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JOHN DEARNESS. U.A.. yue.Pri„cifal Xor„,al School, /.„„!„. ^V. H. ELLIOTT. 15.A., f'^*-Pr.'u.MJ\ror„al School. ToIohIo. " """""^ '' ^"^ "-''* O"'^- to th. o,.„vi„, ..,„.,,._,, f'tuerljach TORONTO : THE COPP. CLARK COMPANY. LLM I TED. 'o< 1161 Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand nine hundred and two, by Thk Coit, Clark CojiPAsy, Limited, Toronto, Outaiio, in the Office ot the Minister of Agriculture. n,: cj.,}, rtiirk rniui. INTRODUCTORY. NATURF.-STUOY METHOD. upon it. ^hnstopher Columbus when he first set foot whlu^ellrtMheTlt^" ^^ "-''' '^ '^ ^'^ -^^ 'ater by knowledge he recee^inhiTel"^^''"' ''^"'' '"'^^^' >"-' of the by the us'e of his ::„ ^owlrs ""' '""' •^' ^"'^ ™"=' '^^' -. a- useful as if learned by hearsav hT" "^ °^ ^''P^^-^^e is as power and disposition deve oped th '" r7 '"''' ^'^ ""^"^^^ by the child in search of a tmfh ^^^ '*'" "'^"'"'^ P"' ^°«b truth itself. Hence usuallvthl IZ'^T "''^"' *° ^'"^ ^han the ledge by means of Li" se fVct, f "'° ""'"'^^^ "^^^"' >^-w- compared with iVLtC,7s T""'' '''" ^^''^^ '''«-'' - hand. """^ ^^'^ *^e same knowledge second- Nature's Method of Teachinp tv u i. learns by this natural method hefl 7 ^°^ "'""'' ^ child school. In the school-Toom ^h. ' '. '' °'^ """"^''^ »° ^- »« should wise Nature's favoW^ ' ^^^ f'^^^ ^^^°'«d to learning, forgotten.. This m.' ft "„« l^a h °' ^T'"^ '^^ "'^^'-^-d ^ formed the habit of depend" Aln^^^^^^^^ ""^" ^'^^ ^^ild has the book to tell him whTt " d 'iT .J'^ °" '''^ '^^^''^•- °f "" jf. set before a fountain o^e^"" ^'l";'- , "^ ^ "- unlike a bears the chief responsibility for h,s ed^ f ?'' ""' *"^"'°'>' position, if not the power to finH ! ^^""*'^^'°"; be loses the dis- feeding his stock. How diSreXh'r" ^l "'^'"■^'^"^ ^"^^ wishes to fatten from the one h^ f'^' '^' ^"■"^'^^ ^'"'^h he former is kept auiet VnH , / ''"''" '" "^ke strong. The or chopped ^ t he ^'r; "'"^''''■^'^ ^'^'^ '"-'-^ ^-s -ell as a different kLd:fC A'^d""" '" ^"' ^'•^'"■""^ ^ iood.___A child may sit at his desk and INTRODUCTORY, absorb a great mass of knowledge from teacher and book. By the more natural way of learning — the investigating method — he may not seem to know so much, but his mind will be stronger. When we come to solve the numerous problems of real life, we shall not have a teacher to depend upon, nor will there be any book into which we mL.y look for direction on every occasion. We have to rely on our own powers ; hence, we should be trained to use them. Exercising our faculties under wise guidance not only develops them, but shows us their capabilities and their limitations. Taught by the Nature-study method we become self-reliant, while our con- fidence is tempered by a wholesome cautiousness. The Senses the Gateways of Knowledge.— The first know- ledge comes to the little child through its senses — the sense of sight, the sense of hearing, and the other senses. These are sometimes called the gateways of knosvledge. At first their service is very feeble, but with practice they become stronger. They are so use- ful that no pains should be spared to makr every one of them efficient and to train them all to the highest degree of efficiency of which they are capable. Some eminent authorities teach that, if the training of any sense be neglected until the age of twenty, it will be difficult or impossible to improve it much after that age. Sense-training is not only constantly useful, but also adds greatly to the enjoyment of life. Much of the best literature can be fully appreciated and enjoyed only by those who can vividly image the ideas suggested. Sense-training is one of the aims of Nature-study. The Nature- study teacher devises a graded series of exercises to train the senses to acuteness and the mind to discriminate between closely-allied sensations, and to image at will the form, color, odor, sound, taste, weight or "feel" of objects. Examples of a few of these exercises will be found in the Lessons on the Senses. Observing should be Followed up by Reasoning. — While the Nature-study method is careful to train the senses, it is no less solicitous that the proper use be made of what the senses bring to the mind. Observing includes more than merely attend- ing to the sensations ; the most important part of this exercise is INTRODUCTORY. the .est^j: "X ;h:':e::erb ■;y ,^^ -^-^ ^^^ - -^^ and gesture, as wLT as ora^f""'"^' '"°'^"'"^' '"•'>'^-g Physfcal as we 1 a 'en?;?'"''. "'""? statements. So there is may be based on hTrep a r'oTa h f"' -^"--tudy lesson repairing of a door- ock 1^^?^ . °i'" w,ndow-pane or the meal. ?he neXring a™ of Th'e ^ t'"" " ^''^ ^"""^'"^ °^ ^ fortunate enough to have Te '^\^^'"^"" ^"^^'^^d to a school, subjects for nLZ^ZV^ ^ '^.^T '''"''' °' ^^^"'^" one""™ n; s'eTSratTat" "IT^^--^^^- ^^^ ^^ -'«^. subject, and. al high it deals ,;' "•^'''"' ' '"'^'"^ *''^" ^ and changes product n the ^ ^^/ ""'^ P'^"'^' ''''''''' ^irds. by naturaf forces yet it does n"."" "". ^ ''' ""^''^ °' ^'^^ ^^"'^ can observe and re'a on about R '"^''""^ ^'^'^'^ ^^^ ^^''^ greater or less extent to ^ u 'P'"' ""^^ ^« ^PP'i«^d to a ^amme, espTciariy t Teogr^hyld^t^V^r ^^'°°' ^^ arithmetic class, the teacher Z/ Physioiogy. To the " In a pile of wood letoZ'^T'"'!'' ^'^" ^'^^ P^'^'^'" •• cords.P" Somethin^of the n? ^ '!. ' ^"^ ^^'- ^'^^ ^"^ many blem when t^te "her says "?hr' ""^ '^ ^'^^" ^° '^« P- take your rulers me. ' ^ ^^ " ^ P''^ °^ ^°°d >" the yard are in it." ' "'"'"" "' ^"^ *=^'^"'^t« ^ow many cords there abl:tt :^r7"tlr^^'v': '''''-' "^ -- --- what they observe about C^'' W^ '''• "'^ ^''^>' ^^^^ ^^out too short to lea,n an t at leds't ^77 "''k'"^'- ^"^ ""^-^ method. The wise teacher' uT , °''" ^^ '''^ discovery investigation. In many tVo' a"" """'"" '"fo-mation with which The pupils W no th **""/' °" ^"' "'''' '^^ ^"^wer to take too m':c'h' tim^r Itr^H: e';rr'"^ ^^ ^''^'^ ^'-'^ often the necessary informatLn nf V ^"^"''- "^ay stop ; but investigation be resumed. ' " '"^P""^ ""^ t'^^" »»>« INTRODUCTORY. Where so much that seems of nearly equal value for training is at hand, the teacher will choose the lines of investigation that promise the largest returns in the usefulness of the knowledge acquired. Use and Abuse of Pictures.— It is very important to dis- tinguish between a nature-study lesson and an information lesson about an object in nature. It is better that the learner should be directed in the 'ay to find out the fact sought than that he should be told it. The child who says to his teacher or fellow pupil, " Please don't tell me yet, I wish to try to .Ind out for myself," has likely acquired the right spirit. Another evidence of the right mental attitude is given when the learner prefers to examine the real object rather than a picture of it. The picture is an expres- sion of some other person's study of the object. Usually it is like the answer to the problem in arithmetic, it should not be seen until the investigation is concluded. In the nature-study lesson, a picture may be of use to a child who needs assistance in the art of expressing a conception obtained by hic own researches. But in the mere information lesson the cb'ld seeks to be told the facts and is indifferent whether he obtains them from teacher, book or picture. The pictures and diagrams in this book are intended to assist in defining technical terms or suggesting points in the method of expression, but all pictures have been excluded that might stand between the child and the object of his investigation. Nature-Study, Moral and Esthetic— Nature -study les- sons properly conducted, not only train the observing and reasoning powers, but also increase capacity and desire for enjoyment and enrich and ennoble the sympathies. Observation of the bird, the insect, and the reptile, can •- --rdly fail to make the observer more careful of, and sympathetic with, that wonderful life and form which God has given his creatures, so easily destroyed, but impos- sible to restore. The charming grace of character called humility is surely cultivated by the study of nature. The more one learns, not alone of stars and mountains and trees, but even of the apparently insignificant things like the pebble, the grass, and the worm, the more he reilizes how limited man's knowledge is. lymonivTOHY. nt Let knowle^Ige grow from niore -o more, Hut m.,ie of reverence i» us, hvell- I l>at mind an,! soul, accordinj,. well May make one music as liefore." HowimsTEXT-BooK IS roBE Used rh. . book are not exhaustive either of th. ^;^^—^^_^ 'essons m this gation, or of the treatment of ?h r'^""''' '""'''^'^ ^"^ """^'^ti- •essons as well as the oX of t e T .t? \ '''' "'"^^ '^^ ^'^ to suit circumstances. The class ^"'' °^^''''^'' «"« '"«>■ '^e varied book or even at the middle of a lesTo n' The "' '"' '"^''" '" ""^ expression is left aln.ost wholly tHhe H "''""'"' ^""""'^ "^ The same subject mav hi ; discretion of the teacher. P-nary to the ij ^e , 't rtS'?''' '^ '" ''^ ^'''^^^^ ^-» ^^^ judgments must vary with tiea'er""" °' °'— '-ns and Flower in the crannied wall I pluck you out of the crannies • L.Ie flower-but, /I could understand What you are. root and all. and all in all, I should know what God and man is" Nature-Study nooK^ —Tf • able to write and draw should mtr^''''''"'"'"'"^"'^'''«^P"Pi's, ti'^ records f their studies fn Trf' '"^' '' P°""^'«' -«is- addition to ,e -ecord" of i' ,^^' ^'''' ^"'^ ^'^^ Purpose. In tl^ati^aybeconveni::,;:, Srr^ ^"' '""^^^'^ °'^J-^^ conclude with a composition ort ay etthff' t^' "'^"^ '"^^ manner the history and results of tht^^ ''^ '" ^ connected tramin, may be made a va.uab line d n ofX"""'""" "-^"^"^^^ For English composition -md l\ , "'^^'^^"ature-study lesson, studies ofTer incomparabl Tub^ ts ' """ "^"^ °^ ^'^^ "— sa^ WuTmT^^^^^^^ ^-^^ are the most neces- '"ight be named in makh ^'0 1 ^ r^' "^ ^'''' "^^"'^ ^^ings the more important of the;\r;,ro^n^^^^ V^''°"'' '^^ oe one or more good magnifying tU INTRODUCTORY. lenses, a compound microscope, an opera-glass to observe distant objects, such as birds and stars, a manual-training bench with its equipment of tools, and a well-appointed school garden. For the right to reproduce the colored illustrations of the minerals, insects, and bird's-nest, the publishers are iiidehted to Mr. W. A. Mumford, Chicaijo, the owner of the copyri|;ht of - hese pictures. CONTENTS. I — The Human Borly. '*•■ II — Feeling ' III.— Seeing * IV. — Hearing ... * v.— Tasting ^ VI. -Smelling. . II VII. -TI.e HanpIuiiii(ltlun walking, m sitting, etc 3- In the streets of towns observe ;r opportunity, people who are ca ed I !'" rT '" etc. Compare them with each mh . ' ^^'"'''^' selves. " °^^^'' ^"d with our- 0. Its Divisions. 4. (a) Observe the four natural ^i • • Ur. I. , natural divisions of the isetf IL^ '™"' '"' "■' ■"-' ^Pt«-' 1 f y.iTlfUH STUl>Y LKSSnyS. 5. Observe particularly the Jidaptibility «)f pirt to part, and of the whole body to its work. 6. The \iody will ^'row ami strengthen through exercise. Note different kinds of exercise adqjted to develop and strengthen different parts of the body. T/ie Hind. 7. (rt) Examine the head. \b) Note the different curves. Observe that the arch at the top gives strength. if) Name the different parts and the si^cial use of each. 8. {a) Observe the hair on different heads. (Jt) Note its different colors and textures. {c) I low does It protect the heail > \d) Wnat are the other uses of hair? 9. (n) Slip a hair between the thumb and finger with a back and forward movement to discover the root-end of the hair. (b) If possible, examine a hair with a compound microscope to discover why it moves in only one direction when treated as in 9 {a). 10. {a) Examine different faces. \b) Note their shapes. Compare faces of people around you with those of different races of people if you have th-j opportunity. 11. Discover the parts of the head that you can move at will. 12. What bones give the most marked outline to the face? 13. Name and give the position of the different parts of the face. X.l TV UK ST I' It Y I.ESSitSS, 3 14- (ji) I'siii^' ji mirror, examine the inside of the month. (/') Describe the parts observed. (c) Make ilrawiii^jH of the parts and investigate the use of each. T/ie Trunk. 15. Observir it.s general .shape. Show the appropriateness of the name. 17. Describe its framework. 18. (rt) Discover what prevents this part of the body from beiii{r jarred, for e.xample, when one jumps from a fence. (/^) Examine the skeleton of the body if available. 77ic Upper Extremities. I'j. Observe tile three divisions (upper arm, fore-arm and hand) into which each of the arms naturally falls. 20. Move the arm in different vvay.s. Feel the joints. 21. (a) Discover the different kinds of joints. (d) Which joints act like a hinge ? (c) Which ones act like a ball in a socket ? 22. Compare the parts of the upper limbs with the corresponding divisions of any of the domestic animals. T/ie Lo7ver Extremities. 23. Ob.serve the divisions of the lower limbs— thieh leg and foot. ' Practise the correct use of the names of the parts. Do not sneak of the leg when you mean the thigh. ' ' 24. Discover how these parts are joined to one another. 25. Observe the way in which the different joints move. 26. Compare the knee-joint with the elbow-joint, and the hip-joint with the shoulder-joint. 27. Compare the divisions of the lower limbs with the corresponding divisions of the limbs of domestic animals. 4 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. The Foot 28. Observe the divisions of the foot — the ankle, the heel, the sole, the arch or instep, and the toes. 29. Compare these parts with the corresponding parts of the hand. 30. {a) Examine the joints of the toes. {b) Compare the number, position and movement of these joints with those of the fingers. 31. E.xamine the toe-nails. Infer their use. 32. Compare the divisions of the foot with the corres- ponding ones of the feet of domestic animals. D. Its Covering. 33. Examine the skin and note the following: id) Its beauty. (J)) Its work. (c) Why should it be kept clean ? E. How to Take Care of the Body. 34. In the lessons on Physiology and Hygiene try to learn by the Nature-Study method, the use and suitable means of bathing, nourishing, and clothing the body in different seasons of the year. II. -FEELING. A. Sense of Touch. 1. While the eyes are closed, try to distinguish objects by touching them ; e.g., an apple, an orange, sugar, a pen, a pair of scissors, different kinds of nuts, of leaves, of seeds. 2. Discover: {a) The advantage in having all the parts of the body sensitive to touch. {b) The parts of the body most sensitive to touch. a^'vT?^ w he :h. i NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 6 3. Discover where the sense of touch is most highly- developed in the cow, the horse, the cat and the dog. B. How to Cultivate the Sense of Touch. 4- Feel a number of objects of different degrees of smoothness and determine : {a) The smoothest. {b) The roughest. (c) Two of the same degree of smoothness. 5. The teacher or someone else will place a number of objects of various shapes on the desk, each shape being represented by two or more objects. With eyes closed take one in your hand and find another of the same shape. 6. Place your hands behind your back ; the teacher or someone else will put objects in them. Name these objects by feeling them. 7. Take thread and cord of various degrees of coarse- ness and discover by the sense of touch which is the finest, which the coarsest. 8. With eyes closed allow someone to lead you to various objects in the room. Name these objects by feeling them. 9. After the leaves of the more common trees have been studied, identify them by touch alone. 10. If possible, discover how a blind man learns to read. m. -SEEING. A. Sense of Sight. I. {a) How many letters are there in this line? (b) Can a blind person tell? 6 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 2. (a) How many panes of glass are there in the window ? (d) Can a blind person himself find out ? 3. What sense did you use in answering questions I (a) and 2 (a)} B. The Organ of Sight. 4. (a) Examine the eyes of different people. (d) Observe their different colors. 5. Note the different parts of the eye. 6. Describe each part and, if you can, discover its use. 7. Draw an eye. 8. Observe the different neans by which the eye is protected. 9. (a) Have ur eyes ever felt tired ? (d) Wha* ^aused them to feel tired ? 10. What is the effect of looking towards a strong light, as the sun ? 1 1. Infer some rules for the care of the eyes. Note. -Through the breaking of a dark glass of his telescope, while looking at the sun, an astronomer lost the sight of one eye. C. Light and Seeing. 12. (a) Close your eyes and tell what you can see. (d) Cover the eyes with a handkerchief and tell what you can then see. (c) Place a pane of glass before your eyes and tell what you can see. (d) Why are objects seen indistinctly at night? (e) Why are objects in a dark room not visible ? (/) By mr .ns of a mirror, throw light into a coiner of a dark room. (£■) From these e.xperiments, what do you find is necessary for seeing ? sf-ir^n I NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 7 D. How to Train the Sense of Sight. 13. The teacher or someone else will : (a) Hold for an instant a number of articles before the class. The pupil will tell how many ^ there are and their names in order. (^) For a moment e.xpose a combination of letters not making a word upon the blackboard and have the number of letters in it given. (c) Put a column of letters upon the board covered with a card or screen, withdraw the covering for a definite time, as a second or two, and have their number told. 14. Observe and name objects on the way to and from school. 15. Observe the shape of different houses and sketch one from memory. Compare your sketch with one made while looking at the house. 16. While the memory is still fresh, write lists of things observed under the following headings:— (a) Flowers. (6) Trees. (c) Animals. 17. Discover from these experiments the effect of attention upon seeing. IV. -HEARING. A. How Sound Travels. 1. Have someone strike the end of the table while you listen at the other end. Note the effect. 2. With a pin or nail scratch the end of a ruler or long pointer while the other end is held against your ear. Note the effect. , I' ; J^^Wa^i:^^^: 8 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 3. Fasten a silver spoon to the middle of a string. Put an end of" the string in each ear. Then slightly swing the spoon until it touches the edge of the table. Note the effect. 4. Procure two opened cylindrical fruit-cans. Pierce a hole in the bottom of each. Connect the cans with a string or wire by passing it through. the holes and fasten- ing it on the inside. Have someone speak into one of the cans; listen with the other at the ear and note the result. 5. In each of the above cases ob.serve the following: — (a) The point at which the sound was produced. (d) The distance at which the sound was heard. (c) IIo.v ihe sound reached the ear. 6. (a) Infer whether sound is conveyed more readily through air or through a solid. (I?) Infer the use of wire used in telephoning. B. Vibrations of Sound. 7. (a) Strike a tuning-fork against the table. Observe it with the eye and state what you discover. (l>) Strike it again and touch one of the prongs slightly. Note what you observe. (Lacking a tuning-fork, you may use any other kind of steel fork, — a pitch-fork will do.) 8. (a) Fi.x a flexible steel needle firmly in a cork which will give it sufficient support. Then fasten at the upper extremity a ball of wax, or a piece of paper, or pith, or cork, about the size of a pea. Hold the cork firmly in one hand and strike the needle till you cause it to vibrate. Describe the movements of the wax or paper. (d) Strike the needle with greater force and state •what you observe. .;-«. cJ^p NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 9 9. Throw a stone into the water and observe the effect 10. Infer from the above experiments the nature of vibrations. H. Note also that the wave-vibrations grow less and less until they die away altogether. C. Vibrations can be Collected. 12^ Observe whether the sound of tlie voice can be heard better in a building or in the open air. 13. Infer the reason. 14. (a) Observe the shape of the ears of certain ani- mals that discover their prey by hearing. [0) Infer the purpose of the shape. IS- (a) Place the hand behind the ear. (if) Listen to different sounds. (c) Note the ei.', •" -ternatcly removing and returning the na I. 16. (a) U you have the opportunity, examine an ear- trumpet. (^) Infer why it is thus formed. D. Time Necessary for Sound to Travel. 17. (a) Observe a carpenter some distance from you dnvii.g a nail. Is the sound heard at the time you see the hammer strike the nail ? (i) A train is approaching a crossing. You see the steam from the whistle of the engine. When do you hear the whistle ? (c) You see a flash of lightning. Is the thunder always heard at once ? (d) From these observations, what inference as to time can you make with regard to the vibra- tion of air ? mnarr^*mp-'7. ^\&'Mi 10 NA TU RE-STUD Y LESSONS. W Try to verify the statement that sound travels about 1 1 20 ft. per second. (/) Calculate the distance of the engine or of the flash of hghtning referred to above. E. The Organ of Hearing, IS. {a) Examine the outer ear. {b) Observe the adaptation of its form ic) Note the entrance to the inner ear and how the entrance is protected {d) Describe the ear. noting in your description each of the above points. Illustrate your description by drawings. 19. What is the use of each part of the ear ? 20. If possible, examine the receiver of a telephone and compare its parts with those of the ear. P. Attention and Hearing. 21. {a) Why is one in a room where a clock is going not always conscious of its ticking ? ib) Give heed to all the sounds you can hear in a minute and make a list of them. (0 Why do you not always hear all the sounds? O. How to Train the Sense of Hearing. 