IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT.3) fe /. i< C/a fA 1.0 ^1^ 1^ 1^ 11.25 S KS 120 M. 1 1.6 iV ^^ V ^x-^ -4^ ;\ \ ^^ V- 0~^ \j V "I) r^^ " vV CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques 1980 Technical Notes / Notes techniques The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Physical features of this copy which may alter any of the images in the reproduction are checked below. D D Coloured covers/ Couvertures de couleur Coloured maps/ Cartes g6ographiques en couleur L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilleur exemplaire qu'il lui a 6t6 possible de se procurer. Certains d6fauts susceptibles de nuire d la qualit6 de la reproduction sont not6s ci-dessous. D D Coloured pages/ Pages de couleur Coloured plates/ Planches en couleur The pos oft film The con or t app The film inst D D Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/ Pages d6color6es, tachetdes ou piqu6es Tight binding (may cause shadows or distortion along interior margin)/ Reliure serr6 (peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distortion le long de la marge intdrieure) □ D Show through/ Transparence Pages damaged/ Pages endommagdes Mai in upp bot foll< S Additional comments/ Commentaires suppl6mentaires Fold-out maps, charts, etc., may be filmed at a different reduction ratio than the rest of the book. Bibliographic Notes / Notes bibliographiques Only edition available/ Seule Edition disponible Bound with other material/ Reli6 avec d'autres documents D Pagination incorrect/ Erreurs de pagination Pages missing/ Des pages manquent n Cover title missing/ Le titra de couverture manque D Maps missing/ Des cartes rdographiques manquent Plates missing/ Des planches manquent Additional comments/ Commentaires suppl^mentaires The images appearing here are the best quality possible considering the condition and legibility of the originai cop/ and in iceeping with the filming contract specifications. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol -h^ (meaning CONTINUED"), or the symbol V (meaning "END"), whichever applies. Les images suivantes ont 6t6 reproduites avec ie plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et de la nettetd de I'exemplaire film6, et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. Un des symboies suivants apparaftra sur la der- nidre image de cheque microfiche, seion Ie cas: iB symbole — ► signifie "A SUIVRE", ie symboie V signifie "FIN". The original copy was borrowed from, and filmed with, the itind consent of the following institution: National Library of Canada L'exemplaire filmi fut reproduit grSce d la g6n6rositd de i'6tablissement prdteur suivant : Bibliothdque nationale du Canada IVIaps or plates too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper lAft hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes ou les planches trop grandes pour 6tre reproduites en un seui clichd sont filmdes d partir de Tangle supdrieure gauche, de gauche d droite et de haut en bas, en prenant Ie nombre d'images n6cessaire. Le diagramme suivant illustre la m6thode : 1 2 3 U 1' 2 3 4 5 6 •m Lis rep C 23^ S^ LIBRARY. ^4^^ NOV 1 1895 jj L-^ CANADIAN ECONOMICS. k> d^' BRITISHASSQCUTION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. MONTREAL MEETING, 1884. CANADIAN ECONOMICS BEING PAPERS PREPARED FOR READING BEFO THE ECONOMICAL SECTION WITH AN INTRODUCTORY REPORT. MONTREAL DAWSON BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS WILLIAMS AND NORGATE, LONDON. 1885. k !.tJH.lJJl.I_ullJLHl»un» -a... i . i » i» V^ J %.i1 Enteredaccording to Act of Parliament of Canada by Daavson Brothers in the year l»8o, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture. I'KI'-nED BY THE GAZETTE PRINTING COMPANY, MONTREAL. CONTENTS. OFFICERS OF THE MONTREAL MEETING . . INTRODUCTORY REPORT A. Preliminary Arrangements in England B. Preliminary Arrangements and Meeting in Canada . (Note on the City and Corporation of Montreal) . INTRODUCTORY NOTE TO CANADIAN ECONOMICS . I. COMPETITIVE LAND AND WATER TRANSPORT Bxj Edmund Wragge, M. Inst. C.E., and Alan Macdougall, F.R.S.E., M. Inst. C.E., Toronto. II. THE LIGHTHOUSE SYSTEM OF CANADA . By William Smith, Deputy Minister of Marine, Ottawa, PAGE ix xiii xiii xxi xxxiii IIL THE FISHERIES OF CANADA By J. Z. JoNCAs, Commissioner to the London Fisheries Exhi- bition, Sheriff of Oaspi, Que. IV. CANADIAN AGRICULTURE By William Brown, Superintendent of the Ooi'ernment Agricultural College, Ghielph, Ont. V. AGRICULTURE IN THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC By Sydney A. Fisher, M.P./or Brome County, Que. VI. THE AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES OF NOVA SCOTIA By Major-Gen. J. W. Laubib, D.C.L., President Central Board of Agriculture of Nova Scotia, Oakfield, N.S. 1 3 17 41 75 85 93 Vl CANADIAN ECONOMICS. VII. THE AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES OF ONTARIO . 99 By John Carneoik, M.P.P., Agriculture and Arts Associ- ation of Ontario, Peterhorovgh, Ont. VIII. BRITISH AND CANADIAN AGRICULTURE . . 113 By PitOPESsoR J. P. Sheldon, College of Agriculture, Doivnton, Eng. IX. THE APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTI- CAL ARBORICULTURE TO CANADA . . 119 By William Brown, Agricultural College, Guelph, Ont. X. THE FUTURE POLICY OF FOREST MANAGEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES 131 By Franklin B. Hough, Ph. D., Forestry Agent of the United States Department of Agriculture, Lowville, N. Y. XL THE DISTRIBUTION OF CANADIAN FOREST TREES IN i.^S RELATION TO CLIMATE AND OTHER CAUSES 139 By A. T. Drummond, M.A., Montreal. XII. THE ECONOMIC MINERALS OF CANADA . . . 153 By Wm. Hamilton Merritt, F.G.S., Associate of the Royal School of Mines, M. Am. Inst. M.E., Toronto. XIII. THE COALS OF CANADA 161 By H. A. BuDDBN, Vice-President of the Intercolonial Coal Mining Company, Montreal. XIV. THE DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE VARIOUS NOVA SCOTIA COAL FIELDS . . . . 176 By Edwin Gilpin, Jun., A.M., F.G.S., F.R.S.C., Inspector of Mines for the. Province of Nuva Scotia, Halifax. XV. RESULTS OF PAST EXPERIENCE IN GOLD MINING IN NOVA SCOTIA 181 By Edwin Gilpin, Jun., Halifax. XVL THE PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY OF CANADA . . 189 By Robert C. Adams, President of the Liivres River, Land and Phospliate Company, Montreal. CONTENTS. XVII. POPULATION, TM^IIGRATION AND PAUPERISM IN THE DOMINION OF CANADA .... Bi/ .loiiN IjOwe, Si en tar y to the Department of Arfrictdture, OttdiVd. XVIII. THE BANKING SYSTEM OF CANADA Jh/ (teoiwik IIacuk, General Manager of the Merchants Banl: of Otnaifa, Montreal. Vll 105 225 XIX. THE POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK SYSTEM OF CANADA . 243 Bi/ J. CuNNiN(iHAM i'^TKW ART, Svperii I lendent of the Moneij Order and Savhajs Bank Branches, Post Ojlice Depart- ment, Ottawa. XX. DOMINION GOVERNMENT SAVINGS BANKS . . 259 Bif Thomas D. Tims, Financial. Inspector, Ottawa. XXI. ONTARIO LOAN AND SAVINGS COMPANIES . . 265 By W. A. Doi'GLAss, B.A,, Freehold Loan eind Savings Company, Toronto. XXII. A SKP]TCH OF CANADIAN FINANCE .... 269 /)// John McLennan, Ex-M.P., Cornwall, Oat. XXIIL WHAT MAKES THE RATE OF AVAGES? ... 277 Bi/ Edward Atkinson, President of the Boston Manvfac- tvrers Mutmd Insurance Co., Bo>>ton, Mass. XXIV. HARMONIES AND ANTAGONISMS IN THE SOCIAL FORCES 291 By W. A. Douglass, B.A., Toronto. XXV. THE HISTORY AND CONDITION OV EDUCATION IN THE PROVINCE OF MANITOBA . . .297 By Rev. George Biiyce, M.A., LL.D., Manitoba College, V^innipeg. XXVI. EDUCATION IN ONTARIO ...... 313 Abhreiriated from a Report prepared under the Direction of the Provincial Minister of Education. Vlll CANADIAN ECONOMICS. XXVII. L'INSTRUCTION PUBLIQUE DANS LA PROVINCE DE QUI':BEC 333 Par Paul db Ca/ks, Bureau de V Education, Quihec. Note.— Of tho forcRoiiiK papers, No. T was read before Secticm (i (Mechanical Science), Nos. XII, XIII, XIV and XV before Section C ((!eolo»t.v), wiiilo Nob. XXV, XXVI and XXVII were not prepared in time to bo read before the Aesociation. Dr. \V. II. llinKSton's paper entitled "The Climate of Canada and its Relation to Life and and Health," which was read before the PhysioloKical department of Section D (Biology), hag been published as a sopuruto volume (pp. 266) by Dawson Itrothors under tho above title. MAPS AND TABLES. PAGE Diagram to illustrate Professor Brown's Pai>er on Arboriculture {to face) 130 Map to illustrate Mr. A. T. Drummond's Paper on the dis- tribution of Canadian Trees " Statement of the Business of the Post Office Savings Banks Table of the Law of Competition to illustrate Mr. Edward Atkinson's paper . . . ! Figs, to illustrate Mr. Douglass' Paper on Social Forces . 152 258 290 292, 295 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. OFFICERS OF THE MONTREAL MEETING. I'ri'.ndoit : i'liOFUSsou TUB KiciHT lIoN. Loiti) KAYLEIGU. Vice-Prmdcnta : His Excei.lknc'Y the Makquis of LANSDOWNE. Tub KicinT Hon. Sir JOHN A. MACDONALD. Thh Right Hon. Sik LYON PLAYFAIR. Thh Hon. Siu CHARLES TUPPER. Chihf Justice Sir ANTOINE AIMfi DORION. Thh Hon. PIERRE J. O. CHAUVEAU. Professor EDWARD FRANKLAND. Principal Sir WILLL\M DAWSON. Dr. W. hales HINGSTON. Mr. T. STERRY HUNT. Acting-Trmmrer : Admiral Sir ERASMUS OMMANNEY. General Secretaries : Captain DOUGLAS GALTON. | Mr. A. G. VERNON HARCOURT. « Secretary : Professor T. G. BONNEY. Local Secreto.ries for the Meeting at Montreal: Messrs. S. E. DAWSON, R.A. RAMSAY, S. RIVARD, S. C. STEVENSON, and THOMAS WHITE. Local Treasurer for tlie Meeting at Montreal : Mr. F. WOLFERSTAN THOMAS. CANADIAN ECONOMICS. LOCAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Comj)08e(l of the foregoing olficers, together witii the foUowiug; MiJ. Thomas Cramp, Chairmun. Mk. David A. P. Wait, Secretary. His AV'oRSHii" thio Mayor of INIontrkal. Mr. Andrew Allan. Mr. Justice Baby. Professor H. T. Eovey. Mr, A. Desjardins. Mr. Alderman Grenier. Mr. George Hague. Mr. E. P. Hannaford. Professor B. J. Harrington. Mr. Joseph Hickson. Sir Francis Hincks. Dr. E. P. Howard. Professor Alexander Johnson. Mr. J. Henry Jose[ih. Mr. Henry Lyman. Mr. Hugh McLennan. Hon. Petor Mitchell. Mr. Ko])ort IMoat. Mr. J. H. R. Molson. Mr. David Morrice. ]\lr. Edward Murphy. Dr. William Osier. Professor D. P. Penhallow. JMr. Alexander Robertson. Dr. P. J. Rottot. Hon. Donald A. Smith. Mr. George Stei>hen. Hon. L. O. Taillon. Mr. Thomas Workman, ■sm:.^ OFFICERS OF THE MEETING. M CITIZENS' EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. as folTows^- ""^ '^^''^^''^^^'^^^ ^""^"^ "^« various Special Committees Mr. Hugh McLennan, Chairman. Mr, J. D. Crawford, General Secretary. Citizens' Committee. Mr ?N'''SlI!'"*%5''"™"'- I ^'^^^^^or B. J. Harrington, Cor Sec Mr. E. J. Barbeau, Treamrer. \ Mr. S. C. Stevenson, Rec Secretary Tv/r Au T^ . , . ^^^^c Committee. Mr. Alderman Fairbmrn,aatman. | Mr. Alderman Rainville, ^.cr-.tory. Local Executive. Mr. Thomas Cramp, Chairmmi. | Mr. D. A. P. Watt, Secretary. Reception. Mr. T. Starry Hunt, Chairman. | Mr. F. S. Lyman, Secretary. Finance. Mr. R. R. Grindley, CJiairman. | Mr. J. S. Shearer, Secretary. Conveyance. Dr. W. H. Kingston, Chairman. j Professor H. T. Bovey, Secretary. Hospitality. Mr. Thomas Workman, Chairman. | Mr. F. Redpath, Secretary. Lodgings. Mr. Charles Garth, Chairman | Mr. W. R. Salter, Secretary. Rooms. Prof. Alex. Johnson, Chairman. | Mr. Alex. Robertson, Secretary. Printing. Mr. A. Desjardins, Chairman. | Mr. J. A. U. Beaudry, Secretary. 1 Economics. Mr. Hugh McLennan, Chairman. | Mr. Henry Budden, Secretary. xu CANADIAN ECONOMICS. OFFICERS OF THE VARIOUS SECTIONS. Section A. — Mathematical and Physical Science. Preddent — Professor Sir William Thomson. Recording Sfcrelari/. — Dr. Donald MaoAlister. Section B. — Chemical Science. Prefddent. — Professor Sir Henry E. Roscoe. Recording Secretary — Professor P. Phillips Bedson. Seci'ion C. — Geology. Presndent.—Ur. W. T. Blanford. Recording Secretary. — Mr. W. Topley. Section D.— Biology. Preffident. — Professor H. N. Moseley. Recording Secretary. — Mr. Howard Saunders. Section E. — Geography. PreMdent. — General Sir J. Henry Lifroy. Recording Secretary. — Mr. E. G. Raven stein. Section F. — Economic Science and Statistics. President. — Sir Richard Temple. Recording Secretary. — Professor H. S. Foxwell. Section G. — Mechanical Science. President. — Sir Frederick J. Bramwell. Recording Secretary. — Mr. A. T. Atchison. Section H. — Anthropology. Premdent.— Mr. Edward B. Tylor. Recording Secretary. — Mr. G. W. Bloxam. INTRODUCTORY REPORT. A. PRELIMINARY ARRANGEMENTS IN ENGLAND.* The first definite expression, known to me, of a desire to hold one of the meetings of the British Association in Canada, occurred at York in 1881, when, at the final meeting of the General Com- mittee, Captain Bedford Pim gave notice that, at the South- ampton Meeting next year, he would move " that the British Association do meet in Canada in 1885." On March *7th, 1882, a letter, written by the Marquis of Lome, then Governor-General of Canada, and addressed to the late Mr. W. Spottiswoode, President of the Eoyal Society of London, was brought by him before the Council of the British Association. In this letter, a desire was expressed that thb Association should hold its meeting in Canada during the year 1883. By the Coun- cil of the Association, the matter was referred to a committee for consideration, and at the next meeting (on March 2'7th) the following Report was presented and adopted : — " That as the place of meeting for the Association has been fixed by the Gene- ral Committee for the year 1883, this Committee considers itself precluded from reopening the question, as suggested in the above letter. The question of a meeting at some future time in Canada will be brought before the General Committee at Southampton, in accordance with a notice given at York ; but having regard to the letter of the Marquis of Lome, and to the fact that an Asso- ciation is likely to be founded in Canada during his tenure of • Contributed by Professor T. G. Bonney, Secretary of the British Association. XIV CANADIAN ECONOMICS. office, they suggest to the Council the desirability of considering whether it would not be possible to send a deputation (which might be selected, say, from the permanent members of the General Committee) in case a meeting of the Canadian Associa- tion were held in 1883." A letter was wi'itten to the Marquis of Lome, communicating to him the purport of this Keport, Difficulties, however, subsequently arose in relation to meet- ing at Oxford ; and, in the latter part of the summer of 1882, it became evident that the intention of holding the meeting of 1883 in that town could not be realized. The following is an extract from the Eeport of the Council, presented at South- ampton, with reference to the suggested visit to Canada and the arrangements for Oxford : — '' An invitation to visit Canada in 1883, warmly supported by His Excellency the Governor- General, was received at the end of last year, but the Council were obliged to reply that the vote of the General Committee at York, accepting the invitation to Oxford, precluded them from entertaining the question for that year. With reference, however, to the meeting for 1883, the Council regret to inform the General Committee that unforeseen difficulties have recently obliged their intended hosts at Oxford to express a desire that the proposed visit of the Association should be for a time post- poned." In the summer of 1882, the officers of the British Association learned that an invitation to Montreal would be sent for 1884. They accordingly thought it advisable to endeavour to obtain some idea of the feelings of the General Committee as a body with reference to so important and novel a proceeding as hold- ing a meeting outside the limits of the United Kingdom. Accordingly, on August 16th, a circular was issued to the mem- bers of the General Committee, requesting them, in view of an invitation having been received to visit Canada, to state whether they would be able to avail themselves of the invita- tion. The General Committee consisted ao that time of about YOO members. By August 28th, 230 replies had been received ; of these seventy-four were affirmative, eight, however, with limita- tions. In the negative were 156 ; of these ninety-six were abso- lute, a few being strongly expressed, while sixty were with limitations, many of them being only for the year 1883. It may INTRODUCTORY REPORT. XV be added that the view of the officers was that it would be im- prudent to accept an irvitation for 1883, so much preliminary organization being requisite. At the meeting of the General Committee held at Southampton on August 28th, 1882, the above mentioned motion by Capt. Bedford Pim was discussed, the date by permission of the meeting being altered from 1885 to 1883. This was seconded by Sir E. Temple, and supported by Mr. Colmer, representing the High Commissioner for the Dominion of Canada, Invitations for the year 1883 from Birmingham and Southport wore also presented to the General Committee. After much discussion, a vote was taken which resulted in a decision to accept the invitation to Southport for the year 1883. The Committee then proceeded to consider the question of the place of meeting for 1884. Invita- tions were presented fiom Aberdeen, Birmingham, and Notting- ham as well as from Montreal ; after a vote had been taken, the invitation from Montreal was accepted. Much doubt, however, continued to be felt as to the propriety of holding a meeting beyond the limits of the United Kingdom ; and a memorial influentially signed was presented to the Council, in which the legality of the decision pronounced at the South- ampton Meeting was questioned, and the Council were requested to convene a meeting of the General Committee to reconsider the matter. This memorial was laid before the Council on February 3rd, 1883, and, after consideration, the officers were instructed to inform the memorialists that, " as the decision of the General Committee at Southampton appeared not to be in contravention of the laws of the Association, the Council did not consider them- selves empowered to summon a meeting of that body to recon- sider the question ; but that, as requested by the memorialists, they were taking steps which would enable them (very shortly, as they hoped) to ascertain the general feeling of the members of the Association with regard to the proposed visit." The meaning of the latter part of this minute was that, at the above named date, the Council had no facts before them (beyond the materials atforded by the circular mentioned above) to serve as the basis of a computation of the number of members who were likely to visit Montreal in 1884, and if it had proved impos- sible to secure an attendance sufficient to render the meeting XVI CANADIAN ECONOMICS. i there a representative one, not only numerically but also scienti- fically, it would have become the duty of the Council to recom- mend the General Commillee to withdraw from the invitation. Accordingly, after one or two personal interviews between the officers of the Association and the High Commissioner for the Dominion of Canada, a letter was addressed by the officers to the High Commissioner asking for definite information as to what the probable cost of a visit to Canada would be to ordinary members of the Association, a's well as in regard to the number of persons to whom it would be possible to off'er facilities for the visit. On receipt of Sir A. T. Gait's reply, his letter and a printed circular were forwarded to every member on the books of the British Association, requesting from each a definite statement, whether it was his intention to avail himself of the invitation to visit Montreal. The Council were b3^ these means enabled to present to the General Committee at Southport, September 19th, 1888, a report containing the i-esults of the replies to the above named circular. These were such as to remove all doubt as to the representative character of the Montreal Meeting, — 445 persons having noti- fied their intention of being present, while fifty-five others had either become, or expressed their wish to become, members, with the view of taking part in the meeting. The Council accordingly were of opinion that, as there was likely to be so representative a gathering of British members at Montreal, and inasmuch as 154 members of the General Com- mittee had signified their intention of being present, little alteration would be necessary in the custom, and no changes need be proposed in the written law of the Association. Although a committee had been appointed on March 6th, 1888, and had held some meetings, it was found on experience that so great an interest in the coming meeting had been already awakened, that it was needless to make an appeal to the repre- sentatives of English science through the individual eftbrts of its members ; while the committee proved to be too large a body for the convenient discussion of the d tails of arrangements. Accordingly at a second meeting of Council, held at South- ampton on September 24th, the Secretary read a memorandum in which he sketched the main outline of the arrangements i Im Its INTRODUCTORY REPORT. XVII which he should propose in anticipation of the Montreal Meeting, and expressed an earnest desire that, if these were approved in principle, all details should be left to the officers. Another point was also discussed on this occasion, viz., that, in view of the generous offers made by those who spoke for the people of Canada, there was danger lest some persons, regardless of science but anxious to obtain a pleasant journey at a compara- tively small expense, should make use of membership of the Association for this purpose. The Council accordingly passed resolutions, leaving the details of the arrangements for the Mon- treal Meeting in the hands of the General Officers, and restricting the election of new members after the termination of the month, until further notice, to election by special resolution of the Council, — thereby reviving for a time a power which existed in the rules of the Association, but which had fallen into abeyance.* The meeting at Southport was attended by Sir Charles Tupper (who had succeeded Sir A. T. Gait as High Commissioner for the Dominion of Canada), and by Principal (now Sir William) Dawson, and at the meeting of the General Committee held Sep- tember 24th, it was finally agreed that the meeting at Montreal should commence on August 2'7th, 1884, with Professor Lord Rayleigh as President. The following were elected Vice-Presi- dents (subject to their willingness to serve) : — The Hon. P. J. O. Cliauveau, Dr. W. H. Kingston, Mr. T. Sterry Hunt, Professor Huxley, The Marquis of Lansdowne, The Marquis of Lome, Sir John A. Macdonald, Sir Charles Tupper, Sir Alexander T. Gait, Sir Antoine A. Dorion, Sir J. William Dawson, Professor Frankland, Sir William Siemens, Sir Lyon Playfair.f • [This restriction in the matter of new members was not prompted by the Montreal Committee. Many persons, who failed to be elected in England, came out without vouchers and presented themselves for enrolment at the Committee's offices and in the reception room. By resolution of the Council, each life and annual member was allowed to qualify two members of his family as Associntes, which entitled them to receive, like regular members, vouchers of identity and travelling certificates. The total number of transatlantic visitors who registered their names at the rooms thus amounted to 910.] t [Of the above list, the Marquis of Lome, Sir A. T. Gait, Sir Charles Tupper, and Pro- fessor Huxley woic unable to serve, and the death of Sir William Siemens further diminished the list. The Council then nominated Sir Joseph D. Hooker, who acceded to their request, but was ultimately prevented from coming to Montreal by illness in his family.] B XVlll CANADIAN ECONOMICS. ! i At the concluding meeting of the General Committee at South- port, on September 26th, Cjipt. Bedford Pirn gave notice that he nhould move at the next meeting of the General Committee : '* That the members of the Standing Committee of the Ameri- can Association for the Advancement of Science be cordially invited to become Honorary Members of this Association during the meeting at Montreal." This resolution could not (in accord- ance with the rules) obtain the consent of the General Committee until the first day of the Montreal Meeting, when it would have been too late to issue invitations. The subject of the resolution was, however, within the powers of the Council, if not of the officers alone. The latter accordingly brought the question under the consideration of Council with the result that it was decided to invite, not only the Standing Committee, but also the Fellows of the American Association, to visit Montreal on the footing of Honorary Members. The remainder of the year 1883, and the earlier months of 1884, were spent in preparations for the coming meeting, such as the selection of presidents and other officers of sections, of the even- ing lecturers, the election of new members, and other necessary preliminaries. Two circulars Avere issued upon February 29th, 1884, — one but slightly modified from that U(?ually forwarded to mem- bers, and extending the privileges of the Association to the American Association as well as to all Scientific Societies pub- lishing Transactions ; the other, containing instructions and information in regard to lines of steamships, railways and excursions, hotel rates, etc., as well as a blank form to be filled up by those intending to bo present at the meeting in Montreal. Upon return of these forms, vouchers of identity in proof of mem- bership wore issued to applicants ; and those sent to members elected before the close of the Southampton Meeting were stamped as entitling the holders to a reduction of £8, as a share of the Canadian subsidy estimated on the basis of 350 applicants. Free passes had also been provided from the same subsidy for the various officials of the Association by agreement with the Montreal Committee. It was also found needful by that body to supply to each European member a travelling certificate of iden- tity, which was duly forwarded from the London office with a letter of directions regarding its safe custody and use. 1 INTRODUCTORY REPORT. XIX n- a In the earlier part of the summer, the Council were informed of the arrangements with regard to free ocean-telegraphy. As the London office of the Association had to bo wholly closed from August Gth until late in September, Messrs. Thos. Cook and Sons kindly undertook to receive and transmit cablegrams from mem- bers ill Canada to their families in Biitain, or vice versa. Late in the month of July, a circular announcing these arrangements, together with a code for abbreviating cable messages, was for- warded to those members who had announced their intention of visiting Montreal. The following extract from the Report of the Council, presented to the General Committoo at Montreal on August 27th, sums up the more important details preliminary to the meeting : — "The present meeting of the British Association, the fifty- fourth in number, is likely to be long memorable in its annals, as the first held beyond the limits of the United Kingdom. It marks a new point of departure, and one probably never con- templated by the founders of the Association, although not for- bidden by the laws which they drew up. The experiment was doubtless a hazardous one, but it seems likely to be justified by success ; and it may be hoped that the vigour and vitality gained by new experience may ultimately compensate for the absence from this meeting of not a few familiar faces among the older members ; there will, however, bo as large a gathering of mem- bers of more than one year's standing as is usual at a successful meeting ir. Grreat Britain, and the efforts which have been made by our hosts to facilitate the coming of members, and render their stay in Canada both pleasant and instructive, call for the warmest acknowledgment. " The inducements offered to undertake the journey were indeed so great that the Council felt that it would be necessary to place some restriction upon the election of new members, which for many years past, though not unchecked in theory, has been almost a matter of course in practice. Obviously these offers of the Canadian hosts of the British Association were made to its members, not to those on whom they might operate as an inducement to be enrolled amongst its members. The Council, therefore, before the close of the Southport Meeting, published the following resolution : — ' That after the termination of the ■IM XX CANADIAN ECONOMICS. present month (September, 1883), until further notice, now members bo only elected by wpocial resolution of the Council.' Applications for admission under those terms were very numer- ous, and were carefully sifted by the Council. Still, although tho Council, as time progressed and the number augmented, increased tho stringency of their requirements, it became evident that the newly-elected members would soon assume an unduly large pro- portion to those of older standing ; so that, on May (ith, after electing 130 members under this rule, it was resolved to make no more elections until the commencement of tho Montreal Meeting, when it would bo safe to revert to tho usual practice. "The details of tho arrangements made for the journey have already been communicated to the members, so that it is needless to make any further special reference to them ; but tho Council have to acknowledge the great liberality of tho Associated Cable Companies in granting, under certain restrictions, free ocean- telegraphy to the members of the Association during tho mooting. "The death of Sir William Siemens has deprived the Associa- tion of one of its most earnest supporters and friends. It was during his presidency .it Southampton that tho invitation to Montreal was accepted, and he was appointed at Southport a Vice-President for this meeting. Tho Council nominated Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker a Vice-Presitlent, but ho was unfortu- nately obliged, for domestic reasons, to resign the nomination in the early part of the summer. " It has been the custom at meetings of tho Association to invito the attendance of distinguished men of science from all parts of the world ; but the Council considered that on the present occasion it would be well to oifer a special welcome to the American Association (of which also several eminent Cana- dian men of science are members) ; they have accordingly issued an invitation to the Standing Committee and Fellows of that Association to attend the meeting at Montreal on the foisting of Honorary Members." INTRODUCTORY REl'ORT. xxi to lall Ihe to id- led lat lof B. PRELIMINARY ARRANGEMENTS AND MEETING IN CANADA. Though many Canadians have been members of the British Association, the idea of Canada's welcoming that distinguinhed body seems to have been first suggested by an Englishman, Captain Bedford Pim, whoso notice to that effect was given to the gathering at York in 1881. During the autumn of the same year, Captain Pim had an opportunity of conferring with his friend and correspondent, the Eight Rev. J. T. Lewis, Bishop of Ontario, on the occasion of a visit to London, when the latter undertook to bring the subject of a Canadian meeting prominently before the members of the Dominion Government, with the view of obtaining their support and co-operation. The First Minister, together with the leading members of his Cabinet, took up the subject with hearty good will and gave to the Bishop of Ontario the following official communication for transmission to England : — " Parliament Buildings, " Ottawa, January 9, 1882. " Mv Dear Lord, — T am delighted to learn from your note of the 7th that there is a chance of the British Association fixing their place of meeting for 1883 in Canada. " They will be received with ' all the honours ' by both Grovern- raent and people, and so soon as it is known that the Association are to visit us, we shall ask Parliament to make an appropriation for the purpose of adding to the comfort of our visitors. " I may say that I have mentioned the project to Mr. Stephen, the President of the Canadian Pacific Bailway Company, who expects that the railway will be finished to the foot of the Rocky Mountains ere 1883. XXll CANADIAN ECONOMICS. ( " He authoi'iaes mo to say that th'it Eailway Company will fjladly roccive the momborH of the Association as their guoets, and will put the railway at their disposal for a journey across the Continent. " You are quite at liberty to communicate the contents of this note to Captain Bedford Pirn. " Believe me, yours vorj^ faithfully, "John A. Macdonald. " Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Ontario." The good will of the Government was afterwards shown in a more practical way. After a conference with Mr. White (the Chairman of the Montreal Citizens' Committee), the First Min- ister agreed that the sum of $20,000 should be placed in the estimates for 1883-84, as a contribution towards the travelling expenses of the visiting members. Moreover, an additional grant of $5,000 was subsequently made towards the general expenses of the Executive Committee. The official letter from the Governor-General, the Marquis of Lome, despatched early in 1882, giving an invitation from Canada, led to definite action being taken in England, and resulted in the vote at Southampton (August, 1882) to meet in Montreal in 1884. This departure from precedent, as was natural, provoked much hostile criticism. The Times, making itself the spokesman of the prejudiced and unintelligent classes, declared, to the amuse- ment of the better infoi-med, that " the proposal to hold a meet- ing in Canada and not in any part of Great Britain is really a proposition to suspend the work of the Association for a year. The year 1884 is to be a blank;" a "glorified picnic of our chief scientific men " would be the result. The British scientists would be "the lions of a Canadian season." Canada cared for their position, but " for their science she cannot care, or cannot care much. ... If they talk sense, they will be listened to. If they talk nonsense, they will be listened to all the same, and with the same degree of intelligent appreciation." Meanwhile, the decision of the General Committee of the British Association was officially communicated to His Excellency i INTIlODUC^rORY REPORT. XXlll the Marquis of Lome, through the office of the High CommiH- Biouer, in a letter, dated August 29th, and addressed to the Secre- tary of State ; and on October 4th, the Mayor of Montreal was notified of this decision by letter from Sir Leonard Tilloy, then acting for the State Secretary. This letter concluded with the hope " that steps may be taken, by the Corporation and citizens of Montreal, to give that body («'. e. the British Association) such a reception as will maintain the high credit of that city for hospitality." The letter was road in the City Council and referred to a committee with Aldermen Fairbaii'n and Rainvillo as Chairman and Secretary respectively; while a public meeting of citizens was convened by the Mayor lor the Mechanics' Hall in response to a requisition, signed by many loading citizens. At the meeting that followed, the Chair was taken by his Wor- ship, — Sir A. T. Gait (then High Commissioner for Canada) being present. The business was introduced by Mr. White, and resolutions were passed which were subsequently (November 13th) communicated to the Secretary of the British Association, thanking them for the honor they had done the city in selecting it for their meeting in 1884, gladly accepting the position, and pledging the city to fulfil the obligations thereby op tailed upon it. A large and influential Committee of Citizens was also named to make the necessary arrangements. After the termination of the public meeting, a committee meeting wi:i«i held at which pro- visional sub-committees on Finance, Conveyance and Eeception, were appointed, and sums of money were subscribed to meet the necessary expenses and towards the formation of a guarantee fund. At a meeting of the Citizens' Committee held early in Decem- ber, a letter from the Council of the Association was read requesting the Committee to nominate a number of gentlemen, resident in Montreal, to form the Local Executive Committee, with full powers, to act for and in name of the Association ante- rior to the opening of the meeting. Accordingly the Committee drew up a list of names for transmission to London where it was considered in Council on February 5th, the following resolutions being passed : — " Eesolved : That the gentlemen whose names are included in the list now presented, and who are not already members of the Association, be now elected Members. * ^^1 XXIV CANADIAN ECONOMICS. ! " That the gentlemen whose names are included in the list, together with the Vice-Presidents and the Local Officers, be appointed a Local Executive Committee for conducting the arrangements of the meeting at Montreal, with ])ower to add to their number. "That the Local Executive Committee be authorised to elect Members and Associates for 1884 from persons resident on the continent of America." The list of this Committee will be found on page x. Meeting on February 20th, it organized by electing Mr. Thomas Cramp {since deceased) as Chairman, and Mr. D. A. P. Watt as Secretary. Upon December 22nd, a sub-committee was appointed for the purpose of furnishing full details of information as to expense, etc., in response to a demand from Professor Bonney, while Sir A. T. Gait was appointed to represent the committee in England, with Mr. Colmer as British Corresponding Secretary. (Sir A. T. Gait was, on his retirement from the office of High Commissioner, subsequently replaced by his successor in office, Sir Charles Tupper). In the course of the ensuing month (January 8th) additional provisional sub-committees were appointed on Hotels and Private Hospitality, while the Civic Committee before men- tioned was requested to act in concert with and form part of the Citizens' Committee, the Council itself generously coming to the Committee's aid with a vote of $5,000. On September 24th, 1883, the General Committeee of the British Association, in session at Southport, upon motion of Sir Charles Tupper, seconded by Principal Dawson, confirmed the decision of the previous year. This decision was conveyed by a communication from the latter, which was read to the Citizens' Committee in session, October 10th. A letter was also read to the Committee, dating from Minneapolis, and signed by Principal Dawson and Mr. T. Sterry Hunt, communicating the accord of the American Association with the Montreal Meeting Oi" the British Association and their determination to hold their next year's meeting at Phihidelphia on September .3rd, a date which would give time for the presence of the members of the British Association after the close of the Montreal Meeting. In consequence of the discussion that followed these letters, and as it appeared that the general Citizens' Committee and the INrRODUCTORY REPORT. XXV provisional sub-committees were too large act efficiently, an organizing committee was appointed to report upon a subsequent occasion. Accordingly, at a meeting of tlie Citizens' Committee, held Januaiy 11th, 1884, a report was submitted from the Committee on Organization, nominating special sub-committees upon Finance, Eeception, Conveyance, Hospitality, Lodgings, Meeting- Eooms, and Printing, — the Chairman and Secretary of each of these Committees, together with the Chairman, Treasurer and Secretaries of the Citizens' Committee, and the Chairman and Secretary of the Civic and Local Executive Committees, being constituted a Citizens' Executive Committee, with full powers. It was recommended in the report, which was unanimously adopted, that these special committees should keep minutes, make periodical reports to the Executive Committee, form and submit estimates of the amounts of money required by each to carry on their work, etc. An additional sub-committee was also appointed to procure papers from Canadians on economical subjects to be read before Section F. This sub-committee was subsequently (January 16th) constituted a Special Committee on Canadian Economics. To this body Sir Henry Lefroy humorously alluded in a paper read before the Royal Colonial Institute in London : — " Of the precise function of the last section I am in doubt. There was little evidence of economy in any part of the programme."* * It may interest Montrealors to know that the Montreal Meeting has been the occasion of a considerable amount of " literature." Sir Henry Lefroy's paper has been reprinted in pamphlet form. We shall have occasion to refer to Prof. Boyd Dawkins' letters con- tributed to the Manchester Guardian. Mr. Alfred Pegler's "Visit to Canada and the United States " originally appeared in the columns of the Hampshire fndependent. The Tillies was represented from its American iieadquartevs at Philadelphia. Mr. F. H- Thomas, the special correspondent of the Loudon Graphic, nccompanied tiio members of the British Association on their tour to the Rocky Mountains. This paper also devoted several pages of illustrations to the meeting and its celebrities ; while the Illustrated Lon- don News, with the best intentions, engraved an old photograph of Dorchester Street, taken from the window.s of the Windsor Hotel, as "Montreal, View looking east from Mount Royal."' Not only the metropolitan but the provincial press of Uroat Britain was largely represented at the meeting, and delegates en me from local Scientific Societies, such as Mr. R. D. Pulhir, of Taysidc, F. R.S.E., from the Perthshire Society of Natural Science, whoso " Report on the British Association Meeting, Montreal," was printed in the Perthshire Comtitiitlonal 2, from the United States Government for this pm*pose, and two powerful lights were I: SMITH ON LIGHTHOUSES. 21 swick, 'ont'e- uiJ or shmd, iielc of established there, and more recently a steam fog-whistle was added to the light-station. These aids to navigation, built on foreign soil, have been of the greatest possible service to United States shipping, as well as to Canadian traffic, — heavy fogs fre- quently prevailing during the summer months on that coast. A case occurred a few years ago in which the Canadian Govern- ment was desirous of having a new light established on Passage Island in Lake Superior, to facilitate vessels trading to Port Arthur in connection with our rapidly increasing trade to Winni peg and the Northwest. The island belonged to the States, and application was made by Canada to the author Washington for permission to establish a lighthouse station After some correspondence they agreed to take the ne steps to place a sum in the estimates to be submitted t Legislature, for the purpose of erecting a lighthouse at th referred to "We have now a very superior light on that with a steam fog-whistle alongside of it, which adds vei'^ to the usefulness of the light. While the vote was und^ consideration of the Legislature at Washington, a con was attached to it, viz., that the Canadian Goveri should erect a lighthouse on Colchester Reef, Lake E dangerous place both to Canadian and United States shipping. The condition was accepted by the Canadian Government, and tenders were invited for the work. Owing to stormy weather, however, the contractor has not been successful in laying the foundation, and he has abandoned the contract, but it is now in the hands of another contractor, and it is probable that a light will be in operation there next year. It is due to the lighthouse authorities at Washington to state that, in all matters ail^'ecting the improvement of our lighthouse system, I have invariably found them most courteous, and both ready and willing to give all the information in their power, as well as the benetit of the experience which they have gained in the management of the lighthouse service required to light up their extensive coasts, both in the Atlantic and Pacific ; and it is scarcely necessary for me to say that they have succeeded well in the perftjrmance of their important duty, as I think it would be difficult to find better lighted coasts than those of the United States of America, in any part of the world. 11 li I. 22 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. II. Sable Island Lighthouse. A brief reference to Sable Island, which in not only one of our principal lighthouse stations, but the principal life-saving station in the Dominion, may not be out of place here, as it has recently been brought before the public by discussions in the news- papers, both of Canada and New York, in connection with the wrecl: of the Netherlands steam-^'*, Amsterdam, which went ashore on the eastern bar of the island on July 31st last, about thirteen miles eastAvard of the lighthouse. The island is situated in the Atlantic Ocean, about eighty-five miles from Whitehead ^Island, Nova Scotia, and about 150 miles north-east of Halifax. Although little known to the outside world, it is familiar to mariners as a long, narrow, white, sandy elevation, formed of two nearly parallel ridges, somewhat in the form of a crescent, concave to the north, and meeting at a point at either end, with sand bars or spits running out from them to a distance of some fifteen miles at the east end and probably six miles at the west end, over which the sea breaks with great fury during stormy weather. In the middle of the island and between the ridges is a narrow salu-water lake, about fourteen miles long. In very heavy gales the sea sometimes washes over the land on the south side of the island into the lake, and seals, which abound on the shores of the island, have been carried over the lard into the lake by the heavy seas breaking over the beach. The con- tinued action of the sea during stormy weather is having consider- able elfect in washing away the land at the west end, and new land a2)pears to be gradually and steadily making on the bars at its eastern end, vegetation being now seen where it was formerly covered by water. At the west end the sea now covers land where formerly vegetation existed. The lighthouse at the west end had recently to be moved some distance to the east, owing to the encroachments of the sea, which would soon have undermined it, if the necessary steps for its safety had not been taken; and it is quite probable that the eastern bar is gi-adually extending and increasing in si/e, thereby rendering it every year more dangerous to ships coming too close to it duVing foggy weather or snow storms. The length of the island is about twenty- two miles, and it varies in breadth from a quarter of a mile to a .« i SMITH ON LIGHTHOUSES. 23 mile. Owing to heavy fogs and snow storms, it has long been an object of terror to marinei's, who try to give it a wide berth. Life-saving stations are established at the east end and at the main station ; and at each of these places there is a life-boat, built with proper metallic cylinders, in good repair and thoroughly efficient. In addition to the life-boats, there are surf-boats kept in readiness for any emergency, and the chief of the staff has directions to practise the men once a week. Two new life-boats of the most improved pattern are now building for those stations. At the main station is also kept a complete rocket apparatus, such as is used by the Eoyal National Life Boat Institution ot Great Britain, in the use of which the men are practised from time to time. A life-car is also kept at the east-end station. There are five stations on the island, and the staff, consisting of seventeen men, is divided as follows, viz., the Superintend- ent and six men, at the main station, about seven miles from the west end ; at the west-end lighthouse, the light-keeper and his assistant; at the east end, the lighthouse-keeper, his assistant and two boatmen ; at the middle station, two boatmen ; at tlie foot of the lake station, two boatmen. In addition to the seven- teen men of the staff, there are generally two or three extra men. The staff, with their families, number about forty-six persons. No one is allowed to reside on the island except by authority of the Marine Department. Hitherto, in the case of wrecks, the men of the staff have been found well behaved and attentive to their duty, and as no liquor is allowed on the island, few complaints have been brought against any of them. Still, in the event of liquor finding its way there from wrecked vessels, it is possible that some miscon- duct might take place, as irregularities sometimes occur in the best regulated families, and the staff on the island is simply a large Government fa raily, with the Superintendent at the head of it. With reference to the complaint made by some of the passen- gers and crew of the Amsterdam that it took too long a time to obtain provisions for them after being landed at the light- house station, it may be mentioned that the principal stock of provisions is kept at the main station, fifteen miles away, the road being over heavy, soft sand ; and some time must necessa- 24 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. 1 J V 1 il ! rily elapse before meal« can be prepared, under such circum- stances, for a crowd of people numbering 250. But an ample store of provisions is kept by the Govornniont on the island, be- sides forty or fifty head of cattle, and upwai-ds of 200 wild horses or ponies. It is not probable, therefore, in the event of a large number of persons being wi-ecked on the island, that they would suffer any great inconvenience for the want of pro- visions ; and, in the case of the emigrants referred to, their com- plaints had no substantial foundation. During fogs and snow storms, when the whole extent of the shore of the island cannot be seen from the out-loolc stations, some of the men patrol the beach on horseback at stated inter- vals, for the purpose of ascertaining whether any wrecks have taken place. In 1870, a schooner was sent by the Marine De- partment to the island with supplies and provisions and, after delivering her cargo, left wita the view of returning to Halifax, but was never seen or heard of afterwaj'ds. It is supposed that she either foundered or capsized, as a heavy gale sprang up after she left. The British Government contribute annually £400 towards the maintenance of the humane establishment kept up on this island, but nothing towards the construction or maintenance of the two large lighthouses erected there in 18t3. The total cost of maintaining the lighthouses and humane establishments re- ferred to, during last fiscal year, was $6,115. Though great loss of life has occurred, from time to time, on the shores or bars of the island, still many shipwrecked people have been assisted in their misfortunes, and have partaken of hospitality at the stations on that bleak bank of sand. Previous to 18*73, no lights had ever been exhibited on Sable Island, as it was a disputed point for many years, whether the establishment of such lights would not be more dangerous to ships than if there were none, — the opinion being held, on the one hand, that vessels ought to give the island so wide a berth that the lights would not be visible to them ; and that, even if they came within sight of them, it might tend to draw them too near the sand bars in the hope of making the lights and defin- ing their position, thereby incurring a risk and danger which might be avoided if there was no inducement to make the island. 1 \iili SMITH ON LIGHTHOUSES. 25 On the other hand, it was argued that if a powerful light was placed at each end of the island, they would be visible at a dis- tanco of twenty milo.s or more, quite far enough to warn vessels of their danger, and to enable them to define their exact position in a dark and stormy night, when they might not otherwise bo able to do so accurately. However, after a visit to the island in 1870, I was convinced of the necessity of some such provision and two largo, sub- stantial, wooden lighthouse-towers were erected: one at the east end, from which was exhibited a powerful dioptric light of the second order, and another on the west end, showing a powerful, white, revolving catoptric light, with three faces, following one after another, and then a total cessation of light. Eoth lights are visible from all points of approach to a distance of about twenty miles. The dioptric apparatus was manufactured by Sautier of Paris, and the revolving catoptric apparatus by Chanteloup of Montreal. Both these lights have been of great value to navigation, and the towers, glistening in the sun during the day, can be seen a long distance olt", when the island itself cannot be seen, and are as useful as day beacons, as the lights are at night. Steam fog-whistles were also established at each lighthouse station ; but, owing to the roar of the surf, it was found that they could not be heard at a sufficient distance to warn vessels of their danger, owing to the bars running out so far from the island, and they were discon- ti]\ucd some years ago. An automatic whistling buoy will be placed immediately by the Marine Department, near the end of the eastern bar, to warn vessels off' that dangerous place. The cost to the Government of Canada of these two stations, includ- ing the fog-whistles, was $70,000. What is still wanted to make the life-saving station moro efficient, is connection by telegraph cable between the island and the mainland, and telephone connection between each end of the island. When this is done, information relating to wrecks will be immediately telegraphed, and a steamer despatched to their assistance. 26 it-: ii CANADIAN ECONOMICS. III. The System op Managibment, I shall now refer to the system upon which our lights avo managed. The business of the Depai'tment of Marino and Fishei'ies is divided into two branches, with a Deputy Minister for each, one embracing the lighthouses and all other marine matters, and the other all nialtors relating to the fisheries. The iMinister, being a political otticer and a moml)er of t! Cabinet, changes with the Government, but his Deputies, who manage the routine business of each branch respectively under his di- rections, are permanent officials. No practical inconvenience, therefore, ensues when a change of Government takes place, as the pei-manent officials are familiar with all the details. In the Department there is a Chief Engineer, who is charged with the preparation of all plans and specifications in connection with the building of new lighthouses and the arrangement of the necessary lighting apparatus; and, in each of the Provinces of the Dominion, there is an agent of the Department to attend to its local business, as the distances are too great to admit of its being promptly attended to by the head office, ana it is of such a nature that it requires continuous local super- vision. The Minister annually submits to Parliament an esti- mate of the amount of money which he will require for the en- suing year, for the maintenance of the lighthouses, the construc- tion of such new light-stations as he may recommend to bo established, and all the other services of his Department. Since the Department was organized, in 1867, when Confeder- ation took place, up to the end of last year, 351 new lighthouses have been established, and the amount expended for this purpose, including the cost of providing twenty-three fog-whistles and nine steam fog-horns, was ^1,095,620, which would give an average of $2,860 for each. Many of these lights were for the inland waters and rivers, built of wood, of an inexpensive des- cription, costing under $1,000. During the current year twenty new lights have been added to the list, all of which will be in full operation before the end of the season. All the lighthouses erected by the Marine Department since Confederation have been built of wood, as it was found to be much cheaper and it required less time to build them than if constructed of stone. SMITH ON LIGHTHOUSES. in brick, or iron. Previous to Confederation, the lighthouHes in Nova Scotia, Now Brunswick and Prince Edward Island were nearly all built of wocjd, as beiii*^' more suitable to tbe climate, and to the means at the disposal of the Governments of tliese Provinces ; and some of them, after having been in existence for upwards of half a century, still appear to be in good condition, liaving boon kept in proper repair since they were built. In Ontario and (Quebec, the principal lighthouses erected pre- vious to Confederation were heavy, strong, substantial stone or brick buildings, and will probably stand for centuries, '^at, as compared with wooden structures, they were expensive, some of thorn costing upwards of $100,000 for construction and equip- ment. Thoy were built very neai'ly after the style of those de- signed and erected by Stevenson of Edinburgh, for the Com- missioners of Northern Lights. The minor lights for river and inland navigation were built of wood, at a small expense, and have been found very suitable for the purposes for which they were intended. The lighthouse which was built in 1870 on the Great Bird Eock, in the centre of the Gulf of St. Lawj-cnce, may be taken as an illustration of the new system, as compared with that in operation in Canada previous to Confederation. It was a place to which navigators of the Gulf and ocean steamship owners were continually referiing, as a locality where tliere was the most pressing necessity for a light, being a dangerous high rock, lying right in the track of vessels using the southern route be- tween Europe and Quebec. Reports had been previously made by the proper officer as to its estimated cost, and all the neces- sary information obtained; but still up to 1870 no light had boon established there, as the construction of a stone tower on the rock would not only have been very expensive, but would have required, probably, some years to build, owing to the diffi- culty of landing material, with such a heavy sea breaking con- tinually around it. In 1870, Pajliament was asked for a moder- ate sum for the purpose of erecting a wooden tower and other buildings at this place, and it Avas readily voted, although fears were expressed by some of our legislators that it was too great a risk to jiut a wooden building there in case of fire. Plans and specifications having been prepared and the con- !il ' I I 28 CANADIAN ECONOMtm tract uwiii'ded, tho towor whh built and socui'oly anchoi-od to the rock. A keeper's dwelling und oil store were erected, each apart from tho other and from tho tower, ho as to pre- vent, as far as possible, tlie risk of tire, and all the buildings wore well covered with iron-clad paint. A fine dioptric ap- ])aratu8 of tho second order, made by Sautioi* of Paris, was l)laced in the lighthouse ; and on September 20th, 18*70, just four months from the time when tho money was voted, one of the Hnest lights on this continent was exhibited there, 140 feet above the level of the sea and visible at a distance of about twenty miles. The cost of the buildings was $10,000 and tho apparatus about $10,000, making altogether $20,000. If it had been built under the previous system of stone work, the cost would probably have exceeded 0100,000. It has now been in operation fourteen years, and with good care it may last thirty years longer. This light, along with those on the Island of Anticosti, Magdalen Islands, and our principal lights in the Eivor and Gulf, with tho exception of those on Saint Paul's Island and in the Straits of Bellcisle, have been connected with Ottawa by telegraph for some years past, so that information about wrecks, weather, and the state of the ice in the spring, is at once communicated to the Department, and to the Boards of Trade at Montreal and Quebec. For countries possessing wealth and large populations, it is probable that the system of building everything on a substantial and expensive scale, and with a view to posterity, is the best; but for a young country like Canada, with extensive coasts to light up and a comparatively small population, the cheaper sys- tem of wooden towers and effective lights is evidently superior, as by this means we can probably build ten lights for one under the other system. Our experience of lighthouses built on screw piles is but lim- ited, as we have only one, and that was built on the shifting sands at the mouth of the Fraser Eiver, in the Straits of Georgia, British Columbia, at a cost of $21,000. The lighting apparatus is dioptric of the third order, made by Chance of Birmingham. Some difficulty was experienced by the con- tractor in sinking the piles, but that was eventually remedied, and the light is now in full operation, and is described as one of 8MTTH ON LIGHTHOUSES. 20 of the most brilliant on the Pacific coast. Tho extent of sea coast in tho Dominion to bo lighted up and provided with fog- whiHtloH, bcll-buoyH, automatic buoys and ordinary buoys and beacons, is 3,200 miios ; inland coast, 2,600 miles, making alto- gether about 5,800 miles of coast to be lighted and buoyed. To effect this object, we have 308 sea-coast light-stations, 224 'inland light-stations, and 17 lightships. Tho number of light-stations with fixed lights is 467; with revolving lights, 82; making alto- gether on December 31st, 1883, a total of 549. The Province of Quebec has 146 light-stations; Ontario, 139; New Brunswick, 82; Nova Scotia, 119; Prince Edward Island, 39; British Co- lumbia, 1. The lightships are divided as follows: — Quebec, 8; Ontario, 5; New Brunswick, 2; Nova Scotia, 1, and one at the mouth of the Eed Eivor, in Manitoba. Three of them are strong, English-built, iron vessels, having powerful steam fog-whistles on board, and are stationed in the lower St. Lawrence, below Quebec. The system adopted in Canada for the construction of new lighthouse stations is by contract, public notice being first issued, inviting tenders for the work on plans and specifications prepared by tho Engineer of tho Department; and, when the tenders have been received, tho contract is invariably awarded to tho person making the lowest tender, if ho is pi'opared to go on with the work. The contracts have generally been taken at low prices. New light-stations are generally established on the representa- tions of seafaring men. Members of Parliament representing maritime districts, and possessing local knowledge, have also much influence in the establishment of such stations. When representations have been made to the Minister of Marine, urg- ing tho necessity of a new light in some particular locality, an investigation is made by tho Department, and tho opinion of its practical officei's obtained as to the necessity for the proposed light, with reference to the dangers of navigation and the amount of traffic to be served. Tho Minister then decides on the merits of the case, and, if satisfied that it is necessary and for tho public interests, he places it in the list of new lights pro- posed to bo built during tho ensuing year, which he submits to Parliament with the recommendation that the necessary funds I I 30 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. be provided ; as soon as the vote has passed, arvantijcments are made for securing a site and proceeding with the work. IV. Foa-WlII8TLE8 AND BuOYS. The- steam fof?- whistles in use in Canada may be considei-cd a part of our liglithonse Hystem, and have been found to give good results. They are valued on some parts of our coast, where fog prevails in the summer and snow storms in the winter, quite as much as the lighthouses. The machine in use is simply a mul- titubular boiler, with a small engine attached, for opening the valve and regulating the blasts of steam at stated intervals, as desired. The blast can be distinctly heard, under ordinary cir- cumstances, to a distance of from four to ten miles, according to the state of the atmosphere ; but on some pai'ticular occasions it has been heard as far as thirty miles. The whistle at the top of the escape pipe for the steam is usually 10 inches in diameter, and 1 foot, G inches high. The cost of the steam fog-whistles, without the buildings, tanks, or water-arrangements, is about $2,000, but the consumption of coal is necessai'ily great, and a plentiful supply of water is required. Owing to the expense of keeping this description of fog-alarm in operation, the Depart- ment has not erected any new ones of late years. The description of fog-horn, recently adopted, is the Cham- pion automatic fog-horn. It requires veiy little fuel and water, and has given satisfaction. The sound is produced by compressed air passing through the horn, instead of steam. The machine consists of a tubular boiler, 5 feet, (> inches high, 2 feet, 9 inches in diameter ; a large air cylinder, 3 feet, 8 inches in diameter, 3 feet, 10 inches long, to which is attached a horn, car- rying a powerful reed, and a steam cylinder 2 feet in diameter, with an automatic apparatus for the control of the supply of steam. Its action is as follows : — When the steam is turned on, it entoi's the steam cylinder and causes a ])iston to ascend ; at- tached to this piston, by means of their common piston-rod, is another piston working in the air cylindei', which is supported above the steam cylinder by means of four columns attached to the bed plate. By this means the air contained in the upper cylinder is forced through the reed, the tongue of which is of SMITH ON LIGHTHOUSES. 31 steel, 8 inches long, 2 inches wide, and h of an inch thick, caus- ing it to vibrate rapidly, and thus to emit a loud sound. When the pistons approach the top of their stroke, the lower one, by a very simple contrivance, closes the supply valve and opens the exhaust valve, which allows the expended steam to escape ; consequently the pistons, by their own weight, gradually descend, thus allowing the air cylinder to fill witli air again. When the pistons reach the bottom of their stroke, the upper one reverses the movement of the valves, when the above operations are automatically repeated. By means of an ad- justable valve on the exhaust pipe, the intervals between the blasts can be closely adjusted. The amount chai-ged for these machines by the patentee is $2,000, but they can be made by competition for $1,000 each, when several are taken. They are well suited for localities where it is difficult and expensive to provide fuel and water, but it is doubtful if their sound can be heard at as great a distance as that of the steam whistle. We have nine automatic fog-alarms in use, and the Department is about to establish twelve more in different parts of the Domin- ion where fog frequently prevails. The Courtney automatic whistling-buoy, of which we have eight in Canadian waters, is a recent American invention, and has been found of great service to shipping, in connection with our lighthouse system. It is of no use in completely smooth water, without any swell, but requires a rough, rolling sea to make it work effectively, and under such circumstances it emits a loud blast, similar to a compressed air fog-horn worked by steam, Tho largo-sized buoy is 10 feet in diametei-, and has a hollow iron cylinder about 30 feet long, open at the lower end underneath it, which is filled with water, and as the buoy goes up and down on the waves, the water in the cylinder being sta- tionary compresses the air at the top of the cylinder and drives it through the whistle above the buoy, thereby causing the blast. This desci'iplion of buoy cannot be used in shallow water, but is intended to be moored some distance away from the shoal or danger to bo avoided. The cost of this buoy is $1,575 in New York, without the ground tackle. We are now having two made, one to be anchored off the end of the eastern bar at Sable Island, and the other off Point Lepreau, in the Bay of Fundy. " 32 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. A new description of buoy, with a gas light an*anged in a frame on the top of it, enclosed in a small dioptric apparatus or Fresnel lens, has recently been used by Trinity House of London, and by the Commissioners for managing and lighting the Clyde, in Scotland, with good results. The gas is made specially for the buoys from petroleum oil, and is compressed into an iron cylinder, when about to be transferred to the buoys, and when a buoy of the largest size is properly charged with this compressed gas, it should burn day and night for 'linety days, without requiring any attendance. Two of these buoys, with the necessary gas works to be erected at Quebec, have been ordered through Trinity House, London, and will be placed immediately in the Lower St. Lawrence. If found to worlc suc- cessfully, they may possibly take the place of small lighthouses or light-ships. They can be seen at a distance of seven miles. The cost of the buoys, with a bell attachment, to warn vessels of their locality, will be $3,750 each, and the cost of the gas works, with store-holder, will be $3,500. The arrangement of the lantern is such, that while the necessary air is admitted to feed the flame, no water can enter, no matter how high or vio- lent the sea. The bell-buoys used are now made in Canada, by contract, similar to the bell-buoys of Trinity House, London, and are constructed of boiler plate-iron, with compartments and water ballast, the cost of which is about $1,000. V. Lighting Apparatus in Lighthouses. The lighting apparatus in use in the lighthouses of Canada is very much the same as In other countries, viz., catoptric and dioptric. For our large important stations, having revolving lights, the catoptric apparatus is used. It consists of powerful lamps connected with flat oil-receivers at the back of the reflec- tors. At the back of the lamps are parabolic silvered reflectors, varying in size from eighteen to twenty-four inches in diameter, for the purpose of reflecting the rays, and throwing them out in a certain direction. A number of these lamps, with reflectors fitted to them, say three, fc ..