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EIGHTY YEAES' PROGRESS OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA; BHOWINO THE WONDERFUL DEVELOPMENT OP ITS NATURAL RESOURCES, BY THE UNBOUNDED ENERGY AND ENTERPRISE OF ITS INHABITANTS; OIVINO, IN A HISTOBIOAL FORM, THE VAST IMPROVEMENTS MADE IN AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, AND TRADE, MODES OP TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION, MINING, AND EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS, ETC., ETC. WITH A LARGE AMOUNT OF STATISTICAL INFORMATION, VBOU THE BEST AND LATEST AUTHORITIES. BY H. Y. HIND, M. A., F. R. G. S. T. C. KEEFER, CIVIL ENGINEER. J, G. HODGINS, LL. B., F. R. G. S. CHARLES ROBB, MINING ENGINEER. M. H. PERLEY, ESQ. REV. WM. MURRAY. FULLY ILLUSTRATED WITH STEEL AND ELECTROTYPE PLATE ENGRAVINGS, SHOWING THE PROGRESS IN THE VARIOUS BRANCHES TREATED OF (FURNISHED TO SUBSCRIBEBS ONLY.) TORONTO: PUBLISHED BY L. STEBBINS. 1863. PC £3^ Entbbed, according to the Act of the Provincial Parliamant, in the year one thoiisand eight hundred and sixty-three, by JOHN LOVELL, lu the OfiQce of the Registrar of tho Province of Canada; and entered aI. Stationers' Hall. JOHN LOVELL, MONTREAL PRINTER AND BINDER. ilJ^S^ \ X PREFACE he year one eatered pi. The busineos of the historian of the earlier a^^es of the world was to record changes in forms of government, to give accounts of long and bloody wars, and to narrate the rise or fall of dynasties and empires. From the days of Herodotus, to the middle of the last century, the world made little progress. It is true, that great empires rose one after another upon the ruins of their predecessors ; but so far from there being any thing like real progress, the reverse seems to have been the case. It has remained for the pres- ent age to witness a rapid succession of important inven- tions and improvements, by means of which the power of man over nature has been incalculably increased, and re- sulting in an unparalleled progress of the human race. But great as has been the movement in the world at large, is on the North American continent that this has baen most remarkable. The rise of the United States, from a few feeble colonies to a high rank among nations, has never ceased to attract the attention of the world ; and their career has been indeed so wonderful, that the quiet but equally rapid growth and development of the Bntioh 4k PBEFAOE. « North American provinces has received comparatively little notice. It will be seen from the following pages that they have at least kept pace with their powerful southern neighbors, and that, though laboring under some disad- vantages, they have in eighty years increased tenfold, not only in population but in wealth ; they have attained to a point of power that more than equals that of the united colonies when they separated from the mother country. They have, by means of canals, made their great rivers and remote inlanr*. seas accessible to the shipping of Europe ; they have constructed a system of railroads far surpassing those of Eome of the European powers ; they have estab- lished an educational system which is behind none in the old or the new world ; they have developed vast agricul- tural and inexhaustible mineral resources ; they have done enough, in short, to indicate a magnificent future — enough to point to a progress which shall place the provinces, with- in the days of many now living, on a level with Great Britain herself, in population, in wealth, and in power. If in the next eighty years the provinces should prosper as they have in the eighty years that are past, which there seems no reason to doubt, a nation of forty millions will have arisen in the North. To exhibit this progress is the object of the present vol- Tune. It will be seen, from the well-known names of the gentlemen who have contributed to its pages, that a high order of talent has been secured to carry out the design of the work. CONTENTS. Phtsioal Fkatitrus of Cakada AaRIOULTUBAL HiSTORT OF GaKADA Agricultural Soozeties in Upper Cakala . Agricultural Productions of Canada Paoi . 13 82 . 89 62 Forest Industry 64 The Nort&*west Territory The New Parliament Buildings At Ottawa . . Bt Henry Youle Hind, M. A., F. R. Q. S., Professor of Chemistry and Geology in Trinity College, Toronto ; Editor of the " Canadian Journal of Industry, Science, and Art," and of the " Journal of the Board on Arts and Manufactures," &c. H 94 6 CONTENTS. Paob Travbl and Transportation 99 Roads in Lower Cunada 104 Roada in Upper Canada . . . . . .109 Bridle and Winter Roads 116 Corduroy Roads . , . , , . .119 Common or Graded Roads 120 Turnpike and Plank Roads 122 Macadam Roada 123 Water Communications 129 Ocean Steamcra 141 Early Navigation of the St. Lawrence . . • .146 Railwaya in Canada • . . . , . 187 Grand Trunk Railway 197 Causes of Failure of the Grand Trunk Railway . . 206 Municipal Railways 214 Railway Morality . . , , , . .221 Great Western Railway 229 Buffalo, Brantford, and Goderich Railway , . 234 Grain Portage Railways 236 Inter-Colouial Railway . , , , , ,238 Railway Policy .,,,,,,, 247 Express Companies • • . , , .260 Canadian Gauge ••••••. 263 Horse Railways . • • • . • , . 266 By Thob. C. Kebfer, Civil Engineer, Author of " Phi- losophy of Railroads," Prize Essay on the Canals of Canada, dec. CONTENTS. 7 Paob Victoria Bridge . , 267 Tho Electric Telegraph in Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick ..«..»-. 260 COMMEROS AND TrADB • . » . <. . . 208 Early Trade of Canada , * V 208 Fur Trade -».**, . 276 Sbip-Building and Lumber Trade . . 284 Produce Trade . • . . . 290 Present Trade of Canada . , » 292 Tho Reciprocity Treaty , , , • . 296 Channels of Trade . . • « . 298 Immigration ,. » . , , * . 301 Free Grants of Land and Colonization Roadsi. » By Henbt Youlk Hind, M. A., F. R. G. S., &c. 803 Mineral Resouroeb of British North Ambrioa • .308 Geological Structure of Canada . i • i 810 Catalogue of useful Minerals found in Canada . .313 Mineral Resources of Nova Scotia . k , » 360 Mineral Resources of New Brunswick . , i . 360 Mineral Resources of Newfoundland . , , 363 Mineral Resources of British Columbia and Vancouver Island 366 Mineral Resouroes of the North-west 'Territory . « 871 By Charles Robb, Mining Engineer, Author of •''Bbe Metals in Canada," &c. A^: • I o ., contents. Historical Skktch of Education in'TJppbb Canada . Early Educational Efforts . . . . , Educational Legislation, 1806-1816 . First Establishment of Common Schools, 1816-1822 Fitful Progress from 1822 to 1836. Parliamentary Inquiry and its Results, 1836-1843 Paqb . 373 374 . 381 384 . 390 395 Improvement, Change, and Progress, from 1844 to 1853 399 Higher and Intermediate Education, Ontario. Jjake Ontario is 180 miles long, 50 broad,, 600 feet deep, and has an area of 6,300 square miles; it discharges its wa- ters, together with those of the upper lakes, by the Eiver St. Lawrence into the gulf of the same name. A few miles above Montreal, the Ottawa River comes in from the north, draining an area of 80,0^0 square miles. Below Montreal the St. Maurice debouches into the St. Lawrence at Three Rivers, drawing contributions from 22,000 square miles o: timbered country. At Quebec the St. Lawrence is 1,314 yards wide, but the basin below the city is two miles across, and three and three-quarters long. From this point the vast river goes on increasing in size as it swells onward toward the gulf, receiving numerous large tributaries, among which is the famous Saguenay, 250 feet deep where it joins the St. Lawrence, and 1,000 feet deep some distance above the point of junction. Below Quebec the St. Law- rence is not frozen over, but the force of the tides inces- santly detf.ches ice from the shores, and such immense masses are kept in continual agitation by the flux and re- flux, that navigation is totally impracticable during part ^i the winter season. Vessels from Europe pass up the great system of canals which render the St. Lawrence navigable for 2,030 miles, and land their passengers at Chicago without transshipment. The table on the following page shows a profile of this ship route from Anticosti, in the Estuary of the St. Law- rence, to Superior City ; et deep, } its wa- biver St. nr miles B north, [ontreal t Thiee oailes o: is 1,314 miles lis point onward )utaries, p where distance 5t. Law- s inces- aamense and re- 3art v,i le great vigable (vithout of this Law- . i ,>ar;. > '."«'0' «'o-. i The en miles. 1 which do to the ga their leve erally sta' 1. The February 2. The 8. The 4. The feet and s 5. The: their levc upon lunj The St 000,000 c 2 TBI PHTSIOAL riATURKB Or CANADA. 19 Nai Antiooiti QimImc Montreal LnehiiM Canal BeauhnrnuU do.... Com wall do,... Fnrreii'i Point do... Rapid Flat 4»... Pt. Iroquoii Qanal. Galop* do... Lake Ontario... Welland Canal. Lake Erie Detroit River... LakeSt, Clair.. River St. Clair. Lake Huron River Hte. Mnrln. . . BaultSte. Marie Canal LakeSuner'or. FortWillian:.. Superior City. . 410 IMW (114 «W24 I i u 14-58 .W..VUI.3 M'2.(V-IH56 07:ii IUI).5-iU.'S em I93.3-9U7 flOOA 714i 766 loie 1041 1!M0 van, l.-iHi) I03U lOSO IDIO 9030 W7-213 213-!»S 934 234-fl«4 904 504 573 573-5fl2.5 582.5-OOU 600 97 900 3IN) >J(IO 9U0 190 550 90i 75 Si 43 4 19 330 17J The entire area of the great lakes is about 91,000 square miles. They are remarkable for the purity of their waters, which do not contain more than eight grains of solid matter to the gallon of 70,000 grains. The variations to which their level is subjected are common to all, and may be gen- erally stated to be as follows : 1. The mean minimum level is attained in January or February. 2. The mean maximum level is in June. 8. The mtjan annual variation is twenty-eight inches. 4. The maximum variation in twelve years has been four feet and six inches. 5. There is no periodicity observable in the variations of their levels, and there is no flux and reflux dependent upon lunar influence. The St. Lawrence carries past the city of Montreal 50,- 000,000 cubic feet of water in a minute, and in the course % I 20 ' THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. of one yeax bears 143,000,000 tons of solid materials held in solution, to the sea. All the phenomena of a mighty river may here be witnessed on a stupendous scale, its irresistible ice masses, crushing and grinding one another in the depth of winter, its wide-spreading and devasta- ting floods in spring, its swelling volume stealing on with irresistible power in summer, broken here and there by tumultuous and surging rapids or by swift and treacherous currents, or by vast and inexhaustible lakes. As it ap- proaches the ocean it rolls on between iron-bound coasts, bearing the tributary waters of a region equal to half Europe in area, and subject to a climate which vainly endeavors to hold it frost-bound for fully one-third of the year. The whole valley of the St. Lawrence is a magnificent example of the power of water in motion, and the great lakes them- selves are splendid illustrations of the " dependence of the geographical features of a country upon its geological structure." The following table shows the relative magnitude of the great lakes of the St. Lawrence valley : Area in EleTation Mean Names of Lakes. Square Miles, above the Sea. Depth. Lake Superior. .. . 32,000 600 1,000 Green Bay 2,000 578 600 Lak<^ Michigan... 22,400 578 1,000 Lake Hvron 19,200 578 1,000 Lake St. Olair. ... 360 570 120 Lake Erie 9,600 565 84 Lake Ontario 6,300 232 600 Total area, .... 91,860 The greatest known depth of Lake Ontario is 780 feet ; in Lake Superior, however, a line 1,200 feet long has, in some parts, Hailed in reaching the bottom. OEOGRAFHICAL SURFACE OF 0A17ADA. The western peninsula, comprehending the rich tract of country west of an undulating escarpment or ancient sea THE PBTSIOAL FBATURE8 OF CANADA. 21 margin, reaching from Queenstown on the Niagara, round the head of Lake Ontario, and thence north to Georgian Bay, Lake Huron, is a gently sloping plain, deeply covered with drift clays ; the highest part of this plain is at the Blue Mountains, abutting on Georgian Bay, where their northwestern escarpment is about 1,000 feet above Lake Huron. From the central townships of Proton and Luther, a low axis or water parting causes the rivers to discharge west into Lake Huron and east into Lake Erie, as far south as the head- waters of the Thames, which flows in a south- westerly direction to Lake St. Clair. Joining the ancient sea margin about half way between Lake Ontario and Nottawasaga Bay, Lake Huron, a ridge of drift, about 700 feet above where the Northern Eailway crosses it, pursues a course roughly parallel to Lake Ontario, but with gradu- ally diminishing altitude, and terminates near the Bay of Quints. This ridge of drift blocks up a communication which once existed between Georgian Bay and Lake On- tario. There is strong evidence to prove that another * Niagara' formerly existed somewhere between Lake Hu- ron and Ontario, probably in the neighborhood of the line of the Northern Eailway. A direct artificial water com- munication between these lakes is now advocated. In the rear of these subordinate elevations, which only slightly diversify the great plain of western Canada, the Lauren- tide mountains, stretching from Lake Superior to Labrador, separate the valley of the St. Lawrence from the region tributary to Hudson's Bay. The Laurentides approach or form the north shores of the Gulf and Eiver St. Lawrence from Labrador to near Quebec ; they then retire from the river by degrees, and at Montreal are thirty miles from the St. Lawrence. They cross the Ottawa one hundred and fifty miles from Montreal, and, bending round, approach the St. Lawrence again in the direction of Kingston. From this point they run in a north-westerly direction, and form tit; I Hi : ;i*^_ '^1'^ I if. hi. I 22 THB PHTBIOAL FBATtTRES OF CANADA. the rongli country in the rear of Lakes Huron and Su- perior, and the water parting between the St. Lawrence val- ley and Hudson's Bay. The height of land is really a table- land, diversified with innumerable lakes, large and small, but west of the Saguenay River, not distinguished by moun- tains possessing any considerable altitude. In the rear of the St. Lawrence, below Quebec, detached peaks of the Laurentides attain an elevation of 2,000, and even 3,000 feet. Forty miles from the coast, opposite Anticosti, they have an elevation of 3,200 feet, and on the great table land of the Labrador Peninsula there are isolated peaks at least 5,000 feet above the sea level. On the south of the St. Lawrence, the level valley of the river is from thirty to forty miles broad as far as the base of the prolongation of the Green Mountains of Vermont, in which range detached peaks at- tain an elevation of about 4,000 feet. The Notre Dame moun- tains in the District of Gasp6 are very imposing ; they vary in width from two to six miles, and in height from 2,000 to 3,778 feet. Viewed as a whole, the entire valley of the St. Lawrence from Lake Superior to Quebec, maybe regarded as occupying part of the north-eastern rim of the immenae basin of sedimentary rocks which form the Unit,ed States, a portion of Mexico and British America west of Lake Winnipeg. The broad and low Laurentides stretching from Labrador to the Arctic sea separate this basin from the northern one, in part occupied by Hudson's Bay. ^^'U THE BOILS OF CANADA. The geological structure of different parts of this vast extent of country determines, to a considerable degree, the character of the soils which form the surface. The soils in the western part of the province are derived from the 'drift,' which is made up of the ruins of the crystalline rocks of the Laurentides and of the sedimentary rocks lying to the north of any particular locality or in its immediate neighborhood. THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 23 In the extreme •western peninsula tlie rich clays consist of remodeled ' drift,' and are of lacustrine origin. In the valley of the St. Lawrence below Montreal, the clays are marine, and not unfrequently contain a considerable pro- portion of calcareous matter. Below Quebec, on the south shores, the soils are derived from the disintegration of the red slates found in that region, while in the eastern town- ships the drift and debris of the altered rocks, which distin- guish that part of the country, form the surface covering. In the region of the Laurentides, the fertile belts or strips consist either of 'drift' or of the ruins of crystalline lime- stone, and soda and lime feldspars, but the area covered by arable soil in the rocky region of the Laurentides is com- paratively very small, and necessarily limits the progress of settlement north of the St. Lawrence and great lakes. The area in Canada occupied by sedimentary rocks, where in general rich and fertile soils abound, is about 80,000 square miles ; the region embraced by the crystalline rocks is about 210,000 square miles in extent, five-sixths of which may be said to be wholly incapable of cultivation. ROCK FORMATIONS. The whole of the peninsula of Western Canada, the val- ley of the St. Lawrence south of the Laurentides, the val- leys and depressions in the peninsula of Gasp6, are more or less deeply covered with clays interstratified with sand and gravel, which belong to quarternary deposits, and in some parts are overlaid by alluvium. The region of the Laurentides alone exposes over the greater part of its vast extent, bare crystalline sedimentary rocks, the oldest, as far as is known, in the world, and named after the great river where they are developed on s' n a stupendous scale, the ' Laurentian Series.' Betv;een the Post Tertiary and the base of the Carbonif- erous, the entire series of sedimentary rocks is wanting in % . 24 TZS PHT8ICAL FEATURES OF OANADA. Canada, witli the exception of small patches of Tertiary Formations which have escaped denudation. THE QUARTERNART DEPOSITS. The stratified clays, sands and gravels contain the remains of many species of marine animals, identical with those now found in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, often at an altitude of 500 feet above the level of the sea. Sixty-three species of marine invertebrates from the Post-Pliocene or Pleistocene clays of the St. Lawrence valley have been disinterred. The quarternary deposits form the soil of a large portion of the country. They contain clays suitable for the fabrication of red, white and yellow bricks; molding sands, tripoh, shell marl, bog iron ore, ochre, and in the eastern part of Canada they are overlaid by peat, which occupies depressions. THE PAL^EOZOTO ROOKS. If we suppose that the quarternary deposits were swept away, and the whole of the underlying rocks laid bare, the formations of Canada older than the post tertiary would be found to consist of the following series : 1. A small area of the Carboniferous. 2. The Devonian Series. 3. The Silurian Series. 4. The Huronian or Cambrian Series. 5. The Laurentian Series. These rocks form part of the Great Southern Basin of North America ; the geographical limits of Canada, while embracing a large portion of its northern rim, penetrate like a wedge towards its center, by means of the peninsular portion of the western part of the province. An anticlinal axis separates this basin into two subordinate divisions, the line of demarkation running from the valley of the Hudson towards Quebec. The western subordinate basin contains the great coal fields of the United States, the eastern portion THK PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 26 embraces those of Ne^,v Brunswick and Massachusetts. " The rocks of these two basins present remarkable differ- ences in their chemical and physical conditions. The for- mations of the western basin are nearly horizontal, and offer a perfect conformity, whUe in those of the east there is discordance between the upper and lower Silurian, and be- tween the Devonian and Carboniferous formations. The strata of the eastern basin are moreover very much folded and contorted, and have in some parts undergone profound chemical and mineralogical changes."* The highest formation in Western Canada is the Portage and Chemung group, or the upper portion of the Devonian Series, which includes the Hamilton group, the Comifer- ous limestone, the Oriskany sandstone, &c., of the New York geologists. In the extreme west of the province, where patches of the Portage group occur- ..^traordinary springs of petroleum have been tapped by boring to the depth of from 200 to 300 feet, on the summit of an anticlinal axis. The source of the petroleum is probably the underlying Comiferous limestone. The yield from fear springs, which send pure petroleum about thirty feet above the surface of the ground, is estimated at fifteen thousand barrel? a day. Lying beneath the Devonian Series are the Onondaga Salt Group, the Niagara limestone and the Medina sandstone of the Upper Silurian Series. Next follow the Middle Silurian rocks, represented by the Hudson i^iver Group and Utica Slate, the Oneida Conglomerates not having been found in Western Canada. The Lower Silurian Series is repre- sented in regular sequence by the Trenton, Black River, Birds-eye and Chazy limestones, succeeded by the Calcifer- ous sand-rock and the Potsdam sandstone which rests upon the ancient crystalline rocks of Huronian or Laurentian * Sketch of the Gteology of Canada, by Sir "W. B. Logan, P. R. S., and T. Steny Hunt, P. G. S. • I 2d THE PHTSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. age. Tracks of a large crustacean are nmnerouB in the Pots- dam sandstone, coprolites occur in abundance at the sum- mit of the Calciferous sand-rock, the succeeding limestones are very rich in fossils, and the Utica slate is distinguished by abundance of bitumen, which has been used as a source *of oil derived from its destructive distillation, but not, com- mercially, with success. The Onondaga salt group furnishes gypsum and brine springs. The marbles of the lower lime- stones are susceptible of a fine polish, and hydraulic cement of the best quality occurs in many parts of the province. The highest rock in the eastern basin is a millstone grit, which forms the base of the New Brunswick coal field. It occurs in the Peninsula of Gasp6, and is underlaid by De- vonian sandstone of great thickness, (7,000 feet,) which re- poses on limestone and shales of the Upper Silurian Series, resting upon rock of Middle Silurian age. Some members of the Lower Silurian Series are highly metamorphosed and developed to an extraordinary extent in the vicinity of Que- bec and elsewhere, showing a thickness of 7,000 feet, and distinguished by metaliferous veins; hence, although of the age of the Potsdam sandstone and the Calciferous sand- rook, they have been named the Quebec Group, also the Taconic system, and the Upper Copper-bearing rocks of Lake Superior. They are of vast economic importance, in- asmuch as they form the great metaliferous formation of North America, containing gold, lead, copper, zinc, silver, cobalt, nickel, chromium and titanium. They are traceable from Gasp6 to Alabama, under various designations, and thence to the west side of the Mississippi, through Kansas to Lake Superior, without suffering any diminution in volume. The copper ores in Eastern Tennessee and those of Acton in Lower Canada, belong to this important group, as well as the lead, copper, zinc, &c., of Missouri, and the copper of Lake Superior. On the shores of Lakes Huron and Superior, the Quebec rej Tl mel seri Thi anc dor lim< alte prol four thic tribi impc Cans fossil Laui ered stent grati renti from distr Tl rem£ the ( modi valk wate couc tude THB PHT8ICAL FBATCRBS OF CANADA. 21 group rests unconformably on the Huronian Series, which reposes also unconformably upon the Laurentian Series. The Huronian Series is 18,000 feet 'hick, and consists of quartzites, thin limestone bands, slate rocts and diorite. It is the lower copper-bearing rock of America. The im- mense beds of iron ore at Marquette also belong to this series. It is traversed by a vast number of trappean dykes. The Laurentian system is the oldest known system of rocks, and is composed of gn(3i8s, crystalline limestone and Labra- dorite. This series is of enormous thickness, one band of limestone being 1,000 feet thick, and the entire mass of altered sediments composing the vast Laurentian series probably exceeds 20,000 feet. Traces of fossils have been found in several localities ; beds of iron ore hundreds of feet thick, great veins of metallic sulphurets with widely dis- tributed crystalline limestone bands, give great economic importance to the series. The geographical surface of Canada contains about 80,000 square miles of unaltered fossiliferous rocks, and probably 230,000 square miles of the Laurentian Series. Where the Laurentian Series is not cov- ered with quarternary deposits, the belts of crystalline lime- stones, and soda and lime feldspars, produce upon disinte- gration a fertile soil, so that the cultivable area in the Lau- rentian country js much greater than would be inferred from the gneissoid character of the formation in many districts. THE OLIMATB OF CANADA. The geographical position of Canada has necessarily a remarkable influence upon the climates of different parts of the country. The western peninsula has its climate greatly modified by the vast lakes which almost encircle it. The valley of the St. Lawrence below Kingston, as far as tide water, is removed from this ameliorating influence, and the country below Quebec is subject to many of those vicissi- tudes which belong to great estuaries and the sea-coast. The ■ f\ . r 28 THK FHYBICAL FKATURK8 OF CANADA. north shores of Lake Huron and Superior, and the back country north of a line extending from Lake Huron to Ottawa, and removed from the influence of the great lakes, possess a very rigorous climate, in which intense winter cold, prolonged through many weeks, is followed by a short but hot summer, succeeded by genial autumnal months. Meteorological observations have been carried on for many years, at three separate points, which may represent the centers of the different climates of Canada in the settled parts of the country. At Toronto, (1862,) the mean an- nual temperature for a period of 22 years, has been 44''.12, the warmest month, July, has a mean of 66°.85 ; the coldest month on the average of 22 years is February, which has a mean temperature of 22°.98. The highest temperature re- corded was 99*'.2, the lowest, — 26°.5. The average range of temperature during the same period amounts to 102°.7. The average fall of rain during 21 years was 30.32 inches. The greatest rain-fall in one month was 9.76 inches, the greatest in one day, 3.36 inches ; but the average for 21 years of the greatest rain-fall in one day is 2.14 inches. The average fall of snow for 21 years is 61.6 inches, and the number of days on which snow falls is 57. The total average depth of snow and rain during 21 years is 36.49 inches. The average number of days on which rain or snow falls is 163. Sep- tember is the most humid month. The resultant direction of the wind during a period of 14 years is K. 60 W.. The mean velocity per hour being 1.85 miles ; but without re- gard to direction, the mean velocity is 6.78 on an average of 14 years. The mean humidity of May, June and July, deduced from a period of 21 years, is 74. At Montreal, (1856,) the mean temperature of the air for a period of 7 years, was 41°.56. The absolute mean range for the same period has been from 90^.9 to 27°.4 be- low zero. The highest temperature in the shade recorded was 100°. 1, the lowest 36°.2 below zero, gi^nng a climatic (L TBI PHTBIOAL FXATURE8 07 CANADA. 2D range of 186°.3. The degree of humidity is represented by .84. The average number of days on which rain fell was 73 per annum, and of days on which snow fell 43 ; or in all, 116 days on which precipitation took place. The rain-fall amounted to 43.004 inches ; the depth of snow to 95.76 inches, or 52,380 inches of precipitation reduced to the form of rain. The mean of evaporation from the surface is nearly 21 inches during the spring, summer and autumn. The most prevailing wind is the westerly. The snow storms are from the N. E. by E., on the average. The following table shows the monthly mean temperature at four different stations between the head of Lake Ontario and Quebec inclusive. From it an idea of the difference in climate bet\ .en those far separated points maybe inferred. The period over which the observations extend is the year 1855, but it is probable that the means of a large number of years would produce slight but comparatively unimportant changes in the observed temperatures. From this table the chief differences in the climates of the districts of which they are centers may be deduced. TABLE Of the Mean Monthly Temperatures at Hamilton and Toronto, (TTpper Cana- da,) and Montreal and Quebec, (Lower Canada,) for the year 1855. Hamilton. Toronto. Montrbal. Qubbko. (Lat. 43" 16') (Lnt. 43° 39-) .t., .,0 oo-x n^ 4^0 jgr, Head of Lake Ontario. 341 ft. above the lea. ^^'- *' ^' '^^ *^ ^^ 1855. 1855. 1855. I. S ) in 1851. ( 87 in 1859. 33 in 1848. Feb. 1846. Deo. 1851. 46.1 10.07 23.0 8 RAIN AND SNOW, (OOMBINBD.) WBXBB 10 mOHXS OT 8K0W ABB OOKBEDXBXD AB EQUIVALXST TO 1 DTOH 09 BAOT. Avera^of 19 yrs. & 22 jn. Total depth hi the year 36 .488 Number of days in which nun or snow fell 160* Greatest depth in one month fell in September. when it amounted to , V 973 Days of aqueous precipitation most frequent in Di oember. when their nnmbex was r..... 18 I , , 82 TfiX AORIOULTUBAL UISTORT OF OAK ADA. CHAPTER n. THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. V », TUB AORIOVLTURAL BISTORT 07 OANADA.- EiQHTY years ago Upper Canada was a wilderness from the Ottawa to the St Clair. The first British settlements were made after the year of peace 1783, but previously to that date only a few insignificant and drooping French colonies lay scattered on the banks of the St. Lawrence, or grouped in remote isolation on the river Detroit. Lower Canada at that time contained 113,000 people, although in 1676, or more than a century before, its population amount- ed to nearly nine thousand souls. So languid and slug- gish was the progress of Canada under French rule, that a century scarcely swelled the number of its inhabitants to that of its commercial capital, Montreal, at the present day. Eighty years ago the province, which now claims 2,506,- 755 inhabitants, was just emerging from the gloom of its forests. Over the whole of the most fertile and now most densely peopled western half, forest silence reigned, reigned undisturbed and supreme. The apicultural history of Lower Canada — ^where the population is of French origin in the proportion of 76.29 per cent to the whole number of inhabitants — ^is essentially distinct from that of Upper Canada, whose people are al- most exclusively of British descent. The Lower Canadian French are natives of the country, sons of the soil, honest, light-hearted, and pre-eminently faithful to the religion, tra- ditions and usages of their forefathers. They have grown to be almost a distinct people, under the old feudal system, and have always looked with characteristic reverence on their seigneurs, their pastors and the notary of their village. They have received no fresh blood by immigration for TBJB AORIOULTUKAL HISTORr OF CANADA. 83 generations, and have clung with remarkable tenacity to the customs of their ancestors, repelling innovation and dis- carding all change not especially sanctioned by their spirit- ual advisers. Hence their agriculture is still to a consider- able extent in a primitive condition, and requins a brief historical notice separate from that of the people of Upper Canada, who have been continually supplied with an in- fusion of fresh blood from Europe, are eager to grasp at every improvement which may better their condition, and who live less with a careless indifference to the future, or a happy enjoyment of the present, than with continual efforts to secure independence, often merging into a feverish anxiety to become rich, and surround themselves with the luxuries which the well-to-do in the world are supposed to enjoy. LOWER CANADA. VREXOH CANADIAN FARMS. There can be no doubt that the wretched mode of subdi- viding land and laying out farms which formerly prevailed in Lower Canada, has been instrumental in retarding the progress of husbandry in that part of the province. Very generally the farms in the old settled parts originally con- sisted of narrow strips whose lengths and breadths were in the ratio of ten to one ; three arpents wide by thirty arpents in depth being the form of the long rectangle ex- hibited by a French Canadian farm when first surveyed. This is the same as if the farms were 200 yards broad by 2,000 yards long, a form inconvenient for practical agri- culture, involving a yearly increasing expenditure of time and labor in its cultivation as the cleared portions become more remote from the homestead, for which no advantages of river or road frontage could compensate as the country became cleared. But when the seigneuries were surveyed, Il ' 34 THE AORIOULTUHAL HISTORr OF CANADA. Steamboats, railroads, and even macadamized roads were not thought of, and people did not then indulge in the habit of looking far into the future, or those of later date care to contemplate the condition to which they were drifting by continuing the mode of subdividing the soil which their fathers had inaugurated, ^^ith the increase of population, and the love for the paternal roof, which distinguishes the hahitans of Lower Canada, their farms have been again sub- divided longitudinally, sometimes into three parts, or one arpent in breadth by thirty in depth, or in the proportion of &Q^ yards broad to 2,000 long ; and in the older seigneu- ries the ratio of breadth to length is not unfrequently as one is to sixty or 33-^ yards broad to 2,000 yards long. These are some of the heirlooms of that old feudal system which sat like a huge incubus on Lower Canada, and whose depressing influence will long leave its mark on the energies and character of its people. FARM PRACTICE. We do not require to go far back into the history of that part of the province to find husbandry in all its branches in a very primitive condition. Thirty years ago, rotation of crops was wholly unknown, and no rules of art were prac- ticed by the happy, light-hearted French Canadian, who with rigid steps pursued the systems handed down to him by his ancestors, and strictly adhered to usages which generations had sanctioned. In addition tp the entire absents of rota- tion of crops, the practice of carting manure on to the ice of a neighboring river, in order that it might be washed away in the spring, was generally practiced, and even now prevails to a considerable extent. Barns were removed when the accumulations before the door impeded entrance or exit, and the old primitive forms of plows, harrows and all other farming implements and vehicles, were retained, with a wholesome horror of innovation in form or material. 1 THE AGRICULTURAL BISTORT OF OAKADA. 85 Nor need we travel far to fiud them still flourishing in all their original imperfections and want of adaptation to the end in view. The narrowness of the French Canadian farms has led to those seemingly interminable lines of neat whitewashed cottages which border the main roads, or fringe the river St. Lawrence, wearing the aspect of a continuous village. A stranger, steaming down the noble river, sees with ad- miration and delight an uninterrupted thread of white cot- tages, fronting the water, with here and there the broad, glittering tinned roof of the parish church, and in the back- ground the primeval forest; he gazes upon a beautiful picture, suggesting pleasing associations, and thoughts of rural contentment and prosperity, susceptible of increase as elsewhere in the world. Such is the outward show, but let him take a nearer view and examine in detail. He will find little or no change save in increase of numbers, be- tween what he now surveys and what he might hav3 seen one generation or even two generations ago. Improvement is progressing, but with snail-like progress, where ancient habits and customs are preserved, and where families cling to the soil on which they were bom, and divide and sub- divide their farms until they become narrow strips not much wider than a modern highway, with the house front- ing the river, and " the land all longitude." The following table will show the progress made in Lower Canada between 1827 and 1852, a period of twenty- five years, and it will s\;rikir jly illustrate the fact that, ten years since, real improvement was scarcely visible in aggre- gate results, while in some instances a retrograde movement seems plainly discernible. — Population. 1827, 471,876 1853, 890,261 Peas. Bushels. 832,318 3 1827, 1852, Wheat. Bushels. 2,931,240 3,073,943 Rye. Bushels. 217,543 1,415,806 325,422 Oats. Busliels. 2,341,529 8,977,380 Barlev. Bushels. 363,117 494,766 . Indian Corn. Bushels. 333,150 401,284 Potatoes. Bushels. 6,796,310 442,016 36 THE AORIOULTURAL BISTORT OF CANADA. 1827, 1,228,067 731,696 140 432 145,013 1852, 755,579 1,189,018 184,620 112,128 CowB. Sheep. Swinew fed'-Acl^' 1827, 260,015 829,122 241,735 2,946,565 1852, 295,552* 647,465 257,794 3,605,167 * 183,072 calves or heifers not included under the head ' cowa.' The diminution of oxen and sheep is remarkable ; the small increase in the production of wheat is probably owing to the "fly." In two articles only do we recognize any advance commensurate with the increase of population in twenty-five years, viz., in oats and flax. The area under crop in 1827 was 1,002,198 acres, in 1852, 2,072,341 acres, or more than double, yet while the area under crop had doubled, the yield appears to have uniformly diminished, a fact strongly shown in the subjoined comparative table of average produce per acre in Upper and Lower Canada in 1852, according to the census of 1851 — 2 : Upper Canada. Lower Canada. Bushels per acre. Bushels per acre. Wheat, 16U 9U Indian Com, 24^ 18^^ Rye, 12^3 10 Peas...... 14^ m Oato, 26^1 20|f In 1851 — 2, each person in Lower Canada cultivated 4 acres, roods, 8 poles ; in Upper Canada, 3 acres, 8 roods, 20 poles ; and while each family in either section of the province had on an average 2 cows, in Upper Canada 53 1 pounds of butter per cow was produced, and in Lower Canada the quantity was only 33 pounds. With respect to cheese, the proportion was as 7i is to If, or about 4 to 1 in favor of Upper Canada. While the stagnation, or rather retrograde movement, in the farming industry of the hahitans in Lower Canada was t' king place during the twenty-five years under review, the M I im\i ill m Vr ^ mm THB AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 31 most striking proofs were simultaneously afforded at the different agricultural exhibitions at Quebec and Montreal, of the fitness of thr )il and climate of the country for agricul- ture in its broadest acceptation. Scattered throughout Lower Canada there are numbers of excellent farmers whose practice can not be surpassed. In the results they have produced, and the example they have shown, they have proved beyond doubt what can be accomplished through- out the length and breadth of settled Lower Canada, from the Bay of Chaleurs to Montreal, and redeemed it from those u^'^ltvorable impressions which a survey of the culti- vated productions of its soil under the hands of the habit- u,ns of the old school is adapted to create, AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN LOWER CANADA. In April, 1862, there were no less than seventy-two of these useful associations in the Lower Division of the pro- vince. The progress which might fairly have been antici- pated from such a large number of distinct bodies, organized for the purpose of mutual assistance and encouragement, has not been satisfactory. This state of things has arisen in many instances from a most unusual and novel mode of distributing the annual government grant. We can not do better than transcribe the description of this singular disposal of public money, given in a recent number of the Lower Canada Agricultural Eeview, written by the editor on the occasion of a visit to different parts of Lower Canada to col- lect the best specimens of agricultural productions for trans- mission to the International Exhibition at London. " In many counties the societies have only distributed the funds among the local farmers, and this has been the case year after year, and we have often raised our voice against this sort of family compact. We need not here repeat our arguments, for wherever we have suggested the employment of the funds for any other purpose, we have generally met h III ''^\ ; ' I:* I'' 38 THE Af -JLTTTRAL HISTORY OP CANADA. with the entire approbation of the enlightened farmer ; and we have often met conscientious and intelligent men whose only aim is the advancement of agriculture. But these men are often bound hand and foot in their actions, being opposed by a majority who have no reason, and are only guided by their own narrow notions and the following of old customs ; happily this majority is day by day losing their strength and influence, and we predict a triumph, at no distant day, of progressive and improved agriculture." The Board of Agriculture for Lower Canada have taken decisive steps during the present year, (1862,) to secure the proper disbursements of the provincial grant, and to devote liberal awards of public money to the promotion of agri- cultural industry in all its important branches. The Lower Canadian Provincial Shows have partaken more of the character of an agricultural festival, hitherto, than of a meet- ing for the purpose of securing the progress of the Science and Art of Agriculture by fair and open competition and peaceful rivalry. In this respect they have differed materi- ally from the same annual expositions in Upper Canada, where astonishing advances in the proper direction have been made. The Board has now takeu steps to establish an Agricultural Museum, and to give assistance to county socie- ties towards the importation of improved breeds of horses, cattle and sheep. The Board is willing to advance to any society funds for the purchase of stock, retaining one-third of the annual government allowance for three successive years to discharge the debt thus incurred. If this new spirit of enterprise continues, the progress of agriculture in Lower Canada will be much more rapid than it has been of late years, although it must be acknowledged that in the face of many difficulties, national prejudices and peculiarities of character, a very marked improvement has taken place in many departments of husbandry, and in many parts of the Lower Province, but much, very much remains to be done. TEK AORICCLTURAL BISTORT OF CANADA. 89 The influence exercised by the Agricultural School at St. Anne is already favorably felt, and as this establishment appears likely to work a beneficial change in Lower Cana- dian husbandry, a few details respecting it may be both ap- propriate and acceptable. THH AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT ST. ANNK. At this establishment there are two departments, one de- voted to theoretical training, the other to the cultivation, upon the most approved principles, of a tract of land, to serve as a model farm, and a nursery for stock. The bene- ficial effect of the model farm is already felt in the neigh- borhood, farmers having generally adopted the cultivation of root crops, and sought with avidity for the improved breeds of animals which have been reared by the College. During the year 1860 there were eight pupils attending the school. In 1861, there were only four ; but as this depart- ment is yet in its infancy, there is good ground for the ex- pectation that it will receive increased encouragement, as the influence of the College becomes more widely felt. The steps taken by the provincial government for the en- couragement of agriculture in the Province at large, will be described in the narrative of the progress made in Cana- c'lita husbandry in Upper Canada, to which we now turn with more encouraging results before us. CHAPTER m. UPPER CANADA. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN UPPER CANADA. We have already stated that eighty years ago that part of the province of Canada which is now most densely peo- pled, was a forest wild. Upper Canada dates its existence as a distinct Province previously to the Union from the J. M = fr:| ni ; 40 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OP CANADA. year 1791. Before that period it formed part of the Pro- vince of Quebec ; as soon, however, as it had acquired a separate political status, it was divided into four districts, .the Eastern, Midland, Home and Western, each of which, in course of time, established agricultural societies. In 1782, or exactly eighty years ago, Upper Canada had barely 10,- 000 inhabitants. In 1824, the numbers had increased to 152,000, and in 1829 to 225,000 ; but it was not until the year 1830 that the governmeVit of the province took any decisive step to foster the agriculture of the country by "An Act to encourage the establishment of Agricultural Societies in the several Districts of the Province." As early as the year 1825, agricultural societies, it is believed, ex- isted in two or three districts, but no records have been handed down to show the condition of husbandry at that period. The indirect assistance given by the Imperial Govern- ment to Agriculture in Upper Canada, dates from a much earlier period than the encouragement given to Agricultural Societies by the Provincial Government ; for we find among the donations of George III. to the U. E. Loyalists the old English plow. It consisted of a small piece of iron fixed to the colter, having the shape of the letter L, the e^^nk of which went through the wooaen beam, the foot formmg the point, which was sharpened for use. One handle and a plank split from a curved piece of timber, which did the duty of a mold board, completed the rude implement. At that time the traces and leading lines were made of the bark of the elm or bass-wood, which was manufactured by the early settlers into a strong rope. About the year 1808 the "hog-plow" was imported from the United States; and in 1815 a plow with a cast iron share and mold-board aU in one piece, was one of the first implements requiring more than ordinary degree of mechanical skill, which was manufactured in the province. The seeds of improvement THE AGRICULTURAL HIBTORT 07 CANADA, 41 were then sown, and while in the address of the President at the Frontenac Cattle Show in 1833, we observe atten- tion called to the necessity for further improvement in the plows common throughout the country, we witness, in 1855, splendid fruit at the Paris Exhibition. In a notice of the trial of plows at Trappes, the Jownal d^ Agriculture Practique makes the following reference to a Canadian plow : " The plowing tests were brought to a close by a trial of two plows equally remarkable — to wit, the plow of Ranson & Simms, of Suffolk, England, and that of Bingham, of Nor- wich, Upper Canada. The first is of wood and iron, like all the English plows, and the results which it produced seemed most satisfactory, but it appeared to require a little more draught than the Howard plow. Bingham's plow very much resembles the English plow ; it is very fine and light in its build ; the handles are longer than ordinary, which makes the plow much more e^sy to manage. The opinion of the French laborers and workmen who were there, ap- peared on the whole very favorable to this plow. In 1828, when the whole population of Upper Canada amounted to 185,500 inhabitants, the number of acres un- der agricultural improvement was 670,000, or about 3tV for each individual ; in 1851 the average for each inhabitant was very nearly four acres. The comparative progress of Upper and Lower Canada, in bringing the forest-clad wil- derness into cultivation, may be inferred from the following table : LOWBR CANADA. Year. No. acres cultivated. 1831, 2,065,913 1844, 2,802,317 1851, 3,605,076 T7FPBR OANA£i'.. No. acres cultivated. 818, 4a2 2,166,101 3,695,763 Hence, in a period of twenty years. Lower Canada increased her cultivated acres by 1.9 and Upper Canada by 4.5. Before proceeding to describe in detail the progress of Agriculture in Upper Canada, it will be advisable to glance li I' t> m 42 TBB AORIOULTURAL BISTORT OF CANADA. at the efforts made by societies and the Government of the Province to elevate the condition of husbandry in all its departments, and to induce the people at large to join hand in hand in the march of improvement. OOVERNMBNT AND LSOISLATIVB ENCOURAGEMENT. The first public Act for the encouragement of Agricul- ture in Canada, which came into operation in 1830, author- ized the governor to pay one hundred pounds to any District Agricultural Society which raised the sum of £50 by sub- scription, for the purpose of importing valuable live stock, grain, useful implements, «&c. Several acts were passed in subsequent years, being modi- fications of that of 1830, all of them having for their object the encouragement of Agricultural Societies and Agricul- ture. In 1847 an additional step was taken, fraught with very important consequences to the interests of husbandry in Canada. An Act for the incorporation of the Provin- cial Agricultural Associations came into operation; and in 1850, Boards of Agriculture for Upper and Lower Canada were established by law. In 1851, an Act was passed to provide for the better organization of Agricul- tural Societies, and finally, in 1852, the most important step of all was taken, and " An Act to provide for the estab- lishment of a Bureau of Agriculture, and to amend and con- solidate the laws relating to Agriculture," came into operation. The District Societies, which, in 1830, drew their annual pittance from Government, and represented the agricultural interests of the country, have thus grown, in twenty-two years, to a comprehensive and centralized organization, con- sisting of, 1st, the Bureau ; 2d, the Boards of Agriculture for Upper and Lower Canada ; 3d, the Agricultural Asso- ciations for Upper and Lower Canada ; 4th, County Socie- ties ; 5th, Township Societies. THE AORIOULTURAL HIBTORY OP CANADA. 43 In 1867, another change took place, being also a step in advance; an Act was passed "to make better provision for the encouragement of Agriculture, and also to provide foi the promotion of Mechanical Science." The head of the Bureau of Agriculture received the title of ' Minister of Agriculture,' with very exteusive powers for obtaining and distributing information respecting the condition of Hus- bandry and the Progress of Arts and Manufactures in the Province. By this act Boards of Arts and Manufactures were created, and Horticultural Societies incorporated. The Boards of Agriculture distribute the annual gov- ernment grant to the County Societies, upon duly certified statements from the Treasurers of the different Societies. The progress of these excellent adjuncts to agricultural im- provement is shown in the following table : Year. 1852, 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, 1857, 1868, No. of So< cieties. Amount of Grant. Amount of Subscription. 22 $13,531.00 $21,557.00 41 17,109.00 25,930.00 41 23,409.00 32,792.00 41 23,119.00 32,574.00 41 23,654.00 33,614.00 41 24,957.00. r 34,075.00 42 15,675.96 34,275.00 lo59,* 61 24,221.00 23,836.00 "With the means at the disposal of the County Societies, a valuable impulse has no doubt been given to agriculture in all its branches ; chiefly by encouraging the introduction of a superior breed of animals and of improved implements. Several societies have devoted a considerable portion of their funds to the importation of improved breeds of cattle and horses. The awarding of premiums for stock, imple- * This year, in oonsequenoe of the financial condition of the country, the legislative grant was limited to a certain amount for the entire Province, and a uniform deduction was made from the amount which each society would have been entitled to under the act. The sum due, according to the act, being $47,950, of which only $32,836 was furnished by the Government. liii ■i r: t Ifc' S -i m I •'i ■ ; * i 44 THB AORIOULTURAL HISTORr Or CANADA. ments and farm productions generally, has encouraged pri- vate enterprise and awakened a spirit of emulation which has been most successful in promoting progress and im- provement, and the rank which Upper Canada now oc- cupies as an agricultural country is mainly due to the excel- lent organization and energetic spirit which has always distinguished the county societies since their first establish- ment* THB PROVINCIAL AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. As a necessary result of the successful working of the county and township Agricultural Societies, a growing de- sire began to be felt, now nearly twenty years ago, for the organization of a Provincial Society which would bring the farmers and manufacturers from all parts of the Province together, and, by friendly rivalry and competition at an an- nual exhibition, present at one view the best results of the agricultural and mechanical industry of the country. Af- ter several ineffectual attempts to obtain general and united action, a meetijig of delegates from county societies was held at Hamilton in August, 1846, and an Association formed, entitled the " Provincial Agricultural Association and Board of Agriculture for Canada West." The first Exhibition of the Association was held at Toronto in October, 1846. The amount of prizes offered in money reached $1,112, besides books, making the total prize list to have a money value of about $1,600. The result of the Ex- hibition surpassed the most sanguine anticipations of its pro- motors, and excited the astonishment of many who were not familiar with the progress already made by the County Socie- ties, at the display of stock, implements, grain, fruit, and veg- etables. Thorough-bred Durham cattle were exhibited, and * For an excellent summary of legislative enactments in favor of agricul- ture in Canada, see the first volume of the Transactions of the Board of Agri- culture for Upper Canada. w O c H K JO ^ < yoke, but entirely devoid of any established qualities upon which the breeder can rely, or feel any confidence that "like will beget like." We must admit, however, that some improvement has taken place, and that the well- defined breeds of England are beginning to be sought after with some care." The Provincial Association commenced its operations without any well-established means of support, trusting to members' fees and contributions from <;ounty societies. Its first exhibition was so far successful that a balance of $408.25 remained in the treasurer's hands after all expenses were paid. In 1847 the association was incorporated by act of Parliament, under the title of "The Agricultural Association of Upper Canada." Since that time it has in- creased in influence and usefulness year by year, as the fol- lowing brief synopsis of the results of the different exhi- bitions held under its auspices amply proves : COUPARATiyB STATBUENT Showing the amount of competition at all the Ezhibitiona held hj the Asso- ciation, between 1846 and 1860, inclusive : BZBIBITIOMa. Toronto, 1846, £400 Hamilton, 1847, 750 Cobourg, 1848, 775 Kingston, 1849, 1,400 Amount of Frizes offered. 0. 0. 0. 0. Total No. Entries. Amount of Prizes Awarde'' 1,150. 1,600. 1,500. 1,420. Niagara, 1850, 1,276 11 9 1,638. .£275 ..600 ..575 ..700 ..950 i I>: ! f\ I I I I J 46 THE AGRICULTURAL BISTORT OF CANADA. ■ZRIBITIOMS, Amount of Prizes offered. Brookville, 1851, ....£1,254 9 3 Toronto, 1852, 1,470 Hamilton, 1853, 1,602 London, 1854, 1,794 Cobourg, 1855, 2,304 Kingnton, 1856, 2,309 Brantford, 1857, 2,517 Toronto, 1858, 2,675 ' Kingston, 1859, 2,628 Total No. Entries. 9 9. 10 9. 6. 1 6. 12 6. 17 0. 2 6. 5 0. 1,466. 3,048. 2,820. 2,933. 3,077. 3,791. 4,337. 5,572. 4,830. Amount of Prizes Awarded. . £805 18 9 1,228 1,323 1,356 1,735 1,699 2,046 2,303 2,016 Hamilton, 1860 3,753 17 6 7,532 3,235 5 6 17 6 8 6 17 6 10 15 15 3 The fbllowing table exhibits, in a condensed form, the general results of two exhibitions, at an interval of 11 years. The remarkable change, both in number and kind of stock, and implements exhfbited, shows how rapid the progress of improvement has been during that period. OOHPARUON BBTWIXN TBI BNTRIKB AT THC rROTINOUL IXHIBITION OF 1849 AND 1860. CLA8818. No. of Entries, No. of Entries, 1849. 1860. Blood Horses, 16 26 Agricultural Horses, 97 128 R^ or Carriage Horses, 188 Heavy Draught Horses, 49 Horses of all Classes, 52 Amount Awarded. $305 00 ..418 00 . .422 00 . .330 00 ..100 00 Durham Cattle,. 54 Devon Cattle, 10 Hereford Cattle, 19 143 632 00 172 603 00 .329 00 Ayrshire Cattle, 12. 63 558 00 .532 00 . 80 00 .199 00 .227 00 176 162 00 68 178 00 ,..159 00 ..162 00 . . 162 00 Galloway Cattle, 56 Bulls of any Breed, 21 Grade Cattle, 51 73 Fat and Working Cattle, 20 38 Leicester Sheep, 79 CotBwold Sheep, Cheviot Sheep, 41 Other Long Wooled Sheep, 121 Southdown Sheep, 16 118 Merino and Saxon Sheep, 11 52 202 00 Rams of all Breeds 40 Fat Sheep, 5 23 Yorkshire Pigs, ' Large Berkshire Pigs, Other large Breeds, Suffolk Pigs, Improved Berkshire Pigs, Other Small Breeds, Pigs all Breeds, 59. 20 00 54 00 45 82 00 19 80 00 16 64 00 28 105 00 45 95 00 23 66 00 11 20 00 N Btati and that tion « and pr* th( THE AGRIOULTCRAL BISTORT Or CANADA. 47 CLAtSM. (TaBLI OONTINVID.) No. of BnlriM, 1849. Poultry, 22. Foreign Stook, Grains, Seeds, &o.,. Roots, &o., Fruit, ^224. Garden Vegctablet,. Plants and Flowers,., Dairy Products, '. . 63 . Agricultural Implements, (Power,). . . ) - - 1,)...J lor No. of Entries, Amount 1860. Awarded. ,...297 1»1 00 .... 1 15 00 ...764 822 00 ...546 254 00 ...690 270 50 ...644 269 50 ....142 228 50 ...201 210 00 ...226 771 00 ...153 204 50 6 15 00 . . 10 00 ..160 00 Agricultural Implements, (Hand Artificial Cattle Food, Manures, &o., Foreign Agricultural Implements, 39 3 Arts Department, (in Medals,) Architectural and MisoeUaneons use- ful Arts, 70 159 00 CaHnet Ware and other Wood Mann- fectures, 18 120 2?6 00 ♦Carriages, Sleighs, &o., 40 47 88 00 Furs and Wearing Apparel, .28 25 00 Fine Arts, 78 262 291 00 Groceries, Provisions, &e. 194 182 00 Indian Work, 3 4 6 00 Ladies' Department, 165 535 227 00 29' Machinery, Castings, &c., ) Metal Work, Plain and Ornamental,. . ) Miscellaneous, Musical Instruments, Natural History, Paper, Printing, Bookbinding, &o., 7 Pottery, 3 ♦Saddlery, Harness. Leather, &o., *Shoe and Boot Work and Leather, 67 99 00 Woolen, Flax, and Cotton (roods, 99 159 272 00 Foreign Manufactures, 21 Amateur Bands,.. 3 325 00 140 377 00 89 87 00 24 54 00 26 95 00 50 274 00 61 91 00 53 137 00 72 148 00 Totato 1,429 7,532 $12,940 00 NoTH.— The Medala and copies of Transactiona of the Board are included in tlie above statement ; tlie gold Medals being valued at §40 each, the silver Medals at 910 each ; and the transactions at 91 per volume. Where the amount of prizes awarded exceeds that offered, the excess is caused by extra prizes, or, in the case of live stock, by the addi- tional amount for imported animals. ' In 1849 included under the head of Carriages and Sleighs, and Leather manufactures, and Furs. Some permanent buildings axe now erected at Toronto, Hamilton, London, and Kingston, respectively, for the ex- press purposes of holding annual exhibitions. In 1862, the annual meeting was held at Toronto, and permanent II 'T-RI ,J \m H if 4 48 THK AGRICULTURAL BISTORT 07 CANADA. :; Tkvision made for stabling 198 horses aud 435 head of cat- L.O. The amount of prizes offered exceeded 1,600 dollars. Such is the progress which has been made during fifteen years, in bringing together the different industries of Up- per Canada, and teaching her people those lessons which can only be learned by friendly competition in an arena open to all, without distinction, prejudice, or favor. The cause of this rapid improvement is no doubt in great part due to the immigration of scientific agriculturists, as well as practical formers, who have learned and studied hus- bandry in all its branches in the best districts of England and Scotland. Any improvement which takes place, either in stock, implements, or farming practice, either in Europe or the United States, is immediately imported, and, if satisfac- tory, adopted in Upper Canada. By means of the differ- ent agricultural societies, all needful information respecting the results attained are speedily made known, and there is now no lack of enterprising and energetic men who gladly embrace every opportunity of improving the farming prac- tice. The financial condition of the Association and the Board of Agriculture, afford incontestible proof of the deep root which these institutions have taken in Canada. It will be remembered that in 1846 they commenced their operations without funds, relying solely on subscriptions. In 1859, the large sum of $110,908.78 passed through the hands of the treasurer. Out of the surplus funds a hand- some and commodious brick building has been erected in Toronto for the purposes of the Board, amply provided with space for piuseum, library, reading-room, large hall for pub- lic meetings, and a capacious seed-store. THR FRtnT-GROWERS' ASSOCIATION FOR CTPPKR CANADA. Intimately connected with agriculture, in the common ac- ceptation of the term, fruit-growing is now an accepted de- partment of husbandry. Canada imports an immense quan- TB8 AORICULTCRAL HISTORY Of CANADA. 40 tity of fruit from the United Statea. In 1859^1861, in- elusive, the value of the importation of green and dried fruit from the United States amounted to the following : 18Sa I860. 1801. Fruit— Green, 216,592 241,912 246,259 " Dried, ,.. 36,414 43,192 64,»32 Total, $252,006 $205,104 $310,191 The fruit crop of the state of New York is estimated as bting worth annually $6,000,000 ; that of Canada may reach $500,000. The objects contemplated by the Fruit- Growers' Association for Upper Canada : First. — The discussion by members of the society of the relative merits of the different kinds and varieties of fruit, the determination and selection of the best varieties suita- ble for cultivation in Canada West, and the publication of the list of fruits so selected and recommended. jSecond. — The revision from time to time, as occasion may require, of the catalogue of fruits, and the addition thereto of such new varieties as may after a sufficient trial be deemed worthy of general cultivation, and striking out the names of any that may on further trial be found unworthy of cultivation, either from being deficient in flavor or not sufficiently hardy to stand the severity of our climate. Third. — The promotion by the society of the cultivation and improvement of native and indigenous fruits, the testing of all new varieties of fruit, the discussion of their merits or defects, and making known the result of sudi trials. Fourth. — The determination of the names of fruits ; and the identification of fruits having different names in differ- ent localities, or which, having received new names through the ignorance or fraud of cultivators, have been distributed as new varieties. Fifth. — ^The discussion of all questions relative tp fruit m m Nv I. 60 THK AORIOULTURAL BISTORT OF CANADA. culture, and disseminating information respecting the same, such as the most proper or most advantageous modes of cultivation ; the soils and exposures most suitable for the different kinds of fruit ; the manures most beneficial, and the best modes of applying the same ; the diseases to which the various fruit-bearing trees, shrubs and plants are liable, with the remedies for such diseases ; the insects injurious to the different kinds of fruit, and the best means of pre- venting or restraining their ravages; the best* modes of ripening, gathering, and preserving fhiits ; and any other subject bearing upon fruit culture. This association was reorganized in 1861, the Constitu- tion and By-Laws having been framed and adopted in Jan- uary, 1862. It already numbers most of the fruit-growers in the province among its members, and it will no doubt ere long take an important position. BORTIOULTURAL BOOISTIBS. These are established in most of the chief towns : To- ronto, Hamilton, Kingston, Peterborough, St. Catharines, Niagara, Cohourg, and Paris. In the bill now before Par- liament it is proposed that "every horticultural society in any city, town or incorporated village, incorporated under this act, or which may have been incorporated under any other act of the Provincial Legislature, shall be entitled to a public grant equal to the amount subscribed by the mem- bers of such society, and certified by their treasurer to have been paid into his hands in the manner provided by the sections of the act relating to Agricultural Societies, provi- ded that the whole amount granted to any such society shall not exceed one hundred pounds in any year." The progress of horticulture in Canada may be inferred &om what has taken place at and near Toronto since 1836. In that year, with a population of about 6,000, there were two smdl green-houses in the town, where common plants THB AOEIOULTUEAL UUTOKT OV OAKAOA. 81 only were cultivated. In 1862, there exist many thousand square feet of glass-roofed structures, most of them built upon the most approved modem principles, and adapted to the growth of foreign grapes, green-house and exotic plants. Orchard houses are already numerous, and a taste for the delightful pursuit of horticulture is rapidly spreading. Some of the private green and hothouses are constructed on a very substantial and extensive scale ; several thousand feet of pipes for the supply of hot water being used. The grounds of the horticultural society occupy five acres, in a most valuable pari of the city, and are the gift of a zealous horticulturist and warm and generous supporter of what- ever tends to improve and elevate his fellow-countrymen. Five acres adjoinng have been purchased from the corpo- ration, so that there is now in the midst, as it were, of the city of Toronto, a horticultural garden containing ten acres. In Hamilton the number of entries at the annual shows was 893 in 1851 ; in 1859 it rose to 1,418, or nearly four times as many. THE BOTANICAL SOOIETT OF OAHADA. Organized in 1860, and having for its object the introdno- tion and distribution of new plants and seeds adapted to the wants of the country ; experiments on the indigenous and domestic plants of Canada; the encouragement of ar- boriculture, forest-conservation, and the culture of fibre dye, oil, food and medicinal plants, together with the publication of papers embodying the results arrived at, and the in- formation brought together by the above means, with the ultimate establishment of a Botanical and Experimental Gardeji. OBAIB OF AORICULTURK. Among other important adjuncts to the progreBB of agri- culture in Upper Canada, there is a Chair of Agriculture in the University of Toronto, and a Veterinary School in oon- nection witb Board of AgrictUture. ! I i|fi m In hi fi., f: 52 TBI AOBIOULTURAL HI8T0KT OV OAKASA. CHAPTER rv. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. WHEAT. Among farm products, wheat takes the first rank in the husbandry of Upper Canada. Formerly it occupied an equally prominent position in Lower Canada, but for many years this cereal has not been success'\illj cultivated in the eastern part of the province, in consequence of the Hessiaa- fly, wheat midge, and an exhausting system of culture ; it is now, however, slowly regaining its position in Lower Canada. The following table shows the amount of wheat produced in Lower and Upper Canada in different years : LowBS Canada. TMr. Biuhela of Wheat. 1827 2,931,240 1831, 3,404,756 1844, 942,835 1861, 3,046,600 1861, UrpiR Canada. Year. Biuheli of Wheat. 1842, 3,221,991 1848 7,658,773 1851, 12,674,603 1861, 24,620,425 Long before Upper Canada was invaded by the whites, Lower Canada was a wheat exporting country ; but the re- turns show a gradual falling off from about the year 1819. In 1790 the valley of the Richelieu produced 40 bushels to the acre BXTOBTS or BBEADSTTTITS FBOU THB POBT OF QUEBEO, FBOU 1793 TO 1802, AND rBOH 1816 TO 1822, mOLUSITS'^ TTmi. Wheat /lour— (bbb.) 1793, 487,000 10,900 1794, 414,000 13,700 1796, 395,000 18,000 1796, 3,106 4,300 1797, 31,00(> 14,000 1798, 92,000 9,600 1799, 129,000 14,400 * It is probable that a considerable portion of the exports from Qaebeo between 1816 and 1822 came from Upper Oajuula. THB AGRICULTURAL BISTORT OF GAKADA. fiS 7«ar. 1800, 1801, 1802, ♦ * 1816,.'.'.*.'.".' 1817, 1818,. 1819, 1820, 1821, 1822, WhMt nonr-(bbb.) 217,000 20,000 473,000 38,000 1,010,033 28,300 * » • ♦ • • *.'. 1,137 , 646,500 69,100 37,800 ...12,100 320,000 46,000 318,400 22,600 146,000 47,700 An inspection of the foregoing table will show that the cultivation of wheat in Lower Canada ha^. long since been of a precarious character ; two instances are known, namely, in 1796 and 1819, when the exports became merely nominal, while in 1802, before Upper Canada could contribute any proportion of exports, the amount of wheat and flour sent from Quebec reached 1,010,033 bushels, and 28,300 barrels respectively. Even when Upper and Lower Canada are taken together in relation to the export of wheat, the pro- gress is shown to be far from uniform. STATEMEMT OF THB NET EXPORTS OF WHEAT, FLOUB, AND BBAX, TBOU THB PBOVIKOE. Tew. 1853,. 1854 . 1855,. 1856,. 1857,. 1858,. 1859,. I860,. 1861,. Qaantlty Valae. Rate per Buihel. BuBhela. $7,322.324 $1 15 6,267,628 6,742,200 1 31 5,146,795 11 ,750,020 1 85 6,351 ,362 10,476,327 1 39 7,536,925 3,690,428 1 06 3,841,536 2,763,509 97 2,848,977 1,097,742 1 06 1,035,606 6.367,061 1 13 5,637,222 9,299,351 1 08 8,613,195 WHBAT OULTURl!. Until recently, with few exceptions, wheat has been cul- tivated without regard to rotation of crops, both in Upper and Lower Canada. Several reasons have led to this very improvident system of farming practice, independently of a general want of knowledge regarding the first principles of husbandry. For a long time wheat was the only pro- m m. I r»i. 04 THX AORICULTUIUL BISTORT 07 CANADA. duct of the farm upon which reliance could be placed as a mean of obtaining read;^ money. Wheat has always been a cash article; other farm products have often sought a mar- ket in vain, and were consequently given by the farmer in barter or exchange for many of the necessaries he required. Since the construction of railways, things have changed ; a market has been found for almost every production of the farm, and with a more general spread of agricultural know- ledge, a better farming practice has been established, and the value of rotation of crops acknowledged. Both in Upper and Lower Canada, vast areas of most fertile land have been rendered absolutely unproductive by continual wheat cropping. Portions of the valley of the Richelieu in Lower Canada and of the Thames in Upper Canada afford striking proofs of this deterioration in the fruitfulness of the soil. Forty bushels to the acre was by no means an uncommon yield when the land was first cleared of its for- est, as it now is in the valley of the Saugeen and Maitland. Rest for a few years, or deep plowing, restores the soil nearly to its original fertility, and where the last artifice is adopted, even on what are called worn-out farms, it is found that £^ir and sometimes excellent crops can be ob- tained. This is particularly the case in Lower Canada, where for centuries the soil has been merely skimmed, and the cultivation of wheat abandoned on account of the wretched yield obtained. By deep plowing these " worn-out lands" hdve been restored, and there is no doubt that the same artifice, if thoroughly carried out, would bring many a wheat field of by-gone celebrity back to its original produc- tiveness, if a judicious rotation c^ crops were adopted. . THE CXSTROTERS OF WHEAT IN CANADA. Insects here as elsewhere on this continent have been the grea^ enemies of the wheat crops, before which the best practice has failed. The wheat midge, the Hessian-fly, and '*, THX AOBICULTUSAL HUTORT OT CAKADA. 66 that destructive fungus, "rust," have in many instances ruined the productive capabilities of whole counties, and in :>ne instance the greater part of a province, for a term of years. A glance at the tables of annual exportation, given on a preceding page, will show how terrible has been the effect of insect destroyers. In 1856, the exportation of wheat rose to 9,391,531 bushels ; in 1857 it fell to 6,482,199, and 1859 to 4,032,627 bushels, or less than one half the ex- portation of 1856. This diminution must be attributed in great part to the wheat midge, of which a short account ia given in subsequent paragraphs. The first recorded appearance of the wheat midge in Lower Canada took place in 1829. In 1834 it appeared in vast numbers near Montreal, and in the following year, and in 1836, it destroyed a great quantity of the wheat crops in the valley of the St. Ijawrence. In the year 1849 it ap- peared in the eastern counties of Upper Canada, but previ- ously to this date the production of wheat in Lower Canada had fallen from 3,404,756 bushels in 1831 to 942,835 in 1844. In 1851 the average production of some of the best wheat-growing counties of Upper Canada fell from twenty- two to six bushels to the acre in consequence of this pest Its progress westward in Upper Canada during the years 1851 and 1852 was very marked. In 1854 this insect caused a loss in the wheat crop of the state of New York exceeding fifteen million dollars, and in some counties in Canada, its destructive influence was felt in the same pro- portion. In the region of the Lower St Lawrence it was very destructive in 1855, although not generally prevalent in the United States, although very abundant and destruct- ive in the previous year. In 1856 this insect had pro- greased as far westward as the Niagara counties, and on the lake shore west of Toronto. Its ravages in Canada during this year were estimated at $2,500,000. It appeared on the Thames in 1856, and throughout a large part of the western peninsula its depredations were felt it U^*A V 11 I'), 56 THB AGRICULTURAL BISTORT OF CANADA. There are several species of the wheat-midge, but the diflferences are so small as not readily to strike the eye of the unpracticed or unscientific observer. The most com- mon species is a small orange-colored fly with delicate, trans- parent, viridescent wings, and long, slender legs. The length of this insect is about the tenth of an inch, the breadth of its expanded wings slightly exceeds the tenth of an inch. It appears in Canada during the latter part of June, and remains until the middle of August. The eggs are deposited in the germ of the still undeveloped grain, through its chaff or sheath. The number of eggs rarely ex- ceeds ten, but as several insects lay their eggs in the same floret, from ten to forty larvee have been counted in one floret. The young maggots feed upon the juices of the grain, and dry it up. It appears to be most destructive during dry summers, like other insect pests. In 1869 this midge was destructive in the county of "Wel- land, but in other parts of Canada it appears to have ex- hausted itself The remedy universally adopted or recom- mended is to sow early kinds of winter wheat very early in the season, and the Fife spring wheat either very early or not until after the 20th of May. THB HESSIAN VLT. Between the years 1305 and 1816, the Hessian-fly was very destructive in some parts of Lower Canada. In 1819 the i mpor tations of wheat fell to 37,800 bushels, having in 1802 exceeded one milUon bushels. This diminuiion is in great part attributed to the Hessian-fly. In 1830 it began to disappear in Lower Canada, and in 1836 it was no longer to be found. In 1846 it appeared in Upper Canada, hav- ing been very destructive during the previous year in western New York, Ohio, Michigan, and the wes*>3rn states generally. In 1847 it was common about Toronto, and strange to say, although great fears were entertained for the TBB AGRICULTURAL BISTORT 07 CANADA. 57 safety of the harvest of 1848 in the United States on ac- count of the remarkable prevalence of the insect in the previous year, the crop of 1848 proved to be one of the best ever grown, so remarkable and mysterious are the laws which govern the increase and decrease of insects destruct- ive to vegetation. Other wheat insect depredators are comparatively harm- less with the exception cf the wire-worm. Upwards of sixty species of the larvae of beetles belonging to the genus Elater are known to entomologists. They feed upon the roots and underground stems of wheat, Indian corn, and the grasses generally. Sometimes the wire-worm is found in such de- structive abundance that it cuts off the young crops as fast as they appear two or three inches above the surface. Jitost is justly considered one of the greatest enemies to the wheat crops of this continent. Its attacks aie often so unexpected and universal that it has been likened to a whirlwind of blight, which sweeps over thousands and tens of thousands of square miles in the short space of a single night. In 1837, 1840 to 1846, 1849, 1850 and 1855, this fungus was very destructive in many states of the Union and in different parts of Canada. Draining, and early sow- ing with properly prepared seed, are the best preventives of rust As, in most other cases, good husbandry is the surest mode of withstanding the attacks of this minute ve- getable organism, whose seeds or sporules are always float- ing in the air during the summer season and instantly vege- tate when those climatic conditions occur favorable to " rust." The only plan is to have the wheat plant strong enough to bear its attack when it comes, and the soil in such a state that it will not foster its growth by an un- healthy condition of the plant. Averages per ^cre.— According to returrs to circulars sent by the Bureau of Agriculture in 1860 to the Presi- dents of the different Agricultural Societies in the Province, M i:« $9 TBS AOBIGULTURAL BISTORT Of OAKAOA, the ibUowing data with reference to the yield of wheat has been collected: PRODUCB FIR AORB IN UPPER OAKADA. Winter wheat. Spring Wheat. No. of buahels per acrt. No. of buahela per ten. County of Carlton 28^ 22} " " Northumberland . . . .274 19 " " Simooo aeJ 23| " " York 27 20 « " Brace 25 20 " " Leads 25 164 " " Peel 241 isl « ** Ontario 22} 33| The total average for the Province is 21 bushels of win- ter wheat to the acre, and 18| bushels of spring wheat The number of acres of winter wheat now cultivated in Upper Canada is only about one-third of the whole cropped with wheat. Five years ago there was not one acre of spring wheat fbr every ten of winter wheat This change has been brought about by the ravages of the wheat midge. No doubt when draining becomes more generally adopted, femners will return to the cultivation of winter wheat In Lower Canada the county of Laval returned 18 bushels to the acre of winter wheat, Ottawa 15, Pontiac 20 and 15 bushels. Of spring wheat in Terrebonne the av- erage is stated to be 20^ Megantic 18, Grantham 17, Leeds 16 j. The total average of spring wheat for Lower Canada being 18 bushels to the acre. The midge was destructive in several counties in Lower Canada in 1859, destroying from 25 to 60 per cent of the crop. The wheat crop of 1858 was very deficient; it averaged for winter wheat not more than 12 bushels to the acre, or about S3 1 per cent less than the general yield of 18 bushels to the acre. The yield of spring wheat in 1858 was 13 J or 15 per cent below the general annual average. The wheat midge was found to prevail in every county on the. lake shores of Upper Canada. Bust was this year about as THK AORIOCLTURAL BISTORT OV CANADA. 60 destructive as the midge, although the Fife wheat was stated not to be injured by rust Generally the wheat crop of 1868 was about 26 per cent, below the average. The pea crop was beyond the average, the potato crop 26 per cent, below. In 1857 the wheat crop was 81 per cent, below the gen- eral annual average. These deficient crops will explain without further comment the small exportations of wheat firom Canada during 1858 and 1859; they will also show that the western peninsula, although nearly surrounded by vast bodies of firesh water which exercise a marked and beneficial influence upon its climate, is scarcely less liable to the terrible visitations of the midge, the Hessian fly and rust, than those parts of the United States, where wheat has been partially abandoned as a farm crop in consequence of these destroyers. In good hiisbandry only can we hope for a remedy against the attacks of insects and of rwi'i, but there is no doubt that by draining, the selection of early varieties of wheat, and sowing very early or late, the wheat destroyers can be overcome. The lessons taught in 1868 and 1859, have been productive of great good to the coun- try; they have opened the eyes of a great number of farm- ers to the necessity of due attention to the first and lead- ing principles of good husbandry, namely, draining and rotation of crops. OATS. The total average of oats in Upper Canada was 84| bushels per acre in 1869 ; in 1868 the average was only 82 bushels. In Lower Canada the returns show an average of 22| bushels per acre. BARLXT. The average return of this grain in Upper Canada is 27| bushels to the acre; in Lower Canada it is 28 bushels. II Ivr * 60 THE AORIOULTURAL HISTORY Or CANADA. The growth of barley is very much on the increase in Lower Canada. Winter barley is coming into extensive use ; as much as 60 bushels to the acre have been produced in the county of Maitland. RTX. The average return in Upper Canada is 18 bushels to the acre ; in Lower Canada 13 bushels. I INDIAN CORN. l> !' t' a: J ;< .'. Thirty bushels to the acre is the average for Upper Can- ada in 1859. In Lower Canada, Indian com, peas, and buck- wheat seem to be very little cultivated, and with indifferent success. PEAS. The average for Upper Canada is 28 1 bushels per acre ; the curculio, which for many years had been very destruc- tive in the Province previous to 1858, appears to have disappeared in 1859, affording another instance of the vi- cissitudes of insect life. POTATOES. In Upper Canada the average was 126 bushels to the acre in 1868; in 1859 it rose to 176 bushels. In Lower Canada the average was 175 bushels in 1859, about 50 per cent greater than in 1858. HAT. Hay is a better crop in Lower than in Upper Canada, the averages for the eastern half of the Province being about 2 tons to the acre, whereas in the western division it is not more than 1\ tons. TURNIPS. The cultivation of this valuable vegetable is increasing in Canada, and some magnificent crops are produced in both sections of the Province. I i< ^9f^^' ^ . ^"jO^;. ;>'t f.tt » (« i -*■! H i^ r^ TBI AORIODLTURAL BISTORT OF CANADA. 61 INVASION OF THE WILDXRNK8S. A sketch of the progress of agriculture in Canada would be incomplete if the manner in which the vast wilderness in the rear of the thickly settled parts of the country is yearly invaded by thousands of hardy and industrious set- tlers. In Upper Canada the country between Lake Huron and the upper waters of the Ottawa River has been pene- trated by colonization roads, on the line of which free grants of land are made to actual settlers. In Lower Can- ada, the valley of Lake St. John and the St. Maurice, the peninsula of Gasp6, and the shores of the estuary of the St. Lawrence below Quebec, are intersected by roads cut by government through the wilderness, and free grants made to actual settlers, as in Upper Canada. In illustration of what has been done on these colonization roads, two examples are selected, one from each division of the Province. On the Ottawa and the Opeongo colonization road in Upper Canada, 1,090 acres of free grants were allotted in 1859 ; in 1860 the area amounted to 1,468 acres. The num- ber of acres cleared up tc the Slst of December, 1859, was 2,016; in 1860 it reached 2,628, showing that on one road alone 607 acres of forest fell before the settler's ax in one year. Upon 1,468 acres actually cropped in 1860, there were raised: 12,723 bnahek of wheat, at tl.OO a bnahel, 1^12,723.00 12,711 " " oato, " 50...." 6,355.50 904 " " barley, " 60 . . . ." 542.40 268 " " Indian oorn, 1.00...." 268.00 580 " " peas, •' 1.00...." 580.00 82,620 " " potatoes " 40.... « 9,048.00 11,502 " " turnipa, " 10...." 1,150.20 312 ton* of. . . hay, " 14.00 per ton, 4,368.00 570 " "...straw, " 3.00 " « 1,710.00 5,192 lbs. "...sugar, " 19 "lb 614.64 544gal8. "...molaasea, " 1.00 "gal., 544.00 209 bbls. "... pork, " 16.00 " bbl., 3,344.00 95 " "...potash, "20.00 " " 1,900.00 4,467 lbs. ".. scop, " 10 "lb., 446.70 1,877 bu, "...ashet, " 5 " bu. 908.80 Total, $44,503.24 . It 'r ' 0S THI AORIOTLTURAI. HIBTORT OV CANADA. — which sum shows the ayerage value of the produce of each acre to be $80.82. On the Elgin road in Lower Canada, below Quebec, 28,507 acres have been allotted, of which 1,457^ acres were under improvement ; 288 souls were residing on the road, and 54 houBes and 41 barns and stables erected. Grain and pota- toes to the value of $3,291.80 were raised in 1860, and the actual amount of the settlers' labor on this colonization road was equal to $26,194 in 1860. The total length of coloniz- ation roads opened in the province in 1860 amounted to 488| miles. This invasion of the wilderness by means of £ree grants of land to actual settlers, on lines of road cut out by the government, is fast peopling that vast region north of the immediate valley of the St. Lawrence and the great lakes, and must soon exercise a very important influ- ence upon the wealth, power, and political influence of the country. 0IN8UB or 1861 AND 1861. The following comparative tables will show the increase which has taken place in various agricultural productions in Upper Canada since 1851. The census tables for Lower Canada were not published at the time of going to press, and therefore the data for that part of the province is not so complete as for the sister hal£ A comparison between the census reports of 1861 and 1861 will show in a very stniung manner the progress which has been made in Agricultural Lidustry during the last ten years in Upper Canada. OOMTAKATITI TABU Of the Agriooltanl Prodaots, Sco., of Upper Canada in the yean 1851 and 1861. PopulatioD of Upper Oanada, ..... Oooapiera of land, Wheat, bwheb. Barley, do. . Bye, do. . 1861. 952,004 90,906 13,682,550 025,452 318,429 1861. 1,396,091 131,983 24,620,425 3,821,963 974,181 TBI AORIOCLTUKAL BlffrOET Or OAKADA. M (tabu OONOLOIMID.) 1861. 1861. Fbm, bnahek.... 3,127,681 9,601,496 Ort«, do 11,391,867 81,220,874 Buokwhest, do. .... 579,935 1,348,637 Indian Corn, do 1,688,805 9,856,390 Potatoea, do 4,982,186 15,335,980 Turnipt, do 3,110,318 18,806,959 Carroto, do 174,686 1,905,598 Mangel Wnnel, do 54,306 646,971 Hay,, ton* .... 693,727 861,844 Flax or Hemp, ponnda. . . . 59,680 1,285,934 Tobacco, do 777,426 Maple Sugar, do 3,669,874 6,970,605 Cidar^ gallona.... 742,840 1,567,881 It will be observed upon inspection of the foregoing table that in every item enumerated an increase has taken place, in some instances of a very favorable character, indi- cating progress in the true principles of farming practice. The cultivation of root crops is progressing with extra- ordinary rapidity, as shown by the production of 18,000,000 bushels of turnips in 1861 against a little over 8,000,000 bushels in 1851. The production of mangel wurzel has in- creased tenfold; wheat has doubled itself; barley showa more than a fourfold increase; peas, threefold; and the production of flax and hemp in 1861 is twenty times greater than in 1851. The cash valae of the fiurms of Upper Canada reaches the enormous sum of $295,000,000. We now turn to the live stock as shown in the following eOMrARATITB TABI.I Of live Stock in Upper Canada in the yean 1851 and 1861. 1861. 1861. Balls, Oxen, and Steen, 198,140 99,605 BClohCowB,. 897,070 451,640 CalTes and Heifera, 855,249 464,083 Hor«»,* 801,670 377,681 Bheep, 1,050,188 1,170,22ft RgB, 571,496 776,001 Total valoe of lire Stock, 143,237,486 ^ ] .^K^ding eolts «id fillies i i ii- I i ' 64 rORBST INDU8TRT. The remarkable diminution in the numbers of bulls and oxen aiises, probably, from the more general use of horses for farm work. The small increase in the number of sheep is Burpiising; but from the wool returns the fleece must be much heavier than formerly ; for, while the increase of the number of sheep is only 120,057, the excess of the wool crop of 1861 over that of 1851 exceeds 1,000,000 pounds. The third comparative table to which we now turn relates rather to manufactures than to agriculture: it exhibits the mode in which the raw mateiial was utilized, and the progress made in domestic manufactures: — OOMrARATIVS TABLE, Showing the Number of Yards of Fulled Cloth, Flannel, nnd linen ManU' faoturod in Upper Canada in 1851 and 1861, roapectively. 1861. im. Fulled Cloth, yarda 53 1 ,560 497,520 Linen, do 14,711 37,055 Flannel, do 1,157,221 1,595,514 In the manufacture of fulled cloth a marked diminution is perceptible; but a considerable increase has taken place in the production of linen and flannel, — ^yet far froAi being so large as might reasonably have been anticipated from the remarkable progress of the country in Agricultural In- dustry. CHAPTER V. FOREST INDUSTRY. The Canadian forests are great but far from inexhaustible sources of national wealth. The circumstances attending the first settlement of a new country necessarily involved an enormous destruction of valuable trees, which at the time of the invasion of the wilderness by the pioneer of civiliza- tion were hewn down, cut into lengths, piled into heaps and consumed by fire as fast as possible, in order to adnit the rORIST INDUSTRT. 66 worm sunlight to the earth and fit it for the plow. Millions of magnificent trees which would now command a fabulous price have been destroyed in this way, so that the lumber- man is compelled year by year to retreat farther into the wilderness, and this will continue until the inferior quality of the timber arising from a too rigorous climate arrests his operations. The products of the Canadian forest consist chiefly of timber in all its forms, from the massive square timber to the crooked "knees" for ship-building, together with ashes, both pot and pearl. TIMBER. The following table will show the kinds of Canadian woods now brought into the markets, with the average prices: « ct>. ots. Oak, per onbio foot, aooordiug to average 30 to 40 TOm, do,, do. 25 " SO White Pine, aquare, do. do. and quality 10 " 18 White Pine, Waney, do. according to average 18 " S5 RedPino, do. do 18 " 25 Aah, do. 14 inches and upwards 15 " 20 Birch, do. 16 inches average 17 "20 Tamarao, do. according to average 17^" 21 Walnut,do. " " 45 " 50 Cherry,do. " " 45 " 50 Baaswood, per cubic foot, according to average 12 " 15 Spruce, do do 8 " 13 Iliokory, do.. ... do 35 "40 White Wood, do do 27 "32 Maple,hard, do do 22 *' 25 Mapl(>, bird-eye. do do 22 " 25 EedOak, do do 80 "35 Iron Wood, do do — •' — Hemlock, do do. 12 "15 Beech, do do \ 17 "20 White 0. lar, do do 15 " 20 Deals, Pine, Bright: 1 gl. Bt. Pabg std. $48 00 to |50 00 2 do 34 00 " 42 00 3 do 26 00 " 30 00 Floated are usually |I3 per std. leai. Spruce: 1 quality, St. Petersburg std .' $S6 to $28 2 do do 20 " 24 3 do do 16" 20 Boards, per 1000 feet, 13" 16 m m^ 60 VORBST INDUSTET. Btayes: aU pipoi, per mllle, $200 to$220 aawrted, standbrd, per mflle, 190 '' 210 Wertlndia, 55 " 65 Railway Sleepers, 9x8x6, per 100 pieces, 26 " 28 Ash Oars, mauofactured, per pair, aooording to length $1 20 to $2 40 Ash Oars, rough 55 " 1 00 Wliite Pine miwita, $4 per inch, to say 20 inoh«8 ^ $6 to aay 80 ioohes. RAd Pine spora, say 15 inches, 914 to $16. The following table shows the export of timber during the year 1861: Ash... Birch, Elm,., Maple, Quantity. Value. 2,422 tons........ $12,708 8,397 ".. 60,585 32,610 « 265,562 127 " 1,014 Oak,.'. 55,970 " 526,997 White Pme 523,112 " 2,594,388 RedPiae, 71,381 •• 508,609 Tamanc, 1,802 " 11,115 Walnut, 948M.feet 22,094 Basswood, Butternut, and Hick* ory, 1,786 " 18,52.1 Standard Staves, 1,765 miile. S48,65S Other Staves, , 4,989 " 167,385 Knees, 5,833 pieo«k...... 5,294 ScanUing and Treenails, 18,585 Deals, 67,333 S. han 2,189,792 Deal ends, 1,929 " 49,750 Planks and Boards, 165,583 M. feet ... . 1^70,381 Spara, 5,511 piMea. 29,818 MastB, 774 « ...... 38,101 Other woodflf iiULroad tieA, &o^, 890,484 Tota'., $8,693,638 One hundred, y^ars ago (1759) the exports of lumber amounteti to $81,250; about half a century since (1808) the vjilue of the exports of lumber did not exceed $400,000, 80 that within the xrn^morj of many who can recollect lum- bering operatioQH at the commencement of the present centuiry, the foreign trade haa increased twenty-fold, be- sides the enormous quantities which have been consumed by a population growing from 800,000 to nearly 8,000,000 souls. Tfcie value of tiie imports of lumber in 1860 ex- ceeded $10,000,000. FORKST INDU8TRT. 61 The most important and extensive timber territoiies of Canada are subjoined : 1st. The country drained by tbe Ottawa, containing an area of 75,000 square miles. The white pine, red pine, and ash are chiefly obtained from this region. 2nd. The St. Maurice and its tributaries, draining an area of 22,000 square miles. Contains large quantities of white, yellow and red pine, spruce, birch, maple, and elm. 3rd. The Saugenay country, area 21,000 square miles. Eich in white and red pine, spruce, birch, and tamarac. 4th. The north shore of Lake Huron. White and red pine, spruce, cedar, birch, and maple. 6th. The extensive Gasp6 Peninsula. White and red pine, spruce, tamarac, and bi-ch. 6th. The Peninsula of Canada West contains oak, elm, and walnut. 7th. The Ontario territory, north of Lake Ontario, still contains a large amount of white pine, elm, maple, &c. THK LUMBER TRADK. Not less than twenty -five thousand persons are directly engaged in lumbering operations. Government works, technically called slides, have been constructed on the sides of the falls on the great rivers down which the lumber is floated from the interior. Farmers have followed the lum- berers fai beyond the frontiers of the settlements, in order to supply them with oats, potatx)es, peas and hay; the lum- berers are essentially the pioneers of civilization, and altliough they leave the marks of desolf " j" behind them in their progress through the wilderness, thcoc soon become obliterated, and the snug farm-house in the course of a ffew years occupies the site of the lumbeier's rude log shanty, being the second stage of the transformation of the forest wilds into fruitful farms. The amount of revenue accruing from timber dues and 6 nl ■ ¥ !»' m 68 l'OIU;ti» JNPJSTBT. ground rent in 1861 w- j S32'i',503, and from slide dues $55,646, or a t^td ox 5j;PS8,0.^.r;. British American lumber is chiefly exported to the United Kongdom, but there can be no doubt that the trade is di- minishing, while there is every prospect of an increased trade taking place between contmental European ports and British America. Thirty ycr^.'s ago, one-third of all the British tonnage trading beyoi.d the seas, or about 300,000 tons, navigated by 16,000 seamen, was engaged in the colo- nial timber trade. During the year 1830 out of 40,000 emigrants which arrived from Europe, more than 30,000 were carried out by the timber ships. During the four years between 1857 and 1860, both inclusive, the propor- tion of British North American lumber imported into the United Kingdom was in 1857 .....^ 50 percent, of the whole. 1858 , 48" " " " " 1859 44" " " " " I860 45 " " " " " Hence it appears that the average decrease in the imports of lumber from British Korth America to the United King- dom, during the above period, is about 11^ per cent., while the increase on the imports of foreign lumber is nearly 10 per cent. During 1861 about twenty cargoes of Canadian I': nber were exported to the continent of Europe, and nu- iit rous inquiries continue to be made respecting the timber resources of the country. So rapidly is the price of timber increasing in France that standing timber worth 50 francs per 85 cubic feet in 1852 was worth 100 francs five years later. The industry to which the manufecture of the diflferent products of the forest gives rise is very extensive. In 1851 there were 1,567 saw-mills in Upper Canadfi, and 1,065 in Lower Canada. The number of feet manufactured during the year amounted to 391,051,820 and 381,560,1^50 respect- '''''J^^^Rk aJt^ tOBVft'i r-^lSTTT. 69 ively. Since 1851 the quantity raai>'.iu\';triicl has no doabt increased enormously, but no leis drp\ » !■ present pivblished from which satisfactory conclueio ; jcti be drawn, although some conception of the magni' - 'e of the trade may be formed from the fact that plankt and boards to the value of $1,507,546 were exported to the United States in 1861, being not far from half the total production of Upper Can- ada ten years previously, although the trade had suffered to a remarkable extent in consequence of the calamitous civil war which is now wasting the energies of our brethren across the international boundary. The exportation of planks and boards to the United States is one of the most important Canadian sources of prosperity as may be inferred from the following table. Value of Exports of Flaiiks and Boards to the United Stotes from 1857 to 1861 inoluaive. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. $2,558,206 $2,890,319 $2,676,447 $3,027,730 $1,507,546. The sudden diminution from more than 8,000,000 in 186i' to 1,500,000 ir 1861 results from a temporary depressiou occtisioned by the civil war in wh:uh the United States are unhappily engaged. The year 1845 was a r ^st prof*yerous etc for the lumber trade. The quantity of f are; imber brought to rriarket that season amounted t jr,704,»j44 feet, and the quantity exported was 24 228,000 le ^;t. In 1846 th^^ quantity brought to the Quebeo market rose io fJ.S00,643 feet, but only 24,- 242,689 feet were expc3e«l Hence prices fell to aruinou- degree and a great blow TH'aa gi-'^en to the trade during that year. Jn 1847 there was a stock supply of more t>>,S08 1858, $9,284,514 1859, 9,663,962 1860, 11,012,253 1861, 9,572,645 Very few years have elapsed since the produce of the forest formed the most important of Canadian exports, as the following comparison will show. Of late years, agriculture has asserted a superior claim and will no doubt maintain it: ti ^i» Mil I 72 rORSST INDUSTRY. mil UM MI. Valne of t!ie Frodnota of the Foreit ex- ported, $5,310,148 $5,442,936 $6,038,180 Val ^ y] /2 /: m. y y^ Photographic Sdences Corporation V^^ ^^' 23 WIST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 '4^ &". ^ \'^0 ^.^ '^ Mil '■ M i'\J m: i llill i!j ; I! 76 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. with tertiary formations. The Eiding and Duck Moun- tains, 1,600 feet above the ocean, no doubt once formed part of an unbroken level to the Grand Coteau, the intervening depression having been the result of denudation. The is- olated range of hills, such as the Touchwood Hills, the File Eill, the Pleasant Hill, the Birch Hill, &c., are parts of this former elevated table-land, and would assume the character of islands in a sea washing the base of the Grand Coteau du Missouri. The Great Plains rise gently as the Rocky Mountains are approached, and at their western limit have an altitude of 4,000 feet above the sea level. With only a very narrow belt of intervening country, the mountains rise abruptly from the Plains, and present lofty precipices, frown- ing like battlements over the level country to the eastward and separating the rich golden treasures of British Colum- bia from the wide sterile wastes of the South Saskatchewan or the long and narrow fertile belt through which the North Saskatchewan pursues its winding course of nearly one thousand miles. The average altitude of the highest part of the Rocky Mountains is 12,000 feet ; in lat. 51°, the forest extends to the altitude of 7,000 feet, or 2,000 feet above the Vermilion Pass. The "Fertile Belt" of the North- West consists of the richest arable soil, partly in the form of open prairie, partly covered with groves of aspen; it stretches from the Lake of the Woods to the foot of the Rocky Mountains, about 800 miles, and aver- ages from 80 tc 100 miles in breadth. The North Sas- katchewan flows through this Fertile Belt, in a valley varying from one-fourth of a mile to one mile in breadth, and excavated to the depth of 200 to 300 feet below the level of the plains or prairie through which it flows, until it reaches the low country some miles east of Fort k la Corne. The area of this remarkable strip of rich soil and pasturage is about 40,000,000 acres. It was formerly a wooded country, but by successive fires it has been par* I :-, ■ I k THSi NORTH-WEST TERRITORT. 11 tially cleared of its forest growth, but abounds with the most luxuriant herbage, and generally possesses a deep, rich soil of vegetable mould. The winter of this region is not more L-vere than that of Lower Canada. The snow is never very deep, and in the wildest tracts the natural pas- ture is so abundant that horses and cattle may be left to obtain their own food during the greater part of the winter. This perennial supply of food for cattle might have been predicted from the fact that the ^Torth Saskatchewan west of Carlton supports vast herds of buffalo during the winter season, and formerly the whole of the fertile belt used to be the favorite winter quarters of countless herds who fattened on the rich abundance of the natural grasses, scraping the snow away with their feet, and never failing to obtain abundance of well preserved hay beneath. The Fertile Belt of the North Saskatchewan valley does not derive its importance from the bare fact that it contains 64,000 square miles of country immediately available for agricultural pur- poses in one continuous strip, 800 miles long and 80 broad, stretching across the continent ; it is rather by contrast with an immense sub- arctic area to the north and a vast desert area to the south that this favored "Edge of the Woods" country acquires political and commercial importance. A broad agricultural region, capable of sustaining many mil- lions of people, and abundantly supplied with iron ore and an inferior variety of coal, and spanning the eight hundred miles which separate Lake Winnipeg from the Rocky Mountains, more than compensates for the rocky character of the timbered desert between the Lake of the Woods and Lake Superior. The South Saskatchewan flows through an arid district which reaches as far north as lat. 52. The stiff clays of the cretaceous and tertiary deposits, often highly impregnated with salts, bakes into a hard and cracked sur- face during the summer. The characteristic plants of the arid region are the pretty prairie apples {Opuntia) and the i , fi liill..! Ml IB i THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORT. slirub sage {Artemisia.) Within the fertile belt the alluvial flats of the river valleys are clothed with the balsam poplar and a dense thicket of willows, dogwood, amelanchier, and red willow, together with JShepherdia argentea. On the prairies of the Belt the aspen occurs in groves, and dense thickets of willows surround marshes and swamps. On the sides of the rising grounds the Ekeagnus argentea forms a low silvery copse, aflfording food to large coveys of prairie grouse. On high ground, with a sandy soil, the bear-berry or kin-i-kinic forms a close matting. Towards the Rocky Mountains large expanses of plain are coi'^ered with a low birch or alder six to eight inches high, which in winter gives the appearance of a heather-covered moorland to *liese prairies. In June and July the prairies are covered with brightly colored flowers, or completely clothed with a dense copse of rose bushes and in many places of snow- berry. As the country towards the south merges into open prairies, the clumps of copse and young poplars are found only on northern exposures. The last outliers of the woods to the south form "Islands," which make a great show in the distance, but when approached are found to consist of a small species of willow, that will yield neither fire- wood nor shelter.* The whole of the Fertile Belt is well fitted for settlement and agricultural colonization. All common cereals and green crops have been grown successfully at the different posts of the Hudson Bay Company within this district. The recent discoveries of gold in British Columbia have given extraordinary importance to that colony, and to the great Fertile Belt of the Saskatchewan valley in view of a high road across the continent. During the season of nav- igation the facilitieB for reaching any part of Lake Suj-erior are such that a vessel from Liverpool, of a capacity fitted * See Dr. James Hector on the Physical Features of the central part of British North America. u ! THE NORTH-WSST TBRRITORT. ' 79 to go through the locks of the Welland Canal, may dis- charge her cargo at Fort William or any port on this vast inland sea without breaking bulk. The next step in an overland communication to British Columbia is from Lake Superior to the settlement on Red River. The water part- ing is not more than 890 feet above Lake Superior, and the country is thickly wooded with valuable trees as far as the Lake of the Wood" There does not exist any difficulty in the construction of a road between Thunder Bay and the most easterly indent of Rainy Lake, a distance of 200 miles. Between Rainy Lake and the north-west angle of the Lake of the Woods, the country in rear of Rainy river, a distance of 120 miles, is unexplored, and its facilities for a direct land communication unknown. From the north- west angle of the Lake of the Woods to Fort Garry, 90 miles, is a level country, which has already been traveled by horses, although the swamps near Lac Plat are formida- ble. The third step is the valley of the Saskatchewan, already described, which, even in its present state is con- stantly traversed with horses and carts from Red River to the Rocky Mountains. The following are the altitudes of the principal passes in the mountains above the sea level: Altitddk IN Flat. Kicking Horse Pass, lat. 51° 25', 6,430 Vermilion Pass, lat. 51o 10', 4,94t KSnanaski Pass, lat. 50o 40', P,985 Kootanie Pass, lat. 49° 26', 6,000 The height of land not 5,000 feet above the sea on the line of the Vermilion Pass once crossed, the auriferous ter- races of British Columbia cor^.e into view. The Cariboo and Kootanie diggings are both on the immediate west flank of the Rocky Mountain range, or between 400 and 500 miles from the Pacific coast. The whole valley of the upper Columbia is auriferous, and gold has been found on the eastern slope, two hundred miles from the mountains, in . f " ! t • t ■ IJ U ^i' !li| n^-vv i^^ 1"' ■ ^ I I •II 80 THB NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. the bed of the Saskatchewan, but it is not probable that the auriferous region on the east of the mountain is of great extent, as the ancient rocks from which the gold must have been derived have not been observed on that side. A great future lies before the valley of the Saskatchewan ; it will become the granary of British Columbia, the vast pasture field by which the mining industry of the Rocky Moun- tains will be fed. British Columbia is rich in the precious metals, but poor in arable land; the Fertile Belt of the Saskatchewan is marvelously fruitful in forage plants, poEsesses an admirable soil, and embraces besides an im- mense supply of coal and iron ore of the best quality. "With these conditions, added to a very healthy climate, it is not too much to expect that the Basin of Lake Winnipeg will one day become the seat of an industrious, prosperous, and powerful people, who, in these days of steam, will always be able to communicate with the outer world for two months in the year, at least, by way of Hudson Bay, even if other outlets should be closed against them through imhappy international troubles.* THE LABRADOR PENINSULA. The vast peninsula which commonly bears the name of Labrador, a term more correctly applied to the north-eastern portion, occupies an area between the Atlantic and Hudson's Bay, lying within the forty-ninth and sixty-third parallels, and between the fifty-fifth and seventy-ninth meridians. The Gulf of St. Lawrence, the North Atlantic, Hudson's Straits and Hudson's Bay are its boundaries on three sides ; Rupert's River, the Mistassinni and the Bersiamits rivers may be considered as forming the approximate south-western limits of this peninsula. From the mouth of Rupert's River on Hudson's Bay to the mouth of the Bersiamits on * See "Narrative of the Canadian Expeditions in Rupert's Land," by the author of this article. li THE NORTH-WEST TKRRITORT. 81 the St. Lawrence, the distance is about 470 miles, and from Cape Wolstenholme, the most northern point of the country to the Straits of Belle Isle, it is 1,100 miles. Traveling northward from the Hudson Bay Company's post at Ber- siamits, in a direct line to Ungava Bay, the distance would be about 650 miles, while to Cape Wolstenholme to the west, not less than one thousand. The area of the Labrador Peninsula is appr 'imately 42,000 square miles, or equal to the British Isles, France, and Prussia combined, and the greater portion of it lies between the same parallels of lat- itude as Great Britain. The whole of this immense country is uninhabited by civilized man, with the exception of a few settlements on the St. Lawrence and the Atlantic coast, and some widely separated posts of the Hudson's Bay Company. It is very thinly peopled by nomadic bands of Montagnais, Nasqua- pee and Mistassinni Indians, v.nd the northern coast by wandering Esquimaux. Taken as a whole it is a region altogether unfit for the abode of civilized man, and although once rich in fur-bearing animals, and in cariboo or reindeer, it is now almost a desert. In the absence of any definite boundaries, the entire peninsula is divided into three parts, supposed to be sep- arate water-sheds, to which special names have been given. The area draining into the Eiver and Gulf of St. Lawrence, belongs to Canada, whose eastern boundary is at Blanc Sablon. near the mouth of the North-West Eiver. The country supposed to be drained by rivers which flow into the Atlantic is called Labrador, and is under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland. The remaining part- of the peninsula, which is drained by rivers flowing into Hudson's Bay has received the designation of the East Main. The names and position of the mouths only oi the numerous rivers which flow into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, from the Bay of Seven Islands to the Straits i W i 82 THB NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. rv. , . 1 m of Belle Isle, are correctly given in published maps of the country, and nearly the whole of our present knowledge of the east side of the Labrador Peninsula is derived from Capt. Bayfield'8 surveys, which are limited to the coast, and no map yet published exhibits a correct geographical picture of the interior of the country. The Moisio or Miste-shipu Biver, the "Great Eiver" of the Montagnais Indians, enters the Gulf of St. Lawrence in longitude 86° 10 , and has its sources in some of the lakes and ovvamps of the high table-lands of Eastern Can- ada. For centuries it has been one of the leadir g lines of communication from the interior to the coast, traveled by the Montagnais during the time when they were a numerous and powerful people, capable of congregating upwards of a thousand warriors to repel the invasion of the Esquimaux, who were accustomed to hunt for a few weeks during the summer months a short distance up the rivers east of the Moisic, as they do now on the Coppermine, Anderson's and Mackenzie's rivers in the country of the Hare Indians, and the Louoheux. The old and well-worn portage paths round falls and rapids and over precipitous mountains on the up- per Moisic, testify to the antiquity of the route, independ- ently of the traditions of the Indians who now hunt on the river and on the table-land to which it is the highway. The Montagnais Indians have for centuries had a water communication between Seven Islands on the Gulf and Hamilton Inlet on the Atlantic Ocean, vid the Moisic, the Ash-wa-nipi to a great lake on the table-land in the interior called Petshilcupan, thence by the Hamilton Eiver to the Inlet of the same name. The whole river may be known by the name of the Ashwanipi, which takes its rise near the head waters of the Moisic, and from which it is separ- ated by a low and narrow water parting. The Ashwanipi flbws throiigh five degrees of longitude, and little more than two de^ .ees of latitude, traversing the elevated table THE N0RTH-WK8T TERRITORY. 88 land of the Peninsula in a direction roughly parallel to the Gulf coast. The table-land is 2,240 feet above the ocean at the sources of the east branch of the Moisic. It is pre- eminently sterile, and where the country is not burned, cariboo moss covers the rocks, with stunted spruce, birch and aspen in the hollows and deep ravines. The whole of the table-land is strewed with an infinite number of boul- ders, sometimes three and four deep ; these lingular errat- ices are perched on the summit of every mountain and hill, often on the edges of olifis, and they vary in size from one foot to twenty feet in diameter. Language fails to paiuu the awful desolation of the table-land of the Labrador Peninsula.* , ' nrOIAK SALMON-SPEARINO IN LABRADOR. > All tribes of Indians from the Eed River of the North to the Atlantic coast of Labrador, draw a considerable share of their support from the lakes and rivers, by means of the fish-spe?j or " negog " of the Montagnais of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. But spearing any kind of fish during the daytime is a tame and monotonous occupation compared with the irrepressible excitement which attends spearing salmon by torch-light, with Indians who understand their work. It unfolds the real character of the Indian race in its most striking peculiarities ; it displays untutored man in the full strength of his natural gifts, expresses his capa- bilities lor intense enjoyment, and shows how he may be roused to exert for hours together the utmost activity of body and the greatest presence of mind. See how gently they step into their canoe iix the gloom of the evening just passing into night. They whisper to one another, although there is no fear of the sound of their voices disturbing the prey o:^ which they are in search. * See " Ezplotations in the Interior of the Labrador Peninsula" by the an* thor of this artide. 6 H. !'i f'l 1 V 84 THB NORTH-WKST rEKRITORY. Watch the one in the bow trying the flexible clasping tines of his " negog " or salmon-spear, springing them backward to see if they have lost their elasticity, or if they can be trusted to hold a powerful fish in their grasp; how he stroightens the long and slender shaft and lays it tenderly under the bars of the canoe within reach of his hand. He next examines the rolls of birch-bark which he will use for torches, and fastens a cleft stick to the bow of his canoe, in which he will insert one extremity of the flaming roll. Turning round to ask his companion if he has "fire," he re- ceives a low grunt in reply, which is followed by a subdued howh ! howh I and both grasping their paddles, away the canoe glides towards the foot of the rapids, to a well known shallow, or close to the tumbling waters of a cataract where the fish are known to lie. The torch is lit, and the spearman relinquishing his pad- dle stands in the bow of the canoe, glancing eagerly from side to side. Suddenly he pushes his spear in a slanting direction, and quickly draws it back, lifting a salmon into the canoe ; a second push and another victim ; now he at- taches a thin line of sinew to his spear and twines it round his arm. Like an arrow he darts his spear; it is whirled away with a sudden jerk, and trembles in the stream ; he gently but steadily draws it towards him with the line of sinew, and grasping it when within reach, lifts his quarry into the canoe. Look over the side of the little craft, the salmon are seen coming to the light, they gaze for a moment and glide away like spectres into the black waters ; some of them swim round the canoe, and come to look again and again, pausing but for a moment to speculate upon its brightness, and the next lie quivering at the bottom of the canoe. Both Indians at the same moment see a fish of unusual size approach the light, gaze without stopping and quickly move off, hover about at some little distance, suspicious ) ■ S i : THE N0RTI1-WK8T TERRITORY. 85 and distrustful, but still attracted by the light. Gently and noiselessly the canoe is urged toward him by the Indian in the stern, no words pass between him and his companion, both saw the fish at the same moment and both know that they will take him. But look at the Indian with the spear, look at hia face illumined by the red flare of the burning torch ; his mouth is half open with suspense, but he does not breathe through it, his dilated eyes are flashing intent, he stands so motionless, with uplifted spear ready to strike, that he looks like a statue of bronze. But there is life in that expanding and contracting nostril, life in the two thin streams of vapor which puiF frohi his nostrils into the keen night air ; and is there not sudden and vigorous life in that swift dart of the spear, those parting lips closing together in unison with the fling of his arm? is there not intelligent life in that momentary ligut which flashes from his eyes, red like the gleams which they reflect, and in that smile, triumphant and assured, which he throws at his com- panion, as, without uttering a word or sound, he lifts with both hands the heavy fish straight from the water, holds it struggling over the canoe, and shakes it from his spear ? Is this the languid, drowsy savage which you have often seen slouching through the day, indolent and listless, a sluggard and a drone? ./■ They go to the foot of the cataract; the largest fish lie there in little eddies close to the rocks, waiting for an oppor- tunity to take their leap up the tumbling waters, to shel- tered parts above, where they may rest in their difficult ascent. Now is the full measure of the Indian's skill re- quired ; the broken water at the edge of the main rapid at the foot of the cataract rocks the canoe, and would seem to destroy the spearer's aim; the water is deep, and he must throw his weapon, he cannot push it as in the shallows or a quiet stream. The Indian who is steering and paddling must beware of strong eddies, of whirlpools, of getting ■. .f V 86 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITTORT. Iti'i [ii .. Hi' ■' ' 111:! I' >,'! under the cataract, or of sidling into the rapid below. He must have his eye on the canoe, the water, and the salmon, and his hand ready at any moment to edge off from danger and never give way to momentary excitement, even when the spear is thrown, and a heavy fish struck, — the rocks, the impetuous torrent, the tumbling waters at his bow, the flickering light not always to be relied on, must be watched, for a slight change in an eddy may swamp the fragile craft, or break it on a rock. There is indescribable excitement in the dancing motion at the foot of a cataract, in a tiny birch-bark canoe, by the red light of a torch during a night without a moon. You see before you a wall of water, red, green and white tum- bling incessantly at your feet, on either hand you gaze on a wall of rock, rising so high as to be lost in the gloom and apparently blending with the sky. You look behind and there is a foaming torrent rushing into the blackness of night, sweeping past the eddy in which your birch craft is lightly dancing to the loud music of a water-fall. No sound but its never-ceasing din can reach you; no near object meets your eye which does not reflect a red glare and assume an unaccustomed character which the warm and cheery color imparts. Suddenly the torch falls and is instantly extin- guished in the rushing waters ; absolute darkness envelopes you, the white foam, the changing green of the falling wa- ter, the red reflected light of the broken waves, all be- come uniformly and absolutely black. Nothing what- ever is discernible to the eye, but perhaps another sense tells of swift undulating motion, a rolling ride over stormy waves, with lessening roar. Your eyes gradually recover their power of vision, and you find yourself either swaying up and down in the same eddy or far away from the fall on the main channel of the river, secure against whirlpools and rocks, with the Indians quietly paddling the canoe and about to turn again to resume their savage sport. The w THE KOBTfl-WXST TERRITORT. 87 ' / '1) r ,\^> *t moment the light fell into the water, an event which often occurs with birch-bark torches, the Indian at the stem de- cided whether to remain in the eddy, c .o enter the rapid and descend it until his power of vision was restored. This is a contingency for which all salmon-spearers in such situations must be prepared. Indecision might prove fatal ; for if the eddy were safe in absolute darkness for a quarter of a minute, it would be wise to remain; if there is danger of being sucked under the fall, it would be well to seek refuge from a sudden deluge, or from rocks and whirlpools in the swift but tumultuous rapid. This can only occur on a large river, and at the foot of a iiall. Water in rapid motion is a terrible power, and none know how to lake ad- vantage of its humors better than the wild Indian salmon- spearer, who avoids its dangers with matchless skill and self-possession, and who seeks the excitement it offers as if it were the mainspring of his life, or the aim of his ex- istence. LUTE IN THE WILDERNESS. w From the earliest period when the ftir trade was prose- cuted with vigor in British America, those wanderers through the woods, the Coweurs du Bois, with their descend- iWits, the Bois brules, or Half-breeds, have always occupied a prominent position on the frontiers of civilization, and latterly among many of the nomadic Indian tribes which peopled and still occupy the vast north-west territory. Life in the wilderness has not only peculiar charms to these children of the forest and the prairies, but it annually wins for months or for years many who have been brought up and educated in all the refinements of civilized society. It is difficult to say wherein lies the greatest charm of the wil- derness of British America, within the limits of the valley of the St. Lawrence, or the valley of the Saskatchewan. Bocks, mountains, foaming torrents, magnificent cataracts. m •; "' I 11-' li i 88 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. and endless forests distinguish the St. Lawrence. Bound- less prairies, sweet-scented breezes, and gorgeous sunsets are the characteristics of the Saskatchewan. In summer the prairies are perhaps to be preferred, in winter the woods. The falls and rapids of the rivers flowing into the St. Law- rence to the east, or ultimately into Lake Winnipeg on the west, often present the wildest and most picturesque scenery, displaying every variety of tumultuous cascade, precipitous cliffs, deep gorges, treacherous and sullen eddies, huge swelling waves, rising massive and green over hidden I'ocks, or quiet and tranquil rivers gliding into lakes. Viewed under different aspects they convey all variety of impressions to the mind, cold and cheerless in the gray dawn of morning, pleasing and encouraging as they flash in the brightness of noonday, or melancholy and depressing as they silently glitter in the silver light of the moon. Few enjoyments can equal a bright camp-fire after a hard day's work in canoes, and no sleep is like the sleep of the toil- worn voyager, on the pine or spruce branches he spreads for his couch, beneath the cold, clear sky of autumn in the gloom of Lawrentian forests. A DAY IN THE WILDERNESS. The dawn of morning when journeying through the wide and wild rocky ridge which separates the valley of the St. Lawrence from that of the Winnipeg, possesses scenes and associations which belong to itself. Eising from a bed on the hard rock, softened by a few spruce boughs and a north blanket, the paling stars and the cold, yellow light in the east first tell that the night is passed. On the lake a river by which the camp is made a dense screen of fog rests like a pall. A sudden rush through the under- brush tells of a poor mink or martin prowling close by, probably attracted by the fragments of last night's meal. From the dying camp-fires a thin column of smoke rises 1? >f THB NORTH-WEST TERRITORT. 89 high above the trees or spreads lake wards to join the damp, misty veil which hides the waters from view. Around the fires are silent forms, stretched like shrouded corpses at fhll length on the bare earth, or on spruce branches neatly laid. These are Indians; they lie motionless on their backs completely enveloped in their blankets. Beneath upturned canoes, or lying like the Indians with their feet to the fire, the half-breeds, or the French Canadian voyageurs, lay in wild disarray. All is repose ; the silence is almost oppres- sive, broken at intervals only by the dull noise of a water- fall borne on the gentle breath which springs up imperceptibly with the rising sun. As the morning advances an Indian awakes, uncovers his face, sits on his haunches, and looks around from beneath the folds of his blanket which he has drawn over his head. After a few minutes have thus passed, not observing his companions show any signs of waking or any disposition to rise, he utters a low "waugh;" slowly other forms unroll themselves, sit on their haunches and look around in silence. Soon the half-breeds or voy- ageurs are aroused, the dying embers of the fire blown into a flame, a few sticks of fresh wood added, pipes lit, and the day's work begins. The canoes are soon launched and the baggage stowed away ; the party embark and plunge into the mist, while no sound but the measured stroke of the paddle meets the ear. The sun begins to glimmer above the horizon, the fog clears slowly away, a loon or a flock of ducks fly wildly across the bow of the canoe, the Indians shout at the frightened birds, or imitate their cry with won- derful accuracy, the guide calls a halt, pipes are replenished, and the cheerful sunlight gilding the top of distant trees brightens, warms, and enlivens all animate and inanimate things. The day wears on and the breakfast hour arrives, a short hunt in the woods for rabbits, or in a neighboring lake or marsh for ducks, rapidly passes the time. As soon as the meal is finished, all embark again. The voyageurs ? „ liii fi Is;*' f 90 THB N0BTH-WB8T TERHITORT. and half-breeds sing their merry French songs, or the In- dians chant the war-songs of their forefathers, keeping time to the regular stroke of the paddles. The banks of the river are closely scanned in search of game, and the fresh track of a bear, a moose, a cariboo, or a deer awakens all the hunter's sympathies, as with suppressed voices they dis- cuss the number of hours which have elapsed since the track was made. Supper is thp time for enjoyment, as lazily lolling round the camp-fires the men, pipe in mouth, listen to tales of forest life, incident of the chase, hair- breadth escapes, and distant Indian wars. A WINTER JOURNEY OK THE PRAIRIES. Dogs, carioles, sledges and snow-shoes, are required for a winter journey in the prairies as well as in the woods, but in consequence of the greater degree of cold in an open expanse of country, the difficulty of procuring fire-wood and the scarcity of game, winter traveling in the prairies is far from being ^o pleasant as in thick woods where a good track can be made. Each dog requires daily about two pounds of pemmican or three pounds of white-fish, so that the provisions for a train of carioles employing thirty dogs would involve the carriage of 600 pounds of pemmican or 900 pounds of white-fish for a ten days' journey. A train of three dogs will draw 300 pounds forty miles a day for ten or twelve days in succession, if well fed, and the road is tolerably good over a level country. A winter road, it may be here remai'ked, is nothing more than a cariole or sledge track caused by the passage of this primitive kind of vehicle over the snow, and is liable to be obliterated by every fresh fall. A cariole is constructed of a very thin board ten feet long and twelve or fourteen inches broad, turned up at one end in the form of half a circle, like the bow of an Ojibway canoe. To this board a high cradle, like the body of a small carriage, is attached, about eighteen # THK NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 01 inches from the end of the board or floor. The framework is covered with buffalo skin parchment, and painted or de- corated according to taste. The inside is lined with a blanket or buffalo robe, and when the traveler is seated in his cariole, with outstretched legs, he is only separated from the snow by the thin plank which forms the floor. A sledge is nothing more than a thin board ten or twelve feet long, twelve inches broad, and turned up at one end. The baggage is attached to it by means of buffalo thongs, and two or three dogs are harnessed to this simple vehicle with the same materials. The dogs attached to a cariole are generally decorated with collars, from which beadwork and tassels are suspended together with a string of small bells. When a train is in motion the driver runs behind the cariole or sledge, guiding it by means of a loop fastened to each comer of the floor; when tired or anxious to ride he sits on the small box containing the traveler's baggage, which is fastened to the projecting board. A camp is always made in "woods," if possible, for the sake of fuel and shelter. The first operation is to sweep the snow from the ground, and prepare a place for the fire and blankets. This is easily accomplished with snow-shoes, and as soon as an area proportioned to the size of the party is prepared, a fire is made sufficiently long to admit of each man lying for the night with his feet towards it. No tent or covering of any description beyond a blanket stretched on poles is admissible, as it would scarcely be possible to fold canvas in the morning, and time does not generally allow of the erection of a hut, nor are the materials always at hand. When pine or spruce is accessible, a very com- fortable floor can be made from the boughs, but in the prairie country or on its borders these useful trees are rarely to be seen. The appearance of the camp during the night, when all are buried in profound slumber, is very wild and savage. !^ h 92 THK NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. Throwing a few dry sticks into the fire to light up the scene, the silent, slumbering forms of the travelers are seen stretched in two parallel rows with their feet to the fire; between the men, one, two, and sometimes three huge dogs have crept ; some are lying on the legs of the half-breeds for the sake of warmth, others have found a snug berth close to the fire but in imminent danger of burning their fur, a few lie coiled outside of the circle half-buried in the snow. The cold is so intense that their i'aces are white with frozen breath, and scarcely distinguishable. The fire, even when in full glow, has not power to melt the snow more than a few inches from it, without it is exposed to direct and prolonged radiation. Now and then a watchful dog raises his head, probably disturbed by some slight movement of the sleepers ; ho looks once round and buries "lis face again. Sometimes a dog will utter a low warning growl, when three or four other dogs, probably old stagei.'' will rouse themselves for an instant, listen and growl, gen- erally all looking in one direction and snuffing the air. A half-breed sits up, looks at the dogs, observes their mien and actions, and after a moment's pause, uttering the word "wolves," he quickly coik himself under his blanket again. The most disagreeable part of the daily routine of a long winter's journey is the catching and harnessing of the dogs. Some of these animals at the beginning of winter, when fresh at their woik for the season, are exceedingly restive u icier coercion of any description, and not unfre- queutly snap at their masters, who invariably arm them- selves with very strong mittens of buffalo or deer hide when harnessing a savage and powerful animal. They re- quire long-continued and most severe punishment tO make them obedient to the word of command. An Esquimaux whip is the instrument which every driver should be com- pelled to use, but ttje half-breeds trust to sticks and stones, or any object within reach on the road, which is picked up THE NOHTH-^'EeT TERRITORT. 93 as they pass and thrown at the dogs. It is painful to wit- ness the sudden start of terror with which each animal, looking over his shoulder as he trots along, watches the mien and motions of the dxiver as he poises the stick, which he knows how to throw with certain dexterity at the terriQed animals. All the dogs give a simultaneous jump on one side as the missile flies past them, when directed to the leader of the train ; and not unfrequently would the cariole be overturned if it were not for the strength and the skill of the driver in holding the loop with which he steers it. When this occurrence takes place and the dogs are at full speed, the only plan left for the helpless traveler is to draw his arms close to his sides, and wait until the cariole is nghted by the driver; but any attompt to right the cariole by putting out an arm is a dangerous operation, which might occasion a broken limb. In descending steep hills, it is always advisable to walk or run, which all would pre- fer for the sake of exercise, except when the load is very- good, and the trains can proceed for many miles at a gallop without fatigue. A heavy snow-storm is a serious matter in the prairie. It is then absolutely necessary for all the trains to keep close together; the drifting snow soon obliterates the tracks ; and, although the dogs with their exquisite noses will fol- low the tracks of the leading cariole even when completely hidden from view by a light fall, yet when drifts accumu- late they are at fault. Preparing to camp in a snow-storm is not an agreeable operation, or suggestive of that comfort and safety which a camp almost always presents. When the fire is well lighted, supper cooked and eaten, and the party "turned in," then it does not matter much how heavily it snows, the trouble being reserved for the following day. After a heav;y fall during the night, men, dogs, carioles, and sledges are all covered with a thick mantle of pure white; a sudden shout ■s ji 1 i' 1 i ill. I'll* [<.il I",!! if I' i h ■ti I s,;ilf 1 04 THB NKW PARLIAMBin? BUILDINGii AT OTTAWA. from the guide enlivens many of th^; apparently lifeless forms, recognized only by their ontline ; but some of the sagacioua dogs take advantage of the concealment afforded by the snow, and, quite neglectful of the whistles and shouts of their masters, "lie close." CHAPTER Vn. THE NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT 0T7AWA. Canada has hitherto been signally unfortunate in her different seats cf government, in the buildings appropriated to public departments, and in the residences of her gov- ernors. Quebec, Montreal, Kingston, and Toronto have each in turn been the capital of the province. Ottawa has not yet been tried; but there is good ground for the expec- tation and hope that the selection of Her Majesty the Queen will be found conducive to the best interests of the province, what ver may be the disappointment felt by cities which had a history beibre Ottawa was in existence or even the great river from which it derives its narau thoroughly ex- plored. THB OTTAWA RIVBR AND VALLBT. The Ottawa rises near the forty-ninth parallel of latitude in longitude 76* W. It is about 780 miles long, and 800 miles from its source it passes through Lake Temiscaming, 67 miles long. Above this lake the country drained by the Ottawa is little known; but below it, for a distance of 480 miles, the river has been surveyed. Montreal River, the canoe route to Hudson Bay, comea in from the north-west, 84 miles down Lake Temiscaming, and, six miles lower down, the great and almost unknown river Keepawa pjunges into the lake in a magnificent cascade 120 feet in height. From the long sault at the foot of Lake Temisoam- ing, 283 miles above the city of Ottawa, the river is not t i- }-¥' f t ; i' ^t.U o 1~^ > O »-■■■■ ■^ "i, PS' ^ u^ 3 ;*. Hi ' m f' 'a 1 s hi ■J -■?(T.- ' ■1 11 Hi- '•': ii I ii 108 TRAVEL AND TRANSPOKTATION. government and transferred to the municipalities, are to be maintained by the latter. Front roads must (since 1855) be at least thirty -six feet French (nearly thirty eight and a half feet English), and routes twenty-six feet French (about twenty-seven feet nine inches Pinglish,) between the fences. This is an increase of fifty per cent, over the width estab- lished before the conquest. The old French laws governing the roads were practica- ble in the level seigneuries, with their peculiar subdivisions caused by the laws of descent, as well as from their quon- dam semi-military organization. The holdings are narrow strips of ono two hundred yards, or less, fronting on the St. Lawrence, and extending back a mile or more. The front road is near the river, and on it are the houses, giving the river bank the appearance of a continuous street. These laws were, however, wholly inapplicable to the townships with their hills, and lakes, and heavy timber, where the " front " road would run a mile or more along one property, and where the cost of making the road would be far greater than the value of the land; where, also, there were crown reserves and long distances without an oc- cupant. The seigneuries having their roads formed, for perhaps a century, and conducting their light traffic on the snow in winter and on the river in summer, were not urgent for road grants ; and the townships thus had no op- portunity for " log-rolling," and were too weak politically to extort relief. It was therefore not until 1815-17 that any effort was made to apply a portion of their abundant revenue, to the roads and bridges of the lower province. The sum of £63,600 (or $254,400) was voted in these two years, which was expended chiefly in the seigneuries. In 1829, however, the legislature seems to have commenced in earnest, about £120,000 (or $480,000) having been voted in that and the two succeeding years; and then the town- ships, after forty years of suffering, obtained some assistance. iril TRAVIL AND TRAN8P0RTATI0K. ROADS, UPPIR OAKADA. 109 In the first parliament of Upper Canada, held at Newark in 1793, an act was passed by which the roadd were placed under overseers to bo appointed by the rate-paying inhab- itant householders at their annual town meetings. Every person was required to bring tools and work three to twelve days; and owners of carts and teams at least six days. At first rich and poor were treated alike (for all were alike poor,) and the number of days' work exacted from each, which was in the discretion of the overseer and depended on his energy and the wants of the road, was fixed at ten ; but when large blocks of land, granted to favorites or held by speculators, stood in the way of improvement, dissatis- faction was created at the unequal road law which exacted no more from the great land-owner than from the tenant or laborer, and it was altered; the number of days' labor being determined according to the assessment roll. The power of altering or opening new roads was vested in the quarter sessions by whom a surveyor was appointed to report upon any application for such alteration or new road if signed by twelve freeholders. In its infancy this province had neither revenue nor taxes, the civil list being at first wholly and afterwards par- tially sustained by the military chest of the Imperial gov- ernment. In 1795, the revenue was £900 sterling, and the only tax 4c?. per gallon on wine ; and it was not till 1804 that there appeared any surplus for roads. In that year an appropriation of £1,000 (or $4,000) was made for this pur- pose, which proved premature and was repealed in 1806, when £1,600 (or $6,400) was granted; and this road grant, increased to £2,000 (or $8,000) and £3,000 (or $12,000,) was annually maintained till 1812, when it rose to £6,000 (or $24,000.) Interrupted two years by the war, it in- creased in 1815 to £20,000 (or $80,000,) and in 1816 to £21,000 (or $84,000,) after which little was done until SI,. I< > IIP, liac jj j iii-m U^' i V: ;| 1^ 110 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 1830, when, between that date and 1838, £128,000 (or $512,000) were granted. Between 1836 and 1840 over £100,000 (or $400,000) more was granted, the whole of which was not expended until after the union. The roads of Upper Canada, by the municipal act, are wholly under local control ; and the assessment act provides that every male between sixteen and sixty years is liable to statute labor to the extent of two days as a minimum. K assessed at a total valuation of £50 (or $200,) two days are i-equired, and more in proportion up to £1,000 (or $4,000,) which gives twelve days; and one day for every £200 (or $800) over that sum, subject to a pro rata reduction by the council. Where there is no by-law, 2s. Qd. (or 50 cents) per day is the rate of commutation. When there is no property delinquents may be imprisoned six days if they do not work their two days or pay their two dollars. The roads must not be less than thirty feet or more than ninety feet wide; and local rates may be levied for local roads, on a petition of two-thirds of the resident rate-payers repre- senting one-half the assessed value. Councils can not close a road to the prejudice of any person, nor encroach on gardens, orchards, pleasure-grounds, or buildings; but they may order the removal of trees, not being ornamental or plantations, within twenty-five feet of the highway, and must compensate for all real damage. PROGRESS or TRAVEL. In the province of Quebec, the European system of traveling by po&t was in force and regulated by law. The distance between Quebec and Montreal, commonly called sixty leagues was divided into twenty-f?ur stages. The maitrci de poste were obliged to keep four cakches and four ca ioks, and to bo ready at a quarter of an hour's notice to for'vvpjd the traveler, who was usually received with much ceremony, on alighting after each stage, by the lady of the J •^ VA .'^■^ I .'^■^ .-iSJ^CU CARIOLE. HABITANT, LOWER CANADA, DRIVING A CALilCIIK, % II Bi: I TRAVKL AND TRANSFORTATIOK. Ill house.* They had the exclusive right of passenger trans- port by land, the charge being fixed at twenty to twenty-five cents per league, — twelve to fifteen dollars for the journey between Quebec and Montreal, which occupied three days. The caleche is a gig upon grasshopper springs with a seat for two passengers; the driver occupies the site of the dash- board, with his feet on the shafts and in close proximity to the horse with which he maintains a confidential conversa- tion throughout the journey, alternately complimenting and upbraiding him, and not failing to impress him with the many virtues of his master. A public mail-stage was established between St. John's and Quebec before the expiration of the last century; but although fecilities existed for land travel before the era of steamboats, the water route, where it was down stream or slack water, was generally preferred. Water carriage along the whole fix>ntier from Quebec to Lake Huron, and abimdance of snow (east of Kingston) while the navigation was closed, checked the early establishment of a good road throughout. Before the war of 1812, the land route from Montreal west- ward was broken, not only by the necessary ferries across the Ottawa at Isle Perrot, bui by the long ferry in Lake St. Fran- cis, where a horse-boat traversed the slack water, because of the wet land route along the front of Glengary. In 1796, with the exception of about fifty miles, a road had been opened from Montreal to Eangston, and the journey could be made by land from Montreal to Lake St. Francis, and from Corn- wall to Prescott, along which latter route the United Empire loyalists, who came in in 1784, had established themselves. The intermediate portions, having slack water or nearly so opposite them, were not completed until the necessity for them was demonstrated by the war of 1812-15. * The maUrea de poste were first recognized by law in 1780, and aome half a dozen ordinances and acts were passed in their favor or to control them be- tween that date and 1819, when their privileges ceased. Bi £ 'A.t s t' ! I It ^*| 1 T. if 112 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. During the infancy of Upper Canada the road extension from Prescott to Burlington, — with the exception of those portions where the loyalists were settled, which extended as high as the Bay of Quinte, — was retarded by the slack- water navigation between these points; but to avoid the detour by Queenston, Fort Erie, and Lake St. Clair, a road was opened as early as 1794 from Ancaster (the point to which the loy- alists had extended their settlenents from Niagara, and made their road by private subscription) to the Mohawk village on the Grand Eiver, to which place Brant had removed his Six Nations. From Brantford it was carried through to a point (London) on the river La Trenche (now called the Thames,) from whence a boat navigation existed to Lake St. Clair. Thus, from the French seigneuries on her eastern boundary to the American border on tte west. Upper Canada sought first to connect the natural navigation by what may be called portage roads of greater or less length : and so to diminish the time, cost, and fatigue of land transport. ' Governor Simcoe, who seems to have been fully impressed with the importance of his mission as the founder of a na- tion, also opened out, in 1794, by the labor of the Queen's Eangers, the portage of thirty-three miles from Toronto to Lake Simcoe, called Yongo Street, which shortened and cheapened the route to Mackinaw, then the great d6p6t of the fur-trade. On the opening of this route the North- West Fur Company, which was established by Frobisher and McTavish, of Montreal, in 1782, and which in 1796 employed 2,000 men, instead of sending their supplies up the Ottawa by canoes, sent batteaux up the St. Lawrence, which were carted across the portages at the carrying place and Yonge Street, and delivered their cargoes in Mackinaw at a saving of £10 (or $40) to £15 (or $60) per ton. Even the Spanish settlements down the Mississippi were supplied by British goods thus taken to the great peltry fair at Mack- (i ■ ! ■>' ' * V- TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 113 inaw. Dundas Street, as the main post-road traversing the province was called, w?s also established by Governor Sim-) coe, lots being granted along it on condition of building and improving in one year; and so provision was made for a continuous land communication throughout the province : but it was not until after the war of 1812 that any portion of it was so far improved and bridged as to become a stage route. The first stage in Upper Canada was established by Mr. Macklem, of Chippewa, in 1798, between Queenatowr^.^d Fort, Erie, running every other day at the moderate fare of one dollar; distance about twenty-five miles. On the 1st of January, 1816, the first stage between Montreal and Kingston was established by Barnabas 7)iokin3on. Covered sleighs left Samuel Hedge's, in St. T-"aul Street, Montreal, and Robert Walker's Hotel, Kingston, every Monday and Thursday, and arrived every Wednesday and Saturday. In January, 1817, Samuel Purdy established the first stage be- tween Kingston and York. It left Daniel Brown's inn, Kingston, every Monday momirg, and York every Thurs- day morning, stopping at Spaulding's inn, Grafton, as a half-way house. The fare was eighteen dollars with twenty- eight pounds of baggage allowed. The next winter Purdy reduced the fare to ten dollars, three dollars to Belleville, and six dollars to Spaulding's inn. On the opening of nav- igation the stages between Prescott and York were discon- tinued, as a steamboat was then on this route. The mail, which as late as 1807 was so light as to be carried by pedes- trian white men between Montreal and Toronto, and by an Indian between Toronto and Niagara, all of whom carried axes to aid them in crossing streams, went by the king's vessels in summer, and after 1817 by the steamers, which also took the local traffic between the jfrontier towns; so that there was no travel to maintain a summer stage except on the portages below Prescott. The first steamers were placed 1 . m ■ 1 114 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. ; t on Lake St. Francis and Lake St. Louis, in 1826, when four- horse covered coaches were put on the road between Mon* treal and Lachine, and stages were run from the Cascades to Coteau Landing, and from Cornwall to Prescott, no steam- boat having yet ventured below the latter point. In 1832, a stem-wheel steamer, the Lroquois, was built to overcome the rapids between the Longue Sault and Prescott. At first she required the aid of horses and oxen at Eapide Pldtte; but further experience in pilots and an improvement in the boilers enabled her to ascend by steam power alone; and thereafter the stages retired to the twelve miles of por- tage passing tae Longue Sault between Dickinson's Landing and Cornwall. Between Kingston and Cobourg, and other points where the steamers did not call, at first a horse, and then the one- horse wagon delivered the local mail; and, as local travel increased, two and four horses were put on, the vehicles generally being open stage-wagons, the covered coaches be- ing kept in the vicinity of the larger towns where the roads were better and where it was worth an eflfort to " take in " the unwary. As late as 1834, passengers in stages from the west could avoid " sea " sickness on Lake Ontario by con- necting with steamers at the " Carrying Place," at the head of the Bay of Quinte, from whence there is river navigation to Montreal. In 1826, the first stage was established between Niagara and York, — ^time, seventeen hours; fare, five dollars. In 1827, the exclusive right to run a stage for twenty-one years from Ancaster, through Brantford, Burford, "the Long Woods," and Delaware, to Detroit Eiver, was ob- tained, after two years' effort, by a public-spirited physician of St. Catherine's, for the purpose of inducing other parties to provide this much-needed accommodation. Under this stimulus, a line of four-horse coaches was started in 1828, which not paying it was reduced to an uncovered wagon, !gj>i \ t; TiUVXL AND TBANSPOaiATIOir. 116 and after a time even that was abandoned. It was some years after this before a stage waa established between Lake Ontario and the Detroit River, and not until 1842 that a daily line was established throughout the province, which waa done in consequence of Deputy Postmaster-General Stay- ner's requirements with regard to the mails. Benjamin Franklin, Deputy Postmaster-General of North America in 1766, stated before a committee of the House of Commons that the only post-road then in Canada was be- tween Montreal and Quebec. In 1791 the post-road ex- tended eastward to New Brunswick, and westward as far as Eangston. As late as 1807, the mail to Amherstburgh waa only quarterly, a Canadian once in three months appearing with a mail-bag on his shoulder. Our progress, as gathered from the number of miles of established post-roads, is as follows: — ^1 ■4 m Datea. 1766,. 1791,. 1817,. 1824,. 1828,. 1831,. 1832,. 1836,. 1837,. 1840,. 1851,. 1852,. 1854,. 1857,. I860,. irumber Miles of Miles of of Established Annual Pott-OfficM. Post-Roadt. Mail Trarel. 3 170 10 600 25 1,200 69 1,992 369,616 101 2,368 455,936 151 2,896 713,076 227 3,460 787,472 289 4,377 1,005,5". 375 5,370 1,176,'.08 405 5,736 1,473,264 601 7,595 2,487,000 840 8,618 *2,930,000 1,166 10,027 4,000,000 1,506 13,253 5,383,000 1,698 14^ 5,712,000 In 1852, the number of letters per anntim was 8,700,000; the revenue, $230,629; expenditure, $276,191. In 1860, the number of letters per annum was 9,000,000; the reve- nue, $658,451; expenditure, $534, 68L This expenditure is exclusive of railway and steamship subsidies. The formar oosts $110,000 and the latter $416,000 per aazaun. 8 m it •t rtl BHV I ■ P' f ! ill 116 TBAVKL AND TRANSPORTATION. PROGRESS OF ROADS. The land communications of the- copper-colored nomads, eastward of the prairies, were natural routes subordinate to their water ones, being mere portages from one stream or lake to another; and in this respect they differed essentially from those of a fixed population. But, as with the savage, the track of the wild animals, — the deer, moose, elk, or cariboo, — indicated the hardest ground or lowest pass for the war-path, so with the colonist the same guides — or the instincts of domestic animals turned loose in the forest, — often marked out the "bridle-road," the pioneer route of land transport from point to point. In later times, since the sur- veyor has preceded the settler, the roads have been either arbitrarily determined for a country presenting no special obstacles, or carefully explored as a basis of settlement. But as, untU a comparatively recent period, the squatter preceded the surveyor, the original roads have been estab- lished either by the accidental conditions noted above, or by the more extensive and careful explorations of the lum- berman, who has been the pioneer of the agriculturist over the greater portion of cultivated America. The progressive stages of improvement, from the track of the wild animal to the metalled road, are, — 1. The Bridle Eoad; 2. The Winter Eoad; 8. The Corduroy Eoad; 4. The Common or Graded Eoad; 5. The Turnpike; Macadam, Gravel, and Plank Eoads. BRIDLE AND WINTER ROADS. Before the era of wheeled vehicles, communication be- tween back settlements, save in winter, is restricted to " bridle roads," by which men and women on horseback may assemble for worship, visit their neighbors, and attend upon all those occasions of births, marriages, and deaths so TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATIOK. 