22. (a) Distinguish different birds by their notes. W Examine several objects of different weights and different degrees jf hardness, then, by listening to the sound that each makes when It is dropped on the fldor by the teacher tell what it is. ' (c) With eyes closed, recognize different compan- ions by their utterance of a word. (d) Distinguish different kinds of whistles, as of locomotives, threshing engines. (e) Endeavor to distinguish different sounds wm NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. V. -TASTING. 11 A. Sense of Taate. apples, sour apples, etc. ' ^ ' *'"' ""^^^^ B. Organ of Taste. into the mouth. amerent substances taken sugar?"s;u'r '^^' °' ^'^ ""^"^ ^^ ^- ^est taste 4. («) Wipe the tongue dry and then try to * te dry sugar or salt. ^ W Wlut^taference can you make from .hi. experi- 5. Draw the tongue. 0. Uses cf Taste. b/bu°er' ''°"' *''"^"' =•"='- °f f™"' »- selected .•ncoo^";s;:re~^^^^^^^^^ 9- How do animals select ti.eir food ? .as'trn.'^S" *""'"* "■•""^ of -■« -b«-ces by 3tances?TbL?;:^^tf n-f' ^ ^ "' ^T -'- 12. Make > Ifstof ^r ' P "^^"' substances. and na^e a% sit r' hT 'T ^^^^--d excited. '"'^^*^"^e by ,.h,ch each taste has been w« 12 NATUHE-STUDY LESSONS. M», or,K. „.„„^';„,„ J; ,i;TS JXZ'ii, iS'if' A. 8.1,.. of Sm.U. ■" -»'«aUKO. and tr;:.hror::.r"'S '"""^' °"= °' '-p^'- 2. With eyes Zed "f " '■°" "•'" "*''^'""'> is? toast ^ ' '"', '^"' °^""=>'. °"'°ns, oranges, cerlm^'fl^tr"" "' ™'" ^'°"'' "y '" <««ingu,3h B. Organ of Smell. 4. Observe the nose and note its parts. s.dJ "°" ''^ °' ""■^' ""'"'- 'han as an organ of .•ntheTespiX"'pThr " "■^' '""= -"^ °' -=» - unL!:e?tf^it\'^:;v/rr''"^'" '^°- ■ --' "^ Tt, P °' '"^ turpentine to escan#» great many folds in the nose which ^r^ \ ^^ "°""''- There are a fine particles. I„ the lining^Ttho nose are'" '"'''''''i ''"'»' "^^ '^'^^'^-^ 'oThe particles stimulate the neires rh ^ ^^'y ''"« "«fves. The little brain. The mind then^ S^ it a?aV„St,'=o7s7el^ ^'^'""'"^ ''^ "i'^ 0. Uses of Smell. Ji„";:orer" '"'""' " '-'-' '"^ p--"« or coai 13 NATUHE-SWDY LESSONS. JO. r„f„o.„.ha. special value .he sense of »„eni.s.„ pro/ec.?!:"" "'"""" '" -'"-'■ '-e sense of s™el, >-^ Why do persons use perfume? 13. What are the uses of the sense of smell, D. S«.. of Sb,u In I,tf„i„, Animal.. senst "" """ '"= *«■"-' -•"»'» make use of this W Why are flowers odorous? W How are insects Buided to flowers? wnere a dead annual lies ? B. How to Train tho Sen., of SmoU pepper, celery se^f J^rrsre'^'c'^"""^' •""-">'-• a^ '.™ irpe^r,^^^^^^^^^ --- -m, and^pShT^etolof "™"^ ""= -- "^ «owers ^8. Name the substances kept i„ „„,abelled vials ■■oom and used for sense-training ' '- '" ^'^'^ '" '''^ J'ept in the school ■■'!• in ^ST 14 THE HAMD. vn. A. Otunl AppMruet. '• 1-xaminc your hand closely J. """""■■'wnnectcdwith.hcarn.i. the former hand in differl d,V "l" "T "'"'*' "'"""^ B. Its Skin. (palm) of ,l„s part with that on the back ''''TfTtrnT"'"'^"'"-^ '—••'-•"" W Which is the thicker? (^ Discover the purpose in this difference c5)rv^:;:atL\i:-™-p--Heha„d, W Observe the wrinkles in the skin on the back .•j-'/jgnf -mr TMtBixfm iiATVliE-STUI»Y LESSONS. P°-. These lytliiri'l'""'*"'' "' '"" --' O.It.B„„. ''"^^=^" '"">=""" of the pain,. the framework. '° '''""''•^'' ""-• "»"">•■ of ■6- What forms thi., framework? W How ma..y bone, can you fee, in ,he frame- {b) Describe their shape (c) How do they compare in number with the number of fingers and thumb? ^" id) Compare these five bones as to length ;jp::r;'^,TLr-r-----^on tareVlhf^r """"■'"«' *'^ """« - D. The Plngera. bo::3!fXt;'r::ntb^'^^-""--^'^' W Describe the way you do it. L'l '" '"' "P ^'^ ^^-^ °bi-t by using r^^ PI ^^r ^'^^^"^ ^'^^ thumb ^ ^ (^) P ace the thumb opposite each finger in turn the thumb opposite each finger. 10 "■"UKK^STVhY LKsmm r«|K..c„vcly. ^ ' "'" •'"•■»' '">•• ^""1 "."all t,«» fi"'"--- •'■"''-»•'■■"" of, I,. u,„,„bi:' (<•) How would the nnwnr r.r These joint* are call«U«„r/./«. 24- (^) Compare the size of the bone ^t tu ■ ■ ■•ts size near the middl'^"^""'"'*^ W D-scover the advantajre of the on\. the bone at the joint. """''"'"^"^ 25- In how many direrMonc ^^ at the knuckles ? "" >°" ">°'-^ 'he fingers of ?he J::^;"" ""^-'^^-^ ■■■■ "- *«--ence of movements n>ovi'!:~ii::Me: "" """^ "■^' -"■= "•= -- n,:^torsetThitre4" ""= """^ ^■■"■"- ■■" — NATUHK HTUDY LESSONS. 17 30. (rf) Describe the nails. (fi) Infer their use. (0 Observe the areas sh. vn by different colors in the nails. (^ Why does it hurt to wound the nail at its base and not to pare it at the outer end .' 3'- (") What parts of the foot of the horse, the cow, the do^r. the cat, and the hen, respectively, correspond to the nails ? (d) Compare each in shape and use with the nails. E. The Circulation. i2. Trace the veins in your wrist and hand or observe them m an aged person's hands. 33- ('0 Count the pulsations in the artery in the wrist (d) Try to feel the pulse in the middle of your palm. (c) Place your hands in such position that you can feel the wrist pulse of your left hand with the thumb of your right hand and your heart beat at the same time with the fingers of your right hand. Fn^n this expenment infer the cause of the pulse. VIII.-THE CAT. A. Its Food and Drink. I. H What kind of food and drink does the cat like? (/>) How . ;cs it get meat off a bone? (0 How does it drink milk? («/) Compare it with the dog in these respects. u ^■iTiritK^STcruriBssoA-s. B. Its Month, T«th and Tongue 3- W Examine JTeh ::r,r '" ''"^ ^"'' food. *^^^^ '°'" grinding 4. Draw the open mouth of a cat. 5. («) Examine the tongue. (^) Use a lens or the fincr^r * j- ne« of .he .ong^r ''"°'" '"" ^"8"" Give the cat a bone with verv l,>H- ob»e„e it eating and infer ::'r;^^ roughness of the tongue .0 the caT ''= o. Uraw tne tongue. 0. Its Eyes and Eyesight. 7" W Examine the ev^c r.^* >li ,. of the pupilt -h"tn t d r' "' ^^-^ WShutacatupfo.fJ:,'',;^^^^^^^^^^^^^ and observe the eve, n„u . "'' '''^ «.e light and for a'short til^'"""""' ■'"° <^)WH. Change has ta.n:::rr;:,. ^-l":r:e:::te:r- -" --ar. W In a strong h'ght. C^) In a dim light. D. Its Whiskers and Peeling. 9- Touch the whiskers nf m, sensitive they are. ^^ '^* ^"^^ observe how 2^ A TUBE-STUDY LESSONS. jg lo. Trail a p.Vce of meat tied to a strin- alon.. th. floor, and observe how the c.t carries i I.e d tvhe„ rollcnvmg it; also the position of the whiskers 1 1- Infer the use of the whiskers to the cat. E. Its Ears and Hearing. 12. (a) Examine the ears. W Note their shape and position .) What advantage does their position confer i> '3- {a) Scratch with a pin near the cat. (^) Observe its actions. (c) Note the position of its ears while hastening W Discover whether its liearing is acute. F. Its Feet and Claws. H- (rt) E.>:amine the feet. W Describe them, pointing out the number of th. toes on each foot, the number of claws' ''^^'-^ these are situated, and their shape. ' W Discover the use made of the claws, and why they can be kept so sharp ^ thet Iff d'fi^^fences in mode of life are suited to these differences m the structure of the foot? 16. How is it that the cat can walk so noiselessly? 17. Place the cat on the side of a post or tree and describe its method of climbing. "^ O. Its Legs and Joints i8. (a) Examine the legs W Notice^how the fore legs are hinged to the W Observe the great flexibility of all the joints and infer the purpose. ( i id) In what position is the f -re lee. when th. 'son the ground? ^^- ^^hen the paw (^) Draw it in this position. {/) Infer the efferf r,f fi,- ■ . ^9- Cause the nt- f^ ;. /- W The use it makes of the hind legs. (») How it alights. W The ease with which it jump, '°- ^"^ ''™" ."."»" '"o"g the flo„r and observe th pos,,,o„ofthecatasitc4s1teV W O serve closely and describe the'oilowh , __ n; ^hepo.sitionofthebody ^'^^t:;aT"''^"'''-^'^^' -■■'-•'•'- (3) How it springs, (4) How it grasps the ball. 21 Discover if possible why caf. . moving objects. ^ ^'"'•' ^"racted by H. Its Prey. ^2. If possible observp fl,„ hunting a bird. ^' ""' ''^'''^''^^'^i ^ mouse or 23. Discover upon what the cat preys. 24. Observe how it catcher: ,>. the prey after catching it ^''^ ""^ ^'"^^ '^ ^''^^ts 25- Point out how the le^rs fh^ i cats are specially adapted to tl'eir hatos"' "" '^"" °' ?^^fiL^^iftLp- NATUliE-STUDY LESSONS. I. Its Covering. 2^' («) Examine the covering of the cat- rnmr.o v with that of the doc. ' '"'"'P^''" '^ part and that next to the body of the cit? 27. Discover why the woolly part next the hn takes so long to dry after being wet "^^ 28. Infer why the cat dislikes water sun?n.e!°"" ''' ^'^"^^ '" '^^ ^--'"^ ^--.^ the early 30. Infer the reason for the change. J. The Kitten. 3 '. Observe how the cat treats its kittens .- W When nursing them. W When training them. {c) When washing them W When protecting them from danger, as from W When carrying tliem. obfiv^*"-"' ir' °' """8e and affection have you Ob erved ,„ the cat while caring for its young? ^ tofnofher" " "^ ""^'"^ ''' '""^^ f™- "- place K. Its Language. 34. (.) Observeth^^,„„ ^^^^^^^^^^ (<^) ';"'^^^"^^°'"f-table: imitate the sound, sounl ''' "'^^ ^"'^''°"^' ^'-'^^^^ this (0 Observe it when angry and imitate the sound !•. Washing and Sleeping. 35- (a) Observe a cat after eating. {b) Describe how it cleans itself. ■>"*»• ^ »-^*"V 9S NATURE-STUDY LESHONS. 36. (rt) Observe it when asleep and note how it places its paws, its tail and its head. {b) Discover whether it is a sound sleeper or not. {c) Note the places it selects for a sleep. {d) Infer whether the cat is fond of warmth or not. ^7- ^'r'te a composition on "the Cat" according to the direction of the teacher. Illustrate it as freely as you can. IX. -THE DOMESTIC RABBIT. Obs-rve rabbits at the homes of those who keen them or in the school A. its Food. I. («) Discover what kind of food the rabbit relishes. Try grasses, carrot-tops, cabbage-leaves, let- tuce, carrots, the stumps of cabbage, turnips, grain, fresh branches of trees, etc. (b) At what time of the day do they feed most freely ? 2. {a) Discover what the rabbit likes to drink. {b) Describe how it drinks and compare its man- ner of drinking with that of the cat. B. Its Home. 3. Why are the rabbits kept in a house or cage? 4. {a) Allow them freedom and observe their move- ments. {b) Where do they hide themselves? (f) Notice how they burrow. 5. Describe how they remove the earth, noting the use made of the fore feet and of the hind ones. '"[^^s^^smmm. i^rmm NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 23 0. Its Movements. 6. (a) Watch the rabbit in its ca-e where there is little room to move about. (6) How does it move its legs in zvalking? {c) Compare this movement with that of the cat. {d) Let the rabbit loose in a room or yard. {e) Observe how it moves when not frightened. (/) Describe how it hops, {g) Frighten the rabbit when it is in the yard. (Jt) Notice how \t jumps. (i) Describe the movement of the hind legs when in the act of jumping. U) If possible, notice the marks made by its feet as it alights, and draw them. {k) How far can it jump? 7- ifl) How many ways has the rabbit of going from place to place? (Ji) Discover which is its favorite way. D. Its Structure. The Head. 8. Notice the shape of the head and its size. 9- C'^) Where are the ears on the head ? {b) Compare with the position of the ears of a cat. if) Measure the length of the ear and compare its size with the ear of a cat. W Note how the rabbit uses its ears when listen- ing. W Discover whether its hearing is acute and infer the resulting h.*bits. M 24 NATUKK-STUDY LESSONS. lo. {a) Describe the position of the eyes. (.b) Infer the advantage to the rabbit of this posi- tion. *^ W Observe how the rabbil turns its eyes when a noise is made behind it it \lw^'T""\ "^'f ''■ '■'' '^^''^^' '^ '^^^^- ^on^Pare It uith the cat in this respect. of thet' '''' 7"l °^ '" '^^^^'' '^^' >'°" ^^'- observed o! the same color ? ' 3. («) Note the position of the nose. {l>) How are the nostrils separated ? {c) Discover why the nostrils are in such constant motion. 14- {a) Where are the whiskers placed ? {b) Compare their position and length with those of the cat. '5- (a) Observe the lips. .(^) Note any peculiarities of the lips is JedVUrrliip^ ''''''' •^' '""^ "PP- ^'P "•'e that of .he rabbit, the lip i6.-(^) Observe the different movements of the jaws. A S""^ T""^ movements has the upper jaw? {c) Describe the various movements of the lower jaw. (d) Infer the use of each movement, i;. {a) Examine the teeth of a rabbit W Compare with the teeth of a cat and of a child. 18. {a) How many long chisel-shaped teeth are there m each jaw ? {b) What kind of teeth is next to these teeth? 19. {a) Where are the broad, flat teeth placed > {b) How many of these are there in each jaw? NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 26 20. Infer the use of each kind of teeth. 21. Observe the rabbit eating a carrot or cabbage-leaf and infer the purpose of the cleft upper-lip. 22. (a) W:th a file, test an incisor tooth of a dead rabbit and ascertain which is the harder part of the tooth, the front part or the back part. (6) Infer from this how gnawing tends to keep these teeth sharp. 2^. Draw the head. /ts Feet and Legs. r'l ^u"^^^. ?' P°''^'°" ^"^ '''^ °^ the fore legs ; also of the hind legs. 25. Compare the size and range of motion of the fore and hind legs. 26. How many toes are on the fore foot ? 27 Describe and make drawings of a fore foot and a fore leg. 28. Describe and make drawings of each part of a hind leg. ^ 29. Infer why the rabbit can jump so well. 30. (a) Describe a hind foot. (^) Compare it with the fore foot. (c) Compare it with the hind foot of a cat. 31. Infer how rabbits walk so noiselessly; also how they walk so well upon soft snow. 32. Note the number and position of the joints in each leg-. 33- Compare these joints with those of the cat and grasshopper. h '!! The Body audits Covering. 34. (.;Vhat is the shape of the body? yf) Compare its size with thit nf . r ii 35. ia) Notice the covering/ """^""" ^^^^ (<^) Describe it. W Is there any part without fur? E. Its Habits and Disposition ''- '" ° - ;:^;r^^^ -" '^'- -- -= W How are the lejrs placed? (<) How does it hold its ears then? ,7 C "":"' ''^^'^y ^^°^-^' -hen asleep > W Compare its wav of d^ • P' cat or dog ^ '^'"^""^ "'^^ ^hat of a (/; Draw it when it is asleep 37. (a) Observe its position when sitting. W Draw ,t in this position. 38. (.) Observe the rabbit clean itself. (^) Describe how it washes itself (O Compare its mode of washing with that of the 39. (-.) Observe a number of rabbits together W Note whether they are gentle or rough. 40. (a) Give one a cabbage-leaf. (*; Note whether it is selfish. 41. (^) From their treneralu-a^.^r .- •hey are bold o;;::y'^^""«'"^- ""ether W Infer whether they appreciate k,„d„e.s. NA TV HE-STUDY LESSONS. 27 42. (a) Observe them playinjr together. (i>) Describe their actions while playing. (c) Infer whether the rabbit is inclined to be social or otherwi.se. 43. (") How does the rabbit produce the sound called " thumping " ? (6) Why does it " t lump " > " W.ld Animals i I W K i'' ""ffii te'lTF 1 .^^-^^^^'.^^ !" "L'licleKemus." "-nown. mere are good rabbit-stones in X.-THE COW. A. General Build. 1. Observe a cow and describe her general appearance, color, shape and size. 2. How does she compare with the horse in : (rt) Size. (If) Shape of body. (c) Length of neck. (d) Size of head. {e) Covering of body. (/) The tail. B. The Cow Feeding. 3- (n) From your observation of cows in the field, what forms their chief food ? (S) Name other animals you have seen using the same kind of food. (c) From what you know of the cow's food, infer what sort of country would be most suitable for her maintenance throughout the year. 4-1 :m\ 98 NATUliE-STUDY LBSiONS. 4. (ii)\a. I«. Kx,-„„i„e the tectli ,.f ,un„,;,ls t„ ,|isc„ver the Wnatcnc, of th. names ,„cisor.s, cuspi.l,, bicuspid,, >9. The ,k.„tal formula shou-., the nun.Ur and arranirc mcnt of .,,.. diffcrcn. Kinds „, ..elh .hat an anin,:i hat. That of , he adult ,nan i, I'.'^fJ. These numbers show ha. from the middle of the front the upper jaw has jaw .he same. Wr.te .he de„.al formula of .he eow and Other animals. D. The Legs aod Feet. 20. Examine and describe the legs of the cow as to si/e and length. 21. (a) E.xamine the feet. (fi) Describe their covering. {c) How many toes are there on each foot? (^) How do these toes differ as to size? (e) How many toes on each foot press the ground in walkfn (b) Where are the ankles ? {c) Why do you think such joints are the knees and ankles respectively? 29. How d^cs the knee in the cow and horse compare with that of man as to bending ? T?. The TaU. 30. (a) Describe the tail of the cow as to length and covering. {b) Compare it with that of the horse, the sheep, the dter, the ho^f, and the goat. {c) Watch the cow in summer and note the use it makes of its tail. 31. Account, if possible, for the tails of the cow and horse being relatively much longer than those of the goat and the deer. P. Mode of Lying Down and Rising Up. 32. (a) How does the cow lie down ? ib) Note a;i her movements and their order in this act. d2 NATURE-8TUDY LESSONS. 33- («) How does the cow rise ? (l>) Is the sequence of movements the same as in the action of lying down ? (c) Describe these movements in the order of their occurrence. 34. (a) Observe the way in which the horse h"es down. (d) Compare its motions with those of the cow in a similar act. 35. (a) How does the horse rise up? (^) Compare with a similar act of the cow. (c) Account for any difference in methods of rising fror. the position of rest by reference to their special means of defence. O. Further Study of the Cow Feeding. 36. (a) What immediately becomes of the grass pulled by the cow in eating ? (B) Note what takes place in \our own mouth on taking a bite of bread or of meat. (c) What is the difference? 37. (a) Compare the feeding of the horse with that of the cow, as to the immediate disposition of the collected grass. (d) Account for this difference between the cow and the horse. (c) Compare similarly the cow and the sheep. 38. (a) What is the cow usually doing while lying down or while standing but not collecting grass? (i>) Describe the movements of the jaws. (c) From your knowledge of the nature of the back teeth determine the purpose of the action. NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 33 This action of the cow is called chewing the cud. The cow stows away the grass as it is collected in a large receptacle called the paunch. From the paunch the mass passes into a second and smaller receptacle or stomach in which it is rolled into balls called cuds. By a muscular movement these cuds are, at a convenient time, brought up to the mouth and masticated and thence passed into a third receptacle whence they find their way into a fourth receptacle, the true stomach, where they are digested. This method of quickly stowing away in a paunch a large amount of food without the necessity of masticating it it the time must have served an important oi-.-pose to the cow in its wild itate as it serves the deer and other wild animals at present. It permitted them to gather much foo) Describe her actions when doing this. 16. (a) Pour water on a hen, discover whether her feathers are waterproof and infer why water runs off the hen. (6) Observe the general arrangement of the feathers and infer the purposes. E. Plight. 17- (a) Observe how a hen gets on her roost. (<5) Frighten her and observe her fly. (c) Describe the position of the wings in the act of flying. (O Observe the arrangement of the feathers in the wings and infer their use in flying. ^>vtii ^ ■ 1 ' ' ' 'i-. i I fl •**^.-ir;JijY *-C^^ -fW: 'f' ^ M-itiiatt-i NATUHE-STVDY lEHSOm 37 19. P. P«et. iS. ia) Examine the feet of a hen W Describe chese as to shape/position of the toes """^beroftoes, protection of toes. ' Kc) Draw the foot. M Ob^ve .1,0 hen „h,le walking, scratching and roostrng, ,n order .0 note the position ff the toes ,n each of these actions. W txamine the leo- nf o i,« , ,. She does notVo^LTrtr::,:"^ W Draw the bones of the lerr fl„H cJ, .1. «onortheh-ga„:„V:Shenlt'S^; When the weight of the hod, rests on t O. Hearing. ^' 20.W How do you know a hen can hear? W Exam.ne the head of a hen to discover her cars H.S»ir^"'''*'^'""^'"°"-<'»PP'-"ce.^"^" .heir postr-ntrSr: "" ""^ "'"'" ^"' ""<' f™"> I. Seeing. 22. («) Examine the eves an/^ ^.-o lids anH fh! • ^''''^' *^^ """^ber of rL^ T^ "^"' position. (^) Describe and draw an eye. J. The Language of the Hen 38 NATURE-STUDY LESSOA^S. (0 When she has laid an egj^r (^) When she is disturbed on'her nest. ''' ch- Lr ^^ '°^ '' '-"^-^-^"^ -•^'^ ^er 24. Imitate the various sounds made by the hen K. The Nest. 25. Observe a hen's nest ; notice where it is built the matenal of which it is made, the use to which it put L. The Egg. ^ 26. (a) Observe the shape and size of hen's eggs [o) Draw an egg. ** (c) From noticing their position in a nest infer the r^^ n ^"l^^^^e of tl,e eggs being oval. W Carefully remove the shell from a part of the I ^ XT J^u""^ ""^^^'^^ ^^^ ""'^^^'- °f linings. W Note the contents and their position -e white part of the egg is the ai6u„,en. The yellow part is the^./. 27. (a) Observe a small white spot on the upper side of the yolk and by examining eggs which have been set under the hen for various times note the change in this white spot as the hatching goes on. (<5) Infer what it is. 28. (a) When the chick breaks out of the shell com- /M r,J^'^ T ^°^^""& ^ith that of the hen. (S) Observe how the mother-hen feeds it and how she defends it. M. The Uses. 29. State the uses of the hen to man : (a) When alive. (<5) When dead. _ 1 .* '^lv r NATURK-HTUUY LESSONS. 39 Xn.-THE ROBIN. The robin is one of the earliest birds to return after the lone winter Watch for Its return and note the characteristics of this interesting bird. A. Its Return. 1. {n) Make a record of the first appearance of the robin in the sprinjj. (*) Compare it with the times at which other birds arrive. 