; Stml ^^y^s. : .■•■ \ - ^ \ ■'-"•i'-JlJ-V-J-JM^J -1-'^ -V! /■' A»,'^ THE EARLY HISTORY OE AMERICA • '-,<■'■, ■■,'■'". -I BY JOHN SaMPBELL, MAv ' K ■ ■'^:^' ' ^ ,'* - "f ' • »■■ >\ 1 -'.'■ . J- 1 >^ ■^'■ . V i -' > THE EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. { \ t OUTLINE OF A SERIES OF LECTURES ' ; V DELIVERED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE ' Ladies' Fducational Association OF Montreal/ '^^^^^::" f DURING THE SESSION 1881-82. BY JOHN CAMPBELL, M.A. PROFESSOR IN THE PRESBYTERIAN COLLEGE, MONTREAL. MONTREAL ! MITCHELL & WILSON, PRINTERS, NOTRE DAME ST. 1882. Co The J'resident, TiiK Okficers and Membeks OF THE f abifs' €bufiitionaI ^ssonation of Montreal, AND To THE Students of the Course IN T III; K A R I. Y History of America, This Outline Is rcspcttfulli) mscribftr. Moulreal, Feby. ,}f/i, iSSa. I ... - n OUTLINE OF LECTURES ON THE KARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. INTRODUCTION. Attention paid to this subject in America and on the Continent o*" Europe. Three divisions : I. The history of European discovery and colonization : .II. The native histories of Peru, Central America and Me.xico : III. The origin, traditions, antiquities and classification of the aborigines. I. Eight luiropean powers have been re])resented on the continent, England, Erance, Spain, Portugal, Holland, Sweden, Denmark, Russia. Haiti is ruled by negroes originally from Africa. Paraguay was originally an ecclesiastical (Jesuit) state. Prior to the Colum- bian period the Norsemen, and, before them, the Scoto-Irish Culdees visited North America. II. The Peruvian kingdom fell before Pizarro under the Inca Atahuallpa ; the Mexican, before Cortez under Montezuma. In Yucatan the Mayas lost their independence to the same conquerors, and in Guatimala, the Quiches. The oral or written traditions of these peoples have been in part at least preserved. Documents and monuments inscribed with hieroglyphic characters, Aztec and Maya, still exist. Hi. Midway between these civilizations and the barbarism of other tribes stand the Pueblos of the village Indians in New Mexico, Arizona .'.:,"', and adjoining regions. The houses of the ClifT dwellers appear :j.. = ; ;' farther north in Colorado and Utah, perched high up on the sides i ofthecaiions. From Oregon and British Columbia westward to ' I-ake Superior, and thence southward along the Mississippi valley to the Gulf of Mexico, occur the monuments of the Mound Builders. A few inscriptions have been found among them, and many appear in the neighborhood of the Cliff dwellings and Pueblos. Shell heaps or kitchen middens lie along the north- western, Arctic, and eastern sea-boards, marking the presence of the Esquimaux or an allied race, which extended to the extreme south. At the time of the Norsemen's visits the Esquimaux alone inhabited New England. Relics of former generations of existing tribes of Indians are found everywhere. tf • In dealing with the origin and classification of our aborigines we must face the evolution theory, Kven according to this theory American man cannot have originated on this continent. His polysynthesis of language is Air from universal, and has, where it does exist, been grossly exaggerated. He presents no one distinct physical and moral type, but, among others, variations of two racial types that appear, the one in North Eastern Asia, the other in the Malayo-Polynesian region. His antiepiity, with doubtful instances to the contrary, cannot extend beyond the beginning of the Christian era. The doubtful instances are very few in number, but, if verified, would establish the existence of an extinct American family towards the close of the post-glacial |)eriod. The Americans, though comparatively recent inhabitants of the continent, are the representatives of one of the oldest nations of the world, the so-called Scythians, known to authentic history as the Khita or Hittites and their allied tribes, who existed as a historical people to the north of China as late as the 12th century a.d. As such their traditions may give to the Old World valuable materials for filling the blanks of ancient history. The Muskogees of the Mobilian fn.iuiiy of Indians and the Utes of the Paduca family pre- serve the story ot the " mice that gnawed the bow-strings," told by Herodotus and Strabo. •. ^' THE NORSEMEN IN AMERICA. Iceland was discovered by the Norsemen in 860 a.d., and was first settled by them in 874. The Scoto-Irish Culdees, who had previously settled there, left the island on their arrival. In 986 Eirek the Red led a colony to Greenland which perished in the 15th century. The Sagas of Eirek the Red and of Thorfinn Karlsefne tell of the discovery of America by the Norsemen. In 986 Bjarni Herjultson descried the American main. About 1000 Leif Eirekson