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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m^thode. rata ) elure, a 3 32X 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 :,i \ O -t^. I*'.. <• AlSr ESSAY ON THE SPIRIT AND CHARACTERISTICS 07 HEBREW POETRY. BY J. M. HIRSCHFELDER. ; , }^ ■ ■m-immpmm \ Ml highl Tatri Avond tlirou was £ Avliicl beau1 Torn] in til sonrc and ^ HeiK beau has inter by a niont strik has ( pass( their and lame thcii lleb: proS' So e piec( 'his \ T poet •X- ( cause auv f A SHORT ESSAY ON THE SPIRIT AND CHARACTERISTICS OF HEBREW POETRY. Many circumstances contributed to make the ancient Hebrews a highly poetic people. The nomadic and peaceful life of the Patriarchs; the bondage of the Israelites in Egypt, and their wonderful delivcranco and exodus from that land ; their wanderings through the wilderness; their taking possession of a land that was said to flow with milk and honey ; their natural taste for music, Avhich was afterwards carefully fostered in the Temple service ; the beautiful and romantic scenery of the holy land ; their magnificent Temple and its imposing service : these and many other circumstances iu the chequered history of the Israelites, furnished inexhaustible sources from which the most sublime poetic images might be drawn, and which the IlebrcAV poets were never weary of turning to account. . Hence, "the Bible," as a writer has justly observed, "is a mass of beautiful figures ; its words and its thoughts are alike poetical ; it has gathered around its central truths all natural beauty and interest ; it is a temple with one altar and one God, but illuminated by a thousand varied lights, and studded with a thousand orna- ments." The inherent love of the ancient Hebrews for poetry is strikingly apparent, even from the limited amount of literature that has escaped tlie ravages of time. Their language, as soon as it passes the limits of mere narration, at once becomes dignified : their blessings ; their prayers and supplications ; their exhortations and denunciations; their charges and admonitions; their dire lamentations and triumphant bursts of joy; all display strikingly their natural taste for poetry.: and hence it is that so much of the Hebrew Scriptures is Avrittcn in poetry, and that even among the prose writings we so frequently meet with poetic effusions. So early as in Genesis iv. 23, 24, we have an example of a desultory piece of poetry abruptly introduced, in the address of Lamech to •his wives : " Adah and Zillah, hear my voice, Wives of Lamecli, give ear to my speccli ! If I Lave slain a man to my wounding, And a young man to my hurt : If Cain shall be avenged seven times, Then Lamech seventy times seven."* This address is in hemistichs, according to the genius of Hebrew poetry. It was, no doubt, handed down by tradition to the time * Comiuentators have been not a little puzzled in ende;vvouring to discover the cause that gave rise to this address, so abruptly introduced. From the absence of auv further information than simply what may be gathered from the speech itself, of Moses, and is not only the most ancient piece of poetry in the Old Testament, but also the only relic of antediluvian poetry extant. The celebrated blessing and prophecy of Jacob, as recorded ni Gen. xlix. 3-27 inclusive, is also couched in highly poetic language. The striking difference in style that pervades that portion of the chapter from the rest, must be apparent to the English reader. The chapter commences with plain prose composition : — " And Jacob called unto his sons, and said, gather yourselves together, and I will declare to you that which shall befall you in the last days. Gather yourselves together, and hear, ye sons of Jacob, and hearken to Israel your father." But at the next verse begins the prophesy, and with it a totally different style of composition ; the language becomes dignified and figurative, and assumes all the characteristics of Hebrew poetry. We shall subjoin the next four verses, that the reader may sec the difference of style from those just quoted : — " Reuben, my first born art thou, My might, and the beginning of my strength, The excellency of dignity, and the excellency of power. A boiling up as of water art thou, thou shalt not excel, For thou ascendedst the bed of thy father, Then didst thou defile it : — My couch he ascended ! Simeon and Levi are brethren ; Instruments of violence are their covenants. My Boul, enter not into their deliberations, My honour, be not joined in their assembly, - For in their anger they slew a man. And in their wantonness they maimed an ox." Besides these there are many other poetical compositions dispersed throughout the prose books of the Old Testament. As for instance : the song by the well. Num. xxi. 17, 18 ; the prophe- cies of Balaam, Num. xxiii. and xxiv; the triumphal song of Deborah, Judges v. ; the parable of Jotham, Judges ix. 7-15 ; the riddle of Samson, and the solution of it by the Philistines, Judges xiv. 14, 18 ; the exulting chant of Hannah, 1 Samuel ii. 1-10 ; the all that can be advanced on the subject must necessarily be mere conjecture. Still, from the strain of the address it is evident that Lamech contrasts some minor oflFence of his own with the hideous crime of fratricide of Cain. It is, therefore, not improbable that Lamech had slain some one in self-defence, and that this address was intended to console his wives, who, perhaps, felt alarmed lest the friends of the deceased might seek an opportunity to avenge his death. To allay their fear, Lamech contrasts his offence with that of Cain ; as much as to say, surely if Cain, who had slain his brother without the least provocation, shall be avenged eeven-fold should any one seek his life, then Lamech who had merely killed a man in self-defence, shall certainly be avenged seventy and seven fold ; that is, incomparably greater will his punishment be, who should slay Lamech, who has only acted in his own defence. The expressions " a man" and a "young man" do not imply that Lamoch had slain two persons, as it is quite in accordance, as will be hereafter shewn; with the cenius of Hebrew poetry, to repeat the same idea in different terms. ^ ' j tjf/.» K Ah . * \ • ♦ # sublime elegy of David on the death of his friend Jonathan, II. Samuel i. 19-27 &c. ' Of ""the poetical books of the Old Testament, the first that claims our notice is the book of Job, as being, no doubt, tie most ancient writing that has come down to us. There are indeed some who maintain that the author of this book lived as late as the time of Solomon, or one or two centuries afterwards ; whilst others, still more extravagant in their views, place him shortly before or during the Babylonish captivity ; these are, however, fortuitous conjectures, which can neither be sustained by proof nor supported by rea- sonable arguments, Avhilst many circumstances, gathered from the book itself, plainly tend to sliow that the author of the book must ha^e lived, if not in the patriarchal age, at least before the exodeof the Israelites from Egypt; but as this subject will be fully discussed hereafter in the commentary on that book, it is unnecessary to dwell upon it here. In the book of Job we possess a monument of genius, which, simply regarded as a literary production, is without doubt one of the most characteristic and sublime that has come down to us from the ancient world. The poetical merit of this book is very great; wc may say, unrivalled. Its style is pure, its images are sublime, its ideas loftv, and the language and arguments at once powerful and impressive. The poesy of the book of Job is the pure poesy of nature ; the animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms, the heavens, the seas and their contents, all contribute richly to