2. Describe the markings of this bird. 3. Where does the one to arrive first seclude itself until the coming of its mate? 4. {a) Note the song of the robin on its return. {b) Imitate it. {c) Infer from it and its actions whether it is glad to return to its home. 5. {a) In what kind of trees or bushes do robins shelter themselves on their return? {b) Infer the reason for this choice. B. Its Food. 6. {a) Discover what the robin eats. {b) Infer why gardeners at times welcome the robin, and again drive it away. C. Its Appearance and Structure. 7. {a) How long is the robin from the tip of its beak to the end of its tail ? {b) How tall is it as it stands erec: 8. Observe its head. Note the ler ^th f .ts bill, the position of its eyes and ears. 9. From the way it finds its food inter whether it has keen sight or not. «> NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. i\ I; pat leg, and the number of toes W Compare the leg and toes of a robin with those oi a hen. (c) Sketch the daws and leg W Describe the difference i„ appearance of .he B. It. H«t. ""'° '"'' '^"■»'' •>''<'>• '^. W Note the size shape and material of which the nest IS made. W Describe the usual situation of the nest .3. W Observe the tree preferred by the obin in wh,ch to build its nest and note in which ti^ n " . °l ','■; "•" "" "«' '•» P'"^") ^;l'';'"""'="'~'=""-'hehome ^'^ ° 'TJond"',''*" "' "'^ "«' " '^^ "-' a second lime. W Observe the bird collecting „,aterial for the 'i'l nT L^'f "''■'' ''"' *' ""I' of building. rT'f . " '.' "'=' "^ *""■ ^'»"= >"d breast to fashion the nest « Describe the lining of the nest, and tell whe,« the bird gets it. (i-> How^long does it generally take to build a 1^:Z::^ ' nest-buildingwhat is the occu- f 6 a •f«-,* ^^ 10 1. Marsh Wit- n. -. House Wren. ;t Son;; Sparrow-. ■« V " ,!>• Warblir. •>. House Sparrow. 6. Com lilaikl.ini. «. Kc(l headed Siiarro S. Koliiii. 11 3. Illuel.inl. li». Crow. II. Sandpipir, 1. i..^ n i^rrr^^^T'TTsr ■^IP ^n^mener.<^r mr. NATUHE-STUItY L&SSOIfa. 41 X. Iti Bffgi. 1 5. (a) Observe the number, color and size of the eggs. (d) Drav/ an egg and model one in clay. (i) Infer the advantage of the color of the eggs. 16. (a) Describe the actions of the birds wlien their eg<;s are being disturbed by boys, bluebirds, blackbirds or crows. (/>j Imitate their cry at this time 17. (a) Which bird sits on the eggs until they are hatched ? (d) What makes the bird so inconspicuous when on the nest? (f) How long does it require to hatch the eggs ? (d) Describe the conduct of the other bird when its mate is on the nest, and when the latter leaves it for food. F. Its Tonng. 18. When the young are hatched out, what becomes of the epg-shells ? 19. {a) Describe how the young are fed. {dj How are they kept warm and protected when it rains? f-) How is the nest kept clean } 20. Dc ibe the young bird — note the covering of the body ; the she of the mouth and the appearance of tiie eyes. 21. On what are the voung ones fed? 22. How long is it before the young attempt to leave the nest ? 23. Describe their appearance on leaving the nest. 24. Describe the attempts of the old birds to teach their young ones to fly. I '. 42 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 25. After the young leave the nest do they ever return to it? 26. How long do the parent birds continue to care for them? 27. How many broods of yjung are raised in a season ? O. Their Migration. 28. Register the date when they leave for the south and compare it with the time other birds leave. 29. Which of the robins goes first, the male or the female ? U iJl!! robin likes to be near man. It usually builds ns nest near a house. It IS to this characteristic that it owes its name. When the first F dish wKofffi,""*!; /°"-'"*",' 'u^^ 'r'' '"*="'^'y ^'"^ *'"» » ^--^^st colored ome- Z?.IL .K .^ l°T °^ ""^n '^■"••"J^'^y ''*""^' ^^^y save it the name robin, in cobr "^ ^^ ^ '^""* ""'•''*' ""P' "^ £*=""*' resemblance Xm.-THE SNAKE. Snakes are beautiful, graceful animals. Most of the North American species are harmless ; indeed, all except the rattlesnakes, massasaugas, copperheads and harle- quins are so. There is no authentic report of any other venomous snake in Ontario than the rattlesnake. Garter- snakes, green-snakes, water-snakes, racers, milk-snakes and blowing-adders have no poison fangs, and living as they do largely on insects and field mice, they are gener- ally useful to the agriculturist and should be protected. That they sometimes eat the gardener's friends, the toads and young birds, are almost the only charges that can be laid against them. Confine a garter or other harmless snake in a box having a wire-net lid A box with such a lid and without a bottom, resting on a separate board for a bottom, is best. In such a l>ox it is easily kept clean. The snake will appreaate a handful of fresh gi ass or leaves now and again. NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 43 A. Its Food and Eating;. 1. (rt) Discover what kind of food it will take. {b) Try insects, earthworms, bits of meat, milk, etc. {c) Infer whether the snake is useful to the farmer. 2. Discover whether it will touch food that does not move. If it refuses all food offered, a bit of fresh, lean meat may be nushed down Its neck with a small, smooth stick. ^ ^ ~ 3- Observe its method of moving its lower jaw when it is taking an earthworm. 4. Have you ever observed a snake taking a frog ? .^t\^'^^ """ ^"''''*' *i" ''^ ''""'^ «"*^ *'" no' eat when observed but it soon becomes tame. Different species of snake prefer different kinds of food and vary in the method of capturing it. "'nerent kinas of B. Its Month. 5. Using a small stick or lead pencil discover how the snake can swallow an object of greater diameter than its own head. 0. Its Teeth and Tongne. 6. {a) Observe the teeth, their form, number, position and the direction in which they point. ib) Infer why it is difficult for an animal which the snake has seized to escape. It is easy to feel the teeth with a small stick or pencil, 7. Observe its beautiful forked tongue and try to dis- cover its use. D. Its Eyes. 8. Touch its eye and discover whether it has eyelids. £. Its Nostrils. 9. Observe its nostrils and note its breathing. 44 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. Is F. Its Ears. 10. (a) Discover whether it can hear. (^) Has its ears external openings? O. Its Skill. 11. (a) Describe the covering of the snake ((5) Count the rows of scales. (c) Note whether the scales are flat or ridged. (d) Beginning at the middle row on the back give each row a number— one, two, three, etc., and tell its color. 12. Compare the scales on the under side of the body with those on the upper side in respect to size, shape and color, and infer why there should be such difference. 13- Compare the scales on the head with those on the back. 14. Make a drawing of the head. H. Its Moyements. 15. Use a pane of glass for the floor of the box, and observe how the snake moves itself. I. Its Casting its FUn. 16. (a) Give it food and water and keep it in confine- ment until it sheds its skin. Its sluggishness and dull eye will warn observers of the time. (d) Observe how the skin comes off. This may occupy several minutes only, but more likely several hours. If a descriptive text-book is at hand FiTth-form pupils will be interested in countmg the gasterosteges, urosteges and rows of scales and noting the characters of the cephalic plates, in order to identify »he species. 17. Illustrate the record of your observations with drawings wherever you can. Lai?affiffl.i^!05t.T^wir -'."in'?iiL_'r^,*' 'irvii^A?' NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. Xnr.-THE PROO. 45 a few stfnes and some^oJe 'pieces of sod Thf/ ' "M ^"^^""^'"g Sroun.i home for a few frotrs wliile von ^« L "f*- ^'^'^^^•'' serve as a temporary possible observe frogs in he ShZrhS'T "'">■■ '^"T'''^'^'''' ^hen frog may be convenien Iv keo n « ,« . *'""''•' »'°*''' *"*^ ^'"«=^'es. A ha.f.c„p^of water. c::;!^^x:^:xs^:\^ r„'i^r '°''- ^^ A. Its Food 1. (n) Discover the kind of food relished by the frog (^) Try worms, grubs, flies, bread, meat, etc. livfng fli^^.'::? ' '''" ""''' "'^y ""' P"^hed down its throat if one cannot get 2. Observe how it uses its tongue. B. Its Movements. 3. (a) Notice how the frog sits when at rest (d) Draw it in this position. 4. («) When on land how does it move from place to place ? W What particular feature of its structure fits it tor this kind of movement? S- (rt) Observe a frog swimming. (6) Draw one in the act of swimming, when the hind legs are fully extended. (c) Note the peculiarities of structure that fit the frog for swimming. C. Its Breathing. 6. (a) While the frog is at rest, observe its throat nostrils and the sides of its body. (6) What process is indicated by these actions? ^ '^i.-mm:- 46 NATUHE-STUDY Lt'SSONS. ■if. D. Its Home. 7. Discover where frogs are commonly found. 8. Observe a frog and note whether it spends the greater part of its time on land or in the water. 9. Try to find out what becomes of frogs on the approach of cold weather. 10. What do they eat at this time ? Animals which pass the winter in a torpid state are said to hibernate. E. Its Language. 1 1. {a) Imitate the sounds made by frogs. {b) During which time of the year are their sounds most frequently heard ? {c) During which time of the day are their sounds most frequently heard ? F. Its Spawn. 12. (a) Procure a mass of frogs' eggs from a pond or ditch, and keep them in wide dishes of water to hatch. Change the water every two or three days, taking fresh water from a pond or ditch, not from a well. {b) Describe the mass of eggs. (0 Examine a single egg. Describe it. Draw it. {d) What are the first signs of life observed in the eggs ? O. The Tadpole. 13. (rt) Describe the creature that comes out of the egg when it breaks. (^) How does it swim ? {c) Examine closely for gills. Describe any appendages you may find. i&-^».- ¥^- W^'TTWOTOH^ NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 47 .^5. Take two glass jars. Fill each with water from a neighbonng pond. Place the same kind of water Zt in each, and in one put some tadpoles. After a ^mc note the difference of the water in the two Ls ' 16. {a) Discover what the tadpole eats. Try insects worms, bread, small water-plants, etc ib) Investigate whether mosquitoes are reduced in numbers by tadpoles and whether they eat vegetable matter. 17. {a) Describe the changes which gradually take /M ^.rf.'l" '" ^^^ *^^P°1^ as it develops. ? .,.u disappear first the tail or the gills? (0 What becomes of the tail ? (^ Which develop f^rst the fore or the hind legs? .i5K.°''" ''"'"•'' ^-» -« f-- or shape to another is called its de:eip'!::r'^°'^^ ''"^^^"-^ ^^^^°- ^^^^- - ^^--r 19. («) Place one of the tadpoles on a piece of glass wit a httle water, and examine the gills or a thin part of the tail with a microscope. (b^ T^JuZ "1 ""' ^'^^'^ '"" ^^ '•^^d'ly seen. (d) Describe the flow of blood. H. Circulation of the Blood. 20. {a) Procure a thin piece of board as a shingle cut a V-shaped notch in one end, or bore a hole through it near the end and gum a thin, clear plate of mica over the hole. Wrap a frog in a wet cloth, with a leg projectincr. and tie ,t to the board x\ith a part of the 48 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. web stretched not too tightly over the V-shapcd notch or hole. Examine with a microscope using the objective of low power. Arteries, veins and capillaries will be plainly visible. With a higher power the corpuscles can also be distinctly seen. (d) How can you distinguish veins from arteries? (c) What is the nature of the capillaries? (d) Draw the arteries, capillaries and veins and a corpuscle. (e) Are the corpuscles all of the same form and color ? (/) Why do the co.puscles seem so much paler than the blood when seen with the naked eye? (^) I^ y^u have a compound microscope compare as to size, shape and markings, the red blood-cells (corpuscles) of a frog with those in the blood obtained by pricking your finger. I. Its Structure. The Head. (1) TAe Mouth. 21. {a) Observe the form and size of the mouth. (Jb) With the fingers or a small, smooth stick open it and note the shape of the upper and lower jaws. (2) The Teeth. 22. {a) Examine the teeth. Draw the fingers over them. {b) Where are they situated ? NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 49 (c) After observing the way in which the frog swallows its food, infer the use of teeth to the frog. (d) Compare as to size, number and position, the teeth of a frog with those of the cat, snake and fish. (3) T/ie Tongue. 23. (a) Discover where the tongue is attached in the mouth. (d) Where does the end lie? (c) Infer the purpose of this arrangement of the tongue. (d) Infer the use of the sticky fluid covering the tongue. 24. Draw the open mouth of the frog, showing the tongue and the teeth. 25. If you have seen the frog catching an insect, draw the tongue in the act. (4) T/ie Eyes. 26. (a) Note their position. (if) Gently touch the eye and note the result. (c) How many eyelids are there? Where are they when not in use? (d) Observe the shape of the pupil. (e) Draw an eye. (5) The Nostrils. 27. Discover them and note theirnumber and position. (6) The Ears. 28. (a) Discover whether the frog can hear. {b) Where is the ear-drum placed ? I 60 NATURE-STUDY WESSONS. The Legs. 29. (a) Examine a fore leg. (l>) Of how many parts is it composed ? (c) How many toes are there ? (d) Draw a fore leg. 3a (a) Examine a hind leg ; note the parts of which it is composed ; the number of toes and how they are connected. 31. Contrast a fore and a hind leg; also a fore and hind foot. 32. Draw a hind leg. The Skin. 33. Observe the general shape and appearance of the frog- 34. Where is the neck of the frog ? 35. (a) Note the color of the upper surface of the head and back. (6) Compare the color of the upper and under sur- faces of the body. {c) If possible, discover whether the frog can change the color of its body. (d) Infer the purpose of the color and color- markings. 36. Disco /er whether the skin is sensitive or not. 37. Compare the frog with the toad in respect to form, food and habits. 38. Of what use is the frog ? NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 61 In n XV.-THE nSH. minnow, or°other°'.man'"fi'''' '" * "«'8'''.«""g *»ream. place a numl«r of minnow, or other small fish m an aquarium. A tub p.nrilv fille.l uiil. water W.11 answer very well Two o? three minnows n ay .e kep s" ,« lime m a glass gem-jar. The water should l,e changea cve^ di}. A. Its General Appearance. 1. Notice the shape of the fish. 2. Point out the Aeai/, the dof(v, the tat/. 3. Draw a fish. B. Its Moyements. 4. (rt) Observe the movements of the fish, and discover how it makes them. (*) Describe its movements. S- Point out how the shape of the head and body facihtate rapid motion through the water. 0. Its Food. 6. (a) Offer different kinds of food to the fish, such as insects, worms, crumbs, etc. (6) Discover which kind it likes best. 7. Describe how it eats. fhl'f *■■« ef"'''"y '•'"•d and not very intellii;ent. However in tim. they learn to know those who feed them. "owever, in time D. The Head. (i) ne Mouth. 8. Examine the mouth; note its shape when closed and when open. 9. Discover whether the fish has teeth ; where they are situated ; how they are inclined, and infer their use to the fish. 10. {a) Discover the tongue; feel its surface with the tip of the finger. {b) Can it be protruded as m the frog ? % M NATURE-STUUY LESSONS. (2) T/te Eyes. 11. () Discover the connection between the rhythmi- cal arching of the gills and the opening of the mouth. {() Wiiy arc these actions connected ? 17. Remove a fish from the water for a short time and observe how this affects tlie fish. 18. (rt) Fill test-tubes with well water, rain water, creek water, unshaken boiled water, boiled water well shaken or stirred with an egg-beater, and label them. Let them stand side by side several hours and then examine them for air-bubbles. {b) If air is necessary for the respiration of fish, in which of the above kinds of water would a fish live longest ? (f) Make a list of the samples of water in the order of their capacity for supporting the respira- tion of fish. E. The Body. 19. {a) Note the outline of the body as seen from above, from the sides, and from below. {b) Make sketches showing these outlines. (<-) Mark the lateral line. {a Observe the covering ; note the arrangement of the scales; their size; their thickness; their shape and color. (^) Sketch a scale. (f) Infer the advantage to the fish of having the scales arranged as they are. 20. Is 64 NATVHE STUDY LESSONS. T. Th« Appflndagflg. 21. I'oiiit out the apjxinda^es to tlic ImkI)-. 22 (r/) Point out those ncnnst thi; head. (d) How many arc there? (r) Compare their position on opposite sides of the body. The antei'iur fins are the ptiloral fitis. {(i) Sketch the pectoral fin of the fish yon are .stiidyiiifj. 23. {a) Observe another pair of fins situated farther back and more nearly on the under surface. The posterior pair of fiiw situated 011 or near the alHlomcn of fish .ire the ventral or ptlvic fun. {J)) Sketch the ventral fin of the fish you arc study infj. UlAUIlAM Ut' A FlHH. A- Domal Fin. D- IMvii^ Fin. B Caudal Fin. E PiHti.ral Fin. C- Anal Fin. L Lateral Lino. 24. {a) Observe the fins extending along the middle of the back. {b^ Stretch them out and observe the number of bony structures forming the framework. The fin along the middle of the back is the dorsal fin. JV.l TURE STl'h Y Ll^ssnys. 65 2.f ■ ) Kxaminc the fin forminfr the tail of the fish. (/') Spread it out luid note its appearance. The fin dnnunn ••'l- tail of li fish ih the ctUiial/m. (c) Draw the cauual fin, (d) Compare the iipptT nud lower halves of this fin. (<•) Arc they synunetricai or not ? (/) What is the special function of this fin ? 26. Kxamine the fin on the middle lino of the lower surface of the body, just in front of the cauiial fin. I he fill liehiml the opening mto the al>.lonien is the anaijin. 27. {a) Point out the fins which grow in the middle line of the body above and below. {f>) In what c. :' uon do they extend ? {c) Do fir • or I ';!i.,dy or in pairs. 2$. (a) Po.-« f.L,. »i,- ':;,. ,vhich grow in pairs. (d) Ho.v .1'i.Tiy f.ii i-.-rs are there? 29. Name ; a -: n- ■; . the hen, and man which are homologous t' ' • ^ •♦ ■ .ps. NOTK.- Organs thnt s ami claws ; the wing of a i „i is homoluKous to the n, niTf a m"n ' but not .0 the w,n« of . in insect ; th. third pa.r oflegs of a spi er is h" no! logous to the first pair of a fly. I "'t' is. noino- 30. The pelvic fins are liomoiogous to what part of the frojr'-iw». ^nj m NA TU RE-STUDY LESSONS. i XVI -THE EARTHWORM. Bore holes in tliree sides of a goixl-sized wooden-bc-v to admit air. Almost fill the box with rich, moist earth mixed with partially-decayed leaves and stems. Plant in this earth some growing fibrous roots. Collect some earthworms ; leave them on top of the earth. Put the l)ox in a some- what sh.idy pan of the school-yard. At times moisten the top by way of encouragin-, worms to come to the surface. By this means some satisfactory observ.-itions on earthworms can lie conveniently made. Earthworms, ho\y- ever, are seen to best advantnge in their native home, after a warm rain in early morning or on a tluU day. Do not fail to see them when opportunities for such observations occur. A. Its Movements. 1. (a) Dip a worm into water to moisten it.s body and then place it on a sheet of paper. Watch its motions. (b) How does it crawl } (f) Does it move with the same end always fore- most ? (d) Gently touch one end with a pencil and note the result. (e) Touch the other end and infer which is the more sensitive. 2. Discover how it is enabled to climb a smooth verti- cal surface. B. Its Food. 3. {(i) Discover the kind of food on which the worm lives. Try raw meat, cooked meat, onions, cabbage, leaves of plants. Bury portions of these in the box and examine sometime later. (l>) Infer a use of the worm to man. 0. Its Home. 4. Put two or three worms in a glass of dainp earth and observe how they bore their way through the ground. NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 67 5. (a) Observe and examine worm-casts. (d) Note how they are heaped, the shape and general appearance of each, (c) Discover where these casts come from and how the worm brings them to the surface. 6. (a) Keep a worm out of the ground for a time and then compare it with one just taken out. (d) What difference is observed ? (c) Infer the reason for this. 7. (a) With a trowel remove layer after layer of earth and expose several worm-holes, being careful to examine the holes as they descend. {^) Note what is found in the holes. (t) Infer the use of these to the worm and to man. 8. (a) Describe the home of the worm. (/;) Note its rows of halls and how the walls ^e prevented from falling in. (c) Draw a plan of the home of the worm. 9. (a) Place a few worms in a small water-tight box partly filled with earth, and after they have burrowed a home for themselves pour a little water into the box. (d) Observe the actions of the worms. (c) Infer why there are so many worms to be seen just after a rainstorm. 10. Observe whether worms live alone or are social. 11. Collect the worm-casts for a few days from the same square yard of earth. Weigh them and then esti- mate how much would be brought to the surface during one day on an acre. 1 2. Discover whether worms bring up as much earth during the daytime as they do at night. 58 NATUIil'J-STUD Y LESSONS. 13. (ti) Infer the effect of their work upon the soil. (/f) What service is this to the jjardeiier and farmer? 14. Examine the roots of the plants in the box and note whether worms are injurious to them by eating their roots. 15. In what kind of soil are worms most abundant? 16. If possible, discover what becomes of worm'^ in very dry weather; also in winter. D. Its Senses. 17. Touch a worm gently and decide whether it has feeling or not. 18. Present substances of various odors and decide whether the worm cm smell. 