Dublin iky.
It cunHibtM alnioHt wholly (if priniitivn anil trunsition rucks, of which tho following 8|)cciox
occur; grunito, mica slatp, quurtz rock, clay »lato, greywiickc, trap nnil porphyry. iMetulli-
ferous mincralH arc wanting on tho west nIiIo of tho jrri.nito chain, but utxMniu on the caul
Hide. In tho irranilo and mica «lato diHtricta there are voinx of galona or load t^lancu ; of
thoHC tho niout considerable aro in Glunnialur; in thn clay ulute tract eleven dillerunt
metallic oubHtanccs have been met with, via. gold, nilver, copper, iron, load, zinc, tin, tunj^-
8ten, nmnganoHe, arsenic, and antimony.

N'ltive gold occura in the Ballinvalley utrcams at Croghan Kinahcla : and in 1801, regular
mining was comtncnced, but did not load to any im|MrtAnt rounltii; and after a time the working
was given up. Tho gold of Croghan Kinshela occurred in grains and maBiies from the smallest
size to lumpo of considerable weight; onn piece weighed twenty-two ounces. The gold wan
found in alluvium, accompanied with other metallic substances, as magnetic iron ore, iron
glance, rod iron ore, brown iron ore, iron pyrites, tiimtone, wolfram, gray manganese ore, and
fragments of quartz and chlorite. In some specimens the gold was observed ramified in slen-
der threads through the wolfram, and in others incorporated with iron ochre : some of the gold
was crystallized in octahedrons, and also in the elongated garnet doducahedral form. Native
gold was also found in Croghan Moira mine, about seven miles distant from the former
mountain, but in small quantity.

The copper mines of Cronbano and Tigrony, in this district, arc situated in clay slate and
ijuartzose cluy slate. The ores, which are copper pyrites and black copper ore, aro asso-
ciated witli iron pyrites, and rarely with galena ; and auriferous silver occurs in beds in the
slaty strata. In the twelve years ending in 1811, the produce of the mines was 10,!)42tona
13 cwt. of ore ; yielding 1040 tons 10 cwt. of copp<:r. Tho mineral waters flowing from
the mines are impregnated with blue vitriol or sulphate of copper. These waters are re-
ceived into tanks, in which the muddy particles are allowed to subside. The clear waters
are then passed into pits filled with plate and scrap iron, which occasions a precipitation of
the copper.

The other tracts of this district are composed of secondary rocks, more or less deeply
covered with diluvial and alluvial deposits. The secondary rocks are old red sandstone,
7nountain limestone, (or as it u called in Ireland, Irish limestone,) and the coal formation.
Of these formations the mountain limestone is by far the most abundant ; indeed, with the
exception of the counties of Derry and Antrim in the north, and Wicklow in the east, there
is no county in the iuland in which it docs not prevail moro or less. The coal formation
occurs in the Leituter coal district. The sandstone, slate, ironstone, clu y, and coal, which
constitute the series, alternate with each other, and the whole rests on the niountain lime-
stone, and is frequently disposed in the basin shape. Tho coal of this district is glance coal,
the blind coal of miners, the anthracite of French geologists, the Kilkenny coal of some
authors (so named because the town of Kilkenny is situated in this coalfield).

The most interesting alluvial phenomena are those exhibited by t! o limestone gravel, the
granite blocks, and the vast peat bogs. The great limestone field abounds in hillocks and ridges
of limestone gravel. Sometimes these ridges appear like regular mounds, the work of art,
forming a continued line of several miles in extent. That which piisse.a by Maryborough,
in the Queen's County, is a remarkable instance of this kind ; and similar mounds, hilloclts,
and ridgey occur also in the counties of Meatli, Westmeath, Kildare, Carlow, and other por-
tions of the limestone field, in which the limestone gravel and sand frequently exhibit a
stratified arrangement, the alternate beds being very distinct from each other. The in-
equality of surrace thus produced, seems to have occasioned the formation of those extensive
tracts of peat bog which cover so considerable a portion of the limestone plain of Ireland.*
The natural course of springs and streams being obstructed, stagnant lakes and pools of
water were formed ; thus promoting the growth of those aquatic reeds, grasses, and rushes,
which, by their constant increase and decay, appear to compose the mass of the bogs of Ire-
lajid. In this manner it is conceivable that shallow lakes may in process of time have
iKJcome entirely filled with peat ; and that peat bogs may thus have gradually acquired a
convexity of surface, or at least that greater declivity by which their borders are dis-
tinguished, Tho average depth of these bogs is commonly from sixteen to twenty-five feet,
but the extreme depth observed is forty-seven feet. In the same manner we may conceive
the graflual growth of peat bog to have successively exti.'nded from the higher regions to
the flunks, and thence to the feet, of mountains. That fallen forests were not the primary
origin of these pent liogs .seems evident from the circumstance that two and even three suc-
cessive ;[jrowtlis of trees liave boon observed nt different depths in a section of the same bog.
In these instances, the trees lie liorizuntally, frequently crossing each other, and either
attached to their roots or broken over ; and in th"3 latter case the stumps usually stand erect
where they grew. The prostration of trees, however, may to a certom extent have acted

*l'eat ii eatimaliiU In extend over n tenth of the whole island.

Book I.

IRELAND

489

an an auxilinry in promoting tUo growth ot'iioat hogn; and tliw prostmtion appears in ffcnoral
tn have tal<L>n pliicu uitlior tVuin natural ducny, or I'roin tTw» |)U!<M!tiMing littlu liold or a wrt
spongy soil iiuvinj^ been ovcrlurncd by Mtornm. Tliia mtiy pnrlly account for treen of all aj{pH
bcinir fuunil in tho bogH of Ireland, wiiethor tlicac bt>|rii bo Hituiited in uluinH, or Ibrin ttio ini-
inedlatu cover of hi^rli mountain IractH, 'I'ho univerHal dtntruction ot the forcstii of Ireland
ia principally to bo attributed to the (reneral introduction of iron furnaces, at* tho most profit-
able mo<lo of conHuniinft the timber, then a. material OBtoeinod of little value; and hence the
almost total ;io(r|oct of co|Min^ those tructx in which the woodn had boon felled. Tho marl
beds, Ru frequently mot with in those peat bogs, are curious in a zoological view, fVom their
occasionally containing remains of that splendid animal tho fossil elk. But tho rnmains of
the extinct s|)ecie8 occur also in the travel; and tho late Mr. Edge worth observed the re-
mains of tho red deer in the siime marl as that which contained the extinct species.

(4.) South of Ireland. Under this division wo comprise tlie counties of Cork, Kerry,
Clare, Watertbrd, Tipperary, and part of Gulway.

This mountainous, hilly, and uiversitied region is chiefly composed of chains having
generally a direction from east to west, and attaining their greatest elevation in tho moun-
tains of Kerry, where Gurrane Tual, ono of Macgillicuddy's Ilceks, near Killarney (tho
highest land in Ireland), is 8410 feet above the sea. The rocks in this elevuti:d county are
chiefly of tho transition class: they docline gradually (Mivards tho north, and filially pass
under tho old red sandstone and mountain limestone of the midland counties. Tho follow-
ing may be considered a general estimate of the gcognostical relations of the south of
Ireland : —

Trantition rocks. In Kerry, tho transition strata range from east to west, and dip to the
north and south, with vertical beds in the axes of the ranges: the strata, as they diminish
in inclination on each side, form a succession of troughs. The rocks are chiefly Neptunian,
tho Plutonian being comparatively rare. Tho Neptunian are oithor simple or compound ;
the simple are day »late, quurlz rock, hornatone, Lydian stone, and limestone: the com-
pound are, grcywacke, grcywncke slate, sandstone. The Plutonian rocks are greenstone
and porphyry. Organic remains occur in tho limestone, slate, and greywackc, but mori-
frequently and abundantly in t!ie limestone than in the other rocks. In Kenmaro these
fossils consist of a few bivalves, and some crinoidal remains; and these also are most
numerous in the Mucruss and Killarney limestones. At tiie foot of tho Slicvemeesh range
this limestone includes at>uphua caudatus, calamine macrophtlmlma, with orthoceratites,
ellipsolites ovatus, ammonites, euomphalites, tiirbinitrs, nci'itite.s, melanitcs, and several
species of tcrebratula, spirifcr, and producta. Neor Smerwick horbour similar organic re-
mains arc abundant in slate and grcywacke, together with hyslorolites, and many genera of
polyparia.

7Vo«s»/ton coal. All the coal of the province of Muiister, except that of the county of
Clare, is referable to the transition class. At Knockasurtnet, near Killarney, and on the
north of Traloe, there are three beds of glance coal, alternating with strata of grcywacke
and slate. In tho county of Cork tliis glance coal i.s more abundant, particularly near
Kanturk, extending from the north of tiie Blackwater to the Allord. The ravines of the
latter river, and various other defiles, expose clay slate, grcywacke, talc, and sondatone, in
nearly vertical strata ranging from west to east. This transition tract extends to the river
Shannon on the north-west. As the strata range from west to east, in a series of parallel
narrow troughs, they exhiuit great variety of inclination, dipping rapidly either to the north
or south, and becoming horizontal between the ridges. The glance coal is raised insuflicient
quantities for the purpose of burning the limestone of the adjacent districts.

The coal and the strata with which it is accompanied abound with impressions of equi-
setm and calamitos, and afford some traces of fucoides. Bods of glance coal also occur in the
county of Limerick, on the left bank of tiie Shannon, north of Abbeyfeale, and at Longhill ;
and on the right bank of the river at Labbosheoda. The transition rocks of Kerry and Lime-
rick extend into Cork and Waterford.

Mines. Copper mines occur in limestone in Ross Island in tho lake of Killarney. In the
county of Cork, tliuro arc copper mines at AUihier, Audley, and Ballydchol ; and others,
producing lead, at Doneen and Rinabelly. The mine at Allihies is one of the richest mines
in Ireland ; it was discovered in 1812, and yields more than 2000 tons of copper ore annually.
The ore occurs in a large quartz vein, which generally intersects the slaty rocks of tho
country from north to south, but in some pln'-os runs parallel to the strata. It is remarked
that all this portion of the county of Cork indicates a very general difl'usion of cupreous par-
ticles, so much so that in tho ycnr 1812, thrro oxistod a cupriferous peat-bog on the cast side
of Giandore harbour, forty or lilfy tons of tlie driod peat producing when burnt one ton of
ashes, containing troin leu to filteeu per cL'iit. of copper. Tiie lead-mines of Doiiofn and
Rinabelly are in tilate.

Coal fnrintilion of Cliirr. The transition clay slate of tiiis county is bordered by a zone
of old red sandstone, to which succnods, in ascemling order and conformable position, the
mountain limestone and coal formation, both of which occupy flat and undulating hills, and

DKSCUIITIVK (;K(KJRAI'HY.

Paht III.

kho Rtnta MP nearW horixontul, Tin? licnt wctiDim nrc hti-n in tlin cliff" nn tlip wi-xt coonJ,
where bituiiiiiioud Hltalc,sluto cIay,Niiiu|iitiiiii>, nml mirnlHtoiii' (\,\g, rent u|Kin liniciitoiii'. (\ml,
howovcr, is of rare occurrence, iind when I'tuinii, ix of iiidirtl'ri'nt (|nniity.

Ai in ovory othor part of Ircliind, tlit> dlHtrict alKiiindri witli nlliiviiil df|Hi!4itH. In ri'ifnrd
to tho dwtributiunof thooldrrof tlit'xn, or tli(Mliliivinni in the miutli of Iri'ltiiid, it I'l ii'iniirki'd,
—1. TliMt bouldcfM, {;ravrl, and Mund, di-rivrd tVoin t!ic> truii^ition rcwkN, iirr di^'triliiilc'd nlonv
tho Umlcru and HidcH of till) inoiintuinM in Kerry, 'i. In ii xiniill dlHtrict of Lujicrick iinu
Tinporary, nituatcd between tlin GiiulteeM und Slii-vn-nn-nmck. tint rolii'd nioHKi-H i nni^iHt nut
only of portionn of contiiriitHifi rooko, but coiitiiin uIho porplivry, wliich in not 1o In' found in
kUh near tlio vicinity oA'ttlliH Hill. 8. In the peniiiHulii ot'Nonvillc, nearCmlwiiy, the unr-
fiico of tho mountain limoHtono in utrowed over witli riiirnorouH iHiulilerii of red lunl (jriy

Sranito, lyenite, grconotouc, nnd Hiindittonr, wliich numt iip|Kiruntly Imvo boon conveyed trum
ic opposito side of tho bay of Galwny.

Sbct. III. — Hitlorical Geography,

The earliest inhabitants of Ireland, ftora wliich the native race now cxiiitini^ Iium Kprunjf,
appear, by tlie lanfi^uago fitill spoken, to have beun (.'idtic. Tho Konian«, in occupying
Britain, coidd not fail to acquire much informiition relative fc> lerne, Ilibernia, or Ireland ;
and accordinjtiy wo find that tiio niiip of that country by I'toloniy is lend defective than tho
one which lin (jives of Scotland. About the fourth century, we find Iroliind hrnriiiK tho
name of Scotliind, from the leading; pt'oplo on its eantern HJiore, who afterwardn iMindinjj into
Arpyle, and making thuinselveM miiKtcrti of all ('aledonia, coininiiniruted to it the iiaino of
Scotland, finally withdrawn from the country to which it ori{(inally belonged.

The Danes, during tho height of their power, from the ninth to the twelfth centuries,
poflsesscd almost the whole caHtern coast of Ireland, making Dublin their capital, Before
tliis time Ireland had been converted to Christianity, ond a number of celebrated nionastpriea
had l)een founded, tho tenants of which wore ilixtinguislied, c.von over Europe, for their piety
and learning,

The Knglish sway commenced in 1170. Richard Sirongbow, earl of Pembroke, os a nri*
vato individual, formed the first settlement; but Henry II. soon a.<<8iimed tho title of " lonl of
Ireland." The range of dominion was long restrirted to a jwrtion of the kingdom enclosed
within what is called the English pale, without which the Irish remained still under the rule
of their native chieftains. Henry VIII. asHumed the title of" king of Ireland," but without
any material extension of his authority over that kingdom.

The Irish massacre wii.s a droadfiil outrage, to which attachment tn popery nnd zeal fot
national independence united in impelling a proud and fierre people. Forty thousand
English settlers are stiii)x»sed to liiivo perished, und the rest were driven into Dublin.
Cromwell, however, nflerwardH cros.9ed the Channel, nnd made cruel reprisuls ; he t(X)k tho
principal (ortificd towns, and reduced Ireland under more full subjection than ever. Yet
the dispoHition of tho people reniaine<l the same; and when James II. was driven from tho
English throne, he was received with enthusiasm in Ireland, und became for some time its
master. The Imttle of the Boyne, followe<l next year by that of Aughrim, decided tho fate
of the empire, and more especially of Ireland, which then felt for the first time the miseries
of a conquered country. The estates of many principal native proprietors were confiscated ;
tho Catholics were deprived of all political privileges; they were rendered incapable of
holding any oflicc or einployiiient in tho state ; th(!y were debarred even from holding land,
from devising property, and from exercising other important functions of civil society. Under
these severities they pertinaciously retained their political attachments together with their
religious creed ; und a continual ferment prevailed, which broke out fVom time to time into
partial rebellions.

Tho gradual emancipation of Ireland commenced at tho period of the Amerienn w:ir. Till
that era England had denied to her the right of trading directly with any foreign nation ; and
had compelled her to extxjrt and import every commodity through the channel of (Ireat
Britain. The extremity, however, to which Britain was reduced enabled the Irish to place
themselves in a formidable attitude; and by forming armed associations, and .ndopting other
threatening measures, they induced iKirliament to grant them free trade with all nations,
From this time also the most obnoxious of the restri''tions on tho Catholics were gradually
repealed or fell into disuse; and beforo the end of last century, they had obtained almost
every political privilege, except that of sitting in parliament, and of holding the very highest
offices of state. The propriety of conce<ling these also became one of tho lending (piestiona
which long divided the public mind.

A very formidable rebellion broke forth in spite of these concessions. The French
revolution, which caiiserl a general ferment in Europe, was intensely felt Diroughonl
Ireland. A .Micicty was forinerl of " United Irishmen ;" and secret meetings were held,
having in view the entire sepimtinii from Rnghind, and tiie formation of the kiiiL'ilom into
nn independent republic. The vifrilimce of guvernnient, nnd the failure of t!ie FrencJi ir
their attempts to land a force of any luagnituile, prevented matters from coming to the las*

Part III.

ne»t cooat,
otii>. Coal)

In rijrnrd
riMiiiirki'd,
iiili'il alixiu
iicrifk 1111(1
) l>n^•iHt. not
lie lotinil in
iiv, llio Mir-
I'aiid Kfny
iveyctl nrom

has spnmg,
1 occiipyins
or Ireland ;
ive tliiin the
l)Piirin({ the
piiHsint; into
lio nanm of

h cpnturiM,
iuil. Before
I niomiHteries
)t thoir piety

)ke, an a pri-
leof'Monlof
ioni rnclogcil
indrr the rule
' but without

I and zenl foi

Irty flmuwnd
" to llublin.
he l<xik the
over. Yet
pu from tlio

:oiiic time its
the fate
the miseries
roiifiHcated ;
■iipable of

holdinp land,
iety. Under

or with their
to time into

nwnr. Till

nnfion ; and

iiel of ttreat

rish to place

optinir other

nil nations.

ro frrndimlly

nini'd almost

very hifihest

njT (piestions

The French

throiijriionl

were held,

kiiiiidom into

K" T'rcndi in

T to tlio las*

Rook I.

IRKIJVND.

441

pxtreutity liil 1*!H, when n violent inmirrnction iirrae in four of the coiintiei* ncaroit
Dublin. Till' rrln'U, tli<iii;;li xo'iloux aiiil lirave, bnini; without di'WMpline, wri! niutu«l in
yui'ceMMive eni'iitinterH with niiii'li interior boilieM of rc|{uhir>4 and inilitiit ; and iH'injf uiiiiii|r
iMirtoil liy Kreiii'h iiid were completely put down in n few iriontliH. The exiiH|M'ration.
however, prndiici'd by thi< trai^leal eveiitH ot' thiit Nliort peritNl coiituuied \ou\i U> rankle in
the niiiiiU of tho In 'li, and to n^^^ravate llio t'vlU under which ihey labimri'd. To Huolhe
tliiH irritation, another nx|)edleut wiim employed, which niateriiilly ulVected the Hitiiation of
Irolnnd.

The ililllcull ond reluctant union t\f the tieo kiuffdumt wbh eftected in 1H(H) by Mr. PitL
Ireland ;;iiineil tiiiiH cormiderablo coinmerciul advantotreM; and, tVoni the example of Hcot-
land, it waN hoped that a i;railunl tran()uillity woiihl be the n'Hult. Thix ex[)cctation haa nut
yot been fulfilled. The |)<>nwintry of tho aonth, inflamed bv national jealoUMy, by ndigioua
animosity, and by tho nevori' privationH under which they labour, have continued, if not in
open relM>llion, at Icaxt in a wtate of turbulence conbtantly tending; towardti it; and their dia-
contenta have lieen increawid by tho indiHcreet zeal of the I'rotcMtunt party.

Tho hill for ("utholic emancipation, ho unexpectedly introduced, in IBVM, by the Duke of
Wolliuffton, and carried atler niicIi a violent ferment of |iartie8, haa made a remarkable
chanffe in the (xditical conNtitution of Ireland. The political diimbilitica under which the
(-atholic!* had hitherto lalxiured havo been finally removed. They are n^'ue admitwible to
the liif/heMt officeM of dtate, with the exception of that of lord chancolh ; an •■xcluaion
decided upon, not no much on account of tho dif^iity of that office, at) tho f ...onHivi church
patrunn);e attached to it. Roman Catholica are alw made adnii»Biblc to ui in boti' houaca
of parliament, and to every other political privile(;o enjoyod by their fellow countrymen.

Sbot. IV. — Polilical Geography.

Tho political evils under which Ireland labouni will anfflciently appear iVont lie forcgoi'>;
aurvey of her history. Frotii tho earliest times aho has been in the .situation ot a conqucrixi
countryi without ever becoming reconciled to the yoke, or ossiniiloted to the ruling nation.
VVithfn tho last two centuries. Tier devoted adherence to a relijfion which hail been renounced
by her rulers, has had a must fatal tendency, which we may however hope to sou much miti-
j^atcd by the hoalinfr mea«ureH that havo now been uiloplcd. In cuiitjcquence, ulso ■.''
repeated scenes of reixsllioii and forfeiture, by much the greater part of tho lands are i.' Vi*-
possession of English and Protestant proprietors, who, liavin<r no natural influence ovc Ihu
occupiers of their estates, hold thoir place only by the hated tenure of dominion a' d iaw,
BeinfT connected with the country by no natural ties, and attracted by the superior brilliancy
of tho Euirlish and French capitals, most of them uuit Ireland, and become haijitual alininlcm.
When the Scottish Highlanders arrayed tliemselves against the government, they acicil
under tlie influence of a few leading chiefs, whoso interests and passions aflbrded a lever liy
which the people could bo moved. But the Irish people, deprived of any such guidance,
chose their leaders from among themselves, f>r from those who courted their favour by ('•«:-
tcring all their national propensities. Hecret associations, party budges, mystericms nani' ii,
have exerted an influence over their minds, the extent and nature ot which it is impossible
to calculate.

Ireland, like Scotland, has been united to England ; yet it retains aomcwhat more of the
aspect of a separate kingdom. A lord lieutenant still displays a portion of the state and
exercises some of the flmctions of royalty. He has not only a household establishment, but
a chancellor, a secretary, and other ministers of state. The courts of justice, and the dif-
ferent orders of magistracy, are nearly on the same footing as in England; yet they have
not tho reputation of exercising their functions with quite tho same digiity and impartiality.
The violence of party spirit acta upon judges, and still more upon juriei, ; .1 in the country,
the absence of great proprietors, and tho want of any middling clash •• '• r it difficult to
find materials for n. respectable and efl'ective magistracy. Ireland sent to the Imperial par-
liament KK) members of tho House of Commons, of whom 36 were for cities and boroughs,
and 64 for counties, which latter sent two members each. The Inrge proportion of this
latter class was expected to render tho representation more resp^^-'.ible; but, unfortunately,
the low qualification required, amounting only to 40»., enabled 'iv; .cfreat proprietors to split
votes among their numerous little tenantry to such an oxten* ;. almost to produce universal
auffrage. The very system of letting farms on leases ivi Lves, which confers tho right of
voting, extended that right to almost every tenant. This could scarcely be suid to confer
tho real right of suflrage, as tho dependence of the tenants was almost always such as to
enable the landlord to dictate their vote ; tlior.;^'.! in late elections, the influence of the priests
was in several counties successfully exerted. To remedy these evils, the same act which
removed the disabilities of the Catholics, raised the qualification of freeholders in Ireland
from 40s. to 10/. a year, and thus reduced them to less than a third of their former number.
Many also of tho principal boroughs, as Belfast, Wexford, Cashel, Sligo, Dundalk, Ennia-
killen, were entirely close, the members being chosen by twelve self-olnctcd burgesses;
while, in others, tho whole ground on which a borough stood belonged to the nearest great

Vofc, I. 3 F

ill

« \\

W^'

442

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

proprietor. The consequence was, that an oligarchy, formed by the possessors of those vast
properties into which the greater part of Ireland is divided, held an almost unlimited sway
over the country. Previous to the union, the influence of the three houses of Beresford,
Ponsonby, and Foster was such, that the aid of one, and, if possible, two of them, was neces-
sary for carrying on the measures of government. That influence, however, lias been on
the decline, and there is no prospect of its renewal.

The Reform Bill gave to Ireland only five additional members, and it made no material
change in the returning boroughs ; but, by placing the election in the hands of all house-
holders paying 10/. annually, it rendered those nominations )pen which had formerly been
made by the small number of individuals composing tlie corporation.

The naval and military force of the empire in general defends Ireland. There is a com-
mander of the forces resident in Dublin ; acting, however, under the orders, not of the lord
lieutenant, but of the British commander-in-chief. The number of regular troops stationed
at different points is always considerable.

The revenue levied in Ireland has never borne the same proportion to her natural resources
as that of England. The rates in all the principal articles of consumption have been lower.
The tax on heartiis, however, was found very oppressive ; as it required inquisitorial visits,
and aflftcted the lowest of the people. This and all the other assessed taxes were so irregu-
larly levied, that, notwithstanding the discontent excited by them, they did little more than
cover the expenses of collection. For this reason, by a motion of the chancellor of the
exchequer, tliey were entirely remitted. In 1800 the revenue was 2,684,000i. and the debt
25,662,0002. At the union, the stipulation was made that Ireland should pay two-seventeenths
of the whole expenditure of the empire ; this arrangement has led to a continual increase
both of debt and revenue. In 1811 the former amounted to 77,382,000/., and tlie latter to
3,906,900/. In 1830 the revenue was 3,548,822/., and in 1835 it amounted to 4,400,953/.
The particulars for the latter year were : —

Custonn X1,?44,7C4 I Stampa £470,286

Exciae I,{)fiC,531 | Postage, &c 3111,373

The public expenditure in 1830 was as follows : —

Charers of fuiidccl debt £1,178,454

Civil list, &r 584,909

Army X9f!6,509

Miscelluneous 747,U89

The national debt of Ireland in 1817, when it ceased to form a separate item in the public
accounts in consequence of the consolidation of the British and Irish exchequers, was
134,602,769/.

For local and patriotic objects in Ireland, very considerable sums are allowed out of the
public revenue. Of these, for the year 1832, there appear the following : —

Schools and Rilucation X30,000

Proti'siant Ohnrity School! 3,000

FoundkiiiK Hospital 38,314

Four oilier Hospitals ]0,(MS

House of Industry 21,193

Eichmond Liinaiic Asylum 1,388

Hibernian Marine Society 9S0

Female Orphan House X],833

Boman Catholic College 8,938

Itnyal Dublin Society S,30O

BelfaKt Academical Institution I,SOO

Noncoiiforuiing and otiier Ministers 24,334

Public Works 33,564

Dunmore Harbour 7,500

Sect. V. — Productive Industry.

Ireland, in this respect, has long presented a painful spectacle ; a great proportion of her
people being involved in extreme and squalid poverty. The Irish do not want enterprise, or
even industry ; but various causes have combined to degrade them in the scale of improve-
ment. Among these the conduct lonjf held by Britain must be considered as prominent ;
thus, after other expedients had proved inefl^ectual, it was prohibited to export woollens to
foreign countries. Similar measures were taken with regard to glass, hops, and every
branch in respect to which any rivalry was apprehended. There was one article, however,
the production of a large surplus of which could by no means be avoided. This was black
cattle and sheep ; but the value of these was effectually cut down by the prohibition to
import tliem into England, the only accessible market. Under these regulations, all the
exertions of Ireland to better her condition were cramped, and while Britain was making
the most rapid advances, Ireland continued in the same state of depression. However, in
consequence of her spirited efforts at the end of the American war, and of the embarrass-
ments of the British government, the most odious and pernicious of these restrictions were
repealed. Further advantages were obtained at the time of the Union ; and at present,
every exertion is making to place the two countries in a state of perfect recipnxjity. The
consequence has been, that in the course of forty years, Ireland has made a rapid progress
in industry and commerce ; yet some of her greatest evils are so deeply seated, that they
have scaii aly yet begun to give way to th(^ influence of a more auspicious system.

Agricu.tiiro has been long in a backward and very depressed state. The farms were, for
the most part, srniill, managed by the farmer himself and his family, destitute of capital,
with wrnteiied ini))Iements, and with a pertinacious udheriMico to all the olisoleto practices
of a rude age. The best soils exhausted a great portion of their strength in throwing up
weeds, which no effective measures were *aken to extirpate. The system also of infield and

Book I.

IRELAND.

449

they

; and

outfield was strictly adhered to, the ground being heovily cropped a? long as it would yield
any thing, and afterwards of necessity allowed two or three years to recruit. Although
these detects still exist to a considerable extent, yet in all parts of the country, but particu-
larly in the east and north, improved practices and implements are beginning to be intro-
duced.

The Irish tenures arc long, some of them perpetual, in which ca.se they may be considered
as property, the rent being a mere trifle; a lease of thirty-one years and three lives is very
common. These long leases are attended with scar ely any of the benefits which might
be naturally expected. As the fanner commences usually without any capital, trusting for
the payment of the first year's rent to the produce of his fiirm, he almost alwayb falls more
or less uito arrear, and thus lies at the mercy of his landlord. This would be less pernicious,
were it the landlord himself with whom he had to deal; but the landlords of Ireland, hold-
ing usually properties of immense extent, and being mostly resident out of the country,
cannot or will not undertake the task of dealing with this impoverished multitude of small
tenants. They devolve it upon the intermediate agents and middlemen. The latter, a class
peculiar to Ireland, take a large extont of ground, which they let out in small portions to
the real cultivator. They grant leases, indeed ; but as the tenant, from the circumstances
above mentioned, soon comes under their power, they and the agents treat him with the
greatest harshness, exact personal services, presents, bribes; and draw from the land as
much as they possibly can, without the least regard to its permanent welfare. This system,
while it crushes the tenant, is not less injurious to the landlord, into whose cofl'ers there
oflen passes less than one-half of the sum paid by the tenant. The only use to which the
latter turns his long lease is to divide and subdivide the lands among his children, till the
share of each affords only the most miserable aliment, and an overgrown population is fixed
upon the farm. An attempt to let land on a different fboting can only be eflTected by the
ejection of more than half its existing occupants, who in that case are apt to fly to violent
and revengeful courses, so that even a partial endeavour to introduce such improvements
has been a main cause of the existing disturbed state. Another injurious mode is that of part-
nership leases, in which a number of persons take a fann jointly, and make it a sort of common
property. Each is allowed to put upon it a certain number of collops ; the collop consisting
of one horse, two cows, or twelve goats. A degrading stipulation is oflen introduced into
leases, by which the occupant is bound to work for his landlord either without wages, or at
a rate lower than ordinary.

Tithe is one of the evils of which the Irish cultivator most grievously complains. Al-
though it must in all ca.ses fall ultimately on the landlord, yet to take from the cabin of the
peasant the pig which he has reared, or the handful of potatoes which he has raised for the
support of his family, is an act peculiarly discouraging and irritating. The exemption of
grass lands tends also to discourage tillage. Measures taken by parliament to promote the
commutation of tithes, have been attended with considerable success; and by a late act
arrangements are made by which the church rates, instead of being taken out of the fanner's
produce, are paid by the landlord out of his rent.

The extent of country, and the objects of culture in Ireland, vary considerably from those
of the sister kingdom. Its superficial extent is computed at 12,000,000 Irish, or 19,278,760
Englisli acres. Of this, notwithstanding the considerable amount to be deducted for moun-
tain, lakes, and bogs, Mr. Young calculates that there is a greater proportion of productive
land than in England. The soil of Ireland is shallow, consisting most generally of a thin
sprinkling of earth over a rocky ground ; but the copious moisture wafled from the sea,
by which it is everywhere surrounded, produces a quick and rapid vegetation, and in par-
ticular a brilliancy of verdure, not equalled perhaps in any other region of Europe. Such
a country is of course highly favourable to pasturage ; and as this pursuit is suited to the im-
perfect stages of culture, the rearing of live stock has been \on^ the main staple of Irish
husbandry. Ita luxuriant plains are depastured by vast herds of olack cattle ; and from this
source is derived the very large quantity of salted provisions shipped from the southern
ports. The number of oxen and cows annually killed for this purpose was reckoned at
18,000. This trade has considerably decreased since tlie peace ; but the export "f live
cattle is extensively carried on. Great facilities have been lately aflibrded for it by the
steam packets. The dairy is also a great branch of industry in Ireland. None of its
cheeses, indeed, have acquired a reputation ; but butter of excellent quality is made and
largely exported. Another species of live stock is an essential article to tlie economy of an
Irish cultivator. The pig usually shares his cabin, and is fed, like himself, on potatoes. It
is t(X) grp!it a luxury to be killed for his own consumption ; but is sold and driven to the ports
to be suited for exportation. Sheep arc bred extensively on the mountain tracts, which are
unfit for rearing any other stock. In many places they are bred for the wool and milk. In
this lust respect, however, goats are more i)roductivo ; and they are reared in immense (juan
titles in the mountain districts in the north. The Irish horses are small, hardy, and capable
of doing nmch work upon little food. Poultry are fed in great numbers in and around all the
cabins, the interior of which they are admitted to share; a practice extremely favourable to

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IU.

tlieir increase. Great quantities of gcesc arc kept for the sake of the feathers, wliich are
cruelly plucked from the animals alive. The produce of grain is also large, notwithstanding
the imperfect processes employed in cultivating it. Wheat and barley were little raised till
of late, when both the culture and export of the former have been greatly extended. Still
the main objects are oats and potatoes ; the former as the subject of a large expoi\, the
latter as the staple food of a considerable body of the people. The Irish boast of the potatoe,
as if it were nowhere else produced in equal perfection. Compared with grain of any kind,
it certainly atforda the means of supporting a greater population upon a given extent of
ground. The scope, however, which it affords for the multiplication of the people in miser-
able circumstances, is generally considered by the political economists aa one of the causes
of the present distress in Ireland. Flax is also a valuable product of Irish husbandry, affi)rd-
ing the material of the linen manufacture. According to a return made to the trustees in
1809, the extent sown was 76,749 acres; in addition to which, the various little scattered
patches raise the number probably to about 100,000 acres, supposed to produce at an average
about 30 stones per acre ; which, at 10«. 6tl. per stone, would make the entire value about
1,500,0001.

There is a want of trees in Ireland. The immense forests which some centuries age
covered a great proportion of its surface, have fallen and been converted in a great measure
into moss or bog. The bogs of Ireland present an extensive obstacle to cultivation, They
are estimated by the parliamentary commissioners at 2,330,000 English acres. From them,
indeed, fuel is supplied to many districts, yet the draining of a large portion would be cer-
tainly desirable; and the commissioners seem to think that, from their generally elevated
position, this might be done with great facility and advantage. The great quantity of water
beneatli these bogs causes often a singular phenomenon, that of moving bogs. Bursting the
sur&ce, tlie bog inundates the surrounding lands, spreading desolation and barrenness
through its whole course, which in one instance extended no less than twenty miles.

In respect to manufactures, the state of Ireland cannot be described as flourishing ; a mia-
fortune for which she may accuse the oppressive policy of England. One species of fabric,
however, she has been allowed and even encouraged to cultivate, and it has attained to a
very considerable magnitude.

The linen manufacture was first introduced by the Earl of Strafford, who brought flax-
seed from Holland, and workmen from France and the Netherlands. His attainder, and the
subsequent troubles, suspended the undertaking ; but it was revived by the Duke of Ormond,
who established near Dublin a colony from Brussels, Jersey, and Rochelle, and gave lands
on advantageous terms to those willing to embark in the business. After the Revolution,
the English parliament created a board tor .ne promotion of the linen manufacture, and
grante<l bounties both on the raising of flax and the export of linen. These exertions met
with great success ; and the manufacture has become general throughout Ireland, and par-
ticularly in Ulster. The following, according to a late parliamentary report, was the
reputed value of brown or unbleached linens sold in the markets of Ireland in the year
1824:—

Ulster £2,109,309

Leinster 192,888

Mnnster 110,421

Connaught 168,090

Total £2,580,708

The mode of conducting this manufacture is, however, in several respects, very rude and
imperfect. It is generally practised by individuals holding little spots of ground, the culture
of which they combine with that of weaving. The same person, or at least the same family,
in many cases raises the flax, dri -ses it, spins it into yarn, and weaves it into cloth. There
is too much anxiety to obtain the greatest possible quantity of yarn out of a given quantity
of flax, without regard to the quality ; and the sorting of the yam, so that it may be of an
uniform texture, suited to the kind of linen intended to be woven, is almost wholly neglected.
Ir some instances, however, it is worked to a most extraordinary degree of fineness. Anne
M'Quillin, in the county of Down, could spin 105 hanks to the pound, which would reach
214 English miles. Exertions have lately been made to intro<luce mill-spinning, which, it
is supposed, would generally improve the quality of yarn, though it could not produce it of
such extreme fineness as some of that spun by the hand. Twenty years ago the mill could
not produce above fifteen cuts to a pound ; now it can make nearly fifty.

The export of linen from Ireland, in the year 18'J4, amounted in all to 49.491,037 yards,
of which 46,466,950 were to Great Britain ; and 3,024,087 to foreign parts. The real value
of the whole was 2,412,f*58i. Of that sent to Great Britain, 31,314..5;};? yards were retained
for home consumption ; the rcLt were re-r'.viwrtod to the same quarters us Scotch linen. This
great inannfiicture is chiefly supported by its own g'rowth of flax. Ireland, iiowever, im-
ports 25,000 tons of homp from abroad, and tWOO from Britain ; also about 7500 tons &'
linen yarn; of all \,'hich materials the value fulls .short of 45,000/.

,^*S*

Book I.

IRFLANI.

445

ude and
culture
family,

There
luantity

of an
lee ted.

Anne

reach
liich, it
ce it of

could

yardfj,
1 valuo
ptained
Thid

r, im-
ons ut'

Distillation ia another branch of industry characteristic of Ireland, but by no means
attended with the same happy effects. It has hitherto been carried on chiefly in detiuiicc
of the revenue and government, and bus given birth to a vast system of contraband, equally
destructive of morals and of public order. All the mountains, boffs, and deep valleys of the
north and west abound with illicit stills, in spots where the most diligent search can scarcely
discover them ; and where detected, they can scarcely be seized without the aid of an
armed force. When the troops are seen advancing, concerted Bignuls are made, and the
small light stills are soon conveyed to a distant quarter. The farmers and proprietors en-
courage illicit distillation as the most ready mode of oiTording a market for their grain. The
quality of tlie spirit was long much superior to that produced by the legal distillers, owing
to rcsti'ii'tions imposed on the latter ; so that, in selling, it was considered the highest re-
commendation tliat it " never paid duty." The most rigorous laws were enacted in vain, for
they only rendered the people concerned in this practice more desperate and determined.
Of late, liowever, the duty, as in Scotland, has been reduced and free exportation permitted.

The ellect has been remarkable; the quantity of spirits paying duty, which from 1818 to
1822 varied from 3,000,0(H) to 4,000,000, rose in 1824 to 7,800,000, and in 1832 to 8,0.57,000 ;
thus warranting a presumption, that the contraband fabrication of this article has been
greatly diminished.

The killing and salting of beef and pork for sale forms a great branch of Irish commerce.
The beef is packed in three different forms, called planter's beef, India beef, and common
beef; the first two, having the coarse pieces taken out, and charged 4s. additional
per cwt While the export of salt beef has diminished, that of pork has of late been much
extended.

The cotton manufacture, since 1822, has spread through Ireland in a very surprising
manner, particularly in the counties of Antrim, Down, Ijoutli, and part of Dublin. The
coarser linon fabrics are disaj,|>caring before it, and proceeding to the westward and south-
ward, retaining still an equal hold of the kingdom in general. More recently this fabric
has rather declined, and linen has regained the ascendency.

The other manufkctures are not of primary importance. A great quantity of v'ool is, in-
deed, worked up by the peasantry into frieze, linseys, and flannels, for their dorsestic use ;
but the only fabrics on a great scale, which are those of broadcloth at Carrick-on-Shannon,
^nd of flannels at Kilkenny, arc on the decline. Breweries have been established in the
principal towns, and are rother in a flourishing state.

In the distribution of minerals, Ireland has by no means been neglected ; but some unpro-
pitious circumstances have prevented any of them from being turned to great account. Of
these impediments tlie most material is the want of a sufficient supply of good coal. The
fuel of Ireland is in general either coal imported from England and Scotland, or the turf
dug out of its immense bogs ; but the latter boa not yet been found applicable to the fusion
of metals. From these causes tlie veins of iron ore, which are very extensively diflused
through the island, have not yet been turned to any important use. The copper, also of
fine quality, which is found in the counties of Wicklow and Cork, must be sent over to
Swansea to be smelted. The lead, however of Wicklow is worked to a considerable ex-
tent with imported coal.

Fishery is a branch of industry for which the extended shores and deep bays of Ireland
would bo peculiarly adapted. Nor do the inland waters, the rivers and lakes, less abound in
the species of fish appropriate to them. The diligence of the Irish in taking fish for im-
mediate consumption is considerable, being urged on by the frequent abstinence from other
food which their Catholic profession enjoins. Their trout and salmon are distinguished
both for size and taste : the salmon arc caught by weir.s, stake-nets, and other contrivances,
but with so little precaution that their number has been sensibly diminished. The curing
of fish has made very little progreto, when compared with the opportunities which the
coasts of Ireland aftbrd ; and Ireland cannot come into competition with Scotland.

Commerce. — The manufactured products of Ireland are quite inconsiderable; she has, how-
ever, great facilities for the production of raw materials; and it is in all respects more suit-
able for her, as well as for England, that she should direct her etTorts to this department,
and import manufactured articles from Britain, than that she should attempt to enter into an
unequal co- ipetition with the latter in manufacturing industry. In 18'25 the restraints on
the intercourse between Ireland and Great Britain were mostly abolished ; and owing to this
circumstance, and to the establishment of a regular intercourse by steam packets between
Liverpo<il, Glasgow, Bristol, and the principal towns on the cast and south coasts of Ireland,
the trade tetween the two countries has been vastly increased. Owing to the circumstance
ot this intercourse being now placed on the footing of a coasting trade, no account has been
kept later than 1825, of the reciprocal imports and exports of each, except in the case of
cum.

In 1829, the imports from foreign parts were valued at l,669,406i. ; in 1831, they were
1,552,228/.; in 1832, thejr were 1,348,828?. The exports in 1831 were 608,038/. ; in 1832
they were 452,77,5/. Within the last few years there hoa been a moat extraordinary in-

Vol. I. 38

416

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pakt III.

crease in the quantity of grain and live stock imported from Ireland into Great Britain. The
former, on on average of 1830 and 1831, amounted to 543,618 quarters of wlieat, and
1,.'J63,.')93 quarters of oats and oatnioal. In 18212, th(!rc were imported into Liverpool alone,
338,649 quarters of wheat, value 948,217/. ; 825,720 quarters of oats, 309,434i. ; 14,486
quarters of bnrloy, 24,620A ; 69,624 cows, 705,864«. ; 149,090 pigs, 484,542i. ; 74,260 sheep,
129,9r).U ; 24,077 lambs, 24,077/. ; 169,817 loads of meal, 203,780/. ; 177,252 sacks of flour,
407,679/. ; 10,771 bales of bacon, 64,626/. ; 292,830 firkins, 15,861 half firkins, and 10,348
coolies of butter, 819,141/. These, with some minor articles, made up a value of 4,444,500/.
The imports into I/indon, Bristol, and other ports, may be presumed to be as much more,
and porliaps the whole may not fall short of 10,000,000/. sterling.

The Ibllowinjf tublo e.xliibit.-t the relative foreign commerce of the principal ports of Ire-
land in the year 1824. We add tlic ships and tonnage belonging to and the amount of cus-
toms on each, which a recent reiiort enables us to bring down to 1829 : —

Tonnage Enteriil.

Entered at

iti'lfast

(rcirk

Droclicda —

Dublin

nalway

I.imerirk

Ijondonilerry.

Newry

Sligi)

VVttterfiird ...
Wexford

Britiah. Foreign.

Tons. Tons.

19,12.1

15,Q2.'i

MIO

34,n06

540

5,233

3,203

0,705

1,085

7,600

1,409

11,093
13,070
420
10,407
2,020
3,489
5,479
7,812
3,4C:t
3,137
332

Belonging.

9hip8. Tonnage.

247

35,000

350

17,000

3,300

3W»

34,000

800

1,800

4,300

101

8.000

l.'JOO

7,000

i:<5

0,700

Paid.

Customs.

359,000

190,000

12.000

609,000

4,800

85,700

74,000

55,000

1,GOO

116,000

4,800

The shipping of Ireland is small, compared with that of the sister island. On the 31st
December, 1830, she had 1424 vessels ; the tonnage of which was 101,820, navigated by
7794 men and boys. In 18J12 there were built twenty-five ships, of 1909 tons. There were
entered inwards, in 1831, 14,499 ships, of 1,420,382 tons; outwards, 9801 ships, 1,073,545
tons. Of this wore employed in trade with Great Britain, 13,584 ships, and 1,262,221 tons,
inwards; 9029 ship.s, 921,128 tons, outwards; in foreign trade, 915 shipe, 158,161 tons,
inwards ; 772 ships, 152,417 tons outwards.

Canals have been undertaken in Ireland on an extensive scale, but with only a small por-
tion of the expected benefit. This seems partly owing to the excessive magnitude of the
plans, and partly to the prevalence of jobbing. The two chief undertakings are the Grand
a.ui the Royal canals, both proceeding from Dublin into the interior. The former, com-
menced in 17.")6, has, by large advances from government, been completed, at an expense of
(ipwards of '.'.(MIO.OOO/. It is carried across Kildare and King's County to the Shannon, near
Clonfert. Tliis distance is eighty-seven miles, which, with a branch to the Barrow at Athy,
one westward to Ballinasloe, and several others, makes an entire length of 156 miles. The
Royal Canal, of nearly the same dinvusions, reaches from Dublin through Meath and Ix)ng-
ford, nearly eighty-throe miles', to Tarmonbarry, o.i the Shannon. The expense was
1,420,000/., while the tolls, in 1831, amounted only to 12,700/.

The roads of Ireland have long been excellent. Any person may present a memorial to
the grand jury of the county, showing the necessity of a new road, and if this presentment
be approved, the work immediately proceeds. Government has established mail-coaches to
all the principal towns, and, since the rebellion, has made fine military roads into the interior
of Wicklow; but stage-coaches and other means of conveyance are indifferent

Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State.

The population of Ireland, from its grr^t amount and rapid increase is considered as one
of the chief causes of the severe povert' which presses upon the body of the people. Till
the census of 1821, the data upon whic!i it was calculated were conjectural. Between 1712
and 1726, upon a calculation from the liumbcr of houses, at six to a house, it was represented
as varying from 2,000,000 to 2,;ifl0,0fl0. Calculations founded on the produce of the hearth
duty gave in 1754, 2,372,000 ; and in 1788,4,040,040. In 1812, it was estimated at5,937,000.
In 1821, a census gave 6,801,000. That of 1831 amounted to 7,767,401, of whom 3,794,880
are male, and 3,972,.^21 female.

The Irish character presents very marked features, many of which are amiable, and even
admirable. Hospitality is an universal trait, and is enhanced by the scantiness of the portion
which is liberally shared with the stranger. The Irish are brave, lively, merry, and witty ;
and even the lowest ranks have a courteous and polite address. They are celebrated for
warmth of heart, and for strong attachments of kindred and friendship, which leads them, out
of their scanty means, to support their aged relations with the purest kindness. Benevo-
lence is a distingubhing feature of the higher ranks. They are curious, intelligent, anr

t
<
a
c

n
r
C

11
n
a
ii

n
o\
S
ft
ir
til

norial to

entment

achea to

interior

OS one
Till
en 1712

lesentcd
I hearth
137,000.

194,880

nd even
[portion
1 witty;
Itud tor
|cm, onl
enevo-
[it, anc

Book I. IRELAND. 447

eager for information. With so nmny good qualities, it were too much to expect that there
should not be some faults. They are deficient in cleanliness ; have little taste for conve-
niences or luxuries ; and are destitute of that sober and steady spirit of enterprise which
distinguishes the English. The love of fighting seems to be a general infirmity. The fairs,
which, in every town and village of Ireland, are regular and of long duration, afford the
grand theatres, first of unbounded mirth, and ultimately of bloody conflict. Thclrisii do not
fight single-handed, but in bands, and on a great scale. On receiving a supposed injuryi
they go round to their companions, friends, and townsmen, and collect a multitude, with
which thoy make a joint attack on the objects of their wrath. The other blemishes of the
Irish' are rather frailties than sins. They are represented as vain, talkative, prompt to speak
as well as act without deliberation; this disposition, with their thoughtless gaiety, betrays
them into that peculiar blunder called a bull, which their neighbours have so long held forth
as a national characteristic.

The ecclesiastical state of Ireland has been one of the chief causes of its unsettled con-
dition. The native Irish did not share in any degree the reformation so unanimously adopted
in England and Scotland. When, therefore, the English church was introduced as the
established religion, it threw out, as dissenters, the bulk of the Irish population. Even of
the protestant part, a large proportion introduced oa colonists from Scotland, were attached
to the presbyterian form.
[From a parliamentary paper, it appears that, in 1835, there were, —

per cent.

Roman Catholics, 6, 27,712 - - SOJ

Members of Established Church, ....-- fe. 2,064 • - lOJ

Presbyterians, 642,356 - - 8

Other Protestants, - . - . 21,808 - • i

7,943,940.

Although there ia here some slight inaccuracy, yet this statement serves to show very
nearly the proportion of the different sects. The places of worship are stated in the same
paper to be, —

Roman Catholics, 2105

Established Church 15^14

Presbyterians, .••.-..-.--...---- 452

Others, - 403

In 41 benefices there was no member of the Established Church. — Am. Ed.]
The Roman Catholic clergy receive no ctipend from goi'emment, but are entirely sup-
ported by their flocks. They ore formed, however, into a regular hierarchy, at tlie head of
which are four archbishops; Armagh (the primate), Tuam, Cashel, and Dublin. Under
them are twenty-two bishops, with a vicar-general, dean, and archdeacon in each diocese.
The number of Catholic priests has been stated at 1400, besides several hundred friars.
Their income arises less from any fixed allowance, than from dues, oflfcrings, and presents ;
and the bishops, to make up their incomes, receive from the parish priests a portion of what
tliey have collected. Mr. Wakefield has attempted an estimate, according to which,
Christmas and Easter offerings amount to 337,0002. ; marriages produce, in licenses, fees,
and collections, 78,500Z. ; christenings, 12,500/. ; burials, 12,500/. ; in all, 440,500/. Ac-
cording to Archbishop Curteis, the income of a bishop is about 500/. a year; that of a priest
varies from 100/. to 400/. Although a conge is asked from the pope, the real election to
vacitat places rests with tlie clergy themselves ; but as their incomes depend entirely on the
fiivour of their hearers, they are subject to a necessity of choosing popular priests, which is
not felt by the established Catholic churches. Hence the influence of the priests, always so
remarkable under the Catholic sy? ' n, exists in Ireland to an extent perhaps unequalled.
On the other hand, many, especially among the bishops, are remarked for their exemplary
life, and for the diligent discharge of their functions. They are even sometimes instru-
mental in preventing riot, in discovering theft, and procuring restitution. The recent
admission of Roman Catholics to all political privileges, though it does not make any change
in the condition of the clergy, has been hailed by the body in general with peculiar satisfac-
tion. It is hoped that it will either make them more firiendly to the established government,
or diminisii their influence in estranging from it the minds of the people.

The Prerbyterians, as already observed, are nearly confined to Ulster, where they are the
most numerous sect. The synod of Ulster is formed into a sort of establishment, consisting
of 201 congregations, besides which there are 110 congregations in communion with the
Scottish seceders. The ministers receive a royal gift of 14,000/. annually, which aflbnls
from 50/. to 100/. to each. The Presbyterians form tlie most industrious, thriving, and
intelligent portion of the people ; yet a great proportion have imbibed republican ideas, and
they emigrate to America more readily than any other class.

: n m

:tl

,*-.

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Past in.

The Established Church of Ireland is in union with that of England, and every way simi-
lar. It conaista of four archbishoprics and eighteen bisiioprics ; but by an act recently passed,
two archbishoprics are to bb converted into bisiioprics ; and ten bishoprics are to be ntmlished.*
The entire revenue of the Irish church has been ascertained to exceed 1.50,000/. Jbr the
bishoprics, and 71.'),200/. for otiier benefices, Tlie lands belonging to tiie bishops are of far
greater value ; but in consequence of being let on old leases renewed from time to time on
payment of lines, and never coming to a termination, the rent derived from them was greatly
under the real value. It is proposed now to oflbr these leases to the present incumbent, in
perpetuity, on payment of six years' purchase of their estimated value, which, it is calculated,
will prwluco about 3,000,000/. A tax, moreover, varying, according to the amount of income,
fVom five to fifteen per cent., is to be laid on all livings above 200/. ; and its produce to be
applied to the augmentation of the poorer livings, and the building of glebe houses and of
new churches. Hence the parocliial tax, called the vestry cess, or church rate, amounting
to about 90,(KKW. a year, is no longer to be levied.

The literature of Ireland in modern times, cannot boast any very distin^ished pre-emi-
nence ; yet she has maintained her station in the literary world. In wit and eloqjence,
indeed, slic has excelled both the sister kingdoms. In the fonner quality. Swift and Sheridan
shine unriviiUcd ; and in the latter, Burke, Grattan, and Curran have displayed daring and
brilliant flights. In her graver pursuits, Ireland has not been so happy; though Usher
attained the first eminence in theological learning, and Berkeley was the author of a highly
inijeniDna system of philosophy.

The Irish establisliments for education are scarcely adequate to the magnitude of the coun-
try. There is only one university, that of Dublin, founded by Elizabeth on the model of
those of England, hut not on so great a scale. Of it and of other Irish literary in.stitutions,
an account will be found under the head of Dublin. As the constitution of this university
is strictly Protestant, and does not allow the teaching of Catholic theology, the students of
that faith muf^t have been all educated abroad, had not government endowed for their use
the Colleifo of Alaynootli. It is supported by a revenue of about 9000/. a year, and contains
a president, vice-president, and eleven professors, all with moderate appointments. The
students rpceivo board and education; and the whole annual expense of each is not supposed
to e.\cee(l 20/. The students of the north resort chiefly to Glasgow for theology, and to
Edinburgh for medicine; though tliere iias been an attempt to obviate this necessity by the
formation ot' an institution at Belfast.

The e<hication of the poor in Ireland is a subject which excites the deepest interest in all
the friends of that country. It appears that by the 8th of Henry VIII., every clergyman, on
his induction, becomes bound to keep or cause to be kept an English school. This act,
however, is either obsolete, or so far evaded that only 23,000 children are now taught in
these parochial schools. The greatest effort at Irish education, however, is that made by
the Chartor Schools, instituted in 1733, which, by parliamentary grants and private bene-
factions, have enjoyed an income of 30,000/. a year. But this sum, which might almost
fiirnish schools to the half of Ireland, is spent upon 2000 boys, who receive board as well as
instructicn. Although the act recites no other object than instruction in the English
tongue, proselytism has become almost the sole aim. The Hibernian Society, the Baptist
Society, and tlia*. for discountenancing vice, support schools to a very considerable extent
The Kildarc Street Society, established in 1812, founded numerous schools, in which they
endeavoured to induce the Catholics to attend by renouncing all attempts to gain proee-
Ivtes ; but from the entire Scriptures being read in these schools, and other alleged causes,
the Catholics were supposed to view them with jealousy. The allowance made to this
society was therefore withdrawn, and a new plan instituted, in which the moral and literary
is separated from the religious education, and is communicated to tlie youth of both religions
during four or five days in the week, while, in the remaining period, religious instruction
is expected to be administered by the clergy of the respective churches. Extracts only
from the Scripture, approved by the leading Catliolic clergy, are read in the common

* The new arrangement, when completed, will be as rollows :

Income.

Armaoh (u ith Clogher, Archb.) Xi:),170

Meath 5,SS1

Dcrry ("illi Rnphnc) 8,0.13

Down (with Cniinor and Drnmure) 5,896

Kihniiru (with .Aninghanil Elphin^ 7,478

Tuani(\vilh Killnla and Achonry) 5,030

DuBi.i N (with CluiMldaKh and Kililare) il,X2l

Usfinry (Willi L«ij(hlin nnil FcrnM) fi,SSO

Ca^ho'l (Willi Biiily, Watcrrord, and I.ismore) 7,354

Clnynp(.vithrork and Rms) .'i,OUO

Killalnrwith Kilfennru, Ulnnrcrt, and KilmacduaKh) . 4,533

Limerick (with Ardfurt and A|{hadoe) S,36U

JPf'

Total 83,953

[Ak. Ed I

l,g&3

Book 1.

■^'

IRELAND.

440

Bchnola. Locul fiindt), to a certain extent, arc recjuircd to be contributed. Although this
syste'm haa met with many opponents, yet, in tlie beginning of 1833 tliere had been estab-
lished imdor it between 500 and C(X) Kclioola, calculated for tiie education of about 90,000
scholars. Tn 1824, the number of schools in Ireland was 11,828, and scholars 560,540.
Of these scholars 394,742 paid for their own instruction, and among this number were
307,(M)0 Catholics, who thus showed no small ardour in obtaining the benefits of knowledge.
The following table, irom parliamentary documents, shows the number of pupils reccivmg
public instruction in the years specified.

Malei, Femnlea. Total.

ITOl 2M,n06 ISB.SOT 3IM 81,1

IftM ."MO.BW 809,(197 J68;964*

1834 84,044 60,870 14S,5il

The fine arts do not appear to have attained any great excellence in Ireland. Her best
painters have sought for patronage in the British metropolis ; and the attempts to establish
an annual e.^hibition in Dublin have not succeeded. The Irish harp and native Irish melo-
dies enjoy considerable reputation. The ecclesiastical structures have not that splendour
and richness which so strongly mark many of those in England ; but the modem edifices,
especially in Dublin, display a taste as well as magnificence which render that capital
almost pre-eminent.

In funerals, marriages, and similar solemnities, the Irish retain several old national cus-
toms. The practice of hired howling women at fonerals, called ululates, is very prevalent;
a considerable sum is paid to those employed, though, in cases of necessity, they howl gratis.
A still more unfortunate custom is that of the wakes, where thirty or forty neighbours
assemble, arc entertained with meat and drink, and indulge in every sort of fun. Marriages
in many parts of the country are marked by some real, or at least appKirent, violence ; the
bridegroom collects a largo party of friends, seizes and carries oflf the seemingly reluctant bride.
Alluding to this custom, her going to her husband's house, even in ordinary cases, is called
the "hauling home." This is not prompted by any peculiar shyness on the part of the fair
sex ; on the contrary, the mothers, with whom the afliair chiefly rests, display even a fever-
ish anxiety that their offspring should not remain long in a state of single blessedness. The
fair sex are treated among the higher ranks with a gay and romantic gallantry; among the
lower almost as slaves, being subjected to the most degrading labour.

Amusement forma a copious element in the existence of an Irishman. Ample scope is
afforded to t!ie Catholics by their numerous holidays, and the Protestants vie with them in
this particular. The fairs afford a grand theatre for fun of every description. The chief
bodily exercise is hurling, which consists in driving a ball to opposite goals; to this are
added horse-racing, cock-fighting, cudgelling, leaping, and dancing; to say nothing of drink-
ing and fighting. The conversation of the Irish is distinguished by loud mirth, seasoned
with a good deal of humour, by singing, and telling long stories. Thus employed, even the
poor will often sit up to a late hour.

The houses of the Irisli, if we except those of the rich, or in towns, which ore formed
after the English model, are mere hovels formed of earth, taken out of the ground on which
they stand ; whence the floor is reduced at lea.st a foot below the outer level, and becomes a
receptacle for all the superfluous moisture. This is the more incommodious as it has no
boards, and the bed no frame ; nor is the latter raised from the ground, being merely straw
spread upon the floor. This humble mansion is shared by all the living creatures, which the
family are able to muster ; cows, pigs, geese, and fowls ; which are rarely separated by any
partition firom the other tenants.

No compulsory provision exists in Ireland for the support of the poor ; a circumstance to
which we arc inclined to ascribe much of their distressed state, as well as of the backward
state of the country in general. Not being obliged to contribute any thing to their support,
the landlords and occupiers have, generally speaking, manifested great indifference to the
condition of the peasantry. Few among them have hesitated to allow their estates to be
subdivided into minute portions to advance their political interests, or to obtain an increase
of rent. Rut it is abundantly certain that they would have paused before venturing on such
a course of proceeding, had they been made responsible, in all time to come, for the paupers
they were thus introducing upon their properties.

The dress of the Irish peasantry consists chiefly of the native wool, worked rudely up
into frieze or linsoy; for they seldom can afford to wear the fine linen which they fabricate.
But the most prominent feature of this attire among the lowest class, is its lamentable de-
ficiency ; in many instances it covers little more than half of the person, and presents an
image of extreme poverty. When this deficiency does not exist, the Irishman loves to dis-
play the extent of his wardrobe ; when going to a fair, he puts on all the coats he has, though
the season be midsummer.

The food of the Irish peasant is no less scanty than his dress and habitation. It is almost

Vol. I.

• * Including 9,125 not aacertainad.

an*

4&0

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAI'IIY

Pabt III.

wholly comprised in tlio potato, without any otlior vngctablo (for ho is a utrangcr to tho
luxiirv of a ijanlen), nnd only in favourablo circumataiicos is it accompanind witii milk, Thia
food, ImwtHi.T, iH siiHicicnt to preserve him in full houlth nnd vigour. In the north, the ubo
of oatmeal in the form of cakes and pottage has been derived from Scotland.

Sect. VII. — Local Geography.

Ireland is divided into four provinces, or rather regions: Leinstnr in the east, Mnnstcr in
the south, ('(innaught in the west, and Ulster in the north. This is independent of the
minuter English (livision into counties, a number of which are comprised in each of the
four provinces. These last, indeed, when Ireland was rule<l by native governments, formed
separate kingdoms. They are still distinguished by marked boundaries, by a diflcrent aspect
of nature, and by a considerable variation of monners and customs.

The following table exhibits tho leading provinciol statistics of Ireland. The population
statements) differ considerably from thoee hitherto published; but they have been furnished
b^ Mr. Porter, of tho Board uf Trade as the result of the latest and most accurate digest of
' 10 returns for 1831.

lYovlncN

and
CounKM.

Simre
Iklils.

ImpmveU

Vnlm.
provH
Acres.

EiOmatid
Anniul

Valua.

in mi.

PoiuU,
ti(m in
1831,

Cillo iwl TowM, Willi Ihctr Populillon.

tMmliT.

Dublin

331

237,810

10,819

250,211

35,740

380,107

Ddhlin

304,15.1

Louth

nii

1»1,;I4S

14,0111

lft4,7lU

21,:«2

124,840

Droglicda

17,305 Dundalk

0,356

Meath

.'ilQ

561, .537

5,000

5:0,4H

27,042

170,830

Trim

2,470

Wicklow...

4flO,7fl4

04,000

300,822

17.2h!I

121,557

Wicklow , , . ,

3,040 Arklow

3,808

Weiforrt . . .

545,070

18„100

30.5,134

20,150

183,713

W««f.ird

«,336

Longford. ■.

20»

103,500

55,247

151,505

18,087

112,558

LongOtrd , , , .
KnniHcorthy ,

3,783 New Rosa . . .
3.537

4,475

Weitmeath

3BI

313,03.5

53,083

351,003

2.3,015

130,872

Miillingar .. .

4.100 Atldonc

11,363

Klng'a Co.

44(

304,500

i:o,;i40

317,010

a.',504

144,22.5

Philipuluwn .
TiillnMinre . , .

1031 Birr

3,406

5,517

Queen's Co.

.Tfl?

3.'W,P.V

00,072

277.7(i7

23,105

145,851

Pnrturlington

2,877 Maryborough

8,677

Kildare

3liU

325,08f

00.447

255,082

10,478

108,434

Alhy

Kildare

3,603 Naaa

1,516

3,073

Kilkenny . .

40!)

417,117

00,.'i(lfl

437,i;0.'!

'.>0,78<l

103,080

Kilkenny

83,741

Carlow

i!n

in«,H3:t

SM.fl-.IO

104,805

13,0'i8

81,088

Carlnw

8,03S

■),M(i

4,113,'.>i;0

035.424

3,472,4(10

278,:i!l8

1,000,713

Ultler.
Down

502,077

10,^,5ii!i

480,12:1

50,747

;«2,012

Newry

10,013 Downpalrick

4,133

Donnaghadcc

2,705

Antrim

COS

4K1,10«

225,070

500,150

48,02,"

325,015

lli'lfnst

Antrim

53,000 Cnrrickfcrgua
3,485 Linhiirn''

8,700
4,684

I/)niIon(li.Tr.

47!l

a7'-',f;c.7

i:tfl.038

310,002

.34,001

222,012

l.nnilonilirry.

0,313 Colerain

4,851

Donegal . ..

1,(N!I

,5i<l.7:wi

044,371

340,,'iOl

44,800

'.'»!', 140

lliillyHhiiinnn

3,8;il Lifford

976

Fermanagh

44C

320..V.I!l

10I,0,V2

2.V>.301

22„58.'i

1 40,703

Knnitikillen , ,

3,300

Cavan

47f

4'.>l,4(i3

30.0(10

:(07.741

34,148

227,033

Cavan

2,323

Mnnaehnit .

3l)!>.!Ui|J

1) i>')|:

2l2.,'i81

32,378

105,5:10

•Monaglian, ,.

3,7.38 ■

Armagh

'i>':\

2ii7,:il7

42,172

178,05,5

3ti.2(:o

220,1:14

Armagh

fi,4»3

Tyrone

-.•n

,«0,(-20

171,314

528,005

47,104

304,408

Uniagh

2,005 Dungammon .

3,843

4,«M

;),74!i,:«2

1,40:i,'i22

3,'.'(W:l7i'

350,801

2,280,022

JUuiuter,
Clare

258,:i22

Rnnit

6,701

744

524,1 111

S.V,i,5f<4

441,203

33,371

Kerry

1,013

581,180

S.W.Sfii

:M4,01(i

35,.507

203,126

Tralen

Dingle

7,.547 Killarney , . , ,

4,088

7,014

Cork

I,iW

l,0G8,f-»:i

70O,7r,O

1,203,020

114,150

810,733

Cork

Kinnalc

Fermoy

107,010 llondon

7,(HW Ynufhal

0,703 MulldW

10,179
8,060
4,114

Waterford .

4U1

rt,'i3,247

118,034

2!'5,304

23,8('0

177,054

Wiiler'foril , , ,

28,821 Liwiiore

2,3.30

Tippcrary. .

B(i7

Hlli,MS

l«,147

8r'0,53!l

55,207

402,503

Clonnu'l

Tippcrnry , . ,
HoKrea

15,.5!IO ChkIicI

6,34H Carr.-onSuir
5,3:19

0.548
7,460

Limerick . . .

604

.5(«,842

81,081

030,932

43,400

315,355

Limerick

60,554

5,275

3,035.852

1,005,308

3,801,070

300,005

2,227,152

Connauffht.
Iz-itrim .. ..

40(1

200.040

128,107

210,187

2l,7i;2

141,524

CarrickonPh

1,073

Siigo

MHii

2,57,217

Jli8,711

2'27,44,1

27,0,50

171,70,5

Pligo

9,383

Mayo

}.1Xi

871 084

425,124

5.W,018

5,1,031

30(),:(28

Cnstleliar

5.404

Galway —

l,.-)IO

!'5.'i,713

470,n.')7

808,704

,i-',137

414,084

Cnlwny

DnllinaBloe ..

3:i,l20 Tuam

1,811

4.S71

Rotcomman

541

453,455

131,003

370,028

r,300

340,013

Roscommon .

3,015

4,10f

2,805,000

1,330,022 2,23(i,070

107,408

1,343,014

♦iH,«X)

I4,(10;l,47:l

5,340,730

12,715..57r

1,142,(;0^

7,707,401

SuiwECT. 1. — Lein.iter.

Leinster is the richest and most cultiv.'ited of the four great divisions, and, as containing
the seat of government, tho most iiiiportimt tlioatie of jKilitical events. Though the sur-
face be level to a great extent, it is not destitute of considerable ranges of mountains. These

t* Thia is the Irish mile of 40 to n ili'gric.
-Ah. Eo.]

The area haa already been stated to be 30,000 English square miles

lira.

O.SM

3,808

4,478

• • • •

ii,3fia

5,406

)ugh

9,0T7
3,073

irgui 8,700

. . 4,684

.. 4.H51

.. 970

7,014

10,179
8,96!;
4,114
2,3,10
U548
7,460

4,571

Icontaininf;
111 tho sur-
Ins. These

Iquare mile*

Book I.

IREIJVND

451

Jounty,

include almofit the whole county of Wicklow, whopo Imld nnd picturcsquo fiimmits arc goen
oven from Dublin. In tho interior, tho lonjr range of Slievp-Blewrii stri'tches towards the
liordcTH of MuHMter. A considerable part luso of the midland counties is covered by the
great bojf, whicli crosses the wiiolo centre of Ireland. After all deductions, however, there
remains a largo extent of level land, fit either for tillage or poMturnge. This is the part of
Ireland where wheat is grown to the greatest extent, oats being idaewherc almost the only
grain ; and its rich postures supply the capital with cuttle and the prcxlucts of tho dairy.
Lcinstcr comprises tho counties of Dublin, Kildarc, King's county, Queen's Couii
Wicklow, Carlow, Kilkenny, WexfortI, Mcuth, VVcslmeath, I^)nglbr(l, and lx>uth.

The county of Dublin owes its distinction almost exdusivi'ly to its containing tho capital
of Ireland. Tho city of Dublin disputes with Edinburgh and Bath the reputation of being
tlie most beautiful city in the empire. If the brick of which the houses arc built impair the
effect of the general range of its streets and st^uares, its public buildings, composed of stone,
surpass in grandeur and taste those of any of its rivals. There is no period of Irish record
in wliich Dublin was not an important place. It is mentioned by Ptoleiny under the name
of Eblana. The Dunes, in tlie ninth century, made it their capital, and enclosed it with a
wall about a mile in length, the course of which may still be traced. As soon as the Eng-
lish began to establish themselves in Ireland, its proximity induced them to make it their
head-quarters ; it grew with the improvement of Ireland and the extension of the English
8way, but all its splendour has arisen within the lost sixty or seventy years. The numerous
streets and squares formed during that period have been built on a regular plan, and contain
several superb mansions, which once belonged to the principal nobles. The squares are par-
ticularly axlmired ; that of St. Stephen's Green is nearly seven furlongs in circuit ; Merrion
Square, which contains the splendid mansion of Leinster House; Rutland Square, in the
interior of which are the gardens of the Lying-in Hospital ; and Mountjoy Square, are also
spacious and finely laid out. Of the streets, the finest is Sackville Street, 170 feet wide,
and adorned with many splendid mansions. To the west is the old town, now bearing marks
of decay, and still further west is the tract called "the Liberfy," as being out of the juris-
diction of the magistrates. It is inhabited only by the lowest orders, and exhibits scenes of
filth and wretchedness not to be paralleled in any city of the sister island. A room fifteen
feet square is frequently let to three or four families; and one house was ascertained to have
lodged 108 personsi. Dublin has been "shorn of its be.ims" since the Union; when the
nobles and gentry, no longer called to attend parliament, transferred their own residence to
the metropolis of the empire, and their Dublin mansions have been converted to humbler pur-
poses. The Castle, the residence of the lord lieutenant, is extensive ; but its architectural
beauty is almost confined to a modem Gothic chapel. The cathedral of St. Patrick (^fiff. 212.),
and Christ Church have a venerable aspect ; but they can rank only secondary to the fine
212 structures in the English cities. The splendid

structure, formerly the parliament-house of Ire-
land, and now the national bank (fifi- 213.),

Sl. ratrick'8 Calhodrnl. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.

was built between 1729 and 1739 ; but an eastern front was added in 1785, and a western
front shortly after. The portico is 147 feet in length, supiwrted by lofty Ionic columns ; the
whole covering an aero and a half of ground. The Royal Exchange {fig. 214.), forms a
square of 100 feet, and its principal front has a richly decorated portico of six Corinthian
columns. The Four Ijiw Courts, situated on the north bank of the river {fig. 215.), form
_ 215

214

Eichuia, Dnblii.

Fooi Cooili, DabliD.

DESCRIPTIVE OEOaRAPlIY.

Pakt in.

tlao one of the noblest structurcg in Dublin : it congitits of a square of 140 foot, prcBcntin|r&
fW>ntof six Corintliian pillars, Hupportin^; a circular lantern and nm{;niliccnt uonio. Tlie
quay ia ornamented by the Custoni-nuuHe, uf wliicit tlie front is entirely of Portland stone,
embcllishoil with a Doric colunnadc, and extendinf; :)75 feet. The Post Uflive, in Sackvillo
Street, is extensive and rnugniticcnt, with a front of 223 feet, adorned with an Ionic portico
of Portlund stone ; the main structure is of granite. In the centre of Backville Street, ia
the monument erected to Nelsun ; an object by no means ornamental. The inns of court,
the theotre, the half-finished Roman Catholic metro|)olitun chapel, and several other churches
and chapels, witli many of the hospitals, may bo mentioned as adding to the architectural
•plendour of Dublin. All the usual associations for the relief of distress ore supported on a
liberal scale, and great zeal is shown in favour of all institutions for the promotion of know-
ledge. Trini'y College was founded in 1503 ; and its students amount to 1600. There are
2&7ellow8>.ip8, and the livings in the gill of the university, which aro considerable in num-
ber and value, are offered to the fellows in the order of seniority. The gradations of
rank, amongst the fellows in Trinity College, are indicated by a different dress and table.
The library contains 100,000 volumes ; but its otlier collections are not equal to those of the
Dublin Society. Usher, Switl, Berkeley, Chandler, Inland, Pamell, Burke, Grattan, Curran,
with other distingui:4hed characters, are mentioned as pupils of this seminary. The buildings
of the College are on a large scale, divided into three quadrangles, for the accommodation
of the fellows and pupils. The front towards College Green extends 300 feet, and is adorned
with columns of tlio Corinthian order. The library forms a fourth quadrangle, built of hewn
■tone, with a rich entablature ; and the principal room, 210 feet long and 41 feet broad, is
elegantly fitted up. At a short distance f^om town is a botanic garden. The Royal Dublin
Society, incorporated in 1749, for the promotion of husbandry and the useful arts, has a
botanic garden; a museum of natural history; a school for drawing, with models; and
teachera in all these departments. The Roval Irish Academy, incorporated in 1782, has
published many volumes of Transactions. The Dublin Institution has been formed on the
model of that of London, and a city Library nr,iablishcd. Although a g:reat literary spirit
prevails in Dublin, there are few Wks printed there, and the art of printing is in a back-
ward state. The works of Irinh authors issue from the I^ndon presses. Dublin has very
little foreign trade ; but she hna a. cons-idcrablo trade with England, particularly with Liver-
pool. The bay is spacious, and has good anchorage ; but the entrance is beset with formida-
ble sand-banks, particularly those called the North and South Bulls, which cannot be passed
by large vessels at low water ; sn that vessels embayed at that time of the tide, and attacked
by strong easterly gales, can scarcely escape being driven upon one of them. To avert these
evils, a double wall has been constructed throe miles in length, composed of enormous blocks
of granite, dovetailed into each other, the interval filled with gravel ; and a light-house
erected at tho end. Another pier fif great extent has been built at Dunleary, now Kings-
town, on the southern side of the bay, which is connected by a railway with the capital.
To these advantages Dublin unites that of being placed at the termination of the Grand
Canal on the soutn, and the Royal Canal on the north, which penetrate by different lines to
the Shannon and the interior ot Ireland. In 1829, Dublin paid the sum of660,00W. of duty
on imported goods, while that paid at all the other ports of Ireland amounted only to 010,0(M){.
The environs are celebrated for their beauty. The vast nuinb(!r of villas and villages which
cover the adjacent districts, and are rendered conspicuous by the ground sloping down to the
bay; the foreground of the Dublin mountains, and the picturesque summits of those of
Wicklow in the background, render the situation striking and delightful. To the west,
Phcenix Park, a royal demesne of several milon in circumference, affi>ras on agreeable pro-
menade, and has lately been adorned with an obelisk, 210 feet high, in honour of the Dnke
of Wellington. The rest of the county contains only villages, and tlie interior possesses few
interesting objects. The shores of the bay, however, include many striking sites; and the
view from the Hill of Killiney is almost matchless.

Wicklow is in general composed of bog, forest, and mountain, and contributes little to the
wealth of Ireland. It is, however, celebrated for picturesque beauty. Its coast, diversified
by hills, broken into glens, and richly wooded, is almost covered with the seats of the gentry
and opulent citizens of Dublin. These variegated and embellished grounds, having on one
side the expanse of the Irish Channel, and on the other the lolly mountains in the interior,
produce a number of beautifiil sites. The demesne of Powersconrt is pre-eminent, the water-
fall (Jig. 216.), descending 360 feet down a steep hill, amid vast hanging woods. The interior
of the county presents features of a very different description ; glens between lofty mountains,
naked and desolate. Among tliese is Glpiuhilough (fig. 217.), which is surrounded by amost
majestic circuit of mountains, and contains some remarkable ecclesiastical monuments attri-
buted to St Kevin, a great patron saint of Ireland in the seventh century. One of his disci-
plea founded at Glendalough a little city, long celebrated as a seat of religion and learning.
Only its site can now be traced ; but there are distinct remains of seven churches, among
which the cathedral and St. Kevin's kitchen are the most entire. Loughs Dan and Bnv

Book I.

IRELAND.

to the
sitied
;entry
in one
terior,
vatcr-
iterior
itains,
imost
I attri-
I diBci-
ning.
Lmong
iBnv

iitimtcd in tho booom of tho wildrst ftwiiintiiinH, mul i-nclcwctl by Hnrk tnd lofty rooks, nronrnt
nntiiro iitidcr nii ii>i|ic(t tlio most rufloly ^lublllne, VVicklow huH vein* of copper and lootl :
gold wiiH collcctfd in ono yeiir to tlio vnliio of KMXKI/. ; but tho voin wiis soon oxhnuHtcd.

Tho towMM of Wicklow and Arklow, thoU),'h well
built, nri! inciin.siiloriihlu ; yot tho latter, at the
niotilli of lh<! DvdiM, has n little trade, and was once
tho residenoo of the kinffH of Ireland. It wa« the
Hceno of a memorable action in 170S, when Uio in*

Powencourl Wmtrrill

Glmdalauih

surgents, above 30,000 strong, were defeated by a small British detachment.

Wexford, to the south of Wicklow, is separated from it by a range of mountains ; but
tho interior contains u great der.l of level land, in which agriculture is pursued with greater
diligence, and the tenantry are more comfortable, than in most otlier parts of Ireland. Barley
is tt prevailing crop. The woodlands uL-o are extensive and valuable. Wexford is a place
of some consequence, with a harbour much obstructed by sand ; yet it carries on some traffic.
Some woollens are mode both at Wexford and Ennif'Corlliy. New Ross, in tho western part
of the county, is a flourishing town, on the Burrow, which admits of largo ships coining up
to its quay.

Kilkenny, a fine and extensive county, separated from Wexford by the Borrow, is watere<l
not only by that river, but by its tributaries tho Noro and the Suirc. These streams carry
off the superfluous moistare, and prevent the foriqation of bog or maish to any extent. Kil-
kenny, being cliicHy level, or intersected only by hills of moderate height, is composed
almost etitirely either of arable or fine pasture lund. Tho latter is employed in extensive
dairies, but tho system of cultivation is still imperfect. Kilkenny, tho capital, advantage-
ously situated on the Nore, is partly built of the marble of the surrounding quarries. Its
cathedral is one of the finest in Ireland, and the castle, with its reinii ining gates and bastions,
exhibits indications of that strength which enabled it to hold out against Cromwell longer
than any other city in Ireland. At present Kilkenny flourishes by inland trade, and by a
manufactory of blankets and other woollens. Tho foreign trade of the county is curried on
by Watcrford.

Carlow is encompassed by mountains, which however enclose a champaign tract of great
beauty and fertility, equally fit for tillage and pasture, and producing the best butter in Ire-
land. The town of Carlow is a considerable place, distinguished by an abbey and castle,
both of great antiquity. The town has a manufactory of coarse woollens, and carries on a
considerable trade down the Barrow. An extensive Catholic seminary has lately been
founded here.

Queen's County and King's County fiirm a table-land of moderate elevation. Part of the
Bxeit chain of bogs crosses these counties, and renders a large proportion of them unpro-
ductive, though it supplies them with cheap and abundant fiiel. The remaining surface ia
highly fertile. Queen's County is situated along the heads of the Barrow and the Nore ;
Kmg s County reaches to the Shannon ; and both communicate by canals with Dublin.
Portarlington, on the borders of the two counties, is a well-built place, with good schools,
and the residence of a considerable number of gentry. Tullamore, on the great canal, and
Birr or I'urscnstown, uro the most thriving towns in Icing's County.

Kildare, with the exception of about a sixth part of bog, forms a plain of the finest arable
soil, well cultivated, and whence the capital is chiefly supplied with grain. The Grand and
Royal Canals, which. lx)tli cross its northern border, afli)r(l the means of ready conveyance
to Dull! in. Kildure-town, presenting a lofty round tower and some other vestiges of past
importance, is only supported by tho races held on the curragh of Kildare, an expanse of
several tliousiiud acres of the very finest turf. Nnas and Athy are larger towns, and the
castle of tlic former bears testimony to the period when it was the residence of the kings

'mt

DKHCIUI'TIVK (JKOGRAI'UV.

I'AHT III.

of I^Miiafcr. In thin county ist iMiiyiuKitli, ii mniill ti.rtii rontnininii tlio collojjn PHtubliil.cd
by (roviTiiinont tor tliu nluuiiliiin i>t ihn Koniun ('iitliiviii'H.

Mdiitli lit ouii ol'tlin niiwt llivonii'il CDntiticNDf Ihn kin({i»iim in ronprrt ti) *)il. Itit ricli paii-
tiiri'H bu|i|Kirt viiHt honlH nl' black (.'uttli>, wlilcli p«n|)|)ly tlii! innrki-ls ol' tlm ciipitiil, iiiiU iirc ox-
(wrtiul to Kii^lanil. Tim pnxhirU nl' tlio duiry iiro nliinuhint, lliimifli not of very Hiip^rior
(luality. Trim, wlioru tint uiwi/cM urti lu'ld, in u Hniiill tiiwn ; iNavnii iiml Kulli* nni liir|(>'r.

Uuitli, tlidii^li tint HnmlloHt in urea Dt'any [rinli county, iH oun i)t' liw lirHt in |xiint ot' natu-
ral anil ac(|iiirc(l advantajru!*. An activo H|iirit ot" irnproviMncnt han lironglit ainiunt I'vory
jiarl «)(■ itH cxcclliMit soil undiT cultivation. ItH linen niamifacturo priKlncox cliioMy dowlnn
and i<li<'i'tinj{H, with WMnf cuudiric. l,outli prcnonln many HuinplcM of tliu earthen inouniU
called nillit. Dundalk, the; capital of the cciinity, in ancii^nt, tiopuluUH, tind tionriiihinr;. It
ha» Ik'cii iliu thoatru of iinporlant liimtorical events ; lint itn lolly towi tm and cnMtluit are now
dcnioliHhed, and have jfivcn place to conitortahlo dwollinjjH. The town conrtist* chiefly of
one lar(;o and broiul Htruet, whoncu many lanen are tieen divorffinuf. It in tho only placo in
Ireland where tho cambric manufacture linH been introduced, and continueM to llourixh.
I)ro(ilieda, nt tho mouth of the tioyne, whm of Htill f^reator importance 08 a military station,
bfiin^ coiisiilcrcd one nf tho keyii ct' Irehiuil. In the f^rcat rebellion of IfVtl, it Htood u lon((
siege, but wan ailerwardH taken by Cromwell, who |>nni8bed itH rc«iHtancn by n moHt barba-
rouH maiwacro of tho ^rritton. In IflW), two miles above I)rr)glioda, won fought tho liuttlo
of the Doyno, that memorable tleld which CHtabliHhnd the civil and roliffious libertios of tho
ompire. Tho fortificationH are of obMohito gtrnctnre, and ore communued on several nidos.
Tho place hat* an excellent harbour, and exteiiitive conmiorcc in grain brouf^ht down tho
river m couNiderable (piantities tiir ex(Nirtation ; in return for which, cuitlH and other curnnio-
diticM are iniiiorted,

Westineatli and l^onjflord, reachinjj westward nn tar oh tho Shannon, coiwist chiefly of a
very oxtonnive plain considerably encumb<<red with lakes, boffs, an<l morassps, and wibjoct in
|»art to the overfl iwinjf of the Shannon, but inclndinrr fertile tracts of jjreat extent. Ath-
lone, tliu lariifcst iiiland town of Irtdand, is situated partly in Westnieath and partly in Ro<)<
common. It is memorable liir its resistance to (ieneral (iinklo in 1001, previous to the Inttle
of Anghrim, and is still considered an important military station. It is divided by tho Shan-
non into two parts uuiti'd by a liridire. With this exception, these provinces contain only
small country towns and large villaires. Mullingar, in VVcstmitath, liasu considerablo trade.
Ijongford is the capital of the county of that name.

SuBSKcrr 2. — Munster.

Mimster includes the south and south-west of Ireland, and, tboufth not the mo«t extensive
division of the kingdom, is on(! of those which presents the boldest and most striking fea-
tures. Most of tho great mountain chains of Ireland traverse Munster; among which aro
conspicuous tho Galties and the mountains of Kerry, which encircle Killamey ; so that, not-
withstanding tho almost Iwundless plains of Limerick and Tipperary, and the level character
of a great part of (>ork, it may bo considered as a mountainous region. It has manufactures,
though not on so great a scale as those of tho north ; and its cotnmcrce is very considerablo,
chiefly in the export of salted provisions. The Catholic religion prevails, with little inter-
mixture of that of the English church. Munster is divided into larger and less numerous
portions than Leinster ; its counties are Tipperary, Watcrford, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, and
Clare.

Tijiperary, extending over almost the whole frontier of I^instcr, is crossed by a long'
chain of mountains r;alled variously Slieve-Bloom, tho Devil's Bit, and other uncouth names;
and on the south it includes part of the Galties. On tho north a small portion of tho groat
central bog extends across the county ; but one district, along the upper course of the Suire,
bears the appellation of tho Golden Vale. The sheep and horned cattlo are of excellent
quality. There are manufactures, chiefly tor domestic use; and some coal, similar to that
of Kifkoimy. Clonmel, the county town, is one of the most considerablo in tho interior of
Ireland : it staxl a long siogo against Cromwell, who after its reduction doni<dishod tho strong
wail.s and castles by which it was defended. It is a well-built town, with four streets cross-
ing each oilier, and curries on a brisk inland trade. Casliel is a Inrgo and handsome city,
the .seal of an archbishop, to whoso residence a considerabln library is attached. In ancient
times, it was the capital of the king.-* of Munster, of whose palace some remnants may still
bo traced. Noble rragmonts remain of tlie ancient cathedral, majestically seated on tho
summit of a precipitous reck. The choir iiuil nave, 210 feet long, aro strewed with the re-
mains of its rjcli orniiments. Here was de|)osited tho I,ia Falo, or fatal stone, on which the
kiniis of Minister were crowned. Tho .«tructuro is now abandoned to decay, and a modern
cathedral of lino Grecian architecture has b«!on substituted. Cashel contains remains of
otiier monastic edifices, of which I lore Abbey, on tho same rock with tho cathedral, is a
magnificent specimen, still almost entire.

Waterford is a mountainous county, and only a small portion is under cultivation * th«

Book I.

IREMND.

406

chief hmnrli of ritrnl iiuliiNtry w tlin ilniry, and ((rrnt qiinntitimi of butter nrr< hiiIiinI for ei-
portntiiiii. VViitcrfiinl, itn cii|>ital, oiii' of tlii< |irinri|)i\l Ki'ii-|N)rtH (if tlic iuniiin>, tM'iii;^ pInciMl
at tliii ('(iiilliii'tirn iif tlin narnivv utiil Suirc, tin- hccihhI niiil IliirtI rivcrM nl Irclnriil, cnjoyH a
riHwt tvxti'iiMivn iiit)>r<'citirMn with tliu iiili'rior. 'I'Ih' i|imntily of Ix-pf, |H)rk, Imltcr, ami Kriijn
(txixirli'd to Kti|{laiiil, in IKII-'J, wah vnliicil nt 'J,(N1.\H(I1/. ; of which Imi^oii vviui M7,(MK)/. ;
hiittitr, ri:<H,(MNI/. ; whont and flour, rtlW,inM.; natx, l'^N,(NN)/.; iivn \»ini, I17,(NI0/. Tho
Miuthcrii jmoki't coniiiiiniicntinn witli l'',ii);liiMd in carried on fVoiii Waterllird to Miltiird llaviiu
Within tlicwii ft'w yearn, wivciitv vcHwi^t have licen flltod out llir tho Ncwfoutidland flihory
Watorford fiiJoyN th« l)OM<'tlt oi' a dci-p and Npacious harlmiir, and a flno i|uny half a mile
lonif. ItH ('ccl(<8iai«linal lUdnuiiiontM nru of connidornhln nm|{»itud<<, mid it haH an elrifant
nMNJern cathedral, witii other Hue puiihc nditico*. Twenty index to thn wewt, on a iinall
hay, iH Dun^arvan, thn lar(;eHt li<«hiii){ town in Ireland; and itx anti(|iiity in atlcMtrd by a ca»-
tlu and Huverai inoiiaiitin roinaiiiM. l.iHiiiore, on the Dlackwator, ii now dcNorted ; but itjtcaatio,
erected liy Kin^ John, in llHri, Htili prnHontd markx of ancient grandeur, and haa been lately
repaired.

Cork in the lar};pHt county of Ireland. On thn northern border ia tho lofty rnngfe of the
GaltioH, which prcHent many picturnrt<|ue feature*, and command oxtoniiive and lN>nutif\il
prtwpnctH ; itH wetitorn border partakeM of tho mnimtainoufi character of tho nei)rbbouring
diHtrictM of Kerry; and thn rocky Nhoren and headlandii washed by tho wavcHof the Atlantic,
are of un awful and terrific character. About a titUi of the county conHiNtH of mountain and
bo)f ; tho roHt i» only travnraed by hillH of moderate nlnvation, enclnnini; fertile niid often
beautiful valleyn, oftpccially that alonjf tho river and bay. Tho ntyln of culture ix iiitoffether
Iritih; in Rinall fnrmn, by |xior tonantn, chiefly by tho xiMide, and potjitoea tho prevailiii)( crop.
Tlio manutactiireg conniHt uf aailcloth, coarHO lincnii ami woolleiiH. There uro oImo aome
oxteniiivo distilleriea,

Cork, the (jroat nouthern emporium of Ireland, has a population of 107,000 ; boinjf, in point
of wealth ami ina(;nitude, tho xccond city in the island. Itx iiionatttic structurcH, onco con-
siderable, have almost entirely dif>appenred. Its great nros|H!rity ix mtHlcrn, in consequence
of tho provision trade, of which it has become the chiet mart. The river Iico, at its junc-
tion with the BOB, tbrms tho xpiicious enclosed bay, called tho Covo of Cork, compoainff one
of tho lltiost liarboura in the world. In couseiiuence of its convenient situation, tho West
India bound fleets UHiiulIy touch there, and tnkn in provisions. Tho export of salted beef
and pork has some what diminished siiu-e tho peace; but that of provisions in (rcncrul, and
particularly K'"'"' '""* '"''-'" tC*-*"''}' niiRmcnted; and Cork, on the whole, is in a very
flouribhiii); and prosperous state. A gre:it part of tho old town consists of mitierablo and
crowded alleys; but a nnmlior of handsome new streets have been built, and several chan-
nels branching from the Lee, which flowed through the city, and were detrimental to tho
health of tho inhabitants, have been filled up. Cork has a literary institution, with tho usual
appendages of library, lectures, and lx)tanic garden; and it supports tliu charitable cstab-
lislimont.s usual in great cities on a liberal scale.

Kinsale, on a fine bay at the mouth of the Bandon, was much more frequented than Cork
by tho early English monarchs, who bestowed on the jdaco extensive privileges, and viewed
it as tho key of southern Ireland. It has now, however, sunk under the superior importance
of its neighbour ; and it is chiefly supported by a fishery. Youglml, at tho mouth of the
Blaukwater, has a good harlmiir, though obstructed by a bar ; and carries on some trade and
manufacture.

Kerry presents an assemblage of mountains wild, rocky, and desolote. These are inter-
aperaed with valleys and narrow plains which are almost wholly employed in pasturage; and
Kerry has a small breed of cows, which yield plenty of excellent milk. Its coast ia broken
into several very deep bays, particularly those of Dingle, Konmare, and Tralee. A considerable
quantity of herring la caught in these baya. Tralee, the county town, exhibits the remains
Q.Q of a strong castle, onco Uie residence of

** ■ the Earls of Desmond, when, under tho

title of Palatine, they exercised tho real
sovereignty over this part of Irelimd ; a
sway which terminated with their attain-
der under the reign of Elizabeth.

Killarney and its hikes, as to scenery,
have no rival in Ireland. There ia only
one body of water, to which, however,
the tonn laktx is usually applied ; so
completely is it divided into three bays
united only by narrow straits, and pre-
senting each a different ospect. The lower
lake, immediately adjoining Killarney
{^g, 218.), forms the main exponse of water, and presents all tho features on the greateel

Laketof Killarnejr.

i I

'1'1

11''

iMl

46fi

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part. HI.

Mucrua Abbcir.

Kale. On the eoatern shore rise the mountaliu known by the name of Macgillicuddy's

Ree!<8, the highest of which ridoa to 3400
feet, tlie most elevated point in Ireland.
On this side nli-o ure tlic mountains of
Tomies and Glena, with tlieir immense
forests. Near the western bank is tiie
beautiful island of Iimisfallon. At the
most southern point of the lower lake a
much smaller bay branches off from it,
through channels formed by Dinis Island.
This bay, called Turk Lake, is over-
hung on one side by the precipitous
sides of the lofly mountain of tliat
name, and bordered on the other by
the long wooded and winding penin-
sula of Mucruss. The venerable ruin
of Mucruss Abbey {fiff. 219.) adds
greatly to the interest of this jmrt of the
scenery. From Dinis Island, a long
winding channel of more than two miles leads to the Upper Lake. The scenery seen in
this passage is of surpassing grandeur and beauty. The most striking spot is at the Eagle's

Crag (Jiff. 220.\ a stupendous and
220 nigged cliff, which bursts suddenly

on the view, rising in a pyramidal
form from the water. Thioughout
all the rocks of Killamey, but here
most particularly, the effect of echoes
is most powerful and striking. The
Upper Lake, the least extensive but
the most sublime, exhibits all the lof-
tiest mountains under the most im-
posing point of view. Its shores are
winding and varied with numerous
islands, whose rocky sides contrast
with the brilliant green of the ar-
butus. The ascent of the highest
mountains, Mangerton to the north,

Ea<lo't Crag.

and Gheran Tual, the highest of the reeks to the south-east, discloses awful ranges of rugged
precipices and of dark and rocky ravines; and their summits command an astonishing view
of the mountain glens and rocky shores of Kerry, and the expanse of tlie Atlantic, and the
distant plains of Cork and Limerick.

Limerick is onn of the finest counties of Ireland. Its borders include some branches from
the high mountains of Kerry and Tlpperary ; but the main body consists of a fertile plain.
.\n alluvial tract, two or tlireo miles broad, along tlie Siiannon, is quite exuberant That
noble river, now expanded into an estuary or bay sixty miles in length, runs along the whole
northern border of Limerick.

The city of Limerick, now outstripped by Cork, is the third in Ireland Its situation, in
the centre of the grand internal navigation of tiie kingdom, secures to it an extensive trade;
and the largest vessels can ascend to the harbour. Limerick is one of the great marts lor
the export of grain and provisions; the value of those shipped from it in 1831, having been
estimated at 8.54,600/. It was anciently the strongest fortress in Ireland, and has always
stood out to the last extremity for the Catholic cause. Ireton, Cromwell's lieutenant, re-
duced it only after a long siege, aided by a party witiiin the place. In Ifi'JO-l, it stood two
long sieges, and yielded only upon those advantageous terms called the " ca|)itulation of
Limerick." Its capture was considered as closing the contest in support of the Stuarts. At
this day, not more than a twelfth p|art of the (xipulation of Limerick is protestnnt. The
spacious monasteries are almost entirely demolished ; the streets are narrow, crowded, and
gloomy ; t)ut since the fortifications were demolished, they have been carefully widetied. In
a quarter bnilt by Ijord Perry, and bearing his name, they are spacious and regular; and the
houses, though only of brick, hui!' in the most handsome modern style. The assembly-rooms,
theatre, aril other modern structures, are elegant an! commodious.

Clare county is a wild, hilly, romantic district, abounding with fine creeks and harbours,
but without ooinmerco, and with mines of load, iron and coal, which have not hfon turned to
account. More than ha'f the surface rnnsists of mountain, bog, and waste; its liills, how-
ever, support numemiis flocks of slicep, the wo(d of wliicli is of superior quality. Tlif plairs
on the ivinks of the Khaniinn and the Fergus vie in fnrtility with any in the kingrlom. F.nnis,
the capital, is situated on the banks of the l;L',t-mc' 'ioued river, by which it communicates

ii
a
n

tl
1

oi
fa

F
T
Ja

it.-
dp

IT, lU.

ruddy's
to 3400
Teland.
tains of
nmense
{ is the
At the
r lake a
from it,
9 Island.
is over-
•cipitous
of that
)ther by
; penin-
ble ruin
).) adds
irt of the
a long
I seen in
e Eagle's
idous ond
suddenly
)yrain''dal
iioughout
, but hero
t of echoes
ing. The
ensive but
allthelof-
: most im-
shores are
numerous
!s contrast
of the ar-
le highest
the north,
of rugged
ihing view
c, and the

*%•

iches from
•tile plain.
That
the wiiole

ituation, m
sive trade;
marts tor
iving been
las always
tenant, re-
stood two
ulation of
tuarts. At
;nnt. The
wded, and
ideried. In
and the
bly-rocims,

harbo\irs,
n turned to
iiills, liow-
Thf plaii-s
om. F.nnis,
iimunicatcs

Book 1.

IRELAND

457

with the Shannon. It is considerable, Uiough irregularly built ; and its abbey, in the purest
style of Gothic architecture, is considered the finest in ueland.

SuBSECT. 3. — Connought.

Connaught forms a great peninsula, the most westerly part of Ireland, extending from thi»
Shannon to the Atlantic. This division is of all others the most decidedly Irish, having
continued unsubdued long !i*ler the English kings claimed the proud title of lords of the
island. It still contains fewer English inhabitants ; the religion is more universally Catholic,
industry and manufactures have made less progress, and all the imperfect agricultural im-
plements and processes are in more general use. Disturbances, however, have never taken
place here to so great an extent as in Munster and Leinstcr. Its shores are penetrated by
deep and extensive bays, forming some of the finest harbours in the world. The counties in
Connaught are Galway, Mayo, Sligo, Roscommon, and Leitrim.

Galway presents to the sea ranges of steep clifls, which, with the waves of the Atlantic
dashing against them, exhibit a grand spectacle. The interior contains two extensive lakes,
and is diversified with hills, though there are few which are not fit for pasturage. The cattle
are of good quality, and the flocks of sheep are more extensive than in otiier parts of Ireland.
The fisheries of herring and salmon are considerable. Galway has always been a consider-
able town, and is still supported by some inland and foreign commerce, by a considerable
fishery, by the resort of the gentry to it for sea-bathing, and as the only scene of gay society
to be found in Connaught. It was once very strongly fortified both by nature and art ; and
to obtain the protection of the walls, the streets were made narrow, and the houses high,
massive, and gloomy ; but they have of late been considerably opened, and suburbs built, of
a more gay and elegant description.

Tuam is an ancient, handsome town, of considerable extent, the seat of an archbishopric.
Ballinasloe, on the eastern border, holds the greatest cattle fair in Ireland, where the oxen
and sheep of the pastoral counties of Galway and Mayo are mustered for the capital. At
the mouth of the bay of Galway are the bold and rocky islands of Arran.

Mayo is chiefly elevated and rugged ; some of the mountains rising to upwards of 2600
feet ; but many of their sides are verdant, and the valleys rich and well watere<l ; so that
Mayo is a fine pastoral county. The estates are large, but the farms small, and much sub-
divided. Mayo contains no town of sufficient importance to return a member to parliament.
Castlebar, the county town, is well built, with a linen hall ; and the linen manufacture
flourishes. Killala, a straggling village, on a bay of the same name, is chiefly noted for the
landing effected in 1798, by a body of French troops under General Humbert, who pene-
trated to Castlebar, but were finally obliged to surrender to Marquess Cornwall is.

Sligo contains a considerable quantity of bog ; but the remainder consists of a sandy
gravelly soil, well adapted to the production of barley and oats ; so that pasturage is not so
exclusively the employment here as in the two last-mentioned counties. Salmon is caught
in large quantities. The linen manufacture has made considerable progress, and is extend-
ing. Sligo, the capital, at the mouth of the river and the head of the bay of the same name,
was in early times a considerable place : it has suffered severely in civil contention ; yet, by
the advantage of a good situation and harbour, it has attained considerable importance and
trade. In the vicinity is a remarkable circle of stones, called the Giant's Grave, somewhat
resembling Stonehenge.

Roscommon is mostly level, finely watered, and celebrated for rich pastures ; but the in-
crease of population and manufiictures has caused o great jmrt of them to be lately brought
into tillage ; it contains some pretty little lakes, among which Lough Key is particularly
admired. Roscommon is ancient, and marked by some ecclesiastical antiquities, but it is
not now so important as Boyle, pleasantly situated on a river of the same name, over which
there are two fine bridges ; in its neighlwurhood are the ruins of a stately abbey, founded in
1512, the arches of which, forty-six feet in height, are deemed models of Gothic architect-
ural grandeur. Elphin, the seat of a very ancient episcopal soi , is only a village.

Leitrim is filled with high mountains, presenting nature under bold features, often height-
ened by the ruined castles which crown tiieir summits. There are veins of iron, lead, copper,
and coal, the last of which has been wrought. There are good pastures in the valleys, and
on the sides of the hills; and pretty large quantities of oats are raised. The linen manu-
facture is extending, and there are some considerable potteries. Carrick on Shannon, the
county town, and leitrim, which gives name to it, are only villages.

SuBSECT. 4. — Ulster.

This part of Ireland presents in many respects a superior character to the other three, ita
population being more industrious, better instructed, and in more comfortable circuniRtances.
The Presibytpriau form of worship, introduced by the Scottish settlers imiler th(! reign of
James I., is the prevailing one. The linen inanutiieture, the staple of ilio country, has hero
its chief scat, and is carried on alnio.«t in every villajre. The harhcurs- of Heltlist, Irf)m]on-
derry, and Loii"'li Swilly, are sutlicient for the wants of commerf'e. 1'he coast of Antrim,

Vol. T. ' m 3H

11^!:

'i.iH

■Hi

-M-

;

DESCRIPTIVE GILOGRAPIIY.

Part III.

in the boWncss arl peculiar character of its rock scenery, is witiiout a match in any other
put of tlie world. The counties of tiiis province are, Fermanagh, Donegal, Londonderry,
Antrim, Down, Armajjh, Tyrone, Monaghan, Cavan.

Permanagli is a ssomcwhut rough county, comprising a large proportion of mountain and
bog, but with fertile valleys, in which, besides the usual products of oats and potatoes, flax
is cultivated to the extent of about 5000 acres. The waters of all the high grounds flow
down into Lough Erne, a noble lake, upwards of twenty miles in length. It is studded with
numerous islands, covered with fine woods ; long wooded promontories are seen stretching
far into the waters ; and, though the immediate borders of the lake are not mountainous,
.ofty distant eminences form the general background to its prospects. Castle Caldwel'
turbet, and Belleisle are the spots in which its beauties are peculiarly concentrated
chief town is EnniskiUen, delightfully situated on an island, accessible only by two oi.i>o.,ite
bridges; this site enabled it to make its noble stand against the army of James II.

