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SK
^ i^Xu.4,~r. z
SKETCH
Of THE
EARLY HISTORY OF ANATOMY.
BY
Professor of Anatoiiy, MoGiil University.
Reprinted from the Canada Medical and Surgical Journal.
REPRINTED FROM TJfP "P4v*T^. .,«^,
===========^Z^^^^^^ JOURNAL,"
SKETCH
OP THE
EARLY HISTORY OF ANATOMY.-
Bt FRANCIS J. SHEPHERD, M.D,
Prolesfior of Anatomy, McGill [Hiiveral't,.
The origin of anatomy, like that of many other sciences k
WoZed tot r'T f """"'"S "■» "'*«'' >-»'. as they
oeionged to the lowest class, and were abhorred i„d J« • j
on account of their occupation, what ronghTno: i":^^^^^^
same terms wers „„,1 k„ n "'"'"<"'• '" rater times these
wrotp <,»„.,.i . I- "°™' ^ traditionary monarch of E.»ynt
wrote several^ treatises on^natomy.JJamnto„, who wrofe 1'
Hi,l„rv of Anatomy and Medicine in the first quarter of to
fen .ry peaWng of tl,is tradition, „.aintly remark, that "when
we e ™Xt the %ra assigned to this fahnlous monarclj hy the
ZaZ imrrobaldo chronology of tl,e Egyptians would carry
:' hack to L age prior hy n,any centuries to ^^^^^l
Adam we can easily estimate the degree of crcd.h.hty to wh.ch
fucra Ible is entitLh" Acm.eon, who flourished some t,me
hcte th advent of Hippocrates, paid considerahle attent.on o
anatomy, and is said to have made dissections, prmcpally of t e
Zer animals. Among other things, he asserted that goats
hrpathed throuKli their eara.
H derates who lived four or five hundred yea-s before the
ChSn crtand who has been called the Father of Med.cne
wasTe firs individual who wrote a work on anatomy; h.s
Tn w e go of anatomy was superficial and often mos errone us
t: prohahiy rested more on shrewd .,a.g.a c.,eeture t..n
::;ltnct:;r:«' irra^ted by Pausanlas t^^
he huns: a bronze model of a skeleton m the temple of the
DelphTan IpoUo a, a testimony of his own knowk ge and for
fhe instruction of posterity. It is Ifighly nnprohable that he
ever dissected a human body. ni„„„n-ates
Dioeles of Carystius, who lived a century after H.ppoc.ates
a„r 1 s eaile/the s^ond Hippocrates, is said to have devo ed
Itch of his time to the study of comparatwe anatomy. Hed.d
r as w *e custom in those days, make a secret of h.s ana-
i iTnowledge, but taugi. publicly, and was «,e first o w„^
a manual of Dissection of Animals, an art, previous to his time,
o^fiTd to a few families, and handed down from lather o son
hvo-^in^t action. Diodes also wrote on Cookery, and held rt
l\:'as much a science as that of medicine_a„ opm.on wUh
which Plato altoj.^ether ihsagreed.
i with the appearance of Aristotle, the Feceptor of
A— r, that «'7::;-:- '!;r~rMt
:i:rtr:r:LTiZ;n/—
Many of his admirers, without much reason, ela,m for h,m an
3
intimate knowledge of human anatomy ; that he dissected ani-
mals ,s no doubt true, and also that he had a marvello.isly accu-
« rate knowledge of marine animals, but to say that he was a
profound anatomist is absurd, and is not substantiated by what
we find ,n his writings. For instance, in his writings he
states that the kidney of man resembles that of the ox
(which consists of many reniform bodies), and is not smooth
like the sheep, that the human uterus is double, that the
back part of the skull is empty,, that the brain is without
blood, and many other things equally absurd. His know-
ledge of osteology was also limited. He asserted that man had
no astragalus (a bone in man forming the keystone of the arch
of the foot), « neither," he says, » have many-toed animals, nor
sohd-footed animals." Now this bone is never absent in mam-
malian animals with limbs, and it is evident that Aristotle never
looked for it, but asserted that these animals were without it on
theoretical grounds alone, for in one of his works, " Departibus
Ammalium;' he gives elaborate reasons why certain animals
have no astragaloid bones. He also stated that the bones of the
lion had no marrow, and that the necks of wolves and lions con-
sisted of a single bone and had no flexibility. These points he
could easily have made clear by actual examination. He, like
Hippocrates, thought that nerves, ligaments and tendons were
the same thing ; he gave, however, a fairly accurate description
of the great blood-vessel, the aorta, and distinguished the wind-
pipe from the gullet ; he also had some acquaintance with the
structure of the larynx, and knew that the ear and throat com-
municate.!. No doubt Aristotle, for his time, was a good com-
parative anatomist, and some of his observations are valuable
but he so mixed up his facts with fiction that it is not easy to
separate the one from the other. He was the first to write a
treatise on Comparative Anatomy.
Plato, although he did not study anatomy practically, fre-
quently refers to it in his writings. His references represent,
no doubt, fairly well the condition anatomy and physiology had
reached in his time, for all philosophers were supposed to know
much of physic, under which anatomy was included, but sup-
»" opinion uln-d,?""''" •■"■'■■'"''<" (l.c„cn' "''" "'•"
«■»»> «.o di„„e,°:„:' ;r ; "''" °f •■"""»-7 .ad (,oe„ .
of Alexander r]ooT>;^^ «™P"-e which took T '''''''^^'^^e.
»".™>"'aged H,e 3t„r ' ,P ;'»-!«lpla. „,, Euc-^eef 7 f"*"''
*''a, a great in,rar/va e r,' ,"'"' "'" '™"»e," 1 *""^
""" in wearnHnf "■^ "™'' "»' only i„ j,>! . ^'"'^ies,
''''^■■<' «.oy were s„;' f' "f'' '*"'"»- Aocb i f .', '" ''''f"
protected bv tl.e ,vi! f ^"'■''arbamm tbe P *= "'''"^' «-»'
"»' -'. "4. an: :::; Ir^f"' ^---SCp;?-'^'
"ot a little to i>« , . ^ "f J'temture an^ . • -^'o^^mies,
''-■"^ipatini^rt^tTo;.,'''"^^'^-"''"-- s :r„;'^r;'"^
!-, att ^„;.*-, __ ee, atta.