19. Place the worm in a stron;^^ light and then darken the room and decide whether the worm .an distinguish between light and darkness. 20. Experiment so as to decide whether it cm see objects or not. E. The General Appearance and Structure. 21. (a) Take a fresh earthworm and examine and compare the two ends of the body. (f>) Which do you think is the forward end and which the hinder end? Why? (c) How do the two ends differ? 22. (a) Place a worm upon paper and observe its ;novements. (d) Turn it over and note what happens. (c) Which is the lower surface of the worm ? (if) Which is the upper surface of the animal? (e) In what icspects do they differ? ill: NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 59 23. {a) Of what is the body of the earthworm com- posed ? {b) Are these segments everywhere exactly alike ? 24. {a) Note a thick band a little back of the anterior end of the body. {b) Describe this band. {c) Over how many segments docs It extend ? 25. How many segments are in front of the band ? 26. Examine the surface of the body by layin<. the worm over the tip of the forefinger and 'dragging it backward and forward. ^ 27. {a) Seize a worm near the posterior end with a pair of forceps and draw it backward K.0) is there resistance? {c) With a lens discover small bristle-like struc- tures m the body-wall. Make a drawing of one as seen under a compound micro- scope. id) Where are they situated and how are they arranged? {e) In what direction do they point > The small hristle-like structure is called a saa (plural ,...). (/) Of what use are these to the worm in crawl- mg? 28. Why is it difficult for a robin to drag an earth- worm from its hole in the ground? 29. Draw an earthworm. P. The Young Worm. 30. {a) W^here are the eggs deposited ? {b) Describe the bag which contains them. wmm 60 NATURE-HTUDY LESSONS. XVII. -THE BEE. In order to get the full benefit from studyiiit; 'he bee, one or more bee- hives must be visitetJ. A hive may be constructed so that tiie operations of the bees can be readily observed. Some apiarist in the neighborhood might, on request, bnng such a hive to the schools to let the pupils observe and study it under his direction. A. The Bee Among Flowers. 1. {a) Discover what it is doing. {b) Does it rest on the flowers ? {c) Note the kind and the color of the flowers vis- ited, and the order in which they are visited. {d) Make a list of flowers visited by bees. 2. (a) Imitate the sound made by the bee. (*) When does the bee make this sound ? (c) Compare it with the sounds made by the fly and the grasshopper. {d) Discover how the sound is produced in each case. 3. {a) Describe the action of the bee as it approaches different flowers. {b) With what is its body frequently covered ? (f) Infer the use of the bee to the flower. {d) Does the bee make any use of this powder for itself? {e) Does it lose any of that gathered ? (/) Observe the bee as it moves from flower to flower. 4. Observe bees at home and notice their actions. 5. {n) Examine the leg of a bee. {b) Describe and draw it. {c) Compare it with the leg of a fly, grasshopper or butterfly. {d) Tell the use the bee makes of each part of its leg. NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 61 The bunch of hairs on the legs of the liee is called the drusA. The flattened, hairy outer surface of the hind upper part of the leg of a liee is the basket. 6. Taste the lower ends of diffierent petals, especially of the flowers frequented by the bee, to determine what else the bee obtains from the flower besides pollen. 7. {a) What does the bee do with the honey it gathers? {b) Watch it as it goes to and from the hive. {c) Infer the reason for its activity, and discover how it carries the honey. 8. (rt) Observe the bee on a flower too small for it to enter. {b) Infer from its actions how it uses its tongue. () Observe whether bees have any other enemies than those mentioned in (a). If so, what are they ? D. Bees Leaving the Old Home. 31. (a) Describe the actions of the mother-queen when she hears the first song of the young queen ; observe her attempts to use her sting in order to kill this queen. (d) Note how she is defeated by the workers. (c) Observe her flight from home followed by a number of bees ; their appearance as they hang together in a bunch on a vine, or branch. 32. Observe how the bee-owner treats these bees and note how actively they proceed to build a new home. E. The Disturbed State of the Old Home. 33. Describe: (a) The actions of the workers to the new queen. (6) The battle between the new queens should more than one appear. NATUHE-STVItY LESSONS. 66 {c) The action of the uxiiking-bees towards the fallen queens. ((/) Their loyalty to the new queen. F. Bee-Keeping. 34. Describe : (a) How bees are hived. {^) How honey is removed from the hive. 35. (a) Observe how the liquid honey is extracted from the comb. (d) What is the average quantity extracted from each hive? 36. How are bees cared for in winter ? 37. What uses have yt)u seen made of honey? Of beeswax ? 38. Inquire of bee-keepers to learn what you can about the storing and marketing of honey, the importa- tion and sale of hives and queens, and the profitableness of bee-keeping. XVin.-THE POTATO-BEETLE. Into a box— an empty chalk-box will do— put an inch or two of soil. Collect leaves with clusters of e^gs ; place them in the box ; cover the top with .x pane of {jlass. When the eggs hatch fee.l the larvae w.ili fre^h leaves Hi oiien as necessary. If possible, study the beetle in the [lotato-patch. A. The Egg. 1. On which side of the Ie.it are i le eggs found? 2. Describe the cluster ; !>.\.,<> a siiigle egg. 3. Into what do the eggs deve'op? 4. How long is it from tlu Mine t^-" c^gsare laid until they hatch out ? B. The LarvsB. 5. Describe the larva. 6. How does the larva eat ? 60 JV.l TUHE STUD Y LESSONS. 7. How long docs the larval state continue? 8. When the larva? arc transformed what becomes of them? The larva of t>eetles are frequently called gritit or ionrt. 0. The Pnpft. 9. Describe the pupa. 10. How long does it continue in the pupal stage? 11. In what respects does the young beetle resemble the full-grown one? 12. How long is it before it becomes a fully-developed potato-beetle ? 13. Contrast the manner of eating of the fully- developed beetle with that of the larva. D. The Beetle. 14. Describe the beetle, its covering, its color and markings. 15. Point out the different parts of its body and des- cribe the shape of each. 16. (a) How many legs has it ? (^) On which part of the body are they situated ? 17. (a) Describe the head, eyes and jaws. (d) Compare its e>es with those of the grass- hopper and the housefly. 18. Draw the head and eyes. 19. Describe the legs and feet. 20. Observe the movements of the beetle and show how the legs are adapted to its walking movements. 21. Contrast its legs with those of the grasshopper. NATUHE-HTUhY LESH0N8. m 32. (a) Raise the hard win^s of the l)ody and discover the membranous wings. {b) To what part of the beetle are these wings attached ? {c) Uescrihe each pair of wings. 33. {a) Observe how the beetle flies. {b) Infer the use of the hard wings. 24. Describe the under {)arts of the body, 25. Discover how the insect breathes. 26. Draw a fully-grown beetle in various positions. 27. Discover where the potato- beetle passes the winter. 28. (rt) Examine the mouth of a beetle. {b) Infer 1k)w it eats. (c) Compare its mouth with that ot the butterfly and bee. 29. {a) From your studies of Nos. 4, 7, 10, and 12 estimate how many broods there are during the potato season. {b) Count the eggs in a cluster and estimate how many beetles may be produced in the season from one cluster of eggs laid on an early potato-shoot. {c) To what different means have you seen potato- growers resort to destroy the beetles .' 30. {a) Discover other kinds of beetles. {b) Note the different habits of each kind. {c) Make notes and drawings of each kind. MiaoCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) Ih ■ 28 1^ ■ 30 ■^H lii Hi 1^ 1^ Im Ih 11112.0 _j APPLIED IIVMGE 1653 East Main street ??f^"'"' '^'* "'°'''- '*609 USA (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone (716) 288- 5989 -Fax 58 N AT U HE-STUDY LESSONS. XIX.-THE CABBAOE-BUTTERPLT. The study of this insect may bet,Mn with tiie e-^ of the hiitterfly. the larva, the pupa, or with the butterfly itself " Butterflies may he caught and pi;t into an empty liat-hox or small barrel w-ith one end knocked out. . I'ut in some cabbage-leaves or leaves of any of the cruciferous family. The butterfly will .leposit its eggs on these leavM il fresh. I'ut also some chips and twigs in the box. Co'ver the box with cheesc-clolh or fly-netting. As soon as the grub appears renew the leaves. 1 ut m fresh leaves from day to day. In due time the pupal stage will l)e reache) If these breathing-holes become clogged what will happen to the larva? (c) Describe the way in which the larva breathes 21. How may gardeners prevent the destruction of their cabbage-plants by these larva; ? 22. (a) Observe the sloughs in the box where the larvae are confined. What are these ? (d) Why does the larva cast its skin ? When the larva casts off its outside covering it is said /<, ,W/. (c) Try to find how many times each larva molts. 0. The Pupa, Sometimes Called the ChrysaUs. 23. Describe the change in the form of the larva 24. (a) Observe the larva in the breeding-bo.x from day to day, and note the pupating among the leaves. (^) Describe the larva in its new form. The inactive form of an insect usually enclosprl ;., , -,0 1 r ... the perfect insect e„,e.ges is called S;S orA;;*! '' '"'' ''°'' ^'^"^'^ 25. (a) How long is this chrysalis ? (/^) How is this chrysalis suspended ? (c) Where did the larva get the thread by which it attached itself to the twig? () Mow are these wings placed ? {c) How is the position of the wings related to the position of the legs? {d) Are they all the same size ? 49. {a) Describe the appearance of the wi.ig after it has been rubbed. {b) What has come off the wing ? Theiiowder is really little scales. 50. {a) Wliat effect is produced upon the color of the wmgs by rubbing them ? {h) To what is the velvet-like appear.ace of the wings due? ^ SI. In what way do these wings differ fron. those ,.f a 52. {a) How does a butterfly hold its wings wh .n it is resting on a flower ? {b) Draw it in this position. Kc) Compare the ways in which butterflies, beetles, and birds use their wings. E. The Hdunts. Si. {a) Do butterflies frequent other parts of plants than the flowers ? {b) What were they doing in the vegetable-garden ? 74 NA TURK ST Ul) Y LEHSONS. T. Oocoons. 54. Capture larv.x« ; put thcin in a brct ding-cape and feed thcni \\\\h the- leaves nf the plant on which they were {< .ul until they pupate, or spin up into cocoons. The envelope .spun by the l.uv.-i .aii.l ii. which it is entlu^c.l in the c'lrysahs slate is a cotooM. 55. Keep the cocoons and observe theni until the transformations are completed, the., dissect the empty case. O. The Breeding-Oage. Procure an ordinary store-bov a hat-box answers very well. Provide a lid mad^" from a frame lar^^e enouj,'h to fit the box, and stretch gauze over the opening in tl.e frame. Set jars or bottles with the food-plant i" the box, stuffing something around the neck of the jar to prevent the larva.- accidentally falling into the water. XX. -THE OEOROPIA EMPEROR MOTH. The larv.-i of this moth is i genen-.! feeUer. The apple-tree is a favorite with it, but it is .ilso Jound feeding' on vari. .s other fruit and siiade trees. I. Collect a number of larvae, place them in the breed- ing-cage and feed them until they spin un envelope in which they are enclosed. ik .1 ^-^i^f. y ATii:tJ STl'DV A HSSOXS. 75 Tlie envelope!* spun l.y l.itva' an.l in wlin.li iliey enclcni themselves are called iok'ohi. 2. {n) Dcscril)c the cocoon, it^ shade, color, length and hrcHtlth. {d) Note how it is attached to the twig. 3. 0/) Examine an empty cocoon. {/>) Describe the outer wall. (c) Remove this and describe what is underneath. () Describe what it contains. The ii active form of tiiis as well a- of many other insects enclosed in a cocoon and from whica the |)erfect insect emerj,'es is u chrysalis. 7. {a) vVatch a moth escaping from the co.;oon and describe what is t^-king place. {b) At which end of the cocoon does it escape ? 8. How are the fibres softened t allow the moth to pull the threads aside? 9. What advantage to the insect is it to have the fibres of one end more loosely woven than at the other end ? 78 ffA n 'HK-STUlt Y LESSONS. 10. {a) Which part of the moth is first ()rotriKle(I ? {b) Describe how little by little the entire insect escapes from the ctxoon. 1 1. Describe the insect in its first ap|)earance. 12. Describe it after its wings are dry. tj- ia) Compare this moth with the cabbage-butterfly in respect to form of antcnn.e and time of day in whiclj each prefers to be on the wing. ib) Infer a general distinction between a moth and a butterfly. 14. i) Discover the part of the boily that gives it such power of movement 0. Its Legs. 4- () Compare tl.e hind legs with tiie front legs witS regard to size, shape anil strength. 5. Discover : (a) How the hind legs are fitted for jumping. (fi) How the front legs are fittetl for holding and climbing. 6. Draw : ((7) The hind legs, (d) The front legs. 7. Describe the feet. D. Its Head. 8. (rt) Describe the head. (d) Infer why it is so hard. (c) Infer also why the e}es are so large. (d) Discover the use of the antenna-. E. Its Mouth. 9- (rt) Describe the mouth. (/>) Observe how it moves its jaws and its upper-lip U ) Discover the advantage of these movements. I 78 NATUUE STUDY LESHONiS. T. Its Neck. 10. (a) Examine the neck. (d) Infer why it is so soft and flexible. (c) Discover the use of the collar. O. Its Wings. 11. {a) Discover why the outer pair of wings are so tough while the inner pair are so delicate. (d) Describe the wings and show how they are fitted to the life of the grasshopper. (c) Compare them with the wings of a butterfly. 12. Draw a grasshopper : (a) With folded wings. {^) With wings spread out for flying. 13. Compare its wings with those of a cricket and with those of a fly. H. Its Respiration. 14. What evidences have you that the grasshopper breathes ? 15. Describe the expansion and contraction of the body. 16. (a) Using a lens observe the openings along the abdomen and thorax in a row on the side. (^) How many of these openings are there ? (c) Show them in the drawings you have made. (d) Infer how insects arc readily killed by covering them with varnish. 17. Using the microscope observe the opening on the first abdominal segment. The opening is supposed to be the org.-in of hearing. NATVME-STVDY LESSONS. 79 I. The Hggs. 18. Observe the projections on some grasshoppers from the last segment of the abdomen. (a) Discover, if you can, the holes in the ground— the nests— made by the grasshopper in which to deposit her eggs. (^) Make a drawing of a nest and of an egg. J. Observations for Advanced Class. 19. Discover to what extent the structure of the grass- hopper agrees with that of the bee, the house-fly and the cricket, and to what e.xtent it differs. 20. (a) Immerse a partially-anesthetized form in alcohol and observe that small bubbles of air are e.xpelled. The contraction of the body will force bubbles of air, which can readily be seen from the openings on the abdomen and thorax. (6) Remove a part of the body near these open- ings ; with needles take out and examine under a microscope the spirally-wound trachea. 21. (a) Remove the crystalline covering of the com- pound-eye and examine part of it under a microscope. (fi) Make drawings representing the appearance. Each of the hexagonal spaces represents a single eye. rita 80 NATURE-STUDY LESSONif. Ci, I. PiKST Staoe-1, 2, 3, 4, eggs ; enlarged in 3 and 4. II. Second Staoe-5, 6, 7, larva-caterpillar, grub, maggot, worm, borer; 5 (a) spiracle- ('') tnie IffcTi ; (c) prolegs. III. Third St.^.ie -8, 9, 10, pupa, cocoon, chrj-Ralie. IV. Fourth Stace^-U, 12, 13, imago- butterfly, moth. bee. fly, beeUe; («, antenna; (0) thorax; (<•) altdomen. •fhm. figures are not different stages of three .lifferent insects, but one or more stages in the life-history of eleven diffrn^nt inswt?. NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 81 XXK. -CLOVER. 1. Collect and brin^' to the class a plant of each of the dififercnt kinds of closer that you can find. Why is it better for each pupil to collect his own specimens than tlial another pupil or the teacher should collect the sujiply for the class ? 2. How can you distinguish a clover from other kinds of plants? In answering this question refer to : (a) The arrangement and number of the leaflets. (d) The position or arrangement of the flowers, (c) The structure of the flower. (d) The shape of the seed-pod. Whi'e clover, red clover and Alsike clover are common ; in some locali- ties, to these m;iy be added two yellow hop clovers, rabbit's foot and scarlet clover. Many kinds of plants called " clover " are not true clovers. Some of these are the sweet clovers, yellow and white (melilots) ; the rounddiead and other prairie clovers (kuhnisteras) ; the tick clovers (meibomias or desmodiums) ; the bush clovers (lesp^-dezas) ; sour clover (oxalis) ; black- seed clover (medic). 3. Describe a clover-leaf under the headings : (a) The stem (petiole). (d) The leaflets. (c) The little wings at the base of the stem (stipules). 4. Compare the leaf of the common, creeping white clover with that of the red clover. 5. Compare the stems of the two species. 6. From the comparison, discover why white clover thrives better in lawns and old pastures than red clover. 7. Compare the arrangement of the flowers (a head) in the common white clover with that (a raceme) in the white or yellow sweet clover. 8. Discover the advantage to the white clover of having its flowers in a head. 9. About how many flowers are in a white clover-head ? I M NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 10. Which flowers open first, the top or the base flowers of the head ? 11. As each flower opens .nd matures, what change takes place .n us color and in the shape onts httle s^^^m? or b'ean ? " '"^'''^ " '"'' ^°"^^ '''^^ ^'^^ °^ the pea 13- Which is longer, its calyx or corolla? 14- How many green teeth has the calyx ? 16. (a) Find a matured flower to study the seed-pod W How many ^eeds are there in each pod ? that^of trhr\'^' T^'''''^ '" ''"^P^^* '^ ^hape with that of the black medic (" hlackseed clover " ) rabbits foot clover compare their foliage, stipules AXv;r ^"' ^^"^-^ --^'-'-^ p- «v^^^ 19- (^) Observe a bee visiting clover flowers. (^) State which flowers of the head it selects and why It sips in these and omits the others 20. (a) Can you taste the nectar, /..., the material of which the bee makes honey, in the clover novver ? m Which tastes sweeter, the white clover flower or the red ? (c) Then why do bees prefer white clover when It produces less nectar? 21. (n) Kxamine the root of red clover. (^) Compare it with the root of the grasses amoncr which it grows. (c) Which descends farther into the ground? NATUKE-STCl) Y LESSONS. 83 (d^ In a dry season, why may the clover keep k'rcen when the grass looks parched and sere ? 22. (a) Take up some clover roots very carefully. (d) Examnic them for little warts or nodules. too small t.. l,e seen wthout a compound microscope. Thev are sai.l to I.e able to store up free nitrosjen, a very important part of plant foo.l. 23. Why do fanners sometimes raise rich crops of clover merely to plow it into the ground > XXIII. -THE TRILLIUM. A. The Home of the Trillium. Visit rich woods and observe the trillium in its home. 1. Describe the place where you found trilliums arrow- ing, as to shade, soil and plant companions. 2. Describe the position of the plant-stem in relation to the ground. Plants which grow upright are said to be i-rec/. B. Parts of the Plant. Carefully remove ilie soil from the roots and lift the whole plant. 3. Examine and describe the different parts which make the plant. 0. Root and Rootstock. 4 (a) Describe the underground parts. (^) Make a drawing of these parts. (c) How were these parts protected during the winter? 5. Compare the underground parts of the trillium with those of the buttercup, clover and hepatica. 6. Of what uses are the roots of the trillium to the plant? 84 NA rUnE-SI Ul) Y LESSONS. 7. (a) For the purpose of discovering the uses of the roots to a plant, observe the effect of wind on plants and the effect of withholding water from the roots of potted plants. {/?) From these observations infer two important uses of roots to a plant. 8. Mark the position of a trilHum in the spring and examine the underground parts late in the autumn. 9. (rt) Compare the underground parts as seen in the autumn with those as observed in the spring. {^) Account for the early blooming of the trillium. (c) Compare the trillium in this respect with the hepatica and marsh marigold. (d) Infer the uses of the rootstock. D. The Stem. 10. Describe the stem of the trillium. Draw it. 11. Compare the stems of the trillium, maple, butter- cup and geranium. A plant which dies completely down to the ground .ifter flowering is .-i Aerfi and is said to be herbaceous. 12. Using a branch of the maple of nearly equal diameter to the stem of the trillium note similarities and differences in bark and in the arrangement of the internal tissues. 1 3. {a) Place some fresh stems in water colored with red ink or a diamond dye, and describe what takes place. {b) Note the parts where staining appears ; and, by cutting a stem every fifteen minutes, the rapidity of the movement of the colored fluid, (f) From this infer how food from the roots is conveyed to the leaves. 86 NATURE-STUDY LESHONS. £. The Leaves. 14- (rt) How many leaves has the trillium ? (i>) How are they arranged on the stem ? The arrant'ement of leaves in a ring round a stem is called a ,oAor/. (c) On what part of the stem are they situated ? 1 5. Observe trilliums forcing their way up through the ground and withered leaves. 