GRASSES OF NORTH AMERICA BY W. J. BEAL, M.A., M.S., Ph.D. Professor of Botany and Forestry in Michigan Agricultural College IN TWO VOLUMES Vol. 1 CHAPTERS ON THE I'HYSIOLOGY, COMPOSITION. SELECTION, IMPROVING, AND CULTIVATION OF GRASSES : MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS; ALSO CHAPTERS ON CLO- VERS, INJURIOUS INSECTS, AND FUNGI NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1896 Copyright, 1887, BV W I IJEAL. PRBFACK. This voiume may appear fragmentary and disconnected and may contain repetitions, and there may be important omis- flions. This is partially owing to the fact that much of the work has been performed at odd hours, sometimes with many days intervening. A full index will enable any one to find the topics which are mentioned. It is hoped that the farmer or general reader who has never studied botany, will find much to interest and help him, while it is believed the agricultural student will find still more. While many points are mentioned and illustrations freely used, no attempt has been made to write a complete account of the structure and physiology of grasses. Although not grasses, after somo misgivings of the author a chapter on clovers was added, because the farmer would doubtless be disappointed if he did not find one. An effort has been made to give credit to everyone wlio has been of much assistance in contributing to the volume, fir3t because it is duo to such persons, and second, because if accurately quoted, it makes them responsible for the state- ments which are made. In the chapter on bibliography will be found most of the sources of information, aside from the studies and experi- ments of the author. I have freely used, without quotation marks, my own contributions made at various times during the past seventeen years, to the Rural New Yorker, Philadel- *▼ PREFACE. phirt Press, New York Tribune, Prairie Farmer, the Clover Leaf, also using my reports as printed in the Michigan Board of Agriculture. Liberal quotations have been made from the publications of Sir J. B. Lawes, Charles Darwin, Maxwell T. Musters, George Bentham, Wm. Caruthers, Prof. James Buckman, Dr. A. Voelcker, of England; M. J. Duval-Jouve, of France; Ernest Hackel, of Anstria; J. S. Gould, C. W. Howard, Dr. D. L. Phares, Joseph Harris and J. B. Kille- brew, of our own country. My colleague Prof. A. J. Cook, contributed the long and valuable chapter on Insects Injurious to Grasses and Clovers, while Prof. William Trelease, D. Sc, contributed that on Fungi injurious to the same orders of plants. My friend, Prof. F. Lamson Scribner, has shown much interest in tlie work, and to him I am especially indebted for many of the excellent drawings of grasses. Mr. G. B. Sud- worth also made many drawings and copied others. The Levytypo Company, of Philadelphia, and the Lewis Engraving Company, of Boston, prepared most of the plates from the drawings illustrating the work. Frequent quotations have been made from the Rural New Yorker, Country Gentleman, New York Tribune, Prairie Far- mer, Farmers' Review, and many agricultural reports of this country and of Europe. The following persons also prepared more or less manu- script for ^hese pages, and credit is given on the pages where the contributions appear: Prof. E. M. Shelton, of Kansas; Dr. II. P. Armsby, of Wisconsin; Prof. C. G. Pringle, of Vermont; Dr. C. E. Bessey, of Nebraska; Prof. J. J. Thomas, Major H. E. Alvord, Prof. I. P. Roberts, Dr. E. L. Sturte- vant and J. S. Woodward, of New York; A. W. Chcevcr, of Massachusetts; Prof. J. W. SanJborn, of Missouri; Prof. F. PREFACE. y, A. Gulley, of Mississippi; Professors Latta and Troop, of Purduo University, Indiana. The following list should bo added as freely quoted: Prof. F. L. Scribner, Clifford Richardson and Dr. G. Vasey of Washington; Dr. R. C. Kedzie, of Michigan; Dr. A. Gray Prof. N. S. Shaler, and Prof. F. L. Storer, of Massachusetts i Secretary W. I. Clmmberlain, now president of Iowa Agricult- ural College; Mr. L. N. Bonham, of Ohio; E. S. Carman of New York; Prof. Wm. Brown, of Ontario; Prof. G E Morrow, of Illinois, and Mr. Do Laune, of England. For readi,.g portions of proof I am indebted to my col- legues. Prof. A. J. Cook, Dr. Lewis McLouth, Prof E J MacEwan, Prof. L. II. Bailey, jr., also to Prof. V. M. SpaukU ing. of Ann Arbor, and Prof. F. L. Scribner, of Washington. Ihorp & Godfrey, of Lansing, Mich., are credited with the mechanical part of the wori.. A second volume is in preparation. This is to contain the description of all known grasses of North America, 700 or more species, with illustrations of one species in each genus and m some cases more than one. Full notes in regard to their value for cultivation will be given. A chapter on Geo- graphical Distribution and other information likely to interest the student of grasses will be presented. W. J. BEAL. Botanical Laboratory. ) Agricultural College, Mich . ( January, 1887. ) PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. Ik the revision it has not seemed i.nportunt to roj.lace a few of the generic nun.es by others that they mi^ht be uniform with those of the second vohune, which was published in 1890. 1 refer • to tlie following : C>,uodon, Ue,jen,ia, Exacjroslis, Lcersia, Oh,- " I'HEFACE. eerin, Setaria, and a few others. Nor liave I revised the places of residence of those who assisted in tlio preparation of this volume. G. C. Davis has made a few minor changes and corrections in the chapter which was chiefly prepared by Prof. A. J. Cook. W. J. BEAL. Dkckmubu a, lb97. ^J CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. THE STRUCTURE, FORM AND DEVELOPMENT OP THE GRASSES. Protoplasm j Cells ""/"//"/............' v.. 1 Chlorophyll j Roots 2 Trichomes, root-hairs ' o The stem . The leaf "-'"."!""!!"]]!."!."!!!!!" The sheath « The blade -"i!!!l".""]!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! lO Minute structure of the leaf 13 The epidermal system * -t* The epidermis proper "" 14 The buUiform cells jg The Btomata <» Trichomes jg BuUiform cells j« Movements of leaves ]] 23 Fibro-vascular bundles '..'...'.... 25 Hypodermal fibrous tissue !!!"!!* 26 Parenchyma of the leaf -"."."...". 28 The torsion of leaves ] [ 29 Generic and specific characters in the leaf .'.'.'..'." 30 The bracts and flowers g3 Morphology of the bracts and flowers ."""'* 83 Fertilization of the flowers \ 87 The caryopsis or grain "41 The seed 41 ^i CONTENTS. CHAPTER IL THE POWER OF MOTION IN PLANTS. CHAPTER ni. PLANT GROWTH. Germination of seeds jg The function of green leaves "\ aq The plant is a factory gQ Tlie composition of plants gj The chemical composition of American grasses i 53 CHAPTER IV. CLASSIFYINO, NAMING, DESCRIBING, COLLECTING, STUDYING. Plant affinity «« Familiesof greatest worth gj GraminesB, the grass family ' ^ Tlie name of a plant " qq Collecting and preserving grasses 70 Grasses in certain places 73 How to begin the study 75 CHAPTER V. NATIVE GRAZING LANDS. Eflfectof over-feeding dry districts «g The native pastures an The native grasses of the Pacific slope b:;^ The agricultural grasses of Montana §7 The native grasses of the great basin ' 93 The native grasses of Northern Mexico gi How seeds are distributed jqq CONTENTS. Uf CHAPTER VI. GRASSES FOR CULTIVATION. PAOa Phleum, Timothy 101 Daotylis, orchard grass 109 Arrhonatherum, ttUl oat-grass . 121 Festucu, tali fuscue ViO Meadow fescue 1 27 Slieej/a fescue 182 Hard fescue 133 Poa prateiisis, June gross li)3 Poa compressa, flat-stemmed poa, wire grass 1 iJ7 Poa serotina, fowl meadow grass 140 Rougli-stallced meadow grass 143 Poa araclinifera, Texas blue crrass 143 Agrostis alba, red top 145 Agrostis alba vulgaris, creeping bent grass 148 Agrostis caulna, brown bent grass 151 Alopecurus pratensis meadow foxtail 153 Anthoxantlmm, sweet vernal grass 153 Lolium perenne, perennial rye grass 159 Italian rye grass 161 Cy nodon, Bermuda grass 101 Agropynn rcpens, quaclc grass 167 Sorghum halapense, Johnson grass 171 Solaria Italica, Hungarian grass 175 Dcyeuxia, blue joint 179 Muhlenberg's grass 181 Pe:misetum spicatum, pearl millet 187 Panicum Texanum, Texas millet 189 Avona flavescens, yellow oat-grass 191 II )k'us lanatus, velvet grass 193 Hi >1cus mollis, creeping soft grass 194 Cynosurus cristatus, crested dog's tail 195 CHAPTER VII. EAHLY ATT-Mrrs TO CULTIVATE GRASSES. Meadows of tho RoniaTTf. 197 The first meadows of (ireat IJnuan 198 Progress has boon vcrj- sl^iw 199 Wliy grasses are n;)t bettor known 200 What have been sown i:i Great Britain 201 Wliat have been sown in the United States 204 X CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. TESTIKO SEEDS, SOME COMMON WEEDS. Paoi Seed stations and their work „ 206 What sorts usually germinate and what will not 209 Will seeds sprout more than once 210 How to procure good seeds 211 Weeds in the meadow 214 How to get rid of weeds 224 CHAPTER IX. GRASSES FOR PASTURES AND MEADOWS. What is now sown in Great Britain 229 List of grasses for the north 232 Grasses for the south 234 Grasse for winter pasture at the south 239 CHAPTER X. PREPARATION OF THE SOIL AND SEEDING. Drainage 240 How much seed to sow 240 Sowing the seed 245 Seeding by inoculation 247 Seeding grasses with grain 247 Sowing grass without grain 250 Sowing seed where grasses already occupy the land 254 CHAPTER XI. CARE OF GRASS LANDS. Permanent pastures vs. alternate husbandry 250 The advantages of arotation of crops 259 Pasture yields more nourishment than meadow 260 Cai-e of pastures 261 Care of meadows 266 What manures to apply 267 The battle in the meadow 27P The effect of manures 21^ Green manuring 279 Manuring and drainage improve the quality of grasses 281 Effects of irrigation 283 CONTENTS. xl ooffTBR xn. MAKING HAY. Paqi Catting and curing hay 286 Making clover hay in one day 295 Drying by furnace heat or by a fan 297 Stacking hay 297 Fermentation of new made hay 298 Saving seeds 299 CHAPTER XIII. LOOK THE WORLD OVER FOR BETTER GRASSES AIO) IMPROVE THOSE WE NOW HAVE. Some requisites for success in a grass 299 The best soil and climate for pasture grasses 300 New grasses for new or old stations. 301 Improving by selection 805 Improving by cross-fertilization of the flowers 806 CHAPTER XIV. GRASSES FOR THE LAWN, THE GARDEN, AND FOR DECORATION. The lawn 809 Various mixtures of seeds for the lawn 811 Ornamental grasses 817 CHAPTER XV. THE LEQUMINOS^, PULSE FAMILY. Pulse family proper 821 Clover, Trifolium 321 Trifolium pratense 323 Elarly history 323 Extent of roots 324 The flower 324 Bumble bees a great help in fertilizing 325 The sleepof leaves 328 xU CONTENTS. pAoa A little agricultural chemistry 329 The uses and value 330 Red clover in many lands 33* Clover as a weed exterminator 335 Putting in the seed 336 Care of the young clover 337 Winter killing and remedies 338 The best time for cutting for hay 338 Saving clover seed 3 >9 Relative value of dark and light colored soca 340 Variation of red clover 310 The model plant 342 Clover sickness 343 Hoven 344 Alsike clover 347 White clover 348 Crimson or Italian clover 351 Lucerne or alfalfa 352 Black and spotted medick 357 Burr clover 358 Melilotus, sweet clover 358 Lupine 360 Furze or gorse 360 Vicia, vetch, tare 362 Pisum, pea 362 Dolichos, cow pea 363 Lespedeza striata, Japan clover 366 Prickly comfrey, borage 368 CHAPTER X\'I. THE ENEMIES OF GRASSES AND CLOVERS. Mice and shrews 369 Moles - - 369 Pocket gophers 369 Woodchucks 369 Insects 370 Insects injurious to clover 371 Hylastes Trifolii, clover-root borer. 375 Languria Mozardi, clover-stem borer 378 Phytonomus punctatus, clover-leaf beetle 380 Ceiidomyia Trifolii, clover-leaf midge 383 Oscinis Trifolii, clover-leaf oscinis 385 CONTENTS. xiii Paob Tortrix, sericoria, leaf rollers 386 Drasteria erechtea, clover drasteria 387 Colias philodice, common yellow butterfly 388 Insects attacking clover seed 889 Cecidomy ia leguminicola, clover seed midge 389 Grapholitha, clover-seed caterpillar 393 Asophia costalis, clover-hay-worm ,. 393 Insects injurious to grass crops 895 Lachnosterna fusca, May beetle, white grub 403 Agrotians, cut worms 403 Leucania unipunctata, army worm 405 Elaters, wire worms. 406 Blissus lencopterus, chinch bug 408 Caloptenus, locusts or grasshoppers 409 Crambus vulgivagellus, vagabond crambus 410 CHAPTER XVII. THE FTNGI OP FORAGE PLANTS. Com-smut 414 The leu-smut of Timothy 414 Grass-rust „ 416 Clover-rust 418 Ergot— 420 The cat-tail grass fungus 423 The black-spot disease of grass 424 The black-spot disease of clover 424 The violet root-fungus 426 The grass-mildew 426 The pclerotium disease of clover 427 The grass-peronos])ora 429 The clover-peronospora 430 The seedling rot 430 Fairy-ring fungi 430 Debris 433 Bibliography 434 Index 437 CHAPTER I. THE STRUCTURE, FORM AND DEVLLOPMENT OP THE OPASSES. Protoplasm is the living portion of a plant. It is sensitive to heat and cold and is the essential part without which the cell cannot live, take in or assimilate food or make any growth. Protoplasm is a soft-solid, generally containing a multitude of small granules, and when everything is favorable it is in unceas- ing motion. Delicate currents, often changing in direction and rapidity, are traced by the granules which they carry as they gracefully glide from one part of the cell to the other. Under the microscope this motion may be seen in the sting of a nettle, hair of a pumpkin vine, style of Indian corn, or a hair at the tip of a young kernel of wheat and in many other parts of plants. Protoplasm is most abundant in the newer or younger portions of the roots, stems, leaves, buds and seeds, and constitutes most of the nourishment as food for herbiverous animals. Very young cells are filled with protoplasm, while the older ones contain less, little, or none. Cells. All parts of plants, except a few very small one-celled species, are composed of cells which are generally microscopic. When any part of a plant is soft and can be easily crushed or broken in any direction, the cell walls are thin; when it is hard the cell walls are thick ; when tough like the fibre of flax, the cell walls are quite long and have thick walls. Chlorophyll. All the green parts of a plant are so colored by a little green substance called r/^/oro^^/^y/, without which the plant is unable to assimilate any thing or to make any real prog- ress in growth. 9 ROOTS. Roots. Although popularly so considered, it is by no means the case that all parts of plants which grow beneath the surface of the ground are roots. There are many stems beneath the surface and many roots above. Roots have no leaves, and are otherwise simpler than stems. They elongate by a rapid multi- plication and growth of the cells a very short distance (perhaps the one-sixteonth of an inch in case of Indian corn) back of the extreme ti}* end. At such place, called "primary meristcm,'* the cells rapidly increase by division, some of which continue to remain small and keep on dividing. A portion of stem, on the other hand, usually produces leaves, buds, and when young elon- gates by a multiplication and growth of the cells for a con- siderable portion cf its length. The tender, grov.iug tip of a root is protected as it pushes along through the soil by a root-cap consisting of some older and harder cells. As these cells wear ofE, others crowd forward and take their FlQ.l.-Longitudinal section through the places. In graSSCS the grOWth apex of a root of Indian i-orn, Imll of which i o o represents t ho oeilft as empty; a. o. outer and . .1 Tirimnrv rnnf ir(ite/i.tw with tin; blade condu- plicate, and tin' surroundiiitj sheath closed; h, a section still lov/er down, showing three closed sheaths; c, still lower down near a node, where Ave leaves have the sheaths closed. 1 xlO.— (Sudworth.) At the ui)per tnd of the sheath there is often a membranous scale, tongue, or fringe, called the h'r/nle. The reader will con- sult Fig. ,')!. ".nd observe the ligule of a leaf of June grass. That part of the leaf, which spreads away from the culm, is known us the Blade or lamina^ and is usually sessile and slender, tapering to a point. To the ordinary observer the blades of grasses seem to be very nearly alike. Even Linnants thought so, but to the botanist of to-day they j) resent very marked differences. The abortive leaves on root-stocks generally consist mainly of rudimentary sheaths. Commonly, all the leaves on a stem are much alike, but in some cases the lower leaves are quite unlike those above. The lower leaves of some species of Bambusa (bamboo), Ori/zopsis asj^crifoUa (mountain rice), Fanicum THE BLADE. 11 ■dichofomuni iind others, have well developed slieaths, but the ))hides jiro rudimentary. The blades of some leaves, like those of Leersia (rice cat- grass) aud Zizania (wild rice), are not quite symmetrieal, or in other words, the midrib is not quite in the middle of the bl ido. The blades of many grasses after getting something of a start, may continue to elongate or they nuiy cease to grow. In case of Poa J) rate lis is (Juno grass), DacfyUs f/Ionirrata (orchard grass), and many more, there seems to be scarcely any limit to the length they may attain. In a damp season, when the leaves were sheltered by a hedge, the writer selected a leaf of June grass, still green and vigorous to the end, in which the blade was five feet and four inches long. The ])lace of growth for sucli leaves is a rather light green semi-circle near the ligule. The tip of such a leaf-blade is the oldest i)ortion. The lower j)ortioji may continue to grow as the end is cropped by cattle. The blade always has upper and lower surfaces unlike each other. Some leaves are coiirolKfe (rolled into a cylinder), while some are conihijdicate (or folded), like the two halves of a book, shutting against each other. When Aery dry, conduplicate leaves may become convolute, and between conduplicate and convolute vernation, we have all pos- sible gradations passing insensibly into each other. Some leaves, as those of LoUiiin riijidum, are conduplicate towards the apex, and convolute towards the base. Leaves of many exogenous i)lants, like most of our trees and shrubs, drop by separating from the stem at a natural joint, but the leaves of most grasses may die, become brown and dry, and still remain attached to the culm. The leaves of a few grasses, as the bamboos and Sjiartiua (cord grass), have blades with an articulation or joint at the base ; and some leaves have petioles, 418 PJtarus, Pariana, and Leptaspis, 18 THE BLADE. Some le!if-l)la(los,as tlioso of PaiiicHtii Crns-tjalU (barn- yard' ^rass), /'. pi i cat III)), many Ki)ecies <»f Sorghum, taper each way, and are lin- ear lanceolate, l)ut they have us many bundles at the base us in the middle. They are like Fig. 8, only in disguise. Transverse veins arc vis- ible to tlie eye in Pnnicum CrnsfjalU, Cliloris, Bamhiisa (bami)oo),and in most others they are found to a greater or less extent, but they are not often conspicuous. Fio. 8.— Leaf-blade of Aruniln dnnax, in which the flhro-vasfiUar buiidlus, one after auotlier, leave the mid-rib for the blade, and those alonn the niar^in terminate before reaching the apex. — (Duval-. louve.) Fi(i 12. -Parallel veined leaf of I'■ (June grass) and others, liave rib of some portions of the leat ot ' \ & / ' ^wtiu ''''""'*"'• 1 " l'5.-(.sud-^.gjjjg ^vhich are exactly parallel. 14 THE EPIDERMIS. excepting very near the tip where there is an ahrupt boat-shaped point. On viewing a thin, magnified transverse section of a mature leaf of ScfiJerid ('cnrulea, we see : an outer envelope of cells called the epidermic, e; fihro-vascular lundles, more or less developed ; i, the median bundle, h, h, lateral bundles; groups of long, thick- walled cells in certain places beneath and next to the ep- idermis of the upper and lower sides, called the hy- jmkrmal fibers; a, the lower 'median fiber, d, the upper median fiber, c, d, lateral groups of hypodertnal fibers. The other cells are paren- chyma, most of which con- tain granules of chloro- phvll. The vacancv is an air-chamber or canal, la- Fia. 14.— Part of a tranaverse section of a leaf , _ of SesJcriawcrufea including tlie middle; a, mid- ciOia, i. In aquatlC grasses die hypodermal fibre ; J>, middle flhro-vascular bundle; c, d, lateral Kroups of hypodermal flhcrx; +1io«f> oir-plmrnhpra nrp much e, enidermis ; /, huUiform cells, where the l)lade ^'^^^® air-cnamoers are mucu ia closed; (/, the same wliere tlie blade is si)read , open; ?i, ?i, lateral fihro-vascular Imndles; t, air larger, canal, lacuna. 1 x liJO. — ( Duval- Jouve.) The Epidermal System consists of : a. Epidormis proper. i>. liulliform (blister) cells. c. 8tomata. (f. Trichomes. The Epidermis proper consists of a single layer of cells, the length of which seldom very much exceeds three or four times the width or thickness. The two latter dimensions usually are not very dissimilar. THE EPIDERMIS. 15 The cells of the epidermis adapted to dry, hot climates are very thick, and tlie cells of those adapted only to moist air are thin, while the cells of the same species may vary much in thickness, de- glaum Uluieirs fescue); a, from a plant grown , . J. 1 '" ^''^^ wliade with plenty of moisture; />. from a pending on a crreater or less plant grown in greater heat, with much light ^ ° ° and little moisture. 1 x ISO.— (E. Hackel). exposure to light, heat, and moisture. Pio. 16.— This gives some notion (June grass); a, cross section uermal libers; d. rows of stomata worth). 10 BXnJJFORM CELLS. The Bulliform Cells are in longitudinal, parallel lines; they are larger and extend further into the leaf than ordinary epidermal cells. Where the epidermis covers the hypodermal fibers, it consists of long, thick-walled cells, which are Fin. 17.— a. Young stoma of a leaf of usuallymore abundant on the lowcr IiHliun rorti; h, older stoma; c, mature stoma. 1 xa-,o.-{Sudworth). than on the upper surface. Some- times they are reduced to two small rows, or rarely disappear entirely. Sometimes the hypodermal fibers cover all the lower side of a leaf, as in many species of Festuca. In such cases there may be none, a few, or many on the upper side, or it may be entirely covered excepting a few lines on the sides of the veins where the stomuta are found. The cells of the bands covering the ma. i xfia- (ii'uvai-Jouve.) parenchyma are larger than those which are over the veins or hypodermal fibres. On the upper surface of the leaf, these bands are often cut in two by bulliform cells. Fio. 18.— Showing a trans- verse section of a very sim- ple leaf. C/i nmaomut i*. min- The Stomata (small mouths) are in regular rows, placed longitudinally on certain parts of the leaf, and are always devel- oped over a small cavity. The plan seems to be the same for all grasses. In some species the stomata are all above, in others all below, while some have them on both sides. Trichomes. — Some single cells or groups of cells of the epi- dermis, extend and become trichomes, which are straight or curved, stout or feeble. They are real epidermal cells, and are not prolongations from the outer part of a cell, as is the case HAIRS ON THE LEAF. 17 with Ji root-hair. They iisually point to tlie apex of a leai or stem, but in Lirrxia (rice cut- grass), they ])oint downward, and become stout supporting hooks. Tragus racemo- sus,At)ij)hicarpuvi Purshii, Pani' cum c (12) Hi (I re (hair grass) and others, have stout hairs on the mar- gins of the leaf. On some smooth looTna +lir> l^oi'i.c FiG. 10.— Part of iv cross RBCtion of 3fe?fca «iiiriii»ifii,n along the uniier surfiU'c, ex- jiriiinidix.wlicrotlii^ bulliforni ci'lls are ovcnly "^ '^ '■ ''a)ulT.iom^-)l"''^ ''■""■ ^'•"'•feptinjj over the veins. Fi(i.ril.— Sortion.tliroiiKli tlio midrtli'.of a leaf of ]'(ispal}irn pUcatiim, showlns frreg- >ilar epidermis and many bullifonu cells. 1 xT)*).— (Sudwortli.) Fig. S^i.— Pi. a transverse section of a li-af of Trnchiifmgnn poliimorphiw, showing small t^piderniai and very large bulliform cells. 1 xuO.— (Sudworth.) BULLIFORM CELLH. Fio. .'51. -Part of ii »i>('lioii of tlie Iciif yf Mniiroii atmarrom, sliowinu tlirco gruupa oil lumu bullifurui cullt), uxttiudiutf iur iutu tlio biadu. 1 )(OU.—(Sud worth.) Fu}. 34.— Part of a section, including mid-rib, of a leaf of Cathesteehum erectum, sliowinK two groups of buUiilorui cella u^^ttiaduig twu*thirds of the way across tlie leaf. 1 xa80.—(Sud worth.) Fig. a").— Section of part of a leaf ot Epicampea liffuMa, showing five groups of hxA- liform cells. 1 x 00.— (budworth.) MOVKMKNTS OF LKAVKS. 98 Tn vcrnutioii (wliilc tlif lent' i.< very youn;^ in tlio hud) the It jivcs tuki' tho Hiimo [toHitionrt as when full nn^i\^:^^n^f Aim vaotitnimt, ' ^lidwinu Its miido <>l vci'imtion volute on the nuiru'ins. within thonluatl.. I «:t.'. The Movements of the leaves of some Lejruniinos.e at'e vei-y quick, in most grussi-s they are (|uite slow, dependinj^ ou the light and chiingo of moisture. In the hlades of jrniss the motion when drying, consists in the ai)proach «)f Hk; siiles Avheii (■ondu])]ieiito, or in rolling or unrolling when convolute, and in torsion Avlieii turning tin- lower surface to tin* sun. In isr»8, Mr. Duval -J«»uvo was snrj)rise(l to see tlie heaves of Lcerxia ori/zoif/r.s (rico cut-grass), move quito cjuickly, its he brushed them. The motion begins tit the apex and extends down to tho base, iind is convolute when closed. Other species of this genus behave in like manner, as also (b)es Scyh'/'itt r/rridfa. A drop of water on the section of the leaf of the hitter causes it to expiintl instantly. The stime is true of ti leaf of Poa pratensis or of Dacfijlis. Some leaves ojxmi very slowly tind then only when quite moist, as in case of Ljuiouni K/iurfcum, or Xanhm atricta. Tho annnal species of AirttinuX Cl/a/naf/rosfis ?m/w/w?^/ iiro abso- lutely destitute of motion. Many remain rolled up when dry, jind unroll at night when 24 M0VE3IENTS OF LEAVES. tlio clow is oil, Avhilo othei\s rarely evor open at all, but remain closed. Tlio leaves of Leersiu (riee eut-grass) are most instructive with their bulljform cells above unci below. These penetrate tlie bliule deeply and luake it very sensitive. In a warm day a brisk rub, or more than one between thumb and finger, causes it to close in a few seconds. After a sliort interval tlie leaf oi)ens again, when it will be ready io respond to the same experiment. Tlie leaves of Paninnn jilicatiiin, when dry, close in a zigzag manner like a fan. The bulliform cells of the leaves of Phlenm j)i'ateHse (Timothy) and Alopectinis j)r(ifciisis (meadow foxtail) are not very large, and do not penetrate deeply. Such leaves are not good ' * rollers. '' In case of leaves like Sj)oi'oboIi(s and others, the bulliform cells are large, the groups numerous, and penetrate di'cply. These leaves arc likely to remain rolled up for a good portion of the time, unless the weather is verv moist. Fi()r.— (Sudworth.) Fro. .TS.— Section of a leaf-blade of Hicriwhhxi ctliHiui. 1x^4. (Sudworth.) Fio. .TO.— Seotionof a leaf-blade of Stipa '•partea well adapted for closinji in dry weadier. 1 x Ul.-(Sudworth.) FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLES. Fid. 40.— Section of a blndo of \ leaf of Festuca rubra. 1 x.TO.— (Hackel.) Tlic object iicconiplishod by Ihi^ closinji^ or rolling of tlio leaves is to cover ono Kiirftico jiiul assist in preventing excessive evapora- tion in dry weather. The bullifonn cells in their size, number, and arrangement may be used for critical specilio characters. Sedges, Cypi'mcw, often have one band of very large bulliform cells in the median line, and nniformly on the up])cr side. These modes of arrangement of the bulliform cells is especially important in a i)hysiological point of view, as they produce vari- ous motions of the leaves. Fibro-vast'ular Bundles.— In all grasses the structure of these is much the saine. 'I'hei-e are two, rarely four, large i)it- ted vessels, placed side by side near the middle of a bundle, at equal distances from the lower epidermis. The reader Avill hero find it i)rofitable to consult figure 5 for tracing out details. Between these is a group of small reticulated cells, as many as fifty in Fesfiicft. anoulliutcea, or only two or three in Panicnm Crns-gaUHhixvw yard grass) and Lccrsidorf/zou/es (rice cut-grass). x\.bove this group, towards the upper side of the leaf, and in a median line of the bundle is one or more annular or spiral ves- sels, situated near an air cavity, made by a breaking away of the veils. On the ojiposite si»le, always on a median liiu', is a group of latticed cells or soft bast. Surrounding all of the above is the fnnti/Je sheafh formed of long, thick walled c-ells ; and about the whole bundle is the thin- walled i)arenchyma of the fundamental tissue. The bundles are not all developed to the same extent. Tiie 20 HYPODERMAL FIBROUS TISSUE. primaries are the most comjilete and have all the elements ; the .secondaries have no annular vessels in the laenna, and have the other elements much less pronounced ; the tcrfiaries lack the lat- eral vessels, and are reduced to a slender cord of small dotted vessels and latticed cells, or only the hitticed cells. Xot unfrequently there are very small transverse handles run- ning obliquely from one bundle to another. To see thom entire, a longitudinal secuon must be made parallel to the epidermis. Hypodermal Fibrous Tissue. — Usually this tissue is found in isolated groups just beneath the epidermis, and consifts of very long,thick-walled cells, Avith overlapping, tapering extremi- ties. There are no intercellular sjiaces. Sometimes these fibers are found at the margins of the loaf only ; often opjjosite the fibro-vascular bundles and in contact with them on the lower side, but separated from them on the upper side by jnirenchyma. They protect and strengthen the blade. In some cases they come together and make a continuous band on the lower side of tlie leaf, but never on the upper side. In each triangular portion of a leaf of Deschampsia ccespitosa we find three fibro-viuscnlar bundles, a large median one, and two small lateral bundles. Below each is a group of hypodermal fil)ers. In Stipa tenacissinia there are five fibro- vascular bundles in one nerve. As examples of hypodermal fibers, we have : 1^. A mere trace in the median line of Fig. 41.— a transverse sec- , i i tion of about one-seventh of a tiie buulc ; blade of a leaf of Dcitchampsia ciVSDitosa, showini,' one lartje oc \ jrroup at the keel of tlie blade and two small flliro-vascular » t bundles, with hypodermal -, a i, ^ ...,,;„ , ftbers below each bundle. I* and oiie at cacli margin; 50.— (Sudworth.) 3°. Groups, as in the hotter case, with others in certain places on the lower side, or with a continuous layer on the lower side ; HYPODERMAL FIBROUS TISSUE. 27 4°. Groups above and below the primary bundles only ; 5°. Groups above and below each bundle, but not continuous; 0°, Groups above and below each bundle, and contiguous ; 7°. Groups covering the mesophyll, except some cells bearing chlorophyll on the sides of the nerves. The first three of the above are conduplicate in vernation, and the fourth includes all of the species of Amlropixjoti and Panicum, except P. plicafum. So far as the develojiment of hypodermal fibers are concci'ned, Chamafjro.sfis minima and S'fipa tenacissima are extremes. The former i.s illustrated by figure 18, and figure 14 will answer as a substitute for the latter. "^ aquatic and in annual grasses these fibers are feebly developed, while those grown in extreme dry, hot countries are remarkable for the development of this tissue. Upland grasses grown in the shade, with an ample supply of moisture, have their woody fibers feebly developed. When this tissue is well developed it helps prevent the free evaporation of moisture. The closing of the stomata p,,Svf,;rS"mf wiuf weu'^d^ , , t , . , . , veloiied liypodermal tissue. 1x80, also lielps to retain the moisture. — (Duvai-Jouve.) Fig. 43.— Section of a blade of a leaf of Festucu ovhut var. loBvis, with a Kronp of hypodermal fibers below the mid-vein, and one at each margin of the leaf. I x 30.— (Hackel.) Fio. 44.— Section of the blade of Foituca orina, witli hypodermal fibers extending over the lower side. 1x30.— (Huekel.) Fio. 45. — Seet ion of a leaf of Fetituca ovliia var. i/it- rliiscula ( hard fescue), with hypodermal fibers extending over tlie lower side. 1x30.— (Hacliel.) In the last three the bulliform cells are wanting or only feebly developed, and the blades remain closed or nearly closed oven when mature. 98 PARENCHYMA. Parenchyma of the Leaf. — This is ii name applied to all the rest of the leaf-blade after taking out the epidermis, the fibro- vaseiilar bundles, and the hypodermal fibers. It presents three forms, which are quite distinct : a. Cells containing chlorophyll and found in the leaves of all grasses without exception. b. Cells without color inside, found in certain species only. c. The star shaped and brandling cells found in the air canals of species (Fig. 10.) mon* or less aquatic. The chlorophyll-bearing parenchyma is of two sorts: a. Where the grains are rather large and comiDact. b. Where some of the chlorophyll is in the form of grains, and some of it is diffused more or less like jelly. Where a part of the chlorophyll is more or less diffused, the rest is in cells which form concentric cylinders, or the cylinders may be open in one or two ])laces. FtG. 46.— Section of a blade o Jimitclomi Harvardli, showing soiiu' closeil and some open cylinder.s of cells containing grains of chlorophyll.— (Sudworth.) Fra. 47.— Section of part of a blade of Simrtina utricta var., showing largo cells of parenchyma destitute of chlorophyll; these aro situated above the flbro-vascular bundles, and in the middle of the lobes wliicli extend upward. 1 x 34.— (Sudworth.) THE TORSION OF LEAVES. The cells of parenchyma, which contain chlorophyll, reach their maximum in siiecics which grow in cool, shady jjlaces. Fio. IS.— Cross-section of a blade of Sfiar- tina juncen, in whicli tlie upper surface is deeply furrowed. 1 xai.—(Sud worth.) The Torsion of Leaves.— The leaves of moet flowering plants quite uniformly turn the upper surface to the light and kecj) the lower surface in the shade. This rule does iiot hold good with the grasses nor with quite a num- ber of others, such as Tijpha (cat-tail flag) and Gladiolus among endogens ; and some species of Liatns (blazing p^o. 49.-Cross-8ection of the central part of a , \ 1 J.1 Iiliirtcof .»^»rtrff)irt jiniccrt,showin{?abovetlu:nud- Starj, and others among rib, a renmrkabU- enlargement, which is occu- pii'd by larKc colls of parenchyma, destitute of eXOCrens. chlorophyll. 1x100.— (Sudworth.) In half or more of the grasses examined, the whole or a major- ity of the leaves, by a twist of the lower portion of the blade, turn ''wrong side \\\},'' and expose the ''lower side " to the sun- light. In most other cases, we have seen that during the warmest and (Iryest weather, when the sun's rays are the most trying to the life of the plant, the leaves shut up or roll up, leaving the under surface alone exposed. Whether right side up or wrong side up, the surface most exposed generally possesses the firmer epidermis. Young leaves of Phlciimpmtcnse (Timothy), several species of Bromus (chess), Trilicum (wheat), and Af/ropyr on (quack grass) Secale cercah (rye), and others, twist once or more with the sun, or in the direction which they would twist were the sun the cause of torsion. 80 CHARACTERS IN THE LEAF. Young leaves of Avena sativa (oats) and Setaria glauca (pig- eon grass) quite uniformly twist against the sun, while those of Poa pratensis (June grass) and Panicicm capillare seem indifferent as to the direction in which they twist. The sun does not seem to dictate the direction of the twisting. The leaves of grasses generally twist best and with greatest uniformity when young, even though they are much shaded from the rays of the sun. Many leaves twist most towards the apex, while others twist most, or entirely, at or near the base of the blade. The margins of many leaves grow a little longer than the cen- tral portion, and if the mid-rib is not very prominent, this will produce torsion of the blade. In cases of Indian corn, the mar- gins of the older leaves are often longer than the mid-rib, but there is no torsion. The margins are undulating. With a light mid-rib and stouter margins, the leaves of this plant would show torsion. Probably one reason why most of the torsion is towards the apex of many leaves is because the mid-rib is not very strong at that part of the leaf. When young and quite erect, the lower side of many leaves seems to grow a trifle faster than the upper side, and this per- haps tips the leaf over " bottom side " up. Duval-Jouve believes that torsion of the blades of grasses depends on the distribution of the fibrous tissue. In dry weather this tissue contracts least, so the blade twists. In some the air canals, lacunm, let in dry air, which contracts the delicate cells of parenchyma. The writer has not yet been able to find the reason for a uniformity in the direction for the torsion of the leaves of any species of grass. Generic and Specific Characters in the Leaf.— E. Hackel, in his Monographia Festucarum Europcearum, says: '* The histological characters of the leaf-blade unquestionably include those most important for the discrimination of thfr CHARACTERS IN THE LEAF. 81 forms of Festuca, but tlie degree of con- stancy or value of each character must first be determined.'" By experimenting he claims to have found a solid foundation for the estimation of these characters. He finds the mesophyll and fibro-vascular bundles quite uniform with all sorts of treat- ment of the plants, but the epidermis offers remarkable differences, especially that on the lower side of the leaf. This difference is ap- parent in the thickness of the outer walls, the size of the cavities, and the existence or ab- sence of projections on the partition walls. The dry, cultivated plants had their epider- mis strongly thickened toward the outside, the cavities diminished, and over the partition wall had developed cuticular projections. The moist cultivated jilants produced slightly thickened epidermis cells, broad cavities, and no trace of cuticular projections. The sclerenchyma or bast, or hypodermal fibers, varies much with different soils and amount of moisture. Species of moist, shady habitats, show in their leaves a clear prepon- derance of the assimilating over the mechani- cal system. In very many respects, it will be seen, that a critical study and close comparison of the leaves of grasses will reveal a wonderful vari- ety in their structure and cannot fail to of fAtiium" vuiuarl (wheat) twisting with the excite the admiration of everv student. In S^urse of the sun. Re- duced >i.—(Sudworth.) certain portions of the preceding account of the leaf, the writer has followed Duval-Jouve. 83 POA PHATENSrS, L. (JUNE GRASS.) iF-L^, «td..fl Jhijt Fia. 51. THE BRACTS AND FLOWERS. 88 The Bracts and Flowers. — 'riio gnussos form a natural order wliicli is oiu* of the easiest to learn to recoirnize, but for this very reason it is generally diflieult to distinguish the several speeies. The hest charaeters for descrihing grasses are found in connec- tion with the bracts, flowers and the ripened ovary. A great diversity of views has been entertained by leading botanists in relation to the morphology of the flower and the names to be given to each part. According to our best modern authorities, including lientham. Hooker, Gray, Sachs, Munro, and Doll, the three outer scales ctjii- stitute no part of the flower, but answer to bracts. Morphology of the Bracts and Flowers. — The following u a full abstract of an able essay on tliis subject, by the late Geo. Bontham, and is taken from the Transactions of tlie Linnean Society: The terminology adopted by botanists has been very unsettled and repeatedly modified. The absence of .ill homology be- tween the so-called sepals in grasses and those of jjcrfect flowers has been repeatedly demonstrated. "Some years ago, when preparing my Handbook of the British Flura, I i)urposed following Kunth, but I was soon brought to a standstill by the anomaly of the spikelet of Milium being described as having two flowers Fis. 51.— A plant of Port prateiwin, L. (June grass). At 1, a small plant, with roots, root-stocks, leaves, culm and flowers; c, part of a sheath of a leaf with a white fi(/i(/c, ahove which is part of a blade; a, npikrht, closed, contaiiiiup: fotir //(i/vYx ; h, tfpikelet spread open, containins< five florets, as seen when in flower: the lower scales as seen in ti and h, are the imijlji tiUiinia, c, a )l(nrl, with fUmtl oIuiih: at the nulit, Vtihit at the left, including thrco stamens; /, cross-section of tlie Jliinit oUniir whicli IS "j-ribhed. and keeled ; tl, a pistil with the ovary below bearing two short ntjih)<, eacli terminated by a feathery titifiinn ; at the base on each side is a /oi/i'ck/c. — (Scribner.) According K> Robert Brown, the two lower scales of n and /> are the {jUtnur, and con- stitute an iiivolitnr. They are the rm\:l]i {flumes or haml {ihimn^ of many authors: ii((/(((!of Duniortier; tctiincn of Palisot de Beauvois. According to Robert Brown and Jussieu, the two scales at c, are the txtlffc, nniX represent the sepals; (iiimdUi' of Dumortier; ulraimltiot Palisot de Beauvois; ■jirriauthiuni of authors. According to It. Brown and .Tussieu, the right hand scale in c is the hiiirr or oiilir iHiha, ohimen /('/•fi/c ofGermaiado .St. Pierre; flowering ghime of Bentham, Hooker, DOll, Accordmgto R.Brown and .Ttissieu. the Muit scale at the left in c is the interior palca, ))iilr<)1a iiitrrior ot Datnortier i KpnthrUn of Diill. According to R. Brown and Kunth, the small scales at tl are thosqunmnkc: lodindcti n( Bentham and others; ncftaria of Scheher;(;/umc(te of some authors. By many, these scales were thought to represent petals. 94 THE BHACTS AND FLOWERS. and one ^lumo, when I could not expect any of my roattors to aoo more tliiin one flower wltli three glumes. "After carefully examining a great variety of genera, and com- paring tliem with the nearest allied orders, it a}>})eared to mo that no distinct and universally a])plicahle definition of the term glumo could he given unless it were applied, as in ('iiperaceae, to the whole of the prinuiry scales attached to the main axis of the spikelet. After i)rinting, I ascertained that similar views had heon indejjendently propounded hy Hugo, ]\rohl, Doll and others in Germany, and hy fJermain do St. Pierre, in France. " In several of our large genera of grasses, tho only diflfcrenco between tho one or two outer empty glumes and the flowering ones is that they are rather smaller or rather larger, and there is often more difference hetweeu the first and second empty glumes than hetween the upper ompty glume and the first flowering one. In couch grass the emjity and flowering glumes are precisely fiimilar, very gradually diminishing in siza from the outer empty to tho uppermost flowering glume. An empty glume in one spikelet may correspond to a flowering one in another spikelet of the same plant. In rye-grass tho spikelets are alternately placed in one plane, right and left, the single empty glumo of each spikelet being tho lowest and outer one, whilst the second glume next the axis of inflorescence, is the lowest flowering one. In the u})permost spikelet there are two empty glumes, and this is not owing to tho development of an additional outer glume, for the lower of the two empty ones is on the side it ought to be in the regular alternation with the lower spikelets , but the second glume, which in the lower spikelets encloses a flower, is in this subterminal one empty. So in several Panicea3, the second or third glumo, according to the genus or species, has been observed sometimes, to enclose a rudimentary or male, or even a perfect flower, and at other times to be quite empty, without any change in its appearance. THE BRACTS AND FLOWERS. 85 In Pnnirinn, according to the Kuntlican terminology, the tirst ininnto s(!iilo is a glunic, the Hccond, many times larger, is also a glinno, the third, often jireeiseiy similar to the second, is not a glnme, hnt a llower, and the fonrth, whether similar or more or less dissimilar, is a i)art of a flower. In some graminca' there arc additional empty glnmes, nsnally small and often different in form, either innnediately below the flowering ones, as in Aiitltdxaiithinn and P/iuhwis, or at the end of the spikelet, as in Jli'Iica. These liave no pretensions to he flowers at all. In some genera, as in Uniahi, from three to six of the lower glnmes are empty, and precisely similar to each other, and yet we arc only allowed to call the two lowest ones glnmes, the others are termed flowers. We are not even allowed to define glumes as the two lowest scales of the si)ikelet ; for that of Lcei'sia, which has two glumes, one empty, the other flowering, is described as having no glumes but two flowers. In Kyllinija and Coiirtoisia, in Cypercaetv, where the fruit is similarly enclosed in two glumes, they are correctly described as such, one empty, the other a flowering one. The so-called upper palea is neither homologous nor similar to tlie so-called lower palea or flowering glume. It is inserted on the axis of the flower, and not on that of the spikelet, as may be seen in cultivated wheat. It is difTerently shaped, and having instead of one central rib or keel two prominent nerves, it is generally supposed to be a double organ composed of the union of two scales. These two scales are jjrobably the homologues of the two bracteoles of Hypohjtrum and Plafylejns. It is con- venient to designate them by a special name, for which the gener- ally received term palea is not inappropriate, and commits one to no special theory in regard to it. "It appears to me that flowering glume and palea is not more cumbrous than the deceptive one lower palea and upper palea. " The two or rarely three small scales above the palea and 80 THE URACTb AND FLOWEHM. iiltornutlng with the stamens in most gnissos, luivo beon sup- posed t<» represent u rcdiutod perianth; but their homology is not satisfactorily demonstrated. "To sum up, therefore, the spikelets of Grnminew may bo doseribed as composed of a series of alternate r//«//i^i.s, distichously imbricated abjng the axis. To be really useful, descriptions should bo clear and intelligible, and enable the reader to identify the plant. IIc^ should describe only what he actually sees, not what it may be theoretically imagined he ought to see. " The empty f/lumes are often more or less boat-shaped, and with the one to nnmy ilowers which they include, constitute a xjiikrlcf, Hpii'ula or hiriisfa. One or both empty glumes may bo absent in certain cases. The spikelets are arranged in panicles, racemes, spikes or heads. The Jtot'fd f/Innie usually resembles the two empty glumes in having a midrib with an eqtud number of ribs on each side, while the 2>(ile (I often has two ribs, with a thin membrane between which is often notched at the apex. It is of much importance in describing grasses to observe the relative lengths, sizes, shape, number of ribs, the nature of the awn, and the texture of the glumes and palea. The midrib of one or more glumes often extends upwards from the apex into an awn, and in case of the floral glume, the awn sometimes starts from a notch at the top ; sometimes from the back l)elow the apex, and is then said to be dorsal. The lower part of the awn is often twisted when dry, but straightens when moist. If the lower part twists, the upper part inclines at an angle. The glumes and the palea probably represent the sheaths of leaves, and where an awn exists it sometimes represents the blade of a leaf. This is quite well shown in j)roliferous flowers of grasses, as seen in Figure 53, a proliferous floral glume of PJileum pratense (Timothy). FERTILIZATION OF THE FLOWEKS, 87 We aay flowoiH nm jtroli/rrous wIumi oitlicr the glumes, puleii, Htuinen.s or ovary, oraiUof these develop into small leaves in place of Jiowers. This is not uncommon in Indian corn and .Tuneus. The bulblets of onions or *' onion sets" are fumiliar extimplos. In this connection a rei'orcnco to figure 53 will show several forms of ovaries and style)*, und imjtress the reader with the importance fl,li4l'KiuiiH'"oi'^/vi;naper on "Fertilization of Cereals," in the (Jardeners' Chronicle, for ilarch 18T4, and February, ISIo: "From the time at which the ears, or ])art of the ears, of the four European cereals, wheat, rve, l)arlev and oats, appear above the slietith, till the time of flowering, the stUcs and the anthers remain in nearly the same position. During this time the fllaments are of such length as to place the lower ends of the anthers in cojitact with the upper '1 part of the ovary, wliile the styles lie embraced by the anthers, the whole being straight and running in the same direc- p,,, 64.-Fiower« of wheat, tion as the axis of the closed pales. If '^^^^^^f^^^^^U^!'^'''- a floret of two-rowed barley is held up between the eye and the light before fertilization has taken place, the anthers will be seen 40 FERTILIZATION OF THE FLOWERS. through the pales lying in their original position, and if the liower is then opened and inspected, it will be found that the anthers are still unopened, and still retain their bright yellow color. But if, on looking through the semi-transparent pales, the anthers are seen in the upper part of the cup, fertilization has taken place, and if the floret is opened the anthers will be found ojien, with the pollen scattered about on the feathers and inner surfaces of the pales, and the bright color of the anthers passing away. The inner pale in this form of barley is so tightly embraced by the overlapping edges of the outer pale as prevents further opening. "The different varieties of wheat, so far as known to the writer, observe conditions of opening the flower similar to those of the barleys. Many wheat florets never open so far as to give room for the egress of the anthers. Some open so far as to allow one or more anthers to get half out, in which position they are caught and held by the reclosing of the pales. In many the anthers are wholly retained, but the general rule is for the floret to open so far as to throw out the anthers. ''Opening of tht cereal flowers takes place at all hours of the day. I have obs:rved that it also takes place in all kinds of weather, wet or dry. I have observed that spelt flowers open in the morning before the sun touched them. I have also seen them open in a dead calm after sunset; many of them had opened and closed within an hour previously. I have likewise seen wheat and spelt flowers open during heavy rain, and in dull, cloudy weather. Fertilization seems to take place when the flower is ripe, independently of any particular state of the weather. In respect of all florets which do not open so far as to eject their anthers, the falling of rain or the blowing of the strongest wind is perhaps a matter of indifference. The opening of the flowers may be induced by handling the ear in a gentle way when tlie natural time of flowering has nearly arrived. I THE CARYOPSIS OR GRAIN. 41 have seen eleven rye Horets throw out tlieir bright yellow anthers at the same time on one spike, by simply drawing them through the hand. "Break off a barley floret from an ear Avhich is just coming into blossom ; open the pales gently, and i)ut it under a low magni- fying power. Presently a slight tremor takes place. The anthers begin to move upward. The filaments are visibly growing before the eye at the real rate of six miles an hour. The anthers get more and more distended. They are now half way up the uni)rotending green chalice. Observe the little slit com- mencing near the apex of the most advanced. Out darts a little spurt of tiny bullets. Presently the next and the next opens. Instantly another and another spurt of tiny bullets are sent dancing from each half -open suture over the enclosing sides of the pales, or down upon the spreading feathers. Now and then a solitary ball bounds out of the opening cavity over the plain in front of it. In various wheats and spelts the jioints of the feathers are frequently thrown outside, where they are sometimes fixed permanently by the reclosing of the valves. But the rule in wheat, oats and barley is, not to expose the feathers. These are fertilized before the anthers are visible outside. By estimate, a single anther of rye contains 20,000 cells of pollen, and an acre of rye produces 200 lbs. of pollen." The Caryopsis or Grain, as will be seen, is the ripened ovary which is closely filled by the seed. Here, also, the reader should consult figures ').*) and uG to notice the structure of a cnrijopsift or grain and its germination. The Seed is a miniature plant in its simplest form, as Prof. W. W. Tracy says, "packed ready for transportation,'' and sup- plied with concentrated food destined to nourish the young plant till it form roots and leaves. As the young chicks feed upon the yolk of the egg, so the young grass-plant subsists on the starch stored up in the 6 49 THE SEED. endosperm. The starch in the plant takes the place of milk to the colt, calf, or pig. The milk is secreted by the mother animal; the starch was formed in the leaves of the mother plant and deposited in the seed for future use of the seedling. As tlie water ram needs some water to move it, to enable it to send some of the water liigher, so the young grass-plant throws away, if m'c may use the expression, some of its substance to enable it to organize tho remainder into roots and terminal bud. During the growth of seeds and bulbs in the dark, the actual dry weight is diminished, although the size may increase. Fig. 55.— Longitudinal section of tlio grain of Indian corn ; c, tliin wall of the ovary ; n, remains of the lower part of the style, known as the " silk ;" /,s, base of the grain; eg, cu; endosperm, which feeds the young plant as it germinates ; MC, 8.f. scutellum or cotyledon of embryo ; c, its epidermis ; k, plumule or terminal bud ; ir, (below), the main or primary root ; U'f, the root sheath ; tc, (above) ad- ventitious or secondary roots springing from the first internode of the stem ; st, tlie stem. Enlarged about six times. (Sachs). WS ws ws Fig. 56.— Germination of Indian corn, a and b, front and side views of the embryo removed from the kernel; iv, the primary root ; «•«, its root sheath. (Sachs). THE SEED. 48 Fig. 57.-P, The plu- luule; I, fragment of Avail of ovary ; tv, root witlj root-hairs ahove and naked below. (Sachs). Fig. 59.-a, The caryopsis of Sporoholus cryptandrm wltliin the glumes ; h, the empty ovary split open; c, the seed which has escaped from the ovary. (Sudworth). In case of most grasses, tlie caryopsis consists of the seed permanently inclosed in the adherent walls of the ovary. The seeds of Sporobolus, when mature, freely escape from the delicate ovary as shown in Fig. 59. \> thf 'Ie?n7l^'n«r^ ?!f^"* '^."'' ''«™a*n« '" roots tf^rliJ, * °' """i"* ^^ith lateral mo!4ci:-,';^;,'ji^;i.„"r?i^f. °* ""*'" '°°^ '- THE POWER OF MOTION. CHAPTER II. THE POWER OF MOTION IN PLANTS. It would be foreign to tlic object of tliis work to say much on this interesting subject. Reference has previously been made to the motion of protoplasm in living cells, to the closing and opening of the leaves when dried or moistened, and the growth of nodes on the lower side to aid in straightening up a culm which has fallen down. The following will serve to illustrate what may not be new to all of the readers of these pages : A thrifty hop-vine went winding up nine or ten feet to the top of a stake, and then four feet and two inches above any support, when it tipj^ed over in the direction of the prevailing Avind. It swung slowly around, sometimes making a revolution in from one to two hours. If another stick be within roach of the revolving top, it Avill seize the support and go on climbing as before. Every one knows that asparagus or celery, placed on the side, will soon show the tips bending upward, and that the stems and leaves of a geranium set in the window will soon bend towards the light. These are familiar, and on that account may not awaken much curiosity, but it must seem wonderful to learn, for the first time, that the power of moving in circles or ellipses, or zigzag lines, is universal, so far as we know, to all young growing stems and all their branches. The same is true of the young leaves and all of the young roots. "' Every growing part of every jilant is continually circumnutating or bowing around." (Darwin). This motion is produced by the increased turgescence of the cells, together Avith the extensibility of their cell-walls on the convex side. As Darwin says, " It Avould appear as if the changes in the cells required periods of rest. A young root may be THE MOTION OF PLANTS. 45 compared with a burrowing animal, such as a mole, which wishes to penetrate i)erpenclicularly down into the ground. By continually moving from side to side, he will find the easiest place for descending. If the earth is damper on one than on the other side, he will turn thither as to l)etter hunting ground. The root, doubtless, can only distinguish water which touches it, having no power to * scent ' moisture in the distance. It hunts like a blind worm, by feeling, rather than as a hound by scent or vision. The tip alone of the root is sensitive, and when excited causes the adjoining parts to bend. It acts like the brain of one of the lower animals ; the brain being seated within the anterior end of the body. And yet the tip of the root of Indian corn, unless held in place, has not power enough to penetrate or indent the thinnest tinfoil. It does not act like a nail when hammered into a board, but more like a wedge of wood, which, whilst slowly driven into a crevice, con- tinually expands at the same time by the absorption of water." A young stem of corn, the plumule of the seed, bends here and there in every direction, finding the easiest place out of the soil, and after reaching the surface and growing several inches above, it swings about, making the opening at the surface of the ground slightly funnel-shaped. Some plants are sensitive to Jarring or friction. Previous mention of this has been made in the chapter on leaves. Nature not only sows and distributes the seeds of grasses, but often buries them in the soil. Seeds are generally produced in profuse abundance, enough for perpetuating the species and enough to spare for the food of small animals, and enough to provide against numerous accidents and failures. After the seeds are scattered they are often shaded by other plants which aid in keeping them moist till they germinate. Freezing and thawing, rains and melting snows cover a portion of the seeds; the wind drifts soil or leaves or other small particles over others. 46 HOW SEEDS BURY THEMSELVES. Ill countrios subject to drouglit, M'hcro the soil is sandy und light, the awns ot St ij)a, DiDithonia, Arena, Ilctevcqwyon, Anthis- firia, Aira, und some others, assist the seeds in thrusting them- selves beneath the dry surface to u phu;e of moisture, where they may germinate. Some of these literally bore their way into the soil. When dry, the lower part of the awns of these grasses twists about, the upper jjortion bending otf at an angle; when wet, the awn untwists and finally becomes straight. The lower part of the chaff which envelopes some grass seeds is furnished with a sharp or obli(iue beak, provided with stiff hairs, which act as beards. By dropping such seeds on the surface, and alternately drying and wetting them, an experimenter will find that they penetrate the sand, even in some instances extending down six inches below the surface. It seems to make no difference whether the grains are dropped among sticks or stubble, or on smooth sand, they alike penetrate the soil. Even in clay soil the seeds work themselves into the cracks where the sun has dried it; on the re- turn of rains the cracks close, or soil covers the seeds. If the stubble, straw or any other objects ])revent the awn from turning around, the seed will revolve on its axis. Besides, if the awn be wet and held down by any object, as it tries to straighten itself it will help push the seed, like a brad-awl, into the ground. On wetting the grain and awn of Stijm pennata, Fran- cis Darwin (Transactions of the Linnean Societj^, p. 149, 1876), found that the rate increases up to the fifth revolution, and then diminished quickly. This is shown in the table: Turn. Completed in Turn. Completed in M. S. M. S. No. 1 2 30 No. 6 1 30 No. 2 2 00 No. 7 1 45 No. 3 1 45 No. 8 2 10 No. 4 1 35 No. 9 3 20 No. 5 1 35 No. 10 .. HOW SEEDS BURY THEMSELVES. 4T In tlirco wettings nnrl tlireo (Irvincs, littk" Fig. 60.— O vary and nwii of SVipn avoincca lxi.-(Sud- wortli). over im inch was buried in dry sand. A rise of temperature affects the awns in tlie same way as increased moisture; a fall of temperature acts like dryness. Mr. Darwin found that minute strips of the awn, consisting even of two long cells, twisted just as well as the entire awn. lie thinks the torsion is produced by the striation or stratification of the cell walls. There are series of parallel lines, alternately light and dark, traversing the surface of the cell. Very frequently the two systems wind sjiirally round the axis in opposite di- rections. When the tissue expands during the absorp- tion of water, it is due mainly to the swelling of the less dense strisv. This is thought to be the cause of torsion in cotton wool. Soon after being buried, where the soil is moist, the awn breaks off at a Joint from the apex of the grain. The seeds of some of these species, such as those of Sfipa sparfen, are very annoy- ing to sheep and other animals, such as are covered with thick hair. They sometimes even cause death. [Dr. M. Stalker in Am. Nat., p. 9:>9, 1884] Where plenty, they pen- etrate clothing about the ankles of people, and produce considerable trouble. Those, like sweet vernal, which are provided with feeble awns, Avork their way under leaves, sticks, rubbish, and find every little hole and crack in the dried earth, when the first rain covers them with soil. The fertile flowers of Amphicarjyum are not those on top of the culms, but those out of sight and among the roots under ground. Moles, ants, and other small animals move earth and cover seeds. FiK.OI.— Two long cells of an awn iso- lated and twiatin; Iry. enlarged.— (Trans when dr; enlar g e < Lin. Soc) Muc! h 48 THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS. CHAPTER Iir. PLANT GROWTH. Oermination of Seeds.— Figures 5G, 57, 58, on a former page, illustrate the parts of a kernel of corn and its mode of growth. For the account of the structure of the seed consult a former paragraph on this subject. It will be seen that the grain of corn, as is true of all the grasses, remains stationary where planted, at the base of the ascending axis. ** For germination to take place, moisture, oxygen and a suit- able temperature are necessary. Under these conditions the seed swells, oxygen is absorbed, a part of the carbonaceous ingredients is oxidized, heat is developed, and carbon dioxide is evolved. During these charges the solid ingredients of the seed gradually become soluble ; the starch and fat are converted into sugar; the albuminoids are converted into amides." — ( Waring- ton''s Chemhtry of the Farm.) In the Temperate Zones, the seeds of grasses germinate quickly at a rather low temperature, though there is considerable differ- ence in this particular. Some germinate a little above the freezing point, while every farmer knows that Indian corn, sor- ghum and millet start slowly, unless the weather be quite warm, and that the seeds will decay if kept wet and cold. Old or light seeds often sprout quickly, but produce weak plants. Though the seeds of grasses be secured when quite young, in the milk, a short time after flowering, when the endosperm is very small and the seeds shrivel as they dry, yet, if the embryo be formed and the seed well cured in a dry place, it will germi- nate. Dry seeds will endure much cold ; wet or green seeds will endure but little. Grass seeds may be covered deeper in a sandy soil than in clay, deeper in a rather dry soil than in a wet one. THE FUNCTION OF GREEN LEAVES. 49 Tlio Bocds of grasses ure quite small, and should seldom be covered more than the eighth or fourth of an inch deej). The only need of a covering is to keep the seeds moist, and in some cases to prevent birds or other small animals from eating them. If planted deep, the supply of oxygen is liable to be insufficient, or if it be present, the seed is likely to become exluiusted or much weakened in thrusting its young stem and leaves to the surface, where it nuiy reach the light and begin to make a per- manent growth of green leaves. All experiments are so much modified by the weather and condition of the soil, that to gi\e definite rules is difficult. The Function of Green Leaves.— Leaves not unfrequently absorb water in a liquid state as well as in the form of vapor, yet the roots absorb most of the water for plant growth. That leaves sometimes absorb water is most easily tested by observing the revival of cut flowers or plants when placed in a moist, tin box. ** The paramount function of the leaf is the absorption and assimilation of carbon, as such does not exist in the atmosphere, unless, indeed, as an impurity in air of towns, and a very preju- dicial one to plants." (Jfnstei's). The carbon of plants comes from carbon dioxide, and is decomposed through the agency of chlorophyll under the influence of light. Plants can endure darkness for a short time, but if long con- tinned the chlorophyll disappears and the leaves fade, and finally perish, as may be seen in Avarm weather where a board is placed on the grass for some time. Unless the air be saturated with moisture, which is not com- monly the case for long periods, the leaves evaporate largo quantities of water. The surplus passes off, leaving the con- densed assimilated matter for building up the plant. In a grow- ing season, while everything is thrifty, a grash-plant containfe 70 to 80 per cent or more of water. 