Donegal includes a groat extent of tlie north-western coast of Ireland, full of deep bays
and fine harbours. In its interior, however, it consists almost entirely of mountain, moas,
and mcxir, witb only a few productive valleys. It is often called, with some adjoining dis-
tricts, "the black north of Ireland." Distillation forms an active branch of its industry.
Lifibrd, its Hniall county town, stands on the Foyln, upon the borders of Derry. Ballyshan-
non, almost at the opposite extremity, is a thrivnig town, beautifully situated on the channel
by which Lough Erne pours its waters into the Atlantic. Raplioe is a celebrated episcopal
see, but now only a decayed village.

Derry, or Londonderry, a large and fine county, is crossed by a range of mountains, whose
principal peaks are from 1000 to 1500 feet high, and a considerable part of whose surface
consists of heath and bog. There are, however, tine valleys, and extensive plains, which
are cultivated with some diligence, but according to that sy.itcm of minute subdivision which
is the bane of Irish agriculture. The linen manufacture flourishes in full vignui, chiefly
according to the Irisli system, among the little farmers and cotters, who combine il witii thp
cultivation of a few acres. Londonderry is a fnie city, situated at the point wliore the Foyle.
after traversing a groat part of this county and tliat of Tyrone, falls into t!io broad basin of
Louf h Foylc. It is ancient, being the theatre of remarkable events even in the time of the
Dane. In I60S, after the nttainrler of O'Neale, it was granted by James I. to the citizens
of London, whence it derived the first j)art of its name. But its ciiiof distinction was from
the siege sustained by tlie city in 1690-1, against the united iiircos of Ireland under James
II. Londonderry is corniwsed of tour main streets crossing each other at right angles, and
surrounded still by its (dd walls in full repair, serving ratlior liir ornament tium defence. It
has an ancient Golliic cathedral, and some handsmne modern edifices. It is now supported
by an extensive oommfrce, for which liough Foyle, though its entrance is somewhat impeded
by a bar, affords a spacious and secure harbour. Its chief intercourse is with the United States
and the West Indies, to which it exports the linen manufactured in this part of the country.
Coleraine is a well-built town on the Baim, which flows from I/)Ugh Noagh, and on which
is the most extensive salmon fishery in the island ; but the rapidity of the stream obstructs
the navigation upwards.

Antrim, occupying the north-eastern corner of the kingdom, opposite the coiwt of Scotland,
is one of the most remarkable districts of Ireland, in regard to natural features as well as to
commerce and industry. A groat part of the surtiice consists of rugged mountains, com-
posed chiefly of rock and moss, and even its best soils are scarcely available for agricultural
purposes till improved by the use of the lime with which the country abounds. The moun-
tains, where they face the ocean, are broken into vast perpendicular precipices, exhibiting
the Imsaltic columnar form on a grander scale than exists in any other part of tlie wor'd.
Of these objects, the Giant's Causeway {fig. 221.) is the most celebrated and magnificent.
221 Three natural piers or moles, 400 feet

■** in height, here stretch out into the

sea, and are visible above the water
ftr about 300 yards. The walls are
composed oi' dark l)as;iltic columns, of
the most regular form, and so closely
united, that only the blade of a knife
can bo thrust between them. Each
column is distinct from the others, and
divided, into joiiitfd portions, as per-
fect as if art hud fi)rmi?d thorn; there
being in each part a projection, which
18 lodged in a corresponding concavity or socket of the one contiguous. The roast eastward
of the causeway is composed of a succession of capes, presenting the most siiblimo scenery;
dark precipitous cliffs, rising regularly in srradiially retiring strata, and formi'il into various
broken rolonnndc;.- which might sip^'gest the idea of palaces overwhidinci! in ruins.
Other striking tL-afure;; distinguish ttie coa,st of Antrim. Conspicuous above all ofhcra is

Tho Gianl'i Cauieway.

UOOK I.

^ue

R moun-
{hihiting
.'orhl.
h.iificent.
400 feet
I into the
in water
mils are
liimns, of

closely

a knife
. Each
|iprs, and

as piT-
In; tiirrii
In, which

■astwiird
Isconory ;
1) various

I others is

IRELAND.

459

Fairhcod, called also Benmore ; a promontory which forms nearly the north-eastern point of
Ireland. It consists of a vast mass of columnar greenstone, coinpoi-iiig a mural precipice,
rudely columnar, and 350 feet high. At its feet lies a chaos of hui,'R musses of rock, heaped
together in tlie wildest confusion, and forming a scene of ruin the awful prandeur of which
222 ^""^ scarcely a parallel. A<jainst this

the sea heaves in a solemn majestic
swell, the peculiar attribute of the At-
lantic waters. Carrick-a-Redo {Jig. 222.)
is a small island composed of a mass of
basalt, imperfectly formed into columns,
separated from the continent by a chasm
of sixty feet. The fishermen, however,
have occasion to resort to it with the
view of placing nets to intercept the
salmon; to reach it, thercii, »hey have
constructed a daring and singular bridge,
Carrick-Q-Rcrii;. formed of two Strong parallel cables fixed

to each side, with planks inserted between them. This slight pontage is subject to violent
movements, and, if not judiciously trodden, may precipitate the passenger into tiie abyss;
but the fishermen, accustomed to tread it, carry great loads across without the slightest
apprehension. Several of the precipitous cliffs are adorned with the ruins of ancient castles,
the grandest of which is Dunluce (jig. 223.), whose extensive area covers the long ridge of

an almost insulated rock, which presents
its perpendicular face to the ocean. The
walls enclose the entire surface of the
rock, and rise up as a continuation of its
precipitous side;-. In one place, the rocky
base having given way, the apartment
above actually overhangs the sea.

Belfast, the gnind emmjriuni of the
north of Ireland, has risfu to greatness
by rapid steps. Ciirrickfergiis, liy means
of peculiar privileges, monopolised all
the trade of this part of Ireland, till these
privileges were bought up by the Earl
of Strafllml. The career of competition
was then opened to Belfast, and she gradually outstripped all her rivals. In 1G60, tiio town
contained about 6500 inhabitants. At present the population is 5'3,()00, exclusive of a large
suburb in the county of Down. The linen manufacture is very flourishing at Belfast, and
that of cotton is rapidly e.\tending; besides which there are various minor fabrics. Com-
merce, however, is the main source of its wealth. The linen fabrics of tiie north are largely
exported, along with oats, oatmeal, and salted provisions ; the entire value of which, in 1810,
amounted to 2,900,000?. The duties of customs, which in 1801 were 182,314/., had risen
in 1829 to 259,000Z. Belfast Lough forms a noble and secure bay, and the channel at the
mouth of the Lagan has been so deepened by art that vessels drawing thirteen feet water
can come close to the wharves. Belfast is mostly built of brick ; but several public edifices,
recently erected, the Commercial Buildings, the Museum, St. George's Church, &c., are
ornamented with pillars of freestone. Belfast has several commercial and literary institu-
tions ; and in 1810, the Royal Academical College, a seminary on an extensive scale, was
founded.

The other towns of Antrim can boast little more than names known in history. Antrim
itself has lost its former importance, though beautifully situated near the great body of water
called Lough Noagh, which covers about 100,000 English acres, and bonlers on five coun-
ties, — Armagh, Tyrone, Londonderry, Down, and Antrim. Its flat shores possess little of
interest or ho-.iuty ; and its overflowings have converted into bog abo\it 60,000 acres round it.
Carrickfergus, at the mouth of Belfast I/iugli, is a very ancient town, once the emporium
and key of nortliern Ireland, but it has yielded the palm of commerce entirely to Belfiist,
and is supported ordy by being the county town iind resorted to as a watering-place. Lis-
hurn is a prosperous town, with a manufacture of damask.

Down is n liin^ county, penetrated by several largo lakes, ns those of Strangford and Car-
lingford. The last of these receives the Newry, which coinrniniicates by a canal with Lough
Neagh. The Mourno mountains, on the southern border, exceed 2600 fei^t in height, and
form a conspicuous object; hut a largo extent of the county is level, and a greater propor-
tion is under tillage than pasturage. The combination of tiirming and weaving exists in a
remarkable degree ; and the linen fabrics are not only extensive, but some of them very fine.
Of late, however, those of cotton have gained a iirofiTeiicn in many districts. Down, or
Downpatrick, celebrated in tradition as the burial-ulace of the patron saint, is cf miderate

Duntuee Castle.

:^:^;.:iii

!•«,

,;i>
ji

VA^

460

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt ITT.

dimensions, and its public buildings respectabl?. Newry is larger and more flourishing.
These advantages are owing to its situation in the bay of Carlingford, p- '*s canal commu-
nication with Lough Neagh, which enable it to export the linen manuf' ' and provisions
produced in an extensive district It is ancient, but in 1689 was redu ju to asiies by Mar-
shal Berwick ; so that it is now quite a new town. Donaglmdoc, a considerable port, with a
large substantial quay, is chiefly remarkable for tiie ferry between it and Portpatrick, tlie
shortest sea communication with Britain, and by which packets are despatched and live stock
in very great quantities conveyed over.

Armagh is also a fine and agreeable county. In general it is only pleasingly diversified
with little hills, the bogs are no more than requisite for supplying fuel, and only a small part
is left unproductive. Both culture and manufacture are prostcutcd with great activity.
The linens produced in 1824 were reputed at 568,000/., exceeding a fifth of the produce of
the whole kingdom. Armagh, the capital, was celebrated in the early history of Ireland
as one of its most extensive and populous cities, and has always been the ecclesiastical me-
tropolis of the kin(,dom. The Augustine monastery, and tlie college attached to it, ranked
for a long time ar.iong the most celebrated institutions in Europe for religion and learning;
the latter, it is said, could once boast of 7000 students. Armagh sunk, however, under suc-
cessive ravages by the Danes, tlie English, and, finally, the Irish insurgents under O'Neale,
and fell into decay ; but by good fortune had for its primate Dr. Richard Robinson, to whose
munificent exertions is :^cribed its revival and its having become one of the prettiest little
cities in Ireland. To him Armagh is indebted for the repair of its cathedral, for a library,
and an observatory. The linen market is well supported by the flourishing state of the
manufacture in Armagh. The only other place of consequence is Lurgan, a thriving manu-
&cturing town.

The three counties of Tyrone, Monaghan, and Cavan occupy a great proportion of the
interior of Ulster, and present a very uniform aspect ; a considerable extent of mountain and
bofe, fertile plains, rude cultivation, and the luien manufacture. O'Neale, E!arl of Tyrone,
was long one of the most formidable enemies of the English power. Omagh is the county-
town of Tyrone, but is not so considerable as Dungannon, a large, populous, and handsome
place, once the chief seat of the O'Neales ; but this powerful castle was demolished by the
parliamentary forces. Strabane is also a populous place, finely situated on the Foyle.
Monaghan and Cavan are both tolerable county-towns, which alone possess any importance
in their respective shiies.

FINANCES OF TIIE UNITED KINGDOM.
I. Income for the year 1834.

CmtomB £21,118,920

Excise 10,756,716

Stamps ami Hackney Coaches, &c 7,4(i2,7SS

Taxes 4,fi«7,.'WO

Post Office 2,;n«,i>80

MieccllaneoiiB 456,118

East India Company 60,000

Balance on hand 1,007, IPO

Kepayments 018,738

£53,450,571

n. Expenditure for the year 1834.

Payments tmt of the gross Revenue,

Drawhuckii, Ri-pavments, &c £3,204,290

Cliaret'S of Collection, See 3,582,635

, Miscellaneous 738,810

* 6,525,741

Paid at the Exchequer.

Interest antl Manafrcnient of Permanent Debt 24,158,870

Terminable Annuities 3,653,923

Interest on Exchequer Bills 0»1,2!14

Russian Loan, raised in Holland 1110,810

Civil List 5I0,(HK)

Civil, Naval, Military and Judicial Annuitiea and Pensions 50-2,310

Salaries and Allowances 162,030

Diplomatic Balarics and Pensions 181,448

Courta of Justice 4;I3,610

Mint 14,850

Army 6,493,025

Navy 4,503,910

Ordnance 1,068,223

Miscellaneous : 2,;n5,5no

Advances for Public Works 2,014,513

Total Expenditure £53,441,955

III. Public Debt— January, IBM. Chavfre for 1833.

Funded Debt £751,rh'i8,R8,3 £27,782,1 10

UofUnded Debt 27,0O;;,9OO 770,769

Totals £770,565.783 £28,501,885

I IK

Book L

TRADE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM,

461

I. Accuunt of the Ofllcial and of the Riml or Duclarcil Value oC the principal Articles of British Produce and
Maiiuructuru oxportcil iJi IS^S, 1833, uiiil 1H34.— (Frum the Jlniiuat /''inano Book fur ISIS, pp. idl— 128.)

Artidn.

■an.

Rr«M and copper Quiiuhcturai

I'oltou maiiuijclurei

—~'— yarn

HardmrM and cuUerjr . * • •
Iron tod •letl, wrought and uo

wnmM

UiMn iRv^tifacturei

-.^— yam

Salt

Silk Dunuhcturea .......

Soap and c indies

Su^r, rctined

Tin, wniugUl and unwraught

Wool, •heo])'.

Woollen and wonted yarn - -
Woollen m.inubclurea ....
AlloUierarticlea

Tolali

Whereof Irom Great Britain •
From Ireland

L. I. d.

1,196,246 IB 3

37,2(le,4«0 10 4

e,T26,Ml 17 6

inistwi 17 1

l,«le,l83 18 3

l,78V>lt) 13 «

S,lft8 7 8

363,824 19 9

475,16S 18 3

34!l|2)« 8 3

I,2u3,48l> S 8

ISiflM 10 1

149,091 \i 4

122,|2I'19 a

e,&'«,<U4 8 8

4,332,981 I 5

6!t,(BS,701 II

64,581,01)7 9 7
444,665 1 S

Official Value.*
~lb33!

L. >. </.

1,018,234 !l 6

40,133,343 2 3

e,i'9,076 S 8

9et,'«3 4 7

2,690,253 14 3

3,5B»,639 8

50,116 16 5

392,053 7 8

685,324 6

4'>3,»I0 17 5

693,131 14 4

371,634 3 4

1-5,479 12 3

113,191 3 9

7,7!*,842 6 3

4,578,646 12 II

69,969,339 13 8

9,633,853 16
355,48S 17

1634.

Declared Value.

L. I. i.

1,0M,594 2 4

44.2t«,902 13

6,802,2S7 18 9

MT^e 18 11

2,621,672 9 8

3,850,763 14 5

82,169 10 9

371,469 19 10

633,683 9 7

382,198 10

1,141,663 14 4

370,115 18 10

81,319 17 10

99,933 II 9

6,514,703 3 10

4.678,680 1 8

18J2.

L. I. i.

916,563 1 5

12,675,612 6 6

4,722,759 3 6

1,434,431 7 11

1,190,747 12 10

1,774,7^6 13 9

8,105 7

149,678 1 6

529 990 10 10

315,644 16 3

1,038,789 16

355,3j« 9 2

2I9,(K0 1

235,307 7

5,244,558 II 8

5,532,293 II 6

1833.

73,831,550 15 4 36,444 524 18 7 39,167,347 8 5

L. I. d.

884,149 4 a

I3,7»2,.>7l> 17 6

4,7(M,U24 9 I

1,466,361 12 II

1,405,034 19 3

a,l67,a23 7 I

T2/1C- 6

184,1,5 10 2

737,400 17 10

362,284 19 1

563,092 4 3

369,162 2

332,503 17 4

246^

6,204,432 3 9

6,097,113 3

73,495,536 11 3 36,046,027 11 5 | 39J05,5I2 19 8
336,015 4 I I 39M97 7 2 | 361,834 9 9

le34.

L. $. d.

861,823 2 II

15,302,571 7 I

5,211,014 17 8

1,485,233 I 1

1,406,872 9 I

2,443044 18 7

136,312 11 S

152,126 14 10

637,198 6 4

•itaitvt 4 II

916,391 9 6

370,382 II S

192.175 14 1

238,543 19 (

5,i;«i,h70 II

6,194,368 I 8

41,619,19: e 6

II. Account of the Real or Declared Value of the various Articles of the Manuflicture and Produce of the United
Kingdom, exported to Foreign Countries during the eight years ending with 1834 ; specifying their Value, the
Countries to which exported, and tlie Value of those annually shipped for each.— (Pajin-t published by Board qf
Trade, vol. iv. p. 337.)

Countriea to which exported.

Ruwia

Sweden

Norway .-••

Denmark

Pru>iia

Germany

llolUud

Belfium -•

France

Purlugal, Proper

Ar^iea

Madeira

Spain and the llalearic Islanda* ■

Cimry lalauds

Gibnltar

Italy and the Italian Islands

Milla

loniau IsLlnds

Turkey and Continental Greece (ex-
clusive of the .M(irea)

Morea .ind Greek Islands

Ei^ypt (I'oria on the Mediterranean)

Tripoli, llarltary, .ind Morocco • • ■

Wee em Coast nf Africa

Cape of Good Hope

Cape Verd lalands

St. Helena

Isle of Bourbon

Mauritius

Arabia

East India Company's Territories
and (^cylon

China

Sumatra and Java

Philippine Islands

New South Wales, Van Diemen's
land, and swan Hiver

New ^.ealaiid, and South Sea Islands

Ports nf Siain

British North Americin Colonies- -

British West Indiea

Hayti

Cuba and other Foreign West Indies

United States of America

Mexico - • -

Gualeinala

Colomblt

Brazil

SUtes of the Rio dc la Plata

Chili

Peru

Istei or Guenuey, Jeiaey, Aldemey,
and Man

Totals . . - - . - 37,181, 335 , 36,81 2,756

• The rate at which nil orticlcs of I'jpnrt and import arc oiflcially valued was fixed in 11396, but nn arrount nf
the real or declared value nf 'Ma export.^ is also prepared ; there is, however, no such account of the imports, and
therefore their olficial value alone can be given.

ao*

' : . \

DESCRIPTIVE (SEOGRAl'IIY.

Part IIL

Itt. Actiiunt or ilic Uiiniililli'ii iif llw rrhu'i|inl ArliiliH ol' Knrcluii iiiiil ('(iluiiinl Morcliuiiiliau iiii|iiir(u(l Into,
ux|»<rli'il niiiM, niid ri'iniiii'il l'>r ('iiiiHuiii|ili(iii In tlin I'jiitcil KiiiKiluiii, with Iho Nitt Hi'vuiiuu uixriiiii|| tliurouii
(liiring tlio Vi'iirn ciiiliil Slli Jaiiuiiry, IKll. iiiiil l«W.-(;'iijifr»jiuWl.«*ii/ Inj IlMni ,\f Trndii, vo.. iv. pii. I'J-ltl.)

;

J i

DoKri|)lkin nf Mei«luuid>w<

A%llM, (HMrl AII.I [Mil, '

IUrill.1 .II..I alk.\U ' '

Hjirli tnt iMiiiliif nr

•l>ii « — •

ll.il!.lil.lJulill..u !t..,

V,jM liklis .iihl Mauriliui —

I'lMviin itUiiUlluu -~

IViul

C1X.M lU

lliaki i»l ihelh -

r-ltiHi .t.<<4 rniiii U)tv\ i ctiunlrle-,

^'iillnl S!''ei ./ .'.i>irtirK —

Bu/i! —

■r.irh,; ...IKji.t -

ui ^*<jiil Ainu BrtUith |Kw<«*totit,

' - IrJIma.ilMHU iliut . . . . —
\^•l .Xi W I ..KIWI, llio (ruwlll

fnt^: Upj lutlitfi, imiiorlL'd

*! >ui —

tnhei Ji i'ishi''«iMd<iiu —

'liiJil luantilict

IkIIm • ■ • ll».

Uc Ax« —

I,rt«wp^v! tniil.

W*i'l,r cwU.

Hu!.U' :■«<

PUk »n.2 h>t», or aVitlU of flik

»Al Iicnif)

I 'umiiii —

.' fmoiuaifcl (inmrt clit^i*

Km«iiu * cwli.

H.» ^ of ilr^ir Sti.

riai.imcor>irmr . .Us.

Mwiip uiulrmc^l cwli.

lU'M, iiiiiaiiat^l, l\t. i~~

lt'ilTal», lull, (4, C'MT, or hone

IiWp» c«ts.

Millet, tuinnl, tU. ;—

lliilTilii, bull, nx, niiv, i>r luinr

hiilr Ilil.

I.(utlicr gl 'ITS \\\in

Miiluics rwli.

Ull—

01i« iiilli.

Wm cwt%

'I'raiti, ■iwrmamtt vA bliiliber • • turn

S»l'.i«»iv ,iihl niliic ni'nj cwii.

►1*1 ami LiiLKol biishfU

iiilk-

Raiv 11,1

Wa.1i- anil knutilia -

r.ufcia lajfiwa —

|Jll« -

niiieub> —

Sajnir, \\t, :—

VVefl liHlia cwlt.

lUit Imlia aiul Maunitul —

ViirriKn —

T»lU)w -

To. -

Tiniirr, \i . :—

Ballena and tutten Mull —

Ileal ajkl ileal einli . • . - rpral hund.
Maati ti ami iiikler |i iiichn in dia-
meter No.

Maala 8 ami under 12 iurhr* in dlt.

meler —

Maala 1^ inrhe; and upnaida * • lila.

lU|il<nk> —

Slaves tX. hund.

Kir. !l incliea eenatv and upmirda,Ii-i«ili

(!•». illim

llnetnuiiierstod, diltn

WAin*ei»l In^ dmo —

T^ibftrco, vir. J —

Unnuimfaelured It».

Manufactuml iir lei^ra —

Snuff ■ —

U Till, iheep and UniU' —

Wine, vi^ ; —

r*(« imp. gallt.

French

r irtu<al

Statiiah -

MaJrini -

ijlher «1l -

Jkil lorti

tiuamitin inijiurleil,
lam iKU.

I(!!l,7a
llll,'*J

1-,".1.1,».I0

b.ii^iyii

ll,37.l,l'l!0

H-uOilou

«,0llli,7IH
tlS,liHII

in7,v<e,7.«

1II,«CI|HII

um.itiii
I.UMi.lO:!

a],75^liM
l,653,II»

WI.OW
IUI,mU

3a3,66li,l«)7

6,635,4.16

'M,OKO
bl.9»;
Mi,li«J

l,l«.K»
UJiWW

;i>i,'ni
i.Mi,aM

.'U7,4i!l

>I,IX
1113,1171

U,ONI.I£l
U.liil.UI
Il,^ii,»l7

4I,SU,II1

a,'iM,"iw

4IH,UW

ift;!i,j(a,i)7j

l>l,tUI,3M

»41,107

II,ibO,ui

a3,g30,Hii

I,<I7>I1II

I24,3I«
47,6«S

3ig,ll7VU

4.i.u,iig6

70li,!l»B
1I,(V>4
7^IX)4
l«),t»I

WI.7/2
ll«,7l«
lll*,ail

ii:i,7a

lli,.MI
■I'vaTi!
CTJ.iill

996,900 ! <.t7,IOI

(«,702 I

l,-t«l,472 !

717,934 j

I.f»l,(l|ll
l!6:.llM ,
:«,li78
ll>S.7lli

!,i;u,iaj

SiTSSjira

v4U,4^l

l,'.".>7,710
N7i»,M2
«,li44,t)73

3,6'i',,62l

7:17,1,1.1
:i4(>,iiH

l,ll'i,4i7
3i,0'J7,KU

IIUOT
S6,7W

3.136
4.416
i.38l
la.lilM
4«6,lfl4

ii7,ati

3i.4W

!>0,2ia
I UI7,il44

c^^wi

2,3111.1-11
i7li,lie!l
1S3.'M
»V(,4»

l,>lll,237

a,643,S'i
l,UI2,l>'il
3,ll6ti,s3ll
7,67»,341l
1,106,7-3

3,844,24.1

6U7,I4I

1JS7,407
33,6, IMO

I3JM0
67,105

.',T.!«>
tii,:--|i>
41 ",410
.!t>,4»>

((uanlltiea eiptirted.

11,306
il,4.1«

I'.I4,!*0
3,V»li,0l<7
II,I6(|,WI

«,3,M,II77

I7,363,S!S

3fl84.»l4
6AIIII

I0,U4
.VBI
36.li7

i.NII
32,170

10,110

3,03!

22,0fl2,<79 3«,,M7.s<il

386,609 «.i9.Ii"2

.1,l«4 1^

38,046,(IS7 46,iV'.23i

3!l7,3i;7
l!l,73S
2,0SJ
M\737

I C(i,IS7

l,14I.M6

3.1W7.W7

2,«I0,3,M

I 3(16.iV)

Ri-lii

3!l,!4ri
2M,<(>I

46»

soul

010
42
W

6,136
3,233

1,1.12

768,046
6,9U3,M;2
M77,!)7J

IS2/iO,4M>

tfia^yt

24,46l,Ilb3

3,92t<.220

88,234

4,'>4K

I,:i27

lO.MM
12,067
l.lliO

27,ia'i

33,066
2,8.'a
10,672

4.(164
12,63S
1,3:12 2,078

234,030
20,412

3,727
68,2-6

7,'>23

207,007
l,680.3,-)0
6,301,247
I,79I>,I43

,',98,744
I.

4CI,l)44
III.II6K

l,i8i,oin

860

110
8«
1

Quanlitiea rv-UiiMxl for
tunauilipliuil.

1116,422
210,603

Il64,27g

20,041.104

I,7»»,3I9

1,471

U,74I,W4

l,!M8,2tl7
440.168

293,(iK.,97a

2,30,300

436,672

I7,.'>l«

72,lr6

60,640

1,1 12, mi
140.446

3MI.U7
137.8112
21,460
22,079
512,023

206,861

48,678
1,411.216
64.1,886

1,368,217
210,226
.11,242
ll)t,23.S

2,222,Mi7

4,417,027
267,472
77,1167

2,228.303
330,246

2,634
624
32
34

8,000,.'>62 12,080,951

2;a9:4 273,360

-2.;»69 1 in.:ui;i

442,606 I 807,:162

464,,104
2:5,.16<i ,
2,22lj,7:U
3,368,^,30 I
,10t,n-,7 I
817,761

4114,208

363,37-
4.213,427
■',446,.'^63

372,rtlS

886

7,44a.»4 l I 9,7e8,l]6T_ 1.613

i86 i764 I
«8,116T I.

1,090.766
I,H!0,6I9

12,384

67,201

8,756

.1,209
4,«33
2.V1I)
M.1>.1
l»l,i.M
27.236
03,111

20,61B.97I

I4;I,H',6

i:i8

30,0«i,l:20

M6,K11
2:12,660
i.VM Kill
2,240,liK6
li;i.042
420,372

6,207,770

IIO,0<0
IHI,4'I0

2-2,224,073

I .ri,>,u)4

2,418
23,786,006

1,173,796
443,786

302,101,66;

2,447,827

303,474

14.020

70,061

75,271

791,-272
I6.l,.62:i
164,7X1
147,407
11,487
26,4711
6b6,006

40,3.19

I,«I3,M28

607,080

2,225,227
264,806
21.402
2|->,»63

i,2l 1,068

1110,182

2,4.'i7,ll20

323,761

3,741,679

l,l'«,IH)
H069,O61

13,660

ei,808

0,586

3,612
3,-'ll
2.616

taiso

493,20(1
26,8.64
40362
3,209

2l,048,:<2l

I4-.,3V,

161

40,840,271

.624,091

201,100
2,7M),:)03
2,270,8',,1

l'fl,31,9 , t ■

486 308 I 1

Ntll Revenue.

16.703
linn 1,41 ki ill
re|«yineliU

( 601,241

12,026

473,011

1834.

"i!

i,a>H

QniH rev.
17,764

j «.«»
13,999

2a^7«

6I4,4M

29,781

32,066

1,170

1,067

.1,402

2,949

14.7:10

7,907

3,721

1,8112

4,728

3.406

311,06:1

242,180

60,392

67,434

149,101

192,272

0,092

3,VU1

18.708

20,016

2,110

2,844

632

289,623

46.743
27,IU.I
l,7bl
4.184
i:i,tt23

15,000

202

1,778

111,174

6,894

171,605
3,444,102

116,216
621,494

10,110
-l,1,.186
437,620
33.776
8,308

3,I40,0M
137,865

7'.,075
63,l66

S,4H1.644l 1 .1129,219

617
29.052
228,621

46386
23,606
l,.'i60
6 0O2
13,8WI

I3,l«0

450

2.106

122.862

0,726

I8!,998
3,589,361

129,774
601,914

10,442

511,7.66
440.300
;I3,07S
10,170
8,867

3,223,648
131,319

72,048
71,131

1,662,341

1,706,»W

J2,n68

7^7

5,4(0

t>7,434

t\,im

23,U)ti

iJ.eoo
3.iw>

li,72(i

H9,T7«
Ii0l,9l4

10,«42

5H,7SC
44U.30O

:o,(n5

10,170

6,8e7

I 3,223,648
131,310

71,131

Book L

DENMARK.

468

tV, Account of Iho Slilpping umployeil in (ho Truclii miil Nuvixation ut Iho Uiilloil Kiiigilwii in IHIM; apvcirymi
til* NuinlMir niicl Ti>nnn«.i iif VixhuIn vulcriiig Inwnnl-i iiml climrHig OulwiinlK (iniliKliiiK lliilr niifuloil Voy-
age*), anil iln! Nuinltcr iif Ihiiir Vtawt j mipuriiling llrltiah fniin Ptiroign Vi'IwIh ; nnil ilinlingiiialiing tlio Navi-
gation wllh uucli Counlry.

Rtiiil>--
HwsJcn ■
Norway

llnlUial-

Neliluin

fnacn

Hirlugil, Pn>|>ar

A/ttrni

M,i<lnln

fltalD iml th« Halearle Mtni*

(4iiury liUiitta

(llbnillar

Italy umI llaliM Ulaikla • ■ •

M.fli

lualan ItUiklt

Tiirlir) itCoiitliiriiuUiraflce
Mitrva aiKl llraak lalanda - •

R«r|il

TrIfMilt. Kartiara, k iMoruceu
CiMal (II A rricA,fmni Monwco

tn Ihn i'A\m ofOfHii] Hiipa

r^lMiirdiMiil llnpfl

Baalarn CtKisI fnim tha Caps

or (iofNl iloitfl tu Oabel

Mariild

laleof Hoiiilxm

ra|« (la Vrrl iilamla • ■ • -
HI. Hnlann and Aaaiwlna • •

M.iunliua

Aniili

Kaal linlia ('oi!i|Mi>y^l Trrri*

Inriaa, }ilH(a|]or« k Ceylou

Stunaln

China

Java

Illlllpiiliia Iilauda

Rirta of Si-im

Naar Nmilh Walea

Briliah Nonhrni Coldola, •

Hriliali WM liHllaa

Ilavll

Cul»,ali(Iniherl\>relKaWaat

lidlaa

Unitad KlatM

Maiicn

OualemaU

Hrillah.

Brailla

Statoa (if nio lie la I'UU • • •

Chili

IVu

The Whale riiheriaa - ■ ■ •
lalaa nr (iiiariuey, Jrney, and

Man

OTvenland (Ice)

Foreijcn parta (nol dilUn-

piiahed)

Tnlali '

Mici.

IIXI
lU
47

701
1,011

407
Ifiti

m
m

4sn

30
'U

134

9117,013

6,40]
S,WI
33,Oil

ii'i,a7H

I37,%4I1
40,1171

li><,017
MO 5
12,3311

;t,47ii

4A,ri4
S,KIO
3,710

M,m

1,0(0
K,4<W
lll,l>llll
9,311
1,114
4,014

33,313

illH
13

1
.10
140
(i
17
15
107

1,3«0

13,M0

nsoo

75,481

a>,908
1,IWI
l,SMI

11,400

ea4,(»G
i,a>H
7,ir,i

0,11113

7,4»a

18,371
lO.IJO
6,341
2,766
34,101

146,543

Mn.

13,'itM

764

311s

176

1,0116

9,VIJ

6,6k4

.1,W.

I1,IIM

3,401

7V)

160

1,MM

Its

207
3,1IH
67
462
1,012
111
ri7
200

1,763
330

1,073

4,638

1,»1B

616
057
5i7
644
646
371
1,40a
36

Kuniipi.

1\t»i,
50,166
35,1110

im^Ki

53,'2II2

llHglll

45,471
07,230
43,6K1
74,3IU
4,5.10

671
23,270
13,367

113

3-i9

1,078

366

414

1513

596

356

107

3,0113

10,103
Gl

401

3J«U
104

14,360

664
371

1J6T

904,529

490

608

Mm.
2,721
1,731
,5,1311
3,116
5,061
1,551
3,1167
1,2U)
U,207
322

8,417

1,074 56

5,661 lag

Miiii.
l,6-2
101
44
33.5
155
7I'J
677
873
1,574
60S
165
10
341
34
04
473
60
49
140
10
14
90

161

l,l«0
900
40

KT
3(0
29

2,141

Urillih.

Tiftii.

217,:i75

17,2711

4,177
66,7ia
9', Mill
117,1161
I20,.'i>>4
34,11,1
131,611
01,11111
12,4li3

3,4:12
3a7UU

3,' 1 1
11,734
71,076
12,022

\753
90,7MI

1,166

6,087

9,614

96,633
9,146

195

Kin
9,1511
11,102

UI7

90,633

270

6,W7

2,706

726

3.17

lO.Mn

fiia,3'i3

IIU.UU

7,726

l«,7',5

i;o,7ri

6,502

3,fl20
41,154
9,2II«
6,532
2, 1:0
33,014

122,305
231

1,296,283 ,'ll6,7« , 6,604 |»33,«16 I 46,697 j n,339 | 2,296^15

1I,!MI

770

9ii3

9,lill7

1,216

ri,i«u

6,647

1,WI0
I2,3li1

3,KI2
h4a
IU7

1,176
IWi
046

3,1143
645
306

1,160
00
200
141

3,091
630

119
490

5,l«0

632

lUI

1,7.56

23,315

I3,KIU

4.'>4

000

6,217

314

203

2,101
513
3*6
I3'i

4,275

S,!ill
10

125
612

hl7
425
Ml
5117
3.12
1,.'U2

fiireiipi,

'/•.nil.
36,l'2ll
2j,I14
MI7,M10
Nj,720
I«I«,3(I6
4a,nt,6
61,214
;H,,.16U
0(l,4'iU

iii.na:!
21,1

1,476
1,623

546 220011
2 I 4tlU

l,T.ll
1,061
^408
4,6a<l
3,«IT
1,721
3,601
1,1*0

7,eHi

HI6

6,499

1,161

12,047

964

too

6«
TOS

ICO
321

854

620

2 249

IM 20,G09

129,504 I 5 ,1123 i «52,l>27

148 I
0,901
24

49 I

913
46,629

CHAPTER V.

DENMARK.

Denmark is an ancient kin^rdom, formerly very powerful, holding sway over the surround-
ing regionw, and, as a predatory state, the terror of all Europe. 'I'hougli now reduced to
the secondary rank, her situation renders her of importance in the general Kystein of the
Continent.

Sect. I. — General Outline and Aspect.

Denmark consists mainly of an extensive peninsula, shooting out from the north-west
comer of Germany, and a cluster of large islands to the cast of the peninmilii. Tlio norlliurn
shoios of Denmark approach close to the southern jwint of the Scandinavian peninsula,
bounding the great interior sea of the Baltic. She commands the only channel by which
the countries around this sea can transmit their pro<iiictH to tiio rest of ]';iiri:p(i ; a circum-
stance which gives her some consideration ns a nmritiniL f-tato, at the s-uiic tiini! tluit the toll
she imposes on ships pa.s.sing and repassing the Sound, is prmliictivc of ri'vciiiie. The Danisli
peninsula is lermod .Futliind ; and the islands in the interior of tlio Hiiltir, interposed be-
tween Jutland and Scandinavia, are Zealand, Fiinen, Odcnsee, and ii few others of smaller
note. Denmark hold.^ clso the Gorman territories of Sleswick and Ifol.sloiii ; with Iceland,
the Faroe Islands, and some settlements on the coa.st of Greeiilund, rciiiiiant!- ul' liur former
maritime power.

The extent of the dominions of a country broken into such a variety of detached portions
can with difficulty be estimated. The only compact mass consists of Jutland, Slcswick,

MAP OF DENMARK.

Fra. 228.

9 l/iBgilurl*; But 10 fn'rii firircnwich 11

I. 228.

«t

BooE I.

DENMARK.

466

and IIolHtoin; boiinilod on the went nnd north by tho North Sea or German Ocean ; on the
oiiNt by tho hoiiiuIh whicli form the ontrnnco of tbo liiiltic; on tlio south by the Elbe. This
tract licH jfiMirrully between •liM^" and 574° north hititiidc, and 8° and IP east longitude.
Wo hiivc Hum a lenffth of V.'H(| milt?», anil a breadth of 120. Tho total area of tho Daniih
monarchy, w iilxmt 'J'i,00() w'lire iiiileH.

The Hiirtiico of Denmark in neiirly Hat; forminff, with tho exception of Holland, the lowest
part (if tlio tfri'at i)lain of Northern Germany. The iHland.s, in particular, in many places,
rise only a tew foot above the level of the Hoa. The soil, aa in the rest of this plain, is fre-
quently Handy anil marshy ; the climate humid, though not liable to those severe frosts which
prevail in tho interior of Scandinavia. Hence it oifords good pasturage, and its soil is favour-
able to tho growth of the coarser species of grain.

Tho waters of Denmark consist chiefly of its numerous sounds and baya; the Skagerrack,
which comes in from the North Sea, and separates Jutland firom Norway; the Categat,
which, running southward nearly at right angles to the Skagerrack, separates that peninsula
from Sweden ; the Sound, a narrow strait at the extremity of the Cattegat, between Zealand
and Sweden, and which forms the main entrance into the Baltic. The insular and penin-
sular character of her territory gives Denmark an extent of coast wnich certainly does not
fall short of GOO miles ; and there is said to be no part of the land more than ten miles distant
from the sea. This structure leaves no room for the formation of any rivers of the least
, consequence, except the Eyder in Holstein, and the canal of Kiel, by which an important
communication is formed between the ocean and the Baltic. Jutland contains a number of
shallow but extensive lakes, closely bordering on the sea, with which they in many places
communicate, and may hence be regarded as bays.

Sect. II. — Natural Qeography, - ,, .

SvBSECT. 1. — Geology.

Denmark. The geology of this low and flat country has not been completely ascertained.

As far as is known ut present, it contains neither prunitive nor transition rocks: the only

secondary deposits are Weald clay, and the various members of the chalk formation ; both of

which are generally covered up with tertiary soils ; which, in their turn, are as deeply covered

Referencct to the Map of Denmark.

NORTH PART.
1. liykomhuus
S. lllurinfT

3. Ilnmlmls

4. Tooraltiil

5. Skuieii

6. Aiill)«k

7. Flaclitranil
R. e<a!b|re

0. Hottomanr:!
10. Hlokhuus
ll.Tolatrup

13. 'I'hUM
■:). Dysli^t

14. Hieretud
1.5. Y»ai
lA. Allz

17. ITIited

18. Hall

in. Sundbjc
itO. Aalliont
31. liORStor
'H. KoVleiUD
a. Kioiup Vr»-

Btegaanl
21. Kolbyo Hctru-

gaard
'iS. TislHl
W. Forbye
S!7. Ajster
!». Viibyo
tS). Sundhr

:I0. RoaKMl

!)1, Nykiitbins
:K. Ilierk

33. Sirnndbyv

34. Mallu

3.'>. Giinderuted
3K. Aara
37. llialoy
X>. Klluihny
311. KiingBley

40. 8iom

41. Vivo

41. Sodrinnhulm

43. Mariager

44. Ili>bru«
4.1. titinilum
4li. nnhlriip

47. Ulbiprg

48. Skive
4U. Kaaa
SX). Rorbcirg
51, Lemvig

Vot. I.

K. Ilaiboo Oil!
.U. Neoi
M. IJIhorg
.V». Vringelberg
511. Iloliibrui)
!i1. Hiidaagur
•Tfi. Sdnip

."iO. KnudstrupOver
m. Wiboig
fil.Bkierne
r>'2. l.aurbfirff
lU, Kandera
ri4. Horning
fi.5. Oeritecr

06. [JlMrup

07. Giurild

08. Grepnaao
01). Albo^io

70. ElielloKt

71. lleUenaca

72. Agfin

73. Thoraagnr
71. Ilnrnalc't
7.5. Skeibye
70. Aathuui
77. Duver

7P. Dallerup
70. Midslriip
K). Agnrakov
HI. Kngiivung
P2. Bunda

83. Arnnburg

84. Norninnio
Ki. Soiulcrvmig
W. Kirikiopin?

87. I)ijl)rr(llund

88. Ht^rningtihulni
80. Kauriiaard
W. Rrandholin
01. Snne

!«. Givo

y;l. Gn'ndstrup

04. Hcanderbiirg

0."). TvwiBlrup

'.Hi. Haldnip

^17. Horaens

98. Aaairup

00. Kngum
100. Veile
101 Ringgivo

102. Greene

103. (Mdain

104. Froatrupgaard

105. Lundage

lOli. \orili Rurk
107. Ilnureig
106. Kiorgaard

SOUTH PART.

.. III.

2. Varde

3. Jorno

4. llndilo

."i. Gionling
fi. Fiilduig

7. Vaaibaae

8. OiIiImI

0, Bmidtlrnp
0. Froderica

11, Guiding

12. Chrialianalblde

13, Aarne

14. Hadervleben
1.5. Gram

10. Hyim

17. Ilio>>land

IB. Ripen

lU. Reii'iyo

20. Ralluin

31. Iluyer

32. 1.ygum Kluatcr

23. Hi.iil

24. Schrurfilrup

25. Apenrade
20. Gravenalein

27. llnlebul

28. Ucke
20. Tondcr

30. Kinbibull

31. Lock

:W. Ockkolm

33. llriidileilt

34. Mcflelburg

35. Jorl

:tfi. Arenholt

37. Fionaburg

38. Hlfprup
30. GpKing
411. Kiippol

41. Windemark

42. Fokernforde

43. Sleawick

44. Hnllingfltcde

45. Troya

46. Huium

47. Mildsted

48. Frederickatadt

49. Girding

50. Tonningrn

51, W4!itlingbnrcn
,W. 'I'l llingbleilt
•V,l. RLMi(Nt)urg

54, Rnrluch

55, Bclinelm
.SO. Kiel

,57. Kumor
58, Reeadorf
50, Preol/.
00. PliHin
til. Siearn
62, Kriikan
ti3. Dranann
61. Liitgunburg
65. H.'ilundnrr
CO. Olik'nburg

67. Hurg

68. Iliiingenharun
O*.), Grciinnit

70. Nijualadl

71, Kuiin
7'2. Piirau

73. Snhamcrddorf

74. Neuniunater
7.5, VVildenscliarun

76, Oiiletatod

77, (JriblMim

78, Muldorf
70, Mama

80. Brunsbutlcl

81. Itzehne
83. Kreinpo

83, Gluckaiadt

84, Uotoraen

85, Barinaledl

86, Hubenhorat

87, Oldealiih

88, Bedgborg

89, Travemunde
OO, Lubeck

91, Labenz

92, Sicrlpy
U:i, Guduw
94. Greven

0.5. Roitzenburg

90, Lauunburg
97. Biunau
88. Wolhorn
99. Lemial

100. Pinneberg

101. Wedel

102. Hamburg
1U3. Bergador

Rivtrt.
n Skiern
b Gielil
c Widaw
d Kydor
e Blur
r KIbo
g Trave

I.AAI.AND,

1, Frederickadal
3. Raunaholl

3. Nakikov

4. Skibbelunde

5. Rrdo

0. Marieboe

7. Rodhye

8. Nyeated

9. Baxkioping

FAL8TER.

1. Onulev

2. Slubbekioping

3. Karleby

4. Nyukioping

MOF.N.

1. Mdndomark

2. Steefro

3. Phanefiord

ZEALAND,
1, Tumnuerup
3. Rumloa

3. Gillulye

4, Klflinure

,5, Froloniborg
0, Blangorup

7, Lyngbye

8. (^uponnagcn
0. GiiUlrup

10. Hullerup

11. Gylling

12 Knibbesholm

13, Ilulbek

14, Nyckinping

15, Egemnrk
10. Calliindborj

17. Giorlov

18. Undlose
39. Aagerup
ao, Roachild
31, Kioge

23. Oitettnip
?.'■ I'rggevelde

24, Ruhulte
35. Glumaoe
20. Ringited
37. Suroe

88, Antvorakov
W, aiagelaa

30, Bhielakiov

31, Baltoealot
33. Vallenavod

33, Neatved

34, Proealo«

33, Wordiogborg

SAM80G,
1, Nnrdbye
3,Bolvef

FUNEN,
1, MiddelfarUi
3. IndaloT

3, Bogeniee

4, Bederiluv

5, Kierteminde
0. Rnnkebye

7, Nyborg

8, Bellinge

0, Odenw

10. Broebye

11. Hunabya
13. Oeraied

13. Asaoni

14. Drmlalte

15, Sallinge

16, Rialing

17, Gudbiet

18. Svendborf
19 Faabotg

ALSEN.

1, Nordbuiff

3, Angustcnburg
3. Sunderburg

ARROE,
1, Boel>ye
3, Kioping

LANGELAND:
I. Humble K.
3, Rudkiobibe
3, Stocnie

slip

■'■''^ ■l

■it'

, ' H

'.<-

i't

ItK)

DESCRIPTIVK OEOGRAPIIV.

p*i»T m

with (liliiviiirn ofnanil, nnd ciilcnrf>)ii* luam; wliicli latter arc occncionnllyroiicfnlcd hy nowo*

lllllU illl lll<|)*)Hit.S,

Inliniil. 'W\» Uhw\, Ko tiir lis ii known to ffrnlngxntit, is pntirclv coniptmiMl ('(((niitrpnoni
fix'liM. 'I'lii'xc nriMit" tw(i rliiHw'!!; viz. I'liitimiiin and volcaiiic. Thn I'liitoniin i'')riii.ilions
iiri' iini iiKii>iir, and itH ai-ciinijiiitiyin;,' rocits, and himiill, with its nssociatcd tiililiji, nniygtin-
liiidn, &c. Ot'alj thi! ri'ckM ot'lht" trap wrioH, ninypfdaloid Ih that wIjk'Ii cnntaiiiM tiic HTcntcst
varu^ty <)t'iiiiMrral.M; nnd oC thi'.to the '/.nnlitnH and cnlcareou* ^[)ar» arc llif numt inlcri'stintf
ami hcaiitirui. Tho volcNinic rucks exhibit tho UHiial cliaractcrs, nnd in leoiiuid nru spread
nroniid in vnMt ahnndnnro.

Fiirnr hland*. This cniall inHnlar ifronp consints of spvontcon largp inhahiti'd iHlnndn,
and of many smaller, witli nnd without iidinbitantH. In nono of tlio ndinljitcd iKiandH nro
the most olovated Bummits lower than 1(H)(I foot ; the hifjhest land in in tlie inland of ONteroo,
wliioh rises tn fully '2,8(M( feet nlxwo tho level of tho sen. Tho two prevuilinjr roekn arc
ffreinflonf (dolerite) nnd rl<n/nlon(: The greenstone is sometimes hnsnltic, sonietinies por-
phyritic, or nmypfdaloidni. The claysfono is red, yellow, brown, nnd preen. It altemntos
with the tfrc^enstone, in hods of varyinjj thicknesH. Tho beds of precnntone nnd elaystone
of the proui) nil incline or ilip townrds a central jwint of tho protip, rendering it probnblc
that the iHlatiiis nro Imt portions of one whole. The upper surface of the? preenstone is
sinjrev, showinp that the mass had l)een in a state of iffneons s(dntion, 'J'liero nro two
principal varieties of rrrecufifoue ; one porphyrifie, with crystals of ix^nK'y felsimr, the other,
without the porphyrilic strnrturo. In some of thn islands there are IxmIs of pitchriwl, asso-
ciated witli fire clny, slnte clay, and splm-roslderite, re.itinfr upon the trnp, and covered by it.
The beds of ffrcenstono and slate clny are oHeii traversed by veins or dikes of Imsnltic and
porphyritic ftreenstone, which, however, do not appear to occasion nny chnnijfo in them; but
the greenstones nre chniiged in position nnd direction by the invasion from Indow of a
conjjiomernted rock, n kind of trap tutlii. Tho trap rocks of the Faroes have been lonof
celebrated, on nccount of the (•plciuiid zonjites theynHiird: some species of this beuutil^il
fcmily appear to be daily forming. The chioropttrilc, pcridote, nnd precious opul nre also
productions of this insular ^roup.

SunsECT. 2. — Tinlnvy.

Denmark and Sweden, Norwii'j nnd Laphiml, the Fame hhtwh, nnd /c<7«hi^,— tho Intter
giving n name, indeed to n plant eciiially comnion in the other
countrie.". Lichen islandicus, or Iceland Moss, (fi/f. 224.), —
iniiy he considered under one head, so far us regards their
^•(^getublo prwliietions ; for it is ditficult to draw an e.\acl
lino of demarcation, and even of these the very nature of our
work does not allow us to treat much at largo ; this is the
le.';s to be regretted, because the classical works of Linimms
and Wahlonberg are in the hands of every botanical student;
I Mjjp I ^y ""J t''-'y contain n mine of valuable inliirination in the Flwa
Tl^l^yi'^lffli^EISfr? ftAl, ftfipponicn and Sutrica of both these authors, and a fund of

inlerest'ug and delightful narrative in the Liirhrsis Ltip-
ponica of the great Swedish naturalist. The various writings
of Q?der, Vahl, and Ilornemann nllord much useful matter
rcltttive to the plants of Denmark. Tho vegetation of ngreat
portion of these countries may be considered the same as that
of the more northern and monntiiiiious parts of Groat Hritnin.
Yet as the nortliern regions of the continent of Europe jire-
sent an alpine and nrr:ic vegetation, in a much more perfect
degree than islands, we should scarcely do justice (o our subject, did we not offer some re-
inark.-? on tho distribution of the vegetable productions f a portion of that more interesting
and o.vireme northern Europfi»n territory; namely I.aplaiid. The natural iHnmdarinsof this
country are formed by some low mountains, aboit oOO feet in heigbt, at a distance of from
fivo to eight iSwedisli miles from the extremity of the Gulf of Hothnin. They present no
naked summit.«, hut arc covered with forests of Spruce Fir* {/i;s. 225."): these may be con-
sidi-red as the Inst sulmlpiiie r.nige in northern Europe. Comii •^ncing in tho south-east, a
little beyond tho lake Kemi.-trask, in lat. (J7^, it tends towards I'pper Toriioa, and near to
Glover Cali.x in the west; stretches south to Editors, in I,ulca; and reaches its southermost
point at the Tafvelsjon, in riiie.ui I.aplaiul, l,it. 04°. This mountain chain exhibits Calla
paliistris (fir, 22(i.), (n plant of a jioisonous fiiniily, closely allied to the Arum maculntum
or Wake-robin, and to the Caladium esciilentum of tho tropics; and, as with them, a kind of
bread called Misioiibnid, or the bread of famine, is made by the Laplanders from the nwts) ;
Sweet gale*, comiuoii S|)oedwell*, Ox-eye*, Meadow Fesciirc-grass*, nnd Cnrex stellulata*.
The Birch* there produces its leaves in the beginning of June.

* Tlic nanica markuil with an nstcriak are ttinic nf plants foand also in Britain.

Icslaad Mott

-tlin latter
n tlif ollirr
ff. ^•24.),-
liinrds thr.r
iin cxdcl
lurn of our
this i» the
liinnn'us
stiuloiit ;
10 Flora
fund of
is Lop-
18 \vritinj;s
iiinttcr
of a pront
me us tliiit
utnritHin.
rope ]m-
ro perfect
some re-
iiteresting
ies of tliis
of from
resent no
y be con-
itli-enst, a
id near to
jthermost
tiits Calla
laculatum
a kind of
|ie nxits) ;
;ellulata*.

Rook I.

Dr-NMAUK.

407

The inferior and woody diHtrirt of Li)i1iiiid lins itH iipjKT liiiiit at Sotnlankylu in Kenican
Ijapland, iK'tween Keii(riH and MunoniHku in Tonica, at JiH'kniock in l.iiiea, and atFalitrak,
in Unii'iiu Lapland; and it virldn, hesides ihn Spruce Fir, tiie Mcndov Trefiiil, tiie I.VHinm-
chia tliyrnillora*, l.ily of tm- Valley*, and White Water I.ily*, whicli jjrow aliundnntly.
Some platu.i whicli are peculiarly eiubulpinc be|{iii lo appear, as Tofic?tdia palustrid* and Hor-
ratula alpiiia*.

226

Spruce Fit.

Ri'in-(lo«r MoKs.

The upper woody district is distinguished by the absence of the last-mentioned plants; but
the tbrests of npriice still abound. Where the Spruce ceases, in places of warm exposure,
the upper limit of this repion is indicated. It.s boundary in Kemean, Tornean, and Pitean
Lapland, is more distinctly marked, because the country is flatter, and di^stituto of deep
valleys; but in such situations, in Lulea and Umea, the Spruce Fir approache*' nearer to the
Alps, and the sides of the mountains are covered with it. There its utmost northfrn limits
are found to be at Kyro, near the preat lake of Enare, in laf. 60° north. Here, tix>, is the
most northern boundary of many well-known plants, such as Trifoliuni repons*, Festuca
rubra*, Rume.x aquaticus*, the Yellow Water Lily*, and several other aquatics. Many
nlpine plants commence, as Salix plauca*, extending south to the middle of this region,
Salix hastata*, contined to the north, and Bartsia alpina*, with Lychnis alpina*, on the banks
of the streams. The culture of barley still succeeds; but scarcely beyond this line.

The subalpine mountains in this region are very dry and remarkably gravelly and stony ;
abounding in that plant which Linnrens has so beautifully described, in his Flora Lamioiiirfi,
as the main support of the Rein-deer, and consequently of the Laplander, Lichen Rangife-
rinus* (Jiff. 227.), or Rein-deer Moss. Ill could the I^plander subsist without the supplies
afforded by that iiseful animal ; it is his solo wealth. Almost the only winter food of this ser-
viceable animal is the moss, which the deer are so fond of, that though it is commonly buried
at that season under a great depth of snow, yet, by scratching with tlirir feet, and digging
with their antlers, they never fail to get at it In short, without this lichen, both the rein-
deer and the Laplander must perish. "Thus," adds Linnn'us, "things which are of>"ii
deemed the most insignificant and contemptible by ignorant men, are, by the good providence
of Go<l, made the means of the greatest blessings to his creatures." Linnteus assures us
that this lichen grows so luxuriantly in Lapland, as to be fmnd sometimes a foot in height.

But as the hills scarcely rise to the limits of perpetual snow, about 200 or 300 feet higher
than the woods are found, they are fertile in such plants as flourish in a dry and barren soil ,
viz., Menzicsia cierulea*, Arbutus alpina*, Juncus trifidus*, Lycopodium alpinum*, Azalea

i ' ■

'h;

1 '

■ '1

I iiM

t' ,.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

4io

1.0

I.I

1.25

lalM 125

lAO

2.2
2.0

U 11.6

Photographic

Sciences

Corporation

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80

(716) 872-4503

,»•

^- -V 4^

V.^^

^^^
^

%>. Q

■1^

•v'vv

*'»

.■ .J!

*%.

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

pakt ni

CodbMi.

procumbeiu,* and, thouf^ luely, Diapensia lapponica. Here the Lichen tortareus (Jig. 228.)
noQ or Cudbear, abounds, and is, both here and in Sweden and

"^ Norway, collected and exported to the dye-manu&cturers.

WahlenberfT distinguishes by the term " Regio subsylva-
tica," or partially wooded region, that where the Scotch
Fir grows, but not the Spruce. This is more contracted
than the other regions, and more difficult to be defined. It
is not unfirequently eight Swedish miles broad in northern
Lapland; in Kemea extending to nearly 70° of lat Be-
fore the Scotch Fir ceases, the Carex globularis disap-
pears, and, in the more northern parts, Prunella vulgaris.
Within the Fir region, the beautiful Pedicularis lapponica
appears scattered through the woods; Viola bifolia, and
Thalictium alpinum* following the course of the streams; Salix lanata,* with its splendid
golden catkins, at the margins of marshes and springs, and also Ranunculus lapponicus.
The cultivation of barley scarcely succeeds, and the colonists are miserably poor. The
Birch comes into leaf at the summer solstice. The lakes and rivers have an elevation of
about 1000 feet above the level of the sea. The subalpine region still yields the Birch*
(Betida alba), though other trees will not grow. Its upper boundary is marked by the
dwarf stature of these, where thev scarcely attain a height of six feet The Aspen* (fojm-
lu$ tretntda) and the Bird-cherry (Pruniu Padut) cease before the Birch : the Sorbus Aucu-
paria,* or Mountain Ash, extends as &r. The Birch always in Lapland reaches to a much
greater elevation and more northern latitude than the Scotch and Spruce Firs. Its limits
are more easily determined ; yet, on a geographical map, they are with difficulty expressed,
because the Burch ascends to the alpine regions, circumscribes all the mountains, and pene-
trates all the lesser valleys: thus it extends almost to lat 71° in Western Finmark, and
stops but little short of the North Cape. The dry portion of this region is again the habi-
tation of the Lichen rangiferinus, and of Azalea procumbens,* LuzuTa spicata,* and Juncus
trifidus.* On the borders of Russia, the Birch as well as the Scotch Fir extend even to
the Northern Ocean.

The lower alpine region, or the Lower Alps, commence where the Birch ceases to exist
and where the snow, not of perennial duration, except in oaves and hollows, melts before
the middle of July. There the Diapensia lapponica, Silene acaulis,'" and Andromeda hyp-
noides are found. The Salix myrsniites'*' and Dwarf Birch still grow erect Nearly the
^^ same vegetation as is met with on the Lower Alps exists

**" - *i^ • upon the maritime alps of Finmark, to the most northern

promontory, with this difllerence only, that the steep
and precipitous rockd harbour more moisture and snow,
and the affinity is greater with the alpine range in the
higher mountains, which retain the snow during the whole
summer, the partial melting of which creates a moist
and even a boggy soil. Here, therefore, are seen the
little Dwarf Willow* (Jg. 229.) (Salix herbacea,) Ra-
nunculus glacialis and nivalis, Pedicularis hirsuta and
flammea, Stellaria biflora, Erigeron uniflorum;* plants
eminently alpine, and peculiar to those situations.
Beyond these is the region of perpetual snow. Towaras the Norwegian Ocean, another
fbrm of the alps presents itself; lofty mountains without any plains, circumscribed with very
narrow zones, which Wahlenberg defines as the more elevated sides of the alps, reaching
nearly to the limits of perpetual snow, consequently always irrigated with snow-water :
they nourish a few, and those marshy, plants. The Ranunculi (Crowfoots) principally
abound.

The lower, or less elevated, sides of the alps, generally destitute of perpetual snow, yield
the Dwarf Birch* in the moister spots ; and, on the drier, Andromeda hypnoides, the Alpine
Speedwell*, Juncus bifidus*, and the Procumbent Azalea.*

The bases of the alps are where the Birch grows, but no Pines. Among the Burches,
scarcely six feet high, the Purple alpine Saxifrage*, with Saxifraga nivalis and cemua,
abound in the moist and precipitous places, and, in those that arc more dry, Aspidium
Lonchitis. The lower portion of this zone ai&rds tall birches, such as are found in the more
northern regions, only in the inmost recesses of the deep hays, and, beneath them, Aspidium
Filix Mas*, Osmunda Struthioptcris, the Blue Alpine SowUiistle*, and the Red Currant*

The maritime alps include the islands and promontories ; so exposed to the winds that
they derive their alpine character more from their peculiar situation than from their eleva-
tion above the level of the sea : and so bare are they of trees and shrubs, that even the
Juniper will not succeed there. They are almost equally destitute of the more alpine shrubs,
such as Andromedas; but they are adorned with succulent alpine plants, such as Soxifhiga
oppoeitifolia*, Silene acaulis*, and Dryas octopetala. Near the shore occur some produc-

Dwarf WUIow.

'^^

Book I.

DENMARK.

The Arclie Raiipberry.

tions of the alps of the south of Europe, such as Eri((cron alpinum'", Sedum villosiim'* and
Gentiana involucrato, which in Lapland are found nowhere inland. The Norwegian alpt
nourish numerous annual plants; but the dryer ones of Sweden, remote from t)ie sea, are
remarkuble for the little alpine shrubs, particularly Azalea lapponica, which scarcely occura
in Norway ; Salices alone, such as S. myrsinites*, occupying their place.

The siihalpinc spots and valleys are marked by tiie presence of the Pine; but the most
extended Fir forests are only found at tlie heads of the deep inlets of the sea, in narrow
ravines, sheltered by the lotticst mountains. These valleys enjoy a much milder climate
than all the rest of Lapland : there are found the Convallaria verticillata*. Campanula lati-
folia* and Fragaria vesca*, in abundance , but no alpine plants will grow, except the Starry
Saxifrage* {Saxifraga gtcllaris) along the margins of the rills.

A more interesting account of the vegetation of Lapland, at different elevations, is pub*
lished by Sir J. E. Smith, in the Appendix to the Lachesis Lapponica of Linneus. It is
translated from the Swedish of Dr. Wahlcnberg ; his " Observations
made with a view to determine the height of the Lapland Alpe."
(1.) On approaching the Lapponese mountains {Fjiiu), we first
reach the line where the Spruce Fir ceases to grow. This tree
had previously assumed an unusual appearance ; that of a tall
slender pole, covered from the ground with short, drooping, dark
branches: a gloomy object in these desolate forests! The Arctic
Raspberry* Qig. 2:^0.) (^Ruhus arclicus) had already, before we
arrived at this point, ceased to bring its fruit to maturity. With
the Spruce we lose the Cinnamon Rose {Rosa cinnamomea*), and
the Tv/in-leaved Solomon's Seal (Convallaria Infolia), Sic. ; and
the borders of the lakes are stripped of their ornaments of Reeds
(Arundo Phragmite^), Lysimachia thyrsiflora*, Galium boreale*,
and Carex globularis. Here is the true station of the Arctic Colts-
foot {Thustlago nivea). The last beaver-houses are seen in the
rivulets ; and no pike nor perch is to be found in the lakes higher
up. The boundary of the Spruce Fir is 3200 feet below the line
of perpetual snow, and the meun temperature 37° of Fahrenheit.

(2.) Scotch Firs* {Pinus syhestris) are still found, but not near
so tall as in the lower country. Their stems here arc low, and their
branches widely extended. Here are seen the last of Jjodum pa-
lustre*, Salix pentandra*, Veronica serpyllifolia*, &c. The bogs have already a very sterile
appearance. Near the utmost boundary of the Scotch Fir grows Phaca alpina. Higher up,
hardly any bears are to be met with ; and the fruit of the Bilberry* does not ripen well.
The Gwiniad and Grayling, two species of the Salmon tribe, soon aller disappear from the
lakes. The upper limit of this zone, at which the Scotch Firs cease, is 2800 feet below the
line of perpetual snow, and the mean temperature about 36° Fahrenheit. A little short of
this point, or about 3000 feet before we come to perpetual snow. Barley will not ripen ; but
email farms, the occupiers of which live by grazing and fishing, are met with as far as 400
feet higher ; for instance, Naimaka in Enontekis, and so far also potatoes and turnips grow
largo enough to be worth cultivating.

(3.) Beyond this, the dwarf and stunted forests consist only of Birch.* Its short, thick
stem, and stiff, widely-spreading, knotty branches, seem prepared to resist the strong winds
from the Alps : its lively light green hue is delightful to the eye, but evinces a weakness
of vegetation. The birch forests soon become so low, that they may be entirely commanded
from the smallest eminence. Their uppermost boundary, where the tallest of them do not
equal the height of a man, is 2000 feet below the line of perpetual snow. This zone is
therefore much wider than the preceding. Lon? before its termination, the Alder* {Alntu
incana), the Bird-cherry* {Primus Padns), and the Aspen {Popnlus tremula*), were no
more to bo seen. A little before the Birch ceases, we miss the Mountain Ash*, which for
some time had not presented us with any fruit; the Arctic Bramble* {Rubus arcticus) was
already likewise barren; the Ling* {Erica vulgaris), Aconitum Lycoctonum, &.c. Where
the birch forest becomes thinner, the reflection of the heat from the sides of tlie mountains
is the strongest. Here, in many spots, we find the vegetation of Sonchus alpinus*. Strut!)!-
opteris, and Aconitum Lycoctonum remarkably luxuriant The dryer spots now become
covered with the Iceland Moss* {Lichen rangiferinus) : Tussilago ftigida and Pedicularis
sceptrum-carolinum extend to the utmost boundary of the Birch. Thus far only the Char
(Salmo alpinus) is found in the lakes, and higher up all fishing ceases.

(4.) All mountains above this limit are called Pjall (alps). Near rivulets, and on the
margin of bogs only, is found a little brushwood, consisting of Salix glauca*, whose gray
hue affords but little ornnment to the landscape. The lower country is covered with the
dark-lookinsj Dwarf Bircli* {Betula nana), which still retains its upright position. A few
Juniper bushes*, and some plants of Salix hastata*, are found scattered about. Every hill
is covered witli Arbutus alpina*, variegated with Andromeda Cffirulea*, and the Wintergreen*
VouL 40

( a ^

I !

470

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY,

Part 111,

{Trientalis curopaa). Tlie more boggy ground is decorated with Andromeda polifoliai* in
its greatest beauty, and Pcdicularia lapponica. On tiie sides of the mountains, where the
reflected heat bears most power, grow Veronica alpina*, Viola biflora*, Pteris crispe*, and
Angelica archangel ica.* This zone extends within 14(t0 feet of tlie line of perpetual snow.
The glutton {Muslela Oulo) goes ro higher than tiiis. The berries of the Cloudberry
{Rubtis ChanuBmorui) still ripen here, but not at a greater elevation.

(5.) Now no more brushwood is to be seen. The white Salix lanata* is not above two
feet high, even about the rivulets, and Salix myrsinites* is of still humbler growth. The
Dwarf Birch* occupies the dry spots, and creeps entirely upon the ground. The hills are
clothed with the rather brown than green Azalea procumbens*, and A. lapponica, which
give this zone its most peculiar feature. Verdant spots between the precipices, where the
sun has the greatest power, produce Lychnis apetala*, Erigeron uniflorum*, Astragalus
leontinus and montanus, with Ophrya alpina. In boggy places, Aira alpina*, Carex ustu-
lata*, and Vaccinium uliginosum'" are observable. The only berries, however, which ripen
at this degree of elevation are those of the Crowberry* {Empetrwn nigrum) ; but these are
twice as large as what grow in the woodlands, and tetter flavoured. The upper boundary
of this zone is 800 feet below the line of perpetual snow. The Laplanders scarcely ever
nx their tents higher up, as the pasture for their reindeer ceases a very little way above
this point ITie mean temperature is about 34° Fahrenheit.

(6.) Next come the snowy Alps, where are patches of snow that never melt. The
bare places between still produce a few dark shrubby plants, such as the Crowberry*, des-
titute, however of fruit; Andromeda tetragona and hvpnoides, and Diapensia lapponica.
Green precipices, exposed to tlie sun, arc decorated with the vivid azure tints of Gentiana
tenella and nivalis*, and Campanula uniflora, accompanied by the yellow Draba alpina.
Colder and marshy situations, where there is no reflected heat, produce Pedicularis hirsuta,
and Dryos octopetala.* This zone reaches to within 200 feet of the limits of perpetual and
almost uninterrupted snow.

(7.) Beyond it, the eternal snows begin to cover the ground, and we soon arrive at a point
where only a few dark spots are here and there to be seen. This takes place on the alps
of Quickjock at the elevation of 4100 feet above the sea ; but nearer the highest ridge, and
particularly on the Norway side of that ridge, at 3100 feet. Some few plants with succulent
leaves are thinly scattered over the spongy brown surface of the earth, where the reflected
heat is strongest, quite up to the line of uninterrupted snow : tliese are Saxifraga stellaris*,
rivularis*, and oppositifolia* ; Ranunculus nivalis and glacialis ; Rumex digynus*, Juncus
arcnatus*, and Silene acaulis. The mean temperature, at the boundary of perpetual snow,
is 32i° of Fahreniieit.

(8.) Above the line of perpetual snow, the cold is occasionally so much tempered, that a
few plants of Ranunculus glacialis, and other similar ones, may now and then be found in
the clefts of some dark rock rising through the snow. This happens even to the height of
500 feet above that line. Farther up, the snow is very rarely moistened, though some um-
bilicated Lichens (Gyrophora:), Sic. still occur in the crevices of perpendicular rocks, even
2000 feet above the line of never-melting snow. These are the extremes of vegetation,
where the mean temperature seems to be 30° Fahrenheit. The Snow Bunting {Emberixa
nivalis) is the only living being that visits this elevate? spot.

ScBSECT. 3. — Zoology.
The native Zoology, in conjunction with that of Norway, has been ably illustrated by the
celebrated Danish naturalist Miiller, and shows that the f&una of those kingdoms is much
richer than tlieir northern and ungenial climate would lead us to imagine. The total num-
ber of land quadrupeds, including the domestic species, is forty-one. Among these we find
the lynx, the glutton, the beaver, the leming, and the flying squirrel ; together with four
of the largest deer inhabiting Europe ; namely, the elk, the stag, the rein-deer, and the
fiillow-deer.

The Elk {Cervua Alces) {Jig. 231.) of Europe is not the same with tlie Moose-deer of Ame-
rica : it is found in Europe between latitude 53° and
65° : in size it is higher than a horse ; and, to support
tlie enormous weight of its horns, sometimes nearly
fifty pounds, its neck is short, thick, and very strong.
Its movements are rather heavy : it does not gallop, but
ambles along, the joints cracking so much at every
step, that the sound is heard to some distance. During
winter it chiefly resides in hilly woods; but in summer
it frequents swamps and the borders of lakes; oflen
going deep into the water, to escape the stings of gnats,
&c., and to feed without stooping. Witli its enonnous
horns it turns <lown brandies of trees, to feed upon the
bark, witii great dexterity ; and these are also used as
shovels, to g:et at pasture when covered with snow.
The young are so simple and fearless, that they will

v&y%^/^ ^

TtwElk.

. The
"*^ des-

BookL

DENMARK.

471

The Mocking Juj.

suffer themselves to be taken by the hand. An unusually large oik, killed in Sweden, ia
said to have weiglicd 1800 lbs. These animals do not now appear to be employed in any
domestic office.

The Wolverine, or Glutton, is one of those animals whoM history has long been shrouded
in fiction and romance. It is only now that its true habits have been given to the world, oy
that enterprising traveller, Dr. Richardson. The Wolverine of America, generally consi-
dered the same with the European Glutton, feeds chiefly upon beasts that have been acci-
dentally killed ; but it will hunt smaller animals, as meadow-niicc, marmots, Sic. and occa-
sionally attack disabled animals of a larger size. In its gait it resembles the bear ; and,
although not fleet, is very industrious. Mr. Graham observes, that it does more damage to
the small fur trade than all the other rapacious animals conjointly ; as it will follow the
martin-hunter's path round a line of traps extending sixty miles, and render the whole
unserviceable, merely to get at the baits. Yet it flies from the face of man, and may be
killed with a stick. Its total length is not more than two feet and a half.
The Birds, according to Miiller, amount to 232 species : the greater part of these are

common to tlie northern countries of Europe ; but the
Mocking Jay {Corvus infaitstns Lin.) {fig. 232.), and
the Nutcracker {Nucifraga caryocatactes) are unknown
in Britain and more southern latitudes : the bill of the
latter is shaped much like that of a woodpecker, and ia
said to be used for breaking the shells of nuts : whence
its name. The species of fish, from the maritime nature
of the region, are numerous.

Domestic animals. It appears that the breeds called
tlie lesser and greater Danish Dogs are much more com-
mon in other countries than in thot from which they
have been named. The horses and cattle are of very
large-sized breeds, generally called the Holstein. The greatest number of oxen seem to be
bred in Jutland : they arc fattened, during summer, in the rich marshes of Holstein, and
driven, in the autumn, to Hamburg.

Sect. III. — Historical Geography.

During the early period of the middle ages, the swarms of pirates sent fortli by Denmark
spread desolation and terror to the remotest extremities of Europe. Canute king of Den-
mark even ascended the English throne in 1017. Denmark, at the same time, carried on
frequent wars against tiie contiguous districts of Gennany and Pofand, and oflcn held sway
over large portions of them. But her most brilliant era was the reign of Margaret of Wal»
demar, sumamed the Semiramis of the North, who, by her courage, popularity, and address,
succeeded in effecting the union of Calmar, which placed on her head, and on that of her
nephew Eric, the crown of the three northern kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway.

The decline of Denmark began in the thirteenth century, under the violent and tyranni-
cal reign of Christian I. The sanguinary course by which he sought to punish an insurrec-
tion of the Swedes roused all the dormant spirit of that brave people, who found a deliverer
in Gustavus Vaso, and were Anally freed from the Danish yoke. During the two following
centuries, Sweden, led to victory by a succession of heroic monarchs, rose to the highest
pitch of military glory ; while Denmark, always defeated, was stripped of many of her most
important territories, and sunk into the rank of a secondary state. Still she successfully
cultivated maritime commerce and shipping, and obtained some valuable possessions in the
East and West Indies.

In the great crisis produced by the conquests of Napoleon, Denmark was thrown into an
unfortunate predicament. Placed, as it were, at the point of collision between France and
Russia, she could with difliculty escape being crusiied between them. Circumstances of
peculiar hardsliip threw her into the arms of Prance, to whose cause she adhered, and at the
great contest which ended in the downfall of Napoleon, she became a victim. First, she
was deprived of Norway, that it might be ceded to Sweden, and that Russia migiit retain
Finland. Denmark received in return Swedish Pomerania as an inadequate compensation.
Next, she was required to exchange Pomerania for Iiauenburg, a territory of still inferior
extent and value ; but, as it borders on Sleswick and Holstein, it has rendered her dominion
more compact, and extended her frontier to the Elbe, so that she is perhaps rather a gainer
by tiie exchange.

Sect. IV. — Productive Industry.

Tlie agriculture of Denmark is conducted under considerable disadvantages both of cli-
mate and soil. The climate, though not subject to severe frost or intense cold, is chill and
damp ; and the land consists in a great measure of sand and marsh. Every part of the king-
dom, however, ia capable of some cultivation, and occasional tracts of luxuriant fertility
occur. Such are the islands of Zealand Laaland, and Falstcr ; ond, in a still greater degree,

T%-

-HI

% 4

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part 10.

'1^-

^f the waFCoast of Sleswick and Holstnin ; for tho interior is arid an<I windv. TIio industry
™f of the peasant in Denmark Proper Buffers many aevrtro cliccks ; ho has been but recently
emancipated from personal bondage, and is still subjected to many feudal usages. Life-
leases, under which the payment is made in produce or pergonal services, are common. The
proprietors are generally embarrassed, and unable to expend much on the improvement of
their lands. The farmers of Holstein and Sleswick carry on tho process of cultivation with
^at skill and activity. The chill moisture of the climate is less tavourable to tiie cultiva-
tion of wheat than of barley, rye, and oats ; all of which afford a large surplus for exporta-
tion. The rearing of cattle is also an e.xtensive branch of industry, though too litllc atten-
tion has been paid to the improvement of the breeds, unless on the west coast of Sleswick,
on whose moist and rich meadows is produced what bears a high reputation under the name
of " Hamburg beef." Over all Denmark, the produce of the dairy forms the basis of a large
export trade.

The manu&cturea of Denmark are extremely rude, and consist chiefly in working up the
flax and wool of the country in a coarse form for domestic use. A great proportion also of
the wool is exported. Government have employed ^eat efforts to raise Denmark to the
rank of a manu&cturing country ; and some fabrics m the diflferent kinds of cloth, brandy,
' migar-refining, dtc., liave, under its patronage, been set on foot in the large towns ; but these
are all languishing, and with difficulty support foreign competition.

The commerce of Denmark is in a more active state than the other branches of industry ;
though it is still not such as to give her a prominent place among the powers of Europe.
The basis consists in the exportation of its raw produce. The grain exported from Jutland
and the islands, at an average of seven years to 1827, amounted to 29,000 quarters of wheat ;
141,000 quarters of rye ; 190,000 quarters of barley ; 43,000 quarters of oats. The rye
was chiefly exported to Norway, to be used as bread-corn, and the barley to be employed in
distillation. The value of these articles amounted, in 1825, to $6,300,000. That of butter
and cheese exported was, in the same year, |ll,300,000. Holstein and Sleswick, called the
duchies, exported at an average also of seven years, 78,000 quarters of wheat ; 55,000 of
rye ; 75,000 of barley ; 1.30,0(W of oats. The value of butter, cheese, and solted meat, is
still greater. Denmark, from its situation between the northern and middle states, has a
considerable carrying trade of the bulky articles produced by the former ; and has also a
good deal of ship-building. Both the whale and herring fisheries arc likewise carried on to
some extent

Sect. V. — Political Geography.

The constitution of Denmark, originally founded on the basis of the most complete feudal
independence, to the extent of rendering the monarchv itself elective, underwent a com-
plete change in 1660, when Frederick III. had the oddfss to obtain an act by which the
crown was declared hereditary, and himself invested witli supreme and absolute power.
The sway of the Danish princes has, however, been exceedingly mild and popular, and their
despotic power exerted in a manner beneficial to the people, as it limited the oppressive
rights exercised by the nobles. These, however, continue to be extremely obnoxious ;
and it is only within a very few years that the body of tlie people were emancipated from
a state of personal slavery. The nobles are few in number, consisting only of one duke,
nineteen counts, and twelve barons. The king himself presides at the supreme national
tribunal.

The revenue amountstofrom about 1(7,500,000 to 1^,000,000. There is a nominal debt of
975,000,000 ; but the interest paid upon it is small.

The military and naval establishments are on a scale suited to a greater country Uian
what remains of Denmark. The army is kept up to nearly 40,000 regular troops and 60,000
militia. The navy has not recovered from the severe shock which it received during the
last war : at present it consists of six ships of the line, six frigates, and four corvettes, besides
smaller vessels. The sailors being all registered, no difficulty is ever found in manning the
navy.

Smct.YI.— Civil and Social State.

The population of the Danish dominions in 1832, amounted to 2,049,000; of which
1,540,000 were in its ancient domain of the islands Jutland and Sleswick ; 404,000 in Hol-
stein; 40,000 in Lauenburg ; 51,000 in Iceland ; 14,000 in Greenland and the Faroe Islands.*

National character. The Danes are generally quiet, tranquil, and industrious. The
inhabitants of the towns, who are chiefly engaged in trade, have a great share of the patient,
ihrilty, and persevering habits of the Dutch. The pcosantry, poor and oppressed, arc begin-
ning, however, to raise their heads ; and the nobles, no longer addicted to those rude and

* The Danish nilnnio are OhriolianiiborK and nthor fitatinnfi in Guinea, with 44,000 inh.ibilnnt9 ; Snnitt C'lux,
8t. Thomas, and St.Jnhn in the Weft Indies, with 47,000; and Tranquebarand nictorieiinntbcCuiomandelc
in the East Indies, with UO.OUO.— Aa. Ed.

■<y.

'♦

Book I.

DENMARK.

478

vhich
Hol-
inds.*
The
tient,
•egin-
e and

I Ciux,

Icout,

daring pursuits which rendered them once so formidable, live much in the stylo of opulent
proprietors in other European countries.

The Lutheran religion was early and zealously adopted in Denmark, to the extent, indeed,
of granting toleration to no other ; but the liberal principles now diffUsed throughout Europe,
have mode their way fully into that country. Science was at one era somcwliat brilliantly
patronised in Denmark. The cbservatory at Orienbaum was the theatre of many of the
most important modem observations; and Tycho Brahe ranks as one of ttio fittliera of
modern astronomy. (Elenschlager and other writers have introduced a school of poetry and
dramatic literature, founded upon that of the modem German. The government has
bestowed a laudable attention on the general education of iu people, and has even passed n
law, requiring every child, of a certain age, to be sent to school. The schools, on the plan
of mutual instruction, amounted, in 1829, to 2500, and more were in progress ; there are also
3000 grammar and parish srhools.

Sect, VII. — Local Geography,
The local divisions of continental Denmark present little variety in consequence of the
uniformity of its surftice, and the small number of considerable cities. Its divisions are Zev
land and the other islands ; Jutland, Sleswick, Holstein, LAUcnburg ; with the remote terri-
tories of Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands.

Zealand is a flat, fertile, and extensive island, separated from Funen by the Great Belt,
and f5rom Sweden by the Sound. Including the capital, and chief seats of trade, it forms the
most important part of the Danish dominions.
Copenhagen, (Jg. 233.), (in Danish, Kiobenhafo, or the " merchant port,") the capital

of Denmark, is situated on the east
coast of Zealand, with the island
of Amak oppposite to it, and seve
ral little lakes in it« vicinity. Its
walls enclose a circuit of five miles,
a great part of which, however, is
covered with open spaces, and with
the harbour and docks. The houses,
with a few exceptions, are built of
brick, plastered over, and painted
in different colours. The number
of inhabitants is about 115,000;
the houses dre lotly, and contain
many fiimilies in each. The city
is divided into three ports; the old town, which contains the greater part of the population;
the new town, in which are all the finest edifices; and the port, or Christian's Haven. In
the midst of the principal square is the bronze statue of Frederick V., weighing 45,000 Ibe.
This square, with the adjoining one called the King's Mark Place, surrounded by the palace
of Charlottcnborg, the theatre, the principal hotel, and other stately buildings, forms the
handsomest part of Copenhagen. The cathedral was destroyed during the bomWdment by
the English, and is left in ruins ; but the Frue Kirke is an elegant Grecian edifice, 215 feet
by 180, with a Doric portico, and for which Thorwaldsen is preparing statues of the apostles
and evangelists. The palace of Rosenborg, though now unoccupied, contains an extraor-
dinary display of jewels, precious stones, and porcelain. The collections in science and art
ore equal to those of the greatest capitals. The king has a library of 400,000 volumes, with
numerous manuscripts illustrative of^the history and literature of the North, as well as those
brought by Niebuhr from the East; an extensive museum of northern antiquities: a gallery
of pictures, comprising some fine specimens of the greatest masters, and a numerous collec*
tion of engravings. The University of Copenhagen, a highly respectable institution, has a
valuable library of about 100,000 volumes, and an excellent collection of northern manu-
scripts. The arsenal is said to equal that of Venice in beauty, and to surpass it in extent.
The mint throws off 200 pieces in a minute.

The other towns in Zealand and the islands are of comparatively small magnitude. Ros-
child, the ancient capital of Denmark, which contained once thirty convents and thirty
churches, is now remarkable only for its Gothic cathedral, in whose vaults arc deposited the
remains of the kings of Denmark. Several of the monuments are fine. Elsinore, with its
castle of Cronborg, is important from its situation on the Sound, which being commanded
by the castle, the government is enabled to levy what are called the Sound dues. The pas-
sage to Helsinborg, in Sweden, may be made in half an hour. Elsinore, from its favourable
situation and good roadstead, carries on a considerable commerce, and contains, among its
inhabitants, many British, Jews, and even Mahometans. It has a handsome cathedral, with
(»me fine tombs. Population 7000. At Cronborg is shown the chamber in which the
unfortunate Matilda was confined. This castle commands a noble view over the sea, the
Vol. I. 40* 3K

CopenbM'B.

!.!R

'••■• t^ ^JT

' %

474

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

Pabt in.

iilandg, and the oppoaite coant of Sweden. The torracn from which these are viewed
recalls to the En^'lish reader the first scenes of Hamlet, tlic tradition of whose story is still
prevalent here. Soroe, in the interior, surrounded by a tine country, has a noble academy ;
and contains the toinlw of Eric, Canute, and other princes. Odensee, tiie capital of Funen,
has a collen^c, and is riithcr a thriving town, with manufactures of woollen and soap. Nye>
bor^, in Funcn, and Cori<oer in Zealand, derive some im|x>rtancc from their situation on the
passage of the Great Belt; and Middelfurth, in the former island, from the passage of the
Little Belt

The towns of Jutland are of small interest, and have been little observed, with the excep*
tion of those which lie on the high rood from Hamburg to Copenhagen. Aalborg, near the
northern extreft^ity, is the seat ofone of the four bishoprics; and, being situated on a narrow
arm of the 8eA,'wit,h a good harbour, carries on some trade. Aarhuus, on the eastern coast,
is the seat of another bishopric ; and, being in tlie midst of a fertile country, exports some
grain. Population, 5,000. Colding derives some importance from its vicinity to the passage
of the Little Bolt. Wiborg and Ripen are also deserving of mention.

In Sleswick, the city of that name is agreeable, though irregularly built. Its cathedral,
with numerous monuments of ancient dukes, is viewed with interest. Flemsborg, on a deep
and winding hanf, or bay, with an excellent harbour, possesses a much greater commercial
importance, while it carries on the communication with the Baltic: it has 15,000 inhabitants.
Tonningcii, on tiic otiier side, near the mouth of the Eyder, communicates with the coun-
tries situated round the Gorman Ocean ; and, by the canal of Holstein, it has now a water
communication with the Baltic.

Holstein, the most southern province of Denmark, ranks as a part of the German empire,
to which it once belonged, and gives to the king of Denmark a vote in the diet. Reaching
to the Elbe, and being more in tlie commercial circle, it has a considerably brisker trade than
the northern or peninsular territory. Altona, a few miles below Hamburg, is a repetition of
that city on a smaller scale ; having 25,000 inhabitants, busily employed in the commerce
of the Elbe, in shi|>-huilding, and in several manufactures. Gluckstajilt, about twenty miles
lower, though inferior in extent, is a handsome and regular town, with considerable naval ,
establishments. Kiel, on the eastern or Baltic coast, has an excellent harbour, and derives
importance from its situation at the extremity of the canal which connects the eastern and
western seas. It contains an university. Lauenburg, a level tract, intersected with several
small lakes, thougli it rounds the Dnnisli borders, does not possess much importance, either
in itself or its little capital, with 3,(XK) inhabitants.

Iceland, an appendage of the Danish crown, unimportant in a political view, but interest-
ing from its physiiui and moral aspect, is situated in the Northern Ocean, on the border of
the arctic circle, i.nd at the farthest verge of the civilized world. It is a liirge island, 220
miles in length, and 210 in breadth; containing about 40,000 square miles. Iceland belongs,
by its situation, to the polar world ; and the mountain chains, from 3000 to 6000 feet high,
with which it is everywhere intersected, give it a still more severe and stern character.
Barley is the only grain that can be raised, and this only in patches ; cabbages, and a few
other imported vegetables, may be produced, but Iw no means in perfection. The dependence
of the inhabitants is chiefly upon the abundance of flsh which the surrounding seas oifbrd ; so
that the interior, comprising about half of the island, is a desert of the most dreary character.
The mountain phenomena of Iceland are very striking. According to Glieman, the
jokuls, or hills covered with ice, rise to the following heights : Oerefe, 6240 feet ; Snafell,

4572; Findfiill, 5368; Hecia, 5210; Eya-
flail Oester, 5794. All these mountains
are, at the same time, glaciers capped
with ice which never melts; but these
glaciers consist not, like those of Switzer-
land, of great masses sloping down from
upper regions of the mountains to the val-
leys ; they are the snows of winter melted
and frozen where they fall. Beneath this
mantle of ice and snow burns a perpetual
fire, which in every part of the island
bursts forth in the most strange and fear-
ful phenomena. Hecla (Jig. 234.), with its flaming volcano, is the most celebrated ; but its
eruptions, of which six have occurred in the course of a century, are at present suspended.
There are six other volconoes, which, in the course of a century, have emitted twenty
eruptions.

The Geysers form a phenomena strikingly characteristic of Iceland, and rank with the
most extraordinary that are produced on any port of the globe. They consist of fountains,
which throw up boiling water, spray, and vapour, to a great height into the air. The erup-
tions are not continuous, but announce their approach by a sound like that of subterraneous

Hecla.

' V

■€■

Book I.

DENAfARK.

476

with the
luntains,
e erup-
raneoua

Ciretfct Opyger.

tliundcr; immediately after whicli, a column of water, acconipnMJcil with prodigious volumes

of steam, burKtu forth, and rui«hi-H up to the neifflit of titly,
sixty, ninety, or even a hundred an<l titly feet. The water
soon ceases ; but the spray and vapour continue to play in
the air for several hours, and, when illuminated by the sun,
produce the most brilliant rainbows. The largest stones,
when thrown into tlie orifice, are instantly propslled to an
amazing height, and remaining otlen tor some minutes
within the influence of the steam, rise and fall in singular
alternation. Stones thrown into the fountain have the
remarkable effect of acting as a stimulus to the enip-
tion, and causing it to burst from a state of tranquillity.
The basin of the Great Geyser (Jig, 235.), is of an oval
form, with diameters of finy-eight and sixty-four feet.
Every spot around the Geysers is covered witli varic^
ted and beautiful petrifactions. Leaves, grass, rushes,
are converted into white stone, preserving entire every
fibre.

The Sulphur Mountains, with their caldrons of boilmg
mud, present another phenomenon which the traveller be-
holds with the utmost astonishment These consist chiefly of clay, covered with a crust,
which is hot to the touch, and of sulphur, from almost every part of which, gas and steam
are perpetually escaping. Sometimes a loud noise guides the traveller to a spot where cal-

drons of black boiling mud (Jig.
238 ^^ 236.), largely impregnated with

this mineral substance, are throw-
ing up, at short intervals, their
eruptions. Tliat on the Krabla,
observed by Mr. Henderson, had a
diameter equal to that of the Great
Geyser, and rose to the height of
thirty feet. The situation of the
spectator here is not only awful, but
even dangerous; standmg, as Sir
George Mackenzie observes, " on a
support which feebly sustains him,
over an abyss where Are and brim-
.. . stone are in dreadful and incessant

Caldroa of BoUmi Mud. action "

The civil and social state of Iceland presents features no less interesting. It was dis-
covered about the year 840, by Nadod, a Danish pire.i.3. After its settlement it became a
little independent republic ; and the arts and literature, driven before the tide of barbarism,
which then overwhelmed the rest of Europe, took reftige in this remote and frozen clime.
Iceland had its divines, its annalists, its poets, and v.-as for some time the most enlightened
country then perhaps existing in the world. SuV; :t^d first to Norway, in 1261, and after-
wards to Denmark, it lost the spirit and ene.;. >(* an independent republic. Yet the
difiusion of knowledge, even among the lowest c^ -r<, which took place during its pros-
perous period, still exists in a degree not paralleleu in the most enlightened of other
nations. Men who seek, amid the storms of the surrounding ocean, a scanty provision
for their families, possess an acquaintance with the classical writings of antiquity, and
a sense of their beauty. The traveller finds the guide whom he has hired able to hold a
conversation with him in Lutin, and on his arrival at his miserable place of rest for the night,
is addressed witii fluency and elegance in the same language. " The instruction of his chil-
dren," says Dr. Holland, " forms one of the stated occupations of the Icelander ; and while
the little hut which he inhabits is almost buried in the snow, and while darkness and deso-
lation are spread universally around, the light of an oil-lamp illumines the page from which
he reads to his family the lessons of knowledge, religion, and virtue."

The Faroe Islands compose a group in the Northern Ocean, between 61° 15' and 62° 20'
N. lat., to the N.W. of Shetland, which they resemble. The principal are Stromsoe, Osteroe,
Suderoe, and Norderoe, with the smaller islands of Nalsoe, Vogoe, and Sandoe. Their only
wealth is produced by the rearing of sheep, fishing, and catching the numerous birds which
cluster round the rocks. With the surplus of these articles tliey supply their deficiency of
grain. Thorsharn, on Stromsoe, is the only place tliat can be called a town.

*•*.

*<ttr.

'if

• *

DESCRIPTIVE UROGRAPHY
CHAPTER VI.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

PABTin

SwiOM and Nobwav, now united into ono kinf^dom, form an pxtpnaivf) regrion, atretchinff
from the utmoat verge of the temperate xunc tar h'to the tVozcn range of the arctic circle.
Alonf; the north ana west itrotch the wide vhoroa of the Frozen Ocean, m fkr as yet known.
The Bouth-wost point of the kinfjfdom borders on the North Sea or German Ocean. • The
Baltic and the Gulf of Bothnia encloHO it on the south and onHt; so that it formH an immense
peninsula. The isthmus by which it is joined to Russia is above 200 miles broad, but lo
closely baned by mountains and frosen plains, that the kingdom is nearly inaccessible,
except by sea.

SiOT. I. — Oeneral Outline and Aipeet.

This kinffdom is of vast extent Its lenf^th, from the extreme point of Scania to the Nortli
Cape, is 1C60 miles. Its breadth, from the extreme points of tlie provinces of Stockholm
on the east, and Bergen on the west, will little exceed 360 miles. Its area is 207,000 square
miles. Of this large territory, scarcely a half can be considered as belonging to the civi-
Hzed world. The Laplander, who derives his whole subitistence from the rein-deer, can
hardly be included within the pale of civilized society. Even tlie southern districts have a
rugged and repulsive aspect, when compared to almost any other European state. Forests
of tall and gloomy pine stretch over the plains, or hang on the sides of the mountains ; the
groimd for hve months in the year is buried under snow ; cultivation appears only in scat-
tered patches, and was long c^uite insufficient to furnish bread to the inhabitants.

The mountains consist chiefly of tho dark and lofty chain of the Dofrines, which were
for ages a barrier between the two separate and hostile states of Sweden and Norway, but
are now included within the united kingdom. It commences near Oottenburg, on a low
scale, and becomes much more elevated in passing through Norway, where some of its pin
nacles exceed 8000 feet Chains of secondary elevation run through Lapland ; but, in
approaching the North Cape, they again rise as high as before, and fkce the polar seas with
ciifis of prmligioua magnitude.

The nvers are numerous, Sweden being a country profusely watered ; but, as they rise in
the Dofrines, and traverse the divided breadth of the peninsula, they seldom attain any
material length of course. The largest is the Dahl, which crosses Dafecarlia, and ftJls into
the sea at Geffle, after a course of 260 miles. The most important as to navigation are those
which form the outlet to the lakes, particularly the Gotha, reaching from the lake Wener
to Gottcnburg. The Glomme and the Dramme are pretty considerable rivers, running
from north to south, and down which considerable quantities of timber are floated. Lapland
pours a number of large streams into the head of tho Gulf of Bothnia ; but these are
usually chained in ice, and at no time can be subservient to the purposes of agriculture or
navigation.

Lakes form the grand depository of the surplus waters of Sweden. The Wener bears
almost the character of an mland sea, and the completion of the canal of Trdlhfttta, by
enabling its coasts to communicate by the Gotha with Gottenburg, has given them almost
the full advantages of a maritime site. The Wetter, though equal in length, covers not
nearlv so great an extent of ground. Mftler, or Malar, is a narrow, winding loch, or, more
strictly, a oay, running sixty miles into the interior from Stockholm, to whose environs its
variegated and rocky shores give a beautiful wildness. Small lakes, enclosed between hills,
are of very frequent occurrence, both in Norway and Sweden.

Scot. II. — Natural Geography.
■ ' SuBSKCT. 1. — Geology.

(1.) Geolooy of Sweden. — I. Primitive rocks. Granite occurs in the mountains of
J&mtland, in Herjeadalen, in Lulea Lappmark, in Pitea Lappmark. It occurs also in the
plains, without any covering of other rocks, as in Upland, Wcstmanland, Sudermanland, and
a part of East and West Gothland. It passes into gneiss and syenite. Gneiss occurs in
many places in Sudermanland, East Gothland, inc., with beds of copper and iron ore. Mica
slate aoounds not only in the principal, but also in the subordinate chains, and contains the
greater number of the metalliferous beds met with in Sweden. It often alternates with vast
beds of primitive limestone, quartz, &.c. In the high mountain ridges, the strata of this
rock are generally disposed at an angle of 45°; while in the subordinate chains they aie
vertical. In many places it abounds in garnets, when it is known under the name noorka,
or murkstein, the garnet rock of geologists. Clay slate occurs sparingly : talc slate, in
several quorters, occurs in considerable abundance. Porphyry occurs only in Sraaland,
where the basis is a quartzy homstone (hallejlinta) with embedded crystals of felspar, and
grains of quartz. Primitive limestone occurs generally in the secondary mountain chains.

'liv

t'.

DookL

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

4T7

but snlilom in tho noighbourhuod of tlio ccntriil chniiiH. It i* mixed up with iiornblende
tromolitu, quartz, Borptmtinv, ifaniet, ma^nutic ironHtonc, and mica. It ia odon iiivtallifonmii,
coiitainint; ffnlena, copper, aiid iron pyritoH. Hcrppntino, with the exception of nuuncii in
Rome mntalliforuuR beds, 8oldom occun pure : it w ntton mixed witli limniitono, when it
occurM in primitive limostono. Quartz ri>ck occtirs eitlipr pure, and in whole mountuini, m
in Dahlxlund, Hnmland, and many other plucen; or it altonmtoH with mica MJute, oh in Dahln-
land, and qIho in tiio metallifurouii bedi of I'entborK and Klacka. Tlin limovtono of Dane-
mora contains mica iilate. It also occum in veins in Kranito and mica Hlat(!, &c. Porphyri-
tic quartz, n {granite rock, with embedded gminn and cryHtala of fubpar, occurs in Hmuland,
Tomea LAppmark, &c. Primilive trap. Of this interestinp[ irroup of rocks, tlie foliowinif
kinds are met with; viz. hornblende rock, hornblende witli felspar, and hornblende with
mica.

II. 7Van«i7(on rocki. Congflomerate and sandstuno, which, in some ploces, are covered
with transition limestone, occur in Jftmtland, Tomea Ijappmark, An^ermanland, Dalccarlia,
SchOnen, islands in the Lake Wetter, East and West Gothland, Nerika, Dularnia. Transi-
tion porphyry : in tho parish of Elfdal, in Dalarnia. The basis is of the nature of hom-
■tone. It rests upon transition sandstone, and is covered by syenite, porphyry, and transition
ffreenstono. Greywack . slate lies upon sandstone, and is covered by transition limestone.
It sometimes cnntainc: ( jal, and Uien passes into a kind of shale. It also contains fossil
remains of marine animals. Transition limestone occurs in Gothland, (Eland, SchOncn,
East and West Gothland, Nerika, Dalarnia, and Jiimtland. In the re^^ular succession, it lies
immediately upon alum slate, but in Gothland directly upon sandstone. It is seldom covered
oy other rocks, excepting in West Gothland, where it is covered by clay slate and green-
stone. It contains many diflercnt petrifactions, as orthoceratites, ammonites, anomites, ochi-
nitea, cornllites, and entrochites. Its colour is commonly gray, or bluish gray, and reddish
brown, often varied with veins of a green colour. Transition trap is tho youngest rock of

ho transition class in Sweden. In Elfclal it rests upon porphyry; upon transition clny slate
and alum slate in Kennekulle, Billengen, the Hunno and Hallebcrgc, and others, in West
Gothland.

III. Secondary rocki. The mountain chain around Helsingborg, in Schdncn, is composed
of secondary sandstone. It contains beds of slate clay, bitummous shale, and black bitumi-
nous coal. This sandstone, which belongs to the black bituminous coal formation, is covered
with other secondary deposits, as limestone, the age of which is not well known. The only
one of these newer secondary deposits, tho gcognostical history of which has been mode
out, is Chalk. This intorestmg formation occurs at Limhamii, near to Malma It encloses
balls of common flint, and, at its lower part, posses into a more solid chalk and secondary
limestone.

IV. Tertiary rocks. The tertiary deposits seem to occur in some points of the land not
far distant from tho sea-coast ; but they have not been carefully explored.

V. Alluvial rocks. Many tracts more or less deeply covered with gravel, sand, and clay,
occur in Sweden.

Mines. The mines of Sweden have been long celebrated all over the world, and have
been frequently described by travellers. Oold and silver mines. The Adelfora mine, which
formerly yielded thirty or forty marks of gold annually, now furnishes only three or four ;
those of Fahlun, where copper predominates, return annually four marks of gold and fitly
marks of silver. The silver mme of Sahla, which, during the reign of Queen Christina,
yielded annually 20,000 marks of silver, does not at present afford annually more than 2000
or 3000 marks. Copper mines. The most considerable copper mines arc those of Fahlun,
which is also known under tho name of Kopparberff. The mines of Atwidabcrg, in East
Gothland, furnish about a sixth part of all the copper which the Swedes obtain annually from
mines ; those of Fahlun yield more than the half of the copper raised in Sweden. The ore
at Fahlun is copper pyrites, disposed in an immense irregular-shoped mass, in mica slate:
10,200 quintals of copper are yielded by it annually. Iron mines. Tho greatest iron mines
are those in the province of Upland : of tiiose the most important are those of Skebo, of
(Esterby, not far from Donernora, of Gimo, of Ronaes. Iron is mined as far north as Gell-
vara, which is 200 leagues to the north of Stockholm. The island of Uto, on the east coast
of Upland, also affords a considerable quantity of iron. The whole mines aflbrd annually
1,800,000 quintals of iron. Cobalt mines. The principal mines of this metal arc those of
Tunaberg, near to Nykfiping, and nt Awed, in East Gothland. These mines afford excel-
lent cobalt, but the quantity is not great. Coal mines. Coal mines have been worked for
some time in Scania, two leagues from Hclsinborg, and are affonling a considerable return.
Sulphur and vitriol. The pyritical minerals of Dylta afford annually 10.50 quintals of sul-
phur, and those of Fahlun about 100 quintals of the same substance. Tho vitriolic waters
of Fahlun afford annually about 600 quintals of green vitriol, or sulphate of iron, and a small
quantity of blue vitriol, or sulphate of copper, ilium. The annual produce of alum is
about 42,600 quintals. Quarries. Sweden possesses, besides its regular mines, olso valua-
ole quarries of granite, porphyry, and marble. The porphyry quarries of Elfdal are the

*•-

'•:^! *

MAP OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

Fio. 337

10. 337

■n

BdOBi

SWTBDEN AND NORWAY

470

•M

-M

larirmt nml mntit celebrated in Europe. Nearly all the fine moilum work* in |«>rphyry arc
in thu norpiiyry nf RllUal.

(3.) UKOMKiv or NnitWAT and I.ArtAND. — I. Primilivn ritekt. TIipno wild but highly
intereiitin)( coiintrio* are principally compoeed of primitivn niui tmniiitior. nickii ; Mconiliiry
rockii occur but mrnly, nnd nlltiviiildnpniiita are not lo abundant m in niiiny othur Iniauxtcn-
■ivo roKlonH. Ornntle \n a rarn mck in Norway and I^plnnd, and iniiy \ro con«idorod one
of thn iGiMt abundant roc kN in Scandinavia. The granite tVonunntly ii|)|Hiara in vuina tra>
verMing tho primitivn utrntitlnl rockH, or running mrallol with bedioriitrrita; and noinetimca
it can bo mhmi Mprrad ovor tho mirfkco of mica alate, aa at Forvig, or irro(;ularly aiwociati'd
with cluy Hinto and diallago mck, aa in tlie ialand of Magcroo, Unrin mum* to bo by tiir
tho moMt fVoqucnt nnd abundant rock in Hcandinavia, all tno othnr primitivu rockn anpoaring
to be in aomo dngroo lubordinntn to it. Mir.a ilate roata upon nnd Bltnrniiti>ii with tlio gnoiiw,
but ia fhr iVom ixting ao (fcnomlly diatributcd aa that rock. Vlny iliittt nUmg with the mien
■Into ia not of fVo<pi»>nl occurrrnco. Quartz rock, variout hornblendi' ri>ck», und limetlone,
occur in bmla aubordinatn to thn gnniaa and mica alato. Oabhro, or dialla^c rork, uno of tiio
moat hnautiftil of tho older rocka, occura in great quantity, connected witli clay alnte, in tho
inland nf M nirerno, and othnr pnrta of Norway.