• or five, are lixed to the sides of an iron fi-ame, having two, three or four sides, and the whole is made to revolve by clock-work machinery and heavy weights. SMITH ON LIGHTHOUSES. 33 If the light is required to show, say, every three minutes, two faces will be found sufficient ; if oftener, three or four faces may be used, as the case may be. The reflectors on each face or side of the revolving frame are thus successively directed to every point of the horizon, and the combined result of their rays forms a flash of greater or less duration, according to the rapidity of their revolution, — the light gradually increasing till it attains its full power, and then gradually diminishing, till it becomes invis- ible. As regards the distance at which one of our powerful re- volving catopric lights can be seen, it is only limited by the horizon ; and with an ordinary high tower, the light being about 100 feet above the level of the sea, it should be visible on a oleai-, dark night, nearly twenty miles distant. If lights are placed at too high an elevation, there is some risk of their being obscured by clouds or mist, while the land lower down may be quite visible. This was the case at Belleisle, near the entrance of the Strait, where there is a dioptric light of the first order placed at an elevation of 470 feet above the level of the sea at high- water mark, but it is frequently obscured by clouds, while the land and breakers below can be easily seen. To remedy this difficulty, another light has been erected on the rocks nearer the edge of the water, and this minor catoptric light can be seen sometimes when the large dioptric light above is invisible. At some if our large catoptric lights we have as many as eighteen or twenty lamps, which not only consume a considerable quantity of oil but create much heat, causing danger of explosion if the oil is not specially prepared for the service. One great objection to catoptric lights, as compared with diopti'ic, is the largo consumption of oil i-equirod for ho many lamps, whereas in the dioptric apparatus only one lamp is necessary. We have 483 lights in the Dominion, the apparatus of wliich is on the catoptric principle ; and, a.s all the lamps and reflectors for these lights are manufactured in this country at a much less cost than dioptric apparatus can be imported from England, it has been found ad- visable to use this kind for all our revolving lights, and for fixed lights of a minor character. The dioptric apparatus is used at some of our great sea lights, such as Sable Island, Belleisle, Point Amour, Cape Hosier, Bird 3 r 34 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. "Rock, Sambro Island and Seal Island, where the lights are fixed- white, and they were manufactured either by Sautier of Paris, or (Jhance of Birmingham. A dioptric is made of cut crystals or prisms, highly polished ; and the large sizes, such as those of the first or the second order, are veiy expensive. Only one lamp is used, with concentric wicks, numbering from one to four or five, according to the size of the apparatus, and from this are emitted luminous beams in every direction. The lamp is placed in the centre of the crystal apparatus, with an oil-receiver so arranged as to keep a constant supply of oil up to the flame without ob- scuring any portion of the light. In the case of the dioptric or lens system, the conti-olling apparatus which gives brilliancy to the light is placed before it instead of behind it, as in the case of the catoptric apparatus. This arrangement of crystals surround- ing the lamp ifj so formed as to refract the beams of light from the lamp into parallel rays in the required directions. The lamp requires careful, constant, attentive watching by trained keepers, in order to regulate the size of the flame of each of the wicks, and it should never be left without an attendant when it is in operation. The mammoth flat-wick lamp in use in nearly all our catoptric aj)paratus, has given the best results, nor does it require continuous watching. It is therefore much better suited for our Canadian lights, which are maintained at a small expense, and are, as a rule, supplied with only one keeper. There are sixty-six dioptric lights in the Dominion, two of which are of the first order, twelve of the second order and six of the third order. The cost of a first-class revolving catoptric apparatus, made in this country, with a tv;elve-feet iron lantern, is about $2,913. The cost of a first-class fixed- white dioptric apparatus, with lan- tern and lamps complete, made in England, is about $14,800 ; but for complicated flashing lights, they reach as high as 822,350. The illuminant used in the Canadian lighthouse service is pe- troleum of Canadian production and manufacture, and is required to be of the best quality, double distilled, standard white, extra refined, free from acids or other impurities, to weigh, at 62° Fahr., not less than 7*85 lbs., nor more than 8*02 lbs. per gallon ; to withstand a flash test of 115° Fahr. by the new standard pyi'o- meter. In burning for twelve hours, the oil must produce a brilliant and nearly uniform flame, without crusting the wick or iajLm SMITH ON LIGHTHOUSES. 35 discoloring the chimney, and with a loss of not more than 15 per cent, in power during that period. About 100,000 gallons per annum are required foi* the service, and tenders were invited last winter for a supply for three yeai-s. The contract was awarded to the Imperial Oil Company of London, Ontario, at twenty cents per imperial gallon, delivered at Hamilton or Grodcrich, and the oil delivered this season has boon up to the standard quality. With oil at such a low price, the quantity consumed becomes of very little consequence, and therefore the catoptric system, which consumes very much more than the dioptric, is the best suited for our requirements, as the cost of catoptric apparatus is very much loss in the first instance than that of dioptric. YI. LiaiiTHousE Service. The number of persons employed by the Crovernment to attend to lighthouses is 656, and the salaries paid to them range all the way from $80 for small river lights, up to $1,500 per annum. The last mentioned sum is paid to the keeper of Bird Rock light, who has also to fire a signal-gun during foggy weather. He is required to keep two assistants, whom he foods and whoso wages he pays out of the salary allowed him. The situation is by no means an enviable one, as the keepers must remain on the rock all the winter, and as it is high out of the water, with a small flat surface, they must exercise groat caution while moving about, as it is usually covered with ice during the winter mouths. When the wind is high, they sometimes find it necessary to go from one building to another on their hands and knees, to avoid being blown off into tho sea. The salary usually allowed to the keeper of a sea-coast light is between $;>00 and $500, and tlioro are often many api)licants for any vacancy. Tho salaries of keepers of I'ivor and harbour lights are small, as thoy generally have oppoi*- tunitios of adding to their income by farming, fishing, or some other occupation in their immediate neighborhood. At stations where an assistant is necessary, tlie salary of the keeper is increased to enable him to hire one, but the Government does not appoint him or recognize him in any way. The duly appointed keeper is hold responsible for the proper performance of tho duty. Before recommending a person to His Excellency in Council 36 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. for the position of light-keeper, the Minister of Marine usually consults the member of Parliament for the county or district in which the vacancy has occurred (if he is a supporter of the Govornraont), and obtains his recommendation of a suitable person for ilie appointment. There is no system of promotion among the Icoopors, and it is understood that the appointments are usually made through political influence. The salaries of some of the keepers are occasionally increased, owing to length of service, good conduct, additional work being imposed on them, or their salaries being too small, but they are rarely moved from one place to another, in the way of promotion. Taking the light- keepers as a body, they are a very intelligent, useful and respect- able class of persons, and, as a rule, perform their duties very satisfactorily, although the remuneration is exceedingly moderate. The plan of selecting them also works well, as the member who has the responsibility of nominating a keeper, is generally care- ful to recommend a good, reliable man, who may be trusted with the management of the light. VII. Canadian System cojrpARED with Others. The expansion of the lighthouse system of Canada during the last seventeen years has been great. In 1867, when the four Provinces were confederated, there were 198 light-stations in the Dominion and two fog-whistles, and at the close of this season there will be 569 light-stations, thirty-six fog-alarms and ten automatic whistling-buoys in operation. As compared with the lighthouse systems of the United Kingdom and the United States, our lights, although very good and suitable for our trade, are not of such a high class, and have cost much less to build and maintain than those of the countries referred to ; but in neither of these countries have ship-owners been so much favored as in Canada. In the United Kingdom the light dues collected in the year 1883-84 for all general lights managed by Trinity House, London, the Commissioners of Northern Lights, and the Commissioners of Irish Lights, was £476,116 sterling, equal to about $2,380,580, while the tonnage dues collected from shipping in the United States, although not nominally for light dues, was, as ah-eady SMITH ON LIGHTHOUSES. 3t shown, $1,320,590. In England, Trinity House, or, to Jidopt their own style, the Corporation of the Elder Brethren of the Uoly and Undivided Trinity, has the management of the general lights for which light dues are collected, and that honorable and ancient corporation may be considered as the chief lighthouse authority of the world, while amongst their oflS.cers are gentlemen of high scientific attainments and great experience. The Marine Depart- ment of Canada has been under many obligations to the officers of this corporation for advice and assistance, which have always been most readily and freely given. Trinity House has under its management 65 light-stations with dioptric lights, 21 with cat- optric lights, and 46 light vessels with catoptric lights, making altogether 132 light-stations. In Scotland, the general lighthouse authority is the Commissioners of Northern Lights, who have under their charge 45 light-stations with dioptric lights, 13 with catoptric lights, and 10 catadioptric, making 68 light-stations in all. In Ireland, the general lighthouse authority is the Commis- sioners of Irish Lights, who have under their jurisdiction 35 stations with dioptric lights, 41 with catoptric lights, and 12 light- vessels with catoptric lights, making 88 in all. The three lighthouse authorities who have the management of the general lighthouses for which light dues are collected in the United Kingdom, have therefore under their jurisdiction 288 light- stations. In addition to these lights, however, there are a number of local harbor lights of a minor description, which are main- tained by local authorities, such as Harbor or Dock Commis- sioners, and these will probably number about 140, making altogether about 428 lights, large and small, on the coasts of the United Kingdom, with a coast line of about 3,500 nautical miles. The cost of maintaining the 288 light-stations under the juris- diction of the three corporations referred to, including the main- tenance of steamers and supply-vessels dui-ing the year ended March 31st, 1883, but not including the cost of collecting light dues, superannuation of officers, or works in connection with building new lighthouses, was £303,830, equal to an avei'age of about £1,054 for each, or about $5,270. In the United States, the general lights are managed by a Lighthouse Board with two official secretaries, one an officer of the army and the other an officer of the navy. This Board has -!rf dd CANADIAN ECONOMICS. under its managoment '746 light- stations, with dioptric lights, and 32 stations with catoptric lights. Thoro are besides those 1,049 minor lights, established on western rivers, that cannot strictly bo placed in either of the above classes. There are also 30 light-vessels, making altogether 1,857 lights in the United States, large und small, with a sea-coast line to be lighted, roughly estimated at 12,600 miles ; inland coast, roughly esti- mated at 3,000 miles, and length of rivers to be lighted, roughly estimated at 4,000 miles, making altogether about 19,600 miles of sea and inland coast and rivers to be lighted. The total cost of maintenance of all these light-stations, light-vessels, buoys and beacons, steamers attending on lights, etc., for the year 1883, was about $2,000,000. If the small lights on the western rivers are included, these tigures would give an average cost of their lights at Si, 077 for their maintenance. In Norway, tliere are 132 lights maintained by the Govern- ment which cost $157,000, equal to an average cost of about $1,189 for each. The lights in Norway are maintained by light dues on shipping. The average cost of maintaining our Canadian lights, large and small, including the cost of maintaining four steamers to attend on them, and the buoys and beacons of the Dominion, is about $1,000 each per annum. In 1872, long before our lighthouse system had risen to its present state of efficiency, a committee of Trinity House, Lon- don, visited this country and the United States, with the object of examining the fog-signals in use on this continent, and ac- quainting themselves with the working of the lighthouse sys- tem in the two countries. On their return to London, they re- poi'ted most favourably of our lighthouse system, both as to its economy and efficiency. They referred to the lights which they saw in the Gulf and Eiver of St. Lawrence, as showing a bright light a long distance off, and spoke of those they visited as being scrupulously clean and in good order. With reference to the lights on Lake Ontario, they stated that they were observed, clear and strong, at a distance of fifteen miles, and that the strength and efficiency of all the Canadian lights which they saw, struck the committee forcibly as indi- cating the high value of the illuminant used, and they char- SMITH ON LIGHTHOUSES. 39 actcmed the Canadian ayHtom as ouo of tjimplicity and ocoii- omy, admirably adapted to a young country; adding that a liigher ratio of illuminating power was obtained from our min- eral oil in catoptri-. lights than in any other arrangement. With reference to our fog-signal system, they stated that, while simplicity and economy were also the ruling influences, it was good and ett'ective, and had been of great benefit to the trade. Such was the testimony, in 1872, of these able and disinter- ested gentlemen of experience, as to the system of lighthouses and fog-signals then in operation in the Dominion of Canada, and since that time great improvements have been made on our coasts, both as regards the number and efficiency of our lights and fog-signals. A vessel may navigate from Lake Superior to Halifax, and can scarcely bo out of sight of some one or other of the numerous lights which will guide her on her voyage through the inland seas, rivers and Grulf of St. Lawrence to her port of destination. Between Montreal and Quebec a large j)as- sengcr traffic is carried on by night-boats during the season of navigation, and an accident to these boats, which are the ad- miration of travellers, is almost unknown. The system of lead- ing lights, for this portion of our great river, has been much ad- mii'ed by nautical men, who have travelled in these boats and watched their navigation during the night. The shoals are numerous, and the channel in some places intricate, but by the excellent system of range lights and the careful steering of skilled pilots, these boats, loaded with passengers, are enabled to pass up and down every night with regularity and comfort. ni, THE FISHERIES OF CANADA. BY L. Z. JONCAS. I. Extent of Canadian Fisheries. I am not afraid of saying too much, when I assert that the Dominion of Canada owns the largest and the richest fisheries in the world. " As a national possession," says the Hon. Peter Mitchell, who was our Minister of Marine and Fisheries in 1870, "they are inestimable; and, as a field for industry and enter- prise, they are inexhaustible. Besides their general importance to the country as a source of maritime wealth and commerce, they also possess a special value to the inhabitants. The great variety and superior quality of the fish products of the sea and inland waters of these colonies afford a nutritious and economic food, admirably adapted to the domestic wants of their mixed and laborious population. They are also in other respects specially valuable to such of our people as are engaged in maii- time pui'suits, either as a distinct industry or combined with agriculture. The principal localities in which fishing- is earned on, do not usually present conditions favoui'able to husbandry. They are limited in extent and fertility, and are subject to cer- tain climatic disadvantages. The prolific nature of the adjacent waters, and the convenience of their undisturbed use, are a necessary compensation for defects of soil and climate. On such grounds alone, the sea and inland fisheries to which British subjects have claims on this continent are of peculiai* value." 42 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. !l I i jMi: To this Htatomont of ono of our tnoht proiiiinoiit public mon, I will moi'oly udd ii fow words, to show moro dourly what an im- raon.so Hold is oponod by our lishorios, not only for tho industry of our own population, but for tho ontorpriso of immigrants, — a hold capable of sustaining throo or four times as largo a population as that of Canada at tho present moment. Canada is equal in extent to the republic of the United States ; it is almost as large as tl.'^ whole continent of Europe ; that is to say, it contains about one-fourteenth of the land of the world. Bounded by three oceans, it has, besides its numerous inland seas, over 5,500 miles of sea coast, washed by watei-s abounding in the most valuable lishes of "iill kinds. Setting aside for the moment tho 3,000 miles of sea coast in British Columbia, and the immense inland seas of the groat Northwest Territory, — the richness of which has not been pro])erly utilized, and is not yet well known, — we have, in the old Provinces of the Confedera- tion, 2,500 miles of sea coast, and inland seas covering an area of 122 square miles ; besides a considerable number of lakes of smaller extent and many important rivers teeming with varieties of fishes of great commercial value. From whatever point of view we may regard them, the teem- ing waters of the British American possessions, and those which form their great lakes and magnificent rivers, must be reckoned as a national property, richer and more perpetual than any mere estimate in money can express. " It is m the highest degree satisfying," observes the Hon. Peter Mitchell, in his above men- tioned Report, "to find that Canadians are becoming every year moro and more alive to the vast importance of their fisheries, and that they are now more than ever anxious to preserve them as the finest material portion of our colonial heritage." The fact of foreign nations having always clung with tenacity to every right and common liberty which they have been en- abled to secure in these fisheries, and the eagerness which for- eigners manifest to establish themselves in the actual use of such extensive and lucrative privileges, constitute tho best ex- trinsic evidence of the wide-spreading influence of thoir posses- sion, and the strongest testimony to theu* industrial and com- mercial worth. JONCAS ON FISHERIES. 43 TI. Value of Canadian Fisheries. I miiy ]KM'hji|)s l)c jiHkod, whothor tlio riehnoss uml the viiluo of llu! Ciiiuulijin Hshurios aro in proportion to thoir oxtcnt. Our fishcrios, on account of tho insufficiency of our population, ai'O far from having uc fishing industry. In 1882, besides about 1,000 decked vcs.:-,;S, the total tonnage of which was not more than 40,000 tons, we had to work our soa-fisheries with nothing else than small open boats, well made, solidly built, good sailors, ])erhaps the best of their class j but with which our fisherman, although hardy and skilful, cannot venture very far out at sea, cannot follow the ii>h in its frequent migrations, and, in consequence, cannot give to our fisheries all the extension of which they are capable. On the other hand, the American fish- ing fleet numbers, besides many thousand smaller boats, 6,000 schooners of 209,000 tonnage ; and the British fishing fleet is composed of 33,000 vessels, most of them of large size, and many of them steamboats. No necessary expense is con- sidered too large by the fish merchants and ship-owners of those countries, and their fishermen, manning convenient and safe boats, can follow the fish everywhere. The English and Unitcel States Governments and the capitalists of those countries, understanding what an important contribution their fisheries are to the national wealth, encourage by every pos- sible means those wlio carry on that industry. Fishery Bureaux, heatled hy their most eminent, influential, and practical men, are formed to seek for the best means of rendering their fisheries more and more productive. Notwithstanding all these encourage- ments, the statistics prove that the fisheries of Canada are more productive than those of Great Britain or America. I am hapj)y to be able to state that, owing to the encourage- ment lately given by our public men, the buikling of Canadian fishing crafts has progressed rapidly. The swift schoone'*8 of our Maritime Provinces, can already, compete fairly with American fishing vessels, reputed the best of their class in the world. Steamers, which are now used in the fisheries on our lakes, will doubtless be seen soon among the vessels used for the working of our most important sea fisheries. Considerable sums JONCAS ON FISHERIES. 4*7 of raonoy aro spent every year, by our Government, on the build- ing of harbours of refuge and of lighthouses for the guidance of the fishermen. Last year $150,000 wore paid to our fishermen, and if our public men are willing to continue to help the advance- ment of an industry, which for the future of the Dominion is so highly necessary and important, we may hope that, in the near future, we shall have no reason to envy our brothers beyond the sea, or our rich neighbours. " The incalculable importance," says a writer in the Montreal Gazette, " of such invaluable fisheries in colonization, in the de- velo]>ment of commerce, in adding to the country's food produce for home consumption, and for the training of skilled seamen for naval and merchant marine, aro points which the histories of all great maritime nations! amply demonstrate. The histories of Franco, Holland and Great Britain are striking illustrations of the vast national benefits derived from the prosecution of sea fisheries. "What but the rough experience of British fishermen in prosecuting their labours on one of the roughest coasts of the world, has made the skill and bravery of British seamen, at once the admiration of all nations, and the dread of their foes. It is rough experience that makes a sailor, and it is just such expe- rience that has enabled the seaiMon of the Maritime Provinces of Canada to take a first place lor skill and coolness among their fellow subjects of the British Isles." III. A Question. The question here arises : Would not the Canadian fisheries soon be exhausted if they wei'o worked on a much larger scale ; and would it be wise to sink a larger amount of capital in their improvement ? It seems to be admitted by all those who have made a special study of this important question, that fresh-water fisheries, such as salmon, trout, white-fish, etc., and also the sea shell fisheries, such as oysters and lobsters can be, with time, exhausted by indiscriminate fishing. This is genei-ally understood, and our inland fisheries, protected by wise regulations, will con- tinue for years to come to enrich those who work them. As to those fishes, which, like cod, mackerel, herring, etc., aro the moat important of oui* sea fishes ; which form the largest quota 48 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. of our fish exports and aro generally called commercial fishes, — without going so far as to pretend that protection would bo useless to them, — I say that it is impossible, not merely to exhaust them, but even noticeably to lessen their number by the means now used for their capture, especially if, protecting them during the spawn- ing seasons, we are contented to fish them from their feeding grounds. For the last three hundred years, fishing has gone on in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and along the coast of our Maritime Provinces, and although enormous quantities of fish have been caught, there are no indications of exhaustion. In England, a Eoyal Commission, under the presidency of Pro- fessor Huxley and composed of the most eminent learned men of the United Kingdom, have made a serious and thorough study of this question, and these gentlemen declare that, notwithstanding the enormous and continually increasing quantities of fish caught annually along the coasts of Great Britain, the English fisheries show no sign of exhaustion. In presence of these facts, and relying on the reports and studies of many eminent and practical men, we may infer that, unless the order of nature is overthrown, for centuries to come our fisheries will continue to be fertile and productive. Messrs. Hatton and Hervoy, in their interesting " History of Newfoundland," say: " Tlio Arctic cui'rent which washes the coasts of Labrador, Newfoundland, Canada and part of the United States, chilling the atmosphere, and bearing on its bosom huge ice-argosies, is the source of the vast fish-wealth which I .as been drawn on for ages, and which promises to continue for ages to come. Wanting this cold river in the ocean, the cod, seals, herring, mackerel, halibut, etc., which now crowd the northern seas, would bo entirely absent. The groat fishing interests are thus as dependent on the Arctic current as the farming interests on the rain and sunshine which ripens the crops." These writers add that "the cold current brings with it the food on which these fish thrive and the supply is one that can never fail." The Arctic seas, and the great rivers which they send forth, swarm with minute forms of life, constituting, according to Pro- fessor Kind, in many places a living mass, a vast ocean of living slime. The all-pervading life, which exists there, affords the true solution of the problem which has so often presented itself to JONCAS ON FISHERIES. 49 those engaged in the sea fisheries, viz., the source of the food which gives sustenance to the countless millions of fish that swarm upon the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland and in the Dominion and United States waters. Dr. Brown has shown that the presence of this slime, spread over one hundred thousand square miles, provides food for myi'iads of birds that frequent the Arctic Seas in the summer and also furnishes sustenance to the largest marine animals up to the giant whale. By far the largest area of this cold water subtends the coasts of the British Ameri- can Provinces within the hundred fathom line of soundings. It is computed that while the cold water area subtending the United States is about 45,000 square miles, that subtending the British American shores is 200,000 square miles. To this fact is traced the superior value of the fisheries of British North America. The old theory regarding *he extended migrations of the cod, the herring, etc., to the Arccic or other distant regions and back, is now entirely exploded. These fishes are known to be local in their habits and to be confined to a limited area in their move- ments. These are governed by the presence or absence of food, their spawning instincts, and the temperature of the water. The law which governs fish life is, that they retui-n to the place of their birth for reproductive purposes. Hence, all round the coast there are, at difiorent places, what may be called colonies offish dittcring from each other, and each having a range of movement from the deep to the shallower watei-s and vice versa. To the spot where the young first issued from the ovum they return, when mature, to repeat the story of their birth. Further, in pas- sing from the spawning grounds to the deeper waters where they spend the winter, the cod and other fish follow a definite line of migration, and generally the shortest and most direct route. Thus the fishes taken along any stretch of coast line, are really indi- genous to the adjacent sea area. IV. Our most important Fishing Grounds. The fisheries of Canada may be divided into two great classes : the deep-sea fisheries; and the fresh-water, or lake and river fisheries. Wo sliall give the precedence to the former as being the most important. Only about one-iialf of oui* five thousand 4 50 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. miles of sea coast has till now been properly worked. We do not know yet all the riches of the British Columbia watei's, but one can infer, from reading the official report, that they are teeming with a groat variety of commercial fishes. Our most important dcop-sca Hshing-grounds are the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, from the Bay of Fundy, around the southern part; around the coa.sts of Capo Breton, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island ; embracing the Bay of Chaleurs and the Gaspd coast, and extending to the Island of Anticosti, the Labra- dor and the Magdalen Islands. " There is probably no part of the world," says P. L. Simmons, in his valuable work on tho Commercial Products of the Sea, "whore such extensive and valuable fisheries are to bo found as within the Gulf of St. Law- rence. Nature has bountifully provided within its waters the utmost abundance of those fishes which are of the greatest import- ance to man, as affording not only nutritious and wholesome food, but also the means of profitable employment." V. The Cod Fishery. Of all the deep-sea fisheries of Canada, the most important is the cod fishery, which furnishes employment to thousands of men and contributes most largely to our exportation trade. It is one of tho leading industries in Nova Scotia, New Bruns- wick and the lowest part of the Province of Quebec. The quantity of codfish taken by the Canadian fishermen, and prepared for the trade last yeai*, w;i> i,611,59G quintals, repre- senting a value of $0,300,000. To this must bo added 245,453 lbs. of cod and hake sounds, and 333,310 gallons of cod oil, valued at 1)225,555 ; making a grand total of $0,591,555 divided as fol- lows between the different Maritime Provinces : — Nova Scotia $3,977,599 Quebec 1,778,290 New Brunswick.... 716,496 Prince Edward Island 119,170 f0,591,555 The cod appears on the Canadian coasts at uncertain dates, generally between the middle of May and the beginning of June, JONCAS ON FISHERIES. 51 sometimes in the latter end of the month of April. Local var- iations in the time of its arrival amounting to days and even weeks fi'equontly occur, and these are dependent on the tempera- ture, which determines the movement towards land of the various forms of marine life on which the cod feeds. "It has some fa- vourite spots," Dr. Fortin remarks, *' whore it is found in greater quantities. These are the places which present the best ad- vantages for the preservation and hatching of the spawn. Hav- ing deposited its spawn, it withdraws to shallow places called banks, where it always finds food in sufiicient quantity to satisfy the well known voracity of its appetite." About the month of December, the codfish appear to leave the shallow soundings and the banks inshore and go farther out at sea. The cod-fishing season varies with the different Provinces, be- ginning earlier in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, where the climate is not quite so severe as in the Province of Quebec. From April to November inclusive may be given as an average time. The an-ival of the cod on the coasts in the spring is heralded, first by the herring, and secondly by the caplin. The latter is a small fish, the favourite food of the greedy cod, and therefore the best fishing bait. In every large fishing establish- ment, during all the month of June, two or three boats, each of them manned by seven men, called seiners, are employed, day and night, in going about the coast in search of the caplin. When they meet with a shoal of these fish, they cast the seine, load their boat, and hasten home to distribute these little fish amongst the fishermen. Each cod-fishing boat receives an equal share of the fish thus brought by the seiners. Vessels engaged in fishing on the Banks, run into the harbours at intervals for fi'osh supplies of caplin as bait, which they preserve in ice. Some idea of the immense shoals of caplin that fill the bays, may be formed fi'ora the fact that a man standing ashore, with a casting net, will often fill a cart in less than an hour. With small seines, a couple of men can fill a small boat in .about the same time. If any means could be devised to cure them like sardines, which they resemble, caplin would become of considei'- able commercial value, as they have a very delicate flavour when fresh. In some parts of the Dominion a considerable ijuantity is dried, packed up in small boxes and sent to some of ili; 62 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. tho United States markets. After the caplin has disappeared from tho coasts about tho end of June, the launce, the herring, the mackerel, the squid, the smelt, the clams, etc., are used as bait for tho cod. Our cod being mainly taken by hand-lines, and bnlfowsov set- lines, tho cost of bait for cod-tishini;" is groat. Ft is certainly not an exaggeration to estimate tho actual cost of bait at one-ibiirth of the value of the cod taken. Besides this, much time is losL every year during tho fishing season owing to want of fresh bait, which is not always easily procured and which is essential to good fish- ing. Hence anything that should economize the cost of bait and save time, would be both desirable and important, Norway, the most important of the cod-])roducing countries of Europe, and our chief rival in tho cod markets of the world, by the aid of science, has in recent years greatly improved her modes of fish- ing, her fishermen using gill-nets to a largo extent and with great success. Why do we not imitate such a good example ? According to recent statements, of 26,000 fishermen engaged in cod-fishing otf the Lofoden islands, 12,000 fished with gill-nots ; and fishing with nets has proved to be much more productive than fishing with set-linos or bultows. A pa]ier of Gloucester (U. S.) records that on December I2th, 1882, a fishing boat with two men and seven of those nets took 5,000 fish in a single night. Mr. James Feehan, of Prince Edward Island, stated that " in his hands gill-nets have worked admirably, to the extent of two dory loads of fish per day." Lot us, therefore, ho])C that gill-net fishing, so remunerative in other countries, will soon bo largely used in Canada, and thus save time and the waste of a large quan- tity of herring, mackerel and other fishes now used for bait. Tho cod fishery is carried on in Canada, either in vessels of a tonnage from 60 to 100 tons on tho great banks, or in open boats at a few miles from the shore. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick seem to have tho mono]:)oly of the fishing in large decked vessels, and I am happy to say that naval architoctm-e has improved very much, durinj; tho last ten years, in these two Pj-ovinccs ; and this improvement in the dimensions and lines of their vessels, has en- abled their fishermen to increase their annual catch of fish con- siderably. Vessels employed in cod-fishing are m«nu.a by from ten to JONCAS ON FISHERIES. 63 thirteen men, according to their tonnage. Generally the owner of the Hchoonei-, who also supplies the men with all the necessary fishing tackle, receives half the catch, the fishermen retjiining the other half "When the vessels have reached the fishing grounds," writes Dr. Fortin, " they are anchored by hemp or manilla cables in from fifteen to fifty fathoms of water. Bait is obtained by spreading nets in the sea at some distance from the vessel, and the fishing is then begun, with bultows or long lines, and carried on, by night as well as by day, in spite of wind and storm, until the hold of the vessel is filled up with fish all split and salted. Then the vessel returns to port, the cod is landed, washed, dried, and prepared for exportation." Fishing in vessels is more expensive, but also more remunera- tive, than fishing with open boats along the shore. The cod taken on the Banks is larger and finer in quality than the fish taken along the coasts. An average of thirty l)ank cods, when dried, makes a quintal, and it brings a higher price than the shore fish. In the Province of (Quebec and in Prince Edward Island, the cod fishery is still almost universally carried on in open boats, in the neighbourhood of the coves and bays where the fishermen reside. In some parts of the Province of Quebec, however, fisher- men venture with their open boats to twenty and thirty miles from the shore. These boats are built by the fishermen them- selves. They vary in dimensions from twenty to thirty feet keel, with a breadth of beam of from six to ten feet, according to (he use they are intended for. They are very sheer built, and their clinker work is usually of cedar. Pointed at both ends, their rigging consists generally of two sprits or gatl-sails ; some of those intended to fish on the Banks being schooner-rigged. They arc comparatively light, in order to be easily hauled up on the beach in stormy weather ; are good sailers and behave wonder- fully well at sea. Yet, although good sea boats and splendid sailers, manned by fishermen whoso intrepidity and skilfulness are well known, these boats are too small to enable our fishermen to carry on cod-fishing upon as large a scale as it might be done. The fishermen of Quebec and Prince Edward Island with their small boats, — being too often obliged to run before the storm and leave the fishing grounds when they are sure of a good catch, in order to save themselves from being caught away from land by 64 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. 11 ii heavy gules, — lose ovory year much precious time during whicii the Hshormon of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick reap an abundant harvest. The Eoports on the fisheries of the last few years show a noticeable diminution in the quantity of tish caught by the tishermen of the Province of Quebec, and this deficiency was due to no other cause than the frequent storms which raged in the Gulf of St. Lawrence during the last few years. The summer tishing has been a failure this year again owing to the same cause, though there was fish in abundance. Though tlio official lieports show an annual increase in the catch of codfish, wo may safely say that, considering the increasing number of tishermen, the development of this fishery is station- ary. And this condition, as remarked by Messrs. Ilatton and Ilervey before refeired to, is not caused by the falling ott' in quantity of the cod, but is largely due to the imperfect methods of taking them which still prevail. If we except a few enterprising men in the Maritime Provinces, the merchants, as a rule, are apathetic and show no desire to pi-ocure information respecting what other countries are doing, or to induce their fishermen to use improved fishing gear. Science is not called in to aid this im- portant industry in Canada, as it has been in the United States and in Europe. Above all, the vicious supply system, still more or less in force in the different provinces, by which advances in food and clothing are made to the fishermen at the commence- ment of each season, is destructive to the industrious efforts of men who are thus rarely out of debt. I certainly do not wish to insinuate that the condition of our fishermen is worse than that of fishermen elsewhere ; for this "supply" system is necessary to the working of fishing in- dustries in ever}'- part of the world. But if we had in Canada a well-organized Fishery Bureau, under the guidance of skilful scientists and practical men, and if the improvements of other countries were introduced here, our cod fishery, as well as our other fisheries, through the application of skill and capital, might be indefinitely increased. Capitalists, who should invest capital in this industry, would be always sure of a good market for their produce. The dried cod is regarded as an indispensable article of food by the inhabitants of warm countries. Every year we sup- ply the Catholic countries of Eui'ope and America with millions ^ JONCAS ON FISHERIES. 55 of dollai'H worth of dried codtisli, our principal markets for dry codfish being Italy, Sjmin, Portugal, Brazil, the British and Spanish West Indies and United States. The finest cod in all America is cured on the cojist of Gaspd, in the Province of Quebec, whore the etiocts of the mists generated by Gulf stream are least felt. It is well known in the markets of Spain, Italy and Brazil, where it is generally sent, — the large fish going to the Mediterranean countries in bulk in vessels from one bundled to three hundred tons, and the small fish to Brazil in drums containing 128 pounds. During the time that the fish is exposed on the " flakes " to dry, if the weather is fine, the sun shining, the westerly winds predominating, cod is easily cured and raad(3 of fine quality; but, sometimes, easterly winds prevailing^ rain lasts for weeJcs, and in spite of all possible care and precaution, it is inevitably spoiled. So, belbre sending it to the markets, the fish is carefully culled, the greater part of the best quality being sent to Eui'ope and Brazil, and the inferior to the "West Indies and United States markets. Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island export chiefly to the West Indies, United States and Brazil ; Quebec to Brazil, the Mediterranean countries and the West Indies. According to the last statistics which we have on the matter, the West Indies have paid us for dried codfish $2,000,000 ; Brazil and Europe, $500,000 each; the United States, somewhat over that sum ; and British Guiana, $250,000. VI. Industries op the Cod Fishery. The cod is the most useful of all fish : no part of it is valueless. Oil is taken from its liver ; the head, tongues and sounds form a good article of food ; the offal and bones, when steamed, dried, and ground, are converted into a very good manure, equal as a fertilizer, to the celebrated Peruvian guano. The roes are a splendid bait for the sardine fisheries of France and Spain ; and from the swimming bladder isinglass is made. Great Britain bought from us last year $150,000 worth of cod oil, and cod tongues and sounds to $125,000. The manufacturers of fish manui'e, in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and British IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) / O % 1.0 I.I 1.25 |S6 1^ 1^ 1^ 12.2 m 1.4 1.6 ^ v%. /a y /^ # :\ \ 9) % -b^-^ Ci: ■ 56 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. 'it ill H' \ Columbia, have produced this commodity to the amount of v^",- 000. I regret to state that the Province of Quebec has not yet a manufacture of guano. Thousands of tons of fish offal ai'e, every year, thrown away and wasted, which could be con- verted into fish manure worth from $28 to $40 a ton in the foreign markets. If manufactures of fish guano were built on the coasts of Labrador arid Gaspesia, the manufacturer would realize handsome profits, and the fishermen, without much extra work, could dispose of products that are now wasted. What I have just said about fish offal may also be said of the cod roes which are not exported, although this article can be sold at a good profit. In France and Spain, where sardines and anchovy fisheries are carried on, at least 50,000 barrels of cod roes are wanted every year as bait for these fishes. In very good fish- ing years, Norway can supply the French and Spanish markets with about 35,000 barrels of roes. But this is the liirgest quantity which that country can give; and during IcSl, 1882 and 1883, Norway could only sell 25,000 barrels. There would then remain an average of 20,000 barrels of cod roes which could easily be furnished and sold by Canadian fishermen. When they cannot get the roes, the sardine fishermen are obliged to use costly chemical compositions as substitutes. Let us note here that a barrel of well-prepared cod roes is generally worth $10 in the French markets. If we multiply twenty thousands barrels by ten, we have a sum of $200,000 annually thrown into the sea by oui- fishermen, because the trade has not been opened in Canada. A few years ago, French vessels travelled all along the Canadian fishing coasts and bought all the cod rocs they could get ; but the want of experience of our fishermen in the salting of roes, and especially the absence of any law obliging this article to be inspected before being packed for exjiortation, caused a very in- ferior article to be furnished, and put an end to a trade which promised handsome profits. Lastly, as to the industries connected with rope, cordage, line, nets, hooks, cooperage, etc., our countiy has up to the present moment bought, from Great Britain and the United States, all the fishing gear which our fishermen required. Now manufactures of this kind are wanted in Canada, and would prosper well here. We have only to give them the million dollars JONCAS ON FISHERIES. 57 that we spend in buying nets and other fishing gear. Let me add also this very important consideration : that the manufacture of fishing tackle on our coasts would give work to thousands of hands, and would pj-event many of our countrymen from emigrating. VII. The Herring Fishery. The sea fishing next in importance to the cod fishery in Can- ada is the herring fishery, the value of which, without taking into account the local consumption and the quantity used as bait for the cod fishery, and for manure in many parts of the Dominion, was, according to oui* last statistics, represented by the sum of over $2,135,000. This amount is a large one, and the result seems handsome, but it is certainly not in relation with the abun- dance of this fish in Canadian waters. The herring fishery is far from getting here all the attention it deserves ; and I might even say that we have no regular herring fishery in Canada. It is true that in Nova Scctia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, schooners are especially fitted out for this fishery ; that it is regularly and intelligently practised by a large number of men from those Provinces, bringing them hand- some returns : still all these endeavours, although very laudable, are nothing but isolated undertakings. It will perhaps surprise a good many of my readers, to learn that the whole of the Province of Quebec, — possessing 10,000 fishermen, 1,100 miles of maritime coasts, numerous bays far- famed for the abundance of herring repairing to their waters, — does not annually export two thousand baiTels of this fish. Al- though they could derive immense benefits from the working of the industry, the Quebec fishermen are satisfied when they have taken enough fish for their own consumption and for the wants of the cod fishery. The reason of this apparent neglect lies in the fact that the Quebec merchants give all their time and attention to the cod fishery. And, nevertheless, it is almost impossible without seeing it to form a correct idea of the immense quantity of her- rings that visit the coasts of the Province, especially in the spring during the spawning season. Theii* compact masses 58 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. cover thousands of acres of the sea; ho that, if the iishermen were provided with the necessary fishing appliances, if they had a ready market, they could easily, in a few days, even before the beginning of the cod fishery, catch enough herring to realize thousands of dollars. Out of the $2,135,283 produced by our her- ring fishery in 1883, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, have $1,750,000 ; Ontario, $86,000 ; and British Columbia, $14,000, — leaving to Quebec a ridiculous proportion compared with the extent of its maritime coasts. A regular fleet of vessels from thirty to ninety tons is used, in England, in the herring fisheries, which give employment to about 80,000 men, and in which English capitalists have invested enormous sums of money. The European fishermen, provided with good and improved fishing gear, and manning large and safe sea boats go out fifty, sixty, and even one hundred miles if necessary in search of shoals of herring. In Ireland, Scotland, England, France, Holland, etc., a herring-fishing craft costs, in- cluding the necessary fishing tacklvo, from $5,000 to $7,000. The returns of the herring fishery, properly made, must be very large in those countries, since they not only cover the immense disbursements necesscv to carry it on, but bring in important profits. And yet the herring fisheries of Eui'ope are not as rich or abundant as ours. I assert with confidence that if, in Canada, this industry were carried on upon a scale proportionate to its importance and the abundance of herring in our waters ; if companies were formed to provide our fishermen with boats and fishing imple- ments like those used in Europe, our herring fishery, instead of two, would' bring every year five or six millions of dollars. Nor are markets wanting for this fish, which is cheap and can bo bought by the poorest ; for, besides our own market, we should have those of the United States, of England, Germany and the West Indies. The population of Europe and South America is growing rapidly, and the products of the fisheries of these countries are far from being abundant enough to meet the de- mand. We have there an almost unlimited market for our pickled fish, provided it be carefully prepared and packed. As soon as the ice has disappeared from our coasts in the spring, herrings arrive in immense shoals remaining in our JONCAS ON FISHERIES. 59 waters till the month of December. A considerable quantity is even taken during the winter months, along the southern coast of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The spring herrings are not as valuable as those caught from the month of August to the month of December. The former are packed in barrels of two hundred pounds and sent to the West Indies ; while the fat fish, caught in the latter end of the season, are care- fully gutted and prepared for the United States and European markets, — our best being the celebrated Labrador herring. For the last few years, small herrings have been successfully pre- pared in boxes like sardines, and this new trade is rapidly in- creasing. A breakfast dei?cacy, well known to epicures in Ame- rica as well as in Europe, is the bright golden Digby Chicken, — a small smoked hoiTing prepared in Nova Scotia. "We exported last year 1*70,000 boxes of this much appreciated article of food. Canada furnished, in the year 1882, the following quantities of herring to the foreign markets : — Pickled, 423,042 barrels $1,739,943 Smoked, 1,060,416 boxes 311,807 i>esh, 16,050,000 pounds 83,533 $2,135,283 All the fresh herring figui'ing in the above statement is sent from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to the United States, and the largest quantity of the pickled and smoked heriing is also exported from these two Provinces to the United States, West Indies and English markets ; but, as I have said already, the amount of oui' exports of herring could be easily doubled. Vllt. The Mackerel Fishery. 1 am happy to say that our energetic and progressive neigh- bours to the south, have no longer the almost exclusive monopoly of mackerel fishing in the Canadian waters, — a monopoly that they have enjoyed for a number of years. Wearied with be- holding the success of the Gloucester fishermen, who, year after year, come to our own doors to reap an abundant crop, the fisher- men of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick set to work and have ^^^^ jfc^' 60 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. IftI succeeded very well. They are to-day carrying on mackerel fishing on a large scale, and deriving good profits from it. They can show a fine fleet of vessels, so improved in symmetry as to bear fair comparison with the American schooners, which are reputed to be the finest vessels and the best sailors of their class in the world. Nor are they merely the owners of splendid ves- sels fitted out with the utmost care. They have adopted the most modern fishing appliances and are prosecuting this industry with great tact and intelligence : for the mackerel fishery is difiicult, precarious, and uncertain. A schooner may cruise in the Gulf for a week without taking a single fish, while another gets filled in the space of a fortnight and sometimes less. It re- quires, therefore, to be carried on with sagacity and persever- ance, — two qualities which distinguish the fishermen of our Maritime Provinces ; but, then, it is generally successful, brings in large profits, and is certainly worthy of the attention of capi- talits. It is to be hoped that many years will not ehpsc before Quebec, which up to this date has given little or no attention to this fishery, will also have her fleet of mackerel-fishing vessels. The tourists who, during the dog days, run away from the heat of our cities to breathe the pure and vivifying air of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and make the journey by water, have often, in the course of their visits to the Maritime Provinces, met with fine mackerel schooners, and mistaken them for a small squadron of yachts, so beautiful are their masts and sails, so neat and clean are they kept. But, writes Dr. Fortin, " on a nearer approach, this is found to be an error ; for on the decks of these vessels are to be seen crews of from ten to twenty men, all occupied either in catchi/g fish, in repairing fishing imple- ments, or in splitting and salting the fish that has been taken ; and what is more striking is the order that reigns on board these schooners, whose decks and holds are almost always full of fish, fish barrels, salt, etc. These schooners are generally of from sixty to one hundred tons burden. They have little depth of hold, great breadth of beam, rake very much fore and aft, and carry large cotton sails which enable them to sail fast even with a light breeze. Their decks are roomy and on them the whole work of salting and barrelling is carried on." Hook and line, ordinary seines, and purse-seines ai-e used in JONCAS ON FISHERIES. 61 fishing mackerel in the Gulf. Gill-nets, smaller seines and ti-aps serve the same purpose in the bays, coves, creeks and inlets along the coasts. Mackerel is met with off the coast of Nova Scotia, in the Bay of Fundy, in the Gulf of Canso ; but nowhere is it more plentiful than in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, off the coast of Prince Edward Island, in tiio Bay of Chaleurs and in the numerous coves and bays foi'nied by the Magdalen Islands. The mackerel is one of the most valuable fish visiting the Canadian coasts. A good proportion of our catch is sent fresh to tne markets, some in tins, and the largest quantity pickled and packed in barrels. Our best market for either fre^.h, canned or piclvlcd mackerel is the United States, although Great Bi'itain and the AYest Indies also buy some of it. From the last statistical returns, wo see that the mackerel fishery produced 01,250,000 ; but it could certainl}' afford employment to many additional vessels and employ thousands of additional hands. IX. The Lobster and Oyster Fisheries. It seems to be the tendency in this age of competition to overdo any business which promises to be lucrative. " Not more than ten years ago," writes Mr. Hunter Duvai*, in his Eeport to the Minister of Marine and Fisheries in 18*79, " when the retail price of lobsters was two or three for a half-penny, a New Brunswicker came to Prince Edward Island and commenced the business of preserv- ing in tins. Attracted by his success, a few other persons en- gaged in the same pursuit. The business gradually augmented until three or four years since, when it became endued with much more life and has, at length, sprung into great dimen- sions." The following is a list of the number of cans put up for the market in Prince Edward Island : — 1871 6,711 1875 151,248 1876 362,676 1877 663,900 1878 1,649,800 1879 2,272,825 1880 3,551,000 1881 5,200,000 1882 6,300,000 62 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. This Province, which in 18*7 1 had only one lobster-canning factory, had, ten years later, in 1881, one hundred and twenty of these establishments in full operation. The same development of the ti'ade happened in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. In 18*70, New Brunswick had only one factoiy, the owner of which prepared 20,000 cans of fish. Ten years after, 6,000,000 cans were sent from this Province to different foreign markets. Nova Scotia, producing only 30,000 cans in 18*70, exported 5,000,000 in 1882. Quebec, for behind her sister Provinces in the prosecution of this industry, did not produce more than 800,000 cans last year. If wo recapitulate the above figures, we shall find that the lobster fishery, which was almost unknown in Canada ten yeai'S ago, is carried on to-day in more than 600 factories which, last year, sent to the different markets of the world 1*7,500,000 cans, representing a value of $3,000,000, almost equivalent to the value of our herring and mackerel fisheries put together. These seventeen millions and a half of cans represent, at three lobsters to each can, 52,500,000 lobsters taken in the Canadian waters in 1882. The number of lobsters taken in all England does not exceed 3,000,000 each year. This comparatively enormous development in the catch of lobster, in indicating the extent and richness of our lobr fishery, suggests also the danger of over-production, both o. which facts point to the necessity of economizing and perpetua- ting the general supplies. " There is nothing easier," says Mr. W. F. Whitcher, who for many years has presided over our Fishery Department, " than to exhaust a shell fishery, but also nothing harder than to revive it ; and the Government of the Dominion, alive to this fact, has taken measures to prevent any indiscriminate fishing of the lobster on our coasts. Doubtless, if the fishing that is now carried on was not subjected to regula- tions, all persons interested in it would prosper for a short time, and the country would appear to benefit by the rapid and extensive development of this resource, but a period of reaction would necessarily ensue." I need hardly mention here that this industry is of considerable importance in the general economy of the Dominion. Everyone understands that the erection of buildings, tin and ironwork, boat JONCAS ON FISHERIES. 68 building, fuel cutting, truckage, etc., cause a large amount of money to circulate amongst our fishing population, and fair wages to be paid to thousands of hands, men, women and children. Great Britain is our best market for preserved lobsters. We also export annually some 3,000,000 cans to the United States. France takes about 200,000 cans, and the remain ier is divided between the West Indies, Germany, Brazil, and some other markets of South America. A word about the Oyster fishery naturally finds its place here. This mollusc, so well known by epicures of all countries, is still comparatively abundant in Canada. In Europe, owing to its scarcity, it sells at a fabulous price, and wealthy people alone can indulge in this luxury, but on our coasts almost everybody can, from time to time, enjoy a good oyster soup. We have the Malpeque, the St. Simon, the Caraquet, and many other varieties, deriving their names from the localities where the banks from which they are taken are situated. Oyster fishing is carried on chiefly on the coasts of Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick, and yields annually a round sum of $200,000. X. The Seal Fishery. » V The herds of seals that frequent the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Atlantic Ocean arrive there in the month of November, They come into the Gulf through the Strait of Belleisle. They keep close to the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland, penetrating into all the bays and not going far out from land when doubling the points and capes. They are fond of approaching the shore, and landing on sandy beaches or flat rocks to bask in the sun ; bat at the slightest noise, and, especially if they perceive the fish- ermen, they make for the sea and disappear under its waters. Seals are of great value, not only on account of the thick layer of fat between their skin and muscles, which yields an oil superior to that of the whale, but also on account of their skin, which tans well and makes an excellent leather. Their impor- tance, from a commercial point of view was soon perceived by the first mariners who visited the Gulf of St. Lawrence, for, no sooner was Canada discovered, than the seal fishery was prosecu- 64 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. i\ ted on our coasts, and, if we are to believe the accounts which have come down to us of several voyages to the coasts of Labra- dor during the last century, immense numbers of them were taken at that period. Then, as now, nets were used for the purpose of capturing these marine animals. Those nets are made of a hempen cord, which is very strong, although not more than the twelfth part of an inch thick. The meshes are eight inches square and will admit the head and neck of the seal. Some of these nets are more than six hundred feet long by sixty feet wide. The usual time for the seals to pass near the shore on their migratory voyage being known, the nets are set a few days befoi-e. One of the tishermen is posted as a sentry on a rock a little in advance of the fishery, to give notice of the apj) roach of the herds of seal, and the moment that any appear in the fishery, the signal is given, and the fishermen hasten to raise, by means of a capstan, a net sunk by weights to the bottom of the water at the entrance of the fishery. With this net they close the opening through which the seals made their ingress ; and as soon as this operation is com- pleted, and the seals are fairly imprisoned, the fishermen jump into their boats and enter the fishery shouting and beating the water with their paddles. The frightened seals, trying to escape, dive down and run their heads into the meshes of the nets, which are kept open by means of cables round their borders. As soon as the seals are caught in the meshes, the men under-run the nets, knock on the head those that are not strangled and carry them all on shore in their canoes. The autumn seal fishery takes place at the end of November and in December on the coast of Labrador, and is vei-y arduous, owing to the severity of the cold at that season. The seals are no sooner taken out of the water, than they become frozen ; and in that state they are put into stores, and it is not until uie spring, when the weather has softened them, that they are cut up and their fat melted. But it is not only near the shore in nets, after the manner I have just described, that the seals are taken ; they are also pursued in every direction, and are sought for on the ice-fields, not only in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but even in the North Atlantic Ocean. Strong sailing vessels and steamers fipecially fitted out for this If JONCAS ON FISHERIES. 66 latter kind of fishing, oi* rather hunting, start early in the month of March, in order to find the seals on the ice-fields ; for, when once they got into the water, they can set the most expe- rienced men at defiance, and it is useless to pursue them. The inhabitants of Labrador and the Magdalen Islands are the only fishermen in Canada who bestow any attention upon the seal fishery, which certainly would yield large profits to all who should invest in it. Newfoundland carries on the seal fishery on a largo scale. Ten thousand of her fishermen are employed in it. The Newfoundland capitalists, whose spirit of initiative and of enter- prize is well known, have replaced the sailing vessels formerly in use, by a splendid fleet of steamers which have the advantage over sailing vessels of making and completing two trips instead of one. Notwithstanding the heavy expenses which must necessarily be incurred in carrying on this fishery, its returns pay so well, that experienced and competent business men assure us that capi- tal invested in it will generally bring twenty-five and sometimes forty per cent. Every spring we see in the newspapers that the Newfoundland steamers are back from the ice-fields, some with from 10,000 to 20,000 seals, others with from 20,000 to 40,000 each. And each seal, oil and skin, is worth on an average $3. In 1883, Newfoundland exported seal skins and seal oil to the amount of $1,080,000, while Canada did not go much beyond $200,000. And yet this industry could produce as much in Canada as in Newfoundland, if our business men would give their attention to it. XI. Fresh- WATER Fisheries: Salmon. Although not quite as important as our di -sea fisheries, from a commercial point of view, the fresh-water fisheries of Canada are nevertheless most valuable. Without taking into account the $3,000,000 which they furnish annually to our export trade, they are the chief source from which those, who live on the shores of our large lakes and by our principal rivers, get their daily food and supply our markets of the interior. Salmon is considered the best, and is called the king of fresh- water fishes. Abundant enough still in the rivers of the Dominion, nn CANADIAN ECONOMICS, h .1 you meet him alike in the cottage of the poor, and in the man- sion of the rich. Our rivers which wore formorl}'^ renowned for the hirgo quantity of salmon found in them, are not now so well stocked with this fish, owing to an indiscriminate fishing at all seasons of the year, and to the want of proper laws for its preser- vation. Many persons will perhaps bo tempted to ask how it is that within the last ten years, in spite of the judicious regulations lim- iting the salmon-fishing to certain seasons of the year, and pre- scribing the size, kind, and number of fishing implements that may be used; in spite of the Government's endeavors to replenish our rivers, and though we are spending thousands of dollars, every year, to help the natural propagation by artificial breeding ; in presence of the fact that, from twelve or thirteen fish-breeding establishments under the control of the Government, millions of young fish are yearly distributed in many of our rivers, — yet there is no marked increase in the annual catch, but rather a tendency to a gradual decrease. My own opinion is that more protec- tion should be given. More and bettor-paid guardians should be appointed, and we should try to stop the destructive work of the numerous marauders who, every fall, enter our best rivers, and kill thousands of salmon on their spawning beds. I am of opinion too, that the present fly-fishing season is too long. Though I have heard the Superintendent of our fish-breeding establishments say that fly-fishing was in reality helping the propagation of the salmon ; and although I have the greatestrespect for the scien- tific and practical knowledge of this gentleman, I firmly believe that if the angler was obliged to put up his lines on the same day that the salmon fisherman is forced by law to raise his nets and leave a free passage to this fish, great benefits would be derived from such regulations. Those who live by salmon-fishing, and who furnish to our export trade millions of dollars worth of this fish, are obliged by law to take away their nets at a given time, — at the end of July, in the Province of Quebec, and later in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, — while the angler, who has no other object in view than sport and pastime, is allowed to fish till September 1st, and even till October 15th. This certainly appears to be an anomaly. The salmon, which have succeeded in avoiding the nets at or near the JONCAS ON FISHERIES. 