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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent le mAthode. errata I to t I pelure, on A D 32X 1 i 3 f 1 t ♦ : V' : 9 DICTIONARY, (• i;0(i KAFII ICAL, STATISTICAL, And IIISTOKICAL. VOL. r. '"WR gt^^^iwwiim^piii— wwii niHi >M.m»i mmlfgim ¥ \ UihAhi OF iH£ UNiVtRSH/ * or AlBiHTA , 1^; ?/ I ^ '■*""«'0 R r 9 S I A N ^ »»S^^ iit««4iue POSSES S 1 ONS ' ^ >C. jfaidltMba ,H li A Y ■\Jtankt Land, ■ ., , | £ ^ - I North A* I > I Sonifrsrt/i^/ 1 iJ/Mt /) i V^vWImiw IKamtichatka 1 OoiuiliuUai/ *». w ~ Tiontaaui ,„*„,^,,„/ »' . B„-nu, I ""'''" ' > ',l>.^ll,rm.rl l-'mhyu f ,,„„;„„/ •V..W..... //(in<;r»/ .ll.'l" *iti}limr'l' t'liiiltl ■ llt>tutfMi>iii i ■ Hj)„»rj I' 20 • *»>„'* .J../>.it.i;. '•<,/. I' ■V. ..A' .\hH-til-''t*0 1' ^ ( 1 K r • •'Nirt'ii/iitii '< 'hilahiinih nil. I' Knt iritMfn % : llinttiahul t ^' ( lipf^tHtui J •Pumca I I'lttltyfo I jj^ju a^ .fffinn/iWr M !• .iliiith, '■'""'"' „. ,;.'.■ •f fttiqiiii/i' r Jl(i>/i>' "x:^-^" ^^•:::, >' .linllinln. r.prVniiclii . .i.Antamlitl Brat'tt .V'/'.iiifc Jjp> .lotllllih %^^ 'f t'nilii lf ,v»'' /•,//, I 'ti'layAtlt I N. , / '/..l.,., II ■rr» I • •■! I.,,<,.f,.r ||4>MI. ,J>l/lU III / .r.'^ii/rMliii TA ./iin/»i/r///irtM- V,./,.ir.^/"'A T . "'V" Jf„ti/ 40 Land) Edam J 1i 1 rt SVaMtbn, % J\ /sn'ftfuuuin / . O 20 4K OlM* S P J fr.rtuiH* {T**^ OEM Dom So""" Soutb-'t E >riihy Sound, 'Xu«uf(in«# E A ! R N or«^' «r <»■ I'.JeUuuii. vdl* As^s / JToUtraB. J,^"*^'"] ■y^' M- >cr <« y I. ^ J«r jj Whitf Mnatt [rrhnnpfi <*l)«<.l .n-'" S«i»' tmJtmekB. I.V. ,/o/ui ;<*'' Tf. •►nreU ((Itllt » *«»TY Fill X.^*" ■>^l- •' fStartk AW N fobolak s ri 3«*<*" W. AS •fomi ^ (J lBuc jt!W!^^ 31 1 siMouuim fm 'fUtti^Z IAN Manffa l4Lacca4ivc> S'NuU I ,|i Miinui'i,i/n .ti'fW.M"" iixuhii ; lil/lUili 'S .liinfiitrllhxv <) r 1 .9fffrf«mt A X T I MonwttYf V ^ i-yvV'"''"''"" (■ r .flt.'V ^J((MM*^l Ml ,/,..,;, /I '""/.li^/l y^ ■ t- K r I) N )r .n t'Artmwn /. O '^ itl.ivTIMni CotUt BumfM /i««;.i' TiFn .V. ^ 1'<'"''' ^ Jan Mnyi ^LtiHitiineM trrul'uttii J n ifc - j^j w' ' ^ ■T xa» - P'"' A- •aribbr.n Sr« ,J'"""""'ai,,.,i„,.J. o ■Ml • *^*^ Jif>(/fif*f>r SUlfin.,1 20 •iO 41% frilaiJw 1 IHamket H yfosten Bay •wHevnA V Sound '^'^'V«fl«v " VI ii /I ( J J Thrmmi Honl ■V5a r»i.Mi...iii,i If '■*« E R iOvfrntniiu A Mottii'ii B ^ iKartltoc liJfwlifiJt ,V.if^>riAii .fUrln,, rt* 'T "".^NjJ(r»tt J ttminui, M i* air iJ''"'"^*"Vi4v^ ' i Hvtlemiutil |IM.o«)staT ^"''"" (.Lull < II I N T*-i f/.,r - *■ ■< 'CAIUUVK Tlu' Maliiiwa '■+■■.- — _« j(._ '.Vi«n''"" " 'litilrifti i ! O'Y vBoH urn ■'»"i.«.wi. '^IW. .V"'<"'UI / Krrllltil III (,;■,,, l" A \ N Jul"' "■•■"Ml- •I" 14 O I61O 18( E y".^ Buthm I H I I I >-V;,a.v>»' ■'/•l's!:?*' '>-»v«rfc4/ '"•Mr •I" •";;, -», *•<• ?""i'i>f iiti..j' ''>/,- V •»««l»tr/("'>'»'''' V V 'm«i:««V?jT"' 4/ \y^.i. ':.HJ:> .,L...,L„, ■„.,,., u.ll" V«'* V^.v ,D.of2\'< ■ 1 \ •• < rumt. j )'>' JB V ^^ , Iwithlbulut — — ' V lav not Lamd UltXilhflh I: ttvw i» Uuntmnt\ o Saitu iifayrA J Tr £tuier I. iiifuuttbol'ort^ CANTON RHTR. 10 XaiilitMUrt IJUnchq lUXCalhrrina >«*;"' -_.X ''ntanttf .('J)l(UU»j ftlUaiul/* ^If^Ta dpi ^.ii»A'»e IttandafPrttrl. jWofLmi* Mani<^AIr.niiultrl iri ■nirfli ruTT mnr 'am b-jj*' ^xb* m''*^ MO ■wjp Hnntrra /< — — •' • — v^~ r Urtir' I<»0 I'Oiiyiliiilr Wriil K <) IVoiii (irritiwirh 4 (> 1? 'm T>'. Jonft dfllhfot o r r 'Jjirtufitm SfBtlma A S T I> i.Frio\ ^- \ >. Waltrichh ^- -vvT^ """A-ti^. y^n"y>'' jfortloui*, llw |liii Ktr^iu KaHna or Comal' A > v\ tVotii firmiwH'h I O ■a'i0 -jii'W 3r-~'/><«7.ll'aiBl'' :,r"""»;mi ISLAINI) .«.v»)T()WN - ."KL jbI""" V . rr„„/,.iAi.i SIN(iAlM)Ki: ^. ^ ^ ^ S turfHf I' I •■ .< < .i « 7 » 1) . KHM mm: ^ " . itr T?w^ ^^"BT »':p^!^ mia 2 imii rmv fiBBi >iiig mm mu,,,; ggn oa.^ . jb«._J ' — ""^ - '^^^ ■'•''■ M> l,..iiyuu.lf l<,.,tt ojol.^"' ''"••^'*''^ "" li'ii,liiiilhl'hBoiirl|< I Ump hin : i hlrifliu 'bwHfi>'^ IHiftmifJnutAa i 'CfOu^I.orDi^oJlrara "^ f .ot'GrOTgia •l•^pf•iu^M*-« ..<' Oaraiirl. E I A Candlenuu I. • ' gaundtrt I' :, SaniJwi JIucfb / or fireuntiiMon ■ s Mariontl. iJauUt-. • Anutmli ,/■ I'roirtt / . limanl'. ' 'fomttnionl Kergudnu Laiid Bifl*' r.Ororgt ;.-!j!«t-rrscstr- AUaLifl. hUKdafAlrjnmJrl. \ _^== . : . -J _^^^i s s s r n A I T T?*^ .V .^U^ I M'thaulas ■_f CnulU BanmBlutl L Manpuuirllf 9KrU\t Raton 9 0;^^ ':|*Banl( s 1 S(i '.111 jl%wH. V. "^A SiMfniJy MOVTHS of liic KIVFRH01)GIILY i'l-Micrti^fyj Tmiu^HiAfbOwBunNiiiiulr fOdtntmfwur rminuda it.V) frfioroo ' Sauhf Milet JfAtClTT.* /•fi«i.(.ii,. /. . /^ ■ CHIlrrl, V .^ t0 r t an t I '• .■ }fnrwnih>tuf s I N (i A ""•*li'>' l.s L A N D 4 Mn TOWN - .-li,hilili. Kniutil ur Contiif (Ir FortluiiU, Mm M«| .'(."Pau«»Bourli' ! > t'Htaap hin i SJttuUl: . f • Jnutmtrim 1 I tcrguftnu Laiid Ih"'^ I'.lirorge |lmi:>'/'r?»jt»»w«{. N -"•«■ H'alfiolr'l. > 8 0CTU j S T^r Jf*"?™*' SoftMI. „ , , «^/ 20 I l/ift^ 1 v^ CXRWirin { r^i ./ <'.4fnn'ur,vul<>V'><'l*'' N lonlAnrUanii* (^rm^tr % lu/nphrllt I }IUWKM I ■ tinA^KN/w / MlUtfU • KnuniUi I C^j/.i#« ,v.ii „ w\.(;'.«i'.oi,...v j,„,)iii,., \ ^.«.ii.rt , ft* ' •<;>«pca(tered in the accounts of travellers, in >pographical works, and iu. ofBcitvl. returns and other public and rivate documents ; sift and distribute it under its proper heads ; and it before the reader in a condensed form, disencumbered from (prfluous or irrelevant matter. •% Systematical works, or those in which the various details with liipoct to the physical, moral, and political state of a country or nkti-ict are arranged in their natural order, in a consecutive nar- itive, are probably the best adapted for the use of the student and lientific reader. But Dictionaries are decidedly more convenient, id better fitted for public use. When arranged in alphabetical order ley are easy of consult! tioii ; and, if properly compiled, the articles them are not connected or mixed up with others, but are [eparately eoniplete, supplying the inquirer with independent, and, It file same time, precise and well authenticated information. Such rorks seem, from the extreme diversity and interest of the subjects reated of, peculiarly fitted to " excite curiosity by their variety, to Ineourage (liiigence by tlieir facility, and to reward application by lu'ir usefulness." We need not, therefore, wonder that they have [enerally, even when their execution has been very indifferent, en- joyed a large share of p<»pularity. vi PREl"ACE. But how interesting and important soever the matter, it is still true that the value of a Geographical Dictionary must depend principally on its authenticity and trustworthiness. And we believe it will be pretty generally admitted, that by far the greater number of those publications that have hitherto appeared in this country have not been of a kind to inspire confidence. Most of them, perhaps we might say all, have been very carelessly conipiled, and evince little discernment or sound criticism ; and what is worse, their authors have seldom referred to the sources whence their statements Jiave been derived ; so that the reader has nothing better to trust to than the authority of, perhaps, an anonymous compiler, at the same time that he is deprived of the means of readily verifying his facts, or of referring to the original authorities for further information. These works are mostly also either on too contracted or too extensive a plan ; so that while, in the one case, the reader is frequently not supplied with important information, in the other, the book is at once too bulky, costly, and inconvenient. Another defect by which most Geographical Dictionaries published in Great Britain have been characterised, is the disproportioned size of the parts, or the preponderance given to minor articles and uninteresting topics, while those having reference to great countries, or important places or subjects, have often been reduced in a more than corresponding degree. It is difficult, indeed, to hinder the descriptions of towns in geographical works from extending beyond their due proportion ; but still they may be confined within reasonable limits, and without displaying the glaring anomaly of an account of a capital city, for example, occupying a f^reatcr space than that of the country in which it is situated. The researches connected with his Commercial Dictionary, having led the author of this work to refer to a good many Geographical Dic- tionaries, he became strongly impressed with a sense of their defects ; and it occurred to him that he might perhaps be able to produce one that should be more generally accurate and useful. At first, we were inclined to think that we might probably be able to construct our work on the basis of the Kdinburgh Gazetteer, the jjroperty of Messrs. Longman and Co.: but on a closer examination of tlu; latter, we found its plan and execution so very defective, that we considered it expeilient to lay it wholly