in Bjami's vessel went on a voyage of discovery and found Helluland the little or Newfoundland, Markland or Nova Scotia, and Vinland or Mass achusetts, where he wintered, returning with a cargo of wood and raisins. Leif's brother Thorwald visited Vinland the following year and was killed at Cape Cod in 1004 by the Skraellings or Esquimaux. In 1007 Thorfinn Karlsefne, also from Greenland, sailed with three vessels containing 160 persons and much live stock, to Vin- land, passing Helliiland the great or Labrador, Helluland the little, and Markland. He founded the settlement of Hop, now Mount Hope, wintered on the Taunton river, and left the so-called Dighton inscription. He brought back a cargo of fine woods and furs. The Icelandic annals mention other ex|)editions to V inland, the last being in 1347. An Icelandic geographical tre.itise, after mentioning the position of Helluland, &c., states that behind Vinland lies Hvittraniannaland, White Man's I^ind, or Great Ireland. Two Esfjuiniaux children mentioned in the Saga of Thorfinn Karlsefne further described this land as lying opposite Markland. The Landnamabok tells of Ari Marsson who was cast away on that land and there baptized by the natives about the year 986. The Eyrbyggja Saga relates a similar story of Bjorn lireidvikingakapjje. The narrative of Antonio Zeno, an Italian mariner in the service of the ruler of the Faroe Islands, in the end of the 14th century, contains the account of a voyage made by a I'aroese fisherman to a great western country called Estotiland, whose commercial relations were with Greenland, and where civili- zation prevailed amid surrounding barbarism. M. F-ugene Beauvois out of all these narratives evolves the Scoto-Irish colony of Escoci- land, White Man's Land or Great Ireland, including parts of Maine, New Brunswick and Gaspe. He fails in striving to identify it with the Norimbegue of the early French writers, and in finding traces of it in the worship of the cross by the Micmacs, Abenakis and Mon- tagnais. Yet such a view would explain the strange phenomenon of Algontjuin monotheism. The name Kristenaux applied to the Crees, who call themselves Naeyowuk, may have a Christian meaning. No traces of primitive Christianity are found among the Esquimaux. The Culdee-Algonquin settlement, if it ever existed, may have been destroyed by the Wyandott-Iroquois family, which, in the time of Jacques Cartier was supreme on the lower St. Lawrence. SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE DISCOVERY. . -, Columbus, seeking to reach Asia from the west, arrived at San Salvador in the Bahamas, October 11, 1492. He left a colony in Haiti, which he called Hispaniola, among Indians belonging to the same stock as the Maya-Quiches of Central America. To the south of these the warlike Caribs from Guiana possessed the islands which bear their name. He returned in 1493 with a large body of colonists to find the former colony annihilated. The slavery of the natives which ended in their extinction now began. On the occasion *" his third visit in 1498 with a cargo of convicts, he discovered the main- land of South America and entered the Orinoco. In 1500 Bovadilla, the governor of Haiti, sent him home in chains. Restored to favour, he made his fourth voyage in 1502 and discovered Honduras. His colony on the Isthmus perished, and he returned to Spain to die in 1506. Afterwards his son Don Diego kept viceregal state in Haiti, from which Cuba, Jamaica, and other islands were explored and colonized. Amerigo Vespucci, by means of a book describing the discovery of the northern coast of South America by himself and Ojeda in 1499, gave his name to the continent. In 1512 Ponce de Leon, seeking the Fountain of Youth, found Florida, which did not become a Spanish colony till 1566. In 15 13 Balboa, seeking Peru, marched across the Isthmus and took posses- sion of the Pacific Ocean. A Spanish settlement was subsequently founded at Panama. In 15 19 Cortez invaded Yucatan, entered Mexico and founded Vera Cruz, was joined by the Zempoallans, Totonacs, Tlascallans and other tribes, took Montezuma prisoner, who died by the weapons of his own subjects, and conquering his successor Guatimozin, obtained possession of Mexico in 1521. In 1525 Stephen Gomez visited New York harbour and the New England coast. Pizarro discovered Peru in 1526. In 1531 he led an expedi- tion into that country, enfeebled by wars between Huascar and Atahuallpa, sons of Huayna Capac, the former Inca. By treachery he took Atahuallpa prisoner, and put him to death, overcame the Peruvians, built Lima in 1534 and sent Almagro to take possession of Chili, and was assassinated in 1541. In 1539 De Soto, seeking gold in North America, discovered the Mississippi and died upon its shores. Portuguese discovery began with