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Mapa, piatea, charts, etc.. may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure ara fiimad beginning in the upper left hend corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames aa required. 1lie following diagrams illustrate the method: Lea cartas, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent Atre filmte A dea taux da reduction diffirents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Atra raproduit en un seul clichA, il est film* A partir da I'angie supArieur gauche, de gauche A droite, et de haut 9n baa, an prenant le nombre d'imagea nteaasaira. Lea diagrammas suivanta illustrant la mAthode. arrata to pelure, >n i U 32X 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 SK ^ i^Xu.4,~r. z SKETCH Of THE EARLY HISTORY OF ANATOMY. BY Professor of Anatoiiy, MoGiil University. Reprinted from the Canada Medical and Surgical Journal. REPRINTED FROM TJfP "P4v*T^. .,«^, ===========^Z^^^^^^ JOURNAL," SKETCH OP THE EARLY HISTORY OF ANATOMY.- Bt FRANCIS J. SHEPHERD, M.D, Prolesfior of Anatomy, McGill [Hiiveral't,. The origin of anatomy, like that of many other sciences k WoZed tot r'T f """"'"S "■» "'*«'' >-»'. as they oeionged to the lowest class, and were abhorred i„d J« • j on account of their occupation, what ronghTno: i":^^^^^^ same terms wers „„,1 k„ n "'"'"<"'• '" rater times these wrotp <,»„.,.i . I- "°™' ^ traditionary monarch of E.»ynt wrote several^ treatises on^natomy.JJamnto„, who wrofe 1' Hi,l„rv of Anatomy and Medicine in the first quarter of to fen .ry peaWng of tl,is tradition, „.aintly remark, that "when we e ™Xt the %ra assigned to this fahnlous monarclj hy the ZaZ imrrobaldo chronology of tl,e Egyptians would carry :' hack to L age prior hy n,any centuries to ^^^^^l Adam we can easily estimate the degree of crcd.h.hty to wh.ch fucra Ible is entitLh" Acm.eon, who flourished some t,me hcte th advent of Hippocrates, paid considerahle attent.on o anatomy, and is said to have made dissections, prmcpally of t e Zer animals. Among other things, he asserted that goats hrpathed throuKli their eara. H derates who lived four or five hundred yea-s before the ChSn crtand who has been called the Father of Med.cne wasTe firs individual who wrote a work on anatomy; h.s Tn w e go of anatomy was superficial and often mos errone us t: prohahiy rested more on shrewd .,a.g.a c.,eeture t..n ::;ltnct:;r:«' irra^ted by Pausanlas t^^ he huns: a bronze model of a skeleton m the temple of the DelphTan IpoUo a, a testimony of his own knowk ge and for fhe instruction of posterity. It is Ifighly nnprohable that he ever dissected a human body. ni„„„n-ates Dioeles of Carystius, who lived a century after H.ppoc.ates a„r 1 s eaile/the s^ond Hippocrates, is said to have devo ed Itch of his time to the study of comparatwe anatomy. Hed.d r as w *e custom in those days, make a secret of h.s ana- i iTnowledge, but taugi. publicly, and was «,e first o w„^ a manual of Dissection of Animals, an art, previous to his time, o^fiTd to a few families, and handed down from lather o son hvo-^in^t action. Diodes also wrote on Cookery, and held rt l\:'as much a science as that of medicine_a„ opm.on wUh which Plato altoj.^ether ihsagreed. i with the appearance of Aristotle, the Feceptor of A— r, that «'7::;-:- '!;r~rMt :i:rtr:r:LTiZ;n/— Many of his admirers, without much reason, ela,m for h,m an 3 intimate knowledge of human anatomy ; that he dissected ani- mals ,s no doubt true, and also that he had a marvello.isly accu- « rate knowledge of marine animals, but to say that he was a profound anatomist is absurd, and is not substantiated by what we find ,n his writings. For instance, in his writings he states that the kidney of man resembles that of the ox (which consists of many reniform bodies), and is not smooth like the sheep, that the human uterus is double, that the back part of the skull is empty,, that the brain is without blood, and many other things equally absurd. His know- ledge of osteology was also limited. He asserted that man had no astragalus (a bone in man forming the keystone of the arch of the foot), « neither," he says, » have many-toed animals, nor sohd-footed animals." Now this bone is never absent in mam- malian animals with limbs, and it is evident that Aristotle never looked for it, but asserted that these animals were without it on theoretical grounds alone, for in one of his works, " Departibus Ammalium;' he gives elaborate reasons why certain animals have no astragaloid bones. He also stated that the bones of the lion had no marrow, and that the necks of wolves and lions con- sisted of a single bone and had no flexibility. These points he could easily have made clear by actual examination. He, like Hippocrates, thought that nerves, ligaments and tendons were the same thing ; he gave, however, a fairly accurate description of the great blood-vessel, the aorta, and distinguished the wind- pipe from the gullet ; he also had some acquaintance with the structure of the larynx, and knew that the ear and throat com- municate.!. No doubt Aristotle, for his time, was a good com- parative anatomist, and some of his observations are valuable but he so mixed up his facts with fiction that it is not easy to separate the one from the other. He was the first to write a treatise on Comparative Anatomy. Plato, although he did not study anatomy practically, fre- quently refers to it in his writings. His references represent, no doubt, fairly well the condition anatomy and physiology had reached in his time, for all philosophers were supposed to know much of physic, under which anatomy was included, but sup- »" opinion uln-d,?""''" •■"■'■■'"''<" (l.c„cn' "''" "'•" «■»»> «.o di„„e,°:„:' ;r ; "''" °f •■"""»-7 .ad (,oe„ . of Alexander r]ooT>;^^ «™P"-e which took T '''''''^^'^^e. »".