'^•"1 useCuj ^jss /, '"- '•"'^^''. 'UKi file ^h,,}.,,^ """''^ 've,e off., '''« ^''oatest
!''^''v"'i>'-rc,.. ::'^;.^ -'--., Kratoln,^ ?''';'--el,,,„, S^^^
i^^
-T
nent physicians. Araong these were two who did more than
any previous individuals to advance the science of anatomy
These men wore Rrasistratus and Herophilus. They hoth wrote
large works on anatomy, which are, unfortuiiately, lost, but from
which (^lalen, Oribasiua, and others quote extensively. Herophilus
and Erasistratus were probably the first who ever dissected the
human body, for PhiladelphuB and Eurgetes gave orders that the
bodies of all criminals should be handed over to the School of
Anatomy for dissection. Thus at this early period, when the
dissection of a human body was looked upon with horror and as an
act of desecration, the enlightened and far-sighted Ptolemies in
spite of vulgar prejudices and religious scruples, enabled the
bchool of Medicine of Alexandria to make a great stride for-
wards in learning, knowledge and reputation. It is said that
Herophilus dissected 700 bodies, and that both he and Erasis-
tratus made a common practice of opening living bodies in order
to discover the origin of life. Tertullian, a learned father of
the Church, who lived at the end of the second century, char-es
Herophilus with this crime ; he says, " Herophilus, that physician
or rather butcher, who dissected GOO men in order to find out
nature, who hated man in order to learn tlie structure of his
frame, could not by these means come to a more perfect know-
ledge of his internal structure, since death produces a great
change in all parts so as to render the appearance after death
different from what it was before, especially since they did not
die a natural death, but expired amidst all the agonies to which
the curiosity of the anatomist was pleased to subject them "
Celsus, who lived about 20 B.C., also says that Herophilus and
Jirasistratus vivisected human beings ; he mentions it incident-
ally, as if It were a well-known fact, and does not appear at all
shocked at such a proceeding. It is very probable that these
anatomists did occasionally vivisect a criminal, since human life
ui those days was considered of little value, and the people were
accustomed to see criminals cruelly tortured before being put to
death, so that vivisection would, perhaps, be regarded with less
horror than dissection of a dead body. It is the custom of his-
torians to attribute these charges against Herophilus and Erasis-
6
'Juman bein-s be tnio n. '''"'■^^' a^'ainst him of vivi«„ r
"e biain, nerves, vaJves Kuardin. f " ^'"'"^n frame as
-^'"s nas been adducerl !>,. ^' ^''^ arteries win.
"ever vivisected human I "^ '"'"'' «« ^^^dence tb.r T i
w
n
./
i
From tlio timo of these two anatomists to that of Cclsus little
was done to keep alive the science of anatomy. Cclsus, who
lived towards the end of the last century hefore the Christian
era, gives in his works, which are valuable repositories of tho
medical and surgical knowledge of his time, fairly accurate
anatomical descriptions, hut he himself does not seem to have
done any original work in anatomy.
The first Roman anatomist whose luimo has been handed down
to us is Marinus, who, according to (iaien, described the muscles
accurately, and also mentions the mesenteric glands. 8oon after
Marinus, RuHus of Ephesus, a Greek physician, appeared. He
vivisected animals and devoted himself to physiology and com-
parative anatomy ; he made some discoveries regarding the
abdominal viscera, and especially the uterus.
Of all the physicians of anticpiity, none attained to . great
a fame as Claudius Galenus of Pergamus. His reputati".. is
deservedly great, for none did so much as he to advance the
knowledge of physic. He was born A.D. 130, and was educated
by his father Nicon, a mathematician of repute, as well as an
architect and astronomer. Nicon early initiated his son into
the mysteries of Aristotle's philosophy, but Galen also studied
philosophy in the schools of the Stoics, Academics, Peripatetics
and Epicureans. With the exception of the Epicureans, whose
doctrines he utterly repudiated, he is said to have taken from
each what he thought to be the most important part of their
systems. At the age of seventeen he began the study of medi-
cine ; ho soon outstripped his teachers, and early exhibited
proofs ot the greatest ability. His renown spreading abroad
he was brought to Rome by the Emperor Aurelius, and in that
city he practiced till his death at the age of 90 years. Over
his contemporaries he acquired great ascendancy, and held the
same position in the medical world that Aristotle lield in the
world of general science. For hundreds of years after his death
his doctrines and opinions held sway, and his sayings were re-
garded as oracular. Few ventured to oppose his tenets, and
up to the 16th century all the medical books were merely com-
mentaries explanatory of Galen's work. If any one advanced
6
" "'=''■ "'""■■y as to disease or c,;,f,j ,
he p,„,o„ of Galen, to bring down t, / "' "Pf'^^ to
''"efeal innovator. Althou -hr f ""'' '"'S™™ «P™ 'he
P -s, at Alexandria, it is ver}' ,t X ? '^^' -""/other
anatomy was gained ebieily frZ Tf '" ''"""''"igo of
;'ruet„re was supposed toCCneare T'""" °' """"^'^-h"-
'°7 '» -t always the n,osl correct ""*"' ''^™^ «» a-""
ftenous to Galen's time if „, .'.
"tal spirits or pneuma and' "«'" ">' ">■'«"•<« carried
*i3 "physioloical fao •' tha a r°rl"" *» -«-' «'
hat 'vien an artery «s won ded ,?! ?. ""^ ^""^ "--o
»f "U't^ and powers of reason! „ e , '■ "".'^ "*'' "" ">eir
tube containing air Mo„?rf beedwhen ''"-"' ''' ™ "'^' »
»■ hrst escaped through the would ™. ^""^^ """d that the
*» ve.„s by oommnnicating cha„nlt «n!" "''"'' "^^ f™"
f""y exposed the absurdity of tfetV? t ™'"'™- Galen
on ammals, showed that the pun tie f' ""''' ^^ oxperiments
«eodle immediately gave HZTeJT "'''' '^ *^ fl"ost
oharge of vital spiritj took p lac 'T'fse, and that no dis-
the arteries at two points and 1 " '"'^'"^ "«atures on
'ho artery between the tl 'a "r"'?' ''"' "-portion of
Alexandrian anatomists said ° 2™ ""''' ""'^ '"»°''. The
*Z ''""l"' -«Is, both ntond^dt ^f. ""' ''"- """e
Galenreplied:"Youmi2ht»,„T '"•"*™ blood." But
of'™™ti„ga„imals:et:;: ,:;:' ^'theseveralstom,::
tho ood, but that one was meant „?/'' "' ""= ''oovionts of
^.--to^r^tdTuttsrr'---
tins he satisfactorilv proved * oontained blood and
fo« Cand is now) J ommte""-'' «» ^« -t, as ras
ondea^r to u,ake the facts doZaJ :„!">' T'' " ">oory and
theor^s on experiment and observ t „ ° ' "' ''°™''^<' »« his
»"-<■• I' is very improbableZt trwr^ '™^ """''"''"-
«re were an^. opportunities
d
at Rome for dissection of human bodies; for Galen advises
students to visit Alexandria in order to study the human skele-
ton, and not to trust to book descriptions. It is evident Galen
himself had few opportunities of studying even the human skele-
ton, for he expresses great delight and astonishment on one
occasion when on his travels he had the opportunity of examining
a skeleton which had been exposed by the washing away of the
earth which had covered it.