Cortereal, who in 1500 dis- covered Newfoundland and the coasts 700 miles to the south, from which he carried away slaves. He perished in a second expedition the following year. Cabral accidently discovered Brazil in 1500, but it was not colonized till 1549. The Portuguese conciliated the wild Tupi-Guarani and other native tribes. Brazil became an inde- pendent empire in 1826. Between 1808 and 1826 Spain lost almost all her American possessions. ENGLISH DISCOVERY, ETC. John Cabot a Venetian in English service discovered Labrador in 1497. Next year his son Sebastian skirted the coast from New- foundland to Maryland. In one of these voyages they entered Hudson's Bay. Fishing vessels resorted to the banks in great num- bers. In 1576 Frobisher discovered the straits bearing his name. In 1583 Sir Humphrey Gilbert took formal possession of Newfound- land, and was lost on the way home. Daring his voyage round the world, begun in 1579, Sir Francis Drake reached the Oregon coast. Amadas and Barlow named Virginia in 1584; colonization began the year following ; and Jamestown was built in 1607. The story of Captain John Smith and that of the massacre by the Southern Algonquins belong to this period. In 1585 and the following years John Davis made his three northwest voyages, and named Davis strait. In 161 2 William Baffin entered Baffin's Bay. In the West Indies, Barbadoes was nominally taken possession of in 1605 and colonized in 1624. The Bermudas were annexed in 1 6 10, and colonized in 161 2. Jamaica was taken from the Spani- ards in 1655. In 1609 Henry Hudson, an Englishman in the Dutch service, explored the coast from Nova Scotia to Virginia, entered New York harbour, sailed up the Hudson, met Algonquins and Iroquois, and took possession of the country as the New Netherlands. Coloniza- tion began in the following year. In 16 10 Hudson, now in English service, discovered Hudson's Bay, and was cast away by his mutinous crew. In 1637 the Swedes founded New Sweden in Delaware and Pennsylvania, which was annexed to the new Netherlands in 1655. In 1620 the Mayflower with a body of English Puritans entered Plymouth harbour, and laid the foundation of the New England colonies. Maryland was colonized in 1634 by English Roman Catholics under a patent to Lord Baltimore. In 1664 the English took possession of the New Netherlands and called them New York. The history of the various colonies and of the United States which they afterwards constituted does not belong to our subject. In 1669 the Hudson's Bay Company was formed, and posts were established at many points in the vicinity of Hudson's Bay. The traders came in contact with the Esquimaux in the north, the Tinneh or Athabascans to the west, the Dacotah Assineboins and Algonquin Blackfeet to the south, and the Algonquin Crees and Ojibbeways to the east. Samuel Hearne in the Company's employ- ment explored the Athabascan country and followed the Coppermine River to the Arctic Ocean in 177 1. In 1789 Sir Alexander Mac- kenzie of the North- West Company, which was afterwards merged in that of Hudson's Bay, explored the Mackenzie River country further to the west. In 1778 Captain Cook, shortly before his tragical death, visited the north-western coast, meeting with the Nootkans of Nootka Sound the Aleutians in the neighborhood of Alaska, and the Tchuktchis of north-eastern Asia. Captain Meares in 1788, and Vancouver in 1792 visited the shores of British Columbia. In 1793 Sir Alexander Mackenzie made his way to the same country overland ; and trading posts were established there in 1809. In 1728 Captain Bering in the Russian service, discovered Bering's Straits, and took possession of Russian America in 1740. Among other tribes he there met the Tlinkets who wear labrets. FRENCH DISCOVERY. French fishermen visited the banks of Newfoundland in 1504, and in 1506 Denis of Harfleur prepared a map of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In 1524 Verrazzani explored the American coast from South Carolina to Nova Scotia. In 1534 Jacques Cartier visited Newfoundland and entered the Gulf. Next year he named the St. Lawrence, anchored near the Isle of Orleans, received the name Canada from the Huron-Iroquois inhabitants, visited Hochelaga and named Mount Royal. He heard of the fabulous Norimbegue. The first colony planted by De Roberval in 1540 came to a disastrous end. Two Huguenot colonies were planted ; one in Brazil under Villegagnon in 1555 which ended in ruin; the other in Florida in 1562-3 under Ribault and Laudonni^re which was destroyed by the Spaniards in 1566. In 1598 an equally unfortunate colony was planted on Sable Island by the Marquis de la Roche. In 1603 Samuel Champlain made his first voyage to New France. The following year De Monts and Poitrincourt colonized Nova Scotia or Acadia. They