aside, and to endeavour to produce an entirely new work. The iniprov(>d state of geographical knowIeressed within the compass of two octavo volumes. And such, no doubt, would be the case were these volumes of tiie ordinary dimensions. But so far from tills being the case, tlie quantity of letter-press contained in them is fully eipinl to three and a half times the quantity contained in tlu! last ('(litioii of Pinhvrtini's Geography, in two large volumes ([uarto t The type, though leinarkably ehiir and distinct, might, pcriiaps, have \wx\\ justly objected to as too small, hud the Mork been of a eonsei'utive description; but, as it principally consists of rather short artieics the size of the type is of less conse(|uence ; and any ineonvenieiioc resulting from its smallness is more than counter- viiiletl by the advantage of having a great deal brought into a volume. Wiflioiit neglecting i\u' phi/siral geography of the diH'erent coun- tries and places, \vc liave direetetl our principal attention to what has l)een called their /W///fv// geography, — that is, their in, alreaily noticed, and the 'J'hiele. Us course is about 17(1 m. It liecimics navigable cm emerKliig from lake Thun. In the upper part nf Its course it dashes along with great fury, and Is precipitated over several wuterfalis. This also is tlie name of two small rivers In Waldeck. — (('(ijc's Swilxirliinil, Letters W, 30. *c.) AAKAll, or AUAII, a town of Switterland, cap.cant. Aargau. on the Aar, 1,140 feet alHive the level of the sea, i» m. H. K. Ilasle, lat. 47" ZV W N., long, (i" a* M>" K. Pop. 8,100. It is well liuilt, has a gymnasium, a schiMil of art, a trminarium or normal school for tliu instruc- tion of teachers. » public or enntonal library, a society of national instruetiiio. Ac, with mainirai tures ol silk •nd cuttun, a cannon fnundery, and bliacb-lleUti. The AARONSBURGH. peace, which terminated the civil war of 1712, wm con- cluded here. AARGAU, or ARGOVIA, one of the Swiss can- tons, separated by the Rhine from Baden, having the canton of Zurich on the E., that of Lucern on the S., and .Soleure and Basil on the W. Area 603 sq. m. Pop. (1836): I82,75», having increased from 144,093 in 1803. The mountains In this canton do not attain to any verjr great height, and It possesses a very considctable extent of fertile land. It is traversed by the Aar, whence it de- rives its name, and by its important tributaries the Reust and Limmat. The country ii well cultivated, and the produce of wheat and other grain exceeds the consump- tion : there are numerous vineyards, but the wine ii Inferior ; with abundance of garden and orchard fruit. The rearing of cattle and sheep is not found to be pro- ductive, but they are advantageously fattened in the meadows, which are both extensive andexcellent. Manu- factures have made great progress. The principal is that of cotton, next to it is silk, and then follow linen, straw- platting, &c. Cottons arc not woven by power-looms, but mostly in the cottages of the peasants, or small laliouring formers, as has been the case with linen in Ireland. Rut though this sort of double emplovment has hitherto afforded a considerable degree of security against the injurious influence of the vicissitudes incident to agri- culture and manufactures, the presumption is that the rapid progress of mechanical Improvements in other countries will force its abandonment, and that the Swlsi will have to employ machinery in the weaving as well as in the spinning of cotton, or be compelled to abandon the former department. This canton is especially dis- tinguished by the attention it has paid to education. Every district of I '20 children must have at least one primary and one superior school. In every c\rc\e.(Betirk), the population being from lA.OOO to 2(i.0(X), there are from n to G secondary schools. There is also in the capital a gymnasium, a school nf arts, and a normal school for the instruction of teachers. The expense of the schooli is defrayed partly by the communes and partly by the state funds. In the gymnasium and school of arts the state provides for the payment of 14 professors and their assistants. About :i-5ths of the population are Catholici and S-.'itlis Protestants. The public revenue amounts to about 4A,0()0/. a-year ; but as nearly the half is derived from state property, interest, Ac, It is immediately seen that taxation is very light. The oantnnal contingent to the diet is fixed at 2,410 men, and 62,212 Swiss tV. For a» account of the government, see art. Switeirlanu. Principal towns Aarau, I.aufenberg, lladen, ZolBngen, &c. — ( //uicrififr un /Ac Commerce uT Sviilxerland, P. 80.) A A II II (J IKS, a sea-port town of Denmark, cap. diocese and bailiwick of the same name, on the E. coast of Jut- land, lat. fifP W S,V' N., long. lOO 14' E. Pop. 6,765. It is pretty well built, has a large cathedral founded in liiOl, a iyceum, a museum of antiquities, and a valuable diocesan library. Its commerce and industry have increased con- sideraliiy of late years. The exports cimsist principalijr of agricultural produce ; with spirits and beer, the pro- duce (if Its distllieries and breweries ; and cloth and gloves. Considerable sums have recently betn expended on the Improvement oi its port, which has been rendered one of tin' iH'st in Jutlanil. Packets sail regularly l>e- tween It and t'allunillierg, on the we:it roast of Zealand. AAilON.siU lllill. a small town of tlie I'nitcdStuteft Centre Co., I'cnnsyltaiila, 3giypnici, 0. wnicii uniiiriunniuiy no oxpianatlun hn> bcnii Klvon. — (Malic lirun, Uiilb. cil. 1H37, p. MOti. ; •liH, I (luage en Sibetic, cap. (iS, fit, &c.) BANCAi, cap. pruv. o( laiuc uamu In Peru, 60 fi AASZY. AASZY, the Orontet of Greek geographera, which lee. AATYL. A town or villago or Syria, In the Hoouran or Great Plain, extending S. from Uamnirus and K. flrom the mountidni beyond Jordan, lat. 32° ly N., long. 36° 33' E. The Inhabitant! caniitt of Drusci (tee Li- banu$ and Syria), of the numbur probably of 200 or 300. Though now inslgn'.llcant, tliu remaini of ancient grandeur in iti vicinity provo that Aatyl wai once a place of importance. These roinaiiii occupy n circuit of « mile. Olid In many instance's are Inhabited by the present population. W. iif the town a perfect arch of very fine workmanship, with broken pillars and friezes, marks the site of a small but elegant temple. On the 8. another temple, almost entire, with a portico of four columns and an entranci!! beautifully and elaboratcljr carved, has been convc^rted Into a private residence. Aatyl is Mm. (direct distance) S. S. K. Damascus, and 4S m. K- I^ake of Tubaria, the (icncsarcth of thu lliblu. — ( Robituon's Travel* in J'akatine atut Sf/ria, vol. ii. pp. 155, I."))!.) ABAUKII, a town of Persia, prov. Pars. 116 m. N. SIdrai. Pop. 5,(MH), It is surrounded by walls In a ■tate of decay ; and is defended by a large square fort, now contalnini; the whole population. It has sull'ered severely from the treqiicnt contests for the Persian throne during the IHth century ; but It Is still environed by gardens, and sends fruit to Slilraz. ABAKAN, a river of Mberla.an affluent of the Jcnlsei, which it joins, 16 miles S. Almkansk. ABAK.\NSK, a town of Siberia, gov. Jonisselsk, on the Abakan near the Jcnissei. The climate is mild ; but It is notwithstanding a poor miserable place, and would be wholly unworthy uotlcu were it nut that on mount Isik, and other places in its environs, arc found fome of thu most remarkable of those singular remains of former civilisation that are met with in many places of Southern Siberia. They consist principally of tumuli or tombs, which frequently contain ear-rings, bracelets, and other ornaments and utensils of gold, silver, and copper, with iron stirrups, &c. Near Abakansk are statues of men from 7 to 9 feet high, and covered with hieroglyphics, 0.' which unfortunately no explanation has yet be ..... .. — Umeli AB miles N. W. Cutco. ABANO or ALBANO, a village of Austrian luly, prov. Padua, 10 m. S. W. Padua. Pup. a,U(K). This village derives its entire celel)rlty from Its hot springs and muds. It i) iltuated near the Kuganran hills. In a jilace marked with tome low eminences, whence issue copious springs of water capable at their source of boiling an egg quite hard The waters are partly employed to prepare and ■often mud, partly to supply the baths, and partly go to waste, or turn a mill which revolves amid volumes of ■moke. They are supposed to bo elUcncious in cases of palsv, rheumatism, and a variety of compl.iints. The mud is applied hot to the aifucteJ part, somewhat aft(T the manner of taking a stucco cast ; and the baths are re- garded principally as an auxiliary to the " dirty " appli- cation. The season is In the heat of sunnncr ; and, according to Mr. Iluse, the accummudatluns for company are very deficient. These