™>"'aged H,e 3t„r ' ,P ;'»-!«lpla. „,, Euc-^eef 7 f"*"'' *''a, a great in,rar/va e r,' ,"'"' "'" '™"»e," 1 *""^ """ in wearnHnf "■^ "™'' "»' only i„ j,>! . ^'"'^ies, ''''^■■<' «.oy were s„;' f' "f'' '*"'"»- Aocb i f .', '" ''''f" protected bv tl.e ,vi! f ^"'■''arbamm tbe P *= "'''"^' «-»' "»' -'. "4. an: :::; Ir^f"' ^---SCp;?-'^' "ot a little to i>« , . ^ "f J'temture an^ . • -^'o^^mies, ''-■"^ipatini^rt^tTo;.,'''"^^'^-"''"-- s :r„;'^r;'"^ !-, att ^„;.*-, __ ee, atta. '^•"1 useCuj ^jss /, '"- '•"'^^''. 'UKi file ^h,,}.,,^ """''^ 've,e off., '''« ^''oatest !''^''v"'i>'-rc,.. ::'^;.^ -'--., Kratoln,^ ?''';'--el,,,„, S^^^ i^^ -T nent physicians. Araong these were two who did more than any previous individuals to advance the science of anatomy These men wore Rrasistratus and Herophilus. They hoth wrote large works on anatomy, which are, unfortuiiately, lost, but from which (^lalen, Oribasiua, and others quote extensively. Herophilus and Erasistratus were probably the first who ever dissected the human body, for PhiladelphuB and Eurgetes gave orders that the bodies of all criminals should be handed over to the School of Anatomy for dissection. Thus at this early period, when the dissection of a human body was looked upon with horror and as an act of desecration, the enlightened and far-sighted Ptolemies in spite of vulgar prejudices and religious scruples, enabled the bchool of Medicine of Alexandria to make a great stride for- wards in learning, knowledge and reputation. It is said that Herophilus dissected 700 bodies, and that both he and Erasis- tratus made a common practice of opening living bodies in order to discover the origin of life. Tertullian, a learned father of the Church, who lived at the end of the second century, char-es Herophilus with this crime ; he says, " Herophilus, that physician or rather butcher, who dissected GOO men in order to find out nature, who hated man in order to learn tlie structure of his frame, could not by these means come to a more perfect know- ledge of his internal structure, since death produces a great change in all parts so as to render the appearance after death different from what it was before, especially since they did not die a natural death, but expired amidst all the agonies to which the curiosity of the anatomist was pleased to subject them " Celsus, who lived about 20 B.C., also says that Herophilus and Jirasistratus vivisected human beings ; he mentions it incident- ally, as if It were a well-known fact, and does not appear at all shocked at such a proceeding. It is very probable that these anatomists did occasionally vivisect a criminal, since human life ui those days was considered of little value, and the people were accustomed to see criminals cruelly tortured before being put to death, so that vivisection would, perhaps, be regarded with less horror than dissection of a dead body. It is the custom of his- torians to attribute these charges against Herophilus and Erasis- 6 'Juman bein-s be tnio n. '''"'■^^' a^'ainst him of vivi«„ r "e biain, nerves, vaJves Kuardin. f " ^'"'"^n frame as -^'"s nas been adducerl !>,. ^' ^''^ arteries win. "ever vivisected human I "^ '"'"'' «« ^^^dence tb.r T i w n ./ i From tlio timo of these two anatomists to that of Cclsus little was done to keep alive the science of anatomy. Cclsus, who lived towards the end of the last century hefore the Christian era, gives in his works, which are valuable repositories of tho medical and surgical knowledge of his time, fairly accurate anatomical descriptions, hut he himself does not seem to have done any original work in anatomy. The first Roman anatomist whose luimo has been handed down to us is Marinus, who, according to (iaien, described the muscles accurately, and also mentions the mesenteric glands. 8oon after Marinus, RuHus of Ephesus, a Greek physician, appeared. He vivisected animals and devoted himself to physiology and com- parative anatomy ; he made some discoveries regarding the abdominal viscera, and especially the uterus. Of all the physicians of anticpiity, none attained to . great a fame as Claudius Galenus of Pergamus. His reputati".. is deservedly great, for none did so much as he to advance the knowledge of physic. He was born A.D. 130, and was educated by his father Nicon, a mathematician of repute, as well as an architect and astronomer. Nicon early initiated his son into the mysteries of Aristotle's philosophy, but Galen also studied philosophy in the schools of the Stoics, Academics, Peripatetics and Epicureans. With the exception of the Epicureans, whose doctrines he utterly repudiated, he is said to have taken from each what