embellish the conceptions of the author. Job had evidently made the material universe his study, but as he rambled through its vast domain in search of knowledge, wherewith to store his inquirmg mind, he beheld likewise everywhere the handy work of the Most High ; and thus as he drank deeper and deeper of its intellectual draughts, he became at the same time more and more firmly impressed with°the all-pervading power, greatness and love of its Lord and Creator. The study of nature had made him better acquainted with the merciful dealings of the God of nature, and hence his firm belief in the overruling power of the Almighty. In everything he perceives the hand of God, and though it be far beyond his comprehension, he still maintains that it is so ordered for some wise purpose. This doctrine he establishes by such arguments as the following : — " Secure are the tents of the robbers, And those provoking God live iu tranquillity ; Into whose hand God bringeth abundantly." Job xii. 1 :i-x 17 Hooker ask, " What is there necessary for man to know which the Psalms arc not able to teach?" And well might Luther say of the Psalms : " Thou readest through them the hearts of all the saints ; and hence the Psalter is the manual of all saints ; for each finds in it, in whatever circumstances he is placed, psalms and words so well adapted to his condition, and so fully according with the feelings, that they seem to have been thus composed for his own sake, insomuch, that he cannot find, or even wish to find, any words that arc better suited to his case." All the Psalms, Avith the exception of thirty-four, are furnished with an inscription. Some of these inscriptions set forth the respective authors of the Psalms. Thus seventy-four* are ascribed to David, twelve to Asaph, f eleven to the s(»ns of Korah, two to Solomon, one to Moses, one to Ilcman (one of the leaders of the temple music; sec 1 Chron. vi. oo,) and one to Ethan (also one of David's singers; see 1 Chron. vi. 44.) Sometimes these inscrip- tions stato the occasion upon Avhich the Psalms Avere composed. As, for instance, the title of Psalm iii. — "A Psalm of David when he fled from Absalom his son"; or of Psalm vii. — "Shiggaion {i.e. an elegy or plaintive song) cf David, Avhich he sang unto the Lord, concerning the Avords of Cush the Benjamite." Sometimes the inscription indicates the kind of composition to Avhich the Psalm belongs — as b''5ip?3 (maskll) Psalm xxxii. 1 — i.e., a song or poem teaching A\'isdom or piety. H^SiTl (t'phillah); Psalm Ixxxvi. 1 — i.e. a prayer. Also the kind of instruments Avith Avhich the Psalm is to be accompanied, as JnilD"''!^p (n'glnoth) Psalm iv. 1 — i.e., stringed instruments. SnlbTlp (n'chiloth). Psalm v., 1 — i.e., pipes or flutes, or perhaps Avind instruments in general. Much obscurity prevails as regards the proper import of some of the terms employed in the inscriptions, and this arises no doubt from the imperfect knoAvlcdgc we possess of the temple music. The translators of our authorised version have therefore acted wisely in retaining for the most part the HcbreAv words ; it Avas far better to retain the original term, than to assume a translation based merely upon conjecture. * To the above, the Septuagint version adds ten Psalms more, viz., the zxxiii., sliii., xci,, xciv. to xcix. and civ. •)• Asaph was the son of Barachins of the tribe of Levi, and was appointed by David to preside over the choral services ' hich he instituted. See 1 Chron. xvi., 4, 5. K 18 The term n^jj Csclah), Avhich occurs seventy-three times in the Psalms is commonly regarded to denote rent or pause^ and as it stands generally in the middle of a Psalm at the end of a section or strophe, its use appears to have been to direct the singers in chanting tho Psalms to rest or pause Avhilst the instruments played an interlude or symphony. This supposition is supported by the authority of the Septuagint, where the term nbp (sclah) is rendered by 8ta-\|raXyua, i.e. interlude, symphoiiy, Solomon seems to have inherited a love of \ ^^^yfrom his father. We are distinctly told, 1 Kings iv. 32, that he uu . composed three thousand proverbs and and one thousand and five songs;* of the latter, however, unhappily only two Psalms and the Song of Songs are now extant. In the writings of Solomon we have the precious relics of one who was gifted Avith "a wise and an understanding heart," such as has never been possessed by any human being before or since. It would, therefore, be presumption to dilate upon the excellencies of the productions emanating from a source so richly endowed with heavenly wisdom. The book of Proverbs furnishes us with a beautiful specimen of Proverbial or Gnomic poetry of the Hebrews ; and is unquestionably the most exquisite composition of its kind that has ever been penned. It contains about five hundred short and impressive sayings, tho result of the profoundest human sagacity, replete with solemn truths, wholesome counsels, and tender admonitions ; addressing themselves with equal aptitude to the king on the throne, and the suppliant beggar ; to the advanced in years as well as the young. Who would not gather such "apples of gold with figures of silvei-.f (Eng. vers, in pictures of silver) Prov. xxv. 2. As brevity gives life to the proverb, the Hebrew language is particularly well adapted to this species of composition, but must necessarily lose much of its pointed- * As early as one hundred years before the Christian era, the apocryphal book called ''The Wisdom of Solomon" appeared, which is still extant in the Greek, purporting to be the production of that monarch. Its style, however, is unlike that of Solomon, and it contains expressions and ideas which tend to prove thatitoriginnlel in the Alexandrian school. Indeed, from the quotations from the Prophets Isainh and Jeremiah, it would appear that the author, whoever he may have been, had no desire to pass it off as the composition of that monarch. The Book of Wisdom, however, has justly been admired for the lofty and sublime ideas of the perfections of the Deity ■which it contains, and for the highly moral tendency of its precepts, f The Hebrew word ini'=i3'i25)D (maskiyoth), which I have rendered by figuret, occurs in the singular, Ezek. viii. 12, " every man in the chambers of flis imagery," ■which appear from verses 10 and 11 to have been chambers of which the walls were ■*' 1 •* hagf) take away XXV. 4. 19 ness and vigour by translation into any of our modern languages, as their structure cannot admit such brevity of expression. From the following example taken at random, the reader will be able to form some idea of the correctness of what I have stated: kell Uttstsoreph vslyyetse mikkiiseph sTgira ^b3 q-i.2ib fi<:?';i qp3?a D^yp a vessel for the flacr andthororball goforth from the illvcr thu ilro«s chap. It will be perceived that there are only six words in the Hebrew, whilst there are no less than seventeen in the English translation. The following verse has likewise seventeen words in the English version, but oidy seven in the original: " Take nway the wicked from before tlie king, And his tlironc shall be establislied iu righteousness." Prov. XXV. 5. Although almost every nation has its proverbs, yet the people of the east seemed to have had a special fondness for such sententi. ous sayings. With them they appear to have been a favourite mode of instruction, as peculiarly fitted to impress the mind, and imprint the truth more firmly on the memory. The Proverbs of Solomon, however, form a distinct class, altogether unlike those of other nations. The latter, it is true, often inculcate certain rules of conduct or of caution which experience has shown to be usefu^ for some end or purpose. Some of them even convey moral instruction ; take for instance the German proverb — " Unschuld und ein gut Gcwis?en Sind ein sanftcs lluhekissen." i.e. «' Innocence and a good conscience are a soft pillow." Still there are many which have quite a contrary tendency, ret- ting forth principles altogether at variance with true religion. As for example — "Noth hatkein Gebot." i.e. " Necessity has no law." The Proverbs of Solomon, on the other hand, furnish nothing but painted with figures of idols to which the idolatrous Israelites paid adoration. It occurs again, Levit. xxvi. 1. fTi^ip?? "l^^ {^^^n inasklth) where it means a stone with the image of an idol. In Numb, xxxiii. 