117 much noticed in the forest and so little in town. On pack- horses, also, grain is taken to and from the mill, and other movables transported. These roads are formed simply by clearing away the branches and logs, so that a man on horseback may ride, and are most -frequently old lumber- men's roads, which have become impassable from fallen timber, and the growth of underbrush. In winter, how- ever, the snow and ice, the great democratic elements in the physical constitution of Canada, make all roads alike, and the humblest settler in the most remote back-township has not only an excellent road, but can make himself a vehicle capable of transporting the largest loads; and, sheltered by the forest, the once broken track is protected from those drifts which are the only drawbacks to the snow-roads in the cLarings. It is impossible to over-estimate the importance of the frost and snow to the people of Canada, or to place any money value upon them. That which most Europeans have deplored aa the only drawback to this country is in truth the source of its rapid prosperity. The operations of agriculture and con^nerce do not necessarily require perennial communication with a market. As there is but one crop of grain and lumber in the year, it is suffi- cient if once in the year an opportunity is afforded to transport it, and this Canada possesses in a higher degree than any other "more favored clime." In the dead of winter, when aU agricultural out-door operations have cepsed, the farmer, after having threshed his grain, can sally forth to any market he may select, even if distant one hundred miles or more, and combine other business or pleasure in the town with that of the sale of his products. He can go any where while the snow lasts, for all roads are alike; and he can take as large a load as can be transported by the same power on the best wheel roads in Europe. For domestic purposes the ice and snow are equally valuble to him; for, while unable to cultivate the fields, he can make *i Il!f i b' C 118 TRAVEL AND TRAKePORTATION. the forest resound with his axe, and ^very swamp is accessible to his horsep and his sledges; thus Svxuring his annual sup- ply of fuel without the necessity of money or barter. If he has a femily of grown-up sons, he may cut the timber and fuel and transport it to the market, because there is not a week in the whole winter in which out-door work is un- pleasant; and there is, therefore, less loss of time than in milder and more rainy climates. The presence of the ice and snow at the season when horses and cattle and their owners can not be employed in field operations, and its cer- tain continuance over the greater part of the country for several months, deilne the mode of conducting the business without inconvenience and to the best advantage. What- ever is intended for export is, where good summer roads are wanting, hauled down to the shipping ports while the siiow lasts; and if a house is to be built, the stone is quarried and hauled when little else can be done, and all preparations are made before the season for building commences. The statistics of shipments show that only about one-third of the crop is sent forward in the year in which it is grown; and although in many instances the produce can not be brought out until the snow Mis, it is evident that from choice the greater part will be held back until that season. The autumnal plowing and so^dng after harvest, ditching, fenc- ing, and other duties, often make it inconvenient to com- mence threshing before the winter: moreover, there is also the hope that better prices, when western exports are suspended, and cheaper transportation on the enow, will more than compensate for any loss of interest The frost which bridges every river and makes a hard and level causeway of every swamp, with the snow, which fills every rut and cavity and buries boulders, logs, and stumps, enable the lumberman to send supplies for a whole year to his shanties; and, in like manner, the pioneer settler takes advantage of this season, to prepare for his summer's fr,, —rn TRAVEL AKD TKANSPOHTATIOV. 110 work of establishing a home in the heart of the forest. It is only by contrasting this state of things with India, the Turkish Empire, or other snowlesa and roadless countries of the world, that we can determine what it is worth to have, as Canada has for months in every year, the best pos- sible road, not only on all main lines, but to every man's door and to every corner of his property. The winter road is too narrow for wheeled vehicles; in summer it is but a bridle road on the hard ground, and im- passable through the swamps. CORDUROT ROADS. In forming a road for wheeled vehicles or in converting a winter road into a summer one, there are necessarily as many degrees of excellence (or rather badness) as are afforded by the character of the route, — the number, wealth, and intelligence of the settlers. But, whatever the means at their disposal, there seems to be a universal resort to the axe and log-chain, where the pick and shovel should be used. This wide-spread error is the result of habit: axes are in the hands of all, and familiar to all; the pick and shovel are regarded as only fit for "canallers" and railway " navvies." Not only in the case of swamps (in many of which the corduroy system is indispensable), but wherever water at stated seasons coUects.on the surface, so as to soften the soil and cause the wheels to sink, whole hecatombs of trees are sacrificed to form a corrugated causeway of their round trunks, laid side by side, over which wagons can be slowly dragged or bumped, any attempt at speed being checked by immediate symptoms of approaching dissolution in the vehicle. When the country becomes cleared moat of these vegetable causeways remain high and dry through- out the year, from the mere admission of sun and wind; but though no longer of any service, the logs are too often permitted to remain, because, half-buried as they are, the Il-l r; i. rt*i .• 1 1 E ' % >i '^ ' .■ ;. i ^ 1 |, \ 1 t « 124 TRAVEL AND TRANBPOBTATION. which can be avoided. There is no stronger instance of the patience and law-abiding disposition of the people than in their toleration of so great an imposition as most of the toll-roads of Upper Canada. It matters not whether a com- pany has purchased the right of way, cleared the forest, fenced, " graveled," and bridged a road, or whether it has thrown down stones or plank upon an old highway made ready for them at the cost of the public, — the traveler (who has perhaps exerted all his skill in driving between the loose stones and broken planks and the ditches, or in " straddling " the ruts) is arrested every four or five miles by a toll-gate. In winter toll is exacted even if sleighs are used, which can only be defended on the giound that some revenue must be had; but in summer there is not this relief, although it would be safe to say that, for the greater part of that season at least, the roads would be much more efficient in their natural state than they are as " improved." Such roads have no resemblance to the turnpike trusts of Lower Canada, except at the toll-gates; and the continuance of so great a nuisance as barriers on even the bes : of roads must be regarded as evidences of a preference on the part of the most intelligent population of Upper Canada for direct taxation. It mf*y be argued that those who wear out the road should pry for keeping it in order; but this might be met by an annual assessment on hoofs and wheels without the intervention of toll-gates. If the cities and market- towns assumed the tolled roads, they have it in their power, by fees, market-rates, &c., to levy the amount required; and there would thus be bodies interested by their mutual competition in keeping the roads permanently in good order. This, however, is one of those reforms which we can not hope to attain until we are far enough advanced to think of fencing our animals in instead of fencing them out I TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 125 ROAD POLIOT. The provision for roads in many of the townships of Upper Canada is excessive. The usual dimensions of the lots are a quarter of a mile in.width and a mile and a quar- ter in length, containing two hundred acres; and in some townships, in order to give every lot frontage on a highway, road allowances sixty-six feet wide, running from front to rear, have been reserved every half-mile. The concessions (which are reserves of a similar width) divide each tier of lots so that they occur at intervals of every mile and & quarter; thus the lots may be halved, and each hundred acres, front and rear, will have a road allowance upon two sides of the property. In townships of unbroken, and dry land the roads become established upon those allowances; but in many cases, intervening obstacles force the road through private property, where it remains on sufferance until (from the permanent character of the obstacle) it is duly established by authority, when it is enlarged to the regulated width and the " statute labor " expended on it. Before the union of the provinces, and the establishment of municipal institutions in 1841, considerable amounts were annually granted by the Legislature for roads and bridges. These were in fact almost the only public works prior to the era of canals and railways and public debt, and absorbed the greater part of the net revenues. This system still obtains in the lower colonies, and their main roads are unsurpassed, as a class, by those of any other government on this continent. Aid from the public chest was generally restricted to trunk lines and bridges beyond the means of local taxation or "statute labor;" but, by judicious "log- rolling," as the barter of vote for vote between members is called, this aid became so widely distributed and the num- ber of claimants so increased as to force the leaving of c V' h'\ id ^ i i 1 ' r^ i r i Ite 'V ; Hi! i ■ i > < 1^ :;i 1^ R 126 TRAVXI. AND TRANSPORTATIOV. road-making wholly in the hands of the localities, except in the case of new roads for settlement, or where large areas of public land remained unsold. The dissatisfaction created by the apportionment of the road moneys was one of the arguments in fevor of municipal institutions which have since relieved parliament of applications on account of what may be called local roads. While there is little doubt that it was high time the old, rich, and populous districts should no longer abuse their greater political strength to .secure for their own doors the Hon's share of the road moneys, it is equally clear that, in being thrown upon their own resources, a load has been imposed upon many of the back counties which they are unable to bear. It may cost one county, by reason of numerous large rivers, deep ravines, swamps, &c., ten times as much to make its roa<£i as it costs another more favorably situated; and the more broken the couuijy the less good land and the fewer the in- habitants, so that the tenfold expenditure falls upon a pop- tdation only one-tenth of that in the older tnmt counties. Again, the back counties contribute so much to the wealth of the front ones, that the latter may with justice be asked to share a burden from which, by the natural formation of the district, the labors of their Others, or from past government aid, they are comparatively exempt. Honest- ly administered, the system which prevails in the low- er colonies, •and which once existed here, is at least the most equitable; and it can only be decried by the con- fession that there is not public virtue enough to sustain it. The proceeds from sales of the crown lands and the rer- enues derived from the valuable timber thereon, do not ao- crue to the municipalities in which these may be situated, and as there seems to be a natural claim upon this fund for roads in the same district, the provincial treasury which re- ceives may with reasonableness be asked to give. This ,ii TKAVXI. AHO TBANSFORTATIOK. 127 principle haa been recognized by the government of the United States, which^ in organizing new states, made pro> vision for roads out of the proceeds of the public lands sold in each state; and is acknowledged by us as respects what are called Colonization Boads. ■TATKinNT Showing the amount expended by the Legialatore of Upper and Lower Can- ada, respectively, from 1791 to 1861, for Roads and Bridges; also, the amount expended since the Union by Municipalities and Road Companies, in the construction of Turnpike R' ads : EZPV^roiD ST vTpPIR C&MABA : Gmenl gnntM tot raada Mid bridgM, SpaeitI approprimtiou for roadi, Special •ppropriotioM foibridcM,(5(0... Gnnto for eoloaintkNi racdi, I built hj mnniei patitiM aad joiot itoek .714 ..•i;308 .137 .983 Total, Vsv» CuisfU,. Plmk R<«di. .ists .IM Cot; Btlbrt Union. f7Q3^.00 ..793,406.65 ...13,45&00 l,a8S4S3>65 Colt Since Union tl,393.707.00 ...JU,S37.75 ..S88,739.21 4,366,593110 6;37tl^M5.96 ToUlCoft. .•769,900.00 9446,173i>S . 104,908.75 . 538,739.31 4,3S6,SS9M 7.008,688.61 Bud il grant I biTdgM, Bpeeial sppropriatiou (brroadt, Spwial appropriatia forbridgM, (33)... Oraats for eotonitatiov foadi, I^napika traiti...... Boadi bailt bj uMaioi- patitioi and joint itook oompaniM, (no ratufn; EzraMniD bt Lowik Camaoa: 7a3,S«0,00 ..37 .es3 .1,537 .9H .194 Total, Lower Canada, Otsad Total, Upper and Luwer Canada,. ,. 930,380JM .si,soaoo 1,034190.00 9,563,943.65 .. 780,711.19 .. 218,009.00 446,786.33 495|965.79 90,000.00 1,801,673.33 8,971,178.10 ..789,940X0 1,011,001.19 ..940,409M .. 446,786.39 .. 90,000.00 3,035,703.93 10,834^.84 * GraTelod roade ooly, on nearly all ot whieb •oUi an eoUected. k'\ m ■i. ft ii ' :i ^ 1 V ' ! ( f' h'f' %l • ■- w*^ ■ U: [ w- ,; :.• Il 128 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. The Plank, Gravel, 'and Macadam roads of Lower Can- ada were nearly all constructed by Parliamentary grants. This road expenditure of $10,884,420.84 excludes those made by statute labor or commutation money ; and all mu- nicipal outlay on common roads. The colonization road expenditure in Upper Canada in- cludes that from the Improvement Fund, — applicable to new townships. TABLB Of Plank, Gravel, and Macadam Boads constructed by municipalities and Joint Stock Companies in Upper Canada, since the Union. CountiM. PUk Road. No. Mill. Oravel Road. Ifo. mla. liaotdun Rmd. No. Mill. Total No. MUM. Total CoiU Brent, (no return,) , 37 37 ..•37,000.00 . . . 12,000.00 Carleton, (no Kturn,) 6 6 Elgin, 42 42 . . . 84,000.00 Eiiex, (no return,) Frontenae, Lennox, and Addington, 166 i86 177 . . 318,000.00 Grey, 177 . . 200,000.00 Haldimand none. 60 Halton, 60 .. 100,000.00 Haitinn. (no return.) 9 04 103 .. 101,300.00 177 177 . . 462,400.00 Kent, 14 10 3 33 ...66,000.00 . . . 42,000.00 Lambton, • 18 21 Lanark and Ranfrew. fno return.). ...... Leedi and Grenville, ....iisi . . 927,848.00 20 .... ••«» 153 .. 127.500.00 MiddleMx, 11 142 .. 600,000.00 .. 140,000.00 Norfolk, (Plank and Gravel,) 88 Northumberland and Durham.. 220 . . 4OS.00O 00 Ontario, Oxford, !!!!!!ii 8 112 101 :::::i3i :"-^ ... 12,000.00 ..255,500.00 . . 200,457.00 Perth, Peterboro* and Victoria. 6 6 . . . 12,000 00 Freieott and RuMell. uone. 900 Prince Edward 200 Statute labor. 6 5 11 ... 22,000.00 Stormont. Duudas. and Glenirarv. 84 4 28 1 . . . 60,000.00 Waterloo, 1 .... 2,000 00 Welland,. 28 ffl 88i .. 114,877100 Wellington 82i .. 162,640.00 Wentworth 13 m 46 ?{| .. 104,000.00 York and Peel, fno return.) ... .... Ill ..iJ22,000.00 Total 194 1,302 2,83i 8,277 4,366,522.00 NoTB.— Colt ii Mtimated when not giT«ii« ud known roadi an inmtad in eaiM whet* no letum waa mad*. tl TRAVEL AlTD TRANSPORTATION. 129 "WATER COMMUNICATIONS. The physical geography of Canada, presents a marked contrast with respect to rivers and water communica- tions, to that of tbe States of the Union. The Mississippi and its naraerous tributaries are navigable, at some seasons of the year, from their m'ouths almost to their sources ; but the St. Lawrence and its branches are beset, a little beyond tide-water, with rocky barriers to navigation which are re- peated at varying distances — generally with lakes or long deep reaches intervening. The proportion of water navi- gable in both directions to that of rapids, chutes, and cata- racts is, however, so great, that for purposes of transporta- tion the St. Lawrence presented to the early explorer less obstacles than the Mississippi, — ^the upper waters of which were first reached through the great lakes, by Jolliette and Marquette in 1678, and by Hennepin in 1680. Between Quebec and Chicago — a fresh- water navigation of 1,450 miles, — the total length of canal is only sixty-eight and a half miles: and in the proposed improvement of the Ottawa navigation, oat of a total of four hundred miles between Montreal and Lake Huron the length of canal is only thirty miles, about one-third of which is upon the Island of Montreal itself. On this latter route, — ^by which the Algon- quins avoided the L:t)quois, and which afterward became the highway of the voyageurs of the fur companies, — ^a few miles of portages constituted all the land carriage required between Montreal and the centre of the continent. In the later operations of the lumberman the long reaches of level road upon the ice of the Ottawa, and of its lakes and tributaries, have carried the supplies into the inmost recesses of the forest. This terracelike profiL of the northern rivers is not with- out its ameliorating influence upon the temperature during the two or three short periods of intense cold which occur L ( '\ I I ii i '♦. i - 1 if 1 1 i I ; ' 4 ^il' i'i: i' T |i.:;- ! J I ! * 130 TRAVEL AMD TKANBPORTATIOy. in a Canadian winter. While a thick covering of snow re- tains heat in the earth for the protection of vegetation, and when the fish retire to the shelter of the deep water in the ice-covered lakes, the open area at the rapids a£ford8 the principal outlet for radiation, — ^which increases with the in- tensity of the frostr— «uid at these points an almost constant congelation in the form of " anchor ice " upon the bed of the stream, sets free an additional supply of latent heat Another peculiarity of the Canadian navigation is its great directness. From the Straits of Belle Isle to the head of Lake Erie, the St Lawr^ice affords a navigation almost upon an air-line; and &om Montreal to the western extrem- ity of Lake Superior, the Ottawa gives a route nearly direct The Missis^ppi and many of its tributaries, on tbs other hand, double the air-line distance between their cities, and oppose an almost uniform current to ascending crafi While batteaitx could be dragged up the rapids and sail up the St Lawrence in ten or twelve days from Montreal to Lake Ontario, and there transfer their cargoes to schooners, it required four months to pole a keel-boat up the Mississippi from New Orleans to St Louis; and it was not until the successful invention of the steamboat that the western livers could be commercially navigated, and thus have their fertile valleys opened to the immigrant The river St lAwrenoe-4hat great aorta of the province of Canada, which drains an area of half a milli n of square miles, and opens a highway for ocean borne vessels from the Atlantic fully two thousand uiiles into the interior, or more than half-way across the oontinent^ — ^has ever been a base-line of operations in those struggles, both military and commercial, which have taken place between the rival races and rival offehoots from the same race in the New World, Its two most important branches^ the Ottawa and the Biohelieu, were, on account of tiieir great directness towards the West and South, thur slack-water, and the greater dd* Um I t TRAVIL AKD TRAKSPORTATIOIT. 131 pression in their valleys, favorite thorouglifarea of the Algonquin and the Iroquois, and these characteristics are none the less important to the commercial requirements of our own time. The Appalachian chain of mountains, sweeping the curve of a great circle of the earth from the Gulf of Mexico to the St. Lawrence, is cleft to the ocean level at the Hudson River, and only there. Almost in a direct line north of this river, and apparently a continua- tion of the same fissure in the chain. Lake Champlain dis- charges in an opposite direction, into the St. Lawrence, by means of the river Richelieu. This lake is only eighty feet above tide water, and the summit level of the canal connecting it with the Hudson is only fifty-five feet higher. A subsidence, therefore, of only one hundred and fifty feet, along the line of this valley, would open salt- water naviga- tion between Montreal and New York, and make an island of New England and the Lower Colonies. PROQRKSB OF NAVIQATIOir. The progressive stages in the navigation of the northern rivers are — The Bark Canoe; The Batteau; The Barge or Durham Boat; The Horse-boat; The Steamboat ; To which — ^for the lakes — may be added every description sail-craft required in ocean navigation. The Bark Oanoe. — This primitive vessel of the northern aborigines is one of the most useful and economical vehicles for travel and light traffic upon a broken and sheltered nav- igation which can possibly be devised. Every attempt to improve upon it, by substitution of tin or otherwise, has felled, and it is to this day the fevorite craft of the lumber- man for ascending or descending the tributaries of the Ot- 9 i III ' ■ ■ m ■i ! . 1 * if! 189 TBAVIL AND TRAKSFORTATION. tawa, where no summer roads are found. In size the^ range between nine and thirty feet — one and a half to live fav ai3, as the measurement is usually given. The smaller si '. -/ill only carry one person, with a small stock of food or neces- saries to trim the ship; and as one person can easily carry it, a considerable journey with numerous postages may be made solus wherever there is a foot of water in the stream. The larger canoes will carry twenty-five to thirty men, or a cargo of three tons, and when loaded draw two feet of water. The frame-work consists of numerous single ribs or laths, bent like an ox-bow, and terminating in the gunwales; all which, with the bow and stern-post, are made of white cedar {Thuya occidentalism) the lightest and most durable wood our forest aflfords. The few bars which maintain the opposite gunwales in situ are of maple, elm, or ash — cedar not being strong enough — ^but they are attached, through holes bored in their ends, by a seizing of young roots, (in- stead of being framed in,) so that they can readily be replaced. The sheathing is the bark of the white birch {Betulu papyracea,) more durable than the cedar itself, (al- though that lasts as long as the owner,) sewed together and lashed to the gunwale with the fine, tough, and durable filaments which form the young roots of the spruce, and which are prepared by boiling. The seams are payed with a pitch composed of resin and tallow, which makes them water-tight; but often the raw gum of the forest tree is used. Thus it will be seen that with the exception of the cross-bars, so easily replaced, there is no perishable wood in the bark canoe: and they are lighter fOr their tonnage than any other craft of equal strength. Being very elastic they will stand a good deal of rubbing on boulders or water- worn rocks not sharp enough to cut them through; and if damaged the adjoining forest aflfords the means of repair. The largest canoe requires a crew of six to eight men, but can be carried by one-half this number; and it is only with TRAVIL AND TRANSPORTATION. 18S the larger sizes that more than one of the crew is needed to carry the vessel over the portages. At night the canoe in- verted affords shelter from rain and dew. The bark of the birch-tree forms the covering for the wigwam or hunters' camp — gives utensils in which flour is kneaded and water boiled — is the papyrus on which the Indian pioneer sketches with native plumbago hieroglyphics (which are left in cleft sticks at the portage landing) for the guidance of his following tribe — and makes the resinous torch for lighting the portage, the camp, or the night-fisher's spear; while the green wood from which it is stripped bums as readily on the camp-fire as the dry of any other tree. The Batteau. — ^When the extent and regularity of the traffic called for some more improved means of transport, the batteau — a large, flat-bottomed skiff, sharp at both ends, about fbrty feet long and six to eight feet wide in the mid- dle, and capable of carrying about five tons — was substi- tuted. Sometimes they were confined to a particular reach of water; in other places they were, with the aid of ropes and windlasses, men and oxen, dragged up the shallow rapids ; or were unloaded and carted across the portages. They were provided with masts and lug-sails with about fifteen feet hoist, an anchor, four oars, and six setting-poles shod with iron, and a crew of four men and a pilot. With forty barrels of flour on board they drew only twenty inches of water. Their great merit was in their entire adaptation to the work and to all conditions of the route. They could not be capsized in the excitement of a rapid, while their light draft enabled them to creep up along shore; nor could the flat bottoms be easily damaged on the water-worn rocks. When coasting along the shore of the great lakes, if the sea became too rough they could be hauled up and inverted to afford shelter like a canoe. Though by no means models their light draft and displace- 'li^ 'I, < 1 4 !./ ir?' 4 r t Hi;'! I h t 134 TRAVKL AND TKAX8PORTATI0N. ment and tbeir sharp bows made them tolerable sailers and not difl&cult to row. In the last century the batteau was used, almost exclusive- ly, on the inland waters. Although ships of four hundred tons then came up once a year to Montreal, and although there were, as early as 1795, three merchant vessels on Lake Ontario of from sixty to one hundred tons, which made eleven voyages in the year, (besides the six king's vessels which carried the mails, troops, and passengers,) the batteau was still used for purposes of travel and light transport from Quebec to York. Passengers from Montreal went down with the current to Quebec in a batteau having a sec- tion covered with cloth stretched over hoops, forming a sort of cabin ; but came up by land to save time. From Mon- treal westward there was no choice ; the passengers were obliged to camp on shore at night, and shot over the adjoin- ing woods while the crew were toiling up the rapids. This state of things continued until the introduction of the steam- boat and the completion of the land road. The Durham Boat was introduced after the war of 1812 by the Americans, and adopted to a considerable extent by the Canadians, the object being to combine the light draft of the batteau with better sailing qualities and greater ton- nage capacity. They were flat-bottomed barges with keel and center-board, and with rounded bows; eighty to ninety feet long and nine to ten feet beam, with a capacity about ten times that of a batteau, or about 850 barrels of flour, down; but, in consequence of the rapids and want of back fieight, they brought only about eight tons up, on the aver- age. The commencement of agricultural exports and con- sequent increase in the downward tonnage, after the war, called these boats into existence; for, though imable to carry a full load up the stream, they could bring up enough to meet the demands of the route, — ^the proportions between the down and up freights having materially changed from TRAVEL AND TRANSPOHTATION. 185 those in 1795-1800, when the batteaux bringing up pro- visions from below for the new settlers and taking down peltries as the only export, were equally loaded both ways. Sail Vessels. — The French traversed Lake Ontario in sail vessels two hundred years ago, and in 1679 La Salle launched the Griffin, above Niagara Falls, in which he sailed to Lake Michigan; but nothing more pretentious than a batteau or open boat was constructed, for commercial purposes only, previous to 1790. It was not until 1796 that any vessel bearing the American flag was afloat above Niagara Falls. She was a British built, 75-ton sloop, pur- chased from the North-West Fur Company. The Simcoe was the first commercial schooner on Lake Ontario. She was built at Simcoe Island about 1793, by the North West Fur Company, and was commanded by Henry Mumey, who built the second vessel, the Prince Edward, in 1798, at the Stone Mills on the Bay of Quinte. In 1795, three merchant vessels were engaged between Kingston and Queenston. Merchandise was taken up and furs and skins brought down, and this trade then employed as many as fifty to sixty wagons daily on the portage around Niagara Falls. Still, however, the batteau coasted along the north shore, and it was not till after the war of 1812 that the Carrying Place was abandoned — because communication was maintained by the Bay of Quinte while Lake Oittario was in possession of the enemy. Government schooners first commenced carrying passengers through Lake Ontario in 1791: the fare was only two guineas, wines included, which, as the voyage might last a week, was very moderate. The Cherokee, a Canadian vessel, built and sailed by Cap- tain Gaskin, was the first lake craft which crossed the Atlantic ; and the Dean Eichmond, from Chicago, in 1855, was the first American vessel which entered into the direct trade with Europe. A Lake Erie vessel, from Cleveland, in 1849, went out of the St. Lawrence and around Cape li? lit 'I \ , It', , * 136 TRAVBL AND TRANSFORTATIOK. Horn, with passengers, &o., for California. The first Eng- lish vessel which reached Chicago from Liverpool was the Madeira Pet, in 1866. The following table shows the fluctuations in the Cana- dian lalie marine in the last ten years. The decrease since 1867 is owing to the insane efforts of the Grand Trunk Eailway to rival the water route, the only result of which has been to ruin the boat owners and exhaust the road. The vessels are, however, in existence, and their highway needs no repairs or renewals. They are, therefore, re-ap- pearing on the scene, no longer in danger from their worn- out and exhausted antagonist. ■tat.:hkkt Of the Nambor and Tonnage of Vessels built in Canada from 1850 to I86I ; distingaishing those at Qaebeo and Gasp^, which are chiefly sea-going, from those at inland ports. , SAILINO VlSBBIiS > , ■ Btbamsrb > Year. Quebec and Ga«pe. Inland Porta. Quebec. Inland Forts. No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. No. Tounaga. 1850, 65 .. 31,204 ... 11 .. 876 8. .839... 3.. 1851, 65 .. 41,505 ... 12 .. 1,144 3.. 150... 1.. 300 1852, 48 .. 28,003 ... 14 .. 1,403 4 ., 572 ... 5 .. 1,139* 1853, 80 .. 51,124 ... .56 .. 7,272 -.. ... 2.. 67*' 1854, 72 .. 46,993 ... 32 .. 4,829 8 . . 518 ... 8 .. 1,715 1855, 73 . . 32,001 . . . 40 . . 7,702 6 . . 933 . . . 18 . . 2,335 1856, 80 . . 36,765 . . . 46 . . 4,819 8 . . 485 . . . 14 . . 3,270 1857, 65 . . 38,592 . . . 45 . . 5,788 3 . . 173 . . . 13 . . 2,383 1858, 50 . . 20,326 . . . 35 . . 4,234 8 . . 697 . . . 9 . . 1,980 1859, 43 .. 14,997 ... 20 .. 1,579 3 . . 285 . . . 3.. 175 1860, 55 .. 22,426 ... 14 .. 1,102 3.. 354... 2.. Ill 1861, 53 .. 26,737 ... 32 .. 5,295 ...... 2 .. 223 ... 9.. 932 The Horse-Boat. — ^This vessel, adapted only to short and sheltered ferries, may be considered the true forerunner of the steamboat — which latter is an extension of the system on a larger scale and with a vastly superior power, but in- volving a different mechanical arrangement between the en- gine and the paddle-wheels both of which were compara- tively old — the engine having been in use efficiently for over ' TRAVXL AND TRAKSPORTATIOK. 137 thirty years on land, and the wheels on the horse-boat, be- fore they wert brought together in the steamboat. Boats of this de8criptl:^n, worked by four horses, were established on the Niagara River in 1793, at Fort Erie, Queenston, and Niagara; and, even as late as 1834, one was put on the ferry across Toronto Harbor. But now steam has almost eVery where relieved the noblest of animals from the worst of the many forms in which he has been doomed to suffer in the service of man. The Steamboat. — It is generally conceded that the steam- engine was first invented by the Marquis of Worcester, in 16'38; but it was an atmospheric engine, usually more costly than horse-power, until taken in hand by Watt in 1765. William Symington succeeded in applying an engine to a boat, so as to obtain a speed of five miles per hour, in 1788, and seven miles per hour, in 1789 ; but, neither of these proving serviceable, he built ih°^ first practicable steamer, the Charlotte Dundas, in 1801, and set her at work on the Forth and Clyde Canal; but the swell caused by her paddles proving injurious to the canal banks, she was laid up. Fulton visited Symington, who " fired up " the Char- lotte Dundas and gave him a trip at the rate of six miles per hour. He requested and obtained permission to take notes — Symington, who was protected in Great Britain, ap- pearing indifferent to any use which might be made in America of his labors. Fulton thereafter proceeded to the United States, and, securing a patent, launched the Clermont in 1807, having wisely taken the precaution to import the engine from Boulton and Watt in Eiigland. The Clermont commenced her trips regularly in 1808, and was the first steamer applied to any regular purposes of transport. As soon as this demonstration was made on the Hudson, the first Hon. John Molson, of Montreal, determined to in- troduce steam upon the route between Quebec and that city. A small e. perimental boat was built at Montreal called the I I ? Ill ;:sii,f "■11 ■It)' '■■ I K ( j 1 i:i:|' fe-u'*- 142 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. traffic with Europe from the St. Lawrence river through the ports of Boston and New York. The policy of the Imperial government, which tended to build up American seaports at the expense of Canadian, left the colony no other resource than competition. On the 13th of August, 1852, a contract was entered into between the commissioner of public works of Canada, and Messrs. McKean, McLarty & Co., a Liver- pool firm, for the term of seven years, by which a line of screw steamers of not less than 1,200 tons carpenters' meas- urement, 800 horse-power, and capable of carrying 1,000 tons of cargo besides coal for twenty-four days, were to commence running between Liverpool, Quebec, and Mon- treal, in the spring of 1853, once every fortnight during the season of navigation, and to Portland once a month ; the outward passage not to exceed fourteen days, and the homeward passage thirteen days. The maximum rate of freight to be charged was 6O5. per ton. Fourteen trips were to be made from Liverpool to the St. Lawrence and back, for which at least five steamers were to be provided; and five trips to Portland and back, for which three steamers were required. The vessels were all to be ready and to commence their fortnightly service on or before the 1st of May, 1854; and a sufficient number to be ready and to com- mence the monthly trips in the spring of 1853. The price to be paid by the province was, for fourteen fortnightly trips to the St. Lawrence, £1,238 \s. lid. sterling per trip. The Grand Trunk Eailway was to pay £336 6«. 8d sterling for each monthly trip to Portland. In October, 1852, Messrs. McKean, McLarty & Co. formed a provisional company under the title of the " Liverpool and North American Screw Steam-Ship Company," and pe- titioned the board of trade for a royal charter, with limited liability. In this they were vigorously and successfully op- posed by the Cunard company, and generally by British ship-owners not protected by limited liability, and were TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 143 compelled to attempt the formation of their company under a Canadian chai-ter. Under this contract, the Genova, a small steamer of 700 tons and 160 horse-power, was sent out in 1853, — the first transatlantic screw steamer which entered the St. Lawrence. The Lady Eglinton, 600 tons and 160 horse-power, and the Sarah Sands, 1,200 tons and 150 horse-power, followed; these boats made five trips only in 1853. The average voyage out was fourteen to twenty-two days, and home twelve to eighteen days; and 8O5. freight, instead of 60s., was charged. In consequence of this total failure on the part of the contractors, the government of Canada annulled the contract, and on the 28th of September, 1855, a new one was entered into with Hugh Allan, of Montreal, to commence in April, 1856, and give the same time and num- ber of trips as before, but with vessels not less than 1,750 tons builders' measurement, and not l^ss than 350 horse- power. The subsidy was £24,000 sterling per annum, and a penalty of £1,000 for every trip lost was provided for, besides the deduction of a pro-ratd amount of the subsidy. The contract was terminable by the contractor, at the end of any year, by giving six months' previous notice. Al- though the line was not remunerative in its first season, 1856, the contract was fulfilled in the most satisfactory manner, the outward passage being under thirteen days, and the homeward a little over eleven days. The inefficiency of a semi-monthly line, especially for postal purposes, in competition with the subsidized line to Boston and New York, led to a revision of the contract in 1857, by which a weekly service to the St. I/awrence com- menced in May, 1859, at a subsidy of $220,000 per annum. In April, 1860, a new contract was entered into with Mr. Allan, to continue in force until the Ist of January, 1867, for a weekly line between Liverpool and the St. Lawrence, and in winter Portland. All the vessels, except the Anglo- ?!;j <\'.i. . -JUS m ■ -.1 I!'' I '1' ' 111 I' ''' lllil,! M' • -i t 144 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Saxon, Canadian, and North American, to be not less than 2,300 tons buildeir measurement, with not less than 500 horee-power. Under this arrangement the ships must call at any port in Ireland which may be selected. The average passages in 1860 were twelve and eleven days, instead of fourteea and thirteen, the contract time. The subsidy is $416,000 per annum; the penalty for every trip not per- formed is $5,000, besides the contracl. value thereof; and the contract is terminable by l^io contractor on giving six months' notice, but b ^ j government only in case of de- fault. The doubling o; 'e 6 Liddy was in com equence of the losses of the compan^- in tl ''rst year of the weekly line, in which two of their steamers, the Indian and the Hungarian, were lost in the Atlantic, en route for Portland, while off the coast of Nova Scotia. In the winter of 1859, the Canadian steamships for Portland commenced to call at Cork, receiving supplemen- tary mails, with letters written in London after the steamer had left Liverpool; but as Cork was not suited to the St. Lawrence route, Londonderry was selected for the Irish port of call, and the first voyage, stopping there, was made from Liverpool on the 30th of May, 1860. The day of de- parture fi'om Liverpool was also changed, in July, 1860, from Wednesday to Thursday, taking an extra day from the Cunard line, which leaves on Saturday. The Canadian line, in 1860, carried 620,000 letters be- tween the United States and Europe, and received $104,- 641.68, from the United States' post-office, for this service. Previous to the arrangement of 1859 and 1860 the claims of the British and American post-offices, for packet and transit charges on Canadian correspondence with Europe, averaged $165,000 per annum; but, after 1860, they were reduced to $50,000— the difference of $115,000 per annum being the amount accruing to Canada from the transport of her own European correspondence. TRAVEL AND TRAKSPORTATIOKi 145 This line has been nnfortunate, in the loss of not less than five of its steamers in four years, — the Canadian in 1857, Indian in 1859, Hungarian in 1860, and Canadian and North Briton in 1861. Of these losses, two were in the St. Law- rence and three in the Atlantic, and of he former only one can be laid to the dangers of the navigation, as the first steamer lost was run ashore almost under the lamps of a lighthouse in full view, and on a bright, calm evening, by an incompetent pilot, who had assumed the control on her arrival. The following table shows the principal dimensions, ca- pacity, &o., of the Canadian ocean steamers : — XONTBEAL OCEAN STEAMSHIP OOIfPAlTr. LIVERPOCIi LONDONDERKT LINE. North Amerietii, . . . Anglo Saxon, Nova Hcotian, Bohemian, Hibernian, Norwegian, Jura, New ihip, building,. 378 276 S93 393 396 396 305 300 33 35 38 38 37i 38 Dreflof Water. 11 11 13 13 13 13 134 13 s. m M 31j 31j Slj 3lJ 22 22 Tonnage Meaiure't, O ? 1-784 1137 1-784 1-165 2-250 1-487 2-250 1-488 2-334 1-888 l2-334 1-888 1150 12-246 1-067 1.300 3-3501 1250 3" ■a. •5' 1-000 1-000 1350 1-350 1-150 S5 o B I ■8 J[ 350 950 300 300 300 300 400 500 5' B e B ^2. 45 45 SO -SO 48 48 60 50 11 11 10 10 11 11 12 IS The nominal horse-power, speed and ship's company are approximate ; the actual horse-power exerted is nearly four times the nominal. The Hibernian and Norwegian show a marked advantage in the net tonnage as compared with the gross. There are two regular Lines of Screw Steamers sailing to Glasgow, and the pioneer vessel of one to London has visited Montreal. The St. Lawrence route to Liverpool as a steam one has the very great advantage of sheltered and therefore compa- tively smooth water jBrom Cape Kace to Quebec. The Can- m in I:- 'ts ; .£ji^.- Hi I hi ; , '.■ ■■ I I ' * r 1 i m't ! 1 ■ .1 V, '' \,- •* •>• s r" ■ f i : l1 t*'i '■- 146 TBIVKL AND TRANSPORTATION. adian steamers have 1,000 miles less of open ocean to con- tend with than those plying to New York. Our mail steamers should therefore regularly make shorter time than the Cunard line, but for want of sujfficient power they do not do so : and from over loading since the grain trade at Montreal has increased, their average voyages are longet now than they were before 1860. The contract for fixing a maximum for the outward and homeward passage neces- sarily allows a margin for bad weather, and thus this pro- vision fhUs to secure that speed which alone can establish the route. The subsidy should not be renewed unless the utmost efficiency of which a screw line is capable of, is se- cured; for this is precisely one of those things which should be thoroughly done or not attempted at all. It is the height of folly to continue to pay a large subsidy to a line just fast enough to be beaten. The fastest line will take the mails, — the most profitable traffic ; and a larger subsidy even than that now paid might prove remunerative if these can be secured. A subsidy is no longer needed to open the route, — ^it should now only be employed to demonstrate its superiority to all others. EARLT KAVIOATION OF THX ST. LAWBXNOE. During the first quarter of the present century, — ^before the state of New York had availed herself of that remark- able pass through the Alleghany range, which is afford- ed by the Hudson Eiver, and had tapped Lakes Champlain, Ontario, and Erie by means of her grand canals, — exports from Northern Vermont and New York, vid Lake Cham- plain (or Corlaer's Lake, as the Dutch had named it,) as well as from those tributaries of the St. Lawrence which take their rise in the *' Empire State," sought an outlet at Quebec and Montreal. Previous to the year 1822, American lum- ber, grain, &c., were admitted into Canada, duty free, and TRAVEL AKD TRANSPORTATIOK. 14T exported, with all the privileges afforded to Canadian pro- ducts, to the British West-Indian colonies. While New York was pressing forward her canals (commenced in 1817 and completed in 1824,) the Imperial authorities, in 1822, prepared the way for the complete diversion of American exports from tTie St. Lawrence to those canals, by imposing a duty upon such exports to Canada. Sir J. B. Kobinson, in 1822, as the agent of Upper Canada in London, very properly suggested that the propriety, or otherwise, of such a duty might safely be left to the Canadians ; but the defense to the measure was that, as Canadian products were admitted into the British West-India colonies free of duty, while American were taxed, the free admission of the latter into Canada would be a discrimination in favor of British bot- toms, via the St. Lawrence, against American bottoms, viA the Mississippi, of which the Americans would complain as an evasion " of the relaxation professed to be made in the navigation laws for the benefit of a reciprocal commerce." This blunder was, however, acknowledged, in 1831, by the re-admission of American exports, as before, free of duty. Long before the commencement of any regular system of improvement, by means of continuous canals overcoming the whole of any rapid, small locks for batteaux had been constructed by the French at the Cascades, the Coteau, and the Longue Sault rapids. In 1804, these were reconstructed of larger size and in improved positions, by the royal engi- neers, as military works. While furs were the only exports the batteau was suited to the trade in both directions; but when agricultural export commenced, grain was first sent down (before 1800) on the rafts, and in scows or " arks," which were broken up and sold as lumber in Montreal. Some slight improvements- were made by Lower Canada in 1805 and 1806 in the boat channel of the rapids. Mer- chandise was at that time carted to Lachine, from whence the batteaux and Durham boats took their departure (in 10 i^::i Hi ■■ifm ' * f ■1 V' i 1 . \ I; f i i m ■A V ■ ! ■r" 148 TRAVBL AND TRANSPORTATION. " brigades " of five or more boats, that their united crews might aid each other at the rapids,) and sailed through Lake St. Louis. At the Cascades, three-fourths of the cargo was discharged and carted to the head of the Cedars — the ))oat, with the remaining fourth, being locked past the Cascades, dragged up the " Split Rock " and Cedars, and re-loadcd — passing the Coteau by a lock into Lake St. Francis. Above Cornwall, there were two locks in Longue Sault, one of which was a private speculation ; and between Mille Roches and the head of the Longue Sault, as between the Cascades and the Cedars, lighfcrage was necessary, three-fourtlis of the cargo being discharged and hauled over land. From Prescott the boats sailed up to Kingston, or (after lb 18) were towed by steamer. The average time required for the voyage was twelve days, and the actual expenses of a Dur- ham boat with an average cargo of eight tons, from Lachine to Kingston, were as follows: — Tolls at the CoBoacles and Cotean, £2 10 - Towing at different Rapids, 5 10 - Land carriage of 6 tons from Casondes to the Cedars, 3 Land carriage of 6 tons from Millo Roches, 3 Towing by steamboat from Prescott to Kingston, 3 15- Wages, &o., 6 men, 12 days, at 3s. 6d. per day, 12 12- £30 7 $121 40 cents. Salt, which was taken at the lowest rates, was charged Ss. 9c?. per cwt., in 1825, from Lachine to Kingston ; the aver- age rate on merchandise being 4s. 6d. per cwt., or eighteen dollars per ton. The number of boats which paid toll at the Coteau locks were — Tmt. 1818, 1819, 1820, 1821, i824, Durham boats. ... 315 ... 839 ... 561 ... 342 ... 268 Bstteauz. .. 679 .. 573 .. 430 .. 634 .. 596 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATIOIT. 149 An addition of about, twelve per cent should be made, to the above because one boat out of eight or nine sailed up the rapids, and did not pay toll. Of the Durham boats about one-half were American. For downward cargo a Durham boat had a capacity of three hundred and fifty barrels of flour, andabatteau thirty to forty; but in their latter days these were made nearly as large as the former. Upward, the former averaged eight tons, and the latter four to five. The transportation of 1824 was diminished by a failure of the harvest in 1823, as well as by the operations of the Imperial trade act of 1822. The average passage of a boat from Kingston to Lachine was four days, and the expense as follows: — Six men, fonr days, at 3i. 6d., £4 4 - FUotago at the rapids, 1 17 6 £6 1 6 $24 30 The downward trade in 1818 to 1825 averaged about 150,000 to 175,000 barrels per annum, say 15,000 tons; and the upward trade about 5,000 tons, or about one to three. In 1832, the trade had increased so as to give six to eight hundred Durham boats and twelve to fifteen hundred batteaux, passing the locks, the down trade being 66,000 tons and the up trade 21,000 tons — the proportions of about three to one still holding good. As the trade increased, passenger steamboats were placed on Lakes St. Francis and St. Louis, and four-horse coaches upon the portage roads. Improvements in the steamboats, in 1833, enabled them to overcome the smaller rapids be- tween the Longne Sault and Prescott; and from that date they descended <> - far as Dickinson's Landing. The agitation of the Erie and Champlain canals early drew the attention of the Canadians to the competition with which they were threatened. It was a renewal of that |i m \'\ ll !• i {'* • •» 160 TBA'EL AND TRANSPORTATION. strife, for the commerce of civilization, which had existed for the fur-trade, between the English colonies on the At- lantic and the French at Montreal and Quebec, before the conquest. A short portage divided Fort Stanwix, on the Mohawk (a principal branch of the Hudson,) from Wood Creek, which flowed into Oneida Lake, and thence, by the Onondaga Kiver, into Lake Ontario, at Oswego, which latter place was the scene of more than one conflict between French and English and their savage alhes, over one hun- dred years ago. In 1817. the same year in which the canal bill passed at Albany, and a month earlier, the government of Upper Canada advertised for tenders for the improvement of the navigation between Lachine and Kingston, by the course of the river Rideau. The project of connecting Lakes Erie and Ontario, by the Wellaud Canal, first appears in print, November 29th, 1817, in a paper prepared by William Hamilton Merritt for Robert Gourlay. In 1818, a company was incorporated to construct the Lachine Canal, a project which had been mooted as early as 1795 ; and another, in 1819, for the construction of the canal at Chambly. Thus, movements were on foot, in the center and at the two extremes, — to compass the objects aimed at by the state of New York, — ^before the completion of her canals had demonstrated their success; but, from various causes, at the head of which, no doubt, the separation of the provinces stood first, no actual commencement was made except with the Lachine Canal upon the Island of Montreal, and the Grenville Canal (by the Imperial government) on the Otta- wa, until long after the completion of the Erie and Cham- plain canals. The military canals, having been conceded to the province tU 1°858, and happily never having been required for other than commercial purposes, will be noticed under the head of the Ottawa River improvements. ^1 • i TBAVKL AND TRANSPORTATION. 151 Taking the three great routes of Canadian navigation in the order of their extent, we begin with the shortest. LAKK CHAMPLAIK ROUTE. The Richelieu or Iroquois River has a length of eighty miles between Sorel, on the St. Lawrence, and Rouse's Point, on Lake Champlain, with two obstructions to navigation in this distance. The first is overcome at St. Ours, about four- teen miles from Sorel, by a dam which deepens the water between this point and Chambly, and a lock — two hundred feet iii length between the gates, and forty-five feet, wide be- tween the walls, with six feet depth of water — begun in 1844, and completed in 184' at an outlay of $153,117.65. The second is the rapids above Chambly, which are passed by a canal eleven and a half miles in }ength, with nine stone locks, each one hundred and twenty-four by twenty- four feet, and six feet of water; commenced in 1831, sus- pended in 1885, resumed in 1840, and completed in 1843, at a cost of $480,000. By means of these improvements, boats can pass from any part of the St. Lawrence into Lake Champlain, and thence, by the Northern Canal and the Hudson River, to the city of Now York. Large quantities of lumber are transported by this route from the city of Ottawa to the Hudson River without transhipment. Lake Champlain navigation extends into Canada as far as St. John's, at which point the river Richelieu is 29 feet higher than the St. Lawrence at Lachine, or 74 feet higher than the river at Montreal. The distance between Caugh- nawaga (opposite Lachine) and St. John's is about 25 miles in a direct line; but if Lake Champlain be made the feeder, a canal must make a detour to avoid high ground, which will give a length of 82^ miles, and a coat of about two millions of dollars. Another plan is, to carry a feeder, 16 miles in length, from the Beauharaois Olinal, on a level 37| ffeet higher than Luke Champlain, down to a point opporfte 'If.-* (■ f:* '^fP^ 1m- ■'wl™ 152 TRAVBL AND TRANSPORTATION. Caughnawaga, and feed a direct line of canal between this point and St. John's, which would be about eight miles shorter than the canal fed from the Champlain level; but as it would have 87 feet more lockage, this would nearly equalize the two routes, in point of time. This scheme, with the feeder made navigable, would cost about double the other, say four millions of dollars; and, with a feeder only, about three millions of dollars. The first scheme gives the minimum amount of lockage to the Ottawa lum- ber trade ; the second, to the through trade from the West, unless the rapids are navigated by the freight boats, in which case these will not leave the St. Lawrence until they reach Caughnawaga ; but the question of cost is conclusive between these two plans. Montreal claims that the terminus of the canal should be opposite that eity : this has been objected to as causing the Ottawa and western trade to de- scend 45 feet, only to ascend the same again — besides add- ing to the length of the route. OTTAWA HOOTK. The Ottawa Eiver, where it joins the St, Lawrence, divides so as to form the Island of Montreal, and about one-third of its vol am*', flowing by St. Anne's and Vaudreuil, (where it forms a large island called Isle Perrdt;) enters liake St. Louis, and passes over the Lachine Rapid^3 — its dark waters taking the Montreal side and forcing the blue St. Lawrence into mid-channel. The other two-thirds flows U) the rear of Montreal Islund, forming Little River, in whicli is another large island, Isle Jesus, and discharges into the St. Lawrence about fifteen miles below Montreal. In connecting tide-water with the interior, the Lachine Canal is common to both the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa routes. La this dav. The others were not so far advanced in 1828, when the enlarge- ment of the Eideau Canal was decided on, and therefore ha ye locks one hundred and twenty-eight to one hundred and thirty-four feet long, and thirty -three feet wide; and also extra lockage, because the lowest one is fe<:l from the North River, a branch of the Ottawa. From Grenville to Ottawa the river is navigable, and a passenger steamer, (confined to the reach by being too large for the locks of the Grenville or Rideau canals,) runs in connection with portage railway between Grenville and Carillon, the steamer between Carillon and Lachine, and the railway tlaenco to Montreal ; thus making two railways and two steamers ne- cessary to convey a passenger from Montreal to tlie city of Ottawa. Above this city, the Chaudi^re Falls and the rapid* near them obstruct the navigation for several miles; but a M*c« adam road connects with an iron Rteamer on the Obuudi^re M- / MS 154 TllJl^EL AND TRAWflPORTATlOW. Lake. >. TRAVEL AND Ti' .'.NBPORTATIOr. 165 ural cliannel more couvcnienu for all purposes ol trade." The estimate by the St. Lawrence route, for locks one hun- dred and thirty-two feet by forty feet, with eight feet of water, was only £176,378 (or $705,512 ;) while that for the Rideau, with locks only one hundred by twenty -two feet, and seven feet of water, was £230,785 (or $923,140.) The Imperial government k/i-,! turned their attention to this route immediately after the war; and, early in 1815, Colonel Nicolls, commanding royal engineer, sent Lieutenant Jebb to explore the direct route by Irish Creek. In 1825, a committee of royal engineers, sent out to Canada, were instructed to bring home an estimate for the cost of a canal by this route, based upon the dimensions of the Laeliine Canal, then completed. This was found to be £169,000 (or $676,000) — whereupon the Imperial government, desir- ous of retaining the complete control of the canal in case of another war, determined on its construction; and, in May, 1826, sent out Lieutenant-Colonel John By, R. E., who commenced it on the 21st of September, 1823, and passed the first steamer through on the 29th of May, 1832: but the works were not completed until 1834. This route is one hundred and twenty-six and one quarter miles long, of which only sixteen and a half are canal. From Ottawa, it ascends two hundred and ninety -two feet by thirty-four locks, in a distance of eighty-seven and a half miles, to the summit level of the Rideau Lakes; and then descends one hundred and f.'ixty-iive feet by thirtetn locks, in a dis- tance of thirty-eight and three-quarters miles; giving u total of forty -sevea locks with four hundred and fifty-seven feet lockage, Tho navigation is forni^d by tmentyfour dams, six of which range from twenty-five to sixty feet in height. Most of thecic dams are of stone, — a questionable policy, a^ timber ones are more reliable and very much oheapc r. The original canal wa.<5 intended to have a towing path; ba^ ^: 1828, another tx>mniittee of royal engineifc*, Li ' ■*'*^"' 'si' f 1 N «*■! t' . 1 : i * i" t ' i 1 ( ! i.!i 156 TRAVKL AND TRANSPORTATION. with Sir James Kempt at their head, authorized its enlarge- ment for steam navigation, the locks to be one hundred and thirty- four by thirty-three feet; the towing-path was, therefore, unfortunately omitted. The canal drops into the Ottawa by a flight of eight com- bined locks, having a lift of eighty -two feet ; and as it was necessary, on leaving the Ottawa, at once to rise above the level of the Chaudii^re Lake, the navigation would have been extended without additional lockage, nearly forty miles higher up the river, had the canal been kept in it until that lake was reached. TIMBER SLIDES ON TnE OTTAWA. The Ottawa, above the point where the Imperial canal joined it, has been, with several of its large tributaries, the subject of improvement, for downward transportation only — for the purpose of bringing out timber and lumber with greater expedition, greater safety, and greater economy. These workd are pecuhar to Canada and deserve more than a passing notice. The heavy timber, hauled out by the aid of the snow which gives access to every tree, is deposited on the ice in the several streams and lakee, and is there left to be borne down by the spring freshets, cither in single sticks or in rafts manned by men. according to the size of the stream. If not rafted, it goes oi^ with the water, followed by the men in cauoes, wboso duty it is to look after the stragglers grounded on a shoal or detained in an eddy, and shove them out into the :^.ain stream. This mode of bringing out the timber, which is called " driv'.rig," is practicable upon almost k'I itreariis when ih freshet; but, on many, there are a few place;; whi.:. j the obstructions are so great as to call for artiiicial aid, io prevent detention of the timber until too late for that tide ^vbich, if not taken at the flood, too often leads to miaturtune. In some rivers, precipitous M 'i (I it !'\' '*:M^ ^ffS VJW-^_^^ POUIAOE. bee l'u({0 111;! « T!M»i:u SUDE, TRAVKL AKD TRANSPORTATION. 157 i^ cataracts and jagged rocks are so destructive to timber that the virgin groves have remained almost untouched, until, by means of slides and dams, it could be profitably brought down. In others, the delays in passing certain points were so great that the freshet passed oif belbre the timber could be got into the main river, and it was left behind for the next year. The slides are artificial "chutes" formed by inclined troughs of timber and plank, open at both ends, through which a portion of the stream is diverted, and the timber thereby carried past chutes and places where it would either stick fast or be torn to splinters. For " driving," the slides are narrow, and similar to the flumes or raceways supplying a water-wheel; but when designed for the pa.sH ige of rafted timber they are twenty-five feet wide; and down one of them a crib, containing fifteen hundred cubic feet or nearly forty tons of timber, will be carried, with the men aboard and the cookhouse undisturbed, and in a few moments be fifty feet below its former level. Dams are resorted to to flood back the water on shoals and rocks which retain and damage the timber; to stop up high water channels — so as to keep it from straying or to strengthen the main current; and also at the head of chutes^ to govern and regulate the mouth of slides. The Ottawa and the Bay of Quinte, the latter as T»eing the outlet of the inland waters, are the chief sources from whence Quebec is supplied with timber ; to these may n jw be added the St. Maurice or Three Rivers. Recently, rafts have been towed through some of the great lakes, but at much risk and some loss. The first raft from the Bay of Quinte was got out by Samuel Sherwood, in 1790. It was composed of masts cut upon the north shore of the bay, three miles east of Trenton; and there being then no cattle in the country, Sherwood used tackle to haul the timbjr to the water. In 1806, Philemon Wright took the first raft [I it m 1 , ' i I i '■« 1. f ■; ,-■ « '^1 1 " » ■; ■^ 168 TRAVIL AKD TtUirSfORTATtOlf. down tbe Ottawa. It was obtained from the Gatineau, a large tributary entering near Ottawa City. PROPOSED OTTAWA kSH LAKB HURON CAITALB. In 1853, an appropriation of $200,000 waa obtained, without previous survey or estimate, for the purpose of connecting the Chats and Chaudi^re Lakes by means of a canal with fifty feet lockage. The idea of the projectors was to commence on a magnificent scale at a point where the very uselessness of the expenditure would be an argu- ment in favor of its extension, east and west, to Montreal and Lake Huron. They did not, therefore, court any ana- lyzation of the scheme. The government of that day, on the other hand, obtained the support of the Ottawa constit- uencies for their railway policy along the St. Lawrence, and were thus induced to grant the sum required to commence operations. The simultaneous failure of the contractor and the appropriation afforded a decent pretext for suspension in 1856, which ended in abandonment: in the meantime the projectors were amused with a series of extensive sur- veys of the whole route, between Montreal and Lake Huron, — of over four hundred miles, and with estimates for canals for Atlantic vessels. The result of these surveys shows that the abandoned canal on which $373,191 has been expended was in the wrong place; that to have completed it on the scale pro- posed would have cost $1,465,439, whereas the same result can be produced in the right place for $681,982 — in other words, that the opportune abandonment of the work will effect a saving of $410,316. It is gratifying to know that if the commencement has involved a loss of $373,191, the abandonment has saved a greater sum, and that there is still a handsome balance to the credit of the latter. The Bummit level of the proposed Ottawa route at Lake Nipia- i*',j i* TRAVKL AND TRANBFOKTATION. 169 sing would be six hundred and fifty-one feet above tide- water; and the total rise and iall from tide-water to Lake 11' iron, by this route, is seven hundred and twenty-eight feet, the fall from Lake Nipisaing to Lake Iluron being seventy -seven feet. The general results of the Ottawa survey, as made by Mr. 'V. C. Clark, C. E., are embraced in the following table extracted from his report: — OTTAWA AND PMNCH MVIIl NATIQATION. SiOTiona. ^DlSTANOU RiTers and Lake*. Lachino Canal, . LakeSt. Lonia,.... 13-31 Saint Anne's, Lake of Two Mta.,. 2470 Carillon to Gr'nv'Ie,. 7 73 Green Shoob, Ottawa River, 55.97 Cbaudiero and Dea Chenea, 375 Dea Chenea Lake,. . 26 G9 Chata, 170 Cbata Lake, 1928 Snowa to Black falls, 18 32 River and Lake Cou- longe, 24-93 CbapenaandL'Ialet, 4*85 Deep River, 33 58 Joachim 'a to Mat- tAwan, 51-74 River MatUwan, . . 16 22 Summit level and out, 511 5 French River, 47-62 Add Engineering & Superintendence, Totala, 40144 . , miles-. Canals. 8-50 119 fiOO •10 2-61 •60 106 -LSVILS- •14 2-26 108 6-97 ■83 29-83 No. of Lockage, Locks. feet. 5 . . . 43-75 I '.'.'. 100 7 .' .' . 68 60 6 . . . 6300 5 . . . 50 00 11 ..'. 10400 S .'.*. 1800 14 ... 148-20 11 ... 144 00 7 .*.'.' 77 00 64 665-70 Cost. not estimated, do. •469,673 1,649,909 136,105 816.733 681,933 1,266,840 262,814 343,507 1,757,653 1,162,164 3,160,369 886,117 674,176 $12,057,680 The scale of navigation proposed is for vessels of one thousand tons. Locks two hundred and fifty feet long by forty-five feet wide, with twelve feet c' pth of wat« on the mitre sills. These figures are conclusive; — a canal scheme, under- taken on such a scale, and upon such a ronte, with all the j IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 ■i^lM |2.5 ■^ 1^ 12.2 ^ y£ 12.0 1.4 1.6 % 7. y %>> .^^1 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 l/j if ■■ i n* i .1 V ■ : it 160 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION changes and additions whicli would follow', would result in an expenditure of at least twenty millions of dollars; but if it could be done for ten, it would be equally impracticable as a provincial undertaking. The region traversed does not possess sufficient political influence to carry the appro- priations for a tithe of the sum required ; and as a commer- cial speculation no case could be made out for it. Although it would shorten the distance between Montreal and Lake Huron by three hundred miles over the present route, via the lakes and the Welland Canal, there would be no saving of time on the round trip, on account of the extra lockage and river navigation ; and it would be exclusively a route for steamers, whereas the greater part of the present route is available for sail craft. On the St. Lawrence route the extra three hundred miles would be overcome by a propeller in the open lakes with an unvarying speed, night and day, of ten miles per hour; while the ten extra locks of the Ot- tawa route, and the more intricate river navigation worked at half-speed, would demand at least an equal loss of time. For the downward commerce only, which gives at least three tons to one of the upward, the difference is vastly in favor of the St. Lawrence, in those boats which descend the rapids, as there is in this case only the "Welland Canal with twenty-seven locks against the Ottawa canals with fifty-nine. On the St. Lawrence route there is a local as well as a through business, and a choice of markets while 'n transitu, as W' li as the proximity of railways in case of in- terruption to the na\igation. On the Ottawa there is at present only sawn lumber to fill out a cargo. But while so great an undertaking is, on the part of Canada, financially impracticable and commercially unwarrantable, the opening of this route is, as an imperial and military work, most de- sirable. From the remote position of the greater part, the expense of cut-stone locks of the size proposed, would make it advisable to reduce the scale and also the character TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 161 of tlie work. Cedar cribwork is nearly as durable as or- dinary masonry in this climate; and by substituting it, filled with stones and planked water-tight, for stone- work, the Otta wa. route would supply the materials and the kind of labor req'aired. The laying of masonry can only be ad- vantageously done for a few months in the year, and a por- tion of this time would be lost by high water. In some sections it would probably be found cheaper to build timber locks, if only for the purpose of reducing the cost of the future stone ones. Any increased cost of mainte- nance would be far less than the interest saved, and the amount so saved in interest would be an ample renewal fund. The fact that scarcely one of the hundreds of stone locks in America have proved after ten years' experience, to be properly proportioned, for the wants of commerce, would suggest the propriety of substituting timber for stone for the peculiar conditions of the Ottawa route — especially as there seems no hope for the work being carriiid out upon any more expensive basis. IMPROVEMENT OF THE RIVER ST. LAWRENCE. The early and efficient commencement of this work was very much retarded by the fact that the obstructions were under separate jurisdictions, and nearly equally divided be- tween the two provinces; and that the action of one would be of little value unless imitated by the other. Lower Canada, having control of the seaports, helped herself to the lion-'s share of the import duties, the only fund upon which either province could rely for internal improvements. The division of these duties was a constant source of contention between them. From 1792 to 1813, Lower Canada col- lected a net revenue of £642,000 sterling, of which she kept £600,000 and gave the odd numbers to her younger sister. From 1813 to 1818, Upper Canada receiveO less than twenty-five per cent, of the net revenue collected by m '>, „. • m 162 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Lower Canada, — and in 1820 and 1821, nothing at all; whereupon she carried her complaints to the foot of the throne, and thereafter the Imperial government assumed the collection and distribution of these revenues. The net amount received by the two provinces, in the half-century between their separation in 1791 and their re-union in 1841, was, Lower Canada, ^£3,445,140 sterling (or $17,225,700;) and Upper Canada, £731,834 steriing (or $3,659,173,) which may be considered the measure of the ability of the two, respectively, in carrying on their public works. Both provinces had a gradually increasing but comparatively un- important revenue collected at their inland ports; and Lower Canada, under cover of inspection, levied a toll on scows and rafts passing Chateauguay, which, between 1808 and 1831, yielded about £6,500 (or $31,633.33.) She also claimed the excess, not only by virtue of her superior population, but t^n the ground that rum, the article on which the bulk of the duty was collected, was almost exclusively consumed by her; and Upper Canada was charged with having descended to whisky. Per contra, it may be stated that the quantity of rum which passed above Coteau du Lac in 1799 was about sixty thousand gallons, (which prob- ably went to the United States as well as to Upper Canada;) and the still harder fact that a barrel of rum, the freight on which was three to three and a half dollars from Lachine to Elingston, was the well-known standard of up freight for merchandise by batteaux and Durham boats. The action taken by the two provinces, respectively, be- fore the Union with reference to the improvement of the St. Lawrence was as follows. As early as the session of 1795-96, a bill was introduced for the construction of both a canal and a turnpike to Lachine, by the late Hon. John Eichardson, who lived to carry out those schemes at a later day. In 1806, the Legislature of Lower Canada appropri- ated £1,000 (or $4,000) to clear the channel of the Lachine TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 163 TJapida. Batteaux, which ran dowD loaded, were dragged up light and took in their up cargo at Lachine, to which point it was carted from Montreal. The result of this first exp -nditure proving satisfactory, a similar sum was given the following year for the rapids between Montreal and Lake St. Francis. Nothing further was done until 1818, when commissioners were appointed to meet those from Upper Canada about the improvement of the water com- munication between the provinces, both by the St. Lawrence and Ottawa routes. In that year, also, a company was in- corporated to construct the Lachine Canal within three years, and another for the Chambly Canal, to be completed in seven years. In 1821, the Lachme Canal was assumed by the province, the company having failed to act; and in 1823 a similar course was taken, for the same reason, with the Chambly Canal, coupled with the proviso that it should not be commenced until the Lachine was completed. In 1881 an appropriation was made for ascertaining if loaded batteaux could be taken up the rapids between Lakes St. Francis and St. Louis, and whether steamers, about the ulti- mate power of which great expectations had been formed, could not ascend the cascades to Prescott. This was a scheme for " reducing the ^ "de ' of the river at the rapids, by which it wa." hoped currents of twelve or fourteen miles per hour could be reduced one-half. Cuts forming inclined planes were made at Mill Point below the Cedars, at Point au Diable, the Eigolct, and French's Eun; but nothing be- yond the expenditure of the money resulted from this movement, — with which the action of Lower Canada in re- spect to the improvement of the St. Lawrence terminated. The first movement of Upper Canada was an advertise- ment dated 19th February, 1817, in which the lieutenant- governor invited tenders for the work of rendering the whole or any portion of the water communication between Lachine and Kingston, by the course of the river Eideau, 11 i!i N t- re *r i '•\' i PI ii : 1 ", 1-: 1 . '. pi 1 n ' * r i t 164 TIUVBL AND TRANSPORTATION. navigable for boats drawing two feet of water and ten feet in width, and also for boats drawing three feet of water and twelve feet in width. The route defined was by Irish Creek and Eidertu and Mud Lakes; the number and posi- tion of the locks were to be specified, and " the number of flood-gates in each lock." The next year £2,000 (or $8,0(»0) was granted for a survey of the St. Lawrence, and in 1821 commissioners were appointed. In 1828 and 1824, £2,000 (or $8,000) more were granted to this commission of which Eobert Nichol was vice-president, and James Gordon and Charles Jones, members. On the death of Colonel Nichol, his place was filled by John Macaulay. As the views of the country with respect to the scale of the proposed navi- gation became enlarged each successive year, the magnitude of the undertaking evidently alarmed the Legislature. Even the offer of £70,000 stg. ($350,000) by the Imperial government towards opening the Rideau route, failed to elicit more than an expression of gratitude and a promise of early consideration. The Legislature leaned to the St. Lawrence as the natural commercial route, having only about one-half of the lockage of the Rideau route; and were, moreover, convinced that it would be the cheaper of the two. The Imperial government, desiring the control of the work for military purposes, set about the Rideau Canal themselves, in 1826, on an estimate of £169,000 stg. ($845,000,) and completed it in 1832 at a cost of £900,000 stg. ($4,500,000) — a result which may fully account for the hesitation of the Legislature, in 1825, in accepting the £70,000 ($350,000) and undertaking the work. The opening of the Rideau route failed to satisfy the wants of the trade. The lock at Vaudreuil was in the hands of a private company; those at GrenviUe were much less in sisse than the ones above and below them; fixed bridges prevented masted vessels from going through; and the absence of a towing-path made forwarding a monopoly, TRAVKL AND TRANSPORTATION. 165 and caused the delay and expense of locking a steam-tug through with every freight. Moreover, the canal was managed as a military rather than commercial undertaking — the parties in charge being beyond the reach of authority or opinion in the colony. No sooner had it been tried, therefore, than the improvement of the St. Lawrence was set about; a grant being made for the Cornwall Canal in 1833, and this work was commenced in 1834. In describing the several works embraced in the improv- ment of the St. Lawrence, we commence at tide- water with LAKE ST. PETER. About fifty miles below Montreal, at the lowest point un- influenced b^ tide, the St. Lawrence spreads out into a broad and shallow expanse ded Lako St. Peter. The depth at low-water upon these flats was only eleven feet, and sea-going vessels were consequently obliged to lighten in entering and leaving Montreal, which city, notwith- standing this disadvantage, maintained her position as the emporium for the import trade, and of all exports except timber, in which latter trade the tidal harbor and roomy coves of Quebec defy competition. As there were only two or three comparatively insignificant bars above Lake St. Peter, and none below, and aa the bed of the lake was soft, it was proposed to deepen the channel by dredging, so that sixteen feet draft of water might be carried up to Montreal. This was first attempted by the government in 1844, when the engineers endeavored to induce old Father St. Lawrence to leave the bed in which he had lain since first he emerged from the ocean, and follow a "straight cut," to be dredged to the required depth. The work was so managed that, . after expending $295,619, it was suspended in 1847, and the Legislature, after investigation, abandoned it in disgust; whereupon the Hon. John Young, on behalf of the harbor mi ^1' !f) ' 14J 1 . It II if s 1 V 1^' ril Hi . ii. If i. 1 fi f i : , '■■*r i 1 ! |.f V ;, , _ ■ 1 / , 166 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. commissioners of Montreal, after four years had elapsed, obtained permission to try again, and the work wj\s recom- menced in 1851. By following the natural channel, com- plete success has been obtained, with much less tinre and money, and a vessel drawing not sixteen but eighteen feet of water can now come up. It is intended to continue op- erations until twenty feet at low- water is obtained ; and as the government, having had its practicability demonstrated, has assumed the expense, it is to be hoped this work will be carried out. THE LAOHINE OANAL. The original canal between Montreal and Lachine, com- menced in 1821 and completed in 1825 at a cost of £110,000 (or $440,000,) was an admirably constructed work, with cut-stone locks, one hundred and eight feet long between the gates, and twenty feet wide, with fix- ed bridges of the same class of masonry. In these, as in the locks of the Eideau and St. Lawrence canals, the upper gates were placed upon breast walls, which reduced the effective length of the lock. On the Welland Canal, the upper gates being carried down to the level of the lower ones, the whole length between the gates is available. The enlargement of the old Lachine boat canal, in con- nection with the constiTiction and completion of the re- mainder of the St. Lawrence ship canalii, was one of the im- mediate consequences of the reunion in 1841, thus confirm- ing the views of Mr. Macaulay, in 1825^ as to the impolicy of its sv.bstantial stone locks of boat size only. The enlarge- ment, begun in 1848, was sufficiently advanced in 1848 for the passage of large vessels, and w"-s completed in 1849, except the widening of a portion of the rock-cut near La- chine which is now in progress. This canal, eight and a half miles long with forty-four feet lockage, surmounts the -obstacles presented by the Lachine Eapids, and con- ■'I i; Ii w>u*■f^. >,sP' v- ••"*«''-"'■'•'■'' v. ;^ 't Lawreace, no- lle \i .1.1. !»■■♦■;: I I ftu addi- j lOa for trn^e ; >l m i' '^ -'4 5011- '*\l '• ' 'm IS, licoor ilf red liU ^^B* *' |H; ^^^^^B^ J. f^^^^mi :J mm' , Sir.! (u » ?l^ i ' rA3. i ''Si'^ -A,'_a-;, t 1- , ran tAotmcK cakaIh n I l^b'v «.«riginal cajiril between Moutre&l and Lacliint, com- menced ill 1821 and onppletcd in 18'25 flt a cost of £110.000 (or t44'>.' ^ an '«imirably coajrtructcd 7 If; -1 •1; t neci, llliUli,-. -i-'. j^v; ,-,'■.. ivv- - 'i^,-' al843, W8«- Inrge yet- ;., ng of H poT-rjon of tbo canal 1 of ^hi lowef re- sonteci 1 1 1 1 TRAVEL AND TRAN8P0ETATI0W. 167 nects Lake St. Louis, an enlargement of the St Lawrence, with the harbor of Montreal. THE BBACHARKOIS CANAL. The next in order is the Beauharnois Canal on the oppo- site or south bank of the St. Lawrence, and the only one upon that side, eleven miles long with eighty feet lockage, commenced in 1842 and completed in 1849. It connects Lake St. Louis with Lake St. Francis, overcoming three considerable rapids, united together by a swift current, and known as the Coteau, the Cedars, and the Cascades. THB CORNWALL CANAL. At the upper end of Lake St. Francis, the Cornwall Canal, twelve miles long with fiftv feet lockage, reaches the head of the Longue Sault Kapids. This work was under- taken by Upper Canada alone in 1884, and carried on until 1838, by which time £440,000 (or $1,760,000) had been expended. It was completed after the union, at an addi- tional cost of £75,000 (or $300,000,) and opened for traffic in 1843. THK WILLIAMBBURa CANALS. From the Cornwall Canal to Prescott, a distance of thirty- eight miles, there are four minor rapids, — Farrans Point, Bapid Plat, Point Iroquois, and Les Gallopes, — with a united lockage of twenty-two and a half feet, at which four separate canals were first constructed, the two upper of which have since been united by the Junction Canal. These canals were commenced in 1843 ; the upper one was opened to the trade in 1846 and the remainder in 1847. The notable feature of the St. Lawrence navigation is, that although between Prescott and Montreal, a distance of one hundred and fifteen miles, there are forty and one-half miles of canal, and twenty-seven locks with two hundred 'M fj . .^i^ 1 1 -s V '^fc: i ii I*' I ■Jl ' I — » 168 TRAVEL AND TRANBPOKTATION. and four and thrcc-qtmrtcrs feet lockage, steamers of five hundred tons burthen (hiily descend from the level at Pres- cott to that at Montreal (the fall being two hundred and twenty-five feet) without using a lock or canal. The rapids of the St. Lawrence, though some have a fall of over forty feet in a niilo, are navigaole for descending boats with a draught of six to eight feet according to the extremes of low and high water. Freight boats drawing more than this descend the canals; but the mixed fri'ight and passen- ger steamers, which tlie rapidity, comfort, and excitement of the trip sustain in spite of the railway, all run the raj)ids, making the passage between Prescott and Montreal in nine to ten hours. The improvement of the rapids so as to turn the whole descending trade down the river, thereby shortening the time of transit and practically doubling the capacity of the canals, has been mooted for the last ten years. Two modes have been proposed; one to raise the water surfhee by dams and piers, the other to lower tho bottom by submarine blasting, — both having the same ob- ject in view, viz., the increase of depth at two or three points, where alone there is any deficiency. The former plan has been successfully adopted for the purposes of the timber navigation on the Ottawa; the latter, which has been also tried there, has not only done no good but positive harm, because it has substituted a torn and jagged bed of rock for one worn smooth by the flow of ages. Moreover, a rapid being an inclined trough, if the bottom is lowered the water surface descends with it more or less, and any at- tempt to increase the depth, beyond the removal of an isolated boulder, &c., by submarine blasting, except in slack water, seems hopeless. Lastly, the effect of submarine blasting against Potsdam sandstone in shoal water would scarcely be perceptible, while the cost, if persisted in, would be overwhelming. An appropriation of £25,000 (or $100,000) as an experiment would settle the question ii TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 169 of the practicability of flooding the shoals by dams, &c., and ""vould bo a mere trifle, even to throw away in pursuit of an object of so much im]>ortance. The indifference dis- played towards this subject, as well aa toward the equally important one of an enlarged direct canal between the St. Lawrence (near Montreal) and Lake Champlain is due to the demands created by our railway policy, and the mis- taken assumption that railways would in a great measure supersede the canals. Improvements in the navigation do not now come home to any particular locality, or enlist the active co-operation of any party. Moreover, they offer no inducement to speculators to undertake them by corporate companies ; fo:, the expenditure being necessarily made under public competition, in which the work goes to the lowest bidder, such works do not afford any of those inci- dental advantages by which fortunes are made and party support obtained, and which are so conspicuous in a subsi- dized railway. When the public funds can be dispensed through the medium of an irresponsible corporation, the left hand is not ignorant of what the right is doing ; it is -^ot surprising, therefore, that the indirect system of aiding rail- ways and municipalities has been more popular for the time than the direct application of the money, under proper safeguards, to works of general utility only. From Prescott upward, navigation is unrestricted for craft of any dimensions to the head of Lake Ontario,^ a dis- tance of two hundred and fifty miles. Here a canal, or rather a passage without locks, is opened across a sand bar, called the Beach, into Burlington Bay, by which means Hamilton is made a lake port. The Desjardins Canal, also without locks, extends lake navigation to Dundas^ five miles above Hamilton; these canals are, however,, local works, off the line of the St. Lawrence and Lake routes, and more properly come under the head of Harbor "Works. X. ^' • 1* I ■-'"■'^^^ * !■■ '-^ .i'. \ a ! i,,s: , TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. THE WELLAND CANAL. 171 The Falls of Niagara, with the rapids above and below them, offer by far the most formidabl >bstructioii to naviga- tion of any upon the line of the St. Lawrence. The lockage required to connect that short distance of twenty-eight miles, between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, is greater than the aggregate of all other obstructions in the thousand miles between Lake Superior and tide water. Although a canal to unite the two lakes was projected at Niagara as early as 1798, and an exploration of the ridge which bounds the Welland Eiver, on the north, was made twenty years later, (in 1818, the year after the scheme was proposed by Mr. Merritt to Gourlay,) the first active naove- ment was made in 1823, by obtaining a line of levels be- tween this river, called also the Chippewa, and Lake Onta- rio, — which were run by Hiram Tibbets, engineer. On the 19th May^ 1824, the legislature incorporated George Keefer, Thomas Merritt, George Adams, "William Chisholm, Jo- seph Smith, Paul Shipman, John Decou, and Willian. Hamilton Merritt, as the " Welland Canal Company," with a capital of £37,500, ($150,000,) divided into 3,000 shares of £12,105., ($50.00,) each. Over one-fourth of the stock was subscribed, and the work was commenced on the 30th No- vember, 1824, and it is worthy of remark ; that " its prose- cution was not discontinued a single day until two vessels passed from lake to lake, five years later ;" although in the meantime the expenditure was more than six times the original capital. The first proj ect contemplated a boat canal only, up the valley of the Twelve Mile Creek to the foot of the mountain ridge, ascending from thence by a railway to the Beaver dams, and thence to the Welland Eiver by a boat canal tunneled through the Ridge: but power was ob- tained also to connect the Welland Eiver with Lake Erie at the mouth of the Grand River. Li 1825, a ship canal was determined on, and the capital stock was increased to Iv I , ':■' ' r iM: . J 1 \f[ . 172 TRAVEL AND TBANSFORTATION. £200,000, ($800,000.) In 1826, the legislature loaned the company £25,000, ($100,000,) and the Imperial govern- ment, the same year, gave £16,800, sterling, ($81,500,) one- ninth of the estimated cost, in consideration of the free pas- sage of government stores, troops, and vessels. In 1827^ the legislature took £50,000, ($200,000) stock, the com- pany to pay interest until one year after completion ; and also granted 13,400 acres of marsh land. The legislature of Lower Canada also took £25,000 stg., (or $100,000) stock. In 1828 the whole amount of stock was paid up, and the company succeeded in borrowing £50,000 (or $250,000) from the Imperial government on condition of surrendering the grant of one-ninth the cost. The work had so pro- gressed that it was fiilly anticipated the water would have been let in early in November, 1828; but, when within ten days of this estimated result, slips of so formidable a char- acter took place in the " Deep Cut," which was seventy feet in depth, that it became indispensable to abandon the original plan of making a feeder of the Welland Eiver, the level of which is ten feet lower than Lake Erie, and to bring a supply of water on a higher level from the Grand Eiver, in order to pass over the quicksands which caused the slides. Up to this period the whole pressure had been borne by the shareholdei's ; no aid had been granted by the govern- ment except that for which the interest had been punctually paid by the company ; but now the funds were almost ex- hausted, and they dared not appeal to the legislature while prophecies of the inevitable failure of all attempts to get a navigation through the Deep Cut met them at every point. It was now necessary to throw a dam across the Grand Eiver by which its waters were raised about seven feet above the level of Lake Erie, and to cut a feeder, twenty-seven miles in length, to be carried by an aqueduct over the Wel- land Eiver; by which means, after allowing for the fall in the feeder, a level sixteen feet higher than the Welland Eiver was obtained, ajid thus the necessity of carrying the t'Mi \ TRAVSL AJSD TBANSFORTATIOy. 173 Deep Cut down into those treacherous quicksands was avoided. It was necessary to do all this chiefly on credit, and a covenant was inserted in each contract that a percent- age only was to be paid in cash, the balance " after the company obtained the means from the legislature; " so con- fident were the directors that parliament, like Jupiter, would help those who help themselves. Although the frost did not leave the ground untU the 15th of April, 1829, the dam across the Grand Eiver, the aqueduct over the Welland, four locks at the Deep Cut, the cut at the mouth of the Welland, and twenty-seven miles of canal, were so far completed on the 9th day of October as to admit the passing of" a vessel down the feeder; and on the 30th of November (the anniversary of its comrnence- ment five years before,) two schooners, one British and the other American, the "Ann and Jane" of York (Toronto,) and the "K. H. Boughton" of Youngstown, N. Y., passed up from Lake Ontario into Lake Erie. The confidence displayed by the contractors, without which the works must have been suspended altogether, was a natural result of the vigor, ability, and integrity displayed by the projector of the work, — the Hon. William Hamilton Merritt,* — ^by whose extraordinary energy, perseverance and discretion all difficulties were surmounted. Of those out of the province, John B. Yates of New York, the largest private shareholder, who in 1827 became liable for a large amount in aid of the company, was its greatest benefactor. To show upon how few the labor fell, only eight Upper Canadians, viz., William Hamilton Merritt of St. Catherines, George Keefer of Thorold (who was the first president of the company,) John Henry Dunn, John Bev- * Since these lines were written, death has removed a man, w. \o, with w|i- fiagging energy, ever pursued his object in the spirit of oeaoe ; — a politician who was not an office-seeker, and who loved his country more than self or party, — a statesman often in advance of his countrymen — ^but not of his coun- try — and a loyalist who so valued truth that he sought it even from the enemy- preferring to be misunderstood rather than to remain unarmed. ! <)f if li 1 174 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. erly Robinson, William Allan, Henry John Boulton, D'Arcy Boulton, and Colonel Joseph Wells, of Toronto, — ^held sufficient stock to qualify them to become directors ; and for these services they never recei^^ed, or looked for, any com- pensation. Parliament in 1830, by a majority of two, granted a loan of £25,000 (or $100,000,) which enabled the company to pay the debts incurred during the previous year. The whole expenditure to this period had been £272,795 (or $1,091,180.) To avoid the circuitous route by the Welland and Niagara Rivers, and the strong current in the latter, it was proposed to enlarge the feeder, as far as its course was directed toward Lake Erie, and cut a new channel, only seven miles long, to join that lake at Gravelly Bay; and for this purpose the aqueduct over the Welland had been made twenty-four feet wide. In 1831, £50,000 (or $200,000) was loaned by the legislature on condition that this amount would complete the canal and harbors, and that the com- pany should pay the interest of the loan and one-half the principal; a,ad John B. Yates, William H. Merritt, and Alexander Yates McDonell became sureties for these con- ditions. The work was retarded by fearful ravages of the cholera in 1832, but in 1833 the new outlet at Gravelly Bay (Port Colborne,) was brought into use. After this date the control of the work was in a great measure assumed by commissioners appointed by government to look after the large interest the province now had in the under- taking. In 1834, the capital was increased to £250,000 (or $1,000,000,) — the government subscribing for £50,000 (or $200,000,) stock by the casting vote of Mr. Speaker McLean, ever a friend to the work. In 1836, a committee of the house recommended the assumption of the work by the province, and ultimate indemnification of the shareholders, as an act of justice to the latter, who had been the means of conferring so great a boon upon the province ; and in 1837 all government loans were converted into stock, and TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 175 a further appropriation of £245,000 (or $980,000,) to com- plete the canal in a durable manner, with stone locks, was authorized. In 1839, the purchase of the private stock was authorized by an act to which the royal assent was withheld; but, on the unanimous petition of the legislature, this was given in 1840 ; and the legislature authorized a grant of £500,000 (or $2,000,000,) to complete the work,— only two members out of eighty opposing the grant, — a striking contrast to the state of feeling in 1834, when the company were saved from ruin only by the casting vote of Speaker McLean. Doctor Strachan, archdeacon of York, and member of the legislative council, the present bishop of Toronto, was always a firm supporter of the work, and by his vigorous pen contributed in no small degree, as early as 1825,* in putting the true scope and bearing of this important enterprise before the country. Hon. W. B. Eob- inson, now a commissioner of the Canada Company, as gov- ernment commissioner and superintendent of the canal, and subsequently as chief commissioner of public works for the province, was ever a fast friend to this great work. The old Welland Canal had forty wooden locks, one hun- dred feet in length between the gates, and twenty-two feet wide between the walls, with seven feet water on the sills; and these endured from 1829 until 1845, by which time they were ftilly worn out. The section of the canal was twenty- six feet wide at bottom, fifty-six feet on water-line, and eight feet depth of water. The cost of stone locSs would alone have consumed all the company's resources, leaving nothing for excavations, dams, harbors, aqueducts, and bridges; and any attempt on that basis would have ruined the enterprise. By taking a vessel, of over one hundred tons, from lake to lake, in 1829, at an outlay of a little over one million of dol- lars, the company were sustained by the legislature^which up to that period had never given them more than £50,000 (or $200,000,) at a time, but which, ten years later, voted ten times as much for stone locks. i . J 1*^11 li^ TRAVBL AND TRANSPORTATION. j:'Mll.|.:.i„ i^l I. !( ti, ■ I r ' I ^'■U It is impossible, at this day, fully to appreciate the vicis- situdes of such an undertaking by corporate enterprise in Upper Canada more than thirty years ago. We have only the successes before us; — the refusals, disappointments, sneers, and raillery suflfered by the directors and their supporters are forgotten ; but, so long as the St. Lawrence flows to the sea, Upper Canada will remember with pride and affection the men who could, at so early a day, carry such a vast enterprise to successful completion. Projects for organizing joint-stock companies in Montreal; the com- mercial metropolis of British North America, before 1820, for the comparatively insignificant Lachine and Chambly Canals, fell stillborn; and when the latter work was com- menced by Lower Canada in 1881, with three-fourths of the import duties levied on the consumption of the two provinces in her treasury, it was suspended in 1885, and only completed in 1848, — ^requiring more than twice the time taken to open the Welland Canal. The Corii'^rall Canal, commenced by Upper Canada in 1884, was suspended in 1838 and not completed till 1848. If the provincial governments, with all the increase in wealth and population, of 1885 over 1825, found such difficulties, wa may infer what the Wellrmd Caiial Company encountered and sur- mounted, and thus more truly appreciate the result. The eitlargement and reconstruction commenced immedi- ately after the union, and the new stone locks were ready for passing vessels of the larger size, by way of the feeder, in 1845, and the main route was opened through in 1860. Doubts respecting the capacity of the Grand Eiver as a reservoir have led to the lowering of the section between the Deep Cut and Port Colborne, so as to make Lake Erie (which is ten feet higher than the Welland Eiver) the feeder. This lowering of the bottom, which is stUl in progress, is effected by dredges, the water not being removed; and, thereforCj na fbrther slides are anticipated. ■tr': i i 1 8? I S I i gas ^ 5g52!s; » 133 ad r-iri S5^ S 8 i i' iH «' ef g I I 8 "11 •■3.9 8 J|5 4K Oi 0t 0) to !9i'9 !SI3!3!$!$ SSI iiii S5-8 e.4 ^S' «Dr>aine< s Ifssff fts ^ »9 ag§ sss s ^s li i ^1 7S o I ^ H O J «H 11:1 93$ §§ S i? : 9 i .■5 a . •3 c^ 8 f I d ^ I M s j 1=1 i .5 ft -A B3 a " 1(3 i£ ■ ■a « " I! : i s I. «»*lt" »"* !{;;ii; a 4(6o 52 - "n I 2 ca- ll I ^(Sl J JIjj' R «M ^JS ^U Q aiS uum S S' I R 8S^ ^ M S 1 u flf.l I f" IS i) 178 TRAVSL AND TRANSPORTATION. The magnitude of the work undertaken in liake St. Peter, by the Harbor Commissioners of Montreal, may be esti- mated from the fact that 3,000,000 cubic yards have already been removed by dredging, and that another million yards must yet be dredged to give the intended depth of twenty feet at low water, and a width of channel of 800 feet. It is an incident not generally known, and worthy of record, that the foundation stone of the Locks at Ottawa, for the Rideau Canal, was laid by the celebrated, but un- fortunate arctic voyager. Sir John Franklin. •TATEHENT Showing the amounts expenodd from 1791 to 1861, in other pubiio worlu con« nected with the Navigatioa. BMomiPTioM. B.fore'unioD. Lighthousea, — Upper and Lower Canada eiO.OOO.OO. Colt Since Union. Total Cort. 9788,223.11.. $798,323.11 Ottawa slides, eto., St. Maurice slides, etc., Saguenay, Trent and Newcastle slides,. . . . i*«*j«««a« $697,877.61.. 242,584.51.. 40,865.07. . 362,113.80.. $697,877,61 242,584.51 40,865.07 352,113.80 Local "Works— Upper Canada : Harbors, $42,000.00. . Burlington Bay Canal, 124,356.00. . Desjardins Canal, (estimated,) . . 100,000.00 . . Trent Inland Navigation, 165,180.06. . 81,333,440.99. .91,333,440.99 $641,360.79.. $683,360.76 158,326.00.. 282,682.00 100,000.00 103,809.61.. 268,989.66 $431,536.06. . $903,496.37. .$l,335,0S||j42 Local Works — ^Lower Canada : Harbors and Piers, $315,900.00. .$1,388,460.85. .$1,704,368.85 Grand Total, $5,171,065.37 Summing up the provincial, municipal, and corporate ex- penditure of Canada, under the three heads of Roads, Navigation, and Railway; we find that in round num- bers the first have cost $11,000,000; the second, $21,000,- 000; and the Canadian interest in the last, is at least $30,- 000,000 ; or a total of over $60,000,000. This sum also, is about the measure of the pubiio debt of the Province, — so Pi' i: TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 179 that, setting off what h^, ' .an expended on pnblic T7orks, out of revenue, against what has been borrowed for other purposes, — we can not lay claim to the possession ^f any which have yei been paid for. BOALB OF NAVIGATION. In commencing the Lachine Canal, in 1821, on a larger scale than those in progress by New York, Lower Canada no doubt supposed she was undertaking all which the circumstances of the case r<~ quired. In fact, both Upper and Lower Canada were under the delusion that equal facilities in the shape of artificial navigation would give the St. Lawrence with its short canals the advantage over the Hudson with its long ones. They afterwards discovered that it was to be a competition between the attractions offered by rival seaports and their ocean aspect, rather than between the inland routes by which these were reached ; that when the Canada route would have the patronage of one hundred thousand, the American would have that of one million ; in short, that it would require the develop- ment of all the superiority of which the St. Lawrence route was capable, to count'^rbalance its political and geo- graphical disadvantages. In comparing Montreal with New York, the great superi- ority of the latter in shipping accommodation, in cheap erport rates, ready sale of large quantities, and especially in the supply of back freights to the inland craft, as well as in the control which the capital of the Atlantic States exercises over the exports Ox *;he Western ones-^are reasons sufl&cient to account for the preference which has been given to the latter. But another reason for the slight effect hitherto produced by our canal expenditure, is that all the great American public works were prospectively constructed in advance of the demands of the coimtry; that they have hitherto been more useful for the purpose of expediting the * ir i , I ^ Ii'- , s -..;-; : i"- Ij; 180 TRAVXT. AND TRANSPORTATION. settlement of the interior than as affording an outlet for an existing commerce; and that, until 1' \ the carrying ca- pacity of the canals and railways hai erally exceeded the wants of the country. With this condition of affairs, railways, supported by a passenger traffic, and desirous of raising their stock quotations by swelling their gross re- ceipts at any cost, have worn out tlieir iron in carrying freights at non-paying rates. While the stream of com- merce is -.reak it can easily be diverted ; but when it over- flows, capacity must exert its influence so long as there is intelligence and ability to make the proper use of it. If the competition had been confined to the water routes, that by the St. Lawrence would ere this, from sheer necessity, have been better patronized; but the premature birth of a railway system before the existence of a legitimate railway business — a system which was hungering for the coarse staples of export — dissipated the traffic, before even the Erie Canal was overtaxed, by offering facilities which could not be equaled on the water, and rates which could not be afforded on the land. Moreover, a legitimate winter traffic— in exports to which an extra price obtained, or interest saved, counterbalanced extra freight — ^has enabled the railways to remove, during that season, much of the produce on which the canals relied. The further enlargement of the Welland Canal has been agitated for several years, but as the question has presented itself as one of convenience and economy of transport, rather than of insufficiency for tonnage, — it has made little pro- gress. Larger locks would admit the larger class of vessels now excluded, and thereby somewhat cheapen freights; but until the capacity of the present canal is exhausted, and a better return on the investment guaranteed, it is not prpba- ble that any determined action will be taken. This ques- tion must be. moreover, mainly influenced by international relations; and by the probability of the St. Lawrence be- TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 181 coming a route for western imports as well as exports. If Chicago outgrows her commercial vassulago to New York, so that the West is permitted to buy as well as sell in Mon- treal, Canada can afford to enlarge her avenues to the sea- board. Hitherto we have reaped little but a barren reputa- tion for all our cosmopolitan exertions in delivering the West from the monopoly of the New York canals. Up to 1845, and before our St. Lawrence canals were opened, foreign salt was excluded from western packing-houses, by a toll, on the Erie Canal, of nearly three dollars per barrel, and Nova Scotia plaster from Western canals by a toll of over three dollars per ton. Even now. New York, in order to protect her own products, charges foreign salt five times^ and foreign gypsum three times as much as the domestic article. Millions of dollars have been saved to the Western country by the reduction of tolls on the Erie Canal since 1845, and though some of this is due to railway competi- tion, — yet, on the quantity of wheat alone, which was ship- ped by canal from Buffalo in 1861, the reduction in tolls over those of 1845, amounts to nearly a million of dollars. The down toll upon a barrel of flour, is now 15 ct iS, and the up toll on 100 lbs. raaide, 26 cents,— less than in 1845. The St. Lawrence canals were .designed for side-wheel steamers; the Welland Canal for sail- vessels and screw steamers. The number of sail-craft employed on the lakes, American and Canadian, is one thousand two hundred, and the whole number of steamers is three hundred and seventy, of which about one hundred are tugs, and which may, therefore, properly be assigned to the sail fleet. Of the re- maining two hundred and seventy, one hundred and fifty only are side- wheel boats, including ferryboats, and river and lake steamers which do not navigate canals. This proves that in a short canal connecting long lines of deep water and sail navigation, and with the great amount of lockage of the Wel- land Canal, provisioL for side- wheel steamers is as unnecea- il ' li: I ", 182 TRAVKL AND TRANSPORTATION. 1. sary as it would be inconvenient. The mammoth side-wheel fiteamera can not pay; they were the creation of rival rail- way routes aa an attraction for passengers, — were sustained as long as possible by railway capital or railway receipts; but now they are, with two exceptions, either rotting at the railway docks or have gone to sea. Any attempt to accom- modate such experimental or exceptional craft, either in the St. Lawrence or Welland canals, would be as impracticable as absurd. They can not carry freight profitably; and, while railways are in existence, they could not retain their passengers in a canal. If our canals were enlarged for such boats they would not use them, except to shift their routes, or in case of a sale. It is desirable for the strength, safety, and facility of handling the gates, that the width of the locks should not be unnecessarily increased; and there is a great waste of time, as well as of water, in filling a large lock in order to pass a small vessel. Moreover, if the width of the lock is increased, the whole trunk of the canal should be widened proportionally. "Whatever may prove to be the ultimate demands of the trade, the dimensions of the locks will be governed by sail and screw vessels, and the preposterous dimensions required to enable one of the obsolete railway steamers to surmount the three hundred and thirty feet lockage of the Welland Canal must be abandoned. , The St. Lawrence, from its strong current, is a steam navigation, and the peculiar facilities aflForded for passengers and freight going down by the rapids, require that its locks should pass side-wheel steamers of moderate dimensions. Any future enlargement here will be to provide for increase in the length, and draft of water of the boats. A diminu- tion of ten feet in the width from that of the Cornwall Canal has already been made, and the locks are now wide enough for such side-wheel steamers as the route requires, and wider than is needed for screws; but if increased depth TRAVEL AND TRANSfORTATIOIT. 183 be afforded, an increase in the length for screw steamers or sailing craft may be in the future. There remains, however, to be first determined the important question whether the inland business is to bo done by through-boats, or by tran- shipment at Kingston. It is probable that river craft may, with less time and outlay of capital, receive the grain from the sail-vessel whose proper sphere is the lakes. Ten years ago the tonnage of flour going to the seaboard was three times as great as that of wheat — now the propor- tions are reversed — and in addition to this, the largely in- creasing quantities of corn gives such a preponderance to the grain trade that elevaters and portage railways are called into play and transhipment is no longer the uu mixed evil it was considered to be. The Civil War has turned Western Canadian exports down the St. Lawrence — more grain having reached Mon- treal in 1861 and 1862, than in all the previous years since the opening of the canals — but these have not benefited by this diversion in consequence of the abolition of the tolls, in May, 1860, whereby about $645,000 has been transferred from the Provincial treasury to the forwarders — doubtless to compensate them for the injury which the Grand Trunk railway inflicted on them when carrying produce with the aid of provincial funds. The Welland Canal locks pass a sail-vessel registered as high as four hundred tons, with a carrying capacity of 17,500 bushels of wheat. The St. Lawrence locks pass a side-wheel steamer about seven hundred tons register, with a carrying capacity of about four thousand barrels of flour. The canal system of Canada may be said to embrace four distinct routes; but, as all are connected, any number of them may be combined. They are, — 1. The St. Lawrence route; 2. The Ottawa route; f .V K1 ! ;. 1^^ :^i A ! * ! 184: TRAVEL Am) TBANSFOUTATIOK. S. The Champlain route ; 4. The Lake route, or "Welland Canal. The first three terminate at tide- water; the last may be said to terminate in Lake Ontario, or its extension to Prcs- cott, because the great majority of the vessels which pass the Welland Canal do not also pass the St- Lawrence. A vessel with twenty -six feet beam may proceed to sea, from any of the upper lakes, by the route of the Welland and St. Lawrence canals ; but she can not enter Lake Champlain with more than twenty-three feet, or pass down the Ottawa route with more than eighteen feet beam. She may carry ten feet draft into Lake Ontario, but must Hghten to nine in descending the St. Lawrence ; and, if her other dimensions were reduced, she could carry five feet down the Ottawa, and six feet into Lake Champlain. From Lake Ontario, a vessel of forty-four feet beam may proceed to sea. The Cham- bly Canal will not admit deep vessels from the lakes, but it is more than sufficient for boats from the Ottawa, and larger than the canal which connects Lake Champlain with the Hudson. The St. Ours lock has been constructed on the scale of the St. Lawrence canals; but the enlargement of the Chambly Canal has not been undertaken, — partly be- cause it has been proposed to supersede it, for western trade, by a canal from some point near Montreal to St. Johns, on the Richelieu, in order to save the detour of one hundred miles via Sorel; and partly because any enlargement would not pro- duce its full effect until it was carried through to the Hud- son, which can only be done by the state of New York. A canal which would admit the craft of the upper lakes into Champlain by the shortest and cheapest route, would place Boston (via Burlington) and New York (via Whitehall) in the same relation to the West which they now enjoy through the more distant ports of Ogdensburg and Oswego, re- spectively, and thus add to the St. Lawrence canals that portion of American traffic now given only to the Welland. Pi IB: :i' TBAVXL AND TRAKSPORTATIOir. 185 Whether it forced or invited a passage through to the Hudson or not, it could not fail to aid the canals above it, and is a necessary corollary to the system — ^unless it be de- termined to exclude the St. Lawrence canals from the benefit of that American transit trade which is the chief support of the Well and. So long and as often as New York and New England are better markets for western ex- perts than other countries, these exports will go there; and, of course, by American if they can not by Canadian routes. For transatlantic trade, our canals offer a communication with the lakes, the inland portion of which is superior to that via New York; but the sea portion, inferior in rates of freight and insurance. Increased capital, by increasing trade, alone will equalize the routes. Political considera- tions may, however, exiert an influence which can not be foreseen; but the route exists, and, if required, can be made use of to any extent by the application of that capital which now sustains its rivals. "fl « -A ; ■ t f!'.- - t TRAVEL Am) TKANSPOETAHON. RAILWAYS. 187 More than two hundred years ago, or about a.d. 1630, one Master Beaumont ruined himself in coal mining, but has been immortalized by the biographer of George Stephenson as the first man that formed a railway : for alth '^ugh his rails were of wood, and the wheeled vehicles were drawn by horses, yet the principle of the railway was there. These tramways were in use a centmy before iron was employed in them, which event is supposed to have taken place about 1738. The birth of the Steam Engine was naturally followed by propositions to convert it into a locomotive for com- mon roads ; and between 1763 and 1800, Cugnot in France, Evans in the United States, Symington in Scotland, and Murdoch and Trevethick in England, experimented with steam carriages. The latter, in 1804, was the first to put the locomotive where it properly belongs, on the railway, but the wheels being " roughed" in order to " bite" the rail, they fairly devoured it ; and though possessing some speed and a power to draw, this arrangement was almost immediately abandoned. Blenkinsop, in 1812, successfully introduced a locomotive with pinion wheels working into a racked rail, which drew thirty coal wagons at three- and a quarter miles per hour. In 1813, Blackett, a col- liery owner, discovered (by simply trying the experiment) that the adhesion of a smooth wheel on the plain rail was sufficient for traction, and thus the first great step toward efficiency was gained. The locomotive, notwithstanding these strides, was still a crude and almost useless machine until George Stephenson, at this stage, applied his emi- nently practical mind to the subject. His first engine, however, though the most successful that had yet been constructed, showed at the end of a year's work an economy only equal to that of horsepower, and then it was, in 1815, that Stephenson applied the exhaust steam to the chimney^ and by one stroke more than doubled the power of the n- 188 TBAYEL AND TBANSPO STATION. engine. The discovery of the steam-blast was the second and most important stride in the railway system. The waste steam instead of, as before, puffing into the air, after having done its work, was turned up the smoke-stack, immensely increasing the draught, and therefore the pro< duction of steam in proportion to the speed, so that<— The faster she goea m^ The harder she blow»— and vice versa. Persevering in his determination to over- come all obstacles, Stephenson got rid of the superfluous machinery of his predecessors, and made his engines direct acting, while he increased the adhesion by connecting the other wheels with the driving ones ; — and thus, as early as 1816, constructed engines which, strange as it may appear, were "in regular and useful work, in 1818, conveying heavy coal trains at the speed of five or six miles the hour, probably as economically as any of the more perfect locomo- tives now in use." Notwithstanding this early demon- stration of its practicability, it was not until the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Hallway, in 1830, that the success of the locomotive was admitted. So long as rail- ways were restricted to short lines in the colliery districts, power was more important than speed ; but when for the first time about to be applied on an extensive scale to general traffic, so little impression had fifteen years of con- stant use at the Killingworth colliery made upon the public mind, that the Directors of the Liverpool and Man- chester Railway were unable to decide whether their line should be worked by fixed or locomotive power. They had indeed allowed Stephenson to place one of his engines on the line, in 1829, to assist in its construction; but though this was working under their eyes, and though more than one deputation had visited the colliery railways, on which locomotives had been successfully at work for years, it was evident that the machine of that day was more valuable for what it promised to those who could see, TltAVSL AND TSANSPOBTATIOlf. 189 than for what it was. Tredgold declared in favor of fixed engines. Telford could not say whether even these would succeed, or that horses should not be used. In this dilemma the directors commissioned Messrs. Walker and Rastrick to visit the collieries and report on the question. They recommended the stationary reciprocat- ing system as the best 1 Against all this array of talent George Stephenson, the fireman, at a shilling a day — the mender of clocks and of his sweetheart's shoes, the em- broiderer of pitmen's button-holes — alone stood firm. He knew he was right, and would not be silenced ; for though officially worsted, he, aided by his illustrious son Robert, BucceesfuUy exposed the fallacy of the arguments used against the locomotive, and induced the directors to take the sensible course of offering a premium of £500 for a machine which should travel ten miles the hour, be safe, and unobjectionable as to weight, cost, &c. The locomotive had been condemned on the assumption that the speed could not b« increased without a loss of power — Stephenson asserted that by the action of the steam-blast the power increased with the speed ; that in fact all that was necessary to make the slow colliery engines fast ones, was to have a boiler capable of generat- ing steam as rapidly as the increase of speed required. On the day appointed, the 6th October, 1830, four engines entered the list, two only of which, Ericsson's "Novelty," and Stephenson's "Rocket," distinguished themselves. The former ran at the rate of twenty-four miles an hour, but depending on a blower to keep up the draught, this gave out and she failed. The Rocket, which was the first ready, ran at the then astonishing rate of thirty and thirty-five miles the hour, — ^had no break- down, and carried off the prizo, as well as effectually dis- posed of the twenty-one fixed engines, with the engine- houses, ropes, <&c., which the eminent engineers had de- clared indispensable to the working of the line. This result was accomplished by adopting the multitubular ?? s r\ I 'i ^ 'lk\ m f'Hi m 190 TRAVEL AND TRANSPOBTATION. boiler for the locomotive, which is the third and laBt great principle in the progress of the railway. Since that memorable day when the father of rail- ways " delivered himself" (aa one of his opponents on the board exclaimed, with hands upraised in astonishment), the present generation has seen over 50,000 miles of rail- way constructed, at a cost of about four thousand millions of dollars, the greater portion of this mileage being upon this continent. CANADIAN RAILWAYS. Canada owes her first railway as well as her first steam- boat to Montreal. In 1831, when the news of the success of the Liverpool and Manchester road came across the water, measures were taken to obtain a charter, which was grant- ed on 25th February, 1832, for the construction of a rail- way from Laprairie on the St. Lawrence to St. John's, a village above the rapids of the Kichelieu Kiver, the outlet for the waters of Lake Champlain. The length wa8 six- teen miles, and the capital £50,000, in 1,000 shares of £50 each, or a little over £3,000 per mile. The work was commenced in 1835, opened with horses in July, 1836, and first worked with locomotives in 1837. It was a *' strap- rail" road until 1847, when the heavy T iron was laid. The next movement was a premature one, in Upper Canada. A charter was obtained, 6th March, 1834, for a Eailway from Cobourg to any point on Rice Lake ; and though the distance is no greater than that between La- prairie and St. John's, no less than £400,000 capital was provided. In the same year a charter was granted to the London and Gore Railway Company, for a road from London to Burlington Bay, to be extended to the naviga- ble waters of the Thames and Lake Huron. This was the legislative beginning of that important line the Great "Western Railway. The first railway actually constructed in Upper Canada was by the old " Erie and Ontario Company," and was TRAVEL AUD TBANSPOBTATION. 191 designed to reston the anc'ent portage route around the Falls of Niagara, between Queenstown and Chippewa, which had been superseded by the Welland Canal. This line was chartered in 1835, and was opened in 1839, as a horse railway, the steepness of the grades near Queens- town being beyond the capacity of locomotive power of that day ; and as it stopped at the bank of the Niagara, over one hundred feet above the water level, it fell into disuse. In 1862 the charter was amended, and the line altered so as to run from Lake Ontario at Niagara, to Suspension Bridge and the Falls of Niagara. Between 1832 and 1845 over a dozen charters were granted in the two provinces, none of which, except the horse railway just mentioned, were followed up ; and the Laprairie road continued the sole representative of the eystem, using locomotives for ten years, or until 1847. In 1845 the St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railway Company was chartered, to connect with the " Atlantic and St. Law- rence," an American -company from Portland. This road, though an international rather than a Canadian one, be- came, by subsequent amalgamation, part of the Grand Trunk ; and is, therefore, the beginning of that extensive line. It is worthy of remark, that up to this time the railway efforts of Montreal had been directed to divert the trade of Canada to American cities, her rivals as seaports. In 1846 the first look westward was made in the commence- ment of the Lachine Railway, but this was undertaken rather as a suburban portage road than as part of the main western line. Although some thirty charters had been granted up to 1850, the only roads on which any work had been done were the Laprairie, St. Lawrence and Atlantic. Lachine, St. Lawrence and Industry, in Lower Canada; and the Erie and Ontario m Upper Canada. Many of these charters h'ave been allowed to drop ; and, with the exception of the corporations named, nearly all those relating to roads since built, were extended and amended before any work was commenced. In 1850 the <' '•f I„ K-IU I ■' 192 TRAVEL Ain> TEtANSPOBTATION. Ottawa and Frescott Kailway was authorized, and the line was opened in December, 1854. The first railway in Upper Canada on which locomotives were used was the Northern, from Toronto to Bradford, opened in June, 1863 ; yet in 1860, only seven years from that date, about three hundred locomotives were thunder- ing and bellowing over the upper province, between the Ottawa and Lake Huron. Of the fifty-six charters granted up to June, 1853, only twenty-seven were acted upon, and in twenty-five cases the roads have been completed ; the other two (the Woodstock and Lake Erie and the Hamilton and Fort Dover) are yet unfinished. By amalgamation or leasing, the Grand Trunk and Great Western have swallowed up nine out of these twenty-five chartered and completed roads, there being now only sixteen distinct railways in the whole province. Since 1853 only three new charters have been acted upon, viz., Preston and Berlin, Three Rivers and Arthabaska, and Peterboro' and Chemung Lake. The last is com- pleted ; the first was completed and opened for a time, but is not now in use, and the second is nearly completed. The province has now 1,906 miles of railway, 1,800 of which have been opened within the last ten years, under the impetus given by the railway legislation of 1849-1852. Of these 1,906 miles, the Grand Trunk Company alone have 872 miles within the province, leaving 1,034 miles in all the other companies. Of these last, however, sixty miles, owned by four companies, are not now in operation. Canada has more miles of railway than Scotland or Ireland, or any of the New England States, and is only exceeded in this respect by five States in America, viz., New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Of her total railway expenditure, which exceeds one hundred millions of dollars, about thirty millions have been supplied by the government and municipalities. The fcUowing tables will show the leading statistics of Canadian railways, from offi- cial sources, as far as returns have been made. § BAILWATB OF OUIADA. 193 1 \ I I i I s « ee-SaQ •zdi^ cQP4 ?s3 ^n s « a « 3 "o pq il ■a is 111 ST > S2 « s ^a : : : |» » » ^ •• I '333333 J333SSaaSS3«3333 8 to j3 « a !-jHJ ; W I' * Hi ^i F h ii V. (I li: V \ 184 SAICWATB 07 GAITADA. h; 'l>. I if U 00 . •^ •- '"ft' 33 •a I 5 5 I 3 o I |3 ss;:2 s I?. s s 3 si 8 S8S S3I? li^^^i of CJOrH Tf «T-I JS"-! *'rH .Jijoo r-'OO s •^Ph PhA >^P ^6^S^ -Si §•3 II y Jn 3 « a s mis I 1.3 IS" P4 ■a " o. a p T Sfl 5| ? -§1 -is s o> t; s ^p RAILWAYS OF CANADA. 195 flll«?llll« 3 ^ ,g!l^^ ill 2; 3^ u » M 5^1 c 12 c ?j *- » « 5 ■g aa « 3 >- a •^1-2 ill !S €3 'rSi , M! i !* " 'i' . I 1 ( i:^^ I BAILWATS OF CANADA. fSgggES 88 PPg«'«| i &^8S( w^^ NO* ceoonioio eJi! ill I '55-^ I>r4 «« D**!? i O *-« CO ^ rH 8 F««0O ecT e w t* 1^ sasagg : g : S;:SS8 r-Tef 10 o 5 01'M0> a^s^-^* 3 rfetf rH rH ■i.f e5 * g g j^ I-: «rf OD X qB o> *-• ^j'CJ •fl «• • His as 1 09 - S :|^ : :bSJ "g a a a ~.- I 111 ♦* B cSoS ortion than those of the most im- portant of the associated States commercially opposed to her. Without a perennial seaport, and with her early trade restricted by imperial navigation-laws and custom regulations, she had no foreign commerce accumulating capital ; and wanting this commerce and this capital, and confined to her own market, as well as discouraged by the traditionary colonial policy of the mother country, be- sides being always overstocked with the products of cheaper labor and capital, she could have no manufac- tures, and consequently no capital for investment in rail- ways. Moreover, she did not possess that trade and travel which could make railways profitable, and thus invite ex- ternal aid. But, noblesse oblige — the force of position made railways a necessity, if their construction could in any legitimate way be brought about ; the more so, be- cause it would have been impossible without them to have kept at home her most valuable population — the young, vigorous, and ambitious natives, " to the manner bom," while in sight of a people speaking 'he same language. t , 4' h h r II i l" * ) 1' ^ i li fi!) . .■■ ' i ■w H w A t 198 TEAVBL AND TEAN8P0ETATI0N. and having abundant facilities for developing an almost imbounded fertility, open to all comers. "When Montreal, therefore, was arrested half-way in her single-handed attempt to push a railway to Portland, and even the Great Western, which had been years under con. tract, could not move, the legislature, on the 30th of Tilay, 1849, passed an act by which the province guaranteed (as a loan) the interest only, on the sum required to com- plete any railroad of seventy-lfive miles or more in length, of which one-half had been already made by the pro- prietors.* This act, which was of material service to the Portland and Great Western railways in their preliminary stages, was insuflScient, and did not produce any com- mencement of the intermediate sections of the Trunk line between Montreal and Hamilton. In 1851 a bill was passed, providing for the construction of a main trunk line, aad restricting provincial aid to the same. This act of 1851 looked to possible aid from the imperial government, in the form of a guaranteed loan — an offer having previously been made by Earl Grey to assist the colonies in that manner, to the extent required to con- struct a military line between Halifax and Quebec. A proposition was to be made to extend this boon to the con- tinuation between Quebec and Hamilton, in order that Canada as well as the lower colonies might be traversed by the road built with Imperial aid ; and in this event the trunk line was to be undertaken by the province as a public work — or so much of it as the Imperial guarantee might be obtained for. The bill provided, in the second place, tht:;,t if this guarantee were not obtained, the prov- ince would undertake the work on her own credit, pro- vided the municipalities would bear half the expense ; and * This Btep was a repetition of the legialation of Upper Canada in 1837, before the Union — that proTinfv^ having voted the Great Westem Railway £3 for every £1 of privalo stock Bubscribed, tc the extent of £200,000. In default of repayment, the receiver-general could levy on the Gore and WoBtem Distriots. TRAVEL AND TRAN8P0ETATI0N. 199 as a last resource, if both these plans failed, the local com- panies, which had been formed on the strength of the guarantee to attempt the different sections, were to be al- lowed to try their hand. This bill also extended the pro- vincial guarantee to the principal as well as the interest on one-half the cost, and to this extent substituted provin- cial debentures for railway bonds, while it allowed the aid to be issued when companies had expended half of the cost, including land, instead of completing half the length of their lines. The imperial govem'Tient having declined to aid the particular route demanded by the colonists, no attempt was made by the Canadian envoy to carry out the second plan of the bill of 1850 — that is, to construct the Grand Trunk as a public work, in connection with the munici- palities. This change of programme was in consequence of prop- ositions made to him while in London by English con- tractors of great wealth and influence.* It may be said in defence of this step, that the municipalities were not, like the province, irrevocably committed ; that uncertainty existed as to the co-operation of some of them, and that, in any event, time would be required fully to embark them in the scheme. On the other hand, it was charged that the Canadian envoy broke off negotiations with the impe- rial government at the instigation of the contractors — who had already been at the colonial office in the position of competitors with the colonies for the privilege of control- li-ig an expenditure of such magnitude, to be guaranteed by the British treasury. It was also believed that a pow- erful though indirect influence, wielded by these contract- ors, materially contributed to the adverse position assumed * It is important to note, that if Canada did not construct her Trunk Rail- way without iuTolring Englishmen (and women) in ruin, it was because Englishmen would have it so. Moreover, the demand camr from such a quar- ter, that to those familiar with the resources of these " operators," it might have been extremely difficult for her to have gone into the monej market on her own account, against their opposition. L I'' .i'i 4 .'■'41 m : ■ 200 TSATEL AND TEANSPOETATION. :•■«•» by the new colonial minister on a question to whicli the imperial government had, by his predecessor, been so far committed. The course of the Canadian envoy can only be defended on the assumption that a refusal was inevita- ble, and that a proper appreciation of his position led him to anticipate it. No more unfavorable impression would probably have remained, had not his name subsequently appeared as the proposed recipient of a douceur from the contractors, in the shape of £50,000 of paid-up stock in the capital of the company, which, however, he repudiated when it was announced. Previous to 1851, Canadian securities had no status of their o^n in England, the canal loans having been ne- gotiated under an imperial guarantee. When provincial bonds had no regular quotations, it is not surprising (how- ever much so it may now appear), that as late as 1851, the bonds of the city of Montreal were sold in London at thirty per cent, discount. At the great exhibition of 1851, Can- ada made her debut so favorably, that the keen frequent- ers of 'Change Alley consented to chaperon the interesting stranger — confident that a good thing could be made out of so virgin a reputation — especially after the imperial government had a second time proposed to indorse for her. No machinery could be better devised for launching a doubtful project, such as was the Grand Trunk Kailway of Canada, viewed as a commercial undertaking, than that possessed by the colossal railway contractors, the modem and unique results of the railway era. Extensive opera- tions, involving purchases of land from the nobility and gentry, and weekly payments of wages to the middle and lower classes, over hundreds of miles of country ; large or- ders to iron masters, wood merchants, and engine and car- riage builders, in all parts of the kingdom ; with banking transactions, and sales of securities of the heaviest descrip- tion in the capital itself, gather round the eminent con- tractors a host of dependents and expecta^^ts, in and out of i . TBAVEL AND TEAN8P0BTATI0W. 201 Parliament, by a skilful, and, it is to be feared, sometimes unscrupulous use of whom, fortunes are made, and ap- pointments, and titles even conferred. It does not follow that all, or even the majority of those who are thus made use of, are in any degree culpable. Setting aside the effect of pressure from constituents, many an honest man is moved by an unseen lever ; and none know better than railway practitioners the value of a man qui facit per aUum where he cannot per se. Although some opposition was experienced from the promoters of the local Canadian companies — ^who had borne the burden of the project hitherto, and now saw another about to reap its benefits ; and from the few who clearly foresaw the cruel injury which would be inflicted on the innocent, and the consequent responsibility of Can- ada, there was little difficulty in reconciling the provincial legislature and the municipalities to the abandonment of the joint provincial and municipal plan of constructing the road. The latter were shown that they could now de- vote their means to local improvements ; and to those re- quired members of the legislature who failed at once to perceive the great advantages to the country at large at- tendant upon the importation of so much English capital, the question was brought home individually in such a way that all scruples were removed. To prepare the scheme for the larger appetite of the London market, its proportions were extended from the 600 miles between Quebec and Hamilton, to upwards of 1000 miles, extend- ing from Lake Huron to the Atlantic ; although provis- ion had already been made for the former by the Great Western, and for the latter by the New York and Boston lines approaching Montreal. Amalgamations with existing lines in Canada, and the lease of a foreign one, were made upon the most reckless and extravagant terms ; and lastly^ having whipped in the requisite financial indorsation in London, the scheme was successfully launched by the con- tractors most opportunely, just before the Crimean war. i J ' ' I :jjlsJ *'' y II ■''v.i 'f:i Ifrl ml 202 TRAVEL AND TBAKSFOBTATTOK. Ab the prospectus sliowed a probable dividend of eleven and a half per cent., the stock rose to a premium t For this premium a discount was substituted, as soon as exer- tion was slackened by success, which rapidly increased on the breaking out of the war, and became hopelessly con- firmed as soon as the London, Liverpool, Manchester, and Glasgow merchants read the postscripts of their Canadian mercantile correspondents ; nor could any subsequent ef- fort of the company, with the aid of all the great names now fairly harnessed in, drag the unwieldy vehicle out of the slough into which, apparently by its own dead weight, it so rapidly sank. This sudden depression, before any trial of the scheme had been made, was the natural result of that reflection which ought to have preceded its recep- tion ; and is important in itself, as proving that the English shareholders were either selfrdeceived or deceived by their own countrymen, the promoters in London, rather than by any importance which they attached to the action of Can- ada ; because no practical demonstration was waited for to prove the real value of the stock. The fact that they did not wait for this, proves by their own act that they were not warranted in believing the prospectus, although they have since founded a claim against Canada upon the faith they put in it.* A little reflection was all that was required to make that pi-eposterous document harmless ; and we can hardly be held responsible for their exercise of that reflection a few weeks after ^ instead of at the time of its publication. Notwithstanding this early disrepute of the stock, the character of the subscription list and wealth of the con- tractors carried on the work until 1855, when the com- pany came before the Canadian Parliament "m forrnd pcmperia." This was repeated in 1856, when for the first time their contracts were submitted to public inspection. * They n&Wj believed in men of their own country who did not believe in the prospectus, but who had other reasons for indorsing it; and this explains why their faith was of such short duration. 1 . I TRAVEL AND TEAN8P0RTATI0N. 203 A grant of £900,000 sterling was voted in 1855, to enable them to go on ; and in 1856 the province, which had hither- to stood in the position of a first mortgagee, to the extent of its advances to the company, gave up this position and went behind the shareholders, in order that the latter might issue preference bonds to fill the vacated space; and because they complained that Canada ought not to exact her rights to their prejudice. The ordinary bond- holders, — whO; though they ranked after the provincial mortgage, no doubt counted upon similar forbearance when the proper time arrived, and therefore felt them- selves virtually first mortgagees, — were eflfectually floored by this preference coup d^etat ; nor can one fail to ad- mire that lucky accident, or judicious foresight, which made one dollar of the original provincial aid, practically count as two to the future wants uf the company : for the provincial lien could only have been considered as of pros- pective value by all parties, especially after the company, which had paid the interest upon it out of capital un- til 1857, formally declared their inability to continue to do so. This was caused not only by want of receipts, but by their having bound themselves to pay greater rents for leased lines than they could earn from them, so that the productive sections could not certainly do more than pay this deficiency, and complete, equip, and maintain the road. "When thus virtually making the company a present of over £3,000,000 sterling, the legislature required them to expend £225,000 (or seven and a half per cent, of this amount) upon branch lines connecting with the main Trunk, a stipulation which the company have described as one of the injuries inflicted upon them by the Canadians. As section after section was opened, and no indications of the eleven and a half per cent, presented themselves, the difficulty was accounted for, first, by the want of western connections, then 'by the non-completion of the Victoria Bridge, and lastly, the want of rolling stock. The western connections were obtained by promoting a company to con- I i /^/i m - 1 EP j: i; 204 TRAVEL AND TBAN8P0BTATI0W. struct a line in Michigan, at a cost at least one-third more than was n ecessary, and th en leasing it at eight per cent, upon this extravagant cost, after it had been demonstrated that it could not earn its own working expenses. The only pos- sible explanation of such an extraordinary proceeding, at so late a date in the history of the company, is, that the parties who furnished the money did so in good faith, for the benefit of the whole enterprise, and that the work be- ing situated in a foreign country, and constructed wholly on Grand Trunk account, they were entitled to protection. Also, that as this last and indispensable link was the gol- den gate through which the treasures of the boundless west were to pour over the Grand Trunk, and produce eleven and a half per cent, dividends, eight percent, on their out- lay was but moderate compensation to the corporate bene- factors. The Victoria Fridge was completed, and then the want of rolling stock was the only reason assigned for the want of success ; but when it was remembered that, by the Act of 1857, the conditions on which the prov- ince surrendered her lien only remain in force while the company " supply the said railway with sufficient plant, rolling stock, and appliances to work the same efficiently," and "so long as they maintain and work the same reg- ularly," it was discovered that no more rolling stock was necessary at present ; and at the same time the rumored threats of stopping the road, unless the postal subsidy were increased and capitalized, suddenly ceased alto- gether. "When at last all efforts failed, the conviction forced itself on the hitherto infatuated proprietors, that the anticipated traffic was not to be had upon any Cana- dian route, except as a water-borne one which this rail way was unable to divert. A failure so magnifi,cent, complete, and disastrous has naturally led to recriminations ; and forgetting the p^rt played by Englishmen in the inception, and their almost exclusive execution and management of the undertaking, its British victims have attempted reclamations on the TRAVEL AND TRAN8P0ETATI0N. 205 province, on the ground of the " moral responsibility" in- curred in accepting the tempting offers made her. A very- large proportion of such claimants are effectually disposed of by the fact that, having acquired their stock at some- thing like one-fifth its cost to the real victims, and other securities at proportionate discounts, long after the fallacy of the prospectus was admitted, they can have had no im- plied contract with Canada, " moral" or otherwise. If we are bound to compensate, it can only be those who really put faith in us, and gave the first impulse to our railway, and not the bulls and bears of the stock exchange, — per- haps' the men who, having deceived and plundered their own countrymen, have bought back the depreciated securi ties, and now stand in dead men's shoes to intimidate and revile Canadians — every one of whom bears by taxation something more than a moral responsibility on account of the Grand Trunk. Canadians did not originate this scheme, and, left alone, they would have closed the gap in their Trunk line between Montreal and Hamilton without greater cost than they have contributed to the Grand Trunk, and, without loss to any but themselves. This section was all that was necessary, in a national point of view, as it would Jiave secured the connection of our chief seaports with the remote west. But a member of the British Parlia- ment, representing the wealthiest firm of contractors in the world, crossed the Atlantic, applied t . the Canadian legislature for the necessary powers to bring out the gi- gantic scheme on the London market, and taught the inex- perienced colonists how to take advantage of their position. The governor-general, either to immortalize his adminis- tration, or acted upon, however innocently, by those influ- ences in London which control appointments and peerages, publicly implored the legislature not to shut the door in the face of such proffered relief; and prepared an elaborate statistical report, to accompany the prospectus, showing the progress and resources of the colony. It was not pos- sible that a people ignorant of railways could resist such F ! ' ■ ir ' , '{' p |.;l V "■ 1 1 1 t-f tt» ■ , . , iJii ' ..ll s » & di . i. t '•Am mm (':■■ . t. 206 TEAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. ailments or such temptations ; nor is it remarkable that, knowing the marvellous eliects of railways elsewhere, they should be unable to discriminate between the profitable and the unprofitable routes, especially when they were assured of success from such experienced and influential sources. Though they had just incurred a debt of millions for canals, which were not directly remunerative, they embarked in railways to a much greater extent, assuming obligations which, could they have foreseen the results, they would not have done, even though English capitalists had offered to invest two dollars to their one. CAUSES OF FAILUEB. The Grand Trunk scheme embraces so large a propor- tion of the railway system of Canada, that its failure de- serves investigation, and may be found in the following considerations : 1. We have seen that while private enterprise had taken up as intrinsically valuable, or supposed to be so, the rail- ways leading from Montreal to Portland, Boston, and New York, and from Toronto and Niagara westward — the sec- tions between Quebec and Toronto — the most prominent portions of the Grand Trunk, as prepared for the English market, were, though backed by a provincial guarantee, left by the Canadians until the last, because it was felt that no railway could successfully compete with such a naviga- tion. The English projectors thought otherwise, because their railways had beaten their canals ; but no analogy exists in the case of either system in the two countries. Their railways have a different traflSc and climate, are better made and cheaper worked, while their canals are but enlarged ditches compared with ours. The original Canadian railway companies were organized on the basis of portage roads working in connection with the naviga- tion, besides forming a through line for general purposes ; but the Grand Trunk vainly essayed competition with the TRAVEL AND TRANSPOETAXIOIT. 207 water, and disdained all connection with it between Mon- treal and Lake Huron. 2. While the Canadian envoy in May, 1852, looked only to a line between Montreal and Hamilton, the English scheme provided for an extension of both ends of a cen- tral line, itself never regarded as a promising one— the ex- tensions, as a whole, being still more unpromising intrin- sically than the centre ; evidently counting upon a through traflSc which should be more valuable than the local one. The weak point in the scheme was, that these extensions connected points already connected by better routes, and between which no regular traflSc existed, or was likely to arise. The Canadian railway route between Del. jit and Boston, as compared with that via Albanv, was an attempt to travel the arc of a circle (and a more arctic one at that) in competition with its chord. The scheme did not possess the elemen^r of success, either as a whole or in its parts ; the failure was, therefore, inevitable, and in pro- portion to the extension. The following statements which show the receipts and exports by sea, via the St. Lawrence, and the Grand Trunk Eailway respectively, prove the hopelessness of the contest between the rail and the river ; and the insignificance of the winter operations of the former, via Portland and Boston, in diverting exports from the latter : RECEIPTS OF WESTEBN OBAIN AND FLOITB AT UOHTRKAT^ 1801 By water. by 6. T. Railway. Total PrcentbyG.T.B. Grain, bus. Flour, blls. 11,887,710 772,881 802,128 402,231 12,189,888 1,174,603 8.69 84.25 EXFDBTS BEAWABD OF 6BAIN AlTD FLOUB FBOM MONTBEAL, 1863. ByO, T.R'lw'yvlB Portland dc Boston. Grain, bus. Flour, bill. By Blrer 8t Law- rence. 9,018,874 697,477 478,596 66,l!a Total 9,498,9(19 6ti8,600 Per cent, by vl. T. Ballway. 5.8 9.96 8. The enterprise, nnpromising as it always was to com- hm I '. m !:'M 208 TRAVEL Am: TBAN8P0RTATI0N. petent and disinterested obsv^rvers, was loaded down with imprc ident leases of foreign lines. The Portland rail- way was leased at six per cent, upon its cost, and required the expenditure of over a million and a half of dollars to make it workable ; yet with all the advantages of the Vic- toria Bridge and western connections, the company have not been able to earn more than two-thirds of the rent they agreed to pay. Nothing but the greatest infatuation could have led to the belief that such a road, with its heavy grades and curves, and a scanty local traflfic, could, amid winter Buows, do a through business, to warrant the price paid for it. The lease of the Michigan lino we have already noticed: thi-^ was so much the wor8e,in that the company have not only been unable to earn any portion of the eight per cent, rent, but have lost money in working it 4. The purchase of the St. Lawrence and Atlantic line at cost, though the stock had been sold at fifty per cent, discount, was made on the assumption that it was com- plete as far as it went ; but, like the Portland end of the same line, another million of dollars or more was re- quired to put it in eflBcient order. Besides this unexpect- ed outlay on the existing road between Montreal and Portlcnd, about six millions of dollars were subsequently required, to make up deficiencies in the contract provision for those portions of the line constructed under the com- pany's own auspices. "Whatever allowance may be made for heated imaginations, when estimating the prospective business of the road, and deluding themselves with the notion that it would, as a whole, earn dividends of eleven and a half per cent., when none of its parts had previously been considered as practicable without sub- sidies, the railway men of the prospectus must have known that this could not be done with three-per-cent. of sidings, and the limited number of locomotives and car- riages provided by the contracts ; and that the working expenses could not be kept down to forty per cent, of all the receipts which could be earned by such an equipment. i \M TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 209 The prospectus assured Bubscribers that the cost of the railway was defined by contracts, whereby " any appre- hension of the capital being found insufficient is removed," and which " secured a first-class railway, includinij sidings, ample rolling stock, and every requisite essential to its per- fect completion ;" and that, " for the capital stated, the proprietors are assured of a railway fully equipped and complete in every respect, and free from any further charges whatever 1" The capital estimated by the pros- pectus was $47,500,000 ; the company, in 1860, showed a balance sheet of $70,000,000 ; of this amount, about $56,000,000 is charged to mpital account as the " cost of construction," the remainder is interest, rent, loss in work- ing, &c., although eighty-five miles of the original road have not been constructed : and after expending millions in supplying omissions in the contracts and estimates, the working expenses instead of forty, have exceeded eighty per cent, of the gross receipts. 5. Not only did the contracts fail to provide " every es- sential to the perfect completion of the road," but the pro- visions they did contain were either not enforced or bo loosely complied with, that the efficiency of the road has been impaired, its working expenses increased, and all the available resources of the company have been required to supply deficiencies, and to repair damages consequent upon this state of things. The bad quality of rails east of Toronto, with the deficiency of ballast and sleepers under them, have led to a destruction of rolling stock and prop- erty (fortunately hitherto unaccompanied by loss of life) which is imprecedented in the history of railways. No doubt the force of circumstances, in a great measure, com- pelled the company to accept a road very much inferior to that originally intended. The English contractors had agreed to take two-thirds of their pay in stock and bonds, and when these became depreciated by the discredit of the company, they were in for a loss in discounts, which was largely increased by the ineaperience of some of their I ^1 f 'S ' ?;■ f.l l,i ;^ III I 'Mi il :'' !'tt| 1 ■ nM ': ' i Wft iVH ; ■ . ; II' 210 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. agents, who, conducting large expenditures in a country new to them, and having it in their power to place the company in default and suspend the work, were masters of the situa- tion, and naturally desirous, while carrying through their enterprise, to diminish their loss as much as possible. The system under which the road was constructed was a vicious and illegitimate one, the order of things being reversed from that in well-regulated corporate enterprises. The only way in which an honest and efficient construction of any railway can be guaranteed, is that where bona^ Jlde shareholders elect their directors, who appoint the engineer and solicitors, and invite competition before the contract is given out. Thus those who expect to become the owners of the property have some control over its formation. But in the case of the Grand Trunk, the contractors assumed the risk of floating off the shares and bonds in consideration of getting a contract upon their own terms, with a board of directors, and an engineer and solicitor, of their own selection (and deriving their fees and salaries through them), to carry them through those all-important preliminary stages when the future shareholders are irrevocably bound, and in too many cases have their interests sacrificed, to those of the contractor. And here there was the additional evil of a political element. The contractors wielding a gigantic scheme which traversed almost every county in the province, virtually controlled the government and the legislature while the expenditure continued. The only supervision under the contract which would have affected their interests, was that which the government and their majority in the legislature could have insisted on. It was the interest of the com- pany that in level country the road should be raised so as to keep it out of water and snow ; that in hilly country it should be carried ae high over the valleys and as deep into the hills as was prudent, in order to diminish the gradients and therefore the cost of working ; and that the stations should be as near the business centre of the towns as pos- i TRAVEL AND TRANBPORTATIOir. 