16 Describe the modification of the form of the leaves which enables them to come up through the ground. 17' (a) Hold a leaf up to the light, and looking through it describe its appearance ( ID. {a) Strip a dandelion of its very fine rootlets, leav- ing the thick root. Plant this in a pot. {b) Compare the length of time the plant will live in this condition with the length of time a plant, with all its rootlets intact, will live if similarly planted and watered. (f) Infer from this which part of the root system more particularly performs the function of absorbing water. 11. Account for the development of so many rootlets in the dandelion. 12. Try to pull up a dandelion and infer another pur- pose served by the root. NATUHE-STUhY LESSONS. gg 13. Cut across the ioot of a clandclion and note what takes place at the cut cuds. 14. (a) Mark some dandelions, F -mine some of their roots in early spring. Examine simi- larly the roots of others just after they have cast forth their seed.s, (d) Describe what change has taken place. (c) Infer a third use of the root, particularly the thickened part, to the plant. »^,-^^"'^^ ^ "''*=''«"«'* 'oo' a« »•''" is c.illed a /nr/.nv/. Many olants like he dandelion store up nourishment for the purposes of Jevero.fment lu „l* ifcruSk!*'""- ^""P'" "' '"" """'•"'« '"-iP. the paTsVipa.;.*! 15. Account for the early vigorous development of leaves and flowcis of the dandelion. 16. Account also for the vigorous growth of the dande- lion during a dry season while most other plants wilt. 17. Compare the root of the dandelion with that of the grass, the mullen and the pea. 18. Make a drawing of the complete root of a dande- lion. B. The Stem. 19. (rt) Strip the upper surface of soil from the plant and find the stem. (d) Describe it as to length and thickness. Do not mistake the flower-stem for the stem of the plant. (c) Where is the stem situated with reference to the soil ? 20. How does this very short stem differ in appearance from the root ? 21. Try to account for the circular markings as well as for the scars or pits found on the stem. I 90 NA TTTRK STUDY LRSSitSS. Ill H ii 22. Com|)are these tnarkiiif;s wiMi tliosc found on the twi^j of the horsc-chfstniit or maple. 23. Compare the main stem of the dandelion with that of the anemone patens, the hepatica, the trilliuin and the onion in rcsixict to shape, color, hardness, and depth to which •l grows. 0. The Ltaves. (i) Describe the earliest leaves of the dandelion as to shape and position. (d) Where do they spring from ? One of the distinctions l)cr\vcen tlie root ami the stem in that the stem does, .in■ NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 05 5«. Pull apart sidcwisc one of these flower-heads of the dandelion and note its formation. ne,£»''fl ''^ "'"V"'^') ^^-l^^'^l'Ie ?•-»•'« "ill. the brifiht veilow strap ."s a 59. Name any other plants that have their flowers arranged in heads. 60. (a) Separate one of these flowers from the head. (d) Describe the several parts. 61. (a) F id the part which develops into the seed. (d) Examine this part with the aifi of a lens. (c) Describe this part as to shape and surface. 00 Make a drawing of this part. This part of the flower is the 07'arj: 62. (a) Find the hairy part of the flower attached to the ovary. (d) Note to which part of the ovary it is attached. 63. (a) As the flower develops what change takes place in this hairy part? (fi) What purpose is served by this part ? 64. Make a drawing of a seed, with the hairy attach- ment, as the whole is carried by the wind. 65. What purpose is served by the hooks on the sur- face of the seed ? This hairy part growing from the upper em! of the ovary corresponds to the oifyx m some other kinds of flowers. corrtspontis 10 66. (a) Examine the colored part of the flower under a lens. Describe it as to color, shape and origin. (d) How many points are there at its upper end ? rnnl!)!! P^""* "/''"= fl^J^^"- i.s "^e coro//a and the five points indicate that it is composed of five petals united. 67. Where does the corolla rise from? 96 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. I Ifl 68. Describe the remaining parts of the flower found on the face ol the corolla. The part divided at its upper extremity into two curved parts is called the stigma, and the stem upon which the curvetl stigma is borne is called the style. 69. {a) Examine the stigma and ctyle under a lens. {b) Where does the style arise from ? The yellow bodies below the stigma, and which form a hollow cylinder about the style, are anthers and the yellow powder they produce is called pollen. 70. Describe the surface of the style and stigma, 71. {a) Examine a v?ry young flower towards the cen- tre of the head. Can you see the stigma ? (b) Carefully observe these young flowers as they develop and note how the stigma and style develop. 72. When does the stigma open into its two curved parts ? 73. Where have the style and outer part of the stigma obtained the pollen you find adherent to them ? 74. {a) Do you find pollen on the stigma as you do on the style? (b) Why is this ? 75. Whether, does the stigma mature, or the anthers shed their pollen, first? ^6. Examine more carefully the surface of the outer part of the stigma and style and account for the amount of pollen adherent to them. The pollen must come into contact with the stigma before seeds are formed in the ovary. yy. (a) Observe what insects visit the dandelion. Why do they visit it? NATURE-tiTUDY LElSSONS. 97 (b) Examine closely their bodies while they are on the dandelion. What do you observe on them ? {c) Infer how pollen is placed on the stigmas of dandelions. {(i) Of what use are insects to dandelions ? B. The Prnlt. 78. {a) Examine a seed from a ripened head with a lens. {b) Describe it and its apjjendage. {c) Draw it. 79- {a) Observe a seed which has settled among short, thick grass. {b) Which part is uppermost ? {c) Why cannot it mount again into the air? {d) What useful purpose is served to the plant by the barbs on the sides of the seeds ? ^XV.-A HOESE-0HE8TNUT BRANCH. out°the7eir"h'?r '^^ ''^'■''^■^hestnut br.ancl. sl.ould l.e con.inued through. sCllVand^ud^deTJ^pCr'"'^ '"""^ ""= ^"'^^^ ^' '^^ -" "-' A. The Branch. I. {a) In what direction do the branches 'of horse chestnut trees grow \n relation to the trunk ' (b) What shape do the branches thus give to the horse-chestnut tree? {c) Compare the general direction of the branches of the horse-chestnut, maple, beech, elm, and Lombardy poplar with reference to the main a.xis. {d) Account fo- the difference in shape .A the horse- chest >eech, and " -nbardy poplar. •if ,-^-L-- - ..- 96 NA TU HE-STUDY LESSONS. f.! B. The Buds. 2. (rt) Examine a branch in the late fall or winter. {/>) Describe the positions of the buds. Those found at tlie ciul; of the twifjs are called trrmiual buds, w'.iile these fouiKl on the sides of 'le twifjs are called laUral buds. 3. Describe the terminal buds as to shape, size, color and covering;. 4. Compare the lateral buds in these respects with the terminal buds. 5. How are the lateral buds situated with reference to each other ? j 6. Compare the relative positions of the buds of the horse-chestnut with those of the maple and elm. 7. Compare the buds of the horse-chestnut w ith those of the maple and the elm as to size, shape, covering anU method of foldini 0. Leaf-Scars. 8. {a) While the leaves are falling in the late fall, examine the twigs. {b) Describe the fre.sh scars found on the stems at this time. {c) What is their cau.sc? 9. {a) Describe the dots found within these scars. (/;) How are these dots arranged ? The tree jjets its name from the resemblance which these scars bear to a horse-shoe, the dots corresponding to the heads of the shoe-nails. 10. yd) Compare as to nuinber the dots in a scr.r with the leaflets of the leaf fallen from this scar. (/;) Infer the cause of these dots. 11. \d) What is che position of the lateral buds with reference to these scars? {b) What is their position with reference to the leaves } iCd^^mmPi^^^wifF-muiiaimKi NATUHK-STi'Uy AAWauAX m D. Bnd-Developinent. water ^V'l'^ '^"".l^ place some twi^s of the horse-chestnut with cut ends in Y'er. Change the water occasionally an.l keep the.n i- a moderate v war 1- ace. Carefully examine the Im.ls as they .levelop. Compare tlfs om" observation w.th observation of bud.develol>ment ol. tree, anllothe" plants 12. Describe the appearance of the buds as they are about to open and compare their appearance at this sta-e with that of a few weeks previous. 13. (a) Describe the outermost coverinfj of a bud, {/>) Try what effect water has on this covering'. (c) Infer the use of this j,'ummy covering. 14- Compare the surface of the buds of the e\m, maple and ash with that of the horse-chestnut. 15- (a) Observe the changes in the appearance of the gum as the bud swells and opens. (l>) Discover why it is disappearing. 16. (a) Describe the covering found immediately under the gummy substance. (d) How many scales do you find in a bud ? (c) Describe their position with reference to each other. (d) What purpose is served by this arrangement? 17- (rt) Compare the outermost bud-scales as to thick- ness, shape, length, and colors, with the inner ones. (d) Account for these differences by reference to their position and purpose. 18. (a) Describe the parts developing from within the scales. (d) Describe their covering. (c) What is the purpo.se of this wool-like coverincr? ^."<^m •ntr-T'TY'"^ I 100 NATUJiE-STUDY LESSONS. 19. (a) What are the {;rcrn parts developing from the buds? (d) How many pairs are there? (c) How are the pr.irs arranged with reference to each other? (d) How are the leaves folded away in tne bud? (e) How are the leaflets folded ? 20. (n) Describe the thick body found in the midst of the leaves in some buds, (d) What does it develop into ? (c) At what time of the year are the flowers of the horse-chestnut usually fully developed? 21. (a) What position on the bud-stem does the flower cluster always occupy? (d) Do all the buds contain flowers ? (c) What is the usual position of those buds containing flowers ? 22. What is the difference in appearance of the buds containing leaves and flowers and the buds containing only leaves ? 23. (a) Observe carefully and describe any changes in the axis on which the young leaves are produced as the bud contents develop. (d) Hence, infer what relation a bud bears to a stem. 24. What becomes of the bud-scales as their contents develop ? E. Scale-Markings. 25. (a) Observe carefully the points from which scales have fallen, and describe the effects of their fall. anrimiri^BT- 'liirTiT'"^ -ii'in r m '^'*i i ■ i i WT i —r rMr^Tr NATURE STUDY LEHSONS. m {b) Look at older stems for similar circular markings. 26. (a) How often in a year are buds produced ? {b) Hence, infer the number of such circular mark- ings that will be found in one year's growth of any stem. 27. Mark off one year's growth ; two years' growth three years' growth, etc., on a twig. 28. Make a drawing of a twig two years old. showing both leaf markings and scale markings; also the posi- tions of the buds. 29. E.xamine the twigs of the maple and elm for leaf markmgs and scale markings, and determine the age of the twig. ** 30. (a) Examine the growths of separate years on your horse-chestnut branch, and determine whether they are all of the .same length. {b) If the lengths are not the same infer what influences may have caused the diffeience. P. Fruit-Scars. 31. {a) Examine the branches of the horse-chestnut in the fall when the fruit is dropping or bemg pulled off. {b) Describe the mark made by the severance of the fruit-stem from the branch. {c) How can you distinguish these marks from those made by the falling of a leaf? 32. Make a drawing of a branch of the horse-chestnut four years old, showing the buds and the three different kinds of markings. ml 102 NATUHE-STUUY LESSONS. 1^ Jil?! XXVI. -THE MAPLE TWIO, PLOWER AND PEXni. A. The Markiafi and Their SigniflcMice. 1. (a) Examine a branch from a maple-tree. \b) What markings are found on this twig? (c) Show the bud-scale scars. 2. (a) Show the part which grew last year. {d) Explain your reason for selecting this part as that which grew last year. 3. Describe the other markings. 4. Compare the markings on a maple branch with those on a h- -se-chestnut. 5. Infer the cause of these marks. 6. (a) Cut the part which grew last year, across at right angles to its length. A section 01 cutting at right angles to the length of the br»nch is a ercsS'SectioM. A thin section cut along the diameter is called a radiai ImgitudiMal %tc- tion, and one cut lengthwise across the diameter and towards the outside is called a tangential longitudinal section. The spongy central part is called the pith or medulla. (b) Describe the cross-section particularly. {c) With a pin or sharp-pointed knife examine the central part. 7. With a sharp knife make the three kinds of sec- tions. Describe each. 8. Distinguish the three areas— bark, wood, pith. 9. Take a fresh stem and identify the line of separation between the bark and wood in the cross-section. The cylinder of soft, spongy tissue in the centre of the branch is the pith. It is composed of cellular tissue. The outside layer of tne branch is the bark. The hard, solid part of the branch between the pith and the bark U wood. It is composetl of tissue mtxde up of woody fibres and vessels. m^ NA TURE-8TUU Y lESSOWS. ,03 10. Draw a cross-section of the stem showing the three distinct parts. n. Using a lens compare the cross-section of a stem one year old, with that of a stem several years old. 12. Make longitudinal sections of parts of twies of various ag^5 ; compare them and draw them. B. The Medaliary B«yi. 13- (a) Notice any radial markings to be seen in the longituchnal as well as in the cross-sections of the twigs. (6) Where are they found ? 14. Compare the wood in the medullary rays with that about them. 0. The Lenticels. 15. (a) Observe the specks which are found in the bark of twigs. (S) How are they formed ? (c) How are they arranged ? D. The Bark. 16. Make a cross-.section of a twig of basswood. 17- Compare this cross-section with that of the maple twig. * its' tr^''^'"'"^ *^^ ^^'^ °^ *^^ basswood twig to discover 19. Discover if the maple twig has the same parts in Its bark. ^ 104 NATURE STUDY LESSftNS. 20. Make a cross-section and a loii^itiKlinal section of the stems of the tulip and adder's tongue and as soon as possible make similar sections of the stems of Indian- corn and asparagus. 21. Make drawin^js of these sections. 22. Compart- tht m with similar sections of the maple and horse-chestnut tvvijjs. 23. Contrast the arrai.gemcnt of the woody part in the stem of the Indian-corn and in a branch of the maple or horse-chestnut. 24. {a) When trees Ano shrubs arc in full leaf, discover where there is much sap in the branches. (I?) Infer where growth is taking place. Stems like the maple and horse-chestnut are said to l)c exogenous ; the wood-lmndles in such stems are arian^jed in circles, each new circle Ijeing i;ffts. Steins like those of the Indian-corn .tnd tulip are sate n.aj.le, a,h or el,;, is callo.l .1 Xv^-or saman.. 36. Draw a maple key. 37. Compare the shape and size of the keys with those of other maples of the neighborhood. 38. Compare the fruit of the maple with that of th.e elm. 39. Infer why these fruits have wings. 40. Find a sprouting maple-seed. 41. Note the time when the seeds of tliflerent kinds of maple-trees may be fouiul sprouting. 42. In what kind of soil docs Ihe maple grow to greatest perfection in your neighborhood ? H. The Leaf. 43. Where do the new twigs grow? 44. Of what use are twigs to trees ? 45. Count the leaves on a .single branch. _ "M/i, -.'* 7^'if.j -,^sm 10(5 JV.l T URE-STUD Y LESSONS. 46. Discover how the twigs are enabled to support the leaves. 47. Try to discover how twigs are able to resist gusts of wind. Tie a piece of twine to a weight such that the cord will break when an attempt is made to lift the weight with a jerk. Then attach the same slrin" to the weieht by means of an elastic band and by a jerk, even more vigorous than before, raise the weight. The string remains unbroken. 48. Explain why the string does not break when the rubber band is used. Apply the knowledge gained to answer No. 47. XXVn.-THE APPLE TWIO. Observe the apple-tree in winter or early spring. Compare its twigs with those of other trees as to shape.size. firmness ""''^f^>'^«^'7,;f 8;°^.'^, Collect several twigs; compare their form and markmgs. Develop the buds on some of them by keeping their cut ends in wate. m a place where the water will not freeze. Keep the others dry for comparison later. 1. (n) Observe the rings on the main branch ; also on the twigs. (/;) Infer the cause of these rings. (c) Note the number of times these rings occur on the branch or twig and calculate its age. 2. Compare branches of different ages. 3. (a) Select a branch showing two years' growth. (d) Observe the difference in the markings of the two years' growth, and discover, if possible, the cause of the difference. 4. (a) Examine the terminal bud. (b) Observe the bud unfold. (tr) Note its contents. 5. As the twig lengthens observe the position of the 6. Compare new buds forming in the axils of the leaves with older buds. M-^MJ^^^jMmmoF: 'fwrt ■'M.>jy:i'ii.,t NA TU RE-STUD Y LESSONS. 107 7. 00 Observe the leaf-scars from last j-ear and the buds above thorn. (/f) Discover into what t^r-se buds will develop ofE'Siil::;;;;!:^;:' --'— ."s. Those o„ the sides they are Jd to be SL^ "" ''"•'^^ «'"" '" "'^ ""^ -^ '^'''ves 8. (a) Observe the bud. •.=, rcs^ th. terminal bud. 0) Discover why these develop much more readily than do those lower down. (c) Discover also why some are dormant. 9- Discover why some of the twigs grow so much longer than others. 10. Draw two twigs : (a) Showing the new twig as it lengthens with the leaves spread out. (6) A twig of last year's growth. 11. (a) Observe the broken ends on some of the twigs or smaller bfanches. W Note the age of the part on which they arc found. (c) Compare these broken ends with buds. (d) Discover the reason for the difference. (e) Do any of these ends appear as terminal ? (/) Infer the reason. The short projections with broken ends are th^ /r,af.s/>urs. 12. (a) Observe the work of the fruit-spurs. (d) Discover why they cannot bear fruit every year. 13. (a) Describe the buds .sent out by the spurs not bearing fruit. (^) Discover into what these buds develop. ■■'A. Tr'wr"-7is«t\-^ 108 NA T miE-STIJ]> Y L ESSON,^. if; l k 14. (a) Describe the inarkin<;s left by the flowers that did not set. {d) Compare these with the other markings on the branch. 15. (a) Observe and compare several branches and twigs. (d) Discover: ( 1 ) The age of the twigs. (2) The number of apples each bore. (3) The probable fruit-spurs for next year. (4) Where the blossoms did not set. (5) The dormant buds. (6) Where apples fell before they were fully developed. (7) Where the fruit-spurs were apparently changed and became branches of strong growth. iS) Places where terminal buds were injured and lateral buds developed into fruit- buds. (9) Accidental markings of any kind. 16. Make drawings of the different parts of the branch. XXVIII.-THE APPLE AND THE CODLING-MOTH. A. The Apple-Tree. 1. (a) Observe apple-trees, ((';) Describe an apple-tree. 2. Compare apple-trees with other fruit-trees as to size and shape. 3. Make enquiries to learn at what age apple-trees begin to bear fruit and how many years they continue fruit-bearing. ots^ NATVUK.j' pruned ? (^ Why are these the proper times ? ' '"' ''z:^ :;irgo":: t:z:'"i r (^)Ho,.<,oesapple-bcarlg:.et™etn;:':i,, the trees grow ? W Observe how a good far,ner treats the orchard soil each year (^ Examine why ^rpsca^,, ^ 4. ^ygy ^ cessary to treat .t in this B. The Apple. 9- (^) Examine an apple. (^) Discover how it was fastened to the twig (c) Descnbe its color, shape, hollows, size. '^ rdtlSr-- ^■•™^^--t '-^ so hard ca^d^rt::::;:--^-- --nourishment be^^^r:h;t:.is:!^^;^^'^^" ^T ^^^"^-" things. ^ *'">'• ^"^^' thread-like T^-^^.mfwmsTwww 110 NATURE STUI>Y L£'N>v>.VS. K'J^I 12. At the proper time of the year, observe the development of the apple to determine -hat parts of the flower go to form the following: (d) The core. (/?) The fleshy part of the fruit. 13. leD how each of the other parts assisted. 14. How does the bee assist? 15. How car you tell when an apple is ripe? 16. Of what use are the following to the apple :— (a) The skin ? (^) The fleshy part or pulp ? 17. What purpose does the production of the apple serve to the apple-tree? 18. What is the use of the fleshy part of the apple to the tree ? 19. (a) In relation to the tree, which part of the fruit is most important ? (3) Why? 20. What is the general shape of the apple ? 21. Compare it as to shape with other fleshy fruits. 22. Try to account for the prevailing shape in fruits. 23. (a) Cut your apple crosswise. (d) Draw one half. (c) Show the five-chambered core. C. The Seeds. 24. (a) Examine the seeds and note their color. {d) Compare the color of seeds in ripe and in unripe apples. le ts pie to •uit i in NA Tir HE-STUD Y LEssoys. m 25. (n) Put the parts of the apple together and cut it through from stem to eye. (fi) Separate and examine the divisions (c) Describe the seed-chambers, their position in the apple, their length, their width, their walls. (^ Infer why they are. placed where they are 26. Discover the use of these walls to the seed 27. (a) Examine the seed ; note its two coats its smoothness. * (6) Enumerate the various means taken to protect the seed. D. General Observations. 28. (..) Observe the different varieties of apples grown in your district. (^) Name these varieties and describe as many of them as you can in resp-^ct to shape, color, "^vo'"' firmness and time of ripening. (c) Name the best winter varieties grown in your neighborhood. (flO Discover why they are the bfest 29. Make observations regarding the following — (rt) How apples are picked and packed. (d) How they are stored. fl xf^ ^J'J '"""'^ °^^PP'"^ '■°'- shipping. W 1 he different uses made of apples. E. The Oodling-Moth. 30. Procure an apple that contains or has contained a larva of an insect, most probably the codling-moth 31- {a) Cut the apple across. (3) Cut some in different directions to discover the path of the insect. m 112 NA TirnE STUItY LESSONS. 