67 T mouths of the rivoi's, and go up them to reproduce their species, fall a victim to the skill of the angler. Hundreds of salmon, which would have reproduced thousunds of others, arc destroyed every yoai* in this manner. I have heard many experienced guntlemeu express the opinion that, if greater protection wore given to the salmon fishery, we should not be obliged to make ex- treme and costly endeavours to arrest its decline, — endeavours, the practical i-esults of which are yet far from being well ascer- tained. I should not like, however, to convey the idea, that our salmon fishery is exhausted. Far from it. It has somewhat decreased in abundunco, compared with what it was twenty or thirty years ago, but it has still considerable importance, as will be shown by statistics, and is a source of wealth to many of the inhabitants of the Dominion, besides aifording splendid sport to a number of wealthy gentlemen from Europe and America, who visit our rivers every summer to enjoy the pleasure of salmon fly-fishing. In 1882, Canada supplied the foreign market with $3,000,000 worth of fish, either fresh, canned or pickled. The United States take most of our fresh salmon, and Great Britain the largest pro- portion of the fish preserved in tins. Pickled salmon goes mostly to the United States. Attempts have already been successfully made to send fresh salmon from Canada to England, and I have no doubt a greater quantity of it will now be sent over every year. And, before many years have elapsed, when means of transit will exist between our cities of the interior and the fishing coasts, the fresh salmon trade will attain proportions hitherto unknown. British Columbia, of all the Provinces of the Dominion, is the most celebrated for its salmon fishery, and, within a few years, this industry has attained almost colossal proportions. The catch which, in 1879, was only 3,000,000 lbs., had in 1882 risen to 12,000,000 lbs., showing an increase of nine millions in three years. And yet, says Mr. Andei'son, Inspector of Fisheries for British Columbia, " the canneries of this Province, notwithstand- ing the abundance of fish, could not be worked up to their full capacity, owing to the deficiency of labour arising from the in- creased demand for railways and other purposes." I find in the last statistics which we have on this subject, that 15,220,000 lbs. of salmon were taken out of Canadian waters in 1882. Calcu- 08 CANADIAN ECONOMirS. ,*■* lating every fish taken at an average weight of fifteen pounds, this will give us 1,014,600 salmon caught that year, and the sta- tistics for 1883 will certainly show an increase on the above figures. Lot us hope that the British Cokimbia fishermen will be wise enough to economize by a judicious fishing the source of wealth they have in their salmon rather than be obliged, later on, to try to restore it from exhaustion. This idea is suggested by the fact that the question of establishing a salmon hatchery on the A'/aters of the Fraser Eiver, one of the best salmon rivers of the Pro- vince, is already agitated. The capital invested in the salmon fishery of Columbia Eiver in 1882, as given by the trade report, is estimated at over $2,000,000, and employment was given to more than 7,000 men ; while Mr. A. C. Anderson writes that, " in addition to the quantity of salmon canned for exportation during the past year in British Columbia, a little over 5,000 barrels of salted salmon have also been packed in pickle. The demand for the fish so cured, appears to be rapidly increasing ; and there can bo little question that, with duo care in the preparation, the bar- relled salmon of this coast will soon attain a world-wide reputa- tion. In this branch of industry less capital is required than in the prosecution of the canning business, and a broad field is thus opened for the industrious fishermen of moderate means Everything indicates the expansion of the British Columbia fish- ing interest, the great value of which is gradually being recog- nized. The rapid advance of the Canadian Pacific Eailway warrants the assumption that, ere long, direct communications with the eastern Provinces will be available, and it is easy to con- ceive, at least partially, the impetus which this much-desired communication will give to all the industries of the Pacific coasts." (Eeport of 1882.) XII. Trout, Wiiite-fisii, etc. Trout of all kinds abound in every Canadian river, and the best are the sea trout and the salmon trout. White-fish and trout fisheries ai-e carried on on a large scale, chiefly on the lakes of Ontario. The area covered by Lake Superior- nione is thirty-one thousand square miles, and Lakes Erie, Huron and Ontario ir_ ^ — — — JONCAS ON FISHERIES. form, when ])ut together, an expanse of tifty-two thousand square miles. Many rivers empty their waters into these inland seas, and these rivers, as well as the lakes themselves, are full of dif- ferent kinds of food fishes, the delicacy and flavour of which are well known. The Ontario fisherman has the salmon trout, weigh- ing as much as eighty pounds, and the white-fish, the flavor of which is considered equal to that of the salmon. The sturgeon, the pickerel, the pike, the bass, the pcjch, etc., form other varieties of fishes found in Ontario. The fishermen of our Canadian lakes use gill-nets and trap-nets, anil their vessels are either sailing boats of from twenty to thirty feet in length, ur small steamers called "fishing tugs." Two models of these small steamers were much admired last year at the London Fisheries Exhibition. Those fishing tugs are gener- ally fifty feet long and have twelve feet beam. They ai-e the property of fish merchants, who hire men to fish for them on wages without any share in the profits of the industry. Some- times they will receive a bonus from the proprietor in cases of successful catches. The great advantage of those tugs over the sailing boats is easily seen. While some of the men on board are busy taking in the nets set the day previous, the others are engaged in setting out clean nets. These two operations finished, the tug hastens to the nearest railway station, and the fish ,just caught is immediately sent by the cars, in refrigerators, to the Canadian and American cities. Besides, on calm days, or when the wind is blowing too hard to permit the sailing boats to go out, the steamers can always reach the fishing grounds. The amount of white-fish, trout, etc., taken from the lakes and sent fresh to the market in 1882, amounted to 4,500,000 lbs. But, be- sides this, there were salted, of white fish, 5,01!) barrels; of trout, 9,758 barrels ; oi sturgeon, bass, pike, maskinonge and other kinds. 41,3<)0 barrels: Total, 56,197 barrels, if this sum be multiplied by 200, the number of pounds in each barrel, we get a product of 11,239,400 lbs., which added to the four millions and a half already mentioned, will give the large amount of 15,739,400 lbs. for one year. As farmcs chiefly compose the population of Ontario and as, comparatively speaking, very little capital is in- vested in lake fisheries, we are safe in asserting that the amount of fish now caught could be doubled or even trebled, if a largei' 70 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. number of men were employed in the development of this in- dustry. Besides this produce of the fresh-water fisheries in the Province of Ontario, we have other fisheries in the Maritime Provinces, such as the Smelt fisheries which, during the winter months, employ many hundred men and produce annually $200,000. The annual yield of the Alewife fishery is $185,000 ; of the Shad fishery, $105,000 ; of the Eel fishery, $80,000 ; of the Winnonish fishery, $15,000; of the Sardine fishery, $1'75,000, besides others. I may add, however, that the frenh-water fishes of the Dominion, though sold generally at a low figure, produced according to our last statistics, the sum of $4,000,000. The ease with which fish is attainable all through Canada has proved a special inducement to the poor of other countries to emigrate to our shores. They may be sure, to begin with, of having, at no expense except the trouble of fishing for it, a sub- stantial and wholesome article of diet. This, with the possession of a farm sold by Government at u merely nominal price, with sobriety and economy, is sure to lead them within a few years to comfort and prosperity. XIII. Telegraphic System and Fishing Bulletins. : i mu wri We owe to the exertions and perseverance of the Hon. P. Fortin, M.P. for Gasp^, the telegraphic communicai ions established at a great cost in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, by the Canadian Govern- ment, to help our mariners and our fishermen. This telegraphic line, which embraces 27,000 square miles of our best fishing- grounds ; which connects together our most important fishing stations, and is connected with the whole systems of beacons, lighthouses, etc., was pronounced, by the jury of the Fisheries Exhibition held in London in 1883, to be the most perfect of all those actually existing, and has obtained the honors of a gold medal and of a special mention. This telegraphic system, con- tributing in a great measure to render navigation in the St. Law- rence Gulf and Eiver more secure, has had for its immediate eft'ect a considerable reduction in the rates of insurance and the advance- ment of trade generally. To the fishermen and to the fisheries it has proved of great importance. Every day, in all the offices, are posted up and distributed fishery bulletins indicating the i JONCAS ON FISHERIES. •71 probabilities of the temperatiu'e for the next twenty-four hours, the presence of bait in certain localities, the movements of the shoals of fishes, the quantity taken of each variety, etc. Ml'. "W. F. Witcher, ex-Comraissioner of Fisheries for Canada, having been requested to give his opinion upon the advisability of establishing telegraphic communications along our coasts, wrote in 18*76 : "The pursuit of an industry such as that of fishing within nine hundred miles of coasts is necessarily attended by many dangers and peculiar drawbacks. Exposure of life and property ig frequent. Success depends very much on the seasons. Many kinds of fish of erratic habits are eccentric in their move- ments. Plenty and scarcity may alternate in places, from which the settlers depending wholly on any fishery have no escape. Within twenty miles of a settlement, on a barren and uninhabited coast, the fish may strike and remain without any possibility of their whereabouts being known at other places ; they may be abundant beyond the capacity of shoremen or vessels to catch them, and yet fishermen not far distant, may be unable to procure even sufficient for their winter supply. Vessels may return empty in one season from fishing grounds where, previously or afterwards, the fish abound. Some may lose the greater and best part of each season in searching after the shoals. Still the waters teem with fish, and sooner or later they approach the shore or frequent the shallows. It seems possible for the spirit of modern improvement to devise some means of providing against these vicissitudes. The plan which strikes me as the mobt feasible is a telegraphic system, connecting together the main fishing stations. The idea of signal stations, from which to observe and notify movements of fish, has been carried out to some extent in Nor- way, Holland, Germany, Sicily, and on the coast of Cornwall. It has proved of material assistance to the fishermen, and aided con- siderably in developing the fisheries of each of these countries. There is no doubt that it would prove advantageous to Canadian fishermen. Besides affording greater inducement and security to employers of capital, and inspiring confidence in those exposed t danger and hardships, it would undoubtedly enable us to increat production and enlai-ge our exports." w CANADIAN ECONOMICS. XIV. Conclusion. ii, ! I; I can not better end this essay than by quoting some remarks by P. L. Simmons, in his ''Commercial Products of the Sea:" " The commercial products obtained from the sea," he writes, " are more numerous and important than would be generally supposed by those who have not looked closely into the matter. To a great part of the civilized world the taking of the cod, the her- ring, the salmon, the mackerel, the sardine, the seal and other fishes, is of great value and gives employment to hundreds of thousands of persons. The oil obtained from the seal, cod, shark, etc., is used for lamps, medicine and in industry. Many parts of fish are emj)loyed in the arts and manufactures, — as the scales of the bleak for making false pearls, and those of other fish for making ornaments ; the skins of the seals and porpoises for tan- ning purposes. Isinglass is obtained from the air or swimming bladders of many. Fish roes are not only used as fish delicacies, but also for bait in some fishing grounds, and excellent guano is made from the off'al and the bones of fish. The sea is more abundantly stocked with living creatures than the land. In all parts of the world a rocky and partially protected shore, per- haps supports, in a given space, a greater number of individual animals than any other station. The sea is filled with animals of several kinds, and each layer of water in depth, seems to have its own varieties, thus resembling the changes which take place, according to elevation, in the organized portions of the land. The animals are among the mightiest and among the smallest. There are swimming beasts, as whales, seals and walruses. There are fishes of various kinds and sizes, crustaceous, soft or jelly fishes, the molluscs, down to those creatures resembling live plants. All these are peculiar to the sea or the fresh waters ; and the ocean has its marine plants, — sea weeds, which remain growing on the ground shoals or rise to the surface and then float. These too have many useful or economic aijplications." The harvest of the sea has not yet been attended to and garnered to the same extent as that of the land. Some nations, such as the Chinese, have, it is true, long given close attention to the profitable utilisation of its commei'cial products ; and several Eui'opean nations and the Americans have also prosecuted certain I JONCAS ON FISHERIES. 1^ fisheries, but systematic and scientific aiTangement has only of late years been specially directed to the various branches which have been termed pisciculture, aquiculture, and ostreiculture, and the transfer of the fishes of one locality to another district. By all civilized and commercial nations, especially the Dutch, the English, the Norwegian, the French and the American, the pro- ducts of the sea have bec.i accounted fully as important as those of the land. The fishery question is therefore of urgent consequence to the people generally, and any information ought to be welcome which increases our knowledge of the fishing grounds within om* reach ; for the fisheries are not only of importance to us in conse- quence of the vast amount of wealth that can be drawn from the deep, apparently without diminishing or exhausting its som-ce, but because, by this means, a body of able and hardy seamen may be found to conduct the commerce of a mai'itime country during peace, and to become its gallant defenders on the ocean in time of war. I sincerely hope, that both our public men and our cajjitalists, will give theii* attention to this very important ques- tion and will do their utmost to develop further this inexhaus- tible soui'ce of national wealth and greatness. IV. CANADIAN AGRICULTURE. BY WILLIAM BROWN. The trite saying that the history of its agriculture is the history of the country, applies much more to Canada, or indeed to any of the British Colonies, than it does to Great Britain itself. The reasons for this are too simple to be specified. The simple fact of the colonization of Canada's being the outcome of the agri- cultui'al swarming of other countries will, indeed, convey the whole position. Thus, then, as our national history is a short one, so our agri- cultui'e has but a short history. The men of these days are very much the men who began both, and the British Association for the Advancement of Science is actually shaking hands with the fathers of Canadian agriculture, — with the very men who cut the tirtst tree, who held the first plough, and reaped the first crop of grain on this immense northern continent, which is still, we are proud to say, a part of the British possessions. As we dip into the progressive aspect of our subject, it will be evident that there has been no " new era," no "transition period," nor any great landmark, so to speak, in Canadian agricultui-e, as there is in that of Great Britain. Ours has been the unchecked march of the invader, bringing destruction t^ one crop and then a glorious fruitage from others. It forms a somewhat curious reflection that while we— not our forefathers only, but we — were cleai'ing the forest and stretching I 76 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. our iirms westward, Great Britain not only had no reaping machine nor ntoam engine, but not oven a common scythe, every- where. The mother is here to-day, to see what progress one of her sons has made during the last half century ; and, in the manly pride of our independence, we ask you to think what she was herself, when she bade us " God speed ! " Canada is a forest. Nothing ever did strike, and nothing yet strikes, the com])rehen8ive observer so much as the seemingly endless forest, stretching over mountain and valley, and indeed everywhere. This is the first feature of our country to which we invite your attention. Without trees we should probably have had no agricultural history ; the removal of them has given us an agricultiu'al hi8tor3^ I submit most respectfully that the irregular and excessive forest clearing of a newly-acquired country is not only an inevitable sequence of man's unrestrained domination, but a step absolutely necessary to progress and wealth. On another occasion, I shall have to submit to this Association some considerations upon arboriculture, and here all I need say on this point of our forestry is that, even assuming that Canadian pioneers were con- versant with whatever light there was half a century ago in regard to the proper proportion of tree surface to arable surface, the struggle to win a home, even under all the propitiousness of soil and climate, was too hard and lengthy to stand flavom-ing with book knowledge, or any thing that did not produce immediate bread and butter. But still fui'ther. The forest agriculture of our country possesses a significance that some of us do not suflSciently mea- sure. The compai'ative reliability of a countiy, largely covered with trees, for the health of all animals and the production of variety of crops is a fact everywhere acknowledged. It would not be diflficult to prove this in several parts of the world, and over the great breadth of the Dominion we have no difficulty in finding- strong proof both of the extremes, as well as of the exact measm-e of healthy conditions. Om* forest lands have more variety of aspect, greater variety of soil, better drainage and water supply, and a more reliable clin^ate than our prairies, for example, possess. The other well-known advantages of woodlands do not form part of my agricultuj'al subject, yet the Canadian tiarmer has neces- BROWN ON AGRICULTURE. 11 sarily had to act the part of a forester to a greater extent than the fsirmers of oldc countries. Canada is a land of frosh-watcr seas. This, the second great feature of our country, is a prominent fact in agriculture, as it has regulated very much of the settlement, and still regulates much of the climate and traffic, of our best districts. The extent of the lake shores of Canada is simply unknown, and those inside the commercial area far outnumber those of any other country by many thousands of miles. Canada is a prairie, though practically for agricultural purposes we did not know this ten years ago. These untimbered, level, dricd-up seas may yet play a very important part in our agri- cultural history, both as to grain and live stock, to which I shall afterwards devote some thoughts. But Canada is also a land of mountains. Our east and west extremes are bounded by hilly country averaging respectively 3,000 feet and 8,000 feet above the sea level. The physical features, with the flora and geology of the Dominion of Canada, other than these very abstract ones, are wonderfully diversified and interesting, and must be dealt with also very concisely. We have swamps, beaver meadows, marshes, and hill grazings in gi-eat numbers and extending over large areas. We have thousands of miles of rivers, many navigable to gi-eat distances, and stretching in their natural navigation from 1,000 feet above the sea level. We have over a hundred distinct varieties of indigenous trees and shrubs, many of great commercial value, and the flora other than this I dare not touch upon. Even our geology, though neither so varied, nor as yet so well outlined, as in some other countries, has an agricultural significance that has made history enough in particular districts, and, indeed, the geologist has of late years been the forerunner of our extended civilization, — his report being always ahead of settlement. The distinctive soils of the coimtry in the order of their pro- minence are : — Loams, vegetable deposits, alluvials, clays, sands, and marls. By reason probably of the wider field there is less mixing of these than in an area such as Great Britain, and our geo- graphical position has given a high proportion of glacial cover- ing. The climate does not vary so materially as might be supposed from the great geographical range embraced. We t T 16 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. Bcem to havo sovon climate bolts ; thooxtrome eastern embracing Newfoundland and part of (^uobec ; the Gulf area, including Nova Scotia and part of New Brunswick ; the St. Lawrence area, including Quebec ; the lake region, embracing Ontario and Hudson Bay south ; the great inland prairie lands ; the Rocky Mountains and the Paciiic range. Those, in their summorH and winters, are pretty well marked by both their outside and local influences as to rainfall and temperature, and consequently are the great regulators of our detail agi-iculturo in this stretch of 3,500 miles. Having some acquaintance with the very distinct public objec- tion to either a lengthy or statistical paper on what is expected to be treated in a popular manner, I have no intention of weary- ing you, but some figures are indispensable. The Dominion of Canada at pi-esent cultivates about 22,000,000 acres, an amount just equal to the area under cultivation in Great Britain and Ireland, exclusive of i)ermanont pasture. The impi'oved pasture area of Canada is 7,000,000 acres as against 25,000,000 of the Mother Country. The respective populations being 5,000,000 and 35,000,000, we can easily make comparisons of cultivated land per head. The average size of fai-ms in Canada is a little under 150 acres. The average annual gross value of produce is $23 per acre all over the Provinces, the extremes being as much as $43 and $15. Clear profit may be valued at an average of $3 per acre, that is after paying for labour, maintenance, interest on capital invested, and other charges. The average farm carries live stock to the value of $8 per acre, which fact alone points to grain as still in place of beef and mutton. Land when rented fetches $3.80 per acre per annum. The average purchase price of land throughout the Dominion is about $35 per acre, the extreme averages being $40 and $12. Buildings stand at an average of one-fourth of the value of the land in cultivation and are included in the foregoing figures. The annual taxes upon land consist of a township rate, a school rate, and a county rate, in all amounting on an average to 10c. per acre, or $15 per the average farm of 150 acres, or, in other words, to the rent of an average 1| acres in Britain. There are six different kinds of farming usally called : Mixed Farming, Grain Farming, Dairy- ing, Pasturing, Live Stock Breeding, and Fruit Growing. BROWN ON AGRTCITLTURE. w Land is actually being occupied (not purchased necessarily) at the rate of 383,000 acres, and reclaimed at the rate of 100,000 acres per animni, and wheat production has increased at the rate of 70,000 acres per annum, throwing aside the odd acres. A now country, therefore, has several well-marked agricultural ditlorencos that must be interesting to very nmny. Production runs away from population ao an immense rate : they are not corresponding elements in national progress. Our population has clearly beon hitherto, is now indeed, essentially an agricul- tural one : there are not many large congregations of the non- farming classes anywhere. But the annual value of produce per aero is hero considerably less than that from the older well- cultivated lands in Grout Britain, and the annual expenditure per acre both in labour and fertilizers is remarkably low in our case, viz., $15 as against S40 in Great Britain. This leads us on to some features of farm science and practice characteristic of Canada, — the first one being the old one of exhaustion of soils by the repeated cropping of one class of crops without help. The practical importance of such a system has I think been misunderstood, and while I have no idea of excusing the practice, I have no intention of allowing any mis- conception to go unchallenged. That the growing of wheat after wheat many times in succes- sion is right scientifically and practically, under certain conditions, no one denies. The point is, when to stop. An average of forty bushels or only sixteen bushels per acre is Canada's experience. We did not stop at sixteen bushels, first, because we could easily increase the productive area; secondly, because grain is less expensive to produce ; thirdly, because it is a lazy system of farming, and thus most acceptable to the majority ; and fourthly, because the product has always been in demand. Cannot we say, then, that we had many good excuses to justify the practice ? Next, while theory says, and practice indicates, that such a system of cropping exhausts the soil, science has not always said so. Can we, therefore, severely blame average humanity, toiling hard to make a home, when abundance for the time being was easily realized ? Another feature of our farm practice is the very limited use of special fertilizers even under our improved husbandry, and their I! -ill u i ■ liii 80 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. profuHO oxiHton{!e in our own country. I um not now speaking of iivcrago farming, but of tho best. It is a fact in Canadian oxporionco that (lie full mousuro of u variety of crops under Huitablo I'otation upon average soil, with the best of farm-yard innnuro, i-an bo maintained without tho use of special fertilizers, and that tho exioiisive application of them does not give corros- ])onding returns. Practice replies, thai thorough cultivation and the best of homo-made manure are enough. Science says that such practice must return as much as is removed. Permit the theory that our old lands still retain some of their original richness, latent it may be, but still there, which, pro])erly treated, alwayc responds ; that our arid climate does not associate with special fortilizei-s either to stimulate or fertilize as they are known to do in more humid circumstances; and that even the climate itself is actually richer in plant-food elements than Europe, in addition to the important fact of so much grain being fed to cattle six months of the year. But our agriculture is peculiar in other respects. Practically, wo have only two divisions of the year, summer and winter. To Europeans, wo have neither spring nor autumn, particularly no spring term. Hence, seed time with us is a time of great pressure, necessitating prompt action, and therefore much tempor- ary work, that are unknown in British experience. Hence, we possess machinery that takes the place of much of the manual labour of other countries, and our horses are more active and enduring. Man himself rises in physical activity and brain power to meet tho requirements of the climate. I think no one has yet given Canada the full measure of value she deserves for climate. This must be owing to want of knowledge to assign a cause for the effects ; for the effects are very patent. We are nearly all north of latitude 45°, and necessarily have such extremes of temperature as, not only do not propagate or en- courage, but even destroy most of the disease germs that are known to luxuriate in more temjierate zones. As this is more remarkable among the live stock of the farm than among other animals or man, it may be partly due to the immediately favour- able change in cattle and sheep that are yearly imported from Britain. What a fine field this should be to the keen hygienist ? The farming of Canada is also characteristically affected by 1. I BROWN ON agrtcut.turt:. 81 hor sunshino and showers. Both are better defined than the Hamo thin^^H in Groat Britain or tho United States ; we never luivo the uncertain heat and rainfall of the one, or the terrible cyclones of the other. And now allow rao to add a few notes on the undeveloped agriculture of Canada. The progress of Canadian agriculture was necessarily, in tho choice of land, one of taking tho best and leaving the worst. This method in a small area would bo very inarK-cd as regards tho difference between tho best and poorest soils ; but, as it has been spread over a wide continent as yet but thinly populated, the picking and choosing is not at all a pro- minent thing. It is a fact at the present moment, even in the older districts, that half of the uncultivated land is distinctly equal to the cultivated, and that the bush or forest of the newer townships possesses soil in every respect equal to the older ones. Not only so, but what long ago was considered waste, in the form of swamp and stony ridge, is now, though uncultivated, valued as in part fit to bear ci'ops. It is a very common circumstance to see men leaving their old homes in search of new lands, while at the same time good investments exist in theii immediate neighbourhood. This ari^^es fi'om the feeling of want of room, or of restlessness, or of specalation, so common on this continent. The existence, then, of so much good land easily secinccl '3 of itself a hindrance to development in the sense of older countries, and yet, of course, it is this very spirit of possession that has made the country. Canadian agriculture is undeveloped as regards thorough ordi- nary tillage. "While our rich climate allows us to take things easily, it is cei'tain that, were we to devote more time and labour to common cultivation, the increase would amply repay us. Man, however, that is average humanity, is content with living well under the easiest possible conditions. I could give many splendid exceptions nevertheless. Part of our agricultui'e is also un- developed in the sense of inappropriate produce. Changes in farm practice are just as legitimate as in other professions, so that if some of us persist in growing grain instead of beef and mutton, when flesh is wanted, there is misapplied farming on the part of the nation. The hindrances to the development of oui' agriculture are very I I 82 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. much those of other new countries. The almost unlimited field for speculation on the pai-t of wealthy individuals and companies holding large tracts to the exclusion of common settlement, is one of these ; so also is the temptation to engage in more immediately lucrative professions, such as sea-fishing and lum- bering. The possession of much money on the part of many, especially of our new settlers, is not a prominent drawback, because our experience as yet is clearly in favour of moderate means bringing out men's greatest activity and worth. The migra- tory habits of a large proportion of the agricultural population are certainly a hindrance to better farming, if not to progressive occupation. The easy sale and transfer of landed ]iroperty, and the want of much of the feeling for birthplace existing in older countries, go to make up this list. Yet there are many impi-cvemcnts in progress. Dj'ainage, particulai'ly, is already a fofiture in our agriculture, with better fences and roads. The establishment of a greater variety of grasses, and their pi-oduction in the form of permanent pasture is one of the latest lines of improvement. It would be foreign to such a rapid sketch as this to specify crops in detail. With the exception of wheat, barley, and fruit, Canada is not an exporter of crops ; though as produced in the form of beef, she is so. The proportion of crops is as follows : — Cereals 50 per cent. Hay 25 do. Pasture 13 do. Roots 6 do. Legumens 6 do. In this I have not made allowance for the very new and special grain growing of our great Northwest. The general character of the farming of Canada and its speci- alties are well marked by districts, and through nationalities to some extent. Beginning on the east, we have oats, barley, and potatoes as peculiar to the Maritime Provinces, with a pretty general indifference to improved live stock; farming in Quebec is veiy distinct nationally, and cannot well bo compared with anything else we have, still less with that of any other country ; it resembles a large markotrgardoning system, with live stock admirably suited to French re(juir©ment8, Farther west, th$ BROWN ON AGRICULTURE. 83 Province of Ontario is essentially British in cropping and live stock, but grows more grain and less pasture proportionately, and, as already noted, reai's fewer cattle and sheep per acre. Then Manitobaj and what is called the Northwest, are as yet in the preliminary stage of grain production, growing wheat and oats principally; and British Columbia gives a variety of crops in addition to natural pasture. I think one of the best evidences of better " thinking " among our farmers is the system of rotation in cropping ; it is now common, and telling prominently in our increased annual produce. The better winter feeding of live stock is also though quite a a recent, yet now a leading featui'e of our practice. But the live stock interest otherwise is well worth a thought. That Canada, and Ontario in particulai', is specially adapted for this purpose is well known. Its variety of physical conditions, the invigorating and purifying character of its winters, and the ability to produce the kinds of crops so essential to animal life at all seasons, have already marked us as the breeding ground for all othei's connected by land. Consequently the demand upon Ontario for the best pure- bred farm stock has already outrun all bounds. At the same time our neighbours are wise enough to take advantage of our admirable quarantine — the value of which is due not only to stock quarantine, but to a purifying climate, — ere taking home what they pui'chase from other countries. Canada can produce pure-bred animals at almost half of the cost in Great Britain, because it has cheaper crops and fewer risks of death owing to freedom from diseases, and it can feed and finish beef and mutton at less than half the cosfc of the same things in stall and on pasture. What Canada can do in the extensive production of cattle and sheep on the pastures called ranches, is now in course of experi- ment. The field is a very large one. If entered upon with all the light of the present day judiciously applied, it cannot fail of becoming a success. The Eocky Mountain plains at the one end, and the hills and valleys of the Maritime Provinces at the other, are waiting development in the extensive and cheap pro- duction of beef, mutton and wool. With the exception of the United States, no country receives so much help from government in its agriculture as Canada does. Not oidy is this true of the Dominion as a whole, but every '44: CANADIAN ECONOMICS. Province has a special Minister of Agriculture, giving special aid to Agricultural Exhibitions, and to special lines of industry •such as cheese, butter, fruit, entomological, veterinary, and general agricultural education. I do not anticipate too much, when I say that nearly every Pi-ovince will soon have its own Agricultural College, as Ontario has at Guelph. The effect of the United States upon Canadian agriculture is of necessity very clearly manifest. In crops we produce some that they cannot do so well ; and of much, they can produce more than we can : thus commercial interchange is not only close geographically, but for mutual progress should be thoroughly reciprocal. They want live stock, we want corn (maize) ; they have no clear road to the British mai-ket, wo have no hindrances to it ; they require facilities, we want money. But, irrespective of their agricultural products, the much greater population of the United States will always exercise a beneficial influence on whatever Canada has to spare from her own surface. Thus, then, Canadian agriculture in relation to Europe plays a somewhat similar part, and yet a competitive one both to the United States and Europe. Wo are at that stage in national enterprise when bone and sinew are good, yet immature ; we are like a young man feeling his way in the world. We have maturity and wealth opposing us even at our own doors, and the same things meeting us everywhere else. It is obvious, therefore, that our own future in the world's agricultural market must be cautiously and firmly dealt with. These ai'e no times of half measures and indecision. To peddle beef and flour in Great Britain against her own farmers and all other comers implies morir'. than commercial acumen ; it means such a disposition of our landed estate, politically, scientifically, and practically, as shall bear the crucial test of such an association of men as the presf>nt British Association. J M 5 *. , '.f V. AGRICULTURE IN THE PROVINGE OF QUEBEC. BY SYDNEY A. FISHER. In wi'iting a paper on the agriculture of the Province of Quebec, I think I can better meet the request made to me by giving a general account of its position and prospects, with some of the conditions peculiar to the circumstances here, than by quoting statistics which can be found in the Census and Agri- cultural Eeports. Moreover, as I understand that a French- speaking compatriot is to present a paper on the same subject, probably dealing chiefly with the agriculture of his section of the Pj'ovince, I shall draw your attention more especially to the farming of the English-speaking Eastern Townships. This district is the hill country lying on the borders of the New England States, on the south side of the St. Lawrence Eiver, a district measuring about 1*70 miles in length, from east to west, and varying from thii'ty to fifty miles in width from the 45th parallel of latitude, which is the boundary between us and the United States. The outlying spurs of the White and Green Mountains here extend into Canada, making this a country of hill and dale, with many streams, rivers and lakes, that afford a varied and beautiful landscape, such as can hardly be found in any other part of the Dominion. Still, it is not so mountainous as to preclude wide meadows and extensive well-tilled fields. Nature, howevei", has decreed that agriculture here cannot be carried on in the same wholesale manner as on the great prairies 86 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. of the We.st, und our people are forced to be content with mixed husbandry, raising each particular product on a comparatively small scale. There is, however, compensation for the want of fields, square miles in area, in the fact that our water supply is especially abundant and good, our herbage particularly rich and sweet, and our climate such that we can raise a great variety of crops and fruits ; while from our central position between the great ports on the St. Lawrence and those on the Atlantic sea- board of the United States, our market facilities are very good. I must not, however, in speaking thus of the Eastei-n Townships omit to draw your attention to the different conditions of agri- culture on the Island of Montreal and in the flat plain between that hill country and the river. In both of these there is abun- dant opportunity for large enclosures and extensive raising of grain and hay; and this is the system pursued on the plain alluded to. On tho Island and in the Townships, daiiying and the production of beef and stock raising are the staples of the farming community, and I trust that, before many years have passed, the intermediate district will follow the example of our neighbours. The Eastern Townships are still in a great part undeveloped, and from their hilly nature and the comparatively recent clearing from the virgin forest, will probably strike the eye of an European as being very rude in their condition ; and I must admit that this is to a certain extent correct. In writing about our agriculture I find it somewhat diflicult to be just and accurate, for in our agricultural community theie are two great divisions which it is not easy to describe or define. One class is composed of men who are really farmers ; another, of men who are, strictly speaking, pioneers, axemen, lumbermen, labourers, anything rather than fai-mers, though they own tho land, work on it, and obtain the greatei' portion of their liveli- hood from it. I need not say that the methods of cultivation and farm management of these classes are very different. Besides this, a good many of our farmers, being the sons of the pioneer class, have been brought up without any instruction from their fathers in careful agriculture, and, finding the stage of pioneer work past on their farms, are often willing to sell out and move into some newer neighbourhood, where they can resume that I 1 p^l « FISHER ON AGRICULTUEE IN QUEBEC. 87 pioneer work in whicii they are adepts. Othei'S again adapt themselves to their new conditions, and we tind, generally speak- ing, that the third generation may fairly be called agriculturists. Among these 1 am confident that there is to be found as high an average of intelligence, knowledge of their business, energy and thrift as can be discovered anywhere on this continent. It is of these men and their methods that I intend to speak now, as I feel that theirs is the real agriculture of the present and the futui*e of this Province. From what has been said already it will be understood that dairying stands in the first place in their work, especially the butter dairy, and you have only to look at the market quotations in any Canadian paper to see that there is a special class of Eastern Townships butter which stands next to the highest on the list. This product is constantly improving in quality, and as the trade becomes more thoroughly organized, more justice, I trust, will be done to the producer. The reputation of our butter in the English markets is lowered in consequence of the delay in its transport, generally caused by the speculative holding of the dealers, so that it is at a disadvantage in competi- tion with Irish, Dutch and Danish butter. There is also a great deal of cheese made here, but not so much proportionately as in Ontario and the French-speaking counties of Quebec, as the majority of the farmers prefer the home butter making. In conjunction with the dairying, a good deal of fattening lor beef is done, much young stock is raised, and sheep and horses are largely kept. Most of the two latter classes of stock are sold to the United States market, having a high reputation there. Unfortunately the demand for our coarse wool is very limited, which has discouraged the keeping of sheep, except in small flocks for homo use and for mutton. This is doubly unfortunate, as the country is well suited to sheep pasture ; but it is a curious though undoubted fact, that sheep will not do well in large flocks. Whether it is in consequence of the necessity of shelter- ing and feeding them, and the confinement and frequent crowd- ing during the winter, does not seem to be determined ; but the fact is so generally acknowledged, that farmers will not keep over fifty head through the winter. I expressed the hope that before long the farmers of the St. I II 88 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. :i Lawrence plain would adopt 8ome foim of stock keeping, foi- at jiresent they are short of manure, and, although the wonderful original fertility of their land has so far withstood the many years' cropping, tirst of wheat, then of barley and flax seed, now of hay and oats, — all of which have been sold off the land, with hardly any manure returned to it, — they must soon alter their method. With their level, easily-tilled and extensive lields which give great facility for grain, root, and hay raising ; with the close proximity of a natural stock-raising and pasture land among the hills to their south, and with their easy access to the port of shipment, Montreal, fattening beef for the English market seems their refuge from soil exhaustion and financial ruin. After care- fully examining this question with the advantage of close acquaintance with all the circumstances, 1 am convinced that here, close to a large centre, in a well settled district where all the rough work of the pioneer has long been accomplished, — with all the advantages of established municipal organization, of good schools, churches, stores, good roads and abundant railroad communication in actual existence, — there is an opportunity for the investment of capital with the certainty of just as speedy and just as great returns as can be looked for in any of the much vaunted regions of the great West, The other advantages of being in an old community are more easily pointed out than estimated, I will now add a few words about two of the supposed dis- advantages that we have here to contend with, I allude to the long and sevej-e winters^ and the forests which cover our new lands. Strangers, probably, will be surprised when I say that, even from a farmer's point of view, still moi-e from the point of view of one who wishes to establish himself and his family in a per- manent home, these are not disadvantages at all. Englishmen no doubt imagine that when the earth is frozen and covered with snow, no farm work can be done, and also, no doubt, with perhaps a passing glimpse of a stump-covered field hedged in by a forest of tall trees, they shudder at the labour of turning that forest into cultivated farms. There is, however, plenty of work in the short days of winter, partly in consequence of the existence of that very forest ; and, although the farmer cannot during winter FISHER ON AGRICUIiTURE IN QUEBEC. 89 till the land, his supposed enemy, Jack Frost, does yeoman service for him in the pulverization and disintegration of the soil, and in the ett'ective prevention of nMich insect life, which in other warmer climates causes destruction of crops and loss to the farmer. The action of the frost, especially on heavy soils which have been ploughed in the fall, is so great, that in spring they are in a state of fine tilth, such as in England could only be obtained by repeated ploughing and scarifying, while the heavy blanket of snow which covers our fields prevents the frost from penetra- ting very deeply, so that, helped by the melting of this snow, the frost leaves the soil very rapidly in the spring, effecting an aeration of the land which is very beneficial to the succeeding crop. Again, the snow beaten down into the best of roads enables the farmer to do his teaming work far more easily for himself and his horses. His forest lot supplies him with wood for fuel and logs to draw to the saw-mill for his building or repairs, the cutting of which he can accomplish more easily in the cold winter weather than in any other portion of the year. Besides the fuel and building material, the forests afford some three weeks' work, in the end of March and beginning of April, in the manufacture of maple sugar, whereby the farmei*, at a season of the year when the snow roads are disappearing, and field work has not yet begun, can obtain his sugar supply for the year, and a commodity readily saleable at remunerative prices. These sugar woods are of great value to the community, not only from their supply of a prime necessity of life, but also, because, in consequence of their value as sugar-producers, our maple trees have been preserved. When in other portions of the continent people will be forced to plant forest trees to preserve or renew the necessary conditions of moistiu'e and protection which are so essential to agriculture, our maple groves will relieve us of this necessity. Thus, notwithstanding our long winters, it will be seen that the farmer, by taking advantage of the different seasons, can be profitably and regularly busy the whole year round with pleasing variety in his work. This gives him an advantage in the hiring of labour, which is one of the most perplexing problems in a new country. As the farmer has work pretty evenly distributed the whole year round, he is able to hire by the year. He thus 90 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. i! obtainH superior men, who, from the assurance of steady em- ployment, are better satisfied and take greater interest in their employer's work than when they are only hired foi- a few weeks or months, at a time wlien all the farmers are competing for them, to assist in the hurry of wheat hai-vest or corn cutting, while they are idle or driven into othei- employments for a large part of the year, as is the case where there is only one sijeciai crop. This distribution of their work over the whole year also assists our farmers in overcoming what 1 must call the greatest difficulty that they have to contend with. I allude to the scarcity of capital. The desire to own land und to bo their own masters which seems to possess our people, induces men, who have but very little money, to buy land, paying down a very small pro- portion of its price, and undertaking not only to pay taxes and interest, but also instalments of the purchase money, out of the ordinary returns from their land. The fact that many of our prosperous farmers have done this, and at the same time brought up their families, given them a fair education, and a start in life, and are now enjoying comparative ease on farms which have doubled or trebled in value, shows what possibilities there are in our agriculture. Still it cannot be denied that it is a misfortune for our agri- cultural system that capital is so lacking and labour so dear, while land is so cheap : for the result is that our farmers are tempted to run hurriedly over a larger area of land, instead of improving the condition of their original fields. If our popula- tion would till only one half of the area they now pretend to work, applying the same labom- to it, I have no doubt their produc- tion would be quite as great, the country would appear to better advantage, and the community would profit in the improved mental and social status of the individual. It is in consequence of this condition of affairs that we have need of, and room for, immigration, — just as much, indeed, as in the newer provinces and territories of the West. We need immigration of men and capital, of labom-ers (male and female), of farmers who could buy some of this unused, or but half utilized, land and employ labour. These would be able to settle on a homestead whei-e they could at once commence operations somewhat in the manner FISHER ON AGRICULTURE IN QUEBEC. 91 they had been accustomed to at home, making allowance for the differences in the climate and conditions of their new country. The new comers would have the advantage of settling among neighbours accustomed to the country, well versed in the methods best suited to its circumstances ; while they in turn would benctit the community into which they entered, by their knowledge of the scientific agriculture of the older country from which they came. Such new comers need not be frightened by exaggerated stories of our climate. Notwithstanding the long winter, the spring advances so rapidly and the soil dries so quickly and thoroughly, that we are able to sow our crops and reap our harvest before the season closes, and we are then enabled to take advantage of the fine fall weather to work at permanent improvements, or on our preparations for next year's crops. The fact that we can raise maize, tomatoes and melons, as well as all the ordinary field crops, shows that our season, though short, must be a favorable one. We also raise the best of apples, plums, and all the small fruits, while in some localities outdoor grapes, pears and cherries are successfully grown. I am glad to be able to say that, of late, our people have devoted much attention to fruit raising and horticulture, and we have found much greater possibilities in this direction than were dreamt of a few years ago. In this connection I gladly give credit to oui' societies, agricultural and horticultural, which are to be found all over the Province, and which have contributed much to the great advance in our agri- culture and horticulture that has taken place in the last few years. I VI. THE AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES OF NOVA SCOTIA. BY J. W. LAURIE. When I was asked to prepare a paper on the agricultural re- sources of Nova Scotia, I at once raised the question, whether I was limited to facts and results already obtained, or whether I was permitted to refer to possibilities, which might bo considered to touch on the realm of opinion or even speculation, I was given to understand that I must confine myself to solid fact; but, the more I looked into the matter, the more certainly it came home to me that to point out the agricultural resources of the Province is, of necessity, to deal with much that is yet unde- veloped. Its agricultural history will sufficiently explain how it comes to be very backward, and yet the returns of its yield will show what, even under these disadvantages, it produces. It is but fair then, in dealing with its resources, to consider what it would produce under a favourable system. The first settlements in the Province were established, rather for military than commercial reasons; hence, with all due respect to my profession, the previous training of the new settlers did not specially qualify them for an agricultural life. Soldiers and sailors have as great a power of adaption as any class of men, but they hardly form the best foundation for an agricultural colony. The U. E. Loyalists, from whom so large a portion of our population is descended, came largely from the professional ranks in the towns of the United States, — men who were quite I 04 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. unaccuRtomed to manual lal)our , or the cultivation of the soil. Then a^ain, the Sutherland and Argyle crofters, who came to us from the Highlands when the landowners abolished small hold- ings, were a most valuable and law-abiding addition to our popula- tion, settling down with all earnestness to carve out for themselves homes from the forest. They were industrious and patient, but, foi" the most part, without any knowledge of real farming beyond the H]>ade and hoe culture of small patches; and, as their now ex- periences wore chiefly of work amongst the stumps, their training did not lead them into very productive or economical farming ways. In 1818, when England's enormous war expenditure had ceased, earnest Nova Scotians were led to seek the cause of, and remedy for, the dull times, and Mr. John Young, the father of oui' late Chief Justice, Sir William Young, published a series of very forcible letters, under the nom-de-plume of "Agricola," which called attention to the discreditable state of agriculture. Mr. Young states that, at that time, horse-hoes or cultivators were imple- ments of which even the names had hardly crossed the Atlantic to us ; grain- fans were almost unknown, and a common roller was a wonder of which some counties did not possess a single specimen. Mr. Young gave an impetus to agriculture that has never been forgotten, but the energy and capital of the people have rather been employed in working coal and plaster, lumbering, shij)- building, and fishing; the products of which were carried to more developed countries in exchange for the fruits of the soil. Farming, consequently, did not receive the attention it de- served. Less than half of our people are professional farmers, and many of theso combine other occupations with agi-iculture, which generally suffers in consequence. When the mackerel or shad strike in along the shore, the potatoe-hoe or the scythe is at once abandoned for the oar and the net, and teams that should be ploughing are too often emploj'-ed in hauling timber from the forest to the shipyards. Our leading men so often boasted of the half million tons of shipping that Nova Scotia owns, that it be- came an article of faith that all obtainable funds should, in certain districts, go into ships. I can recollect visiting a locality in which I was informed that the recent loss of a ship had forced the sale LAURIE ON AGRICULTURE IN NOVA SCOTIA. 95 of their fnrmH on ttn well-to-do men who had been bitten by the provailinp^ mania, ar.d hml mortgaged their t'armH to build a ship which was lost on I ho tirst voyage. Qui" iron and coal miners, gyj)sura qiiarrymen, shipwrights, fishermen and factory hands, consume the sui'plus products of our faimors, but our trade retuins show that we liave, of late years, exported a largo amount of agricultural produce. As long ago as 1851 wo exported about ^fitOjOOO worth, and our returns for 1883 show an export of over $1,500,000, and this by no means re- presents our actual sales over and above provincial consumption. Last summer about 400 stoamers called at Sydney, Cape Bi-eton, for coal, and each of them would, of course, lay in a stock of fresh ])rovisions for the crew. We tit out a large fleet of fishermen from our own Province ; and our American neighbours, who fish on our coasts, provision themselves in our ports throughout the season. Halifax is also a port of call for a large amount of ocean traftic, and the garrison and uquadron, as well as visiting men-of- war, require a iai'ge amount of supplies. A constant outflow of cattle and fruit passes from our Western counties to St. John, New Brunswick, across the Bay of Fundy, but, not leaving the Dominion, does not appear in the returns. Cattle, butter, vege- tables of all kinds go to Newfoundland and St. Pierre and Mique- lon from Cape Breton, while from the Annapolis Valley an enormous quantity of potatoes is shipped to the United States. 100,000 barrels of apples are annually carried over the Windsor and Annapolis Eailway, and the manager informs mo that he does not carry half the output, as water communication competes very advantageously with his railway; and he calculates, that, when the orchards already set out come into bearing, the qiiantity will be far more than doubled. Of all agricultural countries, Nova Scotia lies nearest to Europe, and apples and cattle are articles requiring to be put into market with the least possible carriage, and these are essentially products for the raising of which Nova Scotia has great natural advantages. The weevil was so destructive to our wheat crops between 1860 and 1870 that the cultivation of wheat was almost abandoned, but with greater care and better method, it has been resumed, and, using only round numbers, we have increased from 300,000 bushels in 1851 to nearly 530,000 in 1881. Oats have increased to nearly II } 96 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. 2,000,000 bushels ; potatoes have increased in the same time from two millions to 7,500,000 ; turnips, to over 1,000,000 bushels from one third of the quantity; other roots to 326,000 bushels, an in- crease of over a thousand per cent, since 1851 ; and these increases show that cattle are better fed, — a sure sign of improved farming. Hay has increased from .300,000 to 600,000 tons; butter, from 3,500,000 to 7,500,000 lbs. ; cheese shows nearly 1,000,000 lbs. ; apples, of which some were imported in 1851, show in 1881, a product of 900,000 bushels ; other fruit increased from 40,000 to 180,000 bushels ; hops show nearly 19,000 lbs. in 1881, and could be most profitably cultivated as they grow in profusion, but the cost of labour in piclcing checks the cultivation ; grapes, which do not appear in statistics till 1871, and then as only 8,000 lbs., had increased in 1881 to 35,000 lbs., shewing that our people have found our climate well suited for their growth. 300,000 horned cattle and 400,000 sheep were owned in Nova Scotia in 1881, and 63,000 cattle and 151,000 sheep were sold for consump- tion in that year. Of the thirteen million acres of which Nova Scotia consists, a large proportion is lake, of which the shores are generally some- what stony. The Southern coast is, for the most part, rocky, and unfertile, as if a huge breakwater had been established by nature to the eastward of the continent to breast the Atlantic waves, but this rocky surface does not extend to any great dis- tance inland, and, once passed, the larger part of the land is susceptible of cultivation with good returns. The census of 1881 shews that nearly two million acres have boon improved, of which almost one million are actually under crop, — an increase of more than one hundred per cent, since 1851. But the increase of production has not kept pace with the increase of acreage, and this is partly explained by the wi'etchcd methods of farming followed in so many cases, by which lands, when run out for crops, are turned over to pasture, and fi-esh lands bi-ought in for crops ; and of course all would still be rated as improved. The most productive lands, — the so-called dyke-lands, which are the reclaimed salt flats generally formed at the mouths of rivers in the Bay of Fundy by the rise and fall of the tide, and from which the tide has bepn excluded, many thousand acres of which exist in Nova Scotia, — have not been much increased during this LAURIE ON AGfilCULTURE IN NOVA SCOTIA. 91 penod ; thus, from the lands already cleared for cultivation, an enormous increase of crop should, under propei* management, be obtained, and the millions of fertile acres now in forest are also available for reclamation ; as the rocky and loss fertile soils would still supply the necessary timber for ordinary use and assure the necessary rain-fall. A question naturally arises, whether the soil and climate of Nova Scotia are as favourable to the production of crops as other competing regions ? To this I must bring the testimony of eighteen years' pei'sonal experience in farming, on a new farm, and therefore not under the most favourable conditions. Cattle live out at pasture from June 1st to October 15th, thriving well during that time, and will hold their own for a month longer, if sheltered at night. All kinds of grain grow well. Oats and wheat are usually about a hundred days from seed time to harvest. Last year 25 acres of spring wheat yielded me 25 bushels to the acre. Barley gives about 40 bushek to the acre ; oats about 45, but there is a tendency to lodge when the crop is heavy. Potatoes have usually given me about 2^5 bushels to the acre, and Swedes from 550 to 800 according to the season and exposui-e of the field, — one facing south or west, giving the smaller crop on account of the heat : a fact that shews that we'are near the southern limits of turnips, as they do best in the cooler places. This has led me to turn my attention to green com for ensil- age, on which I consider that I am only experimenting ; but last season I cut (weighing sample carts as I hauled home) twenty tons per acre on a field of fifteen acres. It seems admirably suited to the climate as a plant, the mode of presei'vation is economi- cal, and the food appears valuable. Hay, the too favourite crop of our farmers, averages IJ tons* to the acre on upland fields. On ItO acres of cultivated land, in addition to keeping ten horses and about the same number of cows all the year round, I raise sufficient food, with the addition of some purchased oil-cake, which can be paid for by the sale of other surplus crops, to feed for the butcher one hundred head of cattle yearly. Permanent grass is practically unknown, as, owing to damp in spring and autumn, it becomes overgrown with moss. Our most •Weight calculated when taken for feed, and not when hauled off from the field. 1 IM . Hi I 98 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. prosperous farming districts are those near tide water, where the flats already alluded to have been dyked and the flow of the tide barred. These yield two and a half to three tons of hay to the acre, and the after-pasture is magnificent; and as the upland in these districts is usually light, the manure furnished from the dyke-land hay enables repeated crops of potatoes to be raised for sale, so that cattle and crop can both be sent to market. The upland farmers not unnaturally copy the process followed by these favoured dyke-land owners, and try to work their land as grass farms. But the hay fed on the farm will not maintain the fertility of the hay fields : the grain is weak and poor, a prey to weevil or other enemies ; roots, for lack of manure to raise them, are but rarely grown ; the farmer and the farm both get poorer instead of richer; and the upland districts, through no fault of their own, get a bad name. A regular rotation is necessary for the maintenance of fertility on this class of farm. This implies stock, implements and plenty of labour, which the average run of farmer is unable to furnish. Men of means who go into farming note the absence of prosperity without examining the cause, and, if buyers of land, buy in the dyke-land districts. Thus capital, the principal want, does not find its way to the upland farms. Technical training is also urgently required — not merely the knowledge obtained from books, but instruction in theory com- bined with its adaptation in practice — a want which can only be met hy the establishment of an agricultural school associated with a model farm, such as the Provincial Institution at Guelph in Ontario; where working farmers are taught science, educated men to labour with their hands, while the general pupil learns both branches. This, however, to bo thoroughly effective and confer the greatest amount of good, must be in the locality and worked under the conditions of climate and products, in and for which the pupils propose to work. The field for the emploj'-ment of moderate capital and intelli- gence is to my mind very favourable in Nova Scotia. A young mun who will adapt himself to the new conditions, and has from £500 to £5,000 capital, has every reason to expect a comfortable homo and a good return for his investment. With capital in- vested and knowledge applied, I consider that a very bright future lies before the agriculture of Nova Scotia. VII. THE AGRICULTUEAL RESOURCES OF ONTARIO. BY JOHN CARNEGIE. As it would be necessaiy, in order to arrive at a just estimate of the agricultural resources of Ontario, to take into considera- tion the capabilities of a territory covering from one to two hun- dred thousand square miles, as well as a great variety of products ; the writer deems it better to limit his observations to that portion of the Province the resources of which are already moderately well developed, and which may be conveniently described as lying south of a line drawn west from the town of Pembroke to the Greorgian Bay, and south and east of Lake Huron. Although this portion of Ontario contains little more than one third of its admitted and less than one fifth of its claimed area, yet within these limits there is an area one fourth greater than that r)f Scotland, oi- of about 25,000,000 acres lying between the '74th and 83rd degrees of west longitude and the 42nd and 46th paral- lels of north latitude. Besides being the most southerly located portion of the Dominion of Canada, its climate is so favourably affected by its proximity to the large bodies of water contained in the Great Lakes, that the " cold waves," which not unfre- quently prove injurious to the crops of the neighbouring and otherwise more favourably located states, are robbed of their virulence before reaching Ontario ; and the cultivation of a greater variety of productions is rendered not only possible but more pro- fitable within this area, than within any other area of equal extent upon the American continent. I ?! i :3 3 ' 4 ' 100 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. Ab the most satisfactory and highest average retums are only obtainable by the agriculturist, where a system of mixed hus- bandry can be pursued with profit, it must be obvious that the district capable of producing the greatest variety of crops in fairly remunerative quantities in proportion to the labour and capital employed in their production, and at the same time adapted to stock-raising, is richer in agricultural resources, than one in which the farmers' operations are limited to the profitable growth of one, two, or even three cereals— no matter how abund- ant their yield may be in favourable seasons. In such districts extremes are continually following one another ; while in the former, if the cultivator is favoured with no feasts, he is equally free from famines. That Ontario is particularly favoured in this respect will be best proved by a citation of its products in 1880, as set forth in the Census Eetui-ns of 1881. They were as follows : — Field Products. Fall wheat 20,193,067 bush. Spring wheat 7,213,024 " Barley 14,279,841 " Oats 40,209,929 " Peasand beans 9,434,872 " Indiancorn 8,096,782 " Rye 1,598,871 " Buckwheat 841,649 " Roots. Potatoes 18,893,996 " Turnips 33,856,721 " Other roots 6,479,222 " Meadows. Clover and timothy hay 2,038,659 tons. Clover and timothy seeds 173,219 bush. FRurra. Apples 11,038,659 bush. Grapes 3,967,553 lbs. Otherfruits 644,707 bush. i i \ t CARNEGIE ON AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. 