211 Bible, particularly in places on or near the competing navigation. But it was the interest of the contractors to keep the road as hear the surface everywhere as the con- tract permitted, no matter how much it might be smothered in winter and flooded in spring, — how undulating it was, or how frequent and severe the gradients became ; and to place the stations where land was cheapest, or, Sv-> as to purchase political support thereby, or obtain a specu- lation in building lots. It is in vain that magnificent tubular bridges and way-stations of stone are pointed to as evidences of superiority, when the very backbone of the railway, the track on which its receipts are to be earned, is defective in location and construction. Better that the stations had been but temporary sheds, and that their cost had been put into the road-bed, for these can be rebuilt at any time ; but the latter must lie as it is, with all its im- perfections on its head. It does not rest with the English public to charge upon Canada all the disastro .a results of the Grand Trunk. The prospectus was not prepared in the province, nor did any member of her government see it until it was issued. Canada was not a stockholder in the company ; but as the indorser for it, not of it, put four of her ministers on a board, composed of eighteen directors, of whom six were in London and twelve in Canada, eight of the latter being really nomiaees of the English contractors. The Cana- dians, as novices in railway matters, could not be censured if they even believed all they were told by the promoters of the railway ; nor could they be worse than other people if they gave it a trial without believing in it ; but there must have been many men, and many editors in London well versed in railways, not only English but American, who thoroughly appreciated the scheme, as one originated and promoted for the money which could be made out of it by men whose mission it is to prey upon their fellows. If these were silent. Englishmen must blame their own watchmen for not warning them ; besides, had they sought the real 14 I M P" .1 ' .'i ^ 1'! i '^ ' '. lu hill 212 TRAVEL AND TBAN8P0ETATI0N. merits of the scheme, they would have found them in the discussions of the Canadian press and Parliament. These were of such a character as to relieve Canada of any " moral responsibility," and contrast favoraoly with the intelligence or candor of the English press on the same subject. A proposition to attach +he contracts to the prospectus was made, but voted down by the contractors' majority in the Canadian legislature. Why, when this was seen, did not the English press call for the contracts when the prospec- tus appeared, and tell their readers whether the capital would be suflScient, and analyze the scheme from American data? and why did they not show that the contractors could, through their appointment of the company's engi- neer, solicitors, and directors, give the subscribers any road they pleased, instead of the one described in the prospectus ? Among the minor causes which heightened the failure of the Grand Trunk, and deprived it of much of that sym- pathy of which it stands so much in need, have h^en the general extravagance and blundering in its management, and the ridiculous presumption of soma of the officials, in a community in which there is so little of u. real aristo- cratic element and so little room for a sham one. In an enterprise of such magaitude, the salaries of its higher offi- cials, no matter how liberal they were, would seem to have little influence on results; and if thesaresidts were confined to the mere question of the difference !n salaries they would be unimportant, particularly where the incumbents are worth what they cost. But, in the case under notice, the effect of princely s^^larios to chief officers was to establish a general scald of extravagance, and a delegation of duties and responsibilities, so as to turn the head oi the recipients, and involve the company in needless outlays, and losses greater than all the salaries paid upon the line. The railway satrap sent out by the London Board, whose salary is only exceeded by that of the governor-general, naturally considers himself the second person in the province ; and, TRA.VEL AND TEAN8P0ETATI0N. 213 as a consequence, the special commissioner sent ont from the same source, with the salary of the President of the United States, to obtain more money from the province nnder the veil of a postal subsidy, would deem himself the second person on the continent, and therefore assume a position commensurate with his importance, and indulge in threats of destroying th^ credit of the province. The salary of this commissioner is reported at $25,000, his charge for expenses $12,000, and the cost of his special trains at $6,000, making a total of $43,000 on account of one year. If only half of this be true, it is suflficient to pre- vent Canadians increasing their own taxes in order to afford the company the means of continuing such extrava- gance. Men so much better paid than their confreres nat- urally value themselves much higher; can only be ap- proached through successive doors, or be communicated with through successive deputies, in a diminishing scale, until the man who does the work is reached ; and can only travel by special trains or in exclusive carriages, provided with every luxury on an imperial scale, and with equal in- difference to detail. Perhaps no circumstance has tended more to makj the management unpopular, and the liber- ality sought for on account of postal subsidy impossible, than this abuse of special trains and carriages by officials of the company intoxicated with the novelty of their posi- tion. The bishops, and the judges of assize ; the most ven- erable and respectable inhabitants of the country, as well as tourists of the highest rank, are content to travel by ordinary trains and in the usual carriages ; but the upper servants of the railway company have burned the fuel, worn the rails and rolling-stock, deprived fcheir fellow employes of the needed Sunday's rest, and thrown the whole freight traffic of a single line out of time (thus jeopardizing life and property), in order that they may show their little brief authority. Passengers have been turned out of a sleeping- car in the dead of the night by the breaking of a wheel, and crowded into the only remaining carriage of the train ex- 'i I' >w li : .■i ! ■/*': 2M TBAYEL Ain> TBANSPOBTATION. cept one, which, though large enough for fifty,, was sacred to r few railway magnates whose duty it was — and pleasure it should have been — to treat the ejected passengei^ as their guests, but who resolutely kept out the vulgar herd. It seems absurd in such nabobs to plead poverty before our legislature, or expect the men whose wives and daughters have been so treated to support their petitions. MUNICIPAL RAILWAXa The municipalities, relieved from contributing to the Trunk Kailway, were thus at liberty to embark in branch lines, and some rushed headlong in, seduced by men who saw how the thing was done in the Grand Trunk. Contrac- tors controlled the board of directors and appointed the engineer ; a scaiLiped road, barely practicable for traflfic, was made, on which the whole receipts for tho present generation must be applied before it can be considered completed. To enable the municipalities to carry out their local improvements, the province virtually indorsed their bonds by exchanging them for others, in which it acted as a broker, undertaking to collect from the borrower and pay over to the lender. The by-laws by which counties, cities, and townships voted their loans or subscriptions to publlo works, required the approval of the governor in council before they could take the bensfit of the Municipal Loan Fund Act. Th.'s provision was intended as a check upon extravagance, but the practical eflfect of it was to place the members from every county and city, seeking to avail themselves of the provisions of the act, at the mercy of the ministry of the day. Those who were most subser- vient obtained most money, and one village was allowed to borrow three hundred dollars per head for every soul of the population. Of course default was made in the in- terest on such loans, and one delinquent produced others ; the province as indorser in the mean time paying for them, and in the end accepting, in lien of Uie duee, an annual m- TBAVEL Aim TSANSPOBTATION. 215 sessment of five per cent. Although loans of this doubt- fiil character have been thus compromised, a Pgid neu- trality has been maintained toward those municipalities which, like Hamilton, embarked in good faith in similarly unfortunate enterprises upon their own unaided credit. The following tables show that about six and a half mil- lions of dollars have been contributed to railways by the municipalities iix Upper and Lower Canada, out of the loan fund. Some three millions or more have been con- tributed by municipalities which did not borrow from the fund, so that the total investment by these bodies in rail- ways cannot be far from ten millions of dollars.* * tTnfortunatelj', the municipalities do not make an7 return to Parliament of their icvestmenta in public works. This is the case also with road com- panies and several other joint-stock corporations. No good reasons are advanced why these bodies sJiould be more favored than baclcs and rail- ways. zM uni M' •'!!il i!n ]yl:'^ ; • ' 216 TRAVEL AND TBANSFOBTATION. TABUa SHOWIKO THX AlfOTINTS TIXKK FBOM THX KUKIOIPXL lOAX TCim BT hunioifjlUtiis m uppbb Canada roa bailwat pxmposES om.T. Popnlation ManloipaUtteib in 1861. Town of Port Hop* 2,476 Township of Hope 5,299 Town of Niagara. 3,340 Cobourg 3,871 1,193 2,737 6,410 3,877 1,841 1,161 2,318 Village of Chippewa. Township of Bertie " " Brantford... To-»m of Brantford Townuhip of Wainfleet. . . " " Canboro Counties of Huron and ) „q ,,qq Bruce ' • Townships of Moulton and Sherbrooke < Village of Paris 1,890 City of Ottawa 7,760 Town of Prescott 2,156 " " Woodstock 2,112 " '* St Cathanno's.. 4,368 Township of Woodhouse. 2,894 " " Norwich.... 5,239 «• " Ops 2,512 Countj of Elgin 25,418 City of London 7,035 Township of Windham. . 2,900 Town of Simcoe 1,452 Counties of L&nai4c and ) .. nor Renfrew T^'"^ Town of Brockville 3,246 lownshin of Elizabeth- ) , nng tcflrc J ' Village of Stratford. Town of Goderich 1,329 " " Barrie 1,007 " " Guelph 1,860 " " Petorboro 2,191 Population in 1861. Amount of loan. 4,161 $740,000.00 6,883 60,000.00 2,070 280,000.00 4,915 600,000.00 1,096 20,000.00 3,379 40,000.00 6,904 60,000.00 6.251 600,000.00 2,316 20,000.00 1.252 8,000.00 76,226 126,000.00 Arrears of interest due Ueo. 81, 1861. $312,303.31 25,862.56 148,974.02 313,426.61 7,109.71 8,87r 6 2,42 <. A I 186,754.87 1,446.37 330.80 3,059 2,373 14,669 2,691 3,353 6,284 3,703 6,383 2,872 82,050 11,555 4,095 1,858 61,964 4,112 6,101 2,809 3,227 2,134 6,076 3,979 20,000.00 40,000.00 200,000.00 100,000.00 100,000.00 100,000.00 10,000.00 200,000.00 80,000.00 80,000.00 376,400.00 100,000.00 100,000.00 800,000.00 400,000.00 154,000.00 100,000.00 100,000.00 12,000.00 80,000.00 100,000.00 172.23 113,411.37 62,625.53 47,824.29 47,748.27 31.04 101,608.96 39,897.36 35.95 155,412.56 60,261.66 62,276.99 306,189.16 187,432.01 61,794.00 66,871.79 36,174.92 2,664.69 13,400.12 27,274.12 Total, $5,694,400.00 $2,359,406.74 TRAVEL AND TEANSPOBTATION. 217 TABLB sHowmo THB ijiotnrrs TAKBir raou thb huxioipal loan wum vt HUNIOIFAUTIES IN LOWER OAKABA FOR RAILWAY FUBPOSKS OSLT. Population MnnlciiMlitlea. In 1851. County of Ottawa 22,903 " " Terreboune.. 26,791 " " Shefford 16,482 " '• Stanstead... 13,898 " " Mogantic... 13,836 St. Romuald de Farnbamf Township of SheflTordf . . . 2,612 Town of Three Riversf . . 4,836 Township of Granby* . . . 2,392 " Boltonf 1,936 " ofStukelyNthf)„,qA " ofStukelySthf; ' Tillage of Fermorff Population in 1861. 27,767 19,460* 17,779 12,268 17,889 3,712 6,058 3,271 2,626 . 2,820 Amount of loan $131,600.00 94,000.00 216,000.00 71,000.00 6,840.00 30,000.00 67,600.00 220,000.00 30,000.00 13,000.00 j 16,000.00 ( 10,000.00 32,000.00 Arrears of interest . due Deo. 81, 1801. $84,740.19 60,498.17 63,340.63 17,681.02 3,580.57 11,423.68 21,895.59 53,855.61 10,938.37 2,834.39 3,763.29 2,364.00 6,393.00 Total, $92;>,940.00 $343,208.41 This flagrant disregard of obligations, by so many mu- nicipalities, is not to be ascribed wholly to the inability of some, and the example of such upon others ; nor to any proneness to repudiation ; for these bodies have made great and successful efforts to keep faith with other credi- tors, and have only failed in cases where the debt was overwhelming. Little effort was n.ade to pay the loan fund, even during the most prosperous days of the corpo- rations, chiefly because no attempt was made to collect : — the example of the government in conniving at the default being the prime cause of its present magnitude. To press a municipality was to drive it into opposition ; and rail- way corruption had so thoroughly emasculated the leaders of the people, that they had not virtue enough left to do their duty. Moreover, at the time the money was borrowed supporters ot the government had industriously sowed the impression that repayment would not be exacted, and this view gained ground after the lien on the Grand Trunk was abandoned. Tliey could not see why the law of 1849, which treated all districts alike, should have been repealed for the benefit of the wealthier localities; and * Boundaries changed sinco 1861. f Object of loan not stated ; supposed to be for railways. .! B I* 218 TRAVEL AND TBANSPOBTATIOW. looked upon this move as an abuse of their political power by the majority. To these considerations, as well as to the feeling that the debt is due, in a great measure, by the people in one capacity to themselves in another, t*nd not to individuals or a foreign government— and has more- over been pretty generally distributed over the province- may be traced this otherwise disgraceful exhibit. The dimensions of many of the loans, as compared with the borrowers, go to show that the latter did not expect and were not expected to repay; — ^nor could many of them have been sanctioned by the popular approval, had they been considered as hondfide debts. The manner in which the guarantee has been distributed, as shown in the fol- lowing table, has likewise tended to foster this feeling. Great Westera. Orand Trunk. Northern. '"IfstToimbeVlSeo!^ } • $23,000,104.00.$56,690,039.92.. .$3,890,t78.68 Total amount received \ from the province in j- . .$3,7Si.5,B55.18. $16,142, 633.33.. .$2,311,666.61 debentures ) Total miles built 345 , . .872 95 Mileage entitled to guar- ) get . . 680 . 96 antee •.... Amount received per mile of whole roadin deben- • $10,800.00 $1*7,366.00 $24,333.00 tures Amount received per mile entitled to guarantee in |> $14,000.00 $22,200.00 $24,333.00 debentures. Per cent, of cost supplied by the province..- . . . • '••••••• •XO««5d« ••••••••• A ••Xo» ••••••• kOva^X The debentures were sold at about twelve and a half per cent, premium, which would increase these amounts one-eighth. The province has abandoned its claim on the last two roads; the Great Western has ceased paying principal or interest, — the former from inability; the latter on the ground that its mail service has not been settled. The Northern was not a part of the main trunk, but ob- .tained provincial aid because it had been put under con- tract in view of the guarantee, before the repeal of the law TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 219 of 1849; — a privilege which the Prescott and Ottawa as well as other companies might have obtained, had they added twenty-five miles or more in any direction to the length of their line (so as to make up the seventy-five miles required to secure them the guarantee), and con- tracted for the whole. When the advance to the Grand Trunk was fixed at £3,000 sterling per mile, the railway commissioners es- tablished a similar limit for the Northern, or a total of £275,000 sterling, which was more than that company then hoped for from the province. Gn the twenty-fijst of June, 1854, after two-thirds of the line had been in operation eight months, the engineer of the company reported that the remaining third was rapidly approaching completion, grading and bridging finished, — ties distributed and iron delivered, and one-hslf of the track laid ; — that he expected to open the whole length in August, when the harbor at Collingwood would be sufficiently advanced to be used ; and showed the expenditure, including road, harbor, station and depot services and equipments, to be £698,810 5«. 0^. sterling. ' He also rendered an account as follows : ProTincial guarantee, £276,000 stg.=«currency at 9^ per cent. £334,683 6 8 Received bj company, to date 284,166 13 4 Balance currency £60,41613 4 In the same month, the railway commissioners reported that the total amount to complete the works, including the rolling stock, was £716,530, of which the sum of £682,961 5*. Od, had been expended, and recommended the advance of this balance, subject to the report of one of their own body, who was an engineer. This report was made on the twenty-seventh of September following, and it not only confirmed the advance, but declared that the road — which was so nearly completed, and which had been esti- mated by the boara of which he was a member, three months before, at £716,530— would now cost £1,156,592 7». 7d. (or $4,626,369.52), the moiety of which, or full amount of 4'^. w^^ Mk I! \i\ 1 i;:'!t ; M ' :f-.i ^ N-::.: 220 TRAVEL AND TBAN8P0BTATI0N. guarantee by the provisions of the act, will be £578,296 3*. 9d., of which the company has received (including the sum above recommended) £334,583 4«. 3d. leaving to be ultimately provided by the province the sum of £243,712, 17«. Id. The company was paid the whole of this extra amount, £200,000 sterling, in debentures (over $1,000,000), within four months after this report was made. It is not often that a railway, or any public work, proves to have cost less than was estimated for it, seven years before, but the Northern is an honorable exception to the rule. The fiscal returns published by the inspector of railways, which are the company's own statements, show that the cost of this road and its equipments, up to the thirty-first of De- cember, 1860, instead of $4,626,369.52, was $3,890,778.68, or $735,590.84 less. The company has received $2,311,666.67 One-half the cost as returned by them is 1,945,389.34 So it would appear they were overpaid $366,277.33 Ottawa, Prescott, Brockville, Cobourg, Peterboro', Port Hope, Niagara, Brantford, St. Catherine's, Paris, London, Barrie, Guelph, Stratford, Goderich, and the counties and townships adjoining them, which have not displayed much alacrity in repaying the municipal loan fund, will doubtless claim that the railways which they have interested them- selves in should receive some of that consideration which has been so liberally bestowed on the Northern. The guarantee law of 1849 was very unguarded; so much so that contractors, by tendering at double the value, could make the half contributed by the province pay the whole cash outlay, and could thus afibrd to take payment in stock and bonds : this has been the result in the case of the Northern Railway. It became necessary, therefore, as we have seen, to restrict it to the main trunk line, and to provide not only for the approval of all contracts by the government, but that the estimates of work done and to TBAVEL Ain> TBANSFOBTATION. 221 be done should be submitted to it — well-meant but ineffeo* tual provisos, as we have also seen. So, also, the manner in which the municipalities voted away their bonds, forced, after some three years' experience, a limitation of the amount for which the province would act as a broker. Some of the wealthier counties, careful of their credit, de- clined to pay eight per cent, for money, and thus derived no benefit from the municipal loan fund (if benefit it can be considered), while they contribute through the consoli- dated fund to pay its losses. During the Grand Trunk era of construction, from 1853 to 1859, the first Canadian age of iron,and of brass — the utmost activity was displayed in running into debt. The great success which attended the early years of the Great "Western assisted every other Canadian road, and was doubtless the main instrument in preventing the Grand Trunk from being prematurely abandoned. Whatever loss of prestige or character the province may suffer from the almost universal failure of her railways, as investments, it is clear that in a material sense she has been benefited immensely by the early luck of the Great "Western, and by the English infatuation about Grand Trunk; for without these the means for the construction of many miles now in use would not have been raised. The construction of the other lines simultaneously with Grand Trunk was equally opportune, because there would have been little prospect of getting them done after the bankruptcy of that road. RAILWAY MORALITY. So much recklessness was displayed, in sanctioning by- Taws, and in exchanging what were really provincial for mu- nicipal debentures, as to give color to the charge that con- tractors were not the only ones personally interested in these issues. The years 1852 to 1857 will ever be remem- bered as those of financial plenty, and the saturnalia of nearly all classes connected with railways. Before the invasion of the province at the east by a deputation from it: W' i (• km ;l,1 l! Ill ■■•■^- t , Mil 222 TRAVEL AWD TRANSrORTATIOW. the moat experienced railway men of Ennjland, bringing with them all the knowledge and applian of that con- servative country, it had been penetrated > • the west by some contractors from the United States, bred in that school of politics and public works which brought New York to a dead stand and Pennsylvania to the goal of repudia- tion. These " practical men" had built State canals with senators and even governors as silent partners, and were versed in all the resources peculiar to a democratic com- munity. The convergence of these two systems on the poor but virgin soil of Canada, brought about an education of the people and their representatives more rapid than the most sanguine among them could have hoped for. One bold operator organized a system which virtually made him ruler of the province for several years. In person or by agents he kept " open house," where the choicest brands of champagne and cigars were free to all the peoples' rep- resentatives, from the town councillor to the cabinet minister ; and it was the boast of one of these agents that when the speaker's bell rang for a division, more M. P. P.s were to be found in his apartments than in the library or any other single resort ! By extensive operations ho held the prosperity of so many places, as well as the success of so many schemes and individuals in his grasp, that he ex- ercised a quasi legitimate influence over many who could not be directly seduced ; or made friends of those he could not otherwise approach, by liberal purchases of their prop- erty, and thus, insensibly to them, involved their interests with his own. So he ruled boards of directors — suggest- ing, as the officers who should supervise his work, creatures of his own — and thus the companies found themselves, on settlement-day, committed by the acts of their own ser- vants. Companies about to build a railway, and depend- ing on the municipal loan fund, were led to believe that, if he were the contractor, there would be no difficulty in obtaining the government sanction of the by-laws to any extent, and therefore the exchange of bonds ; or, if their TBAVEL AND TBANSrORTATION. 228 charter were opposed, the great contractor only could set it all right. A few anecdotes will illustrate the impar- tiality of his levies. An English contractor was, without competition, about to pounce quietly upon the contract for the Toronto and Hamilton Railway, when his American "brother" de- manded and received a royalty of £10,000 sterling, before he would allow a corporation to be so imposed upon : he was, however, subsequently obliged to disgorge this black mail, when seeking the co-operation of the same contractor in England for the celebrated but abortive Southern Rail- way scheme. The English contractors for Grand Trunk also were compelled, before they could risk the ordeal of the legislature, to promise the ever-present and never-to- be-avoided American one-third interest in their contract. This, considering the kind of payments and their prospec- tive losses, the latter took the earliest opportunity to com- promise for the consideration of £12,000 sterling. The Toronto Northern road was let to a company of American contractors at a price per mile, payment being made chiefly in the company's stock and bonds, and the government guarantee debentures. It was necessary, in order to secure any portion of this latter item, that one- half of the work upon seventy-five miles should first be completed by the contractors. Having exhausted their means in reaching, as they hoped, this position, the con- tractors, through the company, called on the government for the advance ; but, upon an inspection by the government engineer, the road was found to have been so " scamped," under the American engineer (who subsequently openly became a partner with the contractors), that the commis- sioner of public works refused to recommend the issue of the provincial bonds. Here was a fix ! But the con- tractors sent for their American brother, who, for a bro- kerage of $100,000 of the first mortgage bonds of the company, undertook to obtain the guarantee. He went to his colleague in the government; the commissioner of ff ,fM '"■ \ ■ if MM 3 li*^*!'- I'i' rr i llV , S 224 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. public works was slmntod out of office on a suddenly raised issue (which immediately thereafter waa dropped), and just one week afterward the guarantee bonds were forthcoming. In connection with this incident, it is wor- thy of remark, that a member of the government shortly afterward paid away nearly £10,000 of the first mortgage bonds of the same company in the purchase of real estate. The Great Western Railway, finding their traffic on the first opening of the road to exceed their expectations, Bought, among other legislation, the power to lay a double track from Hamilton to London, and on applying to the gov- ernment to promote their bill — instead of meeting with that encouragement which the proposal to expend so much addi- tional English capital led them to expect — they were grave- ly assured that the government was powerless to give them their bill, in consequence of the influence of the enter- prising Pennsylvanian in the house. The contractor's price for permitting the bill to pass was — the contract for the work to be done ; and to this the company, seeing no escape, consented conditionally ; that is, if the work were undertaken during the ensuing five years. Fortunately for them, before a commencement could be made, the double track was found to be unnecessary. Among other favors obtained by the legislation thus bartered for, was the power to disregard that provision of the railway act which requires trains to stop before crossing the draw- bridge over the Desjardin's Canal. In less than two years thereafter, a train which did not stop plunged through this very bridge, and among the first recovered of the sixty victims to that " accident," was the dead body of the great contractor himself. Lest it should be considered that there is any thing pe- culiar to Canada in these transactions, it may be mentioned that about the same period a Congressman was convicted at Washington of voting for a " consideration," and was expelled from the House of Representatives. This man was declared to be the spokesman of a band, irreverently TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 226 Btyled " the forty thieves," by whom ho was authorized to negotiate for their votes with the higlicnt bidder. Tlio canal frauds of New York and Pennsylvania are matters of history. Venality and corruption in higli places, mainly engendered in the contracts and expenditure for public works, have done, perhaps, as much as slavery, and that territorial covetousness wUch amounted to idolatry in the Union, to bring down the vengeance of Heaven upon our unhappy neighboi's. Nor is this, what may be called, railway morality peculiar to this side of the Atlantic. The following extracts from Smiles' Life of George Ste- phenson reveal a similar history in English railways : — " Folly and knavery were, for a time, completely in the ascendant. The sharpers of society were let loose, and jobbers and schemers became more and m(.)re plentiful. They threw out railway schemes as mere lures to catch the unwary. They fed the mania with a constant succession of new projects. The railway papers became loaded with their advertisements. The post-office was scarcely able to distribute the multitude of prospectuses and circulai's which they issued. For a time their popularity was im- mense. They rose like froth into the upper height of society, and the flunky Fitz Plushe, by virtue of his sup- posed wealth, sat among peers and was idolized. Then was the harvest-time for scheming lawyers, parliamentary agents, engineers, surveyors, and traffic-takers, who were alike ready to take up any railway scheme, however des- perate, and to prove any amount of traffic even where none existed. The traffic in the credulity of their dupes was, however, the great fact that mainly concerned them, and of the profitable character of which there could be no doubt. Many of them saw well enough the crash that was coming, and diligently made use of the raadn««s while it served their turn. " The projectors of new lines even came to boast of their parliamentary strength, and of the number of votes which they could command in the * House.' ■ :> f 1 If ' i^' .. . ., Ii# J. 226 TBAVEL Am) TEAlfBPOKTATION. " Amongst the many ill effects of the mania, one of the worst was that it introduced a low tone of morality into railway transactions. Those who had suddenly gained large sums of money \v^ithout labor, and also without honor, were too ready to enter upon courses of the wildest extravagance ; and a false style of living shortly arose, the poisonous influence of which extended through all classes. Men began to look upon railways as instruments to job with ; and they soon became as overrun with job- bers as London charities. Persons, sometimes possessing information respecting railways, but more frequently pos- sessing none, got upon boards for the purpose of promoting their individual objects, often in a very unscrupulous man- ner ; landowners, to promote branch lines through their property ; speculators In shares, to trade upon the exclusive information which they obtained j whilst some directors were appointed through the influence mainly of solicitors, contractors, or engineers, who used them as tools to serve their own ends. In this way the unfortunate proprietors were, in many cases, betrayed, and their property was shamefully squander^, to the farther discredit of the rail- way system. " Among the characters brought prominently into notice by the mania was the railway navvy. The navvy was now a great man. He had grown rich, was a landowner, a railway shareholder, sometimes even a member of Par- liament ; but he was a navvy still. The navvy contractor was greatly given to ' scamping.' He was up to all sorts of disreputable tricks of the trade ; but he was greatest of all, perhaps, in the ' scamping' of ballast. The conse- quences were such as might have been anticipated. More bad and dishonest work was executed on the railways constructed in any single year subsequent to the mania, than was found on all the Stephenson lines during the preceding twenty years. " The navvy's great object was to execute the work so that it should pass muster and be well paid for. The con- TRAVEL AND TRANSPOBTATTOH. 227 tractor in such cases was generally a large capitalist ; a man looked up +o even by the chief engineer himself. But the worst feature of this system was, that the principal engineer himself was occasionally interested as a partner, and shared in the profits of the contract. In passing the contractor's work he was virtually passing his own ; and in certifying the monthly pay-bills, he was a pariy to pay- ing himself. What security was there, under such a syf.cem, for either honest work or honest accounts? The conse- quence was, that a great deal of slop-work was thus execu- ted, the results of which, to some extent, have already appeared in the falling in of tunnels, and the premature decay and Tailure of viadacts and bridges." Canadians, indeed, have had cause to blush at the spec- tacle of men filling the highest offices in their province, with a seat at the council-board of their sovereign, accept- ing fees and favors from contract^i^ and officials of a rail- way company (between whom and them there should have been a gulf as wide as that which separates the judges of assize from the suitors before them), and laying the honor of their country in the dust, often at the feet of boorish and uneducated men, whose only recommenda- tions ^ivere — the material one of ill-gotten wealth, and the immoral one of unscrupulousness in the use of it. May they never again see a member of their government wend- ing his way to the wharf, after a matinee of champagne, supported by contractors and their suite, and departing amid the tipsy cheers of his associates ; — or have to con\- plain that ministers of the crown ?.gain have made men seeking favors from it their most intimate companions, their hosts and guests, their patrons and their prot6gSs. The evil effects of the past ascendency of railway influence is visible in the disregard paid by many of the companies to the law of the land. Every company chartered after the passi'ig of the Railway Act of 30th August, 1851, is re- quired to show a printed tariff in every passenger-car, and 16 }^'.^ I 4'." ' I; .' '! 'F? Mi 223 TBATSL AND TBANSPOBTATZOH. to submit all by-laws changing this tariff for the approyal of the governor in council, and to publish the by-law and the order in council approving the same at least twice in the Canada Gktzette before putting the same into operation ; also to file in the r^istry office of each county traversed by the railway, a map and profile of the portion within that county ; and one of the whole railway, in the office of the commissioner of public works; and to submit annually to the legislature classi^ed statements of the passengers and goods transported by them. These pro- visions should either be enforced or expunged from the Statute-Book ; for nothing csa be more demoralizing in its example than long-continued disobedience by such conspicuous law-breakers. An unnecessary tenderness has also been displayed toward companies which are exempt by the date of their charter from the wholesome provisions of the Railway Act. Almost all the early charters contain a clause declaring that subsequent enactments by the legislature in the public interest shall not be considered a breach of the privileges granted ; and therefore those railways which, like the Great Western, do not exhibit notice-boards at level crossings, and do not remove timber which may fall across the track, should be required to do so a'i much as those chartered a few years later. The number of level crossings (at every one of which, sooner or later, loss i)f life may be counted on) has been reduced on the Great Western by the fact, that the contractors were paid in proportion to the work done, and not by the mile, and because frequent crossings of this description would in- crease the danger to the traivM^ with the high speed aimed at in the location of that work. On other roads, where the contractor's intOTest was supreme, or where the com- panies were very poor, these crossings are more numerous, as being the least ezpensive. T&ATBL Mm TBUSrSFOBTATIOir* 229 THE GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY. This important road, second to the Grand Trunk only in its length, was first chartered sixteen years before it was commenced. The fine agricultural district between London ftnd "Woodstock is nearly equidistant from the three lakes, Huron, Erie, and Ontario ; and as produce afloat on the latter is most valuable, being nearer its mar- ket, the original road of 1834 was one commencing at London and terminating on Burlington JBay ; though pow- er was also obtained to extend westward to the navigable waters of the Thames and to Lake Huron. Before the work was commenced, however, in 1850, the New York rittilways had reached the Niagara frontier, and the Michi- gan Central road connected Detroit with Chicago. The Great Western thereupon changed its character from that of a Canadian local and portage railway only, debouching on Lake Ontario (which was but a reproduction in iron of Govertior Simeioe's road of the last century), to that also of an important section of the main line le^ng from Boston and Albany to Chicago, the shortest route for which is through the peninsula of Western Canada. The eastern terminus was therefore extended to Niagara, where a magnificent suspension brid^, worthy of the site, united it to the New York ro&ds ; and the western one was di- verted from Lake Huron to Detroit, where a short ferry maintains uninterrupted communication throughout the year. The estimate was made in 1847, by an American en- gineeJ*, and was (exclusive of the Gait branch) only $4,954,080, which, however, did not include the important items of right of way and land damt^es or rolling stock. The following exhibit shows the expenditure of the com- pany, and how it is made up, with the exces^i in the cost of the main line over the original estimate of 1847 : v?- -A U .11 ^P7 y : I M 230 TBAYEL AKD TRANSFOBTATION. Cost of Samia Branch 467,636 2 2 " Gait and Guelph line 76,183 7 5 " Hamilton and Toronto line 394,466 10 3 " Steamboats Detroit Ferry 39,332 12 10 *' " Canada and America 48,820 5 6 Detroit and Milwaukee Loan 250,000 Total Expenditures in sterling £4,927,953 17 10 Cost of main line and Gait Branch (not separated) £3,661,524 19 7 Stuart's estimate, 1847 £990,816 Cost of Gait Branch (estimated) 60,000 " Right of way " 188,371 " Rolling stock " 645,774 1,884,961 Excess of ezp. on main line over original estimate £1,766,563 19 1 This increased cost of track and buildings only, on the main line amounting to nearly $9,000,000, makes this part of the work cost nearly three times the original estimate, and is due to several causes : Ist. It appears that millions of dollars were expended on these items after the line was opened for traffic. Until February, 1862, the expenditure was confined to the Cen- tral Divisi'^n, between London and Hamilton (the original Great Western of 1834), and it was only then the com- pany felt itself in a position to strike out for the larger scheme of the through line. Notwithstanding this tardy action, it was expected that the whole line would be open- ed in August, 1853. In November, 1852, there was a change of engineers, when it was found that the estimates of the previous June would be exceeded by £621,295 cur- rency, and the ne^ engineer protested against any attempt to open, in ,1853, a line on which not a mile of track had been laid before the month of May in that year. Not- withstanding this opinion, so great was the pressure to bring about an opening at the earliest moment, that large sums were offered the contractors if they succeeded in passing a train by November 1st, 1853. One. of the con- tractors, by laying the track in unfinished cuttings, at ele- vations varying from five to twelve feet above the perma- ills »■■>'-,; TRAVEL AND TEANSPORTATTON. 231 nent grade, succeeded in passing a train on the 10th of November, for which performance he received a bonus of $60,000. The whole line was opened in January, 1854, but on the 1st of August of that year the engineer showed work yet to be done to the amount of $1,436,435. Of course the unfinished cuttings had to be lowered between the transits of trains ; the ballasting was chiefly done un- der a similar disadvantage, and thus much of the work cost many times more than it could have been done for in the ordinary way. In this course the company exceeded the usual practice of American roads, where, for want of capital, the object is to expend only so much as is neces- sary to open a line, in order that the company may cease paying interest out of capital — nave the means of paying the interest on further loans, and get these loans on better terms. It does not appear that the pressure for such pre- mature opening arose from great difficulty in raising the amount required to cover the deficiency of original esti- mates, or that the earnings of the road were needed to meet the interest account. The company, which had then only received £20^,000 sterling from the province, could have claimed millions of dollars as a six per cent, loan on account of the guarantee. 2d. The traveller, in riding over a perishable wooden bridge, nearly a quarter of a mile long and fifty feet high, which traverses an inlet near the shore of Ontario, sees the termination of it only a few rods from the line, where a better and cheaper crossing could have been obtained, and naturally wonders why the road was not placed there. At the western end he remarks that the track for miles runs in the water, with dry land everywhere parallel to the line and but a few yards from it, and is again nonplussed. The engineer who located the road had a weakness for straight lines ; and from the manner in which the work was driven, it is probable that sufficient time was not given to amend the location of these long straight lines. Rather than sacri- fice them, therefore, if a wide gulf or miles of water inter- #/ »■»■': li m .^ Hi UiHr ,; ¥ 282 TRAVEL AlfTD TBAVSTOQTATIOV. yened, it was plunged into ; cr if a house stood in the line it must be removed, and the owner indemnified, caAte que coitte. Of course, the preliminary surveys in 1847 did not provide for such freaks of the location one, which was made some years afterward, and thus increased cost rolled up. An enormous amount has been expended in the location through Hamilton, and the 500 feet ascent westward from Lake Ontario (which is continuous for eleven miles), where the road first worked itself, in the course of years, into a quiet bed through many fathoms of mud and ooze ; then clings to the face of cliffs, or the rapid slopes formed by the shedding of their exposed faces ; and, lastly, at the summit encounters a quicksand, at the bottom of de^ and extensive cuttings. This location, which must have greatly increased the cost, was rather in the interest of the contractors than of the shareholders, and does not appear to have been contemplated in the original estimate of 1847. The contracts, some of which had been entered into four years before work was commenced, were item ones, and if at all profitable, this would be in proportion to the amount of work done. There is much reason to believe that alter- ations and additions to the plans, and also extra works, were ordered without the sanction or knowledge of the directors, more for the chief contractor's benefit than for that of the work ; and to such an extent was this carried, that this road was styled his '^ milch cow," to be drawn upon at will. In England capitalists object to item contracts because, under these, the final cost is not fixed ; and, therefore, in prepaying the Grand Trunk for that market, a price per mile was agreed upon ; which, as we have seen, did not save that c(Hnpany from the necessity of adding many millions of dollars to its capital. The diffeiience between an item contract and a per mile one, as usually eariied out on this side of the water, is this. In the former there is always the temptation, by increasing the quantity and altering the quality of the work, to make a first-olass road : TRAVEL AND TBANSPOBTATtOlT. 233 in the latter it is just the reverse ; every thing which is not in the bond (and sometimes much that is) is omitted. As to the two systems, it is but Scylla or Charybdis to a rail- way company, in the hands of dishonest men ; and, like forms of government, " Whatever is boat administered is best." The original estimate was, no doubt, most insufficient in many respects — but there is very little reason to doubt that the greater part of the excess of £1,766,564 sterling, is due to the causes we have mentioned. This company was induced, by the example of Ameri- can lines terminating on Lake Erie, to embark in the steamboat business; a disastrous experiiient, as it has proved even on Lake Erie, where its chances were always best. Before so many through railway lines were estab- lished between the East and the West, passenger-steamers could be patronized ; but the division of the business, and the dread of '^a-sickness, no longer make it practicable to sustain such expensive boats as those floating-palaces, once the pride of the lakes. A much more serious nn- dertaking into which the company has been led, was the subsidizing of the Detroit and Milwaukee railway. Whether this was a legitimate attempt to protect itself from the encroachments of the Grand Trunk, and to be able to avoid its proffered embraces, or whether (as is too often the case) the company was forced into it by con- trolling spirits, who had speculated in the securities of the subsidized road, and used their temporary power to give value to their major interest at the expense of a minor one, cannot yet be determined. Railway companies will always be exposed to such hazards, so long as their di- rectors are permitted to hold a greater interest in any other company. The Great Western is one of the best equipped and best managed railways on this continent, and traversing a rich a^d populous district, to which it offers a choice of market*. 1 'ij h •■ IjHH!' m (f ] t||| t\ '- nl ^M ^^^^^^^ ' ' -whi.'h it appears, had escaped the notice of many railway couiijanies. This virtually gave US the New York system of a General Eailroad Law, un- der which any company may make a railway anywhere, by complying with certain conditions. This democratic measure is the iorror of all orthodox existing companies ; but while, in New York, the impossibility of getting cap- italists to invest in competing lines has been ample pro- tection, conservative legislation in Canada has entirely failed to produce the same result. The people of New York passed their General Railroad Law not only as a measure of justice to all districts, and a protection against monopolies, but chiefly in order to extinguish that corrupt trading in charters which has obtained in Canada, and which induced the legislature to repeal our General Rail- road Law, immediately after the Buffalo and Brantford Company had been organized under it^ — saving those rights, of course. The mischief having been done in 1851, the Brantford Company, in 1852, was allowed to produce its line to Goderich, on Lake Huron. This road originated in a desire, on the part of the popu- lous city of Buffalo, to render tributary to herself the rich peninsula of Canada West ; and also to divert the stream of eastern and western travel and freight away from the ■suspension-bridge route to her own hotels and stations. TRAVEL AND TEAN8P0ETATI0N. 235 If the Great Western had not committed tho mistake of giving Brantford the go-by, it is extremely doubtful whether Buffalo could have organized a Canadian interest strong enough to have carried out this measure. Hiis road, which has an admirable t ack, and is splendidly equipped in stations and rolling stock, deserves a better traffic. Virtually connecting Lake Huron with Lake Erie, it can have, on this route, no through traffic — ^because this could only be supplied during the season of navigation, when there is slack water of unlimited capacity between its termini, with which it is impossible it can compete. Its local traffic, also, may be limited to that between way sta- tions, since its principal terminus is in a foreign cr'nntry, and liable to exclusion from Canadian traffic b ir '»r- national trade regulations and currency distinctions. \.\q great want of this road is a terminus on Lake Ontario, in which case it would become available for the grain traffic from Chicago and Milwaukee, or Cleveland and xoledo, to Oswego, Ogdensburgh, New York, or Mont al. Now that the Grand Trunk is hars du combat, and better coun- sels prevail, the railways of the wesfem peninsula will see that their great aim should be to build up the shipping interest on Lake Ontario. This lake is open by water communication both to New York and Montreal, and by the aid of water communication alone can our railways hope to deliver that back freight at their termini on Lakes Erie and Huron, which will induce vessels to bring grain to them instead of taking it on to Buffalo, where return cargoes always await them. This railway has a value in its power of mischief, for it furnishes, in connection with the Grand Trunk, via Stratford and Sarnia, an opposition to the Great Western ; and as it has at present no legitimate orbit, it may become merged in one of these larger bodies. The Grand Trunk, which has so long unsuccessfully wooed the Great Western, might hope to have in this an engine of coercion ; while the latter may take it up as a means of self-defence, or to 236 TRAVEL iND TBANBFOBTATION. } > I prevent the Trunk from establishing" one leg on the Ni- agara frontier. It is, perhaps, superfluous to say, the Brantford road could be happy with either ; but the legis- lature has fortunately been aroused to the danger of these amalgamations, and it is to be hoped wc have seen the end of them. From Hamilton to Quebec, railway monopoly is shorn of its powei by the water route, but a general amalgamation on the western peninsula would place the people there under a tyranny which could not and would not be endured. GRAIN PORTAGE RAILWAYS. The Niagara peninsula separates the open stretch of in- land navigation afforded by Lakes Erie, Huron, and Mi- chigan, from Lake Ontario (which is 330 feet lower), by a distance of only thirty to forty miles. Although the "Welland canal connects these waters by a fixed scale of navigation, it is found that the longer voyage on the upper lakes is most profitable when with a size of vessel too large for this canal ; and that the saving in freight on grain from Chicago to this peninsula, in the larger vessel, is more than sufficient to cover the cost of elevating it by steam power and machinery, transporting it across by rail, and discharging it into the vessel on Lake Ontario. Time is saved, so that the wheat reaches the seaboard before the drafts by which it was purchased mature ; the grain is im- proved and prevented from heating by the aeration it re- ceives in passing through the elevators ; and, most import- ant of all, every craft afloat on and above Lake Erie is availa- ble to carry grain destined for Lake Ontario, instead of the limited number adapted to the locks of the Welland Canal. The Welland Railway, which runs parallel with the Wel- land Canal, and thus takes advantage of its harbors, has demonstrated the importance of this traffic, havmg trans- ferred upwards of eleven millions of bushels of grain from the upper to the lower lake since its opening in June, 1859. Instead of being a competitor with the canal, it has TBAYXL AND TRANSPOBTATTOIT. 237 proved an auxiliary to it, as a lighter to grain veseels too deeply laden to pass the canal. Over half a million of bushels were thus " lightered" from one end of the canal to the other in 1862 ; the total quantity transferred from Lake Erie to Ontario in this year, was 4,111,640 bushels. This work, originally projected to connect a steamboat route between Port Dalhousie and Toronto with Thorold and the Great Western Railway, unites the two railways which skirt the opposite shores of the peninsula, and the numerous villages created by the water power of the canal, and thus has a self-sustaining local traffic as well as its through business. It has been successfully carried to com- pletion by the same mind and will which produced the Welland Canal, and amid the same general predictions of failure. Following this lead, the Erie and Ontario road, which is now valueless, is to be extended to Lake Erie, and become a grain portage railway, besides forming part of the line between Buffalo and Toronto. The Buffalo and Lake Huron Company also pro- pose to acquire the half-completed Hamilton and Port Dover Railway, between their line and Burlington Bay. If a connection is made with Lake Erie at Dunville or Port Maitland, another grain portage railway is established for Lake Erie, in addition to their route from Lake Huron. Air three of these roads will avoid the expense of harbor protection works, as all have the advantage of terminating in the best natural or artificial harbors to be found on these lakes. The difficulty which all, however, have to contend against, is the securing of a regular supply of tonnage working in connection with them, without which they are helpless, especially while the supply of routes to the sea- board exceeds the demand for them. Iron, from its clean- liness and greater carrying capacity in proportion to beam and draught, would make the best grain craft, but there is not capital here to supply them. These, together with the larger portage roads, offer an opportunity for a legitimate and extensive increase of If, I i t'i*. ■'^■W 238 TKATEL AND TRAMBPOBTATION. British commercial tonnage on the'lakes, an object of vital importance in the defence of the province on its weakest oide ; and in tliis view, instead of mere private speculations, they become works of national importance. THE INTER-COLONIAL RAILWAY. The proposal to unite the British North American Col- onies by a railway was the suggestion of Lord Durham, the imperial commissioner sent out in 1838, to inquire into the Canadian Rebellion.* The initiative was taken by a proposition from Nova Scotia to have a survey made, at the joint expense of the three provinces ; and this was undertaken under imperial direction, by Major Robinson and Captain Henderson, of the Royal Engineers, in 1846, and completed in 1848. In 1849, the colonies passed acts, guaranteeing to acquire the right of way through private property for this railway, and granting ten miles in width on either side of the road, wherever it traversed the pub- lic domain. They also pledged themselves to contribute £20,000 sterling each, per annum, toward making up any deficiencies of revenue. It was proposed to raise the capital on the security of a duty of seven shillings and six- pence per load (fifty cubic feet) to be levied on timber, the produce of the British North American colonies, then enjoying a protection in Great Britain. In May, 1850, Sir John Harvey, Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia, made this proposition to Earl Grey, the colonial secretary, who promptly replied that her majesty's government were " not prepared to submit to Parliament any measure for raising the funds necessary for the construction" of this railway. In July, 1850, a convention was held at Portland, Maine, for the purpose of pushing the American railway system eastward, through Maine, to Halifax, as the ultimate port of debarcation of mails and passengers for Europe. Nova Scotia, desirous of making her portion of this railway, like her electric telegraph — a public * In a dispatch which arrived after the High Cotnr. had loft the province. Lord Glenelg had suggested an inter-colonial road, and Lord Durham, instead of this, proposed the railway. TRAVEL AJSm TBAMSPOBTATION. 239 work — onco more appealed (in August, 1850) to Earl Grey, to aid her \\'ith the imperial guarantee or indor- Batiun, and oficrcd to assume the wliolo burden of its cost. This application, with reference to a section of only provincial and not imperial importance, received no encouragement; whereupon the persevering little prov- ince, determining to make a final effort, dispatched a delegate, who arrived in England in November, 1850, and immediately opened his batteries on the colonial office, with such effect, that on the 10th of March, 1851, Earl Grey surrendered ; agreeing to guarantee the interest on the eoet of the Nova Scotia Trunk line, but only on con- dition that the other colonies, Canada and New Bruns- wick, should place themselves in the same position. Of course the line was to go to Quebec or Montreal, in- stead of Portland. It was stipulated that the line should pass wholly through British territory, and should be ap- proved of by the imperial government ; but it was not required that it should necessarily be the one recom- mended by Major Kobinson and Captain Henderson. In announcing this decision to the delegate, the under secretary wrote, that " Her Majesty's Government would by no means object to its forming part of the plan which may be determined on, that it should include a provision for establishing a communication between the projected railway and the railways of the United States." The delegate read this to mean, that the guarantee would be extended to two lines through New Brunswick, the one to Quebec, and the other to Portland ; thus connecting the maritime colonies both with Canada and the United States. On March 14th, 1851, dispatches were sent to all the governments, suggesting a conference at Toronto. New Brunswick, which had, in mean time, become ex- cited 01 the question of the railway to Portland, passed resolutions, before her legislature adjourned, rejecting any propositioL based on the conditions laid down by Earl Grey ; evidently not feeling certain that the interpretation hJ! •v'f 'r il -■^v- I '■ '. • I'i r'» ^ 340 TBAVEti Airb ttlANSPOETATIOW. of the Nova Scotian delegate was to be relied upon. Delegates, however, from Nova Scotia and New Bruns- wick came to Toronto, in June, 1851, according to the suggestion of Earl Grey, when it was agreed that a line from Halifax to Quebec should be undertaken on joint- account. Crown lands on each side of it were to be con- ceded for the benefit of the road ; the receipts to be com- mon property until payment of cost and interest ; after which each province should own the portion within her own territory. The legislature of Canada, then in ses- sion, at once adopted this agreement. The government of New Brunswick favorably received it, but in conse- quence of a change of ministry, no legislative action was then had. At the very time, however, when Nova Scotia was rejoicing over the acceptance, by her legislature, of the imperial offer, a dippatch was on its way out, which upset all that had been done. On the 27th of November, Earl Grey called the attention of the lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia to an error into which he had fallen, in his speech when opening the extra session, by assuming that the imperial government intended to guarantee the amount necessary to construct the Portland line through New Bnmswick, as well as that leading to Quebec. Earl Grey explained, that the passage which had led Nova Scotia's delegate astray, only meant that the imperial government would sanction, but not aid, the Southem, or European and North American lines, through New Brunswick — which, he was quite aware, was preferred by that province to the Northern, or Quebec and Halifax line. The great preponderance of population, wealth, and po- litical influence in New Brunswick, lies upon the Bay of Fundy and the river St. John, while Major Robinson's line ran along the Gulf of St. Lawrence. For this reason, New Brunswick would not contribute to the Halifax and Qnebec line, imless she in turn was aided to make the line she preferred ; and she saw clewly that the military con- ITKAYEI. Km> TRAN8P0BTATI0N. 241 Biderations, set forth in Mr. Hawe's letter of the 10th of March, 1851, would keep the line either on the eaetem coast or in the wilderness between it and St. John. Canada, on receiving the interpretation of the original dispatch, and knowing that New Brunswick would now abandon the Quebec line, sent off three of her ministers to Fredericton to console her distressed sister, and at the same time to feel her pulse. As Earl Grey had not insisted on Major Robinson's eastern-shore line, although reserving the right of approval of the route. New Brunswick assented to " try on" a Halifax and Quebec line which should fol- low the Southern or European and North American one 2i far as .he city of St. John, and then ascend the valley of that I'iver to Lake Temiscouata. Re-enforced by a dele- gate from the New ^^runswick cabinet, the Canadians journeyed on to Halifa.., where they found a new difficulty. Nova Scotia had no idea of standing a third of the cost, if the road should first deboitche on the Atlantic Ocean at St. John, instead of at its rival, Halifax. Canada, acting as mediator and umpire, finally proposed that as New Brunswick would decidedly gain by the adoption of the southern instead of the northern route, — getting her con- nection with Quebec and Portland where she wanted it, and with 100 miles less of her chosen railway to make at her own cost, — she should assume five-twelfths and Nova Scotia one-fourth, Canada taking her old proportion of one third. At this stage the New Brunswick delegate put the question to Vis Canadian fellow-travellers, whether a pro- posal from English coLtiactors to construct both roads, on receiving £90,000 to £100,000 per annum for twenty yean? from the colonies, besides a grant of 3,000,000 to 5,000,000 acres of land, would be entertained ? The answer vas, " not for a moment ;" whereupon New Brunswick, with dignified resignation, agreed to the new subdivision on Jan. 31, 1852. On Feb. 5, one of the Canadian delegates wrote from Halifax to Earl Grey, detailing the scheme as amended, and announcing that delegates from the three provinces m h '■■'■■ ■ *c It?,. *■ ■ ' m N'T: 242 TBAVSL AND TBAK8F0BTATI01T. would wait on him in London. To this, on Feb. 20, Earl Grey replied, declining to commit himself to the new route without more specific information, but expressing solicitude for a successful issue, and approving of the intended dele- gation to London. The Canadian delegate proceeded to London in advance of his colleagues, where he found Earl Grey out of office, and Sir John Packington as his suc- cessor. Sir John, on May 20, 1852, notified him that as all previous negotiations had been based on Major Robin- son's line, or something near it, the route by the valley of the St. John was out of the question ; and as the delegates were autb.orized to treat only for the latter, he must ter- minate the question by declining, &c. The provinces were thus left to carry out their own railways in their own way ; they had, however, gained by the discussion. The mere proposal on the part of the British government to indorse their bonds, raised these in a market where they were not known ; and before the adverse decision had been announced it had been anticipated, and Canada had thrown herself into the open arras of Messrs. Jackson, Peto, Bras- sey, and Betts, the great railway contractors. Viewing the question as an imperial as well as an inter- colonial one, it is evident that the first blunder committed by the colonies was in agreeing to pay tha whole expenses of a railway survey which was to be made solely under imperial and military control They thereby, at the out- set, assented to the position that the imperial government had no substantial interest in the question, and at the same time they failed to ascertain the faciiititjs for other routes, if such exist, than those recommended. "Without 'rnpugn- ing the ability of the royal engineers who condu>^ted tho exploration, there is little doubt that a more satiefactory surviiy could have been made by civil engineers, accustomed to similar surveys in the forests of this continent ; and the want of some reliable knowledge of the practicability of other lines besides that recommended by Major llobinson, has been a stumbling-block in the vay of every subsetiuent TSAVEL AND TBANSPOBTATIOir. ^ movement down to the present honr. It must also be admitted that the mother conntry drove a hard bargain with her offspring. Her own colonial secretary, Lord Glenelg, suggested the communication to her own high commissioner, Lord Durham, not as a military road solely, but as a political measure. When the colonies took up the idea, the mother country steadily refused all aid ex- cept that which, as had been proved to her in the case of Canada, was but nominal; while she exacted for this nominal aid sacrifices from the colonies which were rea^ and important. She would not build the road, nor aid in building it, because it would not pay ; and she would not permit the colonies to build it where they believed it would pay, at least, its working expeniies. She had already guaranteed a loan for the cost of the canals of Canada, which wore constructed wholly on commercial principles, and with the route of which she did not interfere, though military considerations were Wholly disregarded in the case of the Beanhamois Canal. She acknowledged an imperial interest to which she attached but a nominal -value ; she felt for the colonies, but would not feel in her pockets for them. Ten years have elapsed, and in the interim sections of the proposed Halifax and Quebec, and European and North American Eoads have been constructed, the former by Canada and Nova Scotia, the latter hj New Brunswick — and again the project is revived, by the renewed assent of the imperial government, to gu£irant(}e the funds for the construction of the diminished distance (reduced from 635 to 370 or 470 miles, according to the route t*) bo selected) ; and as military considerations are now predominant, it is understood the selection of the route will be left to the imperial government. For the revival of this project we are no donbt indebt- ed to the exigencies of the Grand Trunk Company, aided by the na-eetablifihment of the entente cofdiuls between the Colonies and the Colonial Office, consaiueut ujion tiie visit of H. R. H, the Prince of Walob \ by the subeequent 16 i 11 M -»i 1:1 V i- :v k' n-- 244 TRAVEL AND TBAN8P0BTATI0N. civil war in *lie United States, and especially by theTreni airiir. The Orand Trunk, at its wit's end to raise morp money, and seeing the capitalization of a postal babsidy yet remote, sought to revive the intercolonial project in order to transfer to it as much of the unproductive sections east of Montreal as possible — no doubt at a bargain — and therefore the influential owners of this road brought about another Colonial conference, ^ome years back the Com- pany, during one of its numerous and successful applica- tions for relief, gener<5usly proflfered their 118 miles east of Quebec as a gift to the Province (in consideration of the relief granted), to enable her, hereafter, to turn it in as a part of her contribution towards the future Inter- colonial Railway. As the Company were then subsidiz- ing contractors to work this section, by paying them a handsome bonus in additipn to all the receipts, the gift was not accepted. What it would now be vabied at, it is difficult to imagine ; but it is evident that the first pre- liminary toward the intercolonial project should be to establish its future relations with the Grand Trunk, and thub confine the expenditure of the capital to be raised wholly to the new road to be built, eastward of Riviere du Loup. The provinces will, doubtless, build the road, at their own expense, on whatever route the mother country wishes it built, if solicited to do so by her — tho loans being guar- anteed, so that the l .oney can 1 . sed on terms not oppressive — because ther 1 11.00 125 92tV SIVtV *" a 11.00 126 86tV 211t^ f" 8 11.00 114J 86tV 200|^ A 4 11.00 107tV 84H 191if i 6 11.00 811 2!^ 1^2tV W 6 11.00 76 VJ^ 162VV A 7 11.00 66H •^•^A 134 A 8 11.00 63i 66f 108^ A 9 11.00 60 65i 105^ (( 10 11.00 60 48 98 {( 11 11.00 1 i( (( i< '. Bearing. 8.00 » • 129.00 Bottom Platbs. Length of Sectional AreJt Prom Stripe, Tee Thidmess of Oentre. Division. Plates. and Angle Irons. Total Area. Plate. 1 19.6 137.60 63.75 201.25 f-iVl 2 14.0 137.60 67.75 196.25 «— <« 3 14.0 126.00 67.76 182.75 "— " [-^ 4 14.0 112.50 64.25 166.75 A tV a 5 14.0 87.60 "r.eo 145 A— tV. 6 14.0 85.00 33.00 118 iV 7 14.0 60.00 42.00 92 tV 8 17.6 60.00 42.00 92 tV Bearing. 8 129.0 60.00 42.00 92 tV h ■ li« i w i m , fm \i ^i ^M >\ » ! n: 'i , ) , 262 TEAVEL AND TEAN8P0ETATI0W. SIDE PLATES. Beginning at the centre, and strengthened by Tee bars inside and out, placed at distances of 3', 6", — The first space of 35 feet from the centre is formed of ^ indh plate. The second space of 46^ feet " " " Jig " " The third " 35 " " " " ^ « " Tho remainmg space '.• " ** A " " The following analysis is made of the arrangement proposed for distribution : Top of tube IB Ton8. Bottomofdo 82 " 158 Sides 84 Total 242 Tons. Keelsons, 10 inches in depth, are placed transversely at distances of 7 feet, and secured to the side Tee bui-s by gussets, for the support of the longitudinal timbers carry- ing the rail. The top of the tube is also supported by keelsons at the same distances apart, and the whole tube rendered rigid, by stiffening gussets and double covers oVer every joint. The wrought iron in a single tube 258 feet in length, including its bearings over the piers, weighs about a ton to the running foot, or 258 tons in all. The central tube, in consequence of its increased length, is somewhat different in its arrangement ; the bottom and top being proportionally stronger, — the first with an addi- tional thickness of plates, and the last, with longitudinal keelsons 10" high, taking the place of the ordinary longi- tudinal Tee bars, as existing on the side tubes ; the side plates are 2^ feet, instead of 3^ feet wide, with a propor- tionately larger number of side Tee bars. The whole tube is disconnected from the others, being bolted to pier No. 12, and resting on rollers on No. 13 pier. Windows are introduced into the sides of the tubes near the line of neutral axis, and serve to light up the in- side. Iron brackets are placed on the piers where not ■Xi* TBAYEL ASD TBANBFOBTATION. 263 occupied by the tubes, and slope back to the top of the tubes, but are entirely disconnected from it. TKfey serve to give a finished appearance, and likewise prevent the snow and rain blowing in through the openings left for expan- sion and contraction. It was originally intended to cover the top of the tubes with a curved corrugated iron roof, to protect them from the weather. This design was subsequently abandoned and the present sloping angular one substituted, composed of grooved and tongued boards, covered with the best quality of tin. This tin is not put on in the usual manner, but, by an ingenious arrangement, each sheet is allowed to expand and contract at pleasure, without the danger of destroying the fastenings which attach it to the timber underneath, as in the ordinary method made use of, and thus insures its continual efficiency. A foot-walk 26 inches in width extends along the top of the roof, the whole length of the tubes, for the conve- nience of the employes connected with the work ; a track is also provided for the painting-travellers. The contract price may be put down under the heads of, Mrat.—1ho approaches and abutments, which together extend to 3,000 feet in length, amount in the estimate to $1,000,000 Second. — The masonry forming the piers, which occupy the inter- vening space of 7,000 feet between the abutmenti^ including all dams and appliances for their erection 4,000,000 Third. — The wrought-iron tubular superstructure, "7,000 feet in length, which amounts to 2,000,000 (About $285.70 per lineal foot), making a total of $7,000,000 The following interesting details are annexed by Mr. Legge: First stone, No. 1 Pier, laid 20th July, 1854. First passenger train passed 17th December, 1869. Total length of Bridge, 9,184 feet lineal. Number of spans, 26 ; 24 of 242 feet ; one of 330 feet Height from surface of water to under side of centre tube, 60 feet Height from bed of river to top of centre tube, 108 feet Greatest depth of water, 22 feet General rapidity of current, 7 miles aa hour. Cubic feet of masonry, 3,000,000. Mj *<' < I n i.^ \:\ W^^. Mil i«|- : RM :p: w. 264 TEAVEL AND TEANSPOBTATIOIT. Cubic feet of timber, in temporary work, 2,250,000. Cubic yards o^ clay used in puddling dams, 146,000. Tons of iron in tubes, say, 8,250. Number of rivets, 2,500,000. Acres of punting on tubes, one coat, 30; or for th<) four coats, 120 aoroB. length of abutments, 242 feet each. " of north approach, 1,344 feet " of south approach, 1,033. Force employed in construction during summer of 1858, the ■working season extending from the middle of May to the middle of Noyember : Steambpats, 6; horse power, 460 ) ^^ qq^ ^^^ Barges, T 2 J ' Manned by 500 sailors. In stone quarries 450 men. On works, artisans, &a 2,090 men. Total 3,040 men. Horses, 142. Locomotives, 4. '•■'■, ' • ■ :v" " .•'<.' ' ■ . ...•:••■ I . ;, ' T ■ t, ■. :^y-,:::' >i * '. .■• ; . -i > ^ '. ..■■ ' • ', • ' -,- V ' . ' ^'< .' i, ■' • ' - ■• '■■ t ' ^ ■■ ' ' •!•.■.'., t r t ■ . 1 ^ ■ ■ ; •■ ■'■ ■ ■ - - i.' > '^ : -. < : I •■ •! • ;'• > "j ' ■ I'. ' TBAVEL AND TEANBPORTATION. •93ppa JO )soa p9^BaiD«3 •Mdns JO q^Saa^ pnoB JO qijaaei tnvds 8 u t uH u i 9J JO q)an»i lenmnio J9A0 iivdfl JO q;Ja9^ '■tnd9 JO 'Oil •q^ei i«}OX 1 ' I OQ •s ■'J I I 1^ I ^1 1 1 •^ W Ph I OQ m 00^ g ^- of r^- «tf o 5s of •S«rf 8 I 8 a s s S 9 9 S 3 S S S s i 3 11 I 1 I 00 I s o 9 I OQ 1 I a 00 I I 9 I OQ •9 9 o I OS % I I i a I o 4 i a I. OQ S S w 265 9 8 8 1 . M •I i ^t' - '. i I:; ii ; V ■'filt«' 266 THE ELEOTKIO TELEOBAFH. THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. The whole of the telegraphic syBtem of Canada (except the private lines belonging to railway companios) is lu the hands of one company. The Montreal Telegraph Company was organized in 1847, and first opened between Quebec and Toronto. The following figures show the progress of this company : In 1847. In 1861. The capital Stock £15,000 £100,000 length of line , 640 miles. 3,422 miles. Number of stations 9 160 Persons employed 36 400 Number of medbag .a transmitted 33,000 300,000 liUes. The main line extends from WoodstocbinNew Brunh.-Hck to Detroit in Michigan 1,C60 And from Quebec 0. E. to Buffalo, N. Y. 650 With the following branches : River du Loup to Father Point 70 Quebec to Richmond, on Grand Trunk R. R 96 Montreal to Portland, Maine, on do 292 " Troy, New York 250 " Waterloo, 0. B 60 Prescott to Ottawa City 64 " Oswego, New York 120 Belleville to Stirling 15 Trenton to Pictou 30 Port Hope to Peterboro' and Lindsay 66 Toronto to Collingwood, on Northern Railway 91r Toronto to Samia, on Grand Trunk R, R.. ItO Goderich to BufiEalo 160 St. Mary's to Port Stanley 60 Brantford to Port Dover 32 Windsor to Amherstburg 18 Tarious branches to small towns and viUages 153 8,422 The lines enumerated above embrace all the important towns and villages in both provinces. There are thirty-two poles to the mile, and the wire is I THE ELEOTBIO TELEOBAPH. 267 number eight and nine, galvanized. The line is worked on the Morse principle, and nearly every thing is taken by sound. The business, after the crisis of 1857, fell off to a considerable extent, but during the last two years it has gradually increased, and the number of messages passing over the line in 1861, amounted to 300,000. NOVA SCOTIAN TELEGRAPH. Miles. Bnift. Halifax to New Brunswick line 130 1849 Truro to Pictou 40 1850 Halifax to Liverpool 102 1851 " Yarmouth (via Windsor) 224 1852 Pictou to Sydney, 0. B 196 1852 " Amherst, (via Pugwaah) 80 1863 Liverpool to Barrington 62 1853 Halifax to Truro (second wire) < 64 1855 Barrington to T armouth ^ 45 1854 Antigonishe to Cape Oanso 67 1854 St. Peters, 0. 3.. to Arichbat, C. B. (about) 20 1864 Plaister Cove to Port Hood 28 1856 WolfviUe to Canning 9 1858 Total miles, 1,066 All except the second wire between Halifax and Truro, are of number nine ungalvaniaed wire ; the poles are spruce and tamarack, from thirty-five to forty to the mile. The second wire, from Truro to Halifax, is number nine gal- vanized wire. The telegraph in Nova Scotia was constructed by the provincial government. NEW BRUNSWICK TELEGRAPH Miles. Built. Calais to St. John 90 1848 St John to Nova Scotia boundary '. . . . 140 1849 " Predericton 64 1850 Frederioton to Woodstock 64 1851 Monckton to Chatham 100 1851 Newcastle to Bathurst 55 1868 Bathurst to Campbelltown 68 1860 Balesbury to Hillsboro' 22 1866 Total miles, 608 v '-1, . i h • ' I 'ii !;i f ■• CHAPTER I. EARLY TRADE OF CANADA. Thkeb hundred and twenty-seven years ago, Jacques Cartier, of St. Malo, discovered the St. Lawrence,* sailed up its mighty stream for several hundred miles, formed alliances with the Indians, built » fort, and wintered in the country. In 15d-9, the colonization of the newly dis- covered "Canada" was commenced, under the auspices of Roberval, the first viceroy, and an attempt made to establish a traffic in furs with the natives ; but, in conse- quence of the loss of Roberval and some of his com- panions, at sea, in 1549, and European distractions arising from the wars between France, Spain, and Austria, no further effort was made for nearly half a century to colonizo the valley of the St. Lawrence. In 1581, a trade with Canada began to spring into activity, and in 1591 a fleet of ships was fitted out by the adventurous inhabitants of St. Malo, to engage in the Canada trade, and, chiefly, to procure the teeth of the walrus, which at that time was common in the gulf and estuary of the St. Lawrence. In 1603, a company of adventurers, headed by M. de Chanvin, lieutenant-general of Canada and Acadia, re- ceived a royal charter from Henry IV., of France, and established a regular system of trade in the colony. Ten years later, Champlain obtained a commission auliorizing him to seize every vessel, not holding a license, he should find trafficking in furs between Quebec and the upper pare * In 1608, one Thomas Aubert made a yojage from Dieppe to Newfound' land, and sailed up the estaiar/ of the St Lawrence. BABLT TBADE OF CANADA. 269 of the St. Lawrence. In 1628, the celebrated but nnscru- puloua Tg-'dinal de Richelieu organized the "Company of One Hundred Partners," and conceded to its " .embers in perpetuity the viceroyalty of New France and Florida, thus establishing a commercial regime in Canada, whose inflQence soon extended far and wide among the Indian races of the valley of the St. Lawrence. The "Company of One Hundred Partners" was dis- solved by Louis XIV., in 1663, who resumed the juris- diction over the country, which for thirty-five years had been under the rule of « trading association. Scarcely, however, had a year elapsed, when, by a royal edict dated 1664, Canada was once more handed over to the short-lived commercial bondage of the " West India Company," but, in 1666, free trade with the aborigines was again declared, subject to certain restrictions and reservations. The company was permitted to retain the right to one-fourth of all the beaver-skins, and one-tenth of all the elk-hides exported, besides the traflBc which belonged to Tadoussac at the mouth of the Sauguenay. For these privileges, the company paid 48,950 livres, or about $10,000, a livre being worth, at that period, about one English shilling Thus far, the efforts made by the French to colonize Canada, and open a trade with the different nations inhab- iting the vast extent of country drained by the St. Law- rence, had not been productive of much public and private good, and was marked by a succession of individual dis- asters which damped the ardor even of the most courageous and enterprising merchants of that day. Lake Superior was visited, in 1659, by two traders, who joined some roving bands of Algonquins, and passed the winter in that region. In 1660, they returned to Quebec, escorted by sixty Algonquin canoes laden with furs. In the autumn of 1678, La Salle, armed with a royal commission, commenced the construction of a fort at Niagara; and during the winter he laid the keel of a ve&- 11 ri . ^1 r J i, '."«■ *i Jit 'Mil ! m ^' 270 EABLT TBADB OF CANADA. Bel intended for the navigation of tho upper lakee, about six miles above tho stupendous ^ract. Tlie first Upper Canadian ship (for in those days vs worthy of that des- ignation) was launched in the summer of the following year, and, to the unbounded astonishment and alarm of tho savage Iroquois and Eries who peopled either shore, it sailed through Lake trie, Lake Huron, and finally reached Lake Michigan. The " Grifibn," as the vessel v/as called, met witl an untimely fate on her return ; she was wrecked before she reached the Niagara river, and, with her rich cargo of furs, sank beneath the waves of the inland sea whose solitudes she was the first to invade. Not two centuries (183 years) after the lonely " Griffon" had pene- trated through the Upper Canadian lakes, the commerce of the region tributary to them was more than sufficient to employ nearly two thousand steamers and sailing ves- sels, exceeding half a million tons burden, and costing fifteen millions of dollars.* Subsequently to the extinction of the "West India Company, the trade in peltries was free for a time, with the exception of beaver and elk skins, for which monopoly 70,000 francs a year was paid by the lessees, until it became the property of a French society, called the " Company of Canada." After an unprosperous existence for a few years, this trading association, like its predecessors, expired deep- ly in debt, in 1706. In a report on the condition of Can- ada in 1715, contained in the ^^ Documents de Pcma^^^ there is an interesting account of colonial affairs, which throws some light on the state of Canada at that period. The report is by M. d'Auteuil, who remarks that trade with the savages, once considerable, had even at that early date greatly fallen off. Ship-building was brisk even 150 h . * The Marquis de DenonTille, in a proclamation respecting the taking of the post Nia^ra, in 1687, states that the stocks on which La Salle built his "bark" wjre still seen above the great lake, and that his "quarters" were burned in 1675 by the Senecas. He also states that the Sieur de la Salle narigated Lakes Erie, Huron, and Illinois (Michigan), for several years. I* C.- Li: litfii;^; "r^.^ EARLY TBlDB OF CANADA. 271 years ago ; hemp for cordage and flax for linen were ad- vaTitageously grown ; but France did not import Canadian timber, or continue to work the copper mine% on Lake Huron. The French, at the close of the 17th century, must have been familiar with the copper treasures of the shores of Lake Huron, and perhaps even of Superior, or M. d'Auteuil would not have regretted their neglect of them. In 1687, M. de Denonville writes to the French ministry :* " The copper, of which I sent a sample to M. Amon, is found at the head of Lake Superior. Tlie body of the mine is not yet discovered. I have seen one of our voyageu/ra^ who assures me that he saw, fifteen months ago, a lump of 200 lbs. weight, as yellow as gold, in a river which falls into Lake Superior. When heated, it is cut with an axe ; but the superstitious Indians, regarding this piece as a good spirit, would never permit him to take any of it." The estimate formed by M. d'Auteuil of the annual value of the peltries exported from Canada in 1677, was 550,000 francs, and in 1715, two million francs. Thomas Dongan, governor of the province of New York, in 1687, complains bitterly of the difficulties he had to encounter in finding, on his arrival in the colony, " such a contest l ween the government of Canada and this (New York' about the beaver trade, the inland country, and the Indians." The English found their way to Lakes Ontario and Erie with merchandise, for barter with the Ottawa Indians, as early as 1686, much to the disgust of M. de Denonville, who writes to his government that he is going to intercept ten English canoes, laden with merchandise, that have ap- peared on Lakes Ontario and Erie. " I regard, my lord," he says, " as of primary impor- tance the prohibition of thvi ■ rade to the English, who, without doubt, would entirely ruin ours, both by the cheaper bargains they could give the Indians, and by at- tracting to them the Frenchmen of our colony, who are • Paris Doc., 1686. , * • t Aii k ii' il ■'•': J i ■ :iP pi (* 272 EABLT TRADE 07 CANADA. accustomed to go to the wooda."* Tlie " merchandise" largely employed in those days, and continued up to the present time, both by British and French, has proved the ruin of the Indian race of this continent. M. de Denon- villo writes to Governor Denon : " Think you, sir, that re- ligion will progress whilst your merchants supply, as they do, eau de me in abundance, which converts the savages, as you ought to know, into demons, and their cabins into counterparts and theatres of hell ?" But what was the religion spoken of by Denonvillo ? Here is a description of it : " The presentis to inform Y. R. of our return from the Iroquois mission, loaded with some spoils rescued from hell, we bear in our hands more than five hundred chil- dren, and a number of adults, the most part of whom died in baptism. We have re-established faith and piety in the heart of a poor captive church, the first foundations of which we laid in the Huron country. "We have proclaim- ed the gospel unto all the Iroquois nations, so that they are henceforth without excuse, and God will be fully justi- fied against them at the great day of judgment. "f In a men^oir addressed to the Marquis of Seignelay, dated 1687 (Paris Doc), the trade of Canada is described as being very precarious. " Canada is encompassed by many powerful English colonies, who labor incessantly to ruin it by exciting all our savages and drawing them away with their peltries, for which the English give them a great deal more merchandise than the French, because they pay no duty to the king of England. ":|: ♦ Paris Doc., 1687. f Father Paul Ragueneau. X Governor Dongan'a reply to M. de Deuonville ia characteriatio of that ofiQcer. "The misaionary fathers, if they pleaae hu^, do me justice, can give you an account how careful I have been to preserve them; I have ordered our Indiana strictly not to exerciae any cruelty or inaolenoe againat them, and have written to the king, my maater, who has as much zeal as any prince living, to propagate the Christian fifiith, and aaaured him how necesaary it is to send to them some fathers to preach the gospel to the natives allied to us, and care would then be taken to dissuade them fjrom their drunken debauch* m I EARLY TRADE OF CANADA. S78 In 1754, only ten vessels, of forty to one hundred tons, were built in Canada. The trade with Franco employed about thirty ships, belonging to merchants of La Rochelle. During the administration of French rule, previously to the year of peace 1760, when Montreal and all the French fortresses in Canada were surrendered to Great Britain, the balance of trade was always against the colony. The exports, previous to 1759, are stated in a prosperous year to have been as follows : Furs to the value of. £88,333 sterling. Seal Oil 10,416 " Flour and Pea« 10,416 " Timber 6,260 «« Total £116,416 " In 1729, the annual expenditure of the government of Canada was £16,166 13«. id. ; in 1759, the disastrous year which witnessed the fall of Quebec, the expenditure rose to £1,083,330 6«. 8d. sterling ; but this vast outlay did not increase the trade of the country. Military oper- ations, glory, and extravagance consuming it all. In 1764, the number of vessels engaged in foreign trade with the colony only amounted to titty-three, leaving a total im-' portation valued at £216,769, and an exportation valued at £75,560, leaving a balance against the colony of £141,- 209 sterling. After the fall of Quebec, trade increased and assumed a healthy tone ; the imports no longer exceeded the exports ; another race, less addicted to military glory, acquired a standing in Canada, and began to develop its long neg- lected resources. But the country people, of French ori- gin, had received an indelible impress of character and es ; though certainly our rum doth as little hurt as your brandy, and in the opinion of Chriatians is much more wholesome. However, to keep the Indians temperate and sober, is a very good and Christian performance, but to pro- hibit them all strong liquors, seems a little hard, and very Turkish."— -PofM Doc, in I'' * ' ». 1 If 4 3 in ■ Til ' i a '■» if' 'H ■'.'i' >j :n: 274 EABLT TltADS OF CANADA. disposition, which they have retained in many particulars up to the present day. The following table shows the number of vessels and their aggregate tonnage which have arrived at Quebec from sea, at decennial periods between 1764 and 1861 : * No. of vessela. Tons. 1764 67 6,496 1769 82 7,411 1771 m: ■ 6,584 1780* 69 8,792 1791 81 14,760 1801 175 20,517 1811 582 116,687 1821 434 102,786 No. of sailing yAweli. Tons. 1831 1,026 263,160 1841 1,221 425,118 1851 1,300 633,427 1861 1,27.7 703, )08 No. ofsteamert. Ions. 1831 1 363 1841 18 6,067 1851 *^. 1861 67 71,894 Men. 668 687 687^ 724 826 1,664 6,653 4,645 Men. 13,329 16,443 17,753 10,339 4,335 The following table represents the coasting trade, below Quebec, for the last five years: Year. Vessels. Tons. Men. 1857 130 6,265 495 *• 1858 146 9,372 866 1859 160 11,464 1,070 1860 177 12,934 1,160 1861 277 16,910 1,536 This table shows how rapidly the country below Qr ebec is settling, and what an impulse has been given, during the short period of five year«, to the commerce of that region. The earliest period recorded, of the dates of the open- ing of navigation at Quebec, is the 12th April, in 1828; the latest period was the 11th May, 1847 ; a difference of one month. The latest date of the closing of navigation occurred on the 21st December, 1826 ; the earliest date was the 25th IJIovember, 1833 ; also a period of about one month. *No returns for 1781. THE FUB TRADE. 276 "With respect to the period of navigation between Mont- real and Quebec, the longest duration was in 1830, when the number of days between the first arrival and the last sailing was 223 days, or from April 26th to December 4th. The shortest period occurred in 1836, from May 11th to November 25th; 199 days. The average period of navigation is about seven months. CHAPTER n. THE FUR TRADE. Whosoever chooses to wade through the voluminous documentary history of the early British colonies in Amer- ica, will find that the fur trade was the all-absorbing interest, for more than one hundred and fifty years, in the valley of the St. Lawrence and the vast region tributary to Hudson's Bay, previous to the second conquest, in 1769.* The beaver, the present symbol of Canada, was early a source of considerable revenue to the colonies, and has far surpassed in importance all other fur-bearing animals; although now it is comparatively valueless, the tax on beaver-skins alone, in early times, being more than the present worth of the pelt, when the difference in the value of money is taken into consideration. In 1678, Sir E. AndroB, governor of New York, reports, that " the rates or duties upon goods exported are, 28. for each hogshead of tobacco, and Is. 3d. on a beaver skin, and other peltry proportionally." * Q lebeo was taken hj iho British in 1629. Ohamplain and most of the JoBuits returned under free passes to France. In 1632, Charles I, bj the treaty of St. Qermain, resigned to Louis XTTL, of France, all his title to . Oanada and Nora Scotia, and Ohamplain returned to Quebec, as yiceroj of Canada. 18 -y i ^) n way." The Confederates obtain information of the move- ments of the Federalists by the " underground telegraph," and the late rush across the Canadian frontier, from the drafting in the United States, was chiefly by the " under- ground line." Father de Lamberville defeated Colonel Dongan's at- ti mpts to drav the Hurons and Ottawas to his side, by " underground presents," although Dongan oflEered seven pounds of powder for a beaver, or as much lead as a man could carry. The mission and the beaver were too frequently associa- ted by the early French missionaries. They made the fur- trader and the proselytizer one. There is no doubt that wherever the fur trade extended, there was but too much need of the humanizing influence of Christianity, but as long as the missionaries traded in furs, the gentle influ- ences of religion were not felt. The condition of the colony in Denonville's time was deplorable; He himself writes, " I receive letters from the most distant quarters, from the head of River Mississippi, from, the head of Lake Superior, from Lake des Lenemyngon (Lake St. Anne, north of Lake Superior), where they propose wonders to me by establishing posts for the missions, and for the beavers which abound there. But in truth, so long as the interior of the colony is not consolidated and secured, nothing certain can be expected from all those distant posts, where hitherto people have lived in great disorder, and in a manner to convert our best Canadians into banditti."* The failure on the part of the different French compa- nies to establish successfal monopolies, arose iu great part, from a spirit of personal aggrandizement, which influenced men in power, and the excellent opportunities which the form of government then prevailing in the colony secured to them. In 1781 the administration of M. de Beauhai' 1 1' II ■ •; "I * DenonTille's Expedition, Paris, Doa m. ir: 1 ('• 278 THE FUR TRADE. nois was marked by continued erection of new forts, and displays of military force, for the purpose of keeping the English traders within proper limits. Soon after the whole valley of the St. Lawrence came under British sway, the merchants of Montreal, among whom were many Scotchmen, seeing the advantage of united action, formed themselves into a company in 1784, and assumed the title of the N^rth-West Company of Montreal. The stock of this company was at first divided into sixteen shares with- out any capital being deposited, each shareholder furnish- ing a proportion of such articles as were necessary to carry on the fur trade. It was soon found, however, that some of the traders in the Indian country were adverse to this union of interests, and a few of them joined together and established a rival company. As might have been ex- pected, a collision between the two companies soon took place, murder was committed,* and many of the injuries which rivalry and jealousy could engender, were inflicted by both sides, far beyond the reach of retributive justice. At length, in 1787, the discontented traders and the North- West Company came to an understanding, united their interests, and founded a commercial establishment on a sound basis, divided into twenty shares, a certain por- tion being held by the merchants in Montreal, the remain- der by the traders in the Indian country. The adventure for the year amounted to £40,000, but in eleven years from that date, or in 1789, it reached treble that sum, yielding large profits to the company. In 1798 the num- ber of shares was increased to forty-six, and so rapid was the increase in power and wealth of the corporation, that the army of employes enlisted in its service rose to up wards of four thousand. The agents of the North-West Company came into fre- quent collision with the servants of the Hudson's Bay Com- pany, which not only led to a spirit of rivalry in trade, * Sir Alexander Mackeime— A GoDeral History of the Fur Trade. THE FUR TEADE. 279 baffling description, but also to numerous encounters, in which much blood was shed and many lives lost. Wearied of this ruinous competition, and harassed by the threat- ened difficulties, which the continuance of so much crime and bloodshed amongst their half-wild subordi- nates were drawing upon them, the two companies agreed to unite, and in 1821 an end was put to contention and rivalry, by the amalgamation of the two bodies, under the title of the Hudson's Bay Company. From the date of the union a new era in the fur trade began, which will be better described after a brief history has been given of one of the most successful and flourishing monopolies the world has ever seen. The Hudson's Bay Company waa incorporated in the year 1670, under a royal charter of Charles the Second, which granted them certain territories in North America, together with exclusive privileges of trade and other rights and advantages. During the first twenty years of their existence the profits of the company were so great* that, notwithstanding considerable losses sustained by the cap- ture of their establishments by the French, amounting in value to £118,014, they were enabled to make a payment to the proprietors, in 1684, of fifty per cent., and a further payment in 1689 of twenty-five per cent. In 1690 the stock was trebled without any call being made, besides affording a payment to the proprietors of twenty-five per cent, on the increased or newly created stock. From 1692 to 1697 the company incurred loss and damage to the amount of £97,500 sterling, from the French. In 1720 their circumstances were so far improved that they again trebled their capital stock, with only a call of ten per cent, from the proprietors, on which they paid divi- dends averaging nine per cent, for many years, showing profits on the originally subscribed capital stock actually * See letter from the Gcroraor of the Hudson's Bay Company to the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade, February Tth, 1838. I i; ' J J.'' I .5 I V 1 ■^.i M -f- -as • H fmmmm I ' foif' • 280 THE FXTB TBADE. paid up, of between sixty and seventy per cent, [per an- num, from the year 1690 to 1800, or during a period of 110 years. Up to this time the Hudson's Bay Company enjoyed a monopoly of the fur trade, and reaped a rich harvest of wealth and influence. In 1783 the North-West Company was formed, having its head-quarters at Montreal. The North-West Company soon rose to the position of a formidable rival to the Hud- son's Bay Company, and the territory the two companies traded in became the scene of animosities, feuds, and blood- shed, involving the destruction of property, the demoraliza- tion of the Indians, and the ruin of the fur trade. Owing to this opposition, the interests of the Hudson's Bay Company suffered to such an extent, that between 1800 and 1821, a period of twenty-two years, their dividends were, for the first eight years reduced to four per cent. During the next six years they could pay no dividend at all, and for the re- maining eight they could pay only four per cent. In the year 1821 a union between the North- West and Hudson's Bay Companies took place, under the title of the last named. The proprietary were called upon to pay £100 per cent, upon their capital, which,"with the stock in trade of both parties in the country, formed a capital stock of £400,000, on which four per cent, was paid in the years 1821 to 1824, and from that time half-yearly dividends of five per cent, to 1828 ; from 1828 to 1832 a dividend of five per cent., with a bonus of ten per cent., was paid, and from 1832 to 1837 a dividend of five per cent., with an average bonus of six per cent. The distribution of profits to the shareholders for the years 1847 to 1856 both inclusive, was as follows : 1847 to 1849, ten per cent, per annum ; 1850, twenty per cent, per annum, of which ten per cent, was added to stock ; 1851, ten per cent. ; 1852, fifteen per cent., of which five per cent, was added to stock ; 1853, £18 4«. Qd.^ of which £8 4s. Qd. was added to stock ; 1854 to 1856, ten ■f^r*^'"^ TEE FUB TBADE. 281 per cent, per annum dividend.^ Of 268 proprietors in July 1856, 19t> have purcnased their stock at from 220 to 240 per cent.f The affairs of the Hudson's Bay Company are managed by a govemor-in-chief, sixteen chief-factors, twenty-nine chief-traders, hve surgeons, eighty-seven clerks, sixty- seven post-masters, twelve hundred permanent servants, and five hundred voyageurs, besides temporary employes of different ranks, chiefly consisting of voyageurs and servants. The total number of persons in the employ of the Hudson's Bay Company is about 3,000. The late Sir George Simpson was governor of the Hud- sou's Bay Company for forty years. He exercised a gen- eral supervision over the company's affairs, presided at their councils in the country, and had the principal direction of the whole interior management in North America. The ♦Letter from R. G. Smith, Esq., Secretary to the Hudson's Bay Company, to H. Merirale, Esq. — Appendix to Report from the Select Committee on the Hudson's Bay Company. f The capital employed by the Hudson's Bay Company was as follows: — June Ist, 1856 :— £ a. d. Amount of assets 1,468,301 16 3 Amount of liabilities, 203,233 16 11 Capital.... 1,265,065 19 4 Consisting ofstock, standing in the name of the proprietors, 500,000 Valuation of the Company's lands and buildings, exclusive of Vancouver's Island and Oregon 318,884 13 8 Am.ount expended up to 16th September, 1856, in sending miners and laborers to Vancouver's Island, in the co(d mines, and other objects of colonization exclusiva of the trading establishments of the company, and which amount will be repayable by government if possession of the island is resumed , 81,011 8 3 Amount invested in Fort Victoria, and other establish- ments and posts on Vancouver's Island, estimated at 15,000 Amount paid to the Earl of Selkirk for Bed River Settle- ment 84,111 la 6 Property and investments in the territory of Oregon, ceded to the United States by the treaty of 1846, and which are secured to the Company as possessing rights under that treaty— $1 ,000,000 200,000 Total ". £1,266,067 19 4 VI m ii't ^' • I. tw ,„1 ! Hi Bfl Mt 5-5-;- 282 THE FUB TBADE. governor is assisted by a council for each of the two de- partmentp into which the territory is divided. The seat of council for the northern department is at Norway House, on Lake Winnipeg ; for the southern de- partment at Michipicoten, Lake Superior, or Moose Fac- tory, on James's Bay. The council consists of the chief officers of the company, the chief factors being ex-officio members of council. Their deliberations are conducted i'4 private. The sixteen chief factors are in charge of diflfer- ent districts in the territory, and a certain number of them assemble every year at Norway House, for the northern department, generally about the middle of June, to meet the governor and transact business. Seven chief factors, with the governor, form a quorum, but if a sufficient num- ber of the higher rank of officers are not present, a quorum is established by the admission of chief traders. The Hudson's Bay Company's operations extend not only over that part of North America called Rupert's Land and the Indian territory, but also over part of Can- ada, Newfoundland, Oregon, Russian America, and the Sandwich Isles. The operations of the Hudson's Bay Company extend over territories whose inhabitants owe allegiance to three different and independent governments, British, Russian, and the United States. These immense territories, exceed- ing 4,600,000 square miles in area, are divided, for the exclusive purposes of the fur trade, into four departments and thirty-three districts, in which are included one hun- dred and fifty-two posts, commanding the services of three thousand agents, traders, voyageurs, and servants, besides giving occasional* or constant employment to about one hundred thousand savage Indian hunters. Armed vessels, both sailing and steam, are employed on the north-west coast to carry on the fur trade with the warlike natives of that distant region. More than twenty years ago the trade of the north-west coast gave employment to about one thousand men, occupying twenty-one permanent establish- THj: FUE TRADE. 283 ments, or engaged in navigating five armed sailing vessels, and one armed steamer, varying fi-om one hundred to three hundred tons in burden. History does not furnish another example of an association of private individuals exerting so powerful an influence over so large an extent of' the earth's surface, and administering their afliairs with such consummate skill, and unwavering devotion to the original objects of their incorporation. The Hudson's Bay Company, even when they relinquish the valley of the Saskatchewan, and confine their opera- tions to the region north of the 56th parallel of latitude, will still hold much of the fur trade in their grasp. But they will do so as an independent company, engaged in open competitive rivalry with all who choose to engage in that diflScult and precarious traflBc. The organization ex- isting among the ofiicers and servants of this company ; their acquaintance with the habits, language, and hunt- ing-grounds of the Indians of the North American conti- nent ; and, more especially, the fact that they are not only personally acqu ainted with almost every Indian in North America, but have the means, if it suit the purposes of trade, of communicating with them and supplying their wants, will secure to this admirably organized association the command of the most lucrative branches of the fur trade, for many years to come. If the history of any fur- trading company in America were faithfully written, it would exhibit to the world a systematic course of action as surely destructive to the Indian race of this continent, within the limits of the law, as if it had been a predeter- mined object from the beginning of their operations to the close. The history, indeed, of almost any one abandoned fort or post, during the prosperous existence of a company, would be a type of the history of the entire trade, and its prejudicial influences on the Indian races. An abandoned post implies, in general, the utter destruction of the fur- bearing animals, or of the sources of food upon which the Indian hunters formerly subsisted. It is an acknowledg- '" r *f| ■ i. In ^'i' •U- ' • ; 1 - * 284 BHIP-BUILDINO AND THE LUMnEB TRADE. nicnt that the country which once served the post lias been converted into an inhospitable desert, wholly incapable, in its wild and uncultivated state, of supplying the small de- mands of the former inhabitants of the district it served. TABLE SHOWING THE ANNUAL EXPORTATION OF FUUS AND SKINS FROM CANADA, KX0LU8ITE OF THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY'S EXPORTS: 1863, $127,694 1858, $163,213 1854, 69,357 1859, 229,147 1855, 115,260 1860, 227,115 1866, 207,763 1861, 230,596 1857, 164,879 All of the furs collected by the Hudson's Bay Company go to England. The Canadian fur trade is very limited in comparison with that of the giant monopolist. The total value of the export of furs amounted, in 1861, to $228,918 ; $84,661 worth going to the United States, the remain- der to Great Britain. The monopoly enjoyed by the Hudson's Bay Company is now extinguished by the expi- ration of their charter, and, as soon as ready communica- tion between Canada and the valley of the Saskatchewan is established, the Canadian fur trade will revive again, although it will never attain a tithe of the importance it possessed during the palmy days of the North-West Com- pany. CHAPTER III. SHIP-BUILLING AND THE LUMBER TRADE. Ship-bdilding was oie of the earliest branches of indus- try cultivated in Canada. The memorials contained in the " Documents de Paris''^ inform us, that as early as 1715, ship-building at Quobsc was pretty brisk, although there was great reason for complaint that the French would not import the fine timber of the country. The fur trade ap- peared to monopolize all the attp^ition of the French rulers ; BHIP-BniLDINa AND THE LUHBEB TBADE. 285 and although the British drew large Bupplies of lumber from the Atlantic provinces, New France contributed no part of her immense forest treasurer to increase the naval resources of the great rival of England on the seas. M. de Maurepas, the French minister of marine in 1731, was fully alive to the importance of ship-building, for he wrote some strong dispatches to the governor, urging the stimu- lation of this branch of industry, and promised that ships of war should be constructed in Canada, if some good merchant vessels were turned out. He offered a premium of 500 francs for every vessel gauging 200 tons or over of colonial build, and sold in France or the Antilles, and 150 francs premium for each barge of thirty or forty tons, if similarly disposed of. In 1752, ten vessels, of forty to one hundred tons, were built in Canada, but the materials were badly chosen, and the price high. It is remarkable, that even at that early period of the history of French Canadian industry, a num- ber of vessels, used in the trade of Canada, were purchased from the enterprising New Englanders With the finest forests in the world for ship-building, unequalled facilities for bringing lumber to the seaboard, and the encourage- ment of a liberal bounty, French enterprise in Canada, to- ward the middle of the last century, was not equal to the task of seizing upon the only industry which would tend to secure to them the peaceable possession of the colony in the event of a war with their great and industrious rival, Britain, besides encouraging immigration, amassing wealth, and establishing a political importance. In 1734 there were fifty-two saw-mills in that part of this province which lies east of the Ottawa ; the popula- tion of the country being 37,252 souls. In 1827, or nearly one hundred years later, the number of saw-mills had in- creased to 565, with a population of 471,876. The following table shows the number and tonnage of the sea-going vessels built at Queuec during decennial periods, between 1791 and 1861 : n ;i I; M lit < s 4 r, 1 J m 1- 'u ' ' ■ '• 28d BHIP-BUILDmO AND THE LUMBER TRADE. Te»r. Na of thlpi. Toni. 1791 12 674 1801 24 3,404 1811 64 13,091 1821 22 2,264 1831 38 0,170 1841 64 23,122 1861 66 41,005 1861 61 25,646 ♦ Since 1787, there have been 2,939 ships built at Quebec, being in the aggregate 890,201 tons burden. Tlie largest ship ever constructed on this continent was built in Que- bec, in 1825. It was called the Baron of Renfrew, and measured 5,294 tons. Another large wooden ship was builL in 1824:, measuring 3,690 tons: but these huge wood- en vessels were not successful. This enumeration does not include other vessels which were constructed at the diiFerent ports of the valley of the fet. Lawrence, and sometimes sent across the Atlantic for sale. Such vessels have been recently built on Lake Hu- ron, at Toronto, &c., &c., but in consequence of the general de^iression in trade, since the year 1857, little has been done in ship-building in the lake districts, although there is every prospect that it will become an important indus- try now that ship communication with Europe and Lake Superior, by means of the Canadian canals, without break- ing bulk, is easily and profitably accomplished. The lumber trade was long in growing to importance du- ring the early history of Canada.. In 1723 nineteen vessels cleared from Quebec, containing cargoes of peltries, lum- ber, and provisions ; but there does not appear to have been any considerable trade in lumber between Europe and Canada until the close of the eighteenth century. In 1786, the exports of fish, lumber, &c., from Labrador and Gasp6 were returned at £45,000 sterling, and furs and other colonial produce from Quebec at £445,116 sterling ; but lumber is not specially included as an article of com- ♦The average value of ships built at Quebec is taken at $40 a ton; the ton- nage can be obtained at once by dividing the value by 40. BIIIP-BUILDINO AND THE LUMDEE TRADE. 287 merce. In 1808, tlio producrts of tho forest became a sepa- rate item, and wo tind oak and pine timber, staves, masts, &c., exported, to tbe value of £157,300 sterling; but from tfie United States the imports of lumber wore to the amount of £70,000 sterling, tho greater part of which would be in- cluded in the amount specified above. The different arti- cles which nuiko up Canadian lumber exports have been enumerated in the chapter on " Forest Industry." It will suffice for present purposes to state the condition of the export trade during tho years 1824 to 1829 inclusive, with the statistical data of the trade from 1853 to 1861 inclu- sive. Exports of lumber from Quebec during the years 1824, 1825, 1826, 1827, and 1829 : 18M. 1,132 1,289 19,9i)4 Masts Spars Oak timber, planks . . " " tons. . . . Pine " planks. . " " tons Staves 3,657,188 Stave ends 30,416 Deals and boards, . . . 1,062,147 Hoops 147,800 Ashes, barrels 65, 108 182S. 988 1,799 33,152 1880. 751 2,892 189T. 983 1,999 1829. 973 1,679 96,026 128,078 3,934,410 19,295 1,479,565 125,536 65,502 23,822 21,763 24,411 129,151 86,090 123,610 4,164,688 5,476,548) „ 61,191 68,612 P"^'^"*^ 823,922 1,621,658 9,543,645 98,888 34 39,589 27,303 30,425 Comparative statement of the value of the products of the forest, during the years 1853 to 1861 inclusive :* 1853, $9,293,338 1858, $9,284,514 1854, 9,912,008 1859, , 9,663,962 1856, 7,832,660 1860, 11,012,253 1856, 9,802,130 1861, 9,572,645 1857, 11,575,508 The annual exportation may be stated at 30,000,000 cubic feet of timber in the rough state, and about 400,- 000,000 feet, board measure, of sawed lumber. The revenue derived from timber cut in the public forests was $383,150, in 1861. There is very good ground for the expectation * Furs are not included in this estimate. , m : . J", J ■£ » Si,' mm ■«M<.=^- W ' • 288 SHIP-BtJILDING AND THB LUMBEB TRAPB. that new markets in continental Turope will soon be opened for Canadian timber. Already the beginning of this trade has been made, by the dispatch of twenty cargoes to France, Spain, and Gennany, in 1861. The products of the forest hitherto exported have been confined to a few species of timber trees, not exceeding a dozen at the most. When it is known that there are upwards of thirty kinds of forest trees, out of some sixty or seventy species with which our forests are filled, well adapted to the wants of European manufactures, it is confidently anticipated that a new im- pulse will soon be given to the lumber trade of the Province, in a different direction to that which it has hitherto taken. Prior to 1858, England imported more timber from the British American Provinces than from all other countries. This predominance ceased in the next succeeding year, when the British importations stood thus : ' 1869. From British America 1,301,248 loads. " Foreign countries 1,656,232 " I860. Prom British America 1,264,360 loads. " Foreign countries 1,537,920 " In the present year (1862), eight vessels have already sailed for German ports, their destination and cargoes being as follows : Name of Port No. of VesselB. Ocrjo. Stettin 1 Oak. Hamburg 3 Oak and pine. Bremen 4 Red and white pine, walnut, Ac. This trade promises to be of the greatest value to Canada, and if the government adopt wise and liberal measures to secure a foreign European market, the gain which will re- sult to Canada, in many ways, is incalculable. Immigra- tion from those countries can be fostered in no better way than by a growing trade in the forest productions of the British Provinces. The shipments of timber from Quebec, for the year end- ing December 1st, 1862, as compared with those of 1860 and 1861, were as follows : 8HIP-BUILDIN0 AND THE LTJMBEK TKADB. 289 t8«0. 1861. 1809. Oak 1,486,400ft. 1,726,160 ft. 1,463,680 ft. Elm 1,021,660" 1,269,329" 1,099,200" Ash 88,440" 96,560" 99,840" Birch 462,160" 255,320" 165,480" Tamarac 58,240 " 50,240 " 67,120 " ^^and wan\?"*^ ( 18,252,600 " 19,447,920 " 16,493,080 " Red pine 2,502,880 " 2,866,240 " 2,491,120 " The export of the leading items for 1862, falls slightly belowr the average shipments of the five years, from 1853 to 1857; but the stock at Quebec considerably exceeds that of any previous season, being 19,000,000 feet of pine against 10,000,000, the average stock between 1853 and 1857. The prices current for the leading descriptions of timber in the raft, in Quebec, on the 1st December, compare as follows during the years 1858, 1859, 1860, and 1861. White pin«. Bed pine. Oiik. Elm. 1862. SK to 6d lid. to lOd. Is. 2d. to 0*. Od. Q^d. to 1*. Id. 1861. bid. to Bid. 8id.t()lld. Is. 3d. to It. 6d. 9d. tola. Id. 1860. 6K to Qid. ed. to lid Is. 2d. to U. 3d. lid. to 1«. Id. 1869. 4idto6dL Sd.tol$. Is. tola. 3d. lid. to la. 2d. 1868. 4d. to 5id. 9d. to 1«. 1«. 4d. to 1». 6dL lOd. to la. Od. The remarkable increase in the grain trade of Montreal, is seriously aflfecting the shipments of lumber at Quebec. Fully one-half of the vessels which formerly took in car- goes of lumber at Quebec, now go to Montreal for grain. This withdrawal of 400 or 500 large sea-going vessels, is diminishing the industry of the port of Quebec, while Montreal is becoming the great seat of foreign commerce. X IJ5' . hi mi'-' 290 THE PEODFOB TRADE. CHAPTER IV. THE PRODUCE TRADE,, In 1734, when Lower Canada had a population of 37,252, the lands occupied and in tillage amounted to 163,111 arpents, and there were produced 737,892 minots of wheat, 163,988 minots of oats, 166,054 lbs. of tobacco, and 92,246 lbs. of flax. The following table shows the ex- port of wheat which took place from the port of Quebec, from 1793 to 1802, inclusive. Nearly the whole of this ex- portation must have been the growth of Lower Canada, for thfc upper division of the province did not contain more than 60,000 inhabitants, at the beginning of the 19th century. Years. "Wheat (bnsh.) Flonr (bbls.) BiBonlt (cwt.) 1793, 487,000 10,900 9,800 1794, 414,000 13,700 15,000 ' 1795, 396,000 18,000 20,000 1796,* 3,106 4,300 3,800 • 1797, 31,000 14,000 8,000 1798, 92,000 9,500 12,000 1799, 129,000 14,400 21,500 1800, 217,000 20,000 25,000 1801, 473,000 38,000 32,300 1802, 1,010,033 28,300 171,100 22,061 Total, 3,251,139 169,451 Annual average, 326,114 17,100 16,945 During the years 1816 to 1822, inclusive, the exports of wheat averaged 195,386 bushels ; of barrels of flour, 28,323 ; and of hundredweights of biscuit, 9,694, annually. In 1824, 25, 26, 27, 29, and 30, the export of wheat and flour amounted to : "Wheat Flour. 1824, 6,396 minota 41,001 birrels. 1825, 718,019 " 40,003 " 1826, 228,635 " 33,671 " 1827, 391,420 " 63,839 " 1829, 40,462 " 2,859 «« 1830, 690,081 ♦• 85,836 " *Ji consequence of the failure of the crops i . 1796, the goyemor in council proclaimed an embargo, prohibiting the exportaJon of wheat 'Ah A ■"'■ ''11 1 '' ; THE PRODUCE TRADE. 291 These fluctuating exports show the precariousness of the wheat crop in Lower Canada — which is still further ex- emplified by the following table. Produce of wheat in Lower Canada, during the years 1831, 1844, and 1851 : Tear. ^ Bnshels. 1831 3,404,766 1844 942,836 1851 3,045, 600 There can be no doubt, however, that importations from the United States, especially of flour, enabled larger ex- ports to be made from Quebec than would otherwise have taken place, for in 1830 we find 10,633 barrels of flour im- ported into Montreal, and 103 barrels of wheat. The rise and progress of the grain trade of Canada are well shown by the following table of exports :* TABLE OP WHEAT EXPORTS. Tew. Bnshels of wheat* Tear. Bushels of wheat 1838, 296,020 1850, 4,547,224 1839, 249,471 1851, 4,275,896 1840, 1,739,119 1862, 6,496,718 1841, ' 2,313,836 185S, 6,597,193 1842, ■ 1,678,102 1854, 3,781,634 1843, 1,193,918 1855, 6,413,428 1844, 2,350,018 1856, 9,391,531 1845, 2,507,392 1857, 6,482,199 1846, 3,312,757 1 1858, 5,610,559 1847, 3,88.3,156 1859, 4,032,627 1848, 2,248,016 1860, 8,431,263 1849, 3,645,320 ' 1861, 13,369,727 The total amount of spring and fall wheat grown in Upper Canada, in 1861, exceeded 24,500,000 bnshels. The absolute value of all agricultural products exported, of home and foreign production, for the years 1853 to 1861, inclusive, is given in the following table of home and foreign production : Tear. Amount 1853, $8,032,535 1864^ 7,316,160 1865, 13,130,399 1866, 14,972,276 1857, 8,882,825 Tear. Amount 1858, 1859, 1860, $7,904,400 7,339,798 • 14,259,225 1861, 18,244,631 * One barrel of flour ia estimated equal to five buBhela of wheat 19 ■rr J't ■ 1 h m^ 292 PBESEirr TRADE. CHAPTER V. PRESENT TRADE. In the year 1808, the trade of the Province of Canada assumed proportions which entitled it to the serions atten- tion of the mother country ; for although the population of Upper and Lower Janada did not exceed 800,000 in that year, the entire trade of the colony, including exports and imports, amounted to JE1,T76,060 sterling, or about $8,400,000. This trade was made up of the following items : — 1808. No. of Teasels engaged in the trade 334 EzpoBTS Fboic QuiBxa Fun and other colonial produce £350,000 Wheat, biactiitj flour ltl,200 Oak and pine timber, stares, masts, to. 16*7,360 Pot and pearl ashes 290,000 New ships — 3,760 tons, at £10 starling per ton. . . . 37,500 Fish, lumber, oil, &c., from Labrador and Qasp^. . . . 120,000 Exports to the United States, sundries, about 30,000 Total exports £1,166,060 Imports firom England:— lifanufactured goods £200,000 West India pn)duce , 130,000 Imports from United States: — Merchandise, tea, provisions, tobacco 100,000 Oats, pine, masts, fta 70,000 Pot and pearl ashes 110,000 Total imports £610,000 Balance in &yor of the colony £546,060 The exports of 1830 show a remarkable increase in the trade of the colony, as will be seen by the following table : 1R30. YmmIa. Tom. To Great Britain from Quebec. 671 169,046 " " " Ireland. 214 67,233 " " " Jersey. I 113 \ 'f^f" FSE8ENT TRADE. To Great Britain from Gibraltar 2 298 II II U ». M li U u u M « II II II Spain 1 Portugal 1 British North America 130 57 4 43 " West Indies.. United States. Gasp^ Tom. 226 '06 146 9,163 8,113 432 6,711 Total vessels 1,024 Tons, 261,278 Comparative statement of imports, exhibiting the value of goods entered for consumption in Canada during the years 1852 to 1861, inclusive: Korth American Other Forei^ Tear. Great Brttiin. Colonies. Wert Tadlea. United State*. Conn tries. 1852, $9,671,132 $480,954 $5,116 $8,477,693 $651,698 1853, 18,489,120 632,660 3,479 11,782,147 1,074,030 1854, 22,963,331 675,lir, 2,673 16,533,098 1,365,110 1855, 13,303,460 865,988 14,135 20,828,676 1,073,909 1856, 18,212,934 1,032, jHS 17,613 22,704,509 1,616,736 1857, 17,559,025 751,888 26,823 20,224,661 868,211 1858, 12,287,053 423,826 16,635,566 732,083 1859, 14,786,084 381,755 633 17,592,916 793,873 1860, 15,869,980 393,864 16,802 17,273,029 906,260 1861, 20,386,937 499,177 371 21,069,388 1,098,963 From the forego'ng tables it will be seen that the im- ports from Great Britain have more than doubled in ten years. The trade with the sister colonies is about the same in value as it was ten years ago. The West India import trade has almost ceased to exist. The imports from the United States have increased from eight millions to twenty-one millions, and the trade with all other for- eign countries is now about the same in value as it was in 1853. The value of the total imports of goods entered for con- sumption in Canada during the same years is as follows : 1852, $20,286,493 18^7, $89,430,598 1853, 31,981,436 1868, 29,078,527 1864, 40,529,326 1859, 33,565,161 1866, 36,086,169 1860, 84,447,936 1856, 43,684^387 186L 43,054^C36 The years 1854, '5, and '6, were distinguished by nnusual 11% tH &: t ^-»( J > L * 'J |W;:f-B ::^H ■■■%-: . 5 '•;' ' , - :*. ' if ■ 1 ( ,' ■ ■• * , 294 FSESENT TBADE. commercial excitement, followed by a corresponding de- pression — iihe imports in 1861 not equalling those of 1856, while those of 1858 fell short to the extent of nearly $3,000,000 of the value of imports in 1853. Table showing the total value of exports and imports, and the aggregate value of the foreign trade of the prov- mce, from 1852 to 1861 : Year. Exports. Imports. Total value of Trade. 1852, $14,055,973 $20,286,493 $34,342,466 1853, 22,012,230 31,981,436 53,993,666 1854, 21,249,319 40,529,325 61,778,644 1855, 28,188,461 36,086,169 64,274,630 1856, 32,047,017 43,584,387 75,631,404 1857, 27,006,624 39,430,598 66,437,222 1858, 23,472,609 29,078,527 52,551,136 1859, 24,766,981 33,555,161 58,322,142 1860, 34,631,890 34,441,621 69,073,511 1861, 36,614,195 43,046,823 79,661,018 The total value of Canadian foreign trade has more than doubled within ten years, and last year it reached the im- posing value of nearly $80,000,000. It now remains to exhibit the manner in which this enormous trade Is carried on, by a statement showing — First: the number of vessels entered inward and outward, from and for sea, during the years 1853 to 1861, inclusive : Vessels Inward fW)m Sea. Vessels Outward for Sea. Tear. Total Number. Tonnage. Total Number. Tonnage. 1863, 1,798 622,579 1,821 658,853 1854, 1,890 705,342 2,018 781,755 1855, 1,168 419,552 1,219 451,241 1866, 1,494 550,573 1,532 573,648 1857, 2,047 748,425 1,848 731,367 1858, 1,657 613,813 1,662 623,046 1859, 1,715 641,662 1,618 640,571 1860, 1,992 831,434 1,923 821,791 1861, 2,442 1,077,128 2,389 1,069,667 Second : the amount of Canadian and American ton- nage, inward and outward, with the intercourse by inland navigation between Canada and the TJnited States : J H;! PEE8ENT TEADE. 1868. Tons. Tons. Canadian Bteam 3,014,123 Bail 730,174 Bail 730,174 [ ••••^»'^^^^'^ American steam 3,038,672 saU 477,728 J ' .3,616,400 Total inwards and outwards 7,260,607 Add sea-going vessels, as above 1,236,859 Total tonnage engaged in Canadian trade 8,497,556 1859. Tons. Tons. Canadian steam 1,552,711) o oro qqa " saU 8011226 [••••2>3^^'^36 American steam 4,096,690 ) " saU 685,704: . . .4,682,394 Total inwards and outwards 7,036,330 Add sea-going vessels, as above 1,282,23S Total tonnage engaged in Canadian trade 8,318,663 1861. Tons. Canadian steam. 1,841,640 ) " sail 913,398: American steam 2,422,514 " saU 674,673: Tons. ,..2,765,338 ,..3,097,187 Total inwards and outwards 6,852,526 Add sea-going vessels, as above 2,149,360 295 Total tonnage engaged in Canadian tra .e 8,001,885 The year 1869 was one of great depression in Canada ; the decrease in 1861 was probably due to the railways, which now afford an excellent means of communication between the two countries, to the detriment of lake and river navigation. CANADIAN flTEAJOBS AND SAIUNO VESSBLS BKaiSTEBED IK 1861. Vessels Built. Tonnage. Steam 11 1,165 Sailing 86 32,032 Total ^ 96 33,187 . n 1 ., ?r^i I . m: •I r»V5 If ' 1 I' t 1 296 Steam, SidL.., PBE8ENT TBADS. TSMKLS BSOISTIBKD. No. ToniugVb 23 9,616 160 34,749 173 44,365 THE RBCIPROOITY TREATY. The reciprocity treaty between the United States and Great Britain, has been the subject of prolonged discus- sion on the part of a few interests among those mercantile communities of the United States and Oanada, which are not advantageously affected by the conditions of the treaty. The weight of evidence, as deduced from statistical returns, goes to establish the fact that the advantages derived by both countries are very considerable, and will far outweigh the complaints of sectional interests which have attempted its destruction. The following are the leading points of the treaty : I. The inhabitants of the United States possess, under the reciprocity treaty, the right to take fish of any kind, except shell-fish, on the sea-coasts and shores, in the bays, harbors, and creeks, of any of the British provinces, with- out being restricted to any distance from the shore ; with permission to land upon the coasts and shores of those provinces, for the purpose of drying their nets and curing fish. II. British subjects possess, in common with the citizens of the United States, the liberty to take fish of any kind, except shell-fish, on the eastern sea-coasts and shores of the United States, north of the thirty-sixth parallel of north latitude ; with the same privileges as to landing on the sea-coast as are enjoyed by American citizens in the British Provinces. m. Certain articles, being the growth and produce of the British colonies, or of the United States, are admitted into each country free of duty, respectively. (The most important of these articles are grain, fiour, breadstu£&| i i! I 'i FBS8EMT TRADE. 297 animals, fresh, smoked, and salted meats, fish, lumber of all kinds, poultry, cotton wool, hides, ores of metals, pitch tar, ashes, flax, hemp, unmanufactured tobacco, rice, &c.) rV. The right to navigate the River St. Lawrence, and the canals of Canada, is equally enjoyed by the citizens of the United States and of the British Provinces. This right extends also to Lake Michigan ; and no export duty on lumber cut in Maine, and passing through New Bruns- wick to the sea, can be levied. The treaty was signed June 5th, 1854, and may termi- nate after the expiration of ten years. STATKXEMT BHOWIKO THB WHOUB OAKADA AMD THE UNTTED TBADE IK IMi*OSTS AlTD S3CPOBT8 BBTWUH STATES, DUBIHO ELIV*^ TXAB& Imports from United Exports from Cantd* Amoantof the Ytan, Statea Into Oan*da. to United SUtea. whole trade. 1851, $8,365,764 $4,071,544 $12,437,308 1852, 8,477,693 6,284,620 14,762,213 1863, 11,782,144 8,936,380 20,718,62'f 1864,* 16,633,096 8,649,000 24,182,096 1855, 20,828,676 16,737,276 37,665,952 1856, 22,704,608 17,979,752 40,684,260 1857, 20,224,648 13,206,436 33,431,084 1858, 16,635,665 11,930,094 27,566,659 1869, 17,692,916 13,922,314 31,6ir,230 1860, 17,273,029 18,427,968 35,700,397 1861, 21,069,388 14,386,427 35,455,816 BTATmODTr SHOWOrO THB DCPOBTS AND KXPOBTS BSTWKEV OAKADA AKD THX VKITID STATES, OF ABTIOLES FBIX X7KDEB THE TBEATT, TO JAKUABT 1, 186L Imports into the United States Excess of Importa free under the trea^ ftvm the Tear. from Canada. United SUta*. 1865, $16,476,093 $7,725,661 $8,760,632 1856, 17,810,684 7,909,564 9,901,130 1867, 17,812,308 8,642,030 4,170,278 1868, 11,514,364 5,564,616 6,949,749 1869, 15,289,070 7,106,116 8,182,954 1860, 20,365,829 7,069,689 13,296,140 Totalfl, $94,268,348 $44,017,668 $60,250,783 * Epoch of the Bedprodty Treaty. In ten years the amount of the trade between the United States and Canada has nearly trebled itself, and risen from twelve millions to thirty-five millions of dollars, with- out including those articles which are free under the treaty. ■•'.'if! 3 m ■:. ^ Is f l;^ I ■ t> !• h ' 4^ 1 ■ -a-lii [ S,! 298 :nE CHANNELS OP TEADE. THE CHANNELS OP TRADE. The successive governments of Canada have always kept in view the importaiice of attracting the trade of the country, and of the Western States of the American Union, to the St. Lawrence. This route is beginning to engage increased attention from both importers and exporters. The following tables show the value of the St. Lawrence traffic, for 1857 to 1861, inclusive : STATEMENT OF THE VALUE OP EXPORTS KSD IMPORTS Vta THB ST. LAWREKOB, WITU THE TONNAGE OP VESSELS, INWARDS AND OUTWARDS, DURING THE TEARS 1857 TO 1861, INCLUSIVE. Tonnage of vessels. Total trade via Tear. Value of exports. Value of Imports. Inwards. Outwards. St Lawrence. 1857, $:%756,787 $14,561,884 748,426 731,367 $28,318,671* 1858, 9,727,413 10,795,077 613,813 632,046 20,522,490 1859, 8,821,662 11,549,068 641,662 640,571 20,370,730 1860, 14,037,403 13,648,665 831,434 821,701 27,586,068 1861, 22,524,735 17,249,055 1,087,128 1,059,667 39,773,790 Hence it appears that the St. Lawrence trade has risen in value, during a period of five years, from twenty-eight millions to thirty-nine millions of dollars. But the grand system of internal navigation which this river afibrds, with its magnificent canals, will eventually become of great im- portance to the " Far West." The prospective value of the St. Lawrence route to Canada may be best shown by the following table : VALUB or GOODS IN TRANSITU FOR THE UNITED STATES. Tew. Imports. Exports. Total 1857 $183,790 $183,790 1858 26,916 26,916 1859 76,314 76,314 1860 21,505 21,505 1861 522,514 $3,505,511 4,028,026 The increase in the trade via the St. Lawrence in 1861^ as compared with the previous year, exceeds twelve mil- lions of dollars. * Value of ships built at Quebec included. w FREE PORTS. 299 TRADE •WITH THE UNITED STATES. The reciprocity treaty, to which reference has already been made, resulted beneficially to both countries, although there is no doubt that much local ill-feeling has been en- gendered in particular States, and at those lake ports which have not been benefited by the treaty to the extent antici- pated, when the subject was under discussion, and whose local trades have been materially influenced by the high tariffs on certain articles recently imposed by the govern- ment of Canada. The following presents a comparative view of all the imports and exporte, to and from the United States and Canada, from December 31, 1849, to January 1, 1861 : EXPORTS AND IMPORrS BETWEEN CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES. Estimated excess of Imports Into Canada from tht'l'nited States above Canadian Im- ports into the U. States. 1661,618 8,44S,8Sd 941.540 • 1,066,«W 0,114,216 , 826,885 8,4S5,85« 6,462,009 8,262,427 8,006,999 1,116,491 FREE PORTS. . In November, 1860, the harbor of Ga8p6 Basin, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, was constituted a free port, where goods, wares, and merchandise of every description may be imported, either for consumption or exportation, without customs duty. The liarbor of Sault Ste. Marie, between Lakes Superior and Huron, was also made a free port at the same period, the chief objects being to encourage the fisheries in the one case, and immigration in the other. The imports at Gaspe, md the out-ports within the limits of the " free port," were, in value, $286,558 i'n 1860, and. $392,068 in 1861. The imports at Sault Ste. Marie * These amounts are named, in the statistioe published under the sanction of the Canadian government, as returned not ropcrted at inland porta in Can- ada, and it may be inferred were chiefly sent to the United States. Imports Excess of other Imports Imports into tlio Imports into into United into linited Tear. Canada. States. Oauado. States.* 18,'iO, $6,694,860 14,961,169 $164.3,701 $982,083 1881, 8,865,786 4,071,644 4,294.221 8^6,8.38 18.52, 8,477,693 6,2S4.,52l 2,iu3.::2 1,251.682 18.58, 11,782,147 8,98r).«S2 2,SW.765 1,789,078 1854, 15,M8,097 8,649,002 6,8!a.095 1,769,880 18.55, 20,828,676 16.7.S7.277 4,091,399 8,26.5.018 1866, 22,704.509 17,97il,763 4.724.756 2,2.Ss.90O 1867, 20,224,650 13,206,4.36 7,01S,2H 1,.5.56,205 1858, 16,685,565 11,930,094 8,706,471 1.44;<,044 1869, 17,592,916 18,922,814 8,670,602 1,064,608 1860, 17,278,029 18,427,963 2,270,4»0 *?* 'l^'i ' ^ n, I If.,'" ■ 300 BEYENUE. were valued at $54,421 in 1860, and at $92,704 in 1861, showing an increase over the imports of 1860, amounting to $38,283. CANADIAN TARIFFa The expenses of the government of the country are pro- vided for chiefly by the tariff on imported articles. The principal articles contributing to the revenue are enumer- ated in the following table, with the different tariffs in the years 1856 to 1869, inclusive : Article!. ISSOi MolaBsot, per cent 16 Sugar, refined, Sugar, other, Boots and shoes, Harness, Cotton goods, Iron goods. Silk goods. Wool goods, « 41 « talarriTal8, between 1860 snd 1861 819,993 «« •« «« 1829 " 1849 632,616 962,668 The dispersion of these immigrants through the country is a matter of great moment, as vast numbers find their way eventually to the Western States who come with the in- tention of settling in Canada, yet, on account of neglect, or the misrepresentations of agents, are led to seek a home on the south side of the international boundary. 11 h ' nh }!S fi'-Vu l!!: - 302 nonQKATioN. The following is an approximate statement of the arrival and distributioii of immigrants during 1861 : — Landed at Quebec 19,923, Arrived in Canada via the route of the United States : By Bteamer to Portland, from Jan* ary to April 330 •' " " " November to 31 at December, 242 By route of Suspension Bridge, to Hamilton, 11,132; of whom there remained in Canada 3,263 By steamer on La'; > Ontario, from Rochester and Oswego, 353 " " from Oswego and Cape St. Vincent to Kingston, 350 By route of Lake Champlain, to Montreal 126 4,664 Total arrivals in Canada, 24,587 Of the arrivals at Quebec, there proceeded to tin,- Uaited States 10, TOO Remaining in Canada^ 13,887 Of this number there appear to have settled : In Western Can ia 9,500 In Ottawa Distr let 1,544 In Eastern Canada 1,500 In Gaspo 400 Unknown, but presumed to have remained in Canada 943 — 13,887 Each immigrant on his arrival in the country is taxed one dollar, which forms part of the funds imder wi.''.h the immi- gration department is sustained. The expenditure in 1861 amounted to $28,773; the items were as follows : — For the Quarantine establishment at Orosse Isle $4,700 25 For immigration, in the direct relief and assistance to destitute immigrants 8,920 19 Agency charges, salaries, rents, office and travelling expenses lt>,152 68 . $28,773 02 Being an increase of $2,259 19 compared with that of 1860. The total amount of tax realized during this season was $19,112, making th'^ surplus of expenditure over receipts $9,661 — a paltry dum, when the amazing advantage to the province of a continuous stream of immigration from conti- nental Europe is taken into consideration, and the settle- ment of the vast wilderness in the rear of the St. Law- rence by industrious laborers and mechanics. ' There are six government immigrant agencies in Canada, iS' ••,l.^. FKEE GRANTS OF LANDS, ETC. 303 located respectively at Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa City, KingBon, Toronto, and Hamilton. The Imperial and Pro- vincial Passengers' Acts provide as far as possible against frauds and impositions being practised on the immigrant. The Provincial Passengers' Act provides that immigrants may remain on board forty-eight hours after the vessel's arrival (except in cases when the vessel has a mail con- tract), and that they shall be landed, free of expense, at proper hours ; that no person, without a license, shall influ- ence passengers in favor of any particular steamboat, rail- road, or tavern ; that tavern-keepers shall have posted, in some conspicuous place, a list of prices to be charged for board, lodging, &c.; and they will not be allowed to have any lien upon the effects of a passenger, for board and lodging, beyond five dollars. The total immigration from Great Britain, from 1815 to 1858, has been as follows : — Proportion. To British American colonies 1,180,049 24.60 To United States 2,890,403 60.25 To Australian colonies 652,353 13.60 To other places 74,361 1.56 4,797,166 100.00 FREE GRANTS OP LANDS AND COLONIZATION ROADS. There are now spven million acres of crown lands sur- veyed and open for sale, at prices varying from thirty cents to one dollar per acre. Every purchaser must become an actual settler. This enormous area of surveyed public lands is distributed in the following manner : Lower Canada 4,540,000 Upper Canada 2,460,000 Or, exhibiting more particularly the localities of these public lands, there are in Aorei. The Three Rivers district about 349,000 East of the Chaudi^re to Gasp^ " 1,310,000 Gaspt) and Bonaventure " 348,000 Sauguenay district " 295,000 Eastern townships " 1,030,000 Ottawa region north of the river " 1,206,000 Between Ottawa River and Georgian Bay.. . " 1,740,000 West of French River and Lake Nipissing... " 160,000 i ^4 .)^ >' ' J ,^ lft..| » (IS"'! r^ I!r 111' ■; ■ s HI i-,i, ?,: ■, I ii '111 'ill 'K ; i ,1: 804 FBEB GBANTS OF LA17D8, ETO. The capital required to enable an immigrant family to settle upon a free-grant lot, or enter upon the occupation of wild land, should be such as would be sufficient for the support of the family for eighteen months, until a return from the land can be obtained. The following is a careful estimate of the quantity and cost of provisions required for twelve months, for a man and his wife and three young children, and also a liet of arti- cles required by settlers going into the bush. The prices are attached at which they can be purchased at the villa- ges near the settlements :* 8 barrels of flour, at £1 ISs. per barrel £14 2 " of pork, at £3 15. " 7 10 80 bushels of potatoes, at 28. per bushel. ... 800 30 lbs. of tea, at 2s. 6d. per lb 3 16 1 banel of herring 2 i " ofsalt 7 6 Goat of ProTlsions. £36 12 6 SSBD. 20 bushels of potatoes at 2s. per bushel £2 3 " of wheat, at 78. 6d. " 12 6 10 " of oats, at 2b. " 10 Oostofseed £4 2 6 OTEKB NE0B8SABTTO. lAro £0 8 1 Grindstone. 7 6 iShovel 1 10 2 Hoes, at 3s. 6s. each 7 3 Reaping-hool:s, at Is. 6d. each 4 6 iScythe 6 1 Inch auger 6 1 Inch-and-a-half auger 7 6 1 Hand-saw 7 6 2 Water pails, at Is. 6d. each 3 1 Window-aash, and glazing 6 1 Bake-oven 6 2 Pots, at 5s. each 10 ' IKettle 6 1 Fryingpan 3 1 Teapot 2 6 6 Small tin vessels, at 4d. eadi 2 3 Large tin dishes, at 2b. 6d. each 07 6 * From Qoyomment Lnmigratioii Beporti. OOVEBNMENT B0AD8. 805 OTHBB >xoxsaiBiX8 — eotUinudcL 6 Spoons, at 2cL each 10 6 Ejiives and forks 5 3 Pairs of blankets, at £1 Ss. per pair 3 16 2 Rugs or quilts, at 2s. 6d. each 6 2 Pairs of sheets, at 3s. per pair 6 1 Smoothing iron. 2 6 IPig 16 £10 1 1 Total £60 2 1 Add one Cow 6 Hay for do., lat year 3 00 Oorrency. ..... £68 2 1 Or, Sterling. ... £47 The provincial government has recently opened seven great lines of road in Upper Canada and five in Lowot Canada, and laid out for settlement the lands through which these roads pass. The roads in Upper Canada are styled: — Ist. Thb Ottawa and Opeongo Boad. — This road runs east and west, and will eventually be 171 miles in length, and connect the Ottawa Biver with Lake Huron ; about 62 miles are now finished, and 235 settlers already located thereon. Eesident agent, T. P. French, Clontarf, town- ship of Sebastopol. 2d. Addington Boad, running north and south, 61 miles long, and starting from the settlements in the county of Addington, until it intersects the Opeongo Boad ; the number of settlers on this road is 178. Besident agent, E. Pebby, Tamworth. 3d. The Hastings Boad, running nearly parallel to the Addington Boad, 68 miles long, and connecting the county of Hastings with the Ottawa and Opeongo Boad : there are 306 settlers on this road. Besident agent, M. P. Hayss, village of Madoc. 4th. The Boboatgeon Boad, running from Bobcaygeon, between the counties of Peterborough and Victoria, north, and intended to be continued to Lake Nipissing ; 36 miles are already completed, and there are 168 settlers on the ;4 •II . -f ■:n^ H ;i r i;:f Kl '-.-H H- n ■yi Un m-\^ 306 GOVERNMENT EOADS. line ; the number in the family of each settler, on the above roads, averages about four. Resident agent, K. Hughes, Bobcaygeon, and G. Q. Boswell, Bobcaygeon North. 5 th. The Frontenao and Madawaska Road, of which 33 miles are completed. Resident agent, J. Spikb, Har- rowemith. 6th. The Muskoka Road, of which 21 miles are com- pleted. This road runs from the head of the navigation of Lake Couchiching to the- Grand Falls of Muskoka, where it will intersect the road called Peterson's l,ae, which will eventually meet the Ottawa and Opeongo Road, now gradually opening westwardly ; and by it the intending settler, arriving at Toronto, can, in one day's journey from that city, reach the very centre of the country. Resident agent, R. J. Oliver, Orillia. 7th. The Sault Ste. Marie Road, intended to run from Sault Ste. Marie to Goulais Bay, and of which 6 miles are already completed. The five roads in Lower Canada are : — The Elgin Road, in the county of L'Islet, about 35 miles long, from St. Jean, Port Joli, to the provincial line. Resident agent, S. Dr^peau, St. Jean, Port Joli. The Matane and Cape Chat. The Tache Road, from, Buckland, in the county of Bellechasse, to Metapedia Road, in Rimouski. — about 200 1 iiles. The Temisoouata Road, from River du Loup to Lake Temiscouata; and The Metafedla. Road, from Cabot to Restigouche. In order to facilitate the settlement of these parts of Canada, the government has authorized free grants of land along these roads, not exceeding in each case 100 acres, and obtainable upon the following conditions : Ist. That the settler be eighteen years of age; 2d. That he take possession of the land allotted to him within one month; 3d. That he put into a state of cultivation twelve acres of land in the course of four years ; 4th. That 2d. lin ion lat OOVEBNMENT BOADS. 307 he build a log-house, twenty by fourteen feet, and reside on the lot until the foregoing conditions are fulfilled. Families may reside on a single lot, and the several members having land allotted to them, will be exempt from building and residence upon each individual lot. The non-fulfilment of these conditions will cause the im- medidte loss of the land, which will be sold or given to another. The lands thus opened up, and gratuitously offered by the j^ovemment for settlement, are chiefly of excellent quality, and well adapted in respect to soil aiid climate, to all the purposes of husbandry, 20 . ? ';' i M f*. 4. 1* i , " m¥x illi! r.J ! 1 ('I ,1 I "• i M > I 1 •^ MINERAL RESOURCES 09 ' BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. A SESTOH OF THE KATXTBE, EXTENT AND YALTTE OF THE METALS AND OTBEB USEFUL MINERALS POUND IN CANADA, NOVA SCOTIA, NEW BRUNSWICK, AND BRITISH COLUMBLi, WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE PROORESS OF MININQ INDUSTRY IN THESE PROVINCES. BT CHARLES ROBB, MININO ENGINEER, HONTRSAIi. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Canada is emphatically an agricultural country, and is pre-eminently favored by nature in the excellence of its soil, and the adaptation of its climats to the growth of wheat and the other cereals, which must long continue as hereto- fore to constitute its staple productions. Its natural resour- ces, however, are by no means limited to the vegetable king- dom ; and although, in the earlier stages of its history, the products of its fields and forests naturally occupy the greatest attention, and have received the fullest development, the extent and importance of the mineral treasures with which it abounds are now beginning to be duly recognized. With the exception of coai, and a few of the less import- ant metals, Canada has been found to produce almost all the known useful minerals ; while, with regard to most of them, it may be safely asserted that she contains within her- self a supply not only amply sufficient for her domestic con- sumption, but for permanent, profitable and extensive foreign commerce. These boundless sources of wealth have as yet been rendered available only to a very limited extent, owing partly to the fact of their existence having been so I B'^f MINERAL KE80DRCB8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 309 recently brought to light, and partly to the want of the capital and skill requisite to develop them. As the resour- ces of Canada are now rapidly becoming known to the rest of the world, and as it is gradually learning greater self- rehance, it may be reasonably eypected that its mineral productions are destined to assume their due rank in con- tributing to the national wealth and prosperity. In relation to this department of the contribution made by Canada to the Great Exhibition of 1851 at London, the following judg- ment was pronounced by the jury : " Of all the British colo- nies, Canada is that whose exhibition is the most interesting and complete, and one may even say that it is superior, as far as the mineral kingdom is concerned, to all countries that have forwarded their productions to the Exhibition." This judgment will doubtless be more than confirmed by the results of the Great International Exhibition of 1862, to which Canada has contributed a collection of minerals far in advance of that of 1851. "We have stated that coal does not occur in Canada, and we fear it must be regarded as a fully established fact, at least in regard to those parts of the country which have as yet been settled and explored. The rocks are throughout of a lower geological horizon inan the carboniferous ; and although bituminous schists and shales abound, and thin veins of a substance closely resembhng coal occur in cer- tain parts of the country, these can not be regarded as of much economic importance. Canada is, however, very favorably situated in its proximity, at all points, to the car- boniferous regions of the United States and Nova Scotia, and in the facility of conveyance afforded by its vast lakes, rivers and canals ; and moreover, it contains within itself such ample supplies of wood, peat and mineral oil as will go far to compensate for the want of coal. Many useful minerals yielded in abundance by Canada, and which require peculiar chemical treatment to render r? '\ 1% U '^1 I' |1 [i i.' %'4 • '1 •» 310 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. them available in the arts, such as chromic iron, phosphate of lime, petroleum, &c., are rendered comparatively value- less from the fact, that in present circumstances, the crude material has to be transported at great expense to distant manufacturing centres. Such materials are peculiarly de- serving of the attention of enterprising capitalists, as their manufacture in the province would be attended with the double advantage of rendering them available as a source of national wealth as well as individual profit, and of giving employment to an industrious and intelligent class of population. The knowledge we possess of the mineral wealth of Cana- da, imperfect as it necessarily is, from the vast extent of unexplored and partially explored territory, as well as from the recent date at which public attention began to be di- rected to the subject, is nevertheless sufficiently accurate to admit of a certain classification and arrangement, and the geographical distribution of the various useful minerals has been ascertained with considerable accuracy. For much or nearly all of this knowledge we are indebted to Sir "Wil- liam Logan, the Provincial Geologist, and his coadjutors, who have devoted themselves assiduously, (under the liberal patronage of the Provincial Government,) during nearly twenty years to the investigation of the Geology of Cana- da ; and whose labors have not only conferred incalculable benefit on the country, but procured for themselves a world- wide reputation. In order to illustrate our remarks upon the mineral productions of Canada, we shall give a slight sketch of the geological structure of the country as ascer- tained by the provincial geologists. OEOLOGIOAL STRUCTURE OF CANADA IN RSLATIOK TO ITS USBFUL MINERALS. The oldest geological formation in Canada, styled by Sir William Logan the Laurentian system, occupies all the •^^J;^^I' MINERAL RBSOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMKRIOA. 311 northern and portions of the central divisions of the pro- vince, extending over an area of about 150,000 square miles, and composed of various hard rocks, such as gneiss and white crystaline limestone ; the total thickness of this formation in Canada is probably not less than 20,000 feet. These rocks consist of highly altered strata, in which no positive and unequivocal traces of organic life have been as yet detected; and which have been bent, twisted and tilted up at all angles, and in some places invaded by masses of intrusive rock. Among the useful minerals peculiarly characteristic of this formation, the ores of iron are the most important, being found in interstratified layers or beds in quantities which may be regarded as inexhausti- ble and of exceedingly rich quality. Veins of lead and copper also, cutting the stratification, occur in the formation, especially at or near its junction with the next succeeding system of rocks ; plumbago and mica abound, and phos- phate of lime and sulphate of barytes are of frequent occur- rence. The Laurentian limestones furnish marbles of very excellent quality, together with a great variety of materials applicable to ornamental purposes. The Huronian system, the next in ascending order, is wanting in the eastern and central parts of Canada, but at- tains a great development on the northern shores of Lake Huron and parts of Lake Superior; occupying a linear ex- tent of about 400 miles, and consisting of slates, altered sandstones, limestones and conglomerates, associated with heavy masses and dykes of trap ; the total thickness is esti- mated at about 18,000 feet. This system constitutes what has been called the lower copper-bearing rocks of the lake region ; the ore occurring sometimes disseminated among the slates, but more frequently in quartz veins intersecting them. These deposits of copper ore have formed, for many years back, the object of mining operations ; and there can be no doubt that this region contains metallic treasures , f i ' i;i: If '.