52., it occurs in the plural, wiien it no doubt means itii'iges r.iade of wood or stone, (Kng. vers., pictures.) So in the above passage, it means images of silver, artfully worked in the apples of gold to increase their beauty. Some have rendered "apples of gold in baskets of silver," but as the word fllStO?^ (maskith) no where occurs in the sense of basket, such an interpreta- tion is altogether inndmissihlc. By the " apples of gold," we understand such as may have been used as ornaments of dress, or for adorning vessels. , ' ., I! 20 truly wise and holy precepts, calculated to promote both the moral and religious culture of the people. They constitute a mine of divine wisdom, and like a brilliant luminary diffuse their heavenly light. Well might the learned and pious Jerome in advising one of his friends, in regard to the education of his daughter, recommend to have her instructed in the Proverbs of Solomon for godly life. The book of Proverbs consists of several independent collections. The first ten chapters form an unbroken discourse, the subject of which is almost entirely the praise of wisdom and the blessings it confers on these who diligently seek after it. From chapter x. to chapter xxii. 16, we have a collection of desultory aphorisms on various topics. At chapter xxii. 17, the stylo again alters, assum- ing an admonitory tone, with a closer connection of sentences similar to that of the first ten chapters, and continues so to chapter XXV., when the disconnected proverbs recommence. The thirtieth chapter, according to its title, contains the proverbs of another sage : " The words of Agur the son of Jakeh, the saying (Engl. ver. " the prophecy ") ivhich the men spoke unto Ithiel," &c. The sayings of this sage assume more the form of enigmas, of which the oriental nations were also very fond. In chapter thirty-first we have The words of the king Lemuel, the sayings (Engl. ver. the pro- phecy*) which his mother taught him," and from them Ave may learn what constituted the virtues of the women of that country and age. This chapter furnishes us also with an acrostic or alpha- betical poem, commencing at the tenth verse, the chaiacicnstic form of which is, that it consists of tAventy-two lines, according to the number of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet, the first word of every line commencing with a letter in its order as it stands in the alphabet, so that the first line begins with the letter U^ (aleph) a, the second Avith i^ (beth) h, and so on. * The Hebrew word Jj^'JB^ (massa) above rendered ' prophecy ' occurs generally in the inscriptions of prophecies, and as many of these are of a threatening nature, the English and some other versions have rendered it by burden — as Isuiuh xiii. l! " The burden of Babylon which Isaiah the son of Amoz did see." See also chap. xiv. 28,' chap. XV. 1. But neither the rendering burden uov prophecy is suitable in Prov. xxx! 1, and xxxi, 1. The word in question is derived from the verb JJ^tlJS (nasii) to lift up, sometimes with special reference to any thing lifted up or uttered with the voice, as a song; see 1 Chron. xv. 22, "And Chenaniah, chief of the Levites J^^fe^Sl (bammassfi) in the song; he instructed iJ^tSTalU (hamuiiissu) in the song, because he was skilful;" so again, verse 27, also a prophcci/, oracle or divine revelation. And indeed, wherever the word is rendered by burden iu'thc inscrip- (( • '• 21 » As the names Agur and Lemuel Jo not occur clscwhoro in scrip- ture, it ia tliHicult to conjecture wlio these persons wore. The sup- position thi t Lemuel is a name which Solomon had assumed is merely conjecture, there not bein<,' the slightest proof to sustain it. On the contrary, we cannot easily conceive why Solomon should have assumed another name just in the lr;jt chapter of the book. The book of Ecclesiastes may be called a sermon in the garb of highly poetic diction. Its text is "Vanity of vanities;* all is vanity:" chap. i. 2.; a fundamental truth, which indeed pervades the whole sacred writ, but is here compressed into fe.v words. Upon this text the preacher enlarges, setting forth his own convictions regarding the uselessness and utter nothingness of all things apper- taining to this life, interspersing his discourse here and there with sentences of wisdom and rules of life, and finally concluding his remarks with the brief but comprehensive exhortation : " Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter — fear God, and keep his commandments; for this is the whole duty of man. For God shall bring every work into judgment, with every secret thing, whether it he good, or whether it be evil." Chap. xii. 13, 14. As much as to say — from what has been said regarding the vanity of all earthly enjoyments, or things appertaining to this life, the conclusion is, that it is the highest folly for man to set his affections upon them, seeing his life passes away like a shadow ; but rather, let him fear God and keep his commandments ; by which alone he may secure that happiness in the life to come, which endureth for ever. The Hebrew name of this book is f^btlp ikoheleth) i.e. a preacher, by which title Solomon is denoted — " The words of the preacher, the son of David, king of Jerusalem." Chap. i. 1. The naroo Ecclesiastes in the English version is merely a transcript of the Greek word 'E«/r?v7;crtao-T?/9 from the Septuagint version, also signi- fying a preacher. It has been contended by many interpreters that Solomon cannot be the author of this book, inasmuch as words occur tions of prophecies, one or other of these ■words would be more cuitable, ns the prophecies witli which this word is found, in their inscriptions are not alwaj'S of a threateuinp; nature ; some of them rather importing good. At any ratc^ the sense would be more clearly conveyed and better understood by every class of readers. It signifies also a saying or maxim, as in the two passages of Proverbs above referred to. * Vanity of vanities, i.e. the most excessive vanity. This is one of the modes of forming the superlative degree in the Hebrew language, viz., by placing a noun in construction with one of the same kind in the plural. So "a servant of servants," i.e. a servant of the lowest class. Gen. ix. 25. 22 m it which tend to prove that it must have been written at a later pericd than that of Solomon, but no one has, as jet, attempted to show who is to be considered the real author. So far, on this point, we have nothing but conjectures. De Wette dismisses the subject verj briefly, merely stating, "By a fiction, Solomon is introduced here as^ speaking."