101 MiSCKLLANBOUS. Maplesugar 4,169,706 lbs. Tabacco 160,251 " Hops 615,967 " Flaxseed 38,208 bush. Flax and hemp 1,073,197 lbs. Then as a natural result, and largely depending upon the suc- cessful cultivation of these products, the following animals and animal products were marketed during the twelve months ending April, 1881, viz. :— Cattle, killed or sold 363,043 Sheep, killed or sold 748,972 Swine, killed, or sold. 796,548 Wool, lbs 6,013,216 Honey, lbs 1,197,628 besides 116,392 colts and fillies coming foi-ward, — certainly no mean a showing for the 304,630 persons engaged in their produc- tion. As it has been asserted that the district under consideration compares favourably with any other area of equal extent in America, in the variety, quantity, and value of its products, a few figures, taken from the last census returns for this continent, in support of this claim, will not be out of place ; especially as so much has been written laudatory of the neighbouring States, and, by implication at least, depreciatory as regards Canada. To illus- trate this point clearly, tables have been prepared and are hereto attached, showing the relative position of Ontario as a producer of cereals in comparison with the seven States of the American Union producing the largest quantities of wheat, barley, oats, peas and beans, rye, buck wheat, or Indian corn, and the result is : — Ist, That in order to reduce Ontario to the relative position about to be noted, the resources of no less than twenty-two States, covering an aggregate area of nearly one million square miles, or over 600,000,000 acres, and containing a population of 38,000,000 as compared with Ontario's less than 2,000,000, had to be drawn upon. 2nd. That notwithstanding the unfairness of such a compari- r 102 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. m. rf son, Ontario alone attains even an eighth place in six of the seven cereals named, and that in these she manages to secure a first place as a producer of barley and peas and beans, — her production of the former being largely in excess of that of every State in the Union save California, and her production of the latter nearly equalling that of the entire Union ; — a third place for oats and buck wheat ; a fifth for rye ; a sixth in yield of wheat per acre, and an eighth in quantity, while the larger, more populous, more easily cultivated, and reputable State of Illinois only secures a first in wheat, oats, and corn ; a second in rye, and then disap- pears from the tables altogether. Although the data at the wj-iter's command do not enable him to pursue these comparisons further from the census i-ecords of the two countries, he is, through the kindness of Mr. Blue, of the Ontario Bureau of Industries, enabled to compare Ontario's crop of 1882 with that of perhaps the best agricultuj*al State in the Union, Illinois, for the same year, in the important particulars of yield and value per acre. Comparing the figures given, for Ontario in the annual Report of her Bureau of Industries, and for Illinois in the annual Report of its Department of Agricultm*e, with one another, we obtain the results given in the tabulated statement upon the opposite page. Favourable, however, as these figures are to Ontario, they are not so favourable as they would be had the returns of the Depart- ment at Washington been taken instead of those of the Illinois Department. For instance, while the yield of fall wheat is given at 18.51 bushels per acre in the foregoing table, the Washington authorities place it at only 16 ; that of barley at 22.50 instead of the 27 given ; oats at 3*7.4 instead of 40.32, and lyeat a decrease of 1.71 bushels per acre, — differences which would increase the cash balances por acre in favour of Ontario ; on fall wheat, from $7.57 to $9.'74 ; on barley, from SYc. to $6.62 ; on oats, from 56c. to $1.48; and on rye, from QYc to $1.91 per acre. Gratifying as these results must be to every loyal -hearted Briton, yet two or three points remain to be noted in order to bring out their full significance as an evidence of the superiority of Ontario's agri- cultural resources. Of the 13,000,000 odd acres under the crops named in the table, in Illinois, in 1882, no less than over '7,000,000 acres were under ^ ■ CARNEGIE ON AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. 103 Eh Hi P pq 4) O 0) 4) ID O a a St; S p CO c a IS .2 22 a O O a o a o a o a O 0, ?5 r* • • • i-H T-H ^ CO CO 05 : ^ I— 1 • o • • • €^t>- CO lO lO <£> .o 00 i 00 o o 8 CD CD r-( O I-H o I-H ^1 i: oo O CO ^§3 r-t T}H CD (N IM ■* rH lO "T •^ C• o lO CO CO s o m^ cjeo £2 o o CO o cjoo 00 O CO CO t^ t^ m^ ^ Oi CO (N 1-1 CO in> 05 ■* t>; iH 1-5 OS CO 8 § OS OS o I-H OS t^ W rH lO lO I-H CO CO 00 •* t>^ p 00 rH tH (M ■^ T-H O o •* CO c!l I-H CO o CO o to cc' o CO 00 o CO CO 00 o CO OS CO CO o o c3 05 Pl4 0) U) cj M I O P3 ft S o 03 O 00 in .Q ^i-Ht^ooooomco « OS cbcoeocot-'^O'CDio S £i 8 8 »o CO O o 00 5 I -I f§ (^ (S ^ 104 CANADIAN ECX)NOMICS. Indian coi*n und over 5,000,000 under fall wheat and oats, leaving only some 600,000 acres for the remaining eight crops. In Ontario, on the other hand, only one crop occupied a little more than one fourth of the acreage under the same crops, while its live chief crops did not aggregate as large a percentage of the whole as the three named did in Illinois. And the result of this depen- dence on two or three crops has been exactly such as the writer has already predicted. According to the State returns for the ten yeai i ending with 1882, the Illinois farmer had, during these years, four good crops of Indian corn and six bad ones, and six good crops ef wheat and four bad ones. Happily for the Illinois farmer, however, the bad crops of both only came together twice, thus pj'oving that the farmer's safety lies, not in " specialties," but in a variety of crops. In view of the large non-agricnltural population contained in Illinois, the small quantities of barley, peas, buck wheat, beans and roots grown can only be accounted for on the assumption that its soil and climate are not favourable to their growth. And this assumption is materially confirmed by the fact that in all these articles the price is either as high or higher in Illinois than in Ontario, while in all the other crops the position is reversed. In order that the decided advantage, which these statistics prove Ontario to possess as compared with Illinois, may be fully appreciated, it may be stated that the per acre differences first mentioned aggregated, on her crop of 1882, over $15,000,000, made up as follows : — On 1,188,520 acres fall wheat, at $7.57 f 8,99v ,096 " 586,817 " spring wheat, at $3.70.... 2,171,222 " 848,617 " barley, at 87c 738,299 " 1,375,415 " oats, at 56c 770,232 " 189,031 " rye, at97o 183,360 " 206,924 " corn, at $5.76 1,191,882 " 106,700 " potatoes, at $6.40 1,028,480 Total $15,080,571 and that, were the Washington figures taken as a basis for this calculation, this sum would be still further increased by $8,800,000. In 1880 the number of persons engaged in agricultural pur- suits in Ontario was 304,630. Assuming that this number had CARNEGIE ON AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. 106 incroasod to 315,000 in 1882, the difterences just noted wore equivalent, in the first instance, to over $47, and in the second to over $t5 per head of those so employed. One more tost and the writer has done with this branch of his subject. The last census for the two countries gives the numbers engaged in agricultural pui-suits as 304,630 in Ontario, in 1880, and as 43(),3tl in Illinois, in 1819. For various reasons it will not be unfair to Illinois to assume that the number of persons so employed increased live per cent, in that State during the three years, as against two and a half per cent, during two years in Ontario. This would make the number so employed in 1882, in Illinois 458,189, and in Ontario 312,245. Then, by adding to- gether the value of each of the eleven crops mentioned, at the yield and prices given, in the State and Provincial returns, we lind the aggregate value for Ontario to be $102,598,16'?, and for Illinois $163,518,136, equivalent to $325 per head for those so engaged in Ontario, as compared with $356 in Illinois. This shows a difference of $31 per head against Ontario, which the Washington returns would, however, i-educe to $3. But, when it is remembered that even in the best cultivated portions of On- tario, much is still being done in the way of permanent improve- ment, and more particularly, that many of those engaged in agricultural pursuits in Ontario are chiefly engaged in redeem- ing the soil from a state of nature, there will be little difficulty, oven after giving Illinois the benefit of its own figures, in arriv- ing at the conclusion that the real balance in this, as in so many of the preceding comparisons, is in favour of the agricultural resources of Ontario. It will have been noticed fiom a statement of products, given in the earlier part of this paper, that the production of fruits has already made considerable progress. The rapidity with which Ontario's resources ai-e being developed in this direction, will be best illustrated by the following statement of its fruit crops, in 1870 and 1880, as obtained from the Census Eoturns : — 1870. 1880. Apples, bush 5,486,504 11,400,517 Grapes, lbs 1,028,431 3,697,555 Other fruits, bush 292,878 644,707 Wine in dollars $59,200 f I 1 t I 106 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. An increatie of from one to two hundred and fifty per cent, in ten years is certainly the bent possible evidence that those en- gaged in its cultivation find it profitable. Nor are reasons want- ing to justify us in looking forward to a still larger increase in the future. In 1873 at Boston, and especially in 1876 at Phila- delphia, Ontario fruit may be said to have carried all before it, and did much to secure for itself the world-wide reputation to which Canadians believe it entitled. Besides carrying off many of the highest awards, it also drew forth from eminent pomolo- gists such enconiums as : " Decidedly the best show, taking into consideration variety, quality, number, and taste." — " With- out question every unprejudiced visitor, competent to form a just estimate, would say that the display of Ontario was the most instructive and comprehensive exhibit of fruits made at the Centennial." — " No State in the Union displayed as full and exhaustive a collection of hardy out-door varieties of grapes." — " Pomological Hall is now a scene of beauty and activity diffi- cult to describe. . . Our neighbours north of the great falls and the great lakes actually led off in this friendly rivalry." — " They are to be congratulated upon the fruit-producing capabilities of their soil and climate." Testimony such as this, like good wine, needs no bush. And Ontario, too, is evidently destined to become a wine-producing country. Although the manufacture of wine is but in its infancy, the day of experiment is past and the only question remaining to be solved is the extent of terri- tory adapted to the growth of the grape for this purpose. In the western section of the Province, the writer is informed, the average product is double that of Finance, while the quality of the wine made is in no way inferior. Indeed, it is assorted that the climatic conditions are more favourable for the cultivation of the grape on Pelee and the adjacent islands than in any other part of America. For that most important fruit, the apple, Ontario seems to be particularly adapted. The rapidity with which her export trade in this fruit is increasing, now that she is beginning to get credit for what is her own, and not for what belongs to others, is the best evidence of the perfection and valuable keeping qualities of the bona fide^Ont&rio apple; and there can be no doubt that, with the increased cai'e and attention which this -ij CARNEGIE ON AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. lot export-demand is Hure to beget, it will k op pace with the Hupply, rapidly as it has increased and is destined to do so. Among the " other fruits " grown in the open air are included peaches, pears, plums, currants, cherries, strawberries, etc., all of which produce large and regular crops over a more or leys extended urea, and find a ready and genoi-ally profitable market in those sections of the Dominion where they cannot be grown with the same facility. Although it is not contemplated that this paper should con- tain more than a brief reference to a few of Ontaiio's many re- sources, yet there still remains one department of its farm work, without a reference to which, even this brief and necessarily im- perfect paper would be incomplete, and that is the facilities which it aifords for stock-raising, — a branch of farm work which lies at the very foundation of a continuous and profitable grain and root production. No matter how rich the virgin soil may be, steady ci'opping, without any return to the soil of the con- stituents taken from it, must result in an ever-decreasing yield until a point is reached when it will fail to yield subsistance to the tiller. Under these circumstances the facilities afforded for maintaining the fertility of a district become of quite as much importance i«d its natural fertility in estimating the value of its agricultural resources. As yet no better or more economical means to this end has been discovered than that of combining stock-raisixig with the cultivation of the land, as generally prac- ticed in Ontario. For years past, much attention has been given to the introduction of new and improved breeds of all kinds of domestic animals, and to the improvement of existing breeds ; and so fj-eoly have the best herds and flocks, both in Great Britain and the neighbouring States, been drawn upon for this pui-pose, that it has become a question whether there are not to-day better animals of their respective kinds in Ontario, than in the herds and flocks from which they sprung. With reasonable protection and care, our climate has proved itself favourable to the de- velopment of healthy and vigorous constitutions, and the result is that Canadian -bred arumals are being sought after on this very account. As to what can be accomplished in the way of preparing animals for the shambles, we have the records of the great fat-stock shows held annually at Chicago, to prove that T ' 108 CANADIAN E(JONOMICS. 1 1 " f 8 Is: ' 1 Ontai'io-brod and t'od cattlo and sheep can more than hold their own with thotie of the PrairioH and groat corn growing States, — another proof, no doubt, that variety in food is m beneficial to the animal as vai'iety of crops is to the farmer. But, although it might be questioned whether the Chicago awards had not been obtained regardless of cost, the rapid progi-ess made in our exports of meat-producing animalH proves that the business is a proHtable one. An increase of exportations, fi-om 6,940, cattle and 9,504 sheep in 1877 to 55,625 cattle and 114,352 sheep in 1883, leaves no doubt as to which side the balance is on. More- over, during the same period the production of butter and cheese has also increased enormously. But, satisfactory us Ontaiio's past progress has been, and as her present position is, the natural resources of even that por- tion of it under consideration are still far from being fully de- veloped. Of its 25,000,000 acrt^ less than 11,000,000 are re- turned as "cleared," while much of that so returned has made only the first step towards its redemption from a state of nature. Even the County of York, in which the capital of the Province and the second city of the Dominion is situated, returns twenty per cent, as uncleared ; while other counties, scarcely less favour- ably situated, return from thirty to forty and even fifty per cent, as untouched by the hand of man for purposes either of cultiva- tion or of pasturage. Looking to this vast field of still unde- veloped resources ; looking to the unsurpassed facilities which the Province in many places affords for manufacturing enter- prises — so valuable as a fosterer of agriculture — and remembei'- ing her position with regard to the rest of the Dominion and what has already been accomplished, the writer feels that, flat- tering as are the following words from the pen of the Hon. David A. Wells of the neighbouring States, they are by no means too flattering to the resources and capabilities of his native Province. Mr. Wells says, with regard to the very district whose resources have been so imperfectly brought under notice : " North of Lakes Erie and Ontario and the River St. Lawrence, east of Lake Huron, south of the 45th parallel, and included mainly within the present Dominion Province of Ontario, there is as fair a country as exists on the North American continent , nearly as large in area as New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio combined, and equal, li CARNEGIE ON AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. 109 if not superior as a whole to those States in its agricultural ca- pacity. It is the natural habitat on this continent of the comb- ing-wool sheep, without a full, cheap and reliable supply of the wool of which species the great worsted manufacturing in- dustries of the country cannot prosper, or, wo should rather say, exist. It is the land whore grows the finest barley, which the brewing interests of the United States must have, if it ever expects to rival Great Britain in its present annual export of over eleven millions of dollars' worth of malt products. It raises and grazes t' . finest of cattle, with qualities especially desir- able to make good the deterioration of stock in other sections ; and its climatic conditions, created by an almost encirclement of the great lakes, especially fit it to grow men. Such a country is one of the greatest gifts of Providence to the human race ; better than bonanzas of silver, or rivers whose sands contain gold." The following tables give the relative position of Ontario as a producer of cereals, compared with the seven largest producing States in any one of those named. The names are arranged in the order of their gross production : — Wheat. State. No. of bush, produced. 1. Illinois 51,110,502 .... 2. Indiana 47,284,853 . . . . 3. Ohio 46,014,869 .... 4. Michigan 35,532,543 .... Yield per Acre. . 15.88 bush. . 18.05 " . 18.00 " . 19.49 " 5. Minnesota 34,601,030 11.36 6. Iowa ..... 31,154,205 10.22 T.California 29,017,707 15.84 8. Ontario 27,406,091 14.06 Order per Acre. 4th. 2nd. 3rd. 1st 7th. .... 8th. .... 5th. 6th. Barley. State. No. of bush, produced. Ontario 14,279,841 California 12,579,561 New York 7,792 062 Wisconsin 5,043,118 5. Iowa 4,022,588 6. Minnesota 2,972,965 7. Nebraslca 1,744,686 8. Ohio 1,707,129 110 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. Oats. I I I ■ in- state. No. of bush, produoed. 1. Illinois 63,189,200 2. lowu 50,610^91 3. Ontario 40,209,929 4. New York... 37,575,506 5. Pennsylvania 33,841,439 0. Wisconsin 32,905,320 7. Ohio 28,664,505 8. Minnesota 23,382,158 Peas and Beans. 1. Ontario 9,434,873 2. New York 1,569,541 3. N.Carolina 967,936 4. Georgia 884,778 5. Michigan 769,539 6. fi .Carolina 738,834 7. Mississippi 686,141 8. Tennessee 667,960 Rye. I.Pennsylvania 3,683,621 2. Illinois 3,121,785 3. New York 2,634,690 4. Wisconsin 2,298,513 5. Ontario 1,598,871 6. Iowa 1,518,605 7. New Jersey 949,064 8. Kentucky 668,050 Buck Wheat. 1. New York 4,461,200 2. Pennsylvania 3,593,326 3. Ontario 841,649 4. New .Jersey 466,414 5. Michigan 413,062 6. Maine 382,707 7. Vermont 356,618 8. Wisconsin 299,107 CARNEGIE ON AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. Ill Indian Coen. 1 nUn/M-o No. of bush, produced. ' ;"'"°^^ • 325,792,481 ^•J?.^^-. 275,024,247 ^•f:f.«°"" 202,485,723 t-^^^'^''^ 115,482300 ^•^^^^ 111,877,124 I'lTTX 105,729,325 7. Kentucky ^ '• ^'^'"^^^ 65.450,135 f In^ !o ''^^^'■^' -^'''^'^° ^^™' ^'^^^^'^^ co^^es in as the 27th, with iJ,096,782 bushels. VIII. .. , BRITISH AND CANADIAN AGRICULTUBE. BY J. P. SHELDON. ' A competition is going on between the farmers of the old country and those of the new, naturally involving fiscal prob- lems which aflfect already, and in the future will much more affect, the condition of agriculture in both countries. Of the modern and more striking features of this rivalry our fathers had no conception Avhatever, nor had we a decade and a half ago ; but with the older features we had been familiar some time before, though even now wo do not apprehend the full scope of the influence that they will exert in the future. That the com- petition on the part of the new country will become keener, and will extend even further, is clearly enough seen ; but we can- not foretell the lines on which it will be developed or the sur- prises that may be in store. In this age of steam and electricity and multifarious inventions, now and unexpected factors are ever being brought into play ; and those involve the adoption of vari- ous modifications in farming practices. The twin principles, progress and adaptation, are at work to-day in agriculture as they have not aforetime been, and nothing, even in agriculture, is so inevitable as the unforseen. Of this a striking instance is seen in the Transatlantic trade in fresh meat, so recently de- veloped, and not less so in that of live animals. I would en- deavom* to trace out briefly some of the tendencies which are in 114 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. play just now, and to indicate the lines which will probably have to be followed in the future. The exports of dairy produce from the Dominion of Canada, during the years 18*73 and 1883, compare as follows. (The Canadian fiscal year ends June 30th.) 1873. 1883. Quantity, lbs. Value. Quantity, lbs. 8,106,447 58,041,387 Value. Butter 15,208,633 19,483,211 $2,808,979 2,280,412 $1,705,817 6,451,870 Cheese f^ Those figures show a large falling ofl^ in butter, but a much larger proportionate increase in cheese ; and this may be in part accounted for by the superior advantages which cheese aifords for transit purposes, as well as by its better keeping properties, as butter is now made and packed in Canada. Canada, indeed, has in i'ecent years proved hei-self capable of producing cheese of very superior quality and condition, her climate being, so fur as the great American continent goes, ex- ceptionally well adapted to the pursuit of dairy husbandry. But the disparity indicated between cheese and butter, as regards transit and preservation, is one for which there is really no ne- cessity ; butter can be so made and packed as to travel safely and in good condition to the other side of the world and back again if need be. Canada can produce such butter and win a large poi-tion of this trade to hei'self The value of Canadian exports, consisting of animals and their produce, for the year ending June 30th, 1883, was $20,- 284,443 ; that of other agricultural exports, $22,818,510. The great bulk of these exports was sent to England, and the de- mand in that country is developing in Canada the tendency to increase lai'gely the trade in animals and their produce. Canada, indeed, will owe much of her future agricultural pros- perity to the export of l)eef and mutton and dairy products. The Eastern and Maritime Provinces are still in the incipient stages of agricultural transition, and will in time develop into stock-raising and dairying countries, though the process may BRITTSH AND CANADIAN AGRICULTURE. 116 be long in evolution. But there can hardly be a doubt that the tendency is a wise one ; first, because they are better adapted for stock-raising than for grain-raising, and secondly, because the Northwest Territory is destined to become, at no distant day, the chief granary of Canada, as also perhaps of England. Canada does not, however, appear in recent yeara to have maintained the volume of her wheat exports, though it is proba- ble that the opening up of the Northwest by the Canadian Pa- cific Eailway will shortly enable her to increase them greatly, if she thinks it well to do so. So far, however, as the production of wheat is concerned in British colonial possessions, a new com- petitor, and a most powerful and therefore dangerous one, has recently entered the lists, and Canada may ere long find herself seriously handicapped by India. The exports of wheat from India to England show a very rapid increase in volume, and these exports have risen thus quickly without causing any ap- preciable rise in the price of wheat in India. It is probable indeed that the price of wheat there will this year touch a lower relative point than it has ever done before, and it must be admitted that the climate and soil of India are eminently suited for the growth of wheat of fair quality. The probability now is that, with the extension of the railway system of oui* eastern empire, we may expect, as a direct and rapid result of the competition of that vast country — where cheap labovr abounds, and where the cost of living is very low to the working classes — a still fur- ther reduction in the price of breadstuff's. This question is one of surpassing importance to the agri- cultui'al well-being of the farmers of the Eastern Provinces of the Dominion, and I may therefore draw the attention of Can- adian farmers to the urgent expediency of extending their oper- ations in stock-raising and dairy-farming. It will be well, in fact, for them to copy the best practices of the old country as far as may bo, viz., crop rotations made subsidiary to stock-rais- ing, stock-fattening, and the production of milk. And in order to this, conservation of manure, thorough tilling of the soil, and the employment of purchased feeding-stuffs and fertilizers Will occupy prominent positions in the farmer's programme. It is competent for me to record, as a result of personal in- vestigation, my opinion that the Eastern and Maritime Pro- 116 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. vinces, in many parts of them, are well adapted to the growth of roots and green crops as well as of hay and straw for forage. These crops supply the foundation for successful stock-raising and dairying ; and by stock-raising I do not mean cattle only, but all sorts of animals which go to the efficient equipment of mixed farms. I may here add a few words relative to the position of the farmers of Great Britain, and their prospects for the future. Seven wet years have left British farmers poor, which means that they are badly equipped to meet the competition which they encounter to-day from every side ; and seven good years, better than we have any reason to expect, are required to restore them to the full measure of prosperity which they enjoyed ten years ago. The wonder is that their condition is not far worse than wo find it to be, for they have suffered not from wet seasons only, not alone from inferior quality of products, but from shorter fields, and from the diminished values which are the result of sharp foreign competition. But the rent-paying far- mei's of Britain to-day, so far as law is concerned, are placed in a position much more favourable than that of their fathers, for the money which they bury in the soil, in the way of adding to its fertility, cannot now be confiscated, as it formerly could by rapacious landlords. The prospects of British farmers are, however, brightening, and a few good seasons will revive their confidence and replenish their pockets, while a rapidly growing population will maintain the demand for food no matter what the extent of foreign competition may become. Various means are being taken to inculcate improved practices in husbandry, and sound agricultural knowledge is being imparted to the peo- ple. It is in dairy-fiirming, ])robably, that the greatest need exists for improvement, especially in butter and cheese making, for the need of tuition in these departments seems to be perennial. Dairy schools and other means of dairy tuition have already effected great improvement in Ireland, and similar means are being adopted in England and Scotlatid. Canada, too, may wisely employ similar agencies, for she seems destined to develop into a country, great in her exports of butter and cheese, as well as of beef, and mutton, and live stock. She ought, indeed, to supply England with no inconsiderable I i BRITISH AND CANADIAN AGRICULTURE. Ill quantity of stall cattle for fattening there, and she may do this so long as, by preserving a clean bill of health, and by excluding American stock from transit through her territory, she remains out of the list of countricfi which England has been compelled to schedule on account of disease. This present immunity from dis- ease among stock is an immense advantage to the farmers of Canada. The needs of the day in England, and probably in Canada too, in order that agricultui-e may floui'ish, are improved practice and greater economy, and the adoption of newer and more eflBlcient ideas, along with more of personal supervision on the part of the farmer and his family. The Canadian farmer owns the land he farms, and can do what he likes with it. This is all very well as long as ownership does not bury too large a capital ; but in course of time, as the land increases in value, a landlord and tenant system will grow up in Canada, and it will be well that it should, at the outset, be defined on equitable lines. I IX. THE APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL ARBORICULTURE TO CANADA. BY WILLIAM BROWN. It would be difficult to find a country that haa had an eminent agricultural history, that does not now complain of want of trees Advanced nations do not discuss the worth or worthlessness of trees in their rural economy ; they merely consider how best to secure full value from them in all their beai'ings. In doing this, much serious consideration is necessaiy. It would be very un- wise for any country to rush into (.sx tensive tree-planting without a clear idea of how the work she ^1 be begun, carried out, and maintained. It is my purpose in this paper to show briefly what Canada can do in the scientific and practical application of arboriculture; but, before handling the subject as a forester, allow me to submit some general views. Forestry will not attain to its proper place in Canadian agriculture, with all its scientific and practical value, uatil one of two things has been accomplished. There must be the conviction on the part of farmers of the necessity of conserving and replanting, and therefore, of their being educated up to these. On the other hand, the Government should have the power to resume parts of the country for conserving and replanting. It will be difficult to attain to both of these. The former would be the slower but eventually the most thorough means, owing to self-interest; the latter would be more immediate and possibly 120 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. loss efficient practically, though bcientifically better applied. Large numboi-s of various interests are never ho well arranged as by a company, and therefore Government will have to become a company of foresters in the many details of the profession. Much of our indifference to this subject arises from the com- mon idea that the planter cannot himself hope to receive all the benefits from the conservation of the present trees, and particularly from replanting. Eeturns, for an Am> ^can, must be smart, strong, and undoubted ; he idea of permanency in tlie distant future does not concern us so much as present needs. In Europe, arboricultuio takes a shape that may never be realized here because of large ownorship-^the possession within one man'H power of all the area and class of soil suitable to profit- able production on a largo scale, so that even one man can em- ploy officers and men in such numbers as to make profits certain. Cultivated Canada, meanwhile, is so subdivided as to preclude all idea of massing woods sufficient to yield results equal to those of Europe ; but the day may come, and progress must be made in some other ways in the meantime. I believe it is the experience of the world, that more difficulty, in various forms, is found in reclothing a district with trees where trees grew before, than in planting a country for the first time. There is not only the practical fact of succession of crop- ping in its scientific and natural bearings, as realized for ex- ample in the products of the field, but the more serious difficulty of the indifference of those who cut the first crop. Most of us think of trees as means of shelter under several forms. We like shelter for buildings, for ourselves, for animals in the field, and for farm crops. These services alone would give a large value to trees in any district, and would justify all the cost and subse- quent attendance. Yet we have another aspect of the question that takes an equally strong place in our logard : climate itself is not merely a matter of external causation, but intimately related to local influences, among which trees are pre-eminent. We have no time to show how temperature, rainfall, moisture, and evaporation are directly influenced by a small or large sur- face of trees, and how, therefore, water depends largely upon them for local distribution. The second aspect of forestiy, as a science and practice, would even seem to swallow up the ; ! BROWN ON ARBORICULTURE. 121 previous question, and id in itself an inducement to its prosecu- tion on our ])art. Wore neither of these consideriitions convincing, the third great reason for the cultivation of trees will surely con- vert even the most American amongst us. It is not a matter of doubt that, under average conditions, arboriculture in any coun- try produces a more profitable crop than even agricultui*e. This position is not open to question, but clearly marked in all experience whore age has given time for proof. The area of trees in Canada is not an unknown thing in the older districts, and it is not true that it is poorly wooded in comparis'^ n with other countries. The United States can show twenty-five per cent., and Canada nearly twice the amount, of its cultivated dis- tricts still under trees. This is an area probably larger than that of any other continent with the exception of the northern part of Europe, where agriculture is necessarily at a discount, and the forest is practically untouched. The cause of our dis- content, then, is not the want of forest per nation, but of its regular distribution to subserve all the needs of the nation. The existing condition of our forests is the first consideration in this enquiry. Outside of the lumbering interest, which of it- self is simply a taking without system, there is no enclosing, pre- serving, caretaking, or conserving in any sense, with the excep- tion of the right of individual ownership. The average " bush" of Noi-th America is a beautiful sight and yet a sad one. The artist must revel in its variety of form and foliage, but the fight- ing for place, the smothering and rotting for want of light and air, can only be estimated by those who are scientifically and practically foresters. I do not mean that our forests in every case should be managed similarly to those in Europe, because much of our best timber requires very different conditions, but similar principles ought to guide our management. There are really no figures to give as to the extent of Canadian forest, either as to gross area or special kinds of timber. The small map recently issued by Dr. Bell, of om* Geological Survey, gives a good idea of the northern limits of the principal trees, but, of course, it cannot help us in either of the particulars named. As the country, with the exception of prairie, was originally all forest, and as we have cleared about 25,000,000 acres for agri- cultural purposes, it may be said that the whole country is still I '11 122 CANADIANtECONOMICS. under ti-ees with this exception. What the extent is to a million acres nobody knows, nor do u million acres one way or the other affect our subject. Wo have four distinct fields of ©iteration in the future of Canar dian forestry: (1) the untimbered prairie lands, (2) the older cleared portions, (3) the recent forest settlements, and (4) the untouched forest. Each of these will require different methods of converting, clearing and replanting, although all will be subject to one grand system of operations. To submit details now would be unnecessary, when the object is to impress principles. Still another aspect of the question is the requisite propor- tions of tree sui'face to that under farm crops. What should it be ? This is just one of the things that we do not know and that wo are never likely to know, as a point for general practical guidance. When 1 had the honor of addressing the British Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science at Dundee, in 1867, and at Norwich, in IStiS, upon the claims of arboriculture as a science, they knew little upon this point in a country possessing greater physi- cal distinctions than Canada. The conditions as affected by climate, altitude, latitude, aspect, soil, sea or lake neighborhood, and vegetation, are so various, that no possible numbei* of obser- vations spread over any length of time could determine exactly the ]'equisito proportion of tree surface for different districts. However, men do come to realize, through science and especially through practice, that a farm or district needs protection in cer- tain places, and thus a country could easily be reclothed to the ex- tent required for such shelter, if not for regulation of climate and for other eonsidorations to which we shall refer presently. The point then of immediate shelter is within everybody's knowledge, and needs no scientific guidance and, I may hero say, no spur from Government. But the wider question of climate while a na- tional problem, is still to a great extent a scientific inquiry, and no one can tell its relation to the proportion of trees to farm crops. Of course, if men disregard everything but the direct profits from trees as a crop upon land, another century may actually find some countries going back to the days of too many leaves and too little arable. Viewing trees in all their relations, I am of opinion that, upon an average of conditions in Canada, one foui'th of the BROWN ON ARBORICULTURE. 123 HUi'face should bo covered by them ; and, as this is just one half of what we have at present all over the foi-est districts, the appar- ent inconsistency remains of our wanting to conserve and replant when we possess double what is re(iuirod. This brings out the fact that it is, in our case, the irregular distribution of tree surface that gives trouble, — some parts liaving more than required, while others have been ovorcleared. As the subject grows upon our attention, we are concerned next with the question of what parts of the country should be conserved or replanted. In this part of the study it is obvious that our views ought not to be confined to single farms or even to special sections. Eeferring as we must to the great overruling influences, as previously indicated, wo have to deal with geo- graphical featui'os that may embrace thousands of acres that have to be subserved with one or more massing of trees. The exact question, where and to what extent to consei-ve or replant, so as to avail ourselves of all the virtues that trees are known to possess, is the great problem of the future. To say that we should only replant our less valuable soils is nonsense, though apparently reasonable enough from an agiicultural standpoint ; that high lands should be conserved or reclad as against lower parts is largely true, though not generally applicable ; and that conserv- ing and replanting must go hand in hand, and take place any- where as found best through experience, is correct in every sense. Turning from this view of the subject we are natui'ally led to speak of the suitability of certain kinds of trees for special pur- poses. We have soils and climates capable of producing almost anything in tree life, from the pine of the fai* north luxur- iating in an appai'oritly bare rock-cleft, to the walnut of the south that must send its carroty root several feet into a rich soil. The preparation of the soil ; the methods oi planting, including fencing and draining ; the knowledge of enemies and friends in nature ; and all the management requisite throughout, in order to attain the highest results, we must pass over on the present occasion. In order to win success anywhere, we must put in operation such a combination of the scientific and practical knowledge at pre- sent existing, as is likely to bring about the fullest realization of tree value. That system is universal in its application, how- !^ ■ 1 1 1 I'll 124 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. ever smjill or largo tho scale, however varied the conditionH. Whether we pull dowa or rebuild, or midce entirely now, tho sys- tem will apply; and, as it is by entirely new work that any sys- tem is best exhibited, I will ask you to go with me to the Prairio. The land before us is almost entirely treeless, with an undulating, but generally uniform level surfiico, an occasional ridge, a lake, a river, cutting deep through the unshaded land, and bounded on the northwest by high lands, such as I have outlined on tho map. Here men need never hope to gather wealth from agriculture in all its branches without the help of trees. 1 can see no great future for -Manitoba and the Northwest, unless extensive systematic for- estry precedes agriculture, Tho sooner our Cxovornmont realizes this, the better for the country. No methods of farming, no railway or water communication, no minerals, natural giazing, or any other advantages will ever "make" a country without trees. I am not theorizing. A peopled agricultural country without trees is an impossibility. In our treeless region, therefore, experience has made us ac- quainted with a variety of wants that can be subserved by trees, and science points to more. Together, then, they make up a bill that may be thus summarized : — 1. Eradside shade. 2. Shelter for dwellings. 3. Shelter for cultivated farm crops. 4. Shelter for open natui-al grazings. 5. Shelter for enclosed grazings. 6. Head-water conservation. 7. Wind-breaks. 8. Climatic amelioration. Any one of these would of coui-se serve more purposes than that implied by its name, but a full illustration of the system re- quires a form for each. The accompanying map professes to show all these : from the single shade-tree up to the great climatic plantation, the area or disti'ict embraced and the size of each of the classes would be sub- ject to requirements of from one acre to as much as 1,000 acres each. The system or principle is not affected by size ; but posi- tion and form, or outline, ai'e the prime factors. Size should be BEOWN ON ARBORICULTURE. 125 regulated by the particular physical features of the district and the object in view ; form, by prevailing winds as well as by the particular object desired, and partly by physical features. In our prairie example on the map we liave a farm of 160 acres made up as follows : — Timber 30 acres. Cultivated 125 " Orchard, garden, buildings, road 5 " Total 160 " The fields and roads lie north-west and south-east, and therefore also north-east and south-east. By preference the buildings are situated on the southern angle of the farm at a junction of a con- cession, and a side road. In the first place, the roads are lined with shade-trees, which serve as shade to animals in some of the fields £l8 well. Next, the dwelling house and orchard, while open to the south-east, south, and south-west, are shaded by ornamental standards and lined on the north and north-west by trees. This tree line may be called the second sub-wind break of the farm. The barns, with two small fields or paddocks, are also open to the south and protected from the colder winds by a narrow belt of timber in positions similar to the others. The six other fields are, in the first instance, sheltered by a broad belt all round, from the east via north to the west, capable of breaking and mellow- ing the whole farm for cropping. But for live stock under such circumstances, and with twenty-acre fields, it is necessary to pro- vide other shade and sholtei". I can speak on this from the ac- tual experience I have had both in Scotland and in Canada. I know of no better form and position for a shade and shelter clump of trees than that illustrated in Fig. C, the position of which is also shown in our farm oxatnplo. It serves two fields, and from whatever direction the wind or the sunshine comes, the animals can find a retreat in either field. You cannot draw a straight line across this clump without finding a safe coi-ner. Then, in the adaptation of one form of shelter to four fields, Fig. E is neat and serviceable and, when supplied with water in the centre, is a very valuable acquisition to pastures. In the case of extensive open grazings, the circular belt (Fi(/. D) is also best for various reasons. It resists and breaks storms of wind better 126 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. than other outlines ; it is less liable to damage by cattle or wind, is more compact, and affords more outside shelter. There should be two passages not far apart and facing south as much as possi- ble ; one passage is not enough with a large number of cattle go- ing and coming, and provision is necessary for a stack of hay in the centre. These are what may be called the purely agricultural divisions of arboriculture. They are definite and practical enough, and little difference of opinion is likely to arise about them. In what remains of my subject there may be difference of opinion in regard to details, and considerable difficulty in proving that any- thing more is needed than what has already been sketched. It will be said : As each fiirm has its proper amount of shade, shelter and fuel supply, and even wood i-evenue besides, what more does the country require ? I have not seen it stated in any work on rural economy that it is as much a national duty to provide for arboriculture as for the proper observance of the laws of health. Yet, while every one acknowledges that without the proper measure of trees there cannot exist the pioper health, political economy, science, agriculture and society as a whole, are equally interested in this question ; and, since I have already indicated its national aspect, it is only necessary to point out how more than the immediate farmer's work is required. Over a great plain, such as our Prairie, where storms rage unchecked, where rains come down and go irregularly and uneconomized in any form, and where sunshine is unmellowed, it is necessary to establish agents for the purpose of subserving these and other climatic purposes. Assuming all the country to be planted to the extent already shown for immediate farm use, there exists nothing in particular spots — no plantation exactly placed to conserve head-water streams, no great and small wind- breaks, and no groat climatic plantations. On the map these are shown in position, proper outline, and extent. Position is regulated by elevation and the neighborhood of other physical conditions, such as water surface and high land ; outline is regulated by the direction of prevail ng winds, conformation of surface, and partly by public roads ; while the extent is directed by the indefinitely known influence that a cer- BROWN ON ARBORICULTURE. 12T tain body of trees possesses over climate, — climate being under- stood as distribution of rainfall, evaporation, natural drainage and temperature. I am aware that we cannot reason on this from any clear or precise experience, and are driven to draw conclusions from actual facts, and thoi'o seems to bo no doubt that it requires certain massing and kinds of trees to ameliorate climate, — nar- row strips and clumps being insufficient, or incapable of doing so. Head-water plantations, as implied in the name, must surround, or bo in the immediate neighborhood of, sources of streams, and have an outline to nurse them, with area consistent with the importance of the source. The circular form is good and applic- able to the two springs at €r, or it may be oval as illustrated at the mouth of the valley, and would also take the position and area of that at the small lake. Great wind-breaks, being meant to fend the smaller plantations as well as particular districts, have to be carefully outlined, of very considerable extent, and must command an exact position. In the example H on the ridge, which is designed to break the storms from the adjoining ranch, several points are notice- able: the laril occupied by the plantation is within one block, or range of roads, and therefoi'O does not encroach ; it occupies also part of a ridge that is less valuable generally for agricultural purposes ; it is formed to cut or feather the storms that prevail in the district — south-west by west, — a point in forestry of very gj'eat importance indeed ; it is massive or in sufficient body to resist j; id break the force of the storms. It may be remarked that it would be bettor to extend the plantation eastward upon the point of the ridge. This, however, I have avoided in order to make the example more difficult. The other great wind-break is of a different form, while serv- ing a similar purpose. It runs parallel with the public roads, makes no awkward corners for the cultivation of adjoining land, faces the pi-evailing winds with the exception of the south-east end, and will protect a large area of country. Lesser wind l)roaks, as at J, are placed as determined by the form of the country on the prevailing-wind side, or where a larger break is difficult to establish. The example on the east of the largo lake exhibits both. Position here is very important, and it will be observed that outline and area are aiTangod to til 128 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. receive the storms across the lake, break them, and yet yield to thom. Sub-wind brealcs are easily arranged, and can take various forms and sizes to suit conditions, as at K. Another kind of plantation, as already referred to, is that which I call climatic, the objects of which I have explained. The necessity for its position in a country among others is not so easily proved, either scientifically or practically. Area is obvi- ously of more consequence than form, because it requires a great field of leaves to do what leaves are said to do in climatic ameli- oration. M with eight sides, and the other with four, are designed as concentrated masses adapted to Canada, and of course in their case, more than in that of other plantations, the cost of establishment would be less per acre, and would also better moot the item of revenue, i is an example of a conjoint wind-break and climatic plantation. Estimate of tiik Financial Position op a Mixed Plantation op 100 Acres in Canada. {Manitoba and Northwest particnlarhj.) REVENUE. 1st. Thinning when 15 years old, 3,000 poles, 20 feet long,at3c $ 90 2nd. Thinning jit 18 years ; 8,000 trees, iit 5c 400 3rd. Tliinning at 25 years ; 15,000 trees, 12 inches dia- meter at base, 40 feet, at oOc 4,500 4th. Thinning at 35 years ; 25,000 trees, 20 inches dia- meter; 50 feet, at 50c 12,500 5th. Tliinning at 40 years; 30,000 trees, 22 inches dia- meter 22,500 6th. Thinning at 45 years ; 21,000 trees, 25 inches dia- meter, at $1.00 21,000 7th. Thinning at 50 years ; 18,000 trees, at $1 . 10 19,000 Gross revenue $80,000 10,000 trees failed, leaving 20,000 trees, or 200 per acre, as permanent crop. BROWN ON ARBORICULTURE. 129 KXPENDITURB. l,000rodsof fence, at 75 cents $ 750 Draina'j;e of portions 250 150,000 trees, 1 year seedling, 1 year transplanted, at Ic. 1,800 Planting same 575 Freight on trees 150 Original cost $ 3,225 Per acre § 32 Replanting failures for three years, 5,000 trees f 100 General attendance, keep-up of fence, &c., for 15 years. . 300 Gross cost..- $ 3,625 Per acre until revenue begins $ 36 Cost of thinning and hauling to roads $ 13,100 General superintendence and incidentals for 35 years . . 3,500 Gross expenditure $ 20,225 Balance, being clear revenue $ 60,565 $80,790 [Note. — No allowance is made for interest on outlay and rent of land on the one hand, or for interest on revenue and value of grazing for twenty-five years on the other. Neither is credit given for climatic amelioration, nor for value of permanent crop.] 9 %mi APPLICATION or Soientifio and Practical Arboriculture To CANADA. OBJECTS : /. — Jtoad-tide Shade, i. — SheUerfor Dwellingt. S.^Sheltcr for Large Grazingi. 4. — Shelter for Agricultural Crop* B.— Climatic Amelioration. 6,~£evenue from Wood Sake. iBICULTURE. THE BURLANO LITHO. CO.. APPLICATION : POSITION, OUTLINE, AREA. A.— Road Bide Shade. B.—Skdterfor Dvdlingi. C— Shelter for AnimaU-Two rUldt. D.—SMterfor Open Oratittgt. E.—SheUer and Water to F(mr JKeUi. F—SKdter for Farm Orop$. a.— Head Water riantatiom. H— Great Wind Breakt, J.— Letter Wind Break$. K. — Sub wind hreakt. L.— Conjoint Wind Break and Climatie flantation. M.—Oi'tat Climatie Plantation. DIAGRAM TO ILLUSTRATE PROF. BROWN' § t ^ ^ r% THE APPLIOATION or Scientific aud Pra<)tioal Arboriculturo To CANADA. OBJBOTS ; t—Soad-tide Shade, S.— Shelter for Dmllingt, 3.— Shelter for Large Orating$. ^Shelter for Agricultural Cropt 5.— Climatic Amelioration. G.—Revetmefrom Wood SaUi. PROF. BROWN'S PAPER ON ARBORICULTURE. THE BURLANO LITHO. CO., X. THE FUTURE POLICY OF FOREST MANAGEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. BY FRANKLIN B. HOUGH. Throughout all of the older States of the American Union, and in all of the newer States and Territories, so far as they have been settled, the lands have been conveyed to individual owners, for the most part by allodial titles, and without reservation ; except that, as in the case of New York, the sovereign power reserved to itself "one fifth part of all gold and silver ores." These grants were made very generally while the country was timbered, and at a time when the first heavy task of the settler was to clear off a part of the native forest to make room for cultivation. The woodlands were for many years regarded as of no value, except for the potash that might bo made from their ashes, and which generally furnished in part the means for paying the pur- chase price of the land. The idea that timber was of market value, or that the forests would ever fail to furnish supplies to unlimited extent, and for an indefinite time in the future, does not appear to have entered into the estimate of the value of land ; much less did the authorities that granted these lands deem it necessary to make any reservations or stipulations with regard to timber. It is only since the subject was brought under the attention of Congress by a committee of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, about ten years ago, that it has be- i 132 CANADIAN ECONOMira gnn to receive discussion or to awjikon inquiry amon^ those in power; and to iliis day no policy of any kind has boon adopted by tho central ^ovornmonl,\vilh roforence to the supply of future wants, except in a defootive statute for the grant in;^ of (•(M-tniii portions of the pi'airio lands, upon condition of plantini;- a ])ai't widi foi'ost trees. Even this law has been jnado (he oi)portunity for fraudulent pi-actices, that have led to measures for its repeal. We find ourselves therefore in this condition ; the land is all owned by private citizens, by railroad corporations, by state gov- ernments, or by institutions (where grants have been made for special objects), — and with no power on the part of either the central or state governments to resume any authority, or to in- sert any conditions, with regard to planting or cultivation of any kind, except as such control may be acquired by ])urchase for the public benefit under tho right of eminent domain. This right is often exercised in the construction of roads and public works, but the time is distant when it will ever be applied to the re- sumption of private lands for the planting of forests. It is true that the central government still owns large tracts of lands in tho Territories, upon which valuable forests exist, and a bill is now pending in Congress for the reservation of a large tract of broken mountain land in Montana, as a forest for future supplies. But it is also true that the custom of the frontiers, which has been legalized by acts of Congress, allows timber to be taken freely from the public lands for all local uses, including mining purposes and the construction of railroads. This custom of appropriating public property to private uses has become in- veterate : it is practised in a region where the sympathies of tho community are in its favor, and therefore no redress can be had by recourse to law under the established rules of jury title. The project of a great reservation is undoubtedly highly meri- torious ; but we can easily predict that all the benefits that might be derived from it, even under the most careful system of man- agement, would be absorbed by the country adjacent, and that not a dollar's worth of lumber in any form would ever find its way from Montana to New York. It is also true that in the State of New York there is a tract of land in broken parcels, which having once been private property, after being stripped of its valuable timber and damaged to a I HOUGH ON FORESTRY. 133 great oxtont in many places by tbrost fireB, has been abandoned by the owneiB as not worth the taxes and has thus reverted to the State. Twelve years ai^-o, these waste lands were but about 40,000 acres in extent, widely scattered, and much of them utterly valueloHs. A policy of withholding- these land from re-sale was then recommended by a Committee, but this advice was not fol- lowed until 188i]. In the meantime, however, they increased more than twenty times in amount, from failure to pay taxes, and we have now over 800,000 acres belonging to the State. It is clearly the duty of the State to adopt measures for man- aging these lands with the view of making them as productive in forest products as possible, and at the least expense. They are worth nothing whatever for agriculture, as has been proved repeatedly for nearly a hundred years by the failure of en- terprising men, with an abundance of capital and energy, who have tried and failed to establish settlements upon them. They are not such as one would select for a forest plantation : the circumstances are in many respects adverse, and in some cases, where forest fires have impoverished a naturally sterile soil, the planting or growth of trees is a forlorn hope. This, however, does not justify their neglect, and it is clearly the duty of the State government to do the best it can with the lands as we find them. It is not my purpose to consider the duty of the central or state governments in the management of their timber lands. The chances are as small of their supplying the wants of the country in the way of timber or lumber, as of the royal parks being able to supj)ly the same material in England. Even under the best management, it would take many years to reduce them to a con- dition for regular periodical cuttings, and the whole of thorn to- gether would be but insignificant for the supply of the markets of the country with the twenty-four billions of feet of sawn lum- ber that we require annually. Remembering that the end of our i-esources is already visible, it is time to ask from what source these supplies of timber can be obtained? It cannot be from Canada, because our neighbors there are asking the same question, and their future prospects in matters of forestry are closely analogous to our own. There is no other country in the world to which we can look for timber, SI' ,1 I I ' , • 1 -J 134 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. for every civilized country in now drawing upon the United States and Canada, to meet certain wants that cannot be supplied at home. Even Northern Europe, which for u centuiy has been sending its fir and pine timber to other countries, is importing certain kinds of lumber from the United States. These conditions and future prospects present two problems for our study: (1) How can we economise in the consumption of wood in various forms ? (2) How can we obtain the supplies that we require in order to meet the absolute wants of civilized life? The first of these problems is being solved in a practical way in the progress of our internal improvements, and by discoveries in the arts. Mineral coal is taking the place of wood as a fuel everywhere along our lines of railway, and at the depots for deliv- ery at every station. Oui* steamboats, oui* railways, oui* great manufactories requu-ing a large amount of steam power, our public buildings, and hundreds of thousands of private dwellings and cbtablishments, now use coal as their principal fuel. In the construction of bridges for railroads and common high- ways, iron is coming rapidly into use, where heavy timber struc- tui'es Trere formerly required. It is the same in the larger class of ocean steamships, and in the substantial class of large buildings in f ur cities. The wire fence is rapidly replacing those formerly made of wood, and wo are learning the lesson so easily acquired by the prairie farmer, that a groat deal of fencing can be saved, by keei)ing cattle in, instead of out of their proper range. Tin and slate are more commonly used for rooting than they were formerly, ami we may yob learn som'ithing of the economy of tiles so well understood in Europe. Thoso economies are well as far as they go, and might be curried urthor by the (jommonor use of stone, brick, and iron in building. But after all, timber and wood arc necessary for very many purposes, and, although the arts may find substi' itos i^ some cases, the discov erics of science are every year providing new uses, creating new demands. And this leads us to consider the second question, viz., how wo can obtain the supplies that we require in order to meet the absolute needs of civilized life ? As the land mostly belongs to private owners, and as it is evi- dent that no one else will ever plant but themselves, we have HOUGH ON FORESTRY. 135 but one way of answoring the question : They must plant their own lands. As prices adviince, the value of growing timber becomes evident. We have Icnown a single curl-maple tree sold for $1,000, and a black walnut of exceptionally tine grain sold for throe times this amount. Wo have seen $20 paid foi* the stump of a black walnut, the body of which had been burne« GILPIN ON GOLD-MINING. 183 the quartz and slate. The associated minerals frequently hold notable amounts of gold. Fow crystals of gold have been found in Nova Scotia. One from Tangier was a rhombic dodecahedron with bevelled edges, others are octohedra with rounded planes. The principal minerals found in the auriferous quartz veins are the sulphides of iron, zinc, copper, load, and antimony. Ar/enical iron pyj'ites is also common, and molybdenite, native copper, barite, calcite, etc. These are not present in amounts of economic value ; but, as they sometimes carry as much as 100 ounces of gold to the ton, attempts are now being made to concentrate them from the quartz tailings with a view to their treatment at Swansea. The distribution of the gold in the veins may be termed capric- ious. Few carry a uniform yield over a length exceeding 500 feet. While the vein for a long distance may be auriferous, there are generally one oi* more zones of quartz much richer than that on each side. These zones, or '' pay streaks," do not appear to be the effect of any law that has yet been applied to our mines. It may be surmised that the gold, originally distributed in the surrounding strata, was at these points more accessible to trans- porting agencies, or that subsequent changes permitted the con- centration of the gold of the veins along certain favouring lines. These zones are inclined at every angle, and are of very vaiied length and width. One has been followed nearly 600 feet from the surface without showing signs of exhaustion. The sun-ound- ing quartz yielded from 2 to 6 dwts.of gold to the ton, while the pay streak ran as high as 20 ounces to the ton. These rich por- tions of the veins sometimes become poor at a shallow depth, or a lucky discovery opens one which gave on the surface no evidence of its proximity. III. Alluvial Q-old. At first. Nova Scotia miners had great expectations of rich gold washings, but their hopes were not realized. Near Lunen- burgh, where there are exposures of aui'iferous veins on the shore, denudation enriched the sands, but the supply was soon exhausted. It is well known that at many points the drift shows gold, but no attempts have yet been made to test the present 184 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. lines of erosion or the old water coui-ses, although the subject is well worth a systematic investigation at several points. The gold districts present everywhere the signs of extensive ice action. The striae run between S. 20° W. and S. 28° E. mag- netic, or nearly at ligL pgles to the general strike of the strata. There appear to Have been two periods of attrition and transportation. The earlier one has left great " boars' backs " from 50 to 150 feet high, with u general north and south course. They hold boulders of quartzite, sandstone, granite, etc., in clay with layers of sand and gravel, some of the material being de- rived from sources over fifty miles distant. A second and more local action is also visible and is practically interesting, as by its means the auriferous veins are often dis- covered. This power, possibly that of ice acting on a coast line gradually changing its level, has carried the quartzites, slates, etc., for distances varying up to 1,800 feet, on a course corres- ponding closely with that of the strise. Miners finding auriferous boulders of quartz trace them to the north on the line of the ice grooves, and frequently discover lodes agreeing in every particular with the first-found boulders. So local is this action, that in several districts men have made a living by breaking up these auriferous boulders when, at a short distance away, a day's search would not be rewarded by a sight of gold. I I'f •■ is. m I III IV. The Age op the Gold-bearing Strata. For many years the Atlantic metamorphic series were re- garded as immediately preceding the Devonian; gradually, as the necessary divisions wore recognized, the aui'iferous series assumed an older position, and the following estimate of their age appears to be based on the best available data. The Menevian, or Barrande's Stage C of the Bohemian Primor- dial, are comparable here with the Acadian series of St. John, New Brunswick. The Atlantic coast series is considered to pre- cede these. The geologist can in this case learn but little from fossil evidence. Mr. Billings referred, with hesitation, to the genus JEospongia, and to casts of Orthis, certain nodular bodies and markings found at Waverley by Prof. Hynd. Di*. Dawson r©- GILPIN ON GOLD-MINING. 