\ "J* pi: ' 1 ' 1 1 :ti '1 I;- ■li V' ■;i M V k , I m \ p' p \ ■v: L-'-*' ^i 312 MIKERAL RESOURCiiiS OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. which will one day become the source of great wealth to Canada. In addition to copper, p'.ver and nickel occur in this formation in quantities whicii 'omise to be of econ- omic importance. Agates, jasper an', ther varieties of pre- cious stones are of frequent occurrence, and the jasper con- glomerate, which abounds in this region, affords a beautiful material, which will be found applicable to many purposes of decorative construction. The upper copper-bearing rocks, including the well- known rich deposits on the south shore of Lake Superior, have recently been discovered to have their equivalents in what has been denominated the Quebec Group, in the eastern part of the province ; consisting of altered and highly dislocated and disturbed limestone and sandstone strata, belonging to the inferior part of the Lower Silurian system, and extending in a belt varying from twenty to sixty miles wide, from the borders of Lake Champlain eastward to nearly the extreme point of Gasp6. This important region, which occupies an area of over 15,000 square miles, is a portion of the great metalliferous formation of North Ameri- ca, which includes the well-known mining regions of the Appalachian chain from Canada to Tennessee, as well as those of Missouri and the Lake Superior region. Although this fact has but recently been recognized, many valuable discoveries of copper and other metals have already been made in the eastern townships of Canada, and at other points comprised within the region specified. In addition to the metals, it abounds in roofing slates of excellent quality, besides many beautiful varieties of serpentine, marble, soap- stone, whetstones, ochres, &c. The central portion of the province, comprising the re- gion bordering on the north shore of Lake Ontario, and ex tending over an area of about 7,000 square miles, is under laid by rocks of the Lower Silurian age, which are com- paratively unaltered, both as regards position and chemical %u MINBRAL RE80URCK8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMBRIOA. 818 composition. They are for the most part hidden under thick deposits of drift clay, and have hitherto produced no im- portant discoveries of the metals ; but it is worthy of re- mark that it is in hmestone rocks of corresponding age and condition that the extensive deposits of lead in Wisconsin and Iowa occur. The limestones of this region, besides con- tributing materially to its agricultural value, furnish excel- lent building and paving materials ; and in many places beds of hydraulic hmestone are found, and a superior description of lithographic stone maybe obtained in unlimited quantity. The rocks of the western peninsula are of Upper Silurian and Devonian age ; and furnish, by their decomposition, the materials for the rich and fertile soils by which this part of the province is distinguished, and rendered so invaluable for agricultural purposes. The most important mineral pro- ducts of the rocks of this region are gypsum, hydraulic lime and petroleum. The superficial deposits, all over the country, furnish abundant materials for the manufacture of bricks, tiles and every description of coarse pottery. Shellmarls occur in many places, and constitute a valuable manure. Bog iron ore is also found in great quantities, and at several points has been made available in the manufacture of iron of an excellent quality. Beds of ochre exist in many localities, and considerable areas in the eastern part of the province are covered by marshes yielding abundance of peat, which must in time become most valuable for fueL OATALOOUB OF TTSEFUL MINERALS FOUND IN CANADA. It will be impossible, within the limits prescribed to us, to give more than a general and cursory account of the useful minerals of Canada ; and with respect to many of them we must confine ourselves to a bare enumeration. As the basis of our remarks, we shall adopt the classification given by Sir William Logan ; reproducing, in an abridged form, the i. m m -]t m ii iiSiutk I 1;i.;, ■,; Ir- ■ '1 :| 'i jr: 1 ■ I 314 imniUL RisoimojiB or britibh korth AMSRiOAi index to the elaborate and valuable " Descriptive Catalogues of the Economic Minerals of Canada^" prepared by him for tiie Great Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862; and omitting such as are either common to most other countries, or of limited application in the arts, together with such as appear to be of rare occurrence in Canada. We shall then enter upon a more particular account of such as are of special interest or importance, giving such details as may serve to elucidate their nature, mode of occurrence and value, and the extent to which they have been developed. MITALB AND THBHl ORBS. Iron. Magnetic, specular, bog and titaniferous. ^nc and Lead. Sulphurets, (blende and galena.) Cbpper. Native, pyritous, variegated and vitreous sulphurets. Nickel and Cobalt. Sulphurets. Silver. Native, and associated with galena and copper ore. Gold, Native ; in superficial deposits and in veins. MUrBRALS APPUOABLB TO OHKMIOAL lIANTJB'AOTnRKS. Chromium. In chromic iron ore, for forming chromate of potash, &0. Manganese. In iron ore, and as earthy peroxide, for bleach- ing and decolorizing agents. Iron Pyrites. For manufacture of copperas and sulphur. MINRRAL PAIirrS. Iron Ochres. All varieties of color; very abundant. Sulphate of Baryta. For manufacture of permanent white, &c. Steatite. Soapstone, used both as a paint and a re&actory stone. MATERIALS APFLIOABLB TO THK ARTS. Lithographic Stone, Mica, Moulding Sand, Fullers Earth. in i^ MIKXRAL RK80UR0KB OF DRITIBH NORTH AMIRIOA. MATKRIALS AFPLICABLK TO JXWILRT. 815 Agates, Jasper, Lahradorite, SunsUme, ITyadnth, Oriental Rubies, Sapphires, Amethysts, Ribboned Chert, (for cameos,) Jet. MATKRIALS FOR GLASS MAKING. White Quartzose Sandstone, Pitchstone, Basalt, &o. REFRAOTORT MATBRIAL8. Soapstone, Pipestone, Asbestos, Sandstone, Plumbago, Fire-clay. MINERAL MANURES. Phosphate of Lime, Gypsum, Sfiellmarl. ORINDINO AND POLIBHINO MATERIAL. Millstones, Grindstones, Whetstones. MATERIALS FOR COMMON AND DECORATIVE OONBTRUOTION. Granite, Sandstone, Limestone, Hydraulic Limestone, Roofing Slates, Flagstones, Marbles^ (in great variety of colors,) Serpentines, Clays for brick and tile making and coarse pottery. COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. Peat, Petroleum, and Asphalt. In the notices which we shall proceed to give of the pro- gress of development of the various minerals under their respective heads, it is to be understood that the date to which this account is brought up is the early part of the year 1862. IRON ORES. The iron ores of Canada, with the exception of the bog ores, which are distributed over many part«t of the province, are chiefly found associated, as we before remarked, with the Laurentian rocks, in which they occur in prodigious quan- tities, and generally in beds lying conformably with the .*.- '; .c(r!ttmR^ il*^-iif " , r :, !: %■ ■ : ■ ■1' 1:. : if ' ^ ., 1 if '^ 'fii .' ■ 1, J ,!r' ' "■■I;-, . 1< ' ■ \'i ^i'ri 316 MINERAL RXSOUROES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Stratification. Most of these beds are of very great extent and thickness, and of excellent quality, yielding sixty to seventy per cent, of pure iron ; and although the want of mineral fuel operates as a very serious obstacle to the de- velopment of this branch of industry, they have been par- tially worked in a few places. At the Hull mine, situated about five miles above Ottawa City, the bed is about 90 feet in thickness, containing be- tween 60 and 70 per cent, of metallic iron, and is of vast though unknown extent. At the lowest estimate this de- posit is calculated to contain not less than 250,000,000 tons of iron. The Crosby miuo, situated on the Rideau canal, is on a bed 200 feet thick, and its yield over the same extent of ground woulv? amount to double that above-mentioned ; a quantity which, at the present rate of production, would afford employment for the whole mining force of Great Britain and the United States for a century. In the township of Marmora, where iron works have been established and smelting done to a limited extent, the beds are in the aggregate about 150 feet in thickness, and by the same method of computation ir ay be estimated to contain 100,000,000 tons ; and at two other known loca- tions which have been partially opened up, the probable contents may amount to 150,000,000 tons; thus making, for the five localities specified, an aggregate of 1,000,000,- 000 tons. Vast quantities of iron ore have recently been discovered in the neighborhood of Lake Nipissing, and it is certain that as the whole region overlaid by the Lauren- tian rocks becomes settled, many additional localities of the material will be discovered. It is thus evident that the supply of iron ore in Canada may be regarded as practically inexhaustible. As regards the quality of the ore, and natural facilities for working and transportation, these are unsurpassed by w MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 317 any country in the world. The ore consists chiefly, in the localities referred to, of the magnetic oxide of iron, which is the same species, and occurring in the same geological formation, with those of Sweden and Norway, from which the celebrated Swedish Iron is made. There is therefore every reason to believe that if treated in a similar way, it will produce an equally good material for the manufacture of steel and the finer descriptions of iron w ork. The ore-beds occurring immediately at the surface can be wrought with comparatively little labor, and many of the most promising are situated near the banks of navigable rivers and canals. The extensive scale on which iron smelting works must necessarily be conducted, and the large capital involved, together with the want of mineral fuel and expense of labor, have hitherto operated as obstructions to the develop- ment of this branch of industry in Canada ; while the low price of iron imported from the mother country renders it doubtful whether, in pr-'sent circumstances, it would re- pay the cost of manufacturing. It is, however, in the highest degree satisfactory to know that this country pos- sesses within itself such vast stores of a material indispensa- ble to the comfort and progress of mankind, and which can be made avulable when circumstances render its applica- tion expedient or necessary. It is A remarkable iitd somewhat anomalous fact, how- ever, that in the British provinces in North America, iron smelting and some other branches of industry, received a larger share of attention half a century ago than they do at the present day. This is probably to be accounted for from the application of the modsrn system of division of labor, which tends to restrict the industry of countries, as well as individuals, to those branches only which are supposed to form their staple productions, or to which nature and custom are conceived to have best adapted them. Several years ago iron works were established, and smelt- IL if* ■ • m I* •■i .!* '' 818 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. ing carried on for some time, on the rich magnetic oxides in the townships of Marmora and Madoc in the county of Hastings ; the produce was a very superior quality of man- ufactured iron ; but owing chiefly to the want of roads, dis- tance from markets, <^c., they have been found unprofitabl .), and abandoned in the meantime. We have no statistics of the production of these works. Of late years a trade has sprung up, to a limited extent, in the exportation of the iron ores of Hull and Crosby to the smelting establishments of Pittsburgh, Penn. ; which can be done with profit when taken as return freight by the vessels carrying the agricul- tural products of the West down the St. Lawrence. The ore is worth from $5 to $6 per ton at the furnaces, and can be put on board at Kingston for $2.25. From the Hull mine about 8,000 tons have been thus forwarded since 1855, and from that of South Crosby, which is more conveniently situated as regards proximity to the shipping port, the ex- ports up to the year 1S60 are stated at 6,000 tons. Besides the magnetic oxides, specular iron ore abounds in many localities in Canada, both in the Laurentian and Lower Silurian groups of rocks, and red hematite or car- bonate of iron is also of not unfrequent occurrence. About fifty years ago, these descriptions of ores were mined for smelting purposes in the neighborhood of Furnace Falls in Landsdowne, but the works being found unprofitable at the time, were abandoned. Eed hematite was formerly quar- ried in the township of Brome, Canada East, of such superior quality as to be found worthy of transportation a distance of about 180 miles to be smelted. A great extent of rich hematite has recently been discovered upon one of the islands in Lake Nipissing. Titaniferous iron ore is very abundant in Lower Canada, chiefly in the Eastern townships and at Bay St. Paul, but it is doubtful whether it can be rendered available for the manufacture of iron, owing to the presence of the ■'! MINEEAL BE80TJBCE8 OF BEITI8H NORTH AMEBIOA. 319 titanium which is diflScult to separate, but which probably may in the progress of the arts become itself a valuable product. The deposit at Bay St. Paul, which is ninety feet thick, and is traceable for about a mile, contains 48.60 of oxide of titanium. The bog iron ores, which are found so extensively dif- fused throughort Canada, have been in a few instances the object of manufacturing industry. These ores occur in patches from tliree to twenty-four inches thick, on the sur- face, generally in the neighborhood of swampy lands, and consist of hydrated oxide of iron combined with an acid de- rived from vegetable decomposition ; their yield of metallic iron is usually from forty to fifty per cent. The St. Maurice forges at Three Rivers, in Lower Canada, which have been in operation for upwards of a century, employ ex- clusively this description of ore, which is found in great abundance in the immediate neighborhood ; and have pro- duced largely both of cast and wrought iron of a very superior quality. This establishment, which at one time employed from 250 to 300 hands, is now discontinued ; but the business is carried on vigorously at the Radnor forges in Batiscan, where the ore and fuel are abundant. The chief manufacture here consists of cast-iron car- wheels; and recently a rolling mill has been erected, which produces railroad and other descriptions of fine iron. The quantity of ore annually used at these works is be- tween 4,000 and 5,000 tons, producing about 2,000 tons of pig iron ; and the number of workmen varies from 200 to 400. In Upper Canada an iron smelting work, in which the bog ores were employed, was erected and carried on for some time in the county of Norfolk, on the shore of Lake Erie, but is now abandoned, and no statistics of the pro- duction of this work have, so far as we are aware, been preserved. The excellent quality of the iron produced from the bog ores of Canada is remarkable, inasmuch as these invariably contain a notable quantity of phosphorus, r \ r ; \'«\ '\l\ t 1:' f' •HI. ! IRON OCKRES Very extensive beds of hydrated peroxide of iron, con- itituting the ochrofl of commerce, are distributed in many partg of Canada, and chieiy in aasociatiou with the bog MINEHAL R£80UBC£8 OF BHITUU NOBTU AMEUIGA. 333 iron ores, whicli are, in point of fact, nearly of the Baiuo origin and composition, only diti'ering in the coiiditi^Mi in which their elements are conibiuud. In many [ilaces these substances are actually found in process of forma- tion, the iron being visibly precipitated from springs hold- ing it in solution. Some of the ochre beds of Canada have been partially worked, and supply an excellent material, of a great va- riety of shades of color. The principal locality where the manufacture of this description of paints has been carried on is at Pointe du Lac, on the noith shore of the St. Lawrence, near Three Rivers, in Lower Canada, where the deposit occupies an area of about 4U0 acres, with an average thickness of eighteen inches; but the enterj)rise appears for the present to be abandoned. It was prepared for the market at very little cost, and the works were ca- pable of producing twelve barrels per day, worth iive dol- lai-s per barrel. Sir Wm. Logan renuu-ka in liis Report, in regard to the exhibition of Canadian minei-als at Dm don, in 1851 : " I was informed by one of the princii)al manufacturers of paints in London, that tlie iron ochres from Canada were of tho best usual description, and ecjual to those now imported from France. The French ochres imported into London in the (;rude state, and prepared there on a large scale, can be sold to a profit at £3 ($15) per ton; and the superiority of the English maimfacturers over tha French is such, that the latter, prepju'ing the nni- terial at home and exporting it to London, cannot oh- tain aprodt unless they can sell the conunodity at .£<> ]>er ton. The charges of freight may render it ditUcult to transport the Canadian ochre across the Atlantic at a proiit, but the abundance of the material in tin; country should surely render it unnecessary that uny should be im- ported into tliis or the neighboring colonieti." SULPHATE OF HARYITA Tliifl mineral, otherwise called heavy -spar, and wirich is much used in the manufacture of a white paint, and for ij'i |: I u 1 334 MINERAL BE80UECF9 OF BRITIS)FI NOETH AirTCPTO^. ftdi I*aratinj5 white lead, occurs abundantly at }->nryta Island, in Lake Superior ; and also in the t< >^ . ri'^hipr. of Bedford, Bastard, Lansdowno, and McNab ; it forms, iu conjunction with calc-spar, the gangue of many of the metallic veins, chiefly those of galena. At one place in the township of Bastard, as described by Mr. Murray, assistant provincial geologist, these minerals constitute a V':in traceable for a quarter of a mile in length, with ■ ])readtli of twenty -eight inches, consisting iu some places al- most entirely of pure crystallized sulphate of barytes, yield- ing about ten tons per fathom. The value of the crude mate- rial is said to be $8 to $10 per ton to the manufacturer, while the i^ianufactured article is worth $30 per ton. STEATITE OR SOAPSTONE. This mineral, which is composed of silica and magnesia, possesses many valuable and useful properties. It is tioft and unctuous to the touch, capable of being worke-I 'ato any required shape by conunon carpenters' tools, R»id is little affected by exposure to intense heat or btrojig acids. In Canada it is used occasionally as a refractory stone, and is found in beds of twenty and thirty feet tliick re- spectively, in the townships of Sutton and Bolton, associ- ated with serpentine and dolomite. It also exists iu the townships of Leeds and Stanstead, wheie it is ground and employed as a paint. LITHOORAr'aiJ RTONB. A specioB of limestone belonging to the period of the lower Silurian formation, and occurring in the township of Marmora, in the vicinity of the iron-works already men- tioned, is found to be exceedingly well adapted to the pur- poses of lithography, and attracted much attention and commendation at the Great Exhibition in London in 1851, although hitherto no attetnpt has been made to quarry it for use. The bed from which this valuable material is de- rived is of great lineal extent and about two feet in thick- M 4 :if. MINEBAI. BE80ITRCB8 OF BBTTISF NOBTH AMUSICA.. 335 ne48, and is difltin>iiii8lipd for itt* perfect homogeubii/, close- ness and corapac^^nesB of texture, lad other excellent qualities for the purpose referred to. Another locality of this material, in the upper Silurian rocks, has recently been discovered in Canada Went, near Walkerton, Brant county, where not less than fifteen beds of limestone, ad- mirably adapted for this purpose, occur in a thickness of nine feet. Good lithographic stone is said to be worth about seven centd p^" pound. MICA. This remarkable mineral is found in great abundaiicc and of extreme purity in some parts of Canada, and ha.^ been to a limited extent applied to economic purposes. " The cleavable character of mica," says Sir William Lo- gan, " its transparency, its elasticity and refractory nature, rentier it valuable for several purposes, the more impor- tant of which relate to it as a substitute for glass for ship^' windows, and in some countries for house windows, for stove fronts, and such like applications. For the latter purpose it is greatly used in North America. The price at which plates of five by seven inches sell in Montreal is about a dollar the pound." Sir William further states that the Canadian mica attracted so much notice at the French Exposition in 1855, as to induce inquiries by an artist in Paris, who stated that he could udo about 12,000 lbs. annually. He could afford to pay the following prices for square plates of it, according to size : Prom 3J inchea to 5| incnos $31.00 per 100 lbs. " 6| " 7| " 40.00 " " 7| " " " 46.76 " " 9J " " '« 63.67 " In Qrenville, on the Ottawa River, where the mineral is found in great quantity, but in putehes imbedded in massive pyroxenic rock in contact with abed of crystalline limestone, crystals of mica have been obtained giving sheets measuring twenty-four by fourteen inches. At another /mi^c *4 ':'^^fmm^m ■i-.'-\' I >' ill!: P'- ■y ' k ■t t !; i ■< i 836 mutebal ecsoubcbs of BBmsH north America. locality in the township of North Bnrgess, near the Ridean Canal, the mineral is found in regular veins, or rather bands, rnnning parallel with each other at no great distance apa 'k, some of which are as much as four feet in width, and can be traced for seventy-five yards in length. These deposits have yielded good plates, which when dressed measure twenty by thirty inches; the average size, however, varies from three to ten inches square, of which great quantities can be obtained in this locality. At present the demand for mica is rather limited, but there can be no doubt that a material possessing such re- markable and valuable properties must, in the progress of the arts, and when its abundant supply is established, find many economii: applications. In addition to the uses mentioned* above, it has recently been much employed in photographic manipulations, and for the manufacture of stable and other lanterns ; and laii^e flakes are eagerly sought after by optical instrument makers, for dials for ships' compasses. A flake one inch thick can be divided into the astonishing number of 2,000 elieecs. Recently a new field has Irjen opened up, by a patent pro-v-es for the application of mica, previously colored or metallized, to the decorating of churches, rooms, shops, and other ornamental and useful purposes. The mica from its unalterable nature, preserves the gilding, silver- ing, or coloring from deterioration, and from its transpa- rency the articles so treated will preserve all their bril- liancy. The value of mica depends upon the size of the sheets and their transparently. In the London market, to wli'"h Canada haa supplied about two tons, of the total net value of £450 sterling, the Canadian mica is not so much fStoerjei aa that from Calcutta, which commands from twD -aiUb;i?8 sixpence to four shillings per lb., while the Ca- nadian v'i!i iarely exceed two shillings. The location in NortVi Buyi,ti3H, mentioned above, has supplied the only mica hithtjTto exported from Canada, so far as we c re aware. m ilea lONSSAL BBSOVBCBS OT BRITISH HOSTH AMEBIOA. 337 PLUMBAGO, OR ORAPHITB. The cryBtalline limestones of the Ijaurentian sptem, and some of the lower members of the Silurian system, are marked by the occurrence of this mineral in many cases, diffu'ted in small scales and flakes ; but sometimes in sufficient aggregation to be economically available. The chief locality where it seems to occur in workable quan- tities, is in the townships bordering the north bank of the Ottawa river, below Ottawa City. A bed of tolerably pure graphite has been partially worked in the township of Grenville ; it has been traced at intervals for a distance of about three mileo, and shows on the surface a thickness of ten inches ; but the pur«r portions of the band appear to form lenticular masses, which cannot be depended upon for continuous working, and, consequently, may not be found profitable in mining. This, so far as hitheito as- certained, seems to be the character of the deposits of graphite generally throughout Canada. At the present time it is essential to the commercial value of this mate- rial, that it should be almost free from gritty or stony par- ticles ; but economical methods of purifying it will doubt- less be applied at an i)arly day, and will secure a regular market for the Canadian plumbago, some of which is found in a state of great purity, and is worth from eighty to one hundred dollars per ton. The uhief applications of this material are for the manufacture of crucibles for brass- founders, for glazing gunpowder, blacking stoves, ttc, and for diminishing friction in heavy miiihinery. Processes have recently been patented in England, by Messrs. Brockedon and Brodie, for the purification of ordinary plumbago, so as to render it fit for tlio manuf'^cture of black-lead pencils. These have been ascertained to be successfully applicable to the Cai»adian article, and xv-ill thus render the mining of this valuable mineral, on an ex- tensive scale, well worthy of attention. Wo are not award t f 1 Hi IV m 0- 81 '• ir! " ^ I it » 1 r 338 MINERAL BESOUBOEB OF BBITISH NORTH AMERICA. thnt any considerable quantity of plumbago has yet been produced in Canada. MINERAL MANURES.- -PHOSPHATE OP LIME.— GYPSUM.— SUELL-MARL Apatite or Phosphate of Lime. — This mineral, the con- stituent elements of which form the base of animal bones, is found iu great abundance in the Laurentian rocks of Canada ; and although not hitherto brought into very gen- eral use as an artificial manure, is plentifully distributed l)y the hand of nature from the debris of the rocks among the soils, contributing no doubt very materially to their fertil- ity and value. Its occurrence in rocks of such primitive geo- logical age, r -iiits to the existence of animal life at a period vastly earlier than the received geological theories admit. The mineral phosphate of lime has for some years back attracted considerable attention, both in England and tlie United States, as a substitute for guano and bone-dust. So important is the substance deemed, that the British government sent commissioners to Estremadura in Spain, where the mineral is found, for the purpose of arranging for its importation into England ; but the result was that it did not appear to exist in sufficient quantity ; so that the only mineral phosphate now used by the agriculturists in England is obtained irom the crag on the coast of Suffolk. This, however, is very impure, containing much carbonate of lime and other earthy matters ; while the mineral phos- phate found in Canada is nearly in a pure, and mucli of it in a crystallized state. Although it has not yet been mined to any considerable extent, sufficient has been as- certained with regard to its mode of occurrence to rendi^r it certain that it can be obtained in very great quantities, and it may be hoped that it will supersede the use of bones, of which probably not less than £400,000 or £500,- 000 worth are annually imported into England. Besides the use of bone-dust for agricultural purposes, several thousand tons of it are annually used in England for the lONEBAL RE80UB0K8 OF BBITISH NOBTH AXKBIOA. 839 manufacture of china waro, at a cost of from Boven pounds to ten pounds per ton. Probably the mintval phosphate might be succesafully applied as a substitute for this pur- pose also. As a manure it has been actually applied to the laud with great success ; but a good and cheap method of decomposing it, previous to applying it to the soil, is still a desideratum. The usual mode of applying it as a manure, is to grind the mineral to powder, and treat with coarse sulphuric acid ; about two-thirds of the phosphate is thus at once liberated, and enters into combination with the soil, while the remaining third will act upon the ground the ensuing year, by becoming soluble by natural agencies. This mineral is found very extensively distributed among the Laurentian rocks, both in detached nodules and in crystals ; but the most important locality of its oc- currence hitherto discovered is in the township of South Burgess, where it forms a massive bed of unknown though evidently very great dimensions, which has been quarried to a small extent. Another deposit in the adjoining town- ship of Elmsley, but which, from the direction of the beds, Bee!Q8 to bo in the same band, has also been worked a little, and apparently forms an irregular bed in the Laurentian limestone. This bed has been traced upwards of a mile, and seems to be about ten feet wide, of which three feet are nearly pure crystalline apatite, containir g about ninety per cent, of phosphate of lime, the remaind er being mixed with the limestone rock, in which, howevei , the phosphate greatly predominates. The deposit in South Burgess has the great advantage of being very easily quarried, and of being situated immediately upon one of the reaches of the Bideau canal. The mineral is stated to be worth from twenty to thirty dollars per ton in England, the value of course varying according to the percentage of phosphoric acid. When we consider the bearing of tlip phosphate of lime upon the animal and vegetable economy, we must regard the discovery of this substance in such abundance, 22 1; r'' U;; P' I r^ .'• f 840 IflKERAL RErOURCES OF BBmSH NORTH AMERICA. and 80 easily accessible, as one of the most valuable of the sources of wealth which has been added to the country during the last few years, Oypsum. — In regard to this valuable material, tlie fol- lowing extracts from a lecture delivered by Professor Hind of Toronto, in 1857, are pertinent and exliaustive : " The vast areas occupied by the rocks yielding gypsum in Western Canada have for many years been regarded us Bources of great national wealth. Our gypsiferous rocks extend from the Niagara to the Saugcon, a distance of 150 miles, and have a breadth varying from live to fifteen and even twenty miles. Gypsum has been quarried in the townships of Dumfries, Brantford, Oneida, Cayuga, and others in the valley of the Grand River ; it will probably be found in great abundance in the valley of the Saugueu when that fertile tract of country becomes better known. " Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is used in the arts fur numerous purposes. It is employed by potters for pro- curing moulds with its calcined powder, moistened with a proper quantity of water. The liner kinds are selected for the manufacture of the alabaster ornaments so much admired. "When properly calcined, and ground to a line powder, it is largely employed for stucco-work, statues, and statuettes; when mixed with glue or gelatine, colored stuccoes of great hardness and beauty are made from it. It is admirably adapted for taking casts of objects, and ia frequently employed for that purpose. When mixed with alum, borax, or potash, a vaiiety of materials greatly prized in the plastic arts are produced. The Bubject is one of general interest, and the vast deposits of gypsum in Canada will no doubt become considerable sources of wealth when the proper time arrives. " For agricultural purposes the value of gypsum is too well known to require much notice hero ; a growing ap- preciation of its worth is shown in the yearly increasing demand, and it is now found for sale in large quantities in most Canadian towns; It is a fact ascertained by the ex- 1 ;i it. is Kth ced of ida len too ip- in lex- HINERAL RE8OUB0ES OF BRITISn NORTH AMERICA. 841 perience of very many years in Franco and Germany, and more recently in America, that gypsum, when judiciously applied, sometimes doubles and even trebles the quantity of certain plants usually grown on a given area. A study of the mode and time of applying it, and of the plants most benefited by it, ought not to bo lost sight of in Can- ada, where it so largely abounds. The value of the exports from Canada of ground plaster and hydraulic lime shows a steady and important increase. In 1853 it was £1,340 ; in 1854, £2,017; and in 1855, £19,112." Sir William Logan remarks : " All the gypsum mines at present worked in Canada occur on the Grand River, in a distance of thirty-iive miles, extending from Cayuga to Paris. All the mines appear to be confined to one stratigraphical position in the formation, which is probably about the middle. The mineral occurs in lenticular masses, varying in horizontal diameter from a few yards to a quarter of a mile, with a thickness of from three to seven feet. The layer of gypsum appears to bo in general both overlaid and underlaid by beds of dolomite, much of which is fit for the purpose of hydraulic cement, and the gypsum itself is sometimes interstratitied with thin beds of dolomite. In some parts there ai)pear to be two work- able ranges of gypsum, one a few feet above the other. But this probably is only to be considered as a thickening of the gypsiferous band with an interstratificatiou of a larger mass of dolomite." The business of mining gypsum in Canada, and of pre* paring it for the market, has been in existence for the last fourteen or fifteen years. The following is the amount raised annually from the quarries on the Grand liiver, according to Sir Wm. Logan's returns : Tom. T. Martindale, Onoida, .'{.rjOO J. Doualdaon, " 1.500 A. Taylor, York 3,000 Thompsoa ft Wright, Paris 4,000 J. Brown, Cayuga, 2,000 14,000 't #il rr ^>. .^^j€> IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 21 12.5 ui Ui m 1.4 V] vQ 7: c? / Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STRfET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 '%'" K ^ i m" i If 342 MINEBAL BESOUBEES OF BBITISH NOBTH AMEBIOA. The greater part of this gypsum is employed for agricul- tural purposes, and the prices at which it is sold are as follows : — Per Ton. Plaster, unground $2.00 " ground for agricultural purposes 3.50—4.00 " " stucco, ravr 5.50 — 7.00 " " " calcined 16.00 Much of the produce of these mines is sent to be ground and prepared for market by Mr. Brown of Thorold, on the Welland Canal, who has for the last fifteen years manu- factured on an average 1,000 tons annually. Shell Marl. Vast deposits of recent shell marl and cal- careous tufa are found in various localities, and in all parts of Canada, too numerous to be here specified. Wherever they occur the land is characterized by a luxuriant vege- tation, and dense growth of hard-wood timber, indicating their extraordinary fertilizing properties on the soil. The deposits of shell marl extend in some instances, as In the township of Sheffield, county of Addington, C. W., about 400 acres, with a thickness over the greater portion of at least ten feet. One of the deposits of calcareous tufa is supposed to extend over more than 1,000 acres, with an average thickness of five feet. HTDRAULIO OEMENT.-ROOFING SLATES. At several points, and in various geological formations in Canada, silicious dolomites occur, which, w] en carefully calciied and ground, are found to furnish a very superior description of water-lime or cement, which rapidly hardens under, and permanently resists the action of water ; this invaluable property being due to their containing a definite proportion of silicious and magnesian salts associated with the lime. The principal localities where limestones hold- ing the proper admixture of the materials named have been discovered are at Paris, Cayuga, Thorold, Kingston, and Loughborough in Canada West, and at Nepean or Hull, Quebec, and the Magdalen Elver in Gasp6, Canada •:3 MINEEAL BE80TTECE8 OF BKITISH NOETH AMEEICA. 343 East. In some of these localities the beds have been worked ; those of Hull and Thorold are of excellent qual- ity and are highly esteemed. During the construction of y<».rious railway and other public works within the last ten years, the quantity of cement manufactured by Mr. Brown of Thorold averaged 80,000 bushels annually, but at present the quantity does not exceed one-tenth of that amount. The present price of the cement is from twenty to twenty- five cents per bushel of sixty pounds. The average annual value of cement ground at the Thorold mills, for the last eighteen years, varies from $3,000 to $6,000. Roofing Slates. — " Slate is a material daily becoming more valuable, on account of the vast variety of useful purposes to which it is applied. One of its most import- ant characteristics is its strength ; it is computed to be about four times as strong as ordinary stone, and slabs eight feet long and upwards can be safely used of a thick- ness not exceeding half an inch. It is a non-absorbent of moisture, and is thus adapted as an admirable lining for wells and for roofing houses. The economical importance of slates has attracted attention to their distribution in Lower Canada, and already large quarries are worked which furnish slate of a superior quality." — Professor Hind's Lecture. Sir William Logan makes the following valuable re- marks on the numerous useful applications of slate : " Not only is it applied as a covering for houses, but it is employed as walls for cisterns to hold water, slabs of fifteen feet by eight being sometimes used for this purpose ; in smaller dimensions it is used for wine-coolers, dairy dressers, kitchen and hall flooring, tables, chimney mantels, and a multitude of other purposes where surface is required. In its application as tables and chimney-pieces, it is capa- ble of receiving a high degree of decoration : the tables, after being dressed to the smoothest possible surface, are embellished with gilding, or with paintings in colors resist- ing tire, showing landscapes or imitations of stone ; and a ■:■ "tmy% I ^■ ,%' 1.. is..:u ( : hk n N h r> i - < ■ ; '(' 1 y* r .... ; » f^Si':?;::::^ fe-;-' ■ ■ ^IBB ' ■ , ; •' i ■»;:/ ,:, ; J|j : :M mB Md '^ |_^' 344 MINERAL BE80UBOE8 OF BFITI8H NORTH AMERICA. silicious varnish being applied, the stone is subjected to a heat which melts the varnish into an enamel, and produces a brilliant result. Chimney-pieces in the same way are enamelled over the natural color of the stone, or over a fancy color given to it. When the colot is black, it is difficult to distinguish the slate from a brilliantly polished and valuable black marble, while the cost is comparatively smtiU. The great number of purposes to which good slate is applicable render the rock of great economic import- ance and well worthy of research." To the many advan- tages above enumerated, attending the use of this material, may be added the extraordinary facility with which it can be worked into any required shape. The best slate quarry hitherto found in Canada is Mr. Benjamin Walton's, in the township of Melbourne, C. E. ; the band of slate is one-third of a mile wide, and overlies serpentii e rock ; thus marking its geological position to be in the Quebec group of the lower Silurian system, and probably equivalent to that of the far-famed Welsh slate rocks. Mr. Walton commenced preliminary operations in 1860, and has produced slates for t'le market since the spring of 1861. In opening up the quarry an expendi- ture of about $30,000 is said to have been incurred, and during last year the value of slate sold has been about $8,000. These slates are held in high repute for their excellent quality ; and it is confidently anticipated that, when in full operation, this quarry will find an abundant market for its produce, not only in Canada, but in the western cities of the Union. The following table, given by Sir Wm. Logan in his Catalogue of Economic Materials for 1862, exhibits, first, the sizes of the slates in inches ; sec- ond, the number of such slates in a square (of one hundred square feet); and, third, the price per square at which Mr. Walton supplies his slates, placed on the railroad cars on the Quebec and Richmond branch of the Grand Trunk Railway, which is within one and a half mile of the quarry. MINEBAL EE80UaOE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 345 Sizes. Number. Price. Sizes. Nnmber. Price. 24x16 86... .$4.00 16x10. ...222 $3.75 24x14 98... . 4.00 16 X 9. ...246.... 3.75 24x12. ...114... . 4.00 16 X 8. ...277 3.70 22x12 126... . 4.00 14x10. ...262 3.00 22x11. ...138... . 4.00 14 X 9. ...291.... 3.00 20x12 141... . 4.00 14 X 8. ...327 3.00 20x11. ...154... . 4.00 14 X 7. ...374.... 2.75 20x10 169... . 4.00 12 X 8. ...400.... 2.75 18x11. ...175... . 4.00 12 X 7. ...457.... 2.50 18x10 192... . 4.00 12 x6. ...533.... 2.25 18 X :».... ai3... . 4.00 Canada abounds in materials of the beat quality appli- cable to common and decorative construction, such as clay for bricks, etc., building stones of every description, flags, marbles, porphyry, and many stones applicable to jewelry — also grindstones, and whetstones of a very su- perior description ; but want of space compels us to omit all special notice of these products. PEAT. We must not omit mention, however, of a substance which is found here, perhaps more largely distributed and of a better quality ,n in any other country in the world ; and wl ich is probably destined at no distant date to be- come of great economic importance. We refer to peat. This description cf fuel is found to form an excel- lent substitute for coal in many countries where the latter invaluable substance does not occur ; and for the manu- facture of the best kinds of iron, for which the Canadian ores are especially adapted, peat would be found peculi- arly applicable. Various contrivances for compressing peat have recently been patented, and introduced into Eng- land and France ; and if this can be economically effected in Canada, there will be a very large field open for the employment of this department of national industry. As the country becomes more thickly settled, wood will rap- :% 'At- ■) . '. ■:!■" it P ?:■: iR:;i.v:' I* I,; ■ i!i;i;;:il' t 'ii 1,::; /rftir Ill':':; i-l-^ ■ in •■lii 846 MINERAL BES0UBCE8 OF BBITISH NOBTH AMEBIOA. idly disappear, and in this exigency the peat bogs of Can- ada will afford an inexhaustible supply of fuel, second in value only to beds of mineral coal. Peat occurs in great abundance in many parts of the province ; in the Island of Anticosti, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, there is an area of not less than 160 square miles, occupied by a peat bog ; the thickness of peat varying ii om three to ten feet where observed. This is the largest peat field in Canada, and the general quality of the mate- rial is excellent. Including this deposit. Lower Canada contains probably not less than 1,000 square miles of this valuable material, and in many places the thickness is much greater than that mentioned above. Canadian peat is found, on a careful comparison, to contain less mineral matter than that usually found in Europe. An attempt was made, some eight or ten years ago, to introduce this material into Montreal as a fuel, but not being prosecuted "with sufficient energy and perseverance, it fell to the ground. There can be no doubt, however, that at no dis- tant date, and especially in that large and flourishing city, where the material is very abundant in the immediate neighborhood, sufficient inducements will be offered for the prosecution of this branch of industry. PETROLEUM. This very remarkable mineral product has for the last two or three years attracted a large share of public atten- tion in Canada, where its existence in such abundance as to afford promise of a great and permanent traffic has been fully recognized. Never, perhaps, has there been an in- stance of an extensive trade so rapidly developed as in the case of the rock oil business in Canada. The locality in which the oil springs have for the most part been discovered and worked in Canada is the town- ship of Enniskillen, county of Plympton, in the western peninsula ; and the geological position is the summit of tthe upper Silurian, or base of the Devonian systems of lime- MINERAL KE80UEOE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 347 stone rocks, being a lower horizon than that of the ^il wells of Pennsylvania and Ohio. The petroleum owes its origin, in all probability, to the slow subterranean decom- position and bituminization of organic matter, both ani- mal and vegetable, but chiefly the ktter, which have been deposited with the other materials of which the rocks are composed. The resulting fluid and gaseous matters, float- ing on the surface of the water which permeates the strata, accumulate chiefly along the summit of a flat anticlinal axis, which traverses the western peninsula of Canada, penetrating the fissures or cracks in the rocks. The oil re- veals itself at the surface, either by hydrostatic pressure or by the elastic force of the vapor, where the superficial clays are penetrated, either by natural or artificial means. The fact of the existence of petroleum springs in West- ern Canada is by no means a new discovery, although it is only very recently that they have been ascertained to be of much economic importance. At several points along the banks of the river Thames and Bear Creek in the west- ern peninsula, the oil has been long known to exude at the surface, and float along the water ; and was used in the neighborhood as a remedy for cuts and cutaneous dis- eases in horses. In the south part of the township of En- niskillen two patches on the surface of the ground, of an acre or more in extent, are found to be covered to a con- siderable depth with a viscid mineral tar or asphaltum, which has resulted from the oxidation and drying up of springs beneath. It is the existence of these superficial deposits that first attracted attention to the substance as a source of illuminating oil ; and it was speedily discovered that, on penetrating below the asphalt into the underlying clay, great quantities of the oil could be obtained in the fluid state, and consequently much nearer the condition required in the manufacture. The first adventurer in this field was Mr. W. M. Williams, of Hamilton, who com- menced operations in 1857, and to whom alone is due the merit of developing this branch of industry in Canada, as ':n ij }\ ^T Ir •! I • ■ V ■ ^'3 1« it'' I / ' . f :.,. ''i si'' '' '■■ ■ t pi''" *■ ■■ ■ f. if 348 MINERAL KESOURCEg OF BRITISH NORrH AMERICA. well as of pointing out the road to success in the same di- rection in the United States. The capital which M". Wil- liams and his associates have embarked in the works is about $50,000 ; the oil obtained at their wells is conveyed in barrels to Hamilton, a distance of upwards of 100 miles, and there refined for the market. Refineries are now, however, in operation to a considerable extent in the oil region itself, there being not less than six establishments of the kind in Enniskillen, and about an equal number in other parts of the province. The refining process consists in rectifying by repeated distillations, deodorizing by treat- ing with acids, and subsequent washing in alkalies. Sii' William Logan estimates that " within an area of about four square miles, in the first three ranges of the township of Enniskillen, there were supposed to be in August, 1861, about seventy wells yielding more or less oil. Of these forty were surface wells, that is, wells sunk from forty to sixty feet through the drift clay and gravel to the rock beneath. Some of these latter, wkch had yielded but little oil, gave abundant supplies by boring into th,^ rock. The oil-bearing fissures or veins in adjacent wells were met with at depths varying from 36 to 100 and even 150 feet from the surface of the rock." Since the date to which Sir William refers many other wells have been sunk, and there are now several hundreds in the township, many of which, however, do not yield oil. In some cases, by pene- trating to depths exceeding 200 feet from the sr.rface, what are called " flowing welh " have been obtained, and these, from their extraordinary yield of oil, and from the circumstance that it is procured without pumping, for the present eclipse in importance all the rest ; but experience in other regions has proved that these valuable qualities do not continue to exist for cny very lengthened period at any one well. Some of the flowing wells, of which there are altogether twelve up to the present time, are said to have yielded at the rate of about 2,000 forty-gallon barrels in twenty-four hours. The petroleum from these deep wells MINERAL BES0UKCE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 349 is lighter, more fluid, and better adapted for the Tuanufacture of illuminating oil than that from the surface wells. The total yield of the Enniskillen oil region, till the com- mencement of 1862, is probably about 500,000 gallons, but this quantity by no means represents the capacity of the wells ; as, from the difficulty of communication during a great part of the year, the scarcity of barrels, or other ves- sels to receive the oil, and, abovd all, the want of a regular market for the produce, they have never been worked to their full capacity. At present much activity prevails among speculators in this interesting commodity, and there is a prospect of very large exports being made of the crude oil to England, and even to the United States, as the Cana- dian petroleum is reputed to possess superior qualities for refining purposes to that found in Pennsylvania and Ohio, which is said to be too light, and to contain too much vol- atile and explosive naphtha. So long as the flowing wells continue their extraordinary yield, the price of the oil at the wells is almqpt nominal ; yet such is the cost of handling and transportation, that it is worth one shilling per gallon, or from £15 to £18 sterling per ton, in England, including packages. The loss in refining, where illuminating oil only is pro- duced, is considerable, and in these circumstances it will obviously be of advantage, so long as fuel can be obtained at a sufficiently cheap rate, to refine the oil in Canada and export it ii. that state. The refuse or heavier products Oi the distillation, however, contain highly useful ingre- dients, such as benzine, and many valuable coloring matters, which in present circumstances can be turned to much better account in England; and thus it w probably be found that the exportation of the crude oil will ultimately form the staple business in this commodity. At present rates, the cost of delivering one ton of crude oil in London or Liverpool will not exceed £9 or £10 sterling, v/hich will leave a consideri'.ble margin for profit. There seems little reason to doubt that an immense traffic in this article U ; '<^' m i^ 'U V 350 MINERAL RFSOTTRCES OP BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. will spring up between the two countries ; already about 6,000 barrels have been exported from Enniskillcn to Eng- land during the present season; and from 40 to 50 teams are daily employed in hauling from the wells to the rail- way station. Although it is impossible to predict with any degree of certainty how long the supply may continue at any one point, yet, from the facts that wells sunk quite near to each other have evidently an independent source, and that there is a very large area of country underlaid by the oil-bearing veins, it is probable that the resources of the country in this respect will not speedily be ex- hausted. MINERAL RESOURCES OF NOYA SCOTIA, NEW BRUNSWICK, AND NEWFOUNDLAND. In Nova Scotia the most important minerals of economic importance hitherto discovered and wrought, are coal, gypsum, iron, and gold. We must be content with a very slight sketch of the history and statistics of these products. For the facts adduced we are indebted mainly to Dr. Dawson's valuable work on " Acadian Geology." . COAL. The coal-fields of Nova Scotia have been long known to be of vast extent and value, and have been worked more or less since the first settlement of the colony by the British ; when the imperial government, in making their grants of land, reserved for the crown all mineral rights, and subsequently leased them to a company of capitalists styled the General Mining Association, by whom the coal has been for the most part mined and exported. The most important are the Albion mines in the county of Pictou, in the northern part of the province, where two seams of excellent coal occur, of the enormous aggregate thickness of thirty-seven and twenty-two feet respectively ; although MINEB^ BE80UR0ES OF BBiriSH NORTH AMERIOA. 351 to of this total thickness only about twenty-four and twelve feet can bo said to be good coal. The main seam has been very extensively worked, and its outcrop has been traced for several miles ; but it is remarkable that it preserves its character as a seam of good coal only for a very limited distance on either side of the main shaft. The coal hith- erto exported has been obtained almost exclusively from the upper part of this seam, the workings being from twelve to nine feet deep, and the lowest shaft sunk to a depth of about 400 feet. Although the coal rapidly dete- riorates in quality in all directions from the main shaft, its thicknsss, together with that of the underlying deep eeam, is so great that there is no prospect of their being speedily exhausted ; and long ere this occurs, there is little room to doubt that other good seams will be discovered in the same district. The quantity of coal rais'^'i at these mines in 1851 was about sixty thousand chaldrons, and subsequently this yield has been still further increased. It is chiefly ex- ported to the United States, and is admirably adapted and extensively used in making gas, as well as for general purposes. These mines afford employment to a popula- tion of 2,000, and their produce is conveyed by a railway worked by locomotives to the harbor of South Pictou, a distance of six miles. The following is an abstract of returns of coal raised, sold, and exported at Pictou in the year ending 31st De- cember, 1858 : Large CoaL BUck Coal. Total quantity raised aad sold in tons. 100,607i 14,344^ Of this there was — Sold for home consumption 9,2124- 4,519^ Exported to the United States 89,217 6,396 Exported to the neighboring Colonies 2,178 3,419 Next in importance to the Pictou coal mines are those ot Sydney, at the north-eastern extremity of Cape Breton. Here the productive coal measures cover an area of 250 ,■*" r / I !.i. 4 352 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISn NORTH AMKBIOA. square mrles, and tho aggrep^ate thickness of the eoal scams amounts to thirty-seven feet, of which, however, nly twenty feet are of good quality, or workable thickncBS. The mines are worked here, as in tlie preceding instance, by tlie General Mining Association, who raise annually from the Sydney main seam 80,000 tons of coal, which is conveyed by railway to the bar at North Sydney for ship- ment. About 30,000 tons are annually consumed in Nova Scotia, the remainder being exported to the United States. Tho quantity of coal annually raised in the county of Cape Breton, and almost entirely at Sydney, is stated in tho census of 1851 at 53,000 chaldrons. In Cumberland county, on the confines of New Bnins- wick, occurs the celebrated " South Joggins Section" of tho carboniferous system of rocks, which forms such an attract- ive object to geologists, and has thrown so much light on the theory of the coal formation, ajvi. all matters relating thereto. Here, from the relative conditions of dip and coast line, we find extending over a distance of about ten miles, an exposure of not less than 14,000 feet in vertical thickness, of successive rock formations, comprising the whole of the carboniferous series, and including more than seventy distinct seams of coal. Of these, however, only one seam is of sufficient thickness to work, consisting of two beds, three feet six inches and one foot six inches thick, respectively, with a clay parting between, varying from one foot to a few inches. It is a free-burning bituminous coal of fair quality. The quantity of coal shipped in 1851, was only 2,400 chaldrons ; it was exported principally to St. John's, New Bruui^wick. Other seams of good coal, of much greater thickness, have been discovered in this car- boniferous district, but at too greact distance from navigable waters to be profitably mined, until the general progress of the country admits of the construction of railways or other sources of demand for the material. The total quantity of coals raised in Nova Scotia in 1851, according to the census returns, was 115,000 chaldrons ; in of ;ar- ble ■ess or 51, in MINEBAI. RE80UECE8 OF BRITISII NOKTH AMERICA. 353 185fl, 120,668 chaldrons, valued at £86,027, wore exported, wliile in the first nine months of 1857, the shipments were valued at £90,315, which are the latest othcial returns wo possess. These figures show a rapid and extensively in- creasing trade. There can be little doubt that the coal of Nova Scotia is suflicient to supply the whole steam navy of Britain for many centuries to come, and also to meet amply the de- mands of the other North American colonies bordering on the Atlantic, which possess within themselves no coal-fields of any importance. . GTPSUM. This Uoeful mineral occurs in very great abundance, associated with the carboniferous rocks of Nova Sco- tia, and is mined to a considerable extent at several points, but chiefly in the districts of Hants and Colchcbter. The gypsum of Nova Scotia occurs in various forms and conditions ; sometimes as an hydrite, or hard plaster^ which is not at present applied to any useful purpose, being too hard to be profitably ground for agricultural purposes, though very well adapted as a substitute for marble. Sometimes the common gypsum is found in beds and masses, and sometimes in veins cutting the soft marly sandstones of the carboniferous series ; in the latter case the gypsum is generally of a fibrous structure. The prin- cipal point where this mineral is quarried for economic purposes, is on the banks of the river Shubenacadie, in Hants, where immense masses of pure gypsum rise boldly from the banks, occasionally to the height of one hundred feet, presenting an inexhaustible supply of the mineral. It is also largely quarried at Windsor, Newport, "Walton, and several other places. In 1851, the quantity exported amounted to about 80,000 tons, the value of which at the port of shipment would be about $40,000, the greater part being exported to the United States for agricultural pur- poses. It is at present only quarried in places accessible ■ w ;i t I.;. I" 354 MINERAL 3ES0UBCE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AlIERICA. to shipping, and its small value per ton indicates the fa- cility with which it can be obtained, in a country where wages are high. At other parts of the province, as in Cape Breton, very large deposits of the mineral are found^ but not at present worked. IRON. A very extensive and remarkable deposit of iron ore, which promises to be of much economic value, occurs, as- sociated with the metamorphic upper Silurian rocks of the Cobequid hills, in the county of Londonderry, This deposit attracted attention as early as the time when the land on which it occurs was granted by the crown, and it had been brought into notice at various times subsequently. Since 1845 the extent and economical capabilities of this deposit have been discussed by several writers, and it has been opened, and smelting furnaces put in operation by an association of capitalists, under the title of the " Acadia Mine." This enterprise has recently been taken up by a powerful English company. This vein occurs near the junction of the carboniferous and metamorphic series, and runs nearly, although not al- together, with the stratification of the rocks, which are tilted into a vertical position. It contains a great variety of diflferent ores of iron, as magnetic, specular, hematite, '%co of the highest ridges. It contains, however, an immense quantity of valuable ores of iron, though its irregular character opposes many difficulties to the miner. Difficulties have also been found in smelting the ore to advantage ; but these arc often incident to the first trials of new deposits, to which the methods applicable to others, of which the workmen have had previous experience, do not apply. It is to be hoped, however, that these prelimi- ore. iwson, lest on rever, igh its Iminer. ore to trials jtliers, ^ce, do pelimi- MmEBAL BBSOTTBOES OF BBmSH NOBTH AMEBIOA. 355 nary hinderances have been overcome, and that the mine will soon become highly profitable to the proprietors." The following general estimat' of the value of the deposit is quoted from an elabora<;e . port made in 1849, by Dr. J. L. Hayes, of Massachusetts, which is further interesting, as furnishing a statement of the comparative value of iron ores at difierent places : " From the descriptions above given, it is evident that although the unlimited extent of the ore at a particular point can only be determined by working the deposits, yet an immense field is open for exploration and working. Although it is probable that an abundant supply of ore will be found upon the mouhtain last described, at a price not exceeding $2 per ton of iron ; if this should not be the case, an ample supply can be furnished from the other localities at an expense which, including raising and hauling, could not exceed $4 to the ton of iron. I would advise the opening of the veins at different points upon the line, to determine the cheapest point for mininej, and the ores which can be used most advantageously. IJ this is done, the price of the ore cannot be fairly set down at the sum for which it can be obtained at the nearest locality, but at an average of the prices of the ores from different localities, delivered at the point selected for the furnace. This may be estimated at $3 to the ton of iron. " The value of this locality with respect to ore may be judged of by comparing it with establishments in the United States. In Berkshire Co., Mass., at some estab- lishments which have been successfully conducted, the price of the o:.e is between fi e and six dollars to the ton of iron. In Orange Co., N. Y., ore yielding between forty and fifty per cent, costs between four and five dollars to the ton of iron. At one locality in New York State the ore costs ten dollars to the ton of iron ; at some establish- ments on Lake Champlain, ore costmg one dollar per ton at the mine is carried twelve miles to the furnace. The ore at the Baltimore furnaces costs over seven dollars to 23 V Iff: S % m n 1 ■ i * ■ :! I ! i !m r, .| ^\- 1"^ ,■!'' ■ ■■■■ li[(! ■;l!i §'■'! f' 1:111 356 HINEBAL BESOITBOES OF BBITISH NOBTH AMERIOA. the ton of iron ; this is also about the average cost of the ore at the furnaces in Pennsylvania. Estimating the cost of the ore even at four dollars to the ton of iron, there will be an advantage over the average American localities. " The cost of ores at some of the Swedish and Russian furnaces is still greater. In certain parts of the Ural Mountains the minerals are carried by land to the forests, a distance of from forty to eighty miles. Some of the forges of Sweden are supplied with minerals from Pres- burgh and Dannemora, which are transported by land car- riage, the lakes, and the sea, to distances exceeding 370 miles. " I have no doubt that iron of the first quality for purity and strength, and which will command the highest prices in the market, can be made from these ores. If Mr. Mushet's opinion, based on his own experiments, 1 aat these ores will furnish steel-iron equal to the best Swedish brands, should prove correct, these ores possess a rare value ; for of the many charcoal iron establishments in the United States, I know but one which flirnishes iron suitable for making the first quality of steel." In the district of Pictou and the neighborhood of the Albion Mines, already described, there occurs an immense bed of iron ore, which, from its situation and concomitant advantages, must eventually become of great economical importance. GOLD. Since the excitement with regard to the wonderfiil gold discoveries in California and Australia arose, reports have from time to time obtained circulation of similar discoveries in Nova Scotia, where the rock formations of the south- east Atlantic coast bear a remarkable resemblance to those of the auriferous regions in the countries named. Until a very recent period, however, these rumors have invariably been found to be devoid of adequate foundation in fact. In 1855, Dr. Dawson, in his "Acadian Geology," expressed gold Ihave reries louth- Ithose itila [iably fact. 3SBed MINEBAL RES0UECE8 OF BEITISH NOETH AMERICA. 357 the opinion, founded on geological considerations, that gold would probably be found in that region, but his re- marks would lead to the inference that it might not prove to be of much economic importance. In 1857, Mr. John Campbell, a gentleman of considerable scientific attain- ments, obtained gold by washing the sand of the beach near Halifax harbor. This was the first actual discovery on record of gold being found in Nova Scotia, and since that time Mr. Campbell has devoted himself assiduously to the development of this branch of her natural resources. In the year 1860, some important discoveries of the pre- cious metal were made in the valley and toward the head- waters of the Tangier Kiver, about forty miles north-east of Halifax, which created an immense excitement for a time, and tempted many to leave their ordinary avocations to search for gold, which, however, was not found in suffi- cient quantities to reward the labor, and consequently the excitement speedily subsided. In the month of March, 1861, fresh discoveries of con- siderably larger quantities were made near the mouth of the same river ; and since that time there has been a steady increase in the number, and also in the confidence, of the adventurers engaged in this pursuit, as well as in the as- certained extent of the gold-producing country, which may now be regarded as comprising an area of 6,000 or 7,000 square miles, being the entire region occupied by the metamorphic lower Silurian rocks of the Atlantic coast, the corresponding geological position to that in which it is found in most other countries. The description we have already given of these rocks as they occur in Canada, will apply to the same formations in Nova Scotia. The most recent and authentic information hitherto ob- tained in regard to the Nova Scotia gold fields, is con- tained in an article contributed by Dr. Dawson to the " Canadian Naturalist," for December, 1861 ; and in an elaborate report by Messrs. Poole and Campbell (1862), who were specially appointed by the provincial govem- .. > t 4 '■'- TT •- 1' •lii _-h. I' ^ "'.'■} !. • it' W:. ,1 ,'11 358 UINEBAL BESOUBOES OF BBITISH NOBTH AMEBIOA. ment to investigate the matter. From these documents ■we shall condense the most important particulars relative to this interesting subject. In this province, although the general conditions in which the gold occurs are doubtless the same as in other auriferous regions, it is remarkable that it is found chiefly in the quartz veins traversing the rocks, rather than in the superficial clays constituting the debris of these rocks. "With the exception of one locality, " The Ovens," near Lunenburg, seventy miles west from Halifax, where a considerable quantity has been obtained in the sand of the beach, formed by the action of the waves upon the rocky cliffs, placer washings and surface diggings have not proved remunerative in Nova Scotia. On the other hand, the quartz veins, on which the Cali- fornian and Australian digger is accustomed to look with suspicion, are here remorkably productive; an instance is upon record where one and a half ton of quartz has pro- duced seventy-two ounces of gold, valued at $1,296. The •^^eins have been traced continuously for a distance, in one case, of two and a half miles, and found to pay well throughout this whole extent. In many instances the veins are exposed at the surface, and, where concealed by drift clay, its thickness is very inconsiderable, rarely ex- ceeding six or eight feet. In mining in the veins them- selves, their richness appears to increase with the depth ; and there is much to encourage the hope that deep mining will prove the most successful to the adventurer, as well as the most permanent and reliable source of wealth to the province. The most important gold fields in Nova Scotia hitherto discovered occur in the district of country eastwards from Halifax to Cape Canso, a distance of 130 miles, with an average breadth of about twenty miles. Within this area, Mr. Campbell has recognized the existence of five bands or lines of elevation, running nearly parallel with each other and with the general coast line, and exhibiting at some places arched or folded strata of dark-colored clay-slate, i'' [ f MINEBAL BESOUBCES OF BBITIBH NOBTH AHBBIOA. 359 traversed by quartz veins, of thickness varying from one to nine or ten inches, following the planes of bedding in the strike, but frequently cutting the strata in the direction of the dip, sometimes in wavy or zigzag lines. There are also larger veins, from one to three feet in thickness, but the tbin veins first referred to are invariably the richest in gold. The metal occurs, for the most part, disseminated in irregular grains and masses in the quartz : it is found most abundantly at and near the walls of the veins, and is usually associated with iron pyrites and mispickel, or arsenical pyrites. The largest nugget yet found is said to be valued at $300. It is impossible to state, with any degree of accuracy, what amount of gold has been hitherto obtained in Nova Scotia, as, in almost every instance, the claims have been worked by private individuals, who are generally unable or disinclined to give the requisite information. Even if ascertained, this would afford no criterion of the value of the gold fields, as the search has hitherto been prosecuted only in the rudest manner. At one claim at Tangier $2,400 are said to have been realized in a very short time ; $1,300 from another, and $480 from a third, while many have yielded little or nothing. A statement we have recently seen gives the daily yield as 100 ounces, valued at $18 per ounce. The Nova Scotia gold is of remarkable purity. The principal localities where mining has hitherto been carried on are Tangier, Wine Cove, Laurencetown, Sherbrooke, Isaac Harbor, and Lunenburg. With the exception of Lunenburg, the district of country westward of Halifax has not as yet produced much gold. The provincial government have surveyed and divided the principal gold fields into claims of twenty feet by fifty feet, and exact an annual license fee, or rent, of $20 for each claim. It is to be hoped that a more liberal policy will prevail, and greater encouragement be extended to the adventurers, as the claims are much too small, and the rent too high, where the risks of mining are so great. : '#] ■ill : ill ' 1; 'i t-^i ■' . -J ■ \i .1" » ' . 1 fj'-.. K'l- " \i 860 MINEBAL BESOTJROES OF BRITISH NORTH AMGBIOA. "In one important respect," says Dr. Ge.mer, "the Nova Scotian gold fields possess a very great advantage over those of Australia, California, or British Columbia : namely, that the rocks containing the gold in the greatest abundance are near the Atlantic coast, and intersect a number of the smaller rivers and harbors, whereby facili- ties are aflforded to supply the requirements of mining. It is not at all probable that the richest gold deposits in Nova Scotia have yet been discovered ; but there is enough known to satisfy the most sceptical that the province con- tains an ample amount of the precious metal to warrant the most extensive operations, and the employment of ma- chinery for its mining and purification." NEW BEUNSWICK. The province of New Brunswick has not hitherto at- tained much consequence as a mining region, although a very great part of its area is underlaid by the coal-measures ; and many of the metals and other useful minerals are known to exist within its bounds. The coal formation of New Brunswick occupies an area which is somewhat triangular in outline. Its base rests on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and extends from Bathurst on the north to the Nova Scotia frontier on the east. Its apex is at the Oromocto Lake ; and its north-western mar- gin runs from thence to Bathurst, while on the south-east it approaches the Bay of Fundy. It is worthy of remark, that only the south and south- east sides of the great New Brunswick carboniferous basin have yet been explored. Within this area the only point at which coal mining operations on an extensive scale have been carried on, is H- MINERAIi BESOCROES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 361 at the Grand Lake in Queens County, between Little Rivtr and Coal Creek, at the head of the lake. Here mining leases, covering a space of about forty-five square miles, wore granted by the crown in 1849 ; this area being sup- posed to cover ali the available coal ground in this lo- cality. The number of distinct beds of coal i«j uncertain ; the average thickness of those which are worked, is about twenty inches; the depth of the coal below the surface seldom exceeds forty feet. -The quality is excellent, being hard, rather lustrous, giving out much heat in burning, and lasting longer than most other coal. The amount brought to market in 1854, was about 3,000 chaldrons, but the mines are capable, with proper management, of producing at least double this amount. "We are not aware whether these mines are now in operation. We have now to refer to a very remarkable mineral de- posit, allied to coal, which has been discovered in this province, nnd somewhat extensively developed, and has assumed much economic importance as a source of illu- minating oils and gas. "We refer to the Albert coal. This remarkable mineral, which appears to partake of the distinctive characteristics of coal, asphalt, and jet, without belonging to either class, occurs in the county of Hillsborough, near the southeast- ern boundary of the province, in an irregular vein, varying from one to thirteen feet in thickness, sometimes cutting and sometimes coinciding with the strata through which it passes, and which has been mined to an extent of several hundred feet on the length of the vein.* We are not aware of the amount or value of the material extracted ; it has been used chiefly in the manufacture of illuminating oil, of which it yields, by distillation, a very high percent- * The material is one of the most beautiful of all carboniferous products; It is jet black, brilliant, and lustrous, with a conchoidal iVacture, and is ex- tremely brittle. Its composition is : carbon (fixed at redness), 36.04 ; volatile, ei.U; ash, 2.22; equal to 100. Coke, 38.26. Specific jravitj, 1.13. < t Ill "HI 4' P' t« M tint iii. |L 362 MIKEBAL BESOUROES OF BBITISH NOBTH AMEBIOA. age, and of the very beat quality ; but since the discovery of the extraordipary petroleum wells of Pennsylvania and Western Canada, no other source (so long as it lasts) can at all compete with this for the purpose named. The metalliferous rocks of the Appalachian chain trav- erse the northern part of the provmco, and may be ex- pected, when the country becomes settled and explored, to yield the same results as in Canada, Nova Scotia, and the Eastern States of the Union. Already gold, lead, and copper have been found in these rocks in New Bruns- wick, and the deposits of iron ore are rich and extensive. The principal locality of copper is at and near the village of Bathurst, on the Bay Chaleur. Here rocks of the car- boniferous system, or perhaps even higher in the geological horizon, and occupying the region bordering on the coast for a distance of five or six miles back, are found resting on the " primitive slate formation," probably of lower Si- lurian ag3. About seventeen yeart ago, a deposit of very rich copper ore was discovered in the bank of the river Nepisiguit, about one and a half miles from Bathurpit, where mining operations were commenced, and about twenty-four tons of very rich vitreous copper ore, said to contain a considerable proportion of silver, were taken out ; but the deposits not being sufiicientiy regular to pay mining ex- penses, the enterprise was abandoned. Subsequent observations on the nature of these deposits, and of the enclosing rocks, leading to the belief that they were secondary products, derived fi*om the debris of the older rocks lying farther inland, search was instituted in these rocks, which resulted in the discovery of some im- portant copper lodes on the Tattagouche river, seven miles from Bathurst, which are now being developed by an American company. The lodes are said to be highly promising, being of great thickness, and having all the usual accompaniments of good copper veins; but the works having been temporarily suspended, we are unable to learn the resulte. Very considerable sums of money M MINEBAL RE90UROE8 OF DRITI1H NORTH AMERICA. 363 have already been expended in mining in this locality. One reinTkable peculiarity in the mineralogical character of this region is the occurronco of great veins ot manganese ore in the neighborhood of the copper lodes, though in a rock of a different color. A considei'able deposit of copper pyrites has been dis- covered near Woodstock, Carleton county, about sixty miles north-west from Fredericton, ii. a true vein which has been traced for upwards of 2,000 feet on the strike, and traversing talcose and felspathic slates of the same geological age with those of tlie Tattagouche river. Min- ing operations were instituted here in 1858, to the extent of sinking trial shafts and costeenings, which have proved the deposit to be of considerable importance and value. We are not aware whether this mine is still worked, or to what extent it has proved commercially profitable. The Tattagouche and "Woodstock mines are situated at a distance of about 130 miles apart, on a broad band of the formation ; and the fact of such apparently valuable de- posits bomg found at the extreme poirtts of such an ex- tensive area, the intermediate parts of which are as yet entirely unexplored, points to this as a highly promising field for mining enter^.xse. Besides the metals above named in New Brunswick, deposits of plumbago and gypsum, and salt springs of a high degree of saturation, are found in many parts of the province. NEWFOUNDLAND. The geological structure and mineral resources of the island of Newfoundland were examined and reported on in 1849, by Mr. Jukes, who gave it as the general result of his investigations, that the island is not favorably situated for useful minerals. The coal formation occurs on a small portion of the ;^ •t' 'I «..< ?\ ?'W i ., f.. I i I f 364 MINERAL KE80URCE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. west side of the island, but the beds of coal do not appear to be of any considerable Sickness; although it is quite possible that more import- ^eams may be found, should the district ever be thought jrthy of a thorough exami- nation. Gypsum is very plentiful on the island. Copper was worked in Newfoundland upwards of a century ago, to a slight extent, and in 1845 attempts were made to re- vive the work. The copper veins were found in the "lower slate formation" (probably the equivalents of the Quebec group in Canada), in Shoal Bay, south of Peck Harbor, at the eastern extremity of the island. Owing to the un- productive character of the work, however, it was speedily abandoned. A very remarkable lode of iron pyrites, containing also much copper ore, waa discovered during the year 1861, about one mile inland from Little Bay, on the north- east coast of Newfoundland, and a company has been formed for working this and another similar deposit on Trump Island. A grant of these claims has been obtained from the colonial government, free from royalty during the first five years. Vigorous operations were commenced, during August of that year, by Mr. F. A. Gisborne, min- ing engineer, who turned the course of two rivers, at the junction of which the lode came to the surface. The lode was thus uncovered for a length of 200 feet, showing a thickness varying from twenty to forty feet of solid ore. The true course of the lode appears to be six or eight de- grees north of east, and south of west; the northern country being a soft serpentine, and the southern killas, or slate ; the north wall, so far as proved, goes down verti- cally. After various trial pits had been sunk (all of which proved a rapid increase in the richness of the vein for cop- per, within a short distance from the surface), a stope was commenced, forty-two feet in length and eight feet wide, along the north wall ; from this stope a cargo of 150 tons was obtained, and shipped to Swansea. The ore is found in compact horizontal beds, or floors, averaging twenty i ■;■ M i de- lONSBAL BESOUBCES OF BBITISH NORTH AMEBIOA. 365 inches in thickness ; and at ten feet from- the surface, would average eight per cent, for copper, and forty per cent, for sulphur : the surface ore yielding only from one to two per cent, of copper, this rapid increase in richness is truly re- markable. A shaft is now being sunk in the lode, and will yield about twenty-five tons of ore per cubic fathom, a result rarely surpassed in any mine. BRITISH COLUMBIA, AND VANCOUYER ISLAND. , The present has been, perhaps, more prolific than any preceding generation in wonderful discoveries in the arts and sciences, and especially in those means and appli- ances which tend to promote intercourse between distant parts of the world. A striking illustration of this remark ic afforded by the late extraordinary aud unprecedented discoveries of gold in California and Australia, which have done more in a few years for the settlement and civili- zation of these remote regions, than might oth vise have been effected in as many centuries. Still mr :e recently another region, yet more remote from the beaten paths of nations, has been discovered to abound in the precious metal ; by whose potent influence British Columbia is rapidly becoming linked to the brotherhood of civilized nations. Vancouver Island, on the western shores of the Pacific ocean, has been long regarded in England, notwithstanding its great distance, as a promising field for settlement and colonization, on account of tht\ fertility of its soil, the se- curity of its harbors, the excel .ence of its climate, and the reported abundance of coal on the island. These circum- stances, together with its admirable adaptation generally, as a depot for the naval forces on the Pacific, early at- tracted the atteni'.on of the British government, and dia- f I ^ %■■ .H>1 IV h < i ''■1 !|: : il li IPI 1.' ■ i 1 :'■'■, will! if^ If /I. '■ 1 > i > 1 ' 1 1 ■■':' il ■' -i! \l .1 ■' . ; j . 1, iKii£lj t 1 k ' ,^^^^H k ''-'■ ,'\ WW 't' 1'-, - ,■^^1 |||;..;.:! ^^ 1 360 MINERAL RE80UB0ES 07 BRITISn NORTH AHKRIOA. posed them to aiford every encouragement to emigration ; but it was not till the year 1856,* when the governor of the island reported to the imperial government the fact, that gold liad been found in considerable quantities within the British territory on the Upper Columbia, that any considerable emigration took place. From that date to the present, the ascertained area and reputed richness of the British Columbian gold fields have steadily and rapidly increased ; and the influx of adventurers into Victoria, the capital of Vancouver Island, and the nearest port for the gold fields, has augmented in proportion. The auriferous region of British Columbia comprises a vast, though unknown, area on the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains. Hitherto the discoveries have been chiefly confined to the left bank of the Frazer river, and its numerous affluents from the east, and to the head waters of the Columbia river ; the aggregate linear extent of which may be computed at 1,000 miles. The country is broken up into mountains and ravines ; there is really no level ground, except the tops of the mountains, which, curiously enough, are all flat and level. The ravines are characterized universally by what the miners call " bench- es," or terraces running along their sides. These benches are all auriferous as far as they have been tested. The geological formations and conditions are precisely similar to the gold-bearing region of California, of which in fact this forms only the northern extension ; and it is worthy of note, that gold mining has proved more successful in California the further north it has been prosecuted. The rocks consist of what (for want of a more precise designa- tion) is now called the primary slate formation — probably, as in other auriferous regions, the metaraorphic lower Silu- rian — thrown up and pierced by masses, veins, and dikes of quartz, granite, porphyry, and other so-called igneous rocks ; the debris from which, together with their precious ♦ The earliest reported discoverj of gold in British Columbia, however, was in 1860, and again in 1853. MINKHAL BE8OUK0ES OF BRITISH NORTH AMEBIOA. 3C7 metalliferous conte:its, form vast accumulations of ^and, gravel and clay, extending from the banc uf the mountains to tlie banks of the rivers, which, as we have before stated, constitute for the present the field of labor for the miners. There is, however, reason to believe that ample scope will be found for their exertions at a distance from the princi- pal rivers. As a general rule, the gold is found in smaller particles and less in quantity nearer the mouths of the rivers, and both size and quantity increase as we ascend them. At the celebrated Cariboo district of the Frazer river, a lump of pure gold, weighing seven pounds, is said to have been obtained, and all the gold there is coarse. It will bo readily inferred from what we have said, that the adven- turers confine their attrition entirely to placer digging and washing, and this method of working will doubtless, for many years, be that universally adopted ; but there can bo little doubt that the auriferous veins which have supplied these washings will ultimately be discovered,* and will afibrd inexhaustible supplies of the precious metal for gen- erations to come. The principal difliculties to be con- tended with at present are, the want of roads or means of conveyance into the interior of the country ; the difficulty of obtaining provisions, tools, and other materials ; the fresh- ets on the rivers, &c. ; to which may be added, the hostility of the native tribes of Indians, who, though at present ap- parently friendly, are treacherous and capricious. In Vancouver Island, although gold has been found and actually worked in a few places, it has not hitherto been obtained in paying quantities. There is every reason to believe, however, that important gold fields may yet be discovered on the island. Kich copper ore has also been found, but hitherto it is undeveloped, Although here, as in all other gold-producing regions, wonderful instances of good fortune occur, and are noised * A rich aurif(NX>uBTeia was diseOTored in 1862, in Mitchell Harbor, Queen Charlotte's Island. r H i* li i' h b ■ i ^^ m^'' n 363 MINEBAL RESOUBCES OF BBITISH NOBXH AMEBIOA. abroad, there are equally lamentable, and, we fear, mucli more numerous cases of failure, or at least of very mod- erate success. "We do not therefore think it necessary to chronicle, as is the fashion with newspaper paragraphists, any great strikes^ but shall confine ourselves to a statement, from authentic sources, of the quantity of gold actually obtained, and the number of hands employed, during the years 1858 and 1859, from which we shall be enabled to deduce their average earnings. " In 1858," says Mr. Despard Pemberton, the surveyor general of Vancouver Island, in a recent work containing much valuable information on this subject,* " the greatest monthly shipment of gold from British Columbia was $235,000, and the least was about $6,000 ; and the total product of the gold mines for that year was estimated at $1,494,211 (Vide Gazette., April 19th, 1859). From data before me, I believe the amount mined in 1859 to have been about $2,000,000 ; but, to be moderate, assume the product of the two years at $3,000,000 ; the number of miners actually at work at any time in the country cannot have exceeded 3,000, as the mining licenses show {Gazette, June 9th, 1859, estimates them at 2,000), which gives the miners' average earnings at £100 sterling." Mr. Pember- ton probably somewhat smderrates the prospects of success, but his " facts and figures " render it suflSiciently obvious that, taking into account the aggregate result, adven- turers will not be justified in forming very sanguine ex- pectations.! Mr. Pemberton adds : " In California the average earnings are about half as much, but the country is open and accessible ; and therefore the means of living and creature comforts much more plentiful, which leads the miner to prefer it far to British Columbia, notwith- standing the higher pay in the latter." * " Facta and Figures relating to British Columbia and Yancouyer Island." London, 1860. f It should be remarked that the minors can only work four months in the year. MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 369 Assuming, as we have every reason to believe, that Mr. Pemberton's statistics are correct up to the time he wrote, the last two years seem to have greatly improved the pros- pects of the gold miner in British Columbia, for we find a statement, apparently upon reliable authority, of the yield of 1861, and number of men employed, which gives a much higher average : — '79 miners took out an aggregate of $926,680 400 ditto, claim owners, took out 600,000 1,021 ditto, at $7 a-daj, in 107 days 764,729 Total yield, nearly all from Cariboo . . $2,291,409 1.500 miners who worked in other I places for 180 days at $10 per diem $2,700,000 2,000 ditto, at $6 1,800,000 4,500,000 5,000 minora— gross yield for 1861 $6,791,409 Giving ail average of $1,358 or about £272 sterling a year. COAL. The consumption of coals by steamboats on the Pacific is enormous, perhaps not less than 200,000 tons a year. It is, therefore, an object of much import.ance to secure a supply at the nearest point. The coal formations come to the surface towards the coast of British Columbia, and have attracted some attention ; but the principal source of mineral fuel on the Pacific coast is undoubtedly Van- couver Island. Outcrops of coal occur at several points along the eastern coast of the island, and attempts have been made at various times, by the Hudson's Bay Company, who have, until very recently, held possession of it, to turn these discoveries to profitable account. The earliest rec- ord we can find of such works is in 1849, at Beaver Har- bor, at the north-east extremity of the island ; but this locelity was soon abandoned as hopeless. Further search has, however, been rewarded by the discovery of extensive seams of workable coal at Naniamo, about sixty miles north of Victoria, in latitude 49° 15', longitude 123° 45'. )'tS yk 1 ■ ; 1 ■ '■ . ■■:■■■ te ■;■•■ -•. tl' .''^1 : • 1^1 370 MINEBAL BES0UB0E8 OF BBITISH NOBTH AHEBIOA. We subjoin the following detailed account of mining op- erations here, abridged from a paper by Col. Grant, read before the Geographical Society of London, in 1857. "The coal at Naniamo was first discovered by Mr. Joseph McKay, in 1850, who was directed to it by the Indians of the neighborhood. The same seam was dis- covered on Newcastle Island, and several other small islands in the channel, and the Indians soon got out two hundred tons. A pit was commenced by ten regular miners, on the 17th of September, and a shaft sunk to a depth of fifty feet, being through twelve feet of alluvium, eight feet of sandstone, and thirty feet of shale ; the situa- tion of the pit is at the north-west extremity of Naniamo harbor. Here they struck another seam of from six to seven feet in thickness, lying on conglomerate ; they are now regularly working this seam in several parallel gal- leries, extending to a considerable distance already under- ground. The seam here runs nearly level, although with sufiicient dip to insure good drainage. The greatest quan- tity of coal that has been raised from it was at the rate of 120 tons per week, with eight regular miners. The other seam has been discovered outcropping at another place, at a considerable distance from the working already de- scribed, and an adit level is being driven upon it. Work has been done at four different places, three on the upper seam, which is of an average thickness of six feet, and one as above described, on the lower seam, about the same thickness and of precisely similar quality, situated fifty feet lower than the first. The pit is situated within a few yards of the water side, and vessels drawing sixteen feet can anchor close to it; notwithstanding its proximity to the water, very little pumping is required. It is the opinion of the head miner that coal may be found any- where within a circumference of two miles from Naniamo, at a depth of fifty or sixty feet below the surface. Alto- gether, there are few places where coal can be worked so easily, and exported so conveniently as from Naniamo." MmSBAL BESOUBOES OF BBITISH NOBTH AMEBIOA. 871 As the Hudson's Bay Company have recently surren- dered their territorial rights, it has been decided to sell the coal mines, which have accordingly been acquired by a powerful English company, who will doubtless work them to their ftill capacity. Altogether about 6,000 tons of coal have been exported from Naniamo up to the present date, of which one-half may be said to have been worked and loaded by Inaians, and the rest by regular miners. It is chiefly used by the British steamers, those of the Hudson Bay Company, and by the steamers plying between Vic- toria and Frazer river ; and is worth from four to six dol- lars per ton at the pit mouth. The coal is of excellent quality, very like that from the "West Riding of Yorkshire ; the chief objection to it is that it burns too quickly, and leaves behind a good deal of slag, which makes it diflScult to keep the furnaces clear ; it is, however, very strong, rich coal, and of high heating power. Mr. William Downie, who was sent by the governor of Vancouver Island to explore the region in the north of British Columbia, along the coast to Fort Simpson, and back into the interior, as far as Stuart Lake, reports, under date October, 1859, that he considers this the best looking mineral country in British Columbia ; in some places gold was discovered; rich veins of excellent plumbago were found, and an extensive coal country occurs, where seams, varying in thickness from three to thirty-five feet, were exposed in the banks of the rivers. Notwithstanding its excellent soil and climate, however, and its mineral riches, it is to be feared that unless the government assists in its development, this region must long remain in its primitive condition. THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. QuTTB recently gold has been discovered on British ter- ritory on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, toward the head-waters of the Saskatchewan and Peace 24 / t I'. Li u«l t ^f\ J I < m F«' **'*•• f t 'K I .i'Jf» If/ 372 MTNBTtATi BBSQVBOBS 07 IBinSB IIOBTH Aipi^tlOA. rivers, and expeditions have been fitted out and are now engaged in proving the productiveness of this vast and unknown region. Should the gold be found in any con- siderable quantity, this will be a great stride toward the attainment of an object which has long been deemed of vast importance for the intercourse and civilization of the world; namely, the opening up, on the northern hemi- sphere, of a. practicable route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The magnificent lake and river system of Canada afibrds uninterrupted water communication for nearly half the distance, and Lake Winnepeg and the river Saskatchewan, together with the rivers flowing into the Pacific, form a grea^ part of the rest ; leaving only the dis- trict lying between Lake Superior and Red River, and the pass of the Rocky Mountains, to be overcome by land transport. The country traversed by the Saskatchewan is said to be remarkably fertile and to enjoy an excellent climate, while coal and other usei'ul minerals abound. Were it for no other object, the opening up of this region would be of inestimable importance, as the most direct route fi-om England and Canada to British Columbia and Vancouver Island, in preference to a long, dangerous, and expensive voyage by sea. There jan be no doubt that the existence of a supply of coal in British territory on the shores of the Pacific, and in the valley of the Saskatchewan, will exercise a powerful influence, in combination with the gold discoveries in British Columbia, in furthering com- munication between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts along the route we have designated. • ^ i ,i;,Ji=' i'^:.^- HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION or UPPER AND LOWER CANADA* BT J. GSOROK HODOIKS, IX. B., V. B. 0. & SECTION I. UPPER CANADA,— INTRODUCTORY. By very many writers in Europe and America it has been asserted, and the assertion baa been received without question, that in the United States of America, before the recent civil war, education was more generally diffused, and was in a more flourishing condition than in any other part of the world. It has also been stated that the institutions of most of the United States and their systems of govern- ment were and are more favoral?le, if not moid peculiarly adapted to this educational success, than in any other part of America ; but of late years a change has taten place in public opinion in this respect, — an efficient system of popu- lar education having in the meantime been established in Canada. If this system continues to be properly directed and vigorously maintained, as it has been hitherto, the result will strengthen the conviction in the public mind that an * This paper Is divided into two sections and each Bection into three parts. The first part of each section contains a brief historical sketch, in chroiiologi- cal order, of the progress of education, including the universities, colleges, grammar, common and ether schools. Tlie second part contains an account in detail of universities, colleges, professional and other schools, together with a list of various other educational appliances in operation in each portion of the province. The third part contains various statistical information. '*s 1^^ s: '- W'^'l. ■i-'iiiii 874 BIBTORIOAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIOK IN UPPER CANADA. entire compatibility exists between the working of free colonial institutions, founded upon a monarchical basis, and the development and growth of a highly popularized, yet efficient system of public instruction — such as has hitherto been said to flourish only in a democratic country.* The necessity for a national system of education in Cana- da, had long been admitted by all parties, but the final es- tablishment of such a system did not take place until within a comparatively recent period. For, when public attention was first practically directed to the accomplishment of that object in 1836-7, the seething turmoil of political strife pre- vented the immediate realization of those hopes of the friends of popular education, which had only then been re- awakened. The political union of the Canadas in 1840 did not long include an educational union of Upper and Lower Canada, for since 1843, they have each had their own separate educational systems. PART FIRST— CHAPTER I. EARLY EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS IN UPPER CANADA, 1783—1806. The references to the state of education in Upper Canada, in books of travel and in other publications of 1783 — 1805, are very meagre. All the writers, who do allude to the subject, describe the education provided in the few schools then in existence as very inferior in its character, and the facilities * The editor of the Massachusetts Teacher, in giving an account of his visit 'ia Upper Canada^ thus refers to the educational system in the Teacher of No- vember, 1866 : He says, " So much has been written and said about the Prus- sian system of schools, that well-informed teachers have become familiar with most of its prominent features ; but a system of education m some re- speda more complete and mare imposing than that of Prussia has sprung up on ovir own borders, which appears to have attracted less general attention among us." HISTORICAL 8KKT0B OV EDtJOATION IN rPFSR CANADA. 875 for acquiring it but scantily diffused throughout the coun try. This was "hiefly owirg to the sparseness of the popu- lation and the remoteness of the new settlements. One reason assigned by a highly intelligent American traveller for the fewness of the schools in Upper Canada, in 1794-9, throws sr much light upon the political policy and social state of the province at that time, that we quote the passage entire. This traveller, on visiting Kingston, (then the most important town in Upper Canada,) makes the fol- lowing observations : "The object of the British nation is to people and cultivate this country, and to make it as perfect a part of the empire as possible. Dreading revolutions, they are cautious in receiving republicans from the States, and wish to encourage husbandmen and laborers only. Clergymen, lawyers, physicians, and schoolmasters from the States, are not the first characters who would be fostered. Many congregations would have been form-cd, and schools opened, if the policy in this particular had been different. * * " An extensive field is opened for men of letters in every profession. Destitute of colleges, academies and schools, and confiding in the qualifications of the clergy ordained by the bishops in the States, Governor Simcoe* wished to have introduced such, but an act of the British parliament disconcerted his design, " When the Bishops of England were permitted to con- * Colonel John Graves Simcoe was born in England in 1752. He entered the army at nineteen, and commanded the Queen's Rangers (Hussars) during the American revolutionary war, 1775 — 83. In 1792 he was appointed Lieuten- ant Governor of Upper Canada ; and in September of that year he opened the first Parliament of the province, at the town of Niagara, then called Newark. In 1796, he remove'^ the seat of government to Toronto, then called York. He induced many of the American United Empire Loyalists to settle in Upper Canada, and sought in every way to promote the prosperity of the province. He constructed Yonge street, thirty-six miles, as a military road to the lake which now bears his name. He was appointed Governor of St. Domingo in 1796, and was made a Lieutenant General in 1798. He died on his return to England, in 1806, aged fifty- four years. .!!■ . i . H i iiiiifi »lll,i'i'!l|i'l'll!ini5: 376 HISTORICAL SK£TCH OF XOUCATION IN UPP£R CAM 40A. secrate bishops for the States, a clause was inserted in the act passed by parliament for the purpose, that nothing theiein contained should 'enable such bishops or clergy- men ordained by thera, to exercise their functions within the limits of the nation.' This act of coui-se applies to Canada." The writer further remarks, that, under this law, " the clergy born and ordained in the States are excluded from the parishes in the provinces;" and that its operation " has certainly defeated the extending of religion and learn- ing in the provinces."* So far as we have been able to ascertain, the first school opened in Upper Canada, was in 1785. In that year a classical school was opened at Cataraqui, (Kingston,) by the Eev. Dr. Stuart; another by Deacon Trayer at Port Bowan, (Lake Erie,) in 1789. The Duke de la Bochefoucault, who visited Kingston in July, 1795, thus refers to the state of education in that part of the country at that early date. He says : "In this dis- trict are some schools, but they are few in number. The children are instructed in reading and writing, and pay each a dollar a month. One of the masters, superior to the rest in point of knowledge, taught Latin ; but he has left the school without being succeeded by another instructor of the same learning." He also states that " Wo newspaper is published in Kingston ; that of Newark [Niagara] is the only one published in Upper Canada, which being a mere imperfect extract from the Quebec Gazette, is here taken in by no one. I know but of two persons who receive even the Quebec paper. As to the interior of the country, no news penetrates into that quarter, a circumstance that ex- cites there very little regret." From the Upper Canada papers it appears that private schools were established shortly after this time in several * A Tour through Upper and Lower Canada. By a citizen of the United States. Priotfed at Idtcbfleld, (according to Act of Oongreas,) 17 99, Pp.55— 57. I C RIBTORIOAL SKETCH Ot EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 377 parts of Upper Canada. Among the rest a school was es- tablished for tlie Six Nation Indians, and the teachers paid by the king, at Mohawk, (Grand lliver,) — "the principal village of the Six Nations, in a tract purchased from the Mis- sassaga Nation for thoni by his present Majesty, (George III.) on account of their loyalty and attachment during the late rebellion, in which they lost their possessions on the Mohawk River, Now York."* The military chaplains at the different stations also did what they could to promote education, but their efforts were chiefly confined to their own immediate circle. The New Testament, with Webster, Lindley Murray, or Dilworth's Spelling-book, were the princi})al text-books, in general use. At a very early period in the history of the province, and but six years after the first settlement of h pper Canada, (1789,) a memorial was presented to Lord Dorchester, (Sir Guy Carleton,) the then Governor General of British North America, representing the great deficiency in all means of instruction, and requesting his lordship to establish a pub- lic school at a central place, such as Kingston, or Fron- tenac, (the old French post,) which was then the principal town in Upper Canada. In compliance with this request. Lord Dorchester gave directions to the surveyors-general to set apart eligible portions of land for the endowment of schools in all the new townships. These lands, however, long remained unproductive ; and before any benefit could be derived from this solicitude on the part of the Governor General, Canada was divided, by the constitutional act of 1791, into two distinct provinces ; and, in 1792, John Graves Simcoe, Esq. was appointed the first Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada. In that year Rev. Mr. Addison estab- lished a classical school at Newatk, the seat of government, • Topographical description of His Majesty's Province of Upper Canada. By David Wm. Smith, Esq., Surveyor General of Upper Canada. London, October, 1799. ^4 M' hi V* ,1 ' ■ 'r'i 378 HISTORICAL 8KIT0H OV KDU0ATI0I7 IN TTPPKR CANADA. (now Niagara.) In 1794, the Rev. Mr. Burns, (father of the late Hon. Judge Burns,) opened a school at the same place. In 1795, Governor Simcoe addressed a letter to the Bishop of Quebec, in which the following passages occur. " The peo- ple of this province * * * have the means of governing them- selves. * * * To this end a liberal education seems indis- pensably necessary ; and the completion of such education requires the establishment of a university to inculcate sound religious principles, pure morals and refined man- ners." In November, 1796, an evening school was opened at Newark, by Mr. Richard Cockrel,* who shortly afterwards transferred his school to the Reverend Mr. Arthur,! ^^^ removed to Ancaster, where he opened anotlier school. In 1796, notice was given in the Yorlc Gazette, that " as schools were now opened, ignorance would be no longer tolerated." In 1798, a school was opened in Duke street, York, by Mr. William Cooper. In 1796, the Imperial Government, in a letter dated 22d of June, and addressed by the Duke of Portland to Lieuten- ant Governor Simcoe, acknowledged the receipt of a letter from the Bishop of Quebec upon the subject of a school of a higher class, to which Gov. Simcoe had called the Bishop's att< Jtion, but which his Grace then did not think neces- sary in Upper Canada. The Legislature of Upper Canada thought differently, and, in the Spring of 1797, agreed upon a memorial to His Majesty, George III., soliciting a grant of land for the endowment of a grammar school in ♦ Mr. Cockrel's diarges were 4s. per week, for teaching Writing, Arith- metic, and Book-keeping. Time of teaching, from 6 to 8 o'clock, P. M. t In his advertisemeDi; Mr. Arthur intimates that *' if any number of boys offer, and books can he ^ocured, a Latin class will commence immediately." He also states that " besides the attention which he ever wishes to pay to the 'behavior, religious instraotion and literary improvement of all his pupils, his hoarders will have the benefit of private tuition in geography and other parts of a useM and ornamental education." 1% <, Uli HISTORICAL 8KKT0H OT BDUOATION IN UPPIR OAKAOA. 879 each district, and a university for the whole province. To the address a favorable answer was returned, embracing a scheme of education more compreheii ive in its character, so far at least, as higher education was concerned, than that which was proposed by the Legislature. This response to the memorial of the Legislature was con- tained in a dispatch addressed by the Duke of Portland to Peter Russell, Esq., President and acting Governor of Upper Canada, and was dated the 4th of November, 1797, as follows : " His Majesty * * * being always ready to show his paren- tal regard for the welfare of his subjects in the furtherance of so important an object as the instruction of youth, and to assist and encourage the exertions of his province in laying the foundation for promoting sound learning and a religious education, has expressed his gracious intention to comply with the wishes of the legislature of his province of Upper Canada, in such manner as shall be judged to be most ef- fectual. First, by the establishment of free grammar schools in those districts which they are called for ; and, secondly, in due process of time, by establishing other seminaries of a larger and more comprehensive nature, for the promotion of religious and moral learning, and the study of the arts and sciences." Peter Russell, Esq., the President, requested the chief civil officers* to draw up a report on the subject. They did so in 1798, and recommended a grant of haJf a million of acres of land for the establishment of a grammar school in each of the four districts into which Upper Canada was then divided, and a central university at some future time. They recommended, also, that a grant of £3,000 be made to each of the districts in Upper Canada for the erection of "a plain but solid and substantial building containing a school-room sufficient to hold one hundred boys without danger to their health from too many being crowded to- * These offioers were the members of the ElxeoutiTe Goonoil, the jnJges and law otfioers of the Crown in Upper Canada. I "Ti, '1 i !, .■ *}• 380 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF XDUOATION IN UPPBR CA5ADA. getlier; and also a set of apartments for the master, large enough not only for the accommodation of his family, but also for the very desirable purpose of enabling him to take a few (from ten to twenty) of his pupils as boarders." The salaries proposed were £100 for the head master, £60 for the assistant master, and £80 for repairs, &c. Kingston and Newark (Niagara) were recommended as eligible sites for schools ; after which, when the funds were sufficient, schools were to be established at Cornwall and Sandwich. York (Toronto) was recommended as entitled to the univei-sity ; and for the establishment and support of which a sum at least equal to that granted to the four schools was named. Governor Simcoe authorized the Hon. Messrs. Cartwright and Hamilton, to select a person to take charge of the pro- posed college. The Rev. Dr. Chalmers, having declined the appointment, it was accepted by Mr. (now the Right Rever. end Doctor) Strachan (Bishop of Toronto.*) On his arrival at Kingston, on the 31st of December, 1799, he found that the project of a college had been abandoned. Governor Sim- coe, in the meantime, having gone to England. In 1799, an act was passed by the Upper Canada Legisla- ture " to provide for the education and support of orphan children." It authorized the township wardens, with the consent of two magistrates, to bind and apprentice, until they became of age, children deserted by their parents. In 1799, a school was opened near St Catherines. * The Honorable and Right Poverend John Straohan, D. D., LL. D., first Protestant Spiscopal Bishop of Toronto, was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, on the 12th April, 1778. He commenced life as a teacher; and in 1800 opened a private school at Kingston, and subsequently one at Cornwall. Among his pupils (in Scotland,) were Sir David Wilkie and (in Upper Canada) the late Chief justices, Sir J. B. Robinson, and Sir J. B. Macaulay, Com- modore Barclay, Ac. He was ordained a clergyman of the Church of England on the 2d May, 1803, was minister of Cornwall In 1804, and Rector of Toronto in 1812 ; was appointed a legislative counsellor in 1818 ; archdeacon of York in 1825, and Bishop of Toronto in 1839. He founded the University of Trinity College, Toronto, in 1851—2. ■ i hi}, V, y I ■I" '"■ h of eotor aoon iriity BIBTOUOAI. BKRTCH OF KDUOATIOK IK UPPER OAKADA. 881 In August, 1801, a meeting of the proprietors of the Niagara Library was held at Newark, when it was resolvod that a call of $2 per share be made for the purchase of new books. It was also resolved that new members pay $4 per annum as subscriptiona to the library, and old members $2 per annum. It was soon discovered that half a million of acres of land would endow but few grammar schools, land being then only worth a shilling per acre ; the scheme had, there- ore, to be abandoned. Meanwhile the Hon. Mr. Cartwright made an arrangement with Mr. Strachan to instruct his sons and a select number of pupils for three years. In 1803, Mr. Strachan was ordained by the Bishop of Quebec, and in 1804, he removed to the mission of Cornwall, where, at the request of the parents of his former pupils, he opened a private school. For several years this school was the only one of any note in Upper Canada ; and in it were educated some of those gentlemen who have filled some of the most important positions in the province. In 1802, Dr. Baldwin opened a classical school at York; and, in 1805, Mr. Strachan held the first public examination of his school, in Cornwall, at which all the principal persons in the neigh- borhood attended. Subsequently Mr. Straohan's school was constituted the Grammar School of the district CHAPTER n. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATICN, 180»-1816. The first legislative enactment relating to general educa- tion was not passed, until March, 1807. This act provided for the establishment of ^fmrnTnar or high schools, but made no provision whatever for the common schools; still, it did good service, and was only finally superseded by a more comprehensive measure in 1853. In the former year (1806) i m 'I' I 382 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN irPPER CANADA. a temporary act was pass d by the provincial legislature, and made permanent in 1808, establishing a classical and mathematical or "Public School" in each of the eight dis- tricts into which Upper Canada was then divided; and granting £800 per annum, or £100 per school as the an- nual salary of the teacher in each district — the teacher to be nominated by the trustees, but appointed by the governor.* * In order to give effect to this Act, Lieat.-(}oyemor Gobi, on the 13th March, 1807, appointed "the undermentioned gentlemen to be Trusteee of the Public Schools in the several districts of Upper Canada : I- " 1. Eastern District. Samuel Sherwood, Niel McLean, Samuel Anderson, Joseph Anderson, John Crysler, Alexander McAfillan, "2. District of Johnsioum. Thouiao Sherwood, Ephraim Jones, Solomon Jones, James Campbell, Elijah Bottom, "3. Midland District. Hon. Richard Cartwright, ' Rev. Dr. Stuart, Allan McLean, Joseph Forsyth, Thomas Markland, Peter Smith, Alexander Fisher, ) Ap'd Philip Borland, f 2 May. , " 4. District of NtumuQe, Asa Bumham, Leonard Sooper, Elias Smith, Sen*r., Elias Jones, John Peters, John Bleeker, • I > e I • e. " 5. Home District Rev. Mr. Stuart, D'Aroy Boulton, John Small, Duncan Cameron, Samuel Smith, William Graham, Thomas Ridout, " 6. District of Niagara. Hon. Robt. Hamilton, Colonel Clark, William Dickson, Robert Kerr, Thomas Cummings, James Muirhe&d, John Symington, "7. District of London. Thomas Talbot, Samuel Ryerse, Joseph Ryerson, William Hutohinson, Thomas Walsh, John Coltman, Daniel Springer, "8. Western District Hon. James Baby, Rev. Mr. Pollard, Matthew Elliott, Angus Mcintosh, John Askin, Sen'r., Gregor McGregor, Alexander Duff, BI8T0RXCAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIOIT IN UPPER CANADA. 383 In. February, 1806, at the suggestion of Dr. Strachan, an Act was passed granting £400 for the purchase of in- struments for illustrating the principles of Natural Philoso- phy, which were to be deposited in the hands of a person employed in the education of youth. In January, 1808, M. de Diemar opened a French school from 6 to 9 P. M., at York, (Toronto,) and in August, Rev. Mr. Stuart, held a highly satisfactory examination of his school at the same place. In describing the state of education in Upper Canada about this period, we quote the following observations from a work published at Baltimore, Maryland, in 1814, by M. Smith, of Eichmond, Virginia, author of " A View of Upper Canada," who resided in the province from 1808 until the breaking out of the war of 1812. Mr. Smith says : " The greater part of the inhabitants of Canada are not well edu- cated ; for as they were poor when they came to the province, and the country being but thinly settled for a number of years, they had but little chance for the benefit of schools. But since the country has become more settled, and the inhabitants rich, or in a good way of living, which is almost universally the case, they pay considerable attention to learning. " Ten dollars a year is the common price given for the tuition of each scholar by good teachers. " Until lately, there was no Latin or Grreek school kept in the province. Now there are three— one in York, taught by the Rev. John Strachan, Episcopal minister of that place ; one on the Bay Quantie, by a Mr. Bidwell,* from the United States ; and the other in Niagara village, by the Rev. Mr. Bums. Good encouragement would be given in many other parts to teachers of such schools, particularly in the Niagara and London districts. " Notwithstanding that I said that the main body of the * Father of the Hon. Marshall S. Bidwell, now of the oity of New York, but formerly Speaker of the Upper Canada Commons House of Assembly. 'lii I" 'J ,11 ., m j 'i 384 HISTOaiOAL eUKTOH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. inhabitants were not well educated, yet there are a number of gentlemen in the province who have the best of learning. " There is a public free school kept in every district, by order of the king, the teachers of which receive annually one hundred pounds sterling from the crown."* In 1812, Bev. Mr. Langhorn, a missionary for twenty years, and a school-master, made a present of his library to the inhabitants of the Bay of Quints. In 1814, Eev. Eobert Baldwin was appointed Grammar School master at Corn- wall, vice the Eev. Mr. Bethune, resigned. In 1815, an act was passed by the Legislature to incorporate the Midland District School Society. In 1816, an act was passed grant- ing £800 for the purchase of a library for the use of the Legislative Council and House of Assembly. CHAPTER m. ; - FIRST ESTABLISHMENT OF COMMON SCH00I5, 1816—1822. In 1816, (nine years after the grammar schools were established,) legislative provision was first made for the establishment and maintenance of common schools in Upper Canada. The large sum, in that day, of £6,000 was annually granted for this purpose,! and the people were au- thorized "to meet together" in any town, village or town- ship, "to make arrangements for establishing common schools in such town, village or township," at each of which the attendance of pupils should not be less than twenty. It also authorized that three "fit and discreet persons "should be chosen Trustees, who were to " examine into the moral * Geographioil view of the Brithh Poesessiom in North Amerios, bjr M. Smith, page 52 — Baltimore, Maryland, 1814. t The appropriations under this first Common School Aot of Upper Canada were as follows: To the schools in the Midland District £1,000; in the Eastern Distriot £800 ; in the Home, Johnstown, London, Gore, Niagafs and Western Districts, £600 for each dmtriot , in the Newcastle District £400, and in the Ottawa District £200. Total, £6,0l>:^. or $24,000. &[•; m mSTORIOAL 8XBT0H OV IDUOATIOS IN tTPPBR GASADA. 385 character and capacity of any person willing to become a teacher" and appoint him. The trustees were also author- ized to make rules and regulations for their own schools ; and to select text-books from a list prescribed by a district Board of Education, to which they were required to report. The provincial allowance to each school was in no case to exceed £25 — ^the balance of salary and contingent expenses to be made up by subscriptions. No rate-bills or assess- ments were authorized. This law was considered only as an experiment, and its operation was limited to four years. Thus, in hesitation and doubt, were sown the seeds of intellectual life and vigor in Upper Canada, which, though unproductive for a time, and even nearly uprooted for a time by chilling frosts and wild popular commotions, have, by renewed care and culture, been developed into more than 4,000 schools with almost $1,000,000 of self-imposed taxa- tion for their maintenancq. At the expiration of the four yeare, it was obvious that either the law of 1816 did not produce satisfactory fruit, or men of narrower minds controlled our public affairs ; for, in 1820, another act was passed, reducing the legislative grant from $24,000 to $10,000 per annum, making a uniform grant of $1,000 to each district, and reducing the teachers' allowance from $100 to $50 per annum. In regard to the state of education in Upper Canada in 1817, and the fluctuating character of its progress since the settlement of the province, in 1784, up to that time, Mr. Robert Gourlay, a well-known Canadian politician and author, writes as follows: " There is no college in Upper Canada, but there are said to be several townships of land set apart for the purpose of endowing such an institution, when the population aud circumstances of the province shall require it. " No provision is made by law for free schools. The in- IT ;fr' ■ ■ t , , t \^U^ f.. ::>H ■t, ' N :!' h.h ' T'f^ iilii V H 386 HI8TCJU0AL SKBTOH 07 EDUOATIOK IN UPPER CANADA. habitants of the several townships are left to a voluntary support of schools, according to their own discretion. " An Act of the provincial legislature, in 1807, granted a hundred pounds a year to the teacher of one school, in each of the eight districts under the direction of trustees. In some districts the school thus provided for is made a free school ; but in other districts the salary is considered as a public encouragement to a teacher of literary eminence, in addition to the compensation received for the tuition of each scholar. " The act was limited to four years, within which period the limitation was repealed, so that it is now a per- petual law. From the extent of the districts, the location of the schools, and other considerations, the school act has proved not very satisfactory, and a repeal of it has been re- peatedly attempted. Such dissatisfaction and attempts to procure a repeal, may have lessened the ability of these schools. Several of them, however, are flourishing and highly respectable. " Other seminaries for the education of youth are sup ported by individual exertions, without public aid. "The first inhabitants, as was stated in the historical sketch, were generally poor, in consequence of the revolu- tion. They had also to struggle with the labors and priva- tions incident to new settlements. As their habitations were sparse, it was difficult for them to unite in sufficient num- bers to form good schools ; and they could neither afford much expense for instructors, nor allow their children much time for receiving instruction. From such inevitable causes, education was neglected among them until the neglect almost became habitual. The want of books, at the same time, re- laxed their taste for reading. " A sense of these disadvantages excited desires for sur- mounting them, which have at length produced some cor- responding exertion. Books are procured in considerable numbers. In addition to those with which particular per- sup HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IV UPPBE CAKADA. 387 sons and families are supplied, social libraries are introduced in various places; and subscribers at a small expense thus enjoy the benefit of many more volumes than thi^ ^ could individually afford to purchase. " A spirit of improvement is evidently spreading. The value of education, as well as the want of it, is felt. The practicability of obtaining it is considered. Gentlemen of competent means appear to be sensible of the importance of givmg their children academical learning, and ambitious to do it without sending them abroad for the purpose. "Among other indications of the progress of literary am- bition, I can not forbear referring; to the academy lately erected in Ernest Town, by. the subscriptions of public- spirited inhabitants of that and the neighboring townships, who appear to be convinced that the cultivation of liberal arts and sciences is naturally connected with an improve- ment of manners and morals, and a general melioration of the state of society." * As to the state of feeling in the rural parts of the oldest settled portions of Upper Canada, we make tha following ex- tracts from a letter written to Mr. Gourlaj from the town- ship of Grimsby, in 1818, by a highly respected resident, William Crooks, Esq. Mr. Crooks remarks : " The state of education is at a very low ebb, not only in the township, but generally throughout the [Niagara] district ; although the liberality of the legislature has been great in support of the district schools, (giving to the teachers of each £100 per annum,) yet they have been pro- ductive of little or no good hitherto, for this obvious cause, * " Such was the prospect when the war commenced, but it is changed. The academy was converted into a barrack ; and the academical institution has not been revived. The students resorted to other places of education, many of them out of the province. The building is now occupied as a house of public worship, and a common school. It is to bo hoped, however, that the taste for literary improvement may be revived, and this seminary be re-established." Statis- ticai Account of Upper Canada, dec. By Robert Gourlay. Svols. Loudon, 1822. 25 ilht \L lir • m 388 HISTORICAL SKKTOB OF BDUOATION IN VPFEH OAKAD/ they axe looked upon as seminaries exclusively instituted for the education of the children of the more wesdthy classes of society, and to which the poor man's child is considered as unfit to be admitted. From such causes, instead of their being a benefit to the province, they are sunk into obscuri- ty, and the heads of most of them are at this moment enjoying their situations as comfortable sinecures. An- other class of schools has, vnthin a short time, been like- wise founded upon the liberality of the legislative purse, de- nominated common or parish schools, but like the preceding, the anxiety of the teacher employed, seems more alive to his stipend than the advancement of the education of those placed under his care : from the pecuniary advantages thus held out, we have been inundated with the worthless scum, under the character of schoolmasters, not only of this, but of every other country where the knowledge has been pro- mulgated, of the easy means our laws afford of getting a living here, by obtaining a parish school, which is done upon the recommendation of some few freeholders, getting his salary from the public, and making his employers contribute handsomely beside. "It is true, rules are laid down for their government, and the proper books prescribed for their use ; but scarcely in one case in ten are they adhered to, for in the same class you will frequently see one child with Noah Webster's spelling-book in his hand, and the next with Lindley Mur- ray's. However prone the teaches are to variety in their schools, much blame is to be attributed to the trusteesj who are in many instances too careless, and I might almost add too ignorant to discriminate right from wrong, in the trust they have undertaken for the public benefit. It is therefore not to be wondered at why the parish school system should meet with almost universal reprobation from most discern- ing men. " Of these parish schools, we are burdened with a liberal share, having no less than three of them. If the establish- 1 tv^: HISTORICAL SKETCH 07 KDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 389 ment of this system was meant by the legislature to abbre- viate the present enormous price of education, they have been miserably deceived ; for I can see no alteration or re- duction from the charge made bef, ^^ s* ' - )■■ ,s\ ' ■ '. '. 'I'S • ■:!* II : I 1. si' m 394 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF CDCOATIOIf IV UPPXR OAKADA. Great Britain was engaged with the United States ; geogra- phy setting forth New York, Philadelphia, Boston, &c., as the largest and finest cities in the world ; historical reading books, describing the American population as the most free and enlightened under heaven ; insisting on the superiority of their laws and institutions, to those of all the world, in de- fiance of the agrarian outrages and mob supremacy daily witnessed and lamented; and American spelling-books, dictionaries, and grammar, teaching them an anti-British dia- lect, and idiom ; although living in a province, and being subjects, of the British crown."* Pp. 262, Appendix.f Ryerson in his special Report to the Legislature in 1847 : " I think that less evil arises from the employment of American teachers than from the use of Ameri- can text-books. ***** Whatever may be thought of the '/isdom or ex- pediency of restricting legal certificates of qualification to natural born or nat- uralized British subjects, I believe public sentiment is against its rept-al, and in favor of having the youth of the country taught by our own follow-subjects, as well as out of our own books. • * * In regard to the exclusion of Americon books from the schools, I have explained that it is not because they are foreign books simply thot they are excluded, but because they are, with very few ex- ceptions, anti-British, in every sense of the word. They are unlike the school books of any other enlightened nation, so far as I have the means of know- ing. The school books of Germany, France and Great Britain conUiin noth- ing hostile to the institutions or derogatory to the character of any other na- tion. * * * American school books, with very few exceptions, abound in state- ments and allusions prejudicial to the institutions of the British nation," &o. * Observations made during a Visit, &c., togetJier with a Statistical Account of Upper Canada — By Dr. Thomas Holph, Anoaster, Gore District, Upper Canada. Dundas, 1836. t Dr. Rolph, in his observations, states that there was in Prescott, at the time of his visit, 1832 — 3, "a very elegant stone building erected by the Catholic clergyman, the Rev. J. W. Champion, and denominated the Grenvillo College, [Prescott being in the county of Grenville] 84 feet in length, with two wings, one at either end 40 feet each in length. * ♦ * When Grenville College comes into active operation it will afford a finished education. In connection with this college or establishment there will be a library for general circula- tion, which will be bought at the public expense, the proprietor supplying a number of miscellaneous works : the proceeds of the library will be appropria- ted to the clothing of poor children who will be instructed gratuitously in the college." [We believe these expectations were never realized — the college not having gone into operation.] — Ralph's Observations,''^ &o., pp. 148, 149. .*v '% 1^1! '»* HISTORICAL BKETCH OF EDUCATION IK UPPKH CANADA. 895 In 1835, the Tlon. and Right Reverend "Bishop McDonell gave as a legacy by will, four acres of land to a projected Roman Catholic College, to bo named St. Raphaels, and to be established in the County of Glengarry. The site of the College was afterwards removed to Kingston. In 1837, the institution was incorporated as Regiopolis College; but it was not until 1845 that an act was passed authorizing the Trustees under the will to convey the Bu hop's legacy to the College corporation. In the following year the col- lege was formally opened. In the public accounts of Upper Canada, the expenditure for public schools from 1832 to 1836, is given as follows : Year. Common Schools. District Schools. Total. 1832, $ 9.G00 ,$4,000 $1.1,000 1833, 35.200 3.801 39,001 1834, 31,400 3,981 35,381 1835, 33,800 4.545 38,345 1830, 35,800 4,659 40,369 CHAPTER V. PARLIAMENTARY INQUIRY AND ITS RESULTS, 1836—1843. In 1836, another spasmodic effort was made to revive the dying spirit of education in the province, and a commission was appointed by the legislature to examine the systems of public instruction in operation in the United States, and to report the result. Dr. Charles Duncombe, (a member of the provincial parliament,) the gentleman deputed on behalf of the three commissioners (Drs. Duncombe, T. D. Morrison and T. Bruce,) to perform this labor, visited various States of the Union, and embodied the result of his investiga- tions in the form of an elaborate Report, accompanied by an ample corroborative appendix, and a voluminous bill, which he drafted with great care, and in which he proposed to grant $60,000 per annum in aid of common schools. If! I. I.I ■ i' 's; '5 r4 ■f ■:.• |1 896 niSTORIOAL 8KKT0II OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. As a matter of curiosity and history, it may be interest- ing to give one or two extracts from Dr. Dunscombe's Re- port, in which he expresses his opinion of the American systems of public instruction in 1886. Dr. Duncombe was an active, intelligent nmn, and from his strong liberal views and personal history, must be regarded as an impartial wit- ness in regnrd to American institutions. He says (page 11) : "In the United States, where they devote much time and expense towards the promotion of literature, they are equally destitute of a system of national education, with ourselves ; and, although, by their greater exertion to im- port the improvements made in Great Britain, and on the continent, and their numerous attempts at systematizing these mc lern modes of education so as to lay the founda- tion for a future perfect system of educatiou adapted to the institutions of the country, they have placed theiiiselves in advance of us in their common school system, yet, after all, their schools seemed to me to be good schools upon bad or imperfect systems. They seem groping i the dark; no in- struction in the past to guide the future, no beacon light, no counsel of wise men to guide them, more than we have, upon the subject of common schoMs." Page 11. " In the United States, so far as I have witnessed and am capable of judging, their common school systems are as de- fective as our own. They have, according to their public documents, about 80,000 common school teachers, but very few of whom have made any ^preparation for their duties ; the most of them assume their office as a temporary employ- ment" Page 63. That the Canadian system of popular instniction was equally ineficient, was fully admitted ; and Dr. Duncombe has recorded the historical fact in the preamble to the bill which he proposed for the adoption of the legislature. The labors, however, of Dr. Duncombe were productive of no immediate results. IP BIBTORIOAL BKITOH OF SOUOATION IN VPPBR CANADA. 897 The charter of King's College University having been deemed too exclusive in its character to be generally accepta- ble, the legislature petitioned the king to amend it. In re- ply, His Majesty's Government authorized the provincial legislature to do so. After much discussion a bill amend- ing the charter and incorporating Upper Canada College with the University was passed on the 4th of March, 1837, and soon afterwards received Her Majesty's assent. In May, 1889, the legislature passed an Act converting the district schools into grammar schools; providing for the appointment by the Government of five trustees for each; applying a portion of the university endowment to their support; and setting apart 260,000 acres of crown lands as a permanent endowment of these schools. The Act also appropriated not less than one half the reven i es of the proposed King's College to the support of Upper Canada College until the University would be established. £200 were also applied to the erection of a grammar school in each district, provided an equal sum was raised by sub- scription among the inhabitants, and provided the buildings thus erected were permanently insured. The Act further provided for the payment of £100 .to each of four other grammar schools which might be established in towns or villages not nearer than six miles from the county town, and at which not less than sixty scholars were educated. In 1840, the Presbyterians, in connection with the Church of Scotland, wishing to establish a theological and literary college at Kingston, obtained an Act of incorporation for it from the provincial legislature. The Governor General reserved the Act for the signification of Her Majesty's pleasure thereon; but in the following year, (1841,) the Queen granted a Boyal Charter erecting the institution into the " University of Queen's College, at Kingston." Two faculties were immediately afterwards organized, viz. Theo- logy and Arts. The faculty of Medicine was added in 1864, and that of Law in 1861. See Part Second, chapter v., vi. ^■m '. 41 I (.* V -' V ! It '» ll i I I 'A •I. [ 1 iii.4' 1 398 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. In 1840, the Congregationalista established a Theological Institute at Toronto. In 1843, a similar institution was es- tablished at Montreal ; but in 1846 it was removed to To- ronto and amalgamated with the institution there. In 1860, the Congregational College of Nova Scotia was also absorb- ed in the Toronto Institution, and the name of the new establishment changed to that of the Congregational College of British North America. In the same year (1840,) the United Presbyterians opened a Divinity Hall at London, U. C. In 1841 it was formally recognized by the synod ; in 1849 it was removed to Toronto, and in 1861 it was merged in Knox College, Toronto. (See next page.) The eventful crisis of 1837, by which the political hori- zon was overcast, and Canada was plunged into civil war, prevented the consummation of the hopes which had been anxiously entertained for the resuscitation of the common school system. In 1839, the clouds of war and tumult had passed away, and in 1840, the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada were united under one Legislature. In 1841, the first Parliament of United Canada passed an Act definitely establishing a systcn of popular education in Upper and Lower Canada, and endowed it with an annual Parliamentary grant of $200,000. T). us was reached a great turning point in the somewhat checkered educational history of Canada ; and, although the effort was long and painful, the point once gained has never been abandoned. In 1841, Upper Canada Academy was converted into the University of Victoria College, under the Presidency of the Kev. Dr. Eyerson, and received from the legislature an an- nual grant of £500. The college was opened with one faculty, that of Arts ; the faculty of Medicine was added in 1854, and that of Law in 1862. See Part Second, chap, v., vi. In the same year, (1841,) the Society of Friends estab- lished a seminary for both sexes on a farm of one hundred acres near Picton, in Prince Edward county. BIBTORIOAL SKETCH OF EDUOATION IN UPPER CANADA. 399 In 1841 — 2, a Diocesan Theological School for the Church of England was established at Cobourg by the Lord Bishop of Toronto. In 1852 it was merged into Trinity College, Toronto. See Part Second, chapters v., vi. In April, 1842, the foundation stone of King's College was laid, with appropriate ceremonies, by His Excellency Sir Charles Bagot, Chancellor of the University. In June, 1843, the University was formally opened under tlie Presidency of the Right Reverend Bishop Strachan. In 1842, the library of the University was first formed. In 1864, the number of volumes in the library had increased to 6,000; in 1861 to 15,000. In 1843, an effort was made to unite or affiliate King's College, Toronto, with Queen's College, Kingston, but the project failed ; and with its failure commenced a systematic agitation of the claims of all denominations to participate equally in the benefits of King's College. In 1843, another school law, applicable to Upper Canada alone, was passed; and the Act of 1841, so far as it re- lated to Upper Canada, repealed. In 1844, Knox' Theological College was established, by the (Free) Presbyterian Church of Canada, but its charter was not obtained until 1858. See Part Second, chapter v. CHAPTER VL IMPROVEMENT, CHANGE, AND PROGRESS, FROM 1844—1853. In 1844, His Excellency the Governor General appointed the Reverend Dr. Ryerson (the present head of the depart- ment) to be Superintendent of Schools for Upper Canada. Dr. Ryerson specially set himself to reconstruct, upon a broader and more enduring foundation, the entire system of public elementary instruction in Upper Canada. As a preliminary step, he devoted a year to the examination fr u:l ii 'W ■i H , Wfv 400 HISTORIOAL SKETCH OF KDUOATION IN UPPBR CANADA. and comparison of the systems of education in Europe and f; America, and embodied the results in an elaborate " Ee- * port on a System of Public Instruction for Upper Canada." In 1847, a bill providing for the establishment of common schools in the cities and towns of Upper Canada, was pre- pared by the Superintendent of Education, and received the sanction of the legislature. Shortly after the organization of the common school sys- tem, and as a necessary part of it, a normal so 7ol for Upper Canada, was established at Toronto in Novfciiiber, 1847. In 1848, St. Joseph's College was established at Bytown, now the city of Ottawa, by the Right Rev. Dr. Guigues, first Roman Catholic Bishop of Ottawa. See pages 436-6. The agitation against the constitution of King's College having continued unabated, the Hon. Robert Baldwin (then Attorney-General for Upper Canada) introduced into the legislature, in 184^, an elaborate bill, designed to place the institution on a more satisfactory footing, — to abolish the remaining provisions of the Royal Charter, and to change the name of King's College to that of the University of Toronto. The bill soon afterwards became a law. During the three years which followed the passing of the Common School Act of 1846, it was subjected to a good deal of unfriendly criticism, which resulted, in 1849, in the hasty passage of a new Act, entirely repealing the former one. This new Act was, however, upon examination pro- nounced to be ill adapted to promote the educational in- terests of the country, and, upon the recommendation of the Chief Superintendent of Education, its operation was vir- tually suspended. In 1860, the whole system of popular education under- went a thorough revision, and a comprehensive draft of bill on the subject was submitted to the Government by the Chief Superintendent. This bill was concurred in by the legislature, and became law in June of that year. It still r . HISTORICAL SKKTOH OF SDUCATION IN UFPSR CANADA. 401 forms the basis of the present common school system of Up- per Canada. See Part Second, chapter i. The Chair of Divinity having been abolished, and other changes having been made in the University of Toronto un- acceptable to the Bishop and other members of the Church of England, the venerable prelate (although in his 72d year,) vigorously set about the establishment of an exclusively Church of England University. In this he was eminently successful ; and having, in 1850, secured an act of incorpora- tion for it from the Canadian legislature, he obtained, in 1851, a Royal Charter from the Queen for the University of Trinity College, ai Toronto. The institution was formally opened in 18o2, and the Diocesan Theological School at Cobourg inerged in it. See Part Second, chapters v., vi. In the same year, (1852,) St. Michael's College was estab- lished at Toronto, by some clergymen of the order of St. Basil, under the patronage of the Right Reverend Doctor de Charbonell, Second Roman Catholic Bishop of the diocese. See Part Second, chapter v. In 1853, some valuable impro\ sments were made in the details of the Common school system. After having been discussed at various county school conventions, which were held by the Chief Superintendent of Education, these im- provements were embodied in a supplementary school bill, and in that form received the sanction of the legislature. CHAPTER Vn. HIGHER AND INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION, ETC., 1853—1861. In the year 1853, an important change was made by the legislature in the constitution of the University of To ronto. In 1849, the faculty of Divinity was abolished— in 1853 the faculties of Law and Medicine were also abolish ed, and the lectures discontinued. By the Hon. Mr. Hincks' bill, which became law this year, the functions of Iv Mji^' A \i , *■' r^.-- '§1 M:iM -- I if'^1 4:02 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IK UPPER CANADA. the University were separated from those of the College, and two separate and distinct institutions were established. Uni- versity College became a teaching institution for the re- maining faculty of Arts ; while the University of Toronto became solely an examining body in each of the faculties of Arts, Law and Medicine. The Senate prescribed the Universit}?^ course and appointed the University examiners. The intention was to model the institution after the design of the London University, and to constitute it a sole Uni- versity for Upper Canada, having the various colleges in the country affiliated with it as teaching institutions. There having been no permanent endowment provided for these various colleges, and they have continued up to the present day, separate and independent universities, with power to grant degrees in the several faculties, without reference to a common university standard. See Part Second, chap, v., vi The Grammar schools, whicL were fii^st established in Up- per Canada in 1807, were suffered to remain in a very un- satisfactory state until 1853. m that year an improvement in their condition was effected by the Chief Superintendent of Education, who prepared a draft of Bill for their entire reorganization and management. Owing, however, to a re- pugnance on the part of some members of the Legislature to assimilate the financial principles of the Grammar and Common School Acts, and thus to impose upon the muni- cipalities the duty of imposing a tax at least equal in amount to that of the legislative grant to Grammar schools, the objects of the bill were partially defeated ; and the an- ticipated improvement in the condition of these schools did not reach the point aimed at by the Chief Superintendent in the bill. Further legislation is, therefore, rendered neces- sary in order to make the Grammar schools more efficient as superior commercial or classical schools. See Part Second, chapter iii In 1855 — 6, L'Assomption College was established at u^kr HISTORICAL SKETCH OF GDUCVriON IN UPPSR CANADA. 408 I Sandwioh, by the Jesuit fathers, but wa*) afterwards trans- ferred to members of the Benedictine Order, who conducted it under the auspices of the Bight Keverend Doctor Finson- cault, first Boman Catholic Bishop of the diocese. In 1867, the Methodist Episcopal Church in Upper Canar da succeeded, mainly through the exertions of the Eev. J. H. Johnson, in establishing a seminary at Belleville for the education of males and females. Extensive buildings were erected, and the seminary soon went into active operation. The same year witnessed the establishment, at Woodstock, (in the county of Oxford,) by the Baptists of Upper Canada, of the Canadian Literary Institute, for the superior educa- tion of males and females. See also Part Second, chap. v. In 1858, chiefly through the aid of private benevolence, a school for the education of the Deaf and Dumb was com- menced in Toronto by Mr. J. B. McGann. It has accom- plished much good, and has received the countenance and support of the public. See Part Second, chapter vii. In 1868, the Model Grammar School for Upper Canada was opened at Toronto. This institution is designed as a model for the other Grammar Schools of Upper Canada, and also as a Training School for Mastera of Grammar Schools. In 1868, the Senate of the University of Toronto, with the sanction of His Excellency the Governor-General, Sir Edmund Head, authorized the erection of the handsome buildings in University Park for the purposes of the Uni- versity, and of University College. Although ample public provision had been made for the superior education of males in the Grammar schools and the Universities, no corresponding legislative provision has yet been made for the superior education of females. Their separate elementary education is amply provided for under the Common School Act, (although this provision of the law is acted upon to a very limi -ed extent,)* and they may, * Rvnl Mheol tntatees sn antborhed to eauUnh, with the ooncurrence of the local Bnperintendent, a Becond or female school in each Notion ; and in 26 ^^i V -ll if W'i ■.t■Hi■^^ m I :.' 'H ' ■'' v -> ,.; m^-^r. 404 BI8T0RI0AL BXETOH OF XDUOATION IN UPPER CANADA. and do, receive instruction with boys in many of the Gram- mar schools ; but up to this time private enterprise alone has provided for the superior education of females. The Meth- odists, Roman Catholics and Baptists, as separate communi- ties, have sought to supply this defect in our higher educa- tional system. Under the auspices of the Methodists, facili- ties for higher female education existed at Cobourg from 1833 until 1844. The Methodists now enjoy the same advantages at Belleville and at Hamilton, the Boman Catho- lics at Kingston, Belleville, Toronto, Guelph, London, &c., and the Baptists at Woodstock. A Wesleyan Female College was established at Dundas, but in 1861 it was merged in a more extensive establishment at Hamil- ton, which is now in successful operation. There are also some very superior ladies' private schools in the cities, and in several of the towns of Upper Canada. In October, 1859, the ceremony of placing the cope-stone on the new buildings of the University of Toronto and University College was performed by His Excellency, Sir Edmund Head, visitor of the University. Early in 1860, the institution was formally opened. In compliance with the prayer of numerous petitions, asking for an inquiry into the expenditures and educational standard of the University of Toronto and University Col- lege, a committee of the legislature was appointed in 1860 to take evidence on the subje t; and in 1861 a commission was issued by His Excellency the Governor-General, to inquire further into the matter. This commission consisted of the vice-chancellor of the Toronto University, and a represent- ative from each of the Universities of Victoria and Queen's Colleges, with the bursar of the Toronto University and Colleges as their secretary. The commissioners have made cities, towns and villages the Board of Sohool Trustees is authorized " to deter- mine the number, sites, kind and description of schools [i. e. for boys, girls, color- ed children ; high schools, &o.] to be established and maintcuned in each city, town or village." i \ 'i. ^^^--rt, er- jr- BISTORIOAL 8KBT0H OF BDUUATION IK UPFSR OAKAOA. 405 a comprehensive Report on the subject. The Senate has also unanimously agreed upon a scheme of affiliation, which is embodied in the Report. The Commissioners recommend : "/SSsnofe. — That the Senate be reconstituted, and consist for the future of a fixed number; viz., first, The heads of affiliated colleges ; second. One member from each affiliated college, elected by the corporation thereof; and, third. The remaining one-third appointed by government " 2. That the elected members continue in office five years, and be eligible for re-election. " 8. That an annual meeting be held in rotation at the seats of the various colleges, and that the other meetings be held at any place deemed most convenient by the Senate. " 4. That the Senate have control of the bursar's office. "5. That the offices of chancellor and vice-chancellor be continued, — ^the former to be appointed by government; the vice-ch?,ncellor, as at present, to be elected by the Senate. " 6. That no scholarships be founded by the Senate ; but that a sum not exceeding $1,000 be annually appropriated for competition at a general examination of all affiliated college students, the s^uccessful competitors being distin- guished as " honor men." " 7. That the name be changed to the University of Upper Canada and University College to King's College, Toronto. " 8. That the library and museums be regarded as belong ing to Bang's College, Toronto. " 9. The Senate make annual returns to the government. "10. The Senate shall have power to establish a common curriculum of study for all affiliated colleges. " 11. That the Senate shall appoint examiners, and provide for payment of same. " 12. That the Senate have power to provide for the actual expenses of its members while attending its sessions. ^'■Affiliated Colleges. — 1. That the affiliated colleges be the chartered colleges which come within the requirements of )i y . i> ^ m M 406 HUTOBIOAI. BKICTOH QW KDUOATION IK CPPIE OAVADA. the act, provided each of them a^oepts the oonditioDS which may be hereafter imposed. " 2. That the affiliated colle[^> with uniyeTEity powers confer no degrees in arts, except on such students as have passed an examination by examiners appointed by the Senate of the University of Upper Canada, and that the claim to all public aid be foj^ioited if this condition is violated. " S. That all students who have passed the examination of the Senate and graduated in their respective collies, shall be entitled to rank as graduates of the University of Upper Canada. "4. That the university examinations of candidates shall be held in the respective colleges, where also the degrees shall be conferred. " 5. That in the case of King's College, the bill shall pro- vide that corporate powers be conferred upon this institu- tion with provision for the appointment of professors, regulation of salaries, expenditure, &c.; and for conferring degrees in all the fEiculties, subject to the same conditions as in the case of the other incorporated affiliated colleges. Also, that the necessary powers for conferring degrees be provided in the case of Begiopolis Coll^e^ Kingston. "6. That no degree shall be conferred on any candidate who has not passed through a course of study and attend- ance in some affiliated college, prescribed by the Senate of the University of Upper Cacada. "7. That the apportionment of public funds to the affili- ated colleges be fixed and equal, except in the case of King's College, and that King's Collie have an annual ap- propriation &om the general income fund not exceeding $28,000. " 8. That $500 be allowed to each cdlege for schdarships, or prizes, to be awarded by competitive college examination, as in the case of the Queen's Colleges, Ireland. i' '^"^;r^ RI8TOIU0AL SKXTOn OF XDTTOATION m VTPBR OAlTAfii. 