— /n^rof?. to the Old Test. § 283. Professor Kurtz is somewhat more explicit, he says: "The name of the author cannot be ascertained. It is an error to suppose that he professes to be king Solomon himself; it is rather his purpose to in- troduce the reader, by means of poetic imagery, to an assembly in which the Avise Solomon (as a representative of wisdom and the author of the proverbial mode of instruction) expresses his views respecting the problems of this Y\hr— Manual of Sacred History, § 110. The supposition of Augusti is somewhat more novel. This writer maintains that Solomon merely appears in the character of a man deceased, or a ghost. The supposition, on the contrary, that Solomon was really the author of it, is at least based upon something more substantial than mere conjecture. In the first place, the title of the book explicitly declares him to be the author, and this positive statement ought not, in my opinion, to be set aside merely because there are a few foreign words introduced into the book. Secondly, the affinities of Ecclesiastes in thought and style with the book of Proverbs are so marked, as to leave hardly any doubt that they are both the pro- duction of one author. Thirdly, several passages in the book agree with no other person than that prince, as chap. i. 12., chap. vii. 25, 26, 27, chap. xii. 9, &c. Fourthly, tradition and the common opinion of the ancients declare Solomon to be the author. Every Hebrew scholar must admit that there occ\ir in the book of Ecclesiastes not only words which are not found in the A\ritings be- longing to the golden age of Hebrew literature, but likewise also Chaldaisms. Thus, we find i^|- (s'man) chap. iii. 1, time, for ^^ (eth) time, J):^t^^ (gumats) a pit, for -^i^l (bor) a pit, ^y^^ (htiviil) vanity, for ^5,1 (hevel) vanity. Their number has, however, been greatly exaggerated ; the mighty mountain, on a closer inspection, after all turns out but a small hill, which no ordinary Hebrew scholar need be afraid to ascend, though he may not have the assistance of the Chaldee and Syriac to aid him. I am 28 altogether at a loss to see what should have so "greatly puzzled '' Dr. Clark. One of the peculiarities which occur very frequently in Ecclesiastes, and which are said to point to a later origin of that book, is the prefix p* (she), the fragment of the relative pronoun llTi^J (ilsher) ivliich. The same peculiarity, however, is found in the books of Judges, Job, and the Canticles. The Song of Solomon is justly entitled fii*|i'Sti y^^ (shir hashshirim) lit. Song of Songs, i.e., the most exquisite or most ex- cellent song. Its great poetical merit, its depth of thought and richness of sentiment, render this name highly appropriate. In perusing this beautiful literary gem, we feel ourselves transported as it were into a fairy land, with silvery fountains and rippling rivulets, with mountains of myrrh and hills of frankincense, with blooming gardens and fruitful orchards, with an azure sky and balmy breeze ; where the fleet roe and young hart gambol upon the mountain of spices, and where the woods resound with the carrol of birds and the cooing of the turtle dove. 'There exists a diversity of opinion among commentators as to what gave rise to this song, but that which has been advanced by Origen (who regards it as an epithalamium, or marriage song) in the preface to his commentary on this book, is unquestionably the most plausible. This opinion has been adopted by many learned divines, and among those by the learned Bishop Lowth, who remarks, *"The Song of Songs,' for so it is called, cither on account of the excellence of the subject or of the composition, is an epithalamium or nuptial dialogue, or rather, if Ave may be allowed to give it a title more agreeable to the genius of the Hebrews, a Song of Loves. Such is the title of Psalm xlv. It is expressive of the utmost fervour as well as delicacy of passion, it is instinct with all the spirit and sweetness of affection. The principal characters are Solomon and his bride, who are represented speaking both in dialogue, and in soli- loquy, when accidently separated. Virgins, also, the companions of the bride, are introduced, who seem to be constantly on the stage, and bear a part in the dialogue. Mention is also made of young men, friends of the bridegroom, but they are mute persons. This is exactly conformable to the manners of the Hebrews, who had always a number of companions to the bridegroom, thirty of whom were present in honour of Samson at his nuptial feast. (Judg. xiv. 24 11.) In tho New Testament, according to the Hebrew ' liom, they are called children or sons of the bridechamber, and friends of the bridegroom. There, too, we find mention of the virgins who went forth to meet the bridegroom and conduct him home ; which circum- stances indicate that this poem is founded on the nuptial rites of the Hebrews, and is expressive of the forms or ceremonial of their marriage." But whilst the Avhole strain of the poem clearly shows it to be a nuptial song, yet under the guidance of divine inspiration it was so constructed as to form a mystical allegory representing the relation subsisting between the Lord and His church, as His bride. There are several considerations which render an allcfrorical interpretation of the Song of Solomon imperative. First, its ad- mission among the canonical books of tlie Old Testament ; for it can hardly be supposed that a book treating merely of earthly love would have found a place among the inspired writings. Secondly, both the Old and New Testament abound with bridal and nuptial terms referring more or less pointedly to the relation of the Lord to His church. As Isaiah liv. 5 ; Jerem. ii. 2, iii. 1, &c. ; Ezek. xvi. 8-14, and xxiii; Hosea ii. 19-20; Matt. ix. 15; John iii. 29; 2 Cor. xi. 2; Eph. v. 23-27; Rev. xix. 7, xxi. 2, xxii. 17. Thirdly, the forty-fifth Psalm, which is one of the Messianic Psalms, bears in its character a striking resemblance to the Song of Solomon, and is called " a song of loves." Fourthly, it has been well observed, that " the native soil of all compositions of the Hebrews, is religion, namely, the theocracy." Fifthly, some of the images employed in the book absolutely require an allegorical interpretation, as for example: "Thou art beautiful, my love, as Tirzah, comely as Jerusalem, terrible as an army with banners." Chap. iv. 4. The beauty (i.e. excellence) of the church is compared to Tirzah and Jerusalem. The former was an ancient Canaanitish city, beautifully situated, which Jeroboam made the capital of his kingdom, and it remained so until Omri built Samaria ; the latter is the world- renowned capital of the Jews. The final triumph of the church is beautifully compared to a victorious army with its Avaving banners. A literal application of this passage to the bride of Solomon must at best be awkward and far-fetched. Both the ancient and modern Jews have adopted an allegorical interpretation of this book, although they differ in their applications. According to the Chaldee para- phrast the poem contains a figurative description of the merciful and gracious dealings of God towards His people. Aben Ezra .! 25 maintains that the Song of Solomon represents the history of the Jews from Abraham to the Messiah. Other Jewish writers consider Wisdom, with which Solomon was acquainted from his youth, and Avith whose beauty he was captivated, as personified in or by the bride. All sound Christian commentators, from the time of Origen to the present day, have regarded the book as containing a divine allegory, and understand it to be descriptive of the union of Christ and His church. We may also observe here that it has been a common practice among the Oriential nations from a rery early period to express religious sentiments allegorically under the garb of amatory poems, of which the Gita-govinda* affords an example. Even at the pro- sent day the Egyptian Arabs sing religious love-songs at their festivals, in which Mahommed is the beloved subject, and v/hich are intended to have only a spiritual sense. Mr. Lane has translated ■ several passages to show the great similarity of these songs to that of Solomon. He further states, "Finding that songs of this de- scription are extremely numerous, and almost the only poems sung at Zikrs ; f that they are composed for this purpose, and intended only to have a spiritual