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Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as requ:red. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre film^s d des taux de reduction diff^rents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clich6, il est filmd d partir de Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivanis illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 ^tttl THE LEADING FACTS OP CANADIAN HISTORY BY W. J. ROBERTSON, B.A., LL.B. ^nthoviztb ig the |3rotc$tant Committee x)f the Cottiutl of ^nblxt Inatrttction for the ^robince of es and make all necessary articles for the use of the settlers. Ohamplain was made governor of the young colony, but did not keep his position long ; for war broke out between England and France, and Jjinglaml sent Sir David Kirke with a fleet to take Quebec. Twice Kirke appeared before the fort, and on the second occasion, in 1629, captured it. For three years England held Canada, and then, peace being restored, gave it back to France, not considering the coimtry of much value. Champlain again took charge of the colory, and labored unceasingly to make it prosperous, and to brni<^ the Indians to a knowledge of Christianity. In this he was partially successful, but his work was cut short by death, A.D. 1635. Champlain is rightly considered the Founder of the colony of New France or Canada**^. * Oanada, is a word of Indian origin, and is supposed to mean " a collection of huta" 8 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTOBT. CHAPTER n. CANADA UNDER FRENCH RULE. 1. Indian IHisilons. — ^To understand the history of Canada during the greater part of the sixteenth century, we must bear in mind that a two-fold object was constantly kept in view by the French Kings: Jirst, the establishment and extension of the colony at the expense of the English settlers in America ; and secoiiMy^ the conversion of the Indians to the Roman Catholic faith. The French Kings and their ministers wished to profit not only by the fur- trade of America, but to build up on this continent a colony where the religion of the Roman Catholic Church should be held and practised by the whole population, Indian as well as French. By far the most interesting portion of the history of French Canada is the story of the Jesuit missions among the Indians. Full of holy zeal for the salvation of the Red men, missionary after missionary of the religious society called Jesuits, made his way to the Hurons in the Georgian Bay district, to the Algonquins to the north and up the Ottawa, and to the fierce Iroquois in the Mohawk VaUey. Among the Algonquins they suffered want and hardship, dwel- ling in wretched tents full of smoke and filth and often ill-treated and despised by the people they were trying to benefit. At first their efforts were of little avail ; even the Hurons, the most intel- ligent, kindly, and well-to-do of the Indian tribes thought the missionaries brought them trouble in the shape of drought, sick- ness, and ill-success in hunting and war. But no amount of failure could discourage these patient and unselfish men. After a while the Indians began to respect them, and then "came a general willingness to be baptized and to accept the religion taught by the missionaries. It was not long before nearly all the Hurons became converts to Christianity, and left off their heathen practices and habitst Two names will always be remembered in connection CANADA UNDER FRENCH RULE. with these Huron Missions, those of Father de Brebceuf and Father Lalement ; ihe first strong in frame, brave of heart, and capable of enduring any amount of hardship ; the second, delicate, refined, loving, and unseliish. Other missionaries took their lives in their hands and went among the cruel and treacherous Iroquois, hoping to do some good to the fiercest enemies of the colony. But little, however, came of these missions. The Iroquois did not trust the French, and the missionaries after a brief stay were either murdered or compelled to escape for their lives. The name of Father Jogues, who suffered, first mutilation, and later on, death, at the hands of the Iroquois, is one that shines bright on the roll of Martjrr missionaries. 3. Indian l¥ar§. — The story of Indian Missions is also a part of the story of Indian Wars. The Algonquins and the Hurons were the friends of the French, wh the Iroquois were bent on the destruction of the feeble coljuy and its allies. The Hurons lived in populous villages betw=>en the Georgian Bay and Lake Simcoe, and were said to number thirty thousand people, most of whom accepted Christianity through the labours of Jesuit mission- aries. St. Ignace, St. Louis, St. Joseph and St. Marie, were among the most important of these missions. In 1648, St. Joseph was surprised by the Iroquois, while most of the Huron hunters and warriors were absent. Seven persons were captured and killed, the missionary, Father Daniel, meeting his fate while ministering to the dying. The next place to fall was St. Ignace ; then St. Louis was attacked. Here Fathers Jean de Brebceuf and Gabriel Lalement, refusing to leave their helpless tiocks, were made n ♦ j. prisoners and put to the most cruel tortures. Brebceuf 's naiils were torn from his fingers, his body hacked with knives, red hot hatchets hung round his neck, his gums seared, and finally, his heart cut out, no word or token of pain escaping from his lips. His tortures lasted four hours. Lalement, so delicate, sensitive, and frail, was tortured for seventeen hours Martyrdom of before his sufferings were ended in death. St. Marie Bre»>aiuf and was the next object of attack. It was manfully defended by a few Frenchmen and Hurons, and after a fierce conflict the Iroquois retreated. of Huron Missions. mmmg mmmmmmmm 10 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. I I J I / The Huron missions were destroyed, and the people were scatter- ed. An effort to transfer the missions to Isle St. Joseph or Christian Island, near Collingwood, and gather the terror-stricken Hurons together again, ended the following spring in another dreadful massacre on the mainland, by the Iroquois, where the Hurcms had come in search of food for their starving families. Ten thousand Hurons had perished, a few came to Quebec with the missionaries, the rest were scattered far and wide among other tribes in the north, east and west. The once powerful, brave and intelligent Hurons, as a nation, ceased to exist ; and with them perished the principal fruits of the Jesuit Missions. 3. Orowth of Wenr France. — Let us now return to what was going on in the colony, during this period of Indian strife and bloodshed. The Company of One Hundred Associates did not carry out what it had promised to do ; very few settlers were brought out by it, and its attention was almost entirely taken up with the trade in furs. It sent out scarcely one thousand colonists, much less the six thousand it had promised. The population grew very slowly, so slowly that in 1662, it had less than two thousand souls. But a great interest was taken in the spiritual welfare of the colony, and out of this interest came the founding of Montreal Founding of *^ ^ mission, in 1642, by a number of devoted men Montreal, 1642. and women, who came from France for that purpose. Here, the little band prayed and fought, for the Iroquois lay in wait, night and day, right under the guns of the rude fort to kill and scalp the unwary. Many a sad and heroic tale comes down to us of this troublous time. The story of Dulac des Ormeaux and his sixteen companions recalls the bravest deeds of the best days of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Hearing that a larse Pass of the , . ^ . . , f , , Long Sault, number of Iroquois were coming down the lakes and 1660. rivers to attack the feeble garrisons on the St. Lawrence, these young men determined to sacrifice their lives and save the colony. They made their wills, confessed their sins, received the sacrament and took a sad farewell of their friends in Montreal. Then, with a few Christian Hurons and Algonquins they took possession of an old fort near the Long Sault rapids, on the Ottawa. Here they awaited the descent of the Iroquois, prepared to sell thoir lives dearly. CANADA UNDER FRENCH RULE. 11 Soon two hundred came down in their boats, and landing, attacked the little band in their hastily constructed breastwork of logs. For days the unequal struggle lasted. The Hurons deserted to the Iroquois in dismay. Dulac and his companions fought on until worn out with want of sleep and nourishment, the four that were left alivo fell into the hands of the enraged savages. Three were mortally wounded and were burnt alive, the fourth was saved for Indian tortures. The Hurons who so basely deserted to the enemy found no mercy at the hands of the Iroquois, and were put to death. TliP.s perished Dulac and his companions, but not without saving the colony. The Iroquois were checked and disheartened and for a time the settlement had peace. The colony, as already stated, made slow progress. Governor after Governor was appointed to no purpose ; the Company of One Hundred Associates was doing nothing to further its interests, and Indian raids threatened the very existence of the settlements. In 1659, the Abbe Laval came to Canada. His arrival ^ay^l in marks a new era in the life of the colony. Zealous, Canada, devoted, able and enthusiastic, for many years he laboured in the interests of the Church, and his influence did much to mould the future of Canada. His first stay was a brief one ; he was anxious to prevent the sale of brandy or "fire water " to the Indians, but the traders found it too profitable to be given up, although its effects on the Indians were frightful. Finally, Laval sailed to France to get the French King to stop the wretched traffic, and to have the Governor who refused to put the law in force against the offenders recalled. 4. Royal Government. — Up to this time fur companies aided by the leading clergy, had governed the colony. Now a change was decided upon. The One Hundred Associates lost their charter, and Canada was placed under the government of the French King. This change was due largely to the influence of Laval at the French Court, and took place in 1663. A Governor, Intendant and Bishop were appointed, and these aided by a Supreme Council, acted under the instructions of the King. The Governor was at the head of military affairs ; the Bishop, of Church affairs ; and the Intendant, of legal and money affairs. The 12 LEADING FACTS OP CANADIAN HISTORY. i : Governor and the Bishop appointed the members of the Council, at first four, but afterwards increased to twelve in number. The Intendant made laws for the people, and published them at the church doors or from the pulpit. Even such small matters as pew rents, stray hogs, fast driving, family quarrels, were dealt with by him. The Bishop, too, took an active part in the affairs of the colony, and because the duties of the Governor, Bishop and Intendant, were not very clearly stated, frequent quarrels took place between these, the chief officers of the King. The law in force was very different from the law of England, and is known as the Custom of Paris, the same law that prevailed at that time in France. It is still in force in Quebec Province and suits the French people better than our English laws. The colonists had nothing to say in making their own laws, they had no Parliaments or Municipal Councils, everything was managed for them by the King, through the Governor, Bishop, Intendant, and Supreme Council. To hear complaints and settle disputes, courts were established at Quebec, Three Rivers and Montreal, th^se courts being under the control of the Supreme Council, and presided over by the " seigneurs " or holders of lal-ge tracts of land from the King by Feudal or Military tenure. These seigneurs were gentlemen who came out to Canada from France, enticed by the offer of large grants of land for which they paid by bringing out settlers and giving their services in times of war, in defence of the colony. They generally settled near Quebec, Three Rivers, and Montreal, along the banks of the St. Lawrence, so as to have the river always near at hand to bring in and take out what they bought and sold. Besides, when attacked by the Iroquois, they could more easily escape to one of the forts by water than by land. ft. Talon.— M. de Mezy, was the first Governor, Laval the first Bishop, and Talon the first Intendant. Talon was a very able man and used his power and talents in the interests of the colony. But, unfortunately Laval and the Governor could not agree, and De Mezy was recalled. A new Governor, De Cour- ment settles celles took his place, and about the same time the Mar- in Canada. ^^-^ ^^ Tracy was sent out with the famous Carignan regiment to help the colony in their struggles against the Iroquois. A Military Tenure. CANADA UNDER B*RENCH R0LB. 13 hamber of settlers also came, bringing sheep, cattle, farm implements, and a few horses, so that tlie population was increased by two thou- sand persons. This new strens[th uuabled tiie settlers to attack their enemies, the Iroquois, and two expeditions, the one in the winter, and the other the following summer, invaded the Mohawk territory, fired the villages of the Indians, and destroyed the stores of grain, kept by them for a winter supply of food. These attacks annoyed the Governor of New York, who thought it an invasion of English territory — but they had the effect of ^ving the colony peace for eighteen years. The Iroquois allowed mission- aries to go to them, and some of tlieni accepted their teachings, and became less barbarous. Canada now made better progress. Talon did his utmost to utilize the natural resources of the country and to promote trade with the West Indies. He also sent out ex- ploring expeditions to Hudson's Bay, the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi of which he had heard from the Indians. He induced many of the soldiers to settle in the colony, adii^irtratlon and gave grants of land to the officers and men. As women were few in number, the French Government sent out a large number of young women to become wives for the soldiers and settlers. As soon as these ship-loads of women arrived, the men who wanted wives came down to the vessels, and chose their part- ners. These curious marriages generally turned out weU. — the couples thus brought together living fairly happy and contented lives. Some serious drawbacks to the success of the colony must be noted. One was the sale of " fire-water " to the Indians and settlers, although Laval did his best to have it stopped. Another wjvs the tendency of young men to take to the woods, to live and trade with the Indians. These " Coureurs du Bois," as they were called, often became more savage than the Indians themselves, dressed in Indian fashion, and took Indian wives. Once used to this mode of life, it was found impossible to bring them to settle down and till the soil. The trade in furs was too profitable to be abandon- ed for civilized life. Then again, the colony suffered by its trade being placed in the hands of a few men, go^rnrnwit who enriched themselves at the expense of the people. So, it happened that Canada did not grow as fast as the English oolonies to the south of them, simply because the government did u LEADING PACTS OP CANADIAN HISTORY. ; I i I not allow the settlers sufficient freedom in managing their own affairs. 6. Discoveries in the Great West.— The Jesuit mission- aries were the first exp] jrers of the far West. They united the work of discovery with their mission labors, just as Livingstone and Moffat in recent years, have done in Africa. Talon was anxious to prevent the English from extending their trade westward, and with this in view, he established trading-posts and missions at Sault Ste. Marie and other points. Before, however, his great plans could be carried out, he returned to France, and left to his successors the tack of discovering and exploring the Mississippi. Talon retiuned to France in 1672 and about the same time Courcelles the Governor also asked to be recalled. The new Governor, Louis de Buade Count de Frontenac, is the most striking figure in the history of New France. No Governor was so success- ful in his dealings with the Iroquois ; they feared and respected him, at the same time giving him their regard and confidence. He treat- ed them as children, threatening them witli punishment if unruly, and rewarding and encouraging them if they behaved well. He made a great display of force when treating with them, and managed to impress them with the greatness and power of the French King, the " Great Father," across the Big Waters. He was not so successful with his Council, for his hasty temper and haughty bearing, together with his attempts to control everything and everybody, led to many a scene in the Council Chamber, and caused bitter quarrels in the colony. His rule however, will be always remembered with gratitude for, as long as he was Governor, Canada was safe from Indian at- Joliet and tacks. More important still were the discoveries in the "^1673. ' west in his time by Joliet, a merchant, Marquette, a mis- sionary, and Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle. Father Marquette, who lived and labored among the Indians on the shores of Lake Superior and Michigan, was joined by Joliet, and these two brave men, in bark canoes, with five men, went down the mighty Mississippi, until they reached the Arkansas river. Fear- ing to fall into the hands of the Spaniards, they returned and Joliet brought the news of his discoveries to Quebec. The story of hia Character of Frontenac. CANADA UNDER FRENCH RULE. 15 exploit filled La Salle who had obtained a grant of land at Lachine (so-called it is said because La Salle thought the St. Lawrence led to China) with the desire to explore the West. Before . La Salle ex- Joliet made his great discovery, La Salle had found his piores the way to the Ohio, although his doings at this time are 'ssiasipp . not very well known. Courcelles had planned building a fort at the foot of Lake Ontario, where Kingston now stands, and his successor in office carried out his pl^n, and founded Fort Frontenac. This fort served as a trading-post, and also as a check on the Iroquois in time of war. At first the fort was of wood — afterwards La Salle, in 1674, built it of stone and promised to keep it up, if he were granted the privilege of engaging in the fur trade. It was from this point that he set out to find his way to the Mississippi. After years spent in braving the dangers of the wilderness, and overcoming obstacles which would have daunted most men, he succeeded in 1682 in launching his canoes on the Father of Waters — the broad Missis- sippi. In the month of April he reached the Gulf of Mexico, and took possession of the Great South and West in the name of Louis XIV. under the title of Louisiana. Five years after, La Salle was basely murdered by some treacher- ous followers, while engaged in a venture to found a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. 7. Frontenac. — Let us now turn to what was going on in Canada under Frontenac's rule. The colony was at peace with the Indians — but Frontonac quarrelled with his Intendant, with the Governor of Montreal, with Laval and the Jesuits, in fact with everybody that would not do as he wished. His conduct _, ^ . ^ . •^ •' Frontenac 8 first was so violent and uniust, that many complamts were Administration. • 1672-82. made to the King. Laval and the missionaries were anxious to stop the sale of liquor to the Indians, but Frontenac was too greedy of gain to forbid it. At last, after ten years of dis- puting and wrangling, the King grew wearied and Frontenac was recalled (1682). But not for long. The Iroquois were soon on the war-path again, incited by the Governor of New York, Colonel Dongan. The English colonists were anxious to take away from the French the trade with the Indians, and they generally succeeded in keeping on good 16 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORV. ill 'ill i i terms witli the Iroquois, who saw that the English colonies were growing much more rapidly tlian the French settlement. It needed but the treachery of Denonville, one of Frontenac's successors, to bring on the colony a terrible calamity. To gratify a whim of the King, he seized at Fort Frontenac fifty Iroquois chiefs, who had come to a friendly meeting, and sent them in chains to France to work at the galleys. He followed up this outrage by leading two thousand men into the country of the S^ecas, one of the five nations of the Iroquois. For several days he pillaged and burned their villages, destroying their food supplies, and putting many to death. The Five Nations soon united to punish the French. Fort Niagara, at the mouth of the Niagara River, and but recently built, was levelled to the ground. Fort Frontenac had to be aban doned and burnt, with all its stores and trading vessels. The . Island of Montreal was surprised, and more than a MftSSftcrfi of Lachine. thousand of its inhabitants were killed or carried off prisoners for further torture. This is the Massacre of Lachine, 1689. The colony was in despair, and its people had to take shelter in the forts of Quebec, Three Rivers and Montreal. To save the colony from perishing Frontenac was again des- patched to Canada as Governor. He brought with him the chiefs seized by Denonville, and sent them back to their tribes to act as peacemakers. At this time a war arising out of the English Revo- lution of 1688 was going on in Europe between England and France. Frontenac determined to punish the English colonists for the part they had taken in stirring up the Iroquois to attack the French settle- ments. Bands of French and their Indian allies made frequent raids into New York, New Hampshire and other border colonies, scalping and murdering the defenceless people. Schenectady in New York and Salmon Falls in New Hampshire were burned to the ground, and their inhabitants butchered. For years this cruel border war- fare lasted, leaving a dark stam on the early history of the American settlements. In 1690 an effort was made by the British colonists to drive the French out of Canada. Sir Wm. Phips was sent by Massachusetts to capture Port Royal in Acadia (Nova Scotia). This he accomplish- ed, and then sailed up the St. Lawrence to take Quebec. Before this, however, an expedition under the command of Colonel Win- CANADA UNDER J'RENCH RULE. 17 fchrop had been sent to take Montreal. Sickness and a lack of supplies led to its failure and it returned to Albany. But Phips reached Quebec and demanded its surrender. The demand met with a haughty and indignant refusal from Frontenac, who had prepared for a spirited defence. In vain Phips opened a furious fire on the town and landed his raw soldiers on the Beauport shore. He was driven back with heavy loss by the French and their Indian allies, and compelled to beat a retreat to Boston, p^l^s^ttenipts Thus ended the second attempt by the English to cap- ^ **>*f„Ji"*^''e''' ture Quebec. Meanwhile the savage border warfare went on unchecked. The Abenaquis Indians aided tlie French in the work of murder — the Iroquois, the English. A single incident will give us a glimpse of the savage nature of this warfare. Hannah Dus- tin of Haverhill, taken prisoner in one of these border raids, avenged the murder of her week-old child by slaying ten out of twelve of her sleeping Indian captors, and then succeeded in escaping to the British settlements. These were the days when both French and Efnglish offered prizes to the Indians for human scalps. Little wonder that the border settlements did not prosper. The Treaty of Ryswick (1697) put an end for a short time to the war between England and France, and each country restored to the other its conquests. The next year saw the death of Frontenac in his 78th year. His memory was cherished as the one man whose enei^ saved Canada when on the verge of ruin. 8. State of the Colony.