40T " 9. That each college shall annually ftirnish to government a detailed statement of its income and expenditure. " 10. That the University of Upper Canada shall confer no degrees excepting through the affiliated colleges. " 11. That the Senate shall have a right to accommodation at each affiliated college. *' 12. That religiooa denominations and private iiidi viduals shall have power to found scholarships at each of the affili- ated colleger, with such regulations as may receive the sanction of the governing body in each. 13. That the library and museums of the Toronto Uni- versity be transferred to and become the property of King's College, Toronto; and, in consideration of the very great advantages thereby conferred, each of the other affili- ated colleges should receive a liberal grant for founding or enlarging a library and museum, irrespective of any annual appropriation." His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, when on his tour in Canada, in the autumn of 1860, visited all the prin- cipal educational institutions of the province. On leaving the country he made a donation of $800 to each of them. This money has in all cases, we believe, been invested, and the proceeds applied to the establishment of an annual gold medal, or other prize, in the several institutions which were honored by the royal gift m PAET SECOND. SUMMARY OF BAOH CLASS OF BDUOATIONAL INSTrrUTIONS. In the second part of this article, we propose to give a separate sketch of the actual state and condition of the fol- lowing classes of educational institutions, &a, in Upper Canada, beginning, as we should naturally do, with the ele- mentary school: — Ml ■fyf: % :: m H '■I I I 11, • 408 mSTORIOAL BKBTUn or KDUOATION IV UPPER CANADA. Chapter I. — Public Elemkntaby Schools Beceiyino Leoislative Aid. . 1. Common /Schools; 2. Roman Catholic Separate Schools; 8. Protestant Separate Schools; 4. Coloured Separate Schools. Chapter II.— Public Elementary Schools not Reoeiv- ." INQ Legislative Aid. 1. Church of England Parochial Schools; 2. Private Schools for boys and girls; t 3. Sunday Schools. Chapter III.— Superior Schools Receiving Legisla- tive Aid. 1. Upper Canada College and Model Grammar School; 2. The County Grammar Schools. Chapter IV.— Superior Schools not Receiving Legis- lative Aid. * 1. College Preparatory Schools; 2. Seminaries and Academies. Chapter V. — Professional Schools. L 0/ Theology; 2. 0/Law; 8. 0/ Medicine; 4. 0/ Teaching. Chapter VI. — Universities. Chapter vjI. — Supplementary Elementary Educa- tional Agencies. I i 1. Schools for Orphans; 2. Schools for the Deaf and Dumb; 3. Schools for Juvenile Criminals. Chapter v ill.— Other Supplementary Educational Agencies. 1. Mechanics' Institutee; 2. Literary Societies; 3. Libraries. V UMTOMOAL 8KXT0H Of XDUOATION IN UPFSR CANADA. 409 CHAPTER I. PUBUC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS RECEIVING LEGISLATIVE AID. 1. The Common Schools. The chief features of the common school system of Upper Canada are identical with those of other countries ; but in its adaptation to the wants of the country and the genius of the people, it is essentially Canadian. Upper Canada is indebted, in a great degree, to tlie State of New York for the machinery of her common schools ; to Massachusetts for the principle upon which they are sup- ported ; to Ireland for the best complete series of common- school books which have been published ; and to Germany for her system of normal-school training. All, however, are so blended and modified to suit the circumstances of the country, that they are no longer exotic, but " racy of the soil." Each city, town, township, and village has its own muni- cipal council, and each city, town, village, and school section has its own independent board of school trustees, which is invested with extensive corporate powers. One is supreme in civic aflfairs, while the other is not less so in all matters pertaining to the schools. The one accepts, on be- half of the rate-payers, the Legislative School Grant, and imposes an assessment equivalent to the amount granted ; while the other imposes any additional assessment required, and controls the entire expenditure of the school moneys, establishes school libraries, and promotes the general in.' terests of the schools. In Upper Canada there are 42 Counties; 5 Cittea; 84 Towns and Inoorpontod Villages ; and 379 Townships, — or about 510 Mnnioipalities in all. There are also the same number of city, town, and village school corporations, together with upwards of 4,000 school 'K M • 410 HUTORIOAL SKETCH Or KDUOATION IV UPPKR CAM AD A. corporations in the rural school sections. The schools are inspected at least twice a year by local superintendents ap- pointed by the county council. In cities, towns, and villages these officers are appointed, and their duties prescribed, by the boards of trustees. Each local superintendent is re- quired to deliver a school lecture in each section at least once a year, in addition to his other duties. The judges, magistrates, and other official persons specially named, together with the clergy of the different religious peraua- sions in the country, are ex-officio " school visitors," and are authorized to visit the schools and aid with their counsel and advice in promoting the great objects of popular edu- cation. In each county there is also one or more boards of public instruution for the examination and licensing of teachers, composed of local superintendents and of the trustees of county grammar schools. As a central authority, and at the head of the whole sys- tem, is a Council of Public Instruction and a Chief Super- intendent of Education, both appointed by the Crown. The council has the entire control of the normal and model schools, prescribes the text-books for thci public schools, the reading books for the public school libraries, and the rules and regulations for the government of both grammar and common schools, for the examination of common-school teachers, and the management of the public school libraries. The Chief Superintendent of Education, as his name im- plies, is the chief executive officer, and is appointed to administer the laws relating to the public school system. He is, eX'Offi&iG, a member of the Council of Public Instruction, has the general superintendence of the normal and model schools, and prepareiall the general regu; itions and imports iredating to the public schools, &c. Such are the distinctive features of the system of common school instruction in Upper Canada. In a few particulars ;it differs essentially from any of the school systems in op< HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 411 ©ration in Europe or the United States. It may, therefore, be interesting to refer to these peculiarities in detail, as they will tins throw light upon both the Canadian and American systems as compared with the English and Irish systems. 1. The chief executive of the Canadian system is a non- political and permanent officer. The success and efficiency of the system is never, as in the United States, subjected, year after year, to incessant change; nor is the executive control of the system systematically risked at the polls or ballot-box, where sound judgment and wise counsels do not always prevail; although the greatest care is taken to ad- minister the system " in accordance with the well under- stood wishes of the people." In fact, with the truest appreciation of the great and fundamental objects of a system of Christian and national education, designed to affect every grade of society alike, the Canadian Legislature has never yet permitted it to degenerate into a symbol of strife, nor to be the subject of a partisan warfare. So noble an instinct is woithy of a truly great people, and should be recorded to their honor. The Legislature of Canada has held that after certain great principles have been once settled, it is but sound na- tional policy to entrust to some enlightened and responsible person, within certain restrictions, the important duty of perfecting and keeping in continuous and active operation the system of public instruction. These systems are not built up in a day, any more than was the " Eternal City on the seven hills." And the history of the present educational structure of Upper Canada, confirms this truth ; for, with all the continuous aid which the Legislature has been able to give, and the public to receive and appropriate, it has taken at least ten years, under one guiding hand alone, to bring the system of public instruction through the first stage of its existence. The system is now yoXing and vigorous, en- dowed with capabilities and resources which are rarely *■ •% H ■I I ■a l'«1 'H -: '^^A ¥M ■ ,' j f • ■ ' 'X '( ■ 3[ w 412 HISTOBIOAL SKKTOH OF SDUOATION IN UPPER CANADA. combined in other state systems of education; but bad Upper Canada adopted the course pursued elsewhere, we feel persuaded that she would have been dooming herself to a continued educational infancy, and the schools would have been the subject of endless experiment and the.ry,— without the guidance of that settled and permanent policy which alone can develop and mature a great and compre- hensive system. 2. The next essential difference arises from the entirely voluntary or co-operative character of the municipal sup- port of the Canadian system of public instruction. Not a penny of tax is imposed by the Legislature for the support of the schools; nor is the law compulsory upon a single mu- nicipality of the province. It simply offers public aid on condition than an equal amount be raised from local sources, and that the statutory obligations annexed to the grant be complied with. Thus, every county of the pro- vince is left to exercise its own discretion as to whether it will or will not accept the terms offered by the Legislature. With a singular unanimity, every county of the province has accepted those terms, although now and then an indi- vidual township has declined them ; still, no penalty attaches to such a step, except the loss of the grant which it would otherwise receive. The question, then, of free schools or of no schools, is left, where it properly b<»long8, to the pa- triotism and good sense of the people themselves. They thus feel that the entire responsibility of the question rests with themselves, and that they have the sole authority to decide it. Thus their self-respect and dignity are preserved ; while the result has been most gratifying to every true friend of local self-government and popular advancement. 3. The third essential difference will be found in the fol- lowing extract from the Upper Canada school law: — "And be it enacted, that no foreign books in the English branches of education shall be used in any model or common school HISTOBIOAL BKKTOH OV KDUOATION IN UPPKR OAKADA. 413 without the express permission of the council of public in- struction." This effectually relieves the educational system of that greatest of all hindrances to its efficiency which arises, as in the United States and in some respects in Eng- land, from an endless variety of text-books in the schools, and which renders any uniform standard of classification impossible. Il is certain that on no light grounds should such power be reserved to the state; but like some of these invaluable safeguards which must be thrown around even the most equitable and evenly balanced systems of human government, it was found to be absolutely necessary to im- pose this salutary restriction on the eccentric tastes or mere caprice which often governs parties in the selection of text- books. Besides, although it was admitted that isolated text-books might be found possessed of many superior ex- cellencies in themselves, still, such books being written or compiled without any connection with others of a series, or uniformity of design, were felt to be serious hindrances ratlier than helps in the process of instruction, as the inter- mediate steps or links of a complete series were entirely wanting, or but imperfectly supplied. The question was, therefore, reduced to the simple one of whether an uniform series of books, constructed with a view to the progressive improvement of the scholar, and leading in complete and easy steps from the mere elements of knowledge to the higher branches of learning, should be prescribed; or whether the schoolmaster should be compelled to gather a confused variety of instruction from disconnected books, in each of which the same ground might have to be gone over again. The wisest course was therefore adopted ; and an uniform series of text-books, based upon an intelligent sys- tem of classification, was adopted and recommended for general use in the schools. Not a single book in use was proscribed; but by providing a better and cheaper descrip- tion of text-books, the old ones gradually disappeared from im ¥ mii- 1-; ,. 414 HISTORICAL BKKTCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. the schools and were replaced by those recommended. The result has justified what was at first felt to be a delicate ex- periment, though an imperative necessity; and the Irish National series of text-books are now in universal use throughout the province, at a cost far below what had hith- erto been paid for a heterogeneous variety of inferior books, incapable alike of classification or of limitation in number and variety even in the same school.* 4. Intimately connected with the foregoing is the manner in which library books have been selected for the public schools. To the same central authority is entrusted the difficult and delicate duty of recommending suitable reading books for the public school libraries. The reasons for this course, although identical in some respects with those which apply to the selection of text-books, are yet in some impor- tant particulars essentially different in their character. They were chiefly to prevent the introduction by skillful vendors or from other sources, of unsuitable, immoral, irre- ligious, or disloyal books.f The selection made by provin- cial authority amounts to about 8,000 volumes, and em- braces works in every department of human knowledge and learning, including works on Christian Evidence and Nat- ural Theology. From this extensive list, the local author- ities are at liberty to make a selection, while new works of value or interest are constantly being added to the list. 5. The fifth peculiarity relates to the facilities provided by the educational department for supplying the public schools with library and prize (but not text) books, and with maps, charts, diagrams, and apparatus. Not content with * A progreauv* aac'u* of tezt-booiu (etpeoially K««d«i«), prapared in and for Canada, would be preferable aa a whole; but, until they i>re available, the use of the Irish National text-books, being a •ymmetrical aeries, should beoon- tinued. I TIm enumpla of tha atate of New York (among other states) fbmiahM nost valuabla and inatruoti/« warning for Upper Canada in library rnatlen. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IK UPPER CANADA. 415 merely authorizing the use of certain books and apparatus, the Upper Canada educational department has undertaken to supply the schools of the province, directly from its own depositories, with all these valuable requisites. To aid in the performance of this duty more effectively and advan- tageously, the Legislature, with a most enlightened liberaUty, granted $30,000 a year, to be expended in supplying the schools with library and prize books, maps, charts, and ap- paratus, and other adjuncts to their efficiency and success. The principle upon which this fund is distributed is a just and liberal one. It is as follows: — "Whenever a school or municipal corporation contributes a sum of money for the purchase of library or prize books, maps, or apparatus, &c., at the educational depository, the department contributes an equal amount, and supplies the parties applying with arti- cles at a reduced rate of from 20 to 25 per cent, to the value of the sum thus augmented. A premium is thus held out for local exertion and liberality, and each locality is aided according to its works, and not arbitrarily, whether such aid is required or not, as is done in some of the American States; whiie all are encouraged to contribute to the utmost of their ability to promote the efficiency of the schools. Thus in a deep and expanding volume is permitted to flow freely and continuously into every part of the province streams of knowledge and of intellectual life, purified alike from every poisonous principle and noxious element 6. The principle involved in the sixth and last pecu- liarity is a new one in its application to the Canadian school system. It is that of pensioning the worn-out teachers of the province. It has long been maintained, and with justice, that the profession of teaching has been a most laborious and ill- requited profession in tJie world; that, while to it we owe our very superiority as an intelligent people, with a heart- >5J'^^' 416 BI8T0RI0AL SKETCH OF BDVOATION IN UPPER CANADA. less indifference and ingratitude, we neglect, in old age, the hand that early supplied us with intellectual food, and leave its possessor to pine and die in solitude and want Canada has nobly removed this stigma from her character. She has extended her generous sympathy zrA aid to a most deserving class of men; men, too, who, amid privations and discourage- ments doubly endured in a new country, devoted themselves to the public service, when even the very existence of a public system of education itself was imperiled, or lan- guished for want of legislative aid and recognition. 7. We can scarcely leave this part of our sketch without quoting one paragraph illustrative of the religious character of the Canadian school system, from the speech of the Earl of Elgin (at present Governor-General of India,) in 1851, on the occasion of his laying of the corner-stone of the spacious and commodious buildings devoted to the purposes of the normal school and the department of public instruc- tion for Upper Canada, — " the seed plot of the system," as he has graphically styled it. At the same time, it is but just to refer to the enlightened policy of Lord Elgin in regard to popular education in Canada during the seven years in which he so ably administered the Government of British North America. As an eloquent and accomplished states- man, he stood out prominently among the many distin- guished men who have occupied the high position of Her Ma- jesty's representative in Canada ; and it must ever be a source of pride ahd pleasure to the Canadians, and of satisfaction to himself, that while Governor-General, he identified him- self, personally as well as officially, throughout his whole administration, with the general education of the people of Canada. Speaking, on the occasion referred to, in reply to the Chief Superintendent of Education, who had presented to him an address on behalf of the council of public in- struction, Lord Elgin impressively remarked: — " Sir, I un- derstand from your statements, — and I come to the same :: -, ;i' , m'-t HISTORICAL 8KBT0H 01* EDUCATION IN UPPBR CANADA. 41 ! conclusion from my own investigation and observation, — that it is the principle of our common-school educational system, that its foundation is laid deep in the firm rock of our common Christianity. I understand, Sir, that while the varying views and opinions of a mixed religious society are scrupulously respected — while every semblance of dictation is carefully avoided, — it is desired, it is earnestly recom- mended, it is confidemtly expected and hoped, that every child who attends our common schools, shall learn there that he is a being who has an interest in eternity as well as in time; that he has a Father towards whom he stands in a closer, and more affecting, and more endeariug relationship than to any earthly father, and that Father Is in heaven ; that he has a hope far transcending every earthly hope; that he has a duty, the duty of striving to prove by his life and conversation, the sincerity of his prayer, that that Father's will may be done upon earth as it is done in heaven. I un- derstan I, Sir, that upon the bioad and solid platform which is raised upon that good foundation, we invite the ministers of religion of all denominations, the de-facto spiritual guides of the people of the country, to take their stand along with us; that, so far from hampering or impeding them in the exercise of their sacred functions, we ask and we beg them to take the children — the lambs of the flock which are com- mitted to their care — aside, and to lead them to those pas- tures and streams where they will find, as they believe it, the food of life and the waters of consolation." The opinion of Lord Elgin, as to the religious character of the common-school system of Upper Canada (which he has here so beautifully and clearly expressed,) is fully borne out, as will be seen from the following official regulations on the subject: — 1. TheActitself provides (section 129) that "No person shall require any profit in any auch school to read or study in or from any religious book or join in any exercise of de- 14 mm m -^^^- J' ■'■ f: I! 418 HIBTOaiOAL SKKTOH OV KOUOATION UT UPPSR CANADA. Yotion or religion objected to by his or her parents or guar- dians; but within this limitation pupils shtdl be allowed to riceive such religious instruction as their parents or guar- dians desire, according to any general regulations provided for the government of common schools." 2L These general regulations are as follows: — ' (') " With a view to secure the Divine blessing, and to impress upon the pupils the importance of religious duties, and their entire dependence on their Maker, the council of public insi^rs'ition for Upper Canada recommends that the dail} ' "-ji'v-^ cf each commoi. school be opened and closed by rea*. pr a p rtion of Scripti re and prayer.* The Lord's Prayer alone, o; Jie forms of prayer provided, may be used, or any other prayer prefOTred by the trustees and master of each schooL But the Lord's Prayer should form part of the opening exercises, and the Ten Commandments be taught to all the pupils, and be repeated at least once a week. But no pupil should be compelled to be present at these exercises against the wish of Lis parent or guardian, expressed in writing to the master of the school. (») "The clergy of any persuasion or their authorized representatives, shall have the right to give religious in- struction to the pupils of their own church in each common school house, at least once a week, after the hour of four o'clock in the afternoon; and if the clergy of more than one persuasion apply to give religious instruction in the same school-house the trustees shall decide on what day of the week the school-house shall be at the disposal of the clergymen of each persuasion at the time above stated. But it shall be lawful for the trustees and clergymen of any denomination to agree upon any hour of the day at which * It may be interesting and gratifying to state, in oonneoti(» with the fore- going, that of the 4,019 eommon tohools in Upper Canada, 2,381 of them are reported in 1861 as being regularly opened and closed with prayer, and 2,879 of them in which the Holy Scriptures are read daily. ,879 BISTORIOAL 8KKT0H OV XDUOATION IK UPFKR CANADA. 419 such clergymen or his authorized representative may give religious instruction to the pupils of his own church, pro- vided it be not during the regular hours of the school." Of the 4,500 teachers employed in the common schools in 1861, 1,250 were Presl yterians, 1,250 were Methodists, 800 were Episcopalians, 822 were Roman Catholics, 280 were Baptists, and 85 were Congregationalists. Before being admitted to examination for certificates of qualifica- tion to teach, these teachers had to present to the examiners a certificate of good moral character signed by the clergy- men of their own religious persuasion, thus giving a guar- antee for their moral if not religious character. n. — PROORXSS OF BLKMKNTART XDUOATIOIT IN JPI ", CANADA. As has already been intimated, the sum ^rst ^. anted by the legislature for common school education in Upper Can- ada amounted to $24,000. This sum was afterwards re- duced to $10,000 per annum. In 1841, however, when the foundations of the present system were id, the noble sum of $200,000 was granted to carry it into eflfect in the entire province,— $80,000 to Uppoi- Canada and $120,000 to Lower Canada. They were afterwards equalized to $100,- 000 each. By the census taken in 1851-2, it was found that Upper Canada so far exceeded Lower Canada in population (on which the division of the grant was based) that $108,000 were appropriated to Upper Canada, and $97,000 to Lower Canada. The grant to the entire province in 1862 was $884,000; of this sum the share coming to Upper Canada was about $213,000 and $171,000 to Lower Canada. About $150,000 are an- nually appropriated to the common schools;* $10,000 for libraries, maps, and apparatus; $14,200 to the normal * The amoimt aet down for libraries \m less than that granted by the act, bnt it represents the arerage sam. The amonnt set down for common schools is more than the net snm available ; bnt it is augmented by old balances. il7 !•;*'' t \ Pl'^ r 420 HIITORIOAL 8XST0H OV IDUOAnON IN UPPBR CANADA. and model schools; $6,000 to the model grammar school; $4,000 for the support of common-school superannuated teachers; $1,800 for a monthly journal of education ; $2,800 for an educational library and museum; $1,000 for the in- spection of grammar schools; and $2,000 for a school '>f art and design. Thus has the liberality of the legislature kept pace with the growth and prosperity of the province, and thus has provision been made for the promotion of every branch of the great work of popular education in Upper Canada. As we have hitherto referred only to what has been done by the government and legislature for the promotion of popular education, we now turn to consider the corre- sponding exertions of the people themselves. In 1842, after the passage of the act of 1841, we find that 1,271 common schools had been established. The number has now increased to upwards of 4,000. The school population between the ages of five and sixteen years has increased from 141,000 in 1842 to 385,000 in 1861, or 17S per cent. The attendance of pupils at the common schools has increased from 66,000 in 1842 to 330,000 in 1861, or 400 per cent.; and at the grammar schools from about 1,000 in 1847 to 4,766 in 1861, or nearly 380 per cent., — a most gratifying increase, certainly, in each branch of the system, and one that strongly indicates the increased anxiety of the Canadian public to avail them- selves of the largely increased feoilities of instruction afiforded by these *' colleges of the people." The greatest test, how- ever, of the love of the Upper Canadians for their common schools is indicated by the amount which they contribute for their support. In 1842, the total sum raised by assess • ment, rate-bills, and subscriptions, independent of the legislative school grant, amounted to $100,000; in 1850, to $334,400; and in 1861, to $1,215,000. The total ex- penditure for the salaries of conmion school teachers I in HISTORICAL 8KBTCII OF BDUOATION IN CPPBR CANADA. 421 amounted in 1842 to $166,000; in 1850, to $829,000; and in 1861, to $918,113,— or nearly 800 per cent, in ten years. The library system of Upper Canada having been only put into operation in 1853-4, we .can only report the result of about eight years' eflforts of the department to supply the public with suitable reading books for the winter even- ings. During that time, however, including books for school prizes, there have been dispatched from the deposit- ory at Toronto about 260,000 volumes, and these have gone into almost every part of Upper Canada, conveying light and intelligence into many a settler's dwelling. In order to carry out efficiently a system of public in- struction so comprehensive in its details, suitable officers and appliances were found to be necessary, and have, there- fore, been provided. We will state what has been done in that direction, and give a short sketch of III. — THB BDCOATIONAL DBPARTMENT FOR UPPBR CANADA. Cotemporaneous with and indicative of the growth and development of the educational system of Upper Canada, has been the history of the department itself. Originally a branch of the provincial secretary's department, (who was, ex officio, chief superintendent of education,) with an assist- ant superintendent and a clerk, it has gradually expanded into a distinct and important branch of the public service. It now occupies, with its four excellent accessory schools, a handsome structure which was specially erected by au- thority of the legislature for that purpose. The Education Office was first opened in 1841 at Kingston, the then seat of government. In 1844, it was, for conve- nience, removed to Cobourg, (one hundred miles further west,) and, in 1846, to a building adjoining the old govern- ment house, at Toronto. In 1852, it was removed to the new buildings which were erected on a square facing on r M, ■ 'in* 1^ Si U ^i.*. w m ' i*H 422 HISTORICAL 8KKT0H OI XDUOATION IN UPPKR CANADA. Gould, Church, Gerrard, and Viotoria Streets, which is now nearly in the heart of the city. The duties devolving upon the educational department include those relating to the general administration of the common and grammar school laws; the giving of explana- tions to municipal councils, local superintendents, school trustees, teachers, and others on doubtful points of law and modes of proceeding; decisions on appeals and complaints ; auditing municipal school accounts ; the oversight of the normal and model grammar and common schools, and the granting of provincial certificates to teachers ; paying and accounting for all the legislative grants for grammar and common schools ; providing teachers' registers, blank reports and returns for trustees, local superintendents, clerks, and treasurers of municipalities, and the Journal of Education (besides editing it) to each local superintendent and school corporation in Upper Canada; general corre- spondence relating to the promotion of education, &c. Some idea may be formed of the gradual progress of work in the department from the following statement of the correspondence of it since 1860 : — DuriBg Um ynn IRW. 1851. ISn. iSil. IM4. ItU. IIM. 1817. 18S8. tgj9. 1880. Ml. 1881. Letttra recelTed,. . 1,180 yOR 2,996 4,015 4,990 S,33S 6,739 S,2»4 6.431 6,468 7,121 7,216 6,496 Do. unt out,. . 760 1,136 1,430 1,936 2,681 3,764 3,966 3,642 4,627 5,823 6,016 6,666 4,966 No power has been employed by the department but that of persuasion ; and no attempt has been made to ad- vance faster than the felt necessities and convictions of the country would justify. To educate the people through themselves is the fundamental principle of the Upper Can- ada school system ; and to assist them to advance their own best interests and manage their own school affidrB has been the spirit and sole object of its administraticMi. 2. JRoTnan Oatholic Separate Schools. The privilege of establishing dissentient or separate ■MTOItlCAI. SKVrOH OT ■DCOATIOK IV VmR CANADA. 423 denominational schoolB in the rural parts of Canada was first conceded by the legislature in the common school act of 1841.* This act was made to apply to the whole prov- ince, and was designed to a£Eect Roman Catholics and Prot- estants alike. In this act, separate schools were not permitted in cities and towns ; but, to obviate their neces- sity, it was provided that a joint board of Roman Catholics and Protestants should have the control of all the schools in these municipalitie8.t * The following is the Motion of the aot which fint authorized rural aeparate ■ohoola in the towoahipe of Upper Canada and in the pariahea of Lower Canada:— " XI. Pnvided alumyt, and fr« it enacied, That whenever any number of the inhabitanta of any townabip or pariah, profeasing a religioua faith difierent from that of the majority of the inhabitants of auoh township or parish, shall diaaent from the regnlationa, arrangementa, or proceedings of the common aehool oommisaionera, with I'eference to any oommon school in such township or pariah, it shall be lawful for the inhabitants ao dissenting collectively to sig- nify Buoh diaaent in writing to the clerk of the diatriot council, with the name or namea of one or more persona elected by them aa their trustee or trnsteoa, for the purpoaes of this act ; and the aaid district clerk shall forthwith furnish a certified copy thereof to the district treasurer ; and it shall be lawful for such dissenting inhabitanta, by and through suoh truatee or trustees, who for that pnrpoae ahall hold an<1 exerciae all the righta, powera, and authoritiea, and bo anbject to the obligationa and liabilities herein before aaaigded to and imposed upon the oommon aohool oommiaaioners, to establish and maintain one or more oommon schools in the manner and subject to the visitation, conditions, rules, and obligationa in thia act provided, with referenoe to other oommon schools, and to receive fWmi the district treasurer their due proportion, according to their number, of the monoya appropriated by law and raiaed by as ses sment for the support of oommon schools in the school district or districta in which the aaid inhabitanta reside, in the same manner aa if the common schools so to be established and maintained under such trustee or trustees, where established and maintained nnd^ the aaid oommon school oommiaaioners, such moneys to be paid by the district treasurer upon the warrant of the said trustee or trusteea." *■ The following waa the proriaion in the law deaigned to meet the case of oit. -9 and towns :— " XVL And be a enacted, Tfiat ft ahall be lawfbl for the Oovemor of thia provinco to appoint from time to time in eaoh of the oitiea and towns corporate (herein, not leaa than aix nor more than fourtaen peraona, (one-half of whom vr^ ill 424; HISTORICAL SKKTOH OF XDVCATION IN VPPXR OAKADA. in 1848, the act of 1841 was repealed so far as Upper Canada was concerned, and a common school act was passed applying to Upper Canada alone, in which provision was made for the establishment of Roman Catholic and Protest- ant separate schools, both in the rural school sections and in cities and towns.* In 1846 this act was also repealed; shall in all caaea be Roman Catholios and the other half Proteatanta,) to be a board of examiners for each city or town corporate ; of which said board the mayoi' shall bo chairman, but shall have uo voto other than a casting vote ; and the said board shall be divided into two departments, one of which ahall con- sist of Roman Catholics, and shall exercise the duties herein after assigned to the board of examinera in and over the coiiinion schools attended by the Roman Catholic children only, and shall in such casei appoint their chairman ; and the other department shall consist of Protestants, and shall exercise their said duties in and over the common schools attended by the Protestant children only, and shall in such case appoint their chairman ; and in all oases in which the said common schools are attended by Roman Catliolic children and Prot- estant children together, the said duties shall be exercised in and over the same by the whole board of examiners ; and tlio duties of the said board, and of the said departments hereof, in the several cases above mentioned, in and for the aaid citice and towns corporate, respectively, shall be to examine the persona recommended aa teachers by the corporation, and reject them if uaqualified on the ground of character or ability ; and to regulate for each Nvhool separately the course of dtudy to be followed in such school, and the boks to be used therein ; and )o establish general rales for the conduct of the aohools, and communicate thorn in writing to the respective teachers ; in addition to which duties, the board of examiners in any city or town corporate shall be visitors of the common schools in such city or town corporate; and, as such visitors, it ahall be the duty of the board to appoint two or more of their number to visit each of the common schools in such city or town corporate, at least onco in every three months, and to report to the corporations upon all matters conncotod with each of the said common aohools in detail, as fully as common sohool commissioners ; and the visitors by them appointed are bound to report to the district councils under the provisions herein before contained.*' * The sections of the act of 1843, authorizing the establiahment of .separate schools, are as follows : — " LV. And he it enrxted, That in all cases wherein the teacher of any such school shall happen to bo a Roman Catholic, the Proteatant inhabitants shall be entitled to hare a tem^her of their own religi(»us persuasion, upon the application of ten or more resident flreehoMe/s or housoliolden of any school district, or within the limits aasi^u?wn or city sohool ; and, in like manner, when >y aiBTORIOAI. 8KKT0H OV XOUOATIOK IN UPFBR CANADA. 425 but in the new and more comprehensive common school act of that year, the provisions embodied in it in regard to Eoman Catholic and Protestant separate schools were iden- tical with those contained in the act of 1843. In 1847, with a view to extinguish separate schools as a distinct organization in cities and towns, and to bring all the schools of the municipality, whether common or sepa- rate, under one united management, an additional school act was passed giving the boards of school trustees in cities and towns power to establish " denominational or mixed " schools.* This provibl'^n, however, was not satisfactory to the sup- porters of separate schools. In 1849, a school act was passed which contained no provision for separate schools ; but the act bei. ,c cumbrous and unacceptable never came into operation. In 1850, the whole school system under- went a thorough revision and con!»olidation, and the i'acili- tho teacher of any luoh school shall happen to be a Prott'stant, the Roman Catholic iuhabitants shal' have a separate school, with a tvacher of their own religious persuasion, upon a like epplioation. " LVI. And be it enacted, That suoh applications shall be made in writing, signed with the names of each resident ft-eeholder or householder, and addniucd and delivered to the township, town, or city superintendent ; and such applica- tion shall contain tho names of three tructeus who shall be the tru8t«t>H uf Kuch separate school ; and upv)n tho compliance of suoh trustves and of the townHhip, town, or city superintendent, with the requirements of this not, suoh Kchool •hall be entitled to rooeive its sha?n of the public appropriation, according to the number of children of tho religious persuasion who shall attend suoh s<>pa- rate schvxil, which share shall be settled and adjudged by the township, town, or city superintendent, subject to an appeal to the county super! ntendint ; and all suoh ecpurate Kohools shall be subject to the visitations, oondiliono, rules, and obligutious provided in this act with reference to other common Bohix)lR, or to otlier town or city schools established nnder this act." * Tho section of tho act of 1 847 roads as follows : — " V. It shall bo the duty of the board of trustees of each city and town, * * * Thirdly, to determine tho number, sites, and description of poliools which shall be established and maintained in suoh city or town, and whether anoh school or nohools shall be denominational or mixed." ^!;,;f- hi ^:\. m Hi II m lit 426 HISTORICAL SKETCH Or EDrCATldN IK UPPER CANADA. • ties heretofore enjoyed by Roman Catholics for the estab- lishment and maintenance of separate schools were restored' to them. In 1853, the provisions of the separate school law were extended, and were made to apply to Roman Catholic, Prot- estant, and coloured separate schools alike. In 1855, this law, so far as it related to Roman Catholic separate schools, was repealed, and an act prepared under the auspices of the Roman Catholic clergy, with sonie modifications, was passed. This act is still the law of the land; but &s it does not yet give satisfaction to the parties concerned, it is proposed to' amend it as to remove any just cause of complaint on the part of Roman Catholics. It is true that the establishment Of these separate Roman! Catholic schools was fii-st permitted by the legislature, not as a right, but as an experimental concession to the consci- entious convictions of the Roman Catholics, and with the hope that by multiplying educational facilities for the poorer classes in cities and towns, one source of vagrancy and crime would be dried up. The Roman Catholics contended that as their standards of religious belief differed entirely from those of the different Protestant denominations,, (who had all a common standard,) they could not allow their children to" attend Protestant schools. The fear was, either that, being young and inexperienced, the religious faith of the children, would be interfered with, or that they would be allowed to grow up without any religious influences about them whcit- ever. Rather than thus, in effect, to int-erjiose any obstacles to the promotion of education among the children of Roman Catholics, esj)eoially in cities and towns where i* i^ so much needed for all classes of children, the <5onc«a8ton was made by the legislature. It was, of course, understood that one of the more Important objects of the Roman Catholic sepa- rate school law would thus be accomplished ; and that, with the combined influence of the public oommoii schools, crime HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 427 and vagrancy would sensibly diminish in cities and towns. Should this desirable object not be accomplished, it would be competent for the legislature to modify or take away the powers now conferred by the separate school act. In 1841, there was only on?. Roman Catholic separate school in Upper Canada ; in 1851 they had only increased to sixteen ; but in 1862 they had increased to one hundred and nine. The legislative apportionment to these schools in 1801 was $7,550 ; the local contributions made by their supporters in the same year was $23,262 ; total expenditure on behalf of these schools in 1861, $30,941. The number of pupils attending the forty-one separate schools in opera- tion in 1855 was 4,885, while the number attending the one hundred and nine schools in 1861 was 18,631. 8. Protestant Separate Schools. The law which at present authorizes the establishment of Protestant separate schools in Upper Canada was passed in 1850,* but advantage is rarely taken of its provisions. "* Tho miMt important pari: ~ ge number of pupils atten'ling the common schools in each kc h city, tow. . . jrporatod village, or township ; the mean attendance of pupils for winter and summer being taken." " 17. The trustees of each such aoparatc school shall be a body corporate under the name of the trustees of the separate school of , (as tho case may bo,) in tho township, city, or town (as the cose may be) of ; and shall have the same power to impose, levy, and collect school rates or subrorip- tions upon and {torn persons sending children to or subscribing towards the support of the separate school, as the trustees of a common school section have to impose, levy, and collect school rates or subscriptions from persons having property in the section or sending children to or subscribing towards the sup- port of tha common school of such section." — [ConaoUdaied Statutes; cap. 65.] n HISTORICAL BKiilTCH OF ^IbUOATION IN UPPER HAN AD a. 429 unite and establiflli schools of tlie.'r c\fn. Tbc ntunlje^ ol these schools in exis'ftcce in 1861 was only t»vo. They were attended by 118 children, and were supported at an expense of $208; of which $127 were contributed from local sources, and $76 from the legislative school grant. The additional number of coloured children attending the common schools has not been reported separately. 5. Indian Schools. According ♦^o iPxs Census of 1861, there were about 8,500 Indians in Upper Canada. Up to the same period, there were only about thirty schools established among them. These schools were taught by about thirty-five teachers, and attended by about eight hundred pupils. Of these schools, three were of a superior class, viz. : the New England So- ciety's (Church of England) school at Mohawk, Grand River, and the Industrial (Wesleyan Methodist) schools at Mount Elgin, (County of Middlesex,) and Alnwick (County of Northumberland.) The New England Society in behalf of the Indians, was established in England in Queen Anne's time, (about 1700.) In 1880, it succeeded to the management of the school es- tablished for the remnant of the Six Nation Indians at Mohawk, Grand River, (see page 874.) In this school pro- vision is made for boarding the Indian boys and girls at- tending it, and for giving them instruction in the usual branches of a common English education accompanied with religious teaching. A part of the boys are also taught some mechanical arts and instruction is given to some of the girls in domestic affairs. The schools at Mount Elgin and Alnwick, are purely industrial or agricultural in their character. The pupils receive a good plain education ac- companied by religious instruction ; the girls are also hi- structed in household affairs, and the boys are employed a portion of each day in working the farm. f":^>>: ;■ 1 if H • i i I.' C= 430 HISTORIOAL SKKTCH OF KOUOATION IN UFPKR CANADA. CHAPTER n. ELEMENTARY SOHOOLS NOT RECBIYING LE0I8LATIYE AID. 1. Church of England Parochial Schools. In most of the cities of Upper Canada, parochial schools have, for some years, been established in connection with the principal Church of England congregations, but no authen- tic information relating to their condition has been pub- lished. They are supported by fees and private subscrip- tions and are chiefly attended by poor children. 2. Private Schools for Boys and Oirls. In all the cities and towns of Upper Canada, there are private schools of various descriptions for boys and girla. Those for girls are more numerous than for boys, owing to the greater number of public schools which have been established for boys. There were in 1861 upwards of three hundred private schools in Upper Canada, attended by nearly 7,400 pupils. In the cities and more important t^wns, several excellent Roman Catholic convents for the education of girls have been established, viz. : The Ladin of Loretto have established convents for the superior educi^lion of young ladies at Toronto in 1847, with branches at Niagara Falls, Guelph, and Belleville. The Sisters of St. Joseph have also similar convents at To- ronto, Banie, Niagara, and St. Catharines, besides schools at Oakville, Brantforr], and Paris. JTie Sisters of th3 Presentation have an old established con- vent at Kingston. An drsuline convent exists at Chatham, and a convent IP' ler a Trench order of the Sisters of Charity at Ottawa. rue -i is It CHAPTER m. SUPBRIOR SCHOOLS RECErVING LEGISLATTVE AID. 1. ZTjsper Canada OoUege. Upper Canada College, or Royal Grammar School, at Toronto, was established in 1829-30, by Sir John Colborne (now Lord Seaton,) and endowed with a grant of sixty- six thousand acres of the crown lands. This college is under the control of the senate of the University of Toronto, and was designed to occupy the same position in Upper Canada as the best public grammar schools do in England. It has done good service in its day; and, since its establish- ment, has educated about twenty-five hundred pupils, some of whom now occupy high positions among >he public men of Upper Canada. From two hundred to two hundred and fifty pupils annually attend the school. In addition to the prinoipal, there are ten masters in the college. At the July examinations several exhibitions, varying in value from forty to one hundred and twenty dollars are open to com- petition among the grammar schools of Upper Canada. Annual prizes and certificates of honor are annually dis- tributed among the pupils. 2. Model Orammar ScJiool for Upper Canada. The Model Grammar School for Upper Canada is some- what similar in its character to Upper Cana'la College. It was established by the council of public instruction, at Toronto, in 1858, and was " mainly intended to exemplify the best methods of teaching the branches required by law to be taught in the grammar schools, especially classics and mathematics, and as a model for the grammar schools of the m-' 433 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KDUCATION iV UPFBR CAKADA. country." It also provides faf^ilities for a training class of ten grammar school masters. The number of pupils is limited to one hundred, or three from each county or union of counties in Upper Canada. Prizes and certificates are annually distributed among the pupils. In addition to the rector there are eight masters. 8. The County Orammar Schools. Grammar schools were first established in Upper Canada in 1807, under the name of " district schools." The num- ber established in that year was eight, — or one each for the eight districts into which the province was then divided. In 1853, the presv^nt county grammar school system was established, it was designed to form a link between the common school and the university; and was intended to provide facil'ties for giving "instruction iu the higher branches of a practical English and commercial education, including the elements of mechanics and natural philosophy, and also in the Greek and Latin languages and in mathe- matics, so far as to prepare students for University College or any college afl&liated to the University of Toronto."* The course of study in these schools and the general regulations for their management are prescribed by the council of public instruction for Upper Canada. Masters must either be graduates of some university, or possess a cer- tificate of qualification from a committee of examiners ap- pointed by the council of public instruction. Pupils, on entering a grammar school, are requiied to pass a prelimin- ary examination in "reading, writing, spelling; simple and compound rules of arithmetic, reduction and simple proportion; elements of English grammar and parsing; definitions and outlines of geography." There are four grammar school terms in each year, and the fees are deter- mined by the local boards of trustees. The members of these b(>ards are appointed by the county councils. In 1861 there were eighty-six gram nar schools in Upper Canada, ♦ 16 Vkvt., ehsp. 186. J- UISTORIOAL SKETCH OF XDUOATION IN UPFKR CANADA. 433 attended by 4,766 pupils and supported at a cost of $85,164, including a legislative grant of $36,693. CHAPTER lY. SUPERIOR SCHOOLS NOT RECEIVING PUBLIC AID. 1. Oollege Preparatory Schools, Until lately a preparatory school was attached to Trinity and Queen's Colleges. That connected with Trinity College has ceased to exist ; while that attached to Queen's College has been merged into the Frontenac County Grammar School. The preparatory school connected with Victoria College is still in successful operation. 2. Seminaries and Academies. The Friends^ Seminary was established near Picton, in the county of Prince Edward, in 1841, under the direction and control of the Society of Friends. The seminary is situated on a farm of one hundred acres, and will accommo- date about sixty male and female pupils. At present, insiruction is given in the English branches only ; but ex- ertions are shortly expected to be made to introduce the study of the classics into the seminary. It is intended, also, to erect more suitable buildings, ca pable of holding eighty pupils. The officers of the institi tion are a super- intendent, a matron, and other teachers- -all of whom are members of the Society of Friends. There are two terms, —a winter and a summer term. The Belleville Seminary was established at Belleville, county of Hastings, in 1854, chiefly by the liberality of members of the Methodist-Episcopal Church in Canada. It was opened in 1857, and is under the control of that body. Its design is to afford instruction in the aigher branches of education to young ladies and young; gentlemen. The building will accommodate three hundred pupils— one hun- !?l< If I! I 434 HISTORICAL SKLTOH OF KDUOATIOW IN UPPKR CANADA. dred of whom can reside in the building. The officers of the institution are, a principal, a preceptress, a professor of mathematics, of Greek and Latin, and of the natural sci- ences, besides a lady teacher of music The sessions begin in May and September. The Canadian Literary Institute was established at Wood- stock, county of Oxford, in 1867-8, by the regular Baptists of Upper Canada. It is under the control of that body, and is chiefly designed to aflford instruction in the primary and higher English branches of education to young ladies and young gentlemen. (The theological department is re- ferred to on pages 483 and 439.) The course of study, in the higher depaii;ments, is so arranged as to suit male students both in classics and natural sciences. It is also designed to prepare male students for admission to the Law Society, or for matriculation in the faculties of arts, law, or medicine in the University of Toronto. In the course for young ladies, classics and the higher mathematics are omitted. In the primary department, no pupil under eleven years of age is admissible. The number of pupils in attendance in these branches in 1861, was one hundred and thirty-four; in the theological class, twenty-seven ; total, one hundred and sixty-one. The officers of the institution are six ; viz. : a principal, two other male teachers, and three female teach- ers. The terms begin in January, April, and September. The Weskyan Female College^ a proprietary institution in connection with the conference of the Wesleyan Meth- odist Church in Canada, was established at the city of Hamilton in 1861. It is designed to furnish a superior ed- ucation in the English branches to young ladies exclusively. The proprietors of the college are an incorporated body, possessed of one or more shares of the value of one hundred dollars each. The officers of the college are eight; viz.: a principal, five female and two male teachers, besides a domestic or house governor, and a chaplain. f -I or HISTORICAL SKETCH OW XDUCATIOK IK UPPER CANADA. 486 77ie Chnvents. In nearly every important town of Upper Canada, convents have within the last few years been es- tablished for the instruction of young ladies in the superior branches of an English education. The following are the principal ones, viz.: 1. T^ie Ladiea of Loreito. They have a superior convent in Toronto, with excellent branches at the Niagara Falls, Guolph, and Belleville. A pupil at one institution can be removed to the other without any inconvenience. 2. The Sisters of St. Joseph have also similar convents at Toronto, Barrie, Niagara, and St. Catharines. They also teach the Koman Catholic Separate Schools at OakviUe, Brantford, and Paris. 3. The Sisters of the Presentation have an old established convent at ELingston. 4. An UrsuUne convent has been established at Chatham, and a convent under a French order of the Sisters of Charity has been established at Ottawa. The Sisters of Notre Dame have a School at Alexandria. a CHAPTER V. PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS. 1. Schools of Theology. I.— OHUHOH Of ENOLAim. Although a Royal Charter was obtained in March, 1827, authorizing the institution of a Faculty of Divinity in the proposed University of King's College, at Toronto, it was not until 1848 that a professorship in that faculty was act- ually established. Pendir ' the protracted public discussions on the subject, the Right ileverend Doctor Strachan, Prot- estant-Episcopal Bishop of the diocese, upon the report and recommendation of his three chaplains, founded a diocesan S8 e;ir r'l U- i «W»K.-«2*3aaA1i IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 I.I 1^ m |56 Its 2.2 ^ 112.0 1.8 1.25 1 1.4 1.6 •• 6" ► Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y, 14580 (716) 872-4503 \ NJ A \ [V « V" ru^' ^' ■'V 's,' ^ 1 - . p- k Hi 1 ' K ' 1.; ; [I: . ^H ' j < ' ' i 1 m^l'"' ^^K ^^B ' ^^Hm ' * ^mi* ^^^KiV'^U' ^ 436 HI8T0IU0AI. SKXTOH OT SDUCATION W VPPBR OAITADA. theological college at Cobourg, in December, 1841. This diocesan college was continued, notwithstanding the exist- ence of the Church of England professorship of divinity in the University of King's College, f'-om 1843 until 1850, (when an alteration was made in that institution, and the divinity professorship abolished,) in consequence of the precarious tenure by which the divinity professorship in King's College was held during those years. In 1851, after the professorship of divinity was finally abolished, the bishop undertook the laborious and difficult task of found- ing a purely Church of England university and obtaining a Boyal Charter for it. This he successfully accomplished ; and in January, 1853, he had the satisfaction to preside at the inauguration of Trinity College University, in which there was established a faculty of divinity. The diocesan college at Cobourg was merged into the new university, and in 1853 the students transferred from Cobourg to Toronto. The regulations of the Theological Faculty in Trinity College University are as follows: — " The theological course of Trinity College extends over two years. Any person is eligible for admission to it who has taken the degree of B.A., or who, having attained the age of twenty-one, has passed one year in the Arts Course. " Bachelor of Divinity. Candidates for this degree must be Maste- 3 of Arts of at least seven years' standing. The requisite exercises are, — " A Latin and an English thesis, — one on some point of doctrine connected with the Thirty- nine Articles, and the other on some scriptural subject to be appointed by the examiners; An examination must also be passed in some Latin or Greek treatise or treatises chosen by the examiners; An English sermon must be preached before the university. " Doctor of Divinity. Candidates for this degree must be Bachelors of Divinity of five years' standing. They will be required to write an English and a Latin thesis, as HISTORICAL iKETCB OF EDUCATION ISf tPPEB CANADA. 437 in the case of B.D., and to preacli an English serroon before the university. " The examiners in divinity ghall be the professors of divinity, and two graduates in that faculty, to be appointed by the counciL" Objections having been made to the character and ten- dency of the theological teachings in Trinity College, To- ronto, the Eight Reverend Doctor Cronyn, Bishop of Huron^ proposes to establish a theological college in that diocese. A grant of five hundred pounds sterlitig has been made for this object by the society in England for promoting Chris- tian knowledge. An English gentleman has also gi'»/en five thousand pounds sterling towards the same object. n.— OHtmCH O* ROME. Upper Canada is divided into five Roman Catholic dio- ceses, viz.: Ottawa, Kingston, Toronto, Hamilton, and Sandwich, in each of which, there is a college for the in- struction of youth. In these colleges, there is also prov Ision made for the training of candidates for the pnesthood. Regiopolis College, at Kingstoii, is the oldest of these dio- cesan colleges, and, for a number of years, waa the only Roman Catholic college in Upper Canada, Regiopolis College was founded by the late Hon. and Right Rev. Bishop McDonell, who left a legacy by will for this object in 1885. It was opened in 1846 by the Very Reverend Angus Macdonell, Vicar-General, who is its pres- ent president. The general course of study in the college embraces classics, mathematics, philosophy, and theology. The theological course extends over three years. St. Joseph's CoUege, at Ottawa, waa founded in 1848, by the Right Reverend Doctor Joseph E, Guigues, first Roman Catholic bishop of the diocese. It is under the direction of the '• Society of the Oblates of Mary Immaculate." Its general course is classical and commercial. I . i ' I., ' I * ..!.. wv 44:2 HIBTORIOAL BKBTCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. • 4, Canada Presbyterian Church. Syatematio Theology—OellB' Institutea Class of Exegetical Theology— Ellioot } of Theology, with extraoUi from Eadie on the Epistles ; Calvin ; Alford'H Greek Testament ; Dr. Willis' Latin Collectanea ; Moore on the Minor Prophets ; Biblical Criticism — Home's Introduc- Mental and Moral Philosophy, Reid, tion; with Notes by Sir W, Hamilton— - Class of Evidence ; of Christianity — Waylraid. Btttler, Paley. E 5. Wcsleyan Meffiodisi Church. first year: (Additvmal for honors : The Bible ; Horner's Introduotion ; Smith's Sacred Annals — 1. Patriarchal Wesley's Sermons, (first series ;) Age : 2. Hebrew People.) Wesley's Christian Perfection; Third year: Wesley's Notes on the New Testa- Watson's Theological Institutes, (part ment; iii. and iv.;; Watson's Theological Institut, (part i.) Pearson on the Creed ; (Additionai for honors : Taylor's Ancient and Modem History. Wesley on Original Sin ; (Additional for honors : Fletcher's ^ippeal ; Smith's Sacred Annals — 3. G«ntile Fletcher's Checks to Antinomianism.) Nations.) Second year : Fourth year : Watson's Theological Institut., (part ii.) Butler's Analogy, with Teft's Analysis ; Murdoch's Mosheim's Ecclesiastical Upham's Mental Philosophy ; History by Reid ; Whately's Logic and Rhetoric ; Dr. G. Smith's History of Methodism ; {Additional for honors: Ttangs's History of the Methodist- Examuiation by miscellaneous qnestioiu Episoopal Chncoh. on the foregt'ng.) 6. Sapiist Ohwrch. | Paley 's Natural Theology; Giesler's Ecolesiaatioal History ; Wtiyland's Moral Soienoo ; The New Testament and Septuagint in :Ba!ey and Wilscm's Evidenoefl of Chris- Greek ; also translations ; tianity; Analysis and Exegesis in Greek ; iBmesti's Prinoiplies of Interpretaiion ; Beflides lectures on the genuineness of Hebrew Bible ; Scripture, History of Sacred Criti- Malcolm's Butler's A nalogy ; cism, Ecclesiastical History, Chris- Jahn's Biblical Archeology ; tian Theology, Pastoral Ih'^ology Biblical G^eography ; ' Pastoral Duties, &o., &o. i 1 . -J I .' f:< 'i: HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPKR CANADA. 443 7. Congregaiional Church. Books of Reference: 1. In Systematic Theology : Calv'P's Institutes; The works of Howe, Edwards, and Dwight ; Knapp, Dlok, and Wardlaw'sThtjology; Dr. Pye Smith's First Lines ; Payne's Lectures ; Watson's Institutes. 2. In Biblical Criticism, and luterpre- tation : Home's Introduction ; Davidson's Introduction to the New Testament ; Westcott on the Gospels ; Alexander's Christ and Christianity ; Ellicott's Life of Christ ; Ernesti's Institutes ; Plank's Sacred Philology ; Davidson's Biblical Criticism and Her- meneuticd ; Fairbain's Ilermeneutical Manual ; Kitto, Herzog, and Smith's Cyclope- dias; On the Evidences : Butler, Campbell, Paley, Watson, Chalmers, «fec.; On the Greek Testament : Alford, El- licott, Winer, Beuzn, and Oerhan> sen. 3. In Churo^ History : Reid's Murdoch's Moeheim, Nean- der, Giesler, Hase, Kurty, Schaff, Bower's Lives of the Popes ; Milman's Latin Christianity ; (Bohn's) Greek Ecclesiast. Historians ; Hagenback'a History of Doctrine ; Neander's Christian Dogmas ; Bingham's and Coleman's Antiquities ; Chasers Apostolical Constitutions. 4. In Church Government : John Owen, David Clarkson ; Wardlaw's Congregational Indepen- dency ; Davidson's Church Polity of the New Testament ; 5. On Baptism : Wardlaw, Ewing, L. Woods, Beecher, Wilson, and Halley. 2. Schools of Law. I. — THE hKTT SOHOOL OP 08000DE HALL. " In Upper Canada, the profession of the law is divided into two branches, each subject to its own peculiar regula- tions, and, to a certain extent, independent of the other, though generally the one person practices in both. They are, barristers, or persons authorized to "plead at the bar" of the courts of law or equity, and to take upon them the advising and defense of clients, and from whom all judges, Queen's counsel, and attorneys and solicitors general are selected ; and attorneys and solicitors, or persons authorized to " appear in the courts " in the place and on behalf of others, to prosecute and defend actions on the retainer *■ i_ , (i ' littiHr wm i 444 HISTORICAL SKETCH OK EDUCATION IN UPPER C. .ADA. of clients. The only distinction between these two latter is, that *' attorney " is the title adopted in the courts of com- mon law, and " solicitor " the title adopted in the courts of equity." — [Canada Educational Directory^ p. 94. In the study of law, the course prescribed by the Law Society for Upper Canada takes precedence.* Students who have already passed through a three or four years' university course of law studies are still required, if they wish to become barristers at law, to begin de novo, and continue as students of the Law Society for three years longer. While those who are not university graduates are only required to remain on the books of the Law Society as students for five y ears. All students must be at least sixteen years of age ; they must attend term lectures, and must re- ceive their professional education under the superintendence of some barrister. In order to facilitate the education of the students, the Law Society has arranged " that the tuition of the pupils attending the law school shall be by means of lectures, readings, and mootings; that there shall be four readers, viz. : the reader on common law, the reader on equity, the reader on commercial law, and the reader on the law of real property ; that in addition to the lectures in term, there shall be lectures during the three educational terms of each * The Law Society of Upper Canada was established in 1797, by the Act 37 Greorge III., cap. 13, whioli enabled the then practitioners of the law to form themselves into a society, " for the purpose of securing to the country and the profession a learned and honorable body, to assist their fellow-subjects as occasion may require, and to support and mamtain the constitution of the province." By the same act, the judges of the superior courts were consti- tuted visitors, with authority to sanction such rules as they considered necessary for the good government of the society. In 1822, the society wbs incorporated by the Act, 2 Greorge IV., cap. 5, and its funoMons vested in the treasurer and benchers for the tim« being, elected according to the by-laws of the society, much in the same manner as in the law societies of Great Britain and Ireland. The benchers sit in convocation every law term, for the admission of students and barristers, and for other business. — [Canada Ediucationai Directory, p. 95 m;. ... BI8T0RI0AL SKETCH OF SDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 445 year, which shall continue for six consecutive weeks each. The attendance on the lectures of the educational term is, however, voluntary. In order to give an additional stimu- lus to the study of law in Upper Canada, the ^ ' iety has established four scholarships (one for each yeaj course) which are open to any student on the society s books, whether pupils of the law school or not. These scholar- ships are of the respective values of one hundred and twenty, one hundred and sixty, two hundred, and two hundred and forty dollars per annum, and are payable quarterly. The readers deliver the lectures, hold readings, and preside at mootings or the moot courts. The charge for attendance at the law school is one dollar per term. Students of the Law Society are admitted upon examination in one of the three following classes, viz. : the university class, the senior class, aiid the junior class. The examina- tion in the university and »he senior classes is the same, and includes Greek, Latin, mathematics or metaphysics, astron- omy, ancient and modem geography and history ; the ex- amination in the junior class is in Latin, mathematic. , English history, and modem geography. Every candidate for admission to the bar must be of the full age of twenty-one years. He must pass an examina- tion in writing and also ore tenus. These examinations are divided into two classes, viz. : for " call " simj y, or for " call, with honors." Every student on being called to the bar must appear before the convocation in a barrister's gown for the purpose of being presented to the superior courts by a bencher of the society. Candidates for admission as attorneys and solicitors must pass a similar examination, and receive a " certificate of fitness," but are not required to pass an entrance or matriculation examination as students of the Lav Society. They must, however, have completed the whole term of their articles under the instruction of IK.! 1 |i Ji 1 1 1 1 1 ! i ;! i ( i ■Mi 440 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. some attorney or attorneys previous to their examination for a " certificate of fitness."* Ifi' f ■ i* ■ M i XL — UNIVBR8ITT OF TOEONTO LAW COURSH. « No lectures are delivered in the faculty of law in this university; but the following are the requisites for obtain- ing the degree of LL.B. in the ordinary course: — Ilaving matriculated in the faculty of law ; Being of the standing of four years from matriculation ; Having passed in each of those years the examinations prescribed in the statute respecting " subjects of examina- tion in the faculty of law ; " Being of the full age of twenty-one yeaid. The following are the requisites for obtaining the degree ofLL.D.:— Having been admitted to the degree of LL.B.; Being of ten years' standing from admission to the degree of LL.B. or of M. A.; * In an address by the late Sir John B. Robinson, Bart, to the students of the Law Society, on the occasion of his retirement from the office of Chief-Justioe of Upper Canada, (after thirty-two years' service,) he thus sums up the " changes which have taken place in the condition of law students " since he first studied law in 1807 : 1. The period of study has been reduced two years in favor of graduates in arts or law ; 2. Term lectures are delivered on the different branches of law ; 3. The whole of the statutes have been simplified and consolidated ; 4. Much that was formerly difficult and embarrassing in the mere technicality of law has by late changes been swept away. He strongly advises students " to make some one branch of the law an especial object of study — resolving to know, so far as it may be possible for you, every thing that can be known in it, meaning and hoping to become in time an admitted author- ity in that particular department of the law, whether your inclination and judgment shall lead you to select the criminal law, the law of real property, commercial law, or pleading generally, or practice generally. Such a course would, I believe, insure to the person who pursues it the advantage of soon being generally and favorably known. He would acquire a reputation which must advance him in his profession, secure for him the confidence and respect of his legal brethren, and make his services sought after by those who have valuable interests to protect." Xi ■ i'.' UI8T0RI0AL 8KKT0U OF 8DU0ATION IN UPPBR CANADA. 447 Having composed an approved thesis upon some subject in law. Four scholarships of the value of one hundred and twenty dollars each are distributed annually to students in this faculty; each successful candidate must sign a declara- tion of his intention to proceed to a degree in the Univer- sity of Toronto. • A gold and a silver medal, certificates of honor, and prizes in books, are also distributed annually among the successful students. m. — tmnrBHSiTT or queen's oolleob law ooubsb. The law course in Queen's College extends over three years. Candidates must pass a matriculation examination, unless they have already passed a similar examination in any college, or have been admitted as students of the Law Society for Upper Canada. Lectures are delivered by three professors. nr. — UNIVERSITT OP VIOTOHU COLLEGE LAW COURSE. The law course in Victoria College extends over four years. Candidates must pass a matriculation examination, unless they have been admitted as barristers by the Law Society of Upper Canada. A student of three years' standing in artd may enter at the examination for the second year; and a graduate in the same faculty may enter at the third year examination. No lectures are given, but annual examinations in the subjects presc ibed are held. V. — UNIVEKSITT OP TBINITT OOLLEOB LAW OOUBSB. No lectui'es in law have been given since the law course was opened at Osgoode Hall by the Law Society. "i ■ \ > .■-'■• s ! 448 HISTORICAL SKBTCH OF EDUCATION IK UPPER CANADA. SOHEDCI^ OF THE LAW COUBSE IN THE SEVERAL UlUYBBSITIZS, BIG. I < 1. Tjaw Society for HTpper Canada. Law 8ekcHar8hip$ — Firsi Year: 1. Stephen's Blackstcme, Vol L 2. Stephen on Pleading. 3. Williams on Personal Property. 4. Story's Equity Jurisprudenoe, from $440. Stconi Year: I. Williams on Real Property. !2. Best on Evidence. 3. Smith on Contracts. 4. Story's Equity Juriepmdenoe. Third Year: 1. Real Property : Statutes of U. 0. 2. Stephen's Blaokstone, F>ook V. 3. Byles on Billo. 4. Haynes's Outlines o£ Equity. 5. Coote on Mortgages. Iburth Year : 1. Burton on Real Property. 2. Russell on Crimes. 3. Common Law : Pleading and Prac- tice. 4. Smith's Mercantile Law. 5. Dart on Vendors and Purchasers. 6. Mitford on Pleading. 7. Eqnity Pleading and Plraetiee. Examination of Barristers for CaU: L Blaokstone's Commentaries, Vol. i. 3. University of Toronto. 2. Addboa on Contracts. 3. Smith's Mercantile Law. 4. Williams on Real Property. 5. Story's Equity Jurisprudenoe. 6. Stephen on Pleading. 7. Taylor on Evidence. 8. Byles on Bills. 9. Public Statutes of Upper Canada. 10. Pleadings and Practice of the Su- perior Courts of Upper Canada. Additional for Call, with Eonora : 11. Rassell on Crimes. 12. Story on Partnership. 13. Walkins's Principles of ConTey< auoing. 14. Coote on Mortgages. 15. Dart on Vendors and Porohaseni. 16. Jarman on Wills. 17. Story's Conflict of Laws. 18. Justinian's Institutes. Certificate of Fitness for Attorneys : 1. Blackstone's Commentaries, Vol. i. 3. Smithes Mercantile Law. 3. Williams on Real Property. 4. Story's Equity Jurisprudenoe. 5. Statute Laws cf Upper Canada. 6. Pleading and Practice of the Courts. 1. Demosthenes, Olynthiaos. 2. Cicero, Orationes in Catilimun, pro Arohia et pro Marcello. 3. Logical and Rhetorical Fonns in Fowler's English LsBguage. 4. History of English Literature, from Elizabeth to Anne, in Spaulding's English Literature. 5. Macaulay's History ; from Charles i. to William iii., indusive. Hollam's Middle Ages, chapten }- and ii., with Appendix. Murray's Logio. Wayland's Moral Philosophy. Wbately's Political Eooaomy. Additional for Honors: 1. Demosthenes' Philippics. 2. Cicero, pro Milone. 3. Translation from Latin hito English Prose. HISTORICAL SKSTOH OF BDtrCATIOlT IW FFPKH CAHAUA. 44& zlish 4. Analysis of one of Shakeapeare's plays. 5. Whately's Synonyms. 6. Trench's English, Past and Freomt 7. Trench's Study of Words. 8. Moliero, Le Misanthrope. 9. Translation Arom EngGsh inta French. 10. Hallam's Middle Ages, dtapter viii.; parts i., ii., iii. 11. Smith's Wealth of Nations, books i., ii., iii., ir. Second Tear : 1. Hallam's Coustitntional History^ 2. Austin's Provinoe of Jurisprudenoe. 3. Smith's Equity Jurisprudence. 4. Williams on Real Property. 5. Smith's Mercantile Law. 6. Bowyer's Civil Law. Third Tear: 1. Cox's British Commonwealth.. 2. Mitford's Plaadte^ in Bqnity. 3. Burton's Compendiam of the Law of Real Property. Archbold's Landlord and Tenant. Addison on Contracts. Westlakb'd Conflict of Laws. Ccmdidaiea for LL.B.: Ti^lor on Evidence. Sugden on Vendors andPurohasera. Jarman on Wills. Blackstonb, Vol. iv. Justinian's Institutes. Gibbon's Roman Empire, chap. xliv. Arnold's Bcnne, chapters xiii., ziv., xvi., xxvi. Additianaifor Eonora: 8. Sugden on Powers. 9. Wheaton's International Law. 10. Mackeldey, Systema Juris Ro- manl. 3. VrtimraUiu qf Queen's College. First Teajr: 1. Stephens on Pleading. 2. Stephens's Blackstone's Commenta- ries, Vol. i. 3. Bnrioii on Real Property; Second Tea/ri 1. Addison on Contracts. 2. Smith's Mercantile Law. 3. Taylor on Evidence. 4. Chitty (m Bills. 4. Univeniti of Victoria CoUsgt. Statutes of Upper Canada. Third Tear: Williams on R^ Property. Story's Equity Jurisprudence. Headings aiKl Praetioaof the Courts of Law and Equity. Archbold's liutdlord and Tenant. Tar'iian on Wills. 1 Vigiien on Vendors and Piirchasers. First Year: 1. Cieero, Pro Arohia 2. Demosthenes, De Corona. 3. Montesquieu, Esprit des Lois, Book ii., chaptoi* 6. 4. Whately's Pditioal Econoiny. 5. Brougham's British Constitution. 6. Blackstone's Commentaries, Vols. i. andii. 7. Whately and Hamilton's Logic. 8. Statutes relating to the Constitution of Canada. g. Wayland*s Moral Scienw. Second Tear: 1. Banana's Constitutional History. 3. Smith's Wealth of Nations. 3. Powell on Evidence. 4. Drewry's Bqnity PleacRng. If-a- iHm if 450 HISTORICAL SKBTOH OF BDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 5. Stephen on Pleading. 6. Blackstone, Vol. tii. 7. Smith on Contraota. Third Year: 1. Smith's Mercantile Law. 2. Byles on Bills. 3. Walking on Conveyancing. 4. Williams on Real Property. 5. Story's Equity Jurisprudence, Vol. i. 6. Justinian's InRtHutes. 7. Upper Canada Statutes relating to Real Property and Commercial Law. Fourth Tear: 1. Bentham's Theory of Legislation. 2. Story's Equity, Vol. ii. 3. Taylor on Evidence. 4. Addison on Contracts. 5. Russell on Crimes. 6. Blackstone, Vol. iv. 7. Upper Canada Statutes relating to the Administration of Justice and Criminal Law. 8. Schools of Medicine. In addition to the ordinary schools of medicine connected with the universities, there are three medical boards in Upper Canada for the examination and licensing of candi- dates desiring to practice physic, surgery, and midwifery. These three are (1.) The " Medical Board of Upper Canada," which meets quarterly in the Toronto General Hospital; (2.) The " Homeopathic Medical Board of Canada," which meets in Toronto half-yearly; and (3.) The "Eclectic Med- ical Board," which annually meets in Toronto. I. — UNTVEEaiTT Or TORONTO MEDICAL OOURSB. ' No lectures are given in the medical faculty of this uni- versity ; but the following are the requisites for admission to the degree of Bachelor of Medicine in the ordinary course: 1. Having matriculated in the faculty of medicine, or having matriculated and passed one other examination in either of the faculties of law or arts; 2. Being of the full age of twenty-one years; 8. Having pursued medical studies for the period of at least four years, and. having regularly attended lectures thereon ; 4. Having passed in this university an examination in all the medical subjects specified; 5. Producing satisfactory certificates of good conduct. "\ iTn '^r--^ Mi aU M HIBTOBIOJO. BKXTCH 07 mVCXTlOS tX VrPXS CASADJU 451 The following are the requisitas for admission to the degree of M. D. : — Having been admitted to the degree of M. B.; being of one year's standing from admission to the degree of M. B. ; and having composed an approved thesis upon some medi- cal subject Four scholarships of the value of one hundred and twenty dollars each are distributed annually to students in this faculty; each successful candidate must sign a declara- tion of his intention to proceed to a degree in the University of Toronto. n.— ITNIVBBSITT OF QTTEEK'S COLLBaB XKDIOAL C0UB8F. The faculty of medicine in this university was established in 1854. It includes seven professors and the president. The period of instruction extends over four years. Attend- ance on fiill course of daily lectures in at least two classes is required. One year's instruction under a qualified medi- cal practitioner is received as equivalent to a year's attend- ance at college. - Each candidate for a degree must be twenty-one years of age, and must present a certificate of good moral character, with a statement of his literary, scientific, and medical studies. He must also submit an original thesis for the approval of the faculty. At the end of the third year a primary examination takes place, and a final examination at the end of the fourth year. These examinations are held both in wxiting and viva voce. m. — ^UNIVBBSITT OF TKJTOBU CCtiLEQB MEDICAL COTOSB. The faculty of medicine in this university was established at Toronto, in 1854, by the merging of what was then called the Toronto, or Rolph's, School of Medicine, (founded by the Hon. Dr. Eolph in 184S,) into the university. It now em- braces eight professors, (including an assistant^ and the dean 29 I! ( * 111;", iii: . ?f »; ^ ^«f'K •• « I' '■ ' s :.«€ 452 HIBTOMOAL SKBTOH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. of the faculty. The period of instruction extends over four years; but, if found duly qualified, a student may graduate in three year-!. Each candidate for a degree must be twenty-one years of age, and must compose, for the approval of the faculty, a thesis upon some medical subject. rV. — TOBONTO SCHOOL OF MBDIOINB. . As this institution, although incorporated in 1851, can not confer degrees of itself, it is affiliated with the Univer- sity of Toronto for that purpose ; its examinations are con- ducted in that university, and upon the result of those examinations the medical degrees are conferred upon its students. There are eight lecturers in the school, in- cluding its president. In addition to its own museum, the medical museum of the Toronto university has been placed in its charge, and forms a valuable collection for the use of students. fiOHEDULE OF THE HEDIOAL COUBSE IK THE BEVEBAL UNIVEB8ITIES, ETC. 1. University of Toronto. Matriculation: SalluBt, Catilina ; Arithmetic and Algebra, m part ; English Grammar and Composition ; English History ; Aiioient and Modem G^eography ; Elements of Chemistry ; Elements of Physiology } Elements of Botany. For Degree of M.S.: lamination in the following snb- jeots: Having attended two conned of lec- tures of six months each* on Anatomy, Physiology, Practical Anatomy, Theory and Practice of Medicine, Principles and Practice of Surgery, Chemistry, Midwifery and Diseases of Women and Children ; Having attended one course of lectures for six months on Therapeutics and Pharmacology ; Having attended one course of three months on. Practical Chemistry, Modioal Jurisprudence ; Having attended twelve months' prac- tice at some general hospital, and six months' clinical lectures on Medicine and Surgery. * Or having attended OM couito of lix monthi with certificate of having aHiited at twelve caie* of labour. M Ili' HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPKR CANADA. 453 2. Quevfia College, Kingsforu MairicvJaiion : Cesar's Commentaries ; London Pharmacopoeia, or Gregory's Conspectus. For Degree of M.D.: Examination on the following sub- jects: Ha^ng attended two courses of six months each on Anatomy, Practical Anatomy, Principles and Practice of Surgery, Theory and Practice of Medicine, Materia Medica and Pharmacy, Chemistry, Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children, Institutes of Medicine ; Having attended two courses of three months each, or one of six months, on Clinical Medicine, Clinical Sur- gery; Hospital, twelve months. 3. Vicioria College, Cobourg. Principles and Practice of Surgery, Principles and Practice of Medicine, Materia Medica and Therapeutics, Chemistry, Midwifery and the Diseases of Women and Children, Clinical Medicine and Surgery ; Having attended one course of six months on Medical Jurispmdenoe and Pathology. JfatriaUaiion : Sallust, Catilina ; London Pharmacopoeia, Gregory's Conspectus, or any other Latin author. Ibr Degree of MB.: Examination in the following sub- jects: Having attended two courses of six months each on Desoript' j and Surgical Anatomy, Physiology, . ' 4. Toronto School of Msdicine. The same as that of the University of Toronto. 1 4. Schools of Teaching. I.— THE NORMAL SCHOOL FOR UVPER CANADA. The establishment of a normal school for the training of teachers, as a necessary part of a national system of educa- tion, engaged attention in Upper Canada in 1836. But no detailed pluj. by which that object could be accomplished was recommended to the legislature until the presentation, in 1846, of a " Eeport on a System of Public Elementary Instructio: for Upper Canada," by the Rev. Dr. Ryerson, Chief Superintendent of Education. Practical effect was immediately given to these recommendations, by the passing -■' . ■ 1?'.- B^ ■, - l.:< I' (■■'.■ 454 HI8TCRI0A& MECTOH OV KDVCATION IK UPPRK CANX&A. of a scliool law embodying the general features of the sys- tem fiketohed ont in that report, — appropriating $6,000 for furnishing suilable buildings, and an annual grant of an equal amount for the support of the school. After the necessary arrangements had been completed, the Normil School for Upper Cau»da was opened on the Ist of No- vember, 1847, in the old Government House, Toronto, in the presence of a luge number of gentlemen from different parts of the province. »• The institution having proved entirely successful, and new and enlarged premises having become necessary, the legislature, at its session in 1850, appropriated $60,000 for the purchase of a site and erection of buildings, and an ad- ditional $40,000 in 1852, making in all $100,000. The corner-stone of the new buildir^gs was laid on the 2nd of July, 1851, by His Excellency the Earl of Elgin and Kin- cardine, in the presence of the members of both branches of the legislature, the judges, clergy, a: c' the citizens of Toronto. The premises were formally opened by a public meeting in the theatre of tiie institution, on the 24th of November, 1852. The institution consists of a normal school aanA two model schools (one each for boys and girls;) the normal school is the school of instruction by lecture, — the model school the school of instruction by practice. The one hun- dred and fifty students in the fonner are teachers-in-training, W^hose ages vary from sixteen or eighteen to thirty, while the hundred and fiJ^y pupils in each of the latter are chil- dren between the ages of fiv« and sixteen years. In the nonnal school, the teachers-in-tcaining axe instructed in the principles of education and the be^ methods of communi- cating knowledge to the youth placed under their core—are " taught how to teach; " in the model schools they are taught to give practical effect to those instructions by teachers pre- viously trained in the ^iioiiBal«ohodl, «nd under the dLreotion 1 l-.m I HISTORICAL SKBTOH OT IDCOATIOK IH VTPBR CANADA. 455 of t>e head master. The model schools are designed, both by the system of instruction pursued and general arrange- ment, to be the model for all the pubhc schools in Upper Canada. The principal general regulations for admission of the students to the normal school are as follows: — I. No male student shall be admitted under eighteen years of age, or a female student under the age of sixteen years. 1. Those admitted must produce a certificate of good moral character, dated within at least three months of its presentation, and signed by the clergyman or minister of the religious persuasion with which they are connected. 2. They must be able, for entrance into the junior division, to read with ease and fluency; parse a common prose sen- tence according to any recognized a-ithority; write legibly, readily, and correctly; give the definitions of geography; have a general knowledge of the relative position of the principal countries with their capitals, the oceans, seas, rivers, and islands of the world; be acquainted with the fundamental rules of arithmetic, common or vulgar frac- tions, and simple proportion. They must sign a declaration of their intention to devote themselves to the profession of school-teaching, and state that their vitgect in coming to the normal school is to qualify themselves better for the impor- tant duties of that profession. XI. Upon these conditions, candidates for school-teaching will be admitted to the advantages of the institution with- out any charge, either for tuition, the use of the library, or for the books which they may be required to use in the school. IIL TeaK)herS'Tn-training must board and lodge in the city, in such houses and under such regulations as are approved of by the council of public instruction. IV. A sum at the rate of one dollar per week (payable at the end of the session,) will be allowed to each teacher-in- hikt ^r' ,1! ( J* f¥: ?. \ ", if rh , < » 466 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KDVCATION IN UPPER CANADA. training who, at the end of the Jirst or second session, shall be entitled to either a first or second class provincial certifi- cate; but no teacher-iii'training shall b*^ tntitled to receive aid for a period exceeding one ression, and no resident of the city of Toronto shall be entitled to receive aid. V. The continuance in the school of the teachers-in- training is conditional upon their diligence, progress, and observance of the general regulations prescribed. Each session to be concluded by an examination conducted by means of written questions and answers. On the establishment, in 1857, of an educational mu mm and a model grammar school, it was found necessary to provide further accommodation, and to remove the normal school to another part of the premises. With this view, a large additional building was erected, at a cost, including fittings, of about $35,000, in rear of the main structure, having a handsome front facing on Gerrard Street. To this building was transferred, in 1858, the normal school — the model grammar school being then but newly opened. il.— THE MODEL OBAIIUAS SCHOOL FOR T7PPEU CANADA. The Model Grammar School was designed not only to exhibit the best system of grammar school organizp don, discipline, and teaching, but it was also intended as a train- ing school for masters and assistant masters of grammar schoOid in Upper Canada. The regulationc of the training department of this school are as follows : — 1. No fees will be charged to students admitted in this department; and each student, if approved at the ^nd of each term, may be assisted during one year to the amount of a dollar per week, towards the payment of his board. 2. Each student must sign a declaration to become a grammar school teacher in Upper Canada. 3. Graduates of universities in Her Majesty's dominions will be admitted without examination, and be aided by such Ki! '^••m IT I'l i HISTORICAL SKBTOH OS EDUCATION IN UFFKR CANADA. 457 instruction and practice as may qualify them for the special duties of organizing, teaching, and managing a grammar school, and will receive a certificate accordingly. 4. A student who is not a graduate of some university in Her Majesty's dominions must be at least twenty ycais of age, and pass an entrance examination in the subjects for matriculation in arts in the Provincial University. 5. He will receive instruction in all the subjects required by law, to qualify for the mastership of grammar schools, as also in the best methods of teaching and managing schools. Each student on leaving the school will receive, if approved, a certificate from the rector, in addition to his legal certificate of qualifications from the committee of ex- aminers, according to his attainments and merits. The general management of both institutions is intrusted to the council of public instruction appointed by the Crown ; and their governmental superintendence, together with the executive management of the grammar and common schools of Upper Canada, to the chief superintendent of education. ' CHAPTER VL UNIVERSITIES. Having already alluded in this paper to the faculties of law, medicine, &c., in the four universities of Upper Canada, it may be considered sufficient in this place briefly to refer to each university separately, and to give, in a schedule, the course of study in the remu-ning faculty of arts. 1. Tfu On! .rsity of Toronto. This inL'*i,ation is simply an examining body, and confers degrees in the faculties of arts, law, and medicine. Its his- tory has been very varied since its first establishment ! iii , X "*- I.'': i ( t' i' ' n 1' 1^ ,. ^H li fi' ! if ^^^^^^^^1 458 nisTORiOAi. sketch or vavoATtoK m ctpkr oar ad a. in 1842, when, as King's College, it united the functions of a college with those of a nniynrnty. Since 1863, these functions have been separate; and the two institutions are now designated respectively the University of Toronto and University College, Toronto. This latter institntiou is designed for teaching only. It has nine professors, including a president and a lecturer and tutor. Its lecture courses are delivered in the handsome University Buildings, University Park. Its annual income, including that of the University of Toronto, is nearly $55,000. The value of that part of the original grant of lands, already sold, is about $1,500,000. The regulations of the University of Toronto and of Uni- versity College in regard to the faculty of arts are as follows: Degree of B. A. — Candidates, on entering, must produce satisfactory certificates of age and of good conduct. The regular mode of proceeding to the degree of B. A. is by passing the five annual examinations prescribed; but students may enter at any of the annual examinations on certain conditions. Candidates for the degree of B. A. who are not students in any affiliated college must, in each of the years succeeding that in which they matriculated, pass an examination in the subjects appointed for such year. Degree of M. A. — Candidates for the degree of M. A. must have been admitted to the de^ee of B. A. ; must be of the standing of one year from admission to the degree of B.A.; and must have composed an approved thesis upon some subject in one d the departments in the faculty of arts. Eight scholarships are annually ofiered for competition— at the matriculation examination, and at the end of the first, second, and third years' examinations, and five at the final examination. Each scholarship is of the value of one hundred and twenty dollars a year. Each scholarship is tenable for one year only ; but the scholars of one yeaT 1 HISTORICAL SKKTCR OF KDUCATIOW IN UPPER CANADA. 459 are eligible for the scholarahips of the succeeding years. No studciit can hold two scholarships at the same time; but if two or more scholarships have been awarded to him, he will be entitled to the sum of forty dollars for each ad- ditional scholai-ship, his scholarship being called a double, triple, &c., scholarship, as the case may be, and the senate may award the remainder of the value of each additional scholarship to the student who would next have been entitled to it. All scholars will be required to sign a dec- laration that it is their intention to proceed to a degree in the University of Toronto. Gold and silver medals, prizes in books, and certificates of honour are also given to the most successful students. 2. The University of Victoria Chllege, Cohourg. This institution originated with the "Wesley an Methodist Church in 1828, and is still under its control. It was erected through the efforts of members of that church, aided by a provincial grant of $16,400. It was first opened as " Upper Canada Academy," under a royal charter, in 1882, and for eight years was attended by male and female pupils. In 1840, it was by the legislature erected into a college and university; and in October, 1841, it was formally opened, as such, under the principalship of the Eev. Dr. Ryerson. It now contains three faculties, — those of arts, law, and medicine. It has no permanent endow- ment; but it is supported by voluntary contributions and fees, supplemented by an annual parliamentary grant of $5,000, and also $1,000 to the faculty of medicine. Its annual income from these sources (not including the medi- cal faculty) amounts to about $9,500. The number of professors and tutors in the faculties of arts and medicine, including the president, is fourteen. The number of stu- dents is about two hundred, not including preparatory students. 'I il f-k' ! 1 ,4'> t ■nvr'n ov BuroATipiif is rpiBH casai •;r mil 5 1 ■ ftpproT id by rJie \< '-! u 1 JDClttdlQg tiii.-' it ^^ ? ara at the disposal of the ooli<'ge. ■ of Wales priaCj are alBO given idcjita. '^^mfv Cd'errn. fbvtnfri. '' \^-hnn i:f T^- 1 m^ .TM' , m f ! .1 /* « ^1 ! u '■ f ■I I i- ^ I: HISTORICAL SKKTCH 07 EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 461 The regulations of the university, in regard to the faculty of arts, are as follows: — Degree of B. A. — The degree of B.A. is obtained by attending the courses of lectures in arts extending over three years, and by passing the prescribed examination. Degree of M. A. — The degree of M. A. can be taken only after an interval of twb years from the date of graduation as B.A. The candidate must compose a satisfactory thesis on a professional or other subject selected by himself and approved by the faculty. Graduates will be ranked in three classes: 1. Those who simply pass; 2. Those who pass with honors; 3. Those who pass with highest honors. A student is not entitled to highest honors unless he has gained honors in each of the departments of classics, mathematics, natural history, moral philosophy, and English literature. Scholarships and Prizes. — Twenty scholarships of the annual value of irom twenty to eighty dollars, and tenable from one to three years, are at the disposal of the college. Prizes, including the Prince of Wales prize, are also given to the most successful students. 4. 77ie University of Trinity College, Toronto. On the passage of the law in 1849, changing King's College into the University of Toronto, the venerable bishop of Toronto (the Eight Eeverend Doctor Strachan,) undertook the establishment of Trinity College as a Church of England university. The buildings for the university were erected at a cost of nearly $65,000. About $200,000 were collected to form its endowment. The annual income of the college is about $17,000. The number of professors is seven, including the provost, or head of the college. The reg". i,tions of this university in regard to the faculty of arts are as follows : — Degree of B.A. — All candidates for the degree of B.A. \ ! i^ !l •^'m I' tf !' 1 1'' « t K lb*' ¥ i"i H F' 1 I ^1. I < I. Hi ^ it S^'', ( 462 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPKR CANADA. rnnst be matriculated students of Trinity College, and have kept nine complete terms. They will be required by the university to pass two examinations. 1st. The previous examination, which will take place at the end of the Lent term in the second year. The names of those who pass this examination will be arranged in two classes, in alphabetical order^— the first class consisting of those who shall pass with credit; the second, of those to whom the examiners shall only not refuse their certificate of approval. Any one who shall absent himself from the proper ex- aminations of his year without the written approval cf the vice-chancellor, will not be allowed the Lent term of that year. Those who fail to satisfy the examiners must present themselves at the examination in the following year. 2nd. The examination for the degree of B. A. which will take place at the beginning of the tenth term from matricu- lation. Those who shall have been approved at this examination may present themselves for further examination for honours in classics or mathematics. The honour examination will take place shortly after the examination for the ordinary degree of B. A. The result of each honour examination will be published in three classes, in order of merit. Provision for admitting candidates to Degrees in Arts, by examination, without residence. — In consideration of the small opportunity which the inhabitants of the province hav ; hitherto possessed of availing themselves of a univer- sity education, the corporation have resolved to admit can- didates to degrees in arts, by examination, without residence or attendance at lectures, for the space of five years, beginning from October, 1860, under the following regulations: — 1. All candidates shall be members of the United Church of England and Ireland; i dl HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 463 2. They shall produce teetimomals of good conduct and attainment, signed by at least one parochial clergyman and two laymen of respectability ; 3. They shall also satisfy the corporation that profes- sional duties preclude the possibility of their passing through a regular college course; 4. No candidate shall be less than twenty -five years of age; 5. These regulations shall in no way aflfect the regulations already made respecting students in divinity; 6. Candidates shall pass the several university examina- tions — that is to say, the examination for matriculation, t^.e previous examination, and the examination for the degree of B. A., at the usual intervMs. N. B. — Under this statute candidates may be admitted to the matriculatinti "examination for the first time in October, 1860, and for We last time in October, 1864. Scholarships. — Twenty scholarsliips and exhibitions, ten- able from one to three years, and of the annual value of from eighty to two iitmdred dollars, are at the disposal of the college. Any person offering lumself as a candidate fc <. admission is required to produce testimonials of good xionduct, and to pass a matriculation examination. Every candidate for admission must have entered on his sixteenth year; for a scliolarship, on his seventeenth year. Medal and Prizes in Books. — ^A medal and various prizes in books are also givetn to the most successful students. SOHKDtTUB OF THE OOVHflB 'OF BTtTDT AND TEXT-BOOKS IN THE FA0U17FT Or dkSIK IK 9»iS FOIiLOWINO UNIVEB8ITIBS :* 1. MatriaUoitUm : XenotAioti^s AiM(lMi8i8,iioekl-j Sallust's Catilina ; Virgil's ^neid, book ii.} Latin Prose Oompoalticni^ tfnimnity of Toronto. Arithmetic, to end of square >x>ot-; Algebra, first fanr mles ; Euclid, book i.; Englisli Qrammar; > Outlines of English History ; * Not uioluding the honour oonrse, which includes options, &o. . ;|. >' I i|) I jl 'J- .r' ".'if .•■ ■ It ■• f " ( i.' t. Pi*:.;. 464 HISTORICAL SKKTOH OF KDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 1 Oatlines of Roman History, to death of Medieval History j Nero; British History ; Greoion History, to death Chemistry and Chemical Physios ; of Alexander; Mineralogy and Geology ;* Ancient ani* Modem €re- Murray's Logic ; ography. Wayland's Moral Pailoaophy j Mrstyear: T/Ocke, books ii., iii., and It.; Homer's Iliad, book vi.; Third year: Lucian's Vita and Charon { Sophocles, (Edipus Rex ; Virgil's ^neid, book vi.; Herodotus, book ii.; i Cicero, de Amioitia Horace, Satires and Epistles ; [ Latin Prose Composition ; Livy, book v.; Arithmetic ; . . Latin Prose Composition ; , i Algebra; Hydrostatics, Optics ; ; ? Euclid, books i.-;l. French Composition ; | Plane Trigonometry ; Racine's Ph^re and Athalie ; English Composition ; Bossuet's OraisonsFonebres} I English Lianguage and literature ; French Literature ; ; ; 1 French Grammar ; Grerman Grammar, &o.; i Montesquieu's Grandeur et Deoadence G«nnan Composition ; des Romaines ; Lessing's Minna von Barnhehn ; Ancient History ; German Literature ; British History ; Modem History ; 1 Elements of Chemistry ; British History 5 . " Physiology 5 Chemistry ; ^ « Botany; Comparative Physiology ; Paley's Natural Theology 5 Vegetable Physiology, &o.; Paley's Evidences. Reid's Intellectual Powers ; Second year: Stewart's Moral and Active Powers ; Homer's Odyssey, book «.} '.Vhately'p Political Economy. Demosthenes' Olynthiacs ; tHncU examination: Horace, Odes ; Enripide«), Medea ; Cicero, two orations ; Thucydides, book vii.; Latin Prose Composition } Juvenal, sat. iii., vii., vii!., and z.; Statics, Dynamics ; Tacitus, Germania and Agrioola ; English Composition ; Latin Prose Composition ; English Literature ; Acoustics; Asti-onomy; French Composition ; English Composition ; La Bruyere Caracteres } English Language and literatore ; French Literature ; French Composition ; German Grammar •, Coraeille's Le Cid ; Adler's German Reader ; De Stael's De I'AUemagnei German literature { IVenoh literature; ! m-r-. m •^■^"■m-T r HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 465 Oerman Composition ; Schiller's William TeU, &0.} Gorman Literature ; 2. Unucrsiiy of Matriculation: Greek Grammar ; Greek Reader ; Latin Grammar ; Latin Reader ; Arnold's First Book, Latin ; Cornelius Nepos ; Sallust's Jugurthiue War ; English Grammar ; English Composition ; ' '' Outlines of English History ; Scripture History : the Pentatenoli ; Arithmetic ; Algebra ; Geography, Ancient and Modern. Fteshman year: Xenophon's Anabasis, books i. and iii.; Herodotus, book i.; Greek Prose Compoe^don ; Greek Lexicon ; Greek and Roman Antiquities ; Virgil's ^neid, books i., ii., iii., and vi.; Livy, book i.; Latin Lexicon ; Latin Prose Composition ; Geometry, nine books ; English Elocution ; English Composition ; French Grammar; French Reader ; Fenelon's Telemaqne ; Scripture History : Old Testament ; Chemistry, Electricity, Magnetism, an '' Electro-Cbemistry. Sophomore Claaa: Homer's niad, four books ; Xenophon's Memorabilia, books i. and iv.; Greek Prose Composition ; Horace, Odes, books i. and ii.; Chemistry, Mineralogy, Geology, Phys- ical Geography, and Meteorology; Smith's Wealth of Nations. Victoria CoUege. Horace, Satires and Epistles; Latin Prose Composition ; Loomis's Trigonometry, plane and spherical ; Mensuration, Surveying, and Leveling ; Analytical Geometry and Conic Sec- tions ; English Elocution ; English Composition ; French: Racine; Animal Physiology ; Botany, Mineralogy, Geology ; Natural History. Junior year: Thucydides, book i.; Greek Testament ; Tacitus, Germania and Agricola ; Cicero, De OiHoiis ; English Elocution; English Compc lition ; ,, '^ German Granunar ; ' Mechanics; Acoustics and Optics ; Loj^c; Mental PhUosophy ; Stewart's Active and Moral Powers. Senior year: Demosthenes, De Corona ; Aristotie's Ethics ; Horace, Ars Poetica ; Cicero, De Oratore ; Juvenal, satires iii., z., ziii., and xiv.; Hebrew ; English Elocution ; English Composition ; Grerman Reader ; Evidences of Christianity ; Differential and Int^[ral Caloolos ; Astronomy ; Political Economy. i, 466 HI8TORI0A1. SKETCH OP BDUCATION IN UPPKR CANADA. 3. Vmitraty ^ Queen's College. Matrieulaikm: i Horace, Epodes ; Greek GramoMr^ Xenophon's Anabasia, book Lj Sallust's Catiline ; Virgil's uEneid, books i. and Q^ Csesar, book i.; Arithmetic, to end of roots ; Algebra, to end of simple e^uafions; Suolid, books i. and ii. First year : Homer, Diad, book vi.; Luoian, Vita et Charon ; Greek Prose Composition ; Cicero, De Amioitia ; Virgil's uEneid, book vi.j Horace, Odes, book i.; Latin Prosody ; Roman Antiquities ; Latin Prose Composition ; Euclid, first six books} Algebra ; Plane Trigonometry j Logarithms. Second year : Demosthenes, PhiDppios ; Euripides, Alcestis j Greek Prosody ; Greek Prose Compoation j Greek Antiquities j Cicero, Pro Milone j t. ZMhr MatricukttUm': Xenophon's Anabasis, be()kLi Sallust's Catiline ; Latin Prose Oorapositkm ; Grecian History : from Persian Tat*- sion to the end of ihe Pdopoaae* sian war ; Roman History : from fta •npnlsion of the kings to the 'Aatdi «f Caessr; Virgil, Georgics, book iv.; Latin Prose Composition ; Euolid, parts of books xi. and xii.; Trigonometry, plane and spherical ) Whewell's Conic Sections ; Hall's Different, and Integ. Caloulns j Potter's Mechanics ; Natural Philosophy ; Balfour's Outlines of Botany ; Natural History, Animal Kingdom j Page's Geology ; Gray's Manual of Botany j Third year : Plato, Apology and Crito ; ^ Sophocles, (Edipus Coloneus ; Greek Composition ; Greek Antiquities ; Roman Antiquities ; Tacitus, Annp>ls, book i.; Livy, book xxi.; latin Composition ; Terence, Phormio ; Newton's Prlncipia, first three see- tions; Hydrostatics, Optics, Astronomy ; YThately's Logic : Fallacies, Rhetoriq^ part iv,; Hamilton's Metaphysics ; Wayland's Moral Science, book i. ^f THnUy CoUege. Arithmetic ; Algebra, to end of simple eqnatioM ; Euclid, books i. and ii.; fSvshman year: IW Oi ii 1 I -,1 f ' I H 'i i ! ' ■J ■,'t 470 HIBTORIOAL BKITOII Or KDUOATION IN UPPER CANADA. 2. Vartoua Literary Associations, etc. In most of the cities and towns, and in the colleges of Upper Canada, a literary association of some kind exists, either as a debating club, or as a literary society, or both combined. The members are chiefly composed of young men seeking to cultivate their literary tastes, to add to their stock of knowledge, and to acquire a ready and effective style of public speaking. As a specimen of these societies, we may refer to the Ontario Literary Society of Toronto. This society was established in 1856, and incorporated in 1860. The ordinary weekly routine of its operations is thus classified : Essay writing ; reading from English authors ; public and private debates ; public addresses by distinguished lecturers. In the various colleges, these societies take their tone and colour more or less from the ordinary pursuits of student life. With a view to popularize the study of law, the Osgoode Club was organized by law students in Toronto in 1848. The object of the club is to cultivate the habit of essay writing and especially of public speaking in the discussion of legal subjects and constitutional questions. A literary association with a similar object in view, but on a wider basis, was established in Belleville, in 1855. 8. Young Men's Christian Associations. These associations are of recent growth in Upper Canada, and are confined to cities. Their objects are similar to those of kindred associations in Europe, &c., viz. : the mental and moral improvement of young men (especially of those residing away from home,) and the development of Chris- tian activity in various ways, such as tract distribution, «&c. Associations of this kind exist at London, Toronto, and Kingston. 4. Scientific Institutes. Of the higher class of scientific associations, only two H ^^'m, HISTORICAL SKBTOH Or KDUOATIOK Ilf UPPIR OAHADA. 471 exist in Upper Canada ; viz. : the Canadian Institute at To- ronto and the Canadian Institute at Ottawa.* The Canadian Institute, at Toronto, was established in 1849. At first its members consisted almost entirely of land surveyors, civil engineers, and architects; but in 1861 its constitution was changed and a royal charter obtained, so as to enlarge its sphere of operations and to remove the restriction of membership to the classes named above. In the charter, the objects of the institute were briefly described to be " for the encouragement and general advancement of the physical sciences, the arts, and the manufactures," " in our province of Canada." These objects have been steadily kept in view ; and for the last twelve years from twenty to thirty original papers on various literary and scientific sub- jects have been annually read at the weekly meetings and afterwards published (with other information) in the Canadian Journal^ the organ of the institute. The number of enrolled members is now about five hundred, and the annual income is upwards of twenty-five hundred dollars, including a parliamentary grant of one thousand dollars. The Institut Canadien Frangais, at Ottawa, was estab- lished some years ago, and still receives an annual grant from the legislature. It possesses an excellent library. Its objects are chiefly historical. It has recently erected a spacious building for the meetings of its members, lectures, &c. The Emperor Napoleon recently made a donation to the library valued at twenty-five thousand francs. An effort was also made in December, 1861, to establish an historical society for Upper Canada, at Toronto, but it * It may be interesting and proper here to state that in February, 1862, a Bcientifio " Institute of Rupert's Land " was established at Assiniboia under the presidency of the Right Reverend M. Anderson, D.D., Protestant Episco- pal bishop of Rupert's Land. From the number and character of the papers read at the subsequent meetings of the institute we anticipate a useful career for this valuable auxiliary to the oaoae of soieuoe and literature in the north- western territories. Vi=;= r It d ^1 472 HISTOIitOAL BKKTOH Ot EDUOATIOIT IN UPPEB CANADA. was not successful. A subsequent effort was also made in the following year to establish one at St. Catherines. 6. The Botanical Society of Canada. The Botanical Society/ at Kingston, was established in 1861) chiefly to aid in the advancement of botanical science in Canada, in all its departments, — viz., structural, physio- logical, systematic, and geographical, — and the application of botany to the useful and ornamental arts. Sir William Hooker, the eminent English botanist, at Kew, who has already written on Canadian botany, has giver his valuable aid in the prosecution of the objects of the society. 6. tScientific Observatories.* There are two observatories in Upper Canada, viz., the Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory, at Toronto, and the Astronomical Observatory, at Kingston. The ob- servatory at Toronto was established as one of the British colonial observatories, in 1839, at the instance of the British Association for the Advancement of Science and the Eoyal Society. It was placed, by the British government, in charge of one officer and three sergeants of the Eoyal Artillery, and so continued for the specified period of fourteen years. At the expiration of that time, Captain (now Lieutenant- Colonel) Lefroy, the officer then in charge, returned to Eng- land, and the observatory was assumed by the provincial government, and placed in charge of a professor of Univer- sity College, Toronto. With him were associated the three former assistants, who were allowed to remain in Canada for that purpose. The observatory contains the usual scientific instruments, and is devoted '^o the investigation of * It is proper, in this connection, to refer to the geological survey under Sir "William Logan, F.R.S., bo far as it relates to Upper Canada. The researches of Sir William and his associates have been of the greatest value in developing the mineral resources of the eonntry. The display of these resources, which he was enabled to make at the Great Exhibitions of 1851 and 1863, attracted the attention of the scientifio men of Europe to the Bominal wealth of Canada, and halt reflected the highest credit upon himself. Mi'- p'N HISTORICAL 8KET0H 07 SDUOATION IN UPPBR CANADA. 473 both magnetical and meteorological phenomena; the reports of which are of a highly valuable character. Previous to his return to England, Colonel Lefroy sug- gested the establishment of meteorological stations in con- nection with the grammar schools of Upper Canada. In 1853, an act was passed authorizing their establishment ; and in 1855 the Rev. Dr. Ryerson, chief superintendent of education, selected the instruments and completed the arrangements for giving effect to the act in this particular. Up to the end of 1862, eighteen stations were established in connection with senior county grammar schools. The result thus far, however, has not been satisfactory, owing to a de- fect in the law in not directly providing a specific remunera- tion for taking and recording the observations. The Astronomical Observatory, at Kingston, was estab- lished in 1855, by means of private subscriptions and a grant from the city corporation. It now receives an annual grant from the legislature. In 1861, it was transferred by deed from the Corporation to the University of Queen's Col- lege. It contains an equatorial, a reflecting telescope, and a transit and clock. •, 7. Museums. : . A museum of a greater or less extent exists in connection with all the colleges in Upper Canada, and with some of the other institutions. The museum connected with the University of Toronto and University College is the most valuable and extensive. It v;ontains nearly one hundred specimens mammalia, afford- ing examples of most of the orders, and including some rare and highly interesting species, besides skulls, horns. Of birds, there are nearly one thousand species, including a very large proportion of the native birds, and illustrations of most of the recognized tribes, besides many eggs and nests. Of reptiles, there are about seventy species, and of fishes there are about one hundred and fifty, with skeletons. 'rr.m 474 HISTORICAL BKSTCH OF EDUOATION IN UPFBR CANADA. There are some good Crustacea, a few arachnida, and an ex- tensive and valuable series of insects, illustrative of the re- ceived divisions, and including many rare and beautiful species. There is an extensive series, including several thousand specimens, of the shells of molluscous animals, — land, fresh-water, and marine, — amongst which will be found nearly all the North American land shells, and there are some good echinodermata and zoophyta. In botany, there is a collection including about six thousand species, among which will be found most of our native plants. Some progress has been made in mounting and arranging them. The University Museum of Mineralogy and Geology has been but recently established. Already, however, up- wards of six thousand specimens, with various instruments, casts, and models, have been received from Europe, and a special Canadian collection, increased by valuable additions from the collection of the provincial geologists, is now under arrangement. The museums in Victoria College, Cobourg, and in Queen's College, Kingston, embrace a collection of Cana- dian and other minerals and fossils; that in Trinity College, Toronto, contains various natural history, mineralogical, and geological specimens. The museum in the Canadian Institute, Toronto, is more varied, and includes numerous specimens of natural history and geology, with Indian and other relics. The museum connected with the educational department for Upper Canada contains some specimens of Canadian natural history and of Nova Scotian geology. It also contains an extensive collection of copies of Italian, Dutch, and Flemish paintings, and of statuary casts. Vari- ous smaller museums exist in dififerent parts of the country. 8. Libraries. Not only do our collegiate and most of our other public institutions possess a library, but many of the public schools have also within the last few years established them for the 11! I HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 475 l^enefit of the pupils and rate-payers. As an approximation to the number of volumes in the libraries named, we insert the fol] ~ ^ing table compiled from the best sources at our command: — Um»ersity of Toronto anil University College,. " Victoria College, Cobourg, " Queen's College, Kingston, " Trinity College, Toronto, Regiopolis College, Kingston, Knox's College, Toronto, , St. Joseph's College, Ottawa, St. Michael's College, Toronto, Upper Canada College, Toronto, Congregational College, Toronto, Belleville Seminary, Literary Institute, Woodstock, .... Osgoode Hall, Toronto, Canadian Institute, Toronto, French Canadian Institute, Ottawa, £iucational Department, U.C., Board of Arts and Manufactures, Mechanics' Institute, Toronto, " Kingston, Hamilton and Gore Mechanics' Institute, Mechanics' Institute, Ottawa, , " London, Mercantile Library Association, Public School Libraries, Sunday School Libraries, , Jail and Asylum Libraries, Miscellaneous Libraries, 15,500 1,000 3,000 3,500 2,500 4,000 2,000 1,500 500 2,260 8,000 2,600 . 2,000 1,050 5,400 . 2,300 2,740 481 .. . .193,258 1,875... 288,664 22... . 3,218 2,401... ,544,990 Grand total, 2,401 . In connection with the foregoing, it may be interesting to show what has been the extent of the demand for books in Canada during the last twelve years. The facts are highly encouraging, and speak well for the prevalence of an enlight- ened literary taste and growing intelligence among the various classes of the people. The following statistical table, which has been compiled from the trade and navigation returns for the province, shows the gross value of printed books (not maps or school apparatus) imported into Canada during the twelve years specified, as follow, — iAl l\f r 'I '''V 476 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. Year. Value of Booka Value of Books Total Value of entered at ports entered at ports Bookn imported in Lower Canada. In Upper Canada, into the Hrovinca. 1850, «101,88n.... 1851, 120,700.... 1852, 141,176.... 1853, 158,700.... 1854, 171,452.... 1855, 194.356.... 1856, 208,636.... 1857, 224,400.... 1858, 171,255.... 1859, 139,057.... 1860, 155,604.... 1861, 185,612.... $141,700. . . . «243,580 171,732... . 292,432 159,268... 300,444 254,280. . . . 412,989 307,808 , . . 479,260 338,792... 533,148 427,992... . 636,628 309,172... . 533,672 191,942... ,363,197 184.304... 323,261 252,604.... 408,108 344,621... 530,233 $5,056,943 $1,972,828.... $3,084, 115. Up to 1854, the trade and navigation returns give the value on books entered at every port of Canada separately; after that year, the reports give the names of the piincipal ports only, and enumerating the rest as other ports. In 1854, (a fair average year,) the proportion entered in Lower Canada was within a fraction of a third part of the whole ; and, accordingly, in compiling this table for the years 1855- 61, the value entered in other ports is divided between Up- per and Lower Canada, in the proportion of two-thirds to the former and one-third to the latter. CHAPTER IX. ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENTARY AIDS TO EDUCATION. It is not easy to form an estimate of the number or extent of these additional supplementary aids to education in Upper Canada. They are very numerous and diversified, and are difficult to classify. In a summary sketch like this, no aid to education however humble, should be overlooked ; for each in its place performs an important function, and con- tributes materially to the progress of knowledge and intelli- gence among the people. Among these additional supplementary aids we may enu- merate the following, although we can, in many cases, scarcely classify'- them, or estimate their number: — 1. The religious, educational, literary, scientific, and sec- • ""*^ .- '^ - in HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 477 ular press; 2. Bible and tract societies; 3. Eeligious meet- ings, sermons, and lectures; 4. Mercantile library associa- tions and reading rooms; 5. Agricaltural and horticultural associations, and their exhibitions; 6. Youthful asylums and similar benevolent institutions. These all perform their duty silently and effectively. Separately they are diverse, both in their character and op- erations; but, combined, they form an active supplementary agency in the after-training of an individual. They culti- vate his intellect, call forth his benevolence, promote his taste, extend the range of his sympathies, and give an ad- ditional interest to his daily life. Each one, also, having a definite object of pursuit, or taste, or benevolence, give a concentration of purpose or effort, and thus supply a want which mere educational training could not furnish. Upper Canada is yet in comparative infancy, but she may well be proud of her educational resources. They are pri ncely in their character and priceless in their worth. They demon- strate that her inner life is vigorous and active ; and that if she fails in her high destiny, as the brightest colonial jewel in the crown of Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen, the fault rests with herself. As these resources have accumulated and have come down to us in such rich abundance, let us sacredly guard them and seek to extend their value and usefhlness. Taking warning by other nations, let us neither dwarf their growth i:or extinguish their light; but, through God's blessing, let us transmit them undiminished and unimpaired to our sons who must soon come after us. PAET THIRD— CHAPTEE I. VARIOUS ENDOWMENTS AND SUMS AVAILABLE FOR EDUCA- TIONAL PURPOSES IN UPPER CANADA. I. — THE EDUCATIONAL LANDS ENDOWMENT. Through the munificence of the King and others, the following lands were set apart for the objects named: — i! H P'- !*' ,.) It 478 HISTORICAL 8KBT0H OV EDUCATION IN UFFBR CANADA. Acrei. 1. County Grammar Schools, 258,330 2. University IiiHtitutionn, 226,200 3. Upper Canada College, 66,000 4. Trinity College (from private sources,) 23,590 5. Half of the Parliamentary Appropriation of one million aoreaof » cqq qqq Land for Common Schools in each part of the province,. . . ) "» "v Grand total number of acres, .1,074,120 II. — THB SIATK ENDOWMENTS OP EDUCATION, ETC. (1862.) 1. Parliamentary Grant to Superior Education (i. e., Colleges and Universities,) $20,000 Less applied to Grammar Schoob, as below, .... 3,200 $16,800 2. Income of University College, Toronto, and Upper Canada College (from I^nds,) etc., about. . . . 75,000 3. Parliamentary (>rant to Grammar Schools, from Lands, &c., 22,619 Parliamentary Grant to Grammar Schools, $10,000, and 83,200, (as above,) 13,200 35,819 Parliamentary Grant to three Medical Schools,. . 3,000 Parliamentary Grants to three Literary Institu- tions, &c., 1,800 Parliamentary Grant to two Observatories, ...... 6,300 10,100 $137,719 4. Parliamentary Grant to Common Schools, from Lands, &c., 186,032 Grand total Annual Endowment, $323,751 III. INCOME FROM LOCAL SOURCES SCHOOL RATES, PEES, ETC. 1. Colleges, &c.,(1860,) $33,750 2. Grammar Schools (1861,) 48,470 3. (a.) Common Schools (1861,) by trustees, 937,014 (b.) " " by municipal tax, 278,085 4. Private Schools (1861,) 45,393 Grand total Annual Income from Taxes, Fees, &o., $1,342,712 IV. — THE NUMBER, CHARACTER, AND VALUE OP THB EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF UPPER CANADA.* In Upper Canada there are the following educational in- stitutions, viz.: — * In many instances the information contained under this head is necessarily defective. Circulars were sent to the various institutions named, but replies to several questions were not received. And in some instances no reply whatever was received. W HISTORICAL SKETCH OF RDUOATION IN UPPER CANABA. 479 tlAMM, om Daicmimow ov br- ■ I'll'U'flON* I.Toronto Univenitv, inelutl- ing IJnivenity Culle|;e,.. . 3. Victoria College University, Cobourc, 3. Queen'i College Univenity, Kingston 4. Trinity College University, Toronto, Fbur Roman Calholie Cd- Uge», viz.: 1. St. Joseph's College, Ottawa 2. Regio|iolis College, K'gston 3. St. Michael's College, T 'nto 4. L' Assomption College, Sandwich, Two Theological ColUget," txcluiivdy, viz.: 1. Knox College, Toronto,. . . . 2. Congregational College of B. No. America, Toronto Three CoUe^ata Seminaries, 1. Belleville Seminary, 2. Canadian Literary Institute, Woodstock, 3. Wexleynn Female College, Hamilton, Two RoyalOrammar School*, ire, vii.: 1. Upper Canada ColleM, T'no 2. Model Grammar School, " Three JiTormcU and Model Schools, viz.: 1. Normal School, Toronto,.. . 2. Boys' Model School, " . . , 3. Girls' Model School,*' ... County Orammar School*. 80 Grammar Schools. Three InduttriiU Sehoolt,viz. I. Friends' Seminary, near Pic- ton, S. Indian Industrial School, Alnwick, 3. Indian Industrial School, Mount Elgin 4010 Elementary Schools,viz.: (1.) 3,010 Common Schools,. . (2.) 109 Roman Catholic Sepa- rate Schools, 351 Miicellaneou*, vit.: (1.) 3() Indian Schools (3.) 320 Private Schools, (3.) I Deaf and Dumb School, Toronto, or 4,477 Educational Institu- tions, in all, in U. Canada. Grand Total for U. Canada,. . 5,073 12 30 le 7 3 2 12 6 10 9 3 3 127 5 2 2 4,180 160 35 400 6 250 3U0 160 40 50 100 100 50 SO IJ 150 160 130 go 150 150 180 4,766 60 30 30 316,387 13,631 800 7,354 30 345,134 29 ca^al^ 5^1 9610,000 50,000 75,000 100,000 30,000 50,U()0 40,U00 10,000 30,000 :,ooo 12,500 10,000 136 30,000 10,000 ' 150,000 40,000 8,500 5,000 5,000 3,100,000 37,000 3,000 60,000 500 •65,000 2,000 5,000 10,000 2,000 4,000 3,000 600 4,000 800 600 800 500 1,000 800 1,200 400 400 8,000 500 250 250 60,000 1,000 . 200 2,000 100 •3,437,500 9193,400 Eilimstcd Annual Income. •55,000 13,000 13,300 17,000 0.000 12,(MX) 8,U00 5,000 5,000 3,000 10,000 8,000 10,000 30,000 10,000 ^ 30,000 83,000 4,000 850 850 1,350,400 R*1i(ioai 0«noniinalion,ar otherwise. (Public.) Wesley. Methd'st. Ch. of Scotland. Ch. of England. 1 Rom. Catholic. Canada Presbyt'n. Congregational. Meth. Episcopal. Baptist. Wesley. Methd'st. (Public.) Quaker. Wesley. Methd'st. II It (Public.) 30,000 Roman Catholic. 5,0001 Various. 44,400 4,000 •1,736,800 (Public.) * In addition to these purely theological colleges, there are theological Taculties in the Uni versities of Trinity College, Toronto, and Queen's College, Kingston, as well as the Roman Catholic collegw at Ottawa, KingitoD, and Toronto, and in ttw Baptist Literary Institute, at Woodstock. prt' 4 >>' ' i, ■t.i ..it N,' H |gg*RG*'| ^i 6< I I : : : :1 '?? s . . . SS5 . . .3 ti. 5.73 -o -O ii |S S 6 d dS S8fi • 5.4, £.•«■« "Oi Oil? o e o e o-x ■O 'O T3 *? tf ^ A| jESi' O O O O Oj 73 "^ '^ "O "O - O O O O OS 'Q 'Q 'O T) 'Q A| O O O o tj 73 .^ 73 ^ aSuaqa s jo eouanbaiuoa u; psMaoai usm iiioX tiqi joj fjjodaH oN Ol != * ? P ^ a> 2,Q OJ3 o g B s e £ o ,o — y; ^ e ^ » s 3 V = a, c— s e 5 o o I o o I'D E "=osSEoo3ooo2 <2E-iHti-i«CiS^>ft wr^oooso 2'5»n T intot- OOO g ""SJISirJJS _ o E-'< ""^'f-MS J I 2" J3 e 8. i! e a a & § s? oo w S i ii ::::■.:::::::". .S w =s»si to U) 1-1 * * cs 5j,i!> 35 5» P5 5/ Cf 01 00 ^ (4« i-i s.s*5;s . . . . :^ i!i „■«»«»?•'«', . . , «• ••-< • • • « ft ^^ y " i? =' r" " a; oS ss •:§ fet ii» I- r- ,.-iS i75 Si o> 8» 5< «ftao(5»Tto« :S 8 Pi I »hod" lo £l - £s • • • CO ■*« ^ O 9 00 g 1-^ 9 tC w » o «»« : . ■ * * • • -goS" to Bod 0'-iou;in '^k 'vSq )t~ n ei A o{ t~ to to te irt iSi it n don oi b to c^ 2S s 4* i» I wH : : : •Hr-r-Swwotoinsjej— ir-tpm ■ ago to SIS? « n d,^ 2 • - - -' 9> CS4 • * , , 1 1 llsS§' otf 3 -JoiMd« S = £2. • • • Is^s i5S S' Cl fjt CO fJ| 2o ::.::: : • c } . . . .d. D.O t- -^ tS ■«> -J. ; c« >iiM go g - 1^ I <0 -to fin !»' •ON i-iwwvxjtot'ooeio — ijicT^ifltot^ ooci e t^ « « « ^ H I c t2 - 5 4, $ a - "2 a S B S o ^ = c t« * Si "r «ta £ *« ^ **- P .2 Ic •-" a. •I S ^ §.= fwiUi .£■2 5 S"" 3-=e' = I ": - 5 ^ 5 o 5 s 5 8^=5^ s^ .^ E.i a- 3 5 E o a U * o - . ^ 00 .2 - o - ■ u* u a -.So(5.S< i •*!! s . s "- IB-S2ZS.2 »n- ^^H ^^HhK" ^^^^HPVH*'' ' ^^^^^H ' U 4i •1 i >'• ■ ■1 ■ '. . 1 'i' 1 i;^'- 't ill- ■ ■ I i''-- , iff ;■■■ APFAIUTUS AND SQUIPMBNX OV TBB DISTBI0T_SCHOOL AS IT WA& SPRODOBNS OF AFPASATCS Of TBI SOHOOIi AS IT IS. BRIEF HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION LOWER CANADA. SECTION II. PAET FIEST— CHAPTER I. EARLY EDUCATIONAL EFFORT IN LOWKR CANADA— 1632-1169. Although upwards of two centuries and a quarter have now passed away since the first school was opened in Lower Canada, yet it was not until nearly a full century had elapsed after Jacques Cartier discovered the country, that that event took place. In 1635, Jacques Cartier first entered the St. Lawrence; and, in 1632, Rev. Father Le Jeune opened the first Canadian school at Quebec. He commenced with only two pupils,— one a negro an«/ tie other an Indian boy, — to whom he taught reading and writing. Next year his school was attended by twenty boys, chiefly Indian lads collected by missionaries fi*om wigwams in the neighbor- hood. Father Le Jeune was greatly elated, and, in view of the noble prospect before him, of christianizing the Indian tribes, he wrote to his superior in France, to say that he would not exchange his little school of savages for the best university of Europe! The Indians permitted these youth to attend the school, chiefly because they were the less hardy and promising of their race, either mentally or physically, and, therefore, were unequal either to the vicis- situdes of the chase or to the endurance or strategy of war. The restraints, however, of so monotonous a life proved too much for their untutored natures, and they gladly made M 486 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. their escape. Although these early efforts of Father Le Jeune were thus unsuccessful in inducing the Indians to benefit by his instructions, he did not despair; and, in 1635, under the patronage of the Marquis de Gamache, he founded the " Seminary of the Hurons," or of " Notre Dame des Anges," afterwards known as the Jesuit College of Quebec. He was greatly consoled at this event, which, he said, had been consummated " despite the powers of hell, banded in full force against itl" Soon afterwards, and in 1639, a young widow lady of high rank, Madame Le Lapeltrie, laid the foundation of the con- vent of the Ursulines at Quebec, which was designed for the education of young Huron Indian girls. The plan, how- ever, did not succeed. Exactly two hundred years ago, and thirty-one years after Father Le Jeune had opened his first school in Canada, the distinguished Monseigneur de Laval, the first Eoman Cath- olic bishop of Quebec, projected the Grand Seminary of Quebec. Subsequently, having acquired land for a site, he •with great solemnity, on the 14th of April, 1678, laid the foundation of a new building, which he intended should be occupied by his favourite " Seminary of Q lebec." The primary object of this institution was the education of boys who felt an inclination for the priesthood; and such it continued to be until the conquest in 1759. In 1668, at the suggestion of Colbert, the celebrated finance minister of Louis XIV., Bishop de Laval founded the Petit Seminary ; and an attempt was made in it to civilize, or, as it was said, framnzise, a certain number of young Indians, who were destined to become afterwards, among their own tribes, the nucleus of a more extended civilization. Eight French and six Indian boys were, with this object, taken as boarders into the Petit Seminary and subjected to the same rules and course of instruction. But the attempt utterly failed as it ^.••r HISTORICAL SKKTOH OF XOVOATIOTT IN LOWXR OAKADA. 487 had done before in the Jesuit College and Ursuline Convent owing to the ungovernable conduct of the young Hurons. In 1680, the bishop endowed the seminary with his own patrimony; and in October, 1688, he had the satisfaction of seeing sixty boys in attendance at its classes.* The bishop had previously established an industrial school near Quebec, from which the more promising young habitants were trans- ferred to the Petit Seminary with a view to complete their classical studies. Those who were intended for the priest- hood first purs led their ordinary studies at the Jesuit College, and finished their theological course at the Grand Seminary. In 1647, the Theological Seminary of St. Sulpice was founded at Montreal by the clergy of St. Sulpice, in Paris. In 1677, the King of France granted to the compagnie de Montreal, Letters Patent confirming the Seminary. Up to this time, few elementary schools existed in any part of the country. Bishop Laval, however, with patriotic solicitude, seconded the pious efibrts of Sister Margaret Bourgeoist to establish schools in connection with the order of the Congregation de Notre Dame, which she founded at Montreal in 1663. The Recollets or Franciscans, too, kept a good many schools in operation ; and the Jesuit College, Quebec, maintained out of its own revenues several primary schools un^er the management of ex-students of the college. In 1680-1, His Majesty the King of France founded the RecoUet Convent, in the upper town, Quebec; and, in 1697, the Monseigneur de St. Valier, second bishop of Quebec, established the convent of the Ursulines at Three Rivers. In 1714, there were seventy-five pupils attending the Quebec Seminary. In 1728, the Jesuits asked permission * Hie dreaa of the pupils attending the seminary was peculiar in its oharoo- ter ; and ooasisted of a blue oapot, or frock coat, with white corded seams, and • partl-eolored sash. This sash has been replaced by a green one, and the dis- tinotive dress itself has, with slight modifications, been adopted in nearly all the Bomaa Catholio eolleges of Lower Canada at the present time. •»'^ V I »" i' it • I " m A lilii 11 III 494 HISTORICAL 8KKTCH OF KDUOATION IN LOWKR CANADA. place the school commissioners appointed by the governor, under the previous act. The teacher to be employed by this corporation was required to produce a certificate of loyalty and good character from two magistrates, to take the oath of allegiance, and to receive not more than two hun- dred and forty dollars per annum out of the provincial reve- nue. Two magistrates, appointed by the Crown, to act as school visitors. This bill was lost in the legislative cpuncil, and failed to become law. In 1818, a much simpler act was passed by both houses of the legislature. Instead of elective trustees, it provided that the rector, priest, or curate, with four Eoman Catholic or Church of England church-wardens, the seigneur primi- tif, and senior magistrate, should be, ex officio^ a corporation for the management of the elementary school of the parish. This act was reserved for the royal assent, which it never received ; and, consequently, it never took effect. In this year, however (1818,) practical effect was, after a long delay, given to the act of 1801, authorizing the estab- lishment of a " Eoyal Institution for the Advancement of Learning." All the schools then receiving government aid were placed under the control of this corporation. In order to conciliate those more immediately concerned, and to demonstrate the liberality of the principles upon which it intended to act, the following rules were promulgated: " That every school should be placed under the immediate inspection of the clergy of the religion professed by the in- habitants of the spot ; and that where they might be of dif- ferent persuasions, the clergy of each church should have the superintendence of the children of their respective com- munities." " That a regular superintendence of the schools was assigned to visitors named by the corporation (one or more to be the minister or ministers of the parish or town- ship,) who were to report to them, every six months, the ^^1 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF XDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 495 number and progress of the scholars, the conduct of the masters, and, generally, on the state of the schools." Notwithstanding the ofl&cial prestige which it possessed, and the influence which it undoubtedly exerted, the " Royal Institution " signally failed to accomplish the objects for which it was established. Even the number of schools under its management soon began to diminish ; and, at the end of ten years from the date of its organization, all appli- cations for schools to be placed under its control entirely ceased. Various causes contributed to render t" scheme abortive; but the most striking one was the gene, ^i absence of sympathy between the board itself and the people whose educational interests it sought to promote. The board has long ceased to control the public elementary schools, and its functions are now chiefly confined to the oversight or trusteeship of the University of McGill College, Montreal. This institution, founded, in 1811, by the will of the Hon. Peter McGill, did not receive its royal charter until 1821» owing to a protracted lawsuit to test the validity of the will. COMMON SCHOOI CHAPTER IV, LEGISLATION— SUCCESS AND FAILUEES— 1819-1835. For several years afl«r the Royal Institution came into existence, various efforts were made by either or both branches of the legislature, to introduce a more popular system of management into the public schools. Thus, in 1819 and 1820, two bills were passed by the house of assem- bly and legislative council with this view ; but they were not concurred in by the home government; while two others, passed by the house of assembly, in 1821 and 1823, were rejected by the legislative council, and, consequently, lost. At length, in 1824, a special committee, appointed by the ■ Wi [ • •''■ '■■■ ■ X.4^ m ^ ft .- II Hii i\c^f •.i,ys ; 1" : ; ' 496 HISTORICAL SKBTOH OF KDUOATIOM IN LOWER CANADA. house of assembly, prepared an elaborate report upon the state of education in the province. Its revelations were startling indeed. It represented that in many parishes not more than five or six of the inhabitants could write ; thatj generally, not above one-fourth of the entire population could read; and that* not above one-tenth of them could write, even imperfectly. To remedy this state of things, and to meet the wishes of the Roman Catholic clergy in some degree, as a counterpoise to the more Protestant Royal Institution act, a measure was passed this year (1824) known as the Fabrique act It pro- vided for the establishment of one school in each Roman Catholic parish, for every one hundred families, by the Fa- briques, or corporate body, (established by the old laws of France,) consisting of the cur6 and church-wardens. The corporation was authorized to acquire land, for the support of the school, to the annual value of two hundred dollars, and to retain an acre for a school site. In 1825, the College of Ste. Th^r^se was founded in the county of Terrebonne, by the Rev. M. Ducharme, cur6; in 1826, the College of Chambly was founded in the county of that name by the Rev. M. Mignault, cur6; and, in 1827| the College of Ste. Anne la Pocati6re was founded in the county of Kamouraska by the Rev. M. Painchaud. In 1827-8, the University of McGill College, after a protracted delay, at length went into operation. In 1828, the convent of La Providence was founded by Madame Gamelin, of Montreal. In 1829, another efibrt was made to meet the wishes of the Roman Catholic clergy, and to modify the provisions of the Royal Institutions act of 1801. After some difficulty in bringing both parties to an agreement on the subject, a bill was passed in the legislative council, and received two readings in the house of assembly, providing for the ap- pointment of two committees of the Royal Institution, — HISTORICAL 8KET0R OF EDUOATIOK IN LOWKR CANADA. 497 one exclusively Roman Catholic and the other Protestant. Thus was introduced the germ of the present separate school system in Upper and Lower Canada; but, owing to some legal impediments in the way of carrying it into eflfect, the bill was dropped. In the same year (1829,) an important step was taken in the direction of popularizing the system of public schools then in existence. A measure was passed in that year, pro- viding for the establishment of schools by trustees elected for that purpose by the landholders of each parish. The act contained no provision for the visitation or inspection of the schools; and was otherwise defective; but it is, never- theless, considered as the first geileral elementary school act of Lower Canada. This act was amended in 1830, so as to authorize the elec- tion, as trustees, of the Protestant or Roman Catholic clergy who were not freeholders. It further required the teacher to hold a half-yearly examination, of which he should give one week's public notice; twelve hundred dollars were also appropriated by it for sending a person abroad to learn how to conduct a deaf and dumb school. This act was again amended in 1831, so aa to provide for the appointment of nineteen visitors, or local county school inspectors, who, in company with the county member, or a magistrate, commanding officer of militia, rector, or cur6, should visit and inspect the school and report the result to the governor. The act also contained an appropriation in aid of a deaf and dumb institution. In the same year (1831,) the house of assembly appointed a standing committee of eleven members, to report, from time to time, on all matters relating to education. This committee, in their report, dwell on the importance of sup- plementing the public aid by local contributions, and deprecated the growing demand for such aid, without cor- responding exertions to increase the amount of these H Hi 'J 111 I > \ I.' IM,' I i\:ii..i " 408 HI8T0RI0AL 8KKT0U OF KDCCATION IN LOWER CANADA. contributions. The committee further remark, that the proportion of children attending scIiooIh in Lower Canada is only one in twelve, while, in the state of New York, it is one in four. In the following year (1832,) the three preceding acts of 1829, 1880, and 1831 were repealed, and a more general and comprehensive school act substituted in their place. Among other things, this act provided for the establishment of a girls' school in each parish, and the yearly distribution of two dollars' worth of prizes by the senior county member in each boys' school. It also provided that legislative councillors, members of parliament, senior magistrates, highest militia officers, and the rector or chief minister of the denomination most numerous in the parish, should be county school visitors. These school visitors were invested with extensive powers. Among other things, they were authorized to decide disputes about school-houses, form and alter the boundaries of school divisions, and fix the site for a superior school in each county. The teacher was required to obtain a certificate of character and qualification, signed by at least five school visitors, including the county member and rector; to keep the school open at least one hundred and ninety days in the year, from nine to twelve, and from one to four o'clock each day; to keep a school journal; and to hold a public examination of his school, In the same year (1832,) L'Assomption College was founded in the county of that name by the Eev. M. Labelle and Dr. J. B. Meilleur (afterwards superintendent of edu- cation for Lower Canada, i e., from 1841 to 1855.) In 1833, this act was amended so as to authorize superiors and professors of colleges and academies, and presidents of all educational societies, to act as school visitors. It further granted sixteen dollars per annum extra to any teacher •who could teach both the French and English languages, and two dollars for prizes in girls' schools. 1 HISTORICAL 8KIT0H OF KDUOATIUN IV LOWCR OAITADA. 409 In 1834, the act of 1882 was further amended, so as to authorize an extra grant of forty dollars per annum to the best teacher in the county, who had taught French and En- glish, grammar, geometry, and book-keeping in his school. In case none of the teachers merited the grant, the school visitors had it in their power to appropriate two hundred dollars to any superior institution in the county, not receiv- ing other public aid, in which those branches were taught. CHAPTER V. PINAL EDUCATIONAL MEASURES OP THE LOWER CANADA LEG- ISLATURE — CONTESTS — FATAL DEFECTS OP TEMPORARY LEGISLATION — 183ft-1840. In 1886, the standing committee of the house of assem- bly, in their report, regret that the liberality of the legisla- ture, instead of stimulating local liberality in aid of education, had rather paralyzed it. As a proof of the unreasonable self- ishness of the parties concerned, they state that an application had been received from three families to constitute them a school division, so as to receive public aid as such. They also comment upon the universal incompetency of school- masters; and recommend the establishment of normal schools. Ajq act was passed giving effect to this recom- mendation, and providing for the establishment, for five years, of a normal school at Montreal and at Quebec. Six- teen hundred dollars were granted to each school, for pre- liminary expenses in procuring professors and obtaining books, maps, and apparatus, &c. ; and thirty-four hundred dollars per annum for current expenses; besides four hun- dred and eighty dollars per annum for the board and lodging of at least five teachers for three years, at the school The same sum was granted for a like period to each of the convents of the Ursulines at Quebec and 32 m Jl r : iV Iv ' »A' ::-- 'J .^ •(. I Hi!!!;! 600 mSTOlUOAL 8KIT0H OV IDUOATION IN LOWIR CANADA. Three Bivere, and to the convent of the congregation of No- tre Dame, at Montreal, for the training of at least five female teachers fbr three years in these institutions. A supplementary bill (continuing the system of element- ary schools in Lower Canada, and designed to replace the school act of 1882, which had expired) was passed by the house of assembly, simultaneously with the normal school act ; but it was rejected by the legislative council. Two fea- tures in the rejected bill were new and deserve notice. The first was the permission to establish model schools, and the other was the authority (not compulsory) of the majority o:' the inhabitants to raise a rate by tax to support the school. As the usefulnesb of the one act depended on the passing of the other, the rejection of the elementary school act brought the whole educational system to a stand- still. In the mean time a normal school was opened at Montreal by the Rev. John Holmes, principal of the Semin- ary of Quebec, aided by two as8istants,-«'^ne obtained from France and the other from Scotland. In consequence, how- ever, of the political troubles of the succeeding year, the school was abruptly closed, and the grants suspended. It is proper to state, that the reasons for rejecting the bill of the house of assembly by the legislative council, were candidly expressed in a report on the subject. This report stated that the expenditure on behalf of education, for the last seven years, had already reached the a^regate sum of $600,000, and thatthe appropriations under this billamounted to $160,000 per annum. The committee of the legislative council concurred with the house of assembly in the belief that this liberal legiiiative aid had superseded, rather than stim- ulated, local effort They further deprecated the anomalous and improper practice of confiding the superintending and application of the educational grant to members of the hov«e of assembly. It was liable in their hands, the com- mittee urged, to be u£ ^d to promote political and party ob- BISTOUOAL SKBTCH OV XDUOATION Itf LOWKK 0AVA9A. 601 jects rather than strictly educational ones. In tliis part of their report, the committee ennmerate, under nine differ- ent heads, the extraordinary and irresponsible powers which were conferred upon the county members by this and pre- ceding school acts, in the administration of the law, and the expenditure of the legislative school grant* The political troubles which, in 1887-8, shook the prov- ince to its center and paralyzed its educational efforts, having to some extent subsided, an inquiry into the state of education, and the causes of its failure in Lower Canada, was instituted, in 1888, by the Earl of Durham, Her * Arthur Bune', Esq., oommisnoner, appointed in 1838 by Lord Durham, to inquire into tf-.e atate of education in Lower Canada, in roTlewing the pro- ceediriga of the legialatare of that prorinoe, in regard to ita cyatem of tempo- rriry or party poUtksal legialation in edaoatiooal mattera, um« the fi>Uowing ■trilling language :— " Another great evil to which this ayatem waa subjected by its connection with politics, waa ita want of permanency. Every alternate year it was liable to expire altogether, or undergo modifications, whidi, as regarded those em- barked in it, in many eaaea, amoonted to expiration. The house of aaaembly knew well the power which they derived fhm their common habit of temporary legislation. It waa no slight hold to poaseaa in the country, his of continuing or nt any given time withholding its sole means of educatiob. It is true that it would be almost impossible to make a syatem permanent which waa to be sup- ported entirely by legislative granta. • « • I trust that I have not done injustice to the house of assembly. * * * It is extremely diffioolt to ap- portion to them their proper share of praise and blame. * * * In the biQ of 1814-31, fheir main struggle was to subject the school system to popular control. « * * The standing committee of the house labored diligently and In good fiuth. They received evidence on all points. They did not ahrink from the investigation of allc^ abusas, nor, in many instances, from the application of proper remedies. • * * They knew * 4> * that nothing short of compelling the inhabitants to contribute a direct and not scanty proportion towards the expense of the system. They saw all this ; but they did not dare to propose so unpopular a measure. In short, the moment they found that their eduoationai provisions could be turned to political account, from that moment those provisions were framed with a view to promote party rather than ednoatiop. This was their essential fault ; this it was that pervaded and contaminated the whole system and paraljrzed all the good that waa other- wiae in it.» t m i> 'i I '4 t'J: ■f ■ I 'hi ■ H . .^«r«^' piiii IS pi IHUilii. *.'