founded Port Royal, and visited the Algonquins of Maine and New Brunswick, among whom the Jesuit missionaries soon after established themselves, as well as among the Micmacs of Nova Scotia. In 1608 Champlain founded Quebec, and became the first governor of New France. The Algonquins had then super- seded the Huron-Iroquois on the Lower St. Lawrence. Champlain made expeditions to the Iroquois in northern New York, the Hurons on the Georgian Bay, and the Algonquins of Lake Nipissing. Wars with the Iroquois mark the history of French domination in Canada. In 1648-9 these warriors destroyed the Christian Huron settlements between lakes Simcoe and Huron. In 1 64 1 Raymbault, missionary to the Hurons, discovered lake Superior, met with the Ojibbeways at the Sault St. Marie, and heard of the great west. Allouez in 1665 established a mission to tlie south of lake Superior, and made acquaintance with the Potawato- "Jiies, Sacs and Foxes, Illinois and other tribes of western Algonquins. The Dacotah tribes told him of the Mississippi. In 1673 Marquette and Joliet descended that river to the point reached by De Soto. In 1682 De La Salle reached the sea by the same route, and took formal possession of Louisiana. In 1698 Le Moine d'Iberville founded the colony, and in 1 7 1 8 New Orleans was built. There the French found the Natchez whose storj' is told by Chateaubriand. In i68t Illinois was occupied; in 1701 Detroit in Michigan was founded; and in 1735 a settlement was made in Indiana. In 17 15 the Tuscaroras, expelled by the English from Carolina, joined the Iroquois and formed with them the Six Nations. The French war of 1754 aiose out of the conflicting claims of France and England to the country between the Mississippi and the AUeghanies. At the close of this war in 1762, France lost her North American colonies with the exception of Louisiana, together with some of the West India islands. In 1763 Pontiac an Ottawa still kept up the war with England in the country about Detroit. ANTIQUITIES AND ANCIENT HISTORV OF PERU. The Muysoas of New Granada and the Peruvians were related to the Japanese and allied peoples of North Eastern Asia. Traces of the parent stock of the Peruvians appear in Central America. The principal languages of Peru are the Quichua and the Aymara. The chief historical tribes are the Chinchas, Huancas and Aymaras. The Peruvians recorded events by oral tradition, quippos or knotted cords, and doubtful hieroglyphics. Their historians of greatest note are Garcilasso de la Vega and Fernando Montesinos. The former confines himself to history proper, merely linking the first Peruvian king with Manco Capac, the mythic ancestor of the race ; the latter 12 places 88 monarchs between them, whose history does not belong to Peru. ^ The first King was Rocca, who called himself Inca or lord, a title borne by all subsequent monarchs, and established his kingdom in Cuzco in 1062, where he founded the worship of the sun. The sixth from Rocca was Huiracocha, 1 289-1340. He extended the kingdom towards Quito in the north and Chili in the south. Pachacutec, his successor, continued these conquests, subduing the country about Lima and obtaining possession of the sanctuary of Pachacamac. The story of Ollontay belongs to the reign of Pachacutec and his son Yupanqui, who began to rule in 1400. Yupanqui conquered the land of the Chimus near Truxillo. In 1439 his son Tupac Yu- ^ panqui became king. He asserted that the sun must have a master. Huayna Capac, the greatest of the Incas, followed in 1475. He reigned over 10 millions of people from New Granada to Chili, erected great public works, and patronized the arts. At his death in 1525, his two sons, Huascar, of pure Inca descent, and Atahuallpa, son of the princess of Quito, fought for sole supremacy. When the Span- iards arrived in 1531, Atahuallpa had imprisoned his brother, whom he afterwards put to death. The population of Peru was largely agricultural. They used guano and practised artificial irrigation. All shared in the soil, and for taxes cultivated the royal and ecclesiastical lands. The llama was the only beast of burden. Gold, silver and tin were mined and smelted, and wrought into artistic vessels and ornaments. Copper was hardened with tin and silex. Much art appears in the Peruvian pottery and working in stone. Cotton and woollen stuffs, the latter consisting of the fine hair of four species of llama, were w >ven by the women and beautifully dyed. The incas or princes taught in military colleges, and a class of amautas or philosophers, in those devoted to literature and science. Music and poetry were their chief arts. Their original deities were Con and Pachacamac, the Deluge hero, but these were superseded by Inti, the sun. They were ministered to in sumptuous temples by priests and