— The War of the Spanish Succes- 8ion in Europe, which broke out in 1702, was the signal for a renewal of the horrors of border warfare between Canada and the English colonies in America. Not until the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, did the settlers along the frontier again breathe freely. This treaty gave Acadia, Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay Territory to England, while France kept Canada, Cape Breton and Louisiana. For over thirty years the colony had rest, and a chance to grow and prosper. The principal Governor of this time was Yaudreml, whose term of office began in 1703. He forsesaw that a fierce struggle must take place between the French and the English for control of the North American continent, and he laid his plans accordingly. The fortress of Louisburg in Cape Breton was begun ; Quebec, Montreal and Fort Frontenac were strengthened, and a new stone fort was 22 i!i III. 18 LEADING PACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. built afc Niagara. Trade, ship-building and inanufacturea were Condition of encouraged, and we find oven woollen and linen goodH the people, among the home productions. Canada, at this time, exported largely to France and the West Indies such products as staves, tar, tobacco, flour, pease, and pork. She brought in rum, sugar, molasses, and most of the manufactured goods she needed. Roads were opened up between the parishes, and a letter-post established. Law was better administered than in the earlier days of the colony. With all these improvements it made but slow progress. The feudal system of land tenure, while good for military purposes, did not encourage the peasants who held the land from their seigneurs, to make many improvements. The people had no say in making the laws, and the general want of education kept the colony in a duU and lifeless state. Young men tired of the quiet, home-life of the farm took to the woods, and lived and traded with the Indians. In 1702-22, Quebec had a population of seven thousand, and an agreeable society, whose principal element was the military class. Montreal had about two thousand inhabitants, and the whole of Canada about twenty-five thousand. The whole country to the west was a forest with a few trading posts and forts at Kingston, Niagara, and Detroit. 0. Braddock'g Expedition. — Yaudreuil died in 1725, and was succeeded by the Marqufs de Beauharnois. In his time Fort Frederic, at Crown Point, on Lake Champlrin was built, and soon became an important post in the wars between the rival colonies. No new stirring events took place until the outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession, which brought England and France once more into conflict. It was not long take"! ms. before their colonies were engaged in a deadly ^1748^' s^-^uggl®* ^ struggle that lasted, with a brief inter- mission, until the flag of England floated over the walls of Quebec. In 1745, Louisburg was taken after a brave defence, by an army of New England farmers and fishermen under Sir WiUiam Pepperell. The French tried to retake this, the second strongest fortress of the New World, but without success. Peace was for a short time restored in 1748, and Louisburg, to the great annoyance of the people of New England, was given back to Franca. In these days, it often happened that while the mother CANADA UNDER FRENCH RULE. 19 countries, France and England, were at peaccj, their children in India and America carried on a bitter strife. Not until 1750 was war once more declared in Europo ; yet, in 1754, hostilities broke out in the valley of the Ohio. The French claimed the Great West, and sought to shut in the English to the strip of territory between the Atlantic and the Alleghany Mountains. To carry out this plan, a fort was constructed at a point where two branches of the Ohio River meet, the Monongaliola and the Alleghany. This fort got the name Du Quesne, from the French Governor of Canada at that time. The English colonists of Virginia sent George Washington, a yoimg ofticer and surveyor, to build another LAKE COHNTRY AND WESTERN FORTS. fort near at hand. Unfortunately Washington fired upon a party of French and Indians who came to warn him that he was en- croaching on French territory. This act was the beginning of the final struggle for the mastery of the New World. General Brad- dock was sent out from England with two regiments of regular 20 LEADING PACTS OP CANADIAN HIBTOnV. troopH and was pl.icod in coiiinmnd of the militia of the colon- Broddock sent ^*^'^* "" thought ho kn«)\v iiioru about bush warfare I in- to America, 1764. than such men as WaHhington, and would take no advice. He was so stubborn and arrogant that many of the best militia officera would not servo under him. Tlie French too, made preparations for the conflict. Baron Dieskau brought to Canada a strong military force, and was accompauied by the last French Governor of Canada, Do Vaudreuil, a son of the former Governor of that name. In tho spring of 1755, Braddock began his march from Virginia to Fort Du Quesne. He had a force of two thousand men, regulars and colonial militia, but his movements were hampered by taking a long train of baggage-waggons and artillery. One hundred men with axes went before to cut down trees and make a road for these to pass over. The journey was a slow and weary one, and the French garrison at Fort Du Quesne was well aware of Braddock's movements. As he neared the fort, an ambuscade of French and Indians was formed, with the hope of checking his march. In spite of repeated warnings from WHshington and others, Braddock neglected to take the most ordinary precautions against surprise. Passing through a thickly wooded defile, a sudden hail of bullets was poured into the astonished and dismayed ranks of the British regulars. On all sides was heard the terrible war-whoop of the Indians, and the work of destruction began. The British soldiers huddled together and fired their muskets into the air or into their own ranks. They were mown down by the bullets of the „ ^ , , concealed French and Indians — without being able to Braddock defeated, offer any defence. Braddock had five horses shot under him, and was mortally wounded. Fortunately for the regulars, the colonial forces, used to Indian modes of fighting, took shelter behind the trees and fought the enemy in their own fashion, and kept them at bay. This enabled the terror- stricken soldiers who survived, to escape from the defile. More than one-half had fallen — the remainder, panic-stricken, fled, and paused not till they had put forty miles between them and the dreaded enemy. Braddock was carried in a dying condition on a litter from the field, and that night with his life paid the penalty of his folly. CANADA UNDEK FRENCH RULE. 21 ;ion on a Sir William Johnson defeats Baron Dieskau, 17C5. Fort Niagara, the forts on Lake Champlain, and Beausejour in Acadia, were also marked out for attack by the English. The expedition against Niagara never reached its destination — BeausS- jour was not able to make any defence and was easily taken ; and Baron Dieskau was defeated and made prisoner near Lake George by Colonel William Johnson, at the head of a body of colonial militia and Mohawk Indians. This Colonel Johnson was a remarkable man in many respects. He had accjuired a wonderful influence over the Mohawks, and was made one of their great chiefs. He built two great strongly fortified houses in the Mohawk valley, and made them headquarters •-•1 the surrounding Indians — one of whose daughters, the famous i»xolly Brant, sister of Joseph Brant, he married in Indian fashion. Johnson was made a knight for his victory over Dieskau, and received a large grant of money from the Crown. 10. Capture of Quebec— The next year (1756) war was formally declared between England and France, and the struggle went on with increasing bitterness in America. This war is known as the Seven Years' War, and was carried wa* "b^^'^ on in Asia, America, and Europe simultaneously. The French sent out as Commander-in-Chief, the famous Marquis de Montcalm, an officer of great skill, courage, and enei^y. The English had by far the greater number of men, and the greater wealth and resources, but for a time they were badly officered and led. Their first Commander-in-Chief was the Earl of Loudon, who proved a wretched failure. Another general, almost equally imfit, was Abercrombie, who allowed Oswego to fall into the hands of Montcalm. A still greater disaster befell the English at Fort William Henry, on Lake George. After a spirited defence the garri- son was allowed to go out with the honors of war, engaging not to serve against the French for eighteen months. Montcalm promised them protection against attacks by his Indian allies, who sought victims to scalp and torture. The Indians Fortwluiam crazed by liquor, fell upon the retreating garrison with Henry, Au>r. their women and children, and in spite of the effijrts of Montcalm and his officers, murdered or carried off prisoners the most of them. Almost equally disastrous was the attempt made by Loudon, aided by a large fleet and force, to take Louisburg. 22 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. These repeated failures, added to a general want of success in other parts of the world where the war was carried on, led to a change in the British government, and William Pitt, William Pitt ^, ,. , --,-,,,, , • ^. becomes War was placed in charge of England s foreign aflairs. ^Britain."' Very soon a change was noted. Pitt had determined he would drive the French out of Canada, and he made hia preparations accordingly. He chose good men to com- mand, and gave them an energetic support. Amherst was made the Commander-in-Chief, and Boscawen was put at the head of the fleet in America. Under Amherst were placed Wolfe, Lawrence, and Whitmore, oflBcers young in years, but full of energy and courage. One mistake Pitt did make : he left Abercroinbie in charge of the army intended to operate along Lake George and Lake Champlain. The first fruits of Pitt's policy was the capture of Louisburg. Against this strong fortress was sent a fleet of over one hundred and fifty vessels, and an army of twelve thousand men, Louisburg, under the command of Amherst and Wolfe. After a siege of seven weeks, in which Wolfe greatly distin- guished himself, the garrison of five thousand men surrendered, and were sent prisoners to England. But victories were not all on the side of the English. A large force under General Abercrombie was repulsed with heavy loss while trying to take Ticonderoga, or Carillon, on Lake Cham- ^''^im°^*' Pl^i"- "^^^^ defeat was due to the death in the early part of the figli i. of young Lord Howe, and to the utter folly and rashness of Abercrombie, in ordering his brave troops to attack the French protected as they were by felled trees and a breastwork of timber, with sharpened stakes pointing outward. In this battle Montcalm proved his skill as a general, and the English lost two thousand men, many of them Highlanders, who for the first time in their history, served in the foreign wars of Britain. The campaign of 1768, closed with the easy capture of Fort Du Quesne, by a force sent against it under General Forbes. Forbes, falling sick, was borne on a litter across the AUeghanies with his army. Finding vrinter approaching, he sent Washington ahead with a smaller force, to take the fort before it could get help. On the 25th of November, without a blow being struck, Du Quesne was taken CANADA UNDER FRENCH RULE. 23 possession of by Washington, and named Fort Pitt, in honor of England's greatest War Minister. The year 1759 opened with great eflforts put forth by Montcalm to save Canada to the French. The prospects of the colony were gloomy enough. The mother country gave but little assistance ; in fact, she was not able to give much. So many men in Canada were drawn into the army, that the farms were only gj^^g qj half-tilled, and the crops were scanty and poor. To Canada. add to the miseries of the people, the internal affairs of Canada were under the control of the worst official of French Rule. This was the Intendant Bigot, whose whole career was one of extortion, fraud, and lewdness. Monopolies plundered the poverty-stricken people ; grain, cattle, and horses were seized and sold abroad, and the money put into the pockets of Bigot and his tools. Every man between the ages of si Kteen and sixty was drafted into the army to defend the colony. Montcalm labored ceaselessly to put Quebec and the other fortresses in the best possible condition for defence, but he was hampered by the Governor and the Intendant. Meanwhile a plan of campaign had been arranged by the British, pj^^^j ^^ which was to bring the war to a close by one great and Campaign to ° 1 , 1 T ^^^ Canada, united effort. Amherst was to proceed along the line of Lakes George and Champlain, and take Ticonderoga and Crown Point. General Prideaux, aided by Sir William Johnson and his Indians, was to attack Niagara, while to Wolfe was given the heavy task of assaulting Quebec. Amherst and Prideaux having per- f< rmed their allotted tasks were to join Wolfe at Quebec. Pri- deaux WHS killed while besieging Niagara, and the honor of taking the fort fell to Sir William Johnson. Amherst found little opposition at Ticonderoga and Crown Point, the French falling back on Quebec for the final defence. Amherst, however, lingered at these points, building and strengthening forts to secure the line of Lakes George and Cliami)lain. Early in 1759, Wolfo sailed from Louisburg to Quebec with his army of less than nine thousand men. Saunders and woite Holmes commanded the fleet, while Wolfe wiis assisted ^ '"p^^'fl^ Quebec, 1759, by an able staff of officers, Townshend, Monckton and Murray. Landing at the Island of Orleans, Wolfe anxiously viewed i '.'■'i\ 24 LEADING PACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. 'i'i "ill !ii. for the first time the rock fortress, Quebec, the greatest stronghold of France in the New World. For miles on both the east and west of Quebec, Montcalm had fortified the banks of the St. Lawrence. Between the St. Charles and the Montmorency were more than thirteen thousand men of all ages, and the walls of Quebec itself bristled with guns. Who could hope to capture this Gibraltar of America, with such a small force as Wolfe had at his command ? Yet, Wolfe, weakened as he was by a fatal disease, did not shrink from the effort. Soon he seised a strong position opposite Quebec, Point Levi, and there Monckton fixed his batteries. The French made fruitless efforts to dislodge the British fleet, by sending fire- ships down the river, but these were taken in tow by the sailors and did little harm. The batteries from Point Levi began to play upon the doomed fortress, and soon a great part of Quebec was in ruins. Nevertheless, Montcalm strong in his position on the north shore, with entrenchments from Quebec to the river Montmorency, defied every effort of Wolfe to land his troops. On ^Qj,g the 31st of July, a desperate attempt was made to attempts to gain a footing and storm the heights near the Mont- land at the ° ° ~ Montmorency, morency ; but to no purpose, Wolfe was compelled * ^^' to retire with heavy loss, and his chagrin and grief brought on a fever. It looked a& if Quebec could not be taken, and winter was approaching which would bring relief to the garrison. Then it was one of Wolfe's staff, Townshend, proposed to climb the steep banks of the St. Lawrence, at a point some three miles above Quebec. The plan was adopted, and steps were at once taken to carry it into effect. Early in September, Wolfe managed, under cover of a pretended attack on the opposite (Beauport) shore, to have the main part of his army and fleet moved above Quebec. Taking advantage of a dark night, and knowing that a small body of French 'oldiers were coming down to Quebec from MontretJ with a supply of provisions, Wolfe's fleet dropped silently down the river, escorting thirty barges laden with sixteen hundred men. With nmflied oars they glided down the stream, hugging the north shore. The sentries along the bank were deceived, their challenges being correctly answered (a French deserter having given the English the proper countersign), and they thought it was the QOQ- CANADA UNDER FRENCH RULE. 25 voy expected from Montreal. As the boats glided on, Wolfe, weak with his recent illness, and filled with mingled hope and anxiety, SIEGE OF QUEBEC. softly repeated several stanzas of Gray's " Elegy " written but a year before. Pausing on the words ** The paths of glory lead but to the grave," he exclaimed ! "I would rather be the author of that poem than take Quebec." In the early morning, of the 13th September, he landed at what is now known as Wolfe's Cove. His ,j,jg British active Highlanders were soon at the top of the path land at , 1. X. i/r mi T^ y. 1 .1, Wolf e'8 Cove, leading up the cliit. Ihe J^rench guard was quickly overpowered, and at daybreak Wolfe and his little army stood ready for battle on the Plains of Abraham. Montcalm, who had been expecting an attack below the city on his lines at Beauport, as soon as the news was brought him broke up his camp, and without waiting for reinforcements hurried to meet „ . ° . , Battle Wolfe. Had he remained in the city it is doubtful if of Plains of Wolfe could have taken it before the coming winter, isth^sept.*. But his impetuous temper led him astray, and march- ^'^®" ing through Quebec he flung himself on Wolfe's veterans, who 26 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. stood calmly awaiting their gallant leader's orders. Not until the JVench were within forty paces did Wolfe give the command to fire, then, at the given signal, a well-directed volley of musketry, followed by a fierce charge of bayonets, caused the French to give way, and the victory of the Plains of Abraham was won. It was a dear victory to both English and French, for their brave leaders both fell in the conflict. Wolfe, wounded first in the wrist, then in the chest, lived long enough to know that the victory was won, and his heroic task done. " They run, they run," said an officer holding Death of ^^ his arms the dying general. "Who run?" asked Wolfe and Wolfe ; and when he heard, "Now God be praised" said he, ' ' I die happy. " Montcalm was carried fatally wounded into Quebec, and when told his fate murmured sadly, " So much the better, T shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." He died before midnight, and was buried in a grave ^ , made by the bursting of a shell, a fitting close to the Quebec « , , ,. , . xr surrenders career of a brave soldier and a true patriot. Five ^^ ■ ' * days after, on the 18th September, Quebec surren- dered, and Canada practically ceased to be a French possession. CHAPTER HI. LAYING THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE CANADIAN CONSTITUTION. 1. Peace of Paris* 1T63.— General Murray took the com- mand of the British army after the death of Wolfe, and De Levis succeeded Montcalm. Though Quebec had fallen, the Governor, Vaudreuil, and De Levis, were not willing to surrender Canada to the British Avithout a struggle. The walls of Quebec had been partly beaten down, and a great portion of the city had become a mass of ruins by the cannonading of the Pritish, and Murray, fully expecting an assault from the French^ at once began to put the fortress into as good a condition as possible. His army, especially the Highlanders, suffered much from the cold, which was very severe that winter. The French in Quebec and the British army were on very friendly terms, and much kindness was FOUNDATIONS OF THE CANADIAN CONSTITUTION. 