sense, (though certainly not understood in such a sense by the generality of the vulgar) ; I cannot entertain any doubt as to the design of Solomon's Song." — Lane's Modern Egyptians, vol. II., pages 196 and 197. An ancient fiither of the church has very pertinently remarked, " that Isaiah deserved the name of an evangelist rather than a prophet." Indeed this " Prince of Prophets," as some divines de- nominate him, has with such precision and clearness described events that were to come to pass in the most distant times, that his predictions resemble more histories of by-gone occurrences than * Gita-govinda (which is one of the names of Chrishna) is a beautiful and popular pastoral drama by the celebrated Hindoo poet Jojad6va, who flourished about A.D. 120. The subject of this poem is «< the loves of Chrishna and Radha," or the reci- procal attraction between the Divine goodness and the human soul. A very accurate edition of the original text, with notes, and a Latin translation, edited by Lassen, was published at Bonn, in 1836, An English translation was published by Sir William Jones, in the third volume of the Asiatic Researches. t The performance of the Zikrp is the repetition of Allah, i.e. the name of God, or the profession of his unity, &c. Those who perform it bow the head and body each time they pronounce the name, alternately to the right and the left. It is sometimes performed by a great many durweeshes, who then form a ring and move round in a circle, exclaiming over and over again, Allah, bowing the head and body each time. During the performance of Zikrs they sing also religious love-songs. The Zikrs is frequently performed during private festivities. L 26 )rophecies that were only to transpire after a lapse of centuries. The style, too, of this divine writer has been universally admired as the most perfect model of sublimity. The uniform grandeur, the lofty diction, the richness of figure, the depth of thought, which pervade the whole book of Isaiah, require that it should not only be carefully read, but diligently studied, in order to be properly understood, and its beauties fully appreciated. Thus, for instance, when we read, chap. vii. 18, 19 : "And it shall come to pass in that day, that the Lord shall whistle to (Eng. ver. "hiss for") the fly which is in the uppermost part of the rivers of Egypt, and for the bee that is in the land of Assyria. And they shall come, and shall rest all of them in the desolate valleys, and in the holes of the rocks, and upon all the thorns, and upon all the pastures." (Eng. ver. " bushes.") It must not be understood that the land was to be afflicted by flies and bees which for that purpose were called from Egypt and Assyria, for we should in vain look in the Jewish history for the fulfilment of this prophecy — no such occurrence being recorded therein. No — the Prophet, by a bold but appropriate figure, compares here the Egyptian armies that were to invade Judea to the flies, which the marshy grounds of Egypt produce in abund- ance ; and the Assyrian armies to bees, which are said to abound in that country. The metaphor, " he will whistle," is taken from the practice of those who kept bees, and who were accustomed to draw them out of their hives into the fields, and lead them back again by a whistle. Virgil states, that bells and timbrels were also used for that purpose. The expression further indicates the great control which Jehovah exercises over the enemies of Judea. It requires but a whistle, and behold swiftly they come to execute his judgment. Again, when it is said, chap. xiii. 19, 20, "Behold, tbe day of the Lord cometh, cruel both with wrath and fierce anger, to lay the land desolate : and he shall destroy the sinners out of it. For the stars of heaven and the constellations thereof shall not give their light : the sun shall be darkened in his going forth, and the moon shall not cause her light to shine." It must not be supposed that all this was actually to take place when Babylon, against which this oracle is directed, was to be destroyed, for assuredly we should again in vain look in history for a literal accomplishment. This is merely figurative language, which the Hebrew potts employ in depicting the overthrow and destruction of kingdoms, or any great political A . 27 revolution. In like manner they depict, by a contrary figure., the restoration or prosperity of kingdoms, states, and princes. In those cases, the sun, moon, and stars are represented as shining with in- creased splendour, and never setting ; the moon becomes like the meridian sun, and the sun's light is augmented sevenfold. See ch. XXX. 26. When we cast a glance at the pictures which the book of Isaiah contains, we are lost in astonishment and admiration at the diversity of subjects which they present, as well as their life-like and natural delineations. They form one grand panorama, the scenes of which the mind never becomes weary of contemplating. But it was neither the eloquence nor the power of delineation with which Isaiah was so highly gifted, that procured for him the epithet of " Prince of Prophets," but rather the fact, that his prophetic eye scanned the vista of futurity with greater precision than any other of the in- spired writers. When he foretells, chap. vii. 8, the entire de- population of the kingdom of Israel, so that it should cease to be a distinct people, he tells the precise time when that event should take place. This prophecy had its literal fulfilment in Esarhaddon carrying away the remainder of the ten tribes that had been left by Tiglath Pileser and Shalmaneser. In describing, chap. x. 28-32, the march of Senacherib's army against Jerusalem, although by an unusual route and attended with great difficulty, he mentions with marked precision, the very places through which they should pass. It is probable that Senacherib chose this very route, although round about and by no means easy for the march of an army, in the hope of surprising the city. But in none of the prophecies has Isaiah been so fully exr)licit, as in those which refer to that happy and glorious event, the com- ing of the Messiah. For this he may well be called the proto- Evangelist, as if we combine the various prophecies contained in the book relating to the Messiah, we obtain a complete gospel. According to an ancient tradition, Isaiah suffered martyrdom in the reign of king Manasseh, who caused him to be sawn in two. This tradition has been retained by most of the fathers of the church, and the Church of Rome has set apart the sixth of July in her calendar in commemoration of it. The tradition is somewhat confirmed by 2 Kings xxi. 16, where it is said, "Manasseh shed innocent blood very much, till he had filled Jerusalem from one end to another;" and by Josephus, who states, that "he barbarously 28 slew all the righteous men that were .1 mong the Hebrews, nor would he spare the prophets." (Ant. b. x., eh. iii. par. 1.) It is not un- likely that St. Paul in his Epistle to the Hebrews also alludes to this when he says: "They were stoned, they were sawn asunder, were tempted, were slain with the sword." — Chap. xi. 37. The writings of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the minor prophets, are all highly poetical ; but having already trespassed beyond the limits which had been assigned to this essay, we must, though very re- luctantly, refrain from noticing each book separately, and proceed to offer a few remarks on the characteristics of Hebrew poetry. The learned have expended not a little labour and ingenuity in endeavoring to solve the problem, as to what constitutes Hebrew poetry. According to Josephus (Antiquities b. ii., chap. iii. p. 4.; b. iv. chap. viii. p. 44.; b. vii. chap. xii. p. 3.) there arc to be found in some of the poetical writings