vestals. Human sacrifice was unknown. The corpses of kings and nobles were embalmed. Cities were not numerous, Cuzco and Quito being the chief. There were 4000 caravanserais on the public roads, with many gym- nasia and public baths, and 200 royal palaces, besides numberless magnificent temples and monasteries. Public roads were kept up by ■"• . ■ is ■- . ' statute labour, as well as the suspension bridges, and over these royal couriers travelled incessantly. Laws were few, severe, and well observed. * ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF SOUTH AMERICA. The west and south of the continent are inhabited by what D'Orbigny calls the Ando-Peruvian family. Its divisions are Muys- cas, Peruvians, Chilenos. The extinct Muyscas of New Granada, whose capital was Bogota, possessed the Penivian religion and civili- zation and exhibited many Japanese analogies. The chief languages of Peru are the Quichua, or language of the Incas, and the Aymara. The Aymaras were the builders of a Stonehenge on Lake Titicaca. The Peruvians have greater powers of endurance than any other American people. The crania of the Incas are among the smallest known. Many writers have noticed the resemblances between the Aymaras and the Guanches of the Canary Islands. All evidence tends to shew that the Ando-Peruvians descended from the north- eastern tribes of Asia. The Chilenos consist of the Moluche or Araucanians of Chili, the Puelche or Pampas Indians of La Plata, and the Patagonians and Fuegians who are both indifferently called Huilliche or Tehu- elche. The Araucanians are the most civilized, and possess many arts. Ercilla, who visited Chili in 1562 and fought against them, has celebrated their valour and independent spirit in his Araucania. The Pampas Indians, accomplished horsemen as all the Chilenos are except the Fuegians, use the lasso, and in figure approach the Pata- gonians, who are the largest people in the world, but thorough bar- barians. The Fuegians, although undoubtedly of the same original stock, are the Esquimaux of the south, and raise shell heaps along the coast. The aborigines of the eastern half of the continent are totally different from the Ando-Peruvians. In features, language, religion, customs and arts they claim kindred with the Malays and Polyne- sians, and must have come originally to the west coast by way of the Marquesas, Society and Easter Islands, being driven eastward by the intrusive Ando-Peruvians. ihe least maritime are the Abipones on the river Paraguay, whose language is thoroughly Polynesian. In Brazil appears the large Guarani family, the main divisions of which are Tupi, (ruarani and Omagua. They are men of the water, their u language contains Papuan words and constructions, they use the thro'.v-stick and blowpipe, and their few manufactures are identical with those of the Malays. The Caribs occupy Guiana, Venezuela and the northern parts of Brazil. Th^ Caribbee Islands were named from their occupancy. Their main divisions are Caril)s, Tamanacs and Arawaks. The Caribs proper have a masculine and a feminine language, the latter being Arawak. They are the Phoenicians of South America ; they use the blowpijje, decapitate their slain enemies, have an insular heaven, live in pile houses over the water, and in many ways show their connec- tion with the aborigines of Borneo and other regions within the Malay area. ..^v '• .; ANTIQUITIES OF MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. Our chief authority for these is the Abbd Brasseur de Bourbourg who drew his Historj' of the civilized nations of Mexico and Central America from original sources. The earliest inhabitants of this part of America were the semi- mythical Quinames or giants, after whom came the unhistorical Olmecs now extinct, the Totonacs, a Maya-Quich^ people now in Mexico, and the Othomis in the same country, a rude race speaking a monosyllabic language. The first historical people were the Mayas of Yucatan, whose history compiled from native documents was written towards the close of last century by Ordofiez. The Mayas came to Tobasco about 200 a.d. from Haiti and Cuba, under Zamna, and there built the city of Palenque. Am.ong the many ancient cities of Yucatan, Mayapan, under its Kings the Cocomes, exercised the supremacy till 1154. Then the cruelty of these monarchs led to its destruction, when the Tutul Xius lords of Uxmal, which had been built in 870, became emperors of all Yucatan. In the 13th century they removed the seat of empire to Mayapan, now rebuilt, and in 1464 the Tutul Xius becoming tyrannical, a rebellion broke up their dominion into a number of petty states which the Spaniards subju- gated. The chief authority for the history of Guatimala is the Quiche Ms. of Chichicastenango translated into Spanish in 1720 by Ximenes. It