he thought to be the most important part of their systems. At the age of seventeen he began the study of medi- cine ; ho soon outstripped his teachers, and early exhibited proofs ot the greatest ability. His renown spreading abroad he was brought to Rome by the Emperor Aurelius, and in that city he practiced till his death at the age of 90 years. Over his contemporaries he acquired great ascendancy, and held the same position in the medical world that Aristotle lield in the world of general science. For hundreds of years after his death his doctrines and opinions held sway, and his sayings were re- garded as oracular. Few ventured to oppose his tenets, and up to the 16th century all the medical books were merely com- mentaries explanatory of Galen's work. If any one advanced 6 " "'=''■ "'""■■y as to disease or c,;,f,j , he p,„,o„ of Galen, to bring down t, / "' "Pf'^^ to ''"efeal innovator. Althou -hr f ""'' '"'S™™ «P™ 'he P -s, at Alexandria, it is ver}' ,t X ? '^^' -""/other anatomy was gained ebieily frZ Tf '" ''"""''"igo of ;'ruet„re was supposed toCCneare T'""" °' """"^'^-h"- '°7 '» -t always the n,osl correct ""*"' ''^™^ «» a-"" ftenous to Galen's time if „, .'. "tal spirits or pneuma and' "«'" ">' ">■'«"•<« carried *i3 "physioloical fao •' tha a r°rl"" *» -«-' «' hat 'vien an artery «s won ded ,?! ?. ""^ ^""^ "--o »f "U't^ and powers of reason! „ e , '■ "".'^ "*'' "" ">eir tube containing air Mo„?rf beedwhen ''"-"' ''' ™ "'^' » »■ hrst escaped through the would ™. ^""^^ """d that the *» ve.„s by oommnnicating cha„nlt «n!" "''"'' "^^ f™" f""y exposed the absurdity of tfetV? t ™'"'™- Galen on ammals, showed that the pun tie f' ""''' ^^ oxperiments «eodle immediately gave HZTeJT "'''' '^ *^ fl"ost oharge of vital spiritj took p lac 'T'fse, and that no dis- the arteries at two points and 1 " '"'^'"^ "«atures on 'ho artery between the tl 'a "r"'?' ''"' "-portion of Alexandrian anatomists said ° 2™ ""''' ""'^ '"»°''. The *Z ''""l"' -«Is, both ntond^dt ^f. ""' ''"- """e Galenreplied:"Youmi2ht»,„T '"•"*™ blood." But of'™™ti„ga„imals:et:;: ,:;:' ^'theseveralstom,:: tho ood, but that one was meant „?/'' "' ""= ''oovionts of ^.--to^r^tdTuttsrr'--- tins he satisfactorilv proved * oontained blood and fo« Cand is now) J ommte""-'' «» ^« -t, as ras ondea^r to u,ake the facts doZaJ :„!">' T'' " ">oory and theor^s on experiment and observ t „ ° ' "' ''°™''^<' »« his »"-<■• I' is very improbableZt trwr^ '™^ """''"''"- «re were an^. opportunities d at Rome for dissection of human bodies; for Galen advises students to visit Alexandria in order to study the human skele- ton, and not to trust to book descriptions. It is evident Galen himself had few opportunities of studying even the human skele- ton, for he expresses great delight and astonishment on one occasion when on his travels he had the opportunity of examining a skeleton which had been exposed by the washing away of the earth which had covered it. Galen added but little to our knowledge of human anatomy, yet by his researches and arrangement he brought together all that was known up to that time, digested and systematized it, and made it the basis of a medical education. He was a good comparative anatomist, and most of his original descriptions are derived from the dissection of monkeys. His style is clear and correct, and there is not so much confusion as is seen in the authors preceding him. Many of the names he gave to different parts of the body, especially those about the brain, are retained to the present day. With Galen's death anatomical science declined — nay, was almost extinguished. For many centuries the men that followed him looked upon anatomy as a completed science, and Galen's works on the subject were regarded as sacred and infallible. It is strange that in ancient times all the great names in anatomy are those of Greeks, the Romans, though rich in soldiers, states- men, poets and orators, never produced any one who was great in physic or any of the sciences. With the fall of the Roman Empire and rise of Christianity, all learning, especially that having its origin in Greece, declined, for it was thought by the Christians to be the cause of all here- sies. Anatomy suffered with the rest, principally owing to the prejudice which existed against the dissection of the human body. Dr. William Hunter, in a lecture delivered over a hun- dred years ago, remarks that " when faith was thought to be all that was worth acquiring, and prayer almost our only duty, there was an end of liberal education and every ingenious inquiry." From the second to the eighth century but little progress was made iu anatomj. The names of writers iu anatomy duriug this 10 al'-eady known. "^ ' '"* ^^" ^^^^^ nothing to what was About this time, what i;ffi - • ■" Europe was eranW^::; 'i:;;.'=;™V-^ 'oa™i„, the. was and scence fro,. t,,e West to the' t 'V™*™""^ »f 'earning . capture of Alexandria, which «s.K " '""""''™' ^'^^' th^ '-™.ng. There the Sarae Je- fi T, "' "'" "'"«f -ats of ""* *e '"erature of Eu,"; mf 1'T«'" »«» intact overran Europe, they drove tin it^M ^ ^™-"'*™ Vandals and culture, and ignorance w" " If '■™'"^<' °f 'earning 'luacks practised tlfo healing « in » T "^ f^" "■»"''» and al'ogether neglected. The a ' " T "^' ^"' ^''^"'"J was .'