7 00 THE PLANT IS A FACTOUY. The Plant Is a Factory.—" All tlio labour of Ww ].liiiit by wliich out of iiir, wator, and a pinch of divers salts scattorod in the soil, it builds up loaf and iL^eni and roots, and puts toj^'otlier material for seed or bud or bulb, is wrou},dit aud wroujjbt only by the {^reen cells, which i^ive greenness to leaf and jjranch or stem. We nuiy say of the jjlant, that the green cells of the green leaves are the blood thereof. As the food wliich an aninud takes remains a mere burden nntil it is transmuted into blood, so the material which the roots bring to the plant is mere dead food till the cunning toil of a chlorophyll-holding cell has passed into it the quickening sunbeam. Takeaway from a i)lant even so much as a single green leaf, and you rob it of so much of its very life blood." (Masfcrf^, quoted from (fdrdr tier's f'liroiuch'). A living plant is a machine or a factory, which, uiuler the in- fluence of light and lieat, transforms raw materiids into organic matter, suitable for enlarging the plant or enabling it to grow. In nearly all cases, some portions of a i)lant are dying while others are growing, and to some extent, one part is independent of other portions. This enables a plant to change its place of growth, to feed on its own stock of nourishment, or to recuper- ate when injured. The formation and enlargement of now cells constitute growth. To be ready for absorption by plants, matter must be in a liquid or gaseous condition. To a great extent a plant takes what it likes best, or is capable of controlling the quantity of any substance absorbed. Of the materials assimilated, a part goes at once to form cell walls, cork, mucilage, etc., and can never be changed by the plant into matter for constructing other parts of the i)lant, while other portions of assimilated material take the form of starch, oil, inulin, and are likely to be again changed and transferred once or more times to other portions of the plant. Only a very small part of the most fertile soil is in condition to be used for plant food. Some soils may contain a large COMPOSniON OF I'LANTS. 51 imioimt of matoriala whioh tho plants cannot take, or do not ni't'd. A fortilo soil is cuimhlo (f rotaining plant food, while sandy soils, owing to tiieir oxoollcni natnral drainago, aro not ft'i'tilo nnli'ss fn-quontly supplicil with manure. Two dilTLTciit kinds of plants growijig in the sanio ii'. Id will usually bo found to contain ciTtain substancus in diirercnt i)ro- })()rtion. Soino aro essential, others not ; Home in large quantity^ othcn^ in snudl cpnintity, yet. strange as it may seem, by the chemical composition of a plant we cannot always tell what manures will benclit it most. €oii J Lime. Phosphates. * " 1 Iron. Silicates. Soda. Chlorides. J I Magnesia. 53 THE COMPOSITION OF (JUAS.SES. COMPOSITIOX OF A Cliul' OF MEADOW GRASS. ^"^^'itei- -. 8.;5rs lbs. Carbon VMb] llv(li'() Silica 5T.5 Suud, tic 4.5 Combustible matter 3,G13 lbs. Ash. 209 lbs. Total cro]) 11,:*()() lbs. I'roni the soil ])Iants obtain, by means of tbeir roots,, all their ush constituents, all tbeir sulphur, and nearly the whole of their nitrogen and M'ater. From the atmosphere they obtain, through their leaves, the whole, or nearly the whoh', of their carbon, Avith probably snndl (|uantities of nitrogen and water. The amount and com])osition of the ash of succulent ])lants, as meadow grass and clover, is greatly inlluenced by the character of the soil and the manure applied. For most of the above iiaragrai)h the writer is indebted to the Chvnnstrii of ihv Fonn, by \\. Warington. Meadow hay contains a much larger ju'oportion of potash and lime than is found in the rijjened grain of the cereals. The Clieniieal (Composition of American Grasses.* "In submitting grasses to chemical analysis, with a view of judging of their nutritive value, it is usual to determine the amount pres- vont of water, ash, fat or oil, liber »Md nitrogen. From the latter the amount of albuminoids to which it is equivalent is readily <'alculated by multiplying by a factor which represents tlie per * Taken by permission from the Attricnltunil Grasses, by the United State Denart- jnentof AgriiiiUure, 1884, Clifford Riclmrlson, Assistant Cliemist. THE COMPOSITION OF (BRASSES. 53 oeiit of nitrogen present in the averago albuminoid, unci by sub- trai'tinir the sum of all tlioso constituents from one hundred, the percentage of uiuletermined nuitter is obtaiiud, and as it of course contains no nitrogen, and consists of the extractive ])rin- ciples of tlu> phint, it is described as '^'itrogen free extract.' It iiu'ludes all the carbo-hydrates, such a sugar, starch, and gum, toirether Avith certain other allied substances, with Avhich Ave are less intimately acquainted, but which have a certain nutritive value. ''Although it has been custonuiry to state as albuminoids the e([uivalent of the nitrogen found, this is rarely entirely correct . as a i)ortion is generally jjrescnt in a less highly elaborated form of rr smaller nutritive value. This ])ortion is described as non- album inoiil nitrogen, and in analysis of the ])resent day \\w amount is always given as an additional source of infornuition, although our knowledge of its exact value to the animal is rather uncertain. '•'Pile wide variations in ilber and albuminoids must be regarded as iieing entirely due to physiological causes, which arc dillicult to explain. Diuitaria i-diiipiiiialv, for instaiu-e, which in one speci- men contains the extreme amount of albuminoids and a small • amount of libi'r has iiianother on'y half as much albumen and one and three-quarter times as much iibi-r. AVc learn then, that species are not in themselves at all tixed in their com])osition, there being as large variations among specimens of the same as bctAveen specimens of different species. Amiliixin of Phleum pratcim' (Timothy) from varlinixltHsalUkx. FVIA, lU.OOM. _ LOCALITY. I £■ \ rogen. S 5 e fl4 s ! .ts 2. t "? l;.13 ^ , 1? 3 1 ! 3 r Ce itrog < -T.ir. lo.im t; .51 si!''*'' Dopiirdnoiil (Jardcii, ISHl 7.1IJ 4.47 1.75 ai.l DflnirtiiuMit (iiinli'ii, 1S,S() f).(Ml WM .■>«.n;i :.M.iKt II.IH) 1..W .:tH ^'4.0 Miirylaiul 4.ii;i \:ii .'W.Kl :i(i.4:< 7.tW» l.:st .15 \x:i New lluinpshiru 4.57 \:x\ 57.1(1 ^.:.'s 5.7i» .!•:» .1(» 10.8 liuUaiitt 7.U> •XM 5^'.iKt ;t.'.;.ti u^a, .88 .00 m ANALYSES OF GRASSES. Analysen of Dactylis ulomcrata (orchard gram) from various localitiex. FULL BLOOM. LOCALITY. North Carolina District of Columbia. Maine District of Columbia. Pennsylvania New Hampshire 7.43 8.07 8.03 0.00 f).:« 8.44 y. U4 S B o a £ ?? o S . c -£ g *J 3 C — i> 12 ~ tu s < 2 ° a 1 i 'i a.ti fc* ss" C^ "i; H ■k'^ ZM 50.03 33.08 9.91 1.58 .30 3.34 5!}.7ti 35.40 9..T3 1.5iJ .16 !{.!«» 54.80 2(5.0-. 8.74 1.40 .36 3.(13 57.!U 34.43 8.63 l.iW .43 3.(itl 54.119 27.51 8..T8 1.37 .51 3.49 54.75 34.91 8.41 l.;!5 ,43 ^« . o S.3 o - ? = i^ X < 19.0 10.5 35.7 30.4 37.3 30.9 "The diirerent sections furnish very different qualities of grasses, and for tlic reason that those from tlie north Avere almost entirely from cultivated soil, while tho.se from the other sections Avere many or most of them wild species from old sod. The imjirove- ment brought about by cultivation is marked, and the difference between a ton of wild western and eastern cultivated hay is apparent. <'In comparison with German grasses our best do not equal in amount of albuminoids, those classed by Wolff as fair, but they are far superior in having a much smaller percentage of fiber, and consequently a largo amount of digestible carbohydrates. In the grasses of both countries the fiber increases with regularity as the nitrogenous constituents decrease, and of the latter the non-albuminoid jiortion is relatively greatly the poorer the quality o the grass. "Analyses have been made of series illustrating the changes in composition of several species from the appearance of the blade to the maturity of the seed. "AVith a few exceptions the specimens were personally collected in the grounds of the Department. They all grew in the sum- mer of 1880 except the few series illustrative of the first year's growth of certain species. The specimens were cut close to the roots, weighed and dried rapidly in a current of air at 60" C. •spiouiuimiiv -.10(1]^ apiu.) U ! < I 32 •I'M •i(«V ANALYSES OF GRASSES, uas^i/is =2 «e « ;e x" c; o s; «;' x r-.— — — — Tl'—i "-^i i.":i.t'i-i-i->.'; x''.c UsSjcjia 32 55 -a^lBAV X — ^-^ccifto i-x'o — :;' — 1- « 2 1- :i •-■} i.t i.i ■MX -55 1-C5 1-33T1 X •piOlllllIIKHV -iiojj ua/-fiu)|x C: 1 - -* — -i X « X— 1 lis •iiaSoj)] ; PlOUjUUUilll-IIOJi i;i."?«S5s m Sl?S^.Srs ^« •iisrio.ilix llill'.l, »i»tti — -- — ^ !-:j5 C ? •§ •* i"^ ? ; i — — ■ — ■ — -; S5 i •sp|()iiiiiiii(|iv rf j2ri^ = i:x x-S :t5?i?vg2 Ji;d22'='-^ x'l- 1 •.I3.11J opii.!,) ir:*x-3iJt;2!2 -» " ** i^ *? "? ■).iK.U>i;,[ 1—1 ri i noj 5S «U5 •tisv -fX xi.-i 5.^.'>'S2:? S3 1 's.ia)9iii|i -uaj uj niJlian ^ SJS5i55ii:!i? 53 ?iSSj!5iS?J ss I ■)''3 "^'l.W CSC s>-<^>^ c a cesses cX- i M ■< x C a IB c ~ = -i a ; ' •• ^-s 2» -5? = IS 0- c »! Z i2 : :E i :.. c*5.2 ■« . ■/-. o 5 Cm 0. : c c 5 aC'?l^'^.?'c'S '^ --i Ji »i »i »i •J3}«AV SSS$ 8SSS8 X C5 CO ifl O! »l » J^ScoS ^«x=:.. SSij;:^ ^i^SSS S52^i2 CCCvCO = 82?? p-# B •ua3ojjjM iBjox Si^S.^ 1.75 1.25 .88 .89 .78 1..55 1.54 .84 .87 »l pp f-i .-i 1.99 1.16 ■spiouiiunqiv 14.15 10.99 8.74 8.18 10.97 7.80 5..52 5..57 4.84 I- zr. o o la 15.97 9.53 8.25 MX I' •J3(|H apnjo I •l",'l 1^ Q f-H 15 ■^ is ift irt 1-1- XiJ'* r-' Elliot CO S?|f???.^l JJ2?;S eo' co" co' •i|sv •SJ»J3lll]J -U30 U! iMriiaii •411,) uai'.VV g 'A u X I S2S1S SSSSg £r2Lo3&' I- 1- 1- «o i« C". -J 1; 1- OS ;C coo rHfl i-H PS S 3 X IS K — 'O p 3 3 3 3 & : c ; 61' , m I *t- ' s ; -w O a ;s el. It 01 .23 ^_ S l£ o « 8 U o x' x' OS X «' :s iff Iff I* Iff ciiifx-;! *..i J O a; > c c s c-r I. >> St. c IK « ■< o i o « , |<1 h-t > o O f O 1 ^53 ANALYSES OF GRASSES. 07 2.65 3.89 2.31 4.17 4.64 4.74 3.54 5.51 .91 3.96 3.53 3.34 4.23 5.70 6.65 4.17 5.22 9.51 8.47 4.30 6.67 6.68 10.74 ;8 10.64 7.81 11.05 5.84 6.67 5.43 8.75 11.94 12.03 21.73 18.15 Si'5i:; ,1—1 553 18.64 17.27 17.05 30.79 1.41 1.90 1.51 2.03 1.08 1.04 1.17 1.14 1.19 1.10 1.87 1 5 'Am 9i9J9J» 2.11 1.84 3.10 2.73 1.88 1.61 2.33 2.81 Ix ;9i 3.22 2.62 2.81 2.49 2.13 1.78 2.47 .- 1 - CO 76.70 70.80 71.90 1 55.90 ;§ 55.40 66.20 54.60 67.90 68.70 70.70 51.80 38.3 40.9 0.0 5.0 15.1 11.2 1.0 18.5 ] ecJt-: 17.6 8.4 12.7 20.3 21.1 17.8 5.8 26.4 22.2 24.5 SgSS SS5SS 9in'-Hli 91 9' -^r- 91 -TT.ri 'C " O" X ■^ ^ »'* "♦ »i5 •-* tit IQ 1. 1- i'i" 3? H SSSSS 2S felS^; S5J3 XX— O SX 91 1- X « 91 91 91 -^-H i-ir-Ji-; c; a 91 91 91 1» x'si- 52SS SJi 'iSa c: ift 91 191*{ H 91 9! 2 -Ei;. OJ .0) t^ r*» >) oJ cfi :d S^5 ti .S ' I- I 0! I V ' fctJ 3-° 53 0.2 '^S re U H c c i -c : ; 8 ; ; u ; ; c ai : cS : jj X C d *2 ' b ' ! o ! o : ; s. ' ' c : ; o ; ' ^ ■ i£« ■ o i o 91 = 5 < ; c •3S C C 2S^!SS? « ■^_ c: I- s: S -+ C<5 91 i-J .-< r-i 91 rt 0> O s: 1^ as « « o: O 91 91 x' xjsa;;^ 6.89 6.50 4.69 4.46 3.50 4.88 4.07 ;5.90 4.25 4-:s C9 9i 3.92 :5.41 3.51 i.-: -*' ■* ri 11.50 10.52 10.14 10.95 9.21 7.75 8.17 8.07 5.51 8.30 6.:$8 Si' oi-: I- 1- •£ X I- =i 7.75 6.81 6.08 5.15 ^ i ; ! sssg ;3 1.9 X 1.9 i : : ;5sss '-'"U55 « » « £> c a c a P S S 3 U ♦- S :a c c p c £| ■PS ■° ^ cc£-i) a o " +.* ~ o o c :s c ^ c = "'Je 3 . ; C ; i O O t< 58 ANALYSES OF GRASSES. is I a tf w '8p|ou|ainqiv 'jacilj apiuf) 8'c!; «'»i I •pnajXM j 03J,{ U3Jlu.l||{4 '»».< •iisv l:S5 S3 as" gr:S? ?:3 •a»t«AV SJS Sri S£33 SSJitSS ^'iiri'ii i •|)|c)iimini(iv iiiii^ ii.)rfii.rt|\ JO -(US.) a.»,| ■iiaSo.i}]x P!OU|mni||n-iiu{j •usSoaiix Iil^X i'S sp|iiti;iinii(|V ?M- •jaqij apii.13 •).)1.MIXH 3S ^^ 5^S SS 82:=s!5 ?\^»M owe?-* IrZ^-ir* OO X_ X O 3 »i »i ?t rt 1^ «-»•«-- Xi-""9:2 dSM-ixi- ociwi- -H ~: -H x' I- 1 - -<^ ■m" -r 3: X ff »''l ift in iji »35 »^ tl5 -^ i^ i^ io '5 •I'lJ S5S SS •iisv osx -ua,") in iiti"5 h'^-^ -H-f-f^l-H >> >» >i >- i- M^i^ o C a! o §§ u £ . y. 'A ^< a: >'. KM II S C -!< I e = ■3 2 3 - {Cionvi\ Family) contains squashes, pumpkins, melons, musk melons, gourds, and cucumbers. The Uni belli f era' (Parsley Family) includes the carrot, chervil, colery, turnip-rooted celery, parsley, parsnip, caraway, coriander, fennel, lovage, and sweet cicely. The CompositcB (Sunflower or Aster Family) is the largest family of flowering plants, and contains about one-eighth of all species in the United States. It affords a largo number of weeds, such as thistles, ox-eye daisy, rag-weed. May-weed, yarrow, fire- wecd, dandelion, burdock, cocklcbur, flea-bane, and many more. It cont.ains a largo number which are valuable for ornament, as asters, zinnias, dahlias, feverfews, cinerarias, chrysanthemums, and sunflowers. Considering the enormous size of the family, about 10,000 species, wo should expect something profitable in the lino of field and garden products. The best it can do is to furnish lettuce, two kinds of artichokes, dandelion, salsify, chic- ory, endive, and sunflower. There is not a fruit nor a valuable vegetable, properly so-called, nor a good forage plant, so far as we know, in the entire list. The Ericaccce (Heath Family) is one of much interest to the florist. It includes the cranberry, blueberry, huckelberry, rho- dodendron, azalea, laurel, heath, and trailing arbutus, or May- flower. FAMILIES OF GREATEST WORTH. (» Thr Ciiitro/rit/anv (("oiivolvuliiH Fiimily) alTovd* tii6 sweel 2)()tato, moniiiij,' glory, iiiid rypros.s vine. The SohiHdvciii (Xiglit-sliiule Family) furnishos tlio jxjtato, tomato, egg-plant, jjepper, ground-cherry, tobacco, belladonna, bittersweet, petunia. ThcChcnojiOiliacew (Goosefoot Family) aiTords the beet, spinach,. orac)»e,Swisa chard, and Kcveral weeds. The Pohjgonacem (Buckwheat Family) contains buckwlieat, rhubarb, knot-grass, sorrel, several docks, and s®kirtwced. The Scitamincw (Gingerworts) includes the cinnamons, gingers, bananas, and arrow-roots. The Liliacew (Lily Family) gives us the lily, hyacinth, tulip,, asparagus, chives, garlic, leek, onion, shallots. There are several other families which contribute more or less to the crops of the field, orchard and garden. The Gramincw (Grass Family) is by far the most important of any, and is noticed on the succeeding page. For making clothing, there are two families of much value^ viz: The Malvacew (Mallow Family) containing okra, mallow, hol- lyhock, hibiscus, al)utilon, and the cotton i)hint, and The Linacew (Flax Family) including the flax, valuable for its fiber as well as the seeds which furnish linseed oil. The Lahiatm (Mint Family) U quite remarkable for aromatic herbs, and contains basil, balm, sweet marjoram, pennyroyal, lavender, spearmint, peppermint, horehound, hyssop, thyme, summer savory, rosemary, bergamot, cat-mint, motherwort and sage. Our leadhiff trees belong to about twelve families, including the tulip-tree and magnolias, the basswood, the holly, the maples, the catalpas, the ashes, the elms, the buttonwood, the walnuts, and hickories, the oaks, chestnuts, beech, the birches, and alders, the willows, and poplars, and last, but by no means the least. U GRAMINE^. tho cono-beiirlng trees. The latter contains the cedars, eypresses, sequoias, lialsains, lirs, Hprucos, larelies, and j)inert. Gi'ainiiieH> (The Gniss Family.)— Tufted annuals or peren- nials, usually herbaceous and evergreen ; with fibrous roots, often stoloniferous or with a creeping rhizoina. Sfriii (''ulni) endo- genous, simple or branched, cylindric, rarely compressed, usually hollow, and closed at tho joints, sometimes solid, especially when young; the nodes solid, mostly swollen. Zcru'es parallel veined, rarely net veined, narrow, ujulividetl, alternate, rarely two or more at a node, distichous; pefiolo dWntod, usually convolute, sheathing tho culm, margins free or often united, especially in the lower leaves; ligitle adnate to the sheath at the base of the blade, scarious, sometimes only a cartilaginous ring or a fringe of liairs. Ii/Jlorcscence, spicate, capitate, racemose or paniculate. T/ii' SpikcletH consist of two, three or more, distichous, chaff- like concave scales or bracts {glumes), their concave faces to- wards tho axis {rhachilh), the 2, or sometimes 1, or rarely 3 or more lower ones, and sometimes 1 or more upper ones empty, the other one or more with one sessile flower in the axil of each. Floral glume terete or laterally compressed, enclosing a 1-2-sexnal flower, and a flat, often i^i-nerved scale (palea) with, inflexed edges. Perianth of 2 (rarely or 3 or more) minute scales (lodicules), placed opposite the palea. Stamens {andrce- ciiirn) usually 3, sometimes 1, 2, 4, (J or more, even to 30, one of which alternates with two lodicules, filaments very slender, anthers versatile, 2-celled, linear, pendulous; pollen mostly yellowish-white, sometimes purple or red. In rare cases the stamens are monadelphous, as in Streptochxeta. Ovary simple, free, sessile, sometimes stipitate, 1-ovuled ; styles 2, rarely 3, free or more or less united ; with hairy or feathery stigmas ; ovule anatropous. Fruit (caryopsis) erect, free or often adherent to the palea, and sometimes to the floral glume. THE GRASS FAMILY. 95 Si'fd usuiilly luliuito to tlu- })uru'uri) (frci' in Sjinrolmlus) testa nu'inbriinous, cndoxpvrm fiirimiccous, or Hoiucwliat liorii y. Kinhnji> lit the inner side of the cndosporni iit its base ; rohjh'ilon Hcutolliiti' ; pJumnle well cloveloi)i'(l ; radklc tliick, ol)tiist', ondoriiizal (with a slicath). Tlu' I'Hibryo tontaiiis one, (^ol'ti'U five as in \\iifat)or nioro rudimentary rootH. Tlie peculiarities of the slyh'S, stigmas, lodicuk-s, and tlio caryopsis are of great value for deseribing grasses, I)ut on uecount of their snnill size ami the difVifulty of always finding grasses in fiower, they liave not Iteen much eniidoyed for that purpose. It is not botanically eorreet to call any plants (/raises unless they belong to this family {Gramincw). There are numy widely different plants which in popular language hnvo the name *' grass" attached to them, su(di as knot-grass, rib-grass, cotton-grass, sea-grass, eel-grass, sedge-grass, the clovers, and others, but these do not belong to the family here under consideration. The plants most likely to be mistaken for grasses are the ('///irnict'di (sedges), of which there are two thousand species or more. They are abundant on wet land, and often constitute h large part of what is known as bog or marsh hay. Sedges have three ranked leaves, or loaves spreading in three directions. The (Irnminem (grass family) contains Indian corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye, rice, doura, sorghum, broom-corn, sugar-cane, millet, Hungarian grass, bamboo, Timothy, red top, June grass, fowl meadow grass, blue joint, buffalo grass, orchard grass, meadow fox tail, the fescues, rye-grass, oat-grass, sweet vernal, Bermuda grass, and many more which contribute to the food of domestic tinimals. The grass family heads the list of food producing plants, which are the foundation of all agriculture. The cereals, such aa sor- ghum, rice, doura, nmize, wheat, rye, oats, barley, furnish a large part of the food of the human race, while the meadow and 9 66 GRASS IS KINO. pasture grasses, together vvitli the cereals, largely feed onr do- mestic aiiiinals. Along the low lands of India and some other tropical countries, many millions of pi!oi)le subsist nuiinly on rice, while further back " the higher lands, a much larger number feed on several varieties and species of sorghum. Sorghum feeds the most l)eople of any cereal, while wheat outranks them for making the best quality of food. To assist in comprehending their great importance, let us glance at the figures us they appear in the lust census of the United States, — taken in 185)0: Corn, bu8hol3 8.122,000,000 Oiits, bushels 80!».000,0()0 Wheat, bushdg 408.000,000 Barley, Imsbels 78.000,000 Rye, bushels 28,000.000 Total, bushels 3,5O.-),0OC.O00 To these figures must be added, as belonging to the grass family: Hay, tons 67,000,000 Rir-v pounds 129,000,000 B m corn, pounds 30,000,000 Sugar, pounds 801,000,000 Molasses, gallons from (cane and sorghum) 'jO,000,000 To these figures we might add the immense products of graz- ing, including meats, horses, cattle, swine, hides, wool. Live stock alone foots up *'^\2U8, 707,000. The estimate for hay most- likely includes the cloverR. (SRASS IS KINO. 67 Of tlu! stiiplo (!ro|).'- Mu! Unitod Slates, tlui rea8e. There are many groat tracts in Nebraska, miles and miles in extent, over whose whole surface the grasses eonsti" tute fully nine-tenths of the actual vegetation." 6S WHERE GUASSES (iROW. '• Of the individuiil jilaiits on tlu; gw.at pniirios of [\\v North- w(!st, 00, yes, Ill» pel' cent are gnissesi" — (Seribner). 'J'liero arc about 3U0 genera and .*{,10() to 15, 200 species. They are tlu^ most abundant in the tcmi)erate zones, wliere they often clotlu! lari,'e tratits with a growth Avliicli is iiiie, soft, atid thick. Hero the rtxtci'tv ])redoniinate. In tlus tropics tlie Pnuivem are proniineiil: niai.y of which are more isohited, growing singly in \ ufts or snuill groups. In tlie temperate zones grasses are sleiulcr, and seldom more than a few feet in height; in the tropics they ])ec()me giant bamboos, dO or ev(!ii 170 feet liigli, and eight or ten iiufhes in diameter, approaching a tree in size. In the T'nited States, east of the ]\Iississi])()i, the grasses con- stitute al)out one t wclfth of all tlit^ species of llowering j)lants. A State like ^Michigan. Illinois, oi- Massatdiusetts, has been found to contain not far from 1150 sitecies of grass. It is not inujom- mon in the noi'thern States to find 00 si)ecies within a distance of a, few niik's of each other. Although very few grasses 2)0ssess brilliant or ai'omatic llowers, and look so humble and so much alik(\ tliere are few ])lants which ai'c more beautiful in "all stages of growth, whether examined one liv one or ill masses; with the naked eye or with the inicrosco|:)c."" — (American Agriculturist, i'T, ISf)'*.) Willi has not admired a gently rolling licld iis the wind swept over t lu^ even tops of thick grain? What view surpasses a held of waviny; 'M'ass, uv a closely shaven lawn!-' (irass is "a thing of beauty and a joy forever." It even Ix^autilies tlu' grave, spread- ing a green carpet over the reuuiins of friends gone before. •' llci'c I <-()iiic tTeepiii;i,', crecpiiii;' cNcrywhere; \\\ tlie rusty roadside, On llie sunny hillside. Close by the noisy brook, In evi'ry shady nook. I come creeping, creejiin^ everywhere." — (Sariih Roberts.^ THE NAME OF A PLANT. 09 In very curly spring, sonus of tlio grasses begin to jint iorth their green leiivcs, which are soon succeeded l)y tlie culms, wliich carry the llowers. In the northern States Poa annua is the iirst to unfold, its spikelets, and sjiread its ilowers, which arc soon followed by Orijziipsis, Poa .sijlre.sfn'.s, sweet vernal and meadow foxtail. In central ^Michigan, these and })erha|)S a few more, blossom in May, Avhile June is as jjrofuse of grasses as it is (jf roses. Quite a numljcr flower in July, and some delay till August and September. The annuals arc nsually late in ilowcr- iiig, tiiough some of the perennials are very hite ; for instancte the ^luhh'nbcrgias, Andropogons and ChnjsopiKjon nntans. Tho \sillie of a IMsillt consists of two words, first the //r;/ry/6- second tlic .s/icrijjr. These must lutve the Latin form. I'lie gen- vr'w. name is substantive and singuhir, and very nearly answers to the surname of a ])ers()n ; the specific name is most generally an adjective (rarely a noun), and agi'ecs with the noun in gender and number, "^f he Kj)ei'ilic nanus is followed by a mime or the abbreviation of tlui name of the person who applied that name to tlie ])lant nnder consideration. Latin names ai'cs often objected to by ])ersons who cannot see why tlie common English names will not answer every purpose. IJut suppose tlui (Jermans and tins Freiudi should say the same thing of the plants they describe(|? Cierman and I-'rench names arc not so <(asy for us as those in the Latin form, 'fhose in Latin are often sliort ami easy, and have been adopted as the comnujn nanu's, such as Dahlia, Crocus, Ixia, Orchis, and Iris. '^I'liere is certainly an objection to using such mimes as Krai^chenmnikorid, An(lr;:vi(}f,\kya, and Plcii r. The rhizomes of some are very useful in ])reventing the water from Avashing away the soil. Of marine grasses tlie following are examples: Spartina juncea, AVilld. (Rush Salt-Orass), GJyceria ttiaritima, "NVahl. (Goose-grass), Psamma iirenaria, \\. & S. (Sea Mat-weed.) •i. The Meadow or Pasture ilrassos. — Most of the grasses of much value to agriculture belong to this section. They are the leading grasses of our best meadows, pastures, and the grazing lands of the prairies, and have received the most attention in this work. Some of these are especially suited to, — a. Upland pastures, thin soils. 1). Poor, stiff soils, hungry clays. c. Rich, deep loams. d. ^Meadows on the banks of rivers, subject to perennial floods. c. Irrigated meadows, in which the water can be entirely con- HOW TO STUDY THE GRASSES. 75 trollud, hong lists luivo been given, but there is mueli risk in prescribing for sucli a great country as tlie United States. /). The Aijrarian Grasses are moro properly those which occur in land under tillage. They are weeds such as IJromtis secalinus, L. (Chess), A(/ropi/rov repens, L. (Quack or Couch Grass), Set aria n'ridis, Beauv. S.t/lauca, Beauv. (Fox tails), J'a/ncinn sanyuinale, L. (Finger Grass). The various Uses of Grasses. — These are, — 1°. For the grain as food, cereals, or drink as whisky, etc. 'il°. For pasture. 3°. For hay. 4°. For nianufactun^s, paper, substitute for lumber, sugar, nuits, hats, etc. ; bamboos for many things. 5*^. For fuel; the tops in close ovens, Indian corn in stoves. 0°. For preventing the wasliing of banks and drifting of sands. How to begin the Study. — We will suppose the learner has but a very limited kjiowledge of botany and is possessed of some enthusiasm, a good stock of patience and perseverance. The latter cpudity is of the greatest importance, and without it, suc- cess cannot be attained. A diligent pursuit of the subject is sure to crown the student with success, and this, for several good reasons, is worth all it costs. This book contains many good illustrations, but a study of pictures alone, with a few superficial glances at plants, will never make a botanist. There nuiy be a hundred names, rather uncom- mon and technical, to become familiar with, but this should dis- courage no person of good ability. All of these words are defined ill the glossary at the eiul of the volume. To have the use of a good, simple miscroscope magnifying ten to twenty diameters is absolutely essential. This should be mounted on a stage or block on which the flowers or other small parts may be laid, while both hands are free for dissecting with :« now TO STUDY THE GRASSES. lu'odlos mounted in luuulle-s. C'oniinoii niiinlicr fivo noi'dios, Ijroken in two, und witli forceps puslied blunt end first into tlio pitli of u one-} car-old stem of European lurch, iire cheap, nice, and durahle. There should he some means of adjusting or vary- ing the focal distance of the microscope. A small, sharp kuife, and a pair of fine-pointed forceps will lu^ very usi'ful. Take in hand a complete specimen of some grass, the name of which is well known. AVe will suppose it is a sample of Timothy (PIilcHin. ]>r((fe)isr, Jj). If dry, the flowers or top can he made soft by soaking in Avater, if warm all the better. The roots are fibrous; the stalk, ciiJni, has solid joints, hodcs, from each of which starts a leaf. Towards the base of the stalk, the nodes are close together, and one or more jnay be enlarged or swollen into a simple fuher or coi'di, sometimes improperly spoken of as the I/kU). For some distance above each node, the sheath of the leaf rolls like a scroll around the stem, one edge covering the other closely, but usually not growing fast together. At the upper end of the sheath, the blade of the leaf si)reads away from the culm. Just "where the blade leaves the stem, at the throat ()( the sheath, is a delicate ring, fringe, or often a thin, scarious appendage. This is the Jlyitlv, the form of which is usually constant in all the plants of one sjiecics. The leaves are alternate, one at each node, and two ranked, i. e., there are two rows of leaves alternating with each other on ojiposite sides of the stem. The leaves are parallel veined, and may be stripped or torn lengthwise into narrow pieces. The beginner may consult the clia})tcr which treats of leaves. The top of the stem bears a cylindrical tipiJce of S2)ikelets, some of which on close examination, it v.ill be seen, have very short branches. Select a small portion of the material from the spike and place in a drop of water, while it is seen with the microscope. AVith one needle hold a portion fast, and with the other or with the force^if! separate the parts of tlie specimen. HOW TO STUDY THE GRASSES. 77 Figure f33 lllnstriitcs wliiit should 1k' soon. At ? iiro the onfer (jhnncs, lookiiij; nnich alike iu sluii)o and size. At the haao one tipljears to he a trllle iusld(( of the other. They are ti|»])ed with .1 iiinci'onafv awn, and are n'/idfc on the hack. If cut in two crosswise, tin* section of a glume appears in shape inncli like ii hroad letter \. At tho Ihiso of the letter is a ril). Such glumes are /I'cr/n/. At '? is the lloral glume, covering tho jxdcn, which is ratlier snndlcr. Still ■witliin tho palca, if tlie speeinuMi he in flower, may he secMi three sU'udi'r Jrlamenfs, each hearing an toillwr at tlio extremity. At tho center is a small ovary, from tln^ top of Avhicli spread two fcsathery .s7/^/»^^s'. Turn totiic [lagc whcn^ Phlvnm. prdfensc, L. is descrihed, if yon have not ali'cady done so. Do not hurry, hut try hard to understand evcrytiiing as you proceed, and whenever you come to a word wiiich i ; not under- stood, consult the glossary or some other jtortion of tlie hook. Tn a not(> hook nuike a list of all the new technical Avords, per- ha[ts with their delinitions, and fre([uently study them over like a spelling lesson, till they hecome familiar. AVitli this thorough- ness on the start, you will very soon master the difliculties and progress Avill ho certain and satisfactory. Ivcview often and thus hecome "well acquainted with the first lessons. This review may not he so interesting as advanced lessons, hnt it is time spent in a very prolitahle nninner. The heginner is likely to hurry and run over too much ground. He is almost certain not to understand what he looks over. lie hecomes superficial, and often fancies he is learning a good deal, wlu'U in reality he possesses scarcely anv definite information of value. The following are suggested as desirahle grasses for tho beginner to study : Hay or rye-grass, Lolinm, rpiack grass and wheat, harlcy, rye, wild rye. It makes no difTercnce which is taken up first. The reader will soon see that those last named TO EFFECTS OF OVER -FEEDING GRASSES. agree in several respects, and belong to the same tribe, Hordecp. In each case, free use can be made of the excellent illustrations, but the careful examination of each species must ■not bo omitted. Another lot of closely related species are sweet vernal, canary- grass and vanilla grass. One genus contains June grass, wire grass, fowl-meadow grass and a few others which are common. Orchard grass is of fair size and well suited to the beginner. It is an excellent plan, where possible, to tako up in connec- tion with each other, especially in reviews, grasses whicli are nearly related. Any two such species may very i)rofitably be critically compared. " There is no way for the student to do but to take the thing described in his hand, and patiently compare it Avith the defini- tion given, until he distinctly sees the application of every part. He must, tlierefore, take a cornstalk or some otlier grass, and study its structure until he has made out every statement in the definitions given.'' — (Gould). CHAPTER V. NATIVE GRAZING LANDS. Effects of Over-Feeding Dry Districts. — The grazing of sheep and cattle often change the character of vegetation for the worse instead of better. Every farmer knows the value of sheep to exterminate wild raspberries, blackberries and most other bushes, but many times they also introduce troublesome weeds as well. Dr. A. Gray, in Am. Jour. Science in 1874, notices a contribu- tion by Dr. Shaw to the Linnean Society, in reference to the ill effect of overstocking the dry grazing districts of Southern EFFECTS OF OVER- FEEDING (",RASSES. W- Africa with Merino sheep, 'rroublesorue burrs ure introduced, which crowd the grasses besides injuring the wool. When first introduced, the sheep fed mainly on the grass, which in this dry, hot country, began to fail. There were too many sheep for the moderate supply of grasses. Soon the sheep fed on the brush and scrub, and the ground left to them, and to obnoxioua and i)oisonous herbs. As the vegetation became scarce, bitter and nauseous plants of the neighboring region came in and helped to extirpate the indigenous llora, and render it more and more unfit for sheep. As these were forced to eat diagreeable food, it greatly injured the mutton. AVhat is true of Southern Africa is proving true in many parts of the dry, native pastures of the United States. Xumerous herds will soon over feed and "stamj) out " the native grasses. Continuous manuring of any kind, continuous mowing or pasturing, — a continuous treatment of any kind will soon i)ro- duce a change in the plants. Dr. Samuel Aughey, in Science, 1883, in speaking of the Nebraska flora, says : " A remarkable peculiarity is its change- able character. This is conspicuous among the grasses. In 18(15, much of the uplands of Lancaster county was covered with buffalo-grass. By 1871 nearly all of this species had disappeared, and its place was taken by blue-joints {Andropo'<' after nightfall and a long forced drive to reach grass and water npon such a meadow, and to be compelled to picket our horses on such pasturage, closely gmiwed away by the herds of ranches far and near, seems hard, but from ^lay till August the valleys and plains afTord nothing better. Sporoholus criipfnndrus var. stricfns has much the habit and value of S. Wri(jhtii. Sporohulns <^s;^><'/•//W///^s occupies j)atches (»f wet soil with a fine herbage, and its abundant and leafy sterile culms yield forage more easily appreciated by animals. Panirum ohtusum growing in low lands, particularly in the partial shade of shrubs, contributes a trifle of forage by its long, wiry, but leafy creeping stems. In low lands scattered tufts of Andropoyon saccharoides and Trichloris fasciculata contribute a better food to animals, as 84 NATIVE GRASSES OF THE PACIFIC SLUl'E. apccptal)l(', i>r(»l)al)ly, u« any alTordod by the pon'imial {rrasscs. Paiiifuni lucojt/iwHin and Ainlro/)0(/>ni ronforfii.s, in tlit-ir scat- tered tufts on tlu' niesus and foot lulls, are of siniilur value. llUario rit/ida on sandy ])lains has hard steuisan*! tough leaves, l)iit aniiiiids arc forced to consunu' it. Panirum fusi-mn, P. rapilhiro var. , and P. rolonviii are rather weeds of tilled lields, and as forajre jtlants |)rol>al)ly equal /'(Uticmn Cnis^jaUi, P. san(fi(bi(ih'. Srfarin f/Iaiini aiul >'. n'n'th's. ^^ ith theni may lie classed ILlopiis punrfalus, I'h'afjrostis Piu'shii var. (liffunn, Chlo- risalhti, Lvjitorhloa vincronala, as they are tender and eaten with avidity. Aijroxlis rerticillnld, on tlie margins of water courses, xti a tender and nutritious morsel; so also Entonia ohtusnfa, less abundant in Arizona, Aifi'dxIU vxurata by brooks, and Phalaris intermedia, more widely scattered along streams and in wet. cul- tivated soil. To cattle straying over miles of arid wastes, nibbling at the leaves of thorny trees and shrubs, or i)ulling here and there a bitter weed, such grasses a.' Scfai'ia caiidala. Trimspis puhdiella and mutica, Mi!ldeuhcr(jia dehiJis, and even Arisfida Americana and J. Iliimholdfiana, and linnfelnna arisfidoides aiul other species, all scattered iv. thin tufts over hill and mesa, furnish dainty bits seized upon with avidity. When the summer rains fall abundantly these species renew their groAvth, or spring up from seed, and grow rapidly, so as to cover the soil with a pretty close growth of herbi\ge, wliioh furnishes an abundant pasturage to fatten herds during tne autumn months. Only a small part of this is consumed while green; but drying up in the droughts of October and Xovember, and being little weather beaten in that dry climate, it serves co sustain the herds through the winter and early spring months. The more densely covered areas are sometimes mown for hay. Coilea makes its growth entirely, as far as I liave observed. nativp: grasses of the pacific slope. 89 (luring the (sumiiu'r rains, aiiitl tiiis iiiid tlic two s]»et'it'S of J'tiji/m- liliot'Kvt may 1k' classed in ]»oint of economics value with the s])ec'ie8 of Aristida nwA lioii/chnta, tliougli apparently less ((mi- nion than tliese. flUuria renrhroidrs, a perennial, not rare on liiils, grows freely, fruits during tlie dry months, from April to duly, and contribute.! a little to save stock from starvation. So likewise does Muhlvulivi'tjia, lioth wiry Init nutritious grasses. Under the summer rains they grow more luxuriantly ; and the latter growing in bushy (dumps, retains in its wiry stems much nutriment. sy mountain s]>rings. in winter und early spring the hills and plains are green with a s])ecies of Crane's-bill {Erodium), called by the Spaniards " Altilerilla.'" Formerly Avena fat ua covered the hills and valleys of Califor- nia, but it has been reduced in extent by shee]). The native grasses contribute but an insigniticant 2>ortion toward the maintenance of the flocks and herds of California. On the open ranges, cattle scour largo areas, browsing upon every green thing that is not too repellant or too repulsive. Aira {DoscJiamjtsia) danthonioules oiTers, on damp mesas, etc., patches of fine, soft herbage, which is eaten with avidity by animals. Deyeuxia Alentica, growing in dense tufts on the northern coast and adjacent hills, is often sufficiently abundant to be of importance in pasturage ; although it is a coarse grass, cattle eat it readily. Deyeuxia Bolanderi, sparingly scattered through damp forests, with Hierochloa niacrophylla and Phalaris amethystina (these observed at Mendocino) are most tender and palatable, but are of very slight amount. Deyeuxia rubescens, a hard grass, grows in small, scattered AdKlCl'ITURAL ORASSKH OK MONTANA. 8T jHitchcs, or ihiii tufts, im ])iiu' luiriH-ii |>luins, wliert^ tlioro is notliin^j elso to fei'd di'iT. IllymUD condciisa/iis ^towh in (liin chunijs, «»r siiuill, sciittt'nMl l)atclH's; its leavi's, though tough and hard, jiri' stripiu'il otT hy liungry aninuils. OrijZdpsis rusj)i'(l(t/(i, S/xirnoo/ns almidcs and Sli/xi .s/)i'n'.o,"ti are tufted grasses, scattcrt'il over tlic ^lojave desert, and furnisli an occasional hite, itahitahlc, thou;,di tough to clicw, to antelopes, and to strolling cattle and shec'i). (ihjrerin paiicijlDra, found on ruins of mountain tarns, is a tender and sweet grass to dei-r or stock coining to drink. Mclini I'liijierfer/diuul Stipa svtiijero. tufted species fre<|Uenting mesas and hills, an' tender and nutritious in Ajjril and May. Tliroughout tiie mountains where cattle cannot ])e herded so successfully, sheep are everywhere led by their herders, swarming like vermin, and creeping up to the very ])innacles ot rock or to tlio snow line, nibbling or tramping in the dust all vegetation. No grass at ever so great an altitude, but nxust contribute its mito towards the susteiumce of these flocks. Thus SfijHt strict (t, Sporohuhtft (lejxiKpcnitii.s. S. tjniciltiiniiK, Affi'ostis z'an'dHs, Tri^vlKin rnnvstrns, Mt'tiai .strict d, Pna teniiifolin and P. Priitijlei, on bare mountain tops and around mountain springs und rills, must all yield a dainty mouthful to the miserable dust begrimed sheep, compelled in their ascent to live on the foliage of shrubs aiul on brittle herbs. Dcyeuxia vquivatvix, a tender und sweet grass, grows on the verge of mountain brooks. Ai^ricultiiral (brasses of Montana. — The following notes are from a paper read at the fifth meeting of the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science, by F. Lamson Scribner : "Although located so far north, and at no point less than three thousand feet above the level of the sea, horses and cattle thrive upon the ' ranges ' throughout the year without care or 18 AURICULTUKAL (iKASSt^S OF 3I0NTANA. slu'lter. Til tho vullovs the standing grass curi's, with nil tho nutritive ijrojx'rties liold within the tissues, atTpiiii[eadow Foxtail. ACJinci'LTUKAL liUAS«E« OF MONTANA. 9» Ft'iitlier (irufs [Sh'jut). Several n[>eoie8 of this <;enus iire coin- liioii t(t tlu- ri'gioii, tlie most ])reviileiit being Sfi/m ninid/it niul Sfi/Hi rt'n'iliild. They are (»ften fouiul together, aiul are iisiuilly associated witli J*on tcninfoliit and luvln'id rrishtta. The llrst iiHiiied [S. ntmaiit) is the least valuahle, Imt tlu* more hardy (»f tho two, growing on heneh lands in soil too gravelly and thin for even Po7/}uf y/y/^//^/« are sometimes calli'il wild-oat grass. Tho latter is by far the most valuable of the Stijias. SHjki .ymr- /('((, P()rcupine Grass, occurs, but liai)])ily in no great abundance. Hunch Grass [Onjwpsis cuHpiiliitd) is very abundant on tho sandy bench lands along tho Missouri and other rivers. It thrives in soil too drv and sandv for the growth of other valiial)le gpecio.s, and is much esteemed for grazing. Alpine, or Native Timothy {/'/i/eintt nlpinnm). — Tiiig species, which closely resembles our cultivated Timothy, is com- mon in tho mountain districts, growing near strcjims, at elevations of from 0,000 to 8,000 feet. In the mountains back of Fort Logan, I saw this grass associated with Phlcum jn-n/cttsr, and 1*^ was the more luxuriant ])lant of the two — not so tall, jterhaps, but growing to tho height of two feet, with stouter and nior'> leafy culms. Tho common Timothy {Phlewin praivufiv) has been introduced, and succeeds well when irrigated. Hut there are a number of native grasses which would yield equally line and more abundant crojis with less care. Drop-seed Grass {Sjmrobolns). — There are several species of this genus more or less eommon, but none of them sutliciently abundant or valuable to have received local names. Af/rosfis ffrroifhs is a species of bent-grass, common along the rich, moist banks of streams in the mountain districts. This is certainly a valuable grass to introduce into cultivation. 12 90 ACJHK ri.TURAL CJRASSES OF .^lONTANA, Ilet'd licnt (Jruss {J)ci/i'ii.n'a). — 'i'liere are quite a number of species of tliis gciuis native to the country, all possessing some value for forage, being reailily eaten by stock. Grasses that grow naturally on these dry bench lands without irrigation, and hold the ground in sjjite of excessive grazing, deserve special attention, for these are the species which will best meet the requirements plied also to this sjiecies, which, in point -of altitude, occu- 92 AGRICULTURAL GRASSES OF MONTANA. pics 11 belt just below tbiit liekl by the Great Bunch-grass. Several varieties are recognized, and all afford excellent grazing for all kinds of stock. There are several species of Bromun, one of which is much like Schradcr's grass; in general, however, these brome-grasses are little esteemed. Rlue-Joint, or Blue-stem {Agropyron (jlaucum, var.) — There i.s no grass in Montana that the settlers more highly value for hay than this Blue-joint or Blue-stem, so named because of the decided bluish tint of its leaves and stalks. In appearance it resembles our common witch or couch-grass {^Ayropyrum repens), ami has by some been regarded as ii variety or form of that species. Like the couch-grass, this has creejiing roots, making it equally objectionable in cultivated lands. It grows naturally on the dry bench lands and river bottoms, and although the yield i)er acre is not large, the quality of the hay is judged unsurpassed by any other species. Fox-tail Grass, Squirrel-tail Grass {flordeum jnhatiim). — This is a common grass in the low countries, esjiecially where the soil is generally moist. It is considered a great nuisance, for when associated with other grasses it entirely destroys their value for hay. The long and sharp-pointed beards or arms stick fast in the nose and mouth of horses, often penetrating the flesh, and cases are reported where they have caused the death of the ani- mals. Lyme-grass, Wild-rye, (Elymiis rondeusafus), is a large, native grass sometimes cut for hay, but is not very valuable, holding a rank much like the eastern species. At Jefferson City, June 28, altitude about 5,000 feet, one would rarely see in any part of the country a finer looking or better sodded field of grass than was observed at this place. The strong and luxuriant growth of the grasses, all native spiecies, gave sufficient proof of the resources of the Territory in this NATIVE GRASSES OF THE GREAT BASIN. 98 direction. I venture to say she will not find beyond her borders more valuable species either for hay or for pasturage. Poa tenuifoUa, Kcpleria cristata, Stijui riridula, and Foa jjru- tensis (three feet high) were the prevailing species; tlien came Stljm comata, Agrojyynim f/hiucnin, A. divcrycnft, Ehjmns con- densatus, Poa Xcmdcnsis, Agroxtu^ seal, a, and Ilordcuinjubafnm; along the streams or growing in the water were Glyceriaaquatica, G. nervata, Bechmanniaerucmformh, Alopecurusaristulatus, and Cat ah rofia aq u at iva. Some species extend over many degrees north and south, others range within narrow limits. Some of wide range liave their limits of greatest abundance confined to a few degrees. So ii is in the matter of elevation above tlie sea. Some species range from sea level to nearly the line of jierpetual snow, others are found only at certain elevations, extending but a little above or below a given altitude, while others again may have a considerabe range, but it is only witMn narrow limits that they are able to conquer in the struggle for life and gain almost complete posses- sion of the soil. With a little experience one could tell in ^lontana with a con- siderable degree of certainty the altitude of his position by the prevailing grasses about him. Botitclona olyijOHtachya and Onj- zopsts cusjndata were never abundant above 4,000 feet. Ayropij- riim glaucuiii ranged a little higher, while Poa. tcnuifnUa, Ktehria cristiita, and Stipa viriduhi prevailed up to about ,5,000 feet. Af/ropi/nim divergcns became tlu^ leading species between 5,000 and 5,500, when Festuca on'tia took the field and usually held its own up to G,000 feet, when it in turn gave way to Festuca scahrcUa, which has its line of greatest vigor between 6,000 and 7,000 feet. Native Grasses of the Great Basin. — For Arizona and ^'ew Mexico in this basin. Dr. J. T. IJothrock ventures the asser- tion that for want of water there will always be much waste land so far as raising crops is concerned. For want of water, neither U NATIVE GRASSES OF NORTHERN MEXICO. of these territories have reuclied jinytliing like tlie real jwssibilities of the soil and eliniate. Sereiio AVatson, a very carcfnl observer wlio has sjicnt much time ill tlie liasin, makes a long report in the United States Geo- logical Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel. Ho observes that the climate is characterized by a very dry atmosphere, small amount of rain and snow, by a cold -winter and a correspondingly hot summer. No portion of this whole district is destitute of some vegetation, even in the driest seasons, excei^ting only the alkali plats. The vegetation possesses a monotonous sameness of aspect, and is characterized mainly by the absence of trees, by tlio want of a grassy greensward, the wide distribution of a few low shrubs, and by the universally prevalent gray or dull olive color of the herbage. The turllng ''buffalo*' or "grama'' grasses, which make the l)laln8 east of the Rocky Mountains a vast pasture for the bison, deer, and antelope, are hero unknown. The grass grows in sparsely scattered tufts, dying away with the early summer heat. Tlie two or three species that mat into a sward are confined to alkaline meadows and are nearly worthless for pasturage. Native Grasses of Northern Mexico. — During the summer of 188"), C. G. Pringle collected and studied the flora of this (country, mainly in the Mexican State, Chihuahua. By request ho has furnished full notes, from which the following arc taken: With' respect to the cultivated si)ecics, I think I shall sur])rise you l)y declaring that though I botanized carefully in the irrigated and tilled valleys as Avell as on the plains, and on the hills and mountains of every geological formation in that State, and from tiie beginning to the end of the season, I saw not a single plant of the exotic grasses commonly cultivated in the United States ; not a stalk of PJiJeuni prntrnso (Timothy), nor Poa prafcnsis (June grass), nor Aad but still nutritions herbage, ami must range widely to do this, and when the growths of the spring months, always feeble, have been entirely checked by the wither- ijig droughts which reach their worst in June, they must, if they (^an, maintain life liy Itrowsing shrubs, cactuses, etc. To supply the wants of the animals \io\tt in the cities gives employment during wintei- to many of the jioorer class, who hawk about the streets, in ox-carts and on the backs of donkeys, bundles of dead grass gathered on far away hillsides or plains, liy the beginning of March the neighboring rancheros are selling green wheat ami Itarley in the same way, and they plant maize from early till late to suc(^eed these, frreat stacks, freshly cut, iiuiy 1h! sei'u walking into town early in the morning with don- key's leijs, scai'celv more than the feet visible — a droll sio<] in the southwest. Jlihirid triir/iniide.s. II. li. K. Here this is a j^lant of much Importance to the stock grower. It forms a close perennial sod in i>atches of greater or less extent on the plains and mesas. As its culms are few and snudl and its leaves short, its yield is light, but it is a i)asture grass of good character and (jualitv. Ililaria tinifira, Benth. called in Arizona *' Black Gramma," is considered one of the most valuable grasses in that region. It growa in dense perennial clumps about a foot broad, aiul these growiiig close together, to the exclusion of other species, occupy areas of considerable extent, usually in depressions of jilains or mesas, someiimes even on hillsides. Excejit during the rainy season, about August, the plants show few living leaves, but at all times of the year the numerous branching stems contain nutri- ment. The clumps are detached from the soil by a blow with a mattock directed at their base, and this gives rise to the saying tluit hay is cut in Arizona with a hoe. As the dead leaves and their sheaths adhere for a long time on the slow growing peren- nial branches, a patch of this grass presents a dark grey appear- ance, which gives it the name of Black Gramma. Its stems are very hard, so that I was at first surjirised that animals could eat it at all. My horses soon got tired of it, preferring softer grasses. NATIVE tlRASSES OF NUUTIIEUX MEXICO. 97 Hetvrnjmfioii nnifarhis, \l. & S. This i.s probably tlio most jibiindiiiit i^rass of dry liills of igneous rock tiiinly covered with soil. It grows in lall, luirrow cliunps, and i.s a perennial with numerous leafy branches. Stock show a iireference for other grasses if such are to bo found. The hay on sale in Chihiudiua hist spring seemed to bo mainly compos.;d of this idant, usually dead when gathered, and blanched l)y winter weather. During autumn I fouiul its seeds Jistures. There are two new S2)eeies cf Slipa also, tall and tender jdants, excellent for forage but not abundant. There are many species of JfnJilenberfjia of more or less value. M. Texana, Thurbcr, is the mesquite grass of our southwest, and one of the most valuable species of those regions, common over mesas aiul hills. It is such a favorite with animals that it is exterminated except when growing uiuler the protection of thorny shrubs, usually mesquite bushes (species of ProKopis and Acacia). Its leaves are short and scanty, but its branching, perennial, wiry stems are nutritious, ami at all seasons furnish forage which is greatlv relishe 1 bv all kinds of stock. In Ari- zona the Indians bring it during winter and spring long distances into the towns to sell, the men tving the bundles behind and 13 98 NATIVE (iUASSKS OF NOKTIIKUN MEXICO. lu'sidc ilu'iii oil tlu'ir j)()iiit's. and tlu' woiikmi rurrv tlu'in on tlicir hacks i>r liciitl.-, trui»(lliiilains, especially ahnndant, and forms a elose sod in tho less arid jiortions. In amount of yield and in quality it is surjiassed hy no common grass of the plains, and is tho ouo native species adapted to permanent mowing. I helieve it would hear tho oftects ot close grazing in enclosed areas. Bonteloua Ifavanli, Vasey, I tind to he the most valuabla pasture grass of tho hills and mesas around the city of Chihiia- luia. It is perennial and forms a sod more or less interrupted. It is tender and nutritious, and is kept closely cropped during^ most of the year. NATIVE (JUASSES OF NOUTIIEKN MEXICO. W Six or ei^lit other spocies uud varieties of JJoufcluua fiiruish more or loss pasture. Uiplachm ihibiti, lU'iith, sends up hero luul tliere, over liills from perenniiil slioots, a few hite, suoculent stems, especially relished by animals. It seems ])robable that this grass would suceeed under good cultivation without irrigation, ami. if so. no species native to Mexico would be likely to yield croi)s of greater amount or of superior cpiality. Diphtrline iinhrirata, Scrib., is similar to the last in habit and quality, and would i)robably succeed as well, but ouly on rich soil ■with copious irrigation. Arniido dona.r, L., grows on the banks of streams, und is stripped of its broad leaves by cattle, which crowd upon the tall canes, straddling them to bring the leaves within reach. f'Jntf/rosfis erosa, Scrib., Is a tall, soft, leafy bunch grass of the mountains, than which none can be more acceptable to stock. Ei'dijrodis Juf/cits. N'ees, is a closely related species, of similar habit and (juality. Ill these notes I have said little about the possibility of tlio species tnenticmed for cultivation, because it does not to me seem possible that Mexican agriculture can in tliis generation, or in several generations, attain to the cultivation of grasses. I can- not say in what way their nu'thods are in advance of those of the ancient Egyptians and Syrians; certainly one is astonished to And numerous parallels between their customs and practices and those of the ancients. In regard to other forage plants which interest stock growers, I have seen a little lucerne or alfalfa grown there, but only a little. The place it occupies in the American southwest is there filled by barley, wheat, and corn. The clovers, native or introduced, are almost entirely wanting in the southwest. Of course there are a large number of plants of many natural orders which help to sustain animal life, and I 100 THE DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS. can iitteat from obsorvjitioii tlmt tliero are fowjiliints so repulsive to taste or so spicy that they are not occasionally api)ropriate(l by animals, according to the extremity of their hunger. I used to think that nothing but starvation could induce cattle to nibble at liorrid o})untias, as I have seen them doing during drought. The iiiesfjuite tree, Prosopix jHliJIorn, of the southwest is worthy of especial mention. It is a godsend to those regions. Its abundant and nutritious pods, resembling those of our field bean, begin to fall in August before the grass has made luuch advance under the midsummer rains, and afford much relief to the half famished stock. I have gathered sacks full of them for my horses as I have journeyed through those arid districts. Seeds are Distributed in a great variety of ways — through the agency of wind, water, snow, animals, including man iiim- self, who purposely or unintentionally accomplisiies more than any of the other agents. The small size of the seeds of most grasses is a great lielp in their distribution. ^lany of them remain attached to the glumes and palea, or even to some of the branches, and others are pro- vided with beards, liooks, or awns, all of wliich make it easy for them to be carried about by the wind, water, snow, or animals. *' It would seem that nature has appointed every animal as a special disseminator of the plants which furnish it with food. We have seen the activity of the rodent in scattering the fruits of the Nuciferne, and of birds in sowing broadcast the seeds of fruit-bearing plants, and the ruminants seem no less active in performing a siuiilar work for their favorite grasses. The great efficiency of animals as disseminators of seeds appears more marked when we regard them in masses. The herds of reindeer and elk on the plains of northern Europe and Asia, the bison on the prairies of North America, or the herds of naturalized horses and cattle on South American pampas, migrating from place to place in immense masses, cannot fail to sow as they pass along a. C5UA.SSES FOR CULTIVATION. 101 host of soede wlnrh mlhcro to their touts, or which they luivc awallowed and drop uninjured upon the soil." — (Prof. A. N. Prentiss, in Pri .0 Essay.) A few examph's may be piven to illustrate the distribution of grass seeds. The panicles of /'(itiirmti rnpilhnt, when ripe, easily 8ei)arate ironi the eulin and are freelv tossed about and carried by the wind, scattering seeds as they go for long i'rt'iiniulri witli Hal. InivoM. 'J'cii sikm-u-s in X. und S. tfiniHTiito aiul arctic regions. P. pratensp, L., Tinioth}, Henrs-Urass, Meadow <'at'« Tall. — I'aniclo cylindrical. Kiiipty ^'lunics truncate with it Hcarious tip, and a hispid kod. This is the best known, most extonsively sown, and one of thw most i>rofital)lo grasses of any in the United States. Tn Pennsyl- vania and Bonio other States, Af/rosfis alba is called "herd's grass," while at the north this is known as "rod top." Thoro are several other grasses called "cat's tail" in difTeront portions of our country. The first common mime comes from Timothy Hanson of ^faryland, who introduced tlie grass from England about 1T20. The next name comes from a man l»y the muno of Herd, who found it growing in New Hampshire and b:'gan its cultivation. In I'dO or 'Gl, Peter Wynch took seeds of it from Virginia to England. It is a native of Europe, and very likely also indigenous to some portions of the ^'nited States. It is widely distributed in north Africa, western Asia, and other portions of the world. Timothy is a perennial not likely to be mistaken for any other grass, and in fact this is about the only one tliat is generally known by all farmers. The leaves are short and flat, and on good soil the stem is from two to four or more feet high, each bearing one stiff, erect, rough spike as long and as thick as a lead i)encil. The plant is rather coarse to the touch ajid sight. Having a largo bulk of stems, with few leaves, the hay wastes but little in transportation. The grass stands up well, the hay is easily cured, heavy for its bulk, presents a good appearance, and suffers less than many other grasses when allowed to go to seed before cutting. Fis. 02.— 7. Plant of Phleum prateme, L.; 2, Hpikelct ; 5, floral glume uiul palea; 4, spikeletof P. alpinum; S, splkelet of P. areiiarium ; 6, floral glurm- ; 7, base of cnim of P. prntenae, showing one enlarged solid internode, tulx'r, or corm, improiHjrlv called a " bulb."— (Trlnius and Scribner.) 104 PHLEUM PRATENSE. L., TIMOTHY. Everyone in town jind country knows the grass as soon its Jie sees it and can distinguisli it from all others, hence a leading reason why it is raised, fed, and sold. Consumers buy Timothy and fear to buy anything else, even though it Avere better, because they do not know what it is. They will buy oven if it is dead ripe. The same remark applies to a well known and popular grass, perennial rye grass, generally raised in England. After a long time if a grass or fruit becomes well known, and it has good qualities if not tlie best, people buy it because they know what they are getting. In tliis country Timothy is often sown alone, at the rate ol' about eleven pounds to the acre. The sowing usually occurs in autumn with wheaf or rye, or in the spring with oats or barley. It is often sown a^i the only forage crop on moist laiul or on strong, clay loam, but on lighter laiul it is usual to sow on sonu; red clover also. If quite sandy, clover without any true grass is generally sown. Timothy is two to four -weeks behind red clover in coming into flower ready for the mower. Among its other good qualities, Timothy seeds very freely, yielding (i to 10 or more bushels of cleanc.l «eed to the acre; aiul this is easily saved and threshed with a flail or a nuichine, can be easily cleaned aiul separated from seeds of weeds, and can be put onto the market in abuiulance and sold cheaply. It only takes from one to two pecks to sow an acre, and this costs but little. While Timothy has nuiny good qualities to recommend it, it has many nuirked defects. When sown with clover, it makes but a small growth and must 1)0 cut young, if the clover is secured in good season. It starts very slowly in spring, is a long time in coming into flower, and after cutting the second growth is slow, feeble, and of little consequence, seldom large enough to cut a second time or to afford much i)asturc. If cut early the tuber at the base of the stalk does not become sufliciently PHLEUM PRATENSE, L., TIMOTHY. 105 matured to keep the plant alive and liealthy. If cut eloso, tliu tuber is cut oft', and the plants sufter aiul beconu' feeble. jukJ perhaps i)erish. It is hardly suited for pasture at any time, unless it is kept quite large. Horses, sheep, and esjiecially hogs, must not br allowed to eat it close to the ground. In England it stands i)as- turing in spring without much injury to the hay crop. Besides these objections. Timothy is likely to be short lived; the tubers are easily trodden out by cattle, killed by drought or frost, or eaten by mice or gophers. It sometimes rusts badly. It is not hard to kill when cultivating for another cro}>; it starts quite readily from the seed, and is well suited for one good crop of hay in a season, but is not well adapted for pasture. It is not as well liked in Kansas and vicinity and in the south as it is at the northeast. Timothy is one of the five grasses in the list recommended by Mr. De Laune for permanent pasture and meadow in England. For Kansas, hear what Professor Shelton says: " Of this favorite eastern sort, we shall say but little, believ- ing that over a large portion of the State it is of little value. We have obtained good yields upon the college farm, and have seen good crops of Timothy grown west of this point. Still it suffers much from drouglit, and from the attacks of chinch-bugs, and it rarely suvives the ravages of the grasshojipers. " For Nebraska, read from a lecture by Dr. Bessey: "My inquiries were very generally answered, ami in a most satisfactory manner. They all indicate that throughout the greater portion of the eastern half or two-thirds of the State, Timothy is an exceedingly valuable grass for farm use. It is invariably doing well, and in many instances producing crops of hay far beyond the most sanguine expectations of those who sowed it. It is of course not to be expected that it will succeed.. ;»s we pass far into the northwestern jjortion of the State." 1.4 106 pHLEUM PRATENSE, L., TIMOTHY. From Howard's Manual we learn that: "At the south it does not tlirive on ujilund." Major H. E. Alvord, of New York, in Rural New Yorker, reports as follows : " Timothy is not a favorite of mine. Its hold upon the land is too slight, and, as a rule, it falls off in yield too fast after the first crop. My preference is to treat it like ji grain crop — sow alone on well prepared land, in August, a half bushel of seed to the acre. After cutting the first crop turn over at once, manure and re-seed ; or cut once, top-dress well, cut a rowen crop, then one crop the second year, plow and re-seed. I know of no suit- able mixture for Timothy, if for hay, and do not consider it as desirable as a large part of any mixture for pasture." Waldo F. Brown, of Oliio, Avrites in these words: " I think that land seeded to Timothy and with three or four pounds of Mammoth Clover seed sown to the acre, will produce one-half more hay than Timothy alone, and the clover cures beautifully with the Timothy. " In sowing Timothy for hay, I use a bushel of seed to three acres, and think the quality of the hay much better than when sown thin. There are many farmers of my acquaintance who sow a bushel to ten acres, and then allow it to stand till dead ri2)e before cutting." "With reference to saving the seed of Timothy, the following was written for The Prairie Fai'mer by Hon. Samuel Dysart: *' It is A'cry difticult to fix any specified time for harvesting this crop, because a change in the weather may make a great difference in the ripeness in a single day. When the amount to be harvested is not large, a better yield of seed will be had by letting it stand until all the heads are ripe, and a few of the early ones shelled off. But in doing this there is much risk. A windy day may thresh half the crop. A shower of rain, followed by a warm sun, will change the color of a field in a few hours. Of DACTYUS GLOMERATA, L., ORCHARD GRASS 107 late years I have harvested from 75 to 100 acres of this crop annually. I make it a rule to start the harvester into it when the early heads begin to shell at the tips. The straw of most of it is then quite green, and if carefully i)ut up, makes fair feed for stock after threshing. If cut before fully ripe, much care must be taken in shocking, or there will be a great loss of seed in threshing, for this reason : When Timothy is ripe, the cell whicli holds the seed opens. If cut too green and the bundles are left exposed to the sun, the straw dries like hay, these small cells do not open, and no machine can knock tlie seed out of them. If cut before fully ripe this difficulty may be largely overcome by putting in round shocks as soon as cut, packing the bundles close together to exclude the air. In this condition the natural pro- cess of ripening will go on ; but if set up two and two, as many set the bundles, it will dry and stop at the same stage as when cut. A good crop of Timothy should give eight bushels to the acre. I have had more, and also less. As a farm crop there is more uncertainty in saving it than others grains. It must stand in the shock at least two weeks to be dry enough for threshing. During that time, if heavy rains and high winds occur, there will be considerable waste in the shock. The less the bundles are handled after drying, the less waste. Hence I thresh it directly from the shock. All separators are now made with sieves for cleaning this crop.'