contains part of the Popol Vuh or sacred book of the Quichds, which t)e Bourbourg has edited. The first inhabitants of Guatimala were the Poconchis of the Maya Quichd family. In 1054, after long wander- ings and wars upon the borders of Guatimala, the Quiches and Cachi- quels took possession of that country, and received their investiture from Topiltzin Acxitl, a great king ruling in the south. Their chief cities were Atitan, Utlatan and Tecpan-Guatimala. Their liistory is a series of wars between the Quichds and Cachicjuels till 1524, when Alvarado, allying himself with the Cachiquels, overcame the Quichds, burned their king Ahau Ah pop, and annexed Guatimala to Mexico. The hieroglyphics of the Maya-Quichds have not yet been fully deciphered. Their civilization is that of Java and the civilized region of the Malay archipelago. The great temple of Palenque is like that of Boro Bodo in Java. Their architecture is well illustrated in Stephen's Incidents of Travel in Yucatan and in Central America. Copan, in Honduras, was a Quiche city. , , , ' Authorities for the ancient history of Mexico are very numerous. The chief is the chronicle of Ixtlilxochitl, son of the Queen of Tetz- cuco. All the historical peoples of Mexico belonged to one great family called the Nahuatl. A mythical period that is supposed to have begun ages before the Christian era, is that of the Kingdom of Tobasco, under Quetzalcoatl, a mild and benevolent prince, and his adversary, Tezcatlipoca, a cruel monarch delighting in human sacri- fices, who accomplished the downfall and banishment of Quetzal- coatl. These two beings were really Mexican deities. About 700 A.D. Mexico was invaded by a body of Nahua Chichimecs or barbarians, who founded the Toltec nionarchy. In 721 the Toltecs founded in Anahuac, or the Vale of Mexico, the rival cities ToUan and Culhuacan. To this period really belongs the struggle between the priesthoods of Quetzalcoatl the good, and Tezcatlipoca the cruel, which ended in the supremacy of the latter, the institution of human sacrifices, and a period of moral and political decadence. Topiltzin Acxitl, King of Tollan, then, in 1062, left his throne, and far in the south founded the Empire of the Sun. As there are Nahuas in Nicaragua, it may have been there, or we may look for it in New Granada or Peru. It is common to call the Ando- Peruvians by the name Toltec. Fresh hordes of Chichimecs from Chicomoztoc or the Seven Grottos, poured into Anahuac, and in 1070 overthrew the kingdom of Tollan, under its king, Hqemac III. Culhuacan, shorn of its power, survived among the new Chichimec states. Of the latter Tetzcuco and the kingdom of the Tepanecs are wprthy of note. 16 The last to arrive were the Aztecs, originally from Aztlan, over the sea. They also were Nahuas and Chichimecs, but called themselves Mexi, after a mythic ancestor. After traversing a dark, cold coimtry, they came in 1116 to Chicomoztoc, the Seven Grottos, supposed to be the caiion country of Colorado. They were harshly treated by King Montezuma, and deserted his dominions under the leadership of his son, Chalchiuh Tlatonac. In 1 177 they reached Anahuac and settled among the Toltecs and Chichimecs. In 1325 they built on Lake Tetzcuco the city of Mexico, and, in 1350, their history began under their first king Acamapichtli. Their great deity was Huitzilo- pochtli, whose cruel worship was like that of Tezcatlipoca. For a time the Aztec kingdom and all Mexico were under the tyrannical rule of the Tepanecs. A revolt was headed by Itzcohuatl, the fourth king of Mexico ; the Tepanecs were overthrown in 1430, and Mexico became the principal State in Anahuac. His son, Montezuma I., carried on the work of conquest, and developed Mexican art and commerce from 1440 to 1469. Subsequent monarchs continued the policy of Montezuma, and in 1503 Montezuma II. found himself the ruler of a great and wealthy empire. His reign was the golden age of Mexican history. But grievous taxes, cruelties of worship and the remembrance of ancient freedom and tribal glory, led to many rebellions and prepared the way for Spanish conquest. The city of Mexico, a western Venice, with its 300,000 inhabitants, its 2,000 temples, its palaces, markets, aqueducts, and many of the amenities of high civilization, was the wonder of the New World. The Aztec or Nahuatl language connects with languages farther to the north, in which the absence of the final or initial tl enables us to trace its con- nection with the tongues of north-eastern Asia. PUEBLOS AND MOUNDS OF NORTH AMERICA. In 1540 Coronado invaded the Seven Cities of Cevola. The Pueblos in sevens and Casas Grandes are found in New Mexico, Ari. zona and Sonora. The Apaches have been the foes of their inha- bitants. The present Pueblo peoples are the Zunis of New Mexico and