^'•^g by the Saracens, who altho T"!" ™ ''^P' feebly ■ng, later encouraged it Tl,; k , «'' "' **"' '^^'Pi^ing learn -f-Se in Asia, and were ^Zrttl' "'■ '"^ ^-' f-^" Saracens. ' """e" ^ij the wise rulers of the It has been for ages a common belief H . Alexandria its huge library was onin, t iT "' "" '="?""■" of eoaquerors, and all its t4"m r. '" *^ «'""- ^r the destroyed. The only authort ; tM f ^~^ ""<' »»ien.ific, who flourished about the „iddk ftl ,t7 " ^''"'Ptaragius hundi-ed years after the captut f f, """'''' "'^^'7^'^ • ohn Philiponus, the oelebraLd "la tetie"?;- ""' '^'"'^ '"at Amrou, the Saracen General tn?'''"''''"?'""-. requested fte Ptolemies. The Gen e^ V l^'t'l ""''''''' ""'"^ Omar, who replied, " If these „ L,, l"^""^' '» '■''o CaHph t e Koran, they are useless and e|L ^''''''' ^«™^ '''«' toagree, they are pernicious nd „,:'"■"*"<"' ^ 'f "-ey A ulpharagius goes on to state t^at tb"* . *" "" '"^'"•"^ed." "th this d-cisio„, „s destroyed aid tb .7^' '" »°°f°™ity the Arabs with sufficient fuel to hi . . '" ^"* ^''"'^^^i «« months. Now, ,■„ ^^^ ^^ *" "eat the baths of the city for ture of Alexandria, written soTafreT °'*^ ^'^^^ «■'<' «ap- m* of the destruction of ft lla/r r' •?"'' "° """"o" ^« bec^etheseatofth^littelean Hh " ™ ^""P* »«"!» .Wy of .he Greek authors was efl "'7'™''- '^''""=' «'« ^terature and art was rapid y do ">'; ""^ ^ '^»'o for Bologna now begins to attrlct n^r '"''• ™^ Vmvenity of "^dicine and bw ; i„ th ilth '°'r ' ^"''°°' "Hiterature ; " ents in attendanee on iVet'e" ^ ' '"'^, "^ 1«.«00 14th century, the ehair of Mec^^l i '" ""-'^ P"--' of the waa filled by Mondino di LuT'T,' If '"''"'^''^ anatomy ;- - the first name of notT'ani nf "'"^"^ ^nato "/j *no, ,„ 1315, ^as fortunate en. k'^ """"S <='»''"'•'• Mon d»eot the body of an uneleS:; '"1''°^'" P"--'-'" ;:^r ' *" '-^ »-» v"Z ordClc- ^ '^'' ''™- ■ ■'°.'"'- One can well imaoine ll.. « . **" " "lousand ousted in the oM UniversitTw TT'"' *"" ""-t have «^rta,n day a human body wa!trb ™^'"'"»»''od that on a ". »' feelings of awe evenLde„L a, d T''^ ''''"''''■ ^'^^ "■toessed such a desecration of th'dS"™"^' ""» '""O »-er ^e ».ght, and how such a mutihtiln M' """^ ''^'' "-^g^ded dead would have aroused tl" a' t li *l '"""^ ''»<'«» "f the of the common people, but evenThet ' "!' [^J"^'^^^, "ot only dmo h,n,self was not entirelv f ! T ^-'"^ """"'d. Mon -petitions, since he de^e/t! openTh "^ ^''^J'""'- ""d 'he bram m fear of committing IrTaTli' rl'i ""' »-»°>ine Martianus, phy,ieian toFrcdellc / f J '*"^ monarch to grant permissinnT ,, '^ ^"P'''^' "duced that -taal subject at leas' Tnc n L °" " '""'' '-'"« on t t an surgeons in the neighborhood trfcr- ^" *" P^^'ioi to attend these demonstrations. UTe r""*'" ''^ Frederick sat on a high chair, with the „.i,- V '' '""""•«' the professor f *hey were laid bare with n h ^^^ *^e various sfcructurp« ^y 4e barber who was .T^'Xtu*''' ""' °"-o i 18 ih ing of such a scene forms the frontispiece of some of the editions of Mondino's Anatomy. It is said that Mondino dissected two female subjects, and shortly afterwards published a description of the human body, illustrated by rude engravings. The title of the book was " Be omnibus humani corporis interiorihus membris Anathomia.'' This work was very little different from that left by Galen— in fact, most of the errors of the latter were perpetuated. The Government undertook the publication of Mondino's Anatomy, and the statutes of the University of Padua prohibited the use of any other anatomical text-book. Mondino's Anatomy existed in manuscript alone for 150 years, and first appeared in type in 1578, twelve years after the intro- duction of printing into Italy. It went through numberless editions, and for more than 200 years was looked upon as an authority. It is quite a small book of 175 pages, and gives a most superficial and crude description of the various parts of the body. It is full of inaccuracies, the arrangement ia confused, and the meaning often obscure, still it was the best work in anatomy which had up to that time appeared. The first chapter shows how man differs from the animals ; one difference is that man has no tail, " because, being naturally erect, he lests him- self by the sitting posture, and a tail would interfere with his sittmg down." His reasons for the erect posture are amusing. " Fn-st, man is erect because he is of a lighter, more spirituous, and ii-rial character ; secondly, ho contains a greater quantity of heat, which is naturally lifted upwards ; thirdly, he has, among all animated creatures, the most perfect form, which he shares in common with the angels and the intelligences which rule the universe ; and fourthly, the sense of sight, through which most of our intelligence comes, needs to be placed at the highest point of the body, like the sentinel on the watch-tower." (Dalton.) Mondino divided the body into three cavities : the upper (head), containing the animal members ; the middle (thorax), contaii-ing the spiritual or vital members ; and lower (abdomen), co,.,. 'aing the natures. His description of the heart is singularly correct, and he seems to have had some notion of the uses of the valves, for he calls thcT ostiola, or little doors. 