27 shown to the suffering soldiers by the inhabitants, the nuns knitting long hose to protect the unfortunate Highlanders from the effects of the frost and cold. Towards spring De Levis advanced with an army of seven thousand men to re -take Quebec, and Murray was foolhsirdy enough to march out of the city against him. The British numbered but three thousand men, (so much had they suffered during the winter) and in the second battle of Plains of Abraham, they were defeated and compelled to retreat, m haste, within the walls of Quebec. The siege second lasted some time longer, until the St. Lawrence Battle of becoming free of ice, a British fleet sailed up the Abraham, river, and De Levis, in despair, returned to Montreal. * In September, Murray and Amherst united their forces before Montreal, and Vaudreuil and Levis feeling the impossibility of defending the city with the few weary and disheartened men at their disposal, surrendered all Canada to England, on the 8th of September, 1760. Three years later the Seven Years' War was brought to a close, and Canada was formally given to England ; France ceding all her possessions in America east of the Mississippi except New Orleans, and the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon near Newfoundland. Besides these great territories England gained largely in India and other parts of the world. The treaty Pans, 1763. that closed this war is known as the Peace of Paris. fj. Conspiracy of Pontiac— About the time this treaty was made, a very strange and remarkable plot took place. Its object was the seizure of all the British forts along the Upper Lakes and in the Great West, and the holding them for the French. A famous Indian chief, Pontiac, who did not want the British to rule in Canada, and who did not know that the French had given up all hope of recovering it, stirred up the Indian warriors in the valley of the Ohio, and along the line of the Great Lakes, to seize the rude forts in the West recently handed over by the French to the British A short time after the Peace of Paris was signed, a sudden and almost simultaneous attack was made on these forts, and in nearly every instance they fell into the hands of the Indians, their garrisons being murdered or made prisoners. 28 lEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. Detroit was besieged for over a year by thousands of Indians, who managed to prevent supplies and assistance coming to l^troltby *^® garrison. At last a strong force came to the f-J?™*'^' relief of the bravo defenders of the fort, and the In- 1763-64. . dians sullenly withdrew. Fort Pitt and Niagara also, were able to hold their own against the dusky warriors, and the Indians finding that French power was at an end in America, ceased hostilities. Pontiac, a few years later, while drunk, fell by the hands of a treacherous Illinois Indian. Two things make this conspiracy reinarkable in Indian history. One is the vastness of the scheme planned and carried out by Pontiac with so much skill and success ; the other is the determina- tion shown by the Indians in the siege of Detroit, their usual mode of warfare being to capture forts, if at all, by surprise, and not by a long siege. 3« Military Rule* — There was an interval of more than two years between the surrender of Canada by the last French Gover- nor and the Peace of Paris, and during that period the colony was governed by Military Rule. General Murray ruled over the dis- trict of Quebec ; General Gage, that of Montreal ; and Colonel Burton, that of Three Rivers. A Council of OflScers met twice a week, and settled all disputes. The people were allowed the free use of their religion, and were treated justly and kindly. The French militia, who had been called from their homes to defend the colony against the British were allowed to go back to their farms and occupations, and the regular soldiers were sent to France. Canada was in a sad condition at this time. The wlony. People had been taken from their usual occupations to defend the country, and their farms had gone xmtilled, except by the women and the feeble men and boys who were unfit to carry a musket. Bigot, the last Inteudant, and a host of greedy followers had plundered the people of the little they had, and the colony was flooded with a worthless paper money. Nol many more than sixty thousand inhabitants were scattered along the line of the St. Lawrence between Montreal and Quebec. Peace brought Canada a measure of prosperity. Farms could now be tilled without fear of interruption from enemies, English or Indian. FOUNDATIONS OP THE CANADIAN CONSTITUTION. 29 Many of the principal inhabitants returned to France, some <»f them like Bigot, to answer for their misdeeds to the French King, and to receive merited punishment. Gradually the colony settled down to steady industry, and the mild rule of Murray and his brother officers lessened any feeling of soreness arising from passing under the government of their old-time enemies. 4. The Quebec Act. — After the Peace of Paris, King George III., proclaimed Canada a British province, and promised the French inhabitants the right of free worship, and the "free exercise" of their religion. They were also left in undisturbed possession of their property, and were given in every way the same rights and privileges as the King's subjects of British birth, e:£cept that they were excluded from holding public office, because the laws of Great Britain at that time did not allow a Roman Catholic to hold offices in the gift of the State. An effort was made to induce British people to settle in Canada by offering them land grants, and the protection of British laws. A promise, also, was made of British parliamentary institutions as soon as the circumstances of the country would permit ; that is, the people of Canada would be allowed to have their own Parliaments, and make most of their own laws. In the meantime the countiy was governed by a Gover- nor and Council, the latter composed entirely of men of British birth, many of them military officers. The British settlers for many years were few in number, yet they had all the power, and the French had no voice in managing the affairs of the colony. Again, English law was introduced into the Oovemment courts, and the English language used. Trial by jury 1763-74. was unknown to the French, and they did not like the system. They preferred to be tried directly by a Judge, in a language they understood. On the oi. . jr hand the English settlers wanted British law in both criminal and civil cases. They did not like the French way of buying and selling land, and settling dis- putes about property. General Murray the first Governor after 1763, and his successor Sir Guy Carleton, both, tried to befriend the French, and in so doing displeased the English settlers. To please the former they allowed French civil law— that is the law re- lating to property and inheritance — to prevail ; while the demands of British settlers were met by giving them English criminal law, 30 LEADING FACTS IN CANADIAN HISTORY. I lil which includes trial by jury. The consequence was both English and French were dissatisfied, and after considerable delay and many complaints, the British parliament tried to remedy the evil by passing in 1774 what is known as the Quebec Act. 1774 "* '^^^^ ^^^ extended the boundaries of Canada from Labrador to the Mississippi, and from the Ohio river to the watershed of Hudson's Bay. It gave the French the same political rights as the British, regardless of their religion. It gave the Roman Catholic clergy the right to collect tithes (the tenth part of the produce) and their " accustomed dues" from their own people. The French law or Custom of Paris was made the law in civil cases — and English law, the law in criminal cases. The Government was to consist of a Governor and Council, appointed by the Crown. The Council was to consist of not less than seven- teen and not more than twenty-three members, the majority being of British birth. 5. Canada invaded by the Americans.— Another reason for passing this law must now be mentioned. The English colonies in America had for many years felt it a grievance that Britain should endeavor to force them to trade exclusively with her. Nearly everything they sold had to go first to England, and they had also to buy the most of their manufactures from the people of the mother country. At that time all European nations thought that their colonies existed for the good of the mother countries, and so they tried to keep the colonial markets for their own trade. So long as the French held Canada the English colonies had to depend upon Britain for aid against the French and their Indian allies ; but when Canada became a British pos- session their fear of attack from the north and west was removed, and the colonies felt more independent of England, and more inclined to resent any interference with their freedom. Not long after the conquest of Canada, England tried to tax the American colonies, claiming that as the war in Declaration America was for their special benefit they should bear Independenoe, * portion of the expense. The colonies thought the 1776. tax unjust, because they were not represented in the British Parliament. After several eflforts had been made to settle the difficulty the colonies revolted, and declared FOUNDATIONS OP THE CANADIAN CONSTITUTION. themselves independent of Great Britain. Sir Guy Carleton saw what was coming, and lie also knew the American colonies would try to get Canada to join in the revolt against England. There was a fear lest the new French subjects of the King should take sides with the discontented English colonies. To prevent this, the Quebec Act was passed, giving the French so many rights and privileges. A few months after this Act was passed the people of Canada were invited by the American colonists to send representatives to a Congress at Philadelphia, to protest against the invasion of their liberties. The Canadians of British birth were known to be discontented with the Quebec Act, because it gave them the French civil law, and did not secure them the protection of the Habeas Corpus Act, which all British subjects highly valued. Nevertheless, very few of the English in Canada were willing to aid in a revolt against Britain, so the invitation to the Congress was refused, and Canada remained loyal to the British Crown. War began between the colonies and the mother country in 1775, and the Americans sent troops iiito Canada, with the nope that the Canadians would rise in arms Invasion of and aid them in throwing off the yoke of England, ^"and"^'^^ But they were disappointed, for while the French Arnold would do nothing to defend Canada, they would do but little to help the Americans. Two expeditions were sent against Canada — one, by way of Lj^ke Champlain, to take Montreal ; the other, under General Benedict Arnold, by way of Maine, to cap- ture Quebec. Governor Carleton could not defend Montreal, and escaped to Quebec, there to make a final stand. The Americans united their forces under Generals Montgomery and Arnold, and advanced against the famous old fortress ; but Carleton had taken wise precautions to defend the city. On the last day of the year, at four o'clock in the morning, in a blinding snowstorm, an attack was made on the Lower Town. But it was of no avail ; Mont- gomery was killed, and four hundred of the Americans were hemmed in and taken prisoners. Arnold remained near Quebec throughout the winter, and then, with his forces terribly reduced by sickness and disease, retreated. Thus ended the fifth and last siege of Quebec. Soon after, the arrival of a strong body of J ; 32 LEADING FACTS OP CANADIAN HISTORY. Boundaries of Canada fixed 1783. British troops, under Ocneral Burgoyne, forced the Americans tc leave Canada, wliicli was troubled no more by invaders during the Revolutionary War. This war came to an end in 1783, by England acknowledging the Independence of the United States (as they were now called) in the Treaty of Versailles, By this treaty the boundaries of Canada as far west as the Lake of the Woods were fixed. Canada lost the fertile territory lying between the Ohio and the Mississippi, and received as her southern boundary the middle of the Great Lakes, the St. Lawrence, the forty-fifth parallel of north latitude, and the St. Croix River in New Brunswick. The boundary between the present State of Maine and New Brunswick was left very vague, and this gave rise to serious trouble at a later date. 6. United Empire Loyalists.— The close of the Revolu- tionary War brought a large increase of population to Canada. Many of the American colonists remained loyal to England during the struggle for independence, and when the war was over, these people found themselves looked upon with dislike and suspicion by their republican neighbors. So harsh was the treatment they received that the British Parliament took pity upon them, and voted them a large sum of moL>ey (over £3,000,000) in consider- ation of the losses they had borne by remaining loyal to the British Crown. Besides this grant of money they were given large and valuable tracts of land in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and in Western Canada, (now Ontario). It is said that over twenty-five thousand left the United States and settled in the British colonies, and of these ten thousand came of U.E. to Upper Canada, settling chiefly around the Bay ^iisl^' ^^ Quints, along the Niagara River, and the St. Clair. Each U. E. Loyalist received two hundred acres of land free ; so did each of his sons on coming of age, and each daughter when she married. They were given provisions for three years, in addition to clothing, tools, and farming implements. Disbanded soldiers and half -pay officers also came to Canada, and received grants of land and aid for a time from the Government. 7. The Constitutional Act of 1T91.— All these years the FOUNDATIONS OP THE CANADIAN CONSTITUTION. 33 people of Canada had been without a Parliament, although George III., in 1703, had })romised them that as soon as possible they would be given the same rights of self-government, as enjoyed by other British subjects. The French portion of the population had never known any other form of govemmenc than that of a Governor and Council, and therefore did not feel the need of a change. But the British population were discontented with the Quebec Act, and its French law of buying, selling and holding property, especially land. This discontent rapidly grew greater when British settlers began to take up land in Western Canada. These wanted the British law of "freehold," that is, the right of every man holding land to have it as his own. According to the French system, the farmers held the land as tenants from their "seigneurs" and had to give {or its use, money and work, besides being subject to a great many ])etty exactions and services. They could not freely sell or will the land without paying the " seigneur " or getting his consent. On the other hand, they could not bo turned out of their holdings by being unable or un- willing to pay their debts. Again, the British settlers wanted the protection of the Habeas Corpus xlct. Trial by Jury, and other British laws ; and the need of these was felt during the harsh and tyrannical rule of Governor Haldimand, who succeeded Carleton in 1778. The complaints from Canada became so pressing and frequent, that William Pitt, (a son of the great war minister of that name) who was the Prime Minister of England at that time, brought in a Bill to give Canada representative institutions. The Bill also aimed at settling the difficulties that had arisen out of the difference of the language, laws, religion and customs of the two races in Canada. Tt proposed to divide Canada into two Provinces, Lower Canada and Upper Canada. The former was French Canada, while the latter was settled mainly by a British population. The boundary line between the two Provinces began at Point-au-Baudet, on Lake St. Francis, extended north to Point Fortune on the Ottawa, and then continued along that river to its head waters and Hudson's Bay Territory. Roughly speaking, it made the Ottawa River the dividing line. Each Province was to have a Governo , an Executive Council, a Legia- Boundary between Upper and Lower Canada. 34 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. lative Council and a Legislative Assembly. The Governor and the two Councils were appointed by the Crown, but the Legislative Assembly was elected for four years by the j)eople. In Lower Canada the Legislative Assembly was to have not less than fifty members, and the Legislative Council fifteen. In Upper Canada the former was to have not "less than sixteen memljers, and the latter seven. The Executive Council was chosen to advise the Governor, and the Legislative Council ?!orresi)onded in a measure to our Dominion Senate, or the British House of Lords. Both Councils were independent of the people, and could Terms of not be removed, if they did wrong, by the people's ConsUtutional representatives, the members of the Legislative As- ^ot. sembly. The British parliament kept the right to impose taxes or duties for the regulation of com- merce ; but the Canadian parliaments had the power to collect them. They could also impose taxes for public purposes, such as building roads, bridges, public buildings, and providing education for the people. Unfortunately, the money arising from the sale of wild lands, from timber and mining dues, and from taxes on goods coming in the country was under the control of the Governor and his Executive Council, and this left the people of Canada with very little power to get rid of a bad Government. The Quebec Act was to remain the law until repealed by the Provinces ; but in Up;^er Canada all land was to be held by " freehold tenure," and English criminal law was to be the law for both Upper and Lower Canada. Provision was made for founding a Canadian nobility an.l ^.n Established Church. One-seventh of the Crown lands wa«» sefc .' nde for the support of a "Protestant clergy'' in both ProTiues; but the Roman Catholic clergy in Lower Canada were lefu with the power given them by the Quebec Act, to collect tithes * * and their accustomed dues ' from their own people in support of the Roman Catholic Church. The Bill did not become law without strong objections being made by leading men of British birth in Lower It was also strongly opposed by Charles "1791 James Fox, Pitt's great political rival, who foresaw very clearly the result of attempting to govern Canada by Councils not responsible to thef people. He also objected Constitutional ^ , Act Canada. THE WAR OF 1812. 35 to the clauses relating to titles of nobility and granting Crown lands for the support of a Piotustant clergy; and ho pointed out what would bo the ertect of dividing Canada into separate Provinces, one French and the other British. Nevertheless, in spite of these and other objections, the Bill was passed by large majorities in the British Parliament, and ecamo law in 1791. The new Constitution went into force in Canada the following year. CHAPTER IV. THE WAR OF 1812. being jower larles resaw .nada )cted 1. The Beginning of Parliamentary Government.— When the Constitutional Act was passed Canada had a popu- lation of one hundred and fifty thousand, of which about twenty thousand belonged to the Western Province. There were few villages or towns then in Upper Canada, the more important being Kingston and Newark (now Niagara). Newark was chosen as the place of meeting for the first Parliament of Upper Canada ; but a few years after, in 1797, Parliament was moved to the village of York, or Toronto, because Newark being situated at the mouth of the Niagara river, and just opposite an American fort, it was not considered safe for the seat of Government to be so near the guns of a possible enemy. On the 17th Septenxber 1792, twenty-three men came, mostly from farm and store, upper^clnada to Newark to form a Legislative Council and As- "^fS^^*" sembly ; seven belonging to the Council and sixteen to the Assembly. They were busy men, and time was precious, so they set to work in earnest. The Governor Sir John Graves Simcoe was equally sturdy and energetic, and equally anxious to build up the Western Province. The first session saw English CivU Law and Trial by Jury introduced, and ^''fheRwV' bills passed to collect small debts, to regulate tolls for Parliament of „ , ... , , • , , Upper Canada, millers, and to erect jails and court-houses in the four districts in which the Province was divided. These districts wore the Eastern or Johnstown ; the Midland or Kingston ; the Home or iii 36 LEADING FACTS OP CANADIAN HISTORY. 'n Niagara ; and the Western or Detroit. The session lasted less than two months. Parliament met the next year in May, and passed bills offering rewards for wolves' and bears' heads ; and what was more important, provided for the doing awa> with slavery in Upper Canada. There were not many slaves in tlie province, but the Act passed in 1793, forbade the bringing of any more slaves into the country, and made all children, who were slaves, free at the age of twenty-five. During the time Parliament met at Newark, a govern- ment newspaper, the Gazette, was started — the first newspaper in Upper Canada. The Parliament in liower Canada met in December, 1792, at Quebec, and was composed of fifteen members of the Legislative Council and fifty of the Legislative Assembly. Of the latter, „ ,. ^ fifteen were of British origin, the rest were French. Parliament p i i i of It was soon found that there were two languages used ^meete" * ^7 ^^^ members, ^so it was decided that a member ^^fi^^' *^^^^^ speak in either language ; but all notices, bills, laws and other papers must be printed in both English and French, and thus the law has remained ever since. Too soon, jealousies and ill-feeling arose between the two races, and the newspapers on both sides helped to increase the mutual dislike* The Lower Canadian Parliament did not pass any law against slavery, but in 1803, Chief Justice Osgoode gave a decision to the efiect that slavery was against the laws of England, and this led to the few slaves (about three hundred) in the Province being set free. 2. Founding of Upper Canada. — As already stated, there were only twenty thousand people in Upper Canada in 1791, and this small population was scattered along the St. Lawrence, around the Bay of Quinte and along the Niagara and St. Clair rivers. Settlers preferred to take up farms near the rivers and lakes, because it was very difficiilt to get in or out of the settle- ments except by water. The land was covered with forests, and every farm was a bush farm. The settler had to chop down the trees before he could plant or sow a crop of any kitid. The fallen trees had to be burnt, and among the blackened stumps, with a rude "drag," drawn generally by oxen, he covered up the "seed."