32. (ti) Observe the larva. (/>) Describe it. 33. Examine the apple to discover, if possible, how the insect entered it, 34. Why did it enter the apple? 35. Discover where the insect got out of the apple. 36. Examine other apples similarly infested to deter- mine whether these insects always enter at the same point of the apple. 37. Examine the same apples from day to day to discover how long the larvre remain in the apples. 38. {a) Search under the bark-scales on the trunk of apple or pear trees between October and May for the cocoons of these larvai. (/;) Describe the appearance of the cocoons. 39. (a) Collect a number of cocoons, keep them in a cool place, and observe the moths emerging in the sprmg. (3) Describe the moth as to color and size. Note. — Tlie codling-moth is distinguished by having on a brownish spot on the front wings near tlie end, a little horseshoe of briglit, copper-colored scales. The rest of the front wings is pale gray, finely specked. 40. (a) Compare the color of the moth with that of the bark of the trees on which it is com- monly found. (d) What ada^)tation to environment is effected through its color ? (c) When does the moth fly. by day or by night? 41. {a) In early June examine young apples to dis- cover the eggs of this insect. (d) Describe the appearance of the eggs as to color and size. ! i NATUHE-i^TUhY LESSONS. ag (0 Are they laid singly or in masses ? (d) Are the eggs found on other parts than the apples ? {e) When are the eggs laid with reference to the falling of the petals ? 42. Write the life-history of th.- codling-moth. 43- Observe the different means used by orchard- owners to destroy these insects. larva before it eats its way into the frui! ^ '^"^ newly-hatched 44. {a) If the trees are sprayed when the flowers are open what effect will the poison have on visiting insects? (^) If the insects are not permitted to do their work on the blossoms of the tree what will be the effect upon the crop of fruit ? 45. (a) Describe the actions of woodpeckers on apple or pear trees. W Examine where they have been pecking to discover what was under the bark-scales {c) Infer why the woodpecker and other like birds should be protected. XXIX. -WOOD. Each pupil should have a simnle lern; Th»r,. oJ,„..ij 1 1. pound microscope and a set of bench tools ^°^^^ *''° ^' =* ^°'"- ^' ®*PoL°/«!^* f J["'^"' *°** ^""^^'^ °f Wood with the Formation of the Grain. r. With a fine saw. cut cylinders of pine, maple, oak etc., from small trees or fair-sized branches and remove a part of the bark. tosSw' "check?'"'"^ '*''""''' ^*"^ '"^'^'^ -d others should he sunnlried I >»' *^r -. •r-ai»«.iir-^'tr- Pith M eOULLA. LoHGiTuoiHAL Radial. TANCSMriAL Ra OtAL. ina >^Jifr> '-^rnxmrn^ f ■z. -■yii If :f ^ II NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. ^5 12. {a) Observe other markings on the circular surface (o) Describe them. ic) Infer why these hnes aie called rays. 13 {n) Using a strong knife try to split the block in various directions. {b) Along what lines do the blocks split most easily ? 14. (n) Which kinds of wood split easily and which with difficulty? {b) Find the reason in each case. »S. (a) Try to split a block with knots. ib) Examine the split surface and explain why it was difficult to split. 16. («) Cut slabs from the cylinders. {b) Explain why the blocks may be split in these planes. (c) Examine and describe the split surfaces. {d) What relation do the lines on the split surfaces bear to the rings of growth ? 17. C-'-nare the graining in the different kinds of wood. 18. On what does the nature of the graining depend? 19. Observe the effect of the following upon the grammg of the wood :— {a) The thickness of the annual rings. {b) The regularity of these rings in shape. {c) The straightness of the stem. () Which arc hard to cut and to work ? (c) Whicli are easy to cut and to work ? 24. (f/) Polish one of the surfaces by rubbing the slabs with fine sandpaper. {^) Compare the various kinds of wootl as to their adaptation for taking a polish. 25. From your observations, suggest uses for the differ- ent kinds of woo) What is their color ? 4. (a) Place a house plant (geranium) in darkness for eight or ten days. (fi) Observe the changes that take place 5. From these observations, infer the relation of the green color of the leaf to sunlight. 0. Compare the form of leaves with that of the stem of the plant. 8. I rom observations of the posuion, color and form ofjeavcsn... one essential condition of their l.:!,;^^ 9. GO Examine a spray of the maple {!>) Cmpar. the different leaves on the spray as to • (0 Sliape, (2) Size. (3) >^«v/^/// of petiole. >0. Supposing all the leaves on this spray were of the same s.e and with petioles of ec,ual lengthfhov" 1 d ^.:Zr """■'''' ""'"•' '^ •^""^'^ "^ ^^- be n. Assuming sunlight to be necessary to the life of he leaf, account for the varying sizes of the blade and the difference m length of the petioles. 12. {a) Examine the leaves of a house plant, as a geran. lum or shamrock, grown in window light Kb) What is their position relative to the sunlight entering the window ? ('•) Turn the pot around and after some days note any change in the position of the leaves. {d) Infer the cause of this change of position. B. The Life-Work of the Leaf. 13- {a) Place a vigorous leaf (freshly cut) so that its petiole may pierce a piece of cardboard and enter water contained in a tumbler. Cover the blade with another tumbler inverted and resting on the cardboard. After some time examine the inner surface of the upper turn- bier. 118 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 3 li (d) What do you observe ? (c) Where has the moisture come from ? 14. Where does the leaf on the stem obtain water? 15. Observe the effect on the leaves of withholding water from a potted plant. 16. From the above experiment, account for the wither- ing of the leaves of the potted plant. This process of evaporation of water from the leaf is called transpiration. The water or vapor passes off from the leaf through minute openings, or slomata ; these are found on both surfaces of the leaf, but are usually most numerous on the under side. 17. {a) Set in a window, where there is plenty of direct sunlight, a tumbler containing water and having the blade of a vigorous leaf immersed in it. {b) After an hour or so examine the leaf. What do you observe rising from and on the surface of the leaf? (c) Now, set the tumbler with the leaf in darkness and after an hour examine it again. {d) Compare this observation with that made when the glass and leaf were in sunlight. (e) Again, place the glass with the leaf in direct sunlight and after some little time observe what takes place, (y) From these observations infer the condition for this activity in the leaf These bubbles found on and rising from the leaf are mostly bubbles of oxygen. The setting free of this gas from and by the leaf is an indication of work being performed by the leaf in the process of digesting its food. 18. (a) Have a couple of fruit-jars with closely-fitting tops. Burn a candle in one until it will bum no longer. Relight it and again place it in the jar, (jb) What is the result ? KA TURE-STUD Y LESSONS. ug 19. (a) Place in this jar, containing a little water and the product of the burned candle, a few sprays of mint or other green plant. Seal It and set it aside for two or three days in the sunlight. Then test the gas within the jar by lighting a candle and placing it in the jar. (^) What is the result ? (c) Is the gas in the jar the same now as that in the jar when it was set away ? (^) Account for the result you observe. 20. While awaiting the results of the above experi- ment, take another bottle or jar and place a little lime- water in the bottom. Burn a candle within the bottle until ,t will burn no longer. Now, shake the bottle vig- orously, holding the hand over the mouth of the bottle. 21. Examine the lime-water. . 22. What changes have you observed ? coio;t !i;: S" ^' ^'"^" ^^-" ^'- ^'^^^^ X'^^:{^i:^ 23. From these experiments, what do you infer to be one of the foods of the plant taken in by the leaf.? 24. What gas in the process of food-digestion is given off into the air? ^ 25. (a) By means of a straw or glass tube, cause the air from your lungs to bubble through some lime-water in a glass. Continue the bub- blmg for some time. Then examine the lime-water. (^) What change has takenr place ? 120 NA T U RE-STUD Y L ESSONS. m 26. From these facts, infer the efifect of growing-plants upon the air of a room. The advanced class may continue experiments with a view 'o demon- strate that growing-plants are healthful in living-rooms during daylight, but injurious at night. 27. What three facts have been learned about the work of the leaf? 0. Relation between the Leaf and the Root. 28. Examine the position of the leaves of the turnip, beet, radish and rhubarb. 29. (a) What is the co rse of the collected rain-drops or the trickling dew on the surface of these leaves? ' (/;) What relation do the creases in these leaf- blades bear to this course of the water? 30. (a) Now, exainine the roots of these plants. {d) What course do they take in their growth ? (t) Infer a reason for this. 31. {(z) Examine the relative position of the apex and base of the leaves on maples, elms and wil- lows. {d) Generally, which is on the higher level ? (c) Infer the course taken by rain-water on such trees. 32. (a) Examine the roots of these trees and state the direction of their growth. (d) Infer why their development should be lateral rather than vertically downward, and where a fertilizer should be placed intended to reach the roots of a large tree. 33. From these observations, what general conclusion can be drawn with reference to the relation between the position of the leaf and the direction of the development of the roots ? NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 121 D. The Relation of the Position of the Leaf to the Light. 34- (^) Examine the leaves of an erect, unbranched plant such as the mullen. (d) What is the position of the lower leaves rela- tive to the stem ? (c) What are the positions of the leaves higher lip the stem ? (d) What would be the effect on the amount of sunlinrht received if all the leaves had the horizontal position of the lowest leaves ? 35. What adaptation of the leaf to sunlight is effected in this plant? 36. Compare the leaves on the same mullen-stem -s to size. 37. What adaptation to environment is evident in this difference of size? 38. Make similar observations of the shepherd's-purse. 39. MaKc a list of plants in which you have discovered similar adaptations. 40. (a) Examine the leaves of the prickly-lettuce or wild-lettuce. (d) How does their position relative to sunlight compare with that of the mullen? (c) Account for this modification. Modifications such as these are not due to accident, but are rather definite modes of adjustment to environment. E. Relation between Width of Leaf-blade and the Number of Vertical Whorls on an Erect Stem. 41. (a) Examine the leaves of the sunflower and the lily. (3) Compare their leaves as to the following: — (i) Proportionate length of blades. (2) Width of blade. (3; Mode of attachment. 1S8 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 42. How do the number of vertical whorls of leaves in the one compare with that in tho other on the same length of stem ? 43. Make similar observations of the leaves of other erect plants, 44. What IS your conclusion with respect to the rela- tion between the width of the blade and the number of vertical whorls on the erect stem ? 45. Make a list of plants observed in this respect. What adaptation here becomes evident? F. Relation of Length of Peticle to Leaf-position. 46. ((/^ Examine the bellflower (Campanula), or early saxifrage, or robin's daisy, or plantain, or dandelion, from the direction in which the sunlight strikes it. (J)) Describe its appearance from this view-point. {c) Account for the formation of the rosette of leaves. 47. \Vhat purpose is served by its having the lower leaves with long petioles and the higher ones with shorter ones ? 48. Similarly, observe the leaves of the begonia. 49. Make a list of plants in which you have observed a similar adaptation. XZXI.-SEED8. I. In the fall of the year, collect a number of seeds of each of the following: — beans, peas, Indian-corn, morn- ing-glory, maple, squash. Bottle and label each kind, (a) Compare the different ways in which these seeds are protected by the plant. ip) Soak some of each for a day before examining them. NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 123 A. External Markings. 2. {a) Observe an unsoaked bean. (^) Describe its color, shape and surface. 3. {a) Examine the surface to discover a part different from the rest {b) Find a corresponding part in a pea. (c) At the first opportunity examine a green pod containing beans or peas and infer the cause of this scar. This scar on the Oenn, pea, and olher seeds is called the hilum. 4- With a lens discover a minute orifice near the scar hlrt ? H ^'a '°°% ^""^'"S ""»' ""■'•'•''^ "'"ns smaU aiis n remem mTcX" ""^"^'^"^'"g -"--^Py-. microscope, microspore. microg?:.pK 5. {(t) Discover also a small protuberance near the scar. {b) Describe its position with respect to the micro- pyle. B. Parts of a Seed. 6. {a) With a needle or sharp knife, remove the cover- ing from a bean which has been soaked for a day. {b) Where is the coat connected with the rest of the seed? 7. {a) Separate the inner portion of the seed. {b) How many parts do you find ? {c) Describe the form and position of each part. The two thick parts are the cotyledons or seed-leaves. The small oart i^^ To^^'tVe^Sr '-rr %f" ^"S "'^ ?'^''' pointing .orrds'the the */£««/. TK » f" 1 " "''■?'; stna" part between the cotyledons is IlnC> • ^^^ «=o'y'«^'l«"s. cauhcle and plumule together const itu« the 124 NATVRE-STVDY LESSONS. '■i r I 8. Draw: {a) The embryo of the bean in different positions. {b) The embryo with one cotyledon cut away so as to show the cauHcle and plumule, (r) The caulicle and plumule as seen under a lens. Name each part as it is drawn. 9. (a) Examine the pea and compare it as to markings and contents with the bean. (/;) Draw the parts observed as in the bean. 0. Dicotyledonous Seeds. 10. {a) Treat the castor-bean in a similar manner to the pea and the bean, and examine it as to color, shape, external markings, number and kinds of coats. (b) How many parts are found within ? {c) Describe the form and relative position of each part. {d) Draw the parts and name them as in the case of the bean and pea. 11. (a) Describe minutely the appearance of the inner surfaces of the two halves of the inner por- tion of the seed. {b) Make a drawing of one of these surfaces, marking in all the lines you observe. (r) What does this face resemble? 12. {a) By means of a sharp knife try to remove this thin face. {b) Are these leaf-like surfaces separable from the part underneath ? These thin, leaf-like bodies are the cotyledons and the two thickened masses on which they lie are the footl for the development of the seed. This food is called cUbnmen. 13. Where are the cotyledons situated in relation to the two whitish bodies ? .V.^ TU REST CD Y LESSONS. 126 14. Describe the parts found in this seed which arc not in the bean or j)ea. IS- i'T) In what respects are all the seeds examined similar? (b) In what respects are they different? 16. How many cotyledons are found in each ? Seeils containing two colykdons arc iUcotyledomus seeds. 17. What was found in the castor-bean that was not found in the common bean or the pea ? s-iuf u>'U*lyi'.? ''''''"'■'■Tr '=""l=''"\"g --^''-''''en outside the embryo are saul to be albuminous. Ihose like the bean and the pea containinL' no albumen outs.de the embryo are said to be exalhuminous^ contannnj. no 18. {a) Examine other seeds, such as those of the squash, sunflower, almond, maple, butter- cup, etc., and compare them with those already examined. {h) Classify them as albuminous or exalbuminous. D. Monocotyledonous Seeds. 19- ('0 Treat Indian-corn in a similar manner to the seeds examined. {b) Describe the external features of the grain. 20. {a) Make a longitudinal .section perpendicular to the flat sides and through the middle of the grain which has been soaked for a day or more. {b) Observe the strong external covering com- posed of the united coats of the seed and fruit. (0 Make a drawing of the cross-section. 21. {a) Strip off" the entire covering from the paler face of the soaked grain and remove the whitish body lying on the face of the grain. 126 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. iiM 4 (/>) Of how many parts is it composed ? (c) Describe each of these parts as to form and relative position. (d) Make drawings of these and name each part shown. (e) How many cotyledons are present ? 22. What is found wit in the seed-coats in addition to the embryo? 23. What seed in Section C does it resemble in this respect ? 24. To which class of seeds — albuminous or exalbu- minous — docs it belong ? 25. In what respect does the embryo of Indian-corn differ from that of each of the seeds previously examined? SL'e) What change is taking place? (c) From this what would you infer to be the func- tion of these cotyledons ? 13. (a) Observe the corn and castor-bean under similar conditions to discover what is the use of the albumen in the corn seed and in the castor- bean seed. (d) What has become of the caulicle in each of the seeds? 14. In what manner has the plumule developed ? 1 5. From these observations inff r the function of the caulicle ; also of the plumule. 16. How do the cotyledons emerge from the coat in the case of the squash, bean, radish and castor-bean ? 17. Compare the cotyledons f the different seeds with their plumule-leaves ; also with their fully-developed foliage-leaves as to size id shape. 18. In which direction does the plumule of each seed develop ? 19. In which direction docs the caulicle develop? ^ATURKSTITDY LESSOXS. 129 20. (a) Turn a seed in the sawdust or earth so that the positions of the caulicle and plumule, relative to the earth, are reversed, and note what takes place. (d) Describe this action. This growth of the embryo of the see.1 until the plantlet has secwred 1 foothol.l m ,hc soil ami gath.r, f.K,.l for itself i^ cMM ^.rnnn.^Ln 21. Observe the germination of any seeds which are common about the premises, such as those of the elm and maple found in lawns and along fences. 22. Other means of observing germination are the following : — (a) Fill a box a foot long and three inches wide, one side of which is formed by a pane of glass sloping obliquely upward from the middle of the bottom, three-fourths full of moss or peaty earth and sow seeds alonf,' the margin of the glass. Observe how the roots spread over the glass. {b) Procure a sheet of flannc. .,.x inches wide and several feet long. Crease it into folds and run a seam through each fold about four inches from the margin. Place seeds of various kinds in the flannel between the folds. Place it over a vessel of water so that the folds may be in the water. The seeds will be kept moist and should be observed from day to day. XXXIII. -THE POTATO. of dlvelo^menr''""' '" " P^'^'o-pa'ch when the plants are in various stages A. Planting. I. Observe how the ground is prepared before the potatoes are planted. 130 ^".4 TURE-ST r " • LESSONS. 2. Observe how potatoes arc ^ iit for planting. 3. What must be on eac*i r itrng? 4. How deep in the /rot ul .1. potatoes planted? 5. What is the projie i ■.-. t. f' 1 lantin^;? 6. Dig up plants at vai o.; > sfrj es of development and observe how the roots spr id, 7. Distinguish the roo'.s rom til"* un '? ■■ und stems, 8. What is the use of h • >ing r.-'-yh ,.i .nd the growing plant ? B. The Flowar and Fruit. 9. Observe on what p^rt of the plant the flower is found. 10. (a) Describe the flower. 0, Jraw it. 11. Observe the flower of the tomato and compare it with that of the potato. 12. (a) Observe the fruit if it can be found, (d) Compare its fruit with that of the tomato and also with a gooseberry, (c) Describe and draw it, (d) Into what does it ripen? 13. Distinguish between the tuber and the fruit. Potatoes may l)e grown from seeds. Into a box put some soil ; sow the seeds ; just cover them with earth and keep it moist. 14. Discover why a potato or part of one is planted rather than the seed, 15. Compare the raising of potatoes from cuttings with that of onions from seeds and bulbs, 0. The Tttber. 16. How are the buds (eyes) arranged on the potato tuber ? Is I A'^ TriiE STUn Y L ESSOXS. 131 17- (") Discover on which part of the tuber the buds are most vigorous. (/') Why are the buds more numerous at the outer than at the inner end ? 1 8. Compare these buds with those on stems ^'rowin-' above ground. "^ 19 («) Dissolve a (cw crystals of iodine in an ounce or two of water and add a drop to the freshly- cut surface of a potato. (d) Observe what takes place. The color reaction (blue) is the tot for the presence of starch. 20. Why is the potato a valuable food ? 21, At home try to discover the best method „f boiling potatoes. ihemirr"i^' """" '"'" '=°'',' *"'" ""'' '"''"K tl'en. cook. an.J imttinc them into \mUn^ water to cook, to discover llie preferable nuHle. '^ XXXIV. -0RA8S. .rri««*^*' *"".■• *"''''''' 7*^' '"'"*^'' '''"'' '''<>'-->n-corn. foxtail, an.l chess are Brasses as well a. timothy or re-l-top. hut the plants usua ly thought of ^xSt^Lrvers.^ '"'"^^ ''"' '""^^ ^"""^ '" '"^ ^-"' ,>as.ui/or":^a5Lw.^ I. (a) In a well-known little poem called " The Song of the Grass " the grass is representerl as singing. " I come creeping." What character does grass possess that enables it to " come creeping " ? (d) DiV up grass plants and study them to find where such power resirles. 