baths were well known tp, and much used by. the Komans. They were called I'litavinar Ai/iuv, the principal source belnh distlngulsheil by the name of Aponut fon$, whence their mmbiru name hu* evidently b«e>i derived. Aponut Uinli ulil niniirnailt. /.unin, Til. I. 191. There is a very full arcnimt of these baths in Kimc'i Lellers on Northern Ilaty, I. pp. 5U— 70. ; see also t'ra> tner'i Ancient Italy, 1. ii. U;i. ABAZIA, a country in the region of Caucasus, In the Russian gov. of that name, wlilch see. ABB, a town of Arabia, In the Dsjebel.nr mountain land of Yemen, lat. la" 6s' N., long. 41'^ I.V K., 'J5 m. H. Sanaa, 73 m. N. K. Mocha, and 1114 in. N. \V. Aden. Number of houses said to bet about HIHJ, which at an average of C individuals to each gives a pop. of nearly 6,000. It is built on the summit of n mouiiLiln ; is sur- roimdcd by a strcnignnd well-built wall ; and overlooks a well-watered (for Arabia)and extremely fertile eountry. Houses (as usual In the mountiiii towns of Yemen) of ■tone ) streets well paved, whicli, in this country, is very uncommon. An aiiueduct conveys water from a moun- tain at a little distance on the N. to a large reservoir In front of the principal moique, — (.ViVAu/ir, bet. de CAr. par. 11. n.'illH.) AnBKVII.LR, a thriving, imiristrious town, in the N.W. of Prance, dep. Stniiine, cap. arrund on tlie iiavl- "able river of that name, W in N.W. Amiens, lat. 60J 4" N., hmg. I'J 6!l' r.H" H. P,ip. I3,s|i. U |, neat and well built i Is regularly forllllcd on llie pysti'm of Vauban j and hiu, exrliiHive of the old (Inthic rliureh nf Nt. Vulfraii, i^'veral public buildiiigi wurtliy uf notice ?J ABERDEEN. and a public library. A fine cloth manufactory wai ei- tablished here in 1669, by a Dutchman of the name of Van Koliais, under the auspices of Colbert ; and AbbevUla has since continued to be dUtinguished as one of the moit Industrious towns in France. Besides black cloths of the best quality, with serges, barracans, &e., there are pro- duced calicoes and stockings, sackings, packthread, cor- dage, jewellery. Sec. It has also establishments for the spinning of wool, print works and bleaching works, tan- neries, soap works, a glass work, a paper manufactory, &c. vhe tide rises in the Somme about 7 feet, and vessels of from 100 to l.OO tons come up to town. Being situated in the centre of a fruitful country, and commu- nicating by canals and roads with all the surrounding districts, Abbeville hasaconslderablccommerce. — (Huf[o, France Piltoresque, Dip. Somme. ) ABHIATLGRASSO, a town of Venetian Lombardy, Srov. Pavia, on the canal of Bereguardo, 14 m. W.S. W. liian. Pop. 4,G(I0. It is fortified ; and its position has made it be always regarded of considerable importance in a military point of view. AllB'S HKAU (ST.),a promontory on the E. coast of Scotland, being the most southerly point of the Frith of Forth, lat. &.•)" iM' 60" N., long. V^ 8' 20" W. \BELA, ABIL, or ABILA, a town of Syria, in the Ilaouran, on the Sheriat-el- Mandhour (anc. Hieromax), one of the largest alHuents of the Jordan, lat 34"^ 47' N., long. 36° K. It is now In a ruinous and dilapidated state, having probablynot more than from 100 to ISOiniiabitants; but formerly It was a place of considerable importance, being the capital of and giving its name to one nl' the six departments (Abilene) into which the Homans divided the country E. of Jordan. Some broken pillars and overthrown columns evince its ancient grandeur ; but none of its old buildings remainentirc, and it Is preserval from desertion only by its vicinity to the water, which renders it a desirable residence for the few Aral) families by whom it is still occupied (hubimon, Travels in faletline find Syria, ii. 122. 214.) ABBNOJ.V, a town of Spain, prov. La Mancha, 20 m. S.W. Ciudod Real. ABEK, a sea-port and village of Wales, Caernarvon, where tlicre Is a ferry to the Island of Anglesea, m. Coiiwav. Pop. dill. ABEItBU0T110CK,cr ARBROATH, a sea-port and manufacturing town of Scotland, co, Angus or Forfar, at the mouth of the Brothock water, lat. 56° 34' N.,lnng. 2°3.V W. Pop. of borough and parish in 1N3I, l3.7U.'i. Number nf ItiL houses in borough 184 1 Pari, constituency in 1837, 446. Arbroath unites with Brechin, Bervie, and Montrose, in returning a m. to H. of C. It has a parish church and two chapels of case, with ciiurches for Eiiis- copalians, Kcceders, Methodists, and Independents. The other public buildings are the town-house, the trades- hall, the public schools, and the slgn.-il tower, whicli com- municates with the Bell-Itock ligh'liouHO, distant about 12 miles. The harbour Is secure, though small, and of difheult entrance. The town, which is rapidly increasing, owes all its prosperity to the flax manufacture; nearly half the population being employed in the spinning, dressing, weaving, and bleacliliig of coarse linen goods. Some of the mills are driven by the little rivulet that in- tersects the town ; but steam mills are numerous, both In the town and tiie vicinity. Here are the ruins of an ablM-y, founded in honour of Thomas ik Becket, in 1178, by William the Lion, king of Scotland, who, on his death in 1214 was interred within Its precincts. It was de- stroyed in I. WO. Alll'.RCONWAY, or CONWAY. See Conway, AIU'.UDKKN, u maritime CO, Scotland, bounded N. and E. by tin; (ierman Ocean, S. by tlic cos. of Perth, Forfar, and Kincardine, and W. by Banff, Elgin, ami Inverness, Extreme length 8(i m, from N. to S., and 42 from E. to \V. Area 1,260,8110 acres. In the soiith- weHtern division, called the district of Mar, aie some of the highest mountains of .Scotland. Bi'n Miicdhu rises to the height of 4,327 feet above the level of the sea, being only 4;i feet lower than Ben Nevis ; and several of the other mountains are but little inferior in altitude. About a filth part of the surface consists of high mountainous tracts ; and tliese, with bills, extensive moors, mosses, and waste lands, occupy nearly two thirds uf tlie entire country. The i\rable land lies principally iu tlie eastern parts. Principal rivers Dee and l)on ; and hesidea thes') are tl'o Deveron. Bogie, Ythan, Urie, V'gle, *e. Limestone aboiin-'< in various places -, *<. , constituency , Bervie, anil has a parish hes for Kpis- ;ndcnts. The ttic trades- whicli coin- ..istant about jiiall, and of ily increasing, Bture; nearly he spinning, linen goods. ;ulet that in- meroiis, botli ruins of an ick'.'t, in 1178, un Ills death It was de- CoNWAY. , bounded N. -•OB. of Perth, if, Kl(iin, and , to S., and 42 n the south- ', aio some of .iicdbu rises to the sea, being leveral of the itude. About mountainous oors, mosses, . of the entire iu the eastern and besides rle, Ugle, &c. •e are quarries Dund of good pped at Aber- used in paving contain num- md some real owing to the ^ summers aro rosecuted with have been ^up- IHO.IKK) acres barley Is also raised ; and some, though only a little, wheat. The culture of turnips and potatoes is extensively carried on. Several thousand acres of land in the vicinity of Aberdeen have been trenched. The practice is not, however, con- fined to that district, and large additions are being con- stantly made to the arable land. Farm houses and offices are now, with few exceptions, comfortable and commo- dious. A greater number of cattle are bred in this than in any other Scotch county: the native breed is pre- ferred. They have increased much in size during the last thirty years ; and are said, indeed, to have Mubled in weight since the Introduction of turnips I They are commonly black, but there are many red or brindled. Sheep comparatively few, and of a mixed breed. There are some large estates , but property is, notwithstanding, a good deal subdivided. Rreat diversity in the size of farms. It is usual for mechanics to occupy an acre or two. The woods, which are very extensive, luTord shelter to the red deer. Average rent of land 4s. an acre. The woollen, cotton, and linen manufactures are carried on to a considerable extent, principally at Aberdeen. There are considerable fisheries on the coast and in the rivers, particularly in the Dee. Principal towns Aberdeen, Peterhead, and Fraserburgh. Parishes HH. Pop. In 1831, Wfiyj; inhab. houses in do. 29,502. Deturns one member to the H. of Commons. Pari, constituency in 1837, 3,0,CC5/. Scotch. Annual value of real property in 1815, 325,218/. sterling. ABERDEEN, the capital of the above co., an ancient, distinguished, and flourishing royal borough, situated mostly on rising ground on tlie N. bank of the Dec, near its mouth; lat. (of Marischal College Observatory) 57° 8' 58" N., long. 2° 5'41" W. Top. in 1821, 44,796; in 1831, 58,019. It acquired trade and importance at a very early period, and made a conspicuoui: appearance in many of the stormy scenes of Scottish history. '1 he earliest preserved charter