* Sometimes his crop was planted and tended with the spade and THE WAK OF 1812. 37 hoe. His dwelling place was a log-hut or ''shanty," often built in a small "clearing" in the heart of *he forest, and covered with bark or "troughs." There, sheltered by the trees from the rude winter, his family lived, every member able to work doing some- thing to lighten the settler's toil, and improve the common lot. Fortunately, the soil was fertile, and for the amount of seed sown the crop was plentiful. Mills for grinding grain of any kind were very scarce, and often the settler had to make his own flour or meal by pounding the grain in the hollow of a hard-wood stump, or by using a steel hand-mill, provided in these days by the Government. Instances were not rare of a man trudging forty miles to get a bushel of wheat ground by a grist-mill, and then trudging home again with his load lightened by the miller's toll. Roads V 3re few and rough, made, as they were, through the woods. Frequently there was nothing more than a " blazed " path for the foot-traveller or the solitary horseman. In other places swampy and low ground was bridged over by logs laid side by side, forming the famous "corduroy roads" our fathers and grand- fathers tell about, and the remains of which are to be found in many localities to-day. The daily life of these hardy people (for they usually had good health and strong frames) was very simple and free from luxury of any kind, unless the abundance of game and fish may be called such. They wore home-made clothing, had very rude furniture, often, also, home-made, and rode in carts and sleds drawn by ox ■■ i Yet, notwithstanding these hardships, they lived hrppy. oontentod lives. They were very sociable with their few neigr.! /xa^ helped each other in their -'logging bees," and their houat aid barn "raisings," which gatherings were some- times marr* u by the rather free use of .'.oi-iiled liquors. Once in a long tiae, they were visited by a travelling preacher, who, by almost incrddible toil, made his way to the *' sheep" scattered in the "wilderness." Then, in some rude log-cabin, the few settlers gathered togetlier to listen to a sermon, have their children baptized and perchance, other solemn relli^ous ritc:i i jrformed. Of education, there was little or none. Kor t^at th j s<>ttlers despised it, but the ii^habitants were too few^ i r, hvny mi<\ too poor to employ competent teaoheis and send their '•bii'ii'e:' to s ihool after they could help on the farm. Later on, as ive si, !i fir n, the Governnient tried to help :U m II !!; 38 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. ■ It 1 : ii lliiv \ ■'■I'll I'i; if the people in this respect, but the aid they got for many years wfts of little value. Old and worn-out pensioners took to teaching to get a bcanty livelihood, and paid for their "board" and small salary by giving the youths of the school district a very imperfect knowledge of reading, writing and arithmetic. The salary of the teac^ ■;! was too small to enable him to pay for his board, so it was arranged that he should "board around" among the different families sending their children to the school. The prudent teacher usually managed to spend the most of his time in the homes where the most comfort pievailed. 3. Political Discontent.— The early settlers cared lii^le for politics, aside from the aid the Government could give . -hv way of building roads, bridges, and opening up the country tor settle- ment. Nevertheless the defects of the Constitutional Act were soon so apparent and hurtful, that the people of both Upper and Lower Canada began to complain. In both provinces, the Execu- tive Council and the Legislative Council did not consider they were responsible to the people, and used their power to fiu^her the in- terests of themselves and their friends. Judges and other salaried officials were often members of these councils, and the union of law-making and law-interpreting did not work well. The governors, as a rule, took the advice of their Executive Councils and paid no attention to the remonstrances of the Legislative Assembly. There was no y. a.y of getting rid of these men, who abused their trust by putting their needy friends into government offices, and by granting wild lands to speculators, who lioped by holding the lands until the neighbouring settlers made improvements, to be able to sell at a good profit. They were also accused of spending corruptly the money intended for the U. E. Loyalists and other settlers, and for the Indian tribes. In our days, the people's representatives would refuse to vote any money for tiie public expenditure, until their wrongs were righted ; but, at that time, such a course was impossible, for nearly all the revenue was uder the control of the Governor and his Executive Council. In Lower Canada, besides these abuses, they had to contend against race jealousies and religious ariinosities. The British in that province usually were on the side jf the Gover- nor and the Councils — while the French supported the Legislative Assembly, the majority of which was French. T^s iNjBsembly I THE WAR OF 1812. 39' I demanded that judges should not sit in Parliament, and after a struggle the Governor and Legislative Council yielded, judges in Another demand was tliat tlie revenue of the Pro- Lower Canada 1111 1 T 1 1 > 11 mi . disqualified vince should be expended by the Assembly. This, from being however, was not granted for many years. But the Pariianlent, quarrels between the Assemblies and the Governors ^^^^' were, in 1812, dropped to meet a pressing common danger. 4. Cause of the War of 181*^.— To explain this danger we must refer to what had been going on in Europe for nearly twenty years. In 1793 England was drawn into a war with France, and, except for a brief period in 1802-3, there had been a continuous struggle against the power of the French General and Emperor, Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1806, when Napoleon had conquered the most of Europe, he issued a "decree" from Ber- lin in Prussia to the eflfect that English goods were ^'"^f ^* not to be bought or sold on the Continent of Europe, and that other nations should not trade with England. England, who had been for many years the mistress of the sea, retaliated by forbidding all neutral nations to trade with France, and threatening their vessels with seizure if they did not call at English ports. These "Orders-in-Council," as they were called, were very hard on American vessel owners who could not trade with either England or France without their vessels beir.g liable to seizure. Besides, England, anxious to secure men for her navy, stopped American vessels on the seas, and searched ;.hem for runaway sailors and British subjects. It was said that this was often a mere pretext to take American sailors to man British war-ships. The American Congress complained loudly against England's abuse of power, but got no redress. At last the United States, which just then was governed by the Democratic party — a party, from the time of the Revolution, always hostile to England and friendly to France — declared war, although the hateful "Orders-in-Council" were repealed within a few days of the declaration. 5. The Campai^ of 181!$.— The declaration of war was made on the 18tli of Jime, and was ■, ery much against the wishes of a considerable portion of the American oeople. The New England l-'iiKi vm. i:tl •40 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. « J:. States were anxious for peace, for war to them meant loss of trade and injury to their commerce. Consequently they refused to give any active aid, and thus, although the population of the United States was eight millions, and that of Canada only about one quarter of a million, the diflference in numbers did not really show the difference in military strength of the two countries. The United States hoped to take Canada with very little effort ; for it was known that only 4,500 regular soldiers were in the colony, and a few m tia scattered all alor-g a frontier of fifteen hundred miles. It was a: "n that England was too busy fighting Napoleon in Spain to be ' i/' fo give the Canadians any immediate help. When the war broke out, Sir George Prevost was the Governor-General of Canada, and General Sir Isaac Brock the acting Lieutenant- Governor of Upper Canada, in the absence of Mr. Francis Gore then in England. The American plan of campaign was to invade Canada with three armies. One was to croas at Detroit, a second at the Plan of Campaign Niagara frontier, and the third, by the way of Lake Americans. Champlain. These were the armies of the West, the Centre, and the North respectively. General Dearborn being the Commander-in-chief. The first blow was struck at Fort Michillimackinac at the entrance of Lake Michigan. This post was held by the Americans, and was important on account of its trade with the western Indians. Acting under orders from General Brock, Captain Roberts with a small body of men from St. Joseph, took the fort by surprise, and by so doing secured the support and confidence of the Indian tribes of the West and North-west. On the 12th of July, the American general, Hull, crossed over from Detroit, and by a proclamation, invited the Canadian^ to throw off the yoke of England; but the invitation met with no response. General Brock immediately sent Colonel Proctor with a few regulars to Fort Maiden, near Amherstburg. Here Proctor was ■ Tecumseh. joined by the famous Indian chief, Tecumseh, who brought a number of warriors to help the English in the struggle against the Americans. Tecumseh was a Shawnee, and for years had sought to unite the various Indian tribes against the Americans, for he saw very clearly that the Indians were being THE WAR OF 1812. 41 pushed back, further and further, by the steady encroachments of the white people. At this time, Tecumseh was in the prime of his noble manhood, and wielded a great influence over the Indian tribes, who believed him to be of supernatural birth. For a short time, Hull remained in Canada, and then getting afraid of Indian attacks, returned to Detroit and shut himself up, in that strong fort. On the 5th of August, Brock set out for Detroit, with a small force of regulars and York militia. A week later he reached Amherstburg, and there met Tecumseh with seven hundred warriors. Tecumseh sketched for Brock, on a piece of birch bark, the plan of Detroit, and it was resolved to attempt its capture, although Brock had only fourteen hundred men, half of them Indians, while Detroit was defended by over two thousand. Brock demanded the surrender of the fort, and the demand being refused, crossed the river and made preparations for an attack. Greatly to the surprise of the English and ®p'^®"^®|! °' the Indiana, and the garrison itself, Hull surrendered Gen. Hull, the fort and the territory of Michigan without a shot being fired, he and all his men being made prisoners. Brock sent the regulars of Hull's army to Montreal as prisoners of war ; the militia were allowed to return home. A large quantity of military supplies, ammunition and cannon, fell into the hands of the English, which proved a very timely aid to Brock in carrying on the war. Brock then returned to Toronto, and found that General Prevost had agreed to an armistice, by which the war was stopped for a time on Lake Champlain and the Niagara frontier. This gave the Americans an opportunity to collect their armies and carry supplies along Lake Ontario to Niagara. Before the month of August ended, war was renewed, and the Americans gathered six thousand men under General Van Rensselaer at Lewiston, opposite Queenston, on the Niagara river, with the intention of invading Canada. To oppose this force, Brock had only fifteen hundred men, mostly militia and Indians. Brock's troops were scattered all along the Niagara river from Fort George, at its mouth, to Queens- ton seven miles up the stream. His men were kept on a con- stant watch against attempts of the Americans to cross. On the 13th of October, in the early morning, the American army began crossing the river at a point below Queenston Heights. Thy In 'Ml I 42 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. m. few regulars and militia stationed there poured a destructive fire into the boats of the Americans as they approached the shore, many of which were sunk, and their occupants killed or taken prisoners. The Canadians thought they had driven back the Queenston invaders, when it was discovered that a large force ot Heights, 13th Americans had under cover of the niffht made their Oct., 1812. '^ way to the top of Queenston Heights. Hearing the sound of firing, Brock, who was at Fort George, galloped in hot haste for the scene of conflict, leaving his aides to follow him, and hurrying forward the troops as he sped past them. When he reached Queenston and saw that the Americans had succeeded in get'- ' ^ a footing on the Heights, he put himself at the head of a small body of men and rushed up the mountain side eager to disl.'^vlge th" enemy. While cheering his followers on he was struck in the breast by a musket ball, and fell mortally wounded. His tall figure and bright uniform had made him a mark, all too good, for the American riflemen. His brave soldiers, though few in number, were anxious to avenge his death, and again made an attempt to dislodge the foe —but only to be driven back with heavy loss. Among those who fell in this second attempt was Brock's aide-de-camp, Colonel MacDonnell of Glengarry, a noble young man only tweuty-Hve years of age, wliose life was full of promise. Soon after General Sheafie arrived honi Fort George with three hundred iiieu iind some artillery. All the men that could be mustered were now marched through the fields back of Queenston, and unperceived they ascended the Heights, and concealed them- selves among the trees. The Americans in the meantime were landing fresh troops, and carrying ofi" their dead and wounded. About three o'clock in the afternoon the British moved rapidly through the woods against the unsuspecting Americans. A number of Indians who were in the Canadian army, as soon as they saw the enemy raised the terrible war-whoop, and rushed on their prey. The rest of the troops joined in the shout and the onslaught. The Americans gave one volley and then fled. But there was no escape, save by the brow of the mountain overhanging the river. In their terror many of the enemy threw themselves over the precipice, only to be dashed on the rocks, or drowned in the river. The American shore was lined with their fellow-countrymen, but no m.' THE WAR OF 1812. 43 help was given. Soon two American officers ascended the mountain side bearing a white flag, and with difficulty the slaughter was brought to an end. One thousand Americans were made prisoners and a hundred slain. Thus dearly was the death of Brock avenged. In one of the batteries of Fort George, amid the booming of minute guns from friend and foe. Brock and MacDonnell side by side found a resting place. A month's armistice was unwisely agreed to by General Sheaffe, which enabled the A.nciicaiis to gather troops for another attack on the Niagara frontier. Towards the end of November, General Smythe, who succeeded Van Renssehrar, at- tempted a landing near Fort Erie, but his men were driven back by I small force of Canadians. This ended the attempts, in 1813, of the army of the Centre to gain a footing on Canadian soil. Nor was the army of the North under General Dearborn more successful. In November, Dearborn advanced with an army of ten thousand men by way of Lake Champlain defeated at bo take Montreal. The French Canadian militia under Nov?°i8i2. Major de Salaberry, felled trees, guarded the passes, and used every possible means to check his advance. At LacoUe, near Rouse's Point, a British outpost was attacked by Dearborn's troops, but in the darkness of the early morning, his men bicarae confused and fired into each other's ranks. When they discovered their mistake, disheartened and cowed, they returned to Lake Champlain, and Dearborn finding the Canadian militia on the alert, gave up his attempt on Montreal and retired to Plattsburg. To sum up : — The results of the land campaign of 1812 were the capture of Detroit, the surrender of Micliigan, the great victory at Queenston Heights, and the repulse of Dearborn at Lacolle by a small body of Canadian militia. On the sea, however, the Amer- icans were more successiul, gaining several victories over British men-of-war, and controlling the great lakes. 0. Campaign of 1813.— General Sheaffe succeeded General, Brock as Lieut. -Governor of Upper Canada, and the Parliaments of both Provinces met to vote money for the defence of the country. They issued Army Bills, or promises to pay, instead of gold and silver and this paper money was not to be exchanged for coin until the war was over. The Americans made great preparations t|iis year to I 4 '■ w^ U LEADING PACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. 'hi,' wy Capture of York. conquer Canada, and, as in 1812, placed three large armies on the frontier. That in the west was led by General Harrison ; that on the Niagara frontier by General Dearborn ; and that in the east by General Hampton. A regiment of British soldiers arrived in the depth of winter from New Brimswick to help the Canadians. The war was continued throughout the winter ; Major Macdonald cap- turing OgdenSburg, with a large quantity of arms and supplies, and Colonel Proctor in the west, defeating General Winchester in a battle at Frenchtown a place about twenty miles south of Detroit. Vessels were built on the lakes by both sides, but the Americans were the sooner equipped, and sailing out of Sackett's Harbor General Dearborn, and Commodore Chauncey with two thousand men attacked and captured York, which was defended by only six h\indred men, regulars, militia, and Indians. General Sheaffe retired from the old French fort at York, to Kingston, taking the regulars with him, and was replaced in Upper Canada by General de Rottenburg, Sheaffe's conduct at York being blamed. Having taken York the American fleet and army sailed across Lake Ontario to the mouth of the Niagara river to take Fort George. General Vincent with fourteen hundred men held the fort for some time against Dearborn, and then, his ammunition failing, retreated to a strong position on Burlington Heights, having first spiked his guns, and blown up his magazine. Fort George was now taken possession of by the Americans. While Chauncey was at Fort George, Sir George Prevost and Sir James Teo, a naval officer just arrived from England, crossed the lake from Kingston with a large force and attacked Sackett's Harbor, hoping to destroy the naval stores there. When on the point of success, Prevost withdrew his men, imagin- ing the Americans were trying to entrap him. These disasters were more than balanced by two brilliant exploits, one at Stoney Creek, near Hamilton, the other at Beaver Dam.s. At the former place, on the fourth of June, Colonel Harvey, of General Vincent's army, with seven hundred men, made a night attack on four thousand Americans who had advanced from Fort George to drive Vincent from his post on Burlington Heights. The attack was completely successful, the Americans taken by surprise, after a brief resistance, retreating stoney Creek, THE WAR OF 1812. 