II. Traimtion rocki, Thia claaa containa, boaidea greywacke, nhim tlntr, nnd limeitone
(which containa much tromolite), ami other rocks well known to mineraloi;itita na inombcra
of thia claaa, the following : — 1. Granite, which aometimea containa hornblende. 2. Syenite,
which containa a bcautiflil iMhradnric variety of common fehpar, and nuninroiia cryatala of
the gem named zircon. 8. Porphyry, and, aaaociated with it, various trap rocka allied to
baaaR and amygdaloid.

III. Secondary rock*. The groat primitive land of Scandinavia continuca onward to the
extreme northern point of Norway ; but in thia high latitude aome now formntions make
their appcarnnco among the older. The aandatone mmrtz of Alten hua been known ainco
the publication of tho travela of Von Buch. On the Eaat, towards tho Russian dominiona,
there ia a conaiderable tract which difTora more fVom tho primitive fornmtiuna timn the aund-
Btone quartz of Alten does. Sandstone and conglomerate extend acroaa tlio subjacent gnoisa
in a horizontal position. These rocks probably Mong to the old red nandttone.

IV. Alluvial rocki. Old alluvium occurs on the const, and in tho interior in many of the
valleys, and the new everywhere in greater or loss quantity.

Imnet. The only itilver tninen in Norway are those of KAngsbcrg, situated in mica slate,
which formerly afforded rich returns, but of late have yielded no profit. Tho ffold mine of
Eldswold, and the mines of lead and st/ver in Jarlsberg, have been hut frcbly worked. The
.opper mine» are principally situate<l in the northern division of tho kingdmii. The most
onsidcrable, near luDraaa, were discovered in 1644. They have afforded conHidernble quan-
ities of copper : in 1805, the annual return was 7800 (|uintal8 of copper. Tlio other mines
of copper are from 15 to 20 leagues of Drontheim, at Quiknc, I.irkken, SellKx;, nnd in the dis-
trict of Christiania, at Frederic ksgave or Foledal. The principal iron minis are those of Aren>
dal end Krageroe, in southern Norway. The mine of I*urwig, near tho town of that name,

IRTH PART.

ynat
LtbabiJ*
-. JjifflmorTanl

JAIisniiianl
Jukiby
Abnpiihui
9. Pviviukantft

10. Kiiutnkeino

11. KnlliunuiM
13. Finland

13. OriHtfin

14. Anki'nn
Mi, Kurravaart
IB. RaiiivatI

17. Bnp|»ro

18. Hiianvn
10. Oellivaia
SO. Ilipni

81. (iiilrkjdck
S*i. Rtintiviiro
Zl. Salldaien
34. IjonM
3.5. eiipflM

36. Snfatwi

37. 8llb<>^ek
24. Rinilijaur
3D. yValmat

30. Liilna

31. Oras

33. SopijanM

33. Pulla

STRaJalaKengia

3.V Pello

30. Uppor Tainca

37. Turnea

38. Kalix
30 Kum
«>.Harada
41. Tvan

RrfertMu to tKe Map of Sweden and Noruay,

JukroMle
Lrokwia
Raika

nutelo

naddodelt

Foldereld

Htram

OidorncM

Hnnitad

Tl.lfi

74. St

Moiiniot

iTi

ndanuker
^alligon
olinca
itrom

Awie

Junacic

Amund

Nordmalinff

Patvikcn

ReMcIa

Nordinira

HenKwaiid

Fora

I. Ditanuad
Mariaibv
Hemdal
pronlhalm

eg, Leimvia

go. flaibarc

M. Ilavna

BOirrH PART.
I. Bundiwall
9. Rraeka

fir*

5. Liniliatli
<l.l(wle

2: to

9. f«Moe

10. Opdal

11. Rbmtdal
13. Oraknui

13. Bnndel*

14. Slavum

15. Fonia
Ifl. Bofnadal
17. 1«nm

IH. Riniabo
19. n«am

30. nrolle

31. F.niadal
3). Aibrn
S3. Hencn
34. I.inidal
fa. Aibra

3n. Rndeihamn
37. Ilamranfo
3H. Oeflo
39. Fahlun

Moa
^lath«n

''laa
loel

30. Mora
1. Mall

31.

...Junt
n. Dunbr
33.Gnue1

I.-

3R. Kiglvi
30. Barf en

tAarevig
Oddan
Tuiaunidal
Nora

Chritllania
Frirkiande
Narrna

47. Ncirrbarko

48. Tuna

49. HeilfnoFa
90. Ferneb
SI. Lolbta
!». Um
S3. Waddu
S4.Upaal
SS. Htuckholm

MnriafVol
^.nkopini
ATeaterai
iSe. Orahm
m. Hhilipiiad
ni. Parlilad
63. Hnlmodal

63. Mnll

64. Tumberg

8V Ovamen
X Ranland

67. Bfllaoi*

68. F.gflriund

69. Rakke

70. Chriitianaund

73. MoklaiM

74. Arendal

75. Solids

Dj, niuc
.W. Mar
.W. F-ok
.18. Wei

76. HnMrn

77. Fn»b>ri''knlnd

78. Fmlirirkihali

79. Uddevnihi

80. Wcni-rbdrg
81. 1.ldknping
83. flkam

83. Marlniind

84. Ilaiina
HI. Njknping

86. Norkiipinir

87. Wnli'rwir.k
8H. I.inkiiping

89. Saby

90. F.kitHJn

91. Jonkuping
93. Hj()

93. Orerird

94, Oan'nrm
9.V (j<iii(<nbur(

07. Halmnlad
98. NiMliOiBPk
91). Miirliindii

100. Minrrhuit

101. Wiibr

103. Nan

10.1. Itiimpfkiilla

104. Calmar
\M, RurshMlm
100. (.''arlscriitia

107. Cnilsliamm

108. I.iilliiilni
10!l. LandgCTona

1 10. Chrlitiandnd
Ill.Rnrum
113. Faliterbo
113. Halmo

_ Rtvtre.
a Tana

b Alton
c Itannena
d lyaniMn

r Mdolvon
1 Itoina
1 Ciliimmea

Klar
. I'aga
[ Miirrint

I Duhl
in IJiimo

n IVijurunda

II liiilal

p Aiinvrmana

q Umca

r Windal

• Pitea

t I.ulua

II I.lna

V K>ilii
w 'I'ornea

X l.iijniii

T Muonio

a* lloin
b* Stiira
c* Ave
d» llinea
•■* Walgoinaa
f* Apiinua
u* Knili
1* Siori

Fnemnnd

MiniteQ

Malar
I* lljelniat
m» Wetter
n* Wenar
o* Bolmco

480

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY,

Pabt m.

affords annually 20,000 quintals of bar-iron and 0000 quintals of cast-iron. The establish-
ment of the same kind at Moss affords annually 10,000 quintals of iron in bars and cast
The same annual quantity is afforded by the mines of Bmrum, Bolvig, Ulfoss, Eidfoss, Ege-
land, Naes, Dikkemarken Possum, and Oudalen. Lastly, the mines of Hassel, Froeland,
I^ssoe, and Mostmarken, furnish from 30(K) to 5000 quintals of iron annually. The annual
produce of the iron min«s of Norway is estimated by a well-known statistical writer at about
150,000 quintals. The mines of cdtalt, which are wovked at Modum and Fossum, are
extensive but not deep. In the year 1792 they yielded 2917 quintals of ore. There is a
mine of plumbago and black lead at Engledal. The mines of alum, which are worked in
t|ic mountain of Egeberg, near to Christiania, afford not only a sufficiency for tlie consump-
tion of the Danish states, but also a considerable quantity for exportation. Norway possesses
quarries of granite, marble, millstone, whetstone, slate and clay. Granite is exported to
Holland ; the marble and other minerals supply the Danish states.

SuBBEOT. 2. — Botany.
The Botany of these countries has been noticed under that of Denmark.

SvBHEOT. 3. — Zoology.

The Zoology of Sweden, the native country of the celebrated Linnoius, is so well known
to naturalists, by the writings of that great man, that to them the subject is familiar. Nor
does it present any thing very different in its general character from that of Denmark. The
bleak aii4 inhospitable regions of Norway and Lapland, to which nature has denied the rich
and verdant pasturage of Britain, and the consequent abundance of grazing animals, are,
however, tlie chief metropolis of the Rein-deer, whose diversified qualities are beautifully
adapted for supplying such deficiencies.
The Rein-deer (Kangifer Tarandus H. Smith) {fig. 238.) forms the sole riches of the

Laplander, and its care is almost his only occu-
pation. According to the season, he migrates
to the sea shore, the plains, or the mountains.
The rich oflen possess 2000 head; and the
poorer seldom less than 100. The adult male,
in a wild state, is even larger than a stag ; but
the domesticated races ere somewhat smaller :
the sight and scent of these creatures are aston-
ishing, and guide them witli wonderful precision
through the most dangerous passes and in the
darkest stormy nights of an arctic winter. To
this sagacity the Laplander trusts his life witli
confidence; and accidents rarely happen : they
draw his sledge with such amazing rapidity,
that in twenty-four hours a pair of Rein-deer have been said to perform a journey of 100
miles. In a wild state they are gregarious ; and, when domesticated, evince an excessive
attachment to each other. During summer they are much tormented by a species of gad-fly;
but the old account of the glutton falling upon them firom a tree, and then devouring them,
is now considered fabulous. During life this useful animal supplies its master with lalwur and
milk ; and, when dead, every part becomes serviceable, the skin for clothing, and for boots ;
the horns to make utensils ; the sinews for thread, and the flesh for food : the intestines are
also used ; and the tongue is a well-known article of commerce.
Tiie Birds are not numerous, and, with few exceptions, differ not from those of Denmark
and the other northern king'doms. The Iceland Falcon [Falco
islandictts) (Jig.239.) rarely wnndrrs to more temperate climes; and
a gigantic Owl {Strix lapponlca Lin.) is a peculiar inhabitant of
the dreary solitudes of La;)lir.d ; to tliesc we moy add two other
species; the large JUral Owl, an^ the Great Snowy Owl. These
formidable birds prey upon numcnms ptsirmigans and grouse, great
numbers of which inhabit the confines of the arctic circle. The
Curruca suecica Sw. or Blue-throated Reed Warbler, one of the
most elegant birds of Europe, is not peculiar, as its name would im-
ply, to Sweden, being common in France and Switzerland.

The insects of Sweden, during its short summer, are very numer-
ous; ond many, enumerated by Acerbi, very beautiful; but, in
autumn, nearly the whole country is terribly infested by Musqui-
toes, these tormenting little animals being beyond calculation more
numerous in high northern latitudes than in the woods of tropical
America.

The Rein-Doer.

239

Iceland Falcon

^sr

BookL

SWEDEN AND NORWAY

[enmark

{Falco

les; and

litant of

|o other

These

, great

The

of the

\\ili im-

Seot. III. — Hittorical Otography "

The early history of Scandinavia is deeply involved in fable and uncertainty. Ptolemy
and Pliny, the best informed of ancient geographers, seem to distinguish it from " Great Ger-
many," off the coast of which they represent Busilin, or Baltia, as a large is.and, though not
nearly approaching to the real dimensions. The Goths were fi)und in early possession of
Sweden, and its southern provinces have been denominated Gothland ; but the question,
whether they were the native possessors, or entered it as conquerors, is one wliich can
scarcely be now decided. Scandinavia has been called the " storehouse of nations ;" and
" the blue-eyed myriads fh>m the Baltic coast" are supposed to have been among the moet
numerous of those who spread war and desolation throughout Europe. Dr. Clarke ridicules
this idea, as inapplicable to a country of unbroken forests, and a slowly advancing popula-
tion, making the first essays of agriculture ; yet, though the population could never be great,
the simple and pastoral habits of the people might dispose emigrants to seek subsistence with
the sword in happier climates.

Scandinavia, flrst, by a aeries of formidable expeditions, made a figure in history at the end
of the nintjj century. ' Harold Harfager, or the Fair-haired, the first of the great sea-kings
of the North, having united the formerly independent districts of Norway under hia sway,
undertook triumphant expeditions against Shetland, Orkney, and the Hebrides. For several
centuries the Danes and Norwegians held full possession of those islands ; gave a king to
England, and formed a permanent establishment in Normandy. The defeat of Haco in Got-
land, and of Harold III. in England, during the eleventh century, put an end to this maritime
dominion : and tho northern nations, notwithstanding their immense supply of naval stores,
have never since attained to more than a secondary rank among the maritime powers.

The union of the kingdoms of Scandinavia, in 1388, under Margaret, called the Scmiramis
of the North, forms a memorable era. Immediately, however, after the death of that able
princess, the Swedes began to struggle for independence. But their repeated attempts to
establish a separate kingdom were always defeated, till the cruel and tyraimical reign of
Christian 11. drove matters to extremity, and brought on a new revolution.

Gustavus Vasa, in 1520, hoisted agam the national standard in the province of Dalecarlia,
and, in three years subsequently, entered Stockholm in triumph. After a long struggle, the
Danes were compelled to recognise the independence of Sweden.

The reign of Gustavus Adolphus formed a glorious era for Sweden. The Protestant reli-
gion having been established under Gustavus Vasa, Sweden began to be looked to as its sup-
port when assailed by a formidable confederacy. In 1630, Gustavus took the field at the
head of only ten thousand Swedes; but around this gallant band rallied all the Protestant
powers of Germany. The splendid victory of Breitenfeld humbled the house of Austria, and
re-established tlie civil and religious libertiesof the empire. Even after his fall, intlie glori-
ous field of Lutzen, his generals continued to wage that desperate war of thirty years, which
was necessary to compel the Catholic league finally to renounce its pretensions. Sweden,
at the peace, obtained Pomerania, and other important possessions in Germany ; and con-
tinued, till the end of the seventeenth century, to exercise a powerful influence on the afibirs
of Europe.

The victories and reverses of Charles XII. threw a wild and romantic lustre around
Sweden, which terminated, however, in the loss of her station and greatness. Being de-
feated at Pultowa, by the Czar Peter, and driven to seek shelter from the Turks at Bender,
he was obi iged to purchase peace by the sacrifice of Livonia, and others of his finest provinces.
The influence of Sweden was thenceforth confined within its own barren limits, and it ranked
with difficulty as a power of the tecond order. The only remarkable change in the course
of the century was produced by the revolutions of 1772 and 1789, when Gustavus III. suc-
ceeded in converting the government into an absolute monarchy, though in other respects
his reign was advantageous to Sweden.

The election of Bernadotte, one of Bonaparte's commanders, to fill the throne, left vacant
through the rash conduct of the legitimate monarch, made a great change in the relations
of Sweden. To conciliate his now subjects, he restored in full plenitude the representative
constitution, which had been reduced to a mere shadow. Having joined the confederacy
against his fo.mer master, he recaived Norway in compensation for the loss of Finland, and
had thus a more compact and defensible territory. The Nor\vegians exclaimed, not without
rcagon, against this compulsory transference ; yet Denmark had deprived them of their free
constitution, which they now regained, and had in so many respects depressed the country,
with the view of concentrating every thing at Copenhagen, that the connection now termi-
nated has been considered the bane of Norway.

Sect. IV. — Political Geography,

The constitution of Sweden is one of the few in Europe, which has always preserved
some portion of that representative system which had been formed in remote ages. Towards
the close, indeed, of the last century, it was reduced by Gustavus III. to little more than a.

Vol. I 41 3L

4B2

DKSCniPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt III.

! ;

1 (

' \

>j^%*

form. BrrnaddUc, however, an clcctwl inoiiurcli, without, any national claim, was obliged
to court Ihp favour of Iho nation, and, witli that view, to re-cstabliah the rights of itH ancient
diet. Tliis is now ratlicr nn anticjiic and cumbrous form of logisloturo, consisting of four
orders; tJio nobles, the clorgy, the peasants, and the burghers; who sit ond vote in seporatc
houses.

Of these liouses, tlrnt of the nobles consists of about 1200 members ; the head of each
fainily lieing, by inheritance, its legal representative. They are divided into three classes : —
herra, counts, barons, &c. ; rcddar, knights; and sivena, or gentlemen who, though without
any title, have received letters [Kilent of nobility. The house of clergy consists of tlie arch-
bishop and all the bishops; while the rest of the cccJRsiastical body is represented by depu-
ties. The burghers are chosen by the tow.is, every fVeeman who pays taxes having a vote :
they form on iiidependont l)ody, partly, perhaps, because the honour of a scat is not eagerly
contested. The peasants do not exactly correspond to our idea of that term: they consist
of a body of little proprietors, or lairds, who cultivate their own ground, and who are numer-
ous in Sweden. Their allowance of a dollar a day is provided by a subscription among
their constituents ; and, in some cases, two or three districts must combine to furnish out one
deputy. The nobles have bestirred themselves much to keep down the attempts made by
this class to rise in society. Tlioy have procured regulations, according to which no person
could sit in the house who allowed himself to be called llrrr (or Mr.),or wlioworeacoatof
fine cloth. Notwithstanding all their efforts, however, this house, and tliat of the burghers,
are daily increasing in strength.

In the division of powers, the royal prerogative is ample. The king appoints to all offices
civil and military, and he is obliged to convoke the dint only once in five years, and to con-
tinue its sittings three months ; but he may make the meetings more frequent, and longer.
He has also a negative upon the laws projxised by the diet. In regard to the diet itself, the
division rests with a majority of the houses ; but if they be two against two, the balance is
struck by tlic committee of state, a body composed of a certain number of members from
each. No tax can be levied, or loan obtained, without the consent of tho diet

The gtorthing of Norway, restored by Bernadotte, is possessed of much higher privileges
than tho Swedish diet It assembles more frecjuently, and at its own time, without any con-
trol from the king; and it allows to him only a suspensive vvto, obliging him to accept any
project which has been three times presented by the storthing. These rights having been
once granted, Bernadotte, who found them pressing soinewhat liord against his prerogotive,
has in vain made several attciiiiits to abridjie tliem. A highly republican spirit prevails in
Norway, and the influence, and almost e.xii-lencc, of the nobles is nearly annihilated.

The revenue of Sweden arises from a poll-tax ; the produce of the royal demesnes, duties
on exports and import", mines and forges, distilled spirits, and some monopolies. Tho whole
produce is alwut ■'$.5,000,000 a year, exclusive of lands assigned to soldiers and sailors, and
by which these classe.", in time of peace, are chiefly supported. The military force, is at
present, —

Sweden. Nurway. Total.

Infantry 26,2-21 - - - - 9,642 - - - 35,863

Cavalry 4,.'i80 - - - - 1,070 - - - 5,6.50

Artillery - - - - 2,400 - - - - 1,278 - - - 3,678

Undwehr - - - - a*3,368 - - - - 10,000 - - - 93,368

The troops are raised by conscription : they only receive pay when on actual service ; re-
maining, at other times, in the provinces, where they employ themselves in cultivating lands
aseigoed to them for their support.

Sbct. V. — Productive Industry. \ '

Sweden seems doomed by nature to be a poor country. Her most southern districts are
beyond the limits of that zone, in which alone the finer and more valunblo kinds of grain,
and the richer fruits, come to maturity. Her scanty harvest consists solely of rye, bigg, and
oats, scarcely accounted as food in more favoured climates. Scandinavia is described gene-
rally as one unbroken boundless forest varied only in its aspect by little patches of cultivated
land.

Agricultural industry till of late had not done much to remedy natural doficioncics. Ac-
cording to the valuable statistical detoils collected by Dr. Thomson, the arable land in Swe-
den amounts to 1,818,450 English acres, which is only a sixty-second of the entire surface,
or, throwing out the Norrland deserts, a thirty-second. Of this, 1,363,000 acres are returned
as under ciHtivation. But the average size of a Swedish farm is only twenty-seven and a
half; the annual average of grain sown on each farm does not amount to a Winchester
bushel ; and the nniuial ])r(Mluee of the whole country was only 5,700,000 spanns, or alwut
71,000 quarters. Hence Sweden was obliged to imiwrt grain to a great extent ; and such is
the scarcity, that the peasantry oflen grind the bark or even wood of the fir-tree into floui

Part III.

wan nbligcd

fitB ancient

ting of four

in scparntc

cad of ciicli
B classes : —
iigh without
of tho arch-
ed by depu-
ling B vote :
not eagerly
they consist
I are numer-
)tion among
nish out one
pt« made by
:h no person
iroroacoatof
he burghers,

to all offices
, and to con-
and longer.
ict itself, the
ic balance is
ombere from

er privileges
lout any con-
) accept any
having been
; prerogative,
it prevails in
ilatcd.

csnes, duties
Tho whole
sailors, and
ftrrce, is at

BOOE 1.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

488

service; re-
vating lands

districts are
ids of grain,
e, bigg, and
:ribod gcnc-
if cultivated

ncics. Ac-
md in Swe-
tire surface,
re returned
seven and a
Winchester
ns, or iilwut
and such is
5 into floui

a nutriment equally scanty and unwholesome. Tlicse stjitements ore given in 1912 ; since
which lime wo fmd it mentioned that agriculture hns made a very rapid progress ; that im-
proved processes have been introduced from other countries ; and that, in the most southern
provinces, a great extent of moving (and before entirely barren) sand has been rendered solid,
and covered with plantations and grain. The consequence has been, that in 1827, Sweden even
exported HO.CMK), and, in 1828, 104,000 tons of grain of every description. Every fhrm has a tract
of forest of about 1000 acres attached to it, on which cattle are fed : these arc reported as
only amounting to 40:i,0()0 horses, 1,475,000 cows, and 1,212,000 sheep. The most valua-
ble product of land is tbrmcd by the vofit forests with which nature has covered the whole
240 country. The trees over all Scandinavia are

small, and consist chiefly of the birch, the
pine, the spruce and Scotch firs. Wooden in-
closures (Jig. 240.) of a peculiar form, are uni-
versally employed. The poplar and the willow
are also indigenous. The timber of these trees,
as well as the tar, pitch, and turpentine, drawn
from tliem, forms the chief objects of Scandi-
navian exports. Those on the hills of Nor-
way are in much demand for masts. Accord-
Swe.ii.hMod«ofincioiuF«. jng ^ j^ Hegelstamm, not more than the

115th part of the surface of Norway is under cultivation, chiefly in oats; a space which
might be greatly extended ; yet the annual production is stated at 2,650,000 tons.

The manufactures of Scandinavia are inconsiderable, unless we should class their mines
as such. Even in the common trades the work is lazily and ill performed, and charged at a high
rate, which renders this the most expensive country in Europe for those who live luxuriously.
It is a curious fact that some great merchants in the western towns send their linen to be
washed in London.

The mines of Sweden are peculiarly rich in important products. Its iron, found chiefly
in primitive rocks, is the finest in the world, and is widely diffused. In 1812, there were
176 mines; 624 smelting-houses ; 764 forges; producing in all 1,293,411 cwt. of iron. The
exportation, in 1821, amounted to 340,000 skippund, ond in 1824 had risen to 373,000, of which
345,000 were in burs, and 28,000 in . jdcr forms. There are also some valuable mines in tho
southern provinces of Norway. A most extensive deposit of copper occurs in the province
of Dalecarlia, particularly at Fahlun. Gold occurs at Adelfors, in. Sweden, to no great
amount ; but tho silver mines of Kongsberg, in Norway, arc the richest in Europe. The
metal occurs in musses, of which Uiere was once found one weighing 600 lbs. There arc
also lead mines of some importance at Scola, and in other parts of Sweden.

Fishery appears a pursuit peculiarly appropriate to the extensive coasts of Scandinavia.
Yet the Swedes are not much addicted to it, probably teciiuse the Baltic during a groat part
of the year is frozen. Gottenburg had once a herring fishery, now nearly lost, the shoals
having taken another direction. The Norwegian fishery is considerable, though bearing only
a small proportion to the almost unlimited opportunities aflbrdcd by its wide seas, and its
deep and commodious bays. Its chief theatre is fiir to tlie north, off the Isles of Ix)flbden.
The season lasts only for seven or eight weeks in the year, when fishermen crowd thither
from nil quarters. Codfish is the chief object : it is cut into pieces, and spread on the rocks
to dry, whence it receives the names of stockfish and clipfish. According to Mr. Brooke, the
number taken in a year was 700,000, which may be worth nearly $600,000; tliey are sent
chiefly to Germany, Spain, and Italy. The roes are also salted and barrelled for exportation
also the fish oil to the amount of about 30,000 barrels.

The commerce of Scandinavia is greater than its unimproved agriculture and total want
of manufactures might lead us to suppose. But nature has gifted these bleak regions with
an almost inexhaustible store of timber and iron, two of the prime necessaries of human
life; the main implements in shi|)-building ond in the construction of houses, nmchincry, and
furniture. These articles are indeed also the produce of North America; and Britain, which
affords tho best market, has lately sought to favour her colonies in that quarter by a great
inequality of duties. Yet tho superior quality of the Scandinavian commodity always .secures
it a sale. The entire exports of Norway are estimated by Dr. Clarke at 1,8()0,0(K)/. sterling ;
but we believe that this is very much beyond the mark. The commerce of Swecion is not
on so great n scale ; her surplus timber being not nearly so ample, though her iron is superior.
She hns suffered much injury from the absurd prejudices of the peasantry, who obtained the
prohibition of colonial produce, and of almost all foreign articles of consumption ; and though
these were regularly imported, and in daily use, the trade was greatly fettered by being
carried on only as contraband. In 1828, however, commercial treaties were concluded on a
more liberal footing. The total number of merchant vessels belonging to tlie different
towns of Sweden, in 1829, was 1178, of the burthen of 61,000 tons.

':'!

484

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III

8bct. VI.— dm/ and Social Slate.

Tho population of Sweden, acconling to the Intcxt coiiHim, inadi) in 18*25, amoiintod to
2,771,252 ; of whom 20,409 woro nobles ; 18,U77 occluHiiwticH ; (tt),(i(>4 citi/ciw ; tho rciniiin-
dcr boionjjroil to tlm clatw of peawints. Of theiie, I,:it)2,U70 wore nmles, and 1,4JW,282
femuloii; 'M*i^>V7;i resided in the country, 281,279 in tho uiticH. This was a rino of
im,mi since 1W20.*

The population of Norway, by a cenBus mode in November 1820, amounted to I,()a0,i:j2 ;
of whom 105,021 inhabited cities, 0:)4,414 tho country. This was a rise of 164,062 since
1815.

The national character of the Swedes is usually painted under favourable colours. Their
honesty is described as proverbial ; and Dr. Clarke considers the contrast between them and
the Russian {leople, in this re8|)cct, as most striking. Highway robbery, Uiouj;h it has been
known, is exceedingly rare ; and cliarity boxes, which are otlcn set up on tho public roads,
have never been plundered. " The nation," says Mr. James, " has its sinfjularities : tliero
exists something; of a reciprocity between the moral and political constitution of Sweden.
Rigidly ceremonious, they make their stiff and measured courtesies the essentials rather
than the fonns of life ; and seem, in a stranger's eye, a people cold in their nature as tho
very snows they dwell u|)on. Their characterisitics, a passive conmffe, not unmixed witli
indolence ; a pride not tVee from ignorance ; a disuosition that is not ill-humoured, from hav-
ing no humour at all, from indiflerence, from apatny. But a Swede is never in extremes ;
even these traits are not deeply markctl ; and if we review the more favourable side of his
character, we shall find in him an undaunted spirit of jwrsevernnce, and an honest love of
freedom, to which tlie feelings of every one do hoinoge." The same writer mentions a
cold-blooded obduracy, connected, perhaps, with a sanguinary turn of mind, displayed in
tliose frequent assassinations which have stained tiie pnges of Swedish history. The man-
ners of tlie higher ranks, in coiii4e<iucnce, perlm|>H, of jxilitical connexion, have been studi-
ously formed on the French model, which dues not accord very happily with the somewhat
rude simplicity of the Swedes, wiio find it easier to imitate the frivolity and dissipation of
tiiat people, tlian their easy and careless grace. Several habits arc enumerated as preva-
lent even among the higher classes in Scandinavia, which seem to negative its pretensions
to any high pitcli of refinement. Among these are, spitting even on handsome carpets, blow-
ing the nose with the finger.^, imd recording-games on tho table with chalk.

The religion of Sweden is Lutlierun, ami tho ciiurch Episcopal. This country, which
stood long at the head of the great Protestant confederacy, is animated with an ardent zeal
for the reformed religion. The Catliolics, till of late, scarcely enjoyetl common toleration,
and they are still excludetl from the diet and the higiier offices of state. Tho Swedish people
are commended for tlieir regularity in performing the duties of their religion: at tho same
time it has been remarked that the dissenters from the established church are much fewer
than in other Protestant countries; which has been imputed to the want of any peculiar
fervour upon the subject. Tlie wide extent and thin iwpulation of the northern districts
must often render the provision for their religious instruction very defective. The diocese
of Tornea, in Lapland, is 750 miles in circumference ; and, what is more blameable, the
small number of clergy employed arc not required to understand the language of the natives.
The income of the largest bishopric in Sweden is about )|5000 a year.

In science, tlie Swedes, considering their |X)verty and remote situation, have made a very
distinguished figure. Gustiivus Adolpiius favoured the interests of literature with a degree
of ardour not generally known. Of the spoils of place.s conquered by him, he set a ]>articular
value upon broks which he triuiKinitlod to Sweden, in order to form the foundation of several
largo libraries. The Swedes cultivated with peculiar ardour botany and mineralogy, which
some of their countrymen mainly contributed to raise to the rank of sciences. In botany, the
name of Linnsus is yet without a rival ; and Cronstadt and Bergman were in their day little
interior, though they now yield to Werner and other great names which have arisen in other
countries. Bergman and Scheele made also large contributions to chemistry, which is still
ably pursued by Ekeberg, Berzeliiis, and Afzelius. Although history and poetry have been
cultivated, they have not produced any writers whoso reputation has spread throughout
Europe. From the limited sphere of the Swedish language, few works of science are
written in it, or translated uUo it : hence the literati of Sweden are particularly well versed
in the languages of foreign nations. One of the subjects in which Sweden may most justly
exult is, the general spread of c<lucation among the lower orders, which seems to equal or
exceed that which Scotland enjoys ; and to this may probably be in a great measure ascribed
tlieir generally meritorious conduct Norway is not nearly so literary a country as Swe<len ;
Dr. Clarke even states that there is not in the whole country a single liookscller's shop.
This was in a greot measure owing to the jealousy of Denmark, which would not allow an
university to be founded even in Christiania, which used to be a rival to that of Copenhagen.

* The only SwnliKli coUnw i» 01. Uartholoniew in tlie W. Iiuliea, with about OUM iiilmbitanta.— Au. Ed.

f !

U<)OK I.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

485

PaktIII

lountod to
10 reinain-

1,4:W,'J83

u ritiu uf

1,(»50,132;
1,062 Hinco

urs. Their
[) them and
it htts been
ublic rottds,
itic«: tl\erc
of Sweden,
itiala ruther
turo 88 the
iniixed witli
d, iroin hav-
r» extremes -,
e Bide of his
meat love of
mentions a
displayed in
. Tiio man-
c been studi-
le somewhat
lissipation of
cd as preva-
U pretensions
mrpcts, blow-

juntry, whicii

],n ardent zeal

ion toleration,

odish people

at the same

much fewer

any peculiar

lern districts

The diocese

[lameable, the

)f tlie natives.

made a very
[with a degree
Tt a jmrticular
lion of several
[ralogy, which
[n botany, the
heir day little
[risen in other
which is still
try have been
" throughout
science are
ly well versed
liy most justly
Ins to equal or
lisure ascribed
ly as Sweden ;
seller's shop.
, not allow an
"Copenhagen.

Yet Norway can boast of literary nomes; Holherg, Pontoppidan, Valil the botnnist, Tnrftriip,
und Snorro Sliirleuoii, the 'I'' iilHtoriaiiH. A vein of Ixild iind ruile (Nx-try is eiillivatrd with
peculiiir ardour; and l)r, (.'liirku exliibits a roll of names unknown to 10urop<<, whose claims
to distmction appear Ui Ix) sDiiiewhat justitied by a spi'cimr>n given to us by Mr. Wilson.

Of till! Ieiirni!il establiNlinicnts of Sweden, tlie most eminent is the university of Upsaj,
the chief imrse of all the griMit men wiio have distini;iiisli(!d her iilernry records. TIiIh rc^le-
bniti'il s«!iit of northf^rn leiiriiing wiw tmmded in 147H, by Steno Stiiro, was enlarged by
(lusliivus Vasa and (Justavus Adolpluis, but reached if« iiigliest eminence in tin? lust century,
when it was iidorned by I.imueuH, and all tiiu men of science who have Ixien ilistinguisiied
as relli'cting glory on Sweden, Since that time its lustre has Imen somewhat diminished,
tluiu^iji statements on this subject vary considerably. Tlie professors have sitliiries of aUuit
iiiHH) II yeur ; and are left thus ulmost wholly demnident tm tlieir students, who live in priviiti;
loilgiiigs. 'i'liey attend what und wiiom tiiey pieuse; anil their exertions are not stimulated
or tried by any public exuminiitidiis. The mineralogiciil colh-ction is one of the most com-
plete in Kiiropi!; and the library contains riO,(NH) volumes. Its most precious treiisiire is the
Uodex Argeutens, a mamiscript of the four Gospels, written in silver characters, and sup-
)Hised to (late as fiir back us the Iburth century. The giirdcMi of Linnieus has been neirlected
for a liirger one lately founded, but which scarcely corresiKinds to the br>tanical fame of Upsal.
The iciyiil library at Stxickholm is still more extensive. It is particularly rich in manuscripts,
in siigas, and otJier historical works, and in original drawings by the great iiiasters. This
coll(!Cti(iii is open to the public. The Swedisli academy of science's, tbundiMl in IT.'IO, by
learned private iiiilividiials, has published aliovu KM) volumes. It is considered one of tbt!
most distinguished in Europe, and the greatest men in otlier countries have viewed it as an
honour to lie enrolled among its members. In the college of mines arc preserved copious
specimens, drawn from a country so rich in metallic pnNhictions. The cabinet of mixlels,
jiresentiiig the various mechanical contrivances employed through the diilerent parts of Swe-
den, is also considered very interesting.

The fine arts in Sweden have Injen cultivated amidst considerable difficulties. The opera
is conducted with splendour and taste; Itcrgell, as a sculptor, has Uten ranked second to
Canova, and even culled the Michael Angelo of the North. Breda in portrait, and Fuleraiifz
in landscape, enjoy reputation.

The habitations of Scandinavia are very simple and uniform. "Having," says Dr. Clarke,
"once figured to the imagination a number of low red houses, of a single story, and each
covered with turf and weeds, a picture is pre.soiited of the oppidan scenery of Sw(!deii."
The hou.ses, howev<!r, ore well finished within, and elegantly furnished ; and by means of
stoves, double windows, and close doors, they ure kept comfortably warm, even during the
iiiost rigorous winter. Swedes have even complained that they suH'ered much more from
cold in Iionilon than in their native city.

The drt>ss is described by Dr. Clarke as oiiually uniform with the habitations. " A skull-
cap, fitting close to the crown, edged with a little stiff lace, the hair being drawn as tight
and straight as possible beneath the cap from all parts of the head, as if to start from the
roots; add to this, a handkerchief thrown over the cap when they go out; a jacket; short
petticoat; stockings of coloured or wliite wo(dlen; and high-heeled shoes:" this is the

general costume of the Swedish women. Mr. Wilson thus
(le.scril)(!S the dress of the representatives of that class of
|iea.«ants: — " White worsted stockings, half-lxmts extend-
ing above the calf of the leg, yellow leather small-clothes
with knee-buckles, a short brown coat and waistcoat, and
a plain handkerchief tied round their neck.'-." The an-
nexed cut (Jiff. 241.) may give an idea of the attire and
aspect of the Norwegian peasantry. In winti.-r these gar-
ments must he reinforced to the utmost ability of the
wearer, as a fence against the excess of the cold. The
peasantry wenr a sheepskin cloak, with the wool towards
the bo<ly, and close fur caps. Dr. Clarke mentions as a
travelling dress, thick yarn stockings covered by stout lea-
ther boots, and over these again boots made of the hides
of rein-deer, with the hair on the outside, and doubly lined
with sheepskin covered with black wool. The people wear,
besides, fiir caps on the head, bearskin pelissps over the
body, besides several flannel waistcoats, and on the hands, gloves of sheepskin covered by
double gloves of fur and wool. Yet these accumulated guards are insufficient to ])revent
the feeling of the most inttmso cold, which, in those not duly fenced against it, soinetimes
produces ileatli, and fre<iuently a frost-bitten limb,

41*

Nctrwoffian PimBnntg.

Ita.— Am.Ed.

.f*^<

486

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt III

Seot. VII. — Local Oeography,

This section naturally divides itself into three subordinnte parts : — 1, Sweden ; 2. Norway •
and 8. Lapland ; which, tliough accounted partly Swedish and partly Norwegian, has a dis-
tinct character of its own.

SvBSECT. 1. — Sweden.

Sweden is formed into three great divisions : Svcaland, or Sweden Proper ; Gotaland, or
Gothland ; and Nordland, or Norrland. In the following statistical table, the extent and
arable produce are from materials collected in 1812, since which time cultivation has been
greatly extended ; but the population is from the census of 1825.

Mrdtand.

Norrholtcii

VuaterbuttoiiK ■ • •
Venter Norrland ■
Jaiiilland

Sutdm.

Stockholm

U|Mala

VentoroB

Nykiipiiig

Orchro

Carlxtnilt

8torR Kappnrberg.
Oeflcbnrg

aolUand.

Linkcipiiig

Calinnr

Jonki'ining

Kronoherg

niekiiigu

SkaraMrg

Eirtbnrg

Rottcnbnrg ... .

Ilalniatactt

Clirisliaiiitadt ■

MnlinnhiiB

Gothland

Stockholm city..
Total.

Anbis QiDund,
Tunnbnd*.
(IS^acn.)

8,a«

I0,S3U
98,780
10,7!0

S3,110

71,410

84,3m
U,S1S
M.UIl
48,333
fB,473
.11,347
38,3U7

473,916

104,

tiU,
53,
37
31

143,
73,
43,
43,
8U,

233,
30,

,061
131

684

.ma

,71J

1«3
1,808

,458
l,U83

341
t,«09
i,064

Beinc lo tha
wlwltu I

3,1S1

1,403

390

917

»1S

27
24
36
43
139
140

31
34

40
48
27
13
37
23
33
13
4
20

938,734

1,454,760

Nunilicr of

VUBU,

533

694

1,563

U4S

3,734

4,056
3,548
2,853
3,376
2,T74
1.708
1,703
2,080

33,006

5,458
3,347

3,<.I05
2,Kr7
1,089
4.804
4,309
3,783
3,H2iJ
3.003
4,0:<3
1,098

39,487

05,309

Oneraliv
rarnien

din
rarnien.

22,824
3:1,870
30,813
20,381

103,787

58,049
48,657
49,INI3
59,791
01,730
92,592
79.313
50,034

499.809

Qriin pmduced

In npinm.
(140111 buibel.)

37,570
56,576
103„»9
48,348

345,098

316,987
285,350
311,100
235,006
198,379
377,514
240,781
153,996

2,009,017

94,194
83,404
76.115
56,010
31,533
89,910
103,715
66,409
47.485
70,331
95,6:f7
17,560

840,363

1,443,858

300,044
330,£66
33.1,:)46
175,239
139,143
435,864
334.382
315,757
167,130
306,037
548,334
83,523

3,204,184

5,703,835

Fopublion.

40,634
44,911
73,237
30,133

195,894

103,095
81.897
88,618
106,793
109,254
163,372
139,388
90,736

879,153

182,280
160,720
13!i,990
109,709

85,314
159,614
187,021
146,691

85,657
145,.180
193,199

:i8,151

1,635,633
79,473

3,771,353

Sweden Proper occupies the centre of the kingdom, and includes the capital, and the
great mining districts. It consists of an immense plain, covered by almost boundless forests,
intermixed with patches of cultivation ; only a few hills of moderate height breaking its
vost uniformity. Three great lakes, like inland seas, the Wener, the Wetter, and the Malar,
form almost a continuous chain across its centre. Besides these, there is an immense num-
ber of smaller lakes, especially towards the north, communicating by river channels with
the greater. These lakes do not display the grandeur which belongs to those of Switzer-
land ; but their wide and winding shores, broken with rocks, and fringed witli a profusion of
wood, present many romantic scenes.

The division into provinces, of Sweden Proper, as well as of Gothland, as given in the
preceding table, was made recently by government, and is the only one upon which statisti-
cal details have been collected. But there is another and earlier division, which remains
still fixed in the Swedish mind; and corresponds, in foct, both to the aspect of nature and to
the peculiarities in the people. These are Sudcrmanland, the province which contains the
capital, and is situated on the south side of the hike Malar; Upland, a high territory on the
northern side of that lake; Westmanlnnd, to the west of Upland ; Nerike, a beautiful little
rpffion, completely enclosed between the three gront lakes; Warmolnnd, to the north of the
Wener, covered with a multitude of little lakes; and, lastly, Dnlccarlia, called also Dalarne,
or the Plains, a province which, of all others, presents the most striking and peculiar fea-
turpiJ. It is, above all, distinguished by the energetic character of its peasantry, whose
exertions at one time reared the fallen monarchy, and who continue to form its most power-
ful (lefonce. They still hold as a maxim, that one Dalecarlian i.s eijual to two of any otlier
Swedes. Their diet is poor in the extreme, consi.sting in a groat measure of bark-bread :
ypt their health .Tiid vigour do not sulfer; and a number of tliom, who were quartered as
tixwps iit Stoc.'kh )lin, were airected with fevers in consequence of the repletion caused by

Pabt hi

I. Norway •
, haa a dia-

lotaland, or
extent and
n has been

FopuUlioii.

40,034
44,911
72,237
3»,13a

105,804

103,005
81,807
88,618
100,703
100,254
103,372
120,388
00,730

870,153

182,280
100,730
130,900
102,700

85,314
159,014
187,031
140,691

85,057
145,380
192,100

:I8,151

1,025,032
79,473

3,771,352

lital, and the
idless forests,

brcnking its
nd the Malar,
iincnse num-

hannels with
of Switzer-

profusion of

given in the

■hich statisti-

hich remains

nature and to

contains the

rritory on the

cautit'ul little

north of the

also Dalarne,

peculiar fca-

antry, whose

most power-

of any other

f bark-bread :

quartered aa

)n caused by

Book I.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

487

Btockbolm

eating whcaten bread. The memory of the great Gustavus Vasa, tlio founder of the Swe-
dish monarchy, is cherished in this pruvincu with the utmost warmth ; and many memorials
of him arc preserved in different places.
Stockholm (Jig. 242.), with which wo shall commence our details, is finely situated, at the

junction of the extensive and beau-
**2 tiful lake of Malar, or Mftler, with

the sea. It stands partly on some
small islands, and two peninsulas,
presenting a view as beautiful and
divorsified as imagination con con-
ceive. Innumerable craggy rocks
rise from the water, partly covered
with houses, and partly planted
with wood; while vessels of all
forms and descriptions are seen passing to and fro. White edifices, consisting of public and
private palaces, churches, and other buildings, rising fiom an expanse of waters, produce an
effect of incom]>arable grandeur. When the lake and sea are frozen, they are covered with
sledges of all kinds, and exhibit one of the gayest scenes imaginable. If external appear-
ance were alone to be relied on, Stockliolm might be deemed tlie most magnificent city in
the world. This impression is not sustained by any beauty or convenience in the interior.
Except the great square of Norden Malm, the streets, though of very considerable length,
are neither broad nor handsome. There is no foot pavement; the houses are lolly, all white-
washed, and the shops arc extremely poor. The different families reside in separate floors
or stories, one above another, the ground-floors being usually occupied as shops. The royal
palace, however, begun by Charles XI., and fmishcd by Gustavus III., may vie with any
structure of the kind in Europe. It is in the Grecian style, quadrangular, four stories high,
built of brick only, but faced with stone-coloured cement. Its situation, facing the quay,
and commanding a view of all parts of the city, adds greatly to its beauty. It contains
some fine specimens of sculptiire and painting, curiosities connected with Swedish history,
and a range of small apartments embellished by Gustavus III. in a fanciful manner. This
palace, with the finest buildings of the city, stands on one of the islands. The kings of
Sweden have in the country other palaces : tiiat of Drottningholm is a handsome stuccoed
building, roofed with copper, and having side wings ; but the gardens are barbarously laid
out in the old fashion, with trees and hedges clipped into funciful shapes.

Nykflping is the only tract of Sweden Pro])er which is south of the lakes. The town of
that name, though small, has an air of magnificence. The houses arc of wood painted
yellow.

The provincesof Westeros, Orebro, and Cnrlstadt, along the north side of the lakes, reach
across the kingdom. Enkdping, on a branch of the Malar, is the first town which occurs
westward from Stockholm, but it is not of great consequence. Westeras, on the same lake,
has more commercial importance, as a link between the ca|)itul and the northern and western
provinces. There is only one principal street, about two miles in length ; the houses are
only of one story, and often roofed with turf. It is the see of the richest bishopric in Swe-
den. The cathedral is a simple edifice ; but one of the most elegant in Sweden, adorned
with a very elegant porpliyry monument erected to Eric IV., who died by poison in 1577.
Next comes Kdpmg, small and poor ; but celebrated as having been the residence of Schcele.
It lies at the extreme interior point of the Malar. Quitting that lake, and proceeding soutli-
west, we come to Arboga, a beautiful little town on a river which fulls into that lake, and
ne-ir a canal which connects it with the lake Hjelmar. A steam-packet, established by an
Englishman, now enables it to couimunicate with the capital. Nearly due west is Orebro,
a more considerable town, and the occasional place of meeting for the Swedish diet It ia
reckoned tiie fifth town in Sweden, containing about 4()0() people, and the streets are broad
and spacious, though the liousos, as elsewhere in Sweden, are low, and of painted wood.
The stadtiius, or governor's residence, which includes also tiio prison, is a huge shapeless
edifice. The churcli, which forms also the place of meeting for the diet, is an ancient struc-
ture, originally Gothic, and built of stone, but patched with brick, and in various styles.
Procecdinij wcstwnril, we enter Carlstudt, or, as anciently called, Warmeland, a region
entirely of mines, foroats, and likelots, and bounded on tlie south by the extended shores of
the Wener lake. CarK-tadt is situated near the jroint where this lake receives the (31ara, a
considerable river, wliicii traverses these wooded regions, and down wliich inmiense (luanti-
ties of timber are floated ; advantage for this purpose being taken of tlie floods to which i
is occasionally subject. One company from Gottenburg has saw-mills, at which are annually
cut upwards of 50,(KK) planks. Carlstadt is a place of Irom 20(X) to 8000 people, presenting
the ordinary aspect of Swedish towns. It collects the vast produce of the mines and
forests of Warnieland, and transmits them across the Wener to Wenersberg, whence
they find tli(Mr way to Gottoriburg. Considerably in the interior is Philipstodt, in thn
very licart of the iron uiino:«, by wjiicli it is supported.

if-'

I i

488

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAl'lIV.

Part III

The most reinarkablo are those of

Pcnbcn Mine.

Porabcrg (Jig. 2't3.)i a few niiloa to thu cn.»l
ward. They arc thirteen in nuinlier, ilii^
into a mountain entirely coniiMtHcd of voins
and beds of iron ore. ])r, Clarke, alter
having', in the couise of ten ycart*' travel,
inHpected many of lliu principal workw of
thiH kind in didercnt countries, declaroH, that
he had never lieheld any thin;,' equal to this
for (;nuideur u^ eH'ect, and tor the trcnicn*
dously Btrikin^r circumstances under which
liunian laliour ih hero perturined. In the
wide and open abyss suddenly appeared n
vast proupcct of yawninn; caverns and prodi-
frious machinery, hnnicnsc buckets, sus-
pended by nittlinj; chains, were iwssing up
and down; ladders were scalinjr all the in-
ward precipices; upon whicli the work-
people, reduced by their distance to pifrmics,
were ascendiii<; and descending. The clank-
injf of cliain.«, the p^roanin^ of the pumps,
the hallixiinj,' of the miners, the creaking
of the bl(x;ks and wheels, the tram|)ling of
horses, the bt^ating of the hammers, and the
loud and frecpient subterraneous thunder
from the blastinjr of the rocks by gun|K>wder,

in the midst of all this scene of excavation and vapour, produced an effect that no stranger
could witness unmoved.

Dalecarlia, or Daknie, e.xtonds to the north-east of Warmeland. It is covered with an
extraordinary prolusion of mosses and fungi, so that it is termed by Dr. Clarke the suprentc
court of the cryptogamin. We have already remarked the peculiar character of the people,
who preserve entire the dress, habits, and tlie daring energy of the ancient Swedes. The
most important branch of prodiuitive industry oonsi.-tts in the mines, piirticularly the great
copper mine at Fahlun (Jlf[. 244.). It is imniediaUdy adjoining to the town, and consists of

an enormous conical mass with the top
downwanls. The Iwttom of the cone, be-
ing the top of the mine, was the first
worked; and the galleries being made
through it without due precaution, the
whole fell in, producing an immense open
crater which .still remains. Regular stair-
cases of easy descent traverser this im-
mense crater or biisin, from its outer lip
to the lowermost [wint, whence arise vast
volumes of smoke and vnjKJur, giving it
the appearance, on a greater scale, ot" the
Neapolitan Solliitra. It is divided into no
less than 1200 shares or sections, among
which tlio ore is divided immediately on
being brought up, and it is then smelted
on a small scale by the difiennit indivi-
duals. The ore is not rich. In 1000, this
mine is said to have yielded 8,000,(KM)
pounds of copper; in lOiM), .'},r>00,(KH) ; but
at pre.sent only 1,120,000 pounds. The workmen have now reachetl the bottom, or the sur-
face of the cone, and are still working through the ground, in the fond hope of coming to the
top of another cone, reaching downwards. Unless this chimera should be realise<l, the mine,
it is said, will, in a few years, cease to be productive. Fahlun is a regularly built but old-
fashioned and dirty town, subsisting solely by the mine. It has two churches, one covered
with copper, but this has not a handsome appearance, the colour of that metal being converted
into a whitish green sixm after exposure to the weather. Near Fahlun is the house where
Gnstaviis Vasa lay concealed, the proprietor of which has studied to preserve in its pristine
state this asylum of the Swedish king. His chamber, bed, and clothes are still shown; his
•shirt of worsted mail fitted similar to tliose made by the Circassians, and his other weapons.
Sala, which is proi^rly in Westinanlnnd, may be mentioned here as another mining town
on a smaller scale, neat, regular, but ill-pnved. The only importjuit mine is one of galena,
which yields 2000 marks of silver, and 32,000 pounds weight of lead. There is also a cop-

Fahlun Mino.

i !i

flip',

■••*'

OOOK I.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

Upfals.

por mine, which produccH littlo; and one of iron, wliich ia nut contiidercd worth tho oxpenM
of working.

Upliinii, coinciding nearly with the modern Upsaln, \e an interesting province, extending
from a pnrt of the luko to tho river Dal. It is flat, but divcrHificd with numerous little round
knolls, which, with the nmnll lakes and the numerous lino forests, render it picturesque. It
contains Upsnia, tho seat of tho great northern university, and Danomorii, the most valuable
of the iron mines.

Upsalo, or Upaul (,Jig. 245.), is the place in Sweden most venerable for its antiquity. It

was long the residence of the kings,
245 and has always been tho cliiof scut

of religion and learning. Even in
pagan times it wns the residence of
the highpricst of Odin ; and in 1026,
Evorinus, a bishop from England,
was ploced thero, tor the purpose of
converting the natives to Christiani-
ty. The cathedral is the largest and
nnest ecclesiastical monument in
Sweden, a country not eminent for
such structures. The exterior is in-
deed only of brick, and tlioro is an
injudicious mixture of tint Gothic
with the Doric towers. Uiit the in-
terior is very striking, adorned with a double row of fourteen fluted columns, a magnificent
altar, and above all by many monuments of the kings and heroes of Sweden. Particular
notice is attracted by that of Gustavus Vasa, and the three Sturcs, successively regents of
the kingdom, who, in that station, earned the title of fathers of their country. The shirt of
mail of Margoret, the Seminimis of the North, is also kept as a warlike relic. Upsala con-
tains also a palace fininded by Gnstnvus Vasa, now half burnt down. It is at present sup-
ported solely by the university, of which an account has already been given. It is destitute
of all trade or industry. It is thorefbro small, but very regular and neat, having a large
square in the centre, where all the streets converge.

Tho mine of Danemora is situated near the small town of Osterby. Swedish iron is the
best in the world, and the iron of Danemora is tho best in Sweden. Dr. Thomson was told
at Stiefficld, that cast steel could not be made with any other. Danemora was first wrought
as a silver mine, but this was soon exhausted. The iron then began to bo wrought, and soon
established the high character it now holds. The great opening is filly fathoms deep, and
tho mine has been wrought thirty fothoms lower down. The ore is blasted with gunpowder.
At short intervals arc heard tremendous explosions, like the discharge of the heaviest artil-
lery, which are echoed through the caverns, and shako the earth like a volcano, v/hilo
volumes of smoke burst forth aflcr each crash. From the mouth of the cavern enormous
masses of iron are raised up by machinery. The mine belongs to a nimibcr of private indi-
viduals, who have erected a steam-engine at an expense of 36,000 rix-dollars. The produce
is estimated at 4000 tons. There are twenty-seven other mines in the province of Upsala,

Gothland, or Gotaland, tlie southern division of the kingdom, forms a large peninsula, with
a wide circuit of shores. It enjoys a considerably milder climate, and is the only part of the
kingdom where wheat is raised in any considerable quantity. It is here also that the recent
improvements in agriculture have been chiefly observable. There is thus more land in cul-
tivation, and trees will not grow in tho immediate vicinity of tlie coasts; so that Golhlatid is
not so thoroughly covered witii wood, as tho provinces to the north of the lakes. If we
except the capital, this division contains almost all the sea-ports and naval arsenals ; and
consequently engrosses nearly all the foreign commerce of the kingdom.

The modern and official divisions of Gotliland have been exhibited in the statistical table.
The ancient divisions arc into Eastern and Western Gothland, divided from each other by
the long line of tho lake Wetter; Smaland, an extensive but barren tract, to the south of
that lake ; and Scania, or Schfinon, the southern peninsular extremity of Sweden, a better
peopled, and better cultivated district than any other in the kingdom.

Eastern Gothland comprises chiefly tho modern provinces of Nykoping and I,.ink6ping.
The town of Nykdping is agreeably situated at the extremity of a small bay of the Baltic,
and though small has an air of magnificence; but it carries on little or no trade. It is now
much outstripped by Norkftping, the largest of all the kiipinffs (i. e. markets), and the fourth
town in Sweden. Norkop'mg lies upon the large river Motala, which communicates between
tho lake Wetter and tho Baltic, and which is here broken into numerous rocky channels.
Tim cliief branch of industry consists in the manufiicture of broadcloth, which is produced so
tliip as to sell at twenty-seven shillings per ell, of one yard and throe quarters broad. Tho
bipivl of shopp in the iiPi^'iilKiiirhooi! has been considerably improved by tho introduction of
lii'Tino'. Tlio town is rpguliirly built, of neat wooden houses. I.inkiiping is another pro.
Vot,. I. 3 M

'"*

■■i^#

-u

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

tl^

Part III.

■4,1

;jB

vincial capital, hiin(!Noinnr in its aspect, thou((h much flmullRr, than NorkAping. Tho
C&tliedriil, ri'Imiit four liiimlrcd vcarH ttfuo, in one of the flnuxt uccinsiuatical MtructurcH in tlio
kinffdom, and noiir it in a very liandfioiiifl thoatro.

Tho district ol'Siniklund ha.i tor it« cliinf town Jonkt'tpin);, sitnated at tho oxtreniity of the
Wetter, und coniniiiiuiiii); gnnii and beautiful views ovor that imnicnso lake, which has horu
a wide border of low Init flnoly wooded rocks. Tho town has been entirely rebuilt sincu
170U, when it wus burnt to tho (ground. Though built chietly of wotxt, liku other Swedish
towns, it contains niiiny good and couunodious houses, the residence of wealthy inhabitants,
who have been attracted by the amenity of the site. A hijfh court of appeal for this part of
Sweden is estitliliahnd hero. About tei> miles distant is Tubertr, a longf round-backed hill,
composed wholly of one unbroken mass of fine ma^'netic ironstone. It presents such a
colossal mass as in Ilausmunn's opinion nuist continue to alFurd a source of riches to tho
remotest posterity, '''ho upper bed, 370 feet thick, has been wrought for 850 years. It is
merely blasted with (rimpowdcr, when the flraf^ments full to tho bottom, and are conveyed to
neighbouring' furnaces. The ore is not very rich, the proportion of pure iron varying from
21 to 92 [wr cent. ; but it is very tractable, and tVco fVoin any hurtful ingredients. The hill,
tliough only 4U0 feet high, commands an almost boundless view over the vast wooded flats
of Smaland. This district contains also a considerable quantity of bo(f iron ore of inferior
quality, and some copper mines.

The sea-coast of Smaland, consisting of tho modem provinces of Calmar and Bieking, is
of a naked and unpromising aspect, but contains some havens of importance. Calmar is
noted in Swedish history as a strong fortress, and still more because in one of the apartments
of its castle was signed tho celebrated treaty which united the three crowns of the north on
the heiul of Margaret. Carlscrona is the chief naval arsenal and one of the largest towns in
Sweden. It is built on throe small islands connected with each other and with the coast by
long wooden bridges, while other islands serve for tho erection of works for the defence of
the harlwur. I'liese are s<|uare batteries of stono, well mounted with ordnance, which appear
formidable enough, though probably not capable of coping with a ship of tho line. Separate
establishments exist for the large vessels, and tor the flotilla ; but one of the most remarkable
features consists of the covered docks, partly excavated out of tho vast masses of solid rock.
The want of tides in the Baltic is supplied by sluices, which open into the port, and aro
emptied again at pleasure. Ciul liamn is a smaller town, romantically situated, like ii cluster
of nests, on the tops of clitTs. During war it enjoyed a considerable projwrtion of the neutral
trade, which it lias since lost. Christianstadt is a fortress of considerable celebrity, tho cap-
ture of which formed the first military achievement of Gustavus Adolphus. Some fragments
of the fortifications riMimin, and the approach to them is defended by an extensive swamp
which surrounds the place.

Scania begins here, a flat and fertile peninsula, forming the most southern part of Sweden.
There are numerous German residents in Scania, supposed to have sought refuge there
during the Protestant persecution in Germany ; and some Scotch farmers have also sought to
introduce an improved system of agriculture. In the centre of Scania is Lund, the seat of
Uie second university in Sweden, containing 30,000 volumes, a good observatory and botanical
garden, and a noble cathedral in the Norman style of architecturi!. JVlalmo, formerly one of
Uie Hanseatic towns, is the chief seat of trade. Helsenving and Ystadt, neat little |X)rt8, are
the chief places of embarkation for Denmark and Germany. All these towns command
magnificent views of tho Sound, enlivened by the crowds of shipping that are continually
passing.

Having turned the southern point of Sweden, we come to the coast of West Gothland,
# situated on that great gulf of the German Ocean called the Cattegat. Being the part of the
kingdom nearest tn the great states of Europe, it carries on a principal part of the commerce
of Sweden. Laholm and Ilalmstadt are ports of some consideration, in the gloomy and
heathy province of Halland, but almost the whole of the western commerce of Sweden centres
at Gotten burg.

Gotlenburg is built in the interior of a bay set round with rugged and naked rocks, and
the whole country round is sterile and desolate. It is supported by its situation at tho mouth
of the Gotha, tlie broadest ond most navigable of the rivers of Sweden, which by means of
tho canal of Trolhiitfa afTords a full communication with the great interior lake of Wener,
and the opportunity of bringing down those immense stores of wood and iron produced around
its shores. The prosperity of Gottenburg was also greatly promoted by the French anti-
commercial system, under which this port remained one of the few channels by wliicii British
goods could force their way into the Continent. It is a very handsome city, built entirely of
stone, the use of wood having been prohibited since the last gnmt conflagration, the second
which had occurred in the course of ton years. A magnificent church, lately built, is con-
structed, in a great measure, of stone imported from Scotland. The principal street, which
is long and wide, has a canal running through it; the others strike off from it at right
angles. The principal merciiants are Scotch, who live in a style of great magnificence.

West Gothland presents still some other striking features. Among these rank foremost

I <

Part III.

kpinff. Tho
cturcM in tlio

■eniity of th«
licli nnii licru
rebuilt lincu
her Hwmlish
inliabitanU,
r ttiis imrt of
■backed hill,
<Rnta audi a
riches to tho
years. It is
i conveyed to
varying from
U. The hill,
woo<led rtata
re of inferior

d Blcking, is
. Calmar is
c opartmcnts
tiie north on
l^est towns in
I the coast by
e defence of
which appear
10. Separate
at renmrkable
of solid rock,
port, and aro
like II cluster
of the neutral
)rity, the cap-
nie fragmenta
jiisive swamp

rt of Sweden,
refuge there
iIho sought to
the seat of
and botanical
■merly one of
ttle jjorts, are
vns command
e continually

est Gothland,
lie part of the
lie commerce
gloomy and
vcden centres

ed rocks, and
at tho mouth
by means of
:o of Wener,
(lured iiround
Frnnch atiti-
uliicli British
It entirely of
1, the second
built, is con-
street, which
m it at right
lificonce.
ank foremost

Boot I.

SWEDEN AND NORW.VV.

41)1

the cataracts and canal of TrolhUtta. Above the fiirmor tho river is a mile broad ; but being
Rontlned Uitween two lolly rookn, it pours down its wutera with priKligioiia tl)rce. The de-
Hcent, howf^ver, is only a hundred feet in the course of two miles, iimkuig tliUH u rapid rathur
than a fall ; the water ruHhiiig along with inconceivable rapidity, lioiliug up, and covcre<l
with fiMiui. Tho noise is prodigious, and clouds of vapour are thrown ui). Theso caturacta
opposed a complete obHtruclioii to the navigation of tho (lotha, which the kings of Sweden
ox|ien<led immense sums in endeavouring to overcome; but their works were too impurfuct
to resist the impi'tuoHity of the current. At length, in 171W, the enterprise was taken up
bv a company of private merchants, who in seven years brought it to a happy completion.
The canal is twenty-tiiur feet wide, and eight feet deep. It extends only two miles; but
being cut through a granite rock, sometimes to tho depth of one hundred and tllly toot, it
proved a work of very great laUiur. Wonerborg, at the junction of the (Jotha with the
Wener, is the channel by which tho products of the interior are brought down tho river;
yet it does not derive fVom this trade much prosperity or importance. Uddevulla and Stron-
atadt, are small sea-ports, with somo trade and flshery, but they have sutl'ercd since the
lierriiigs deserted the coast. Skaru and Fahlkoping are places of somo conse<iuenco in the
interior of West Gothland.

Norrland forms a third division, which, if considered oa including Lapland (and it is so
considered politically), would be much more extensive than all tho rest of tho kingdom put
together. It is, however, our intention to reserve for a particular section tho vast and
peculiar region known under tho name of Lapland. Norrland, in a restricted sense, com-
prises the liiur provinces named in tho table, but is better known under tho divisions of
Jamtland, .\ngermanland, Mcdelpad, and Helsingland. Jamtland, where it Itordcrs on
Norway, includes some of tho highest mountains, several of them r\nna to 6(N)0 or 7()U0
feet. The rest of Norrland is flat, and tho climate moist and variable, like that of Jamt-
land, but colder. Wheat scarcely ripens beyond Sundswall ; near to tlio northern border,
barley and ryo ripen with ditficulty. Almost the only fruits arc cherries and gooseberries.
Tho land under cultivation did not, in IHI'2, exceed 52,(X)0 acres, which is, in projiortion to
the whole, only as 1 to 915, Yet the people are industrious ; and Von Buch observed a greater
air of prosperity here than in the rest of the kingdom. The woods which cover almost the
whole country, are infested by numerous herds of wolves. Of the entire {lopulation, amounting
to 159,1(N), only tiUlH live in the towns, which of course must be very unimportant. Sunds-
wall and Ileriiosand are, however, sea-ports of some little consequence, as is Umca; but this
last properly belongs to Iiapland.

SuBBECT. 2. — Norway.
This extensive portion of the Swedish monarchy, recently, by compolsion, but in all like-
lihood permanently, united, comprises a very long line of maritime territory, facing the
boundless expanse of the Northern Ocean. Throughout its whole length, m an oblique
line parallel to the sea, runs the chain of tho Dotrines, presenting many lx)ld and lofty
summits covered with perpetual snow. Sneehatta, the highest, is 8100 feet. These moun-
tains throw out numerous chains, sloping downwards to the sea, which form romantic valleys
and deep and winding bays. Norway produces some corn, not nearly sufficient, however,
tor its own consumption ; but exports large quantities of timber and tish, receiving, in return,
those commodities of which it stands most in need.

The southern Norwegian provinces of Aggerhuus, Christiania, and Christiansund, include
a considerably greater proportion of level territory than the others. They have the great
range of mountains to the north and west, and are not separated trom Sweden by these
natural barriers. Through these provinces flow southward into the bay of Christiania the
Drammen and the Glommen, the two greatest rivers of tho North, and bring with them an

immense quantity of timber, which
246 is cut into deals, and exported to all

parts of Europe. Tho export of iron
IS also considerable.

Christiania, (fif{. 246.), capital
of all this district, with a |)opulation
of 20,,581, now ranks as the capital
cf tho whole kingdom. It is situated
at the head of a long interior Imy or
fiord, and enjoys a situation which
Von Buch considers as altogether
wonderful. The bay, its islands,
tho crowds of sails spread among
them, with the view of majestic hills
rising over hills in the distance, appeared to him equalled only on the lake of Geneva, wliich,
however, has not the vessels and islands. Christiania is chiefly supported by the trade in
deals I and those cut in its saw-mills are considered, by the traders in this article, to be

Chriftiania.

403

DESCRirnVK (iKOGIlAl'llY.

Part III.

I ♦

iiin

H >

■uporior to all othori. Homo nf it* mnrchniiU, |Nirticiiliirly tint Ankt-rii, iimintnin tlio Ntato
of pritic('i4, iiihI uro cdimiilfiriNl (•qiml m woiiltli niul lilMTiil vh'wh to uny in Kiiriipo. Olirir
tiaiiia (■umi'i* intiru iiilo (uiiituct than ll<'r((i'ii witli tlin ninro mlvanci'd coiiiitrit'ii nl' Kiiropc,
tml liAH mliipti'ti itliiKiiit i-xt'liixivt'ly till' iiiipriivciiicntMuliM'li (llhtinKiiiHJi tlu'in. 'I'lii' liiiililinfR
bro ri>){iilar, iinii niiwtly ot'ittoni'; no tliiit in tliii L'oiirM' nt' 'J(H) yi'iirn, wliili^ ntliiT H<:utuiiiuf
vian townH liitvo Ix-vn riMNuitnilly ri'duonil toni<lii>)<,('liriiitiiiniii Iiiih HiiHi'ml only xli^ht injury
(Wini flro. Hinco tlio union witli Hwfden, it ImM rt'OMvcij lui uiiivKrHity, with tsvo prufuHiiur*,
who hiivo inotloruto iiiooiiu'M, nlii<>||y ilcrivixl iVoni ((rain.

Thcro iiro othor Imvt'iin of iwniu iinprtniico in lliix wiuthcrn Irnct of Norway. On Uie
wevturn ciNiHt of ('hriiitianiu ttonl, thn two, lirH|;(Mia'H niiil HlrniiiMH>, iinitti in forming what
b called l)riinuii<?ii, at thti iiiuiith of the; iiii|Nirtant rivrr of lliiit iiunio. ToiiHlicr^, nt the
bottom of tliu Miiiiu lido, iii a town of Roinu anuient ri'Ifhrity, hut now n ffi*n\ di'itl decayed.
On the oantorn vide of the Manio bny in Maui, watered h^ a Mtreain, tiirninft twenty Miw-inillt,
by which lUi iininonne i|uantity of dealit are pre|)iired tor exportation. FrcderiekMliall, an
ancient and atill important tVonticr town, i* beautifully Mitiutlcd in an interior hiiy, wiiidin((

aniiintt lumintiiini. Nenr it iH the tttroiiK
847 fortreHH of I'Vcderiekntadt, the wene of tho

deoth of (.'harh'd Xll. The inwm of tho
Hwinitund (./iic, 'JI7.), on th(- iuunediatu
tVontier, preHentn one of the iiuiHt romantic
and picturi'M|ue HeeneM in Sciiiiiiinuvia.
ChriNtiuiiMund, tho moHt Houthern provinco
of Norway, haw a cn|)ital of the Mime name,
tho fourth town in the kiii|;^doni, which,
fhim itii Hituntion on the Skaj^errack, ia
viflited for Hlielter and HU|>plieH hy nurno-
nnm vcs.scIk enterin); and leavinjf tho
Baltic. Tho interior fVom Christiania,
Bmimmirttty. tlioiijfh It inehideH Iledeniarken, and other

ItiTgo paatoral valloyH, and thouffh iU communicationH arc facilitated hv tho lurj^c lake of
Miooen, doos not contain a ainirio town. That of Hammer attoHts itH (urnicr ma|;niflccnco,
by tlio remaina of a palacn, ana of Hcveral churchcH now restored. Tho whole ot thiu terri-
tory Ih hemmed in on tho west and north by thn gifrantic rangCH of the Doverfield and
Fillcticld, which separate it from Drontheim and Derfren.

Tho province of Bergen is rude, rocky, and niountaiiion)<, consiHtinff of the nlopo down-

wnnis to the sea of tlu; hij^heHt part
of tho Dofrino ran|;c. The town of
Btirgen, (.A/if. 248.), at tho head of a
lon)j interior buy, was fonnerly ac-
counted the capital, and contains a
population of 18,511. Its commerce,
which is considerable, is founded on
tho exportation, Iohh of tho produce
of the country behind it, than of tho
northern fishery at Dairodcn, of which
the produce is brouGrht to Bergen by
_^ numerous barks. Its merchants hud

*"■ lonjqr the monopoly of this, and still

retain much the greatest share. They are chiefly Dutch, and send a vessel weekly to
Amsterdam for a supply of the prardcn stuffs which their own soil docs not yield. Bergen
is built of large masses of wooden houses, amid rocks, and has suffered severely by fire.
Tho provinco of Drontheim, to tho north of Bergen and Christiania, and separated from

them by vast mountains, cor-
responds in latitude with tho
Swedish Jamtland. Tho capital
^Jiff. 249.), of tho same name,
ia situated on tho shore of a
winding fiord, but subsists less
by foreign commerce than by
the internal communication be-
tween numerous valleys and
districts to which it forma a cen-
tral point of union. Of these
volleys, that of the GuWal is the
most extensive and bcautifiil,
and singularly celebrated in Swedish story and tradition. Here, it is lioosted, dwelt tho
mighty Haco, tho noble and wise Olaf Tryggvason. The society of Drontheim is always

Drontheim.

Part 111.

iniii tilt) Htato
•ii|X'. V.htur
'H (if Kiimpa,
riif liiiiMingii
iiT Hcuiuliiw
xliijlit injury
ivu |irutl'itiiur(,

ny. On Ihu
lornunK what
itlxT^, »t tlio
liMil ilccuyotl,
ity wiw-inillt,
'rickHliitll, on
biiy, winding
JM tlio Htronif
< nct'Mo of tlio

' jIUHM l)t' tho

i(! iiiiiiKMliatu
iiDHt romantic

Scitndiiiuviu.
icrn provinco
o Hniiic name,
idoin, which,
kii(;c<rrack, \»
k'H by numc*

loiiviii); tho
Christ iania,
[Pii, and other
liir((c lake uf
inuifniflccnce,
! of this terri-
lovcrficld and

f dlope down-
hiifhcHt part
The town of
tiio liood of n
fonnerly ac-
id contains a
iH coiimicrce,
H tiiundud on
tlio produce
I than uf the
Icii, of wiiich
to IJorfjen by
lorc'huntii had
:his, and still
cl weekly to
eld. Bergen
by fire,
pa rated from
lUMtains, cor-
ido with tho
Tho capital
same name,
Bhorc of a
mibsists less
rcc than by
unication bc-
valleys and
t forms a ccn-
Of these
Oiildnl is the
ml beautiful,
1, dwelt the
im is ttlway.f

Book I.

RWFOKN AND NORWAV.

400

h)*ld forth ({'■> r<>promnt!n|( umlnr thn hnppimt liuht, the iffnuitm Nnrwi'ffian rhnmrtor; it*
warmth ofku: liie^^, ami irmcrouM himpitAlity. Ur. t'lurlic prniM'it chietiy ito truly Norw(<-
fian iiiiii|iJ>rity ; biif Von liiich ciiintiilcrN it hn miirknl by nuiri' rcHiied taNte, iiiori* irrai'oful
anil attriii-tjvt- mannrm, tlm'i tin -Krii'ty of <'liriiitiania. In no tliiitrict of Norway m thi'ro
Haiti to III- mvU i l°<'*'liii^ ol i«iI>m ikui mid public npirit. Droiithciiii i« built wholly of wifid,
and hn» in i'oii.«i>>|ii''i)'''' btt'ii i'cvimi 'fni'o burnt to the i;r<>*>iid; yxt tlinhoiiwitari' iiiiiidMonii',
and on. I'K'iited with ra«i<: There m M 'pncioui) ^Inco, built wholly of iIiIn mnlerial, and
partaking' iio|M'rti.>ctiiiii. i^rontbrim iilmi coiilniliH the reniainii of a cathi'dnil, the lur|{i'Ht
ediHcn in ih, <'i>i)ii(ry, ami to whii li the whole impulatioa of llie North came onrit in pil>
IfrimaDfo. Tho ciif rronH arc very lM>aiitifiil, with numeroiii coiintry-iieatH, and lolly iinuw-
crowned hilla in the (jiriluiice. OhrintiaiMiind is al--"' a aiiioll »ea-port ami liitliiii(r town in
thia province.

Beyond Dmntheim commencPH Norrland, a diHtrict rather than a province, the name
boin(( vaguely applied to all the north of Hcandinavia. Ileliitivoly to Norway, it w marked
by an increaMingr inteniity of cold ; the mouiitiiins, oven at 9(N)0 feet UigU, beiii)( capiN'd with
p«r|wtual Hiiow, and vawt tablo-plaiitN or fleldH reiiminliiK covered with it duriii;( the whole
■ummer. Ornin, even of the coarxeHt dencription*, riptMi* only in a few ilivoured xiMitu, Thu
apruco Hr i^rradually dioapiiearM, and «heltor ii noceHMary to allow tho Hcolch lir and the
birch to Mnrini; up. The climate, however, Im anmewhat milder than that of ri'uiono under
the name latitudo on the Baltic; vo that, while the port* of Htockholm and ('iirUcroiia are
ahut durin(( xoveral monthii of tho year, thnwo of Norrland remain continually o|)«>n. Yet
in thiN dreary re^fion occurH a huHy iicene of human action and cxiitenre. The luinioroiifi
iaIaiMis, and the deep bayo iM'tween them and the land, atTord Hpotn to which nlioiils of IihIi
come fhim the farthest depths of tho North Hea to deputtit their ipawn. During the wlioli*
year, the herring atlbnlii a rejifiilar occupation tn tho Norrland boatman; but from Kc^briiary
to April, the hIkkiIh, miKratin^ tVoin thniire, and tVom all tho surroundin); conntj*, crowd to
tho Iiotroden Islands, the central seat of the northern fishery. These islands tbriii n chniii
mrallel to the land, and separated by narrow channels throu(;h which the tides of tlie
Northern Ocean rush with tremendous rapidity. The sea flows as in the most rapid rivers, and
tho name of stream is employed ; — Malstrlkni, tho fiimoua whirlpool, Grimi<triini, Hiiiidsf rftin,
which, when the tide is high, produce the efli'ct of a init^hty cataract. Waves are seen
Btni^ll[liii(( ajfainst waves, toweruif; alotl, or wheeling; about in whirl|Kiols; the dashin;'; and
roarinfr of which arc heard many miles out at sea. The produce oi' tho fishery, which has
been rendered much more abundant by tho intruluction of larj^o nets insteud of hooks, is
convoyed to Berxcn in a great number of little bnrks. Tho Danish jrovernment endeavoured
to form at Htromsoo a commercial de|)<)t for the produce of Norrland ; but in this bleak situa-
tion it has not flourished, Tho Kussians come with numerous veKscls fVom Archangel,
bringing meal and provisions, which they give in exchange for the fish caught.

SuiMKOT. n. — Lapland,
The vast region of Lapland is divided from the rest of Scandinavia b^ a line drawn across
it nearly coinciding with tho Polar Cjrcle, so as to render it almost entirely an arctic region.
It consists partly of great chains of mountains, some of which are 400() feet high, while
other extensive trocts are level. Through these roll tho Tornoa, the Lulea, the I'itea, and
other rivers of long course, and navigable for the few boats which have any occasion to jmss

along them. The Laplanders are a peculiar race,
/*■>> '-iao short, stout, brown, with black hair, pointed chin,

f nWX y^ ond eyes rendered weak by exposure to tho smoke

^ ^^ '■ — ' and snow. They are divided into the mountain

or wandering Iioplanders, and those who dwell in
what arc called villages; but Kaiitokcino, which
forms a sort of Ijapland capital, when visited by
Acerbi, was found to contain not more than four
tiitnilies and a priest. The swirt-tJwtcd rein-fleer,
which they tram to draw them in slcdijes over tho
snow, form their riches; the flesh and milk of
these animals compose their fixxl, and the skins
their furniture. The tents of the I.aplanderH
(.fin. 250.) ore formed by six beams of wmxl
meeting nearly nt top, covered with cloth, a flap
of which, left between two of the beams, serves
as tho door. The floor is spread with rein-deer
skins, having the hair upwards, and which thus
serve for either lying or sitting, the tent being too
low to stand hi, except in one place. A stone
(Vame is made in the middle, for the fire ; and there is a hole at the top, to which the smoke
Vot. I. 42

250

ri?"

' w

1 .

f ('

MounUin Laplander'! Toni.

404

nESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

pAHTin.

Laplaodera TraTellinf.

must find its wby ; but this it does not effect till it has thickly imprejinated the whole
tent with its fumes ; which, however, nrc valued as affording a protection in winter a^inat
the cold, and in summer against the iswarms of musquitoes with which, during a period of
short and extreme heat, the air is infested. The herds of rein-deer vary from 300 to up-
wards of 1000, according to the wealth of the possessor. All day they wander over
the hills, nnd in the evening ore driven, not without some occasional resistance, into an en-
closed park, where tliey are milked. Each yields only about a tea-cupful of milk; but rich,
aromntie, and of cxijuisitn taste. Linnoius mentions nineteen farms in which milk is pre-
pared for iJiod ; but cleanliness does not preside over their cookery ; and the use of the hand,
without knife or fork, to carry every thing to the mouth, and of the tongue to lick the dishes,
prevents an European from joining these meals with any relish. The liaplanders travel

from place to place, and move
^1 As:. tiieir families, usually at the be

ginning of winter and summer,
in sledges made in tlie fonn of a
boat, and drawn by rein-deer
(fig. 251.). These animals are
tamed and trained with con-
siderable difficulty, and they are
sometimes restive ; but, in gene-
ral, they bound over hill and
dale with surprising celerity.
The natives have also a species
of snow-shoe ; not a broad flat board, like that of America, but somewhat in the form of a
Bkate, with which they glide rapidly along the surface of deep snow, and even up and down

the steep sides of the hills (jig. 252.),
Their dress is carefully contrived for
the purposes of warmth. The under
part, or shirt, is composed of sheep's
skin with the wool inwards ; while the
exterior coat is formed by the skin of
the rein-deer, or some other animal,
having the fur outwards. They add
fur gloves, and a woollen pointed red
cap (Jg. 253.).

The entire population of Lapland,
spread over asurfaceofl5() miles square,
is stated by Dr. Thomson not to exceed
60,000, or one inhabitant to every three
square miles. Even this scanty mea-
sure is supported only on the sea-
coasts by a supply of fish. The parish
of Kautokeino, in the interior, extending 200 miles in length and 96 in breadth, was re-
ported to Acerbi as containing not more than ninety families, of whom twelve only are
fixed. The I^planders arc a harmless race, among whom great crimes are unknown. Only
one murder has been heard of in twenty years ; and the absence of theft is proved by that
of bars, bolts, and other safeguards. They do not show that open hospitality and warmth

Laplander deaceixlinf ■ Bnow-Flake.

Laplundcr with Maiie Dmn.

Mountain Laplander.

of heart, for which rude nations are so often celebrated. They arc cold, shy, mistrustful,
and difficult to treat with, at least unless tobacco or brandy he broujrht in ns mediators. They
were formerly very superstitious ; and the I/iiplaml witches were famous for their empire
over the winds, which they enclosed in bags, and sold to the mariner. TIk; magic dnii.

" rr

Part in.

he whole
IT as^ainst
period of
iOO to up-
wler over
ito an en-

but rich,
Ik is pre-
the hand,
;he dishes,
Drs travel
and move
at the be
1 summer,
3 form of a

rein-deer
nimals are
with con-
id they are
it, in gene-
r hill and
r celerity.

a species
e form of a
p and down

(jig. 25a.).

intrived for
Tlie under

1 of sheep's
; while the
the skin of
her animal,

They add
pointed red

if Lapland,
liles square,
it to exceed
lovery three
iciinty mca-
(n the sea-
The parish
fth, was re-
re only are
iown. Only
,'ed by that
ind warmth

listnistful,
Itors. They
leir empire
liagic Uru<.

Book I.

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM

405

255

{Jig. 254.) and die enchanted cliain (Jig. 255.) arc still in occasional use. Yet the liaplandcrs
have been converted to Christianity, and are attentive to its duties, coming
often from vast distances to attend divine service, though the instructions arc
conveyed to them only through the broken medium of un interpreter.

The sea-coast of Lapland presents a continuation of the snnie bold and rocky
features which distinguish that of Norway. Here, too, the fishery is carried ou
with activity. It is chiefly in the hands of a Finnish race, called Quans, who
liave pushed across Lapland, and exert an activity unknc . ,; to the natives of
that region. The Russians from Archangel, also, not only bring their meal to
exchange for fish, but carry on the fishery themselves to a great extent. In
July and August they cover with their small three-masted vessels all the fiords
and sounds, and throw out lines that are sometimes two miles long, and contain
600 or 700 hooks ; so that their vessels are filled with tlic utmost rapidity. The
government has founded, on the large island of Qualoe, tiic town of Hammcrfest,
the most northern in the world, and destined as a rival to Archangel ; but the
settlement has never taken root in this ungenial climate, and continues also,
with one exception, to be the smallest that exists. On the other .side of the
North Cape, on the extreme frontier, the fort of Wardhuus, defended by twenty
men, forms the only barrier to prevent the Russians from taking possession of
the whole country. Mageroe, the most northerly of the islands, consists of
steep rocks rising perpendicularly from the sea, and ascended as if by stairs. In
a rocky recess stands Kielvig, with four or five fiimilies, on a level spot, barely
Magk Cham, affording a site for the houses, and exposed to the perpetual war of tiie elements.
The tempests here rage with such fury, that it is often impossible to leave the house without
danger of being blown into the sea. At the northern point of this island is formed by the
North Cape the grand boundary of the European continent, facing the depths of the Polar
Ocean. It consists of an enormous mass of naked rock, parted by the action of the waves
into pyramidal cliffs, down which large fragments are continually falling.

CHAPTER VII.

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.

Ttre Netherlands, comprising now the two kingdoms of Holland and Belgium, form a
maritime territory, which, situated almost in the centre between the noitli and tlie south of
Europe, and penetrated by the Rhine and its tributaries, possesses great natural advantages
for industry and commerce. It has, accordingly, from a very early period of modern history,
ranked as one of the most prosperous and flourishing parts of Europe. Tlie union of the
Batavian and Belgic Netherlands into one kingdom, though in fact only a renewal of that
which subsisted at a former period, was suddenly terminated, in 1830, by a revolution of the
Belgians. The separate existence, however, of Holland and Belgium being yet recent, and
the statistical information respecting them having for a number of years been collected with
reference always to the entire Netherlands, they will be still treated most advantageously
in combination. It may be sufficient to observe, that, since the revolution of 1830, Belgium
has been erected into a separate monarchy, through the mediation of the five great powers
of Europe ; and the crown, with their consent, has been conferred on prince Leopold, formerly
of Saxe-Coburg.

Sect. I. — General Outline and Aspect.

Holland and Belgium may be regarded as a large corner or segment cut off from France
and Giermany, which form round it a species of irregular arc. Arbitrary line?, drawn con-
formably to treaties, mark all except its maritime boundaries ; for, though several of the
greatest rivers of Europe cross its territory, none of them have any limitary cliaracicT. The
maritime boundary, which, like the inland, extends from north-east to south-west, is the
North Sea, or German Ocean, which is formed here into a species of largo gulf by the oppo-
site coa.st of part of the English Channel. Holland is also penetrated by the deep inlet of
the Zuyder Zee. The whole territory extends between 49° 30' o-d 53° 34' N. lat., and
2° 30' and 7° 12' E. long. ; making about 280 miles in length, am. 220 miles in breadth.
The entire extent, according to the best calculations, amounts to 24,870 square miles, or
1.5,900,000 English acres.

In respect to surface, this country includes the lowest portion of tlie great low land of
the European continent. The northern parts, composirig the new kingdom of Holland, are
mostly below the level to which the bordering sea rises during high tides or swells. Hence
originated an imminent danger of inundation, till the Dutch constructed tho.=e mighty dikes.
by which the sea is excluded, and which form so extraordinary a monument of their industry.
Holland is humorously described by Butler as a country that draws fifty feet of water."
The Belgic provinces are also flat, but not lower than the surface of the sea, nor much exposed

'■v\

!:■''!

■I

, I

1,;

(,!■:

; f

■^
if.*

! if

MAP OF HOLLAND AND BELuIUM.

Fio 8sa

Book I.

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM

407

to river inundation. In the south-eastern district of Liege and Nomur, branches of the
Rhenish mountains render the surface irregular, and sometimes hilly, particularly in the
tract fanning part rf the ancient forest of Ardennes.

Several rivers, which rank among the greatest in Europe, and are derived from distant
sources, pass through this territory; ond, separating into numerous channels, form broad
estuaries at their entrance into the ocean. They all unite in the channel of the majestic
Rhine ; yet, by a singular fortune, this great name is not retained by the moin branch of the
river, which, in turning to the westward, receives the name of Waal, and afterwards that
of its important tributary the Maese, under which designation it flows into the sea below
Rotterdam. The Yssel, another considerable branch, runs northward into the Zuyder Zee ;
while the name of Rhine is retained by another, comparatively a rivulet, which passes
through the provinces of Gueldres and Utrecht The Maese or Meuse is the only great
river which has the larger part of its course through the Netherlands, traversing the mterior
of Belgium from south to north. Its main tributaries, the Sambre on the west, and the
Roer on the east, have only a portion of their course through Belgium. The Scheldt has
not nearly so long a course ; but this river, and its tributaries, the Lys, the Dyle, the Dender,
and the Neethe, water the most improved districts, and visit the greatest cities of Belgium.
When united under their main branch, they form a broad navigable channel, opening into
an estuary, which affords to Antwerp the means of carrying on an extensive maritime com-
merce.

Referenctt to the Map of Holland and Bdgium.

HOLLAND.

I. FriesluHtL
1. PnHiena
S. Huitenpost

3. DobKum

4. Leuwardon

5. St. Jacob

6. Franoker

7. Harlingen
B. Knrnwurt
9. Biilttward

10. Workum
n. Ilindelupen
1*2. Stavui'un
i;i. Sloipn

14. Kuinder

15. Trrkappcl

16. nrouw

17. SchiiDt

18. Noiirdwplde
It). lltiQritcr ZwanR
20. DuiikGiliiiuk

U. Groningen.
31. Mariim
3*i. (■ryp«kerke
%<. Knlikamp
24. Uikert
2.*). liMpperium

26. PiMfiyl

27. Winschotcn
^. Fort Bourtange
2!>. Ter Apel

30. Ti'rMaarech
ai.Kolhiim

'Ai. Gronini^en

III. Drenthe.
3.1. Riion

31, Gaitcron
lis. Aisen

36. Smildi

37. Dievprhurg

■ :t8. VVesU'rliorg

39. Odi>nni

40. Soliooneboek

41. Kdovnnien
4'i. Kdincii

43. Mcppcl

IV. Overussel.

44. i^teenwyk
4.'i. RIookzyl

46. Votli'nhnvnn

47. B^tarirvldis
4H. Kainpen
49. HiittHm
51). /wall

^]. Oonemuiden
H'i. Ornmpn
.5;). HaTileiiberg
m. Doll Main
.•J.*. Almelo
.5ti. Ootmnrsiim
.v. nidenznal
.W. Gnicliedo
.W. Delden
60. llaa.\borgen
ni.Cnor
H2. RrMen
63. Ilolten

Vol. I.

(M. WeMP«

65. Iluyno

76. Deventer

V. dueliUrland.

66. Elburg

67. Poiihula

68. Harderwyk
119. Leuvenum

70. Nrkerk

72. Rarnevold

73. Koolvyk

74. Apclduum

75. Vaaicn

77. /utphen

78. l..ochem

79. Hcirkulo

80. Ruorlo

81. Biodevort

83. Heerenberg
Kl. Dduiichem

84. Dowburg
85.DeWni!ilHoer

86. Arnht>iin

87. HuiMMi

88. Herveld

89. Wageningon
go.Thiel

91. Kuilenburg

VI. UtrecU

93. Wyk

03. Venendaal

94. laselitetn
m. Montlaort
lie. Ultecht

97. Nieuwprsluifl

98. Naarden

71. Ainerefoort

VU.JforlhHol-

land.
99. AniPterdam

100. Do Kodg

101. Monnikendam

103. Punnorend
111.3. Fdam

104. Huorn
1ir>. Knkhuiien
ion. Medenblick

1117. Kolhnrn

1118. The Hnldar

109. Calandsoog
111). Poiton
in.Rrnek

113. Alkinaar

113. Egniundaan

Zoe

114. Revonryk
lj.l Zandvoort

116. Haarlem

VUI. South Hol-
land,

117. Lime

118. Leimuden

110. Lpyden

130. The Hague

131. ftravpzande
133. Wiliveen
133. Gouda

134. Sclioonhoven

135. Lnedam

136. Gorcuiu

137. Rottordam

138. Chailoi

139. Sireen

1:I0. Helvoetsluys
131. Goeree

IX. Zealand.
133. Zieriktes

133. Ooei

134. Veere

13.5. Middleburg
im. Sluyi
137. Biervliut
i:w. Alol

139. Hultt

140. Tholon

141. Steenbcrgen

186. N. Anwen

187. Mortch

188. F.ttelbruck

189. Diekiich
100. Gchtenach
191. Grerenma-

cheten

BELGIUM.
I. ^^ntieerp.

1. Arendonck

2. Tiirnhuut

3. Minderhnut

4. <>orinft

a. OiiBl Mails

6. Sant Vliet

7. Fort Lillii

8. Fort St. Pbilip

9. Antwerp
snnoi

10. nergenhout

11. Berchein
IX JtrorthOrnliant. 13. Boom

143. BbrgenopKooin 13. Mechlin
14.3. Ruzendaal 14. Lier

144. WilliamBtad 15. Voidoneken

16. Herenlhali

17. Gestnl

18. Lomtnol

145. Breda

146. Ohnam

147. Tilburg

148. Gei'rtruidonberg

149. Heusdon It. /.I'mJurjr.
1.50. Bommel 19. Heiek Teren

151. Fori St. Andtiea 20. Pcor

152. Grave 31. Hamont
153 Vechel 23. Maaeyck
1.54. Bdia le Due 3:1. Aaoh

56. Haiiiine_

57. Burcht Town

and Fort

58. Tetn de Flandrea

59. Doe I

60. Gnvekle

61. St. Laurens

V. fTeit ftanders.

63. Cuooko
Ua. Blankenburg

64. Brugoa

65. Ostond
1)6. Nieuport

67. Thorout

68. Dixmuidc.

69. Loo

70. Rouatbrugge

71. Pmioringhe
73. Warnelon

73. Yptoa

74. Menin
7.5. Courtray

76. RouBselaorc

77. Thiolt

1.5.5. HouvpI
1.56. RciibpI
l.'i7. l.iiika Gcatet
158. I-^rzel
1.59. Leende

160. Aaten

161. Helmont
Iftl WantDT

163. Verliiigbeck

X. /.imburg.

164. Veltpn

165. Polorworlh

166. Vonio

167. Helden

168. Mpyel
160. Weett

170. Ruremrindo

171. Wepapn

173. Oinliei'ck
in. RuililiiP

174. Mneatricht

175. Gulpen

XI. Tjuzemiurg.

176. Wie. Warn-

nach

177. Clervaux

178. Vianden

179. Gachdorf

180. Martelnngo
Wl.NidprPallen
IHij. Luxemburg

183. Fjich

184. Friaann

185. Canach

VI. Hainaull.

78. Pottea

79. Depret

80. Temp Leuve

81. Tournay

82. Fontenoy

83. Peru vela

84. Ouivrain

85. Sara

34. Reckem 86. Mona

35. Hoaielt 87. Lena
28. Hil»en 88. Ath

37. Tongroa 89. Eiighien

38. Manahoven 90. Roeulx

91. Goaaeliea
III. ."foul* Brabant. 93. Charleroi
30. Tirlemont 93. Merbet lo

30. Incourt Chnliaii

31. Miiualier 94. noaumuiit
:!3. Nivelica 9.5. KaiiRRo
3.3. La Bollo Alliance 96. ^himay
.34. Halle

;«. Walprloo

36. Briiaaela

37. Vianden

38. Tiouvnin

39. Haerleii

40. Diiat

41. Aerachot
43. Ecliiae

43. Donderzecl

44. Aaclia

VII. JVaniir.

97. Marienbourg

98. Pbilipvillo

99. Ligny
100. Thil Raudian

101. Graux

102. Namur
10^1. Gembloiix
104. Eghezco
Ia5. Andonnoa
106. Nattore

IV. Eait flandcn. 107. Pesauulx
4.5. Aloat 108. Dinant

40. Ninovo 109. Jambeline

47. Grammont 110. Beau Rains

48. Parieke 111. Gedinne

49. Oudenarde

50. TjCPUwprKhom

42*

51. Dcncnock
.12. Deinao
.5.3. Ghent

54. Weteren

55. Caleken

Vlll. I.ieet.
113. St. Hubert

113. Beauaainte

114. Marchfl
lis. Mucoui>

116. Grand Menil

117. Tohogne
lia Mierati
119. Huy

130. Neuvill*

131, Omal
133. Landen

133. FIcmalle

134. Liege
125. Viae

136. Limburg

137. Heron

138. Baufayt

129. Spa

130. Solvaatre

131. DouBame

132. Stavclot
i:)3. Theasion
i:U. Vieil Salm

IX. Luztmturt

135. Traillea
i:i6. Haetogne

137. Neuville

138. Thau de Bo-

logna
13D. Arlun

140. Virion

141. Ueile Fontaine

142. Perenaart

143. Bouillon

144. Orchimool

145. Anioy

146. Rpcogne

147. NoufChalaau

Riveri.
a Schuyten
b Honrn
c Kuinder
d Reeat
e Dinkel
f Vcchl

USSil"

i Chipbeech
t Rprkel
k Rhine
I Waa.
m Meuae
n Great Aa
Donimel
p Mcrk
<1 Spholdt
r Vpctlee
a Lya
t Scnne
d Haine
v Sambre
wDyle
X Dormer
y Littin Lcihea
z Great LeCnea
a* Ourl
b» Our
c* Sure
d* Scmoy
e* Leaao
f» Alaotle
t* Hoaelle

( I

'fliW

4gs

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part HI.

|i »

i! I

The only considerable lake in Holland is Haerlom-Mcor, a wide shallow expnse ; which,
however, was of great service to the Dutch during their grand struggle for independence,
by giving them the means of laying the surrounding country under water." There are several
smaller mkea of the same ciiaracter in Friesland.

Sect. II. — Natural Geography.
SiiBHECT. 1, — Geology,

The higher parts of this country are composed o( strata of transition slates and quartzes
more or less inclining to sandstone, generally directed from N. E. to S. W., and traversed
by numerous veins of quartz. These slates are clay slate, whet slate or hone, drawing slate
or Mack chalk. Resting uiwn the transition rocks occur various secondary deposits. The
first formation is the old red sandstone, upon which rests the mountain limestone. Asso-
ciated with these rocks are various slate clays, and beds of anthracite or glance coal. Mines
of brown iron ore, or hydrate of iron, and of red iron ore, or o.\ide of iron, occur among
these rocks. A great field of the coal formation, resting upon this mountain limestone,
extends from Aix-la-Chapelle to Douay. The coal formation in this tract of country forms
a series of irregular basins, of which the most considerable are thase of Lidge and Cliarleroi,
which nrf! separated from each other by a small ridge of limestone. The chief rocks of
these coal-basins are sandstone, slate, clay ironstone, and coal. The most important coal
mines are those in the neighbourhood of Mens and Charleroi ; but the mines of Jiioge are
remarkable on account of the difficulties the miners meet with in their workings ; the number
of beds of coal being reckoned as high as eighty-three by M. Dumont. From Aix-la-Cha-
pelle by Maestricht and Brussels, tlie country is composed of chalk, with occasional displays
of green sand, gault and Shanklin sand, rising from under it.

The tritonian or lower tertiary rocks form in the Netherlands a very considerable Kasin,
in which is situated the city of Brussels. It is composed principally of sands, ferriferous
sandstones, white sandstones, flint, limestone, and clayey marl. These tertiary deposits are
observed more or less deeply covered with diluvium ; and at the mouths of the Scheldt,
Meuse, and Rhine, there are vast deposits of river nlluvium, whicli alluvium forms also the
islands of Zealand, and the greater part of Holland.

SuBSECT. 2. — Botany.

The Botany of this country is noticed under that of Germany.

SuBSECT. 3. — Zoology.

The Native Zoology otTors nothing peculiar. Tlic Dutch horses (_Jig. 257.) arc only valu-

257

Dutch Iloreo.

able for draught: those of Friesland, Berg, and the
country of Julicrs, are the best; but their feet are gene-
rally large, they eat much, and have little endurance.
This race appears to have been derived from Den-
mark, and to have produced the Ilolstein, which was
the parent of the old unimproved English breeds of
horses. The Flemish sheep arc of a breed common to
France and the Netherlands, being in general horn-
less, high on the legs, and derived from an intermix-
ture with the Barbary long-legged sheep. The Dutch
oxen are cf an immense size, sometimes weighing 2000
pounds.

Skct. III. — Historical Geography.

The Netherlands formed, in ancient times, the princiiwl part of Gallia Belgica. The
Bolgir wore the rudest, tlio bravest, and the fiercest of the three nations of Gaul. A despe-
rate struggle was maintained before they yielded to the genius of Ctesar, and the superior
discipline of the Roman armies. At length the country within the Rhine was reduced to
the condition of a Roman province; but the Batavi the ancient Hollanders, united them-
selvps to Rome rather as allies than subjects.

During the middle ages the Netherlands passed through a series of vicissitudes. So early
as the era of Clinrlernagne, they had acquired distinction in the pursuits of industry ; and
some of their fabrics wore sent by tliat monarch to the caliph Haroun Alraschid, as speci-
mens of the arts and indn.«try of Europe. When tlie empire of Charlemagne fell to pieces,
these states were divided into a number of separate principalities, all successively united, by
marriage contract or inheritances, under the sway of the house of Burgundy. It was at this
time that the Flom'^li provinces rose to the highest pitch of manufacturing and commercial
■prosperity. Tlioy received nil the raw materials of France and England, coimtrics then
rude and ngricnlfunil. and returned them in a manufiictured state. Ghent alone is said to
have emnloved 40.000 looms ; though this is most probably much exaggerated. Bruges first,

Part 111.

use ; which,
lependence,
I are several

nd quartzfs
nd traversed
rawing slate
posits. The
itone. Asso-

coal Mines
occur among
lin limestone,
;ountry forms
nd Cliarlcroi,
hief rocks of
tnportant coal

of Liege arc
! ; the number
n Aix-la-Cha-
iional displays

derablo basin,
ids, ferriferous
:y deposits are
fthe Scheldt,
forms also the

are only valu-

Berg, and the

[ feet are gene-

[tie endurance.

•d from Den-

[in, which was

llish breeds of

jcd common to

[general horn-

an intermix-

The Dutch

eighing 2000

iBelgica. The

|aul. A dcspe-

id the superior

livas reduced to

tmitcd them-

hdcs. So early
1 industry ; and
Irhiil, as spcri-

■ foil to pieces,
Ivcly united, by
1 It was at this
Ind commercial

biuntrics then
lone is said to
Bruges first.

Book 1.

HOLLAND AND BEI/3TUM.

499

and then Antwerp, formed tlie grand dep6t for the commerce of the norfhcm and middle
states of Europe.

The house of Austria, by the intermarriage of Kluximilian L and Mary, the heiress of
Burgundy, succeeded to the rich dowry of the Seventeen Provinces. They formed one of
tlie chief sources of the power of Charles V., who transmitted them, with Spain and liis
Italian dominions, to his son Philip II.

The Reformation was early introduced into the Netherlands, and had a most powerful
influence upon their destiny. Being suited to the sober and thinking habits of a manufac-
turing population, it was soon embraced by a majority of the people, who were thus placed
in direct collision with the fierce and gloomy bigotry of Philip II. The Inquisition being
introduced, in its most unrelenting severity, with a view to the suppression of the new doc-
trine, drove the people into open rebellion ; and a contest of fifty years' duration arose, the
most fierce, bloody, and important in its consequences, of all those to which difiercnces of
religion have given rise. The duke of Alva, who boasted that, during his government in
tlie Iiow Countries, 18,000 persons had peHshed on the scaffold, was, however, unable to
subdue the independent spirit and determined enmity to Spanish dominion which he had been
instrumental in kindling. The more moderate conduct of his successors, and, above all, of
Ale.vmder Farnese, succeeded in re-establishing the Spanish sway over the Belgic provinces
which were not defended by any natural barriers. Even the Dutch were reduced to the
disastrous necessity of opening their dikes, and allowing a great part of their territory to be
inundated. Their cfturage and perseverance, however, the great talent of the first two
princes of the house of Orange, and the aid afforded by Elizabeth, enabled them finally to
achieve their independence. The union of Utrecht, when they constituted themselves
into an independent state, by the title of the Seven United Provinces, was concluded
in 1.597.

From this period the destiny of the United Provinces, called more commonly by the name
of Holland, tlie chief province among them, was entirely different from that of Belgium.
They speedily attracted many of the manufactures, and all the commerce, which hod raised
the Flemish cities to prosperity. The Dutch conquered from Portugal, at that time under
the dominion of Spain, the finest of her possessions in the Jkst Indies ; obtained a temporary
footing in Brazil ; and rendered Amsterdam the centre of a flourishing trade with India :
they carried on the fisheries, especially those of herrings, upon an unprecedented scale; and
became the first maritime people in the world. The commercial greatness of Holland pre-
sents so remarkable a phenomenon, that we cannot forbear availing ourselves of some part
of that luminous illustration of it, which has been aflbrded by the researches of Mr. M'Cul-
loch. That able writer observes : —

" Between the years 1651 and 1672, when the territories of the republic were invaded by
the French, the commerce of Holland seems to have reached its greatest height. De Witt
estimates its increase from the treaty with Spain, concluded at Munster in 1643, to 1669, at
fully a half. He adds, that, during the war with Holland, Spain lost the greatest part of
her naval power ; that since the peace, the Dutch had obtained most of the trade to that
country, which had been previously carried on by the Hanscatic merchants and the English ;
that almost all the coasting trade of Spain was carried on by Dutch shipping ; that Spain
had even been forced to hire Dutch ships to sail to her American possessions ; and that so
great was the exportation of goods from Holland to Spain, that all the merchandise brought
from the Spanish West Indies was not sufficient to make returns for them.