is one granted by king William the Lion, about 1179; and the journals of the magistrates and town council have been preserved very nearly entire since 1 .198. King Uobert Uruce bestowed much property upon it : in the civil wars, during the reign of Charles I., it made a conspicuous figure, and suffered greatly. It remained in a nearly stationary state for about two ceirturies previously to 1750, when it began to increase. It has since been signally improved, especially during the present century, by the extension of its manufactures and trade, and the formation of many new streets, which have superseded many of its old narrow and winding tlioroughfares. From the S. Aberdeen is approached by two bridges across the Dee ; one of 7 arches of stone, first erected 1520-6, and rebuilt 1719-23; the other a suspension bridge of iron, opened in 1830. The roads from these bridges coiuluct to Union Street, which with L'nioii Place, and Castle Street, in the same straight line, fonnagrand entrance of about a mile in length, the houses all of white granite, finely dressed ; in one part this street crosses a deep and partly wooded ravine by a bridge of granite of one arch of 130 feet span, opened in 1804. Among the public buildings may be men- tioned the assembly rooms, the town-house, court-house and new jail; theK. and W. churches of St. Nicholas; the N. church and others of late erection ; St. Andrew's cnurch of the Scottish }M)iscopalians ; the barracks, placedon the castle hill, which in former times was the site of a fort ; Gordon's hospital, the bridewell, theatre, in- firmary, medical hall, and the new edifice of Marischal college. Uesidesthc latter seminary, there are many public and private acn The voliic of^the exports coast- wise and to forefgn jiarts may be estimated at from a million and a half to two millions sterling ; it is increasing steadily and rapidly. On the Ist of January, 1836, there belonged to the port 359 vessels, of'^thc burden of 41,743 tons, navigated by 3,095 men. There is a constant communication by steam ships with London, Iw- ever the harbour is a tide one, only entered whi i tlicre is suflicient water on the bar, which has 111 feet at nen)), and 16 or 17 at spring tides. The bay afl'urds safe anchorage with oft-shorc winds, but not with those from the E. A light-house has been erected on Girdle Ness, the S, point of the bay. In the interior of the harbour the qiioys have been greatly extended, the channel of the Dee confined by a massive embankment, and th< re is in progress the conversion of part of till lie n/. 5s. lOtl. Irom 1810 to 1838 in- clusive, tlierc have been expended on the harbour 456,016/. ms. \0(l., of which sum the interest of money borrowed ainounted to 156,466/. 16s. 6(1. From the sreatexpcnditureon new streets, and the harbour, the afftiirs of the burgh became involved in 1817, and a disfranchisement ensued, but no permanent loss was sustained, and for many years it has been in good credit. In 1838 the revenue was 17,507/. lOs. C(/. ; tlie expenditure 16,661/. 5». 8(/., of which about 7,500/. was for the interest of borrowed money. In -1 832, the number of houses was 2,588, of whicli 1,289 were of the value of JO/, and upw.irdsj since that year, Aberdeen returns onem. to the II. ofC. be- ing no longerassociated with Arbroath, Hrechin, Bervie, and Montrose. I n 1 837 the constituency was 2,539, haviug increased from 2,166 in la.'J't. ABERDEENrOLD), an ancient city, situ- atedabout a mile N. of Aberdeen, with which it is nearly connected by a village called Spjtnl. In former times it was the seat of a bishoprick, the sec of Mortlach having been removed to it in 1154. In 1498 it received a charter from James IV., under which arc elected a provost and 18 other members; in 1715, it became dis- franchised, and again in 1723. It is a small place consisting merely of a single street, has no trade, and very little proi)erty, its importance depending entirely upon its university. Popu- lation in 1831, 1483. The revenue in 18.32 was about 43/. 5.'., the expenditure 14/. 65. 6(/., and there was no debt, but a suq)lus. Seven trades are incorporated. The chief edifices are the college, cathedral, and bridges across the Don, near which the place is situated. The buildings of King's College have an antique appearance, and are of different periods ; from recent additions and alterations they are in good repair, about 6,000/. having been expended upon them. Tlie library and chapel are attached to a lofty sqnure tower, surmounted by an imperial crown of open Ktone work. The cathedral of St. IMachnr, or Macarius, after whom the parish is named, is an ancient Gothic edifice, chiefly of granite, com- menced in the 14th century ; the choir, transept, and great central tower have been deinolislied or fallen down upwards of a century ago ; the nave remains, and is used as the |)arish cluirch ; nt tlie west end are two finely proportioned stone spires ; the roof of the interior also presents a curious rolic. Near its mouth the Don fonns a small haven, which does not admit any vessels but of a few tons' burden ; a little above is the ancient bridge, erected by King Robert Bruce, of one Gothic arch, 70 feet in spsm, crossing a rocky auil woody ravine in which the river Hows ; bclweuti it and the sea is a new bridge of 5 arches, opened in 1830, the expense of which was defrayed from the funds of the old and less convenient structure. The Z7n/«erxi/iV.sof Aberdeen aretwo in number, in each of which one college luis been founded. The most ancient is th.it of ()ld Aberdeen, founded by Bishop William Klphiiiston in 14li liiKl. A lll'.IKi A V I'. N N Y, al()« n (il l-.n^jland. cd. Mdiiniiuitli, at llic t'dnlliicncc (if llic (lavcnn) Willi the I'sk, 14 m, S. W. Mdniniinlli, I'i) in. \V, liy N. LdinUm, I'np. of parlKli 1.'.^a(l. It Ix linill In a utr'amilinx inanniT ', lias a line lirlilmi (if ITi ar.ilicH iivir tlic I'uk.aiid Bome branches of th" wuollcn inanufuctnre. There arc very cxteniive ABERGELEY. iron works in the vicinity. On ab eminence, near the S. end of tlie town, are the ruins of its ancient castle. ABEilGl':LEY, a sea-port and m. town of Wales, CO. Denbigh, hund.Isdiilas, considerably resorted to of late years for battling. AUERNETHY, a parish of Scotland, partly in Fife and partly in Perthshire. It was once the seat of an archiepiscopal see, removed to St. Andrew's in the ninth century. All that now remains of its .tnclent structures is a round tower 75 feet high, and IG In diameter. The modern village of Abernetliy is small, and the houses mean. Pop. of parish, I77ti. ABEKYSTWITH, a sea-port town of Wales, co. Cardigan, at the mouth of the Ystwith, over which is a neat bridge, 178 m. W. N. W. London. Pop. 4,128. It stands on an eminence overlooking the bay ; and the streets, though well paved and Macadamised, are steep and uneven. It is a place of considerable trade, exporting lead, calamine, oak bark, flannels, &c., mostly to Liver- pool ; but owing to the shallowness of the water, it is accessible only to small vessels. As there is no market town within 18 m. it has the supply of a considerable ad- jacent territory. Latterly it has been extensively resorted to in summer fur sea-bathing. Public rooms were opened for tlie accommodation of visiters in 1820, and a new theatre in 1833. It seems to have been once strongly furtllied. Its castle, of which some vestiges still exist, was rebuilt by Edward I. in 1277. A considerable extent of fcn land to the N. of the town has recently been reco- vered from the sea ( Municipal Boututary Heports, ffc. ) ABEKYSTWITH, a parochial chapelry, liuml. Aber- f;aveiiny, co. Monmouth, celebrated for its collieries and ron works, which have greatly increased during the last 20 years. AbIAD (BAHR EL). See Nile. ABINGDON, an ancient town of England, co. Berks, at the confluence of the Uck with tlie Isis, and ut the junction of the Berkshire canal witli the latter, bh^ m. W.N. W. London. Pop. 5,2.i9. It has several well-paved streets terminating in a spacious market-place, having a market-house in ihe centre. It has two churches, with places of worship forOissentcrs, a well-endowed grammar school, and sundry almshouses and charitable endow- ments. It has a considerable corn market : some trade is carried on in malting, henip-drcssing, &c. Durhig the late war a good deal of business was done in the manu- facture of canvass, sacking, and such like coarse articles ; but since the peace this employment has materially dimi- nished. It returns one m. to the 11. of Commons. No. of houses in 1831, 1,1 14, of which 451 were estimated at 1(1/. V a year and upwards. Constituency iu 18;iG, 292. This was formerly a scot and lot borough ; every inhabitant assessed to the poor rates exercising (lie elective franchise. —{Bimndary Reporti, i. p. 27.) ABO, the ancient capital of Finland, near thcextremity of the promontory formed by tlie gulfs of Botliuia and Einland, on the river Auriyocki, by which It is intersected, lat. CO" 20' 58" N., long. 22" 17' W V.. It wastlic seat of a university, and has a considerable trade. But in 1827 it sulfered severely from a fire, which destroyed the university and above 700 private liouses. Tlie university has been since removed to lielsiiigfors, now tlie i:nce. The migratory sheep are supposed to amount, at present, to bctw cen 5I)0',()0(I and 000,000, having been formerly much more considerable. The inhabitants are stout, well-m.