45 hastily with the loss of four cannon, and one hundred and twenty prisoners, including two generals. At Beaver Dams (near the present town of Thorold), Lieutenant Fitz- Dims.' gibbon with a sma,ll force was stationed. General ■ Dearborn hoped to surprise this post, and for that purpose sent six hundred men from Fort George, under Major Boerstler. A Canadian heroine, Mrs. Laura Secord, became aware of the plan, and set out on foot to warn the British of the intended attack. To avoid the American sentries she had to walk twenty miles, a journey that took all day, from early morning till sunset. Fitzgibbon,, warned, made such a skilful arrangement of his few men in the woods, that the Americans thought they were surrounded by a large force, and, after a brief resistance, surrendered to only one half of their own number of men. The Americans were now, in turn, besieged in Fort George by Vincent and his small army. Two serious disasters now befell the Canadians. Captain Barclay, with six British vessels, was defeated on Lake Erie by Com- modore Perry, with nine American vessels ; and this loss com- pelled Colonel Proctor and Tecumseh to abandon Detroit and retreat into Canada, as their supplies could no longer come to them by the lakes. Proctor was closely followed by General Harrison with a large force drawn from the west, many of them Kentucky riflemen accustomed to border warfare. Tecumseh urged Proctor to make a stand against the Americans, but Proctor continued his retreat until he reached Moraviantown, on the Thames river. There, at last, Tecumseh persuaded him to prepare for battle on a favourable ground. Soon Harrison and his men appeared, and a fierce battle began. Almost at the beginning of the fight, Proctor fled and left Tecumseh and his Indians to uphold the g^.,. . honour of British arms. Tecumseh and his warriors fought with desperate courage and great skill, but they were soon overpowered and Tecumseh was killed. Had Proctor stood his ground, the battle of Moravian- town might have ranked in our history with that of Queenston Heights, and other brave deeds. The few of Proctor's men, that escaped, fled and joined General Vincent. The Americans had now possession of the western part of Canada, and hoped soon by two large expeditions to take Montreal. The first of these, nine Moravian - town, and Tecunueh killed, Oct. 5th, 1813. I f 'I w 46 LEADING FACTS OP CANADIAN HISTORY. WW m thousand strong, under General Wilkinson set out from Sackett's Harbour, in boats, expecting to take Kingston and Prescott, and then float down the St. Lawrence and make a junction with General Hampton, who was to approach Montreal by Lake Champlain. Kingston was not molested, and Wilkinson was so annoyed by the Canadians along the bank of the St. Lawrence, that he landed below Prescott with four thousand men, to beat back his enemies. Here, in an open field, called Chrysler's Farm, with only eight hundred men Colonel Morrison and Colonel Harvey, the hero of Stoney Creek, inflicted so heavy a defeat on the forces of Wilkinson, that they were glad to return to their own side of the river. The other expedition under General Hampton, with three thou- 26th Sept., sand men, had been defeated by Colonel de Salaberry, with four hundred Canadian militia, at the battle of Chateauguay. These two victories put an end for a time to the attempts to take Montreal. Battle of Chrysler's Farm 11th Nov., 1818. < .-!■ CHATEAUGUAY AND CHRYSLER'S FARM. In Upper Canada, General Vincent had been compelled by the defeat of Proctor, to retreat again to Burlington Heights, and th« THE WAR OF 1812. 47 Americans had the control of the Niagara peninsula. But the bad news from the east led tlie American general, McClure, to abandon Fort George ; not, however, before he had committed tlie inhuman act of burning thu village of Niagara, Hurning the people out of their homes in the depth of a very severe winter. After the retreat of the Americans to their own side of the river, the British under General Drummond, arrived on the frontier, and determined to avenge the burning of Niagara. Fort Niagara on the American side was surprised, and three hundred Buflfalo prisoners taken. Lewiston, Black' Rock, Buflfalo, and Dec^oth, other American villages were burned, the destruction i^ia. of Buffalo closing the campaign of 1813. 1. 1814 and the Close of the War.— The winter of 1814 was used by the Canadians to carry, on sleds, supplies from Montreal to Kingston and Toronto for the troops in the west. The Americans had gained a footing in the western peninsula by their success at Moraviantown, but General Harrison returned to Detroit and took no further part in the war. Lower Canada was the first to be attacked this year. In March , General Wilkinson with five thousand men tried in vain to take a strong stone mill at Lacolle defended by five hundred Canadians. He Lacoiie Mill, 11.11, 1 1 T-.1 30th March, was repulsed with heavy loss, and retreated to Flatts- 1814. burg. In May, General Drummond and Sir James Yeo made a successful raid on Oswego, and carried off a large quantity of supplies. The Niagara frontier was the scene of two bloody battles. The Americans, four thousand strong, crossed at Buffalo, took Fort Erie and then pushed on to Chippewa. General Riall, with two thousand men, tried to check their progress, but was defeated at the battle of C'l.ip- 6th JuK^^8i4. pewa. He then retreated to Lundy's Lane, now a street in the village of Niagara Falls South. The American soldiers began plundering and burning the buildings of the farmers, and destroyed the pretty village of St. David's. They then advanced against Riall at Lundy's Lane. General Drummond heard of the invasion, and the battle at Chippewa, and Lundy's Lane, hurried from Kingston to aid General Riall. He 1814. reached Fort Niagara on the morning of July 25th, and with eight hundred men pushed forward to Lundy's Lane. At five -:;■ ■-!■ ■■! -ll ivj I ■!! M J ! ^i 48 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. i o'clock in the afternoon he met General Riall retreating before a strong body of American troops under Generals Biown, Ripley, and Scott. Drumraond at once stopped the retreat, and faced the foe. The Americans were four thousand strc 'he Cana- dians had th chouaand. From five o'clock till mid- night the battle raged. The utmost stubbornness and courage wore shown by both armies in the fierce stuggle for the British guns. Gen- eral Riall was taken prisoner and three American generals, Scott, Brown, and Porter, were wounded. At last, worn out in the vain eflfort to force the British tion, the Americans re* J, leaving their dead to be burned by the victors, for the number of slain was so great that burial was impossible. The loss to the enemy was nearly nine hundred; to the British about the same. The scene of this battle, the best contested and bloodiest of the whole war, is marked to-day by a little church and graveyard in which many a Canadian hero sleeps. The war was drawing to a close. The Americans after the battle retired to Fort Erie which they held for some time in spite 6f the attacks of General Drummond, and then withdrew across the river. In the mean time the war in Europe had been brought to an end by Napoleon's defeat and his retirement to the island of Elba. England could now assist Canada, and in Failure of August sixteen thousand men arrived. A great ex- on Piattsburg, pedition was planned against Plattsburg, in which 1814.^ ' eleven thousand men, and the fleet on Lake Cham- plain were to take part. Sir George Prevost led the land army, and Captain Downie commanded the British flag-ship. • Prevost waited for the British vessels to attack the American fleet THE NIAGARA FRONTIER. h i STilUGGLE FOR RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT. 4ft .11 before procouding against Plattsburg which was defended by a small force. Unfortunately tlie Hritisli ships were defeated and many of them destroyed in the engagement that followed, and Prevost, with- out any good reason, retreated without striking a blow. His officers were so chagrined that they broke their swords, vowing they would serve no longer. Meanwhile, in August, the British had entered Chesapeake Bay, captured Washington, the capital of the United States, and burned the public buildings, including a valuable library. This was in revenge for the burning of Niagara by General McClure. At last, on the 24th of December, 1814, the Treaty of Ghent was signed, which restored to the United States and to Canada their losses, but did not settle the points in dispute which led to the war. Two weeks after the peace was made in Europe, a bloody battle was fou<4ht at New Orleans, where the British general, Pakenham, ende.i . ored to carry by assault a strong line of entrenchments defended by General Jackson. The English general did not know that the war was over, and many of Welling- ton's veterans fell in the worse than useless contest. li Treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24 th, 1814. CHAPTER V. THE STRUGGLE FOR RESPONSIBLK GOVERNMENT AND THE REBELLION OF 1837-38. 1. Growth of the Colony.— The war of 1812 brought no territory or glory to the Americans, save the victories they won on the lakes and the high seas. They had been defeated in most of the battles on land; their trade and commerce had been greatly injured by British vessels, the New England States had threatened to leave the Union, and a very heavy public debt had been con- tracted. Canada, too, suffered by her farmers being taken away from their farms to serve in the militia, many of them never returning to their homes, and many others returning wounded and crippled. To the latter the Government gave small pensions for life ; and the widows and orphans of the killed received small grants of money. 24 :^.'.l ■! .ill ;:!"!■[ \\' i I \m ' ; ?■ I 50 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. Immigration. The country was too poor to pay heavy pensions, or to recompense families for the loss of their bread-winners. During the war the British Government had s[)ont large sums in the colony, and this for a time seemed to make it prosperous. But when the struggle was over, and the expenditure ceased, tlie effects of the cruel conflict began to be felt. For a few years there were hard times, and these were made worse by the failure of the wheat crop in Lower Canada. So great was this failure that the Governor, on his own authority, took the public money to help the farmers to buy seed, and the Lower Canadian Parliment, the next year, voted a still larger sum. But the colony soon recovered its prosperity, for the soil was fertile and the people were hardy and industrious. Efforts were made to bring in settlers by offering free pas- sages across the ocean and one hundred acres of land to each man, besides giving him help the first year of his settlement on a farm. Very imwisely Am ;ric0F RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT. 59 defeated them, and shot four prisoners without a trial. On the St. Ijawrence the most important event was the landing of a number of Americans at Windmill Point, a little below the town of Prescott. They took possession of a strong stone windmill, r , . , ., 1 • xt 1-^ IX Battle Of from which they were driven with some dimculty. windmill Point The garrison, about one hundred and thirty in number, ^^°i8^ surrendered ; about fifty were killed — the Canadians losing thirteen killed and a number wounded. The leaders of this raid, Von Schultz and nine of his companions, were tried and executed. The "Patriot War" was over, and Mackenzie was an exile. After many years of hardship and suffering, he was pardoned and allowed to return to Canada, and once more entered political life. ^ricans irched lilitia, CHAPTER VI. THE GROWTH OP RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT. 1. The Act of Union- 1 840. -The rebellion had failed be- cause the Canadian people were loyal ; nevertheless, it called the attention of the Home Government to the need of a change in the Government of the Colony. The influence of Lord Durham's report now began to be felt, and it was decided by the British Government to unite the two Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada under one Parliament. To bring this about, Charles Poulett Thompson was sent out as the Governor of Canada. No great difficulty was met with in Lower Canada, because the Lower Canadian Parliament had been suspended on account of the rebellion, and the Special Council that was acting in its place was quite willing to aid in bringing about the desired union. But the French were not quite so willing, for they feared the loss of their influence as a race. Their petitions against the union were not heeded, and the Council passed a strong resolution in favor of uniting the Provinces. In Upper Canada the Assembly was prepared to support the project, but the Family Compact which controlled the Legislative and Executive Councils did not like the idea of losing its power, GO LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. f Terms of the Union. and bitterly opposed the proposed measure. Mr. Thompson, with great tact and skill, made the Compact feel that the British Government "was anxious for the change, and by a]jpeals to their loyalty induced the members of the Legislative Council to pass a resolution in favor of Union. A Bill stating the terms of the Union was now drawn up, approved of by the Parliament of Upper Canada and the 'ouncil of Lower Canada, and sent to the Imperial Parliament to be made into a law. The Bill passed the British Parliament in 1840 ; but the Union did not take place till Feb- ruary, 1841. By the terms of the Union, Upper and Lower Canada were to have but one Parliament, composed of a Legislative Council with not less than twenty members appointed by the Crown for life, and a Legislative Assembly of eighty-four members — forty-two from each Province. The Execu- tive Council was to consist of eight members, who were to be responsible to Parliament ; that is, the Governor was instructed by the Home Government to choose his advisers from the political party having a majority in the Assembly. The As- sembly was given the control of all the revenue ; but had to make a permanent provision for the payment of judges and for other necessary expenses of government. The judges now became inde- pendent, like the judges in England, and could not be dismissed without good cause. Thus most of the demands of the people were conceded, although some years had to pass before Canada got a full measure of responsible government. ^. The Jtlunicipal Act of 1841.— For his services in bring- ing about the Union Mr. Thompson was made a peer, with the title of Lord Sydenham. The first united Parliament met at Kingston in 1841, and it was found that the election, which fol- lowed the Union, had resulted in the two political parties being of nearly equal strength. Lord Sydenham tried to govern by means of an Executive Council composed of members of both parties ; but the Reform element, finding it difficult to work harmoniously with their political opponents, resigned office, and the Government became a Conservative Government. Nevertheless, in spite of the difficulty experienced in working the new machinery, many impor- tant measures were passed the first session. GROWTH OF RESPONSIBLK GOVERNMENT. 61 Of these, the most im{)()it«int was the Municipal Act, which gave local self-government to the villages, towns, townships and counties of Upper Canada. The people of each muni- cipaHty could now manage such matters as building Municipal roads, bridges, jails and court-houses, through men i84i. elected for that purpose, and who were called councillors in villages, towns and townships, and aldermen in cities. Other measures were the taking over of the Welland Canal as a government work, the placing of public works under the control of one of the members of the Executive Council or Ministry, and the encouragement of numerous enterprises for the development of the country. Unfortunately for Canada, Sydenham died from the eftects of a fall from his horse, and one of the best and safest guides in political affaii Canada has ever had was removed, Sept. 19^ 1841. 3. Sir Charles Metcalfe.— The British Government that appointed Sydenham was a Liberal Government, but it had lost power, and a Conservative Government appointed his successor. This was Sir Charles Bagot. He was a Conservative, but he pur- sued the same policy as Sydenham, and during his short term of office, tried to carry out the principle of responsible Government. He formed a new ministry, the principal members of which were Mr. Baldwin, Mr. Lafontaine and Mr. Francis Hincks. This was the first Reform Ministry of Canada. Bagot died in 1843, and was suc- ceeded by Sir Charles Metcalfe, whose political experience had been gained in India and Jamaica. He was an able and upright man but utterly unfitted by his previous training for governing a colony where the people wished to manage their own affairs. He soon got into trouble with his Ministry and the Assembly. He claimed the right to make appointments to government offices, such as registrar- ships and shrievalties ; but his advisers objected on the ground that they were responsible for all such appointments, and therefore, should recommend the persons to be appointed. As the Governor would not yield, Messrs. Baldwin and Lafontaine and all the mem- bers of the Executive Council, except one, resigned. For some time Metcalfe tried to govern without a ministry, as the Conservatives were not strong enough in the Assembly to form a Government. At length ho succeeded in getting Mr. Draper to take office and lit 62 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. i i ■ gJ: I 1' i U ¥\ form a Ministry, and then dissolved the Assembly and had a new election. In this election Sir Charles Metcalfe opposedTo ^ ^'^•*'* '^^ active part, and managed to get a small ma- Responsibie iority in favor of his Ministers and his policy. Soon Government. *• *^ . i J after this, he asked to bo recalled, on account of ill- health, and Earl Cathcart acted as Governor until Lord Elgin arrived in 1847. 4. Ashburton Treaty. — While Canada was thus slowly working out a free system of government some important events of another character had taken place. In 1842, England and the United States settled the boundary line between Maine and New Brunswick and between Canada and the United States as far west as the Lake of the Woods. The map that showed the boundary decided upon in 1783 had been lost, and disputes had arisen about the line between the State of Maine and New Brunswick. After various fruitless efforts to get a satisfactory decision Lord Ashburton and DaiJel Webster were appointed by the British and United States governments respectively to decide what was the right boundary line. The result of the negotiation was that Webster succeeded in getting for the United States the lion's share of the disputed territory. The treaty gave seven thousand square miles to the United States and five thousand to New Brunswick. It fixed the forty-fifth parallel of latitude as the dividing line as far as the St. Lawrence, and then traced the line up Tre^ity"m2 ^^^^ river, and through the great Lakes as far west as the Lake of the Woods. From that point west the forty-ninth parallel of latitude was to be the boundary to the Rocky Mountains. The treaty also had a clause providing for the sending back to their own country of escaped imiii.ii- accused of arson, forgery, piracy, robbery and mu'- I'his is known as the first "Extradition Treaty." 5. Educational Progress in Vppi . *^annda.— More im- portant than the Ashburton Treaty was the grea. ( liange made in our Public School system by Dr. Egerton Ryerson. In 1839 the Parliament of Upper Canada had set aside two hundred and fifty thousand acres of land for the endowment of grammar schools ; but little provision had been made for the common or, as we now GROWTH OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT. 63 call thorn, the public schoftls. In 1841 Parliament granted two hundred thousjind dollars a year for educational pur- poses ; but three years later it repealed the Act. In schwITsj-stem 1844 Rev. Egerton Ryerson , a Methodist clergyman, l«>tr<^iiced, who had taken an active part in journalism and politics, was appointed Chief Sujjerintendent of Education for Upper Canada. He at once began to lay broad and deep the foundations of pur Public School systetu. He crossed the Atlantic many times to examine the schools of Scotland, England, Prussia, and other European nations, and wisely, selected from each system what was best adapted to a new country. His scheme was submitted to Par- liament in 1846, and its main features adopted. Later on, in 1850, it was improved : and from that time to the present our Public Schocd system has undergone many changes, all of which were in- tended to make it as perfect as possible. This system now provides for the free education of every child at the expense of the public ; and gives each locality or district a large measure of control over its own schools, subject to the inspection and oversight of the Government. In the meantime some progress had been made in higher education. In 1841 Victoria University, at Cobourg, got its charter, and the same year Queen's College, Kingston, was founded. Both these colleges were denominational — Victoria being connected with the Methodist body, and Queen's with the Church of Scotland. King's College, Toronto, had been founded as a Church of England institution, and was put under the f^harge of Dr. Strachan. But the growing strength of other religious denominations soon compelled the adoption of a more liberal policy, and, in 1849, the University of Toronto (as it was now called) became a non-denominational institution and was opened to all classes of the people on the same easy terms. Dr. Strachan was not satisfied with the change, and at once took steps to establish a college under the control of the Anglican Church. The result of his efforts was the founding of Trinity University, Toronto, in 1853. 6. Lord Elgin's Administration.