2. (^0 Observe pieces of land that have not been culti- vated for a year or two. (d) Note the succession of plants— first, the erect weeds; bye and bye, the grass. (c) How is it that the slender, lowly grass can drive ott the stout weeds ? 132 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 3. (a) Examine roots of different kinds of grass to discover some like the foxtail that cannot " creep." (/>) In the cleared pieces of ground referred to in No, 2 (a) which kinds of grass usually appear first — the creeping or the non-creeping ones ? 4. Try to discover the reasons why foxtails, chesses and annual panic grasses precede the creeping kinds in the occupation of a neglected garden. 5. Dig up carefully, wash clean, dry and preserve two or more grass plants to show clearly the difference in the roots between the annukl and the perennial grasses. 6. (a) Which class — annual or perennial — has generally larger seeds ? (d) More numerous seeds } 7. Examine grasses to find any that store nourishment for another season in their roots. 8. (a) In what ways are the perennial grasses most useful to man ? (d) How do the annual grasses best serve him ? (See the note at the head of this lesson.) 9. Defend or refute the statement that the grass family is the most useful family of plants in the world. Oats. 10. (a) Plant some oats and beans in the manner sug- gested on page 1 29 to watch their germina- tion and early development. (^) Note the differences in the young plants. 1 1. (a) Examine plants of oats when the flowers or fruit have developed. (6) Is the stem hollow or solid ? NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 133 /I f,^." ^'°" ''"'' ^"^ P'"** '^''^'■^ t''^ •'^te"! is solid ? W What marks the outside of the stem in such places ? 12 Trace the connection between the leaves and the sohd zones of the stem. 13. Compare the leaf of the maple or willow or plan- tarn with thit of the oat. 14. {a) To what part of the other leaf does the sheath of the oat- leaf correspond ? {b) How are the leaves of the oat arranged on the stem? {c) Compare this arrangement with that of the leaves in (he maple. {d) How does tne sheath of a grass-leaf like the oat differ from that f a sedge-leaf? 15. What advantage to the oat or Indian-rorn or timothy or other grass plant is it to have Its petioie (that IS Its leaf-stem) in the form of a sheath ? 16. {a) Observe the thin guard (the iigule) at the top of the sheath of the grass-leaf. {b) Discover its use, 17. When an oat plant is bent or trodden down, where does ,t bend to straighten itself? (Perhaps the advanced pupils can discover how it accomplishes this bending at the joints or nodes.) 18 Observe how the oat-leaves in the field crop are adapted to securing the necessary amount of light and 19. Why are windy situations favorable to grass crops particularly those that bear grain, like wheat, barley and' corn r 134 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. ■'15 20. Point out the similarities and differences between oats and timothy or other grass plants : (a) As to leaves. (6) As to flowers. (c) As to roots. 21. How does the stem of a grass plant differ from that of a sedge? XXXV.-PLANTAm-A WEED. Collect a number of plaintain-seeds and sow them in a box. Observe the rapid growth of the young plants. Observations should also be made in waste-places and in the lawns of the neighborhood. A. The Boots. 1. Dig up a number of the plants both from the box and lawns or waste-places. 2. (a) Describe the roots and infer why these plants are vigorous growers. (d) Infer the effect of this vigorous growth upon the richness of the roil. B. The Leaves. 3. (a) Describe a leaf (d) Where do the leaves grow upon the plant ? 4. Discover the use of the threads that are easily observed by breaking the stem of the leaf (petiole). 5. What is their effect upon the gtc.- , and other plants overshadowed by them ? 6. Give two reasons why a plantain is not a desirable plant to have growing in a lawn or garden. Plants which are out of their proper places and so interfere with the growth of other plants are weft/s. 7. Compare the effect of a plantain on a lawn with that of a dandelion. se-*mii'\' ) NATVRB-hTUDY LESSONS. 136 0. The Flower and Froit. 8. (.'/) Observe and describe the flowering-stem of a plantain. A flower-cluster in which there are numerous sessile flowers arraneed closely along an elongated axis is a s/iie. {b) Name other plants which have their flowers in spikes. 9. What is the largest number of spikes you have observed on one plant? 10. Find the number of flowers on a spike and hence estimate the number on the plant. 1 1. How many seeds are in one seed-box ? con^s'offifa ^r"'^-*-'' °^ "'^ P'-^-" - -'led a fy.is. The top 12. {a) Estimate the number of seeds produced by a vigorous plant. {b) Compare the number of seeds produced by a plantain plant with the number produced by any other weed you know and infer which of these plants is likely to be the more common. 13. Investigate the causes which may prevent many of the seeds from becoming plants. 14. Use the lens to observe the seed and make enlarged drawings of the seed and seed-pod. « J*'L'''Tk'"J* ^'^"'^^/'^ plantain are distinguishable by the form of the fin^? ' '^''/ff™ "f 'he seed, and the number of seeds in a pod Try to find as many different kinds as you can. ^^ ^ D. Its Extermination. 15. To prevent the growth of young plants, what precautions must be observed regarding old plants? 136 NATURE-STUDY LESSOXH. i6. If younj^ plants are prevented from growing, why will not th^- lawn become cleared of plantain ? Plants which live on year after year are said to he perennial. 17. Name other perennial plants 18. What must be done with the old plants so as to exterminate this weed ? 19. {a) In exterminating perennial plants with roots like those of the thistle and dandelion, and those with fibrous roots, what difference must be made in their treatment? {b) What different conditions in the life of these plants necessitate a difference in the mode of their extermination ? E. Its Uses. 20. Discover, if possible, the uses of plantain. XXXVI. -BREAD. A. The Loaf. 1. {a) Observe bread at home ; also, if convenient, at a store wheie it is sold, or at a bakery. {b) Describe the different forms in which bread is made up. 2. Cut a slice off a loaf; name and describe the differ- ent parts seen. 3. {a) Examine the crust to discover the differences in the upper and under parts. {b) Account for any differences you observe. 4. {a) Describe the interior of the loaf. (b) In what respects does it differ from the crust? NATURE-t^TUDY LESSONS. 137 the loaf, perform the following experiments :_ {a) Place a small quantitj- of compressed yeast or of home-made yeast, in a little flour mixed with tepid water so as to form a paste. Keep the whole in a moderately-warm place and observe the results. Describe what takes place. (6) Put some yeast in a bottle containing a spoonful of syrup and ten or twelve spoonfuls of tepid water and observe the results. (c) Masticate some grains of wheat or some bread a long time to note whether it tastes sweeter as a result of the chewing and mixing with saliva. (^) Taste some wheat or other grain that is just beginning to germinate. (e) With a compound microscope, observe the yeast plants obtained from some of the fluid in experiment (^). stari;is^Si;:ere? i';;f :^'" °^ -•^-^ --^^ >-ee.y .f starch. The the^XSi^lIpJrK:?];';^"'^ '^^--^'^r' P"P"*"" '»^«=over that alcohol by the iit.ie yels/plams. ^ ' ' '°"''"^ '"'° "''^'»' ^"^ S-^ «d ^^6^ Account for the swelling or rising of the mixture 1 \'^^u\ ^^' ^''^'"^ °^ '^^ ^^'•b°"'^ acid gas and alcohol before the bread comes out of the oven? Kivf.^"t~LS^fnS"':Ja.Krir" "r "'f ^"^ary substances and called /erm^fa^io^ "' ^"^ ^'=°^'^' '^^ ^^^ste products. The process is r 138 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 8. Account for the spongy appearance of the interior of a loaf of bread. 9. Observe the interior to discover whether loaves are always of the same color. B. Materials Used in Bread-Making. 10. Observe bread-making at home or in a bakery. {a) Name the materials which are used. (b) About what weight of each is used in making a four-pound loaf? (c) Why does the loaf weigh less than the sum of its ingredients ? (d) Why is the loaf heavier than the flour required to make it .' (e) How many ounces of flour will make a four- pound loaf? 11. From what natural sources is flour obtained ? 12. (a) Visit a mill in your vicinity to observe the process of making flour. (b) Observe where flour is kept at home to pre- serve it in good condition. 13. (a) Cut a grain of wheat in two and examine the parts of which it is composed. (d) Describe these parts. (c) From what part of the grain is white flour obtained ? 14. From your inspection of a grain of wheat, infer the difference between the flour used in making a loaf of white bread and that used in making a loaf of brown bread. "Z2^F= :r?i'i -^^m NATUR'E-STUDY LESSONS. 139 0. Processei of Bread-Making. 15. Observe bread-making at home or in a bakery. (a) State in what order the materials are mixed. {i) Describe minutely the successive processes through which the raw materials pass until the loaf is ready for the oven, noting care- fully the time occupied in each. 16. At what temperature is the room in which the mixing is done? 17 (a) Prepare a mixture of flour and water as in experiment No. 5 (a) and put the same quantity in each of four glasses. To each add the same quantity of yeast and add ^ teaspoonful of salt to the fourth glass. Set the first glass in a very hot place ; the second and fourth glasses in a moderately-warm place and the third in a refrigerator or cold place. Observe the results and infer the effects of temperature on the growth of the yeast plant. (d) From the results in glass number four infer the proper time to add the salt to the bread. 18. Account for the ingredients which are used being treated in a warm room. 19. Discover, if posssible, the temperature best suited for the preparation of the batter and also the dough. 20. What precautions are taken to preserve an even temperature in the batter ? 21. What change takes place in the appearance of the batter before it is kneaded ? 22. Place a piece of unkneaded dough in the oven and allow it to bake. From a comparison of this with 140 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. Vni properly-prepared bread, infer the purpose of the knead- ing process. 23. Discover the effect of leaving the dough too long in rising. 24. {a) How are the loaves formed from the mass of dough ? (d) What determines the time at which the loaf should be placed in the oven ? 25. Compare a baked loaf with one ready for the oven to determine what changes are produced by the cooking. 26. Discover the effpct of the following on the bread : (a) Too hot an oven. (d) Too cool an oven. "27. Discover the average time of cooking a four-pound loaf. 28. It is recognized that the crust of well-baked bread is more easily digested than the inner part. From this, infer which is preferable : — (a) A large loaf or a small one. (d) The all-crusted or the partially-crusted loaf. D. Properties of Bread. 29. What are the general properties of good bread : — (iz) As to the crust ? (6) As to the crumb ? (c) As to the odor ? XXXVn.-SUOAR. A. Its Uses. 1. Place some sugar j;. a tumbler of water and stir. What has becom.e of the sugar ? Sugar is said to he soluble. 2. Compare sugar with sand in respect to solubility in water. li N AW RE-STUDY LESSONS. ui 3. Name other substances that are soluble In neater, distolvcl/"^^ '" ^"^^^ ^"^^ ^'^^^ ^'^^ -^- ^-^ ^-en 5. What two projertfes of sugar render it useft,! ? 6^ Name as many uses as you can to which sugar is put B. Kinds. 7. (a) Examine different kinds of sugar obtained at a grocery store. (^) Describe them, showing in what points they re^mble each other and in what points they 8. (a) Taste raisins, dried currants, the pulp of the bfrch *"" ^^"^"^' *^^ '^^ °^ ^^^ ""^P'^ ^"'^ (^) How does each of these substances taste ? 0. Sources and Manufacture. magpie""" Whi'; "". '"1^ '^""^ ^°"^ ^^^^ ^^^ '^^ «"gar mapJe. What is its color? Its taste? lo. («) Place it in a kettle or dish over a hot fire and bo.l ,t. After boiling it for some time, note 'ts quantity and compare this with the fA^ A ^"'''"^' °'' '^P ^' ^''^ P'^'^^d in the dish. {&) Account for this difference in volume. n. (a) When the volume has bten considerably dimin- ished by evaporation, taste the liquid. W How does the liquid now compare in swcet- f , ^xruT- '''.^^ *'''' '^P ''''''^" P'^^^d '■" the vessel ? {c) What IS the color of the liquid now ? {d) How does the liquid now compare in density or thickness with the sap from which it has been formed ? >^ T "-^^ 'K!r~f:rs»«, 142 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. !- S () What products do you obtain ? ^T^!^^ '^f-:?s.lsi S««!-sv» 18. Discover how the cubical masses of loaf sugar are formed. 19. Suspend a string in a .strong, warm solution of granulated sugar to observe crystals form along the thread as the syrup cools. 20. Do with the juice of the sugar-beet as you have done w,th that of the maple and sugar-cane, and .mte the products. from Ihe'sugar-t'et!"^" "' •^''""""" '^ •nanufac.ured from sugar-cane or XXX Vin.- A OHAIB A. The Material. 1. Examine different chairs, noting the materials used m their manufacture. 2. What different kinds of woods are used in makinu chairs ? ° 3- How is the wood as found in the tree prepared for the ch^ir-maker ? 4. Discover why particular kinds of wood are used in makmg chairs. (F mit 144 NATUHK-8TUUY LESSONS. • If I'i'n 5. (tt) ICxamine a common kitchen chair to discover the kiml of wood used in making it (/^) Why is this wood used ? B. The Ii«gt. 0. (a) How many legs has It? (fi) Describe their shape. 7. Discover the reason for a chair's having four legs, rather than two or three. 8. (a) How are the four legs placed with reference to each other and to the seat ? {i>) Why are they placed in this order? 9. How are they joitied to the seat ? 10. (a) Describe the bars connecting the legs. (d) What is their shape ? (c) How are they joined to the legs ? (d) What is the use of these b.irs ? 1 1. Examine other chairs to discover whether they have bars. If they have no bars try to discover the reason. Tliese bars are called rat'/s, rounds, or rungs. 12. How is the strength of the chair affected by rails? 13. {a) Have all chairs legs of the same length? {h) If not, what determines the length of the legs? 0. The Seat. 14. {a) "Describe the part of the chair to which the legs are attached. {b) What is its use ? (r) Note and describe different shapes of seats. {d) Of what different materials are seats made ? {e) With what are seats sometimes covered ? (/) Examine the seat of a chair about to be recov- ered and describe what is under the covering. iV.l TUHE mUDY LESSvy.H. 145 D. The BMk. 15 00 Describe the rcmaiiiintr part of the chair. (b) What is its use ? W Examine the backs of rlifTcrent chairs and describe any diflTercnccs in shape and height you have noticed. {d) In what different \va}s are tiic backs jilaced with regard to the seat ? (<•) Which position is the mo^t common' • (/)Why? 16. (a) Describe any other parts than thf-<»f al„.ve mentioned which y.,,. h-.x ,, i. need on some chairs. {f>) What purpose is served by each d thest-? 17. in) What other objects take the place of chairs? {b) What is the main difference between each of these and a common chair ? 18. Make a drawing of a common chair showintr all the parts. *^ XXXIX. -A BIVER VALLEY. 1. Observe the effect of rain :— ia) When falling on a nearly level area. (b) When falling on a hill. 2. In each case, what evidence is there that rain can alter the form of the land ? 3. Observe in what kind of soil the deepest runnels are made by the streams of water. 4. What becomes of the earth and stones washed away by the water } 5. What kinds of materials are carried farthest by the water? What kinds are carried the shortest dis- tances ? VOkkif^ W** T 11 ! h III h 146 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 6. If the stream opens into a pool or pond or lake, observe what kinds of materials are deposited near the mouth of the stream and what kinds are carried into the deeper parts of the water. See experiment under Soil, page 1 54. 7. (a) Account for the deposition of coarse gravel, fine gravel, sand and silt, where you find them in a stream or pond. (d) Where has each of these classes of mater^l come from ? 8. Observe how each successive rainstorm deepens and widens the bed where the water flows. 9. After every rainstorm, why are the streams of water muddy ? If the stieam is a permanent one and large it is called a. river ; the bed wherein the water flows is its channel ; the land on both sides which con- fines the water to its channel are the banks ; and the oMintry through which the stream flows is a valley. 10. (a) Observe how the river makes its way through the valley. {b) In what part of its course does the water flow mo.st rapidly ? (r) Where most slowly? id) Upon what does the velocity of a stream depend ? (e) In which part is the water deepest f (/) In which part most .shallow? {g) What connection is there between t!ie rate of flowing and the depth of the water-? 11. Is the stream always of the same width? Account for any differences in width. ! t J^^^^-' \_-w- ' "^^ • ^ i^, *ai&. ^1^ ss^^^ ^-.^ m ^'t ■ 1^1 Tm i " - w w- ■ , '^P(>\ Slim. i\ 1)(,.s Vai.i.ia. ^m 1 :.' i 1 •. li 'P'i .■ - NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 147 12. (a) Where are the banks being worn away and where does deposition of materials take place ? (d) Why do these changes occur at these particular places ? ero'2». '^"''"^ *""''' °^ '°" *"■ ''^^ ^y '•'' '""»«"« «f ^"'^ and ice is 13- What causes determine whether erosion or deposi- tion shall take place ? 14- (a) Compare the points of erosion and deposition when the stream is at its ordinary height with similar points when the stream is at its flood height. (d) Are these points always the sajne ? Why ? (c) Compare the amount of erosion by swift and slow strea.ms. 15. {a) Are there any pebbles or stones in the chan- nel that do not be.'ong to the rocks of the district where they are found ? (i>) Where have they come from and through what agency ? (c) What is their shape ? (d) Account for this shape > 16. Examine the valley to determine whether the stream has changed the location of its bed. 17. i^f) What determines the direction of the stream ? (d) Account as far as possible for the bends in its course. 18. (a) At a bend in the river, on which side is the water the deeper? (*) Account for the shallow water on one side and the deep water on the other. 148 NATUUE-STVDY LESSONS. ,'% ■ 1 P {c) On which side of the bend is erosion taking place most rapidly ? 19. How does a stream tend to straighten its course? 20. {a) In which part of the valley has the river its course ? (^) Account for the level stretches in the valley. 21. {a) PLxamine any falls or rapids in the stream. {b) What detifrmints whether there shall be falls or rapids ? 22. {a) In what direction relative to the stream are the falls gradually moving ? (b) Why? 23. (f^) If possible, examine the sides of the valley. {!>) Describe them. 24. W h it causes determine whether there is a gradual slope or a bluff? 25. What forces are at work tending to obliterate the traces of the action of the river as you go back from the river bed ? 26. {a) Observe any small streams that flow into the river. {b) In what direction do their courses lie with ref- erence to that of the river ? 27. (a) Examine the river where a tributary enters it. {b) Are there any deltas or bar formations ? Account for their presence or absence. 28. What effect have tributaries upon the course of a stream ? 29. How does vegetation on the banks affect the char- acter of a stream ? 30. How do animals like beavers and muskrats affect the river? NATURE STUDY LEi^SONS. 14«) 31. (a) How has man modified rivers in certain places to serve his purposes ? (d) What industries arc assisted by the currents of rivers? XL.-A SCHOOL GAEDEN. A school garden may be made of any convenient or suitable size. It may be situated in a part of the school grounds or it may be a plot bought or rented outside of the school site, but convenient to it. Whether in or outside the school site proper it should be fenced or protected from careless or accidental inva- sion. It may be separated into different plots for each class if there is enough land, in which case the older pupils will undertake more difficult problems than the juniors. If the space be only a square rod or two the pupils will all have to work together. School gardens will and should be different in different school sections, and will in the same section vary to some extent, especially in the plots devoted to annuals, from year to year. Training vines over the porch, woodshed or summer house, planting ornamental trees and shrubs in suitable places around the grounds, cultivating flower plots near the front door or flower borders along the walks, are to be considered as part of the work of school-gardening. Some of the practical problems that may be attempted to be studied by tiie aid of the garden, arc : (d) Cultivation, fertilization and drainage of the soil. {l>) Weeds and weeding. 