-ide, healthy, and industrious. The occupiers and labourers, who form the vast m»jority of the population, arc mostly poor, living in miserable dirty liuts, feeding principally on Indian corn, and drinking a poor wine. Many thousands of tho peasants emigrate every autumn to seek for e'n|)loyment in the lioman and Tuscan Maremme. tluiiufactures have made but little progress ; but woollens, silks, earthenware, &c., are pro- duced. An extensive contraliand trade is carried ou with the Papal doniiniuns ; and the coasting and foreign trade would be much more extensive than it is, were it not that the entire coast is v itlmut ,i single good port. Prin- cipal towns t'hleti, Aquila, Tcramo, Hulmona, Aveizano, -■ic. ( See the 2nd vol. of the Ucsciixiimf, Topiigrq/ica, Fisica,l^c. tlil Ufgnndillc Due Sicilii; Napoli, I(;35, which is entirely occupied by an account of tlie ..\hruzzi : see also Mr. Keppel Craven's t^xcHrsidna in Ihe Abruzxi, 2 vols. Lund. 1^38 ; and Sir It. C. lloare's Classical Tour, 4to. 1819.) ABU-ARISCH. A petty state In the S.W. of Arabia, on the borders of the lied Sea, between 19^ 50* and 17° 40' N. Ittt. and 41° a*/ and 43° E. long., consisting ol the narrow slip of low laud which lies lietween tho coast and the mountain district of Uaschid-u-liekcl. On tlie N. it is separated from El-llidjax by a small dis- trict lnliahitem its strengtli and resources deterred theWahabeeJ from attempting its capture, after the battle in which they defeated the si-erllf. Some rocky hlUa in the neighbourhood yield salt, which ia ex- ported. It aeema probable that Abu-Arisch, which at present la 24 m. from the aea, was formerly much nearer to it. If, indeed, it were not once what Gheran now is, the port of this part of Arabia. This la rendered probable as well from the appearance of tlie surrounding country as from the well-known fact me'ntioned bvNiebuhr, that the .p. i3i.iruy.enAr. 11.59.) coast here is conatantly and rapidly fjaining on the water. .11.. ■ iwn t thealteoftheancientAbotls,lat. 27° 2' N.,' long. 3f"23'E. —(Nie/mhr, Des.de I'Ar. par ABURY. (See Avebuhy.) ABUTIGE, a considerable town of Upper Egypt, .healteoftheancient Abotls,lat. 27''2'N., long. 31"2; It Is the scat of a Coptic bishop, and is celebrate^d for its opium. „ ABYDOS, an ancient citjr, founded by the Thracians, and subaequently occupied by a colony of Milesians, on the Aaiatic side of tlie Hi-llespont, where it is narrowest, bearing nearly S. from Sestos on the European side of the strait. It nad a commodious harbour, and was strongly fortlDed. It was here that Xerxes constructed the bridge Of boats by which he conveyed his ill-fated liost across the Hellespont ; and it is distinguished in ancient history fnr the desperate resistance mariC' by its inhabitants to Pinilip of Macedon, who, however, partly by force and partly by treachery, succeeded in taking It. But Abydos, and also Sestos, arc mainly Indebtedfortlieif imperishable celebrity to the story of the loves of Hero and Leander, and the melancholy fate of the latter. Abydos magni quondam amorit commerdo iiuignis est. (Amm. MarceUiniis, lib.i. i. 19.) It was destroyed by the Turks; and the fact that the materials were carried 3 m. S. to assist in building the SuUanie Kalessi, or old castle of Asia, the strongest fort on the Dardanelles, and its contiguous town, accounts for few ruins being found at Abydos. The modern fort of Nagara occupies its site (Manncrt, (j^ograp/iiej Tournefort, Voyage du Levant, Sec.) ABYSSINIA, an extensive country of Eastern Africa, of which the boundaries arc not well definetl, but whioh may be regaTded as occupying the space included be- tween 9° and 15° 40' N. lat. and 36° E. long, and the Red Sea; having E. the latter, N. Senaar and Nubia, and on tiie W. and S. Senaar, Kordofan, and other bnr- luroua and nearly unknown countries. It ia auppused to include in all above 300,000 Eng. sq. m. Name — Abyssinia was included in the Ethiopia (from KiBisrii, a man burnt by the sun, or qf a dark colour) of the ancients. The name Abyssina, or more properly Habpssina, from the Arabic Hahesch, signitying a mix- ture or confusion, has l)een given to the country by tlie Arabic and Portuguese geographers, and indicates the supposed Arabic origin of the people, and their subse- auent intermixture with the Africana. Tlic Abyssinians o not use this name ; and either assume that ol'^the pro- vinces in which they live, or call themselves lljopians, and their country itanghfita Iljopia, or kingdom of Kthiopia, a name given it by the Orccks during their Mcenaency at Axum. Facertween the Taranta on the E. and the river March oii the W. Passing through the Baharnegash and making nnothi-r ascent, we arrive at the great plateau of Tigre, iM^twccn thr March on the E. and tlie J'acazze on the W. ; liiit iiicliiding to the south tlie mountain regions of Eiiderta, Wojjernt, Lasta, Ac. The l.-ist-mcntloniHl country cont.iins the sources of the Tacazze, one of the principal affluents of the Nile. The towns of Adowah and the ancient Axum (see the names), are situati-d in the middle of the plateau of TIgrd. Antalow lies mori'tnthe south, in the province of Enderta. The mountains of .Sanien, on the W. side of tlic plateau of Tigre, are the highest in Abyssinia, and form, with those of Lamalmnn and I.nsta, a great but not cnntlminiis chain, runnhig N. K. and S.W., and teiaratlng the high lands of Tigri^, from the still more elevali'tl plateau or alpine country of the llabescli or Amhara, in- ABYSSINIA. eluding the provinces or countries of Dembca, GoJun, Damot. &c. This region, the highest in Abyssinia, and the nucleus And centre, as it were, of the old empire, contains the sources of the Bahr-el-Azrck, or eastern arm of the Nile, and the great lake of Tzana or Uembea. It has a mean elevation of about 8,000 feet, and Is fenced and Intersected by mountain ridges, of which those ot Gojam, flrom their containing the aourcea of the K. Nile, are the most celebrated. Gondar, the capital of Amhara, and formerly the residence of the Negus or emperor ot Abyssinia, lies a little to the N. of the lake. From this plateau the country shelves down on the W. to the bar- barous and unknown regions already alluded to. The provinces of Efat and Schoa, which now form, with their dependent territories, the most powerful of the Abvaainian states, lie to the S. E. and S. of Amhara. The first ia very elevated, part of its waters flowing west- ward to the Nile, and part eastward to the Hawasn. Its chief town is Ankober. The province of Schoa, lying along the southern side of the Nile, Is comparatively low, and is renowned for its magnlflcent pastures and fruitful valleys. It has several towns and some celebrated mo- nasteries. Salt is inclined to think that the Ethiopic language and literature, and the ancient manners of tlie Abyssinians, are preserved in a purer state in tliese pro- vinces than in any of the others ; but they are very imper- fectly known. Exclusive of the above, there ia a vast and but little known country in the S. E. part of Abyssinia, between Efat and Lasta, and the Red Sea and tlie sea of Bab-eU mandeb. It is almost entirely occupied by tribes of Gallas, some of them the most brutilicd of any to be found in Abyssinia. The country of Nana, at the sources of the Maleg, S. W. from the prov. of Uamot, is one of the moat elevated of the African plateaus. Its inhabitants are said to be nearly as white as the Spaniards and Neapolitans. On the S. E. of Tigrc, between it and the low country or province of the Dankali, Ijing .ilong the lied Sea, and between the fourtcenCh hiuI liftccnth degrees of latitude, is an extensive salt pla'n having, in most parts, the ap- pearance of ice covered - ,-,th partially thawed snow. Tlie salt is perfectly pure ,\iid iiard for'about two feet deep ; but that lying beneatli u coarser and softer till purified by exposure to the air. It is cut into pieces witli a hatchet ; and not only s< rves to sc.ison and preserve food, but even circulates as money. The salt is carried off by caravans, or companies, consisting of from 300 to 600 I)e.i8ts of burden, and its digging is not unaccompanied by danger from the att.icks of the savage Gitlla. Maitntains — Those of Abyssinia liave not been accu- rately measured. They were represented by tl)e early Portuguese travellers and tlic Jesuits as being of sucn vast lieight that, compared witli them, the Alps and Pyrtnnees were mere hillocks ! But tliese exaggerated representations have been since reduced to tlieir proper \: Inc. Bruce states, that during Ills residence he saw no SI 1,- in any part of the country, and he even alKrma that it .