of the Old Testament, both hexa- meter and tetrameter verses. Philo likewise asserts that Moses was acquainted with metre. These positive statements, coming from such ancient sources, induced Gomarus, Grave and many others, to institute a search for those characteristic attributes of the Hebrew muse. But all their endeavours to discover either metre or rhyme proved unsuccessful ; and well it might, for they were in fact seeking for a thing which never existed. " The ground of difference," as a Avriter has well remarked, " observable between the poetry of other nations and that of the Hebrews, lies in the fact that the prosodies of the former prescribe certain strict and undeviating limits, within which the poet is compelled to move in the expression of his feelings ; such as the length of the verses, the arrangement of the syllables composing them according to quantity, the place of the cesura, &c., to which moderns have added the regular recurrence of like endings, or rhymes. The sacred Hebrew muse, on the contrary, maintaining her primitive simplicity, lays down no arbitrary laws of versification with which to fetter the genius of the poet ; she re- quires of her votary neither more nor less than that he should find himself in that state of excited and exalted feeling which is necessary to the production of all genuine poetry, and possess the power of delineating his emotions with truth and vigour." It is true that we meet with some isolated passages which appear to rhyme, as for instance, Psalm Ixxii. 10. « r a- 29 yashivu minchali v'iyyim ^n^©'^ nn5)3 d^^jssT yakrivu eshkar us Vll tharshish sh'vil malche malche The kings of Tarshish and of the isles shall bring presents. The Kings of Sheba and Seba shall ofiFer gifts. See also Isaiah i. 25, 29 ; Prov. vi. 1, 2 ; Job vi. 9 ; and so in a few other places. Those apparent rhymes are however only produced accidentally, arising as will be seen from the pronominal suffixes of the last words. Even in the witty reply of Samson, in which rhyme was pro- bably intended, the similarity of sound in the last syllable of each line is the necessary result of the pronominal suffixes. •^riTn Liilo chrirushtem b'eglathi Lo m'tsfithem chidathi If ye had not ploughed with my heifer, Ye had not found out my riddle. Judges, xiv. 18. But although it is certain that neither metre nor rhyme are to be found in Hebrew poetry, the reader cannot be at a loss to distinguish readily the poetical from the prose writings. There is a certain style prevading the former, Avhich unmistakeably shows them to be compositions altogether of a grander and more elevated order. This stylo, which forms the chief characteristic of the sacred poetry of the Old Testament, is ijarallelism, and has its existence, not as an embellishment like the artificial decorations of metre and rhyme in the poetry of other nations, but as the natural and inseparable accompaniment of genuine poetry. Hence wo find this style already employed in the very infancy of the human race, as may be seen from the address of Lamech to his wives. Adah and Zillah, hear my voice, Wives of Lamech, give ear to my speech I If I have slain a man to my wounding, And a young man to my hurt : If Cain sliall be avenged seven times Then Lamech seventy times seven. Gen. iv. 23, 24. « r »^ 30 Here it will be perceived that in the second, fourth and sixth lines the same sentiments are expressed as in the first, third and fifth, the language only being varied. The various kinds of parallelism have generally been reduced into three classes, namely, synonymous^ antithetic and synthetic ; but these are hardly sufficient to embrace the infinite variety of con- struction which exists in Hebrew poetry. Still as this arrangement is the one generally adopted, and as it will saifice to give the reader an idea of the principal forms which are met with, wo shall retain it here. I. Synonymous Parallelism. To this class belong the following varieties, namely — Those in which the idea of the first clause is repeated in the second, the language being merely slightly altered, as How shall I curse, whom God bath not cursed ? And how shall I defy, whom Jehovah hath not defied ? Balaam's prophecy, Numb, xxiii. 8. Jehovah, what is man, that thou knowest (i.e. carest for) him? And the son of man, that thou regardest him ? Psalm cxliv. 3. For affliction cometh not out of the dust, And trouble springeth not out of the ground. Job V. G, Happy is the man that findeth wisdom. And the man that gctteth understanding. Prov. iii. 13, For they shall be ashamed of the oaks which yo* have desired, And they shall blush for the gardens which ye have cliosen. Isaiah i. 29. Woe to him that buildcth a town with blood, And establisheth a city by iniquity. Ilab. ii. 12, Sometimes the idea expressed in the first clause, is repeated twice, thus forming a stanza of three lines, as Let them be ashamed and confounded together who seek my life to destroy it. Let them be driven back and made ashamed who wish me evil. Let them be desolate in reward of their shame who say to me, Aha, Aha ! Psalm xl. 15, 16, More frequently, however, the two first lines only are synonymous, whilst in the third the idea is more fully developed, as * In the change of person in the above passage, namely, from the third to the second person, we have an example of the bold ligure of speech called by gramma- rians enallagc personanm, which the prophets often employ to give additional force to their declarations and cxhortaticDS. Sometimes there is also a change from the third to the first person, as "And he shall bless thy bread and thy Avater; and I will take sickness from among thee "— Exod. xxiii. 25. So we find also the change from the first person to the third, as " And I will drive thco from thy station, and from thy state he shall pull theo down." Isaiah xxii. 19, . « » 31 . Thy righteousness is like great mountains ; (lit. mountains of God.) Thy judgments like a great deep : Man and beast thou helpest, Jehovah. Psalni xxxvi. 7 (Eng. vcr. verso G.) And ho shall cat on the right, and he hungry ; Ami devour on the left, and not be satis^tied; Every one shall devour the flesh of his arm. Isaiah ix. 19 (Eng. ver. verse 20.) Sometimes we meet with stanzas of four lines having a double parallelism, so that the second clause corresponds to the first, and the fourth to the third, as God is not man, that ho should lie ; Or the son of man, that he siiould repent: Hath he said, and shall he not do it? Or hath ho spoken, and shall he not perform it? Balaam's prophecy, Numb, xxiii. 19. Toll it not in Gath, Publish it not in the streets of Askelon ; Lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice, Lest the daughters of the uncircumcised triumph. David's elegy, 2 Sam. i. 20. So we meet likewise with stanzas of six lines, every alternate line forming a parallelism with the one proceeding, as Therefore as the flame of fire consumeth the stubble, And as the ignited grass falls away, So their root shall be as rottenness. And their blossom shall go up as fine dust: For tiiey have rejected the law of Jehovah of Hosts, i\jiil despised the word of the Holy One of Israel. Isaiah v. 24. II. Antithetic Parallelism. To this class belong those parallel- isms in which the second clause contains an opposition of terms and sentiments, to those expressed in the first. This class of parallelism is particularly adapted to all kinds of sententious sayings, hence H occurs very frequently in the Proverbs of Solomon, where it has been employed with marked effect. The degrees of antithesis are various. Sometimes there is an exact contraposition of word to word, as Faithful I are the wounds | of a friend. But deceitful | are the kisses | of an enemy.* Prov. xxvii. 