the Moquis of Arizona. They worship the sun and wait for Montezuma. Their languages link those of Sonora with the Paduca tongues. The Pueblos are walled villages, built of stone and adobe, several stories high, in pyramidal form. Their inhabitants cultivated 17 the ground, made fine pottery, and practised other arts. Rock in- scriptions occur near the Pueblos. The Cliff Dwellers of the cafions of the Colorado have left build- ings, inscriptions, pottery and other remains in almost inaccessible rock shelters. Some of these remains, more recent than the ruined Pueblos, are attributed to the Pueblo people at the time of their inva- sion by the Spanards. They were driven back by the Utes and other Paducas. Paducas, Pueblo peoole, the Sonora tribes, and the Aztecs , represent the ancient Chichimecs of Chicomoztoc. },,;- The Mound Builders were first brought prominently before the world in 1848, by Squier and Davis. The line of mounds extends from British Columbia to south-eastern Michigan, and from Wisconsin to the Gulf of Mexico. Some are fortifications, others temple bases, and the majority sepulchral tumuli. The Mound Builder crania resemble those of the Mexicans. They made cloth, carved in stone and shell, cultivated the ground, and mined copper on Lake Superior. In Ohio alone are 10.000 mounds and 1500 enclosures. The oldest tree growing on any mound exhibited 800 rings of annual growth. Three inscribed stones have been found in a mound near Davenport, Ohio. The cremation tablet contains hieroglyphic characters resem- bHng those of the Hittites, Coreans and Aztecs. Its language is the Sonora of northern Mexico. The calendar stone represents 12 months, so that the Aztec year of 18 months must have been bor- rowed from the Maya-Quichds. The Khita or Hittites, ancestors of the Mound Builders, lost their Syrian Empire 717 B.C. Passing eastward along the southern shore of the Caspian and the north of Persia, they settled in the Pun- jaub. As the Cathaei, they were there in the time of Alexander the Great, and remained in its vicinity, as Indo-Scyths, till the third cen- tury, A.D. Then they moved north-eastwards through Chinese Tartary to the sources of the Yenisei in Southern Siberia. Sepul- chral mounds and inscriptions, called by the Tartars the work of the Katai, mark their presence throughout Southern Siberia. From 960 A.D. the Khitan ruled all Mantchuria, took possession of China, and gave to that country the name of Cathay. In 1 1 23 a Tungusic family expelled them, and they withdrew to Saghalien Oula, Siberia, Corea, and the Japanese islands. By the Aleutian islands, Behring's Straits, and perhaps by longer sea voyages, they found their way to America. When the Tepanecs, in the izth century, arrived in n Mexico they conciliated Nopalizin, the Chichimec king, by claiming a common descent from the noble line of the Citin. ' ' AHORIGINAL TKIBKS OK NORTH AMERICA. -, ' ' Impossible to say who were the earliest human inhabitants of America. Human remains have been found in geological formations, and for these writers demand a great antiquity, but until geology takes cognizance of cataclysms and other violent changes, nothing definite can be said regarding their age. Many of the instances related show insufficient or conflicting evidence. The oldest human immigrants of whom we know anything are probably the Esquimaux. They are not really a distinct people, but graduate into the Aleutian as the Fuegian does into the Patagonian. With the Aleutians they are classified as Orarians or coast tribes. Their .shell heaps extend as f;ir south as Florida. The Algonquins drove them north to Labrador. In the 13th century they first appeared in Greenland. They call themselves Innuit. The Aleu- tians or Unungen occupy the Aleutian islands and part of Alaska. Their islands are full of shell heaps, but they are more like the American Indian proper than the Esquimaux. The Escjuimaux and Aleutian languages have much in common, and relate to those of the Tchuktchis and Namollos of north-eastern Asia. South of the Orarian country is the land of the Tlinkets, a war- like people, not unlike the Aleutians. They are skilful carvers and are called Kolushes by the Russians, from the i)ractice of wearing wood and stone labrets. To the south of these again come the Haidahs of Queen Charlotte's Islands, and the Chimsyans, Hailtzuks, Nootkans and Salish, of British Columbia. The great Tinneh family fills up the northern area between the Rocky Mountains and Hudson's Bay, and their offshoots extend to the borders of Mexico. The Apaches are Tinneh. They relate closely to the Tungusians of Asia ; are deceitful, undignified, pusil- lanimous but cruel, yet docile and ingenious. Among their tribes are the Chipweyans or Athabascans, Beavers, Dogribs, Carriers, Copper