■ .liere totally unknown. This, however, was a rash anj unwarrantable assertion. It is doubtful, indeed, whetli.?r snow be not always to be found on tlie higliest summits and crevices of the mountains of Samen : at all events, Mr. Pearce was overtuken by a snow storm when passing them in the middle of October, and Mr. Salt saw snow on them from a great distance on the «th of May. It is clear, therefore, that if the highest summiti^ of the Samen do not attain, tiiey arproach closely to the line of perpetual congelation, so tnat tliHr elevation may lie fairly estimated at from W.COO to 13,(HK) feet. Tlie moun- tains of Gojain are of very inferior altitude, and are ciiiti- va'ed to the summits. Gener.-dly the Abyssinian moun- tains have a peculiarly abrupt ami iiret'ipitims apiiearance. Sometimes tli<>y t(irni what are called ambus or tilll forts, consisting of steep, rocky, and all but inarcessiliie »ideB, having on tiie summit a level siirliiee covered u Ith trees and verdure. The most celebrati'd of these hill forts la thatof Aniliu (ieshni, furnu'riy used as a place ofconlilie- meiit for the princes of Alivssinla. Jiinrrs Of these the Halir-ei-Azrek. Bine HIver, or eastern branch of the Nile, is liy far the most famous. It rises from two mountains near (ieesh in Cojain, iM-ing, according, to Hruce, in lat. 10'^ .W 'J.V' N.» long. Sti" fty 3(X' E., and at an elevation of IO,(KHI feet above the level of the sea. Its course is thence N. to the lake l>einlM-a, a large sheet of water, wliieh receives many other streams ; but tlie Nile is said to preserve its waters with hut little intermixture with those of the lake, across wliirh its current is always visililo. Escaping from this lake it sweeps in a southerly direction round tlie K. frontier of the provinces of (jojam and Damot, till, between tlie ninth and teiitli degree lat., it takes a N. W. direction, wiiich it Ipreservea till, at ilidfai^i, near the sixteenth degree lat.. It unites with its other and more iniportuiit branch, the Balir-el-Abiiul,or White Itiver, llowing from the S. \V. (see Nils). The next most iniport.int stream ia t!ie Tacazze, whose source lias lieeii already noticed. It drains the niciiiiitaiiis of Sanu'ii and Tigre ; and pursuing a pretty dirt-ct N. N. W. course tlirougli Seiuuir, ABYSSINIA. mbftd, Gojam, Abywinia, and le old empire, or eattern arm a or Dembea. :, and Is fenced vhich tho*e ot or the E. Nile, Italof Amhara. or emperor ot ke. From this W. to the bar- led to. now form, with iwcrful of the S, of Amhara. '8 flowins west- e Ilawash. Its if Schoa, lying iparatively low, res and fruitful celebrated mo- it the Ethiopic manners of the e In these pro- are very imper- it and but little ssinia, between sea of Bab-el- tribes of Gallas, to be found in B sources of the one of the most tbitants are said d Neapolitans, the low country ie lied Sea, and ;recs of latitude, it parts, the an- ted snow. The t two feet deep j >fter till purified ) pieces with a id preserve food, is carried off by from 300 to 600 laccompauled by ilia. B not been accu- ed by the early is being of such , the Alps and ese exagtjeratcd to their proper (Icnce he saw no ivcn alHrms that ver, was a rash Dubtful, IndH'd, on the highest Mamen : at all low storm when ind Mr. Salt saw the 8th of May. sumniiti^ of the ly to the line of •vation may Iw A. The moun- If, and arc culti- byssinian moun- :iiu8 appearance. hill nr lilll forts, larce.Hsililc tides, .ercd » itii trees lese hill forts Is place ufcunflne- Blue River, or lie most famous. in (iiijam, lielng, ., long. 30" 5y . above the level lie lake DeuilK'a, y other streams ; s with but little cross which lis cini this lake it ^le K. frontier of III, between the N. W. direction, tr the sixteenth more important er, llowing from iiiportant stream already noticed, nd Tlgre ; and thruu^li Senaar, Mb Into the Nile naar cne eighteenth degree lat. The Mareb, which rises in the heights of Taranta, runs nearlv parallel to the Tacaize. In the dry season It loses itself in the sand ; but Bruce says that In the rainy season it continues its course till It unites with the Tacaiie. The Hamazo and Hawash run K. in the direction of the Red Sea ; but Uie latter Is swallowed up In the sands before meeting it. Exclusive of the great lake of Dembea or Tsana, already referred to, the lake of Ashaneee, on the E. side of the Samen, is also of very considerable size. Mineralogy — This is very imperfectly known. Granite and schistus or slate seem to have been extensively observed : and it is probable that these primitive rocks occupy a large portion of the principal chains. In Tigrilous ; but the anarchy and civil war in which it is constantly involvetl more than neutraiisethcse advantages, nnd keep the population far below Its natural level. Its total amount is esti- mated, in the Weimar Almanack, at 4,60*1,000 ; and this, perhaps, Is as good a guess as can be made. Language. — The tilieez, or Ethiopic, a language akin to the Arabic and Hebrew, w,ts the language of Axuni, and of the subjects of the Axumite sovereign, At the ura of their conversion to Christianity in the 4th century. It is now extant only as a dead language, consecrated to literature; and religloiis uses. The Ainharic, or modern Abysitnlan, Is not a dialect of th« Gliccz, though it hus adopted fVom It • gre,-: iiumbM' of war out a totally distinct language. It i probablv an anc t African lan- guage, and the original Horn of the inh, litants of tha south-eastern provinces i>f Abyssinia. As "fards litem ture and learning, the Abysslnlans aro at ti spoken about l-6th part of the male population can r^ a little, and In Tigre about l-12th part. Productions. — The country Is very fertile, and ha; vast variety of products { among which are wheat, barle} millet, and other grain. On the high grounds wheat is raised in considerable quantities ; but In the low groundl the heat is too strong for it. Barley (dhourra) is raised in large quantities ; but the principal dependence of the country Is on the /cjf' {Poa Abytsinica), which grows on every soil, except the very lowest, and aflbrds the bread in general use. The plant is herbaceous. From a num- ber of weak leaves rises a stalk about 28 inches in length, and not much thicker that of a carnation. Out of the top spring a number of branches, which contain the seed or fruit inclosed In a species of capsula. The grains are not larger than the head of the smallest pin, yet so numerous as to constitute on the whole a bulky crop. But the lowest grounds (kolln) are unfit even for the production of teff; and on these is raised a species of corn called tocousso, which yields a black bread, the food of the lowest classes. There are at least two harvests In the year ; and in the same place may at once be seen in progress the operations of ploughing and reaping, with corn in every different stage of advancement. Among the other vegetable products are cotton, of which clothes are usually made ; senna, myrrh, &c. The stalk of the ensete, a species of palm, tlie banana of Abyssinia, is said, when stripped of Its green covering, to be the very best of all vegetable food. It is found in great abundance. Various species of figs, some of them of a very large size, as the Ficus tycamorus, are also very plentiful. Ci- trons, oranges, and sugar-canes are met with In the low grounds, but not on the elevated plateaus. Dates and vines are met with, but neither aro supposed to be indi- genous. Both are believed to have been imported and cultivated by the Portuguese. At present the vine is f;rown only in the district of Emfras, on the E, side of ake Demlica, where It produces magnificent grapes. Tho Abysslnlans do not use wine except for the communion table. Tcllez says expressly, that in his time the vine was unknown in Abyssiiila. The papyrus, so celebrated for its furnishing the principal species of paper used by the ancients, is abundant in the lakes and rivers ; and Bruce contends that it was thence transplanted to The domestic animals of Abys«inla do not diflbr ma- terially from those of Europe. The horses, which are the principal wealth of (he inhabitants of the plateaus, are strong and active. They are used in war and the chase, mules and asses being used principally as beasts of draught and burden. Oxen are very abundant. Tho most remarkable species is a native of tho .low grounds, and has horns of an enormous magnitude, Mr. Salt