* DACTYLI8, L. Spikelets several-flowered, laterally compressed, nearly sessile, crowded in dense one-sided fascicles, at the end of the branches, forming a one-sided panicle. Flowers all perfect, or the upper- most one staminate. Empty glumes unequal, mcmb'-anous, keeled, the upper one larger, 3-nerved. The floral glume larger than the empty glumes, cartilaginous, keeled, 5-nerved; awn short, scabrid, Palea 2-fid, nerves ciliate. Lodicules 2, 108 DACTYLIS GLOMEHATA L.. OliCHAUD GRASS. Fio. 63. DACTYLIS GLOMERATA, L., ORCHARD GRASS. 109 acutely toothed. Stamens 3. Styles distinct, stigmas feathery Caryopsis compressed, loosely inclosed in the floral glume, ami palca free. A perennial grass with broad leaves. One species, found in cold and temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and Africa. D. glomerata, L. Orchard Grass, Cock's-Foot.— Leaves long, keeled, conduplicato wlien dry, culms stout, rough, 2-5 feet. Ligule long, panicle 2-G inches, often tinged with violet spikelets 3-o-fld., tin. long. For the past twenty years or more the Avriter has been accumu- lating notes and making observations and experiments in refer- ence to our most noted grasses, and concerning none of the true grasses has there been more said or written or more inquiries made than about the one above named. Like every question capable of dispute, this one has two sides, and shrewd men of the same neigliborhood often differ very much in their estimation of orchard grass. The grass is i)erennial, lasting for many years, two to three, or even five feet or more in height, rather large, coarse, rough, of a light green color, and grows in dense tufts unless crowded by thick seeding. Tlie lower loaves are sometimes two feet or more in length. Tlie clustered spikelets make dense masses on the small spreading panicle; the flowers appear with those of early red clover. It is a native of Europe, and is also now found in North Africa, India, and North America, and perhaps in other countries. Al- though it came to this country from Europe, it did not attract much attention in England until sent back there in lTG-4 from Virginia. So far as quality is concerned, if cut in season or pastured when young it stands well tlie test of cattle and the chemist. Fio. 03.— Drtctj/Zts alomcrata, L. (Orcliiird grass); 1, entire plant ; 2 and 4, spikelets; 5 and 5, florets; 6, youns pistil; 7, a lodicule.— (Spikelets by Scribner.) 110 DACTYLIS GLOMERATA, L., ORCHARD GRASS. It is very nutritious, the seeds start quickly and make a vigorous growth, and if the grass is not a very valuable one, it is certainly not for the lack of good testimonials. The stems are not very abundant when compared with the leaves, hence the plant is more suitable for i)asture than for meadow. James Hunter, of England, considers: "For permanent pas- ture for alternate husbandry, or for hay, there is no more valu- able grass, and its liberal use for all these purposes is strongly recommended." Mr. De Laune estimates it as " By far the most valuable of all grasses bec'iuse it grows in all soils; it produces the greatest amount of keep ; it is the must nutritious grass, and seems to grow faster and stronger in extremes of weather, either wet or dry, than any other grass." This is one of the five which he recommends for permanent grass lands. According to Sir J. B. Lawes, '' It is very abundant and 2)roductivo on good soils and is much imjiroved by cultivation. It is really prominent only witli a liberal supjily of ammonia, associated with a correspondingly liberal supply of mineral con- stituents. It is a formidable opponent to other grasses, where it has once got possession." The following from Alexander Hyde of Massachusetts, is ex- cellent and to the purpose. " AVe have found it one of the most luxuriant and nutritious, both for grazing and for hay. It never says die. It is the first to furnish a bite for the cattle in spring, is little affected by the droughts of July aiul August, and con- tinues growing until the severe cold of November locks up the sources of nourishment. When cut or grazed it starts up with the vigor of the fabled hydra. We advise no man to sow it ou his lawn, for it would need cutting every day before break- fast. If cut while in blossom, both cattle and horses are exceed- ingly fond of the hay, and dg^^lL.oa it. If left to stand till the *- -1 DACTYLIS GLOMERATA, L., ORCHARD GRASS. Ill seeds iiro matured, it becoine.s more tough and woody than even Timothy, and cattle will need ti> have tlieir teeth sharpened to eat it in this stage of its growth. "Orchard grass loves a deep, rich, moist soil, and in such a soil no other grass yields such an abundant harvest. AVhy it is so much neglected among us wo cannot divine, unless it is the fashion of sowing Timothy and clover, and fashion is as much a tyrant among farmers as among the ladies, though showing his power in a different mode." A. W. Clieever, a most successful farmer and editor of Massa- chusetts writes: '• I have now cultivated tliis grass some ten or twelve years, and feel that I can speak of it nnderstandingly. It is a grass that niust bo understood to be appreciated. Grown en poor, dry land, by a poor, lazy farmer, who is always behind hand with his work, it will not give satisfaction; but on rich, moist land, capable of cutting two or three crops in a season, sown thickly with a mixuire of clover and June grass, or other kinds ripening ut or about the sumo time, and under the man- agement of a wide-awake farmer, I can confidently pronounce it the most valuable grass known in this country at the present time. It may be cut two or three times a year, producing large crops of the very best of fodder, just as long as the fertility of the land can bo maintained by top dressing. It is the earliest grass in the spring and the latest in fall.'' E. H. Libby, in 1883, wrote nie that *' A little while ago the Neio England Homestead contained numerous letters from farm- ers week after week, speaking in the highest terms of this grass." T. 1). Curtis, of Xew York^ says, Orchard grass is a nujst excellent hay plant, but it requires a rich soil. A well soddeil pasture of this grass is a thing to admire as well as for use and profit. Wm. Crozier, of New York, speaks as follows : " Heretofore the base grass in all the Northern States has been 113 DACTYLIS GLOMERATA, T... ORCHARD GRASS. Timotliy ; but experiments thiit have l)een ewes on this grass all winter without any other feed." On the same subject, we learn from Dr. J. H. Killebrew, of Tennessee: *• It likes a soil moderately dry, porous, fertile, and inclined to be sandy. It withstands hot, dry weather better than any other valuable grass." A prominent writer in 'Hic Jiiinil World, of Missouri, states: '' When suitably located and properly gi-own, it is one of the best of our cultivated grasses, but when not so located and grown, it is of indifferent value. Sow two bushels of seed to the acre, if sown alone." Prof. D. L. Phares, of Mississip])i, prefers to sow this grass in the spring without a grain crop, and on well prepared land. It thrives well without renewal on the same ground for thirty or forty years, and is easily exterminated when the land is desired for other crojis. The growth in clumps may be obviated by thick seeding. "Altogether and from every standpoint, I am compelled to say still, as I did manv years ago, that I jircfer orchard to any other grass. I could fill /olumes with testimonials more strongly ex- pressed than my own in favor of this grass over all others. "It produces seed freely, and they germinate with certainty, a bushel weig' 'ng twelve to fifteen pounds." 11« DA(TYIJH (JT-OMERATA, L., ORCHARD GRASS. Ill //ii/iuin/'s Mdinial of (Inissvs, we reml : " This viiliiublo j,'ni8s ranks next in iiinxjrtiince to tlu; tull riK'iiilow-out-gniws Un' liay luul winter i)iistur('. The second growth after cutting siiould III' reserved for winter •fruzing. Where hay is an object, nieadow- oiit iind orchard grass should be sowed witli red clover and white, as t-acli of the four blossoms at the same time and is simultane- ously ready for the scythe. The cultivation of these two grasses at the Soutli cannot be too strongly recommended on soils adapted to them." I'rof. S. A. Knapp, of Iowa, after looking the ground all over, I'oncludes that orcluird grass is valuable for early and summer use. but not superior for late fall pasture upon the open prairie. Prof. (r. E. Morrow, of Illinois, in Rural Xni^ Yorker, says: " lioth for pasture and for hay, I think we have underrated the value of orcluird grass, if sown thickly and not allowed to become harsh and woody by standing too long."' Those living on the dry prairies will be interested in the fol- lowing from Professor Shelton, of Kansas: **Two years ago, in giving our experience with this grass, we stated that it had proved to be ' one of the very l)est and safest of all the pasture grasses that we have tried.' It has proved with us but an indifferent hay plant, yielding moderately upon ordinary soils; and the hay, when well secured, is not relished by our stock. In our experience the hay is hardly equal to that cut from the prairie. Our experience is totally against this grass as a hay plant ; but, in grazing, its valuable qualities soon become apparent to the farmer. We feel confident that it will yield fully twice the feed that can be obtained from the same area of blue grass or Timothy, and in nutritive qualities is certainly greatly superior to blue grass. Orchard grass is one of the earliest grasses to start in the spring, and the last to succumb to the frost in the fall. By giving it a good start in the fall, it will furnish good pasture far into the winter. It is consumed with great relish by stock of all DA('T\rJH CLOMKRATA, L., ORCHARD ORASS. 117 kinds, especially if the <,'niss i.s cropped whort. It seems to dd eqmiily well upon lieuvy clay und sandy soil ; and any ricli and well drained soil seems suited to it. Tt {germinates al'oiit as easily as oats; and, with jfood seed, no difficulty is experienced in jL^ettinfj a 'stand ' that will eiulure moderate cropping the first fall after seeding. As might he inferred from its common name, it does l)etter Avhen moderatelv shaded, and is admirably suited to orchard culture; yet there are few grasses that will so well endure the jjrolonged sunshine of (»ur dry seasons. For these reasons we feel safe in recommending this grass to the fanners of central Kansas for the purposes of pasture. "Clover has always thrived with orchard grass, besides furnish- ing to animals that variety of food so agreeable to the taste. AVe have found that orchard grass is relished even by swine, and therefore it makes excellent 'hog pastures.' In our exjterience, too, no amount of tramping or close grazing at any season has been able to injure a wtdl-rooted sod. "Orchard grass will endure late seeding better, jjerhnps, than any other sort; but this operation ought not to be delayed mnch beyond the middle of April." Still later on ho concludes as follows: *' Of all the largo nnmber of grasses that have been tested at the College Farm during the past twelve years, this has proved the most generally useful, because, 1, a 'stand' is easily and quickly obtained ; 2, it yields wonderfully of pasturage and hay if the land is good — indeed orchard grass is such a gross feeder that it is not worth a trial upon very poor land; 3, it does not winter-kill, does not 'tread out,' is not injured by too close crop- ping, and will survive an uninterrupted four mouths' drought. It winter-killed badly in 1885-0." Hear a few good words from Dr. Bessey. "The nutritive value of orchard grass, as determined by chemical analysis, shows it to rank well up toAvard the high value 118 UACTYLIS GLOMERATA, L., ORCHARD GRASS. of blue grass. It is much more nutritious than Timothy, and very nearly as valuable as red-top. It is shown by trial to grow well in many parts of Nebraska, and is considered by many to be one of our best grasses." lion. L. N. Bonham, of Ohio, among other things says : ''If the land is not too strong, orchard grass is an improvement sown Avith clover intended for hay. In strong, black land, however, I have found the culm incased by the several folds of the leaves, so thick and sappy that it does not cure before the leaves are so dry as to crumble into powder. On poorer land I prefer orchard grass Avith clover. Where pasture is desired, orchard grass adds ffreatlv to the value of the clover field. It furnishes a variet\', recovers quickly after mowing or being eaten down, and comes early. It is not j.ppreciated, and is neglected by farmers because the seed is more ditiicult to sow and is more expensive than clover or Timothy per acre. Its chief value is for pasture." As we might expect Avhere ii grass has been so long in cultiva- tion, it varies much in vigor and size. In England some attention has been given to selecting vigorous varieties. Like Indian coim, it is wJ.l to select seeds from large, thrifty, well grown plants. B. ^ E., of Bowling Green, Kentucky, thus describes the mode of saving seeds of orchard grass: " About the time the seeds are ripe, and before they commence to shatter, take a reaper and set the sickle about one foot above the grovind, so as to l)e above the leaves or blades, and cut, bind and shock as wheat, only make the bundles and shocks smaller. Leave the shocks imcapped for three or four weeks, exposed to the action of the sun and rain. This is necessary to make it thresh clean from the head. At the end of three or four weeks, as above stated, place a canvass in the bottom of the bed or frame in which it is to be hauled (to avoid waste, as it shatters very badly at this time), and haul to the place of threshing. If not ready to thresh right away, you must cover it with something. DACTYLIS CJLOMERATA, L.. ORCHARD (iRASS. 119 stuck it, or put in burn, as too much dunipiiess will prove injurious to the seed at tliis time. Remember to liaudlc over a canvass as mudi as possible wlienever you move it, for otherwise the loss will be considerable. As for the yield, tliat is very variable — all the M'ay from five to fifteen bushels per acre, according to the age of the meadow and fertility of the soil. Orchard grass increases its yield every year from the second to the sixth or seventh after sowing. But even at this seemingly small yield it is very profitable, as the labor is not very great and there is an abundance of good hay left to be mowed after the seed are saved. " Of the producers or of country merchants of Kentucky aiul Tennessee, the seed may be obtained for much less than is usually paid to the seed dealers of the northern States. It is usually put up in eight-bushel sacks, 14 lbs. being allowed to the bushel. These long quotations have been selected from wide awake, observing men living in remote parts of our great country. I have neglected to quote much from those who speak against it, believing that they do not understand the grass and conseqiiently make mistakes in its management. As a rule it blossoms but once a year, and then about a month ahead of Timothy and red top. It is often mentioned as very suitable for growing in the shade, but June grass does as well, comparatively. It will not sjiread and make a fine, handsome turf. Many cut it too late, when the hay will be of poor quality. A farmer should not have too much of it for meadow, because it all comes on at once, and then it should be cut; the weather often controls the time of cutting. If rainy when the grass is in fiower we must Avait often a week or more. In such cases most grasses endure the delay better than orchard grass. Some object to its use as the seed costs too much, from one to two dollars a bushel, making the seed for an acre cost from two to five dollars. Others sow on stiff, poor soil, where it nnikes a feeble growth. Fio. 04. ARRHENATHERUM, TALL OAT-GRASS. 131 ARRHENAXnERUM, BEAUV. Spikelets subterete, jj-llowered, paiiicled ; rachilhi jointed ubove tlio empty glumes, extending above the upper flower; the lower flower staminatc, the upper perfect or pistillate. Empty glumes persistent, membranous, unequal, mueronate; the floral glumes firm, 5-7-nerved, the lower one bearing a long, bent awn below the middle, the upper one bristle-pointed near the tip or awnless, or rarely bearing a stout, bent awn. Palea narrow, hyaline, :i-nerved. Lodicules ^-fid. Stamens 15. Stylos sliort, distinct, stigmas feathery. Caryopsis ovoid, free. Perennials, leaves flat or convolute when dry. Three species, found in Europe, v ^hern Africa, and western Asia. A. aveiiaeeum, Beaiiv, Tall Osit-Grass, False Oat-Orass, French Rye-Grass, Evergreen Grass [at the south]. — {Arena clatior, L.) Panicle narrow, long, nodding. 8})ikclets ^-'\n., floral glume, with bristly hairs at the base, palea shining; intro- duced. Within the past few years this gi-ass has become somewhat prominent, and has won many notes of praise from the farmers, esjjecially from those living in the south and west. It has long been grown in some portions of Virginia. Tall oat-grass is a hardy perennial, growing from three to six feet high and l)earing a loose panicle somewhat resembling one of the common oats, only more slender in every way. It is common in Europe and western Asia, and has some peculiarities which ought to be well understood by those attempting to grow it for meadow or pasture. In place of much experience by our best farmers, the writer will quote the somewhat conflicting views of several eminent authorities. Dr. Lindley, of England, said: "It is bitter and ungrateful ¥ii!.. H- Arrhcualherum (ti't/mccioii, Befiuv. ( Tall <)at-(ira.ss) : a, plant; c, siiikelet nearly dosed; /(, rather more enlarged and the outer flumes removed.— (Details by Sevihiier.) 16 122 ARRHENATHERUM, TALL OAT-GRASS. to animals, and tliere is no reason Avhy this grass should be regarded as fit for cultivation. The variety bulbosum is apt to become a troublesome weed, ditticult to extirpate." William Gorrie, of England, says : " It is most extensively cul- tivated on the continent ; speedily attains to maturity from seed, yields continuously from early spring till winter frosts a large bulk of produce, yet it contains a small proportion of nutriment and possesses a very disagreeable, bitter taste, which cau-os it to be avoided by horses, cattle, and sheep. It is very subject to rust and black smut. It abounds chiefly on light, dry, arable soils. Its cultivation under any circumstances would not fail to create suspicions of lunacy against the grower. Its extirpation alone demands attention.'* Sir J. B. Lawessays: " The endowments favorable to this grass are its hardiness, its comparative indifference to the char- acter of the soil, its particularly ample root growth, both deep and superflcial, its strong, tufted habit, and its early flowering tendency. It yields a considerable quantity of foliage on the culms, which affords a good deal of leafy feed in the spring. It produces rapidly after cutting; its taste is bitter, but it is not disliked by cattle. It does not grow abiindantly except upon poor soils, and is, ui)on the whole, of somewhat questionable value. It is much grown in France.'" The late Professor James Buckman. also of England, a good botanist who had given much study to the grasses, said: " This is exceedingly bitter, uniformly refused by cows and sheep unless starved to it by want of something better. We think it would be better to discourage its growth. We have two forms, one of which is the variety bulbosum, growing in sandy lauds. In this the bulbs become enlarged and look like a string of onions on a small scale, which gives it the name of 'onion couch.' The only way to get rid of it is to hand pick it after repeated plowing and harrowing." ARRHENATHERUM, TALL OAT-GRASS. 133 Even the English seedsmen, wlio recommend the use of many sorts, the vahie of wliieh is questioned by farmers, do not inehide tall oat grass in the list of valuable grasses. But the reader, doubtless cares less about Avhat the English think of tall oat grass, than he does about what some of the best American farmers think of it. Judge Jesse Buell, of Connecticut, in 1823, quotes the opinion of Dr. Muhlenhurg and Mr. Taylor, of Virginia, who place this at the head of good grasses. It possesses the advantages of early, late, and quick growtli, for which the orchard grass is esteemed, and is well calculated for a pasture grass. Dickenson, quoted by Buell, says: *' It makes good hay, but is most beneficial when retained in a close state of feeding." Prof. D. L. Phares, of Mississippi, says: "It has a wonderful capacity of withstanding the severest heats and droughts of sum- mer and colds of winter. It admits of being cut twice a year, yield- ing twice as much hay as Timothy, and is probably the best winter grass that can be obtained. To make good hay it must be cut the instant it blooms. For green soiling it may be cut four or five times, Avith favorable seasons. Along the more southerly belt it may be sown in November and onward till the middle of December. It is one of the most certain grasses to have a good catch." The late Mr. C. W. Howard thought, this gi-ass deserved to be placed at the head of winter grasses for the South. It does not answer well on moist land. Seed sown in the spring will pro- duce seed in the fall. Prof. E. M. Shelton, of Kansas, says: "This grass has within a few years been extensively sold in the West under the name of 'evergreen grass.' We have tried it for a number of years upon a considerable scale. Xo grass that we have yet tried has, during its first season, made such a vigorous growth as meadow oat-grass did last year. In this respect it has greatly surjiassed our old 124 ARRHENATHERUM, TALL OAT-GRASS. favorite, orchard grass. It made a much better stand than did orchard grass growing beside it, and endured the severe and pro- tracted drought of the latter part of tlie season better, retaining its incense green tliroughout. This grass, although sown late in April, gave a heavy cutting of hay in July, a feat that we have never before accomplished with any other sort. It makes excel- lent pasturage early in the spring and late in the fall, but as a hay plant, and for general pasturage, it is greatly inferior in Kansas to orchard grass." The Students' Farm Journal, of Iowa Agricultual College, sums up its merits as follows : *' It vegetates earlier in the spring than any grass we have ever seen, producing pasture for cattle by April lo. It stood five feet ten inches May 1, started April 5. This is a great item to the farmer, for hay and corn are worth something in April and so is the time required in their feeding. It grows stroug and even throughout the entire year and very late in the fall. It is best for pasture but makes coarse hay, but of fine flavor if cut early. It will blossom twice in one season if cut early. Its flavor and smell are good. By chemical analysis this grass contains some more flesh or muscle forming material than Timothy. More fiber and less fat. But chemical analysis is not the most important element used in judging of a plant's value. It is better than Timothy in not being so hard on the soil, and produces nearly twice as much ha3\ No grass in the college experimental grass garden is more promising than this. It ripens earlier than Timothy and is therefore better mixing with clover." Lieutenant Governor Sessions, of Ionia, Michigan, has given this grass a good trial and reports : " In a very dry season the newly seeded clover and Timothy disappeared, but the oat-grass sown with it grew well. It more than holds its own with clover and Timothy. It is rank and early and will seed twice each season. It makes good pasture and good hay, and is very pro- ARRHENATHERUM, TALL OAT-GRASS. 125 lific. I wuut a permaneiit grass, so I liavo not tried to destroy it." The writer has raised this grass oji rather light, sandy soil at Lansing, ^Michigan, for twenty years or more, has seen it in some other localities in the State, and thinks he can tell why there are such conflicting opinions in relation to its value. In England the climate is moist, and the finer succulent grasses thrive Avell, while tall oat-grass does Ijctter in a hotter, dryer climate. lie has had occasion to kill several plats and has had no more trouhle with it than in killing so much Timothy. There are some bulbs on the sort raised in Michigan, but they are not hard to kill. Like orchard grass, it ripens very quickly after blooming, and to make good hay there must be no delay in cutting. As it blos- soms rather early, many let it go too long before cutting, Avhen the stems become woody and of poor quality. Again, bad Aveather often interferes Avith the cutting just at the right time, and poor hay is the result. A man doesn't Avant a very large quantity of this grass to iuoav, unless ho i.s prepared to cut it all in a day or two. It makes a fine groAvth the first season after soAving, and if soAvn alone Avill cut a good crop of hay. I find that stock eat the grass Avell, thougli most likely they would prefer to have some grass not so bitter for a part of the time. The seed is rather light, Aveighing fourteen pounds to the bushel in the chafF. About two bushels to the acre are usually soAvn. Only half of the floAvers set seed, as every other one is staminate. The seed is rather large, starts early, and soon makes a vigorous plant. This fits it for alternate husbandry and for dry countries. In saving the seed, care needs to be used to cut the grass just as soon as the top of the panicle is ready. Xot a half day should go by or seed Avill be lost. It is cut high, bound in small bundles, shocked till Avell cured, Avhcn it is draAvn to the threshing floor on a wagon supplied Avith a canvas to save the shelling seeds. It yields from ten to tAventy bushels of seed to the acre. 126 F. ELATIOR, L. TALL MEADOW FESCUE. I'KSTLCA, 1.. FKSCUE. Spikelots .'} or more flowered, subtcrete, in a eoinpui't or sliglitly spreiuling piuiicle, mchilla jointed above the empty glumes and between the flowers; flowers i)erfect or rarely stanii- nate, emjjty glumes, persistent, unequal, shorter than the lowest floret, acute, keeled, the outer l-nerved, the inner larger, usually 3-nerved. Floral glumes narrow with 3-5 obscure nerves, acute, mucronato or awned. at or near the tips. Palea shorter, 2-ncrved. Lodicules 2, notched. Stamens 1-3. Styles short, terminal, distinct ; stigmas feathery. C'aryopsis oblong or linear, more or less adherent to the floral glume and jialea. Many are tufted perennials; leaves flat, covolute Avhen dry, or narrow and permanently condupllcate. The glumes are longer and more pointed than in Poa, otherwise the two genera blend together. About 80 distinct si)ecies, nnmy of A\hich are quite variable. Found in arctic, cold, and temperate regions. F. elatior, L. Tall Meadow Fescue, Baudall Grass, Ever- green Grass. — A perennial, 2-4 ft. hi., usually tufted. Leaves broad, flat, panicle narrow, erect or nodding, 5-9 in. Spikelets 3-7-flowercd, about 1 in. Floral glume pointed, 5-ribbed. "When the panicle is much branched the glumes are narrower and more pointed, and the ribs less distinct. This is a very variable perennial, two to four or even five feet in height, generally growing in tufts or bunches, which from year to year creep slowly ujiward, as the new groAvth springs from the side of the old culms, a little above that of the previous year. The roots are stout and woody, Avith a sliglit tendency to sucker. The leaves are rather firm, flat, varying mueli in length and breadth, but often one to two feet long. The nodding, spreading panicle somewhat resembles that of a F. ELATIOR, L. TAT J. :\IEADOW FESCUE. 127 slciulor top of eliess, witli which every fiirnier is familiar. It flowers about a week or ii>.n days before Timothy. This valual)lo grass, with several kindred species and varieties, is found throughout Fairopo, western Asia, and has been intro- duced into North America. Tall fescue has lojig been in high favor with the best farmers of Great Britain, as it is well liked by all domestic herbivorous animals. Mr. Gorrie, a competent British authority, speaks of it as the most important species of the fescues, highly valuable for per- manent grass laiuls, both for sjiring and autumn, but not the best suited for alternate husbandi-y, as it does not attain to full productive powers till the third year from sowing. It is very nutritious, making excellent hay as well as i)asture. This grass is seldom sown in a pure state, but is frequently met with, in the northern States especially, where the soil is heavy and inclined to be moist. It seeds freely, and the seeds germinate quickly and make strong young plants. If used alone, sow two bushels to the acre. For the South, Dr. Phares considers it one of tlie best winter grasses, and says it is much prized as far north as Virginia, where it furnishes cattle good grazing in mid-winter. To the writer this seems to be one of the most promising grasses for the dry l)rairie lands of the west. Festuca prateusis, Hiids. Meadow Fescue, Randall Grass.— By many botanists this is considered a mere variety of the former species, or the former grass a mere variety of this one; some choosing one name, some the other. The one now under consid- eration much resembles the tall fescue. It is a little earlier, considerable smaller, with shorter, thinner leaves, less inclined to grow in tufts, top narrower and simpler. The reader should consult the remarks on Festuca elatior, which mostly apply to this one also. Most of the seeds sold for tall meadow fescue are Fig. 65. F. ELATIUK, L., TALL 3IEAD0W FESCUE. 139 those of iiu'iulow feseiio or perennial ryegrass, and most of tliosc sold for meadow fesouo arc all soi-dsof rye-grass, or tlieyare verv extensively adulterated with those of rye -grass, to the extent of fifty to ninety per cent. In the words of James Hunter, u seedsnum of England : *'So closely to the naked eye do the seeds of meadow fescue resemble the seeds of perennial rye-grass, that abundant opportunities for adulteration are alforded and are certainly not neglected. The fact that the average price of perennial rye-grass is only about one-fourth or one-fifth that of meadow fescue, suHicientlv ex- plains the motives of those rvho mix these seeds." The Avriter knows well that the frequent adulteration of the seeds of meadow fescue is one of the chief causes why so little is raised in this country. A farmer not knowing either grass, orders seed of this one and gets seeds of rye-grass, which produce plants not satisfactory to his needs. Tliis is one of the five "' ^P'^^^l-t enlarged; ;,, 17 Fio. 66. F. ELATIOH, TALI. MKADOW FKHCUE. 181 IuikIs iiiiil cliiys, and liaving niuiiy liliroiin rootn running tlnwu eight to llftct'ii inclu's. resists the- droughts." For Kansas, read what Professor Shelton writes: "After experimenting for twelve years, I inive often wondered that the cultivation of this grass has not heon more widely extended. It gives a good amount of early and late feed of good (juality, and yields heavily, of good liay. It endures dry weather, in strong lands, without injury. People east ami west can aftord to give this Festucu a trial. Sow two to two and ii half busholtj of seed to the acre." Professors Latta and Troo]!, of Indiami, say that " ^Meadow Fescue and Taller Fescue do remarkably well at Lafayette, and we look upon them as the coming grasses of this section. The first seems to give better satisfaction as hay, while the second furnishes more i)asturo after cutting. Its leaves are too rough Jind harsh for hay." As before said the various samples of this grass already vary much ill size and vigor, and this shows what might be done with a little tinu' and care in selecting certain types and in raising each by itself. Like Indian corn, they seem ready to break up into permanent varieties. Prof. .James liuckman, of Fiiirland, tried, side by side, the two fescues above named, and another called Fcstuca loliacea, and found all intermediate stages passing from one into either of the others, but under certain circum- stances each maintained its distinct characters. Festuca elatior var. aniiMliiiacea, Tall Meadow Fescue.— Leaves longer, broader, firmer, (uilm stouter and taller, panicle more erect, roots larger and stouter than those of F. elatior. For many years the writer has had three separate forms or races of the larger fescues, each of which came from seeds of distinct selected plants. The mixed seed at first was received „.iH^.'.?:.''*''~'^''i'''"'"/L*''''*r \^^'- a>undinacea; part of plant; a outer glumes; fc. floral giumu, c, section of Horal glum anil palea ; d, a cross-section of same.— (Sudwortli), laS F. OVTNA; F. lUKMUSCUr-A T,.; P. PRATKN'SIS. L. from tlu- Kcw (ianlcns. Of jill tlio niwn tliis (tnc .scniis tlic Ix'st, iidiipti'd Id llic dry prairin ro^nous of tlu" ('ciilnil I'liilcd States. Fosiiu'ji oviiui, li., Sheep's Fesciio.— A sinall |KrciiniiiI, densely tufted, leaves eliielly radical, very narrow, coiidiipVieate, a|t|)eariii<;- eyliiidrieal, tlie ii])per more or less ilatleiU'd. I'anielo one-sided, short; s[)ikelels, l-lO-lld. (ihimes faintly nerved. Dry, hilly pastures, very vai'iahle. Of litth; vahie, hut, here mentioned he, a.;ise il is so common ami likelv to ])e J'onnd. Ft'siucji diiriiisciila, L., Hard IVscuo. — Compared with the preeediiii;-, less densely tufted, lallei-, laru-t'r, sheaths downy. Panicle more open, varying- much in color. All intermediati^ forms can he S(dce'cd from this to the ])reeediiij,% of which many consider it, a, mere variety. For dry past nres' tiiis seems to he wt)rlliy of some attention. I'OA, 1, Spikelets, 'J-d-llowered. > impressed, in loost' or close paniides; hunches. •.»-nat(« or in Jl-whorls. h'achilhi jointed hetwecii the llowers which are perfect. I'arely imperfei't. Mmpty <4lumes uncijual, shoi'ter than the lowest tloral one, keeled, aeiite or ohiuse; the lower l-iiei'ved, th(> u[)per larger, .'i-uei-ved. Vloral Ulu'uc ofti'ii wehlied helow, keeled, a<'ule or oi)iusi', Ti, rarely T-nerved, t ips hyaline. Pah'a, ;.*-ni'rved. ciliate. Ijodicules 1 umid lielow. SfauHMis ;5. Styles )l. short, terminal, disi inci,, sti':;mas feathery, ("ai'yopsis avoid, ohlonn', yi'ooved, fi-ee. Annuals or pei'ennials, low oi- tall, leaves Hat or conduplicate. Ahont SO species, ehietly in cold oi- tcm[)erate rei^ions. nearly i-elated to the fesciu's, havini;' shortei- and moi'c compressed iilumes, without, awns. 1*. pratriisis, L. Juiie(»rass, Spear ereniuiil, 1--^ ft. hi., with creeping root storks. Ci.lm, p. IMJATKNSIS. L, JUNE (JKAHS. l;{;{ smooth, ivroio. fjOiivos narrov/, keeled, tip closed, li it is olijecteij tnon acconnt. of exclndiiii,' other j^rasscs which ;ire considered more valaahle in th-it climale. It, is foiunl also ill .'vsia and Australia, varying' consideralil v in size and appearance. .hine n-rass varies in iieiirht, from a I'ew iiwhes to a foo;. and in rich <;foniHl. wiu're the .stems have not yet heconie crowded, samples may he round which exceed four feel. It. is iioled for root stocks which spread raj.idlyand lill t he _i;roiind Me;ii' I he sur- face witli a, close n\i[l of lurt, niMcii like has(i (»f (he hlad(( iH'ar (he a[»ex of (hesheadi.' Tht^ apex of (he l)lade is ( he uhh^st por( ion ; (he hasi! ( he voun"est. 184 P, PRATENSIS, L., JUNE GRASS. In a wet season, in a hedge, the writer found some leaves still green and thrifty where they were almost (5| ft.) five and a half feet long. Although this grass is so very common, yet frequent inquiries are made in reference to its value. Are June grass and Kentucky blue grass, or blue grass of Kentucky, the same? Frequent experiments and careful study by the botanists prove that they are without question identical — one and the same. We have a rather thin, short, late grass, with short leaves, a small top, and a flattened stem. This one noted in the last sen- tence is very rich, of a dark bluish-green color, and is often called ''blu>3 grass," a name which it richly deserves. It is Poa com- pressa, wire grass or flat stemed poa, an account of which should be read in this connection. June grass starts quickly in spring, after mowing or feeding, unless the weather be quite dry. It is very rarely injured by the cold, and very hard to kill by dry weather, hot sun, the tramp- ing of hoofs, or close mowing. It is a perennial, living on and on almost indefinitely. In most soils the stalks are too short for a large yield of hay, but if cut early, in flower or a little before, and well cured, the hay is very rich, and Avill go a great way, considering its bulk. It is too frequently condemned for its single crop of short stems and leaves. It does not get a great name on account of its value for meadow, but on account of its endurance and great worth for permanent pasture and lawn. The leaves keep growing and make much feed, if the soil and season be not unfavorable. Like all other grasses for feeding in cold weather or in a very dry spell, it should be allowed to get a good start before this try- ing time arrives. But few sections of countiy are suited to a permanent and fine p. PRATENSIS, L., JUNE GRASS. 135 growth of June grass. Such land is always deep, rich, and valu- able for many other crops. The forest trees in such sections of the United States are usually large, tall, thick, abounding in sugar maple, black walnut, hickory, white, black, and blue ashes, red elm, black cherry, and burr oak. A Kentucky farmer says • " Whoever has lime-stone land has blue grass; whoever has blue grass has the basis of all agricult- ural prosperity, and that man, if he has not the finest horses, cattle, and sheep has no one to blame but himself." Besides some portions of Kentucky, there are also a few counties or parts of counties in Ohio, Michigan, and Indiana. It requires three years or more to become well established, and on this account should not be sown for one or two crops of grass or hay. Among the numerous plats of grasses, clovers, and other ex- l)erimenta: plants of the Michigan Agricultural College, not one is so persistently omnipresent as June grass The seeds push up and make youii]!;, plants at all growing seasons of the year; these cannot always be certainly detected until their tops appear. In Michigan it is certainly a good fighter. The spreading so rapidly by root stocks, and its tenacity of life, account for the fact that it soon appears in pastures or old meadows when the other grasses die out. June grass is not very often sown for pasture or meadow, yet it abounds in most of our pastures, especially if they have not been plowed for some time. Read Professor Phares as to its success in the South: " Ken- tucky blue grass grows as well in most parts of the Gulf States as in Kentucky or any otlier State. In tliese States this grass is perennial and excellent for hay and grazing through a large part of the year." In the famous experiments on meadow grasses by J. B. Lawes, in England, Poa jjratensis on the permanently unmatured land made a very poor fight, amounting to one-quartei of one per cent 186 P. PRATENSIS, L., JUNE GRASS. or oven less of the lierbage, while on pints receiving a large quantity of potash, phosphate of lime, and salts of ammonia, in fact everything that is necessai-y to grow luxuriant grass, it managed to fight its way onward, so that in ten years it was credited with twenty-two per cent of the whole herbage. With a still more generous diet, it had to give way to cock's foot [orchard grass], which in turn gave Avay to meadow foxtail. Concerning this grass for Kansas, Professor Shelton writes: " What we said five years ago in writing of this grass has been fully borne out by recent experience. It can be grown almost anywhere in the now settled portions of the State. Wo have never failed to secure a good stand, and ultimately a good sod, — even during such very dry seasons as 1875, — when good seed was sown upon Avell prepared land, and at the proper season, which is early in the spring. However, our experience with the grass, — a very extended one by the way, — has convinced us that, for all useful purposes except lawns, in central and western Kansas, this is one of the most worthless of the tame grasses. It starts early in the season, and for a short time yields a small amount of quite inferior feed; but in May it ripens its seed, the grass becomes brown, dry, and fibrous, and in this dormant condition it remain^ until fall, and often until tne following spring. We have invariably found, too, that, in a field containing other sorts, cattle will not touch blue grass until all these others are con- sumed. Moreover, dry Aveather will almost certainly injure blue grass sod seriously, when no damage is sustained by orchard grass and clover growing in the same field. On the other hand, in the eastern portions of the State, particularly in the counties border- ing the Missouri river, we know from personal observation that blue-grass thrives abundantly, and is very profitable grass. " We can easily see that this grass possesses great value for a region like Illinois and Kentucky, where winter rains abound, enabling it to make a slow and continuous growth; but the p. C0MPRES8A, L., WIRE (iRASS. 1G7 Kiinsiis winter is genorally our dryest seiison, Jind for this reason we doubt much if this old favorite sort has any place in our agri- culture. To obtain a good stand quickly, blue grass seed should be sown in the early spring; and in amount not less than three bushels per acre of ground." The following in reference to the quality of this grass, is from the pen of of Dr. Bessey, of Xebraska : *' Passing now to the nutritiousness of blue grass, we find that it stands at the head of the list of cultivated grasses,as shown by repeated chemical analysis. It is very nearly twice as nutritious, weiglit for weight, as Timothy. As compared with red top, the latter has about five-sixths the value of that of blue grass. Orchard grass likewise, has about five-sixths the nutritious value of blue grass. From what has been said, it i? clear that the higli rank held by blue grass for pasturage is well merited." June grass, in a cool climate, is one of the best of all our grasses for II lawn, and when sown on rich land and cut often, it makes a a soft, thick green turf, which is a delight to the eye and to the feet which tread upon it. In many places nothing else need be sown. For a good lawn sow four bushels to the acre. Much of the seed is saved in Kentucky, where it is tied in bundles and set up in cocks till the tops decay sufficiently to break up easily. It needs caro to prevent this seed from heating and injury when piled up in the chaff. In some cases the tops, when ripe, are taken off with a stripper with a box behind it, the whole kept on wheels. Poa compressa, L. Wire lirass,Blue Grass, Flat-steiiiined Poa, Flat-staked Meadow Grass. — A perennial, about 1 ft. hi., with creeping rootstocks, and smooth compressed culms. Leaves short, with flattened sheaths, and a short, obtuse ligule. Panicle oblong, 3-3 in. long, slightly spreading branches, 2-3-nate. Spikelets ovate-oblong, 4, 6, or even 9-flowered. Floral glumes 18 Fig. er. p. COMPRESS A, L., WIRE GRASS. 139 with minute silky luiir.s jiloug tho keel, margius hyaline; nerves obscure. Altliough not j)urposely sown anywhere, so far as the writer can learn, it deserves notice because so often found in rather dry, thin pastures on sand, gravel, or clay soil, in company with June grass, which it somewhat resembles. The grass is a perennial, a foot or more high, with a stem nearly solid, liard to cut, soon gumnung tlie knives of the mower. When comjiarcd with June grass, it flowers several weeks later, the panicle is shorter, narrower, more compact ; the leaves shorter, the stem much flattened, and tlie whole plant of a much darker color. In tliis country it docs not spread rapidly by root- stalks, as is the case with June grass and quack grass, but in England it does spread rapidly. It well deserves the name "blue grass,"' by which it is often known, as the whole plant has a dark, bluish, glaucous -green color. It is to be regretted that the name "blue grass " was ever applied to Poa pratensis, as is commonly the case in Kentucky and vicinity. Prof. D. L. Phares, in his manual of grasses for the Southern States, says: "Poa cofnpressa is blue, the 'true blue' grass, from which the genus received its trivial name. It has priority of claim to the name hliie grass, and justly too, as the leaves have a deep bluish tint." Like Poa nci'olina, fowl meadow grass, it may be allowed to get ripe before cutting, as its stalks remain green and nutritious. No grass makes richer pasture or richer liayo Gould says : " It never forms a close turf, and is rarely found intermixed with other grasses. It never yields a great bulk of hay, but this bulk weighs very heavily, frequently a ton or a ton and a half to the acre, where one would not expect to get half a ton. Fio. 67.—/, Plant of Pna comprcsa , 2, 5, si)ikclets; 4, empty glumes; 6, floral glume. (1 from U. S. Agricultual Report. i?-5, F. L. Scribner.) 140 P. SEROTINA, E., FOWL MEADOW CJRASS. " It is ecrttiiii tluit cows tlmt feed upon it, both in pusturc ami in liuy, give moro milk and keep in bettor eomlitiou than wlicn fed on any other grass. Horses fed on this hay Avill do as well as when fed on Timothy hay and oats combined. Sheep fatten astonishingly when fed upon it. *' The crops are remarkably even; it rarely suffers from exces- sive wetness or dryness. ]{y manuring, we have increased the size of the culms, and caused them to grow two feet high. It is one of the hardiest grasses known. It is. perhaps, rather better suited to moist, gravelly clays. It keeps green even until the heavy frosts of winter. It loses less weight in drying than any other species. Although this grass is spoken of by most writers on the subject in terms of contempt, we must differ very decidedly from them, and adhere to the opinion which we have formed after much observation and experience, that it is one of the most valuable aiul nutritious of them all." Poa serotiiia, Ehrli. Fowl Meadow Orass, False Red Top. — Culms rather weak, ^-3 ft. hi. Leaves narrow, smooth, ligules y\ in. Panicle, 0-1-i in., slender, ojien, branches mostly 5-nate. Spikelets numerous, acute, short, iiedicelled, often })urplish. Floral glumes obscurely nerved, webbed at base. The name "Fowl"' meadow is said to have been applied to tliij grass because ducks and other wild water birds were supposed to have introduced the grass into a poor low meadow in Dedhani, Massachusetts. This is a native grass, found on bottom lands in the eastern half of the Xorthern States. It flowers about the same time as Timothy. It makes a soft, pliable hay of excellent quality. The stems in damp weather branch at the lower joints, and thus the grass inclines to spread. On account of the large top, and the slender stem, this grass wlieu sown alone is rather inclined to Fig. 68.— /.Plant of Poaserntina: 2, 3, spikelets; 4, floral glume. (The first from v. S. Agricultural Report, ~-4, F. L. Hcribner.) Fio. 68. 148 ROUOII-STALKED MEADOW GRASS. full over or lodge. This is one reason for growing it with other grasses, like red top, whieh has larger and stilTer stems. Like Poa compressa or wire grass, it Howers rather late, has a dark green stem, which remains green and nutritious for a long time after the plant has gone to seed. It does not spread by root- stocks, like June grass. Owing to the fact that the stems remain green and succulent after flowering, there is not so much need of cutting this grass when in Hower as there is of cutting most other grasses at that time. It may be allowed to go to seed before cutting, then threshed, and the straw fed out. In this way the hay is not so good, but answers very well, makes a profitable crop, as we get both an abundance o* good seeds and forage. The second growth, after feeding or mowing, starts quite slowly, and like Timothy, it is not well adapted for pasture. The grass will grow on almost any rich, arable land, nuiking a fair crop, but it likes moist land. The seeds are small and require more than one year to make strong plants, hence it is not suitable for alter- nate husbandry. Although grown in the Eastern States for 150 years, pure seeds are not often found in market. They are difficult to identify by seedsmen and farmers, and both are liable to be misled. This is true of many other grasses, and constitutes one of the many "practical" reasons why farmers stick to a few well known sorts. Although tried in Europe, its culture has not met with much favor there. Poa triviaiis, L. Uoiigh-stalked Meadow Grass. — Culms decumbent at base, without rootstocks, taller and more slender than Poa prntensis. Culms and sheaths usually rough ; ligule oblong, acute. Panicle 4-0 in., slender, spreading^ 5-nate. tSpikelets mostly 3-fld. Floral glumes accumatc, nerves distinct. Found in Europe, N. Africa, Siberia, and introduced into America. This perennial is employed in Great Britain for meadow and TEXAS BLUE GRASS. 148 pasture, and is there usually much preferred to June grass, wliieh it much resembles. It is to that country what Juno grass is to the eastern part of the United States. The grass is suited to deep, moist loam, to sow with red top and fowl meadow grass, hut poorly suited to dry soils. The late Prof. James Buckman, of England, said: '' Poa trhiaUs, is a month later than June grass and inferior to it." In Europe the seeds of June grass are often sold for those of Poa trivialis. In my jdats of grasses in several places, this has always proved a slow grower, and has soon been crowded out by June grass. P. arachiiifera, Torr. Texas Blue (Jrass. — Tiiis plant is well supplied with creeping rootstocks, aiul is taller than Poprntensis. The leaves are long and slender; ligule short aiuI obtuse. Pan- icle 4-G in, by f in., light colored. Floral glumes prominently ciliate on the keel below the middle; at the base usually are very long, webby hairs, Palea ciliat. on the nerves^ slightly adherent to the caryopsis, which is twice ac long as tha^ oi P. i^ratensis. For the South, as a pasture grass, this one seems very jiromis- ing„ It is hardy and a more rapid grower than Kentucky blue grass. As far north as Kansas. Professor Shelton says, it endures the winters and resists drought perfectly^ making three or four times as much pasture or hay as does its near relative, Kentucky blue grasSo He is very hopeful of this grass. AQROSTIS, L. Spikelets small, 1-fld., panicled, flower perfect, empty glumes persistent below the joint, keeled, acute; floral glume shorter, broad. hyaline, frequently supplied with a slender awn below the middle. Palea very slender, hyaline, ahor^ or none. Stamens mostly 3. Styles distinct, very short, stigmas feathery. Cary- opsis included in the floral glume, free. Annuals or perennials. Fio. 69. A. VULGARIS, VAR. AT.RA, RED TOP, 145 tiil'tod, loaves flat or bristly. Piiiiidr liTiiiiiml, usimlly Hlomlor, nuicli briinclit'd; l)ninnlu!rt sli'iidcr, spikelets luuiu'roiis. About 100 speoios, jiiohtly foiiiul in tomporiitc regions. A. alba With, KimI Top, Herd's Orass (ot tlio South), Riii'doirs (jrass, Siiiiinioi* l)(»>v()lrass.--Culni.s 1--j fl, hi., asct'ii(lin1?A. 1{KI) TOP. Fid. 70. A. VULGARIS. VAll Al.HA. RED TOP. 147 , spikelet c, back of floral glume with awn. (Kieehenbach.) Fig. 71. F.L.Scribngr del I c vYTYpe en. ^hij m , Fig. A. CANINA, L. BROWN BENT-GRAK8. 151 florin does not seoiu to l)o as large, vigorous, i)rocluct ivf, ur as valiiablo us our own nutivo red top. Agrostis caniiia, L. Brown Bent, Rhode Ishuul Bent, Fine Top, Fnrze Top, Bnrden's Grass.— A very variable perennial, much like small plants of .1 vnlrjaris. Culms C-18 in. hi., stolo- niferons. Ligule oblong. Panicle 2-4 in., contracting in fruit, usually purple. Floral glumes shorter than the empty, 5-nerved , awned on the back, near the middle or below. Palea minute or none. Widely distributed in cool regions. J. B. Alcott says: " There is as mucli difference between this and red top as there is between the Tom Thumb ])e!i and the marrowfat. Tt will make beautiful, close, fine sod upon quite sterile soils. This, red top will not do. It is especiall} satisfac- tory for lawns, which in strong soils is apt to overgrow." It makes very good pasture, though it is too small and grows too closely to afford much of a bite. For fifteen vears the writer has watched it in ^Michigan, on thin soils and on rich soils, on moist land and on dry, sandy land, and he unhesitatingly recom- mends it as one of the very best grasses to mix with June grass for producing a fine lawn. If sown alone, four bushels of seed in tlie chaff is none too much. This grass, with considerable variation, is often fouinl on mountains iu Eurojie, Asia, Australia, and North America. A small Agrostis, iirob'ably A. vulgaris, of Europe, has been much used for lawns, and by some it has passed for ^1. canina. ALOl'KOLUrs, I,. lOX TAIL. Spikelets l-Uowered, flat, crowded into a head or eylindricai spike-like panicle, jointed at the apex of the enlarged pedicel, flowoi-3 perfect. Glumes 3 or 4, the 'Z outer empty, acute, uwnless or short awned, often connate below, flat-keeled, the keel ciliate Fig. 7~. — 7, Plant ot AhtpcciirnK prutcnMs, a iittlo reduced i 1', spikelet ; 5, floral glume.— (Trinus mid Scribuer.) 153 A. PRATENSIS, L., MEADOW FOXTAIL. auil sometimes winged ; the floral glume obtuse, liyuline, 3-5 nerved, witli ji short awn on the buck, or mucronate, the margins joined at the base into a tube inclosing the flower ; the palea sometimes present, narrow, hyaline, keekd, acute, partly included by the floral glume. Stamens 3. Stylos distinct or rarely joined at the base or the middle, stigmas short, hairy. Annual or perennial grasses, ei'cct or decuml^cnt at the base ; leaves either flat or convolute, upper sheaths often inflated. Spikelets or panicles spike-like, terminal. About 20 species in temperate and cold countries. A. prateiisis, L. Meadow Foxtail. — A soft erect perennial, 1-3 ft. hi. Leaves flat, upper sheath inflated, longer than its blade; ligule oblong truncate Spikelets 3-8 in., ^ in. or more in diameter, dense, obtuse, soft, pale green. Sjoikclets f-:^in. long Empty glumes, membranous ciliate on the keel only, ovate lanceolate, acute, connate at the base. Floral glumes ciliate, as long as the empty glumes, awn near the base and projecting halt its length. Found ill Europe, North Africa, Western Asia, introduced into America. In Great Britain and other parts of Europe with a like climate, this is one of the best known and higlily esteemed grasses which is cultivated for permanent meadow and pasture. It bears considerable resemblance to Timothy, though the culm and leaves are shorter, the spikes shorter, broader, and softer ', the Avliole plant less firm and rough, and it starts much earlier in spring, flowering three or four weeks before that well known grass. Meadow foxtail is not Avell adapted for alternate husbandry, as it requires three or four years to become well established^ but on deep, ricli, moigt, or irrigated soils^ in a cool climate not subject to droughts or very hot weather, it is a fine grass and peculiarly well adapted for permanent pasture. It makes a quick growth SWEET SCENTED VERNALr-(JRASS. 15a in spring or iit'ter feeding or mowing. It is lino, nutritious, and piilatiiblo for nil kinds of stock. Like Timothy, it has no tendency to spread, as is the case with June grass, quack grass, and white clover. Mr. Lawes' experi- ments show that it thrives hest with high manuring, supplying much nitrogen. In this respect it comes into comj»etition with orchard grass. There is considerable dithculty in procuring good seed, which is very light, and sold in the chaff, only weighing five pounds to the bushel. If sowed alone, three bushels to the acre is none too much. The seeds are often adulterated with those of JToIcns lanafus, Alnpecurits ((//Ksfi.s and ryo-grass. The first two grasses are of very i)oor quality, the latter is much cheaper and costs not over one-eighth part as much per pound. Other seeds are also often found with those of meadow foxtail. The seeds ripen unevenly, some beginning to fail while much is yet immature or even in flower. Many glumes are empty; insects, blight, or something else causing the failures. The small seed jiroduces a small, feeble plant, which requires a favorable chance for a long time before it becomes well established. It will not likely ever be popular over a very large portion of the United States. It is well adapted to parts of New England, New York, Canada, and mountain districts farther west and south. It is a native of Europe, and one of tho five grasses recommended for permanent grass lands by Mr. De Laune, of England. AXTHOXANTHUM, L. SWEET VERNAL-GRASS. Spikelets 1 -flowered, narrow, slightly compressed, crowded into a cylindrical spike-like panicle ; rachilla jointed above the lower glumes, often hairy. Glumes G, the 3 lower persistent below the joint, acute, mucronate, or very short awned, the second longer 30 154 SWEET SCENTED VERNAL GRASS. Fio. 73. SWEET SCENTED VERNAL GRASS. 155 than tlio others^, tho two intermediiitc glumes mueli sliortor^ emptyp narrow, kcolodj with an awn on tho back or very near tlie base, tlie two upper glumes miicli shorter, liyaline, obtuse, awn- loss, of which tho fiftli is very broad, including tho narrow 1-nerved sixth (or palea ?) and tho flower; other palea 0. Stamens, 2. Styles, distinct, with long, feathery stignnis. Cary- opsis oblong, included by the inner glumes, free. Aromatic or sweet scented annuals or perennials, Avith flat loaves. The terminal panicle s2)ike-liko, pedunculate, dense or rather loose, with many very short dense branches. Species, four or five, European. A. odoratiim, L. Sweet Scented Vernal Grass.— A rather slender, erect perennial, l-2\ ft. high. Leaves slightly hairy, ligule oblong, obtuse, blade of upper leaf about 1 in. long; sheath slightly inflated. Spike-like panicle, LUo in, long- Spikelets ^-^ in. long, linear, oblong. First glume ovate, acute, 1-norved, half as long as tho second which is 3-nerved, elliptical when spread out. Tho third and fourth empty glumes emargi- nate, obscurely 5-nervcd below the apex; the straight awn of the former above the middle, projecting {■ its length„ The twisted awn of tho latter below the middle, projecting twice the length of the glume. Native of Europe, widely dispersed in temperate Asia, Xorth America, Australia, often sown for pastures and lawns. Sweet scented vernal grass is a pretty name, and suggestive of something agreeable, and is one of a very small number of grasses which possess this peculiar odor. The grass is perennial, with a culm one to two feet high. It starts very early in spring and soon flowers. It has often been recommended for lawns and pastures, but for the latter purpose some of the best farmers of Fio. Tii.-Antlio.rnnthum odoratum, L. (Sweet Vernal Grass); 1, plant; o, spikelet; b, the same witli the outer K'unies removed ; <•, tlie same as /* with tlie empty flumes removed ; d, the stamens and pistil ; e, tlie pistil with one style removed ; /, one of the hairs from the stigma.— (e, /, from Kunth, tho others by Scribner.) 100 SWEET-SCENTED VERNAL-GRASS. Engluml now omit sowing tliis grass. Its frugrunce wlien wilted, bruised or dried, is its chief recommendution, und about the only one for its use on the lawn. It is too apt to kill or be crowded out, a little coarse, bunchy, and uneven for a velvet and elastic turf. It likes rich, moist soil and cool summers. T. M., in Treasury of Botany, says; "The fragrant resinous principle which occurs in this grass, aiul is called coumarin, is a widely diffused natural perfume, being found in the Tonka Bettn, the Faham tea-plant, the sweet-wood-ruff, melilotus, and the blue or Swiss melilot." " In Northern Michigan, and probably in other places, the In- dians raise this grass and use the stems for mats, card baskets, and other small articles. It is sometimes used for bonnets, hats, and bouquets. The culms and flowers possess the strongest per- fume, wliich remains for a long time after drying." *'Tlie Italians," says Dr. Lindley, "Are said to employ the distilled water as a 2)erfume." The writer and one of his students made some experiments in feeding sweet vernal Avhen in flower. A young horse kept on dry feed, preferred fresh June grass to sweet vernal, but ate all of both, small bunches. Some meadow toxtail and sweet vernal had been cut in flower, and dried for some days. One short-horn cow rather preferred the foxtail, but ate both readily. Another ate both alike, another ate the foxtail and refused the sweet vernaL An Ayrshire cow ate both greedily without preference. Two of the farm horses ate both alike, while a third jireferred the foxtail, but ate both readily. The cows had been in pasture some weeks, the horses had been kept on dry feed. Gould says : " It is nowhere considered a very valuable species for hay, as the culms are wide apart, very thin, and bear but few leaves ; hence it gives a light crop of hay, at best not over three- quarters of a ton of hay from an acre. The seeds are not very LOLIUM, L. 107 ubiii^^iit, nor easy of iicqni.sitioii. Sheep are not fond of U. It was once thought to give a sweet Ihivor to butter and to mutton ; but tliese notions are now exploded. It nuiy be beneficial medic- inally, as cattle will eat a little of it mixed witli other grasses, but when in any eonsiderublo bulk they always refuse it.^' Sir J. B. Lawessays: "Upon the whole this grass takes rank somewhat low in the scale of the better grasses for perma- nent purposes. The growth is much discouraged by highly nitrogenous and farm-yard manures, such as greatly increased tho amount and proportion of the graminaceous hay plants, as a Avhole. It only becomes prominent under conditions which do not induce special luxuriance in its competitors, and it seems to be more injured by association with more luxuriant grasses than by the direct action of manures.*' The seeds are sometimes adulterated with those of Anthox- anthum Puelii, a much smaller and insignificant plant, which is an annual. The grass is a native of Europe, and is extensively naturalized in N^orth America. LOLIUM, J.. Spikelets many flowered, sessile, distichous, compressed in a simple spike, placed with one edge to the rachis. Eachilla jointed between the flowers; flowers perfect or rarely imperfect. Empty glumes, firm, 5-7-nerved, convex on the back^ obtuse acute, or awned ; the empty glume next to the rachis wanting, except in the terminal spikelct. Palea shorter than the floral glume, narrow, 3-keeled. Lodicules ovate, ciliate. Stamens 3. Styles distinct, very short, stigmas feathery, Caryopsis oblong, smooth, adherent to the palea. Annuals or perennials, with flat leaves. Spike terminal, elongated, spikelets nlaced on alternate sides of a jointed r:iehi.s. Species about 20, found in north temperate regions. Fia. 74. PERENNIAL li\'K Oil RAY (JRASS, DARNEL. 150 L. pereniio, h, reroniilal Rye or lliiy Orass, Duriiel.- An iTccI or slightly (U'ciiiiibL'nt i)erc'imiul, 1-3 ft. hi., Hinootli, t'uliii sliglitly c()m])re8secl. Li'iives Hut, Hliiniiig; ligiik'8 tsliort. Spiko 4-10 in., sloiulcr. Spikcluts 8-10, obtuso or jtoiiited, riircly iiwiiud, ^-^ in. long. Empty glnnica strongl / riltbod, liiuiii'- liincooliitc, llonil glunio liiu'ur-oblong. In the toruiiuul spikolot tho second glnnio is usually empty. In numy portions of moist, tcmporuto Europe, this gniss has for over 200 years tiikcn tho rank among the farmers that ' 'imothy luis in tho United States. Ikvo grass is termed u perennial, though it can hardlv be relied on to last for more tlmn two to fivo years, and especially after one seeding, tlie jjbnits mostly soon perish. 8olf-sown seed, ripening on the ground, help supply tt continuous crop of jdants. It seeds bountifully, frequently producing forty bushels or more to tho aero; these uro of a largo size and make strong jdants on a great variety of soils soon after sowing. Tho stems ai'o one to two or ov(>n three feet high, iiu-luding tho straight spiko at tho toj), giving it somewhat tho aspect of cut al«)ve the iniMdle; (•,(/, cross sections of tloral Klume and palea; c, sjiikelet with a iiortion of radiis of Jy. penniDC var. JI'iJi- cum ; /, ovary ana styles ; /i, cross section of an anther with a few grains of pollen,— (Sudworth.) 