Indians, Loucheux, Kutchins, &c. The Algonquin area past and present extends from the Rocky Mountains east to Newfoundland, and from Labrador to South Carolina. Historically, however, the Mississippi was their western boundary. The Blackfeet and Shyennes are the Rocky Mountain If Algonquins. The parent stock is that of the Delawdres or Lenni [iCnape, who, many centuries ago, aided by the Iroquois, crossed the Mississippi from the west, and destroyed the civilized Allighewi, who are supposed to have been the Mound Builders. The I'owhattans and others tribes of Virginia were Algoncjuins. So were the Massa- chussets, Mohegans, Narragansets, Pequods, Watnpanoags, and other tribes of New England. In the western United States are the Men- omenis, Sacs and Koxcs, Potawatoniies, Illinois and Shawnoes. The extinct Hethucks inhabited Newfoundland ; in Nova Scotia are the Micmacs ; in New Brunswick and Maine, the .\benakis. In Quebec and Ontario, apart from the Cree division, are the Algoncpiins proper, the Ottawas, Missisaguas, Nipissings, and Ojibbeways or Chippewas. The Crees extend from Labrador to the Red River, and include the Scoffies, Sheshtapoosh, Montagnais, and Crees proper. Illeni. whence Illinois, is the Algon(]uin word for man. This name, together with Algonciuin grammar and vocabulary, jthysical appearance, character, fluviatile habits, religion, and arts, link the Algonquins with the Malay-Polynesians. .•,•; The great warrior races of North America are the Wyandotts or Huron-Iro(piois, the Dacotahs, and the .Vtobilians. The Wyandotts consist of two divisions, the Huron and the Irocpiois. They crossed the Mississippi with the Algonquins, over whom they early claimed supremacy. The Hurons settled in the neighborhood of the great lakes north of Ontario. The Irocjuois occujMed North Carolina in part, but their most important settlement was in northern Nev York, south of Ontario. Both Hurons and Iroquois made expeditions and .settlements down the St. Lawrence, as at Hochelaga : and, in the time of Jacques Cartier, gave Canada its name. The most interest- ing history is that of the Five Nations, including the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas and Senecas. The Tuscaroras from North Carolina made up the present Six Nations. The history of these tribes has been already sketched. The Wyandotts were more civilized than the Algonquins ; they cultivated the ground, dwell' in long houses within walled villages, manufactured pottery and poss- essed other arts. Together with the Dakotahs and Mobilians they plainly evidence their derivation from the Koriaks and other savage tribes of north-eastern Asia. Their hcrosse is the ball play of the Basques and Tchuktchis. 10 I'he Dacotahs or Sioux are an inland and generally equestrian people, to the west of the Mississippi. In Canada they are repre- sented by the Issati of Red River, called Assineboins. Their chief tribes are the Sioux or Dacotahs proper, Yanktons, Winnebagoes, loways, Quappus, Minetarees, Mandans, Upsarokas, and Osages. Physically they are the finest Indians in America. Their lodges are large and communal, and some of them, such as the Mandans, had made progress in the arts. They are allovCed to be of the same origin as the Wyandotts. South of the original Algonquin and Dacotah area appears the Mobilian family, so called by the French who gained their first acquaintance with them at Mobile in Alabama. It includes the Choctaws and Chickasaws of Mississippi, the Muskogees or Creeks of Alabama and Georgia, and the Natchez of Louisiana. Like the Wyandotts and Dacotahs they were sun worshippers, brave warriors, lovers of lacrosse and other manly sports. They have been associated as to origin with the Iroquois and Dacotahs, and the language of the Choctaws has much in common with the Japanese. The Choctaws are a branch of the Tshekto (Tchuktchis) of Siberia, and the Chero- kees of Georgia and Alabama, who really belong to the Mobilian family, represent in America the Koraeki (Koriaks) of the same country. The most civilized of modern Indians are the Cherokees and Choctaws. The localities mentioned above are their historical, not their present, abodes. The Pfiducas, or Shoshone family, extend in the west from Oregon to Texas, on both sides of the Rocky Mountains. The chief tribes are Shoshones, Diggers, Utes, and Comanches. They are clumsily built, but some of them are among the finest horsemen in the world. Apart from their heavier build their features are those of the tribes already considered, with the exception of the Algonquins and Tinneh. Their language connects them with the Aztec Sonora family and gives them a Chichimec or Khitan origin. Such Is pro- bably the origin of most of the aboriginal tribes of America, who are not of Malay- Polynesian ancestry. 5375){l3'^ 4 o n