6. They ] bow down | and fall, But we I rise up | and stand. Psalm XX. 9 (Eng. ver. verse 8.) In like manner we meet with four lines, in which the third stands in antithesis with the first, and the fourth with the second, as * "Faithful are the wounds of a friend," i.e. sincere are the rebukes of a friend. The Hebrew word JnilSTlS'D (nataroth) has been variously rendered. Literally it signifies abundant, but is evidently employed in the above passage in an accessary signification, deceitful, as the parallelism clearly indicates. So Ewald " falsch," i.e. false. 82 If yo shall bo ■willing and obey, Tlio good of the land ye shall cat ; But ifyo shnll refuse and rebel, By the sword yo shall bo consumed, Isaiah i. 19, 20, More frequently, however, the contraposition of word to -,vorfl docs not extend throughout the sentence, as Righteousness exaltcth a nation : But sin is a reproach to a people, Prov, xiv, 34, Here the two last terms, "nation," "people," are not antithetic but synonymous terms. Sometimes wc meet with stanzas of four lines, of which the two last stand in antithesis with the two preceding, as The ox knoweth his owner, And the ass the crib of his master ; Israel doth not know me, My people doth not consider, Isaiah i. 3. III. Synthetic Parallelism. To this class belong those in which the parallelism merely consists in the similar form of construction, and where the writer, after having expressed an idea, keeps it con- stantly in view, whilst he dilates upon it. As Job iii. 3-9. Let the day perish wherein I was born. And the night in tvhich it was said, a man-child is conceived. Let that day be darkness : Let God not regard it from above ; Nor let light shine upon it, &c. Here the idea expressed in the two first lines is constantly kept in view in the subsequent verses. Another beautiful example of this kind of parallelism wc have in Ecclesiastes xii. 1-7. 1. But remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth, While as yet the evil days come not, and the years draw nigh. When thou shalt say, I have no pleasure in them. 2. While the sun, and the light, and the moon, and the stars bo not darkened. And the clouds return after the rain. 3. In the day when the keepers of the house shall tremble, And the strong men bow themelves down. And the grinders cease because they have become few, And those that look out of the windows be darkened, 4. And the door shall be shut in the street. When the sound of the mill is low ; And he shall rise up at the voice of the sparrow. And all the daughters of song shall be brought low. 6, Also for a height they are afraid, and terrors are in the way ; And the almond is rejected, and the locust becomes a burden, and the [caper-berry fails. For man goes to his long home, And the mourners go about the street. \ « \ » miuain { !S 1, 88 Before the silver cord bo loosed, And the golden bowl bo broken, And the bucket bo broken at the fountain, And broken the wheel at the cistern. And the dust return to the earth as it was : And the spirit to 'lod who gave it.* * For an explanation of tho first five lines, see Introduction, page 22. " The keepers of tho house," are tho two hands, which are properly so called, as they are employed to ward oft" any danger that may tiireateu the botiy. "And tho strong men," are the legs and foot wliich carry tlio body. The legs through the relaxing of tho muscles in i,ld age bend at tho knees, tho weight of the body being too heavy for them. Tho Hebrew tor .n ^iH "^tjpiji (anshe chayil) denotes men of strengtht men of valour, hence also iiitn of tear, i.e. warriors. Now as those who possessed great strength in the legs and feet were considered among the best warriors or strong men, tlio feet and logs thonselves are hero metaphorically called "strong men." "Tho grinders cease," i.e. tho teeth which in old age become few. "Those that look out of the windows are darkened," are plainly the eyes. Tho eye-lashes aro hero compared to windows, or rather to tho lattice-work of tho windows, which is tho literal moaning of the Hebrew word fli^l^li^ (arubboth). Lattice-work being employed in tho east instead of glass, the literal rendering would bo those that look out through the lattice windows." This figure obtains additional beauty and becomes more strikingly appropriate when wo consider that in Hebrew, the apple of the eye is called "ll^? ^'^ {h\)Xh ay'm) i.q. daughter of the eye, ov ^'^'^ 'li'0''!i5 ^•6- '''<'« man of the eye. "And the door shall be shut in the street." The door evi- dently means the lips, which form the door of the mouth. For a similar expression, see Psalm cxli. '6; iMichah vii. 5. — "Keep the doors of thy mouth." The street is mentioned merely to show that tho outside door is meant. "Are shut," when the teeth arc gone the lips become compressed. "When tho sound of tho mill is low." As the teeth are in the preceding verse, called "grinders," it follows that the mill itself must be tho mouth. "And he shall rise up at the voice of tho sparrow." This expresses tho restlessness of old age. In the cast, it is a common practice both with the young and old to rise with the dawn. Some render the passage "it rises to the voice of the sparrow," i.e. it attains to the voice of the sparrow, which is very feeble, referring it to the feeble voice of the aged. But I think that although the voice generally becomes feeble in old age, still it would be somewhat ex- cessive to compare it to the chirping of a bird. "Daughters of the song," is merely a poetic expression for song. So " daughters of Jerusalem," i.e. inhabitants of Jerusalem — "Daughters of Tyre." i.e. inhabitants of Tyre. And so in the Talmud bip tlS (bath kol) lit. the daughter of tho voice, i.e. simply the voice. The loss of the voice \a tho natural result from the loss of the teeth and the falling in of the lips. "For a hfight they are afraid," i.e. they have an aversion to ascend high places, being too fatiguing. " And terrors are in the way," i.e. they are in constant dread of falling, their eyesight having grown dim, and their legs become enfeebled. Hence the cautious and slow gait of old people. " And the almond is rejected." The rejection of this delicate and once favourite fruit arises from the loss of the teeth, the old being no longer able to masticate it. Tho English version has rendered this passage "and the almond tree shall flourish," as likewise the Septua- gint, Syriac and Vulgate versions, which would refer to the white hairs, here com- pared to the profuse white flowers of the almond tree. This figure is rendered still more appropriate by the fact, that this tree is the first which wakes from its winter slumber, hence called in Hebrew Tp'QI) (shaked) i.e. the tvaker, and from its blossom- ing in Palestine in January, so that the hoary hairs of the winter of life form a beautiful similitude with ihe winter blossoms of the almond tree. Gesenius's objection to this comparison, "that the flower of the almond tree is not white, but rose-coloured," is altogether trifling, since white by far predominates in the blossom, M « \ * 84 Another characteristic of Hebrew poetry, is jmdation, i.e. where every succeeding expression is heightened in force, as Ho slttiiiK in tho hoavcns bUuII laugh : The Lord shiill dcrido them. Tlicn ho hIihU spoak unto them in hi.s angor, And in his wrath ho ahall conl'uund them. Here it will be observed, at first God is represented as merely umilirKj at tho designs of the kings of tho earth, then as deriding them, then as speaking to them, or as it would be more literally rendered as earnestly spnaJciiifj to them, and lastly as confounding them. Psalm ii. 4, 5. Frequently too wo find two definite numbers employed, the second being greater than the first in order to express an indefinite number, a3 In six troubles ho shall deliver thee : And in seven no evil shall touch thee. Job V. 19. Give a portion to seven, and also to eight ; For thou knowcst not 'what evil shall be upon tho earth. Ecclcs. xi. 2. and when viewed from a little distance, tho rose-coloured lingo is scarcely visible. My reason for adopting a dlft'erent rendering is entirely founded upon philological grounds. Tho Hebrew word Hptli (staked) denotes both an almond tree, see Jcr. i. 11, and an almond nut, seo Gen. xliii. 