185 marks that these nodular bodies and markings may be compared with the problematical object from the Eophyton sandstone of Sweden, described by Linnarson under the name of Astylospongia radiata, but he considers them fucoids with radiating fronds, allied in form to Hall's Phytopsis from the Bird's Eye limestone, or to Linnarson's Scotolithus from the Eophyton sandstone, and has given them the name of " Astropolithon." Markings refer- able to Scolithus have been found at St. Mary Eiver. Judging from this evidence it would appear that the aurife- rous strata are to be included in the Cambrian. The fossils may be compared with those of the Fucoidal sandstones of Sweden which underlie the equivalent of our Acadian series. This would make them probable equivalents of the Lower Cambrian or Long- mynd series of Europe. V. Mining and Milling. The system of raining generally followed in Nova Scotia, although of a temporary character, is well contrived for cheaply and effectually meeting the requirements of the district. When it is determined to open a quartz mine, shafts are sunk in the vein, which sometimes varies considerably from a perpendicular dip, at distances apart varying from 50 to 100 feet. When the central shaft has reached a depth of about sixty feet, slopes are at once carried away from it to and beyond the side shafts, which are then used for hoisting, etc. No leading levels are ever driven, nor, as a rule, is any pretence made at blocking out ore for a steady mill supply. Formerly it was customary to remove at one operation the vein and enough of the wall, if the vein happened to be narrow, to give a working space of about three feet in width. This was found to cause a serious loss of gold ; and it is now usual to take away, by underhand stopping, enough of one wall to allow work- ing room until several hundred square feet of the vein are exposed. This is taken down at one operation, and sent directly to the mill. The strata are very close, and generally dry, and present little difficulty in timborirer. The latest improvements in explosives, drills, pumps, etc., are used whenever theii' intro- duGtion is seen to lead to economy. 186 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. F» 'i m I if Tho quartz mills of the Nova Scotia gold fields are similar to those in general use in Australia and California. They contain from ten to twenty-five stamps, arranged in batteries of five stamps each. The stamps are raised and dropped in oblong iron boxes, called " mortars," provided with an opening in front for introducing the quartz, and one behind covered with a fine wire cloth, through which the pulverized quartz is driven by a stream of water. They weigh from 600 to 750 lbs. each, and arc lifted by cams on a horizontal shaft, and fall at a speed of from forty- five to seventy-five drops per minute for each stamp. Mercury is fed into the mortars, and the coarser gold is amalgamated, and retained within the mortars, around the cir- cular dies on which the stamps fall. The finer gold and part of the unutilised mercury passes through the screens and over amalgamated copper plates which retain it, while the quartz, etc., flows away. From eighty to ninety-five per cent, of the gold originally present is retained by these means, the skill of the mill manager having much to do with the success of the opera- tion. The cost of mining varies from 80 cents a ton in the open cast slate belts, carrying auriferous quartz, up to $15.00 a ton, in small veins three or four inches wide, in very hard rock. The cost per ton of crushing with water power varies from 60 cents to $1.00 ; with steam power the cost is somewhat higher. VI. History op Nova Scotia Gold-mining. The discoveries of gold in California in 1848, in Australia in 1851, and in British Columbia in 1858, prepared the minds of the public to receive with alacrity the proclamation of a new El Dorado. Miners who had returned from these gold fields fre- quently remarked on the presence of quartz veins, and Sir W. Dawson, writing in 1855, alluded to the prospect of finding gold on the Atlantic coast. It was not, however, until the year 1861 that the public learned how accident had revealed the precious metal, that had lain for a hundred years undiscovered beneath their feet. In a short time, men were seen prospecting everywhere, and numerous localities were found to show surface gold and auriferous veins. The OILPIN ON GOLD-MINING. 187 minors soon oxhuusted the loose gold in the tops of the lodes, find found themselves confronted by the rock-bound quartz veins, which scarcely yielded to the fiercest attacks of pick and hammer. The sudden revelation that gold could be won only by hard work, and by the outlay of capital on areas larger than those they had received (which were intended for alluvial gold) rapidly damped the ardour of those who sought fortune at a bound. A large number of companies wore then formed, some of which did hardly any work, while others started on rich veins and made good returns. Under these circumstances a maximum yield of 2*7,000 ounces was reached in the year 1867. Too many of the companies taking little heed for the rainy day which comes to all mining ventures, spent their profits in good dividends ; and, when their galleries showed barren quartz, share- holders refused to pay assessments, so that many really good mines were compelled to stop work. The careless treatment of the quartz in the mills also contributed to the difficulties caused by poor ores : for gold was frequently allowed to escape in quan- tities which would have greatly assisted the companies in tiding over a temporary want of rich ore. Some of the more intelligent of the adventurers realizing these facts began to improve their mining economics above and below ground, so that we have propeities that have been worked con- tinuously since the early days. The improvements thus effected may be judged of from the fact that better profits were made from an average yield of 12 dwts. to the ton than a few years before, when the average was 5 to 10 dwts. higher. However, by the year 1872 the majority of the companies had stopped working, and Nova Scotia mining entered on a new phase. The agents of these companies now began to let their mines to parties of workmen called "tributors." For several years they continued to work the mines already opened, and the richer parts of new veins. In the year 1879, American capitalists began to seek investment here, and we find our mines again reverting to companies. Some discredit has been caused by unscrupulous adventurers who have sold worthless properties, and caused heavy expenditures without return, but whenever caution has marked the purchase, and skill and economy guided the mining, the results have been satiBfactory. 188 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. Thus during the past three years, the Salmon Eivor Mine has returned 10,726 ounces of gold from 14,3*70 tons of quartz;. The Stormont Mine has within two years yielded 3,400 ounces of gold from 1,265 tons of quartz, and the other districts have yielded similar returns. Attention is now being turned to what are termed low-gi'ade ores : that is beds of aui'iferous slate with veins of quartz, yielding averages of 4 to 8 dwts. of gold to the ton. These low-grade belts are found in many of oui* districts and are frequently of great exteiit. The cheapness with which they can be quarried has already permitted the profitable crushing of much of this ore. The future of our gold-mining, in my opinion, lies as much in working these belts by careful mining and large mills, as in the smaller and richer, but more uncertain, veins hitherto mined. Our latest quartz mills built on the models most approved of on the Pacific coast now save ninety per cent, of the free gold in the quartz. The tailings are concentrated for the treatment of the auriferous metallic accessories, and improved pumps, drills, explo- sives, etc., all unite to facilitate the treatment of large quantities of low-grade ores for a return more assured and uniform than any to be anticipated from vein-mining. This is apparent from the fact that, dui'ing the year 1883, the mines averaged $2.84 a day from 25,954 tons of quartz, yielding 10 dwts. 21 grains a ton, — about one half the average that was got per ton during the early years of our gold mining. The effects of intelligently directed capital are already being- felt in a steadily increasing yield of gold, so that with a large pxtent of country containing auriferous strata, and numerous proved districts, we anticipate a permanent and profitable future for the gold-mining interests of Nova Scotia. "r ]■ i ■ i ;i '.i'- !" XVI. THE PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY OF CANADA. BY ROBERT C. ADAMS. rly In the year 1840, Liebig first called attention to mineral manui'es by showing that sulphuric acid made them soluble. It is supposed that the acid acts mechanically, dividing the particles of the mineral to a great degree of fineness, thus making it avail- able for the nourishment of plants. Every net ton of wheat contains about 16 lbs. of phosphoric acid and the average soil contains about 68.6 lbs. to the acre, or just enough to supply the phosphate to 4.16 tons of wheat. The exports of wheat from Montreal in one season are estimated to have contained 2,500 tons of phosphoric acid, to supply which would require 7,500 tons of Canadian apatite containing 75 per cent, of phosphate of lime. To secure production it in evident that this element must be supplied to the soil, and the demand for phosphates constantly increases as soils become exhausted and knowledge of scientific farming is extended. Phosphates were first obtained from Estramadura in Spain. Then the coprolites of Cambridgeshire were used. In 1867, the discovery of phosphates was made in South Carolina, and since then 2,250,000 tons have been mined, 355,000 tons having been produced in 1883. Supplies have also been obtained from Nor- way, France and some of the West India Islands. The manu- facture of superphosphate, made by mixing pulverized phos- phate with sulphuric acid is largely carried on in Great Britain, ■' en * II I ii 190 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. Germany and the United States. It has heen attempted at Brockville, Ontario, and the establishment of works near Mont- real is at present under consideration. In 1829, apatite appears to have been mentioned by Lieut. Ingall of the 15th Eogiment, as existing near Li6vres Eivor in " immense quantities aggre- gated in veins running through the calcareous spar." In 1847, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt reported its existence in North Burgess, On- tario, and, about the year 18G0, 100 tons was shipped from this region, but the vessel was wrecked on her voyage to England. About 1863, effoits were made to work extensively in North Burgess. English and American capitalists ])urcha8ed properties near the Eideau Canal, paying sometimes as much as $300 per acre. Expensive machinery, skilled engineers and chemists were sent to prosecute the work. The deposits were found to be un- certain and limited in size, and many difficulties arose in the treatment of the rock ])hosphate, owing to its hardness and to the presence of fluoric acid, which proved injurious to the work- men employed in its manufacture. For a time the industry was abandoned, but, about the year 1872, the growing demand for phosphates led to an advance of price, and mining on a small scale was soon afterwards undertaken by many owners of lands between Perth and Kingston, Ontario. In 1872, Mr. G-arrett, of Ottawa began to mine on a small scale near Li^vres Eiver, and Mr. Gerald C. Brown opened some properties in that region in 1875. Later in the same y'3ar, the Buckingham Mining Com- pany commenced extensive operations. Mr. Miller also worlced in Templeton about this time, and Mr. McLaurin has steadily worked productive properties there, yielding very high qualities. In 1879, prices in England fell to a low point and many firms ceased to produce phosphate. But prices again recovering, renewed attention was given to this industry, and work on an enlarged scale being undertaken in Portland and Buckingham, the deposits in those regions proved to be moi-o extensive than had been supposed. At the workings of the High Eock, Union, North Star, and Emerald Mines, phosphate has been found in large masses, and the reproach of uncertainty that was formerly attached to phosphate mining has been in a measure removed. Pui'G specimens of Canadian apatite, according to Professor Chapman, yield 92,26 per cent, of phosphate of lime. The quality ,^51 ■.'. ADAMS ON PHOSPHATES. 191 of the produce of the mines depends largely upon the care taken in the separation of tlie apatite from other minerals that arc often associated with it. The chief of these are pyroxene, mica and calcite. At the commencement of the industry, a shipment was made to England so badly selected as to be worthless. Instead of a remittance, the shipper was presented with a draft for freight and expenses, accompanied by a chemist's certificate say- ing: "There is dirt enough in England without importing any from across the Atlantic." The usual analysis obtained for cargo lots is *Jb to 80 per cent., though it has run as high as 86 per cent., and has fallen below TO per cent. Owing to the abundance of surface shows, workings have not been carried to a great depth, 160 foot being the depth of the deepest pit that has been worked. The deposits are found to be persistent as far as traced, subject to the characteristic irregu- larities of this mineral. In Norway, large beds have been found at depths of 200 feet, and the similarity of the Canadian deposits has led to a prediction of favorable results from deep mining in Canada. Prices in England for Canadian phosphate have varied from Is. 3^d. for TO per cent., with M. rise per unit, to lOd. without rise, — a diflPerence for 80 per cent, phosphate of 50s. per ton. It was highest in 1877 and 1882, and lowest in 1879 and 1884. The question of freights has been an important and often a perplexing one, which is now receiving a satisfactory solution by the removal of the deal-shipping trade from Quebec to Mont- real and the use of steamers in place of sailing vessels. These steamers frequently require 300 to 500 tons of ballast to place under their deals and are glad to secure phosphate for this pur- pose, accepting from 58. to lOs. per ton as freight, while sailing vessels have carried it for 2s. 6d. The low rates of grain freights have also proved favorable to the phosphate industry, and ship- ments have been made this season by the regular lines of steamers at 7s. 6d. The increased output of our mines has encouraged large manu- facturers to turn their attention to Canadian phosphate, and sales have been made to firms in Germany, who would not consider its use when small quantities were only available. A quality of 80 per cent, is usually required for that market. Ill I 192 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. An important question has boon freely discussed as to the value of crude phospliates finely ground, when applied to the soil with- out treatment by acids. As the acid merely subdivides the par- ticles, it is maintained that, if sufficiently pulvoriy.ed by machin- ery, it will act effectively as a fertilizer. Experiments on the English coprolites and the Carolina phosphates tend to support this theory, but show that the effect is more gradual than with superphosphates. There is considerable doubt, however, as to the efficacy of Canadian phosphate in this way; but, should it bo proved, an immense demand will arise, as farmers will feel moi'e confidence in the use of a simple natural substance, and its great cheapness in this form will recommend its use. Mixed with barn- yard manure it is thought to be effective. The value of superphosphates has been stated by Mr. Lawes, who found that an acre of simple soil gave 2 tons 8 cwt. of tur- nip bulbs ; but that with 5 cwt. of superphosphate of lime, the land being dug 6 inches deep, the yield was 8 tons 15 cwt., or fourfold. The company that intends to make superphosphate here pro- poses to introduce its fertilizers among the Canadian farmers by giving them the article to use on half the field, upon condition that the extra-growth on that half shall be given to the company or the fetilizer shall be paid for. It is said that where this system has been tried the farmer invariably finds it to his interest to pay for the fertilizer and order a supply for the next season. Although there are large tracts of lands with surface shows of apatite, the number of localities where these have opened into large deposits is limited. The vicinity of Li^vres Eiver fur- nishes the locality of the largest discoveries, though inTempleton, "Wakefield, North Burgess, and the region north of Kingston, the effect of working a number of the smaller seams has produced good results. The value of proved deposits of apatite has greatly increased ; $100 to $200 per acre has often been j)aid, and, in one case, 100 acres have been pui'chased at the rate of $1,250 per aero. Experiments are being made to concentrate the phosphate from low grade ores, by separating the impurities ; and as large quan- tities of such rock can be obtained cheaply, the result of such an invention will be of immense value. An enterprising shipper of phosphate is making the attempt to grind the rock here and ship ADAMS ON PHOSPHATES. ^93 it in bags, thus securing better means of obtaining a correct analysis and constant freight opportunities The production of phosphate in Canada has increased, from 5,462 tons in 1877, to 17,500 tons in 1883, and will amount to about 22,000 tons in 1884. '""ouni to 13 XYl\. POPULATION, IMMIGRATION, AND PAUPERISM IN THE DOMINION OF CANADA. BY JOHN LOWE. Tlio facts bearing upon the tirnt two divisions of my subject are suflSciently clearly defined in the records of the Department of Agriculture, wbich is also the Department of Statistics of the Dominion (foverunient. Pauperism, however, as it is understood in the United Ivingdom and among European nations, has, for- tunately for Canada, no existence. I do not mean to say that we have no poor needing assistance. No considerable communities are without orphans, whose parents have left them without means of support; or old and infirm men and women, who have passed the period of life in which they can work for themselves, yet who have not succeeded in making provision from their savings for their declining years. But tlie proportion borne by these classes to the ])opulation is very small. A detailed i-ecord of the main facts in regard to the population of Canada, from the earliest European settlement to the present time, may be found in the volumes of the Canadian census for the two decennial periods of IStl and 1881, compiled under the care- ful and learned superintendence of Di-. Tache. I am indebted for notes on the population of Canada, which were used in this paper, to the able and pains-taking Historical Archivist of the Dominion of Canada, Mr. Douglas Brymner. Under the French E4gime, Canada was part of La Noiwelle 1 •■ .11: !i : U [ii ) t 1 ; i j ? j \ 196 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. France, the larger title including Louisiana and other teiritories on the continent of America. The Provinces conposing the Dominion of Canada may be thus described : — (1) Quebec. After the conquest by Great Britain (ITSQ-GO), ratified by treaty in ■|'763, Canada included the Pj-ovinco of Que- bec and part of the I rovince of Ontario. This territory in 1791 was divided into the two Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. Ee-unitod in 1842, they were known as Canada West and East. At the confederation of the Dominion (1867) they were again divided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario. (2) Ontario is thus co-extensive with the old Province of Upper Canada or Canada West. (3) Nova Scotia is the English name for part of Acadie, which included, speaking generally, the three Maritime Provinces, its territorial extent, however, shifting with the vicissitudes of war- fare. (4) New Brunswick, at first a part of Nova Scotia, and subse- quently called the County of Sunbury, was separated and con- stituted as a distinct Province in 1784. (5) Prince Edward Island, originally named St. John's Island, having been ceded by France in 1763, was separated into a distinct Province in 1770. (6) British Columbia, including Vancouver Island and the adjacent mainland, remained until a recent period under the rule of the Hudson's Bay Company. (7) The Northwest Territories, covered by the charter of the Hudson's Bay Company, comprise Alberta, Assiniboia, Atha- basca, Saskatchewan and Keewatin. (8) Manitoba was organized into a Province from these terri- tories, immediately after their transfer to Canada. These several Provinces and Territories are now united in the Dominion of Canada, which embraces all British North America, with the exception of the Island of Newfoundland. The area of the Dominion (not including Newfoundland), according to the census measurements, is 3,470,275 square miles, with a water area of about 140,000 square mibs, making a total of over 3,6 10,000. The Dominion thus extends over the larger half of the Continent, — the area of the United States, without Alaska, being 2,933,598 LOWE i POPULATION. 191 square miles ; that of Alaska, 5*1*1,390 : making a total of 3,510,- 978. The extent of the territories of the Dominion of Canada, of the United States, and of the continent of Europe, is there- fore nearly equal. I. Population. The most convenient method of presenting the facts hearing upon the population of Canada, is to give a table of the several settlements and censuHes from 1005 to 1881, with the authorities in each case, in i-eliance upon which the figui*es are given. I think it is also advisable to add to this table a fui'ther state- ment of the populations and ratios of increase in certain districts of the United States, for the purpose of comparison with the pro- vinces of the Dominion, foi- the reason that there has probably- been no fact in our history more grossly misunderstood, not only among our own people, but also in the United States and in the United Kingdom, than the actual relative progress which has taken place in the provinces of Canada, as compared with similar progress in those of the United States having fairly correspond- ing positions. I think that the New England States and their progress may fairly be compai'ed with the Provinces of Quebec, New Bruns- wick and Nova Scotia ; while, proceeding further west, the pros- perous State of Ohio would make a fair subject of comparison with the Province of Ontario. The fact will appear from the tables which I subjoin, that, when this selection is made, the com- parisons are in favour of the Provinces and against the United States. I think it should also be pointed out, when comparisons are made between the increases of the population of Canada and the very remarkable increases of that of the United States, that these last include the several annexations of Louisiana and Texas, and the subsequent cession of New Mexico and California, with their considerable populations, — the comparisons of increases being always made with the original population of the thirteen old states only. The following is a tabulated statement of the records of the popu- lation of Canada from the earliest times, with the authorities : — lb : IL 198 ^ §8 ;z5 Pm 02 S o W 02 so H W CO IS w CANADIAN ECONOMICS. Ph <1 X Q CC ^" <_ !>> O t~ i-t ■*! sss lO X 5^ 100 >c (M ic o o; t^ ri ec cc c-i 1-1 S>*^ ii^j v^ ^^* a.'" CO T-H Q 1— H-~ t^co -^ti ^ t^ » (?5 !M ; IC-* iX)t*C0C50iaiOCI(Ni-(. r- t>. «>• t>. ( ICO Q0< LOWE ON POPULATION. 199 a. ■A S s8 • -d 4 00 a. . . .sd . .3fl .d . .3 hflsa--! BOOOOoQ.gOOinSOwOOaOOOOOjSSaja^ flCQQQ =3 '42 as dT3C, f= .T-. Q '-^^ t^- C; C, Q ,^ ^'^ a -3 o 03 O o 01 10 CO i« eo"io rHOT}lO"*rH05i— IQO:0'-i:Ot-0 r-( tH r-t rH i-H (M ri 3^1 CC) r< '^l .(MeC-'*<«OOOOiOtH(MCO'«t.05(N>*»CiQOOS Z505050000rHrHiHiHi-ii-((MW(iq'MN?iuNcoeoeocoeoeO'^ioio»fiU5io lOOOOS o - - -co li } ' Li . 200 'e a 02 W o '^ I— I > o fin O O H 1 <1 H CANADIAN ECONOMICS. CO a s » D < a <5 9] o: ■^ .• d fl 1© &I-H C i-M ^ »-H f^ .,-4 "^ -^ .i~ 00 ao 00 I: S : flttii ! i 1 tX)WE ON POPULATION. 201 ^g PhO ■2g S§ la ^ s © • ^ oi 33 OS cr odd g s a QQQ 00 0) 00 § i ^ 3 . ...-SScSr pooo^oP'^ooooopopo OQ '^ o cJ I-:] i ^ ■4-» v3 H. 3 s -tj 00 ^p w m odd 6 6 fiPO ftp w A o 1:0 f [2 CO as" 05 CO CO (M CO 10 fO to" 10 ITS CO o 00 CO ec05 •* ci^eoiH^ lO iC CO l^ CO >n CO n ■* 00 -H iC o 10 5g i-^ CO CO ec 00 Ci rH CO CO rH 1-1 C-l CI ?>! e0l0o;3i05<^^ooa^coco iO ■* 10 ^ 00 ■>! •a* uTi 00 lO cq_ rH_ CO^ 0_ ■<:»<_ rti O rH CO O 10" r-T t>^ -iT l.-.r Oi O) c*<■<*■ i 00 00 00 00 00 < I CO 00 05 ill i; CANADIAN ECONOMICS. yv ■■ I E. 1; CO o o P- pH O O Eh <1 g S o w « o n E-i < -1 S W O s Bi H 03 !2; ta2 I* «6 o CO CO o OS o OS ec o 00 in oQt;- S o •0 o as < wo 1^6 ea s o o o M o u pi; lO CO o 00 (7\ CO ec 00 o 00^ o O CO oo^ •HYHi o 00 00 CO •>■ i-H (N l-H 05 OS in r-t ec 00 (N (M ec (M OS OS 00 oo" o ec ec ec ec ^ CO 00 03 03 ^ ba "^ Q ® d H la ^:3 03 4J Q «4H □Q a o ^ § « 4J © © - ^ ^ « © c3 © © B -g 03 +3 © d P d © © pO © © © d . ■a 05 d-^ o .t: _ ©^.2 © d ©,o © Q © -d 3,d d © ^ d ^ '3 © d ill © ^ ^3 C3 . © o. 2 >| IS =2 d o © d © .a d _ © +3 o © 9^ - d ^ © o3 • i-l OD © ^< d ci^Ti :i " ^ d © tTg^'^'d-^ © © o d © © " d d P^d 00 "■• -2 E -g '^^t © -a -fJ 03 © «3 88 © bo d e8 o Od© ©39^2'^ d So ^i ^^•- fl-gc^S-^©^ ©©cg^00013 o LOWE ON POPULATION. 203 Comparative G-rowtfi op United States and Canada. {The calculations inViefollomng tahtcs are made from tJie next preceding date.) t,ti4 TJhndp Tslfind Connfioticnt • Vprmont ( )hio Illinois Mit'hie'an • Onpy^flT Onf.flTin ...... a... 455,688 218,986 92' Assiniboia (Man).. New Brunswick. . • • 805 156,162 36,705 30- Prince Edw. Island. 47,042 LOWE ON POPULATION. 206 Statbs and Provinces. Maine New Hampshire Massachusetts . . Rhode IsUind. . . Connecticut .... Vermont Ohio Illinois Michigan 1844 POPntATION. Inorbabk. Ratr PKR Cent. Quebec Ontario ■ • ■ . Nova Scotia New Brunswick Prince Edward Island . 097,084 143,950 2(5. States AND PaOVINCES. 1850 Population. Incrkase Maine i 583,169 New Hampshire. • .j ;>1 7,976 Massachusetts. .... !)94,r)14 Rhode Island 147,.'>45 Connecticut ! 370,792 Vermont I 314,120 Ohio I 1,980,329 Illinois ! 851,470 Michigan 397,654 81,376 33,402 256,815 38,715 60,814 22,172 460,862 '75,287 185,387 Rate per Cent- 16- 12- 3.5- 35- 19- 7- 30- 79- 88- 1851 Population. Increase Rate PER Cent. Quebec Ontario Nova Scotia New Brunswick — Prince Edw. Island, 890,261 952,004 276,854 193,800 193,197 496,31() 95,499 37,638 28- 109- 117- 24. States AND Provinces. Maine New Hampshire . . Massachusetts.... Rhode Island Connecticut Vermont Ohio Illinois Michigan 1860 Population. Increase. 628,279 • 326,073 1,231,066 174,620 4()0,147 315,0118 2,339,511 1,711,951 749,113 45,110 8,097 236,552 27,075 89,355 97s 359,182 800,481 351,459 Ratb per Cent. "fTo 2 0: 24.0' 18 -O' 24 -o; •3| 18-0' 101 -oi 88 -o; 1861 Population. Increase Rate PER Cent. Quebec Ontario Nova Scotia ■ New Brunswick . . . . Prince Edw. Island. 1,111,566 1,396,091 330,857 252,047 221,305 444,087 54,003 58,247 25- 46- 19- 30- 206 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. i! I . M-;: l\ • 11: Statks AND PrOVINCKS. Maine New Hamj)shiro . Alassaohusotts. . . Rhode Island... . Connect unit Vermont Ohio Illinois Michigan Quebec Ontario Nova Scotia Now Brunswick.., Manit(jba British Columbia. 1870 Population. flL'G,ni5 318,300 1,457,351 217,353 537,454 :',3n,551 2,005,260 2,539,891 1,184.059 Inckkahk 1,304 7,773 220,285 42,733 77,:?07 15,453 325,749 827,940 434,940 12,228 I 11,388 10,586 Ratf I'KU Cknt. 0- 18- 24* 17- 5- 14- 48- 58- 1,415- 1871 POI'ULATIOX. InORKAHK. 1,191,510 i ,«;20,851 387,800 285,594 Ratk I'KR Crnt. 79,950 224,700 56,943 33,547 Ig- n- is- Ktatkh AND PboVINCKS. Maine New Hampshire. Massachusetts. . . Rhode Island — Connecticut Vermont Ohio Illinois Michigan .. 1880 Ratk PKU Population. Inohkahk- I Cent- 048,936 .346,991 1,78:5,085 270,531 022,700 332,286 3,198,062 3,077,871 1,0:56,937 Quebec Ontario Nova Scotia New Brunswick.. . Manitoba British Columbia. . 22,021 28,091 ;525,734 59,178 85,240 1,7:55 532,802 537,980 452,878 4- 9- 22- 27- 10- 0- 20- 21- ;]8- 1881 Population. Ixcrkask l,;5r)!»,027 1,923,228 440,572 321,2:^3 05,954 49,459 Ratk PER Cknt. 107,511 302,377 52,772 35,639 53,720 38,873 14- 19- 13- 12- 407- 367- RECAPITULATION. New En• eo 0* b- ^ 00 «l5 I'- •- . 1^ q P CO rS 'if M t^ 2 5 t^ 1^ •T W r1 J 5 t^ OO c5 t ^o CO LOWE ON POPULATION. 209 g »; ^ § QQ 525 a ^ eo 1— I lO ic ^ iQ CO fH o_ !-(_ CO i>^ r -J, 05 eo TjT 3i !>. O ;C X 55 X lO*-l lOCO -1< C-t rHCl oscoot|OOt--53ec ?l M rl I- l>- O O >— I 1* iM » •'■I'- ^"5 CI IN C-l i-l O 05 §8 iM o cc "5 1(5 <-< lO l'^ w w o 1^ '-o -r -H -T> c: cs 3i - • i-i S i-H CI 00 i-H © O C4 CI r^ 00 -t ?5 lo '^5 rH I '^ X O^ir^l^ lO^ -(. o -"ji c: c» ri rl rl iT X I ^ •c 9 S X O lO O <0 IM 'f kO IT CO C 1 -t X l" "X X — iH r-( -H r1 rC CC Ci-i O M c: -H 1^ 5: (N «C l^ 1 '. CO ^ l>- lO 1-H •^^ -f' cV 1 "f I -" ? r o" ot" -+ r-c IT IC -C O "t* r-l .— C4 CO I - X 1« C5 O o: r^ :o ci (N it lO •^ x" cT rH Si" eo" it" ss" co" w -f Tl IT CI O -ti lO f-i -r CO CO c; iH © ^ :o >-< ic t CI O C5 -H U5C5 •«; C^X^iT i-^X^OT C CI ' -r i^ lO r-i c X :s CI ^ X X ". ri r— 1 OO' >T ec CI i-H i re t ^ -fi X CO © 1(5 CI :- C I ~ X CO O O iT cro~i^x"i-rco r-Tic CI CI X t5 C^l -P — rl rH 1-1 CO CD eo I- i>r CO CO o I-I x^ ^" CO CI o X CO CI Ci CO o M H «., 0|! O! K U m s "a F *»2 m33 J»4 1 OS l^ r>. »*< 05 C) CO !>• Q I— ( rl a •c V a 3 Tl< •^l* Ttt CO lO 05 3S 1(5 CO CI Tli 05 O CO rH pH pH i-H r-t rH C^l CI CO X 1^ t^ CI <-l « CI O t» 05 O 'i* (rj,o ■»i>^co_-r.i(5 oi CI fH X U5 ^H iH X 1(5 t^ X CO »>• CO CO CI CO I - -H CO i-( i-( i-( 1— ( I— ( X f '^ 's'2 * • COR t? « a ii X CO -H -"tl O 1^ rH O -4" CO CO X IT t^ •-0_ I -;_ C !_ rH^ oq_ TT, rs^ t>^ co" x" cf i^ I >r oo" C^ ^ T*J rH rH i-H rH CO -t< X 08 SI c3 -Alt "^ 3 > ^%S I •c o 03 B a < 14 eo '^ c-i 1 OOXC105>0rHO'-* eq fH r-t r-l t>- X IT CI r1 r-l ^ O X Tfi 00 lO CO O 05 p;oi^Tt<35ioxx C5 ■ 1(5 Ci eo C5 ;C C5 t^ 35 I •c 01 a QD J o n hi a yj rf jaS ;^ 2^ hS a 210 CANADIAN E(^ONOMICS. I I I : V. la m If'!. Ph W o o « o 7* .£3 « .S' '3 61 " pa 00 O «PQ0-*- i-H eoccooQO'^osCiso CC rH *tl lO »-• r-( lOl— ITtli-ICOOO'H Ti<^oq_ if5_(N^ lO 'i*^ ic TT cc~o"'ti 05~'— TcTco' Tt< 35 ■<*l eC I-H ■*! rH ■ CO c-i o o 00 CI Tj< CO CO i-H i-l (M CO O; C<) t~- IN lO O (M r-Tl-T CD O CO (N Tj< O CO lO i-H iM CO O Oi -* C .jcoosiooO'feoiN (N^t^O.ao^co^'*,-!' CO eCr-T ao^'o'cT COCO O CO ' IS ' CO ) CO O Oi 1-H ■-; c; o <» C". lo >re CO l^ q6' 00 CD 05 Tfl 00 C CO r- :» •f Tj* TJH lO t'- l-H «2 1 I-H CO CO s 1-H o i-H -t 01 o e • X CO "*! lO CO i-H -f • X » CO^ !M C0„ "5- I— 1 - !>. oc 1 3 ■^ C l>4 I- (MrHrH (>J 'l* C lO CD rH CO' 1 - O CO 1- (M CO C ri (M rH 10 I-H I-H CO 05 i-H lO 1-H lO lO 1~" I-H (M t^ 00 • C: CD lO O 04 ■M 01 X B rH rH 10 a O0rHeOO>»^-*(M0 O lO CO wi' CO rH CO -r lO X Di «=5,? rH (M O X O X S-^ (5 « Tji rH i-t o o- > X tc S o rHrH-trH(MrHt--r- < CI j w ^ -rH (M rH ^ ~'C T-i C» ) . . . • g i i TS : • • 04 i ^ •-" • )3 a a ' T3 • ^ - :a.? •< 3 eS 5? M > \ i.2 1 : C -2c Sh i1:-||ll^ ;£ : o <3 J 3 C 5 eye 3s m 3 i LOWE ON POPULATION. 211 ? l-" 5 o 1 "^i t 00 1* J? :; s -( C". "■*. • 00 CO lO ! ■<** H CO 5 O ^ •* !■- lO OS 1 t^ Tj< V IC T> 00 V O r-( O M •0 iM (M lO ^1 o s (M 00 (^^ ■> I-H -o :> 1-1 ) Ci o c^ r-* ^ rH ■ ^ J a) H (N C5 00 o H CM O o a P4 w .a »*; ■<-' u a op a fM o a* •r « o C HO .a.s SB o *5 •c •♦J a O u u J? o s o a o ,-1 " I O t~ (N ?H t^ eO iH ' Tf (N t^ CD t^ iH Tfi i-H^ 0_ CO, M, OS, 0-l_ i-H, ih" i-T 1 'f q" o 'i" c4" '^' O -t< OO »0 -f (M O CO OOOi— liO»OC5i-l tC~io'os"iC~r-rC'f rH t I 00 00 irj -^ ift f lO IM rH 00 lO X tC » C'l W5lf5 lO rH -f - Q '*" t- M TjH_co„c^aq_co eo rH'rjJ'tCrH'cr (M r-t^oeocpoos — goo O rH O (M r^ rH CO rH 00 t>- X SO C> lOCO o CO -tOSOtCDCO'^JOCC CO 0? tH op 00 »rt) (M J eo CJ^cq^t^lC "-O r~i C- -t< -. eo lO -fi eo -t< CO rHCCeOrHQCOCOO 00^ CC_ rH^ is «-2'i:5 a; o eo CO eo" CO o eo eo CO to cc 00 CO 3 (M QO" X CM X 00 o o Ol s 15 CI x~ ■A o o g 00 % cS 1 m u o a o Q -2 00 u ,o 09 0) m H •3 5.H o S a r' C« OB a if 03 03 OS O cT > o 1 •aura's b-S O 08 >^« y ^ 'fi- C'OpS 08 ^ 01 -u O 1:5 ^•n s *^ s g ^ C ^ Si « "^ a o •c Ph S S o' -el i 00 (r4 2 ??^-^t3 a a 0) OQ 5 S i^o 0) '-' -g ^ !=' -^ m t 5'^B'^ .J A r— rfl -1-3 «2 .a -c o '^ a 03 ra n 5 a t„ 2 o w^ 7^ f^ T^ *— ' t: _C* a ^. SwJ? 3 "S ►*> S 9> » .2 aj 2 t;«»H 2 o a s J ra o cs !r a' c3 g £.2 Jd 2 3^ 2 8H i P d a -^?as-^i «i ,3^ 03-3 S »3 i •3 § a© * c^ ^-^ ® -t; a o^ a 2 i'ft:i|^:a fl i|S-|fca 0) tt-r Q'2 CQ m ■ i •i I 'i i .i i ; : i ,..; I '}• i 1 ,1 1 1 1 ; 212 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. POPULATION OF CITIES AND TOWNS HAVING OVER FIVE THOUSAND INHABITANTS COMPARED. NAMES. Montreal Toronto Quebec Halifax Hamilton Ottawa St. John London Portland Kingston Charlottetown Guelph St. Catherines Brantford Belleville Trois Rivieres St. Thomas Stratford Winnipeg Chatham Brockville Levis Sherbrooke Hull Peterborough AVindsor St. Henri Fredericton Victoria St. J. Baptiste (village) Sorel Port Hoi)e Woodstock' St. Hyacinthe Gait Lindsay Moncton Totals PROVINCES. Quebec Ontario Quebec Nova Scotia. . Ontario Ontario New Brunsw'k Ontario .... New Brunsw'k Ontario .... P. E. Island. Ontario Ontario .... Ontario Ontario .... Quebec Ontario .... Ontario .... Manitoba . . Ontario .... Ontario ..'• Quebec Quebec .... Quebec .... Ontario .... Ontario Quebec .... New Brunsw'k Brit. Columbia Quebec Quebec . . . Ontario . . • Ontario .... Quebec .... Ontario . . . • untario .... New Brunsw'k POPULATION. 1871. 1881 107,225 56,092 59,699 29,582 26,716 21,545 28,805 15,826 12,520 12,407 8,807 6,878 7,864 8,107 7,305 7,570 2,197 4,313 241 5,873 5,102 6,091 4,432 -X-* 4,611 4.253 ** (),000 3,270 4,408 5,636 5,114 3,982 3,746 3,827 4,049 ** 494,699 140,747 86,415 62,446 36,100 35,961 27,412 26,127 19,74(5 15,226 14,091 11,485 9,890 9,631 9,616 9,516 8,670 8,367 8,239 7,985 7,873 7,609 7,597 7,227 6,890 6,812 6,561 (),415 6,218 5,925 5,874 5,791 5,585 5,373 5,321 5,187 5,080 5,032 641,703 N'merical increase or decrense. 33,522 30,323 2,747 6,518 9,245 5,867 *2.678 3,920 2,700 1,684 2,678 .3,012 1,767 1,509 2,211 1,100 6,170 3,926 7,744 2,000 2,507 906 2,795 2,201 2,308 212 2,655 1,466 155 471 1,391 1,575 1,360 1,031 147,004 Per- centage. 31.21 54.05 4.60 22.03 34.60 27.23 *9.29 24.76 21.61 13.57 30.40 43.79 22.46 18.61 30.26 14.53 280.83 91.02 213.27 34.05 49.13 13.. 54 63.06 47.73 54.26 3.49 81.19 33.25 2.75 9.21 34.93 42.04 35.53 25.46 29.71 • The indicated decrease of the population of the city of St. John is attributable to the great fire which occurred in the year 1877, when half of the city wa.« laid in ashes. (Ireat numbers were thereby driven into the surrounding districts, and many, wiioso business and social ties were thus severed, did not return to the city. •• The limits of the city of Hull and the towns of St. Henri and Moncton not having been defined in 1871, no comparison can be made. Leaving out the above city and towns, the total increase and rate per cent, are as represented in the table. NoTK.— In 1871 there were in Csinada twenty cities and towns of 5,000 inhabitants and over, with altotal population of 130,043. In 18H1 the number of such cities and towns had increased to.thirty-sevon, having a total population of 660,040. LOWE ON POPULATION. 213 II. Immigration. The Europeans who have come to Canada within a few gener- ations, and their descendants, may in the largest sense, be termed the Immigration to Canada. The numbers and times of arrival of those who came in our earliest histoiy are unfortunately not matters of exact record, and the regular registration of arrivals at Quebec commenced at a comparatively recent date. The records of the population, however, fairly indicate the periods and the volume of the distinctive early immigrations. The features of the several great immigrations to Canada, and the motives which induced them, are very clearly defined and have made a very distinct impression upon the character of the present popu- lation. The first movement in point of time was that of the French immigration. Its motive was two-fold : first, the spread of the Christian Eeligion among the Indians, or, as they were called, the Savages of Canada ; and secondly, Commercial Adventure. The first settlement took place in the Province of Acadie, now Nova Scotia, in 1605. It commenced with hope, which was, unfortunately, soon to give place to the reality of disaster. The first French colonists numbered not more than forty-four, and being ignorant of the rigour of the climate were totally un- prepared for a North Araej'ican winter. They consequently suffered severely and lofet a quarter of their number. The cruel misfortunes which befel these first colonis'.i in Acadie appear to have had a deterrent effect on further settlement for nearly half a century. We find from the census taken in 1671, that the population was then only -441. In Quebec, the first French settlement was made in 1608, throt. years aftei* that in Acadie, the numbers at first being very small, and only increasing very slowly for over forty years, when the population took a leap from 240 in 1641, to 2,000 in 1653. From this period, there appears to have been a gradual and rapid aug- mentati .\ of population from immigration and natural increase, very little broken by leaps and bounds till the time of the Con- quest by the Knglish in 1759, when the population was estimated to be 82,000. It is to be remarked that, from the time of the Conquest, im- 214 CANAl^AN EOOjS'UMICS. migration to Canada from Fiance may be said to have nearly ceased, the numbers which came Jifterwards not being of a na- ture to alfect the vohime of the ])opuhition. But the increase of the French speaking popuhition in Canada, under British rule from that period, is one of the most noticeable and clearly marked facts in the natural history of mankind. The popula- tion of French origin, in the Dominion, is stated in the census of 1881 at 1,298,929 ; and in addition there has been a French Canadian emigration to the United States of from 300,000 to 500,000, — certainly a large aggregate to have sprung from the first few settlers on the banks of the St. Lawience and in Acadie. This fact afi'ords a remarkable proof of extremely favourable con- ditions of life ; and of the prosperity, enjoyed by the French Cana- dians under the parish system, which has been a prominent fea- ture in their social life from the first settlement, and which was in fact guaranteed at the Conquest. The next large and clearly marked immigration was that of the U. E. Loyalists, from the thirteen revolted colonies to the Maritime Provinces, chiefly New Brunswick ; to the Eastern Town- sliips of Quebec; and to the great Province of Ontario, of which they formed the nucleus of the population in as marked a man- ner as did the French settlers in the Province of Quebec. There does not appear to have been any exact record of the statistics of this movement ; but, according to an estimate of Gov- ernor Parr in a despatch to the Imperial ( Jovernment, the total numbers of those who arrived in Nova Scotia and New Bruns- wick were, in 1784, 20,000. They continued to arrive in small bodies for several years after. The numbers of those who came to the Province of Quebec in the same year (1784) according to the careful compilation of Dr. Tachd accompanying the first census of the Dominion (1871) was 10,000; and Dr. Ryerson, in his account of the U. E. Loy- alists, states that there was an actual count mmle of 10,000 who settled in Ontario, in 1783 and 1784, and to these were added ac- cessions more or less numerous for several years. In round numbers, therefore, more than 40,000 U. E. Loyalists settled in Canada during the years immediately following the Treaty of Versailles in 1783. The three main immigrations to Canada are, therefore, the LOWE ON POPULATION. 215 French, the U. E. Loyalists, and that from the United Kingdom, and they have been of such a nature as to plant the roots in Canadian soil of a distinctively separate political system or ex- istence from that of the Eopublic of the United States on our southern frontier; and furthermore, these roots have, for the future, the larger half of the Continent in which to grow. It is to be remarked, in considering this point of the nature of the population planted by these tirst and main immigrations, that, in view of the more rapid and early development of the agricultural, industrial, and commercial resources of the United .States in the past, those early prosperous tields have been con- sidered by many to be more favourable for settlement than Can- ada, and have had in consequence a larger immigration, although a comparison of the figures of immigration undoubtedly shows that now the balance of advantage of this nature is being very rapidly redressed. The desire to better the conditions of life has been the cause of immigration alike into Canada and the United States. But, while those who have felt sympathy with the Republican institutions have settled in the States, sympa- thies in favour of British institutions and the British flag have led to the Canadian immigration. It has thus happened that the frontier line has to a large extent operated as a political sieve, — the result being shown in what may be called the national senti- ment of the people of Canada to-day. It was remarked by the first Napoleon, as reported by Las Cases in the " Memorial de Sainte-H416ne," that while there is nothing more intangible or difficult to describe and define than this kind of sentiment, yet there was nothing which he had found so difficult to meet and overcome. It will appear on reference to the statistical tables that there was a large and steady increase of population in the Province of Quebec, over any possible natural increase, from the time of the U. E. Loyalist immigration to 1822. From that period to the present moment there does not appear to have been any large immigration in any one year, but a small, steady increase over the natural increase of the population. In Ontario, from the date of the U. E. Loyalist settlement, the increaae of population to 1841, was exceedingly rapid. The census taken in that yeai* gives the population as 455,088, 216 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. : ill li ■• showing an average yearly increase during this period of more than 7,800, thus proving a very large increase by immigi*ation. Again from the date of the Union (1841), to that of the first census after Confederation (ISTl), the average annual increase of the population of Ontario was 38,838, again proving a large immigration. In New Brunswick, from the date of the U. E. Loyalist settle- ment to the time of the first census in 1824, the population in- creased from 11,235 to 74,176. In the next sixteen years (to 1841) the census returns show an increase of 81,986, or 5,124 annually, — an increase that must have been largely due to immigj'ation. Since that period, the annual increase has been less, showing a less rapid influx of immigration into the Province. The population of Nova Scotia in 1784 is given as 42,347 of British origin, besides the French Acadians, estimated by Dr. Tach^ to have numbered about 14,000. The first complete cen- sus of the Province was not taken until 1817, when the number of inhabitants \v us found to be 81,351. In the next ten years to 1827, the population had increased by one-third ; but the immi- gration in the next decenniad must have been still larger, the increase of population having been more than 7,000 a year, or five eighths in eleven years. The immigration after this date does not seem to have been marked by the same degree of in- crease, the figures showing the population to have doubled in about forty yeai*s, and at the date of the last census (1881) it was 440,572. The first census of Prince Edward Island was taken in 1798, when the total population was 4,372. No accurate return of the population was again obtained until 1841, when another census gave the number of inhabitants as 47,042. Since that time there does not seem to have been any largo immigration, — the popula- tion at the first census taken after Confederation (1871) thirty years later, being 94,021, i.e., not quite double. We come next to the period when the actual figures of immi- gration began to be taken. The first records I find of immigrant arrivals by the St. Lawrence route at the port of Quebec were between the yeai-s 1819 and 1825. The numbers recorded are large for the population and the facilities of transport then exist- ing ; and it appears from the published details that, even at that LOWE ON POPULATION. 217 early period, the St. Lawrence route was used as offering facilities (() passengers destined for the Western United States. The fol- lowing is a tabular statement of the arrivals : — 1819 12,907 1820 11,239 1821 8,050 1822 10,468 1823 10,258 1824 6,515 1825 9,097 Of these it was estimated, as appears from the records of the time, that one third settled in Quebec, one third in Ontario, and that one third were passengers to the United States. This divis- ion, however, into equal thirds, could have been only a very rough approximation. We now come to the records kept by the Quebec Immigration Agency of the Government, Avhich begin with the year 1829 and continue to the present date ; they will be found on page 218. This table is interesting as containing an exact record of immi- grant arrivals by the St. Lawrence for a period of fifty-live years. We must, however, remark with respect to it, that the numbers given were not all settlers in Canada, large numbers of immi- grants from Europe to the United States, especially those from Germany and Norway, having used the St. Lawrence route, on account of the facilities it afforded. Neither is it, on the other hand, a record of the total immigi-ation to Canada in the period named, since many immigrants came in at the ports of the Mari- time Provinces, while others again came by the United States ports of Boston, Poi'tland, New York, Baltimore, etc. There are no means of determining with accuracy the numbers of Canadian immigrants in the following table by the St. Lawrence route, nor the exact number of passengers for the United States. This separation has, however, been attempted from the year 1866. It is based upon the reports of the agents of the Department of Agricultui'C, who have taken the declarations of immigrants with respect to their intention of settling in Canada. The table will bo found on page 219. I have no doubt of the carefulness with which this work has boen done ; and therefore of the approximate accuracy of the statement. There are, however, no means of keeping any record 218 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. i Table of iMMuut.vnoN at the Pokt ok Qukukc. Years. li 182'J to 1833, 1834 " 1838 1839 " 1843 1844 " 1848, 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855- 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 18(50. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. . 1881. 1882. 1883. England. 43,386 28,561 30,791 60,458 8,980 9,887 9,677 9,279 9.585 18,175 6,754 10,353 15,471 6,441 6,481 4,846 7,780 (i,877 6,317 5,013 9,296 7,235 9,509 16,173 27,876 27,183 23,710 21,712 26,129 17,631 12,456 7,720 5.927 7,500 14,113 18,647 24,426 33,650 29,003 Ireland- Scotland. 102,266 54,904 71.981 112,192 23,126 17,976 22,381 15,983 14,417 16,165 4,106 1,688 2,016 1,153 417 376 413 4,545 4,949 3,767 4,682 2,230 2,997 2,585 2,743 2,534 2,893 3,274 4,236 2,503 1,252 688 663 913 1,088 2,485 2,480 5,992 10,638 644,005 534,697 20,143 11,061 16,311 12,767 4,984 2,879 7,042 5,477 4,745 6,446 4,859 2,794 3,218 1,424 793 979 1,112 2,979 3,959 2,914 2,601 2,222 1,793 1,924 2,867 5,356 4,984 5,022 4,803 2,491 1,768 2,131 829 1,425 1,602 2,845 2.861 4,476 5,460 Germany other and Countries. Norway. | 15 485 9,728 436 849 870 7,256 7,456 11,537 4,864 7,343 11,368 3,578 2 722 21314 10,618 7,728 4,182 7,453 4,770 16,958 16,453 13,607 9,626 !t,396 5,391 4,414 2,010 857 1,889 1,346 1,777 1,219 968 701 1,106 1,184 496 857 (i91 261 24 214 174,346 I 184,284 47 12 6 3 5 11 2 6 42 321 723 412 562 362 324 457 448 ,020 471 732 865 19,564 Total. 167,699 96,357 123,8(i0 196,364 38,494 32,292 41,07C OS< 0^ 00 t^ rHTft 1:0 00 51 W 35 ^ '+* OS ■* M l^ CO CO CD -CO 00^0 05_(M r-t U5"l>^i-r i-l to Oi-H CO O 10 CO ■* —t C^ T** 05 1-1 10 •*CO~ rH •c Mas 'I' » c4 CO CO CO Oi o Oi OS CO CO 42- §'0 e a ©5 9-a pq at ^ 'S a" "is c4 «^P ^ 'I ilili © 8 fl'S's"! mil , S O c4 d ■2 03 ©"S M a 2-2 pq fin I lO OS p ^ ) iH CD t^ CO 1 IM « ■* rH i-H CO lO ost^ i?5oi5 (M i-t rH © CO 00 CO OS 00*" OS ^ 00 w 00 Q (M IC eo th t^ o N rH 1^ iC o CO OS t>. eo 00" ^ ;_ 10" i-T (M CO eo" eo 00 IM OS OS^ !?1 OS o 00 IM IM 00 o IM © o o a J © I W) g J 2 a g S § * The total immigration into Manitoba and the Northwest in 1883 was about 51,244, ascertained as follows :— Reported at Emerson, 44,223: along the frontier, 1,406. The nationalities were :— from Europe, 8,C39 ; Canada, 25,301 ; United States, 13,998. From the total, 51,244, apart from the 1,406 deduct 17 per cent, for floating population (8,472), making total settlers 42,772. LOWE ON POPULATION. 221 Lake Winnipeg, but they have since mingled more generally with the population around them, becoming successful sottlcrn, and at- tracting year by year fresh accessions of their countrymen, with a well marked prospect of continued increase. They numlior now about 2,500. The German Mennonites who emigrated to Canada from the north shore of the Sea of Azov in Southern Russia, l)ecauso of restrictions upon their liberties arising from military regulatiouH and educational laws, numbered in 1874, 1,532 ; in 1875, 3,285 ; and throe years later, 6,394. These people have found in Canatla the freedom they desired. They are thrifty and industrious, and are rapidly increasing. The Russian Jews numbered 1,375 and came in 1882. A largo proportion of these wore at first unsuccessful as settlers, ap- parently from having acquired habits of trading rather than agricultural industry, but they have now been placed on lands in the Qu'Appelle valley by their more wealthy brethren, and the reports since received of them are favourable. It is to be observed that the immigrants who come to settle in Canada from the United Kingdom or parts of tlio Continent of Europe bring with them the skill and education as well as the habits, which they have acquired at home, together with very considerable means, the average of which per head is found to be about $60. People who emigrate voluntarily witli the motive of bettering their condition have naturally more than the average of energy. It follows that immigrant settlement in Canada is, to a largo extent, what may be called a natural selection of energy, and one effect of this is seen in the force of character which is developed by the people. It is found that successful immigrants are a source of great wealth to the country, in that they immediately become pro- ducers and also consumers of dutiable goods, — thus at once con- tributing to the wealth of the country by their production and to its commerce and internal industry by their consumption, as well as directly to the revenue in duties. An ordinarily success- ful immigrant family would earn and spend from $400 to $600 a year. $500 would not be an excessive average. Such families would thus be each contributors of from $50 to $60 per annum to the revenue. An immigration, therefore, of 10,000 of such 1 1 f i ' p 222 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. familioH in one year would mean a very large accesHion to the whole wealth of the community. It has not been found that oithor poverty or largo families are an}' hindrances to the suc- cess of the immigrant. Whore there are ability and willingness to work, a largo family, so far from being a weakness or a bur- den, is a source of strength. It was remarked by Buckle that, in the earlier migrations of mankind, settlement generally took place along the banks of rivers which afforded moans of communication ; and the oame fact is to bo noticed in tho tii'st sottlemonts in America. But the steel rail has taken the place of tho navigable rivers, opening up com- munications and promoting settlement over vast areas on this continent, that would otherwise remain uninhabited, at least in so far as relates to luiroi)oans or thoir descendants. We have seen striking examples within tho last twenty years in the great civilizations that have suddenly sprung up on tho Western and South-western prairies of tho United States. A similar policy is now being pursued in the Canadian North- west, and similar results arc rapidly following. Within one year, or eighteen months from this date, there is reason to believe that there will be transcontinental railway communication within the Dominion of Canada from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. The construction of this great line has, so far, been prosecuted with an energy hitherto unequalled in the railway construction of the world, and a territory as large as Europe from the latitude of Paris to the extreme north, having almost illimitable rosoui'ces, agricul- tural, industrial and commercial, to be developed, is now being opened up for settlement. The Government of Canada, in its care to foster immigration, has established effective immigration agencies at the principal seaports, and also at important points in the interioi-, at Quebec, Halifax, St. John, N.B., and Victoria, B.C., as well as at Sher- brooke, Montreal, Ottawa, Kingston, Toronto, Hamilton, London, Ont, Port Arthur, Emerson, Winnipeg, Brandon, Qu'Appelle, Medicine Hat, and Calgary. All possible assistance and direction are afforded to the immigrant at these Government agencies and settlement is thereby facilitated. The sick are cai-ed for, and the absolutely indigent temporarily assisted ; care, however, is taken to prevent, as far as possible, any pauperization of the recipients. T^WE ON roPULATION. 223 III. Pauperism. Thoro is littlo to bo naid about tho third division of my subject. Pauperism, an already stated, in the sense in which the term is used in the United ivingdom and other parts of Europe, is with- out significance among us. We have no paupers in Canada : no class of people unable to earn their own subsistence and supported by taxes imposed by tho State. There is, of course, a certain proportion of infirm persons and persons from whatever cause, unable to work among us, but this proportion is very small, and they are mainly supported by relatives and friends. There are many charitable institutions such as Hospitals, Orphanages, Lunatic and various other Asylums, Houses of Indus- try, etc., supported by voluntary contributions, by properties v/hich they ])OS8eH8, and by grants from the Provincial Legislaf- tui'os, Tho total number of inmates of such institutions in the whole Dominion is given in the census enumerations of 1871 and 1881. The enumerations include the servants and attendants, in many institutions forming a considerable portion of the whole, and from these figures can be gathered the relative proportion to the total population at the two periods : — isn. 1881. Kinds of TusTiTrTinNs. No. of Institu- tions. No. of Inmates. No., of Institu- tions. No. of Inmates- Hospitals Orphanr.ges TjiiiiRtifi Asvliiins 38 23 7 80 1,816 1,317 2,823 4,305 10,321 83 46 13 85 5,118 2,770 4,655 4,431 Various Asylums, Charitable) Industrial Houses / Totals 148 227 16,974 The figures for 1871 refer to the four Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Bi-unswick^ and Nova Scotia ; while those for 1881 include as well Prince Edward Island, British Columbia, Mani- toba, and the Northwest Territories. 224 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. The number of the inmates of these several institutions in 1871, including all servants and attendants, had a relation to the whole population of nearly three tenths of one per cent., and in 1881, of nearly four tenths. A large part of the inmates of the Hospitals and Asylums pay for their board as well as for their medical and other attendance. In the Industrial Houses many of the inmates earu a large proportion of the whole cost of keep- ing them ;, and the inmates of" Orphanages are placed in situa- tions as soon as (hey become of ago. If, therefore, we had any means of ascertaining the numbers of those who live simply on eleemosynary aid in the institutions referred to in the above table, they would be found to form a much more insignificant fraction of the whole population than that above stated. In addition to these classes of institutions, there are national societies, such as St. C4eorge's, St. Andrew's, St. Patrick's, Irish Benevolent, St. Jean Baptiste, etc., which afford temporary aid to distressed persons of their several nationalities, and till a very useful place in the cities where they exist. Such institutions are entirely supported by voluntary contributions. The absolute amount of aid alt'orded by them, however, measured by money value, is very small, having in view the extent of the population and the wealth of the communities in which they exist. Each society keeps its own accounts ; and there arc no general accounts «jf the total expenditure. It is further to be observed that, although the operations of those societies are charitable, they cannot be properly classed as pertaining to pauperism. The very general distribution of wealth in the Dominion ; the almost universal extent to which the cultivators of the soil are owners and masters of their acres ; the generally high rate of T^ages paid to the working classes, both artisans and labourers ; and the relative cheapness of living ; — all these influences are happily inimical lo the existence of paupeiism in any large degree in Canada. XVIII. THE BANKING SYSTEM OF CANADA* BY GEORGE HAGUR Ithe !iro hv lily in So far as that can '^ ^ called a system which presents very varied aspects to the bystander, the banking system of Canada is characterized, partly by what is common to the banks of the United Kingdom, and partly by methods which have been adopted from the United States. It may be said that the banks of Canada reflect to a singular degree the original circumstances of the various clasnos that compose the population of the Do- minion. Unlike tlu^ banking establishments of Australia and other British Colonies, nearly all the banks of Canada have their centre and root in the country itself. In only two in- stances have we establishments with their governing bodies in London. Of the forty-three banks now doing business in Canada, four- teen have their headquarters in the Province of Quebec, twelve in the Province of Ontario, nine in Nova Scotia, four in New Brunswick, throe in Prince Edward Islaad, and one in British Columbia. These banks are all joint-stock companies; for although a considerable number of so-called private bankers may be found in Canada, these are by no means of the same charac- ter as the private banking firms in Great Britain, that for so long have carried on business on terms of equality v "th the * Paper condensed from tho address as oriKinnlly delivored- 15 226 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. Ih i f i 1 i 1 I li i joint-stock banks. We have nothing, in short, to con*espond to such firms as the Glyns, Barclays, and Smiths, of London ; the Gurneys of Norfolk; the Birkbecks and Becketts, of York- shire, and other noted firms of the same character in various English counties. I. General Organization. All the joint-stock banks of the Dominion, with one Oi ^wo exceptions, carry on business under a general banking law. Formerly each bank had a separate charter, and such charters differed in their provisions. At the present moment, although a joint-stock bank cannot be set on foot without a special charter, all charters are subject to the provisions of a law coveung the whole ground of the rights, powers, and responsibilities of the shareholders, directors, and the corporation generally, and limited in its operation to a period of ten years. The whole question of banking, including the important one of the cur- rency of the country, comes up for discussion in Parliament at decennial periods. Moreover by the act establishing Con- federation, the subject of banking is reserved for Federal, as dis- tinct from Provincial, jurisdiction. The larger banks of the Dominion have an organization almost identical with that of the great banks of Scotland, from which most of the traditions and modes of banking amongst us were drawn. Several of these have capital in excess of any similar institutions in the United States, and from this point of view, one of them, the Bank of Montreal, ranks as one of the largest in the world. Its paid-up capital amounts to $12,000,000, and it has, in addition, a reserved fvnd of half as much more. The larger institutions have branches in nearly every part of Canada, besides carrying on business both in the United States and Gi'eat Britain. There is, perhaps, no field in which the energy and enterprise, that have won for Canada, in spite of difficulties, her high place upon the continent of America, have been displayed more markedly than in that of banking. Canadians have just reason to be proud of the fact, that, in a region ho far north that it was once utterly despised, not only by its nearest neighbours, HAGUE ON BANKING. 22t but its original possessors, they have succeeded in developing teri'itory which, not in extent alone, will bear comparison with the best districts of the United States. Similarly, it is our boast to have built up a banking system which has proved, despite those defects from which no human organizations are free, to be thoroughly adapted to the expanding circum- stances of the country. As the commerce of Canada is inti- mately connected with G-reat Britain and the United States, these banks have been able to plant themselves firmly in the great financial centres, both of the old world and the new, and to secure a position in many respects unique. The standing and strength of the Canadian banks have often proved of the highest service to the commercial communities of New York and Chi- cago, and the credit and resources at their command are fully appi'eciated by those who have largo transactions in these centres, and carry on business with foreign countries. I have said that the larger banks were formed upon a Scotch model. They have their headquarters in the great commercial cities. Their founders were British by birth, training, or ante- cedents, belonging to the great fraternity of commercial pioneers who swarmed out from Glasgow, Liverpool, and other British cities. I name these as distinct from that other and more nu- merous class of agricultural settlers who, by toilsome and ( n- tinuous labour, have turned a wilderness of forest, once abso- lutely valueless, into a productive country worth hundreds of millions. Both of these classes have been collaborateurs to one great end. The banks have followed the progress of settle- ment, and have grown with the expansion of the country. Branches of the Bank of Montreal have been opened from Halifax on the Atlantic Ocean, to Winnipeg in the centre of the continent; while the Bank of British North America extends across the continent from New Brunswick on the Atlantic, to British Columbia on the Pacific. Of the larger banks, the Bank of Montreal has a capital of $12,000,000 with thirty branches; the Bank of Commerce, with its headquarters in Toronto, has a capital of $6,000,000 and thirty-four branches ; the Merchants Bank of Canada with its headquarters in Montreal, a capital of $5,800,000 and thirty brtnchos; Ihc Bank of British North Ame- rica, a capital of £1,000,000 sterling, or $4,860,000, and sixteen J! 228 CANADIAN ECX)NOMICS. i branches. Each of these has an office in New York, and three of them offices in Chicago and London. The Bank of Montreal is the oldest, having been established by a number of Montreal merchants in 181*7. The Quebec Bank was established in the same year, largely by members of the same class in that city. This Bank has a paid-up capital of 02,500,000, with seven branches, and has always been largely identified with the devel- opment of the trade in the productions of our forests which fui-- nish so large a portion of the commerce of the ancient capital. II. Banking History. For a very considerable time the Bank of Montreal and the Quebec Bank were the only banks that carried on business in that part of the Dominion then known as Canada, but now com- prising the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec. The commerce of the country was in its infancy. Accurate statistics are not pro- curable until a much later period, and all that wo know of bank- ing statistics comes from the annual i-eports of those two institu- tions. A comparison between the puny developments of those early days and our own, will give a striking measure of the progress attained by the country during the last half-century. The Bank of Montreal, at its commencement, had a capital of $350,000 only. At the end of its first year, it laid by as a reserve the sum of $4,000. This modest reserved fund has now grown to $6,000,000 : no bad index of the growth of the country generally during the same period. If we go back to the year 1830, we find that the total paid-up capital of the then existing Banks of Canada was 81,300,000. It is now $55,000,000.* Deposits at that time were less than $2,000,000; they are now $95,000,000. Discounts then were not over $5,000,000; they are now $155,000,000. To complete the comparison with deposits of the present day we must include $29,0000,000, now deposited in the Government Savings Banks; $14,000,000, in various Loan Companies; and $9,000,000, in the Savings Banks acting under Legislative sanction. None *Tho returns of the banks of the Maritime Provinces are not in^ludeU jn these comparisons. HAGUE ON BANKING. 229 -up It lan Ircro lleto lUSt ingB )00, lone mese of these existed in ibrmei- days. The total deposits of the country are therefore now $147,000,000, as against $2,000,000 in 1830. When there was neither town, city, nor village in Ontario, then a wilderness inhabited merely by Indian tribes, Quebec and Montreal were comparatively important centres of popula- tion. The trade of those times was largely derived from the forest. The agriculture of the country was not sufficient to pro- vide a surplus for export. The settlers produced sufficient for the consumption of the country, and no more. The principal trade was in furs, and, to a small extent, in timber. It was partly national sentiment, and partly the pressure of necessity, that led to the occupation of Ontario. The merchants of Montreal supplied the rising settlements with such commodi- ties as were needed, and received their produce in return. From such infantile beginnings arose that great internal commerce between Montreal and the people of Ontario, which has nad so largely to do with the growth of the city. The enterprising merchants of Montreal seized upon every opening for business of a mercantile character. The Bank of Montreal in a similar manner reached out its arms, and in a quiet and almost prim- itive fashion established branches in one spot after another. For many years, the whole of the banking business of Ontario, such as it was, was done bj"" one bank. Later on, however, that stui'dy feeling of independence and love of self-government, which have had so marked a development amongst us in the political sphere, manifested themselves in the purely economical matter of banking. Toronto had become a centre of government and education, and, to a small extent, of business also. About tilty years ago a Municipal Government was established within it, and about the same time an attempt was made to found an independent bank. A charter, modelled on that of the older banks, was obtained from the Legislature. It was provided that the bank should not commence business until the sum of £10,000 of the currency of those days, or 040,000, was actually paid up. The whole Province, fi-om end to end, was appealed to on local and patriotic grounds to raise this sum ; but though it was ea^jy to get stock subscribed, of actual money there was such a deai'tb, that it was found impossible to gather 230 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. enough togothor to comply with the provisions of the charter. The [)roject was therefore in danger of collapsing, when some who had influence with the powers that be, succeeded in obtain- ing a loan on their own responsibility from the Military Chest in Toronto, and so made up the deficiency. The bank was thus enabled to commence operations. Ontario at that time was called Upper Canada. The bank therefore became the Bank of Upper Canada. In the Province which was^k^unable to raise ^40,000 of banking capital fifty years ago, there are now* twelve local banking insti- tutions with an united capital, paid up, of $18,760,000, deposits of $40,000,000, discounts of $65,000,000, and a circulation of $11,000,000. All these institutions are modelled, both in their framework and internal discipline, after the older banks. All these banks have branches, though some of them confine their opera- tions within the sphere of their own Province. Some years ago the element of nationality entered upon this economic field, and a bank was organized of a difl:"erent char- acter from any then previously in the country. This was the principle of " en commandiU :" that is, the directors were liable to the full extent of their means for all the engagements of the bank. In other words, it was a bank of unlimited liability so far as its directors were concerned. The stockholders of the other banks are liable for double the amount of their subscrip- tion, the only exception to this being the Bank of British North America, whose stockholders, by special exemption, are only liable for the amount of their stock. This principle of the full liability of directors, though apparently an attractive one, has not taken root in the community. The example has never been followed, even by other banks in which the element of separate nationality has prevailed. This bank was called " La Banque du Peuple," and it is still in existence. A number of other Banks have been established in Canada which, while subject to the same general law, may be called French, as distinguished from English, from the fact that they have French names, are mostly governed by French directors, keep their accounts in French, and have all their cheque-books 'la 1884. I I HAGUE ON BANKING. 