1«0 PERfiNNTAT. RYE OR RAY-GRASS, DARNEL. some of tlio main reasons why rye -grass lias been so popnlar. Eye- grass was one of the first if not the first grass (>ver ciilti- vatoil in Crreai l^ritain, as lt in some of the cooler and more moist portions of our country, has jjroved of little value. It will make little growth on dry ground. CYNonON, J'KKS. Spikjlets small, ]-(lo\vcrcd, sessile on oiu* side of a ilattish ■achis, alternately ^-ranked, rachilla jointed above the empty glumes, extended into a snuill stipe beyond the flower, ilower perfect. The empty glumes persistent or deciduous, slender, keeled, acute, or obtuse. The iloral ghnne broader than the empty glumes, membranous, ciliate,, keeled, transversely i)ilose near the apex, awnless. Palea s(!arccly shorter than tlu> floral glume, hyaline, 2-nerved, luliate. Stamens ;i Styles distinct, clothed with short hairs. Caryopsis oblong, smooth, iiu-luded free. Ferennials, creeping or stoloniferous, with short, luirrow, flat leaves. Spikes sleiuler. o-fl. digitate at the apex of the (!ulm, straight, erect, or s;)rea(ling. Four species in warui regions. r Fio. 75. C. DACTYLON, PERS. BERMUDA GRASS. 163 C. Dactj ion, Peis. Bermuda, Wire or Stiitcli Orass.-Spikos 3-5, seldom soediiig, but spreu.ling rapidly l,y stout n.otstock.. This grass beloTigs to southern Europe and to uuiuy other wurui climates, and is a perennial, thriving from Michigan southward. The stems are lou- and come from extensively ,-reei)ing root- stocks, Avhich also i)enetr:.te the ground to the depth of three to six inches. The top spreads into several l)r:.nch<'s, somewhat re- sembling crab grass, an annual too common lu neglected o-ur- (iens. The leaves are short. This grass is said to l)e celebrated in the sacred Vedas as the shield of India, ami preserver ot nations, as without it the (>attle would perish. For tlie Xortheru States it is of no value, starting very late in spring, with the leaves barely an inch high when meadow foxtail IS in ilower, but for i)eruKUient pasture in M-arm countru^s it is highly prized, standing heat and dry wcjtlier remarkalily well. It rarely ripens seed in the United States, but may be propa- gated by washing the rootstocks, running them through a cut- ting machine and then sowing l)road-cast. Like quack gi-ass, it is a terrible pest in Held crops, where its deep, stout rootstorks make it lianl to kill. Thorough .-ultiva- tion will kill, if not pastnivd, .Tune grass, cow peas, or other rapid growing plants will shade and (dioke it out. The following is from Killebrew : •• I,i iho TSoutii it has been the chief reliance for pasture for a long time. It revels on sandy soils, and is used extensively on tlie southern rivers to hold the levees and the embankments of the roa.ls. It forms a sward so tough it is almost impossible for a plow to pass through it. It will run do.vn the sides of the deepest gully and stop its wash- ing. It has the capacity to withstand any amount of heat and droughts, and droughts that are so dry us to check the growth cf ^■i^^v'oJ■'^»ik^'T^•rm(^'vi''w'' /""'.''''V-';^ •/••".'^^li "• >'l»nt witi, n,otsl,H.k: ,■. ,l.,rs,il bach.) ' ' ' '"'" ^'"'^Vi Aspikelet; d, pistil a.Kl lolue grass will dry out entirely. It is improved by l)reaking np every three or four years, and planting a crop "I am beginning to holieve that in this and Johnson grass, Ave Inivo for this latitude, for hay and i>asture, two ])hints that are not excelled hv anvthing that groAvs in the north, Thev do not fraternize with cotton, so i)lanters are ver\' much afraid of them.'' AGKOl'YJ{0N', .r. (iAKUTN. Sjiikelets many flowered^, compn^ssi'd, sessili;, one at each joint of the zigzag rachis, distichous, place(l with one side to the racliis, flowers perfect, or the u})j)er oiu's imperfect. Km2)ty glumes narroAver than the iloral glume, few nerved; lloral glumes firm. convex on the hack, 5-T-nerved, obtuse, acniminate, or aAvned, the upper one often empty or enclosing an imperfect iloAver. Palea shorter than the lloral glume, 2-lceeled. Lodicules, ovate, entircj ciiiate, Stamens 3. Styles very short, distiiu't, stigmas feathei'y> subsessile.. Caryopsis oldong, grooveil, moi'e or less hairy at tlio apex, adherent to the palea or free. Perennials or annuals, Avith leaves Hat or convolute. Spike terminal. About twenty species found in temperate climates. A. repeiis, Beauv., (Tritifum repeiis, Lo) ({iiack, Quitch, Quick, Twitcli, Couchc, Dou:, Scutcli, Kye, Durfec, Chaudler, Witch, Quake, Squitch, or Flu's (irass or Creepiui? Wheat. — A very variable perennial Avith long, creeping rootstocks. Culms 1-t feet, smooth, glabrous. Leaves Hat, sheaths terete, ligule short, spike 2-10 iu.^ straight oi' curvetl, spikelets 4-8 fid., J-1 in, long. Empty glumes T)- T-nerved, rigid^ cuspidate, acute oraAvned; floral glumes much tlu* same, witli an awn nearly its length, or sometimes uwnlesso This grass is Avell knowji in most of the older portions of our Fi(i 7t'i. Atiiiiiiiirnii /rpc/i.s- (yuarU ki'-'ss) ; luirt opular name of ''Johnson gi-ass, " 1" !(!. 7S.— (1, Portion of panicle of Sorqhum halapoisc, L.; 7), two spikelets, the utlier having been removed; c, lower spikelet with fertile flower; (/, one upper spikelet with stamiuate flower. 1 x(5.— iSudworth). 173 S. HALAPENSE L., JOHNSON GRASS. It has sometimes been called Guinea f/rass, though this name has more generally been applied to another, Panicum ju- mentonim. Johnson grass is a coarse perennial, Avith large, stout root- stocks often half an inch in diameter. These penetrate the ground in every direction, and each joint may send up a stem after the manner of June or quack grass, only on a much larger scale. The stems are three to six or more feet in height, and are amply supplied with long, l)road leaves. The branching panicle somewhat resembles that of l)arn-yard grass. For the Southern States this grass has been highly praised by some and tried cau- tiously by others. It bears great heat and severe drought, and may be cut once a month during the growing season. It affords fine pasture, if any coarse grass can be said to furnish such a l)asture, and the rootstocks furnish food for swine nearly equal to that of artichokes. As might be expected, it is next to impossible to turn up these rootstocks with a i)low; hence it is difficult t( eradicate, though if no tops are allowed to grow, the parts beneath the ground will soon become exhausted aiul perish. Those who have tried it say, that if cut in blossom, or earlier, the hay is most excellent, and on good land the yield is eaor- mous. Dr. Phares says; ''During the recent long drought in north- east !^[ississippi, on one farm at least, this grass was mowed three times; aiul on the first of October, when from eight to twelve inches high, the cattle were turned in it and there re- mained feeding and fattening on its abundant, rich, rapidly- growing foliage to the last of December." Prof. F. A. GuUey says: "Johnson grass stands first in quantity and quality for permanent meadow, especially on rich, well-drained, heavy laud. This and Bermuda for the South are SETARIA, BEAUV. ,73 equal to anything at the North. It is in.provo.l hy breaking up once ill a while." Mr. Montgomery, of the same state, has no hesitancy in say- ing that it will produce more nutritious hay per aero on rich land than any meadow grass we can grow. To insure a fine quality of hay it should l,e mowed when the first seed stems ap- pear. Overflows and standing water are death to it. A good plan to propagate this grass is to drop roots between the hills of corn and cultivate with the corn crop. Here follows the statement of Professor Shelton, of Kansas: " Wo have had Johnson grass in cultivation upon the college farm for four years, and every year's experience with it makes Its total worthlessness the more conspicuous. Tt never makes its appearance with us much before the first of June, a.ul the first frost in the fall cuts it even with the ground. During the summer's iieat it makes a coarse, scattering growth of herba-e which our cattle persist in disliking. I notice that our patch slowly increases in size from scattering seeds and rootstocks. You can safely advise your readers in Kansas and the southwest, to keep entirely clear of Johnson grass." Dr. Vasey says: "It has been tried in Kansas with very promising results. Probably no grass gives better j.romise for the dry arid lands of the West." ^ It may be propagated by pieces of rootstocks or by seeds. The writer has tested it on a small scale in Central Miciiigan,' but many of the rootstocks are killed by winter while a^few usually remain. It has produced some seed even in the coolest summers. The seeds start slowly, and no sprouts from any source appear above ground till the weather becomes warm and settled. SKTARIA, BEAUV. Spikelets ovate, jointed with the persistent pedicel, which bears one to many bristles, collected into a cylindrical spike-like Fio. ro. S. ITALICA, KUNTH, HUNGARIAN GRASS. 175 or narrow panicle. (Jlumes 4, the three outer nienibranous, the lower very small, the seconil shorter than the third, both ('iiii)ty, the third usually longer, empty or rarely inclosing a palea or male flower, or sterile; the terminal inclosing the i)erfect flower, shorter, obtuse, iiulurated as well as the inclosed palea, shining or transversely wrinkled, or simply dotted in lines. Stamens 3. Styles distinct from the base, elongated, stigmas feathery. Cary- opsis included in the hard floral glume and palca, free. Annual grasses, ofteji tall with flat leaves. Panicle terminal. Species about ten, found in tropical and temperate clinnites. 8. Italiea Kiiutli, Hiiiigariau or Beiii^al Orass, (wernian, Italian, Mammoth, Golden ^r Cat-tail Millet. — A stout, quick- growing grass, 2-3^ ft. hi., with numerous broad, ilat leaves and a nodding panicle 4-9 in. long by f-1} in. in diameter, liri.stles two or three in a cluster. The term " ^fillet " is also applied to various other species of plants, and is about as indefinite as the name "blue joint" or *' bunch grass" or "pigweed." The variety of millet which is principally grown as a hay crop in America was distributed through the United States Patent Office in 1854 under the name of Paiiinnti Germnninon. There are many races, which, like those of Indian corn, are mixed up in hopeless confusion. It is much cultivated in the West and Southwest. The millets are among the most ancient of cultivated grains, as is evinced by the variability in the species as well as by ancient mention, and their wide distribution. It is said that a third i)art of the inhabitants of the globe feed upon the different millets, especially in Africa, Turkey, Persia, India, and Japan. It is mentioned by Pliny as one of the cereals of his time. Sefaria Italiea has an Asiatic origin and a high antiquity, as is evinced Fio. 79.— Setaria Italiea. (Ilimi^urian OrasK) ; (t, i)(>rti(in of iiltint; /», spikelet with the iieili(!el of a serond ; f, another view; c, fertile tloret showing palea; (I, dorsal view of Hume.— ((t Redrawn from Trinius. h, c, and d, Scribner). 176 S. ITALICA, KUNTH, HUNGARIAN GRASS. by its Sanscrit name "kangu" and "priyangu." In the old world ono variety is grown on watered land, another in palm gardens, and another in dry fields. The seeds of this or another species are even now sold in Lon- don shops as a substitute for rice in making i)uddings. It re- quires a dry, light, warm land or medium soil for its best i)ro- duction, and has a remarkable power of resisting drought. It will not grow till the weather becomes settled and warm. It is sensitive to cold and is a shallow feeder, and will beur crowding without injury. Its seeds will germinate under conditions of consider- able dryness. When cut it parts with its moisture very slowly, and cures into hay with diftlculty. When forced to grow fine through crowding, and grown on rich and suitable land, this plant makes from three to four or even five tons of fine-appearing fodder, sweet-smelling if cut early and properly cured, and is relished ])y stock. If cut early it is certainly quite e(iual to ordinary hay. If grown thinly the forage is coarse, and is not so well relished by animals. If not cut early its value is greatly impaired. After the seed is ripe it is said to be unhealthy for horses. It is ready for hay when the spikes begin to appear generally over the field. One bushel of seed is sown to the acre, broadcast, or less when sown in drills. Sow only on rich land. Its rapidity of growth in six or seven weeks after sowing, shows its availability as a catch crop in case there is a failure of the hay crop. As it is a shallow feeder it is well adapted for surface manuring. The previous account is selected and adapted from an article by Dr. E. Lewis Sturtevant in The National Live Stock Journal, p. 523, 1881. Dr. Armsby says: "The chemist gives it about the compo- sition of fair meadow hay. It is deficient in protein and rich in DEYEUXIA, CLARION. ]77 iiou-iiitrogenoua nutrients, and should bo supplemented with oil cake." Major II. E. Alvord, of Mass., in the Rural Xt'w Yorker, speaks as follows: "Hungarian grass is a valuable auxiliary. Wiiere a piece of grass or grain, which looks well in the autumn or even in early spring, shows in May that it will not produce a profitable crop, its fragments may Ik* deju-nded upon to do most good as green manure. Then j)l()w late in ^Fay, turning well, harrow two or three times at intervals, sow Hungarian grass the latter part of June, cut it in August and re-seed the land. Hungarian, acciording to age at har- vesting, may bo adapted to any class of stock. It makes quite a draft on the land, and, either when it is sown or with the fol- lowing crop, a dressing of cheap fertilizer is no more than fair, like agricultural salt, kainit, or the raw grouud Carolina phos- phate. Knowledge of the facts in every case must determine what can be most economically used." AValdo F. Brown, of Ohio, in the same paper, Avrites; "In a season when wheat and clover have been generally killed over a large area of country, many farmers are asking what can we sub- stitute for hay? We have two good substitutes — millet and corn fodder. Either maybe put in, in this latitude, as late as June 10, with a good prospect of a crop. Millet will yield largely on good land, but the land should be finely pulverized. It is best to sow as soon after a rain as the land can be worked, as if sown just before a rain there is more danger of weeds coming up with it. The seed should be covered lightly, and I prefer a plank drag for the purpose, as it presses the earth to the seed, and retains the moisture till it sprouts. When sown for hay, from three pecks to a bushel of seed per acre should be usea." DEYEUXIA, CLARION. Spikelets 1-fld. in a close or open panicle, rachilla jointed above the lower glumes, often extending beyond the floret into a 23 Flo. SI). D. (CALAMAOROSTLS,) CANADENSIS, BEAUV. 17« bristle-like or smooth rudiment of ii llower: flower perfect. The empty glumes persistent below the joint, slightly unequal, awn- loss, keeled, membranous; the floral glume often with a ring of hairs at the base, o-nerved, entire or Ji-4-toothed, bearing a short awn on the back. Palea slender, 2-nerved, thin. Stamens 3. Styles distinct, short, stigmas feathery. Caryopsis obovoid or oblong, often oblique, included by the slender floral glume and the palea. free, or slightly adherent. Grasses with various habits. Panicle terminal. Nearly re- lated to Af/rosfis. About I'^O species in temperate and cold regions. D. (Calaniai^rostis,) Canadensis^ Beauv. Blue Joint.— A perennial with creeping rootstocks. found in low grounds, 3-G-ft. high. Leaves flat, glaucous. Panicle open, 2-G in. Spikelets purplish with the rachilla continued behiiul the palea as a short, hairy pedicel. Empty glumes, ovate-lanceolate, acute, the upper with an obscure nerve each side the middle one. Hairs numerous, as long as the floral glume, which bears a very slender, straight awn near the middle. Palea hyaline, two- thirds as long as its glume. This native perennial grass is widely distributed in the marshes of the Northern States clear across the continent, wliere it at- tains a height of four to six feet or more. The narrow panicle somewhat resembles that of red top, only it is more slender. Unfortunately, the common name is a very indefinite one, as many other and widely different grasses in various parts of our country have been called "blue joint." It is not mucli culti- vated, but is quite common, and if cut rather early, while in flower, or sooner, it affords a very large yield of good hay. Blue joint will grow oa land rather too wet for red top, and for such places, if they cannot be drained, we know of no grass more suitahle for cultivation. Fio. fiO. DcMfAixin. Canadcmif (Bltip .Toint) ; n, upper part of a plant ; t», empty glumes ; c, (I. back uf same ; e, f.oral Klurae, palea to tbe left, and at base a radimeut of a floret; /, ovary and styles.— (Sud'vcrth). Fio. 81. -MUULENBEUUIA, SCnREB. ISl Tlio seeds are quito small and some timo is roquinMl for the grass to beconu' Avell established. Concerning this grass, rmuld says: **It oonstitutea about one-third of the natural grasses on the beaver dam meadows of the Adirondaeks. It is certain that cattle relish it very mtu-h both in its green state and when made into hay, and it is equally certain that farnuM's who have it on their farms believe it to be oiu' of the l)est grasses in their meadows." MrHLENHKIUilA, Sl.HKEB. Spikelets 1-llowered, small, panicU-d, ilowers perfect. Olnmes 3, the two lower empty, persistent below the joint, membranous or hyaline, e(|ual or ol'tener unefjual, sometimes minute, or one of them wholly wanting, keeled, acute, mucronate, or rarely short or long awncd. The iloret Avith a minute callus or sessile, usually bearded at Inise. The floral glume .'i-o-nerved, firm or membranous, obtuse, acute, mucronate, or very often bearing a slender awn. Palea hyaline, included, J2-keeled. Lodicules '^i, very small. Stamens usually 3. Styles distinct, stigmas plu- mose. Caryopsis narrow, subterete, inclosed by the floral glume, free. Grasses of various habits. Panicles terminal and axillary, narrow and slender, loose and branching, dense or spike-like, spikelets small, slender. About GO species, mostly North American, a few found in the Andes and Asia. M. gloiiierata, Trin, Muhlenberg's Orass^ Satin Grass, Wild Timothy. — Culms erect, glaucous, 1-3 ft. high, branched, or rarely simple. Panicle spike-like, dense, excerted, 2-3 in. often lead colored, glumes awned, nearly equal. Common north- ward in bogs, or at the west on dryer land. Fio. 81. M^thlenhergia alnmeritta; «• fouinl Hcari'dy any reforences to its value in i)ul)li8ho(l hooks or reports to which I liave access. Flint, iii his great and valuuhh^ work. * Ctrasses and Forage Plants,' describes it and then remarks, ' Of no agricultural value.' Dr. Dairlington. in his hook, •Amer- ican Weeds and Useful IMunts,' heeii sayin^jf for a loiij.-; lime." Miilil«iilMM*t<:ia .Hexicaiia, Trin. — Culms asccuuliuf?, hnmoli- ing, ^-U feet liijrii: latonil paiiiele often iuelinU'd at ltas(>, lijiear, int(MTupt(Ml ; glumes awnless. s]iarp-]>()iiite(l, unecpial. Ft is (piile luxuriaiil. thrives in the sliade. aiul stands drought wcdl. Dr. liessc^y also speaks widl of this grass as well as of tlu; ])re- (H'ding, for Iowa and Xehruska. lie writes: ••When I calliMl Prof. Mudd's attention to it ne saiti that he grew a three acre lot of it for four years, and that it yi(d(led from 'i\-'.) tons per acM'e of hay of tlie highest (piality. This agrees with otlier testimony. In fact. I liavr for the last ten yours, from time to time, called attention lu its value in the {>ai»ers of this State." If these species are as valuahle as the ahove notes iiulieatc, most lik(dy several other spetdes of the same genus are also valu- ahle. 'I'he very small size of the see(l and its slow growth when snniU, would nnike it nnprolitahle for alteriuite hushaiulry. I'KNMSKTL'.M, I'KICS. Spikelcts ovate or ovate-lanc^eolate, with one perfe( t ilowor, a!id a second male or neutral one htdow, solitary, or •^*-:] together, (doscdy surrounded hy an involuce of hristles which are attached jihove the joint. (Jlumes 4. rarely :5, tlu' lower simill or <», tlu* second oft((n ecpuding the spikelet, hoth empty, the third empty or incduding a palea or staminate ilower ; the terminal one shorter, including a perfe(^t or pistillate Ilower, lirmer than the palea, StamtMis, ;3. Styles distinct at the hase or united for more or less of their length, stigmas feathery with short or hmg hranches. Cariopsis included, free. Annuals or perennials, often hranch- Vui.fS. ■MuhlciihrraiaHiilvolicit, /, Tii|) of ii plant ; -', spiltelcl. A ^i-hnh of value in 8omo ItM-aUties. -(I . S. AKricultiiml Dcinirtinciit iiiul ScribiitT). u Fia 83. p. SPICATUM, PEARL MILLET. 187 ing. Loaves Hat. Spikelots crowded in a spike-like panicle, or on spike-like branches. Species about 40, mostly African, a few in tropical Asia and America. P.typboideum.Pearl, Indian, African^ Cat-tails, or Horse Millet. — This grass lias beta spoken of very 'lighly as a meadow grass for the Soutli, where it has been grown for many years. It needs an abundance of heat, rich soil, and makes a rank, rapid growth six or eight feet higli, each culm teminating in a still" spike an inch in diameter and six to twelve inches in length. Branches come out in abundan(;e near the ground, hence tliere will be all states of advancement in tlie spikes of flowers. As said of Panicum Texamim (Texas ^Eillett) and ^Sorghnm hala- penso (Johnson grass), it may be cut two or three times a year, and yield an abundant crop of rather coarse hay. It cures slowly. In central Michigan, where it has been tried, tlio summers are too cool for po'fecting seed, and the crop does not become large till ".ate in the season. Indian corn is certainly preferable for the North, and perhaps as suitable for the South. I'AXKL'il, L. Spikelets born on a jointed pedicel, spikclets racemed or pan- icled, with one perfect terminal flower, and usually a second which is male or neutral. Glumes usually 4, the lowest small or minute, the second and third usually sub-equal, membranous, awnless or rarely awned, empty or the third including the rudi- ment of a i)alea or a male flower; the terminal including a per- fect flower, shorter and more obtuse tlian the others, carioceous, as is also the included palea. Lodiculcs, )i, fleshy. Stamens, 3. Styles distinct or united at the base for a short distance, stigmas feathery. Caryopsis included in the firm floral glume and palea, free. Annuals or i)erennials of various luibits. Fi(i. «;{. -r'c»iiii.'r. Tiindley said: " Its roots are long and wiry, and descend deep into the ground. It was quite early used for ]>astures and lawns: not very nutritious, not a favorite with stock." Sir .J. H. Lawes says : " This grass has a wide range of soils, and grows in dry, damp, and even in irrigated lands, and varies in character accordingly. It is better for pasture than buy, and was unable to maintain even a moderate degree of prominence where the (ionditions were favorable for the luxuriance of other graminaceous species.'' The late James Buckman said: " We think it has been over- much cultivated. It is not a favorite with deer or Southdowns. The culms soon become wiry and make poor hay, neither in quantity nor quality is it worthy a place in a good meadow. "The culms are much used for straw-plaits, for which they are well adapted, both from their fineness and strength." It is seldom met with in this country, and judging from our own eiforts to grow this grass, we have little to expect in its favoi Fig. 8V. KAELY ATTEMPTS TO CULTIVATE GRASSES. 197 CHAPTER VII. EARLY ATTEMPTS TO CULTIVATE ORASSES. Meadows of the Koiiiaiis. — It will ho im.stifo to enter into tlutiiils in rcFi'renc(! to the time of introduotion of most of our Viiliiiiblo grasses. Kven to the present day, there is much un- certainty and confusion of the names of grasses. As a matter of liistory it may not ho out of phico to road a few extracts translated from CohimvUn, the old ]{ouuin, wlio wrote al)out A. 1). TtO: ** The hay wliich grows luiturally in a juicy soil, is reclvoued hotter than that which is forced hy constant watering. Land that slielves gently, if it is either flat or well watered, nuiy be reduced into meadow ; hut sucli a level ground is most approved, which, having a very small gentle descent, does not suffer the showers nor the rivulets that f nv/ into it, to abide long in it ; or if any water comes upon it, it creeps off slowly; therefore, if in any part it be low and marshy, and the water stagnates upon it, it must ho carried otT hy furrows; for either great abundance or scarcity of water, is equally pernicious to grass of all sorts." After speaking of removing brush, briars, and weeds, he says: ** It is important that we neither allow a hog to feed therein, because, with its snout, it digs up and raises the turf, nor larger cattle, unless when the ground is exceeding dry, because they sink their hoofs into it and bruise and cut the roots of the herbs. Nevertheless, the second year we will allow smaller cattle to be admitted, after the hay harvest is over, provided the dryness and condition of the place will suffer it. Then the third year, when the meadow is become more hard and solid, it may receive FiQ. 87.— Cj/no(mn<8 crM'ly growing larger. AVe wish to impress our readers with the very imjiortant fact tluit little is definitely known regarding the grasses found in our pastures, and still less is known in reference to those best adapted to cultivation. As Gould says . " We must fairly grap- l^]e with the undoubted fact that the science of grass culture is yet in the early dawn of its infancy." The Englishman selects twenty or more; not including some which are not true grasses. He selects some kinds for thin soil or upland pastures, others for stiff clays, others for rich, deep loams, others for meadows which are subject to periodic floods along the banks of ri\ers, and still others for irrigated meadows in which the water can be entirely controlled. There must alwaj's be a difference of opinion as to the merits of grasses on account of the various soils, climates, seasons and uses. m TESTING SEEDS. SOME COMMON WEEDS. In looking over a largo number of agricultural reports of the Northern States we find in some of tliem much space is given to discussions of the grasses by the farmers at their winter meet- ings. There is much said about the care of meadows and pas- tures, witli many repetitions. We cannot help being strongly impressed with the idea that we need many moiv careful observ- ers—farmers who are trained students of science. CHAPTER VIII. TESTING SEEDS. SOME COMMON WEEDS. Seed stations ami Their Work—Whether a seed is liable to grow or not depends much on how it was cured and the nature of the place where it has been stored. In the following account of some experiments this subject will receive some attention. The first station for testing seeds was established by Dr. Knobbe, of Saxony, i,i 18G9. In Germany, in 1878, upwards of forty of the experimental stations had attached to them a seed control department, and 14 of these did nothing else. Adulierntions.— These stations discovered adulterations of seeds which were "most ingenious in character, harmful in effect, and remarkable in amount." One practice is to kill seeds by boiling or baking and mix them with some desirable seeds which they resemble. The dead seeds in that case tell no tales. Old seeds, or seeds of another variety, are often dyed or bleached with sulphur, and used to adulterate good seeds of red clover or some other species. Old seeds are dressed with oil and sometimes rubbed by machinery to improve their appearance. Seeds of rye-grass and Italian rye-grass are often adulterated SEED STATIONS AND THEIR WORK. 207 with those of chess, which they much resemble. IIolcus lanatus, a poor grass, is also found in rye-grass. Meadow fescue is hirgely adulterated with tliat of perennial rye-grass, a cheaper seed of less value. \ I \Ji Fi(j. 88.— c, A floret of meadow fescue ; f, the same enlarged ; a, the otuer side of the base of same. Fi(j. W».— e, A floret of peren- nial rye Krass ; f, the same en- larged ; (/, tlieothersideof the base. Observe flie difference m the apexes, difference in the piece of the rachis held by eacli, thoufjh tliis is not uni- formly as here shown. Ob- serve the base of Fii,'. 88 is convex, while that of Fig. 89 ia flat or concave. Crested dog's-tail is largely adulterated with MoUnia ccerulea, which is of no value. Seeds formerly sold, oven by the very best seedsmen, were more or less tampered with, and they were careful to adulterate their seeds about so much each year to prevent troublesome questions. In Germany, the mills ground quartz; it was sifted, colored, and mixed with seeds of clover. Pure seeds are quoted as "Hot seed," while dead ones are quoted as trio or "000." James Hunter, of England, in his seed catalogue and treatise on grasses, writes : " If it be asked how such a state of things can be possible, the only reply that can be given is, that so com- plete is the want of knowledge of this subject on the part of the seedsmen and agriculturists, that almost any species of adulter- 208 SEED STATIONS AND THEIR WORK. ation of gniss sueds may bo practiced without fear of detection. Tt is probable that not one seedsman in twenty knows all the species of j^rasses commonly used for i)ernuinent pastures, or the seeds of the various species of grass seeds he sells." In 1877 the writer began testing seeds sold in this country, and found many that were poor and unreliable, especially the more uncommon grass seeds, most of which are imported. Grass seeds vary much in weight, owing to the fact that they aro usually sold in the chatr, which is not always Avell filled. For this reason it should always bo bought by weight, remembering that if dry, the heavier the sample, the less empty chaff it is likely to contain. Concerning poor seeds Professor Shelton remarks : " The diltlculty experienced by farmers in securing good seed has been a serious obstacle in the way of grass culture in Kansas. We have reason to know that the complaint regarding the quality of grass seeds retailed in the State is as just as it is universal. The special cause of this trouble in Kansas seems to grow out of the fact, that, as a rule, the trade in grass seeds is not a largo one as yet, anywhere ; and seeds which are not sold any one sea- son, are carried to the next. In this way, seeds which were originally good aro badly damaged, or their vitality is totally destroyed by being kept year after year in damp cellars and mouldy warehouses. But more than this, seeds are often worth- less in the start, from having never been properly matured, or from injury received in the field or mow before threshing." Doctoring and adulterating and selling such seeds is worse than selling 100 yards of cotton thread for 300 yards, or deceiv- ing in the weight or cost of tea, coffee or sugar. Tlie sale of poor seeds affects the future crops as well as the present one. In German seed-stations the following kind of work is done: determination of the species, the amount of impurities and their nature, the germinating power of seeds, the total weight of the GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 909 seeds, their specifie gravity, tlieir weight per bushel, detection of dyeing, Idcuehing, oiling, etc. The jippanitus needed is very siin])le, consisting of a small magnifying glass, some sieves of various grades, bellows, forceps, delicate scales, thermometers, jars, test-plates, chemical tests, and a good knowledge of botany. Some genuine seeds of the common weeds and grasses are useful for comparison. The sample should be carefully and fairly drawn from the whole, and well mixed. As a general thing for convenience, 50 or 100 seeds or multiples of these numbers are counted out. They may be placed between layers of moist flannel or thick woolen paper, and kept in a temperature of 50 to GO degrees F. A dish of damp sand, with a paper or cloth on top to hold the seeds, over which is another cloth, is a very satisfactory arrangement. What kind will usually Germinate and what will not. — Seeds of the commonest grasses, such as Timothy, orchard grass, June grass, red top, and the common clovers, are generally very- good, containing from two to twenty per cent, of impurities, which consist mostly of dirt, straw and chaff. The seeds of the less common grasses, such as ^lorennial ryo grass, the fescues, meadoAV foxtail, oat grass, crested dog's tail, sweet vernal possess a very low vitality, almost without exception. These are mostly imported from Europe. In 1877, the writer tested grass seeds purchased of one of the bess known seedsmen of New York. Four lots of 50 seeds each were tested, with the following results given in per cent. In each case what appeared to be a seed was tested. Most of these were in the chaff: Hard fescue, 13 ^ °r cent. Red-top, 14 per cent. Rhode Island beni, 7 per cent. June grass, 3 per cent. English rye-grass, 5 per cent. Reed canary grass, 3 per cent. Rough-stalked meadow, 2 per cent. Meadow foxtail, 4 per cent. Schroeder'- Bromus, 60 per cent. Sheep's fescue, 1 per cent. •r centt Moadow fi'scuo, 7 \wv cent. Sweet Teriml, IT) per cpiit. Tall feacue, 1 1 per cent. Darnel spiked fcMcuts .T per i-ent. Orchard grass, ^7 per cent. Hungarian grass, 51 per cent. Yellow oat grass, 1 1 per cent. Timothy, OH per cent. Italian rye-grass, 31 per cent. Creeping bent, 3 p«'r cent. Crested dog's-tail, 8 per cent. Large red clover, 88 per rent, ^lediiun red clover, 88 pi-r cent* Bokhara clover, 48 per cent. Italian clover, 83 per cent. Lucerne, 74 per cent. ■WHuto clover, 84 per cent. Alsike clover, 04 per cent. The writer had kept some homo grown seeds at tlio Af^rricult- uriil Collcn^o for two or thrco years m several ditreront rooms, one of wliich was a damp hasemcnt. These seeds were shelled out, as were the seeds taken from the samj)les purchased from the Now York seedsman : NEW YORK SEEDS. Shr(i>der'8 Broniua, 64 per cent. Sheep's fescue, ])er cent. .June grass, 6 i)er cent. Rye-grass, 18 per cent. Meadow fescue, per cent. Orchard grass, 06 per cent. Red clover, 94 per cent. COLLEOE SEEDS Shrcedi'r's Broiuus, 96 per cent. Sheep's fescue, 73 jx-r cent. June grass, 38 per cent. Rye-grass, 74 per cent, ^leadow fescue, 93 per cent. Orchard grass, 83 per cent. Red clover, 53 per cent. Seeds taken from packages with low vitality will vary mucli in different tests, but good fresh seeds run high and quite uniform. Good seeds will stand the most abuse. Will Seeds Sprout More Thau Once? — It is the opinion of many that seeds once sprouted and well dried will never sprout again. "To sprout" means "to germinate," "to vegetate," "to begin to grow," "to shoot, as the seed or the root of a plant." In each of the cases considered the roots died at the end of each test, and new ones pushed out when moistened. The same ^;?wm?-et. I consulted tile botanist, and to my great amazenu'iit was told that my seed bought for meadow fi'seue was all rye grass, and tho rougli meadow grass was all smooth uu'ad(tw grass. 1 liave, since these experinuMits, never sown any seed except aftci- the sample had bei'U examined by llu! consulting botanist; and have, in conse- ([uence. obtaiiUMl results most satisfactory to myself. I liavo I'ouiul it necessary to examiiu' seeds from dilTerent ]tarts of every sack. 1 regret lo say that there is no seed-morohant I would trust without the m'i'i] was examined i)y the consulting botanist." And yet a leading seedsnum in Kngland says: "Tbo seedsman should be treated with much the same sort of c(»nli(lence as tbo family doctor." i)oubt less my renders will bo glad to see the following (piota- tiou fi'om the Annual lleport of the consult ing botanist, — W. 'Jarutlu'rs, of the Koyal Agricultural Society for 1SS4: *' During the past year I have examiiu'd T per cent, of \'orksiiire I'oif [llolcns htnahi.^,) Were iiieltiiled in tlie sample. "A fair ])roj)ortion of (iTt samples of mea(l(»w foxtail was found ij^ood. No less than (If percent of the samples of .{(jroslis allut var. stitliuiifmt, liorin or creeiJiTiLj heni, were infested with ergot;, a m<»st danjicrons fununs. "(Mit (d" !".*t; samples of clover, 11> per cent of the red (dover contained sci'dsiirchase their seed in this form. One mixtnre consisted entirely of rye grassi's, with souu' trefoil and a little clovei", and in addition the rye grass was infested with ergot. Another eonsistcil of rye grass with one j)er cent of other grasses and (dovers, " If railroad companies find it necessary to employ engineers, if trnstees t hink it hest to (Mn[)loy u landscape gardener to lay out a |»ark or cemetery, if huilders employ andiitects, why shonid not the farmers, at a trilling ex|)ense to eaidi, emj)loy ii consniting holanist iit an experiment station, to examine seeds heforo pundiast! ? We look f(trward with hope to the time when every State shall liave one or mon^ suidi stations. To some (extent, the following jihin aulopted hy i'rofessor Siiel- ton, of Kansas, will work widl: "Onr pnuitice, which has heen (Mitiroly HJitisfaetory, has Ikh'II t(» send to those dealers who miike a s})0(ualty of grass seedrt in the sections where the; seeds are raised. Wo luivo always sent 214 WEEDS IN THE MEADOW. to the large eastern dealers for our grass seeds, and to Benver and San Francisco for our alfalfa seeds. . This may not be the best plan, but it has been satisfactory as to the quality of the seed procured and as to the price, which, including the freight, we have found to be considerably loss than that asked by local dealers." Weeds in the Meadow. — A weed is now generally described as a j)lant out of place, or growing where it is not wanted. All the pasture grasses are weeds, if they grow in our garden or corn field-. In some countries potatoes becom' weeds. A plant may be a troublesome weed in one country and not in another. K. W. Emerson entertained a very hopeful view of weeds, and defined one as "a plant wdiose virtues have not yet been dis- covered. * * * * Every plant probably is yet to be of utility in the arts." A largo majority of our worst weeds are foreigners, and have come from Europe, Asia and South America. It is just so with the fields of Austraha and New Zealand. Most of the weeds are introduced on to a farm by being sown with seeds of the grasses and clovers ; occasionally they come from fresh manure or from waste places, or slovenly farms in the neighborhood. Most of them are following the tide of emigration and are "going west," l)ut a few arc taking the opposite course, such as Rudheckia hirta, L. Dysodia, Matricaria discoidea, D. C, Artemisia biennis, Willd. In the words of Dr. Thurberj "Weeds seem to be naturally well provided for distribution, but the careless farmer sows them l)roadcast by the handful, and does what nature cannot do —he 2>nt!< them in well jn-epared soil, whei-e they will be sure to grow. In the month of March hundreds of farmers will sow their clover. Next summer, or later, we shall have from some of them letters and specimens. 'A sew weed has appeared in my field, or meadow, and threatfms to kill out everything else. What is it, and how shall I get rid of it? Where did it come WEEDS IN THE MEADOW. >15 from? ' The answer will be: 'You ciirefully sowed it that cool March day with your clover.' " Plants are assisted to become weeds by producing many seeds, by ripening with the ci-op so the seeds are harvested Avith it, by ripening before the crop and scattering seeds on the ground, by producing seeds which are not easily separated by sieves, by pro- ducing very small seeds which escape notice, by having a supply of liairs tliat they may be carried by the M'ind, or some awns or liooks to hold fast to animals, by remaining a long time in the soil without losing their vitality, by i)roducing long or thick roots not easily eradicated, by producing bulbs, or long root stocks, by ^ > ■! g offensive to all kinds of stock so they are allowed to grow and multiply. Clay soil is less likely to be troubled than loam or sand. Some of the weeds which interfere with the growth of grasses and clovers in the Northern States are here enumerated, with figures of a few and remarks in i-eference to all. iJL ft Fm. 90. Fto. 04. Fifi. 95. Fir,. 90. An acliene or fruit of Tlnmnicvhiff ImUiomtK, L. (Hulbous Trowfoot.) A troublesome perennial with yellow flowers, found in the northeast. Side view and croi-s section, 1x10.— tSudworth). , , , , ,,*•** Rmi umulm mris. L. (Tall Crowfoot.) Much resembling the last though destitute Fio. 91. 'Bramcanmm,\j. (Black Mustard.) 1 xl.').—(Sud worth. ^ Fui. '.»•-». C(iiwe//'i BinM-pastoris, Miench. (Shepherd's Purse.) 1 x;.U-(Sud worth.) Fm. 9;!. Hypericum imiUficu)n,\u (Shrubby St. John'H Wort), two views. lxUt>.— (Sudworth.) , . , „ , ., , Fifi. 94. Sileuc i»tlato, Smith. (Bladder Champion.) 1 xlfl.-(Sudworth.) Fi(!. 9,->. Ceraxtiu'm vulaatum, L. (Mouse-ear Chickweed), two views of a seed. 1x35.— (Sudworth.) 210 WEEDS IN THE MEADOW. Fig. 90. Fia. 97. Fig. 98. Fig. ^).~StcUnrin mcff/a, Smith. (Stnr cliickweed.) A seed lying on one of its two flat sides. 1 x:>o.— (Sudwortli.) Fig. 07.— .V()?/i((/ii rcfticiUatn, !>. (Carpet-weed.) 'I'wo views, d, lnoliint; towards one edge; /j, lying on iine side. Tliese are nmeh like chic kweeds. Ixlt. (Sudwortli.) Fi(i. itS.—Pdijanr lilKvax, L. A seed of iioppy. Two or thre< species are quite troublesome in some places. 1 « 30.— (Sudwortli.) Fui. »). Fig. 100. Fig. 99.— PoW?((rtC(i iitiinccn, L. (Piirselane, '* Pusley"); a, seed lying on one side, /), standing on edge sliowing seed sear. 1 x 1;.'. -(Sudwortli.) Fig, KiO.-— J/n/iY( intitnilifDliii, 1,. (( "oininon niailow.* 'I'liis low iierennial seeds freely for some montlis in the year, sending down a long, stout root. 1 x 18.— (Sudwortli.) ErodUtni n'nf/ar!>nii. I/IIer. Alliluria, Pin-clover, Piu-grass. This ])]aiit bolcjiigs to the geranium family, iiiul has ])eeome quite abundant in California. The plant makes good pasture, but the seeds get into the avooI of sheep, and not unfrequently pierce the skin of the aninud. The seed of this })lant, by the aid of alternating drought and moisture, can penetrate the soil after the man- ner of Sh'pa spartca pi-eviously mentioned. FiQ. 101.— KroiJiidit cicutnrium, I/Her. (.\lfllaria.) 1 xlt.— (Scribner.) Medicayo htpidinn, L. (Black Medick.) This is a biennial or perennial, and in habit much reseml)les white clover. The llow- ers are yellow; the plant makes good feed, though there is less Fig. 103.— 0.rj/tr«pi« Lamhertii. (Loco Weed.)— (U. S. Agricultural Report.) Fio, 103. i>18 WEEDS IN THE MEADOW. of it tlian Avould be fiirnishcd by either of the clovers in ciiltiviitioii. It blongs to the same genus as Lucerne, and is here mentioned be- cause the seeds are likely to be found mixed witli the seeds of grasses and clovers. It makes a very fair pasture, especially on rich uiuu i?;\marrttldlrk <'l:iy l'i'»ut a foot -high, and is (piite erect in lial)it. It is found on the dry piairies in the West. There is aiiotluT plant, AKlragahis iiuilUssiinns, -which much resembles the above species, which is also called Loco A\'eed. From the Agricultural lieport for 18(S4 we learn that tlicy often cause sick- ness and death of cattle and other domestic animals. It causes loss of ilesh, lassitude, impaired vision, and linally the brain is alfeeted, the animal becoming crazy. The animal may linger a year or two. No antidote has btuMi discovered. PdsfiiKdui satini, L. Com- mon Pi'.rsnip — has escaped from cultivation and has become a troublesome, unsightly Aveed, M'ith poisonous roots. Krlijvron Canmlvnxi', \i. (Flea bane, IIorse-Aveed, ]\rare"s tail.) Fig. 104. DmicmCarnfn L. fComnion This is an annual which horses Carrot). <», whole tniit; /), cross section. -(sSn^h!)'"'''''^"''""'''^*''"'''" ^"'' ii'i'l s1hh"1> will sometimes de- vour, though it is unsiijhtlv and of no value. Achilhm MlUcfuhuDi, L. (Common Ytirrow.) This plant bears siuidl heads with white ray ilowers; the letives are twice iirinnutely parted. It makes an inferior pasture, though in England it is sometinu's recommended to sow in mixtures for permanent pasture. WEEDS IN THE MEADOW. S19 ErUjemn annuum, Pers., E. hellidifoli um, Mulil., E. PUlaiMpluiium, L., E. sfrigosmn, Mulil., jiro other species of similar liabit to fig- ure 105, and an^ quite unsightly and common ill thin meadows. lludhechia hirla, L. (Cone-flower.) This Vm.m.-KHocrnn ^^'^"T ^ccd has a purple cone surrounded with '&f Tx-.ul(!sild': ^J'^'^low ray-flowers. It is becoming more com- mon, and has made its way from the West to the Xew England States. Fi(i. lOfi. Fia. lor. Fig. 108. FiQ. lO^.—AcMUa'a MiUefnlium, L. An aclieno, two views. 1 xlO.-(Sudworth.) Fio. lan.-Lcucanthcmiim vuhjare, T.uin. (Ox-eye.) Achene enlarged .-(Scribner ) safn"- Tx- W^-\sXor^^^^^^^^^^^ thistle); an achene, also a cr,«s section of "the Leucanthemnm. vulgare. Lam. (Ox-eye, White Daisy.) This is one of the worst perennial Aveeds or weeds of any kind which infests the meadows and pastures of this country. The seeds are sown with grass seed. Cnicns arvensis, Iloffm. (Canada Thistle). This is often con- sidered the arch fiend of weeds, and is too well known in many localities. The heads are small and the scales of the involucre scarcely prickly i)ointod. It is a perennial rooting very deeply. Its course Avestward is likely to be checked by the fact that it has usually failed to jjroduce seeds on tlie prairies. It is often dice- cious. Some account of this pest is given in connection with the chapter on clover. 220 WEEDS IN THE MEADOW. Ragweed, Ilogweed, Komau Wormwood, Ambrosia, is very common, especially in old fields. It is a coarse, homely annual, which one, not a botanist, would scarcely suspect was a member of the aster family. Fio. 110. Fio. 11^ Fig lOS Fio. 111. Fia 112. Fm. IKt.—Lappa nfflcinalU, viir m(i.i^r Gr (Burdock.) One of our worst wayside wt'ods, carried on tlie fleeces of animals 1 x6.— (Sudworth.) Fi«j. 110.— Two views of an achenc of .4nf/icmi,sOjhr(>.>ii(( artiiiU)lUt, L. (Rag weed), an acliene. 1x8.— (Sudw rtli.) Fi(i. lV~.—Cichiiriiun Intuhux, L. (Cliicory, SucoDry), two views. 1 x7 — (Sudwortli.) Fkj. ll'.i.—Tara.viicum Dcnx-lrr»iix, Dpsf. (nandolion), two viows of nn aoliene, desti- tute of tiie louij bealv and pappas, whicli breali oif easily. 1 x 10.— (Sudwortli.) Chicory, Siccory, (CicJionum Intijhioi, L.) has been introduced as a substitute for cotTee, and has spread in many waste places in the older portions of the Xorthern States. Plantfujo hincvolafK, L. (IJibgrass, Xarrow-leavcd Plantain.) This perennial herb has become extensively introduced with grass seed from the East. The flower stalk runs up quickly /flt ^ ^^k after cuttimi:, and thus becomes unsi^^htlv on lawns. It has been found quite as nutritious as some of our best grasses, but it affords only a small amount of feed. Most kinds of stock eat it when young. Seeds ought to become imu"\inut\7mh^sll^Z familiar to every one who makes a lawn or a Narrow - leaved Plant- ain) •-' views. 1 X 1^'.- meadow. (Sudwortli.) WEEDS IN THE MEADOW. 001 >9S33kk. -w.tt' Planliujo major, L., (Common Plantain), is not very troublesome when compared with the former species. Foinul about door yards. VerhaHcnni. rhapsnx, L. (Common .Alnl- Fro. 115. vrrhmnm '"^'"^ Vclvet-leaf.) 'I'he seeds of this biennial worth.) -• ""■/,,,.,,, (:\r,,th .Mullein), is becoming com- mon, and needs attention. LuKin'a vuhjans, ]\lill. (Toiul- flax, ]iutter and -K;l(,u-.s,) This is a vile nuisance in meadow or l)asturc. It seeds freely, and also spreads very rajjidly by its root- stocks. Bi'HiivlUi nihjans, L. (SelMieal or lleal- all.) This i-! a small i)ercnuial herb, bear- ing violet llowers. In dry, thin meadows it is (juite common and on the increase. CijnoglossKin oj/irmalc, L. (Ilouuds- loiiguc.) This is another plant bearing u nutlet containing hooded prickles. rTM.wrfl"^"'^,'"^"' t'((?(Atri8, Mill, (load-flax.) -iw.) views of u niiiKccl Beeil. Ixlo.— (Sudworth.) (/'rri.s, 1.. (Si'lMioal, Heal- all.) lxl^'._(.scribiifi'.) Pro. m.~Ee1uum viiUinrc. I.. (Viper'.s m^loss.) This issoinuwIiatDraaiiiLMital, Dnt 111 some places has Ijeeonie very iiro- ""!' i'liil hard to eradicate. An ar.u'lilar wrinkled nut; two views, luuchenlarKod. (Ncribner.) T ^'"' 1.13 ,"'■''''" ""*P''''"""» T-(il>pnla, Lehin. (Stiek-seed.) The small iiutlet.s arc covered withadouhlo row of hooked prickles. It must be carefully kept out "f sheep pastures; two views. 1x10.— (hud worth.) Cn.sntfa EpUlujm inn, :\[urr. ( Lucerne Dodder. ) This is a para- sitic vine which has ocoasiomdly been introduced with seed of WEEDS IN THE MEADOW. Lucerne. It ia likely to bo destroyed by the (uireful farmer. As soon Jis thf slender vino from the seed gets fust to the stem of u plant, the root of tho dodder perishes. It takes nourishment from the Ijueerno. The seeds are very small and spherical. Sulphate of iron (green vitriol), one pound to tho gallon, sjjrinkled on plants of dodder is said to destroy it, and will not injure the Ijucerne. A sieve of the pro])er size will remove the seeds. The seeds will remain alive in the soil for some years. A similar eus- cuta ia parasitic on red clover. Fio. VM.—(}uxcAita tJiKthimunn, (Dodder.) Vlaiu and an onlarMied flower reduced. (Floro de I'aris.) Fro. 121.— Amardntlms re- tri)Jlc.nu<, (Amarantli, Pig- weed.) Two views of a seetl. lx;.'0.-(Sudwortli.) Asclepins Cornnli, Bes. (Milkweed.) In light soils this is often a very troublesome weed. The roots run deep and spread in every direction. The seeds are carried by the wind. Clieuopodium album, L. (Pigweed, Lamb's Quarters.) This rank annual weed, with two or three other species, is quite com- mon in -vaste places and in cultivated grounds. They are not troublesome in pastures and meadows, but are mentioned here because the seeds are sometimes met with in seeds of grasses and clovers. The seeds are lenticular, black, and glossy, and are much like those of Amaratiihus. Another plant, or rather several plants of tho genus Amnran- thns, are often spoken of as pigweeds. They are not very likely WEEDS IN THE MEADOW. to be iiunoying iii mciulowH or jiftstures, but the feeeds uro not unfrofjtiently lound mixod vitli tliose ot grussos and clovers. Fin. 122. Piilyyituum ofiriitair, li., (Knot- ({rasH. Doorweetl.) 1 + 8.-(Sudwortli.) Fio. 123. Rumcr crUiniti, L. {Narrow Dock.) Two views. 1x11.— (Sudworth.) Fio. 124. Enphnrhta CinxiriMinn, L. Two views. 1 X 10. — (.Sud- worth.) Fin. 135. Exiphfirhta tiutvulatn, h. (Spot- ted SpurKe.) A creep- ing weed. Two views. 1 xl5.— (Sudwortli.) Fin. 126. Urtim ararilifk (Great sting- Inp; nettle.) Tliis Ims sprend over low land ineadowH in hoiim- pla- ces. 1 X l.">. - ( S u d - worth ) Fio. 127. Brnmvssec- aliuuff, L. ' Chess de- prived of (.'luiiie and palea.) IxU. — (Sud- worth.) Pohjyonuin Pevmcaria, L. (Lady's Thumb,) and some other specierf of PoJijijonnia have smootli, bhick ihit seeds. Polygonum aviculare, L, (Knot-grass) and some others have triangular seeds, shaped much like small grains of buckwheat. The seeds of these two species, and of others, are often found among grass seeds. Rnme.ra'ispus, L. (Curled or Xarrow Dock) and 7^. ohlmifoUus, L. (Bitter Bock) are both common and troublesome weeds in meadows. They are perennial and liave long tap roots. The seeds are three angled and like those of Polygonum. Rumex Aceto,sdla, L. (Sheep sorrel) is very common on poor, light land. The seed has the shape of the species last named. Enphorhia Cyparissias, L. (Euphorbia) has escaped from culti- vation. It roots deeply, and has in some places become a great pest. Occasionally seeds of common chess, or cheat, are met with in 334 HOW TO GET RID OF WKKlJS. grass Bocils. In a few iiistiiiicus tlio writer luus mot with seeds of (iliess which luul been nil)be(l so us to dt^priv:' them of the fUwiil glume and piileu which usually julhere (iiiitc lirmly. Fi^nin 118 gives some idea of cliess in this coiuiition. For accounts and figures of the weeds, which are themselves grasses, see the several species of grasses elsewhere described. The reader lias no doubt had experieneo with some of them, or has heard of .June grass, qiuick grass, J'Jnitjrofitis, cliess, burn- yard grass, crab or linger grass, the bristly fox-tails, burr-grass and others. The grasses are remarkably free from poisonous l)roporties, there being oidy two tjr three u[)on which rests any serious suspicions. For further accounts of the weeds the reader will consult the paragraphs on " Src/I Distrihution " and " linttlv in the Mfudow.'' How to Get Rid of Weeds. — There are two things to be done : 1st, prevent further seeding and the further introduction of seeds; 3d. destroy the seeds and the i>laiits now in the soil. Farmers caniujt be loo careful about the source of grass seed. Weeds, and some of the worst type, are thus freely distributed. Where possible it is better and safer to grow one's own seed, or ])rocuro it of some careful, thorough farmer lu'ar home. Tho old((r the country, as a rule, the more likely it is io furnish ox- eye daisy, yarrow, rib-grass, and other tenacious and trouble- some weeds. Foul seed is dear as a gift. It is cheaper to pay triple price for clean seed than to be perplexed Avith the trouble of getting rid of the weeds introduced. Some of the seeds should be spread out on a table in a very thin layer to aid in tho discovery of the seeds of weeds Avhich are liable to otherwise escape notice. Sieves and fans may remove some kinds entirely. Many sorts of seeds, especially the small ones, will pass undi- gested and unharmed through tho digestive organs of horses and cattle. An ordinary compost heap does not kill all unless every portion is carefully turned in and heated. now TO GET Itri) OF WEEDS. a35 [ii cfrliiiii t'iisn.s, oM(! or iiioro hood (M'ops imiy bo raisi'd on tho liiinl tlioroitglily Hiimmor fallowiMl. Piistures and nicadowH should always bo lookud oviT oarol'uUy and tho wihmIs d\\}i or pulhMl bi'foro tho socds iiro ripo, or tukou oil' tho ground it' tho soods aro r4»e. Sht'op must bo kept I'loiii ])asturos) until stiok sood, houud'ij tongue, burdock and tho liko havo boon rouiovod. Tho largo woods, liko narrow and bitter dock, parsnip, carrot, may bo lol't till tho growing stalk has acquired some strength. Then on some day when tho soil is soft and before tho seeds havo dropi)od, go over the lield witii a sjjade or a stout spud, thrust- ing it down perpeiulicularly Avithin a couple of inches of tho plant, take tho stalk with one hand near tho root and with tho other pry it loose. In this way no roots aro loft below tho sur- face to sprout and seiul up a new crop. Never cut olE tho tops of such weeds, leaving tho roots in tho ground. By tho following process tho writer has fouud no trouble in killing (juack grass, whether the season bo wet or dry, the soil sand or clay, drained or undraiiu'il- Plow it lato in autumn, and as soon as a team can be put on the ground in the spring run over it with a cultivator every throe or four days. Never allow a leaf to show itself, for then it be- gins to recuperate. By the middle of June every vestige has disappeared. Farther south than Central Mieliigan no doubt it would disappear earlier. To harrow and rake Tip the roots is a waste of labor. If during its growing season, the green tops are kept out of sight tho plants will die. Thorough work, eternal vigilance is the only way to keep the upper hand of weeds. For further remarks concerning the destruction of weeds, the reader will consult tho paragraphs on irrigation, drainage, use of fertilizers, quack grass, care of meadows and pastures, the battle in the meadow. 39 23fi GILiSSES FOR PASTURES AND MEADOWS. CHAPTER IX. GRASSES FOR PASTURES AND MEADOWS. It has been repeatedly shown tliat a judiciout' mixture of sev- eral varieties will produce a larger yield than can be obtained where one variety is sown by itself. This is a rule in nature as well as in fanning. Many sorts will usually occupy the ground more completely than one sort and help keep out weeds. " Each species has some special niche to fill, some separate part to play in the grand harmony of nature. Each one is better adapted for some purpose or for some soil or climate or locality than any other." — (Gould.) Sinclair found that from the beginning of spring until winter set in, there was no time when one or more species of grass was not in its most perfect state. He found that dry weather favored some, moisture that of others. He always favored a mixture for producing the best pasture. A mixed pasture is earlier, gives a better yield, and holds out better than any one species of grass. Then there is the taste of cattle to be considered. As Pleues in her British Grasses states: ** Sheep have strong likes and dis- likes. They will hasten to a kind of grass which is a favorite with them, tramping down all the other grasses as unfit to taste^ Horses again have their preference and cows theirs, and we liave even seen swine exercise considerable cunning to secure a feed of a favorite grass. So the agriculturist has as much to consider as a master of ceremonies; he must consult the capabilities of situation, the qualities of his provision, and the various tastes of his company." Because a grass is thrifty it does not necessarily follow that it is the best adapted to the farmer's use. It may not be nutritious, it may be offensive to stock. A grass which thrives in one place GRASSES FOR PASTURES AND MEADOWS. 327 may fail in another. Because a grass is a native to the country it is no sign that it thrives there best. On the contrary, introduced plants often thrive better than those which are indigenous. As an instance, avc have only to think of some of our worst weeds, most of which are foreigners. There is no one model grass, — a grass best suited for all purposes. This has been found to be the case with roses, with all kinds of fruits, grains, and veg- etables. Some grasses are too slow in starting, or they are too sensitive to frost, or they will not endure dry weather; the stems are too Avoody, the leaves too thin, the tops too short, or the after- math is of no account. In making selections for sowing, liie farmer must be guided by the climate; the soils, whether wet or dry, light or heavy. He will be guided by the iises to Avhich he puts the field, whether for meadow, or pasture, or both, whether it is to remain seeded for some years or for one or two years. He will bo guided by his location with regard to markets and supply of labor. It is to the advantage of a grass, especially for alternate hus- bandry, if it seed freely, and if the seeds are comparatively large, quite certain to grow and produce good strong plants in a short time. These are doubtless some of the reasons why the rye grasses are so popular, and why Timothy and orchard grass, and the larger fescues are so much used in Europe. For permanent meadow, there is less objection to waiting a longer time for the slower, finer grasses to l)ecome established, such as meadow foxtail, June grass, and red top. The success of grasses depends on the supply of moisture. Liberal spring rains, with mild weather, give grasses a good start for the summer. For the dryer portions of the northern United States, a grass must endure drying for months; it must endure freezing with bare ground in a dry atmosphere, with the mercury down to 40"" or 50*^ below zero, or endure a burning sun with the murcury up to 100" in the shade. It must bo provided with 328 GRASSES FOR MEADOWS AND PASTURES. means to withstand fires in dry weather. In the south it must stand great lieat, much moisture and much drought. In dry climates it is often hard to start grasses. Tliey must be peren- nial, or produce an abundance of seeds capable of starting quickly when the season is favorable. From Orojis of the Farm, 1 quote: "Strong, rich pastures, producing succulent grasses abundantly are well adapted for fat- tening large cattle, either without extra food or with the aid of a little cake [oil meal]. Second rate jiastures, especially if on a cold subsoil, will generally yield a better jirofit from the dairy, and from the rearing of young cattle. Dry, hilly pastures are most suited to sheep. Tlie grazing of land by mixed stock of cattle, sheep, and horses, or these in frequent succession, will keep the hind more evenly grazed than where one kind ojily is kept. Sheep eat many weeds which cattle dislike and avoid. Horses are very uneven grazers.'' In the words of the late I. A. Lapham, of AVisconsin : " It is not to any one sjiecies of grass that wo should look for the sujiport of our stock. On the native prairies we find many species intermingled, each doing its part; some preferring low, wet situations, others grow only on dry ground ; some i)refer the shade of forest trees, while others flourish best on the most ex- posed parts of the broad prairies; some grow only in the water, others along the margins of lakes and streams; some attain their maturity early in the season, others late in autumn." Farmers who have a large quantity of meadow Avill often find it best to have the grasses of different sorts in different meadows that they may not all be fit to cut at the same time, thus pro- longing the season for haying. For a meadow, grasses should mature at about the same time ; for pasture the time of flowering or of most rapid growth should vary and extend from early spring till late autumn, or in the South they should extend over a good jiortion of the year. WHAT IS NOW SOWN IN GREAT BRITAIN. 229 M. Goetz found out what grasses were best adapted to his soils hy a slow process of testing each separately, then he used a mixture of tlie seeds of those species which he had found did the best. Chemical analysis might tell the same story or it mi-ht not. * \rHAT IS A-OW SOWX IN- GREAT IJRITAIJf. The following notes are taken from a recent admirable essay by C. L. F. De Laune in Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, 188:2: " Gross ignorance prevails in reference to the kinds of grasses. The use of short-lived grasses and of biennial clovers, coupled with an insufficiency of proper seed, is the main cause of the deterioration of new pastures after the first two or three years. " The five coarse grasses most valuable for permanent pasture are the following: " Dadylis rjlomerata (Cocksfoot). " Fcstuca pratcnsis (Meadow fescue). "Festuca elatior (Tall fescue). " Phleum pratense (Timothy). " Alo2)ecurus jjratensis (Meadow foxtail). "These five should form the bulk of all pastures on good soil, either for sheep or cattle. "The most valuable of the finer grasses are: " Ci/fiosurus crlstatm (Crested dogstail). " Festuca duriuscula (Hard fescue). " Poa trivialis (Rough meadow grass). " Afjrostis stolonifem (Fiorin)., " Festuca ovina (Sheep's fescue). " Avenaflavescens (Golden oat-grass). "In much smaller proportion should be used permanent rea clover, cow grass (a kind of red clover), alsike, and white clover. Seeds of yarrow ought never to be omitted. These should be varied with the soil. 330 WHAT IS NOW SOWN IN GREAT BRITAIN. " The grasses most pernicious to newly formed pastures are rye grass in all its varieties and Holciis lanatus (soft, woolly grass). These produce an abundance of seed, are cheap, and quickly make a great show, but they soon die out and leave room for weeds to fill their places. All rye grasses, or nearly all, die after once seeding." He insists strongly that among the best feeding grasses are some of strong and coarse habit, while among the finer kinds are many that are worthless, although many seedsmen recommend the finer grasses as of the best quality. He finds rye grass a gross feeder, and where it has been sown it is very difficult to get other grasses to grow. The flower-heads of all the best perma- nent grasses are much liked and greedily eaten by stock, consequently they rarely seed in a pasture, whereas the flower- heads of the worthless grasses, which are disliked by stock, are constantly seeding. In this manner the poor grasses often increase while the better grasses diminish. The best grasses are cropped closely, sheep, especially, discriminating very cjirefully even where the grasses are intermingled. "Nature has provided a succession of nutritious grasses, A meadow composed of a large percentage of foxtail is certain to produce a large quantity of early keep." For obtaining a good permanent pasture, it is as important to secure good pure seeds of the light sorts as it is for a pomologist to obtain the jiroper varieties of apple trees. Mr. De Laune continues by recommending the following mix- tures for permanent meadow and pasture : WHAT IS NOW SOWN IN GREAT BRITAIN. 231 For Good Medium Soils. For Wet Soils. For Chalky Soils. Foxtoil Cock's-foot Timothy Lbs. . 10 . 7 . 3 . o . 2 . l',i - \}i Foxtail Cock's-foot Timothy Meadow fescue Tall fescue Lbs. .. 4 .. 10 .. 3 .. 3 8 Cock's-foot Cat's-tall Meadow fescue Lbs. .. 14 .. 3 Meadow fescue Crested dog's-tail i Hard fescue 1 Sheep's fescue Yarrow Ti Tall fescue .. 4 Crested dog's-tail Rough meadow grass Hard fescue Crested dog's-tail Rough meadow grass Hard fescue 3 .. 4 2 1 Golden oat-grass Perennial red clover. Alsike clover Dutch clover. 1 Sheep's fescue Florin Yarrow Perennial red clover. Cow grass Florin Yarrow Pereimial red clover. Cow grass Alsike .- 1 .. 1 .. 1 -. 1 Alsikc Dutch clover Dutch clover .. 1 Total . 41 Total 1 .. 40 j Total -. 