"At this period, indeed, the Dutch engrossed, not by means of any artificial monopoly, but
by the greater number of their ships, and their superior skill and economy in all that regarded
navigation, almost the whole carrying trade of Europe. The value of the goods exported
from France in Dutch bottoms, towards the middle of the seventeenth century, exceeded
40,000,000 livres ; and the commerce of England with the Low Countries was, for a very
long period, almost entirely carried on in them.

" The business of marine insurance was largely and successfully prosecuted at Amster-
dam ; and the ordinances published in l.'VJl, VbdS, and 1.570, contain the most judicious regu-
lations for the settlement of such disputes as might arise in conducting this difficult but
highly useful business. It is singular, however, notwithstanding the sagacity of the Dutch,
and their desire to strengthen industrious habits, that they should have prohibited insurance
upon lives. It was reserved for England to show the advantages that might be derived from
this beautifiil application of the science of probabilities.

" In 1690, Sir William Petty estimated the .shipping of Europe at about 2,000,000 tons,
which he supposed to be distributed as follows: — viz. England, 500,000 ; France, 100,000;
Hamburg, Denmark, Sweden, and Dantzic, 250,000 ; Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 2-50,000
that of the Seven United Provinces amounting, according to him, to 900,000 tons, or to nearly
one half of the whole tonnage of Europe ! No great dependence can, of course, be placed
upon these estimates; but tlie probability is, that, had tliey been more accurate, the
pre(X)nderance in flavour of Holland would have been greater than it appears to be; for
the official returns to tiie circulars addressed in 1701 by the commissioners of customs

I'll

l#.,.i S' 111

ff r rw

;■: I-

■.*!■

•i

soo

DESCRIPTIVE (iEOO RAIM I V.

Part IIL

I ■

Mil

i
.1

; 'li'

to the officers at the difTercnt ports, hIiow that the whole mcrctintilc navy of Enirhiiul
amounted at that pi^riod to only 'iOl/^VM tona, carryin;; 27,U)0 nicii. (,Miicphtriion'» An-
nah qf Commrrce, anno 1701.)

" It may, therefore, be fairly concluded, that, during the seventeenth century the foreign
commerce and navigation of Holland was greater than that of all Europe besides ; and yet
the cotuitry which was the seat of this vast commerce had no native produce to ex|)<)rt, nor
even a piece of timber fit for ship-building. All hud been the fruit of industry, ecunumy,
and a fortunate combination of circumstances.

" Holland owed tliia vast commerce to a variety of causes : partly to her j)eculiar situa-
tion, the industry and economy of her iidmbitants, the comparatively liberal and enlightened
svstem of civil as well as of commercial p)licy adopted by the republic ; and partly also to
the wars and disturbances that prevailed m most European countries in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, and prevented them from emulating the successful career of the
Dutch.

" Many dissertations have been written to account fi)r the decline of the commerce of
Holland. But, if we mistake not, its leading causes may be classed under two prominent
heads, viz. first, the natural growth of commerce and navigation in other countries ; and
second, the weight of taxation ot home. During the period when the republic rose to great
eminence as a commercial state, England, France, and Spain, distracted by civil and reli-
gious dissensions, or engrossed wholly by schemes of foreign conquest, were unable to apply
their energies to tiie cultivation of commerce, or to withstand the co(ppetition of so indus-
trious a people as the Dutch. They, therefore, were under the necessity of allowing the
greater part of their foreign, and even of their coasting trade, to be carried on in Dutch
}ttoms, and under the superintendence of Dutch fiictors. But after the accession of Louis
XIV. and the ascendency of Cromwell had put an end to internal commotions in France and
England, the energies ot these two great nations began to be directed to pursuits of which
the Dutch had hitherto enjoyed almost a monopoly. It was not to be supposed that, when
tranquillity and a regular system of government had been established in Franco and Eng-
land, their active and enterprising inhabitants would submit to see one of their most valu-
able branches of industry in the hands of foreigners. The Dutch ceased to be tlie carriers
of Europe, without any fault of their own. Their performance of that function necessarily
terminated as soon as other nations became possessed of a mercantile marine, and were able
to do for themselves what had previously been done for them by their neighbours.

" Whatever, therefore, might have been the condition of Holland in other respects, the
natural advance of rival nations must inevitably have stripped her of a large portion of the
commerce she once posscbsed. But the progress of decline seems to have been considerably
accelerated, or rather, perhaps, the eflorts to arrest it were rendere<l inciTectual, by the
extremely heavy taxation to which she was subjected, occasioned by the unavoidable expenses
incurred in the revolutionary struggle wilii Spain, and the subsequent wars with France
and England. The necessities of the state led to the imposition of taxes on corn, on flour
when it was ground at the mill, and on bread when it came from the oven; on butter, and
fish, and fruit ; on income and legacies ; the sale of houses ; and, in short, almost every
article eitlier of necessity or convenience. Sir William Temple mentions that in his time
— and taxes were greatly increased afterwards — one fish sauce was in common use, which
directly paid no fewer than thirty different duties of excise ; and it was o common saying at
Amsterdam, that every dish of fish brought to the table was paid for once to the fisherman,
and xto; times to the state.

"In consequence princiiMilly of the oppressiveness of Inxition, but jmrtly, too, of the
excessive accumulation of capital tliat ha<l taken place while the Dutch engrossed the carry-
ing' trade of Europe, profits in Holland were reduced towards the middle of the seventeenth
century, and have ever since continued extremely low. This circumstance would of itself
Iiave sapped the foundations of her commercial greatness. Her capitalists, who could hardly
expect to clear more than two or three per cent, if not profit by any sort of undcrtakinjj
carried on at home, were tempted to vest their capital in other countries, and to speculate
in loans to foreign governments. There are the best reasons for 'liinking that the Dutch
were, until very lately, the largest creditors of any nation in Europe. It is impossible,
indeed, to form any accurate estimate of what the sums owing them by foreigners previously
to the late French war, or at present, may amount »o ; !.i.' there can be :,o (lotd)t that at the
former period the amount was immense, and that iL - -'.:ll very considerable. M. Demeunicr
{Dictionnaire de VEconomie Politique, tome iii. p. 720.) states the amount of capital lent
by the Dutch to foreign governments, exclusive of tlie large sums lent to Fronco during tlio
American war, at srxf.nty-three millions sterling. According to the author of the Rieiicsse
de la Hollande (ii. p. 292.), the sums lent to Franco and England only, previously to 1778,
amounted to 1,.500,0()0 livres tournois, or sixty millions sterling. And besides tliese, vast
sums were lent to private individuals in foreign countries, both regularly as loans at interest,
and in the sliape of goods advanced at long credits. So great was the difficulty of finding
an advantageous investment for money in Holland, tliat Sir William Temple mentions, that

I \3

I'ABrTlL

' Kiijjlund
non's Aii-

Ihc foreign
<; anil yet
exiM)rt, nor
, ncononiyi

lulinr situa-
anlishtennd
irtly alHO to
ttcenth and
irocr of the

lommerce of

■0 prominent

untries; and

rose to great

vil and reli-
able to apply

I of so indus-

allowing tho

on in Dutch

ision of Louis

in France and

luitB of whicli

3d that, when

incc and Eng-

icir most valu-

be tlie carriers

ion necessarily

and were able

lurs.

jr respects, the
portion of the

in considerably

fectual, by the

idable expenses
with Franco

„ corn, on flour

jon butter, and
, almost every
lat in his time
ion use, which
imon saying at
the fisherman,

lly, too, of the
Ijsscd the carry-
[hc seventeenth
[would of itself
Vo could hardly
[of undcrtakinj?
[nd to speculate
Itliat the Diitcli
is impossible,
[ners previously
3nht tliat at tiie
M. Demeimicr
of capital lent
Ince during the
y tlie Rkhesse
Jriously to 1778,
[ides tlic3e, vast
„ins at interest,
pity of finding
[mentions, that

Book I.

HOLLAND AND IJEIX5IUM.

601

tiip payment of any part of the national debt wan luikeil uiKin by the crnditnrs as an evil of
the (irht niugnituile. ' 'I'hey receive it,' says lie, ' with toarn, not knowing how to diH|M.«o of
it to intcreht with nuch safety and ease.'

" Aiiiiini; the siilKirdiimtc causes which rontributed to tho (Jecline of Dutch conuncrce, or
wliii'h have, nl all events, prevented its growtli, wo may reckon tlie circimistanco of the
coinincrco wilii India liaving lieen suhjcctr'd to the Imminels of iiiono|)oly. Do Witt
expresses his lirm cunviction, that the alHilition of the East India ('(im|Miny wonhi have
added very greatly to lh<i trade with the V.mt; and no doubt can now reniani in tho mind
of any out; that hucIi would have \x'.n\ the case. The interference of the adminislnition in
regiiliiting the mode in which some of the most imiKirtant hriinches of indutitry should be
carried on, seems also to have lieeii exceedingly injurious. Every proceeding with reH|)ect
to the herring fishery, fJir exiiuiple, was regulated by the orders ot government, carried into
cfii'ct under tho iiis|X'ct.i()n ol" offirc'rs appointed for that purpose. Somk! of these regulations
were exceedingly vexnlious. The period when tho fishery might hegin was fixed at five
iniimteH past twidve o'clock of the night of the '2-lth of June! and the master and pilot of
every vessel leaving Holland for tho fishery wore obliged to make oath that they would
respect the regulation. Tito species of salt to be made use of in curing difl'ereiit wjrts of
herrings was also fixed by law; and there were endless regulations with respect to the size
of the barrels, the number and thicknesH of the staves of which they were to be made;,
the gutting and packing of the herring; the branding of tlie barrels, &c. &c. {Hisloire drr
Pfciirs, tjr. danK les Mirs du Nord, torn. i. chap. '24.) These regulations were intended
to secure to the Hollanders that superiority which they had early attained in the fishi;ry, and
to prevent the reputation of their herrings from being injured by the bad faith of individuals.
But their real effect was precisely the reverse of this. By tying up the fishers to a system
of routine, they prevented them from making any improvements; while tho facility of coun-
terfeiting the public marks opened a nuich wider door to fraud, than would have been opened
had government wisely declined interfering in the matter.

"in despite, however, of the East India monopoly, and the regulations now diiscribcd, the
commercial policy of Holland has been more liberal than that of any other nation. And in
consecpience, a country not more extensive than Wales, and naturally not more fertile, con-
quered indeed, in a great measure from the sea, has accumulated a population of upwards
of two millions; has maintained wars of unexampled duration with the most powerful mon-
archies; and, besides laying out immense sums in works of utility and ornament at home,
has been enabled to lend hundreds of millions to foreigners."

The French revolution produced a movement so great, and with which Holland was in
such close contact, that it acted [wwerfiilly upon her political destinies. The revolutionary
armies, after having defeated those of all the allied powers on the plains of Belgium, advanc-
ed into Holland; where, meeting with support from a (lowerfiji internal party, they had no
difficulty in subverting the dynasty of the house of Orange. In its stead was formed the
Bataviiin republic, virtually tinited to, and ruled by, the republican government of Franco.
A vigorous attempt, made in 1799, by Britain and Russia, to re-establish the old order of
things, was baffled ; and no sooner had Napcdeon been made emperor of France, than he
bestowed Holland, formed into a kingdom, on his brother liOiiis. This prince, of a mild
and amiable temper, was disposed to promote the welfare of the Dutch; but he was allowed
only to act as viceroy to his brother, and was obliged to assist in forwarding those measures
by which Napoh'on, in the vain hope of ruining Britiin, endeavoured hermetically to seal all
the ports of the Continent against foreign commerce. This system was most distressing to
all countries subjected to it ; but to Holland it was peculiarly ruinous : that maritime com-
merce on which her whole greatness had rested, received a blow from which, perhaps, it will
never recover.

The kingdom of the Netherlands grow out of tho measures adopted by that great coalition
which, after a long scries of triumphs, totally overthrow the colossal fabric that had been
raised by the genius of Napoleon and the bravery of the French. After its fall, Austria
might have advanced a claim to the Netherlands, so long a portion of her extended dominion.
Being, however, so remote, and so much detached from her other territories, it was likely
to prove a dependency inconvenient and difficult to defend. She therefore consented to
accept indemnification in another quarter, and to allow Belgium, with Holland, to be formed
into a representative kingdom, under the house of Orange; believing it might servo as a
l)arrier against any future encroachment of France. The kingdom of the Netherlands, thus
formed, was divided into two distinct parts, Holland and Belgium; but the latter, differing
in religion, language, and manners, was always discontented at this union, and considered
itself as a subject state. Inspired by the example of France in 183(), the people rose in
arms, and, after a short but desperate struggle, succeeded, with the ultimate consent of the
great powers, in forming themselves into a separate kingdom, under the name of Belgium.
It comprises the provinces of South Brabant, East and West Flanders, Antwerp, Hainault,
Namur, Liege, the greater part of Limburg, and a small part of Luxemburg. Holland,

i !

■ \i

H-. '■'■

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

Part Ilf.

oesidcB tho ten United Provinucii, has nciirly all Luxemburg', and a small part of Limburg,
containinff, however, Maeatricht, its largest town.

Sbot. IV. — Political Qeography.

A limited monarchy was the constitution established for the now kinjfdom of tho Nether-
lands, and continued, with some modifiuations in Belgium, in both the parts into which it has
been separated.

Tho legislative power in Holland is vested in the States-Gcneml ; a popular assembly,
modified, however, somewhat differently from those either of Britain or France. Each pro-
vince, as under the ancient Dutch system, has an assembly of its own, which regulates local
aflaiij, and has even the power of imposing local taxes. It cannot, however, injure com-
merce by imposing heavier duties on the produce of other provinces than its own. The
members of these provincial assemblies are chosen by electoral colleges formed in every
great town ; not by public meeting, or open election ; but by the police officerH going from
liouse to house, and collecting billets signed and sealed. The members of the second
chamber of the States-General are chosen for three years, one-third of the number being
annually renewed. Tho upper chamber does not consist of hereditary nobles, but of a
council of from forty to sixty, named by the king for life. [The Belgian chambers are both
elective ; the Senate or upper house being chosen for the term of eight, and the Represent-
ative cliamber for that of tour years. — Am. Ed.]

The revenue of tho kingdom of the Netherlands amounted to about l|'35,(K)0,000, raised
by tho usual expedients of land-tax, excise, customs, stamps, post-office, and by a tax on
patents. T'hese are re(|uire(l to be taken out by all persons exercising trades or professions ;
and partake of the character of an income tax, inasmuch as their magnitude is determined
by the extent of tho sales made by the parties during the preceding year.

Pnxlucc of the prioclinl briDchM of the lld?efiua of Iba Natheriirvb.
In Flonm.

Wrect Taxet

Stilnfn, Reftifilmion, ke.

Import and Elport >

Du'iw mil EiciM J

Warranty on UolJ and Silver

Pm'. . . ■

Lotteiy of the NetherUnds > • •

l^terv rf DruHeU

High ttootla

ISI6.

2->J«3,700

I'>.3l6.2e6

22,I1T,9!)I)

131,786

1,066.308

l.47.'>,l>47
l,M6,080

t<l,e72,8l3

u,50i,go2

31,121,(66

IS8,9(>I

■ ,9KM76

5IM,4«S

1,018, W7

l,IOe,HO

rriDCipal l>ranchM of the Expendihlreofthe NetlierlanJa.
In fioriiM.

Kinx'i KouwIioUl

(Ireit OlfiiT, n( State

ForriKn Affiirs • .-•

Jui'ice

laterior and Walcrstaat*

HelijionYcafcpt tlie Catliolic

Catholic helUion

Eiliication, Arts, Commerce, and Ciiloniea -

Finaneea

Navy

Army

1616.

>,eoo,(xio

MIU,R33
fia7.83s
3,391. SI I
7,245,910
l,2»l,2t>l
I,3J%I76
3.f94,73e

23,314.342
6,554,531

27,128,374

2,100,000
1,061,430
768,969
2,191,049
6,l»,249
1,327,311
1,6:11,413 I
73,01911

3!l,707,5<i2
6,582,M]

I8,444,53£

The total average annual produce of the revenue, during this period, was 88,044,152
florins.

The article finances means chiefly the interest of the public debt. This amoimted, in
1826, to upwards of four per cent on a capital of 832,334,500 florins. The debt was
almost wholly contracted by the Dutch, principally during their protracted and glorious
struggle for independence, and partly during the period that Holland was connected with
France.

The total annual average expenditure, during the above-mentioned years, was 98,106,820
florins.

[It has been settled that Holland should assume six-thirteenths of the Netherlandish debt,
and Belgium the remaining seven ; but the latter has not hitherto paid any part of the
interest. The expenditure of the Dutch kingdom in 1833 was 49,385,849 florins, exclusive
of 44,01M),000 for extraordinaries on account of the war esbiblishments. The former sum
includes the interest on the whole debt, amounting to 21,021,484 florins.

The expenditure of Belgium was 73,000,000 francs, comprising no charges on the debt ;
but nearly three-fifths of this simi was absorbed by the military, which it has been necessary
to keep on the war establishment. — Am. Ed.]

The military force of the kingdom of the Netherlands was in a somewhat large propor-
tion to its resources. This was supposed to be rendered necessary by the proximity of so
great a power as France, whose attack, or at least whose dictation, there might be room to
apprehend. The army, before the late changes, amounted to about 62,0(H) men. The
Belgic provinces, having been long the principal theatre of hostility Iwtwoen France and
Austria, were guarded by a line of strong fortresses. These had been allowed to fall some-
what into decay ; but the allies, having brought their contest with France to a triumphant
conclusion, deterinine<l to strengthen them ns a barrier against the future encroachments of
tliat (jower ; and tho largo contril)utions levied upon her were, in n great measure, employed
in restoring tlie fortresses to Iheir original condition. Sovoral of those, however, by
an agreement made between tho French and Englisii governments, have been recently
dismantled. Both |x)w ers have kept up large forces since tlie revolution ; but will soon re-

* Till! expi'iiHt^s orcnnalK, ililicsi, and iiavicatinn in ||;cniTtil.

t "fho cliargos fiir eilucation are now incluileil umltT the Itontl of " .ntcrior."

pabt ni.

if Limburg,

tho Netlier-
vliich it has

ir oBsenibly,
Eacli pro-
rulatcs local
injure corn-
own. The
led in every
1 Roinj? fironi
' the second
imber being
es, but of a
)er9 are both
B Reprosent-

0,000, raised

I by a tax on

professions ;

i determined

letlierlanJa.

a 88,044,152

amounted, in

i'he debt was

and glorious

nnected with

as 98,106,820

rlandish debt,
part of the

ins, exclusive
former sum

on the debt ;
jen necessary

large propor-
oximity of so
it be room to
men. The

France and

to fall some-
a triumphant
oachmcnts of
ire, employed

however, by
)een recently

will soon re-

T V»

'»^

■K ,^ *

Book L

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.

803

duce them to a regular peace establishment, of which it is impossible at present to give any
account.

In nuvul afluirs, Holland, no longer tho maritime rival but the close ally of Britain, made
only fuint attempts to raise her iiuvy tVom the low statu to which it was reduced by the
disasters of the rcvolutionarv war.

[It consists, at present, ot six ships of the line, sixteen large class and seven small clau
frigates, thirty corvettes and brigs, four steam vessels, and about eighty armed barks, of five
guns, for the defence of the interior waters. — Am. Ed.]

The foreign possessions of Holland, atler being entirely wrested fh>m her during the war,
were, with tiie exception of Ceylon, tlie Cape of Good Hope, Demerara, and Berbice, restored
in 1814. In the Ekst Indies, she possesses the Moluccas, the extensive and fertile island of
Java, with settlements on Sumatra, Celebes, and Borneo; and some factories on the caojst
of Malabar and Coromandel. In Africa, she rctainn El Mina, and other factories on the Gold
Coast. Her West India colonics are not, and never were, very considerable, unless as com-
mercial dep6t8. Both tlio navy and the colonial possessions, in the separation of the two
kingdoms, remain witli Holland.

Sect. V. — Prodtictive Indmlry.

There is no country, perhaps, which in proportion to its extent and original resources,
produces so great an amount of valuable and useful commodities as Holland and Belgium.

The agriculture of the Belgic provinces, though, contrary to the usual course, it was founded
upon their manufactures and connnerce, being exempted from the vici-ssitudes which befell
them, continues to form the most ample source of wealth. The whole territory of Flanders
is cultivated like a garden, A great proportion consisted originally of harsh, barren sands,
producing nothing but heuth and fir; yet by tho application of manure these were gradually
reclaimed, and brought into their present state of high fertility, Tho culture of artificial
grasses, and especially of clover, is the characteristic process of Flemish husbandry, which
it has taught to the rest of Europe. The care of the Flemish farmers in collecting manure
was early conspicuous, and as naturally grew out of the use of artificial grosses, and conse-
quent stall-feeding. The use of liquid manure, collected in large reservoirs, is common to
this country with China, and not known in any other part of Europe, except, perhaps
Norway. Turf ashes, especially those imported from Holland, are in high estimation,
and are said to produce an almost magical effect on the vegetation of clover. In general,
the Flemish agriculture is conducted on a careful, economical, antique practice; the ftrmers
not having adopted many modern improvements in the arrangements of husbandry, such as
the crossing of the breeds of cattle, and the use of machinery, which have been adopted in
England with such happy efl!ect. But this system of agriculture, after supplying the most
dense population in Europe with the standard productions of the soil, yields several articles,
such as madder, rape, clover, and mustard-seeds, hops, &c., for exportation.

The objects of culture in the Dutch provinces, in consequence of their humid climate,
and of the demand for animal food for the great cities, are almost entirely connected with
pasturage. Holland is as it were one great meadow, intersected by canals, and traversed
by rows and groups of trees. The cattle ore stalled in the winter, and fed on hay, turnips,
&c. ; but in summer they are kept constantly grazing in the open air. The produce
of the dairy has been brought to such a state of improvement as to be an object of export-
ation ; Dutch butter enjoys a high reputation, and the cheese is in good repute over aU Europe.

Horticulture, which elsewhere is only a recreation, has in tho Netherlands attained such
importance, as to become a national object. Besides amply supplying its own markets with
culinary vegetables, Holland exports them in large quantities to Norway, and otiier districts,
where the growth is prevented by the rigorous climate. Ornamental gardening has been
cultivated with peculiar ardour, especially in its floral department. When the tulipo-mania
reigned in Holland, it was carried to such an excess, that lots of 120 tulip-roots sold, in 1637,
for 100,000 florins ; and particular specimens have brought from 8,000 to 10,000. In point
of fact, however, tiiese roots formed a kind of imaginary currency, or medium for a sys-
tematised species of gambling. They were never actually transferred from one individual
toanotlier; but were a sort of stock whose whole value was derived from caprice. The
government at length put down this species of gambling, and the prices of tulips fell to their
natural level. — Careful cncpiiries carried on by the government of the Netherlands are con-
.siderod as having proved that the agricultural capital of the whole country amounted to
10,.TJ.5,000,000 francs. The following estimate was made of the growth and produce : —

llectir.-?. Value in rnnrt.

VVlKMlt MO.tXM) 154,01)0,1)00

Rye 700,000 leH,00(UH)0

BiickHhent 200,000 K,(MK),(X)0

Rarli-y a?0,UOO f l.OOOJHH)

Pulso... 110,000 ^HCMWDOO

Potatot-a i;il,000 41,000,000

HecUrM.

Orrhnrds 54,000

Vei,'tlnlilc9 02,000

Ileinp n ml finx 210,000

M.Kliler 30,000

(.'uttiK mill animals

Oau 300,000.

iM,aOO,000

• ; I

■}■.;

.■jrlr

I, 1

jil

804

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

PartIII

Manufhcturini; industry is tho branch in wliich tlio Belgic nrovincps fnrmorly mnnt
excelled, and in wliicli ttioir docny has been most conHpiciionH, Throo centuries npo, tho
linens and wooUcna of Ghent, Ijouvain, Uruaspls, and Mechlin, clothed tlie hii'iier raiiltH in
all the Burrunndincr countries. Since that time, tho tiitirics of Franco and Knffinnd, liavc
attained sucli an ustonisliitij; HUj)eriority, and uro at once ho cheap, and ho wcjII adapted to
the taste of the a^'c, that the Ijow Country manufacturers can witli diffiruUy maintain their
fffound oven in internal consumption. In cottons, especially, they arc uuile uiuilile to with-
stand British competition. Tiiero are still, however, somo finu linen hihrics, laces, lawns,
cambrics, in which the manullicturers of Mechlin, DrussolK, &.c. continue unrivalled, and
which, though so much siijicrseded by muslin and Nottinijliam lace, still enjoy a certain
demand throughout Europe. Tho tini^ lanes have boon sohlfor seventy or eighty Napoleons
a yard. Tho Flemish breweries nro also very extensive.

Tho manufacturing industry of Holland is not on so great a scale as her commcrco. Tho
pottery ware of Dolft has 1 wt most of its ancient reputation, and even in Holland is super-
seded by the earthenware of England. Tho spirit called gin, geneva, or hoUands, is pro-
duced at Schiedam, Amsterdam, and other towns, of an excellence which is universally
acknowledged. The refining of sugar, and tho manufacture of snuff, are continued on a
great scale, chiefly in Amsterdam and Rotterdam, and the making of tobacco-pipes at Goudu
IS said to employ 5000 persons. Silk, leather, and woollens, are still manufactured, though
not to such an extent as formerly, nor much with a view to exportation. Tho general value
of Dutch ami Belgian manufactures hos been estimate<l as follows: — Iron, 40,000,000 francs;
copper, 5,000,000; woollens, 80,000,000; linens, 95,000,000; lace, 25,(X10,000; cottons,
60,000,000; refined sugar, 14,000,000; salt,10,0(K),000; spi.ii (,40,000,000; beer, 110,0(K),0(K» ;
tobacco, 28,000,000 ; oil, ;«),0(M),()00 ; soap, 10,0(H),0C0; ho.Uwr, 28,000,(K)0; earthenware,
4,000,000 ; bricks, 0,000,000 ; books, 15,000,000 ; bleaching. 10,000,000 ; dyeing, 10,000,000 ;
paper, 8,000,000 : in all, 675,000,000 francs.

The commerce of the Netherlands has declined, both absolutely and relatively, but in a
less remarkable degree. Tho causes have appeared in tho hiscorical survey. The total sus-
pension of all maritime intercourse with other countries during the subjection of Holland to
France, and the conquest of tho Dutch colonies by England, rendered it necessary, as it
were, to begin every thing afresh at the restoration of peace in 1815. But the large capi-
tals in the hands of tho Dutch merchants, their commodious situation in the cei\tre of the
most improved states of Europe, tho recovery of some of the most valuoblo of their foreign
poescssions, and tho considerable surplus of native commodities which their country affords
for exportation, secured for them, as soti.i as tho ports were open, a considerable trade. Since
tho peace, it has been continually iuta .sing; and, previously to the late revolution, was
more equally distributed than before ain.)ng the Belgic a« well as the Dutch porta. Holland
exports, of its own produce, butter, cheese, geneva, tobacco-pipes ; of the produce of its
fishery, herrings, stockfish, whalebone, whale oil ; from its foreign possessions, cofToo, sugar,
rum, cotton wool, cloves, nutmegs, mace, pepper ; with linens, wool, and various articles
from Germany and tho Baltic. Belgium exports madder, vegetable oils, lace, lawn, and fine
linen.

There are no official returns of imports and exports published ; but a very able writer in
the Foreign Quarterly Review, to whose researches wo have been much indebted, has
given from original sources the following account of the importation of the principal articles
of merchandise into the Netherland ports during the year 1827 : —

Cofll'O, bull's

Ditto, tniis

Sui(Ar, riM'fltrt

Ditto, nints

Ditto, ton.«

Tolmcco of Aniorico, tons.

Rico, bnlcs

Ditto, tons

Cotton, balM

Indigo, chests

Ditto, sproiins

Ten, quarter chpsta

Skins, )»icccs

Popper, hftlcfl

Wheat, lasts

Rye, ditto

Rarley. ditto

Potash of RiiKsia, pnds*. ..
r.inseed Oil ofdo. do —

Tallow of ditto do

Hemp of ditto do —

Amsterdam. Roltenlom. Antwerp. Middleburg

2,67fl
117

111
8.

13,

iS!

IS,

12,

,n.TO

,003

ino

,(•27

fun

,205
,!1F0
412
,flfl2

liO
128
121
,271

:4'H

S78
,5«3

,24r)

i,41fl
,110

07,.')!»7
1,079
7,50S
S.145
3.H2:i

i:i,!t34

i;i,8!12
.1,301

1!I,(K)7

47B

ft.527

34,.'>01
.5,247
1,002
5,130
1,412

34,7U1

fXi
4,.55.'5

370,102

3,53!l

50,3.10

.Kins')

4,02H

1,331

l(l,.^'i!•

14,!a5

■J2,a'Ki

i.3:b

1,407

215,W4

21,847

106,030

1,191

t-',372

70
2,009

152

4,300

* .\ Kuiisiun weight of 36 lbs.

Pabt III

crly modl

s iiRo, the
• riiiikn in
Innil, Imvo
iiiliiptcd to
itiiiii tlipir
Ic to with-
;t!S, liiwn»,
mllotl, iind
a cprtttin
Nnpolcona

jrce. The
J is s«i)cr-

,nili<, in pro
imivcrsan.v
imied on a
es lit Goiulti
red, though
jiiornl vuluo
,()00 francs;
M); cottons,
10,0(K),0()0i
iirtlicnwarc,
10,000,000;

ely, but in a
'he total 8US-
f Holland to
cssary, as it
3 large cani-
:entre of the
their foreign
luntry affords
;rado. Since
olution, was
ts. Holl:ind
•odiice of its
jnffcc, sugar,
Ions articles
,wn, and fine

Ible writer in
ndcbted, has
cipal articles

Book I

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM

OOB

:»«

The herring flnhory, which once formed so ample a pource of Dutch wealtli, O'n '^'h in
this rciprct its importance has boon greatly exaggerated,) was uhnost annihilated dvn mot fJio
war; and the ground having since been occupied by neighbours and rivals, Hoihtml hasbcpti
able to recover only a small portion. Instead of l.Vx) herring busses, hi 181S !<iio sent out
only iitK). Not more than sixty ships go annually to the wlmle* and rod tisherie:< ; and,
during the lute war, the Knglish undertixik the task of supplying their own niurkots with
fresh ilsh ; in which business, however, the Dutch still employ aliont fi(MN) bontn.

For other couunercial particulars, M, de Cloet states, that on an averuL'e of twenty years,
between 1775 and 1705, the nrmber of vessels enterc<l inwards in all the Dutch [xirts was
4140, and outwards the same ; making a total of 82S0 a year. The entries inwards, in
\f^J2, for Amstenlam, Rotterdam, and Antwerp, were 4051 ; which, adding 500 (ijr llar-
lin^en and Dort, liecomes 4551. The number outwards for the same three |H)rts was 4015,
which we may, with a similar addition, call 4,545; making a total of UOOO ships. In 1827,
the number entered inwards was ,5203, outwards 454S, making 9761 altogether. Taking
the average number, liowever, at 10,000 (instead of 0751), so as to cover the; trifling trade
of Ostend and Nieuport, and valuing each cargo, with M. do Cloet, at 40,000 francs, a sum
moderate enough, the amount of the trade by sea will be •100,(MK),OflO fi-nncn. The trade by
land with France and Germany, which, in 1814, was estimated at 15'J,000,()00 francs, may
now be takon at 100,(KK),000 ; so that, if the calculations be at all correct, the annual value
of the foreign commerce of the Netherlands is altogether alwut 560,000,000 francs.

MincH. The south-eastern provinces in the noighbourluxxl of Mens, Charleroi, and Liege,
are said to contain ;150 mines of coal, employing 20,000 men ; but this niiiiilier, wo shouhj
think, must be a goal deal exaggerated. Turf is the fuel chiefly used, especially in Hol-
land. There are also in the southern district ironworks, supposed by Mr. Jacob to yield
about 1000 tons. Clay suited for the manufacture of porcelain is found in Holland, and
there ore stone quarries in the south.

Canah form one of the most remarkable features in the economical amnrTcments of IIol-
land, and a leading source of her prosperity. From the structure of the country, these arc
formed with peculiar facility, and it is everywhere intersected with them; every town,
every village, being connected by canals of greater or less dimensions. They run through
the streets of the cities, enabling vessels to load and unload under the eye of the merchant.
When frozen, they serve as highways, on which the Dutch females, heavily laden, convey
themselves along on skates witli surprising rapidity. In general, from the flatness of the
country, and the abundance of water, canals may be made without much exertion of art or
skill. There is an exception, however, in the canal of Pannerden, constructed with the
view of draining off the superfluous water of the Uhine, by which a great extent fif ground
was converted into a marsh. It is two miles long, and 200 feet below the level of the sea,
the waters being received into three different sets of sluices. It is considered a master-
niece, and completely answered its object. Another, on a most magnificent .scale, connect-
ing Amsterdam with the Holder, was commenced in 1819, and finished in 182.5, at an
expense of 10,000,000 florins. It is 50 miles long, 125 feet wide at the surface, 38 feet
wide at the bottom, and 21 feet deep. It is calculated to admit shifw of war of 46 guns, and
merchantmen of 1000 tons burden. It was constructed '•> avoid the troublesome navigation
to and from Amsterdam through the Zuyder Zee, and the necessity of lightening large ves-
sels before crossing the Pampus.

The canals in Belgium are spacious and commodious, connecting all the great cities,
though not nearly in equal number, nor uniting every village, as in Holland.

Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State.

The population of the kingdom of the Netherlands, though not comparable, as to absolute
amount, with that of any of the great states, is superior to them all in one highly important
particular, that the country contains a greater density of population on the same surface
than any other in Europe, or perhaps in the world. This, m the Belgic provinces at least,
is the more remarkable, as they are inhabited, not by a manufacturing population, drawing
subsistence from agricultural countries, but by a population subsisting exclusively on the
produce of the land itself. The census of 1816 gave a total population of 5,491,945 :
2,476,159 for the northern provinces ; 3,249,841 for those of Belgium ; and 22.5,945 for the
duchy of Luxemburg. This gives an aggregate average density of about 212 to the square
mile; but the rate rises much higher in certain provinces. Throughout Belgium the pro-
portion is 296 to the square mile ; in the province of East Flanders, however, it is as high
as 560. In the United Netherlands the average density is only 180 per square mile ; and in
Luxemburg, which has much of a German character, it is as low as 66. The census of
1 925 gives a population of 6,013,.578 ; and some further augmentation has taken place since.f

• fin iwn. only onn ship nalfed to tho whnlo.fliihpry from Holland, which in 1680 had out WO ships manned by
1 1,000 sailors, cngaixcd in that branrh uf industry.— Am. Eoj

tfThc population of tliR two kingdoms in li<33, was 0,536,000, of which 3,791,000 belonged to Deli;ium, and
3 74.'!,000 to Holland.— An. Ed.J

Vol I. 48 ^O

It'^l

1,1

' k

' M ll.

t ^

m'»(;Rii>'rivK gkogiiaimiy.

Part HI.

The fcjllowinir ilct.iili willi ruapcct to tlio iKiiiiilatinii of tlio Nctlii'tlnnilN nrr nxtractcd flrom
th« piiblk'iitioiiit (if M. QuulL'let, onu of llio ulilekt ■tatiiticul writrni of liiu ('untinunt :—

Table of the Miwtmrnt qfihe Population in llnllaml and Belgium for Ten Yean,

fMfflMM

Zenliirul

(iiielilt'riiwicl,. ..
Niirtli llrulKiiit .
Norlh Miilhiiiil .
Hoiilli iloliaml.

Ulnicht

F'rieiliwiil

Ovt'rj'Mi'l

(troiiiiiui'ti ,, ..

Dmilhit

iJmliiirH

Li^KO

Nkmiir

LiKPiiiliiirR .. .

Ilainniill

8()Ulli HnilMtiit .
Koul [•'luiiili'm . .
Wiitt Kliinitvn.
Antw(>r|>

Ull,

T MM.

lit, KM

SiH,(W
3'.H,()H7

1()7,W7
17fi,SM

wsan

13ft.M9

8N7,fil3
35H,IH&
l(H,«H)

ai;»,.M*7

4HH,.'Htt

5lfi,:!8»
!WI,.V«ft

itw.S'.ni

;«fi,fii7
w;i,uin

117,10ft

itio,9;r7

IStVtM.'k

a;i,:)i'>h
aai.ioi

189,3U3
SW,0IO
ftl)'>,iyu

■IWi.lflft

t)H7.»;7
w'i:i.Hv>o

383,078

a,434J)08 I 0.013,478

■Into

SA,331
U«),Ml!i
1(N),W>3
119,714
ltU,74l
41.038

cft,M'>a

fil,UAl

M.)n3

lt),7«3

101,781

1I3.0!U

0N,(1W

0!t.iM9

183,198

inu.i8i

818,8,10

ioi,i:u

101,471
8,OI&.040

4<,4ae

.W,8|8

f>'J,flo7
181.78ft
143,Ha()
8V.U88
38,81 U

:i7.n'j

DO,,"!:!!)

y,a'i8 I

70,64U I
88,fiU8
34,134 ,

Msm I

118,889
119,109
1('>8,8.'M
141,310
70,f.«3

l,481,fifl(ri

Mutta«K

„,«.

1(),fV4ft

i9,3:n

80,:i80

34,789

8«t9

3'I,M8

148

8,988

i.v:w7

ll,fi89

11,498

3,9ft4

a8.9tlO

8-l,;i87

18,ft98

18,740

39.ft91

30.483

43,180

37.883

83,07ft

430,847

flOS

Tho births and mnrrinpfos in tho Notlicrlnnds aro proportioniillv rnoro niunorouN, wiiilo tho
deaths nro alioiit c(iiml to thoso of Franco, ond oxcoo<l thoHo ot (irciit Britain in tlio ratio
of three to two. The account stands thus : —

NflllMrlAudik rnnce. QrMt Britain
ino liirlhn to 9.ra7 Inliiihllanti ,1, liM .1„1,14

iiMi iicni iw a.iiHi 4,nm ,t,7H0

lOU iiinrrinKOi 13,130 13,4IH) VX'Xa

There has been a vi^ry matorinl iiicroaso in tlio hoiiithinosH of tiiu people of the Nether-
lands, and pnrtioiilitrly of Holland, diirin); tho lost thirty or forty yearn.

Tho provision for the siipiKirt of the poor of the Nt'llierlnnds is pretty niiiplo, ond it is
applied with ^reiit economy and skill ; tbrminp, indeed, nn imimrtant brmirh of tlin public
administnition. The fbllowinfr table, compiled fVoin authentic sources, by M. Qnetelet,
cannot fuil of bcin<{ interesting: —

Charitable Inttitutionn of the Netherlands

Nilura o( iMlluliw.

Adminiitmtioiia fur relieving Iho I'oornt home

Comminnioii!! for (llHlrihiiling Fowl, &c

8ocinli<>fi or Mnlpriml Chanty

lIuRpilnlH

Kunds Ibi Militarv Sorvice

Royal Iliwpital of Meaino*

Pimr St'liiMilii

Workhoiwro of Chnrity

DepolH of Mi'iulii'ily

Socieliex of lloncnc'encc for the Coloniei....
Eilabliahincnui for the Denf and Dumb

Niimtirr of

iMlilUtiODI,

Monis dn PiM6.
SavinRB llnnkg..

Tolali.

9,189

784

885

6,888
184
90

IndiviiliuU
ritliDvtd.

74.').0.V2

2a.05f.

1,448

41,178

8,?77

lAC

147,890

r..l(i9

2.,')98

8,.'i.'>3

839

977,610

"i8,'03s"

or Riii>r.

9,448,740
88,484
13,493

4,091,1.')7

iio.ma

8.'l,290
817,176
4(Mi,7(M
2i9,.''iH7
353..'i89

41,991

11,(M9.036
4,a(l8,0f>H
8,771,608

K~|wnM for
lACt) liMllvldutl.

rioHni.

7.31

3.73

9.38

99.37

48.73

149.:iO

l.(>7
6.').92

HH.:n

41.33
175.70

Avcmgo 11.30

Avcmgol93.93

The niitional character of tlio Dutch has been lonjf moulded into the form nuturnl to (i
highly commercial people ; solid, steady, quiet, liilioriou.x, eiigerly intent on tlie nreiimiiktion of
wealth, which tliey .seek ruther by economy, steadinetiH, and perseverance, than by speculation.
They curry the virtue of cleanliness to an extreme. Outward decorum of manners, at least,
is better observed than amonsr the neighbourin},' continental niitioiis. Yet tho Kpiii houses
in the great towns, where the most respectable citizens used to mingle with persons entirely
destitute of cliiiracter, presented in this respect a strange anomaly. Hut at jiri'-^ent those
can hardly be said to exist; and are frc(piented only by the very dreirs of the iKipuluce. A
traveller in Holliitid will rarely meet with a drunken person; or witli a iimn, woman, or
child, ill nigs. F.very class of people seems comfortable, the result of their great frugality
and unwearied industry. Were a young sturdy beggar discovered teasing passengers for

* III Wt'it FlanUiira, fur the ilauKhtcm u( auldii-rs iuvuliilvil or killed in ■vrviru

Part HI.

uctud fVom
i-ni :—

DWnrrM.

1
sou

14H
30
4«
13

A
S4

H
1
87
b

i«, wliilo the
in tho ratio

OmI BrluLn
. .:i.M4

. ,.V7H0

■ the Nether-

)lo, nnd it is
f tlin public
M. Quotolet,

K-penw for
lach Individual.

riorlni.

7.31

3.73

9.32

99.37

4fi.73

149.;)0

1.07
f)ft.92
HH.37
41.33
176.70

AvcrnRO 11.301
Avpmgcl53^j

luitiiral to »
eunuiltttion of
y speculation.

iirrs, nt least,
xpicl llOllSCH

sons entirely
pri'sinit these
jxipuliico. A
n, woninn, or
■(>;\t frii^fiilijy
iissensTPis tor

Boob I.

HOLI^NO AND nEIXllUM.

0O7

Kim*, hn Would inntRntly liti iM>nl lo tlio worklmuHe ; wlirro, il" lio rcfiiKil to p<>rfiirni lil« allot-
Ind tank, lio would b<' roni|M>lli'd to ouve IiIiumiiII' iVoni drowninu liy workuii; nt tlii' pump!
ilolliind i'l, atiil iilwiiyN hnx Imm-u, « country of »hort credit, Itnnkruptry m rure, Notwith-
•tamliiiu: the inviiitinn of thn French in Him, anti llm c(inM<«|ueut interruption to nil wirtM of
l)U)<ine'«x, the iNiiikrupleieN Wont not com|mrntivplv ho nutnerouH a» in Kni^lnnil in ordinnry
yeiirs. The lleljfic, provinccN, lim)f xuhjected to n forniifn yoke, nnd ni ronHtnnt inlerroumo
with li>rei)rni'rM, semn to have hint in n ^roat nioaiiuro thii ori((i>iiil FIvmlNh chnrncter, und to
preHPiit iKi very dintinctivn iVnturen.

It in not very ensy, tVoni the dilVerenccM of their judioiol orqfnnizntion, to roin|Kire the Htnto
of crime in diH'erent countricM. In tluM rcRpnct, however, the NelherlniidM would hnve
nothin);to fenr iVom acompariMm with Frnncu and England. In llollnnd, thn |x>lico i» ox-
collent, und rul)b<>ripN very rnre,

Tho prevuilini; religion of llollnnd in Culvinimn, while that of nelKium in nlnioht exclu-
•ivcly (.uthnlic; a ditrerenco which contrilintcd not a little tii tluit rcHited diHiike entortuined
by tho inhnhitnntK of the Intler to thoiio of tho former. The Dutch hnve the honour of
\HSinif the Hrnt |)eople who eotabliHhed a HVHtcm of unrcxtmined tolerntion. Kven popery,
iiotwithHtnndin}; thn uroundx vvliieh the nation had to dread and liiito it, wnii nllownd to be
proloMxed with tho utmodt fVee<loui. Thn (government allowK mlurie«, of a ((renter or loH
amount, to the clerjry of every )N3rKunRion, only mnkin)/ tluwe of thn I'reMliyterinn ininiatem
hijifher tlinn thoothen. The liitter retnin, IxiRiJei), tho iild pnrinh churchen, and the excluHivo
privik';.'e of mmji helln. They uniount to nhout l(HN), and are all (mid nnd np|Miintml by
(fovernnii'Mt, whieh, however, respectM the wiHheH of tho lendintr purixhionerH. Their oularica
are very nuMlernte; .'MNM) floriuH m the grent citieu; 800 to 1000, with hon.so nnd (;lelio, in
thn country. They are dividml into nuKlernte and liiKh Cnlvinixtic jmrtien; the foriui^r, which
are wiid to he the inowt numerous, hnviii); the command of thn univen<ity of Utrecht, while
tliat of Iit'ydcn iti attncheil to thn opjKMito intercHt. There uro almut lUNI or 4(10 Catholic
con|frpf;uti(mi<, in (renenil very Nninll. The .\rmoniant) or RemonxtrnntH, who orifrinntcd in
Holland, hnve only nliout torty or Hfly ministers; but their tenetH nre preached in ninny of
tho presbyterinn churcheH, 'The Aniibnptistii, cnllo<l here Mennonist*, have alMiut 1(K) con-
frreprntiiins, r(iiii|HiHed of miiny opulent nnd res|)cctahle ineinlmrs. The LntheninM have lifly
or sixty cimrches; and tho French I'roteHtanta nhout thirty, [By the liudcct of 18U3,
1,3H0,0(M) llerins were voted fiir the snpiMirt of the I'rotestunt worHliip, and 400,(K)0 tor tlie
Catholic, — Am, K»,]

In Belpiiirii, the Catholic rlorjfy have shown a very rooted spirit of intolerance, with tho
bishop of (ilieiit nt their head, nnd vehemently objected to the indulgent treatment of the
other nects, Tho binhop wus imprisoned for two yonrn by Napoleon, on nceount of his
obfltinncy in tlii-i particular. Tho ^rcnt possesHions of the ehiireh, liownver, have been for-
feited, nnd tho clcrjfy receive very mcHlornto sulnrien from povornment. The monasteries
have iiccn rooteil out, and genenilly nlno tho nunneries, though thut of Ghent still retains
all its |)omp. [There is nn archbishop of Mechlin with a salary of 21,(KH) francs, nnd tho
five bishops hnve ench 14,700 francs a yenr. Those, with 04 vicnrs general nnd canons,
246 curates, and 4,288 inferior officers, (brm the body of tho Catholic clerpy. There are
only about TrfMH) Protestunts in Belgium, with 10 ministers, clerks, Sic, who are paid by
government, — Am. Ed.]

Learning in the Netherlands no longer boasts such names as Erasmus, Grotius, and Boer-
liaavo ; but the in.stitutians for its diffusion continuo to be very ample, Holland retoins its
two famous luiivcrsities of Leydon nnd Utrecht, The former, which, undnr Boorhaave, had
once tho roputntion of the first meilicnl school in Europe, is still highly respcctablo. The
professor.', who are twenty-one in number, receive salaries of 3000 florins, mde|)on(lnnt of
foes; and this being a better income than any of the ecclesiosticnl livings, tho university
draws from the church its most Icurnod members. The medical education, however, can-
not he completed unless nt Amstcrdnm, which aflfbrds tho advantage of hospitals and other
occommndntions peculiar to n largo city. The university of Utrecht is not so considerable
as that of Leydon ; and that of Groningen is still inferior. In 1833, the number of students
was, in Leyden fi8-l ; in Utrecht 470 ; in Groningen, 284.

Tho universities of Belgium, of which the most celebrated were Gliont and I/iuvnin, were
partially stripped of their ample endowmcits, first by Joseph II., nnd then by the French,
who in tlieir riwrn substituted lyceums, which are now continued nearly on tho same footing,
under the name of colleijes. Only tho languages, and some general liranchos, nre taught;
education fiir professional pur|)oscs being received in separate appropriate seminaries, Ghent
and Brussels have tlie hifrliest reputation ; but thn salary of professors in tho fnrmcr does not
exceed I.'jOO francs, Tho three uni'^ersities of Louvain, Liege, nnd Ghent hnve lately
been restored ; and in 1827 the first was nttendcd by 678 students ; the second by ."iOO ; and
the third by 404 students. Besides athenn'ums, which are only colleges on a smaller scale,
Holland has primary schools in every village, by which the benefita of education are com-
municatod to the lowest ranks, Belgium ia at present very deficient in institutions for

(■ t!

. Mi

S06

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Paet in.

popular education.* But at an average of the Netherlands, the proportion of children at
school to the entire population, in 1827, was as high as 1 to 9.5 ; a proportion not exceeded
in any European country, with the exception, perhaps, of Prussia.

The fine arts were cultivated with zeal and success in both parts of the Netherlands.
Wealthy merchants liberally patronised the arts of design; and the gentry and landholders
being induced by the constant wars, of which the Low Countries were the theatre, to live
much in towns, acquired more refined tastes than could have been formed in a country resi-
dence. Antwerp, during its prosperity, became, in some measure, a Belgic Athens. Yet
the Flemish and Dutch painters never attained that grandeur of design, and tiiat pure and
classic taste, which were formed in Italy, by the study of the antique, and the refined taste
of its nobles. The Flemish school, under its great masters Rubens and Vandyke, displayed,
however, may excellences in a degree not inferior to any otlier in modern times ; splendour
of colouring, grandeur of composition, and force of expression. The Dutch school has been
eminently successful in a lower sphere. Under Rembrandt and his disciples, subjects of
common life and vulgar humour were treated with a native force, which, being aided by
brilliant effects of light and shade, have rendered this school exceedingly popular, though it
has failed in all attempts at high and heroic delineation. The landscape painters have
seldom employed their pencils upon the grand scenery delineated by Claude and Poussin ;
but Berghem, Cuyp, Ruysdael, Hobbiraa, Vandevelde, and others, have represented, in the
most natural and pleasing colours, the pastoral scenery of their country ; its meadows, its
woods, and the banks of its seas and rivers.

Amusement is far from being a primary object with the Dutch. They have most of the
diversions of the neighbouring nations, Uiough they do not follow them with much ardour.
A great portion of their time is passed in smoking ; the Dutchman having seldom the pipe
out of his mouth. The rivers and canals passing through the streets, afford the opportunity
of fishing fl"om the windows. The great Flemish kermes, or feirs, though no longer sub-
servient to commerce, exist still as festivals, at which there is a great display of humour
and character, such as we find happily illustrated in the works of the Flemish painters.
There seems nothing peculiar in the Dutch style of cookery. The peasantry both of Holland
and Flanders have their peculiar local costume ; as the huge breeches of the men, and the
short jacket of the females; but the higher classes dress in the French or German style.

Sect. VII. — Local Geography.
The following, according to recent official statements, are the extent and population of
Belgium and Holland, respectively :

BELGIUM.

Provinces.

Rxlf-Dt in
Hectans.

lH>nulati'<n in
Dec. IIS7.

I
Principal TowBi. !

South Brabant.

Antwerp

E.191 Flanders .
West Flanders

Hainault

Naniur

:H8,000 499,728
38.3,000 3.38,294
282,000 708,705
316,000 .17.'inn7

Brussels

Antwerp

Ghent

Bruges

Mods

Namur

Liepe

Tongrca

HOL
< Rotterdam . .
JDort

Amsterdam .

Alkmaar ...

Middlehurg .

Utrecht

Bois le Due .

Nimeguen ..

Assen

lA'Uwardcn .

Deventor . . .

Groningcn ..

Maestricht . .
Luxemburg .

. 72,800

. 0.'),000 Mechlin

.. 81,941 St. Nicholas. .

. 36.000 Ostend

. 18,400

. 15,100 Vcrviers

. 45,30C
. 4,000

LAND.

Louvain

.. 16,000
.. 10,980

18,580

15,150
3,000

29,049
10,568
9,016

372,000
347,025
288,000
460,000

567,300

194,845
347,625
328,2.14

. . 4.'* 144 T,PvHpn

Limburg

Holland, South

Holland, North

Zealand

Utrecht

North Brabant
Guelderland . ..

Drenthe

Friesland

Overyssul

Oroningen ....
Limburg,

part nf

Luxemburg. . . .

2,676,000

3,560,538

387,000

245,000

158,000
133.000
501,000
509,000
336,000
963,000
328,000
204,000

uncer

650,000

453,818

391,586

133,932
123,213
3.33,551
393,.196
59,915
300,333
165,936
153,082

tain.

308,655

18 400 Delft

. . 13 2Wi Gouda

an, 000 Haarlem

8 4:J5 Hoorn

. 18,453 Zaaiidam

.. 8,155
. . 6,380

. 9,.395

. 13,000 Bcrgen-op-Zoom

. 10,050

. 20,800 Flushing

34,087 Amersfoort . .

13.340 Breda

12,780 Arnheim

1,100
. 18,380
. 0,530
. 38,851

31,000

10,350

3,854,000
3,676,000

3,606,000
3,560,538

6,330,000

6,166,354

* [In 1833 there were 5,329 primary schools in Belgium, with 370,996 pupils, beside 1,318 in the Alhenmimt, and
I 788 in the universities. Annual expense. 743,300 francs.— An. Eo.j

Part in.

)f children at
not exceeded

1 Netherlanda.
d landholders
leatro, to live
L country resi-
Atiiens. Yet
Juit pure and

refined taste
ke, displayed,
es; splendour
;hool has been
IS, subjects of
eing aided by
jlar, though it

painters nave
I and Pousein ;
sentcd, in the

meadows, its

e most of the
1 much ardour.
Bldom the pipe
he opportunity
no longer sub-
ilay of humour
mish painters.
Kith of Holland
men, and the
rman style.

population of

18,580

15,1S0
3,000

29,045

10,S68

tim 9,010

■op-Zoom

! AthcnBumt,anil

Book I.

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.
SuBSECT. 1. — Belgium.

500

358

BriuKiU.

South Brabant, which nearly coincides with what was formerly the Austrian part of that
large province, forms a rich plain in the heart of Belgium, and is tiie seat of the finest manu-
(kctures carried on in that country.

Brussels (Jig. 358.) is the capital of Belgium. Considered as such, it is small, yet it is
one of tiie gayest and most elegant cities of Europe. Its situation is fine, in a valley watered

by the Sonne and the canal to
Antwerp. The Alice Verte, con-
sisting of tliree rows of trees bor-
dering the canal, makes a beauti-
ful approach. Tiie market-place
and the park are the two great
ornaments of Brussels. The former
is of great extent, and surrounded
by the town hall, one of the most
elegant Gothic structures in Eu-
rope, adorned with a tower, 348
feet high, and by the old halls of
the diflferent corporations. The park forms an extensive range of pleasure ground, inter-
spersed with rows of lofty trees, and pleasing lawns, ornamented with fountains and statues ;
and it is surrounded by all the most spacious and sumptuous edifices. The church and chapel
of St Gudule are also distinguished for the elegance of their ornaments. Brussels has an
academy of painting, attended by 400 or 500 students ; and in the palace there is a library
of 12,000 volumes, and a small but valuable collection of paintings. It was on the plains of
Brabant, near the little villages of Quatre Bras, St. Jean, La Belle Alliance, and Waterloo
a few leagues from Brussels, that the fate of Europe was decided in 1815.

Another ancient and important city is Malines, or Mechlin (now in tiie province of Ant-
werp), still retaining traces of the prosperity derived from the lace bearing its name, which
is considered the strongest, though not the finest, made in the Netherlands. Another branch
of industry consists in the making of excellent brown beer. The houses are ancient, and
very spacious, often constructed in a curious and grotesque manner, and most nicely white-
washed. The tower of the cathedral is highly finished, and rises to the height of 348 feet.
The other churches contain many of the masterpieces of Rubens and Vandyke. Lou vain is
equally fallen from the period when its extensive cloth manufacturesand its university, one
of the first in Europe, gave it a population of 150,000. It is a large ill-built town, whoso
bulky walls, seven miles in circumference, are now falling to decay. Its Catholic university,
an attendance on which was once required as a qualification for holding any oflice under the
Austrian government, perished in the French revolution, and was replaced by what could
only be called a lyceum ; but the ancient institution has since been restored. The town hall,
enriched by numerous carved figures, and the collegiate church, whose spire, before its fall,
at the beginning of the seventeentli century, rose to the height of 500 feet, are the chief
ornaments of Louvain,

Antwerp (Jig. 359.), formerly the port of Brabant, has now a province, to which it gives
its name. This territory is situated along the Lower Sciieldt, and is covered to a great

extent with pleasure-grounds and
359 A houses, erected by the rich mer-

chants during the period when
Antwerp was in its glory. That
city, down to the close of the fif-
teenth century, was almost witli-
out a rival amon{.r the commercial
states of Europe. In the great
struggle which then arose, Ant-
werp embraced with ardour the
reformed cause, in support of
which it suffered the most dread-
ful calamities. In 1.576 it was
Backed by the Spaniards ; and being afterwards wrested from tiicm, surrendered on favour-
able terms, after being besieged for more than a year, to the Prince of Parma. Subjected
to the bigoted and tyrannic sway of Spain, and oppressed by the active rivalry of Holland, it
lost all its commerce, and presented the mere shadow of its former greatness. Its renewed
prosperity dates from its occupation by the French. Bonaparte made it one of liis grand
.aval arsenals, and erected immense works, in the vain hope of creating a fleet which might
rival that of Great Britain. Since the peace, Antwerp, having been placed on an equal
footing with the ports of Hollanrl, has availed itself of the advantages of its situation, and
retrained a considerable commerce. Having a ready navigation into tlie interior, and com

43*

Antwerp.

1;! ;

:''!

1."

"•II

I .1

'Jji'

ik I

510

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

' .',■(!■

municatinpf by canals with the principal seats of manufacture, it is destined by nature to be
the cliicf emporium of Belgium. In 182S there entered its port 955 vessels. Antwerp is
still a noble city, containing numerous stately buildings, both private and public, which
include some of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture existing. The cathedral, which
occupied 1(H) years in building, is celebrated over Europe. It is 500 feet long, 230 wide,
and ;i00 high. The spire is 466 feet high, of extreme beauty, and from its summit i.s obtained
n mngninccnt view of the windings of the Scheldt, with thedistunt towers of Ghent, Malines,
and Bredii. The interior is atlorned with the greatest masterpieces of Rubens and Vandyke,
wiiich, alVcr licing carried olf to Paris, have been again restored. Numerous fine specimens
of the Flemish school arc found in the other churches, as well as in private mansions. Ant-
werp liiis always lieon the centre of Flemish art; the birth-place of Rubens, Vandyke, Jor-
daens, Tenlers, and all its greatest masters. Zealous patronage is still bestowed upon the
art; an aciidoiny is supported, at which 400 or 500 students are almost gratuitously taught:
annual prizes are given, and crowns placed on the heads of the successful candidates. This
encoumgcmont ha.s called forth some respectable talents, tliough none, as yet, to rival the
feme of the old masters.

East Flanders is chiefly an inland district, and is the part of Belgium in which culture has
been carried to the highest perfection. It displays an aspect of uniform luxuriant fertility,
resulting altogether from the application of art and capital. Even in journeying along the
road, tlie traveller finds the wheels of his carriage sinking in tlie sand, while beyond the
hedge on each side, the soil consists of the richest black mould. The most fertile district is
called the Waes, or St. Nicholas.

Ghent, even hi its fallen state, is still one of the noblest of the old cities of Europe. That
vast circuit of walls which, according to the boast of Charles V., could contain all Paris
within them, may still be traced. It is built on twenty-seven islands, most of them bordered
by magnificent ([uays, and connected by three hundred bridges. The streets, with a few
e.\ccption.s, are spacious and handsome, and there are many fine old churches; but the great
cathedral does not display the architectural grandeur of that of Antwerp, though the interior
is rich in the extreme, adorned with numerous pillars of white marble. This and the other
churches, as well as the academy, contain numerous paintings by the old Flemish masters.
Ghent, though it can no longer send its 40,000 weavers into the field, is still one of the most
manufacturing cities of Belgium. Prior to the revolution, its staple was sorted lace; but
since the great improvements in the cotton manufacture, several large fabrics have been
established at Ghent. The society is good, this being a favourite residence of the old
Flemish nobles, and now frequented by a considerable number of English families.

The other towns in East Flanders are Dendermonde, a small but strong place, which has
stood repeated sieges ; Alo«t, on the eastern frontier ; St. Nicholas and Tokerem, two large
villages, of more than 11,000 inhabitants each, in the centre of the Waes, flourishing by
means of corn-markets and of some considerable manufactures. Sas-van-Ghent is the centre
of the sluices on the canal to the Scheldt, by which the whole country can be laid under
water. Hubt is a strongly fortified little town.

West Flanders is a continuation of the same richly cultivated plain which has now been
described ; yet, being partly mixed with sand and marsh, and exposed to the blighting influ-
ence of fogs and sea breezes, it does not di.splay altogether the luxuriant aspect of the Pays
de Waes. It has no place comparable to Ghent, yet it comprises an extraordinary number
of ancient cities, which still retain a portion of their former prosperity.

Bruges, formerly the residence of the counts of Flanders, and one of the factories of the
Hanseatic league, was the greatest commercial city in the Low Countries, and perhaps in
the north of Europe, till it was first surpassed by Antwerp, and then, from the same causes,
shared its fall. Its situation in the midst of so fertile a country, and its communications by
spacious canals with the sea and witli the interior, still secure to it a considerable trade.
Bruges has the character of an old town, the streets being narrow, ond the houses lofty.
The town hall is its most conspicuous edifice, and it is adorned also with many noble churches,
containing some of the finest works of tlie great Flemish painters. The invention of paint-
ing in oil has been ascribed to this city.

Ostond is an ancient town, early celebrated for its fortifications. The siege by Spinola,
which began in 1601, and lasted two years, was one of the most memorable in modern his-
tory ; and upon its issue the destiny of the Low Countries was considered to depend. But
though it ultimately fell, the exhaustion of the Spanish army, and the time which had been
afforded to Hiilland for collecting her energies, prevented its capture from having the ruinous
effects anticipated. Under Austrian sway, Ostend, which has one of the few good harbours
in Flanders, became the chief theatre of the limited trade of the Belgic provinces. Napo-
leon restored its fortifications, which were still further strengthened by the allies. It has
not now above a third of its former population, but still carries on a brisk intercourse witls
England, and has almost the apjioarance of an English town. In 1828, 574 vessels entered
its port.

Other large fortified places, celebrated in the military annals of Europe, arc found in West

iinih

Paet III.

iture to be
Vntwcrp is
)lic, which
Iriil, which
230 wide,
is obtained
It, Malincs,
1 Vandyke,
! specimens
ions. Ant-
ndyke, Jor-
■d upon the
isly taught:
Eites. This
,0 rival the

I culture has
mt fertility,
ir along the
beyond the
le district is

urope. That
in all Paris
»m bordered
, with a few
ut the great
the interior
nd the other
lish masters.
B of the most
id lace; but
3 have been
e of the old

,68.

;, which has
n, two large
ourishing by
is the centre
e laid under

IS now been
rliting influ-
of the Pays
lary number

lories of the
perhaps in
ame causes,
Inications by
rable trade,
ouses lofty.
lie churches,
lion of paint-

I by Hpinola,
Iniodcrn his-
ppend. But
jh had been
: the ruinous
harbours
:es. Napo-
lies. It has
Icourse witi>
sels entered

iind in West

Book I.

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.

511

Flanders. Courtray, Ypres, and Menin have the usual character of Flemish towns. They
are large, rather well built, with handsome churches and town halls; fiillcn from their
ancient prosperity, yet retaining considerable manufactures of linen and beer; and having, in
the long course of the Low Country wars, been repeatedly taken and retaken. Courtray is
noted for the very fine flax grown in its neighbourhood. Oudenarde, the scene of one of
Marlborough's victories, Dixmuidc, and Furnes, present the same characters on a smaller
scale. Nieuport is rather a noted fishing and trading town, surrounded by sluices, by means
of which the country can be inundated.

Hainault, to the oast of Flanders and the south of Brabant, presents a long range of miii-
tarv ft-ontier to the once hostile border of France. It is watered by the ujjpor cournns of the
Scheldt and the Sambre ; and, instead of presenting the same dead level witli Flanders, is
varied by gentle undulations, still highly cultivated, yet not witli the same extreme care or
ample expenditure. In this province are rich mines of coal, a mineral not tbund in any
other part of the Low Countries ; and though Hainault never formed any of the great seats
of manufiicture, it is by no means deficient in this branch of industry.

Mens, Toumay, and Charleroi are the chief towns of Hainault. The description given
of the secondary cities of Flanders may apply to them. Mens, called once Honnonia, is very
ancient ; it is well built, but appears often almost buried under the smoke of the steam-
engines employed in working the neighbouring coalmines. It has a very extensive found-
ling hospital. Toumay, a fine large, dd city, with a handsome cathedral, has stood many
sieges. Charleroi, besides its military reputation, has that of making very fine nulls, with
which it supplies all Belgium. In front of Mens is Gemappe, and eight miles east of Char-
leroi is Fleurus, both celebrated for signal victories gained by the Frencli during tlie revolu-
tionary war. The large and strong cities of Conde and Valenciennes are now annexed to
France.

Namur, to the east of Hainault, presents a striking variety finm the tame and flat surfiice
which covers the greater part of the Low Countries. Consisting of the valley of the Meuse,
which traverses the whole province from north to south, it contains numerous rugged emi-
nences, which give to it a varied and picturesque character. The banks of the river, from
Namur to Li^ge, overhung by wooded rocks, and opening into deep valleys, abound in the
most romantic scenes.

Among the cities, Namur is one of the most ancient in the Low Countries, its origin being
traced to the time of the ancient Germans. It lies in a beautiful valley bordered by higli
mountains, at the confluence of the Sambre and Meuse. The castle, on a high rock, was
formerly considered almost impregnable, and stood many sieges, till Joseph II. dismantled,
and the French afterwards almost demolished it. The cathedral aiid the Jesuits' church
are fine edifices, and, unlike the other churches of the Low Countries, of Grecian architec-
ture. Namur has in its neighbourhood extensive iron mines, which employ many of the
inhabitants; the manufactures of the city consist in working up this metal into firo-arms,
cutlery, &c. Ascending the Meuse towards the French frontier, we come to tlie small forti-
fied towns of Dinant and Charlemont.

The provinces of Li^ge and Limburg, which are much intermingled with each other,
form the eastern frontier of Belgium. They run from north to south along the Mouse, front-
ing Germany, and are, indeed, half German. On the banks of the Mouse, and in some par-
ticular districts, the territory is broken and rocky ; but most of it consists of an extonde<l
and highly cultivated plain. The eastern district is distinguished by the peculiar richness
of its pastures, which produce butter and cheese of great value. Its manufactures, also,
especially those of fine woollens, are very flourishing.

Of the cities in these two provinces, Liege, once the seat of a sovereign bishop, is ancient
and large, but upon the whole ill built and gloomy ; and though some of its buildings are
large, they do not display the taste conspicuous in other Belgic cities. The church of St.
Paul is, however, admired, as was that of St. Ijimbert, till it was destroyed during the revo-
lution. Liege has a manufacture of fine woollen cloths, which sell at a higli price. Tlio
town of Limburg, now included in Li^ge, has lost much of its population and industry; and
a great part of its precincts is in ruins. Spa, situated amid romantic rocks, is one of the
most celebrated watering places in Europe. The resort, though much diminished, is still
considerable, and composed of persons of distinguished rank. The inlmbitants work the
beechwood, which grows in the neighbourhood, into a variety of toys, for which they find a
ready sale among the visiters. St. Tron and "Tongres are ancient towns, the firmer having
a celebrated Benedictine abbey. Eupen, like Vcrviers, has flourishing manufucturos of cloth.
Herve is the chief market for the Limburg cheese, which goes by its name. Stavelot is
noted for its leatlier.

SuBSECT. 2. — Holland.

The province of Holland is of paramount importance, including all the great cities and

frincipal scats of commerce; so that its name was most usually given to the whole republic,
t forms a long narrow strip, almost everywhere enclosed and penetrated bv water ; on one

M'\

J * .

- 1 :.'
I r. ■:

512

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

•My

side it is washeJ by tlio Nortii Sea ; on tlie othci, by the Zuyder Zee; in its centre it haa
.he largo lake called llaarlem-Meeri while the Rhine and the Lech intersect its numerous
channels. The whole country is so low, that it is habitable only by means of enormous
dikes, which exclude the sea : when these give way, the waters rush in, and inundate the
whole territory. The country forms, in fact, one vast well-watered meadow scarcely any
where subjected to the plough, though extensive gardens are cultivated, both for use and
ornament. But the chief products are cattle, butter, and cheese, for the supply of the popu-
lation of the cities, and for export.

Amsterdam (Jig. 360.), the capital of the province and kingdom of Holland, is situated at
the point of confluence of the river Amstel with the Y, an arm of the Zuyder Zee. It was
ggQ I a considerable town in the

fourteenth century ; but it was
not until the sixteenth cen-
*ury, when the persecutions
of the Spaniards in Belgium
proved fatal to the trade and
''S^^^gx^l^i-.lE^^^BWaB lWEZ ^waMBjrHlllMrai^Ki navigation of Antwerp and the

southern provinces, that Am-
sterdam attained to the dis-
tinction which she enjoyed
till about the middle of the last
AmateidBm. century, of being the first

commercial city of Europe. It is but justice, however, to state that her extraordinary pro-
gress depended as much, or more, on the liberal and enlightened policy of her rulers, as on
external events. Every individual, whatever might be his country or his religion, was
received with open arms at Amsterdam ; and acquired, by means of a trifling payment, the
right of citizensiiip, and the enjoyment of all the privileges of a native. All the public insti-
tutions wore calculated to promote commerce ; and at a time when trade and industry in
other countries were oppressed by prohibitions, in Holland they were comparatively free.
When innst ))ros])erous, Amsterdam is supposed to have contained about 240,000 inhabitants;
but at present tlio population is not supposed to exceed 200,000. Being built in a marsh, the
foundations of the city are laid on piles; and it is a common complaint that a house costs
as much below as above ground. The three principal streets are parallel to each other, and
are not easily to be matched for length, breadth, and the magnificence of the houses; many
of which, though anti(iue, are splendid, and are kept in the best possible repair. The city
is intersected by an immense number of canals, communicating by draw-bridges, and having
sluices for the purpose of regulating the level of the water : these canals are for the most
part bordered by fine trees. The expenses incurred in keeping the sluices in order, and in
clearing the canals and port of mud, are very heavy. The matchless industry and perse-
verance of this wonderful people, are in nothmg so signally displayed as in their works and
contrivances for conquering the difficulties incident to their situation, and making the waters,

which threaten to overwhelm them, con-
361 tribute to their comfort The stadt-

house (Jig. 361.), now the royal palace,
is the finest building in the city ; and is,
indeed, one of the noblest anywhere to
be met with : it is of large dimensions,
and is adorned with pillars, and with
sculptures emblematical of commerce
and navigation. Above 13,000 piles
are said to have been employed in form-
ing its foundation. The harbour is in-
convenient, large ships being obliged to
lighten before they can pass the Pam-
pus or bar at the mouth of the Y, and the navigation of the Zuyder Zee is also diflicult. To
remedy these inconveniences, the large canal to the Holder, already alluded to, has been
constructed. The trade of Amsterdam has increased considerably within the last few ^ oars;
and about 2200 ships now annually clear out for foreign countries. None of the water from
the canals is made use of for culinary purposes; the town being supplied with fresh water,
convoyed in carts from the Vecht, alxjut five or six miles distant ; but most of the houses
Imvo cisterns, \\liore the rain-water is collected. There is o national museum of pictures,
which contains many fine specimens of the Dutch school. The various prisons and houses
of rorrcction and industry at Amsterdam are said to be managed on more approved princi-
ples tliiin siimilar .'nstitutions in most parts of Europe. The police is excellent; crimes rare ;
and no beggars to be seen in the streets. The inhabitants seem vigorous and healthy ; but
the mortality, though materially diminished within the last tliirty or forty years, is still greater

Stailt-Houao, Annsterdani.

"ART ni.

re it has
lumerous
jnormous
idttte the
rcely any
' use and
the popu-

ituated at
>. It was
n in the
but it was
enth cen-
rsecutions
I Belgium
trade and
■rp and the
that Am-

the dis-
e enjoyed
> of the last
: the first
iinary pro
ilers, as on
ligion, was
yinent, the
lublic insti-
industrv in
itively free,
inhabitants;
, marsh, the
house costs
h other, and
uses; many
, The city

1 and having
for the iiioet
rder, and in

and perse-
works and
the waters,
tliem, con-
The stadt;-
oya) palace,
:ity ; and is,
iny where to
dimensions,
and with
commerce
3,r)00 piles
yed in form-
rbour is in-
, obliged to
IS the Pam-
ifficult. To
to, has been
few _, oars ;
water from
fresh water,
the houses
of pictures,
and houses
)vcd princi-
rimcs rare ;
ealthy; but
still greater

Book I.

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.

fil8

than in most Eurojjoan cities ; a consequence, probably, of the humidity of the climate, and
of the effluvia arising, in summer, from the canals.

Rotterdam (Jff. 302.), the second city in Holland, is more conveniently situated for com-
merce than Amsterdam, having a readier access to the sea ; and the Maese on wiiich it is
situated, being so very deep as to admit vessels of the largest draught of water to lie close

Rolterdani.

Butua of Eraimiu.

ui the quays. Its commerce is rapidly increasing. Its principal exports are geneva and
madder ; and it carries on the busmess of sugar-refining on a large scale. It has all the
characteristics of a Dutch town ; being neat, clean, uniform ; the houses high, and built of

very small bricks. The canals inter-
""* — - secting it are numerous, deep, and,

unless in a few of iHd most crowded
streets, connected by draw-bridges.
R jtterdam boasts of being the birth-
place of Erasmus; to perpetuate
whoso memory, she iius erected a
handsome statue {fg. 363.).

The Hague (Jff. 364.), though
ranking only as a village, is, in fact,
one of the handsomest cities in Eu-
rope. The streets and squares are well built, bordered with fine walks and avenues of trees.
Neither the old nor the new palace can boast of any splendid architecture ; but the former
is large, and contains some valuable collections. An avenue of two miles leads to the neat
fishing town of Scheveling, whence the dealers are daily seen bringing their commodities

The Flague.

365

Leyden.

in little carts drawn by large dogs.
Leyden {fig. 365.) is a fine old city,
situated in the heart of the Rhine-
land, where this ancient bed of the
river is cut into an infinity of canals,
which render this the richest mea-
dow land of Holland. The beer,
the butter, and the bread of this dis-
trict are hold in ttio highest estima-
tion. Leyden, during the war with
Spain, was the most important city
in Holland, and on the t vent of its
siege the fate of that country was
supposed to depend. The Spaniards,
by a lengthened and strict blockade,
reduced it to the last extremity ; while the Dutch could muster no force adequate to its
relief. It was then that they formed the magnanimous resolution of breaking down their
(likes, and admitting the ocean. It was some time before the fiill effect was produced ; but
at length, impelled by a violent wind, the sea rushed in, overwhelmed all the works of the
besiegers, and forced them to a precipitate flight. The little fleet of boats which had been
jireparod for the relief of Leyden, immediately sailed over tlie newly formed expanse, and
triunipiiantly entered the city. The Prince of Orange offered to Leyden tlic option of two
l)en('lits, — an immunity from taxes for a certain period, or tiie foundation of a university in
the city. The citizens crowned their former glory by choosing the latter alternative, and
a university was accordingly founded, which speedily became one of the most eminent Hcliools
in Europe ; and, thoiigli much injured by the numerous rivals which have since sprung up,,
it continues to iniiintnin a high reputation, particularly as a classical school. Leyden is still
a liaiulsonie and flourishing town ; carries on the woollen manufacture with success, though
on a diminished scale; and is a great market for butter and cheese. Haarlem (Jig. 366.) is
another city of ancient importance. In the great struggle for independence, it stood a
Vol. I. 3 P

. , .li:!

i'i

'■

1 ■ :•■

; ' ■'■•■■

• '• -JB"

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

'!1

267

mcmorablo sicgo of seven months; when it surrendered upon honourable terms, wliicli woie
basely violuted by the Duke of Alva. Haarlem is still spacious mid flourii-liiMg:, and excels
peculiarly in tiic blcachin(^ of linen and cambric, which it portbrms for uU the iu-iglil)ourin^r

provinces. The matchless
and brilliant whiteness of the
Haarlem linos has been im-
puted to a peculiar quality in
the water, but is more pro-
bablj the result of the ex-
treme skill of the inhabitants,
acquired by long practice.
Flowers arc principally raised
for sale in the vicinity of Haar-
lem. Delfl, an ancient gloomy
"»"''""'• town, was formerly celebrated

for the manu&cture of the ware which bears its name ; but this, as already observed, has
been almos: entirely supplanted by English earthenware. Dort or Dordrecht, enclosed by
branches of '.ho Maese, was the ancient capital of Holland, while the main conunorcc of that
country cor.tiiuud to centre in this its most natural quarter. It still rot^iiiis very considera-
ble traces of this early imiwrtance. The town-hall and great church arc inagniticent struc-
tures. There is a considerable trade in goods coming down the Rhine, particularly floats of
timber, so largo that one of them has been valued at 350,0(K) florins. Gouda is a large
flourishin;; village, in a rich country, and carries on an extensive manufactory of tobacco-
pipes. It is celebrated for the excellence of its cheese.

North Holland forms a considerable peninsula, almost entirely encircled by the Zuyder
Zee and the North Sea, and Ijordercd by sand-hills of Bome elevation ; but the interior is
covered with rich pastures, on which are fed large herds of cattle. The ancient and not
ungraceful costumes (fff. 207.) of the Dutch peasantry arc preserved with greater exact-
ness in this sequestered part of Holland,
than in any otlior; and the fishery, for
which their situation is peculiarly adapted,
is carried on with great activity. Alk-
maar is an agreeable town, with a yreat
traffic in butter and chee.se, and a manu-
facture of nets. The most important
places in North Holland are the Hi^ldei-
and the Texel, two grand naval .sti.tions;
the one a stron,fj fort, commanding tlic
entrance of the Zuyder Z<,'e; tlic otiicran
island oppf)sito, in which the Dutch fleets
us(!d to rendezvous, from tlio facility it
afforded for their getting to sea. Along the coast of the Zuyder Zoo are tlie considerable
towns of I loom and Enkhuison, and the smaller ones of Edam and I'urmorend.

Zealand is a region more conii)lotely enclo.sed by, and sunk below, the level of the water,
timn any otlier part of the United Provinces. It consists of nine islands, formed and envi-
roned by branches of the Marse and the Scheldt, as, passing from the state of rivers into fritlis,
they unite with the ocean. Tlie mariner, in approacliing, sees only points of the spires
peeping above the innnonse dikes which defend them from inundation. The soil is moist
and rich, peculiarly adapted to the cultivation of madder. Tlie damp air, however, and the
exhalations from the wati-rs, render thef^e islands imheaithy, and even fatal to foreigners, as
was dreadfully experienced by the British troops while (piartored at Walchoren ; but the
natives do not experience the .same pernicious elll'Cts. Jliddlehiirg is a eonsiderable city,
'.vith a to\vn-ha!l and several clinrclies, which atllird fine specimens of Gothic nrcliitccture.
Flushing is an eminent nava! station, and has a ciinsiderablo tradi; and fishery. The island
of Schowen has Zlerikzeo, the ancient capital of the counts of Zealand; and South Beve-
land has Goes, or Terijoes, with a consideralde trade in siilt.

Utrecht, a more inland province thin Holland, forms a continuation of the same tract of
fiat meadow land, interspersed uitli gardens and country residences. Utrecht, the capital,
is a remarkably ajireeable city, and hcmix a little elevated, the view from its ramparts and the
top of its cnthedral over the vast plains and broad waters of Holland is extensive and de-
lightful. The Romans called it Ulpii Trajectum, as conunanding an important passage over
the Rhine; and in the middle aijes it was held by the warlike bishops of Utrecht. In this
city was concluded the treaty of conf 'deration, in l.")97, by which the United Provinces
were constituted, and also the celebrated treaty of 171.'), which terminated the long war of
the Spanish succession. Amersfoort, pleasantly situated on the Ems, and noted as the
birth-place of Barncvoldt, has considerable fabrics of dimity and bombazeen, and cxtensivn

Ptanantry in Mulland.

Part III.

hicli wciP
and excels
ijrlibonrin^'

matchlfsH
ncBS of tlU!
.s bocii iin-
r (luality in

more pro-
of the ex-
inlmbitauts,
g practice,
ipally raised
lity of Ilaar-
icnt gloomy
y celebrated
bservcd, lias
enclosed by
ii.Tcc of that
•y conHidora-
iticent struc-
xrly floats of
a is a large
^ of tobaccQ-

r the Zuyder
ic interior is
ient and not
reater cxact-
t of Holland,
! fishery, for
iurly adapted,
;tivity, Alk-
, wllii a jiroat
, and a nitmu-
)st iniportunt
[e the Holder
nviil sli.tions;
iniandiiiir the
the otlii-ran
Dutch fleets
the facility it
conaidcrablo

f the water,
nod and cnvi-
ers into fritiis,
of the spires
soil is inoir^t
ever, and the

)rei<,'ners, as

en ; but the
iderablc city,

rchiteeture.
Tlio island

South Beve-

Roou T.

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.

s;une tract of
it, the capital,
[iparts and the
nsivo and de-

passaije over
Rcht. In this
ted Provinces
e lonff war of

noted as the
and cxtensivfi

bleaching grounds. Naorden, a small town, forms the key of all tlie water communications
of Holland.

North Bralmnt, comprising that which was the Dutch part of the province, is a flat, sandy,
marshy tract, not distinguished by either the natural fertility or manufacturing industry so
conspicuous in the rest of Flolland and Belgium. Forming, however, the barrier by which
the Dutch maintained their independence, it contains several of the strongest fortresses in
Kiirope, which have indtx^d the reputation of being almost impregnable. Breda is one of
t!io most conspicuous. Alter Prince Maurice of Nassau took it by surprise, in 1.090, ila
tbrtifications were greatly e.vtrnded, and the surrounding country, being intersected by
rivers and marshoi?, can be laid under water. It is an agreeable city, commanding from the
ramparts a fine view, and both its church and its town-hall are admired Gothic edifices,
IJois lu Due, or Herzogenbosch, on the Domrael, so named from an old hanting-wood of the
Dukes of Brabant, is a large town, and iMiually strong. It is so intersected by canals, that
eighty bridges are required to cross them; in winter the place is entirely surrounded by
water, and can be approached only in boats. Bergcn-op-Zoom, flirther to the west, is similar
as to strength, and was esteemed tlie masterpiece of the celebrated Cohom. The disastrouM
attack made upon it by the British in the last war is well remembered.

The outer provinces of Guclderland, Friesland, Overyssel, Drenthe, and Groninffcn,
which lie between the Zuyder Zee and tlie Ems, are ratlier appendages than integral portions
of Holland, and form by their situation part of the great level plain of northern Germany.
The country is similar to Holland, however, in its aspect and the general state of cultiva-
tion, though a somewhat greater proportion of the land is employed in the raising of grain.
Friesland, has a ver^ fine breed of horses and horned cattle ; and the linen manufacture
flourishes to a considerable extent. In these provinces, particularly in Guelderland and
Overyssel, there is a large extent of sandy and marshy ground, which is not forced into cul-
tivation with the same minute care, as in the central provinces. Much benefit, however, is
expected from the pauper colonies lately established there.

The towns of this region are pretty numerous and considerable, though none are of the
first class. Nimcguen, in Guelderland, is ancient, strong, and handsome, commanding a
noble view over tlie Rhine. Zutphen is an old imperial city, dreadfully pillaged in 1-572 by
the Duke of Alva. It has a magnificent church ; and the fens around it have been so com-
pletely drained, as to render the air no longer unwholesome. Arnheim is a large and beau-
tiful town, at the foot of the hills of Veluwe, and forming a great thoroughfare into Ger-
many. Deventer, in Overyssel, is an ancient member of the Hanseatic league, and has a
venerable catliedral. Zwoll, on the Ysscl, is strong, large, and well built. Asson, though
capital of the new province of Drenthe, is only a village. In Friesland, Leuwarden, on
the Ee, is a largo and populous town, in a country surrounded and intersected with canals,
which enable it to communicate with the sea, and to carry on a considerable trade. Cam-
pen, an ancient Hanse town, has lost its importance, the harbour being now choked up.
Harliiigon, Franeker, Dokkum, Bolswaru, are ports on the Zuyder Zee, and manufacturing
places of some importance. Groningen, capital of the provinces of th same name, is the
most important of all the towns east of the Zuyder Zee. It is well b It, and adorned with
noble edifices ; and its university was once distinguished among D' ii seminaries. Large
vessels can ascend the Iluiise from the Zuyder Zee.

Luxemburg, an extensive province, though political revolutions attached it to the Nether-
lands, and now to Holland, forms part of Germany, entitling the king to a vote in tlie Ger-
manic diet. Its character is every way in decided contrast to the rest of Holland and Bel-
gium. Instead of a dead, rich flat, traversed by navigable stream.* and canals, Luxemburg
presents almost throughout high mountains and woods, formhig scenes of savage grandeur,
similar, though on a smaller scale, to those of Switzerland. The country is destitute of
water communications, is imperfectly cultivated, and does not contain a population of more
than sixty-six to the square mile. Its breeds of cattle and sheep are of smal. size; but, as
usual in mountain pa.stures, of delicate Pv/our. The horses arc active and hardy ; and the
tract which borders on the Moselle pi!->duces valuable wine.

The cities and towns are by no means on the same scale as those in the rest of tlio king-
dom. Luxemburg, the capital, situated on two rocks, whose steep .sides form a glacis, while
the river Else, at their feet, serves as a wet ditch, is one of the strongest fortresses in
Europe. The horse and cattle markets are considerable. Theux has in its neighbourhooil
mines of a beautiful black marble. Macstricht, the principal town of Limburg, has, along
with all the part of that province east of the Meuse, been assigned to Holland It is large,
handsome, and well fortified. Ruremonde and Venlo, also neat towns of some strength, arc
included in the same district.

I ::,'■

; '; I;

■ . !■■ Hi

k ■ ;• '
)i ■ . ■ , ■

■I ■.'■■■ ■

! (,

mih

MAP OF FRANCE— WBVT past.

Fio. St».

1!^

, ii. , I

1 \

ri :■'!!! i

*':^

,!>:!

-I'

'if'

EofltabMil'

S I<on(itudc W«st 4 from Oratawleh

i longitude East

Fia. 200.

* \.

'.8

N E

111/. '5'Vv <

I Lonfiluile IHitX

Fitt. 269.

MAP OF FRANCE— EAwr paet.

517

Vol. I.

' E<it f fiom Greeiiwlcli I

■ i

1 ;
i ,

1 ' .!!

1 1

' 'I VI..' . .

■.'<"t>' ;■ fll

'H ^ n4

.(J

41S

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

pAiTin,

PH^ii

CHAPTER VllL

FRANCE.

Francr ia 1 ffreat and powcrfbl kingdom, placi><l, oh it worn, in the centre of the civi-
-lized world, and for several conturiea di>itin(;iii8hcd by the conspicuouB part which it hao
acted on the theatre of Europe. Its i)opiiliition, military power, reiitral situation, vast re-
sources, and active industry, render it peculiarly duserving of an attentive survey.

Referencet to the Map of France — IVVrt Pari.

NOllTII PART. m.

Pif

Pnivincp nf

ABTDIfl.

IltpartmtKt of

I. Hirait ijrCalail.

(t'udaOulau.)

I. r'alair

3. Iliiuliiiiiic
J. Hanu*r

4. Muntruuil

'rovincp of

'icARDY.

Jiepartment of

II. Hiininie.

.1. Cictir

li. Ru»

7. HI. Vallery

K .\bhevillu

U. Airainei

Province ofthfl

I. OP KBANCE.

Departnentt.

III. Cue

IV. Sviiie anil One.
1U. Gianilvillera
ll.tii.rinir

Jj. Meulon

13. jtainhuuillct

14. Ilouilan

15. Mantua

Prnvincf. of
NOKMANny.
/)rpartments.
V. tiiiwer Heine
VI. Euro
VI!. Orne
VIII. C«,va(loa
IX. The Channel.
(La .Munchc.)

16. Vemon

17. Ancleloya
IH. (Journay
19. Neufchtttel
-iO. Hlnngii
■i\. Eu

'.ti. Dieitpfl

■a. Si. Valery

41. Fecamp

^£>. Havre do Grace

■m. R.ilb«c

tVveioi
Rouen
W. Elbiruf
'M. I.iiuviera
'M. Kriitnne
'.H, Punt Aiidcmer
;n. Punt r Eveque
:M. Liiieiix
ai. Caen
'3C., Sayeux

37. Iiiiny

38. 8U Ln

39. (Tarentiin

40. Valniinei

41. niirllHUt
43. Chi'rliDUrg
4:i. I .t!8 Pioiix
41. Diirnevillo
4."». I 'reaiice
411. Cdiitaiicei
47. (iruiiville
4H. Villodieu
4!l. Viro

M. Thi.riany
."il. Si.fttirmnin
ii. Piint d'Ouilly
.'>'1. Fuluue
M. Areentan
M. Giico
5«. Orliec
57. Ilernay
.18. RukIi ■
50. Kvreux

, Ij Aiilo
fl:i, MiiriBRne
04. Ilek'iniu
m. Alonrun
lit). Dunil'iiinl
117. Tinnhi lirny
AH. Miiituin
lU). Avraiichci
70. Ponlurion

Provincfl of

brei'agne.

Vtpvrlmtnts.
X. Ill* and Vi-

laino
XI. North Cnait
XII. Finiiii'iri)

XIII. Moth.lwn

XIV. Luwor Loire

71. Anirain
74. St. Mulo

73. Dinan

74. Su Urieux

75. Ouingamp
7A. Painipoi

77. I.annion

78. Bella lie
7^1. Morlaix

80. Lannilii

81. Breal

82. Landemeau
Kl. Chnleaulln
84. Andjeniu
KV Qiiiinper
8H. Unimperle

87. Gourin

88. Cnrhnix

89. Roalruui^n
110. Uzcl

01. Loudeuc

113. Bruona
03. Montfort
U4. Iledo
95. Roimon
911. St. Auliin

97. Foufi-refi

98. Vilre

99. La Guerche
100. Chateaubriant
iOI. Oervin

|IK2. f ^arentuiro
10:1. Rrtlon

104. Mulotroit

105. Plocrmcl
100. Band

107. Poiilivy

108. Hi'nni'iKin
lUil. L'Oricnl

1 10. Vannes

111. Roche-Bernard

112. Niizay

1 1:1. Ancenit

114. Nantei
il5. Siivenay

1 10. Guerrande

117. Paimbffluf

118. BourKneur

119. Clinon

Province of
AN,IOU.

Department of

Pepartment:!.
XVI. Mayenne
XVII. SaiUiii.

139. Craon

130. Chateau Gun-

tier

131. Sable
i:«. La Fleche
133. Chateau do

Loir
1.14. Si.Calnii
135. Id Nana

i:w. Viiiiui

1:17. Laval
Kt8. Joviino
130. Mayenno

140. Ebriin

141. Pret en Pail
143. Frenay

143. MaiiD-ii

144. La Ferie Ber-

nard

145. MoDtmirail

XXV. Vendeo.

184. Ln Riu'he

Poaay

185. Chniollcraull
I8n. Louilun

187. MuMConlour

188. Thuuam
1K1. Breiaure
100. Chaiillon lur

Sevre

191. Pouiange

103. Muiituimi

IWI. Beaiivoir

IM. Bi. (}illei lur
Vie

rnVSableid'Olonne

I9A. Tiilmonl

197. Bourbon-Ven-
dee

Ite. Lucon

199 Fonlcnny

300. rMiaiaiKiiernyo

301. Piirlheimy
303. Vivoiine
301. Poiliiira
301. St. Savin
30.'i. Mttiitmorillon

33. ITierche

34. i'reiinac
;|5. Tulle
30. Turenne
37. Doniunac

Province of
UIJIRNNE.

Depa
/[. Li
II. Ti

artmnli,

lOt

Pmvinro of

ORLEANA1S.

Dcparttntntt,

XVIII. Euro at.d
Loir

XIX. Loiret

XX. Loir and Cher. jj„ M„„.,,„
148. Rrou 311. Sauie

147. Nugent lo Ro-

trou

3lM. L'Ulu Juiitdain 40; M„|*c

am and Ga
roniui
VIII. Lot and Ga-
ronne
IX. Donlovno
X. Bordeaux
;iH. Thivlere
:i9. Noniron

40. Ilrantoine

41. Peiiiueux
43. Maruuil

43. Hibernc

44. Muridan

45. Libuurnn

46. Couliui

47. Blaye

48. Bourg

IOI. Air*

103 Mont de Marmn

111:1. HI. Sever

104. Monfurl

IILV Dux

1011. St. Vincent

107. reyrehorade

\t*<. St. F.>pru

109. Itnyoiiim

110. 81. Jean Pled dn

Purl

111. Mauloun
113 nierun

113. Navnrreini

114. OMhii

115. <iarlin

116. Pau

117. Arudl
liaNoi

Province of

BEARN AND

FOIX.

307. 1'ivray
308. Melle
3U). Nioit

XIV. Upper Pyre

nee*
XV. Article
llO.TarliM
130. Arielln*
181. Lux
.52. La.Teludu Buch 133. Bngnorc*
.VI. Le'Barp 13.'). Sairunculin

•50. Lei|)urro
51. Caiitelnau

I4R. Allien
140. Dteiix
l.V>. Maintcnon
15l.rharlrea
153. Boniioval
LW Toury

1.54. Arlenay

1.55. I^bnleaudiin
156. Monilnubleau
1.57. Vondoieo
158. nioia

1.59. Melun
lliO. Orlcani
161. CoSHon
i&l. Chamliord
Ityl. Roinoranlin

164. Sl.Aiiinan

165. Chauinunt

Province of

TOURAINE.

DeparttneHt of

XXI. Imlre aiiu

Loire.

106. Chateau Rng-

nault

167. Tovra

168. Stivigne
160. Langeaia
170. Chinnn
m.Lallaye
173. Monibaxon

173. I.Achea

174. Reauliuu

Province of

BRKRI.

Drvnrtment of

XXII. Iiidre.

XV. Mayoniw and 1''5. Chaiillon »ur

fiO. ivry
Bl. Verr

erneuil

Loire.

130. Beaupreau

131. i;hollel
133. Chalonne
12:1. Vihim
124. S.'inniur
125 Bauirc
1-26. AiiKcni
137. Intfrande
128. Sugrc

Province of

MAINE AND

PERCH E.

Indre

176. l.evroux

177. Valencoy

178. Valan

179. Chaleauronx

180. L* Chatro

181. Affrcnton

182. St. Benoit

183. Le Ulanc

Province of

POITOU.

Departments.

XXIir Vienna

XXIV. Two Sevrei

SOUTH PAll'l.

Province of
BAINTONGK
AND AUNI8.
Department of

I. LowerCharunto.
1. Marana

3. La Rochelle
3. Itochefort
I. St. Jean d'An-
»ely

5. Sninlea

6. Marennea

7. Royan

8. Poni

9. Jonzuc

10. Mirtiiiibeau

II. Munlieu

Province of

ANGOUMOIS.

Department of

II. Charento

13. Aiibeterre

13. Borbezieux

14. (.-ognuc
1.5. Angouteme

16. La Rochefou-

cauld

17. Manilo

18. Ruflec

19 Uunfulcn*

Province* of

MARCHE AND

LIMOUSIN.

Departments.

III. Upper Vienno

IV. Coriuxo
V. Creuao.

20. li'illnc
SI. Ln Dnrnt

32. SdUlerraino
3:1. (ioi'ri;t

34. Boiirganeilf

35. Kyiiionliara

36. St. Leonard
27. LiinogcH
38. St. Jdiiicn
3<l. Rnciiecliouart
30. C'linlua
ai.St.Yrieix

33. Pierre BulBero

.54. Cailrea
.55. Bordeaux
511. Creon
.57. Lilteolln
.58. Mnrmarido
.59. (Taitilloncz

60. Beraerao

61. La Lindp
63. Miremont

63. Surlnl

64. Oomme
6.5. Catui

66. (iourdnn

67. Marlel

68. St. Cere

69. Figeac

70. Concula
7I.St. Antonin

72. Cahori

73. Cttuuado

74. Moniauban
7.5, Verdun

76. ('aitelaarasin

77. MoImic

78. 5Ioncuq

79. Fiiniel

80. Villuneuve-

d'Agcn

81. A gen

82. Nerao
Kt. I'aiit'l-Gcloux

84. Bazni

85, Caplieux

Province of
GAHCONY.
1>epartmtntt.
XI, Landea
XII, Luwei Py-

renecB
XIII. Rcri.

86. Sore

87. Murat

88. Miioizfin

89. La Boiiliere
00. Rmiucfort
91. Eiiuze
93. Ivuiidom

93. Irfjcuinro

94. Fleiiranco
{)5. Igle en Ji urdain
116. Luinbvx
97. Auch

08. Miranda

09, Vic Ferenzac
100, Nugaio

134. Baunerea du

Luc bun
12,5, St.Giroiii

136, Taraacun

137, Ax

138, Puix
130. Paniiets

Province of
LANGUEDOC
Departmentt.
XVI. Upper Ga-
ronne
XVII, Tarn,

130. Caitelnaudaty

131. Villefranche
1.13. Lavaur
1:0. St. Bulpicc
134. Grenaile
1:1.5. Tuuluube
i:i6. St, Lya

137. Murot

138. Rieuz

139. Cazerei

140. St.Gaudcna

141. St. Beat

Rivers.
a Seine
b Dive*
c Oure
d Vira
e OuRt
f Vilnino
f Lfiire
h Mayenne
i Sartbe

i Loire
Beaiivron
I Le Clier
mlndro
n Creuso

Vienne

p Cbareote
q Dfoniie
r lalo

a Dordogne
t Veiore
u Lot
V Garonne
w Aveyrop
X Tarn
jr Adour

1 GsvedaPau

Paitih.

•e of the civi-
which it han
ition, vost re-
vey.

m. Aire „
(K MimlcleMitranii
IKt. Hi. Snvi't
(M. Monfurl

m. I lux

ml. Si. Vinrfnt
U7. riyiiihiiiaJe
tie. Hi. tUpnl
UtI. lUymmii , ,
lU. Bl. Jcnn Piml dn

Pcirl
II. Mnuloun
ll-j Olurun
III). Nnvnrreini

114. Oriliii

115. (inilin
IIH. Pau
117. Aiuill
liaNu

Prnvinro of
IIEARN AND

FOIX.
nnartmentl.
XIV. Upper Pyta

IIHM

XV. Ariicoe
lig.TmliM
1!». Ar|i!il<«
I'il. I.iit
I'M. BngmirM .
l!2.'l. BAirunculin
Vii. Ilauni'rin du

Lui'hiin
I'i.'i. Bl.Ciroim
l*i. 'I'uiucun
vn. An
VW. Foiii
131). Paniieis

Province of

LANOUK.nOC
pepnrlmmti.

XVI. Upp«r Ga-
ronne
XVII. Tarn,
ino. Caitelnaudn;
131. Villul'rancho

K. Iiavaur

:i3. 8i. Suluinc

34. (ircnaile

m. Touluiike
.:«). St. Lya

T7. Murot
inx. Riiiuz

139. Cal^rra

140. Si. Gnudcns
Ul. St. Beat

Rivers.
n f*Rino
b Ili<ea
r, Oure
d Vire
e Ouat
r Vilnine

Klioire
Mayiinne
Baiihe

iLuiro
Heaiivron
1 l« Cliet
mlndro
n CrouBO

Vienne

p (.'harenlo
q n^uiiiie
7 klo
a Pordoitne

1 Veiore

U liUt

V (laronne
w Aveyron
X Tarn
y Adout _
aOBvedaPau

Boor I.

PRANCE.

SIO

Sbot. J.—Oeneral Outline and Atpcrt.
Franco w bounJod m Iho North liy tiin Cimnnul, wliicli »cparate» it fVom EiiBland, onU

Nnitrii PART.

IViivinctt (if
ri.ANDKItri.

1. Vhii North.
1. Muiili<]iii{o
3. Avt-ani*4

3. Ijiirxirrcy

4. IjiiCulttnu

5. (.'nmbriii

0. Viilonviuiinci
7. Dduiiy
H Hi. Ainand
'.I. I.llle
lU. Httznbroiick

II.ClllHll

\i. Dunkirk

13. Gravulinci.

Prnvinro of

AnttiiH.

Ihnarlineni. nj the
It. Blrnil ofCillali.

14. Ardrfii
1,1. St. Unior
lA. Aire

17. Pauauemborg

19.' 9lM
ao. Boltiiino
91. Arriia
.M. Uapuumo.

Provinco iif

PICAIIUV.

Deptirlmrnt of

III. Bummo.

n. Douleni

34. Ainleni

35. Pi>roniio

36. kiiye

37. Mnnldidior
88. Puix.

Prnvinro of

TIIR ISI.K OP

FRA.NCi;.

Oepiiritiients.

IV. Oino

V. Hiiino

VI, Hi'lnoiindOi«u
VII. Si'liio uiid

Miirne
V^lll. Aiiiio.
80. Hrptoi ■'
l¥}. lien' .tia
31. CIp .nont
'13. Noynn
3^1. Cntnpicgntt
34. IVciuy
:». Hnnlfa

36. Muru

37. Pontnifo
:». Bt. Uoiiii
3tf. liOZiirchiia

40. llitntniiirtin

41. Meiiiix

43. I'nnltiinfniur
4't. MarniltiH

44. 1*0 1 ii

45. Sceaux
4fi. Voraailica
47. (^)rbl■il
4H. P.lfliiipoB

49. Mi'liin

50. PonliiinebI(!iiu
.11. Ncinoiira

53. MMnleriinu Fault

Vonna
.1't. Rosny

54. Prtivina

la. ChotiMiu Tliicry
.16 I.n Fi'riii Miloii

.'•". VililTH CollTCH

.'irt. Boirtuniii
.W. Lnon

m. 1,11 PiTo

til. Bt. (luuntin
m. (iui<«
fill. Bij.4nniio
64. Vt^rvina.

Prnvinro of
CIIAMPACNE.