231 and documents in that language. They have not, however, in any cane, spread themselves over the Dominion generally, and oven in the Province in which they have been organized, their operations are compativoly limited. They have, however, shown remarkable tenacity of life under adverse circumstances. There are some now in existence whose career has been a marvellous one in ihis respect. The banking development of the old provinces bordering on the sea, commonly called the Maritime Provinces of the Domin- ion, has been an entirely different one. Banking has there been carried on by a community largely of American origin. Though British ideas have prevailed in the political sphere, they have not in the financialj to the same extent as elsewhere in the Do- minion. The number of independent banks bears a larger pro- portion to population and business, the tendency having been to establish banks in small places after the manner of the local banks of the United States. In some of these banks there has been manifested an absence of that training in the higher depart- ments of banking, which is generally essential to stability. In this respect Canada owes much to the Bank of British North America. With its headquarters in London, this bank has introduced amongst us the best elements and methods of British banking, and sent out to Canada a large number of well educated and efficient men whose influence has been potent in elevating the tone of banldng business. III. Some Statistics. Iida led cy irs, ks For many years back Canada has had the advantage of a com- plete system of banking statistics. Commenced about thirty years ago under the regime of Mi*, (now Sir Francis) Hinoks, at that time Finance Minister and head of the government, — it first gave the people a complete and general idea of the operations of the banks of the country as a whole. They were required to make returns to the government, showing the amount of their capital, their circulation, their deposits and otlier liabilities, to- gether with their available assets, discounts and other invest- ments. These, after a time, were regularly published in the Canada Gazette, and the reports have been continued ever since 232 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. without intormission. The statistics, howovor, of tho present day are more elaborate than formerly. They embrace the banks of all tho Provinces of the Dominion. The first statistics in- cluded only the banks of Old Canada. With each decennial renewal of the charters, demands for further details have been made, many of which are regarded by practical bankers as little better than crotchets. The returns now required and published are according to the following form : — Synopsis of the Rbtubhs of the Banks to the Government for June, 1884. ti! ill lilABILTTIBS. Capital authorized $71,896,666 Capital paid up 61,443,397 Reserved funds 18,379,129 Notes in circulation $29,654,511 Dominion and Provincial government deposits 8,661,512 Deposits held to secure Government contracts and for insur- ance companies 488,973 Public deposits on demand 44,204,111 Public deposits after notice 53,239,654 Bank loans or deposits from other banks secured 262,007 Bank loans or deposits from other banks uneecured 1,123,318 Due other banks in Canada 1,22^,669 Due other banks in foreign countries 102,819 Due other banks in Groat Britain 1,710,760 Other liabilities 303,893 Total LiabiUties $14 0,973,227 ASSETS. Specie $6,639,773 Dominion notes 10,260,875 Notes and cheques of other banks 8,042,582 Due from other banks in Canada 2,925,256 Due from other banks in foreign countries 9,810,611 Due from other banks in Great Britain 2,974,449 Immediately Available Assets $40,653,646 HAGUE ON BANKING. 233 11 49 46 AsBETB {Continued). Dominion Government debentures or stock $908,549 Public securities other than Canadian 1,751,002 lioans to Dominion and Provincial Governments 7,882,433 Loans on stocks, bonds, or debentures 12,069,106 Loans to municipal corporations 1,699,027 Loans to other corporations 16,177,495 Loans to or deposits made in other banks secured 484,981 Loans to or deposits made in other banks unsecured 475,433 Discounts and loans current 130,280,429 1,615,556 161,217 2,645,362 1,122,300 803,318 3,106,021 2,023,723 Overdue paper unsecured Other overdue debts unsecured . . Notes and debts overdue secured Real estate Mortgages on real estate sold. . . . Bank premises Other assets • Total AssetG $223,859,498 Average amount of specie held during the month $6,549,787 Average Dominion notes held during the month 10,404,825 Liabilities direct and indirect of directors and their lirmis . . 7,766,984 These statistics appear in the Official Grovernment Gazette each month ; and, as they embrace not only the totals above refen'od to, but the details of the condition of each bank, they are scanned with no inconsiderable amount of interest by bankers and cap- italists. The following summary will give a clear idea of the leading items of the returns for the month of June, 1884, classified according to Provinces : — Description. Capital paid up Circulation Deposits Loans and Discounts Cash and Foreign Balances net Banks in Quebec. 136,299,000 14,927,000 55,383,000 90,549,000 18,427,000 Banks iu Ontario. $18,764,000 10,778,000 40,345,000 65,009,000 7,228,000 Banks in Maritime Provinces. $0,380,000 3,949,000 10,866,000 19,053,000 2,213,000 Total. $61,443,000 29,654,000 106,594,000 174.611,000 27,868,000 234 CANADIAN ECONOMICa It may bo interesting to compare the totaln hero with those of some former years. The depositn of all the banks in Ontario and Quebec for the month of June, 1858, amounted to only 812,000,000. This sum included the whole deposits of the Bank of Montreal, Bank of British North America, Bank of Upper Canada, Commercial Bank of Canada, and all others then in existence. A summary of the returns of 1865 is appended for fui-ther pur- poses of comparison : — LIABILITIES. Capital authorized $45,166,666 Capital paid up 30,647,412 Circulation 14,158,313 Due to other banks 1,484,009 Deposits not bearing interest . . , 14,447,960 Deposits bearing interest 14,510,386 $44,600,669 ASSETS. Specie and Provincial notes $8,283,688 Landed or other property of the bank 2,927,591 Government securities 6,534,485 Notes and cheques of other banks 1,813,913 Due from other banks 5,983,023 Notes discounted 45,677,674 Other assets not included under foregoing heads 3,698,385 Total Assets $74,918,763 It thus appears that there has been an enormous development during the last two or three decades. Deposits since 1858 have increased from $12,000,000 to $95,000,000, or about "700 per cent. Since 1865, they have increased from $29,000,000 to $95,000,000, about 230 per cent. Paid-up capital since 1865 has increased from $30,000,000 to $61,000,000, or about 100 per cent. Dis- counts have increased from $45,000,000 to $155,000,000, or about 250 per cent. Circulation has increased from $14,000,000 to $29,000,000, or about 100 per cent* * These figures are for Ontario and Quebec only, no complete statistics of the banks of the Maritime Provinces having; been published till 1871. ilAGtJfe ON BANKING. 235 Those Htatiatics are such as to give Canadians confidcnco in the stability and growth of thoir country. Thoso who huvo witnossod, as the writer has, the whole of this remarkable growth, cannot but have faith in its future development, no matter what tem- porary clouds may obscure the prospect. IV. Currency and Note Circulation, The inti'oduction of the decimal currency was an important step in the development of the banking system. For a long period Canada had been content with a currency of her own, entitled the "Halifax Cun-ency; " but, though this was not found to be inconvenient in practice, the increasing intercourse between Canada and the United States, caused by the ratification of a treaty for reciprocal trade, led to the passing of an Act about twenty-seven years ago, compelling all Government accounts to be 1 opt in dollars and cents. Fi'om the date of the operation of that Act, though they were not under obligation to do so, all the banks changed their mode of notation. This was a compara- tively simple thing, for every pound in the old currency repre- sented $4, being worth 20 per cent, less than the English sove- reign, and every shilling was exactly equivalent to twenty cents. The superior convenience of the decimal system, when once introduced, led to its rapid and spontaneous adoption in all parts of the country. In this respect Canada differs entirely from the Australian Colonies, whose currency has always been identical with that of Great Britain. The banking system of Canada has always been on a gold basis. Never, except during the exigencies of the Eebellion, and then only for a short time, have the banks suspended specie payment. Such economic heresies as an irredeemable currency, or a bi- metallic system, have never obtained footing here. The British sovereign, and the gold coins of the United States are both legal tender, being known to be of standard fineness; but oui* own silver is only legal tender to the extent of $10, while United States silver is not legal tender at all, being a debased coinage. Dui'ing the long period when the currency of the United States was at a discount, of sometimes as low as sixty per cent., the currency of Canada remained steady on a firm basis of gold. All ^^^ % r^^ k^ (P- y>. h vV 236 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. mi her transactions with the United States were on this footing, and the command of gold, to very largo amounts, pi-oved at times a considerable source of prolit to the Canadian banks having offices in New York. The banks of Canada differ from those of the United States, while they resemble those of Scotland, in having a free circula- tion, limited only by the amount of their paid-up capital. They have had to contend at various times against attempts to abolish this liberty, and in this contention they have invariably taken the ground that, by their free circulation, they were serving the interest of the public. Against attempts to substitute for it a circulation composed entirely of the notes of the Government, they have contended : — Ist. That such a circulation, however guarded in theory, would almost certainly at some time, under pressure of circumstances, become irredeemable, fall to a discount, and be a source of incal- culable disaster to the country. In support of this they pointed out that, though it was perfectly easy for a Government to issue promissory notes payable on demand, the task of redeeming them, in every instance where the experiment had been tried, had proved impossible of accomplishment. (The experiment of the United States had then been only partially tried, and its issue remains uncv^rtain, even yet.) 2nd. It was pointed out that every Government currency then circulating in the world was at a discount ; that such currencies in former days, though issued by Governments which had proved stable in other respects, had fallen to such a discount as to be absolutely worthless ; that the laws of finance were invariable ; and that what had happened before would inevitably, when like circumstances arose, happen again ; that such circumstances, in the chan(jing conditions of government and society, would almost certainly recur. 3rd. It was pointed out that, if the Government desired to borrow, it should do so in the open markets of the world, and on bonds or debentures maturing at fixed periods, the date of which was known, and provision for which could be made without dis- tui'bance to the monetary condition of the country. 4th. The broad ground was taken that, though it was the un- doubted function of Government to stamp coin and to give ^>r HAGUE ON BANKING. 23*7 authority to issue, the function of redemption could never he successfully performed except by blinkers. These arguments, along with the very practical one that to abolish bank circulation would necessitate an immense contrac- tion of discounts, and bring about an incolerable disturbance of trade and commerce, prevailed to this extent, that only a partial i^sue of Government notes was attempted. The Bank of Mont- real, for a substantial consideration, agreed to cii'culate Govern- ment notes instead of its own, and to manage the business of redemption in its own offices. Since the year ISTl, the system has been continued and ex- tended on a purely governmental basis, — the Bank of Montreal having resumed the circulation of its own notes. The amount of issues has been fixed by law ; reserves of specie are held by Gov- ernment treasurers in Montreal, Toronto, Halifax, St. John, Winr^ipeg, and Victoria (British Columbia) ; the notes are made legal tender ; and bankers are compelled to hold a certain portion of their reserves therein. The power of issuing notes below the denomination of five dollars has exclusively devolved on the Government, such notes being the least likely to be presented for redemption in quantity. Thus guarded, the system of a partial issue of Government notes has been working among us since ISTl, side by side with bank issues, without material disturbance. It should be noted, howovei*, that the only notes of the Govern- ment which can be considered in circulation, consist exclusively of one, two and four dollar bills. The rest consist of notes of larger denominations, used only by banks for the purpose of making settlements between one another. The former are, of course, in the hands of the public. The latter are rarely seen outside the banks themselves. On two occasions attempts have been made by the Govern- ment to assimilate the circulation of the Canadian banks to that of the national banks of the United States, and to compel the depositing of Government bonds as security for issues. This attempt met with resistance from a majority of the banks, who contended : — First. That to compel all issues to be covered by Government securities would necessitate such an enormous contraction of discounts as would bring disaster to every interest of the country. 238 CANADIAN ECX)NOMICS. Secondly. That a system of free issues, maintained at a healthy level by daily redemption (under which ovei'-issuos are impos- sible), expanding readily and easily when crops require to bo moved and timber is being produced in the forest, and contract- ing just as naturally when these processes ai-e accomplished, is far more suitable to a country like Canada, than a system by which issues are fixed and cannot be increased ; whose inevitable effect is to concentrate masses of money in financial centres at one time — thereby stimulating speculation ; and to draw them off at another — thereby tightening money. Thirdly. That however suitable such a system might be when worked in connection with local banks, each a centre to itself, it would prove utterly impracticable where banks have numerous branches. Lastly. "When reference was made to the example of the United States, it was rejoined : — (1) That the covering of notes by security there had become the only practicable remed}" for the unbearable evils of unsound issues. (2) That the National Banking Act was a war measure, devised mainly with reference to the stringent exigencies of the times. (;}) That so far as the issue of currency was a part of it — though very admirable in many respects, — it had drawbacks which were most seriously felt, both in times of expansion and contraction. These arguments were pressed on the attention of the Govern- ment, and placed prominently before the country through the medium of the Press. As thus set forth, they were endorsed by public opinion and accepted by Parliament. The banks have, therefore, been left with their free circulation, with the simple proviso that they shall not issue notes beyond the amount of their capital (a most ample margin), and that they shall not issue any notes of a lower denomination than five dollars. And, since July Ist, 1881, the notes of the banks are constituted a first lien on their assets. It is much to be regretted that the amount of specie originally required to be held against Government notes, has been much lessened of late years. The inadequacy of the present reserve has been proved on more than one occasion, and the Government will doubtless take steps, at an early day, to have it put upon a proper footing. 1 HAGUE ON BANKING. V. Exchanges, Deposits, Etc. 239 The lianks maintain a constant system of exchanges with each other, though it is to be regretted that no clearing house has as yet been established amongst us. At the branches, as well as at their head office, the banks send in, not only cheques upon one another, but all the notes they have of their neighbours. For the balance thus created, drafts are drawn by branches upon cities where the larger banks have head offices. But at these larger centres, and particularly Montreal, all settlements between banks must be in gold, or its equivalent of Government notes. This constant sending in of notes for redemption acts as a perfect and automatic check upon over-issues. The deposits of the Canadian banks are very small as compared with those England and Scotland, and even with those of Australia and other British Colonies. The contrast in this respect between Canada and Australia is very marked. In proportion to their population, the people of Australia have more than four times as much money deposited in banks as the people of Canada. This is a noteworthy fact. It arises partly from the Aus- tralian Colonies having been gold producing countvit-s, and having had a much more rapid and continuous development of wealth ; partly from the prevalence of habits derived from Great Britain, leading to a universal system of depositing in banks. The Canadian banks, in receiving deposits, which is their natural and proper function, have serious obstacles to contend with, some of them of an unreasonable character. The Govern- ment itself, through its Post Office Savings Bank, receives deposits. In this it emulates the example of England ; but, unlike England, its rate of interest on deposits is such as to make the Government a direct competitor with the Banks. The rate of interest is actually higher than that of the leading banks ; and besides, by allowing large sums to be accumulated by one person, in place of being simply a safe place of deposit for the pool', it has become a means by which the mercantile and finan- cial community can get better rates for their spare money than the banks can afford to give. In addition to this, the Legisla- ture allows the land companies established amongst us to receive deposits : again introducing the element of competition with the 240 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. banks. As a resulti of this, the rate of discount to the commer- cial community is higher than it otherwise would be. Mer- chants, manufacturers, and shippers are, in fact, taxed to enable a higher rate of interest to be paid to other classes. This is an undesirable state of affairs, and is one of the causes why mercan- tile failures have been so numerous amongst us. The advantages or disadvantages of the Canadian system of branch banks have often been discussed. There is much to be said on both sides. In its favour, it may be urged that the sys- tem gives to depositors in all parts of the country, and in small places, the advantages of the security of an institution with a large capital with a double liability behind it. There can be little doubt, too, that sound ideas of business are diifiised over every part of the country by moans of the contact with the mer- cantile community of men who have been trained in such banks as those of Canada are. The directors and principal officers of such banks require to keep themselves advised of the condition of mercantile affairs in every district of the country, and, in fact, are well acquainted with it. The large capital and resources of central banks are thus available for the carrying on of enter- prises which, located in smaller towns, would require a far larger amount of accommodation than any local institution could pos- sibly give them. But the system, no doubt, has its drawbacks. The very fact that large masses of capital are available in small places encourages what is often an unhealthy development of business. A style of business which is only proper to great centres may be attempted in mere villages, to the ruin of the parties carrying it on, and to the great loss of the banks whose resources have been so unwisely diverted into an improper channel. It must be confessed, too, that the task of keeping the loans and discounts of twenty or thirty offices, and in widely diversified districts of country, in a sound and healthy condition, is one that has at times overtaxed the ability of even our ablest bankers. VI. Conclusion. In conclusion, bank failures in Canada have not on the whole been numerous ; and, in the case of their occurence, stockholders HAGUP] ON BANKING. 241 are liable by law for double the amount of their subscriptionB. Such failures have arisen from the same circumstances that have brought about embarrassment to banks in Great Britain. The locking-up of large sums of money in irrecoverable accounts, recklessness in making advances for illegitimate purposes, want of control over agents and officers at distant points, inefficient systems of inspection, glaring attemps to evade, override, or defy the provisions of the banking law, — all these have occurred in the management of some of our banking institutions, and ha\e brought their inevitable consequences. It is a fact to be deplored that the losses suffered by banks in Canada have been on a scale that is almost unknown elsewhere. The imperfect development of the country in its early days, the want of such settled business tra- ditions as prevail in Great Britain, the widely separated territories in which the banks do business, the various origins, antecedents and habits of our diversified population, and the speculative spirit which always pervades a young and rising community, — all these have combined to bring loss, first to the customer of the bank himself, and then to the bank which trusted him. In addi- tion to this, there can be no doubt that competition has been far too severe between banks themselves, bringing large losses to them, and resulting in no advantage to theii* customers. Such, in brief, is a general sketch of the past and present condi- tion of banking in Canada. It is to be hoped that, for the future, sound traditions of British business and banking life will be more prevalent both in the mei'cantile community and among our banking institutions. It will be to the mutual advantage of both. To the one it will mean fewer failures. To the other it will result in a far smaller average of losses, and an entire avoid- ance bank's very existence. of those dangerous courses which sometimes imperil a 16 m ^ XIX. THE POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK SYSTEM OF CANADA."^ BY J. CUNNINGHAM STEWART. I. Origin op the System. The inquirer into the origin and history of Post Office Savings Banks in a new country must not expect to meet with what may be termed the " pr'^historic " element. As applied to the Post Office Savings Bi.. ^ ^tem in the United Kingdom, this term may not inappropriai. "^ be given to the condition of things existing in the three Kingdoms during the sixty years, or there- abouts, preceding the maturing and final development of that scheme in 1861, but which it is not the purpose of the present paper to discuss, further than to describe it as possible only in a country of dense population, where time and the operation of the laws of wealth had opened a gulf between the upper and lower strata of society, and where improvidence and squalor in the latter found, among the former, men of independent means with the leisure and philanthropic desire to take their humbler brethren by the hand and teach them lessons of frugality and providence. The successful launching of the Post Office Savings Bank in the mother country afforded instant relief from a con- dition of uncertainty and doubt begotten of the cruel and •The Postal Savings Banks have not as yet been extended to the Maritime Provinces, or to Manitoba and the Northwest- I n 244 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. 51 i ~ *1 gigantic frauds which from time to time had startled society under the old Trustee Savings Banks. In the circumstances of its birth, then, no parallel must be looked for between the Post Office Savings Bivnk of Canada and the parent institution. The successful ingrafting of a savings bank system on the machinery of the post office in England has been followed by the almost universal adoption by other nations, as well as, it is believed, by all the principal British Colonies, of measures more or less akin to the original. This circumstance, added to the varied experiences of different countries, with the desire to interchange such experiences, has given birth to a savings bank literature of especial value to those interested in postal savings banks. It is possible, therefore, although the Post Office Savings Banks by no means occupy the entire savings bank field in Can- ada, and are, as already stated, wanting in those earlier annals which give zest to the study of the parent system, that there are social and economic aspects undei' which it may be interesting to examine the Canadian system, and to these broader aspects may be added those features which are of peculiar interest to the accountant. In the year 1867, there appear to have been in the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec regularly organized savings banks at Toronto, Cobourg, Hamilton, Montreal and Quebec, with de- posits amounting to $3,489,000 at an average rate of interest of 4 per cent. Only three of these savings banks now remain (1884), those at Hamilton, Quebec and Montreal. The proposition to adopt the Post Office Savings Bank system in Canada was intro- duced in the Canadian legislature during the November session of 1867, the first session after Confederation. Public attention had been attracted by the marked success of the British Post Office Banks, and several private individuals had addressed com- munications to the Government urging the adoption of a similar measure in Canada. The proposed legislation received little attention in the Can- adian press. At that time party politics were dormant, and the measure — provoking no adverse criticism — received little comment of any kind. The scheme was presented to Parliament as part of a general measure for the adoption of " an uniform postal system," and the brief discussion which took place was STEWART ON POST OFFICE BANKS. 245 confined to tho limit to bo fixed for the depositw of a single depOHitoi*. The necessity for such limit was urged, not thereby to exclude fi-om the use of the savings bank persons outside the wage-earning classes, — this being the fundamental idea in fixing a limit in tho old British Savings Banks, and the principle fol- lowed in tho British Post Office system, — but to guard the interests of the Canadian chartered banks whose working capital consists largely of deposits. The fears on the part of those representing the banking interests that many of the deposits in those institutions would seek the Post Office Savings Bank, may have been emphasized by the financial panic of October, 1867, which shook many of the Canadian banks, one succumbing altogether. Sixteen years* experience, however, has, it may be believed, satisfied the bank- ing institutions that they have so far little to fear from the Post Office Savings Banks. To this result the limit fixed for one person's deposits in the latter, viz., $1,000, may have contributed, A really influential factor in swelling the deposits in the Post Office Savings Banks may be found in the general fall in the value of money since the year 1880, the Post Office Savings Bank rate of four per cent, remaining undisturbed. The sub- joined figures (made up to June in each year), however, show that, while the deposits in the Post Office Savings Banks have very largely increased since the year named, the deposits in the chartered banks themselves have never been so large as during the last five years, when low rates of interest have prevailed : — P. 0. Savings Chartered Average interest allowed by Year. Banks. Banks. Savings Bank Departments of chartered Banks. 1875 $ 2,926,000 $55,918,000 1876 2,741,000 59,516,000 ] 1877 2,(J4(),000 58,444,000 > 4 and 5 per cent. 1878 2,754,000 58,946,000 i 1879 3,105,000 58,659,000 / 1880 3,946,000 69,742,000 3 1881 6,208,000 77,078,000 3 1882 9,474,000 89,565,000 3 1883 11,976,000 89,553,000 3 and 4 " " 1884 13,245,000 87,341,000 3 ;■ ! 246 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. ] ff The Canadian Post Office Act of 1867, in its savings bank clauses followed very closely the British Post Office Savings Bank Act. Latei* legislation, in 18t5, abolished the requirement that the Post Office Savings Bank balance, as loquired by the Act of 1867, should be funded in Canadian Government securities. The balance now forms part of the unfunded debt of the Dominion payable in Canada. The system went into operation on April 1st, 1868, at eighty-one of the larger places, including the chief cities, in Ontario and Quebec. The following year this number was increased to 213, and at present (July, 1884) the number is 343. The rules, so far as they affect the public, being almost a tran- script of those of the British Post Office Savings Bank, need not be further than touched upon here. A depositor when making his first deposit, signs a declaration that he is not already interested in any deposits in the Post Office Savings Bank in his own name or any other. The post- master or other officer receiving the deposit — which must not be less than $1, and must not exceed $300 in any one year (except by special permission from the Department first obtained, when any sum not exceeding $1,000 may be deposited at once), or $1,000 in all — gives the depositor a pass book, in which are entered the particulars of the deposit, affirmed by the official date-stamp of the office. The postmaster sends to the head office at Ottawa daily a list of the sums lodged with him for trans- mission, the keynote to the depositor's safety lying, first, in the fact that in the head office only is his account kept; and secondly, in the requirement that ho must see that he gets, for every deposit paid in, a direct receipt from the head office by return of post. II. Growth and Progress. A tabular statement exhibiting the operations of the Post Office Savinirs Bank, from April 1st, 1868, to June 30th, 1884, will be fouixd further on. Fi'om this the gradual expansion of the system may readily be seen. There have been in all, since the beginning 852, 143 deposits and 410,259 withdrawals. Of the total number of transactions, 101,461 (or about one in every STEWART ON POST OFFICE BANKS. 247 eleven) have been at places other than where the depositors' accounts were originally opened, showing how far depositors take advantage of their privilege of moving from place to place and depositing or withdi'awing at pleasure without change of pass book. The following figures, compiled partly from an examination of the ledgers, and partly from estimate, show with aproximate accuracy the depositors classified according to occupation, and the sums held in the Savings Bank by each class : — Occupation. Farmers Mechanics Trust accounts and young children Labourers, including sailors Clerks Tradesmen Farm and other male servants .... Professional Miscellaneous Married women Single women Widows No. of Depositors, 14,000 7,850 5,500 4,270 3,000 1,600 1,470 1,572 1,680 12,000 10,500 3,240 To credit of etich cliisB. Average of each Claris. $4,722,000 1,422,00(1 170,000 724,000 522,000 468,000 277,000 392,000 215,000 2,350,000 1,275,000 708,000 $13,245,000 $337 181 31 169 174 293 188 249 128 196 120 214 Explanation of the large number of accounts held in the names of women, particularly married women, may be found in the difficulty which farmers and artisans experience in leav- ing their work to visit the post office, the consequence being that the accounts are opened in the names of their wives or other female members of their families. III. Comparison with United Kingdom Statistics and General Observations. Depositoi's in the Canadian cities consist to so large an extent of persons from the surrounding rural districts that it would be value- less to pursue to a comparison, which would be interesting were the conditions alike, the question of what analogy may exist, in 248 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. i point of numbers, between depositors in Canadian centres of population and towns of like size in the United Kingdom. The following are the statistics of the Province of Ontario and Quebec compared : — / Depositors. Amount Deposited. Post Office Savings Banks. Average Numbcrof Actual Numbers. Proportion to Popula- tion. Actual Numbers. Proportion to Population. Depositors at each Bank. Ontario ♦ . • • Quebec 57,296 9,386 lto34 1 to 136 $10,932,000 * 2,313,000 279 64 1 for 6,965 1 " 10,840 205 145 With these numbers may be compared the corresponding numbers in the United Kingdom. The proportion of depositors to population is in England, 1 to 10, in Scotland, 1 to 35. In the United Kingdom, the proportion of banks to population, is 1 for 5,000; the average number of depositors at each bank is 406. In any attempt to measure the progress of the Post Office Savings Bank in Canada by that of its prototype, the different conditions of the two peoples, the old nation and the young, must be borne in mind. In the older country not only are social and class lines strongly marked, but trades and callings are pursued in such fixed grooves as to narrow the outlet for in- dividual energy, and to limit the choice of investments where small surplus earnings may be placed. In the new Dominion on the other hand (and the same thing is doubtless true of all countries and colonies in their youth), the very desires which brought men or their parents across the t,ea, and the sense of the boundlessness of their country which possesses the people of the American continent, beget and keep alive an unrest and a movement which are destructive of all artificial barriers. There arc fields of enterprise which cannot but attract the energetic and ambitious, and to eveiy man are there possibilities in the acquisition of real property, sufficient to absorb all surplus wages or income. From the commonly accepted point of view that savings banks are for the storing of the small sums which 'Half of this is held in the two cities of Montr»al and Quebec. STEWART ON POST OFFICE BANKS. 249 would otherwise find their way into the traditional " stocking " or "teapot," the wonder, on examination, is that the Canadian Postal Savings Banks have attained measurable success at all. It must bo remembered that the $13,000,000 in the Post Oflice Savings Bank, by no means represent the entire savings deposits of the two Provinces of Ontario and Quebec. The deposits in the chartered banks (numbering with their agencies 222) have already been quoted as amounting to $87,000,000. What propor- tion of this may fairly be termed savings deposits there are no available data for determining. To the chartered banks must be added ninety-three building and loan societies, whose liabilities to upwards of 30,000 depositors, according to the latest returns, were $15,000,000. The old-established savings banks in the cities of Montreal and Quebec hold, in round numbei-s, $9,250,- 000 in the namet; of 42,297 depositors. Attention cannot fail to be attracted to the magnitude of the average deposit in the Canadian Post Office Savings Banks, a sum, in round numbers, of no less than $60, — the average deposit in the United Kingdom being £2. In Canada the deposits number 1.66 in the year by each depositor. In the United Kingdom the average is 2.15. In the year 1881, three branch savings bank offices were opened in the suburbs of the city of Toronto ; and it was hoped that the result of bringing savings bank facilities nearer to the homes of the industrial classes in a large city would appear in a numerical increase in the small deposits. The average deposit at these three subui'ban offices is $28, half the usual average, and the frequency of deposits is 2.75 per annum for each open account. After three years' trial, the number of depositors is, however, only 615. The transactions at the two suburban offices in the city of Montreal, present results nearly identical. The attempt to bring the advantages of the Post Office Savings Banks within the reach of the classes on daily or weekly wages has so far, therefore, been only partially successful. It is necessary to state, however, that such attempt has been confined to the simple opening of the branch offices. The Canadian Department has not sought to atti'act depositors by means of pamphlets, nor otherwise attempted a paternal treatment of the people, which would hardly find favour in this countiy. 250 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. It til i« ii The writer's observation justifies the general deduction, which, had it nothing but statistics as a basis, might be delusive, that the people of the Province of Ontario may properly be described as thriving rather than thrifty. Whether the monetary unit of trade and the value of wages 81.00 (four times the English shilling and German mark, and five times the franc) has anything to do with begetting a contempt for the fragments, the cents, is a question beyond the scope of this paper. Wages are not earned without fair equivalent in labour, so that it cannot be said that xien do not value what costs them little eftbrt. The necessaries of life are cheap, and it cannot be asserted that the coarse enjoy- ment of the present absorbs the surplus earnings of the working classes. The deposits now accumulated in the Post Office Sav- ings Banks may be said to be in, although hardly saved by means of, those institutions, — the virtue of habitual saving being one yet to be acquired. The people of the sister Province of Quebec — that is, those of French Canadian nationality, who represent five sixths of the population of that Province — are eminently frugal and simple in their manner of living and expenditure. While neither the same gi'oss, nor a like average, amount of deposits could be looked for as in the richer Province of Ontario, it might be expected that the French Canadian rural population would, nevertheless, use the Post Office Savings Banks to a larger extent than the official records show to be the case. The old-established savings banks in the cities of Montreal and Quebec have already been men- tioned as having deposits amounting to $9,250,000. The de- positors in the former number (according to returns published on Dec. 31st, 1883,) 29,756, of whom 18,357 are of French Canadian nationality, a largo percentage being from the country districts round Montreal. Of the 12,541 depositors in the Quebec Savings Bank it is probable that those of French Canadian nationality are a large majority. It is possible that the French Canadian rui*al population, accustomed for generations to the institutions and simple customs inherited from their parent country, France, and to the system which makes the village notary to them the visible and per- sonal medium through whom are executed on the spot all legal forms, do not grasp the abstract idea of a savings bank at the STEWART ON POST OFFtCE BANKS. 251 seat of government, perhaps many hundred miles distant, which guarantees perfect security to their deposits from the moment of their being handed to the village postmaster. Having little contact with immigrants from the British Isles, the rural popu- ation of the Province of Quebec have not, moreover, the oppor- tunities of becoming familiar with the working of post office savings banks, which association with persons, themselves de- positors, would afford. The plan of collecting the minimum deposit (one dollar) by means of postage stamps affixed to a form provided by the Depart- ment for the purpose, has not commended itself to the Canadian authorities. It is believed that in this country better results may be achieved by the unselfish efforts of philanthrophic persons in connection with ** Penny Banks." Three of these institutions in the city of Toronto may be mentioned as having attained a success, which is entirely due to that kindly influence on the part of their promoters which is essential in any effort to reach the humbler classes, and which the machinery of the Post Office could not supply. IV. Cost of the System. The Post Office Savings Banks in Canada are maintained at a cost to the Government of about 4.10 per cent, on the balance due to depositors. Of this charge the interest allowed to depositors represents about 3.85 per cent., and the expenses of management are 0.25 per cent. The difference between 4 per cent., the declared rate of interest, and the distributed rate suffices to pay about one half of the expenses of management. The cost per transaction is 20J cents, — somewhat more than it would be, did the requirements of the country not compel the printing of pass books and all official forms in the Fi'ench as well as the English language. One of the most satisfactory points to be noted is the almost entire absence of loss arising from any cause. Fourteen of the sixteen years of the Savings Banks' history have been absolutely i'ree from casualty. The loss on a business represented by 1,262,402 transactions and $83,000,000 has been only $6,611, say | of a cent for each $100. The entire loss, except the small sum of $390 lost through the 252 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. successful personation of a depositor, occurred through frauds by a single officer in the year 18*78. Although the depositors who were the victims of these frauds had, in most instances, owing to their lamentable neglect of the regulations made for their safety, no legal claim against the Department, the losses were made good in view of the extreme hardship of the cases. V. Abandoned Features. The history of the Canadian Post Office Savings Bank would not be complete without a reference to two features formerly, but no longer, ingrafted on the system. The first was a plan by which depositors could transfer their ordinary deposits, in sums of $100, to a special 5 per cent, account, — such 5 per cent, moneys being repayable on three months previous notice. This system was remarkably smooth in its operation. It was intelligible to depositors, and, in the ledgers of the Department, the interest on the balances at 5 per cent, was computed with ease. It being thought that these special deposits — being really investments of a more or less permanent character — should be under the direct management of the Finance Department, the system just described was discontinued in 1872, and a special issue of 5 per cent. Government stock was substituted. Under the latter arrangement, the Post Office Savings Bank ceased to have any knowledge of, or responsibility for, amounts transferred for inscription in stock in the Finance Department, the latter undertaking the payment of half-yearly dividends and sub- sequent redemption. • The second system was discontinued in 1880, with the general fall in the value of money. It was not satisfactory in its operation. Depositors, whose money had been transferred to Dominion stock, could not understand how, by a simple book-entry at Ottawa, they had ceased to be depositors in the Post Office Savings Bank. The Finance Department, in transmitting half-yearly dividends, was unable to follow depositors' changes of residences, and generally it may be said that, owing to its apparent complexity, the system did not tend to popularize the Post Office Savings Banks. STE ART ON POST OFFICE BANKS. 253 VI. Inner Working and Method op Book-Keepino. To those familiar with the inner working of Post Office Savings Banks, a branch of the subject which furnishes a litera- ture of its own, a brief desci'iiDtion of the mode of keeping depositors' accounts in the Canadian Post Office Savings Bank may be interesting. The rate of interest fixed by statute — $4: per annum for each $100, being S12 for each $300, — is, it will be seen, exactly mie cent a month for each even sum of $3, just as (at 2J per cent.) one halfpenny per month is allowed in the British Post Office Savings Bank for each complete pound. The latter is, in fact, the key to the computation of interest in depositors' accounts in the British system. So convenient did this analogy appear, that the Canadian Post Office Act of 1867 expressly confined the calculation of interest to sums of $3 or some multiple thereof. (This was altered at the first oppoi tunity, viz., in 1875, $1.00 being then made the factor for purposes of calculation.) It became evident to the officers entrusted with the organization of the Canadian system, that the British plan of calculating in- terest would be entirely inapplicable, for, whereas in one system the unit for calculation of interest (the pound) stands prominent in a column of its own, the Canadian unit, $3, would not appear as a visible basis on which to compute, but would itself form matter for calculation, month by month, in each account. It was then, after much thought and careful experiment, decided to adopt the plan not altogether new, but new in Canada, of calculat- ing the interest in advance ; a decimal currency in connection with a 4 per cent, rate of interest, making the table for the purpose remarkably simple. Indeed, for four months of the twelve, i.e., the first month in each quarter, the table may be dispensed with altogether, the ojjeration being to multiply the dollars of the deposit by 4, 3, 2, or 1, according to the period of year as it advances, and treat the result as cents. To illustrate the method: A deposit of $60 in September, multiplied by three, would be credited with $1.80 interest up to the end of the savings bank year, June 30th. The interest credited for the same amount if deposited in December would be $1.20. In case of withdrawals, depositors' accounts are in like 254 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. till ■ ■ff 11 manner charged with prospective interest up to the end of the current year. This was the method of computing interest adopted, and it has been in successful operation ever since. There was much expenditure of ettbrt during the first two years in the endeavour to conform rigidly to British precedent. Abstracts of the transactions were taken from the ledgers quar- terly, and the depositors' ledgers accounts were balanced and ruled off at the end of each year at the cost of much time and labour. It was soon apparent that the quarterly summaries failed to give the proof which was their sole object, and that, even if satisfactory in that respect, the interval between the making of the entries and the discovery of error was too great. It was remarked that the average number of transactions in each account did not exceed two a year, and this suggested the aban- donment of all summaries from the ledgers, except the annual one, and the substitution (if such could be devised) of such daily verification of the deposit and withdrawal entries in the ledgers as would place their accuracy beyond question. In other words, it was believad that the time and labour heretofore expended in tracing errors months after their occurrence could be more economically and far more advantageously employed day by day in their prevention. Such a plan was devised, and it has been in successful operation for fourteen years. The opportunity was taken to simplify the pattern of ledger account, and a speci- men of that now in use (there being twelve on each page) is printed on the opposite page. In the Account opposite, the process followed on June 30th in each year is illustrated by the black figures. In the original ledgers these entries are made in red ink. The figures in the right hand column refer to the record where will be found the particulars of each transaction as extracted from the ledgers on the date of entry. The dates in the same column indicate the day on which the pass book was received for annual verification. It will be observed that the process of ruling off" and balancing the account at the end of each year is entirely dispensed with. The accuracy of the deposits and withdrawals having already becL tablished, all that it is necessary to do is to insert in the "deposit" column the interest, already computed in advance, add it to the balance of principal, and compute the interest for STEWART ON POST OFFICE BANKS. 255 "BROCKVILLE" LEDGER. [972.] Henry Brown, Farmer. Date. Witb- drnwals Deposits. Balances. Balance of Interest. Balance Special Acccount. Not now in use. Refer- ences. 1878 Dec. 20 • • • • • • • • 12.00 • • * • 31.00 • • • • • • • • • • • • 119.74 $ 50.00 3.00 7.00 1.01 30.00 1.93 02.00 3.30 4.60 • • • • 50.00 53.00 60.00 48.00 49.01 79.01 48.01 % 1.00 06 67 70 Dec. 29 1.06 07 Mrch. 11 1.13 12 103 Aprl. 9 1.01 51 1879 1.90 90 20-12-79 Sept. 14 2.86 93 170 Oct. 21 1.93 51 1880 49.94 111.94 1.96 1.24 23-12-81 Dec. 9 3.20 320 1881 115.14 119.74 4.60 19-12-81 1883 4.76 3.99 Sept. 2 0.00 77 51 162.74 162.74 256 CANADIAN ECX)NOMICS. the following year. The tliree columns, Deposit, Balance, and Interest, are conveniently grouped together. An abstract is then made, which not only gives the total of the year's interest, but furnishes a final and conclusive proof on the ledger entries. So rapidly can accounts in this form be treated at the close of the year that, in respect to the fiscal year just closed, June 30th, 1884, it may be said that the labour of balancing all the ledger accounts, 66,862 in number, was completed on the third day after, — necessarily during extra hours, but without interrup- tion to the daily work. On July 18th, the labour of extracting from the ledgers the year's balances and transactions in 87,621 accounts, of adding them, and of bringing the year's opera- tions to a final proof was concluded. It will be apparent with what ease a depositor's account can be closed and interest paid him under the above system, and what smoothness this fact imparts to the daily work, little more labour being involved in making an entry of this kind than in entering an ordinary with- drawal. The great object is also attained — the advantage of which will be understood by all persons having had practical experience of the management of large numbers of accounts, involving numerous transactions — of conducting the business of the Department on a strictly daily basis. There is no link in the work of a weekly, monthly, or quarterly character requiring constant supervision lest it be neglected. There are neither arrears, nor the possibility of any. It is believed that the sys- tem of computing interest prospectively, now followed in the Canadian banks generally, was first introduced into Canada by the Post Office Savings Bank. It is right to say that the officers of the Canadian Department, when making what seemed a bold departure from the conven- tional foi-m of keeping and balancing deposit accounts, took no little courage from an examination of the evidence given before the Select Committee appointed by the British House of Com- mons in 1858 to enquu*e into the operations of the Savings Banks ; particularly that of Mi*. Craig, agent in Cork of the Bank of Ireland, and ti-easurer of the Cork Savings Bank ; and of Mr. Maitland, treasurer of the Edinburgh Savings Bank. Those who take an interest in such enquiries will be rewarded by a perusal of these gentlemen's testimony and views. STEWART ON POST OFFICE BANKS. 257 The staff of the central or head office of the Canadian Post Office Savings Bank numbers twenty-one. These are not all employed in the ordinary routine of treating deposits and with- drawals, there being a constantly growing class of work in con- nection with claims to the moneys of deceased depositors, and other matters arising out of the regular duties. Then there are the postmasters' daily returns to be checked, and acknowledg- ments of deposits to be written, and the cross transactions (already described as one in eleven) adjusted, so as to bring the ledgers into agreement with the postmasters' returns, an agree- ment wliich cross-entries disturb. To these must be added many other minor duties. The clerical force of the Canadian Depart- ment is in the proportion of one to each 3,200 depositors' accounts, or one to each 7,900 transactions in a year. It is believed (although the figures given are subject to correction) that in the British Savings Bank Department the force is in the proportion of one to each 3,100 accounts, or one to each 8,*770 transactions. If the analogy in the relations between labour and achievement be as close as these figures indicate, the Canadian Department may feel encouraged, — the British Post Office Savings Bank being deservedly and universally looked upon as a model of organization and successful administration. 17 h- f Mi it* A }' 11 J I f Ms r-i 1 4 ,) STATEMI I pb: Three months en Year ended Jun( Year ended June Year ended June Year ended June Year ended June Year ended Juno Year ended Juno Year ended June Year ended June Year ended June Year ended June Year ended June Year ended Juno Year ended Juno Year ended June Year ended June • The figures in sn Department to bo inso STATEMENT of the Bvmieta oj the Post Office Savings Bank, Canada, year by year, from Aprii Ut, 1868, to June 30tA, 1884. PERIOD. Threo months ended June 30th, 1868 Year ended June 30th, 1869 Year ended June 30th, 1870 Year ended June 30th, 1871 Year ended June 30th, 1872 Year ended June 30th, 1873 Year ended June 30th, 1874 Year ended June 30th, 1875 Year ended June 30th, 1876 Year ended June 30th, 1877 Year ended June 30th, 1878 Year ended June 30th, 1879 Year ended June 30th, 1880 Year ended June 30th, 1881 Year ended June 30th, 1882 Year ended June 30th, 1883 Year ended June 30th, 1884 ° S 1=1 -o-c o.S o, . o o u ^2 3,247 10,053 24,994 33,250 39,489 44,413 45,329 42,508 38,047 30,126 40,097 43,349 56,031 71,747 97,380 109,489 109,388 a « j< O p Of HO $ 212,507 927,885 1,347,901 1,917,570 2,201,031 2,306,91 S 2,340,284 1,942,346 1,726,204 1,521,000 1,724,371 1,973,243 2,720,216 4,175,042 6,435,989 6,826,206 6,441,439 m a ft ^ * 166 4,787 9,478 15,148 19,325 829 22,159 1,641 24,248 1,566 24,637 1,317 23,127 1,0:5 21,643 841 21,005 879 22,320 iKK) 20,043 ()73 28,398 112 35,859 45,253 50,026 ill » « $ 8,857.48 296,754.35 664,555.51 1,093,438.80 1,571,005.19 206,<)00.00 1,925,999.32 397,300.00 I 2,086,243.42 382.400.00 2,041,879.04 300.100.00 1,783,257.97 238,20000 1,525,082.98 200,400. 00 1,480,158.73 227,500.00 1,475,048.79 258,400.00 1,820,213.16 195,600.00 2,072,289.15 25,100.00 3,461,619.31 4,730,995.39 5,049,611.13 No. of Accoants opened during period. No. of Accounts closed daring period. 111 1 = 2. oat) 2,146 44 2,102 6,429 1,319 7,212 7,823 2,857 12,178 9,424 4,449 17,153 10,840 6,940 21,059 11,995 9,528 23,520 12,048 10,000 24,908 10,510 11,190 24,294 10,218 10,097 24,415 8,971 9,312 24,074 10,058 8,597 25,535 10,755 8,846 27,445 14,407 10,487 31,305 18,731 10,491 39,605 25,778 13,920 51,463 27,127 17.631 61,059 26,502 20,939 66,682 o o -a Total Amount standing to the credit of all Open Accounts, inclusive of in- terest allowed, Tl CIOSJ of period. 939.37 21,094.72 48,689.08 84,273.08 110,174.55 120,932.88 126,273.31 120,758.00 110,110.08 104,067.80 103,834.29 110,912.50 136,075.47 184,904.81 291,065.07 407,305.17 477,487.46 $ 204,588.89 856,814.26 1,588,848.83 2,497,269.66 3,096,500.01 3,207,061.57 3,204,905.40 2,920,090.48 2,740,952.59 2,039,937.47 2,754,484.03 3,105,190.80 3,945,609.11 0,208,226.77 9,473,661.53 11,976,237.31 13,246,652.64 • The figures in smaller typo in tliese two columns exhibit further withdrawals not paid to depositors in cash, but at their request paid over to the Finance Department to bo inscribed in thoir names in Dominion Stock. Iia i XX. DOMINION GOVERNMENT SAVINGS BANKS. BY THOMAS D. TIMS. There are probably many, even in Canada, unaware of the fact, that the Post Office Savings Bank nystem has not yet been extended beyond the limits of Ontario and Quebec ; as well as, that there has been in oxintence for many years, chiefly in the Maritime Provinces, another class of Government Savings Banks, managed in the Finance Department at Ottawa, at which the aggregate balances due to depositors at the end of the last finan- cial year exceeded those that have accrued in the Post Office Savings Banks by several millions of dollai's. A brief glance at the origin, development, and present position of this latter class of Government Savings Banks may not, therefore, be found un- interesting to the student of the financial history of the Dominion of Canada. When the union of the Provinces of Canada with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick took place in 1807, the Dominion Government assumed, in accordance with the terms of the B. N. A. Act, the liabilities and the management of a number of Government Sav- ings Banks, attached to the offices of the various sub-Treasurers (Collectors of Customs) at various outposts in the Province of New Brunswick, where on the first Monday of every month deposits were received bearing 5 per cent, interest. On the fol- lowing day only, withdrawals, of which notice had previously been given, were paid. The balances at the credit of depositors ./ 260 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. at all these offices — of which there were nine open — on July 1st, 1867, amounted to about $242,000. In Nova Scotia, a Savings Bank had been established, many- years previous to Confederation, in connection with the Pro- vincial Treasurer's Office at Halifax, in which deposits wore received, and withdrawals, subject to notice, daily paid. The rate of interest in Nova Scotia was then fixed at 4 per cent, per annum. The liabilities of the bank at Haliflix, assumed by the Dominion on July 1st, 1867, when the Finance Department to^k charge of the management, amounted to about $644,000. A Savings Bank at St. John, N.B., had also been established before 1867, under the management of honorary trustees, at which two days in every week were set apart for business with the public • one, to receive deposits ; the other, to pay with- drawals, subject to a week's notice. The moneys received on deposit were invested in bonds of the Province of New Bruns- wick, bearing 6 per cent, interest, redeemable at any moment on the requisition of the trustees, as funds wore required to meet withdrawals at the bank. Depositors were allowed 5 per cent., leaving a margin of one per cont. to cover expenses. The profits accruing were partly used in the erection of a handsome bank building, subsequently acquired by the Dominion Clovernment, and partly devoted to local public purposes. During the session of 1871 a General Savings Bank Act, applicable to the whole Dominion, was passed by Parliament. Th.s Act contained a clause declaring the St. John Savings Bank a Government Sav- ings Bank from July Ist, 1867. Negociations with the trustees resulted in a transfer of the institution to Dominion management after July 1st, 1871, at which date the balances due to depositors had increased from $534,807 on July 1st, 1867, to $751,789. In the year 1871, a Government Savings Bank was opened in the newly-created Province of Manitoba, in connection with the Assistant Receiver-General's office at Winnipeg. In this year British Columbia became a Province of the Dominion. A head Savings Bank had been in operation for a few years at Victoria, with branches at New Westminster, Nanaimo, Yale and Cariboo, all under the control of a Board of Trustees at Victoria, who de- posited the moneys received with Government. In order to avoid complications, in effecting a transfer of these Savings Banks as TIMS ON GOVERNMENT SAVINGS BANKS. 261 y.ii- they then stood to the Dominion, an arrangement was made with the trustees, in accordance with a clause in the Colonial Oi'dinance under which they were established, to wind up their affairs by paying off depositors. This was accordingly done during the year 18t2 ; and on January 1st, 18*73, Savings Banks, under the Dominion Law, were opened at Victoria, Nanaimo, and New Westminster. During the year 18'72 a Government Savings Bank was opened in connection with the Assistant Eeceivor-General's office at Toronto. In the same year there were also eighteen branch Savings Banks established in the principal towns of Nova Scotia, as well as a few additional branches in New Brunswick. On July Ist, 1873, Prince Edward Island entered the Canadian Confederation, and on that date the liabilities, amounting to about $250,000, of the Provincial Savings Bank at Charlottetown, as well as the management, were assumed by the Dominion Gov- ernment. On June 30th, 1883, there were the following Savings Banks open under the direct control and management of the Finance Department : — PfiOVINCKS. Head Offices. Bbanch Opficks- Total At Deposi- tors. Balances on deposit. i Deposi- tors. Balances on deposit. Deposits. Nova Scotia . . . NhwBkunswick Ontario Manitoba Prince Edward Island Brit. Columbia Halifax . . St. John . Toronto . Winnipeg Charlotte- town .. Victoria. . Totals . 6,134 6,695 1,618 2,286 3,310 2,808 $2,463,696 2,053,943 673,824 585,200 1,159,428 1,666,034 28 12 2 10,024 5,165 847 $3,326,937 1,842,344 471,465 $5,790,632 3,896,287 673,824 585,200 1,159,428 2,137,499 22,851 $8,602,124 16,036 $5,640,746 $14,242,870 At all these offices the rate of interest has been fixed for some years at 4 per cent, per annum, computed from the first of the month following the date of deposit up to the first day of the month in which moneys are withdrawn. The limit to deposits in the name of any adult member of a family is at present $3,000, i 262 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. The united deposits of the head and minors of a family combined, cannot exceed this limit at any Savings Bank. At the time when interest was Mxed at the uniform rate of 4 per cent, in all the Provinces, a special issue of Dominion Stock, bearing 5 per cent, interest, payable semi-annually, was author- ized; to which, deposits in Savings Banks under Govern- ment control could, after three months, be transferred in round sums of $100, or multiples of $100, up to a maximum limit of $1,000, redeemable on three months' notice. The amount trans- ferred from these Savings Banks up to 1881, when the further issue of stock ceased, reached $2,338,800, of which about one half had been redeemed in 1883. At all the Savings Banks under the management of the Finance Department, deposits are received and withdrawals paid without notice between the hours of 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. daily, in sums of not less than a dollar and multiples of a dollar. In respect to withdrawals, the facilities are greater than at Post Office Savings Banks, whore no withdrawal can be eifected with- out an application being made in every case to, and authority specially given by, the Post Office Department at Ottawa, for the payment. Among the advantages enjoyed by the depositors in these Government Savings Banks are perfect security from loss, and every possible facility for making deposits and obtaining any moneys that they may require to draw out, without previous no- tice at the agencies, where their accounts have been opened from day to day. Under Rule No. 10, " Deposits may be made by, or for the benefit (jf, any person under twenty-one years of age. . . Repayment to a minor over ten years of ago shall bo made in the same manner as if he were of full age. Deposits -may also be made by mai-ricd women, and deposits so made, or made by women who shall afterwards marry, will be repaid to any such women, and the receipt of any such woman, irrespective of her husband, shall be valid." In case of the migration of a depositor the balance at his credit in one office can be transferred to another agency without any cost or even loss of interest to the depositor. Tables compiled from official data with great care show that on June 30th, 1883, — the latest date up to which retui-ns have teen submitted to Parliament, — the percentage of the cost of TIMS ON GOVERNMENT SOWINGS BANKS. 263 management to the balances at the credit of depositors was $0.35. The gross transactions, from July Ist, 1867 to June 30th, 1883, were as follow : — Deposits. Withdrawals. Interest accrued. Balances, June .30. 1867 $1,422,046 1,483,219 1868 $292*994 * $297,899 $66,070 1869 323,138 281,360 69,528 1,594,525 1870 462,481 311,563 77,127 1,822,570 1871 556,669 l,"b85,289 395,458 126,674 2,110,455 1872 1,142,346 100,835 2,154,233 1873 2,442,917 1,732,872 93,891 3,208,112 1874 3,207,688 2,564,996 154,491 4,005,295 1875 3,570,288 3,508,389 177,896 4,245,091 1876 3,222,672 3,343,169 178,572 4,303,165 1877 3,911,567 3,574,204 190,156 4,830,693 1878 5,366,358 4,687,338 232,816 5,742,529 1879 4,549,290 4,431,992 242,665 6,102,492 1880 5,240,195 4,504,129 268,728 7,107,287 1881 6,494,639 4,297,355 .323,873 9,628,445 1882 7,090,434 4,835,827 411,948 12,285,000 1883 7,067,390 5,624,907 505,387 14^42,870 RECAPrrULATION. Balance accrued prior to Confederation in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick $1,422,046 Increased liability for interest accrued in St. John, assumed by Dominion in 1872 38,417 P. E. Island Savings Bank, assumed 1873 249,941 Total assumed under B.N. A. Act $1,710,404 Deposits, July 1, 1867. to June 30, 1883 54,884,021 Interest accrued during same period 3,182,252 $59,776,677 Withdrawals, do. do 45,533,807 Due 38,887 depositors June 30, 1883 $14,242,870 being an average of C366 at the credit of each depositor. If to this balance be further added $1,150,000, the amount of un- redeemed 5 per cent, stock originally issued through these offices, there will be a grand total of $15,460,000 saved, through this agency alone up to June 30th, 1883. ^ r (•■ >.'»^ - '• 7 I XXI. ONTARIO LOAN AND SA VINGS COMPANIES. t BY W. A. DOUGLASS. The building societies or loan companies first formed in On- tario were established on the terminable plan after the model of the building societies in Britain. It was soon found, however, that permanent institutions could operate much more advan- tageously ; the terminable societies therefore are now almost, if not altogether, unknown. Of the companies now in operation, the oldest worth mentioning commenced in 1855 with a capital re- ported in the first annual statement at $1*7,000, and total assets of $68,800. The Eeport for December Slst, 1883, enumerates seven- ty-three companies, having a paid-up capital of 028,028,625 and total assets, $79,555,4*74. The paid-up capital of the banks at the same date was $18,432,'760. All these companies are founded on the principle of limited liability, the limit in every case being the amount of the subscribed capital. Most of these companies are authorized to take money on deposit and to borj-ow by the issue of debentures, and, in the case of those companies that operate under the General Act, the bor- rowing power is limited as follows : the deposits cannot exceed the paid-up capital ; and the total " borrowings," including the deposits, are limited to three times the paid-up capital. In most of the companies the only security on which they can lend is real estate or the company's own stock. The prevailing rate of 266 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. inforoHt is ut present seven per cent, in the Province of Ontario, and from eight to ten in Manitoba. The following table gives approximately the rate» of interest ruling for the last twenty-one years : — 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869 . 1870 1871. 1872. 1873. Per Cent. ... 12 ... 12 ... 12 ... 11 ... 11 ... 11 ... 11 11 ... 9-10 ... 8- di ... 