150 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. ):! (f) Slipping, layering, budding and grafting. (d) Artificial pollination, starting or improving varie- ties. (e) Rotation of crops. (/) Learning the appearance and testing the hardiness, etc., of plants or varieties of plants not generally known in the neighborhood. {g) Experimenting upon the cultivation of wild flowers and wild fruits. {h) Identification and remedial treatment of insect and fungal enemies of plants. Let us try '^iSten the time when every pupil will have his own division of the school garden in addition to the general one. Every child who can have a little plot for a garden of his own at home should enter at once upon its possession and cultivation. A child cannot find a pleasanter, happier or more profitable way of spending his leisure than in attending to his own little garden. The plot on the following page is 28 ft. by 42 ft. ; scale, 8 ft. to the inch. A, B, C, D are four fields to illustrate rotation of crop, every cycle of four years. A is wheat; B, meadow 01 timothy and clover (sown with the wheat); C, meadow, broken up in the fall ; D, corn or root crop, sown in the fall, if crop is off in time, with fall wheat. E, F and G show a rotation for a stock farm. E is oats and pease followed by rape in the fall ; F is oats followed by rye in the fall ; G is the rye turned down in the beginning of summer and followed by fodder corn. Turnips follow lettuce and spinach follows radish in the same year. I. Criticise the size, plan and contents of this plot with reference to suitability for your school. i u ! 1' ; t !| 5V. -- --.--^wrv NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 161 spine*. C'urniiii. Black Currant. RoM) or Pjrruii. CIOCMM'- lierry. While Currant. Weigella Hyilrangfi »r i (ir Dt'utzia. Cyiimtii. Black- I Rwl iivrry. , Raiplx-rry Blackcap. Hlraw- Iwrry. Meiulow fettue. Hatin Onuw. Awnleaa Brome /, ■. • ^ Qnua. i t'rcfianl linuw. Wheat. Rye. Barley. ()au. Tomatoea. Potatoes. Beanfi. Peaw. Beet*. Pamniim. I^ettnciv Turni|>s, i Radiah. Hpinach. followiil mii'i'fiwiTely li» lie I) ' followfil iiiK-rfNtniTely )iy C D A. U A B. ' followed ■iH'OTwively hy A H C. followed micceuively liy FO. followed niit'ceHHitoly hy OK. followed mici'tiuiirely liy KF 1 1 Verliena. Petunia. Anter. Zinnia. Phlox. Salpiglouia. Mignonetii-. Sht occupy a (livision. A ) Account as far fis possible for each variation noted. 4. Of what is the surface layer in the forest comjKised? The dark surface matter found m wocxls and furnied of .Itciiyint; vejjetn- tion is orgitHii mallet The part of the soil resulting from llie decomposition of rocks is inorganic mailer. The organic matter, whether of vegetable or animal origin, in a soil is called humus. 5. {a) At a selected excavation, carefully take off about a peck of the soil, cutting from the surface straight down to the subsoil. {b) By hand or with a trowel, break up and thor- oughly stir and mix the soil on a board to obtain a true sample. (r) Weigh out a pound and spread it out thin on a board or sheet of paper. Put it in a drying- place for twelve hours or longer, occasionally stirring it to " air-dry " it. 6. {a) Weigh the dried soil. {bj Compare with the weight before drying. {c) Observe any change in color. ( if) v\/hich has increased the least ? Cf) Compare these increases in weight with those in the Ikst experiment. {h) What kind of soil would be best for plants in dry weather ? (0 In wet weather } 5. Why is it easier to walk or drive on a sar-ly road immediately after rain than before it ? 6. Why does moist clay adh -re to one's boots ? 7. Why is a clay soil called "heavy" and a sandy one "light"? 8. {a) Put an equal quantity of sand and of clay into similar dishes and place on a stove. (Jj) Observe which heats more rapidly. ic) Remove from the stc and observe which retains its heat longer, {d) Infer with reasons the soils that can be tilled earliest in the spring, and the soils in which seeds will germinate most quickly. {e) State the reasons in each case. NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. U>j 9. (a) Keep a portion of tlie garden well hoed during dry weather to observe the effect upon the growing plants. (/>) Which part, the well-hoed or the other part, seems to retain moisture better? (c) By examining dusty places like roadsides and nearby hard ground during very diy weather, determine a way of preventing evaporation from the soil. XLin.-ICE AND MIOA. 1. In what respects are ice and mica different from all animals and plants that you have seen ? 2. Report observation upon the source of each of these two minerals. 3. Are they solid or liquid ? 4. Which is the more glittering or shining? intel^silJ^nfSr^'I'-. '"'■/'*'=*' •^* '"'"^'■^' ^'"^ '^^'"'^ »o «-'e kind and intensity of the light it reflects is its /us/re. A surface which has lustre is said to he lustrous. S- Scratch each with a knife or wire nail. Note differ- ences in the streaks made. 6. Compare the color of ice and mica. 7. Which is more transparent ? 8. Try to scratch mica with ice and ice with mica, and from this infer which is harder. 9. Try to break each, and infer which is more brittle. 10. If possible bend each, and judge which is more flexible. 11. By bending, twisting or altering the shape in any way, ascertain which returns to its original form more readily and more completely, and infer which is the more elastic. 158 NATURE-STUDY LESHOXS. 12. Note the difference in the way in which they sph't. 13. Place both in water to find out which is heavier. 14. Apply heat to each, and infer which can be melted more easily. IS- From the qualities you have tested infer the uses of each. XLIV. -LIMESTONE. mineral ''"'^ ^'""'"" "^ "'^'^^'^ ^°' ^""'^ connected with rocks and This Stone is widely distributed in Canada, and may be found almost everywhere in southern Ontario, either as boulders in the fields or in "place" along some stream, lake shore, or in some quarry. 1. If a limestone quarry is in the neighborhood, visit it and observe the manner in which the stone admits of being readily taken out calTJd'a'SS" ''^''^" °" ''^" *' "^""^ stra^i/i^ation and each layer is 2. Observe whether the strata are horizontal or not. is tllrir"4?' ''°"'°°"''' '•^^ «"g'« °f inclination of the strata to the horizon 3. Observe the markings on the rocks to discover any remains resembling shells. These remains are called /ossi/s. Observe whether the strata are continuous or if they are fractured, hall beVnSphceJ''""''^' "''""'" *'''"'" the opposite sides of the break The displacement of the layers on one side of a fracM-e is called a /««//. 4. Can you scratch limestone vyrith your finger-nail ? 5. (a) Draw the point of a pocket-knife forcibly over a piece of limestone. Does the knife scratch the stone ? (6) From this infer which is harder, limestone or steel. NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. 159 6. (a) Examine the specimens to discover fossils. Compare, if possible, with similar forms now living. Are they shells, corals, tniobites, etc. ? Describe the fossils found. Compare them with any living animals of similar form that you may have found. In what situations havir you seen such living forms? (fi) Infer whether limestone was formed under water. 7. If these rocks were formed beneath the sea, what changes must have taken place in the level of the land ? 8. Examine a piece of limestone with a lens. Describe its appearance. Are there any crystals in it ? 9. (a) Weigh a piece of limestone, then place it in a fire till it is red hot. (^) As soon as it is cold, weigh it again and note the difference in weight. (c) What change has taken place in the limestone? The part of the limestone which remains after it is roasted is quicklime. 10. {a) Wet the quicklime with a little water and describe what happens. Note the change of temperature. {b) Take a little sulphuric acid and add its own bulk of water to it. Note what happens. Why? {c) W3»at causes the rise in temperature when water is added to the quicklime? 11. Put a piece of red litmus-paper on moist limestone and then on the moistened quicklime. What happens in each case ? When quicklime is treated with water until it will absorb no more, it becomes slacked-ltme. ' 12. (a) Where have you seen slacked-lime used? (^) What use was being made of it ? 160 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. :» I, 13. Have you ever seen limestone burnt on a large scale? If so, describe the process. The furnace in which limestone is roasted into quicklime is a lime-kiln. 14. What use is made of unburnt limestone? 1 5. {a) If there are any limy springs in the neighbor- hood observe them to discover if limestone is now being formed. Travertine, " petrified moss," is formed by such springs in most parts of loui lem Ontario. ' {b) Describe the appearance of such limestone. {c) Compare it with the old limestone. {d) Discover, whether there are similar fossils in it. {e) Discover if it will burn into quicklime. XLV.-OOLD-BEARING QUARTZ. 1. Describe the appearance of quartz. 2. What does quartz closely resemble in appearance ? 3. (a) Try to scratch it with your knife and then try to scratch the knife with the quartz. (^) Infer from this which is the harder of the two. 4. (a) Try a similar experiment with a piece of glass and quartz. {b) Again, infer which is harder, glass or quartz. 5. {a) Break a piece of quartz into fine particles ; com- pare these with sand. {b) Infer from what kind of rock sand is formed. {c) Compare also with the sand on coarse sandpaper. 6. Why is sandpaper useful ? 7. Heat quai-tz red hot and cool it. Discover whether it will slake like limestone. 8. Strike a piece of quartz against steel and discover what happens. /. I'ink Ti'iiriiuiliin- KulMllilt t;. Auali-. 7. rr.«-iil(.lii, -. M,ila. Sulpliur. i ki jAfjiaum- ' L. iV! TUiiE-STllt Y LKSSOXS. 161 9 Examine a piece of {^old-bcarinj; quartz to discover Other minerals dian the quart/. Such generally has gold ami ..on pyrite 10. What is the color of each of these ? 1 1. Discover which is harder, your knife or iron pyrites. 12. Discover which is harder, c|uartz or iron pyrites. 13. Powder and stronyly heat some iron pyrites. Des- cribe what happens. 14. (a) Observe the smell while the pyrites is bcinfj roasted and infer what substance is being given off. (d) Describe the material left and note its color. (c) What has passed off from the pyrites ? ((f) Why is the powder that is left rusty ? 15. Try to cut a piece of gold with a knife and to flatten it with a hammer. A metal which can be beaten or rollea NA TUHE-STUO Y LESSONH. • I quartz as comparer with that of an equal volume of water. The weight of a tulxtance a* compared with an equal volui.n of wattr il Its sp*ctfic grmiity. 20. In a similar way determine the specific gravity of Iron pyrites, and, if there is gold enough for the purpose, also of gold. 21. {a) Compare the specific gravities of gold, iron pyrites and quartz. {b) Infer from this why gold is found in the la-rr of sand resting on the rock in the bccL >f creeks in some gold-mining regions. ZLVI.-MINERAL8. Observations on minerals may be begun by compari- son of the qualities of two or more common species ; for example, water and clay, clay and chalk, mica and anthracite, mica and limestone, limestone and copper, limestone and quartz. A cabinet of standard specimens for comparative iCterminations of lustre and hardness is desirable, and, although not indispensable for the purposes of nature- study, it is necessary for even elementary study of mineralogy. The extent to which a study of minerals may be carried in a school will depend on its equipment for heating, crushing, weighing and otherwise manipulating the specimens. Having studied the minerals mentioned in Lessons XLIII and XLH', other minerals should be examined and as many of the following points noted as possible :— ■Wiii NATUHE HTVhV LKSSoys. 163 (tt) The sources and uses oi miner iI.h. (fi) Their condition, whether suliu, .iqui»l or t^ts- eous. (c) Their form, whether massive or crystalline. () What do you observe on the slate ? (f) Where does it come from ? 2. Compare the temperature of the slate with that of the steam. 3. How is the temperature of the vapor affected by contact with the slate ? 4. What change was effected in the steam by its con- tact with the slate ? 5. Compare the temperature of the steam issuing from the tube with that of the air of the room. 6. What effect upon the temperature of the vapor has its contact with the air ? 7. What was the visible effect of this lowering of the ♦■'"nperature of the vapor ? m NATURE STUltY LBSSOys. 8. («i) Place a pitcher or tumbler of cold water in a warm room. (fi) What do you notice on the outside of the ves- sel ? (c) Where has it come from ? 9. In what form did the moisture exist in the air? 10. Compare the temperature of the gla.ss with that of the atmosphere and its vapor. 11. What eflfect on the vapor of the atmosphere had its contact with the cold vessel ? I '. How is the condition of invisible vapor affected by its contact with a body of much lower temperature ? This change in its conditidn is called coiiiUnsation. 13. Under what circumstances is vapor condensed? 14. (■ ■ I--': t I u 180 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS. LIV.-HAIL. 1. (fi) Observe the conditions of the atmosphere as tc temperature immediately before a hailstorm, during the storm and immediately after. (i>) Also observe carefully the clouds as to appear- ance and motion during the storm. (c) What was the temperature of the atmosphere just before the storm? () How does this temperature of the upper air where hail is formed compare with that of the atmosphere at or near the earth durinfr the storm ? (c) What would you infer from these facts concern- ing the temperatures of different strata of air ? It is not correct to suppose that the temperatures of different strata of air differ according to their lieijjht. It frequently occurs that a stratum of air of a temperature at or below the freezing point of water lies between two strata of air of considerably higher temperature. j>%'.«!wr4-r"#-w ."-isncr^i^'^i^^S'^/ "3B;3"Ji*5UI'«,, NA rUltE-STUD Y LESSONS. \ 81 6. {a) Examine some particularly large hailstones. If a very large one is found, cut it across. {b) Describe the cut face. (c) Infer from its form and structure how it has been formed. LV.-DEW. 1. Observe the grass on successive mornings : {a) Near water. {b) Away from water. 2. {a) Discover the cause of the dampness on some mornings. {b) Is it present during the day ? (c) When does it disappear? {d) Why does it disappear ? {e) When was it formed ? (/) How was it formed ? Such moisture as this is called dew. 3- (rt) Is dew formed in greater abundance in a clear night or in a cloudy night ? In a calm or in a windy night? {b) Try to account for the difference in each case, 4- {a) Which has the greater amount of dew, the grass or the board walk? the painted boards or the unpaintcd ? the lawn or the gravel walk ? {!>) Account for the difference noted. 5. During what time of year is dew formed ? 6. Under what conditions is it formed ? 7. Examine thick, long grass at noon or during the early afternoon. 182 NA TUHE-STUh Y LESSONS. 8. (d) Do you observe any moisture on it? Can this be flew ? {/>) Give your reasons for not regarding it as dew. 9. Supposing the temperature were very low, below the freezing point of water, what would become of the dew as it formed ? When tile w.iter-vaiior at tlie suifacc of tlie earth freezes as it condenses, it is called hoar-frost. 10. {a) Where have you seen iioar-frost? (/;) Of what color is it ? {c) When did you see it ? (./) Under what conditions is it formed ? L\ .-THE SUN. Procure a strip of board tv. .) inches vide and two feet long, and to one end nail a strip of the same width and six inches long at rijjht-angles to the board. At noon e.ich clear day have the length of the shallow cast liy the upright piece marked on the long strip by placing this horizontally on a north and south line. Write the date on the 2lst of each month along the line marking the length of the shadow at that time. 1. What causes a change in the length of the shadow? 2. During which months does the shadow grow longer? 3. During which months does the shadow grow shorter? 4. When is the shadow longest ? 5. When is the shadow shortest ? 6. When does the shadow reach about half-way between its longest and shortest positions ? 7. How often in the year is the shadow an average length between its longest and shortest lengths ? 8. At the time when the shadow is an average length, compare the length of the day with that of the night. The time of the year when the days and nights are of equal length all over the world is an equinox. The one in the spring is the vernal equi- nox and that in the fall is the auCumnal equinox NA TUHE-Srui) Y LIJSSnNS. 183 9. (a) In what direction from the schof)! builclin) Ob-;erve these two ->nitits on the horizon and fix each by some la ... k. 12. When the shadow is shortest, in how many days does it begin to grow longer? The time of llie year when ilie suii is highest in the heavens is called the sitmMer so/s/tcf. At that time the run has re.iclied tile limit of its northward iiiovemcnt and apparently stands still for a few days before beginning its sotithward motion. 13. When the shadow is longest, compare the length of the day and night. 14. (rt) Where does the sun rise and where does it set when the shadow is longest ? {d) Observe these two points on the horizon and fix them by some landmark. 1 5. When the shadow is longe.st, in how many days does it begin to grow shorter? The time of (lie yeat when the sun is lowest in the heavens is called the wi)t/er solstue. At that time it has reached the limit of its southward movement and apparently stands still for a few days before beginning its northwinj mution. 184 NATUfiE STUDY LESSONS. 1 6. As the shadow is shortening, observe the time at which the sun rises or sets for a number of successive days. Make a quadrant of a circle a foot in radius, and mark the number of degrees on the circumference from o to 90. Place the centre of the circle at the point reached by the shadow on the "shadow-board," and the cir- cumference towprds the upright part with the point marked o on the upper edge of the horizontal board, and find the number of degrees the sun is above the horizon. 17. On what day is the sun highest in the heavens at noon ? 18. On what day is the sun lowest in the heavens at noon? The height of the sun in degrees above the horizon at 12 m. is its meri- dian altitude, 19. What is the sun's meridian altitude on June 21st ? on May 21st? on Jan. 21st? etc. 20. What do we get from the sun ? 21. {a) Discover which is generally the hottest month of the year. {b) Why is it not the hottest time of the year about the 21st of June? 22. (a) In an east and west ravine, on which slope are the earliest flowers of the spring to be found } {b) Account for the difference in the growth of the vegetation on the two slopes. 23. {a) In a north and south ravine, on which slope are the earliest flowers of the spring to be found ? {b) Why should vegetation grow earlier on one slope than on the other? 24. Give two reasons why the weather grows warmer from March till June and colder from August til) December. i^ ^^^ ■':.Ti>T»IWA.^74, (c) Is the bowl wider at the mouth than at the hise? 4- (^) The two stai's of ihe bowl farthest from the handle are called "The Pointers." (/>) Get some one to show you the North Star and then discover why those two stars in the dipper are called the Pointers. The North Star is often called the Po/e Star. 5. Under what circumstances may it be useful to know which is the North Star? 6. If one has lost his way on a clear night how may he know which star is the North Star ? 7- {a) On some clear evening, note the position of the Pointers as early as they become visible. An hour or two afterwards, observe them again. Have they changed their apparent position ? {b) If so, in which direction ? (r) Similarly obPirve the North Star. Does it appear to change its position? {(f) Repeat these observations until you see that the Big Dipper appears to move in a circle around the North or Polar Star. ■WATTi^^v. "5.5^.-Hft:3nBnir! MATURE-STUDY LESSOyS. m 8. (a) Observe how far the Hi^ Dipper appears to move in two hours. (In the lonj; winter evenings you can observe it an hour longer and one docs not need to rise very early to see it in the morning.) (d) How many times that apparent distance (its movement in two hours) would complete the circle. (c) Hence, infer the number of hours it takes that group of stars to make an apparent revolu- tion around the North Star. 9. (rt) Choose another group of stars and observe it in a similar manner. {6) Infer whether all the stars make apparent, com- plete revolutions in twenty-four hours. 10. Observe the distance from the Big Dipper to the North Star. At the same distance from the North Star, bu* in the opposite direction, try to make out another group of five or six stars shaped like a W with one of the V's shallower and wider than the other and having the open side towards the North Star. This group, often spoken of as the Big W, is called in the sky maps Cassiopeia's Chair. 11. (a) Compare the brightness of these stars with that of the stars in the Big Dipper. (d) Make a map showing their relative position to each other and to the N orth Star. 12. With the unaided eye, or by looking over the edge of a ruler, trace a line passing through the North Star from a particular star in the Big W ; for example, the outside one of the sharp V to the Big Dipper, and find what part of the latter group is opposite that particular ';«) Make a map showing the relative position of these three anfl the North Star. Some other coiistell.itions iluit iire referred to in literature and are easily leariieil are the Northern Crown, which is overlK-'id at lo p. m. in the middle of June, the Lion, overlie.id in the middle of April at 9 p ni., "The Heavenly Twins" and the Doj; Star, about 9 p.m. in the nnddlc of February, the (Ireat Scpiare of Pej^asus, at 9 p. m. in the be^inninj; of November, and the Smaller Bear or Little Dipper of which the North Star forms the end of the handle. LIX.-THE LEVEB AND FULCRUM. A. Apparatus :— (ii) A stout pry, with a triangular block to serve as a rest. (d) A flat ruler twelve inches long. (<•) A number of equal weights. 1. (a) Try to raise the teacher's desk, or a cupboard, or any other heavy object by lifting it with the hands alone. (d) Next raise it by using the pry. (c) What difference is observed ? A ruler, liandspike or crowlwir use