having seen one 4 feet long, and 21 Indies round at the base. It is called the Galla ox, from its having been brought to Tigrc by the Galla. Of (he wild animals, the most nu- merous and chariicteristic is the hysena, called here the dubbah, exceedingly fierce and untameable. In most parts of the country they are found in vast numberf, Klacc travellers in continual danger, and even enter ouses. They are not naturally gregarious, yet some- times assemble in vast troops, attracted by some common object, particularly the scent of dead bodies, which, ac- cording to the barbarous custom of the country, are often left unburied. Bruce contradicts the common re- port of their digging into sepulchres. They are pro- tected by the superstitious belief of the people, who regard them as a species of enchanted men 1 The elephant and rhinoceros are numerous in the low grounds, and in places full of moisture. They are hunted by the Shan- ?;alla, who use their teeth as an article of commerce, and eed upon their flesh. It is a mistake to suppose that any of them have ever lieen tamed in this country, or, indeed, in any part of Africa. There is a species of rhi- noceros with two horns, found only in a few districts. Its horns have no connection with the bone ; its skin, which has no folds, is used fur shields ; the horns for handles for swords, and also as a lining to drinking ves- sels. The antelope species, wlitch Is very numerous, is seldom found in the cultivated districts, but chiefly appears on broken ground neftr the rivers. The bufiklo, domesticated in E|;ypt and elsewhere, is here one of the most ferocious ot animals ; he lodges himself in deep and sultry valleys, under tho shade of tho tallest trees, and near tho largest and clearest rivers. The liippopo- tamus, called gon/ari by the natives, is abundant in the lake of Dembea ; but I.iidolf affirms that this lake con- tains no crocodiles. They are both, however, found in (he deep pools of the Nile, Tacazze, and other rivers. The crucudilea in the latter are of an eaormoiu lUCi o{ B 4 8 ■ Kraenhh colour, uid are more drvaded bj the natlvea than the hippopotamus. The torpedo Is found In the rivers and lalies. The lion is found only occasionally. There are several species of leopard. The rcbra is fre- quent In the southern provinces, where its mane adorns the collara of the war horses. A small animal, the jerboa, ■bout the size of a rat, burrows in the flslds, both here and In Bartnry. The feathered creation In Abyssinia bears more than itt usual proportion to the other species. Tlio vast pro- AMlon of insects, grains, and plants, even the waste and destruction attending continual wars, aBbrrt them an abundant supply of food. The nisser, or golden eagle, perhaps the largest bird of the old continent, and a beau- fiftjl species called the black eagle, arc particularly noticed by Bruce. To these Salt adds a new species called goodie-goodie, the size of the common falcon. Storks, partridges, snipes, pigeons, and swallows, occur In great number and variety. Bruce never saw a wood- cock, sparrow, mngnle, or bat; and ostriclics are not found In Abyssinia Proper. Among insects the most numerous and useful arc bees. Honey constitutes every where an important article of food. Several provinces used to pay a large proportion of their tribute in this article. The honey assumes dif- ferent appearances, sometimes black, sometimes lilood- red, according to the plant on which the insect feeds. Of a very different character is tlie locust, which com- mits here ravages quite as terrible as in the other coun- tries of Northern Africa. It sometimes depopulates whole provinces. In the sublime language of the pro- phet, " A fire devourelh before them, and behind them a flame constimeth : the land is htforc them as the Garden itfEden, and behind them a desolate wilderness; yea, and HOlhing escapeth them." Government — Politieal Divisions. — The former go- vernment of Abyssinia, or that which existed in it wlicn it became known to the Tortiiguese and tlie Jesuits, was an absolute and despotic monarchy, in wlilch the em- perors, restrained by no written laws, popular assemblies, or privileged classes, had full power to dispose at plea- sure of the lives and property of tlicir subjects. But this ancient gjvernment may now be said to be totally extinct. The force of the central government was gra- dually weakened, partly by the reMlion of the governors of the dilferent provinces, and partly by the irruption of the Gallasand other savage hordes, who have subjugated fome of its finest countries. Salt has ingeniously com- pared the state of Abysstinia in a political point of view to that of England during the heptarchy ; and since he visited It anarchy srems to liave made a still more rapid ()rogress. The whole country is now split into an end- ess variety of states, the limits of whicli are perpetually changing, and between which the most deadly anlmositicj and interminable contests constantly prevail. The king- doms of Amhara, Tigre, Including the country between the Red Sea and the Tacaz^e, with the provinces of En- derta, Wojjerat, &c., and Schoa, including Kfiit, are sup- posed to be at this moment (1837) the most powerful of these states. But we have no exact information as to their boundaries, organization, or condition. I'hey have this in common, that they are all despotisms, ami anarchy and bloodshed prcv.tll in them all to a greater or less extent. Schoa, which Is now entirely separ.ited from the rest of the country. Is said by Mr. Cubat to he less devastated by civil war than either of the ntherii, and to be, in consequence, the least dcpoi)ulated and most flou- rishing part of Abyssinia. Manners and Customs This perpetual state of civil war and confusion, and not any peculiar cruelty of dis- position, seems to lie the m.iin cause of tli.tt burliarlsm and brutality by which the manners of the Aliyssininns are characterised. All tlic feelings by whicli man is restrained from shedding the blood of his fellows sijem entirely blunte:i. Human life is scarcely more respecleil than that of brutes. Bruce seldom went out at (londar without seeing dead Imdies lying in the streets, left to be devoured by dogs and hya-n.is", without being even allowed the rites of sepulture. To show the indifTereiice usually felt on such occasions, he nu'ntions tliat one cl.iy . passing along the streets, he saw an olticer of rank about to execute three men who had offended the sovereljfn. This person, calling to Bruce, begged him to stop till he had despatched this business, as he wished to liave a (hort conversation with him. But tlic lircumstancc which teems to place the Aliyssinians lielow even the most savage tribes. Is the extreme coarseness of their festive indulgences. Their lirinde (raw beef) feast has excited the astonishment of all travellers. Alvarez, who visited the country as ambassador from Portugal in 1.%'il), and remained there for 6 years, describes it as a thing " of which he dare not in a manner speak." Being Invited to a feast, he was much sururised, iustcail of the usual dishes, to sec brought in " pieces of raw ticsli, with warm blood," The landlord, on seeing his guests show no favour to this savoury dish, ordered nther fiiiKl iH'tter cedar, v« itliin u liiri •ult^ to their tattei ; but immediately began eagerly to I agreeable coolness. ABYSSINIA. devour the fleih, "as if tt had been marchpane' or comflti." The lady of the house did not appear at dinner; but, in drinking, she " bravely seconaed " the rest of the company. Bruce and Salt have furnished still more particular descriptions. The table, which ii low, is first covered with successive piles of tefT cakea, serving to the guests at once ac food and aa towels with which to wipe their fingers. The coropany lieing then seated, the next process is the slaughter of the cattle, which are standing at the door, and the cutting wann steakf from their nesh. Bruce savi that these are extracted while the animal is yet alive, and bellowing under the pain of the wound. But this disgusting circumstance ii not mentioned by any of tlie earlier writers, and Mr. Salt afflrros that the head is separated fVom the body before the operation of slicing commences. Salt, however, ai well as Bruce, admits that the luxury of an Abyssinian feast consists in having the pieces brought in while the blood is yet warm and the fibres palpitating. The female who sits next to eaclii chef then wraps up the slice in a tefT cake, and thrusts into his mouth as large a quantity as it is capable of containing, which is greedily devoured. All parties drink copiouslv of hydromcl, and bouza, the beer of the country. Having satisfied themselves, they rise, and give place to another company of inferior rank, and these to a third, till all is consumed. 