Galen added but little to our knowledge of human anatomy,
yet by his researches and arrangement he brought together all
that was known up to that time, digested and systematized it,
and made it the basis of a medical education. He was a good
comparative anatomist, and most of his original descriptions are
derived from the dissection of monkeys. His style is clear and
correct, and there is not so much confusion as is seen in the
authors preceding him. Many of the names he gave to different
parts of the body, especially those about the brain, are retained
to the present day.
With Galen's death anatomical science declined — nay, was
almost extinguished. For many centuries the men that followed
him looked upon anatomy as a completed science, and Galen's
works on the subject were regarded as sacred and infallible. It
is strange that in ancient times all the great names in anatomy
are those of Greeks, the Romans, though rich in soldiers, states-
men, poets and orators, never produced any one who was great
in physic or any of the sciences.
With the fall of the Roman Empire and rise of Christianity,
all learning, especially that having its origin in Greece, declined,
for it was thought by the Christians to be the cause of all here-
sies. Anatomy suffered with the rest, principally owing to the
prejudice which existed against the dissection of the human
body. Dr. William Hunter, in a lecture delivered over a hun-
dred years ago, remarks that " when faith was thought to be all
that was worth acquiring, and prayer almost our only duty, there
was an end of liberal education and every ingenious inquiry."
From the second to the eighth century but little progress was
made iu anatomj. The names of writers iu anatomy duriug this
10
al'-eady known. "^ ' '"* ^^" ^^^^^ nothing to what was
About this time, what i;ffi - •
■" Europe was eranW^::; 'i:;;.'=;™V-^ 'oa™i„, the. was
and scence fro,. t,,e West to the' t 'V™*™""^ »f 'earning
. capture of Alexandria, which «s.K " '""""''™' ^'^^' th^
'-™.ng. There the Sarae Je- fi T, "' "'" "'"«f -ats of
""* *e '"erature of Eu,"; mf 1'T«'" »«» intact
overran Europe, they drove tin it^M ^ ^™-"'*™ Vandals
and culture, and ignorance w" " If '■™'"^<' °f 'earning
'luacks practised tlfo healing « in » T "^ f^" "■»"''» and
al'ogether neglected. The a ' " T "^' ^"' ^''^"'"J was
.'^'•^g by the Saracens, who altho T"!" ™ ''^P' feebly
■ng, later encouraged it Tl,; k , «'' "' **"' '^^'Pi^ing learn
-f-Se in Asia, and were ^Zrttl' "'■ '"^ ^-' f-^"
Saracens. ' """e" ^ij the wise rulers of the
It has been for ages a common belief H .
Alexandria its huge library was onin, t iT "' "" '="?""■" of
eoaquerors, and all its t4"m r. '" *^ «'""- ^r the
destroyed. The only authort ; tM f ^~^ ""<' »»ien.ific,
who flourished about the „iddk ftl ,t7 " ^''"'Ptaragius
hundi-ed years after the captut f f, """'''' "'^^'7^'^
• ohn Philiponus, the oelebraLd "la tetie"?;- ""' '^'"'^ '"at
Amrou, the Saracen General tn?'''"''''"?'""-. requested
fte Ptolemies. The Gen e^ V l^'t'l ""''''''' ""'"^
Omar, who replied, " If these „ L,, l"^""^' '» '■''o CaHph
t e Koran, they are useless and e|L ^''''''' ^«™^ '''«'
toagree, they are pernicious nd „,:'"■"*"<"' ^ 'f "-ey
A ulpharagius goes on to state t^at tb"* . *" "" '"^'"•"^ed."
"th this d-cisio„, „s destroyed aid tb .7^' '" »°°f°™ity
the Arabs with sufficient fuel to hi . . '" ^"* ^''"'^^^i
«« months. Now, ,■„ ^^^ ^^ *" "eat the baths of the city for
ture of Alexandria, written soTafreT °'*^ ^'^^^ «■'<' «ap-
m* of the destruction of ft lla/r r' •?"'' "° """"o" ^«
<ri
i
11
i 1)
nant to the Mohammedan precepts, which distinctly declare that
religious books of Jews and Christians should never be committed
to the flames, and that works of profane science may be lawfully
applied to the use of the faithful. In addition to this, the Sara-
cens took a great interest in medicine, and it is even said that
the prophet himself wrote a book of medical aphorisms. So it
is most unlikely that the Saracens would destroy the numerous
works on that science which Avere contained in the library.
Again, it is well known that Alexandria preserved its reputation
as a school of science for a considerable period after its change
of masters. Possibly part of the library was destroyed previous
to the capture of the city by the mob of Christians led by Arch-
bishop Theophilus in A.D. 391, and the rest was gradually dis-
persed in various directions, as happened after the destruction
of Constantinople. (Hamilton, History of Medicine.) The
Saracens ardently encouraged the study of medicine ; the Caliph
Almansor, the founder of Bagdad, offered large premiums to the
translators of Greek works into Syriac and xirabic ; schools,
hospitals and libraries were established in Bagdad, Cordova,*
Seville, and other cities. At one time Bagdad has as many as
6,000 students. Soon a race of learned Arabians arose, who
did much to preserve what had, up to that time, survived the
sanguinary conflicts and destructive fires of the dark ages. In
the department of medicine, chemistry and pharmacy are most
indebted to the Arabians, and many terms employed by them
are yet in use, as alcohol, syrup, julep, etc. Little or no pro-
gress was made in anatomy, as, owing to the strict rules of Islam,
which declared him defiled who touched a dead body,! dissection
was never practised ; nevertheless, they deserve credit for hav-
ing preserved Galen's works, and in this way prevented anatomy
from being altogether a lost science. Some anatomical terms
remain as the only trace that anatomy was once in the keeping
of the Arabians.