14 the a„a.„„i,ts wo'.o S , o ^Vr r'"° '",1 '"''" "-' "^ by actual observation. There tr.!' "'"' ''"'™="' ""''"ng who worked diligently „„d ouJel TseT.^ ^'Tf""'' "•^'' tunities were few and their mind, sHll u ''''' "'"'■■ "PP"" »73teries of the Arabian soTo 7 A t" "^""""^ ''^ 'he de Grad,b„s, who nm aocur t , ^'"°°'' *^^'' «« Matthew Aohillini of Bologna, ZZolJZT'''"' *" ""•■'■^«- »"'' an also gave an^ecurate i^^ „' 7™"."-" "' 'he ear Leonard! da Vinci, the ^reat nail "" ""'' '"*'""i"'^»- S^'e an impetus to the studl „f "^ " ' ™ """ °f 'he fi"t who anatomical drawings II to o"'! ™^ '^ ""^ '■"'™d"«'i»" o anatomy, but eare1-ull, and tc, 1^ / *•""'"«' "^ """an he various parts of t/e a "at mv '' f"*^^ '"'<' "g-^ed h'sgi^-antic equestrian statrrf p ''""'' "''"" ""rtelling 'omical drawing, are stil e "an .7"°"''" ^^'"''- ^'^ ana" Wi'h the im century, wetmel ""'' "7 °°™°'-- made marvellous progress ml I, fr'"" '"''''"> anatomy hundred years previo„°si; LnTman" "'' '"'"' ''' f"''*^" duced. Early in the ce^a"! TZf p ™'°""»" «re pro- Fofessor of anatomy at Pad„T'a„d" ! ?*='" "' '^^^P' «a " ».J to have dissected over ontt TTI'^' "' '^'"°«na- He a few discoveries. He conltr ^ -'^ '"""^'' and made not hiood-vessels, brain, eardfa^t^T'^d "" ''"' ""' «- aooount, illustrated by woodcuts n;.!, '"" ' '''^ *ar Berengor, although a celebrated "'"."""'''""nal muscles, as the introducer of me c„tl „ ?'""'"' '" ''^"er known Whilis, a disease which th" petd " '" '"^ '^-'"^n' «" ;ap.dityi„ Europe, and which was « /'"''"'"S "'''' «^eat '»e. The whole of Europ ta 1™ ", "' ^ "«' "™lent covery lessened to a great deTee 1 "■"' ^'^'"S"'^ dis- and calmed the fears of the pi:! K T"'^ °' *^ *»^ase he accumulated an immense fort,V„, f^ f ™° "' 'is remedy his patron, the Duke Z^Z' I '"'' '" '°"' ™ '''^ -leaft^ '^ejpal^, „, :- ^ A one^nne Berenger had * Some are ntWhidsoT^i^T^l ^^sj^esahus was after 'uiuisoroastle, others at thpQnnn i- <»' the South Kensi,,toaMu.eu„,Lor,„,.„. 'i>^^ ^ 15 '.»>1 i him, of opening a living body in order to observe the movements of the intestines. The French School of Anatomy arose in the early part of the 16th century, and all anatomical students are familiar with the names of the great men of that school— names such as Dubois (Sylvius), Etienne, the discoverer of the canal in the spinal cord, and others. It is a curioup fact that the French anatomists knew nothing of what had been done in Italy by Mundino and his successors, but followed Galen closely and had a remarkable admiration for ancient authorities. They rarely dissected human bodies, but contented themselves with such lower animals as dogs, cats, pigs, etc. One of the most independent observers and investigators who lived during the first half of the 16th century is Michael Ser- vetus, a Spanish physician. He was educated in medicine in the University of Paris under the assumed name of Michael Villeneuve. Servetus soon quarrelled with the Faculty in Paris, owing to the peculiar views held by him regarding astrology and divination. He early developed a taste for controversial theology, and discussed various theological questions with the leading Reformers, among others, Calvin, whose hatred he soon aroused. When Servetus published anonymously his great work, " Ohris- tianismi Restitutis,'^ which was alleged to contain heretical doc- trines, he afforded Calvin the long soughtfor opportunity of condemning him as a blasphemer and heretic and most cruelly consigning an innocent and eminent man of science to the flames. It is in this condemned work we find the first clear account of the circulation of the blood through the lungs— that is, its transfer from the right to the left side of the heart, through the lungs. It is not announced as a new and important discovery, but is merely mentioned incidentally in this theological work addressed not to scientific men but to the Reformers and Schis- matics. This is a clear proof that the importance of the dis- covery, which paved the way for Harvey's greater discovery of the systemic circulation, was not at that time realized. The greatest anatomist of the 16th century, and perhaps the greatest the world has ever seen, is Andreas Vosalius. 16 Vesalius revolutionized the teaching of anatomy, and a new epoch of anatomical progress dates from the publication, in 1542, of his great work, " De Humani Corporis Fabrica^* For fourteen hundred years previous to his time, anatomists and phy- sicians reverently bowed before the shade of the great Claudius Galenus, and accepted all his statements as inspired. Vesalius had no sympathy with this feeling of the old school of anatomists, and was one of the first to throw off this yoke of authority which so long encumbered them. He asserted that theory should be based solely on experiment, and observation and anatomy on actual dissection. When only 28 years of age, he published his great work, and in it he, without any respect for authorities of previous ages, exposed and corrected numerous errors which had been perpetuated since the time of Galen. He denied that Galen could not be wrong, and utterly scouted the idea of his inspiration, which had been held by medical men for so many centuries. The i)ublication of his