— When Lord Elgin reached Canada he found a bitter party conflict going on. The Draper Administration was weak and tottering to its fall. Its opponents were led by Messrs. Baldwin and Lafontaine, and the 64 LEADING PACTS OP CANADIAN HISTORY. ll'' m 5--i I i country was disquieted by an agitjition over tlie "Rol)ellion Losses Bill," and by a demand from the mere extreme Reformers for a different policy with regard to the Clergy Reserves, In 1840 a p'trtial settlement had been made of the latter question by giving one half of the proceeds of the Reserves to the Church of England and the Church of Scotland, and the remaining half to the other religious denominations. This did not satisfy a large portion of the people, who thought the land should be sold, and the money received used for educational and other purposes. The other cause of disquiet, the Rebellion Losses Bill, was a measure intended to make good to the loyalists in Upper Canada the losses they had sustained by the rebellion of 1837-38, The Draper Government proposed to take the money received from certain taxes and pay the losses with it ; but the members from Lower Canada demanded that the losses in Lower Canada should also be paid. An attempt was made in 1847 to satisfy the people of Lower Canada by voting a sum of money to the loyalists ; but the amount was so small that it had no effect in quieting the agitation. In 1849 the Draper Government was defeated at the polls, and the famous Baldwin-Lafontaine Administration came into of ice. The Rebellion Losses Bill was once more brought Losses Bill, into Parliament — this time by a Reform Government, It was a more sweeping measure than thai, of the previous administration, and proposed to pay a large sum to the in- jured loyalists of Lower Canada. At once a great outcry was raised that rebels were to be paid as well as loyalists, and the country was wild with excitement. Nevertheless, the Bill passed both Houses, and was assented to by Lord Elgin, who felt it his duty to act on the advice of the government, supported as it was by a large ma- jority of the members of Parliament, This course did not please the opponents of the bill, a number of wlTom a\ ere foolish enough, in their excitement, to cause riots in Montreal and Toronto. In the former city Parliament was in session, when an infuriated mob Bniidiiias burn- broke in, drove out the members and ended by setting ed at Montreal, the Parliament buildings on fire. The mob prevented 1849* , all attempts at saving the ccmtents, and n very valuable library containing documents of great importance was burned. Lord Elgin was pelted with rotten eggs and stones when driving GROWTH OP RESPONSIBLE (JOVERNMENT. 05 through the city, and some of the leaders of tlie agitation in their excitement went so far as to talk openly of annexation to the United States. Lord Elgin asked to be recalled ; but the Imperial Government commended his actions, and refused his request. As a consequence of this riot, Parliament met no more in Montreal, its sessions being held alternately every four years in Quebec and Toronto. Soon after his arrival, in 1847, Lord Elgin announced at the opening of Parliament that the duties in favour of British goods had been removed by the British Parli- ^Freedom*^ ament and that henccfcith f^»v»'^^. would be free to place on goods coming into the country such duties as she wished. At the same time the Governor advised the building of a railroad from Halifax to Quebec. We shall find that it took many years to carry this proposal into effect. The same year saw a great immigra- tion of people from Ireland due to the terrible failure of the potato crop in that unhappy land. Thousands of ill-fed and ill-clad people were crowded into the vessels crossing the Atlantic, and, in consequence, fever and pestilence broke out in the ships. When they reached Canada this pestilence spread along the frontier and many people besides the poor immigrants died. T. Commercial Progress.— Lot us now see what the people of Canada had been doing since the Union in opening up the country and in acquiring wealth. We have already pointed out that for a long time Canada had few means of taking her products to distant markets, and was dependent on the boats that navigated her lakes and rivers. This state of things now began to change rapidly. The need of better means of carrying goods and the products of farm and shop to market led to the building of railroads through the more thickly settled parts of the country. The first line built was one between La Pi-airie and St. John's in Lower Canada, which was opened for traffic in 1836. The first road begun in Upper Canada was the Northern Railway, the first sod of which was turned in 1851. Then came in rapid succession the Great Western and the Grand Trunk, the latter receiving from the Government important aid. These roads helped very nmch in opening up for settlement the north, west, and east of Canada, and made the farms of th« settlers 25 Railway era. 66 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. m* much more valuable. In 1852 the Municipal Loan Fund Act was passed, which gavo the Government power to lend money to towns, villages, and other municipalities for local improvements, such as roads, bridges, and public buildings. The terms were very easy, and many municipalities got so heavily in debt that they were unable to pay back to the Government either principal or interest. There are many municipalities in Canada that yet feel the burden of a foolish extravagance at this time. Besides, there was in Canada, as elsewhere, a kind of railway craze, and a great deal of money was spent on roads that did not pay for their construction. Parliament was too free in making grants to railroads and other public works, and the result was that Canada began to have a heavy public debt, which has ever since been steadily growing. In 1851 another event of importance took place : the Uniform Canadian Government was given the control of the 1851. ' Post-ofhce, and immediately established a uniform rate of postage — threepence on every half-ounce — and, besides, introduced the use of postage stamps. Before this, wh^n a letter was sent or received, postage had to be paid in money. In 1846 England adopted Free Trade as her policy, and a few years after threw open her markets to all countries on the same terms. For a time this injured Canadian farmers and producers, who had not as good means of carrying their products to English markets as the Americans. But with the building of railroads and the estab- lishment of better lines of steamships the evil was lessened, and Canada prospered greatly, increasing rapidly in both wealth and population. This prosperity was partly due to a very important treaty made in 1854, through the tact and wisdom of Lord Reciprocity Elgin. In that year Canada and the United States of 1854. agreed upon a Reciprocity Treaty, by which the pro- ducts of the sea, the farm, the mine, and the forest could be freely exchanged. The L^nited States obtained the right to fish in many of Canada's w.'\ters and the use of the St. Lawrence and Canadian canals ; Avhile Canada, in return, was given the right to navigate Lake Michigan. The treaty was to continue ten years from March, 1855, and after that could be ended by twelve months' notice from either party. 8. The Clergy Reserves and Seignorial Tenure.— GROWTH OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT. or ire.— Meanwhile, political agitation was going on over two burning questions. One was the old grievance of the Clergy Reserves, which the Baldwin -Lafontaine AdmiTiistration hoped had been settled in 1840. But a strong and growing body of the more radical Reformers, led by George Brown, the editor and manager of the Globe, a powerful political newspaper, wished to take the Reserves away from the denominations and use them for the general good of the Province. The other question, that of Seignorial Tenure, was one of great interest to the people of Lower Canada. It was seen that holding land under the old French system of feudal tenure wj s a great hindrance to the prosperity of the farmers of that Province ; the services and payments by the peasants to the "seigneurs" having become a grievous burden as the Province became better settled and the land more valuable. It v/as found impossible to dispose of one question without dealing with the other ; so in 1854, tlie Reform Government of Mr. Hincks having been defeated by a temporary union of the extreme wing of the Reformers with the Con- servatives, the new Conservative Ministry of Sir Allan McNab, brought in two bills : the one to divide tlie Clergy Reserves among the diflferent municipalities of Upper Canada according to popula- tion, the proceeds to be used by them for local im- provements or for educational purposes ; the other, to abolish Seignorial Tenure, and to allow the land in Lower Canada to' ba held by the people as freeholds. In both cases compensation was made by Parliament for the losses the clergy and the seigneurs suffered by the change. In this way two grievances of long standing were happily removed, ciiu the last link uniting Church and State in Upper Canada was broken. Two other political changes must l)e noted. In 1853, the population having increased greatly since tho Union, tlie number of members of the Legislative Assembly was increased from eighty- four to one hundred and thirty, each Province still having an equal numDer of members. Tln-ce years later, the Legislative Council became an elective body, the existing members retaining their positions for life. The population of Upper Canada was now fully one million and a quarter, and that of Lower Canada about three hundred thousand less. Clergry Reserves and Seignorial Tenure Acts, 1854. Ill .III 68 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. m 9. A Political Head-Lock. — A curious state of affairs now arose in Canada. The old political parties became shattered, and new alliances were formed. In Upper Canada the more advanced Reformers gained great influence, and began agitating for a change in the basis of representation in Parliament. They ation by claimed that as Upper Canada was more populous and aertation." wealthy than Lower Canada, and paid more taxes, it should send more members to Parliament. Against this it was urged that at the time of the Union Lower Canada had a larger population, greater wealth, and a smaller public debt than Upper Canada — yet, it was given the same number of repre- sentatives. It was, therefore, contended that Lower Canada should continue to have as many members of parliament as Upper Canada. The agitation was continued for many years, and parties became nearly equally divided on the question of "Representation by Population " as it was called. On tlie one side was a majority of the members from Upper Canada, and a minority from Lower Canada ; while opposed to the new policy was a minority from Upper Canada, and a majority from Lower Canada. John A. Macdonald and George Etienne Cartier were prominent leaders of the Conservative party ; George Brown, William McDougall and A. A. Dorion the ])T:ii''ipal advocates of " Representiition by Population " and the Ret'onu policy. Several administrations were defeated in the years between 1858 and 1864, and finally it became evident some change in the constitution must take place if good government was to continue. 10. Steps towards Confederation,— In 1864 a dead-lock of political parties was reached, and the leaders of both sides recog- nizing the danger, dropped their feuds, and united to form a Coali- tion Government, which had for its object the Confederation of the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and, if possilile, also those of the Maritime Provinces. The principle of this Confederation was suggested by the form of Government in the adjoining Re- public ; the object aimed at being to give the several Provinces the control of their own local aliiiirs, matters of general interest to be managed by a common parliament in which all the provinces would be represented. Several things helped along the movement. In 1860 George Brown had proposed in Parliament the principle of GROWTH OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT. 69 Quebec Conference, 1864. such a scheme, but his resolution was lost by a large majority. The country was not then ready for its adoption. But when, in 1864, circumstances forced the policy on both parties, it was found that not only Canada but the Maritime Provinces were discussing Confederation A Conference or gatliering of delegates from these provinces was called to meet in September at Charlotte- town, in Prince Edward Island, to arrange for a Charlottetown union, and the Canadian Government asked and ]864. received permission to send delegates. At this gathering the Confederation of all the Provinces was seriously discussed. It was decided to call another Conference at Quebec in November, and to invite all the provinces to be present through their delegates. The Conference met, and after much deliberation, the outlines of a scheme of Confederation were approved of by Upper Canada, Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland liad withdrawn from the Conference, the terms proposed not being agreeable to them. The delegates separated to report to their respective Parliaments, which soon after, in 1865, agreed to the scheme and made the necessary arrangements to get the consent of the British Parlia.nent. In 1866, delegates from the different provinces met in London to draft a Bill for submission to the Imperial Parliament. This Bill was finally passed on the 28th February 1807, and, under the name of the British North America Act, is the law which defines our present oonstitutiWn. It came into force on the 1st of July, 1867. But its passage was not satisfactory to all the provinces. Nova Scotia was brought into Confederation against its will' — its Government having accepted the terms without asking the consent of the people. Remonstrances and petitions were sent to the British Parliament; but they were of no avail. The British Government thought that the discontent would soon die away, and that the British possessions in America would be safer and stronger under Confederation, against possible attacks from the United States, than existing as colonies independent of each other. 11. Miiior Ev«iiti of iniportaiiee.— Before giving tho British N. A. Act passed, Feb'j, 28th, 1867. 70 LEADING FACTS OP CANADIAN HISTORY. terms of this Confederation Act, we must notice some things of less importance, which had taken place while Canada was working out her future form of government. In 1854 our Volunteer Volunteer , ° , -r. <. i • i ■\/r■^■ • System hegnn, system was introduced. Before this the Militia had very little drill, and when danger threatened the country, its defence, for a time, depended upon the few regular troops stationed in Canada. Now the young men were encouraged to volunteer and form companies and regiments under their own officers, so that, should an invasion be attempted, there would always be thousands of active men, with some knowledge of drill, ready to resist. In 1868 Bytown or Ottawa, on the Ottawa river, became the fixed place for Parliament to meet. This site was chosen by the Queen, and its choice gave rise to much dissatisfaction on the part of the larger cities. More important to the welfare of the country was the introduction in 1858 of decimal currency, whereby Decimal i • i n t . , . Currency intro- we began to reckon m dollars and cents instead of m "^^ ' "^ ■ pounds, shillings and pence ; and the completion of a long bridge across the St. Lawrence at Montreal, which was opened by the Prince of Wales in the summer of 1800, under the name of the Victoria Bridge. In 1861, a civil war began in the United States between the Northern and Southern States, and lasted for four years. It aifected Canada in many ways. For a time it made good prices for nearly all the Canadian farmer had to sell, raised t'lie wages of mechanics, and gave good profits to the merchants. On the other hand, there was a serious danger of a war between England and the North, arising out of the sympathy and secret help the people of England gave the South. Many Canadians crossed the frontier to fight in the armies of the North, and many Southerners took refuge in Can- ada, some of whom made raids across the border into the villages and towns of the North. These raids created a bad feeling towards Canada, so that when the war was over and the Reciprocity Treaty expired in 1866, the United States Government refused to renew it. Canada also suffered from the ill-will of the American Government in another way. On the 1st of June, a body of ruftians called Fenians, and belonging to a secret society having for its object the separation of Ireland from Great Britain, crossed the frontier at Reciprocity Treaty expires, 1866. NOVA SCOTIA AND NEW BRUNSWICK. 71 join some Ridgeway, June Ist., 1.66. Black Rock, took possession of the ruins of old Fort Erie, and threatened the Niagara peninsula. A number of Volunteers from Toronto and Hamilton were at once sent to regular troops under Colonel Peacock, at Chippewa, but before they could accomplish this they met the raiders at Ridgeway, and, in a ])adly managed skirmish, were driven back witii several killed and wounded. Soon after, Colonel Peacock with the regulars arrived, and the Fenians recrossed to the American s^'de, leaving a few stragglers be- hind, some of whom were captured, tried, and condenmed to death. Their sentences, through the clemency of the Crown, were changed to imprisonment in the Penitentiary. Attacks were also threatened at Prescott, St. Albans and other points on the border, but the watchfulness of the Canadian volunteers prevented any serious attempt being made to invade the country. After a long delay the American authorities put a stop to these raids, which, had the feeling of the United States Fenianraids. towards Canada been more friendly, might never have taken place. In one way these attacks did good. They made the British Provinces feel the need of a closer union, and this, doubt- less, hastened the formation of the Confederation. CHAPTER VII. NOVA SCOTIA AND NEW BRUNSWICK. 1. Nova Scotia. — We have, now to trace the history of a new and larger Canada. Henceforth it is the Dominion of Canada about which we must speak. We must, also, drop the old names Upper Canada and Lower Canada, and use name8"of\jpper instead for these provinces — the new names Ontario '^"'l ^f^^' and Quebec. For when Nova Scotia and New Bruns- wick joined in the Confederation, it was decided, to prevent con- fusion, to change the names of the provinces of Old Canada. 72 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. In many respects the history of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick is very similar to that of Upper and Lower Canada. As in Lower Canada, the first settlers of Nova Scotia were French, the first settlement being made by De Monts, in 1605, at Port Royal (now Annapolis), a little earlier than that at Quebec by Champlain. The Cabots, it is said, first discovered tlie country, and on that ground Nova Scotia was claimed as an English possession. fouSdedfi605. The little colony at Port Royal did not prosper, and in 1614 an English expedition from Virginia took the fort, destroyed it, and then sailed away. At that time the province was called Acadia, and included the present provinces ot Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, but in 1624 it was given by Eng- land to Sir William Alexander, and he named it Nova Scotia. Between 1624 and 1713 Port Royal changed ownership many times, belonging alternately to the English and the French until the Treaty of Utrecht, when it passed finally into the possession of the English. At this time its name was changed to Annapolis, in honor of the English Queen Aime. Not only Port Royal, but all Acadia, was by this treaty given to the English. English settlers founded, slowly found their way to the Province, and the city ^^*^- of Halifax was founded in 1749. But the French inhabitants and the Micmac Indians were not satisfied with the change of ownership, and plots against British rule were entered into between the French inside and the French outside the Pro- vince. All efforts to get the Acadians to take the oath of allegiance to the British king failed, and as the English settlements in the Province were in constant danger of attacks from the neighboring French and their Indian allies, it was decided to re- xpu^s on jj^Qye ii^Q Acadians from their homes and carry them ^"r-65"^' ^^ * French colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. This severe sentence was carried out in 1755. The sad story of the Expulsion of the Acadians is told in the beautiful and pathetic poem "Evangeline," by Longfellow. The constant fear of attacks from the French was removed when, in 1758, the strong fortress of Louisburg, in Cape Breton, was captured by Wolfe. The conquest of Canada and the Peace of Paris followed/ and Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Prince Edward Island wer« NOVA SCOTIA AND NEW BRUNSWICK. 73 surrendered to the British. Until 1784 Nova Scotia, New Bruns- wick, Prince Edward Island, and Cape Breton formed one Province. Then New Brunswick, Prince Edward New Brunswdck, T 1 J 1 /-. T. -r. • Csipe Breton, Island, and Cape Breton became separate Provinces, and but the last named was again joined to Nova Scotia in ' gecede. 1819. A Constitution was given to Nova Scotia in 1768, so that it had representative institutions many years before Lower Canada. It was to be governed by a joint Executive and Legislative Council, appointed by the Crown, and by an Assembly elected by the peo^^^e. This form of Government did not -ucceed much better than the similar form in the two Canadas, and for the same reason. The Revolutionary war of the United States caused some discon- tent and excitement in the province, and efiforts were made to turn the people over to the side of the revolting colonies ; but without success. After the war many U. E. Loyalists settled in Nova Scotia; and soon the new settlers began tc agitate for a more just and liberal form of government. The agitation was carried on in much the same fashion as in Upper Canada, but it did not lead to rebellion. The same abuses existed as in Upper and Lower Canada, and after a severe political struggle, in which Joseph Howe played an important part, Responsible Government was granted in 1848, N ova Scotia had made considerable progress by this time ; her fisheries, forests, mines, and fertile lands being sources of wealth. Her inhabitants were remarkably strong, vigorous, and intelligent people, many of them being of U. E. Loyalist and Scotch descent. Hur schools and colleges were generously supported by the Government, and educa- tion, before Confederation, had become pratically free to all her people. Of her colleges. King's, Windsor, was founded in 17^8, and Dalhousie, Halifax, in 1 20. Railways were gradually introduced, but not to the same extent as in Upper Canada; and an Intercolonial Railway between the different British Provinces of North America had often been sug- gested. This, in brief, was the state of affairs when Nova Scotia through her delegates at the Quebec Conference consented to be-« come part of the Dominion of Canada. These delegates, however, did not represent the opinions of the people of Nova Sootia, and a Responsible Government secured, 1848. IF 74 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. ■1 • 4 in New Bruns- wick, 1784. bitter agitation against Confederation began under the old Reform leader, Joseph Howe. In vain the Province, through its Assembly, petitioned against the Union, and sent Howe to Nova Scotia England to oppose the passage of the British North opposed to ° . . mi -r, ■ • 1 ^ Confederation. America Act. ihe Isntish iTOvernment would not lis- ten to the appeal, and Nova Scotia entered Confedera- tion much in the same fashion as old Scotia entered the Union with England over one hundred and fifty years before. Let us hope that our Confederation may have the «ame happy results as the Union of 1707. 