DcpnrtiufnU.
IX. AriiolinL'8
X. .Mlirno
XI. Anlie
Xll. U[)pcr Miirne

m. Ilnrrny
fiS. Clinrlriilli'

67. Mt'zicrtja

68. SliIiio

•sa. lirand Pri.-

70. Viiuniota

71. Altitny
7'^ Ratliul
7;i. Ail'eld
74. RlieiinB

7.5. < ourtaiunn

76. Vnlmy

77. Hi. Mnnohuuil

Kfferrnifi lo Ihe Map nf Franrr tjM ParU

XX. Iloub.
AAI. Jurii.
tVI. Liirn

IM. I.IIAt'lltl

ItVt. Juiwy
ir.l(.Vowml
IM. rimmiititio
IM. Dttinpiurrn
l.Vi. (J my

in), ii)

KM. Hniinin
tfW. M.iniboliard
Ita Hi. hypiilktu

7H. ('Iialiiii«
1\K r.pernay
HO. Oiirrdntii
HI. MnMimirnil
PJ. Huxnnno

H4.V.try.u,Marno|a?:j.:J.«'i'J^J'

go. Raiuiiru . . |,i7. n„„„a)n
IIH. (tuiniii.'y
lilil. Ilnie

170. Pidinny

171. Hnlin«

173. Rocli'-Jcan
1711. Nmiivo

174. IJJuirevaux

H7. Aruiitur Atilio
W. Miirailly
8U. Nofintaur

Memo
no. Troy,,i
01. f-haourctt
03. liar Bur Buino
IVI. riairvaux
t.'4. Har .ur A
115. Mnnii,

06. yuaiy

07. Jninvdlu

IH. ('hriiiinont

110. Aubeiiva

3:13. Hnncorto
3:1-]. Viornin
3:1.5 Hour«(«
'm. l^haiiKiunriif
3.17. C'haluau Mail-
Irinl

3:19. II lot

340. BaiiCttrf uaa.

Prnvinro nf

MVKR.NAIH.

Itfnnrttiifiit of

XXVIII. Niuvit'.

311. Nevora

343. I.a Chutilo
34:1. I.'oana

344. Clamery

345. riiainplemi
3111. t'oiliiaiiv

347. 1'haiiiauChlnnn

348. Muulina on Gil-

bert

349. Dorir.0

43. Rinm
4J. 'I'lllara.

vinne nf
NNAIH.

175. LnnaieBaulnlt'r '"00. 81. Pierre lo

.,undu

.'76. Durtali
ri;.Ht. Claude.

Mualicr.

IJIQ. linntfreB
! j. fliyln "
103. Ilourbnnne lea

101. fiiy III Hillot

Uiiin*

103. Bourmnnt.

Provinpn ni'
I.ORRAIXK.
i>eparltnfnt.i.
XMI. VoiKos
XIV. Mrurlhe
XV. Mi'UM
XVI. Muaeilc.

104. Biiincvllli,

105. IMoinbiiroB

106. KpinnI

107. Runiirumont
lOH. (ierardiiiiir

I '19. Bt. nil!
no. Rinilioivillor
111. MiriTnuri
113. Ni!iifrhnli"Ul

113. tiondrornurt

114. Itiir lo Dim
11.5. VaiiriMileuiii

116. Cnniincrcy

117. Toulon

118. Nancy

119. Lunovillo

130. H'inn

131. S'lrnbnum

Proviiire of

IIOKRIIONNAIH.

Itrimrtmntl of

XXIX. AlliiT

331. Boiirbnn-l'Ar-

ehamliault
3.53. Moulina
*i^hi. Dnnjon
'354. Varonnea
'3.55. I,a PuIIbw)

Provincu of
BlJRtJUNDV.

DepartiiirntM.

XXII. Aln
XXIIl. Baonoaiiil

Loire
XXIV.l'oied'Or

XXV. Yonne.

178. Nanlun . .

1711. Fiiriiloi'Ei^luBc'v]'!- I'liinot
180. Heywel 3.57. Gnnnat

IMI. Mi.|li,y .- - -

IH3. Poiifin
I8:i. Mouni l,uel
184, Trfvoux
IK5. t'liiilunioiit

186. Ilnum

187. Macon

188. Port du Vuux
I8'.(. riuny
190. Boniur en Bri-

nlinoiit
lOI.ChlirnlifB

193. Iloiirbun Lniiiy 4. Auziinco
193. 5I.Bt. X'lncenl 5. AnhiuHon

3.58. Bt. Pourcain
'J.59. lli'Tiiiaon
'3tiO. Muiit Lucoo.

SOUTH PART.

Prnvioi f

MARCH 1;.
heparlnii'nt uf
I. Cruiliu.
I. llouBiinc
'3. .InrlifiL'e
3. Clianiho

l94. rournuB
l!t5. Rnmonny

196. i^nnhnoR

197. t'huloniiu

198. ChHlnns
190 Niilay
300. Monii'ciilB
31)1. Aiitun
A)3. Siiuliuu

I'W. nialcaii H:ilin« 30:1, Ariniy lo Puc

133. Nomony '.ill. Monuiio
Ii!4. Oiirzo gtrt. Ni-.ii.

135. FroooB 'jotl, Dijnn

136. at. Miiiii'l '307. I. am Td

137. ViiubiTnun '2i|H. Si'innr

138. Verilun 'Ml. Aviilon

139. Varonnca sJIO. «'onl mgo lea
l.jO. K,«lain , Viocea
Ul. Moolniiidy ml. Auxorro
t»i. Loiinny iji'i. ViTiniinton
VXl llricy 313. RnviuruB

134. Moll 314. Mnnlbard
35' I ''"1"",".° '■"■''• I'»i»n>'ux

136. Si. AvoM . ijifl. t'Imlillmi nur
1.17. Harri-xuunnneB Boino

138. Bilchu. 317. Tonnerrc

Province of 2'fi' St. Flnrcoiin

AI^SM'P, 319. Jnijny _

Dcmrtmenli. 220' VillcncuvolMr- 34. Villo t'onlul,
XVII. Lower Hbino,,, chovequu

™"vv" ':r^!^' »i- '■'™ «"' Vunne
!•!■•■ yyi'H»ernl)ure o.j;). Si.Julicn.

I'rnvinro of
ORLEANAIS

6 Pellolin

7. Cuurline.

Provincp nf

LIMOU.si.V.

Department uj

II. Corrozo.

8. irBBel

9. Burl

10. Kgleton..

Province of

GIJIEWE.

iiepartuiftit nf

III. Aveyron.

11. Fiffeac
13. Livikinnc

13. Villolrnniho

14. Bt. Sernin
1.5. Bt. Aliiimo

16. HI. Rnnie

17. Milhiiu

18. Rndct

19. Bt'verac
30. Br. Ceniez
SI.Guiollo
33. Knirnicnoa
33. F.fipalinn

LVt')'

lUuartmiinlM.
Vj. Loire
Vli. Rhone.

44. L'llopiml

45. Piicudii'rii

46. Roiinne

47. Aiitiicpeniu

48. 'I'hizy

49. yillelruncho
,50. f.yon.
51. Uerori
53. Muntbriion
.5). Hl.R„inl.i,rt
.54. Hi. KlipiiiM,
.55. Bt.t'linmnnd

50. Uiiijnaw.

Province of
DAIIPIIINY
Dtpnriments uf
VIII. Iw're
IX, I'.PPir AlpB
X. Drume.
,57. Vienno
.58, Peilge
,50. f 'ote 81. Aitdre
Oil. Honrfrniii
61. ('reniii-n
IN. La Tour ilu Pin
63. Voiron
(M Si.Barrnux
6.5. tirennble
611. Miirrellin

67. Ln Mure

68. Hour)- irOyLina

69. Briani-nii

70. Monldtiiiiihiti

71. St. Iloniiol
TJ. Die

73. Beaufort

74. St.. loan do Roi

75. Uero

76. Hi. Vnllicr

77. Vnirnco

78. ( 'rent

79. Monlelimiirl

80. NiopB

81. Lnrxu
83. Ariiencon

83, Gap

84. Knihrun.

Priiviitceor
LA.NGI'EIKlO.
hnmrlm.nti.
\y Giiril

Avi ■ n',V'i-°rXoir«

XX, Tarn
XXI. Aude.
r.K. AigueB-mortea
l'j:i. Biiinmierea

134. Niaioea
-,1,5 trie.

140. Iliii!urn.tu

141. Boiiuuinen
143. BaveriiL'

143. BirHKlnirg

144. Mnlthi'ini

145. Bchi'iRtiit
1411. Si. Marie nux

Mini',1
147. Cdniiir
U". Ncuf liriawh
I49. NlnDiiiinit'n
l.M). Al'iiirih
15l.l'h'itin
1.53. tJiroiniipny.
Prnvinri- nf
FRANCIir,-

("DVTK.

l>epnrttHfvtt.

XIX, rjipft Huuni'

iiejf'irtmmt of

XXVI. Loirel.
334- C''ourlpnny
'J-.'5, Chiilillon
S-Jfl. Monlnrsia
337. llnvne

ti*. I'llliivi.'ra
O-ilt. t'onilireux
230. Bully
?ll.(iien.

Province of

BKRRI,

Jtn'orlntrnt nf

XXVII. Cher.
333. Aul/igny

Provinco nf
AUVERGNK.
/tenortmnit.t.
IV. (^antiil
V. Dome.
25. MonnI Saivy
36. Maura
27. Anrillnc

Province of

PROVENCE.

Itfpiirtmnits,

XI. VnuctiiHe

Xll. Irfiwer AlpB

XIII. Vnr

XIV. MonibBufthc
Rhone.

K5. Barcelonnctto
HI. (^ohniira

87. Digno

88. Biileron

89. Farcal(|iiict

90. Bnult

91. Vaiaon
93. Ornnge
93. t'nrpentraa
91. Avignon

95. Orgon

96. Cavnillon

97. Lan.ueDe

98. Am
!I9. Manosiiuo

100. Lea Mees
11)1 Ricx
103, Cnalellnno

103. Entreviiui

104. St. Aiilmn
III.5. Venre
IIMi. Antibea
107. nraaae

3?^. Chinidea Aifjiiw lOH. Dracuiitniin

3il. Hi. Flour
:itl. Maaainc
31 Mural

33. Mniiri.tc
■X.\. Hcisnca

34. R.,ii,:e
.35. Iwnire
'.^\. Ainbert

37. Billom

38. Clirmont
;!!l. Rnchefnit

411. I'ont Gibaud
41 MiMitaigit

IIKI. Frcjns
no. fit.Tiopez

111. Le Luc

112. Mierc*

113. llriL'nnlln

114. Si.Maximi
11.5. Tnuinn

I Hi. I.u Ciolut

117. Miirseilloa

118. A IX

ll!i. Mnrtiguca
130. Salon
1'3I. Arli'S

136. I'oiil 81. Eapril
VII. Ilarjnc
138 Alala
1'39. Gpiiiiilhac
1:10, Vdlefiirt
1:11. L'ArgeiiUoiv
i;l3. Vivie™
133. Auhenu
1:M. Privaa
1!I5. Tnurnnn
i:t6. Annonay
I;i7, Hr. Agrpv*

138. Ywingeaul

139. Si. lulien do

«V ip

140. Le . u»

141. Riioud
143. Luiiueae

143. (•hofvd'^Ap

144. .loviila
14,5, Laitgo)in«

146. Miirvpjula

147. Munile

148. Canourgue

149. Floiae
1.50. Muyriieia
15l.t.eVi«an
1.53. Anduie

1.53. Gangca

1.54. Monlpoliei

1.55. Rnhiruo

1.56. Ppzcnaa

1.57. Lodeve
I.V^. Itedarrieui

159. La Cauno

160. Alby

161. Caalrea

163. Piiia LaurunB
lliil. Mazainot
1IV4. St. Puna
16.5. Hi'ziurt

166. Narbunna

167. tJimnoB
16H. (^urcawonne
1H9, Pi. Pupoul

170. Fanjeaux

171. Alpt
173. Hoiinme

173. Uuillan

174. LaGraiaw

Province of

ROII8BILLON

Jtepartmenl of

XXlf. EnnlcrnPy-

reneea.

175. nivesaltea

176. Prades

177. Mt. Louia

178. Praia de Molo

179. Cerct

180. Pcrpignan.

Rivers.
a Rhine
b Moaello
c Meu«e
d Aiflne

F.iicaul or Schcldi
1' Bnmmo

KOirn
Marno
i Seine
j Aubo
k Serain

1 Yonne
m Itnire
n Allier

n Le Cher
p Loi
q Tarn
r .Audo
H Rhone
t Duiancc
u 1^ re
v A in
w S'lone
X vlittnon
y Douba
7. Loue.

» «t

ill;

i- ! !

; A.4

DKSC'RIl'TIVK (ilK Hill AIM IV.

I'Aur III.

by piirt of flic front iiT of tlio NctlicrlaiulM, On thu i",\*\ it m Ixnindi-i! liy Orriniiny, Irom
which it JH iliviilpti liy th<i Ithiiic, iiml by Hwitzurleiml iiiiil Italy, whii'ii lir on the other xiilii
ofthu inlKlity iNirrii.T of tlio .\I|ih. Hh southern liinitu iiro llm .MriiitiTnini'iin iiml the linniil
ifthinuH lllU'd by thi- I'yronfos, on tlio othor riiilu uf which oxtoniln iIk.' S|>iiriihh |ii'iiiiiFulu.
On Iho wi'r-t iM tlip Alliintlv, iiiiii nmro CHjHH-iiilly thiit \ist ;riilt' calli'il tin' liny of IliM-ay.
Thp NoiithiTii I'xtroniify, on thn lino of tlm I'yri'iii'i')-, fallH in I'J ' IIO' N. hit. tho northfrn
bcyonil Dunkirk in 51° 1(1', iiiakiii}r in li'iiu'tli oiirlit anil ii halt' ili'mrrooH of latitiiih-. 'I'ho
breadth may ho from H'^ 'JO' I). Ion;;., to ■{" -W VV. lonif. niukiii!,'' Ihirtoon ili'jrrocH of lonjfi-
tlldo. 'I'IiIh will )(ivo iliinonHioiiH nearly Hi|iiiire of T)!)*) iniltN from north to xoiith, anil •W)
IVoin oast to we!(t. The NiijH;rllcial extent iHulH>iif.205,(KH)Eii({liiili iJi|uuro iiiihM, oriomowhut
above i:i(MNM),INIl) ucreN.

Tho Hurfiico of tliiij very oxteiiHivo territory in in ;,'eneral level, altlioU''h il iMirderi', anil
ia (Microiichoil iijion hy tho greuiest inoiintain riuiKi'H of Kuropo. The .\(|m rover tho full
half of itHoimtern tVontier, and tlii'ir hninchcH extending into Paiiphiny and I'roveiiee, render
them very rufrijod iind romantic i ^j(iollH. Tho Pyrenees, which rank wcoiid anions the
chains of'^tho (.'ontinent, niiit'o nlonjj tlni uoiilliprn lH>rder, and cover with their branclie«
Rousfiillon and Ouncony. On the eadt, whoro Franco reaeheH to tho Itliine, an; the Viw^th
and other elmin.s of nuxlernte hoi^ht, parallel to that river. The only rantfo excliinively French,
18 that of Auverjjno, in tho centre of tho kir.jjdom, wliioh not only iiicliide.t all that province
whoro it riscH to tho heij;ht of r)<K)() or tMHK) fei.'t, but BtrctcliiM by a winding' line iilon^ the
loft bank of the Allier to I.an;riiedoc, imrallel to the coast of the Meiliterrunean, where it Ih
called tho Cevonnos. But hy tiir tho greater part of Fmnci>, including the whole north and
tho whole west, iaono widely extended plain, which yields in very hij^h perfection all the
fruits and pnxlucta of the temperate zone.

Tho rivers of Franco, thoiiirh not of tho tirat maj^nitnde, arc noble ond comtnndioiifi.
Traversing almost every part of tho kiiifriloin, they afllinl ample means of internal navipition ;
and tho broad plains which bonier on them yield tho most luxuriant harvests, Tho Ixiiro,
which is tho princiiiol, rises in the south, on thelwrdersof I'rovonce, and (lows for some time
nearly north, parallel to tho conrso of the Rhone and the SnAne, thoniLrh in an op(xisito direc-
tion. Near Nevers it receives the Allier, which in n parallel and nearly equal stream has
hitherto accompanied it; it now praduolly bends round into a westerly course, which it fol-
lows llirouKh the plain < of Orleanais nnil Toiiraine, the {fonleii of Franco, till after a course
of T(K) miles, it falls invo the sea a little below the great coininercial city of Nantes. Tho
Rhone is not at first a I'lench river : it rises in the heart of .Switzerlanil, amid the eternal
snows and glaciers of the Grimsel and the Shreckhorn, and ndls its earliest course beneath
tho mighty mountain walls of St. Gotlmrd, Monte Rosa, and the Simulon. It now expands
into the Lenian lake, from whence it emerg(>s near Geneva, where it soon enters France,
and rolls direct towanls Lyons. At that great city, it receives the Saiine, bringing down an
ainplo stream from tho Vosgo.s, swelled by that ot the Doubs from tho Jurn. The Rhone,
now following the direction of its tributary, turns directly south, and, after a rapid course
through Dauphiny and Provence, i-nters the Meditorraneun by several mouths. In this course,
tho Alps f rnnsmit it to tho Isere, and tho classical Btreain of the Durance : its entire length
may bo 5(H) miles. Tho Seine, though of iiilerior magnitude, claims distinction as flowing
by tho metropolis: it rises on the frontier of Burgundy, and runs almost due north till it
receives the parallel and nearly equal Aube, when their united waters flow west ond north-
west. Before reaching Paris, it receives from the south the Yonne, and from tho north,
almost under the walls of the capital, its greatest tributary, the Marne. At Paris it is navi-
gable for vessels of consideruhlo burden. Beyond Paris, the Seine makes some e.xtensivo
windings, and is augmented from the north by the waters of the Oise bringing those of the
Aisne. It then poRscs the fine an. flourishing city of Rouen, and, spreading into an estuary,
joins the English Channel at the ancient [lort of Havre. The Garonno has a course of still
less extent, though its broad navigable stream, flowing through a magnificent plain, the most
productive in valuable wino of any in France, gives it a high commercial hiiportanco. It
rises near the eastern Pyrenees, and flows northward to Toulouse, where it assumes a steady
north-west course, during which, swelled from the nort.'' by »be Aveyron, tho Lot, and tho
Dordogne, and passing the great haven of Bordeaux, it becomes an e^fuary, capable of re-
ceiving tho largest vessels. Tho Rhino is to France only a limitary rivor for somewhat
above 100 miles ; but its great tributaries, tho Moselle and the Mouse, rise and have most
of their early course within its territory. The important Belgic river, the Scheldt, also rises
within the French territory.

France has no lakes, which, in a general view, seem worthy of mention.

Sect. II.— Natural Gro/rraphy.

SUBSECT. \. Geolo/ry.

Primitive ami transition dhlrirts. In France there are six districts where the older
ocks, or those of the primitive and transition classes, prevail ; viz. Western Normandy, with

I'Aur III.

nimiiy, fruiii
(• oitiiT Hulo
III till' lirmiil

I |M'lllll.-lllll.
I u( IlirCliy.

h<i iiurtlii'rii

illlllf. 'I'lll!

'I'M lit' l)iii|;i-
nil, 1111(1 %*)()
iirxoiniiwhut

Ixinlorn, iiiul
IVIT lilt) full
■(•iicp, roiuler
I luiiiiiiK the
fir l>riiiicliufi
) the Vo<<){c»
Vfly French,
lliiit province
iiii' iilon({ the
1, where it !«
iile north iind
!Ctiun uU the

coimnodimis.
il niivijfiition;
The Loire,
for Home time
ip(xisite (lirec-
nl stroHtii has
, which it tbl-
iitlor a course
Vatites. Tlio
il the elerniil
ourso benenth
now expomls
ntorrt Frniicc,
ping down an
Tlie Rhone,
rapid course
In this course,
entire length
ion as flowinp;
le north till it
Dst and north-
om the north,
iris it is navi-
iiiio extensive
nr those of the
to an estuary,
lurso of still
ilain, the most
iportancc. It
uines a steady
Lot, and tho
:npable of re-
for somewhat
id have nioet
Idt, also rises

Sooil.

FRANCE.

flSI

ere the older
rmandy, witl.

Britnny and .Anjou ; tho northern Hid«t of tho Pyrcnepn; tlie deportin»<nti' ofthn Tinwer Alpg,
lIpiK'r Aliw, ami |>art of tho Im'^rn ; Contral rraiici', or tin- talilr-land of France ; central
part of till' VoH^i'i ; mid the Ardcnm^N.

(1.) Wififrn Nnrmamly, llritiiny, and Anjoti. In tluN ri'ifion tho rockn arc [wrlly N«<jh
tiiniiiii, iMirtly IMiiloiiian : thn Neptunian ntnita am ((<><'>>''*i uiira iihite, rliiy Niati', un-y*
wai'ki', ipiiirtz rix:k, and linieMtone; tho Plutonian rockit are /xrariite, Nyenite, K>'<'''UMt<inOt
and |Hirpliyry.

(','.) Sorllirrn niilr nf Ihr I'l/rrnrei. On tho French iido of tho I'yrenoo* tho centml
riK'kH are uf primitive tiiriiiutinn, and cnnniHt of mica nliite, clay nliite, liuicHtniie, or marble;
ri'jioNiii;; ii|Nin thcne, and tiiiiiiiii); the ((feat body of tb>' raii^^e, uro rockH of the trunsilioii
cla/'i; vi'/., clay tilate, (frey wacko, and 'traimitioii liniUMton.'.

(;j.) DfparlmrntK < if I hi: Imwit and Upper Alpi, and part of hirr. In thiHinouiitainouii
roKion there are mat;iiiMceiit illiiplayR of many of thu inoi'o intorcgtinf; tbriiiationM of tho
primitive and tran^itinn classeo.

(4.) Central laldr-lund or pliiliaii of h\ance, 'I'lio centre of France is ocrupietl by a
vai<t table-land or |>lati>au of old rucks, in (;oneral Granite, which form.-i tlie inouiitairM of
RurKundy, tho LimoUHJn, Aveyron, Anleche, and tlio Covcnncii. It is iiKire than ei^rhty
leoffueH in breadth from tho lii'i(r|iin of Limo);pa; but in proccodiiiif towardn the moiiiIi, it(;rn-
dually lliins off, and ti'rminnti'H in a (wint which connecta it with the Mi)nta;,Mie Noiro.
This latter ^niup of old rocks fornia a kind of iH'niiisula, which is scpimited from the
Pyrenees, by a liiii((itii(iiiial basin of secondary unil tertiary furniations. I'lie acclivities of
this central granitic table-land, and sonio of itn hollows, are covered more or less densely
with newer rocks of various descriptions. Resides these, there occurs on its eastern part a
splendid display of vidcanic rocks. Thn primitive and transition rocks of this table-land aro
tlio following; viz. j;ranite, (lorphyry, talc slate, serjientine, (rnoiss, clay slute, (freywacke,
and limestone. '

(5.) Central part of the Votffm. Tho oldest rocks in this ranjfe of mountains, and which
nro said to belonjf to the transition class, are the followinjf : jrranite, syenite, hornblende
rocks, greenstone, red (|uartziforous porphyry, aii!,'itic porphyry, dolomite, diallajje rock,
Dcrpentine, talc slate, clay slate, ({reywacke, with anthracite, granular and compact marble
or limestone.

(6.) Ardennes. That part of this range of mountainaincludwl within the limitsofl'Vance,
which lielongs to the older part of tho geopnostical series, is composed of various clay slates,
with greywacke, all of which seem to behmff to thn transition class.

Secondary districts. The lower and flatter parts of Fnincn which extend from thn primi-
tivo and transition districts, ore composed of secondary and tertiary de|Misits, more or les.^
covered with alluvial matters; and in some quarters interminfrled with volciinic rocks. Tlio
secondary formations arc arranged in the same order, and exhibit s'lmibir relations with
tliose already dcscrilied in our account of Hritain. The mountain limestone and coal fonna-
tions form, when contrasted with their abundance in Rritain, but a small portion of tho siir-
fece of Franco; while the new red sandstones, with the series of the .Iiira limestone, in-
eluding tho oolites, form great tracts of country. Chalk, or uppermost rock of the secondary
series, occurs in vast abundance, forming two basins, the one the northern, extending in
length from the northern oxtreinitv of Artois to tho southern limit of Touraine, and in breadth
from Havre de Grace to near Rar lo Due. Tho northern side of tho southern Imsin extends
from Rochefort to Cahors, and tho southern side ranges along tho northern face of the
Pyrenees.

Tertiary districts. Franco is remarkable on account of tho great extent of its tertiary
deposits ; of these the following may be considered as the principal ones : — 1. That of which
Paris forms tho central point; which extends towards the north as high as I.aon, and south-
ward to Rlois; while it stretches across from Pontoiso on the west to Epornny on the east.
2. The great southern deposit, which extends from tho south side of the river Girnnde to the
south bank of tho river Adour. 3. The south-eastern de|K)sit, which covers part of the De-
partments of Ileraiilf, Gard, Mouths of the Rhone, Var, and Vaucliise. 4. The deposit in
the valley of the river Allicr, and that in tho upper part of tho course of the I/iire. 5. The
great deposit in the course of the Rhine and Sa6ne, extending from about Valence to Dijon.
0. 7'he tract along the Rhine, extending from Basle to tho neiglibourhoal of Carlsrhue.

Volcanic districts. True volcanic rocks occur in France only in the great central table-
land or plateau ; in the Departments of Loire, Upper Loire, Cantal, and I'uy de D6nie. Tho
volcanic rocks aro basalt ond basalt tufla; trachyte with its tiifl'a; and lava, with its tiiffas,
scoria", &c. The newest of these rocks are tho lavas; while tlie basalt and trachytes appear
of more ancient date, although still not very old, as wo find them breaking tlirough rocks
of the tertiary class.

Alluvial districts. Alluvia of every description occur in France. Diluvium or the old
alluvium fiirms extensive tracts in many quarters of the kingdom, where it contains remains
of extant species of animals, of which tho most characteristic are those belonging to the
order pachyderma, as the elephant, rliinoceros, &c. Diluvium is also found in caves along

Vol. I. 44* ao

.1: .■■ \

<U3

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY,

Part III.

Ml I

^\vf.

with bones of extinct animals, particularly of the carnivorous frenera; and rents and Assures
in strata ore soinotiincs filled up with a diluvium also containing remains of extinct animals,
of which the most characteristic are the small herbivora. Bone caves and bone breccia
occur at St. Aiitonin and St. Julien near Montpelier; at Billargues, Vcndargues, and Peze-
naB-Henuilt ; at Aiiduze and St. liippolytc, in Gard ; at Aix, in the department of the
Moutiis of the Rhone ; at Villefranche and Laurajruais, in the Upper Garonne ; and at Per-
pignun, in the Eastern Pyrenees. This diluvium is covered, to a greater or less depth, with
the various well-known kinds of modern alluvium and of vegetable soils.

Mines and Quarries.

Coal mines. Coal of various descriptions, as gliAicc, bituminous, and brown coal, are
mined in the following departments in Prance, affording annually but a small return for so
vast u country : — Allier, Aveyron, Moutiis of the Rhone, Calvados, Gard, Herault, Isere,
Uppor Ijoiro, Lower Loire, Mayenne and Loire, Moselle, Nievre, North, Pas do Calais, Puy
de Dome, Upper Rhine, liower Rhine, Lower Sadne, and Tarn.

Iron mines. Iron mines, some of tiiem of considerable importance, occur in tiie following
departments: — Ardennes, Charente, Cher, C6te d'Or, Dordogne, Doubs, Eure, Eure and
Loir, Forets, Indre, Indre and Loire Isere, Jura, liOwer Loire, Upper Marne, Moselle,
Nievre, North, Orne, Upper Rhine, Lower Rhine, Upper Sa6ne, Sadne and Loire, and Vosges

Minej of silver and lead. The principal lead mines and silver mines are tlic following :—

Minfw of QiiinUIi or Ixad Marcs ot Silver

FinistiTro Poii llaucn alxmt 8,(100 law

Dilto IIiiHlgoRt 3,000 II 00

Lo/.Sre Villefort 18.000 laX)

IsOru Vifiine 1,300 —

Copper wines. These are situated in the following departments : — Upper Alps, Rhone,
Rhine and Moselle.

Mines of matiffunese. This metal is mined at Romanechc and St, Micaud, in the depart-
ment of the Siirine and Loire ; at Suquet in Dordogne ; in the mountain of Tholey in Mo-
selle; at La»r'ine, near Saint Dier, in the Vosges; and at Saint Jean de Gardonenque in
the Cevcnnes.

Mines of untim-^ny. Antimony occurs in the provinces of Charente, Upper Loire, La
Vendee, Cantiil, Alli(?r, Gard, and Puy de Ddme.

Mines of vitriol and alum. The principal mines of sulphate of iron or vitriol are those
of Saint Julien de Vujgargue, near Alais, which furnishes annually ;i(),0(H) quintals; and
that of BecquGt und of Goincourt, near Beauvais, whicii in some years affords ir),()00 quin-
■ tals ; that of Ural, in the department of Aisne, and of Gersdorf, in tlie department of Jjower
Rhine. There are celebrated manufactories of alum at Montpelier, and at Javelle near
Paris. Some considerable beds of rock-salt have been discovered at Vic, in tiie department
of Meurtlie. One of these is upwards of fourteen yards thick, and another has not as yet
been cut tiirough. Although cobalt, arsenic, nickel, and tin also occur in France, no consi-
derable mines of those minerals have been established.

Quarries. The most extensive quarries are those of marble, building-stone, slate, gyp-
sum, millstone, and flint. Different kinds of marble are raised at Givet, BralMincon, Mens,
Namur, Boulogne sur Mer, Caen, Troyes, Montbar, Cosne, Tournus, Narbonne, Aix. Mar-
seilles, Tarb, and in many valleys in the Pyrenees. There are quarries of excellent building-
stone in tlie departments of La Manche, Calvados, Moselle, Cote d'Or, Yonne, Oisc, Seine,
Jioire, Dordogne, ind in many departments in the snntii. Vast slate quarries are worked in
the departments of La Manche, Mouse, Ardennes, Maine and Loire, and at the fcxit of the
Pyrenees. In many other places, and particularly in Champagne, &c., tiiere are quarries
and pits of clay for brick and tile-making. The gypsum of the neighbourliooil of Paris, the
chalk of tlie departments of Marne and Seine, the talc named chalk of Uriani;nn, the mill-
stone or bHhr-.sto)ie of Ferte sous Jouarre, are objects of considerable commercial importance.
The departments of Yonne, Cher, and Lower Charente, supply all France and different
foreign nations with gun-flints. Among tlie clays mot with in France, tiiat of Forges les
Eaux, was formerly in great repute in Holland for the manufacture of pipes; the clay or
earth of Belbujuf, near Rouen, is considered an excellent material in the purifying of sugar;
and the potters' clay of the vicinity of Beauvais and Montereau, and tiie jxircelaiii earth or
kao-lin of Saint Yrieix, near Limoges, are higiily esteemed.

SuBSE<rr. 2. — Botany.
Having devoted already so great a portion of our space to preliminary remarks upon vege-
table geography on its more extended scale, and to tiiiit of Great Brilain in particular, we
must content ourselves with a more limited account of the plants of other cniintricH, other-
wise we should greatly overstep the Iwunds proscribed to us by the nature of the present
work. Following the plan here adopted for the arrangement of tiie ditrorent countries,
France comes next under our notice ; and a more interesting field for the irengrnphical bota-
nist does not exist in Europe ; not only because of its extent and vast variety of surface, the

Part III.

i and fissures
inct animala,
bone breccia
!8, and Peze-
Lment of the
; and at Per-
s depth, with

pwn coal, are
return for so
ierault, Isere,
e Calais, Puy

tlie following
re, Eure and
rne. Moselle,
, and Voages
following: —

ilarcB of Silver

..1200

..IIUO

.law

Alps, Rhone,

in the depart-
fholcy in Mo-
irdonenque in

ipcr Loire, La

triol arc those
quintals ; and
s ir»,()00 quin-
iipiit of Ijower
[ Javelle near
le department
has not as yet
ncc, no const-

lie, slate, gyp-
Ixincon, Mons,
no, Aix, Mar-
llent building-
, Oise, Seine,
nre worked in
ho f(X)t of the
i are quarries
I of Paris, the
ifoii, the mill-
il importance,
and different
of Forges les
; tlm clay or
ing of sugar;
elain earth or

ks upon \ogc-
particular, we
intrios', othor-
)f the present
-nt countries,
rnpliica! bota-
f Kurface, the

BooxL

PRANCE.

529

preat height of its mountains, and its geological structure ; but because, by the labours of
ito naturalist!), especially Lamarck and De CandoUe, the vcgi-tiiblo productions of Franco
have been better e.xplored tliun those of almost any other country in liio world. All that we
can do here, however, is to notice in general those that are the most interesting, from their
utility, their beauty, or some circumstances connected with their history; or as showing how
vegetable forms or groups are situated, in regard to their distribution, upon the surface of
the eartii.

France, extending, aa it does, from lat. 42° 30' to 51° N., or nearly to the latitude of
London, and from 9° east longitude, to 5° west, is bou.ided liy the Mediterranean, and tiie
great chain of the Pyrenees on the soutii ; by the Atlantic on the west ; by the British
Channel and the Netherlands on tiie north ; and on the east by Suvoy, Switzerland, and Ger-
many, which form, for its entire length, a vast mountain barrier. Such an alpine region
cannot fail to exert a manifest influence on the vegetation of a country ; not only because
of its own peculiar productions, depending in part on their elevation, and in port on their
soil and geological structure, but by tlieir exposure even at the same elevation, on two oppo-
site sides ; tliat of the south will bo found to exhibit very different vegetable forms from that
of the north ; and sucli mountains often exercise a more powerful influence in limiting the
surrounding vegetation, than even seas and rivers.

Lanmrck and De Candolle, in a very interesting Botanical Map which accompanies their
Flore FranqaiHe, 3d edit, have divided France into five regions : —

(L) The region of maritime plants, which of course extends everywhere along the coast,
from C^tond to Bayonne on tlio north and west, and from Perpignan to Oueillo on the Sledi-
terranean ; together with the Salines of Dieuze and Chateau Salins near Nancy, and those
of Durkheim and Frankensthal near Mayence in the interior. Thus we find that a vegeta/-
tion similar to that of the sea-shore exists in the interior, whenever that interior yields
a sufficient quantity of marine salt. All the maritime plants of the north of France, accord-
ing to M. de Candolle (and they have the greatest affinity with those of England), ore
equally found in the south; but the reverse does not hold good; for a very large proportion
of the French Mediterranean plants of tiie sea-shore grow very sparingly, if at all, u|)on the
shores of the Ocean, principally indeed on the coast of Gascony, and reach no higher than
the mouth of the Loire, or at most to the middle of Britany.

(2.) The refrion of motmtain and alpine plants. When the French, by their conquests,
included the I'yrenees, the Alps, and Savoy within the range of the floras of their own
country, this region constituted the very richest of any flora in Europe; for it included a
country, not only of considerable extent, but mountains, and in very southern latitudes, many
of whoso crests rise greatly beyond the line of perpetual snow. As France is now limited,
the mountains of the Vosges near Strasburg, and of the Cevennes, and those of Auvergne,
whose origin is volcanic, exhibit its most alpine scenery : omong the latter, the Puy de Sasi,
one of the Monts d'Or, rises to an elevation of 6300 feet obove the level of the sea. The
Plonib du Cantal is estimated at 62(X), and the Puy de D6me at 5000 foet. If the summits
of the Pyrenees and of the Jura be considered as forming the natural barrier of Prance, as
constituting her line of separation from the adjacent territories, she will still jiossess on
(!xceedingly rich alpine flora in the northern side of the former and the western side of the
latter mountains. But the line of demarcation of this region is nevertheless not so distinctly
marked as in the preceding region. The valleys exposed to the sun often participate in the
vegetation of the southern provinces, while the cooler valleys exhibit a growth wliJch has
more in common with the vast plain in the north and centre of France. However, it is
undeniable that these some districts do contain a very considerable number of plants which
are peculiar to them, and found on almost all the more elevated mountains of Franco; for
whatever differences the chain of the Vosges and the Jura may present from those of Au-
vergne, the Cevennes, ond the Pyrenees in the south, it is allowed that the at-pect of their
vegetation oflers considerable traits of similarity, and tiiat the greater part of the mountain
plants are alike found on the different chains.

(3.) A third region, and a very important and interesting one, is that of the Mediterranean
pZa/if.s.'tliis, of course, is bounded on the south by the Mediterranean Sen, and stretches
inland (ill you come to the foot of the mountains, or following the course of the Rhone,
extending north aa far as Montelimart on that river ; or it may be said to occupy or constitute
the grei t basin of the mouth of the Rhone.

(4.) A vast region is occupied by the plains, whase vegetation is very uniform. This
comprises more than one-half of France, and especially all tiie plain country situated to the
north of tin; chains of mountains. Many of thesi; plants are found in other regions already
indiouted ; but it wants the species which are peculiar to e;ich of those respectively.

(5.) and lastly — MM. Lamarck and Do Candolle indicate an intermediate region, which
includes plants partaking of the nature of the plains of tlm north ond the provinces of the
south. Tliis occupies a large portion of the south-west of France, and some districts up the
valley of the Rhone between Montelimart and Lyons.

The map just alluded to has these different regions represented in different colours, and

■ r
(

I t

!. ^

* il

r \

DESCRIPTIVE GEOC.RAPllY.

Part III.

' Ji

ia attended wiUi this advanto^^o, that, by the Blifrhtnst iiinpoction, a prcnnral idea i» conveyed
of the prcvailin^f nature of vegetation in any given diHtrict. We Hee that the plants of the
■outliern provinces reticmblo more those of Uie north as you advance by the west side of
Franco tliiin by the ea.st; that the floras of Mans on tlio Imrder of Normandy, und of Nantca
upon the Loire, in lut 47" and 48°, scarcely ditTer from tiiui^e of Dax and Agon, between lat,
43° und 44° ; whilst on the cast side of France, the pnKluctions of Dijon and Strani)nrg vary
considerably from tiiose of Montpelicr and Aix, Hiliiated at nearly similar relative distances
from each other. All this is accounted for on the principle:^ we iiave alr(!ady laid down,
namely, that the stations of plants are mainly influenced by temperature; and tiiat the mean
temperature of a place is greatly <letermined by distance from the e(|uat(>r, and elevation
above the level of the bob. According to M. de Candolle, an altitude of 4(H) feet above the
level of the sea affectn the temperature nearly to the same extent as a degree of latitude
nearer to the north in the eastern hemisphere.

By comparing the wcHtern provinces of France with the eastern, we see that the surface
of the former is but little raised above the level of the sea ; for, even ut a considerable
distance from the coast, the hills scarcely exceed !)(K) feet; whilst, on the other hand, upon
the western side, in the midst of a mountainous region, the plain has generally an elevation
of from liMKI to 1000 feet. This height diminishes, it is true, on the Belgian frontier; but
there the temperature is sensibly affected by the second cause adduced, namely, the distance
from the equator. Thus, there is notliing but what is conformable to physical laws, in the
southern plants having a greater resemblance to those of the north uiwn the west, than on
the east side of France.

But even where the mean temperature is the same, the distribution of plants between
these two parts of France may yet bo very different, on account of the different degrees of
temperature at particular seasons of the year. We have already stated that, tlie latitudes
being the same, maritime countries enjoy a more equal temperature than districts removed
from the sea ; in other words, that tlio summers are less warm, the winters less cold : thus,
the provinces of the west of France, which are all maritime, experience this degree of uni-
formity ; which cannot take place in tlie east, being fur from the sea, and in the vicinity of
the mountains.

Plants now, in what concerns climate, may be divided into two classes: those which
suffer from a severe winter cold, but which, during summer, do not require an excess "'
heat ; and those which can endure great severity of cold in winter, but, during sumn '
require a great proportion of heat. In the first class, M. de Candolle places all tiiose tree:
which, without being resinous, preserve their leaves, and consequently their sup, through the
winter; in fact, the greater proportion of the trees of the south being found, whether
indigenous or naturalised, towards the north in the maritime provinces ; such as the Live
Oak, the Cork Tr»5e, the Kcrmes Oak, the Strawberry Tree (,Arbutus), the Bay, the Fig,

TheOliTe.

The Vine.

the Phillyrea, &.c. On the other hand, in the second class, that is to say, among such as
can brave a great degree of cold, and do so because the movement of the sap is interrupted

Part HI.

Ih convpye«l
lanta of the
vcBt side of
J of NantcB
jiawucn lat.
nAnirg vary
vv dJHtanccs
f luid down,
lit tlio mean
lid elevation
et ubovo the
2 of latitude

t the surface
considerable
r hand, upon
an elevation
frontier; but
tiie distance
laws, in the
rest, than on

ints between
it degroeB of
the latitudes
riots removed
»8 cold : thus,
legrce of uni-
hc vicinity of

those wV.icli
an excess. "♦
ring sumiT^
all tliose treei
), through the
iind, wliether
;h as the Live

Bay, the Fig,

Book I.

FRANCE.

525

nong such as
lis interrupted

272

by the ikll of the folia{^, in the Vine, &c., and those that avoid cold because the planto, or
\l leaat their stems, are annual, such os Maize. It may be readily supposed tliat the indi-
viduals belonging to the second class will flourish better, and become more easily naturalised
on the cast than on the west coast of France.

Ijot UH applv this law to a peculiarity in regard to the cultivation of those moxt precious
Vfc/^clable productions of Franco, naniciv, llie Olive (Jiff. 270.), the Maize, and the Vine
(jEjf. 271.). Mr. Arthur Youn|r, during his travels in France, paid great attention to agri-
culture and tlie mode of cultivation adopted there, and published a map of the countrv, in
which he ropro.sontcd, by three nearly parallel linos, the northern limits of the three plants
just alluded to, the Olive, the Maize, and tiie Vine. It excited the surprise of miiny, that
the lines should ascend most to the north on the east side of the country, or, in other words,
that the plants in (|Ucgtion should grow farther north in the eastern than in the western
districts; directly the reverse of what takes place in regard tc the aboriginal native pro<luc-
tions of the soil. This apparent contradiction is reconcile*! by the twofold cotnpariNon of the
physical nature of the east and west of Fnince, and of the character of the plants cultivated,
oa conipanid with the wild species.

The nature of the cultivated productions in question forms a striking feature, which can-
not fail to arrest the attention of a traveller while journeying through the districts thus
appropriated, and forcibly to exhibit their agricultural riches. In the extreme south of
Prance, between a line drawn from Narbonne, in lat. 43° N. and in the meridian of I'aris,
to a little below Grenoble, he will find the plains, parched and dry as they naturally arc,
rendered still more mi-liinclioly by the lurid green or the olivc-grovea. Between that line
and another drawn from the mouth of the Garonne rather below 46°, to nour Strasbiirg, in
the north-west, he will observe, together with the vino, which is by no means wanting in
all the southern provinces, fields whiirn the gigantic maize (Jiff. 272.) takes the place of

what wo Msuully term bread-corn; again, between it and a
line extending from the mouth of the Loire to the Riiine,
imssing at about an e(|uni diistiincc between the Mcnso and
the Moselle, he will find, interniingb-d with vineyards,
fertile fields of corn, wheat (^jjr. 27.'3.), oats, nnd barley;
whilst, nortli of tiiat line, there exists a most perfect simi-
larity in agriculture witli that which prevails throughout
the greater part of England. Fruit trees of all the kinds
that arc grown in Britain, here attain a much greater degree
of perfection than in that country, because of the increased
heat of the summers.

Thus, in what concerns a great portion of the territory
of France, its vegetable productions 'much resemble those
of the southern (larts of Great Britain.

It is not, perhaps, generally known that that most uscfiil
root, the Potato, was cultivated in almost every part of
Europe before its value was appreciated, and its culture
became general, near the capital of Franco. To England
is due the credit of first growing it upon a large; scale.
Upon the Continent it was introduced between the years
1714 and 1724 into Swabia, Alsace, and the Palatinate ;
and in 1730 to the vicinity of Berne. In 1774, potatoes
were known on the mountains of the Cevennes, where they
now constitute a main portion of the food of the people : but
it is principally to the famous M. Parmentier that France
owes the general use of potatoes. The following anecdote
may give some idea of the n.ssiduity with which this philanthropic individual laliourcd to
generalise their culture; it is well attested that ho farmed some spots of ground in the
vicinity of Paris for this sole purpose, though the prejudice against potatoes was then so
strong, that few of the poor persons to whom he offered 'the rtHDts would accept of tliem.
However, M. Parmentier soon suspected that people occasionally stole his [x)tatoes to eat
them : he was well pleased at this, and continued to plant what he hoped would Ik; purloined,
rightly concluding that the experience of the thieves would contribute to diminish the
established preju<lice. A*ler much trouble ond many years, he had succeeded in proiiagatinjr
potatoes in several situations, when the dreadful scarcity, the consequence and effwt of the
revolutionary disturbances, suddenly rendered their cultivation universal ; and now they
form so constant an article of food, that the common people generally believe them to be
aboriginal natives of the country.

The mountains of France exhibit the British alpine plants, with many others that are
iicculiar to themselves, and which they possess in common with the higher Alps of S witzer-
rind. Savoy, Germany, and the Pyrenees.
Of the mtermediatc region, as De Candolle terms it, a great portion lying in the aouth-

The Maira.

5 I

Ill

1:1

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pabt III.

west of France, embracoa a country called the Landes, where the shepherd-peasantry
whether walking, or at rest during the day, live upon stilte {xcangues, in the langua||;e o!

Whcit, Onti, and Bailer.

the country): this custom gives them the opportunity of viewing the land around in search
cif their sheep, for a great extent, of wading through the numerous shallow lakes of water ;

and by these means it is said they can tra-
verse triple the space of ground they could
do by the ordinary mode of walking; when
they stop, they support themselves by a long
stick behind. In this same district a vast
extent of flat Innd near the ocean, and ex-
tending from Bayonne in the south to the
Tf'tc do Buch in the norfli, and for a dis-
tance of from four to twelve leagues inland,
is occupied by forests of Pine {I'invs mart-
lima) {fir. 274.) : tiicse are called Pigna-
dus, and tiicy give a remarkable feature to
the Iflndes, in conjunction with the habits
cif the people ami their dress, the latter
consisting entirely of sheep-skins with the
hair outwards, little different in outward
appearance from the flocks which it is the
great object of their lives to tend. The
ropinoiis substances of the pine are extract-
eii in immense quantities; in doing whicli,
one man takes care of liOOO trees. The
Country being so dry, these pignadas are
liable to alarming conflagrations; one of
them that took place in 1803, continued
burning for two months. The mo<le adopt-
ed for extinguishing tliem is ren)arkuble :
when one part of the forest is in flames, it
is customary to set fire to another spot, at
a greater or less distance, according to the
magnitude of the evil ; a current of air
soon takes place between the burning
masses, which drives the conflagration
from 'oth sides on the intermediate trees ;
these are shortly consumed, the fire dies
out for want of fuel, and the rest of the forest is preserved.

But tlie Mediterranean region, wiiich we have already mentioned, and whose vegetation
partakes of what is found to characteiize tiie whole shores of that vast inland sea, has many
plants so diflt.'rcnt from those of tlie rest of France, tiiat it would be unpardonable did we not
particularise some of tliem.

Almost everywhere in tliis region, the soil is described as consisting of the secondary
iimestone of the Jura, extending to the very brmk of the sea, forming arid coasts, often
utterly destitute of vegetation, or clothed with Wild Olives and the Aleppo Pine iPinus

Tire Pine.

Paht III.

peasantry
nguage o!

GuOK I.

PRANCE.

097

. .1
I

nd in search
[es of water ;
they can tra-
11(1 they could
Hiking ; when
lives by a long
listrict a vast
cean, and ex-
south to the
and for a dis-
eaftues inland,
(_Pin%is mari-
cnlled Pigna-
d)lc feature to
ith the habits
^ss, the latter
[skins with the
]it in outward
-liich it is the
:o tend. Tlie
[le arc extract-
doing which.
I trees. The
pifinadas arc
itions; one of
J03, continued
[le mode adopt-
]s reniiirkable :
is in flames, it
iiiotlier spot, at
;cording to the
urrent of air
the burning
conflagration
^nediate trees;
the fire dies

lose vegetation
I sea, has many
kble did we not

I the secondary
coasts, often
Pine (Ptnus

"^f'

halepentis), with Evergreen Oak, Pistachio-Nut, Myrtles, and numerous species of Cistus.
Here, too, is found one species of Palm, the Chamairops humilis {Palmetto or Dwarf Palm) ;
but it grows principally in the environs of Nice. At the opposite extremity of the Medi-
terranean region, namely, about Roussillon and Provence, and there only in the hotter parts,
are seen the Indian Fig {Cactus Tuna), and the American Aloe {Agave amcrirana) : the intro-
duction of those is duo to the Spaniards, who brouglit them to Europe fi-oui the Now World,
Schouw regards the Mediterranean shores in general as tlic kingdom of tli(( Curyophyllon;
and linbiata;; tliis latter family especially abounds in the south of Fruuci', and particuliirly
the genera I'hiomis, Teucrium, Thymus, Lavandula, and others, remarkable flir th(iir ari>-
matic qualities. Li the same places, and always on very stony ground, the elegant Coris
monspelicnsis excels the heaths of Britain in beauty. The mnlbcrry is cullivatcd through-
out this territory ; and among other useful fruits, the Fig, the Jujube, the I'onie^'ranate, tiio
Date, and the Pistachio, all arrive at great perfection. The Orange can i-carccly be stiid to
be cultivated without shelter in any part of France. It is grown, however, and somewhat
extensively, at tlie Isles d'Hieres, and in the vicinity of Nice, that happy climate which is
probably unequalled by any part of Europe. Corn, which is but a secondary article of cul-
ture, ripens at a very early period ; so much so that it is not unfrequent to carry barley which
lias been reaped on the coast into the mountains, where the seed is sown, and a second crop
is produced the same year. Many plants may be here enumerated which this country pos-
sesses in common with Greece and Italy, and even the Spanish peninsula, and which seem
to accompany the Olive. Mirbel has drawn up the following list of woody kinds, which
inhabit these province.^ : — Pinus Pinaster, and Pinea, Junipcrus phoenicea and Oxyccdrus,
Quercus Ilex, Suber and coccifera, Celtis australis, Ficus Carica, Osyris allia, Laurus nobilis,
Fraxinus Ornus, Phillyrca latitblia and angustifolia, Jasniinum fructicans, Vitex Agnus-
castus, Nerium Oleander, Diosnyros Ijotos, Styrax officinale. Arbutus Uncdo, Viburnum
Tinus, Tamarix gallica and africana, Myrtus communis, Punica Granatum, Philadelphus
coronarius, Crata3gus Azarolus, Mespilus pyracantha, Ceratonia siliqua, Cercis Sili(iuastrum,
Rhus Cotinus and Coriaria; Pi..5tacia Lentiscus, Tcrebinthus, and vera; Rhamnus Alatcr-
nus, oleoides, and infectoria; Zizyphus vulgaris, Paiiunis australis, Capparis spinosa, Melia
Azedarach, Acer monspessulanum, &c.

Hitherto the attention of naturalists in the study of vegetable geography has been direct-
ed to those plants that grow upon the surface of the earth : Humboldt alone, in Iiis Carte
Oeographique des Plantes, has indicated the station of some subterranean Funjii, and in a
275 general way has marked tlie ocean a*

the habitat of Ulva; and Fiici {Jig.
275.). It remained for M. d'( )rl)igny
tc describe to a certain extent at least,
the Zones ami Bands inhahilod !)y thi.-
marine Alga; (Sea-Wnod.s). This he
accomplished upon the coasts in the
Gulf of Gascony, and particularly on
the shores of La Voiidi'C and the Lower
Charente, partly by diving to consider-
able depths in the sea, an<l partly by
means of drag-nets fixed to graduated
cords; and the results of his observa-
tions are given in tlin Mi'moirrs ilu
Mufium iPIIistnire Nalitrdle, vol. vi.
With extracts from this, as wo shall
scarcely have again the opportunity tif
touching on this beautiful and interest-
ing tribe of plants, we slialt conclude
tliis sketch, already too much extended, of the vegetable geography of France. Muritini';
plants, says M. d'Orbigny, grow in the most opposite temperatures: every country, every
latitude, and every situation possessing some which are peculiar to itself. Still, cliinat"
and temperature appear almost alike to many of these producfions, which are found by
voyagers in every diflcrent ocean, while othcTs require particular spots and climes : soiiio
few preferring the fnonths of rivers, and the brackish waters of salt inarslies, where tin'
bitterness of the sea is modified by the admixture of fresh water, and in such situations
attaining to an enormous size, as Ulva lactuca var. altissima, while to the greater numbrr
iif these plants, fresh water proves absolutely destructive.

As for those kinds which grow indiflferently everywhere in the sea, they seem to be
increased without any attachment to solid bodies, as Fucus natans, &c. Banks of great
t.'xtent formed by this plant, are often found within the tropics of such dimensions as to
retard the progress of navigation. Some individuals among these groups may freipiontly be
seen which bear the appearance of having been originally fixed to rockVthoir flattened,
disc-like stem yet retaining a portion of such substance. There seiMns to be ground for the
eupposition that, though these sea-weeds are capable of living and growing in the water,

Ulvffi and Fuci.

if- i

< I.

528

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

Part III.

unattoclici] to any boH, yet that they must primarily spring from some solid body, as no young
plants of tiiis kind are ever found between the tropics.

Sonic of the Algo! prefer the southern sides of rocks, others affect an eastern, western, or
northern exposure ; but they chaniro their position according to tlie difference of latitude :
those which arc foimd on the southern side in cold climates, being generally seen on the
northern in the warm or temperate regions. Certain species live near the surface, and close
to the sea-beach : others, at various deffrees of depths : the first would seem to enjoy the
regular exposure to light and heat which they experience during the turnings of the tide ;
the secon<l, on the contrary, shun the influences of the atmosphere ; and, growing and fructi-
fying in depths where the light can scarcely ever penetrate, they bear, without receiving
any injury, both the enormous column of water which constantly presses upon them, and the
severe cold which exists in those regions. There are even parasitical Alga, which grow
indifferently upon all the others, and some which only affect peculiar species.

Many sea-weeds prefer such spots as are exposed to the fury of the waves and the action
of the currents, where they are perpetually floating in an agitated medium: others dwell
in the hollows of rocks, or in marine gulfs, where the water is generally calm. The lapse
of a few days put.s a period to the existence of some kinds, whilst the tempests of successive
winters full to destroy others. The general as) ect is apt to change in several individuals,
so that, were it not for more stable characters, derivable from their fructification, texture, &.c.
they might be mistaken for novel species.

A number of the more delicate marine plants are quickly destroyed by a removal from
tJieir native place of growth ; but the greater proportion, being coriaceous, and insoluble in
salt water, live for a length of time in different situations ; and it is not uncommon to find,
upon our own shores, the Algte of the most distant regions, which have troversed the ocean,
and yet remain unchanged in their general appearance. We must thence necessarily infer that
it is not all the Alg<B that are found in any country that may be said to belong to that country.

The proportions of marine plants are as variable as those of terrestrial ones. Some are
barely discoverable with the highest magnifiers; while others rise from the various depths
of the miglity ocean, and, tbrming at its surface an angle of greater or less acutcness accord-
ing to the force and velocity of the cunents and the tides, then suflbr their long summits to
float on the waves, and receive the benign influences of atmospheric light and heat. During
the great equinoctial floods, the sea oflen forsakes, periodically, certain rocks, which ore
only uncovered at such times. If, during that interval, the sun shines forth, or the north
wind blows, many of the minute and delicate Alga, thus exposed, dry up and die; while
others, though equally circumstanced, revive immediately upon the return of the genial fluid.

A certain proportion of marine plants are natives of the French seas, while we must refer
the accession of many species to the force of the winds, waves, and currents, especially to
that which generally goes under the name of Chtlf Strenm, and is called by the French the
Mexican Current. Almost all the northern Alga grow in the Gulf of Gascony. It is not
so with those from the Mediterranean and Southern Ocean ; a very small number of them
are there soon in a living state, and their almost northern limit never exceeds the mouth of
the Loire, or at farthest the rock of Morbihan. Independently of the influence of tem-
perature, this circumstance may be attributed in a measure to the current, which, generally
setting in on these shores from north to south, brings the seeds and plants themselves of
northern seas to these rocks, while those of southern growth are wafled by the same current
to Africa and the Atlantic.

But few are the kinds of sea-weed which prefer any peculiar spot, or show a predilection
for one substance above another whereon to fix. Deriving no nutriment from their roots or
points of attachment, they need nothing farther than a temporary support; thus, they cling
indiscriminately to any solid marine body, equally to granitic and calcareous rocks, to floating
or sunken pieces of wood, to the bones of terrestrial or marine animals, to shells, polypi, &c.

jVotwithstnnding that many highly respectable naturalists have averred that tiie growth
of these plants proceeds with most vigour on such and such substances, on some or other
peculiar rock, in the vicinity of rivers, or in the opon sea ; it has been fully ascertained, by
a great number of observations, that marine weeds do grow witli equal vigour, though
planted upon rocks or substances of very different natures ; and that, if we except some few
llvw, which affect brackish water, those which vegetate in situations where fresh water
mingles with the salt, are generally bleached, produce little or no fructification, have a thin
and weak texture, and contain but little soda. The qualities requisite for the different uses
of which I shall treat hereafter, are only found united in such sea-weeds as grow in pure
sea-water, where they have found a spot which is sufliciontly tenacious to fix them in that
zone of habitation which they prefer.

Some kinds certainly prefer sand or mud ; but then their roots become elongated, and
strike deep, till they meet with some stone or shell or other body which may serve them as
a point of attachment, and offer the requisite degree of resistance.

If the nature of the bottom appears indifferent, in a great measure to maritime plants ; it
is not so with the level which they select in the ocean, or with the distance of their birth-
place from the surface. Every species of maritime vegetable appears to affect, to as great

iRT III.

young

stem, or
atitude :
n on tho
ind close
njoy the
Ihe tide ;
id fructi-
■eceiving
, and the
lich grow

he action
lers dwell
rhe lapse
mccessive
idividuals,
xture, &c.

loval from

[Soluble in

ion to find,

the ocean,

y infer that

at country.
Some are

ious depths

less accord-
summits to

3at. During

I, which are

or the north
(lie ; while

genial fluid.

3 must refer
wcialiy to
i'rench the
It is not
ber of them
le mouth of
nee of tern-
I, generally
emselves of
iimo current

predilection
heir roots or
, they cling
I, to floating
polypi, &c.
tlie growth
)me or other
lertaincd, by
'our, though
pt some few
freBh water
have a thin
iffprent uses
;row in pure
[them in that

bn^ated, and
frve tlicm as

|e plants; it
their birth-
, to as great

Rook I.

FRANCE.

.WO

«n pxtont us Ihu terrestrial kinds, certain zonos or regions of diflbrcnt depths in tlio sea:
pluci.'s wlicri! llio siiporincunibcnt wciglit of wntcr, and tho relative proportion of lijrht and
caloric iiro iidaiitivl to its peculiar organs. Tiicse individuals wliich are found towards the
cenii'c of tlif'ir prnpor zone contain all the elements requisite f()r tiioir iicrfcctdcvolopoment,
and genornlly hIioW an active state of vegetation; tiiuy are vigorous, tlicy fructify at the
season suitiible to tiicir degree of immersion, while those which grow at tlie extreme limit,
or out of llio jjounds, of this same zone, prove languisiiing, fructify imperfectly, are always
covered with marine animals wiiicli destroy them, and live but a sliort time in comparison
with tlieir well-situated congeners. The seeds which escape from those plants woulJ appear,
by their various specific weights, to gain an equilibrium equivalent to the colunm of water
which they displace, or, in oilier words, to float in that peculiar zone which tlie future Alga
would prefer to inhabit. Those wliich become developed either above or below it, arc ine-
vitably driven from tlieir spot of nature or of election, by the agitation in the waves at the
vicinity of tlit; counts.

Ijower down tlinn a hunrlred feet from the surface of the sea, (taking a medium between
the liiirli iiiiil low tides,) it is rare to find living sea-weeds in tho Gulf of Gascony, and even
these uro iittiKMii'd to portions of rock severed from more elevated rocks, and before long
they inevitably pi-'rish.

It may lie observed that the lower we investigate the sea, the fewer will the number of
plants appoiir, and the more numerous tho polypi. For instance, below forty feet from the
surface of tin; uiitur, liut very few UlvtB are found; beyond sixty feet, no living Ceramium ;
and after having descended to the depth of a hundred feet, not a Fucus is to be seen, and
tlie vec-'fable kingdom wholly ends.

1st jne, extending from one foot above the medium height of the sea to twenty feet
below, is inhabited by Ulva compressa van ji; U. intostinalis, ventricosa, Lactuca var. a;
Fucus pygmiEUs,ampliibius, &c.

2d Zone, from five feet below the medium height to thirty feet : — Ulva articulata, Nostoc,
bullaia, fistulosa, Lactuca var. 3, imibilicalia, lancoolata, purpurea, Linza, contortii, serrata,
dichotoma, crispa, pavonia, atoinaria (!); Fucus vcsiculosus, spiralis, ceranoidcs, serratus,
cuniiliculatus, coespitosus, laceratus, hybridus, longissimus, pinnatifidus, viridis, arbuscula,
fiistigiatus, tenuissimus (Oi confcrvoidcs ; Ceramium spongiosum, rupcstre, Mertensii, poni-
cillatum, fucoides, nodulosum, gracile, linuni; Zostera marina and mediterranea ; Diatoma
rigiduni, flocculosum, &c.

.'{(1 Zone, from fifteen to thirty-five feet below the medium surface. . Ulva ocellata, pal-
niatn,lingulata,polypodioides,caulescens; Fucus longifructu3,lumbricalis,bifurcatus,ericoides,
barbatus, abrotunitolius, vermicularis, norvogiciis, oMusus, asparagoides, Wiggiiii, verrucosus,
helmintliocortos ; Ceramium simplicifolium, cnsuarina, cancellatum, coccineum, incurvum,
elongatum, polymorphum, forcipatuji, filum, capillare, glomeratum, elegans, &c.

4th Zone, from twenty to forty feet below the medium surfiice : — Ulva Phyllitis, saccha-
rina, digituta, bulbosa, ciliata, edulis; Fucus nodosus, uvarius, furcatus, ciliatus, alatus,
plocamium, plumosus, comeus, gigartinus, acnleatus, plicatiis ; Ceramium verticillatum,
equisctifolium, sericeum, scoparium, &c.

5th Zone, from thirty to sixty tect : — Fucus siliquosus var. a, purpurascens, ligulatus,
pistillutns; Ceramium coccineum, ajgagropilum, ttc.

Cth Zonp, from tiirty to u hundred feet : — The flattened Fuci ; F. siliquosus var. (3, loreus,
sanguineus, iibrosus, coronopifolius, &c., and Ulva tomentosa, which is, in fact, a polypus.

SunsECT. 3. — Zoology.

The zoolocry of France assimilates less to that of central than of southern Europe. Not-
. withstanding the narrowness of its separation from Great Britain, it possesses many animals
unknown as natives, or even as visiters, of that island. With regard to quadrupeds, this
circumstance is not surprising ; for any channel of the sea, however narrow, forms an insur-
mountable obstacle to the wanderings or migration of purely terrestrial species: while
others, of a semiaquatic nature are too small and feehle to eflect the passage. These con-
siderations, however, are insufficient to explain the limilc<l
range of the smaller birds, hitherto found only upon the
Continent. The distribution of insects is dependent, in a
great degree, upon that of plants; and the numbers of both
common in France, but unknown in Britain, arc nearly
proportionate ; on the calculation tliat has been made of
six species of insects to one of plants.

Among the wild (piadriipeds of France is the wolf (^i^r.
276.), which is still not uncommon in the womled and
mountainous districts: when pressed by liungor, it de-
scends to the farms, and even attacks the inhabitants.
The beaver is said still to exist in the southern parts,
and probably tho wild boar may not be wholly extirpated
Vol. I. 4.5 3 a

■ m

The Wolf

5:30

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGIIAPIIY.

Part III.

I i

iv. ;

from tlio oxistinjf forcstH. Ui'iirs wcro onco common, wliilo three or finir of the smaller quad-
riipcilB iippoar peculiiir to France.

Si;vonil intcrestiiif,' ami buaiitirul birdsi, unknown or bnt mrely met with in Britain, an-
here; not uncommon ; such as the wood-chat (^Jiff. 277.), shrike {Luniu» rufus T.) the gross-
beak or iiinvfincii, the bliio-throated warbler, and several others of the same family. In
short, from tiio connection of this country with the centnil and sontiiern kingdoms of Europe,
the ornithologist might probably disrovor in France more than tlirec-tburths of all the conti-
iicntul birds.

The marine praluctions of thopc provinces bordering
on the Channel, as may be pxpcctcd, do not offer any
marked diflbrence from those of the ilritish coasts ; but
on the warm shores of Nice and Marseilles the natu-
ralist meets with numerous productions, indicative of
the rich stores of the Moditorranoan Sea. The ento-
mology of these southern provinces, in like manner,
presents us with many of those more striking inssocts,
which properly belong to the fauna of Italy. The beau-
tiful Papilio Poilalirim (Jiff. 278.) so rare in England
that its existence there is still doubted, is here a common
insect. France has long stood foremost in promoting and illustrating the study of nature ;
nnd a society comprising some of her most able zoologists is at this moment engaged in
publishing a Fauna Oallica. An able and indefatigable naturalist, M. Risso, has particu-
uularly illustrated the fishes and Crustacea of Nice. It was near this place that one of the
278 -. . .

279 i

The Wood-fhiit.

Mitta ZoMla.

Papilio PodaliriuB,

rarest and most beautiful shells of Europe, the Mitra zotiata (Jiff. 279.) was fished up by
the anchor of a vessel ; only one specimen is known to exist in collections.

Among the domestic animals, tlic French horsps are not very excellent; yet those used
in the public stages are t^trong, active, and compactly made; nor have their masters copied
the ridiculous and biirbarous custom of disfiguring these animals, by cutting oft' their tails
or ears. The stjillions of England are much prized, and have been judiciously used to im-
prove the native breeds.

The oxen are of two races; the one called hnvfo dr haul cru are of a middle or small
size, with a fierce lixjk, thick hide, nnd coarse hair; they are principally bred in the moun-
tainous provinces of Gascony, Auvcrgnc, &c. The others are called hcevfs de nature, and
arc larger, with a mild aspect, thin hide, nnd soft hair: they fatten ea.«ily, and belong to the
plains.

The native breeds of sheep, not in themsolvcs good, have been of Into sedulously and
successfully improved. The Flemish breed, common both to Fmnco nnd the Netherlands,
is generally hornless, with long legs, nnd is derived from an intorinixturo with those of
Barbary. The Snloffnot are mastly without horns, and the wool is curled only at the ends.
The Ihrichnnnc are likewise iiornless, but are known by their long neck : the face is covered
with \V(K)I ; that on the iKxIy being tine, white, close, short, and curled. The Rovusillonne
IS derived from the merino race; nnd has very fine wool, the filaments of the piles being
twisted spirally. Lastly, the Ardrnnnise. is horned, and bears a very tine fleece: this breed
liki'wiso extends over part of the Netlinrlands. (Ham. Smith.)

A large nnd elegant variety of the Domestic Cat is very common in some parts of France ;
it is nearly double the size of the common cat, nnd is bearded much in the same manner aa
the lynx.

Sect. III. — Ilisloricnl Geoffraphy.
The Gauls, the ancient inhabitants of France, and the chief among the Celtic nations,
vvcre an active, powerful, and ambitious people. Their emigrant hordes repeatedly crossed
.he Aljw, possessed the wholf north of Italy, once sacked the imperial city, and even pene-
trated into Greece and Asia Minor. Both .Switzerland and Belgium were then included na
,iart of Gaul. The people, though .still barbarous, had made some steps toward civilisation.

Part III.

allcrquad-

Jritain, aro
I tlic grosH-
iiniily. I"
of Eiiropn,
i the conti-

9 bordering
it offer any
coasts; but
3 the natii-
itlioativc of

The ento-

,ke manner,

;ing inspcts,

The beau-

in England
•0 a common
f of nature ;

engaged in
has particu-
it one of the

fished up by

those used

lasters copied

their tails

used to im-

off 1

(lie or small
in the rnoun-

nnture, and
belong to the

■Klulously and
Netherlands,
ith those of
at the ends,
iicc is covered
Roiixsillonne
10 piles being
ce : this breed

rts of France ;
me manner as

!;;cUic nations,
atedly crossed
id oven pene-
pn included aa
rd civilisation.

Book I.

PRANCE.

The nobles and Druids enjoyed high power and influence, and had reduced the body of tho
nation almost to a Htate of vaHsalagc. They combated with obstinacy, and made a long
resistance to tiie progress uf the Roman arms; but being opposed to (/tcsar, the greatest
iif the Roman captains, after a war of twenty years, they were entirely and permanently
wibjrcted.

The conversion of Gaul into a Roman province, though it humbled the chiefs and quelled
the MHirtiul spirit of tho people, was attended with many beneficial changes. Peace was
I'stablishcd; cultivation and industry promoted; Roman and oven Greek literature intro-
liuced ; and tlie people finally converted to the Christian faith.

The irruption of the Teutonic tribes, on the declino of tiie Roman empire, was early felt
in Gaul, where the Goths, the Ilcruli, the Burgnndians, and tlio confederacy called tho
Franks, overwhelmed and ravaged the whole kingdom, and drove the Celtic population and
language into its remote and moiuitainuus corners. From amid a chaos of convulsions, the
vigorous hand of Clovis established the undisputed supremacy of tho Franks, and founded tho
monarchy of France.

The reign of Cimrlemagne, son and successor to Pepin, who from mayor of the palace had
occupied the throne, formed the most brilliant period m French history. That eminent and
powerful prince not only placed on his head tho iron crown of Lombardy, but reduced to his
dominion, after a long and obstinate resistance, the intractable tribes of Germa.iy, who had
defied the utmost efforts of the Roman eagle. Ho penetrated also into Spain; but the fierce
encounter of the Saracens, and the disastrous adv^ture of Roncesvalles on his return, com-
pletely stopped l;is career in that direction. Charlemagne, though himself illiterate, made
some efToris to rekindle the dec''.iing light of tcience and letters in Euri/pe.

The contests among the successors of Charlomogne were attended with the most violent
and bloody convulsions, and with cont'iual changes in the position of the three great king-
doms which composed liis empire. At ic.:'''h it fell entirely to pieces. Germany rctaine<l
the title of empire, and the claim to the domii..'''n cf Italy ; and in France the Carlovingian
dynasty, or that of Charlemagne, having become e«;:i''t un<''"' I^iuis Outremer, the throne
was seized by the Capets, the most powrtiil among the noble French families.

Hugh Capet, having in 987 assumed the title of king, the real power attached to which
had already been exercised by his fiitliei , Hugh the Great, founded the present dynasty. Tho
administration, however, was long marked by a strong feudal character, and a high spirit of
independence among the great iiobleg, of whum the counts of Provence and Britany, and the
dukes of Burgimdy, ranked altogether as separate and often hostile princes. Tho feudal nge
of France was also marked by chivalric ard eventful wars with England, which long held
several of the finest provinces, end wlioso king, Henry V., was crowned at Paris; but from
that seemingly approaching downfall, the monaroiij-, through the romantic exploits of the
Maid of Orleans, suddenly revived, and became moi o mighty thon before.

The establishment of monarchical power in its plenitude was chiefly efTected by the pro-
found and insidious policy of Louis XI., favoured by the circumstances of the upo. All
France was united under the sway of tho kings, who were thus enabled to form grt.'nt armies,
which, under Charles VIII. and Ixjuis XII., overran nearly the whole of Italy. But it was
under the gay and enterprising reign of Francis I. that its energies were fully developed.
It thon, however, came into collision with tho house of Austria, whoso extensive possessions
in Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Italy, wielded by a powerful hand, secured to it
during this period a decided, though not overwhelming, ascendant.

The civil wars arising out of the persecution of the Protestants agitated Franco for a very
long time, and produced scenes of the most bloody and calamitous description. They lasted
tor a. hundred years ; for the popular reign of Henry IV. could scarcely be considered as more
than a truce. At length Richelieu, by the reduction of Roclielle, terminated the long strug-
gle of the Protestants for religious libertv, which in France alone, of all the countries where
it was maintained upon a great scale, had this fatal issue. At tho same time, this daring
and despotic minister finally crushed the pow^r and pretensions of the nobles, and formecl
France into a simple monarchy.

The reign of Ijouis XIV., during which a single hand wielded all the energies called
forth during the prior struggles, exhibited France more powerful tlian she had been since
Ciiarlemagne. The house of Austria, now divided into the German and Spanish branches,
of which the latter luul l)Pcome weak and inert, was humbled by repeated blows, which at
length almost thrcatciR'd li"r existence. France seemed advancing in the career of iniiver-
sal monarchy, when tiie interposition of England and the victories of Marlborouffh turned
the tide of success, and rendered the last days of Louis humiliating and disastrous. The
final issue, howevc^r, by which a Bourb(m was placed on the throne of Spain, and tho consc
(juent family alliance, gave to France an increased weight, especially in tho maritime con-
cerns of Europe.

The French revolution was an event attended with awfiil and mighty vicissitudes, so fresh
'.n the memory of the world, that it would be quite superfluous to attempt to enumerate them.
.\;ior tearing up France by the roots, and holding all Europe in chains; after exhibiting

'■I

■' V ■

R33

Dn.SCaiPTIVR GKOr.FlAI'lIV.

Part III

durin(( twenty ynars tlic viciHsitudiJii of rnpublicaiiii-iii, total nimrrliy, and pure desipotiem ; nt
lonfftli, by a nii(;lity rc-actioi., it tcrminatud ncnrly iit the point from wliicli it comitinncnd.
France, liowovor, obtiiinod chcckn on lliu iirbilrnry (Kiwcr o( lior nionarcliH, wliicli, notwitli-
■tandih); their opiKwition, she rendered more iinii more etTectivc!. At Icn^'th Chiirh'.s X.,
Imviii^r rashly attempted to break tiimii^'h all the liinitH |)la(;ed on his authority, watt driven
from hiH throne, which was tilled by lA.uiH-l'liili|)pe, head of the collateral line of Orleans,
under the tit'o of Kinj; of the French.

Swrr. IV, — Political OfO/rraphy.
The political constitution of France, prior to the Revolution, woh almost purely despotic.
The privileges of the nobles consisted ne'irly altogether in unjust exemntions from taxation,
and in corvees, or inicjuitous and oppressive claims u|x)n the labour of the peasantry. The
only very salutary limit to the royal autliority consisted in the parliaments, hereditary bodies,
by whom the laws were very fairly an<l linnourably adminiHtered ; and the parliament of
Paris had even the im|)ortaiit privilege of registering every new tax before it could become
legal. The exorbitant iH)Wcrs vested in the si/Vereign being however inconsistent with the
growth of national intelligt>nco and the augmented force of the tiern Hat, a collision took
place, the iiio'tt terrible on record, wliicli ended in the tem|X)rary subversion of the throne.
VVhen the Bourbons were restored by foreign victories, they felt, and were warned, that
Prance could no longer bo governed by the former absolute system ; a!id they bestowed by
charter n representative government formed on the admired model of England. The nobles
and parliaments, however, bad been entirely «wnpt away in the late convulsions, and left no
hereditary aristocracy out of which an upper house could be composed. A Chamber of Peers
was tbrmed, by the royal appointment, of a boily of individuals, many distinguished rather
by talents and influence than by birth ; and in the number were included some of the most
distinguished of Napoleon's g(!neral8. Pensions were assigned to support the dignity of the
Peers, which was at first hereditary, but by a recent enactment is to continue only for life
The Chamber of Deputies, corresjKindin'g to the House of Con)mons, is chosen by electors
united in cortiim bodies called electoral colleges. These include all persons poying a certain
amount of direct taxes; whicli limits the right of voting to the iniddlingclass, and to an entire
number throughout France scarcely exceeding 13(),0(K). 'l'h'.> number of Deputies is 430.
The functions of the French chambers are high. Their annual vote grants uU the supplies of
the year, and the expenditure of the jireceding one is submitted to their rigorous examina-
tion. No toxes can be imposcil, or loans contracted for, without their concurrence. Their
debates are regularly made public, and an arrangement is enacted by law for the convenience
of the reporters, ^'et the chambers want some of the ftiiictions of a British parlioment.
They cannot fix the amount of the army, unless by limiting the funds to be employed in its
maintenance; nor can Micy call in question the engageinentis held by government with
foreign powers, unh^ss by witliholr'ing the funds necessary to fulfil them. The liberty of
the press was prnfes.«edly granted by the charter • but there has been much fluctuation in its
exercise; it was even repeatedly made subject to a censorship: even since the last great
change, its freedom has not been established on as ample a basis as in Britain.

The administration of justice in France, which, before the Revolution, was still more com-
plicated than in England, has been simplified in a very remarkable degree. The National
Assembly early opplied themselves to form o now scries of codes, which might supersede
those vast and voluminous records in which the law was formerly contained. They pro-
jected five codes, respectively referring to civil law, civil procedure, commerce, criminal
law, and penal infliction. These were conip!(!ted under Bonaparte, who gave to the whole
the name of Code Napolion : it is comprised in a moderate volume, sold for a few francs
All the ancient parliaments and seigniorial authorities lieing .swept away, a new system of
jurii«liciinn has been formed. Of the judicial authorities, the lowest cla.ss are the juffcs tie
paix, w jio iiinount to nearly :J()00. They have salaries of 8(K) to 100() francs, and decide
finally on all cases where the (|nestioii at is.sue <loes not exceed fifty francs. Immediately
nt)ov(! them are the tribunals tie prciniirf insliinct; before wliom all (juestions and charges
come in the first instance, and who judge finally respecting any property not exceeding l(MK)
francs. There are 360 of these courts, and the judges are supposc(l little short of 3(HM).
To tiiem are attached the tribunal of correctional police, which has cognizance of all minor
ofTonco-s. Above these rank the cows rtiyulm, sometimes called ct)urs irttppd, because an
appeal lies to them from the inferior courts. They are twenty-seven in number, attached
to the chief cities in the kingduin. They consist, in ixjpulniis towns, of twenty, tlii't}', and
in Paris of fitly members; who, in that case, are divideil into several chambers. Attached
to them are the coiirs d'tissisr, or, as we would call them, jury courts, to wliicli all criminal
cases of importance are referred by the coiirs royalrs. A French jury consists of twr've,
and a simple majority decides. From the decisions of the cours royales an appeal lies totne
co:irt of cassation, the highest tribunal, which also exercises a general jurisdiction over the
other judicial bodies. All the judges are appt mted by the crown, but hold their offices for
Iii\

'ART III

KitiHin ; nt
iiiiirnced.
, notwith-
hiirli's X.,

k'UHlllivUIl

if Orluaiw,

y despotic,
m toxiitioii,
ntxy. The
tary bodies,
•1 lament of
uUl become
nt with the
oUision took

the throne,
iinrneil, that
bestowed by

The nobles
1, and left no
iber of Peers
ishcd rather
! of the most
lignity of the

only for life
>n by electors
rinj; a certain
id to an entire
ipnticrt if 430.
Iiu supplioi^ of
rous cxoniina-
rence. Their
le convenience
|h parlioment.
mployed in its
eminent with
The liberty of
ictnation in its

the last great

itill more com-
Thc National
ight supersede
id. They pro-
ercc, criminal
J to the whole
• a few frnnc?.
new svsteni of
3 the jiigen tff
cs, nnd decide
Immediately
s ami charges
ixcccding 10(H)
short of 3(HM).
pe of nil minor
ifl, because an
Inher, attached

lity, th'-ty. «"'!

trs. -Mtnched
Icli all criminal
lists of twr've,
Ipeal lies to tnc
liction over the
[their offices for

Book I.

FRAXCR.

[The foUowinpf tables from official dnciimeiit!* fnntain important data illustrotivo not low

of the moral liihtury of timnkiiid, than of the Htiito <i\' society in Prance.

I. HlHlL'iiieiil iif llii< \iiiiib«r of PertDiii rhat|t>»l wiili (.'riiiiiiinl (Xli'iuTH Iniorv lliii Cciiirl* of AmIiw, In parli yvdf,

fViini l&in III IKM.

Crimeit nffainnt the Pfrion.
AiiniiiKl lliit Hlaii' himI ruhiir lllllci'rii .

Miinli'i' nnci MiiMnluiiuhli'r

I'nrrlrlilu

Inrniitieiilo

('iitliiiv niiri W'Miiiilliig

A»iniilta iipoii VVniiiiiii . ...

" riiilMrrri

PiTjiiry mill Siihiiriialiiin iif Porjury .

Hiiiiimy

Olliur Crliiici

le*.

ItW).

Toult .

Crimea againtl Property^

OnlliliiK

FiiriiiTv nf ('iiiiiniiiiinl Piiperi . .

OlliiT F(ir(iiT|i'«

Kiililvry iiMil Tli(.n in rhnrrho . .

" nn lliifliwnya.

" " tiy ni)ini'8tic« .

Oilier kinilii nf Rnlilii'ry

Frnilulcnt llnnkrii|ilcy

Incenilinrinin

Oilier Crinii'8

Tulali .

General Tiitnlt 7.:t»l

ftm

(HI

a:ii

1«7
147
tt

!ri
l,M4

17H

.ViH

III

4.^)

1H4

i:iii
11

if<:io.

4IIII
4

imi

\M\
1117
71

,vi

IKII.

I'ilM

1.1

S<l

:i4(i
lis
iii:i
n

3
54

IKW.
LOHK

mi
!i:l

wn
i:il
III

IIM

1.7(1 1 LIMUI I 11.0411 3,ii44

:t:i-j
IJ
IM
1.31.1
3,34.5
(i3
CH
175

4S
|i||

47
|:IA

l.niii

3,3C0
P4
I3H
177

.1,,V<3 .1,3tKI

7.373 I ti.lNiS 7,(KHi H,3:i'

103
73

:xii
',1.1
13:1

tl3!>

3.4HI

(.7

Vti

314

5.5U0

337

3,1

IIM

II.W

3,:W3

"<•

Hill

343

S,5U3

II. autemcnt showing Iho Degree

of Inslrnclinn of Pcrxmn rhnneil with Crimen liefc
cncli year, flrom IMW to 1K13.

rn the Coiirts nf A^Ar.c, in

Ycu.

Unable 10 read or wrile.

AtU In rmil or wrilt< imperreelly. 1

Crlnin a(.iiml
I'enona.

Criniei .inainkt
I^roiicrly.

TtM

ACCUK^I,

4,liill
4.. 133
4,3I!I

4,iino

4,740

Afquillwl,
I.litlll

1.(1,14
I,I14'<
l,l^f3

Convicted.
3.(i27

3,1-37
3,(ili5
3,tM3
3,Hl(i

Criniriruniniil
I'ertoim.

Crimes affiinit
l'n»i«r'y.

T.ilal
Arnmn).

l,H3ll
3,047
3.450

Aniulllud.

7IS

71-7

71 111

I.(IIM)

l.lli3

Convicted,

1.H3
l.liO

Ml' II

i.m:

1, 3114
5,-04

d writing,

H
47
58
115

1838

ireit

1H30
1H31
1H3S

i.onn

I,flil3

nnn

1,144

1,333

3,l.'i7

3,4(;n
3,:«^i
3,4,'.ll
3,4 Ifi

,103
4!HI

4(i5
StiC
(^50

l.,t,13
1.451

i.:iiii

1.470 .
MiOll

■ Tolal in
Five yean.

ipas
irai

! l.KIl
lf33

3,539

313
1H3
174

a:M

3il3

10,818
Able 10 rev

,VI5

544

514

533

5(<3

23,:i57
and write \
7N)
73!1

liW
7ii7
775

H,730

rell.

Mi
335
330
4'2(i
373

"i,r.i(r

13,0;)7

438
4(14

;i5i'

341
403

1,043

8,884
Rcceiveil a dq
30
4(i
37
!W
100

7,950

Tee rf Inilructio
1-3
131
ti3
ii3
88

10,134

n Incnd nie
118
170
I3!l
l',IO
257

4,430

re rcadinif n

•7

80
83
1.13
11.3

, Tiitai in
■ rive yean.

1,100

s,ia«

3,730

38U

478 ' 804

543

:K3

. J» A»

.M. Kl>.{

Financial xt/Klem. Durinpr the period of the Revolution, France sh(Kik off the heavy
burden of debt which had been a innin iustrmnont in brin;jin;r on that catastrophe. Yet the
amount of taxes had not e.xfcedod ")50,(KK),000 livre.s, and the nation was crushed rather by
the arbitrary and injndicinus mixlcs of levying: the inipo,st.«, than by their actual amount.
Napoleon, to support his continual wars, laid on larije additional tn.vos, chiefly in the fiinn of
land assessment, and contrncted,a debt of 3,000,000,000 francs. This was aupmentod by the
events of 1H1.5, and the occupation of the French territory by the allied armies at the expense
of France. The debt is now expressed in the form of rentes or nnnnities, which in the
bndpet of 1830 amounted to 249,41)0,000 livrcs : this, with other funds tor which govern-
ment were responsible, was considered as representing a capital of 4,988,738,000 francs.

The statement of receipt and expenditure for the year 1830 is as follows: —

HECEII'T. Fnnm.

Direct T.ixcfi, . .licfly nn l.nnil 3!l0.3f.5,Hl!l

Regi.4trnlinii Stump:), iiiiil D<ininins 187.335,03^

r'lialninliiiiiBi'.i mill Snlt 151.331,103

Liiliior^. Siiiiilrv Diitien. Tnlpucro mtil Citin-

■iMH il,.r . . . ■. 1!13.0.-'1„183

Post Ollin- 33. IW1,03()

Fnlls nf Tiinlier 24,0(10.0(17

Hall-works I.iOO.OOO

Gnniinij-h'ttisei^ 4,33H,f^H.H

Roviil Lottery 10,043,7!10

roiniiee 141,3-<l

Siiiiilry proci'i.ilK ]I.,1S5.4lrt

E.ttrnonlinnrv rifoiirrea 48.403.341

Deiluclions oh IlecelpH 35.I10 0.000

"<if3.n44,00(i

45''

EXrENniTrRE. Fnnc«.

Civil List 37.li(i(i,(i(ii'i

CliiiniliiT of Peers 711!l,(i!i'.t

nuinilier of Deputies liOO.OOO

I.nition of llonotir 3 iLViSOO

Sinking Fnnil 4l,lil'5,0.-i0

Dellt 3^il.3,)i;,r.(lH

.liisiice l(i..'iiiil.(i-«>

Fnreit'n AITnirs 8,77f'.(llHI

l(i'li..'init mill Piililic Instruction 38.'.ili|..'ilM)

Inlirinr 13li,133.»ll'i

Wiir 333,3C.3.M7

Marine 38.,W7,474

Fiimiice 33.877.1(17

.Ailnii'iistrntion i.' Revenue 13fl.073,;i5l

Repiiyineiita ^ 40.300,808

l,fll'>47288.445

I i

I' ' I'

fe4|

■A ■ f' .

■M

nnscnii'TivK (jnociiApiiY.

Part III

i-4

Jin

TliP iirmy of Fr.iiicn is no l(m<;fr tlmt v«»t uiid icrrililn iim^t!*, wliicli for ho many ycari"

hi'lil the wlinli- (if tiiii'iitiil MiiruiH- 111 ihriill. 'I'ln- i.-vciitH nf l"^!'* Imvinjf jinivril loo

cliMirly lln^ ull!ii'liiiM'iit. nf tin: iilil triiii|M tii tlirir liiriin'r iii:i>tiT, tlicy wcriMifiirly nil <li«-
liiiiiili'il, mill tlii'lr |il:ii'i> NU|i|)Iii'(l liy I'n.'xii I'liii.si.'riptinii. 'I'lin irdvi'miiii'iil Iiiin thr |Ki\vi'r ut'
li'vyiii^t (l(MKHI iiirii ill thi! yciir. Ily ii ri'ijiiliitloii, liroiiiliiiii; ntill tliti ri'|Hil)lii:iiii spirit, ono-
thin! Ill' llic iiHiciTH iiiiixt lie riiisDil Irmii tlii! rtuikt. '('lie army in tin: ytiir Ki'i wuh on n
vury liiriiiiiliilili' liNiiin^;. It iiinoiintod in nil, iiii'liKlniK l<»,();il( olKcnr^, luul :i7Ht rliililmn of
wolilicrH, to Ill.HUI men. Ot'tlitiHO, tlio iiilimtry i-oiwihIhiJ ot"l».')(»ri olliccrs iiiiil 'J(l^t,l tl iiimi;
tli(> raviilry of'^-MO otliuur!! and 51,335 mun; the urtillury ol' lllN) otHcnrri mid :)'J,5U1 inon,
bcfiidcN (fi'iidiiriiu'ric, ()ii)(iiio«rH, &.c.

Tim Fn-ncli riiivv, wliicli, in 17W1, iiiiioiintnd to Mcvfinty-t'onr nail nl' tlit> line and sixty-two
trijfiitei', l(wt Imir mirin;^ tliu wiir ; and those wliicli reninined, jiaviinj never ventnn.'d for
iiiuiiy yeiirrt to Htir out of port, lost uU tlieir ox|)erieii(;ii and elHcieiu'y. At present, it coimiHtH
of r»5 Nlii|iH of the line, (Mi frigates, iU) corvettes, KKI niniilier vohmoIh, 17 ulenm-veHMelH,
niiiiifronf* iirnied traiispurti*. Sic, Tho French navy in now in a hijfli Dtato of etticiuncy, and
in riipidly increiiHin;^.

Sect. V. — Proiliiclivv Imliiatry,

Franco, with repard to iiileriiul ocoiioniy, ia ono of tlio richest and most flourishing coun-
tries in tho world. In point of iiiduHlry she ruiikit third atler Ilritain and tint Netherlanils ,
while tilie jiossesseH n greater extent and more natural advantages than either of those grvul
seats of commerce iiiKlmamilitctiire.

Agriculture is the most lloiirisliing hriiiich, yet is not in so advanced a state as in (treat
rtritain. It has gained greatly liy tho French revolution, in consetpienee of the abolition of
feudal rights, coraffn, unil fillies. Tlio groat jios.sessioiis of the nohility were their broken
up, and iliiring the grand emigration, tho farmers, or neigliboiiring little proprietors and
capitalists-, were able to piirchiiso at u very cheap rate (xirtions cjf the forfeited domains. It
hits becoiiii' a rage in France for every one to possess a little spot of hind; and the division
of a man's property among his children, which the law enforces, tends to split it periH'tually
more and more into minute portions. Travellers have o\en observed three or tour pro-
prietors obliged to join in keeping a common plough. In vineyards and other garden cul-
tures, wiiere nice care and ililigenee are cliielly recpiisite, this minute partition sueniH
advantageous. Chaptiil even calculates, that a small vineyard cultiviited by the proprii-tor's
own hand will yield double the (luaiitity of that which is leii.-ed out by a largo proprietor.
But in corn lands, where a considerable capital, good machinery, strong and well-fed cattle
are nece.-sary, the cultivation is thus kept down to a much lower standard than it would
otherwise reach. Tho little o<rcupants, also, are by no means prompt in discovering any
improved processes, or in adopting tbo.so discovered elsewhere. Artificial grasses, and the
rototion of crops which they fiicilitate, are by no menus nn'iierally diffiisod; and an old
vicious circle, of wheat, oats, and fiillow, is still very irei'eraliy adhered to. In sliort, all
operations on a groat scale, and requiring a ceiisidoraliie outlay, are deticient in Franco.
M. Dupin, in a discourse on the ell'ccts of public instruction, in the introduction to hi.i normal
course of lectures on geometry, has drawn n striking contrast between northern and southern
Franco. Although the former |)roiliiccs ni.'ither tiie olive, the vine, nor any of the finer
fruits, yot it pays of taxes r27,fl30,(HK) francs on a surfiicc of 18,fl9(),0(H) hectares; while the
south pays only 12"),41(M'*'<^ francs ii|)on ;i4,*^(),()0() hectare.s. Even in the south, the dis-
tricts least fiivoured by nature are lx)th the most enlightened and the most industrious; the
high Alp.-', tho liiffh Pyrenees, and the deportments immediately adjoining to them.

Grain, notwithstanding tho imperfection in its cultivation, is produced with such diligence
as to yield enough in ordinary years to supply tho extensive population of Franco with food.
The only exception is in |)art of its southern coast, which, when permitted, draws a supply
from Odessa. Franco is not distinguishod for any very superior quality of grain, nor is it an
exporting country. It seems to have attended les." than most other countries of Bnropo to
tho culture of potatoes, which are still planted only in ganlens, along borders, or in tracts
unlit for grain. Maize is mixed with wheat in the southern departments. Chaptal has
given the following statement, i:alculated on an average of twelve years, from 1800 to 1812,
of the entire products of this branch of French agriculture: —

ll'*''tolilr«.
\Vlii!at 31,.VKI.2l)n

nvi.' ao.i'Ki.Kii

Mnizp «.:i(h',:)lil

IliickHhriit 8,40'.),473

IWtDlitrcf.

Bnrliv !•.• .Wi.ma

PiiIiiIoi'< l'.i.HK).741

yiicii :i'.>,iK',ii.. 5S7

llUI.'.l'lli.U'il

A more recent estimato, in a memoir read to the Siwiety of Statistics in 1880, makes tho
aveniiro pnMJiico of the vears 182.') to IH28 amount to flOj-VjIMMK) hectolitres of wheat;
114.7:W,(KM» of other grains; 40,2;H"<'<' "f potatoes and chestnuts.

Wine ranks next in iin|K>rtaiii;e to ;iriiiu, aiirl forms a most valuable part of French
industry. The wines of France, though not so strong as those of more southern climates.

Part III

miliy yniirK
jinivrd tixi
irly nil ill*-
!• imwcr <>r
sl)iril, oil'"-

\'> WIIH oil II
rlilldriMl of

»,IU iiii'ii,

1(1 Bixty-two
f(!ntiirt!il lor

t, it COllw'lHtll

(•am-vi!rtHt'l«,
licit'iicy, ami

rishiiigr CO""-
\rlliorliiml!< .
f tliOHO yitval

,e as in llreat
it! atolition of
thou- broken
oorinlors anil
, (lomuinH. It
1 the (liviHion
it iH)r|)i'tuiilly
e or tour pro-
■r ynnliMi cul-
iirtit'ioii sL'tmiH
lu! prtii'rinlor's
rgo propritUor.
ivfll-l'ctl cuttle
than it woulil
iscovorinj; any
rassos, and tlic
d; and an old
In short, all
(•nt in Franco.
u to iii-i normal
•n and Houthe rn
.ny of tiio finer
ires ; while the
south, the dis-
Khistrioua; the
Iheni.

such diligence
unce with food,
draws a supply
ain, nor is it an
s of Enropo to
or.-i, or in tracts
: Chaptal has
n 180(» to 1812.

S7(i,r.os

HIO,741
(Hili,W7

18:^0, makes the
itres of wheat;

part of French
utiicrn climatef.

Rook I.

FRANCE.

&3A

f «A

are grnorally arrountod tlirt mont deiiciitii in ihn world. Thnne of DiirKundy and rhampA)fno
am without a rival, if we exci^pt a f.nv rare H|Hieiiii(inH of Tokay. The winenof the (iaronne
do not riiiiti quite m high ; liiit, from their light, Hafe, and agreeahle (|iiiiliti<>H, are drunk more
friK.ly, and exported on a larger Heah-. The tlnest and MtrongeNt of thcae wines nre eultivatod
chiefly to supply the consumption of Britain and the other northern niitions. The intiTior
consutnptioii of Franco eonHi.-<tH ehielly of the light wines, dnmk at talile, nearly as our heor.

Two eliilN)rate nMenipts have t 'i miide to estimate llui produce of the Frerieh vineyards;

one hy (Ihiiptal, in his "Oeiieral Treatise on French Industry," and the other in the ri'|H)rt
of a counnlttee of the (JhamlsT of I'eers, pp'ser.ted in Ih'>.\ |)y tlii< |)uc de l)od(<aiiville.
They diHi>r pretty coiisiilerahly. Chaptul sup|Hises that l,(i:)l,(NN) hectiirvs are employed in
producing wine to the average annual amount of :<.'),.')<NMHNI hectolitres. The tahle, how-
ever, giviMi hv the duke, of the produce of (.'ach department dtsm not exceed :n,().'MI,(IO()
hectolitres. The ditlerenct; as to value is still more remarkable. ("Iiaptal, alter leaving out
a sixth, as made into brandy, estimates the remainder at 078,(HN),iKNMrancs: he Hupjioseri
that there are HIMMMNI worth each v2(K)tVaMcs; l,<HNMNM) worth TKI; gradually descendmfr
till he Comes to 1II,.'>(MMMH) worth only TJ francs. iKsleauvillo dis-s nut bring thn amount
to more than 4H(I,(MMMKN>. The higiiest average value he a igns to Iho wines of any
department is to those of the Oise (clia. pagno), !W) fVancs; those of the Marne, Yoime, and
(.Vtte d'Or (burgundy), 'iO to a4 ; of tin (Jiroiide, and Lot, am' iaronnn (claret), 11) to 21 ;
the rest (him 17 to U. His estimnte, lit ■ iver, si i>ms too low; hince M. Dupin (I'Vircc* I'ro-
ductiven, i\i\ ilf lit Fraiin) calculates th • value, .•iccorili'.^' to the tax paid to government,
at .'Vt;!.l.'».''i,07H tVancs. The brandy into which one-sixi:h cif the above produce iH made, is,
like the wine, the finest in tiie world, and a gram, tuple .'French trade, ('hajilal estimates
thn value distilled at 40,(NM),U()() francs. M. Miipin states the quantity at4<iU 17 hectolitres;
that of other spirits at IKMKM). He Cillculate^ also 8,S6H,' • 'j hoctolitr ' ♦" cider, ind 2 IW.'),022
hectolitres of strong l)«?cr.

Live stock does not form the most approved part of French husbt ■,: y. Chaptal eon^•i(lor.^
tlittt the animals are tix) few, whether tiir culture, for use, or f'li '.n production of manure;
and also that the measures taken to improve tlio hreed have been very partial id defective.
The niimlMJr of horses, includii.g mules, in 1827, WB' ■..'" i,(HMt. Itt tliese 1 ;., reckoned
that !)(M>,(M)0 were employed in riding, posting, the (tilu . v, &c. The sto^k lequires to be
kept up by an imiKirtation, wliich in 1800 to 1812 w is vul, d at ;i,.5'll.(MK) francs annuii:'v,
but according to M. Scnac had risen, in 1822 to H2i<, to 7,.'')'M),(MK1. In return, there is -
extensive breeding of mules on tlw! I'vrenean frontier, and tliev are exported to Spain to ilir
value of 1,40(MHH> francs. France had in 1812, 2M.(MMt hu'lls. l,7(»l,(MHt oxen, :i,001),0(l()
cows, 8.5(),000 heifers. The imjiortution at that time iiin'unted lo only 2,!lti(MMH» tVaiics, but
in 182.'> it was 7,680,()0(). The exiKirtation is, however, ■•oiisiilenible. Sheep arc a species
of stm-k very considerable in amount, |)articiilarly in the ilepartnients bordering on the Alps
and Pyrenees, in those which cnmpo.so iho rnnimtain d's'rict of Auvergno, and on the pastoral
banks of the Eiire and the Cher. The nninbor of .itieep in 1812 was 7(l(l,;ilO mcrinoe,
H,.')78,00() mixed, and ;10,843,(KK) native or unimproved. The first introduction of merinos
was in consequence of the treaty of Haslo, wliich stipuluteil that 40(M) of these highly prized
animals should pass into France. An experience of thirty years has shown that the breed
might bo preserved and oxtendiid in full perfection; but the above statement will show that
the diffusion of it is, as yet, very partial. Pure merinos are valued at thirty francs, mixed
at twelve francs, and native sheep at only five francs. The number of swine in Franco is
estimated by Baibi, in 182(1, at 4,(IOO,Ofl(). The ass is considered by M. Senuc to he, from
the poverty of his owners, in an ''most hopeless state of degradation; and the fowls, the
bees, and the pigeons to demand u t'.i' )ugnly improved system of rearing. Chaptal has
pot attempted to estimate the wi.;:-' . ••pocics, but has guessed their entire value at about
."Jl.WHMKlO francs.

Among the materials of manufacture, tlie most important is silk, which was at first intro-
duced near Tours, but was soon Pund to be well suited only to the most southern districis.
The amount, according to C'l .;>';al, is alwut 11,400,000 lbs., and the value l."),44(),00() francs;
but this is only about two-f '■ hs of the quantity consumed in the manufactures, so that a large
importation is necesrary ii '.ni Ijombardy. Hemp and flax are cultivated universally, but
always on a small seme, every fiirmer having hi.i little patch for domestic use. It is diffi-
cult to estimate these ; but Choptal guesses the volue of hemp at 30,000,(K)0 francs, and flax
at 20,000,000 frrnics. Vegetable oils are proiluceil to the supposed extent of 1,300,000 quin-
tals, wortii about 75,000,000 francs ; yet so great is the quantity consumed in domestic
use, and in the different, manufactures, that they are imported to the value of nearly twenty-
five millions.

There are certain tropical and colonial productions which it was the eager wish of Napo-
leon that France should cultivate, in order that she might be independent of commerce.
One of his favourite projects was the culture of the beet-root, for the extraction of sugar,
an article of consumption with which Europeans can least dispense. The admission of colo-
nial and foreign eiigar?, under reasonable duties, after the overthrow of the continental sys-

r ■ I

b36

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

tern, gave a severe clieck to this spurious branch of industry. To prevent its decline, hcnvy
additional duties were laid on colonial and foreign supirs in 1810 and li^22; and, in conse-
quence of this encouragement, the production ot beet-root suijar lias been rapidly incroasintr
during the last five years, and is now supposed to amount to alnjut 80(K) tons, or w,0(iO,(K)0 Uis.
The art has boon a good deal improved ; and it is supiwsed by many thnt it will, nt no dis-
tant period, be so much ainelionited tlmt tlic beet-growers will be able to withstand the
competition of the West India planters under the same duties: but any such expectation
aeeins to us to be quite visionary. The entire consumption of sugar in Franc(! amounts, at
present, inclusive of that from the beet-root, to about 7'2,()0O tons a year ; being not much
more than a third part of the consumption of Great Britain and Ireland, which amounts to
about 100,000 tons. Tobacco, after the removal of the rdfrie or royal monopoly, rose to
!50,000,0001bs. ; but since the restoration of the regie in 1812, it has fallen to .'J,0(K>,000.

Woo<l is an important article, especially in a country which is nearly destitute of any
other fiiel. Chaptal estimated the woodlands at 7,072,000 hectares (about 17,.'i00,000 acres);
but according to a more recent memorial in 1824, by M. Ilerbin de Halle, sub-administrator
of the fbresU, it is only 0,.'i21,000 hectares (about 1/1,000,{KM) acres). Of this, 1,122,000
hectares belong to the sUite, 1,896,0(K) to the communes, 6.5,969 to the crown, 192,000 to
princes of the royal fiimily, and .%243,(KK) to private individuals. Woods thus occupy a little
more than an eighth part of the soil. The greatest proportion exists in the departments
bordering on the Alps and the Pyrenees, and along the Rhine, the Moselle, the Sadne, the
Marne, and other eastern rivers. Chaptal estimates the value of the annual cuttings at
about 141,000,000 francs ; but if this bo reduced according to M. de Halle's estimate, it will
give only 130,000,000. Fruit trees are also of importance, especially chestnuts, cultivated
on a large scale in several provinces, and valued by Chaptal at aliout 10,000,000 francs.
He estimates the fruit growing open in orchards at 22,500,000 francs, and that on walls, or
in rows as single trees, at 68,7iJ0,()00. lie is afraid tliat tliis last will be thouglit too low;
we should rather apprehend an opixjsitc error in this instance, as well as in thnt of reckoning
the herbs which grow in 328,000 hectares of garden ground, at 200,000,(KK) francs.