! n '•• Ill ir-" '■i|^ ^4:'^ • ■ (i 502 HI8TORIOAL SKETCH OF EDUOATIOK IN LOWXR CANADA. Majesty's lord high commissioner and governor-general of British North America. This duty he confided to the able hands of Arthur Buller, Esq., one of his suite, who pre- pared an elaborate and comprehensive report on the subject, from which we have already made several extracts. Lord Durham, also, from his own observatioL, gave expres- sion to his views on the subject, and from his own report we make the following extracts: " The bulk of the popula- tion is composed of the hard-working yeomanry of the country districts, commonly called haiitans. * * * It is impossible to exaggerate the want of education among them, no means of instruction have ever been provided for them, and they are almost universally destitute of the qualifications even of reading and writing. * * * The common assertion, however, that all classes of the Ca- nadians are equally ignorant, is perfectly erroneous; for I know of no people among whom a larger provision exists for the higher kinds of elementary education, or among whom such education is really extended to a larger propor- tion of the population. The piety and benevolence of the early possessors of the country founded, in the seminaries that exist in different parts of the province, institutions of which the funds and activity have long been directed to the promotion of education. Seminaries and colleges have been, by these bodies, established in the cities and in other central points. The education given in these establishments greatly resembles the kind given in the English public schools, though it is rather more varied. It is entirely in the hands of the Catholic clergy. The number of pupils in these establishments is estimated, altogether, at a thousand, and they turn out every year, as far as I could ascertain, be- tween two and three hundred young men thus educated." In concluding a review of the causes which had led to a failure of the system of education devised by the legisla- ture, Mr. Buller sketched the broad outlines of a system of ; HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 503 education which, he thought, would obviate many of the evils inherent in those systems which had already been tried. CHAPTER VL A NEW FOUNDATION LAID— FIRST STEPS ONWARD— 1841-1866. Lord Durham having, upon a comprehensive review of all the causes which had led to the then unhappy state of the provinces, recommended a legislative union of Upper and Lower Canada, nothing was att/^mpted in the way of reviv- ing the educational system until the question of union was settled. That occurred in 1840; and, in 1841, the first par- liament of United Canada gave immediate attention to the subject of popular education. An act, embodying many of Mr. Buller's suggestions, was passed, providing for the establishment and maintenanoe of elementary schools in Upper and Lower Canada alike. An ex-offvcio chief super- intendent of education was appointed for the whole prov- ince, with working superintendents for its eastern and western sections. Two hundred thousand dollars were also granted to aid in the promotion of popular education. This sum was divided between both sections, according to their respective populations. In the same year. Dr. J. B. Meilleur, an active education- alist, who had formerly been a member of the legislature, and who had been the principal author of the projected school act of 1836, was selected as the executive educational officer for Lower Canada. He applied himself diligently to the performance of his new duties ; and, after four years' trial, he suggested such changes in the law as experience had dictated. Li 1842, the schools of the Christian Brothers (Ecoles '• Ir* h. m . J\ ) , \'i . Ii «i ii.'f .» 'C t ii!f;.i fi04 HiaTOHIOAI. BKETOH OV KDUOATION 19 LOWKB OAHADA. Chr^ennes) were established at Quebec^ by tbe Soci6t6 d'£ducati\:' •%r. 506 mSTORIOAL 8KKT0H OF EDUCATION IN LOWKR CANADA. lowing year; but, in 1856, the normal school was transfer- red to McGill College. In 1854, the College of St. Germain de Bimouski was founded in the county of that name by the Eev. C. Tanquay. The Colleges of St. Francis, (Richmond,) Laval, (near Mon- treal,) Ste. Marie de la Beauce and Verscheres, were also established in 1854. In 1855, after fourteen years' arduous official labors in superintending the system of public instruction in Lower Canada, J. B. Meilleur, Esq., M. D., resigned his office, and was succeeded by the Hon. P. J. O'Chauveau, LL.D., a gentleman of literary tastes and abilities, who had been eleven years a member of parliament for the county of Quebec, and who had held successively the office of solicitor-general for Lower Canada and secretary of the province. Hon. Dr. Chauveau entered vigorously upon the discharge of his duties, and, in his first official report to the governor-general, suggested several important modifications and improvements in the school law of Lower Canada. CHAPTER Vn. NOEMAL SCHOOLS— RENEWED ACTIVITY AND PROGBBSS— 1866-1862. In 1855, the Colleges, of Sherbrooke and Varennes were established; and in 1856, La Chute College, in the county of Argenteuil, was projected. In 1856, Dr. Chauveau prepared and recommended to the government, the passage by the legislature of two im- portant bills embracing the modifications which he had suggested in his annual report. These bills became law in the same year. One related chiefly to superior, and the other to elementary, education. They provided, among other things, for the distribution through the superintendent HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 507 of education, and upon his report, of the Lower Canada superior education fund among the various university col- leges, academies, and model schools; for the establishment of three normal schools instead of one; the appointment of a Council of Public Instruction for Lower Canada; the pub- lication of Journals of Education (French and English;) and the creation, as in Upper Canada, of a superannuated common school teachers' fund. In 1857, the long-delayed establishment of normal schools at length took place. On the 2d of March, the Jacques Cartier and the McGill Normal Schools were, with appro- priate ceremonies, inaugurated at Montreal, and, in May, the Laval Normal School at Quebec. The Jacques Cartier Normal School (chiefly designed for Eoman Catholics,) is placed under the immediate supervision of the Superintend- ent of education; the McGill School (designed for Protest- ants,) under the management of the corporation of McGill College; and the Laval School (also designed for Koman Catholics,) under the man:4^;ement of the corp ration of Laval University. The French and English students in each receive instruction in their own language. The three schools are under the general direction and control of the council of public instruction for Lower Canada. Males and females attend each normal school; and model schools, for the purpose of practice, are attached to each of them. Thus the last links in the chain of an efficient system of popular education for Lower Canada have been successfully formed. Under the active and enlightened superintendence of the Hon. Dr. Chauveau, we have no doubt it wC* realize the expectations of the friends of education, and coufer in- estimable benefits upon the youth of the country. In 1859, the College of Three Eivers was projected in the town of that name by Mgr. Prince, Roman Catholic Bishop of the Diocese ; and, in 1862, Morrin College was founded at Quebec, under the will of Dr. Morrin, who was !•" ^ 508 HISTORICAL 8KST0H OV XOUOATION IN LOWER CANADA. a late eminent physician in that city; and Molson Hall College, Montreal, was inaugurated by His Excellency Lord Monck. We will now refer to the principal educational institutions of Lower Canada, in detail, so far as we have been able to obtain information in regard to them. PAET SECOND— CHAPTER L UNTVERSITIEa 1. University of Laval and the Quebec Seminaries* In 1861, at the suggestion of the Roman Catholic bishop of Montreal, Monseigneur J. Bourget, and the repeated in- vitations of His Grace the Jloman Catholic archbishop of Quebec, the directors of the Quebec Seminaiy resolved to erect the Seminary into a university. The late Very Reverend Dr. L. J. Casault, then superior, was sent to London, in 1852, in order to solicit the granting of a royal charter. He obtained it without difficulty; His Excellency Lord Elgin, then governor-general of Canada, and his ministry having been pleased to support with their recommendation the application made to the Imperial authorities for that purpose, it was successftil. By this charter, no change was eflfected in the constitution of the seminary itself; but a council, including the direct- ors of the institution and the three senior professors of the several faculties, were empowered to possess and enjoy all the privileges granted to the universities of the United Kingdom, and especially that of conferring degrees in the faculties of divinity, law, medicine, and arts. The Roman Catholic archbishop of Quebec is, by virtue of his office, * The information relating to the Univeraity of Laval and Qoebeo Seminary WM kindly (iinusbod 1^ the V«y Rererena Dr. Taoherean, D. 0. L., rector of i-*' HISTORICAL 8K£T0H Or BDUOATION IN LOWER CANADA. fi09 visitor of the university.* The superior of the Grand Seminary, for the time being, holds the office of recton Since the granting of the charter, unceasing efforts have been en. oyed to give it full effect. In 1863, five profess- ors of tLe faculty of medicine were appointed. One of them was sent to England, France, and Belgium, to pur- chase a medical library, a museum, and a collection of surgical instruments. During the following year, a great number of books were procured for the faculty of law, and also a collection for the study of materia medica. At length, in September, 1854, lectures in the faculties of law and medicine commenced after u inauguration ceremony, in which Lord Elgin took par. Several buildings were also commenced for the use of the miiversity. They are now completed at a cost of $208,421 ; $1 3,146 additional have also been expended upon the library, and $6,264 for new scientific apparatus and natural history collections. A botanical garden is also contemplated. Three young pro- fessors, graduates of the university, were in Europe, so as to prepare themselves to give lectures in the faculties of law, medicine, and arts. His Eoyal Highness the Prince of Wales visited the in- stitution on the 22nd of August, 1860, and was pleased to express his satisfaction with the institution by the foimda- tion of an annual prize which bears his name. The faculties of law and medicine are now completely organized. The faculty of arts has only three titular pro- fessors; but several of the eleven intended courses are already taught under the title of elementary courses. The course of instruction embraces three years in the faculties of law and arts, and four in those of divinity and medicine. In the faculty of divinity, holy scripture, moral * The name of Laval, given to this new inntitntiiHi, was that of the first Roman Catholic bishop of Canada, a great promoter of edooation, and the fonndar of the Qoebeo Seminaiy and other inatitationa. lit !»' 'i< Jf/I f I II :1'' m ., i") *. .'■••!■' .ri," ' 610 HISTORICAL SKETCH Or KDUOATION IK LOWKR CANADA. and dogmatic theology, sacred eloquence, ecclesiastical his- tory, and canon law are taught. The subjects of lec- tures in law und medicine include those bi-anches usually taught in such faculties. The library now contains twenty-eight thousand volumes ; including two thousand in the law department, four thou- sand in that of medicine, eight thousand in the different branches of sciences and literature, and fourteen thousand in the department of divinity. Matriculation and Degrees. — The requisites for the degree of B. A. are as follows: — 1. Every candidate shall undergo two examinations. The first after having completed his course of rhetoric ; the second after having terminated his course of philosophy. The first examination embraces the following: translation of Latin and Greek authors, Latin prose or verse ; universal history and geography, history of Canada; the history and principles of literature and rhetoric ; French or English composition, at the option of the candidate. The second examination embraces the following: a disser- tation on logic, or on some point of metaphysics or ethics, as decided by chance; questions on physics and chemistry; problems and questions on mathematics and astronomy; questions on natural history. 2. Those candidates who in both the examinations have been placed in the first class obtain the degree of B.A. Those belonging to the second class may attend the courses of the university; but they are not advanced imtil they have obtained the degree of B. A. Those be- longing to the third class obtain no privilege; it is how- ever, permitted to them to present themselves anew for examination.* * The standards are : first class, those who obtidn two-thirds of the total namber of marks ; seoond olass, those who obtain more than one-third ; and third olass, those who obtain leas than one-third. The Frinoe of Wales's BMTORICAL 8KBT0H OW XOUOATION IK LOWXR OAKAOA. 611 . The requisite for the degree of M. A. is a successful at- tendance on the obligatory courses of lectures in the faculty during three years. In the faculty of law, the degree of bachelor is obtained only after having satisfactorily passed six examinations at the end of the same number of terms. In medicine, nine terms and nine satisfactory examinations are required. License in these faculties, and in divinity, requires four years of successful attendance on all the courses, with written and oral examinations. In order to obtain the degree of B.D., it is necessary to pass written and oral examinations upon the several branches taught in the Grand Seminary. No one is admitted to the degree of doctor in any of the four faculties unless he has publicly and successfully advo- cated numerous theses upon most of the branches of the respective faculties. The candidates are allowed to pass this examination, four, three, or two years afler having ob- tained the degree of licentiate, according to the testimonial which they received at their examination for the license; viz., satisfactory; witk distinction; or with the greatest distinc- tion. Students in law and medicine, whose parents are not in- habitants of Quebec, are required to reside in the univer- sity boarding-house. Two rooms for the use of each student are furnished by the institution. Besides the pupils regularly matriculated, students legaUy admitted to the study of law or medicine, although they have not followed a complete and regular course of classical studies, have permission to attend the law and medical lec- tures; but they can not arrive at the degrees. In the Faculty of arts, the lectures are free for those who have already paid for the lectures on law or medicine. Twenty half-gratuities prize is ghren to the mart aoooeseftil candidate tot the degree of B. A., provided he haa obtaiaed at least four-fifths of the total number of marks. Mfff^l lt,'*i I If. • t ;>'<^ 613 HIBTORIOAL 8KBT0H OV BDUOATION IN LOWKR OAITADA. are granted to matnculated students, who have not the means of paying the entire boarding fee. The Quebec Seminaries {Ghand and Minor.) On the 26th March, 1668, five years after his arrival in this province, the first Roman Catholic bishop of Canada, Francois de Montmorency-Laval founded and afterwards (1680) endowed with his own patrimony, on institution which was called the Quebec Seminary. The venerable founder died on the 6th of May, 1708, at the age of eighty-six, after having spent nearly half a cen- tury in Canada. By his influence at the court of Louis XrV., he contributed much to the prosperity of this prov- ince, and constantly showed himself a most energetic and liberal promoter of education. In 1678, he solemnly laid the comer-stone of a fine and massive stone building, which though twice consumed by fire (1701 and 1705,) and much injured by shells during the siege of 1769, is still standing. He had thus to build it three times in the short space of twenty-seven years. Being himself so worn out by old age and infirmities, he had, during the two calamitous fires, to be carried out by the hands of his faithful servants. He also founded and maintained during a quarter of a century, at St. Joachim de Beaupr6, another institution, which comprised a common, a normal and an agricultural school, a model farm with apprentice shops for such trades as blacksmiths, carpenters, wheelwrights, &c. Before the conquest of Canada, in 1759, the seminary had no nther pupils than those intended for the church. These also went every day to the classes of the Jesuits. When this college was converted into a barrack, in 1776, the seminary undertook to instruct all boys, whether in- tended for the church or ot, in a claissical course of study. The number of students has been progressively increas- ing up to the present time. In 1668, there were only four- teen; in 1680, forty; and in 1690, eighty. It has now (1862) 1 BIBTOMOAL 8KBT0H Or KDCOATIOIf IN LOIfIR riHADA. 518 three hundred and ninety-six in the minor eeminary, or col- lege, (of whom two hundred and thirty are boarders,) and forty-two in the Grand Seminary, studying in divinity. From the beginning to the present time, about one thou- sand students have completed a regular course of classical studies, while from ten to eleven thousand hnve completed a partial course. The estimated value of the whole prcnises is $500,000, including the university and seminaiy buildings; viz., $230,000 for the university, and $270,000 for the seminary. The library has been transferred to the university, aa well aa some maps and scientific apparatus. About five thousand volumes, expressly chosen for the students of the grand and minor seminaries, remain in the college, and ore worth about $6,000; maps, $400. There ore twenty-four professors, besides ten officers otherwise employed. The Grand Seminary comprises the classes of dogmatic and moral theology, Holy Scripture, ecclesiastical history, and other branches. The course of studies extends to three years at least. No one is admitted to it unless he has followed a complete course of literature and philosophy. The students are all boarders, and are required to wear the clerical costume. They pay eighty dollars for board; but the instruction is gratuitous. A library of two thousand volumes is at their disposal. 7^e Minor Seminary comprises nine classes, of which seven are in the course of literature. Students in philoso- phy follow the courses of the faculty of arts in the univer- sity during the two remainiDi' years. In order to be admitted as a student into the minoi semi- nary, it ia neoessary to read the maternal tongue (French or English) very correctly, write pretty well, and have some knowledge of grammar. About thirty gratuities have been founded at different periods and by different persons (eight of them by Mon- P- \m ?'- {Ml t'. • ft iv m ^ i ij> 514 HISTORICAL SKKTOH OF EDUCATIOK IS LOWBR OANASA. seigneur de Laval,) for the students of the minor seminary. About one-third of these gratuities are limited to the mem- bers of certain fiunilies. A library of three thousand volumes is available for all the students in the minor seminary, at one dollar per annum. 2. University of McGill College, Montreal* This university was founded by the will (dated in 1811) of Hon. James McGill, a merchant in Montreal.f Not having any children, he bequeathed to the Royal Institution (a corporation established by the provincial parliament,) for the advancement of learning, his estate of Bumside, con- sisting of about forty-six acres of land near the city, and the sum of £10,000 in money, as a foundation for a univer- sity. The will was contested; and, w i the exception of obtaining a royal charter in 1821, no action was taken upon it until 1829. The first step towards the establishment of the university was the organization, in that year, of the faculties of arts and medicine. In 1835, the Rev. Dr. Bethuneif was appointed principal of the university ; and increased efforts were made towards the establishment of the faculty of arts. After several years' delay, it was formally opened in September, 1843, in buildings erected for that purpose. The coUego, however, did not receive adequate support ; and, at length, the pro- vincial government was moved to aid m an endeavor to * Tbe materials flrom which ihb information in regard to MoGill College University is derived was Idadly furnished by the principal, J. W. Dawson, Esq., LL.D., F.G.8. t Hon. James McOill wu bom in Glasgow, Sootiand, on the Gih October, 1744. He emigrated, when a young man, and settled in Montreal, xvh^re he engaged suooessftilly in mercantile pursuits. He was elected to the house of ssaembly as member for Montreal. Subsequently, he was appointed by the Crown a member of the legislative and oxtH)utive councils. In the war uf 1812, he acted ns a colonel and brigadier-gcneral of militia. He died in Mon- treal on the 19th December, 1813, at tbe age uf si:;ty-nine yoars. t Now (1863) dean of Christ's Church Cathedral, Montreal. w^'i • to ege mSTOBIOAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 515 place it on a better footing. A new charter was obtained in August, 1852, which contrasted favorably with the former one in many of its most important provisions. No aid having been received from the government, an appeal was made, in December of the year 1856, to the Protestant population of Montreal, which was met in a spirit of ready and unrestrained generosity. An endow- ment fund, amounting to $60,000, was subscribed by a num- ber of gentlemen, not exceeding fifty. Of this sum, $20,000 were given by the Messrs. Molson (three brothers), for found- mg a chair of English literature ; the remainder was made up in sums varying from $600 to $2,000. In addition to this munificent liberality, Wm. Molson, Esq. (one of the brothers) erected, at his own expense, a wing to the Uni- versity, which was inaugurated by His Excellency Lord Monck, in 1862. This wing contains a spacious convoca- tion hall, a handsomely fitted library, and a chemical labor- atory. The whole is designated the William Molson Hall. The growth of the University has been very rapid since its reorganization in 1854. Its chief characteristics are : (1.) Its religious complejdon, — that is, it is Protestant, but not denominational. (2.) Its endowment, which is owing to the munificence of the mercantile and professional men of Montreal, — it having received no permanent endow- ment, and but a very small and uncertain annual grant from the Legislature. (3.) The extent to which it lias de- veloped facilities for various kinds of literary, scientific, and professional training, and, (4.) The high standard of graduation which it has maintained. There are also several peculiaritirs in its management, which, having arisen from long experience and past failures, have proved themselves better adapted to the circumstances of the country than those borrowed from abroad. In addition to the sum of $60,000, willed to the univer- Bity by Mr. McGill, the land he. bequeathed to it is valued t» I . r7> 1 f I 510 HI B TOSTOAL BKETOH OF EDUCATION UT LOWER CANADA. at $120,000. The present value of the various buildings attached to the university is about $128,000 more. The value of the library, museum, apparatus, « proficiency in the greatest number of subjects, (5.) Tb? Tl•w^2c oi Walea Gold Medal is awarded to the studeat v .•; uLnci'l h»ve passed creditably the examlL .tions for the d /c«' :l iJ. A., and taken the highest honors of the first '■^y^ ia a subject to be prescribed from year to year by the Faculty. n. FACtn.TY OF MEDIOINB. Courses of Lectwres. — The number of professors in the Faculty is nine ; the number of classes, ten, viz.: — 1. Anat- omy; 2. Chemistry; 8. Materia Medica ; 4. Institutes of Medicine; 5. Practice of Medicine; 6. Surgery; 7. Midwifery ; 8. Medical Jurisprudence ; 9. Clinical Medi- cine ; 10. Clinical Surgery. Besides the above classes, students are required to at- tend one course of Botany, and one course of Zoology. in. FACULTY OF LAW. Course of Lectures. — The ii'i^^.ljer oi Professors in this Faculty is five ; and the completo &> irse of f)tudy extends overthr-c years, but it may be shortened t( two years when the student matricalates in the third year of Lis indentures. The ^' llowing are the subjects of lecture's eukbraced in che cot -plete course of three years: To Students of the Firai yectr : — On Public and '/oaBti- tutional Law ; on Contracts ; on the Civil Lew ; on the )rij-in and History of the Laws of Frurce, of England, ai;' Oi Lower Canada ; on the Law of Real E»tate and Customary Law. To Stutlents of the Secoml year ;-— On Public and Con- stitutional Law ; on Oc* imeroial Coatractp , ya tl'.e Civil Law ; on Legal Bibliography ; on the Law of Eeal Lstate and Customary Law. To Students of tJie Third year : — On Criminal Law ; on 5% ' 4 i liii li ! f B-S; r'V.ll 520 HI8T0SI0AL 8KETCIH OF EDVOATION Di XX>WSS OASTADA. Oommercial Contracte; on Leasee; on th& Law pf Beal Estate and Customary Law. TnnTEBSITT OF BISHOP^S COLLEGE,* LENNOXVILLE. This UniverBitj had its origin in the pressing want of a theological school for educating candidates for the ministry of the United Church of England and Lreland, in Lower Canada. It was projected by the Kev. L. Doolittle, M. A., then missionary of the Church of England at Lennoxville and Sherbrooke ; and an act of incorporation was obtained in 1843.t In 18M the building was comm^iced ; and in September, 1845, the college was opened in temporary apartments until the completion of the entire building in the October of the following year. In 1853, the plan of the college was enlarged, and it then became a university by a royal charter, and was empowered to confer degrees " in the several Arts, and the Faculties of Divinity, Law, and Medicine." It held its first public meeting of con- vocation for that purpose oii the 7lii of October, 1854. In 1857, a handsome chapel was erected adjoining the Col- lege ; and in 1860-'61 buildings on an extensive scale were also erected for the pupils of the junior department, or Grammar school. The attendance of students has 'not been very great It is now twenty-three in the faculties of Theology and Arts, The number in the junior de- partment is about 115. The endowment of the University is derived from private BO'irces, and donations from the Societies for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts. It has also an annual parliamentary grant. The annual expenfies of the University and Grammar ♦ The infbrmation in regard to this Univerelty is partly derived from the Canada Edttcational IXrectory. f On the appointment of the bishop of Montreal, this act WM amended by the 16tb Tictoria, oap. 60. ■ i^ BXSTOBICAL SKffTOH OF EDUCATION Itf JX>WBS OAtf ADA. 621 School we about $10,000 ; and the value of the buildings, furniture, and library of 4,000 volumes, is estimated at $55,000. There are two ''Jubilee scholarships," of the value of $140 per annum, tenable for three years each ;* besides a scholarship founded by th^ Prince of Wales in 1860. FACULTY OF ABT8. The degrees conferred on this faculty are B. A. and M. A. The requisites for the degree of B. A. are, 1. Having passed an examination in the subjects prescribed to candidates for matriculation ; 2. Being of the standing of three years (nine terms) from matriculation in the University ; 3. Hav- ing, in each of these years, attended the lectures and passed the examinations prescribed for each such year of the course. The ordinary college course extends over four years, aud includes classical and English ]it.etat^ire and composition, history, mathematics, natural and experimental philosophy, .chemistry, logic, rhetoric, moral philosophy, and divinity. At the end of the first year, those oolkge atudents who pass the prescribed matriculation examination, are entitled to become members of the University. The requisites for the degree of M. A. are : 1. Being of the standing of three years from admission to the degree X)f B. A. ; 2. Having performed the exercises prescribed for candidates for the degree of M. A. The following are the subjects for matriculation in thi3 jGaculty for 1868 : Divinity. — The Scriptures generally.. Greek and Zatm Za/nguagea. — ^Ximophon's Anabasis, b. iii. ; Homer's Iliad, b. ii. to line 484 ; Cicero pro M. Harcello ; Virgil's Eclogues ; Horace's Odes, b. 11. ; Eng- lish aud Latin ecwnposition. * The diocese of Quebeo sent home £800 sterling to the Jubilee of the So- ciety for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts ; the donation was returned by the aooietjr, doubled, «ad was iuve^ed lu se^uritiea for ttve •olMlanthipa. .!• -' 'i't^S' f « .f It ■ 'f:': if. If' ■ 'i: • ^;k ^ 622 HI8T0BICULL BKSTOH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEB CANADA. Jlf(Uhetnati€8. — Arithmetic and Algebra; Euclid, to b. vi. ; plane trigonometry. History. — Outlines of Greek aud Eoman history. Candidates for classical honors are required to pass an examination in additional portions of classical authors ; in some treatise or treatises of ancient philosophy ; and in some work or works of the Greek or Roman orators. And for mathematical honors, in differential and integral calcu- lus, and in one or more of the subjects prescribed for the college course. •FAOITLTT OF DIVINnT. The degrees conferred in this faculty are B. D. and D. D. The requisites for the degree of B. D. are : 1. Being of the standing of seven years from admission to the degree of M. A., or, being licentiates in Theology of nine years' standing; 2. Having passed the examination, and per- formed the exercises prescribed for candidates for the de- gree of B. D., which are : An examination in the Epistles (in the original) of the New Testament ; one Latin and one Greek treatise of one of the Fathers of the Church ; ecclesiastical history gener- ally, and the history of the Church of England ; one of the major Prophets, or the whole of the minor. Also, a Latin sermon, on a subject to be given out at the time of the examination. The course of lectures for theological students extends over two years, and is prescribed by the bishops. Persons admitted, by authority of the bishops, to study in this faculty, without graduating in arts, may, after two years' residence, and having passed a satisfactory examina- tion in the subjects prescribed for the divinity course, re- ceive certificates as 'Icentiates in theology. The requisites for the degree of D. D. are : 1. Being of the standing of ten years fi*om admiieion to the degree of — m (■ HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEB CANADA. 523 B. D. ; 2. Having performed the exercises prescribed fc . candidates for the degree of D. D. CHAPTER II. CLASSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGES.* (aRBANOED IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER.) (1.) Classical College and Theological Seminary of Mbn (real. — ^Tho theological seminary, or Grand Semdnaire, of St. Siilpice, at Montreal, was founded in 1647, by the clergy of the order of St. Sulpice, in Paris. In 1677, the king of Prance granted them letters patent ; but the Petit Seminaire^ or College of Montreal, which was founded by the Seminary of St. Sulpice, was not established until the year 1773. The first Sulpician seminary, or college, established at Montreal, was named St. Raphael.f It was opened in the Chateau Vaudreuil, which was built in 1723, on the square now known as the Place Jacques Cartier, in the city of Montreal. The chateau having been destroyed by fire in 1803, the college was reopened in 1806, under the name of the Seminary, or College of Montreal. The number of professors in the Petit Seminaire^ or col- lege, is eight, and the number of pupils about 260. The library of the college contains upwards of 10,000 volumes ; and the value of the museum is about $12,000. A great many of the minerals were given by the celebated Abb6 * For a portion of the information iu regard to these institutions, the writer is indebted to tiie "Memorial de P ^Jducation duBai Cajiada, par J. B. Meillour, M. D., LL. D.," late Chief Superintendent of Education for Lower Canada. Montreal, 1860. f Another college of the same name was er.tablished at St. Raphael, in the county of Glengarry, U. C, by the late Right Riv. Bifhop McDonelL Itwati ai\iM-w. rd removed to Kingston, and is now known u.%> <. v . w 1.0 I.I ■^1^ 12.5 |50 "^ llH 1^ 1^ 12.2 2.0 140 IIS- L25 1 1.4 1.6 < 6" - ► m ^ /a / y /A Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716) 872-4503 ■#» "^^ m k 526 HISTOBIOAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEB CANADA. about $20,000 ; and the value of the buildings and premises is estimated at $80,000. (7.) JO Assonvption Classical and Industrial College. — The establishment of this college, in 1832, is due to the exertions of the Kev. F. Labelle, and his brother Edward, Dr. Cazeneuve, and Dr. Meilleur (late Superintendent of Education for Lower Canada), aided by the Legislature, and the contributions of the parishioners of L'Assomption village. The act of incorporation was passed in 1841, and amended in 1858. It has a library of 1,500 volumes and a museum of Natural History. It numbers fifteen pro- fessors and teachers, and is attended by about 180 pupils. The annual revenue of the college is about $8,000 ; and the value of the buildings and premises is estimated at $24,000. (8.) Joliette Industrial College. — In 1846, the Hon. B. Joliette, aided by others, founded this college in the vil- lage of Industry. In 1851, it was placed imder the direc- tion of the clerks of St. Viator, a religious educational order founded in France, in 1832. There are twelve pro- fessors and teachers and about 350 pupils in the college. It has a library of about 800 volumes. The income of the college is about $5,000 ; and the value of the buildings and premises is estimated at $17,500. (9.) Masson Industrial College. — ^The foundation of this college, in the village of Terrebonne, in 1847, by the Rev. Mr. Th6berge, is principally due to the benevolCi-it gener- osity c f \Iadam Masson, widow of the Hon. Joseph Mas- son. The Hon. Edward Masson, their son, also contri- buted liberally to the erection of the new building. The value of the college and premises is estimated at $36,000, and its library of 1,500 volumes and museum at $2,000. Its income is about $9,000 per annum. The number of professors and teachers is twenty, and of pupils 300. (10.) Jesuit College de Ste. Marie, Montreal. — Seven fe. mSTOEIOAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 527 years after the second arrival of the Jesuits in Canada, they founded (in 1849) St. Mary's College, Montreal, under the auspices of Mgr. Bourget, second Roman Catholic Bishop of Montreal. In 1852, the college was incorporated, and in the same year a Law School was established in the in- stitution. There are fourteen professors and teachers in the college, and the number of students is about 320 — including 70 in ihe Law School. The number of volumes in the library is nearly 1,200. The annual income of the institu- tion is upwards of $25,000 ; and the value of the buildings and premises is estimated at $72,000. (11.) Rigaud Industrial and Commercial College. — Under the authority of the Lower Canada School Act of 1846, this college was founded in 1850, by the Rev. Mr. Desautels (a generous friend to education), and the school commissioners of the parish. It is placed under the di- rection of the clerks of St. Viator, but is subject to govern- mental inspection. The number of professors and teachers is seven, and of pupils in attendance a Lout 120. The annual income is about $2,000 ; and the value of the build- ings and premises is estimated at $5,000. (12.) Classical and Industrial College of Ste. Marie de Monnoir. — ^This college, founded in 1853, by the Very Rev. E. Crevier, V. G., was incorporated in 1855. It has eight professors and teachers, and is attended by about 180 pupils. Its library was established by the contributions of the clergy in the diocese of St. Hyacinthe. The annual income of the college is about $3,000 ; and the value of the buildings and premises is estimated at $10,500. (13.) Industrial and Commercial College of St. Michel, — This college was also founded under the authority of the School Act of 1846, by the Rev. N. C. Fortier, and the school commissioners of the parish. It has three professors and teachers, and is attended by about 150 pupils. The number of volumes in the library is upwards of 1,000. • -4 ■f ' 528 HT8T0RI0AL SKETCH OP EDtTOATION IN LOWER CANADA. The annnal income of the college is about $4,000 ; and the estimated value of the buildings and premises is $6,500. (14.) Industrial and Commercial College of Notre Dame de Levis. — This college was projected in 1850, and founded in 1864, by the Rev. J. D. D^ziel; and his parishioners. It was first under the direction of the Christian Brothers, but, in 1860, it was placed under the direction of the corpora- tion of Quebec Seminary. A Latin course was added, so as to prepare the third-year boys for admission to the fourth class of the Quebec Seminary. It has seven pro- fessors and teachers, and is attended by nearly 180 pupils. The value of the college and premises is estimated at $32,000, and its annual income at $4,500. There are 2,000 volumes in the college library, besides $400 worth of apparatus. (15.) St. Francis Classical College. — ^Tliis college was founded at Richmond, by subscriptions, chiefly collected in the neighborhood, in 1854, and opened in 1856. It is in affiliation with McGill College University, and is man- aged by a board of Protestant trustees, of which Lord Aylmer, who resides there, is president. The annual in- come is about $2,000 ; and the value of the college and premises is estimated at $12,000. It has eight professors arid teachers, and is attended by about 120 pupils. Its library contains 1,000 volumes. (16.) LidusWial and Commercial College of Laval. — This college was established in 1854, at St. Vincent de Paul, near Montreal, by the Rev. N. Lavallee, and E. Germain, Esq. It has seven professors and teachers, and is attended by about 100 pupils. Its library contains 1,000 volumes. The annual income- of the college is about $1,500 ; and the value of the buildings and premises is estimated at $5,000. (17.) Industrial and Commercud College of Ste. Ma'rie de la Bea/uce. — ^This college was founded in 1864, by the J HI8TO3I0AL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 529 Rev. Mr. Proulx, and is under the direction of the Christian Brothers. It has three professors and teachers, and is attended by upwards of 100 pupils. The annual income is about $600 ; and the value of the buildings and premises is estimated at $6,500. (18.) Industrial and Commercial College of Vercheres. — In 1854, this college was founded by the Rev. Mr. Brunneau, and is placed nnder the direction of the clerks of St. Viator. It has nine professors and teachers, and is attended by about 100 pupils. The annual income of the college is about $1,500 ; and the value of the buildings and premises is estimated at $8,500. (19.) Indust/rial and Commercial College of St. Germain de Bimoushi. — ^The year 1854 was noted for the founda- tion of the five preceding colleges. This one was also founded in 1854, by the Rev. C. Tanquay. It had to con- tend with many diflBculties; but in 1861, it was reorganized and placed upon an eflBcient footing. The study of Agri- culture was also introduced into it. It has now six pro- fessors and teachers, and is attended by about 110 pupils. The college premises are valued at about $10,000. The income is about $1,200 per annum. (20.) Industria ^d Commercial College of Sherhroohe. — Thip college, or institute, was founded in 1855, by Mgr. Prince, Roman Catholic Bishop of St. Hyacinthe. It has three professors and teachers, and is attended by about 70 pupils. ItS annual income is about $700 ; and the value of the buildings and premises is estimated at $2,400. (21.) Industrial and Commercial College of La Chute. — Tliis college was incorporated in 1856, and was established chiefly by the contributions of the principal inhabitants of La Chute. There are four professors or teachers, and the number of pupils is 175. The annual income of the college is about $1,100, and the value of the buildings and premises is estimated at $2,000. ;:». * fcf '' -I - -;* •1'. rf;»{ t ly^ J ( ^i ftablished in 1843, and incorporated in 1845. The only agricultural school in Lower Canada, we be- lieve, is that in connection with the College de Ste. Anne de la Pocati^re. It is attended by about ten pupils. CHAPTER YI. MODEL, BLEMENTASY, AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS, ETC. The model schools of Lower Canada are denominated Superor Primary Schools, so as to distinguish them from the secondary or elementary common schools. They in- clude the better class of Protestant and Roman Catholic boys and girls' schools in cities, towns, and villages. Many of them are under the control of part 'ar societies and religious coinmunities,t but they nevertheless receive a share of the legislative school grant. In 1861, there were 239 of these superior primary schools in Lower Canada, * See separat '. account of each institution in Chapter IL f See following chapter. Lt:=: It. [.Sis ■ r 1 u 534 HIBT03I0A2. SKETOH OF SDUGAHON IN LOWES OAXfADA, viz., 189 for boys and fifty for girls. Of this 239, only 125 received public aid to tho amount of $16,400 ; the re- maining il4 were private or " independent." The elementary schools include the ordinary secondary or common schools, and the Protestant dissentient com- mon schools. There were, in 1861, 2,746 of the former, attended by 134,777 pupils, and 143 of the latter, attended by 5,119 pupils. Both classes receive public aid alike. The number of private or independent schools reported to have been in existence in Lower Canada, in 1861, was 825, attended by 22,355 pupils. CHAPTER Vn. EDirOATIONAL OOMMUNinES, SOOIETIES, AND SCHOOL OBGAN- IZATI0N8. V The educational communities, societies, and school organizations of Lower Canada are numerous, and may be referred to briefly, in chronological order, as follows : — 1. The Hecollets, or Franciscans, were the first mis- cionaries in Canada, as well as the first teachers. They came to Canada after Champlain, 1615. Li 1616, Fr^re Pacifique established a school at Three Rivers ; and about the same time, Frere le Caron established one at Tadousac. In 1820, the RecoUets, under the French king's authority, established a convent at Quebec, to which the famous Prince de Cond6 made a liberal donation. They also es- tablished schools in the county parishes, as well as in Vercheres, Quebec, and Montreal. At the conquest, in 1759, their lands, with those of the Jesuits, were taken possession of by the crown. The last of. the order, Pere Louis (Demers), ordwned in 1757, died at Montreal in 1813. 2. The Jesuits came to Quebec in 1625. P^re Le- jeune, one of the order, opened hiB Ladian school at Que- ( ! ' HIBTOICAX BKETOH OF EDFOATION TK LOWEK CAKADA. 635 bee, in 1632, and P6rc Laleraftnt his Freneh Bchool, at the same place, in 1635. In the same year the Jesuit College was opened in Quebec, and was continued as a college — although the order had been suppressed — until 1776, when it was converted into a barrack by the British govern- ment. The Jesuits established several elementary schools in the neighborhood, but they were closed after the order was suppressed. In 1842 the Jesuits again arrived in Canada, and, in 1848, established the College de Ste. Marie, at Montreal. They have also established Superior, a convent seven miles from Montreal. 3. The Ursvlines. — In 1639, Madame Ija Peltrie founded the celebrated convent of the U rsulines in Quebec ; and in 1697, Mgr. St Valier, Bishop of Quebec, founded another extensive convent of the Ursulines at Three Eivers. The Hotel Dieu, at Quebec, was also founded in 1639, by the Duchesse d'Aiguillon (.. *ece of the Cardinal Richelieu). 4. Ladies of the Congregation of Notre Dame. — ^This community, as an offshoot of one which still exists in Paris, was established at Montreal, in 1653, by DUe. Marguerite Bourgeois. The first school was opened at Montreal, in 1657, and was chiefly attended by Indian girls. The number of schools gradually increased in 1737, to 34, in- cluding one in Kingston, Fpper Canada, and two in Nova Scotia. At present, not less than 10,000 attend the various schools and convents established by this community. 5. Rayal Institution for the Ad/vancement of Learning. — A Board or Council, of Education under this name was authorized by Act of Parliament in 1801. The members of the Royal Institution were not, however, appointed until 1818. The object of the institution was to promote the establishment of elementary schools. In this it failed ; and its powers have, by successive school Acts, been grad- ually limited, so that it is now, we believe, connected wit'>, McQ-111 College only as a Board of Governors. m • J .m — -^ li L ' V { « ;. .1* ' >-i ■: I' m^^ m-i.' 536 HI8TOBI0AL 8KET0H OF EDUCATION IN LOWEB CANADA. 6. The Fahrique Schools. — In 1824, a Logialativo Act was paBBcd giving power to the fabriques, or Roman Catho- lic parish corporation, to establish schools. These schools are now under the control of the local school authorities. 7. Th£ .Dissentient Schools. — These schools originated in a desire to provide an education in Eoman Catholic com- munities for the children of the purely Protestant part of the population of Lower Canada. They were contem- plated in a bill which was introduced into the Lower Can- ada House of Assembly in 1829, but which then failed to become law. The General School Law for Upper and Lower Canada, however, which was passed in 1841, dis- tinctly authorized the establishment of Protestant Dissen- tient schools in Lower Canada, and separate schools in Upper Canada, and they have ever since been in existence. In 1861 there were in Lower Canada 143 of the Dissen- tient schools, attended by 5,119 pupils. 8. Freres des Ecoles Chretiennes^ or Christian Brothers^ Schools. — ^This religious order was established in France, in 1679, and it was introduced into Canada in 1837. Its schools are now very numerous and well attended. 9. Continental Church and Sciwol Society. — This society (formerly the " Colonial Church Society," and the " New- foundland School Society"), in connection with the Church of England, originated in London in 1823 ; and its ope- rations were extended to Canada in 1838. In January, 1851, the two Societies named were united, and became the " Colonial Church and School Society." In May, 1861, the present name was adopted. A branch of the Society exists in each of the Church of England dioceses of Quebec and Montreal. In the Montreal diocese it has a Model School, and an Infant School in each of the two dioceses. The number of other elementary schools, in con- nection with the Society, is 30 ; viz. : 20 in the diocese of Montreal, and 10 in the diocese of Quebec. Total, 33 ; HISTORICAL BKETOH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEB CANADA. 537 attended by about 1,G00 pupils. Tlie annual expenditure on behalf of these schools is nearly $12,000, of which the government grant is about $1,000. One hundred and tivo schools have been established, or at some time aided in Canada by the Society. 10. Ladies of tlie Sacred Heart. — This religious com- munity came from France in 1842. It has an extensive convent at Sault au Recollet, near Montreal. 11. Sisters of Providence. — This community was estab- lished by Mgr. Bourget, in 1844. Upwards of 1,000 pupils attend the schools of the order. 12. Brothers of St. Joseph. — These brothers came from France in 1847. They have several schools, in which they afford' instruction in agriculture and the useful sciences. 13. Ladies of Ste. Croix. — ^This community, founded in France in 1839, established a convent at Montreal in 1847. They have also several other convents in the country. 14. Ststers of Ste. Aniie. — This community originated in Canada in 1848. It has four convents in Lower Canada. 15. Sisters of the Presentation. — This coiimunity came from France in 1853. It has six convents in the diocese of St. Hyacinthe. 16. Sisters de VAssomption originated in the diocese of Three Rivers in 1853. Their convent is at St. Gr6goire. 17. The other Roman Catholic religious teaching com- muniUes* are the Ladies of the Holy Name of Jesus, Sisters of the Holy Cross, and the Sisters of Charity, &c. Those which are not teaching communities are the Grey Sisters or Nuns, who have charge of the Asylum for old men and other charitable institutions at Montreal, and the Ladies of the Good Shepherd, who have charge of a Refuge or Magdalene in 'the same'place. 18. The other Protestant Societies* are the British and * No separate information naa been obtained in regard to these conununi* ties and societies, eta ! ! •r .til- '•■k'T':-' mm--: li 538 EIBTOSIOAIi 8EBTCH OT ^«TDTT0ATIOir IN LOWEB CANADA. Canadian School Society, Educational Society, Americp,n Presbyterian School Society, besides schools named St. Andrews, Jerman, Protestant, etc. GnAFEERVm. SUFFLEMENTABT ELEMENTASY EDUOATIOKAL AGENCIES. Undeb this head we may ennmerate (1) schools for or- phans ; (2) for deaf and dumb ; (3) for juvenile criminals. (1.) There are excellent orphan schools in the principal cities of Lower Canada ; but our information and want of space will not warrant v^ in entering into details. (2.) There are two Asylums for the deaf and dumb in Lower Canada. The first, for boys, was established near Montreal by the Eev,. Al)b6 Lagorce, in 1849 ; and the second, for girls, was established in Montreal by Mgr. Bourget, Roman Catholic Bishop of Montreal, in 1853. In these two asylums there are eight teachers and about sixt^' pupils. Ari asylum of the same description was es- tablished by Donald McDonald, Esq., at Quebec, in 1832, mider the authority of a special act of Parliament. Mr. McDonald was aided in his benevolent work by M. Clerc, formerly a pupil of the Abb6 Sicard, who was a successor of the delebrated Abb6 de L'Epee, inventor of a method for instructing deaf-mutes. The law, however, having ex- pired in 1836, it was never revived, and the Asyi, n was closed. (3.) T^e Reformatory school for juvenile criminals was established at the Isle aux Noix, near the Rentier, and at the head of the Richelieu river, in 1858. Being an old military post, it was again deemed necessary to occupy it, and the Reformatory was removed to St. Vincent de Paul, near Montreal, in 1861. There are now about fifty ixunateB in the institution. EISTOBIOjIL BKETOH or ZDUnATION IN LOWXB CANADA. 539 CHAPTER IX. OTHEB SUFPLEMENTABT AOENODSS. These agencies includ medianicB' institutes, literary societies, associations, and libraries. (1.) As in Upper Canada, the Board of Arts and Manu- factures of Lower Canada has chiefly to do with the me- chanics' institutes. Thia board established, in 1859, a cen- tral school of art and manufactures at Montreal. It has now six professors and teachers, and is attended by about sixty pupils. (2.) The literary societies of Lower Canada are numerous, but we have only room to enumerate those in existence in Montreal and Quebec. In Montreal : The Natural History Society; Institut Canadien ; Medico-chirurgical ; Mechanics' Institute; Hochelaga Debating Club; McGill University Society ; Phrenological Society, etc. In Quebec : Literary and Historical Society ; Institut Canadien ; Mechanics' In-j stitute; Institute of St. Rochs; St. Patrick's Irstitute, etc. (3.) As far as possible, we have given the number of, volumes of books contained in the library of each of the colleges. In addition, we can only give the following sum- mary of libraries, from the report of the Superintendent of Educatioa for Lower Canada for the year 1861, ^z. : num- ber of public libraries, 163 ; number of volumeB therein, 106,500; number of volumes in the libraries connected with the aeminaries, colleges, academicfl, and normal sdioolfl, 161,366. Total number of volumes, 267,866. ill' \^ NoTF. — ^At the request of the publisher, this article on the state and progress of education in Lower Canada has been considerably abridged. U^i i-^ V- J'- J lb !> t i ^ I > %}■'• J I 640 mSTOEIOAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. PART III. CHAPTER I. VAEIOUS EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS. (1.) Lands aet apart firr Educatwnai Fwrpoaea.* Acres. n..) Order of Jesuits, &c., for education 891,846 (2.) Bishop and Seminary of Quebec 693,324 (3.) St. Sulpicians and Seminary of Montretd 250,191 (4) Ursuline Convent, Quebec 164,616 (6.) Ursuline Convent, Three Rivers 38,909 /«v « V - ' 2,038,885 (6.) Paruamentary Appropriation for Common Schools in Upper and Lower Canada (proportion), say 500,000 Grand Total of Acres 3,538,886 (2.) Public Aid to Education {1862). (1.) Parliamentary Grant to Superior Edu- cation (». «., Colleges and Universi- ties) $20,000 , Income from Lands and Investments .... 26,686 Unappropriated balance transferred from Legislative School Grant, as below . . 34,04T $80,T32 (2.) Income of Laval University and Semi- nary from Lands, &c. (estimated) 12,500 Parliament. Grant to two Medical Schools 2,000 Parlia. Grant to two Historical Societies 2,000 Parliamentary Grant to two Observatories 2,900 '^—— 6 900 (3.) Parliamentary Grant to Common Schools, * from Lands, &c 1T3,96'7 Less unappropriated balance transferred as above to Superior Education 34,04T 139,920 $263,052 <4.) Local Asaessment (1861) 261,530 (5.) Fees, Ac, do. 264,'689 526,219 $t79,2n ^ ♦ This statement in regard to the Royal grants of land in Lower Canada IS taken from a memorial addressed by the Right Rev. Dr. Strachan, Bishop of Toronto, to the Canadian Legislature, in Nov. 1843. No further authentic statement can be obtained on this tiubject. DA. HMTOKIOAL SKETCH OF BDUOATION IN LOWER CANADA. 541 (3.) Progress of Education in Lvwer Canada, since 1862. Year. 1853. 1854. 1866. 1866. Edacatlonal Institatlons of ail kinds. AssesBineDtB and Fees. res. ,845 !,324 ',191 ,616 ,909 ,886 ,000 ,886 PapilB. 2,352 108,284 $165,848 2,796 119,733 238,032 2,868 127,058 249,136 2,919 143,141 406,764 1857 2,946 148,798 424,208 1868 2,985 156,872 469,396 1869 3,199 168,148 498,436 1860 3,264 172,155 503,859 1861 , 3,346 180,846 526,219 CHAPTER n. PAKTJAMENTABY GBANTB FROM 1832 TO 1861, INOLUBIVB. eiATEMEITF Or TEB ANNUAL PAYMENTS ON BEHALF Of EDUCATION IN UPPEB AND LOWBB CANADA, I^-OM THE YBAB 1832 TO 1861, INCLUSIVE, EXTEAOTED TBOU TEB PUBLIC ACCOUNTS AND OTHEB OFHOIAL DOCUMENTS. Year. 52 19 71 tada shop intio 1882 1888 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1840 1841 1842 1848 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1349 1850 1861 1852 1858 1864 1856 1866 1857 1868 1869 1860 1861 LOWXB OAKADA. Commor" Schools. Snperior Schools. Total $129,880 88,620 98,174 108,248 146,627 100,000* 90,000* 80,000* TTPPBS CANADA Common Schools. $9,600 86,200 81,400 88,800 85,800 88,600 88,600* 87,200 Grammar Schools. $4,000 8,861 8,981 4,640 4,559 4,650* 4,600* 6,600 The payments to Common and Superior Schools in Upper and Lower Canada, fl-om 1841 to 1849, are not distinguished in the Parliamentary papers of those years from which these sums are taken. $168,213 103,144 94,116 142,478 161,873 94,081 188,800 187,800 187,800 189,680 189,830 $17,226 25,567 20,201 62,657 68,260 108,041 91,873 80,487 76,674 62,743 88,976 80,783 176,488 127,701 114,816 206,080 215,188 197,122 225,172 218,287 214,474 281,087 223,655 820,553 88,867 94,484 100,896 152,803 147,870 156,185 186,032 186,082 186,032 186,033 186,082 7,664 7,710 7,9ie 8^888 24,636 29,984 42,798 84,120 82,922 86,461 44,076 86,819 * Estimated, no anthentio returns having been avallablA. Total $18,600 39,061 85,881 88,846 40,869 48,160 42,600* 42,800 73,000* 72,779 93,427 78,680 268,821 322,196 266,185 267,970 266,076 290,166 96,421 102,144 108j315 161,636 120,843 177,804 198,988 220,152 218,954 222,493 230,108 221,851 (< '-kh. ^:; *• '* P m\ - J- < I m ii,i hti:: r' f ^ ■) THB PROGRESS OF NEW BRUNSWICK, I pr rv .l> w: lt<'' 648 EABLT HlfiTOEY OF NEW BRUNSWICK. cal direction, at some distance north-west of Newcastle, for .a while, and the sky v ibsolutely blackened by this huge cloud ; but a light no 'ly breeze springing up, it gradually distended and then dissipated into a variety of shapeless mists. About an hour after, or probably at half- past five, innumerable large spires of smoke issuing from distant parts of the woodt., and illuminated by the flames that seemed to pierce them, mounted to the sky. " A heavy and suftbcating canopy extended to the utmost verge of observation, and, appearing more terrific by the vivid flashes and blazes- that darted irregularly through it, now hung over Newcastle and Douglas in threatening suspension, while showers of flaming brands, calcined leaves, ashes and cinders, seemed to scream through the growling noise that prevailed in the woods. " About nine o'clock or shortly after, a succession of loud and appalling roars thundered through the forests. Peal after peal, crash after crash, announced the sentence of destruction. Every succeeding shock created fresh alarm ; every clap came loaded with its own destructive energy. With greedy rapidity did the flames advance to the de- voted scene of their ministry ; nothing could impede their progress ; they removed every obstacle by the desolation they occasioned, and several hundred miles of prostrate forents and smitten woods marked their devastating way. " The river, tortured into violence by the hurricane, foamed with rage, and flung its boiling spray upon the land. The thunders pealed along the vault of heaven ; the lightning appeared to rend the firmament. For a mo- ment and all was still — a deep and awful silence reigned over every thing. All nature appeared to be hushed, when suddenly a lengthened and sullen roar came booming through the forest, driving a thousand massive and devour- ing flames before it. Then Newcastle and Douglastown, and the whole northern side, extending from Bartibog to the Naashwaak, a distance of more than one hundred miles in length, became enveloped in an immense sheet of flame, ii EABLY HISTOET OF NEW BBFN8WI0K. 549 that spread over nearly six thousand square miles ! That the stranger may form a faint idea of the desolation and misery, which no pen can describe, he must picture to himself a large and rapid river, thickly settled for one hundred miles or more on both sides of it. He must also fancy four thriving towns, two on each side of this river, and then reflect that these towns and settlements were all composed of wooden houses, stores, stables, and barns ; that these barns and stables were filled with crops, and that the arrival of the fall importations had stocked the warehouses and stores with spirits, powder, and a variety of combustible articles, as well as the necessary supplies for the approaching winter. He must then remember that the cultivated or settled part of the river is but a long narrow strip, about a quarter of a mile in width, and lying between the river and almost interminable forests, stretching along the very edge of its precincts and all around it. Expending his conception, he will see these forests thickly expanding over more than six thousand square miles, and absolutely parched into tinder by the protracted heat of a long summer. Let him then animate the picture by scattering countless tribes >f wild animals, hundreds of domestic ones, and even chousands of men through the interior. Having done all this, he will have before him a feeble description of the extent, features, and general circumstances of the country which, in the course of a few hours, was suddenly enveloped in a fire. A more ghastly or a more revolting picture of human misery cannot well be imagined. The whole district of culti- vated land was shrouded in the agonizing memorials of some dreadful deforming havoc. The songs of gladness that formerly resounded through it were no longer heard, for the voice of misery liad hushed them. Nothing broke upon the ear but the accents of distress ; the eye saw nothing but ruin, and desolation, and death. " Newcastle, yesterday a flourishing town, full of trade and spirit, and containing nearly one thousand inhabi- ;*tl V I, ■«<''':■■ if: m\ m ft. I* 1 J ■■■ 11 1 1 ) < I ' SiJ- f-^ 650 BABLT HMTOSr OF NEW BBUNBWICK. tantfl, was now a heap of smoking ruins ; and Douglas- town, nearly one-third of its size, was reduced to the same miserable condition. Of the two hundred and sixty houses and storehouses that comprised the former, but twelve remained ; and of the seventy that composed the latter, but six were left. The confusion on board one hun- dred and iifty large vessels then lying in the Miramichi, and exposed to imminent danger, was terrible ; some burnt to the water's edge, others burning, and the remain- der occasionally on fire. "Dispersed groups of half-famished, half-naked, and houseless creatures, all more or less injured in their per- sons, many lamenting the loss of some property, or chil- dren, or relations and friends, were wandering through the country. Of the human bodies, some were seen with their bowels protruding ; others with the flesh all consumed, and the blackened skeletons smoking ; some with headless trunks and severed extremities ; some bodies burned to cinders ; others reduced to ashes ; many bloated by suffo- cation, and several lying in the last distorted position of convuliing torture. Brief and violent was their passage from life to death, and rude and melancholy was their sepulchre, * unknelled, uncoffined, and unknown.' " The immediate loss of life was upwards of five hundred human beings. Thousands of wild beasta had perished in the woods, and from their putrescent carcasses issued streams of effluvium and stench that formed contagious diseases over the dismantled settlements. Domestic ani- mals of all kinds lay dead and dying in diffiBrent parts of the country; myriads of salmon, trout, bass, and other fish, poisoned by the alkali formed by the ashes pre- cipitated into the river, now lay dead, or floundering and gasping on the scorched shores and beaches ; and the countless variety of wild fowl and reptiles shared a similar fate. Such was the av^ul. conflagration at Miramichi, which elicited the prompt benevolence of very many philanthropists of the old and new worlds, who subscribed 1 SABLT III8T0ET OF NEW DRUN8WT0K. 651 £40,000 for the relief of the BwrvivorB, whose property, to the extent of nearly a quarter of a million, was deatroyed. " New Brunswick, like the other Kritieh provinces in North America, has suffered much from fires. In 1837, a great fire in St. John consumed one hundred and fifteen buildings, and occasioned a loss of a million dollars." Sir Howard Douglps held the office of governor, or, rather, lieutenant-govGT aor, which is the official title of the executive officer, till 1831, and did much to improve the country and advance its prosperity. His sucoeeeors have been : ani- Sir Archibald Campbell 1832 to 1838 Sir John Harvey 1838 " 1842 Sir W. M. G. Colebrooke 1842 " 1861 SirE. W. Head 1851 " 1856 Hon. &^anners Sutton 1866 *' 1862 In 1851, the population of the province had reached the number of two hundred and ten thousand. One of the most important events in the history of New Brunswick was the settlement of the boundary question with the United States, by the treaty of "Washington, in 1842. By the treaty of peace in 1783, the boundary lines, between the loyal and the revolted provinces, were so im- perfectly defined that they continued for more than half a century to be the subject of dispute. Efforts were made from time to time to reconcile conflicting claims and interests, but without avail. In 1839, the contro- versy between New Brunswick and Maine had arrived to such a pass that armed forces were raised, fortifications built, and the prospect of actual warfare became im- minent. In this crisis, the English and American govemmonts, abandoning all the futile plans of arbitration which had so long been discussed, and even tried,' adopted the policy of compromise. They ultimately succeeded in agreeing upon a line of division, which, as it fully satisfied neither ! s 552 DESOEIPTrVB AOT) STATIflTIOAL AOOOUNT. party, may be regarded as, on the whole, an equitable one. By this treaty, which was fully ratified in August, 1842, New Brunswick not only secured protection and tranquillity to her inhabitants, but gained a large accession of territory. This was estimated by Mr. Talcott, the United States commissioner appointed to make the survey, to contain eight hundred and ninety-three square miles, — equal to five hundred and seventy-one thousand five hun- dred and twenty acres. This country may be rough, and, as represented by the commissioner, compared with other sections, not of great value for timber or for agricul- ture. It is, howe' 3r, an important acquisition to the province, and especially as it opens a convenient means of communication with Canada without crossing a foreign State. In compensation for this advantage, the right of free passage on the St. John, with all unmanufactured articles of trafiic, was ceded to the people of Maine. If the climate of New Brunswick is cold, it is remark- ably healthful. Its soil is in many parts highly produc- tive, and it has many resources for profitable traffic. A careful observer and writer states that the children of immigrants are taller and larger than their parents, that the women are handsome, and the men active and intel- ligent. DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OP NEW BRUNSWICK, The Province of New Brunswick is situated between the parallels of 45° and 48° north latitude, and the me- ridians of 63° 45' and 67° 50' west longitude. It lies between Nova Scotia and Canada, with its eastern front on the Gkilf of St. Lawrence, and its southern front on the Bay of Fundy, being bounded westerly by the State of Maine, and on the north by Canada. The area of New Brunswick is estimated at 17,677,360 i .r1^/ -■ I lit i "> DESCBXPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACXX)UNT. 553 acres, equal to 27,620 square miles. Of this quantity, more than 6,000,000 of acres have been already sold or alienated by the crown, leaving upwards of 11,000,000 of acres yet to be disposed of. The quantity of good land fit for settlement and yet unsold, is estimated at 7,500,000 acres, of which 250,000 are surveyed for settlers. The mode of selling crown lands is by auction ; and sales take place every month in each county. The upset price is three shillings currency per acre, equal to two shillings and five-pence sterling, payable one-fourth on the day of sale, and the residue in one, two, and three years, without interest. If the whole amount is paid at the time of sale, the purchaser is entitled to a discount of 20 per cent., which reduces the price to two English shillings per acre. To this must, however, be added the expense of survey, three-pence currency, equal to two and a ualf p-^nce sterling per acre. When several persons, desirous of becoming actual set- tlers, apply jointly for lots of vacant land, in a locality where no roads exist, they can procure such lots, not ex- ceeding one hundred acres each, and pay for the same in labor on roads, to be laid out leading to or through their land. In such cases the applicants pay for the survey of the land, and at the rate of three shillings currency, equal to two shillings and five-pence sterling per acre. The road-work is done at such times and places as are fixed upon by the commissioners appointed for that purpose. No less work is to be done in any one year than will be equal to one-fourth the whole purchase-money; and no grant will issue until the purchaser has actually resided on the land for one year, and brought at least ten acres into a state of cultivation. A third mode of disposing of crown lands for actual settlement, has recently been adopted ; full particulars of which will be found in the appendix hereto. Professor J. F. W. Johnston, F. R. S., the well-Jcnown writer on agriculture and agricultural chemistry, was em> N u ' J" 554 DE80EIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL AOOOUNT. ployed by the government, in 1849, to make an inspection of New Brunawiek, and report upon its agricultural capa- bilities. In his report, subsequently published by author- ity, he thus describes New Brunswick : — " Two very different impressions in regard to the Province of New Brunswick will be produced on the mind of the stranger, according as he contents himself with visiting the towns, and inspecting the lands which lie along the seaboard, or ascends the rivers, or penetrates by its numerous roads into the interior of its more central and northern counties. " In the former case, he will feel like the traveller who enters Swe- den by the harbor of Stockholm or of Gottenburg, or who sails among the rocks on the west coast of Norway. The naked cliflFs, or shelving shores, of granite or other hardened rocks, and the unvary- ing pine forests, awaken in his mind ideas of hopeless desolation, and Eoverty and barrenness appear necessarily to dwell within the iron- ound shores. *' A large proportion of the Europeans who visit New Brunswick, Bee only the rocky regions which encircle the more frequented har- bors of the province. They must, therefore, carry away and convey to others very unfavorable ideas, especially of its adaptation to agri- cultural purposes. " But, on the other hand, if the stranger penetrate beyond the At- lantic shores of the province, and travel through the interior, he will be struck by the aumber and beauty of its rivers, by the fertility of its river islands and intervals, and by the great extent and excellent condition of its roads, and, upon the whole, of its numerous bridges. He will see boundless forests still unreclaimed ; but will remark at the same time an amount of general progress and prosperous advance- ment, which, considering the recent settlement and small revenue of the province, is really surprising. If he possesses an agricultural eye, he may discern great defects in the practical husbandry of the provin- cial farmer, while he remarks, at the same time, the healthy looks of their large families, .and the apparently easy and independent condi- tion in which they live. If he have travelled much in other coun- tries., one thing which will arrest his attention more than all, will be the frequent complaints which meet his ears, of the slowness with which the province advances, of the condition of its agriculture com- pared with that of Scotland or England, of the want of capital among its land-possessing farmers, and so on ; complaints which would be made regarding New Brunswick with very much less urgency, were the rate of its own actual progress better known to its inhabitants, and its own rural and economical condition better understood and ap- preciated. '' For my own part, in taking a general survey of the actual condi- tion of the province, in connection with the period of its early settle- ment, and with the public revenues it has possessed from time to time as means of improvement, I have been much impressed with the rapid progress it has really made, and with the lame amount of social advancement which is everywhere to be seen. The roads, the DJEBOEirXIVl AND 8TATTSTICAL ACCOtmt. 555 bridges, the churches, thi schools, the colleges, besides the nameroas other public institutions, excellent and liberal in themselves, assume a very large magnitude in the eyes of the impartial observer, when it is considered that they have been made, built, or established, and pro- vided for by a population even at present under two hundred thousand souls, less in number than the inhabitants of one of our third-rate Eng- lish cities, and in the short space of sixty or seventy years. "When I have heard natives of New Brunswick complaining of the slowness with which their province advanced, I have felt persuaded that the natural impatience of a young people to become great, like that of a young man to become rich, was blinding them to the actual rate at which their country was going forward, a rate so dilferent from what is to be seen in any part of the old world, with the exception of the Island Home from which we all come. " In justice to New Brunswick, I must add another remark. In every part of the world it has been my fortune to visit, I have met with numerous individuals who were more or less interested in, and were anxious to promote the agricultural improvement of their na- tive country. But in New Brunswick, a more general feeling appears to prevail upon this subject, among all educated persons, than I have ever met with before. "In the province of New Brunswick, whatever defects its hus- bandry may exhibit, and they are many, it has been satisfactory to me to find, that a development of its agricultural resources by the improvement of its agricultural practice, and independent of immi- gration, has begun to manifest itself distinctly. Improved imple- ments, and breeds of cattle and sheep, imported grain and grass seeds, skilful ploughing, the preparation of composts, with experiments in draining, in the use of lime and gypsum, in the growth of green crops and feeding of stock — these and other similar forms of improvement which have come under my notice in the province, show that there are some at least who not only desire to advance the general condi- tion of its husbandry, but who are aware also of the first steps which ought to be taken to promote this advancement," In 1845, commissioners were appointed by Her Majes- ty's government to explore and survey the route for a railway from Halifax to Quebec, across the province of New Brunswick. In their report, submitted to parlia- ment in 1849, signed by Major Robinson, R. E., the province is thus described : ■ "Of the climate, soil, and capabilities of New Brunswick it is im- possible to speak too highly. There is not a country in the world so beautifully wooded and watered. " An inspection of the map will show that there is scarcely a sec- tion of it without its streams, from the running brook up to the navi- gable river. Two-thirds of its boundary are washed by the sea ; the remainder is embraced by the large rivers, the St. John and the Bestigouch^. For beauty and richness of scenery, this latter river and its branches are not surpassed by any thing in Great Britain. \ J "i J^s I' ! t t !'• ' ^' I . .( 556 DESOBimVE AOT) BTATI8TI0AL AOOOTJNT. "The lakes of New Brunswick are numerous and most beautiful; its surface is undulating, hill and dale, varying up to mountain and vallej. It is everywhere, except a few peaks of the highest moun- tains, covered with a dense forest of the finest growth. " The country can everywhere be penetrated by its streams. In some parts of the interior, by a portage of three or four miles, a canoe can float away, either to the Bay of Ohaleur and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, or down to St. John in the Bay of Fundy. " Its agricultural capabilities, climate, etc., are described in Bou- chette's work, in Martin's British Colonies, and other authors. The country is by them, and most deservedly so, highly praised." CLIMATE. Although the winters of New BnmBwick are somewhat severe (less so, however, than those of Lower Canada), yet the climate is exceedingly healthy. Fever and ague are wholly unknown ; epidemics, even of a slight nature, are exceedingly rare, and the country is absolutely with- out an endemic, or disease peculiar to itself. Professor Johnston in his report says, that the province has an exceedingly healthy climate. Every medical man he met in the country assured him of this ; and the healthy looks and the numerous families of the natives, of all classes, confirmed these assurances. On the shores of the Bay of Fundy there is much fog during the summer season, but this extends a short dis- tance only into the interior. The city of St. John is fre- quently wrapped in a dense sea-fog, while the days are bright and cloudless at the distance of a few miles only. In the interior of the province, the air is much warmer in summer than on the sea-coast; and there is a greater de- gree of cold in winter. The ranges of temperature are : — At St. John, on the Bay of Fundy, from 18® below, to 88® above zero. At Kichibucto, on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, frc n 20° below, to 90® above zero. At Fredericton, in the interior, from 24:" below, to 95° above zero. The following observations were made on the weather, at an altitude of 132 feet above high- water mark in the city m DESOBIPnVE AND STATI8TI0AL ACCOUNT. 557 of St. John, which is in latitude 45** 1' north, and longi- tude 66" 4' west. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851. Highest temperature 8t 88 84 86 Lowest temperature 14 16 6 18 Clear days 118 200 194 181 Cloudy days 116 124 112 124 Stormy days 12 41 69 66 Snow, in inches 89 46 117 13 Bain, in inches 48 SI'S 33 40 There are not more than four snow-storms in any one year, in which over a foot of snow falls at any one time ; and snow-storms rarely last more than two days. In England, nine inches of snow, when melted, average one inch of water; in New Brunswick, seventeen inches melted, average one inch of water. The snow is therC" fore twice as Hght, or dry, as that of England. COURSE OP THE SEASONS The winter is fairly established at Christmas. In Jan- uary, as in the other North American colonies, there is the usual thaw ; in February is the deepest snow, which sel- dom exceeds four feet on the average in the northern por- tion of the province, and three feet in the southern por- tion. In March, the sun acquires much power, and the snows begin to melt. In the cleared country the snow disappears in April, and spring pLughing commences. Seed-time continues, according to the season, from the last week in April until the end of May. In June, the apple- trees are in fulx blossom; in July, wild strawberries of fine flavor are ripe and in abundance ; haying then be- gins. In August, early potatoes are brought to market, as also raspberries and other wild fruits. In September, oats, wheat, and other cereal grains are ready for the sickle ; these are generally secured before October. The autumn is long, and the weather is then delicious ; this is decided- ly the most pleasant portion of the year. There are usu- ally heavy rains in November ; but when not wet, the weather is fine and pleasant; the rivers generally close l>!" 6i^f •^r i^ .' : m iii !il! il- i>i'.«-;-i-. 558 DESCRIPTITE AND 8TATI8TI0AL ACCOUNT. during the latter part of this month, and in December winter fairly sets in. From numerous returns which were furnished to Pro- fessor Johnston from all parts of the Province, the follow- ing facts were deduced. The average interval between the earliest sowing and latest ploughing, — or mean length of summer — is six months and twenty-two days. Of this period, the growth of wheat and crops of spring corn re- quires an average of three mouths and seventeen days. After reaping the corn crops, there is generally about seven weeks clear for ploughing before winter sets in. Be- fore the average sowing time in spring, there is usually about six weeks, during which ploughing and other pre- paratory treatment of the land can be carried on. The number of days during which rain impedes the oper- ations of the British farmer, is notoriously very great ; and in those parts of the United Kingdom where the soil is of a peculiarly tenacious character, it not only shortens the period during which the work of preparing the land can be done, but it also makes it heavier and more diffi- cult to do. But in New Brunswick the climate is more steady and equable. Rains do not so constantly fall ; and when they do descend, the soils in most parts of the Prov- ince are so porous, that they readily pass through. The out-door operations of the New Brunswick farmer are less impeded by rain, and the disposable time he possesses, compared with that of the British farmer, is really not to be measured by the number of days at the disposal of each, but by the number of days during which each can work out of doors. The severe frosts in winter generally penetrate so deep into the ground, especially when it is not covered with grass, as to raise up and separate the particles from each other, to a considerable depth ; so that when the thaw comes, it is already so loose and open as scarcely to require ploughing at all, or if ploughed, to be done with little force and great speed. M"n Ijf \\\ DE8CEIPTIVE AND BTATI8TI0AL ACCOUNT. 559 An Ayrshire farmer settled in New Brunswick, whose long exj^erience wl.;h Scottish agriculture entitles his opin- ion to much weight, says : — " The frost of winter leaves the land in a very pliable state, and in a better order for green crops than any number of ploughings done in win- ter could make it. On this account, I believe, a pair of horses coald work as much land here, under a given rota- tion, as they would in Scotland." Though the period for out-door labor is shorter in New Brunswick — as it is in Canada, Maine, and the North- ern States — than in England, or in parts of Scotland, yet the action of winter upon the soil is such as materially to lessen the labor necessary to bring it into a proper state of tillage. There is nothing therefore in the length of the winter of New Brunswick, or the shortness of its summer, which ought, where time is diligently employed and its value known, to interfere seriously with the progress of out-door operations, or to add materially to the expenses of arable cultivation. The manner in which all root-crops thrive in the prov- ince is really remarkable, and the frost is one of the agents by which the large product is brought about, by opening and pulverizing the soil. By tables of produce heretofore published, it has been shown, that in potatoes and turnips. New Brunswick greatly exceeds the present average produce of any other part of North America with which it has been compared. Very little attention is yet paid to the culture of flax, which may be grown upon almost every farm in the prov- ince. The same may be said of hemp, to the growth of which some parts of the country are specially adapted, be- cause of the rank rapidity with which vegetation proceeds upon them. Wool-combing now aflPbrds employment to some extent, and it will do so more largely, when greater advantage is taken of the adaptation of the climate to the rearing of sheep. The dressing of flax, hemp, and wool offers means of winter employment, one or other of m ' 1'^ 1^ >'.^ n V ! H^'M i:,!!r ■■J n >■ ll' 660 DE80BIPTIVE AND 8TATISTI0AL ACCOUNT. which may be rendered profitably available, in most dis- tricts. The climate of New Brunswick is well fitted for the rearing and feeding of cattle. With proper care, they not only winter well, but gain size and flesh. In Kesti- gouch6, the most northerly portion of the Province, the climate is less severe upon stock than in Great Britain. Though a large provision of winter food is i'equired to maintain the stock during so many months, yet by the saving of manure upon farms of all kinds, even the newest, and applying it to the grass land in the spring, and by the cultivation of green crops, for which there are such extraordinary capabilities, this food is easily raised. The proper feeding of cattle during the winter, gives employ- ment to the members of the farmer's family and his paid servants ; and it is also the means of producing more manure, thus insuring the production of better beef and mutton, a greater weight of butter and cheese, and heavier harvests of grain. Professor Johnston procured returns from all parts of New Brunswick, of the produce of each crop, and its weight per Winchester bushel. From these returns he deduced the following statement of the average product and weight of each, in the entire Province : — Crop. Wheat Barley 29 Oats 3d Buckwheat. 33f Rye 20i Indian Com 4li Potatoes 226i Turnips 466 Per aci-e. Weight per buBheL 20 bushels 60 11-12 lbs. 50 " 38 48 8-11 521 b^ or 6 1-3 tons.. 63 or 131 tons... 66 (I (( il It ii "These average weights," says Professor Johnston, " over a whole province, where the land is new, and ma- nured only in rare instances, or at long intervals, indicate a capacity in the soil and climate, to produce grain for hu- man food, of a very superior quality." 'Wir DE90EIPnVE AND BTATI8TI0AL ACCOUNT. THE FOREST. 561 After agriculture, the forests of New Brunswick consti- tute at present its next greatest resource, in furnishing the materials for its staple export of timber, and its principal manufactures — ship-building and sawed lumber. The whole surface of the province, in its natural state, is, with very few exceptions, covered with a dense forest of timber-trees. Among these, the most valuable, as well as the most interesting and majestic, is the white jpine, so called from the perfect whiteness of its wood when freshly- exposed. The wood is soft, light, free from knots, and easily wrought ; it is durable, and not liable to split when exposed to the sun. The white pine furnishes timber of large dimensions, and boards of great wivith ; and its wood is employed in far more diversified uses, and in greater quantities, than that of any other tree in America. The most usual forms in which white pine is extensively exported from New Brunswick are — as squared timber, masts, s'oars, deals, plank, boards, scantling, clapboards, palings, shingles, and laths ; also in boxes, barrels, water- pails, and tubs. It would, however, be quite impossible to enumerate the variety of purposes to which it is applied, both in Europe and America. Next to the white pine in commercial value, is the Hack spruce. This tree is so multiplied in New Brunswick, as to constitute a third part of the forests with which the province is so uninterruptedly covered, and nowhere is it found of larger size or finer quality. It often attains from seventy to eighty feet in height, and from eighteen to twenty-four inches in diameter. The distinguishing properties of the wood of the black spruce are, strength, lightness, and elasticity. It furnishes as fine yards and topmasts as any in the world, and for these it has been long and extensively used. By many, the wood of the black spruce is preferred to that of the white pine for fiooring ; but its great value arises from its iJ lu 1 n ;■ 'r \ , I'' !| If I it ■ 1 1' iS wSm ^t 'ill'" ■|j|' 562 DESOaimVB AND BTATI8TI0AL AOOOUNT. furnishing the spruce deals of commerce, which now con- stitute one of the largest and most valuable exports of New Brunswick. These deals are of the uniform thickness of three inches, not less than twelve feet in length, and nine inches in width. The most usual dimensions are nine and eleven inches in breadth, and lengths of twelve, four- teen, sixteen, eighteen, and twenty-one feet. Spruce bat- tens are twelve feet long, seven inches in width, and two and a half inches in thickness. The manufacture of spruce deals commenced in New Brunswick in 1819, and has since been steadily increasing. In 1851, there were five hundred and eighty-four saw-mills in the province, driven either by steam or water power, and since then the num- ber has been continually on the increase. The extent and value of the exports of pine and spruce timber and deals, will be seen by reference to the tables hereafter. The next tree in the order of value is the Americom larch^ which is known under a variety of names. The French Canadians call it epi/nette rouge/ the descend- ants of the Dutch in Am'^rica have called it tamarack. It is most generally designated in New Brunswick by its Indian name, hackmatack. In the northern portion of the province, and on the Gulf Shore, it is sometimes styled cyjyress, but much more frequently Juniper ^ to neither of which designations has it the slightest claim. The American larch, like that of Europe, is a magnifi- cent tree, with a straight, slender trunk, eighty feet cr more in height, and upwards of two feet in diameter. Trees of this size are most abundant in the north-eastern portion of the province, but, of greater or less size, they abound throughout New Brunswick. The wood of the American iarch unites all the properties which distin- guish the European species, being exceedingly strong, and singularly durable. It is highly esteemed, especially for knees, the but of the stem and one of the principal roots forming together the angle required. Few descriptions of wood, if any, are superior to it for ship-planks and ship- DKSORIPnVE AND STATISTICAL AOOOUNT. 663 timber : and the clipper-ships of New Brunswick, built al- most wholly of its larch wood, have attained a world-wide celebrity for speed, strength, and durability. After the three principal ti ;es already named, come the birch, the beech, the maple, the elm, the hemlock, the spruce, the butternut, the ash, and the white cedar. Each of these furnishes forest trees of large size ; and, in various shapes, they are of more or less value for home use, as well as for exportation. There are four species of hirch in New Brunswick, all of them tall trees. Of these, the black and yellow birch are the most valuable, and furnish timber of the largest size. The grain of the black birch is fine and close, whence it is susceptible of a brilliant polish : it possesses, also, very considerable strength. It is much used in ship- building, for the keel, lower timbers, and planks of vessels ; and, as it is almost indestructible under water, it is well adapted for piles, foundation timbers,, sluices, and in general for any purpose where it is constantly wet. The wood of the yellow birch is believed to be somewhat inferior to that of the black birch ; but the timber and planks from both trees are exported indiscriminately, under the general name of birch. Both species abound in New Brunswick, and they are almost always found on deep, loose, and wet soils, where they attain their largest size, which is from sixty to seventy feet in height, and more than two feet in diameter. There are two species of heech found in New Brunswick, the red and the white, but of these the red beech is far the most valuable. Il some situations, the beech is so abundant as to constitute extensive forests, the finest trees growing in a deep moist soil, or level or gently sloping lands, which are suitable for the culture of grain. The wood of the red beech is very valuable when preserved from humidity, and incorruptible when constantly in the water ; but it rapidly decays when exposed to the alterna- tions of dryness and moisture. In the bottoms of vessels, 36 Wi muffi -,*(■ ■•^i m , t '. I; I : Hi , 11 . i< .H- ii • « ,'!'':ili: i|i:ii:i! •;j'!ii|l'i :|jlii!l ■y . * i|t, ■ 1 Inn I'' iil' ^ :i;'i; ! inni 564 DESOBimVE AND BTATI8TI0AX, ACOOTJNT. it h}i8 been known to remain sound for forty yoarg. It 8orvo8 for Bboe-lasts, tool-handles, pianos, and mallets, and its ashes afford good potash. The nuts of the red beech are produced every second year ; hogs fatten rapidly on these nuts, but the pork is not esteemed. Bsars, part- ridges, squirrels, and mice, feed on them largely. Very solid and elegant hedges may be made with young beeches placed seven or eight inches apart, and bent in opposite directions, so as to cross oacli other and form a trellis, with apertures five or six inches in diameter. During the first year, they are bound with osier at the points of intersection, where they finally become grafted, and grow together. As beech does not suffer in pruning, and sprouts less luxuriantly than most other trees, it io well adapted for hedges. The red beech is reared without any difliculty from the seed ; it grows rapidly, and, if the soil is in good order, a handsome and sufficient hedge may be produced in five or six years. The maples^ in general, are lofty and beautiful trees ; they grow quick, are easily transplanted, and bear crop- ping. The grass flourishes under their shade. They prefer, and are generally found on a free, deep, and loamy soil, rich rather than sterile, and neither wet nor very dry. Of the several species of maple, the most interesting and the most valuable is the sugar-maple, also known as the rock maple, and hard maple. It enters largely into the composition of the forests with which New Brunswick is covered, where it is found of the largest size, and in great perfection. Tc frequently reaches the height of seventy or eighty feet, with a proportionate diameter ; but it does not generally exceed fifty or sixty feet, with a diam- eter from twelve to eighteen inches. The sugar-maple is most frequently found on the steep and shady banks of rivers, and elevated situations wher-e the soil is cold and humid, but free, deep, and fertile, and not surcharged with moisture. The wood of the sugar-maple, when first cut, is white ; DEaCBUmVK AND STATISTICAL AOOOUMT. 665 but afTter being wrought, and exposed for some time to the liglit, it takes a rosy tinge. Its grain is fine and close, and when polished has a silky lustre. It is very strong, and sufficiently heavy, but wants durability ; when exposed to moisture it soon decays, and it is therefore neglected in civil and naval architecture. In the arrangement of the fibre, this wood frequently exhibits two accidental forms of much beauty, respectively known as "curled maple," and "birds'-oye maple." These make very handsome articles of furniture, and are much sought after by cabinet- makers ; they are exported in considerable quantities to the United Kingdom, where they bring a high price. The birches, the beeches, and the maples all furnish ex- cellent fuel, and for this purpose they are extensively used in New Brunswick. The sugar-maple, however, furnishes the best fuel, and its ashes are rich in the alkaline princi- ple. Tlie charcoal made from it is superior to any other ; it is one-fifth heavier than that made from the same species of wood in the Middle and Southern States, which sufficiently evinces that the sugar-maple acquires its char- acteristic properties, in perfection, only in a northern climate. But the most valuable property of this tree is the quan- tity of sugar it furnishes; and the extraction of sugar from the maple is a valuable resource in a country where all classes of society daily make use of tea and coflfee. The process by which it is obtained is very simple, and is everywhere nearly the same. Though not essentially de- fective, it might be rendered more perfect, and more profitable, by a little more attention to science. The work usually commences in the month of March, while the cold continues intense, and the ground is still covered with snow. The sap begins to be in motion at this early season, and is obtained by boring small holes in the trunks of the trees, from which it flows freely. It is then put into kettles ; the evaporation is kept up by a brisk fire, night and day, and the scum is carefully taken off as it '11 K M ■<■: e I 'i i. ' I i ■;!,! 566 DKSOEIFnVE AND STATISTICAL AOOOITNT. rises. Fresh sap is dded as required, and the heat is maintained until the liquid is reduced to a sirup, after which it is left to cool, and then strained to remove the remaining impurities. In boiling it for the last time, the kettles are only half filled, and by an active, steady heat, the sirup is rapidly reduced to the proper consistency for being poured into moulds. The molasses being drained off the moulds, the sugar comes out in hard, solid blocks. The larger the boiler, the more sugar is obtained ; and a copper vessel produces pugar of a fairer color than an iron vessel. The sugar is lightly colored in proportion to the care with which it is made, and the judgment with which the evaporation is conducted. When rsfined, it equals in beauty the finest sugar used in Europe. The sap continues to flow for six weeks, after which it becomes less abundant, less rich in saccharine matter, and sometimes even incapable of crystallization. In this state, it is consumed in the state of molasses, far superior to that from the West Indies, and bears the name of " maple honey." The amount of sugar manufactured in a year, varies from different causes. A cold and dry winter renders the trees more productive than a changeable and humid sea- son. When frosty nights are followed by dry and warm days, the sap flows abundantly, and from three to five gallons are then yielded by a single tree, in twenty-four hours. Three persons are found sufficient to attend two hundred and fifty trees. Each tree of ordinary size yields, in a good season, twenty to thirty gallons of sap, from which five or six pounds of sugar are made ; but the aver- age quantity, in ordinary seasons, is about four pounds to each tree. By the census retmn for 1851, it appears that the whole quantity of maple sugar made in New Brunswick in that year, was 350,957 pounds. There are two well-defined species of Elm in New Brunswick, known as the white elm and the red elm. DKBOBIPnVE AND BTATI8TI0AL ACCOUNT. 567 Both species are beautiful, and well adapted to make shady walks, as they do not destroy the grass ; and their leaves are acceptable to cows, horses, goats, sheep, and swine. The white elm stretches to a great height. In clearing the primitive forests a few stocks are sometimes left stand- ing ; and, isolated in this manner, the tree appears in all its majesty, towering to the height of eighty or one hundred feet, with a trunk of three or even four feet in diameter, regularly shaped, haked, and insensibly diminishing to the height of sixty or seventy feet, when it divides itself into two or three primary limbs. These diffuse on all sides long, flexible, pendulous branches, bending into regular arches and floating lightly in the air, and giving to the tree a broad and somewhat flat-topped summit, of regular proportions and admirable beauty. In autumn, the bright golden foliage of the elm mixes kindly with the various hues of the poplar and the maples, which display all shades of red, and from the deepest crim- son to the brightest orange. Its tint then contrasts favor- ably with the pale-yellow, sober foliage of the birch and beech, with the different shades of brown in the basswood and the ash, or with the buff-yellow of tue larch. At that season, even the gloomy blackness of the firs, by throwing forward the gayer tints, is not without its effect. Mr. McGregor, in his work on British America, speak- ing of the forests, says, — " It is impossible to exaggerate the beauty of these forests ; nothing under heaven can be compared to their effulgent grandeur. Two or three frosty nights in the decline of autumn, transform the boundless verdure of a whole empire into every possible tint of bril- liant scarlet, rich violet ; every shade of blue and brown, vivid crimson, and glittering yellow. The stern, inexora- ble fir tribes alone maintain their eternal sombre green ; all others, on mountains or in valleys, burst into the most glorious vegetable beauty, and exhibit the most splendid and most enchanting panorama on earth." *cn H I R «■ ill 5 1 I n < I ill , 1 I llllill •II i! ',:;|; !l|»|tl! (?68 DESOBIPnVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. The white elm delights in low, humid, substantial soils, such as are called in New Brunswick, " intervale lands," along the banks of rivers or streams, or on the borders of swamps, where the soil is deep and fertile. The rich " intervales," formed by alluvial deposits, are necessary to its perfection. The wood has less strength than the oak, and less elasticity than the ash, but it is tougher and less liable to split. It is said to bear the driving of bolts and nails better than any other timber. "When exposed to the alternations of dryness and moisture, it is liable to decay ; it must be either wet or dry in the extreme. Consequently it is proper for waterworks, mills, pumps, aqueducts, and ship planks beneath the water-line. When fully seasoned, the wood is highly esteemed for the carriages of cannon, and for the gunwales and blocks of ships. The red elm is less multiplied than the white, and the two species are rarely found together, as the red elm re- quires a substantial soil, free from moisture, and even delights in elevated and open situations. This tree is fifty or sixty feet high, and fifteen or twenty inches in diameter. The wood is less compact than that of the white elm, and of coarser grain ; but it is said to be stronger and more durable when exposed to the weather, and of better quality than the wood of the white elm. The herrdock spruce forms a large proportion of the evergreen forests of New Brunswick, and is abundantly multiplied in every favorable situation. It is always larger and taller than the black spruce, and frequently attains the height of seventy or eighty feet, with a diameter of two to three feet, and uniform for two-thirds of its length. The properties of this spruce are such as to give it only a secondary importance, notwithstanding its abundant diffu- sion: and it has heretofore been considered among the least valuable of the large resinous trees of New Bruns- wick. Yet it is well adapted for mining, for wharf-build- ing, or for use in situation^ where it is constantly wet. It gives a tight hold to nails, and iron driven into it will not ■".!• w DB8CEIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL AOCOtlNT. 569 corrode, in or out of water. Large quantities are shipped to Great Britain in the shape of lath-wood, from which split laths are made. The wood of the hemlock spruce is firmer than that of the white pine ; although coarser grained, it gives a better hold to nails, and offers more resistance to the impresbion of other bodies. As two-inch plank, it is frequently em- ployed for threshing-floors, and also for grain-bins, because, as it is alleged, rats will not gnaw the wood. As inch- boards, its most common use is for the first covering of the frames of houses, called " rough-boarding," which is afterward covered either with clap-boards, siding, or shingles of white pine. "When guarded from wet, the wood of the hemlock spruce is as durable as any other species of spruce, or even pine. The bark is extensively used in tanning. Only one species of the walnut is found in New Bruns- wick, which is well known by the name of butternut. It is abundant on the rich alluvial banks of the rivers, and in such situations frequently attains the height of eighty feet, and the circumference, at four feet from the ground, of six to eight feet. The fruit is commonly single, and suspended by a thin, pliable foot-stalk ; it is often two and a half inches in length, and five inches in circumference. The nuts are hard, oblong, rounded at the base, and terminated at the summit in an acute point. They are ripe in October, and in some seasons are so abundant, that one person may gather several bushels in a day. The kernels are very oily; these the Indians, in former times, pounded and boiled, and separating the oily substance which swam upon the surface, mixed it with their food — whence the name of " butternut." The wood of the " butternut" is light, of little strength, and of a reddish hue ; but it possesses the advantage of lasting long, of being able to resist the eflfects of heat and moisture, and of being secure from the ravages of worms. Very considerable quantities of furniture are now made iji M iili fiu il i 1 1" lili:| 578 THE FI6HEBIES. small herrings are taken in shallow bays and coves, in weirs, formed of stakes driven at regular intervals, arid interwoven with twigs, thus formmg what is called a '' brush weir." The fish enter these weirs at high water, and are taken out when the tide recedes and leaves them dry, or nearly so, at low water. These small herrings are salted and smoked, and when properly cured are very savory. They are packed in boxes of about twelve dozens each, and sold at a low price ; they enter largely into domestic consumption, and form an article of export of very considerable amount. The mackerel is a fish rather erratic in its habits, and therefore no great dependence can be placed upon this fish, 'y in the Bay of Fundy. Formerly, mackerel were very abundant near Grand ]i*!anan and Oampo Bello, where but few are now taken, although the quantitj has inerea«ed of late years. Those taken are generally of small size, and not at all equal to the mackerel of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, of which mention is mr/e hereafter. The Jialibut is a large flat fish, of the flounder family ; it is frequently caught when fishing for cod. This fish reaches the weight of 200 lbs., and sometimes much more. In summer it is taken in shallow water, often quite near the shore ; in winter it retires to deep water. The flesh, though white and firm, is dry, and the muscular fibre coarse, yet by many it is much esteemed ; the fins and flaps are delicacies, if the fish is in good condition. When a number of these fish aie taken at one time, the fisher- men salt the flesh lightly, and then dry and smoke it for winter use. The 3. irshad of the Bay of Fundy is one of the most delicious fish found in its waters. It is taken in long drift-nets, attached to a boat, and thus kept stretched across the tide, during the night only. Some are taken off the harbor of St. John, but the principal fishery is within Oumberland Basin, at the head of the bay. In the muddy waters of that basin they attain their highest es, in ), and lied a water, them gB are B very dozens ly into )ort of tfl, and an this 3I were , where ereaned lU size, f of St. family; lis fish more, e near flesh, fibre ins and When fisher- e it for le most in long retched e taken hery is ay. In highest THE FISHEBIES. 579 perfection, owing to the great abundance there of their favorite food, the shad-worm and the shrimp. The usual weight of this fish is from 2 lbs. to 4:lba., although it sometimes attains the weight of 6 lbs. For winter use the shad is split down the back, and pickled ; it must be care- fully cleaned and freed from blood or other impurities, otherwise, from its exceeding fatness, it is apt to spoil. Upwards of two hundred boats and five hundred men are employed in the shad fishery, every season, in Cumber- land Basin ; their annual catch is estimated at something more than 4,000 barrels, worth at least £5,000 sterling. Besides the sea-fish above described, there are others also taken, of less commercial value, which are usually eaten fresh. Among these are the silvc* hake, a fish resembling the whiting of Europe; the Conner, or sea- perch ; the torsk, or cusk, which is sometimes salted and dried ; several varieties of fiounder ; eels in great abund- ance and of good quality, occasionally pickle-salted for exportation; the tom-cod, a small variety of the cod family ; skate in abundance, and of large size, seldom eaten, not being suflBiciently appreciated ; and that delicious little fish, the smelt, which in spring is taken in immense quantities, at d in great perfection. Of shellrjish, there are lobsters in considerable numbers ; large and small clams ; a large flat shell-fish, known as the scallop ; the periwinkle ; and great abundance of shrimps, with which the market might be amply supplied, but for the scarcity of shrimp-fishers, who might here foUow their vocation most profitably. The islands of Grand Manan, Campo Bello, and "West Isles, own and employ in the fisheries sixty-eight vessels, manned by 558 men ; 350 boats, manned by 900 men ; besides 200 men employed in connection with the herring- weirs. The settlers along the shores of the Bay of Fundy all fish more or less in their own boats, chiefly for their own use. The value of their fishing cannot be stated with any degree of precision. 37 iX iW^ It ,&•? ■!('■!■ «lil 580 THE FISHERIES. The rivers which fall into the bay yield a variety of fish ; but the most valuable river fishing is in the harbor of St. John, at the mouth of the St. John River, which yields annually about 40,000 salmon, 12,000 to 16,000 barrels of alewives, and about 1,000 barrels of shad. The salmon are large and fine, precisely similar to the salmon of Europe. They are worth at St. John about six-pence sterling per pound, and are sent in ice, in large quantities, to the United States, yielding a considerable profit, and forming a valuable export. The aUwife is a small species of shad, generally known in New Brunswick by the name of gaspereau \ its length is from eight to ten inches, tol- erably good when eaten fresh, early in spring, but very dry when salted. It is exported in pickle to the Southern States, where it is eaten by the slaves ; in that hot climate, a fatter fish will not keep. Shad are taken in the river, on the way to their spawning grounds, which are some distance above tide-water. The river shad are much inferior to those taken in the bay, or in Cumberland Basin, and, when salted, are but little superior to the gaspereau. The fisheries in St. John harbor give employment to two hundred boats and five hundred men ; their value is estimated at £20,000 sterling annually. The Gulf of St. Lawrence. — The fisheries in this gulf are prosecuted only from April until the end of No- vember, the ice preventing their being followed during the rest of the year. The principal fishery is for cod ; it commences early in June, and continues until late in November. In the early part of the season, cod are taken very near the shores ; as the season advances, they draw ofi' into deep water. The best fishing grounds, or, rather, those most frequented, are from Point Escuminac to Miscou, and thence along the Bay of Chaleur to the Restigouche. The fishermen go out in boats, from one to fifteen miles from the land, in the morning, and when at the longer distance do not THE FISHEEIES. 581 The ented, along ermen land, 10 not return until the evening of the second day.. Their boats are large, but not decked ; they have two fore-and-aft sails and a jib. Each boat is managed by two men, and there is frequently with them a boy. The fishermen gen- erally build their own boats during winter : the keel is of birch ; the timbers of cedar ; and the planks of pine or cedar. The boat has oars, an anchor and rope, compass, and small oven for cooking ; the cost is about £18 for each boat and outfit. A boat will last from six to eight years, and so will the sails also, with care. It is considered a good day's fishing at Miscou, or Shippagan, for one of these boats to take ten quintals of fish, which they frequently do. When first caught, 112 of the small fish, and thirty of the large size, are reckoned to the quintal. The fishermen generally split, salt, and cure their own fish ; when they do not, 252 lbs. of green fish, salted and drained, are given to a curer, who returns a quintal, or 112 lbs. of merchantable dry fish. The Bay of Chaleur cod are more prized in the markets of the Mediterranean, and will at all times sell there more readily, and at higher prices than any other. They are beautifully white, and being very dry, can better with- stand the effects of a hot climate and long voyage than a more moist fish. The peculiarity of their being smaller than cod caught elsewhere, is also of great importance as regards the South American market, for which they are packed in tubs of a peculiar shape called " drums," and into which they are closely pressed by means of a power- ful screw. Hake are taken abundantly in the gulf, at night, and on muddy bottoms, as in the Bay of Fundy. But much more attention is given to their cure, and they are ex- ported under the name of " ling." The haddock abounds, but the pollock are not found in the gulf, probably from the absence of those rushing tides and foaming currents in which they so greatly delight. The torsk, or cusk, is more common than in the Bay of Fundy, and is dry-cured m m ■ W ' t' ii' i< h 683 THE FISHERIES. as a " scale-fish." Halibut are often taken. They are cut in slices and pickled in barrels, in which state they sell at half the price of the best herrings. Herrings are taken everywhere on the gulf coast of New Brunswick, around Miscou Island, and within the Bay of Chaleur. Immediately after the disappearance of the ice, at the end of April or early in May, vast quan- tities of herrings draw near the shores to deposit their spawn; the fishing continues unti. about the first of June, when, the spawning being coL.iladed, the fish retire to deep water. These "spring-herrings," as they are termed, being taken in the very act of spawning, are thin and poor ; of little value as an article of food, whether fresh or salted. Other herrings appear on the coast about the 20th August, and remain inshore for a month ; these are called " fall-herrings." They are fat, and in good con- dition, furbishing excellent food, and a valuable commod- ity for export. It is admitted that, when first caught, the "fall-herrings" are fully equal in every respect to the best Scotch herrings ; and if they were cured in the same manner, this fishery, from the increased price and de- mand, would become one of the most valuable fisheries of the gulf. Mackerel abound in the gulf, and are the chief object of pursuit with the numerous American fishing vessels which annually resort to its waters. This fishery commen- ces early in July, and continues until late in October. The mackerel taken in the early part of the season are gener- ally very poor; they improve in quality as the season advances. Those taken latest are by far the best, being large and fat, and in the finest condition. The mackerel fishery, as such, can scarcely be said to be followed by New Brunswick fishermen. They take small quantities only with hook and line, to serve as bait for cod ; and a few are taken in nets along the coast by settlers. This valuable and prolific, though somewhat uncertain fishery, has aa. yet been turned to very little account by the people I \ THE FISHERIES. 583 of New Brunswick ; but, if properly understood, may be prosecuted very extensively, and with much profit, for the mackerel of the gulf bear a very high price, and are in great demand in the United States. In the spring, the alewife or gasperau enters all the rivers which flow into the gulf, between Bale Verte and Shippagan, and many thousands of barrels are taken annually. The striped bass abounds all along the same coast; Avhile the quantities of smelts are perfectly pro- digious. The sea-eels are uncommonly large and fat, and many fjce salted for exportation. The cunner, or sea- pv^rch, is large and fine in the gulf. Shad are not plenti- ful, and t^ose taken are thin and of small size, greatly inferior to tho'so caught in the Bay of Fundy. The cape- lin is a small migratory fish from four to seven inches in length, not unlike the smelt. * It is a very delicate fish, and large shoals draw near the shores every season, at places which are favorable for the deposit of their spawn. Flounders are found everywhere in great abundance and variety, as also the tora-cod and the skate ; there are also other fishes of less vaiae, among them the dog-fish, the livers of which yield oU largely. Salmon of the finest description are taken in great numbers along the shores of the gulf, and in the estuaries of the rivers flowing into it. At the entrance of tho Mi- ramichi, more than 400,000 lbs. of fresh salmon have been put up in a single season, in tin cases hermetically sealed, for export to the United Kingdom. The shell-fish of the gulf consist of oysters, of excel- lent quality ; lobsters, in exceeding abundance ; large and small clams, in great quantities; crabs, periwinkles, shrimps, mussels, and razor-fish, are found everywhere, in profusion. RrvBB Fisheries. — The numerous rivers, lakes, and streams, which so bountifully water New Brunswick, are filled with fish of excellent quality, and in great va- riety. Besides those fishes which enter from the sea, in- () -'A iiil ItifijL 684 THE FISHEBIBS. eluding the salmon, the shad, the gasperoan, the striped bass, the smelt, the cilver-eel, the sea-trout, and the sturgeon, there are others which remain constantly in fresh water, and may be taken readily. The finest of the fresh-water fishes is the red or brook trout, which is found in nearly every lake and stream in New Brunswick, up to three pounds in weight, and some- times even larger, affording excellent sport to the angler, and most delicious food. In the cold waters of the large and deep lakes the great gray trout is caught, up to twelve pounds in weight, but these are not of so fine a fiavor as the brook trout. The striped bass passes much of its time in fresh water ; it is a good fish for the table, and is sometimes taken of the weight of twenty pounds and up- wards. After the fishes of the salmon family, it is un- questionably the most sporting fish in North America ; its flesh is firm, white, and well flavored. The small white bass, commonly called i;he " white perch," is an excellent flsh ; it abounds in the i^t. John and its tributaries, but is not found in the rivers flowing into the gulf. — The yellow perch, the roach, the dace, the gudgeon, the carp, the sucker, and the chub, are all found in the fresh waters of New Brunswick ; as also the white fish, commonly called the " gizzard fish," and spotted burbot, usually designated " fresh-water cusk," both good in their sef\son. Eels are found everywhere, scarcely any piece of water being with out them. Sturgeon of large size ascend several of the principal rivers for the purpose of spawning. They are sometimes caught, but their flesh, being coarse and strong, is rarely eaten, owing to the abundance of fishes of better quality. The following is a statement of the official value, in pounds sterling, of the fish exported from New Brunswick during six years, distinguishing the several countries to which the same were exported : — Btriped id the tly in brook am in some- angler, ) large np to I flavor . of its and is nd up- is un- ca; its L white cellent but is yellow •p, the ;er8 of called ^ated Is are 5 with incipal etimes rarely uality. lue, in iswick ies to ill I ■'W' WW m¥^ [•$'■■ ^ if : , 'i'^ ..V '■'■ m4 / / I liti'.'i / 'WMii i •''lis- ■'■'';'■ ':j|f •i p. n CO GEOLOGY OF THE PROVINOE. 585 To whfttcoiuitries. United Kingdom North American Colonies. "West Indies Other British Colonies. . . United States. Foreign States 1950. £ 1,835 11,051 1,911 65 8,400 4,067 1861. £ 2,613 16,507 489 1,761 14,281 3,320 1852. £ 6,185 9,792 1,778 1,274 22,934 4,096 1S6& £ 14,605 16,659 788 496 18,609 6,793 1864. £ 12,286 13,713 1,841 19,'6V6 8,830 186A. £ 8,553 12,224 782 990 19,929 4,715 Totals, 27,319 38,971 46,059 66,950 56,345 47,193 It is believed that this statement does not include the value of much of the fresh fish which is sent to the United States in ice, or of the larger quantities of fresh and half- cured fish which go from the fishing grounds in coasting and trading vessels, without being reported. GEOLOGY OF THE PROYTNCB. So large a proportion of New Brunswick is now covered with dense forest, and, as yet, has been so imperfectly ex- plored, that no very precise description of the geological formation of the country can be given. At present it can only be stated generally, that according to the information hitherto obtained, New Brunswick consists mainly of cer- tain rocks, which may be thus described : 1. The primary rocks of granite^ gneiss, and miaa alaUy which form a broad belt extending directly across the province, near its centre, in a north-easterly direction. This belt is a spur or branch of the great chain of Alle- ghany mountains. It enters the province from the United States above "Woodstock, embracing Mars Hill, near the Des Chutes river, and the range of hills known as the Tobique mountains, all of which, however, are less than 2,000 feet in height, except one, which rises to the height of 2,170 feet. At the western end, this belt of hilly coun- try is supposed to be forty miles wide ; it narrows gradually in its north-easterly course, and the hills decrease in height, until they finally disappear before reaching the Bay of Chaleur, near Bathurst. Another belt of similar rocks enters the province from n i -' ■ ■ f ft':.. II; !.: h4f ■ V- m IIP ! sS yHilSHM fi I J* 686 OKOLOOY OF THE PEOVINCB. the westward, at the Cheputnecticook Lakes and River St. Croix, and also pursiu^ '. north-easterly course to Bull Moose Hill, near the Bell: .; in King's county, soon after which it disappears on meeiing the coal measures. The Nerepis Hills are in this belt, which is narrower and less elevated than that to the northward. Both these belts of granitic rocks form anticlinal ridges, against which the stratified masses lean, or they border immense troughs containing the secondary and tertiary formations. The regions they occupy are generally stony, often rocky, and not susceptible of cultivation. In the less rocky portions excellent soils are frequently found when the loose stones are removed. The trap rocks, which inaXxx^Q felspar ^ hasaU^ porphyry ^ greenstone trap, and others of a volcanic character, are found largely in connection with these belts of primary rocks, into which they send numerous dikes, veins, and intruding masses. A tract of trap rocks, associated with granite and sienite, and frequently passing into the true granitic rock, extends from Chamcook, near St. Andrew's, to the eastern extremity of the county of St. John. This tract is on the average about ten miles in width, and about ten miles distant from the northern shore of the Bay of Fundy, with the north-easterly course of which it runs nearly parallel. These trap rocks occupy a large space in the counties of King's, St. John, and Charlotte ; the lofty columnar basalt, of the island of Grand Manan, is espe- cially rem arkable. They form in general a poor and rugged country, but do not necessarily indicate the presence of unfertile soils, because they contain a large percentage of lime. This chemical character eminently distinguishes the trap from the granitic rocks ; and the soils formed from each of these classes of rocks respectively, differ widely, and require entirely different modes of treatment. When- ever the trap rocks crumble, from the action of the weather or other causes, as frequently happens, they form reddish soils of much richness ; and when these soils are deep, ;i ■ ( ^ir GEOLOGY OP THE PROVINCE. 687 they may be profitably applied aa covering to other soils of an interior character. 2. The lower Silurian rocks, which form a broad belt south of the Tobique hills, running parallel with the north-easterly course of that range, and sweeping around the western end of the coal measures. The slates of this formation are composed of beds of clay that have been gradually consolidated, in which there is no lime. They form soils of medium and inferior quality, which require drainage and the free use of lime. 3. The upper Silurian rocks, which cover nearly the whole northern portion of Ne\/ Brunswick, from the To- bique hills to the northern boundary of the province, at the 4:8th parallel of North latitude, where this formation is met by the lofty mountain ridges of Gasp6. The coun- ties of Oarleton, Victoria, and Restigouch6, rest principally on this formation, which furnishes a large portion of the richest upland soil of New Brunswick. Among the upper Silurian rocks of this region are beds of valuable lime- stone, frequently abounding in characteristic fossils. The rocks themselves are generally slaty clays, more or less hard, containing lime in considerable quantity as an in- gredient, and crumbling down into soils of much richness, and sometimes of great tenacity. These soils are of a heavier character than those of the coal measures, and infinitely more fertile. The upper Silurian rocks are also found skirting the Bay of Fundy, forming a belt of unequal width, from the Saint Croix to Point Wolf, at the eastern extremity of St. John county. The southern part of Charlotte, and nearly the whole of St. John county, are in this formation. The rocks of this district have been heretofore classed as lower Silu- rian ; but the better opinion seems to be that they belong to the upper Silurian, and have been greatly changed by igneous action. This opinion is sustained by the presence of large beds of limestone, which especially distinguish this district; and by the presence of fossils in the slates 588 OKOLOOY OF TUE PBOVINOE. »£;■■■. k F! •' I IL •: which are less metamorphosed. They are not altogether incapable of yielding good soils ; but this portion of the province is, for the most part, covered with, soils of an inferior character. 4. The lower carhonifercym rocks, or red sandstone, which form a narrow belt everywhere between the Silurian rocks and those of the coal measures. They are also found extensively inWestraorland, Albert, King's, Queen's, Carle- ton, and Gloucester ; with small patches in St. John and Charlotte counties. In these sandstones, which are sit- uated beneath the coal measures, large deposits of gypsum are found, and salt springs often occur. This formation consists chiefly of red conglomerate, fine-grained red sand- stone, and beds of red clay. The" conglomerate does not produce so good a soil as the fine-grained red sandstone, which crumbles into red and sandy soils, light and easy to work, often fertile, and under proper management yielding good crops. The beds of red clay, often called red marl, are interstratified with beds of red sandstone, and crumble down into soils which vary from a fine red loam to a rich red clay. In the neighborhood of lime, these sandstones are themselves rich in lime; and when associated with gypsum, combine to form some of the most generally use- ful, and, when properly drained, some cf the most valuable upland soils in the province. 5. The carboniferous rocks, or coal measures, which cover a large proportion of the breadth of New Bruns- wick, consist chiefly of gray sandstones of various tints, but sometimes of a dark and greenish hue, and at others of a pale yellow color. The district occupied by these coal measures, extends along the whole gulf shore of this province, from the boundary of Nova Scotia, at Baie Verte, nearly to Bathurst on the Bay of Chaleur, without interruption. It constitutes a large part of the counties of Gloucester and Northumberland ; the whole of Kent ; the most considerable portions of Westmorland, Queen's, and Sunbury ; and extends also into Albert, King's, and OEOLOOT OF THE TEOVINOB. 589 York counties. This coal measnre district is distinguished by the general flatness of its surface, gently undulating, however, intersected by numerous rivers and several largo lakes, but consisting principally of table lands, more or less elevated, over which forests of mixed growth extend in every direction. The sandstones of this formation con- sist principally of silicious matter, cemented together by a small proportion of clay, chiefly decayed felspar; they crumble readily, form light soils, pale in color and easily worked, retaining little water, ploughed with facility early in spring and late in autumn, but needing much manure, and subject to being parched up in hot and dry summers. Some of these sandstones, however, contain greater pro- portions of clay, and form stiffer soils; others, that are green or gray internally, weather of a red color, and form reddish soils of good quality. It has been remarked, that the coal measures of New Brunswick contain a smaller variety of sandstones than those of England and Scotland, and are free from those thick beds of dark-colored shale which occur in the coal- measures of the United Kingdom. The soils there, lying above the richest coal-fields, are often miserably poor, and greatly inferior to those furnished by the carboniferous rocks of New Brunswick. 6. The tertiary deposits, which are found at numerous localities along the coast of the Bay of Fundy. These consist of beds of sand, marly clay, and marl, forming low and nearly level tracts, exposed to the sea, and frequently extending some distance from the shores. In the marl and marly clay of this formation, the remains of marine animals and plants are found in profusion. In the coun- ties of Gloucester and Restigouche, on the coast of the Bay Chaleur, these are similar to animals and plants which still exist in the province, and the marls of that district may therefore be referred to the jpliooene period of the upper tertiary formation. There are two kinds of aUvmum in the province, the 1"" ^' , L».-._. _ Jl 690 MINXB, MINEBALS, Aim QT7ABBIES. fresh-water and the marine, both exceedingly fertile. The first of these, composed of the particles of rocks detached by the frost, heat, and moisture, which cause rapid disin- tegration, are carried downward by the rains, and trans- ported by the floods in early spring along the valleys and river sides, where, being deposited, they form the fertile intervales that border nearly every river in Kew Bruns- wick. The marine alluvia are carried inwards by the rapid tides of the Bay of Fundy, and spread along its estuaries, where, in the course of time, they become grass- bearing marshes, and being rescued from the sea by embankments, finally produce clover and wheat. These " diked marshes," as they are termed, possess extraordinary and enduring fertility, and exist extensively in the coun- ties of Westmorland and Albert, near the head of the Bay of Fundy, where the tides rise to the height of fifty feet and upwards. For information under this head the writer is indebted to the labors of Dr. Gesner, Dr. Kobb, Professor Johnston, and Mr. Logan of Canada, in addition to his own observa- tions in every part of New Brunswick. MINES, MINERALS A>;D QUARRIES. As the geological character of New Brunswick can as yet be but imperfectly described, its minerals, at the pres- ent, are therefore only partially known. The principal mineral substances hitherto found in the province are as follows : — 1. Bituminous coal, of good quality, found in numerous localities in the coal measures of the province, of the fat and caking description, like the Newcastle coal of England. No seam of this coal thicker than ,>wenty-one inches has yet been discovered. The principal workings are in the vicinity of Grand Lake, Queen's county, and the seam is found, on the average, at about twenty feet below the surface. In 1851, nine hundred and forty tons were raiecd. 2. A highly bituminous mineral, foimd near the Petico- MINES, MINEBALS, AND QUASBIES. 691 diac river, in Albert county. A scientific dispute has arisen as to the precise character of this mineral, which one party designates aaphalte^ and the other pitch coal; hence it has been proposed to establish it as a new mineral, under the name of aJhertite. It is valuable for making the best illuminating gas, and also for the manufacture of various liquid hydro-carbons and illuminating and lubri- cating oils, which are distilled from it. The seam at pres- ent worked is vertical, and on the average about six feet wide. The deposit is supposed to be extensive. In 1851, fifteen hundred tons were raised. 3. Iron ores, of various descriptions and qualities, are found in almost every section of New Brunswick. An inexhaustible bed of JiemcUite has been found at Wood- stock, near the river St. John ; extensive iron- works h?ive been constructed there, and in 1851, eight hundred and ten tons were smelted. No other iron-works have yet been established in the province, although rich ores exist abundantly, especially in King's and Queen's counties. 4. Various ores of manganese have been found in con- nection with the iron ore of "Woodstock. Gray oxide of manganese, highly crystallized and of fine quality, has been worked to some extent on the Tattagouche river, near Bathurst, and thence shipped to England. Black oxide of manganese has been found near Quaco, and of this considerable quantities have, at different periods, been shipped to tLj United States. 5. Plumbago {graphite) exists in one of the largest beds known in America, at the falls near the city of St. John. It approaches in some degree to a metamorphosed coal, but is still sufficiently pure for the manufacture of lustre, and preparation of moulds for iron castings. It has been worked to some extent; in 1853, eighty-nine thousand nine hundred and thirty-six pounds were exported. 6. Ores of lead {galena) have been found on the island of Oampo Bello ; also at Norton, in King's county, and lately on tlie banks of the river Tobique, of very good 11 ''.<: i ik ^•/: i s :. n i'.^ Is- h I ,01 i4 1^ It. k^:\ ;i. f H, ^1 ^ ^t^ !.«»! ■I 592 MINES, MINERALS, AND QUABBIES. quality. The extent of the deposit, at the several places mentioned, has not yet been ascertained. 7. Gray sulphuret of copper has been found in small quantities on the shores of the Bay of Fundy, in Charlotte county. It has also been found on the left bar k of the river Nepisiguit, near Bathrrst, and a company was formed some years since to work the deposit ; but the irregular distribution of the mineral rendered their opera- tions uncertain, and the mine has been abandoned. 8. Granite, of the best description, is found on the right bank of the Saint John, above the Long Keach, in King's county. Quarries were opened there some years since, and many public and private buildiT>jj5 in the city of St. John are built wholly, or in part, of the granite quarried there. Although it exists largely in other portions of the province, no other quarries have yet been worked. 9. Gypsum exists in abundance at Hillsborough, about four miles from the Peticodiac river, to which it is trans- ported on a tramway, and thence shipped in large quanti- ties to the United States. It is also found extensively at Martin's Head, in St. John county ; at Sussex Vale, in King's county ; and near the river Tobique, in Victoria county. There is also a deposit near Cape Meranguin, in Westmorland. A snow-white gypsum, compact, translu- cent, and approaching the finest alabaster, is likewise found at Hillsborough, in considerable quantity. It works readily in the lathe, and makes beautiful ornaments. The quantity of gypsum quarried in 1851 was 5,4 65 tons. In 1853, no less than 15,712 tons were exported. 10. Limestones are found in various districts, but are principally burned for quick-lime, in large quantities, near the city of St. John, at L'Etang, in Charlotte county, and at Petit Rocher, on the Bay of Chaleur. Kilns exist at other places, where quick-lime is burnt on a small scale, for local consumption. Hydraulic limestones have been noticed in many localities. The old mountain limestone, abounding with fossils, is found near the Ocnabog lake, MINES, MINEBAL8, AND QUABBIES. 693 In Queen's county, in its usual position with reference to the coal measures ; the whole thickness of the band does not, however, exceed one thousand feet. Magnesian limestone has been noticed near the coal mines at Salmon river, in Queen's county. In 1851, the quantity of lime burned was 35,599 casks, of five bushels each. 11. Marbles of very fair quality are worked in the vicinity of St. John, and are also found near Musquash, on the shores of the Bay of Fundy, as well as on the coast of the Bay of Chalenr. 12. Superior dark-red sandstones, as also gray and other sandstones, are quarried at Mary's Point and Grind- stone Island, in Albert county, and thence exported to some extent. These sandstones are found in large blocks, and are prized for building purposes. Excellent blue flagstones are likewise found at Grindstone Island. Good sandstones for buildings are found on the banks of the Miramichi, as well as in numerous other parts of the coal measures. 13. Grindston'js are manufactured to a very consider- able extent in the counties of Albert and Westmorland, as also at Miramichi, and on the coast of the Bay of Chaleur, at New Bandon and Caraquet. They form an export of much value. There were 68,949 grindstones made in 1851. 14. Fine oil-stone {novaoulite), equal to Turkish, is found at Cameron's Cove, near the northern head of Grand Manan, whence American citizens carry it off in quantities. Excellent blue whetstone has been worked to some extent near the Sevogle, a tributary to the North- West Miramichi. Fine stone of the like description is also procured from the banks of the Moose Horn brook, in King's county. 16. Double refracting or Iceland spar, of -the best de- scription for optical purposes, is found at Belledune, in the county of Restigouche. - IB. Eoofing slate {argillaceaua slate) of good quality is found on the banks of the Tattagouche, near Bathurst, n III! k J' I Ei J. n "■rM i, ii:' ,>..(■ m 1^- if 594 imES, MINEBALS, AND QUABBIES. and the roof of the court-house at that place is covered with it. Similar slate has been observed at the narrows of the Tobique river, and on the left bank of the St. John, about three miles above Green river, in Madawaska. 17. Iron pyrites, or si^huret of iron, abounds in New Brunswick, and may be used in the manufacture of cop- peras when it occurs in veins. "Where dikes of trap-rock have been injected into slate, the latter is often found charged with pyrites ; and this pyritiferovs slate is an article of much economical value, as, by a very simple process, it may be made to produce both copperas and alum. 18. Bituminous shale, a variety of argillaceous slate, is found in abundance on the banks of the Memramcook river, near Dorchester, in Westmorland — and throughout a large district in that vicinity. This shale is highly charged with bitumen ; and from it naphtha is distilled, as also a new liquid hydro-carbon which has been designat- ed kerosene. Atmospheric air, after being passed through this liquid, becomes a powerful illuminating gas. A min- eral oil is also obtained by distillation from this shale, and from it parafine is made, a valuable substance for lu- bricating machinery. Liquid bitumen, or naphtha in its natural state, is f6ui\d in small quantities flowing from this shale, in several places. 19. Plastic clay, f QVABBIES. 595 21. Sulphate of barytes has been found north of Fort Howe, near the city of St. John, and is said to exist in other localities. 22. Felspar, in large crystals, has been frequently seen in those granitic rocks which intersect gneiss. When pure, this mineral is admirably adapted for the manufac- ture of fine porcelain. 23. Milk-white quartz, in veins and beds more or less extensive, occurs in numerous localities. This substance may be profitably employed in the manufacture of flint glass. Quartz crystals, both limpid and smoky, are found in many places. The finest pure crystals have been procured near the Musquash river, in the county of St. John. 24. Ochres and the ochreous earths are found, in beds of considerable thickness, in the sandstones of the coal measures. From some of the ochres, of a ferruginous character, fire-proof paints have been manufactured, at the Scadouc river, near Shediac, in "Westmorland. 25. Chlorite, the famous pipe-stone of the Indians, called by Cem Tomaganops, is procured at Grand Manan, and also at thi Tomaganops brook, a tributary of the North- West Miramichi, in Northumberland. When first procured from its native bed it is of a dark-green color, compact, soft, and easily worked ; by the moderate action of fire, it becomes very black and (juite hard. 26. Jade {nephrite)^ a stone remarkable for its hard- ness and tenacity, of a light-green color, and of an oily appearance when polished, is found in the province, in localities known to the Indians. Some of them possess ancient scalping-knives and other weapons of jade, neatly polished, and bearing a fine cutting edge. 27. Jasper is found along the shores of the Bay of Oha- leur, and other localities in the northern part of the prov- ince. The ancient arrow-heads, spear-heads, and other Indian implements of stone, for use in war or the chase, were chiefly formed of native blood-red jasper, exceeding- 38 II f' I iiii! ;t :■ ■ :ic ■M^nrf' ,! *^''i f u im m^:> B ''^' '■ 1 '. .•£ £ H -'^ ' i .;'■,' 19 ' ^~ N ■: n '' 1 _ 1 Vt . '■ 'i ^^■' f K ji: ! 1 1 |P_ n i ;ii;« 'V^, i « 596 MINES, MINERALS, AND QUASRIES. ly fine and hard, oftentimes emulating the appearance of the semipellucid gems. 28. Hornstone, or chertj is frequently found in the primary rocks, and has been especially noticed at Grand Manan and the Gannet Eock. It has been seen of various colors, and somewhat translucent. The Indians formerly used chert for the heads of their spears and arrows, al- though these were sometimes formed of white quartz. 29. Soapstone (steatite) is found in the northern part of the province by the Indians. Cooking pots, and other utensils of soapstone, are often found near their ancient camping-grounds. 30. Salt-springs, affording a copious supply of water, exist at Sussex Vale, from which salt has been manufac- tured for many years, by evaporation in boiling. This salt is peculiarly fine, and is supposed to improve the flavor of the excellent butter made in that valley. Salt- springs are also found along a small tributary of the Ham- mond river, in King's county, and near the river Tobique, in Victoria. The origin of these springs is yet an unsettled question ; and whether they arise from some unknown chemical action in the bowels of the earth, or are produced by the solution of beds of rock-salt, remains to be determined. 31. Sulphureous and ferruginous springs, and those emitting carburetted hydrogen, are found in numerous localities, in the coal measures and slates of the province ; but as none of their waters have yet been analyzed, no precise description can be given of their several qualities. Very many of the various minerals above described have been observed by the writer, in the localities men- tioned ; and there is reason to believe that others will be found as the country becomes cleared and more minutely explored. In addition to the minerals already mentioned. Dr. Qea- ner states, that Talc and Talcose Slate, Mica Slate, Thompsonite, Stilbite, Apophyllite, Tourmaline, Serpen- .i^ 8HIP-BD1LDINO. 697 tine, Iserine, Asbestos, Amethysts, Agates, and Garnets, exist in New Brunswick, but he does not indicate their several localities. SHIP-BUILDING. The advantages of New Brunswick for ship-building were apparent to its earliest settlers. Jonathan Leavitt, one of the first settlers in the harbor of St. John, built a small schooner there before 1770. This vessel was named the " Monneguash," that being the Indian name of the rocky peninsula on which the eastern part of the city of St. John now stands. In 1773, a large schooner was built at Miramichi, and named the " Miramichi," by William Davidson, the first British pettier on that river. From these two schooners the province dates its ship-building, which may be said to have grown up with it, gradually increasing until it has attained its present extent and value. The forests of New Brunswick supply timber of large size, in any quantity , for building ships of the first class. Such ships are principally built of black birch and larch, or hackmatack. The black birch is used for the keel, floor timbers, and lower planking ; larch or hackmatack for all the other timbers, knees, and upper planking. American live and white oak are imported for the stems and posts of su- perior ships, and pitch pine for beams. White pine is used for the cabins and interior finishing, and for masts. The black spruce furnishes as fine yards and topmasts as any in the world. Elm, beech, maple, cedar, and spruce, are used in the construction of ships of the second class, and for small vessels. Ship-building is prosecuted more extensively than else where at the ports of St. John and Miramichi, where it first commenced. VesseU. are also built at St. Andrew's ; at various coves and harbors on the Bay of Fundy, es- pecially at Teignmouth and Quaco ; along the banks of the river St. John, for ninety miles from the sea, on the Kennebeckacis, one of its tributaries, and at the Grand Lake. Latterly, ship-building has been prosecuted to a li! iii, .■:!! i^l! ^n ■ ^*4^^ Mi' *^' "11 598 SHIP-BUILDING. considerable extent on the banks of the Peticodiac river, and at Sackville, in Cumberland Basin. "Within the Gulf of St. Lawrence, vessels have been chiefly built hith- erto at Shemogue, Cocagne, Buctouehe, Kichibucto, Kou chibouguac, Miramichi, and Shippagan ; at Bathurst and at Dalhousie, within the Bay of Chaleur j and at Cambelton on the Re8tigouch6. One of Lloyd's surveyors now resides in New Bruns- wirl and all large vessels are subjected to his strict and ••' j-efal supervision while in course of construction. Ships lilt ader his inspection are classed before they go to iL> \. ; aL'^ uch ships ht ve justly attained a high character. The "Mai'oo Polo," renowned for her sailing qualities, was built in the harbor of St. John, and has been followed by a fleet of other ships, equally famous for their strength, speed, and durability. The following is a return of the new veiisels registered in the province of New Brunswick, and their tonnage, in each yeai* from the year 1825 to the year 1860, both years inclusive, including vessels built for owners in the United Kingdom, and sent home under certificate or governor's pass. Tear. No. of vessels. Tons. 1825 120 28,893 1826 130 31,620 1827. 1828. 1829, 1830. 1831. 99 21,806 11 15,656 64 8,450 52 9,242 61 8,571 1832 70 14,081 1833. 1834. 1835. 1836. 1837. 1838. 1839. 1840. 1841. 1842. 97 17,837 . 92 24,140 . 97 26,796 .100 29,643 . 99 27,288 .122 29,167 .164 45,864 .168 64,104 .119 47,140 . 87 22,840 Tear. 1843. 1844. 1845. 1846. 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1864. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1868. 1859. 1860. No. of vessels. Tons. 64 14,550 87 24,543 92 28,972 124 40,383 115 53,373 86 22,793 119 39,280 86 30,356 99 49,695 118 58,399 122 71,428 135 99,426 95 54,561 129 79,907 148 71,989 75 26,263 93 38,330 100 41,003 The vessels built in 1853, it will be observed, were of ,4' :1 'Ik i 'Ji\ ir r- 'J!' Li I I /i; IjffiE^ ■ [is:-, 1 !~ i^t ^ f' Ls!r M-.-J 'a'.,? J,"t V- I) i ICLLS AND MANUFAOTOBIES. 699 large size, averaging no less than 585 tons each. The proportions in which thoy were built in different parts of the province, in 1854, may be judged by the following statement from the ports of registry : — St. John, 94 vessels, 56;452. tons; Miraraichi, 21 vessels, 13,205 tons; St. Andrews, 7 vessels, 1,771 tons. The vessels registered at Miramichi include all those built in the gulf; and those registered at St. Andrews include all that were built in Charlotte county. At an average of eight pounds sterling per ton, the vessels built in 1854 were worth £795,408 sterling. As fully half the cost of each ship is expended in labor, the value of employment afforded by ship-building in New Brunswick -may be readily estimated. The amount of daily labor in and about the hull and spars of a ship, is, on the average, ten days for each registered ton. The shipping belonging to the province of New Bruns- wick on the 31st December of each year, from 1854 to 1860, respectively, is shown in the following table : Saint John. MiramlchL Saint Andrews. • - TotaL Tear. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. 1854. ...582 119,695. ...103 10,063. ...193 11,696.. ..878 141,464 '1855. ...566 110,451. ...106 15,269. ...195 12,572.. ..866 138,292 1856. ...585 135,713. ...110 16,051. ...197 12,462. . ..892 164,226 1857. ...543 133,669. ...126 18,363. ...188 8,476. . ..867 160,508 1858. ...497 114,457. ...119 14,925. ...196 9,713. ..812 139,096 1859. . . .489 112,420. ...126 13,556. ...196 8,079.. ..811 134,056 1860. ...492 123,425. ...132 14,910. ...201 8,748.. ..826 147,083 MILLS AND MANUFACTORIES. The number of saw-mills has increased very much in New Brunswick of late years; and recently they have been greatly improved in their construction and machinery. Water power is still used very extensively ; but the number of mills worked by steam is becoming large, especially at and near the various sea-ports. In 1833, the number of saw-mills in the province was estimated at two hundred and thirty ; by the census of 1851, it appears that the number of saw-mills had then increased to five hundred ! ( II i|-— -5l (: \% 1! N.I-:-- 600 INTERNAL CXJMMUNIOATION. and eighty-four — giving employment to 4,302 men. Many Baw-mills on a large scale have since been erected. By the census of 1851, it also appears that there were then in the province, 261 grist-mills, employing 366 men ; 125 tanneries, employing 255 men ; 11 foundries, employ- ing 242 men ; 52 carding and weaving establishments, employing 96 persons : and that there were also 5,475 hand-looms, at which 622,237 yards of cloth were made in a year ; this was chiefly coarse woollen, for farmers' use. There were eight breweries, manufacturing annually 100,975 gallons of malt liquor ; and 94 other manufactur- ing establishments, giving employment to 953 persons. The value of various articles manufactured in the prov- ince in 1851, is thus stated : — boots and shoes, £89,367 ; leather, £45,162 ; candles, £19,860 ; wooden ware (not cabinet-work), £20,505 ; chairs and cabinet-ware, £13,472 ; soap, £18,562 ; hats, £6,360 ; iron castings, £20,205. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION. The rivers of New Brunswick and their tributaries are so large, and afford such facilities for reaching the interior of the country, that for a long period after its first settle- ment the construction of roads was greatly neglected. The principal river is the St. John, which is 450 miles in length. It is navigable for vessels of 100 tons, and steamers of large class, for eighty-four miles from the sea, up to Fredericton, the seat of government. Above Fred- ericton, small steamers ply to Woodstock, about seventy miles farther up the river ; when the water is high, they make occasional trips to the Tobiqne, a further distance of fifty miles ; and sometimes they reach the Grand Falls, which are about two hundred and twenty miles from the sea. Above these falls the river has been navigated by a steamer about forty miles, to the mouth of the Madawaska; beyond that point the St. John is navigable for boats and canoes almost to its source. The Madawaska river is also navigable for small steamers thirty miles, up to Lake INTERNAL OOMMITNICATION. 601 Temiscouata, a sheet of water twenty-seven miles long, from two to six miles in width, and of great depth. From the upper end of this lake to the river St. Law- rence, at Trois Pistoles, the distance is about eighteen miles only. Another large sheet of water in connection with the St. John, is the Grand Lake, the entrance to which is about fifty miles from the sea. This lake is about twenty-nine miles long, and from two to seven miles in width. The Salmon river enters the Grand Lake near its head, and is navigable for small vessels and steamers for sixteen miles. The Maquapit and French Lakes are connected with the Grand Lake by a deep, narrow channel, through which small vessels can pass. The Washademoak Lake is about twenty miles long, and, on the average, three-quarters of a mile in width. The stream from it enters the St. John about forty miles from the sea. This lake is navigable for steamers to the mouth of the New Canaan river, which flows in at its head. The Kennebecasis river, a lai^e tributary of the St. John, is eighty miles long ; it is navigable for steamers twenty-five miles from its mouth to Hampton, where ves- sels of 500 tons have been built. The Oromocto is another large tributary flowing from two large lakes, navigable for vessels drawing eight feet of water for twenty miles from its mouth. It enters the St. John from the westward, seventy-two miles from the sea ; within its mouth vessels of 1,200 tons are built. The Nashwaak, the Keswick, the Mactaquack, and the Nackawic are all considerable streams, entering the St. John from the eastward. The Tobique is a large river, eighty miles in length, with its tributaries watering a large tract of country east of the St. John There are many other tributaries of the St. John both from the eastward and the westward, among which tho Aroostook is the most considerable. The Peticodiac is a large river flowing into Cumber' . * I' i' jilii ^AWWrx m 'i mil !5- It. ;. 602 crrERNAL ooManjmoATioN. f*'! land Basin, near the head of the Bay of Fnndy. It is navigable twenty-five miles for vessels of the largest size ; and for schooners of sixty or eighty tons burden for twelve miles further, to the head of the tide. The whole length of this river is about one hundred miles ; above the head tide-water it is navigable for boats and canoes fully filly miles. The Richibuct6 is a considerable river flowing into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is navigable for small vessels for fifteen miles above the harbor at its mouth ; the tide flows up it twenty-five miles. The Miramichi is a large river, navigable for vessels of 800 tons for twenty-five miles f»*om the gulf, and for schooners twenty miles further, to tae head of the tide, above which for sixty miles it is navigable for tow-boats. This river has many large tributaries spreading over a great extent of country. The Restigouch^, at the north-eastern extremity of the province, is a noble river, three miles wide at its entrance into the Bay of Ohaleur, and navigable for large vessels for eighteen miles from the bay. The principal stream of the Restigouch^, is over two hundred miles in length. Its Indian name signifies " the river which divides like the hand," — in allusion to its separation, above the tide, into five large streams. The main river, and its large tribu' taries, widely spread, are supposed to drain at least 4,000 square miles of territory, abounding in timber and other valuable natural resources. The Bay of Chaleur, into which the Restigouch6 flows, may be described as one immense haven, with nmny excel- lent harbors. Its length is ninety miles, and it varies in breadth from, fifteen to thirty miles ; yet in all this great extent of length and breadth, there is neither rock, reef, nor ohoal, nor any impediment to navigation. On the southern or New Brunswick side of this bay the shores are low, the •;7^ater deepening gradually from them. On the northern or Canadian side, the shores are bold and INTEBNAL OOMMUNIOATION. 