2. New Brunswick. — Until 1784 New Brunswick was a part of Nova Scotia, and its historj'^ to that time is therefore the history of Nova Scotia. Its earliest settlements were at the mouth of the St. John River, and like the settlements at Port Royal were made by the French. After the American Revolution- LoySfstf TeSlI ^ry War, thousands of United Empire Loyalists settled in the province ; many of them in the neighbourhood of the present city of St. John. These new settlers were dissatisfied because they were not given fair representation in the Legislative Assembly, and petitioned to have a new province formed independent of Nova Scotia. In 1784 the Home Government granted their petition, and the result was the formation of the present province of New Brunswick, with a government similar to that of Nova Scotia. Fredericton became its capital, although its chief town was St. John. The people of this province did not pay the same attention to farming as the settlers of the other provinces, because the very valuable timber and fisheries of the country made it more profitable to engage in lumbering and ^fishing than in tilling the soil. In 1809, Britain laid a tax on timber brought from the Baltic, and in this way encouraged the timber trade of New Bruns- wick. Its ports became noted not only for their timber trade, but also for ship-building. After the war of 1812-14, many disbanded soldiers settled in the province, and, as in Upper Canada, received liberal grants of land. But a serious disaster in 1825, , ^'^*** f^'^' checked the prosperity of the province. The summer of this year was very hot and dry, and bush fires raged fiercely. On the 7th of October, a terrible wave of fire NOVA SCOTiA AJSD NEW BllUNSWICK. 75 fiwept over the country, from Miramichi to the Bay of Chaleurs. Five thousand square miles of forest and farm, village and town, were made desolate, and hundreds of lives were lost. The political atmosphere, too, w.as troubled for many years. The struggle for responsible government took place in this province as elsewhere in British America, and New Brunswick had i^s Family Compact as well as Upper Canada. But, unlike Upper Canada, its rights were won vt'ithout reliellion and bloodshed. In 1837, the control of the revenue was given to the Assembly, and in 1848, responsible government was Responsible fully conceded. In these struggles for frtiedom to i848. manage its own affairs, Lemuel Allan Wilmot took a prominent part as a champion of the people. The dispute about the boundary line between Maine and New Brunswick kept the province in a state of alarm and uncertainty for years ; and at one time it was feared that the quarrels along the border for possession of the disputed territf)ry would lead to war. The Ashburton Treaty, in 1842, resulted, as we have seen, in taking away from New Brunswick a large territory which Treaty"i^2. rightfully belonged to it. In the twenty years be- fore Confederation, by means of railways and steamboats, great progress was made in opening up the country ; in extending the trade of the province, although the timber trade was threatened with injury by the removal of the duties from timber exported from the Baltic to England ; and in improving the educational system of the province. Good public schools were established ; and among other colleges, the University of Fredericton and Mt. Allison College at Sackville, were founded. The former is a state college, the latter is connected with the Methodist denomination. The story of the Union with the other provinces has already been told. As in Nova Scotia there was strong opposition to Con- federation, and in the first election held.after the Quebec Confer- ence, the Confederation party was badly beaten at the polls. For a time it seemed as if New Brunswick would refuse to proceed any further with the scheme, but the Home Government was anxious for Confederation, as also were the ^°"*^ j'^Vill ' accepted, 1866. Governor and the Legislative Council. These in- fluences, aided by the alarm caused by the Fehian invasion, helped 76 LEADING FACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. to bring about a change in the popuLar feeling, and another election being held the Confederation party was successful. Union resolu- tions were now passed, and delegates sent to London to aid in framing the British North America Act. CHAPTER VIII. I CANADA SINCE CONFEDERATION. 1. The British IVortii Amcrieu Act. — We must now give the terms on which the four Provinces, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, agreed to share a common lot. The principle of their union was that each Province should manage its own local affairs, and leave to the Dominion the control of matters which were of conmion benefit and interest. To carry out this principle it was necessary to have local Legislatures or Parlia- ments, as well as a general or Dominion l*arliament. This part of the scheme was suggested by, if not borrowed from, the system of government existing in the United States. But in several very important respects the United States model was not copied. Per- haps the most important difference was the retention of Cabinet or Responsible Government in the management of all our affairs, whether belonging to the Dominion or to the Provinces. Again, in the United States each State is free to make its own laws, so long as it does not go beyond the bounds of the Constitution ; but in Canada it was agreed that the Governor-General, on the advice of his Ministers, should have the power to veto, or forbid from becoming law, any measure passed by the local Parliaments, if these measures were thought to be hurtful to the general welfare of the Dominion. The Provinces were given the control of many matters such as education ; the appointment of courts of justice (but not of the judges) ; the management of Crown lands within the Province; asylums and jails ; the regulation of the sale of intoxicating liquors ; and th« gonsral power of enforcing the laws. They were CANADA SINCE CONFEDERATION. permitted to raise a revenue by Jirect but not by indirect taxation ; that is, they cnulcl iiiii)ose such taxes as were paid only by the people on wlioiu they were placed, but not such tjixes as duties on goods coming in or going out of the country, which are' called Customs, or taxes on articles made in the country, which we call Excise. Custom and Excise duties are supposed to be paid eventually by the people who buy the goods and use them, and not by the seller or maimfacturer. One of the impr being the Hon. William P. Rowland. The majority of the people of the D(miinion were cc of m CANADA SINCE CONFEDERATION. 7d content to give the new constitution a fair trial, except the people of Nova Scotia. In the first parliuuient elected after the union, the members from that province were nearly all opposed to confeder- ation, and had to he quieted by the grant of "better terms." In 1868, steps were taken to get possession of the vast territory held by the Hudson Bay Company in the North-West. This territory, known as "Prince Rujiert's Land," had been given to the Hudson Bay Company in f'170 by King Charles II. of England, and had been used by it, for ..wo hundred years, to caiTy cm a pro- fitable trade in furs. The value of this territory was but little known, and the Company fearful of losing its charter always strove to make the English people believe that it was fit for nothing ex- cept grazing buffaloes, and providing trapping grounds for Indians. A very few settlers had made their way into this unknown and lone land — the only settlement of imjiortance being at Red River where Lord Selkirk had founded a colony in 1811. The whole population numbered but ten thousand souls, and was gathered mainly at the different trading-posts. The charter of the Company was expiring, and the Canadian Gov- ernment induced the British Parliament to pass an Act by which the North-West or Hudson Bav Territory could be surren- -iTiz-i 1 PI- T ■ f ^ A^cquisition of doi ad to Canada, on payment of the just clanns of the the North- Company. Canada offered to give the Company three ^^ ' ' ' hundred l Kousand pounds sterling, one twentieth of the land, and the right to retain their trading privileges. The offer was accepted. L~i;f( tunately, little thought Avas given to the small settlement of French and half-breeds on the Red River when taking possession of the country, and making provision for its future government. Sur- veyors were set to work near Fort Garry at the junction of the Red and Assiniboine rivers, and the inhabitants became alarmed lest their lots and homes should be taken from them. The necessary steps were not taken to quiet their fears, and when Hon. Wm. McDougall endeavored to enter the new Province of Manitoba, as its Governor, he found his way barred by an armed force. The chief leaders of the revolt were Louis Riel, a Frenchman, with some Indian blood in his veins, and M. Lepine. A Provisional Government was formed by these men, and they made prisoners of all who were supposed to bo Red River rebtUion, 1869-70. 1 80 LEADING FACTS OP CANADIAN HISTORY. in sympathy with the thus seized Canad'an government. Among others „ ,^ was Thomas Scott, a brave, outspoken, Thomas Scott . .. murdered, loyal subject. For some reason or other Riel had taken a strong personal dislike to Scott, and, after giving him the form of a trial, had him sentenced to be shot. The sentence was carried out under circumstances of great brutality, in March 1870. When the news reached Ontario there was great excitement, and when, a few months after, volunteers were called for, to go with General Wolseley to crush the rebellion, thousands of young Men offered their services. Only the best fitted to endure hardship were chosen, and when, after a long and trying march over what was known as the Dawson Road, they reached Fort Garry, they found the rebels scattered and everything quiet. Many of these volunteers received grants of land in the new province and became permanent settlers. Soon there began to rise at Fort Garry a prairie city which, to-day, is the fine flourisi iug capital of the province of Manitoba — the city of Winnipeg. In Voti) the "Manitoba Act" was passed. It defined the limits Act passed, of the Province of Manitoba, and stated how it was to ^^'^^' be governed. Its form of government is very much the same as that of Ontario ; and, like Ontario, it decided to do without a "Second Chamber" or Legislative Council. It was given the right to send four members to the House of Commons, -nd was allotted two senators. The next year saw[the admission of another province to the Confederation. This was British Columbia on the British Pacific Coast, which, sepai-ated from the rest of the joins the Con Dominion by the Rocky mountains, made it a condition 1871. * ♦^f becoming a part of the Dominion that a railway should be constructed across the prairies and through the Rocky Mountains, so as to connect British Columbia with the Eastern provinces. Although the population of this new province was very small, it was given six members in the House of Com- mons and three in the Senate. Two years after, still another province was added to the growing Dominion. Prince Edward Island, which in 18G6 refused to become a part of the Confederation, was now willing to cast in its lot with the other provinces. This little island with its hardy and intelligent population formerly belonged to Nova Scotia ; but in CANADA SINCE CONFEDERATION. 81 [Wing Id to ps lot and lut in 1784 it received n separate government. Its history before 1873 was nmch the same as that of Nova Scotia and New „ . „ , , Prince Edward Brunswick, exceijt that it had trouble in connection island with the wfiy its land had been parcelled out to a number of men called "proprietors," who did not live on the island, and yet refused to give up their claims to those who were the actual tillers of the soil. The Legislative Council of Prince Edward Island was elective ; in this respect it differed from the other provinces. On entering Confederation it was given six mem- bers in the House of Commonb and four in the Senate. No new territory has since been added to the Dominion ; but the North- West has been divided into districts, and given a form of govern- ment, consisting of a Lieutenant-Governor and Council, in which the people have a slight control over their own local affairs. They have also been given representation in the House of Commons — four members at present being returned from the four districts, Assiniboia, Alberta^ Saskatchev/an and Athabasca. 3. Political Changes. — The party struggles that embittered the politics of Canada before Confederation were dropped for a short t ine after the Union of the provinces, only to be renewed with almost eciiuil intensity at the general election of 1872. The Government of Sir John A. Macdonald had aroused strong opposi- tion by its share in the Washington Treaty, and its mode of dealing with the proposed Pacific railway. Several points were in dispute between England and the United States, and between the United States and Canada. Dux'ing the Civil War between the North and South the English authorities had carelessly allowed some vessels, fitted out in British ports, to escape to sea, wliere they were used by the South M attack and plunder the merchant vessels of the North. The most notorious of these vessels was the "Alabama," which did a great deal of harm to the shipping of the North. After the war was over, the United States claimed damages for injuries caused by this vessel, and the matter was left for peaceable settlement to a "Joint High Cinnmission" of Avhich Sir John A. Macdonald was a member. Canada was greatly interested in this Comniision, for she hud claims against the United States for injuries inflicted by the Fenians. Besides, the ownership of San Juan, an island on the Pacific coast, and tlie boundaiy line between Canada and Alaska 2G 62 LEADING PACTS OF CANADIAN HISTORY. if] ill 'I If ' ti were in dispute. The Americans, too, were anxious, now that the Reciprocity Treaty was no longer in force, to get fishing privileges in Canadian waters. Tlie Comniision met, in 1871, at Washington, and agreed to submit the Alabama Claims to arbitration, the result being that the United States received $15,500,000 for the supposed injuries inflicted by the Alabama on her commerce. The claims of Canada for dama<'es on account of the Fenian raids were not even considered; but England, as a sliglit compensation, agreed to guarantee for Canada a Ljan of £2,500,000. The dispute al)()ut the island of San Juan was left to the Emperor of Germany for his decision, which was given the next year in favor of the United States. The Treaty also gave the United Tre^aty"i87r. ^t'^-t^s the use of Canadian fisheries for twelve years, in return for tlie use of their fisheries, and the right to sell fish and tish-oil in United States markets. As this was not considered enough for the use of the valuable Canadian fisheries, a commission was to meet at Halifax later on and decide what sum of money should be jjaid the Dominion by the United Coiiiinission, States as an equivalent. This Halifax Commission met in 1878, during the Mackenzie Administration, and awarded $5,500,000 to Canada ; the success of this negotiation Ijeing due largely to tlie fact that it was conducted on behalf of Canada by Canadians ; Sir Alexand'T Gait being the principal Canadian rejjresentativo. The other cause of political feeling, the building of the Pacific lliiilway, arose out of the agreement with British Columbia, when that province entered Confederation, that an all-rail route should be built in ten years from Ontario to the Pacific. Many thought such a bargain could not be carried out, that the time was too short, and the cost too great. The elections of 1872 were fought mainly on this issue, and resulted in a majority fuv the government. The next year Mr. Huntington, the member of Parliament ior Sheflford, made a formal charge in Parliament that the government had agreed to give a charter to Sir Hugh Allan to build the Scandal 1873. P'^^ific Railway, in return for large sums of money to carry the elections. The charge, and the publication of ce*. cain letters befiring upon this alleged corrupt bargain, caused great excitement in the Dominion, and after a fierce struggle in Parliament, the government resigned. CANADA SINCE CONFEDERATION. 83 The Governor-General, Lord Dutferin, called upon the Hon. Alexander Mackenzie, the leader of the Liberal Party, to form a government. Mr. Mackenzie accepted the trust, and after forming a ministry, of wliicli the princij)al members were the Hon. Edward Blake from Ontario and the H' ^ ^ ' o ^l .^>/ > r .>>'■ / /A Photographic Sciences Corporation •^ 4^ ,\ iV :\ \ 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 873-4503 ^S [\^ V', 6^ 90 IIISTOKY OF CANADA. a Parliament, and he is the official head of the army and navy. In his name, too, all the appointments to the Bench, the Senate, and the Lieutenant-Governorships of Provinces are made. But in all these acts, the Governor-General is simply following out the counsel of his advisers, the Dominion Cabinet or Ministry. The Ministry, which is really responsible for all the things done in the Governor-General's name, is composed, generally, of thirteen men, each of whom must be a member of one of the HousesVjf Parliament. The Ministry must have the confidence of Parlia- ment, and should it lose that confidence it must resign and give way to those who possess it. Each minister is supposed, unless it *be the President of tl:e Council, to have the charge of some Depart- ment of the public service, and to be responsible Jor its manage- ment. The Ministry, as a whole, is responsible to Parliament for the acts of its individual members. The members of the House of Commons must be elected at least every five years, although, as often happens, a general election may take place before that time expires. The number of members in the Commons depends upon the population of each Province, com- pare«I with the population of Quebec. Quebec has always 66, and the other Provinces in proportion. At the present time, Ontario has 92 ; Quebec, C5 ; Nova Scotui, 21 ; New "Brunswick, IG ; Manitoba, 5 ; British Columbia, 6 ; Prince Edward Island, 6 ; and the North West Territories, 4 ; a total of 215 members. The members of the Commons do not require any property qualification, but they must be British subjects. The right to vote for them is regulated by a Dominion Franchise Act, and is limited to men of twenty-one years of age, who must either have a small income, or be the owner or tenant of some property. Nearly every man who is a British subject has now a vote for members of Parliament. Voting, since 1874, takes place by ballot. The House of Commons, like the British House of Commons, has the sole right of bringing in money-bills. The Senate consists of 79 members, appointed for life or good conduct. A Senator may, however, lose his right to a seat by absence from the sessions of Parliament, or by insolvency, for he must possess a property qualification. The Senate must assent to* all bills before they become law, and it can introduce any bill except APPENDIX. 