• Alhakem established an academy at Cordova which was frequented by all the
Christians of the ^"'est. In the 10th century the library contained 224,000 volumes :
and in the 12th century 70 public libraries existed in the parts of Spain subject to the
Moors.
t The Mussulinaii iaith taught that the soul did not talio wing at onoe, but clung to
the body after death, crept from limb to limb, and afterwards took refuge in the chest.
12
-^y^^or^z,i::i:z:'::^^^ ^ -., of .,„ ^,,,
deoay. was overthrown b; H ol ■'"'^?' '""""'"S «i?™ of
;»g 'earning, destroyed all 11 t"' '"'^ ^"^l^^' ^espis-
^•■"0 of stud, i„ Bagdad aJifrott- "' ''"''"'^^ -«>
bec^etheseatofth^littelean Hh " ™ ^""P* »«"!»
.Wy of .he Greek authors was efl "'7'™''- '^''""=' «'«
^terature and art was rapid y do ">'; ""^ ^ '^»'o for
Bologna now begins to attrlct n^r '"''• ™^ Vmvenity of
"^dicine and bw ; i„ th ilth '°'r ' ^"''°°' "Hiterature
; " ents in attendanee on iVet'e" ^ ' '"'^, "^ 1«.«00
14th century, the ehair of Mec^^l i '" ""-'^ P"--' of the
waa filled by Mondino di LuT'T,' If '"''"'^''^ anatomy
;- - the first name of notT'ani nf "'"^"^ ^nato "/j
*no, ,„ 1315, ^as fortunate en. k'^ """"S <='»''"'•'• Mon
d»eot the body of an uneleS:; '"1''°^'" P"--'-'"
;:^r ' *" '-^ »-» v"Z ordClc- ^ '^'' ''™-
■ ■'°.'"'- One can well imaoine ll.. « . **" " "lousand
ousted in the oM UniversitTw TT'"' *"" ""-t have
«^rta,n day a human body wa!trb ™^'"'"»»''od that on a
". »' feelings of awe evenLde„L a, d T''^ ''''"''''■ ^'^^
"■toessed such a desecration of th'dS"™"^' ""» '""O »-er
^e ».ght, and how such a mutihtiln M' """^ ''^'' "-^g^ded
dead would have aroused tl" a' t li *l '"""^ ''»<'«» "f the
of the common people, but evenThet ' "!' [^J"^'^^^, "ot only
dmo h,n,self was not entirelv f ! T ^-'"^ """"'d. Mon
-petitions, since he de^e/t! openTh "^ ^''^J'""'- ""d
'he bram m fear of committing IrTaTli' rl'i ""' »-»°>ine
Martianus, phy,ieian toFrcdellc / f J '*"^
monarch to grant permissinnT ,, '^ ^"P'''^' "duced that
-taal subject at leas' Tnc n L °" " '""'' '-'"« on t t
an surgeons in the neighborhood trfcr- ^" *" P^^'ioi
to attend these demonstrations. UTe r""*'" ''^ Frederick
sat on a high chair, with the „.i,- V '' '""""•«' the professor
f *hey were laid bare with n h ^^^ *^e various sfcructurp«
^y 4e barber who was .T^'Xtu*''' ""' °"-o
i
18
ih
ing of such a scene forms the frontispiece of some of the editions
of Mondino's Anatomy. It is said that Mondino dissected two
female subjects, and shortly afterwards published a description
of the human body, illustrated by rude engravings. The title
of the book was " Be omnibus humani corporis interiorihus
membris Anathomia.'' This work was very little different from
that left by Galen— in fact, most of the errors of the latter
were perpetuated. The Government undertook the publication
of Mondino's Anatomy, and the statutes of the University of
Padua prohibited the use of any other anatomical text-book.
Mondino's Anatomy existed in manuscript alone for 150 years,
and first appeared in type in 1578, twelve years after the intro-
duction of printing into Italy. It went through numberless
editions, and for more than 200 years was looked upon as an
authority. It is quite a small book of 175 pages, and gives a
most superficial and crude description of the various parts of the
body. It is full of inaccuracies, the arrangement ia confused,
and the meaning often obscure, still it was the best work in
anatomy which had up to that time appeared. The first chapter
shows how man differs from the animals ; one difference is that
man has no tail, " because, being naturally erect, he lests him-
self by the sitting posture, and a tail would interfere with his
sittmg down." His reasons for the erect posture are amusing.
" Fn-st, man is erect because he is of a lighter, more spirituous,
and ii-rial character ; secondly, ho contains a greater quantity
of heat, which is naturally lifted upwards ; thirdly, he has,
among all animated creatures, the most perfect form, which he
shares in common with the angels and the intelligences which
rule the universe ; and fourthly, the sense of sight, through
which most of our intelligence comes, needs to be placed at the
highest point of the body, like the sentinel on the watch-tower."
(Dalton.) Mondino divided the body into three cavities : the
upper (head), containing the animal members ; the middle
(thorax), contaii-ing the spiritual or vital members ; and lower
(abdomen), co,.,. 'aing the natures. His description of the heart
is singularly correct, and he seems to have had some notion of
the uses of the valves, for he calls thcT ostiola, or little doors.