8-9 Per 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884, Cent. 8-9 8-9 8-9 8 9 8-8^ 8-8^ 7-8^ 6.1-7 6J-7 7 7 Wi' t In the early period of loaning, the mortgages were mostly repayable by equal annual instalments, including interest and sinking fund ; but the calculation of annuities was so utterly bewildering to farmers, and the adjustment of accounts in case of transfers ?o difficult and hence often so unsatisfactory, that the instalment method has been very largely if not wholly abandoned. There are no usuary laws in Ontario, otherwise I am inclined to think that these companies would be less numerous. In Great Britain, building societies were organized principally to enable artisans to obtain homes; in the Territories of this country, they are used largely to enable settlers to buy and improve farms. "When land is cheap, the settler may for several reasons be quite willing to borrow a sum of money to procure land, even though the rate of interest is very high. With a thousand dollars of his own money, and another thousand bor- rowed, he can obtain twice the acreage. He knows that the price will advance. If he rents, he obtains none of this advance. If he buj^^s and mortgages, all the improvements that he makes, all increased land values, are his. Hence tenants are few, mort- gagors are many. Until about the year 18*74, most of the loan companies obtained their funds from local soui'ces, but about that year some of the largest companies entered the British market and obtained funds ■ n DOUGLASS ON LOAN AND SAVINGS COMPANIES. 267 , by the sale of debentures. The amount thus borrowed now amounts to $25,t)*79,803. It may be interesting to notice, as an instance of the aid that science gives to commerce, that a large portion of this money is transmitted across the ocean by tele- graph. The sun crosses the meridian at the rate of only fifteen degrees per hour. Electricity travels much faster than that; so that we may witness the extraordinary phenomenon of a capitalist buying a loan company's debentures at noon in Eng- land, the agent advising by telegram to Toronto, and the advice ai'riving some houi's before noon ; at the same time an agent in Winnipeg is drawing for the amount, which he hands to a mort- gagor. The transaction begun at noon is completed half-way round the globe some hours before noon on the same day. The money placed with these companies on deposit shows a rapid increase, from $4,335,674 in 1874, to $13,161,506 in 1883. If to this latter amount wo add the debentures sold in Canada, $3,591,406, the sum amounts to $16,752,972, an increase of nearly 300 per cent, in nine years. The increase of savings placed in the Government Savings Banks during the same time in the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario (I have not the returns for Ontario alone) shows a slightly more rapid rate of increase fi-om $3,207,452 in 1873, to $13,245,553 on June 30th of the pi'csent year. The bank returns (for Ontario and Quebec) for the same period show an increase from $03,588,770 to $86,630,- 464, an increase of about 36 per cent. These figures would seem to indicate a rapid growth of wealth ; but, while they undoubtedly show i creased wealth somewhere, we must never overlook the fact that an increase in the above figures fihows simply increased credit to one party and debit to another. In the early history of any settlement, savings ai-e probably as rapid as at any othei- period, but statistics would not indicate such to be the fact ; for the surplus savings do not pass thi'ough any savings institution, but are invested directly either in the purchase or in the clearing of land, in the payment of workmen for the erection of buildings or fences, for making drains, or for other improvements. One of the most interesting considerations respecting the social conditions of any people is the possibilities of saving. Each family needs a certain minimum amount for sustenance and !' I: . 268 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. education. Any surplus income above that minimum may be saved. We may appreciate the importance of thia inquiry, when we obsei've that labour produces the wealth of com- merce, but labour does not possess the wealth. From infor- mation obtained from Trades Unions by the Bureau of Industries for Ontario, I tind that in four leading cities 590 workmen, aided in some cases by their families, saved last year a total of $25,742, or an average of $43 .66 each. The following figui-es ai'e also reported : — Average wages of workmen without dependents $376.68 Average cost of living 270.02 Leaving a surplus of savings amounting to $106.66 Average wages of workmen with dependents $470.22 Average cost of living 441 .85 Leaving a surplus of savings amounting to $ 28.37 Out of a total of 590 workmen, 360 saved an average of Stl .50 ; while 230 saved nothing, and twenty-eight reported that their earnings were not equal to the cost of living. These returns include only skilled artisans, so that they give only approxi- mately the possibilities of saving on the part of unskilled labour. The Provinces of Ontario and Quebec present some striking diflferences in their financial institutions: — Population, 1881 . Capital in Banks do. in Loan Cos. Ontario. 1,920,000 $18,764,500 $28,028,625 Quebec. 1,359,000 $36,298,700 $2,870,821 Proportion of Ont. to Que. 7:5 1 :2 10:1 It should be noted, however, that the Quebec banks do a large amount of their business and have a large amount of their stock held in Ontario, while the loan companies are strictly local. 4 XXII. A SKETCH OF CANADIAN FINANCE. BY JOHN McLENNAN. In undertaking to write something about the revenue system of the Dominion and the Provinces, I must premise that Political Economy, although made the subject of systematic teaching, is as yet confessedly not reduced to a sciencOj but is rather subject to the law, so well defined by Burke, that " circumstances give in reality to every political principle its distinguishing colour and discriminating effect." If I am not able to keep quite clear of what may be called politics, I shall try to avoid political parti- sanship. Previously to the formation of the Dominion of Canada by the confederation of the Provinces, the moderate wants of the several governments were supplied by the proceeds of sales of the public lands, and of custom and excise duties, imposed chiefly with a view to revenue. It is true that in the Province of Canada (then comprising Quebec and Ontario) the question of protection to home industries had been discussed as an incident of the tariff as in 1859, with the result of a liberal free list, as well as certain low rates on raw materials for manufacturing, on materials for ship- building, and on importations for the improvement of agricul- ture, — the general " unenumerated" rate being twenty per cent. In 1866, in the flush of prosperity resulting from the demand in the United States, at the close of their civil war, for every- thing that the Provinces produced, a reduction was made to fif- 270 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. toen per cent, as the general rate ; and that tariff was adopted in 18(5*7 by the CoTifoderation. The trade between the Provinces and the United States, which in the first year of the treaty of reciprocity amounted to $33,482,754, had grown to $84,070,595 in 1866, the thirteenth and hist year or the treaty, — the exports of the Provinces being $53,714,383 of the latter amount. Besides closing the reciprocity at that time, the United Statea adopted a very high tariff of customs, with the double object of paying off their war debt and of encouraging their manufacturers. The im- mediate consequence was the sharp limitation of a market for our productions, — our exports to all countries in 1868 being but $57,507,888. This change had another consequence : it urged forward the confederation of the Provinces, for the object of in- creasing our interprovincial trade, and, at the same time, of unit- ing oui' resoui'ces to establish a highway to the seaboard. The Intercolonial Eailway is a work now fairly accomplished, at a cost of $28,000,000 for the direct line, and of about $12,000,000 for subsidiary lines. The next forward step may probably be said to be of yet greater importance to the future of the Domin- ion, viz., the acquisition of the Northwest Territory. For the growing expenditure, the revenue was soon found to be insuffi- cient, and in 1874 an addition of two and a half per cent, was made to the general rate of the customs tariff. This, however, did not meet the want, and the yearly accounts continued to exhibit deficiencies. At the same time the course of our trade with the United States exhibited with yearly increasing force the disad- vantage of our position with regard to them, arising from the dif- ference between their tariff and ours, aggravated by the impor- tant circumstance of their superiority in numbers and resources, enabling their manufacturers to use Canada as a market for their surplus goods, to the utter ruin of our manufacturers who had on their side no foreign outlet. The general depression in the trade of both countries in 1876 and 1877 intensified the efltcct of this inequality, so that our importations for consumption from the United States in the latter year reached the value of $51,- 312,669, as against our exports to that country of $25,775,245, — the value of our importations from Great Britain being $39,512,- 279, and our exporfs thither $41,567,469. It was in this state of things that, in the parlia nentary session McLENNAN ON CANADIAN FINANCE. 271 of 18*77, the leader of the oppoHition, Sir J. A. Macdonald, pro- posed a resolution, that ** the house is of ojiinion that the defic- iency in the revenue shou' ! be met by a diminution of expendi- ture, aided by wuch a readjustment of the tariff as would benefit and foster the agricultural, mining, and manufacturing interests of the Dominion." The motion was defeated by 119 votes against 70, but was brought forward again in the next session ; and the subject was kept before the country in the press and in public meetings up to the time of the general elections in September, 1878. The contention was that with our geographical position, having on one Hide a people about ten times our number with a highly protective tariff, and on the other hand a wilderness, and with our way to the sea frozen for about half the 3''ear, our peo- ple must have some diversity of employment, besides the com- mon one of agriculture ; that from such industry they were de- barred by the existing state of things, and that the remedy should be found in a tariff discriminating in the sense proposed, and rig- idly administered. The country accepted the argument and endorsed it by return- ing a majority of more than two to one to support it in the new parliament. The firat business of that parliament in 1879 was to remodel the tariff' in the direction promised. The result in the first full year of its application (1880), was the collection of a revenue averaging $19.70 per cent, on all goods entered for con- sumption, as against $14.03 per cent, in 1878, the last full year of the previous tariff. More than the estimated revenue was pro- duced, and a surplus of 7,000,000 was available, in 1883, for the reduction of the public debt Another expectation was realized. Instead of the great importation of manufactured goods from the United States, as in 1876 and 1877, the importations in 1880 fell to $29,346,948. The Government decided in 1882 to go to the country, a year before the expiry of the term of parliament, and was met by the advocates of a purely revenue tariff with the contention as before, that the basis of the tariff was contrary to sound principle, and that its success was but accidental ; but the Government was most fully sustained at the polls, and on the meet- ing of the new parliament, in 1883, proceeded to make some re- ductions in the tariff*. The necessary consequence of the increase of home manufactures has been to diminish the imports ; yet the 272 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. Ui 1^ revenue up to tho present time tjoems to be equal to the ordinary oxponditure. Meanwhile, the increase of manufactures in some lines, partic- ularly in fiibrics of cotton and wool, appears to have gone beyond the requirements of tho country, and to have been attended by Home disturbing influence upon labour, and some commercial depression. The opponents of the tariff argue that this is tho natural and inevitable outcome of a sj'^stem of protection, and they offer in proof the condition of the United States, where the weight of the manufjxcturing interest appears to prevent any relief from the pressure of a tariff that has gone beyond the requirements in both tho objects proposed, viz., provision for the war debt and the fostering of home industries. It is to bo borno in mind, however, that their tai'iff is more than 50 per cent, higher than ours, averaging, as it did last year, $29.92 per cent, on all goods entered for consumption, while in Canada the aver- age was but $18.82 per cent. : or perhaps a more exact test is the average rate on dutiable goods, which in the United States was $42.25 per cent., and in Canada $25.82 per cent. It must not be forgotten, however, that a system of protection, as is ful'y proved in the case of our neighbours, "grows by what it feeds on," and that it requires the watchful care of the control- ling power. This is all the more necessary in our position, with- out any foreign market that we can reach with any surplus manu- factiu-es that may accumulate. The argument on which our system rests is what may be called the logic of circumstances, and we must guard against assuming that protection is a good thing absolutely and in all circumstances, any more than that fj-ee trade is a system applicable for good universally and in all circumstances. The duties of excise are imposed in much the same manner as in Great Britain and the United States, on spirits, malt, and to- bacco. In the case of tobacco, which is cultivated to some ex- tent, the watchful care of parliament for the interests of its con- stituents is exhibited in the provision that the agriculturalist is not only permitted to use a certain quantity for each adult member of his family, but is allowed to sell a similar quantity free of du- ty to any buyer who is a consumer. In a revenue derived altogether from imposts on trade a re- ' 1^ MoLENNAN ON CANADIAN FINANCE. 273 markablo oxomption oxists in the case of bank-note circulation, which, under the provision of the General Banking Act, supplies much the largest part of the currency of the country, free from duty in any form. Tiio public has not derived a compensating benefit, tor very serious losses have occurred, to note-holders as well as dop;)sito!'H, from the failures of banks, — losses the more serious because they have fallen in great measure on the poorer classes. At the same time the bank shareholders do not appear to derive any advantage. Without making a comparison with the profits of banking in Great Britain, where the large deposits of the money of the public furnish moans for extraordinary pro- fits, it is fair to make a comparison with banking in the United States. The capital of the national banks (2,197 in number), as reported in the American Almanac edited by the Librarian of Congress, amounted in 1882 to $473,947,715, and their surplus to $133,570,931, and after the payment to the national treasury of $5,253,458 (a fi-action over 1.10 per cent, on their capital), the shareholders received dividends amounting to an average of 8.73 per cent, (the tax on capital has now been i-emitted, but that on circulation remains), while I notice that the dividends of the last half-year paid by nineteen banks doing business in Quebec and Ontario, as reported on the Montreal Stock Exchange, average a rate of just 7 per cent, per annum. I venture to suggest that the duty remains for government to provide a reliable currency for the country. This might be made a source of public I'evenue, and would prove to be without damage to any private interest; on the other hand, the great temptation in the present currency system to unsound banking would be removed. Turning from the particular manner of the imposition of duties to a view of the general revenue system of the Dominion and the Provinces, there are three things noticeable : 1st. The reve- nue for both services being derived almost exclusivt v from im- posts on trade. 2nd. The absence of any tax on rei l or personal ])roperty. 3rd. The dependence of the provincial service on the federal treasury. There is indeed in the budget of the Provinces an item from sales of crown lands and timber ; but, although there is hardly such a thing as reproduction of the forests, the receii)ts from both these sources are used as income. In Ontario and Quebec, there is a small amount from law stamps ; and in 18 l.n 2H CANADIAN ECONOMICS. Nova Scotia, a sum from royalty on mines ; but the largest item in the revenue of each Province is a subsidy from the Dominion, and in the case of the smaller Provinces this is the greater part of the whole. It is not a great while, since the idea w^as maintained in Eng- land that the owners of land wore the proper, and ought to bo the only, possessors of the ])owor of legislation ; but, without go- ing abroad for illustration, it is the fact that with ourselves the ownership or occupation of land is the chief basis of the electo- ral franchise, and yet it is just possible that under our revenue system there may exist a class of extremely economical freehold- ers (and voters) whose contributions would not by any reasona- ble computation entitle them to be represented as tax-makers. Waving, however, the question of such injustice, it is easy to see the cause in the state of dependence to which I have called atten- tion, for the poi'sistent agitation that we have seen in all the Pro- vinces, resulting in demands on the federal treasury. It is diffi- cult tO foresee the end of these demands ; they are made on all sorts of pretexts, and even with no other pretext than that the money is needed. Two evils are apparent hero : the friction that disturbs the federal relations, and the tendency to waste that comes of getting money merely by persistence in demand- ing it. The remedy for these evils is, I venture to suggest, clear and simple : it is to establish for each Province, in lieu of all subsidy (and providing, of course, for the remission of an equal amount of federal taxation), a revenue independently of the federal gov- ernment, by means of a tax on property, as is done in the United States under similar relations. Besides getting rid of a constant source of danger to tlio federal system, this change would bring the taxpayer into such direct relation with the provincial govern- ment as would lead to more care in expenditure, and more care n the machinery of government, for which there exists probable room and reason. I knovy that much argument, and high authorities can be quoted against direct taxation; but I think the reasons I have given are sufficient warrant for imposing the very moderate amount required for provincial purposes. Among ourselves a cry has been occasionally raised in the fona of a warning against the alternative evils of bankruptcy or direct M Mclennan on Canadian finance. 275 taxation. The reader of English history will recall a cry that, not much over a hundred years ago, -was strong enough to compel so firm and jDopular a minister as Sir Eobert Walpole to abandon a proposed excise tax. It was denounced by such statesmen as Pult- eney and "Windham as " a monstrous project, such as struck tei-- ror into the minds of most gentlemen within this house, and of all men without doors," and it was added that " in all countries excisea of all kinds are looked on as badges of slavery," The minister finally assured the house that he should not " be so mad as ever again to engage in anything that looked like an excise." Yet the likeness has been revived and has a permanent existence in G-reat Britain, in her Colonies, and in her giant oifspring, the United States. w ^5 . [ i i I 1 1 i XXIIl. WHAT MAKES THE BATE OF WAGES ?-^ BY EDWARD ATKINSON. In the consideration of wages, a distinction must be made between the rate of wages which is stated in terras of money, and the absolute wages which induce the labourer to do the work, — such absolute wages consisting in what the money will buy, food, fuel, shelter, clothing, as well as the proportion saved for future use. Furthermore, when considering the question of wages, attention needs to be given to the proportion of the population of any given state or nation depending upon wages : that is to say, to the proportion of any given population in the position of the employed rather than that of the employer. If we consider the annual product of this country as a unit or single subject of distribution, it will be apparent that this pro- duct, whatever its value may be, is converted into terms of money by bargain and sale, and is distributed among the people who consume it in greatest measure by way of wages. That is to say, the greater part is consumed by those who work for wages. The annual term fits the case, because the year repre- sents ouvs succession of seasons. A small part of the product of a previous year has been brought over to begin the work of the present year upon, and a small part of the present year's product • Summan'i read before the British Association, of a treatise bearing the above title, and included in a yolume entitled "The Distribution of Products, or the Mechanism and the Metaphysics of Ezchauge." 278 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. is cai'i'iod over to the next year to start the work of that year. Substantially, each year's subsistence depends upon each year's work. The world, and even the most civilized state in the world, is always within less than one year of starvation, never having a full year's product of food on hand at any one time, and so the most civilized nation is always within two or three years of becoming naked. In fact, the entire capital of the richest" state — to wit, all the railroads, mills, works, warehouses, dwelling- houses, and goods and wares of every kind in existence — bears a market value not exceeding the value of two or, at the utmost, three years' product of the same state. Hence it follows that all protits, all wages, all taxes, are and must be derived from the market value of the annual product. Now, the absolute law brought into action by the force of com- petition is this: In proportion to the increase of capital, profits diminish relatively, while wages increase absolutely. How can this principle be sustained ? It is to this point that my attention has been given for many years. It is only lately that the requis- ite data have come into my hands on which an absolutely scien- tific proof of this law of diminishing profits and increasing wages can be given. The most complete proof will be found in the table, in which I have given both figures and graphical illus- trations of the law. A few words in explanation of this table. The founders of the cotton manufactories of this country, Messrs. Patrick T. Jackson, Francis C. and John Am ory Lowell, Kirk Boott, George W. Lyman, Samuel Batchelder and others, were men of great foresight and business capacity. They proceeded cautiously, both in constructing their factoi'ies, in establishing the kind and quality of the goods to be made, and esijecially in the method of keeping accounts. Through the kindness of several of my friends, many of the earliest cost-sheets of some of the principal factories have come into my hands, from which records I have been able to take the actual days of labour, the sum of money paid, and the product, both in quantity and value. To those tables relating to the earlier year.s, I have been enabled to add the data of moi-e i-ecent yeai's, from my own knowledge in the maiuigemont of factories and by the kindness of others. From among these various tables, 1 have sorted the facts which are ATItlNSON ON RATE OF WAGES. 279 coutaiiiod in tho tbroi^oini^ statomoiits. They are mainly taken from tlio I'ocordtj of two tUctoi'ie.-! which have been continnoii.sly employed on one fabric. They cannot, however, be imputed to either of the two, and they do not disclose the actual reBultB of tho business of either corporation ; but they ai-o exactly consis- tent with the facts, and they show tho i^eneral result more accur- ately than if the figures of a single factory had been taken. I have said that, by the force of competition, profits diminish and wages increase. That is to say, the competition of capital with capital works etfectively in reducing tho ratio of protit which the capitalist can secure from any given product, while on the other hand tho competition of labourer with labourer utterly fails to re- duce the rate of wages; but, on the contrary, in the face of such competition, the proportion of product falling to the labourers steadily increases. This seems to be a paradox, but an examina- tion of the tables will show the simple retuson. Let the column on the right, the compai'isonof 1880 with 183 1, be first considered. It reriuired $332,000 in money to construct the mill, with auxiliary buildings and dwol ling houses of a factory of a little over 8,000 spindles. Such a mill would cost at this time less than one half as much; but, by taking the history of several separate factories which have never failed, and the stock of which has never been reduced, it appears that a sufficient proportion of the earnings has been set aside and expended in the increase of the productive units of the spindle and the loom, to the end that the ratio of dollars has been i-educed 75 per cent., or from $40 to $10 per spindle, bjach spindle of the greater number has become twenty-two per cent, more effective. I^]ach spindle and each loom requires less arduous attention. The proportion of operatives per thousand spindles has been reduced sixty-four per cent., and the work of the lesser number is very much less severe now than the work of each of the larger number was at the beginning. The productive capacity of each of the operatives per day (the day of 1830 having been from thirteen to fourteen hours, and the day of 1884 being from ten to eleven hours) has increased 214 per cent. A part of the benefit of this vast change has gone to the consumers of the goods. The price of raw cotton happened to be almost exactly the same in 1840 as it was in 1883, and the standard sheeting was sold in 1840 at nine cents per yard and in 280 CANADIAN ECONOMICS 'HI i ft ■,'!' !■ 1^ 1883 at seven cents pev yard, at which latter price it paid a fair profit. But the less price at which it can bo sold to-day pays no profit whatever, the export demand fijr China having been interrupted by the French war, and the export demand for Africa having been internipted by various causes. Now, what has been the course of wages ? The wages of the farmers' daughters of New England, to whom it was a privilege or profitable opportunity to enter the cotton mill in 1830, and to work there in 1840 from thirteen to fourteen hours per day, were $164 a year in 1830, $175 a year in 1840, and $190 a year in 1850. In fact, the wages of women were much less than these figures show, as these figures give the average of men, women, and children, including overseers. Good weavers earned forty- eight to fifty cents per day only, in 1830 to 1840. The proportion of men was much greater, and of children much less, prior to 1850, than it is now. Contrast these wages with the present. The average earnings of men, women, and children for the shorter hours are now $290 a year. Skilful female weavers earn now more than male overseers and second hands earned in 1830. There is now some temporary disturbance, and there may be a temporary reduction in the rate of wages by the piece. But hard times are the best schoolmaster. If the rate of wages is reduced, improvement and invention will be applied to the machinery, and, in spite of present depression, the sum of wages for the year 1885, even at a less rate by the piece, will be higher than in the year 1884. In witness of this, turn to the column on the left, and see how the law of increasing wages has been progressing from 1830 to 1884, subject to the temporary aberration caused by the use of paper money, when wages apparently increased, but the cost of living increased a great deal more. Now, what is the off'ect upon profits ? Assuming that ten per cent, constituted such a rate of profit in 1830 as to have induced the construction of a factory, and that ten per cent, would be a high rate of profit at the present time ; also bear- ing in mind that there is no factory known to me, nor do I believe one exists in New England, which has paid ten per cent, per annum, on the average, upon its original capital for a period of fifty years — ^we find that it required fourteen per cent, of the ATKINSON ON RATE OF WAGES. •281 gi'OSH sales to be sot aside in the year 1840 at the rate of 1.18 cents jjer yard of cloth in order to secure to capital ten per cent. uj)on the investment. I will not go back to the earlier date of 1830, when it required a very much larger share of pro- duct to compensate capital at the rate of ten per cent. At the present time six per cent., or four tenths of a cent per yard, set aside from the sales annually will yield ten per cent, upon the capital. There is scarcely an article which could serve so well as a guide and standard for this investigation as a standard sheeting. It has been made in the same way, of substantially the same weight, from the same stock from the beginning to the end, and the accounts have been kept in the same manner, according to the exact methods of account established by the careful men under whose supervision the mills were constructed. On this showing it is absolutely demonstrated that all the improvements and inventions of the last fifty years have gone to the benefit of the consumers of the goods and the operatives in the factory — in largest measure to the latter — while the share which has fallen to capital has diminished in forty years fi-oni foui-teen per cent, of the gross product to six per cent, or less. In proof of these allegations I submit the table. Now let me apply the principle which is sustained by these facts to the general subject of wages. It will be admitted by every one that if there is any branch of industry, either in agri- culture, manufactures, mining, or mechanical work, which offers a fair expectation of ten per cent, on the investment, unless it be of some hazardous or dangerous kind, into that branch of work capital will flow in ample measure. Now, as a rule, in all the diverse arts and manufactures to which machinery is applied, taken as a whole, the gross value of the annua 1 product is twice that of the capital invested. This is proved not only by the figures of the United Statot^ census, but by the extremely close figures of the Massachusetts census of 18'75. Now, if capital will rush into any branch of industry in which it can secure ten per cent,, and if five per cent, of the product will yield ten per cent, upon the capital, it follows of necessity that the other ninety-five per cent, of the product must go to the laboui-ers who do the work, because it cannot go anywhere ^8^ CANADIAN ECONOMICS. olso. There uro only two classes to whom the procoods of sale can bo devoted after these are paid, and those Ivvo elapses are the capitalists and the labourers. If live parts of the product satisfy the capitalist so fully that now capital rushes in to compete for the opportunity of doing the work, then the other ninety-five parts must go to the labourer, or to the distributor. In my treatise, however, in order to be perfectly safe, I have assumed that ten parts of the annual product fall to the capitalist, and only ninety parts to the labourer, or to tho distributor. Now, it appears that, in proportion to tho increase of capital, the work of the labourer is rendered more ett'ective, and his wages rise continr usly, because he obtains a constantly increas- ing proportion of an inci-oasing product. The more ottbctive the capital, the less the number of persons needed for the W(U'k, and the larger the product. It therefore follows that any interference or retardation in the accumulation of capital, while it hui-ts the capitalist, harms the labourer a great deal more. It is therefore of the utmost importance to the labourer that justice should bo done to capital — no more, no less. If labourers receive ninety to ninety-tive parts of all that is produced in one year, and cannot have any more without inter- fering with the accumulation of capital, and thereby diminishing the product of next year, they got all they can have, whether it be much or little, and their wages cannot bo increased excejit by an increase of tho general product. Tho general product can only be increased by the co-operation of more adequate capital with more skilful labour. It certainly cannot be increased by legislation, because legislation produces nothing. It can check production and reduce wages verj'' materially, and meddle- some legislation generally works in that way. What, then, are tho facts in respect to wages in this country ? The rate of wages is much higher in money than in any other country, and if subsistence be considered as a whole, the pur- chasing power of wages is greater for each dollar than in any other country. According to Mr. Wright's recent most valuable investigations, a dollar will buy less shelter and somewhat less clothing, but more food, than it will in England, and a dollar will buy more in England than it will anywhere on the continent of Europe. What makes the rate of wages in this country, and ATKINSON ON RATE OF WAGES. 283 why ai'o thoy higher here than elsewhere? It is for this reason. By the co-oporation of capital and labour inlolligontly applied to the greatest natural resources, the result of each year's work is a larger product of grain, cotton, machinery, timber, fabrics and wares, in ratio to the number of labourei's employed, than can be attained anywhere else, and when the ninety or ninety- five per cent, of this huge project is converted into terms of money by sale, the resulting sum of money leaves for each person employed a larger amount than can be attained by the working people in any other country. One of the great reasons for this, perhaps the paramount reason, is that this country is free from the burdens of passive war since slavery was abolished; free from the blood tax of a standing army, which takes at least ten parts in every one hundred produced on the continent of Europe; free from the burden of the artificial system of land tenure in Great Britain, under which the mass of the people has been deprived of land ; free from the equally artificial system of the compulsory sub- division of land which controls most of the continental nations, under which allotments have become so small that effective machinery cannot be applied to it, whence it follows that the minimum of product results from the maximum of arduous labom*; we are also free from the restrictions of caste and privilege. Now, when demagogues attempt to create antagonism between labour and capital by false statements, sensible and well- informed men and women will consider this matter, and will realize the fact ',hat, even if their wages are low at the present time, they are yet progressively increasing and have increased steadily and regularly every year for the last fifty years, subject only to the inevitable chances and changes of short crops and commercial crises. Whatever the rate of wages may be, the sum of the wages or earnings of those who perform the work of production and distribution is ninety to ninety-five parts in one hundred of all that is produced. I am unable to give facts as to the diminishing profits in other arts than the one I have named, but the increase of wages is well proved by the statistics of the census of Massachusetts and the census of the United States. I will give two examples in respect to two classes of work which require the services of a 284 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. hi^h class of mochanics. Tn one largo piano factory, the rate of wages of five classes of skilled vvorkmon in 1843 was $5G2 for tho year ; in 1880, for the same work, $824 for the year. In another large piano factory, the wages of twelve classes of skilled workmen have been compiled, and tho progress in rate has been as follows: 1853, $11.32 per week, gold; 1860, $12.33, gold; 18(!6, $14.75 per week, currency; 1872, $18 per week, cuiToncy ; 1878, $14,6(5 per week, substantially in gold ; 1880, $17.50 per week. At the present time, wages are as high in gold as they were in 1872 in currency. In one large establishment making table cutlery, eight classes of workmen averaged, in 1859, $1.50 per day in gold. Tho same eight classes in 1880 averaged $2.15 per day in gold. In another largo establishment making edged tools, ten classes of workmen averaged in 1850, $1.60 per day; in 1880, $2.26 per day. The processes of industry instanced have been carefully chosen, viz., standard cotton sheeting, pianos, table cutlery and edged tools, which have boon affected in the least measure by the changes in the duties on the imports. With the exception of pianos, the other three subjects of investigation depend measur- ably upon the export ti-ade, as well as upon the domestic con- sumption for the establishment of the rate of wages. This selec- tion has been made in order that the subject might not bo con- fused by considerations relating to the tariff. Finally, it appears that in the census for tho year 1880 the population of the United States numbered a little over 50,000,000. I will disregard the fractions in tho following statements. Of this population 17,- 400,000, in round figures, were found to be engaged in some sort of gainful occupation ; tho rest consisted of women who did the work of families, of retired pei'sons and of children. Of this number, substantially 150,000 were employed in the service of the government, leaving 17,260,000 producers, who, by exchang- ing products with others, also obtained the means of living, and thereby became consumers. Of this number the census discloses the fact that 1,050,000 wore employed in what may be called mental rather than manual work. They consisted of clergymen, lawyers, teachers, artists, chemists, engineers, officials of rail- roads, banks, and insurance companies, officials of manufacturing and other coi-porations, merchants, traders, and dealers. In this ) I ATKINSON ON RATE OF WAGES. 285 list, capitaliBts living wholly upon tlio income of capital are not included. How many the capitalists number, the census does not disclose; but they are relatively very few, and their jjossessions roprosont but a relatively small part of the total wealth of the country, this wealth being more widely ditfused, and enjoyed by a greater number of persons, than in any other country in the world. Deducting 1,050,000 of those engaged in gainful opei*- ations, we have the remainder 16,200,000 who constitute the actual working class, if the title of class may be rightly applied without ott'ence in a scientific treatise. Seven millions of these wore farmers and farm labourers ; the rest, artisans, mechanics, clerks, salesmen, and saleswomen, lal)orers, factoiy ojieratives, domestic servants and other wage-earners. The proportion of employed to employers is at least fifteen to one. The rate of wages, which measui-es their share of the annual pi'oducts, is therefore the paramount social question of the hour. If it can be measured, and if it can be found that, in the aggregate, their wages as a whole constitute from ninety to ninety-five per cent. of all that is produced, then all contention between labour and capital may well be laid aside, even by the most sentimental theorist who thinks he can build a world better -^han the Almighty. It is of course a matter of immense difficulty to make such computation. By various ways, I think it may be considered to be substantially proved that the value of the annual product of the census year was the maximum ^10,000,000,000. In this com- putation, $1,000,000,000 is included as the value of the domestic consumption on farms by farmers and labourers which never enters into the commercial statements, $9,000,000,000 represent- ing that part of the product which was bought, sold, and d' - tributed. Five per cent., or $45,000,000, is set aside from this sum to represent the profits of the capitalists as a distinct class. We will set aside $40,000,000 as the maximum estimate of the small savings of industi'ious people, making a total set-aside for the maintenance and increase of the capital of the United States of $900,000,000. I have assumed ton pci- cent, of a commercial product of $9,000,000,000, as the maximum national profit which can be set aside for the maintenance or increase of capital. In the census year this would have been substantially at the rate 286 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. '•'I- of S18 per head of tho population. Tf wo apply this computation to tho average population of the last thirty years, no Hum of accumulated capital can bo found in tho United Statoa cones- ponding to S18 per head. It is a maximum estimate I'ather than a minimum. Tho remainder constitutes the earnings of nil who are engaged '<'^ gainful occupations, amounting to $8,100,000,000. Now con \e main difficulty of ascertaining how the sum was subdiviuoil. By various methods, I reached tho conclusion that tho average of each person engaged in the mental or admin- istrative part of the work would amount to hotween $1,000 and $1,100, and that the next remainder to be subdivided among artisans, mechanics, farm laboui-ers, domestic soi-vants, and tho liico, would yield to each from $400 to $450. Having como to thi.v; conclusion by way of an estimate of the value of the total pi'oduct, tho proof in detail became necessary. Tho first standard is ta'con from the railroad. In the year 1880, one man out of every ten employed in any kind of gainful occupation aside from agriculture was ompL^yed in tho construction or operation of a railroad. In e operation of a railroad eveiy class is represented, irom the hi paid official to the lowest paid workman who washes the floo^ of a station. The returns of a railroad aro abso- lute, being taken from the boolcs of the last previous financial year. Pi-om these returns, it appears that 418,957 men were em- ployed upon tho railroads of the United States in their opera- tion, not including construction. The sum of their wages was $195,350,000, averaging to each person for the year $466. On subdividing this, it appeared that all those who were engaged in administration, or as general officers and clerks, earned $1015 each, and that those who were engaged in the executive work, being ninety-five per cent, of the total number, earned $450 each. It will be borne in raind that these are men, and that, in the remainder of the gainful occupations, tho earnings of two and a half millions of women and children are included at less rates than the rates earned by men. By sotting aside $1050 to each person of the 1,050,000 engaged in the general work of adminis- tration, there remains for tho rest, numbering 16,200,000, the sum of $7,000,000,000 to be divided, which gives each one $432. The total of all national, state and town taxation was over $700,000,- 000 ijj 1880, or eight per cent, on the commercial products. Deduct ^3|^ ATKINSON ON RATE OF WAGES. 287 in proportion, and tho net income of each workman in 0400. Each one of those porHons, to whom 0400 a year is aswii^nod on tl»o average as the rate of his earnings, sustains substantially two others. It therefore follows that, if tlieso wages are high as com- pared with other countries, as tliey are ; or low as compared with what it would be desirable they should be, — tl)oy yet represent all that is produced that can be distributed among those who do the work. They represent an increasing share of an increasing product, which, under the law I have propounded, constantly falls to the labourer as years go on. This average is fully sus- tained by all the special reports of the census of tho United States in which the wages or earnings of persons omjdoyed in all the different arts and manufactures aro given, after adding to the apparent sums disclosed by the census such sum as seems fit in each case to carry the term of tho census emj^loyment uj) to that of a full year. What I have undertaken to prove, therefore, is that the law of comjjotition carries to the capitalist a constantly diminishing ratio of profit frcn each year's product, and to the labourer a constantly increasing share. This rule was formulated by Bastiat many years ago in the following terras : " In proportion to the increase of capital, the absolute share of product falling to capital may be augmented, but the relative share is diminished, while on the other hand the share of the laborer is increased both abso- lutely and relatively." This rule attracted my attention very many years ago, and, throughout all the investigations T have made, I have endeavoured to ascertain the facts by means of which it can either be sustained or disproved. All the facts which I have been able to consider sustain the rule. The recent investi- gation made in England by Robert GifFen, of which T was in- formed about a year ago on my visit to that country, disclose tho same sequences of diminishing rates of profit and increasing rates of wages, accompanied by increased purchasing power for every unit of wages, for the last fifty years of English history. These big figures only confuse the minds of all persons who have not become accustomed to their use. Magnificent state- men'^ ^ in regard to our national progress may, or may not, bo sustained. If our national wealth has increased 01,500,000,000 a year for twenty years, including the rise in the value of laud, 238 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. what does it come to by the unit of the individual ? One half, r:fc least, is the increased value of land, the other half consists in added wealth, or $^50,000,000 a year ; but this great sum if equally distributed would give less than $20 a year to each person. What proportion of the people of this country have saved $20 each year, or $60 a year to each workman for twonty years? The average tax upon each person — combining national, state and municipal taxation — has been very nearly, if not quite, $20 per heai. What proportion of this tax does each man, woman and child contribute ? Have these taxes been paid by the same persons Avho have received the wealth ? Those are important questions, and each man who earns bis daily bread by moans of his daily work needs to have a definite answer to the following demand: " How soon, and in what way, do you, who are candidates for the places of highest influence, intend to relieve me of the heavy, and in a lai'ge measure useless, burden of taxation which finds me poor, keeps me poor, and leaves me poor ; which takes from me all hope of saving, and deprives me of a part of the comforts and even of iho necessaries of life? " There is no mercy in these statistics. By so much as some working men and wcmj-i earn more than $400 a year must some other working ram and women earn less, if that is the measure of all there is ; ana, on what each $400 will buy, three (or to be exact 2u)) persons must be sustained. Shelter, subsistence and clothing for each person must be provided out of what $146 a year, or forty cents per day, will ])ay for. It is appalling, but it is true. In order to increase this rate but five cents a day at the present time one thousand million dollars' worth of increased pro- duct must be made, and a market must be found for the increase. Such a sum is twice the value of our wheat crop, ton times the value of our production of pig iron or of our wool clip, three times the value of our cotton crop, nearly twice the value of all our textile fabrics. To put it another way : in order that each wage earner may get fifteen cents a day higher wage =i, and that each person may have for home consumption what five cents more will bu}'-, besides what he has now, we must add to our present ])roduct the equivalent of our present wheat crop, of our produc- tion of pig iron, and of all our textiles, — a sum total of $1,050,- ATKINSON ON RATE OF WAGES. 289 000,000. This sum a year will give five cents a day to 58,000,000 persons, and no more. Yet, at this rate of forty cents a day on the avei'age, the people of the United States are ho most prosperous people in the world, because forty cents a day will buy more than it will in any other country. I regret that I cannot give a more condensed statement of my theory, but this I cannot do without failing to show its true moan- ing (". bearing on pending questions. The subject is of the ut- most interest to anyone who cares to render the general straggle for life less arduous by permanent measures of true relief. It is a satisfaction to have happened to complete a long and arduous investigation just at the time when the facts arc needed in order tbiit political charlatans may be exposed, and the necessary atten- tion given to the true science of politics. This average may seem incredible, but it must bo remembered that it is an average only. It includes the whole negro popula- tion of the south, the two or throe millions who dwell in the most primitive way in the southern mountain section, as well as the members of the families of all the small farmers of the oast and west. It is inequality in the wages of those who do the work of the world which calls for the attention both of the student and of the statesman, and inequality in what the wages will buy. Whole- sale woi'lc, as it may be called, both in production and distribu- tion, is done at the smallest fraction of charge — at low labour cost, but at high rates of wages to skilled workmen. It is the common labourer who suffers most, and it is retail distribution on which the highest charge is suffered. I may refer, in conclu- sion, lo the broad problem, the investigation of which shows that the poor of Boston pay more for the distribution of broad aftoi" it is l)akod than it costs to raise the wheat of which the bread is made. But this subject opens another wide field upon which I may not now enter. 19 s e I8H, WAQK8 INCREASE. .i,a«|.«r*ted BucccmfUIIy ftnd proflUbly since that date, mainly on Btandard l|ur( <*' which the sole product haa been a 8S-lnch standard sheeting. The in>. 18«B. ISiOi IMO. 1870. urn. un. 1883. luthern United Statea the people are still clad In homespun fltbrlca. Five nd one weaver— can produce elgh^ yards per day ^ otorles XI, • 1164 XII. 1290 1 XIII., 6 than XIV. 1 XV. 90 eta. 07ctB. XVL' • i XVII.- 1 ^ots. 4l0tB. 1 Increase, 77 per oent Seereaae, 44 per cent. DeoreaM, 88 per cent Tbfi Inventk other Items constituting the materials form a very small part of tha ness, Im small measure only In respect to fhel and oil. other bthe railroads less than an average of S per cent, of the capital Invested, conntauon of their value even for very long disunces. The cost of admlnlstra- increa* oo»t of thegoods, and In the general treatise of wages belongs In a olaaa oent^ pfi proflts. The charge for selling the goods at wholesale does not exceed It wpwrtof this Is distributed among the clerks and salesmen who do tha Mt asid 1.83 cen^hole, and, second,ln each department, it wli. appear that at the present T^ tojn be set aside ftrom the sale of coarse cotton goods sufBolent to cover Q;40 cenf the work, Is less than lO per c«nt. of the wholesale market value of the theshsjshare of the laborers who do the work both In respect to materlate used iPeri .__ , ... ^ Butter hand, th« ratio of capltol product Is about^l to fS, thtfrefsre In tha boot jwua, %n of the gross s«le needs to be set aalde as profit ou the business, to Induoa MUlogkctorersofNew England are concerned, tha average of capital to the ^o^ir capital to two dollars product: therelbre three per oeni of tha groM Oiirrot. per annum upon the capital Invested In the buildings and madbiluwr. Btial raw or half mannnuiturea material Into finlshM forma rcadynr flul CCMM»U«4I bjr BDWABD ATKIHMOX, A«s«a£ MM. THB LAW OP OOMPrriTIONl IN ANV QIVIN PRODUOT, ■ROPITa DIMINiaH, WAOIB INORM«B. . „**• •'4?^!!Ji**^"^''°?.'"'* "^5 "if** '""V O" •<«^"""» of t""' ">• "'"''»' »oroii„ii. of inlllv of wblch thaiolt product hu bMn ■ M-lDoh ■lu(Urd iliMUDt. Th» ■gttrw 01 i$m u* atquouq from m comprtioa of lh» (Uta of two niUIti Thf flgiirwi of 19M m-o d ducUd from olutt niont)u' work lo IDftl-*. WAaaa rui ormftATivp rpn rmAu. UK. UNl Id. fold. imioid. imriM. itr. (oM. fTS. cor. ML (Old. ■•.gold. m.to\t. Wt.tlM. vmorrr nw takq Mpca ABT TO »■ aST ASIDB IW OBDKa TO fAV 10 rSH CBNT. UM CAPITAL DtKD. int. t.400. told IMIl i.w lOld. uaiL i.iu fold. U»l. .m toiA. U7IL .TMoar. 'Jfl .MO told. UM .Wtold. in. .«ltold. an. .4Mtold. TA»IM rK« OPBIATIVI r«« TKAIL ur. uu Uiu. i,«ii UM lt,lM IMOl U.TT un It^ IWL JWIOO im >M<1 Ut4. ta/» Id Um moaBtftlD Mctloo or th« southtrD Uoltw] HUtM lb* p«opl« Arc mil) olad In buiuMiniQ Ikbrioi. fliT* womwi— two awdtn. twotpluslvri ud on* waaTtr— ftrd wblcb may b* aipactad In 1IM-4, baoatuecbaogM bavt>b»#n tn progma wbtch, when cumnletad, will tnrreaaetbe rapacity or tba mill about ittper o»nl.,and It in a wril nnderatood rula tbat, while lucb cbaiigea are being made, the currant work of production \» done at a dlMadvantaiie. IL -FUad capital. IIX.— ActlTC caplial. VL-FUod oapWfcl par aplodl*.. ▼U.-1I0. 0* op«* ttraa amp. Vnt-OpcraUToa p«> IX.— Lba. p« aptD dlapardar- Ut* par day I tWk. XI.-Ho«ra work| ISW | par day.. touu.uoo 1000.000 tSIO.000 9»o,ooo |W).000 |»0,OUO 1,000 9U0I 414-10 17 10-100 la T*-too iDorai 140 par iMptr MBt. Daoreaaa. 00 par oant^ OOMPARISON OP IS30 WITH IM4. Id this oompartaon tba aUtemanU are I'aaed In pan iipim i:e flgurea of each mill. Both appear to hara ooat about Mo per aplndle, locludlng dwelllnRfl for uperMtlvcn. ^ore than one kind of gooda ware mad* In caoli for a tlnia, nut tba flguraa bare been adjuatad to standard abeetttiga, an average having baan oomputad by tba yard and pound. Flxad capital.. ■pliidiaa... Flzod cftptUl p«r ^ndla^. OparaUvaa par lOOOa^lodlaa Pouoda par oparatlva per Of- mo fSI3,000 s,in •tan liaoT LTparoaoi Ii 0.»4 U.8 XII.-Lba. par opera ttva per bout Xni.-Wagea per op tfrativapryi XIV.- Wagaa P*' op- eratlva pr bi ZT,'W^aa per rdl IMO XWL~rnA% par jA M f oaaMtttLl un Xyn^Prloa of gooda U« 0.U LU 4.40 cU. ft.Wota. LUeU. l.darditaMiro««bati«toaBUa>atdltr*qalrad I Uomtatoba .^ I, lo order to pay 10 par oaot. opoo ibe capital. If aal U reap »i per cent, of ihe whole prfoa tu pwy wagai ai ttit average rafe of only f i tbe pri -e twine 7 oenU a yard, " — .^ — '^—. • -* •*■ eaal par boar. Blfii wagaa in iaoaey bav* aiMaed aa tba aapaaaary It iHl|to ataff/ad that lo IMO tba prioa ofataodard itaMtrogo bat iJieai r*aru fbaabi gonda oanaoi now ba told at 7 eenta. ai , ^ llhatlolMOtbapt., a fK MwHlta, or II par neoi. of toe prloa. In order to Biatob*e*4 oiMa.balBg ~ - r - . _. . s faeb af*ratlv*. loim aoo eaaia a jrafd.ro be a«a*Me lit order to pay fbaabaraoflabor.or afraMlon over la - - ' r M there •fll In iM) It la an 9K(!t» par oant. opoo ibe capital. If aal It raapTrM to ptty fvacai *^ ^^^ average rafe of only f 174 a tt requiredlfao than « par oeot. of tb* graaa aalM, K>n ilio t»aHi»i. wbiifl 1 or oeou ^mt Mi m&m waaaoMdarateraiaofproailn iMOtiiaa Ity iribara arore a poaltiv* a*ar/aape of i 4ii pareaaL oftbagroaaaoioaBlorBala*. lopercaiiu upon ibo capital, wbiit 1.07 oeoubaiog aataal )i of the K^wo aalaa,yl*M»4 lothe operative |no la gow. U ntiifor nunrolulbf tbe time Del og. But wnlle li) par a*>lve raie tn ibtl. Tba ImdG^ai wi>«iid eitand wttb great i ' neat of i per cant. ij(><>ti thecapluai or a qoarter of aoeoi •lUod wttb great rapid- rot a yard and leia than vol II DMy ba aald, baving aaaigned o 40 oeou io proftia, and |.07 oeni*' to laKir out of 7 oeuta a yard groaa Talpa, tba^'e remain* ft-t nrnta a yard tn be aontuntad tor. Thi* of oouraa raprOMiiu ib* money ooat of aoltoa, Ibol. abireb, oil, aaprUaa. taim, coat of admlnlatrailon. tranaportaUon of tba goiMi* to piarket aad tba aoal or aaUtaf tbaini at wbolaoaie pin lAia all go to labor, nr la there alao a profit to ba aet aalda on thao* Mementiir OariMoawoald not auAoe to ueat aoeb one of ibeaa auaijeata b«t It mtab* MUd, rirok. tba ooMMliOBb- glMlMly aU bMbot: tbara la no large margla o« proAi a» tbe praaaat Uma laidil&i oottoawbMb ' rTYriT duoed by email Aumara. Meoond, the other llama oooatlluting the matorlala fbrm a vary amall part of tba total ouat and are aobjeotad loprortu in amall mroaoraonly to raapeot lofbel and oil. Tba ooat of tranaportaUoo yield* tn tba rallroada laaa thao an average of A per oenu nf tba capital laveatad, -. w_. .. *_ - of yiair valoa even Iw vary long dtataoeea. "* •-*-.—. ■al b -. . — - — r --'ac - - 1 per oeni. to l^ P*^ cent., and a larg* part of thla t* diatrlbotad among ihe olrrk* and aalaaioau who do tba and ooitMi Ibbrloi pay bat a amall fraction of Uialr valoa even 1^ very long dlaii Uoo ooMiltotoa a vtrv amall part of iha ooat oftbagooda, and In tbe general treailaa of wagaa belong* lu a olaaa by Haalf rather than lobeooiwldarwl aa proflla. Tnaobarge tor telling iha gfMKi* at wholeaaladoea noteieeed work. irthuaubJeRtteanalyaed, Ortit, aas wbole, aod. aaooDd,ln eacb department. It will api>ear thatatlhapraaeat Uma tha proporilou ol profit which ran tyn set aalda from the tale of C4*aratt cotton go«>da aufBoleiit lo ogvar proflla la all Ibe vanooadaparimeniaof tbe wurh, I* laoa tba:i IQ per cant, of thft wholMml* m»rHet Taluaoftbo prodaot and n p*r cool, la the afaaoluta iriara of iba laborer* who do tile worb both In rMpaot to materlala uaad tllaalaoi , VM prodoot la great •o rvmanber in rwpaot to the cotton fkotory tbal f lliao a'moet any other branob e" ~" .be cotton fkotory tbal tb* v^iua or proportion of fw>ltal to b . _^„ , , . - ..aoobof lodpairy. Tbt* uroponlnnofoaidtal to prodnolbalBg ^iQfaapltalio*oob|ior|l.»of produn, aocording to iba araigbt of i^efbhrloand tha Quantity or eptiouiiaetC In tbeDOotaadaboeibotnry.oBtii«oth*r band, lb« ratio of oapilal produotlaabout^l (o p, iberelvra lo tba boot and tbo* boMnam a moob laaa proportion of tba groaa a«la oaau to tta aei aalde aa proflt ou uie IwrinaaBt lo tadiMa iu belM aatablUbad. On to* wbolo, *o Ibr a* th* manufk''tarer*of N«i« Kngland are cnnoerned, tha average of capital to tba or tba prpduei* la on* dollar oaplial to two dollart product ; theT«n>rc three par e«nt of tba gran .--. _4.. _..... -• ^r annum upontbeoapltalloraaUd lnib«tKilitnog*and maabluarT. Ml* •«•«•••>» ybloh aroMpiM t ITt >■>■■'< ;»(;<.; Aif-. 'HT ■Hlfef. 5 I K' *■ ' ' J .r, r ^ . ; . V ,• 1. <''-^«*»i»J'^»'V'>-V ^^•*^'*'--'»-»»*»-M»il^. 'mOmBm y XXIV. HARMONIES AND ANTAGONISMS IN ISHB SOCIAL FORCES. BY W. A. DOUGLASS. Some writers on the Science of Economics have endeavoured to prove that all the social forces are harmonious. Others seem to have assumed this to be the case, for most of their explanations are based upon this assumption. It is my pui-pose to point out that there are certain antagonisms ; and I undertake this all the more readily, as it opens up some questions of the most interest- ing and important character. Most of our standard text-books teach that the essential char- acteristic of wealth is exchange value : add exchange value to any commodity, and it becomes wealth ; remove exchange value, and it ceases to be wealth. A slight examination will show that this definition is attended with certain serious difficulties. In the diagram that follows, let i^jff represent the quantity of water necessary to supply a certain community, so that as long as it maintains the level, AB, it can be obtained without toil. Let the quantity vary and the variation be represented by EG. From E to F there is superabundance, from G to F deficiency, at G the quantity is zero. Fi-om E to F there is no exchange value, at i^ value begins, from Fto G value increases, at G value is infinite. Let KP, LQ, MB, etc., representtho varying values. Those would form the curve, H V. Here we may observe three circumstances, concurrent and dependent, viz., as scarcity in- creases, toil increases, and value increases. 292 I 4 i« CANADIAN ECONOMICS. V J Now wealth* may vaiy in quantity, it may be more or less. It is therefore capable of raeasiiroment. What shall bo the standard ? I take it that the standard must be one of two things, either value or quantity. If wo assume value, then wo meet these diffi- culties, as shown above ; when we diminish the stock from the point, F, towards G, we add value, and when wealth is reduced to zero, value is infinite. Value, therefore, cannot be the standard. If, on the contrary, we assume quantity to be the standard, we meet no such difficulties. In fact, I do not remember a writer on Economics who does not accept the doctrine, that we are wealthier as we increase our satisfactions and diminish our toils. And, ac- cording to this, we are, a fortiori wealthiest of all, when we have eliminated toil altogether. But when toil is eliminated, value is eliminated; therefore we should call water, air, sunshine and similar satisfactions, wealth, even though they are utterly void of exchange value. It is true that, in the same language of commerce, values alone can be matters of exchange, and therefore only commodities having exchange value are spoken of. In our struggle with each other, it is our constant endeavour to obtain ever increasing com- mand over the services of our fellows : our selfishness would load us to impose more toil. But in our contest with nature we are just as strenuously endeavouring to diminish toil by imposing ouv burdens on the physical forces. Commercial wealth must have exchange value, but satisfaction obtained without toil, and therefore without value, should be equally called wealth ; otherwise we teach that we are producing ■■■iiiii DOUGLASS ON SOCIAL FORCEa 293 wealth when we are becoming poorer, and hence make wealth and poverty synonymous. 1 have made this analysis for two reasons : first, in order to show that, if we are to have logical consistency in the Science, we must abandon the standard definition which makes wealth depend on exchange value ; and scondly, because all my sub- sequent reasoning is based upon the assumption that wealth is to be measured by quantity and not by value. I would define wealth to be " beneficent satisfactions," and then divide it into two classes, non-exchangeable and exchangeable, — the latter alone having value. That we may get a better conception of the antagonisms to which I wish more particularly to call attention, let me first point out some of the harmonies to be found in the economic forces. The cai'pontei", by devoting attention to one pursuit, developes special skill, accumulates special tools, and acquires special knowledge. Consequently, with less toil, his product is greater in quantity, and of much better quality, than it otherwise would be. The same is true of the blacksmith. When, there- fore, the carpenter and blacksmith exchange their wares, they both obtain a greater quantity than if they had vorked, not at separate trades, but at every trade inditferently. In this kind of exchange we find mutual enrichment. If it happens that one of these trades is more profitable than the other, this greater profit tends to attract competition. There is thus a tendency to equality of reward. Then again, should one trade be more burdensome than the other, this excess of burden repels competition. There is thus a tendency to equality of burden. Here are shown to be three harmonies : Mutual Enrichment, Equality of Eeward, Equality of Burden. It will be noticed that these tendencies can operate only in the absence of restraint, where men are free to exchange their pro- ducts or to choose whichever pursuit they prefer without any in- terference from government, trades unions, or other sources. And in general the methods adopted in production, viz., working at the best time, in the best manner, with the best implements, and in the best situation, are all in accord with the public weal and may be pronounced harmonious. There is, however, another class of exchanges which present a I : '! ■! 4 i I IE'] 294 CANADIAN.ECONOMICS. very striking contrust to the preceding. A few years ago on thiw continent, fuel, especially in the form of wood, was so abundant that it could be obtained in the forests for nothing. Two factors have operated to change the value : the quantity has diminished, and population has increased. The ratio of fuel to population is \ much less than formerly, and consequently, the public are much poorer in this commodity. At the same time, owing to the increased price of fuel, the owners of forests and mines have become much wealthier. Hero, we notice a movement, not of mutual enrichment, but of impoverishment on one side and enrichment on the other. In the case of the carpenter and the blacksmith exchanging, each gives more; hence each re- ceives more, and therefore each is enriched. In the case of the holders of such a natural product as fuel, there is less to distri- bute ; hence comes impoverishment to the purchasers, while the owners receive enhanced prices, and therefore they become richer. Here the enrichment is not mutual, but one-sided only. The same antagonism follows in the case of all, or nearly all, those natural commodities which have been appropriated by individuals ; and, of these commodities by far the most important is land. The land on the face of the globe, including its rich supplies of minerals, is a fixed quantity incapable of increase. Let the population increase and, as in the caae of fuel, the portion available for each is less ; therefore, society is poorer in land, while values rise and landowners are richer. But this tendency is intensified by another circumstance. Im- proved organization of labour, together with improved mechanism and increased knowledge, has increased the productiveness of labour in a remai'kable degree. Increased production means in- creased competition in soiling, and therefore diminished prices. On the other hand the competition in the sale of land, fuel, and similar commodities is diminished. We have, therefore, a second antagonism : increased competition against diminished competit- ion, and therefore diminished reward against increased reward. If we accept the doctrine that increased population compels resort to inferior sources of supply, (and, with certain limitations, I do not think this doctrine can be gainsaid), then increased population means increased impoverishment in some dii-ections. But at the same time this resort to less fertile soils compels an ' DOUGLASS ON SOCIAL FORCES. 295 increased rent for all lands that yield a surplus over those culti- vated at a minimum of fertility. This means increased gi-ound- ront encroaching on the wages fund. This movement is a double calamity ; it means that, out of a diminished return, a larger portion must bo yielded up as rent. A diagram will make this clearer. ,y K H O Let AB, OD, EF, GH, represent the productivenes of dif- ferent lots of land, AB, the centre of some great city, and EF, the poorest land cultivated. EF marks the height of the wage fund of unskilled labor. If ABFE represent the whole product, then AKE will be taken as rent, leaving EFBK for wages. Let population increase so that poorer soils are taken into cultiva- tion, GH being the limit, then ABHG will be the gi-r ,a product. But since poorer lands are used, average product is diminished ; and rent takes ALG, leaving for wages GHBL. The wage fund was sunk from EF to GH. Here not only has the average return diminished, but out of that return a smaller portion is left for the labourer. The deduction just made indicates that exchanges are of two kinds, viz., harmonious, and antagonistic. In the tirat there is service for service, toil for toil, and tendencies to equality of re- ward and equality of burden. In the second there are service and toil on one side only, idleness on the other. The tendencies are toward inequality : to impoverishment on one side, to enrich- ment on the other. The antagonism is against the toiler and in favour of the idler. 296 CANADIAN ECONOMICa ill! Of »11 the problems proHented to the wtiulentH of Kconomics, 1 ro^unl the following m the luoMt important : — Why is it that society is divided into two parts, one portion of which must toil to supply not only its own wants, but also the wants of the other; and why is it that the toilers must be satislied with the smaller share ? Or, the question may be put thus : Why are the pi-oducers not the possessors? It is, 1 thiidc, in the invostigatitm of the fore- going aJitagonisms, that wo must look for the answer to these queries. From this investigation two lessons may bo leai'ned : — let. In determining the incidence of taxation, the method most in vogue among the majority of nations is to try and get between tiie har- m(mi()us exchanges, such as that of the carpenter and the black- smith, in order to collect, not mei-ely enough for strictly govern- mental purposes, but to impose penalties so heavy as to destroy the advantage of the exchange. It would not be difficult to tind from the history, either of the past or the present, instances in which taxes excessively onerous have been imposed in such a manner as to render these antagonisms more intense. 