603 preoipitouB, rising into eminences which may almost be called mountains. Besides the rivers mentioned, there are very many others, of such size as would entitle them elsewhere to be deemed very considerable. An inspection of the map of New Brunswick will show how admirably the country is watered throughout, no portion of it being without run- ning streams, "from the smallest brook up to the navi- gable river," by which the country can everywhere be penetrated, as mentioned by the railway commissioners. Great Roads have been made through those lines of country most thickly settled. The principal of those is the line of great road from the harbor of St. John, up the valley of the St. John river to Canada. The next is the line 01 jreat road, from the United States frontier, at Ca- lais, across the province, eastwardly, to the city of St. John ; thence eastwardly, along the valleys of the Ken- nebecasis and Feticodiac, to the bend of the latter river. At that point, a branch diverges southerly to the bound- ary of Nova Scotia ; the main line pursues its course to Shediao, and thence northerly, along the Gulf Shore of the province, to the Canadian boundary at the Restigouch^. There are also groat roads that connect Fredericton with the ports of St. Andrew's and Miramichi ; with other great roads of les& extent connecting several important points. The by-roads in each county are numerous, penetrating into every settlement ; these are being oxtended continually, as settlers push their way into the wilderness. About £30,000 sterling is appropriated annually from the pro- vincial revenue, for the construction and improvement of roade and bridges. A wire suspension bridge has recently been thrown over the river St. Johii, situated near the city of St, John, where a toll is levied ; with that single exception, all the roads and bridges in the province are free. There are numerous waterfalls on the rivers and streams of the province ; very few are without, and some have r, i i ^mmr^'M 'I'i', 1 ■■ i fU 604 SAILWATB. falls of great height and large volnme. The amount of water power in New Brunswick is exceedingly large, and almost beyond calcrlation. Few countries of its size pos- sess such facilities for obtaining power to an unlimited extent from running water. RAILWAYS. The province was early in the field of railway enterprise. It was only in the year 1825 that the Darlington railroad was opened to supply London witli coal. The cars moved by steam at the rate of seven miles per hour, which was considered a marvel then. Inl827, three miles of railway were completed in the state of Massachusetts. In 1828, twelve miles of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad were completed. In 1830, the Liverpool and Manchester railroad, thirty-one miles in lengtli, was opened. It was the opening and successful work- ing of this important line that gave the first grand impulse to railway enterprise. In 1844, only fourteen years after this great era in the means of travel and transit, the St. Andrew^H and Woodstock railroad in New Brunswick was commenced. The length of the line to "Woodstock, is about ninety miles. Its progress has been slow, parti j' owing to the depression which occurred in the timber trade shortly after its commencement^ partly owing to in- efficient management, and partly owing to the fact that the provincial energies were directed to the construction of other iuiportant Hues of railway. In 1855, twenty-five miles of this road were completed. The company have a grant of one hundred (liouflaud acroH of land from the provincial goveriniient, ten thoufeand :.cie8 of which they have made over to the contractors at $5 per acre, in part payment for their contract. Iliis road is just announced as being opened all the way to "Woodstock station this month (June, 1862). Its cost per mile has been something near $16,000. It was originally intended to extend it to- ward Quebec, so as to tap the g^-^^t "Hanadian lines. In all probability if will be extended in the course of a few ELSOTRIO TELEOBAPH LINES. 605 years so as to tap the Intercolonial Line which is to be constructed forthyrith. The line of railway between the city of St. John's on the Bay of Fundy and Shediac, a town on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, is the chief line in this province. It has been in successful operation for over two years. This road is on© hundred and eight miles in length. The whole line with its full complements of stations, sidings, and rolling stock, has cost the prbvince, up to Kovember Ist, 1861, the sum of $4,546,564.59, or $42,116.34 per mile, equal to £8,774 4«. ^d. sterling per mile. The road is of superior quality, well-built, well-drained, well-ballasted, with wider cuttings and embankments than the Nova Scotia and Canadian lines, and therefore not costing so much for yearly upholdence and improvements. The capital canount of the above cost has been expended as follows : Engineering lusooiint $214,686.16 Permanent w&y 8,704,785.49 BuildingB 192,281.94 Boiling stock and machinery^ 858,210.20 Miscellaneous stock 16,871.21 General eipenses. 68,424.60 $4,548,664.69 Other expenditures not included ia the above 134,235.89 Grand Total $4,682,800.48 The total revenue of this line for the last year was $130,678.16, being an increase on that of the previous year of $14,452.75. This line has ah-eady been highly boueticial to New Brunswick and to the city of St. John's. It has attracted the ti-ade and travel of Prince Edw&rd Island toward that city. KLEOraiO TELEGEAPH LINES. The first line of telegraph coKiraunication was built in New Brunswick iiu t3ie year 1848. There is, at present, mi il kM 606 tOMMEBOB AND NAYIOATIOn, seven hundred miles of telegraph-Uiie in th, j>iovi£.oe of New Brunswick, being eight himdud 'mdUnt \b&& t^an that contained in Nova Scotia. The number of offices are twenty-four ; telegraphists, twenty-nine. Number of other euiploy^s, ten. The most important lines, viz. : the line from Sackville to Calais, and from St. John's to Woodstock, via. T'reder- icton, are let to the American Telegraph Coin^^any on terms similar to that on which the^Nova Scotia lines are let. The rates of tolls are very nearly the same as in Nova Scotia, making allowance for the difference in the currency of the two provinces. COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION. The extent and value of the commerce and navigation of the province, will be best si' own by the following sta- tistical tables, carefully compiled from ofiicial returns. The first is a statement of the numbers av/I tonnage of vessels, owned and registered in the province, on the Sist day of December, in each of the years iiisnticned :— ToAT. Nnmber. Tonn 1848 763....113,P25 1849 776.... 117,475 1860 807 121,996 1861 796..,. 118,288 Tear. IS'winbeK 1862 78?, , . 1853 «27 .. 1854.... 682... 1856 6G6... Tou. .103,641 .114,688 119,695 .110,451 Estimating tho • iation of the province in 1856, at 200,000 souls, the ]. >pv>rtion of tonnage to population will be eleven-twentieths of a ton for each man, woman, and child in the country — an unusually large proportion in any community. The following is a statement of the number of ships and vessels, and their tonnage, which entered inwards at ths several ports of New Brunswick, from all parts of the world, during five years,— distinguishing the various countries from which they arrived : — "'^- ''^'Mf^'-m^ Bof that are tiier irille der- on art) ^ in the tion sta- © of 3l8t , at will and any and the the iouB OOMMEROR AND NAVIGATION. 607 s^ lijni Unit d KtogTloin. Fivm 3rlttih colonies. From United btotos. SUU». TouO. Ho. 326 233 273 219 248 208 126 Ton*. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. 51 68 67 49 78 109 42 Tons. No. C,893 3,039 3,058 3,314 3,556 3,700 3,442 Tons. 1349 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 140,024 95,393 113,005 86,203 98.592 90,944 '1,417 1,213 1,281 1,275 1,536 1,863 1,741 i,ei6 81,050 81,424 87,905 99,642 110,414 117,912 101,704 1,304 1,45? 1,453 1,511 1,767 1,642 1,659 182,007 242,104 274,694 344,187 405,345 391,930 407,126 13,106 17,701 12,920 9,254 12,225 24,481 10,520 416,H7 436,622 489,150 53!),:i36 027,276 025,207 590,767 The next table contains a statement of the number of e'aipij and vessels, and their tonnage, cleared outwards during five years, distinguishing the countries to which they sailed. The increase in the number of vessels inwards and out- wards, during the years stated, has been equal to the in- crease in in: ports and exports, and shows the steady ad- vance in trade and navigation. if To United Kingdom. To British colonbc To Unltwi States. To foreign states. ToUd, No. Tons. No. Tons. No. 928 937 950 999 1,191 1,064 1,219 Tons. No. 25 25 34 41 44 05 61 Tons. No. 2,891 2,971 2,981 3,298 .3,92'» 3,746 3,381 Tons. 1849 1860 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 760 768 815 793 902 936 523 300,906 203,617 .347,757 363,01:1 413,7!"; 436,007 324,908 1.172 1,241 1,182 1,485 1,784 1,680 1,678 68,097 70,165 73,280 86,652 102,216 97,130 95,256 84,742 87,925 111,772 135,580 158,523 156,986 233,076 3,769 3,286 5,717 6,227 6,763 11,764 10,742 457,414 464,98^ 538,628 581, i72 '•Jl,47(? 0,896 The following table shows the value in sterling, of the imports and exports of the province of New Bri: wick frcm and to the United States, and from and to J; countries, during the last thirty-three years, or Lciiveei!. the years 1828 and 1860, both years inclusive. From Uid to the United States, FVotn snd to til conntrlei. Imports. Exports. Imports. Export*. 1828 £l23,062 £18,034 £643,581 £4h7,.-.56 1829 133,970 26,969 638,076 614,255 1830 146,767 30,372 693,661 670,307 1831 77,470 18,017 603.870 427,318 1832.... 123,102 30,798 704,059 541,800 i I ■ {l< M i fli ht' '■ 608 OOMMEBOB Ain> NAYIOATIOZr. From 1833. . 1834. . 183a. . 1836.. 1837.. 1838.. 1839.. 1840. . 1841.. 1842.. 1843.. 1844.. 1846. . 1846. . 1847.. 1848. . 1849.. 1850.. 1851.. 1852.. 1853 . 1854. . 1856.. 1856. . 1857.. 1858.. 1859.. 1860. . and to the United BUUk Imports Exports. .. 136,432 29,.162. .. 109,606 20,411. . . 102,839 24,299. . . 112,713 29,224. .. 124,991 26,185. .. 121,160 25,598. . . 219,?98 36,472. . . 264,134 23,808. . . 267,852 18,523. .. 162,422 29,463. . . 140,259 16,190. . . 207,484 16,909. . . 312,313 27,940. . . 298,006 15,861. . . 340,098 44,644. .. 244,276 44,553. . . 264,562 61,582. .. 262,148 77,400. . . 330,835 83,028. . . 393,210 83,792. . . 574,070 121,868. .. 711,234 97,930. . . 782,762 123,127. . . 714,515 173,485. . . 628,510 158,697. .. 604,245 163,702. . . 675,095 236,014. .. 688,217 248,378. From ud to all Imports. , 694,599 781,167 , 969,860 1,249,637 1,068,060 ,1,204,629 1,613,204 1,336,317 ,1,291,611 , 648,307 , 639,686 , 850,099 , 1,105,998 ,1,036,016 ,1,126,328 , 629,408 , 693,927 , 816,531 , 980,300 , 1,110,601. , 1,716,108. 2,068,773.. , 1,431,330. , 1,621,178. . 1,418,943. .1,162,771. . 1,416,034. . 1,446,740. eonutrlsA Exports. 658,527 678,907 652,154 652,645 030,616 792,119 819,291 753,036 700,699 487,479 538,592 598,837 787,624 88'i,763 696,399 , 639,199 , 601,462 658,018 , 772,024 , 796,335 1,072,491 1,104,216 , 826,381 ,1,073,361 . 917,775 . 810,779 .1,073,422 . 916,372 The following t&W^ is a return showing the gross amount province of New Bruns- from 1837 to 1860, both of revenue, iu currency, of the wick, during each financial year years inclisive. Tear. Ajmount In cnrrenoy. 1837 £76,320 1838 79,167 1H39 123,285 1840 109,342 1841 110,983 1842 66,904 1843 ,,.. 59,498 1844 92,333 1846 127,753 1846 127,403 18'i7 127,410 1848 86,437 16 3 9 3 7 10 17 7 10 9 2 13 14 2 1 9 17 1 7 2 14 3 Tear. Amoant in 1849 £95,536 1960 104,089 1851* 117,363 1862 138,220 1853 184,727 1864 203,054 1855 127,476 1866 149,248 1857 167,063 1858 136,357 1869 193,381 1860 208,331 onrreBoy. 17 4 9 6 10 1 2 4 4 14 11 3 11 7 6 18 10 16 1 1 1 10 The increase in the imports and exports during the last m^ years is worthy of especial notice, as marking the * For eleveQ mootas. FOBM OF OOVEBNHEMT. 609 steady progress and continued advancement of the coun- try. The apparent deficiency in each year between the value of imports and the value of exports, is amply made up by the sale of new ships in the United Kingdom, the freight of their cargoes to the place of sale, the earnings of the ships belonging to the province, and the prices ob- tained for articles exported beyond the official estimate of their value when shipped, leaving, on the whole, a Lvrge balance of trade in favor of the province. FORM OF GOVERNMENT. The chief executive officer is the Lieutenant-Governor, appointed by the Sovereign of England, of whom he is the immediate representative in the province. His func- tions are extensive, as he performs the duties of Comman- der-in-Chief, Vice-Admiral, Chancellor, Ordinary, and other high offices. He administers the government with the advice of an Executive Council of nine members, who hold office only while they possess the confidence of the people, as expressed through their representatives in the Assembly, retiring on an adverse vote, precisely as the ministry in England. The Legislative Council, or upper House of the Legislature, consists of twenty-one members, appointed by the crown during pleasure, but usually hold- ing office for life. The lower House, or House of As- sembly, is the popular branch, and consists of forty-one members, elected by the people. The several counties, and the city of St. John, are thus represented in the As- sembly : Re8tigouch6, two members ; Gloucester, two ; Northumberland, four ; Kent, two ; Westmorland, four ; Albert, two ; county of St. John, four ; city of St. John, two ; Charlotte, four ; King's, three ; Queen's, two ; Sun- bury, t\vro ; York, four ; Carleton, t-^o ; Victoria, two. The liCgislative Council has the power of amending or rejecting bills sent to it by the House of Assembly, and may originate bills, except money bills. The members of the House of Assembly are elected every four years, by f ' M III f M -rmn^^XM a I! * >■: 610 JUDICIAL iMSTrrunoNB. freeholders in the eeveral counties^ and by the oitizena in St. John. This House has the power of appropriating the pubUc moneys, levying duties, investigating the public ac- counts, and generally of legislating on the affairs of thb provinc?, as they are brought under its notice by the gov- ernment, by its own members, or by the petitions of the people. Bills which have passed both branches of the le- giblature, must receive the assent of the Lieutenant-Gov- ernor before they become law ; and they are then subject to the approval or disallowance of Her Majesty in Council. JUDICIAL INSTITUTIOr.S. The Cviurts of Justice arc, the Supreme Court, Court of Vice Admiralty, Court for the trial and punishment of Piracy, Probate Courts, Courts of Marriage and Divorce, Inferior Courts of Common Pleas and General Sessions of the peace, and Justices' Courts. The Court of Chancery has been recently abolished, and its powers and duties transferred to the Supreme Court. This court consists of A chief-justice and assistant judges ; its jurisdiction ex* tends to all criminal cases, and civil suits where the amount in dispute exceeds 5ve pounds, except in cases of appeal from the Justices' Courts. It sits at Fredericton, four terms in each year, and the judges go on circuit, and hold the assizes in each county, the same as in England. The Court of Vice- Admiralty is held at the city of St. John, and is presided over by one judge, holding his com- mission from the Crown. This court decides maritime causes, and has jurisdiction over prizes taken in war. The Court for the trial and punishment of Piracy and other offences committed on the high seas, consists of the Lieu- tenant-Governor, the Chief-Justice and odier judges of the Supreme Court, the members of the Executive Council, the Judge of the Vice- A dmiralty, the Provincial jSecretary and the Provincial T'oasurer, with the flag officers and captains and commanders of ships of war on the station for the time being. It sits at any place within the prov- JUDICIAL mSTITCTIONS. 611 ince appointed by any three of ita membera, tbe Lieu- tenant-Governor, the Chief-Justice, or one of the judges of the Supreme Court, or the Judge of the Vice-Admiralty, being one. The Courts of Probate are held in each county, by Sur- rogate Judges appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor. These courts are always open, for the transaction of busi- ness, although regular sittings are usually held once in each month in the counties, and once each week in the city of St. John. The duties of these courts relate to the probate of wills, granting letters of administration for the estates of persons dying intestate, making orders for the distribution of such estates, and compelling executors and administrators to render exact accounts of their proceed- ings. The Court of Governor and Council, for hearing and de- termining cases relating to marriage and divorce, consists of the Lieutenant-Governor, the members of the Executive Council, and usually one or more of the Judges of the Supreme Court. It sits at Fredericton on the second Tues- day in February, and the third Tuesdays in June and October. The Inferior Courts of Common Pleas, and General Sessions of the Peace, are held in each county four times in the year. They are presided over by three or more judges, appointed by the Lieutenait-Governor in Council, the senior of whom acts as Chaij man of the Magistrates at the General Sessions. On the civil side, these courts have jurisdiction of all causes where the sum in dispute exceeds five pounds, except in cases where the title to land is in- volved. On* the criminal side, the Sessions exercise juris- diction over larcenies and minor oflFences, not involving capital punishment. The Sessions also, in counties not yet incorporated, appoint county and parish officers and audit their accounts, levy rates and taxes, and exercise a general supervision over parish and county business. In three counties which aie now incorporated, these cuties 39 PI't'^ V.I W' *( ..^. H I II: )^ 612 TXNITBE OF LAND— mHKBITANOB. are performed by a warden and councillors elected bj the rate-payers in each parish ; and doubtless other counties will soon avail themselves of the privilege of being incor- porated under the provisions of the Municipal Act. The Justices' Courts are usually held at the residences of the J ustices of the Peace in the several counties, when- ever necessary or convenient. Two justices are compe- tent to decide in cases of petty theft, or of assauh and battery, not accompanied by wounding or agg:'av>idng circumstances. In civil suits, one justice decides causes where the sum in dispute is less than live pounds, or the damages claimed are less than forty shillings, except where the title to lands comes in question. An appeal lies from the decision of the justices in these cases to the judges of the Supreme Court. TENURE OP LAND AND LAW OP INHERITANCE. All lands are held in New Brunswick in free and com- mon socage, or simple freehold, by letters-patent from the Crown, imder the Great Seal of the province. No quit- rent, due, or service is imposed ; mines and minerals only are reserved to Her Majesty and her successors, but may be worked by the land-owner, on paying a small royalty. Granted land is transferred from one individual to another by simple deed of feoffment, or indenture of bargain and sale, which must be registered ii:. the office of the registrar of deeds, in the county where the land lies, iu order to be effective. Mortgages, wills, memorials of judgment which bind real estate, leases, and other instruments affecting the title to land, must also be registered in the same office, where searches can be made and titles ascertained. In the distribution of real estate, the widow, in all cases, has her right of dower, or one-third during life ; when there is no will, the law gives two shares to the eldest son, and one share to each of the other sons and daughters. If there are no children, the estate is divided among the next of kin, in equal shares. Of Dersonal property, t^e widow BELI0I0U8 WORSHIP — EDUCATION. 613 takes one-third, and the residue is divided equally among the sons and daughters, share and share alike. It' there are no children, the widow is entitled to one-half of the personal estate, and the other half is appropriated among the next of kin, in equal proportion. RELIGIOUS WORSHIP AND MEANS OP EDUCATION. The extent of the provision for the worship of God, will be best understood by the following statement of the placos of public worship in each county, and the number of clergy- men in the provinces : — Places of worship in Kestigouchd county, 6 ; Glouces- ter, 19 ; Northumberland, 32 ; Kent, 21 ; Westrr c rland, 38 ; Albert, 20 ; St. John, 40 ; Charlotte, 63 ; Kiage, 61 ; Queens, 40 ; Sunbury, 16 ; York, 46 ; Carleton, 25 ; \'ic- toria, 8. Total places of worship in the province, 423. The number of clergymen of the several religious de- nominations in New Brunswick, in 1853, is thus stated : — The Episcopal Church of England and Ireland, as by law established, one bishop, one archdeacv;n, and 58 clergy- men. The Koman Catholic Church, one bishop, two vic- ars general, and 23 priests. The Church of Scotland, as by law established, 8 clergymen ; the Presbytery of New Brunswick, adhering to die Westminster Standards, 13 clergymen ; the Reformed Presbyterian Chiirch of Ireland, 3 clergymen ; Presbyterian Church of Nova Scotia, 1 cler- gyman ; Wesleyan Methodists, 33 ministers ; Baptists, 52 ministers and 7 licentiates^; Free Christian Baptists, 18 ministers ; General Baptist Church, 2 ministers; Congrega- tional Church, or Independents, 4 ministers. "With the exception of some assistance received by the clergy of the Church of England from the Society for the Propagati n of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, and by the Wesleyan ministers from the Methodist Missionary Society in England, the clergy of New Brunswick are supported almost wholly by the contributions of the members of their ft '.i : IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. 'V *>s ^%i 1.0 ■so |28 |25 I.I iM 12.0 1.25 1.4 1.8 1.6 6" % VQ / ^; y ^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MSSO (716) 877-4503 \ [V •^ :\ \ #m % V '■% i/.. '/. ^ If' ■• .% I m 'ii Hf i,;^^' ■ 1;^ 1 : , J| 1 \ ' ^ '^ 1 I 1 V', »r \ ^ -A x: fe'^ I 614 EDUCiriON. several churches, on the voluntary principle, no tithes or other charges for ecclesiastical purposes being known in the province. EDUOATION. New Brunswick, with its limited population and rev- enue, devotes annually about £12,000 sterling to educa- tional purposes. Few countries in the world, in propor- tion to population and income, devote so large a sum to the education of the rising generation. At the head of the educational establishments of the province is King's College, at Fredericton, which was es- tablished by Koyal Charter dated 18th November, 1823. Tlie object of this College, as declared in the Charter, is " the education of youth in the principles of the Christian religion, and their instruction in the various branches of literature and science." It receives a grant amounting to £2,000 sterling per annum from the province, and has be- sides a revenue arising from its endowment in lands, which have enabled the College Council to erect a spacious building, provide a considerable library, and the requisite scientific, mathematical, and astronomical instruments. In each county of the province, except York, King's, and Victoria, there is a Grammar School, supported by subscriptions, tuition fees, and a grant of £100 per annum jtrom the "orovincial treasury. These Grammar Schools are managed by trustecE ; 'nstruction is given in the class- ics, and in the usual branchefi of English education — and here the foundation is laid for admission into College. In York County, the Collegiate School at Fredericton, under King's College, takes the place of a Grammar School. The Baptist Seminary at Fredericton is under the gen- eral superintendence of the Baptist Association of New Brunswick, by whom it was founded in 1836. The course of instruction comprises the classics, English education, and mathematics. It has no permanent revenues, and its EDUCATION. 615 maintenance depends on grants from the provincial legis- lature and the contributions of the denomination. The Wesleyan Methodists have an Academy at Mount Allibon, a very pleasant situation, at Sackville, in the county of "Westmorland. The building, which is handsome and spacious, was completed in 1843, by private subscrip- tions, and a very large donation from 0. F. Allison, Esq., from whom the place takes its name. This institution is incorporated, and a managing committee has the direction of its affairs. The branches of learning taught are, the classics, mathematics, natural philosophy, moral philos- ophy, and divinity. This Academy receives a small grant from the province annually, but is chiefly supported by tuition money and private subscriptions. The expenses of board and tuition at the Baptist Acad- emy and the Wesleyan Academy, are about £30 per annum. An incoi'porated body, styled " The Governor and Trus- tees of the Madras School in New Brunswick," is en dowed with certain lands and grants of money ; it has established schools at St. John, Fredericton, and other places in the province, where many children of the poorer classes are taught gratis, besides being furnished with books, and sometimes with clothing. But the schools most generally diffused throughout the province are the Common or Parish Schools, which en- able the children in every settlement, unless very remote, to obtain the blessings of education. The Act relating to Parish Schools makes the following provisions, which are now in operation. The Lieutenant- Governor, with the Executive Council and the Superin- tendent of Schools, constitute a provincial Board of Edu- cation. The Governor and Council appoint the Super- intendent, who acts as Secretary to the Board, and they also appoint an Inspector of Schools for each county. A Model School and a Training School are established, and examiners appointed of those who desire to become :| ^i^'*-' " J. ' i J 11 li fi 51, >■ ) -4 9f I 616 EDUCATION. teachers. On the report of the examiners the Board of Education grants licenses to the persons examined as first, second, or third class teachers. The Inspectors of Schools visit and examine the schools in their several districts four times in each year, or oftener, if the Board directs, and make an annual report. Male teachers of the third class receive from the Provincial Treasury £22 10«. currency per annum, and are required to teach reading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic. Teachers of the second class re- ceive £30 currency per annum, and in addition to the fore- going, must teach English grammar, geography, history, and bookkeeping. Teachers of the first class receive £37 10*. per annum, and besides what is taught by the two preceding classes, must also teach geometry, mensuration, land-surveying, navigation, and algebra. Female teachers of the third class receive £17 10s. per annum, and teach spelling,- reading, writing, arithmetic, and common needle- work. Those of the second class receive £22 10s. per an- num, and in addition teach English grammar and geog- raphy. Female teachei-s of the first class receive £27 lOs. per annum, and teach history in addition to what is taught by the second and third class teachers. No teacher is paid for a less period than six months, unless under special circumstances, nor unless the inhabitants of the district have raised by assessment, or paid for his or her support, in the same proportion as the provincial al- lowance. Any parish or district which voluntarily as- sesses itself for the support of common schools, receives from the provincial treasury twenty-five per cent, more than parishes or districts which do not assess ; but in case of such assessment the tuition money must not exceed two shil- lings sterling per quartc. In every school, three children of indigent parents &yj admitted as free scholars. The provincial allowance for schools must not exceed an average of £200 currency to each parish in any one county, or £260 to any one parish therein. The number of parish schools and scholars in each county, in 1853, is & a CIVIL LIST, REVENUE, AND EXPENDmjRE 617 thus stated : Kestigouch6, 22 schools, 508 scholars ; Glou- cester, 35 schools, 1,167 scholars; Northumberland, 58 scholars ; Kent, 36 schools, 1,169 scholars ; Westmorland, 95 schools, 2,967 scholars ; Albert, 33 schools, 994 schol- ars ; St. John, 64 schools, 2,869 scholars ; Charlotte, 122 schools, 2,702 scholars ; King's, 97 schools, 2,507 scholars ; Queen's, 65 schools, 1,643 scholars ; Sunbury, 22 schools, 751 scholars ; York, 57 schools, 2,659 scholars ; Carleton, 66 schools, 1,612 scholars; Victoria, 12 schools, 275 scholars. Besides these parish schools, there are four Koman Cath- olic schools in different parts of the province, an academy at St. Stephen, an infant school at Fredericton, as also an African school and a commercial school at St. John, which received special grants annually from the legislature. The number of parish schools in 1852, was 688, attended by 18,591 scholars ; the numbers in 1853 were, schools, 744, scholars, 24,127 ; evincing a marked increase both of schools and scholars. CIVIL LIST, EEVENUE, AND BXPENDITUBB. In 1837, the proceeds of all Her Majesty's hereditary, territorial, and casual revenues, u. ' of all sale» and leases of Crown lands, wovds, mines, and royalties in New Brunswick were surrendered to the province, and made payable to the provincial treasurer. In consideration of this surrender, the sum oi £14,500 currency, annually, was granted to Her Majesty to provide for the payment of the civil list of the province. The salaries of the lieutenant- governor and the principal officers of the province are borne on this list, and paid from the sum so granted. The following statement of expenditure in 1854 and 1865, in pounds sterling, shows the various objects for which the provincial revenues are annually disbursed. it ■4 ' Hv* p'ti m I, If i'*; ■:!h '.'■■' ' •K i ^i I ^;^ , ^^'li - '• i - 1 618 BANKS FOB SAVINGS, ETC. _, Heads of expcndltnro. 1861 18SS. CivU list £13,195 £12,083 Pay and expenses of the legislature 9, "749 9,619 Collection and protection of tho revenue . . 6,806 5,2 IB Judicial establishment 1,362 1,628 Printing laws, Ac 2,313 3,429 College and Grammar schools 2,133 1,860 Parish and Madras schools 12,548 13,685 Great roads and bridges 27,016 24,626 By-roads 24,377 22,596 Navigation of rivers 2,326 6,448 Public buildings 765 2,169 Wharves and landings 2,069 739 Post-office, couriers, &c 4,334 3,937 Lun&iic Asylum 5,106 3,203 Provincial Penitentiary. 1,500 3,062 Destruction of bears "ud wolves 210 .... Erection of oat-mills 83 41 Agricultural societies 3,498 1,758 Fisliing societies 418 300 Belief of immigrants 573 741 Charitable purposes 2,588 7,250 Grant to Patriotic Fund 5,000 Indians 437 415 Return duties.. 425 230 Miscellaneous 4,318 4,934 Interest on sums borrowed 4,810 3,952 Support of lighthouses 3,397 3,116 Support of sick and disabled seamen 822 1,286 Military expenditure. 287 133 £136,463 £138,353 - « I - BANKS FOR SAVINGS,; TALUB OP COINS ; RATE OP INTEREST. Savings' Banks are established in several parts of the province, where deposits are received to the extent of £50 currency for one person, and interest allowed at the rate of five per cent per annum. These banks are regulated by law, and the Province Treasurer is authorized to receive the money deposited in them, and allow six per cent, in- terest ; the diflferenee of one per cent, in the interest pays the expenses of these institutions. The Spanish dollar is taken as the ptandard of currency ; its value is established by law at five shillings currency. The public aceoulits are kept, and returns made, in ar- my sterling, which rates the dollar at four shillings ard two pence sterling. To bring currency into army sterling, U I. (! GENERAL INFORMATION FOR IMMIGRANTS. 619 it is only necessary to deduct one-sixth ; and to bring sterling into currency, to add one-fifth to the several amounts. The sovereign is a legal tender at 245. 4d. currency. The English cfown-piece passes at 6*. Id. currency, and other silver coins in proportion. Immigrants should not bring bank-notes, as those are generally sold at less than the same amount in gold ,/f silver. The legal rate of interest is six per cent, per annum. No greater rate is allowed to be taken, except in the case of bottomry bonds, or the loan of grain, cattle, or live stock, where the lender takes the risk of casualties upon himself. GENERAL INFORMATION FOR IMMIGRANTS. Immigrants to New Brunswick are especially cautioned against taking passage to Quebec, as "'lere are no regular means of conveyance from that port to any of the Lower Provinces. The only route is by railway to Portland, in Maine, and thence by steamer to St. John, which is ex- pensive. Passage tickets should always be carefully!, retained by immigrants, so that if they are not treated according to law, or are landed at a different place from that named in the ticket, they may obtain redress. Immigrants are warned that they have no claim of right on the immigrant fund, and iihould provide themselves with suflficient means of their own, for their subsistence and conveyance into the interior from the port where they land. Sick immigrants only are provided at the public expense. Agricultural laborers need not bring out implements of husbandry, as these can easily be procured in the province ; but artisans ^e recommended to bring such tools as they possess, if not too bulky. Those who intend to become settlers, should bring a stock of comfortable warm clothing, with blankets and strong boots and shoes for their families. There is no duty on the household effects of immigrants. I V:.i i 'L 'I !^ f^V, i 620 GENERAL INFORMATION FOR IMMIGRANTS. The best period to arrive in New Brunswick is early in May, 60 as to be in time to take advantage of the spring and summer work, and get comfortably settled before the winter sets in. The average length of passages to New Brunswick from great Britain and Ireland is 36 days, but the Passengers' Act requires provisions and water to be laid in for 70 days. Passengers are entitled by law to be maintained on board the ship, the same as during the voy- age, for 48 hours after arrival in port. The tax on each passenger is 2«. Qd. currency (2«. Id. sterling), which is paid by the master of the ship ; and security must be given by bond, in the penalty of £75 currency, that any lunatic, idiot, maimed, blind, or infirm person not belong- ing to an immigrant family, shall not become chargeable to the funds of the province for three years. This bond may however be dispensed with, or cancelled by order of the lieutenant-governor in council, on payment of such reasonable sum as shall be deemed just and proper under t^e v^ircumstance«^. I ntil immigrants become acquainted with the labor of V'. i country, their services are of comparatively small value to their employers. They should therefore be careful not to fall into the common error of refusing reasonable wages on their first arrival. Demand for Labor. — The progress of agriculture in New Brunswick causes a steady demand for labor in the rural districts, and, for the last two years, farmers have Buffered more than any other class, from an inadequate supply of agricuLtural laborers and female domestics. In the towns there has also been great scarcity of female ser- vants, and a supply of these is greatly needed. Boys from twelve to eighteen years of age are greatly In demand throughout the province by farmers and mechanics. TJn- skilled laborers are generally sure of employment, at from two and sixpence to four shillings sterling per day, accord- ing to ability and the length of time for which they are engaged. Masons, bricklayers, carpenters, and joiners are r ,S - ' •*• • •• • • 9,765 1855 14,879 1856 4,141 1857 2,724 1858 1,838 1859 3,470 1860 2,165 Year. No. Immignmta arrivtd. 1853 3,762 1854 3,440 1,539 708 60t 390 230 323 t 1f. Iiuniigranjs arrived at the port of St. John in 1860, 315 " " atCaraquet 8 Total for New Brunswick in I860, 323 ■< !■': DBSOBIPnON OF THB PSOVINOB BT COUNTIES. Eebtiqouohb. — This is the northernmost county in the province. It has a large frontage on the Bay of Chaleur, and is bounded northerly by the forty-eighth parallel of north latitude, which is the dividing line between New- * A duly of 2«. 6d. currency, or 2«. Id. sterling, was imposed by ac act of the Colonial Legislature on each immigrant arrlTiug in the province. la ths year ending 31st December, 1860, the sum of £40 la. 6d. ouirGUoy waa ool* looted in this colony on aoconxrt of immigrant duty. 40 i '4il '- » 4 h^ ■ f 628 DESOEIPnON OP THE PEOVINOB BY C50UNTIEB. Brunswick and Canada in that quarter. It abuts west- wardly on Victoria county, and is bounded southerly by Gloucester and Northumberland. Re8tigouch6 county contains 1,426,560 acres of which 156,979 acres are granted, and 1,269,581 acres are still vacant. The quantity of cleared land is 8,895 acres only. The population, in 1851, was 4,161 ; of whom 2,353 were males, and 1,808 were females. Lumbering is carried on extensively in Kestigouche, which will account for the excess of males. This county is divided into five parishes — Addington, Colborne, Dalhousie, Durham, and Eldon. The shire town is Dalhousie, a neat town at the mouth of the River Restigouch^. It is built on an easy slope, at the base of a high hill ; the streets are broad and clean. A crescent-shaped cove in front of the town is well shel- tered, and has good holding ground for ships, in six and seven fathoms water. There are excellent wharves,, and safe timber ponds at Dalhousie, affording every conveni- ence for loading ships of the largest class. The eastern point of Dalhousie harbor is in latitude 48° 4' north, longi- tude 66* 22' west. Variation of the compass, 20° 45' west. Neap tides rise six feet, and spring tides nine feet. From Dalhousie to the village of Campbelton the distance by the river is about eighteen miles. The whole of this distance may be considered one harbor, there being from four to nine fathoms throughout, in the main channel. At Camp- belton the river is about three-quarters of a mile wide ; above this place, the tide flows six miles, but large ves- sels do not go further up than Campbelton. In 1853, ninety vessels, of the burden of 18,217 tons, entered the port of Dalhousie. The soil in this county is very fertile, and produces large crops ; it is especially noted for the excellent quality of its grain. The best wheat grown there weighs sixty-five pounds per bushel; barley, fifty-six pounds per bushel; black oats, forty-two pounds per bushel ; white oats, forty- seven pounds per bushel. The productiveness in Eesti- X It-! ">^^ DESOEIPTION OF THE PEOVINOE BY C0UNTIK8. 629 gouch6, although so far north, affirms the principle, that "climate, unless it be very severe, is by no means the most influential element in determining the agricultural capabilities of a country." The geological character of any country has more influence upon its economica^ pros- pects than climate, and should be equally, if not more carefully studied. Glotjcestee. — This county lies between Restigouch6 and Northumberland, and has a long range of sea-coast, in part on the Bay of Chaleur, and in part on the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; it also includes the Islands of Shippagan and Miscon, which form the north-eastern extremity of the province. Gloucester county contains 1,037,440 acres, of which 332,902 acres are granted, and 704,538 acres are yet vacant. The amount of cleared land is 19,812 acres. The population in 1851, was 11,704 souls, of whom 1,479 were males, and 1,434 were females. Owing to the extent of sea-coast and the facilities for prosecuting the fisheries, there are many fishermen in this county. The value of the catch, in 1851, was returned at "£15,693. There are six parishes in Gloucester — Bathurst, Beres- ford, Caraquet, New-Bandon, Saumarez, and Shippagan. Bathurst is the shire town. It is pleasantly situated between the Nepisiguit and Middle rivers, on a point of land which has a very easy slope to the harbor. The entrance to the harbor is between two low points of sand and gravel, and is about 230 yards across. Outside this entrance is the bar, on which, at spring tides, there is iifteen feet of water. Within the entrance, the harbor is a beautiful basin, about three and a half miles in length, and two miles in width, well sheltered from every wind. In the principal channel there is about fourteen feet at low water, and vessels draw- ing more than fourteen feet usually take in part of their cargoes outside the bar, in the roadstead, where there is from six to ten fathoms water, and good holding-ground. The entrance to Bathurst harbor is in latitude 47° 39' north, v'f til i; *(i 4 ' ' ii ''A ;? 630 DK80RIPTION OF THE PEOVINOE BT COTJMTIES. longitude 66"* 38' west ; the rise and fall of tide, four to seven feet. In 1853, eighty-four vessels, of the burden of 11,473 tons, entered the port of Bathurst. The Nepisiguit River, flowing into Bathurst harbor, is eighty miles long, but not navigable, owing to the number of cascades, falls, and rapids. Large quantities of timber are floated down it for shipment. Great numbers of salmon ascend this river every season, as far as the Grand Falls. At the north-eastern part of this county is the spacious haven of Shippagan, which comprises three large and com- modious harbors, between the islands of Pocksoudie and Shippagan, and the mainland. Within these harbors there is good anchorage for vessels of the largest class, which can lie perfectly sheltered from every wind. The rise and fall of tide is from three to six feet. Miscou harbor (formerly called Little Shippag n) lies between the islands of Miscou and Shippagan. It has a good an- chorage, well sheltered, with three to five fathoms at low water. This excellent harbor is of much use and import- ance to fishing vessels frequenting the gulf, which resort to it greatly in stormy weather. The Caraquet, Pokemouche, and Tracadie rivers are wholly in Gloucester county, and there is much good land yet vacant on their banks. In 1851, there were 14,302 grindstones made in this county, and 21,157 lbs. of maple sugar. The quantity of butter made was 82,691 lbs. NoBTHTJMBERLAin). — This is the largest county in the province. Its fi*ont on the gulf includes the whole bay of Miramichi, from Tabusintac to Point Escuminac, whence it spreads out to a great breadth westerly, abutting on Sun- bury, York, and Victoria, with Kent to the southward. The county of Northumberland contains 2,980,000 acres, of which 986,168 acres are granted, and 1,993,832 are still vacant. The quantity of cleared land is 30,221 acres. In 1861, the population was 15,064 souls, being little more than one soul to each 200 acres in the county. The in- DBSOBEPTIOK OF THE PBOTINOE BT OOmniSS. 631 habitants are chiefly employed in lumbering, agriculture, and the fisheries, while the ship-yards and saw-mills afford much employment for ordinary labor. There are ten par- ishes in this county — ^^Alnwick, Blackville, Blissfield, Chat- ham, Glenelg, Hardwicke, Ludlow, Nelson, Newcastle, and Northesk. The shire town is Newcastle, situated about thirty miles from the gulf, on the left bank of the Mirami- chi. Douglastown is a thriving village, about three miles below Newcastle, on the same side of the river, with every convenience for business. Chatham is a bustling little town, on the right bank of the Miramichi, about twenty- five miles from the gulf, rather crowded along the water side, but with deep water in front, and many facilities for load- ing large vessels. In 1853, two hundred and seventy-seven vessels, 34,528 tons burden, entered the port of Miramichi. There is a bar at the entrance of the port ; but the river is of such large size, and pours forth such a volume of water, that the bar offers no impediment to navigation, there being sufficient depth of water on it, at all times, for ves- sels of seven or eight hundred tons, and nowhere less than three fathoms in the entrance, at low water. From the entrance there is six and seven fathoms, in the channel, up to Newcastle. Owing to the size and depth of the Mi- ramichi, ships can load along its banks anywhere for miles ; and, consequently, detached villages have sprung up, wanting many of 1b.e advantages which would be gained &om having one large town. The tide rises &om three to five feet The variation of the compass is 21° west. In 1853, the following quantities of fish were exported from Miramichi : — herrings, 3,728 barrels ; alewives, 7,130 barrels ; pickled salmon, 396 barrels ; pickled bass, 113 barrels ; shad, 45 barrels i oysters, 200 barrels ; eels, 21 barrels ; salted trout, 7 barrels ; mackerel, 167 barrels ; 162,500 pounds of preserved salmon ; 29,000 pounds pre- served lobsters. The Tabuaintac, a river about sixty miles long, enters .-I I ■■11 ''1:1 •1 :^>- * ■ ■ fH:' m I .JINN Mi'- :ll ii -■ ' • .::J P^H H'i*''' ii K i^HP H*''^'' ; .K- , # t^^\ ' " i^li tit 4y ■ ' ! I I 632 DBSOEimON OF THE PEOVINOE BY OOUiniEB. tho gulf, a few miles to the northward of the Miramichi. The tide flows up it twenty miles ; but it has only eight feet, at low water, on the bar at its entrance, near which the sea-fisheries are prosecuted to some extent. There is much good land on the Tabusintac yet vacant. Of late years much attention has been given to farming in Northumberland, with favorable results. In 1851, this county produced 30,854 bushels of wheat ; 120,366 bushels of oats ; and 289,436 bushels of potatoes ; besides other crops of grain and roots. In the same year 202,637 pounds of butter were made in the county, and 5,381 pounds of maple sugar. There are thirty-two places of worship in this county, and 2,116 inhabited houses. Kent. — ^This county was formerly part of Northumber- land, of which it formed th*". south-eastern corner. It has a large frontage on the gulf, extending from the northern point of Shediac Harbor to Point Escuminac, at th? en- trance to the Miramichi. Kent contains 1,026,000 acres, of which 386,398 acres are granted, and 640,002 acres are still vacant. The quan- tity of cleared land is 35,496 acres. The population in 1351 was 11,410 souls, little more than one soul to each hundred acres in the county. The inhabitants follow lum- bering, fishing, farming, and ship-building. There are six parishes — Carleton, Dundas, Harcourt, Richibucto, Weldford, and "Wellington. The shire town is Richibucto, a seaport on the left bank of the Richibucto River, built chiefly along the water side, with wharves, warehouses, and timber-ponds in front. In 1853, one hundred and eight vessels, of the burden of 15,189 tons, entered at* this port. There was formerly twelve to fifteen feet on the bar at low water, but it has of late shoaled considerably, owing to a new channel having broken out ; measures have, how- ever, been taken to deepen the main channel, and improve the entrance. The tide rises in Richibucto harbor tv^o and a half to four feet. The Harbor of Buctouche is twenty milec south of Richi- o w in 4^ f ■ili: pi I it 11' H?"" M 1? , DE80BIPTION OF THE FBOVINOB BY OOUNTIES. 633 bucto. This harbor is at the mouth of Great and Little Eictouche rivers ; ''le entrance, between two low sand beaches, is narrow. The tides rise and fall two to for*^ feet ; and vessels, drawing thirteen and a half feet, can cross the bar at ordinary tides. Outside the bar, there is in- stantly three fathoms water, deepening gradually seaward. Inside the bar there is two and a half to five fathoms, the \oading place at the bridge, where vessels lie in nine fath- oms water. The Big Buctouche is forty miles in length ; the tide flows up it thirteen mile? The Little Buctouche is thirty-five miles in length, ana the tide flows up it ten miles. There is much good land, and some fine farms on both these rivers. In 1853, thirty-seven vessels, of the burden of 4,323 tons, arrived at this port. The Harbor of Cocagne, by the coast, is nine miles south of Buctouche. This is also a bar harbor ; in ordinary tides there is nine feet on the bar at low water, and fourteen feet at high water ; at spring tides there are two feet more. Within, there is a large sheet of water, well sheltered. The tide flows seven miles up the Cocagne River ; the land on its banks is of good quality for settlement. There is scarcely a hill of any magnitude in the whole county of Kent, and it may h: uescribed as the most level county in the province. Being wholly within the forma- tion described as the coal measures, it consists altogether of gentle undulations and long swells of country, covered with the finest timber, chiefly hardwood. The maple abounds; and 44,154 pounds of maple sugar were made in 1851. In the same year, 83,171 pounds of butter were made in the county. "Westmorland. — This county has a large extent of low Bandy coast, on the Straits of Northumberland, extending from the boundary of Nova Scotia, at Bale Verte, to the northern point of Shediac Harbor. On the south-west it is bounded by the Peticodiac River and county of Albert ; and on the west by King's and Queen's counties. It pos- sesses great agricultural capabilities, besides many facilities ^"'©I Elf'' I*;* I ■ ft ,^> 634 DESOEIPnON OF THE PBOVINOE BY OOtTNTIBa. for lumbering, fishing, and ship-building, in ddition to its mines and quarries. "Westmorland contains 878,440 acres, of "w ._ i 577,440 acres are granted, and 301,000 acres are vacant. The cleared land amounts to 92,822 acres. The population in 1851 was 17,814 souls, dwellinfj in 2,390 houses. There are seven parishes — Botsford, Dorchester, Moncton, Sackville, Salisbury, Shediac, and Westmorland. The shire-town is Dorchester, a rural village about one mile from the eastern bank of the Peticodiac River. The Harbor of Shediac, on the gulf shore, is by the coast, ten miles south of Cocagne. Its entrance, at the southern end of Shediac Island, is in latitude 46° 15' 15" north, and longitude 64° 32' 10" west. The longitude in time is 4h. 18 min. 8.40 beconds ; the variation of the compass, 19° west. During the summer solstice, the time of high water, at the full and change of the moon, is 7 a. m. ; at and dur- ing the winter solstice, at 12 noon ; neap tides rise two feet, and spring tides four feet. In the fair-way, or ship- channel, at the distance of two-and a half miles from the harbor, twenty-five feet water is found, which is continued, with little variation, up to the entrance. From thence there is nineteen feet in the channel, gradually lessening, until at the anchorage off Point Du Chene, where sixteen and a half feet is found, at one-third of a mile from the shore. Two small rivers, the Shediac and the Scadouc, fall into this harbor. In 1853, two hundred and twenty- two vessels, of the burden of 21,226 tons, entered at Sche- diac. The terminus of the railway from St. John is near the entrance to this harbor, whence communication may be had, by steamers and sailing vessels, with Prince Ed- ward Island, thirty-six miles distant, and all other parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, as also the Great Lakes of Canada by the River St. Lawrence and its canals. It is therefore quite certain to become a place of much trade and business. Aboushagan and Tedish are boat harbors, to the east- I DBBOBIPTIOK OF TILE PKOVINCK BY OOUITmCa. 635 ward of Shediac, between that harbor and Oape Bauld. At Aboushagan there is Hvo feet water on the bar, with good sand beaches near the entrance. Tedish bar is dry at low water, but there is a fine sand beach, on which boatB are easily drawn up. The harbors of Big and Little Shemogue are between Cape Bauld and Cape Tormentine. Big Shemogue is a good harbor for vessels of all sizes, up to 130 tong. At ordinary tides there is ten feet on the bar at high water, with a channel fifty fathoms wide. Inside, the harbor is capable of containing one hundred vessels, with anchorage in two and a half fathoms, well sheltered. Ship-building is prosecuted in this harbor, near which the best ship timber is said to be abundant. Little Shemogue is about three miles east of its larger namesake, but is only a boat- harbor, with two feet water on its bar. Westmorland has the advantage of several shipping ports on the Bay of Fundy, within Cumberland Basin, and along the Peticodiac River; from each of these there is considerable coasting and foreign trade. In 1853, eighteen vessels, of 1,328 tons, entered at Sackville ; ten vessels, of TTl tons, entered at Dorchester ; and twenty-one vessels, of 1,646 tons, entered at Moncton. Vessels of all sizes, up to 1,000 tons, are built at each of these places. The rise and fall of tide on the shores of "Westmorland, within Cumberland Basin, and up the river Peticodiac, are very great. At Dorchester Island, near the mouth of the Peticodiac river, an ordinary tide rises thirty-six feet, and spring tides forty-eight feet. The tide rushes up this river with great velocity, and with a tidal wave, usually called " the bore," which at spring tides is five or six feet high. At Moncton, usually called the Bend, because it is situated at the point where the river, which flows thence in an easterly course, turns suddenly, almost at a right angle, and flows to the southward, an ordinary tide rises forty- eight feet, and spring tides firty-seven feet. Moncton is a thriving village, its papulation increasing rapidly in con- M ^ I'M ?*;'ip h !"■ )'i V- |ll>, if f 1 .* * •jA^ i 1 ,i|hr- it'' JBk:% ■*T^^'-| '■Lfc, i' ., J .•^'l^::. 638 DESCBniTOB' 07 THB PBOVHTOI! BT OOLUSTllllS. In 1851, there were 3,885 inhabited honees in the city, and 133 in conree of erection. The nnmber of stores, barns, and outhouses was then 2,397 ; these numbers have considerably increased since 1851. There are many good buildings of brick and stone, especially in the business part of the city, where none others are now allowed to be built. The tide rises twenty-one to twenty-three feet at ordinary tides, and twenty-three to twenty-five feet at spring tides. At full and change of the moon, it is high water at eleven hours forty-four minutes. There is good anchorage within the harbor in ten to seventy fathoms water. Owing to the tide-falls at the head of this harbor it is never frozen, or in any way impeded by ice during the winter ; vessels arrive and depart every day during the year. Its latitude is 45* 15' north, longitude 65" 8' 36" west; variation of the compass, 16" 30' west. The position of St. John harbor, at the mouth of a large river with numerous tributaries, and its entire freedom from obstruction by ice, give it great advantages over all the northern ports in North America, and render it almost certain of becoming a place of much commercial impor- tance. The existing trade and commerce of the port, with its steady increase, will be best understood by the following statement of the numbers and tonnage of vessels entered inwards, and cleared outwards, during six years. JTo. Tom. 1860— Inwards .1,696 260,429 OutwardB , 1,720 284,793 1861— Inwards. .1,528 282,566 Outwards ..1,645 324,821 1852— Inwards 1,740 834,267 Outwards , 1,746 362,917 1853— Inwards 2,117 400,21« Outwards .2,106 400,216 1854— Inwards ............1,930 363,060 Outwards 1,990 405,812 1886— Inwardfl 1,886 867,621 OutwardB 1,870 420,624 The amount of ship-building and the value of the fishing in the harbor of St John, have been already stated under IXEB. in the city, ir of stores, mbere have many good nsinees part to be built, at ordinary pring tides, sr at eleven rage within wing to the rozen, or in issels arrive latitude is ition of the h of a large re freedom »es over all 3r it almost 3ial impor- > port, with e following jls entered B. ' -i. ■ J ■ Tona. !60,429 !84,793 182,566 124,821 134, 26t 162,917 :00,218 ^00,216 53,060 ,05,812 167,621 :20,624 the fishing iited under U^m-'^ ■tiiu>i>iov »-V? ; i-*^ ?* ? 'v' HO v« vvsji. .;j. V. l*i/&rt*.tu ■ ■Is. :.mi '! Ti*OH Pkto'.' , .-sfli.-r i'h I ^^' & o ^ for tr). » 1y MM- i|H>!'l m iriii lliit M\ i i"-* . '«■■ f -;»-4 iJll '''(■i'i DBSOSIFTIOIf or THE FBOVINCB BT COUlfTIES. 639 those heads. In the city and county of 8t. John, there were in 1851, fifty-one Baw-mills, employing 803 men ; fourteen griBt-mills ; seventeen tanneries ; six foundries ; four breweries ; and sixty-one other factories, giving em- ployment to 1,120 men. The numerous ship-yards, and the large quantities of deals and timber continually ex- ported, afford much profitable employment for labor. There are three banks in the city of St John — the Bank of New Brunswick, with a capital of £100,000 currency ; the Commercial Bank of New Brunswick, with a capital of £150,000 currency, and a branch of the Bank of British North America, established in London, with a capital of £1,000,000 sterlmg. By means of the electric telegraph, St. John is in imme- diate communication with Nova Scotia and Canada, and with all parts of the United States to which the tel^raph has been extended. A railway from the harbor of St. John to Shediac, on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, a distance of 114 miles, is now in course of construction. It is proposed to extend this railway to the Nova Scotia boundary near Bale Verte, to meet the rwlway now being built from Halifax to that point ; and also northwardly from Shediac to Mirar michi, and to the St Lawrence and Trois- Pistoles, there to connect with the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada, r^d so with the Great Lakes and the far west Another line of railway is also contemplated from the city of St. John, westwardly, to the frontier of the United States at Calais, by which connection will be had with the whole railway system of the United States. From this line it is proposed to construct a branch northwardly to Frederickton, and thence up the valley of the St John, to give gr^iter fiacili- ties for traffic, especially in winter. At present, constant communication is maintained with Portland and Boston by first-class steamers. The time from St John to Portland by steamer, and thence by rail- way, either to Montreal or Quebec, is about thirty-five hours — ^to Boston thirty hours. ■1^1 11 > ^*'^.' Lt:!: v't ;i; • ; I', p Ik 'I ft' ' f 'l ■;■ 640 DESOEIPTION OF THE PBOVINOB BY OOUNTIKS. Thf city of St. John is lighted with gas and supplied with water by iron pipes, from a reservoir about four miles from the city. These water-works are to be immediately extended, so as to give every part of the city an ample supply of pure water. Chajilottb County. — ^This county occupies the south- west corner of New Brunswick, and is nearly square in form. Its front on the Bay of Fundy extends from Point Lepreaux to the St. Croix River, which is the boundary of the United States in that direction. Charlotte county con- tains 783,360 acres, of which 317,245 acres are granted, and the remaining 466,115 acres are yet vacant. The quantity of cleared land in 1851, was 45,656 acres, or about one-seventh part of the quantity granted. The population of the county in 1851, was 19,938 souls, chiefly engaged in fishing, farming, lumbering, and ship-building. There are ten parishes in Charlotte — Campo Bello (an island). Grand Manan (also an island), Pennfield, St. An- drews, St. David, St. George, St. James, St. Patrick, St. Stephen, and West Isles (a group of islands). The shire town is St. Andrews, which is pleasantly situated on a point of land between the St. Croix (or Schoodic) River, and the inner Bay of Passamaquoddy, on an easy slope, with a southern aspect. The parish of St. Andrews has a popu- lation of 8,910 souls. From the harbor of St. Andrews a railroad has been projected, which is at present in course of construction, toward Woodstock on the River St. John, a distance of about ninety miles. Of this railway, twenty- six miles are now completed and open for traffic ; and the intention is, after reaching Woodstock, to continue the line by the valley of the St. John, to the River St. Law- rence, and thence to Quebec. The St, Croix is a large river, flowing from two chains of lakes, widely spread over a tract of country which has long furnished, and still continues to furnish, extensive supplies of timber. It is navigable to the head of the tide at St. Stephen, which is about 16 miles above St. Andrews. St. ^.^ It..' lES. d supplied ; four miles Qmediately an ample the south- square in Tom Point •undary of ounty con- e granted, ;ant. The acres, or ted. The Ills, chiefly )-building. Bello (an d, St. An- atrick, St. The shire ated on a Jliver, and )e, with a 18 a popu- L.ndrews a in course St. John, p-, twenty- and the tinue the St. Law- chains of L has long 3 supplies ide at St. BWS. St. DESCRIPnON OF THE PEOVINOE BY COTTNTIEB. 641 Stephen and Milltown ar'- two thriving villages on the St. Croix, chiefly supported by the saw-mills in their vicinity, and the traffic in sawed lumber of every description. The Digdeguash and the Magaguadavic are two consider- able rivers falling into the Bay of Passamaquoddy, to the eastward of St. Andrews. There are saw-mills on each of these rivers, and ships load with lumber at their mouths, as also at the entrance to Lepreaux River, in Mace's Bay, at the eastern extreme of this county. The fisheries of Grand Manan, Campo Bello, and "West Isles, have already been mentioned. All vessels which enter and clear at the various harbors and loading places in Charlotte county, are enu- merated as entering and clearing at the port of St. Andrews. The following is a statement of their numbers, tonnage, and men, during six years, distinguishing coun- tries: — VBSBELS INWARDS. r— United British United Foreign Totals. Kingdom. Colonies. States. States. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. Men. 1849 10 2,430 66 2,887 613 52,001 1 230 690 57,548 2,681 1850 12 3,437 84 5,475 634 63,531 2 250 732 72,693 3,851 1851 15 4,986 92 8,168 6^4 75,407 4 1,137 805 89,597 4,725 1852 9 3,916 67 4,262 675 81,693 2 424 743 89,845 4,322 1853 13 3,760 91 6,029 733 88,950 6 1,159 843 99,898 4,881 1864 8 2,88? 55 4,686 716 110,958 3 1,318 782 119,744 5,115 1855 788 127,689 5 516 1 — ■ — ' ' 1 VESSELS OUnVAKDS. ^ United Kingdom. British Colonies. United States. Foreign States. Totals. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. M n. 1849 1850 1861 1862 1863 1854 1865 60 59 85 94 88 121 17,548 24,044 34,191 42,846 47,658 63,340 86 97 124 59 86 48 6,861 6,553 7,430 4,246 5,654 3,810 503 504 511 565 629 611 36,794 40,594 41,332 44,073 47,978 56,495 2 1 2 2 1 492 167 364 200 212 641 661 722 720 804 780 740 61,605 71,358 83,317 91,366 101,402 123,645 131,316 2,829 3,867 4,274 4,334 4,909 5,276 6,686 v-.i'S W -.Ik. '''■■fiiff MJ( fi : I'- ' I 1. Hi fi i LL, -^. 643 DBBOBXPnoir of the protikoi: bt oovstteb. There is abundance of both lime and marl in the county of Charlotte, as well as sea manure, and in those f-especta it possesses advantages over most other counties in the prov- ince. By the census of 1851, it appears the crops of that year were as follows : — hay, 17,076 tons ; wheat, 3,263 bushels ; barley, 7,206 bushels ; oats, 69,988 bushels; buck- wheat, 14,304 bushels ; peas and beans, 1,999 bushels ; turnips, 72,419 bushels ; potatoes, 163,117 bushels. The quantity of butter made during the year, was 441,522 pounds ; of maple sugar, 700 pounds ; of lime burned, 15,100 casks. This county may be described as a hilly country, with a rocky sea-coast studded with islands, everywhere indent- ed with excellent harbors, and the neighboring waters abounding with fish. Numerous ri v^ers and large lakes in- tersect the interior in every direction, and in the r-alleys and basins of these rivers and lakes, there is much good land. The quantity of available water power is wonder- fallj great, and in many places it yet rrauaine to be turned to profitable account. King's Coitntt. — ^This is an inland county, lying north of St. John, abutting westwardly upon Charlotte county, and widening to the eastward, where it is bounded by the counties of Albert and Westmorland. It containg 849,- 920 acres, of which 662,752 acres are granted, and only 187,168 acres are vacant. The quantity of cleared land in 1851, was 120,923 acres, and its population, 18,842 Bouls. King's county is divided into two parts by the Kiver St. John, which passes across it from north to south. The eastern part is intersected by the Kiver Kennebecasis, which passes through it from north-east to south-west, and renders much of that portion accessible by water. The western part of this county, on both sides of the St. John, is hilly and dotted with numerous wnall lakes ; while the eastern portion, stretching towards the sandstones of the coaL measuree, and embracing the lower carboniferona the county e fespecte 1 the prov- pB of that eat, 3,263 lels; buck- ) bushels; bels. Tlie 3 441,522 e burned, hry, with a re indent- ig waters ^ lakes in- he '^alleys luch good 1 wonder- be turned ring north ;e county, ed by the ain& 849,- and only ared land n, 18,842 Kiver St. ith. The nebecasis, west, and ber. The St. John, while the les of the coniferous DESOBIFTION OF THE FBOVINOE BT OOITirnES. 643 rocks, consists of long swells of land, hills of gentle ele* vation and rounded summits, with level and fertile valleys between, often of considerable extent and much picturesque beauty. There are nine parishes in this county, thus designated — Greenwich, Kingston, Hampton, Norton, Springfield, Studholm, Sussex, Upham, and Westfield. The shire town is in Kingston, between the Kennebecasis River and Bellisle Bay. The village of Hampton is a thriving place, twenty-five miles from the city of St. John, on the Ken- nebecasis River. The tide flows up this river five miles beyond Hampton, but up to the village the river is navi- gable for small vessels and steamers. As this village will soon be connected with St. John, by the Shediac railwav, it will, undoubtedly, become a place of great resort, and a favorite spot for summer residences. The rides and drives in its vicinity are varied and beautiful, and the country, with its numerous lakes and streams, possesses many attractions for the sportsman. King's is essentially m agricultural county ; the crops of 1851 are thus stated in the census of that year : — ^hay, 38,811 tons ; wheat, 14,895 bushels ; barley, 6,427 bushels ; oats, 178,968 bushels ; buckwheat, 206,251 bushels ; In- dian com, 2,968 bushels ; peas and beans, 4,210 bushels ; turnips, 84,359 bushels ; potatoes, 303,568 bushels ; other roots, 9,142 bushels. There were then in the county, 18,- 295 head of neat cattle ; 8,463 cows ; 2,988 horses ; and 80,236 sheep. The quantity of butter made in 1851, was 506,292 pounds ; and of maple sugar, 37,801 pounds. The number of saw-mills was seventy-five; of grist-mills, forty-six; with seventeen tanneries, and eleven carding and weaving establishments. Apples are found to thrive well in this county, and much attention is now being paid to the growth of that description of fruit. The facilities of access, both by land and water, from every part of King's county to the harbor of St. John, and a ready market there, give great advantages to the far- 41 I w'l Hllii '!:r [;*• M 4\ 644 DiaORimCN 09* THB PBOVINOK BT OOUBTOS. mera of this county, and reader thoir pnrBuito in general very profitable. Quxsn's Oouhtt. — ^Thifl county lies noTth-westerly of King's county, and between it and Sunbury, being bounded by Charlotte on the souUi-west, and by West- morland, Kent, and Northumberland at its north-eastern extremity. It contains 961,280 acres, of which 514,204 acres are granted, and 444,076 ac^-es are still vacant. The quantity of cleared land in 1851, was 63,719 acres, and tiie population, 10,634 souls. Queen's county is also divided into two portions by the river St. John, which crosses it from north to south. The lai^est part, east of the St. John, comprises within its bounds those two large lakes, the Washivdemoak and the Grand Lake, with several smaller lakes, and the numerous tributaries by which they are fed. That part of the county west of the St, John, is generally broken and hilly, yet there are in this district many tracts of good land. The portion east of the St. John rests almost entirely upon the sandstones of the coal measures, and its pre /ailing charac- teristic is that of a low and level country. Along the St. John, there are extensive meadows and large fiat islands, formed by alluvial deposits ; these possess great fertility, 51 r! ■* M M m vm r#; 'i'l I • 1 M 652 DESOBIFnON OF THE PBOVmOB BT COUNTIES. At this place, forms a little peninsnla, Bpon which the village is placed. The whole waters of the St. John are precipitated over a ledge of rocks seventy-four feet in height, and then rush wildly through a narrow rocky gorge of three-quarters of a mile, descending in that distance forty-five feet. The difference of level between the waters in the basin at the head of the falls, and the waters of the basin at the foot of the mky gorge, up to which the lower St. John is navigable for tow-boats, and sometimes for email steamers, is 119 feet Squared timber and round logs, from the extensive forests on the upper St. John and its numerous tributaries, are passed over the falls and down the rocky gorge, but not without considerable loss and damage, even under the most favorable circumstances. All merchandise and supplies for the upper country are hauled by horses across the portage between the upper and lower basins, and this is attended with great labor and expense. A railway has been projected to overcome the difficulties of transit at this point, to be worked by a sta- tionary steam-engine at the summit level, with inclined- planes to the water in either direction, and it is believed that this undertaking, when completed, will be of great public and jprivate benefit. The Tobique River, which enters the St. John about twenty miles below the Grand Falls, is almost wholly within the county of Victoria. It is a river of large size, and the land along its valley is reported to be of excel- lent quality ; as yet it is in a state of complete wilderness, and almost wholly destitute of settlers. The ledges of red sandstone, and the cliffs of gypsum, in the valley of the Tobique, with other rocks of a favorable character, com- bine to form an admirable soil along the river, exceed- ingly well adapted for cultivation. There is here good land sufElcient for a large county, needing only the labor of men to bring it into profitable cultivation. In the upper part of Victoria, at the mouth of the ICadawa^a river, stands tiie rising village of Edmundston. * !! ES. (vhich the John are or feet in »cky gorge t distance the waters ters of the the lower Btimes for ound logs, in and its and down ) loss and imstances. •nntry are the npper labor and rcome the 1 by a sta- inclined- 8 believed of great >hn about >Bt wholly large size, 5 of excel- rilderness, ges of red ley of the cter, com- ir, exceed- lere good the labor ith of the nnndstoa. DESCEIPnON OF THE PBOVINOB BT 00UHTIE8. 653 From its position on the St. John, at the outlet of a navi- gable river flowing from extensive chains of lakes, ex- tending to within sixteen miles of the St. Lawrence, and watmng a wide extent of timber conntry, this village bids fair to become a place of some importance and consid- erable trade. The population of Victoria is yet too scanty to have done much towards developing its agricultural capabili- ties. But considering the large proportion of its inhabi- tants who are engaged in lumbering, the following return of the crops of 1851 is worth notice: — ^hay, 6,9ol tons ; wheat, 6,262 bushels; barley, 7,979 bushels ; oats, 69,163 bushels ; buckwheat, 44,730 bushels ; Indian com, 824 bushels ; peas and beans, 7,824 bushels ; turnips, 9,195 bushels ; potatoes, 84,527 busheU. The quantity of butter made in 1851, was 78,467 pounds ; of maple sugar, 55,- 685 pounds; of gypsum quarried, 4,075 tons. The Grand River, the Quisibis, and the Green River, '^are three considerable streams in this county, flowing into the St. John from the eastward ; they interlock the Resti- gouch6 and its upper tribuiaries, which flow in the oppo- Bite direction. The various streams thufi interlaced, drain a tract of country containing more thui a million of acres, of which very little is known, the whole being yet in a state of nature, and heretofore visited only by some ex- ploring lumberman, or an adventurous hunter and trap- per. The reports of explorers state that there are in this tract thousands of acres of deep rich soil, covered with the finest timber, standing more widely apart than is usual in the forests of New Brunswick, and giving to the country s park-like character. ■}%■ 'I' » ' u f i4' m ' !i i! ''> M, .^ -' m I'llJlil .:il IT THE PROGRESS OF NOVA SCOTIA, WITH A BBH!? VIBW OF ITS RESOURCES, NATURAL AND INDUSTRIAL CHAPTEE I. DISCOVERT AND EARLY EORTUNES OP NOYA SCOTIA. On the 6th cf March, 1496, John Cabot, a Yenetian mariner, already some wl at distinguished for skill and enterprise, obtained from Henry VII. of England a patent, in favor of himself and his three sons, to fit out a small squadron, " for the conquest, discovery, and occupa- tion of the lands beyond the western ocean, inhabited by heathens and infidek, and till those times unknown to Christians." In the early part of May, the following year, this small squadron, consisting of one larger and three small ships, sailed from the port of Bristol for the regions of the setting sun. On the 24th day of June, 1497, they caught the first glimpse of land in the Western "World. They named the spot they had firct sighted Prima Vista. Tliere is some doubt as to whether this land which they first sighted was the coast of Newfoundland, Labrador, or Nova Scotia. The best authorities, while admitting the doubt, favor the opinion that it was Nova Scotia. During that and the following year, John Cabot and his son Sebastian explored a great part of the coast of North America. For nearly a century after these discoveries, the English bestowed hardly any attention on North America. Newfoundland, on account of its valuable fisheries, le I FBOGBESB OF NOVA 800TIA. 655 OTIA, 30TLL Venetian ikill and igland a fit out a 1 occupa- ibited by nown to lis small 1,11 ships, e setting the first kmed the > is some sighted Et Scotia. )t, favor hat and ebastian jnerica. English isheries, formed the only exception. It was visited yearly by the ships of English merchants, and attempts were made at an early period to colonize it. Cape Breton was resorted to by Englishmen, in the year 1590. The earliest attempt to colonize Nova Scotia proper, was made in the year 1598, by the Marquis de la Roche, under the direction of Henry lY. of France. Five years subsequently, M. De Monts was appointed, by the same monarch, governor-general of La Nouvelle Fra/nce, which embraced Nova Scotia, and extended from 40 to 54 degrees north latitude. He sailed from Havre de Grace on the 17th March, 1604, and arrived at a harbor on the south- east side of Acadia on the 16th of May following. The first European settlement was formed at this date, on the shore of the Bay of Fundy, and on the Annapolis River. They called their headquarters Port Royal (now Annap- olis Royal). Newfoundland was taken formal possession of by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, on behalf of the crown of England, twenty-one years prior to this date. In the year 1613, the French settlement at Port Royal (Annapolis) was broken up by Sir Samuel Argall, gover- nor of Virginia, in the name of the English, who con- sidered the French as intruders upon British possessions. In 1621, James I. of England granted the who^'^ country called by the French Acadia, by letters patent, to Sir WiUiam Alexander. Sir William was a Scottish noble- man, and in the patent the country is named Nova Scotia. He, with several of his countrymen — men of distinction — fitted out fourteen vessels, and efiected some settlements. Knights-baronets of Nova Scotia were founded in the year 1624. Shortly after this dute. Sir David Kirk effected the con- ques",, of Canada and Cape Breton. But just as the British were beginning to establish themselves in the country, Charles I., in the year 1632, in the most unceremonious manner, by the treaty of St. n^ ¥. i-^l.'i| ii..:. ypi#'"-" IPIliMI ill i 1^ ' I.V J' l. 1 -t ,i . kI'iiiI iliiiil .1? ; ,. ,^ ^8 ; 656 DIBOOTEXT Ain> EASLT 10ITU2VSS. G the im- laofthe ish gov- e again in effect- , of the I by the nclnded »f April, ht, "all the city Le, were mapolis y garri.- 11 1749. General Niekelson, of Massachusetts, who took a very active part in the subjugation of Nova Scotia, was ap- pointed its commander-in-chief in 1714, and continued to govOTn it till 1719. He was succeeded by Colonel Phillips, under whose administration a council of eleven was formed. At this pMiod the population consisted chiefly of Acadians and Indians. There were, of the former, 4,000 capable of bearing arms. The attempts to make them swear alle* giance to the crown of Great Britain proved, upon the whole, unsuccessful. The French, having lost Nova Scotia, turned their at- tention with much vigor to Gape Breton, which remained still in their hands. In 1720, they began the fortiflca^'on of Louisburg, and, at the cost of £1,250,000 sterling, made it one of the strongest forts in America. In con- junction with the Indians, they made frequent and very destructive forays upon the British settlements in Nova Scotia. In 1745, an expedition, under the joint command of General Pepperell, of New England, and Commodore Warren, of the West India station, after a brief siege, took the fort and town of Louisburg. The Island of St, John (now Prince Edward Island) fell into the hands of the British at the same time. The French made vigorouB but unsuccessful attempts to retake Cape Breton. In 1748, however, by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle, and much to the annoyance of the New Englanders and the provincials generally. Cape Breton was once more re- stored to France. The French, now more anxious than ever to obtain more territory in North America, maintained that it was only the peninsula of I^^ova Scotia that was ceded by the treaty of Utrecht, and that all the country between New Eng- land and the Gulf of St. Lar/rence belonged to the French crown. Roused by strong petitions from New England against this claim, the British government resolved to begin ' * I "M l!'l! iiiiil 658 DIS00YEB7 Ain) EABLT FORTUNES. at once the Bettlem6nt .of the country with their own people. Accordingly 8,760 famiMes were sent out from Great Britain, under the Hon. Ec ward Cornwallifl, who was ap- pointed governor of the province. They arrived at the harbor of Chebucto in the month of June, 1749. They landed, according to the most authentic accounts, on the 2l8t day of June, 1749, and forthwith began to lay out and build the city of Halifax, which from that time be- came the capital of Nova Scotia. This city waa so named by Comwallis in honor of the Earl of Halifax, an active promoter of the enterprise which resulted in founding the city. A council of six persons, under Governor Oomwallis, performea the functions of government. Some five or six years later, Lunenburg was settled by 1,453 Germans. What is now the province of New Brunswick was part of the province of Nova Scotia. Cape Breton was still in the possession of France. In 1755, the French population of Nova Scotia (then including New Brunswick) was 18,000 souls. These were a source of great annoyance and danger to the British settlers. They leagued with the Indians in conflicts with the British settlers. Both they and the Indians were tools in the b^nds of France* which it used against the British at dis- cretion. In the month of September, 1756, the French neutrals (Acadians) were removed from Nova Scotia and distributed among the other British possessions in North America. About 7,000 individuals — men, women, and children — shared this fate. Their property, with the exception of money and movables, was confiscated to the government. They had 1,269 oxen, 1,537 cows, 5,070 young cattle, 93 horses, 8,660 sheep, and 4,197 hogs. In the district of Minas (Horton) alone, 255 houses, 276 bams, 15 outhouses, 11 mills, and 1 church were destroyed. On the invitation of the governor of Nova Scotia, the lands vacated by the expulsion of the Acadians were set- J PROGRESS OF NOVA 800TIA. 659 their own •om Great lio was ap- red at the t9. They Qts, on the to lay ont it time be- } so named ;, an active anding the Domwallis, settled by le of New va Scotia, ranee. In 1 including re a source 3h settlers, the British )ols in the tish at dis< }h neutrals distributed 1 America, children — [ception of jvemment. cattle, 93 district of outhouses, Scotia, the LS were set- tled by farmers from New England. The grandchildren and great-grandchildren of these inhabit, at this moment, the richest and fairest portions of Nova Scotia. Louisburg, in Cape Breton, and Quebec, ip Canada, were now the strongholds of the French in America. Louisburg was twice conquered by the British. It was finally ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Paris, (1763) in which the French relinquished all claims forever to Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, Canada, and all' the islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It was in 1768 that orders were given by Governor Lawrence for the election ct the First Provencial Par- liament of Nova Scotia. It was convened in October of that year. It consisted of twenty-two members, elected by freeholders among the people, a council of twelve, and a governor appointed by the crown. In 1763 Cape Breton was annexed to Nova Scotia. In 1784 it was separated from Nova Scotia, and had a distinct government of its own. But in 1819 it was again joined to Nova Scotia, and has continued a part of that province to the present time. It was only in the year 1784 that New Brunswick was separated fi:om Nova Scotia and erected into a separate province. In 1769, the parliamentary estimate for the province was £4,375. In 1772 the population of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton was 19,120. In the year 1776, after the re- volted American colonies had declared their independence, 1,000 royalists left Boston and arriveu at Halifax. It is estimated that the population of the province was aug- mented by the number of 20,000 from this one source during the American "War of Independence. From this time onwards the progress of Nova Scotia in population, and in the development of her great natural resources, has been marked, steady, regular, and will not Bufter by comparison with any of her older and more powerful neighbors. 42 M -i -" ; ' 4 ii •• 'it m 1 1 l-l' . I vSi; \v ' . •f" vt-. ^rm i M I'll 660 srruATioiT — ^sxtxmt — ^natural fsatubes, bto. CHAPTER II. SITUATION.— BXTBNT.—irATURAL FEATUREa— CLIMATE, «T0. Position. — As a glance at the map will show, Nova Scotia is situated on the eastern side of the continent of North America. It lies between 43** 25' and 47° north latitude, and between 69° 40' and 66° 25' west longi- tude. It consists of a peninsula, called Nova Scotia pro- per, and the Island of Cape Breton, which is separated from the main land by the Strait of Canseau — an outlet of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, joining it to the Atlantic Ocean. The province projects in a southeast direction into the Atlantic It extends about two hundred miles farther east than any other portion of the North American continent, except the coast of Labrador. This position gives it great and peculiar commercial advantages. It marks it as the great natural highway for travel between Europe and the continent of America, especially as regards the vast portions of that continent lying north and west of the province. Extent.— Nova Scotia proper is 266 miles in length, with an extreme breadth of 100 miles, and an area of 15,600 square miles. The Island of Cape Breton is about 100 miles in length, 72 in breadth, 'with an area of 3,000 square miles. The whole superficial area of the province of Nova Scotia is, therefore, 18,600 square miles, or 12,000,000 acres. Still, with an area so limited, it is possessed of vast mineral resources — exhaustless shore fisheries — great diversity of soil, and has the capability of raising with profit a great variety of products. Natueal Fbattjres. — Its surface is undulating. Its MUsy in some instances, are steep and high, though hardly ever rising to the dignity of mountains,— the highest (the " Cobequid Chain") being only 1,100 feet above the level of the sea. Excellent arable soil is found on th« tops 0. PBooBEsa or koya gcoirii. 661 ATE, KTO. w, Nova tinent of 7** north st longi- otia pro- eparated m outlet Atlantic iirection ed miles Lmerican position iges. It between J regards ind west length, area of is about of 3,000 >vince of 000,000 jssed of 1 — great ig with tg. Its I hardly highest ►ove the the tops of the highest hills, and some of them are covered at this moment with rich crops of various grains and esculents. The Zakes and Hit^ers^ or rather streams of the province, are very numerous. The latest maps give 400 lakes, but this is considerably short of the number. We know four lakes in a bingle district, of considerable extent, and yielding excellent trout, which have never yet found their way into any map of the province. The lakes generally tifford excellent trout. Lake Rossignol is the largest in Nova Scotia proper, being twenty miles in length. The next largest is Ship Harbor Lake, fifteen miles long ; and the next again, Grand Lake, near Halifax, nine mil«s in length. The lakes of Cape Breton are much larger and more im- portant. The principal of them are, however, inland seas rather than lakes. The great Bras d'Or Lake is a mag- nificent expanse of water, of great depth, about fifty miles in length, and abounding with the best quality of fish, — mackerel, herring, cod, ady been made, is one grand harbor. The Strait of Cansean, which is eighteen miles in length, and varies from one-half to one and a half miles in breadth, with from fourteen to thirty fathoms of water, comprises several good harbors. It is the grand highway for vessels running between the Gulf of St. Lawrence and all of the American coast lying west of its southern termination. It is often preferred to the more dangerous route by the north of Cape Breton, by vessels bound up the St. Lawrence from the east side of the Atlantic. Scenery. — The scenery of Nova Scotia is not grand or imposing, when compared with that of some other coun- tries. Still it is diversified, picturesque, and in some instances, of exceeding beauty. We know of no scenery — natural scenery — ^that can surpass that of Mahone Bay. It is for sight, not for description. The same may be said also of the view one obtains from the bluff of Cape Blo- midon, and some heights of the North Mountain of Corn- wallis, — whence may be seen the rich and beautiful valley of Comwallis — Horton with its Grand Pr6 — the flourishing little towns of Canning, Kentville, and "Wolfville — 6,000 acres of the finest marsh-land in the world — upward of 3,000 snow-white cottages and farm-houses — thirty church- es — twenty-six school-houses — six temperance halls — thou- sands of orchards in blossom, or laden with fruit, according to the season, — the Basin of Minas, with its numerous in- lets and little estuaries, and the twelve rivers that pour their waters into its bosom, may be all taken in with one sweep of the naked eye — while the glass will add still more to the number and beauty of the objects that consti- tute the entire scene. A portion of four of the finest counties in the province is before you, while the garden of ISTova Scotia is at your feet. Tlie view obtained from one of the peaks of the North Mountain of Annapolis is scarcely inferior. The scenery of Truro, of Pictou, and sections of Cape Breton, is also worthy of mention. Climate. — The climate of Nova Scotia is by no means ' i- ?,)• I i i:,!ri •hi li'ii.l llM', I !;?ki '■^"' mi'^ KiLi.d 664 NATUBAIi FI;ATUBI8~-0IJ3L1TX, ETC. 80 Bevere as it is reported to be, both in Great Britain and the United States. Though, at some seasons, the weather is yerj severe, as compared with England, Ireland, the South of Scotland, and a great portion of the United States of America, still it is more conducive to health than the milder but more humid corresponding seasons in those countries. The length and severity of Nova Scotia winters are greatly compensated by the mildness and beauty of autumn, — which is protracted, not unfre- quently, into the middle of December, — as well as by the months of steady sleighing which follow. Tempeeatueb. — The extreme of cold is 24** Fahr. below zero ; the extreme of heat, 95° above, in the shade. These extremes are not often attained to of late years. The mean temperature of the year is 43*^. There are about 100 days in which the temperature is above YO** in sum- mer. There are about twenty nights in the year in which the temperature is below zero. The coldest season is from the last week of December till the first week of March. The following table exhibits the annual mean temper- ature of several European cities, as compared with Halifax, Nova Scotia, and Toronto, 0. W. : Latltada. W 40/, 48 £: 62 63 6b 49 Tahrenheit Halifax 48.8 £: Toronto 44,4 81 Berliu 47.6 23 Dublin 49.1 7 Frankfort 49.6 S9 Cherbourg 62 . 1 MBAK SUlOaeB TBUFKBATtrBB. Fkbrenhtlt. Halifax 62.0 Toronto 64.6 Greenwich 60.9 Berlin 68.2 Oherboxurg 61 . 9 The annual quantity of rain which falls is about forty- one inches. Of this quantity about six and a half inches fall in the form of snow. The annual* depth of snow is ^ftei^li:li;.ST !«i PBOOBESS OF NOVA. SOOTIA. 665 ritain and le weather ;land, the le United to health g seasons of Nova mildness lot unfre- &s bj the ihr. below e. These ars. The Eire about »** in sum- in which >n is from March. I temper- i Halifax, )nt forty- If inches f snow is eight and a half feet. Much of this quantity of snow is not allowed to rest long in its solid form. There are about 114 days of rain on the average in each year, and much of this rain occurs in winter. The average days of snow in each year is about sixty. Violent tempests are not of frequent occurrence in Nova Scotia. The prevailing winds are the south-west, west, and north-west. In summer the north, north-west, and west winds are cool and dry. In winter they are cold and piercing. The south and south-west are mild — agreeable — delightful. The north-east brings our greatest snow- Btorms ; the east and south-east our most disagreeable rain-storms. The Seasons. — Spring commences in Nova Scotia with the beginning of April. Seed-time and planting continue till the middle of June. Swmmer begins with the latter part of June, and em- braces July and August. Vegetation is very rapid in the middle and western parts of the province, where the hay, crop, and usually nearly all the grain-crops, are harvested by the last week of August or first week of September. Autv/mn is the finest season in Nova Scotia. It is mild, serene, and cool enough to be bracing, and the at- mosphere is of a purity that renders it peculiarly exhil- arating and health-giving. The " Indian summer" occurs sometimes as late as the middle of November, and lasts from three to ten days. The Winter in Nova Scotia may be said to comprise about four months. It begins, some seasons, with the 1st of December, and runs into the month of April. Other seasons it begins in the middle of December and ends with the last of March. The mean temperature of Spring is 49 ; of Summer, 63; of Autumn, 35 ; of Winter, 22. Variety of Proditctiona aa a Test of Climate. — Similari- ty in agricultural productions furnishes a very fair criterion for the comparison of the climates of different countries. t ' ,1 1 1 ? ii • I I u M, '■»' if III V (!( 1 Kb' , : .liiii :f \ii'i. I ijiif El ivii. '^-W^*>M*..;.^^; .-■.-* 666 NATUBAL BSSOTTEOES. Wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, Indian corn, potatoes, turnips, mangel-wurtzel, tomatoes, and other roots and grains grow in abundance and perfection in Nova Scotia. Apples, pears, plums, cherries, and a multitude of smaller garden-fruits attain the utmost perfection. In some sec- tions of the country peaches and grapes ripen in the open air. Heai.th and Longevity. — The climate of Nova Scotia is highly favorable both to health and length of days. Men and women frequently attain to the age of eight^T ears vvHh the full possession of their mental faculties, uud in excellent bodily health. It is not unusual to find men enjoying good health at ninety ; and not a few reach one hundred years, while some pass over that extreme boundary. Let the proportion of deaths to population in Nova Scotia be compared with that in Great Britain and the State of Khode Island : — Nova Scotia, 1 in 70.71, or less than li per cent. Rhode Island, 1 in 46.11, or more than 2 " Great Britain, 1 in 44.76, or more than 2 u The climate of Nova Scotia is not noted for the genera- tion of any disease peculiar to itself. Diphtheria has, of late years, been its most terrible scourge. CHAPTER m. NATURAL KESOiniOE& The natural resources of Nova Scotia are not to be sur- passed by those of any country of equal extent on the face of the earth. Our sketch of them here will be compre- hensive, though necessarily very brief. BoTAiwoAL. — ^We only enumerate the plants and trees i,i;|!l/:;r PE0GKES8 OF NOVA SCOTIA. 667 that enter more especially into the industry and commerce of the province. The most important of these are : the white and red pine; the hemlock; the black, red, and white spruce ; the fir, and the hackmatack or juniper, of the order conifercB. The trees enumerated are commonly called soft wood. They are brought into market in the form of boaiis, plank, sliingles, scantling, &c. The hackmatack is very valuable as ship-timber. Among the most useful ha/rdwood trees are the black sugar-maple, the white 8Uf^ax*-maple, the white soft maple, the red maple, the fitriued maple, the mountain maple ; the white ash, the black ash ; the white beech, the red beech ; the white oak, the black oak ; the yellow, the black, the wh'*e, thv^ cance, and the poplar-leaved birch; and the hazel. The rcck-maple ranks high for the su- perior quality of its timber. The variety known as bird's- eye maple is much used in the manufacture of furniture. "Die black birch is also much used in the manufacture of furniture, and when highly polished is preferred by many to mahogany, to which, in that state, it bears a very strong resemblance. Birches are also used in ship-building. Among the ornamental trees of Nova Scotia the prin- cipal are the sumach, the wild pear, the mountain ash, the wild hawthorn, the wild red cherry, the willow, the aspen, the poplar, the white-leaved poplar, the acacia. Distinguished among medicinal plants are the black cherry-tree and the sarsaparilla. Among the wild plants of Nova Scotia, distinguished for the beauty of their flowers, are the May-flower, the white pond-lily, the wild rose, the Indian cup, Solomon's seal, the tree cranberry, the pigeon-berry, the Indian hemp, the wild pea, the star- flower, the violet. Tlie strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, blueberry, whortleberry, cranberry, gooseberry, are the principal fruit-bearing plants. Agkioultukal. — For a country of such limited area, Nova Scotia possesses great diversity of soil, and the R?^' ¥^ iiir ill if I Pdi. iiiiiiliiiiiiiili •Ilii \\\ It- li 'i A I, ilii ..i! , r" M 673 NAniBAL SBSOTTBOm. (i 1.6 (1 (( .095 (t M .119 u <( .017 (( « .78 Cl « .061 u U 1.285 t( it .094 (( (t 8.60 (( u 2.74 i( (( .11 u (( .09 t( u .6 (1 Red MarBh is far the best. There ie ' .• soil in the world to surpass the best portions of it. So ^ portions of the Grand Pr6 of Horton, and the Oorin, llis Middle and Upper Dykes, have been cropped for upwards of 200 years without manure. The richness of this soil is such, that when carted on upland it makes excellent manure. It has 87.00 per cent, of silioious sand, yqtj fine^ in its composition. Organic matter. Chlorine. Soda. Potash. Salphun'c Acid. Lime. Alumina. Kfignesia. Carbonate of Lime. Oxide of Iron. Magnesia. Phosphoric Acid. Moisture. The weak point oi tnis soil is the small proportions of phosphates it contains; and although it may bear crop- ping for generations without manure, it will gradually run out. Draining is essential to its fertility. Admitting the sea-water to deposit new layers of mud, is one method of restoring its power. Bone-dust and guano are the best restoratives. — 2. Blue Marsh — which is also known by the names, inshore dyke, low marsh, corky dyke, and gray marsh — is much inferior to the red marsh. It contains more vegetable matter than the red, and is often not much superior to boggy swamp. Draining and heavy liming have been tried on this kind of maxsh with excellent effect. When drawn out and compo8t*'d with lime or marl, it makes an excellent top-dressing for upland grass. — 3. The FreshrWcUer AUit/vium of Nova Scotia is generally of very good quality. There is hardly a river, or even a brook in Nova Scotia which is not skirted with more or less of this beautiful and productive soil. It is spoken of usually under the name Intervale. There are about 40,000 acres of alluvial soil ungranted in Nova Scotia and Cape Breton. "i m he world nfl of the dd.e and g of 200 1 iB Buch, lanore. (ortaons of bear crop- gradually A.dmitting He method re the best known by I, and gray t contains I not much kvy liming lent effect. )r marl, it 3._3. The lly of very n a brook 5 or less of of usually ),000 acres ipe Breton. PBOOSXBS OF VOVA BOOTIA. 673 FiftK — ^Ther© are the Bog Soils. Much of the bog land of Nova Scotia is called meadow, and is covered with natural grass. Other portions are covered with Bpruco, alder, and other trees, and usually called swamps; and others again are covered with low shrubs and moss, and are known simply by the name hoga. The greater part of the bog soil of this province is at present unproductive. It is, however, being rapidly reclaimed. When cleared, and burned, and drained, and limed, and sanded, it is found to be equal in productiveness to good marsh land. After being onoe well cultivated, it will yield a succes- sion of crops without manuring. The natural capabilities of N ova Scotia, as an agricul- tural country, will be best illustrated by the subjoined table, compiled from authoritative documents : FBODUOa FSB A LOB>. State of Stat« of Ganadk Now Hew York. Ohio. Wost Brunsirlok. Hotk Scotia. Wheat, bushels, 14 m 13* 20 25 to 83 Barley, « 16 24 17+ 29 89 to 40 Oats, •* 26 88f 24t 84 85 to 45 Buckwheat, " 9i 16* Hi 20i 86 to 45 « 14 2i 16* 88* 40 to 45 Indian Com, « 25 41i 24t 4U 80 to 60 Potatoes, " 90 69 84 226 200 to 850 Tumipa, " 88 , , • ■ 460 400 to 600 Hay, tons. u • • U lito8 What relates to the United States, Canada, and New Brunswick, is taken upon the authority of Professor John- ston and PWncipal Dawson. The rates per acre in Nova Scotia are on the authority of the Secretary of the Central Board of Agricidture, James Iron, Esq., verified by my own observatioB, and the testimony of practical farmers. In Comwallis, well-manured upland yields 300 bushels of potatoes per acre ; while on the dyked land of that place, 600 bushels have been raised off o^e acre. Seventy bush- els of oats have been raised off the same land. Also forty bushels per acre of wheat. This is of the very best dyke land, but witiioot being manured. 1^ t I. m' h'y: W hp id' 111: ^ ^ 1?:^ 1 I t »>. l« 1 , ' 1 H '•i'" 5, :i : ^"1 (I 111 674 KATURAL BESOUB0E8. Zoological. — Like most of their brethren on this conti- nent, the aborigines of Nova Scotia lived by hunting and fishing. The early immigrants too found the chief attrac- tion in the chase and the fishery, which the forests and rivers, and lakes, and shores of the country afforded. They prosecuted the department of hunting with such excessive eagerness, that in less than one century, more than one valuable species became extinct, at the same time that the most valuable, both for fur and food, became very scarce. Among the native qua&rupeda of the province, the moose, cariboo, bear, fox, lynx, weasel, martin, otter, minx, fisher, woodchuck, hare, raccoon, porcupine, beaver, musquash, squirrel, rat, mouse, are still to be found. The moose is the most splendid animal of our forest. Ho is generally sixteen hands high. His palmated horns, which he sheds annually in February, weign from thirty to forty pounds. He has no brow antlers. His head is long, neck short, ears large and pointed, and nostrils great- ly dilated. His upper lip is very broad and pendent, his legs long; tail short ; his hoof is cloven, and when he trots the clattering of it can be heard a long distance. His col- or is light gray, mixed with a dark red. His flesh is ten- der, delicate, easy of digestion, palatable, and nourishijig. He ruminates like the ox, and feeds on moss, on the natu- ral grass of intervales, and on the tender buds and leaves of a species of maple called moosewood. The cwrihoo is distinguished by having brow antlers, which are rounder than the horns of the moose. It is not so tall as the moose, but more swift. Its flesh is very ten- der, and much esteemed for its nourishing qualities. Both moose and cariboo were very numerous in Nova Scotia forty years ago, but they are fast disappearing. The only kind of bear in Nova Scotia is the WMik lewr^ which attains to a very large size, and weighs from 500 to 800 pounds. We have four varieties of /(w—the red, gray, silver, aad ■if 'I PROOBE88 OF NOVA 800TIA. 675 black. Their ftir, with that of the otter, minx, and bea- ver, forms a valuable export. That it is not surpassed by any other fur in the world, may be fairly inferred from the fact, that " a medal was awarded to W. J. Cole- man, Esq., for a very choice collection of skins — fine speci- mens of silver, red, and cross fox, otter, and minx," by the jury of the Great International Exhibition of 1862. The native birds of Nova Scotia are too numerous to be even enumerated here. Each of the six orders into which birds have been divided, is well represented. Of the order Baptores are two families : i)iQ falcons and owls / prominent specimens of which are, the bald-eagle, the fish- hawk, hen-hawk, and sparrow-hawk ; of the owls, we have the white owl, great-eared owl, speckled owl, homed owl, bam owl. Of the order Perchers^ there are the shrikes^ wa/rblers, thrushes, f/y-catcJiers, chatterers, jmches, cross- hills, crows, creepers, humming-birds, king-jisheis, swallows, night-hawks ; under each of these families there are many species, which I attempt not to enumerate. Of the order Climbers, the woodpecker is the most familiar family in Nova Scotia. Of the order Scrapers, the grouse and pigeons are the chief families in Nova Scotia, of which the birch-partridge, spruce-partridge, and wild-pigeon are well known specimens. Of the order Waders, there are herons, snipes, phala/ropes, and plovers. Of the last order, the Swimmers, we have six families — the dv>ck8 and geese, divers, auks, gulls, gannets, and grebes. The reptiles of Nova Scotia are not very numerous, neither are they large in size, nor injurious to man. The principal are the tortoise (fresh water) ; several species of snakes ; some lizards ; several species of frogs, toads, and newts. JFish forms one of the chief natural resources of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton. With the exception of New- foundland, no other country on this continent can ap- proach Nova Scotia in the article of fish. Her seas, bays, and coasts abound with ineidiaustible quantities of mack- 43 1 1 m u k f; ;,.» (' I 11 .t ' ■V m (,'• >■ 676 NATCBAL BBBOUBOES. erel, herring, cod, haddock, halibut, alewives or gaeperean, pollock, saliuon, and ehad. All these are superior in qual- ity. There is hardly a lake, river, or streamlet, that does not abound with excellent trout, salmon, perch, or some other kind of fresh-water fish. The cod, mackerel, and herring, are the most important and numerous. The cod and haddock frequent the coast of the province throughout nearly its entire extent, and in quantities which hardly know exhaustion. The mackerel come in vast " schtUes" of several miles in breadth, sometimes so dense as to im- pede the progress of smaller vessels. With proper appli- ances immense quantities can be secured at a single haul from these masses. Upwards of 3,000 barrels have been taken in a single night, and 1,000 barrels in a single haul. In the autumn of ltl55, upwards of 20,000 barrels of mack- erel were taken in the harbor of Halifax alone. Mackerel of the first quality aboimd in the Great Bras d'Or Lakes, Cape Breton. There is no part of the Atlantic coast where herring may not be caught in abundance. The halibut is a delicious fish, attaining sometimes to the weight of 500 pounds ; it is very abundant on the Atlantic coast. The Bay of Fundy shad is a splendid fish, greatly valued, and always in demand at a good price, at home and abroad. It is seldom found on the Atlantic coast, the Bay of Fundy, with its basins, and estuaries, and trib- utary rivers, being its chief resort. The alewife, aloof, or gaspereau, is caught in rivers and streams, where it resorts in great quantities in spring. The salmon is found in most of the rivers of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, and is taken on the coast in spring, before it has entered the rivers. The common trouty and salmon-trotd are found in all lakes, rivers, and brooks. The eelj j>erckf and sm^dty abound in the harbors and streams. Of sheUrJlsh our coasts furnish the following specimens : The lobster, muscle, sea clam, cockle, blue crab, nipple- fish, oyster, periwinkle, quahog, scallop, razor-fish, shore clam, sea-spider, soldier-crab, sea-crab, and star-fish. PSOGRESS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 677 CHAPTER lY. POPULATION, STATISTICS, &0. The study of the increase and origin of the population of a country h both interesting and important. The peo- ple of a country, after all, is its most precious treasure. It is its men that make a country great or otherwise. Every thing relating to the origin, character, habits, and progress of the population is, therefore, deserving of care- ful preservation and study. Till the taking of the last census in this province, there had been a very sad neglect in securing and preserving information on these subjects. The Mic Mac Indians and French Acadians constituted the bulk of the population of Nova Scotia, inclusive of Cape Breton and what now forms the province ot New Brunswick, prior to the year 1755. when the expulsion of the disloyal Acadians took place. A considerable acces- sion to the British population was made in 1749, when the city of Halifax was founded. At the date of the expulsion of the disloyal Acadians, the British population of the whole province of Nova Scotia was only 6,000. Three years after this date a proclamation was issued by the governor of Nova Scotia, inviting the people of New England to settle on the lands of the banished Aca- dians. The terms were very liberal, and hundreds of substantial farmers came over and settled in the several districts left vacant by the Acadians. In 1764 the population of the province was estimated at 13,000* The American War of Independence added considerably to the population of Nova Scotia. The number of loyalists who sought refuge in the province during that war has been estimated at 20,000. Their descendants are to be found in the counties of Sheibume, Dig^y, Annapolis, Hants, and Guysborough. ill 'i|:|ii n i; I ' ) 5/,!r •„ fsil 678 POPULATION, STATISTIOS, ETC. Emigration from Scotland added largely to the popula- tion of the province in the years 1770-1775. The eastern part of Nova Scotia proper and Cape Breton are indebted mainly to Scotland for their population. By the last census — that of 1861 — we have only 6,927 Negroes, 1,407 Indians, and 20,859 Acadians. The following table will give a view of the increase of the population of Nova Scotia, down to the census of 1861 : Dates. 1755, 1764, 1772, 1784, 1818, 1828, 1887, 1851, 1861, Population. 5,000, 18,000, 19,920, 82,000, 82,053, 158,848, 199,906, 276,117, 880,857, Interval of years. Bate of Increase. ?. 8, 12, 84, 10, 10, 166.41 87.49 29.98 88.12 19.82 Since the period of the American Kevolution, Nova Scotia has received no considerable addition to her popu- lation from immigration. A ship-load of immigrants from Scotland, and another from Ireland, might arrive at some of our principal ports, at the earlier period, once a year, latterly once in two or three years, and land hali' her passengers, and then proceed to Canada or the United States with the remainder. The progress of our popula- tion cannot, therefore, fairly be compared with that of Canada or the United States, as a whole. Neai-iy three- fourths of the population of Canada, by the last census, and about one-half of the population of the United States, have arisen from immigration. When we compare the rate of increase of population in Nova Scotia with that of older countries, the result is highly gratifying to our patriotism. Let us compare it with some of the New England States. From the year of the peace of 1783 to 1850, the popula- tion of Connecticut increased less than twofold; Ehode Island and Massachusetts, nearly threefold ; New Hamp- popula- eastem adebted ly 5,927 rease of )fl861: acreasei. ,41. .49. .93. .12. .82. m, Nova ler popu- antsfrom } at some a year, lair her United popula- that of ly three- census, )d States, olation in result is A States, e popula- l; Ehode Hamp- PB00BES8 OF NOVA BOOTIA. 679 flhire, nearly fonrfold. Nova Scotia proper increased, from 1784 to 1851, more than sixfold, and to 1861, more than eightfold; while, including Cape Breton, it increased more than tenfold. 1784. I860. Rhode Island, 60,400 147,646 New Hampshire, 82,500 317,976 Connecticut, 206,000 370,792 Massachusetts, 350,000 994,504 Nova Scotia (1784), 32,000 (1851) 276,117 The following table will show the increase of the popu- lation for the last ten years in the several counties of the province : por7i.AiioK. Bata per cent 1851. 1861. Increase, of Increue. Halifax (city) 19,949 26,028 5,077 26.44 " (outside city).. 19,163 28,996 4,832 26.21 Total in comity 89,112 49,021 9,909 26.88 Colchester 15,469 20,045 4,576 29.58 Oumberland. 14,839 19,633 6,194 86.22 Pictou 26,698 28,785 8,192 12.47 Sydney. . 18,467 14,871 1,404 10.42 Gnysborough 10,838 12,718 1,875 17.80 Inverness 16,917 19,967 8,060 18.02 Bichmond 10,881 12,607 2,226 21.44 SjS'Ztoac.nt, } ^'"^ \^Z\ ».»2» »»••« Hants 14,880 17,460 8,180 21.14 Kings 14,188 18,781 4,698 82.48 Annapolis 14,286 16,968 2,467 17.26 Digby 12,262 14,761 2,499 20.89 Tarmouth 18,142 16,446 2,804 17.68 Shelbume 10,622 10,668 40 .48 Queens 7,266 9,366 2,109 29.06 Lunenburg 16,896 19,632 8,287 19.74 Totals 276,117 880,867 64,740 19.83 The average number of members in each family in the province is 6.07 ; in Canada, in 1851, the average was 6.26, and in Great Britain, at the same date, 4.73. Obiqin of the Population. — Out of a pcpulation of 830,857, there are 294,706 native bom, leaving only 86,151 who have come from abroad ; the proportion bom out of the province being 10.92 per cent, of the whole. m t Hil'^'l^'ll-f' 'II ii !i iiv il !;!ji!i; ;*il ' •> 11 1 P' ! I: K f^H 680 POPULAHOW, STATISTICS, ETC. The foUowmg abstract, prepared from the census of 1861, will give an interesting view of our population by origin: Native Nova SootUu. 294,706 Bcottiah 18,896 Irish 9,818 English 9,998 Welsh 97 Onernsey 28 Jersey 62 IsleofMsn 8 Canada 868 New Bninswlok 3,261 Kewlbundland 927 Prince Edward Island 870 Magdalen Islands 12 Westlndiee 216 United States 1,960 France 88 Spain 11 Portugal 9 Sardinia. 1 Italy. 14 BomatSea 40 Turkey. 8 Places in the Mediterranean 41 Germany 198 Norway. Belgium . Denmark Hungary., " ■ id.. Holland East Indies Russia ... Africa Australia New Zealand... Prussia Poland Switzerland .... Sweden South America. . All other places. 168 Total population. 880,867 8 IB 9 1 7 16 8 16 8 S 17 1 6 8 9 TheKiarGious Census of Nova Scotia maybe exhibited as follows : Episcopalians 47,744 Uniiea Presbyterians . . 69,466 I qo ki o Church of Scotland.... 19,068 f '^"'' Bomanisto 86,281 Baptists 66^886 Wesleya.. Methodists 84,066 Free Christian Baptists 6,704 Christian Disciples. 901 Congregationallsts 8,188 Beformed PresbyterlsBs 286 other Creeds not oUssed 822 Lnthenuu 4,888 Unirersalists Quakers Bandemonians Bible Christians... Campbellites Evangelical Union. Swedenborgians . . . Mormons Deists 846 168 46 118 83 148 lb 87 8 No creed given 8,814 Tota! population ; 880,867 FBOTESSMNS, TBADB8, AND OOOXTPATIOini Farmers 87,897 FarmLaboren 9,806 Fishermen. 7,660 Mariners 6,242 Laborers 8,908 Carpenters and Joinc.'S 4,466 Shoemakers 1,976 Merchants 1,472 Blacksmiths 1,618 Shipwrights 1,122 Coopers 1,146 Tailors 670 Tanners and Curriers 863 Traders 868 Servants 474 Painters 208 MiUers 692 Lumberers 607 Grocers 819 Clerks 494 Dressmakers 209 ICosons 686 Miners 666 'Weavers 19A Wheelwrights 178 Truckmen 176 Saddlers and Hamess-Mdcers 167 Sailmakers 121 Shop-keeners 107 MilfwrighU 184 Hotel and Inn keepers 189 fJablnetma'-ors 147 Carriage-makers 169 fiutchers 147 Printers 116 Bakers 90 Brick-makers 91 Accountants 44 Calkers 74 Grindstone-makers 76 Quarrymen 60 Pilots 88 Bricklayers 84 Blggers 88 Plasterers 6i Plumbers. >8 iit PB0OBEB8 OF NOVA SCOTIA. 681 mniiLBn Machinists Moulders Mastmakers Sawyers Tinsmiths Tailoresses Watch and Clookmaken . . . Stonecutters Telegraph Operators Turners Tobacconists Beamstresses Gardeners Iron Founders Engineers Dyers „ Carders and Fullers Confectioners Civil Engineers Boatboilders Cab-drivers Chemists and ApotlMcarles. Carvers and Gilders Cfaairmakers. Boarding-house keepers . . . Block and Pump makers. . . Brewers Architects Artists Booksellers and Stationers. Brass Founders Bookbinders Bankers Brokers Auctioneers Builders Basketmakers Boilermakers Jewellers Judges Clergymen and Ministers . . 76 86 88 'il8 68 181 94 71 83 21 84 18 90 46 16 64 17 'ii 71 20 42 16 16 18 47 16 18 27 17 12 12 8 6 8 6 7 4 11 5 FhystdanE and SnrgMBS 170 Barrister an d Attorneys 147 School Teachers 864 Students 98 Magistrates 1,220 High Sheriffs 18 Coroners 80 Judges of Probate 14 Protbonotaries 18 Aldermen 18 Clerks of Peace 22 B'-gister of Deeds 1 Coflcctcrs and Controllers of Cus- toms 61 Heads of Departments 8 Surgeons 86 Teachers of Deaf Mutes 3 Winedealer* 8 Upholsterers 2 Trunkmakers 2 Silversmiths 4 Stevedores 20 KopQinakere 4 Nailcntters 8 Peddlers 16 Pottprs 9 Pia>. jrtemakera 9 Papermakers 6 Matchmakers T Marbleworkers 16 Musicians 27 Light-house keepers 27 Lumber dealers 7 Iron-puddlers T Gasfltters 14 Gunsmiths 6 Farriers 12 Ferrymen IS Distillers 6 Brushmakers 7 Dentists. 6 AUothers. 8T Diseases and Deaths. — The total nnmber of deaths in one year — the year previous to the taking of the census of 1861 — was 4,769, being 1.41 per cent of the entire pop"Jation. 2,480 of this number were males, and 2,199 females. One-third of the total number of deaths is of persons under five years of age, and over two-fifths of this number take place under one year of age. The census of 1851 showed the mortality of that period to be 2,802, or about one per cent, of the population. The increased mortality, as shown by the census of 1861, is owing to the ravages of that fatal, and, in this province, compara- tively new disease, diphtheria. In the year immediately preceding the census it carried off upwards of one thousand persons. The only other disease that approaches it by half is consumptiony which had swept ofi^ 767 in the same I'j 'til ^! •! h' .1 •• V,! 1' t Is' I • liJiA LI ■' I '•'5' 682 POPULATION, 8TA1I8TI08, ETC. year. Sca/rlet/ever ranks next, being 210 ; then meaaleSj 152 ; next crowp^ 122 ; imflamviatiorh of the hinga and s&re throat are the only other specific diseases that have taken off as many as one hundred in the year. The mortality in Upper Canada, in 1851, was under oue per cent. ; in Lower Canada it was one and one-third per cent. ; in New Brunswick it was the same as in Lower Canada.* * DEATHS AND OAUSKS OF DBATHS. ClaM and Nature of Disease. Xpidemic, Endtmie, and Conta- ffioua DiMoaet. Cholera Cramp Intermittent Fever. Diphtheria. Dysenterr Typhus Fever. Hooping Cough Influenza If easles Scarlet Fever Bmall Pox DittoMt afih* SurwAU Syttem. Apoplexy Brain Fever Diseases of the Brain EpilepsT ^..^...^^.. Paralysis ....^ Insanity ,..„ Convulsions.... ^. DUteutt qfihe DiQtMct Organ*. Bilious Fever Diseaseof Liver Disease of Stonsach Indigestion Debility Jaundice Inflammation of Bowels . . Inflammation of Stomach. Disease of Bowels Worms. Teething TUltin* , ^1861. . Males. Females. Males. Females, Under 10 years of age. . . 44,000 48,462 46,668 44,661 From 10 to 20 88,701 88,444 40,848 89,716 " 20 " 80 20,277 22,886 27,998 80,148 " 80 " 40 14,616 14,666 17,447 18,618 " 40 » 60 10,616 10,271 12,898 18,066 Above 60 years 14,878 14,228 20,489 18,844 187,677 188,446 * 166,288 164,942 * Column of ages not given not included. M*.' ^ f J, ■ w tth' J.II, % ' 'im i '!?' 684 UilDUSTBIAL BESOUBOES. CHAPTER V. INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES. Undek this head may be comprised the Agricvlturcd, Fishing^ Mining, Commercial, Shijhbuilding, Manufac- turing, and Ijvh ^firiiig interests, with the progress made in each c ^' ,#*e departments. The natural resources oi Nova Scot) jlj y.r of these departments are such as to afford scope . j£ inc ' ' lite indmtr al progress. Her geo- graphical position affords eminent facilities for the pursuits of commerce. Her fisheries have no rivals. Her coal-fields — the umpires of the Great International Exhibition being judges — ^have no equal / and her iron, gypsum, and gold, no superior ; while a great portion of her soil is as fertde and productive as any in the world. Aqeioultural. — T^asX this is. an important part of our provincial industry, will appear from the fact that there are 37,897 farmers, and 9,306 farm laborers, given in the census of 1861 — something considerably over one-fowih of the entire male population of the province. In Upper Canada, which is eminently an agricultural country, only three-eighths of the male population claim to be farmers, in the census of 1851 ; while the State of New York, in the census of 1855, returned only 321,930, or about one- fifth, as such. Ab a grazi/ng country. Nova Scotia takes a very respec- table position among her neighbors. The counties of Kings, Annapolis, Cumberland, Colchester, and Hants, owing to their excellent and extensive marshes and inter- vales, are not to be surpassed by any other place in Brit- ish America, in this respect. No finer heef is produced in America than that of Kings county, and the praise of Ammpolis cheese bids fair to be as wide-spread as that of Gloucester, Cheshire, or Dunlop cheese. As a wJieat jpro- s ill 11 pH IMi^l i1, w M 5 t m m ' [■■ '! I ['n M 1 ! ;f . . 1^ ■^ i: '•".■;'j 41 PBOOEE88 OF NOVA SCOTIA. 685 duoing country, Nova Scotia cannot take rank with the Great West. She does not raise her own bread. Still, in this article she surpasses five of the New England States, and twelve of the more recently settled States and Territories. The following table will illustrate this fact : Bush. Rye. 67,488 Oats. Buck- Barley. Tons Lbs. Lbs. BuBhcls Wheat. wheat. Hay. Butter. 8,618,890 Cheese. 042,009 Potatoes. Nova Scotia W7.167 1,884,487 170,801 196,097 287,887 1,986,789 Maine 806,209 • ■ • • . ■ > • 104,528 151,781 . • • . .... ■ . . ■ .... K.Uampsh'e 180,668 • • • • 978^1 65,205 70,256 .... «... . • • . Mass 81,211 ■ • • > . . • ■ 106,892 112,886 • • • > .... .... . . * ■ B. Island. . . 49 • • • • 216,282 1,246 18,876 78,858 1,066,626 396,748 661,089 Connectlmit 41,726 > • ■ • 1,268,788 • * • > 19,090 • ■ > ■ . ■ * * .... DlstofCoL 17,870 6,C09 ai84 878 76 1,974 14,860 .... 28,293 Florida 1,021 1,162 66,686 66 .. 2,690 87^868 18,824 7,S28 Alabama.... 994,041 17,261 • ■ • • 848 8,968 81,801 * • * * 80,428 246,001 Mississippi . 187,990 9,606 . . > > 1.121 229 12,617 .... 20,814 261,483 Louisiana .. 417 476 26,878 8 20,672 658,186 1,148 95,883 Texas 41,198 8,108 178,888 66 'i776 8,897 2,819,674 92,018 98,543 Arlcaosas. .. 199,689 8,047 666,188 176 177 8,924 1,864,104 ... * 198,883 California . . 17,821 • ■ . • . . • • • ■ • • 9,712 2,688 706 . • ■ • 9,292 Minnesota. . 1,401 126 80,682 615 .... 2,069 1,100 • ■ ■ . 21,146 Oregon Utah 211,943 106 eM46 • • > • 878 211,784 . • * • 91,886 107,702 210 10,900 882 1,799 4,288 74,064 .... 48,963 New Mexico 196,517 . . • • • • • • 100 6 101 • . . • 8 Missoari ... • « . . 44,268 . ■ • > 28,641 9,861 116,284 • a • • • . . . 989,006 Kentucky . . Wisconsin.. • • • > • • • • • .. . 16,097 95,848 116,296 • • . . .... 1,496,437 • • . * • . . . , , , , 79,878 • • • • 888,816 . • ■ • 1,402,077 lo^ra • ■ • • 19,916 . • > * 62,616 26,098 84,593 1,988,128 276,120 Georgia .... ■ • ■ ■ 68,760 • • ■ > , , 11,501 28,497 .... 46^891 227,879 S. Carolina.. • • • • 48,790 • • * > 288 i588 26,427 2,979,976 4,810 186,494 N.Carolina.. • ••• • • ■ • • • • • 16,704 2,786 14^180 ... * 95.048 620,813 Maryland .. • • ■ ■ • • ■ • 108,671 746 146,070 . • • . 8,926 764,988 Tennessee.. • •■■ • > • * ■ • • • 19,427 2,787 72,942 « . • . . * • ■ 1,067,844 Delaware... • • • • 8,066 60,461 8,616 66 80,169 1,684,867 8,187 840,643 New Jersey. • • • • • • • • • • • • > > . . 6,492 • • • • • * • • 600,819 .... Virginia..:. • • • • • • • • • ■ • • • • • • 25,487 • • • • • • > . 484,860 • t • • Illinois • •• • • ••• . • •• • • • • 110,795 • ■ ■ • * * • • • • • . .... Indiana .... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ■ 46,488 . . • • . • • . • ... Michigan. .. • • • • • • •• ■ • • ■ • • •• 76,249 • • ■ • • • • • • . • • ■ . • • Fennsylva'a. • • • • • ■ • • • ■ • • ■ ■ • • 165,534 • • • • • • • • . ■ • • .... Vermont . . . .... .... .... 42,160 .... .... .... .... The above table is based on the census of 1851. It ap- pears from the above, that in the growth of Jij/e^ Nova Scotia exceeds sixteen of the neighboring States and Tem- tories; in the growth of Oats, she excels thirteen; in JBuchwheat, twenty-three ; in Barley, every State and Ter- ritory in the Union, with the exception of Ohio and New York. In the growth of Hay, and in the produce of the Dairy, the larger, more populous, and older States only are in advance of Nova Scotia. In Hay, she is ahead of twenty-two ; in Butter, of fifteen ; in Cheese, of fourteen ; while in Potatoes she leaves twenty-three of them far be- t '. m iff tfefr-ft-r m, ' P*': ^ : 1; ' pi' 1^ 11 686 nn>U8TBXAL BE8OUB0B8. hind her. In the growth of Indian com, most of the States surpass Nova Scotia. The quality of the com raised in the province is excellent, and the rate per acre is larger than in any place we know of. It is only in some of the western counties of the province that any effort has been made to raise it The progress of Nova Scotia in husbandry is not by any means what it might be, were skill, and industry, and en- terprise applied to her natural resources, as they have been in some neighboring countries. Too little attention is given to the laws of rotation — to the preservation and preparation of manures — to the management of live stock — to the using of improved implements and modes of cul- ture. There is need of a second Agricola, to give a new impetus to our agricultural interests. Agricultural socie- ties in many of our counties are but a mere form, without life or energy ; and the Central Board, if not entirely de- funct, is certainly asleep for all practical purposes. Comparison with the past, however, will show that we are making substantial progress. The number of acres under cultivation at three sncces- sive periods were as follows i In 189T. ^n 1801. In 1861. 292,009 acres. 889,322 acres. 1,028,032 acres. The cultivated land of the province is given in the cen- ISQS of 1861, under the following heads . Salt marsh, 20,- Y29 acres; diked marsh, 35,487 acres; cultivated inter- vale, 77,102 acres ; and cultivated upland, 894,714 acres ; making a total of 1,028,032 acres, the total value of which is estimated at $18,801,366, the average value given per acre is : of diked marsh, $62.06 ; of salt marsh, $26.04 ; of cultivated intervale, $27.45 ; and of cultivated upland, $15.58. This is undoubtedly an under-estimate of the value of every one of these classes of land. It is to be accounted for in a great measure by the local preju- dices of a great many people against giving the full value J' *^jft> ' : lOBt of the com raised TO is larger ome of the •t has been not by any ry, and en- Y have been ittention is vation and f live stock odes of cul- give a new Itural socie- rm, without entirely de- oses. low that we hree encces- L8<1. )32 acres. in the cen- marsh, 20,- vated inter- 4,714: acres ; value of jrage value salt marsh, »f cultivated der-estimate id. It is to local preju- 10 full value PBOOBBSg OF NOVA BOOTIA. 687 of their real estate to the enumerators, for fear that it would be made the basis of taxation. In some counties, cultivated upland sells for $50, $60, $80, and in some cases, $100 per acre ; while diked marah of the most ordinary description brings $80, and the best from $200 to $350. ▲BATiTB rnxxaaaasn or AOIUO0LTITIIAL PBODVOB, BIO., »0B 1827, ] L851, AND 1861 1 1897. 1801. 1861. Wheat, bush. 162,861 297,167 812,081 Barley, " 196,097 269,678 Rye, 61,488 69,706 Oats, " - 449,626 1,884,487 1,978,137 Bnckwheat, " 170,801 196,840 Indian Corn, " • ••••• 87,476 16,629 Peas & Beans, " 21,838 Potatoes, " 1,986,789 8,824,864 Turnips, " • ••••• 467,127 664,818 Other Roots, " 87,727 Apples, " 186,484 Plums, " 4,836 Hay, t»n8, 168,218 287,887 884,287 Maple Sngar, lbs., 249,649 Butter, " 8,613,890 4,632,711 Cheese, " 652,069 901,296 The value of the agricultural products of 1861 is esti- mated at $8,021,860. OOMPABATiyB STATBIONT SHOWINa INORBAai! Or UTB STOCK, rBOH 1808 TO 1861. ISOa 1837. 1861. 1861. Horses 6,768 12,951 28,786 41,927 Sheep 75,864 173,731 282,180 882,658 Swine 27,696 71,482 51,688 68,217 Neat Oattle, including MUch Cows 66,972 110,818 Neat Oattle, exclusive of Oows 168,867 151,708 Milch Cows 86,866 110,604 Tht value of the live stock of Nova Scotia is estimated at $6,bu2,399. A goof^ milch cow costs from $20 to $40. Sometimes cows of superior breeds sell for $60 and $80. ,5 T, ■ i\ 1-1 ''d \ :W . ... . , P .1' ' .iJ: in ■ k;-' li 688 mDUSTRIAL BESOUBOES. The best fatted oxen are produced in Kings county. The next best in the county of Cumberland ; Hants and Annapolis counties come next. A pair of fatted oxen of the first quality yield the owner from $190 to $300 at his own barn-yard. This re- fers specially to Comwallis, Kings county. In the department of agricultural industry, Pictou ranks first, Colchester second, Cumberland third, Kings fourth, Annapolis f fth, Inverness sixth, Sydney seventh, Hants eighth, Lunenburg ninth, Halifax tenth, Cape Breton (county) eleventh, Yarmouth twelfth, Digby thirteenth, Victoria fourteenth, Guysborough fifteenth, Queens six- teenth, Richmond seventeenth, Shelbume eighteenth. It will be noticed that those counties which rank he lowvist in agricultural, rank the highest in fishing industry. FiSHiNo Industry. — If we except Newfoundland, Nova Scotia may be safely said to possess the finest fisheries in the world. There is no part of its coast of 1,000 miles, where, at one season or another, a profitable fishing may not be pursued. Its bays and harbors, and inland lakes, seas, and rivers, abound also with excellent fish. The following comparative statement of the number of vessels and boats employed, and men engaged in fishing, and the quantities of fish cured in Nova Scotia, in 1851 and 1861 respectively, will exhibit the progress being made in this department : 18SL im. Vessels , 812 900 Boats 6,161 8,816 Men employed 10,894 14,822 Quintals of Dry Fish 196,484 896,426 Barrels ot Mackerel 100,047 66,108 Barrels of 8had 8,586 7,649 Barrels of Alewives 6,848 12,666 Barrels of Salmon 1,669 2,481 No. of Smoked Sahnon 2,788 Barrels of Herring 68,200 194,170 Boxes of Herring, smoked 16,409 86,667 The only kind of fish in which there is a decrease in the catch, as compared with 1351, is the mackerel. The migra- gs county, ilanta and r yield the l. This re- 'ictou ranks ngs fourth, nth, Hants ipe Breton thirteenth, Queens sls- iteenth. It : "He lowv^st iistry. Hand, Nova fisheries in ,000 miles, ishing may iland lakes, h. number of 1 in fishing, tia, in 1851 being made 1881. 900 8,816 14,822 896,426 66,108 7,649 12,666 2,481 2,788 194,170 86,667 ircase in the The migra- V ■/ i. iiii i 1 'Ip' L PROGEE88 OF NOVA BCOTIA. 689 tory habits of this fish will account for the difference. 230,979 gallons of fish-oil have been manufactured in the province in 1860. 43,965 nets and seines are reported in the census of 1861. The value of the -vessels, boats, and nets used in the fisheries of the province, is estimated at $1,780,450. The value of the fish and oil reported in 1861 is estimated at $2,376,721. Halifax ranks first in this de- partment of industry, Guysborough second, Richmond tliird, Lunenburg fourth, Shelburne fifth, Yarmouth sixth, Digby seventh. Cape Breton (county) eighth, Inverness ninth. Queens tenth, Victoria eleventh, Annapolis twelfth, Sydney thirteenth, Kings fourteenth, Fietou fifteenth, Colchester sixteenth, Cumberland seventeenth, Hants eighteenth. The set-line or " trawl" fishing is purtiued to a large extent by foreign fishermen, to the serious injury of our fishing interests. It is maintained by good authorities on the subject, that if this method is long persisted in the banks will bo rendered entirely unproductive. Lines having hooks suspended to them, about three feet apart, f.re made to descend nearly to the bottom of the liea, where the mother fish repose to deposit their spawn. Tliese baited hooks are seiwed by these fish, generally the largest, before they have accomplished the important office of reproduction. The consequence will inevitably be, the extermination of that invaluable kind of fish in that most productive of all regions. Destroy the mother with her brood, her offspring, and the result is one and inevitable in all nature. It is the interest of all governments to put an instant and peremptory stop to this suicidal practice. m I i* \... mi ^j M'^ 690 OOMMEXO. \L INDTTSTBT. CHAPTER VI. COMMERCIAL INDUSTBT. The geographical position of Nova Scotia ip. highly favor- able to commercial pursuits, — and as her natural resources becoma more fully developed, there is no doubt her com- merce wiU increase indefinitely. It was only in the year 1818 that Halifax and St. John wero appointed free ports : Pictou and If^dney, C. B., in 1828. Now there are sixty free ports in the province. The largest portion of the exports of Nova Scotia is drawn from the fishing and agricultural interests. In 1 860 the total value oijiah exported, after supplying home con- sumption, was $3,094,499 ; in 1854 it was $2,093,4 Ul The total value of live stock and agricultural produi is exported in 1860 was $786,526 ; of lumber, $767,136 ; products of mines and quarries, $658,257 ; furs, $72,218 ; manufactures, $69,978 ; vessels, $168,270 ; miscelkneous, $151,132 ; imported from other countries and reexported, $1,019,788 : making the total exports for 1860, $6,';87r 804. The chief exj ^rts to Great ^">ain consist of ships built in the province, ind squar id sawed timbers. The West Indies is the principal market for our fish. The United States is also an important market for some kindja of our fish, also for potatoes, ooal, gypsum, and freestone. The trade of Nova Scotia with Canada is rapidly increasing. Nova Scotia imports the greater part of what she ne^ds of textile manufactures ; also, hardware, cutlery, pottery, chinaware, ship-chandlery, chemicals, glassware, &c., from Great Britain. Breadstuffs, tea, sugar, tobacco, wood ware, &c., are largely imported from the United States. The value of COMMSBOIAL INDU8TBT. 601 imports from the United S*atoa to the port of HaliraiL alone, in 1861, was $1,736,879, and of thoue from Great Britain to the same port in that year, was $2,222,266; from the British North American provinces, $760,800 ; the "West Indies, $107,443 ; from ail other countries, $678,571. Every one of the o itports import largely from the United States ; Yarmouth imported goods to the value of $224,967 in 1861 from the United States, while the value of all her imports was b-t $39^3,597. The " Reciprocity Treaty" hv^ given a very favorable impetus to our com- merce with the United States. All unmanufactured Hrticles, the growth and produce of Nova Scotia, may, by virtue of that treaty, be exported free of duty to the United States. The following statement will exhibit the value of the imports and exports of Nova Scotia from 1852 to 1861 : Importa Exports. 1852, 15,970,877 $4,853,908 1853, 7,085,481 6,393,588 1854, 8,955,410 8,696,525 1855, 9,413,516 4,820,(554 1856, 9,349,160 8,864,790 1857, 9,680,880 6,967,830 1858, 8,075,590 6,321,490 1859, 8,100,955 6,889,130 1860, 8,511,549 6,619,534 1861, 7,618,227 6,774,884 The value of ships exported is not included in the above. In 1860 that article amounted to 8,842 tons, valued at $295,054. TBSSBLS ENTEBKD IKWABD AT THI PORTS OF KOTA. SCOTIA IN 1861. VesMli. Tons. Men. Great Britain 194 97,538 C,lll British West Indies 259 81,436 1,916 British North America. 2,681 227,596 14,451 United States 2,851 808,638 18,225 Other coontriea 888 86,566 2,101 Total 6,828 698,768 41,804 44 ikti 11 -> * i . if* 11 f i »■ It ': |fc.- !?' Is.." Si" m . 1 wi v>- U*: 692 OOMMEROIAL INDUSTRY. VKSSELfl OUUBID OUTWABD AT THB P0BT8 Of NOVA SCOTIA W 186L Yeuclt. Tons. Men. Great Britain. 152 68,289 4,262 British West Ind'ea 476 62,890 4,541 British North America 2,655 239,036 14,995 United States 2,509 806,333 15,836 Other coantrieo 297 29,084 1,886 Total 6,089 695,582 41,620 In Bbipping Nova Scotia takes a high rank, in propoiv tion to her extent and population. It was shown, in an official report from the governor of the province to the colonial secretary, in 1853, that Nova Scotia then owned one-third as much tonnage as France — that she surpassed the Austrian empire by 2,400 vessels, and by 69,000 tons ; that she owned 116,000 tons of shipping more than Bel- gium — 38,449 tons more than the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies — 90,783 more than Prussia. Holland, which once contested the supremacy of the sea with Great Britain, owned at that date (1853) but 72,640 tons of shipping more than Nova Scotia ; Sweden, with a population of three millions, surpasses Nova Scotia in shipping by only 36,927 tons. At the same date, only six of the United StatcB of America exceeded Is ova Scotia in tonnage, viz.: MainCj Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Mary- land, and LouiBiaua. In 1846, the tonnage of all the British North American colonies wns 252,832 tons. That of Nova Scotia alono was 141,091 tons — something considerably over the half. In 1853, the tonnage of Nova Scotia had increased to 189,083 tons. It is now (1861) 248,061 tons. The num- ber of vjdsels is 3,258 ; estimated value, $6,487,490. Skij BuELDiNG. — Great facilities for ship-building exist Vu. Novtt Rcotia, and it has attracted the capital and indus- • r} of mantr of the inhabitants, from the earliest settle- n;C!nt ol tiif' <*.ountry. Correct statistics, showing the ex- tent to T: iiic'> this branch of industry was carried on in earlier years, are not attainable. The greater number of veBseb built in the province are comparatively small, and CK>MMEBCIAL mDUSTBT. 693 adapted to the coasting trade, and trade with the United States. Many are built, however, at Pugwash, New Glasgow, Pictou, Sydney, C. B., Shelburne, Windsor, and other places, of a superior description, and ranging from 300 to 1,200 tons ; and they command a ready market in England and elsewhere abroad. The following statement will exhibit the extent to which ship-building has been prosecuted, from 1853 to 1861 : Tear. 1858, 1854, 1855, 1866, 1857, 1858, 1869, 1860, 1861, No. of Vessels, 203 244 286 208 161 233 216 Tonnage. 81,876 62,814 40,469 89,582 Vslue. $1,667,090 2,54(1,596 2,240,710 1,852,640 16,366 20,'684 23,684 757,900 852,881 972,448 LuMBERiNO. — ^This department of industry is not prose- cuted to the same extent that it had been some years ago, in Nova Scotia ; still, however, the products of the forest form an important part of our exports. Deals, boards, scantlings, spars, knees, and other ship-timber; hoops, staves, laths, shingles, and cord-wood, are all comprised under this head. There are in Nova Scotia 1,401 saw-mills ; 130 shingle mills; 6 lath mills. In 1860, the saw-mills turned out 25,072 M. feet deals ; 46,607 M. feet pine boards ;. 36,422 M. feet spruce and hemlock boards. The return of staves for the same year is 7,659 M. Timber, 22,592 tons. The county of Queens takes the lead in this branch of industry. It saws more than one-half the pine boards that are sawed in the province. Lunenburg comes next, and then Digby. Pictou ranks fourth.; it exceeds Jl the other counties in hewed timber. Halifax exceeds the others in staves ; and Cumberland in the quantity of deals. In the census of 1861, only 507 give themselves as lum- berers. Many others, no doubt, devote part of their time M ^m^r. I 111!; I i ?;] rr; fc 694 COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY to lumbering, while they are given in tba census as farm- ers, or carpenters, or laborers. Manufaoturino. — The manufacturing industry of No- va Scotia is but in its infancy. We are still dependent on Great Bntain and the United States, to j. very large ex- tent, in this department, as has already been indicated under the head of " CoTr.merce." The position and inex- haustible natural r6:ources of Nova Scotia, however, war- rant the expectation that in the course of some years, as her population increases, and these resources become de- veloped by the application of skill and industry and en- terprise and capital, she will occupy the first position amongst all her neighbors as a manufacturing country. If she comes short of this, it will be through lack of energy and enterprise on the part of her sons. The number of saw-mills, shingle-mills, and lath -mills, has been already given under the head of " Lumbering." This class of in- dustry is usually placed under the head of Manufactures. In 1851, there were in Nova Scotia 398 grist-mills ; in 1861, 414. Hand looms, in 1851, 11,096; in 1861, 13,230. Cloth fulled in 1851, 119,068 yards; in 1861, 281,709 yards. Cloth not fulled, in 1851, 790,104 yards; in 1861, 1,039,214 yards. Malt liquor manufactured in 1851, 71,076 gallons ; in 1861, 109,867 gallons. The value of leather manufactured in 1851 was $210,500 ; of the same article manufactured in 1861, $240,386. There is not much iH)om for comparison with former years in this de- partment of our provincial industry ; its history is simply from nihil up to something. Tliat something, however, is hopeful. In addition to what has been already enumer- ated, we can add the following : 77 carding mills, with 116 employes — value of mills, $39,440 ; 3 soap and candle factories, value, $7,000 ; 4 block factories, $1,650 ; 3 axe factories, $3,130 ; 2 rake factories, $1,400 ; 3 chair facto- ries, $4,400 ; 3 cloth factories, $14,800 ; 1 paper mill, $1,000 ; 1 tobacco factory, $800 ; 2 nail factories, $6,000 ; 11 iron foundries, $114,600 ; 10 carriage, factories, $19,- COMMEBCIAL INDUBTBT. 695 940 ; 44 tanneries, $74,600 ; 3 cabinet factoriefl, $7,100 ; 1 brush factory, $1,200 ; 1 gas factory, $180,000 ; 1 trunk factory, $300 ; 5 breweries, $46,000 ; 2 joiners' factories, $14,400 ; 2 brick factories, $8,200 ; 15 fulling mills, $18,- 800 ; 8 shoe factories, $4,000 ; 2 planing factories, $7,000; 1 plaster mill, $400; 1 grind-stone factory, $4,000; 1 coal-oil factory, $1,000; 2 baking factories, $7,000; 1 engine factory, $4,000; 1 pottery, $500; 6 bark-mills, $7)600; 1 pail factory, $100; various kinds of factories, 12 ; value, $59,000. The number of bricks made in 1861 was 7,659 M. ! value, $51,703. The number of grind-stones made, 46,496 ; value, $44,100. Bushels of lime burnt, 136,848; maple sugar made, 249,549 pounds. By the census of 1861, it appears that 13,51^> of our population arc employed in manufacturing. CHAPTER VII. . PUBnO •WORKS.— CROWN LANDS.— REVENUE, fto. Railways. — The oldest piece of railway in Nova Scotia is in the county of Pictou, between the Albion Mines and " the loading ground." It is about eight miles in length ; it is owned by the General Mining Associati jn, and was built upwards of twenty years ago. The Nova Scotia Railways, built and ovTied by the province, are of more recent date. They were commenced in April, 1854, and completed in December 15th, 1858, They consist of a tnmk line from Halifax to Truro, and a branch line to "Windsor. The number of miles completed is 92.75. The distance from Halifax to Tnu*o is about sixty miles, and from " the Junction " to Windsor about thirty-three miles. The Windsor branch brings Halifax into railway communication with the Bay of Fundy ; the Eastern line, when extended to Pictou, will open railway i^ i ' m ■ f-i! I' Ifi-^ •■ 696 PUBLIO W0BK8, ETO. communication with tho Gulf of St. Lawrence. The line from Truro to Pictou is being located. The distance is forty miles. The cost to the province of the 92.75 miles already built may be stated as follows : Oost of bailding permanent waj, inclading Bidings, stations, and buildings $3,806,148 86 Cost of locomotives 231,179 00 Cost of rolling stock (as cars) 121,600 GO Total $4,248,927 86 There are on the lines twenty locomotives, ten first-class cars, eight second-class cars, one hundred and cixty other cars, two snow-ploughs. The road will compare favorably with British railroads, and is superior to the railroads on this continent, with the exception of portions of the Grand Trunk lino of Canada. The station-houses are built, how- ever, with a special view to economy. The railway is managed by a commissioner who in a member of the gov- ernment, and who is responsible for its successful manage- ment. There are employed under tho commissioner a Buperintendont of the locomotive depailiment ; a superin- tendent of the traffic department ; and a general inspec- tor of upholdence and construction. All these are re- sponsible to the Commissioner for tho management of the departments committed to them. The following table will exhibit the revenue of the Nova Scotia Kailroad, for the last three years : Te»r ending Tear endlnir Tear radinc Dec 81, 1869. Dec 81, 18fl0. Dec 81, IMl. Receipts from all souroes,.. $102,872 67 $116,742 89 $120,917 66 ■Workmg expenses 111,274 88 96,472 26 94,114 88 $8,897 81 $20,270 63 $26,802 78 In 1859 the road did not pay working expenses ; in 18G0, it earned $20,270.63 over and above working ex- missionor a PUBLIC WOBK8, ETC. 697 penses; in 1861, $26,802.78 over working expensefl, while 1862 promises to be far in advance of 18G1. The rate for travel per mile is three cents first class, two centu second class cars ; rate of speed twenty miles per hour, including Btoppages. Nova Scotia railway stock has reached as higli as 108 and 109 in the English market. Parties in England hold our debentures to the amount of $3,500,000, being interest at 6 per cent., payable half-yearly, on cost of rail- ways. The largest proportion of this interest must, for some years to come, be paid from the general revenue of the country. The extension of the Trunk lino to the New Brunswick frontier, and onwards through that province till it unites with the Grand Trunk line of Canada, will cause this line to be highly remunerative. It is highly probable that in the course of 18G3, this great line will be located. This will make Halifax the grand winter terminus for British North America. The distance from Halifax to Riviere du Loup (the present terminus of the Grand Trunk line) is 530 miles ; of this sixty miles is already made, that is, from Halifax to Truro, which leaves only 470 miles. This is by the north shore route, liy the central route the distance is 478 miles ; from which deduct eighty-two miles already completed, and we have to be built only 396 miles. Again, there is the St. John River route, which makes the distance from Halifax to Riviere du Loup 693 miles, of which 237mile8 is constructed, and which leaves 355 miles to be made. Each of these routes has its advocates in New Brunswick. It has been agreed at an intercolonial convention to luavo the decision of the matter to a commission consisting of two from Canada and one from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, respectively — provision being made for the appointment of an umpire in case of the ^commissioners failing to agree in opinion. Canals. — In the year 1825 the " Shubenacadie Canal" was commenced. It is still unfinished. It is intended by means of this oanal so to unite the Dartmouth Lakes and ^1 , 1 ■ m A^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1.1 1.25 |25 IM 12.2 l^|28 |50 *^* m m ^ us, lit i A c^l %.T*J^ >> v: '/ /A Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 o U.x 'k \^^ ^% ' U i • I ' i . r ' r '1 ^.: ' m fi 698 PUBLIO W0EK8, ETC. the Shubenacadie Kiver, as to connect the Halifax harbor with the Bay of Fundy. It consists of a series of locks and two inclined planes, one 1,320 feet, the other 500 feet in length, to be worked by machinery. The locks artt sixty-seven feet in length, seventeen in breadth, with five feet depth of water. It is very nearly completed. There is also the " St. Peter's Canal," which is to con- nect the waters of the Atlantic coast of the Island, with the great Bras d'Or lake. The whole length of this canal is to be only 2,300 feet ; its breadth, at water line, fifty feet ; and depth of water thirteen feet. It is to have one lock at the St. Peter's Bay termination, and a guard gate at the Bras d'Or. Length of lock, 120 feet ; width of gates, twenty-two feet. This canal was commenced in the autumn of 1854. The work has been suspended for some time. Steamees. — The line of steamers from which Kova Scotia derives the greatest advantage is that of the Cunard Company. These call at Halifax to land and receive pas- sengers and freight, both from Liverpool to Boston, and on the return voyage to Liverpool. The freight by these steamers to Halifax is increasing every year. The finer description of merchandise, which was wont to be conveyed in sailing ships, is now almost without exception brought to Halifax in these steamers. When the >^reat Interco- lonial Kailway is finished, Halifax will undoubtedly have her weekly line of steamers from England, instead of fortnightly as at present. The Cunard Company have also a line of screw steamers, which ply regularly between Halifax and St. Johns, Newfoundland ; and Halifax and Bermuda. The steamers to Newfoundland receive a sub- sidy from the colonial government. There is a steamer also which plies between Halifax, Yarmouth, and Boston. There is a steamer that makes tri-weekly trips between "Windsor and St. John, N. B. ; also, between Annapolis Royal and St. John, N. B., and connecting with Boston steamers to that city. There is also a line that connects ill: harbor r locks dO feet ks ar'd ith five to con- d, with 8 canal le, fifty ive one , guard ; width Qced in ded for 1 Nova Cunard ive pas- , and on )y these lie finer mveyed wrought [nterco- y have tead of ave also between fax and a Bub- steamer Boston. )etween napolis Boston tonnects J 1'?^^ i- I] ( , 1 ■<1?( I I ♦ t' M f » PUBLIO WORKS, ETC. 699 Pictou with Charlotte Town, Prince Edward Island, She- diac, N. B., and Quebec. There is one also on the Bras d'Or lake, and one that plies between Halifax and the principal gold-fields on the Atlantic coast. Two little steamboats ply between Pictou town and New Glasgow, and two others between the city of Halifax and the town of Dartmouth. The legislature granted the sum of $7,700, w aid of steamers, packets, &c., in 1860 ; and $7,240 in 1861. Roads, Stage Coaches, &c. — The high roads of Nova Scotia are very numerous, and generally they arc good. Legislative grants are made yearly to aid in opening new roads, and repairing the great post-roads. The grant for this object in 1850 was $96,800 ; in 1860 it was $103,855 ; and in 1861, $100,341 34. The great roads of the province are : — From Halifax Westward to Yarmouth, by the Atlantic coast, as follows : Halifax to Lunenburg, seventy miles ; thence to Liverpool, thirty-six miles ; thence to Shelburne, forty miles ; thence to Yarmouth, fifty-six miles, — making in all 202 miles from Halifax to Yarmouth. A tri-weekly stage-coach runs this line. Another line of highway is from Halifax to Yarmouth via Windsor, Kentville, Annap- olis "^ '^yai, Digby, and Clare. The distance from Halifax to Yarmouth by this route is 214 miles. A stage-coach runs this line three times a week. Eastward from Halifax we travel sixty miles to Truro by railway ; from Truro to Amherst (within three miles of the New Brunswick line) the distance is sixty miles ; from Truro to Pictou the dis- tance is forty miles. An excellent line of stage-coaches run this road daily. From Pictou to Antigonish, fifty miles ; thence to the Strait of Canseau Ferry, thirty-three miles. Total from Halifax to Canseau, 188 miles. On Cape Breton side, from Plaister Cove at Canseau, to Syd- ney town via South of Bras d'Or, seventy-six miles ; from Sydney via Sydney mines to Margaree, sixty-four miles ; from Plaister Cove to Port Hood, thirty miles ; thence to ,:- ,i,7 700 FDULIO W0EK8, ETC. Margaree, forty miles. Another great road runs from Halifax through Musquodoboit via Guysborough to the Strait of Canseau. Another from Halifax to Tangier, Sheet Harbor, &c., by the Atlantic coast. Another impor- tant road runs from Pictou via River John, Tatamogouche, Pugwash, &c, to Amherst. The cross-roads and by-roads are too numerous to mention. All those mentioned are run either by daily, tri-weekly, bi-weekly, or weekly stage- coaches. Postal Communication, &c. — Nova Scotia has regular mails from Great Britain only once a fortnight ; with the United States we have weekly, and sometimes bi-weekly postal communication ; with Newfou^^dland, in summer we have fortnightly communication, in winter, monthly ; with Prince Edward Island, bi-weekly in summer, or during seven months, and weekly, and sometimes only monthly, in mid-winter ; with !New Brunswick, bi-weekly and weekly. The number of oflBces under the control of the postmaster- general, in 1860, was, 1 general post-office, Halifax, 72 cen- tral offices, and 344 branch or way offices. In 1861, the num- ber of way offices increased to 380. The number of news- papers posted at, and delivered at Halifax office during the year 1860, was 2,080,520 ; in 1861, 2,358,824— show- ing an increase of 278,304. The number of letters of all kinds sent, received, and delivered in 1 860, was 534,922 ; in 1861, 705,696— increase, 170,774. The number of par- cels received and sent from Halifax and county post-offices in 1860, was 627; in 1861, 717— increase, 90. The amount of money paid through the money-order depart- ment of the post-office during the last year, was $67,081.90. This department has been in existence only two years, in this province. The net income for 1861, was $47,115.76. The total expenditure for the same period, $69,444.35^. In 1860, the length of mail route in existence in the province was ^,115^ miles ; and the actual distance traY" PITBLIO W0BK8, ETC. 701 elled, 751,346 miles. In 1861, the leng^'i of route, 4,151| miles ; distance travelled, 809,032 miles. There are 289 mail contracts made by the postmaster- general, at an annual cost of $38,604.60. There is a uniform rate of postage — five cents for let- ters weighing half an ounce — now established between all the British Korth American provinces, with the exception of Newfoundland. Elbotbig Telegeaphs. — ^The prcvince of Nova Scotia contains 1,500 miles of telegraph line, and three sections of submarine cable, viz. ; immer, or Across Pngwash Harbor i mile. " Strait of Canseau U " " Lenox passage (between 0. B. and the Isle of Madone) . 1 " Total Smiles The lines in the province are owned by the "Nova Scotia Electric Telegraph Company." It has fifty telegraph offices ; fifty-six telegraphists ; thirty linesmen, and a large number of messenger boys. All officers of the company are sworn to secrecy. The rates of tolls for messages of ten words are as follows : Over any distance nnder 80 miles 12| cents. Over 80 mUes and " 160 " 25 " Over 160 » " " 240 " 87i " Over 240 " " " 820 " 80 " Over 820 " " " 400 " 62* " All distances over 400 miles 75 " In proportion to extent and population, the province of Nova Scotia has a greater extent of telegraph wire, a greater number of offices, and the tariff is lower, than in any other country in the world. The first line in Nova Scotia was erected from Halifax to the firontier of New Brunswick, by the provincial gov- ernment, in 1848. Another line was built by a local com- pi I ' ■ mi ''If »"T < , r 702 PUBLIC WOEKS, ETC. pany, between Truro and Pictou, in 1849. In 1851, the legislature chartered the " Nova Scotia Electric Telegraph Company." This company purchased the government line from Halifax to New Brunswick, as well ac the one from Truro to Pictou ; and they constructed nearly all the ex- isting lines between that date and 1856. In 1860, all the lines of the company were leased for fifty years to the " American Telegraph Company" — a wealthy organiza- tion, which controls a great proportion of the telegraphs on the American continent. ' Ckown Lands. — Only a little over the half of the area of Nova Scotia has been granted, or alienated from the crown. The price charged for crown lands in Nova Sco- tia is about forty certs per acre. The following statement will show the quantity of granted and ungranted land in the province : Quantity al- rtady granted. Remaining ungranted. Estimated as aval; able for settlement. Lands open for settlements. Nova Scotia proper. Cape Breton Acres. 4,935,349i 813,543f Ac-eu. 4,112,384i l,207,438i Acres. ' 556,664^ 3fi6,676i Acres. S,412,384i 777,438i Total 5,748,893 5,819,8224 918,340f 4,189,822f The gross proceeds of crown landr^ sold during 1860, was $20,846.28. In 1861, $16,598.73. Kevenue and ExPENDrruBE. — ^The year 1861 shows a decrease in the revenue of Nova Scotia. This is owing, undoubtedly, to the American war. Nova Scotia has suf- fered probably more from this war than any of the British North AmCiican colonies. Free trade is the policy of Nova Scotia. It has no pro- tection duties. Its ad valorem duties are lower than those of any neighboring countries. The following statement will exhibit the gradual growth of our provincial revenue : .'t PUBLIO W0BK8, ETC. 703 Tears, Bovonue. Tears. I'xpenditnres. 