14
the a„a.„„i,ts wo'.o S , o ^Vr r'"° '",1 '"''" "-' "^
by actual observation. There tr.!' "'"' ''"'™="' ""''"ng
who worked diligently „„d ouJel TseT.^ ^'Tf""'' "•^''
tunities were few and their mind, sHll u ''''' "'"'■■ "PP""
»73teries of the Arabian soTo 7 A t" "^""""^ ''^ 'he
de Grad,b„s, who nm aocur t , ^'"°°'' *^^'' «« Matthew
Aohillini of Bologna, ZZolJZT'''"' *" ""•■'■^«- »"''
an also gave an^ecurate i^^ „' 7™"."-" "' 'he ear
Leonard! da Vinci, the ^reat nail "" ""'' '"*'""i"'^»-
S^'e an impetus to the studl „f "^ " ' ™ """ °f 'he fi"t who
anatomical drawings II to o"'! ™^ '^ ""^ '■"'™d"«'i»" o
anatomy, but eare1-ull, and tc, 1^ / *•""'"«' "^ """an
he various parts of t/e a "at mv '' f"*^^ '"'<' "g-^ed
h'sgi^-antic equestrian statrrf p ''""'' "''"" ""rtelling
'omical drawing, are stil e "an .7"°"''" ^^'"''- ^'^ ana"
Wi'h the im century, wetmel ""'' "7 °°™°'--
made marvellous progress ml I, fr'"" '"''''"> anatomy
hundred years previo„°si; LnTman" "'' '"'"' ''' f"''*^"
duced. Early in the ce^a"! TZf p ™'°""»" «re pro-
Fofessor of anatomy at Pad„T'a„d" ! ?*='" "' '^^^P' «a
" ».J to have dissected over ontt TTI'^' "' '^'"°«na- He
a few discoveries. He conltr ^ -'^ '"""^'' and made not
hiood-vessels, brain, eardfa^t^T'^d "" ''"' ""' «-
aooount, illustrated by woodcuts n;.!, '"" ' '''^ *ar
Berengor, although a celebrated "'"."""'''""nal muscles,
as the introducer of me c„tl „ ?'""'"' '" ''^"er known
Whilis, a disease which th" petd " '" '"^ '^-'"^n' «"
;ap.dityi„ Europe, and which was « /'"''"'"S "'''' «^eat
'»e. The whole of Europ ta 1™ ", "' ^ "«' "™lent
covery lessened to a great deTee 1 "■"' ^'^'"S"'^ dis-
and calmed the fears of the pi:! K T"'^ °' *^ *»^ase
he accumulated an immense fort,V„, f^ f ™° "' 'is remedy
his patron, the Duke Z^Z' I '"'' '" '°"' ™ '''^ -leaft^
'^ejpal^, „, :- ^ A one^nne Berenger had
* Some are ntWhidsoT^i^T^l ^^sj^esahus was after
'uiuisoroastle, others at thpQnnn i-
<»' the South Kensi,,toaMu.eu„,Lor,„,.„.
'i>^^
^
15
'.»>1
i
him, of opening a living body in order to observe the movements
of the intestines.
The French School of Anatomy arose in the early part of the
16th century, and all anatomical students are familiar with the
names of the great men of that school— names such as Dubois
(Sylvius), Etienne, the discoverer of the canal in the spinal
cord, and others. It is a curioup fact that the French anatomists
knew nothing of what had been done in Italy by Mundino and
his successors, but followed Galen closely and had a remarkable
admiration for ancient authorities. They rarely dissected human
bodies, but contented themselves with such lower animals as dogs,
cats, pigs, etc.
One of the most independent observers and investigators who
lived during the first half of the 16th century is Michael Ser-
vetus, a Spanish physician. He was educated in medicine in
the University of Paris under the assumed name of Michael
Villeneuve. Servetus soon quarrelled with the Faculty in Paris,
owing to the peculiar views held by him regarding astrology and
divination. He early developed a taste for controversial theology,
and discussed various theological questions with the leading
Reformers, among others, Calvin, whose hatred he soon aroused.
When Servetus published anonymously his great work, " Ohris-
tianismi Restitutis,'^ which was alleged to contain heretical doc-
trines, he afforded Calvin the long soughtfor opportunity of
condemning him as a blasphemer and heretic and most cruelly
consigning an innocent and eminent man of science to the flames.
It is in this condemned work we find the first clear account of
the circulation of the blood through the lungs— that is, its
transfer from the right to the left side of the heart, through the
lungs. It is not announced as a new and important discovery,
but is merely mentioned incidentally in this theological work
addressed not to scientific men but to the Reformers and Schis-
matics. This is a clear proof that the importance of the dis-
covery, which paved the way for Harvey's greater discovery of
the systemic circulation, was not at that time realized.
The greatest anatomist of the 16th century, and perhaps the
greatest the world has ever seen, is Andreas Vosalius.
16
Vesalius revolutionized the teaching of anatomy, and a new
epoch of anatomical progress dates from the publication, in 1542,
of his great work, " De Humani Corporis Fabrica^* For
fourteen hundred years previous to his time, anatomists and phy-
sicians reverently bowed before the shade of the great Claudius
Galenus, and accepted all his statements as inspired. Vesalius
had no sympathy with this feeling of the old school of anatomists,
and was one of the first to throw off this yoke of authority which
so long encumbered them. He asserted that theory should be
based solely on experiment, and observation and anatomy on
actual dissection. When only 28 years of age, he published
his great work, and in it he, without any respect for authorities
of previous ages, exposed and corrected numerous errors which
had been perpetuated since the time of Galen. He denied that
Galen could not be wrong, and utterly scouted the idea of his
inspiration, which had been held by medical men for so many
centuries. The i)ublication of his great work called forth an
angry storm of abuse, the author was denounced as a dangerous
man, and was accused of licentious criticism,! as William Hunter
says, "The spirit of opposition and emulation was perfectly
aroused ; and Sylvius in France, Columbus, Fallopius and Eus-
tachius in Italy, who were all in high anatomical reputation
about the middle of the 16th century, endeavored to defend
Galen at the expense of Vesalius. In their disputes they made
appeals to the human body, and thus in a few years our art was
greatly improved." Vesalius was undoubtedly a man of great
genius. He had a wonderful capacity for work, and a profound
knowledge of the human body. He is spoken of as a man who
was " a fluent speaker and master of an admirable style," and
also an " ornament to the 16th century and the admiration of
the following ones."
__Ye^salius was born at Brussels on the 30th of April, 1514,
• The Univorsity of Bi.sle still pos.ses,ses a skeleton prepared by Ve^im^when he
came to Basle from Pndua for the purpo.^e of seeing his great work, " Do Humani
Corporis rabr.ca," through ,he press of lo. Oporinus. The skeleton is that of a man
named Jaeobkarrer. beheaded whilst Vesalius was in Basle, and who furnished the
great anatomist an opportunity of instructing the students at Basle in a new anatomy
not then to lie learnt from books. '"laiomy
i Even his old friend and teacher, Dubois (Sylvius), denounced hiip.
17
and a new
1, in 1542,
a."* For
8 and phy-
t Claudius
Vesaliua
natomists,
rity which
should be
latomy on
published
-uthorities
'ors which
snied that
lea of his
' so many
forth an
iangerous
n Hunter
perfectly
and Eus-
eputation
defend
ley made
r art was
of great
profound
man who
'le," and
ration of
i[, 1514,
us when he
3oHu!nani
t of a man
nislifd the
w anatomy
and was the son of the apothecary to the Archduke Charles,
afterwards Charles V. He developed a passion for anatomy at
a very early age, for while yet at school he amused himself dis-
secting rats, dogs, moles and cats. He studied at Louvain, then
went to Cologne and Montpelier, and thence to Paris, where he
studied anatomy under Sylvius. Here he remained three years,
and by his great dexterity and success in dissection, and intense
application, he soon equalled, if he did not surpass, his master.