On the whole, Chaptal calculates that in the .')2,()0(),000 hectares of which France con-
sists, twenty-three arc arable; ten woods, vines, fruit-trees; seven pasturage; the rest
waters, roads, buildings, waste. Ho makes the annual average produce of an aero 28 francs.
By this and other estimates, the annual territorial produce comes to about l,o(K),000,000
francs. The entire agricultural capital ho cstiniatos at 37,.500,000,000 francs. M. Dupin,
in 1827, reckons the territorial revenue at 1,626,000,000 francs.

The manufactures of France, though they do not present the immense results of those of
England, are considerably more productive than those of almost any other nation. Colbert,
the celebrated minister of I/)uis XIV., finding this branch in a very depressed state, com-
pared with its prosperous condition in some neighlxiuring countries, bestowed on it almost
an exclusive attention. Chaptal calculates, that during the Revolution it made still greater
progress than agriculture. He regards a.s almost miraculous the advance mnde in the cotton
and other fabrics. The miracle, however, wa."! wrought solely by the rigid exclusion of
British goods; and amid all the boasted proofs of French ingenuity, he is obliged to confess,
that when, as minister of the interior, he sought eagerly the means of introducing new
manufactures, he could find no effectual expedient, except that of alluring F.nirlish manu-
facturers into France, and of copying their processes. However, these prohibitions, which
have been continued to a great extent under the royal system, have in fact forced a number
of manufactures which could not otherwise have withstood British com])etition.

Silk has been long one of the most prominent objects of French mnnutiicfnro. Even the
revocation of the edict of Nantes, though it drove many of the most industrious citizens out
of the kingdom, lofl that branch of industry still very flourishing. It sufl'ered more from the
dre.adfiil calamities which MhW Lyons, its chief seat, during the height of the revolutionary
mania. The lij.fKK) establishments that existed in 1788 for the matmfacture of silk, were
reduced in 18(K) to ,3.500; but amounted, in 1831, to alxiut 1.5,000, employing above 21,000
workmen. It is chiefly in cloths that this city excels all others, both as to the brilliancy of
the dyes, and the richness and beauty of the stuffs. Nismes excels in taffetas, mixed silk
and cotton stufls, piuzes, and crapes; Tours in fiirniture stuffs; Avignon in siitins, levan-
tines, &c. The Cevennes are famous for bonnets, while almost all the silk ribands are fiibri-
cated in the department of the I/iire. The entire value of the manufiicture is estimated at
125,000,000 franas, of which 30,000,000 is exported.

The woollen manufiicture is still more extensive and valuable than thnt of silk. The
woollens of France are either very coarse or very fine ; the former are established chiefly in
the hilly trncts of the >outlieru iKmler, where the sheep yield nbuudanco of coarse wool, anil
the shepherils spend the leisure of winter in workiiur it up info serges, friezes, nnd similar
stuffs. On the oflier hand, at Sedan, Lonviers, Abbeville, are mniiutiu'tiired liner cloths
thanany of those of Britain, though the latter produces a tnuch larger quantity of grnid and sub-
Btantial cloth. AlthmiL'h France pnnluces 84,(KKt.(K)01bs. of wool, she yet iiniturts to the
value of 12,000,(KK) or ll,(M)0,(KK) of francs : Chaptal estimates the wliole uiunanufactured

liOOK I.

PRANCE.

:fatc, corn-
it almost

grenter
10 cotton
usion of

confess,

mjr new

mar.u-

is, which

number

Even the
izpns out
' from the
Intionary
silk, wore

21,000
liancy of
ixml silk

l(?viin-
nre fiibri-
imated at

ilk. Tho
I'tiiofly in
W(X)1, ami
1(1 similar
or cloths
I and sub-
ts to thn
iifactured

wool at »3,000,(K)0 francs, and tlio finished work at 238,000,000, of which tlie exports
nmount V> alxwt 25,000,000.

The iiiakin<r of linen is as widely scattered ns the culture of hemp and flax. The coarse
cloths aii> chiefly fabricated by the pcasuntry, each out of the produce of liis own little patch
of land. There arc, however, large manufactures of plain useful cloth in Normandy ann
Dauphint', tlie latter from heinp ; and groat <iuantities of sailcloth are made in the maritime
countries. In the departments along tho Belgic border there are extensive fabrics of lawns,
cambrics, and lace ; which la.st, though not of equal reputation with that of Urussels and
Mechlin, forms yet an important object of trade. We may reckon tho raw material of hemp
at 37,0(K),000 francs ; the finished manufacture at nearly 110,500,000 ; flax, raw material,
20,0(M),(HH), tlie finished fabric, 75,000,000. The exportation is about 37,500,000, olmost
wholly of the finest kinds of the manufiicture.

The cotton manufacture was established in France during the continental system ; and
has been prop[)od up since the restoration of the Bourbons by the prohibition of im|X)rtation
from abroad. In 1810 the imports of raw cotton amounted to above 25,000,000 lbs., and
during the next ten years they wi^re more than doubled. But the high price of machinery
in France, tlie ncarcity of coal, and the want of skill on the part of the workmen, seem to
oppose almost ii suporable obstacles to the further progress of the manufacture. It is at pre
Bent in a very depressed state, and the following account shows that it has been nearly sta-
tionary during the last ten years : —

Imports of Cotton Wool into France.

Iba.

1888 (il,75H,300

18Sa .'iO,!l.53,.'SOO

m» T.wjs.aoo

I8M fil.aTlfiOO

ias» : .... 96,052,200

1827 87,185,100

1828. 01 ,839,000

1H29 72 ,««!» ,000

18:K) H4„s2S.000

1831 05,517,000

[In 1834, it again rose to 279,674 Imlcs, or about 73,250,000 lbs. ; and in 183.5, to 314,350
bales, or about 94,000,000 lbs.— Am. Eu.]

Of the secondary objects of manufacture, that of leatlier is perhaps the most extensive,
though not peculiarly French. It is supposed that in France the annual product amounts to
857,000 cow-hides; 110,000 horse-hidos, and 2,032,000 calf-skins. There are 31,000 shoe-
makers in Paris, who make upwards of eight millions of pairs of shoes yearly, not only for
the city itself, but the provinces, and even foreign countries. Chaptal reckons the whole
produce of tanning, currying, shoemaking, and all processes connected with leather, at
]43,000,()00 francs. Hard soap was formerly supplied by Morseilles to ail France and the
colonies, but its produce of 22.5,000 quintals is now reduced by a third; owing piirtly to the
reduction of the colonial demand, and partly to the more general difTusion of tiio manufacture.
It is thought still to amount to 30,000,000 francs. Starch, including hair-powder, may amount
to 18,000,000 pounds. There are sundry little matters of jewellery, trinkets, furniture, per-
fumery, scented waters, volatile salts, which elsewhere are only petty trades, but which taste
and fashion in France raise to the dignity of manufactures, tlie whole produce of which is
reckoned at upwards of 100,000.000 francs. Crystal, glass, and pottery arc branches in
which the French have recently made great progress; and, from being dependent on
foreigners for these articles, are now able to export them. The first two branches are esti-
mated at 21,000,000 ; porcelain made at Sevres and other places, at 5,000,000 ; iwttery in
imitation of English, a little more; coarse pottery for the lower ranks, l."),000,(MM).

Mineral kingdom. France yields in abundance the most solid and useful of all metals,
iron. There are alwut 400 forges in tho king<loni, chiefly in the Pyroncan and .\lpine de-
partments, and along the heads of the Marnc, the Moselle, and the Sa6ne.

The produce which M. Chaptal reckoned only 81,000,000 kilogrammes, had, according to
M. Dupin, risen in 1825 to 101,0(K»,000 (alxiut 161,000 tons), the value of which would be
about 7.5,000,000 francs. Chaptil supposed the workmanship bestowed even on the smaller
quantity prmlucod in iii.s time siifTiriont to raise the value to 200,000,000 francs. Nearly all
the copper and lead employed in IVaiice is imiiorted from abroad. Salt is extracted on the
southern coast from sea- water ova|)oratod by the heat of the sun, and in the north from
brine-springs artificially ovoixirafml. During the period when salt, relieved from the old
oppressive mi)nn]K)ly, \vas lofl eiitiroly free, its production and use rose to the extraordinary
height of upwards of 20 millions of quintals. Since the re-establishinont of tiio t'lx, it has
fallen to not luite two millions; upon which there is paid a duty of 45,0(X),(K10 francs. This
astonishing diminution seems chiefly owing to the disuse of it in anrictiltnro; a circiiinstance
liowevcr very injurious to that hrniich of industry. Other mineral iirodncts, witli their sup-
posed value, are, alum, 2,5(KI,000; saltpetre, 3,000,0(K); nitric acid, 6,0()0,()0(> ; muriatic
acid, 2.50,0{M).

The total value of the products of tho mines and manufiicturos of France is ostiniated at
2,00t^ 000,000 francs. The particulars are about 4.50 millions of home raw materials; 225
millions of foreign raw materials; 900 millions of workmanship ; 225 millions of general ox-

Vol. I. 3 S

fin'':

?..il

;>;h,

> ;:■'

Ii." .

if I

538

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PabtIII

pense, as implements, repairs, lijfhting, interest of fixed capital ; 200 millions for the profit
of the munufaeturcr.

The commerce of France, while all the other branches of industry were thus advancing,
has perceptibly declined. It was reduced, indeed, to a state of temporary annihilation by
the violent [xilicy of Napoleon, who absolutely lined the coast with troops, timt not a single
vessel might enter. Thus all the commercial ties of France were broken, every channel
closed by which slie was accustomed to exchange her commodities with those of foreign
countries. Indeed, the anti-commercial spirit stems to have become rooted in the mind of
the nation ; and when we find even the enlightened mind of Chaptal extolling the prohibi-
tory system, and considering every thing as a source of loss to France wiiich she imports
from abroad, there can appear little prospect of any amendment That writer considers the
year 1789 as the most flourishing period of French commerce; when the exports amounted
JO 18,a(Kt,()(KW. sterling, and the imporU to 26,500,000/. This extraordinary excess of
imports, tt result, according to old ideas, considered so disastrous, he explains by observing,
that the imixirts include ten millions firom the colonies, while the exports thither were only
four, and also two millions and a half in gold and silver. Whether this explanation be sound
or otherwise, we have no idea that there could be any permanent or extensive difference be-
tween the two branches. Chaptal has, with grief, declined to give any record of the feeble
efibrts at revival ujade by the French commerce. Since the appearance of Chaptal's work,
however, it has cDnsiderably improved. In 1827, the import trade was carried out by 3350
vessels, under the French flag, tonnage 353,000, value of cargoes 230,140,000 fi-ancs; and
by 4439 foreign vessels, tonnage 474,0(K), value of cargoes 136,041,000 francs. There were,
besides, imported by land, goods to the value of 199,621,000 francs; making the imjwrta in
all, 56.5,802,()(H) frnncs.

In the same year the export trade was carried on by 3522 French vessels, tonnage
346,000, value of cargoes 23.5,120,000 irancs; and 4141 foreign vessels, tonnage also
346,000, value of cargoes 167,728,000 francs. The exports by land amounted to 156,767,000
francs ; making in all, 559,615,()(K) francs.

The following was the value of the leading articles of import and export : —

IMFORTS.

Francs.

Haw hiilcs 8,700,000

Wools 11,140,000

Feathers l,.W0.00O

Silks 32,270,000

Tallow 2.500,0(10

FfHitB to plant 1,220,000

Tobacco 7,650,000

VcKotahle juices 2,270,000

Oils, noi for fooil 31,430,000

Medic 2,130,000

Wooil 17,0110,000

, ornamental 2.000,000

Hemp 4,210,000

Flax 56,000

Cotton 51 ,010.000

Gems 8,200,000

Sulphur 1,200,000

Coal 8,080,000

Cnsl-iron 1,170,00()

Copper 0,110,000

Tin 2,130,000

P.itash 3,420,000

Indigo 14.880,000

Horses 3,3<iO,000

Sheep 6,400 000

Horned cattle 9,520.000

Butter l,!HiO,0flO

Ejus 3,830,000

Grain 7,150.000

Cheese 3,140.000

Fruits 1(1,200.000

8u|jar 3(1,000,000

Coffee 10,000,000 j

Strawhnts 4.,'>.5O.O0fl i

Mnen, orhenipi<liitr«, 1,5.880.000

Mercery 2,170,000 i

Mercantile navy. In 1827, the mercantile navy of France consisted of 14,530 vessels,
of tlie burden of 700,000 tons. Of these there belonged to—

E.\F0RT8.

Dvestuffi 8,300,000

Gt-ni.t 3,120,006

Horses 1,200,000

Mnles 4,840,000

Sheep 1,420,000

Horned cattle 2,530,000

Reflnedsuijar 4,550,000

Wine, ordinary 41,510,0(H)

, liqueurs 5,730,000

Brandies 32,970.000

Straw-hats 2,0(10,000

Porcelain 3,(180,000

Glass 2,(500,000

French books .3,140,000

Paper 3,000,000

Perfumery 5,300,000

Cloths, wool 20,920.000

, silk OO.HtJO.OOO

, ribands 24,380,000

, crtton 4(1,020,000

. linen 17,370,000

Cambric and lawn 10,580,000

PlaqutS 3,170,000

Clock and watch-work 4,240,000

Tnhletterio 3,700,000

Mercery • 0,880,000

Mode,. 2.300,000

Made clothes 0,480,000

Parisian articles 5,600,000

Stiipi. Tom.

Bordeaux 431 77,000

Marseilles 711 (15,000

Havre 359 62,000

Ship,.

Nantes 537 .

Rnuen 2.'>4 .

Dunkirk 230.

Tnni.

.,5n,iH)n

.28,00(1
.17,500

Tlie interior commerce must lie very extcnsivi^. tliiiiigli it is diflicult to psti ite its amount,
as, notwithstanding ronsidrrnblo n/lvantacres for iiiiviirntiDn, the bulk of it •urriod on by
land. The old inodinm of/«n-.v ha.-; been not only prc-'crved, but greatly c- 'i'"d. .M. nottin,
uix)n documents fdininlKMl by the minister of tlio interior. calciilatcH tliiit '' ic are 26,31''i

8,300,000
3,130,006
1,290,000
4,840.000

i,4ao,uou
2,sa«,ouo

4,550.000
41,S10,0II<I
5,720,000
22,970,000
2,0(10,000
3,(i80,000
2,000,000
3,140,000

:i,Dr)U,ooo

5,300,000

.. 20,920,000

!IO,HtJO,0(X)

. . 24,380,000

.. 4I>,020,000

.. 17,370,000

.. 10,580,000

3,170,000

4,240,000

3,7i)0.(X)0

0,880,000

2,300,000

0,480,000

5,600,00))

Tom.
.W.dOfl
28,00(1
17,500

Book I. PRANCE. 63U

fairs in Franco Some of these arc Iield on the frontier of a province or kingdom, others
round a {.'f'- ciiti.jdral or noted place of pilgrimage; some at the foot of high mountains on
the meltiii;- of Uw snows, whicii imve kept tiie inhabitants imprisoned for several months.
Sometimes thoy open vvilli burlosiiue representations, as processions of giants, of flyin<'
dragons, or monstrous fishes. Tiie fair of Longchamp.", held in spring at Paris, those ot
Benucaire in Languedoc, and of Guibray in Normandy, are the most extensive.

'J'he canals of France were long entirely undertaken by the government, wliich carried
on those »vorks with some spirit. The earliest was the Canal of Briaro, to unite the Seine
and the Loire. It is about 38 miles long, 4 feet deep, has 40 locks, and cost 1,0(»0,0()0
francs. Tiie canal of Languedoc is on a much greater scale, and was considered in its day
a stupendous undertaking. It was intended to unite the Mediterranean with the Atlantic,
and is 170 miles long, 0^ feet deep, with 100 locks. The cost was 32,000,000 francs, which
would have been, at least, doubled Iiad the work been executed in the present day. It wan
considered the largest canal in Europe, till it was eclipsed by the Caledonian, which is three
times as deep, and admits ships of war ; whereas the canal of Ijanguedoc has afforded a
mere inland navigation, along which pass 1900 vessels of 100 to 120 tons ; but it has not,
for the most common merchant-vessels, superseded the necessity of going round by the
Straits of Gibraltar. The Canal of the Centre, joining the Saone and the Loire by a line
of 70 miles, was completed in 1793, at an expense of 10,000,000 francs; but only 5 feet
deep. The Canal of Picardy, from the Oise towards Lille, remarkable for its long tunnel
near St. Quintin, was completed in 1810, at an expense of 10,600,000 francs. Still, France,
in this grand national improvement, remained far behind England, which, by M. Dupin's es-
timate, made a few years ago, had more than four and a half times as much canalization in
proportion to its surface. Very recently, however, France has displayed an extraordinary
activity in planning, and a considerable diligence in executing, designs of this nature. This
too has been displayed not by government only, but by private associations, asking only aid
and advances from the-state. Independent of the finished works above stated, twelve great
new canals are in progress. These are, — 1. The Canal Monsieur, joining the Rhine and
the Rhone by the Sa6ne and the Doubs ; length 180 miles. 2. Of Burgundy, joining the
Sadne to the Loire by the Yonnc, 14.5 miles. 3. Of Angouleme, making the Somme navi«
gable to Amiens. 4. A lateral canal along the Loire, to avoid the difficulties of its naviga-
tion, from Dijon to Briaro, 120 miles. 5. From Nantes to Brest, with a view of provisioning
the ports of Britany, 220 miles. 6. Of Ille et Ranee, joining Nantes to Brest and St. Malo.
7. Of Nivernais, joining the Yonne to the LSlre. 8. Of the Duke of Berri, joining the Cher
to the Upper I«ire. 9. Ardennes. 10. Blanet. 11. Aries. 12. Oise. Several canals, on
a still more magnificent scale, have been recently contemplated, an'd what tlic Froncli call
the studies of them are even far advanced ; but no part of the works has yet been com-
menced. Doubts are even entertained if they will repay the immense expense required for
their completion. The principal of these nro, — 1. A maritime canal from Paris to the sea,
avoiding the circuitous navigation of the Seine, and admitting ships of large burden to that
capital. Tiio estimate is 150,000,000 francs, and 1,500,000 francs for a harlrour at Paris.
2. A canal from Paris to Strasburg ; which would become, as it were, the French Grand
Trunk, and migiit easily be extended to the Danube. The length would exceed 300 miles.
1. The Pyrenonn Canal, from Toulouse to Bayonne, forming a more direct communication
from sea to sea than at present. Length, 210 miles.

The roads of France, at least the high roads, have been chiefly supported by government.
They are broader, more spacious, more direct, and on the whole of grander aspect, than the
Englisli roads ; but the^ have not been kept in such good condition for travelling. Roads
have been mode and repaired rather for political and military purposes, from solicitation and
favour, than for objects of real utility. The system seems to have been, to neglect them as
long as possible, till the clamour of the district became irresistible, and then to give them a
thorough repair ; to which Dupin justly prefers the system of keeping roads constantly in a
good state by small repairs as the necessity arises. The French roads, however, have been
greatly improved since 1810, and the maintenance of a great proportion of them ha.s been
undertaken by the departments ; so that they are now divided into royal and departmental.
The royal roads, in 1828, extended 8631 leagues, and there was expended on them
199,000,000 francs; but this was chiefly on repairing and extending different parts of them.
It was thus divided : —

Fnnct.

To innintain 4205 leagues, cost "•^''•59!!

Ti) rciHiir 31li« ditto 01,051,000

To rompleto 814 ilitto 43,403.tH)0

Tooiion 440 ilitto 34,9(14,000

Works of art 50,0%,lifl0

l«9,4fi3,(K)0

The departmental roads, in 1828, extended 7704 leagues, of which 6040 had been
opened, and to complete the remaining 1604 would require an expenditure of 112,000,0il0
francs.

■?i.

' .1;

540

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

Tliere are several rail-roads in France, but of no great extent ; the principal arc that of
Andrezicux and Roanne, 50 niilea in length; that of St. Eticnne and the Loire, 15 miles;
and that of St. Etienne and Lyons, 45 miles.

Of the bridges of Franco several are handsome, as tiiose over the Loire at Orleans,
Tours, and Nantes ; over tiie Seine at Paris, Neuilly, and Rouen ; over the Rhone and
Sa6nc at Lyons; and over the Garonne at Bordeaux. Bridges of su.4pension have been con-
.-tructed at Paris in front of the Hotel des Invalides, and over the Rhone, between Tain and
Tournon. These operations have been entirely in the hands of government.

Sect. VI. — CtDi7 and Social State.

The population of France, wiiich in 1790, by tiie enquiries of Necker, appeared to be
24,800,000, was found by the census of 1791 to amount to 26,363,000 ; by that of 1817, U)
upwards of 29,000,0(K); and by that of 1820-21, to 30,616,000, including Corsica and the
army. According to the royal ordonnance of March 15th, 1827, it amounted to 31,851,546.
There were in that year 965,634 births ; of which 898,329 were legitimate, and 67,;)05 ille-
gitimate. The births consisted of 498,187 boys, and 467,447 girls. The marriages were
229,613, the deaths 772,428. At an average the proportion of nmle births in France to female
births is as 16 to 15; the marriages are to (he population as 1 to 1133; the births are to the
marriages nearly as 4 to 1 ; and to the population as 1 to 31.53 ; the deaths are to the popu-
lation as 1 to 39.4. The extraordinary improvement since 1780 in the condition of the people
is obvious from the fact that at the last-mentioned period the deaths were to the whole popu-
lation as 1 to 30.2 : so that while, in 1780, one individual died annually out of every 30
individuals, in 1832 one only died out of about SO.*

The French national character has very marked features, and has been the object of
mingled admiration and contempt to the neighbouring nations. In the eyes of Frenchmen,
especially of the old school, la bdli; France is the centre of all that is refined and polished
in human existence, and whatever lies beyond its sphere is marked with a deep taint of bar-
barism ; while their rougher neighbours brand them as artificial, effeminate, and fantastic.
The art of living in society seems certainly carried to greater perfection than in any other
country ; and the manners are characterised by a peculiar gaiety, amenity, and courtesy.
The polish of the higher ranks seems to have descended even to the lowest circles. "The
man who breaks stones upon the road takes off his hut to the woman that leads her cow in a
string ; the tinker and the shoeblack whip off their hats to each other." A certain openness
and kindness of disposition is certainly evinc^ in the custom of whole families, wiih married
sons and daughters, continuing to dwell under the paternal roof The Frenchman lives as
it were in public : his house, for a part of the day, is open to a largo circle of acquaintance.
He enjoys society without expense and ceremony. He resorts habitually to the tlieatre,
spectacles, and scenes of public amusement. In more serious points of view, the French
possess estimable qualities. Intoxication is a vice confined to the lowest ranks ; and swear-
ing is repelled at least as a mark of barbarism. The Frencli are ingenious, acute, active, and
intelligent. If they have not what can strictly be called patriotism, they have at least ii
very strong national feeling. To exalt the glory and promote the influence of France, is the
prevailing impulse which actuates the mind of almost every Frenchman. It is, however,
alleged, tliat there is a want of that sterling principle, that openness and integrity, which
forms the boast of the Engliish character. Dis-simulation and insincerity pccm widely dif-
fused through the intercourse of the higher circles. Tiic honesty of the lower classes is,
however, remarkable; and the system of higgling inshojw, is a consequence of the contracted
state of commerce. The deportment of the female sex, liowever embellished by tournure,
and the graces, does not accord with our ideas of social anil domestic proi)riely. The young
ladies are strictly watched, and held in almost monastic seclusion; but the era of marriage
is the sigpiil, if not of positive irregularity, at least of a syetem of regular flirtation, which
we cannot reconcile to the conjugal and matronly ciiaractor. It is probable, however, that
the impression of the general dissoluteness of French manners has been chiefly derived
from the opulent circles of the capital; while, as a late writer has observed, Paris and the
piC'inces form entirely separate worlds. Among tlie peasantry, and even among the trading
class in the cities, there appears to be much that is respectable and amiable. The great
activity and prominent station of the female sex are everywhere conspicuous: they are seen
manofring the shops, carrying on great manufactories, and joining in the hardest toils of the
loom and the field. It is not at all uncommon upon a farm to see the master sowing, liis<
wife guiding the plougli, and a fine girl filling the dung-cart. Such avocations divest the
fair sex in the provinces of any great portion of Iicauty. Indee<l, the gay hilarity of the
French character does not seem quite so universal as is generally supposed. Travellers in
the south, from Arthur Young to those of later date, complain rather of a singular gravity
and taciturnity. Mr. Matthews remarks in his " Diary of an Invalid," that a very con-

[* The population in 1833 was 33,500,UOO.— Am. Go.;]

BdOK I.

FRANCE.

&11

sidetablc clmnge of manners has taken place since tlie Revolution. All the distinctions ot
rank have been cut down like the old trees of the forest, and the new generation, like tin.'
coppice, are uU on a lovel. " You will seek in vain," lie says, "for that hijrli-bred polish of
manners, which has been so much boasted as peculiar to Uie huul-lon of France. A re-
publican spirit prevail.-', and shows itself in an independent roughness of manner, savouring
of sans-culottisiu."

The Uoiiian Catholic lias been the ruling religion in France, ever since the fatal issue of
the long struggle for religioiis liberty. Previously to the Revolution, however, a general
Bcepticism pervaded all the well-informed classes, lH)th as to the Catholic tenets, and as to
religion in general. This was doubtless one great cause both of the Revolution and of many
of the fatal and disastrous aspects which it assumed. A furious anti-religious fanaticism
reigned ; all fonn of public worship was suspended, and even prohibited; the churches were
rifled and defaced in a barbarous manner. At this time the vast domains of the church, by
which so many dignitaries and so many convents were supported in splendour, were voted
tlie property of the nation, and sold at a low price to supply its necessities. Napoleon had
the merit of re-establishing religious worship, and on a very liberal footing; an allowance
being miule for the support of the Protestant clergy, proportioned to the number who still
hold that faith, and who amount to about 1,5(K),(KHI. As all the former funds however had
disappeared, the establishment is sup|)ortcd out of the public revenue, and is frugal, and even
scanty, both as to numbers and salary. In 1H31, there were four cardinals, ten archbishops,
and sixty-six bishops. After the intermediate classes of vicars and canons come the cures,
or parish priests, amounting to 3000, with incomes of 1000 or 1500 francs ; but the chief
labour devolves upon 23,(X)0 desserviins, or acting curates, who starve upon 400 or (500
francs a year with the addition f "only some small fees. The whole church expenditure, in
ISiia, amounted to 1,575,000 liv 's, but in 1832 was reduced by a third ; and the church
has been in a somewhat unsettlec. state. The Bourbons were supposed to aim at restoring
it to all its former power, splendour, and privilege; a course viewed with extreme jealousy
by the republican party. The high church party endeavoured to remedy the deficiency of
the establisb.ment by sending sound missionaries who were listened to by the people with
enthusiastic delight. The author of " Four Years in France" mentions one who in depart-
ing from a city had his cassock torn oft" his back, and cut into pieces to be distributed as
relics. The liberals deride them as ignorant fanatics ; but some travellers who cannot bo
charged with superstition, report them as displaying a good deal of natural elotpience, and
that their doctrmes appeared really very edifying, since many persons who had been guilty
of thefls, even at remote periods, were induced by them to come forward and make confession
and restitution.

The intellectual character of the French has been brilliant, and since the age of Louis
XIV. has had a powerful influence, in matters of taste, on the general literature of Europe :
that prince, ambitious of glory in every form, extended a munificent patronage to letters and
arts. The French Academy, though its endowments were not very splendid, and though
intrigue often influenced its admissions, gave a fixed and high place in society to men of
letters ; who, amid all the frivolity of French character, were received even among the highest
ranks with a distinction not accorded to them in any other modern country. The aim of
Ijouis to make the French a sort of universal language was in a great measure successful ;
it became the established dialect at all the courts, and the chief medium by which the different
nations communicated with each other. The departments in which the writers of that age
excelled, were chiefly pulpit eloquence, poetry of a light and satirical character, and the
drama in a somewhat fettered and artificial form. The writers of the following age took a
Iwlder and more varied flight, and sought to turn the opinion of mankind into new channels
upon all subjects. Thewitand variedtalentof Voltaire, tlie eloquence of Buftbn and Rousseau,
the comprehensive views of Montesquieu, and the science of D'Alenibort, gave a new turn
to the ideas of the thinking world throughout Europe. These writers, with their successors
of the same school, had a powerful influence in bringing on this revolution, in tlin ruins of
which several of them were buried. Learning was for some time almost extinguished in
France; but as soon as the revolutionary frenzy abated, the National Assembly constituted
a new body called the National Institute, round which, under the changed appellations of
Imperial and Royal, all the highest names in science have since continued to rally. The
French during this period did not .shine in poetry or general literature; but in iivitiioinatici-,
physics, and chemistry, the labours of Ijavoisier, Laplace, Lalunde, Chaptal, and a niinilicr
of others, have, notwithstanding the ]K)werful rivalry on the other side of the Channel, raised
them (icrlmps to the very first place. Recently Franco has produced some very eminent
historians, and popular ixiets of a peculiar character ; there has been also a remarkable exten-
sion of the habits of reading. The periodical sheets printed were in 1814 only 45,000 ; in
1826, they were 144,000. The most solid and useful branches also arc those which have
most increased, as appears from the following table, fonned by M. Dupin : —
Vol. I. 46

.'42

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pari ftl.

No, »r ShMti [Tinted. '

No. of sliMts printed.

1H14. lt<<JU.

*U,(m 1,44.1,(100
77a,(XHI l.WI'.MHH)

i;i,;«-j,n(io •j7,7«4,(KHt

1I1,>.'-.'C.,(I()0 4li,.>-M,l)(lfl
;l,l.(HI,()(HI 1 7,li!IU.(IU()

1 '•

mt.

IC'JIp. 1

1.:174,(KKI

a.^i^iKN)

7.W,(HKI
l.lItU.MIt)

an.aiH.cHK)
iH,r,«,'i.o(i«i 1

I'illilMHKI 1

;),(i:«,(i(H)

•.MKI7,tKKI

S»0|.MIC.>^<

rililiimiphv

llclli'K Li'Urei)

IliKliiry, Trnviln, Su;

VnricticH, Ahnniiriry, fee

' I'oliUiiil Krniinliiv

L. :

Tlio litoriiry nnd i^cientific collections of Paris ure the most splondid in Europe : tlie royiil
libniry cDiilaiiis S(MMMK) pi .ited volumes, KHMHHt inaniiecripts, r)(MH) voiiinies ofciijfravings,
iinil 1,1)(H1,()0(> liistorieal (locuiiioiits. There iiro sixteen other libraries in Paris, contiiiniiig
8(K),0()0 viiliimcs. The Museum of Natural Ili.'itory and the Jardin des Plantes are equally
copious in tlieir re.-ipective departments. All these are opened to the public in the most
liber.il niiiimcr. The provincial collections are also respectable, though they do not equal
those of the minor princes of Germany ; and Fmnce is, on the whole, less rich in this speciea
of treasure.

Amonjr the establishments for public educ^ition in France, the universities, whicli are
twenty-si.\ in number, hold the first rank. That of Paris is perhaps the most celebrated in
Europe, and \v;is, even in the dark ages, the grand theatre of those dialectic combats, which
then usurped the lionours of science. Thougii destroyed during the fury of the Revolution,
it has been re-established on a great scale, and with a larger appointment of professors than
ony other in Europe; it attracts students from every part of the kingdom, as none of tho
rest enjoy equal repute, and indeed bear at present only the name of academics. The Lycees,
now called royal colleges, are an institution of Napoleon ; the expense of board and educa-
tion is from 350 to 750 francs a year ; but they enjoy a very unwarrantable monopoly of the
right to teach Latin; they were attended, in 1825, by 10,000 pupils. Primary schools
intended for tlio general instruction of the people amounted in 1825 to 22,900, and were
attended by 110,000 scholars. Lancosterian schools have since been introtluced, and
amounted in 1820 to 8(K), attended by 80,000 scholars. M. Dupin remarks striking local
difTcrcnces in this respect. In the north, 13,0tXt,0(K) of inhabitants send to school 740,000
children ; while in the south, 18,0(K),000 send only 375,000 : even in the south, the propor-
tion is largest in the districts least favoured by nature, the Upper Alps and the Upper
Pyrenees; while in Touraine, emphatically called the garden of France, it is only one in
220. All these establishments are under the patrtmage and control of the government, which
grants annually alwut .'S.OO' ^(KIO francs for tticir support.*

The fine arts were zealously promoted by tho regent duke of Orleans, and by I^ouis XIV. ;
and though they never reached the splendour of the Italian or even of the Flemish schools,
yet they could boa.st several masters of the first class; the Poussins and Claude I-orraine,
having fixed their residence and even found their scenery in Italy, became half Italian. Le
Brun and Le Sueur were the chief artists decidedly French : of whom the former enjoyed
the favour of tho king, and the chief direction of the great works ; but the latter has been
pronounced by posterity to be his superior. After this the French school sunk greatly, and
was employed in delineating only the artificial forms of court society ; but within the last
thirty years a new school has sprung up, in which David, Gerard, Guerin, Girodet, and their
followers have sought, not witliout success, to imitate the highest classical models. The
French school has produced a series of very eminent engravers ; and the names of Desnoyers,
Bervic, and Massard still support its reputation, though it no longer surpasses, or perhaps
equals, those of England and Italy. Tho French galleries of art have passed through
many vicissitudes: before the revolution they were certainly the first out of Italy. During
that convulsion, all the collections of the princes and nobles were put up to sale; the entire
Orleans collection was carried to England ; tho Crozat went to Russia ; various minor col-
lections shared the same f itc. When the French, however, over-ran Italy and the Nether-
lands, they were seized with the desire of enriching Paris with treasures of art, and carried
off whatever could be removed from among the masterpieces of the Flemi.'^li and Italian
mas'ters, and of ancient sculpture. Thus was assembled in the Iiouvre a display of all that
is most brilliant in art, such as nothing before existing in the world could have rivalled. But

*[Il iipppiirs from nfflrini (loci.in(!nls, tlint in 18X1 lhi> iitiiiil.nr of rhililrtin Iwtweoii Ihi! ni!t?s of two nnil six
ycurji, WHS 2,744..'ii4, of w Iumii ahoiit SUO.(HH) iiltiniiliii iitfaiil frlmols ; of tiiosc liclwieii six anil fifteen yi'tirn, tliorc
wort! 4.(IH7,2til, of wliit^li 2,44!),T2.5 iiltniiilfil tlir primary uliooln ; anil of pfrenns iihovo fiflni'ii, tliiire were 2a,IHifi,170,
of wfiiini H.MS.H.W coulil nnillier rciiil nor write ;— so tliat lliore were niiirly 1(1.4(10,000 persons ahove the ate of
two years, who roceiveil no instruction at all. The same papers Rivo the following slatcinonts of tho iKhaolil
^.visting, on.! of the nuinher rei|iiircil to educate the whole population : —

Infant Schools 1,000 actual nnnibcr. 40,000 rei|iiircil number.

Priniaryilo TO,4C>7 " .M.'JtH

PeiualB WorkinRcIo ],000 " 20,000 "

Adiiltilo 2,31)1 " 54,840

Totals 34,S

160,124

Ah. Ed.]

ttl.

ItS'M.

An. Ed.]

Book I.

PRANCE.

54H

a dire reverse awaited the nation. The allied armieH who conquered nt Wntorlno, and thence
advanced to f)ccupy Paris, determined to exact full restitution of all this brilliant lM«)ty. The
Venus, Apollo, and Transfijruration were sent off for Rome ; the Descent t'rorn the CroHs for
Antwerp; and nnmborlo;<8 other masterpieces were restored to their ancient posHossora. The
unseemly gnpn thus left were filled up by native productions and otiiers taken from the
palaces ; and the gallery presents a coup dail almost as brilliant as ever ; the intrinsic value,
however, is vastly diminished ; though since the purchase of the Borghosc collection it still
comprises some of the finest specimens of ancient sculpture.

The houses in France under the former regime presented a "Treat variety ; for wliile the
mansions of the nobles displayed a profuse splendour and luxury, and might be characteri.soil
as palaces, those of the body of the people, compared with the English, were very deficient
in neatness and comfort; the rooms being dark, the passages stragglinjr, tlie floors of stone,
the doors and windows by no means well finished. The palaces, however, can no longer
be maintained as such by their impoverished owners; and all the fine old cliatcaus throughout
France are converte<l into barracks, prisons, or manufactories. On the other hand, tlie habita-
tions of the peasantry, as well as their general condition, appear to be sensibly improved.

Amusement used to form as it were the life of a Frenchman, and was sought for in every
various and possible shape ; but since the Revolution a very great change has taken place in
tliis respect. Paris still claims to be, as it were, the centre of gaiety to the civilized world.
The Parisians go from home in search of amusement much more than their neighbours ; almost
all their leisure is spent in places of public resort, which are open on terms tliat render them
accessible to all classes. DM>icing is an exercise peculiarly French, in which, as to agility,
and perhaps grace, they excel most nations. Much of their time is also spent in the open
air ; and the extensive ranges of gardens in Paris are provided with every recreation suited
to the tastes of its citizens. Although many improprieties doubtless mingle with these enter-
tainments, especially in Paris, there is less of intoxication, turbulence, or quarrelling, than
in the amusements of the lower orders in England : so far, even as concerns the public places,
there are fewer open violations of decorum.

Dress is a particular in which the French long claimed, and were allowed to give the law
to the rest of Europe. Paris has been for ages the grand tuafrasin des modes. In that
capital seems to have originated the system which is termed fashion, and which consists in
the continual change, according to a prescribed model, of the form and construction of every
part of the human attire. Such light and constant changes, however, while they indicate
an inordinate attention to the object, seem as inconsistent with the formation of a pure and
elegant taste, as the immutable costumes of our ancestors and of the East. The empire of
Paris seems considerably shaken by the extinction of its brilliant societies, and its long separa-
tion by war from the other countries ; but its influence remains still very considerable in this
department.

In the preparation of food, the French equally boast of a refinement and recherche supe-
rior to that of the other European nations. Instead of plain joints presented in their natural
form, French cookery delights in what arc called made dishes, stews, fi-icassccs, and ragofits,
which retain few traces of the original material. On the merits of this system various opin-
ions have been entertained ; but at present the fashion of this cookery out of France is on
the decline, and the time seems past when it was considered a matter of state that the tables
of the great should be covered with French dishes.

Sect. VII. — Local Geography.

The local divisions of France, prior to the Revolution, were provinces, thirty-two in num-
ber, most of which had formed independent states, and even little kingdoms, when they were
merged into the mass of the French monarchy. The National Assembly, however, super-
eeded this division by one much more minute, into departments ; which has been retained by
the Bourbons, and is the basis of all administrative operations. It is indeed very convenient,
being founded upon natural divisions of rivers and mountains: all the departments are toler-
ably equal as to magnitude, ond each has its seat of administration nearly in the centre. All
the exclusive privileges and restraints upon internal communication, wliich were attached
to the arrangement into provinces, have been happily removed. Yet these divisions must
still be kept in view, not only because they are necessary for the imderstandiiig of history,
but because they remain rooted in the mind of the nation, and often mark strikin^r difl'crences
of race, of manners, and even of language. It would not consist witli our limits, or be
interesting to readers out of France, to enter into a detailed description of each department;
hut the following tables will exhibit a very comprehensive view of their respective statis-
tical details. The first exhibits the departments in their relation to the ancient provinces,
their extent according to the report of the commission of the Cadastre, their population
according to the census of 1827, and their chief cities and towns. The square French league
may be reduced to the square English mile by multiplying by P, or more closely, 7.84.

The following table exhibits both the provinces and the departments as nearly as possible in
their relation to each other, with their extent in square leagues, and the population of the capi-
tal and principal towns according to the estimate formed by the French government in 1827 •

t !

i|i^

H ['

j^ %

544

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

I ITuliiicciaiHl l)f|>inuttlili.

iPlnnilcrn.. . Nnrd

Artiiii....
PIcartly...

N'liriiiaiiily

U\i> nr
FraiicB . . .

Clininpngiic

laorrninc . .
Aliiacu

I'n* (l(! Ciiliilii .

HnllllllO

I.iiwtr Bi^liii)..

Cnlvaclni

Mniicho

Drue

Ktirt;

' 8('IM0

Si-iiiu uikI C>i«n

OiKI!

8<'liic' mill MariiH
. iWtiw

Mnriio

ArliMiiiva....

Aiilitt

L'ppnr IMariie

MriHn

Mnni'llo I:i;)il

Britany —

Mnlnn ninl \
PiTdiu... (

Anjim

Touraino. .

Orliiunn

,.„!

IVrri .

Nivcrnaid .

Oiirfunily

PrancI
ciimtu

■I

IP. s

Itu ...1

Mciirlliii.
Vn^ifl'fl

t'lipiT Rhllll!....

LiiniT Ithiiii^ , ..
lllf anil Viliiiiii.'.
CVitpii ilii Niinl. ..

riiiiHlcrrn

Morhilinii

hiiwiT Ijiiiri,'. .. .

jMnviMwid

Sarilii!

MaiiiunnilLiiiru
Iiiiln* anil I.t>lru.

I.iiiri'l

Klin* anil Loire .
Lniriinil f|ii;r...

Iiiilni

ChlT

\ir>vri!

Ymtiiii.

rnic il'Or

Ain

• 595

Hpprr Saiinn SJIIU

Itiiibs ,27(1

Jura '254

MarrliP.I.i- S
mouHiii . . i

AiiniH.Saiii' >
toiiKi.'. An- \
irniiinuis . . >

Aiivorgne .
Lynnnaix. .

Dauphiiiy.'

Ouienne ..■■!,
BonrhnnnaiH

Viinili'n 341

Two Suvriw o<Kj

Vinnni) iut)

f'roii7.o

Upper Vii.'iino
Cnrrfzc

WIS

f'harnnto 'apo

I.nwrr Cliarcntc J3(I7

Piiy ilo Drum.'
Canial

I Rhnnu

[.oiro

htirc

Upjicr Alps ..

Driiinn

l>()rili)iiiie ....

Oiriinilo

I.iU ani*Garonn<;!'24'i

l^>)>uUliuo.

,:n!i
i,;i7;i

40!l
274
141

a:t4
4'.>n

27.'i

47li
.'il

Oancnny
anilllvain

Foil

Riiunajllo'i .

I.angui'ili)c.'

ProvRncc . • ■
Coreica ....

Lot

.Aviyron

Tarn and Oa-

ronno

Alliir

l.aniln» 4.V1

fJi'rs 312

L'ppnr PyriMiPi'S . ^Xi

I/)«tr PyrcnecB. 3Hi

.Arric'sr '287

KastiTii Pyri'ni'Pii aa?
FppiT Ganinno .3311

.Ktli
200
:il,?
3(13

1.W

Anil.

Tnrn

Hi'nmit

Onril

Lnzi^re

Upper TiOirc
Ariliif he ....

IjiwiT Aliw 27.5

MiiiitliK nf Ihn '

Rlinni'

Var |:ifiP

V'aiicluse 187

tJnraica !

IHJ2.II4H

04H,IIUU

M\,

(iHH,

smi,
(ill
4:14

421
1,1113,
4411,
3K'),
3IH,
4H1I,
IK.-!
2X1
341
244

:«w,

41)11,
4U3,

3711,
4UH

5:u,

5.'>3,
iV'l
MH
427,
4.'i7
a.M
4411,,

4.'lM.

'.fKI,
104,
277,
'J30,

•j;i7,i

24H,^
'J7l,i

:m2

37(1,!

Cllln uul Tnn ni, wllh Ihclr h>|mlalliin ia 11117.

Mllii (Nt.H'iU

Arra> 3'j,17:i

,2M2 Anilcna 42

,'JtiA'ltiMinn IHI

,(l,1«;('n«n 3H

,'J(HISt.I.i H

Al«n(im 14

Kvrnix II

Pnria RPU

,H71 Vi'mnilliia..., 311

I'i4.lli'nnvaiii 12

'JUUl.Mi'liin 7,

..'MiUll.aiin 7,

.IM.'ill'liiiliini) 12

,l)'24 AliiziCrnii 4,

. iWjTriiyp" •
.w!3t'liBnniiint.
,33n;iliir la Due .

,();w
.Kltl
741
,4117
,453
.IW

,M.11

,454
,(l!lfl

;iM

5111

,1174

M«U...

Nitiiiy
Kpinal . .,
I'lilinar...

HtrHKlniru

Konni*]* 2!).

Ht. Brii'iix ....

Uniiiipiir 10

VaimfB II,

NanlnK 71,

Laval l.y

Li' Mann II)

Amji'm 2)),

,lii().Tiiiir» 2n

.'.►JH Oleaim 40,

,7H2('liarlri.' 13,

Bli.iB 11,

(,'hiilnaiiruiix . 10,

HoiirKiia Ill,

Nuvors 13

,.. . Aiixprro 1'.'

,!l4:i'Dijim 23,

,77(1 Marnn 10,

IlnnrK-eii- ( „
BreaBC

I Diiiiny

^Dunkirk ...

j Ihinlniina.. .

) Ht. Oiiiur . . .
Ahlwvlllu ....

Havro

Hayi'ti X

I'licrltunrs ....
Ariti'nlaii . . .

I,i>iivicrH

Hri'aitx

tlnin|H.>H

Coinpi^Kiif! . . .
Foiilahii'lilcau
Ht.Quontin ■ .

Hhriina

Beilan

III.HHI

'24,517

111,314

lt),01ll

11),.V.'0

2I.(«4I)

III.INH)

17,(HUI

IM)44

11,242

1,521)

7.Wi7

7,3(;a
7400

17,(1(11
12,«0H

Vajuiiciiiuni'i.
Cam bra I . . .
Calata

fll.Quenthi ,

I)lpp|)«

Fulalaii

C'dUtancva. .

11(,H4I
17,031

tl,l<54

13,351
17,077
10,303
0,032

Bl. Dunia 3,731

McaiK. .
BniManiiB
Kpornay
Itucrny . . ,

Langrea.

Thionvilln
LuMi'ville .
HI. Dill ....

Iti'fiirl

Havcrne. ..
St. Main...
Diiianl....

llri'Hl

L'Orient . . ,

7,1«1

Vcrilun

5,H21
U„m Toul

7,339

4,803

4,W3 Weiaaeinburg.
. !),H38

7,175

2tl,nSS MorlBix

15.310

7,8.1(1
7,4KI

a,OHO

3,300

0,f>«
7,507

6,140

0,761

Mayonno 0,700

Haumur . ..
CliL-rann . . .
Miintargia.

Dri'iix

V'ljniliiini! .
iHHiiudnii..

Si'na . . ,
B< mur .
Aiitua .

341,023 J ■•■;iV«-;. I H,..24

327.041 VpmiiiI 3.252

'iVI,312lll<'i'anroii .... 2H,7!i5
310,2821 Liins \v Sanlnier 7,H(i4

Rray

Pdhtarlitr.

:H2,KJ(1 BfiiirlH)r..Vcnil6c 3,129

1 Fnntnnay
k' Cniiiti.'

2PS,2fin|Niort l.'5,7!)0

2i>7,(170 Piiitiera 2I..V12 t'hdtcllcrault .

2.'i2,!l.32
27fi.351

284,882

3.53.(i,'>3
4'24,147

Ruiirpt 3,44H

LiningcB 3.'i,l>12

Tulle 8,479

.VUI,
'J(i2,

4 Hi,

3iin,
fl'i'i

I'.'S.
285,
4(!4,

5:t8,
xm,

2H),
350,

Anemilpino.
Kni'liille ...

15,300 CoRnac. . .
11,073 Saintoa ..

10,314
4,406

n,«s3

0,247
0,80.1
11,2-23

8,085
4,'220
11,1130 Chfiloiii

V,203
4,549

7,493

0,241

3,017
10,:iao Rnchcfort

nieriiinnl 30.010 Rinm 12,730 Thicra .

Anrilluc Il,.'i7« St. Flour 0,040

■™!H':Ki"'|™.*'-«'''..v™x 2,452

' Monthrisnn .. S.hW St. Eliennc. .. 30,015

Orenohlc .. . '22,149 Vionno 13,780

(lap 7,013 Einhriin 2,300

Vnlenro 10,283 Monti'limnr . . 7,.'>8!l

Pi'rieiiHMx.... 8,.'■>8,^ Bergeriic 8,413

IWirdeanx .... m,M»

Alien 11,!I71 Villenenvc ... 9,405

Cahora 12,413

Rlioilez 7,747 VillolVanche. . 9,521

580 Miintnulian

13,909
11,613

2n.4(iO Moissar 10,115

215,
'2113,
3(17,

,30111
,(10 ll
,()5!l

412.4lin

247
Ml
4(17,

2113,
327,
ll'm.

ai7,

138,
285,
328,
1.33,

Monlina M,.3'25

M.mt lie M.ir.inn 3,(188

Aiich 10,814

Tarhes 8,712

Pan 11,701

Foix

IVrpisnan. .

TlHlloilSI'. . .

Carra^sonne

Alhy

Montpi'linr ,

\ismis

Mende

I.<>PnvcnVolay 14,998

Privns 4.109

Diane 3,n,'i3

Dax.

Bnunrroc . .

) llavonnp .

Oletiin . . .

4,9.W
13,3.17
.53.319

17,773
in,!t93
33,842
39,0118
.5,44.

Xartinnne .
(^iisitrrs . ..
IJi'zirra. .. .
Ainis

5,045

7.037

13,498 Orlhoa .
(i,423

10,097

15,(103

10,315 Soiinn .

10,252

Arce'iliSre
Pii-liron. ..

.■?2fi,302|Marseilli'8.... 11.5,943 Aix.

311,fln.5|To»lnli..
233,048 Avignnn .
183,079' A jarrio .

2 797
23,132 Aries.

30.171 Driii;Mii.'nan

31,180 Oraiii;c

7,0,58 Ilastin

8,010 nrniise

8,804 Cariientraa .
9,527

0,834

9,843

19,808

12,7iri
9,7S»I

^ -tA

UOOIL 1.

FRANCE

MT)

1U,H41

H,M4

13,331

17,(177

lu.aoa

0,034

3,731

7,KW
7,4Kt
S.OHO
3,300

O.PM
7,307

13,000
11,613

0,834

.. . 19.868
12.71f

....... ' <'xliibiU a conipiirative view of the state of culture and pro-

duction Ml tlio (litferonl dopurtmontH of Franco. Tlio amounts of ymin. cattle and woolare
turnisluMl by (.lmi)tal. TJio wine \^ drawn from tlu? report proHi-nled to tiio pcorM by tlio Due
w ^/*'''^'';;JV'•^*^ ^^^ ^^»« '"rcHtri from the memorial of the Bub-odministrator, M. llerbin do
llalle. Iho entire annual amount of land revenue is derived from an estimate of the aver-
a(jo produce of the arpent in each deportment, (bunded upon the Cadastre or ireneral survey
ot the kingdom. It is furnished by Chaptui : — o /

DeptftnitnU.

Ain
Avam

Altiar

Alja, I |'|«r

—— Ijjwi'r

Anlecbt

Arileiiim

Arrirn

Aulio

AuUu

Aveymn

Bobchn Ju Rliouu ■

CilvidfH

CAnul

Cbiraiiti!

— Lower

Cher •

Oirme . • > •

Cole.|*Or
Col.-i du Nt>ra
Crruie
UorJitiriia •

ItouU

Uroaia

Eur«

Eura and Loir •

Flnliterre

GiH

Uinuine, Uj'iier

Oen- -

OirtHKie

lleniilt

lleUHl Vilaiiie

Indre

Imlre uhl l.r>ira

here

Jun

l^ihlei

Lnir nnil Cher

Loire

Loire, I'pp.

— \jtwvr

Ijiirct

Lfit

L/it <od QATonne

Lonre

IVUinn .wtA Ixire

Manche

Mama

——Upper

Mayenne

Meunhe

MauM

Morliihnn

Mnwllo

NIevni

Nonl

Obe

Ome-

Paj« de CiUI:

Piiy dr D-i

PyreiittrB, I/iw
I'piwr
Kutern

Rhine, U

Rhone

Sacne, I'pper

Stone aiul Loire

Surilie

Mvine

— — J^wer ' •

Seine iml Mame

Seine anil Ulie

Sevrw, TvTO

Sonune

Tarn

Tnrn and Garonne

Var

Vaticlnse

VemJtte

Vieniir

V.\>\w

\nagii
Yonne

The Isle of France, now divided into several departments, claims priority of notice as con-
taining^ the capital. It is not, strictly speaking, an island ; but being situated near the junc-
tion of the Oise, the Mame, the Aisne, and the Seine, is intersected by very numerous rivei
channels. It is in general level, fertile, and highly cultivated ; and beneath the surface are
quarries of gypsum so copious, that the substance is commonly designated " plaster of Paris."'

Vol. I. 46* 3 T

*''

m-A

i>IU

DKSCniPTIVi: GKOr.UAl'IIV

Part III.

I'liri*, fho mpitril (if Fnirico, Ims mIsi> nindp prctonxifmH to ho conHulorPil nn tim (jenrrnl
capitiil lit' till? rivili.'.i'il world. liOiiilon rini, in liirt, iilcmn dii-puti- itw rlaiiii, Immiij morn
I'XIiMisivc, iMiirc wenltliy, iitnl the Hi-nt iif ii iniiili inori' oxtcndrd roinincrrc ; ycf llir ri'iitrnl
Rittmticiii nt' l'nri(<, tho [H'ciiliiir n(triictii)ns rondrriiiK it the crowded rottort of nlriin^"'r><, niid
iti( lirillimit iind |Milislii'd wii'icty, (<.->|H'ciiiily under tlin old monnrcliy, (,mv(' to this city ii (fnyer
nepoet, mid rendered it a more ronnpiLMioiis object in the eyon of Kiirope. I'lirin id not only
|e.i-i {K>|iul(iii.s lliiiii LoiKJiin, lint in propoilion to itH (xipnlation if coverH leHH ^jroiind. It (iirins
nil linlli liinliM III" tlie Seine an rlli|we of aliont tour rnileN in length and three in lireiidtli.
'I'hi' |iriiieipiil streets are lonir, narrow, bordered by hi^'h holl-lr•^<, whi(di, like those of Kilin-
liiir'rh, lire enrli iieen|iied by Hovcnil families. The streeiN of dliopM are rintiier eiiciiiiihereil
l>y till' exhibition of the nierchatidinn in front of the doorn, ii pnietiee only tnh'riiled in tho
iiin>l (ih.M'ure (li-'trietH of Uritish ritieH. Paris thilM prewenlH j;er)eriilly a more irloeniy and
confuted anpect than I/indon ; nor lioa it any itrnctnro whieh can nmfeh the ^Tiiidi'iir of Ht.
I'»ur.<, or perhapH the bonuty of VVestminntor Abbey ; yot some of itn (jnarterrt emitain lonjj
ranjje.s of snpcrb and xtately cdificofl, whicli Ijondon cnnnot rival. The |Niluees nf Paris, in
porticnlar, far excel tlioso of tho rival metropolis. Tho mo.^t distirii,MiiMhed is tin- l.onvre,
fmishod with tho utmoHt splendour in tho stylo that distinfjuished the 111,'eof hinis XIV. Its
front, 5*25 ti'ot lonp, \h a model of Hymmotry, tho oflbct of which is only injiireil by the want
rf s|)nro boforo it. The liOuvro is not now occnpied ns a palace, lint as a ^frinid de[H)t of tho
objects of taste ond ort. The gallery, whica is more than a iiiiarlor of a mile line.', and the
walls of which are entirely crowded with paintinps that are still line, tiirms a nia^/niticent
coup (/'n-j/. The hall of gtatucs is still adorned with sonie of the fmest specimens of uiicient

sculpture. The Tuileries, which IB
the present royal residence, was be-
pun at nn earlier period than tho
l/iuvre, and carried on at successive
times; whence it exhibits varied and
sometimes (liscoriliiiit featiireiJ, but is
on the whole a noble and venorublc
edifice, surrounded with fino pir-
dens and avenms. The palace of tho
Lu.\pnd)ourjr (./iV. 2''(l.), on the south
of Paris, and the Palais lliurbon on
the west, are edifices of preiit tiuste
and beauty. The tiirmer, now strip-
ped of the famous series of pnintinps

'I'ho I-.iiK('tiibourK.

Paliiit Koynl.

ncavy and massive, but the interior is richly

by Rub«'n», which hns bonn trnnsferro<i to the J/oiivre pallery, afliinls in one [iiirt a place of
assembly for the Chamber of Peers, ond in another a|)artment"s fiir the exhibition of paintinga
by living artists ; while the Palais Bourbon is in part occupied by the rhamber of Deputies.

The Palais Royal (,AV- 2^1.) is no longer
exclusivoly n palace, but is in part leased
out to sundry persons, fiir [mr|>iiseM partly
of biisinesjs, but much rnon of pleasure;
it is tilled with shops, cnn'ec-houses, tav-
erns, gaming-tables, and every form of
gaiety and di.ssi|mtion which can find flC-
ceptaiice in such a city, .\otrc Panio, the
ancient cathedral of Paris, is somewlint
. lecorated. The modern church of St. (lonc-
vievc, called during the Revolution tlio Pantheon, was highlv extolled during its erection
as destined to eel ipHo botli St. Peter's and St. Paul's; and sm'h was the expectation enter
taincd in France, till, tho scalfolding being remnved and the front thrown open, its inferi-
28*2 orily beciiine iippnreiit : however, it is

still an edifice ofa high class (^ijf. 282.)
St. Sutpice is also a modern structure.
Poris has no fine streets, nor am of those
ample sqllal•(^s which are so great an or-
nament of London. It lioa.-;ts, however,
of itn pU'rrs, which, without hnving the
regular form or dimensions nf 11 scpiarc,
command iidmir.ilion by tlie ranges of
noble buildings tlint siirrouml flieni. In
partictilnr, the Plurr Louis Qiiinzc,
standing in a central situation among tho
'^'""•''' »' Si. Genoviovo. palttccs, presents one of the most bril-

liant pomta of view to be found in any city. This capital possesses also great advantages in

Ik]

I'AIIT III.

Iin i,'mi<'rnl
MMii:r innrp
llic ociitrnl
inji'Tx, mill
:ity II (?ny<'f
in tml only
(1. It liiriiiH
in liriNidtli.
ISC of Kiliri-
i-n<iiiiili<'rt'<l
•iitcil in tlio
irliiuiiiy mill
iidiMir ot'Ht.
[•iii\tiiiii lon^;
i,f I'lirin, ill
till' l.ciuvrp,
li.- XIV. Its
liy till" wmit

(ll|HH<lf llio

iiiii.s "'"1 ^ho
niii^rniticent
MS lit' line iont
iort, svliii'h is
iicc, wax 1)0-
iixl tlimi tho
lit siifcnHsivo
itsviiricd iinjl
"itiirciJ, but, is
inil vfiicruble
itli full) gM-
■ piilni'cnt'thc
),(m tli(!Houth
is HimrlHiii on
of pn'ut tutile
(T, iinw strip-
's of imintinjrs
urt 11 plarc of
1 (if piiintinga
of Drputics.
) is nn longer
in part leased
rixiHt'H partly
of (ilciisure :
lousrs, tav-
pry form of
Clin find Be-
lt rn Diinio, the
is Fomewlmt
of St. (^n'-ne-
its erection
ctulion etiter
icn, its inferi-
. Aviver, it is
nss (;?,«•• 282.)
rn structure,
ir iiii\ of those
I) (jrciit an or-
[i.<1s, however,
it hnviuc the
iif 11 s(iuiire,
u' rmifres of
mil tlii'iii. In
,oi(/.<i Qiiinzc,
ion iimonp tho
the iiio^^t bril-
udvantages in

BookT.

PRANCE.

the wide (irnniiinnteil open Hpacca which lie in thi; very heart of the city. The noiilevanlH,
the ancient rinipart <il {•iiri.-i, when it wim cireiiMiMcrihed within ii inuch n.irrower cuinpamt,
are now runverteil into ii walk adorned with rows of trees, and filled with lllinieroiu exhi-
bitors and vi'iiders of every thing tliiit can conduce to public iiinusenient. The gardens of
the Tiiileries, iind tiu! enibelliMhed \\\mt called iho Chumpn IUij*fei, are also open to the
public.

The stiitistics of I'aris havi; been cnrofully illuslnled in a HorioH of interesting wurkfl by
tlie ('ouut de (Muibnil. The population, in IHTil, ninoiinted to 7l.'),(Ktfl, but has now risen to
H!MU:»1. The blrtlis, in the three yivirs ended IM-JI, iiveraged U-J,7(H); the deallwlW.WHO;
leaving thus U(MK) us the annual excess of hirtlis. A third of all the births were illegiti-
male, and of th'-He only a thir.l were acknowledged by the mreiita. 'I'lio still-born children
were iiveniged IMd.'i. The average of iiiarriageH in the three years was about (MKH). In
the three years T-\'i died of sinali-|)iix, and only one child out of twenty-five was vaccinated.
The violent deaths averiiged ■:{.">(», half of whom wero married persons, and tho most com-
mon cause was domestic chagrin, Drowning wiw tho most frequent miMie: 170 personn
were drowned aiiniially by accident. The consumption of I'nris consisted, in 1H2U, of
70,«W0 oxen; Hll'j cows; 7t,7.-)!) calves; nOl.lMH sheep. The taxes paiil in I'aris amount
to llO.fHMMMM) francs. House-rent amountH to H(),(K)0,(K)0 fVnncs. Tho niimbor of houses,
in H'jl, was ti7,(MH>, with an average of thirty-four doorH and windows in each. 'J'he loans
maile on pledges by the eharitabin establishment called the Mnnt tie I'iiti nmniuit to
10,r»()(MHMt traiics. upon l.CKMMKM) articles, of which 14,5(K),0(K) arc redeemed. There nro
fourteen hospitals for the sick, and eight hmpiris for tho infirm. Tho former received
annually 42,.')(Kt, of whom almut 4(»,(KX) went out cured; tho latter \H,H^. Tho annual
ex|)ense is alxmt 7,(MM),(MK) francs. There is besides nn olllce of charity in each of tho
twelve tirrnnilisfi:mrnf, tho aids of which aro adniinister(!d by "sisters of charity," who
divide the |)oor among themselves, make regular lists of them, and pay tVequent visits.
They make an annual collecliim in their district, tho produce of which is transmitted to tho
office. Tho annual distributions made by tho offices of charity amount to l.^WMKIO tVanca
in monoy; 747,0(M» quartern loaves; 270,0(10 lbs. meat; 10,(KK) ells of cloth, &c. Tho
manufactures of Paris are considerable. Tho principal are of works in polil and silver,
which employ 7000 or H(HMt workmen, and yield a value, according to .M. Dupiu, above
12r»,(K)0,(KtO francs. There are manutiietured also, by i>0(H) workmen, 80,000 gold and 40,(KK»
silver watches, v ith ir),(MK) clocks, which may bo worth 10,000,(KM1 francs. Hngar refinery
is also supposed 'o produce •J0,(KM),(KKHb8., worth .'12,000,000 francs. Eighty jirinting-officos
employ 6()0 presses and IMMM) workmen, and use annually 2H0,(KK) reams of paper; supposed
value S,7.")0,000 francs, Of the various articles above enumerated, there are e.xported to the
value of nearly .'jO.OOO.OlH) fnincs, Paris is visited by 12,(MM) or 1:),0(H) Imts, of which KKH)
are from the lower Heine, and the rest from the upper. Twenty are steam-boats, Tho city
has 10(K) boats of its own.

Tho environs of Paris are not covered with those numerous villas and country residences
which have been constructed to gratify tho rural taste of the citizens of I/indon. Immedi-
ately beyond the gates they present a flat open corn country. They aro chiefly marked by
the royal palaces; superb fabrics, tho works of successive kings, and on which millions have
been expended. The most elak>rato and most splendid is Versailles (Jig. 283,), It was

283

Ctiatoati Bl Vertaillei,

begun by Louis XIII. who found it little more than a village ; but its chief ornaments are
due to 1/iuis XIV,, who, during twelve years, expended immense sums in surrounding it
with every kind of mognificcnce. The front is highly elegant, built of polished stone, and
approached by throe great avenues. The inferior consists of spacious apartments embel-
lished in til" most costly manner, and many parts of them, and of tbn staircases, aro covered
with frescoes executed by eminent French painters. The interior and the gardens are filled
with crowds of statues, partly antique and partly the work of Prencli sculptors. Water
was nf first deficient ; but it has been conveyed in such abundance as to be Lavished in fiin-
cifiil and fantastic fiiritis, — fountains, jets d'eaii, cascades, with which Versailles is more pro-
fusely embellished than any other roynl residence. The two palaces, called tiie Great and
Little Trianon, aro in the vicinity, and are celebrated, particularly tho last, for gardens laid
out in the English style, Tho long residence of the court at Versailles assembled round it
a splendid city formed by the courtiers and great nobles, who considered it necessary to have

™*'

548

DKS( FUl'TIVK OIK )( iUAlM I V.

Paiit III

kt leiut II iiiiinitidti tlii'ri). Hiiinu the tru^ir McriivN of (>rtolM>r, 1*^0, tlio [uilncn Iiiin novel
been iiiliiil)iU><l i th(iii){li tin* UtxirUmH, nl)i>r tli<Mr ri'turri, ulut'i'il it in ropiiir. Ili'iiro IIip
lily lioM ili'dimnl in |K>|mliiti()n, uiiil tlii' latu iimnHiiiii^ ol' llii* nnlilrh iirt' in ii i;rriit iiii'UHiin'
ocrupii'd by F'.i»(rli"li roMidontH, St. Cliniil, limr or llvi' iiiili'n iIibIhiiI I'loni I'lirin, Ih iNirtiuii-
'arly mlniirvd lor it>< i^ardiMiH and t'xtitnxivp vviiixIh, iin i>x('iir"ion to wliirli tiirniH n |Ni|iulur
JkinuHonKMit, (iM|N!ciiiliy on t'cNliv al duyH, It whh tlii> tiiVDiirito rfHidoncr of Nii|H)lt>on, wIkmo
.'ourt wuH tliuncii cuIIimI iIik cuhmi't of Ht. Cloud. Foiitiiint'liliHti iH tho huntiti^-iwut of tlio
uiunurcliy, Ihmhu mirroundoil liy a forvHt of nitnrty IMMHN) ni;r)'>«. Tlio imliic)', iMiilt liy miiu>
coMivti nioiiarcnii, from Friincio I. to I<i)uiii XV., w rliiffly noted for itH lonf; and nuincrouH
ffallnriuH. Aniun^ tliu fow townii in thin country, Mouux Ih diiitin(riiiHlH>d not only liy the
bcantifiil choir ut* itM catliudral, but by huvinff bnen tlip m>t> of Ihi; cidpbriitvil UiwHuct, wliouc
tomb it contuinn. Mnliin w a coPMidcmblo, but ill-built and (flooniy, old town.

Tho northurii deiwrtinonlH, conipritiin)f tin; provincoH of French Flandem, I'icnrilv, and
Normandy, comjinMo to({other an uxtonHive plain, thu richont, niotit HoiiriMhintTi anil niont
highly ntiltivatod in the kint;dom. Thu tiirmii, though of vnriuUM ni-ic, am generally larger
♦.ban in Ihn rest of France; tho improved Kngliiih pnxrcHHeH aro gaining ground, and tlio
introduction of urtificial graHM«?i) hiw in a great measure supplanted the routine of wheat,
otttM, and fallow. TIiIh region is alHo tlio chief seat of nianufiictureH. Those nrovitices have
pHxIiiued niiinv men of dixtinguiHlied talent, and knowliMlgti in very generally dillhHod in
them. Tho FlcMiiingg retain their national ehamcter, diittinct from that of the French ;
heavy, phlegmatic, iiiduHtrioui, addicted to pretty cIoho drinking an<l long riiHtiu foHtivalti.
Tho Normaii Htill pnrlakc* the adventurous spirit of his toreHitliorN ; ho Iovch expeditions
and journeyH, readily cngagua in any enterpriiie, and eagerly piimueM it.

The cities throughout allthiH part of France are largo and flourishing. Tho«o of French
Flanders, or the Nord, rank among tho strongest fortresses in Kiiropo, and aro tho bulwarks
of the monarchy. Lille [lorhaps holds among these the very first place, being considereil
tho master-piece of Vauban. It was reducjHlby Marlborough only after a long bliM-kade,
and is considered in any other way almost irnpregna))ll^ It is also well and regularly built,
and the Km; Royalr is a very splendid street. Lille has also a very considerublo variety
both of manufacturing and commercial industry, with institutions both for literature and the
arts. Douay is an ancient and strong town on the Hcar|M', and enjoys some celebrity as a
seat of rather anti(|uatc<l and scholastic learning. Its university consists of three colleges,
now united, one of which is called tho English college, and is resorted to from all the tlirei,'
kingdoms on a place of ('atholic education. ('!iiid)mi is a very ancient and celebrated city,
the copital of the Nervii in ('n'sur's time, and afterwards of tho kingdom of the Franks.
Hero was concluded, in ir)i)7, the league of Cainbrai, which caiiseil tho downfall of Venice ;
and it was tho scene of other imimrtant diplomatic transactions; but pcrha|>8 the name is
best known from i\a having formed the archieiiiHCo|>al sec of Fenelon. It ranks still us a

fortress ot the first class, and was one of those held
by tho army of (x;cupution, after the peace of Paris,
in 1815. Valenciennes is another ancient bulwark
of tho kingdom, which yielded to the allies in 1703,
after a long siege ; but they did not derive any advan-
tage from their success. It has sonio fine mnnutlic-
tures of lace, gauze, and cambric.

In Picardy and the part of the Isle of Franco lior-
dering on it, there arc several large and flourishing
cities. Amiens has long been celebrated for its manu-
facture of coarse woollens, as serges, plush, velvets
for furniture, and corpets; also coarse linens. Here
was concluded the peace of 1801, between Britain
and France. Its cathedral {ftff. 284.) is one of the
most spacious and most highly ornamented in France
or in FiUrope. Abbeville i.s celebrated as one of the
few seats of tho manufacture of very fine woollen
cloth, which Bur|)asses even the English ; it deals most
extensively in sailcloth, sheeting, and other coarse
fabrics from hemp and flax. St. Quentin, the scono
of tho great victory of Philip II., enjoys a more hum-
ble and useful distinction as one of the most Ihrivin"
manufacturing places of France. Its manufacture's
consist in lawns, cambrics and still more of late in the spinning and weaving of cotton ; all
which employ in the town and neighbourhood upwards of 50,(K)0 persons. The citizens ot
St. Quentm display an enterprise and an activity in pushing every new and promising branch
of industry, which are not usual in France. A canal is here cut from tho Oise to that of
Douay, remarkable for its extensive tunnels. Laon is an ancient town, with a stately cathe-
dral. Soissons ia distinguished in French history, and its bishop had, second to that of

284

.■.'.■Ht<T

Amieni Cntheilral.

PAH! Ill

liim n<!vet
Ifiici! Ilie
t iiii'UHurt'
Ih jMirlicu-
II )N)pular
oil, wlitmo

*Mlt lit" tho

ill liy N«o>

niiiiii'rou*

iiily by llie

not, wliwH*

ciirily, iiikI
, una moKt
iilly liiriier
11(1, iiiul tlio

D l)f Wlll'ftt,

viiid"* liiivo

(litlbKOli ill

Ik- Frriicli;

tie fcBtivals.

cxpoilitions

<o of Pre ncli

ho l)ulwarl<»

ft conMitlcTPd

\g W(K'kii(lc,

(iiliirly built,

ruble viiriety

ituro imd the

r.olcbrity as a

iree colleges,
ttll tho throi;

lobriitnd city,

:' the Franks.

.11 of Venice;

the naiiio is

nkH Htill nti a

of those held
BBce of Paris,
lent bulwark
lUicB in 1793,
vo any advan-
fine manufac-

,r Franco kir-
iid floiiriHliin;;
1 for its miinu-
plush, vfUotiJ
linenH. Here
,ween Britain
ia one of the
ited in Franco
as one of the
fine woollen
it deals most
other coarsf
[itin, the sccun
. a more huni-
iiiost thriviiii.'
manufactures
of colton ; all
'he citizens ot
imisinp branch
lisc to that of
stately cathe-
tnd to that of

Dock I.

rilANCE.

i*iiliiiii llarliiiur.

Rlii'iinH, till' riiflit of rrowninir llie V'lw^ nf Friiiirc. Ii doc» not now prcHOiil any Htrikintf
feutiiriM. II<'iiiiviiIh ix tlirivinif and iinliiMlriouK.

'Phi' |KirlH of I'lciirdy iiiiil Fri'iich Flniuli'r^^ if iilwi vory ili'Horvinj; nf notiro. Dunkirk,
biMn^f Ihi' only chh' whu-h ii|iiinn into tin- Nortli Sou, wiir< iiuviiyH cnn^iiiorocl uf (front iin]i.irf-

anoo. IaiiiIh \IV, liuviiii; dolliiitivoly olitiunoii this pliico m ItMl'.', iniido it >)' llio

iitriiiii.'o>l liarli<iiir-< iii Kiirnpi'. It tiomi iMTuino mi iiMniiyiiijr In llriti^h tnido, thiit mU iiitii;;(^
wnH liikon iif till' triiiiii|iliH nf tho wnr ol' siiooosnioii, In riM|iiiro, nt tho troiily nf Dtn rlit, itM
ctitiro iloiiKililioii. Ily I'liiiii-i mid nihor iiioiiiis, tho Fronoh rmilrivoil nKviiy tn roplm ■■ it in
an oll'oriivo htiilo; liiit h) HiiciT^Mivo troiitioH, tho dotiinhtliin of tho tliriilioatinii.'t mi tho nIiIo
of tho hoii will* ii>;iiiii mill mriiiii stipiiiatod, till tlio oiromiiHtiiiicoH of llii' poiioo nf 17*^:1 nlilinoil
FiiiKJiiiiil til oouHo tVoiii I'X.iotiiiir It, From that tinio Dunkirk booiinio tho main ooiitro nf Uio
priviilooriii;; nyi-loiii. It ban iiUo a ciiiiHiilorublo share nf tisbory iiiiil nf tho llaltio trado. A
moiiiDrablu ora in itn hi-tory was iln sioj^e by the Uritisli in \^\)'^. Thoy wore oninpi'llod
abruptly to riiiHO it, and tlii" tliriiiod tlio cnminoncomont of a Inii;^ hitIoh nf rovornos niist iine<l
by Hio alliod iirmH. Dunkirk liiis a kikhI liarNiur in llio coiitro n( tlio city, otiioroil by a
canal of a mile and a liiilf; it in ratlior well built, but tiir want nf Hpriiit;^ 'Ix' inliiibltaniM iiro
nbli)(od to iiso rain-wator. The noi^rjihourini; torritnry is low and iiiarrliy, mily proi.orved
from the inimdatinn of tho soa by a rid^'o nf dowiH, and niily riilliviitod by moaiiH nf iiuiiiiT-
OUH drainin;^ canals. Calais is woll known us tho imiiit of oommiiiilcatliai with Kn^'bind,
which no lonif held it as the key of Franco, oven atlor hor aims at the out in- miKpioMt of

that mmiarohy had consod. At prosonf,

it is uhiotly siipimrtod by tlio packet

interconrso, its inditVoroiit barlmiir (,li,if.

2Hr».) iiiilUtinjf it. for any cnminorro on

a (Treat scale. Calais is in a vory flat

country, intorsootod by canals, by u liich

it mi(;ht be even innndatod. nniilnj;no

has more maritime iniimrtanco; tliiaiiih

its port, cliokod with sand, will no Iniiiror

receive vessels of any size, uiili'.''s at

high tide. It has In.-t altnirotlur the

forced cnnserpioiiro (rjvoii In it liy I ho

construction nf tlio (.'rniid llnlilla, di's-

lined to siiIkIiio the llritisii oiiipiro, but

now alMindoned to rot. Its proximity, however, to the roast lias rondoroil it a i;roat ri.urt

of Fii','litfh familio.-;, who inhabit it to tho amount of several thousands. The fi.-.iioi-y uf

herriii;,', niackorel, &c, varies in value from i,(MK),()0(> to 'i,(KK),(KK> francs.

The cities of Normandy are larjjer and iimro im|mrtant than those already described,

Koiion is one of tho noblest in France, Its iiianu-
factnres are, perhaps, the most oiiforprisinfr and iiidiis-
Irioiis in tlio kingdom, and fmm tbeir viriiiity to F.iij;.
land have had peculiar lacilities in l)orrowin(j her pro-
oosses. The main staple is cotton-spinnin(r and weav-
mg, which are supposed to occupy two-thirds of tho
.V),(K)() workmen, and so to eonstituto tho same pro-
portion of the two millions sterlinj; of manutiictured
giKxls annually produced. The catiiednil (.^y. "2H0.),
commenced by William tho Coiupioror, v/as cniisidered
one of the finest specimens of ecclesiastical nrchitoc-
ture in Franco, till the late disaster, which overthrow
a preat part of it. The streets are excessively narrow
and dirty, thou(jh tlinse ndjoininsr to the Heine aro
a{rreeable. That river was Iniij; crossed only by a
pont(K)n, composed of nineteen larfjo barges, sfron;.^ly
moored to(;ether by iron chains; but as this had many
inconveniences, a handsome slonc bridge has been
lately substituted. At Elbumf, near Rouen, is a manu-
factory of fine cloth, almost equal to that of Ixmviers.
Caen is a very ancient city, of jjreat historical name
the favourite residence of VVilliam the Conciueror, aiw".
the frequent head-quarters of the En^rlish armies. It
is still a considerable place, rather unusually woll built for a French town, onntaininir a
handsome castle, tho onlv romaininfT part of its fortificiiliniis, and some fine njd olmrches.
Its maniifatturos are numerous, but none of them vory eminent, except, that of lace, which
fjivos employment to about 20,000 females in this place ami the iieiLrhbourhnHl. It is of
tome oiiiinoiieo as a sent nf literature, jravc birth tn Malhorbe and lluot, and has a university
of coiLsiiloralde ropntalioii, which, tliouKh suppressed durinff the Revolution, has been restored

Itouon Catholral.

,=,,

4^0

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PiuiT ni

in ftill lustre. Havre, at the nioiitli of the Seine, is tiie port of Paris, and one of the most
active seats of French coniinotce. Tiie custom duties, in 1824, amounted to somewhat above
a million sterling, and its trade lias since been greatly augmented. The chief fabric of the
town and noightourhood is that of printed cottons. It is a gloomy town, the streets narrow,
and the houses often built of a framework of wood filled up with mortar. Dieppe, St. Valery,
Fecamp, and Ilonfleur are very active stations for fishing ; which is not, however, carried on
with the same energy and adventure as before the Revolution. The immense efibrts made
to render Cherbourg a naval station of the first rank, have proved nearly abortive. The
French government, after the peace of 1783, began to erect a scries of cones, with the view
of breaking ti.e force of tiie waves; but these were overwhelmed, and retain no vestige of
their original form : tliey lie under water, a shapeless ruin, which Bonaparte in vain attempted
to make the foundation of u regular breakwater. After two millions had been spent in this
undertaking, he employed other five millions in forming an interior basin and a wet dock;
but all these mighty works remain unfinished.

Britany forms a peninsula distinguished by many marked features from the rest of France :
its rude surface, composed in a great measure of forests, marshes, and heaths, enabled it not
only to preserve a large portion of its original Celtic population, but to give shelter to fugi-
tives from Britain, whence it received its name. After being long a separate duchy, it was
united to France by the marriage of its heiress with Louis XII. It retained, however, down
to tiie era of the Revolution, its feudal states, which assembled every two years. The Bag
Breton is a Celtic dialect. The people are very numerous and very poor. The country is
divided into small properties or farms, seldom exceeding twelve acres, cultivated by the
manual labour of the occupants, according to anticjuated and unskilful processes, to which
they adiiere with tlie most fixed determination. The peasantry reside in small huts, gloomy,
dark, and damp; they are strongly attached to their homes; ignorant and superstitious, but
at the same time frank, brave, hospitable, constant in their friendships, and faithful to their
word. They are stubborn and hardy, and those on the coast make bold sailors.

Of the cities of Britany, Rennes, the ancient capital of tiie Rhedones, is the first in dignity,
and was the place of meeting for the states, the discontinuance of which has diminished its
importajjee. It is still rather a fine and handsome city, having been regularly rebuilt since
a great fire in 1720 ; and its cathedral of St. Peter is adorned with lofty towers. Tliere is
a library of 30,000 volumes, a fine botanic garden, a museum of natural history, and extensive
collections in Uie fine arts. It carries on some trade by the river Vilaine, which admits
barges of considerable size. Vannes, the ancient capital of the Veneti, is a mucli smaller
and poorer town, though its vicinity to the sea gives it some commorco and fishery. Morlaix
and Quimpcr are rather good towns in ttie western departments : but the finest city in
Britany is undoubtedly Nantes, which seems almost to belong to the rich provinces on the
Loire ; it is situiited on a hill above that river, twenty-seven miles from its mouth, and has
the advantage of delightful walks an<l environs. Its situation, at the mouth of the greatest
river in France, is very favourable to commerce, which was carried on to a vast extent, till
ruined by the disastrous influence of Napoleon's continental system ; but Nantes is begin-
ning again to rear its head. The West India trade and the cod fishery were the most
extensive branches. Much ship-building is carried on for the merchant service, and vessels
of 1000 tons are occasionally built. Its manufactures are various, and were fbnnerly exten-
sive, especially sugar refinery, cotton, woollen, and linen cloths, and earthenware. It is
connected with the opposite side of the river by a noble bridge, wliicli, uniting five different
islands, extends in its entire length more than two miles. In its construction Nantes exhibits
the usual faults of old cities ; the most agreeable parts are the suburbs, and the islands are
thickly planted with trees and houses.

Brest, on the western coast of Britany, is the chief naval station of France on the ocean,
as Tonlon is on the Mediterranean. It was srlected for this purpose in 1031 by Cardinal
Richelieu, in consideration of its harbour, which is secure from every wind, and of a spacious
roadstead, affording anchorage to .500 ships of wtir. From Brest issued the fleet wiiich was
totally defeated, in 1798, by Lord Hows ; and during the wliole of the subsecpicnt war
between England and France, this port, with the navy which it contained, was held in
almost constant blockade. The works of Brest are very strong, and the attempt made in
1694 to carry tlieiu by storm, was repulsed witli considerable di-saster. Tlie town, though
modern, having been built in haste, and with a sole view to utility, is crowded and dirty ; but
within the last lialf-century there has been built a handsr:nn suburb, called La Recouvrance.
Brest, hesiflos its naval importance, carries on a considerable fishery.

Tliere are otiier maritime stations of considerable magnitude in Britany. L'O: lent has
been made a depot for naval stores, and strongly fortified ; it derived much" importance fi-om
being the almost exclusive seat of the commerce of the East Iiiilia Cnnifjaiiy; but since that
trade iias been nearly annihilated, this (wrt has greatly declined. St. Malo contains r. race
of bold and hardy mariners, actively employed in the Newfoundland iind other fisheries ; and
who, in time of war, exercised briskly the trade of privateering. Morlaix carries on a con-

I1^

■r

'abtIII

he most
iat above
ic of the
) narrow,
t. Valery,
arricd on
irts made
vc. The
the view
,'estige of
ittempted
int in this
,vet dock;

if France :
Died it not
er to fugi-
hy, it waa
;ver, down
TiieBaa
country is
ted by the
3, to which
ts, gloomy,
titious, but
ill to their

in dignity,
ninislied its
ebuilt since
. Tiiere is
id extensive
iiich admits
uch smaller
ry. Morlaix
lest city in
ices on the
ith, and has
the greatest
extent, till
les is bcgin-
•0 the most
and vessels
[lorly exten-
Aarc. It is
,vc difterent
itos exhibits
islands are

|i the ocean,
[by Cardinal
y a spacious
which was
|e(iucnt war
Ivas held in
ipt made in
Uvn, though
Id dirty ; but
Ipcouvrance.

L'Oricnt has
Irtaiico from
lit since that
Itains r. race
Ihories ; and
les on a con-

■«,

BookL

FRANCE.

861

eiderabic trade with the north of Europe. Quimper, though ranking above Brest, as capital
of tlie department of Finisterre, is now only an old town of little importance.

The provinces on the Loire, in its courcio trom cast to west, comprehending Orleanais,
Touraino, Anjou, to which may be added those of Maine and Perche, adjoining on the
north, are the most central and perhaps tiie richest in tiie kingdom. A great part, indeed,
especially of Anjou and Maine, is covered with those wide wastes, overgrown with brush-
wood and heath, which occupy so much of the French soil. But the banks of the Loire
around Orleans arc generally considered the garden of France ; tlicy consist of unbounded
plains, tlirougii which the niognilicent Loire winds its stately course, and which are
variegated with rich meadows, vineyards, gardens, and forests. On this theatre were acted
many of tlie greatest events in the liistory of the monarchy, particularly its rise from
the apparent peril of total subjection, through the inspiruig iiiHucnce of Joan the Maid of
Orleans.

The cities of this region are celebrated and magnificent. Orleans, in former times,
ranked almost as a second capital: though it exhibits tlie usual characters of antiquity, it is
a superb and beautiful city. A very fine stone bridge of nine arches opens to the rue royale,
spacious and handsome, which extends to the fine square in the centre ; here is plui„-Kl a
statue of Joan, the sculpture of which is not altogether so elegant as might be desired. The
cathedral is a very fine edifice, the choir of which was raised by Henry IV. From its steeple
is an almost unbounded view over the magnificent i)lain of the Ixiire. Situated in the centre
of France, and dividing as it were the Ixjwcr fi:om the Upper Loire, Orleans enjoys a great
transit trade. Blois is almost equal to Orleans in historical celebrity ; its ancient edifices,
placed on a hill above the Loire, have a most commanding appearance. The castle, on a
rock overhanging the river, is an immense and lofty pile, full of windows of aW shapes and
sizes, balconies, galleries, buttresses, and "a strange incongruous assemblage of buildings
destined for ornament in peace and defence in war." All the parts are little ; but the whole
is so vast as to be almost sublime. In this edifice the states-general once assembled. The
glory of Blois has now entirely passed away : ita streets are narrow, gloomy, and dismally
dirty. Tours, equally ancient, is now much more flourishing; its plain is pre-eminent, even
among the other districts on the banks of the Loire. The i^iik manufacture, first introduced
here, lias been in a great measure transferred to Lyons, but it still employs 7000 or 800O
persons. Happily for the beauty of the city, a great part of it was consiinu'd .5(( years ago,
and occasion was taken to build a new street, running its wiiolc length, of fine hewn stone,
broad, and on an elegant design ; it is, perhaps, the finest in Franco. It is connected
with a bridj|:e of 14 archer, which till of laic was considered eipmlly unrivalled ; and also
with a fine promenade bordered with trees. The nictroixjiitan church was almost entirely
demolished during the revolutionary excesses ; only two of its lofty spires remain. The
beauty and abundance of the country around Tours have attracted such numbers of English
residents, that Mrs. Carey was asked on tlio road what great convulsion was agitating Eng-
land, that her people were flying from it in such crowds. Saumur, onc:e highly flourishing
and industrious, lost two-thirds of its population by the revocation of the edict of Nantes.
Angers is a large, old, steep, ill-built town, but has a considerable trade ; its monuments
have been dreadfully shattered during the llevolution. Lc Mans, capital of Maine, on the
Sarthe, is very old, but large and clean, with a spacious market-place and some considerable
manufactures.

The provinces between the Loire and the Garonne, Poitou, Borri, Limousin, and the
Marclie, are of diversified and somewhat peculiar aspect: they present none of those bound-
less plains which characterise France north of the lioire ; they are everywhere traversed by
valleys and ridges of hills, never rising into mountains, but giving to the country a broken and
variegated aspect. This, according to the nature of the soil, is sometimes rude and dreary,
Bometimos gay and smiling. Mr. Young ranks the Limousin as the most beautifiil district
in all France, such is the ,ariety of hills, dales, streams and 'voods which compfjse its
landscape. Airs. Carey describes Marclie, beyond Argenton, as singularly pastoral ; the
hills covered with sheep, goats, kids, and lambs, the last of which at evening come down
bleating, and are received iiitu the houses. I'oitou, a jiart of which is so tatnlly celebrated
under its new name of La Venilee, is a rough country, a great part of which is covered
with a forest called the Bocage. ."Vll these districts are more productive of cattle than of
grain, though tliey arc ciiltivuted by a simple peasantry with hanliliood and vigour, hut quite
in the antuiue style, and with a strong ttntijiathy to all modern improvements. In I'oitou,
the projirietors, btjiiig small, anil residing much on their estates, excited tinidal feelings and
attachments, that were extinct in the rest of France ; hence the formidable war wliich they
waged single-handed in delence of the ancient regime.

The cities in this range of provinces, tlioiiirli ancient, are neither large, nor distinguished
by much industry. Poitiers is of hijjii antiquity, and presents some interesting P.oman re-
mains; in modern limes it is distiiiL'iiished by the signal victury gained here by the Black
Prince. The cilv is of great extent, Imlcenipri.-es many empty spaces and gardens. Limoges
iK an ill-built town, with many houses of tiiiili'i-, roofed •■villi tiles, and prujccting caves, but

111

I-

I!
fiil

ir^

888

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

there nre several handsome squares and fountains, and tlie pnblic walks command a beautiful
view of the Vienno flowing down a charminif valley. Its cathedral, said to have been built
by the English during their temiwrary pon.scssion of this part of Frante, f^Mlfcri'd much (hiring
the revolution, and has only one tower lell .standing. Bourges, the uneiont Biturgiu', is very
ill-bnilt, but adorned with a flue calhcilral, and distinguished for its univernity, and as tlie
birtii-place of IJourdaloue, and of the Jesuit, Fatlier d'Orleans. Chfttcanrou.x is gloomy, but
has a largo woollen manutiicture.

Tiie two departments of tlie Charente, watered by the fine river of that name, form ii
region diflereiit in ciitiraeter from tiioso now de.>-cril)ed ; level, and e.'ctremely ti-rtile, though
in some [mrts marshy and uniu^allhfiil. A great part of the produce of its rieii vineyards is
at Cogniie converted into brandy, which bears an unrivalled reputation, tiiough, pn balily,
the name is applied with a fraudulent hititude to inferior liquors. The yellow tinge so
generally given to brandy is the conseipience of a local cu.-.tom at Cognac. Saintes is
ancient oven as a French city. An ample theatre, an aqueduct, and a triumphal arch of
white marble, attest its ancient importance as a Roman city ; and the cathedral i.-i said to
belong to the age of Charlemagne. But the most conspicuous features of the ("hareiite are
Rochelle and Ilochefort. The t!)rmer is renowned as the grand and last bulwark of the
Protestant cause; and its reduction, (}llected by the almost incredible ellbrts of (Cardinal
Richelieu, tLxod the downtall of v ' and religious liberty in France. Though no longer a
haven of the first magnitude, its colonial trade, prior at least to the late war, was very con-
siderable. The town is handsome, with broad .streets, many of the lious((s built on arcades',
with shops beneath as in Chest(;r. Rochefort has little trade, but is one of the principal
French naval stations. It has a secure harbour, with very siife an<l extensive docks.
Being one of the few towns in France that are not nmch more than a century and a half
old, it is built on a regular plan, with broad open streets. Angoulfime, in the interior,
stands on a r(x;k in the centr(; of a charming valley, through which winds the .«ilver
stream of the Charente. It is a clean well-built town, liaving a cathedral with fivt! cupolas,
and displaying other marks of liistorical importance. There is a large iiiaimfacturo of
jjaper.

Guicnne is a most important province, which lor several ages formed an appanage of the
English crown. It consists of a magnificiMit and highly cultivated plain, watered by the
Garonne, whose broail stream here resend)les an iirm of the sea, and by its ample tributaries,
the Tarn, the I,ot, and the Dordogr.e. It is distinguished by various rich productions, but
more especially liy the wines bearing the name of claret, whirh, though not(piite so rich and
highly flavoured as some, are so light and agreeable that a greater cpiantity is drunk at the
tables of the opulent, than of any other. M. Fra.ik, in a late work pid)lished at Bordeaux,
estimates *he entire produce of claret at 12r)0,()00 tuns. The wines of the tiinns Ijaffitte and
Chftteau-Margaux are the most esteemed ; but nuich is sold under these names which has
no title to them.
Bordeaux (^ff. 287.), near the mouth of the Garonne, is one of the grandest emporia in

France, and, indeed, in Europe,
287 Situat(;d at the mouth of the

(iaromie, which here allows the
largest vessels !,o ascend to its
port, it exiKirta all the viiluablo
produce of this great southern
idaiii, of which the wines are
said to anieimt to KXMHKt, and
brandy to"J(),()(l() pipes ;imuially.
It is engaged also in colonial
trade-, and in the cod and whale
fisheries. Recent travellers re-
mark a irreBterdis|hiiy of wealth
and pros|)erity in this tlrui in
any other of the French com-
mensal cities. Every thing is
on a grand scale, and buildings are in progres-'s which, when finished, w ill leave it without a
rival in France. The theatre, designed atler that of Milan, is considered ;■ nioilel of archi-
tectural beauty. Many of the ecclesia.stieal striictuios wen? ti)unded by the English. A
very republican spirit is said to prevail at Bonleau.v.

The other towns of Guieiiue are not of the first niiignitnde. Montnidian emhniced with
anloiir the l'n)lestant cause, and had a distiriixuished university, which was snp|iressei|, when
the pliice wiis taken in KiVJO, by I,ouis XIII., luid the forlilicatious nzed. This seminiirv,
however, was restdn'cl by .Xapdleon in I'll!'. Moaliulian is well-built, of painted brick,
with wide and cleim ,-treets; anil an elevated walk, which cninmandsa most extensive view,
reaching to the I'yrenees, Agen is a very dirly ill-lmilt town, but liimous tiir tin.' phuns
raised in its viciiiity. ('aliors has soini- thriving niaun!"ictiu-e.--, and its vicinity produces the

llorilraiix.

Ill

Book I.

PRANCE,

■o'.diiial
mill whale
ivi'lli-r.s rc-
y (if wealth
118 tliMii in
Mich rom-
■ry Ihiiijj; is
without ii
■1 (if iirchi-
1-1 ish. A

iin'il willl

:;-('li, Whrll

sciniimry,
itcil lirick,
sivi' view,
till' iilmiw
rtxluo.'s the

vtn de Gravp, which is held in high estimation. Rhodez, on the Avcyron, ia a gloomy old
town, but the scut of a distinguished bishopric,

GasciHiy is a largo province, extending to the Pyrenees, and consisting chiefly of a wido
level surfiice, of penuliur character, called the lande.s. These are plains of sand, in some
places loose and blowing, but mostly covered with pine trees, sometimes affording pasturage
for sheep, and more rarely detached tracts fit for cultivation. The Gascons, long an inde-
pendent people under their dukes, are a peculiar race, fiery, ardent, impctuouti, and prover-
bially addicted to Imasting; hence the term gasconade. Bayonne, though not vnry largo, ia
one of tde strongest and i)rcttiest towns in France, Situated at the broad mouth of the
\dour, it has a considerable traffic in exporting the timber of the Pyrenees and the Lundes,
and sends also vessels to the cod and whale fisheries, Mont de Mursan, the capital of the
liandcs, is hut a small and poor place.

The I'yronean departments comprehend some interesting features; Beam, the little ori-
ginal principality of Henry IV,, which he governed with ptemal kindness; and Roussillon,
which uti(l(!rwont several revolutions, alternately belonging to Prance and to Spain, botbrc
it was tinally annexed to the former. Young gives a delightful view of the stJitc of tliis
mountain district. It is divided into a number of small properties, which are well enclosml,
well cultivated, each cointbrtable cottage being surrounded by its garden well stocked with
fruit trees ; the inhabitants snugly dressed, like Highlanders, in red caps. The siilKlivision
of property, though great, seems not to have gone so far as to lead to nii-sery. I'au is a con-
siderable town, in a romantic situation, and celebrated as the birth-place of Henry IV.,
whoso cradle is still shown in the ancient palace, now converted into a prison. It makes a
good deal of linen, and is noted for its excellent hams, which are exported from Bayonne,
Tarbos, capital of the upper Pyrenees, and Biigncres, with its mineral hot springs, a place
of crowded and fashionable resort, are delightfully situated, affording an approach to the fine
valleys of the highest Pyrenees. The slopes of the neighbouring mountains are richly cul-
tivated, and often well enclosed. Roussillon is Spanish as to language and customs ; but the
magnificent roads effected in defiance of natural obstacles, and the thriving indiistrj of the
peoido, mark the influence of a more active and enlightened government,. The extensive
tiirtifications of Perpignan render it a harrier of the kingdom. It is gloomy and ill-built,
but has some manufactures.

Langueiloc, the ancient (iallia Xarhoncnsis, aiul a(\erwards the domain of the counts ot
Toulouse, is the pride of France in r(!gard to climate, soil, and scenery. The nir along its
coasts is generally considered the most salubrious in Europe. The plains of J.anguedoc are
celebrated; yet they arc encroached uik)m not only by the Pyrenees on the east, hut by the
Cevennos, which form their constant northern boundary, and in many places rediui' them to
a breadth of a few miles. But on the line from Beziers by Montpelier to Nisnirs, the plain
i'-. of much greater breadth, and displays a luxuriant fertility scarcely rivalled in any other
part even of this happy region. Every thing flourishes here, even what is most strictly
denied to other provinces; not only grain and the vine, but the silk-worm and the olive.

The cities of Ijanguedoc arc not of the very first magnitude ; hut they are handsome and
linely situated ; and they ])resent stime interesting Roman monuments. Toulouse covers a
great extent of ground, but it has suffered in consecinence of the discontinuance of its par-
liament, which was one of the mo.st important in France. The cathedral is viry larLi'e, but
not very beautiful ; and many of the churches wore destroyed during the Revolution. There
is an university attended by l.'MX) students, and two large libraries open to the public.
Castres is a well-built, industrious, large town, the birth-place of llapin and Mailaiiie Dacier.
Carca.s.sonne still retains some of the bastions and towers of tlio castle on its hil! ; hut this
•ancient (luiirter is almost deserted in favour of tlie neat ploa.sant town built beneath. Beziers
is ugly and dirty, but has a hand.some cathedral, and is important from its site on th'! canal
of Langnedoc. Narhonne, though celebrated as a Roman capital, presents few monuments
of that people; these are said to have been taken down at the building of the walls. Mont-
pclior enjoys an unrivalled finui! for its niilrl and salubrious air; but late travellers have
declared them.selves unable to discover on what that renown is fi.)undcd. It is subject to
alternations of heat and cold; cloth pelisses must bo worn the whole winter, and fires can-
not bo discontinued till May. It is, however, an agreeable rosideiite; the public walk com-
mands a view over the ,M(!diterranean and the surrounding country, scareejv equalled in
Euro[)c: there is a llourisbiiig medical school, with good practitioners, and a library of 40,000
volumes. ;\Iontp(dier is not nnitii inly well-built; but it presents a noble Roman a(|ue(luct,
a fine cathedral, and other public buildings. Nismcs is one of the greatest and most fonr-
ishing cities in the south of France. The silk manutiicture, as already noticed, flourishes
there to a great exteul. More than half the inhabitants are Protestant, who, ,is may be well
remembereil, were, on the restoration of the Bourlmns, exposed to violent outragi-s on tho
part of their ("atholic. tillow-citi/.ens; hut these disorders were disavowed by the French
court, and havi; ci-ased. The city is ill-hiiilt, ill-paved, ill laid out; but there is a fine bou-
levard bordered with trees; and it is particularly illustrious tor the magnillccnce of its Ro-
man monuments. The amphitheatre is nearlv entire, and, though rather smaller than that

Vol. I. 47 3 U

it I

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

Punt du Gard.

of Verona, from its massive gri* ' and the enormous stones of wliicli it is constructed,
suggests tlio idea of an iniperisi. .c fabric. But the edifice called the Maison ctirrie, sup-
posed to have been a temple of Augustus, is that which has excited the admiration of all

travellers, from its extreme elojjunce
•% and graceful proportion.", wliich rcn

der It almost a perfect model of
, .. architectural beauty. It remains

after so many ages quite entire, " as
if savage and saint had boon alike
awed by its suporlative beauty."
Near Nismcs is the Pont du Gard
(Jig. 288.), an ancient bridge, or
rather aqueduct, forming one of the
most remarkable monuments now
extant of Roman grandeur.
Provence is one of the most celebrated and interesting of the French provinces, first, as
the earliest seat of wealth, civilisation, and poetry ; next, as containing the ecclesiastical
capitil, Avignon, near whicii is Vaucluse, the favourite residence of Petrarch ; lastly, as
including 'I'oulon and MarsiMlles, the greatest naval and the greatest commercial city in the
kingdom. The classic stream of the Durance, though it cro.>^ses the wliole region from its
kipine boundary to the Rhone, and too often overflows its banks, does not preserve tiie exten-
sive trucl.s covered with rude calcareous hills from tlie evils of aridity. Altliough, there-
fore, the pr(xhict.s of this province are various, and many of them fine, it does not yield com
sufficient lijr its own consumption, nor can it boast of extensive manufactures, but depends
chiefly upon rommcrcf.

Tiie cities of Provence rank, in all respects, among the greatest and most interesting of
ihe kingdom. .\ix is not the largest, but is reckoned tiie cajjital, and was formerly the seat
of tlie parliaments of Provence. Its name is contracted from that of A(|ua! Soxtiie, given to
it by the Roniiins from the copious warm baths, in whose vicinity numerous medals and
inscriptions have been discovered. It is pleasant, airy, well built, in a fine plain ciieircled
by lolh mountiiins. The conrs is very beautiful, formed liy two rows of trees, with hot
fountains bubbling up, at which women are seen washing clothes. (Jreafer celebrity attaches
to ihe niijie of .Avignon, for some time an ecclesiastical capital, and still more illustrious by
association with the names of Laura and Petrarch. It is finely situated on the Rhone, with
many handsome houses; but the streets are crowded ami ill-|)aved. In the centre rises an
msulated rock, separated l)y the river from a range of liills on the other side, and in which
are the remains of the pu! ce of the popes, now converted into barracks and prisons. The
cathedral had acciunulnted immense wealth in f'ilver and other oflerings, of all which it was
rifled at the Revolution; an event more fatal to Avignon than to any other city, except
Lyon.s. .Vviirnon is surrounded by a wall built only fur fiscal purposes, an<l the Rhone is
crossed by a handsonu; bridgi^ built by St. Benezct in the twelfth century from the protluce
of alms, and which yields 50,000 francs of annual toll. It would bo i)rotiine tiir a traveller

to leave Aviynon without visiting
289 . . J-- . . . B

the tomb of Laura in the church
of the Franciscans, and making an
excursion to the beautiful fountain
of Vaucluse (^fii^, 28!).), the scene
of inspiration to Petrarch. Aries
was, in early times, one of the most
important cities in the south of
France; under th(> Romans it was
the seat of the prii'lorian prefect;
in the ninth century it was the
capital of a separate kiug<lom, and
afterwards the seat of an archbi-
shop, and of thirteen successive councils. It is still a largi' city, and presents tlie vestiges
of a Roman amplii*''eatre (of which the interior area is now built upon), once capalde of
containing :f(l,(MH) |)er.sons. Taraseon is still a flourishing place, aljove which rises the
ancient casthi of the counts of ProveniM', now converted into a prison. On the opposite
bank of the Rhone is Bcancaire, distiuiruished llir its great annual tiiir, at wbii !i are still
sold grKids iif various descriptions to the value of about 7,.'')IMt,(M)() francs. Digne and I'ar-
pentras are of smne im|H)rt'inee as capitals of districts.