38 The reader will observe that this recent experimenter omits the rye grasses, sweet vernal and some clhers, which are fonnd in nearly every list generally recommended for use in Great Britain. Rye grass was the first true grass recommended for cultivation more thau 200 years ago, and has been most extensively recom- mended by seedsmen and used by farmers generally for perma- nent grass lands. It is still much used, but some of them agree with Mr. DeLaune, that it is one of the least desirable for such purposes. This slow progress and the following of an old custom is more than matched by the following in reference to the practice of medicine. Some years ago, Dr. 0. W. Holmes, of Harvard, said: "Doc- tors have been using common elder as a remedy for more than 2,000 years, and have just found out that it possesses no medicinal value whatever." The fact is, the farmers of Great Britain seem to rely largely on the recommendations of seedsmen as to wliat sorts and how much they shall sow. These men naturally put in a liberal 888 LIST OF GRASSES FOR THE NORTH. allowance of seods which are easily obtained at a cheap rate, especially if such seeds start soon and ir.ake a rapid growth which soon covers the ground. Many of their mixtures contain the Italian rye grass, which generally lasts for one year only. It makes a fine growth for a while, and after taking the cream of the soil quickly perishes, leaving vacancies on impoverished land for other grasses or, more likely, for weeds to come in and occujiy. List of Grasses for the North.— The writer approaches tliis subject with some want of confidence on account of the great size of our country, the diversity of soils, climate, and uses, the lack of well conducted and accurately reported experiments. He will, therefore, not puzzle the farmers with numerous long lists of mixtures, on a guess, but give a few of the best and advise exper- imenting for themselves. A point is gained when a farmer ven- tures to deviate from the long establislied customs of his fathers or his neighbors, many of whom have fallen into certain practices without very good reasons therefor. The lists are recommended for climates similar to that of Michigan. lu selecting seeds for alternate husbandry, only those grasses and clovers should be sown which rapidly make a large growth, and arrive at muturity in a short time: Grasses and Clovers for One Year, Dactylis glomerafa (Orcliard grass). Zea Mays (Indian corn). Secale cereale (Hye). Avena sativa (Oats). Panicum miliaceuiii (Millet). Seteria Italica (Hungarian grass, Bengal grass, sometimes called Millet). Loliuni Ifalicnm (Italian rye-grass). LIST OF GRASSES FOR THE NORTH. 233 Arrhenatheruin nvenaceiim (Tall oat-grass). Trifolium praiense (Red clover) Grasses and Clovers for Tivo Years, Dactijlis glomerata (Orchard grass). Phleum pratensc (Timothy), heavy and loamy soils, not on sand. Arrhenatherum avenaceum (Tall oat-grass). Festuca elatior (Taller fescue), heavy and loamy soils. Festuca pratensis (Meadow fescue), heavy and loamy soils. Lolium perenne (Perennial rye-grass). Trifuduin pratense (Red clover). Trifolium medium (Mammoth clover). TrifuUam hybridum (Alsike clover). Grasses and Clovers for Three Years, Dadylis glomerata (Orchard grass). Arrhenalheriim avenaceum (Tall oat-grass). Festuca elatior (Taller fescue). Festuca pratensis (Meadow fescue). Alopecurus pratensis (Meadow fox-tail). Phleum pratense (Timothy), for mowing only. Poa pratensis (June grass. Blue grass of Kentucky), for pasture only. Agrostis alba (Red top), for rich loam or low land. Medicaqo sativa (Lucerne. Alfalfa). Trifolium pratense perenne (Perennial red clover. Cow grass of the English). Trifolinm hybridum (Alsike clover). Trifolium repens (White clover), for pasture only. Grasses for Marshes. Agrostis alba (Red top). Festuca pratensis (Meadow fescue). Festuca elatior (Tall fescue). 30 831 GRASSES FOR THE SOUTH. Poa serotina (Fowl meadow). Poa 2)rafensis (Juno grass, Blue grass of Kentucky). Alopccurus prntensU (Meadow foxtail). Deyeuxia {Calamnfjrnfstis), Canndoms (Blue joint). Concerning a selection for central Kansas, Professor Slielton Temarks: '' For pasture, I have no hesitation in recommending the following sorts, placing them in the order of their importance: orchard grass, alfalfa, red clover, taller fescue, Kentucky blue grass. For mowing purposes, our experience has shown, very steadily, that alfalfa, red clover, taller fescue, perhaps meadow oat-grass, and Timothy are the best. So far as the matter of withstanding the effects of drought is concerned, these sorts rank, with us, in about the following order: alfalfa, orchard grass, red clover, meadow oat-grass, Kentucky blue grass, taller fescue, and Timothy. Along the eastern borders of the State, and for thirty or more miles Avest of the Missouri line, Kentucky blue grass and Timothy are standard grasses which uniformly produce bounti- ful crops of hay and jiasture, while in our experience in the central jiart of the State these grasses have uniformly failed." Prof. I. P. lloberts, of Xew York, says: "We liave tried in a small way many of the grasses and clovers in past years, and as yet we find nothing that gives as good satisfaction as medium retl clover and Timothy. The seed dealers may M)oom ' the tall, coarse, reedy grasses or the tender, dwarf, creeping varieties, nevertheless, in New York, clover and Timothy have come to stay." Grasses for the South. — In manj portions of the southern States, the people are still ignorant of the best grasses. They have long been wedded to cotton and have learned to believe that grasses and clovers will not thrive in their country. In numerous places it has already been proved that many grasses aiul clovers grow well and jn'oduce abundantly. The South possesses great advantages ovcv tlie Nortli in raising GHASSES FOR THP] SOUTH. 2;W live stock, as tho winters are so sliort and mild little hay need bo cut and stoned. liov. C W. Howard of Georer acre. Why this ditference ? Is the land in these countries better than ours? Not by nature ; if it be better it is by the dif- ference in treatment. Is their climate better than ours? The acknowledged superiority is on our side. Are the prices of their l^roducts any better than ours? On an average not so good. Are their taxes lighter than ours? If we Avere com})elled to ])ay their tax, either at the North or in Kngland, our land would at once be sold for taxes. Have they valuable croi)s which tliey call raise and wliich we cannot raise? There is not a farm product in eitiu'r old or new Kngland Avhich we cannot raise in equal perfection at the South. Is their labor cheaper than ours ? The cost of labor at th(> North nearly doubles the cost of labor at the Soutli. If, then, all these things are so. why is it that their land is so valuable and ours so valueless? If we take the map of the Tnited States and put our linger u[>on the State or ])arts of States in which laud sells at the highest }»rice, we sliall Ihul that in those States or parts of States the greatest attention is i)aid to the cultivation of the grasses and forage idants. If we open the map of Euroi»e we shall timi the same rule holds good. The 286 GRASSES FOR THE SOUTH. choapest luiuls in Euroi)o iiro thoso of Spain, whoro littlo atten- tion 18 paid to the grasses. Holland is almost a continnoua meadow, and their land sometimcr reaches ){(1,000 per acre. "A Belgian gentlennin, who sold his land in lielginm for ){<500 per acre, and bought river bottom land in Floyrepared, that if judgment be exercised in sowing and in adaptation of species to particular locality, and proper subse({uent management be observed, that so far as soil and clinuite be concerned the South has unusual fitness for successful cultivation of the valuable grasses. The grass of the South will have some difficulties to contend with, but none so formidable as those which are incident to cotton and wheat. Broom-sedge, and crab-grass in the stub- ble, gives excellent summer pasture. Bermuda grass is excellent GRASSES FOR WINTER PASTTTRES AT THE KOUTII. 2;<0 for smiiiiuM". Ill tlio wliolo niii<,'u of soutlu'ni ii>,'ri(!ulturo Uwvii is no (Toi) oil which mimnro piiys iis woU us on winter jjiistnros. " On tho wholes the (IrawbiKiks to sncoossfnl grass enltnre iit tlio South iiri! as few and as easily removiul as in any portion of Christondoni. Sound political (u^ononiy requires that the South should raise its own horses, mules, shcej), cattle, and hogs, and produce its own wool, butter, (cheese, and hay. (Jrass (iulture is tho basis of this iiulepeiulence. " In otiier i)orti()ns of this work will be found ((notations from Mr. Howard in reference to lucerne, sainfoin, (icld pea, vetch, red clover, alsiko clover, white (dover, millet, gainnni grass, crab grass, brome grass, Bermuda grass, meadow oat-grass, orchard grass, Italian rye-grass, blue grass, Timothy, red top. Mr. Howard believes, and rightly, too, that none of the native Texas grasses are equal, either for hay or pasturage, to some of the artificial grasses now in cultivation. Grasses for Whiter Pasture at the South. — Tho lato 0. W. Howard, of (Jeorgia, recommends meadow oat-grass, blue grass, wild rye (species doubtful), orchard grass, red and white clover. Dr. D. L. Phares, of Mississippi says: "The list depends on whether the pasture is for one season or for permanent pasture, as well as on location, soil, drainage, etc. For a single winter, sow wild brome grass {Bromiis nnioloides). Several other plants furnish good winter pasture, but none are so valuable as bar- ley, though I have tried wheat, oats and rye. It does not lie on the ground like rye, but stands up." For further renuirks concerning grasses which are suited to pastures and meadows, consult what is said in regard to each of the several species usually cultivated. 240 PREPARATION OF THE SOIL AND SEEDING CHAPTER X. PREPARATION OF THE SOIL AND SEEDING. Drainage. — The iulviintagos of clrainiige are nxuny, even for growing grass, thongli it is probably true that grass hmd does not require to be drained as tliorouglily as tliat which is arable. Drainage prevents dam.age from flooding for long periods when not desired. It is a ])roteetion against drought; it enables the grasses to start earlier in spring and grow later in autumn; it deejiens the soil and prevents baking in dry weather; it allows the plant to receive greater benefit from fertilizers applied to the soil; it allows air to jienetrate the soil; it prevents frost from he^.,ving out the plants; it makes hauling of loads easier, and renders the land less liable to injury from the treading of cattle; it improves the better grasses, Avhich thereby encroacli on those of less value, including many sedges, ruslies and useless weeds. Much of our grass land, especially that in permanent pasture and meadow, would be vastly improved by thorough drainage. If water, in a wet season, stand nearer than two feet of the surface in a small hole dug in the ground, the land needs draining. Preparation of tlie Soil. — Strong, deep, calcaroiis soil, with a clay subsoil, is the best adapted for our most nutritious grasses. It is most important that the land be clean, finely pulverized and of good tilth wdien the seeds are sown. If the land can be liglitly liarrowed immediately before sowing the seeds or imme- diately after, the seeds will be more likely to get a good start. A Lrush harrow is a very good substitute for a light one with slanting steel teeth. How Mnch Seed to Sow. — That depends on the size and vitality of the seed, the number of seeds to the bushel, the con- PREPARATION OF THE SOIL AND SEEDING. 341 dition of the liiiul, whether distributed evenly, and the nature of the season that is to follow. By consulting the table which gives the number of seeds to the ounce, and a little calculation, it will be seen how thickly the grass would grow provided every seed produced a plant. In the opinion of the writer, it would be better, in most cases, if farmers used less seed to the acre and took more pains to get the land in better condition. Suppose we sow 1'^ quarts of Timothy seed and 4 jiounds of red clover to the acre. This Avill make 10,980,000 seeds of Timothy and 1,152,000 seeds of clover, u total of 21,133,000 seeds, or about -4 seeds to the square inch. Using finer seeds in mixtures, us prescribed by some of the English people, they often sow from 50,000,000 to 100,000,000 seeds to the acre, or not far from 8 to IG seeds to each square inch. In either case there can be room for onl}' a small portion of the plants should all the seeds grow and thrive. Where the plants are crowded closely together, the stems of grasses and clovers are more slender and less likely to become woody. There is probably no danger of sowing too much seed, excepting in the matter of economy. If the young plants are too numerous, the stronger will soon starve and crowd out the weaker. Under favorable circumstances one seed produces a plant which "tillers" and contains a large number of culms. Even with the best of chances, there will be much loss of seeds and young plants, what proportion no one can tell. The seeds should be well grown, well harvested, well cleaned, and true to name. Some experimenter in Great Britain found 1,100 plants (probably culms) to a square foot of good meadow land, and on water meadows the number was increased to 1,800 plants. Sinclair found from G34 to 1,798 distinct rooted plants of various species in one square foot in nine separate localities. Where rye grass grew alone, there were only 75 plants. In v well 31 242 PREPARATION OF THE SOIL AND SEEDING. manured water meadow, tliere were 1,703 grasses and DO clovers and other plants. The smaller the number of species the smaller is the number of distinct plants to the square foot. In the words of I. A. Lapham, " ^[uch caution must be used in applying the /ules laid down in books (or given in practice) for the culture and management of grasses." There always will be an opportunity for the farmer to experi- ment and use all the good judgment at his command. In connection with the account of each grass recommended for culti- vation is given the amount usually sown to the acre, provided only one kind Avere used. The following is by Prof. J. AV. Sanljorn, of ^NLissouri, formerly of Xew Hampshire, and like the six following is from the Rural New YorTccr : "The amount of seed should vary from six quarts to about as many bushels. The poorer the farming and the more dishonest the seed dealer, the more seed will be required. Given a soil in tine tilth — that is, plowed well, harrowed by a harrow that lifts and pulverizes it, is smoothed off and fined Avith a harrow on the Thomas Harrow principle; if the seed is brushed in Avith a light brush-harrow, and if the soil is an open one, or if it's a little dry, rolled ; if the seed is home raised, or not over a year old, and well kept, and the soil is fat Avith good available jilant food — six quarts of Timothy or six pounds of clover Avill seed an acre. Per contra, if, instead of a fine, rich soil open to, and inviting tiny rootlets in uii directions, Ave luiA'e a -ddy soil, ploAA'ed badly Avhen Avet, half tilled, Avhere dry lumps repel the minute roots of the small seeds of grass, and Avhere cavities are dry and, of course, foodless ; if the seed used is poorly preserA'c 1 or has been moist, and has heated, and if to it, when fresh, is added the seed of the past and of the previous year, and so on, "ad infin- itum,^^ and if the soil is as poor as Job's turkey, then an unlim- ited amount of seed will be needed, and no amount will be enough PREPARATION OF THE SOIL AND SEEDING. 243 for a good crop of grass. I use twelve (quarts of Timothy and ten pounds of clover seed i)er acre with good success, and deem tins amount desirable. As my farming is rotation of crops, I seldom sow Timothy and clover together." Gen. AVilliam (r. LeDuc, of Minnesota, gives tlie following opinion : "As to tlie amount of seed per acre, an ideal meadow for me, in this soil and climate, would witl present exi^erience, start three 1'imothy and two clover plants to every square inch of surface. So six jiouiuls of Timothy and eight pounds of clover, if good, sound seed, distributed evenly over an acre and fortu- nate in time and conditions of planting, according to my experi- ence, give a good stand and lay tlie foundation for a good meadow." Prof. E. M. Shelton, of Kansas, writes: ''If for pasturage, use one bushel each to the acre of orchard grass and Kentucky blue, to which six or eight quarts of medium red clover may Avell be added. Liberal seeding is necessary if land is not first class either in quality or mechanical condition, to allow for lost s:ed. And if the land is in first rate order, liberal seeding jiays well in a close, even sod. '•A late crop can be obtained from mixing red-top and Kentucky blue grass, a bushel of each, i nd if the laivi is somewhat light and moist, Alsike clover (say four quarts) may be added." Prof. G. E. Morrow, of Illinois says : " On our prairie soils heavy seeding has not been found necessary. "We aim to sow a bushel of Timothy seed to four or five acres, with a bushel of clover seed to eight or ten acres. AVlien clover is sown alone, I should sow about one peck per acre." Concerning the amount of seed required, the following is from Waldo F. Brown, of Ohio: "Good hay is not produced by thin seeding ; for the grasses will grow coarse and rank, whereas heavy seeding will give fine, soft hay." Prof. Wm. Brown, of Ontario : For rotation, hay and pasture, 2U PliLPARATION OF THE SOIL AND SEEDING. sows fifteen pounds of grass and eight pounds of clover seed per acre. Daniel Batchelor, of New York, recommends a bushel and a half of orchard grass and lialf a bushel of tall oat-grass. '^A heavy but not wet, clay loam devoted to meadow, should be sown with Timothy, red-top, fowl meadow, rough-stalked meadow, and Italian rye, at tlie rate of about six pounds each to the acre, in a mixture; to this may be added three pounds of medium clover. "For a wet, peaty, black soil: Rough-stalked meadow, six pounds; red top, eight pounds; meadow foxtail, four pounds, and Alsike, six pounds, would be a good mixture per acre. "For laud much shaded the following mixture is excellent : One bushel of orchard grass, one of meadow oat-grass, and five or six pounds of wood meadow grass to the acre." For New England, A. W. Cheever recommends the following: " If Timothy be sown alone we do not consider a bushel of seed any too much for an acre. Of red-top we would sow at least two bushels. Of orcha/d grass, two bushels, and a bushel of June grass with it. Rhode Island bent requires less seed by measure than red-top, as the seed is usually much less chaflfy. No rule need be given for clover, so much depends upon the amount of seed contained in the land, and in the nu nure applied." Professor S. A. Knapp recommends for Iowa and similar soils •and climates, for early and late pasture, the following mixture : Lbs. Blue grass. 8 Timothy 6 For summer pasture : Lbs. Timothy 6 Orchard grass 6 For permanent dairy pastures on most heavy soils of the East, Sibley & Co. recommend: Lbs. Orchard grass 6 White clover 1 Lbs. Red clover 4 PREPARATION OF THE SOIL AND SEEDING. 245 Lbs, Perennial rye-grass 5 Blue grass... 3 Orc'liard grass 3 Jli'udow fescue 8 Lbs. Meadow foxtail 3 Red clover 3 Wliite clover 1 Alsike clover 1 For the lighter soils of the ^"orth and East, they suggest the following: Lbs. Timothy 5 Taller oat grass 10 Rhode Island bent 4 Orchard grass 3 For wet soils in the North, they suggest : Lbs Lbs. White clover 1 Red clover.. JJ Alsike clover 1 Lbs. Rye or Ray -grass 4 Alsike clover 1 VVliite clover 1 Blue grass 5 Red-to^i 5 Fowl meadow grass 4 Sowing the Seed. — The usual practice in many portions of the Northern States is to sow the seeds of the grasses in early autumn with a crop of winter wheat or rye, or to sow after these crops have been growing for a few weeks. The clovers are sown in early spring, because the young plants are likely to winter kill if seeds are sown in autumn. The following is from Professor E. M. Shelton, of Kansas: " The time to sow grass seed is, we believe, without any excep- tion, in the spring ; and recent experiments show that this work should not be undertaken too early in the season. In the spring of 1880, a field seeded early in April came to nothing, the violent dry winds that followed the sowing completely sweeping the seed away. Seed sowed after the spring rains have fairly set in, has never failed since 18T4 to give a good stand of grass. In a few instances, and where the winter following has proved warm and open, we have had good success with Timothy and clover sowed in the fall ; but the result of sowing orchard grass, alfalfa, and blue grass in the fall, has been almost invariably disastrous. Our experience with grass seeds sown in the fall has been this : 346 PREPARATION OF THE SOIL AND SEEDING. they germinate readily, even more quickly than in the spring, but, us the native vegetation fails from the action of frosts, the common grasshoppers collect upon the young grass, doing it serious damage; Avhat remains suffers seriously, and is often quite destroyed by the action of the winter frosts and violent winds of early spring. On the other hand, when the seeding is done very late in the spring, the young and tender plants are consumed by the sun as fast as they appear above the ground. Seed sown any time during the month of April will rarely fail to germinate and make a vigorous growth. However, we cannot advise seeding, as we have before said, until the warm spring rains have set in. "We have sown both alfalfa and orchard grass during the early part of May with uniformly excelleiit results." Mr. Howard, of Georgia, prefers August and early September as the best time for sowing seeds. There is usually sufficient rain at that season to cause the seeds to germinate. The young plants will have time to make sufficient root to stand the severest cold of winter. Clover and lucerne, and several of the grasses, if sown without grain at this season in the South will give a cut- ting in the following spring. Grass seed sown late in the fall is liable to be winter killed. If one could know the nature of the bcason to follow, he would much prefer to sow grass seeds in a dry day preceding mild, moist Aveather. It is hardly safe to give fixed rules for the sowing of grass seeds. Where several kinds of seeds are sown, it is well to sow those of equal weight and size together, going over the field again with the heavier sorts. An experienced person on a still day will sow small seeds quite evenly by hand, but we now have several kinds of light machines, accompanied with directions for use, which will distribute the seeds more evenly than can be done by hand. If there is much to be sown, the cost of a good machine will be more than, saved by sowing the seeds in a better manner. If evenly dis- SEEDING TO GRASS. 247 tributed, less seed will be required. For sowing by a machine, the seeds should 1)8 well cleaned and freed from leaves and straws and the machine frequently examined to see that the seed is pass- ing through evenly. Where the soil is loamy, sandy, or light, it is an excellent plan to roll the surface after seeding. This process brings the soil in close contact with the seed and renders it more likely to germinate. Seeding by Inoculation. — This is rarely practiced, but has sometimes been resorted to in England. It consists in cutting ropes of turf from an old jiasture, and these are chopped up into pieces about 1^ by 2 inches. They are placed by hand about nine inches apart over the ground. This is for meadow what sodding is for a lawn. The results are quick and sure, but rather expensive. Quack grass, Bermuda grass, and .Johnson grass are often seeded by scattering or planting fragments of tlie rootstalks, either with a hoe or by dropping in part of tlie furrows as the field is plowed. Seeding Orass with Grain. — The following was prepared by John J. Thomas, of Xew York : " Tlie most rapid way of obtaining a grass crop is to sow the grass seed alone without any grain. If done early in the spring, on clean, well prepared ground, we may get a cut of hay the same year, usually about two- thirds of a full crop, and a heavy one the second year. It will make a vast difference wliether we sow plenty of seed or only a small quantity. We have sown a mixture of Timothy and clover at the rate of a bushel per acre, and had about twice as heavy a crop as that afforded by a scant seeding of less than a peck jier acre. It is very important to have it covered with good, mellow earth, buried at a dej^tli not greater than five or six times its largest diameter. To grow freely, one-fourth to one-half an incn is deep enough in moist soil, but clover will germinate and a grow at a depth of an inch. Much will depend on the mellow- 848 SEEDING TO GRASS. ness and richness of the surfuce soil. A peck of seed will give a better growth on a fine, fertile surface, than a bushel on a hard crust or among clods. " A very common ciiuse of failure is sowing clover seed in the spring, on a heavy soil, with winter wheat, where the crust lias not been broken since the previous September. Harrowing the surface with a light harrow will make a much better seed bed. But if Timothy seed has been sown in autumn a coarse harrow may tear it uji. " The objection to sowing the grass alone is that we are com- pelled to plow and prepare the ground for a single crop, while in seeding with grain we obtain both grain and grass at one operation, and with economy of labor. Farmers will therefore commonly prefer seeding with grain, except in certain cases where obtaining an early crop cf grass is a paramount object. By seeding with winter grain, if a light top dressing of fine manure was applied in autumn to prevent a hard crust, tlie seed may be sown as early in spring as may be desired, without wait- ing for any preparation of the soil, and Timothy may be sown the previous autumn. Or if the soil is likely to settle and become hard, both Timothy and clover may be sown together in spring, after or before the surface is brushed with a light harrow which will not injure the grain. Seeding with spring grain, if nroperly performed, has much to recommend it. It always fur- nishes a freshly moved soil as a bed for the seed. But caution should be used not to cover the grass seed too deep, nor to sow a thick and sliading crop of the grain. '^ The best winter grain with which to sow clover seed is rye. It shades the young crop less, and if the work is properly done it rarely fails of entire success. On the other hand, the seeding rarely succeeds well with a crop of oats, and nearly the only chance for success is in sowing the oats thinly, or not to exceed SEEDING TO (JRASS. 94» a bushel of seed to the iioro. Sprin<,' wheat and hurley are inter- mediate for tlie })urpose between rye and oats. "It is usually more certain to relv on a slicrht artiiicial cover- in*,' with soil, than the natural coverinj,^ which may or nui}' not take place by a shower of rain after the action of early spring frost, which, however, nuiy sometimes succeed perfectly. The pressure of a common farm roller on clover or grass seed, sown on the freshly harrowed soil, covers most of it sliirhtlv, and is one of the best means for insuring germination. Another good way to coyer the fine seed is to pass an evenly made brush har- row over it. This luirrow is easily and cheaply constructed by placing several branches cut from a thickly set tree side l)y side, and stringing them together by running a stout stake tlirough the forks at the cut ciuls, taking care that no large i)r()jcctions root into the ground in passing. Such a]nlrro^v, skillfully nuide, Avill leave the ground nearly as smooth as a floor. After the grain has been removed, it is well to look over the field and sow a few more seeds where the grass seems too thin."' The following upon this topic is by Prof. J. W. Sanborn, of Missouri: "I have had but little of the bitter experience complained of by many in sowing grasses with other crops. Grass is, in its early stages, a slow grower, and I can get gcxl results in grain, and under the best conditions, a crop of grass the first year. On a fine tilth and a fertile soil, I think few will fail to secure good grass with a light seeding of grain. Grass alone, sown in the spring, is out-grown by the rapid growing annual weeds, which have to be cut or the misery of their seeding is experienced. " For several years on a large farm I grow little or nothing except grass. AVhen I had corn aiul raised no other grain, I sowed the grass occasionally in the corn after the last hoeing. I have done much seeding in August, and some on the early frosts of spring, or late spring snows (the latter method is a bad one), 32 250 SOWING GRASS WITHOUT GRAIN. but now, in u rotation system of crops, I sow in the spring, and meet with good success; and if, in any degree, I luivo a faihiro, I can sow again on all thin spots after tlie grain is off, and still again in the spring when tlie frost is working the ground, or in the fall, after the sjjring sowing, on the fall frosts after it is too lato for gerniinatien. These night frosts and day thawings open und close the ground and let the seed in well, and, on the whole, fall is a good time to sow for several reasons, when one is deter- mined to sow grass seed alone, or when one is sowing over dead spots for new grass. It is an important matter to inspect all fields or sections that need re-seeding. Indeed, an annual seed- ing of fields is nature's way, and is often ])rolltable." Sowiiij; Grass without Oraiii. — At the author's request, the following Avas prepared by A. W. Cheever, of Sheldonville, ^lass. : *' Experiments repeated time and again, have convinced me, here in east Massachusetts, where grain crops, compared with hay, have come to take a secondarv place in the estimation of most farmers, grass sown alone is almost invariably worth more the first year than the grain and straw together would be if grain were sown with the grass, and the former made the leading crop. " This is especially true where the land is jiarticularly adapted to the production of hay. For tlie past fifteen years I have sown nearlv all mv grass seed alone, and in no single instance have I been sorry I did not sow grain with it to afford protection. When seeding with grass alone, I have generally cut two crops the first year. The first crop should be cut rather early, even if not fully grown. This kills or checks many of the annual weeds. " I have often sowed the seed in spring, but this is not nature's time for sowing the grasses. Early autumn is undoubtedly the best time in the whole year for sowing most grasses. If sown then the annuals will find themselves laboring under a disadvan- tage and will soon give up the race. ** Grass sown in early fall will produce as full a crop the fol- SOWING GRASS WITHOUT GRAIN. 951 lowing year us it ever will, and the qnulity will be excellent; but if sown in connection witli winter rye or wheat, it will bo put back a whole year. Tiie grain is of no advantage to the grass winitever, l)ut rather the contrary. " Tiie only exception T would make in favor of sowing grass and winter grain togetlier is when the grain is to bo cut early, as soon as it lieads, for feeding green or to make into hay. Cutting the grain so earlv in tlie si)ring gives time for the grass to nniko one and sometimes two full crops the first year. "On good, moist, rich laiul, I have had excellent success in seeding grass in spring upon green sward turned over the pre- vious fall and the surface thoroughly pulverized before winter and again made fine and mellow in spring. Hy this method, grass land nuiy be kept producing full crops of grass every year without planting, but it will need reseeding oftener tlian if an occasioiud hoed crop is grown. Timothy is one of the jioorest kinds of grass for spring seeding without grain, but if sown in Aucrust it will produce a full crop the next summer. Orchard grass is one of the best varieties for spring seeding. A great amount of grass seed is annually lost by sowing it in connection with spring or winter grain ; the grain crops being harvested in the hottest part of the year, leaving the tender and previously shaded grass plants to be burned up leaf and root by the scorch- ing sun." Mr. Howard, of Georgia, writes: "There can be no doubt that sowing seed with grain should always be avoided. It involves the loss of a year in either hay or pasture. If sown with grain, when this is cut the young grass and clover are very tender, having been shaded by the grain. The cutting suddenly exposes them to the sun at the hottest season of the year. There is great danger that they will be burned out. In the event of sowing grass seed with grain, he must always remember that by so doing he loses a year and endangers the grass." 353 60WTN0 ORASS WTTHOXTT GRAIN. Hero ^vo insert tho o])inioii of Diiniel Jiutcholor, of New York: *' Grain and grass have been sown together ho long on soino meadows that tliey will no longer bear good crops either of grain or grass; and there aro people who keep their arable land in crops as long as they can get anything olT, and then they seed down to grass when tho soil is so sterile that it will not produce a hay crop. It is not going too far to say that over half tlio grass and clover seed sown with grain is smothered and utterly lost, and in many instances, after the grain is removed, especially if the weather is hot and dry, there is no hope for a grass crop without rcseeding; and even where there is a tolerable catch tho meadow is retarded for a wliolo season. I suppose some will deem it folly, but I think wisdom says: sow grass without any other crops; sow it in autumn; if you are in for rotation, put all your manure on your grass land, so that when you break up the sod or sward for corn, the land may bo found in good lieart for the crop. Of course, there are plenty of instances where the land is new or where the fertility has been well kept up, in which full success is obtained by growing grass and grain together." Read Avhat Major 11. E. Alvord, of Mass., says: ''We suc- ceed well in sowing clover with oats, but i)refer to cut off the oats and cure as hay while early 'in the milk.' We have not got out of the ruts sufficiently yet to prevent seeding all grasses and clovers used with wheat, rye, and oats ; but I do not believe it to bo good farming to try to grow two crops on the same land at the same time." On this topic, read the experience of Professor E. M. Shelton, of Kansas: "Oats, wheat, and rye are often recommended as excellent crops Avith which to sow grass seed. The argument is that the tall grain will shade and protect the young grass. But grass does not need shade when sown in proper season ; it needs the sun, and, especially, it needs moisture, and this the vigorous SOWIN(J (}RAHS WITHOUT (JRAIN. ilSB grain is contimiiiUy taking from tliu Hoil, thus robbing tlio young grass plants from the start. Evory farmer knows how spindling, sickly, anil how lacking in strength of root and stem, is a grass or clover plant growing in dense nuisses of grain. When this grain is harvested in .Tune or .Inly, just when the summer's heats are the greatest, the delicate, starvctl grass plants are certain to perish, unless long continued, cool, aud cloudy weather prevent. ** We are aware that, ujion favorable seasons, considerable suc- cess is obtained by seeding the grasses with another crop. Hut, even during these favorable seasons, a better and luore vigorous start will be obtained without the rivalry of vigorous grains; and, upon dry seasons, a failure of the grass is almost certain, when seeded with a grain crop." In favor of seeding in autumn Avithout another crop, we may say: the land can be much better fitted for grass in autumn than in early spring. If weeds start in autumn frosts will kill them, while if the grass is sown in spring the weeds keep grow- ing all summer. They uuiy be checked, however, by mowing when the grasses are a few inches high. If there are vacant places they can be reseeded in spring. The llrst hay croji will be much better. Whatever plan is pursued, a failure or partial failure may sometimes occur. All the experiments of the writer indicate that in the North- ern States young grasses thrive better when they have the full benefit of all the sun and rain. The statement sometimes made, that young grasses and clovers need the shade and protection of some larger plants has no proof to sustain it. Numerous cor- respondents, without exception, in case they have tried both methods, speak of getting a much better catch of grass when the seed is sown without another crop. Killebrew says that in former years the farmers of Tennessee almost universally sowed ' grass seeds in the spring of the year on crops of grain, but since «54 SOWING SEED, ETC. 1810 tlie custom has been to sow in early fall. Many sow grass alone ut tliis time of year and get a full crop the next year. Where grass is sown witli another crop they injure each other. James San.G03 " The following shows the amount per acre of the most valuable substances contained in the hav: Nitrogi'ii. Phosphoric Acid. Liiuc. Magnesia. Potash. Cut twice 339.34 336.36 83.05 90.06 308.73 131.30 41.95 37.43 379.18 380.96 Cut six tiuies-- Difference + 7.11 + S.Ol -87.43 -4.49 + 1.78 "We see that, from the second piece cut six times, deficiency in weight is nuide up for by superior (ptality. It contains 7.12 lbs. of nitrogen, S.Ol lbs. of phosphoric acid, and 1.78 lbs. of potash more than the first crop. It is lower in percentage of lime and nnignesia, which, however, are but of secondary importance for feeding pnrposes. It is certaiii then that cattle grazed on the crop of the piece cut six times would have been better nourished CARE OF PASTURES. 861 than those to whicli tlie hay from tlie first piece would have been given. " Land used for i)asture yields more nourishment than that Avherc the grass is mowed oif. Young shoots are much more nitrogenous than plants in flower and young green i)lants are more digestiblo than dri(^d ones. In pastures the dropjiings of animals enrich the soil. "Aftermaths are richer in nifrogeu than first cuts, and they are more nitrogenous tiie younger they are gathered ; they are richer, also, in phosphoric acid and potash. Theoretically, after- maths constitute a better food than first cuts, yet they sell at a lower i)rice, probably owing to their iippearance, and ])ecause when dried they are more indigestible." Ju considering the above experiment iii reference to the great value of grass cropped often, we should not forget to take into account that cattle and sheep, Avliilo they roam over and over the field for pasture, injure the grass more or h'ss with their feet. ("aro of Pastures. — In this country, as a rule, they can scarcely be said to receive any care. Xo crop gets less attention, none Avould respond inore quickly to good care. Much attention has been given to premium crops of corn, wheat, potatoes, the improvement of horses, cattle, sheep, swine . They are encour- aged by liberal premiums, but we seldom hear of a premium crop of grass. It seems practicable to double the present yield with- out an outlay at all corresponding to the increased value of the crop. Is there any good reason why a farmer should not bestow as much care in selecting the proper seeds and in the after treat- nici\t of meadows as he would in selecting or breeding and raising a short-horn bull calf or a merino lamb? Grass should not be pastured in very early spring before the ground settles and the sod becomes firm. By this early pastur- ing the to})s are kept closely cut off, the roots are much injured, from which the i^rass does nut reco\er for the whole vear. To 263 CARE OF PASTURES. gain and thrive a grass needs some green leaves as much as a horse needs fresh air and a stomach to digest a liberal allowance of food. Experiments show the following from the Country Gentleman to be true: "If cut very frequently and kept short, like the grasses of a lawn, the roots will not mako the same size and extent of growth as Avhen the stalks and leaves have free develop- ment. The roots depend as much on the leaves as the leaves and stems do on the roots." Pastures should not be allowed to grow very long in the spring Avithout feeding, as the culms run up and Idossom and mi'ke a growth distasteful to all kinds of stock. By movable fences, or otherwise, it is a good plan to feed off a piece rather closely, let it get a start, then feed off again evenly. In large pastures, animals are likely to pick some places closely and leave others to run to seed. A mixture of animals, or one kind of animal following another, will keep pastures more evenly fed than will one kind alone. To prevent patches from going to seed, mow them a small quantity at a time, and when the grass is wilted it will generally be eaten by the stock. In such places a fresh bite very agreeable to cattle and sheep will often start up. Pastures and meadows are very frequently eaten close to the ground late in autumn, especially if the season be a dry one. This is a severe drain on the vitality of the plants and causes them to be a long time starting in the following spring. Joseph Harris Bays: " On an old Timothy meadow closely pastured last fall, this year the hay was not over half a ton to the acre. On another meadow not so pastured, the grass was as thick and heavy as it could grow." Some fall growth is necessary to give the plant strength for a good start in the spring. With reference to the pastures of Maine, Professor Stockbridge eaid, on page 70 of the Agricultural Report for 1876 : " What is CARE OF PASTURES. 203 to Tie done? In my liiunble opinion tiio corner-stono in regard to the improvement of pasture land must Ije jnit In tlie liead of the farmer himself. To improve the pasture land of Elaine, you must first seek to reform the farmer. The huuls were once fertile, they are now sterile. Fires burned it, floods washed it. The milk and flesh of cattle have caused an immense drain upon the land. We must use fertilizers. A mixture of sulphate of ammonia, 180 lbs. ; muriate of potash, 70 lbs. ; a good, nice superphosphate, 100 lbs. Mix and put on to two acres of land. "In improving my pasture, I would like to select my stock. There must be some stock and there must be somebody to raise it. I would like to let somel)ody else manufacture the animal carcass and let me have it to fatten. Then the animal «ill only take away from my farm carbon, which I can afford to have him do. So I will reach out to New York or to the West and buy cattle from somebody whom I do not know and whose farm I shall never see. " A chief reason for the light yield of grass, or a failure to get a good " catch," in many portions of our country is due to the fact that the strength of the new land was required to produce suc- cessive crops of wheat, Indian corn, cotton, and other hoed crops on arable land. Where thin or unproductive, harrow the surface and sow on other kinds of grasses and clovers, with a top dressing of some fertilizer. This serves, to some extent, as a rotation of crojjs for the soil. If the cattle are fed oil meal or some other rich food, most of it goes to fertilize the land. Bare knolls will be improved by n very thin mulch of straw put on early in winter after the ground is frozen. A light, fine-tooth harrow will work the manure ont of sight and out of the way. It helps to cover the small seeds. Scatter the droppings of cattle, that no offensive bunches of tall grass may grow around them. It is a good practice at the 364 CARE OK I'ASTUUKS. Nortli to iiUow 11 ])iirt of tho imstun! to;,'ro\v' liii'^^'o for liitc fall fncdin^f. l-'of ft'odiu"^ late in iiiituiiin ami early s|)i'iiiLr. ni llu! Nortli, rye is cxfcllciit to piece out or save tlie coiiiiiion pasture. The following; on the care of pastures in Iowa aj)]i(!are(l in the St'ir )'(irl<' 'I'rHni iiv, and was written hy Professor S. A. Knapp: •'Many fanners do not yet understand how to niana<,'e the j>asture to the Itest advanta<,'e. 'I'liey arc; so anxious to receiver the full henelit of every erop (d' j^rass that they are alarmed if tile irrass i.r,.ts the start of the catth* in dune, lest soiiie (jf it fail to lie manufactured into heef or milk. "A little more ;/rass on tlu^ pastiin? than the cattlct can eat in dnm? should not he a source of anxiety any more than an extra crock of line Juiu! butter in tlie refri;,'erator. In the West extremes of inoistun* ami drouj^ht are tli(! rule, and a dry ])eriod is (piite lik(dy to occur in July and Au,(;0; July, UK); Aii<,Mist, i;;.'; ScptcMiher, :s ; Octohor, y:;(l; Novcinhcr, \:>2; t.otul gain, l,;ir)4 pounds. Kadi aniriial \\r (common cultivated ^n-asses grow most rajjidly when the soil is <|Mite moist and the temperatunt is between 10*^ and 80". Our I)la(!k, })rairi()soil, when exposed, frefiuently reachesa temperature of 11')° at the surface. Under such conditions (naporation goes on with ^M-ea,t rapidity and the soil hecomes dry to a considcrahle depth. 'I'en inches of dense grass alTord sulli(;ient protection to the surface of the soil to keep tlus temperature about that of the atmosphere in the daytinus and considerably warmer than the atmosphere at night, thus preventing such sudden and wide extremes of temperature* that thej)lants fail to adjust themselves. While it does not destroy them, it retards or prevents growth. "Close grazing nmy do in a cool, moist cdinuitt; with somo stock, but upon our western ])rairies it is a mistake. Where there is an abundant-e of grass the cattle take regular meals, and lie down to digest; upon short range they are 'jonstantly traveling and picking, which does not afford the best conditions for vifor growtli, or the production of beef or milk. In the fall a good coat of grass ])rotects the roots from frost, and growth continues till (|uit(* lat(( in tlie season, even after the opcjii gronnd is frozen two inches or more. This is the secret of our so-called winter grazing." Concerning the management of grass lands, Sir .T. F,. Lawes finds it very important not to feed yonng grass the lirst year. 34 366 CARE OF MEADOWS. He opposes mowing it the second year, having found that this practice destroys the clovers and the lesser grasses by encourag- ing the stronger growing species. He avoids mowing for sev- eral years, feeding with cattle in preference to sheep. He sows u variety of grasses, leaving the best to hold their own. "A pasture cannot do much above ground till after the form- ation of a large bulk of roots below. The working capital of nitrogen and potash in a pasture must be larger than that re- quired in an arable soil. In a pasture there is less activity and less change than there is in an arable soil. New turf will not become permanently productive until after the underground formation of stored up material. A pasture often falls off after the first three or four years. This can be avoided by a liberal feeding on the ground of cattle eating cotton cake. For the formation of a good turf after everything else is right, nothing equals cotton cake, cotton cake, cotton cake! If he sells the hay, and thereby takes potash from his soil, he can restore the waste with kainit salts or sulphate of potash." Care of Meadows. — Much that was said in reference to the care of pastures applies equally to the care of meadows. They are injured by being shaved too closely, by continued removal of hay without any returns in the form of fertilizers, by close feeding of cattle in addition to mowing. If land is in excellent condition when seeded to grass little need be done for the first two years, when the sod may be broken for some other crop, or for re-seeding to grass. If clover is used a dressing of plaster is often beneficial. In a summary of the opinions of 55 prominent farmers of England, most of them advocate mowing in the first season in- stead of pasturing. The majority prefer mowing early the first year and again later in the season. All admit the great value of a dressing of farmyard manure, several recommend feeding cattle WHAT MANURES TO APPLY. 267 and sheep with cotton cake on grass laud. By no means allow sheep to pasture newly seeded grass land. What Manures to Apply. — This is a very puzzling question — one difficult to answer. In most cases no one can tell what would be best till experiments are made, but an intelligent per- son of experience can usually tell approximately what is for the best. The substances most generally needed in manures for increas- ing a crop are those f'ontaining available nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. The influence of the weathei, the moisture on grasses and clove: d is much more marked than that caused by the richness or barrenness of tlie soil. ''The tendency of modern jiractice in manuring is to use readily soluble and quick acting manures, but to use them sparingly at each time. Little and often is the rule. It is not good policy to bury p.ny manure very deeply, but apply it on or near the surface." — [Crops of the Farm.] It is better to apply nitrogenous manures in sjiring when plants are beginning to grow. In what follows the reader will learn from the experience of others who have made many ex- periments with various kinds of fertilizers applied to grass land. For these we Jire compelled to cross the Atlantic, as but few reliable results have been published in America. The following is gathered from J. Julie in Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc. : "If the leguminous plants are well developed and prominent we should diminish the dose of potash and increase the nitrogen. If, on the contrary, the true grasses stifle the Leguminosa?, it is better to reduce the dose of nitrogen and increase that of pota.sh. Farmyard manure contains a large amount of nitrogen, but very little in a soluble state, unless it is well decomposed. There is a marked advantage in using a chemical manure, as farmyard manure contains an excess of several elements which will of ne- cessity remain unemployed. Farmyard manure is far more suit- 268 WHAT MANURES TO APPLY. able for the cultivation of arable than grass lands, for the plow mixes it with the mass of the soil. It pays better, especially on sloping lands, to apply a little manure frequently than much manure at greater intervals." Some grasses draw much more potasli and phosphoric acid than others. Here are two mixtures in which the re(|uirments of potash and phosphoric acid greatly differ. Tlie tables are from Mr. Julie: FIRST mixti;ke. POTASH. PHOSPHORIC ACID. In 1,000 lbs. Lolitini i>crenne 6.75 Phalaris hh'uatre 5.08 .^^l vena flu vescens 5. 98 AnthoMintJiiini oduratuvi 6.85 Fesfnca pni teima 5. 52 I Bromnii Sdiraderii 8.07 ! 21.55 In 1,000 lbs. .... 36.:} .... 31.4 26.55 .... 25.89 .... 21.83 Mean or average 6.375 ; 27.256 SECOND MIXTUUE. Poa. nemoraltH 4.12 | 10.85 BrotnuK jirdfcusis 3.62 13.59 Poa pratensis. 4.43 15.24 Cyuosnnis cristafns.. 3.72 [ 15.24 Fest iim rubra 3.34 | 16.37 Phk'iim pratense 4, . i 16.01 Mean ple, weeds hy the wayside, or grasses in the meadow, one rule governs them all. Each strives for all it can get. Dean Ilerhert was more than half right: "Plants do not grow where they like best, hut where other plants will let them." On this subject, and in this connection, we are fortunate in having access to the results of the prolonged and elaborate experiments of Sir J. B. I^wes and his associates at Kotham- sted, St. Albans, England.* For more than twenty years in succession he experimented on the agricultural, botanical, and chemical results of a mixi-d herbage in a permanent meadow. There were 2-1 plots, ui)on some of which were placed different kinds of fertilizers and ujmu others none were used. It was a very old pasture, having been in permanent grass over a century, No fresh seed of any kind was sown during the period. The land was flat, heavy loam, Avith a red clay subsoil resting on chalk, naturally well drained. The first crop, for a few years, was mown; the second was eaten off by sheep. There were twelve different manures employed. The total number of species observed upen these plots Avas 89, belonging to '2'2 orders, of which 20 were grasses and 10 leguminous. On the unmanured plot, there were sliglit changes from vear to year, due mainly to dilTerence in the seasons and a slight exhaustion of the soil. By weight, the grasses furnished 09 per cent, the leguminous plants 8, and the otlier 20 per cent was of a miscellaneous character. As Masters, the botanist who was ♦See Jour. Roy. Ag. Sou., 1858-9; Philosoph, Trans. Roy. Soc, 1882. 35 874 THE BATTLE IN THE MEADOW. employed, describes it: "The general appearance of the uninanured plots is one of even growth, with no special luxuri- ance of any particular plant. The herbage is very mixed, the crop scanty, the color yellowish green, no one kind being specially favored. Fefffftrn ovina is the predominating grass; Briza media is more abundant than on most other plots. The miscellaneous plants are generally very abundant, such as the buttercups, Plantago lanceolata, Leontodon, lirunella vuhjaris, Achillea Millefolium, Rnmex Acefosello,nndothcrB. The contrast in early summer between the scanty yellowish-green herbage, profusion of flowers of the various weeds, and the almost total absence of flowers and rich, deep blue-green foliage of the plants in the ammonia j^lot is very striking.'' As would be expected, almost all the plants on the experi- mental plots, no matter how they were treated, were perennials ; very few were annuals. Few of them were left long enough to produce seeds. It would be interesting to know what would have been the result had all the plants remained without cutting. The competition of grass for room is mainly exerted by the roots and rhizomes, which form a network more or less dense and varying in depth according to the plant and the soil. In some cases the competition is chiefly above ground, where dense tufts prevent the growth of neigliboring species. The changes of the seasons cause the proportion of plants to fluctuate. As Darwin observes, in chapter 3, Origin of Species: *'The struggle almost invariably will be most severe between the indi- viduals of the same species, for they frequent the same districts, require the same food, and are exposed to the same dangers." Very marked contrasts between species of the same genus also occur, as Poa trivialis and Poa pratensis. This, perhaps, may be partially explained by the fact that the former produces no rhizomes while the latter produces many. THE EFFECT OF MANURES. ;•■» Bocanso a plant diminiahcs i)i proportion to otliorK after being treaiti'd with a certain fertilizer, it does not follo'.v that this jdant would not also he improved if it grew alone. One species of plant often receives more hcnetlt from a certain manure than another. Th« Effect of Manures. — It was observed that those manures whi(!li are the most effective with wheat, barley, or oats on arable land were also the most effective in bringing forward the meadow grasses. Again, those manures which weri' the most beneficial to beans or clover benefited most other sj)ecies of leguminous plants. The Gritminem and Legiiminostp nnmifest somewhait different raanurial requirements. There is perhai»s no crop more in- fluenced than the grasses in its character, as well as its quantity, by the attention bestowed upon it. This applies also to the leguminous plants. The changes were most marked where the most liberal ma- nuring was employed; the increase M-as much greater in the second year than in the third as compared with the second. By means of manures the yield of dry matter, per acre, in the hay crop, was in several of the experiments considerably more than doubled. Every description of manure diminished the number of species and the frequency of weeds. Dead leaves occurred in most places where the manuring was the heaviest and the crops were the heaviest. This is a disad- vantage in manuring so highly as to cause the crop to fall and die at the bottom before the bulk is fit for cutting. In the words of the Agricultural Gazette for July, 1880 : *' They live in harmony on the unmanured, open park, having nothing to fight for in a state of nature. Season after season the same plants appear in about the same proportions. But toss them a bono, ground fine, or any other choice bit, and their harmonious companionship terminates at once. Every act of improved cul- / «T6 Tin: KFFKCT OF MANURKS. tivation omisioiis instant war. A fjrasH likes tlio luist that can 1)0 got. It will t»wallow soda, but not whon it can got potash. "On j^'cnoral princiiilos, all nuinures tond to drivo out the wta'ds by increasing tlio better herbage." Tills is certainly very satisfac^tory, but not truo in ovory par- ticular. .\fiitvnil Mautd'is Ahine. — The leguminous plants woro largely increased at the expense of the grasses and weeds. The grasses l)roper scarcely increased at all, whilst the whole jilat was thickly covered with perennial red clover and some other leguminous ]ilants. Very dilTerent was tin* action of ammoniacal salts which caused tho exclusive increase of tho grasses i)r()per, there being scarcely a leguminous i)lant to be found upon the jjlot. Superphitsphale of liitif, Mhen used alone, slightly increased the grasses aiul miscellaneous plants, diminishing tho legumin- ous. It }»roved to be of littlo or no use. Ammouid imJfs alone but slighty increased the crop. The crop was moderate and but littlo better than the plot unmanured. Fai'/iii/rtnl maun re gave a considerable increase of chiefly gram- iiuiceous hay and some few weeds, such as Ruinex and Achillea, Raniimtdtis, f'ariim, attributed chiefly to its mineral and nitro- genous constituents. The general result is, that leguminous plants in the meadow woro much increased in growth and assimilated more nitrogen from unaided sources over a given area, when they were liberally supplied with certain mixed or priuuirily soil constituents. Farmyard manure greatly encouraged the growth of the good grass Poa trivialis and tho bad one Bromas mollis, and Avhen in conjunction with ammonia salts the Dactylis glomerata, under both conditions, Festuca duriuscula and F. pratcnsis were nearly excluded, and Avena flavescens, A. puhescens, Agrostis vulgaris, TIIK KFFKCT OK MANURES. ST? LoIiHiit pvretniv atitl Arrhrnnflu'rum nvninri'nni wore very iiinclj rcduccil. Tt is certiiinly Honu'what discotira^'ing to find tlmt tlu' innnenoe of farinyurd inanuro was not favorable luuU'r all circiunstancfs. Xltmte of soda ahnir. — This {jciicrally gave tin incrcascil i)r(t- portion of grassos. a liifc-rijHMiing dark green erop, ratlicr more leafy than stemniy. Snperphnsjthdc and animonta. — This ])roduced niiu'li the same effect as the anunoniii added to other < <)nil)ijjations, viz: increas- ing tho grasses and greatly diminishing the leguminous and mis- cellaneous plants. Minerals and amnmnia. — Here the yield was large, the grasses much increased, the legumes and weeds not improved. The hirger tho amount of ammonia the more marked were the results. All poor grasses, cxcejit Lolnnn, were discouraged by the ammonia. Tho Jianiinnihirfamnd VinhcUifcra', ('(inipositw, Lahi- atiB were nearly expelled or greatly diminished. The grasses on tho plats thus treated ran much to leaves. Minerals and yitrate. — The proportion of grasses was large, that of legumes snndl, and that of miscellaneous plants much reduced. Sulphate of lime, (gypsum) often called "i)laster," sometimes slightly increases the growth of leaves and stems of grasses, but usually exerts a very marked effect to increase the growth of leguminous crops. Disuse of manure. — In such cases the plants soon assumed the conditions of those on the unmanured plats. A disuse of potash was followed b}- a decrease in the produce of grasses, a marked decrease of the legumes and an increase of miscellaneous jjlants. The practical conclusions may be very shortly stated. Drain- age, marling, liming, must not be neglected. The application of bones is not recommended for general adoption. They ap- pear to be chiefly adapted to tho exhausted pastures of certain 278 THE EFFECT OF MANURES. localities, and not to bo generally applicable to meadow land which is nioAvn for hay. The hay crop is a great exhauster of the mineral constituents of the soil ; and these owing to the high price of the salts of potash, cannot, M'ith profit, bo fully restored in artificial nnmures. The return of the mineral constituents is better accomplished by means of farmyard manure, night soil, and the like. ''The grasses jiroper appear to be the most strikingly inde- pendent of any artificial supply of carbon. Tlie hay crop is more exhaustive of potash than wheat or barley. "A i)redominance of mineral elements in the fertilizers in- creased the proportion of the culms of grasses, while a predom- inance of ammoniacal salts increased the proportion of leaves. *" Those manures which much increased the produce of hay, at the same time very much increased its proportion of gramina- ceous jdants. ** The total miscellaneous herbage (chiefly Avceds) were the most numerous in kind and nearly in the greatest proportion on the unmanured land, viz: IG per cent., while on the manured plat they decreased to 2 per cent." "An artificial manure containing a sufficiency of mineral and nitrogenous constituents affected some of the grasses as follows : LoJinm jxii't'fun' proportionally considerably increased. IfoJciis J(tnafiis i)roportionally largely increased. ArrJiriKifJu'i'idH avcnaceum proportionally largely diminished. Anthoxanihum odorafum proportionally largely diminished. Agi'Qstix vuhjaris proportionally very much diminished. Briza media proportionally very much diminished. Cyiwsnrns crisfafus proportionally very much diminished. Daciylis glomcraia proportionally very much increased. Poa pratetisis proportionally very much dimiuished. Bromus mollis proportionally reduced. Arena pratensis proportionally increased. GREEN MANURING. 379 Plant ago Janccolnfa proportionally disappeared. In the words of Mr. Lawes: " We learn from those results that good pasture grasses can never thrive upon a i)oor soil ; an; I if a soil does not contain in itself the elements of fertility they must be added from external sources. T may add that if the pasture of a rich soil deteriorates from bad treatment the good grasses do not die out, but only retire from the contest to wait for better times. Under invigorating treatment it will be found that the good grasses soon reassert their supremacy." "The general result, comparing the produce by the dilTerent manures in one and the same season, seems to be, that the more the produce is graTuinaceous the more it goes to ilower aiul seed, and the more it is ripeiu^l, the higher will be the percentage of dry substance in the hay. Under the same circumstances, the higher will be the i)ercentage of woody fiber and the lower will be that oi the nitrogenous compounds aiul of the mineral matter. On the other hand, in a large proportion of the non-gramina- ceous herbage the reverse of these things is true." In a summary of this subject, M. T. Masters, in Phvif lAfe, says : '* Circumstances are never exactly twice alike ; a condition of absolute equilibrium is never attained. The nearest approach to it is in the case of the unmanured plats aiul of the plats very highly manured, but even these M'ere inlluenced by very slight climatic changes. The Italancein all cases was easily disturbed." Oreeii Mailiirill^. — Most of i\\\^ jjaragraph is from a lecture by my colleague. Dr. W. C. Kcdzic. A complete nuinure is found in fresh vegetable matter turiunl under the surface of the soil. It is often convenient to adoi)t this practice on arable fields which are remote from the barn yard where stock are fed in winter. The late Cieorge Gcddes, of Xew York, adopted this plan quite extensively, and believed he found it as cheap as any. It is often convenient to throw in a growth of something betAveen two other valuable crops. For example, after a crop is removed 280 GREEN MANURING. iu autumn, rye is sown to plow unilcr for a late spring or summer crop. This grass grows well in cool weather, but does not return so much to the soil as red clover or some other legume. In green manuring the whole vegetable growth is returned to the soil, and in a condition to insure rapid decomposition. In no other way can a soil in poor condition be brought into good condition so rapidly and by so little ex2)onditure of money. By its skillful use the light and shifting sands of Belgium have been made the most fruitful fields of Europe. 3Iany are prejudiced against green manuring, believing that the process gives back to the soil only what it has taken from the soil. There is in most soils a large store of reserve material for plant food, but in the insoluble and inactive form. Certain plants have a singular power of corroding these insoluble min- erals and bringing them into soluble condition, using them to build up their own tissues. Wlion such plant is plowed under the soil it may give back to the soil only what it took from the soil, yet add greatly to its fertility because it has transferred such nuiterials from the retired to the active list. But it is not true that plants give back to the soil only what they have taken from the soil. All plants take carbon from the air, and green manur- ing is the easiest way to increase the store of humus iu the soil. Certain kinds of plants have singular power of accumulating combined nitrogen, and when these plants, rich in nitrogen, are plowed under the soil, they give to the soil in active form some- thing which they did not take from the soil in this form. Nitrogen is the most precious and costly element of vegetable growth. In the Northern States red clover heads the list, and is the red-plumed commander-in-chief of the manurial forces. Where the cow pea thrives, it also acts much like red clover when l)lowed under the soil. EFFECT OF MANURE AND DRAINAGE. 