He was frequently invited by both professors and students to
give public demonstrations in anatomy.
Vesalius also studied under Johann Winther, the well-known
anatomist who first accurately described the pancreas, and was
for his numerous scientific acquirements ennobled by Charles V.
Whilst in Paris, the war between Francis and Charles V. broke
out, so Vesalius went to the low countries and served as physi-
cian and surgeon from 1535 to 1537. At the end of the latter
year he travelled to Italy, and was made professor of anatomy
at Padua at the age of 24. Here he remained till 1543.
Whilst professor at Padua he published his great work (1542).
In 1544 Charles V. appointed him chief-physician to the Court,
and when that prince abdicated in 1555, Vesalius continued in
the same position under Philip II. It was here he established
his reputation and passed the most brilliant portion of his life.
In 1564 there died under his care a Spanish nobleman, and not
knowing the cause of death, he asked permission of the relatives
to make a post-mortem examination ; this was granted him. and
on opening the body it is said that some of his assistants per-
ceived that the heart was still beating. The patient's friends
were immediately informed, and being naturally indignant at the
circumstance, denounced Vesalius to the Inquisition. He was
tried and condemned to death by this tribunal, but the king
interfered and would not allow the sentence to be carried out,
and Vesalius was ordered to make a pilgrimage to the Holy
Land to atone for his supposed crime. Whilst passing through
Venice he was appointed to the chair of anatomy at Padua,
vacant by the death of Fallopius. He accepted the appoint-
ment, but had to complete his pilgrimage before entering on his
1!
I
I !
n
'8
'•"ties. But, alas ! hfa evil dostinv «Hri
nevermore set his f„„t on Ita Ian i Z""'''''''' '''"'' »■"! he
Palestine, tho vessel in w ich o T '. °" '"'' ^'"°"' '"""
island or Zante. Vesaliulta^ tndTutTt^"- '" '"'
soon after from hnn^pr ..n,i i .• ' ^^ ^'®^ miserably
wrld has ever known • iTlZ f *"'"""'" """'o""''" *«
extensive knowledge Jl:Z:;::Z2 "T "^ "''
sidenng the crude stitP nf n . ^ , observation. Con-
»Pon ..; scone, and e pe L t „ 7 [.'T.':^''""' Reared
ke left it, we n,ay well oTdril ;''"''' °™'''' ''''«»
energy and genius of o C,,,? " ™ P^'^iW^ 'hat the
in so short a ti^e. His ^rwl'"™ "r^.^^ »-«!.
'"F^'«"cU SO miiph
to with advantage by modem an^. "'''''' ''" ^' ''^''^'^
have already stated wZ ^ ""T""'"''' '"'' P^^^'^^ed, as I
/ ^' ''''^" ''« author was only 28 vear, nf o
Vesahus' anatomical works were lon^ Innl. / ^'•
ties, and were translated into m^nv 1 ^ ^ "P°" '^ ^"^hori-
His great work was ^1:2:^'^^^^^^
-Titian's, whose pictures it is „i^ / *"*'"' ^ P"?'' of
judges for those of his ;as;er ' ""™ "■''"*»" "-/s^d
The last edition appeared in 179^ j
haave and Albinus, the latter . !:.. ""'' '^'^'^ ^^^^^r-
testify. ' '"'''' ^ g'-eat anatomist, as his works
pe^::^':::d^^^^^^
|ated byh,s exampl,t!:r;X?n:::2^^^^^^^
trammels of the old divinitip, „f .."""^S*'' '» throw off the
selves. Many able ana I ;„r '"' ""'' *"'» '"' *«"-
^hom obtained great lebTt T ?™ '° "^ ''»»'• ^™'= «f
San Severino, p'llopi ^ fjil „fv T" """ ^"''^"^us of
Varolius, and man/others '^ '''""^' °'''<""''<'' ^ranzi,
entftL?to"t"he stl™ a^ZutT"^ "'''"^''"'' *»"«■• "»'
anatomy. Ho was a „ted 17' ^/'^'^^ *■= '•°»"<'»' «f
•'•"■-.......x;::-aL'a:.t£:
»im, and he
eturn from
ied on the
miserably
^flar of his
iomists the
ect bj his
;ion. Con-
appeared
ved when
5 that the
' so much
referred
ed, as I
' of age.
authori-
Engh'sh.
pupi] of
by good
y Boer-
3 works
', inde-
stimu-
off the
' them-
3me of
lius of
ranzi,
;h not
ler of
amed
irged
ce of
rged
19
Galon. Eustachiua was the first to accurately describe the in-
ternal ear and the tube from the throat to the oar, whioh is still
called the Eustachian tube. He, also, was the first to describe
the thoracic duct, which ho saw in the horse. He discovered
the supra-renal capsules, and described many other structures
accurately for the first time. In his finer dissections he used
magnifying glasses, and separated complicated parts by injection
and maceration. Eustachius published a few works in his life-
time, but, from want of means, his anatomical plates, which were
ready in 1552, were not published, but remained in the Papal
Library till 1714, when, having been accidentally found, they
were published by Lancisi. Lauth observes that if Eustachius
had been able to publish them himself, anatomy would have ad-
vanced much more rapidly, as many of the discoveries after-
wards made by observers in the 18th century were anticipated
in this work of Eustachius. The last edition appeared in 1790,
and even as late as 1830 his plates were much valued for their
anatomical exactness. Eustachius was professor of anatomy in
the University of Rome, and died there in 1574.
Fallopius, a pupil of Vesalius, was professor of anatomy, first
at Pisa and afterwards at Padua. He accurately described
various parts about the ear, which still bear his name.* He
paid great attention to the organs of generation (as the " Fal-
lopian tube" testifies), and published a large work on anatomy
in 1561, which went through many editions.
Columbus was also a pupil of Vesalius, and described the cir-
culation of the blood from the right to the left side of the heart
six years after Servetus. He is supposed by many to have first
taught it to Servetus.
The name of Cesalpinus (1519-1003) is more interesting to
physiologists than anatomists, as it is identified with the circula-
tion of the blood. Although a contemporary of Vesalius, he
outlived him fifty years. Not knowing what had been done
previously by Servetus and Columbus, he rediscovered the pul-
monic circulation, and was the first to use the words " circulation
* Aqueduotus Fallopii, which trausmita tho facial nerve, and the Hiatus Fallopii
for the petrosal nerve.