Marseilles and Toulon, the two ^nvat s(!Ulhern havens, form now the most iiuportant fea-
tures of I'ri/vence. The connnerci;il fime of Miirsi'illes dat'>s fnim early autiij'iily, when
it was a (ireek (olony, and cirrieij cin almost all llic coinmeree of (iiuil. In moilern times
it has been the chief centre of I lie trade to the Levant; and though its ])rii.-pi'rity sull'ered
tt total erIipM; under the regime of Naiwloon. it has since regained much of its ft rrnci

Fountain uf Vuuclusc.

Book 1.

FRANCE.

555

splendour. The harbour is Bpacioua and secure, but it ia somewhat narrow at tlie entrance,
and shallow. It ia bordered by extensive quay.s of hewn st(ine, with spacious wareiiouses;
and is hllud with all tiie shipping peculiar to the Mediterranean, among which are galleys,
and beautiful pleasure-boats with silk awnings; it is crowded with all the nations of that
sea, Greeks, Turks, Jews, Spaniards, Italians, and loaded with the produce of Asia and Africa.
(t is compared by a late writer to Liverpool : the districts round the port are a nucleus of
trade and dirt; but in the exterior, the streets are handsome, airy, and well built. Among
other lino public buildings is the hotel de vilk, with its magnificent marble titaircnso. Tlie
vours is formed by two rows of line trees bordered by handsome houses, and the central
walk is crowded like a tiiir. The iioighb')uring plain is finely cultivated, but is bounded by
bold and rugged mountains that rise above the range of vegetation. Toulon, though not a
seat of couuncrce, is the chief naval station of Prance on the Mediterranean. It has two
ports, tiie old and the new : the latter alone receives ships of war, and is bordered by most
extensive arsenals, in which 5000 men are constantly employed. This port can contain 200
sail of the line; nnd without is a very spacious and well-sheltered roadstead. It is defended
by two strong Ions, w liich, however, were occupied in 1793 by the British, who, at 'he end
of the year, wore obliged to evacuate the place. This was the first occasion on which Bona-
parte's military talents became conspicuous. Toulon is a clean, pleasant town, refreshed by
streams of water, running through the streets. The adjacent country is wild and romantic,
and interspersed with some cultivated valleys.

Dauphiny is a region completely alpine, the two depart-
ments of the Upper and Lower Mps occupying the greater
part of its surface. The ' ountains are chiefly calcareous,
and broken Into the nuat picturesque, peculiar, and ro-
mantic forms. Young even considers the scenery of Dau-
phiny, particularly along the Isere, as surpassing that of
any other part of the Alps. In one of the most awful re-
cesses of tliese rocks and wilds, at a distance from all the
smiling scenes of earth, St. Brimo erected tlio monastery
of file Chartreuse (,Jig: '"'H).), of which Gray has drawn
so sublime and imimsing a picture. There are other scenes
emphatically termed liie wonders of Dauphiny ; as tiie
burning fbimtaiii, I he grottoes of Sassenagp, &.c. Although
this part of the kingdom cannot be considered as productive,
yet great numbers of cattle and 'sheep are reared on its
high slopes by a simple raco of men resembling the mountaineers of Switzerland ; and eve.,
the silk-worm is bred in its lower valleys.

The cities do not require very particular notice. Grenoble is a considerable place, not ill
built, with a library of 00,000 volumes, and some otiier literary establishments. It took a
conspicuous part in promoting the commencement of tlie Revolution, and was also the first
town that opened its gates to Napoleon on his return from Ellia. Gap is a pretty large but
poor old town, in a deep hollow, amid iiarren mountains. Vienne is a Roman city, and
presents a temple, with several other intere.sting remains of that people. It has also a fine
modern cathedral with a very lolf.y spire. Valence has a military school, at which Bonaparte
was educated. Near Tain is produced the celebrated wine called Hermitage.

The liyonnais is a small territory, penetrated by branches of the Alps, in some places
rough and stony, in others finely diversified with hill and dale. Its chief interest, however,
centres in the great city which is its capital.

Lyons (Jig. 291.) is generally con-
sidere i u. liie second city in France,
and as foremost in regard to com-
merce and industry. It is on the
whole a nMo city. The quays along
the Rhone are superb ; the hdtel de
ville is held fo be second only to
that of Amsterdam; the cathedral is
highly ornamented in the florid
Gothic style ; and the squares, espe-
cially the Place dr ndlecour, with
its fountains and statues, are nowhere surpassed. On the other hand, the old streets are
narrow, bordered by lolly and gloomy walls, and divided by a muddy stream. To turn int(j
them from the quays has been compared to entering subterraneous passages, watered by the
sluices of Cocytus. Lyons suffered dreadfully under the sway of the jarobins, who made it a
chi(;f thoattc f those atrocities that rendered them the horror of mankind. To say nothing
of the mu.-s^:icri i pcrpetnted under the a|)pellation (iffiisillinl's and noijadm, they studiously
broke in picrcis all the manutUcturing machinery, while with barbarous hands they defaced
all the ornaments of the city, filled up the fountains, broke the statues in pieces, and

Grande Chnrlrtiuse.

Lyons.

■t

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGUAPIiV.

Part III.

dcmuIiHhcd the whole of the cnthcc! 'iil except the wiiUs. Her citizonti hiivo nmdc dili(roiit
cflbrts to restore her prosperity, ami not without Hiicceas; still tiio vvniit of cupital uiid the
Bta(rimtion of tnuie are serioiix olwtriictioiiH, mid cuiiso the evils of ]K)verty iiinonfj u lurgc
population to be severely felt. The Lyoiinose have the proixjiisities usiiully observed in
inaniitacturing pliices: they dislike the Bourbons, and the eight of an Englishman is worm-
wood to them.

Auvergno, to the west of tiie Lyonnais, is the only mountainous and pastoral tract which
Franco bus peculinrly its own. It consists of a continuous raiifje of mountiiiiiH wliicli have
evidently been in a state of volcanic action, the country beiu'; covered with lava, and the
houses built of it. From an elevated and extensive phiin rises the jrreiit Puy de Dt^me,
nearly TjOOO feet high, with about sixty attendant monntains, called in the country the
giantess and her children. The country isdiversitied with many rugged and precipitous rocks,
having castles and even towns built on them. Yet Auvcrgne is not a barren country. The
Puys are mostly covered with herbage, and liavc large level plains. The nativ(^s are labo-
rious, and rear large herds of cattle, which are almost wild ; they are even saiil to beat off
the wolf, the low of the animal attacked summoning all the rest to its assistance ; but, in
return, they cannot Iks milked unless the calf bi; on the other side. The people are lioin(.dy,
and very republican; they form themselves into a number of societies, of wliicli the princi-
ple is a common table, attended however by the men only. In winter they take up their
abode under the same roof with the cattle which occupy each end, and by their heat save
fuel which is scarce. Clermont is a considerable town, perched on the top of a hill, and
built of lava. It is e.\treniely dirty, and Mr. Young compares several of its streets to chan-
nels cut in a dunghill ; however, the mountain brei'zes purify tlm air. Tlie cathedral, which
was fine, was nearly destroyed during the Revolution. In the surrounding country are many
curious caverns, petrifying wells, warm springs, cascades, &.c. Aurillac also, Iliom, and
-__ Thiers are elevated towns, com-

*°^ ^ '^ manding striking views of the rocks

and cones of this remarkable chain.
Towards Puy en Velay, which na-
turally belongs to Auvergne, the
rocks become still more steep and
romantic; and among the castles seat-
ed in them, Mr. Young especially
distinguishes that of Poligniic (Jiff.
SiW.), the (brm and x\\r of which
appears to him so strikinj;, as to

of magic influence, to rise before the mind. St. Michael's cliurch, in the centre nf llie town
of Puy itself, stands on the topof a very striking, almost precipitous rock, of tower-like t()rm.

Burgundy and Champagne, with tiie small ailjoiiiing provinces of (lourluiiinais and Niver-
nais, form a vast plain extending north of the provinces last described. Burgundy, however,
is traversed by branches from the Vosges, tbniiing hilly tracts of moderate elevation. This
is the great country of wine, producing the liiiest in Franre, iinii, with very few exceptions,
in the whole world. The surface of the wine-di.strict is chietly n-d sandstone rock, with
very little soil. The vineyards are cultivated liy small projirietors, who do not usually hold

more than twenty or thirty arpents. It costs !)(lfl francs to
plant an urpcMit in vines, and 30 annual ly to keep it in repair.
Three years elapse before it yields any wiiu", and six before
it yiehis good wine. Common vineyards sell iit ir>(H) francs
an acre; and there are some that s<'ll so liiiili as 1(I,(KK).
The precarioiisness of the crop, however, and tiie want of
capital, render this branch of industry a poor employment;
and the cultivators of Burgundy are the lea.st flourishing of
any in France. Few new vineyards are now laid down ;
though the ea|)it;il invested in the old ones is a suflicient
reason for keeping tliem up.

Of the chief towns, the tirst in dignity is Rheims, a no-
ble and ancient city, the ecclesiastical capital of France,
where the kings were crowned and anointed. The cathe-
dral (fff. 29;<.) has been considered the most splendid spe-
cimen of Gothic architecture existing, though some of its
ornaments are not in the purest taste. The Hotel do Ville
is also fine; and the street's, unlike what is usual in old
towns, are broad, stmight, and well built. Rhoinui is still
the chief mart of that favourite wine culled champagne,
and from llu'iiee the coiinoisi<eurs of Paris take care to pro-
cure their supi)lii;s. Troyes, once nelebrated for its great

uatbedral at Rhcinu.

Book I.

FRANCE.

567

fiiirH, and noted an havinjr given its name to the Troy weight, ranks as napitnl of Clmmpngno,
and is Ktill a large and tlourisiiing town on llio Sniiio. Clifilonu siir Mamn iw al^o considera-
ble, and, liy ii souniinfjly capricious choice, is the capital of the department of the Marno,
instead of UheirnH. Mczieres and Sedan are strong frontier towns ; tlio latter cclebialcd for
its manufacture of fine woollen cloth, as widl as for one of arms. Rocroy is only distin-
guislied for the signal victory of 1043, which firbt established the superiority of the
French arms. In Burgundy, Dijon (/^. 294.), with its numerous and lotly spires, prnsent*
a noblo appearance to the approaching traveller; but it has lost much of its ancient impor-

Dijon.

tancc. Its churches, now too numerous for the place in its reduced state, were dreadfully
dcfiiced and mutilated during the Revolution : one has been converted into a market for fish,
another into one for com. The streets, however, are wide and clean. Dijon Ims a distin-
guished university, and can boast of giving birtii to Bossuet, Buffim, and Oebillon. Autun
attracts notice by a temple and other remains, whicli indicate its importuncc as a Roman
city, also by a fine modern cathedral (Jig. 2!).').) Auxorre still flourishes by t!ie e.xcelhmt

295

wine produced in its neighlxjurhood, and is iidorn-
ed with a cathedral and several lolty spires.
Chfilons sur Saono is agofxl country town. Hens,
the see of an archbishop, and formerly the seat
of several councils, prot^cnts still some noble
monuments in decay. Moulins, eai)ital of the
rich plain of the Hourhoiinuis, though not hand-
some, is busy and cheerful, having a considrrable
traffic upon the Seine. Nevens, in Nivcrnais, is
finely situated on the Loire, but is an ill-built aTirl
dirty town.

Autun Cuthudrnl.

The provinces of Iiorrainc, Franche-comte, and Alsace are less an integral part of France
tJian a series of appendages obtained by conquest chiefly during the reign of Louis XIV.
They remain Ptill m many points connected with (Jermany. They are watered by the
Meuso and the Moselle, tributaries of the Rhine; they are traversed liy the chain of the
Vosgcs, connected with the Swiss Alps and the Black Forest ; their surface is rude and
irregular; their wines havi; the same agreeable acid (luiility as the Rhenish. Even yet
Alsace, both as to language and manners, is altogether German.

The cities are, — Nancy, capital of the dukes of Lorraine, ;i race of gallant and accom-
plished princes. It is said to be the most elegant city in France, especially the new town,
built in the sixteenth century. The gates appear almost like triumphal arches; the public
buildings are numerous; the place rnyah' and the adjoining area are superb. The place is
lighted in the FiUglish manner. Metz is a larger town, and now more important, being one
of the strongest of tli(^ French fortresses. It is nearly enclosed by the Moselle and the
Seille, and entered by successive drawbridges. The usual complement of its garrison is
10,(KK) men. Metz is celebrated fi)r its long and triumphant defence under tire Duke of
Guise against the army of Charles V. Ft is still a flourishing town, with numerous manu-
factures, and contains a library of 00,00() volumes. Luneville was for some time the resi-
dence of Stanislaus, the ex-king of Ptdand, who considerably embellished it; and it was the
scene of Bonaparte's first triumphant treaty in 1801. It is now rather a poor place, having
few mannfiictnres. Anotlier strong fortress is Verdun, a name fimiiliar to Englisli car.?, as the
scene of the iletcntion o*' their coimtrymrii in I'^OM. Il is well situated on the Mchsp. Salins
flourishijs by means of the salt extracted from the brine-springs, which arc fomid also in
other parts of this territory. Besaneon, in Franche-comte, was a city of the German empire
till the treaty of Westphalia, when it was coded (o the Spaniards, from whom it was wrested
by liouis XIV. It is a large and industrious place, particularly distinguished by a manuflic-
ture of clocks and wntclios, intnxluced towards the I'lul of the last century, and employing
about 1800 persons. It has also valuable scientitic and literary cstaMishmeiits. Dole is
likewise a very ancif-nl town, once the capital of Franche-comle. Vesoul and Ijona le Saul-

itU

.VM

DESCRIPTIVE (JEOdllAPIlY.

Paet III.

iiier arn pretty good towns, ftn<l capitnlH of (IcpitrtmrntH. In iipproaching Switzerland, t]>e
country becomes elevated, and the towns occupy pictiircsquo niton. Ornans lies in a deep
ilell, skirted by green rocky liilln, like Matlock. Ponturlier BtaiidH on a height having u utrong
castle which guards tlic passage into Switzerland. Nantiia is placed in a nook bolwecn two

206

enormous mountains. On crofwing the Vofge.-! appears
the rich iiud Iruitlid plain ot" Aisnce, more highly cul-
tivated thun uny other part of the kingdom I'xcept
French Flandern. Hero Colmar, Ilagueniiu, Savenie,
Wuisemberg, are agreeably situated and riither tliriving
towns. But by thr the moht im|«)rtant pliiee in this
part of Franco i.s Stms-biirg {^ff. ^90.). It was early
celebmteil as an iin|K'rial city, enjoying extensivo
privileges, and enriched by the navigation of the
khino. Its prosperity was still farther i)roiiioted in
consequence of the zeal witli which, along with the
rest of Alsace, it embraced the reformed d(x,'trine8,
Strasburg and Alsace suffered a severe misfortune, by
being, in 1689, subjected to PVance by ]/)ui8 XIV.
Yet tlie city retained privileges beyond any other in
France, and continued to be (listinguishcd both by
wealth and intelligence. Its schools were considered
second only to those of Paris, till the Revolution, when
they were severely injured, and have not yet been fully
restored. Strasburg, however, has still valuable institutions, both literary and economical,
and is one of the greate»t and most flourishing cities of France. Its ancient importance is
attested by its cathedral or minster, one of the most splendid existing monuments of the
Gothic. Its tower, 470 feet high, is said to be the most elevated structure in the world, with
the exception of the Great Pyamid of Egypt.

\ CHAPTER IX.

81'AIN.

Spain forms the principal part of a very extensive peninsula; the most southern, and also
'Jie most wosforn, portion of Europe. It is only connected by an isthmus alwut n hundred
niles broad, traversed liy the I'yronees, a chain holding the second rank among the moun-
ains of Europe. Spain is thus almost insulated from the rest of the continent.

Sect. I. — (ieneral (hilline and Aspect.

The boundaries of tiic Peninsula in general are, on the north, the Bay of Biscay , on the
west, the .Atlantic ; but this coast for more than half its extent is occupied by PorlugiiJ,
whoso interior frontier forms to that e;itont the western boundary of Spain. The mo.st south-
ern point near Gibraltar is only separated by a narrow strait from tiie opposite shore of Africa.
Eastward from this strait is the Mediterranean, along whicli the coast wmds in a north-
easterly direction, gradually receding from Africa, and facing at a great interval the western
coast of Italy. From its termination, the Pyrenees stretch across to the Bay of Biscay, and
form the lofly limit between Spain and France.

The extent of Spain, north and south, is, from Tarifa Point in the straits, in 36° N. lati-
tude, to Capo OrtegftI in Galicia, 43° 46'; about 540 English miles. From east to west, the
extreme points of the penini^ula arc Cape Creus, in Catalonia, 3° 17' E. longitude, and Cape
La Roca, 9^ 30' VV. longitude ; implying twelve and three (|uartcrs degrees, which, in this
latitude, amounts to about 5G0 miles. Thus the Peninsula forms almost a square; allowance
being made for the irregularity of its outline ; and, the entire extent of Portugal being taken
ofF, Spain is reckoned to contain 183,600 square miles.

The surfiice of Spain is strikingly irregular. It is traversed by long and lolly ranges of
mountains, having plains of vast extent between them and the sea. These mountains may
be considered as p<irt of the great range which crosses Europe from the Black Sea to the
Atlantic. Tiie Pyrenees common to Franco and Spain, form a long continuous lino of lofly
summits, the most central and elevated,* of which is Mont Perdu near the source of tlie
Cinca, whicli the accurate measurements have fixed at upwards of 11,160 feet. Towards
the sea, on both sides, the moiuitains sink into a more moderate elevation, and the barrier
between the two kingdoms is less formidable. This great chai'^ -hoots lower branches into

* fTlic liiglicsl point of the Pyrenees is no\.- known to be La.MiilodotIa, J1.424 fcft in licifiht. Tlie liijihcBt peali
nf the Hii^rra Ncvaila, callnl the Cerro dc Miillmcen, is gtill more elevated, being 11,6G0 feot above tlie
sea.— Am. Ed.]

OOOE I.

SPAIN.

SAO

ranges of

intjiins may

Sen to tho

iiio of lofty

iirce of tlm

Towards

the barrier
anches into

_• hiijhest peak
ot above tlie

Catalonia and Navarro, prosonting also some Htriking inHulatcd pcakn, anion;; wliii^li tliut of
MoiitHorriit in tho most coiisniciiousi. From tho western extremity of tho I'yreiieoo, u grout
chain, which has hoen called tho Iberian, reaches almost duo «outh, forininj,' tho lioimdary
of the fijie phiinR of Aragon and Valencia. All tho other ran);ea run from ou.tt to W(?«t. Tho
Cantiiliri;in is nearly a continuation of tho PyronceH : it Htrctches across tho whole north of
Hp'iin, Cdveriiiir the provinces of Asturins and Oalicio, and leaving only a narrow and rugged
plain along tho si'a-eoaHf. Parallel to this, on Uio opposite side of a vast plain through which
tho IJuero Hows, i.s another transverse range, bcarmg in its highest points thi; names of
Guadarnmia and Honiosierra, and enclosing with its rugged and romantic clills tho elevated
palaces of San Ildel'onso and the Rscurial. On tho opiKjsite side of the Tagus and of tho
plain of Madrid is another parallel chain, the Sierra of Toledo. It borders tlie wide elevated
plain of la Mancha; on tho southern boundary of which is the more celebrated chain of
Sierra Morona, tho lofty barrier of tho rich plums of Andalusia. Beyond these rises another
longitudinal chain, of a peculiarly bold and lofty character, called the Sierra Nevada, from
the snow which perpetually covers many of its summits; between which and the Mediter-
ranean only a narrow though beautiful plain intervenes. These long and lofty ranges, as
observed already, are separated by very extended plains, which, in the interior, arc of great
elevation, and even Madrid is 3170 feet atwve the sea: the plains along tho Mediterranean,
and almost on a level with it, display a profuse fertility, and abound in all tho choicest fruits
of a southern climate.

The rivers of Spain form as important and celebrated a feature as its mountains. The
Tagus and the Duero, rising in tho Iberian chain, on the frontiers of Aragon, roll along the
two grand central plains, receiving numerous though not very large tributaries from the
mountains by which they are bordered. Unfortunately for Spain, they teruiinato in the
Bomewlmt hostile realm of Portugal, and are scarcely navigable alwvo its frontier ; so that
tho commercial benefits arising from them are of little importance. Tho Guadiana belongs
to La Mnnctia, and on its approach to Portugal forms the boundary of the two kingdoms ;
but tho high tract through which it flows is only distinguished for its rich pastures, and does
not render ita port of Ayamonte a place of any importance. Beyond the Sierra Morona, the
Guadahiuivir waters tho plain of Andalusia, and has on its banks the noble cities of Cordova
and Seville ; while Cadiz, not far from its mouth, forms the chief emporium of Siwin.
Though its navigation is now much impeded, and practicable for largo vessels only to Seville,
it is the only river in Spain of much commercial importiince. The Ebro, which derives
from its position a greater historical celebrity than any other, rising in the Cantalirian moun-
tains, nearly crosses the breadth of north-eastern Spain, ond separates Catalonia and Ara-
gon from tho extensive regions of the interior. Its banks at present afford few matorials for
trade, except a largo quantity of timber. The Guadalaviar and Xucar in Valencia, and the
Mino in Galicia, are also rivers of some magnitude.

Tho mountiiins of Spain enclose no lakes, their waters finding a ready issue along the
vast plains on which they border.

Sect. II. — Natural Geography.
SiiBSECT. 1. — Geology.

The principal mountain chains in Spain difTer not only in their external aspect, but also
in their internal composition : they appear more as difTercnt individuals than as members of
a single system. They have this in common with one another, that their nucleus consists,
in whole or m jMirt, of primitive and transition rocks; but not only the species, but also fiie
relations of these, vary in the different chains. A great body of granite, which seli' )m
reaches the highest points of the country, and contains subordinate beds of gneiss a'ld otiior
primitive rocks, ranges through the Pyrenees properly so called. It is surrounded by a pro-
dominating mass of crystalline slate and of transition rocks, among which tho most ohundant
are clay sluto and limestone. On the contrary, on the v/c^-tern continuation, in tiio Biscayan
mountains, the older rocks are not widely distributed, and appear first in Galicia, at the
western extremity of the northern mountain chain, where, according to Humboldt, grap'.e,
accompanied by crystalline slates, appears again, and in great extent. The principal iii js
of the mountain ciiain which separates Old from New Castile is comiX)srd of gneiss ai.d
granite. In the chain of mountains extending between tho Tagus and the Guadiana, accord-
ng to Link, the principal rock is granite. The long ridge of the Sierra Morona contains
principally transition rocks; granite breaks out on its southern foot towards the Guadalquivir,
This rock, so frequent in the Iberian peninsula, appears to be wanting in tho highest .soutlicrn
chain. The middle mountain ridges consist of mica slate, abounding in gnrnets, which, in
the ridges lying before them, passes into less crystalline mica slate, chlorite slate, and clay
slate, wliich sometimes enclose beds, at times of vast magnitude, of compact limestone,
marble, dolomite, and serpentine. On the south coast, newer transition slate and grcywackc
slate, with beds of flinty slate, lie here and there on the older slate. The basis or funda-
mental part of the rock of Gibraltar is of these rocks.

660

MAP OP SPAIN AND PORTUOAL.
-» ^ '^ « P

Fro. 997

OOUK 1.

SPAIN

"8
I

Tilt' htriirturi' of tlm cliaiii.^ of inniiiitaiim rorri'mxiiulii in jjonornl witli ttioir chief dirontion.
Not only tlir iiltcriiiitioii of tho ilitfiTi'Mt rockn, lint also tlir direction of tlio Htnitn, uro con-
fiirni.iblo with iho direction of tho chainM: honce, in tho (fnmtpr part of Spain, tin' princi|ml

diroction of Hie nhity rocks is ft 8.VV. to N.K., or W.S.VV. to K.N.K. Hut the inclina-

tion of the strata varica. In tho I'yreni'C!*, proporly ho callod, the din of tho strata ia con-
fornialili! wjih tho two ncclivitioH of Ihn ran({<'. In Ihn Htinuwiorni and (iiiadarninui ran|;uH,
tho prin<!ipal mass of i^nciriH dip.s S.K. 'owardu tho ({ranito \y\ng iM'foro it. In tho Sierra
Morona, tho prodoinlnatin^ dip of the Hiaty ntriifa in towards the N.W., so that tlio^ appear
to rest on tho granite which breaks from under thoni. In tho Hierra Nevada, tho diu of tho
itrata is cnntorinaldo with tho two acclivities of the chain. It is worthy of remark now tho
curvature of tho nouth coast of Spain obeys tho diroction of tho stratn, and how the formation
of tho tiir-projortinif soulhorn point of tho land al.-io stands in connection with the direction
of tho strata. At tho tlxit of tho njck of (libraltar, tho olaty strata run nearly north and
loutli with a rnpid dip towards tho cast. Tho Out of Gibralttir is thoroforo nt-arly at right
anglos to tho diroction of tho strata. Tho rocky wall between the Mediterranean and
Atlantic Souh, hy thin direction of tho strata, must have opposed tho ftron|{i'st resistance to
tho currents. TIk; primitive and transition rocks, in very ditforent jdacos, are rich in ores.
Tho present mines are confined |irin(Mpal!y to tho Houth-west and fiouth-oast parts of Spain.
Tho mighty load-fjlanco veins of Linares occur in granite; tho colossiil deposit of lead-
glance ill tho Sierra do Gador, which affimled, in the year Ifi'iS, fiWVMK) cwt. of lead, is
distributed in nm>si - (putzon), in a limcstono which may be referred to the oldest transition
rocks, and the rich mercury mines ot' Ahnadcn aro contained in clay slate. Tho secondary
rocks also assist in forming tho princi(ial Spanish mountain chains, but in a different manner.
They ascend to a great height on tho Spanish side of tho Pyrenees; oven some of tho
highest sunmiitN aro of secondary rocks, Tho western continuation of tho Pyrenoan chain
consists, in tho Biscmyan provinces, principally of secondary rocks; and it is proliablo that
the lofty limestone mountain ridges which .-leparato Asturiaa from Leon aro a continuation
of the Biscayan secondary formation. On both sides of Somosiorra the primitive rocks are

NORTH PART.

Giilient.
1. f^iimnnniiii
'■i. (^unintiit

4. F.Tr.l
.%. Miirft

n. ijiiitit

7. Im (•ikiii
H. H'tn'mKo
!<. Vi|o

10. T"jr

11. Kiliitilnvin
Vi. Aliutiiili-v
\X Orunse
M. iM Kua.

IS. lllllllD

lU. Oviudii
17. nijiiii
\H. Riviiflnrdlln
11). IjuncH.

Aeon.
SO. AiuilardeCam-

ptM
31. llHrrora
K. Hnlilniiit
21. Alinan/a

54. l.non

55. Ailnrsa
SA. Hail .liisio
27. \,n Mt'ZQuiia
*>1. Corvijal

-II. MHyiirKa
jHJ. AnusRit
31. Piilenc;ia
%. Villaconsncia
XI. Vallailolid
M. Tonli^aiflal

IW. ToTO

;W. Xamitra
M7. PuRnttMgituca
3H, Halfunaiira
.111. Malilhi

40. Ciudiid Roilrigii

41. CeappflDHa
i'i. IN'nnranita
411. IMoilinn (Ii!l

Campo.
nid Cslile.
44. Arfvalo
4.'>. Ilonillu
4fi. R^pin.ir
47. Hcsitvia
4H. Pednxu
4<). Cueila
M, T.Rrnii
.^1. Frcsnitlo
!>'i. Rarrnna
.'i:i. Aiiiiazan
.■M Bulla
5.5. Amedn

Vol. I.

."^1. Liiffrono
.'»7. \iiitirii
.>. I'riu.
.VJ. Miii'vioiica
r<e. niiruDi
tU. I'nlflnxiii^ln
fit* Ailun
m Varicaf
HI. Hanianiler
Ul. Urduiia.
lUacau,

aa. niiiiiit

tiH. Iliiba
tr7. Tulnia
*H B>. Siihuiiun
(i!l. Viilncia.

A'rtrarrff.
70. rmnpfluim
71.Tiidil«.

7i. V.irdun
711. Jtica

74. Aiiwa

7.'V. Illlciir-a

76. HiiriiKoaia

77. linritifna

75. C'alutayud
71). I.iicii

St). Monialban
Pl.Tiiruol
I'J. Biiniiin
Kl. Ixar
M. Pina

Cdta/oRia.
H.V Urida
H6. Halaguer
H7. Ornaina
m. Urne"
HI). Fisiioraa
111. Cardiina
111. ni-riina
l^j. IliiTcidnna
li;l. Turranuna
IM. rorvtfra
)!.'>. Kipital
IKl. Fhx
1)7. Turloia

SOin-H PART.

F.stremndura'

1. I,a Cliva

2. Plnennlia
n. (iiiliatoa
4. Citria

.5. Alcuntiira

♦;. r»pt'rc8

7. Kl Tersoiero

H. Badajiis

n. Oliva
II). Xercz
11. Llorena
13. Majacslla

Rrfermcet to the Map ff Spain and Pnrtu/tal.

II. Moiida

14. Artidi'rR

15. 'I'nixilln

III. Almuraz.

JiTew Ciintilr.
17. (tiMidalupo
IH. Azutan
II). Oriipeiia
91). Tnlavora dn la
Royna

21. Toludo

22. ( 'iivdcra
2:1. F.I Prado
24. Mcwtiilea
2.V Mmlriil
211. F.I F.sruri.il
ST. Kl Parcli)

2H, (fuailalaxara

21). Aronjuiiz

:«). l.aMoladollul

miiflt
31. Secadiin
'12. Cunavara
33. Vnliabludo del

Rill
.14. Ilimilmia
3.1. Friat
3(1. Cucnca
.17. 1,n Parra
3H. yniriila
!ll). Uequoiia

40. Tiiejar

41. Aitemill

42. Forcali

43. Moriilla

44. Ziirita
4.'i. Pfiilj'cnla

45. Ft d(' Sal
47. Oropt'sa
4H. Alrncdixnr
41). Miirvii'dro
.10. Valiincia

51. Alcira

52. F. lipe
.W I),,nia
M. Xizana
55. Alicante

Murtia,
5(1. Ral'nt
.57. Cartliaiiona
,W. Almazarrun
.51). I'.iiaiia
fill. Mitrcia
«1. r.bpgin
m. Ilellin
B3. Vi'liinnira
IV4. riunihilla
fi5. Ayna
ne. Chiclana

I.a Mnitcha,
117. .*^. l.orpiica
IW, Alniaitrit
(111. Ciuilud Rial

70. Mailridi'jofl

71. M iliiiriin
Ti. lii-liornia

^tiidfUutia.

73. Ilrmi'car

74. Aiidiijar
7.5. Kinarei
7(1. Ilaeza
77. Ilucacar

75. Ahliii
71I.Oiillar
H) Jiidnr
HI. Mnnaitcriu
H2. .Iiicn
Kl. Mniilllla
H-U lliljalan<;o
K5. ri.tilova
Hi. Oniina
H7. ('armuna
m. Ei-ija
Pfi. Araccna
SM). Axlarcnilar

01. Alinendro

02. Ayamonto
>X\. Iliielva
ni. Sevilln
1.5. S. Lucar

!«;. Rola
117. CiMlli
W. Xcret

00. Tarifa

100. Gibraltar.
Granada.

101. (itiorln

102. Miirb..lla

103. Ronda

104. Antiqucia
IM. Malnita
IIIA. Vi'li'ii ^Iniaea
107. I.a Hnrradura

105. Motril
109. Granada
no. Aura

111. AInifrIa

112. Piirrhpna

113. Mujacar.

PORTITOAI..

1. F.ntrf Doiiro c

Minho.

1. Viuna

2. Rraga
:i. Amaranlo

4. Oporto.

II. Tras 09 Monies.

5. ('azabranca
(i. Rraitanza

7. Miranda de Vita

N. Aldoa
9. Minindi'lla.
III. /trim.

10. AlmiMtla

1 1 . Tjamrffo

12. Ali>nrral

13. Villamiva

14. Fcira

15. Avciri^
in. (\iinibia
17. Vijou

IH. Trai)C(iflo
11). (iiinrda
90. Riilviitiorrn
21. <?HBtiillo Rrnncu
92. lil.'irdiuil

23. Abianlra.

IV. VMrcmadura.

24. Arena
95. P.iitii
9(1. 1.1'irla
27. ^anlnrcm
9H. Ohidiia

20. Villafranca
311. Pcnnventti
31.riniia
:12. l.i!tbiin

33. Almada

34. Si'iubal nr 6t.

i;be»

35. Atcaccrdo.

V. JiUmteio.
30. Porta legre
37. F.lvni

'^. Olivonoat
30. Poviia

40. Scrpa

41. Ileja

42. Oiirigua

43. Mulidri

44. H. Andra
4.5. Villa Nova

46. Serdao.

VI. Mgnrre.

47. Pcyja
4H. l.nitoa
411. AUMifrira

SO. Caatro Marino.
nirert nf Spain,
a Tambre
h t!lla
r Minho
d Sil
e Navia
f Nalon

K Heaaya

Khro
DuranKo

} Aragon

Oallaita
<-"inca

t Otinaaa ii iriUiiii llie t-puiib linilta.

in Ribagorxano

n Hi-itrn

o MiiRa

p Tiir

n litohrnflat

r Francnli

H Mnriin

t Xltnca

11 Iluiiro

V .Arlanza

w Arlanzon

X Piitii'rga

y Tarrion

t E«la

a* Orviopn

b* Torinci

r* Toa

d* 7i>zcre

e* I'agua

f* Albcrch«

B* Fmma

ii* llrnurei

i* Tiotar

j* Huadiana

V* aiial

I* Tinto

in*fiuadal(ituvir

n* Jandula

u* (luadalimar

p* (lUadix

q* Cfiaiiela

r* Xucar

a* Cobrifll

t* Guadalaviar

11* S«(ura

V* IiorcA

w* Guadajut

X* Genii

y* Guadiaro.

Itivrrt of Portugai

a I.iina

b Tumags

c. Hnlinr

d Voupa

e Mondego

e* Tagua

f *.'o«

RZezoro
lainra
i Raldo
j Guadiana.
BALEARIC
ISLANDS.
. Itua.
1. Ivica

_ Majorca.
3. Palma

3. Boiler

4. St. Lorenzo.

Minorea.
.5. Mahon
6. Ciudadela.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

1.1

m lift

ta fiii |Z2

L25 iyi_u 1^

-IS"

Hiotographic

Sciences

Corporation

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SM

(716)872-4503

S62

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

skirted by those of the secondary class ; but they are far from the middle and higher parts
)f the mountain chain. When we follow the road from Madrid to Andalusia, wc meet with
secondary rocks near the transition clay slate of the passes of the Sierra Morcna ; but we
must descend very low on the south side before we meet with similar rocks. The high
mountains of Jaen are formed of secondary rocks. In the northern vorgcbirf^e of the Sierra
Nevada, between Granada and Guadiz, there are secondary deposits, whicii are not, how-
ever, so considerable and extensive as to reach to the high ridges. Also in the vicinity of
Malaga new secondary rocks lie on the loot of older mountain masses; and the ridges of
secondary rocks exten<l from the hills of Ronda towards the southern extremity of Spain.
The wonderful isolated rock of Gibraltar is also principally composed of now secondary rock.
The distribution of the rock is not confined to the immediate vicinity of the Mgher moun-
tain chains, but it extends from the one to the other, rises or &lls in the intermediate spaces,
and forms in this way the widely extended high table-land.

The most important of the Spanish secondary rocks arc the following ; viz., variegated
sandstone and marl, gryphite limestone, and the white limestone or Jura limestone. The
first of these exhibits the same relations as in Britain, where it is known under the name of
new red sandstone and red marl. The shell limestone, which, in Germany, is enclosed
between Werner's variegated sandstone and the younger marl formations, is wanting in
Spain, as is also the case in England. The sandstone and marl is rich in gypsum and masses
of rock salt. At Vallecas, near Madrid, and in some other places, there rests upon it, in
single beds, that rare deposit consisting o( meerschaum, with nests of siliceous minerals. It
is to this formation, which occurs widely spread over the high table-lands of Old and New
Castile, that these countries owe the reddiah-brown colour of their soil, and the tiresome
uniformity of their surface. The lias formation is widely distributed in the northern pro-
vinces of Spain. It appears to reach a considerable height on the Spanish side of the Pyrenees.
In the Biscayan provinces it exhibits the same characters as the gryphite limestone of the
Weser. and is so widely distributed that nearly all the older rocks are covered by it. Here
it is remarkably prolific in an excellent iron ore. The immense mass of sparry iron ore, con-
verted by decomposition into brown and red iron ores of Sommorostro, near Bilboa, and which
probably forms the ironstone hills mentioned by Pliny in the 34th book of his Natural Hit-
tory, belongs to this formation. Probably also the vast beds of coal in the Asturias are sub-
ordinate to it. The white Jura limestone, which is one of the most widely distributed for-
mations, is also of great geognostical importance in Spain. It forms, in most places, the
immediate cover of the variefjated sandstone and marl, and occurs in the north, and also in
the south of Spain, in single ridges and great mountain masses. This formation is exhibited
in its most characteristic forms in the narrow pass of Pancorbo in Old Castile, in the lacerated
mountains of Jaen, and the isolated rocky wall of Gibraltar. Wherever it occurs, its presence
is announced by the yellowish-brown colour of the soil with which it is covered.

Some members also of the ch:ilk formation occur in Spain. The sandstone of the rocky
ridge of the southern coast, between Cadiz and Gibraltar, and the limestone in the district
of Los Barios, bring to our recollection the rocks of the Saxon Switzerland. The first
agrees with the Gorman quador-sandstein, the latter with the Saxon planer limestone, an
equivalent for impure chalk.

Tertiary deposits occur in different parts of Spain. In the south, particularly near the
sea-coast, there is a deposit, filled with marine organic remains, in which calcareous sand
and pebbles occur, partly in a loose mass, and partly more or less firmly compacted by means
of calcareous cement. Judging from the included petrifactions, among whicli are beds of
oyster-shells, this deposit, on which Cadiz stands, and which, in some places, rises into hil-
locks and low hills, belongs to the upper tertiary sea-water formation. Probably the ter-
tiary deposit mentioned by Brongniart as occurring in the neighbourhood of Barcelona
belongs to the same deposit. That fresh-water limestone occurs in Spain has been sufiiciently
proved by the observations of Baron Pernssac. The deposit very much resembles that so
generally disfrilmtnd in Germany, and is found in different parts of Spain, both in the inte-
rior and on the coast, and at different heights. The calcareous breccia, generally with a
rcrru^inous basis, which occurs principally in the south-west, where it is widely distributed,
belonfrs to the latest of the antediluvian deposits. It not only inerusts limestone rocks of
different formations innro or loss thickly, but also fills up rents and fissures in them: thus it
abounds among the calcareous rocks of Gibraltar, where it sometimes contains bones of quod-
riipeds no longer met with there. The formation of the breccia is ascribed to a catastrophe
vhich affected different parts of the coast of the Mediterranean sea. Aa Professor Haus-
niann, to whom we owe the preceding details, had not an opporttinity of travelling in Mur-
ria, he was not able to confirm or reject the accounts of Spanish geologists, who maintain
that it contains true volcanic rocks. The occurrence of other rocks, which are conjectured
to have come from below, has been noticed in but few places. Characteristic basalt occurs
in Catalonia. The porphyritic and basaltic-looking rocks extending fi-om Cabo de Gata, and
firom Aviln. on tlie north side of the Guadarrama range, are still problematical. Hypersthrne
rock has been found by Profijssor Garcia in the vicinity of Salinas de Poza, in Old Castile,

Part III.

^her parts
meet with
a ; but we
The high
the Sierra
not, how-
vicinity of
I ridges of
J of Spain,
ndary rock,
fher moun-
iate spaces,

variegated
tone. The
the name of
is enclosed
wanting in
and masses
I upon it, in
linerals. It
Id and New
ihe tiresome
orthem pro-
10 Pyrenees.
stone of the
jy it. Here
ron ore, con-
a, and which
Natural Hit-
irias are sub-
stributed for-
it places, the
1, and also in
1 is exhibited
the lacerated
, its presence
I.

of the rocky
n the district
1. The first
limestone, an

arly near the
ciiroous sand
tod by means
li are beds of
iso8 into hil-
)ably the ter-
of Barcelona
Ml sufRciently
nblcs that so
in the inte-
lerally with a
y distributed,
tone rocks of
Jiem : thus it
ones of quad-
a catastrophe
■ofessor Haus-
!lling in Mur-
who maintain
e conjectured
basalt occurs
de Gata, and
Hypersthpnc
» Old Castile,

Book I.

SPAIN.

S68

in contact with Jura limestone. Professor Hausmann found, in the mountams of Jaen, near
to variegated marl containing masses of gypsum, rocks of greenstone. Col. Silvettop
describes tertiary deposits in Granada.

It may not be improper, from Professor Hausmann, to point out tlic influence of soil and
climate on the other departments of nature, as also on the peculiarities and occupations of
man. A glance at the whole nature of Spain discovers a threefold principal difference.
The northern zone, which extends to the £bro, diflfers entirely in its characters from the
middle zone ; and this again is completely different from the southern zone, which is bounded
on the north by the Sierra Morena, and a part of the Ostrandes. The northern zone, which
includes Galicia, Asturios, the Biscayan provinces, Navarre, the northern part of Aragon,
and Catalonia, is a widely extended mountainous and hilly country. The snow-fields and
glaciers of the Pyrenees on the one side ; and on the other the north and north-west winds,
have a marked influence in lowering the temperature of the atmosphere, and in increasing
the supply of water. The increased humidity is favourable for vegetation, which, on the
whole, very much resembles that of the south of France ; and the variety of rocks contain-
ing lime, clay, and sand, and also their frequent alternations, operate beneficially on the soil.
The soil everywhere invites to cultivation, and the Catalonians and Biscayans are active
cultivators of the ground. The middle part of Spain, to which belongs Old and New Castile,
a part of Aragon, Leon, and Estremadura, is not so fkvourably circumstanced. In general,
we rarely meet with either beauty or variety of aspect. The extensive and lofty table-lands,
destitute of trees, are dull and tiresome ; their uniform and monotonous surface, formed by
vast deposits of horizontally disposed secondary strata, is swept across by the wind, and burnt
up by the sun's rays. Whichever way the eye turns, it meets with scarcely any thing but
wretchedly cultivated cornfields and desert heaths of cistus. Seldom, in general, more in
the southern than in the northern districts, plantations of olive-trees afl[ord a meagre shelter,
and vary the scenery, although in an inconsiderable degree. Nothing, certainly, bos so
great an influence on these properties of nature, with which many of the peculiarities and
modes of life of man harmonise, than the high situation of the widely extended table-lands,
and the uniformity of the rock which forms the support of the soil. It is owing principally
to the horizontal stratification, and the v/ant of water, that the great Spanish table-lands are
80 widely extended, and so little intersected by deep valleys. The rivers, in most cases,
carry but little water in comparison with the magnitude of the land, and the number of con-
siderable mountain chains ; and it is further surprising how insignificant the waters of most
of the Spanish mountain groups are, even when the qualities of the rocks favour the forma-
tion of springs. The causes of this great deficiency of water are principally the great dry-
ness of the atmosphere, the inconsiderable cover of snow on the mountains, and its short
continuance ; the absence of forests, and the want of great moors on the heights, and the
comparatively inconsiderable breadth of the mountain ranges. The southern and south-
western part of Spain, which comprehends Andalusia, witii Granada and Murcia, is very
different from that just described. On the opposite side of tlie Sierra Morena the whole
land has a more- southern and foreign aspect, a breathing of that African nature, which an-
nounces itself not only by the world of plants, but also by the animal world, and man him-
self The great diflTerence of climate is produced by the southern situation, the exposure of
the acclivity on the south and south-west to the African winds, and the strong reflection of
the solar rays from the lofty, naked mountain walls. The mountain ranges are more closely
aggregated, the valleys more deeply cut : there is no room for very extensive table-lands,
and the more limited ones that occur, as those of Granada, ar^ more amply supplied with
water than those in the middle of Spain. Alon^ with this arrangement, there is greater
difference among the rocks, and also of their position. The south of Spain, tlierefore, pos-
sesses not only a much higher temperature, one fit for the orange and the palm, but also a
more varied and a more favourable soil for cultivation. But these relations would have acted
more beneficially if the air had been more humid, and moisture had been everywhere more
abundant. The deficiency of moisture is the principal cause not only of tlie striking moa-
greness of phenogamous vegetation, on most of the mountain acclivities, but also of the
remarkable paucity of lichens and mosses on the mountains on the coast; and in connection
with this is the fact, that the weathering of the rocks, and the reforming of the original sur-
face of the mountains, assume there a somewhat different course from what is observed in
places which are moister, and provided with a more powerful vegetation.

SuBSECT. 2. — Botany.

" Oh! Christ I it is a Knodly sight to see
' What Ilnavcn hath done Tor this delicious land I

. What fruits of fVaKrance blush on every tree 1

What (jnodly prnR)>ects o'er the hills expand !
(But man would mar them with an impious hand).

" European Spain," says M. dc Humboldt, " situated in latitudes under which Palm trees
( Phcenix dactylifera and Chamarops humilis) grow upon the plains, presents the majestic
spectacle of a chain of mountains, the tops of which shoot up into the region of everlasting

iil

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part JIL

■now. By a levelling survey executed with the greatest care, it has been OBcertained tliat
in the Sierra Nevada of Granada, the Pico de Vcleta rises about 11,365 English feet, and
the Mulhacen 11,660 English feet, above the level of the ocean. None of the mountains
of the Pyrenees are of so great a height ; for Mont Perdu, the loftiest of the Spanish Pyre-
nees is only 11,168 feet, and the highest of the French Pyrenees only 1722 fathoms. The
peak of Mulhacen, in the Sierra Nevada of Granada, wants only 76 fathoms of being as
high as the Peak of Teneriife. Yet even this summit, if situated in the same latitude as
the town of Mexico, would not be perpetually covered with snow : for the never-melting
snows begin under the equator at 2460 fathoms; under the twentieth degree of latitude at
2350 fathoms; under the forty-fiflh, at 1300 fathoms; and under the sixty-second, at 900
fitthoms."

Thus circumstanced in regard to climate, and the elevation of its mountains, how greatly
is it to be regretted that no country in Europe has been so little investigated in regard to its
botanical pn^uctiona ! Enough, however, is known for our purpose, which may be collected
from the different travels in, and accounts of, Spain and Portugal, and from the Recherches
sur la Dittribution Oeographique des Vegelaux Phanerogatnes dans PAncien Monde,
already alluded to, by M. de Mirbel. This author considers the whole of this peninsula,
with the exception of the northern part of Spain, which forms the shores of the Gulf of
Gascony, and which belongs to the temperate zone, as entering into the transition zone. If,
therefore, its vegetation has any affinity with that of France, it is only where its mountainous
parts, especially the Pyrenees, resemble the mountains of France, and its warm districts arc
like the extreme south of France. In East Valencia and Murcia, in the south of Andalusia
and the Algarves, in Western Alemtejo and South Estremadura, the rich and varied vege-
tation calls to mind the fertile plains of Syria. In Andalusia, fVoets are unknown, and the
snow, if it ever falls, melts the moment it touches the soil : so that it is iiot surprising that,
in the cultivated parts, the Spaniards, long famous for their voyages, should have introduced
many vegetables from remote parts of the world ; thus giving a perfectly tropical appear-
ance to ^e country.

The Erythrina Corallodendron, or Coral tree, with its brilliant scarlet blossoms, the
Schinus MoUe, with its gracefully pinnated foliage, and the Phytolacca dioica, are intro-
duced, with many other plants, from South America. Even the bananas are common to the
south of the Guadalquivir ; as are also the Cayenne Pepper ; and, in gardens, the Convolvu-
lus Batatas, or Sweet Potato. Everywhere about tlie rural habitations of the Spanish pea-
santry, the Date, the Orange (,fig. 298.), the Lemon, the Olive, the Pomegranate, the Fig

The Oram*.

The Fit

ijig. 299.), and the Mulberry, flourish nearly as well as in the native soil. Link notices the
trees growing about Lisbon ; " they are chiefly," he says, " Olive and Orange trees, Cypress,
Judas trees : Elms and Poplars appear too. But of Oaks, Beeches, and Lime, there are
none, and very few Willows ; so that one may instantly perceive how different is the char-
acter of a Lisbon view from that of Germany." The Orange is the most striking of these :
for there are many plantations in quintas, where they form compact groves, and also scat-
tered in open spots. These trees require much artificial watering, and they are propagated
by seed, and afterwards by grafting upon those seedling trees. In December and January
the fruit begins to turn yellow ; and at the end of January and in February, before they oro
ripe and sweet, they are gathered for exportation. Towards the end of March and April,
the oranges are very go(5, but they are not in perfection till enrly in May. In July and
August, Uiey are scarce, and over-ripe. At the end of April and May, the new flowers ap-
pear, the fragrance of which extends far and wide, and at this time the quantity of glittering
fhiit embosomed amid the dark foliage, " like golden lamps in a green night," relieved stiU

Alid

PartIIL

tained tliat
h feet, and

mountains
inish Pyre-
loms. The
)f being as

latitude as
ver-melting
• latitude at
jond, at 900

how greatly
regard to its
be collected

Recherches
;tcrt Monde,
B peninsula,

the Gulf of
an zone. If,
mountainous

districte are
of Andalusia
varied vege-
own, and the
rprising that,
fe introduced
pical appear-

bloBsoms, the
xa, are intro-
ommon to the
the Convolvu-
. Spanish pea-
mate, the Fig

Book T.

SPAIN.

565

link notices the
trees. Cypress,
,ime, there are
int is the char-
iking of these :
and also scat-
are propagated
cr and January
before they an?
arch and April,
f. In July and
lew flowers ap-
ity of glittering
" relieved still

more by the snowy blossoms, presents an object which continually excites new admiration,
though it is one of daily occurrence. One single tree frequently bears 1500 oranges, and
examples are not wantmg of their bearing 2000, and sometimes, though rarely, 2iK)0. In
the provinces, they sell for half a farthing apiece. Pigs are exported largely n-om the city
of Faro; lliey are the most important produce of the Algarve, and are brought down by the
country people to ttio merchants in immense quantities. They are thrown in heaps in a
building prepared for the purpose, where a syrup flows from them, which is used to advan-
tage in making brandy. They are then spread to dry in the sun, in an open situation, wlien-
they are left for a few days, in proportion to the heat of the weather ; after whicli they are
packed into small baskets made of the leaves of the Fan Palm, and exprted. " Greece anil
the Algarves," M. Link observes, " are the only countries where capritication is practised ;
for in the latter country are some varieties of Figs, and those very excellent, that fall to the
ground immature, unless punctured by gnats." Two ideas prevail respecting tlie effect of
this operation; the general opinion being, that the little insect, on entering the Fig, (which
is known by botanists to be a fleshy receptacle, including many, and often only barren
flowers,) carries with it, from other figs that it has visited, and from which it comes loaded,
the farina necessary for fertilisation : while others maintain, and among them M. Link, that
tlie puncture caused by tiie insect gives a firesh stimulus and a new movement to the sap or
juices of the fruit, thereby not only preventing the fell of the fruit, but rendering it sweeter
and better flavoured ; and it is ccrtam that many of our common fruits, when pierced by in-
sects, acquire the sweetest flavour. The ancients perfected the figs in the Archipelago by
means of an insect, a species of Cynips (C. Ficus). In Algarve, besides the cultivated kind,
another wild sort is grown ; in which the insects abound. These trees are recalled Fijos de
tora ; and branches of them are, at the proper season, broken offj and suspended over those
intended to be fertilised, when the little animals come forth, alight upon the fruits, puncture
them, and aid their ripening.
Formidable fences are made of the Cactus Tuna {fi/r. 300.), and the Agave americana,
QQQ or American aloe. The former is often mixed with the Pome-

granate, but of itself it constitutes a hedge almost impervious to
cattle. In Portuguese it is called, on account of its prickle^<,
Fijo do inferno : the flowers are yellow and the fruit esculent ;
the latter is by no means unpalatable, and is regularly sold in
Lisbon. Of the Agave americana we have already spoken, and
shall, therefore, simply mention here, that its leaves undergo a
process by which a valuable thread is e.xtracted, known in Por-
tugal by the name of Filn da piln. The largest and most per-
fect leaves are cut ofl^, laid upon a board, and scraped with a
square iron bar, which is held in both hands, until all the juices
and pulp are pressed out ; the nerves only remaining, wlicn
these are found easily separable into tlireads. Whore pasturage
is scarce, as in Algarve, the cattle eat the foliage of this plant,
if cut into til in transverse slices.

In La Mancha grows the Esparto grele (Slipa tenacissima),
of which cords are made, and the foliage is sent in large quan-
tities into Portugal for this purpose. To prevent the careless
destruction of these valuable plants, penalties are inflicted on
CtictiMTum. (j„y person who ventures to gather them before the month

of May, when they are in perfection.
The Carob tree {fig. 301.) Link reckons the most beautiful of European trees. It attains
3QJ a considerable height, forming, with its large evergreen pinnated

foliage, a head of considorablf. dimensions, and yielding a welcome
shade. Among the foliage hang down the numerous long po«is,
which, when ripe, are used as fodder for cattle, especially the
mules, and as meat for swine, though inferior to the acorns of the
Evergreen Ook. Before the expulsion of the Moors, the Sugar
Cane was cultivated to a considerable extent, and lately it has been
re-introduced, at San Lucar, into a garden " d'acchmation," to-
gether with Coffee, Indigo, and Gum Arabic. A vast extent of
country is covered by the Chamsrops humilis {Dwarf Palm or
Palmetto), growing in waste places. This vegetation, in part ex-
otic, follows the coasts of the Spanish peninsula, to the east and to
the west. It is difflised in all its luxury in the delicious territory
of Valencia, where the agriculture of the Moors is still held in
respect. With the sjwcics already named, are here cultivated the
Aloi; perfoliata. Yucca aloifolia. Cassia tomentosa, Mclia Azeda-
CtrobTree. ^^^^^^ iiKuiy kinds of Mimosa, Annonn, &c. In the environs of

AHcant, the Date harvest is very abundant. This Palm there gro\vs in liirge plantations.
Vol. I, 48

.♦

,■." ••'

%'■<*- ^

S66

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

and often attains tho liei^rlu of 120 feet. It reaches alon^ the entire coaBt, to the 40th de-
mrce, and perhaps hi{,'lu!r. Tlio Affuvo abounds in the environs of Tarragona, in tho 4l8t
degree ; and tho Olive continues to tho sliore of Franco.

In frcncrnl, the vegetation of the cost of the Peninsula differs little from that of the other
shores of the Mediterranean. The coasts of the Ocean, on tho west, arc less hot, according
to M. Bory do St Vincent, than corresponding latitudes on tlio east sides ; so that the south-
ern vegetation docs not extend so far to the north. Bo this as it nuiy, the Date, the Lemon,
tlie Orange, abound in Algarve and Alemtejo. The Orange grows plentifully in the cnvi*
rons of Oporto, in 41° ; and the Olive extends to 42°. A great number of American plants,
the seeds having been probably brought in ballast, are mingled, and, as it were, confounded,
with indigenous species. Upon the whole, however, tlie vegetation may be considered as
having more in common with that of the Atlantic than with the coasts of the Mediterra-
nean. Link thus pictures Uie climate of Portugal, and its effects upon vegetation : — " A
heat, equal to 06° of Fahrenheit, is not uncommon in this country ; and, from comparative
observations, it appears that the climate is warmer here than in Brazil, though tho heat does
not continue near so long. From Midsummer-day to the middle of September, rain is ex-
tremely uncommon, and even in the beginning of that montli very scanty ; the drought oflen
continues much longer. Immediately afler the first rains, follow the autumnal flowers, this
Meadow Saffron (Colchica, two species but little known) ; Saffron (Crocus aalivui) ; the
Autumnal Snowdrop {Leucojum aulumnale) ; thb sweet-smelling Ranunculus bullatus, and
many others. These appear in the higher lands around Cintra, where the rains arc earlier
than in the low parts near Lisbon. Immediately afler the autumnal flowers, come the
spring plants, owing to which the interval between spring and autumn is scarcely percep-
tible. In October tlie young grass springs up, and the new leaves shoot out, rendering it
the pleasantest month of the year. In November and December fall heavy rains, with fre-
quent storms. Days of perpetual silent rain are ver^ rare, for in general it comes down in
torrents. The brooks round Lisbon, which it was a little while before easy to step over, and
which wholly disap|>ear in summer, now rush like torrents down the hills. This swelling
of the streams renders travelling difKcult at tliat season, and would retard the operations of
war as much in winter as tlic drougiit in summer. In January, cokl, clear weather oflen
prevails, but becomes milder in February, which is generally a very pleasant month."

The most common vegetables of the plains of Spain are the Cork tree 0?^. 302.), the
Ilex, and Kermes Oak (^g. 303.), the Bay tree, the Myrtle, the Philyrea media and angus-
302 _^ ^1^ 303

Xermca OHk.
Cork Tt«*.

tifolia, Juniperus Sabina, Celtis australis,PistaciaTerebinthus and Lcntiscus; Rhamnus Ala-
temus, and many other species of this genus ; Viburnum Tinus, Osyris alba, Paliurus aus-
tralis, the Strawberry tree, tiie common and shrubby Jessamines, the Caper plant, and a great
number of Cisti {Jig. 3-M ) with other shrubs, whose foliage is of an evergreen and coriace-
ous nature. Immense plains arc clothed with Lygeum Spartum, and the running streams
arc bordered with Uupleurum spinosum and Nerium Oleander.

But it has been justly remarked, that no country in Europe presents a more sorrowful
aspect than the interior of the Peninsula. " No man, perhaps, saving a botanist," says Link,
"could travel witli any pleasure in the barren tracts of Old Castile; but this pursuit can
render travelling both instructive and interesting, even in these njjparently sterile wastes.
Wiicre forests hiivc existed tlu^re, tli(!y have yieldod to the stroke of the axe ; and the naked
soil remains witiiout any culture. Vast chains of mountains spread out in all directions, and
between them are extended the Parameras, more or less elevated plains, frequently as naked
as the steppes of Siberia." M. Bory estimates at fi"om 1800 to 2000 feet the elevation of the
Paramera which divides the sources of the Douro and the Ebro. In tlie valleys formed by
these rivers and tlieir tributary streams, a vegetation of great beauty is found, partaking of

Part 111.

10 40th de-
in tlio 4l8t

)f the other
, according
, the south-
Lho Lemon,
» the cnvi-
ican plants,
lonfbunded,
tnBidercd aa

Meditcrra-
ition:— "A
joniparative
10 heat does

rain is ex-
•ought often
flowers, the
iliviu); the
ullatus, and
3 are earlier
s, come the
cely percep-
rendering it
ns, with fre-
mes down in
;ep over, and
Ilia swelling
)peration8 of
weather often
onth."

f . 302.), the
a and angus-

303

Ihamnus Ala-
Paliurus aus-
it, and a great
I and coriace-
ming streams

ore sorrowful
t," says Link,
s pursuit can
sterile wastes,
ind the naked
lircctions, and
;ntly as naked
evation of the
sys Ibrraed by
partaking of

Book!.

SPAIN.

607

tliat in the more temperate climates of the north. Here are seen small fields of MaiEC, and
even of Rye and Barley, more rarely of Wheat, surrounded by lofty Oaks, Chestnuts, and
Poplars, every tree supporting a Vine, which spreads over it and not unirequently reaches
to the very summit of the highest Oaks.

•^

Ciitui.

CiMaUiiH.

The great mass of the forests which have escaped destruction are mostly formed of Ever-

S'een Oaks ; among which, besides the other species already enumerated, are found the
uercus Ballotii, oigilopifolia, faginca, prasina, crenato, rotunditblia, humilia, &.c. The latter
does not exceed six inches in height. In the valleys and on the mountains also, grow Tilia
europica {platyphyllos ?), Fagus syl/atica, Costanea vesca (Jig. ;5((5.), Tiixus baccata, Pinus
sylvestris, Fraxinus, Ornus, &c. The commonest forest tree on the plains of the temperate
zone, namely tiie Oak {(iue.rcug Itobur), inhabits the soutliorn slope of the Pyrenees. It is
said that tliis tree occurs also in some ports of the Peninsula.

The vegetation which prevails on the lofty mountains in tlie interior of Spain is almost
wholly unknown to us. M. llaiiiond has made some interestiiii^ obsurvations on that of the
Pic du Midi, one of the highest of the Pyrenees; and has compared the plants of its most
elevated summit, estimated at about 10,000 feet, with that of Melville Island, as described
by Mr. R. Brown. The similarity is very striking.

81'HMIT OF THE riC DU HIOI

Cryptogamia.

Fiiiilli

Lirbt'iiH 51

Ili'imlicn- 1

Mf!.""." 6

fV'riiK 4

-02
Phanogamou$.

{ 'vlwrncov 3

(tranHUH 7

Jiiiici U

P()IyK«nen? 1

I'Innlayiiicm I

I'liiiiibauiiiPiR 1

l.y«imqchiic A

I'ecticulariniu 3

IiabiatiB 1

Scrniiliulnriiiie 1

Bi>ragiiiciE 1

(■eiitinncm 3

CninpaiiiilncciE 1

CichnrHcnm 3

CoryiiiliifprB! 10

RiibiuceiF 8

PnimvpracpiD 1

Criinifcim

(^^aryophyllcu! 6

Ficoiihfic 4

Baxifragcm 4

RnnacoiK 4

L<!friiinino!MC 4

Ameiitacvi! 1

— 71

HF.LVIM.E ISLAND.

Cryplogamia.

FiiDKi 9

I.icli(!iia IS

Ilepatice S

MiHWca 30

Feriia

-49
Phemogamou*.

CypcraceiB 4

OraBses 14

Junci it

Polygonee 3

Scrophularins-
Ericcic

CampniiulacetF..

Cichnran'ffi

Corymbirerte ...

Raniinciilnccn

Papavcracpffi

Crurircrfe

Carynphylleie 5

BaxilVaEca! 10

nosncpn; 4

I^^<;uii)iiM>fiiC S

Aineiit aces 1

-«

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY,

Part UI

I finind on the i

Europetn Bea-EtUr.

Of theie, eigfht of the Molvillo hiandi lichen$ and one of its motte
mit of the Pic du Midi ; five otheru of the lichens, and one of iU two hepatka, and hix of itr
motaes, f^row on the crag* of the peak, or in ita immediate vicinity.

SuBaEOT. 3. — Zoology,
The native zoology haa been so little inv08ti(rated, that nothing beyond a meagre list could
be fUmiahed of indigenous animals. In the mountains of AHtnrins the Ibex is not uncommon,
and the Alpine Squirrel (Sciurug ulpinut) is only ibund in tiic Pyrenees. In tlie soutliern
parts, bordering on the African shore, a few species of wurblurw have recently b<;en found,
which are us yet unknown to tlic rest of Europe. Tin; Euro|)oan Beo-eater (Jiff. aWJ.) fre-
30g qucntri the vicinity of (iibrulUr in largo tlocks during

tne season of migration.

Among the domesticated animals, the horse and sheep
of Spain deserve particular notice, as having been long
celebrated throughout Europe. The best horses are

generally about four feet six or eight inches high ; they
ave all the fire, docility, grace, and action of the
beautiful Arabians of Barbary (generally called Durbs),
and there can bo no doubt of these noble animals having
been introduced by the Moors, and crossed with the
native breed : those of Andalusia, Granada, and Estre-
madura arc tlie most distinguislied. At Xeres are found
two perfectly distinct races; the one, which possesses the fine qualities above mentioned, is
still preserved in all its purity at tiie Chartreux. The otlier race is larger, stronger, less
elegant, and used for common purposes. Latterly but little cure has been bestowed in keep-
ingup the more noble breed, so that fine horses are not so common in Spain as formerly.

The mule, in so mountainous a country, is particularly useful, and, with the ass, is prin-
cipally Used for conveying goods in the interior ; the bree<l8 of the latter are very fine, and
are hardly excelled by those of Egypt Spain is still famous for its merino race of ahecp
(Jig. 307.). The flocks are kept constantly travelling during the greater part of the sum-
mer, but are carefully pent up in winter. This race, subdivided into breeds, is extended

over the greater part of Spain; but those of Cavage, and
Negrale, are the best. A third breed, the Souan, appears
more hardy, and passes the winter in Estreinadura, Anda-
lusia, and New Castile : these three constitute the 'Pranaku-
mante, or travelling race, to distinguish thorn from the
Estantes, or those of a somewhat inferior brood, who do not
migrate. The best fleeces ore those which upiiear almost
black on their surface, caused by the dust adhering to the
peculiar greasy pile; for it is invariably found that such
fleeces are of the purest white beneath. Tlie merinos, dis-
persed by George III. over England, have incalculably im-
proved the native races. By great care and expense on the part of the native graziers, this
valuable race has likewise been introduced in the distant regions of Australia with 0(iual
success. There is a very large breed of oxen in the country round Salamanca ; but the
cattle of Spain have been much neglected ; the nioimtaineers deriving all their milk and
butter from goats. The spaniel appears to be n brood of dogs originating from this country;
and the Spanish pointer is considered to have a greater acuteness of scent than that of
Britain.

Sbot. IIL — Historical Geography.

The earliest inhabitants of Spain, like those of Gaul and Britain, were of the Celtic race,
and from the river Ebro (Ibcrus) were calle<1 Coltiberi. The whole country was by the
Greeks called Iberia, and sometimes, from its western position, Hesperia. The people, like
those of the rest of Europe, were divided into a number of small tribes, hardy and warlike,
who often showed a peculiar attachment to national independence, and obstinacy in its
defence.

The Carthaginians wore the first civilised people who occupied Spain, which, for several
centuries, was considered as theirs. They founded colonies on the most advantageous points,
worked its rich silver mines, and easily allured many of ita brave but poor inhabitants into
their mercenary armies; they were far, however, from having thoroughly aubilued the Pen-
insula, the people of which, on the rise of the Roman power, endeavoured by its alliance to
emancipate themselves from the Punic yoke. The siege ond fiill of Saguntiim seemed to
have extinguislu'd these hopes, and to have secured tiie ascendency of Carthage; but the
events which miirlced the close of the second Punic war completely humbled that proud
republic, and put an end to its dominion over Spain.

The Romans, by the capture of Numantia in n. c. IM, established tlioir supremacy over
Spam, undisputed by any other nation ; but the complete subjugation of its inhabitants was
a long and arduous task, to which the utinoet exertions of Cwaar and his lieutenants wcr«>

^y^

Book I. SPAIN. OOP

not flilly adequate. Spain, however, was at lenpfth ro(luce<l to a province, divided bjr Augus-
tus into t)iror> parti< : — Tarraconenais, the north and cost ; Bictica, tho soutli ; and Lusitiuiia,
Portugal. Tho Spaniards cvun becamo civilised and pcaceublo subjects; so tliat when
Rome, sinking; under its own weight, was unable to defend them, they could not resume
their early indepondonco, hut fell a prey to the Vandals, Goths, and other barbarous hordes
that poure<l in from the north of Europe.

The Goths, in this terrible struprgle, finally prevailed ; and in 418 a Gotiiic dynasty was
iUlly cstabliHhcd over Spain. These barbarous invaders ap|)ear here, as elsewhere, to have
expelled or extirpated the native people, whose features and language are recognised only
in some of the higher mountain districts. After a sway of three centuries, the Goths were
destined to yield to a new people, coming from a remote quarter.

The Arabs, rendered invincible by fanaticism, had over-run all the north of Africa, and
established a powerful kingdom in Fez. The vengeance of Count Julian invited them over,
and opened the way for them ; their immense host covered the plains of Andalusia ; Roderick,
the Gothic king, was totally defeated. The invaders then over-ran the whole kingdom, with
the exception of some mountain recesses, in which a remnant of the Gothic chiefs found
shelter ; they even passed the Pyrenees, and seemed about to over-run all western Europe.
But Charles Martel met them on tho plains of Aquitaine ; and, after a dreadful battle of tliree
days, they were signally overthrown, and never again attempted to pass tho Spanish frontier.
Meantime Don I'euiyo, and other chiefs of the Gothic race, again raised the national standard
in the mountains of tho Asturias : then commenced a contest of 700 years, distinguished by
numerous heroic achievements and memorable events, which gave to the Spanish character
that romantic and adventurous cost which it has never wholly lost. The Arabs or Moors
still retained the finest provinces, and the courts of Cordova and Granada were the most
splendid ond polished in Europe. The Spaniards, however, under a succession of able chiefs
and particularly of their great hero the Cid, gained ground : new kingdoms were successive!}
founded ; which all merging into those of Castile and Aragon, comprehended the whole ot
Spain, except the extreme southern kingdom of Granada.*

Spain was again formed into one great kingdom by the union of the crowns of Castile and
Aragon, under Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1474, and by the final overthrow and expulsion of
the Moors. From this period commences the most brilliant era of her annals. The dis-
covery of America, the conquest of the golden regions of Mexico and Peru, and of other
dominions so extensive as to make it a plausible boast that the sun never set on them, threw
an almost unrivalled lustre around the Spanish crown. Under Charles V. and Philip II.,
Spain continued the most powerful kingdom, and her armies the most formidable, of any in
Europe. Tho throne derived even an addition of apparent lustre from the subversion of the
popular part of the government, and the conversion of a body of grandees, once the proudest
in Europe, to the condition of humble vassals.

The decline of Spain, though its causes had begun to operate, did not become perceptible
till after the death of Philip II. A gloomy indolence and degrading superstition now marked
her councils ; her armies were vanquished by the French under Conde and Turenne ; she
lost her place and rank in Europe. The trade with her vast colonies, fettered by absurd
restrictions, became profitoble only to the industrious nations which supplied its materials.
The war of the succession drew notice towards this country, and called forth some displays
of national energy ; but the Bourbon dynasty, which it pl^^ -od on the throne, soon relapsed
into the characteristic indolence, and Spain became little r > ■> 'han a dependency of France.
We know not whether to designate as an era, the train ot' tr-markable events which have

*Th« Arab! in Spain, like the Snxnnii in Ensland, ostablisliod a laMins niemnrial of llieir dominion by engran.
inc thoir own langiiacc on (lint nf tlin country which they fiubdueil. Ot this, the topo^iraphy of the Peninsula
exhibits innuninrahic instaricei. Tho names of rivers, mountains, towns, and places, were either totally or par-
tially chanjiod. by the virtorinus invailors ; and after the expulsion of their descenilanis, those names were per.
petuated, thoneli with nitcrntions in sonie instances as arbitrary as those which were made in the ancient
topogrnpliy of the country: thus, the Roman station, Paz ^ufr»sta, was transformed by the Arabs into Batalio^
and onnrwanis by the Hpaninrils into Badcjoi; Cte.iarJtugmla, by an abbreviation less violent, liecamo Saragoeaa,
and Emerila ^u/rusti was contracted into Mtrida.

The Arnhic term Mfilina fcity) survives in two eminent instances nmnn)» the titles of tho Spanish nobility:
Medina Selim (the city of Si'jiin) is recoifiiised in tlie dukedom ot Mu'lina-Celi ; and the colony probably called New
Sidnn, is that of Medinn-Siionia. From the generic term guad, a river, and vtlei or vded, a landed estate or diatrict,
many names may be explained which at first view appear capricious and arbitrary : —

Ex, fiuad.al-aviar Tlic white river.

Guad-nl-(|uivir The great river.

Giiad-aMiigiara, now Ciiadalaxara The river of rocks.

Vein and Vrled are otten conjoined with proper names, Felet Malaga, feled Vlid. now Valladolid : thus, Navarre
and Leon, their confines never havinn l«en occupied by the Arabs, were called liy them Vrled ^Arrourn, tho land
of the Romans. Oezira was n|iplii'd inilifli'reiitly to on island or a peninsula ; hence Jllgf.ira. Aldea means what
ia cnmpi<:hendcd under the Eiiftlish term a /arm. It is nf common occurrence in itinernrios. as .^Mra rfe/ Aid,
Jildta Oallega, Aldeaa de Fansso. From chntara, a bridf^e, we account for the emphatic name Alt'intnra. Cali'ntOt
a castle, enters more! or less prominently into the composition of various names; as Cnl'ni Jlnat, the castle of
Ayat, i-i now Cnlntayud; Cali'nl Hahah, the castle of Rnhah, is now Calatrava ; At Caltlal. simply the cnstle, ia
now Mealtt. JIhmar, a word of fVeqiieiit oociirn^nco in Spanish topojiraphy, is a fortified liniiBe or small castle ;
Almeria is an nlwervatory. See Description of Spain, by Oerif Alhenris, in the translation of Don Jos* Antonio
Condi>, wlio,>ii' Itislrrii ofllie Domination of Ike Jlraha in Spain is esteemed one of the most masterly works tliat
have appeared in the present age.

Vol. I. 48* 3W

?5r-

STO

DESCRIPTIVE GEOORAIMIY.

Part III.

occurred bclwenn 18C8 and 1822. Tho Spaninrds cxcitnd tho mlmirntion nnd astoniHlimonl
of Europti by tlioii diiriiiff dolinncn of tho |)nwor bcnoiith which tho ffroatcst Bovnri'ijfns had
been rmliiccd to tho rank of viiRHalx. Thnir HubH(<i|iiniit cxploiti* did not alti>|rcthor corre-
spond to thiM h(<ifMinin|(. S^lill, thoir rcHistiincn, cnnRidorcd aH that of a pcnpln, wuii, on the
whole, obNtiniitR uiid iflorioua; it even appnnrod that tboro hid been formed a bixly nttnchod
to popular trovRrniiiiMit, and eager to rodruHd the political griovancos uiidnr which Hpain
laboured. Ultimately, however, the eagemeas with which tho majority of the nation acqui-
esced in thn tiyatem of abnolute power, rc-edtablii>lie<l by foreign mtnrfcrenco, tarnitihed ita
honour, and reduced it again to that imbecile and degraded state in which it hod existed for
several ccnturiea ■ > . '

■^ SioT. IV. — Political Qeoffraphy.

The constitution of Spain, ever since the downfall of her liberties under Charles V., has
been tho most despotic of any in Europe, excopt Russia and Turkey. Tho Cortes, that
powerful assembly, whose privdegcs were greater than those of any other European repre-
sentative body, have since that period been rarely assembled, and then only partially, on
occasions of mere form. The only two bodies whiuli possess any influence, are the council
of state and the co(mcil of Castile ; but as these are entirely under tho appointment and
direction of tho monarch, they form little more of a check upon absolute power, than the
Turkish divan.

Two attempts to restore a rcpresontativo form of government have lately been made,
under circumstances which must bo familiar to our readers. Unluckily, the loading or liberal
party were hurried, on this occasion, into an opposite extreme ; adopting tho system of uni-
versal suflVage, forming themselves into one house, nnd allowing only a temporary veto to
the monarch. This system, which excluded the nobles and clergy, the most wealthy and
influential bodies, was from the first decidedly unpopular; and Ferdinand found it easy, first
without, and afterwards with, foreign aid, to subvert it, and to re-cstublish in full plenitude
t. the despotic sway exercised by his predecessors,

[The Cortes were convoked anew in 1834, with some modifications of their ancient orga-
nization. The Ixxly now consists of two houses; that of proccrosor poors, composed in port
of hereditary members, in part of members nomed by the king for life, and the procuradores
or deputies, elected by colleges of electors, who are chosen by the principal citizens. The
Cortes have extensive legislative powers, but their existence and authority have emanated from
the royal will. — Am. Ed.]

The grandees and other privileged orders in Spain are distinguished for thoir pride beyond
any others in Europe. Even Charles V. was baffled in his attempt to retrench the right
of wearing the hat in tho royal presence. The Spanish nobles impair their fJ)rtunes less by
extravagance than those of the same rank elsewhere ; and as they intermarry only with each
other, the number of titles or ftoM, as they are called, continually accumulates upon single
heads. The diikos of Mcdina-Celi, of Alba, of Infantado, of San Estevan, of Ossuna, and
some others, hold possessions truly immense, covering whole provinces. They are adminis-
tered, indeed, in the worst possible manner, being kept in their own hands, managed by
tribes of factors or intendants, of whom some nobles keep 300; so that it is truly astonishing
that they should sometimes yield |l25,000 or #40,000 a year. As these grandees, however,
live not on their estates, but in the cities, in secluded pomp, they have lost all their feudal
influence, and the ties which united them with tlie greater bo«ly of the people. The hidalffon,
claiming nobility by descent from the members of great families, are much more numerous,
and form, in some provinces, a largo proportion of tho inhabitants. They are often reduced
to great poverty ; in which they display that union of pride and indolence which has been
supposed characteristic of the Spaniard. Mr. White mentions a species of illustrious birth
quite peculiar to this country, consisting in a pure Christian descent, without any mixture
of Jewish or Moorish blood, which last is supposed to produce so deep a stain, that no time
can efface it. The clergy, moreover, exercise a paramount influence over the minds par-
ticularly of tho lower orders, and have been the main-spring in all the movements, good or
bad, which for a long time past have taken place in the Peninsula.

The revenue of Spain, though levied with little regard to the comfort and well-being of
the subject, has never risen to any great amount. Yet she is the only power which ever
derived any from her colonies; as the qninta, or royal fifth of the mines of Mexico and Peru,
after every deduction, brought home considerable treasure; but this source of wealth is now
withdrawn. The other taxes were the most ruinous to industry and trnde ever contrived
by any government. The alcavala, or impost upon each transference of commodities from
one hand to another, seems expressly destined to impose fetters upon commerce ; whilo the
royal monopolies of salt, Icmd, powder, tobacco, nnd other articles in general use, have the
usual pernicious ofTecLs. Combined with those prohibitory clnnsos, by which Spain endea-
voured without success to prevent her indu.strious neighlxiurs from s\ipplying the wants of
Ivor American colonies, they gave rise to a vast contraband, carried on in almost open defiance
of government. Hence the taxation of Spain, though highly oppressive to the nation, yields

?ART III.

iniHiimcnt
!i|;ii!t had
i(!r corrc-
IJ4, on the
r altnchod
lich Hpain
:iun ncqui-
niHiiod it!
•xistod for

lo8 v., haa
nrtes, that
innn repre-
trtinlly, on
ho council
tmcnt and
r, than the

)ecn made,
f^ or liberal
torn of uni-
ury veto to
wealthy and
t easy, first
1 plenitude

icicnt orga-
yscA ill part
ri)curadores
7.ons. The
anutcd from

>ride beyond
li tiio right
lines less by
ly with each
upon single
')iisuna, and
iro adminis-
inanagcd by
iistoniahing
39, however,
their feudal
ho hidalffos,
fi numerous,
[Ion roduccd
ch has been
strious birth
iny mixture
tliat no time
minds par-
(nts, good or

pll-l)ping of
which ever
CD iind Peru,
iiltii is now
cr rnntrivcd
iiKlitics from
1 ; wiiile tlie
HP, have the
4paiii pndoa-
;ho wants of
)ppn defiance
lation, yields

Book I.

SPAIN.

671

very littlo to thn crown ; Iwinj,' in a great ineaHiiru ahwirbnd by tim suptmrt of liip individuals
nmployoil in itH coilfiction, who are wiiil tu aiiiotint to lU.ftTiO. Aitliiuigh, tliiTciurc, lii(> vntiro
sum tnkoii I'roiii the pcDpIc has Immmi HU!<pocted not to fall short of r2,0UU,IKM)/. Ktrriing, the
receipt liy govtTiiiiKUit iii iH'iH did not cxcoimI 0,))H(MMN)/. The expenditure in that year
was tor I lie armv, '-.'.(ttCMMMM. ; navy, 400,(KKM. ; marine, lAlV^M. : iiiHtico, 11"),(H)0/. ; statu,
1(N^,(NNI/. ; royal iiiiiischold, r)(>'i,(MN)/. At the huiiiu time, S(iain is hurdened with u debt of
160,IMH(,(HKM. stpriiiig, of which the revenue would bo wholly inailequato to defray the inte-
rest, had not more tiian half consisted of the rot/al iifl/m, which do not bear any. Under the
constitutional government a (^oiiHidorablo addition of debt was incurred, which, however,
Ferdinand VII. cleared off by refusing to acknowledge it; while he himself ineffectually
attempted to raise a loan to any amount.

The navy, at the commencement of the late war, was at least respcctoble, ond a furmi-
dablo auxiliary to France. Tli<.> tiitiil days of St. Vincent and Trafiilgar, and the tVuitleia
expeditions to South America, reduced it to a feeble state. In 1620 it consisted often ships
of the line, sixteen frigates, and thirty smaller vessels.

The army of Hpain, which under Charles V. and Philip waa the bravest and most formi-
dable in Europe, has tor a century and a half enabled her to rank very low among military
nations. It is, however, at present the best organised part of her ebtablishnient. According
to the author of " A Year in SfNtin," it consists of 2.5,(MH) royal guards, and •'>.'),0(K) troops
of the line and provincial militia, which, being commanded by experienced officers, formed
during a period of protracted warfare, possess a considerable degree of efficiency; and their
discontent being an object of dread, every effort is made to pay them regularly. The royalist
volunteers, amounting to about 300,000 men, formed a band of anned fanatics almost entirely
under the command of the priests and monks, and seeking in their favour to lord it both over
king and people.

Sect. V. — Productive Industry.

In respect to industry and wealth, Spain, which had every opportunity within and without
of becoming the foremost nation of Kurope, is, in fact, the poorest and the most uncultivated.
The insecurity of property, and the multiplied restraints imposed by an unenlightened govern-
ment, appear to bo the main causes which have paralyzed all branches of industry. The
furious bigotry of its monarchs, in particular, led to the most suicidal acts against the public
weal. At the commencement of the fifloenth century, the country contained a numerous
population of Jews and Moors, who formed its most industrious and wealthy inhabitants, and
rendered it the most flourishing kingdom in Europe. The .Tews, unless in the alternative of
feigned conversion, were expelled from the kingdom by Ferdinand .and Isabella, the Moora
by Philip III. Although it appears to be upon exaggerated estimates that Spain has ever
been supposed to have previously contained 20,000,(HIO of people, yet it cannot be doubted
that the emigration of mercantile communities, with their capital and machinery, must have
struck deeply at the root of the national prosperity.

Spanish agriculture, it must be confessed, has some obstacles to struggle against. The
territory, as we have had occasion to observe, is traversed in every direction by chains of
rugged, and often barren, mountains. Yet these elevated provinces being the seats of com
parative liberty and industry, are on the whole the best cultivated and the most populous
The great extent and continuity of these chains certainly present serious difficulties to the
transport of grain. When government were bringing a supply from Old Castile to the capital,
it was found that .30,000 beasts of burden were necessary to carry 2000 quarters. Another
great impediment to effective agriculture consists in the habit, partly oriental, partly formed
during a long internal warfare, which leads the farmers to crowd into towns, and thus live
often at many miles* distance from the fields which they cultivate. In many cases they
merely pitch tlieir tents during seed-time and harvest, and at other seasons pay only occa-
sional visits. They are also very poor, destitute of capital, and oppressed by the burden of
tithes and other exactions.

The grain produced in Spain is of admirable quality ; the wheat of Andalusia bearing
a price of ten or fifteen per cent, higher than that of any foreign wheat brought to the mar-
kets of Cadiz. But a deplorable defect appears, when it is stated that Spain, a country
purely agricultural, does not grow com for her own use, but makes a regular importation.
This, however, according to fi)urgoing, amounts only to 2,000,000 fanegas or 400,000 quar-
ters ; a small proportion of the entire consumption, which may be estimoted at 12,000,000
of quorters. The agriculture of Spain, however, produces three valuable articles ; wool, wine,
and barilla.

The wool of the merino is of almost unrivalled fineness, though dearly purchased by the
system upon which it is protluced. Vast flocks, amounting to 20,000, IBO.IXX), or even 60,000,
belong to the grandees, convents, and dignitaries of Spain. After being pastured, during
summer, on the sides of the mountains of Leon and Old Castile, they descend, in winter,
chiefly to the plains of Estremadura. According to the rules of the powerful society of the
mesla, composed of the above high members, they must pass freely, and be allowed, on pay-

i I

i! I

DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY.

Past III

mont of a vnr^ inadoqiiato rent, to paaturo iiprtn all tlio uiinnciaMed lumln, wliicli fitriii lliis
bulk of tliiHMi in Hpsin. Tho entire numU'r of Nhiu'it in all i)it<M) wumli^rinK Hockii in ruckonod
at n,(NM>,(HN); unil Uiere aru u ({rvat niniitM>r which riiiuniii Htntiunsry, iimi inijoy nriviloifaa
noarly ainiilur. The annual ahtiarinK tuki>H plucu on a utvnl M^alo, and with inucli cuiobra*
tion; and the wool w carotUlly unrtud into thrro kindii, acrnrdin(( tu tho pitrt of thu liody
fVom which it ia taken.

The winea of Mpuin are pmducod on the flno piaina of tho louthern provincca. The
moat important ia tho Xorra or Nherry, which huH coinn into audi (^tuinrul umi with the
Englinh nation. Mr. Jacob rcckonn that 4(MH)() pi|M>a art) priHiiiccd in thn ulain of Xnrea ;
of which 15,(NI0 are exported, altnoat tiiu wiiuln to En^fliind. Aruund Muliiua ia inado
wine atill more valiiud, thoujrh not in hucIi (|iiantity ; which, u hen whit<<, ia culled muun-
tain, when red, lent (tinto;. The northern und central pivvincea yield wine only of
inferior value.

Barilla, tho flneat known apocioa of aahoa, and hivbly uacfbl in ^lasa-makinff, bleaching,

'and other pnxiOHaoa, is procured bv burnint; variuuM apecica of aaluio and uroiimtic planla

in the provincoa of Murcia and Vnlnncin, and ia ono of tho few articlea which otiuir nation*

can nowhero olae procure of equally f^ood quality, 8ilk and oil, in tho Mediterranean pro-

fincea, arc only limited by the want of culture or demand.

Tho manufiicturca of Spain liave been of little importance aince tho expulaion of the
Moora. That induatrioua poople intruluced the ailk manufacture; a branch entirely auited
to a country where the material In produced in tho greatctit perfection ; but it ia now gene-
rally decayed, unloaa in Valencia, where it waM Huppoacd lately to employ iVM) people.
The bladoa of Toledo were once (itmoua over Eiiro|)e, and tho city haa atill a royal manii*
fkctory of aworda, though of little importancn. Tho Hpaninh government liua devoted rather
an oxtmordinary attention to manufacturcH, but iiiifortiinatcly ncekH to promote them by the
king becoming nimaelf the producer. Ho haa catabliHiicd a great factory of broadcloth at
Gui^alaxani, which, having flno materials nt hand, ii* rather thriving. Yet Spain doca not
nipply heraelf with fine cloth. Other royal worka arc those <if porcelain, at San Udefonao;
paper, in Segovia ; carda and tapestry at Madrid : all rather for ahow than uno.

Commerce, for which Spain seemeti to havo monopoliaed the most extensive materiala,
haa long been in a state at least oa low and deprosacd aa any other branch. It has suflbred
•evercly, indeed, fVom the immense importance attached to it by tho government, which
actually cniahed it to pieces in the atte...pt to prevent any portion fVom escaping. To ab-
sorb within their own circle tiie entire trooxures of Mexico and Peru, was tiiu iirst policy
of tho Siianish sovereigns. Tho gold and Nilvor of thoso regions were to be brought exclu-
sively to Spain, never to be taken out of it, and only the prcxluco and nmnufucturcH of that
country to be sent in exchange. By a aod fatality, the commerce of the loionicH waa car-
ried on almost entirety by French and English nierclmiits ; nearly all the goods exported
thither wero foreign; and Spain, of all her neighbours, wns tho most destitute of tho wealth
accruing ftom this trade. These colonics, with the exception of Cuba and tiie Philippines,
tre now gone, and with them the greatness of Cadiz, which, by the absurd monopoly granted
to her, became one of the principal emporia of Europe. The trade of Spain consista now
in tho export of wines, firuits, brandies, wool, silk raw and manufactured, lead, quicksilver,
barilla, and a few other articles, whicli, according to a very imperfect document, issued by
the Spanish government, amounted in 1B26 to about l,r)84,0()0{. Of this, 4t41,000/. was
stated to be to the colonies. Her imports consist of sugar, cocoa, salt fish, spices, wood,
rice, butter and cheese, hides, cotton wool, and almost every species of manufactured com-
modity. Thejr are stated for the same year at about 3,267,(K)0/., of which 7'24,0U(M. was
fh>m the colonies.

Internal communication is a particular in which Spain actually labours under natural dia-
advantages, from tho obstructed navigation of its rivers, and ite long and steep chains of
mountains. These obstacles the government has endeavoured to surmount by vast but ill-
executed projects of improvement. They had conceived the plan of a grand canal, which,
passing through Asturias, Old Castile, and Aragon, might join the Mediterranean with the
Bay of Biscay. Of this mighty undertaking, only two small portions exist ; the canal of
Aragon, running parallel to the Ebro from Sarogossa, and that of Old Castile along the
Pistierga and Carrion by Placencia ; but as neither of tiiem makes any approach to tho sea,
their benefit is very limited. The main roads maintained by government between Madrid
and the other great cities are good, and the mails well conducted ; but most of the other
communications are mere tracks worn by the feet of mules, which are chiefly employed in
the conveyance of goods.

Snrr. VI. — Civil and Social State.

The population of Spain, according to a census made in 1708, amounte<l to 10,851,000.
It was generally understood, however, tliat the jealousy of the people, ond all the obstacles
usually encountored in such undertakings, operated to a peculiar extent in diminishing the

Part III

!li fiiriii lhi<
iiiri'cknnod
I nrivili'ifCN
icli colobn-
of tliu Ixxly

nccH. The
au with the
1 of Xnro« i
ira in made
illed m»M»-
iiu only of

, blcacliin((i
lutiu planUi
thar natioiM
'ruiioan pro-

Uion of tho
liroly suited
» now gene-
IKK) peuple.
royal iiianii-
voted rather
tlioin by the
rniiilcloth at
ain does not
.n Ildefbnao;

o inatcriale,
liu) Huifered
mcnt, which
ng. To ab-
u first policy
DUfjlit exclu-
urcH of that
iea wafl car-
xls exported
f the wealth
Philippinei,
poly granted
onsists now
quicksilver,
It, itwucd by
41,(K)0/. was
ipiccs, wood,
ictured com-
24,0U0I. was

natural dis-
'p chains of
vast but ill-
anal, which,
Ran with the
he canal of
le along the
h to the sea,
,vcnn Madrid
of the other
employed in

10,351,000.
the obstoclea
linishing the

Booil.

SPAIN.

678

anuiunt. The cenmu, in 17H7-^, gave tmly 10,aflH,(K)J», of which lfW,(100 wore cliiirch*
inmi ; ami uniong thc»o, (n,(MN) wrni ninnki*, and :N,.')(|iO nuiw. Thurti were 4H0,()00 hi-
dulguN; :(.|,(MNI niurclmiitit 1 MMNM) nmnuliiclun'ri*-, ini,(NK) artiianai 1NI7,(NNI |N<ii«ant«;
WHMNNI iliiy-lulxiiiritrM; tHMNNI douit'ittic laalu vvrvnntK. A cunmw waa undertaken in 1N*J(),
whicli wuM nut iiiily oinipictud, but carried lo far a« to prove tliut tho numtier of inhabituntM
niUHt Ihi connidi riilily grcuttT ttian tho above: it i» eiitunutml by Minanoat i:),7!)VS,00U ; by
llaMtol nt i:i,U.'^:MNH).

Till! national character of tho Hfiuniurd in marked by striking featurcn. The genuine
H|Ninianl ii« grave, proud, advontumuii, romantic, honourable, and generous. It has been
insinuated that this in the Hpnniard of the lixteonlh century, of whom tho Hunniant of tho

ftresent day is only, as it were, the shadow, Hut though the higher ranks nave certainly
ust the original Htump, and becoiiiu ftivolous and 4tisHi|)iited, tho body of the people, and
es|>eciully the |N!UMiintry, form a very fine race. Even among tho foniier, the lute troubles
bn>uglit llirward signal displays of lieroism, though, as too ollen happens in such cases.
e(pially linxe (<xamptes of trenrhery. In ttie virtue and wisdom of tlie liest Himniardn, there
is apt to 1)0 MJinuthing ii|)<!cuiutivn and theoreticul, not applicable to the practinil purposes
of life ; u want of the wisdom of oction. !i< proH|icrous circumstances they readily give
way to siipinoiiess and false cimfldcnce ; but in sudden and overwhelming vicisxitudcH,
which sink the spirit of others, their latent energies are roused, and they display unexpected
and surprising resonrces. Altlinugh nssasiiination, which was once the reproach of Hnain,
is greatly diminislie<l, yet a promi>titude to light and to shed blood, characteristic of all na-
tions imperfectly civilised, is still prevalent It is accompanied with a readiness to rise in
tumultuary insurrections, and an unwillingness to submit to the restraints of discipline.
Tho jealousy which was wont to dwell so deep and dark in the mind of tho Hpanish hus-
band, has licim siijierseded by a general laxity of morals. Tho custom is said to prevail, that
every inarriiid lady should have a citrtrjo or gallant, corresponding to the Italian cici$bto;
and though the usage may not bo so decidedly criminal as it appears to strangers, it is cer-
tainly inconsistent with those habits and feelings which form the felicity of the matrimonial
state. Ill this singular relation, fixed rules are obscrveil, and a certain fidelity is exacted ;
the jealousy of tho husband is assumed by the cnrtrjn ; and the lady who changes, at least
with any frequency, this object of attachment, loses riute in the eyes of the public.

The religious state of Hpain need only bu mentioned to suggest the dark and gloomy fea-
tures by which it is marked. That bigotry and sii|wrstition which the Romixh lliith con-
tracted during ages of darkness, and which in all other countries is so much iilmted, retains
nearly its full force in Spain. The Inquisition, that fVightful tribunal, the disgrace of modem
Europe, which hero held its central seat, kept alive its fires against all who exercised their
reason on a subject connected with the national faith. The order 'of Jesuits, who have been
callixl the militia of the Romish church, originated also in this country. The Inquisition
perished in the late struggle; yet a numerous body still call aloud tor its re-establishment;
and the most liberal rulers, whom the revolution raised to power, durst not attempt any ap-
proach to toleration, or to trench upon the " Catholic religion one and indivisible." This
spirit of bigotry and superstition is deeply difl'used through the nation, who, if they no longer
demand that heretics shall be committed to the flames, never doubt at least of the future
tortures to which they arc destined. All the childish and absurd customs which marked its

firevalcnce during the dark ages, are preserved nearly unaltered ; the processions and ex-
libitions, in whicn tho events of sacred history are represented, often in a fkmiliar and ludi-
crous manner ; the endless festivals, which impoverish tho nation, and iavoor its natural
indolence; and the zeal of multitudes, who are induced by mistaken piety to withdraw
themselves from their families and the world. Mr. Blanco White has given a striking
account of the artifices by which the young female ia led to make the irrevocable sacrifice ;
the respect and importance attached to her during the period of noviciate ; the ceremonies,
which resemble those of marriage, even the name of bride being given to her; and the dis-
grace attached to a retractation. Yet it appears evident, fi^om the same author, that this
profession is oflen deeply sincere; that it aids in producing that strong moral feeling which
prevails throughout the nation; that many are even tormented by minute conscientious
scruples ; and that, with such persons, absolution, founded on false pretensions to penitence,
is considered us aggravating the guilt. At the same time, there is a conibinatic.n of deep
devotion and dissolute conduct, which not only rapidly succeed each other, but actually co-
exist, in a manner never seen in any Protestant society. It may be observed, that amitf this
thick darkness which covers the nation, a bcxly of men has lately arisen, of active and en-
quiring minds, who have discerned the orrors of the national creed, anil huvo passed to tho
opposite extreme. They are comparatively few in number, however ; and, as already ob-
served, even in their greatest triumph, although they considerably reduced the conventual
establishments of Spain, they never durst attempt to introduce the toleration of any form of
worship different from the Catholic.
Spanish literature, during the era of the national glory, supported itself at least on b

t '1

• ,f

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Past ID.

level with that of any other nation in Europe. Spain hod, as it were, a literature to itself,
scarcely any of ihe productions of which, if we except the inimitable satire of Cervantes,
became familiar to the reft of Europe. During the middle age, she was rich in chivalric
romance, the titsto for which, however, was banisiicd by the appearance of Don Quixote, a
cliango which some lament, us having led to the decline of the national spirit. The poetry
of Spain, ruusnil by po many vicissitudes of internal revolution and transmarine triumph,
took a somewhat lolly flight. The Araucana of Ercilla, celebrating her conquests in the
New World, is named together, though not on a level, with the best modern epics. Gar-
cilasso do la Vega, Villegas, Mendoza, and others, chiefly officers in the army of Charles V,,
introduced a stj-le formed on the Italian model ; and, having the advantage of a noble and
sonorous language, worked up their verses to the highest polish. But it is in the drama,
that the Spaniards have been chiefly distinguished. Lope de Vega and Calderon, indeed,
construct their plots with an entire disregard of the unities, filled with extravagant incidents,
and strained and artificial sentiments. But they display an inexhaustible fertility of inven-
tion, and often strong traits of character ; so that, though they never could be transferred
entire to any other stage, they furnished useful hmts both to the French and English dra-
matists. Mariana's History of Spain ranks among classical productions ; while Herrera and
Solis, though of inferior merit, have produced valuable histories of the Spanish transactions
in the New World. To Don Antonio de Solis, the Spaniards are willing to ascribe that in-
imitable satire on human character and manners, Gil Bias, which must, they say, have been
written by a Spaniard and a courtier. As such, he might rejoice that it had amply fulfilled
his intentions without compromising his security, and could very well afford to dispense with
the fame which redounded to its reputed author, Le Sage. These writers belong to the
classic age of f'pain, which nearly expired with the seventeenth century ; but of late, the
intellectual spirit which has spread so actively throughout Europe, has penetrated into
Spain, and made vigorous struggles against the night of ignorance and prejudice in which
that country was involved. Campomanes, Ustariz, Jovellanos, and Arguelles, have endea-
voured to trace the causes which have paralysed Spanish industry, and to discover tlie means
of reviving it ; Feyjod has done much to rouse a spirit of reflection ; Yriarte, Isla, and Me-
lendez Valdez, have produced agreeable miscellaneous writings ; and Moratin has adopted a
more regular drama, formed on the French model. There are extensive public libraries ;
one, the royal library in Madrid, consisting of 130,000 volumes, with valuable manuscripts,
and a rich collection of medals ; and others in the great provincial towns ; but the preva-
lence of monkish legends, and the prohibition of many of the most important standard works,
greatly limit their value. The universities arc numerous, and thut of Salamanca once per-
haps the most celebrated in Europe ; but education being conducted upon obsolete and scho-
lastic principles, and impregnated with the national bigotry, they have long ceased to attract
students from any place out of Spain. Some of the younger members were supposed to
have embraced novel ideas in regard to religion and government ; whence they have become
objects of jealousy to the government, which will probably be little anxious to rescue them
from that decay into which they were thrown by the events of the revolution.

The fine arts, especially painting, could boast in Spain of a dis-
tinguished Echool, marked by features strikingly national and
original. It is characterised by depth, force, great truth of nature,
and a warm expression of devotional feeling. Murillo, Ribeim
(self-named Spagnoletto), and Velasquez, are those alone whose
works are difiused throughout Europe ; but by those who have
visited Spain, Cano, Juanes, Ribalta, and Morales are mentioned
in terms of equal praise. The Escurial and other royal palaces
are likewise adorned by some of the finest pieces of Raphael,
Titian, and Rubens. This taste seems to have declined with
that of literature ; and Townshend observed that the nobles set
little value on the magnificent collections with which their
palaces were adorned. Of late the efforts to revive painting
have been considerable, but without producing any artists of much
celebrity. The Spaniards are fond of music, but delight rather
in detached airs for the serenade and ball, than in that higher
class in which the Italians and Germans excel. The guitar (Jig. 808.) as an accompaniment
for song, and the castanets for the national dance, arc characteristic Spanish instruments.

The Spaniards have favourite and peculiar diversions. They are most passionately
attached to tlie bull-fight : a large space is enclosed, sometimes the great square of the city,
around which the people sit as in an amphitheatre. The bull, being introduced, is first
attacked by the picadores, or horsemen armed with spears; a desperate conflict ensues; the
horse is fi-equently killed or overturned with his rider, when persons on foot run in, and
distract the animal, by holding up different kinds of coloured stuffs. He is next attacked by
banderilleros, or footmen armed with arrows ; and not only their skill, but their dexterity in

The Ouitu.

■,«

y,.,

Book I.

SPAIN.

575

809

escape, are the subjects of admiration : at last, when the animal is completely covered witf.

wounds, the matador or slayer appears, and closes
the scene. Tumultuous applause or liJBi^ing from the
populace accompanies every part of this savage per-
formance, according to the respective merits of the
bull or his assailants. The comparative excellence
of different raatodores becomes otlcn a party question,
and the suMect of keenly agitated discussion in tlie
circles of Madrid. Wounds frequently, and dcatli
sometimes, are the result to the actors in tliis exhi-
bition, for whose benefit a priest with holy water is
in regular attendance. Not less is the fondness fur
the dance, particularly under its national forms of
the fandango (Jig. 3(}0.), the bolero, and the guan-
acko, performed with the Castanet in the hands ; and
The Fandanio. tj,g ^y/Q former especially consisting chiefly in move-

ments expressive of passion, but so little consonant to the rules of decorum, that the indul
gcnce shown to these amusements by the church cannot but be regarded as a matter of sur-
prise. >

The dress of the Spaniards is antique, and varies much accordmg to the different provinces ;
that of the ladies consists chiefly of a petticoat and a large mantilla or veil, coveruig the
upper part of the person. The grandees, and the opulent in general, display a profusion of
jewels ; the dress of the men is slight, and closely fitted to the body, with the exception of
a loose cloak thrown over the whole. The minister, Squillace, under Charles III,, having
conceived that these cloaks, by concealing the person, served as a cover to deeds of violence,
stationed persons at the comers of the streets, who seized the passengers, and forcibly cut
down this part of their dress to the legal dimensions ; but this measure raised so violent and
general a clamour, that the king was forced to appease it by the sacrifice of the minister
who had attempted such an obnoxious curtailment.

Both in eating and drinking the Spaniards are temperate ; the only noted national dish is
the oUa podrida, in which various meats, vegetables, and herbs are mixed together in a
manner which even foreigners admit to be palatable. The pleasures of society are chiefly
sought at tertulias or evening parties, where only slight refreshment is presented ; but
refrescos or dinner parties are given on a large scale upon very special occasions.

Sect. VII. — Local Geography.

Of the divisions of Spain, the most prominent is into kingdoms or principalities, each of
which, at some period of its eventful history, enjoyed an independent existence, though they
are now merged into one monarchy. More recently the country has been split into a number
of smaller departments or jurisdictions ; but the original distinction into kingdoms, being
founded upon natural limits, and maintained by feelings and impressions derived from former
independence, is still the most interesting. The kingdoms are New Castile, Estremadura,
Old Castile, Leon, Galicia, Asturias, Biscay, Navarre, Catalonia, Aragon, Valencia, Murcia,
Granada, and Andalusia.

The following table exhibits the divisions and subdivisions of Spain, with the extent and
population of each, according to Hassel : —

(Madrid
Toledo
Guadaiaxara .
Cucnca
La Mancha ■ .

Estremadura

Burgos

I Boria

' I SeRovia

Avila

I.ean

Palencia

Toro

Valladolid ...

Zamnra

Salamanca. ..

Old Castile

Leon .

Squire

LeacuM.