great work called forth an angry storm of abuse, the author was denounced as a dangerous man, and was accused of licentious criticism,! as William Hunter says, "The spirit of opposition and emulation was perfectly aroused ; and Sylvius in France, Columbus, Fallopius and Eus- tachius in Italy, who were all in high anatomical reputation about the middle of the 16th century, endeavored to defend Galen at the expense of Vesalius. In their disputes they made appeals to the human body, and thus in a few years our art was greatly improved." Vesalius was undoubtedly a man of great genius. He had a wonderful capacity for work, and a profound knowledge of the human body. He is spoken of as a man who was " a fluent speaker and master of an admirable style," and also an " ornament to the 16th century and the admiration of the following ones." __Ye^salius was born at Brussels on the 30th of April, 1514, • The Univorsity of Bi.sle still pos.ses,ses a skeleton prepared by Ve^im^when he came to Basle from Pndua for the purpo.^e of seeing his great work, " Do Humani Corporis rabr.ca," through ,he press of lo. Oporinus. The skeleton is that of a man named Jaeobkarrer. beheaded whilst Vesalius was in Basle, and who furnished the great anatomist an opportunity of instructing the students at Basle in a new anatomy not then to lie learnt from books. '"laiomy i Even his old friend and teacher, Dubois (Sylvius), denounced hiip. 17 and a new 1, in 1542, a."* For 8 and phy- t Claudius Vesaliua natomists, rity which should be latomy on published -uthorities 'ors which snied that lea of his ' so many forth an iangerous n Hunter perfectly and Eus- eputation defend ley made r art was of great profound man who 'le," and ration of i[, 1514, us when he 3oHu!nani t of a man nislifd the w anatomy and was the son of the apothecary to the Archduke Charles, afterwards Charles V. He developed a passion for anatomy at a very early age, for while yet at school he amused himself dis- secting rats, dogs, moles and cats. He studied at Louvain, then went to Cologne and Montpelier, and thence to Paris, where he studied anatomy under Sylvius. Here he remained three years, and by his great dexterity and success in dissection, and intense application, he soon equalled, if he did not surpass, his master. He was frequently invited by both professors and students to give public demonstrations in anatomy. Vesalius also studied under Johann Winther, the well-known anatomist who first accurately described the pancreas, and was for his numerous scientific acquirements ennobled by Charles V. Whilst in Paris, the war between Francis and Charles V. broke out, so Vesalius went to the low countries and served as physi- cian and surgeon from 1535 to 1537. At the end of the latter year he travelled to Italy, and was made professor of anatomy at Padua at the age of 24. Here he remained till 1543. Whilst professor at Padua he published his great work (1542). In 1544 Charles V. appointed him chief-physician to the Court, and when that prince abdicated in 1555, Vesalius continued in the same position under Philip II. It was here he established his reputation and passed the most brilliant portion of his life. In 1564 there died under his care a Spanish nobleman, and not knowing the cause of death, he asked permission of the relatives to make a post-mortem examination ; this was granted him. and on opening the body it is said that some of his assistants per- ceived that the heart was still beating. The patient's friends were immediately informed, and being naturally indignant at the circumstance, denounced Vesalius to the Inquisition. He was tried and condemned to death by this tribunal, but the king interfered and would not allow the sentence to be carried out, and Vesalius was ordered to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land to atone for his supposed crime. Whilst passing through Venice he was appointed to the chair of anatomy at Padua, vacant by the death of Fallopius. He accepted the appoint- ment, but had to complete his pilgrimage before entering on his 1! I I ! n '8 '•"ties. But, alas ! hfa evil dostinv «Hri nevermore set his f„„t on Ita Ian i Z""'''''''' '''"'' »■"! he Palestine, tho vessel in w ich o T '. °" '"'' ^'"°"' '""" island or Zante. Vesaliulta^ tndTutTt^"- '" '"' soon after from hnn^pr ..n,i i .• ' ^^ ^'®^ miserably wrld has ever known • iTlZ f *"'"""'" """'o""''" *« extensive knowledge Jl:Z:;::Z2 "T "^ "'' sidenng the crude stitP nf n . ^ , observation. Con- »Pon ..; scone, and e pe L t „ 7 [.'T.':^''""' Reared ke left it, we n,ay well oTdril ;''"''' °™'''' ''''«» energy and genius of o C,,,? " ™ P^'^iW^ 'hat the in so short a ti^e. His ^rwl'"™ "r^.^^ »-«!. '"F^'«"cU SO miiph to with advantage by modem an^. "'''''' ''" ^' ''^''^'^ have already stated wZ ^ ""T""'"''' '"'' P^^^'^^ed, as I / ^' ''''^" ''« author was only 28 vear, nf o Vesahus' anatomical works were lon^ Innl. / ^'• ties, and were translated into m^nv 1 ^ ^ "P°" '^ ^"^hori- His great work was ^1:2:^'^^^^^^ -Titian's, whose pictures it is „i^ / *"*'"' ^ P"?'' of judges for those of his ;as;er ' ""™ "■''"*»" "-/s^d The last edition appeared in 179^ j haave and Albinus, the latter . !:.. ""'' '^'^'^ ^^^^^r- testify. ' '"'''' ^ g'-eat anatomist, as his works pe^::^':::d^^^^^^ |ated byh,s exampl,t!:r;X?n:::2^^^^^^^ trammels of the old divinitip, „f .."""