20
of tho blood " Ua
uZZT '" 'r '■°"".-'.,: it'r''" -"-"y ere::"/
"Jin ail the credit fn- *k- '"^criptiou on whinK »i .
T'»ro wore several „t. ■■«"'' Harvey .3
^hich aiacove/^; t;t:r, : '^ »-•• -^ -tie' :r^
■n'nds were so obscured hvit ., ""' "*'»''«»« it " Th
«™W not divest them^iv^ '• ^'T °' "^-'-'^ that t"
"waning ,er„, ,, .UalTZT / 1 *' '"°"'»'- S" 1, u?
up w th ff.o;« 1 . "P^^^ts, animal smrito * " "'^-
""de;sa'r:;x''''r°\*»' ■' '» St'tr ^r'*^"
first /.. ^^-^actlj. what they mean TJ, ^ "^'^^ern to
«s supposed to pass iL 7 'P»'"Bons blood " 'IV ?, ,'
'«en the ti.u Tl , "«'' '""'iMo nores in ft' • ^'''"'"
through the!: ;:i f^ '■•■'-;'■ thoia^;":^^^"':™
V f orvetus and'-cr:: ;- ' - I have above re. li ^
the circu-
it he did
•on, after-
"Ifttion 80
f^'rom the
to mean
overer of
rected a
'ey give
irvey as
shed in
ny and
Aran-
a, who
Coiter
'» and
very,
ik of
[^"heir
they
un-
ixed
1 to
i^as,
the
the
3h,
od
'e.
m
^,
n
e
lation, although ho was the first to use the term.*
The next 8tep forwards was the demonstration, hy Hieronvmus
■ Fabncms ub A4uapendente,of the valven of the Jeins. F ZZ
who was . pu,,.I of Fallopius, and afterwards succeeded him s'
valves .n lo71. At that tune the blood was believed to «o from
fo.led to arnve at the correct solution of the use of the valves
ordlste^or '''-''-' ''' '- '' '^^ '^-' -' ---d
Fabricius ami his successor, Julius Casserius. may be regarded
as the last of those illustrious Italian anatomists who established
anatomy on a solid scientific basis, and paved the way for the
great discovery of the circulation. ^
Fabricius had for his pupils the immortal Galileo and William
Harvey, to whom Aquapendente, no doubt, demonstrated the
valves m the yems, and so prepared the way for his later dis-
overy regardmg the influence of the valves on the direction of
^e lood current. The Italians are now claiming that not only
hn r? ^ ^^''"'' ^''™ '^' ''''^' '^ Cesalpinus, as related
above, but was actually taught the circulation of the blood by
Fabne,us ab Aquapendente, notwithstanding the fact that the
pubhshed works of the latter show his actual knowledge of the
circulation to have been most obscure. Still we mutt regard
Aquapendente as the man who inspired Harvey, who with
dltr^r^^' would probably neve'r have made'insti"
William Harvey was born in 1578, and received his early
education at Cambridge. In 1598 he went to Padua, and gra
duated^s Doct^oiF^ Medjcin^ inJ602. On his return to
established tho heart! wrchirbotTIhrf^nn^^^^^ n ^°""''' ' " ^"' '''"^ ^'^' ««ds)
vehemently iiapollod throu«l al. '^""^'^'"of ">« veins, and the blood which i.
The author Sr " ho f oltnt u ioTstr' t "'" *'1^" *" " "•'"""'^ ProKre.sion."
suppose.-, he ea.s. .^th:t1S:Lr^t^Zetltr^^^^^^^^
t.o„ to man .„ his state of primoeval innocence and siZ>ll^TT.l\r^:ZZii:
obhtcraiod wita the other traces of his oelestittl origin." ' ' ""■ ^'^^'^"^^^^
22
I-OTdon, full of new thou-hts and n>„ •
"■e Wood, he entered in^ .n I;'" ".'"^ "''^«»'»«»" of
«s appointed leeturer onC' ' Th Vn '"™ ^^"^ ""^^
A' ti.e College he lectured "'"tl! I" ''"'' "' ''''^™'^°»-
"Tcait of the Wood," and 1 Htr «| 7 "' "'^ ''^"' »"d ">«
and experiments. He tan.d , „ i '"■'"'"''' ^^ ^'"''•'tiom
'hough he did not nubl h T ''°'"""^' "^ ^"■''v « 1619
l'i28. Thia wort ifa : , ;;::' "■^' *» ^-*" «"
free fro„ the ohseurit, alT X!;:' "■\^»"';-™' -<•
tefore been published on the sub.W Z "'"'''' "'"•='' '"«'
ae direct connection between tbe f ".''''^^ ""«' ■'"ul'l 8nd
Galen declared existed burr.- . I '' '"'' ™'™ »l>ich
f- the arteries to 4e' ^e ' ^;t V;»°- ^as transmitted
organs. Tl-e finding of the e■.mlhr^^u Po™ity of the
and veins, was a l^ter dt^ 'el ih ™"""' '^ "'»-
became better and more accurate ""'°' "' "^'^'"^
or to give, even shortly a„ at fT '" *^ ""■ <"="'"'-^
*^' period. Theana«oa.ca„::si: *%«r ""^'°™'-f
■nen, such as Van Horn nlllTl """^"^ '''"' "'"brated
who discovered the lac^a s! T." '"""""' "' ^^"o"' A-lli,
'he living dog, De GrTaf ^ ^ demonstrating the nerves in
» 'he ovary,ttc. lie 1' tT7':'" *'™=fi»» "-iole
Highmore,LdPec,ue a™;oo„ V: ^°°' J*"""' ^esling,
lacteal and lymphatic sv e,„ Zf "'"■ "'""™™« '" «>^
Afference between the lact ■ h^ . , l""""' '''' <'«»™ring the
J«".ffe, an Eng,ishm:::'R:t^;^''f^j<'-ded between
eovenes in these systems ir. "^ *""' " ''"ede. Further dis-
'holini, Wharton, B^ as Ck Td'T' ™"' '"^ "^"^ "^ ^u-
.F™™ 16,50, anatomis'ts begt to stuZr:'™
".nutel,, and organs and tisl,:: ^tm'o 1 cIo"?" '™"' '"""'
Gl sson's name is associated with the i, un '^ ""vestigated.
vj;»'l
I
I
^ r
v^^^els at the ba.e of the fc '^i""™,' f <> *« «-«'« of blood-
of Wilhs." The 17 h cen u h ; ' '''" "'"'' "-^ " -«!«
*o e><cepti„„ of Harvey, p„ducrd„„' V vu ^ '""'""^' "'"'
Those who wrote works on a^t « * ""'O""''' «f »ote.