11, so that either rendering would do so fur as this word is concerned. Not so, however, with tho verb V'i^D'^ (yanets) which ia the future hiphil of the verb y-Jjij^ (niirits) which signifies to dvspise, to deride, to reject, but never to blossom, in which case cither the verb ni.5 (paruch), see Hab. iii. 17; Gen. xl. 10, or the verb Vqi (nuts), seo Cant. vi. 11,, would have been em- ployed. Besides, the rendering which I have given agrees better with the context. "And tho locust becomes a burden." Tho species of locust denoted by '2'y'r] (chagav) is according to Lev. xi. 22, permitted to be eaten. It is said that it is even to this day brought into the market for sale, and that the hard shelled ones resemble in taste tho crawfish, and are regarded as a great delicacy. Diodorus Siculus speaks of a people of Ethiopia who were so fond of them that they were called Acridophagi, i.e. eaters of locusts. Tho sense of the text then is, that the most de- licious viands Ijecome a burden to the old man, whose appetite fails, or who cannot digest them. " And tho caper-berry fails." The caper-berry is said to be a provoca- tive of appetite and lust, aud was used as a stimulant. But even this fails to produce its usual results. At verse 0, commences another exhortation, and we must there- fore supply from the first verse— Remember thy creator— Before the silver cord be loosed. "The silver cord," i.e. (the nervous system) made of silver threads, means the chain" by which " the golden bowl," i.e. the lamp of life is suspended, which is here represented to fall to tho ground, when the cord by which it hangs is loosed and is broken in pieces. "And the bucket be broken at the fountain, and broken the wi^eel at the cistern." The same idea is here repeated under a different figure. When such mishaps befall tho water apparatus, no more water is to be had; so like- wise when the apparatus for breathing is broken, tho breath must necessarily cease. t ? 86 There is still another gradation which we frequently meet with, and which consists in a thought or idea that has just been expressed being again taken up and more fully carried out, as Curse ye Moroz, said tho angel of the Loril, CunsE YK bitterly its inlmbitiiiits ; For tiiev came not to the help of the Loni), To TUB help or the Lord agaiust tho mighty. Song of Deborah, Judg. v. 28. QoD OP VENGEANCE, Jchovah ; God of venoeakce, shine forth ! Paalra zciv. 1. Wo have yet to notice another characteristic of Hebrew poetry, and that is, the use of certain words wliich are only found in the poetical wi-itinga, and for which others arc employed in the prose compositions. As for example, ni?p (mllluh) a word in poetry ; -|^T (davfir) a word in prose ; ll5iDJS5 (enosh) a man, poetry ; tj-ijjj (iidam) a man, prose, ntlb^ (athah) to come, poetry; jj^'i^l (bo) to come, prose, &c. Also the use of certain epithets for substantives, as niib (I'vanSh) i.e. the white, for the moon, Cant. vi. 10, Isaiah xxiv. 23; in prose always f^y (yareach) i.e. the moon. n72n (chammah) i.e. heat, for the sun,' Job xxx. 28; Isaiah xxx. 26; in prose '0)5113 (shgmCsh) i.e. the sun, &c. So likewise the use of the construct plural form with prepositions, as ib^ (ale) for b2? (^1) upon, ibsjii (Sle) for bi$ (el) unto. -^^S (ade) for ^p (ad) until. Also the use of the poetical pronominal suffix i^ (mo) for Qn (hSm) them. And tho Chaldee plural ending "ii— (in) instead of I31-T- (im). Now all these characteristics of Hebrew poetry exist in the books of the Prophets, as well as in the book of Job, the Psalms and the Proverbs, which are universally admitted to be poetical, and it follows therefore that the former as well as the latter must be written in poetry. It must be from a total disregard of these charac- teristics, or being misled by the somewhat more sententious and regular form of construction of the lines that exist in Job, the Psalms, the Proverbs, Canticles, Lamentations, and in some of the isolated poems of the Old Testament, that so many entertain the erroneous idea that the prophetical books were written in prose. % i .*^- 86 -"uded. Of tl,esc poeJs ZTtjuT '" "*"='' ™ ''"«> •''ready fi-ov..x.xx,., versos 10-81; Lament ,■•::■' "'"'■' "'-v-, cxiv; they consist of tiventy-two lines o,- Itnn '"'' '"•' ""'' ""'"■' ''°™ «: ofletters in the Hebrew 4ZC t ? "I""'"'" '° *" ■"»»''- n-ng with cacl, letter in resnhr 1^ '^ "'" °'' ^'"'^» begin- Thus the first line begins f'^f;; '' «'»"-" 'he alphabet, these, some, however, a°e more tllT"°"f "■'* ^ *' ''t"- Of and cxii., and Lament, iii. The tw & 1 "'•™.°"'«s, as Psalms oxi. every stanza having two lino eten t ?'" ?""' ^'""»« »«»'■> three lines eaeh, thts making' up tt " "" '"'' '""'"^ ^»'->' the Hebrew Bible, the stanzas a"e If T- "'""'^-'«-<'- As in -yoin here the two first veC ", C™ " ' '"'" ""^^ ' ^™ »h"" »ill serve as a guide. """ "'"■ '" '-^S"!'"- lines, which Wn;' iffij): a-.j'ia ^* It -lib •■ ''^'SeD-i?^ a^tim .i the last twoverseswhicheah "V .'""^ *-'''' ^'''■•""•l- I" -rks the end of the fet. The ^"0^^ ""?' '"" ^'^ C"™) poems, viz.. Lament, iii. consists of twi * '"'*"' alphabetical each, as "" "* ''>enty-two stanzas of three lines 1st Stanza. ■■ inn?? t^m ^?? n.s«i n55n .5^ „ 2ncl Stanza. i« ? and not ra.m He English. M . 1 r cxlv r 37 ■ In these perfectly alphabetical poems the lines in each poem are strikingly equal to one another in length, and scarcely less so in the number of words. The other nine poems are less perfect in their structure. In them the stanzas only are marked with initial letters. Psalra'cxix. is divided into twenty-two divisions each containing eight stanzas of two lines, and all the stanzas of each division are marked by the same mit.al, so that the eight stanzas of the first division begin with &5 (aleph) a, and those of the second with ^ (beth) b, &c Psalm XXV., xxxiv. (beginning at the second verse), and cxlv.', Prov. xxxi. begmning at the tenth verse), and Lament, iv. consist of stanzas of two lines each ; Lamentations i. and ii. of stanzas of three line<=, and Psalm xxxvii. of stanzas of four lines. There exist, however, irregularities in the latter eight poems, which may be imputed to the carelessness of the transcribers, or to the fact of not being able to find a word beginning with the letter required. Hence we find that Bometiraes a letter was missed or repeated. Thus, for example, in Psalm XXV. there is no stanza beginning with ^ (beth) b, unless we regard the word nnbS! (olohai) i.e. my God, as originally belong- ing to the first verse. The next word ^3 (b'chu) would then afford the letter required. Or we may suppose, with Eosenmliller and others, that the word irib.N} (Glohai), like the interjections of the Greek tragic writers, was not reckoned with the verse. In this as well as in Psalm xxxiv., there is also no stanza commencing with the letter ^ (wav). And in Psalm xxv. there is likewise no stanza beginning with p (koph), but two stanzas commence with ^ (resh). Again in Psalm xxxvii. there is no stanza beginning with the letter ^ (nyin), and the letter ^jr (tsade) stands before the letter 5 (pe). It IS difficult to determine the design of this kind of composi- tion. Lowth thinks "that it was intended for the assistance of the memory; and was chiefly employed in subjects of common use as maxims of morality, and forms of devotion," and in this supposi' tion he probably may be correct. N