^S*'' '» throw off the selves. Many able ana I ;„r '"' ""'' *"'» '"' *«"- ^hom obtained great lebTt T ?™ '° "^ ''»»'• ^™'= «f San Severino, p'llopi ^ fjil „fv T" """ ^"''^"^us of Varolius, and man/others '^ '''""^' °'''<""''<'' ^ranzi, entftL?to"t"he stl™ a^ZutT"^ "'''"^''"'' *»"«■• "»' anatomy. Ho was a „ted 17' ^/'^'^^ *■= '•°»"<'»' «f •'•"■-.......x;::-aL'a:.t£: »im, and he eturn from ied on the miserably ^flar of his iomists the ect bj his ;ion. Con- appeared ved when 5 that the ' so much referred ed, as I ' of age. authori- Engh'sh. pupi] of by good y Boer- 3 works ', inde- stimu- off the ' them- 3me of lius of ranzi, ;h not ler of amed irged ce of rged 19 Galon. Eustachiua was the first to accurately describe the in- ternal ear and the tube from the throat to the oar, whioh is still called the Eustachian tube. He, also, was the first to describe the thoracic duct, which ho saw in the horse. He discovered the supra-renal capsules, and described many other structures accurately for the first time. In his finer dissections he used magnifying glasses, and separated complicated parts by injection and maceration. Eustachius published a few works in his life- time, but, from want of means, his anatomical plates, which were ready in 1552, were not published, but remained in the Papal Library till 1714, when, having been accidentally found, they were published by Lancisi. Lauth observes that if Eustachius had been able to publish them himself, anatomy would have ad- vanced much more rapidly, as many of the discoveries after- wards made by observers in the 18th century were anticipated in this work of Eustachius. The last edition appeared in 1790, and even as late as 1830 his plates were much valued for their anatomical exactness. Eustachius was professor of anatomy in the University of Rome, and died there in 1574. Fallopius, a pupil of Vesalius, was professor of anatomy, first at Pisa and afterwards at Padua. He accurately described various parts about the ear, which still bear his name.* He paid great attention to the organs of generation (as the " Fal- lopian tube" testifies), and published a large work on anatomy in 1561, which went through many editions. Columbus was also a pupil of Vesalius, and described the cir- culation of the blood from the right to the left side of the heart six years after Servetus. He is supposed by many to have first taught it to Servetus. The name of Cesalpinus (1519-1003) is more interesting to physiologists than anatomists, as it is identified with the circula- tion of the blood. Although a contemporary of Vesalius, he outlived him fifty years. Not knowing what had been done previously by Servetus and Columbus, he rediscovered the pul- monic circulation, and was the first to use the words " circulation * Aqueduotus Fallopii, which trausmita tho facial nerve, and the Hiatus Fallopii for the petrosal nerve. 20 of tho blood " Ua uZZT '" 'r '■°"".-'.,: it'r''" -"-"y ere::"/ "Jin ail the credit fn- *k- '"^criptiou on whinK »i . T'»ro wore several „t. ■■«"'' Harvey .3 ^hich aiacove/^; t;t:r, : '^ »-•• -^ -tie' :r^ ■n'nds were so obscured hvit ., ""' "*'»''«»« it " Th «™W not divest them^iv^ '• ^'T °' "^-'-'^ that t" "waning ,er„, ,, .UalTZT / 1 *' '"°"'»'- S" 1, u? up w th ff.o;« 1 . "P^^^ts, animal smrito * " "'^- ""de;sa'r:;x''''r°\*»' ■' '» St'tr ^r'*^" first /.. ^^-^actlj. what they mean TJ, ^ "^'^^ern to «s supposed to pass iL 7 'P»'"Bons blood " 'IV ?, ,' '«en the ti.u Tl , "«'' '""'iMo nores in ft' • ^'''"'" through the!: ;:i f^ '■•■'-;'■ thoia^;":^^^"':™ V f orvetus and'-cr:: ;- ' - I have above re. li ^ the circu- it he did •on, after- "Ifttion 80 f^'rom the to mean overer of rected a 'ey give irvey as shed in ny and Aran- a, who Coiter '» and very, ik of [^"heir they un- ixed 1 to i^as, the the 3h, od 'e. m ^, n e lation, although ho was the first to use the term.* The next 8tep forwards was the demonstration, hy Hieronvmus ■ Fabncms ub A4uapendente,of the valven of the Jeins. F ZZ who was . pu,,.I of Fallopius, and afterwards succeeded him s' valves .n lo71. At that tune the blood was believed to «o from fo.led to arnve at the correct solution of the use of the valves ordlste^or '''-''-' ''' '- '' '^^ '^-' -' ---d Fabricius ami his successor, Julius Casserius. may be regarded as the last of those illustrious Italian anatomists who established anatomy on a solid scientific basis, and paved the way for the great discovery of the circulation. ^ Fabricius had for his pupils the immortal Galileo and William Harvey, to whom Aquapendente, no doubt, demonstrated the valves m the yems, and so prepared the way for his later dis- overy regardmg the influence of the valves on the direction of ^e lood current. The Italians are now claiming that not only hn r? ^ ^^''"'' ^''™ '^' ''''^' '^ Cesalpinus, as related above, but was actually taught the circulation of the blood by Fabne,us ab Aquapendente, notwithstanding the fact that the pubhshed works of the latter show his actual knowledge of the circulation to have been most obscure. Still we mutt regard Aquapendente as the man who inspired Harvey, who with dltr^r^^' would probably neve'r have made'insti" William Harvey was born in 1578, and received his early education at Cambridge. In 1598 he went to Padua, and gra duated^s Doct^oiF^ Medjcin^ inJ602. On his return to established tho heart! wrchirbotTIhrf^nn^^^^^ n ^°""''' ' " ^"' '''"^ ^'^' ««ds) vehemently iiapollod throu«l al. '^""^'^'"of ">« veins, and the blood which i. The author Sr " ho f oltnt u ioTstr' t "'" *'1^" *" " "•'"""'^ ProKre.sion." suppose.