«-- books are of Mme Z^ ' "" ""■■' ""P^'"». ^-d
About the middle of the 17th „„„,
were first made much use of li'T^' ""^'^'V'r'g glasses
"'vestigations. Malni^hi with P^o'^'ion of anatomical
f »ple microscope s' IXhttd '"" """'' ""^ "'» "^ *« «-'
knowledge of minute anato™f\,-T ^"""^ '"'™'""=d our
Ho il was who first M rVo"'' ;''°'°°^' ^' " '^ "« o»"od
«oionco. In this h was ah! tZ/T, "[ *'^' '""^ '^P"«o,
'«"d- The oi-cu,atio: ™ ^„r t'llt^if ^"™"';-'' »f Ho.-'
parent parts of animals • th^ hi 7 ^ '""' '" "'o «rans-
h Leowenhock. MaLv 1, :' ""''P"^*' «« O«overed
0' capillaries intorvZdte „ hT"" "'"'1 ""' "■'" '»"-
a» was supposed b^ Harvev Ifd f '"'' ''•''™^' '"^ »»'.
spongy s.bstance.^ Wenb ck'd ' '?'°"''''»' ™"^ -»<•
The throe last in the fbov'e ? *' """"" »? anatomy
accurate in their dos p i ra '<tinT™"'' ""^ """^''"^'^
■n advance of their co.fteZr" e " TT '""^ ' """'"■'^
at the beginning of the 18th c,v ' '''"' ''''""*^<'
and settled in Paris, whe 1^ ^^l"' " """''^ of Denmark,
^'■onohman, hut a co;ve.:to clt I, ^^ "° /"'^ ^ «f "™'«l'
wr'te an anatomy divested of nl, , "" "' *o first to
""-iful h.lXses;l"L£r'X riS "d" ^'^'^^^^
~^~ "escnption and arrange-
j,h„,j, ,,„j ^^^.^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^1 . - 1 microscope lor the minute exami-
24
. The end of the hat eenturv » . u """"'' P"^™'^-
a scence. Such ™en il-e Cm ct 1"""°' *" """''-"ato™
"^m. Hunter, Cruikahant, Oaml R 7"' ''°"«'''«' ^"''n and
ofiesser note. ' ""'"'•'' ^>"^^^, Lamaro, and others
-From the first qu.rter of the Ton,
to-' the n,arch of pro^re L ll ^ """""^ "? '» *« Present
fc-o.ne more phiiosop'h f :, "e r, r^^- ^natoris
vesfgation have hooon,e I ' •"""'"''^ "^ 'caching and h
"»• regarded as for.Tng T'lln tf ^ """"^ -atr„^' J
"■»jest,c whole. M.y ^^ ^;^'"' "1' ""po'-'ant, part „f ^
years, hundreds are used! """ '"''•''"" "as dissected i„ ,
«;M i-pon to the h^hi: :r-'rr ■ ""''^^^'
he (I don't aaj is) obtained from !? .""'"'' '"formatiou mav
-ehods of preservation and ^et l""''') «»« '0 mod" I
«ate to be so favored. In r^j , "® ^"^^"^ the ff.rh,
year, who must have suff r d (l',; d "r^ ""-' «- Z^
f-^^:;:tf-ri^-/Sc:iis
h^an bodies, •• .h'ereas,'- ^f/*" ^-- «f diss^^ti g
•^ ' ^ "''Peeted to have done
?
c
'tten since
'arance of
ogress.
tfais was
anatomj
■^ohn and
> Scarpa,
'd others
present
^y has
and in-
toinj is
of one
^^ were
of al]
3 been
n two
whole
I may
)dern
e ob-
Ivan-
tuost
was
3pu-
^for
rtu-
!t a
^ed
ion
ro-
ic-
3;
'g
25
so once everv
*e .ghUf our present know edf it^T ' '^ ^^ »'"''^ iti«
'■vate scentifio habits of thou/hri,', ^ '"'""= "' '» ""l"
»f -q-y, and p„.3 „3 in the wl! oftT "'' '" " ^™^" S^'"'
»»ny problems eo„oer„i„, the !1„ 'f ''" ^"^"'^"^ '"'"ng
.d»*e„t. Thus have mor^holorf ^ f '"''" """^ *e line „f hi°
'"'erest to a subject which «, '' ''^™'»P»'ent added a new
--ewhat disa.4ab,e I. ™" """/' '""' ""-^ ""O- P-C
human anatomy is a subject Chth ha "'"f '. '° '"PP«^ *a
knowledge of what has been do„e o" 1^ '' '" ^"''''y- ^
"•■s. A few years only have r„T^ "^ •''^"^ '"sily proves
cerebral convolutions has been M, 7°' -^ '"P'g^Phj of the
ho optic nerve traced to tl ]I^Zt'tu''' """^ *' "«'" «f
'^^nal organs has only quite ^c ± t "^^ P°'"'»° »f «he in-
ZT"' of frozen sections oft^'fCr^^-fely determined
fte Russian surgeon Rra^off r„ f /' '^' '""'"''uced by
a;-e, by their discoveries, plLn, „t ^1^"' "^^ '"""™i'^
«'og,sts to solve. "Ever; yea CIt ' '"'^"'^ *« Phyai-
Mge of forn, ,„., structuretnd trrlrr^'"""*"""-^"""-
■on and fresh %ht is being continull'b' ""^ ""^ '° ''•'-
of Ihc human frame." Humr, f-^ °™ °" *« ■"ochanism
°f comparative, cannot fe p op rTd-l"""' *^ -»'- "
anatom,st who only tnows theTuma b d ' *" ''^"^ »' '«'
'hose of an explorer of a ,ar„e rive, I ^^^ "' ^ °»™'' as
Satmg one of its tributaries or „f , ".'""'^'"' ''i* investi-
«ft only one order of p, nV „• " '°"""'' ^"'° - ac,,ni„,ed
'".ted. his ideas must 'be tcesfari,r*'" f '""""^^^^ "-"S
human anatomist, much interes „ { '" ' ''r^''' '» *» Pur?
«, and the explanation of t e ti *: TV "'» ^"^ject is
anatmns, and anomalies is not a tl?l '"'"''■'^ <"•«»»,
Anatomy, h„,„vor, studied inthfSf T"^^™ *""«'"*
eaches not only what we have been and „ k "'°^'™ '"'^^e,
fa.utly perhaps, what the distant fl!'.!!""""- ""ieates,
m store for
us.