110

TM
1C3
»4S

II99
643
341

2no

SIS
493
145

871
133
471

PftputatioD.

am.ooo

485,000
153,000
303,000
257,000
S5(i,000
013,000
267,000
331,000
153,000
311,000
i l.'S3,000
{ 136,000
343,000
93,000
373,000

Asturias

Galicia

Catalonia

Navarre

( Biscay

Biscay < Guipuscoa .

f Alava

Aragon

Valencia

Murcin

Granada

( Seville

Andalusia,. .< Jaen

( Cordova . . .

Square
Lciiguet.

Populition.

30R3

1330

IU03

205

Kl'l

902

12,322

643

659

F05

7.52

26«

348

5(i5,000 ,

l.SfS.OOO 1

1,11I>.0(HI

2W<,000

145.(100 I

1.36,00(1 I

93,000

R5<i,000 I

1,255,000 i

493,0(MI I

1,097,000 i

970,000 I

377.000

325,000

With New Castile, the central and metropolitan province, we commence our survey : it
consists chiefly of an extensive plain enclosed between two of the long parallel mountain
ranges, the Sierra de Guadarrama and the Sierra de Toledo. Along this plain, and parallel
to both ranges, the Tagus flows in a deep rocky bed. Beyond tiie Sierra do Toledo, the
district of La Mancha, which we incliide also in New Castile, extends to a third paralle
mountain range, the Sierra Morena, dividing it from Andalusia and the southern provinces

'.rg

576

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

PartUI.

The plain of Castile Proper ia elevated and naked ; and being thus exposed to the sun's
direct rayn, presents a bare and parched appearance. It includes, however, fertile valleys,
producing^ wine, oil, grain, and fruits of various kinds; but the inhabitants are extremely
deficient in every species of industry.

Madrid (Jtcf. 310.), the capital of Castile, and of "all the Spains," stands on several low
hills on the iininen^c Custilian plain, which on Uie north appears bounded by the high distant
range of the Guodarrama, but on every otlier side has no visible termination. A small rivulet,
the Manzanares, flows post the city, and foils into the Tagiis, Madrid is a superb but some

810

Madrid.

what gloomy capital ; the houses ore high, well built of good stone, not de&ced by smoke ;
the streets are well paved, and have broEid footpaths. The main street of Alcala, long,
spacious, and bordered on each side by a row of princely houses, attracts particular admira-
tion. The Prado, a wide public walk, bordered by trees, and connected with gardens all open
to the public, is equally conducive to ornament and pleasure. There are many public foun-
tains, supplied w ith pure, light, and salubrious water, filtered through beds of gravel and
sand, from a distance of seven or eight leagues. The gates built by Charles III. are uncom-
monly beautiful, particularly that of Alcala; but in a miserable wall which might be battered
down by a tliree-pounder in half an hour. The royal palace, built by Philip V., is a spacious
and magnificent structure, though the ta.ste displayed in it is a subject of controversy. It
contains numerous fine paintings, which do not equal, however, those of the Escurial. The
Retire, with its fine gardens, was defaced by the French, who made it a military post; an
extensive and costly menagerie is now forming within its precincts. The museum of sta-
tuary and painting, a new and elegant building, has recently been enriched with some of the
finest pictures from the royal palaces. The cabinet of natural history, supported by the
government, is also a handsome structure, and its contents valuable. The environs of Madrid
are not remarkable for beauty ; they are much broken into hills and hollows ; so that, of the
200 villages situated in them, only three or four can be seen at once. Population, 201,000.

Toledo, even in its present decay, excites an interest equal or superior to Madrid. Once
the proud capital of Spain, it has a commanding site on a lofty rock, almost insulated by the
Tagus. A position so strong rendered it a grand national bulwark during the long ages of
internal warfare, but occasioned its desertion during peace, when it was felt as extremely
inconvenient, the streets being so steep that a carriage can scarcely drive safely through
them. Its manufactures of wool and silk, which are said once to have employed nearly
40,000 men, have disappeared ; and government has in vain attempted to revive that of
swords, of which those formerly manufacture<l at Toledo were valued above all others. Its
population of 200,000 has been reduced to 25,000 ; and it presents a mere mass of narrow,
deserted, winding, and dirty streets. Toledo, however, still exhibits two grand monuments ;
the Alcazar or palace, and the cathedral. The former is a noble and extensive pile, in a
pure style of architecture, and the granite columns of the Corintiiian order which adorn the
inner court ore particularly admired. The grand staircase and spacious gallery, no longer
crowded with guards and courtiers, are now dirty, deserted, and silent. The edifice, though
neglected and decaying, still wears a stately and imposing aspect; "and its handsome front,
immense quodrangle, and elegant colonnade, declare it to have been the pride and ornament
of a happier period." The cathedral is also one of the grandest edifices in the Peninsula.
It was originally a mosque, built in a grand style ; but its simplicity has been much impaired
by tasteless additions, and by the profusion of gilding, relics, and statues, witli which its
interior has been filled. It retained its wealtli and splendour, however, till the late war,
when its treasures became the prey of the invader, and its six hundred ecclesiastics were
dispersed, leaving only a few to perform the sacred fimctions.

Two other considerable towns in New Castile are Guadalaxara, to the east of Madrid,
where the government has established a manufacture of fine cloth on a great scale ; it is of
course an ill-conducted and unprofitable concern ; yet it supports the population of 12,000

Book I.

SPAIN.

&77

or 14,000 in a de<,'rcc of comfort not usual in Spanish towns : and further cost, Cuenfa, tho
capital of a mountain district of the same name, interposed between Valencia and the
plain of Castile. It is a small ancient city, distinguished by a cathedral and some other
moimments.

La Miincha, sometimes reckoned a separate province, is the most southern part of Castile
from which it is separated by tlie Sierra de Toledo. It is an immense table-plain, inter '
scctcd by diflcrcnl ridges of low hills and rocks, without a tree except a few uwarf evci-
grcen oaks ; or an enclosure, except mud walls round the villages. All this vast tract of
open country is cultivated, and produces corn or vines : its wine, especially tliat of Val de
Peuas, enjoys a high repute. Its name, however, is chiefly familiar to the public as havinff
given un appellation to the celebrated hero of Cervantes. The names of Don Quixote ana
Sancho Panza are familiar to the district ; and the dress of the peasantry presents still an
exact model of that of the doughty squire. There are a number of large villages ; and Ciu-
dad Real, the capital, is well built in a fine plain, though it has lost much of its former pros-
perity. Almagro and Ocaiia arc also pretty considerable towns.

Estremadura forms a continuation to the west of the same plain as New Castile, traversed
like it by the Tagus, and bounded by the same ranges of mountains. It is a fine, wide,
wild province, diversified by rugged moimtains, deep valleys, and almost boundless plains.
The depopulation generally complained of in Spain seems more remarkable here than m any
other province ; and vast tracts may be passed without seeing a human habitation. This
seems chiefly owing to the pernicious laws of the Mesta, which assign it almost entirely for
the occupation of the merino flocks, when they descend from the mountains of Leon. Estre-
madura, therefore, forms a vast pastoral district ; only a small proportion of its surface being
necessary to furnish grain for its scattered population. Yet the Romans made it one of the
chief seats of their dominion ; and no part of the Peninsula exhibits more striking works
and monuments of that great people. The Estremenos also retain much of the antique
Spanish aspect nnd character : and no province, during the late crisis, made more striking dis-
plays of patriotic energy.

The cities are no longer considerable. Badajos, the capital, a strange corruption of the
Roman name Pax Augusta, is a considerable and strong town, but much shattered by the
successive sieges it sustained in the late war from Soult and Wellington. Merida, the
ancient capital of Lusitania, excites more interest, from the striking remains which it pre-
sents of Roman magnificence. The amphitheatre, baths, a lofty triumphal arch, three votive
altars, and a handsome stone bridge, are all mogniflcent monuments, and in wonderful pre-
servation. Truxillo, an old city, of small extent, was the birth-place of Pizarro, whose
splendid mansion is still to be seen, adorned with barbarous trophies of his conquest Alma-
raz is distinguished chiefly by the very noble modem bridge adjoining to it. Talavera de
la Reyna, once splendid but now decayed, has acquired recent lustre from being the theatre
of one of the greatest battles fought during the peninsular war. In the extensive plain
north of the Tagus are the two pleasant little cities of Corio and Placencia ; the latter of
which was the scene of the singular monastic retirement of Ciiarles V. In the mountains
separating this part of the province from Leon is a rocky region, of the most savage and
desolate character, called Batuecos.

Old Castile is situated on the opposite side of the chain of mountains which forms the
northern boundary of New Castile. It presents a high variegated table-land, separated on
the north by the Cantabrian chain from Asturios. Some parts are rugged ; but it is, upon
the whole, a fertile wnll-watered region, traversed by the Duero m its early course.
There are many tracts of rich pasturage, and others equally fitted for the growth of com.
It is, however, one of the provinces in which the marks of decay are most striking. The
capitals are neglected and ruinous ; large portions are left uncultivated ; and of the fine
manufactures of clofli from the merino wool, only a remnant is now supported by the aid of
government. Castilian pride and indolence have fixed here their old and central seat: the
hidalgos belonging to Old Castile amount to 146,000, a much larger proportion than in any
otlier province.

Burgos, the once magnificent capital of the kinra of Castile, and the highest in rank of
any city in tlio kingdom, is dwindled into a poor place, not containing above 10,000 inhabit-
ants. Amid its gloomy and decayed oL'sets, however, towers the cathedral, one of the finest
specimens of Gotiiic architecture existiv./ in Europe, and the form of which bears a con-
sulorable resemblance to that of York minster. The strong ancient castle, which had fallen
into decay, wacs so fur ro-e.stablished by the French, that it successfully stood a long siege
from the Duke of Woliington.

Of the other towns of Old Castile, Segovia presents some interesting monuments of
Roman and Moorish grandeur. Its aqueduct (Jig. 311.), of 159 arches, neorly half a mile-
long, and in one place 94 feet high, is a stupendous Roman work, ranked by Swinburne
above the Pont du Card. The .\lcazar, or royal castle, was erected by the Moors on a
rock overlooking a wide range of country. After it came into the possession of the Cliria-

Vol. I. 40 aX

fpl

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part HI.

Eieurial.

tiniis, it was omployod aa a stale prison, and is now a military school. Five cciiturics nm,
Segovia hiul very extensive manufactures of fine cloth; but these, notwithsUmdinff the
jj^ ., , honour of hnvinp the king ihr a pnrt-

•W*. ' Adii ner, have dwiniilod to a very siiinll

amount. Population 15,00((. Avila,
capital of a small province of the
same name, is a city of ancient dis-
tinction; and its ninssy walls, its
towers, its Alcazar, and the dnino of
the old cathedral, render it iinposinff
at a distance ; but it is in a state of
wretched desertion. The attempt to
establish manufactures of cloth and
cotton has not been succcssfiil. Soria,
near the site of the ancient Numantia,
Anucduet oi 8ci..i.. ^j, y,^ ^j^^j ^^„,j ^f ^^^^ jj^p^o, near

its source, is a tolerable country town, capital of one of the smaller provinces into which
Old Castile has been subdivided.
The palaces of the Escurial (,fiff. 312.) and San Ildefonso are striking objects in Old Cas-
tile. The " royal monastery " of the
Escurial was founded by Philip II. on a
plan entirely congenial to his gloomy
mind. It unites the characters of a
palace and a convent ; and has the form
of a gridiron, the instrument of the
martyrdom of St. I/)renzo, to whom it
is dedicated. Attached to it is the Pan-
theon, a classic and Foinovvhat profane
structure, in which, however, are in-
terred nil the crowned kings and queens
of Spain since Charles V. The wealth
of the Spanish monaruhs has been con-
tinually employed in adding new ornaments to this favourite residence, which is considered
by the nation as the eighth wonder of the world ; and largo volumes have been filled with
descriptions of it. The church and the great altar have scarcely a rival for magnificence
and grandeur of effect. The library is not extensive, but contains manuscripts, especially
Anibic, that are of great value. The collection of paintings, it is probable, yields only to
that wliich covers tlie walls of the Vatican. Hesides select pnxhu'tions oF Murillo and
other niasters of the Spmiish school, it contnins poveral of the greatest works of Raphael,
Titian, and others of the first Italian masters. The environs are wild and naked in the
extreme, without .shelter from the cold blasts of winter, or the intenst; heats of summer.
On the opposite declivity of tlio same moimtaius, looking towards the north, San Ildefonso,
without any pretensions to eipitil magnificence, is finely surrounded by woods, gardens, and
beautifiil jets d'eau. Aranjuez stands in quite a different situation, on the lowest plain of
Castile, at the junction of tlie Tagiis and the Xarama. It is chiefly admired for its mag-
nificent woods and gardens; the former carried in long and spacious avenues, the latter con-
taining in profiision the finest native and exotic plants.

Ijeon fiirms a continuation of the plain of Old Castile, along the lower course of the
Ducro, and bounded by th(^ same ranges of mountains. For several centuries it was the
seat of a kingdom, comprising the chief Christian power in Spain, until it was united to that
of Castile. It is almost entirely within the domain of the 7n(slii, and thus devoted princi-
pally to iwstumge. The consequent depopulation has been very great; insomuch that,
according to Townshend, the bishopric of Siilanmnca, which once coiitiiiiu'd 748 townships,
is now reduced to li;33. The vast extent of open plain which Coriiis the centre of this pro-
vince has been foiuid highly fiivonrahle to an invader who possessed superior cavalry ; such
as the Moors once, and more bitterly the French.

The cities of Leon are nhnosf solely interesting from the traces whicli they present of
ancient grnmleur. Leon itself, by its highly ornamented cathedral, its nine convents, and
its ancient palace, testifies the remote periotl when it was the seat of royalty; but a hetero-
geneous assemblage of dirty streets filled with beggars, splendid ehnrehes, and half-ruined
fiimily mansions, are all that it now presents. Salamanca, by its university, has acquired a
much greater fame. This seminar}', one of the fir.-^t in Europe, was founded in 1200, and
extended during the same century by Alfonso the Wise, celebrated for the progress which
astronomy made imder his auspices. From the medical knowledge of Avicenmi, Averrot;s,
and other Arabian sages, it derived a character superior to those of the other monkish univer-
sities durins' the middle ages. Sniamanca, however, remained stationary in the fi)nrteenth
century; aud, while .'^ound scieiu- was spreading through the rest of Europe, continued t(i

Part III.

itiirics ngo,
imlin{( tni!

for a part-
vrry siiinll
I). Avila,
icn of thn
incicnt dis-

wuIIh, its
lie clonic of
it iinposinf'
I a stjito of

utteiiipt to

cloth and

still. Soria,

t Niimantitt,

[Juero, noar

into which

in 01(1 Cus-
■y" of the
ilip II. on a
his gloomy
aclcra of a
las the form
lont of the
to whom it
is the Pan-
hat profane
^cr, are in-
I nnil quocna
Tlic wealth
IS been con-
is considered
ti filled with
lagnificence
I, especially
elds only to
Murillo and
of Raphael,
liked in the
of summer.
Ill Ildefonso,
rardens, and
'est plain of
for its mag-
e latter con-

nirso of the
it was the

iiited to that

otcd princi-
imuch that,

S townships,
of this pro-
valry; such

y present of
[luvpiits, and
)ut a hetero-

lialf-ruincd
! acquired a
in 1200, and

i^rpss which
II, Avcrrot'S,
iki.sli iinivcr-
o fiiurteeutli
continued to

OOOK I.

SPAIN.

679

occupy itfl students with dogmatic theology, and with tlic worship of Aristotle and Aquinas.
Its studcnl.s, once reckoned .it 10,000, have been reduced to less than 20(K). Halamanca is
crowded with sacred edifices, to Rid . h which, all the four comers of the world have been
made to contribute ; and on days of liigh festival the display of silver and precious stones
was altogether dazzling. The cathedra] and principal square are very magnificent, but the
streets arc narrow and gloomy. Captain Shcrer, in 18IH, found Salamanca quite a deserted
city ; only a few of the old professors and youthful students still lingered in the colleges, or
paced the spacious aisles of the elegant cathc<lral. Of the latter, some, as appears fi-om
^Ir. White, notwithstanding the antiquated courso of instruction, hod adopted modern and
liberal ideas, and in the late crisis obeyed the call of their country and of liberty. The
French having mailo Salamanca a military position, a great part of the place was levelled
or Imttered down ; and subsequent events have not liccn favourable to its restoration. We
mu.-it not, however, dismiss Salamanca without noticing the new lustre it has derived from
giving name to one of the most splendid of Wellington's victories.

Valhidolid has a great name in history. Charles V. made it his capital, and it continue<l
to be the residence of the Spanish court until Philip IV. removed it to Madrid. In these
splendid days Vallodolid was supposed, (lerhaps with some exaggeration, to contain 200,000
inhabitants, now reduced to a tenth of that number. Yet it covers a very large space of
ground ; and tho numberless spires, domes, and turrets of its sacred edifices give it still the
appearance of a large metropolis. Its university is attended by 2000 students, and taught
by forty-two professors and fifty doctors. After a very marked period of decay, Valladolid
experienced lately a considerable revival. Its environs are particularly healthy and
agreeable.

Several other large decayed towns attest the former grandeur of Leon. Zamora and Tore,
both on the Diiero, are capitals of two of the small provinces. Benavente is distinguisheii
by its castle, which has been described as one of the grandest monuments of the age of
chivalry; and 'I'ordesillas was a niyal residence in tho reign of Charles V. Astorga, once
capital of the Asturias, and one of the bulwarks of the Peninsula, has lost its strength and
magnitude. Palencia is also a small capital, pleasantly situated on the Carrion, having a
little inland trade. Ciudad Rodrigo is a national barrier on tho Portuguese frontier, still
kept up us a strong fortress, which sustained successive sieges during the peninsular war.

Galicia, separated by its mountain boundary from IjCon, forms the north-western comer
of the Peninsula. It is entirely a highland and alpine region, broken into rugged rocks and
narrow passes, though with valleys of groat fertility and of peculiar beauty interspersed.
The Gallegos are industrious ; and the country is better peopled than many of the more
favoured regions of the Peninsula. They are hardy and enterprising, and often leave this
barren territory to seek employment in the cities of Spain and -Portugal, where, like the
Scottish highlanders, they act chiefly as porters and servants. The shores and ports of Ga-
licia aro celebrated in naval history, forming as it were the outer coasts of Europe, beaten
by the waves of a tempestuous ocean, and where fleets from the distant quarters of the
globe often made their first appearance in Europe, and mot with hostile fleets on the watch
for them.

The interior towns of Galicia have for their capital, St. Jago do Compostolla, the most
celebrated shrine of the Peninsula, supposed to contain the body of St James, its patron.
In the chapel dedicated to him is his statue, two feet high, of pure gold, illuminated every
night by 2000 wax tapers. Twenty-two other chapels have been enriched by the oflferings
of pilgrims from every part of the Peninsula, whose numbers have diminished. Lugo pre-
sents tho poor remains of an ancient city surrounded by a wall and towers, once of great
strength, but now mouldering into ruin. Orense, a little city, formerly celebrated for its hot
springs, and Tuy, a strongly situated fi)rtress, are on the Portuguese frontier.

Of the seaports of Galicia, Vigo had the greatest reputation, several great naval actions
having been fought near it; particularly that of 1702, when the whole fleet of Spanish
galleons was sunk or taken by the English. It has one of the finest harlwurs in Spain ;
which, however, since Ferrol became the chief naval station, is only employed for a limited
coasting trade. Corunna on the Groyne is now the most trading place in the province, and
packets sail from it to England and America. It is a steep, dirty, but well-paved town, of
no strength, being commanded by the neighbouring height^. Population 2.'<,0()0. Ferrol,
since 17.52, has been made tho chief naval station of Spain. Its harbour, Ixisides being onn
of the safest and most spacious in Europe, has the advantage of being accessible only by a
narrow winding passage which can be rendered almost impassable by a chain of forts. A
considerable city has been formed, and very extensive docks and arsenals built; but since
the extinction of the Spanish navy, these have of course fallen into considerable neglect.
Population 13,000.

The Asturias form a long narrow strip between the Ray of Biscay and the Cantabrian
mountains, which extend along its whole length. It is celebrated in history as the sacred
retreat in which tlie hero Pelayo raised again the national standard, after it seemed for ever
trampled under foot by the Saracen invaders. Since the fourteenth century the Asturias

600

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

have given the title of prince to the hcira of tho Spaninh tlirone. The province ia approached
only by narrow ravincii and passes, through which torrents dasli, and which arc ovcrlmng by
steep cliffs and luxuriant woods. There are, however, a number of valleys, and tlie wliole
plain of Oviedo is distinguished both tor fruitftilness and beauty. Instead of wine, a good
deal of tolerable cider is made and exported : amber, jet, and coal abound, but the last
strongly impregnated with sulphur. The Asturians are brave and proud, boasting that tlieir
country was never conquered, even by the Romans ; and more than a third part of the popu-
lation 18 composed of hidalgos.

Oviedo, the only lar^e town, has more magnificence than its situation might lead us to
expect : the cathedral m particular, long the only shrine secure from the rage of the invader,
afforded an asylum to many pious treasures scattered through the Peninsula. These, how-
ever, consist chiefly of relics, valuable only to devout and believing eyes. Among them are
the rod of Moses, the mantle of Elias, the olive-branch borne alofi m entering Jerusalem ;
thorns from the sacred crown ; tlie milk of the blessed Virgin, &c. Oviedo is still a con-
siderable town, with a rich bishopric, and many religious houses, of which the principal is a
convent of Benedictine nuns. Population 10,(X)0. Gijon, though with a costly and not very
complete harbour, carries on all tlie little trade of the province. Avila and Santillana are
large villages, giving their name to districts. Santander and Santona are sea-ports of some
little consequence, in the district of Montana, on the borders of Biscay.

Biscay is a small, high, rugged province, on the western slope of the Pyrenees. Streams
descending from its numerous heights, combine in forming the channel of the Upper Ebro.
The Basques are a peculiar race, preserving the only remnant which revolutions have leil
in the Peninsula, of Celtic language and aspect. Under the name of Cantabria, this region
presented a barrier even to Roman conquest ; and though the Saracens penetrated through
It into the plains of France, it is still boasted that they never could reach the mountains of
High Cantabria. The Basques, amid the general slavery of Spain, have still preserved
some portion of their original rights. They have a cortcs of their own; and the taxes, levied
by provincial authority, are presented to the sovereign in the form of a free gift. Every
native Biscayan is an hidalgo or noble, scarcely owning a superiority of birth in the proudest
Castilian. With all this they are excessively industrious ; the mountain declivities arc cul-
tivated as high as the plough can reach ; and while the finest plains of Castile are nearly a
desert, Biscay's rude vales are covered with a numerous population.

The cities in such a district cannot be large : yet Bilboa, the capital, situated on the
Ybaizabal, which admits large vessels up to the town, is one of the most commercial places
in Spain, with 15,000 inhabitants. Most of the merino wool from tlic plains of Castile is
brought hither for exportation. Biscay Proper contains also Orduna, a neat little city, and
numerous villages. Giiipuscoa is another district, lying more to the east, and in closer con-
tact with France. Its capital is St. Sebastian, an indifferent port, but a neat, tolerably large
city, and so strongly fortified as tu be considered one of the four keys of the kingdom ; the
others being Pamplona, Barcelona, and Figueras. Fontarabia, close to the frontier, has a
great name in history, but little else is now left. The small village of Irun stands on tlie
immediate bank of the Bidassoa, whose broad clear stream, descending from the Pyrenees,
forms the boundary between two rival and long hostile nations. More in the interior, and
on a lower level, is the district of Alava, having fbr its capital Vittoria, a somewhat well-
built modern town, and celebrated as the theatre of the complete victory there gained by the
Duke of Wellington over the French army under Joseph Bonaparte, which was thence
finally expelled from the Peninsula.

Navarre is a small province or kingdom, lying immediately beneath the highest and
steepest Pyrenees. Eight very difiicult passes penetrate through them into France, but
scarcely any one passable for the artillery and train of an army. The principal is that of
St. Jean Pied de Port ; on the French side of which is Roncesvalles, or Roncevaux, cele-
brated in history, and still more in romance, for the disaster which there befell Charlemagne
and his knights. For many centuries it fonned a separate little kingdom connected with
France, until Ferdinand the Catholic succeeded in annexing to Spain all the part south of
rhe Pyrenees. Navarre retains, however, privileges and customs peculiar to itself, and 'fg
jfovemor bears the title of viceroy. The population is active, hardy, uiul brave. The bands
of guerrillas under Mina proved the most formidable irregular force with which the Frenc*.
had to contend in the Peninsula. Pamplona, or Pampehiiia, the capital, the foundation of
which is ascribed to Pompey, is one of the chief bulwarks of the Peninsula, and one of the
strongest fortresses in Europe. It was reduced by the Duke of Wellington, and by thi
French, in their last invasion, afler a long blockade. There are also Tudela and Calahorra,
ittle towns on the Ebro. Pampeluna has 10,000 inhabitants.

Aragon, south from Navarre, is an extensive province, extending along the greater part
of the course of the Ebro; whence it reaches on one side to the Pyrenees, and on the other
to the chains which shut in the Castiles and Valencia. A great part of it is rugged and
barren ; though other tracts in the central plains, and along the rivers, are very sueceptiblr
of culture. Aragop, during the middle ages, was a powerful kingdom, comprismg Catalonio

■•»'■

' I

ART 111.

proached
rhungby
10 whole
, a good
the lost
that their
the popu-

Ottd us to
B invader,
ese, liow-
; them are
orusalem ;
ill a con-
ncipal is a
d not very
illana are
ts of Borae

Streams
pper Ebro.
s have left
this region
sd through
)untain8 of

preserved
ixes, levied
ift. Every
he proudest
ties are cul-
ire nearly a

ated on the
rcial places
of Castile is
tie city, and
I closer con-
embly large
ngdom; the
mlier, has a
ands on tlie
Pyrenees,
interior, and
ewhat well-
ained by the
was thence

highest and
France, but
»al is that of
:evaux, cele-
Jharlemagne
nected with
(art south of
tself, and its
The bancs
. the Frenc*.
bundation of
d one of tlic
and by thi
id Calahorra,

greater part

on the other

rugged and

• suEceptiblr

ig Catalonia

BooeI.

SPAIN.

561

and Valencia, forming the half of Christian Spain, then divided between it and Castile.
Even atler tlic union of the crowns under Fcrdmand and Isabella, it still enjoyed its consti-
tution and ita cortes, which exercised higher prorogiitivHW, anU kept the p«)wer of the kings
uri(l(!r stricter limitations, than any siniilur assembly in Europe. Of IIicko it was dpprivc<l
liy thu unliirtuimte isBue of the civil war under Charles V., and more completely by the
Bourbon succession, atler Ariigon had cspjuacd tlie cause of CJiarles of Austria. The pca-
Kautry of this 'jrovinco are a tine b<j<ly ot men, stout, brave, and honest. Culture and popu-
lation lire generally in a backward state; yet the canal of Aragon, conducted parallel tu the
coufHo of tjic Ebro, tiiougli it has not yet readied the sea, according to its destination, has
given a considerable impulse to the agriculture of the district thro gli which it is led.

Sarugossa, or Zaragoza, the capital of Aragon, is a large and celebrated city, situated
amid a iinu plain, on the banks ot the Ebro and of the canal ot Aragun. From Augustus,
who enlarged and improved it, the city was called Coisar-Augusta, corrupted into Saragossa.
It is not well built, the streets being narrow and crooked ; but there are several open market-
places, and some very splendid religious edifices. The principal is that dedicated to the
Virgin, under tlie title of " Our Lady of the Pillar ;" an object of the most profound venera-
tion to the citizens, and enriched by offerings from every part of Spain. The church of St.
Engracia is also filled with relics and gifts; and each ot the forty convents of Saragossa has
its peculiar boast. A stone bridge, and the finest wooden bridge in Europe, are thrown over
the Ebro. The university has 2()0U students, but not much literature. Saragossa has earned
an immortal name by her heroic resistance against the unprincipled invasion of Nu|ioleon, in
1808. Without walls, except an old one of earth, which could not resist for an hour an
attack conducted on modern principles ; without army, arms, or artillery, it maintained a long
and finally successful conflict with the French, in tlieir first invasion. Afterwards, when
assailed by an immense and overwhelming force, the flower of the French armies, without
hope of relief, it made a mighty resistance; and it was only by mining operations, blowing
up successively house after house, that the French finally became its masters, after having
reduced it to a heap of ruins. Population 43,000.

Aragon has some other small ancient towns, ranking even as cities ; Jaca and Iluesca on
tlie northern frontier among the Pyrenees, botli episcopal seats; Daroca and Calatjiyud in
the plain bordering on Castile ; the former enclosed with large ruined lbrtitication.s, the latter
industrious, and surrounded by a smiling country.

Catalonia, to the east of Aragon, is one of the finest and most extensive provinces of Spain.
It presents a remarkable variety of surfiice, from the steep and rugged heights of the lii^flier
Pyrenees, to the elevated valleys of Upper Catalonia, and the luxuriant Uiough not very
extensive plains tliut border on the Mediterranean. The Catalans redeem to a great extent
the Spanisii national character, uniting with its loftiness and 'enoi^y a spirit and an activity
which are elsewhere wanting. They have been always commercial, industrious, and fond
of liberty. Atler bearing successively the yoke of the Romans, the Goths, and the .Sara-
cens, Ciitalonia was long ruled by counts of French descent, whose posterity extended their
sway over Aramn, and finally over the whole Peninsula, in which this principality merged.
Tlio CaUilans, however, bore more impatiently than other Spaniards the loss of their privi-
leges; and during the war of the succession, on receiving a pledge for their restitution,
espoused with extraordinary ardour the cause of the Archduke Charles. Even after its
unfortunate issue, when deserted by Britain and all the other powers, they made a last dread-
ful struggle, which ended, however, in the loss of all those rights for which they had so
nobly contended. In the last two wars, Catalonia acted a most conspicuous part ; maintaining
an unremitted resistance to France, notwitlistanding the clo.se vicinity of that kingdom, and
in the late constitutional struggle making efibrts, both for and against liberty, much greater
than any other province.

Barcelona is, after the capital, the largest city, and at the same time the most industrious
and flourishing, of all Spain, containing 1.50,000 inhabitants. It is situated about the centre
of the (.latalonian coast, and draws its subsistence from a fertile and extensive plain Iiehind.
It is said to have been originally a Carthaginian town, founded by Ilamilcar Barcas ; but rose
to little distinction under the lioniiins, who made Tarraco tiie capital of all eastern Spain.
It wiis not<ill the twelfth century tliat Barcelona began to be distinguished tor its conmier-
cial spirit. It suflhred severely during successive wars, particularly that of the succession ;
but in the course of the last century, the exertions of its patriotic governor, the Marquis of
Mina, enabled it to retrieve all its losses, and become more prosperous than ever. The port
is artificial, formed by solid and convenient moles, but hua a bar at its entrance, which
excludes vessels drawing more than twelve feet of water. It carried on a groat and various
traffic; had woollen, silk, and cotton manufactories, all on a considerable scale; about a
thousand vessels annually entered its port; and the whole amount of exports wiis reckoned
by Lttborde at 1,750,001)1 According to the latest account, however, by the author of "A
Year in Spain," the late disasters and misgovernment have caused a great declension in the
ahovn branches of manufacture ; and instead of the ranges of tall masts assembled within

49*

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PabtIII

its mole, tlinre aro to be seen only a paltry nssoinhlajfc of fishing-boats and feluccas. The
ecclesiastical edifices of fiarceloiia are handxoine, uarticiilurly the cathedral, thoufrh not of
so ^rand a character as those in aoino other parts ot Spain, The convent of the Dominicans
has u singular series of ornaments, tiie sentences of five hundred lierotics decreed by the
Inquisition, and under each sentence a representation of the suflerer, whom the demons, in
various shapes, are torturing and devournig. The walls of Barcelona are strong, but its
chief dependence is upon tlie citadel of Montjuich, which commands it, and is considered
almost impregnable, though the Earl of Poterhardugh took it by surprise. At the cltise of
the war ol the succession, when Barcelona was besieged by the Duke of Berwick, a terrible
and almost fVantic resisi 'nee was mode in the streets, nut by troop, but by priests, students,
tradesmen, and even won en : the consequences were terrible. Bonaparte, in 18118, obtained
by treachery and threats ti.e cession of this and the other keys of tlie kingdom ; but in the
late invasion, its resistance against Moncoy was most gallant

There arc several other large, ancient, and strong towns in Catalonia. Tarragona, the
Roman capital of the east of Spain, has fallen into great comparative decay, and has but
12,000 inhabitants. It is situated on a rocky peninsum, and presents many traces of Roman
antiquity, as of the palace of Augustus, the amphitheatre, and an extensive aqueduct. More
recently, the harbour has been improved, and some new streets built ; and in the war of
1808, the fortitications were restored, and tlio city mode a brave defence against Marshal
Suchet, who at length carried it by storm, with circumstances of great cruelty. Tortoea is
also a considerable and ancient city near the mouth of the Ebro, which is there broad and
navigable. It made a distinguished figure during the wars with the Moors, chiefly through
the exploits of its heroines, to commemorate whose valour a military order was instituted by
Raymond Berenger. Its position on tlie river affords scope for a considerable trade ; and
during the lost war its fortifications were restored by the Spaniards. It contains 16,000
inhabitants. Between the two last-mentioned cities has arisen, within tiio last half centuiy.
Reus, a large, flourishing, industrious town, carrying on various maiuifunturcs, particularly
of brandy and leather. Population 25,000. All these are on the const west of Barcelona.
To the east the ciiief place is Gerona, a large gloomy town, in a fine situation. It is well
fortified; and its resistance, protracted for more than half a year, to the unremitted efibrts
of Bonaparte's generals, formed one of the most glorious events of the pcuinsular war,
Rosas, a little town, prettily situated in a fine bay, exiwrts cork and other timber. In the
interior, Lerida, distinguisheit as a Roman station under the name of Ilorda, is a large and
strong town, situated in a most delightful country on the banks of the Segre. A consider-
able stand was made here by the patriotic armies during the French invasion. Mequinenza,
at the junction of the Segre with the Ebro, is also an important military post. Cervera, the
seat of a considerable university, and Igualada, are pretty large interior towns, supported by
the produce of the rich vales in which they ore situated. But the most striking feature in
all Catalonia is the single, lofly, and precipitous mountain of Montscrrat (Jiff. 313.). It con-
sists of a crowd of conicnl hills piled over
each other, broken into steep walls of white
and variously tinted linie.«tone cliffs, the
interstices of which are filled with ever-
green and deciduous trees and plants. The
Benedictine monastery, an ancient and re-
markable structure, stiiiids on a cleft at
the top of a high rock, where space is
scarcely left for the edifice, while far be-
neath roars the Llobregiit. Numerous her-
mitages pitched on the top of precipices,
or in cavities hewn out of the rock, increase
the singular and romantic appearance of
the scene. This mountain, in the last war, was converted into nn almost impregnable mili-
tary position. On the highest of all the Catalonian vales, which is extensive, and rich in
"jrain, stands Urgel, a small episcopal see, and a strong military post, the roads being almost
nnpassablo to artillery.

Valencia, beginning from the border of Catalonia and Aragon, occupie.i an extensive coast
running from nnrth to south, and is the first of the southern provinces. The plain ranks as
the garden of Spain, and almost of Europe. The fields of corn; tlie yellow green of tht
niulherry plantations, the pule hue of the olive; the woods, villages, and convent?, thickly
Bcattorod over this great expanse, with numberless slender steeples, present, when united,
an inimit.ible landscape. Tho country is finely watered by tlio Xucar, the Guadalaviar, and
other rivers, nimiorous though not of long course. A great extent of artificial navigation
was formed by the Moors, and is still kept up, though not in a very complete state. The
province yields, in abundance, the usual products, com, wine, oil, silk ; with rice enough to
supply tlie greater part of Spain, and barilla for exportation. The Valencians are very induB<

Montaerrat.

I^-

Booil.

SPAIN.

SSI

trioiiB, niid of n gay disposition. Colonios from Die soiilii of France, introduced by tho fir»t
Christian coiuiiicror, brought with tliom u portion of tho enirit of that nation.

Valencia, at the mouth of tho Guudulaviiir, ii< one of the lorsfest and niont flourishinff townti
of tho kinjjdom. It is of Roman origin, but itH fame dato» from thn eicvonth century, when
it was conquered by tlio Cid from tlio Moors, and ruled ati a fief by that greotcst of the Spanish
heroes. It was tho scene, however, of o long-continued contest j and its final annexation to
Christian Spain did not take place until a century and a half later. The lolly walls and
towers of Valencia are now nearly demolished, and in the wor of liberty neither it nor the
province made any very consniouous figure. The silk manufacture is one of the nuwt exten-
sive in Spain, though checked by nn absurd prohibition against the exportotion of its produce.
In a levy during tho late war, exemption was granted to upwards of 3000 silk-weavers, that
the trade might not be interrupted. There are also manufactures of woollens and paper.
Tho Grau, or port of Valencia, is only an indifferent roadstead, and tho commerce not nearly
equal to that of Alicant. The city, though largo and rich, is not handsome ; the streets
being narrow and winding, and bordered by high old houses). The churches and convents
are of course numerous, and many of them richly ornamented, but none very prominent in
architectural beauty. They are adorned, however, with numerous pictures by some of the
most eminent Spanish pintcrs, natives of Valencia; Juanes, Ribalta, and others, whose
works are unknown in this country, but are admired by those who have visited Spain. The
religious festivals of Valencia arc celebrated with a childish ])omp, in some degree disused
in other parts even of this country. On these occaaions, all the most memorable events and
most illustrious characters in scripture history are represented eitiicr by figures in wicker-
work, or by citizens fantastically attired. The exhibitions of this kind, amounting annually
to a hundred and fifly, give great occa-sion to idleness and dissipation ; yet the attempts to
reduce their number have been hitherto unsuccessful. Population 66,000.

Alicant, situated at the bottom of a bay on tho soutliern frontier, ranks high as an indus-
trious and commercial town. Its prosperity is modern, chiefly owing to the refuge which
its lofty castle aflbrded from the dreadful irruptions of tho Barbary corsairs. Even since this
danger ceased, Alicant has continued to be a fortified town ; and none of the invading armies
in the late war were able to obtain possession of it. About 1000 vessels annually enter its
port, and are luden with barilla, raisins, and a small ([uantity of wine and brandy. The
import from England consists chiefly of suit-fish, the great article of consumption in Catholic
countries. The herring and other fisheries are carried on with considerable activity on this
coast. They are encouraged by the government, but with an absurd limitation to a body of
enrolled fishermen, amounting to nliout 16,tK)0. Population 2i),(MH).

Among other important towns may be mentioned Elche and Orihucla, large and flourishing
places, in tho very finest part of tho plain of Valencia. Segorbe and I/iria are pleasant
mterior townc towards the frontier of Aragon. San Feli|)e, under the name of Xativa, made
a distinguished figure in the war of tho succession ; when, after being demolished, it was
rebuilt by Philip V. under its present name. Dcnia atid Gandia in the south, and Peaiscola
in the north, are sea-ports on a smaller scale. But all those places yield in ancient fame to
Murviedro, occupying tho rocky site of the ancient Saguntum, tlie siege of which formed
the commencement of the career of Hannibal. The long resistance of this powerful and
unfortunate city forms tho first of tho many remarkable sitigcs which have distinguished the
Spanish annals, ancient or modern. The Romans restored and made it a great colony, and
the Moors erected a range of fortificotions on the summit of the hill; so that its mountain
site is now covered with ruins of various dates ana descriptions. Half-way up the eminence,
the outline of a theatre capable of containing 9000 persons may still be traced ; and a few
ropemiikers plying their trade alone break the silence of this august ruin. Murviedro is a
small town still fortified, though the resistance made by it in the last war was not formidable.

Murcia is a smoll jirovince, partly bounded on the south-cast by the coast, which here
changes its direction from southerly to westerly. Its vale is almost without a rival for
beayty and fertility, even in Fouthern Europe. Its natural fruitfulness is greatly aided by
the numerous canals of irrigation which the Moors drew from the river Segura. These
advantages are little improved by the present inhabitants, who are noted as exhibiting, in a
peculiar degree, all the blemishes of thn Spanish character ; its pride, its bigotry, and its
laziness. Even the sonc and the dance do not inspire gaiety in its vales, as in all the rest
of Spain ; almost tho whole time of the people being spent in eating, sleeping, and making
cigars. A sullen and vindictive spirit is said to lurk under this outward apathy. Few
Murcians have made a figure in literature, in the arts, or in public life.

Tlie cities of Murcia, if we except its port of Cnrtliiigonn, do not merit particular notice
The rapitnl, bearing its name, is an irregular, ill-built, ill-paved large town, with 86,000
inhabitants. Thi? <'cclesiastical edifices, however, are very costly, and the front of the
cathedral, according to Mr. Townsliend, produces a splendid effect with its sixteen Corinthian
columns of marble, and thirty-two images us large as life. The interior does not possess
equal elegance, but is chiefly distinguished by tlie proportion of gold, silver, and jewels, not

b84

DESCRIl'TIVK GEOGRAl'IIV.

Pakt III

Atiimnia.

to mention tho rclicN, which aro uccduntul by thi! laithfiii n.i of much Hiipcriur vuIid'. I^rca
jt a large town, built with some clojjanco, and Hurroiindoii by (inH. IVipulatiuii

4(MHNI. It iiiiii cxttMiHivii tiibricM of tiilk itiid
enltfHiln;, which wi're rr>viviiijf, whtMi ii Hin-
guliir accident iirrcsttHi their ])r()).'r(!S!<. A
H|M.<cidiitivi> individiml hiui ci>lic'cl(!d nl) tho
watcrHot'thc iieiifiihoiirhiKxl ImIdimi iiiiiin'riHO
rijservoir, whciicu ho diimilii'd fheiii to tho
cultiviilDrs fiir purjioBeH ot irriijiitioii ; but this
receptacle, not being fully wciired, hurst
at one |Kiint, destroyed pnrt of the HiiburbH
of lA)rca, doHolated ii great extent of country,
and rGiiciicd even Murcia. Totaiiu, n jwpu-
lou8 village, is enriched by the co[)io\i8 pro-
duction of barilla in ita neighbourhood. Tlie castle of Almanza (Jiff. H14.). pictnre«<iuoiy
Mated on a height, is noted om the spot near which, in 1707, was fought the celebrated battle
which decided tho Spanish succession in favour of tho house of Bourbon,

Carthagena, situated in Murcia, though scarcely belonging to it, forms one of the few
great Spanish emporia, and contains :i7,0U() inhabitants. Tliis celebrated capital of ancient
Spain was founded by Asdrubol ; and when captured by Scipio, in the year of Rome SfiO,
was considered one of the most opulent cities in tho world. It was nearlV destroyed by the
Vandals, but was restored by I'hilip II., and has ever since continued to flourish. It enjoys
one of the finest ports in Europe, consisting of a bay sheltered by high niountjiins from alinoi<t
every wind. The staples are the same as at Alicant. Tho revenue, raised by a small though
impolitic duty on the export of barilla, amounts to 25,0(M)/. The fishery is also considerable.
There ore few Murcian residents, ond the tradt- ia carried on chiefly by English, French,
and Italian houses. Tho ftrcots aro wide, and tho houses agrocablo, with terraced roofs,
commanding a view of tho sea; but neitlu^r here nor at Alicant are there any structures,
even ecclesiastical, at all worthy of noMce.

Andalusia, taken in its most comprehensive sens(', is the largest of the Spanish provinces,
and, we may add, the finest and most remarkable, both as to nature and art. The Guadal-
quivir, with numerous and large tributaries, waters its whole extent. Its inoimtains, covered
in many places with porpetuiil snow, are tlje lolliest, its valleys tho most fruitful, in Spain.
Andalusia, indeed, comprises four celebrated kingdoms; Granada, Seville, Cordova, and
Jaen, jind contains great capitals t'oinided by tho conquering Moors, wliich were the seats
of science and splendour, when tho greater jinrt of Europe was plimgcd in rudonoss and
barbarism.

Granada, which is sometimes called Upper Andalusia, was tho central seat of Moorish
power and magnificence. Even amid the general decline of that power in Spain, Gmnada
was still supported by the multitudes who resorted thither from the sulxlued provinces. Its
fall, in 1493, wns considered tho most deadly blow which Islamism ever received; and in
all tho moscjues prayers aro put up every Friday for its restoration. Granada presents a
wonderful combination of all that is most wiM and sublime, with what is most sort and
beautiful in natural scenery. South from tho capital rises the Sierra Nevada, covered, as
its name imports, with perpetual snow to a groat depth. Mulhacen, the n)ost elcvate<l peak,
is 11,660 feet above the sea; while tho line of perpetual snow begins at alwut 10,000 foot.
The Alpujarras, a lower range, are cultivated with con.'siderable diligence, by descendants
of the Moors, a remnant of whom found refuge here, amid the general proscription of their
race and nation. Tho Vega or plain of Granada, watered by numerous streams descending
from the high regions, displays nature in her utmost pomp and beauty.

The city of Granada is in the heart of the Vega, beneath the loftiest heights of the Sierra
Neva<la. This city still displays ample monninents to attest the period when it was the
groat western capital of the Moslem world. Nothing can exceed tho beauty of its approach.
"The rich and jxipulous country well supplied with trees, the clear rivulets descending from
the mountains, and artificially contrived to intersect it in every part; tho splendid city
extending in a half-moon from tho river, on the gradual ascent of a hill ; tli(> streets rising
above each other; the profusion of turrets and gilded cup<ilas; the summit crowned with tho
Alhambra; the background composed of tho majestic Sierra Nevarla, with its summit covered
with snow ; complete a scene to which no description can do justice." Mr. Jacob, who thus
describes the scene, considers it not too much to have travelled two hundred miles of bad
road to see it. Tho interior, as in most Spanish and especially Mohammedan cities, docs not
correspond to the approach. The streets are narrow, tho walls high and gloomy ; many

?uarters are now deserted ; and marks of decay and splendid poverty are eve^where visible,
ts population, once comprising 400,000 souls, is now reduced to 80,000. But tlie eye of

[>AHT III

1'. lAjfca
opiilatioi)
' tiilk iiiul
iMi a Hin-
rriiS.1. A

m1 (ill the
iniiiH'nso
•III to tlio
I ; but lIuH
•(•(1, Imrsl
(• HiilmrbH
>r country,
11, n (lopu-
pioiig pro-
tiirowpiPiy
iteJ bnttlo

of tlic few
of ancient
Rome 55(S
ycd by the

It enjoys
rom almost
inll thouch
insideniblo.
ih, Froncli,
raced roofs,

structure?,

1 provinces,
'lie Guadal-
ins, covered
il, in Spain,
ordovii, and
■e tlie geata
idonoss and

of Moorish
in, (jranada
vinces. Its
rod ; and in

presents a
)8t sotl and

covered, as
ivntoil peak,
1(),(KM) feet
ilpscondants
,ion of their

descending

jf the Sierra
it was the
ts approach,
londiiiff from
plendid city
trocts rising
led with the
imit covered
jb, who thus
jilea of bad
ies, does not
ximy; many
here visible,
tlie eve of

Book I.

SPAIN.

the ciirioui trovoUcr in aoon attracted towards the Alhnmbra (^flir. HIA,), thr ancient palaeu
gjg and fortress of the kings of (Sranada. It i«

the noblest HiwcimtMi existing of Moorish
architecture; and nothing perhaps in Ku-
rope, out of Italy and Ornece, can conio into
coni|)etitlon with it. The site is fine, rc-
semlding that of Windsor, on a hill alwvo
the river. Its exterior stnictiirc, however,
is the rovrrso of beautiful : a huge heap of
ugly buildings liuddled together, without
the least seeming intention of tiirniing one
habitation; the walls only gravel anupiib-
bles daubc<l over with plaster. On entering
the threshold, however, the visiter seenm
transported into a (iiiry scene. Ho passes
through a range of apartments ; the oaths,

the Court of tho Lions ; Uie Hall of the Abencerrages (Jg. 310.) ; the Golden tioloon, or

Tli« Alhainbn.

Hall u( tho Abencoiratei. Gate of tho Sonctuarj of the Koran.

Hall of the Ambassadors; the Gate of tiie Sanctuary of tho Koran (Jig. 317.) ; the Toivef

318

^ffi

^if^^d

ffi

b^iiiCiMSuO

nil

Mom'.c PaTemeot.

Voul.

0A6

DRflCRII»TIVE nKOORAIMIV.

Past Hi.

of the Twn HiHtrrv; with ntlicn), in whicli tho vnri(iiii« rpwMirrrH of Orirntnl (ximp nrn iliii-
playiHl, iiliinif with all llmt fiiri nilVokh tlio cyti or tin' hciino in ii itiiltry rliiimtc, 'I'lm coiirtM
•n> all |Mivi')l witli iiiurlili', iiml piirrnunili'd witli inurlilo iiillarH, in ii pur*! ntiil iMiniititiil tiiNtii;
tnil tlx' wiilU iiriil imvniriiiiit ittii proliiHcly orniiiiu>nt<'(l witli ((ildi'it iirnlH!m|iio iiml iiioHiiin
{Jig. !ilH.), till) ciilourM of wliii'li, liy iiii iirt whicli wm'Mim to liiivt' Im'cii loMt with thu MoorN,
■ro na lirilliiiiit lut wlirn they wero lirxt laid on, livi< liiimlri'd ynirN h\f(\. VViitor iM mndo to
Miwiit into lli(> uir,or, in Mniooth Nhi'i'tM NirdiTi'd with Howitn, ri'lrcNlu'N tin* interior of tliniiimrt-
niontH. Alter Ihi' oxpuNioti of tho MiNifH, ('linrlcH V, limit i>n |Nirt of ilH Hito n now piilncc,
the oxli'rniil iiri'liiti'uturu of which wiih Miiinh iiii|M>rior; lint it wn* ni'vor tiniNlicd. 'I'liii
(ionoriiliti' iN iiiiothcr MiHirinh p:iliii'i', in ii inoro o|t<vnt<>d and liner Milniition; hut itH interior
wpji'ndoiir, Ihuii^h ({roiil, in <|iiltii t'clipw'd by that of itM ni>i|;lili<iur, 'I'lio cuthiMlral, thon((h
it iniut yii'ld to tlii'rit' Moorish NtruoturoK, iH yet of ronNidi'rulilc extent and iM'unty. Orannda
ii tho m'lit of lino of llii- two hij^h coiirtM of cliancory, and of other trihiinalit of hi^h Jnriadic-
tion. It retiiinH a ceriitin projiortion of itit torninr immenmi Milk rnannliirtureN, with wiino of
W(xillen iiriil IimiiIht; mid ii vonNiderable iniinlier of iierNonii are employed in extrnctini; tlio
nitre with which the iieij^hlNiurin); Moil in copioimly inipre|rniited,

Mala^ii hiiM in iniNlerii linieii attained n \(tp.alv,t iniiMirtance, and \» reckoned the third iKirt
in the kiii;rdoiii, riiiil<iii)r next to IhoNU of ('aili/ and liircelonn. The chief foundation or ita
trade ix tin' tine wiiio nilli'd Malii);a or viounUtin, pnxliiced in the ninneroiiH IiIIIh hehiiid it.
It iH raisnl at very (rreat ex|>i'n«e, antl only upon the decliviticn which have an exixinnre to
thu Mun. The couiilry pruliiceH alHo very tinn raiwinH and other fruitN; and anchovien, caiijifht
and cured on the coiihI, have lieen Hold to the annual extent of titMNM) quintalH. Maln(;a in
the only f;re»t Spanitih |Hirt of which the exportH hiivn alwayn excemiod the ini|i<irts. Mala|^
Imii B very necnre thoujjh not cxtenMive harbour, formed by artilicial niolen. It lien in a deep
bay on u little plain overhuni; by lotly and crojrf^y clitfH, which at a diNtance np|Miar quite
naKed, lint on approachiiifr, every crovico in found to be filled with vineii, TliiH nituation
rcndorH thu heat very Hevere, and has aided in oxpoHini; the inhubitanta to the deHtructivn
ravojfeM of pcHtili-ntiiil fever. The Btreetx are elone, niirn>w, and dirty ; but the cathedral Ih
a very noble pile, and eontaiiiii paintin;;H by threat HpaiilHli inuMterH. ro|iulation ri'J.tMN).

Other very coUHiderahlo towim iwciir in (iraniula. Five leajjuea to tho cant of Mnbiza is
Vclez-Malajfa, niont delightfully situated in a plain diverHified by nuineroux (feiitle nill»,
clothed to the Miniiiiit with vinee, while the plaiiw below wave with luxuriant liiirveHta of
finm. Further cai't are the mniill |virtt< <if Motril mid Ahneria; the latter ancient, and cele-
brated in the liisfory of the Moorn, under whom it wns highly proHiH'roim and t1ourii)hin{f,
Near it is the rock ol FilabrcH, iJ(KM) feet hij;li, composed of a siiifjle block of white marble;
and beyond it stretclicfl int<j the Hea the liold and hii^re promontory of Cabo de (lata. (Juadix,
Daza, and I'lirclioiin, are convidcrablo interior towns, in the easti'm part of this province,
seated in valleys enclosed by the numerous raiifres of liilla which intersect it. Santa Pc,
two lea^'iii:.. west of (Sranaifa, is remarkably ex|MiKed to earthquakes, which have uplit itj3
cathedral in two, and laid open the cells of one of the convents; yet the citizens still inhabit
and keep it in repair. Alhniiia is strikinjjly situated amid a circuit of precipitous rocks,
throu);li which dashes a rapid stream. It is freqiienti'd for the sulubrity of its air, and tor
its medirinal sprinus and baths. Antefjuera is very ancient; filled with Uomnn and Mcsirish
monuments, and still larjie; the adjacent country is very fertile, and di.stiiii,niislied for the
variety both of its vegetable and mineral productions. Population 'i(MHM). Honda, {Jifr.'M\).)

capital of a wide mount^iin district, is sin-
gularly situated on a rock with perpendicu-
lar clins and broken crags, tliroiiirh a deep
fissure in which the river flows, and sur-
rounds the city on three sides. It is crossed
by a stupendous bridpe 110 feet in diameter,
and 2H() feet in heijrht. Stairs of 'Xik) stepp
lead down to the river, ond frardena have
been formed on some level projectinjf points
of the precipice. Tho mountaineers of
Ronda are on honest, active, hardy race ;
and 80 healthy as to make it o proverb, that " at Ronda a man is a lioy at eighty." Tho
vicinity of Gibraltar (rives them preat opportunities for smufplinfr, which they carry on in
larfje bands, and in open resistance to povernment, without, however, incnrrinp any impu-
tation on their general loyalty.

Tho kingdom of Seville, west of Granada, is a still finer region, and [lerhaps superior to
any other in the Peninsula. Its plains are tho most productive in wine, oil, and fruits; the
noble river (luadalquivir conveys its products to the sea; and Seville and Cadiz are, in aomft
resi)ects, superior to all other Spanish citica.

310

Itoihlfl.

.Situ

rem
sqi.it

Book I.

SPAIN.

Hdvtllt'-

S«-vill(' (fig. 330.) M ■itualtxl in tlio iniilit of n lirtiln nnti ili'IluMnil pinin, ami nonr tlin
,|,„. iiioiitli of till! (■iiiiitiili|iilvlr, wliii'li fur-

' ■' ' iiirrly iiiliiiitli'il vr>rii'U III' liiruti (iiwi: it

MiiN II ^rri'iil. city t'riiiii lln* fiirlii'iit intIimI.
Ily till! ItiiiniiiiM It wiiM ri'li'liriiti'il unili'r
tlii> ii|i|N'lhitiiiM of IIih|niIin: iIh rmitiilu-
tion wiiM iiKcrilNMl to I liTciili'M ; iinil, Willi
tlin iii'i(;lilNiiiiiii|f coliiiiy ol' lliilicii, it
liiriiKiit th(^ ciiiiilul of liii'tii-ii, riiiliT tliu
MimrH it lj<>oiiiiii! nil iiiili'|H'iiili'iit kiiiK>
■ioiii; anil if It Ini triii; tliut, mi IIm cii|v
tuH) l>V FiTiliimnil tlw ('iilliolic-,4(KMKK)
Muors iiiari:li('il out iit hum of itn H'^ivti,
it muKt iiulonl Imvo Imm'ii iiii iiiinii'ii8i
bvcoiiiiti); till) I'liiiNiriiiiii of tlin wcultli which flownd in from thn wcKtrrii hciiiiNphcri'. \tt
ninniiliii'iiirin); imIiiNtry wax tlit<ii iiIho very tlouriNliinir. liy ii return n»iili< to irnvcriiiiipnt in
1(M)1, Seville wit<« Hiiiil to coiitniii KMMMIhilk Iooimh, K>viM(r eiiiployiiii'iit to i:i(),IHK) work-
men. It fri'ipiently rereiveil an increiihe uf hplemloiir liy iHicoitiiiiK u royut ri'Miileiice. Hiiir.o
till' ulKive peritMl, Hevillo Iihn not only ileclineil with tlie ^rriiiliiiil ilccliiie of Spiiiii, hut hnH
Hiitlered tiy till! iilliii(r up of the uhiinnel of tliu (iuiiiliili|uivir, which Iiiih remlereil it nnviKu*
bin only for xiimll NhipM, uiiil Iiiih triinHl'erreil to ('iiiliy. the cornnierci! of Amnrlcii. Hevilln in
now a Noleiiiii, inert, ^lixjiiiy city, with !)1,IHN) inlmhitiintH. Like iilher Hpanifili plnccN, piir-
ticularly thoNii of Mixirixh ori;;in, itH HlreetH iire niirrow, wimliiii;, iiml dirty ; hut it contiiinii
loniu Hplenilid public cdiliceH, ForeiiioHt xtiimlM the ciithedral, the InrfrcFt eccJeNiiiMtical
Rtriicture in the I'eninHiiln, •I'JO feet hmu within, and :)7!l hronil ; hut the iiiiiHt ntrikin^; fea-
ture in itri tower, oriuinnlly erected liv the leiirneil (ielinror (luever, onil iihciI iih oil nliNcrvu-
lory, but ruiKcd liy the ('liriMtiiinM to the lieiKlil of IJTiO feel. Muiiy of the couvcntM ulno arc
very Hplendid, nml previnuH to the lute inviiNion by the Kreiudi couliiiiied niiiiierous works of
tlio irreittest Hpuul^h nrtiMH, of wlioiii Seville waH the chief niirrtc, There wnn, iibovi,' all, a
milendid collection of the workH of Mnrillo, the prince of tlicMe artint', nnd a native of
Hnville. Of thcHe treuHiireM the city Iiiim been in a ^jri.'al nicnsiire despoiled by the ravii|;eii
of the invader; MarHliiil Soult, in particular, had in his coUrction iiuniermiH uiasterpieceH
of Murillo, by which Iho (■onvents of Seville were foriuivrly ailurnt'il. Seville has still 'jr>(M)
silk liMiinx; and (government inaiiilaiiis a raiiiioii foundery .'ind a tobacco uiaiiuliii^tory. The
Exchnn^e and the Murine Acudeniy are ulso hamlsonie edifices.
Cadiz (Jiff. 3'il.) in, in an eijual Uejfree with Seville, the lienst of Spain. In the commor-
,.,21 cial aunalM.of tlie world no city ia of

hi(rher anliiiuity. Tartessiis, occu-
pying a silo in ito vicinity, wiih one
of the earliest und mot nourishing
I'li(junician cidoiiies. Allerward.s Gu-
doira, or Uudes, was recojjnisi'd by
the Greeks and RomaiiN us one of tho
chief European einporia. In modem
times, when commerco did not form
part of the Kuropoan Hysteiii, Cadiz
declined into a si^condary rank; and
tho intcrconrso with America was at first nearly mono|H)lified by Si^ville. The circunistancea
wliich transferred it from that city to Cadiz look pluce early in the last century, when tho
latter rose to bo the chief thcatro of Sjianish commerce. It (.'iijoyed for some time the entire
monopoly of the American trade; nnd even when, in 1778, it was thrown open tn tho whole
kin$rdom, it had taken such deep root in Cad'z ns to frustnile all competition. In 1784, when
the entire iin|)orts from America were 12,r);«»,(K)(W. that city, for its share, had 11,280,000/. ;
and of tho w hole ex|Hirls, nmountinff to 4,300,0(KW., it had 3,fl(K(,000/. Notwilhstnndinj
severe sbock.s, in consequence of (lolitical revolutions, and the war with England, it always
revived, nnd derived a temporary proatness frrni becoming the capital of the cniislitutional
government. It received, however, ils mortal blow by the separation of the colonies. The
merchants, deprived thus of almost their only employment, have been reduced to the fund^
already accumulated, and have in a great measure retired from the confined situation of
Cadiz tj) the pleasant sites and villages which are scattered round the bay. The city is
situated on a small neck of land, at the point of the long Isle of Leon. It does not boost any
remorkabli! structures, but tho whole is elegantly built in regular squares, and streets with a
gcpiare court in tlie centre and an awning over it Population 53,000.

C«ll«.

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

Gibraltar.

Oibraltar {Jig. J<%.), though no longer Spanish, forms also a strikinnf and imporlJint fen-
322 t'lfo in this province. ThiH rock is

. celebrated from tlie earliest antiquity ns

one of tlio two " Pillars of Hercules,"
which fjii.nrded the entrance into the
Mediterranean ; thoujrh Mount Calpe,
on tiie opfKfcsito side, is considerably
loftier. In 1704, Sir Cieorgc Rooke and
Sir Cloudesley Shovel carried this for-
tress by a cotip de main ; since wisich
time Spain has vainly attempted to re-
gain possession of it. Her grand effort
was towards the c'ose of the American
war, when the fleets of France and Spain rode masters of tiie sea. A combined attack was
made on the I3th of September, 1782, by the two powers, with fifty sail of the line, 30,000
troops, and ten raighty floating batteries, which were expected to demolish all opposed to
them. They kept up a tremendous fire from ten in the morning till midnight, at wliicli time
smoke and fire were seen rising from the batteries which before next morning were reduced
to ashes, with a dreadful destruction of the assailants. No subsequent attempt has been
ftiade; nature, in fact, has rendered Gibraltar almost impregnable. The rock is precipitous
on all sides, and is connected with the continent only by a narrow neck of marshy ground.
The western front alone towards the sea is in any degree accessible; and this is defended
by batteries cut in the solid rock, and by other works so extensive and so well planned as to
bid defiance to any future effort Gibraltar has one handsome street, the houses of which
are built in tho Englisli style, with trees and flowers skilfully planted in scanty fragments of
soil. The rest of the town is close, crowded, and dirty, iniuibited liy about 20,0()0 people,
chiefly Moors and Jews, the latter of whom have sought refuge hero in great numbers from
Spanish bigotry, and have four synagogues. The expense of maintaining Gibraltar is con-
siderable : but it forms an important naval station, a depot for the commerce of the Mediter-
ranean, and a channel for introducing into Spain great (|uantities of goods, declared contn-
band by the jealous policy of that country.

Among other places of some importance is Tarifa, the most southern point of Spain, and
even of Europe, and tiie probable place of tiie landing of Tarik, with tlie Saracen army destined
for the conquest of that country. Seated on an almost insulated rock, it is still a fortress of
some strength. Algesics, on tlic opposite side of the bay, has grown up as a small rival to
Gibraltar; its population consists chiefly of smugglers and adventurers. In the interior is
the flourishing and populous town of Xeres, situated in a wide region of vineyards, producing
the wine called Sherry, the consumption of wliicli is so generiil in tliis countr)'. Mr. Jacob
supposes tlie entire produce to be 40,0(K) pipes, uf which l."),000 are cxiwrted, one half to
Britain. Ecija, a large town, was famous as a scene of contest between the Christians and
Saracens, and afterwards as the head ([uartcrs of a most formidable band of robbers ; but its
walls are now in ruin. Lebrija and Carmona are ancient towns, contiiining Roman monu-
ments of considerable grandeur. The districts to the north and west of the Guadalquivir
are mountainous and rugged ; though Huelva and Moguer, at the mouth of the Tinto, and
Ayamonte, at the mouth of the Guodiana, derive some importance from their eituation, and
carry on a little fishery.

Cordova (Jig. 323.), on the upper part of the course of the Guadalquivir, is another king-
dom of Andalusia, deriving its
323 chief interest from the celebrated

capital of the same name. Cor-
duba, founded by the Romans, was
not only n provincial capit^il, but
the seat of an university, which
could boast the great names of Se-
neca and Lucan. It displayed,
however, a fir higher pomp, when,
after the Saracen conciuest, it be-
came the first capital of the Mo-
hammedan empire in Spain. Under Abdelrahman and Almansor, it is represented as con-
taining 1600 mosques, and nearly 1,000,000 people. Admitting a certain cxagaforation, its
past greatness is clearly attested by the vast and now almost empty circuit enclosed by its
walls, in a great measure filled with palm trees and gardens, and by the astonishing remains
of its mosque. This vast edifice presents nothinij very striking in its exterior, wiiich is in a
great ineasurt; hid by the surrounding streets. Rut when the stranger enters any one of its
nineteen gates, he is astonished and bewildered by the endless labyrinth of colinnns which
stretch before him in every direction U^ff. 324.). These columns have almost defied the at-
temots to number them ; by one writer they have been estimated at 1400, but are generally

Cordora.

Book I.

SPAIN.

680

324

itated as exceeding 400, dividing the mosque into nineteen aisles, and producing a perpetual
and surprising change of scone to tlie visiter. Tiio edifice, however, tliougli it astonishes by its

uumensity, docs not equal in elegance tiiose erected during
that more refined age when Granada became the capital.
The Christiana have converted it into a church, and erected
in the centre a choir of great beauty, but quite out of har-
mony with the Saracenic part of tlie structure. Cordova,
though its days of splendour are long departed, still enjoys
delightful environs, producing a breed of liorsos the finest in
Spain, of which a splendid stud was lately U'-.n '>y the go-
vernment. There is also some remnant of its once exten-
sive manufactures, particularly of that fine species of leather
called fi-om it Cordovan. The population is .'jT.OOO.

Jaen ranks as a fourtii kingdom, though it cannot enter
into any rivalry with those already described. Its capital, of
the same name, however, though little known, from its de
tached situation, is still a large city, the see of a bishop,
Andujar is a considerable place, with a very ancient castle,
at the entrance of the defiles of the Sierra Morena ; and to
the north of it is Bayleii, where the Spaniards gained that
signal victory which caused the surrender of Dupont and his
army. In the upper part of this tract are the settlements of
, . , „ „ , La Carolina, where an expanse of rude mountain waste has,

Intenor of M»que.. Cordova. ^^ German and other colonisfs, been convo.ted into a pro-
ductive territory.

The Balearic Islands, Majorca, Minorca, and Ivi^a, with the minor ones of Cabrera and
Formentera, form an appendage to Spain of some importance and celebrity. The Bolcarian
Blingers are celebrated in the military annals of antiquity ; but the islands in general fol-
lowed the political fate of Spain. Majorca, the largest, about forty miles in length, and
thirty in breadtii, possesses very considerable natural advantages. Several mountain chains,
varymg from l.'jOO to 4500 feet high, penetrate its centre, and defend it both from the excess
of the heat and the violent action of the sea-breezes. Its summits are somewhat arid, but
tlie intervening valleys are thickly clothed with olive trees; and corn and the vine grow
luxuriantly, though with imperfect culture, on the plains helow. Oranges and citrons
flourish so abundantly in the northern district, that 20,000 niule-lbads of them are cxiwrtcd
to France and Catalonia. M. Camba-ssedes values the entire produce of the isle, in 1820, at
53,0(JO,(X)0 reals, about $3,000,000. Of this, about 34,000,000 are in grain and pulse,
5,000,000 in oil, and 2,.'M)0,000 in wine, 1,.'J00,000 in fruits, 3,000,000 in hops, and 2,000,000
in sheep. Palma, the capital of Majorca, is a considerable town, slightly fortified, inhabited
chiefly by the nohles, who possess the greater part of the isle, and have rarely suflicient
activity or curiosity to visit their estates. In no Spanish city are indolence and superstition
more prevalent. There are tiiirty convents, some of which enjoy a revenue of $10,000 a
year. Processions and religious festivals, celebrated often with great tumult, form the chief
amusements. In these it is customary to deck up figures of Judas, with tablets containing
the enumeration of his crimes, among which that of being " chief of the liberals" was
lately included ! Population 34,000.

Minorca is a much smaller island, more barren, covered with bare and rocky mountains,
and destitute of any trees at all lofty, the growth being prevented by the violent winds from
the sea. But it is distinguished for one of the finest harbours in Europe, Port Mahon, which
being strongly fortified, has been a subject of eager contest to the maritime nations. Ilaving
been taken by England in the Succession War, it was recovered by the French in 1756,
notwithstanding Byng's attemj)! to relieve it. After several other vicissitudes, it remained
with Spain. The harbour is extensive, possesses deep water, and is siieltered by hills on
each side from every wind. The town has nothing of a Spanish aspect ; the streets being
broad, the houses small but nent, the people a stirring and active race, who scarcely allow
themselves to be called Spaniards. During the late French war, being protect(;d by the
English navy, tiiey made considerable wealth by privateering. Ciuidadella, thoiiQ;li of smaller
extent, is the nominal capital, and the residence of the nobility. Ivi<ja. or 1 .za, is a small
isle, of rugged surface, which forms one inunenso mountain, shooting i.p into a variety of
summits. The island is tlins refreshed by cool breezes and numerous streams, iind yields
readily all tlie productions of this climate, particularly figs. In the quarter r;illi'il I„'is Sa-
linas, salt is evaporated by the heat of the sim, and exported to the extent of 15,0(K) tons.

[Sect. VIII. — Republic of Andorra.

This little republic, with a territory of hardly 200 stpiare miles, and a population of about
15,000 souls, has been overlooked by the author of this work. It occupies a valley on the
southern side of the Pyrenees, situated between the Maladetta and the Moncal, and lying

Vol. I. ."iO

500

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III

between Poix in Franco and Urgol in Spain. Beside Andorra, the capital, a town of 2,000
inhabibints, it contains five villages, which export iron and timber. It is governed by a
Syndic, who presides over the council of the valley, and by two Viguiers, appointed the one
by tlie king of France, and the otlxer by the bishop of UrgeL — ^Am. Ed.]

^ CHAPTER X.

' PORTUGAL.

PoRTi'OAL has by political causes alone been separated from Spain. There is no physical
peculiarity by which the two kingdoms arc distinguished. On the contrary, all the grand
natural features of Spain are prolonged into Portugal, and become Portuguese.

Sect. 1. — General Outline and Aspect,

The Iwundaries of Portugal are the Atlantic Ocean on the west throughout its whole
extent, and also on the south ; on tiie north the Spanish kingdom of Galicia ; and on the
east those of Ks^tremadura and Leon. The greatest dimension is from north to south, or
from 37° to 42=> 10' north latitude, and it extends from 6° 15' to 9° 30' west longitude. Its
eurfoce is 38,800 square miles.

The mountains of Portugal may be considered as prolongations of those of Spain, chiefly
of the chains of Guadarrama and Toledo, and those in the north of Galicia, Those ranges,
seldom rising to the first magnitude, cover almost the whole country, leaving between them
many picturesque and fertile valleys. There are only two extensive plains, one on the south
of the Tagus, and the other between the Mondego and the Douro.

Tiie rivers of Portugal consist chiefly of the spacious terminations of the greatest streams
of Spain in their progress to the ocean. The Douro forms the great maritime emporium of
Oporto, and the Tagus that of Lisbon. The Guadiana, also, in its lower course, flows
along the eastern frontier of Portugal. The Minho, a much smaller stream, comes down
from Galicia ; and the Mondego, alone, is entirely Portuguese, flowing nearly across the
breadth of the kingdom.

Sect. II. — Natural Geography.

SuBSECT. 1. — Geology.

This kingdom has the same general gcognostical structure and composition as Spain. The
mountainous parts of the country are generally of gneiss, mica slate, and other Neptunian
primitive strata, occasionally intermingled with Plutonian rocks of granite and porphyry.
Secondary formations of limestone occur in the Sierra d'Estrella, and in the vicinity of Cape
St. Vincent, and all around Li.«bon and at Cape St. Vincent the strata are of rocks of the
tertiary class, more or less intermingled with trap rocks.

Mines. It appears tliat the Carthaginians wrought tin mines in this part of the Penin-
sula. It is asserted that tiiere were formerly mines of tin stone in the granitic mountains
of the neighbourhood of Viseu, in the province of Beira, at the place called Burraco de Stanno.
Lead ores were worked in the last century, not far from Mogadouro, on the banks of the
Sabour, in the provmce of Tras os Montes, and near Longroiva, on the banks of the Rio
Prisco. Near Mogadouro, mines of graphite or plumbago occur. Iron mines also occur in
tlie same country, near Felguiera and Torre de Moncorvo. They supply the iron forge of
Chapacunha. 'iwo vciy old establishments of the same kind occur in Portuguese Estre-
madura, one in tlie district of Thomar, the other in that of Figuero dos Vinhos. They are
supplied by mines of red oxide of iron, situated in the frontier of that province and of the
province of Beira. There is a deposit of cinnabar at (vouna. The mountains of the neigh-
bouriiood of Oiwrto everywhere present indications of copper and of other ores. In Portu-
gal, as in Spain, the sands of rivers were washed for the gold they contain; and it is said in
this way large quantities of the precious metal were collected. At present there is but one
gold mine in Portugal, at a place called Adissa, in the district of StUbes. Its annual pro-
duce is trifling : in the year 1815 it vas 41 lbs. of pure gold ; 1816, 18 lbs. ; 1817, 11 lbs. ;
1818, 12 lbs. ; 1810, 13 lbs.; 1820, 12 lbs.; and in 1821, 18 lbs. Beds of coal occur atVialonga,
to the N. N. E. of Oporto ; and there is a mine of coal at Cabo de Buarcos in the province
of Beira.

SuBSECT. 2, — Botany.
The botany of Portugal is included under that of Spain.

SuBSECT. 3. — Zoology.
Tlic zoology cannot be very diflerent from that of Spain ; but no documents have appeared
to illustrate eitlier the one or the other. The horses are rather small, and altogether infe-

BOOE 1.

PORTUGAL

501

rior ; but the mules are fine, and nearly equal to those of Spain. Improvement, however
is neglected ; nor have the indolent Portuguese profited by crossing their sheep from the
merinos of Spain. A long-legged race of av/ine is common to both kingdoms, and furnishes
excellent haras.

Sect. HI. — Historical Geography

The Carthaginians and Romans who occupied the Peninsula, did not rpcosfnise Portugal
as a distinct country. Their Lusitania included a part of Spain, and did not comprise the
whole of Portugal : Merida, in Estremaduia, was its capital. Port'igal, like Spain, Kubmittc<l
successively to the formidable irruptions of the Goths and of the Aloors.

The existence of Portugal as a distinct kingdom dates from tlie commoiicomcnt of the
twelfth century. At that time, Henry, dukr 'Burgundy, having married thn duuglitur of
the duke of Cabtile, obtained as her dowry the ..jrthem part of Portugal, which iiad been
rescued from the Moors. The capital, at that time, was Porto or Oporto, wlionco the modern
name of the kingdom appears to be derived. His successors gained a series of conquests,
and obtained possession of Lisbon and the southern provinces, carrying their conquests to the
frontier of Seville.

The fifteenth century, and the reigns of John and Emanuel, formed the true era of the
greatness of Portugal, when it outshone all the other kingdoms of Europe. Confined on
Uic land side within narrow limits, it opened for itself a vast career of maritime discovery
and conquest. Spain, indeed, shared this pursuit ; but her first acquisitions were made by
private individuals, partly foreign, with only faint assistance from the government ; while
the Portuguese expeditions were planned, fitted out, and all the resources for them sup.
plied by the government. Their flag, at one time, floated victorious over all the eastern
seas ; while in the west, by the possession of Brazil, they came into some competition with
Spain.

A disastrous eclipse of the Portuguese monarchy took place in the sixteenth century, in
consequence of the rash and romantic expedition undertaken by king Sebastian into Morocco,
where he himself and the flower of his troops were cut ofi^. Hereupon Pliilip W. of Spain,
a powerful and ambitious prince, raised a claim to the succession, which the superiority of
his arms enabled him to secure. Portugal, with all her eastern and western possessions,
then became an appanage to the crown of Spain. The connection was every way
unfortunate. Not only did she lose her political and civil liberty, but many of her fineht
foreign possessions were wrested from her by the Dutch, tlie spirited and active enemies of
Philip.

The restoration of the monarchy, in 1640, was still more sudden than its fall. Tlie deep-
rooted indignation of the people was combined into an extensive conspiracy, whicii, having
been concealed to the last moment, burst forth at once : the Spaniards were driven out, and
the duke of Braganza raised to the throne, under the title of John IV. Yet Portugal did not
thus achieve any revival of her ancient glory. The new monarch soon re-established absolute
power: a sluggish and indolent cliaracter pervaded all the departments of government : its
foreign possessions were lost or neglected ; and Portugal continued a stranger to all the
improvements and energies which raised Britain and France to the first place in the system ■
of Europe. Yet, during this period, the elevation of the Bourbons to the Spanisli throne, led
to a very intimate alliance between England and Portugal, the natural foe of Spain. It was
cemented in 1803, by a commercial treaty, in v.-hich Portugal secured an exclusive market
for her wines, while Britain obtained a market for her woollens, and an arrangement by which
the gold of Brazil might find its way into her ports.

The recent convulsions of the Peninsula have been very amply shared by Portugal.
Regardless of the neutrality which she had strictly maintained, Bonaparte, by a most unpro-
voked aggression, sent Junri,, in 1807, to take possession of Lisbon. The king did not
attempt a vain resistance, but sailed for Brazil, and established his court at Rio do Janeiro.
The British arms, and the glorious achievements of Wellington, 'hove the French out of this
part of the Peninsula, and finallyoutof the whole. Afterwards Portugal imitated the example
of Spain in compelling her monarch to grant a representative constitution ; but again, by a
counter-revolution, she re-established an absolute monarchy. More recently, on the death
of the late king, Don Pedro proclaimed the separation of Brazil from Portugal, ri'scrvingthe
former to himself, but granting to the latter a charter, the observance of which was made the
condition of holding the throne.

Sect. FV. — Political Orography.

Portugal, after the downfall of the feudal system, and especially after hnr subjection to
Philip II. became one of the most absolute of European governments. The Manjuisof Pom-
bal and one or two more enlightened men found their way into the ministry ; but, in general,
measures were as ill conducted as possible, and corruption prevailed in every dc|)arlnient of
the state. The course of justice was equally polluted ; and, no adecpiate salaries beinf;
allowed to the judges, they were under an almost irresistible temptation to accept bribes.

I ill

(

502

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PabtIII

The pride of the nobles was nearly as great as in Spain, without being accompanied by the
same bay sentiments. They are divided into two brunches, tlic litulados and the hidalgos,
and have hold the peasantry in a subjection little short of slavery.

The army of Portugal, prior to the revolution, though composed nominally of 30,000 men,
was in a most inefficient state, not tlirough want of physical courage or discipline in the
men, but from the incapacity of the officers, and tlie general defects of the military system.
Wiicn the French, however, Iiad been driven out of Portugal, an army of 40,000 men was
levied, and disciplined by British officers, under the superintendence of Lord Beresford; and
thus prepared, the Portuguese acted, during the eventful war which followed, in a manner
that would not have disgraced any troops in Europe. The army is still maintained ; and
though the new government will not brook British command, yet, under its influence, Por-
tuguese officers of merit have been formed.

The navy, which was never considerable, was carried out with the royal family to Brazil,
and has never been restored.

Sect. V. — Productive Industry.

The industry and commerce of Portugal, which presented so brilliant an aspect during her
era of prosperity, have simk lower tiiun those of almost any other European nation.

Agriculture did not, until very lately, experience any of the improvements which have be-
come general in the rest of Europe. The plough is composed of three pieces of wood
awkwardly i)ut together, and imperfectly aided by the clumsy maciiinery of wheels. Though
generally very fertile, this country did not produce a third of the grain necessary for tie
supply of its inhabitants. Of late some improvement has taken place, especially by the in-
tro<hiction of potatoes; and the dependence upon foreign supply has been considerably
diminished. The chief object of attention is the vine, which, with the olive and other fruit
trees, is cultivated with the utmost diligence in the valleys and on the sides of the hills, in
the elevated province of Entro Douro e Minho. Here is produced abundantly the port
wine, which forms tiie main basis of Portuguese trade, and finds so copious a market in
Britain. The entire produce is estimated at 80,000 pipes. Of white wine Portugal produces
about 60,000 pipes; but this is of inferior quality, and chiefly consumed at home. Sheep
arc bred on tlie hills, to a pretty large extent; but not so abundantly as in Spain, neither
is their wool so fine.

The manufiicturcs of Portugal scarcely deserve to be named. Little is known beyond the
working of their wool for domestic use by each family or neighliourhood ; all their finer
fabrics are imported. According to a late observant traveller, ignorance, or at least an im-
perfect knowledge of the commonest arts, is conspicuous among tiie Portuguese. Their
carpenters arc the most awkward and clumsy artisans that can be imagined, spoiling every
thing they attempt ; the wood-work even of good houses being finished in a manner that
would scarcely be tolerated in the rudest ages. Their carriages of all kinds, their agricul-
tural implements, locks, keys, &c. are ludicrously bad. Working in gold and silver plate
forms almost the only exception ; cambrics also are well made in some places ; and a few
other local objects might be enumerated.

Of mines and fisheries, the former is not at all cultivated, though great materials for it
are said to exist ; but in the absence of trial this may be only conjecture. Fish of the finest
kinds, particularly tunny and sardinias, are caught in considerable quantity for immediate
consumption ; but the salt which the kingdom so abundantly produces is not used for pre-
serving them ; and a large import of salted fie'; is still necessary to meet the wants of a
tJopulation so rigidly Catholic.

The commerce, which formed the greatness of Portugal, when her porta interchanged tlie
products of the East and the West, is now a mere shadow. The loss of her Indian posses-
sions, and the separation of Brazil, have reduced her to the common routine of export and
import. The staple of the former is port wine, for which the market of England was
secured first by favouring duties, and now seemingly by an established predilection. The
wine is raised almost solely for the English market, and all of the best quality is bought up
by English merchants residing at Oporto.

Another staple export of Pcrtugal is salt, evaporated by the heat of the sun in the bay
of St. Ubes, or Setubal, which seems as if expressly formed for tliat purpose. It is carried
off oliiofly by the English, to be employed in curing fish destined for the Portuguese market:
the annual amount is estimated at 100,000 tons. There is also a considerable surplus of
wool, of which l,()fl(),(K)0 lbs. weight have been imported into England in one year; but as
it is not so fine as that of Spain, the duty imposed by the British landholders has greatly
checked the importation. In return, Portugal takes grain, salt-fish, and a variety of manu-
factures, chiefly from Britain; but as her imports cannot much exceed the exports, she can-
not afford a very copious market.

The internal communioatioiis of Portugal consist of the several noble rivers which tra-
verse her territory, and which are navigable throughout. The intercourse by land is ren-
dered very difficult by chains of mountains extending in the same direction. Nothing hnn

btUI

by the
dalgos,

Mi men,
in the
system.
len was
)rd ; and
manner
ed; and
ice, Por-

o Brazil,

uring her

liave be-
I of wcxxl

Though
ry for the
by the in-
tisiderably
3ther fruit
le hills, in
f the port
market in
il produces
e. Sheep
in, neither

beyond the
their finer
east an im-
se. Their
iling every
lanncr that
eir agricul-
eilver plate
and a few

erials for it
•f the finest

immediate
ed for pre-

wants of a

hanged tlie
lian posses-
export and
gland was
tion. The
bought up

I in the bay
It is carried
ese market :
surplus of
lear ; but as
Ihaa greatly
Tly of manu-
|rts, she can-

which tra-
il and is rcn-
ilothing has

BooeI.

PORTUGAL.

5U3

been attempted on any important scale, either to improve these advantages, or to amend the
defects ; so that travelling is worse in Portugal than in any other European country.

Sect. VI. — Civil and Social Stale.

The population of Portugal, according to the last census, which was taken in 1798, amounts
to 3,683,000 ; calculating at the somewhat high estimate of five to a family. According to
more probable estimates it now amounts to 3,.530,(K)0. Upon a surface of 39,800 square
miles, this gives a density of about ninety-one to the square mile, which is remarkable, as
exceeding that of Spain nearly in the proportion of three to two. The exemption fi-om the
mesla, and the high cultivation of the province of Entrc Douro e Minho, appear to be the
redeeming circumstances in her case.

No nation, as to character, owes less to the opinion of the world, than the Portuguese.
They are described as indolent, dissembling, cowardly, destitute of public spirit, and at the
same time fierce and deeply revengefiil. In Spain it in said, strip a Spaniard of his virtues,
and he becomes a good Portuguese. From a late minute inspection, however, the pea^intry
325 ifig. 325.) have been pronounced to be a fine peo-

ple ; and, on repeated occasions during the late war,
they displayed energies not unworthy of their an-
cestors, in an age when tiieir glory resounded
throughout both hemispheres. Almost all, however,
that floats on the surface is base and degenerate.
There cannot be a doubt that this may be greatly
ascribed to priestcraft, to the stupifying influence of a
sluggish and tyrannical government, and to the
general corniption which has pervaded all the
Branches of administration.

The established and exclusive religion is the
Portaguwe Peuaairy. Catholic, in its extreme and moat degrading excess ;

and the body of the people are almost entirely under the thraldom of the priesthood. The
burning of Jews continued till within the last half-century. Tiie physiognomy of a large pro-
portion of the people shows their descent fi'om this hated race, whose tenets many, it is pro-
326 bable, still cherish in secret. There are, in Portugal,

about 550 religious houses, of which 150 are nunneries*
{Jiff. 326.). The number of two archbishops and thir-
teen bishops is not so disproportionate.

The literature of Portugal, during the period of its
glory, was by no means contemptible. The genius and
lateof Camoens spread his name throughout Europe, and
entitled him to rank among the few modern epic poets.
By the students of Portuguese literature, iiowever, Saa
Miranda and Antonio Ferreyra are reckoned scarcely
second to him ; and Rodriguez Lobo held the nation long
enchanted by the sweetness of his pastorals. At the
same time Di Barros, Castanheda, and Faria y Sousa,
recorded, in magnificent though somewhat inflated historical narrative, the mighty exploits
of their countrymen in the African and Indian seas. The subjection to Spain gradually
divested Portuguese literature of its manly and energetic character. The muse of history
was silent; poetry assumed the form only of the sonnet, and Gongora infected it wlioUy witli
a strain of false and meretricious ornament. The house of Braganza for some time did
little for knowledge ; but in the beginning of the last century, the Conde de Ericeyra intro-
duced the French literature, and founded a royal academy. In the course of the century,
Barros Pereyra, Antonio da Lima, Manuel da Costa, a Brazilian, Correa Grarcas, and Paulino
Cabral, a bishop, made not unsuccessful efforts to revive the ancient Portuguese poetry, and
to introduce that of Italy. Portugal has two universities. That of Coimbra, foimded at
Lisbon in 1290, wan transferred to Coimbra in 1308. It enjoys some celebrity, is divided
into eighteen colleges, and is still attended by several hundred students; but the course of
study is of that obsolete description which prevailed during the middle ages. A smaller
university wos founded at Evora in 1578.

For the minor particulars of amusement, dress, foo<l,&c., reference may be made to Spain,
as Portugal has no peculiarities that are more than provincial.

Sect. VIL — Local Geograph'j.

Portugal is divided into the following six provinces, several of which, like those of Spain,
in reference to events in their past history, are sometimes called kingdoms : —

Ftiu and Nun.

■r

* [The rcliuiuiis hoiifps, nioTiaRtcrics. niid nuimerii!!, wvre eiipprcseod in IKM — Am. Ed.]

Vol. \. ~ 50*

I*
I

«0A

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Past IH.

r.itnit In
EnilUi Aam.

mnlMH. EntlUi term. rnpiUlloil. FriDclpil Toon, with Iheir PoplUUiai.

Bitremadura S,4SO,8riO 838,060 Liibnn, 3li(),000; Butiibal, 13,000; Banlarem, 8,000.

Alemlvjo 5,1148,330 380.480 Elva8,lU,()U() ; Kvora, tl.OUO

Algarvo l,S3tl,nO() 137,013 Faro, H.UOO ; Tnvirn, ti.UUO.

Belra 4,<jg4,(iOO l,l'il,S»S Cuimbra, IS.flOU ; Luiiicko, 0,000 ; ViMu, 0.000.

Entre Doiirn c Minlio l,fl27 040 Wn.oeS Opnrin, 70,IH)0 ; Braga, 14,000 ; Viana, 8,000.

Traa on Mnntu ■ . . .3,(I07,TU0 318,065 Braganza, 4,000.

Estremadura occupies a great extent of const, both to the north and south of the Togus,
without ever penetrating very deep into the interior. It preoents a rocky, varied, and pic-
turesque surface. It is chiefly important, however, as containing Lisbon, the capital.

Lisbon {Jig. 327.) is situated near the mouth of the Tagus, which may here be ahnost
Q27 considered an arm of the sea, since not

only the tide flows up, but the water ia
salt, and the swell oflen tempestuous.
The approach to it presents a more
magninccnt spectacle than that of per-
haps any other city of Europe. Lisbon
rises direct from the water, crowning
the sides and summits of several hills ;
which, according to the Portuguese, arc
Luboa. seven in number, like those of Rome.

The palaces, convents, and churches,
which crown this amphitheatre of buildings; the dazzling whiteness of the houses; the
light appearance of the windows and balconies ; the tastefiil arrangement of plants, shrubs,
and flowers on their roofs and terraces ; the golden orange groves which adorn the suburbs,
and the stately specimens of Indian or American botany which are scattered through the
scene, produce an effect that cannot be described. The noble harbour, also, crowded witli
vessels ; the numerous pilot and fishing-boats, with their large, handsome lateen sails, as-
cending or descending the river ; and, nearer the shore, hundreds of small neat boats, with
white or painted awnmgs, finely vary tiie scene. The moment, however, that the stranger
lands, and enters the place, he finds that he has been imposed upon by a brilliant illusion ;
and the gay and glittering city is found to resemble a painted sepulchre. The streets are
narrow and ill paved ; the houses gloomy, with here and there a latticed window ; filth and
nuisances assault him at every turn. Lisbon does, indeed, appear to be the dirtiest and most
noisome city on the face of Uie earth. In passing through tlie streets, a stranger encounters
at every turn the most disgusting effluvia. Every species of vermin destined to punisii in-
dolence and slovenliness, the mosquito, the scolopendra, and a species of red ant, multiply
to an extraordinary degree. Nor is Lisbon found, on inspection, to exhibit that architectural
beauty which it proniises on a distant view. It might have been expected, among forty
churches and seventy-five convents, built by a superstitious people, that there would have
been some signal display of this kind ; but this is not found even in the cathedral. The
defect seems partly owing to the mean taste of the Miirquis of Pombal, who ordered them
to be all built on a line with the street, to preserve a dull uniformity. Two handsome
squares, however, have been fbrmed, the Commercial and tlie Roscio, which are connected
by well-built streets ; but the absence of trees, or even shrubs, and the blinding sand that
drifts through them, combine to produce a disagreeable effect. liisbon derives an awful
interest from t)ie ruins still left of the great earthquake of 1755, the most dreadful catas-
trophe which ever befell a modern European city. Six thousand houses were thrown down,
30,000 inhabitants killed ; and a conflagration kindled which spread a still wider destruction.
TIh3 ruins are the more dismal, as they portend similar disasters, which the earth, still
heaving from time to time, perpetually threatens. Meantime, Lisbon di.'^plays one very grand
feature ; the aqueduct, to the construction of which, though it conveys the water only half a
mile, peculiar obstacles wore presented. It is carried in one place througli a tunnel, and in
another over a defile 230 feet deep, by arches, which are said to be the highest in the world.
The width of the centre arch is 107 feet. It was built in 17;J8, by Manuel de Maya ; and
is of such solidity that it withstood the shock of the great earthquake, which only caused the
keystone to sink a few inches.

The vicinity of Lisbon presents some beautiful sites and palaces. Cintra is tho most
striking, consisting of on immense mountain, partly covered with scanty lierbage, partly
with broken, huge, and vnrietl piles of rock, elsowliore presenting thick groves of cork, elm,
oak, hazel, an-l other trees. It includes many lovely and fanto;. ij /lots ; but the vi';w from
it is naked nnd dreary. The town, at the bottom, with its ^.''l Du'.dce, lias nothing remark-
able ; but tlie sides are covered with delightful villas, one of which is notorious for the sig-
nature of tlic unhappy convention of Ciiitra. Mafra is a royal convent built by John V., in
emulation of the Escurial ; but though a stupendous pile, 700 feet square, and containing
numberless suites of ill-ftirnished apartments, it ranks far below its model. Only five miles
below Lisbon, of whicii it is considered a suburb, is Belem, the site of a palace and a very

ART

Book I.

PORTUGAL

596

em, 8,000

,0.000.
3,000.

le Togus,
, and pic-
al.

be almost
since not
B water ia
fipestuous.
ts a more
lat of per-
e. Lisbon
crowning
'eral hills ;
tguesc, arc
« of Rome,
churches,
lOUses; the
its, shrubs,
he suburbs,
trough the
owded witli
in sails, as-
boats, with
;he stranger
int illusion ;
I streets are
N ; filth and
jst and most
r encounters
to punish in-
int, multiply
urchitectural
among forty
would have
edral. The
rdered them
to handsome
re connected
ng sand that
es an awful
eadful cataa-
hrown down,
r destruction,
e earth, still
e very grand
ir only half a
unnel, and in
in the world,
e Maya; and
ily caused the

is tho most
rbago, partly

of cork, elm,
he vi;W from
hing remark-
US for the sig-
)y John v., m
nd containing
nly five miles
:e and a very

magnificent monastery, founded by Emanuel, and in which many of the royal family have
been interred.

There are several other towns of some note in Portuguese Estremadura. St. Ubes or
Hctubal lies sixteen miles fi'om Lisbon, on the coast south of the Tagtis, on a lung interior
Imy, the waters of which, evaporated by the heat of the sun, leave the excellent bay-salt,
one of the national staples. The town is considerable, having been well rebuilt since the
earthquake of 1755, when it was almost totally overthrown. The mountain of Ursabida,
here extending into the sea, forms a bold and striking promontory, covered with trees and
various vegetation. Ascending the Tagus, we come to Santarem, a considerable and ancient
town, the Presidium Julium of the Romans. It has an academy of history, established in
1747. Hero the great French army, under Massena, remained long posted, unable to pene-
trate to Lisbon. Abrantes, higher up, is an important military position, situated on a height
whence it commands the passage of the Tagus. Leirio, to the north, is an ancient town, in
a most prodtictivc territory, and where a great annual fiiir is held for the supply of the
peasantry of the neighbouring country round. At Batalha, is a church {fig. 3^.), and
monastery, which, united, form the finest structures in all Portugal. It is 541 feet by 416,
and is considered by Mr. Murphy to be one of the noblest existing specimens of the Norman

Church of Balalba.

ManMleum of King John.

Gothic. It is constructed entirely of marble, and the fi-ont appeared to him almost unri-
valled in chaste and delicate ornament Among the diflbrent parts, the mausoleum erected
in honour of King John, is pre-eminently beautiful {fig. 329.). Vimiero is only a village,
but celebrated for the signal victory gained by the British over the army of Junot. Three
miles distant is Torres Vedras, a tolerable old town, but chiefly noted as the centre of the
grand fortified lines formed by Wellington in 1810, which so completely baffled all the ma-
noeuvres by which the French had hoped to reconquer Portugal.

Alemtejo is an extensive province, comprising the greater part of Portugal south of the
Tagus. The interior presents an extensive plain ; but tiie frontier towards Spain is finely
diversified with hills, wooded mountains, and deep valleys extremely well watered, and very
fertile. It contains some large towns. Evora is situated on an eminence in a fine country,
and is of great antiquity. Its origin has even been dated seven centuries before tiie Chris-
tian era. It is more clearly ascertained that the Romans made it a municipal town, and
adorned it with some of their finest structures. There is a noble aqueduct, of which the
piers are nine feet broad, and suppoited by buttresses; also a Temple of Diana built by
Sertorius, in which great elegance is displayed. Elvas, on the Spanish firontier, imme-
diately facing Badajos, is the strongest fortress in Portugal, and designed as the barrier of
the kingdom. The works were constructed under the directions of the celebrated Count
Schaumburg-Lippe ; and the fort, bearing his name, is considered a masterpiece of the art.
In this neighbourhood ore also Vilia Vi^ioso, a pleasan' town, and a favourite country resi-
dence of the Portuguese monarchs, who have here a handsome hunting-park ; and Porta-
legre, a handsome little town in a delightful country, with a good cathedral. Southward,
in the interior, is Beja, a Roman colony, and subsequently a strong Moorish fortress. After
being nearly demolished, it was rebuilt by Alfonso III., and fortified by King Diniz, and is
still a considerable town.

Algarve forms the extreme south of Portugal ; and is a maritime province, bearing in an
especial sense, the oppellation of kingdom, since it long remained independent, and waa a
celebrated theatre of war between the Moors and the Christians. It is tolerably fertile in
wine, firuits, and oil. Faro, the largest town, is also the principal seat of trade, and iias a

806

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PaktIII

Coimbia.

regular packet to Gibraltar. Lagoe and Silves are also old little towns, the former on the
Boa-coast, with some shipping. Capo St. Vincent, the extreme point of Algarve, and the
most Houtii-westerly of the Peninsula, is celebrated for the signal victory gained by the
British fleet over the Spanish, on the 14tli of February, 1797.

Beira is a very extensive province or kingdom, filling nearly the whole centre of Portu-
gal, between the Tagiis and tlie Douro. Its suriiice presents considerable variety ; the in-
terior part has the usual mountainous character of Portugal, being traversed by the great
chain called the Sierra d'f]strclla. On the sea-coast, however, there are plains of consider-
able extent. The province produces plenty of wine, oil, and chestnuts, and has extensive
poatures ; but the grain is not sufficient for its consumption.
Coimbra {fig, 2&0.\ the capital, is beautifully situated on the declivity of a hill, which

rises above the Alondego; but the
streets, as in other old Portuguese
towns, are crowded, dirty, and very
steep. In former times a residence
of the kings of Portugal, it was
strongly fortified, and has stood ob-
stinate sieges; but the remains of
its walls and towers are no longer
sufficient to constitute it a fortress.
It has been called the Athens of Por-
tugal, from its extensive university,
containing eighteen colleges, with
forty professors, and about eight hun-
dred students. Attached to it is a library of nearly 40,000 volumes, including numerous
MSS. ; but the actual value both of these and the printed works does not seem to have been
fully investigated.

Beira has other towns of some importance. Among these is Almeida, the northern barrier
of the kingdom and a fortress of consequence, though not possessing the great strength of
Elvas. It wos twice taken in the last war, first by the French under Massena, and then by
the British under Wellington. Castello Branco, on the southern frontier, notwithstanding
its commanding situation, retains little importance. Lamego, near the southern bank of the
Douro, is an ancient city, and the cradle of the Portuguese monarchy. Here, in 1143, the
states-general for the first time met, recognised tlie fundamental laws, and acknowledged
the sovereignty of Alfonso. Viseu, in the centre of the kingdom, is, like Lamego, an epis-
copal sec, and has the greatest annual fair in Portugal.

Entre Douro e Minho forms the maritime part of Portugal, north of the Douro. Though
the smallest, it is considered the most valunble, populous, and productive of all the provinces.
Its peasantry have done nmch to redeem tlie reproach of torpor and slupfgishness generally
urged against their countrymen. This district is entirely covered with mountains, portly
rugged and barren, but generally snprnted by fertile and well-watered valleys, cultivated
to the utmost possible extent; and which, besides oil, fruit, and flax, are made to produce
most copiously the wine called port, for which so ample a market exists in England.

Oporto, or Porto {fig. 331.), the oncient capital, and still the second city of the kingdom,
is situated near the mouth of the Douro on the northern bank, though on the southern are
two exteneivo suburbs, supposed to have constituted tlie ancient city. The modem town is

331 ' V -'.:■

Opoito.

well built, especially when compared with most others in the peninsula. The river ailforda
a tolerably secure harbour, without any artificial aid, except an elevated and walled quay, to
which the ships' cables may be fastened during the floods. These oflen come down with
such force, that, without such a support, the vessels would be inevitably carried out into the

nva.

on the
nd the
by the

PoTtu-

the in-
le ftrcat
onsider-
[tcnBivo

1, which
but the
rtuguese
md very
esidence
, it was
stood ob-
mnina of
10 longer
I fortresB.
ns of Por-
iniversity,
gcs, with
jight hun-
numeroua
have been

3m barrier
itrength of
nd then by
ithstanding
mnk of the
[1 1143, the
[nowledged
JO, an epis-

). Though
s provinces.
IS prenerally
ains, partly
cultivatea
to produce
uid.

le kingdom,
louthem are
lem town is

Book I.

PORTUGAL.

Ma. The chief dependence of Oporto is its trade with England, which remains unimpaired
amid the general diminution of that with America. There are about thirty English houses
regularly settled here, besides a number of mercliants who pay frecjuent visits to the place.
Tiio exportation of port wine, however, on which its trade rests, is generally cramped by
the absurd policy of placing it entirely in tlic hands of an exclusive company,* who have
adopted the pernicious practice of diluting the produce of the best vineyards with wine of
those of an inferior quality, by which the character of the genuine port grievously suffers.

Bniga, farther north, ranks as the capital of the province ; and, tliough now far outstripi>cd
by Oporto, is of much more ancient fame. Under the Romans it was the metropolis of an
extensive district, and its former greatness is still attested by numerous antiquities. It has
made a distinguished figure in the ecclesiastical history of"^ Portugal, and is the see of an
archbisliop, who is primate of the kingdom. Braga is a handsome town ; well built, well
paved, the streets spacious and clean. There is some industry, particularly a manufacture
of small beaver hats, wliich supplies a great part of the kingdom. The adjacent country is
hilly, but populous and pleasant. Valen<;a is n small town, agreeably situated on the Minho,
which separates it from Galicia.

Tras OB Montes, or the province beyond the mountains, is of great extent, occupying the
whole interior of Portugal north of the Douro. The Cantabrian chain, after traversing
Asturias and Galicia, throws out branches which not only separate the territory fVom the
rest of Portugal, but cover almost its whole surface. They leave only deep valleys, through
which considerable rivers, too rapid however to be navigable, pour down into the Douro.
It is much inferior to Entre Douro e Minho, both in populousness and cultivation; yet a con-
siderable quontity of the port wine produced grows on the sides of its hills. The inhabitants
are a race of active, hardy, and brave mountaineers. They rose in great force against the
French, and have since somewhat less happily distinguished themselves by the ardour with
which they fought in tiie cause of absolute power, and in resistance to every form of consti-
tutional government.

The towns are small, and not regularly fortified ; though, from the nature of the country,
they form defensible military positions. Braganza is a city of ancient note, and gave the
title of Duke to the first nobleman in the kingdom, even before he was raised to the throne,
by the appellation of John IV. Tiie kings of Portugal still retain the title of Dukes of
Braganza. Chaves, the Aqua: Flavio; of the Romans, still exhibits two baths and a magni-
ficent bridge constructed by that people. Chaves gives the title of Marquis to a family, one
of whom was the most active opponent of the French during their invasion ; while another
has lately been at the head of the anti-constitutional array, of which the head-quarters were
always in Tras os Montes.

* [The Oporto wine company, which enjoyed this monopoly, was abolished in 1834 —Am. Go]

o river affords
ailed quay, to
ne down with
d out into th«

END OF THE FIRST VOLUME