-, he ea.s. .^th:t1S:Lr^t^Zetltr^^^^^^^^ t.o„ to man .„ his state of primoeval innocence and siZ>ll^TT.l\r^:ZZii: obhtcraiod wita the other traces of his oelestittl origin." ' ' ""■ ^'^^'^"^^^^ 22 I-OTdon, full of new thou-hts and n>„ • "■e Wood, he entered in^ .n I;'" ".'"^ "''^«»'»«»" of «s appointed leeturer onC' ' Th Vn '"™ ^^"^ ""^^ A' ti.e College he lectured "'"tl! I" ''"'' "' ''''^™'^°»- "Tcait of the Wood," and 1 Htr «| 7 "' "'^ ''^"' »"d ">« and experiments. He tan.d , „ i '"■'"'"''' ^^ ^'"''•'tiom 'hough he did not nubl h T ''°'"""^' "^ ^"■''v « 1619 l'i28. Thia wort ifa : , ;;::' "■^' *» ^-*" «" free fro„ the ohseurit, alT X!;:' "■\^»"';-™' -<• tefore been published on the sub.W Z "'"'''' "'"•='' '"«' ae direct connection between tbe f ".''''^^ ""«' ■'"ul'l 8nd Galen declared existed burr.- . I '' '"'' ™'™ »l>ich f- the arteries to 4e' ^e ' ^;t V;»°- ^as transmitted organs. Tl-e finding of the e■.mlhr^^u Po™ity of the and veins, was a l^ter dt^ 'el ih ™"""' '^ "'»- became better and more accurate ""'°' "' "^'^'"^ or to give, even shortly a„ at fT '" *^ ""■ <"="'"'-^ *^' period. Theana«oa.ca„::si: *%«r ""^'°™'-f ■nen, such as Van Horn nlllTl """^"^ '''"' "'"brated who discovered the lac^a s! T." '"""""' "' ^^"o"' A-lli, 'he living dog, De GrTaf ^ ^ demonstrating the nerves in » 'he ovary,ttc. lie 1' tT7':'" *'™=fi»» "-iole Highmore,LdPec,ue a™;oo„ V: ^°°' J*"""' ^esling, lacteal and lymphatic sv e,„ Zf "'"■ "'""™™« '" «>^ Afference between the lact ■ h^ . , l""""' '''' <'«»™ring the J«".ffe, an Eng,ishm:::'R:t^;^''f^j<'-ded between eovenes in these systems ir. "^ *""' " ''"ede. Further dis- 'holini, Wharton, B^ as Ck Td'T' ™"' '"^ "^"^ "^ ^u- .F™™ 16,50, anatomis'ts begt to stuZr:'™ ".nutel,, and organs and tisl,:: ^tm'o 1 cIo"?" '™"' '"""' Gl sson's name is associated with the i, un '^ ""vestigated. vj;»'l I I ^ r v^^^els at the ba.e of the fc '^i""™,' f <> *« «-«'« of blood- of Wilhs." The 17 h cen u h ; ' '''" "'"'' "-^ " -«!« *o e>"^^^, Lamaro, and others -From the first qu.rter of the Ton, to-' the n,arch of pro^re L ll ^ """""^ "? '» *« Present fc-o.ne more phiiosop'h f :, "e r, r^^- ^natoris vesfgation have hooon,e I ' •"""'"''^ "^ 'caching and h "»• regarded as for.Tng T'lln tf ^ """"^ -atr„^' J "■»jest,c whole. M.y ^^ ^;^'"' "1' ""po'-'ant, part „f ^ years, hundreds are used! """ '"''•''"" "as dissected i„ , «;M i-pon to the h^hi: :r-'rr ■ ""''^^^' he (I don't aaj is) obtained from !? .""'"'' '"formatiou mav -ehods of preservation and ^et l""''') «»« '0 mod" I «ate to be so favored. In r^j , "® ^"^^"^ the ff.rh, year, who must have suff r d (l',; d "r^ ""-' «- Z^ f-^^:;:tf-ri^-/Sc:iis h^an bodies, •• .h'ereas,'- ^f/*" ^-- «f diss^^ti g •^ ' ^ "''Peeted to have done ? c 'tten since 'arance of ogress. tfais was anatomj ■^ohn and > Scarpa, 'd others present ^y has and in- toinj is of one ^^ were of al] 3 been n two whole I may )dern e ob- Ivan- tuost was 3pu- ^for rtu- !t a ^ed ion ro- ic- 3; 'g 25 so once everv *e .ghUf our present know edf it^T ' '^ ^^ »'"''^ iti« '■vate scentifio habits of thou/hri,', ^ '"'""= "' '» ""l" »f -q-y, and p„.3 „3 in the wl! oftT "'' '" " ^™^" S^'"' »»ny problems eo„oer„i„, the !1„ 'f ''" ^"^"'^"^ '"'"ng .d»*e„t. Thus have mor^holorf ^ f '"''" """^ *e line „f hi° '"'erest to a subject which «, '' ''^™'»P»'ent added a new --ewhat disa.4ab,e I. ™" """/' '""' ""-^ ""O- P-C human anatomy is a subject Chth ha "'"f '. '° '"PP«^ *a knowledge of what has been do„e o" 1^ '' '" ^"''''y- ^ "•■s. A few years only have r„T^ "^ •''^"^ '"sily proves cerebral convolutions has been M, 7°' -^ '"P'g^Phj of the ho optic nerve traced to tl ]I^Zt'tu''' """^ *' "«'" «f '^^nal organs has only quite ^c ± t "^^ P°'"'»° »f «he in- ZT"' of frozen sections oft^'fCr^^-fely determined fte Russian surgeon Rra^off r„ f /' '^' '""'"''uced by a;-e, by their discoveries, plLn, „t ^1^"' "^^ '"""™i'^ «'og,sts to solve. "Ever; yea CIt ' '"'^"'^ *« Phyai- Mge of forn, ,„., structuretnd trrlrr^'"""*"""-^"""- ■on and fresh %ht is being continull'b' ""^ ""^ '° ''•'- of Ihc human frame." Humr, f-^ °™ °" *« ■"ochanism °f comparative, cannot fe p op rTd-l"""' *^ -»'- " anatom,st who only tnows theTuma b d ' *" ''^"^ »' '«' 'hose of an explorer of a ,ar„e rive, I ^^^ "' ^ °»™'' as Satmg one of its tributaries or „f , ".'""'^'"' ''i* investi- «ft only one order of p, nV „• " '°"""'' ^"'° - ac,,ni„,ed '".ted. his ideas must 'be tcesfari,r*'" f '""""^^^^ "-"S human anatomist, much interes „ { '" ' ''r^''' '» *» Pur? «, and the explanation of t e ti *: TV "'» ^"^ject is anatmns, and anomalies is not a tl?l '"'"''■'^ <"•«»», Anatomy, h„,„vor, studied inthfSf T"^^™ *""«'"* eaches not only what we have been and „ k "'°^'™ '"'^^e, fa.utly perhaps, what the distant fl!'.!!""""- ""ieates, m store for us.