1806, $82,809 50 1766, $19,464 00 1826, 196,455 65 1800, 22,160 00 1836, 185,864 00 1810, 40,660 00 1846, 831,104 00 1815, 52,860 00 1851, 433,120 00 1851, 423,742 00 1852, 485,582 00 1852, 482,895 00 1858, 510,192 00 1853, 458,712 00 1864, 752,842 00 1854, 776,802 00 1855, 833,069 00 1855, 783.052 00 1856, 691,015 00 1856, 696,397 00 1857, 726,666 00 1857, 793.809 00 1858, 716,CJ5 00 1858, 737,108 00 1859, 698,938 00 1859, 690,595 00 1860, 870,055 00 1860, 852,133 00 This revenue is derived from import, excise, and light duties, from the crown lands, the mines, the provincial railway, and the post-office department. The expendi- ture is for the payment of all public officers, the interest of the public debt, grants for roads and bridges, educa- tion, agriculture, subsidies for steamers, mail packets, and ferries, militia, &c. The estimated expenditure for 1861 was $870, YYl. Public Debt, Cukbenot, &c. — The public debt has been mainly incurred in constructing the provincial railways. It is almost wholly represented by works of great pubhc utility. At the close of the year 1860, the whole liability of the province was $4,901,305 42, viz : Provincial Bonds $4,000,000 CO Provincial Notes 447,458 00 Savings Bank 453,847 42 Total $4,901,305 42 The first provincial cr mcy was eighteen shiUinga sterling to the pound curreucy, or £100==£90. The next change made the English shilling equal to one shilling and three-pence sterling, or sixteen English shillings equal to £1 currency. In common with New Brunswick and Canada, Nova Scotia has recently adopted the decimal mode of computa- fWmW\ I •If I t , m\ S T , H^ ' 4 hH ' 1 1 1 " a ^ v'i fi-\ .//f ■'. ■ >jpH| rti-. 704 EDUCATIONAL mSTITUTION'S, ETC. tion. Dollars and cents have taken the place of pounds, shillings, and pence, with us. In Nova Scotia, the British shilling is twenty-five cents — the British Florin fifty cents — the British crown $1 25 — and the British gold sovereign or pound, $5. The treasury issues £1 Nova Scotia currency, or $4 and $5 notes. The banks issue £5 or $20 notes and upwards ; but they are not permitted to issue notes of a less sum than $20. The par of Exchange on England is 12i per cent. The oldest bank in the province is the " Halifax Banking Company," besides which, there are the " Bank of Nova Scotia," the " Bank of British North America," and the " Union Bank." There has never yet occurred an in- stance of a Nova Scotia bank having suspended pay- ment. The new premises of the Union Bank, when com- pleted, will be the finest building in Halifax. I CHAPTER Vni. I EDUCATION AND EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. The history of the progress of education in Nova Scotia does not much differ from that of its progress in the neigh- boring states and provinces. Its progress has been in the face of many and formidable difl&cuities. The early settlers had to conquer the forest, build houses, make roads, and struggle hard to keep want and grim poverty out of their humble dwellings. They could neither afford to build school-houses nor pay schoolmasters — if they could be had. They had to teach their children at their own firesides, after the toils of the day were ended, without the aid of many books, and often when they could not afford the luxury of lamp or candle to read by. Two of the most distinguished statesmen and orators Nova Scotia ever reared, were thus taught to read. On more than one oc- casion we have heard one of them relate, for the encour- EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, KTO. 705 ap^ement of the young of his native city, how on the long »vinter evenings, at his father's knee, he studied history and literature with no other light than that furnislied by the good old-fashioned fireplace. In the year 1787, there was not a single school or school-house in what is now the populous and highly educated county of Pictou. Now tliere are 116 school-houses in that county, and as many schools, many of which are of a high order. Seventy years ago there were not thirty school-houses in all Nova Scotia, and the majority of those were but log-houses of the humblest description. Now there are upwards of twelve hundred school-houses, many of which aro elegant, commodious, and well furnished structures. Thirty years ago the legislative grant for the support of education was only $16,000. In 1861 it was $66,749.02, while that contributed by voluntary subscription was nearly three tii, es that amount. Sixty and even forty years ago, an old soldier, who could read, write, and '' cipher as far as the rule of three" — a broken-down merchant, or an accountant, whose habits had become so unsteady that he could no longer serve with efficiency in the counting-house, would be hired as a schoolmaster. Now it is only the graduates of our provin- cial normal college for the training of teachers, that can command any of our best common schools. It is not half a century since the " New England Primer," " Dil- worth," " The Collection," " Tutor's Assistant," t\iQ ferule and the hirch^ were accounted the orthodox and all-potent instrumentalities for teaching "the yoimg idea how to shoot," and for restraining and correcting it, should it venture " to shoot" on its own account in any forbidden direction. At present our schools are supplied with the latest and best British and American text-books, and cor- poral punishment, in the best of them, is resorted to but Very seldom, and that in extreme cases. Common Schools. — The province of Nova Scotia, in- cluding Cape Breton, is divided into thirty-three school fi h* ji {1 1 1 706 EDUCATIONAL IN8T1TUTION8, ITO. districts, each having a distinct board of echool commia- sioners, whoso duty it is to examine and license teachers, determine what shall be the number and what the bound- aries of the schools, and distribute the government allow- ance among the several schools entitled to participate in it. There are 1,227 school-houses in the province, and 1,175 schools were in operation in 1857 (the only edu- cational census taken) ; 685 of this number were taught by male teachers, 520 by females. About one to every seven of the population is attending school : — a small pro- portion when compared with some of the New England and Middle States, where the proportion is one to four, and in three of the States, Maine, New Hampshire, and New York, it is one to three. There are school libraries under the direction of every board ; 6,844 vols, were in circu- lation in 1857. The number of text-books reported Avas 6,360 ; wall maps, 2,{>21 ; blackboards, 640 ; globes. 56. Amount contributed for common-school education by voluntary contributions, $128,222.22 ; by the government, $53,519.25. Maximum salary of common-school teachers, $600 ; average salary, $180 ; average cost of each pupil per annum, $2.53. The best common schools are in Pic- tou, Colchester, and Kings. Grammar Schools. — There were forty-four grammar schools in the province, by the late educational census. The winter attendance was 1,476, and the summer, 1,738. The number studying the classics and mathematics was 1,074. The support from the people, $9,814.09 ; from gov- ernment, $3,274.95. Latin, French, mathematics, includ- ing algebra and agricultural chemistry, are taught in the grammar schools, in addition to the branches taught usually in the common schools. Academies. — There are six academies at present in Nova Scotia, inclusive of Sackvjlle Academy, N. B. All of them, with the exception of Pictou Academy, are under the control of some one religious denomination. The Windsor Academy, or Collegiate School, which is «■ EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, VTO. Y07 the oldest, is under the direction of the Episcopalians. It has three teachers. The Pidou Academy conies next in point of age, and first, perhaps, in point of fame. It was started at the early part of this century, under the direc- tion of the distinguished Dr. McCulloch, and gave a powerful impetus to the cause of a thorough and sound education in the province. For many years it was under the control of the Presbyterian Church of Nova Scotia. At present it has but two teachers, and is only a high school for the town of Pictoir. The Ilorton Academy., at "Wolfville, comes next in point of age. It is under the control of the Baptists. It has a principal and two assistants. The Sackville Academy is under the control of the Wes- leyau Methodist body, and is equally patronized and sup- ported by the provinces of Nova Scotia and New Bruns- wick. It has male and female departments. The male department has seven teachers ^ the female department, nine teachers. Tlie Presbyterian Academy., in Halifax, was started in 1847, in connection with the Free Church. It has four teachers. The Arichat Academy., in the Isle of Madame, C. B., is in connection with the Roman Catholics. It has three teachers. ^ The Sackville Academy Stands, for the Wesleyan Meth- odist body, instead of a college, theological hall, and preparatory high school. All the other academies enu- merated are but preparatory high schools. Colleges. — There are six institutions in the province of Nova Scotia that go by the name of colleges. The oldest and best endowed of these is King's College, at Windsor. It was commenced in 1788-9. From that date till about twelve years ago it had annually received from the pro- vincial government a grant of $1,777.66. At present the annual grant is $1,000. It has^e professors. It is under the control of the Episcopal Church. It was chartered in 45 !■■ •" : I It / 'it ' : m< 708 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUnONS, BTO. 1802, by George HI., and has the Archbishop of Canter- bury for its patron. Acadia College is in Wolfville, in Kings connty. It ia under the control of the Baptist denomination. It has four professors — one theological, and three for all the other branches taught. $1,000 of provincial aid, that was formerly given to this coUego, is now given annually to the academy in the same place and connection. The Presbyterians have two colleges at present, — a theological college in Halifax, with three professors ; a lit- erary and classical college at Truro, with three professors and one tutor. These institutions are endowed, by the liberality of the body with which they are connected, to tne amount of $56,000. Arrangements are in progress by which the two may be consolidated. Goreharth College, in Liverpool, Queens county, was set up by the liberality of the late Mr. Goreham of that place, in connection with the orthodox Congregational body. The buildings were destroyed by fire a few years since, and have not been rebuilt. St. Mary* 8 College is a theological school, in the Koman Catholic connection. The number of professors, &c., is not made known to the general public. It receives $1,000 annually from the provincial government. It is situated in Halifax. St. Framsia Xa/oier*8 Gollei is in the town of Atigo- nish, in the county of Sydney. It has Jime professors ; three theological, and two for other departments. It is under the control of the Eoman Catholic body, and re- ceives $1,000 from the government annually. Dalhousie College is in the city of Halifax. It is a handsome edifice, built of freestone. It was built under the direction, and mainly through the influence, of the Earl of Dalhousie, when he was governor of the province ; he procured $39,000 out of the Castine fund for its per- manent endowment, and induced the legislature to grant $12,000 towards the erection of the building. It was in- ¥ Ml li > o ^ ■i! ; Pi |??^i!i!i' no EDUCATIONAL mSTTrUTIONS, ETC. The establishment of these institutions has been an im- portant era in the history of education in Nova Scotia. They have been a very decided success. The natural or teaming system is that pursued. The mechanical, ex- planatory, and objective systems are made use of only in so far as they enter into the full working out of the one selected. The Model School is conducted on the most approved graded method, having three departments, prnnary, intermediate, and high-school, each with its own regular teacher. Vocal music and physical exer- cise are very happily intermingled with the severer busi- ness of the school. There is a very great improvement in the furniture of school-rooms throughout the whole province since the establishment of the Model Schools; also in the quality of the education imparted to the young. Adequate support is the great want of our common and grammar schools, at present. The public mind is steadily setting in for a system of general assessment of property and income for the support of schools ; the present method — ^voluntary subscriptions — being found in many sections of the country very ineflficient. This appears from the startling disclosures of the late census (1861). It appears from the census, that while in some districts every man, woman, and child who is able to speak can read, and nearly all can write ; yet that when the province is taken as a whole, there are, between the ages of five and fifteen years, 36,430 who cannot read, and 45,012 who cannot write; while there are, over the age of fifteen years, 49,430 who cannot read, and 65,444 who cannot write ; making in all, 85,860 illiterate persons in the province. This is a state of matters which no patriotic Christian mind can contemplate without the deepest concern for the future of the country. It may be proper* to state that a few thou- sands may be deducted from one of the above items, when it is borne in mind that children in the rural districts of Nova Scotia, generally, do not attend school or learn to read and write till they are seven and often eight years of age. EC0LE8IABTI0AL CONDITION, BTO. 711 Instittjtion fob Deaf and Dumb. — This institution is but in its infancy. It was established in 1858, under the present highly efficient superintendence. It has very commodious premises, in a very healthy and sightly position in the city of Halifax. It derives its support from three sources: the contributions of the benevolent — fees from the pupils, when the parents are not poor, and legislative grants from the provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The whole income of this institution for 1861 was $3,691.85. $2,000 of this sum was from the legislature of Nova Scotia, and $80 from that of New Brunswick. The attendance for the year 1861 was forty-four pupils, thirty of whom were males and fourteen females: eight of this number were from New Brunswick, the remaining thirty-six from Nova Scotia. The system of instruction is emphatically the natural system. The pupils are taught reading, writ- ing, English composition, arithmetic, geography, history, and the principles of Christianity, as taught in the Bible, with remarkable success. There is also an industrial de- partment in this school, both for boys and girls, where no small amount of work is very skilfully and cheerfully performed. The institution is managed by five directors, a secretary, treasurer, principal, and assistant teachers ; a matron, physician, dentist, and a committee of eleven ladies. The Right Hon. the Earl of Mulgrave is patron, and lady Mulgrave patroness of the institution. The Rev. Mr, Cochran, the secretary, was mainly instrumental in starting this school. Its present high state of efficiency is owing to the indefatigable labors of the principal, J. Scott Hutton, Esq. CHAPTER IX. ECCLESIASTIOAL CONDITION OP THE PROVINOB. Nova Scotia does not want for religious denominations or places of worship. There are 22 denominations and • i ■••I i. i>; 1 » y*. Ill I- 712 EOCLE8IA8TIOAL CONDITION, ETC. 831 places of worship. This gives a church for every 400 of the population. It is true that many of the buildings, called churches, are not such as to accommodate 400, but many others again arc buildings that can comfortably seat 500, 800, 1,000, and in some cases 2,000. All religious denominations are considered equal in the eye of the law ; in otiier words, there is no church or re- ligious sect established by civil enactment in Nova Scotia, or in any of the lower provinces of British America. The Episcopal Church. — This denomination was at one time established by law in Nova Scotia. The law which gave it the supremacy in matters of religion has been re- pealed, and it is now on the same level with the other churches. It has 47,744 adherents in Nova Scotia and Cape Breton. It has 139 places of worship, and 64 clergy- men. The Episcopal bishop of Nova Scotia exercises iurisdiction over the Episcopal church in Prince Edward Island. This denomination has hitherto derived much of its support from the liberality of the Society for Propa- gating Keligion in Foreign Parts. There is at present a very creditable movement among the laity of the body, to raise an endowment fund for the permanent support of religion in that connection. The Pbesbtterian Chubch. — Under this may be in- cluded three diflferent bodies, viz. : the Presbyterian church, which has 69,456 adherents, 144 places of worship, and 88 ordained clergymen ; the Church of Scotland in Nova Scotia, which has 19,063 adherents, 25 places of worship, and 20 ordained clergymen ; and the Keformed Presbyte- rian Church, which has (by late census) 236 adherents (ought at least to be double that number), 8 places of wor- ship, and 5 ordained clergymen. The Eoman Catholic Church. — ^In the numbei- of ad- herents this body ranks next to the Presbyterians. The number is 86,281 ; places of worship, 121 ; clergy, 42. It is under the control of the Archbishop of Halifax. It has two diocesan bishops, that of Halifax and Arichat. It EOOLE8IA8TIOAL CONDITION, ETC. 713 owns Bome of the finest church buildings in the prov- ince. The Baptist Church. — The Associated Baptists have 55,336 adherents, 182 places of worship, and 83 clergy- men. Other Baptists have 7,605 adherents, 34 places of worship, and 15 clergymen. The "Wesley AN Methodist Choboh. — ^Thisbodyis under the superintendence of the Eastern British Isorth Amer- ican Affiliated Conference. It is a branch of the British Conference, and includes under its supervision the whole of the lower provinces, as well as Bermuda. The president is nominated by the colonial body. Its adherents in Nova Scotia are 34,055 ; places of worship, 136 ; clergy, 54. The Congregational Church. — This body has 2,183 adherents, 11 places of worship, and 10 clergymen. The Lutheran Church has 4,382 adherents, 4 places of worship, and 3 clergymen. The Universalists have 846 adherents, 2 places of wor- ship, and 1 clergyman. There are 158 Quakers ; 112 Bible Christians ; 27 Mor- mons ; 13 Swedenborgians ; 143 Mprisonians,' or E. U. ; 46 Sandemanians ; 32 Campbellites ; an^" 3 Deists. The British and Foreign Bible Society has a branch in Nova Scotia. Its headquarters are in Halifax,, but it has numerous auxiliary branches throughout the province. There are five Young Men^s Christian Associations in the province. The one in Halifax has an excellent library and reading-room, and has a course of twelve lectures, of a very high order, during the winter months. There is a mission to the Mio Mac Indians of the lower provinces, which is supported by all evangelical denominations in common. The New Testament has been translated into the Mic Mac, through its means. The Presbyterians maintain 4 missionaries in the South Sea Islands. The Baptists at one time maintained a missio^iiry in Hindu- stan ; but their agent having fallen a victim to the climate, the mission has been abandoned by them. No other i» f '' 714 POLinOAL STATE OF THE PRCTINCE. denomination has as yet engaged in foreign missionary enterprise. In Pictouand Colchester counties, the Presbyterians greatly predominate. In the western counties, especially Kings and Annapolis, the Baptists and Wesleyans prevail. In the Island of Cape Breton, the Presbyterians and Roman Catholics are about in equal numbers. In Hal- ifax, the Episcopalians and Roman Catholics prevail : in Hants, the Episcopalians and Presbyterians ; in Cumber- land, the "W esleyans ; in Lunenburg, the Lutherans. Con- troversy between religious bodies has been at discount, for some years past. Christian benevolence and denomi- national courtesy are manifestly on the increase. L CHAPTER X. POLinOAL TTATB OF THE PROTDTOB. It is both interesting and instructive to trace the polit- ical progress of Nova Scotia, for the last one himdred and fifty years. From absolute despotism it has passed, dui'ing that interval, into constitutional government, — the freest, the most equitable, and, withal, the least costly in the civilized world. From the first settlement of the province till the year 1719, its government was vested solely in the governor, and, in his absence, in the lieutenant- governor or commander-in-chief. The seat of government was at Annapolis Royal. In 1719, Governor Phillips received instructions from the crown to choose a council of twelve, who should advise v/ith him in regulating the affairs of the province ; he was further directed to regulate himself by the instructions of the gOTemor of Virginia in cases of emergency, and until a legislative assembly should be formed. The names of the first council of Nova Scotia are : John Doncett, Lawrence Armstrong, Paul Mascarine, Cyprian Southack, John Harrison, Arthur Savage, John Adams, Hibbert Newton, William Skeen, .'1, SBionary lyterians jpecially prevail, ans and InHal- >vaU : in Cumber- i8. Con- discount, denomi- the polit- dred and passed, ent, — the costly in of the 18 vested Butenant- rernment Phillips council filiating ected to emor of gislative ; council oastrong, , Arthur Skeen, POLITICAL STATE OF THE PROVINCE. 715 William Sheriff, Peter Boudrie, and Gideon Phillips. They were all officers of the garrison or public departments, with the exception of Mr. John Adams. From 1719 till 1749, the gove. nor with this council — both appointed by the crown — combined at once the legislative, judicial, and executive functions of civil government. They had absolute power in all cases, except in so far as they were restrained by the general principles of English law. In 1749, on the arrival of Governor Cornwallis, the seat of government was removed to the newly formed town of Halifax. He had instructions to erect commission courts of justice. He erected three courts. The first was a Court of Ses- sions. The second was a County Court, invested with powers similar to the Court of King's Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer, in England. The third was a Court of Assize and General Jail Delivery, in which the governor and the council for the time being sat as judges. In 1752 the County Court was abolished, and the Court of Common Pleas erected in its place. The General Court of Assize was abolished in 1754, and the Supreme Court established in its place. Jonathan Belcher, Esq., was appointed chief justice of this court the same year. In the month of May, 1758, Governor Lawrence laid before his council his majesty's instructions for the elec- tion of the first representative assembly for Nova Scotia. It was then resolved, by the governor ia council, " That a house of representatives of the inhabitants thereof, in conjunction with his majesty's governor, or commander- in-chief for the time being, and his majesty's council for the said province, be the civil legislature thereof." There were sixteen members " elected for the province f\t large." Any elector voting for one of these sixteen mem- bers was compelled to vote for the other fifteen. There were two elected for the township of Lunenburg, and four for the township of Halifax. The whole assembly con- sisted of twenty-two members : eleven, besides the speaker, constituted a quorum. The Jlrsi meeting of the pfst si f ml m J " ■ w ;|J f/i H' \M I ne POLinOAL BTATB OF THE PEOVINOE. representative assembly of Naoa Scotia was on the second day of October, 1758. Robert Sanderson, Esq., was olio- sen speaker of this first assembly. In 1761 a new assembly was elected, conslGting of twenty, four members. The province was then divided into four counties — Halifax, Lunenburg, Annapolis, and Kings — each returning two members ; and into seven townships — Halifax, Lunenburg, Annapolic, Horton, Cornwall's, Fal- mouth, Liverpool — each sending two members, with the exception jf Halifiax, which sent four. Thb Pkebknt CoNSTiruTioN OF THE Peovince. — The province had not a legislative council distinct from the executive council till the year 1838. Hitherto the council deliberated with closed doors. From this date the legis- lative council sat with doors open to the public. lii 1841 *' responsible government" was inaugurated in Nova Scotia. It was not fully established, however, till the parliamentary session of 1847-8. The departmental system was then fully acted upon for the first time. The highest authority is vested in the Zieutenant- Gov- ernor, who acts as the representative of royalty. He is styled lieutenant-governor, as being noroiiially subordi- nate to the governor-general of British NoHh America. The governor is surrounded by an exeGuHve council of nine persons, appointed by the cr*. .m from the legislative council and house of representatives ; these are his sworn advisers, in the exercise of his legislative and adminis- trative duties. They a/re responsible to the jpeople for the axits of his administration. That is one of the peculiarities of responsible government. I^^ive of the members of the executive council, in accordance with the existing consti- tution, are heads of depa/rtmmit? : the F.ttorney-general, solicitor-general, provincial secretary, financial secretary, and receiver-general. The Legislatme Coimcil is appointed by the crown. It consists of twenty-one members. They choose their own president, subject to the approval of the crown. They are 1 POLimAL STATE OF THE PEOVINOE. 717 to ns instead of peers. They hold their seats for life, if they do net, become insolvent. They are magistrates with- in the province. The H(yme of Representatvoes aorm^X^ of fifty-five mem- bers, who are elected once in four years. They represent eighteen counties. Some counties are subdivided into dis- tricts ; others have townships. Universal sufirage is the law of Nova Scotia, subject to the following restrictions : Thp» elector must be twenty-one years of age ; must be native bom, or a naturalized subject of Great Britain. He must be a resident one year in the county, district, or town- ship in which he votes. The members of this house must have a property qualification, and must take the oath of allegiance before they take their seats. The members of both houses are paid $4 per diem each, with travelling ex- penses during the sitting of Parliament. The fcalaries of the officers on the civil list, authorized by law, amount to $52,365. This is inclusive of $6,416 of pensions paid to retired officials. There is usually voted yearly, in addition to the above, $29,680 for clerks and contingencies. Laws and Oouets of Justice. — ^The laws and forms of judlv^ial procedure of Nova Scotia are founded on those of England, while the common law of England is the law of Nova Scotia, where the case is not otherwise pro- vided for by special provincial enactment. The body of local enactments has been recently revised and consoli- dated under the supervision of the provincial government. The work is known by the name of " Revised Statutes." The punishment of death is limited by the law of Nova Scotia to the crimes of treason and murder. J'mticis Cowrt. — ^This is the lowest order o^ ii' t^s for the trial of civil causes. There are 1,412 jusv- ^ of the peace in Nova Scotia. Each magistrate has juiisdiction throughout the whole county in which he resides. They can adjudicate in civil causes to the amount of forty dol- lars., In criminal matters their powers are very similar to in'' ' 718 POLinOAL 8TATB OF THE PKOVINOB. that oi flame class of oflBcere in England. They can fino ana mit to the county jail for petty offences, and bind o^'er to keep the peace, or appear for trial at the Su- jpreme Court, for pjraver offences. They usually issue war- rants for the appearance of offenders against the peace. General Sessions of the peace are held annually in each county, and in some counties twice in the year. These are composed of justices of the peace and other oflBcials, for the transaction of county business. They are presided over by the Gustos Rotulorum of each county. The Court of Probate is a county court, which has the custody of all wills, and disposes of the estates of deceased persons. Tlie judge of this court, who is usually a barris- ter of good standing, practises at the bar, but cannot be a member of Parliament. The Supreme Court is by far the most important in Nova Scotia. It has civil and criminal jurisdiction in the highest causes. It is the only criminal court in the prov- ince. It has original jurisdiction in all civil causes over twenty dollars, and is the court of appeal from the decision of justices' courts. The province is divided into four cir- cuits, and the Supreme Court holds its sitting twice a year in every county of the province for the trial of civil and criminal causes. It sits in Halifax twice in the vear as a court of equity, the Court of Chancery, which once ex- isted in Nova Scotia, having been abolished, and its juris- diction transferred to this court. It is presided over by a chief-justice and four assistant judges. These judges are appointed by the governor in council, and they hold oflSce for life. Their appointment must receive the royal sanc- tion before they can be considered as fixed in oflfice. Their salaries are fixed upon the civil list of the province. The Court of Marriage and Divorce is composed of the lieutenant-governor, the executive council, one of the judges of the Supreme Court, a register, advocate, and proctor. It has full jurisdiction over all matters relating to marriage and divorce. li=: \lU EABLT HISTORY OF NEW BRUNSMTIOK. 719 The Court of Vice-Admiralty^ includes Canada and all the lower provinces within its jurisdiction. The governor- general of British North America is the vice-admiral, and Alexander Stewart, C. B., the judge of this court. It has surrogates, procurator, and advocates in all the British provinces. Its bank of admiralty deposits is the Bank of British North America. The Court of Error consists of the governor and coun- cil. Suits where the amount of the judgment is not less than $1,200, may be brought into this court. Cases for the commutation of capital punishment are also brought before the governor in council by petition. The last appeal is to the queen in council. It is the policy of the British gov- ernment not to interfere with any local matters in the colonies. We are instructed to make what laws we deem proper, and to appoint whom we choose to administer our laws. CHAPTER XI. \ i GENERAL CIVILIZATION.— SOCIAL .10GRBSS.--LITEIIATURE, 4o. Great progress has been made in every section of Nova Scotia, during the last half century, in all that makes life comfortable and agreeable. The little, rude log-house of two, or at best three apartments, has passed away, to make place for the snug white cottage of at least six or seven rooms, besides the kitchen, or the fine stately two-story house, with ten, twelve, or more apartments. Barns and outhouses have improved in a corresponding manner. The hand-mills, or "querns," of seventy years ago, have given place to excellent grist-mills, propelled by water-power or steam. Saw-mills, shingle-mills, carding-mills, dyeing- mills, foundries, and factories, have increased proportion- ately. Churches and school-houses of an improved style have sprung up in every settlement. Temperance halls and MM mi 'fHf^^,^'^ nj^f.rip''^ M^ A M ... lit'; V'^^- '., ~i 720 OENEBAL omLUlATIOIT, ETC. other county and township public buildings are quite nu- merous in proportion to the population. There are 53,215 dwelling-houses in Nova Scotia. ' The city of Halifax contains only 2,635 of the above number. There are 63,293 farms and outhouses. The number of stores and shops is 3,322 ; of that number the city of Hali- fax has 422. There are forty-nine temperance halls in the province, valued at $43,340. Nine of the number are in Hants county, and eight in Kings county. There are only two counties without a temperance hall, viz. : Kichmond and Victoria. There are ninety-three public county and township buildings, estimated at $984,160. The vast improvements made in the mode of travelling, and in the mail communication of the province, have been already noticed. Parties are still living who can remem- ber when there was only a weekly mail between Halifax and Pictou, and when that mail was carried by one man, on his back, in a knapsack, making a journey of one hun- dred miles on foot. Now there is a daily mail to and from Pictou. Towns and Villageb. — The oldest town in Nova Scotia is Annapolis Royal. From the earliest settlement of the country until the city of Halifax was built, this town was the capital of the province. It was the head-quarters of the forces of France and England, as they alternately possessed the country. The conquest of " Port Royal " was, in those times, considered the conquest of the whole province. It is a small town still, and is not remarkable for any thing, except its having been the ancient French and English capital of the province. Yarmouth is an important com- mercial town, and owns much shipping. Pictou contests the honor of being the second most important town in the province, with Yarmouth. New Glasgow^ on the East River of Pictou, has grown up lately into a town of almost the size of Pictou. Sycbiey and Arichat, in Cape Breton, Windsor, in Hants, Lunenburg, in the county of the same name, and Dartmouth, opposite Halifax, are tlie remaining are quite na- Scotia.' The 30ve number, e number of . a city of Hali- se halls in the lumber are in rhere are only B. : Richmond ic county and I of travelling, ice, have been ,0 can remem- :ween Halifax I by one man, ly of one hun- ul to and from n Nova Scotia ilement of the this town -vras C[uarter8 of the itely possessed " was, in those province. It for any thing, and English nportant com- *ictou contests nt town in the on the East town of almost L Cape Breton, ty of the same tiie remaining w -t i\ I 11. p v^V'i i!tra .^ ^X'^ •^- ^v^^ .t •^ ^^ ^i4CS towns of A . I .1 V V ^ Tmro, in . land ; Cann< Liverpool, v Diyhy and Sksib^un C TT OF HaED " ^*■}v:iis in the ofthapiav- . It hag *: It is • h.z Rfcdoubt, au harbor. The t. rank •■'■ -^ u^*''^'- '«•■• raiie. toincxl m JI IVrm'f fH' fWfcSlWKri?': iiil GENERAL CIVILIZATION, ETC. 721 towns of the Province. There are besides, however, quite a number of villages and places near seaports, that are fast growing into the magnitude and importance of towns. Among these may be named JSaddecJc, in Victoria ; Port Hood and Maybon, in Inverness ; Antigonish, in Sydney ; Truro^ in Colchester ; Amherst and Pugwaah,^ in Cumber- land ; Ccmnmg^ and WolfvUle^ and KentviUey in Kings ; Li/verpool^ in Queens; Bridgetown, in Annapolis; and Dighy and Shelburne, in the counties of the same name. City of ELaijfax. — This city was founded by Lord Com- wallis in the latter end of June, 1749. It became the seat of the provincial government early in the following year. It has a noble harbor, which we have already described. It is fortified by St. George's Island in the centre of the harbor; by the Citadel, which is on the hill which rises behind the city, to the height of two hundred and fifty feet above the level of the sea ; also, by the fortification of York Redoubt, and several masked batteries on both sides of the harbor. The strength of the fortifications of Halifax take rank next after those of Quebec. The city extends about two miles and a quarter north and south, on the slope of the hill, by the harbor. Its width, at the most, does not exceed three-quarters of a mile. Just one hundred and one years ago the town con- tained one thousand houses, and about three thousand in- habitants. At that time one-third of the population were Irish, one-fourth German and Dutch, the remainder Eng- lish, with a very small number of Scotch. " There were one hundred houses licensed to sell ardent spirits, and as many more houses that sold spirituous liquors without license ; so that," to continue the words of Dr. Styles, who records the fact, " the business of one-half the town is to sell rum, and the other half to dri'^ \ it." About this time the city was divided into Halifax, Irish- town, and Dutchtown — Halifax the centre, Irishtown the south, and Dutchtown the north end. The population in 1861 was 25,026. Some sections of the city are now ex- M . rVf .nil •'i. 1*^ f '-# 722 GKNEEAL CIVILIZATION, BTO. ceedingly well built. In the centre of the city, particnlar- ly on Granville Btreet and Hallis street, wooden buildings have been replaced by brick, granite, and freestone struc- tures, which are not surpassed by any on this continent. Of public buildings, the "Province Building" is the chief. It is built of brown freestone, one hundred and forty feet in length, seventy in width, and forty-two in height. On its ground flat are apaitments for the various provincial oflices — provincial secretary's, financial secre- tary's, receiver-generaPs, attorney-general's, customs, ex- cise, and crown-land department offices. On the second are the halls and committee-rooms of the two houses of Par- liament, and a very spacious and beautiful apartment oc- cupied by the provincial legislative library. The Govern- ment House, the Admiralty House, Dalhousie College, the Asylum for the Insane, the Wellington Barracks, the Court House, the Hospital, the Penitentiary, and the City Mar- ket are the remaining principal public buildings. The Queen's Dockyard, in the north of the city, is an impor- tant public establishment. It was commenced in the year 1768. It is enclosed on the side toward the city by a high stone wall. It contains workshops, warehouses, and stores of various descriptions, besides very commodious buildings for the residence of its officers and workmen. The city is divided into six wards, and the corporation consists of a mayor and eighteen aldermen. The Mayor's Court is held on the second and fourth Tuesday of every month. The police office is open on every week-day from ten A. M. till three p. m. The fire department is under the control of the city corporation ; and also the water supply of the city. The taxable J)roperty of the city, in 1861, was $14,400,000. There are seventeen places of public worship in the city. Three of these belong to the Episcopalians, fov/r to the Presbyterians, three to the Wesleyans, two to the Baptists, two to the Roman Catholics, one to the Congregationalists, one to the Universalists, and one to the Campbellites. ty, particular- den buildings eestone Btruc- 8 continent. Iding" is the hundred and forty-two in or the various nancial secre- , customs, ex- the second are louses of Par- apartment 00- The Govem- ie College, the icks, the Court the City Mar- lildings. The r, is an impor- sed in the year city by a high ises, and stores iious buildings le corporation The Mayor's esday of every week-day from nt is under the le water supply by, in 1861, was (hip in the city. 38, fov/r to the to the Baptists, gregationalists, mpbellites. ■ ■•!&■&.-■«* I ^\. 41 ffliffnT-'^-' iii II well built, hi the ce^re <,)f the eity, p« jij Gmwvilie street and ilftUia 8trec;t, wocHion bui have bcej\ replaced hy brick, granite, and ' tar 0>mt is •Li-l, , jiionth. TIk:, ten A. n. till tiiJ' *1 of liie c 4>' ,:Utt;th, '^'■1on£ : . ii.., iCStlvv .■^ ># ^ m Me :ly •as ^\'.Ai. MU'> .1 U z^-; to ti.' .opaliana, /'e>T*r tc to th« "^^ uB, tttw to thn B*if4 'Ui Ostholiee, ona to the Ooiii^i-egarionsj,! i»''«ali8ts. laid one k* the CAUimxilnUiii. the iatg, V >■ ■■'a '7 ■'le 119, /e^wr to the to th« Bnptists, j isrroffftti 01! agists, j >gftt J ^. N ^X I ^A r k -;* 'i 4 GFsmacAii oivn;izA.TZOif , bto*. na There acre in the city toxa commercial ba&k^ and one BaTings bank, and a building society; the i^nciee of thir- teen British and four American life insurance companies, and of fonr British and sixteen American fire insurance companies. There are fenr public libraries in the city, two reading and news rooms, and benevolent societies of ▼arious descriptions and nationalities. There are one gas company, five gold-mining companies, and five other joint- stock companies. There are one public museum and one visiting dispensary. Halifax is important both as a military post and naval station. It is the military head-quarters of all the lower provinces. It is the chief naval station for tiie whole of British North America and thv West Indies. The admiral of the North American station resides at Halifax during the summer months, and in the winter at Bermuda. The commerce of Halifax is considerable. The exports from the port of Halifax, in the year 1860, were ^3,902,638.^ The imports for the same year were $6,431,581. LrrEBATUBE, &c. — ^Nova Scotia depends for literature, to s very great extent, on Great Britain and tihe United States. The quarterly reviews and montiily magazines of those countries are very extensively read in the province. There is no quarterly review published in the province, and the only monthly periodicals at present published are two of a religious character, under the direction of the Presbyter- rians. Of newspapers, there are twenty-two published in: the province at present. In 1828 there were sevim. Of these seven, six were in Halifax, and one in Picton. The first paper started, oat of Halifax, was the Pictou Colonial Patriot. The oldest of our existing newspapers is the Acadian Recorder. Of the twenty-two newspapers now pnblished, thirteen are in Halifhx, and the remaining nine: are published in the following towns in the province : one in Sydney, one in Atigonish (tiie CaaTeet^ partly Englisb and partly Gkwlic), two in Pictou, one in Liverpool, twoiit Tarmonthj one in Digby, and one at Bridgetown. Wof 46 'i\ J- . ^fmfiirrw V t I'' J, ' ! ■ !' ( h I •^1 1 1 M H' r-ifT ■-'iff? 1' 724 OENEKAL CIVILIZATION, EIO. have no daily newspaper. There are six of the Halifax papers that are published tri-weekly, on alternate days. Some are morning and some are evening papers. Four of the Halifax weeklies are in the interest of religious denomi- nations. There is also a monthly sheet devoted to the cause of total abstinence. The principal publishing house in Halifax is that of A. & W. Mackinley. The greater part of their publications are school-books. The principal literary productions of N"ova Scotia are those of Judge Haliburton (Sam Slick), John Young, Esq., Principal Dawson (now of McGill College, Montreal), Pro- fessor Lyall, and the Kev. George Patterson. Haliburton's History of Nova Scotia is a standard work of over seven hundred and fitly pages octavo. It brings i,he history of the province down only to the year 1828. The lighter writings of the judge, under the nom de jplume of Sam Slick, are very popular, and widely known. The " Letters of Agricola," by John Young, Esq., have been already referred to. Dr. Dawson's works are chiefly on geology. His Acadian Geology and Archia are widely and very favorably known, both in Europe and America. His Kemarks on Agricul- ture and Husbandry are also very valuable. His attain- ments in natural science are not second to those of any on this continent, while his style, for simplicii y, elegance, terse- ness, and quiet power, is equalled only by very few living naturalists. " Intellect, Emotions, and the Moral Nature," has rankr i Professor Lyall already with the foremost thinkers and writers of the present day. " Memoirs of Dr. McGregor," by the Rev. George Pat- terson, is a work of much interest and well written. The late Dr. MacCuUoch was a writer of no ordinary power, and has left behind him some theological works. The Hon. Joseph Howe, the present premier of Nova 3cotia, is oue of our most beautiful and effective writers. He has OENEHAL CTVTUZAnOV. ETO. 725 produced some political brochures of great power — always written in a fascinating style. No poet of any mark has yet made his appear; jice in Nova Scotia. There are nu- merous versifiers amoDg us, but hardly any that has arisen to the dignity of a poet The nearest approach to poetry has been made by some of our female writers. The following list of the governors of Nova Scotia is from Haliburton's History, as far as it comes down, and the remaining ones from personal knowledge : ;'*1 AT ANNAPOLIS BOTAL. 1. Colonel Vetch, Governor. October S3, 1710. 2. Francis Nicholson, Esq 1714. 8. Richard Philips, Esq 1719. 4. John Doacetj'Esq., Senior Oonncillor, administers government 1722. 6. Lawrence Armstrong, Esq., Lieutenant-Governor 1726. 6. John Adams, Esq., Senior Councillor Decembers, 1789. 7. Paul Hascarene, Esq., Lieutenant-Governor 1740. AT HALIFAX. Edward Oomwallis, Governor, July 14 1749 Peregrine Thomas Hopson, Governor, Aug. 8 1762 Charles Lawrence, Senior Councillor, Nov. 1 1758 do do Lieutenant-Governor, Oct. 21 1764 do do Governor, July 23 1766 Jonathan Belcher Administers government, Oct. 9 1760 Mr. Ellis, late Governor of Georgia, is appointed Governor of Nova Scotia, but never leaves England Jonathan Belcher, Lieutenant-Governor, Nov. 21 1761 Montagae Wihnot, Lieutenant-Governor, Sept. 26 1768 do do Governor, May 81 1764 Mr. Green, Senior Councillor, May 23 1769 Michael Franklm, Lieut Governor, Aug. 26 ~. 1766 Right Hon. Lord Wm. Campbell, Governor, Nov. 27. 1766 Bemamin Green, S«-aior Councillor, Oct. 80 1771 Michael Franklin, Lieut. Governor, June 80 1772 Lord Wm. Campbell "esumes government July 18 1772 Francis Legge, Governor, Oct 8 1778 Mariot Arbutlmot Lieut Governor, April 27 1776 Richard Hughes, Lieutenant Governor, Aug. 17 1778 Sir Andrew Snope Hammoiid, Lieut Governor, July 81 1781 John Parr, Governor, Oct. 9 1782 Edward Fanning, Lient. Governor, Sept. 28 1788 Richard Bulkley, Senior Councillor, Nov. 25 -. . . 1791 John Wentworth, Lieut. Governor, May 14 1792 Sir George Frevoet Lient Governor, April 18 1808 ^. htv' |} ' : „r- 1 720 oxinauu. oitilization, bto. Alextqder Oroke, Senior Oonncillor, Deo. 17 , 1808 Sir George Prevost, Lient. Governor, April 11 1 809 Alexander Oroke, Senior Oonncillor, Aug. 28 1811 Sir John Sberbrooke, Lieut. Governor, Oct. 16 1811 Hivjor-General Dgrrock, Oommander-in-chief, Ang. 26. 1814 Sir John Sherbrooke, Lient. Governor, Sept. 21 1814 MjUor-General Geo. Trnoy Smith, Oommander-in-ckief; Jnne 27 1816 Lieut. General Right Hon. Qeo. Earl of Dflhousie, Lieut. Gov- ernor, Oct. 24 1816 Michael Wallace, Senior Oonncillor, Sept 18 1818 Lord Dalbonne, resume* May 1 1810 Sir James Kempt, Lieut. Governor, June 2 1820 Michael Wallace, Senior Oonncillor, May 19 1824 Sir James Kempt, do do Aug. 22 1825 Michael WaUace, do do May 26 1826 Sir James Kempt, do do July 18 1828 Michael Wallace, do do Aug. 28 1828 Sir Peregrine Mailand do 1828 Sir Oolin Oampbell, Lient. Governor 1834 Lord Falkland, Xieut. Governor 1840 Sir John Harvey, Lient. Governor 1846 Colonel J. Bazalgette, Com 1852 Sir J. G. La Marchant 1852 Earl of Mulgrave 1858 During one hundred and fifty-five years, the province had forty- nine adimnifltrators of its government. SABLE ISLAHU This little ieland is a dependeucy of Nova Scotia. It ie between 44 degrees and 43 degrees and 54 minutes north, latitude, and between 60 degrees 12 minntes and 59 degrees 40 minntes west longitude. It is about eighty-seven geo- graphical miles from Cape Oanseau, the nearest point in Nova Scotif. to it. It is over twenty-five miles in length, and varies £rom one to two miles in breadth. It is merely a sand-bank thrown up by the sea and wind. Its highest hillock are one hundred feet high. Coarse grass, cran- berry and whortleberry bushes cover the greater part of its surface. It is famous chiefiy as the scene of numerous shipwrecks, for its position is in the usual track of ships sailing between Great Britain and Nova Scotia, and is sur^ rounded by ^oals, which are very dang^rpus 1;o navigators. A superintendent and a staff of men are now placed on the island, aiid mai^t%i^^ a,t lihe joi^]t e^qp^nise pf Nqv% m QEiFBtAL OTTTLIZknOtli IttO. m vince had forty- Scotia and GreUt Britain, for the express purpose of afford- ing asBistance and protection to distressed seamen. Its cost to Nova Scotia for the year 1860 was $3,864.44. The island is visited statedly by a government vessel, for the two-fold purpose of conveying tecessaty supplies to the island, and bringing off those who have been thrown on shore. The island is searched all round after every storm. The commission takes possession of the wrecks and prop- erty saved, and sells them fol* tlie benefit of the owner, retaining a salvage for the benefit of the establishment. There is not a tree on the whole island. It has one lake — Lake "Wallace, eighteen miles long, and nearly a mile wide. Between this lake and the sea there is a narrow ridge or wall of sand, about two hundred yards in width. Some years ago a breach was made in this wall on the north side, by a violent storm, and an inlet was formed which con- verted this lake into a very odmlnodious harbor for small coasters. A storm similar to that which opened it closed it again, blockading two small American Gallops, which had taken shelter there. The honse of the superintendent is on the north side of the lake, oppodte its centre. Eng- lish rabbits, and a species of ponies — "Sable Island po- nies" — are the only wild animals running at large, and subsisting on the products of the idland. The rabbits are very numerous, and good for food. The poniei are tmall, but active and strong, and surprisingly hardy. Some hun- dred years ago this was a favorite resort of fiishormen, for the purpose of killing morse and teal. They are now all bat exterminated, especially the former^ ■ffn^amf. "lil ^^ PI i. f if !?< K ■■^^' ♦ ^ ES. ^. if, ^.-^ 728 8ITiL<^iLTI0N, BZTSNT) EXa PmCE EDWARD ISLAND. CHAPTER I. SITUATION, EXTENT, GENERAL FEATURES, BARJ.T HIS- TORT, &C. Pbinob Edwabd Island is situated in that large recess in the Gulf of St. Lawrence which washes the shores of Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. It is be- tween 45° 57' and 47 7' north latitude, and between 62" and 64° 26' west longitude. Its distance from New Brunswick at the nearest point is nine miles ; from Nova Scotia, fifteen miles ; from Cape Breton, thirty miles. On the east, north, and west, it is bounded by the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and on the south by the Northumberland Strait. Extent. — ^Its extreme length I«» 130 miles ; its greatest breadth, thirty-four miles. Its area is 2,133 square miles, or 1,365,400 acres. Genbeal Featubes. — ^In form, the island somewhat re- sembles a crescent, the concave side being toward the golf. In general appearance it is flat and gently und i- lating. There are no mountains, and the several ranges of hills which lie across the country, nowhere rise to any considerable height. The north-eastern and southern shores of the island are much indented by bays, harbors, and inlets ; on the west there is an almost unbroken shore, without bay or harbor. The principal hays are Holland, Grenville, Harris, Cove- head, Bedford, and St. Peter's, on the north; Egmont, Bedeque, Hillsborough, Pownal, and Orwell, on the south : SITUATION, EXTENT, ETC. 729 BARI.T HIS- and Cardigan, Boughton, Howe, RoUo, and Colville on the east. The chief ha/rhors are Charlottetown, Georgetown, Be- deque, Cascampeo, Porthill, New London, and Mnrray •liarbors. The lakes are few and small. The ponds or lagoons are mumerons. The principal ri/vers are the East, West, and North Rivers, meeting in the harbor of Charlottetown ; the Ellis, opening on Richmond Bay i the Morell, flowing into St. Peter's Bay ; and the Cardigan, Brudnell, and Montague, flowing into Cardigan Bay. The principal capes are North Point, Kildare Cape, Cape Tryon, Cape Turner, East Point, Colville Point, Terras Point, Cape Bear, Point Prim, Cape Traverse, In- dian Point, Cape Egmont, and "West Point. In Richmond Bay there are two isUmds^ Lennox and Bunbury ; in Cardigan Bay are Panmure and Boughton ; in Hillsborough Bay are St. Peter's and Governor's Islands. Eaelt Histoby. — ^In all probability this island was discovered in the year 1497, after the discovery of New- foundland. Good authorities differ in opinion as to the exact date of its discovery, no details of Cabot's first voyage having been preserved. It was nearly two centu- ries after its discovery before any attempt was made to colonize it. The AhcTiaki and Micmao Indians were its originsd inhabitants. It is mentioned, and accurately described, as to situa- tion and extent, by Champlmn^ the foundei of Quebec, under the name St. John. It retained this name till the year 1800. It was included by the French in that exten- sive territory called New France. In 1663, it was granted to Sieur Doublet, a captain in the French navy, for fish- ing purposes. It w a,s not, however, till early in the eigh- teenth century, that this island began to be the permanent home of Europeans. A few families from Acadia, with occasional settlers Irom Cape Breton, were its first settlers. I'*-: ■«i ^' is H^:^^^ ir«o fllTUATIOH, BXIBHT, Bia In 1728, the European Bettlers were onlj sixty /amilies. These Bixty families were chiefly Acadianb, who had re- moved from Nova Scotia after the Treaty of Utrecht. In 1752, the whole population of the island was esti- mated at 1,354. The sections of the island at that time most thickly settled, were the lands on both sides of Point Prim, the lands about St. Peter's Bay, Savage Harbor, Gharlottetown Harbor, and Hillsborough Bay. The expulsion of the Acadians from Kova Scotia was the means of more than doubUng the population of the island. When it became a British possession, in 1758, the inhabitants numbered 4,100. By the treaty of Fontaine- bleau, in 1763, this island was Anally ceded to Great Britain. It was then placed under the government of Nova Scotia. In 1764, in common with the other British American territories, the British government ordered the survey of the island. This survey was begun in the spring of 1764, and completed in 1766. After the completion of the survey, no doubt remained as to the superior quality of the land of this island for agricultural purposes. Vari- ous plans for its settlement were proposed. Lord Egmont proposed that it should be settled on a feudal plan ; that he himself should preside as lord paramount, and that a number of baronies should be held from him, — each baron to erect a stronghold, and with their unuor-tenants and men-at-arms to perform suit and service, after the cus- tom of the ancient feudal tenures of Europe.* This plan was rejected as impracticable. The plan adopted was far from satisfactory in its results. It was to the following effect : — The island was divided into a given number of townships, or lots — siitty-seven. These townships, or lots, or parts of them, with certain reservations, were to be granted to parties having claims upon the government, upon certain conditions of settlement, and the payment of quit-rents. Lot sixty-six, about 6,000 acres, was reserved for the < rown. Lots forty and fifty-nine had ahready been * Montgomerj Martlo. SirtTATION, BXTEM*} J?rO. 731 promised to parties who had made improvements on them. Sixty-four townships, or lots, remained to be disposed of. There were more applicants than lots. They were oi^posed of by means of the ballot-box. " When an individual was to receive a whole lot, his name alone appeared on the slip of paper ; in other cases two, and sometimes three names were inscribed on one paper, as sharers in one Ibt. Upwards of one hundred individuals participated in these grants."* These grants were made in 1767. A town-lot and royalty were reserved in each county ; while each township was to furnish a glebe-lot of one hundred acres for a minister of the (Jospel, and a lot of thirty acres for a school-master. The quit-rents were of three rates, six Bhillings, four shillings, and two shillings, annually, per hundred acres. The grantees were to settle on each lot a settler for every 200 acres, within ten yeats from the date of the grant. The settlers were to be Protestants, from the parts of Europe not belonging to Great Britain, or persons that had resided in America for two years prior to the date of the grant. Emigration from the mother country was then discouraged, from the prevailing notion that it would de- populate the country. At the request of the majority of the grantees, the island was separated from the province of Nova Scotia, and obtained a separate government, 1770. Its fii*st governor as a separate colony was "Walter Patterson, Esq. "When ten years had elapsed, there was but very little done toward fulfilling the conditions on which the land was granted to the several proprietors. No attempt had been made to settle forty-eight of the sixty-seven lots, or townships, into which the island was divided. The pro- prietors of only ten lots had shown any conscientious zeal in fulfilling the conditions of their grants. Sir Jame^ Montgomery deserves to be named first among those who * Sutherland. Otography and Naiurai and CivU History of the Island; a a excellent work. • r#t ■ m ^i- I Ik ! i * ■ IU8 f I p. It.'' P III ' i i r ■ Ili 1 j^ !'.> *-.'r- » v 732 BITUATION, EXTENT, ETC. had done their duty in this matter. The grand object of the iBajority of the proprietors was, how to make the greatest gain with the least trouble and expense. This land queation has been the atcmdmg grievcmce of the island for the last ninety years. In 1781, nine whole and five half townships were sold for the payment of quit-rents. In 1797, it was found upon investigation, under direction of the provincial parliament, that twenty-three lots, embracing 458,580 acres, had not a single family settled on them ; twelve other lots, containing 243,000 acres, had only thirty-six families ; six other lots, containing 120,000 acres, had only forty-eight families. The whole population at this time was estimated at 4,500. The knowledge of these facts led to an agitation for the escheat of the lands of those proprietors who made no effort to fulfil the conditions of their grants. In the year 1798, a bill passed the provincial legislature, changing the name of the island from St. John to Fbinob Edwaed. Inconvenience had arisen from the island hav- ing the same name with the capitals of two neighboring provinces. The people of the island were anxious to mark tlieir gratitude to Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, the father of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, for kindness ex- tended to them; they therefore resolved to call their country by his name, the change to take effect from the commencement of 1800. At this period the population of the island was not over 5,000. At the beginning of the present century the arrears of quit-rent amounted to £59,162 sterling. A very liberal arrangement was made by the government for the pay- ment of these arrears. The lots were divided into ^e classes. The first, those which had the full number of settlers, were to pay only four years' quit-rent, for the amount of arrears fi-om 1769 to 1801. The second class, those having only half the required number of settlers, were to pay five years' quit-rent. The third class, those having less than a half and more than a fourth of the re- BrrUATION) EXTENT, ETC. T33 ;e of Kent, the quired population, were to pay nine years' qnit-rent. The fourth class, those which had less ♦han a fourth of the required number of settlers, were .o pay twelve years* rent. The fifth class embraced those lots or townships that were wholly unsettled ; fifteen years' quit-rent was required in their case in lieu of all arrears. This was less than half the amount owed by this class. This arrange- ment had a very beneficial effect on the prosperity of the island. Bapid progress in population and social comfort followed. I'here were some proprietors who did not avail them- Belves of this commt station ; it became necessary, therefore, to proceed against them for the recovery of the quit-rents due from them. In 1804, judgments were obtained against ten townu'tips, five half-townships, and one-third of a township. It seems, however, that the nonpaying proprie- tors had sufficient influence with the home government to prevent the act under which their lands were seized from receiving the royal assent. Under the administration of Governor Smith, lots 15 and 55 were escheated. He was prev imted from further progress with that work by orders from the king. The old conditions for settling the island having been cancelled, as far as they required the immigrants to be Protestants from the parts of Europe not belonging to Great Britain, and the quit-rents having been made light- er, a very healthy impetus was given to the prosperity of the island. In 1803, the Earl of Selkirk settled about 800 High- landers on his lands, who soon, by dint of industry, became comfortable and prosperous farmers. In subsequent years immigrants continued to arrive from Scotland, Ireland, and England ; so that in the year 1832, the population in- creased to 32,292. From that time onwards, the history of this little colony has been thai of true progress, in aH that tends to make a country truly great. ii' iff *■ ^^ff!Wl«(fr' mi I-- .'.■y,;* h ! B*?! J H F 4 • \ ' ^ 784 NATUBAt BftSr . ..E8, OLtMAYE, ETC. CHAPTER n. NATT7BAL BESOUBOES^ CLIMATE, Ac Thk island diflfers from the neighboring ph)vinces, in respect of natural resources, in having no mines or min- erals, its chief natural resources may be comprised under these three : the forest^ the soil, the iea. The Forest. — ^The whole island was at one time covered with a magnificent growth of forest trees ; birch, beech, maple, elm, ash, pine, spruce, hemlock, fir, jutiiiper, cedar, willow, and poplar, are the chief varieties. There are hardly any barrens in this island ; even where destructive fires, or the constant encroachments of lumbermen, de- stroyed the original forest, a new growth of trees spring up with wonderful rapidity, and become fit for fuel or fence-poles. At one time a very extensive lumbet trade was carried on in several districts of the island. Ship- building is still carried on to a considerable extent. The Soil. — There is no portion of the lower {)rovince8 where agriculture can be prosecuted with better prospectfl of a good return than in this island. The soil is strong and rich to an uncommonly uniform degree. Even the swamps, with which we meet occasionally, are hardly an exception to this statement, for t^rhen drained and limed, they make good hay land. The peat bogs, which, accord- ing to Dr. Gesner, are of excellent quality, will ohe day afford good fuel. They afibrd also good material for com- posted manure. The inost eixtehsive of these is on the south side of Cascampee hai-bot. Stich is the excellence of the soil, that good crojid we ptodnced immediately on its being redeemSi ^m the forest, and for a long time the yield is good, though it teniain entirely unmanui'ed, if any attentioft is giteii to the i^otation of crofra. The soil seems equally adapted to the growth of wheat, oats, ttiid i,otato6S. The facilities for making manure are very great. The NATlTIMyi;. 8^0UBOSS| OUMATE, ETC. T35 hog&y to which reference has been abreudy made^ sapply one source. The rivers — rather, arms of the sea — creeks, and inlets, which ahnost everywhere indent the land, have deposited vast stores of sea-manure, which, when spread over the exhausted soil, has the most beneficial eflfect in fertilizing it. The quadrupeds and birds of this island are, with few exceptions, of the same kind with those of JSTova Scotia and New Brunswick. The Sea. — It is enough to say of the waters of Prince Edward Island, that they are not one whit behind those of Kova, Scotia in the abundance and excellence of their ^h. The rivers abound with excellent trout, eels, floun- ders, mackerel, oysters, lobsters, and salmon; and the> coast with cod and herring. The oysters of this island are very superior, and large quantities of them are export- ed annually. The halibut and sturgeons that are caught on the coast, are usually very large. In former times the walrus was wont to frequent the shores in large numbers,, and was a source of considerable profit. The harbor seals and harp seals float on the ice toward the north shore in large numbers. "Wild geese, wild pigeons, wild ducks, and, brant are also very pl^entiful in their seasons. Climate. — This island, being situated in the centre of the temperate zone, has a climate that is neither extremely cold nor hot. The variations from the coldest day in winter to the hottest day in sumnier are however very considerable., On rare occasions, under a keen northwest wind the mercury will be found falling as low as 23 degrees below zero ; and on a calm day in July or August, it will rise as high as 90 degrees in the shade. In. some sections of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick it rises higher in summer and falls lowei* in winter than it ever does in this island. The mean tem- perature of the year is 40 degrees. The number of days of falling weather in a year ranges from 120 to HO days.. The climate of this ialand,is conducive to health and longev- ity in a high degree. The atmosphere is pure, and re- markably free from fogs. The water is good and very "M.-A .! 1^- L'; :V i-\ m 'i 1 i t 1 * 1 ] f: pi It t ir- 740 POPULATION, EDTTOATION, ETC. can colonies, it enjoys the fullest freedom to make and administer whatever laws are best suited to its peculiar circumstances, without any interference by the parent state. The Leoislatube consists of the Governor, who is ap- pointed by the Queen, a Legislative Council, and a House of Representatives. The House of Assembly, or Representatives, consists of thirty members, and the Legislative Council of twelve members. Both these bodies are elected by the people. The island is divided for civil purposes into three coun- ties — King's, Queen's, and Prince's ; each of these elects ten representatives and four councillors. The Executive Council consists of the Governor and nine members, chosen out of the members of the Legis- lative Council and House of Assembly. The Judicial Department embraces the following courts : 1. The Commissioners^ Courts^ for small debts. These have jurisdiction in settling debts that do not ex- ceed sixty dollars. Each county has six or seven of these courts. They consist of three commissioners, ap- pointed by government. They meet monthly, and are de- signed to prevent expensive litigation. 2. The Court of Probate, which disposes of wills, and grants letters of ad- ministration for the disposal of the property of such as die intestate. 3. The Supreme Court, which is the highest tri- bunal of civil law. It meets four times in the year in Queen's county, and twice a year in the two other counties. It is presided over by a Chief-Justice and one Assistant Judge. 4. The Court of Chancery, of which the Lieutenant-Gov- ernor is chancellor, and the master of the rolls the acting judge. This court adjudicates in cases which cannot be satisfactorily determined by statute law. It aims at de- ciding according to the equity of the case. 5. The Cov/rt of Vi^-Admn^ralty, which is similar in function to the court of the same name in the other provinces. 6. The Court of Marriage omd Di/oorce. The Lieutenant-Gover- POPULATION, EDUCATION, BTO. 741 nor is the president of this court, and the Executive-Ooun- cil are the members of it. It exists, as yet, but in name. The First House of Assembly of Prince Edward Island met in July, 1773. It consisted of eighteen members. The Legislative and Executive Councils were then one body, appointed by the sovereign. The island was connected w^'th Nova Scotia, in respect of civil government, till the year 1770. In that year it was erected into a separate province. Its first governor, as a separate province, was : 1. Walter Patterson, Esq., whose term was from mo to 1T86 2. Lieut. Qoneral Edmund Fanning, II it 1786 " 1806 3. Colonel Joseph P. W. Debarres, of Bedeque harbor. Its distance from the capital is forty miles. It is only thirty-five miles from the towi;i of Shediac, New Brunswick. It is a town of re- cent growth but it is rapidly increasing, and its trade is considerrble. There are no railways in Prince Edward Island, but its highways are excellent in summer and winter ; in the fall and spring they are ' usually very deep and miry. There is no country of the same size in British North America where there is so much good turnpike road. It has tdeqra^hic communication with the continent of America by means of a submarine cable, eleven miles in length, connecting it with New Brunswick. There is also tele- graphic communication between Oharlottetown and some of the principal places in the island. The standing grievance of Prince Edward Island has been the Land Question. The royal commissioners, who sat on this subject in 1861, among other things, recom- mend the purchase of the estates of large non-resident pro- prietors by the government, at an equitable r^te, to be sold A- POPXJLATION, EDUCATION", ETC. 743 again in retail to the tenants. If the government decKne, or is not in circumstances to make the purchase, then the award of the commissioners is, that the sale of the land to the occupant tenants be compulsory on the part of the landlords, on the receipt of a just and reasonable price. They also fixed twenty years' rent as the highest sum that could be demanded by any proprietor. The award further determines, that all arrears of rent due previous to first of May, 1858, are now cancelled. Their report is very able and elaborate, and has had a beneficial effect already. It may be further noticed, that their award does not compel proprietors of less than 1,500 acres to sell their lands to those who may be occupying them as tenants. m. ( i 5 *■' NEVFOUNDLAffl). CHAPTER I. SITUATION, DISCOVERT, AND EARLY HISTORT. Situation and Extent. — ^Newfoundland is an island in the form of an irregular triangle, situate on the east side of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and lying between the paral- lels of 46** 40' and 61" 39' north latitude, and the meridians of 62° 44' and 69" 31' west longitude. On the eastern shore it is bounded by the Atlantic ; on the north and northeast by the Strait of Bellisle— fifty miles long by twelve wide ; on the northwest by the Gulf of St. Law- rence ; on the south and southwest by the Atlantic. Its extrem? length, from Cape Race to Grignet Bay, is 420 miles ; extreme breadth, from Cape Ray to Cape Bonavista, 300 miles. Its circuit is estimated at 1,000 miles ; its area, 36,000 square miles. It is nearer to Europe than any part of the American continent ; the distance from St. John's, in Newfoundland, to Valenti, in the west of Ireland, being 1,666 miles. DisoovEBT, Setilement, &o. — ^It is said that in the year 1001, A. D., Biorn, a sea-king of Iceland, took possession of this island, and settled near Harbor Grace. Both Rob- ertson and Finkerton are of opinion that its colonization was at least attempted by the Norwegians, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. John Cabot, the Venetian, under a commission for discovery from Henry VH. of England, on the 24th of June, 1497, observed a headland of this island, and taking it for a lucky oraen, called it Bonavista, which is its name till the present day. The island was then inhabited by a savage race of Indians, with whom it SmJATION, DI8C0VEET, &0. 745 ST HISTORY. was very difficult to establish any amicable relations. They suffered greatly, in consequence, at the hands of the many adventurers who resorted thither. It is supposed that the last remnant of them emigrated to Labrador, It is some years since one of them has been seen on the island. A colony of Micmacs from Nova Scotia helped to drive them off. They have left many traces of their labors and energy behind them : one of these is a fence, which extends over thirty miles. Its object was to be of help to them in catching deer. It was built from water to water, with one gap, close to which the hunters posted themselves, and watched for their prey. The earliest attempt at colonizing this island by the English, was in 1536. " Master John Hore," a London merchant, " with divers other gentlemen," sailed thither in that year, but were reduced to great extremities, and were compelled to return to England in the winter, and would have perished had they not met with a French ship laden with provisions, which they seized and brought with them to England. In 1578, another fruitless attempt was made to settle a colony there, by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, the half-brother of Sir "Walter Kaleigh. The island having now become a common resort for fishermen and traders of all nations, even pirates having made it a place of rendezvous with impunity, Sii: Humphrey Gilbert again, in 1583, embarked with 200 people, in several ships, landed at Bay St. John's, and took possession of it in the name of Queen Elizabeth of England, in the presence of the crews of thirty-six fishing vessels of various nations. Sir Hum- phrey Gilbert was lost on his way home to England the succeeding winter, his little ship, the LitUe Squirrel^ hav- ing foundered in a terrific gale near the Azores. Of all the armament that went out with him, the Golden Hind alone reached England, and she in the most dilapidated condition. Sir Bernard Drake made a further attempt a few years later, but without much success. The next lit i ifl. 'i r 't 1 i |,v V.I i i ' 'i i I ''■i'Cl'l .-i, IV'^^di n ' 746 BITUATION, DISCOVERT, &0. attempt was made in 1610, under a patent granted by James I., to Lord Bacon and others, who establisiied the first permanent colony on the island at Conception Bay. In 1617, a Welsh settlement was established on the south part of the island, called Cambriol (now Little Britain), under the direction of Captain Whitboume. In 1623, Sir George. Calvert — who afterward, as Lord Baltimore, settled Maryland — ^formed an important and prosperous settlement at Ferryland where he remained about twenty years. A few years k'.r. Lord Falkland (Cary) sent a small colony of Irishmen there. About the year 1646 there were sixteen settlements planted on various parts of the coast. Sir David Kirk brought a number of settlers to the island in 1654. There were 350 British families there about this date. The French had a colony of some strength at Placentia. For the next eighty years the colony suffered greatly for the want of regular govern- ment, which was mainly caused by the selfish cruelty and mistaken policy of the "Lords of Trades and Planta- tions," who imagined that a well regulated government would be injurious to their interests there. They even moved the British government, through their misrepresen- tations and influence, to send Sir John Berry out with orders for the deportation of the settlers, the destruction of their houses, and the wholesale demolition of a colony which had been planted and reared at a heavy cost of blood and treasure to the nation. Sir John Berry was a man of humane character, and while with his left hand he reluctaatly and tardily carried out his orders, with his right hand he pleaded successfully for the colonists. In 1696 all the English settlements of Newfoundland, except Bonavista and Carbonear, were seized by the French, who always set a high value on this island on account of its fisheries. It was the scene of much conflict between Great Britain and France, for many subsequent years. The Treaties of Utrecht, 17X5 j of Paris, 1763; of Ver- J. i TOPOGRAPHY, NATURAL RE80UECE8, &0. 747 sailles, 1783 ; and of Paris, 1814 and 1815, all recognize this island as a British possession. It was in the year 1729 that Captain Osborne was ap- pointed the first civil governor of this colony. He was empowered to appoint justices of the peace. Courts of justice were appointed in 1789. A few years later a chief-justice was appointed, and surrogate courts in vari- ous parts of the island. John Keaves, Esq., was the first cLitf-jnstice of this colony. In 1824 the island was divided into three districts, in each of which a court was annually to be held. CHAPTER II. TOPOGRAPHY, NATURAL RESOURCES, CLIMATE, &o. Newfoundland is in shape almost an equilateral trian- gle, the apex being to th^ northward, terminating in Cape Bauld, while the base extends east and west between Cape Bay and Cape Race. The coast-line is very irregular, being indented at intervals of only a few miles with bays, harbors, coves, creeks, and rivers. The shores are rocky, and the headlands, on the south-west side, quite lofty. Bays. — ^The most important bays are : on the east side of the triangle. Hare, White, Notre-Dame, Bay of Exploits, Bonavista, Trinity, and Conception Bays; on the south side, St. Mary's, Placentia, and Fortune Bays ; on the west, St. Grtiorge's and the Bay of Islands ; and at the northern apex. Pistol et Bay. Most of theseare extensive, and contain commodious and well-sheltered harbors. The good harbors are numerous, and have good anchoriiges with clear good channels. RrvEES. — Rivers are numerous in the island, and though the great majority are small, yet some attain to respectable ■'"fi^yt'T ■ ""'i.''''^f' m<'*' f, I *■ i 4 2 748 TOPOGRAPHY, NATUBAL EE80UEOES, &0. .1 size. The largest are the Humber, River of Exploits, Gombo, and Great Cod Roy Rivers. Nearly all the rivers of this island issue from lakes or ponds in the interior. Many of them abound with excellent salmon. Lakes and Ponds. — Fresh-water l.«kes and ponds are very numerous. They are found over the face of the entire country — on the very tops of the hills. The surface covered with water has been estimated at one-third of the whole island. The Grand Pond is about sixty miles long, and five miles wide. Indian Lake is thirty miles long by six wide. Sixty-seven ponds have been counted from one spot ou the top of the N. E. Mountains of Avalon, some two and three miles in extent, none less than 100 yards, and not at a farther distance than ten miles from the base of the hill. Some of the larger and more important lakes have water communication with each other. VictoAa Lake has communication with Bathurst, Wil- mot, and. George the Fourth lakes. MoTJN'.?AiN8 AND HiLLS. — There is a long and continuous mountain extending from the three sugar-loaf hills near Cape Roy, to the north-east. These elevations have a steep face toward the north-west, and are rather flat and regular on the summit. The " Blow-me-down Hills,'' on the south side of the Humber River, have the least ele- vated peak at 800 feet. " Butter Pots," near Conception, at either end are 1,000 feet. A ridge that runs from Cape Dog to St. Mary's Bay, at the highest elevation ranges from 1,200 to 1,500 feet. The elevations about St. John's, viz. : Signal Hill, South Side Hill, and Bronxscombe Hill, are respectively 520, TOO, and 870 feet above the level of the sea. The hills near the mouth of the River of Ex- ploits are from 1,000 to 1,500 feet high. There is more good soil on this island than was supposed some years since. The "Barrens," properly so called, are the tops of hills, and most elevated plains. These are covered with thin scrubby vegetation — berry-bearing plants and dwarf bushes of various kinds. .1 TOPOGBAPHY, NATUEAL EESOTTROBB, ETO. 749 Trees. — ^The principal trees are, spruce, birch, larch, ■willow, mountain ash, and fir-trees. Trees do not attain, to a large size. Kecumbent and standing evergreens are to be met in great variety ; berry-growing bushes abound in every swamp. European and American grasses, also red and white clover, are abundant. Animals. — The only animal peculiar to this island is the Newfoundland dog, which is famous the world over. A team in the out-districts of Newfoundland consists of a man and two dogs. A team of this description carries two men with a considerable amount of stuflF on a sledge or sleigh. All their fire-wood is hauled by teams of this des- cription in some districts. The long-haired pure Newfound- land dog is not very easily procured now. There is, how- ever, a short-haired native breed, a cross with the other, which is abundant, and possesses the chief excellences of the first named. The deer, the wolf, the bear, the beaver, martin, and wild-cat, are to be enumerated among the wild animals of the country. Land and aquatic birds are numerous. Fish. — The lakes, and ponds, and rivers abound with trout, and salmon, and eels of great size. The lobsters are uncommonly large and of good quality. The mussels are more esteemed than European ones. The capelin, mackerel, herring, and salmon are abundant. The hali- but, thomback, and other kinds of fish, are to be found on the coast. The cod^ however, is the " fish" of New- foundland, while all other varieties, as being less import- ant, are called by their specific names. There is no place in the world comparable to the shores and " banks" of Newfoundland for cod-fisheries. Ageioultural CAPABiLiriEs. — In several sections of the Island agriculture can be carried on with profit. The timber, natural grass, and clover, found in various districts, indicate a productive soil. In the neighborhood of many of the lakes and rivers there are valuable alluvia; The stunted forests on the east and south shores mark a poor v'-'l ;'i» [If I. I*' i* 1 1 s- ( V 1 * I I », 1 ••V ; 1 1 'M 760 TOPOGRAPHY, NATUBAL REB0TJB0E8, ETC. country ; but the large growth of timber in the interior and toward the west indicates a rich soil, and proves that there is room for successful agricultural enterprise in New- foundland. The land close by the seanshore affords no criterion by which to estimate the fertility of the inland districts. Potatoes yield well and are of excellent quality. Green crops thrive well in many districts. Wheat has been known to yield j&fty bushels per acre. Apples, plums, and cherries have been raised with success. Red, black, and white currants ; gooseberries, strawberries, and raspberries of very good quality are grown. The season for the growth and ripening of the fruits of the earth is brief, but fervent. Climate. — The climate, though severe, is not unhealthy. The rate of mortality, according to the population, is lower than in any other country in America. Old age is usually attended here with an unconunon degree of bodily vigor and mental activity. In 1829, Marten Galen, of Placentia Bay, was over one hundred years of age, lived in excellent health, and in company with his brother, caught that year nine quintals of fish. Seventy years previous to that date he piloted Captain Cook into Placentia Bay! Mrs. Tait died in the same place 125 years old. About twenty-five years since a woman died at Torbay, near St. John's, aged 125 years ; shortly before her death she sent for a doctor to see what was the matter with her poor chUd, who was sick. The child was ninety years of age ! The winter lasts from the beginning of December till the middle of April, and some- times till the end of that month. Frost is less intense here than in Canada. January and February are the coldest months. The bitterest winds are from the north- west. The south-east wind is warm; the north-easterly winds are cold, both in summer and winter. The follow- ing table contains the results of meteorological observa- tions for the years 1858, 185d, 1860, taken by E. M. I. Delaney, Esq., C. E. INDUBTSIAL BKS0UE0E8. 761 1868. Max.h«lghtofbwometer, corrected to sealeyel 80.88 lnoh««.,,. JaaiurTl& Kn ^o" t Il-J? :: •■•• ^^«- M.x.he.ghuher«ometer... ;::::: 84- :;:; ^1 Mean tenii)er»ture for year ." 4i« * ebriury 11. &«fcwrndi'."'!"'^r"'^.r:::::^ ".SwinchV.-;;. theyar. Kaln fell v,a 98 dayj ; fog previiiod 66 d»y». 1859. M(«. height of barometor, corrected to »e« level 80. 86 inches.... Jannarv2BL JJi^„ ^»- do 28.72 » .... December^ Mean do. do. 29 79 » °vcMiuvir«, Max. height of thermometer ' oaa T..i...ia Mean temperature for year ".'.".'...'.'.■.!*. 44^ /" ■'"'■<"»"'• Quantity of rain. Including melted snow. .*.■;;.■; 64.220 inchM'. ! '. the rear Prevailing winds NNW & 89W Eain fell on 110 days; snow on 64: fog, SH: thunder * anci lightning on 6. 1860. Max. height of barometer, corrected to sea level 80.88 inches.... February 29 5Ji°- ^«- do. 29.86 " .... FebruMTli: Mean do. do. 29.60 " • «i/»u0. Ship-Buildino. — ^This department of induitry has never been prosecuted to a very large extent in this colony. The native timber does not furnish materials^f shij>ft of the first class. The returns for 1857, give eighty-eight ve««eU as the number built, the tonnage of which waa 2,427, which shows that they were vessels of very moderate size. Num- ber of boats built during the same year was 630 ; number of* vessels owned in the Inland wa» 212 — tonnage, 6,i:2d. Fishing Industky. — This is by far the most important department of industry in Newfomidland, The cod amid seal fisheries rank first in importance. * The fishing season opens in May, when herring are caught chiefly for bait. The cod fiiihing begins in the month of June, and continues till the end of 8ejj*temb«r, and sometimes till the middle of October. It i« carried on in large boats on the great banks, and in boatji and shallops near the shore. The first is termed the bank &»£»- ery, the other the shore fi.«hery. The bank fidherie^^ ar« prosecuted chiefly by the French and Americana, -wWh: the British direct their chief energieer to the shore fiiftherica. The cod is caught on hooks baited with herring, maekerdL ,':H' ihi'ih' t. yM hP 'f" -: \ I' • f K ! . i 764 INDUSTRIAL BB8017ROE8. capelin, clams, &c. They are very voracious, and bite with great rapidity. One man often catches 250 good fish in a day. They are carried on shore for curing, with as little delay as possible. When landed, the fish is thrown on a stage, and by a division of labor between four per- sons — respectively termed cut-throat, header, splitter, and Salter — they are rid of heads, opened, cleaned, and piled in salt to cure, at the rate of several hundreds per hour. "When completely cured, the codfish are assorted into four different kinds, known as merchantable, Madeira, "West India, and dun or broken fish. The first is prime fish ; the second is nearly as good ; the third is intended for the negroes ; the fourth, which is incapable of keeping, is used at home. The tongues and bladders are cut off from the refuse by the old men, women, and children, and pickled in kegs. The livers are exposed to the sun in vats, until the oil drains off; the oil is then barrelled ; it is afterward boiled to extract the inferior quality. These several pro- ducts of this branch of industry are commonly sold by the fishermen to the wholesale merchants for goods or money. During the winter months many of the fishermen are en- gaged in hunting for game, or trapping for fur. Others are occupied in making boats, oars, staves, hoops, &c. In 1849, there were exported from Newfoundland 1,175,167 quintals of dried fish, valued at $2,825,895 ; in 1857, 1,335,649 quintals of tisli were cured, the value of which would be over three millions of dollars. Next in importance to the cod, is the seal fishery. The season for this fishing commences in March. During win- ter, vessels of from eighty to one hundred and fifty tons are fitted out, and, manned with crews of from fifteen to forty men, set out for the seal regions early in March. The men generally pay for their own provisions, and receive their wa- ges in such a proportion of the seal-skins caught, as may be agreed upon between themselves and the owners of the vessel. They have usually to cut a channel for themselves out of their harbor ; then they push their way to the fields INDU8TBIAL RESOUBGES. 755 of ice and bergs that float down from the Arctic ocean,' and are often exposed to terrible dangers. The seals are found in groups On the ice, sunning tliemselves, or asleep. These places are called " seal 7neadow8." "When a " seal meadow" is reached, the men, armed with spiked clubs, beset them on every side, and with a knock on the head dispatch them with great rapidity. If not instantly killed, they utter the most piteous moans, like the cry of children. They are skinned at once and on the spot ; and the skins, pelts, and scalps, with the inner coat of blubber on them, are then carried into the vessel, and strewed upon the deck until they have become sufficiently dry to be stowed below. As many as 800, and sometimes 1,000, have been taken by a vessel in one day. The seals are of four kinds : the bay seal, found on the coast ; the hooded seal, which has a hood that it can draw over its head ; the square flipper ; and the harp seal, the last named being the most valuable. In 1846 there went out, from the port of St. John alone, to the seal fishery, 126 vessels, of 11,863 tons, and manned by 3,895 men. They took 302,363 seals. In 1852, the seal fishery of the Island employed 367 vessels, of 35,760 tons, manned by 13,000 men, and took 550,000 seals. During the same year, 7,333 tons, 220 gallons of seal oil, valued at $1,188,500 ; 387 tons, 237 gallons of blubber and dregs ; and 534,378 seal-skins, were exported, the whole being valued at $2,085,100. The census of 1857 gives the number of vessels engaged in the seal fishery at 802, tonnage 57,898^, men on board, 14,442. Number of seals taken, 428,143. Herrings are plentiful, but until recently have not en- tered much into the fishing industry of the colony. In 1857 there were 157,354 barrels of herring cured. The same remark applies to the sahnon fishing. It has secured more attention of late years. In 1857, 2,940 tierces of salmon were cured, besides 913 fresh salmon that were disposed of in St. John's. The following is the nnm- 48 10'/- i pf" ■ 1^: •■ \ ■Ir W'% 766 POPULATIOW, BTO. ber of boats that were engaged in the shore fishery in 1857 ; large boats, from four to fifteen q^uintals, 10,497 ; large boats, from fifteen to thirty quintals, 797; large boats, from thirty quintals and upward, 1,244, — ^total, 12,638. CoMMEBOE. — Fish is the great staple of trade and com- merce in Newfoundland. The following statement of the imports and exports of the Island for a series of years, will indicate at once the amount of its commerce, and its stationary character. In 1829 the imports of the colony were valued at $4,096,995 ; the exports at $3,451,545. Imports. Esporu, 1845 $4,006,660 $4,697,190 1846 4,011,436 3,795,515 1847 4,217,045 4,032,825 1848 3,848,140 4,187,905 1849 3,700,912 4,207,621 1850 4,163,116 4,683,676 1851 4,609,291 4,276,876 1852 3,857,468 4,306,376 1856 6,356,830 6,693,985 1857 7,067,160 8,255,855 1858 5,864,310 6,694,180 1859 6,620,680 6,786,666 For 1860, the imports were valued at $6,270,640 ; the exports at $6,358,560. During the last 260 years, this Island has furnished fish and oil to the value of very nearly $660,000,000. . CHAPTER IV- POPULATION, CrVIL AND BELIGIOUS INSTrPUTIONS, &c. Population. — In 1785, the population of the Island was estimated at 10,244; in 1806, it vv:.a 26,506; in 1825, 45,759 ; in 1836, 73,705 ; in 1845, 96,296 ; in 1851, it ,788 mmmmmmm ;rade and com- JTITUnONS, 4c. POPULATION, ETO. 757 101,600 ; and by the census of 1857, it was 122,638. The last census shows that 107,399 of the population were bom in Newfoundland ; 3,516 born in England ; 7,383 in Ire- land ; 390 in Scotland ; 475 in the British colonies ; and the balance in foreign countries. In 1857, the religious census is stated as follows : — Church of England, 44,285 ; Roman Catholics, 56,895 ; Wesleyans, 20,229 ; Kirk of Scotland, 302 ; Free Kirk, 536 ; Congregationalists, 347 ; Baptists and other denom- inations, 44. The places of worship are : Church of England, 75 ; Church of Rome, 63 ; Wesleyans, 37 ; Kirk of Scotland, 1 ; Free Kirk, 2 ; Congregationalist, 1. Under the head of trades and professions, we have the following statement : — Clergymen, or ministers, 77 ; doc- tors and lawyers, 71 ; farmers, 1,697 ; mechanics, 1,973 ; merchants and traders, 694 ; persons engaged in catching and curing fish, 39,805 ; able-bodied seamen and fisher- men, 20,88Y ; persons engaged in lumbering, 334. Bdildings. — ^The number of inhabited houses in the Island in 1857 was 18,364. These were inhabited by 20,187 families. The number of uninhabited houses was 903 : of houses then in process of building, 1,026 ; of stores, barns, and out-housea, 9,940 ; of fishing-rooms in actual use, 6,006. Schools. — Denominational schools prevail more in NewfounJland than in any of the lower province. De- nominational conflicts of a fierce and pernicious descrip- tion prevail there also. There are Episcopalian schools, Roman Catholic schools, and Protestant dissenters' schools. In 1836, thei'e were but 79 schools in the colony. In 1845, there were 209 schools, witli an attendance of 10,266 pupils. In 1857, there 280 schools, and the number of pupils in attendance was 14,136. The sum voted by the legislature for education, in 1859, was $55,968. There is a General Protestant Board of Education and a Roman Catholic Board. There are three academies in St, John's ; !|! t .' :;i M 'i 5 -'4 ■fK 758 POPULATION, ETC. one under the direction of the Church of England, Church of Kome, and the Wesleyan Church, respectively. There is a high school in connection with St. Andrew's Presbyte- rian Church. There is a grammar school of a superior character in Harbor Grace. Tlere are ten commercial schools of a suj^erior character. Legislative. — ^The first legislature of Newfoundland met in the year 1832. The elective franchise was confer- red, in 1832, on the whole male population over twenty- one years of age, and occupying dwelling-houses, either as owners, or tenants for one year. The legislature consists of the governor in council and two houses of Parliament : the upper house, called the Legislative Council ; the lower, the House of Assembly. The executive council consists at present of five members ; tlie legislative council of twelve, and the house of assembly of thirty members. Judicial. — There is the Supreme Court, with a chief- justice and two assistant judges. The spring term of the court begins on the 20th of May ; the autumn term on the 20th of November. There is a central circuit court, the spring term of which opens in April, and the autumn term in October. Ther^ is a court of vice-admiralty, of which the chief justice for the time being is judge. There are also courts of the justices of the peace. BoABD OF WoEKS. — ^This board has the management and superintendence of the public buildings and public works of the colony. Government House, the Colonial Buildings, Court HouseSj Customs Houses, Hospital, Lunatic Asylum, and all other public buildings belonging to the Island are under its control. It has also the supervision of all light- houses, buoys, beacons, roads, highways, bridges, &c., &c. The various local boards act under the direction of the central board. Post Office Depaktment. — ^There is a postmaster-gen- eral in St. John's. There are sixteen post masters and mistresses, and fourteen way-office keepers, in the various other districts of the Island. POPULATION, ETO. 759 The only route on which there is a daily mail is between St. John's and Portugal Cove. On two or three routes there is a tri-weekly mail, by wagon. About four more routes are run weekly, by boat or messenger; the remainder are run fortnightly in summer and monthly during winter. Slboteio Telegraphs. — ^There are five hundred and fifty miles of over-land telegraph in Newfoundland. The sub- marine line from Afipy Bay, Cape Breton, to Cape Eay, Newfoundland, is seventy-eight miles, lliis submarine line was laid in 1856. There are fifteen stations and twenty- two employes. The tariff from St. John's to Port Hood, C. B., is three dollars for ten words, and fov each additional word, twelve cents. The local tariff is twenty-five cents for ten words. The great Atlantic electric cable was laid on the 5th of August, 1858. Its termini were Valentia Bay, Ireland, and Trinity Bay, Newfoundland. Banks, «fec. — The Savings Bcmk is governed by three members of tho Legislative Council, and fire members of the House of Assembly. The bank is opened every Mon- day for depositors' business, and on every Wednesday for discount business. Three per cent, is allowed on all sums not less than $4. No sum exceeding $400 is received, ex- cept on condition that it shall not be withdrawn without two months' notice. As audited the 31st December, 1860, the assets and liabilities were as follows :— Assets $930,633 LiabUities 839,741 Surplus and assets $90,892 The Union Bcmk rind Commercial Bank are both in a prosperous condition, and are found sufficient for the accom- modation of the community in this department. There are fire, life, and marine insurance companies, and agencies for British and foreign ones. There are also benevolent, charitable, and religious voluntary aasooia- tions. ^H m ' ■ ■ if •■>.] :;-K? '^'^Mlr- 760 POPULATION, KTO. St. John's City.— This is the capital of the Island. It is built mainly of wooden houses. It is built at the mouth of one of the best of harbors, with highlands sheltering it on either side. It is entered from the sea through a narrow passage only about six hundred feet wide, between two lofty cliffs, which are strongly fortified. The city is lighted by gas, and supplied with water from a pond on one of the adjoining hills. One irregular street of about one mile in length comprises the chief buildings of the city. Tlie Colo- nial Building is built of granite ; the Government House is a handsome building, which cost nearly $1,000,000. The new Roman Catholic Cathedral is also a handsome edifice. The MiQUELEi's. — ^These are three little islands on the south coast, at the mouth of Fortune Bay, being the only remaining possessions of the French in these regions. They are called Miqiidon, Little Miquelon (or Langley), and St. Pierre. The Miquelets are connected by a sandy beach, which is sometimes passable by foot travellers, and at other times cut through by storms. The French main- tain a small military force there, and it is the head-quar- ters of their Newfoundland fisheries. Of late years it has been t^suming the dignity and importance of a naval station. I N D E I. ABOBionm of New Brunswick. 0!i4-4l3S. Acadia Colleiee In Novn 8eotia, 708. " Acadia" iron mino of Nuva Scotia, 864 Acadia, New Brunswick flrst settled under the name of, M' Acton copper mines, 820-838. Addington colonization road, 805. Agricultural Association of Upper Canada, niRtorroi; 44-48; tables of the exhibitions of 45-47. Agricnltural capabilities of New Bmns- wick, CM. Agricultural prodnctions of Canada, 62 -M; of Lower Canada. 86, 86 ; of Upper Can- ada, 61, 62; of New Brnnswlck, b«0, 627- 6S8; of Nova Scotia, 687; of Prince Ed- ward Island, 786; of Newfoundland, 762. Agricultural productiveness, comparative, of Nova Scotia, 6S6. Agrienlturol products exported fh>m Can- ada .'91. Agricltural School at St Anne, in Lower Canada, 89. Agricultural societies in Lower Canada, 87-89. Agricultural societies in Upper Canada, 80-60. Agriculture in Canada, history of, 88-04; en- couragement of, by government, 42. Agriculture in New Brunswick, 627-658. Agriculture in Newfonndlanil, 749, 761-768. Agriculture in Nova Scotia, 684-688. Agriculture in Prince Edward Island, 7{fB. Ague and fever unknown in New Bruns- wick, 666. " Alberf coal of New Brunswick, remark- able properties of, !)61. Albert county, New Brunswiclc, description of, 686. Albertite, where found In New Brunswick, 691. Albion ooal mines of Nora Scotia. 860. Ale wife fishery on the St. John Klver, 580; in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 6S8. Alluvial soils of Nova Scotia, 671. Alluvium, two kinds of in New Bruns- wick, 689. American clergy in Canada, restrictions on, 876. American eommon school system, remarks of Mr. Duncombe on, 896. Arnerican railroad contractors In Oaaada, extensive oiicrniions of, 222-224. Anecdotes of an American railroad con- tractor. 2'i2-224. Antlcosti, island of, immense peat bog in, 846. Anticosti, ship route from, to Superic- Clty. 19. Apatite, Importance of; as manure, 888; where found in Canada, 889 ; value of per ton in England, 889. Architects of the Oovernmont buildings at Ottawa, 98. Area of Upper and Lower Canada, 14; of New Brunswick, SS2; of Nova Scotia, 660; of Prince Ed word Island, 7iS: of Newfoundland. 744 : of the Ijibnidor pen- insula, 81; of the Ottawa valley, 96; or the great basin of I^ke Winnipeg, 75; of tho timber territories of Canada, 67 ; of sed- imentary and crystalline nicka In Canada, 28; of Lake Superior, 14 ; of Lake Huron, 14 ; of Lake St. Clair, 16 ; of Lake On- tario, 16. Arichot Academy in Nova Scotia, 707. Ascott copper mine, near Sherbrooki', 826. Ash, two species of, in Now Brunswick, 670. Atlantic and Paciflc, importance of a prac- ticable route between, through British territory, 872. Atlantic cor.at of Nova Scotia, soils of, 668. Authors, distinguished, of Nov» Scotia, 724. Banks, Grand, of Newfoundland, 75L Banks in Newfoundland, 700, Banks in Nova Scotia, 704. Baptist Church in (^inada. Literary Insti- tute of, at Woodstock, 489; the'ologioal. text-b- ada,8d4. Basswood-trco In New Brunswick, 672. Batiscau, Badnor forges at, 819. J- i ■I t (t> ' Ti ^r^f fe:; i, Y62 INDEX. Battean, dMeription and historr of the, 188, 184. Bay of Chaleur ood, Bnp«iiority of the, S61. Bay of Cbalour, desciiptton oi; 602. BaV of Fundy„aea ^heriet In. 6T4-fi80; loirs oil, 566. Bays of Nova Scottu 661 ; Prince Edward Island, 728 ; of Newfoundland, 747. Beanbarnols canst, lengih and coarse of, 167. Beaver-sklns, early tax on, 270. Beaver, the, the present symbol of Canada, 275. Beech, two soeciei ot in New Bmnawlok, 668. Belleville Seminary near Plcton, 488. Bichromate of potash, how manufactured In Norway, 882. Birch-bark canoe, how constructed, 181-188. Birch, four species of, in New Brunswidc, 568. Birch-tree and bark, value of the, 188. Birds of Nova Scotia, 676. Bishop's College, Lennoxvllle, history of, 620 ; faculty uf arts in, 621 : fitoulty of divinity In, 622. Blind In Nova Scotia, 688. Board of Works In Newfoundland, 768. Boards of Agriculture in Upper Canada, 48. Bobcaygeon colonization road, 805. Bog Iron ores of Canada, 819. Bo^ soils of Nova Scotia, 678. £ois brvUn, or half breeds, Canadian, 87. Books, value of, imported into Canada in 1850-61, 476. Botanical Society of Canada, 61, 472. Boundaries of Canada, 18. Boundary of New Brunswick settled by treaty, 1842, 651. Breadth of beam of vessels admitted by the St. Lawrence and Welland canals, 182. Bridge over the St Lawrence, plans, for, 265. Bridges in Canada, cost of construction of^ 12f. Bridge, the Victoria, origin of, 267; de- scription of, 258-268 ; cost of, 268. Bridle and winter roads in Canada, 116-119. British Columbia and Vancouver Ishind, mineral resources of, 866-871. British Columbia, Influence o^ on the set- tlement of the Saskatchewan, 78, 80 ; com- munications wltti, 79. British government early policy of^ in re- gard to education in Canada, 876. Brothers of St Joseph, 637. Bruce copper mines, 822, 828. Buffalo, Brantford and Goderich Bailway, history of; 284-236. Buildings in Newfoundland, 767. Buller, Arthur, remarks of; on education in Lower Canada in 1888 {noU\ 601. Burlington Bay, railway from, to London, 190. Bush, list of articles necessary for a settler going into the, 804. Butternut tree in New Bmnswiok, 649. OALVom, description of the. 111. Oampbell, Mr. John, gold found by, near Hi5llfex,857. Camping in the Canadian irooda in winter, •1, Canada, physical feature* of, 18-Sl; gao- graphical surCskce of, 20 ; soils of, 22 ; cli- mate of, 27 ; agricultural history of, 82- 64; forest industry of, 64-74; Northwest Territory of, 74-80 ; agricultural produc- tions of 52-64 ; travel and transportation in, 99-268; roads in, 102-128; wotcr com- munications of, 129-186; history of rail- ways In. 190-256 : action o^ in favor of an inter-colonial railway, 241 ; electric tel- egraph In, 266 ; trade and commerce o( 268-807; present trade of, 292-896; im- mlgratloD into, 801-808 : mineral resources ot; 808-860 ; historical sketch of education in, 878-641. Canada Gold Mining Co., operations ot; 880. Canada Presbyterian Church, college of, at Toronto, 483 ; text-books adopted by, 442. Canadian age of iron and brass, 221. Canadian guarantee law of 1849, unguarded. 2'iO. Canadian Institute at Ottawa, 471. Canadian Institute at Toronto, 471. Canadian Literary Institute at Woodstock, 484. Canadian railway gauge, 268-865; advantage or, in case of invasion, 266. Canadian railway statistics, 198-196. Canadian securities in Kngland, 200. Canadians, not ''morally responsible" for the failure of the Orand Trunk Bailway, 206,211. Canadian tariffis 800. Canadian trade, total tonnage engaged in, in 1858-61, 295. Canals In Canada, 149-166, 168-186; table showing dimensions and coat oi; 177 ; re- marks on the system of, 181. Canals In connection with the St Lawrence, 16, 19, 20. Canals In Nova Scotia, 697. Canoe, bark, description of the, 181-188. Capes of Prince Edward Island, 729. Capital of the Hudson's Bay Company in 1856, 281. Carboniferous districts of Nova Scotia, soils ot; 670. Cariboo district on Frazer Blver, 867. Carioles, description of and mode of travel- ling In, 90. Oarleton, county, New Bmnawiok, descrip- tion of, 649. Carleton, Sir Oay, governor of New Bruns- wick in 1785, 544. Cartier, Jacques, the St Lawrence discov- ered by, 268. Catalogue of useftil minerals found in Can- ada, 818-816. Catholic college of RegiopoUs opened at Kingston in 1846, 896; Cattle, climate of New Brunswick favorable to the rearing of, 66a Cedar, the white, in New Brunswick, 671. Census, religious, of Nova Scotia, 680. Chair of agriculture In Upper Canada, 61. Chambly canal, when projected, 160. Chambly Industrial College, 626. Channels of Canadian XiaAo, 298. Characteristics and cost of Canadian oanals, 177. Charlotte conntj, Haw Bnuuwiok, dMorip* Oon of, 640. rl M of, 1»*; g«o- 0; soils of, 83; cll- nral history of, 82- r, 64-74; Northwest ^rlculturnl produc- uml transportation 02-128; water com- 85 ; history of rall- lon ot. In favor of an , 241 ; elwjtrlo t«il- I and commerce o^ lie of, 292-896 ; im- a: mineral resources [ aketch of education )., operations oi; 880. i^hurch, college of, at Kjks adopted by, 442. id brass, 221. V of 1849, unguarded, tttewa, 471. roronto, 471. tltute at Woodstock, B, a&8-S56; advantage D,2&5. sties, 198-196, Kngland, 200. ally responsible" for rand Trunk. KaUway, onnage engaged in, In 9-1B6, 168-186; table and coeto(;i77; re- . of, 181. ith the St Lawrence, m of the, 181-188. j-d Island, 729. U'g Bay Company In I of Nova Scotia, eoila »^er Elver, 867. |f and mode of travol- Bronawiok, descrip- rernor of New Bnms- jst Lawrence discov- lerals found in Oan- iopolis opened at [Brunswick favorable Irew Brunswick, 571. lova Sootla, 680. k Upper Canada, 51. Iprojeoted, 160. loUege, 626. ■trade, 298. St of Canadian canals, r Bnuuwlok, deiorip- INDEX. 763 * Charlotte," the first river steamer in Upper Canada, 141. Cbarlottetown, P. E. L, description of, 784L ChaiidiiVe Falls, 96. Chauveau, Dr., appointed superintendent of education In Lower Canada In l!366, 606 ; Important services of, 606, 607. Chlorite, where found in New Brunswick, 696. Christian Brothers' Schools in Canada, 686. Chromic Iron, where found in Canada, 871. Church of iingUnd parochial schools In Upper (Canada, 429. Church of England Schools of theology in Canada, 486 ; text-books used In, 441. Church of ttome, schools of theology of, in Upper Canada, 437 ; text-books used in the theological schools of, 441. Church of Scotland, university of, at King- ston, 488 ; theological text-books nf, 441. Churches In New Urunswlck, 618 ; In Nova Scotia, 712,718; in Prince lidward Island, 78S: In Newfoundland, 767. Civil List, revenue, and expenditure of New Brunswick, 617. Ckssical ttnd Induetrial College of Ste. Anne de la Pocatlire, 626; of Ste. Marie du Mannoir, 627. Classical College and Theological Seminary of Montreal, 528; of NIoolet, 624: of 8t. llyacinthe, 624; of Ste. Thir^e doBlain- ville, 525. Classical College of Three Rivers, 680. Classical schools In Canada In 1786 and 1789, 876. Clay, plastic, where found in New Bruns- wick, 694. Clearing wild land in New Brunswick, 621. Clergy, American, in Canada, restrictions on, 876. Clergymen, number of, in New.Brunswick, 618. Climate of Canada, 27-Sl ; of New Bruns- wick, 666; of Nova Scotia. 663-666; of Prince Edward Island, 786; of Newfound- land. 760. Cloth manufactured in Upper Canada, 68. Cloudy days at Toronto, table of; 80. CoaL not found in Canada, 809; extensive fields of, in Nova Sootla, 860; amount of; exported at Plctou in 1868; important mnies of; at Cane Breton, 861; amount raised In Nova Scotia In 1861; In New Brunswick, 362, 860, 868 : in Newfound- land, 860; found In British Columbia and Vancouver Islaml, 869; mining for, at Naniamo, 870; amount exported flrom Naniaino, 871. Coal, bituminous, where found in Kew Brunswick, 690. Coal measures of Kew Brunswick, 860, 588. Cobalt, traces of, found In Canada, 829. Cod fishery In the Bay of Fundy, 576 ; on the Gulf of St Lawrence, 580 ; of New- foundland, 758. Coins, value o^ in New Brunswick, 618. Colborne, Sir John, endowment obtained by, for Upper Canada College, 892. College preparatory schools per Canada, the first appropriations under, 884. Common Scliools In Canada, from 1816 to 1822, 884; In New Brunswick, 616-617; In Nova Scotia, 706; in Upper Canada, grants for, 419 ; Increase In the number o( 420. Common sehool system of America, re- marks of Dr. Duncombe on, 896. Common school system of Upper Canada, distinctive features of, 409 ; permanency ot, 411 ; support of, not compulsory on the municipalities, 412; text-books, maps, Ac^ used in, 418-416; religious character of, 416. Communications of Canada, by water, 129- 188. "Company of Canada." 270. " Company of One Hundred Partners," S60. Conference at Toronto, In relation to an inter- colonial raliwav, 289. Congregational Church in Nova Scotia, 718. Congregational College of British North America, 440 ; text-books used In, 448. Constitution of Nova Scotia, 716. Continental Church and School Society, 586. Convents in Upper Canada, 480, 496. Contractors, American railroad, extensive operations of, 222-224. Contractors of the Grand Trunk Co., gOT- erument controlled by, 210. Contracts of the Grand Trunk Co., defectiTd provisions of, 200. Contracts, railroad. Item, and per mile, eom- par-id, 232. Gopiicr Bay mine, 888. Copper, gray sulphuret of, found in New Brunswick, 692. Copper mines of Lake Huron, produce o( 828; at Acton, 825-826; Ascot, 826. Copper mining in the'lake region, 881-888 ; In Canada East, 824-827. Copper on Lake Superior, found In 1687, 871. Copper ores found In great abundance in Canada, 321 ; discoveries of. In New Bruns- wick, 8C2; In NewfoundUnd, 864; in Vancouver Island, 867. Copper nvrites, deposits of, in New Bruns- Corduroy /^)ads in Canada, 119. Com Indian, production of. In Canada, 60. Cornwall canal, history of the, 167. Corporate names of railways in Canada, 193-106. Cost of public works connected with Inland navigation In Cana ■ If*.'!!' , i' i M^\ 'mi^k 764 INDEX. Counties in IfovadcotlA, afrricnitnral rank ot, 688; rank of, In flahlnit Industry, 8. Destroyera of wheat in Canada. 64-67, Directness of Canadian navigation, 180. Discovery and early fortunes of Nova Scotia, 664-6.^9. Dlseasi'.', ordinary, in New Brunswick, 682 ; in Nova Scotia, 681, 688. "Documents do Parl^" early history of Canada contained In, 87. Dugs, euiplovmont of, in winter travelling In (Canada, 90-94. Doollttle, Itev. L,, Bishop's College, Len- noxvllle, projected by, 620. Dongan, Oovernor, letter of, to Denonville (notti. 878; letter of^ on beaver bunting, 276. Dorchester, Lord, action of, in relation to eduoatlou in Canada, a77. DoQglaa, Sir Howard, goTernor of New Brunswick, 1824, 546. Douglastown, destruction o( in the great Mirumichi lire, 650. DuncomlH-, Dr., remarks of, on the Com- mon Schools of America in 1886, 896. Dundns Btreet, established by Governor Simcoe, 118. Durham boat, history and description of the, 184. Durham boats, expenses ol^ fhim Lachine to Kingston. 148; c4k(iaclty of, 149: (line and expense of, (h>m Kingston to Luchiue, 149 ; trade done In, 149. Durham. Lonl, Inter-colonlal railway pro- }>osed oy, 288 ; remarks of, ou education n Lower Canada, 602. Earlt educational efforts in Upper Canada, 874; in Lower Canada, 1632-1759, 4^5-4)^8. Early history of New Brunswick, W2-540 ; of Nova Scotia, 6.M-659; of Prince Ed- ward island, 729-738 ; of Newfoundland, "i4-747. Early navigation of the St Lawrence, 146- 160. Early roads in Canada, 111, 112, US, Early trade of Canada, 268-276. Eurnings and expenses of railways in Canada, 19& Ec ■lesiustical condition of Nova Scotia, 711-714. Educational communities in Lower Canada, 584. Educational department for Upper Canada, 421. Educational legislation in Upper Canada, fnmilsoii to 1M6,381. Educational statistics of Lower Canada, 610. Education in Lower Canada, historical sketeli of, 486-542 ; indebted to the Catho- lic Church, 488; from 1750 to 1800, 4^.% 491 ; progress of, from 1801 to 1818, 4'Jl- 495; fiimi 1819 to 1885, 495-499; from 1886 to 1540, 499-503; progress of, from 1841 to 1845, 603-606; from 1856 to 1802, 604-508; public aid to, in 1862.640: table showing the progress of, in 1868-'61, 641 ; parliamentary grants for, 641. Education in New Brunswick, 614-617. Education in Newfoundland, 767. Education In Nova Scotll^ 704-711. Education In Prince Edward Island, 739. Education in Upper Canada, histoi-ical sketch of. 878-481; history of, fWjm 1788 to 1 805, 874; legislation in regard to, from 1806 to 1816, 881 ; remarks of Mr, M. Smith on the state of, in 1808-13, 888; popular, from 1816 to 1822, 384: Mr. Oourioy's remarks on, in 1817, 885; letter of Mr. Wm. Crooks in relation to, in 1918, 887; fitful progress of, from 1S22 to iai6, 890; parliamentary inquiry as to, and its results, from 1886 to 1848, 896; progress of, from 1844 to 1858.399; hlKher and intermediate, from 1853 to I860, 401 ; summary of institutions for, 407 ; progress of, 419 ; government olHce of, 421 ; additional supplementtu-y aids to, 476; endowments for, 477; number, character, and value of Institutions for, INDEX. 765 «rd, goTOTDor of New M6. •iictlon oi; In tho great «. marks ot, on the Coiu- merlca In 1888, »96. itabllshod by Governor tory and description of ^enB<^s ot, fhJin Lachlne I; capacity of. 149: fltuo , n»iii Kingston tu Luchliio, | In, US). ter-colonlal railway i>ro- I oinarks of, on oducoUon efforts In Upper Canada, unadm 1032-n&9, 4s5-4S8. Jew lininswlck,64'i-.')40; , 6.M-059 ; of rrlm:o Kd- 1-733 ; of Newfoundland, )f the St Lawrence, 146- iam 17S3 legislation in regard to, 1816, 881; remarks of Mr, the state of, in 1808-13, rrom 1816 to 1822, 384: ■emarks on. In 1817, 885; Wm. Crooks in relation 7 ; fitful progress of, from 90; parliamentary imniirv suits, from 1886 to 1843, ,f, from 1844 to 1858.399; termedlate, from 1858 to imary of Institutions for, of, 419 ; government otllc« onal supplementju-y aids omenta ft)r, 477; number, valae of institutious for, 478, 479 ; tables showing the progress of, A-om 1842 to lb61, 4.S0, 481. Education office In Up|>er Canada, 421. Electric Telegrunh In Canada, 266; in Now Brunswick, 26T, 006 ; in Nova Hcotio, 267. 701; In Prince Edward Island, 742; in Newfoundland, 759. Elementary Schools (■' Lower Cauatla, 6:14. Elxin colonization r. .kd In Lower Canada, 62,806. Elgin, Earl of; remarks by, on the educational system of Canada, 416, Elm, the white and red in New Brunswick, 66e-66a Emigration of Amerlean loyalista to Canada, Endowmenta, edacatlon«I In Upper Canada, 47T. England, discreditable ralhroad transactions in, 226, 827. Enniskillen, petroleum found at, 846; yield of oil at, 849 ; export of petroleum from, to England, 850. Episcopal Church In Nova Scotia, 712. Episcopalians in Prince Edward Island, 789. Europe, largo export of lumber to, 68. ExhlDitions of the Agricultural Association of Canada West, 44-1& Expenditure and revenue of Canada, 161, 108, 800, 301 ; of New Brunswick, 617; of Nova Scotia, 702; of Prince Edward Is- land, 741. Exports and imports between Canada and the United States in 1850-60, 199. Exports and imports of New Brunswirk, fi'om 1828 to 1860, 607; of Nova Sc( ' ■>- 690, 691 ; of Prince Edward Island, 7 of Newfoundland in 1846-1869, 766. E^orts from Canada, in 1862-'61, value of. Exports from Canada to the United States In 1861-61, 207. Exports of fish f^om New Brunswick, in 1850-1866,686; from Newfoundland, 766. Exports of lumber from Quebec, 287. Exports of planks and boards from Canada to the United btates, 60. Exports of wheat from Canada, 68, 68, 200, Exports to Oreat Britain trom foreign and Colonial ports in 1880, 208. Exports, toUl, (h>m Qneboo, in 1808, 298. Exports via the St. Lawrence in 1867-61, value oi; 898. Express Companies in Canada, 848-251. Extravagance of the Grand Trunk Kailroad Company, 818. "Fabkiqub" School Act in Lower Canada, provisions of; 498. Fabrique Schools In Lower Canada, 686. Failure of tho Grand Trunk Katlway, causes oi; 806-214. Fall of rain at Toronto, 38, 81,-mt Montreal, 29. Fare^ cheap, influence oi; on railroad travel, 248-260. Farm practice in Lower Canada, 84. Farms, French Canadian, divisions ot; 88. Farms in Upper Canada, value oi; 68. Felspar, whers found in New Brunswick, Fertile Belt of tho North-West Territory, 76-78; fertility of, 80. Fever and ague unknown in Now Brans- wick, 556. Fire, great destruction of pine forests by, 70 Fire, theifretit .Mlnimlehl, of H2a, 61-^ 1. First estublishmelit of common subL in Canada, 3»4. Pish cored In Nova Hcotla In 1351 and IM, 688. Fish, dried, ex|>orted fn>m Newfoundland in 1849 ond 1857, 7f4. Fish exported from New Bnmswiok, in 1 8.50-1 ■sV>,5s5. Fish, fresh-water, of Newfoundland, 749. Fish of Nova t^cotiu. 675. Fisheries of New Uninswlek, 574-685; of Nova Hcotiu, 688; oflVinco ICdward Ulan(L 736, 737; of Newfoiiadland, 7:>3-756. Fitful progress of education In Canada from 1822 to 183K, 890. Fojts on the Bay of Kundy, 666. Forest, tables of the produce of, in Canada, 71, 72 ; Canadian, value of the pnMiucts of, " m 1858 to 1861, 287; product of. In 3w Brunswick \n 1M9-1866, 574; in >'rin "dward Island, 734. FcJiest lustry of Canaila, 64-74. "orest rr, -s in New lininswlek, 561-674. 'orges, iron, at Throe liivers and In Batis- can, 319. Form of government of New Brunswick, 600; of Nova Scotio, 714; of I'rince Ed- ard Island, 789 ; of Newfoundland, 7&8. " Forty Thieves," the, in the American Con- gress, 226. Fosslllferous rocks of Canada, area of, 37. Frazer river, gold discoveries ot, 366. Frcdericton, in New llrtinswiok, settlement of, 544. Free grants of lands in Canada, 808 ; condi- tions of, 806. Free ports, Canadian, value of imports at, 299. Freight tratUo on Canadian railroads, 260. French Canadian farms, divisions of, 33. French mpulatlon removed from Nova Scothi in 1.756, 658. French Itiver and Ottawam 1770 to 1859, 741. Graded roads in Canadii, 120; length and cost of, 127, 12& Grain portage railways in Canada, 286-288. Grammar schools in Caniida, letter of the Duke of Porthmd in relation to, 879 ; ef- forts of government for the establishment of; 879 ; Dr. Baldwin's and Mr. Strachan's, 881; masters of, in 1818 (note), 8S9; dis- trict schools converted into, in 1S89, 897; improvements made in, in 1858, 402. Grammar schools in New Brunswick, 614. Grammar schools in Nova Scotia, 706, Grand Banks of Newfoundland, 761. Grand Lake, New Brunswick, 601. Grand Seminaire at Montreal, 628. Grand Seminary at Quebec, 518. Grand lYunk Railway, history of the, 19T- 806; causes of tUlnre of the. 206-214; amount of aid granted to by government, 818 ; no return traffic on, 247 ; connection of express companies with, 260-258. Granite, where found in New Brunswick, 698. Grants, tree, of lands in C^uada, 808 ; con- ditions of, 806. Grants made by Canada to the Grand Trunk Railway Co., 208. Grants, parliamentary, for educational pur- poses In Canada, n-om 1832 to 1861, 541. Graphite, whare found in New Brunswick, Gravel roods In Canada, 188. Great Western Railway, account of gorem- iiient aid granted to, 218; history of the, 229-288 ; lUms of the cost of, 280 ; un- necessary cost of, 281 ; defects In the lo- cation of, 281 ; excellent eijuipments and management of, 288 ; gauge adopted by, 254. Orenvillo C ''.ege, building erected for, a<. IVescott (no<«\ 894. " Griffon," the. La Salles ship on the lakes, 270. Grindstones, where manufactured in Ne# Bnuiswlck, 598. Oult of St Lawrence, fisheries In the, 660- 588. Gypsum, where found in Canada, 840 ; in Nova Scotia, 858 ; uses of, 840 ; agricul- tural and commercial value of, 841 ; re- marks of Sir WRi. Logan on, 341 amount of; annually raised in Canada, 841 ; valno per ton, 842 ; where found in New Bruns- wick, 592. Habitans, tenacity ot for old onstoma, lOS. Ilackmatack, or American larch, in New Brunswick, 562. Haddock fishery In the Bay of Fundy, 677.. Hake fishery in the Bay of Fundy, 676; in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 581. Halibut fishery in the Bay of Fundy, 678. Halirtt.v, history and description of. 721-728. Harbors of New Brunswick, 627-668; of Nova Scotia, 662; of Prince Kdward Island. 729 ; of Newfoundlond, 747. jiarvey Hill copper mine, 826. HoMtlngs colnnizatlo:i road, 805. Hay, nroductlon ofl in Canada, 60. Heiiltlifiilness of New Brunswick, 664; of Nova Scotia, 666. Hemlock spruce of New Brunswick, 668. Herring fisnery of the Bay of Fundy, 677 ; In the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 5^2. Herring fishery of Newfoundland, 766^ HoBslun fly, ravages of, in Canada, 66. Highlanders, settled on Prince Edward Island bv the Earl of Selkirk, 78L Hind, Professor, remarks of, on the value and uses of gypsum, 840; on slate, 848. Historical sketch of education in Upper Can- ada, 878-481; in Lower Canada, 486-648. History, early, of New BrunswUk, &42-A2; of Novu Scotia, 664-669; of Prince Ed- word Island, 729-788 ; of Newfoundland, 744-747. History of the Hudson's Bay Company, 879- Homstone, where found in New Brunt- wick, 596. Horseboat, no longer used in Canada, 186. Horse railways In Canadian cities, 266, 256. Horticultural Societies in Upper Cansda, 60. Horton Academy in Nova Scotia, 707. Hudson's Bay Company, history of the, 279-284. Hull iron mine in Canada, 816. Humidity of climate of Toronto^table of; 80. Huronian STStem of rocks in Qinada, 811 ; iron ores found in, 816; cupriferous Toini in, 822. mDEX. m 'BV, account of (fOTern- to, 21H; history of the, tho cost of, 5!80; un- !8l ; defects In the lo- silent equipments and 8; gkuge adopted by, itldlng erected for, %- L klles ship on the lake*, mannfactared In Ne# e, flsherlea In the, 660- nd in Canada, 840; in list'* of, 840: afcricul- rclal value of, 841 ; re- Logan on, 841 amount 1 in Canada, 841 ; valno re found In New Bruns- of; for old onstoms, 108. merlcan larch, in New the Bay of Fundy, 6T7.. 3 Bay of Fundy,0T6; in awrt'Mce, 681. he Bay of Fundy, B78. I description of, 121-728. Brunswick, 627-668; of 9; of Prince Edward tewfoundland, 747. mine, 826. 0!5 road, 806. , in Canada, 60. low Brunswlclt,B6«; of New Brunswick, 668. ho Boy of Fundy, 677 ; In iwrence, 682. Newfoundland, 76R, g of, in Canada, 60. ed on Prince Edward rl of Selkirk, 781. narks of, on the valne and 140; on slate, 848. f education in Upper Can- Lower Canada, 486-642. «ew Bruns wl>k, 642-62 ; (I&M69: of Prince td -788; of Newfoundhmd, jon'8 Bay Company, 979- found in New Brun»- er used in Canada, 186. Canadian oltlea, 266, Btles In Upper Canada, 60. n Nova Scotia, 707. >mpany, history of the, Canada, 816. te of Toronto,.table oLW. of rocks In Canada, 811; In, 816 ; cupriferouB TelM Hydranlio cement, matwlali for, where found in Canada, 8411. loBLAXD spar, wher* found in New Brum- wick, 698, Idiots and lunatics In Nova Scotia, 688. Imiiiigraotagt-nclos in Canatla, 802. IminlKrr.nts, number arrived at (jucbec, in u,>-61, aoi ; arrival and distribution of, in 1861,802; tax on, 802; numl>or of. ar- rived In Now Ilninswlck in IsyW-tio, 627. Immigrants to New Brunswick, information for, 610-628. Immigration, expenditare in 1661, 803. Immit^tion into Canada, 801-808. Immigration, toul, firom Qrcat Britain, tnm 1816 to labS, 808. Imperial government, action ot, in relation to an inter-coloniul railway, tM2. Imports and czimrts between Canada and the United States in 1860-60, 299. Imports and exports of New Brunswick, from 1833 to 1860, 607: of Nova licotia, 690, 691; of Prince Eae, 756. Imports from tho United States Into Cana- da in 1861-61, 297. Imports into Canada fyt>m British and for- eign port^ in 1863-01, 298; value o<; 298, 294. Imports, value of; at Oaspd Basin and Sault Ste. Marie, 297. Imports via tho St. Lawrence, In 1S57-61, value o^ 298. Improvement of the river St Lawrence, 161-169. Incas, of Pern, magnificent roads construct- ed by, 108. Indian corn, production of; in Canada, 60. Indian salmou-spearing in Labrador, 88-87. Indians in Upner Canada ; benefits of the Common School Act extended to, in 1824, 801 ; schools for 877, 429. Indians, Montognais, of Labrador, 82. Indiana, tribes of; in New Bnmswiclc, 624- 626. Industrial and Commercial College of St. Michel, 627; of Notre Dame de Levis, 628; of Laval, 623; Ste. Mario do la Beauce, 628; of Yercheres, 629; St Oer- main de Rimouskl, 620; of Sherbrooke, 629; of La Chute, 629; of Longueull, 680. IndiiBtrial resources of Nova Scoti«, 684; of Prince Edward Island, 786; of Newfound- land, 761. Information for inunigrants to New Bruns- wick, 619-628. Inheritance, law oi^ in New Brunswick, 612. Inland hills of Nova Scotia, soils of; 660. Institute of Prince Bupert's Land {noU), 474. Institutes, sclentiQc, in Upper Canada, 473. Inter-colonial Hallway, proposed. 288-247. Interest rate of in Now Brunswick, 619. International communication in New Bruns- wick, 600-606. Invasion of the wilderness in Canada, 61. Invasion, value of an Inter-colonisl railway in cue ot; 246-247. Iron ochres of Canada, where found, 883 ; remarks of Sir William Logan on, 8Ml Iron ores, where found in Canada, 816-830; characteristics of Canadian, 817-818 : where found in Nova Scotia, ({.Vt, 866; cost of, in various iocalltlcs, 866, XS; discov- eries of in New Brunswick, 863; abun- dant in New Brunswick, 601. Iron pvrit«!8, remarkable lode of; in New- fouodlaiiii, 864 : abundant In New Bruns- wick, 694. Iron stuamers on Chaudidre and Chats Lake^ IM. Iroquois Indlaus, in possession of Upper Can.ida in 1777, 100. Iroquois river, navigation of; 161. Jade, found in New Brunswick, 696. Jasper, where found in New Brunswick, 606l Jesuit College do Ste. Marie, Montreal, 626. Jesuits, forfeited estates of, in Lower Canada, 499, 491 ; educational efforts of; in Canada, 684. Johnston, Prof., on tho agricultnial capa- bilities of New Brunswick, 664. Jollette Industrial College, 626. Judicial institutions in Now Bninswick, 610; in Nova Sootia,71T; in Prinoo Ed- ward UUnd, 740 ; in Newfoundland, 768. KEcnm, Mr. Thos. C, the originator of the Victoria Bridge, 257. Kennebecaals river, in New Brunswick, 601. Kent county. New Brunswick, description ot, 632. Kings College In New Brunswick, 614. Kings College in Nova Scotia, 707 Kings College, Toronto, charter obtained for in iS27, 3SJI ; charter of, amended In 1887, 897; foundation stone of, laid in 1642, 899; name of, changed to University cf To- ronto, 400. Kings county. New Brunswick, description oi;642. Knox's Theologioal College, 809, 48a Labor, demand for, in New Brunswick, 620. Labrador, Peninsula, 80-88k Lachino Canal and French Kiver, proposed canals between, 166-1 Ul, Lachino Canal, when projected, 160; con- struction and enlargement of, 16& La Chute, Industrial and Oommorolal Col- lege of; 629. Ladies of Ste. Croix, 687. Ladies of the Congregation of Notre Dame, schools of, in Canada, 680. Ladies of the Sacred Heart, 637. Lake Champlain, importance of a large canal connecting It with the 8t Lowrence, 182. Lake Champlain route of navigation, 161. Lake Huron and Ottawa canals, proiiosed, 156-161. Lake Huron, description of. 14; Importance of a railway to, from Quotec, 247. Lake NiplHsiiig, proposed canals to, 160-161 ; iron ore t'uuhd near, 816. Lake Ontario, description of, 16, 16; the first steamboat on, 186-441 ; railway fh>m, to ■**rT i"™i t i?.*-> *- h Vi I • 1 , 768 IKDSX. the Fklln of NItfiva, 191 ; •jMem of mekt on tba north ahnnt <>( 812. L«kcs, the grant, 14-1*); compantlTa arc*, alevktlon ami depth of, 20; InHiience of, on the cllmato uf ('onxla, '/T ; parly narl- ntlon of, 18A; numbor ami tonnugo of Canatlian vritwia on. In 1kA0-1M1, 186; Btoaiii vfiutvlH on, Ml ; pnM«iigar ituamara on, nu lunsvr iiiataintMl, 284. Lake 8t. Clair, deaertptlon oi; 10. Lake SL Petvr, channel u^ deepened by drpilfflDR, 16.\ Lakes of New lininKwlck, 601 ; Nova Seotta, 661; lYInco Kdward Island, 789; New- foundland, T4ti Lakes un thu Uttnwn rlrer, 94 OS. Lukt) Hiiperlor, d('s<^riptton ol^ 14; commn- nlcutlons with, 78 ; cupper treasures ot, known In 1687, 371. Lake Wlnnipeir, (treat Inland baaln of, 74. LamtMTvllli', Father do, on the prlooa of beaver skins, 276. Land, t«fnuro of; In New Rrunswlok, 613; elearliii; wild, in New ItnitiHwIck, 621 ; grontoii and ungrauted In Nova Scotia, 702. Land question, the, the standing grievance of Prince Ktlward Island, 782, 742. Lands, fh;e grants of. In Canada, 8418; en- tlowments of, fur em the Education Uttice in Upper Canada, 423. Librnrles, rolleglttte and other. In Upper Canuila, 474; In Lower Cnnatla, 689, Libniry iiystem of Upper Conatia, 414, 431. Life ill the Caniuliau wilderness, 87. Liglithouses In Canada, cost oi; 178. Limestone where found In New Brunswtok, 602. Lint of articles necessary for a settler going into the bush, 804. Literary ussuciations in Upper Canada, 470; in ly)wpr Canada, 680. Lithographic stone, whore found In Canada, 884. Liverpool and N. A. Steamohlp Co., 143. Live stock In Upper Canada, 68; in New Brunswick, 627-668; in Nova Scotia, 687 ; In Prince Kdward Islanil,786; In New- foundland, 762. Loan fund, municipal, in Canada, amounts taken ft-om, for railway purposes, 316, 817. TyKid works In Canada, cost of, 17£k Locks for canals, advantages of timber in the construction of, 101, 176. Locks for battuauz constructed hj the French, 147. Locks on Canadian canal:*, 161-166. Loclts on the Welland cunal, not adapted to side-wheel steamers, 180. Locomotives and cars on Canadian rail- ways In I860, 196. Locomotives, improvements made in, by George Stephenson, 187-189; tile first used in Upper Canada, 192. Logan, Sir Wm., provincial geologist for Canada, 810; remarks uf, on Canadian Iron ochres, 888 ; on mica, 886 ; on sUte, 848 ; on |)etroleum, 848 ; value of the re- searches of (note), 472. London.railwoy from, to Burlington Bay, 190. Longevity In Nova Scotia, 666. Longevity, Instances of, in Newfoundland, 760. Longucnil, Industrial and Commercial Col- lege of, 680. Lost Chaudidre, 95. Lower Canada, area of, 14; agricultural his- tory of, 82-89 , tables of agricultural pro- ducts of, 86, 86 ; coraparntive progress of in agriculture, 41 ; fitlting off In the pro- duction of wheat in, 62; in 1777, 100; revenue of, between 1791 and 1841,162; historical sketch of education in, 486-548 ; academies In, 680. Loyalists, American, em'gmt'on Ot, to Can- ada, 101. Lumberers, operations of^ in Canada, 67, 72. Lumbering in Nova Scotia, 693. Lumber trade of Canada, 67-74, 284-2S9. Lumber, value of exports of, fkvm Canada, 66; large export ot to Kurone, 68. Lunatics and Idiots in Nova Scotia, 688. Lutheran Church in Nova Scotia, 718. Macadam roads in Canada, 138 ; length «nd cost of, 127, 12a Macfarlane, Mr. Thomas, on the nunitflko- ture of bichromate of potash, 888. i ' INDEX. 769 cuniil, not 8y 1, 187-189; the flrtt kdo, 19a. ^ )vlnclal geologist for irkB CMA; autistic* ot MS; coiiriu of itiuly hi, &I7: hoiiurs III, 018; faculty of art* In, MS- blV ; faculty of invdiuinu In, Mtf ; fUculty of luw In, 519. McQill, lion. JiiinK*, (onnder of MoOIII Col- lego lit Montrual, 616; biographical notice or(n»/<). 016. McUrcgor, Mr., on the l>eanty of American foroHtK, 567. Ma«;ki>rul ti!«lu-ry In the Bay of Fnndy, 078; In thn Otilfof Hi. lAwrencc, bH'i. Mnilnwa*ka river, 600. Mail^ rviiiiint'nitiou for carriage ol^ to the Orutiil Trunk Co., 258. Multlund, HIr rervgrlne, pffort* of, for the promotion of education In Upper Canada, 890, 891. Manganese ores, where found in New Kriingwick, 691. Mniiiit, riiilroad. In England, 22A, 927. Manufactures In Now Brunswick, 009 ; in Nova Hcotia, 694; In IVInce Edward Island, 787 ; In Newfbundlanil, 758. Manures, mineral In Canada, 888. Maple sugar, mannikoture of. In Now Bmna- wick, 668. Maple-trees of Now Brunswick, 664. Miirlilo, where found in Now Brunswick, 598. Marmora, beds of Iron ore at, 816. M(Uu; cost less than was estlmateti, 220. North Saskatchewan valley, 7S, Northumbi-rland "-ounty, !4ew Bmnswick, description of, 680. Northwest Company of Montreal, when formed, 278; incorporated witli the Hud- son's Bay Co. In 1821, 279, 280. North-West Territory, description oi; 74- 60 ; mineral resources of, 8V1, 873. Norwa-T House, 283. tf 6tre ) tame de Levis, IndusMitl and Com- men M College of, 528. Notre Daiuo Mountains, 89, NoTa Bootia, action of, in favor of an inter- colonial railway. 288, 240 ; telegraph in, 367, 701; mineral resources of, 850-160; dis- covery and early fortunes of, 654 ; posi- tion, extent, and 'natural fcattu«s of, 660; climate of, 668; natural resources of, 066; Soputatlon, statistics, Ac, of, 677: In- ustriai resources o>, 684; commercial In- dustry, 690 ; public works of, 695 ; crown lands of, 702; revenue and expenditure ot, 703 ; eduirational institutions ol^ 704 ; aca- demies In, 707; ecclesiastical condition of, 711; political state of, 714; general civillwitlon of, 719; literature of, 733. Nuggets of i:old found In Canada, 880, 881 ; in Nova Sootla, 358 ; In British Columbhi, 867. Oak, tee lod and gray in New Brunswick, 573. Data, production of, in Canada, 69. Ob«ervatorios, scientific, in Up|>er Canada, 472, Occupation^ professions, and trades in Nova Scotio, 680. Ocean steamera of Canada, 141140 ; liues of, from Halifa.x, 698. Oi^hres, Canadian and French, 888. <^chn>s found in New Brunswick, 695. I Oil-stone, where found in Ne0. Or})h«n schools in Upper Canada, 467; in Lower Canada, 688. Osborne, Captain, first civil governor of Newfoundland, 747. Oag D * In f»Tor of an Inter- 240 ; telcitraph in,26T, CCS of, 8fttV'»6n; dls- ,rt«ne9 of,6&4; posl- iiral features of, BW) ; ir«l ivBOurce* of, 666; MS Ac., of, 617; n- 684; commcrclaUn- w(>rk» of, 696 ; crown lie i\nd cxponditurB of; itliutions of; 704 ; ftca- cU>5lu»tlcal condition ,tato of, 714; general literature of, W. i In Canada, 880, 881; ; In BriUah Columbia, ay In New Bmnswlok, n Canada, 60, Iflc, In Upper Cftnad^ Blon^ and trades In Canada, 141 146; lines 08. d French, 888. IT Brunswick, 605. nd In Kew UrunswlcK, CanodiV l^prlslatlve pro- ucntlonof.innea, 8tA Upper Cana49-l«i5, 574. Products, agricultural, exported from Can- ada, 291. Prt>ducts, agricultaral, of Lower Canada, 86, 86; of Upper CaIladl^ 61, 62 ; of New Brunswick. 660, 627-658 : of Nova Scotia, 687; of Prince Kdword Island, 786; of Newfoundland, 762. Professional schools In Upper Canada, 436; In Ix)wer Canada, 682. Professions, trades, and occupations In Nova Scotia, 680. Prt)gre88 of Canada, 99 ; of Now Bruns- wick, 6t2-6.'» ; of Nova Scotia, 664-727; of Newfoundland, 744-760; of IMnco Kd- ward Island, 729-748. Progress of education In Upper Canada, 419. Progress of navigation in Canada, 131-141. Progress of population In Now Brtmawick, 627; In Nova Scotl!i, 678. Progress of roads In t.'anado, 116-124. Progress of travel '.n Canada, 110-116. I>ropc'^.'d Ottawa and Lake Huron Canals, J 58 161, Prospectus of the Grand Tnmk Co., de- ceptive statements of, 202, 2t)9. Protestant separate schools in Canada, 427; section of the law authorizing (not«), 4*7. Provincial agrloultnral association of Upper Canada, 44-48, Provincial Passengers' Act, provisions of, 803. Provisions nceesaary for a settler's family going intt the bush. 804. Public elementary scnools In Canada, 409 ; not receiving legislative aid 429. Public Works of Nova Scoth^ 695-702. QtTAPRrpKDS, native, of Nova Scotia, 674. Q\iarries, minerals, and mines in N«W Brunswick, 590-699. Quarternary deposits of Canada, 24. Quartz gola veins of Nova Scotia, 868. Quartz. mllk-whlte,%bundant In New Bran|- wlck, 695. ■ Quebec, climate of, 27, 29 ; steam and sall- inir vMsels built at, 13iJ: importance of a railway IVom, to lake Ittruu, 24V; Atily- • .•• 772 INDEX. S^:' { fijj- .«^ ' I jildinfT at, fn 1716, S84; tonnoffe of ves- Bel8 arrived at Quebec from 1704 to 1S61, 874; tonnago of vcssols built at, from 171>1 to 1861, 286; exports of lumber fiom, 287; shipments of timber from, in 1860- 62, 289 ; export of wheat from, 290 ; toUl exports from, in 1808, 292; number of Im- nii;;rantg urrivetl at, in 1860-61, 801. Quebec group of rpcks, 812. Quebec Hemfnories, 612-516. Queeu'8 county, New Brunswick, dbsorip- Uou of, 644. Rafts on the great lakes, 167.» liuilwiiy charters granted in Canada, 101, Hallway contractors, American, extensive oiieriitions of, in Canada, 222-224. Kail way contractors in } aglond, extensive operations of, 200, Railway magnates and railway passengers, 218. Railway monopolv, danger li-om, to the western peninsula of Canada. 286. Railwiiv morality in Anserlco, England, and Canailii, 221-228. Railway passengers In Canada, annoyances oociisioncd to, by express eompanleu, 260. Roilv/ay passenger traMc, inliuencu of cheap farvii upon, 248. Rallvt'uy passenger traffic in Kew England, 240. Railway policy In Canada, 347-248; Injurious eflTects of, 169-179. Railways, early, in England, 187-190. Railways, grain portage, in Canada, 286-288. Railways in Canada, history of, 190-266. Railways in'New Brunswick, 604. Railways In Nova Scotia, 69&-69V. Railways, municipal in Canada, 214-321, Railway trutlic In Canada, how limited, 248. Bailwiiy Inmsaotione in England, dtsoredit- abl.', 226-227. Bain, fall of, at Toronto, 23-81 ; at Mon- tivaH, 29. Rains In New Brunswick, 658. "Ramsay" icod mine, 820. Rapiils on the bt. Lawrence, effort* ina>]e to oWr the channels of, 1*2. 1(V3, 16S ; de- sceut of, by steamers, 1(V"' Reclitfucitv tr«>nfy, loading: points of the, 'im; iuoli) of Imports shuwlu^ the eJfoot of, 297. Bicollets, or Frnnclscans, the tint mlsiilon- arles and te«ohcrn in Canaan, 6olls Cullego (Catho)lc), opened nt KlngMun !n 184i}, 896; founde 1 by BUbop M'Donnell, 4.S7. Religious censim of Nova Pcotla. P'.j. Religious stttilntlcs of Newfuundlimd, 78T. Religious teachlug in the puttie tchoolii of Canada, 416-419. Religious wombip in New Brunswick, Old. Repair of roads lu Canada, iO>%-l)0. Reptiles of Nova Scotia, 67fi. Resources, natural. .)f New Ilrunswiok, 636: of Novo Hcotia, erial government, 166; cost o^ 162 ; length of aod locks on, 177. Rigaud Industrial and Commercial College, 627. River flshorlos of New Bronswlck, 688. Rivers of Canada, peculiarities of, 129-181; of New Brunswick, 600; of Nova Scotia, 661 ; of Prlnco Edward Island, 729 ; of Newfoundland, 747. Road policy In Upper Canada, 125. Roads, colonization, in Canada, 01, 805. Roads in Canada, progress of, 11(M!24. Roads in Lower Canada, 104-108, Roads in Now Brunswick, €08. ' Roads In Nova Bcotlo, 099. Roods in Prince Edward Island, 742. Roads in Upper Cairndo, 109, 110, 126-128; tables showing the length and cost of, 127, 1^8. Roads of antiquity, remarks on, 102-104. Robb, Professor, on the amount of coal in New Brunswick, 860, 861. Roberval, first viceroy of Canada, 268. Robinson, Mivjor, on tho soil, climu'.e, Ac, oi Now Brunswick, 866. Robinson, Sir John B., remarks o',', on the study of law in Cona(U {noU), 446. Rocbefoucault, Duke li; la, romariis of, on education in Cacioda, in 1796, 876; on education in Lower Canada, 490. " Rocket," Stephenson's, speed attained by. In 1680, 187. Rock formations of Canada, 28-27. Rocks, Ijiurcntian system of in Canada, 28, 27, 810; llurontan system of, in Canada, 811 ; or tJie wentem peninsula of Canada, 818. Rocks of Now Brunswick, primary, 696; trap, 686; lower Silurian, 687: upper Si- lurian, K-il ; red sandstone, 688 ; carbon- iferous, 688. Ror, 087. St. John rivei In Now Branswlck, COO; fish- eries on, 680. Bt. John's ','lty, Nowfoandland, description of. 760. Bt. John's, n»Ilw.iv fj-ora, to Laprnlrle. 190, Bt Joseph's College at Ottawa, 4110, 487. BtLawretice and Atlantic lino of rstilway pur- chased hy thr (Irand Tninlr. Cutnpany, 208. 8t Lawrence iMiialn adapted to sidtt-wheel steamers, 18U. BtL«wrce of French Canadian setlle- ments ori. 86; mrly nnviKatlon of, l-l*V- 160; imiirjvefi)enlMr,161-lfe; lAbloshow- tng tfxUtryt attd cost of worka on, 17T; adapted to steam naylgation, 181 ; value of trade via the, 298. St Lawrence river compared with the Mis- sissippi, 129, 180. St Lawrence route of navigation, great ad- vantages of for ocean steamers, 146; pro- spective value of, to Canada, 298. St Mary's College In Nova Scotia, 708. St Michael's College at Toronto, 401, 43«. St. Michel, Industrial and Commercial Col- lege of. In Lower Canada, 627. St Peter's Canal in Nova Scotll^ 698. St Sulpice, theological seminary of, at Mon- treal, 487. Salaries, extAvagant of the officers of the Grand Trunk Itullroad Co., 212. Salmon fisheries on the St John river, 680; In the Gulf of St Lawrence, 5S8. Salmon flsherv of Newfoundland. 766. Sulmon-spoarina In lj»t)rai7. Salt-springs, where found In Now Bruns- wick, ^M. Sandstone, where founa in New Brunswick, 693. Saskatchewan river, gold found near tho head waters of, .H71. Siskatchewnn valleys, account of the, 76-78. Sault Ste. Murle, a free port '■^9 ; value of Imports at 299. Sault Ste. Mario colonization road, 306. Savings Bank in Newfoundland, 769. Savings Bunks in .New Brunswick. 61S. Saw-mills In Caniula, 68; in New Bmns- wlck, 699; In Nova Scotia, 698. Scenery of Nova Scotia, 008. School, ttgrlcultural, at St. Anne, L. C, 89. SchtKd opporutii!*, how supplied In Canada, *16. School-books, American, remarks of Dr. llyerson on (nf/*), 894. School-books, uniform series of; adoptcr Canada, 470. Scientific obwrvatories In Ujiper Canada,473. Screw steamers, first lines of; oetv.eon Liver- p(,^oI and Canadn, 142, 148. Sea-going vessels built at Quebec, between i;!ll and 1861, 2h6. Bcal fishery of Newfoundland, 754; statis- tics of, 766. BeatK)rts, (-anndiait and American, compe- tition between, 17a Sea-shad fishery of tho Bay of Fundy, 678. Seasou^ course of the, In New Brunswick, 667. Seasons In Nova Scotia. 666. Si>dinienl»ry ro<'ks in (iannda, area of, '28. Seed nccensory fur a sotUur going Into Uio bush, 804. .»; ■m^t •J.I. :' i 1^ ' ",' > S' ^': 774 iKrsjK. Bdlklrk, Earl of; TTfirlilAnilerB Mttlod hy on ! Prince Edwanl Islnin!, 781. BeminaiicB and naulcinlos In Conod. , 06. 8«inlnaHc» at QiK'bio, &1'2-616. Separate schools In Canada, 422-429. Beparotion of Canada into Upper and Lower, I(t2. Bottlernent of New Bmnswlck, 548; of Niiva Scotia by English and Germans, 6&'*; of IVInoc Eilward Island, "80-788; of Newfonndland, 744. Settlers golni; into thn bush, provisions, seeds, and implements necessary lor, 8(>4. Bexes relative proportion of, in Nova Scotia, 6nS. Bbule, bitumlnons, where found In Now Brunswick, &y4. Bha^L•holdor^ English, in the Grand Trunk, 8tlf-, Governor, mads opened by, in Can- ada, 112; lilograpblcul sketch of ('ioU\ 875; letter of, to the Bishop of QmcIk ;,in relation to education In Canada, 87». Biinpmm, Sir Geo'ge, governor of the Hud- son's Bbv '■ptlon, 687. Bisters o ' •> , . -nee, 687. Blsteno' no, 687. Sisters of ' sentatlon, 687. Six Datl<>;\ indiuus, school for In Upper Canada, 8TV. Sketch of the early history of New Bruns- wick, M2-54a. Slate. ImiMirtant uses of, 848; remarks of I»rof Illnd and Sir William Logan on, 848 ; where found in Canada, 84^ ; sizes and prices of, 346; where found in New Brunswick, W,i. Slides for timber on the Ottawa, 156. Slides on Canadian rivers, cost of, 178. Smeltinc works In CanBd!^ 111(5-818, 819. Smith, .Mr. .M., remarks of, on the state of education In Canada In 1808-12, 888. Bmvth, MaJ.-Gen., governor of New Brans- w'lek. l!>17. 546. Bnow at Toronto, fall of 28-81. Bniiw In New Bnmswlcfe, M7. Bonpstonc found in New lirunBwick, 690 ; wttere found in Canada, 884. Hocii^ drojiTvM Ci" Nova Seotta, 719. So'.icf'ei. .v-rli- iltural. In Lower Canada, 87 ; Ir rpptr ' made, 42-61; Societies, literary, of Upper Canada, 470; of Lower Canada, 689. Soil, (leterlorution of. in Canada from over- cropping, 64. Bolls of Canoda, 22; of New Brunswick, 665 ; of Nova Scotia, 66"-fi73 ; of Prince Ed- ward Island, T W; of Newfoundland, 749. "South Jogglns Section" of New BrunE- wick. 862. South SaBkt''''H wan valley, 77. Spearing Br;.::oa by torch-light In Labrador, 88-87. Special schools In Lowe- Canada, 682. Springs, mineral, abundant In New Bmns- wUk, 596. Spring wheat, yield o^ per aero in Canada, 58. Spruce, black and white, In Now Bruns- wick, 661-578. Square timber, amount brought to market in Canada In 1846 and 184", .'-9. Stage roaches In Nova Scotia, tiit'j. Stages, the first established In Canada, 118- 119. State endowments of education In Upper <'ana>lrt, 481. Sti'tl.itlcal account of New Bnmswlck, 652, Statistics of Canadlon railway!', 19.S-1U6. Stjitlsiio* of education In I'pper Canada, -1 .i - 191 ; in I.,ower Canada, .'j40. Sti'iit .-:i, population, dec., of Nova Scotia, 6.7 csa. btatt.'tics, rsllgious, of Newfoundland, 761. Steamboats, introduction of, on Canadian waters, 118, 114, 187-141; number, ton- nage, and value of, on the great lakes, 141; Canadian, registered in 1861,295; tdMo of numlier and tonna^'o of, built In \ .nnida, 180, 141 ; Canadian, reglst. -red In I'liil, 296; total tonnage of, engaged in Jar.Mllan tmdo In l^^^-01, 2'.^.^ SitntuiTB, ocian, Cnnadliui, 141-146; lines of. from Halifax, 098. Stea'.lle, where fmmd In Cam da, 884. Ste|)henson, George, Improvements made In locomotives by, 187-ls9. Stephenson railway gauge, sufficiency of, 26.". Stone, Lithographic, where found in Can- ada, 884. Strachan, Dr. (Bishop of Toronto), Mo- graphlcal notice of (notf). -'Imi ; grammar- sehool opened by, at Cornwall, In ]s04, 881 ; theological college established by, at Cobourg, 48.\ Street railways in Toronto and Montreal, 2.*>5: of little value in wlnl.i-, 2.%6. Subsidies granted by the guvernnicnt of Canada to ocean .-teamihlp companies, 148, 144, Sugar, maple, manufltcturo of, in New Bnmswlck, 606. Snwr maple of Now Brunswick, fiW. Sulphate of Biu-ytes, where fmini! In Can- ada, 884 ; whore found In New Bnu;swlck, M.'i. Summary of educational Institations in Canada, 40T. i va Scotia, 719. , „, 1, In Lower Conaua, 87 ; 2-61: r UpF' Canada, 470; i80. In Canada from over- f New Bnmswlck, B65 ; i--fi"3; of Prince Kd- ii Ncwfoiindlunil, 749. itlon' of New BnmB- rallcy, 77. ^ ^ , Lorch-llght In Labrador, )WC- CftPaiK 683. mduntln New Bruns- oi, per acra In Canada, white. In New Bruns- unt broiiRht to market and IS^T, .;-9. va Scotlii. Oytf. ibllshcd In Canada, 118- of education In Upper )f New Bnmswlck. 653. an milwavs. 19»-iy6. ition In \ \<\>vT Canada, er Canada, .'>»0. on, Ac, of Nova Bcotia, 18, of Newfoundland, uctlon of, on Canadian 187-141 ; ininibiT, ton- of, on tlio gn-nt lakes, roelstiTod ;ii lb«l, '295; and tonniv;e of, built in Ciuiadlaii. ri'tflst .Tcd la tonnaffc of, enijagcd In l>>.'ih-t)l, 2'.irx nnndlan, 141-146; lines «S I In Cam da, 884. •. iiniiniviinunts made V, IST-Isl). y gauge, Bufflclcncy ot, ,c, where found In Can- Bhop of Toronto), Mo- of Oiotf). SMt ; m-ainniar- jy, at Cornwall, In ls04, colli'go established by, at . Toronto and Montreal, uc In wlnl.r, -iM. by the giivernnient or 'U>amshi;i companies, mufiicturo of, In Now w Brunswick, (i*4. PS, where found In Can- ound In New Broiiswlek, eatlonal insUtutloni in 12)1>13:. 7?5 Bur.bnry ti.rnty, ISevr Bmniwlck, dewsrlp- tlco oi; G4d. Hunbury, the first G iglish «ettJement in New Brunswick, P*pcr Canada, 429. guperlntendt'Uts and visitors of schools in Cunadik, 410. Superior schools in Canada receiving legis- lative aid, 4S1 ; not receiving public abl, 438. Sui>plcmentary educational agencies in Upper Caniula, 467, 4CS, 476. Survey fov- an iiiter-colr)nial railway made under lm|)orial direction, 238. Sydr.t' ?oal mines o(^8,')l. Tymlii^'in, AVilllam, the first steamboat coniitructed by, 187. Jynopsia of I'huia fur a bridge at Moatreol, TinLB land of Labrador, 8?. Toohu colonization road, 3U6. Tangier river, gold Ibimd on, 887. Tariffs, Caiiudian, 800. Tuxes, direct, in New Brunswick, 631. Teachers. American, in Canada, remarks i>f Dr. Kol] >i on, 8U8. Teachers, number of, employed in the com- mon schools of Cu':aU. Tenil.fcouatt colonl/atton road, 806. Tcniperaturo, comparative, at Hamilton, Toronto, Montreal, ami Quebec, 28; tablo of, at Toronto, 80; Intlucnco of the rivers upon. In Canada, 12!) ; ranges of. In New Brunswick, 6.^6, fj57 ; comparEtlvo, of Nova Scotia, 6il; In I'rlnco Edward Island. 7!I6; in Newfoundland, 751. Tenure of land in New Brunswick, 612. Territories of tho Hudson's Bay Co., 282, 273. Text-books, Irish national scries of, adopted in Canada, 414. Text-book^ theologfoal, In nsa In Upper Canada colleges, 441''448. Theological Institiite, estoblishcd by the Congrcgationallsts ut Toronto, In 1840, 8l»ti. Theological Schools In Lowe Canada, 682. Three Uivers, Ht. Ma\irlco forges at, 819. Tiuil)er, Canadian, juices of, 66; quantity and vahie of evports of, 66 ; British Amer- ican, whither exported, 2^S; shipments of, from Quelle in lS(!0-62, 2b9; prices of at (iiiebee, in 18.VS-61, 2>>9. Timber rafts on the great lakes, 167. Timber slldcon the Ottawa, 156. Timber territories of Canada, 67. Timber trees of New Brunswick. 661-564. Tltaidu-u, ore of, found at Bay Hi. Paul, 810. Toll-iratos on roads In ITpner Canada, 124. Tonnage of vessuls at t/unudlan porl& In lb63-61, 294. Torch-tlgh^, spearing salmon by In ^i- rador, £»- SV. Toronto climate of, 28-81 ; street .-anw 'f in, 265. Toronto an Indian village In 177',, lOO Toronto School of Medicine. 4.V.;, 4,/8. Towns and villages in Nova Scutla^ ". ■ Tracks of wild animals the first roads. Trade of Canada, early, 20j>-275; irli France, 278; total value of. '«»4 ; total ton- nage engaged In, 295; with the United Slates, 2UU; total amount of. with tbo United States. 277; elumiielH of. 20S. Tralke roods In Canada, 122. UNinsD States, education In. compR-tc, r." 012; course of Instruction .'J9; retiuisltes for degrees in, 510, 61 University of McGlli Coli' „u Moi' t rent, 61ft- 52a University of t^ueon'h C'lU^ /. . •tK'DRSton, chiwtor granted to in J>»-1!, 8'«T r. • 'arks on, 460; course In il i finulty '" ..■'-» in, 166; law course, 447,4-1!' •as'dicai '^oarsa of, 461, 45;l. University of Trinity College law course, 447; remarks on, 461; course in the faculty of arts in, 466. University o'' Toro-it", bulldln!:-> of, com- pleted In lh5y, 4tt4; ooniicis-. oners' re- coinmendations for tho reform and re-or- ganization of, 405-407 : lav. course In, 446, 448; remarks on. 467; cour^.■ In tho lUeulty of oris in, 463 ; mcu.'ciil vourso o.', 450, 4!S2. University of Victoria Collei;.', Cobovirg, opened in 1841, i^C*; remarks on, 4.'»9 course In tho facii..y of art* lii.4'!.'i; law course in, 447 ; medical course of 451, 468. ! (I ''W^l' ■ 1 -; %'' : i'li ■U' 776 INDEX. Upper OanadA, area of, U ; history of ofrrl- culture in, 8tf-41 ; foroHt industry ln,M- 74 ; travel and transportation in, OD-250 ; history of railways in, 190-26<5; coiif- mercti and tnido of, 268-807 ; mineral re- sources of, COS-360; education in, 878- 481. Uppur Canada College at Toronto, 481 ; en- dowment obtained for, by Sir John Col- bomc, 8»2. 'JrsulineB, convent of, founded by Mme. Ja Peltrio in Quebec, 1089, &8fi. Valley of the Ottawa, resources of, 96. Valley of the Hiiskatchewnn, 70-80. Vancouver Itiland and lirilish Columbia, mineral resources of, 805-871. Varenne^ Industrial and Commercial Col- lexe of, &30. Vegetables and ftruits in New Brunswick, 628. Verchcres, Industrial and Commercial Col- lege of, B29. Vessels arrived at Quebec between 1764 and 1801, 274. Vessels belonging to New Brunswick, in 1854-60, 599. Vessels built at Quebec, between 1791 and 1861. 286. Vessols built in New Brunswick, in 1S25- 1800, number ond tonniigo of, WIS. Vessels, Ciinadinn; registered In 1801, 296. Vessels ensagud in Canadian trade, total tonnage of, in 1858-01, 296. Vessels entered and cleared at Canadian ports In 1858-1861, 294; at porta of New Brunswick In 1849-1854, 607; ot St. John, Now Bruncwlck, 1860-18M, 638; at St. Andrew's, New Brunswick, in 1849-1856, &41 : t porU of Nova Bcotia, in 1861, 691, ui/2. Vessels, number and tonnago of, owned in New Brunswick in 1848-56, 606. Vessels o<\ the gn^at lakes, nnmbcr, value, and toiinuKu of 141. Vessels, sailing, on the great lakes, 186; table of number and tonnage ol^ built in Canada, liiO. Victoria Bridge, account of the origin of, 257; description of, 258-268; cost of, 268. Victoria county. New Brunswick, descrip- tion of, 061. Villages and towns in Novo Scotia, 720. Voting for a " consideration" in Coogrcas, i222. WAsnADEiioAK Lake, New Brunswick, 001. Water communications of Cunuda, 129-186. Water of the great iakiis, purity of, 19. Welland canal, when projected, 160; history of Uie, 171-176; table showing dimensions and cost of, 177 ; looks on, not adapted to side-wheel steamers, ISO. Wcliand Railway, importanto of, for grain i>ortage, 280 ; amount of grain transferred by, from lake to lake, 287. "Wellington" copper mine, 828. Wesleyan Academy opened nt Cobourg in 1S86, 898. Wosleyan Academy in New Brunswick, 016. Wesleyan Female College at Hamilton, 484. Wcsleyan thcologienl fe.xt-boiiks, 442. Wcsleyans in Prince Edward Isliuul. 789. Westmoreland county, Now Brunswick, de- scription of, 688. Whi at, product of, in Upper and Lower Canada, 62-69; exports of from Caiiiido, 290, 291 ; transportation of, by portage rail- ways, 230. Wheat midge, ravages of, in Canada, 54, 66 ; description of, 56. Wild beasts and game in New Brunswick, 624. Wilderness of Canada, invasion of the, 61; life In, S7; day in the, 88-90. Williamsburg canals, when constructed, 167. Winds at Toronto, table of direction. . lien i»rojecti>(l, 15»); history table sliowliiK dirncnHions ; locks on, not adapted to mers, ISO. ', Importanoo of, for grain mount of grain transferred i lake, 2«7. >per uiino, 828. njr opened at Cobourg in lyinNfiw Brunswick, fil5. ) College at llftmilton, 484. [ical text-books, 442. nee Edward Island. 789. anty, Now Brunswick, de- of, in Upper and Lower exports of, from Canada, ortation of, by portage rail- eagcs of, in Canada, 54, 66; ■)6. ?amo In Now Brunswick, mada, Invasion of the, 61 ; in the, 88-00. als, when constructed, 167. to, table of direction