981 Concerning the value of red clover as a manure, tlie rear. A. Voelcker, ret'orded in Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc, p. J77, 18G0: *' A conipurison of the composition of the improved hay with that from the unimproved pastures offers several points of in- terest. ** Tlu' proportion of woody fiber in tliu good hay is much reduced. ** The amount of ilcsli formini; material is considerably increased. "The total amount of albuminous compounds is increased one- fourth. "The dilference in the i)rG})ortion af sugar and other solublo matters is very marked, the bad hay containing only 10 ju-r cent, the good hay nearly l~y per cent of sugar. "The proportion of fatty jr waxy constituents likewise is larger. "The increase in the soluble mineral matter shows that the good hay is the more succulent." This subject is also considered in the section j>repared by Professor Armsby. Here we see, then, that arable land produces grasses of better quality than marsh land, that rich land produces richer grasses than poor land, and every farmer knows that grass grown in the open meadow is more nutritious than that grown in the shade of trees, that the short growth in a dry season is more valuable jier ton than the rank growth in a Avet season. Effects of Irrigation. — The writer has had very little experi- ence in Irrigation, but briefly gives the opinions and results of some experimentors, hoping thereby to set farmers to thinking, observing, reading, and experimenting on this interesting sub- ject. To conduct irrigation properly is quite an art, but it has often been well done Avitli surprising results, converting a lean, hungry meadow into an oasis. Sinclair, in his famous old work EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION. 988 on grasses, says : " Irrigation is the easiest, cheapest, and most certain mode of improving poor hmd, in particular if it is of u dry and gravelly nature. The land is tlius put into a state of perpetual fertility, without any occasion for manure." To tie farmers of Connecticut, J. S. Gould said: "You should sow many differant varieties of grasses and by the aid of irrigation you would have seven or eight times the amount of grass you now do." To the same people, Solon Robinson said he had no doubt that if the streams of Connecticut were properly utilized in irrigating the soil, they would be more productive in value than by turning all the water-wheels of the State. After experimenting on this subject, Mr. Pusey, in Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc. for 1849, said that the money sjjent in irrigating grass land yielded a profit of 30 per cent. "All water is a weak liquid manure, — the warmer the water the better. A slight film of water trickling over the surface — for it must not stagnate — rouses the sleeping grass, tinges it with living green and brings forth a luxuriant crop in early spring, just when it is most Avanted, while the other meadows are still bare and brown. A Avater meadow is the triumph of agricultural art. The best irri- gated meadows are those upon a gravelly soil, with a good drain- age." Tenacious clays are less suitable for irrigation, and then only when Mell drained so the water can pass off at once. AVater from streams is generally i)rcferrcd to that from wells and springs. In cold weather water may overflow grass, and if not frozen to the grass it may remain there for weeks or months without harui, but in warm weather the case is quite different. Some spring waters contain sulphate of iron in solution or other matters injurious. Diluted liquid manure has often been arti- ficially applied with most excellent results. Where meadows are irrigated the grasses are cut four or hve times a year yielding 284 EFFECTS OF mRIGATION. enormous croj^s. Such Isuul is seldom used for pasture, as it becomes too soft and is more profitable foi mowing. We will next read what Prof. J. Buckman says in Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc, J). 4(57, 185-1. " By irrigation the list of grasses change ; bad grasses will nearly all die out, or greatly improve in quality, whilst many good ones, few in number before, rapidly increase. Again, such weeds as P}anta()o major. Ranunculus hnlhosus, Pan- Icum sanffuinah, and many others give jilace to a groAvth of grasses. " Take the following on the observations of a meadow which was irrigated in an inferior manner. It had a subsoil of oolitic gravel, and its product was that of a thin upland pasture. How much it has changed will be seen from the annexed table, Avhich is designed to supply information on the following points : — 1. The names of the grasses observed. 2. The proportions of those observed in the meadow before ir- rigation. 3. The changes effected in two years. 4. Those affected on the fourth vear. NAMES. Alopeenrus 2i>'atetisiH, Meadow foxtail Poa pratensin, June grass Pou fririalis, Roughish ivieadow grass Briza media. Quaking grass Cynosut'iiH cn'ntatus. Dog's tail grass Aim caiS2)itona, Hossack grass Agrostis stolonifera, Marsh bent. Dnctylis glomerata, Orchard grass, Cock's foot. Arena flavescens, Yellow oat grass Avena pubescens, soft oat grass. Hordeam pratense, Meatiow barley Lolium perenne, Rye grass PROPORTIONS. Before After two | After four I years' gears' Irrigation. | Irrigation. Irrigallon. 1 o 1 2 o 1 1 1 2 1 1 o 3 2 1 2 2 3 1 2 4 4 4 1 3 3 3 1 2 6 EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION. 98ft **This fieM trebled in value in fonr years. The table shows us that nil the better grasses have increased, if we except the Poa triviaUft and I/ordt'tnn jtriitoisc, in which cases there has been an increase in grasses not poKsessing tlie best character. In the first of these there is a decline in the fourth year. "Now if wo take into consideration the same set of facts, as presented by herbs of other families, the alteration is still more striking as attested by the following table: NAMES. I'KOPOKTIONS. Itefore Afturlwo I .veiirs' ' Irri|;atioii. 1 Irrigation. I Ranunculus acris. Meadow crowfoot Ranunculus btilbosus, Bulbous crowfoot Plantago lauceolata. Narrow leavetl plantain. Plantago media. Broad leaved plantain Tt'ifolium repeus, Dutdi clover . _ Trifoliitm pratcnse. Red clover. AnthriscuH vulgaris. Beaked parsley I 3 1 1 2 After fotir years' Irrigation. 1 1 2 1 •'* Now this table points out the important fact that large and innutritions herbs in jtastures arc destroyed by irrigation, and the jirevious one makes it clear that their places are supplied by the grasses. ••• Parsley and docks should be pulled as the latter is largely in- creased by irrigation." In other words, we conclude that the best grasses are a sign of good land or good treatment by nianuring or draining or irriga- tion. They are the inost sensitive to good or bad treatment; they are hearty feeders, and are the most exhaustive to the soil. Sedges, rushes, mosses, ox-eye daisies, and most other weeds, point to land that is out of order. ZHa MAKING HAY. CHAPTER XIL MAKING HAY. Cutting and Curing Hay. — Within a few years we have given up the sickle for the scytlie, and the scythe for the horse-mower. The hay-tedder takes the place of several weary hoys in tossing the new mown grass; the horse-rake with a spiing seat for the driver takes the place of the old hand rake. In some places the hay-loader is attached to the rear of the wagon and saves much heavy work. The largo hay forks with a rope, a few pulleys, a horse, a boy and a little planning hy the farmer, elevate the hay in large bunches to the top of the highest stack or the hay loft. This is all easy, if you have good tools and know how to manage, but no book can tell a beginner all about it. The op- erator must use his own judgment in deciding between that which is valuable and that which is not worthy of his attention. Implements i'.re all the time improving, and enterprising man- ufacturers see that the farmers know the fact. Instructions are freely given in reference to their use, hence little need here be said in reference to them. Previous to haying the business fai*mer will put everything in good order. He has a few extra bolts, nuts, one or more extra sickle- bars and sections, and is i)repared to meet slight accidents with- out delay. He has a good steady team and a careful driver who has some tact with tools. Before the grass had made much growth some pains was taken to remove stones, stumps or other obstructions, or to mark them so their location could be known when the grass had become tall. For the prospects of fair, settled weather he no longer relies wholly on the almanac, the moon's phases or the weather MAKING HAY. 2Mr prophets, after the manner of his forefatliers, but consults the ** probabilitiob " of the signal service. — (Killebrew.) If the grass be lieavy, the dew should be nearly off before begin- ning. If the cutting bar is at one side the driver strikes out with the "off horse" next to the fence; he then turns about, driving over the swath last cut, and goes around as much as he chooses. Or if ho use a Eureka or other mower where the ma- chine follows the team immediately, he may go back and forth on one side or proceed in some other manner. Before noon, and perhaps after noon also, the hay tedder stirs the grass once or more. Towards night it is raked and put into cocks. If there be much clover the tedder must not be used after the leaves have dried, as it crumbles and wastes the most valuable part of the hay. The leaves of clover will dry a long time before the stems. If cut late in the afternoon, or in the evening, so it does not wilt, no harm will come if a heavy dew fall on the hay. If the day be a fair one it is not good practice to cut grass in the mid- dle of the day and leave it partially cured exposed to dew or rain. The finest hay is made in dry, sunless weather, with little dew, and as little handling over as possible. Burning too long in the hot sun renders the hay brittle, and some of it will be lost in handling. As usually made, the best clover hay is only fairly wilted be- fore it is put in the cock, where it remains from four to seven days. In the meantime the cocks are carefully opened once or more each into two or three piles for an hour or two, then put up again. If not very well cured, hay will keep better in a close mow in the barn than in a loft or in a stack where it is much exposed to the air. The closer the barn the better for the hay. The following was prepared by Prof. II. P. Armsby, of Wis- consin : 288 MAKIN(} HAY. Effect of Drijimj. — "All tin- nutrients of dry, course fodder lire digested and resorbed to the siinie extent us when it is fed green. This is only true when the fodder and the luiy are other- wise of exu(!tly the same quality, when hoth are eut at the same time and from tlie same field, und when none of the leuves or other tender und especiully nutritious i)urt8 are lost during the l)repurutiou of hay. These considerutions ure never completely reuched in pructice. " The iliijcsfihUUy of the organic constituents of a fodder is in no way altered by simply drying in the air, i)rovided it is exe- cuted without loss of parts of the plants. The ordinary method of making hay involves a considerable loss of leaves, aiid the product sutlers not only iu its quality but in its digestibility as well. " Eff'cd of Storiuf). — The storing of fodder for a long time, even when all necessary preventions, such as a dry and airy loca- tion, etc., are observed, may decrease both its digestibility and jjulatubility. " Period of Growth. — Early cut forage is not only superior, other tilings being equal, to late cut, as regards its chemical composition, but it excels it also in digestibility. This fact is / established bj- abundance of experimental evidence. " Digestibility is not sensibly increased by steaming or ensi- lage. In practice, however, the palatability of a fodder may often be very considerably increased by suitable preparation, and the animals thus induced to eat larger quantities of fodder not jierhaps agreeable to them in its natural state. " TJie Fertility of the Soil affects the Quality of Plant. — The natural quality and fertility of a soil have a very consider- able influence on the chemical composition of the crop. Still greater differences often show themselves when dark green * rank ' plants are compared with pale yellowish-green ones of the same kind, occurring in the same field, and of the same age. MAKING HAY. 289 Iz is questionablo whether very hi<^h miinurliig really gives more nutritious foiMor than cuii bo got from noil of good fc^rtility. " Method of Curing.— \\\ methods and .ipijliaiu'es which di- minish the amount of handling which the hay must receive, es- pecially when it is nearly dry, tend to improve the quality of the product by avoiding mechanical losses. So, too, it is desirable to dry the grass as little as is consistent with the o])ject of curing, sufficient to eusure the keeping of the fodder, since the dryer and more brittle it becomes the greater is the loss by handling. In the process of * ensilage ' those losses are largely avoided, but the process of fermentation causes a loss. Ile(!ent results obtained ut the New York Experiment Station, and at Hough- ton Farm, seem to show that corn-ensilage suffers very little loss from fermentation. *' Damaye hif liain. — Both aiuilysis and digestion exjjcriments confirm the comuion observation that hay which has been wet is diminished in value. " Early or Lilt 0, Cultiny. — Young plants while rapidly grow- ■ ing contain relatively nu)ro protein and less fibre than more ma- ture ones, consequently early cut fodder must be of better qiudity than that cut late. It is more digestible. " Three elements enter into the problem of selecting the best time for cutting, viz: the quality of the fodder, its quantity, and the amount of labor expended upon it. "While any grass is ripening a large part of the protein and starch j)asses from the leaves and stem to the seeds, ■which are so small that they are seldom masticated or digested. Moreover, they are easily lost in curing. The hay made from fully ripe grass is essentially straw. ** If only one crop is to be obtained, probably the best time for cutting is usually when the plants are just beginning to blossom. At this time a larger crop is obtained than if cut earlier, while the digestibility is not seriously impaired. 37 290 MAKING HAY. **lt cut early tlu'ii' is a gn-at advantage) to tho Hououd crop, U0 hIiowu by uii t'.xpt'rimeiit at lIohenlR'iiii: Onofut... Two cuts. IVrrciitam' of I'ri)tt>ln. Totul ikiuikIn ' Totnlitrynint- of I'roti'In. I tvr, ixiiindM. 16.3 24.4 484 668 2,662 3,274 "Tho following tabk', taken from ('lirmiHti'tj nf flic Fann, shows tho pprcontago conijiosition of meadow grass cut at three different dates in the same field. Tiie first eutting will repre- sent i)astnre grass fed otf in the green state hy stock : tho seeond cutting is good ordinary hay ; the third cntting is an over-ripo liav, somewhat coarse and stemmv, but Avell harvested. Date of Cuttint;. May 14. June 9.. June 26. 1 .\ll)umlnnli|g. Fat. Scilulile Carbu-liydratfs. Fiber. Ash. 17.65 11.16 8.46 8.19 2.74 71 40.86 13.27 43.34 22.97 34.88 38.15 15.38 7.95 " These numbers speak most decidedly in favor of early cutting. When the fodder was cut twice, not only was the quality far bet- ter, as shown by the percentage of protein, but the absolute quantity both of protein and of dry matter per acre was nearly one-half greater. When Ave take into account the greater di- gestibility of the young hay, the gain becomes still greater. Ex- periments indicate that the richest fodder and the largest yield of digestible matters per acre may be obtained by cutting two or more crops of comparatively young grass in a season, rather than one crop of over-ripe vegetation. " In practice, however, the fertility of the soil, the length of the season, the kind of grass, the cost of labor, etc., have to be con- MAKING UAV. 8i(lcn'(l. IJowi'ii is iiioro liable to injury from wot tlinn poarwer hay. It may often he elieaiier to get one lar<;e oroj) of hay, oven of poorer (luality. and supideiiu'iit it w ith eoncent rated fodders. '• 'I'lie only direct feeding trials that have l)een nuule on this point, so far an I know, are those made liy Profes^^or Sanborn, of Missouri. So far as they go tiiey indicate tluit the value of early- cut hay nuiy have been over-rated. ** Lr(/iniii's. — The legumes are charaeterized by the large pro- l)orti<)n of protein eontaim'tl in the plant as a whole, and in tho seeds. As fodders, when properly cut and cured, they arc very rieh, but have the disadvantage of being rather bulky, and of being easily subject to deterioration by mechanical lossot-.. As a general rule clover is richer in nitrogenous matters than grass. Compared witli meadow hay, whiih is made from the true grasses, its protein is about ecjually digest ilde, its crude fibre de- cidedly less digestible." In trying to decide which is the proper stage of growth for cutting grass for hay we should not forget that u late growth of the plants nearly to seeding impairs their strength. In case of red clover, it greatly interferes with the crop of seed which is obtained from the second cutting. The following on this question is by Prof. W. II. Jordan, taken from the Phihtdclphiti I'trxs: "What if sorghum does have more saccharose and less glucose when the seeds are formed or are ripe? Is it more nutritious? We have no reason for thinking so. Starch and the various sugars and other carbohydrates have just the same office, and, so far as we can judge, nearly the same value in animal nutrition, so how does a change from glucose to sacMiarose, or from starch to sugar, very materially affect the nutritive value of a plant? In the processes of digestion starch is changed to glucose, and in that form passes into the blood. Sugar in the blood requires somewhat less work for its preparation for use by the animal 293 MAKING HAY. body, and is, undoubtedly, somewhat more completely utilized tbiin is tiie case with starch, liut the final form and oflice is the same with both starch and the sugars or foods. •'It is. therefore, difticult to sec how a ch'ingo from glucose to saccharose in sorghum can eifect the intrinsic value. Puit why compare sorghum and Timothy anyway? One is a sugar-bear- ing plant, tiie other is not. " liccause sorghum, a sugar-i)roducing plant, is worth most for making sugar when the seeds are ripe, why should it follow that Timothv. a plant containing in advanced ago a verv small quantity of sugar, is most nutritious when the seeds are fornu>d? We cannot determine the elTect that ago has upon the nutritis'e value of any known fodder plant by the increase or decrease of a single compound. Plant substance is complex, is made up of nniny compounds, and we must measure nutritive value by the total quantity of digestible nutrients, taking into account also their form and relative quantities. •'Our knowledge of changes occurring in Timothy grass through age is. lirielly, as follows: "(1.) The nitrogenous compounds decrease and the carbohy- dmtes (starch, sugar, etc.) increase in relative amounts. *'(••.*.) Tliere is no conclusive evidence that the nitrogenous compoumls assume more valuable forms in the later stages of growth than when the plant is in bloom. **(o.) With the carbohydrates there is a change of material into the form of criule fibre. Crude fibre is in part digestible, and to that extent is as valuable as digestible starch. ''(4.) The nutrients in young grass are more largely digesti- ble than in old. "(5.) This decrease in jjcrcentage (»f digestibility imiy be in part or even wholly compensated by the greater acreage produc- tion in the case of nuiture grass. Whether this is so, undoubt- edly, depends largely upon the locality and season. MAKINd IIAY. 293 ** Purely chemical facts favor very strongly tlie idea that a pound of dry substance, as existing in Timothy when in bloom, is more valuable tlian a pound of dry substance at any later })e- riod, in much the same way (but in a less degree) that a })ound of dry substance in young pasture grass is more valuable than the same quantity of material in the mature plant." The following opinion, based on experiments, by Prof. J. W. Sanborn, of ^lissouri, dilfers from the above: Ilo compares cutting grass, mostly Timothy, as soon as one-fourth part of the heads were in bloom, and otlur lots ten days later, when out of l)loom, and after the seed had begun to nniture. After repeated trials in feeding steers, and cows giving milk, he says tlie results indicate, not only tliat the amount of hay gathered from a given area are much larger when cut after bloom tliaii when cut in bloom, but tlie late-cut liay was more nutritious. He l)elieves that Timothy or clover liay, particularly tlie former, is v;ortli more per pound, and for Timothy thirty-five to forty per cent, more per acre, for cutting when sunicieiitly out of bloom in pref- erence to cutting in bloom or before blooming. From some ex- perience he concludes that this is also true of corn fodder, and he is inclined to believe it is true of most vegetation. The writer thinks it very doubtful whether it is best to cut all forage plants at the same stage of advancement. Most farmers, as a rule, prefer to i^ut clover when a few of the first heads begin to turn brown. If the grass has made a pretty good growth, and the bottom is not wet from damp weather, it is the safest plan to begin haying early. Something will very likely interrupt so that the grass last cut will be older than it should be for good hay. Unless the weather be favorable it is difticult to cure well a thick growth of very young, succulent grass. When the growth is thick, some of tho lower leaves begin to decay, while those at tho top are gaining. To save all tho leaves 204 MAKINCS HAY. grass must be cnt when young. Very much will depend on the condition of the weather. If the sun is obscured by clouds and rnin descends every few hours, the grass intended for hay must be left standing even though it be going to seed. For making hay wo need dry weather, but we can fill a silo rain or shine. Another reason for cutting early must not be overlooked. It will be noticed while reading the chapter on Insecta Injurious to Grasses and Clovers, that in many cases early cutting is recom- mended as an effectual remedy. It will be seen that it is by no means an easy matter to select the best time for cutting or the best process of curing grasses and clovers, or to tell just how much it is safe to rely on chem- ical analyses to help determine these questions; and vhen we come to the test of feeding the difficulties are still increased on account of a changing climate, differences in the animals se- lected, and other things only thought of by men who have care- fully experimented in feeding domestic animals. Partially cured hay may bo pressed into very solid bales, and not injure by heating. It keeps much like ensilage in a silo. If the hay in the cocks be too damp, before drawing it should be opened an hour or two. No fixed rule can bo laid down to guide the farmer. Remember that dew and rain wash out much of the best portion of grass after it has been cured, or partially cured. A few minutes of an expert will show a beginner how to put hay into neat cocks of 75 to 200 lbs. or more each. The hay at the top should spread and hang down the sides to help carry off rain, should any occur. General W. G. LeDuc, of Minnesota, has the following on this topic: " There is an art in cocking the clover hay so that it will shed rain, and the best hay makers in this locality claim to have ac- quired the difficult art of thatching the clover cocks by dexterity in handling the fork and laying the hay. They insist on taking MAKING CLOVER HAY IN ONE DAY. OO'. lip small forkfuls of tlie windrow, iilaciiig one on top of another until they luive a miniature cock, then taking it np on a four- tined fork and turninor it skillfully so that the center of the forkful comes down, inverted upon the center of the forming cock. The cocks }nust he small and tall — such as will stand se- curely until the sunshine of the morrow." Making ("lover Hay in One Day. — By lion. L. X. Bonham, Oxford, Ohio: "For several years I put up clover , hay as did my father and other Jersev farmers. I have long since ahaK.ioned their method and now put my clover hay in the mow the same day it is cut. The hay is far hetter, and the labor and risk in making it are far less. I select a l»right day and start the mower as soon as the dew is oif, "By 11 o'clock I have cut as much as can be hauled in be- tween 1 and 5 o'clock. The clover is then all turned and shaken up loose before we go to dinner. Bv 1 o'clock it is dry enough to rake into windrows if the day is an average hay day. Xo time is lost now in getting it into the mow. The hay is Avarm and free from external moisture. The warmer it is the less moisture is left on it. By 5 o'clock wo have it all in the mow, if we can. If not all in then avo prefer to leave it in the windrow until near noon the next da}'. After we stop hauling, at 5 v. M., the mower ii started to cut what 've can haul in the next day. The clover cut so late in the dav is not wet with dew, ami will not Avilt enough to bo blackened by the dew. It will be ready to shake \\\\ and spread out before 10 o'clock the next day, and by 1 o'clock we can begin to haul it into the mow. "The clover hay thus made goes into the mow bright and with every leaf and head left on it. The secret of the whole business is, it is free from external moisture, while the warmth of the hay when it goes into the moAV hastens the approach of the tempera- ture of the mass up to 123, when the germs which cause in- 296 MAKING CLOVER HAY IN ONE DAY. ireused fermentation arc destroyed, and the hay keei>s hright and Eweet, and comes out fragrant clover, with all the lieads and leaves of good color. ''My mow is 28x28, and as tight as good siding and strips jiainted can make it. There are no windows in the sides to let in air. The clover is put in as compactly as wo can get it, to save room, and kept level, to have the heat uniform. " Sometimes we sprinkle a half gallon of salt to the load when putting into the mow, but this is of doubtful value. '' ' To exclude the air ' from the top of my clover mow, I often cover with straw. But this does not pack closely. I find it better when hauling in wheat to fill up over the clover with wheat. This excludes air, and packs the clover so that it keeps bright to the very top. *' The old theory that the mow must bo open and the clover thrown in loose, and treated to 'plenty of salt,' Avhich may mean much or little, is exploded. Green clover will keej) green in the silo if well packed and the air is excluded. Clover hay, jiut into the mow Avarm and dry, the day it is cut, Avill keep brighter and jiurer and sweeter than if cured longer in the field. "The trouble, however, in farmers adopting the method I have successfully used, is they do not attach enougli importance to the fact that the conditions named must be followed. "It Avill not do to cut clover in the morning and haul it in after sun-down. It will surely mould or come out brown or fire fanged, simply because dew falls at 5 o'clock. "Kor can we cut clover and put in the mow tlie same day Avithout faA'orable conditions of sun and air. In neither case Avill the hay go in free from external moisture." The above account Avas clipi)cd from the Fanner's Itcview. Ilay caps are sometimes used, and Ave never heard of a farmer who thrcAV them aside after he had once used them. They Avill aomotimes save their cost in a single season. They are about six DRYING BY HOT ATP. FROM FURNACE. 297 feet s<, Iluds. Soon after beginning to give special attention to the agricul- tural grasses, the writer in a lecture to the Northwestern Dairy- men's Association in 18T^, advised hunting up new grasses in Mexico, Euro2)e, South America and Australia, ,)apan and Cali- fornia. Depend upon it there are treasures yet undiscovered in some of those distant lands. I suggested that, likely, grasses from a dry climate will thrive better than those from England or other moist climates. Truly we may say that very little prog- ress has been made in this subject in forty years. In the extensive unwooded regions west of the Mississippi the native grasses afford much pastures; but many of them start very late in spring, and stoj) growing early in autumn. They do not completely occupy the ground; they are easily stamped out by the lioofs of cattle and sheep. Some of the tame grasses will thrive better, and afford much more pasture. Especially is there great need of some forage i)lauts better adapted to the Southern States, and the dryer portions of all the United States. NEW OR ASSES FOR OLD STATIONS. 80a Tho sedges {C^jwrdrcw) uro mostly found on imirsnes, hiu u few grow oil rather dry ground. Altliougli extensively past- ured, cut and cured for hay in new eountries, they have been quite uniformly condemned as utterly unworthy of cultivation. They are nearly always much past their prime when cut for hay. They are better when cured early. The writer thinks it not un- likely that some of these sedges may prove valuable in certain localities. Tho majority of sedges appear in limited quantity often mixed with others which grow al)undantly. Some experi- ments might very profitably bo made on tho sedges with refer- ence to their value for pasture or hay. On this topic I glean tho following from the Country GvntU- inaii of January, 188(1, contributed by my colleague. Prof. L. II. Bailey: "At present there aro only three species, so far as known, which possoss any decided merits. One is a native of Thibet, affording fair grazing when grasses fall. Another is the sand carex of Europe {Carcx. arenarui) which is largely groAvn along exposed sea shores to liold the sand. The third species occurs along the Columbia lliver, where it furnishes a valuable hay and pasture, and is known as the hay carex. It has ])een received from several reliable sources. It grows rapidly in the early spring, and matures its fruit or seeds just before the annual rise of the rivers cover it. As soon as the water recedes it springs lip again, but does not fruit, this time yielding an excellent hay. Hundreds of tons are cut from this species alone. **' Specialists have studied this j^lant quite carefully, and it has been referred to no less than five distinct species. It is probably the same as a Scandinavian species {Carex acuta var. prolixa) although that plant is not known to possess any economic value." Tho following is from Dr. C. E. Bessey, of Kebraska: ''For many years it has been a !<. vorite subject of investigation with me to attempt to determine whether any of our native grasses "wore worthy of being brought under cultivatioii. In this inves- 3()4 NKW (ili.VSSKS FOR 0]A) STATION'S. tigiitioii I liuvt! mcl with soiiu' (mIiI i-xiioriciu'o.s. 1 have us u riilo roiiiitl tli(! opinion gononil tliut tlio wild t, Dactyl is glomerata, L., in chaff. Chess, Bromus, some species (a weed). Crowfoot, Ranunculus bulbonns (a weed). Dock, Rumex (a weed). Lanco-leaved Plantain, Plantago lanceolata, L., (a weed). Shepherd's Purse, Capsella Bursa-pastoHs, M(ench (a weed). This mixture is sold at 50 cents per pound, or $4 per bushel, and is not so good as the Chicago parks mixture noticed above, because it contains a much smaller proportion of June grass and a much larger proportion of perennial rye grass and Timothy. flint's lawn grass. Sold by DutroU, Mich. Table showing the proportions: Perennial Rye Grass, Lolium. perenne, L.. in chaff 53ft Sheep's Fescue and Hard Fescue, seeds much alike, Festuca ovina and var. duriuscula, L 395 June Grass, or Kentucky Blue Grass, Poa pratensis, I*, in chaff... 255 White Clover, Tri folium repens, L. , clean 227 Red or Mammoth Clover, Trifolium prateniie or medium, L., clean. 130 Timothy, Phleum pratcnse, L., clean 105 Meadow Foxtail, Alojx'curus pratensis, L. , in chaff 103 Italian Rye Grass, Lolium perenne, var. Italicum, in chaff 47 Sweet Vernal, Antho.vanthum odoratum, Ij., in chaff.. 35 Hair Grass, Aira flcvuesa, L., in chaff (a weed). 25 Chaff 80 Mixed seeds containing traces of the following 80 Chess, Bromus (a weed). Fescue (species ?) Velvet Grass (a weed). Self Heal, Brunella (a weed). Sorrel, Rumex (a weed). GRASSES FOR THE LAWN. 3l3 Ribbed Orass Plantayo lanceolota L (a weed). Chickweed (a weed). Nonesuch, Medicago lupuliua 1. A sedge, Carex. Two or three others not recognized, This mixture is sold at per quart or per bushel. In addition to the objections made to the two former mixtures are the following : Sheep's fescue and hard fescue grow in tufts or bunches and will not produce a lawn of even appearance. The red or mam- moth clover will also produce a coarse patchy lawn, and the former will die out in two or three years. Italian rye grass will kill out the first winter. Hair grass is a weed substituted for crested dog's tail, which is a feeble grass of no value in this country. FIIfE MIXED LAWX GRASS. Sold by Rochester, New Yorh. Table showing the proportions; June Grass, Kentucky Blue Grass, Poa jiretennis, L., in chaff 995 Perennial Rye Grass, Lolium perenne, L. , in chaff 873 Orchard Grass, Cock's Foot, Dactylis glomemta, L. , in chaff 827 Red Top, Brown or Creeping Bent. Agrostis, in chaff 313 Velvet Grass, Holcus lanatus, L, , in chaff (a weed) 23 Mixed and containing traces of the following : Chess, Bromus, Sp. (?) (a weed). Liince-leaved Plantain, Ribbed Grass, Plantago lanceoUxta, L. (h weed). Dock or Sorrel, Rnme.v (a weed). White Clover, Tn'foUum repents, L. Timothy, Phleum jn-atense, L. Crowfoot, Eftuimculas biilbosus, L. (?) (a weed). Shepherd's Purse, Capsella Bnrsa-pastoris, Mrench (a weed). The above is sold at H per bushel. For objections to some of these ingredients consult the com- ments inserted in connection with the former mixtures. 40 314 GRASSES b'OR THE LAWN. SoM in hulk hij New York. 'Pablo sliowing tho proportions : Juno Grass, or Keiituoky Bluo Grass, Poa jtratensis, L., in chaff... 04S Rod Top, Brown or Creeping Jient, Agrustis 528 White Clover, Trifoliii in repens h. , oloan 158 Timothy, Phleam pmtenxv, Ti., clean 38 Ergot of A(jro>itis, or Red Top, (infested with fungus) 10 Mixed and containing traces of the following: Eggs of insects. Dung of insects. Dead insects. Panic Grass. Pdiiicnia (a weesell(t Bursa-pastorin, Mcencli (a weed). Dock, Piiiin'.f(n wood). Orchard Grass ^)r Cock's Foot, Dactylis (jloim'rxfii, L. Elvocluifis, a rush or grass-liko plant (a weed). Round Leaved Mallow, Muhxi rot undi folia. L. (a wetxl). This is sold for ^5 per bushel, und is a good mixture, omitting tho seed of Timothy and the weeds. Tho house claims to have have sold 70,000 packages in 1885. The same house offers June grass for ^2.35, and lient grass for sj?-! per bushel. THE *' ni:XI)KKSOX "' LAAVX (iUASS SKEI). Sold hi/ Xctc York. Table showing the proportions: Brown or Creeping Bent or Red Top, Agrotitis, in duUl 880 June (irass or Kentucky Blue Grass, Pod ^iiateiisis, L., in chaff 715 White Clover, Trifolinia repens, L. , clean _ 120 Sheep'sor Hard Fescue, Festuca ovina or var. ditriusciila, L., in chaff 110 Perennial Rye Grass, Loliiim percniie, li. , in chaff 95 Sweet Vernal, Anfho.vanthuui odoratum, L., var. PuelU, in chaff-. 17 Timothy, Phh'um pratenae, L., clean. 10 K few seeds of Chickweed, some Panicum, Mallow, Malva rotundifolia, L., (a weed), Ergot, some other weeds not recognized. This is much like tho Central Park lawn grass previously no- ticed. This one contains some seeds of small fescues apparently GRASSES FOR THE LAWN. 815 mixed, a little perennial rye j,'rass, which is no benefit to it, and a very little Timothy, which would be better to omit, and a small amount of sweet vernal, which apparently is the annual variety and of no value. The three leading ingredients are the June grass, bent grass, and white clover. It was the freest from weeds of any mixture examined. It is sold for as cents per quart or i{!5.50 per bushel. The same house sells Juno grass for ^2.25 per bushel, bent grass for !|4.00 per bushel, white clover for 40 cents per pound. The preceding tables and the remarks below each should be studied in connection with what follows. At the Agricultural College, numerous plats in various sea- sons and soils, mixed and separate, have been tried, and those grasses of most value are June grass and a small red top. White clover often thrives well with these, but it varies much with the change of seasons. Sod taken from a rich old pasture or the roadside usually makes excellent lawn as soon as laid, but it is too expensive for a large plat. The main grasses making such a turf are those last mentioned, June grass and red top, with per- haps some white clover. In making a lawn too little stress is usually placed on thor- ough trenching or subsoiling aiul enriching the land. The sur- face should be harrowed and hand-raked till it is in the finest condition. With the writer's experience, having tested for some years ■over two hundred kinds of grasses and clovers, both native and foreign, for ]\[icliigan and places with similar climates, lie would sow about two bushels of seeds (in the chaff) of June grass, Poa pratemis, L., and two bushels of some small bent grass, known as Rhode Island Bent, Brown Bent, or Creeping Bent, or as red top. Th(j latter grasses vary much and are usually much mixedj as they were in all the samples above examined. A few ounces of white clover may be added, if the owner pre- 316 GRASSES FOR THE LAWN fors, but it is by no means very important. EiuHi one of thcao tAvo or tlireo kinds of plants will appear to cover the ground all over, so it will look uniform. To the farmer who is accustomed to sow coarse seeds for a meadow or pasture the above quantity of seeds appears to be enormous. But the aim is to secure many very fine stalks in- stead of a few large coarse ones. If a little sweet vernal and a little perennial rye grass are used a careful observer, at certain seasons of the year, will see that the lawn looks "patchy." Especially in early spring, or in very dry Aveathcr, some of these and others often recommended, will grow faster than the rest and assume different shades of green. For a lawn never use any Timothy, orchard grass, tall oat grass, red clover, meadow fescue or other large grass or clo- ver, but only the finest perennial grasses or clovers. Sow the seeds in September or in March or Ajjril, without any " sprink- ling " of oats or wheat, and as soon as the grasses get up a little and the straggling weeds get up still higher, mow them, and keep mowing every week or two all summer. Avoid purchasing mixtures advertised in seed catalogues, as it will be much cheaper and safer to buy each sort separately, and only one or two or three sorts are desirable. The rarer grasses are mostly imported, and up to the i)resent time, as was said, have been found to possess very low vitality; besides, bad for- eign weeds are very commonly mixed with these grass seeds. There are good reasons, then, for buying common sorts, and, if possible, those raised and cleaned in a careful manner. James Hunter, of England, in his manual of grasses, says: " Careful analysis of the mixed lawn grass seeds sold by some large seed houses at high prices prove them to consist of from 40 to 50 per cent, of rye grass, whereas not a single seed of rye grass should be included in any mixture for producing a lawn." The Royal Agricultural Society of England employs a con- ORNAMENTAL GRASSES. 817 suiting Imtanist, Wm. Caruthers, who, for small fees, tests tlio t^eoils for its members. lie finds it best to avoid purchasing mixtures for lawn, pasture or meadow. The editor of the Gard)H'r\s Afo/if/ily echoes the sentiments of our best judges in this matter when he advises for lawn to sow June grass or red top either one alone or both mixed. E. S. Carman, one of the editors of the Rural Now York-ev, and manager of a fine liomestead and an experimental farm, writes: "Thirteen years ago we sowed on different parts of an acre of lawn blue grass, red top, Rhode Island bent and the *lawn mixtures' sold by seedsmen. To-day the red top presents the finest and brightest appearance, while the hiwn mixture' portion has since been re sown with red top and blue grass." In conclusion, if not so already, make the soil strong, drain thoroughly, deeply pulverize, harrow and hand-rake the surface carefully. In early spring, or in early autumn if not dry, koav, without any wheat or oats, three or four bushels to the aero of June grass or red top, either one or a mixture of both in any proportion. Oriiaiiiental Grasses. — Although grasses rank among tlie lowest of the flowering plants, and very few have anything like gaily colored blossoms, yet no order possesses plants which sur- pass some of them in grace and elegance. For beauty, grasses rely mainly upon their forms and pleasing shades of green color. A few have brilliant colored anthers, or their spikelets are cov- ered with white hairs. From simple, rigid heads or spikes to the most graceful of delicate, drooping panicles there are all grrdes of pleasing forms. We have considered the surpassing beauty of a green velve^^ lawn, but who can fail to admire the glory of the meadow or the pasture on the plain or the hill-side spotted with fat cattle or "bunchy" sheep? There is much to admire when grasses are crowded together in 318 ORNAMENTAL GRASSES. large musses, wlietlier they lire kept closely sliorii or cropped, or whether they grow to uniform height aiul are viewed at various stages of their growth as the clouds drift over the lields or "thev wave their fairv tassels in the wind." Occasionally, near springs and streams, the frost deposits on the panicles u covering which is indescribably beautiful. Within a few years, florists have given considerable attention to the grasses for winter bouquets and for other decorative pur- poses. Our enterprising growers and dealers offer tlie seeds of quite a long list of the best for these purposes. In one other respect the grasses have not yet begun to assume the prominence their merits demand. The writer lias grown a large number of our native and foreign grasses, and has studied them where each kind grew by itself in isolated bunches or patches, and he is free to say that in no other place does a grass appear to better advantage. Here is an almost endless variety, as exhibited in form, texture and color of the leaves. The culms also, and the spikes, racemes or panicles reveal their pe- culiarities in a manner which is most varied and pleasing. Such bunches of many kinds of grasses are well worthy of a place among the ornamental plats of our lawns and gardens. Where so many are fine it is difficult to discriminate. Those advertised by the florists are all good, including those with striped leaves. Mays, sugar cane. Sorghum, bamboo, Arnndo donax, Zizatiia aquaticti, Phvayttiitcs communis, and other tall species with broad leaves are valuable for the sub-tropical garden. The two latter are excellent for growing in the shallow margins of ponds. For plumes and bouquets the following are much used, for accounts of which consult the text elsewhere : Briza maxima, B. media, B. gi'acilis, Bromus asjter, Lagurus ovatus, Polypogon monspeliensis, Dcschampsia ea?sj)ifosa, Pliragmites communis, many species of Festucu, EJymus arenarius, Agrostis elgans, A. nebu- OUN'AMKNTAL GRASSES. 810 lona, A. scabra, PdHirinn rajii/ldtr, /'. rirr/ti/nni, Pcmiiscfutn lotif/isfyhnii, AsjnrUd liyslrix, Eriatithux nnriitup, Coix hfr/iri/ina, Gynfriinn nrgvittcuni, Aninilo conitpintd, f'hJorix nididta, Slijni pvinidtd, /fdnicuni julidtum. There is sctircoly a genus of grasses of any size whicij (l<»es not possess one or more species of special value for ornamental i)ur- jioses. To the botanist, the artist or the llorist it is hardly nee- essary to mention the following genem, viz: Pdninini, Svtdria, SpartiiKt, Aiifii'opof/())i, l^lidhiris, AJojiprdnts, J*/iIfuni, .]filidni, Mdlileii /)(•/'[/ id, Holed s, Arviid, ('ij)iikI(hi, lioutclddd, Elrdsinv, Ediohia, (frdjihi'j)Iiord))/, Ei'df/rdsfis, Jfrlim, Pod, (iJyrci'id, /V.v- fdcd, Bt'omun, Ehjidds, Triticuid, LohtiDi, and many others. We hardly know where to stop giving names for this jiurpose. With reference to collecting and the use of grasses, A. llassard in TIic Gdi'den for 18T5 has the following: *'Xot even the most delicate fern will jrive the same airv look to a vase of flowers that a few spikes of wild grasses will impart. In cutting grasses for use thev must be selected before thev are old enoui; » , ,, fr.l.'iifdurinK the (lay; />, leaf of the Icat stalK. aslei'p at niglit.— (Darwin.) Experiments show that leaves kept open or spread apart con- tain more dew in the morning, and hence heconie cooler than those Avhich approach each other. The leaves crowd together, or "sleep," for the same purpose that pigs crowd together in cold weather, viz: to keep warm. It has been found that the leaves which sleep do not rcnuiin quiet during the night, but continue, without exception, to move during the whole twenty- fotir hours. All non-sleeping leaves are also in incessant nuitioii, circumnutating. The sleep of plants is a mene modified form of this universal circumnutation. A LITTI.K AORK'tTLTURAL CHEMISTRY. 320 l)uriii{^ ii wurui, dry day Icuvi'S also assuiiu; tliu Hlecjtiii^ i)o- Hitioii, wliicli aids in cht'oking evaporation. Tlu'ro an? moro " sleeping " ])lants among the Leguminosie tliaji are found in all (ttlier families jiut together. A Little Agricultural <'liLMuistr.v. — Of tlie thirteen elements neeossary for jjlant growth the farmer usually need take hut little r Ifaf -(Sudworth.) 44 346 TRIFOLIUM MEDIUM, ETC. iiiiil, Hiul is iidtiptod for penmnicut piisturo; the stems uro larger, more inclintd to Hpreud, the leallots are narrower jind often des- titute of a lifjfht Hpot, tlie Howers are bri<,'ht red and hirjier tlian in Trifolinin pralnis)', and form u loss eompact liead. The sanipk's found at tlie Agricultural College, and in many other places, show all grades of intermediate forms. These two species seem to he freely hybridized. At my request, my friend, A. V. (Hidden, of Paw Paw. Mich., has made numerous inquiries in reference to its value in his por- tion of the State, where it has been largely grown. L. ]i. fiawrenee, of Cass County, who owns a large prairie farm, has grown it for many years. lie considers it less hardy than the other species; it is more liable to "heave" in the spring, and often grows so rank as to kill itself I)y the burden of stalk on the surface. lie thinks the roots are smaller and that it feeds on the surface, and does not work in the subsoil like the other species. He formerly pastured this clover till the first of June, when he allowed it to ilower and seed, Avhich would often come otf early enough to plow for wheat. Kecently ho has run over the field with a mower, clipping the tops about tlio first of June, and allowing them to remain as a mulch, while the new growth forms seed. Yi. AVoodman, of Paw Paw, once sowed a field in equal divisions of the two kinds, and the mammoth clover furnished double the amount of feed for pasture, as compared with the other half of the field. The season Avas a dry one. Others report that it is bettor than the early kind for pastures in July and August. The notion prevails that the mammoth clover does not make as good hay as the other siiecies; it is often coarse and woody. Another point should not be overlooked. They all agree that the mammoth clover is much the most productive of seeds. As this is the case, wo may expect it will soon become more com- mon than it is at present. Farmers will select the large kind to TRIFOLIUM HYBRIDUM. ALSIKK CLOVEU. MT raise seeds to sell, and many tirncs this sued will llnally bo pur- chuHed by farmers and sown, 8U{)[>osing it to he the early or round leaved r(*d clover. In managing this plant, it should be understood that if left without pasturing or mowing in 8])ring there will only be a small crop of seed. Tltn'OMlM HYUUIDrM, 1-. ALSIKK ("LOVKK. Plant glabrous, ])orennial. Sfomx, branching, \-i ft. high, ascending, weak. Pcliolvs long; leallcts obovate or oblong, toothed. S/ipnh's rather long, nerves green. Ilvads about '^ in. diam., glo])ular, flowers pinkish, pedicellate, recurved after flow- ering; peduncles 2-4 in. Ckihjj' \s\\\ic, teeth green; i)od same as in white clover. Found in Europe, North Africa, West Asia; introduced into N. America. Its commoji name is derived from a parish in Sweden. In apiiearance it is so nearly intermediate between red and white clover that Linnaeus supposed it was a hybrid, and hence its specific name. It is not a hybrid. Alsike likes rather moist land, containing some clay. It is smootlier and more delicate than red clover, and the stems are Avoaker, so much so that it is quite likely to lodge. The stems renuiin green after seeding. It does not stand dry weather well, is apt to winter kill, the flowers continue for a long time and abound in nectar, which can be reached by honey bees. Alsike clover has a good reputation for pasture and is a favor- ite with bee-keepers. It frequently yields 3-8 bushels of seed to the acre, and these are only half the size of those of red clover, nence only about half as much seed is sown to the acre. This is produced from the first crop, though it is often pastured a while early in the season. It is two or three years coming to full size, and does best for pasture when sown with some stout grasses. The aftermath is very light. 348 TRIF9LIUM REPENS. WHITE CLOVER. Wlioii ripo it slid Is Ti.ore easily than red clover, and is more apt to waste, hence more care is needed in tlie harvesting. Trifoliiim rept^iis, L. Wliito or Dutch (1ov«r. — A smooth perennial; steins creei)iiig and rooting at the joints. S/ipnks small, narrow, accuminate; jx-fiolcs 2-4 in., laajkls obovate or oh(!ordatc, o])enrely toothed, often with a light mark towards tlu! base. Ifeiuh, or (dose umbels, 1 in. diam. ; peduiudes 3-8 in. Flowers white or rosy, i)edicels reflexed after flowering. J'diI 4-i] seeded. In pastures of Europe, liussian Asia, Africa, India, X. America, at the North. This is the Shamroctk of the modern Irish. Tim following, from Wm. Gorrie, gives a fair notion of its es- timate among the farmers of P]ngland : " Ft has long been al- most universally sown for pastures, but many consider its merits highly over-rated ; for although it makes a great display on fa- vorite soils, yet it is neither fattening nor oared for by stock when they have a suflicient (dioice of ])asturage. No attempt has been made to secure improved varieties." Below follows the opinion of Dr. S. A Knapp, of Iowa, who says: " It nourishes when the true grasses wither; it appears to defy equally poverty of soil, cold, excessive moisture or extreme drought. It is perennial, whiidi gives it a great advantage over red clover, and renders it an almost nec^essary 'ubstitute where close grazing is pract'(;ed. It is extremely hardy, and turns its s})rig)itly grecMi lea to the lingering snows of spring and stoutly resists the shar}) frosts of approaching winter. It resists drought with true clover stubbornness, and thrivi^s in the slough or upon the knoil with almost equal vigor. It furnishes a large amount of highly nutritive material. It has more protein and more fat tlian Hid (dover. In llesh-forming material it is lu^arly 20 per cent, ricdier than blue grass. The product is about eight tons of Fid. IJCJ. Trifoliuin liulirMuni, i>. (AlHike Olovcr,) a, imrt of a pluiit; c, a tlovver uu- larged.—(Suil worth.) Fia. 133. 850 TRIFOLIUM REPENS. Fia. 133.— :tW/(»(i«/(i »ej(B/i«, Jj. (VVhito ur liuU'li Oloviu',) ff, part of plant with t; young linad ; /. older liead where part of the flowers have turtieil down ; y, oUl liead where all the flowers have turned down.— (Sudworth.) TRIFOLIUM INCARNATUM. 861 green fodder to the acre upon rich prairie soil. The flower is excellent during most of the season, and the cattle eat it with avidity, except during the months of July and a portion of Au- gust. Almost the sole objection urged to white clover is its ef- fect on horses during the maturing of the seed." It makes them ''slobber." Its dwarf character makes it unfit for the scythe. If the soil is suitable it spreads so rapidly that very little seed is necessary. White clover is a fickle plant, coming and going with the va- rying seasons. It often burns out in hot weather. An old hard road, once abandoned, is likely to send up white clover in ad- vance of the grasses. It is a well known and highly prized bee plant, althougli the season is often a short one, especially if hot, dry weather comes on early. White clover is often sown with some of the finer grasses for lawns. Ti'ifolium incarnatuiii, L. Crimson or Italian Clover, French CIOYer. — A soft, erect, hairy annual 1-2 ft. high. Sti- pules broad, with short, broad leafy tips ; leaflefx broad, obovate, or nearly round. Heads 1-3 in., oblong or cylindrical. Fhirers I in. Calyx soft, hairy, teeth narrow, nearly ef|ual. P>'fah bright crimson or scarlet or a pale cream color. Found in south- ern Europe, and cultivated in France, Germany, Belgium. When in flower this is a beautiful plant. As it is an annual belonging to a warm climate, it does not seem so popular at the North as red clover. One writer, a farmer in Virginia, speaks higlily of crimson clo- ver to sow in autumn alone, or with Italian rye-grass, for cutting the next May. He says it is very productive, and is an excellent clover for one crop, or rather for one mowing, which should be taken early, as it becomes coarse and woody if allowed to mature. 353 MEDICAGO. After repeated trials on a small scale the writer thinks it of little or no value for Michigan. Prof. Gulley is of the same opinion in reference to Mississippi. More recently, this clover has met with much favor in New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and regions with like climate. It is £Owu in the fall and mowed or plowed under in May. MEDICAGO, L. MEDICK. Herbs with pinnately ;3-f oliolate leaves ; leaflets itsually toothed ; stipules adhering to the peliote. FJowns small, in short spikes, or loose heads, violet or yelloAV. rW///.^'-teeth 5, nearly equal, keel obtuse, shorter than the wings. Stamens diadelphous, the upper one free; anthers uniform. J^od small, with few seeds, very much curved, or spirally twisted, indehiscent, often spiny. Found in Europe, W. Asia, N. Africa, introduced into N. America. ]tt. sativa, L. Lucerne, Alfalfa, Purple Medick, Chilian Clover, French Clover, Spanish Trefoil.— An upright, deeply rooting, smooth perennial, 1-2.^ ft. high. Leaflcfs obovate-ob- long, toothed, tip notched. Flowers in a short dense raceme, blue or purple ; peduncles longer than the leaves. Fod ^ in. diam., spirally twisted. Origin not certainly known; now culti- vated in Southern Europe and America. The common French name is Lucerne ; the Spanish name for the same species is Alfalfa, a name which followed the plant into South America and thence to Mexico and California and the dry countries this side. It was known and prized by the Greeks and Romans 2,500 years ago, and was spoken of by Columella as the most valuable plant for fodder. To begin with, there are a few things which the inquirer should not fail to keep constantly in mind. Lucerne is *'a child of the sun; " likes a rich loam or sand with a deep porous sub- MEDICAGO SATIVA. LUCERNE. 353 Yta.lSi.-Medicaan mtira, L. (Lucerne, AlfalfuJ «, part of tlie top of a plant; h, flower enlarged ; c, yoims^ pods.— (Sudwortli.) 45 354 LUCERNE. ALFALFA. soil ; utterly refuses to thrive ou a compact clay subsoil, or in a hard bottom of any kind ; while young it is a weak plant and a poor fighter ; requires two or three years to become well " rooted " and established; it should be sown after settled weather has come in the spring, without another crop, on well prepared land. Sow in drills about eight inches apart, and hoe or cultivate once or more to keep the weeds and other plants in check. It is not often well worth while to use Alfalfa where the land is to be plowed up every three to five years. This plant is a perennial, and on suitable soil can be relied on to produce good crops for many years in succession. It stands dry weather admirably; is very nutritious; like other legumes, it is a collector of nitrogen. It must be mown when young and just beginning to flower, for the stems quickly become woody and rapidly deteriorate in value. This is a favorite for irrigated meadows and soiling, and is fre- quently cut three to eight times in the year, yielding enormous crops of valuable fodder for all kinds of live stock except in iso- lated jilaces. Alfalfa or Lucerne is not a favorite north of Ken- tucky. Perhaps it is because clovers and the grasses thrive so well, and these can be sown broadcast and are often started with another crop. Again, the farmer looks with distrust on a plant Avhich is so slow starting and needs weeding to keep it growing. Al- falfa endures extreme dry weather much better than the true clovers and grasses. This is easily accounted for, when we understand that the roots become Avoody, as large as a pipe stem to half an inch or more in diameter, and have been known to extend ten or twelve, or even twenty feet below the surface. An old, thick field of Lucerne is very difficult to turn over with the plow\ Those who have tried imported seed of Lucerne with i^jed of Alfalfa from California claim that plants of the latter will not endure the cold as Avell, but Avill stand heat and drought better. LUCERNE. ALFALFA. 355 FiftoiMi to twenty pounds, and e\on more, arc nsnally sown to tlio acre. Tloney bees seem to extract tlie honey witliout any trouble. Dr. II. 1*. Armsby states that '•Lucerne is even richer in jn-o- tein llian rod clover. l)iit it is inclined to a more rapid formatioji of woody Hl)er after the ilowers appear. It demands early cut- ting even more than clover. On account of its excess of 2)rotein it should be fed in connection with some fccding-stutr poor in ]»r()tein, such as roots or straAV, to realize the ])est effect."" ]\Ir. (iorric, of England, reports, that when properly maiuigcd the quantity of cattle which can be kept in good condition on an acre of Lucerne, during the whole season, exceeds belief. It Is no sooner mown than it j)ushes out fresh shoots. Prof. J. K. Page, of A'irginia. considers it one of the most cer- tain as well as on(^ of the best crops the farmer can cultivate for soiling purposes, lie finds no difficulty in getting a good stand and a ijrofitable I'eturn, ami recommends it very higlily. It is cured in the same way as clover. At the Agricultural College in Central Michigan, Lucerne, Avhen hoed and })roperly started for the llrst year has not killed out during severe winters, while it beats everything to endure pro- longed drought. It is not suitable to mix with clover, as the latter overtops and crowds the Lucerne. I can report no system- atic attempt in Michigan to establish, mow and feed crops of lucerne. June grass in early spring and late fall crowds it out. In 1883 Prof. E. M. Shelton, of Kansas, said : " We have no hesitation in saying that, all things considered, it is a most valu- able clover, especially for the western and soutlnvesteru sections of the state. Along the Arkansas river, M'herc irrigation is prac- ticed, it has proved a most invaluable forage plant. More ac- counts come to us of failure with Alfalfa than with any other clover or grass, and this is because of the difficulty in starting the plants and in selecting and preparing the soil pro])erly. It :356 LUCERNE. ALFALFA. must not bo sown with imothor crop, noithor mowed nor pastured during tlio first year. Tlie dangers wliicli tlireaten it most arc tlie common mole and poclvct-goplier ; tlie latter burrowing among and cutting the roots, has destroyed several acres on the college farm, "We have cut three and even four large (!rops froui the same ground in one season." Early in 1885 Prof. Shelton states in the Hiiral Xetn Yorker that Alfalfa has proved with us the most useful of all clovers for the purpose of pasturage. It endures uninjured, close cropping, all kinds of stock consume it greedily, and it has never winter killed. It requires much field room in curing, and soon spoils with light rains. For hog pastures I know of no other plant so vain able. Prof, A. E. Jilount reports for Colorado: "J, S., near the college, keeps large herds of sheep, some cattle, horses and hogs, AVhen fed on Alfalfa cattle grow faster ; cows give more and bet- ter milk; horses are more healthy and do more work with a fourth of the grain ; sheep nuike better mutton and lose less wool; and hogs fatten, almost ready for market, without any grain. He cuts his crops three times, averaging about two tons to the cutting. By letting the first crop grow until July he raises from 5 to 10 bushels of seed per acre." lie says he has samples four feet long, grown in thirty days. It does not s])read except by seeding. It is too tender to sow in the fall, but should be sown in spring after the frost has gone. Har- row it in with or without a crop. President Ingersoll, of the same place, told me that Alfalfa was the only forage plant that Avould grow at their place and keep green without irrigation. It is a favorite forage crop in iColorado and its cultivation is extending very rapidly. For "Mississippi and vicinity Prof. D. L. Phares considers Lu- <^erne very valuable. It sometimes gets two feet high by the middle of February. He knows some plots of it now in fine con- MEDICAOO LUPULINA— MEDICAOO MACULATA. 357 iin(l from .Iimo to October after tlu^ ^fediek luis seeded, M(Mlicai;o dHiitieiilata, Wilhl. Itiii'i'-Clovor. — Tliis iinnual niticli resembles the last and is often eonfonnded with it. 'I'lio })(»ils are loosely spiral and deeply retinnlated. A writer in the Anirrinnt. Ai/riruJ/ttrfsf for LsTS speaks liiixlily of the plant. Hnrr-Clover grows wild all over the j)lains and foot-hills, and atfords innch pasture. Even the burrs grow in su(di profnsion that tiiey aiford a good supply of dry ('oneenti-ateil food. They eolle(^t, by force of tlie wind, in the hollows of the ground. It is tenacious of life and will l)ear close feeding. MKLI LOTUS, TO V UX K KO It T. .\I IC I, I LOT. Annual or l)iennial, fragrant when bruised oi- in drying. Leaves ])innately |}-foliolate. nerves ending in leeth ; .-i/ip/ilrs slightly adhering to the petiole, often cut. Floirers small, yel- low or wliite, in long, loose axillary racemes. (!ahj.r-leelh o, nearly equal. Petals deciduous; keel shorter than the wings, obtuse. Antliet's uniform. Pod with one or few seeds, small, straight, thick, indehiscent. Plants abound in an etherial oil (cumarin) rendering them objectionable to stock. Warm 'ind temperate regions of the old world. Melilotus officinalis, Willd. Yellow Melilot, Sweet Clover. — This ;' ! aai annual or biennial with yellow llowers, apparently of little importance except for bees. Melilotus alba, Lam. Wliite Melilot, Bokara Clover, Sweet Clover. — An erect, branching, woody, annual or biennial 2-0 or 8 ft. high. Leaflets truncate. Flowers small, white, in long racemes. Pods black when ripe. FlO. VXy.