91 money-bills. The British North America Act fixes the highest number of Senators that may be appointed ; if more should be needed the British Parliament would have to give its consent. There are now 24 Senators from Ontario, 24 from Quebec, 10 from Nova Scotia, 10 from New Brunswick, 4 from Prince Edward Island, 3 from British Columbia, 2 from Manitoba, and 2 from the North -West Territories. The Dominion Parliament is subject to the British Parliament, inasmuch as all laws made by it can b^ annulled by the British Government. Nor can the -Canadian Parliament make any treaty of commerce without the consent of the Mother country. Turning now to the Provincial Parliaments or Legislatures we find very much the same form of government. At the head of each Province is a Lieutenant-Governor, appointed by the Governor- General in Council for five years. His duties are, in his sphere, the same as those of the Governor-General. The Local Legislature may consist of one or two Houses, as the people of each Province may choose. Ontario, Manitoba, and British Columbia have but one House each, the other Provinces thinking it necessary to have Legislative Councils as well as Legislative Assem- blies. The members of the Councils are appointed for life by the Lieutenant-Governor in Council, or really by his advisers, the members of the Provincial ministry or cabinet, except in Prince Edward Island, where they are elective. Tlie Ministry of each Province occupies the saipe position in Provincial affairs, as the Dominion ministry occupies in Dominion affairs. The number of the members of the Ministry depends upon the work to be done, and generally ranges from five to seven. A general election must take place at least every four years for the Legislative Assembly, except in Quebec, where the term has been extended to five years. The duties of these Provincial Parliaments are very important, as the B.N. A. Act gives them the control of education, direct taxation, the administration of justice, asylums, jails, and a hose of other matters, not the least impoitant being the making of laws for the improvement of our municipal institutions. They cannot, however, levy duties such as excise and customs, and the laws they make can be vetoed, or forbidden, by the Governor-General in Council, within a given time from their passage. In brief, the relations be- 92 HISTORY OF CANADA. tween the Provinces and the Dominion are supposed to be much the same as those between the Dominion and the Mother country. Like the Dominion Parliament, the Local Legislature must meet annually. Elections to the Legislative Assemblies ttike place by ballot, and each Province makes its own franchise laws. In all the Provinces, however, the qualification is so low that few men are without a vote. Women, as yet, have not been given the right to vote. In the Provinces as well as in the Dominion, the members of Parliament are elected from districts called constituencies, and generally only one member is returned from a constituency. Canada is said to possess Responsible Government, which means that when the Ministry of any Province or of the Dominion ceases to retain the confidence of its Parliament it must resign ; and then the Lieutenant-Governor or Govemor-Generai, as the case may be, must choose a new body of advisers, which possesses the confidence of Parliament. Parliament in turn must represent the people, otherwise the members would not be elected by them. 2. Judicial System.— To interpret the laws and put them in force. Judges, Magistrates, Sheriffs, and other officers are appointed. The duty of appointing the Judges rests with the Governor- General in Council, but the appointment of Magistrates, Sheriffs, Bailiffs, and the creation and organiaition of* Courts of Justice are in the hands of the Lieutenant-Governor in Council. So we say, briefly, that the Judges who interpret the law and pass sentences are appointed by the Dominion Government, while the carrying out or administration of the law is under the control of the Provincial Governments. There are a great many kinds of courts, and also many kinds of judges, in Canada, beginning •with the court of the humblest magistrate and ending with the Supreme Court of Canada, where cases from all parts of Canada are heard and settled. There is an appeal, however, from this highest Canadian Court to the British Privy Council. Our judges hold office for life or good conduct, and cannot be dismissed except by petition of both Houses of Parliament. The courts f»f the different Provinces differ some- what in their organization and, so far as Quebec is concerned, in the law they interpret and enforce. The Criminal Law is the same for APPENDIX. 93 all the Provinces, but the Civil Law, as it is culled, is very different in Quebec from that in any other Province. The Quebec Civil Law is based on French law or the Custom of Paris, while the Civil Law in th6 other Provinces is based upon English Law. Never- theless each Province make? laws suitable to its own needs, and this leads to a considerable variety in the laws relating to property and trade. 3. Municipal System. — Besides the Federal Parliament and the Local Legislatures, there are several other law-making bodies which come into even closer contact with the people. It would obviously be very inconvenient to have every little matter of a local nature brought before the Dominion Parliament or the Local Legislature for discussion and settlement, and therefore power has been given to the people in the different Provinces to elect men whose duty it shall be to make laws and regulations for small districts. For instance, in Ontario, where this local government is very fully carried out, the Province is divided into villages, towns, townships, counties, and cities. Each village, town, township, and city elects annually by ballot, a certain number of men, whose duty it is to look after the interests of the distric*- or locality they represent. These men form what is called the " Council," and they are known as " Council- lors " in the villages, towns, and townships, and as " Aldermen " in the cities. The presiding officer of the " Council " in villages and townships is the "Reeve," and in towns and cities the "Mayor." In villages and townships, the Council is composed of five men, the Reeve, Deputy-Reeve, and three others. In towns and cities, of the Mayor and generally three Aldermen for each ward or section of the town or city. The Council is limited as to its powers of taxation by the laws of the Province, and its Qpwer to make by-laws or binding rules is also strictly defined by statute. Nevertheless, its power and usefulness are very great, as all questions relating to repairs on roads and highways, to the maintaining of order by c(jn- stables and a police, the levying of taxes for school purposes and local improvement, and a host of other matters come before the Council. In Quebec taxes for school purposes are levied by the School Boards, not by the Municipal Councils. Besides the village, town, township, and city, there is the county, which includes a k>A 94 HISTORY OP CANADA. number of township and all villages within its area. Sometimes, unless a septinition luis taken place, the towns within tlie county form a part of it for municipal purposes. The county has also a Council made up of the Reeves and Deputy-Reeves of the villages and townships. The County Council looks after matters of common interest to the villages and townships, and has to draw from them the money it expends. The chairman of the County Council is elected by its members, and is known as the " Warden." The right to vote for aldermen and councillors is confined to ratepayers ; and widows and unmarried women with the requisite property qualifications have the right of voting in municipal elec- tions. Municipal systems much the same as that of Ontario are in operation in Quebec, the Maritime Provinces, Manitoba, and British Columbia. In Quebec, we have villages, towns, "parishes," town- ships, and cities, the councils of which are elected by the people, while the Mayors are appointed by the Councils, except in cities and towns, where they are elected by the ratepayers. There are also County Councils in Quebec, composed of the Mayors or presid- ing officers' of the villages, parishes and townships. The local councils are composed of seven members, holding office for three years and elected by open vote. There is an important diflference between the working of the Municipal system in Ontsirio and Quebec, for whereas the most of the money spent on local im- provements in Ontario is raised by the municipalities themselves, in Quebec a great deal is left to the Local Legislature, which gives large grants for roads, bridges, and other local needs. Nevertheless, large powers are given to the councils in the matter of taxation, and in making local improvements. In Prince Edward Is^nd, and also in Nova Scotia, the Local Legislature transacts a great deal of tlie business which in Ontario and the other Provinces is left with municipal councils. 4. Educational System. — If the Municipal systems of the Domuiion are much alike, so also are the Educational systems. Each Province, by the Confederation Act, is given entire control of its own educational irork, but no change can be made which would affect the rights enjoyed by any clasa before tho British North APPENDIX. 95 America Act came into force. In Ontario tho educational system is a very complete one, beginning at the Kindergarten and running up through Public and High Schools to the Provincial University, all of which are under Government control and inspection, and are, in whole or in part, supported by grants of public money, either from the Local Legislature, or from the Councils of the various munici- palities. The Public Schools are intended to give a good English education, the High Schools and Collegiate Institutes to continue this education, the Normal, Model, and Training Schools to fit teachers for their profession, and the University to complete the educational edifice. But besides these Schools and Colleges which are under Government control, there are a great many other schools and colleges which are under private control, many of which are doing excellent work, especially in the field of higher education. The Public and High Schools are only partly supported by Gov- ernment grants, the most of the money needed for their mainten- ance being raised by taxation from the people who get the benefit of them. The expenditure of this money and the management of the schools, subject to Government restrictions, is in the hands of School Boards, whose members, the Trustees, are usually elected by the ratepayers, although High School Trustees are appointed either by Town, Ci*y, or County Councils. In Ontario, and in. some other Provinces, a Separate School system is established. In Ontario and Quebec, Roman Catholics and Protestants have their own schools, which are supported by their own taxes, and which, like the Public Schools, receive Government aid and are subject to Government inspection and control. One diflFerence may be noted between the provinces : in Onttirio most of the Schools are Public Schools, and nearly all the Separate Schools are Roman Catholic, while in Quebec there are few Public Schools where the children of both Roman Catholics and Protestants are educated together. In Manitoba an eflfort is, at present, being made to withdraw Government aid from all but Public Schools. In Ontario educational matters are under the management of a Minister of Education, who is a member of the Local Government ; but in Quebec and the other Provinces, this work is done by a Council of Public Instruction, acting generally through a Super- intendent, or other executive officer or officers. In Quebec the 96 HISTORY OP CANADA. Council of Pu})lic Instruction is made up of a Roman Catholic and of a Prote8ii«.nt Committee, each committee lookintj after its own schools. Model, Normal, and High Schools, together with numer- ous Academies, furnish a training for teachers and an excellent secondary education. In Quebec, as in Ontario, the schools are largely dependent on local support, but the Universities in Quebec are not so dependent upon the State as the Provincial University of Ontario, and are supported mainly by endowments. In Manitoba, British Columbia, and the North-West Temtories, the Ontario system has been copied in its main features, and in the Maritime Provinces, very liberal provision is made by the Local Legislatures for educational purposes. INDEX TO CANADIAN HISTORY. Abkraquib, 327 Abercrombie, Lord, 841 ; defeat of, S42 Abraham, Plains of, 846-34tf-347 Aoadians, expulsion of, 392 Acadia colonized, 392 Alabama Olaims, 401-2 Allan, Sir Hugh, 402 Alaska, 828, 401 Alexander, Sir Wm., 392 Algonquins, 324-326 America, discovery of, 325; origin of name, 325 ; whence peopled, 325 American Revolution, 350-352 American War of 1812-14, causes of, 350 ; events of, 359-369. American Civil War, effects on Canada, 890-391 Amherst, General, 342-343, 347 Annapolis, 392 See Port Royal Arbitration, 402 ' Arctic Sea, 323 Arnold, Benedict, besieges Quebec, 351- 852 Arthur, Sir George, 378 Ashburton Treaty, 382 Asia, 324 Atlantic, 323, 324 Baoot, Sir Charles, 381 Baldwin, Robert, 375, 381, 384, 387 Barclay, Captain, 363 Batoche, 406 Beauhamois, Marquis de, 338 Beaver Dams, exploit at, 366 Belle Isle, 325 Berlin Decree, 36b Bidwell, Marshall, 374 Bigot, M., 843, 348 Blake, Edward, 403 Bounaai:}- disputes, 382 Braddock, General, defeat of, 340 Br^boBuf, 329 ; his martyrdom, 829 British Columbia, 323, 400, 492, 406 British North America Act, 389, 397-99 Brock, General, Governor of Upper Can- ada, 360 ; captures Detroit, 361 ; death - of, 862 Brown, George, 887-388 Burgoyne, 362 Cabots, The, 325 (Canada, discovery of, 325 ; origin of name, 827 ; under Hundred Associates, 827-331 ; Royal government, 331, et $e^. ; nirrender of, 347 ; Canada Trade Act, 871 ; American invasion of, 350-51, 359, 369; rebellion in, 375-378; Do- minion of, 323, 397 Canada Land Company, 373 Canadian Pacific Railway, 406 Carignan Regiment, 332 Carillon, fall of, 342 Carleton, Sir Guy, 349, 351 Caroline, destruction of the, 378 Cartier, Jacques, 325 ; explores St. Law- rence, 3'.J5 ; at Hochelaga, 325 ; winters at Quebec, 326 Cartier, Sir George E., 388, 397 Cathcart, Earl, 382 Census, 808 Chaniplain, Samuel de, 326 ; founds Que- bec, 326 ; discovers Lake Champlain, 326 ; explores the Ottawa, 327 ; dis- covers Lakes Huron and Ontario, 327 ; surrenders to Kirke, 327 ; death, 327 Charlottetown Conference, 389 Chateauguay, Battle of, 366 Chauncey, Commodore, 364 Chippewa, Battle of, 367 Chrysler's Farm, Battle of, 366 Clergy Reserves, 354, 374, 384, 386-387 Colleges, 371, 383, 393, 395 Colbome, 374, 375 ; suppresses rebellion, 375, 376 Columbus, Christopher, 325 Commission, Joint High, 401 Company of the Hundred Associates, 327, 330, 3al Confederation proposed, 388, 389 ; adopted, 389 Constitutional Act, 352-353 Courcelles. M. de, 332. 335 Coureurs du bois, 333 Crooks' Act, 404 Crown Point, 343 DALnorsfB Collkob, 393 Dawson Road, 400 Deadlock, Political, 387-88 Dearborn, General, routed at Lacolle, 363 ; at York, 364 ; beleaguered in Fort George, 365 De Mezy, 332 De Monts, 392 Denonville, M. de, 336 De Tracy, 332 Detroit, Pontiac at, 348; captured by Brock, 361 Diamond Cape, 326 Dieskau, defeat of, 341 98 INDKX. T)oiiunion Frniuihlse Act, 4tiS Dorioii, A. A 'MS Draper, 379, 883 Drumniond, General, 307, 368 Duck Lake, 406 Dufferin, Lord, 403 Diiinont, Gabriel, 405 Du t^uesne, Fort, 839-340 ; fall of, 342 Durham, Lord, 875-376 ; his report, 376, 379 Dustin, Hannah, 837 EmxATiON IN Canada, 368, 371, 882-3 Elgin, Lord, 382, 3S3 ; mobbed, 384 ; makes Reciprocity Treaty, 386 Erie, Fort, Battle of, 367 ; Fenians at, 391 Erie, Lake, Battle on, 365 " Family Compact," The, 373, 374, 375, 877, 379 Fenians, The, 390 ; invasion of, 391 ; repulse of, 391 ; trials, 391 Fishery Award, 402 Fitisgibbon, Lieutenant, gallant exploit of, 365 Five Nations, The. See Iroquois Fort Garry, 399, 400 French Town siuT^rised, 864 Frontenac, 844, 8:^5 ; second administra- tion, 8ii6-3:<7 ; death of, 31)7 Frontenac, Fort, founded, a86 Fur Companies, rival, 827 Fur Trade, 326, 328, 833 Galt, Sir a. T., 402 Geneva Arbitration, 402 George, Battles of Lake. See Ticonderoga George, Fort, 861, 362, 363, 364, 865 Ghent, Treaty of, 369 Gore, Francis, Governor of Upper Can- ada, 860 Haldimand, General, 353 Halifax founded, 392 Hampton, General, 866 Harrison, General, invades Upper Canada, .365 Head, Sir Francis, 876, 377 ; awaits re- bellion, 877 ; recalled, 378 Hincks, Francis, 381, £87 Hochelaga, 325 Howe, Joseph, 393-394 Howe, Lord, 842 Hudson's Bay, £50 Hudson's Bay Company, 399 Hudson's Bay Territory, 353, 899 ; ceded to Canada, 399 Hull, General, surrenders, 361 Huntington, Mr., charges of, 402 Hurons, 324, 326, 328, 329, 330 Huron Missions, 329 ; destroyed, 829, 880 Immigration, large, 352, 370, 886 Indiana, the mound-builders, 324 ; char- acteristics, 324 ; wars, 829 ; tribes, 824 ; locations, 324. See Hurons, Iroquois, etc. Intendant, the, duties of, 331-882 Intercolonial Railway, 898, 407 Iroquois, 824 ; wars, with, 326, 829, 830, 331, 882, 335, 836. b37 Jrsitits in Canada, 328 ; missions of, 828- 330 ; explorers, 334 Jogues, Father, h29 Johnson, Sir William, 841, 843 Joliet, 334 Judges, appointment of, 880 Kino's Collkok, Toronto, 871, 883; Wind- sor, 393 Kingston, seat of Government, 380 Kirke, Sir David, captures Quebec, 827 Laciiinb, massacre of, 886 Lafontaine, Sir L. H., 881, 888 Lalemant, Father, ):28-329 La SSalle, 834 ; his explorations, 834-?85 ; death of, 335 I^val. Abbi", 831, 832, 388 Legislatures, local, 896, 897, 898 Lepine, 399 Levis, De, 347 Loudon, liord, 341 Louibburg, siege of, 838; second sieire, 842 Lower Canada, rebellion in, 375-376 Loyalists, United Empire, 352, 873, 893 394 Lundy's Lane, Battle of, 367-368 MacDonnell, Colonel, 362-363 Macdonald, J. Sandileld, 888, 398 Mac'donald, Sir John A., 388, ?98, 401; resigns Government, 402 ; again Prem- ier, 403 ; dies, 403. Macdougall, Hon. William, at Red River, 399 Mackenzie, Hon. Alexander, 403, 406, 407 Mackenzie, William Lyon, 374, J>76 ; rebels, i 77 ; attacks Toronto, 78 ; at Navy Island, t78 Manitoba Act, 400 Marquette, 384 McClure bums Niagara, 867 MoGill College, 371 McNab, Colonel, and Sir Allan, 878, 387 Metcalfe, Sir Charles, 381 Michilimackinac, 360 Miramichi, great fire of, 394 Missions, Huron, 829 ; destruction of, 829 Monck, Lord, } 98 Montcalm, Marquis de, 841, 842, 343, 344, 345, 346 Montgomery, General, 851 Montmorency, fight at, 844 Montreal named, 325 ; founded, 330; sur- render of, 347; Parliament buildinga burned, 384 INDEX. 99 tritws, 824 ; 18, Iroquois, 882 17 28, 829, 830, ions of, 328- } 883; WlBd- 380 ebec, 827 I D8, 334-?85 ; 3ond sieife, 6-376 '2, 87 J, 393 '; ?98, 401 ; fain Prem- Red River, ^3, 406, 407 374, ft76; 0, 78; at 878,387 ion of, 329 :. 343, 344, 330; sur- buildinga Moraviantown, Battle of, 365-366 Mound-builders, The, 824 Mounted Police, The, 405-406 Municipal Act, 881 Municipal Loan Fund, 385, 404 Murray, General, at Que)>ec, 846, 347 ; military governor, 348, 349 Navy Island, 378 Nelson, Wolfred, 375 New 13run8wic|{, 394 : organization of Government, 304 ; great Are in, :!94 ; boundary disputes, 895 ; anti-Con- federate, 395 ; education in, 395 Newfoundland, 328 New Orleans, Battle of, 369 Niagara, Fort, captured from the French, 343: seat of Government (Newark), 865 ; captured by Americans, 364 ; burned, 867 North-West Rebellion, 405-406 North-West Territory, 399 Nova Scotia colonized, 392 ; Acodians ex- pelled from, 392 ; anti-Confederate, 3!)4 ; Constitution granted, 393 ; " Better terms " granted, 899 ; education in, 393 OODBNSBnRO, 364 Ontario, Province of, 391 Onneaux, Dulac des, heroism of, 380 Oswego taken, 841 Ottawa selected as seat of Government, 390 "Pacific ScANDAii," The, 402; Pacific Railway, 401, 402, 406 Packenham, General, at New Orleans, 369 Papineau, Louis, 375 Paris, Peace of, 347 Parliament Building at Montreal burned, 384 Parliament, First, of United Canadas. 880 "Patriot" War, 378 Pepperell, William, captures Louishurg, 338 Perry's victory on Lake Erie, 365 Phips, Sir William, attacks Quebec, 337 Pitt, William, 842, 353 Plains of Abraham, 345, 346, 347 Plattsburg, attack on, 869 Pontiao, Conspiracy of, 347-348 Port Royal founded, 326, 392; pillaged, 392 Pon^rav^, 826 Prevost, Sir George, 360 ; at Saokett's Harbour, 364 ; retreat from Plattsburg, 369 Prince Edward Island enters the Domin- ion, 400 Pnnce of Wales in Canada, 400 Proctor, Colonel, at French Town, 864 ; at Moraviantown, 365, 366 QuRBRC founded, .S26 ; captured by Ktrke, 827; besieged by Plnps, 337; Wolfe before, 344, 345 ; fall of, 346 ; Quebec Act, 349 ; l>e8ieged by Arnold, 351-352 ; Quebec Conference, 889 Queenston Heights, Battle of, 362 RAiiiWATS— Northern, 385 ; Grand Trunk, 385 ; Intercolonial, 898 ; Canadian Paci- fic, 401. 402, 406 ; Gieat Western, 885 ; Lake Champlain and St. Lawrence, 885 Rel>ellion Losses Rill, 384, 385 Reciprocity Treaty, 886 Redistribution Bill. 403 Red River Settlement founded, 399 ; re- bellion, 399-400 ; Red River expedition, 400 Representation by population, 388 Retiolutions, the Ten. 378 Responsible Government, growth of, 879- 384 Revolutionary War, causes of, 370 Riall, General, at Chippewa, 367; at Lundy's Lane, 468 Richelieu, Cardinal, 327 Ridgeway, fight at, 391 Riel, revolt of, 890-400 Roherval, 826 Rolph, Dr., 377-378 Russell, Lord John, 373 Ityerson, Rev. Dr.. 382-383 Ryswiok, Peace of, 387 Sackktt's Harbour, attack on, 364 Sackville College, 395 Salaberry, De, 366 Salle, La. See La Salle San Juan difficulty, 401 Schenectady (Corlaer) sacked, 336 Schultz, Von, 379 Scott, Thomas, shot, 400 Secord, Mrs , bravery of, 365 Seignorial Tenure, 882 ; abolished, 387 Selkirk, Lord. <99 Seven Years' War, 341 Sheaffe, General, 862, 363, 364 Simcoe, Governor, 355 Six Nations, The. See Iroquois, etc. Smythe, General, 363 Stadocona, 325-:i26 St. John founded, 394 St. Lawrence discovered, 825 St. Marie, Mission of, 329 Stoney Creek, Battle of, 864 Strachan, Rev. Dr., 371, 383 Southern Raiders, •"^90 Supreme Council, the French, 331 Sydenham, Lord, 379. 380, 381 Talon, M., 332 ; able administration of, 333 Tecumseh, 360, 361 ; death of, 365 Ten Resolutions, The, 873 FP 100 INDEX. Thompson, Hon. Charles. S«s Lord Sydenham Ticonderoga, attacks on, 342 ; fall of, 343 Tilley, 8. L, 898 Timbe. trade, 371, 305 Toronto captured, '.m ; attacked by rebels, 87ti ; seat of Government, 866, 886 Tracv, Marquis de, 382 Trinity ColIeKe, 383 Union ScnRMR. 370; Union Act, 880; Union accomplished, 880 Up^ier Canada, settlement of, 362 ; early le^slation, 856 ; founding of, 366-357 ; "Family Compact" in. 873. 374, 876, 877, 870; rebellion in, 376, 877 ; union with Lower Canada, 380 litrecht. Treaty of, 337 Universities, Canadian. See Colleges Vaudrbuil. Marquis de, 387, 840 Versailles, Treaty of, 352 VMpuooi, 836 Victoria Bridge, 300 Viotoria College, 383 Vincent, General, 864, 865 War of 1812-14 ; causes of, 850 ; events of, 350-860 Washington burned, 860 ; Treaty of, 402 Washington, George, 880 Weir, Ueut., 875 Wilkinson, General, 866; defeated at Chrysler's Farm, 866 ; at LacoUe Mill, 867 William Henry, Fort, maasaore of, 841 Wilmot, L. A., 306 Windmill Point, Battle of, 879 Wolfe, General, 842 ; before Quebec, 844- 345 ; slain, 346 Wolseley, Colonel, 400 Yso, Sir James, 364 York captured, 364 ; Parliament at, 865 h'/ 850; events Mty of, 402 iefeated at 'OcoUe Mill, « of, 841 Quebec, S44- nt at, SS6