1'lie gross indeccneici which Bruce represents as perpetrated on these occasions, and which lie has described with siicii revolting minute- ness, have been denied by Mr. Salt, and it is liardly possible to suppose that they can bo other than rare oc- currences. Mr, Gobat, the missionary, admits that a feast such as that described by Bruce may have taken place among the most shameless libertines ; but he adds, that " excesses of that kind are not customary either as to their cruelty or indecency." The practice reported by Bruce, and which subjected him to no little ridicule, of cutting steaks from a living animal on a journey, and then closing up the wound and driving it on, appeared at first quite unfounded to Mr. Salt ; but in his second journey he witnessed it, and found that it was callisl by a peculiar name — cutting the Shiilada ; which certainly f;oes a good w.iy to prove its frequency, though that also s disputed by Mr. Gobat, who denies its occurrence, unless, perhaps, in cases of extreme hunger. Justice in Abyssinia is altogether barbarous, venal, and corrupt, \Vlien a person accused of a criminal olfence is fiiiind guilty, he is detained In prison till he has made satisfaction to the accuser ; or, if he have com- mitted murder, till he be disposed of by the relations of the deceased, who m.iy either put him to death or accept a ransom. The latter is generally fixed at !i50 dollars for a man, but the relations are under no obligation to accept it. Mr. (Jobat says that the Tacazze is never passed on cither side iirnursuit of murderers ; so that they must very frequently escape without even the pretence of a trial. When a murdered person has no relations, the priests take uiwu tlieinsclves the office of avengers of blood. Marriage in Aliyssinia is a very slight connection, formed and dissolved at pleasure, 'i'hc most formal mode of concluding it is, when the lover, having made certain engagements to the parents, and obtained their consent (for that of the bride is seldom asked), seizes lier and carries lier home on bis shoulders. A nmgnilicent feast is then given of lirindc and bouza ; and at a fixed period of twenty or thirty days afterwards, they go to church and take the sacrament together. It is in a few rare instances only th.iteventhix slight ceremony is used. In most cases, mutual consent, and a plentiful administra- tion of raw meat and bouza, form the only preliminaries. The will of either party, or of both, is at any time suf- ficient to dissolve the connection. If they have several chiidreii, tliey divide tliein i if tliey have but one, and lie is under 7 years of age, he belongs to the mother ; if above 7, to the father. Goliat says that after a third divorce they cannot coiitr.ict another regular marriage, nor partake of the coniiiiuiii()n unless they become monks ; Briiee, however, mentions beinginaeunipany at Guiidar, where there was a l.-idy present, with six persons, each of whom had been siucessively her liusbaiid, alth im- perfection of their knowledge, and are tinctured with a large admixture of fable. Ilennell suppose!, leemingly on good grounds, that the Macrobian, or long-lived Kthiopians, said to live farther to the south than the others, belong to Abyssinia. The ancients had no distinct knowledge of more than two Ethiopian king- doms: the first and only one known to the earlieat writers Is Meroe, or the I'enlnsula, which they' erro> neously supposed to be an island formed by the suc- cessive union of the Nile with the Astaburas and the Astapus (Uluo Kivcr and Tacazze). The chief city of Meroe was placed by them on the Nile, In lat. 16° 26' { and Uruce, In passing through Sennaar, saw, near Clicndi, Immense ruins, wliich probably lielonged to thU celebrated capital of Ethiopia. The other kingdom became known alter the Greeks, under the successors of Alexander, extended their navigation along the eastern cnast of Africa. It was that ot the Axumitie, situated upon the Ued Sea, and occupying part of Tigre. Its capital, Axum, still remains, and though in a state of decay, exhibits remains so vast as iupply to attest its former greatness. The inscriptions discovered hero by Salt shows that the Axnmiti.'S had received amongst them the religion and the arts of foreigners, and that tliey made use of the Urccian language in tlie inscriptions on their monuments. Tlie port of Axum, Adulis, was the channel by which the finest ivory then known was ex- ported, and a commercial intercourse maintained with the coasts botli of the Kcd Sea and the Indian Oceiui. Salt, though unable to visit it, seems to have asccrtaiued its situ.ition near Miissouah. Prior to the middle of the fourth century, Abyssinia was converted to Christianity, which it hais ever since nominally professed. After the rise and rapid spread of Islamism, those of the Egyptians wlio were reluctant to change their faith licing compelled to Oy soutliwards before the sword of the Saracens, Nubia "and Abyssinia b^came filled with Jewish and Christian refugees. And as both these countries were at that time Christian, the Arabian geographers, who have fully described other parts of the continent, make a very slignt mention of them ; so cliat Abyssinia remained almost unknown till near the apra of modern naval discoveiy. In 1445, the emperor of Abys- sinia sent an ambassador to the senate of I'lorencc, and wrote a famous letter to the priests his subjects at Jerusalem. This, and the favourable reports of the Abyssinian priests now referred to, gave rise to the most exaggerated reports. It was said that a Chriatian prince, to whom the Portuguese gave the fantastical name of Prcstcr or Presbyter John, ruled over a vast, highly civilised, and rich empire, in the centre and E. of Africa. This statement InHamcd at once the spirit of discovery and of religious zeal, the two ruling principles in that age. The I'ortuguese monarchs, who tooH the lead in exploring the eastern world, immediately devised measures fur acquiring a knowledge of so remarkable a region. The passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope hail not yet been discovered ; .\byssinia was therefore viewed as a tract through which the commerce of Indi.» miglit be conducted. '1 wo envoys, Covilham and Ue Paiva, were therefore sent, under the direction of Prince Henry, nixm a mission to explore it. They went by way of Alexandria, and descended the Red Sea. De Paiva perished by some unknown accident; but Covilham, after visiting dilrerent parts of India and Eastern Africa, entered Abyssinia, and arrived, in 141)0, at the court of the emperor, residing then in Sclioa. Being brought before tlic sovereign, he was received with that favour which novelty, when there i& notliing to l>e feared from it, usually secures ; and being a man of address and ■ibiiiry, he contrived to maintain this friendly disposition. The reports which he transmitted of tlie country were favourable ; and having prevailed on the empress-mother to send an Armenian as an ambassador to Portugal, whose arrival excited a great sensation hi that country, tlie Portuguese sent out several other embassies. Of tliese the most remarkable is that described by .Alvarez, ill l.')'2(l. lie remained six years in tlie country, and traversed it from iiortii to south, visiting the- provinces of Amhara, Sclioa, and Efat. Paez, Almeyda, Lobo, and several others successively undertook journeys into Abyssinia. Paez, wlio resided in the country from 1603 till his death in ir>2'.>, visit od, in 1618, the sources of the Hahr-el-Azrek or eastern .-inn of the Nile, and describes tlii'in nearly in the same terms as Bruce, who absurdly claims the honour of being tlicir tions a gootl deal of the appearance of romance. The authenticity of hia work was in consequence very Rcncraily iloulrtwl ; and it must he admitted that some of his statements liave been shown to lie unfounded, atid th.it others are of very Jiuestionahle authority. Hut the accuracy of tlie leayssinia to tlic Journal of Mr. Gobat's Resilience in tliat country. An excellent summary of the inform.ition as to Abyssinia, contained in the earlier travcller.i and historians, will bo found in the Modern Universal History, vol. xv. pp. 1— 2W. Nvo ed. Besides it, we have consulted, in drawing up this article, the Travels of Hruce. Salt, and l^ord Valentia; Mr. Oob.it's Journal ; tiic account of Abyssinia In Kltter'« (ieography ; rrichard's Kcscarches on Man, il. pp. 1!M— IW.Med., &C. ACAI'ULCO, a celebrated sea-port and town of Mexico, in tlie intendency of that name, on tlie coast of the FaclHc Ocean, 1 '.10 ni. .S..S.\V. Mexico, lat. \6^ MV 29"N.,long. DiP 1«'\V. '•op.'l,n(K)(?). Tlieliarliour is one of the finest in the world. " It is famlli.ir," s.iys Captain Hail, " to the memory of most people, from its being tin; port whence the ricli "Spanish galleons of former days took th