—MiiU<'n{iii}uiiuHurovender ; pigs voraciously consume and prosper upon it. They may bo cut twice a year, and are much used for soiling. In quality they much resemble lucerne. At Lansing, Michigan, they make a weak growth, and will not en- dure the hot, dry weather. It is not improbable that some of our native vetches could be improved ami adapted to cultivation. Fisuili, L., Pea. — To this small genus of two species, belong the numerous races of cultivated tield and garden peas. They VIGNA. COW PEA. 3«3 tlirivo in cool, moist, temperate regions. Like other legumes, they draw much from the air and subsoil, and are most ex'cellent crops to alternate witii wheat and the true forage grasses. They like moist loamv soil, hut this should not be in the highest con- dition, else the plants "run too much to vines." at the expense of a good crop of seeds. From IMo 4 bushels of seed to the acre is sown Itroadcast or in drills, yielding 15 to 25 bushels of seed, which is a very nu- tritious food for swine and sheep. Tiie greatest enemies to this crop are the jiea weevil or ''bug" and mildew. Of "buggy" peas only about twenty-five per cent Avill tisually grow, and these produce feeble plants. Seed can be obtained from the North, where the bugs are not troublesome, and the young crop can be fed out bugs and all. The weevil can be killed when young, I)y i>utting the peas as soon as threshed in a tight box with some bisulphide of carbon. There is some difference in varieties, but hot, dry weather is quite sure to favor the development of mildew, which weakens and often prevents the growth of the plants or the jjroduction of a good crop of seeds. In favorable localities enough attention is not i>aid to this crop, both for feeding and to precede a crop of wiieat. VIGNA, U cow PEA. Calyx campanulate, lobes or teeth short, often obtuse, the two upper more or less united. The banner rounded, Avith inflexed appendages at the base ; the ivinr/s falcate-obovate adhering to the ket'I, which is incurved and often beaked, but not spiral. The odd stamen free from the banner. Anthers uniform. Ovary subsessile, many ovulcd ; style curved, barbed, or with u pencil of hairs below the terminal stigma. Pod shaped like a scymetar, falcate, or linear, compressed, 2-valved, often thickened 864 VIGNA. COW PEA. at the sutures ; valves flat or convex. Seeds thick or compressed, hiluni short or long, covered or naked. Plants herbaceous or shrubby, climbing, erect, or prostrate. Leares pinnate, 3-folio- late, stipellate. Sfipidcs small. Flowers violet, flesh colored, yellow or white. Solitary or clustered in the axilcs. About 20 si)ecies, found in the cooler parts of Africa, in Asia, Australia, and America. TisrnaCotjang Walp, L. Cow Pea, BiiMh Pea, Chinese Pea. Leaflets vary much in shape, and are oval, broadly ovoid, or rhomboid. Flowers few at the end of the peduncle. Pods 3-8 in. long, mostly straight, 2, 3, or 4 to a stalk. Seeds black, white, red, cream colored, purple, or spotted. The stylo of foliage, absence of tendrils, shape of seed, and the raising of the seed leaves above the ground in germination, all indicate that it is more nearly related to the bean than the common pea. It has been cultivated in China from remote antiquity, and is a favorite forage crop in the Southern States, where it takes the place of red clover at the Xorth. There are many varieties in cultivation which differ much in foliage, size of i)lant, size, color and shape and yield of seeds. Some are (juite bushy and spread into a tangled mass. Even in Central Michigan some of these peas make a rank growth, completely covering the ground two feet and a half high. At the Xorth, horses refuse to eat it, but at the South, prob- ably from "education," all grazing domestic animals are very fond of cow peas, either fresh or dried. The following notes are mainly gleaned from an article by P. J. Bcrckmans, of Georgia, as found in the American Af/ricuUu- mVfor 1876: Almost any land will grow the cow pea, though the "Clay," "Red" and "Black" succeed better on poor land than the "Liidy" or "Crowder" varieties. Spring crops are sown in April, and fall crops after taking off VIGNA. COW PEA. 365 wheat or oats. From four to six j)ecks jior aero are sown l>roa(l- cast, the larger amount on poor soil. On good soils two crops of forage are often cut from one sowing, provided the season be favorable. The crop is sometimes plowed under. As with young clover, so plaster is sown on cow peas. All the plain or semi-colored varieties are of a spreading na- ture and are best suited for forage. The " Red," •* Clay " and "Black," of the plain kinds, and the " Whippoorwill," of the semi-colored, are most esteemed. The "lied Ripper," or "Tory" may be sown in fall if preferred. The speckled varieties are usually bushy in growth, and unlit for forage. They are raised for market and the table. The "Lady Pea" and "White Table" are used for culinary purposes, sometimes for snaps, or shelled in the green state; when dry they are very desirable for soup, or they may be baked the same as the white bean. The vines are fit to cut for fodder when the pods begin to turn yellow. The vines often lodge badly, and are usually cut with a scythe. A few grains of corn mixed in with the seed L'ives some stalks for su2)port. The main difficulty in curing pea hay is to retain the leaves on the stalks; to ensure which they must be handled very little. The wilted vines may be loosely piled and remain so for two or three weeks till cured and ready for storing. On good land, and good culture, two tons of forage per acre may be expected, and sometimes two cuttings in a year, with a yield of two tons at each cutting. The yield of seed varies from 30 to 40 bushels per acre, or more commonly 10 bushels. The latter is likely to be the yield when sown in rows in corn fields. For feeding stock, well cured cow pea hay is more nutritious than any hay produced from grasses, millet, or other plants. When the pods are left until they are filled the value of the food is much increased. When fed upon such fodder, horses ;}66 LESPEDEZii SfRlATA. JAPAN CLOVER. and mules should receive less corn <»r oats than when fed on any other j>rovender. In some parts of the country the peas are often troubled with ]»ea weevil or "bug." To i)revent this Prof. Phares lets them remain in the pod till ready to use, or when dry, then thresh them and mix with road dust. With referenc(( to the cow pea for Mississippi. I'rofessor Oul- loy reports as follows: " For hay and for ])lowing in to fertilize the land, we sow broadcast a bushel to a bushel and a half to the acre, harrow in and cut with a mower as we would clover. lilack and red peas make 'iiore vines and will stand wet weather with- out rotting, when speckled peas will be entirely si)oiled. I sow the black and red exclusively, cut for hay, feed olf with stock or leave them to rot on the ground for manure. For seed we sow in drills and cultivate once or twice. IVas are a slow cro}) to gather, as they do not ripen evenly. J consider this crop one of the most valuable for hay or ensilage or for restoring the fer- tility of the soil. It stands first." Lespedeza striata, Japan Clover.— This is a low annual herl), with small trifoliolatc leaves and very small flowers, })ro- ducing a small, llattish, indehiscent one-seeded i)od. The seeds to this were accidentally brought to South Carolina about lS4n, probably in connection with importations of tea from China. It has spread continually and <{uite ra})idly over the South, and has (piite tenaciously held its own, even crowding liermuda grass. 1'he writer knows little t)f this i)lant, and ventures to quote some very conllicting opinions as to Us value. Several writers speak of it as very suitable for poor soils for grazing in dry, hot weather. The stems s{)read close to the ground, seldom grow- ing over a foot high. It is quite firm and hard, and at lirst not a favorite with stock. They learn to eat and thrive on it be- cause of its nutritive qualities, which chemical analysis makes Fia. lift.—Leapedeza utriata. (Japan Clover.) Part of a plant.— (U. S. Agrl. Kept.) Fio. 137. 368 LESI'EDEZA STRIATA. JAPAN CLOVER. fjiiiti! roninrkuble. Tlio plant frooly jirodiicos small soedH, and it is hard to exterminate. Henry Stewart, in the Couutrj Gentleman for January, 1880, 8ay.s: "I assert emphatically that unless eattle and jjigs are starved to it, tiiey Mill not eat the Japan clover, or any kind of Lvspedeza. A good deal has been written in favor of this plant. In a few places it nuiy be of some service. This statement is given to prevent your readers from being fooled into buying the seed and trying to grow it in any place north of Virginia." Prof. '/. A. Ciulley, of Mississippi, says: "For the South, Japan clover is, without exception, the most rahutt/le plant that grows. After once started it grows spontaneously, except on lime land. It keeps hills fiom washing, even coming in to fill the 'washes.' " It can be killed by plowing for one year. On good land it grows from l-i to 24 inches high, cuts a good crop of hay, equal to first-class Timothy. For pasture from May 15th to the first frost it is as good as anything we have except Bermuda grass aJid equal to the best pastures at the North. It will grow when blue grass and the clovers fail entirely. It stands dry weather admirably, and on some soils will even choke out Bermuda. It is our princii)al pasture during summer." Prickly or common Comfrey, Borage, and numerous other plants, have been occasionally highly recommended as excellent forage plants, but they have not won very general favor. It is very probable, especially for the South and the dryer portions of our country, that we shall yet find some new forage plants which will in some respects surpass any that we now cul- tivate. MICE AND SUUEWS— MOLES— GOPUEUS—WOODCIIUCKS. ;W9 CHAPTER XVI. THE ENEMIES OF GRASSES AND CLOVERS. Mice and Shrews. — Thoso siiiull uuiinuls often damago jiicad- owrt 1)}' I'atiiig rtoiiie of tho stems and larger roots of grasses and clovers, especially the tliiekened portions stored with starch near the surface of the ground. Tliey could ])e trajjped if too trouble- some, or caught hy cats and dogs, but it has been shown that they are not an unmixed evil, as they build nests of old stems and leaves, whidi, when deserted, are the favorite abodes of bumblo bees; and these should be encouraged, because they lielp fertilize the flowers of red clover, and thus increase the yield of seeds, which are very valuable. Moles. — In permanent pastures or meadows where the land is dry and sandy, moles sometimes become very troublesome, rais- ing large numbers of unsightly mounds, which are a great an- noyance to the mowers. Xo doubt the moles eat some Avorms, largo numbers of white grubs and other insects, some of which feed on the roots of grasses and clovers, but we know from ex- periments that moles will eat vegetation in considerable quan- tities. We should rather run the risk of dispensing M'ith the services of the moles, but the writer is sorry to say that ho thinks this kind of game is not often easily caught. Whoro fields are plowed, and a rotation of crops is followed, moles are seldom troublesome. Pocket Gophers. — With these diggers the writer has had no experience, but from all accounts, they will often do a good deal of damage. Their burrows are a great nuisance, to say nothing of the grass and clover which they devour or tread under foot. Woodchucks. — These large rodents are often very trouble- some to the farmer who owns dry, sandy, or gravelly land. They 47 870 INSECTR. (li^ loii^ liolt's, raiso piUvs (if dirt, dovoiir ami triiinp down hirgo ))iitolu's of uioadow. They cjiii iisiwilly bo caujrlit (|iiito easily in steel traps; they eun be shot if one lias the jiatienci' to watoh for them. Where the grotmd is not too hij,'h and dry and a good siii)i)ly of water handy, by taking advantage of u wet time when the soil is full of moistn:e, they can often be drowned out and made to eonie to the surface, where they make si)ort for the dog. To help make the je > a success, before beginning, draw several Itarrels of water and pour them in (piiek succession down the hole. Saturate rags with bisulphide of carbon and put in tlie holes. Insects. — The rest of this chapter is prepared for this volume bv mv colleague, Prof. A. J. Cook. It is generally supposed, even by those l>est informed and most interested, that our forage plants, including clovers and grasses, are comparatively free from the devastation of insect jiests. While our fruits, vegetables and grains are known to be tunneled or devoured at the root, girdled or fed upon at stem and foliage, and blasted in the fruit, the same is not generally supposed to be as true of the j'hmts which give value to our i)astures and meadows. AVhile Harris and Fitch give account of uumy in- sects which i)rey ujion nearly all others of our cultivated plants, very few are mentioned that attack our grasses and clovers, even by these great scientists and wonderful observers. ^Ir. J. Stan- ton Gould, in his Forage Crops, knows only four insects which attack the clovers, while at that time over seventy were known to attack the apple. This is not because such enemies do not exist, but rather because the i)lants fed upon are so abundant that even great damage is either not noticed or else is supposed to bo due to drought or other climatic disturbance, or forsooth to tiie "running out" of the crop. The very nature of our grasses anil clovers conceals insect ravages, and thus the harm must become very patent or it will generally be all unobserved. At present over seventy different species of insects are known INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER. m to attack the clover, and nearly or quite as many draw their sns- tenaneo fntni our {grasses. It is not probalde that all this in- crease is due to more close stuilyaiid observation. Insects are (!onstantly leaving our wilil plants, either from choice or ncces- sity, and adopting iia aii<;i>liacha rubi Iliihii. Gastropaclia trifolii lliihu. Cjillimo'Milia liora Linn. LiisiocaMipii trifolii. .Linn, Ortliosia litura. Ili'thn. Ortliosia {gracilis Ili'ihn. Plusia gainina Ili'ibn. Maiiit'stra pisi .IliUm. SlaiiK'stra chenopoilii lli'ibn. Manustra suasa - Esj), Agrotis coincH Ili'ibn, EpisL'ina graininis Linn. Euclidia glyphica Ili'ibv. Euclidia mi Ili'ibn. Ilcniiinia crinalis Treits. Boariuia Hclciiaria Ili'ibn, Fidoiiia flatlirata Linn. Ortholitha hipunctaria 01'TKKA. Callidryas Cuvale Linti. Colias ( 'ii'sonia Stall. Colias Eurytheine- Boisd. ColiiUi I'liilodice Godt. Terias Nicipi)e- Cra ni. Terias Lisa lioisd-Lec. Terias Delia Cram. Melita'a Editha lioisd. ^Chrysophaiius Americana. . .D' Urb. iLyciena Corny iitas Godt. lEudamus Pylades JScudd. Hyphantria textor ■. Harr. Arctia Phalerata Harr. Arctia Acliaia Gr.-Rob, Pyrrliarotia lHal)ella Sm.-Abb. Hyperchiria lo Sm.-Abb, Agrotis saucia. .Ili'ibn. Mam 'stra trifolii Ehjj. Mamestra renigera Steph. Mamestra (Ceranuea) picta. ..Harr. Leucania uiiipum;ta Haiv, Prodenia commelinaj Sm.-Abb, Drasteria erechtea Cram. Hyi)€na scabra Fabr, Aspilates dissimilaria Ilixbn, Asopia costalis Fabr. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER. 878 LKI'IDOI'TKKA — ('ONTIXrKI). Asopia olinaliH Gucii. Asopia farlnalis Linn. Tetnilopha N. sp Plu)xoj)teris ariKulifaxciana ZeU. COLEOI'TKUA. Ilylastcs trifolii Mi'iller. (liiirva in roots Loiiguria Mozardi Ftthv. (Ljirva in stem.) Graphorrhiiuis vailosus '*>'"//. (Imago on leaves.) Tortri.\ inc«'rtana Clcni. Anaphora agrotipennella CJcm. (Jelecliia rosoosnlTuHella Clem, I)IPTJ;KA. Ce(!i(lomyia leguminit-ola Lintn. (liarva on seeds.) ( Jecidomyia trifolii Loew. (Larva on leaves.) Oscinis trifolii. Bniyenn. (Larva on stem.) OUTHOI'TKUA. — (aI-L ON' LP^AVKS.) Caloi)tenus feiimr-rubruni.-/A; Geer. Cal(Ji)tenus spretus Thouiun. Calopteims dilTerentialis. ..?7iom«.s. ( -aloi)tenns hi vittatus '*>'.,) Clemens, Proc. A. N. S. Ph. 1860, p. 200. Diehelia Bulfureana. (C/e/H.) Comstock Report Comm. Agr. 1880, p. 25.'5. Amphisa discopunctana, (Clem.) Comstock Rei>ort Comm. Agr. 1H80, p. 258. Platynota flavedana, (Clem.) Comstock Report Comuu Agr. 1880, p. 257. Sericoris instrutana, (Clem.) Comstock Report Comm. Agr. 1880, p. 258. Grapholitha interstinctaua, (Clem.) Comstock Report Comm. Agr. 1880, p. 254. 874 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER. COLEOPTEUA. Laclinosterna serricornis, Le Coufc, Webster Am. Nat., XVI., p. 746. Colaspis briiimea. Fab., Webster Am. Nat.. XVI., p. 74fi. Diabroticta lojiKifornis, {S!, 23. Diabrotiea 12-pum'tata, (Olir.) Forbes" Vhh Ke;>t. Ins. 111., jt. 104. Tenebrio Molltor, Fitch, Fitch Trans. N. Y. 8t. Ag, Sot., XIII., p. 376» Macrobasis unieolor, (A7r?j//) Webster Am. Nat . XVI., p. 740. Epica'rus inii)rieatus, {San) Webster Am. Nat., p. 74(5. Sitones lineellus, {Gyllt'iihal) Euroj)ean authors. Sitones flavescens. (Marsh) European autliors, (Kalt et al.). Phytonomus punetatus, (Fab.) Riley Am. Nat. XV., i>. 75(>. IIKMII'TKKA. Poecilocapsus lineatus, (Fab.) Lintner 1st Rep., N. Y. St. Ent., p. 277. Limothrips tritici, (Fitch) Lintner 1st and 2tl Repts. Ins. N. Y., p. 304. XKl'KOl'TKUA. Smynthurus hortensis, (Fitch) Fiteb Cth-Oth Repts. Ins. N. Y., p. 189. Smynthurus arvalis, (Fitch) Fitch Gth-9th Repts. Ins. N. Y., p. 191. The following species are iiientiouod by Prof. S. A. Forbes in Entomological Report of Illinois, Vol. 14. pp. T3-T4: LEPIDOPTERA. Cymatophora crepiiscularia, Tr. \ Tortrix pallorana Robs. Hajmatopis grataria. .Fab. \ Hyjiena scabra Fabr. Cacaecia rosaceana Han: ! IIOMOPTERA. Coccus trifolii Forltes. ACARINA — MITES. Brj-obia pratensis Gartnan. \ Bryobia pallida .Gamian. To these I would add two other eoccids which I have observed on clover. Pulvinaria innumerabilis Rath. \ Lecanium tiliae Fitch. Strecker in his catalogue of N. A. Mac. Lipidoptera gives Me- ganastoma cnesonia, Stroll as feeding on clover. While in Rep. Comni. Ag. 18G3, p. 573, and in 1865, p. 40, Epica? fallax is mentioned as a clover enemy. HYLASTES TRIFOLII. CLOVER-ROOT BORER. 375 It is more than probable that others of the butterflies, es- pecially of the genera Colias, Melitaea and Lyca^na, will be found upon further investigation to feed upon our olover; while it is not at all probable that the fourteen species of beetles named in the list comprises all the enemies of the clover belonging to that order. There is but little doubt that the list will be doubled. Of the Orthoptera (Locusts) but five are named, and they all of the genus Caloptenus. It is quite certain that all of our many species of that genus, and nearly all others, may be justly in- cluded in the list. Only one unnamed species of Thrips is men- tioned. The past season I have found three species, one black, one light yellow, and one bright red, all to be very abundant on the clover blossoms, vet I could not see that thev were greatlv injurious. Many of the insects named in the above list feed more gen- erally on other plants. Mamestra picta prefers the cabbage, Ileliothis armiger feeds on the corn and cotton, Leucauia uni- puncta — the army worm — on oats and the grasses, so that for the most part they are not serious enemies to our most valuable forage plant. One of the insects named in the list, Asopia cos- talis, feeds on the dry clover, either in the stack or mow, where it often does very great injury. As our space will not permit a detailed description of all of the above only those whose mischief is so considerable as to cre- ate concern for the future of one of our most valued farm cro])s will be described. These work on the roots, foliage, and seed, and will be described in that order. Hylastes trifolii, Clover-root Borer. Order Coleopfera. FdDiibj Scoli/tkla'. MiilU'r, Mem. Soc. Dep. Alt. Tonerre I., pp. 47-64. 1807. Sc'hmitt, Stett Ent. Zeit. V.. pp. ;{S«>-;5!)7, 1H44. Lintiier, Ann. Rep. N. Y. St. Agr. Soc, 1H7U. pp. 41-4-,'. 111. LintniT. K.-p. N. Y. Ag. Soc, 18S2, p. 19:5, 111. Rik'v. Ann. Rep. Comiii. Agr. 1878, pp. :i48-^'r)(). 111. RiU'V. Am. Eiitomol.. Vol. III., p. 180, 18H0, 111. Saunders. Out. En. Rep., Vol. XII., p. 43, 1881, 111. 876 HYLESINUS TRIFOLII. CLOVER ROOT BORER. This insect has long hccn known u-s a not very common insect of Germany in Europe. Miiller, us shown by the name, re- gartled it as an enemy of tlie clover, while Schmitt tliought that it attacked sucli plants as were already enfeebled, and was not a serious injury. In 1878 the beetle attacked this valuable plant in northwestern New York, and the fact that it injured very se- riously the clover of that region proves tliat Miiller was correct and Schmi't wrong. Prof. Kiley investigated the habits of the insect, which he found very destructive to the clover in Yates, Ontario and Seneca counties. He described it under the name Ilylesinus trifolii, or Clover-root liorer, and pointed out the fact that it is much like one of our common bark beetles, Ilylesinus opaculus Lee, which is often found just under th bark of ash and elm trees. While much like the elm bark beetle, it is not only a different species, but is placed in a different genus, — Hylastes by Leconte and Horn, and by European Coleopterists. The family to which it belongs, Sco- lytidiv, is represented by numerous species, usually called bark beetles, as they tunnel and sculpture various evergreen and deciduous trees just beneath the bark. It is often stated that they attack enfeebled trees, yet I have often found them indus- trious and thriving on trees which were in full strength and vigor. The insect is well rei)resented in Fig. 138, (I showing the aifeoted plant, J the grub or larva, c the pupa, and d the beetle or inuigo. The eggs are ^ ,.,„ whitish oval, the larva white, with Fio. 138. ' yellow head. The length of larva is 3 m m (.l*^ of an inch) in HYLESINUS TRIFOLII. CLOVER ROOT liORER. 377 length. The pupa IS 2.2 m m.long iiiid luis two spinous projoe- tions on the top of the liead, and two sinaMor iiiial proji'ftions. Tlu' imago is hlack, with brown punctured elytra. It is "J ni ni (.08 of an incli) i )ng. The beetle hibernates, usually as an imasro, but also as a )ni))a or larva. Mating occurs in early spring, when the female bores into the crown of the plant and deposits live or six eggs. When these luitch the larva feeds at first in the opening formed by the imago for her eggs, but soon works downward forming tunnels lengthwise of the main roots, which entirely destroys the plant. In September many pupae will be found in the ujiper jtart of the galleries. The beetle has bcoome the worst enemy to the clover that we have. It has already shown its destructive work in nearly every clover jiroducing section between the Atlantic and Pacific. Surely such enterprise as would carry the insect from Europe to America can hardly be expected to jjcrmit it to remain stationary on this continent. The fact that it has no parasites, as yet discovered, to weaken its efforts or reduce its numbers, not only accounts for its exceeding numbers in this countrj" as compared with Eu- rope, but also gives 2)rophecy of wide extension and serious rav- ages in the future. It is difiiicult to suggest satisfactory remedies for insects which are so numerous and scattered as are these beetles. It is jirob- able, in fact the experience in New York already h'optera: Faiiiili/ Krotiflidd'. Latrcille, CJeii. Crust, vt Iiis. III., p. G«. 1807. Say, Am. Entomology. III., 1S.28, 111. Lanmrck, An. sans vert., deux. edit. IV., p. 486, 1835. Melsheiiner, Cat. C'<>leoi». U. S., ]t. 47, 18r);{. LeConte, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. VII.. p. Ifil. 1854. Oliver, Eiitoniol. V. p. 404, 111. Crotch, Trans. Am. Eut. Soc. IV. p. !55(l, 1873. I^ Ivu-on. 4th Ann. Roi)t. Ins. III. p. 181, 1874. Comstock, Ann. Ropt. Comm. Ag. 18751, p. 199, 111. 1880. Saunders, Ont. En. Rep. Vol. XII. p. 44, 1881, 111. Lintner, Ann. Rei). N. Y. Ag. Soc, 1882, p. 196, 111. The clover-stem borer, though not very common, is widely distributed throughout the country. It is found in Michigan, Canada, Xcw York, and soutli to Wasliington and west to Kan- sas. Indeed it is mentioned as far south as Louisiana. Prof. J. II. Comstock was the first to discover and describe its full life history. Though not as yet known to be a serious i)est, from its wide distribution we mav suggest that it does more harm than is suspected, as a great many plants in a clover tield could be de- stroyed and yet not be missed. Even though not as yet alarm- ingly injurious we cannot tell wlien it may become so. In its CLOVER STEM BORER. 379 distribution the seeds of luisehiot' iire wide seiittered, uo knowinj; when they may germinate. Fig. i;}l» shows tlie eggs, hirvi>, pupa and imago of the insect as well as the natural size of eggs and the larva — the latter as it appears in the hollowed stem of the clover. The eggs are yellow, curved, * * fjg. 139. and 1.7 m m (about 1-lU of an inch) long. The larva', like wire worms and many other grubs, are slim, with the three pair of jointed legs well developed, and u pair of anal pro-legs. When full grown the yellow larva is 8 m m (a little more than .3 of an inch) long. Like the pupa it has two plainly nuirked anal sjiines. The impa is also yellow and slender, and O m m long. I find Say's description of the imago, as usual, very exact : "it is slen- der, cylindrical; the dark red antenna' gradually form a club of five joints. The palpi are thread-like; the maiulibles ])ifid at tip; the maxillae have horny teeth. The thorax is yellowish- red, smooth and unspotted. The elytra are bluish-black, with a green tinge, marked with deeply impressed punctures, arranged in regular series, but without impressed strije. The thighs are pale rufous at base; the tibia' have a slight rufous tinge; the tarsi are dotted with dense hairs beneath the three basal joints, the 3d being bilobate." The venter has the three posterior joints black. The length of the beetle is about T m m (| of an inch). The female lays the eggs in June, piercing the stem witli her jaws, and pushing her eggs clear in to the pith, often, says Prof. Comstock, to a depth of (> m m. The larva' feed ui>ou the pith downward, forming a burrow 15 c m (0 inches) long. Tliis greatly injures if it does not kill the jilant outriglit. The pupa is formed at the bottom of the burrow in August, and shortly 880 CLOVER LEAF BEETLE. iiftor the fully developed beetles begin to iippear. They arc r,een to emerge from the hollowed stems ironi August to O(!tobero There is only one brood a year. Like many of our noxious beetles, the imago hibernates and waits for the vigorous plants of genial June before dropping her precious burden of eggs. If this pest promises to do any serious harm we have only to cut the clover early in July, when we shall save the crop, and probably destroy the insects. This would give chance for a sec- ond crop of hay or fine pasture or crop of seed from the same plants. It is a weU'ome fact that Prof Comstock fonnd two parasites working on these beetles, in such abundance that we nnderstand why the latter are no more numerous and destructive. One a f'halcid and the other an Ichnenmon fly. Pliytoiioiinis piiiietatiis, Fabr., Clover Leaf Beetle. Order Coleopiera. Famihj Curculionida'. Le Cento, Rhym'oi)liora. p. 1'24, 1H,").'5. Riley, Am. Naturalist, Vol. XV., p. 912, Nov., 1881, 111. Riley, Rep. Conim. Ag. 1HS1-S2, p. 171, 111. Kilnian, loth Rep. Ont. En. Soe., 1884, p. 33. This, like many of our most destructive insects, is an im- ported species. It is a common insect in Germany, and has probably been in tliis country for years, as Dr. LeConte received it from Canada in 1853, when he described it as Pliy. opimus. As it does not exist in collections of American Calcoptcrists, it is possible that the insect described by Dr. LeContc by mistake Avas reported as Canadian, it really being itself foreign. In 1881 a serious invasion of AVestern New York, Yates county, was ex- perienced, when Dr. liiley, of the Agricultural Department, in- vestigated and gave a detailed description of the species, in- cluding its work and habits. It is wortliy of renuirk that Phy- tonomus uigrirostris, also imported, exists in the United States, and doubtless works as a larva on the clover, as it is known to do in Europe. I have taken this species in considerable num- bers along on our Western Michigan lake shore. CLOVER LEAF BEETLE. 881 Dr. Riley record? this insect as very destructive in Xcw York in 1881, and again in 1882. Mr. A. II. Kilnian, of Ontario, re- ports this same weevil at Kidgeway, in that province. He says they were wafted across the lake by a strong Augnst wind. He says that Eastern New York was desolated by the insect in is.s;j, but that the insect in that year proceeded no further west than Rochester. August 10, 1884, they were so abundant in UulTalo that they could be gathered by the quart, and thousands were crushed by persons walking on the pavement. As entomologists know, these weevils are armor j»r. of against water, we can easily see how this destructive insect can be easily and quiekly distributed along the shores of the northern lakes, and thus soon become a widely known and greatly dreaded })est. Fig. 140. Fig. 140 gives a good idea of the insect and its work ; a, ft^% : hbbh, larvw; e, recently hatched larva; d, head of larva; c. CLOVER LEAF BEETLE. jawa; /, cocoon; //, meshes of cocoon; h, pupa; /, weevil nat- iinil size; y, side vieAv; k, dorsal view; I, tarsus and claws of beetle ; ;//, antenna. The egj]fs are oblong, oval, yellow, 1mm (1-25 of an inch) long. The larva is yellowish at tirst, but becomes greenish-yel- low with age. There is a pale rose colored dorsal line. The body is rough, length 14 m m (.05 inch). The puj)a is well shown in figure and is greenish with yellow markings. It pu- pates in an oval yellow cocoon of coarse threads. The imago is dark brown ; sides of thorax and elytra dull yel- low, with a central yellow line on the thorax. Tiiere are rows of black raised points along the inner half of the elytra, witii similar dashes of muddy yellow towards the tips. The beetle is 1 c m {'l-h of an inch) long. The female lays her 200 or .300 eggs in the clover stem, which she punctures for that ])urpose, in August. Dr. lliley says the eggs are pushed into crevices at the base of the plants. The larva usually drops when approached, so that only very young ones can be found on the plants. The anus is said to aid in walking, as it emits a sticky substance, and can hold or grasp the stem of the plant. The larvte are more active at night, but are very timid even then, and can be observed on the plants only at a distance. The larvie feed upon the clover, and mature in about two months. The pupa state lasts ten days, so that the beetles come forth late in autumn. The cocoon may be formed among the stems of clover or just beneath the earth. The latter is probably the position where it will generally be found in the Held. Some of the weevils nuiy deposit eggs in the fall, while others may remain as imagos and lay eggs the next season. There may be two broods in a year, though Dr. Riley thinks it more likely that there is but one, and that variation in size and time ot appearance is caused by retarded or accelerated development ; while the larva does no inconsiderable damage, far the most ia CLOVER-LEAF MIDGE. doiiP by the matnrp beetle. The weevils are voraeiojis eaters, consuming ovory part of tlu' jilant above the earth, an«l like most weevils feeding by night and hiding by day in erevices in the earth or among the stems of the plants. Tiike the larva' the;; are very timid, and fall at the slightest jar of the jdants. It feeds on all kinds of elover, red, white, and alsike. The beetles in duly and August often do very serious danuige, conipleting the work of destruction so well begun by the larvju at an earlier date. Dr. Riley expresses an opinion, possibly born of hope, that this insect will not spread. I have already shown how it may easily be earried far west, and as we already )uive seen, it surely is spreading (piite rapidly, there is grave reason to fear its general spread in the Northern T'^nited States. As we can not well use Paris green, it is probable that no bet- ter thing can be done than to plow under the elover in fields at- tacked in May, at whitdi time the insects will be in the larva state, and so probably killed by this treatment. If we wait to cut for iUiy many of the insects would have already pupated, and so would come forth to new mischief the next year. It is probable that the various predaoeous insects will aid to diminish the numbers of this pest, and in time the parasitic in- sects here as well as in Europe will lielp to hold it in check. Cecidomyia trifolii, Leow, Clover-leaf Midge. Order Dipfcra. FamiJij Ccchlomiiidnc. Loew Verhandl. Zr.ol. Bot., Gesell,, XX., 14, p. 143, 1874. Comatock Ann. Kept. Coinm. Ag., 1879, pp. 197-199, 111. Lintner Rept. N. Y. Ag. Soc. 1882, p. 203, 111. Saunders Rept. Ontario En. Soc, Vol, XII., p. 45, 1881, 111. This insect is so nearly like the far more destructive clovfir seed midge, yet to be described, that only an expert could distinguish them the one from the other. This species has only been discovered about Washington, and unless it becomes more widely distributed, or worse still, learns the habit of its near 884 CLOVEK-LKAF MIIKJE. rongcnor, which in doing wi(les[)r('iul tiiul Tuost sorioua harm, it will be of minor eoonomic imijortjince. As will be noticed it is closely related to the well-known Hes- sian fly and wheat mi; one leaf si)read open exhib- its the cocoons of the in- sect, the larva and midgo or lly. The maggots aro folded in the leaflets of the clover, and are at tirst wiiite, but later assume an orange hue. When full grown this footless larva is 1.5 m m (.059 of an inch) long. The j)upa' are enclosed in white deli(Mito cocoons, fastened between the sides of the folded leaflets. See fig. The color of pupa is pale orange. Eyes dark, folded appendages brown. The fiv is brown in color with yellowish hairs on the thorax. The female is 1.0 m m long, the male a little shorter. Except that the fly is a little smaller, and that the female has fourteen in- stead of sixteen joints to the antenna', it is almost exactly like the clover seed midge, which will be more fully described and illustrated as its importance demands. The minute eggs, from two to twenty, are laid in the creases of the leaflets either of the red or white clover. In June the larva absorbs the juices of the leaflet, causing it to turn brown and to become slightly thick- ened, showing the tendency to form galls, Avhich is peculiar to many Cecidomyian maggots. The irritation causes the leaflets to fold, thus forming a safe domicile for the defenceless larvre. Late in June or early in July the flies come forth. From the exposed condition of this insect it is very likely to become the prey of parasitic insects, and so never become very numeroas. Even in considerable numbers it does no very se- CLOVER-LEAF 08C1>'IS. Ml rioiiH Imrm, imd iiiili'ss it clmngo its huliitswill never bo u serious pest. W«' lianlly iiccil tlicii to (lisciiss rciiu'dii'H for it.s nivagcs. OsciiiiN irifolii liiirt^ess. Cluv(>i''lear Oseiiih. (h-ilcr Itiph'rii. Faniibj Ost'inithr. HurKi'ss, Ann. Kept Connn. AkiI, IHTiJ, j,. -^'Ol, Conistock. Ibid, pp. ',»0(), :>0l. Lintnor, Kept. N. Y. Ag. S)c. \HH2, p. a().">. Fitch UuscrjlKMl a spi'ities of this ;;imius, 0. tibialis, which at- tacks the wheat stem. Sec Kitch't^ h'opt., 1st and '^d, p, IJOO, and for illustration IM. 1, Fig. 5th. Dr. Hilcy dcscribi's Osi-inis brassica?, which attacks the cabbajrc. |{ci)t. Coinm. Ag. 1SS4, p. :i'4'i. which is fully illustrated 11. VIII., Fig. .".th, mIu.'Ii cut would answer in a general way for the Clover Leaf Oscinia. There are several Euroi)ean species which give our friends over the sea some anxiety. The clover Oscinis is quite like our Anthomyia in habits and general appearaiu'e. The eggs are very small and white. The larvjB greenish-white, slender, tai)ering towards the head. They are 1.7 m m long. The puparium is shorter, oblong, and of a brown color. The lly is yellow, with the dorsal siirfai'o of its abdomen and thorax black. It is (piite hairy. The lerigili is 1.3 ni m, about .05 of an inch. The eggs are probably laid in ^lay or in early June. The larva mines the leaves and stems of white clover, possibly red as well, much as the radish mag- got gouges out the plant on which it feeds. Late in June the maggot crawls from its tunnels and falls to the earth, which it enters to form the puparium. The flies appear about two weeks later. There are two and may be three broods a season. If these little sappers and miners ever become so numerous as to do serious injury we will have to resort to feeding our clover down and use ensilage for winter. 49 886 LEAF ROLLERS. Tortrfx Sulfnreaiia riem. Clover (attacks larraas). Tor- trix flavedaiia €leni. Sericoris iiistrutaiia, Clem. Leaf rollers. Order Lej>i(h>/)fer(i. FaiiiiJii Tortricidiv, Forlu's, III. En. Kcport, Vol. XIV., p. 17. ComstcK'k, Ropt. (^t)iniii. Agr. 18S0, pp. 2r),V,>r)8. ■^riioso iiistH'ts. wiiich aro closely rolutod to the <'0(llin»orthern States, and South even to the (lulf. While they at- tack all the clovers they are not contined to them, hut work on nniny other garden and field plants. In rll the species the larvae draw the leaves ahout them by means of silken threads, which they spin, and when disturbed drop and hang suspended by means of a thread, which, like a spider, they can spin as needed. A more harmful leaf roller attacks the clover seed, and will be described later. The larva of the first species is yellowisli-green, the second green, the third yellow. The larva* are about \ of an inch (13 to 14 m m) long. The pupai are shorter and brown in color. The moth of the first species is bright yellow, with x* v-shapeJ purple bands on each front wing. The same color marks the front and outer nnirgins of the same wings. The back, or sec- ondary wings, are yellowish, varying to brown. It e.\[)and8 a lit- tle more than 4 of an inch. The second species is a little larger^ The males are dark brown, with reddish-yellow nuirkings. Hind wings reddish. Females red, with oblique obscure bands across front wings. Females expand J of an inch. The males are not quite so large. The color of the moth in the third species varies from yellow to yellowish-browu. It is about the size of the sul- fureana. These are seen feeding on the rolled up leaves, which servo both for home and food in May and June, and again in Augast, so there are two broods a year. c:LOVKH DIJASTEHIA. 887 1 fiMVt' found l*;ii'is i^rccii sure dcj'tli t«i i>ri'li:inl mikI sliiult' tiH'C loaf rollers, and without donht it would kill tlioso that infest tlu^ clover. Its practicality however in this case is not so apparent. It is to ])e hoju'd tluit ])arasites and other enemies will j>revoiit tiu'se leaf rollers from heeoinin>:' very st'rious pests. Without donht other 'I'ortricids will he fouiul to attack the ch)vei\ hut as all are so nearly alike in their character and luihits, wiiat has heen said will apply in a liciu'ral way to all of tlicni. Drasterisi orcchtea rrsiiii. (lover Drastei'ia. CiriJff f.i'j)i(h>})tirti. Fdiniln Xoctiiidiv. Saunders. Out. En. lieport. 1SS1, p. i;, HI. Saunders. Out. En Re))ort. IST."., p. :«5. Til. Fnnch. Ml. En. Rep.. Vol. Vll.. p. i:!:!. 111. ("o.luili.-tt. Hi. En. Uep.. Vol. X., p. I IS. Packard, (Jiiide to Study <»r Tiisi-cts, p. MIT. This is as conijuon as any inotli in Michitian. and tho samo is triu- in nniny other States. The familiar, short, jt'rky flight re- minding us (d" (he tiirer liei'tles. is seen fi'oni early sprin^;' till late autumn. Thouirh so couimon, ami thoui;h with slii;ht e\ce])- tion (it soini'tinu's feeds on iirass) the caterpillars feed exclusively on olover. yet 1 think the insect is not considered a foe to bo df-'aded. It may lie that in case of crops like the (dovei'. where ]>lants are nuinhered hy tlu' million, we sulfcr more from insect attack than we km)w. The larva is reddish-l)rown, m. irked with longitudinal lines of dark, whiti' and pink color. When full jxrown it is 3 c m {\\ inches) long. I'here are only three ]»airs of pi-o legs, so the cat- erpillar, like others of tiic lower Noctnids, is a geometer, or "measuring worm." It f;j>ins a loose cocoon, in which, as also in its gait, it reminds us of the true geonu^ters. The Uio th is \ well rei)resented in. the fiLniro. - ^, ,„_ _„. The fore wings are dusky-hrown, •4-.'!^////M\-'t\i^W{ with darker hamls crossing tliem, '^^^ Fio. 143. 888 COMMON YELLOW BUTTERFLY. one near tlie base, and another, sometimes incomplete, midway between tliis and the onter margin, near the apex, is a quite dark patcli. Dashes of dull brown are scattered along the wing. The moth expands nearly 3cm (1^ inches). The caterpillars will be seen feeding on the clover all the sum- mer long, and at the same time the moths may be started on their short journeys as wo walk over the clover fields. Colias philodice. foinnioii Yellow Butterfly, Order Lepidoptera, Fnmih/ PapUiotieda:. Saunders, Ont. En. Report, 18S1 p. 47, 111. French, 111. En. Report, Vol. VII., p. 147. Packard, Guide to Studj- of Insects, p. 250. What was said of the abundance of the Clover Drasteri i is even more ai)])licable to our yellow butterfly. Few insects are more common, more widely distributed, or better known than the sulphur-yellow butterfly which gladdens the pasture and roadside, and flecks the damp places along the roadways of all our Xorthern States. What was said of the food, habits, and destructivetiess of the Drasteria erechtea can also be said as truly of Colias philodice. Fig. 143 shows the male and female of this familiar butterfly. The eggs are long, tapering, ribbed, and though yellow at first change as the embryo de- velops, first to red and then to brown, just prior to hatching. The young larva is brown with a yellowish tinge. La- ter it changes to green. The green head has a yellowish- white stripe on each side, with a dash of red at the j^o 148 lower edge. The body is Fio. 143 INSECTS ATTACKING CLOVER SEED. 880 hairy, and when full grown the caterpillar is 3.5 c m, or one inch, long. The chrysalis, like that of our cabbage butterfly, Pieris rapa?, which it resembles, is suspended by an anal tuft and a shoul- der girdle. It is pale green, tinted with yellow. On each side of the head is a dark red line, and yellow stripes are seen on the sides near the tip. The yellow, occasionally very nearly white, butterflies with wings bordered with black, sometimes gray, black, or brown are well shown in the figure. The liorder "s narrower in the male, and encloses yellow spots in the female. A black spot is seen on the front wings of both sexes. The secoiulary wings are bordered with dark in both sexes, and bear an orange spot. The antennae and fringe to the wings are pink. The body is black above and paler below. The size is given in the figure. The eggs are laid in ^lay and August on the clover, and other leguminous plants, as peas, etc. The caterpillars are feeding from four to six weeks. The chrysalids are fastened to clover or other object, and last about twelve days. The butterflies swarm in ^lay and agidn in July and August, when they are often so thick as to remind us of a snow storm. What was said of danuiges and I'emedies in considering the last insect applies as well to this one. Insects Attacking CIoTer Seed. — While the damage done to clover by some of the insects already described, especially the borers, is quite serious at times, the danger from those attacking the seed is still more formidable, and may well cause anxiety. Happily the number in this list is very limited. Cecidomyia legnminicola, Lint. Clover 8eed Midge. Order Diptera. Family Cecidomyhla', Lintner, Canad. Entoinol., XI., p. 44, pp. 131-124, 1879. lintner, Kept. N. Y. Ag. See., 1878, pp. 62-64. Lintner, Rept. In. In., 1878, pp. 4-6. Lintner, Rept. N. Y. Ag. See, 1880, pp. 37-41. Lintner, Rept. Ent. See, Ont., 1879, pp. 28-30. Lintner, N. Y. Ag. See, 1882, p. 198, 111. 890 CLOVER SEED MIDGE. Riley, Ann. Rei)t. Comm. Aj?., 1878, pp. 250-252, 111. Riloy. Ann. Rept, Comm. Ag., 1884. p. 411. Comstock. Ann. Rept. Comm.l Ag., 879, pp. 193-197. Sannders. Rept. Ont. En. Soc, 1881, p. 38, 111. This is not only one of the most alanning of onr clover pests, but may be regarded as oiu' of tlie most to be dreaded insects now infesting tlie valuable crops of the T'nited States. It not only does very serious damag(\ but is spreading with great ra- pidity. Prof. Lintner first discovered it in a limited area in Eastern Xew York. .Now — 188.") — it is known to exist in \\r- ginia, Pennsylvania, Xew Jersey, Ontai'io. Michigan, and all through New York. The fact that the insect may remain in the seed, and thus be carried with it any distance, adds to the dangers threatened by this comparatively new pest. Fig. l-i-i a shows the fenude midge, ovipos- itor extended ; c, ovi- positor more magni- fied ; f/, head more en- larged : (I shows great- er enlarge m e n t of three Joints of anten- na?. Fig. 145 (I shows maggot or larva; b, head more magni- fied. The eggs are oval, pale yel- Fig. Uj. low, and only .025 m m(.OOIof an inch) long. The larva or maggot varies from white to dark orange or or- ange-red. It is when full grown 2 m m (1-12 inch) long. CLOVER SEED MIDGE. 391 The pupil is oriinge, witli brown eyes. It is found in ji tough silken cocoon with more or less earth sticking to it. As will be seen by the figures the flies resemble closely the wheat midge. C. tritici. The abdomen is red. thorax brownish- red. The antenniv are 15-jointed in the male, and IG in the fe- male. The wings are hairy, the ])alpi and ovipositor each four jointed. The male is about 1.") m m long, the female about 3 m m. The male cxiiands about 3.5 m ni. the female 4 m m. The size varies a little. The dark scales obscure the red color, so that the flies appear dark. Underneath the color is yellowish- gray. As with the wheat midge and Hessian fly the ovipositor and (;lasping organs arc very prominent. The eggs are jiushed, by means of the ovipositor, down into tiie heads of red or white clover, and lodged between the hairs that surround the separate florets. They are not glued nor placed in the florets. As with the Hessian fly the eggs may be laid singly, or in groups of two, three, four or five. As many as 50 eggs are sometimes placed in a single head of clover. The larva affects each seed much as does the wheat midire each wheat kernel. After al)sorbing the life from the seed the larva, like the mag- got of the wheat midge, leaves the seed and wriggles till it es- capes from the clover head and falls to the earth. Often the head of clover seems alive as a maggot jjushes from nearly every seed in its effort to reach the ground. The j)upa is found in ita cocoon just beneath or upon the earth, uiuler some protecting leaf, etc. The flies have been seen in New York in ]May. Au- gust, and quite likely some flies may issue in October. Thus there are surely two broods in New York, and })ossibly three. There are certainly three farther South. The larva' will be seen full grown in the seed at the North in June, in July, and again in September. They probably pass the winter as pupa'. Of late the larvte have been found in seed in the murket. 892 CLOVER SEED CATERPILLAR This is an unwelcome fact, and explains the rapid distribution of these insects. If we can bring the second, or seed crop of clover between the two broods of the midge, the seed will be saved. Late pasturing or early cutting of the first crop will accomplish this. If the early crop be mowed a few days before timothy spikes appear, it will kill the young maggots and will bring the second crop at the desired time. Two parasites, Enrytoma funebris and Platy- gaster error, destroy a great many of the maggots. Already Mr. Howard finds Enrytoma funebris and Platygaster error engaged in this good work. Success to them, and may their tribe increase. If seed is found stocked with the larvit it should be put into a close vessel, as a jug or barrel, and bisulphide of carbon added. This will kill all the larvte post haste. Even an open barrel, water tight, may be used by placing a buffalo robe, or other air-tight cover, over it. The fact that this insect is as far West as Michigan, and possibly as far as Illinois, makes it a mat- ter of general interest. In the future, clover seed will be valu- able. Orapholitha interstinctana, Clem. Clover- head Cater- pillar. Order Lepidoptera. Family Tortricidae. Comstock, Rept, Comm. Agr. 1880, p. 254. Clemens, Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1860, p. 351. Grote, Bull. Buffalo Soc. Vol. I., p. 93. These caterpillars are also quite widely distributed. Grote and Comstock have taken them in Xew York, Grote in Pennsylva- nia, Comstock in Washington, and I have found them quite com- mon in Michigan. A single larva feeds on several and often all the seeds of a single head of clover. Sometimes I would find two larviv in a single head. The insect was quite common about Lansing last summer — 1885. The larvae are dirty white, often greenish, 8mm long, and spin white cocoons in the clover heads. The bodies bear many white hairs. CLOVER HAY-WORM. 8»» Chrysalis liglit brown; 5mm long. The anal segment bears Bix hooks, two dorsal, four lateral. The moths are small, brown^ often nearly black, with white lines and dots marking the wings. They expand 10 m m. There are three broods of the moth appearing respectively irt early June, Augnst and September; the larv£e appear soon after. The same remedies which are snccessfnl against the clover- seed midge are eflfectual in checking the work of this moth. An Ichneumon parasite was found preying on these by Prof. Comstock. It is Phanerotoma tibialis. It is light brown, with a large dorsal yellow spot, and is 3.5 m m long. Insects Attacking Clover Hay. Asopia costalis^ Fabr. Clover Hay-worm. Order Lepidoptera. Family Pyralidce. Riley, Mo. Ent. Rept. Vol. VI., p. 102, 111. Saunders, Ont. Ent. Rep. 1880, p. 45, 111. French, 111. Ent. Rep., Vol. VII.. p. 47. This insect works on dried clover or clover hay while in the mow or stack. It is generally distributed, and scarcely a season goes by that I do not receive specimens, with request for information regarding the natural history and habits of the insect. This be- longs to the same family as the bee moth and the meal moth, Pyralis farinalis, Harr., which is often very common about barns where meal is stored, and which sometimes also feeds on clover hay. The color of the larva, Pig. 146, is dark brown, lighter beneath. The intersegmental spaces are darker than the segments, which makes the larvas appear to be ringed. It is 18 m m (f of an inch) long. The cocoon is white, and 13 m m long. The chrys- alis is yellow in colorj length ^ of an inch. The imago, or moth^ 60 3\,i CLOVER HAY-WORM. is purple, with u silken lustre. There iire two bright yellow spot;', on the primary wings. The posterior wings are lighter in color llnin the priniiiries. All the wings are margined with orange, which terminates with a glossy yellow fringe. They ex- pand about 2 c m, or .S of an inch. In Fig. 14G, 1 and 2 shows the larva* suspended by threads: ''i represents the cocoon: 4 the eluysalis; 5 moth with wings spread : niotli at rest; and T larva concealed in a case of silk which it has spun. These moths are attracted by lights, and are often seen about our lamps in mid-summer. The eggs are laid on clover. The larvaj work in a silken case, am! so often fairly mat the hay in one great mass. The larva' atti-act attention in summer working upon the hay, but more usually in February ami March, when stacks and mows of clover may bo fairly alive with larvae These often crawl far into the stacks, where they are protected from cold, and so are sometimes said to bear a zero temperature with- out becoming dormant, though the truth is they have had a warm nest. I have seen them drop from a mow suspended by a silken thread, so thousands could be swei)t away by one stroke of a rake. They often leave stack or mow and seek some concealed place in which to })upate. It is probably true that leaving clover hay in mow or stack year after y(>ar will promote the rapid increase of these pests. Feeding out all the hay each winter wouid be a wise precaution, or if any hay is to remain over let it be other than clover. Of the many other species mentioned at the beginning of this article none are as yet sutliciently important to demand full de- INSECTS INJURIOUS TO GRASS. scviption, Most work as iiiuch if not more on other plant.s. Some lire vcr}' nire insects, and utliers, tliougli common, seem not to attract any general attention by tlieir })resence. Insects Injurious to Grass Crops. — 'Die insects which are known to attack our grasses make even a more f(>rmi(hiblc list than tliosc injurious to the clovers. Kii^htv or more snecies either depend wholly or in }iart upon our grasses for food. In the following list-IIy. after the name indicates that the insect belongs to the order Ilymenoptera; Lep., Lcpidoptera; Dip., Dii)tera; Col., Coleo[)tera; Ilom., Ilomoptera; Hem., Hcmep- tera; Or., Orthoplera. 111. refers to 111. Entomological Keports; ^lo. to ]\nssouri Entomological lleports ; U. S. IJeports, U. S. Commissioner of Agriculture ; llarr., Harris Injurious Insects; On*., Ontario Entomological Keport; Pack., Packard's Guide to the Study of Insects; Streck., Strccker's Catalogue of Macro- lepidoptera; Eiteh, Eitch's X. Y. Reports: Acridiuin Ainericanum. 13rury, Oi-., 111., Vol. IX., ]). 1:2!). Mc, Vol. VIII., p. 103, 111. Agonoderus. all of tlie species, CoJ. III., Vol. XII., p. 111. Agrotis c. nigrum. Linn. Lcp., 111. Vol. VII., pp. Hi), 202. Ibid. Vol. X., p. 1:52. Agrotis fennica, Tausch, Z,<'y)., Rt'i). Mich. St. Board Ag. 1883, p. 423. Out. Vol. XV., 1S,S4, pi>. 13, 1."), 21, 24. Mich. Hort. Rep. 1884. p. 81. Agrotis saucia, Iliib., Lep., 111. Vol. VII., pp. 94, 211. Ibid, Vol. X., p. 134. Mo.. Vol. I., p. 74. U. S. 1884. p. 2!)7, 111. Harr., p. 444. Agrotis tessollata. ITarr., Lep., 111. Vol. VII., pp. 91, 206. Ibid, Vol. X., p. 133. Harr., p. 445. Out., Vol. X.. p. 39. Aniara, all the species, Col., 111. Vol. XII., p. 110. Anisodactylus, all the species, Col., 111. Vol. XII., p. 111. Aphis ilaidis. Fitch, Horn., Fitch, Vols. I. and II., p. 318. III. Vol. XIII.. p. 40. Arctia (Leiicarctia) acrrea, Sni., I^p., Harr., p. 351. Pack., p. 2H6. III. Vol. VII., pp. 79, 183. Ibid., Vol. X., pp. 115, 170. Ibid, Vol. XL. p. 68. Arctia phalerata, Harr., I^'p., Harr., p. 347. 111. Vol. VII., p. 181. Ibid, Vol. X., p. 115. 30fi INSECTS INMlTItlOUS TO (IRASS. niissiis li.ucoi)t('rus, Say, //<■/., Han-., p. t!»S. III. V«)l. VII., pp. 15, 40. Ihi.I. Vol. XII... p. :{'i. 111. Mo., Vol. II., p. 15, 111. Ihi/.. 111. Vol. XII., p. 10!). ('alopU'iiuH hivittatus, Say, Or., 111. Vol. IX., p. 120. M<»., Vol. VII., 1). 17:J, III. (^aloptoniisditrt'i-ciitialis, ThoH., Or., III. Vol. TX., j.. I'JT. III. Mo., Vol. VII., p. ir:J. 11.1(1, Vol. VIII., p. 15:$. Caloptt'iius fVin-ir-nibniiu, Do G., Or., III. Vol. I., p. 01). Ibid, Vol. VII., p. :r). 111. llaiT., p. 171. III. Caloptt'iius spru'tiis, Tho., Or., III. Vol. I„ p. 8'i. Ilu.l, Vol. VII., p. .'{5, III. Il.id, Vol. IX.. p. IvM. Mo.. Vol. VII., p. I'.M. Tl.id, Vol. VIII., p. 57. Ibid, Vol. IX., ]). 157. Itt'port of U. S. Kutoinolof^ical (^omiuission. Chytolita inorbidalis, (Jiicn., Lrp., III. Vol. X., j.p. 1;{H, \H2. a.cciiu'llidii', ('(•/., 111. Vol. XII., p. 110. ("otalpa laiiixora, Limi., Col., III. Vol. XIII., p. 140, III. AiiK4'i«;aii Nat- uralist, IHOi), pp. 180, 441. llarr., p. 24, 111. Mo. Vol. V., p. 10. Crainlnis vult^ivafjji'Iliis, Cli'iii., Ley*., Liiitner's Hnt. Uoport, Vol. I., p. 127. Caiiadiau Entoiuologist, Vol. XII., [.. 17. Ibid, Vol. XIII., p. 181. Am. Nat.. Vol. XV., pp. .574, 750. 914. Out. I8S1, pp. 0, 1:5. IT. S. 1881- 1882, 1). 17!). Ctenucha virginii-a, Char., Ia-^., III., Vol. X., p. 170. Liiituer'H En. Con., Vol, III., p. 1.55. Pack., p. 28:5. Debis Portlandia, Fab., Lrp., III. Vol. X., p. 02. Strecker's Catalogue, p. 148. Diclielia SuUnroana, Clom., Lvj)., III., Vol. XIV., p. 17. Fernald's Cata- loj^uc, p. 21. U. S. 1880, p. 255. Dnistm-iam'Hitea, Cram., Lep., III. Vol. X., ].. 148. Ont. 1881, p. 47, 111. Ibid, 1875, p. :50. Elateridie, Col., Harris, p. 55. III. Vol. V., p. 92. Ibid, Vol. VI., p. 21. Ibid, Vol. VII., p. 19. Ibid, Vol. XH.. p. 27. Mo., Vol. it., p. 16. Fitch, Vol. X., p. o;}. Elatt'r manciis. Say, Col., Harris, p. 5(). GaU'rita jauus. Fab., Col, III. Vol. XII., p. 108. Glyphina eragrostidis, Midd., Horn., III. Vol. VIII., p. 144. Gortyna nitela, Gueneo., Lcp., 111. Vol. VII., p. 100. Ibid, Vol. X., p. 151. Mo., Vol. I., p, 56. Ibid. Vol. III., p. 105. Ibid, Vol. VIII., p. 37. Hadena devastatrix. Bruce, f^'p,. 111. Vol. VII., p. 216, Mo. Vol. I., p. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO (JRASS. 807 Bit. Ibid, Su|)|)l(>int>iit, p. 'M. Harris, p. 445. Fitch, Vulu. I. ami II., p. air.. HarpaiiiH, all of tliin (Umun, Cnl., III. V«)l. XII., p. 112. Holiopliil:! plirii^^iiiititiicoia, (Suciico, /^c/i., III. Vol. VII., ]>. 'i'i-X. IN'liopliila lliuvcyi, Urote (allnliiiea, lliilui) Ia'i>., Mo. Vol. IX., ]». 50. III. Vol. VII., p. 'i'iW. IsoHoiiia Klyiiii, Froncli, ////., III. Vol. XI., p. HI. ('anadian KntoinoloKiHt, Jan., \mi. Isosoina lionloi, TIarr., ////., III., Vol. XI., p. 75. Fitcli, Vol. VI. -IX., p. 154. Harris, 55;{. .Mi.li. Aj,'. Ri'i>t- '^'^l. I»- =<^'-- Mo. V«>l. II.. p. Wi. Lachnosh'riia fratcriia, llarr., (U>1„ III. Vol. VI., p. 101. Harris, p. 32. Laclinostcriia fii.sca, Frohl, (Uil., III. Vol. VI., p. 97. IhicI, Vol. VII., p. 33. Mo. Vol. I., p. 1.50. III. Harris, p. 30. FiUli, Vols. I. aixl II., p. :24H. liiichnostoniu liirticula, Knoch., (V)/., 111. Vol. V.. |). 87. Harris, p. ',Vi. lijicluiostcriia iiicis, Kiiocli., Co/., III. V^ol. V., p. 87. Larliiiostcriia pilositollis, Knocli., Col., Harris, p. 33. 111. Vol. V.,p. 87. lijiphygma frugipcrda, Ouiniec. Lcp., III. Vol. VII., p|>. 07, vMO. Ibid, Vol. X., p. 138, Vol. XIV., p. 55. Mo. Vol. II., p. 41. Lt'ucaiiia, psoudurKyria, CSiu'iioo, /><7»., III. Vol. X., p. 130. licucania albiliiica, lli'd)ii., Lt'i>., Mo. \'o\. IX., pp. 50-55. Loucaiiia uiiiiiiincta. Haw., 1a'i>., Harris, p. 027. 111. Vol. VI., p. 5fl, VII.. p. 101. Mo. Vol. I., J.. 100. Ibid, Vol. II., p. 37. Ibid, Vol. VIII., pp. 22, 182. Ibi.l, Vol. II., p. 37. Lcucarctia acra'a. Smith, Lci>., III. Vol. VII., p. 183. Ibid, Vol. X., p. 170. Packard, p. 280. liiiuotiirips poaphaji^s. Com., Ilvi. Fernald. (Jrasses of Maini', p. 42. Comstock Notes on Eiitomoloj^y, \^. 120. Loxopc'za atriventris. Say, (W., 111. Vol. XII., pp. 100, 115. Lygiis liiieoliUMs, Bi'auv., Hem., 111. Vol. XIII., p. 115. Mo. Vol. II., p. 113. Harr., p. 201. U. S. Vol. 1884, p. 312. MacrodactyliLs subspinous, Fabr., Col., 111. Vol. I., p. 24. Ibid. Vol. VI., p. 103. Lintner R.'pt., Vol. I., ]>. 227. Harr., p. 35. Fitch Vol. II., p. 245. U. S. 1803, p. 507, 1807, p. 71, 1H08, i)p. 87, 104. Am. Entomol., Vol. I., p. 251. Mich. Pom. Report 1«72, p. 067. Mich. Ag. Report 18V4, p. 145. Neonympha Canthua, Linn., Lep., 111. Vol. X., p. 91. Neonympha furytris. Fab., Ta'j)., III. Vol. X., p. 90. Strecker's Cata- logue, p. 148. Harris, p. 308. Pack., p. 204. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO GRASS. N(M)iiym|>lia^fiiiiii!i, lUWh, h'p,, HI. Vol. X, p. 01. Strockor's C'ata« loffin> MacrolfpidopttTii, p. l.V). Nfunyiiiphii pliocioii, Fal)i'., /^cy*., Stn-ckcr's Catalomu', p. lilt. MiifTalo bull.tiii, Vol. 11., p. •,>4t. Ncoiiyiiiplia Ho.svl>iiis, Fahr., fA'p., III. Vol. X., p. !H. Stn'ck»>r's C!ata- logiie, p. 141». Hutralo Hiillftiii, Vol. II.. p. ILl Ni'plu'loik's violaiis. (Jucn.. Lr/>., 111. Vol. VII,, pp. 20. 2>20. Ibid, Vol. X.. p. i:i!». Liiitm-rs p:ii. I{«'P'»»*t. \'ol. I., p. IM). Am. Kiito.. Vol. HI., i>. i'M. Am. Niit., Vol. XV., p. .""(Tr*. Canadian Entomolo>?ist, Vol. VIII., p. 09. Trans. Kan. Ai'a. Pampliila bobomok, TIarr., L('i)., Streckcr's Cat., p. 172. Ilarr., m. W\ Cansulian Ent., \'ol. I., p. 00. Proceed. Hos. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XI., p. 381. 111. Vol. X., p. 07. Pampliila, Iowa, Scud., T^'p., Strecker's Cat., p. 173. Pampliila Mystic, Edw., Leji., Strecker's ('at., p. K'm. Proceed. Ent. Soc. Pbil., Vol. II., p. 1."). Canadian Ent., Vol. I., p. 00. Packard, p. 270. Pampliila Pe., 111. Vol. VII., p. 100. Ibid, Vol, X., p. 178. Harris, p. 'Mru Pamiibila pliylieiis, Dru., Lcj)., Strecker's CJat., p. 104. III. Vol. X., pp. m, 170. Pamphila Samoset, Scud., Lcj)., Strecker's Cat., ]>. 174. P*roc. Ent. Soc. Phil. Vol. II., p. .■)07. Trans. Ent. Soc, Vol. I., p. ;$. Pami»bila Sassacus. Hair.. Li})., Harr., p. iSlTi. III. Vol. VII., j). 159. Ibid, Vol. X.. p. 97. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. II., p. 340. Patrobus longicornis. Say, Col., III. Vol. XII., p. 113. Philometra serraticornis, Grote, Lej)., 111., Vol. VII., p. 246. Platynus limbatus. Say. III. Vol. XII., p. 100. Plusia simplex, Guen.. Lcp., 111. Vol. IX., p. 48. Ibid. Vol. XI., p. 38. Pseudoglossa lubricalis, Geyer, 111., Vol. X., pp. 138, 182. Pterostichus, all of the Genus. Col., 111. Vol. XII., pp. 110, ll'). Pulvinaiia innumerabilis. Rath., Honi., 111. Vol. XIV., p. 103. Mich. Ag. Rep. 1883, p. 420. 111. Am. Naturalist, Vol. XII., pp. 65.5-061. Proc. Dav. la. Acad. Sci., Vol. II., p. 293. U. S. 1884, p. 350. Rhizobius i)oa'. Thorn., Hoin., III. Vol. VIII., p. 106. Satyrus alope. Fab., Lep., 111. Vol. VII., p. 156. Ibid, Vol. X., p. 93. Strecker's Cat., p. 157. Harris, p. 305. INHKCTS IN.rrUlOI'S TO (iRAHS. !«>» Satynis lu'iilicli'. Kill... Z.*/... 111. Vol. Vll.. p. l.VI. Ihiil, Vol. X., p. »•,'. Vol. VI. I'rocrt'd. Kilt. Soc. I'hil.. p. MCi. llurr., j.. :«»•(. JiuU. Uiimild So... Vol. II., p. ^^-I'i. Sfclodoiita pulu'sctiis. Mels.. («/., 111. Vol. XIII., p. UV.i, Sc('|>siH fiilvicollis. Ilubii., I.iji., III., Vol, X., p. 171. Schizoiit'iiiii lumifolii. Thoiii.. Hum., III. ^'oI. N'lII., p. KIH. Ibid, \i>\. XIII.. pji. I-'. :.!. StiiUiiV Dip., 111. Vol. XIII., p. .".!>. Seluiulria? Saw Fly. ////., U. S. 1884, j.. 401. Siphoiiophora avt'iia'. Fab., limn., Filtli, Vol. VI.-IX., p. 91. ^lo. Vol. II., pp. ■■). (i. 1(1. III. Vol. VIII.. pp. ^>!), r,i. Siiilioiiopliora si'taria", Tliom.. J/oni,, 111. Vol. VIII., |). -iO, Spilosoiiia Virj^iiiica, Fabr., L(i>., Harris, p. !M!t. 111. Vol. IV., ji, IHS. Ibid, Vol. VII., pp. 80, 18:5, ^'7T, :.'S(). Ibid. Vol. X., pp. 11(1, H5!). I'aik- urd, p. ^'87. :Mo. Vol. III., p. (58. Splu'ijopborus iiarvulus, (iyll,, Forben' Notes. Sci-ii catiii;^ ;;rass in July ami August. S|ilH'iiopliorus sculptilis, rill, Col., I-intiu-r, Kii. Kcp., Vol. I., p. 25i3. Mo. Vol. Ill , p. .v.). U.S. 187!), ].. ^>48. Ibid. 18S0. p. '2:2. Out., 1880, p. r.(i. Am, Xal.. Vol. XV., p. 91",. U. S. 18Sl-l,ss-.>, p. IM. Tychea paiiici, Tbom., Jloin., III. Vol. VIII., p. 1(19. Ill tlu' iibovo list 1 liiivo jfivL'ii only such s|H'ci('s iis 1 know, or have 'e actually know that Agrotis fennica may utterly devastate whole meadows, as it has done in parts of Michigan for the past two years. These gray, sober colored noctuid moths, Fig. 148, lay their scores of white eggs ujion the stems of grasses. The larvai. Fig. 149, may be dii ly white or variously striped. Those which spend the day beneath the ground are more frequently light colored. They pupate in the earth. Fig. 150 shows the pupa. The moths of different species may be found from June to Octo- Agrotis fennica is seen as a Fio. 148. Ai^rotis fennica and wing ber ot var. moth in July. It is probably true tlN.^ of all the species that the eggs are Pjq J49 laid soon after the moths appear. In most cases these hatch the same season, and the larviv become partly grown, but do their greatest Fig. 150. mischief the following May and June. The eggs of A. fennica do not hatch till spring, when the larvse eat raven- ously and grow very rapidly. So we see that in all cases June is the dreaded month when these insects lay heavy tribute on the produce of the farmer. We must depend on the natural enemies very largely to over- come these injurious insects in our grass fields. The extent of the area of grass fields, the number of insects and their con- cealed condition makes all kinds of known warfare impracticable. When they cover a field, as did the A. fennica the meadows in Bay county, Michigan, we may adopt the same remedy as in case of ARMY WORM. 405 the white grub, give up the fields to the swine. While we may bandage our grape-vines, fruit trees, and garden plants, and thus protect them, and while we may bait the cut worms of clean cultivated corn fields with bunches of grass poisoned with the arsenites and thus kill tliem, or later dig them out at a profit, none of these methods are available in the meadow. Leiicania uiiipuiicta, Haw. Army Worm. Order LepUloptera. Family Noctuidae. This inject is so largely the prey to insect enemies, parasitic and predaceous, that it is only rarely that it docs marked injury. Yet the entomologist knows that the moths are very common each year, and there can be no doubt but that it does consider- able injury in our grass fields every season. It is only when its numbers, through favorable surroundings, become so immensely numerous as to make it necessary for the caterpillars to swarm forth from the meadows to get food, that we usually take note of its presence or become conscious of its power for mischief. Fig. 15-'. The figures show well tlie appearance of the insect in its sev- errl stages. The moth. Fig. 151, is yellowish-brown, often with a greenish tinge with a discal white dot on each front wing, Avhich gives the specific name. The caterpillar. Fig. 152, is striped longitudinally with dark and light gray lines. It pupates like all noctuids in the earth. The moths are abundant in August and September. The eggs are laid in the sheaths of the grass. The caterpillars are nearly 406 WIRE WORM. grown in July, and then is when they devastate meadow and oat field. Here as elsewhere, with the enemies of our grasses, we must trust largely to the other insects and birds that prey upon them. Usually this is suflicient to so reduce their number.^ that their presence causes no anxiety, or even makes itself known to the farmer. When they migrate, in armies, threatening meadow and grain field, it is recommended to scatter straw, and when they become involved in its meshes to burn them, straw and all. Also to poison with the arsenites a portion of the grain or grass on the side of the field towards which the army is advancing, and thus hope by wliolesale poisoning to save a portion of the crop. This has usually failed, as the army is often so large that they can devastate acres even though poisoned in this manner. The most satisfactory method yet recommended has proved to be the furrow or ditch. This is left steep on the side toward the field to be protected, and to have holes, like post holes, dug in it at frequent intervals. These holes receive the caterpillars, and the latter, by use of a convenient stick, large at one end, may be quickly killed, and so the holes made ready for a fresh lot of vic- tims. A board fence of slight height has been made to take the place of the ditch in some cases with good results. Of course the encouragement of our insectivorous birds will aid here, as everywhere, to help solve this insect problem. Elaters. Wire Worms. Order Coleoptera. Family Elateridae. The wire worms, like the white grubs, are the larvae of beetles, live between two and three years in the earth, and by feeding upon the roots often do great injury to cereal crops, corn, and, though not so much dreaded in meadows and pastures, they are, beyond question, often quite injurious to nearly all our grasses. WIRE WORM. 407 Fi(!. iri\. The various spocies of 8j)ring beetles, Yig. 153, are seen in June, jind not infrequently fly into our f{ I Ly rooms. Tlu'ir long, slim form, usually 1)rown color, /"•• •Wi > ^'^^^ especially their habit of springing when ])lace(l 1\ /i on their back, which is effected by a sort of ventral spring ])ole arrangement, give ready means to iden- tify the beetles. The long, cylindri- Fici. 154. <'iil gnibs. Fig. 154, with their six jointed thoracic feet, are also hard to mistake. Indeed the name wire worms is very appropriate. As in case of white grubs the eggs are laid in meadows and pastures about the roots of grasses, where for three years the slender grubs eat and grow. While complaint is not usually made of injury to grass, yet such injury must be common and exten- sive. The grass blades are so countless that though numerous plants are killed they are not missed; but let the sward be plowed, and the second year i)lant corn, or sow oats or Avheat., and if the; wire worms arc present — they are now rapidly ap- proaching maturity — they often do incalculable damage, ruining, it may be, whole fields of grain. That they do not more injury the first year after plowing is not so strange. It is the habit of the grubs of this familv of beetles to eat rotten or decaving wood, etc., and so it is (juite likely that these wire worms, with changed habits, really jn-efer a diet of decaying roots for a change, especially as it may the l)etter satisfy the cravings of the old time inherited appetite. With the exception of buckwheat, peas and beans, there is hardly a crop l)ut what is levied upon by these insatiable wire worms. The only recommendation that our present knowledge offers to resist these terrible pests is either to summer fallow for one one year in hopes to starve the grubs, or else to sow some crop that is distasteful to them the second year after plowing the green sward. 