'Jnd. The position of Canada is at present phenomenal. We have a vast tract oi" unsettled territory of unsurpassed fertility, abounding in coals and other mijicrals. We arc now laying the foundations of empire. Our actions to-day must affect the fate of millions. By l)lanning wisely, before society is Ibrmedaud crystallized, wo may arrange its foi-ces so that these antagonisms may be minimiiied. Our opportunity is grand; but unless we cry a hall very soon, that opjiortunity will have passed away never to return. XXV. THE HISTORY AND CONDITION OF EDUCATION IN THE PROVINCE OF MANITOBA. BY REV. GEORGE BRYCE. 1. The Beginnings op Education. The colony founded by the Earl of Selkij-k in 1812, on the biiiikb of the lied Eiver of the North, was the nucleuH of the Province of Manitoba. It was a part of the plan of the noble founder to provide for hit* people full educational and religious advantages. He recogni/od, on his visit to Red Rivei- in 1817, the need of these opportunities for Protestants and Catholics alike. On the Rarl of Selkirk's return to England he took stops to provide his colonists with the promised facilities. Before going to Franco in 1819, (whither indeed he went to die), he gave orders for the des- patch of a Protestant clergyman to the English-speaking part of his colony, having previously set apart land for a church and schools. In 1820, the Scottish settlers had erected a school house which served alike for religious and educational purposes. This was built upon a site now included within the limits of the City of Winnipeg. Not earlier in design, though earlier in execution, was the pur- pose of Lord Selkirk to provide for service and teaching among NoTK.— The following educational papers, though not prepared in time for the meeting in September, 1884, are here printed as forming part of the original programme of the Committee on Canadian Enonomics. The Committee regret that they have found it impoesible to procure a paper ou education from the Maritime Provinces. I 298 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. his Eoman Cutholic colonists. Through his efforts in Montreal, ii distinguished French Ciinadian priest, known afterwards as Bishop Provencher, journeyed to Red River. As early as 1818, the Roman Catholic Mission at St. Boniface, on Red River opposite Winnipeg, was begun, and beside it rose a school. At this school, sliortly after, we are told, there were pupils in the Humanities. The Catholic Church has confined its attention chiefly to the Indians, and the Indian half-breeds of French origin. Schools and convents have been erected, and maintained in a considerable number of places throughout Manitoba and the Northwest Territories. The school at St. Boniface has now become the College of St. Boniface. In the year 1835, the Red River settlement was organized under the name of "The District of Assiniboia." The Territory was placed under the rule of a Council appointed by the Hudson's Bay Company. There seems to have been no public provision for schools made by this Government. Each church erected had by Its side a school under the control of the missionary. There was no system of taxation in vogue, but the school was sustained by private subscription, or b^' grants from the Missionary Societies in England. In the District of Assiniboia, in 1870, there were, in all, some 12,000 people, viz., 5,000 Fi-ench half-breeds, 5,v^00 English-speaking half-breeds (Ita-gely of Orcadian descent), and 2,000 Whites. The population of dilibrent origins seems to have segregated into parishes. In the French half-breed parishes a few schools were found. In 1870, there were fourteen schools in the English speaking half-breeds' parishes under the Church of Eng- lanil, and two schools under the Presbyterian Church in the parishes belonging to the White descendants of the original Selkirk colonists. As early as 1833, a higher school was established which existed in various forms, with varying fortune, until in 1855 it became St. John's College. The present Bishop of Rupert's Land placed this institution on u new footing in 1866. Just as the rule of the Hudson's Bay Company wiis passing away, the Scottish Selkirk colony, with the help of Canadian friends, took steps towards the founding of a college. Thus, third in time of the colleges in the country, Manitoba College was begun in 1871. BRYCE ON EDUCATION IN MANITOBA. II. First Public School Law. 299 The cstablishraont of a government by the Dominion of Canada, ill tho newly created Province of Manitoba, took place in the year 1871. In that year, at the first meeting of itn Logi«hiture, the Province obtained its first School Act, the germ of the present law. The leading provisions of this Act were as follows: — 1. That a joint Board, half Protestant, the other half Catholic, should have control of Common School Education. 2. The management of tho Protestant Schools was given entirely to tho Protestant section ; that of the Catholic Schools, to the Catholic section. 3. The formation of School Districts was eft'ccted by the Board, with the approval of the Governor-in-Council. 4. The mode of Support of the school, whether by private sub- scription or taxation, was left to be decided by each district. 5. The Examination and Licensing of its Teachers belonged to each section. 6. A Government Grant was given to the board and divided proportionally between the two sections ; and, after the payment by each section of a sum not exceeding $600 to the Secretary or Superintendent of Schools, the amount belonging to each section was to be divided amongst its schools. The system thus founded was much developed in an Act passed in 1873. This gave the power to any ratepayer to choose tho school he wished to support, whether Catholic or Protestant. Tho duties of all officers were defined ; taxation was made compulsory, and machinery established for collecting taxes. A very considerable discussion arose about this time as to tho advisability of having Protestant and Catholic schools as such. It seemed, however, as if the legislation of the Dominion Parlia- ment, in constituting Manitoba, had protected the minority in preserving for them separate schools. The Province has nov/ virtually accepted the principle of division, although it may bo stated that, from the Protestant immigration having laigely ])re- (lominated, and from almost all the Catholics having been French-speaking and living together, the Protestant schools have really taken rank as I^ational Schools, — the Protestant population bearing a proportion of eight to one to the Catholic minority. 1 1 300 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. In 1876, a coiiniderable moditication of the School Law took phicG ill the now Act paased in that year relating to cities and towns. From this amended Act of 187t>, the piosperity of the National School system in Manitoba may be said to have sprung. It enabled the cities and towns to establish good schools, and thus acted beuetic'ially on all the schools of the Province. Provision was made of a more perfect kind by this Act for the issue of de- bentures by school districts, thus enabling them to erect suitable school buildings. The Acts have been amended and extended in the years 1882, 1883, and 1884, but the Act of 1876 was the virtual establishment of the present form of school provision. III. Present Organization. 1 III , ! 1 ' ( ' Each section of the Board of Education has a chief officer for the administration of its schools. Such chief officers must be members of the Board of Education. This Board now consists of twelve Protestants and nine Catholics, but these two sections act in almost all matters independently. Their only joint function of importance is to make regulations for registering and reporting daily attendance at the schools. The members of the Board selected from the two sections as chief officers are chosen b}^ the Government, and appointed by the Grovernor-in-Oouncil. Their duties are to act as Secretaries to the Board, and each individuallj' to their own section ; to call school meetings if necessary ; to see that the law is carried out by trustees and teachers; to supervise the inspectors ; to explain the law ; collect and tabulate statistics ; and to report to the (jovernment. The chief officer of the Pro- testant schools is called " Superintendent of the Protestant Schools." The Board of Education is the supreme authority in public school education. The Superintendents are rcgardod as the executive officers of the Board, and each is bound in everything to carry out the directions of his section. As already stated, the Governor-in-Council appoints the Board, with its two sections; one third of eut h section retires every year, and the Government appoints their successors. The func- tions of the Board, as given in the tirst Act of 1871, are very much those of the Board at present. The Protestant schools ai'e super- 1 BRYCE ON EDUCATION IN MANITOBA. 301 vised by Inspectors actins^ under the Superintendent, so far as the Public Schools are concerned. The Secondary Schools are simply higher departments of the Public Schools. Two members of the Board of Education are appointed as Inspectors of the Collegiate departments. For the ordinary school inspectoi-s, of whom there are nineteen under the Protestant section, and five under the Catholic section in the Province, the territory is mapped out into divisions by their respective sections. The in- spectors belong to two classes. First, there are those appointed by the Board of Trustees in cities and towns for their schools. In Winnipeg, such officer devotes his whole time to the ins])ector- ship, and is the executive officer of the Board. His appointment must bo approved by the Board of Education. For the school divisions outside of cities and towns, inspectors ai-e appointed by the section of the Board of Education. At one time the Inspec- tors in cities and towns were required to be University graduates. This requirement is now dispensed with. As a rule, the inspec- tors are clergymen in the several localities. Their duty is to visit each school of their jurisdiction twice in the j^ear, collect returns, make out reports, and act in the adjustment of Union school districts embracing portions of two or more municipalities. The only schools recognized by the law are Public Schools. The Secondary Schools are simply the two highest ^.tandards of the twelve laid down for Public Schools in cities and towns. Schools in which Standards I to X are taught, are simply Public Schools. The trustees elected by the people have control of Public and Secondary Schools alike. Provision is made by the law for the estaKishment of local Boards of Trustees having certain detined portions of territory allotted to them. The territory is determined by the Municipal Council within whose limits tl e school is to be begun. In order to obtain the establishment of a school, a petition eiibodying certain information must bo forwarded to the Municipal Council, Such petition must be signed by at least five resident heads of families. The Council may grant or ref\iso the school. The territory set apart for its support when a school is established, is called a "School District." Thei-e is no fixed amount (if area for it. The law requires, however, that every school district shall liave at least ten children, between five and fifteen years old, resident 1 -' ':\' ** 1]' i I 302 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. within three miles of the school site. For the purpose of defining the territory of school districts not lying in one municipality, the two or more reeves of the interested municipalities and the local inspector constitute a Board to deal Avith the matter. An appeal lies from the Council's action in case of dissatisfactioti to the section of the Board of Education to which the school belongs. The first meeting of the people in a school district consists of the resident freeholders and householders. After the first meet ing, the electorate consists of ratepayers only. In cities, twelve ratepayers are elected as a Board of Trustees ; in towns, the num- ber varies according to the number of wards ; in towns not divided into wards and in country districts, there is a Board of three. A portion of the Board vetires every year, and its successors are elected annually. For the purpose of supplementing the Legislative Grant to any school, the Board of Trustees lays before the Municipal Council to which it belongs an estimate of the amount required for the year. The Municipal Council is bound, whether the amount has been collected or not, to hand over in semi-annual portions the amount thus demanded. The Trustees may do whatever they judge expedient with regard to building, repairing, renting, warming, furnishing, and keeping in repair, the school buildings of the district. For the purchase of school sites, and the erection of school houses or teachei's' residences, the ratepayers of any school district may require the Trustees to borrow money by de- bentures. Applications for this purpose must be certified by the Lieutenant-Governor-in-Council. Minute regulations are in force as to the form of debenture and the proceedings needing to be taken for its ratification. The Trustees may contract with and employ teachers who pos- sess the necessary certificate from the Board of Education. The Trustees have to see the discipline of the schools in their care properly enforced, and to hold meetings to listen to com- plaints made by teachers or parents. The Education Acts provide for the compulsory attendance at school of children between the ages of seven and twelve. Any Board of Ti'ustees may, on obtaining the sanction of the section of the Board of Education to which it belongs, have the Act in this respect put into force. So far, however, as the writer is BRYCE ON EDUCATION IN MANITOBA. 303 aware, no Board of Trustees has availed itself of the power given by this portion of the Act. rV. Teachers. There are two kinds of certificates given by the section of the Boai-d of Education, viz., Collegiate and Public School certificates. The foi-mer are given to graduates of Universities in Her Majesty's dominions, who present evidence of good moral chai*actei', and of their knowledge of the science of education and the art of teaching. Public Schottl certificates are of three classes, each class having two grades. These certificates are given as the result of a written examination held annually in August. First Class. — The subjects are : Reading, Spelling, English Grammar, Composition, Writing, Geography, History (Greece, Eome, Modern Europe, England, and Canada), School Organization and Management, Book-keeping, Arithmetic, Algebra, (Colenso Part I), Euclid (Books I, II, TTI, IV, VI, and definitions of V), Mensuration, English. Literature, Elementary Static8,Hydrostatics and Physics, Physiology, Botany, and Inorganic Chemistry. To obtain First class. Grade A, a candidate must gain sixty-seven per cent, of the aggi-egate marks on the subjects, and forty percent, on each. For First class. Grade B, there is required forty per cent, of the aggi-egate marks, and twenty-five per cent, of each. In order to obtain a Professional certificate of the First class, good until recalled, a candidate must present evidence of Normal School training, and of having taught one year. Candidates passing the examination, unable to furnish evidence of training and experience, may obtain a Non-professional First- class certificate good for two years. Second Class. — The subjects are : Reading, Spelling, Composi- tion, Writing, Geogi'aphy, School Organization and Management, and Arithmetic as for First class, Modern, English, and Canadian History, Grammar (Analysis and Parsing), Algebra (to the end of Simple Equations), Euclid (Books I and II). To obtain a Pro- fessional Second-class certificate a candidate must have passed the examination and have received Normal School training. Non-professional Second-class certificates are given for one year, on the examination being passed. Grades A and B in this class "-■V: 304 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. are granted on the same percentage of marks as in the First class. An Honour student passing the Previous Examination of Manitoha University obtains ipso facto a Non-profe^isioiuil Socond-class cer- tificate, Grade A ; and a Passman of the same standing, a "N'on- professional Socond-class certificate, Grade B. Third Class. — The subjects are : Heading, Spelling, Grammar (Analysis and Parsing), Composition, "Writing, Geogi-aphy of Europe and America, History (English and Canadian), Arithmetic (to Percentage), School Organization. Grades A and B in this ohiss are given on the same percentage as in the other classes. To obtain a Third-class Professional certificate, Grade A, good for four years, a candidate must have Normal School training. No n- professional Third-class certificates are only valid for one year. The examinations for teachers are conducted in the chief places throughout the Province on papers prepared by a central Boai'd of Examiners, and the answers are returned to the same Board. The examinations extend over a spuee of one week, and the ex- aminers are leading educationists of the Province. The Normal School has been some two years in existence and is doing good Avork. The plan now pursued is to have it com- bined with the Winnipeg Public Schools. The Principal of the Normal School is the only teacher whoso duties are confined to the Normal School, the upper i.;rade teachers in Winnipeg re- ceiving the Normal School students into the several classes taught by them. The Noi-mal School has a winter session in Winnipeg of five months. The Principal of the Normal School holds Insti- tutes, or Local Normal Schools, of one month each at leading educational centres throughout the country. Local educationists take part in these Institutes, and an impetus is given by them to education in the locality. The Institutes were held last year at Portage La Praii-ie, Brandon, Papid City, and Birtle. They were conducted by the Normal School Principal and the Superin- tendent of Education. The time at these Institutes taken by teachers is counted at a certain value in the Normal School train- ing requii'od by them. The chief aim of the Normal School is to give training rather than instruction to the teachers. The stu- dents of the Normal School get no privileges so far as examina- tions are concerned, but they must pass at the annual Teachers' Examinations in August. It is but right to notice that Manitoba, BRYCE ON EDUCATION IN MANITOBA. 305 being largely settled by people from Ontario, has hitherto received a good supply of admirable teachers from the mother Province. V. Statistics and Eevenue. The census having been taken in 1881, and an enormous flow of immigration having taken place to Manitoba since thr.t time, it is only possible to give an estimate of the population. It is generally agreed that Manitoba has a population of from 150,000 to 200,000. Thei'e are at present 400 schools or districts belong- ing to the Protestant section, and fifty to Catholic. In the Protestant schools, in 1883, 123 males and 123 females were teaching. According to the returns for 1884, there were in attendance at the Protestant schools 10,831 pupils, and at the Catholic sections there were in attendance 1,941 in 1883. It will be noted that a considerable number of the organized districts have not their schools in operation. This arises from the very sparse population preventing their having schools carried on all the year round, as well as from the fact that, in the newer parts, except on a few main lines in winter, trails are not open in the more thinly populated localities. During 1884, the average num- ber of days of attendance for pupils was 150 in cities and towns, and eighty in the country districts. The earliest school age allowed by the Act is five years ; though so large a number of the schools belong to newly organized districts, that children of the age of eight, to ten years or more, enter school for the first time. About six years would probably represent the average in the older and better-organized schools. There is little difference between the mule and female pupils in this respect. In a large number of our country schools, the farmers' children can attend school for but half the year; but up to the age of fifteen most of the children in the better school districts attend in the winter season. In the cities and towns, pi-obably from twelve to thirteen years would represent the fige of leaving school in the majority of cases, as work or situations can then be obtained. As stated already, the school course extends over ten years. In the early history of this Province, it is difficult to give statistics as to the number who leave school tolerably well acquainted with the three R's 20 jj;, ' t']^l 'J n fi 306 CANADIAN ECONOMICa of education; but tho experience of the writer, who has been thirteen years in Manitoba, and has a good acquaintaince with tho Province, leads him to believe that, from the superior class of immigration, and the very general circulation of excellent newspapers fi'om Winnipeg and elsewhere, the average attain- ment in this respect will compare with that of any Province of the Dominion. As to Secondary Education, the collegiate depo i-tments have only been been long enough in operation to send up one class of University students ; this occurred for the first time, in May, 1884. On this occasion, twelve students from Winnipeg Collegiate de- partment entered Manitoba University. To be added, however, to these, are the students coming to the Uiiiversity from the Pre- paratory Schools of the Colleges, each of the three Colleges having at present such departments. At the examination in May, 1884, there were twenty-one from these departments who entered the University. Thus, some thirty-five youths matriculated in Man- itoba University, while a few others — probably not exceeding five or six — went to Universities in the eastern Provinces of the Dominion. The recent date of the educational institutions of the Province needs continually to be borne in mind in consider- ing these statements. Some fifteen other students began the study of medicine in the Manitoba Medical College, in 1884, which in that year obtained its charter and is now affiliated to the Mani- toba University. The Provincial grant for the Protestant section for 1884 was $33,159.98; but, as the schools become more numerous, there is an annual increase. The following is a list of the number of the schools for the different years given : — Year. Protestant. Catholic. 1871 1874 1882 1883 16 22 122 880 17 21 • • 45 The amount of money allowed annually by the Government is placed to the credit of the Board of Education. It is tlxon divided mm BRYCE ON EDUCATION IN MANITOBA. 307 're- betweon the Protestant and Catholic sections, according to the relative proportion of Protestant and Catholic children of Hchool ap;e in the Province as obtained by the school census taken annu- ally. From the proportion coming to the Protestant section, pay- ment is first made to each school at the rate of $50 for each half- year that it may bo in operation, — ouch department in a city or town school counting as an individual school. Secondly, when the schools have received payment at the rate stated, the remainder of the grant set apart is divided among them according to average attendance. The amount levied by the Trustees as local taxation for the Protestant schools for 1884 was $1*78,140.05. The total amount expended in 1884 (including sums for Hchool building) was $363,'775.85, and the cost of Governmental administration was $6,627.50. VI. Typical Schools. m IS (1.) Winnipeg Central School. — The Central and "Ward Schools of Winnipeg gave employment last year to fifty-four teachers. There are nine separate buildings in different parts of the city (one of them being a rented building) used as school houses. The site occupied by the Central School is almost in the centre of the triangle between the Eed and Assiniboine Rivei's. Facing the east is the Boys' Central School. This building also contains the office of the Inspector of City Schools. Facing the west, on the opposite side of the grounds, is the Girls' Central School. The area of the plot is divided into two equal parts, thus having one playground for l)oys and another for girls. The Boys' Central School contains 128,100 cubic feet. It has twelve rooms devoted to teaching. The rooms are nearly of the same size, each con- taining about 8,000 cubic feet, and being seated for forty pupils. There is no provision for artificial lighting, as the school build- ings are kept for strictly public school purposes, and hence do not require to be lighted at night. As, however, Winnipeg is lighted both by gas and electricity, it would be easy to connect with either system if required. The building is heated by coal stoves, which burn the soft coal of the countiy from the Sas- katchewan, or the anthracite from Pennsylvania. The provisions 308 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. ; I illlili for the ventilation of this school are good, there being cold-air and hot-air flues ; the ventilation shaft is heated by the chimney, and thus retains heat enough to enable the vitiated air to bo drawn into it and carried into the open air. The Central School property is valued at $.50,000. The cost of the buildings erected upon it has been $,S4,000. The furniture has cost $9,000 : there is nolibi-ary : and the value of the appar- atus is SnOO. As to toachei's' salaries, that of the first teacher of the Collegiate department is $1,400; of the second, $1,.300 ; of the first master of Boys' School, $1,2.50. The lowest salary of any Central School teacher — a lady teacher — is $500, Tn this school there are eight male and four female teachers, No teacher is employed in the Winnipeg schools, who holds a certificate inferior to the Second class, Pi-omotion from any grade to a higher is generally carried out in case of vacancies occurring ; and such promotion is usually accompanied by an increase of salary. There is also a pi'ovision for a systematic increase of salary, taking into consideration length of service in our schools. (2.) Winnipeg Ward Schools. — Winnipeg being a city of from 20,000 to 25,000 inhabitants, and somewhat irregularly built, has a system of schools in the different city wards, in which pupils of the lower grades are taught. Of these there are seven. They contain from two to six rooms each, and are organized by having a male teacher as Pi-incipal in each, and subordinate female teachers. We may select the Carlton Street School in South Winnipeg. It is a neat brick building, two stories in height, and is situated in a plot of rather more than an acre in size. Its class- rooms, six in number, are each about the size of one of the Central School rooms. The teachers of the Ward Schools are quite up to the standard of those of the Central School of the same grade, and the Ward Schools, so far as respectability is concerned, hold their own very well. Within the territory of Winnipeg it maybe well to note that there are also two boys' schools and two girls' schools, under the control of the Catholic School Board. There are also throughout the city several girls' schools main- tained as private enterprises, and there is St. John's Ladies School, chiefly under the influence and direction of the Church of England. (3.) North St, Andrews Country School. — This may be taken BRYCE ON EDUCATION IN MANITOBA. 309 UM a typo of the ordinary Country School. This school is situated twenty miles north of Winnipeg'. It has a comfortable wooden building neatly finished, with a capacity of 15,000 cubic foot. The playground contains two acres. It is not subdivided into two parts. The grounds arc supplied with necessary sanitary conve- niences. The attendance of pupils is seventy, with an average of forty or fitly. The teacher has a Second-class certificate and is the sole teacher. It may be interesting to note that almost all Lho inhabitants of this district are natives, /. e., of a mixture of White and Indian parentage. The trustees are also hall-breeds, but they as well as the general average of the pupils are not behind those of other parts of the country in general intelligence. The teacher's salary is usually $500. VII. University op Manitoba. Any sketch of I'^ducation in Manitoba without mention of the University would be incomplete. The University is regarded with favour by all classes in the Province, inasmuch as it seems to have afforded a satisfactory solution of the ditticulties in Higher Education arising from denominational and religious feeling. Manitoba University is the oidy source of degrees in Arts, Law, and Medicine in the Province. Its sole functions are to set a curriculum ; to examine students and give them a standing ; to confer degrees on the three Faculties named ; to bestow scholar- ships and medals ; and to administer its own funds. To the University the promise of 150,000 aci-es of land has been made by the Dominion Government. Eecently, also, the University has received the sum of $85,000, — a munificent bequest left by the late A. K. Isbistei', Esq., a London barrister, who was born in Eupert's Land. To the University there are afiiliated the three Arts Colleges already mentioned, viz., St. Boniface (Eoman Catholic), St. John's (Episcopal), and Manitoba (Presbyterian), as well as the lately organized Manitoba Medical College. These four Colleges have new buildings, which aggregate $140,000 in value. The relation of the Colleges to the University may be called "federative." The Colleges are guai-anteed absolute control of their own aftairs, and choose representatives, who, with a few others appointed by cer- 1 310 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. 1 J tuin otlioi' public bodies, make up the Council of the University. Provision is made by which the (lovonior-in-Council may atHliato othoi" Colleges having suitable buildings and an iido([uate stall'. Another power conlerred upon the three Arts Colleges is that each may grant degrees in Theology. The University, however, examines the candiilate for the Theological degree in classics and mathematics. WImn the College has conf'eired a degree in Theology, the grjuluato is reckoned a graduate of the University. Another most interesting feature of the University is that it gives the right to any student to take his examination in either English or French, ihc students of St. Eoniiiace College being chiefly French-speaking. The University has four annual examinations in Arts for the B. A. degree. They are named i-espectively : the Preliminary, Previous, Junior B. A., and Senior B. A. Examinations. The degree of M. D. is conferred upon examination. A course has also now been fixed for conferring the degree of LL.B. on the student passing certain examinations in Law. In 1885, the Uni- versity of Manitoba has held its first examination other than for matriculation in Medicine ; and in 1886 will be held its first examination in Law. The first examination in Arts was held by the Univerity in 1878, and seven annual examinations have taken place since. Foi' two years there could, of course, be no graduates. Since 1880, thirty-two candidates have received the degree of B. A. on examination. At the examinations of 1884, fifty-three candidates successfully passed in the several years. Upon the result of the examinations for 1885 the proceeds of the Isbister bequest will be for the first time bestowed as scholar- ships on deserving students. The annual amount for distribution from this source will be about $4,000. The benefit arising from having only one source of degrees for the Province, secured by the University of Manitoba, has been generally felt. The University, though embracing elements so wide apart as Eoman Catholics, Episcopalians, and Presbyterians, and though charac- terized by tongues so different as French and English, has been conducted since its beginning with the greatest harmony and satisfaction to all concerned. .M mm* BRYCE ON EDUCATION IN MANITOBA. 311 VIII. General iNTELLiaENOB. We have now describod the leading features of Education in Manitoba. Before stating the general condition of intelligence among the people, a word whould be said about the Indian popula- tion. The whole number of Indians in the Northwest and British Columbia is 97,057. Of these, 34,520 are under treaty stipulations; and of these Treaty Indians there are 11,311 in the Manitoba agency. The Dominion Government is bound by treaty to maintain schools among the Indians. The treaties with the Manitoba Indians date from 1871 to 1875. There are forty-one school houses among these 11,000 Indians, und twenty-four schools are in oj)ei'ation. Hitherto the teachers have been of inferior <[ualification8, and have been wretchedly remunerated. It is hoped that there may be improvement in this respect. Ill the general intelligence of its white population, Manitoba occupies a high place. The Dominion Post Office authorities state that the proportion of let(ei-s and newspapers passing through Winnipeg Post Office is very large comjmred with the numbers of the population ; they state, moreover, that the standard of ex- cellence in handwriting is above that of any other Post Office in Canada. It must be noticed, however, that the French native adull population can seldom write. A petition from a French parish with upwards of a hundred names, had all but six signed by a cross, along with " sa mai-q^e." The immigrating popula- tion of a higher class coming to Manitoba is great. Retired clergymen (five in one settlement), graduates of British and Ca- nadian Universities, half-pay army officers, and the better class of British and Canadian farmers, all engaged in tilling the soil, ai-e numerous. There are published in Winnipeg three daily newspapers, seven weeklies, and a number of monthlies. There are in Manitoba and the Northwest some forty newspapers pub- lished, printed in the leading places all the way from Lake of the Woods to the shadow of the Rocky Mountains. One of the most powerful educative agencies in the Province, doing much by lectures and publications to keep alive a taste for literature and science, is the Historical and Scientific Society of Manitoba, which last year received and disbui'sed for its several pui'poses nearly $4,000. Some account might also be given of 312 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. the number of Sunday Scliools in Manitoba. At a late Conven- tion of Sunday School teachers held at Portage La Prairie, 62^ teachers and 6,415 pupils were reported. This, however, is but a portion. The church provision for the country is remark- ably good. .Judging by the last census the relative strength of the several churches in Manitoba may be represented by the fol- lowing tigui-es: — Kpiscopnlians, 14; Presbyterians, 14; Eoman Catholics, 13 ; Methodists, 9 ; Lutherans and Mennonites, 7 ; Bap- tists and Congregationalists, 2. The number of regularly ordained clergymen exercising their ministry in Manitoba in all the churches is probably about 160. n. XXVI. EDUCATION IN ONTABIO. ABBREVIATED PROM A REPORT PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OP THE PROVINCIAL MINISTER OP EDUCATION. The educational progress of the Province ol Ontario (formerly Upper Canada) was at first of very slow growth. Nearly eighty years ago an unsuccessful attempt was raad< to endow out of public lands a Grammar School in each of the four districts into which the Province waw then divided, and a central University at York (now Toronto). But the sale of tliese lands was so slow, and the price per acre obtained for them was so small, that the revenue dei'ived from this source barely detrayed the cost of management. In 1807 the first legislative enactment was passed, establishing a Classical and Mathematical School in each of the eight districts into which Upper Canada was then divided. A grant out of the public revenue of £80 sterling ($400) a yeai* was made to each of these schools. That established at Cornwall (oi» the Hiver St. Lawrence) under the mastership of the Eov. John Strachan — afterwards Archdeacon of York, and subsequently the first Bishop of Toronto — was the most efficient, and at it were educated most of the prtmiinent men of after yeai's. In 1816, nine years after the entablishment of the Grammar Schools, the Legislature of Uppei (Janada passed the first Com- mon, or Klementury, School Law for that Province. It appro- priated $24,000 per annum for the support of the schools to be 3l4 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. established; and provided for tho management of these schools by trustees elected by tho inhabitants in the localities concei-ned. In 1820 a retrograde movement took place, and tiie annual grant was reduced to $ 10,000. In 1822, a Board of Education foi- Upper Canada was estab- lished under the presidency of Archdeacon Strachan, then resid- ing in York (Toronto). It had under its supervision the district (xrammar Schools, and had also the management of the Univer- sity and (ri-ammar School lands which hax^l been granted for these purposes by George HI in 1798. Some general regulations for tho schools were adopted ; and in 1824 a small grant was made to aid in the introduction of Common iivA Sumlay-school libraries into the less sparsely settled portions of the country. Neverthe- less the zeal of the public in behalf of education gradually lan- guished ; and it was not until 1885 that anj- systematic or vigor- ous effort was made by the public men of the time to revive it. In that year a bill to promote Public Elementary Education was introduced into the House of Assembly and passed, but it failed to pass the Legislative Assembly. In order, therefore, to stimulate the pul)lic mind on the subject of education and to ensure the passage of a more comprehensive measure during the following session, a Commission was ap- pointed to obtain evidence and draw up a report on the subject. In 1836, an elaborate re; ort was prepared by Dr. Thomas Duns- combe, M. P. P., Chairman of the Education Committee of the House of Assembly, on the state of education in the various parts of the United States of America which he visited, fn the pre- paration of this report he was ably assisted by Dr. Thomas D. Morrison, M. P. P. (one of his colleagues). He also prepared a compi'ohensive draft of a bill which was printed with the report, but never passed. The political crisis which so quickly followed, and culminated in the outbieak of the Eebellion of 1837-8, over- whelmed in confusion all legislation, and prevented further at- tention being given to the subject for the time. Nothing was done, therefore, with the view to promote educa- tion, until tho union of the two Canadas in 1840. In 1841 a bill was introduced into the united Parliament and passed, establish- ing Common Schools in each of the two Provinces, and authorizing the establishment of " Homau Catholic Separate Schools" in I EDUCATION IN ONTARIO. 315 Upper Canada (in cases where the teacher of the Public School watj a Protestant and Dice versa). In 18-42, it was considered desirable to supersede this Act by one more applicable to the cir- cumstances and wants of each Province separate!}- ; the " Separ- ate" and "Dissentient" School provisions were however retained in each case. In 1844, a I'urthcr impetus was given to public education in Upper Canada by the ai)pointment of the Ecv. Dr. liyerson, a distinguished native of the Province, to the office of Chief Super- intendent of Kducatiou. This gentleman speedily set himself to reconstruct, upon a broader and more compi-ehensive basis, the entire system of Public Elementary Schools. As a preliminary step he devoted a year to the examination and comparison of the systems of education in Eui-ope and America, and embodied the resulls in a " Rei)ort on a System of Public Elementary Instruc- tion in Upper Canada." This valuable report sketches in an able manner the system of education which Dr. Ilyerson subse- quently so successfully established in the Province. The chief outlines of that system are similar to those in other countries. Thus the Province is in a great degree indebted to New York for the machinery of our schools, to Massachusetts for the principle of local taxation upon which the schools are sup- ported, to Ireland (originally) for the series of text-books, and to Germany for the system of Normal School training. All are, however, so modified and blended together to suit the wants and circumstances of the country, that they are no longer foreign, but are incorporated as part and parcel of our institutions. The Educational System of Ontario will now be considered somewhat in detail. Education is one of the subjects within the exclusive jurisdiction of the Provinces which compose the Con- federation of Canada. The system in Ontario comprises the following : — I. — The Public, Separate and Jligh Schools, and Collegiate In- stitutes under the control of the Kd-i^ation Department. II. — The Colieg3s and University provincially endowed, and subject to the control v '' the Provincial Government. III. — Institutions tor opecial Classes, maintained and managed by the Provincial Government. IV. — Institutions and Societies partly aided by Government, or under Government supervision. ll'.- \' ■ Ik ' n't;'.' Vi] i I i I ii 3 316 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. V. — Schools, Colleges and Univei-Bitieb not under rrovincitii control. VI. — Institutions partly Educational or Eolormatory. 1. Public, Separate, and High Schools, ani> Collegiate Institutes. The Education Department is entrusted with the control of the Public, Separate, and High Schools, and Collegiate Institutes of the Province. The Department, in the year 1876, by an Act of the Legislature of Ontario, underwent an important change in ceasing to be under the control of a Council of Public Instruction, with a Chief Superintendent, and is now composed of a Com- mittee of the Executive Council of the Province, presided over by one of their number, as Minister of Education, and holding office with the other members of the Executive Council, subject to responsibility to the Legislative Assembly, accoiding to the pi'inciples of the British Constitution. The Schools undei- the Ad- ministration of the Education Department comjjrise: (1) Public (or elementary) Schools ; (2) Separate (or denominational) Schools ; and (3) High (or secondary) Schools and Collegiate Institutes. The Province of Ontario possesses a system of municipal or local self-government which is uniform throughout the Province, and, while symmetrical in its ai'rangement, is thoroughly practi- cal and rests upon the free action of the ratepayers in each muni- cipality. The organization comprises: (1) the minor municipal corporations, consisting of Townships, being rui-al districts of an area of eight or ten sc^uare miles, with a population of from three to six thousand ; (2) Villages with a population of over seven hundred and fifty ; and (3) Towns with a population of over two thousand. Such of these as are comprised within a larger district, termed a County, constitute (4) the County Municipality, which is under the government of a council composed of the heads of the different minor municipalities in f s-9 S ' ■*' , •■.'' ifMl;; ii f ■!•' - ii:i;i Legislative Grant, $84,01)0 ; Municipal Grant, $208,101 ; Pupils' foes, $30,007 ; and other sources, $55,072. Out of the receipts, the amount paid for salaries of masters was $200,317 ; for building, rents and repairs, $20,012 ; maps, libraries, prize books, and other expenses, $02,617. II. Schools, Colleoeh and University, Provincially endowed and sub.ject to the control ov the Provincial Government. These institutions come next in order. They are exclusively Provincial, being supported by Provincial funds and subject to the general control of the (Jovernmont, but they possess their own Councils or governing bodies, and are not within the jurisdiction of the Education Department as such. U^pper Canada Colle ^.^ II III "■: 324 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. tutions of a specific cliaracter, and maintains them by annual gi'ants out of the Provincial revenue. In ISYO, the Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb was established in the city of Belleville. Such pupils as are unable to be maintained by their parents or guardians, are clothed, boarded, and educated free of charge. In 18Y1, the Institution for the Blind was established in the city of Brantford. Admission is refused to the aged, infirm, or to imbeciles. Pupils unable to pay are boarded and taught gratui- tously. The School of Practical Science was opened in September, 18*78, in a building, and with appliances specially adapted to lect-.res of a practical character in the subjects of Natural and Physical Science, and of Engineering. In 1874, the School of Agriculture at Guelph was opened. Its objects are to teach the practice end theory of Husbandry to young men engfiged, or intending to engage, in Agriculture ; and to conduct experiments of general interest to Agricultm-e. TV. Institutions and Societies partly aided by Government OR UNDER Government Supervision. (1.) Mechanics' Institutes may l)e established as corporations under a general Act, for providing a library and evening classes. Each is entitled to receive from the Legislature an annual grant of $400, conditional upon the local contribution being at least $200, and upon being subjected to Government in8pecti(m. At the present time there are over one hundred Mechanics' Institutes in Ontai-io ; the annual vote for their support is $25,- 000. The following abstracts are taken from the Annual Eeports of Mechanics' Institutes for last year : — Classification of Institutes Eeporting. Number of Institutes with Library, Reading Room and Evening Classes 25 Number of Institutes with Library and Reading Room. 34 " " with Library and Evening Classes 4 " " with Library only 30 Total 93 ••'^ )y annual md Dumb Is as are e clothed, 1 the .)ity rm, or to it gratui' )ei\ 1878, leet-.res Physical led. Its mdry to ire ; and e. ERNMENT lOrations ' classes, annual being at peetion. chanics' . is $25,- ports of 25 U 4 50 13 EDUCATION IN ONTARIO. 325 The present Minister of Education (Hon. G. W. Eoss) is de- term' ^ed to make the institutes of more practical value to me- chanics and artisans, and in order to prevent such large amounts being expended for liction, and to induce the establishment of evening classes, has issued instructions that in futui-e the grant shall be divided as follows : — GOVERNMBINT GRANT. LOCAL APPROPRIATION. Library $200 $100 Reading Eoom 100 50 Evening Classes.... 100 50 $400 $200 It iH proposed to establisii evening classes for industrial draw- ing in these institutes, so that they will really be branch Art Schools subject to the lules of the Education De])artmont. A programme of studies will be sent to each institute, and examina- tions for certificates will be held at the close of each session. In order to encourage these classes, additional sums will be paid of $1 for every student who receives a certificate for ^ne subject ; of $2, for two subjects ; and of $4, for studenta who obtain certifi- cates in all the elementary subjects. (2.) The Educational Museum. — In 1849 an Act was assented to, granting five hundred pounds per annum for the establish- ment and support of a School of Art and Design for Upper Can- ada, to be in connection with the Normal School; this fund was allowed to accumulate for several years, and together with special grants was expended in the purclnise of a collection of objects of Art, which gradually increased so much in size that it became necessary to erect new school buildings and devote all the lecture rooms, etc., to the purposes of the museum. Although the origi- nal plan of having a School of Art and Design was not carried out, the museum was thrown open free to the public every day except Suiiday*^:, and students had the privilege of copying from the painting's, statuary, etc. As an indirect aid to art the museum has been very valuable ; it is now, however, being made of more practical benefit. The Ontario School of Art is now conducted in adjoining apartments, so that students may have access to the examples of study. i 326 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. i (3.) The Ontario School of Art was ostablishod by tho Ontario Society of Artists in 1876, and other Art Schools in the Province are now being associated with tliis school for examination jiur- poses. At tho last examination several certiticates were granted to the pupils of Alma College, St. Thomas, and Wylceham Hall, Toronto ; other institutes will be associated next term. Tho Hon. tho Minister of P^ducation, having taken into consider- ation the importance of making industrial di-awing a part of our educational system, has given directions that Free Industrial Drawing Classes be established for the bonctitof High and Public School teachers, during the ensuing summer vacation, tho course to consist of twelve lessons on each of tho li)llovving subjects : — Freehand Dniwing, from Hat exanii)los. Practical Geometry. Linear Prosi^ectivo. Model Drawing. Blackboard Drawing from memory. g classes in connection Over 150 teachers have already enrolled theii- names As it is proposed to establish drawin with the Mechanics' Institutes throughout Ontario, teachei-s who hold these certificates will have an opportunity of augmenting their salaries, and uu the same time imparting technical instruc- tion which will aid in developing the manufacturing industries and wealth of our Province. Increased accommodation is now being provided at tho Education Department, and the school will in future be under the control of the Minister of Education. Several societies, partly educational, are also annually aided out of the Provincial Treasury, such as the Agricultural and Arts Association, the Ontario Society of Artists, the Canadian Insti- tute, and the Entomological Society. ir V. Schools, Colleges and Universities, not of a Provincial Character. Causes of a social and denominational character have given origin to several Schools, Colleges and Universities which, main- tained by their special supporters, are taking part ir the work of education in the Province. Of these, few are to be found in I I i->-iiriin ■ EDUCATION IN ONTARIO. 327 the ninil districts, und tlio niimboi- in all does not much exceed 200. But schrique " (pii uutorisait lo cure ot les niai'/^aiilliors -X affocter un quart dos rovonus do lour coi-poration ])arois.sialo au soul ion d'ecolcs plact'os hous lour direction oxcIuhIvo. TJno loi intituldo " Acto pour roncourageniont do I'education ^Idmentairo," \oi6 par la LdgiHlature on 1829, iHablinsait, ontre autroH ('hoses, Ioh nyndicats Hcolairoe ot crdait un fonds pour la construction do.s ecolos. (^uoiquo trc^s inconiplc'lo oncore, cotte loi parait avoir etd lo promior ossai sorioux do legislation fait pour I'or/j-anisation d'un systemo scolairo regulior. Copondant, on 183(J, lo uonibro dos ecoles pi-itnairos en activite n'etait encore ([uo do 1,;>21, e( colui dos elevos des doux sexes qui los frt'ijuontaient do 30 000 environ. Neanmoins, M. Garnoau, dans son histoiro du Canada, porto il 57,000 lo iiomhre total dos (?16vos dos maisons d'education do tout genre, ii- cetto epofiuo, ajou- tant aux dldvos des ecoles primairos coux dos ecolos iiide|)on- dantos, des colleges ot des couvonts. Dans cot entre-tomps, ])lu8iours colleges, devonus dopuis do grandes maisons d'education superieure, furont eriges grace aux efforts ot au ztilo des mombres du clorge et d'un certain nombi'O de laiques ([ui s'etaient devours au succC^s de cotte noble cause. Parmi coux-ci, ot en premiere ligne, so trouvait M. Joseph F. Perrault,* protonotaire de Quebec, ancien dispute a rAssemblee Ldgislative, qui consacra ses loisirs et uno partio de sa foi'tuno a cetto (T>uvro eniinenimont patriotiquo. Co philanthrope, qui mourut en 1844, a riigo de quatre-vingt-on/eans, est I'auteur d'un grand nombro d'ouvrages sur I'histoiro du Canada, I'education et I'agriculture. Pendant la session de 1835-36, on s'occupa quelque peu de regu- larisor le syst^me d'dducation tr6s defectueux qui oxistait alors. Lo Parlomont vota memo, pour etro appliqueo -X cos fins, une allocation do .opt mille six cent vingt livros sterling. II decreta aussi retablissoment d'ecolos normalcs ik, Montreal ot X Quebec; raais cetto derniere loi n'out pas d'olfets immediats. Apres I'union du Ilaut et du Bas-Canada, quolques reform os faites dans I'administration do I'instruction publique euront I'etfet • Lii vie de M. J. F. Perrault a <;t<'j'iibli<'e derni^rement par son petit-fils, M. le Dr Pt Bender. 336 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. de donnor un nouvel essoi- Ji I'ddiication dans la province frangaise ; ainsi, tandin que le nombre des <5cole8 primairos 6tait, en 1847, de 1,613, ayant 63,281 dli^ves, un rapport fixe k 1,817 le nombre des dcolos, et i 68,994 celui des dl^ves, en 1849. Les anndes suivantes, grSceauxlois que firont passer les gouvernements Lafontaine- Baldwin, en 1850, ot Ilincks-Morin, en 1852, I'augmentation qui se manifestait devint encore plus sensible, car en 1854, le nombi-e des institutions scolairos dtait ddjil de 2,795, ot celui des dltives do 119,737. M le docteur Meilleur, nomme en 1842 surintondant de I'ln- struction publiquo, doit 8tre considdrd comme le crdateur du syst^me d'dducation actuel. Dans I'accomplissement do sa tSoho, il cut longtomps jY combattro lo raauvais vouloir de la majoiitd de la population d'alors dont son dnergique persdvdrance finit par triomphor. L'honorable M. Cbauvoau, qui lui succMa, et fut de 1855 k 1873 ii la t6to du ddpartemont de I'lnstruction publique, travailla ar- domraent il paracbevor I'oeuvro de son prdddcosseur. Cost soui son administration qu'en 1857 trois dcoles normales fnrent crddes : deux catholiquos et une protestanto ; qu'un journal de rinstruction publique, publid dans les langues frangaise et anglaise fut fondd et qu'une bibliotbiiquo qui contint quinze -X seize^millo volumes, avant qu'uno grande partie fut transfdrdo au Parlement, fut installde dans les bureaux du minist^re de I'lns- truotion publique. Bo son c6td, l'honorable M. Ouimot, tant comme ministre de I'Tnstruccion publique que comme surintondant, charge qu'il oc- cupo depuis fdvrior 1876, a su, par une administration intelli- gente et vigoureuse aiformir notre systfime scolaire auquel il a fait subir plusieurs rdformes utiles. I i f^n^ s t-a- IT. SYSTilME T)'En8EIONEMENT. Bans un discours qu'il pronongait le 25 juin 1880, dovant le CongrtVs catholique rduni it I'occasion de la fSte nationale des canadiens frangais, l'honorable M. Oui'met tragait h, grands traits lei lignes prineipales du systi^mo d'instruction publique on opdi-a- tiou dans la province do Qudbec. " Ifotre enseiguement so diviso en trois classes : disait-il : DE CRAZES SUR L'KDUCATION DANS QUEBEC. 337 1° L'onscignomoiit Hupdriour. 2° L'eiiKoignomeiit woconduire. 3° L'ensoignemont dldmontaire. " Nous ])()ss(5(lons ti'ois univorsik's qui ont le ]»ouvolr, par des chartros royalos, de coiifcror des do^Tds pour los Sciences ot Ics LettroB, " VieiinoMl en«uite uii anwoz grand nombre de colleges dont los oours chissiquos sont auHsi complets ([ii'en aucun pays du monde. " Toutos cos institutions, ti, 1 exception do I'Universitd Laval ot des sdrninairos do (iiiiJboc ot do Montreal, rogoivont uno subven- tion do I'P^tat, Kur los Homnies accordeos comme aide ik. I'instruc- tion pnbli(|ue. " Co qui doit present"!' le plus d'intt'rC't, c'ost le dovoloppomont de notro instruction eleniontairo, c'ost-a-dire, la soulo, lo ])lus souvont, a la portue des classes peu aisdes de nos campagnos, qui, dans tous los rangs do la socicStd, sort de base it une instruc- tion plus comi)lt'to ot dont d«5pond souvent I'avonir des onfants ([ui la roc^oivont. " Jo dirai on peu de mots sur quoi I'opose notro sysl^mo scolaire primaire, qui a 6t6 considdrd commo un des plus pai'faits qui existent, par les homines speciaux charges, ])ondant la derniiiro grande exposition do Paris, d'oxaminor les rdsultats obtonus ])ar loH syst^mes d'tlducation en vigueur chez les differonts ])eu])les, et qui a valu it la province de Qiidboc quatre diplomes, quatre ra<5- dailles do bronze et quatre distinctions bonorifiques de premier ordre. " Pour ra|)plication de co system© d'dducation, la province est divis^e en municipalites scolairos regies par cinq coramissaii-es d'dcoles. Mais, (juand dans une localitd il existo un certain nombre de families qui no ])artagont pas les croyancos roligiousos do la majorit9 Total 1 18 34 0(3 L^universite Victoria de Montreal ou on enseig'iie exclusivenient la mddocine et la chirurgie est affilide a I'Uuiversitd Victoria de Cobourg (Ontario). Les cours s'y donnent en franyais, elle comp- tait 15 professeurs et 137 ^tudiants pendant I'annee scolaire 1882-83 a la tin de laquelle elle a d^livrd 4 diplomes de maitre en chirurgie, et 43 diplomes de docteur en mddecine. 2. Instruction secondaire. — ^La deuxieme division comprend : 1° les colleges classiques et industriels, 2° les academies. Les colleges classiques sont au nombre de 23 : 17 catholiques et 6 protestants. Les premiers sont ceux de I'Assomption, Bourget (Rigaud), Chicoutimi, Joliette, L^vis, Montreal, Nicolet, Quebec, Sainte- Anne Lapocati6re, Saint-Germain de Eimouski, Saint-Hyacinthe, Saint-Laurent, Sainte-Marie (J^suites a Montr(5al), Sainte-Mai'ie de Monnoir, Sainte-Th^rese, Sherbrooke et Trois-Eivi^res ; Et les seconds, qui sont tous affilids k rUniversitd McGill, sont : les colleges Presbyt^rien, Wesleyan, Anglican et CongrL'8 1,110 IjQH acaddmioM mixtes ot Ich nciuldmicH do gui-goiis comptent colloclivemont 185 profosseurs, Btivoir : t7 iiistituteurB eccl«5aiHs- tique.s et roligioux et 53 lauiue.s, ot 55 inHtitutrices la'iq^ues et roli- giouHes. Les academics do filles eont dirigdos par 130 roligieuscs, ot 26 in.stituti'iceH laiquoH. Un assez grand nombre d'acaddmies de gargons sont aussi «ous lo contr^le de roligioux, parmi lesquols vieniient on promior ordi'o los fr^ron do la Doctrine Chrdtionnc. Dans los proniiures, pas moins de 11 comptent do 500 a 1100 dl^ves, ot parmi los secondes, 6 sent frdc^uoutds par plus de 300 616ve8. Parmi cos institutions (dont la listo sorait trop longuo -X ehu- mdrer) nous dovons citer, commo venaut au promioi- rangdcs aca- demies catholiquos, r<5colo commorcialodu Plalouu, a Montreal, -X laquello sont attachdes uno ecolo polytechniquo, et uno dcolo des sciences appliqudes aux arts. Co magnifique dtablissement qui n'a pas codtd moins de $8-4,271) est sous I'iiabilo direction do M. U. E. Archambault, qui a ropresontd avec tant d'intelligonco lo ddpartoment de I'lnstruction Publiquo de la province do (iudboc a la derni^ro exposition universolle de Paris et do 12 ))rolessours. EUe dtait frdquentde, on 1883-84, par 412 dl6ves. Cotto maison et plusiours autros baties depuis quelquos anndos par les commis- saires d'dcoles de Montreal, scmt d'eldgantos ot riches construc- tions qui ddnotent autant de bon goiit quo de z^le de la part do coux qui dirigent I'lnstruction publiquo dans cette grando citd. Puis, parmi los high schools protostantos qui sont pour la plu- part dirigds par des professeurs distingues, et ou on regoit I'ddu- cation la plus soignde, on remarque plus particuli^rement -k Montreal — cello des gargons, 17 professeurs ot 388 dl^vos; ot cello des lilies, 15 professeurs et 236 dldves. A (^u6bec — celle des gargons, 5 professeurs et 100 dli^vesj et cello des lilies, 7 professeurs et 110 dleves. 3. Instruction primaibe. — Los dcoles primairos so divisent en deux sections : los dcoles primairos supdrieures ou dcoles motloloa et les dcoles dldmentaires. La premiere section comprend les ^coles modules mixtes de gargons et de filles, ot les dcoles modules dissidentes et inddpendantes, appartenant ^ I'une ou I'autre des trois catdgories ; et la seconde les dcoles dldmentaires, sous con- trole des comraissaires, les dissidentes et les inddpendautes. 344 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. fj(;s6col('H modcles Honl an nombi-o do U.'JS (2I)I> catlioliciiios ol 40 protostunLos) ot boiit cUrlgeos pur 1,1(54 instiditcui's on inHtilu- tricos, f^jivoir: 271 profcHBOUi-s on iiiHtituteurH, doiit 114 .sont occldsijiHtiquos ou appartenant iYtliiferontsonlrcs roligioux, ot 157 sont lai(iuos, et par 893 institutrices, dont 592 roligiouses ct 301 laiques. Quant aux dl6vos, an nombro do 26,378 (23,844 catholiqnes ot 2,534 proto.stants) qui frdquontont cos dirtorontes dcolo8, ils so repartissoiit oommo suit, dans chacune d'ellos: Ml m m ("tf liCOLES MODELES Nombre d'dooles 89 8(i 138 argons 7,438 Filles 3,280 Total Sous contr61e dos conimis- lvn[p^"^ " saires catholiques lMivtP«^"' 7,438 3,280 11,076 Sous controls des ooniuiis- 1 u:^lgi*'^ saires protestants f TviivtfV 2 21 2 1 2 i 163 163 1,158 272 41 93 Sous contr61e des syndics ) ■pn[£?"^ ' catholiques MixteV:: 272 41" Sous contr61e des syndics 1 ^^[|°"^ " protestants { Mi-wfa« 10 4 16 5 1 O 3 ()75 472 932 240 •^ J iviixres. • Ecoles ind^pendantee oa-l^Jg^"^' tholiques j Mixtes '. ' 472 ""932' Ecoles independantes pro- 1 py|ie^"''^ \ testantes I A.Tj^f« J 173 273 173 273 92 J Mixtes. • • Totaux 333 8,355 4,689 26,378 Cclles de ces Ecoles qui sont sous le contr61e des commissaires ou dos syndics d'ecoles regoivent une allocation sur le fends de I'Education superieure, si elleg sont en r^gle avec les prescrip- tions des lois scolaires qui les concernent. SiKnifie ^cole oumpos^e de garQous et de iilles. DE CAZES SUK J/EDUCATloN DANS QUEBEC. 3-^5 Les ecoli'S ilementaires Hont au nombre de 4,404, iVdquontdeti pjir 170,858 eltiivos divises comiiio Ic fait voir lo tableau suivant : < IS a o a o c o N4, i. 5-1 ec 00 1^ ui 1—1 as I— ( X JO 3 s s §J5 Ci" 2 Ah CO (3 5>r eo 05 05 eo eo CO 00 1* §^' o eo +3 CO eo^ S CO (M CI cc CO eo CO U5 CO Oi lO ?, 00 ^ s -4-» a I a a a I m . cc . i; s . ^ : to • B ■ 3 • c • y S3 • -*-» • o . J3 • CD ■ -S : SI o8 So 8 CO S 00 £3 '— u ^ *" w w V4J a O) 'o !3 CJ 05 o « 03 s -♦-» It o a< OQ W -d O 03 O 4. Les ^coles Sp^ciales comprennent : deux dcoles des sciences appliqu^es aux artn, I'une dependant de I'etablissement du Plateau, est connue sous lenom d'Ecole poiytechnique, I'autre attach^e ^ I'universit^ McGiil. Elles ont k elles deux 17 profes- seui's et 179 ^l^ves ; ■r Uii CANADIAN KCONUMICS. Douz-o dcoloH (IcH ju'Ih e( inanufiu'tiires, houh Io coiiliolo tant collotlivciiu'iil 2(1 profos- soui'M ct TM dl<^vos ; Un institut dea avcu^^lo.s, tbiidd, ii, Montreal, par lo rcvdi-end M. IloiisHolol, cL placo sous la HUi'veillanco dcH souirs do Charity, avcc 7 pi'otbssoiu'H et 41 (516vos (11 garyonH et 30 HIIoh) ; Deux inatltu^s do sourds-muots, dtablis -X Montieal : I'un pom* les j^^ai'yons ol I'autro pour los lilies; le proniier divigd par Ioh fWroHde Saint-Viiileiir, (23 professeurs et 152 (jIovos), etle second par loH 8 accorde un certain nombre de bourses et do demi bourses tous les ans. Les jeunes gens qui se font adraettre dans cos institu- tions s'engagent X enseigner au moins pendant trois ans apr6s leur sortie de I'dcole, sous peine d'une amende de $40.00 ot du rem- boursomentdu surplus du prix de la pension dont ils auront ainsi profits, en cas d'inexdcution de leur engagement. Les brevets qu'olles donnent aux dl^ves sortants sont divisds en trois catdgo- I'ies : Acad4mie, dcole modele et ecole Uimentaire. L'icole normale Laval comprond deux pensionnats, I'un pour los garyons, I'autro pour los filles. Le premier est sous la direction immddiate du principal de cette institution, et le second est contid aux soins des religiouses Ursulines. A chacun de ces pensionnats est attachde une dcole module annexe. Pendant I'annde scolaire 1882-83, I'dcole normale des gargons avait 10 professeurs, dont 8 laiquos et 2 eccldsiastiques, et 46 dl^vos, dont 9 oxternes, sur lesquels 36 ont obtenu des brevets do capacitd, (8 d'acaddmie, 15 d'dcole modele et 15 d'dcole dldmen- taire). L'dcole normale des filles qui comptait 62 dldves, toutes interaes, dont 49 ont eu des diplomes, (26 d'dcole module et 23 1)E CAZES 8UR L'EDUCATION DANS (iUKBEC. 347 d'(5c()le dl(5incntairt)), dtait dirigeo par 1<» pioftissouiH hut loHqiu^Is il y avail 12 ri^ligioiisos, dont (lUolquoH-uiios faisaiont ladasso aiix 320 cl6vos (115 garyonH ct 205 tillos), do rocolo inodck! aiiiioxo. L'dcole normalc Jacques Cariier a los Tnoaios ivglomctits quo I'd- cole normale Laval, do Quebec. Kn 1882-83 olio comptait I> pro- foHHOurs dont 2 occldsiastiqueH, et (52 dl6vo.s. Soi/.o H M 1— 1 o o Vi (/J ■A rfj 01 J5 > 53 > 93 s a rii ^D lU ,v ' 87 227 77 22'J 90 40'J 449 253 456 709 572 865 .100 45 \m 960 1543 229 509 461 917 790 434 1482 478 186 1407 1586 1233 2424 c 'A Acadeiiiie Ecole-Modele Ecole-Elenientaire. Totaux 304 1437 : 1916 3657 Cos institutionH ont servi jusqu'ici do pdpiniores i la partie laiquo du corps onseignant. Los iiersonnos recommandables qui aont in, la tote do cob dtablissements, aont uno sdcuritd pour coux qui pourraient craindre lee eifetB de I'dducation laique, telle 348 CANADIAN KCONOMICS. quelle est ontcndut' dium cortains [mys. Ausni, les iriHtilutours ot loH institut rices qui on Hortont, (lonnetit-ilH dos i^jiriinticH luiHsi completes ([ue ))()HHil)le lunt pour la Hcienee pddagogiquo <(ue pour les ]>rincipoH de saine morale qu'on lour a inculquds. Le tikbloau ci-apriis donne lo nombro et la quality deH diplomes qui ont 6t6 accordcs aux dl^ives dos troiH ecoles norma les depuia leur fondation. Instituteurs. — Les pei'Honnes den deux nexes qui, dans la pro- vince de (^udbec, se vouaiont a I'enseignement pendant I'ann^e 1882-83 dtaient au nombro de 6,644, savoir : 1,050 instituteurs dent 553 appartonaienL itdesordres roligieux, et parmi les laiques 432 avaient des diplomesdediffdrentsdogrds, et 66 n'en avaient pas ; Et 5,594 institutrices, savoir : 1,146 religieuses, 3,945 laiques diplomdes et 503 laiques non diplorades. La repartition s'en falsait comme suit, dans les villes et les campagnes : ViLUJS. Camfaonks. Instituteurs. Institutrices. Instituteurs. Institutrices. Rcligieux. 317 Laiques. 178 Roligicux. 516 Laiques. 305 RelifCioux 336 Liufiues. 319 Rclifrioux. Laiques. iiSO ; 4,083 1 Lc corps enseignant est peu rdmiindrd dans la province de Qudbec ; aussi trouvons-nous que sur les 319 instituteurs laiquess do la ciimpagne, 9() ont un salaire de moins do $200.00 pui' an ot 55 seulement ont plus de $400.00, de meme que sur les 4,083 in- stitutrices laiques do la campagne 1,793 n'ont pas $100.00 et 129 seulement recoivent plus de $200.00. Quoique dans les villes les traitements des instituteurs et des institutrices soient ndcessairement un peu plus dleviSs, il n'est pas suffisant, en regie gdndrale, pour reconnaitre les services que ren- dei.t ^ la socidtd les personnes qui se ddvouent 'X I'dducation de la jeunesse. Etat Gr^NfiiiAL. — Lo tableau suivant donne pour I'annde sco- laire 1882-83, le chiifre exact des maisons d'dducation et dcoles. PE CAZES 8UR L'KDUCATION DANS QUEBEC. 349 et des dl^ves qui lem fr^quentent, pour chacune cles divisions qui coriHtituent le syst^me Hcolaire do la province do Qudbec : INSTITUTIONS. University's CoUcKos classiques . . Collof?es industriels . Ecolc'H nnrmalos Et'.oles spt^ciales Aca(l<''mie8 Ecolos modClos Ecolos eU'inontiiires. Nombro des inHtitutions. II 18 24(; 4,;58(i Nombre den 1,245 4,28r) 2,382 30(1 1,302 38,278 2(i,378 170.858 Totaux . 5,02J .M5.0:!4 Lo montant pay^ tant par le ji;oavornoraent quo par los contri- buables pour les fins do I'dducation, pendant I'annde Hcolairo 1882-83, a etu do $3,162,410, dont $352,677 out etd fournioH par lo gouvcrnoment. La population do la ]n"ovinco do Quebec etant, d'a])i'6.s le dernier recensomont, do 1,359,027 araos, il y aurait ainsi, on moyenno un dleve par environ cinq habitants et J^mi. IV. :fiTAT COMPARATIP. Nous pensons no pouvoir mieux r^sumer I'exposcj que nous venous do faire do I'etat de I'lnstruction publique dans la pro- vince de Quebec, qu'en donnant les chiffres suivants : Provinces. Qut'^bec Ontario Noiivean-Brunswick. . Nduvelle-Ecosse He du Prince-Edouard j\Ianitoba . . . . Colombie Anglaiso. .. Totaux . . Population. 1,359,027 1,023,228 440,572 108,891 05,954 49,459 4,268,364 Nombro d'dltives. 245,034 484,985 00,775 98,307 21,495 6,796 2,693 926,085 Nombre d'inatitutions. 5,024 5,313 1,447 1,910 473 164 48 14,379 350 CANADIAN ECONOMICS. Ce tableau, dans lequel nous avons mis le chiffre de la poi)ula- tion du recensement de 1881, en regard du nombre des institu- tions scolaires et des dkWes des diff<5rentes provinces, donne, comme on le voit, une moyenne gdn^rale assez satisfaisante. THE END. PRINTED nV THE (iAZKTTK I'RINTINQ COMPANY, MONTRKAU ^■*^WIS| la- tu- le.