408 CHINCH TJUG. missus leiicopterus. Say. Chinch Bug. Order Hemiptera, Family Ligcvixhe. This destructive bug, tliougli very small, is often so terribly in- jurious that in Illinois, Iowa, ^lissouri and Kansas it is often the author of millions of dollar's worth of damage, and that some times in a single State. What has been said of the other insects al- ready referred to as to damage to grass, corn and wheat applies to this as weli. That the chinch bug is more susceptible to sea- sonal peculiarities — especially wet — than most insects, is well known. While in very Avet years it does little damage, in c'ry years it sweeps as " with the besom of destruction "' the great prairies of the West. That it does so little damage in Michigan, New York and the East is doubtless owing to the fact that the climate is too rigorous for it. Very likely the hibernating bug succumbs to the severity of our long, cold winters. ^ This insect. Fig. 155, H-./^^- is hardly 4 m m long, or less than 3-^0 of an inch. Its color is black with white wings m a r k e d with black Fig. 155. Chinch bug. spots. The bugs hiber- nate in winter. In May they swarm forth in nuptial flight, and soon after the Qgg laying begins. There are two or three broods, so from June on they will be seen in all stages. The wingless larvae, the short winged and equally active and hungry pupae and the full fledged imago will all be seen sucking the juices from the i)lants at one and the same time. Neatness in farm operations, not leaving corn-stalks and rub- bish in the fields to protect and harbor the bugs in winter, is about the only remedy possible. Prof. Forbes, whose admirable researches and suggestions have been so valuable, has found that LOCUSTS, OR GRAY (IRASSHOPPEKS. 409 the kerosene emulsion will kill tho bugs, but owing to their numbers and Inibits it is hardly a practical remedy. Calopteiius— many species. Locusts, or (iray Grasshop- pers. Order Orthoptcra. Family Avrididie. Although no grass insect is more serious in its destructiveness than the Western locust, or grasshopper Caloptenus spra^tus, Thorn., M'hen it comes to nuike its i)resence felt, yet from the fact that it can never attack the vegetation except in a limited area West, and even there comes only rarely to scourge the coun- try, it perhaps on the whole is not so serious to our forage crops as the insects already referred to. Our common, red-lcggcd grasshopper, Caloptenus femur-rubrum, De (\., with several other species, often do very serious harm in our Eastern States. Yet the fact that they come only rarely in great numl)ers, and llien scarcely ever two years in succession, makes the insect less dreaded than it would otherwise be. Fig. 156. Fig. 15". Fig. 156 shows the Western locnst, and Fig. 157 our red-legged locust, which insects resemble each other very closely. The principal difference is the longer wings of the C. spraetns. Like the Chinch bug the transformations of these insects arc incom- plete. The larva in early summer, the pupa in mid-summer, and the imago in late summer all look alike, and liavc identical habits as to their food. They differ only in size and devcloii- ment of wings, which are at first wholly absent, and then appear for a time only as stubs, or mere pads. The females in August and September lay their large eggs in the ground. In all «tages they are ravenous and indiscriminate feeders. Dr. C. V. Riley, in his elaborate investigation of this insect, 53 410 THE VACJABOND CRAMBUS. names imd describes many mammuls, birds, mid otlicr insects that destroy this pest. He also describes many medianical ap- pliances for the destruction of the pest. ]n California the i)ast season locusts which were verv common and harmful were de- stroyed by use of poison. Bran, sugar and arsenic were mixed and left whore the insects could gain access to the mixture. Whether this can be nutde available in iields to protect grass, cats, etc., is yet to be decided by actual trial. Craiiibiis Yiilu^ivaji^elliis, Clem. The Ya^aboiul Ci aiiibiiN. Order Lepedoptera. Fdinili/ Pyralidav. This insect is not rau in Michigan, nor in other ^Northern States, yet it has rarely attracted attention as a serious i^est in agriculturi'. In 1881 the pastures in parts of Northern New York were quite seriously damaged by this pest. It belongs to the same family as the bee moth, and to the same genus as the corn-root wcl) worm, Crambus zeellus Fcrnald, which has done considerable damage in Illinois the past summer (1885). FiQ. iri8. The moth, [ichigan and all through the North. It is Nepholodes violans. I have space only to state that it was not very injurious, though may increase and become so at any time. What has l)een said as to habits, and especially of remedies, in relation to the Crambus and army worms, Avill probably be true of this in- sect if it should ever become a serious enemy. I have not space to describe more of the insects noxious to our grasses. Those described are the only ones which have given anxiety, and while the others may become more numerous and therefore harmful, they are not likely to do so. In connection with the list given above I liave referred to authors who have written upon each insect, and in many cases not only are the de- scriptions full but excellent illustrations add to the interest and value of the treatises. It is not unlikely tha': new enemies will attack our forage crops ; but if so they will almost certainly be like one or more of the old familiar ones, and so by studying THE FUNOI OF FORAGE PLANTS. 413 tlioir habits and dotortniniiig their niitnnil liistory wo shall ut onc'o know which of tho old and woll triod romodios to adopt. CHAPTER XVII. THE FUNOI OF FORAdR PLANTa BY WILf.lA.M TUKLKASE, D. SC. Grasses afford a nidus for tho development of a hirgo number of fungi, so that tliey are a favorite collecting ground with stu- dents of these plants; but the greater number of species are found on dry stems and leaves, which they seize ui)on, as a rule, only after their death, and though the number of truly parasitic species is by no means small, there are but few tliat seriously injure valuable grasses. Tho numljcr of noxious species on (do- vors and other forage plants of the pea-family is also small ; hence this chapter includes a few which are of such frequent oc- currence as to attract general attention. For the most part the fungi of forage plants are directly inju- rious by weakening them and appropriating to themselves the food needed for making a good growth; but they likewise lower tho nutritive value of the crop that is produced. In cases whore seed is an object, the loss is even greater, since tho yield of dis- eased plants is greatly lessened, while tho quality of their seed is always poor. The annual loss in our meadows and pastures due to these causes cannot bo stated, from the lack of reliable statis- tics, but in some seasons a moderate estimate places it in the millions. Besides these direct injuries to the crops the fungi of grasses are the cause of a very considerable loss to the farmer in another way. Ergot and corn-smut have long been known to possess ac- 4U CORN-SMUT. LEAF-SMUT OF TIMOTHY. tive medicinal iind poisonous properties, uid it bus been demon- strated tbat abortion and certain diseases of tlie feet of cattle fol- low tbe prolonged use of ergotized bay or pasturage. How many of tbe smuts and otber fungi of grasses possess similar or otber detrimental properties is at present merely a matter of conjec- ture; but some of tbem occur in sufficient quantity to merit sus- picion until tbey have been shown to be harmless. Students will find the principal parasites of grasses represented by actual speci- mens in fascicle 2 of Seymour and Earle's Economic Fungi, Cam- bridge, Mass., 1891. SMUTS. 1. V 'X-smut {Ustilago ze(B mays, B.C.). Forming galls, of ten of large size, in the leaves and other parts of Indian corn and teo- siute, that are finally transformed into dusty masses of brown spores. No fungus is more widely distributed or better known than corn-smut. Like other smuts, its germinating spores attack young plants, its mycelium or spawn making its way upward through their growing tissues without producing any evident ef- fect until it prepares to fruit, when it increases and leads to the formation of the smut-galls, that are ultimately filled with myriads of round brown spores, each densely covered by short, sharp s])inos. These spores, which measure ll-lo micro-millinie- ters, preserve their power of germination for several years, or, in fresh barnyard manure, etc., they develoj) at once, multiplying indefinitely by the production of yeast-like secondary spores, each of which has the i)ower of infecting a seedling corn plant. Gathering and burning the smut-galls and smutty ears, while they are still green, to prevent the accumulation of spores in the soil , rotating tho crop when smut has become firmly established in a field; treating seed corn with copperas-water and lime, etc., before planting; and using only old, well-rotted manure or arti- ficial fertilizers, have all been proposed as preventives of smut. 3. The leaf-smut of Timothy {TiUetia sfn'acformh-JVe.std.) Forming black, smutty lines in the leaves of Timothy and other THE LEAF-SMUT OF TIMOTHY. 41& grasses, which are finally reduced to brown slireds, covered witli dusty si)ores. Tlio first ii])peiiriinco of tliis disease is in the formation of lead -colored, thickened lines, about l-O-i in. wide and 1-10 to J in. long, be- tween the nerves of tlie leaf. The epidermis, which at first covers them aiul gives them their gray color, soon breaks away, revealing a ]>()W- dery ma-s of black-brown spores, which are ir- regularly rounded or egg-shaped, and closely studded with short spines. They measure 10- 13 micro-millimeters, and in their microscop- Fio. 159. ical characters closely resemble the spores of the corn-smut. Similar black lines are formed in the leaves of species of Ghjce- ri(t l)y I's/i/dfjo I()Nf/i,ssiin(i (Sow.) which has smooth brown spores, 3.5 to 7 micro-millimeters in diameter, and in the leaves of wild rye and other grasses by (^rori/sfis (iccidht. (Wall.) the dark brown opaque spores of which measure l()-3() micro-millimeters, and usually occur in clusters of 2-4, closely surrounded by masses of half-round, colorless cells of slightly greater diameter. Ustilo(jo J/i//)(Kli/fes (Schl.) occurs on the stem of quack grass and other species, usually forming black smut masses inside the leaf -sheath, and T. (/nuidis (Fr.) causes cat-tail-like swellings on the internodes of the reed. The fruit of many grasses is replaced by other smut fungi, the number of which is very considerable. The commonest are: Ustilago panici glauci (Wall.), very abundant in autumn on pigeon grass; F. ruhenhnrstiana (Kuelm), on crab grasses and sand burs; and l\ srr/efuiii, (P.), in oats, barley, wheat, etc. Draining the soil well, transferring the crops to new land when they have begun to smut badly, and exercising care with respect to manure are preventive measures. M(>. iHm.— TUUtia Dtrioi/urmu iu Timothy leaf; upurea at a; b. Urocu»t*» occuUut «pores. 416 GRASS-RUST. RUSTS. 3 Grass-rustj {Puccmia graminis, P.) Order Basidiomy cetes. Sub-order Uredineae. Fio, 160.— Several stages of grass-rust. A, young mcidium fruit; r, section of Bar- berry leaf; a ik lecidium fruit; ,s p, sperinagonia; 11., a mass of teletitospores on a leaf •of a grass; ///., three uredospores, « v, with one teleutospore, <.— (From DeBar j-.) Forming orange-red, powdery spots and lines o\\ the leaves and stems of cereals and meadow-grasses, that give place later to dead-black velvety lines. The sheaths and culms of the smaller grasses, especially quack grasses and red-top, are very often attacked by this rust (called mildew and brand in England), which produces the same dis- GRASS-RUST. 417 astrous effects on tliem us on wlieat. The red rnst or uredo state appears from early spring until fall. It consists of micro- scopic one-celled rough spores, borne on branches of a myceli- FiG. 161.— Grasa-rust. A, Kerminatlng teleutospore, (; B, promycelium, with spori dia: C, 8 p, sporidium, germinating on the lower side of a leaf; u, a geriuinatint uredospore.— (From DeBary,) ng itm that vegetates within the grass, and only appears on the sur- face to fruit, which propagate the disease rapidly in damp warm weather. Toward the end of the season the same mycelium bears a second form of fruit — two-celled teleutospores or winter- spores — that form dense elongated black cushions Avhere tliey break through the epidermis, often covering the greater part of 418 CLOVER-RUST. the dead stem. These spores germinate the next spring, when, they produce secondary spores that fire said by an English ex- perimenter to infect very young grass leaves, in which they form a mycelium that quickly fruits in red rust. The winter-spores have long been held to produce a mycelium in young barberry leaves, on which the common yellow cluster-cups appear as a result, — their spores again attacking grasses and forming a mycelium that bears little of the red rust, but fruits almost exclusively by winter-spores. Other grasses are subject to the attacks of rust-fungi belonging to other species. P. corotiata (Cda.), the common oat- rust, and P. rubigo-vera, (D. C), the barley-rust, are not infrequent on grasses, the latter on the beautiful squirrel- tail grass. They produce smaller clusters of nredo-spores, and the cnshions of teleutosporea are long cov- ered by the epidermis of the plant, and not so black. They are also more frequent on the blade than on the sheath of the leaves. P. magnusiana (Koern.), P. phragmitis (Schnm.), and P. amncli- nacea (D. C), are found on the reed. These species all have cluster-cups or aecidia on other species of plants. The rust of corn is P. maydis (Carrad). The tall gramma grass is infested by P. vexans {YavXow)', P. androp'jgi (Schw.), occurs on broom-grass; P. nrundinariw {8chw.), on fall marsh grass; and P. cynodontis (Desm.), on Bermuda grass. The common rust of old witch-grass or tickle-grass is P. emaculata (Schw.) etc. None of these species are known to produce cluster-cups. 4. €l0Yer-rust {Uromyccs trifolii, A. & S.) Producing mi- nute white cluster-cups, pale brown uredo-pustules and darker brown teleutospore-cushions, 1-64 in. in diameter, on the leaf- stalks and blades of clover, especially white clover. Fia. Its:;.— a. Puccinto graminia oa wheat sheath; ib< P. ooroneta in oat leaf and c it* Bpores. CLOVE-RRUST. 419 Fig. 183. The clover-rust bears its clus- ter-cups on the same plant with the other forms. They appear in early summer, in small clus- ters, especially on the stalk and veins of the leaves. The later cluster-cups are accompanied or followed by small round or oval pustules of rough brown uredo- spores, that are partly covered by the torn, lead-colored epider- mis of the leaf. Both of these forms immediately reproduce a mycelium, similar to that from Avhich they originated, in other leaves. The winter spores oc- cur in slightly darker clusters in the fall, and germinate the following spring. They differ from the corresponding sporco of Puccitiia in bemg one-celled, and resemble the uredospores of the same species, except that they are somewhat darker brown, smooth, and often furnished with a blunt i)oint at the end. U. medicaginis falcatae (D. C), is a related rust, found in all its stages on alfalfa and none-such, and on the wild rabbit 's-foot clover and hop-clover. Its winter spores are striped by longi- tudinal ridges. Other species of Uromyves are found on differ- ent grasses. U. dactylidis (Otth.) occurs, in Europe, on orchard grass, the taller fescue, etc., and is represented in this country by several forms on a number of grasses. Its cluster-cups are found on the butter-cup. U. amiminaUis (Arthur) is common on fall- marsh grass; U. spartinae (Foxlow) on rush-salt grass; and U. Peckianus on the smaller salt grass {Distichlis maritima). These species are not known to have a cluster-cup stage. Burning over meadows and fields covered with rusty stubble ; a proper succession of crops ; and the destruction of plants that FiQ. 164. Fio. Ie3.— l/romj/oe" tri/ii(ii, fficidluiu and teleutosporic sorl on white clover. 164.— Uredospores, teleutospores, BBcidiosporea and peridial cells, of same. Fio. 420 ERGOT. serve as hosts for the cluster-cup stages of rusts, are the best methods of keeping them within check. ASCOMYCETES. 5. Ergot. {Clain.ccpx, Sp. Sclerotinm clavtis of authors.) Bhick, purple or dark gray spurs in the flowers of cereals and of various wild and cultivated grasses. The officinal ergot, to be found in most rye-fields toward the end of summer, appears in the form of curved purple or black spurs, often an inch long and 3-16 in. in diameter, which replace the grain in one or more flowers of a spike, thus giving rise to the popular name of spurred rye, often applied to it. Spurs of the same nature, but usually shorter and stouter, are also common in the heads of wheat. Similar bodies, varying much in size, shape and color, are found in the flowers of many grasses. On the rush-salt grass they are very long and slender, and rather pale. On Avild rice they are short, and even stouter tlian the spurs of wheat ; while on smaller grasses, like red-top, Timothy, blue-grass, etc., they are much smaller, and closely resemble the pellets of mice. These spurs are the resting form, or sclerotia, of a fungus which appears at the base of the young grain, wlien the grasses are in bloom. As it grows it gradually takes the place of the grain, the remains of which are pushed up at its end. While young, the fungus gives off a sweetish, ill-smelling fluid, that contains myriads of microscopic spores which are carried from l)lant to plant by flies, beetles and other insects that feed on the fluid, and so play an important part in spreading the disease, AVhen the spurs have reached their growth they harden, and fall to the ground, where, as a general thing, they remain unchanged till the next spring, when each bears a number of small, stalked, Fig. 163.— 1, 2, 3, 4, Orassei) affected with Ergot appearing as black spurs. (From the U. S. Dept of Agrl.) Fio. 165. 4S2 ERGOT. pink fruit-bodies, in which spores are protlueed tit about the time when grasses are coming into bloom. Botanists recognize several species of ergot by the form of their spring fruit; but the differences lietween them do not much concern their life-history, so that they need not be consid- ered separately. From their habit of attacking only the fiowers, they do not affect the general health of the grasses they grow on, while as a rule they are not abundant- enough to seriously lessen the yield of seed. Ergot has long been em- ployed in medicine, be- cause of its action on the uterus. That it should cause abortion when fed to stock is, therefore, not surprising. Nothing can be more misleading than the popular belief that er- got does not occur on meadow grasses in suf- ficient quantity to be dan- gerous. In examining sus- FiC). 106. o pected hay from several of the western States the Veterinarian of the United States Department of Agriculture found ii-G per cent, of its entire weight to be ergot. An equally erroneous and common belief is that in pastures ergot cannot mature because the grass is so closely cropped that it cannot flower. Under close grazing most grasses produce scattering flowers, when very £mall, and at times nearly every one of these is ergotized. :N"ot long since considerable excitement was caused by the ap- pearance of what was taken for '^foot-and- mouth disease" in Fig. 16B.-Development of CUiviceps, from Tulasne. CAT-TAIL GRASS FUNGUS. 423 Kansas and other parts of the West; but on investigation it was found that the sloughing of the hoofs and other symptoms were the result of ergotism, due to the foul hay on which the cattle had been fed. Similar cases have occurred in other parts of the country, and in Europe the use of flour made from ergotized grain has occasionally given rise to epidemics of a similar nature among men. However it may be as regards abortion, ergot does not usually occur abundantly enough in closely grazed pastures to cause this trouble. It has been suggested that it may be pre- vented from occurring to a dangerous extent in hay by cutting grass as soon as it comes to bloom, and curing it before the ergot has matured. Yellowish-white, irregularly rounded bodies, with a checked surface, occurring in the flowers of Paspalum laeve, are >Spermoe- dia paspali (Fr.), the sclerotium of an entirely different fungus. 6. Cat-tail grass fungus, {EpichVOe typhina, P.). Forming a white or yellow coating around the upper leaf-sheaths of grasses. This pretty fungus is found on rather young plants through the entire open season. The veivety-ring which it forms about the sheath consists at first of a loose mycelium, rooted in the tissues of the grass, which bears an abundance of conidia, or summer-spores, by which other plants are infected. As the season goes on this thickens into a yellow or waxy mass, while its surface becomes uneven by the elevation of minute points, each containing, when ripe, a cluster of asci, or spore-sacs, filled with spores. In Europe, meadow grasses, and especially Timothy, are some- Fio. 167.— £ptc/iU}e on shoath of grass, with enlarged fruits. 4M THE BLACK-SPOT DISEASE. times extensively attacked by this parasite, but in America it has not been noticed to any great extent on the more valuable Bpeeies— its presence being possibly overlooked in meadows be- cause concealed by the spreading blades above. A black fungus related to this which occurs on grass, is Hy- pocrella hypoxylon (Pk.). 7. Black-spot disease of grass, {Phyllachora graminis, P.) Coal-black spots usually under 1-33 in. wide, and 1-33-i in. long, on the leaves of grasses; especially conspicuous on the upper side. This is one of the commonest and most no- ticeable of grass-diseases, especially toward the end of the season, but does little harm to valuable species. It is most abundant on quack grass, hedgehog grass and the broad- leaved Panicum. The black spots are com- posed of dense mycelium. In them, usually after the death of the leaf, oval colorless spores are formed in asei. These spores carry the species over the winter. Smaller spores (stylospores) are pro- duced in the same spots earlier, and servo for summer propaga- tion. If the disease should prove troublesome, the grass may be cut early before the fungus develops, and the meadow should be burned over on the approach of cold weather to destroy the form- ing winter spores. (Fig. 108 illustrates the above species.) 8. Black-spot disease of clover, {Phtjlladiora trifolU, P.). On the lower side of clover leaves, forming at first dull-black patches, often ^-in. across; later occurring in the form of slightly glossy-black dots, 1-64 in. in diameter, on small whitish or pale- brown spots. ¥\Q. leS—Phiillachora graminin. Fig. 169.— Phyllachora trifoUi. FiQ. 171.— Poly- thrincium trifolU. Fia.—ilO.—Phacidiurn trlfoiii. THE BLACK-SPOT DISEASE OF CLOVER. 486 In the earlier part of the season small Avhitisli or i)ale-l)rown spots appear in the leaf, which contains the mycelium of a fungus. This fruits on the lower surface, producing num- erous tufts of necklace-shaped threads, each of which ends in a ^.'-celled, egg- shaped conidia-s])ore. These tufts of threads, which, like the spores, are of a deep l)rown color, are packed so closely together as to completely cover the spots, thougli under a hand lens Fj(j. ]((!). they can he distinguished as separate pannles. To the naked eye they appear dead-hlack. Later in the season similar spots are occupied by small, coal-black fruits that contain stylospores. Winter spores, produced in asci, are not known. The conidial form of this fungus (called rohilhrinrinni ti'ifoJii) is fl especially common on white clover, though both forms are at times found abundantly on red clover and other species. Kiilm suggests growing grass with the clover as a means of I lessening its injury. (See Fig. 170.) Fig. 170. 54 Fici. 171. 420 VIOLET ROOT-FUNGUS. GRASS MILDEW. Red clover is also often marked in the snnimer and full by similar but darker brown spots, bearing in the center of each a brown cup, scarcely 1.32 in. in diameter, that opens irregularly at the top and so allows the escape of its spores. This is Phacid- iuiii (or Pseudopeziza) trifolii, which at times does considerable damage in Europe. 9. Violet root-fungus, {Leptosphmna circinnns, Fckl.). Forming a violet mold on the roots of alfalfa, red clover, etc., which soon rot, the parts above ground turning yellow and dying. In Europe, Lucerne is subject to a disease that manifests itself by the appearance of yellow spots in the fields. These spread until the entire crop is often affected. The trouble lies in a violet-colored mold that develops on the roots of the plants, spreading from one to another through the soil, and finally pro- ducing spores by which it is apparently carried over the winter. This disease has not been recognized yet in the United States, but what is held to be a state of the root fungus — a cobwebby, white mycelium, known as the snow-mold, that covers the ground, leaves, etc., just as the snow disappears in early spring — has been noticed in groat abundance at River Falls, Wis., by my friend, Professor King, so that it is not improbable that the parasitic form will soon be found. No remedies for it have been proposed, except digging ditches, as deep as the roots extend, about diseased parts of the field when it first appears to prevent it from spreading. 10. Grass-mildew, {Erysiphe graminu, D. C). Forming a pure white, cobwebby or mealy coating on the upper side of the leaves of grasses, especially in the shade. The German equivalent (meal-dew) of our common name for the group of fungi to which this species belongs is expressive of the appearance presented by them in their early stages, when they cover the surface of the plants they grow on with a tine. THE SCLEROTIUM DISEASE OF CLOVER. 437 white mycelium that bears such numbers of wliite spores as to suggest u dusting of meal or flour. This mildew is usually found through the entire open season on grass growing in damp and shaded positions; it is especially abundant on June grass. Its cobwebby mycelium, which does not penetrate the leaves, does not at first appear to injure them but in time they succumb Pia. 173. and dry up. Through the summer it spreads by means of its light conidia, that are easily blown about and germinate quickly while fresh, though they are unable to live through the winter. On the dead leaves, small black fruit- bodies, scarcely visible to the naked eye, are formed, in which winter-sj^ores are produced in asci. (Fig. 172 is the illustration for the grass-mildew.) Usually grasses do not suffer much from mildew, except in damp and shaded places. Drainage is likely to prove beneficial where it is troublesome, and infested wheat-fields have been advantageously dusted with flowers of sulphur in Europe. 11. Sclerotium disease of clover, {Sderotinia trifoUonim, Eriks.). On clover, causing a browning of leaves or stem, which are soon covered in spots by a white mold that ultimately forms solid, wavy, black bodies, often ^ in. long, white within. In Europe, clovers and medicago are occasionally attacked by this fungus, which is very destructive when it occurs. The entire plant becomes flUed with a mycelium which soon kills it and afterwards breaks through in places, forming black sclerotia on the various parts of the decaying plants as winter approaches. These bodies lie dormant in the soil until the following summer, when they produce fruit-bodies in the form of wavy stems, bear- ing brown disks or inverted cones, -^^ to ^ in. in diameter, on their ends. When these reach the surface they shed their spores and so spread the disease. 428 THE SCLEROTIUM DISEASE OF CLOVER. Draining the soil well, and especially replacing clover for several years by wlieat, corn, or other crops not attacked by the Sclerotinia, are recommended where it appears. A large number of fungi are spoken of as imperfect fungi from the resemblance of their fruit to the conidia or stylospores of Ascomycetes. beveral of these cause diseases of grasses. The brown-spot disease of pigeon- grass, early spear-grass, and other species, is due to Septoria graminnm, (Desm.) (Fig. 173), that form a mycelium within the plant, usually killing it in places which turn brown and are finally dotted with the minute black fruit-bodies of the Fig. 173. parasite, within which slender colorless spores are produced. In Europe, a similar disease is also caused by a related fungus (DilopJiospom graminis, Desm.) whose spores differ in having brnsh-like appendages at their ends. Both are at times destructive, but affect the cereals more than the smaller grasses. Mastigosporium alhim, (Riess), and Scolecotrichum gram- inis, (Fckh), cause diseases of the leaves of grass in Europe. The l^'.st named appeared on orchard grass in great abundance about Madison, Wisconsin, in 1886. Hadrotrichum 2)hragmitis, (Fckl.), forms small, dark-brown pustules on leaves of the reed, resem- bling those of a rust-fungus, even under a hand-lens. The gray- spot disease of crab-grass is due to Pyricularia grisea (Cke.), another imperfect form that bears pear-shaped conidia on threals that protrude through the stomata of the gray spots. Sporoiolus indicus, a grass of the Southern States, somewhat esteemed for pasturage while young, is often called " black-seed grass" or "smut-gii'ss" from the fact that its flowering parts are generally covered by the dark-brown fruit of Helmintho- sporinm ravenelii, (Curt.), that is often so abundant as to form a Fig. 17'i.— Septoria graminwm THE GRASS PERNNOSPORA. 429 dense, spongy mass. Wire grass is subject to similar attacka from H. nodosum, (B. & C), and other species of the same genus occur on different grasses in a similar manner, PERONOSPOREAE. 13. (irass-peronospora. {Pero?iospora graminicola, Sacc.) In the leaves of Hungarian grass and pigeon grass, ulti- mately filling them with a snuff-brown, powdery mass. (See Fig. 174.) Hungarian grass {Sctaria italica) is sometimes attacked by a parasite clearly related to the notorious potato blight, which forms a mycelium in the leaves of the grass, in the cells of which it lives. Branches of this emerge sparsely through the stomata and bear colorless conidia which spread the disease. Later in the season these spores are replaced by winter spores (oospores) that originate on branches of the mycelium within the leaf by a process of fertilization. These spores are contained in thick-walled, brown envelopes, and presumably infect new plants in the spring. So far, this disease has not proved seriously destruc- tive, though the leaves attacked are re- duced to mere shreds when the winter spores are ripe. The flower-clusters of pigeon grass are greatly changed by the fungus, according to Dr. Halsted. FiQ. 174.— Shredded leaf of Hungarian grass and oOspor© of Peronospora graminicola. FlO. 174. 480 CLOVER PERONOSPORA. SEEDLING ROT. 13. Clover poronospora, {Peronospora irifoUorum, DeBary). A dirty white or purple-brown mold, often completely covering the lower surface of the leaves of clover, alfalfa, none-such, etc. (See Fig. 175.) The life history of this species is quite similar to that of the last, though they differ greatly in appeai'ance. The leaves that it occurs on are paler than the others, and the threads that escape through their stomata and bear conidia are so numerous and bushy as to form a dense coating on their under side. Fig. 175. Oospores are produced in smaller numbers than in the last species, and, as they are thin-walled and nearly colorless, they are only to be found after careful microscopical examination. Another species of the same genus {P. vicial, Berk.) is found on the leaves of vetches and of the pea. 14. Seedling-rot, {Pytldum deharyanum, Hesse). Causing young plants of clover, millet, corn, and many other species to rot close to the ground or " damp-off," as it is called in greenhouses. Several species of Pytldum attack living plants. The present species is said to be widely distributed in garden soil in Europe and causes serious trouble by attacking seedling plants. It can be recognized by its effects on the plants, which quickly decay near the ground. They contain a delicate, colorless mycelium that fruits on the surface of the deling parts, when these aro kept damp, producing conidia, swarm-spores, and oospores. 15. Fairy-Ring Fungi. — Bright green circles, several feet in diameter, closely surrounded by a narrow strip of dead or dying grass, are frequently seen in lawns or pastures, and are commonly called "fairy-rings." They are caused by several species of toadstools (the commonest is Marasmius oreades) that spread a short distance outward every year, their mycelium destroying FAIRY-RING FUNGI. 481 the grass in the roots of which it grows, and so causing the brown ring, on which an abundant crop of toad-stool fruits forms in the fall, which by their decay enrich the soil so that it produces a ranker vegetation the next season. An appearance which may be called false fairy-rings is occa- sionally produced by Physarum cinereum, one of the slime-molds, on the leaves and stems of grasses. This fungus grows unnoticed on decaying matter in the ground, often creeping out in a regular manner from its starting point until a more or less perfect circle ,Bix or seven feet in diameter is formed, when it suddenly appears upon the plants it has grown under, and produces its dusty, ash- colored fruit in such abundance as to attract attention from a distance. From its mode of life, it does little if any harm to the grass, further than to make a little of it unpalatable to animals. 16. Root-gall fungi of clover, etc.— Galls which vary in size and shape, according to the species ex- amined, are always found in greater or less number on the roots of norm- ally grown leguminosae. They are caused by one or more microscopic fuugijsometimes referred to the genus lihizoUum, widely distributed in the soil where leguminous plan!.? are grown. The fungus penetrates the tender rootlets,especially through the root hairs, giving rise to the develop- ment of galls, but its presence, un- like that of most gall-producing species, appears to be beneficial to the plants attacked, since it seems now fairly demonstrated that the assimilation of atmospheric nitrogen, which has long been attributed to leguminous crops, is effected by them through the agency of these fungi. FiQ. 175. 48S DEBBI& DEBRIS. After the house is finished, the debris often contains a few choice brick and some stone tliat did not seem to exactly fit in anywhere. There is a barrel or so of good mortar, half a load of sand, a little nice lumber, a bunch and a half of shingles, and one of lath. There are remnants of nails and screws, paint, oil, putty, glass, and wall-paper. Some of these are as good as any employed in constructing the building. The most worthless fragments are carted away and covered up or burned. So in writing a lecture, a story, or a book, there Avill often be more or less surplus materials. A change in the plan, perhaps, will make it seem best to leave out some things for want of a suitable place to use them. I once supposed the following quotations among many other things would certainly find a place in the former pages, either as headings to chapter or paragraph or in some other place. A few were thus used, but most were left over. Here are some of the remnants : "Go to grass."' " All flesh iB grass.*'— 7sam/i. " The staff of life."— Said of wheat. " Let the earth bring forth grass.'''— Leviticus. " Sweet fields arrayed in living gre';ii." " Grass is rather a good savings hank."— Joseph Harris. •'Grass is the pivotal crop of American agriculture,"— Geo. Geddes. " Grass is king among the crops of the earth."— .4Ze.r. Hyde.' " The grasses are the foundation of all agriculture." " He maketh me to lie down in green pastures."— .?,?d Psalm. "A water meadow is the triumph of agricultural arV—Piisey in Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc., 1S49. DEBRIS. 48a "Farmers pay too little atttention to their pastures."— JV. H. Agrl. Rept. "Tlie cheapest manure a farmer can use is clover seed.''— American Proverb. "No grass, no cattle; no cattle, no manure; no manure, no crops."— Belgian Proverb. " Then learn to toil and gaily sing. All flesh is grass, and grass is king." — Missouri Agrl. Rept. "Thp term CTass is only another name for beef, mutton, bread and clothing." " Feed your land before it is hungry; rest it before it is weary; weed it before it is {ovV— English Farmer. " One year's seeding Is seven years' weeding." " He who makes two blades of grass grow where only one grew before, is a great public benefactor."— Deaji Swift, in about 17 JO. " And the ripe harvest of new-mown hay Gives it a sweet and wholesome odor." — Colley Cibber. " The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year, Of wailing winds, and naked woods, and meadows brown and sear." — Brijant. " Plants do not grow where they like best, but where other plants will let them."— Dea)4 Herbert. "■ How doth the little busy bee Improve each shining hour, By carrying pollen day by day To fertilize each flower." "And he gave it for his opinion that whoever could make two ears of corn or two blades of grass to grow upon a spot of ground where only one grew before, would deserve better of mankind, and do more essential service to his country, than the whole race of politicians put together."— Oulliver's Travels. " But of all sorts of vegetation, the grasses seem to be most neglected; neither the farmer nor the grazier seem to distinguish th > annual from the perennial, the hardy from the tender, nor the succulent and nutritive from the dry and juiceless. The study of grasses would be of great con- sequence to a northerly and grazing kingdom."— T^/«te's Nat. His. of Sdhourm. 65 434 BIBLIOGRAPHY. BIBLIOGRAPHy. No attempt has been made to render this list of authors com- plete, yet it contains the leading authorities which have furnished the greatest help in preparing this volume. Agricultural Gazette (English), 1880. Agricul. Reports, U. S., for 1879, '80, '81, '82, '83, '84. Am. Agriculturist. Short notes, 1870 and later. Am. Jour. Sci. Numerous short articles and notes. The American Naturalist, several volumes, Phila. Trans. Lin. Soc. The Morphology of the Flowers of Grasses, by Geo. Bentham. Hand-book of the British Flora. Bentham and Hooker. Genera Plantarum, vol, 3, London. Dr. C. E. Bessey. Botany for schools and colleges, N. Y. Botanical Gazette, Ind. Numerous notes. Robert Brown's Miscellaneous Botanical Works, 2 vols. Ray. Soc., London. Robert Brown , Campst. Manual of Botany. Edin. and Ix)ndon. Prof. James Buckman. Prize Essay. Jour. Roy. Agrl. Soc, 1854. — Bulletin of the Torrey Bot. Club, N. Y. William Carruthers, Consulting Botanist, Jour. Roy. Agrl. Soc. His annual reports for some years. Carter on Laying Down Land to Grass. A pamphlet. Eng. A. W. Cheever, in N. H. Agrl. Report, 1875. The Clover Leaf, 1880, '81, '82, '83, '84. BirdseU Mnfg. Co., South Bend, Ind. Rept. Conn. Board of Agrl., 1868 and later. Numerous valuable notes. The Country Gentleman. Many p;ood articles, from 1870 to 1886. — C. Darwin. Cross and Self-fertilization of Plants, and Power of Move- ments in Plants. P. Duchartre. Elements de Botanique. Paris. M. J. Duval-Jouve. Histotaxie des Feuilles des Graminees, in Annales des Sciences Naturelles. Paris. EncyclopaBdia Britannica. Article on Grasses, by H. T. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 485 Morgan Evans. Jour. Roy. Agrl. Soc, 18T6. Prof. C. 11, Fernald. The Grasses of Maine. C. L. Flint. Grasses and Forage Plants. Boston. The Garden. Vols. 4 and 8, Ornamental Grasses; vol. 8, Wild Grasses for Bouquets. London. Gardener's Chronicle. Fertilization of the Flowers. March, i;'74, Feb., 1875. Botanical Text-Book. A. Gray and G. L. Goodale. Manual of Botany. A. Gray. Wni. Gorrie. Articles in Morton's Cyclo. of Agrl. Prof. J. Stanton Gould. Grasses and their Culture. N. Y. Agrl. Rept., 1869. Prof. J. S. Gould. Lecture on Grasses. Maine Agrl. Rept., 1872. E. Hackel. Monographia Festucarum Europa?aruni. Joseph Harris. Value of an Analysis of Grasses. N. Y. Agrl. Rept. , 1865. J. Henderson. Hand-book of the Grasses. New York. A. Henfrey. An Element. Course of Bot. London. J. D. Hooker. Tlie Student's Flora of the British Islands. Rev. C. W. Howard, of S. C. A :ManuaI of the Cultivation of the Grasses and Forage Plants. James Hunter, a pamphlet, Eng. Permanent Pasture Grasses. Alex . Hyde. Twelve lectures on agriculture before the Lowell Institute, Boston. Indiana Farmer. Jour. Roy. Agrl. Soc. of Eng. Many valuable papers in many volumes, notably for 1854, '56, '58, '59, '60, "61, '66, '69, '72, '74, '75. '76, '77, "82. J. B. Killebrew. The Grasses and Forage Plants of Tenn. L A. Lapham in Wis. Agrl. Rept., p. 409, 1853. Lawes and Gilbert. Philosoph. Transactions. London. Lawes and Gilbert. Treatment of Pastures. Jour. Roy. Agi-1. Soc., 1858, 1859. Dr. J. Lindley. The Vegetable Kingdom. J. Lindley. Many articles in Norton's Cyclopedia of Agricul. The Treasury of Botany. Lindley and Moore. E. J. Lowe. British Grasses. Maine Agrl. Rept. Discussions and notes, 1870, '71, '72, '76, '81. Maout and Decaisne. Translated by Hooker. Descrip. and Analyt. Bot. Dr. Maxwell T. Masters. Plant Life on the Farm. London. Dr. L. D. Morse, in Missouri Agrl. Rept., p. 211. 1868. 486 BIBLIOGRAPHY. Micliigan Board of Agriculture, 1871, '75, '77, '78, '80, '81, '83, '85. Re- ports and lectures by W. J. Beal. Crops of the Farm, by J. C. Morton and others, London. The Fertilization of Flowers, Prof. Hermann MOUer. Nat. Live Stock Jour., 1873, '73, '81. N. H. Agrl. Value of Quack Grass, p. 143, 1853. Prof. J. R. Page, University of Virginia. Report for 1879-80. Penn. Agrl. Rept., 1881. Dr. D. L. Pliares, of Miss. The Farmer's Book of Grasses and other Forage Plants. M. Plues. British Grasses. The Prairie Farmer, 1869 and later. Prantl and Vines. Text-book of Botany. Phila. The Press, Phila. Pa., 1884 and later. Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Science. Articles by W. J. Beal. Pi-oceedings of the Soc. for the Promotion of Agrl. Sci., vols. 1,3,3. Contributions by \V. J. Beal. The Rural New Yorker, 34 Park Row, New York. Many articles by able w-riters, especially for July, 1885. A Text-book of Botany. J. Sachs. James Sanderson. Grass with or without a Crop. Trans, of Highland Soc, 18153. Prof. N. S. Shaler. Science, p. 186. March, 1883. G. Sinclair's Hortus GramineusWoburnensis, 1836, London. Sowerby and Johnson. The Grasses of Great Britain. Prof. L. Stockbridge. Management of Pastures. Maine Agrl. Rept., 1876, "81. Sutton & Sons, Eng, Permanent Pastures. A pamphlet. J. J. Thomas. Prize Essay. N. Y. Agrl. Rept., 1843. Dr. Geo. Thurber. Geolog. Sur. Cal. Botany, vol. 3. The Tribune, N. Y., 1870 and later. C. B. Trinius. Species Graminum, 3 vols. Dr. A. Voelcker. Jour. Roy. Agrl. Soc. , 1866, 1874. R. Waringtou. The Chemistry of the Parm. London. Webb & Sons, Eng. Peroianent Pastures. A pamphlet. J. C. Wheeler & Sons, Eng. Book on Grasses. A pamphlet. Botanist and Florist. A. Wood. IN DKX. PAOE Abortion, caused by ergot 420 Acuminate, ending in a long tapering point. Acute, terminating in an acute angle. Adnate, growing fast to 64, Cut Adulterating seeds 200 Affinity of plants 60, <51 Africa, Southern, effect of over feeding... 78, 79 African millet. 187 Agrarian grasses 75 Agropyrum repens 93, 167, 169 Glumes of 34 Leaf of 29, 31 Agrostis. 70, 143, 145, 183,403 Analysis of 55 Alba 148 Canina 151 Ergot on 420 For lawn 315 Stolonifera . 148 Vulgaris var alba 145 Agrotians 403 Aira, awn of twists 46 Flexuosa 191 Leaf of 23 Albuminoids 51, 53 to 59 Alcott, J. B. on Brown bent 151 Alfalfa, see Medicago sativa. Alfilaria 216 Allen, L, F., on orchard grass.. 113 Alopecurusagrestis, seeds of... 153 Alopecurus pratensis 88, 151, 152 Analysiaof 57 Leafof 24 Pistil of 37 Proterandrous 38 Alsike clover 347 PAGE Alternate, sai(l of leaves or flow- ers where there is only one at each node or joint 64 Alvord, General, on Rocky fountain pastures 82 Alvord, Maj. H. E., on Hungar- ian grass 177 On orcliard grass 1 14 On sowing grass seed with- out a crop 253 On Timothy 106 Ammonia in clover .331, 333 And minerals 277 Amphicarpum, flowers of 38 Hairs on 17, 18 Seeds of 47 Analysis of grasses, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59. Anatropous 64 Andropogon, comes in where others fail 79, 80, 81 Leaf of. 13,19,21,27 On Pacific slope 33, 84 Anemophilous 38 Animals cover seeds 47 Annuals, plants starting from seed maturing seed and dy- ing in one year. Annular vessels 25, 26 Anther 64 Antliistiria, twisting of awn 46 Anthoxanthumodoratum...l53, 155 Analysis of 58 Glumesof 35 Var. Pueim 157 Appressed, lying flat or close against. Aquatic grasses 74 Arabian millet 171 (487) 438 INDEX. I'AOK Aristida in Mexico 97 Arizona, grazing of 82, 83, 85, 93 Arrasby, Dr. H. P., on Hungar- ian grass 176 On lurerne 355 On lupines 3«0 On making liay 287 On time to cut clover 338 Army worm 405 A rrhenatherum avenaceum3..7, 38, 121 Analysis of 58 Arundo donax, leaf of 12 Ash, composition of. .51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59 Asopias costalis 393 Asparagus, bends up 44 Atmosphere, a source of plant food 332 Aughey, Dr. S., changes in the flora of Nebraska 79 Avena, awn twists 46 Avena elatior, see Arrhena- therum 121 Avena flaveacens 191 Avena, leaf of 30 Awn, a bristle shaped append- age 36 Awn , annoying sheep 47 Twisting. 46,47 Axil, the upper angle formed by a leaf or branch to its sup- port. Bacteria in fermenting hay 299 On roots of clovers 431 Bailey, Prof. L. H. Jr., on sedges for hay 303 Banner, the largest and upper petal of a flower like the pea, clover, etc. Barley. 05, 66 Flowers of 88, 39, 40,41, 42 For hay 86 Barnyard grass, see Panicum Crus-galli. PAGE Bast, see hypodermal fibers. Batchelor, Daniel, sowing grass seed without a crop 252 How much seed to sow 244 Battle in the meascinu-i 385 Peronos[M)ra ui\ 430 Phyllachora on 424 Red 828 Ilich in nitrogen 391 Root borer 344, 375 Rust 418 Sclerotium on 427 Seed, amount to sow 830 Seed cateri)illar 892 Seed, dark or light 840 Seed in England 229 Seed, insei'ts attack 389 Seed midge 343, 889 Sei'd to the ounce 337 See(' saving : 889 St>ed sowing 330, 338 Selection of sorts. 223 Sickness .343 Soil for 334 Stem borer 378 The model plant 342 Timetocut 338 To kill weeds 335 Variation of. 340 Winter killing 3.38 Cocking hay 294 Cock's- foot, see Dactylis, Cohesion, the uniting of similar parts of a flower. Cole, T. A., on orchard grass... 113 Colias philodice 388 Collecting grasses 70, 71, 72 Collier, Peter, on grasses 59 Colorado, native pastures 80, 82 Columella, on meadows 197 Combustible matter in grasses.. 52 Comfrey, prickly 308 Composita} 61, 62, 07, 320 Composition of grass. .51, 52, 53, 54, 55, .56, 57, .58, 59 Comstock, Prof. J. H., on clover stem borer 378 INDKX. 441 PAOK CoiKluplicati', c-losiii)^: like the two liulvea of a book i'-i, 2'! ( 'oiic-llowcr - . - aiO ( 'oiiHiiltinK b< )taiii8t ail Convolute, rolled up from one rtitlo longitudinally )> {-'onvolvulaceii' •!:{ Cook, Prof. A. J , on insects !J7() Corn 7« See Indian tiorn. Smut 414 Corolla, the interior i)erianth. The jx'tals of a flower. Cotton cake as a fertilizer 275 Cotton f^rass Tm Cotton Heed meal, value as a manure iWl Cotyledon, a weed leaf 4"^, Cm Couch grass, see Agropyrum, Courtoisia '•]'» Cow-pea ;}58, :{6(i Crambus 400 Crainbus vulgivagellus 410 Creeping bent, see Agrostis. . 14'), 148 Creeping, running along or under ground and rooting. Creeping soft grass, Holcus 11)4 Creeping wheat, see Agropyrum repens. Crested dog's-tail, see Cynosurus. Cross-fertilization 88, 800 Crossing with foreign stock 807 Crow-foot, a weed 215 Crozier, AVm., on orchard grass 111 Crucifertv, plants of Gl Cryptostachys, flowers 88 Cuba grass 171 Cucurbitace.T - (52 Culm, a stem of grass 44 Cultivating grasses, early at- tempts - 197 Curing hay 80, 82 Byhotair fan 297 Curtis, T. D., on orchard grass. Ill Cutting time for clover 838 Cut worms. 403 66 I'AUB Cylimirical, long and with cross sections in the form of a circle. Cynod(m I)actylon,..l», 101. 108. 80H Leaf of 18 Cynosurus cristatus 105 Si-eds of adulti'rated 2U7 Cypcraceic JU, 85, 05 Leaves of 25 Value of 808 Dactylis glomerata 101) ( 'oniposition of 54, 50 Leaf of 19, 28 Dakota, effects of feeding grasses 80 Grazing in 82 Dandelion 220 Danthonia, awn twists 40 Darkness, ellect of 49 Darnel, see Ijolium. Darwin, C on cross-t'ertiliza- ti(m 307 Value of bumble-bees on red clover 327 Darwin, Francis, seeds burying in the soil 40, 47 Debris 432 Deciduous, falling after a little time. Decumbent, reclining but with the apex ascending. Deer parks, native 85 Dehiscent, opening regularly. De Laune, C. F. D., on Alope- curus ja'atensis 158 On buying grass seeds 212 On Dactylis glomerata 110 On ignorance of grasses 19!) On how to select grass seed _ 1 29 On list of grasses to st)w 229 On ]iasture j-ields more than meadows 200 On Phleum pratense 105 Deschampsia, awn of twists 40 Leafof. 26 442 INDEX. I'AOK Dentate, toothed. Deyeuxia Canadensis. 1 ' 9 Diadelphous, filaments combin- ing in two sets. Digitately, palmately. fingered. Dia>cious, unisexual, the two sexes borne on different plants '^^ DistichUs, in Pacific slope H;5 Distichous, placed in two verti- cal rows - !^:i Dodder - - - ~-l Dodge, J. R., most valuable wild grasses ^'^ Need of new grasses--- ;5()1 Dog-grass - !*• ' Dolichos --- - - =^♦'•1 Dorsal, on the back of. 3(5 Downing, A. J. , on lawns 1509 Drainage, advantages of - - - ~40 Improves the quality of grasses - "" ' Drasteria erechtea..- ■^^'' Drupes - ^'~ Drying grass, effect of - ~-f^ Paper ^1 Duke of Bedford - l*')^ Duval- Jouve, on tortion of leaves- - '^'* Dying seeds - ^''b Dysart, Hon. S., on saving s^ed of Timothy 1*>6 Early cultivation of grasses 197 Eel-grass ^'^ Egyptian millet or grass ITl Elatera.- ---- ^06 Elements most useful to plants. 329 Elliott, Jared, early cultivation of Timothy an OfFestuca- 25 Of grass 10, 12, 36, 64, 76 PA(iE Leaf, of Hierochloa 24 Of Indian corn 13, 18, 19, 30 Of June grass ....13, 19,23 Of Leersia .20, 23, 24, 25 Unsymmetrical 12 Leaflet, a part of a compound leaf. Leaves long 134 Minute structure 13 to 31 Movements of 23, 24, 25 Of Lygeum 23 Of Nardus 23 Of Panicum capillare 30 Of Panicum plicatum..21, 24, 27 Of Paspalum... 21 Of Phleum 19, 23, 24, 29, 36 Of Poa pratensis 13, 19, 23 Of (juack grass 29 Of rye 29 OfSecale 29 Of Setaria 30 Of Spartina.. 28,29 Of Sporobolus 24 Of Stipa .24, 26, 27 Of Triticum 29, 31 Only a mid-rib 13 KoUers. 386 Section of 14 Snmt of Timothy 414 Sleep of 328 Tortion of 23, 29, 30 LeDuc, Gen. W. G., on cocking hay 294 How much seed to sow 243 Leersia ...6, 11 Glumes of 35 Hooks on 17 Leaf of. 20, 23, 24, 25 Legmne, the see ' vessel of Leguminosff -he pod of a pea. Legumes rich in nitrogen 291 LeguminosaB 61, 67, 320 Leaves of 23 Leptosplueria on roots of clover and alfalfa 426 448 INDEX, PAOK Lespeileza striata 360 Leufania uniimnctata 40") Liatris, leaf of 29 Lil)l)y. E. H., on orchard grass. Ill Liglit, effect of. 4!), m Ligule 10, 04, 7t') Liliaciw 6iJ Lily family 63 Limber Bill.. 183 Linacca! . 63 Lindlcy, Dr. J., (jvioted 00 Oil crested dog's tail 195 On red-top 148 On tall oat-grass... 121 Linseed cake, value as a manure. 331 Lintuer, Prof. J. A. on clover in- sects 371 Lobe, any division of an organ. Loco weed. 218 Locusta - - - 36 Locusts... 409 Lodicule 33, 35, 04, 05 Lolium, analysis of 58 Lolium perenne 157, 159 Lucerne, see Medicago sativa. Lunate, half xnoon-shaped, cres- cent-shaped. Lupine 360 Lygeum, leaf of 23 Lyme grass 200 Making clover hay in one day.. 295 Making hay 286, 289 Mallow 216 Mallow family 63 Malvaceae 63 Mammoth clover 106, 334, 344 Manures, ammoniacal increase the grasses 276 Disuse of 277 Effect of.. 271, 275, 288 Effect of barnyard 276 For grass lands 207 Improve the quality of grasses 281 PAOE Manures, loss of food in passing through animals 281 Mineral increase leguminous plants 270 Value of foods for 331, 332 Manuring, green 279 Marasmius on roots of grasses.. 431 Marine grasses 74 Marshes, grasses for 233 Masters. Dr. M. T., experiments on grass lands 273 On improving by selection.. 305 On ])lant life 50 Matricaria, a weed _ . 214 May-beetle 403 Maj'weed 220 McMinn, J. M., on list of grasses 204 Meadow, battle in 273 Care of 266 Cats tail.. 103 Meadow fescue 126, 127, 200 Adulterated with rye-grass.. 207 Meadow foxtail, see Alophecui'us pratensis. 153 Meadow, grasses suited to... 74, 226 Soft grass 193 Yields less than pasture 260 Meadows, first in Great Britain. 198 Of the Romans 197 Means grass 171 Medicago 352 Medicago sativa 86, 353 Fungus on roots 426 In California.. 86 Peronospora on 430 Medick. 357 Black, a weed 216 Median fiber 14 Medium red clover 344 Melica stricta, section of leaf. . . 17 Melica, glume of 35 Pistil of 37 Melilotus 358 Membranous, thin and rather pliable. Mesophyll 30 INDEX. 449 Mexico, hay in 95, 96, 97 Northern grasses in 94 to 99 Mil)ora, pistil of J^T Mice, injurious to grass 309 Microscope, liow to use 75, 76 Midge, clover-leaf 383 Clo%-er-see(l 389 Mid-rib 13 Of a glume 36 Mid-vein 13 Mildew on grasses 43(i Milkweed 233 Milium, apikelet of 33 Millet. 171 , 1 75 Minerals and ammonia, effect of 277 And nitrate, effect of 277 Mint family 63 Mixtures, better than one grass 226 For sowing 231 Moles in grass land 369 Molina to adulterate Cynosurus 207 Mollugo- 216 Monadephous stamens, those united by their filaments 64 Monoecious, unisexual, the two sexes born on one plant 38 Montana, grazing 82, 87 to 94 Montgomery, on Johnson grass. 173 Mooting 6 Morphology of flowers 33 Morrow, Prof. G. E., how much seed to sow 243 On orchard grass 116 Motion in plants universal.. 44, 45, 40 Movements of leaves 23, 24, 25 Of roots 3 Ofsap 9 Muck, use of 271 Mucronate, abruptly pointed with a short spine 77 Muhlenbergia, fertilized.. 39 Muhlenbergia glomerata 181 Muhlenbergia Mexicana 185 In Mexico 97 Mulilenberg's grass 181 57 I'AdK Muhler, on fertilization of the flowers of red clover. 325 Mullein . 221 Mtmroa, leaf of 28 Mustard 215 Mustard family 61 Names of a plant, rules for 69, 70 Nardus, leaf of. 23 Pistil of 37 Narrow dock 223 Native grasses of Pacific 82 to 87 Grazing lands .78 to 99 Nebraska, flora changes... 79, 80, 82 Grazing 82 Nectaria 33 Nectar, tlie sweet secretion of flowers. Nerve, an unbranched vein or slender rib. Net veined .26, 64 Nettie- . . 223 Nevada, grazing. 83 New ilexico, grazing 82, 93 Night shades. 63 Nimble Will 182 Nitrate of soda, effect of 277 Nitrogen 51, 52, 53 In clover 291, 329, 332 Node, a joint of stem from which the leaves spring... 5, 6, 9, 44, 76 Nomenclature .69, 70 Nonesuch. 357 Oat-grass, analysis 58 Tall 121 Oats 65, 66 Flowers of 38, 39, 41 Obcordate, inverted heart shape. Oblong, considerably longer than broad and with sides nearly parallel and ends rounded. Obovate, ovate with the broader end toward the apex. 450 INDEX. I'AOE Obtuse, blunt ox* rounded at the extremity. Onobrychis... JWO Orange worts <)1 Orchard grass, see Dactylis..lOD, 188 Early culture 1 08 Elements in 54, oU Fungus . k:J, 84 ProcuinlM'ut, lying along the ground. Progress slow 190, 300 Proliferous aO, 37 Proterantlrous 38 Proterogyiious 38 Protoplasiu 1 Puccinia graminis 410 Pulse family 01, 3-,'0 Pulvinus 328 Pur[)le l)ent 145 Piu-selane 210 PHisey on irrigation 283 Pythiuni on young grasses and clovei's 430 Quack, quick, quitch, quake grass, see Agropyrum rep- ens 92, 107 Quack grass, how to kill 225 In a potato 170 Phyllachora on 424 Smut of 415 Quarts, ground for adulterating seeds 207 Quotations left over 432 Raceme, an indeterminate in- florescence with lengthened axis and nearly ecjual ped- icels - 36 Racemose, like a raceme. Rachilla, the axis of a spikelet-64, 101 Rachis, the axis of a spike. Radicle, the lower part of a seed- ling plant, the first internode 65 Rag-weed. 220 Rain da niaging hay 289 Randall grass 126, 127 Ravenal, A. W., on Texas mil- let 187 1 PAGE i Recurved, curved backward or I downward. Red clover 823 Fertilized by bees 325, !M2 Fungus on roots 426 Red-top, see Agrostis. Regular, uniform or symmetri- cal in shape. Reticulated cells 25 Rhizome, a rootstock; a thick- ened stem, usually below the surface of the ground 5, 133 Rhode Island bent 151 Rib grass, Plantago lanceolata, 65, 220. Rice GO Ricliardson, C. , quoted 52 Riley, Prof. C. V., on clover- leaf beetle 380 On clover root borer 376 Robbins, VV, K., on Muhlen- l)erg's grass. 183 Roberts, Prof. I. P., on clover- root borer 378 On clover sickness 343 On orchard grass 113 On selecting grasses and clovers 234 Robinson, on lawns 309 Rocky mountain pastures.. 82 to 88 Romans, meadows of 197 Root 2, 3, 4, 42, 43 Root-cap 3 Root-hairs 3, 4, 43 Root-sheath 43 Roots, of clover 334 Depth of .3, 333 Fewer in close pasture than where grass is tall 263 Function of 49 Of Indian corn 45 Roots, movements of 3, 45 Weight of, per acre 330 Root-stocks, see rhizome 5, 133 Root -tip, sensitive 45 Rosacese 61 INDEX. 4.j3 PAOH Rose family ♦'! Rotation of (•roj)8, advantage of 2.J1) Rothiock, Dr. J. T., graHses of great l)a.sin 1^3 Rougli-stalked meadow grass.- Wi Royal Agrl. Soc, consulting botanist of .--- -2 Riihiacea) «^ Rudbeckia, a weed 214, 219 Riu-id New Yorker, on quack IfiS grass. Quoted 242 Rust, on alfalfa 410 On clover 418 On grass 410 On o'-chiird grass 419 On tall fescue 419 Rutaci'se. *'l Rye - 05, (W Ergot on 420 Flowers of 38,39,41 Leafof.. 29 Rye-grass, analysis •'">H DeLiiuneon 230. 231 Early culture 198 Glumes of - - 34 Seeds used to adulterate meadow fescue 207, 212 Rye, for manure 280 Sanifoin - Salem grass Salt, as a fertilizer 269, Sanborn , Prof. .J. W. , on amount of seed to sow... On seeding to grass On time to cut grass 291 , Sanderson, James, of Scot- land, on sowing grass with a crop - - Sap, movement- - Satin grass _ Saving seeds. Saxi*"ragacea; Scabrous; rough to the touch. Scales, lodicules. 360 193 271 242 249 293 254 10 181 299 62 PACJB Scarious, thin, dry, membran- ous 64 Schin/.ia, on roots of clover 431 Sclerotium 420 On clover 427 Scott, F. J. , tm lawns 300 Scribner. Prof. F. L., on grasses of Montana 87 Scutch grass.- 103, 107 Scutellate, shield shaped O") Scutellum 43 Sea-grass 65 Secondaries, of leaves 20 Sedge-grass 0.") Sedges 05 Bulliform cells of 25 Value of 303 Seed 41,42.43 Saving clover 339 Sowing clover 330 Seed stations in Germany, work of.. 208 Seednig grass by inoculation 247 With grain 247 Without grain .247, 250 Seedling rot on roots of grasses and clovers 430 Seeds to the acre, see each lead- ing grass near the close of the topic. Seeds bury tliemselves 45, 46, 47 Carried on the feet of cattle. 101 Covered by animals 47 Depth of covering 49 Germination 48, 49 How distributed 100, 101 How much to sow 240 How ]ireserved - 48 How to procure good 211 Move 45.40,47 Pounds or ounces to tlie bushel 202 Produceil by one plant 326 Pure and mi.xed 127 Saving - 299 Sowing 245, 203 454 INDEX. PAGE Seeds, sprout more than once... 210 Standard grades... 211 Testing 206, 208 Selecting gnisses 227 Selection, improving by 305 Self-heal 221 Septoria on grjisses 428 Sesleria, plan of leaf 14, 23 Sessile having no stem. 64 Sessions, Governor, on tall oat- grass 124 Setaceous, bristle-like. Setaria Italica 1~5 Setaria, leaf of 30 Shaler, Prof. N. S., on need of new grasses 304 '■ 1. ath. 9, 10, 64, 76 Of glume 36 Sheep annoyed by Stipa 47 Ft'scue 132 On mountain pastures H7 Sorrel . 223 Shelton, Prof. E. M., on Bermu- da grass 165 How much seed to sow 243 On buying good seeds... 207, 211, 213 On clover in Kansas 334 On grasses for Kansas 234 On Johnson grass 173 On June grass 120 On lucerne in Kansas 355 On orchard grass . . 116 On over-feeding tlu^ prairies. 80 On seetling to grass without a crop 252 On sowing grass on prairie sod 255 On sowing the seed 245, 253 On tall fescue. . 13 i On tall oat-grass 123 On Timothy 105 Shepher.l"s purse 215 Shrews, injurious to grasses and cl( >vers 369 Sieve-tissue 7 PAOE Silene 215 Sinclair, Geii. , on grasses 1 99 On irrigation 2S3 Sleep of l«-aves 328 Smooth-stalked meadow grass. . 133 Smuts 414 Snapping Ix-etles 407 Snout nu >th 400 Snow, seeds drifting on 101 Sod in Montana 93 Soda, use of 270 Soft bast 25 Soft w( )olly grass 230 Soil I )est for grasses 240 For clover 334 Food in 50, 51, 53 Poor grasses will not thrive on 279 Solanaceae. _ 63 Sorghum 66 Sorghum halaiH?nse 171 Leaf of 13 Sorrel, sheej^ 223 South, grasses for 234, 239 Sowing grass seeil on prairie sod 255 Seeds « )n grass 254 The seed 245, 263 Sown, what grasses in Great Britain 201 What grasses m United States 204 Spartina, leaf of. 28, 29 Spathella 33 Spear-gniss. 133 Species, a name 69 Spelt llowers 40, 41 Spi(;ate 64 Spike, an inflorescence with ses- sile llowera on an elongated axis 36 Spike of Timothy 76 Spikelet 36 Of Poa 33 Spiral vessels 25 Split-sheaths 10 Sporoljolus 8, 9, 65 INDEX 455 I»AOK Sporobolus, intlicus, smut on... 428 In Pacific slope 83 Lt'afof 24 Set'dof 43 Spring beetles 407 Sprout, seeds may more than once 210 Spurge 223 Si»urre(l rye 420 Scjuauiuhe 33 St. John's Wort 215 Stacking hay 207 Stalker, Dr. M., on Stipa 47 Stamen, the male part of a flower 33 Staminate, a flower l)earing stamens but no ])istils 38 Starch 42 Stellate cells in leaf 13 Stem 2,5,6, 7, 8, Secticm of 6 Straightens how G Stewa't;, Henry, on Japan clover 368 Stewart, E. W., on manure of animals 281 Stick-seed 221 Stigma, the upper part of the pistil which receives tlie pollen 33,37 Stipa, awn twists 4(5, 47 Leaf of 24,26,27 Sti!;;nate 364 Stii»els 364 SItipitato 64 Stipules, appendages at the base of some leaves. Stock take 5 to 10 per cent of mauurial value of food 332 Stockbridge, Prof., on pastures. 262 Stoloniferous, bearing prostrate, rooting brandies. Stomata 14, 15, 16, 127 Stooling — 6 Storer, Prof. F. H., on fenn(>n- tation of hay 298 PAOB Storing hay, effect of 288 Stragula 33 Straw, value as a manure 331 Stubble, manurial value of 332 Weight of per acre 830 Studying grasses 75, 76, 77 Sturtevant, Dr. E. L., on Hun- garian grass 176 Style, the part suually uniting the ovary and the stigma of a pistil 33,37 Sugar 66 Sulphate of lime, effect of 277 Sulphur 51, 52 Summer dew-grass 145 Supi'rphosphate of ammonia, ef- fect of . 277 Superphosphate of lime, effect of 276 Sweet clover 358 Sweet scented vernal grass 153 Analysis of 58 Awns of 47 Proterandrous - 38 Swine, clover for 335 Syrian grass 171 Tall meadow fescue 126, 127, 131 Tallant. W. F., on orchard grass 114 Tall oat-grass, see Arrhenathe- ruin. Tare 362 Terete, cylindrical. Tertiaries 36 Test a 65 Testing seeds 206, 208 Texas blue grass - 143 Texas millet 189 Texas, some leading grasses in_.81 , 82 Thistle 219 Killed by clover 335 Thomas, J. J., on the model grass 299 On need of new grasses 301 On seeding grass with grain. 247 Tluirber, Dr. Geo., on need of new grasses 301 456 INDEX. PAOE Thurber, Dr. Geo., on weeds — 214 Tillering « Till.'tia 414 Time to cut grass 59 Timothy, see Phleum pratense. Alpine 89 Toad-Hax 221 Torsion of leaves 23, 29, 30 Trachypogon, leaf of.. _ 21 Trat-y , W. \V. , on a seed 41 Tragus, glands on 8 Tragus racemosus, hairs on 17 Trees, families of 63 Trefoil 321 Trelease, Dr. Wm., on fungi 413 Tribune, quoted. 264 Trichomes 3, 4, 5, 14, 16, 17, 43 Trifolium 321 Trifolium hybridum 347 Incarnatum 3.") 1 .Medium 344 Pratense 323 Repcns 348 Tlcpens for lawn 315 Tripsacum, moncoiious 38 Triticum, see Agropyruni. Troop, Prof., on tall fescue 131 Tuber, of Timothy 76 Tufted, growing in bunches. Turf in Montana 93 Turgescence, a swelling or en- larging 44 Turnips, value as a manure 331 Twining of a vine 44 Twisted awn 36, 46, 47 Leaves 23, 29, 30 Twitch grass 167 Two-ranked.. 76 Typha, leaf of 29 Ulex 360 Umbelliferai 62 Uniola, glumes of 35 United States, grasses sown in . 204 Ur( )niy ces trif olii 4 1 ^' Ustilatro 414 Utah, grazing in. PAGE . 83 Vagal)ond crambus 410, 411 Valvate, opening as if by doors or valves. Vanilla-grass, flowers of 88 Vasculum 71 Va.se 71 Vasey, Dr., on Johnson grass. .173 On Texas millet 189 Veins, transverse 12, 26 Velvet grass .193, 230 Vernation 23 Versatile 64 Vessels 7, 25 Vetch 363 Vicia 362 Violet root-fungus on alfalfa and clover 426 Vitacea? 61 Voelcker, Dr. A. , on clover as a manure 332 Fertilizers for grass lands 269 On manuring to increase clover seed .339 Quality of grasses affected by manures and drainage 283 Warington , R. , quof < i 53 Washington, T., grazing in 83 Waters, R., on orchard grass. . . 115 Watson, Sereno, grasses of great basin 94 Weds -62, 63 Among grasses 224 Come in where i)astures are over-fed 79, 80 Defined 214, 215 How distributed 214 In grasses, list of 214 to 223 In meadows decrease with manuring 276 Killed by clover 335 To get rid of 224 Where from 214 Wheat ~ 65,66 INDEX. 457 PAGE AVheat, cross-breeding 307 Flowers 38, 39, 40, 41 Spikelet of 35 Wliitehent 148 Clover 348 Clover for lawn 315 Clover, yield of seeds aided by liees 327 White grub 40» White top 148 Wild Timothy 181 Wild rice, moncoeious 38 Willard, X. A., on list of grasses 204 Wilson, A. S.,on fertilization of flowers... 39 Winter grazing, country for.. 82, 88 At the south 237, 239 Winterkilling of clover 338 Wire/PT-ass 137 163 5b PACK Wire grass, analysis of 57 W ii e worms 400 Witch grass 107 Woodchucks in grass land 369 Woodward, J. S., on clover to kill weeds 335 Worlidge, J. , on ray -grass 198 Wyoming, grazing in 82 Yarrow, see«ls 218 Yellow butterfly . . 388 Oat-grass 191 Yorkshire fog 193 Zea mays, see Indian corn. Zizania a<{uatica, leaf of 13 Zizania, moncecious 88 Uusymmetrical leaf 11